I ARCHIV - International Development Research Centre

I 

I ARCHIV 

35914 

o kI.k J k.. 1 

,1 uuuu.,uu 

IDRC-126e 

Food 

Legume 

Improvement 

and 

Development 

Proceedings 

of a 

workshop 

held at The 

University 

of Aleppo, 

Syria, 

2-7 May 

1978 

eoffrey C. 

Hawtin 

and 

George J. 

Chancellor, 

Editors 

I Center (or Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas and International Development Research Cenke 

I

The International Development Research Centre is a public corporation 

created by the Parliament of Canada in 1970 to support research designed to 

adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. The 

Centre's activity is concentrated in five sectors: agriculture, food and nutrition 

sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; and communications. 

IDRC is financed solely by the Government of Canada; its 

policies, however, are set by an international Board of Governors. The 

Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in 

Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. 

© 1979 International Development Research Centre 

Postal Address: Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9 

Head Office: 60 Queen Street, Ottawa 

Hawtin, G.C. 

Chancellor, G.J. 

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo SY 

IDRC-126e 

Food legume improvement and development: proceedings of a workshop 

held at the University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria, 2-7 May 1978. Ottawa, 

Ont., IDRC, 1979. 216 p.:ill. 

!IDRC publication!. Compilation of workshop papers on /legume! /food 

production! in the !Middle East! and /North Africa! - discusses agro!bioclimatology! 

and /cultivation system/s, !nutrition!al value and !food composition!; 

/plant production! (particularly of !chickpea/s, /lentil/s, and !faba 

bean/s), !agricultural research!, !cultivation practice/s for !plant protection!; 

/plant disease!s, !insect/ !pest!s, !disease resistance!, !weed control! problems 

(use of !herbicide/s in !arid zone!s); !plant breeding! and !genetic 

improvement!. IIDRC mentioned!, /list of participants!. 

UDC: 633.3 ISBN: 0-88936-202-5 

Microfiche edition available

Food Legume Improvement 

and Development 

Proceedings of a workshop held at 

the University of Aleppo, 

Aleppo, Syria, 2-7 May 1978 

Editors: Geoffrey C. Hawtin and George J. Chancellor 

359(H 

IDRC- 126e 

Published by the 

International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas 

and the 

International Development Research Centre 

The views expressed in this publication are those of the individual author(s) and do not 

necessarily represent the views of ICARDA or JDRC.

Contents 

Preface 4 

Foreword 5 

Section I An Introduction to Food Legumes in the Region 

Some aspects of the agroclimatology of West Asia and North Africa 

Hazel C. Harris 7 

Food legume production: the contribution of West Asia and North Africa 

to the world situation F.M. Hamawi 15 

Food legumes in the farming system: a case study from Northern Syria 

David Gibbon and Adrienne Martin 23 

Nutritional quality and importance of food legumes in the Middle Eastern diet 

Raja Tannous, Salah Abu-Shakra, and Abdul Hamid Hallab 29 

Section II The Present Production and Improvement Situation 

Food legumes in Algeria Walid Khayrallah and Lounes Hachemi 33 

Production and improvement of grain legumes in Egypt Ali A. Ibrahim, 

Abdullah M. Nassib, and Mohamed El-Sherbeeny 39 

,Food legume production in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan M. Abi Antoun 

and A. Quol 47 

Food legume production and improvement in Iran M.C. Amirshahi 51 

Food legumes in Iraq Mahmoud A. Mayouf 55 

Food legume research and development in the Sudan Farouk A. Salih 58 

Food legume improvement in Tunisia M. Bouslama and M. Djerbi 65 

Food legume production and improvement in Lebanon R. Lahoud, 

M. Mustafa, and M. Shehadeh 69 

Grain legume production in Turkey D. Eser 71 

Food legume research and production in Cyprus J. Photiades 

and G. Alexandrou 75 

Broad beans (Viciafaba) and dry peas (Pisum sativum) in Ethiopia 

Asfaw Telaye 80 

Food legumes in Syria Sadek El-Matt 85 

Food legume improvement in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen 

Shafiq Mohsin Atta 88 

Food legume production in Libya Ali Salim 90 

Status of food legume production in Afghanistan N. Wassimi 91 

Food legumes in India A.S. Tiwari 94 

Section III Disease Problems on Legume Crops 

Diseases of major food legume crops in Syria S.B. Hanounik 98 

Food legume diseases in North Africa M. Djerbi, A. Mlaiki, 

and M. Bouslama 103 

Food legume diseases in Ethiopia Alemu Mengistu 106 

Diseases of broad beans (V/cia faba) in the Sudan Mustafa M. Hussein 

and Sami 0. Freigoun 109 

Section IV Major Pests and Weeds of Food Legumes 

Insect pests of food legumes in the Middle East Nasri S. Kawar 112 

Insect pests of chick-pea and lentils in the countries of the Eastern 

Mediterranean: a review G. Hariri 120 

Some insect pests of leguminous crops in Syria Ara A. Kemkemian 124 

The biology and control of Orobanche: a review A.R. Saghir 

and F. Dastgheib 126 

Broomrape (Orobanche crenata) resistance in broad beans: breeding work in 

Egypt Abdullah M. Nassib, Au A. Ibrahim, and Hamdy A. Saber 133 

Accentuation of weed control problems in the dry areas with relevance to 

herbicides in food legumes F. Basler 136

Section V Food Legume Development 

Genetic resources of grain legumes in the Middle East 

L.J.G. Van der Maesen 

Strategies for the genetic improvement of lentils, broad beans, and chick-peas, 

with special emphasis on research at ICARDA Geoffrey C. Hawtin 147 

Some agronomic and physiological aspects of the important food legume crops in 

West Asia M.C. Saxena 155 

The role of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in food legume production 

Rafiqul Islam 

The ICRISAT chick-pea program with special reference to the Middle East 

166 

K.B. Singh 

Methods of population improvement in broad bean breeding in Egypt 

170 

Abdullah M. Nassib, All A. Ibrahim, and Shaaban A. Khalil 

176 

Pollinating insects: a review Ara A. Kemkemian 179 

Section VI Cooperative Approaches to Food Legume Improvement at the 

National Level 

The training and communications program at ICARDA S. Barghouti 181 

FAO food legume programs in the Middle East and North Africa 

Hazim A. Al-Jibouri and A. Bozzini 

The food legume improvement and development program of the field crops 

section at ACSAD L.R. Morsi 190 

The role of IDRC in food legume improvement research F. Kishk 192 

Section VII Recommendations for Future Research Priorities 194 

Bibliography 

Participants 

140 

185 

199 

214

Preface 

This volume comprises material presented at the First Regional Food Legume 

Improvement Workshop that was held at the University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria, 

on 2-7 May 1978. It constitutes a synopsis of the current status of food legume 

production in the countries of Western Asia and North Africa. 

The workshop was sponsored jointly by the International Center for 

Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and the University of Aleppo, 

and had as its primary aims the bringing together of research workers and other 

legume specialists from all parts of the region served by ICARDA, and the 

identification of priorities for research attention. More than 15 countries were 

represented, together with several international and regional research institutions 

concerned with food legume development. Different specific problem areas were 

examined on each of the five days and the workshop was structured so that the 

participants spent a considerable proportion of their time involved in small 

working parties designed to encourage stimulating discussion and to provide 

concrete recommendations for future research and development programs. 

The workshop and this resultant text are the first steps toward achieving an 

increasing awareness of the common problems facing food legume production and 

improvement in the region. They provide a solid base from which to develop 

appropriate cooperative strategies planned to minimize the constraints that at 

present limit the production of leguminous crops that are so important both to 

human nutrition and to the agricultural systems of West Asia and North Africa. It 

is hoped that future research and development will acquire new cohesion and 

greater strength from the firm foundations established by this workshop. 

Harry S. Darling 

Director-General 

ICARDA

Foreword 

It is well established that the proteins of food legumes and cereal grains are 

nutritionally complementary, the essential amino acids that are deficient in the one 

being provided in the other. Consequently, when eaten together, the protein of 

both cereal and legumes are used more efficiently than if either is eaten alone. 

Legumes have figured prominently in the diets of Mediterranean peoples for 

as long as we have historical records. Several Romans, including Cicero, Fabius, 

and Lenticulus, bore leguminous names. (I am indeed proud that my own name in 

the German language means legume.) 

It is unfortunate that until comparatively recently, agricultural and food 

scientists have devoted less attention to legumes than to the principal cereal crops. 

If soybeans are excluded, world average yields of the major legumes are of the 

order of 0.5 metric tonnes per hectare compared with about 2.8, 2.3, and 1.7 

metric tonnes per hectare for maize, rice, and wheat, respectively. 

Building upon the excellent research of the Arid Lands Agricultural Development 

Program (ALAD), ICARDA has made remarkable progress in establishing 

its legume research program and in strengthening the regional legume improvement 

network. From the content of the many splendid papers presented during 

First Regional Food Legume Improvement and Development Workshop it is 

evident that we can confidently anticipate significant progress in legume 

production, both in terms of higher yields and improved quality. 

The organizers, the Director-General, the staff of ICARDA, and all who 

participated in the workshop, whose proceedings are herein recorded, are to be 

warmly congratulated on the clearly evident success of this endeavour. 

Joseph H. Hulse 

Program Director 

Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences 

International Development Research Centre

section I 

\u Introduction to Food 

Legumes in the Region 

Some Aspects of the Agroclimatology of 

West Asia and North Africa 

Hazel C. Harris 

Department ofAgronomy and Soil Science, 

University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., Australia 

The region of West Asia and North Africa, which is ICARDA's primary concern, lies 

very roughly between latitudes 5°N and 43°N and longitudes lO°W and 70°E. It can be 

broadly divided into main zones of agricultural production: a temperate plateau area, 

comprising the highlands of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan; and a lowland area, 

bordering the Mediterranean and extending inland in areas adjacent to the plateau. 

The whole region is characterized by a typical "Mediterranean"-type climate: winter 

rainfall alternating with summer drought. However, considerable climatic variability 

occurs throughout the region as a result of the influence of the major geographical features, 

which include the Mediterranean, the Black and Caspian seas, the mountains of northwest 

Africa, and the plateaus. 

This general climatic pattern means that dryland agriculture in West Asia and North 

Africa is primarily devoted to temperate crops. The discussion that follows is thus based 

upon the assumption that ICARDA's main research concern is to improve the productivity 

and stability of temperate grain and forage crops under dryland agricultural conditions. 

Attention is concentrated on two major agroclimatic factors, namely, moisture availability, 

which is considered the most important constraint to crop distribution and yield throughout 

the world, and temperature, which is also an important consideration in this respect. Such a 

focus is not meant to imply that other features of the climate are not important in 

determining agricultural production and strategies for its improvement. Daylength, for 

example, varies significantly over such an extensive region, and radiation levels vary both 

with season and altitude. Thus, considerations of photoperiod sensitivity and radiationlimiting 

periods in some plateau regions are of great importance in crop improvement. 

However, the effects of these factors are generally considered to be secondary in 

importance to moisture availability and temperature and for this reason are omitted from 

the present discussions. 

The broad patterns of temperature and precipitation in the region are highlighted in 

this paper and aspects of their variability are discussed in relation to crop production. 

Relations between rainfall and soil moisture availability, and between soil moisture, 

temperature, and crop water requirements are also considered to illustrate the interactions 

between these components and pose questions of relevance to the development of research 

programs. 

Temperature 

Variations in temperature occur with latitude and longitude, decreasing from south to 

north and from east to west, and, most importantly, with altitude. There are large and 

obvious contrasts between plateau and lowland regions in this respect. 

Low temperature limitations to cropping occur in the plateau regions of Turkey, Iran, 

and northeastern Iraq. Air and soil temperatures both fall rapidly in the autumn (Fig. 1) and 

7

unless the rains are sufficiently early there may be problems of establishment of winter 

crops before the soil temperature becomes too low for germination, or of crop survival if 

establishment is insufficient prior to snow cover. Over much of the plateau this snow cover 

persists for several months and crop growth is not resumed until its dispersal with the rapid 

rise in temperature in the spring. In the lowland areas, however, winter temperatures are 

not severe; daytime air maxima appear sufficient to promote photosynthesis in temperate 

species (Fig. 1) and, although night temperatures often fall below 0 C, some vegetative 

growth can thus be expected during the winter. Soil temperatures during the crop-growing 

season do not appear to be limiting in these areas. 

Throughout the region there is a risk of crop damage through late frosts during the 

flowering period. There are marked differences between the plateau and lowland zones in 

the time at which this risk occurs, and within each zone topographical variation may 

contribute to differences in the length of the frost risk period (Table 1). 

Maximum temperatures increase rapidly in the spring throughout the region (Fig. 1). 

Although it is difficult to identify a high temperature level critical to crop growth, mean 

maxima greater than 30-32 °C are frequently experienced in the lowland areas and can be 

expected to impose a limit on yield potential by hastening crop maturity. Again, relatively 

localized variations in the time at which extreme high temperatures are experienced are 

observed (Table 1). 

The degree and duration of low temperatures dictate obvious and well-recognized 

needs for crop types with differing levels of temperature tolerance (spring vs. winter 

varieties) in the contrasting lowland and plateau zones. However, less obvious differences 

(illustrated by data for northern Syria in Table 1) are also apparent and may determine the 

success or failure of different varieties at specific locations. Although such data require 

further examination to verify that these differences are real and not just artifacts of the 

siting of the meteorological stations in relation to their immediate topography, they do 

indicate apparent differences of 2-3 weeks in the duration of favourable growing 

conditions in a relatively localized area. This suggests the need for a diversity of crop 

varieties to permit the fullest utilization of local environments. 

AIR TEMPERATURE 

30 30 - 

25 / MEAN \ 25 

\\ / / M 

TIME IN MONTHS 

Fig. I. The seasonal pattern of air and soil temperatures at two locations in West Asia. 

8 

Sell TEMPERATURE 

(10 mdepth) 

N 

PUIATLI OUT 20 / \ 20 / N 

TIJRKEI is 

/ 15 \ // 

/ ,__ . / 

10 \ N / / - \ / / 

/ 

N N 

/ 

N / 

. 

-5 

40 

/ / 5 

/ 

/ / 

0 N DNJ._F M A M J A S ON 0 J F M A M 3 3 A S 

ALEPPO 30 

/ 

SYRIA 30 

25 N 25 \ 

20. \ / 20 

N 

Is 

F / // 15 

10 

N 

Z 

-- 

0 N 0 3 F M A M 3 3 A S 0 N U J F M A M 3 J A S 

35 

30 

10 

/ 

/

TABLE 1. The timing of the occurrence of low and high temperature extremes at four locations in northern Syria. 

Location Timing of last 

Timing of first 

Timing of first 

Name 

Latitude Longitude Altitude (m) frost; T mm 0 OCa T max 33 °C 

T max ' 36 oCa 

Hama 

35° 08 36° 45' 

309 

3rd wk Mar 

3rd wk Apr 

2nd wk May 

Aleppo 

36° II 

370 13' 

392 

1st wk Apr 

3rd wk Apr 

3rd wk May 

Tel Abaid 

36° 42' 38° 57' 

355 

2nd wk Apr 

2nd wk Apr 

3rd wk May 

Kamishly 

37°03' 

410 13 

452 

1st wk Apr 

4th wk Apr 

2nd wk May 

With a frequency of 1 year in every 13 (based on 13 years of daily temperature data). Source: Monthly Climatological Data, Bureau of Meteorology, Damascus, 

Syria. 

100 

IEPPO SYRIA IRBFD JOSDAN 

\ 

KAMISHU - - 

90 

0.5 

\ 

/7_ 

AI_[PPo 

00 

HAMA 

70 

0.4 

0. 

o 

\\ \\ 

60 

1/ 

// 

50 

' \ 

40 

0.I 

/7/ 

- 

\ 

30 

]0NIDJIFNIAI 

A 0 

20 

10 

Fig. 3. The probability of daily rainfall at two locations. D-R represents 

probability of rainfall on day N given that there was no rain on day N-I. 

R-R represents probability of rainfall on day N given that there was rain 

on day N-I. Broken line represents independent probability of rainfall 

on any day. 

M A 

A 

M 

0 N 

MONTHS 

IN 

TIME 

Fig. 2. Seasonal pattern of evaporation at three locations in northern Syria.

Evaporation 

Because several different techniques are used to measure evaporation within the 

region, further work is necessary to enable absolute comparisons to be made between 

locations. In general, however, it can be anticipated that the trends will follow those of 

temperature fluctuations, showing a decrease in evaporation from south to north and with 

increasing altitude. Evaporation can furthermore be expected to increase with distance 

from maritime influences. 

The seasonal pattern, common to all the parts of the region, can be illustrated using 

data from northern Syria (Fig. 2), the major feature being the rapid rise in evaporation rate 

in the spring, associated with the temperature increases at this time, and, also, in much of 

the region, with the occurrence of hot dry winds. 

Precipitation 

Precipitation throughout the region is confined to the period from October to June, but 

there is considerable variation in its distribution according to location and topographical 

influences. Reliable rainfall commences earliest in the area adjacent to the mountains of 

Turkey and in the Azerbaijan region of Iran, and the reliability of early rain decreases with 

latitude across the region; some areas of Jordan receive their first reliable rainfall only in 

December. A reversal of this pattern tends to occur with the end of the rains, this being 

earliest in the south and later in the northern areas, particularly in northeast Iraq and 

adjacent regions of Iran, where the rainfall peak occurs in spring. A similar pattern appears 

to hold in a west to east traverse of the northern coastal areas of Africa. The rainfall season 

is thus considerably shorter in southern and eastern areas of the region, and may be 

confined to 3 or 4 months only in parts of Jordan. Although isolated coastal areas adjacent 

to mountains in North Africa, Lebanon, Turkey, and Iran may receive in excess of 1000 

mm of precipitation per year, the annual total over the bulk of the region is below 800 mm 

and in much of the cropping area under consideration varies between 200 and 500 mm. 

Most precipitation in the plateau areas occurs as snow. 

Furthermore, across the whole region and particularly as the annual total decreases, 

the rainfall is highly variable, the coefficient of variation on monthly data being as high as 

50% in inland areas of Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and much of North Africa. In terms of 

agriculture it is thus important to consider the probability of rainfall and its distribution 

throughout the season. This has been examined for two locations, Aleppo (Syria) with an 

annual average rainfall of 470 mm, and Irbid (Jordan) with an average of about 320 mm, 

using rainfall data for periods of 13 and 40 years, respectively (Fig. 3). 

For Aleppo the probability of rain ''today'' given that "yesterday'' was dry is low at 

the beginning and end of the season (0. I) and rises to 0.25 in midseason, whereas data 

from Irbid indicate a somewhat lesser chance of rain throughout the season in this more 

southern area. Given that there was rain "yesterday," the probability of rain "today'' is 

considerably higher at both locations. At Irbid the probability of successive rain days early 

in the season is slightly greater than at Aleppo. This difference is not evident in midseason, 

and the probability declines sharply, so that by late April it has dropped well below the 

Aleppo figure. The higher probability of rain on day n+ 1, given that day n was wet, 

illustrates an important feature of the rainfall pattern throughout the region, that is, that 

rain tends to occur as "rain events" of 2 or more days rather than as isolated falls. Also 

illustrated by these figures is the tendency for an earlier close to the rain season in the 

southern areas. 

The second stage of such a rainfall analysis involves a consideration of the mean 

rainfall for each class of rain day (wet following dry, or wet following wet). At Aleppo the 

mean rainfall is of the order of 6 mm per rain day and does not differ significantly 

throughout the season or between classes. In contrast to this, rainfall per rain day varies 

considerably at Irbid, rising to a maximum in midseason and thereafter showing a marked 

decrease, with a trend toward higher rainfall on one day if the preceding day is wet (Fig. 4). 

In addition to the means and probability functions, estimates have also been made of 

10

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

!RBlD JORDAN AL[PPO SYRIA 

RR 

DR 

- 

6- 

DIN 10111 FIN lol II 0 IFIM IA 

Fig. 4. Mean rain/a//per rain-day at two locations. 

the distribution of the data about the mean values represented by the fitted lines. In general, 

these tend to follow a gamma distribution and estimates of the parameters of the gamma 

functions have been made. 

Work is currently under way on the development of techniques for the estimation of 

the probability and variability of specific events, such as the onset of the rains and hence of 

expected crop sowing dates, or the occurrence of dry spells of varying duration at critical 

stages of crop growth throughout the season. Results of these analyses should provide more 

solid information concerning the risks associated with cropping in the various parts of the 

region, and in turn may be expected to provide indications of crop types and agronomic 

practices best suited to the minimization of these risks. 

5 

4 

Soil Moisture 

Early in the season, when the rainfall is light and sporadic, a proportion will be lost 

from the soil surface through evaporation. However, moisture is lost readily only from the 

surface 2-4 cm and once a wetting front has been established below that depth, soil 

moisture will accumulate with cumulative rainfall. The amount of moisture stored 

subsequently will depend upon the quantity and intensity of rainfall, the infiltration 

capacity of the soil, and soil depth. Moisture losses can be expected either through runoff, 

if the rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, or through runoff or deep 

drainage if the moisture content of the soil approaches field capacity. Where most of the 

precipitation falls as snow this pattern may be modified by the effects of soil freezing on 

infiltration. 

With a knowledge of this pattern of soil moisture accumulation, information on soil 

type and depth, and data on the amount and distribution of rainfall, it is possible to predict 

the total quantity of moisture that will be available for crop growth and its distribution 

throughout the cropping season. However, a number of specific considerations concerning 

aspects of the above components vary between locations and will affect the accuracy of 

predictions. Firstly, there is the question of 'effective'' rainfall, which is particularly 

important during early soil moisture build up (i.e., how much rain is required during a rain 

event to increase the store of soil moisture). The analysis of rainfall presented in this 

discussion includes all registrations of greater than 0. 1 mm and will therefore overestimate 

the probability of 'effective'' rainfall. To more accurately predict probabilities of moisture 

availability from rainfall records, such an analysis must incorporate information to allow 

'noneffective'' rain events to be discounted. Other considerations relate to soil water 

storage and infiltration capacity. These include the available moisture storage capacity of 

soils (that moisture stored in the rooting zones of specific crops); the proportion of total 

11 

1 

R 0

ainfall actually stored in the soil as opposed to that which is lost through evaporation and 

runoff; the effect of varying rainfall intensities and infiltration rates; and the proportion of 

the moisture accumulated in the rainy season that can be stored, if necessary through a 

summer drought. 

Answers are available to some of these questions in some parts of the region, and in 

other areas work is under way in an attempt to quantify and expand the present state of 

knowledge concerning soilwater relations. A coordination of this information with 

climatic data for the region should provide a basis for achieving a better understanding of 

the ways in which the most efficient use may be made of the available water resources in, 

dryland farming. 

Crop Water Use 

The crop water balance depends upon the relative relation between precipitation and 

water loss from the soil through evaporation and evapotranspiration. An examination of 

this balance using Penman estimates of monthly evapotranspiration has revealed two 

critical periods: the first early in the season, determining sowing date; and the second 

during the flowering and seed-filling stages of crop growth. This situation is general 

throughout the region, even in the northern areas that have a much greater spring rainfall 

but also experience lower temperatures and hence a longer duration of cropping. 

The general pattern of water use through the annual crop cycle is illustrated in Fig. 5. 

Early in the season water use is low, although some is usually lost as a result of soil 

disturbance at sowing. As the leaf area expands, the rate of transpiration increases to a 

potential maximum, which normally occurs at or about flowering. Where water is not 

limiting, this maximum rate will be maintained for a period of about 2-3 weeks (both rate 

and duration being species dependent), after which, with increasing crop maturity and the 

progressive senescence of leaves, the rate decreases rapidly. Any stress during the 

vegetative or early reproductive stages of growth can be expected to modify the maximum 

rate attained, but the general pattern would still remain similar. Estimates from various 

studies in the region indicate that there will normally be adequate moisture available during 

the early stages of crop growth and thus that crops will develop high leaf areas and a 

consequently high evapotranspiration potential. However, the annual termination of 

rainfall and increase in evaporation tends to coincide with the time at which this high 

potential is reached and thus the time of greatest crop water demand. Although there is 

always some reserve of soil moisture available at this time, it is rarely adequate to meet the 

crop needs, and thus considerable stress may occur. Any strategy for improving the 

efficiency of water use must consider how best to fit the pattern of crop water demand into 

the pattern of moisture availability to increase the likelihood of moisture availability at 

critical periods. Such a consideration requires data on the total amount of water needed for 

CROP WATER 

USE 

PER 

UNIT TIME 

SOWING FLOWERING 

TIME 

Fig. 5. Typical pattern of water use by annual crops during a growing season. 

12

an "economic" yield and the quantity required at the key times in the crop growth cycle 

(e.g., at sowing and at flowering and seed fill). A quantification of soil moisture 

accumulation, storage, and availability and of water use throughout the season for different 

crops and locations is thus essential to a better understanding of the potential and the 

limitations of the dryland water resources in the region. 

This information should enable the development of agronomic practices designed to 

modify moisture use patterns. Obvious factors influencing water use and requirements, and 

which are subject to manipulation, include: weed control to minimize unproductive water 

use; selection of varieties with maturities that best fit into the pattern of moisture 

availability (within the constraints imposed by the probability of late frost); timing of 

sowing; modification of seeding rates to give more optimum plant populations (current 

rates for cereals in the Aleppo province appear to be unduly high); the interaction ofsowing 

date and rate; and plant nutrition (especially nitrogen status). In the short term the use of a 

combination of suitably modified practices should lead to a more efficient use of the 

available moisture and to improved yield stability, if not actual increases. 

In the longer term a logical approach to crop improvement would seem to first require 

an understanding of the crop growth environment interactions as they affect water use. This 

would enable the development, through breeding programs, of varieties able to make the 

best use of the available resources to be put on a more solid base. 

The improvements possible may be envisaged as being achieved in one of two ways: 

by drought avoidance or through drought tolerance. Drought avoidance involves the 

modification of crop growth patterns so that the critical periods of crop water demand 

coincide more nearly with times of higher rainfall probabilities. The extent to which this is 

possible is governed largely by the frost tolerance of the crop, the frost risk posed by the 

environment, and the degree of frost damage that is acceptable. Obviously a requirement 

for zero frost risk would call for varieties with a longer growing season and consequently 

higher water requirements than if a small risk of frost were acceptable. 

Drought tolerance, on the other hand, refers to the possession by plants of 

physiological or morphological characters that enable either the production of a greater 

quantity of dry matter per unit of water used or the fuller utilization of the available water 

resources. At present the application of developments based upon this concept is hampered 

by the lack of a more detailed knowledge of the adaptive mechanisms of plants and their 

effects on yield potential under field conditions. The presence and the relative benefits of 

the physiological responses known to influence water use efficiency; the role of root 

systems in drought tolerance; and the relations between shoot and root growth and yield 

potential are some of the aspects requiring urgent consideration in studies of these adaptive 

mechanisms. In recent years, however, significant developments have been made in the 

study of the relations between soil and plant water status, environmental conditions, and 

plant shoot and root responses, and in the prediction of their effects on crop yield potential. 

Such advances are contributing considerably to current development efforts, which are 

mainly focused on the screening of crop varieties originating in the region and in other 

drought-prone areas (and those that are expected to have evolved mechanisms for 

adaptation to moisture stress) and should in the future be able to provide a basis for the 

planned synthesis of plant types designed to optimize their use of the available soil 

moisture. 

Conclusions 

There is a considerable wealth of data available relating to climatic conditions 

throughout the region. These data have been studied on a broad scale in assessments of the 

region and in more detail for a particular area by various authors, and techniques for further 

appraisal in relation to periods of critical importance in determining crop yield appear to be 

available. Further information is undoubtedly available on soil moisture storage in the 

region, and a collation of this through cooperating national programs would considerably 

strengthen assessments of the potential provided by the physical environment. Data on 

13

plant water use appear to be less available, but are essential in considerations of the water 

balance of the various crops. Crop water balance, as affected by rainfall distribution 

(together with other climatic factors), soil moisture storage, and atmospheric moisture 

demand, must be considered as the key to crop productivity in the "dry areas.'' It is thus 

essential that a consideration and understanding of the interaction between the components 

of agriculture and those of the climate should proceed alongside and as part of crop 

improvement efforts in the region. Without such an approach, the degree of real 

improvement in the agriculture of West Asia and North Africa will always be severely 

limited. 

14

Food Legume Production: 

The Contribution of West Asia and 

North Africa to the World Situation' 

F. M. Hamawi 

ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

Biological and cultural factors have, over time, caused a very distinct pattern of pulse 

production and consumption to develop throughout the world. Over 70% of the annual 

world production is consumed by humans, largely in the form of dry seed. As a result of 

their high protein content and relative inexpensiveness, legume grains have traditionally 

made up a large part of the diets of the rural poor in developing countries. This situation 

has earned pulse crops the title "poor man's meat," which perhaps effectively underlines 

their vital importance to the populations of many of the countries of West Asia and North 

Africa. 

Between 1960 and 1975 there appears to have been a stagnation in world pulse 

production at the level of about 43 million metric tonnes per year. This has been largely 

attributed to a shift in consumer demand to other staple foods, such as wheat and rice, in 

many developing countries, a move encouraged by the rapid strides made in cereal 

improvement over the past decade, and the consequently increased economy of cereal 

production in the developing world. In the past 2 years, however, there has been a 

considerable upturn in pulse production throughout the world; annual production now 

stands at around 48 million tonnes, and reflects a renewed interest in these important crops. 

Against this general background this paper sets out to review the production situation 

of the major grain legume crops in West Asia and North Africa, identify the changes that 

have taken place over time, and analyze the changing relative contribution of the region to 

world pulse production. 

For the purposes of this study the region of West Asia and North Africa is taken as 

including the 17 countries of direct concern to ICARDA, namely Morocco, Algeria, 

Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen A.R., Jordan, Lebanon, Cyprus, 

Syria, Iraq, Turkey, lrai, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Comparisons between the production 

situations in these countries and between the region as against the world as a whole, are 

made for the five major food legume crops (chick-pea, lentil, dry broad bean, dry bean, 

and dry pea) over the periods 1966-70 (average) and 197 1-75 (average). 

The Production Situation 

The proportion of the world grain legume production generated by the region has 

increased slightly from 6.3% in 1966-70 to 6.8% in 1971-75. This increase has been 

composed of similarly small increases in each of the five major legume crops over the 

period (Table 1). 

Chick-pea 

Although the average production of chick-peas in the world has decreased by 1 .4% 

over this period, the level of production from the region has increased by approximately 

1 All figures used in this paper are derived from FAO statistics and in some cases involve FAO 

estimates, which may be subject to error

TABLE I. Average pulse production situation (in 1000 metric tonnes) (1966-70 and 1971-75). 

1966-70 

1971-75 

World Region World Region 

Region as 

Region as 

% of % of % of world % of % of % of world 

Crop Production total Production total by crop Production total Production total by crop 

Dry beans 10907.6 25.7 239.0 8.9 2.2 11637.2 26.1 294.2 9.7 2.5 

Dry peas 10246.4 24.1 47.2 1.8 0.5 10936.6 24.5 101.0 3.3 0.9 

Chick-peas 6255.4 14.7 855.4 31.9 13.7 6167.2 13.8 910.6 30.1 14.8 

Broad beans 4978.8 11.7 556.4 20.7 11.2 5681.0 12.8 699.0 23.1 12.3 

Lentils 1017.2 2,4 304.6 11.3 29.9 1108.8 2.5 357.2 11.8 32.2 

Others 9024.8 21.3 683.0 25.4 7.5 9024.6 20.3 662.6 21.9 7.3 

Total pulses 42430.2 99.9 2685.6 100.0 6.3 44555.4 100.0 3024.6 99.9 6.8 

TABLE 2. Percentage changes in average area, production and yield for the major legume crops of the 

region (1966-70 and 1971-75). 

Area Production Yield 

Crop World Region World Region World Region 

Drybeans -0.3 +12.1 + 6.7 + 23.1 +6.0 + 1.0 

Dry peas +6.3 +73.8 + 6.7 + 113.0 0.0 + 10.0 

Chick-peas -3.9 - 2.4 - 1.4 + 6.5 +2.0 + 5.0 

Broadbeans +6.4 +14.0 +14.1 + 25.6 +7.0 +44.0 

Lentils +4.0 + 7.1 ± 9.0 + 17,3 ±4.0 + 9.0 

Totalpulses +2.2 + 3.4 + 5.0 + 12.6 - -

6.5% (Table 2). The largest chick-pea producers in the region, namely Pakistan, Turkey, 

Morocco, and Iran, have, between them, contributed about 92% of the regional production 

in both time periods. However, between 1966-70 and 1971-75, the production in Turkey 

has been increased considerably, whereas in Morocco and Iran production has declined 

(Table 3). 

Dry Broad Bean 

The production of broad beans has increased both within the world as a whole and in 

the region. However, the increase in production of 26% that has occurred in the region far 

exceeds the 14.1% increase in world production (Table 2). This has led to an increase in the 

proportion of the world production generated by the region of approximately 1% over the 

period (Table 1). Egypt, Morocco, Turkey, and Tunisia are the four largest broad bean 

producers in the region; Egypt and Morocco together produce over 75% of the total (Table 

3). The changes that occurred in the production situation of each country vary considerably 

between 1966-70 and 1971-75 and are in general not remarkable, with the exception of the 

dramatic 92% increase in production achieved by Morocco (Table 3). 

Lentil 

The average production of lentils in West Asia and North Africa increased by 17.3% 

between 1966-70 and 197 1-75, compared to a 9% increase in world production over the 

same period (Table 2), resulting in a 2.3% increase in the region's contribution to world 

production (Table I). Of the region's average annual production, 77% is gejierated by 

Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Egypt, and the production has been increased in all of the 

countries of the region over the period, with the exception of Iran and Iraq, where slight 

decreases are evident (Table 3). 

Dry Bean 

Despite production increases of 23. 1% in the region as opposed to only 6.7% in the 

world as a whole (Table 2), the region's share of world production, because it is very 

small, has only increased from 2.2 to 2.5% between 1966-70 and 1971-75 (Table I). 

Turkey and Pakistan are the major dry bean producers in the region, and together with Iran, 

which has experienced a tripling in production over the period, produce about 84% of the 

regional total (Table 3). 

Dry Pea 

The production of dry peas in the region has increased dramatically by 113% in the 

period under consideration, whereas world production has only experienced a 6.7% 

increase (Table 2). As is the case with dry beans, however, because of the small amounts of 

peas produced in the region as compared to world production, this increase still only means 

that the region produces 0.9% of the world total (Table I). Morocco is without doubt the 

single most important producer; accounting for about 78% of this production, and showing 

a twofold production increase over the period (Table 3). 

The Components of Production 

Having highlighted the changes in the production of the major pulses that have taken 

place in the region between 1966-70 and 197 1-75, one should now consider the 

corresponding changes that have occurred in the components of production, namely area 

and yield, to identify the prime causes for the production changes that have been observed. 

In the period 1966-70 the average area of pulse crops grown in the region was 5.5% of 

the world total. The following years, up to 197 1-75, have only shown a slight increase in 

this figure (to 5.6%). The same slight increases in the proportion of the world 

pulse-growing area located in the region are evident if one analyzes the individual crops 

separately (Table 4). 

17

TABLE 3. Average production (in 1000 metric tonnes) of food legumes (1966-70 and 1971-75). 

Others 

Lentils 

Dry beans Chick-peas Dry peas Broad 

beans 

Total 

pulses 

Country 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 

Pakistan 738 757 48 54 539 543 - - - - 24 26 127 134 

Turkey 589 644 139 153 102 174 5 4 43 48 100 106 201 159 

Egypt 381 396 8 14 6 7 2 4 286 272 34 51 44 48 

Morocco 306 472 4 5 93 62 37 79 139 268 14 23 20 35 

Iran 177 177 12 42 49 43 - 9 - - 40 35 77 48 

Sria 153 168 4 5 36 39 - I II Ii 62 82 39 30 

Sudan 61 71 7 7 2 2 - - 12 15 - - 41 47 

Tunisia 51 68 - - II 16 - - 25 38 1 1 14 13 

Afghanistan 49 54 - - - - - - - - - - 49 54 

Iraq 47 41 11 9 4 5 - - 19 17 6 5 8 4 

Yemen AR, 42 66 - - - - - - - - - - 42 66 

Algeria 38 53 2 3 12 16 2 3 15 22 7 8 1 I 

Jordan 24 26 - - 2 3 - - 3 I 15 18 5 5 

Cyprus 14 11 3 I - - - - 2 3 - - 9 8 

Lebanon II 13 2 1 2 2 - - 1 1 2 2 3 7 

Saudi Arabia 3 4 - - - - - - - - 3 4 

Libya 2 5 - - - - - - I 4 - - - - 

Region total 2686 3026 249 294 858 912 46 tOO 557 700 305 357 683 663 

100 tOO 9 10 32 30 9 3 21 23 II 12 25 22 

TABLE 4. Average areas of legume production (in 1000 hectares) (1966-70 and 1971-75). 

1966-70 

1971-75 

World Region World Region 

Region as 

Region as 

of '7c of % of world of % of % of world 

Crop Area total Area total by crop Area total Area total by crop 

Drybeans 23358.8 35.7 268.8 7.5 1.15 23294.6 34.8 301.2 8.1 1.3 

Chick-peas 10381.4 15.9 1494.6 41.5 14.39 9980.2 14.9 1458.2 39.3 14.6 

Dry peas 9206.6 14.1 68.0 1.9 0.73 9782.8 14.6 118.2 3.2 1.2 

Broadbeans 4734.2 7.2 441.6 12.3 9.32 5036.8 7.-S 507.6 13.7 10.1 

Lentils 1693.2 2.6 436.0 12.1 25.75 1761.0 2.6 467.0 12.6 26.5 

Others 16037.4 24.5 885.2 24.6 5.51 17021.6 25.5 862.2 23.2 5.1 

Total 65411.6 100.0 3594.2 99.9 5.5 66877.0 99.9 3714.8 100.1 5.6

Consideration of the yield situation, however, shows that, with the exception of dry 

beans, the percentage increases over the period were greater, in some cases considerably 

so, in the region than in the world as a whole (Table 2). 

Chick-pea 

The average area devoted to chick-pea production declined in both the region and the 

world over the period, the decline in the regional area being in general somewhat less than 

in the world situation. The increase in the overall production of chick-peas in the region 

can thus be seen to emanate principally from an increase in average yield, which was more 

than double the world increase of 2% (Table 3). 

The largest chick-pea producing countries in the region (Pakistan, Turkey, Morocco, 

and Iran) claim this position largely because of the very large areas grown (Table 5); only 

one of these, namely Turkey, also figures amongst the four highest yielders. Egypt and 

Turkey, as the two highest yielding countries, produced yields well above those of the 

other producing countries in both time periods, although while yields in Egypt rose 

considerably, those in Turkey dropped slightly. Despite being well below these levels, 

average yields of chick-peas in Iran have shown a fairly dramatic increase (64%) over the 

period, whereas in Morocco yields have decreased by about 17% (Table 6). 

Dry Broad Beans 

The increased regional production of broad beans can be seen to result from a 14.9% 

increase in the production area combined with a 44% increase in average yields. This is in 

contrast to the world situation where area increases of 6.4% and yield increases of 7% 

made approximately equal contributions to production increases (Table 2). Morocco, 

Egypt, and Tunisia have the largest areas devoted to broad bean production, between them 

possessing about 80% of the regional acreage (Table 5). However, of these, only Egypt 

combines a large area with high yields, which incidentally are more than twice as much as 

the other major producers (Table 6). During the period 1966-70 to 1971-75, the greatest 

broad bean yield increases were recorded in Libya (a very dramatic 280%) and in Syria 

(38%), while yields in Cyprus dropped by about 17% (Table 6). 

Lentils 

Both the area and average yields of lentils increased in the region and in the world as a 

whole over the time period. Increases of 4% in both area and yield made up the world 

production increase, whilst the increased regional production was composed of a 7.1% 

increase in area together with a 9% increase in average yield (Table 2). 

Turkey, Syria, and Pakistan have the largest lentil-producing areas in the region, but 

only Turkey and possibly also Syria can be said to achieve reasonable relative yields 

(Tables 5 and 6). Egypt's position as one of the four top lentil producers in the region stems 

almost entirely from the high average yields that it achieves. These were nearly twice as 

great as Turkey in 1971-75 and have increased by 26% since 1966-70. The greatest 

overall yield increase occurring during this period, however, was of the order of 58% in 

Tunisia (Table 6). 

Dry Beans 

Despite only a marginal increase in the average yield of dry beans in the region (1%), 

as compared to an increase of 6% in the world situation, the production of this crop in the 

region has increased considerably more than in the world as a whole as a result of a 12.1% 

increase in the regional production area coupled with a simultaneous decrease of 0.3% in 

the world area (Table 2). 

Pakistan and Turkey have by far the largest areas devoted to dry bean production, but 

much of the increase in area, and hence production, can be attributed to the fourfold 

increase that has taken place in Iran between 1966-70 and 197 1-75 (Table 4). In terms of 

yield only, Turkey rates within the top four countries in the region; Egypt again shows 

yields second to none and a yield increase of 24% over the period, second only to the 40% 

19

TABLE 5. Average area (in 1000 hectares) of food legumes in the region (1966-70 and 1971-75). 

Broad 

beans Lentils Others 

Total 

pulses Dry beans Chick-peas Dry peas 

Country 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 66-70 71-75 

Pakistan 1536 1489 107 111 1066 1000 - - - - 71 75 292 303 

Turkey 546 585 109 102 90 158 4 3 33 32 102 113 208 177 

Morocco 402 521 8 9 128 98 57 100 153 231 25 39 31 45 

Iran 266 221 11 41 100 69 - 6 - - 61 47 94 58 

Syria 206 216 3 4 42 55 - I 10 8 97 108 54 40 

Egypt 202 184 5 7 4 4 2 2 141 114 24 29 27 29 

Tunisia 103 118 - - 25 27 - - 46 55 3 3 30 32 

Algeria 78 96 4 5 27 30 5 6 24 32 17 20 1 3 

Iraq 55 52 14 15 5 8 - - 18 18 tO 8 8 4 

Sudan 55 64 5 6 2 2 - - 8 II - - 39 45 

Yemen AR. 42 61 - - - - - - - - - 42 61 

Jordan 36 34 - - 3 5 - - 3 - 22 22 9 7 

Afghanistan 31 33 - - - - - - - - - - 31 33 

Lebanon 15 16 1 1 3 3 - - I I 3 2 6 9 

Cyprus 15 16 1 1 - - - - 2 3 - - 11 13 

Libya 6 5 - - I 1 - - 4 3 - - I I 

SaudiArabia 2 3 - - - - - - - - - - 2 3 

Regiontotal 3596 3714 268 302 1496 1460 68 118 443 508 435 466 886 863 

% 100 100 8 8 42 39 10 3 12 14 12 13 25 23

TABLE 6. Average yields (in 1000 metric tonnes) of dry food legume crops (1966-70 and 197 1-75). 

% 

change 

Chick-pea Broad beans Lentils Dry beans Dry peas 

% 

% 

CountTy 66-70 71-75 change 66-70 71-75 change 66-70 71-75 change 66-70 71-75 change 66-70 71-75 

Morocco 734 606 -17 933 1167 + 25 548 598 + 9 526 579 +10 634 781 +23 

Algeria 459 519 +13 617 686 + 11 386 388 0 420 590 +40 466 422 - 9 

Tunisia 417 568 +36 573 683 + 19 256 407 +58 - - - - - - 

Libya 400 535 +33 287 1091 +280 - - - - - - 1450 2250 +55 

Egypt 1625 1853 +14 2025 2381 + 17 1428 1773 +24 1723 2147 +24 1329 1644 +23 

Sudan 885 818 -18 1459 1429 - 2 - - - 1225 1060 -13 - - - 

Jordan 506 525 + 3 850 609 - 28 656 802 +22 - - - - - - 

Iraq 691 640 -17 1049 973 - 7 646 665 + 2 756 646 -14 - - - 

Syria 814 724 -11 1080 1497 + 38 653 761 +16 1221 1364 +11 880 955 + 8 

Lebanon 705 705 0 1121 1075 - 4 586 694 +18 1353 1313 - 2 1342 1105 -17 

Cyprus - - - 1063 873 - 17 - - - 1982 1453 -26 - - - 

Turkey 1134 1115 - 2 1278 1493 + 16 984 933 - 5 1279 1508 +17 1135 1405 +23 

Iran 485 799 +64 - - - 660 737 +11 1110 1084 - 2 - - - 

Pakistan 508 542 + 6 - - - 340 351 + 3 447 482 + 7 - - - 

Region 748 785 + 5 1028 1483 + 44 699 765 + 9 1095 1112 + 1 1034 1143 +10 

World 603 618 + 2 1052 1128 + 7 601 629 + 4 467 499 + 6 1114 1118 0

increase achieved in Algeria (Table 6). In absolute terms the average regional yield of dry 

beans is still more than double that of the world although the marginal increase in yield 

over the period was greater in the case of the world as a whole (Table 6). 

Dry Peas 

The dramatic production increases that occurred in the region between 1966-70 and 

197 1-75 can be largely attributed to the 73.8% increase in production area that took place 

over this period, together with the 10% average yield increase. In contrast to this, the world 

average yield remained static and the cultivated area only expanded by 6.3% over the 

period (Table 3). 

Of the regional production area, 84% is in Morocco (Table 4), but although yields in 

this country increased by about 23% between 1966-70 and 1971-75, they are still less than 

half those achieved in Egypt and Libya, whose yields have also risen by 23 and 55% 

respectively (Table 6). 

Conclusion 

From this initial study it can be seen that there is a great variation in the production of 

grain legume crops throughout the region. Considerable changes can be seen at the 

individual country level that together have resulted in the region as a whole making an 

increased contribution to the world production of all five of the crops over the period 

studied. Despite these fairly appreciable changes, there has been relatively little change in 

the importance of the individual producers in the region. 

In general, the grain legume-producing countries in West Asia and North Africa can 

be divided into two groups: those growing relatively large areas but achieving relatively 

low yields; and those in which average yields are relatively high but the area devoted to 

production is small. There appear to be only a very few countries that combine high yields 

with a large production area in any one of the crops, and none that achieves this for more 

than one crop. This indicates the considerable potential for production increases existing 

within the region, both through marginal yield increases in the large producing areas and 

through marginal increases in area in the regions already achieving high yields. 

However, a large number of different physical, biological, economic, and social 

factors contribute to the production situation and its propensity to change in each individual 

country. Therefore, before any concrete conclusions on the likelihood of realizing this 

potential can be made, further detailed studies of the complete production situation and the 

factors affecting it in each country are an essential prerequisite. 

22

Food Legumes in the Farming System: 

A Case Study from Northern Syria 

David Gibbon and Adrienne Martin 

Farming Systems Research Program, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

Food legumes are a very significant component of rain-fed cropping systems in northern 

Syria, occupying up to 25% of the cropped land area. They are commonly grown in rotation 

with cereals and summer crops and are an important source of food and income for many of the 

poorer farmers of the area. 

In developing a research program with the main objective of improving the productivity 

and stability of legume crops, it is essential that an approach involving the consideration of the 

wide range of variables that affect farmers' capacities to influence production and income be 

adopted in preference to a fragmented approach considering only the legume crops themselves. 

Through studies of the whole sphere of farm and household activities, an understanding of the 

range of choices open to farmers and the formation of farming strategies as related to the 

development of the family may be achieved. The family, however, should not be the only unit 

of analysis; comparisons must be made between family groups, between agroecological zones, 

and between major production areas to fully understand the linkages between local and national 

structures and the farmers' extent of control over resources. Decision-making and problem 

definition at the village level has appreciable consequences for policymaking at the 

governmental level. For this reason, an understanding of the relations between production in 

different areas, which can be achieved through a thorough comprehension of the distribution of 

resources and income and the utilization of labour, should be considered to be an important part 

of such an approach. 

This type of research approach also finds considerable application in the development of 

alternative management systems, in rotations, and in the conservation of land resources. 

This paper considers the circumstances of two farming families who represent very 

different groups of producers, in an attempt to illustrate the necessity for this approach to the 

solution of the problems of farmers in the developing world. 

Background 

The study outlined in this paper is a small part of the studies currently under way on the 

farming systems of the Aleppo Province of Syria. These studies are designed to avoid the past 

mistakes of concentrating exclusively on the development and transfer of high input 

technologies. Such emphases have often resulted in the provision of benefits to the minority at 

the expense of the majority of farmers and have led to an increasing dependence of many 

agricultural systems upon external aid and support. Farming systems research at ICARDA is 

based upon an awareness that agricultural development involves people and their needs and that 

an understanding of these interrelations is essential to the evolution of agricultural alternatives 

that are operable in the real world. In this context it is considered important to take into account 

the variation in resource availability between and within agroclimatic zones and, in addition, the 

large variations in command over resources existing between the minority of rich farmers and 

the majority group of poor farming families. 

The initial studies of this program concern investigations into the social, physical, and 

23

iological structure of existing farming systems and detailed analyses of their production 

processes. This work is based primarily upon surveys of a series of villages located in different 

ecological zones and exhibiting different forms of agricultural organization. 

Village Resources and their Use 

The village used for this case study is situated in a high rainfall zone (average annual 

precipitation is 500 mm) in the north of the province, 70 km from Aleppo and 10 km from 

Afrin, the district centre. It has a population of 300 people, and all of the 45 permanently 

resident families own land. Six families, whose members are absent for most of the year, own 

only trees. The average family size is just over 7 persons, with a range of 1-25. 

The total land area around the village is 1070 ha, of which 965 ha are cultivated and 105 ha 

rangeland. Olive trees occupy about 260 ha. During the land reforms between 1958 and 1963, 

310 ha were redistributed to 37 families, and the average holding size is now 10.2 ha (with a 

range of 2-45 ha); 26 families possess holdings of less than 8 ha. The holdings are usually split 

between the three main soil types: a deep red cracking clay on the lower slopes, a brown-grey 

stony loam of about 60 cm in depth on the middle slopes, and a shallow black heavy clay loam 

on the upper slopes. The average number of plots per holding is four. 

A two-course rotation involving wheat, barley, lentils, chick-peas and broad beans as 

winter and spring crops, and cotton, melons, and sesame as summer crops (following a winter 

fallow) is commonly practiced on the arable land. However, in recent years the area devoted to 

lentil production has declined as a consequence of a reduction in the guaranteed price and this 

has led to a simplification of the rotations. Vines and summer crops are commonly interplanted 

between young olive trees before they come to bear, but once they become productive the 

ground beneath them is kept clean. 

Thirty-two families own livestock, amounting to 227 sheep and 210 goats; and 12 of these 

32 families also own draft animals. There are five tractor owners in the village and they carry 

out most of the cultivation operations. One combine harvester is present. 

The village has a cooperative membership of 40, most of whom receive short-term loans 

for fertilizer and medium-terms loans for the purchase and establishment of olive trees from the 

organization. The cotton crop is marketed through the cooperative, but most of the other crops 

are sold individually on the black market in preference to using the government channels. A 

primary school is situated in the village but no electricity, telephone, or piped water is available. 

A new road is at present being constructed to link with the main local highway and should be 

completed by the winter of 1978-1979. 

This information provides the base for the continuing in-depth study of climate, soils and 

cropping, farm operations, and household income and expenditure over several seasons. A total 

of eight farming families, covering the range of land/person ratios of village households, were 

selected as a sample for the further studies and two of these family situations are discussed in 

this paper. A summary of each family's resources is given in Table 1, and the ways in which the 

household requirements are generated and the interrelations within the farming systems operated 

by each family are illustrated in Fig. 1 and 2. 

Discussion of the Individual Family Circumstances 

The main point of contrast between the two families studied is that the larger landholding 

and greater number of productive olive trees owned by family A (8 persons) provides a stable 

and high income for that group; whereas the smaller land area (about average for the village) 

and number of trees of family B barely provide sufficient income or food to supply the annual 

needs of the household of 10 persons (Table 2). Consequently, the head of family B is forced to 

supplement the household income by working as an agricultural labourer for some periods 

during the year and the family is dependent on a variety of loans to maintain the household. 

The cropping system of family A is dominated by olive production, which, as it provides 

the bulk of family income (Table 2), receives first priority in care and attention. Cereals are the 

most important field crop, Mexipak wheat being grown as a cash crop and the local variety 

"Hamari" as the main food grain, which is stored from one season to the next. Lentils and 

24

TABLE 1. Resources and their use for two households from a 

village in Northern Aleppo Province, Syria. 

Resources Family A Family B 

Family size 8 10 

Ages: Males 65,25,22, 15, 13,9 30, 12, l0,6,2,6months 

Females 45. 18 30, 14, 8, 4 

Land (ha): Private 33.5 3.0 

From land reform - 6.1 

Crops 1977-78 (ha) 

Wheat: Mexipak 

Hamari 

Barley 

Lentils 

Chick-peas 

Broad beans 

Olives 

4.0 

2.0 

0.! 

0.5 

6.0 

0 

8.0 

(600 trees) 

7.0 

(500 not hearing) 

7.0 

(500 in another village) 

2.0 

0 

0.5 

0.6 

2.2 

0.05 

3.0 

(200 trees) 

1.0 

(not bearing) 

Livestock 

Sheep 

Goats 

Cattle 

Chickens 

3 

8 

16 

Machinery Tractor, plough, None 

trailer, cultivator 

House Stone-built, 3 rooms, Mud brick, I room, 

kitchen 

kitchen 

Possessions 3 diesel stoves, 2 pres. 

lamps, 2 butagaz rings 

& cylinders, cupboard, 

sideboard, 2 chairs, table 

sewing machine, 2 radio 

recorders 

I diesel stove, 

I primus cooking stove. 

Loans Private From Agricultural Bank 

TABLE 2. Expenditure and income for period November 1977 to August 1978 (Syrian pounds).a 

Expenditure 

Family A 

Income 

a Syrian pound = ca. U.S. $0.25 (August 1978). 

Including income from olives estimated as 42334 Syrian pounds for family A, and 9600 Syrian pounds 

for family B. 

25 

From agricultural labouring. 

0 

7 

0 

15 

Expenditure 

Family B 

Income 

Cropping 4255 1407 2699 (1538) 4166 

Livestock 1170 466 (1400) 573 - 

Household 16349 - 2805 ( 497) - 

Food 2453 - 2741 ( 651) - 

Machinery 4545 350 - - 

Other - - - 780 

Total to end 

August 1978 28772 2223 8818 4946 

Estimated total 

annual expenditure 

and income 33351 45957k' 12843 l4546

COST OF FNPLTS 

F ER TI LI ZEN. LABOUR 

INCOME FROM TRACTOR 

HIRE 

RUNNERS COST 

FE PA IRS 

MACHINERY 

OWNERSHIP 

CASH FROM CROP 

PRIVATE 

CEREALS 

1000 LEOLMES 

SOUSA 

HR PAT N EN 

FOR ASH. EASE INS AFTEAMATFI 

HOUSEHOLD 

REQUIREMENTS: 

F000.CLOTHING, 

HOUSING, 

ETC. .-" 

LOANS 

DIT 

MEAT. NIL IF 

PASSES TS 

COST OF 

SESSIUFFS PESO 

ANIMALS 

CASH FROM 

SALE OF ANIMALS H. 

MILK PROOUCPS 

Fig. 1. Ways in which household requirements are generated and the interrelations within fdrming 

systems operated by jdmilv .4. 

chick-peas are produced on an area similar to the cereal crops, but are generally regarded as less 

important by the household and are consequently not as well managed. This may, in part, be 

due to the reduction in the family female labour force resulting from the marriage of two of their 

daughters, as tending the legume crop is traditionally regarded as female work. Both legume 

crops, however, are important sources of food for the household through the year and the 

surplus over consumption requirements is stored and sold periodically according to seasonal 

cash needs. Chick-peas are the most important of the two crops, especially as a poor harvest in 

COSF SF rAPISTS 

000HFNEHF SIFT, 

TERTISIZER LSOOLR 

ETC 

CROPPING 

SYSTEM 

CROPPING 

SYSTEM 

RH PAF MEAT 

FOSS_EARLE 

BASIL LESS OLIVES 

OFF ES SE 

CASE FROM 

CFEOIT 

FTFLIZER ELF s'5&._ 

CROP SOEFE 

FORAST SRSOIN S AFTSR MATH 

F000 LEOLSIES 

HOUSEHOLD 

REQUIREMENTS 

FOOD,CLOTHIN 

HOUSING, 

ETC. 

LOANS 

MA OS RE 

CR50 IT FOR 

IIEFSAOCIL FEEL 

CREDIT TETAPMEOT 

FL RCSHASE 

AT ASIMALS. TEES 

LIVE STOCK 

SYSTEM 

AGRICULTURAL 

WORK OTHER 

EMPLOYMENT 

Fig. 2. Ways in which household requirements are generated and the interrelations within farming 

systems operated by family B. 

26 

MOAT MILK 

IRS SLOTS 

LIVESTOCK 

SYSTEM 

555 

CASE FROM 

SALT OF ANIMSLSL- 

MIEN PROOLOTS

1976-77 and a drop in masket price have caused the family to reduce their lentil area in the 

current season. A sunimary of operations, yields, and crop disposal for lentils and chick-peas is 

given in Table 3. 

The machinery owned by family A (Table I) is used both on the family lands to reduce 

labour needs and provide transport. and to earn additional income through contracted services to 

other families. However, repair costs are high and the income from machinery only just covers 

expenditure. 

Livestock have become less important for this family with their reduced animal-managing 

capacity caused by the departure of two daughters already mentioned. It is appreciated that this 

reduction in livestock has been followed by a decline in the use of organic manure, a consequent 

decline in soil organic matter, and an increasing dependence upon inorganic fertilizers. 

The family usually pays cash for most goods and receives some short-term credit for 

machinery repairs (Fig. 1). 

Family B, in contrast, has a much greater dependence upon arable crops and, as a result, 

practice higher standards of general husbandry. There is a much greater interaction between 

livestock and cropping in this farming system (Fig. I and 2). Again, the main field crop is 

TABLE 3. Operations, yields, and disposal of grain legumes for two farming families. 

Crop Family A Family B 

Lentils 

Area 0.5 ha 0.6 ha 

Ploughing Mouldboard None 

3 Sep & IS Dec 

Cultivating 15 Dec I Jan 

Planting Broadcast by hand Broadcast by hand 

IS Dec 

I Jan 

120 kg seed/ha 


Weeding None By hand, I Apr 

Fertilizer None 50 kg triple super phosphate 

Harvest By hand, 15 May By hand. 18 May 

Yield 250 kg seed + 120 kg straw 260 kg seed + 300 kg straw 

Disposal: Sale None None 

Food 150-200kg 130kg 

Seed 50 100kg 130 kg 

Chick-peas 

Area 6.0 ha 2.2 ha 

Ploughing Mouldboarcl 

2OFeb&2Mar 

Mouldboard 

7Jan&SMar 

Cultivating 21 Mar & 23 Mar - 

Planting Broadcast by hand 

22 Mar 

By hand, 8 Mar 



Weeding None By hand, 20 May 

Fertilizer None Organic manure: 2 trailers 

+ 50 kg Knitro (26% N) 

Harvest By hand, 14 Jun By hand, 15 Jun 

Yields 1500 kg grain + 200kg straw 2500 kg seed + 2 tonnes straw 

Disposal: Sale 625 kg (according to cash need) 1875 kg 

Food 

Seed 

250 kg 

625 kg } 

625 kg 

27

wheat, with the variety Mexipak being preferred for its high yield. The family is., however, not 

self-sufficient in wheat and was buying grain for home 

consumption from January in the year in 

question (1978). Legume crops are relatively more important to this family and, although a 

proportion of the lentil and chick-pea crops are retained for food and seed, the bulk is sold and 

generates as much income as Mexipak wheat. These crops thus provide an important source of 

cash at times of need through the season and are consequently well cared for. The lentil crop 

was grown on land cultivated on the contour 

and phosphate fertilizer was applied, as was also 

the case with chick-peas, which received, in 

addition, organic manure. Both crops are kept 

weed-free by the children. The 1977-78 chick-pea area was increased in response to an 

improved price differential with lentils. In addition to lentils and chick-peas, two small plots of 

broad beans were also grown for family consumption (Tables I and 3). 

The cash received from crop sales is used for household purchases, the repayment of loans, 

and the purchase of inputs, including seed. The family uses loans from the Agricultural Bank 

for olive production and fertilizers and these are repaid at the end of each season. Credit is also 

received for livestock feed and food and this is usually repaid from the income generated by 

agricultural labouring (Fig. 2). 

Conclusions 

The contrasting circumstances of these two families suggest the value of a consideration of 

the ways in which the source and possession of resources and levels of income stmcture the 

possibilities and choices of different families. 

There is scope for the improvement of legume 

production in both cases. However, this is 

much less obvious for family B in view of their superior crop management and the lower degree 

of flexibility existing within their household economy for the allocation of additional resources 

to legume production. Family A, however, with its higher and more secure income, is in a 

better position to afford changes in input levels, varieties, or management techniques. In this 

case, the present income adequately covers the family's needs and the adoption of changes will 

thus depend upon the family's perception and 

evaluation of the relative advantage of increased 

legume yields as against the advantages of investing in other alternatives. The recognition that, 

in these circumstances, objectives other than the maximization of yield and cash income are 

more highly regarded indicates that more attention would be given to those families represented 

by the second case for whom increased yields and income are urgent needs. 

Such families find it very difficult to adapt their cultivation methods or increase inputs 

without the additional cost of these measures increasing their level of debt and dependency. 

Although the eventual improvement in productivity and income would more than justify the 

increased costs involved, the difficulty of financing the initial steps, especially if they are 

presented in terms of a package of practices with no sequential ordering of components, still 

remains a major stumbling block. However, even 

small improvements would be of great 

importance to these families, providing that the starting point is within their present capacity. 

This finding strongly indicates that research is more appropriately directed toward the 

development of low-cost stepwise recommendations 

relevant to most farming families who fall 

into this category, even if less spectacular results are achieved. High-input, high-cost packages, 

yielding spectacular improvements, would seem to benefit only a minority of farmers (providing 

of course that they chose to adopt them) for whom the need is less urgent, and would serve to 

accentuate the present disparities of wealth that exist in the farming community as a whole. 

The circumstances of the poorer families are common both within the study village and the 

region as a whole. It is this group of farming families who make up most of the farming 

community in many areas to whom the bulk of 

farming systems research in the region should be 

directed. Such a commitment has important consequences 

for the whole organization of 

research: in the composition of research teams, in the identification of research priorities, and in 

the conduct and location of research work. 

28

Nutritional Quality and Importance of Food 

Legumes in the Middle Eastern Diet 

Raja Tannous, Salah Abu-Shakra, 

and Abdul Hamid Hallab 

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon 

Grain legumes constitute one of the most important sources of food nutrients to people 

in many countries of the world, particularly in the Middle East. Their main nutritional 

value lies in the fact that they are very important sources of dietary vegetable proteins. 

They provide 15-30% of the total protein content of average diets in this part of the world, 

making them second only to cereals in dietary importance. Grain legumes are also good 

sources of the vitamins thiamine and niacin and the minerals calcium and iron, but contain 

little fat, carotene, or ascorbic acid. 

The food legumes commonly consumed in the Middle East together with their Arabic 

names are: broad beans (Vicia faba), "ful"; chick-peas (Cicer arietinurn), "homos"; 

lentils lLens culinaris), "adas"; fenugreek (Trigenella foenumgraecum), "hilbeh''; lupins 

tLipinus spp.), "turmos"; peas (Pisuin sativum), "bazella"; and common beans 

(Phaseolus vulgaris), "fasulya nashef". Of these, broad beans, chick-peas, and lentils are 

the most important and are probably consumed daily in one way or another by a large part 

of the population of the Middle East. During the harvesting season the green seeds of broad 

beans, chick-peas, and lupins are commonly consumed as an interim food, the latter only 

after debittering. Fenugreek is used mainly as a condiment, particularly in the very popular 

Armenian dish "basterma," and peas and common beans are used in a stew with meat and 

usually consumed with rice. The most common legume dishes consumed in the area are: 

broad bean dip, 'ful moudamas,'' which is frequently eaten as a breakfast food; chick-pea 

dip, "hommos bitehineh," eaten at any time; rice and lentils, "mujaddarah," and 

common bean stew, frequently served at schools and other institutions; "falafel," often 

eaten as a sandwich; and lentil soup, which may be eaten at any meal. 

Nutritional Composition of Grain Legumes 

The importance of legumes as a protein source is clearly illustrated in Table I. The 

average protein content varies from 20 to 40%, which is approximately triple that of 

cereals. However, with the exception of chick-pea and lupin, the fat content of these seeds 

is rather low. The nutritive value of legumes changes 

with the development of the seed, the 

fat content increasing until 21 days after flowering and thereafter remaining stable, and the 

protein content remaining the same throughout despite the lysine content rising to a 

maximum after 14 days and the sulphur amino acids after 42 days. This may have a bearing 

on the fact that chick-pea seeds are frequently consumed green during harvest. 

In any evaluation of dietary value, the protein quality of a food should be considered 

of equal importance to the total protein content. An evaluation of quality on the basis of the 

chemical score of the most limiting amino acids (in this case the sulphur amino acids) 

shows chick-pea to contain the best quality protein (score = 61), followed by lupin (55), 

and lentil (44), with broad bean (34) showing the lowest quality. 

Most dry legumes are good sources of thiamine and niacin, but with the exception of 

green chick-peas, are poor sources of carotene and vitamin C. Legumes also have a high 

29

Chemical composition of grain legumes (grams per 100 edible portion). 

TABLE I. 

Energy 

(Kcal) 

Legume Protein Fat NFE Ash Fiber Water 

Broad beans, green 5.2 9.4 9.8 0.8 2.0 81.8 72 

Broadbeans,dry 25.0 1.8 53.7 3.0 5.9 10.6 354 

Chick-pea, green 5.9 1.8 17.5 0.9 1.3 72.6 99 

Chick-pea, dry 19.2 6.2 56.7 3.0 3.4 11.5 376 

Lentils 23.7 1.3 57.4 2.2 3.2 12.2 351 

Lupin 40.0 13.0 26.0 3.0 9.0 9.0 420 

Fenugreek 29.6 5.2 50.0 3.3 7.2 8.6 365 

Nutritional composition of some Middle Eastern legume dishes (per 100 g edible portion). 

TABLE 2. 

Total FAO 

Water, Protein, Fat, Energy Ca, Fe, Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin, Lysine, S-AA, Score 

Legume 

g 

g g (Kcal) mg mg mg mg mg mg/gN mglgN 1957 

Broad bean dip 66.1 9.1 3.1 151 43 2.2 .15 .1 .9 346 129 48 

(ful moudamas) 

Chick-pea dip 49.5 9.6 19.7 300 57 4.2 .33 .08 1.2 330 195 72 

(homos bitehineh) 

Lentil soup 83 4.7 .8 72 14 1.4 .09 .03 .4 380 130 48 

Lentil + rice 

64.5 6.2 5.6 170 15 1.4 .09 .05 .9 386 163 60 

(mujaddarah) 

Falafel 

28.6 5.8 12.0 195 40 5.9 .06 .06 .5 

sandwich 

TABLE 3. Effect of cooking (autoclaving at 121 °C) on antinutritional factors in legume seeds. 

Hemagglutinating Antitrypsin 

activity activity Mortalitya 

Legume None 20 mm None 20 mm None 20 mm 

1 

Broad beans 80 0 0 0 0 

Chick-peas 0 0 8.4 0.6 0 0 

Lentils 640 0 0 0 4 0 

Pea 80 0 8.4 0.8 3 0 

Common bean 8200 20 9.6 0.8 10 

a Number of rats dead (out of 10) after 4 weeks.

content of iron and other minerals, but the availability of these minerals may not be very 

high. 

Nutritional Evaluation of Legume Dishes 

Because grain legumes are consumed in the form of composite dishes, the real dietary 

value of the food must be considered in terms of the nutritional value of the complete dishes 

(Table 2) and the frequency with which these dishes are consumed. Furthermore, when a 

specific food or dish is continuously consumed, specific nutritional implications must be 

considered. The digestibility, physiological availability of certain nutrients, presence of 

antinutritional factors, problems of flatulence, and effects of processing all become more 

important in this case due to an accumulation of effects. For example, where legumes 

provide the major source of protein in the diet, the nutritional quality of the legume 

proteins becomes a much more limiting factor. The protein quality of chick-peas is higher 

than the other legumes, and the protein quality of the most common legume dish 

"hommos'' is correspondingly high (Table 2). Therefore, the frequent consumption of 

chick-pea dip will be better than any of the other legume foods. To achieve a more 

balanced diet, legume foods may be supplemented with other foodstuffs. From the protein 

quality point of view, bread is an ideal complement to legume foods. It is, thus, 

nutritionally very fortunate that most legume dishes are consumed with bread. The notable 

deficiencies in legume foods, namely carotene and vitamin C, may be remedied by the 

inclusion in the diet of other foods rich in these nutrients. 

Effects of Processing on Nutritional Quality 

Uncooked legume seeds contain antinutritional factors that can be very toxic if 

consumed in large quantities (Table 3). Consideration of only two factors, namely 

hemoglutinating and antitrypsin (although other factors may well be responsible for the 

mortality of animals fed on uncooked beans), illustrates that adequate cooking will render 

them safe for consumption. 

In general, cooking also improves protein quality in legume foods, but it should be 

noted that prolonged cooking (longer than 5 mm at 121 °C) will not improve quality 

further. 

Utilization of Grain Legume Flours as Supplements 

Because grain legumes are a good source of dietary protein, it is envisaged that 

legume flours could be profitably used as supplements to improve the dietary protein 

quantity and quality of other local foods. Several investigations along these lines have been 

carried out at the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences with legume flours, protein isolates, and 

concentrates utilized as supplements to weaning food mixtures, Arabic bread, biscuits, and 

other foodstuffs. It was generally found from these investigations that legume flours can be 

used in limited quantities to improve the protein quality of local foods without seriously 

affecting their taste, acceptability, or other quality factors. 

Cooking Quality of Food Legumes 

Dry legume seeds normally require a relatively long time to cook. Seeds of broad 

bean, chick-pea, common bean, and, to a lesser extent lentil, are soaked in water overnight 

before cooking as a means of reducing the cooking time and, in some instances, small 

amounts of NaHCO3 may be added to chick-peas and broad beans to reduce this even 

further. Not all food legumes are eaten cooked, however, and unprocessed dry seeds of 

many of the legumes are often used directly in the preparation of traditional dishes in the 

Middle East and neighbouring countries. 

31

The cooking process serves to soften the hard legume seeds by improving the 

plasticity of the cell walls, thereby facilitating cell expansion and the reduction of cellular 

adhesion. Some legume seeds are more difficult to cook than others and this is thought to 

be due to the presence of insoluble pectins in the middle lamella of the cell wall. This may 

be accentuated by the formation of further insoluble calcium and magnesium pectates in 

these middle lamellae when the Ca or Mg content of either the seed or the cooking water is 

high. 

It has been reported that cooking quality may be associated with the ratio of 

monovalent to divalent cations and with the phytin and phosphorus contents of the seed. It 

seems that a high availability of phosphorus in the soil could contribute to a high phytin 

content in the seed and consequently to good cooking; and it has been suggested that the 

action of phytin in this respect is as a Ca absorbent, which thus prevents the formation of 

calcium pectate. Besides the relative contents of phytin, Ca, Mg, and free pectin in the 

seed, it has also been reported that the thickness of the palisade layer, and the lignin and 

alpha-cellulose content of the seed coat, are probably important factors affecting the 

cooking quality of legume seeds. Cooking quality has further been found to be affected by 

storage but only when the moisture content of the seed is greater than 10%. 

Work at the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences on these aspects has been confined to 

studies on lentils. A standard procedure for determining cooking quality has been evolved 

and all experimental results are expressed as a cooking index on a scale of 1-15, where 

good quality is expressed by low scores. It has been found that quality is significantly 

influenced by mineral nutrition, with adequate levels of both the major and the trace 

elements contributing to good cooking. Plants receiving adequate levels of the important 

elements and a high level of potassium produced the fastest cooking lentil seed, and a 

combination of high levels of potassium and sodium in the seed was also associated with 

good cooking quality. No direct relation was found, however, between the content of 

phytic acid in the seed and cooking quality. 

Various growth regulators or the chelating agent EDTA, applied as foliar sprays 

during early crop development, had no significant effect on the cooking quality. 

The results of field experiments to study the effects of seed maturity on cooking 

quality demonstrate that cooking time decreases markedly with increasing maturity. 

It can be seen that food legumes, in a variety of different forms, contribute 

considerably to the diets of the people of the Middle East, especially in terms of high 

quality protein. However, the presence of various objectionable endogenous factors, such 

as antinutritional factors, flatulence, and poor cooking quality, tends to limit their more 

widespread utilization in human diets. The neutralization and minimization of the effects of 

these factors should be the prime focus for future research geared to increasing the 

consumption of these important dietary components. 

32

Section II 

The Present Production 

and 

Improvement 

Situation 

Food Legumes in Algeria 

Walid Khayrallah 

Station Experitnentale, B.P. 59, Sidi hel Abbas, Algeria 

and Lounes Hachemi 

Institut de développement des grandes culture, POB 16, El Harrach, Algeria 

Historical Considerations 

With the exception of beans, the cultivation of legume crops in Algeria can be traced 

back over many thousands of years to the dawn of plant domestication in the region of the 

Near East and North Africa. The species have, since then, evolved through small-scale 

cultivation in isolated local populations, and even up to the period between the French 

occupation and World War I, it has proved almost impossible to define the areas of land 

devoted to the cultivation of individual crops. Figures available from World War I onward 

indicate considerable fluctuations in dry legume seed production in the country, as can be 

seen in the following figures: 

Production area (ha) 

Broad Chick- Dry 

Year Peas beans peas Lentils beans 

1929 18127 38014 27630 1329 1152 

1952 8000 45000 25000 40000 

1964 5700 22890 18230 8400 2040 

As the legume crops have traditionally been produced locally for local consumption, these 

variations have tended to reflect variations in population stability, especially the 

availability of manpower and seed. Furthermore, disturbances on a national scale in the 

l950s and early l960s resulted in a sharp drop in production throughout the country in this 

period. 

The Present Production Situation 

With the preoccupation of the country in improving the standard of living of its 

population that has been evident over the last decade, the cultivation of dry legumes has 

been encouraged. The use of legumes in rotation with cereals to replace the traditional 

fallow course has been shown to provide considerable cultural, as well as the more obvious 

economic advantages, through improvements in soil fertility and workability. In addition 

to this, legumes have proved valuable in intercropping with grapes and other fruit trees. 

The western parts of the country, with their high rainfall (400-500 mm) and large 

percentage of fallow land are particularly suitable areas for this type of intensification. 

33

Despite these proven advantages, the structure of production and commerce and the 

relatively low consideration given to legume crops in the period prior to 1975 resulted in a 

steady decline in production up until this time (Table I). To meet its domestic consumption 

requirements, the country was thus forced to import considerable quantities of legumes. 

However, after 1975 increasing encouragement was given to domestic production in the 

form of price incentives, as illustrated below: 

Prices paid to producers in dinars/quintal (1968-1977) 

1968 1974 1977 

Lentils 88 90 250 

Chick-peas 80 80 200 

Broad beans 55 60 150 

Beans 140 150 270 

Peas 55 60 ISO 

This has largely served to offset the great increases in the costs of inputs that occurred 

during this period but has so far failed to put legume production on a viable economic 

footing. 

The Current Status of Production Practices 

Food legumes almost invariably follow a cereal crop in the rotation, and in only very 

few cases are they planted following a fallow. The presowing land preparation consists of 

deep ploughing, with either a disc or a mouldboard plough, followed by cultivation with a 

disc harrow to break the clods, and is essentially identical to the preparation for a cereal 

crop. Prior to planting and after the first rains of the season the land is again disked to 

control weeds and further refine the seedbed. All the legume crops are row planted, as this 

facilitates weed control later in the season, lentils being almost entirely planted using a 

seed drill, whereas chick-peas, dry peas, and broad beans are, in general, hand seeded into 

previously opened furrows. Between-row spacing varies from 1-4 m, depending upon the 

size and type of cultural weeding equipment available, and may be fairly haphazard. 

Lentils and chick-peas are usually spring sown, lentils between mid-January and 

mid-February, and chick-peas between mid-February and mid-March, although actual 

dates vary considerably from the low altitude plains where the season is earlier to the later 

season high plateau areas. In contrast, broad beans and field peas are grown as winter crops 

and generally planted between late November and late December. 

Natural Rhizobia have been found to exist in almost all the soils in which legumes are 

cultivated and for this reason seed inoculation is not carried out in Algeria. Fertilization is 

common throughout the pulse cropping areas, and phosphate is normally applied at the rate 

of 90 kg/ha in the fall. Nitrogen fertilization is not widespread, but 30 kg/ha may be 

applied post-planting or post-emergence. Algerian soils are believed to be rich in available 

potash and the use of fertilizers containing this macroelement is thus rare. 

The bulk of the legume crops in Algeria are hand harvested: pulled from the ground, 

gathered in small heaps, left to dry, rearranged into larger piles, and threshed by stationary 

machines. In many cases, crops may be hauled to the farm yard for threshing, thus 

increasing yield losses that may be as high as 15-20% as a result of these operations. 

Recently, attempts at direct combining of lentils and chick-peas have met with some 

success, but such methods are still limited by the incorrect adjustment of the threshers, 

which results in a high percentage of damaged seed. 

Important Pests and Diseases 

Blight, caused by Ascoehyta rabei, is without doubt the most important disease of 

chick-peas in Algeria, appearing on average once every 3 years and causing crop losses as 

high as 80%. Ascochvta species have also been identified as infecting broad bean crops but 

damage is seldom as serious. Both chick-peas and broad beans are commonly infected with 

34

Area production and yield of dry legumes in Algeria 1969_76.a 

TABLE I 

Lentils Chick-peas Broad beans Peas Total 

Year Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod, Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yteld 

1969 23670 107000 4.5 28660 113310 4.0 23200 140070 6.0 10880 41900 3.8 86420 402280 4.6 

1970 20830 47120 2.7 21850 63510 2.9 25630 99310 3.9 13350 30950 2.3 81660 240890 2.9 

1971 15950 47220 3.0 23800 77250 3.2 26970 151980 5.6 13580 44780 3.3 80300 321210 4.0 

1972 17980 55990 3.1 21510 70660 3.3 28900 168480 5.8 14690 42380 2.9 83080 345510 4.1 

1973 20500 82000 4.0 25000 125000 5.0 28000 217000 7.5 13500 54000 4.0 88000 478000 5.4 

1974 13450 22000 1.6 26400 78200 3.0 23800 135400 5.7 9650 34400 3.6 73000 270000 3.7 

1975 14300 31700 2.2 26800 115000 4.3 25100 175400 7.0 7800 39400 5.1 74000 361500 4.9 

1976 17920 88760 4.9 33250 253790 7.6 36480 344260 9.4 9830 67710 6.8 97480 754570 7.7 

a Area in hectares; production in quintals; yields in quintals/ha.

usts in the coastal and subcoastal areas, and this may or may not be serious depending on 

the earliness of the disease outbreak. Fusarium species cause important diseases in lentil 

crops, especially as tolerance is low in local varieties. Root rot and powdery mildew are 

also fairly common diseases of field peas. In general, the level of disease infections and 

resulting yield losses is much higher in the moister environment of the coastal areas than in 

the dry interior where diseases are seldom a problem. 

Of the insect pests attacking legumes in 

Algeria, bruchids, Bruchus sp., are of prime 

importance. Seed damage in lentils, which are much more vigorously attacked than the 

other pulse crops, may reach as high as 40%; in chick-peas, broad beans, and field peas 

damage usually ranges between 15 and 30%. Also of importance are aphids, ,4phis sp., 

which are common pests of broad beans, lentils, and field peas, and which may become 

epidemic in some seasons. 

At present no methods of control are being implemented for either the diseases or 

pests outlined above. 

Weed infestation is by all standards the most important factor limiting legume 

production in the country, and different weed species are endemic to the whole range of 

arable land. Wild mustard, bindweed, 

pigweed, and lambsquarter are the most important 

broad leaf weeds, and the grass weeds that pose problems include wild oats, bromegrass, 

and ryegrass. Weed control mainly involves the use of cultivators or disc harrows to 

eliminate between-row weeds, but weeds growing within the row are not generally 

controlled. Chemical methods are thus being encouraged as a means of achieving more 

total control, but at present are only used on a very small scale. The use of Trifluralin as a 

preplanting control has been included as part of a package of production practices for full 

mechanization of lentil production, and it is hoped that this will result in about 10% of the 

food legume production area receiving adequate 

chemical control by the end of the 1979 

cropping season. 

Major Problems of Production 

The failure of legume production to become a viable economic enterprise in Algerian 

agriculture has largely stemmed from the fact that farmers have no interest in large-scale 

production. This is due to the very low productivity under the existing production practices 

and the rising cost and scarcity of the necessary hand labour, especially at harvest time. 

Furthermore, the proven success and ease of mechanized cereal production systems has 

resulted in legume production becoming increasingly less popular with the farmers than the 

alternative cereal enterprises. 

Apart from the labour problems, there are several factors that contribute to the 

prohibitively low productivity of legume crops in Algeria: 

(I) Food legumes are generally grown on marginal land not easily accessible to 

machinery and unsuited to cereal production. 

Lack of chemical weed control and the high population of very competitive weeds 

necessitate planting the crops in wide rows to facilitate mechanical weeding. Fewer crops 

can thus be grown per unit area. 

Late sowing of lentils and chick-peas, low seed rates, and poor seedbeds 

frequently result in weak stands. The crops are highly susceptible to moisture stress, 

particularly when it is severe at flowering and pod filling. 

Absence of disease and pest control result in severe crop losses when conditions 

are favourable. 

Stresses, such as late frosts and dry (Sirocco) winds at critical crop growth stages, 

cause considerable yield reductions. 

Excessive postharvest manipulation and mishandling losses may reach as high as 

20%. 

Lack of mechanization at sowing and harvesting reduces the timeliness of these 

operations, increases losses, and results in very high labour costs. 

36

Research and Extension Support Available 

The only organization engaged in field crops research in Algeria is the Institute for the 

Development of Field Crops (IDGC). This institute is responsible directly to the Ministry 

of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform and its work is carried out through two regional 

centres (East and West) and six experimental stations spread throughout the main 

agricultural zones of the country. The main work of the two centres involves extrastation 

experimentation and the coordination of the application and supply of agricultural 

technology, whereas the experimental stations are mainly engaged in crop improvement 

practices, which include hybridization on a limited scale, testing of selections, and the 

initial stages of seed multiplication. Agronomic experiments and variety trials are usually 

conducted over many locations in the country and are the responsibility of personnel 

working at the research centres. At present, research in food legumes is hampered by a lack 

of technical staff at alt levels. 

The extension of improved technologies is the responsibility of two organizations. 

First, there is the "Operation Integrée de Recherche et Développement," whose personnel 

are part of the IDGC and which operates mainly at the commune level. The organization's 

work involves conducting demonstration trials and field days to illustrate new techniques 

and technologies, and working closely with the farmers of th communes, helping them to 

adjust to the new machinery and the utilization of the new technologies generated by the 

research efforts. And secondly, there is the "Agrocombina," which is a new organization 

operating experimentally in only one district as yet. It combines agriculturalists, 

agronomists, and plant protection and machinery specialists in a group that operates at the 

farmer's level assisting groups of farmers in the realization of their annual production 

targets. 

The multiplication and distribution of seed of improved varieties is also the 

responsibility of the IDGC. Breeders' seed and a large proportion of the certified seed is 

maintained at the research stations. Some certified seed and all registered seed is produced 

on IDGC selected farms under the supervision of IDGC personnel who issue certificates to 

the farmers involved. After laboratory analysis, the final certificate is granted and the seed 

stocks are stored and distributed by the Cooperatives of Cereals and Food Legumes under 

the supervision of the IDGC. 

Current Research 

Breeding and Varietal Improvement 

International broad bean, chick-pea, and lentil material is tested at two locations, in 

the east and in the west of the country. The best types are then advanced to replicated trials 

in three locations across the country where detailed crop growth characteristics and yields 

are recorded. The lines performing considerably better than the local check varieties are 

advanced to 2nd and 3rd year replicated trials spread over more locations and the selection 

pressure is increased. At this stage, or in the 4th year, the best selections are tested in 

comparative trials on a large scale, under farm conditions in several locations in both the 

east and west of the country. A few lines are then selected on the basis of performance 

during the last 3 years and introduced into the seed multiplication cycle. 

Agronomic Research 

Eight dates of sowing, at 15-day intervals from 15 November, are currently being 

evaluated for the four crops in four locations. This experiment is designed to yield 

information on the optimum planting date for each crop in each location, together with 

details of crop response to environmental stresses, such as frost and drought. It is also 

hoped that the trial will provide an indication of the feasibility of growing lentils and 

chick-peas as a winter crop to avoid the severe drought stress often encountered at 

flowering and thereafter in spring-sown crops. 

37

The world collections of lentils and chick-peas are also being screened in this 

connection to identify varieties adaptable to winter sowing, and many frost-resistant lines 

with good vegetative growth have already been identified. 

Trials on population studies are also under way to ascertain the optimum and most 

economic combination of seed rate and plant spacing that will lend itself to total 

mechanization of the lentil, chick-pea, and field pea crops with the existing available farm 

machinery. 

A study of the interaction between inoculation and fertilization in lentils and 

chick-peas aims to establish whether inoculation with specific rather than nonspecific 

Rhizobia has any effect on plant stand and grain yield. This study should also give 

information on the efficacy of nitrogen fertilizers applied early in the period of crop growth 

both in the presence and absence of Rhizobia. 

A screening trial of 35 herbicides, to determine their effectiveness in the control of a 

broad spectrum of weeds and at the same time to evaluate crop tolerance to these 

chemicals, is also currently under way. The herbicides are being evaluated as applied at 

several stages: preplanting, preemergence, early postemergence, and late postemergence. 

Results to date are promising, indicating several chemicals that give 90% control of weeds 

with no noticeable effect on the crop. 

Another trial on sowing methods for lentils is in progress to ascertain the effect of 

broadcast sowing as opposed to drilling on plant stand, productivity, and ease of combine 

harvesting. This is particularly important as the expertise of some farmers and the quality 

of some land makes it impossible to use seed drills well enough to arrive at a good plant 

stand. 

The increasing interest in food legumes in Algeria, illustrated by its expanding 

research efforts, shows a more comprehensive understanding of the real problems limiting 

food legume production in the country than has hitherto been the case. A corresponding 

increase in the cooperation with other research efforts in the region will enable this base of 

research work to be considerably expanded and strengthened so that the important aim of 

promoting food legume production into the realms of an economic farm enterprise and thus 

achieving the desired expansion in production may be realized in the near future. 

38

Production and Improvement of Grain Legumes in Egypt 

Au A. Ibrahim, Abdullah M. Nassib, and Mohamed El-Sherbeeny 

Agricultural Research Centre, Giza, Egypt 

Food Legume Research Section, Field Crops Institute, 

Food legumes are well known as rich and inexpensive sources of vegetable protein for 

human nutrition. In Egypt they play an essential role in the nutrition of the population, 

balancing the deficiencies of the basically cereal diet and supplying the bulk of the dietary 

protein requirements, especially to the people of the predominantly rural areas of the 

country. In addition to these nutritive considerations, legumes are particularly valuable in 

the agriculture of the country as, by virtue of their nitrogen-fixing capability, they are able 

to sustain high yields in the face of minimum inputs and at the same time improve soil 

fertility. 

The legume crops grown in Egypt include: broad beans (Vicia faba), lentils (Lens 

culinaris), fenugreek (Trigonella feonumgraecum), chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), and lupin 

(Lupinus termis). Of these, broad beans are by far the most important, occupying over half 

the 500 000 acres annually devoted to legume production, and constituting a daily dish in 

the diet of most of the population. Lentils are secondary in importance, and chick-peas, 

although generally considered to be of minor significance, are becoming increasingly 

popular with growers due to the expanding market for their use in baby foods and other 

commodities. 

Broad beans are cultivated throughout the country, with more emphasis on the regions 

of Middle and Upper Egypt (Fig. 1), and since 1950 their average yields have increased by 

about 39%, even though the area under cultivation has remained fairly static (Table 1). This 

reflects the considerable interest shown in the crop across the country and the consequently 

emphasized breeding efforts that have already culminated in the release of several varieties 

with better adaptation to the prevailing production conditions than local landraces. In 

contrast to this, both the area and production of lentils have declined considerably over the 

same period as a result of several major production constraints, which include unleveled 

soils, poor drainage, and severe waterlogging. These problems have arisen mainly as a 

consequence of the construction of the High Dam at Aswan and the introduction of canal 

irrigation into Upper Egypt where lentils are predominantly grown. The continuous decline 

in the annual acreage of legume crops, their sensitivity to climatic conditions, and the high 

and variable losses caused by pests and diseases are all contributing to the declining 

production situation, which is made all the more serious by the rapidly increasing 

population pressure. 

Although some progress has been achieved in yield improvement, the total production 

of both broad beans and lentils is still below the local consumption requirements. This has 

meant that large quantities of both food grains are imported every year; in 1976, for 

example, imports of broad beans and lentils were 101 000 and 33 000 tons, or 28% and 

46%, respectively, of total requirements. 

Research Activities 

Grain legumes are grown as winter crops of relatively short duration (sown in 

October/November and harvested in March/April) and usually in a 2-year rotation with 

39

LFDKU DAMNH 

1N 

.BOUR 0105 

MINIA 

EGYPT 

KAFR EL_SHEIKII 

- SAKHA 

- MANSURA 

GEMMEIZA HARRAGE 

- GIZ4 CAIRO 

:RENI_ SURF 

IDS 

MA LLAWI 

LIMITS OF CULTIVATED AREA 

CAPITALS OF GOVERNORATES 

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION 

ASSUIT 

SOHA 

DAMIRSTA 

ZAGAZIG 

SI-IA NDA WE5 

PORT_ SAID 

SMA IL IA 

NA TA ANA - 

Fig. I. Different environmental regionS,' the limits of cultivated areas, and Ministry of AgriculturL' 

research stations in Egypt. 

40 

SUEZ 

GiNA 

NORTH DELTA 

SOUTH DELTA 

MIDDLE EGYPT 

UPPER EGYPT 

A S WAN 

ASWAN DAM 

HIGH DAM 

LAKE NASSER

0.42 ha)), production ('000 metric tonnes), and yield (kg/ha) for broad beans, lentils, and chick-peas in Egypt 

during the 1950-1977 period. 

TABLE 1. Average area ('000 feddans (1 feddan = 

Chick-peas 

Broad beans 

Lentils 

Year Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield 

1950-54 328 225 163! 74 47.5 1527 12.0 8.2 1617 

1955-59 353 238 1605 80 48.0 1436 11.0 7.1 1525 

1960-64 365 282 1837 77 48.0 1489 11.0 8.0 1650 

1965-69 349 299 2037 65 39.7 1444 9.2 6.3 1639 

1970-74 283 280 2361 64 50.1 1868 8.2 6.1 1759 

1975-77 266 261 2265 57 33.8 1407 9.4 6.8 1726

either cereals or cotton. As it is difficult to increase the area under legume cultivation due 

to limitations on land reclamation and competition from other winter crops, research 

geared to increasing production in Egypt is primarily focused on increasing yield per unit 

area. This research is carried out at Ministry of Agriculture research institutes and stations 

throughout the country (Fig. 1), and consists mainly of breeding, agronomic investigations, 

varietal purification, and the propagation of foundation stocks. 

Breeding 

The major goals of the broad bean breeding program are the incorporation of 

resistance to the major pests and diseases (including Orobwiche) and early maturity into 

stable and high-yielding varieties that have seeds of a high nutritive and cooking quality. 

For lentils and chick-peas, however, the main priorities are to produce early maturing 

varieties that are resistant to root rot and wilt diseases and adapted to production conditions 

in the Nile Delta area. The introduction of such varieties will pave the way for an expansion 

of the lentil and chick-pea acreages into this nontraditional production region. 

Since the early stages of legume improvement work in Egypt, the dominating breeding 

procedure has involved selection in local populations and in segregating generations 

following intervarietal crosses (individual plant selection as part of a pedigree breeding 

system). The success of this effort was limited by the narrow germ-plasm pool of local 

landraces, which was insufficient to ensure a broad genetic base to the breeding efforts. 

However, this handicap has been largely eliminated as a result of the provision of a large 

germ-plasm collection of diverse geographical origin through the ALADIDRCICARDA 

regional cooperative legume improvement program initiated in 1972. 

A number of entries of broad beans showing good resistance to chocolate spot and 

rust, the major diseases of this crop, have been identified from this material. Other 

varieties with high protein contents, lodging resistance, and/or desirable yield components 

have also been found. An expanded breeding program has been initiated to combine these 

attributes with the adaptation to the local environment shown by native cultivars. This 

scheme involves hybridization followed by compositing promising lines of early 

generations for cross-polination by honey bees to produce improved populations. The 

traditional pedigree and improved bulk selection breeding methods will, however, be 

retained to produce populations for use in hybridization and pure-line breeding. 

An intensive crossing program is planned for the production of new lentil and 

chick-pea lines from this recently introduced material. This will be accompanied by further 

screening and testing of the introductions and selected material for resistance to root 

rotwilt diseases and adaptability to production in the Nile Delta region. Promising 

material arising out of all these breeding efforts is included in a network of yield trials 

designed to evaluate its performance in the various different environmental regions of the 

country (see Fig. I). 

The breeding work to date has resulted in the release of the following improved food 

legume cultivars: 

Crop 

Cultivar Special characteristics 

Broad beans Giza I Tolerant to chocolate spot and rust; 

adapted to North Delta region. 

Giza 2 Wide adaptability; recommended for 

South Delta and Middle Egypt areas. 

Rebaia 40 Adapted to Upper Egypt. 

Giza 3 Replacement for Giza I. 

Giza 4 Replacement for Rebaia 40. 

Lentils Giza 9 Adapted to rainfed basin regions. 

Chick-peas Giza I Large seeded; recommended for the 

Delta and Middle Egypt areas. 

Family 2 Small seeded; Adapted to all regions. 

42

Diseases 

Chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae) and rust (Uromyces fabae) are the most serious 

yield-limiting diseases of broad beans in Egypt and are especially prevalent in the Delta 

regions. Crop losses can be as high as 50% when the diseases become epidemic, but annual 

losses normally vary from 5 to 20%. Chemical control using foliar sprays has been found to 

be effective in minimizing losses, and Dithane M 45 is now recommended for field control 

of both diseases. Delaying planting until early November has also proved useful in 

reducing crop losses, especially in years of severe infection. Considerable attention has, in 

the past, been directed toward disease control through resistant varieties, and special 

screening nurseries at Sakha and Nobaria, where both diseases are prevalent, have been 

used in an attempt to identify sources of resistance in segregating generations, new lines, 

and introductions. Some promising material has been found, but no very strong sources of 

resistance have yet been identified and hence progress has been slow. 

The most serious diseases of both lentil and chick-pea are those of the root rotwilt 

complex (Eusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia sp.), which can also be severe on broad beans. It 

has been found that losses from these diseases can be minimized by improving such 

agronomic factors as drainage, soil leveling, and crop water supply. A special nursery for 

screening broad bean, lentil, and chick-pea varieties for resistance to these diseases has 

recently been set up at Giza. This involves the creation of severe conditions in "sick plots'' 

and it is hoped will lead to the identification of some promiiing material in the near future. 

Pests 

Broomrape (Orobanche sp.) 

This parasitic weed presents serious problems in the production of all three major 

legume crops in Egypt. Some crops are so severely infested that large areas have to be 

abandoned every year, resulting in immense yield losses. Of the eight species of 

Orobanche recorded in the country, 0. crenata, 0. ramosa, and 0. aegyptiaca have been 

found to be the most common and to cause the greatest amount of crop damage in the food 

legumes. 

Although there are no totally effective methods for controlling this pest, late sowing 

(until the end of November), flooding prior to sowing, deep sowing, planting of trap crops 

(crops that stimulate Orohwuhe seeds to germinate but cannot themselves be parasitized, 

e.g., fenugreek, coriander, or flax) in the rotation, and planting after rice have all been 

shown to reduce levels of infestation. 

Insects 

Aphids (Aphis lanurni) are the most important field pests throughout the country and 

are considered to be one of the major factors limiting legume production in Egypt. 

However, they can be satisfactorily controlled through the judicious use of chemical 

pesticides. 

Considerable losses of broad bean, lentil, and chick-pea seed are also caused in store 

by infestations of seed beetles Bruchus ruI,nanus, B. lentis, and B. incarnatus). 

Others 

Birds, especially sparrows, present a major production problem and cause extensive 

crop damage at the flowering and early pod-filling stages. At present there is no effective 

control measure that can be recommended to combat this problem. 

Agronomic Practices 

One of the major constraints to increased production of food legumes in Egypt arises 

from the fact that these crops are grown under traditional and often suboptimal production 

systems. Considerable research emphasis is thus being placed on determining optimal 

agronomic criteria. 

43

Sowing Date 

Investigations over the past 3 years have indicated that the optimum sowing date for 

broad beans varies with variety and location; Giza 2 and Rebaia 40 are best sown around 

mid-October in Middle and Upper Egypt, whereas the optimum time for planting Giza 1 in 

the North Delta is early November. Late sowing is to a certain extent recommended in 

these Delta regions for control of chocolate spot rust and Orobanche, which are 

widespread. 

For lentils and chick-peas, studies have established the optimum sowing date to be 

during the first 2 weeks of November. 

Population Density 

The majority of broad beans grown in Egypt are produced on ridges to facilitate 

agronomic operations. Extensive research on ridge width, hill spacing within ridges, and 

number of plants per hill has established that the optimum population density for the 

existing varieties varies between 80 and 85 plants/rn2 (320 000-340 000 plants/acre). This 

may be achieved by sowing two plants per hill, on hills 20 cm apart on either side of ridges 

spaced at 60 cm. 

All lentil seed is broadcast sown in Egypt using relatively high seed rates. Studies 

have shown that, although yield increases slightly with every increase in sowing rate, the 

optimum seed rate ranges from 35 to 45 kg/acre when broadcast into a well-prepared 

seedbed and followed by good leveling. Investigations on other methods of planting have 

indicated that the highest seed yield of lentils may be obtained by sowing 30 kg of seed per 

acre into ridges 60 cm apart. 

The standard population density for chick-peas, used by farmers and research stations 

alike, is between 28 and 30 plants/m2. However, the results of a 2-year study indicate that 

yield/acre increases progressively and significantly with increasing plant population up to 

840 000 plants/acre. Further studies are required to determine an optimum density. 

Irrigation 

Results of studies on broad beans conducted at three locations representing the 

different environments of the country have shown regional differences between the 

optimum number and timing of irrigations. No significant differences were detected 

between treatments in the North Delta, and this can probably be attributed to the higher 

rainfall of this region. However, alterations in the watering regime in Middle and Upper 

Egypt resulted in considerable yield differences. Based on these and other results, the 

recommended irrigation pattern for broad beans in Middle and Upper Egypt involves four 

irrigations at 30-day intervals from the time of sowing. In the Delta regions, where a 

certain amount of rain may be received and increasing the irrigations has little effect on net 

yield, the necessity of chocolate spot and rust control has meant that a minimum number of 

irrigations are recommended. 

The only commercial variety of lentil available in Egypt is Giza 9, which is adapted to 

nonirrigated basin land production in Upper Egypt. This variety is very susceptible to 

overwatering and thus, although water stress commonly results in low yields, most farmers 

do not irrigate for fear of causing severe crop damage. Investigations into the optimum 

watering regime for this variety have determined that two or three irrigations will give 

significantly higher yields providing that the seedbed is level and well prepared and the 

distribution of seed and irrigation is accurate. Much of Upper Egypt has come under 

perennial irrigation as a result of the construction of the High Dam, and, as a result, 

considerably more research needs to be done to produce lentil varieties less susceptible to 

overwatering to enable production in this traditional area to continue at its former level. 

Fertilization 

In general, Egyptian soils suffer from very low levels of both nitrogen and phosphate. 

In recognition of this, considerable research efforts have been directed toward ascertaining 

the effects of artificial fertilization on the legume crops. 

44

Crop response to nitrogen applications of 36 kg/ha varied from a 10.5% yield increase 

in broad beans to a 6.2% increase in lentils. Applications of phosphate at a rate of 72 kg/ha 

caused a 15.7% increase in the yield of broad beans, but only about half this figure in 

lentils. Optimum yields of broad beans were obtained with applications of 36 kg N and 72 

kg P205 per hectare. and applications of 18 kg N and 72 kg P205 to lentil crops were found 

to be the most economical. 

Weed Control 

Weeds compete strongly with the growing legume crops for both water and nutrients, 

and control is thus essential for efficient production. Manual methods of cultivation are still 

the only available means of carrying out this task in most of the legume-producing areas. 

To keep the fields clean, cultivation must be repeated three or four times during the 

growing season and this makes legume production very labour-intensive. With labour costs 

rising fairly rapidly, it is becoming increasingly urgent to develop other less labourintensive 

control procedures. 

Harvesting 

Legume crops set their pods over a fairly prolonged period of time, and the pods 

consequently ripen rather unevenly. This makes harvesting difficult as not all the pods will 

be at the same stage of ripeness at any one time. To minimize harvesting losses, the plants 

have to be reaped before the pods are completely dry and left to mature in the field. It is 

advisable to harvest these crops early in the morning to avoid undue shattering, which 

becomes serious as the plants dry out in the heat of the day. Investigations have shown that 

the interaction between sowing and harvesting dates have a highly significant effect upon 

seed yield. It has been concluded that, if the legume crops are sown at the recommended 

optimum dates, harvesting may be carried out most efficiently after 140-152 days, 

115-120 days, and 140-150 days for broad beans, lentils, and chick-peas, respectively. 

Seed Quality and Multiplication 

Seed samples of broad beans and lentils from various trials are routinely analyzed for 

protein content and cooking quality as part of a seed quality program. Results to date 

indicate that, within local material, locality rather than variety had the most effect upon 

seed quality as measured by these two criteria. However, there appears to be considerable 

variation in protein content within the material furnished by ALADICARDA, and new 

facilities provided by IDRC should assist in developing an effective seed quality research 

program around this material. 

The maintenance, purification, and distribution of seed of new varieties developed in 

Egypt is the responsibility of two organizations: the Grain Legume Section of the Field 

Crops Research Institute ensures the multiplication and supply of the breeder's, 

foundation, and registered seed in seed increase areas at the Ministry of Agriculture's 

experimental stations and farms; and the Seed Department of the Ministry of Agriculture 

has the responsibility for the production, inspection, testing, and distribution of certified 

seed to the producers. 

Major Constraints to Legume Production 

The work of the research department outlined above is directed toward providing 

solutions to the critical problems that at present limit the production of food legume crops 

in Egypt. These constraints may be summarized as follows: 

the lack of physiologically efficient, high-nodulating, and disease- and pest-resistant 

varieties, resulting in low crop productivity; 

the considerable gap between yields of varieties in experimental plots and the national 

average yield under production conditions, which may reflect a number of the agronomic 

factors outlined below; 

problems of soil salinity associated with poor drainage and bad water management and 

45

the continued use of manual operations in land preparation, weeding, harvesting, and 

threshing, which are time consuming, costly, and result in considerable yield losses, 

rather than the more efficient mechanical methods; and 

the small average size of land holdings, which makes it difficult to effectively utilize 

improved production technologies. 

Despite the considerable progress already made through the research efforts of the 

country toward solving these and other production problems, the further potential for 

considerable increases in yield, disease resistance, and nutritional quality is well 

recognized. The program, in close collaboration with other organizations in the region, is 

actively working toward the realization of this potential both through the improvement of 

yielding ability and through work designed to raise the productivity of newly reclaimed 

land, together with the development of varieties suited to the different conditions of these 

nontraditional areas of production. 

46

Food Legume Production in the 

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 

M. Abi Antoun 

Faculty of Agriculture University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 

and A. Quol 

Ministry of Agriculture P.O. Box 2/78, Amman, Jordan 

Jordan has a classically Mediterranean climate, characterized by warm dry summers 

and mild winters, during which all the annual rainfall is received. Agroecologically, the 

country can be divided into three major zones: the Highlands with an annual rainfall of 

between 300 and 700 mm; the Jordan Valley, which receives about 250-350 mm of rainfall 

per year; and the Eastern Desert, where the rainfall seldom exceeds 100 mm. 

Agriculture is the basic industry of Jordan, constituting about 30% of the gross 

national product. Of the total land area of the country, 13.3% is arable and, of this, 89% is 

devoted to the cultivation of winter cereals, mainly wheat and barley. Grain legumes 

occupy the bulk of the remaining 11%, or 28 000 ha of land concentrated in the northern 

and central highlands, where annual 

precipitation ranges between 300 and 450 mm (Fig. 

I). 

Lentils, chick-peas, and broad beans (fresh and dry) are the major food legumes 

grown, and the area, production, and yield of these crops for the 5-year period 1973-77 are 

given in Table I. Although yield and production are erratic and generally low, there is 

considerable variation between the major production regions, the northern district of Irbid 

being the most important production area and together with the Amman district producing 

the highest yields. The, extreme fluctuations in both crop area and yield can be attributed 

almost entirely to the erratic rainfall and traditional production methods used in the 

country. 

Utilization and Marketing 

Despite exports of lentils amounting to 10 000 tonnes in some years, Jordan may be 

considered a net importer of legume grains. With current market prices of $600/tonne for 

lentils and $700/tonne for broad beans, there is an increasing interest in expanding pulse 

production in the country, both for import substitution in the case of broad beans and as a 

means of increasing export earnings from lentil production. Classically, legume grains are 

considered to be a good substitute for animal protein in the diets of the poorer sections of 

the population; however, improved production and transport facilities have made red and 

white meats available to a large part of the populus, and legumes are now increasingly used 

as supplementary protein sources, both as dry seed in the case of lentils and chick-peas, 

and as dry and green seed in the case of broad beans. A canning industry is now evolving in 

support of chick-pea and broad bean production and distribution. 

Production Practices 

Food legume production in Jordan is carried out on very traditional lines. The pulses 

are part of an established 3-year rotation with cereals, and seedbed preparation is minimal. 

47

PALESTINE 

10 

SHOBAKO 

--200, 

. .f 

!4&:? j?D 

500 -., 

'.. 

AJLUN,4O0, 

o 

w- 

'A SALT 

KARAK 

0 

A A. 

"300 

', 

500' 9AM,AN 

A;... 

..,. 

'400" 

"300--' 

200.-' 

48 

100 

SYRIA 

50 

LENT ILS 

ACHICK-PEAS 

DRY BEANS 

IFRESH BEANS 

OPEN CDDES 100 HA 

CLOSED CODES = 500 HA 

Fig. I. Distribution of grain legumes in Jordan with reference to mean annual precipitation. 

Lentils are broadcast by hand at a rate of about 100-120 kg/ha in the period mid-December 

to mid-January and covered by a shallow plough. Chick-peas and broad beans are also 

hand-seeded, but into a furrow opened with a local plough, the seed rates being 80-100 

kg/ha and 60-80 kg/ha respectively. Rhizobial inoculation is not practiced and no 

fertilizers are applied to the crops. Harvesting in May/June is predominantly by hand, and 

the crop is left out in the field to dry before being threshed from the haulm by animal-drawn 

threshing boards or local threshers. 

The problems of food legume production, which cause severe limitations on the more 

widespread cultivation and increased production of these crops, stem from the fact that all

TABLE I. Area (ha), production (metric tonnes), and average yield (kg/ha) of the major legume crops in Jordan in the period 1973-77. 

Broad beansa 

Lentils Chick-peas Area Prod. Yield 

Year Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield D F D F D F 

1973 18250 4490 246 3964 2579 651 679 896 370 7205 545 7253 

1974 21802 21596 991 5662 3792 1023 1135 848 1290 7519 1488 9640 

1975 22229 10476 471 3341 928 129 812 1337 240 16516 296 10025 

1976 25016 10873 435 1892 778 42 793 987 482 7149 608 7243 

1977 16179 7377 456 3216 1545 258 - - - - - - 

D = dry seed; F = fresh beans. 

Figures for 1977 broad bean area, production, and yield were not available at time of writing.

the production processes are carried out in the iiaditional ways. Improved technologies 

related to high-yielding and stable cultivars, cultural practices, and mechanization have not 

been applied to the pulse crops as yet. With the cost of labour rapidly becoming an 

inhibiting factor to legume production, the evolution of such technologies and their 

application to the real situation is now becoming a matter of urgency if the present level of 

production is to be maintained or increased in the future. 


Research on food legumes is carried out mainly by the Ministry of Agriculture, at their 

experimental stations, and the University of Jordan's Faculty of Agriculture. A recent 

survey and collection of local germ plasm together with material provided by ICARDA has 

enabled a selection program aimed at identifying genotypes with improved yielding 

abilities under the local environment conditions to be initiated. Alongside this, 

investigations into crop agronomy, cultural practices, and improved production techniques 

(viz, mechanization) are also currently under way. Priorities should be given to the 

expansion of research activities and the establishment of a firm base to seed multiplication 

and distribution in the country so that the popularity of grain legumes can be increased to 

take advantage of the favourable market conditions that exist for pulse products at the 

present time. 

50

Food Legume Production and Improvement in Iran 

M. C. Amirshahi 

College of Agriculture University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran 

The total land area of Iran is about 1.6 million km2, of which only 17.48 million ha are 

under cultivation. Because a large amount of land is left fallow every year, the annual 

cropped area is only approximately 11.288 million ha and the area devoted to the 

production of food legumes is about 423 000 ha per year, or 3.7% of the cropped area. 

Due to its geographic location, the country experiences a very wide range of climatic 

conditions, ranging from very cold and arid in the northern mountainous areas to hot, 

tropical and subtropical climes around the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea in the south. 

From an agroecological standpoint, Iran can be divided into a number of characteristic 

zones (Fig. 1): 

(I) the Caspian Sea area, in the north, which has a very high annual rainfall, varying 

from 700 to 1200 mm; broad beans and dry beans are the main legume crops 

produced; 

the mountainous regions of the northwest and northeast, with high elevations and 

350-500 mm annual precipitation, where the major legume crops are lentils, 

chick-peas, and dry beans; 

the Central and Eastern Plateau, stretching from the mountain ranges to the desert 

areas. The precipitation varies from 250 mm in the vicinity of the mountains down 

to less than 100 mm near the deserts. Chick-peas, lentils, cowpeas, dry beans, and 

mungbeans are the main legume crops; 

the southwestern plains of Khouzistan, which have a very hot and humid summer 

climate and an annual rainfall of about 200 mm and where broad beans, dry beans, 

cowpeas, and mungbeans predominate among the legumes; 

the south and southeast of the country, where precipitation is very low and the 

climate is hot and dry in the summer period. The most important food legume 

crops are mungbeans, dry beans, and broad beans. 

Of the total pulse production area, approximately 69.5% is rainfed and 30.5% 

irrigated. The area, production, and yield of the main legume crops are given in Table 1. 

The very low average yields of pulse crops in Iran reflect the wide range of conditions 

under which they are grown and the difficulty of obtaining and recommending varieties and 

agronomic practices to fit these very varied ecological niches. 

Utilization and Production 

Grain legumes provide a very useful source of protein to the diets of the population of 

Iran and are used mainly as dry seeds, with the exception of broad beans and dry beans, 

which are also consumed as green seed. In addition, the by-products of seed production, 

the pods and plant haulms, provide a very valuable animal fodder. 

Chick-peas and lentils, the two most important pulse crops in the country, are 

predominantly grown in the mountainous regions under rainfed conditions where they are 

rotated with a cereal crop (wheat, barley, or rye) and a fallow period. The crops are 

normally sown from March to late April and the harvesting season extends from mid-July 

to mid-August. 

51

J 

\. 

A 

A 

A 

CHICKPEA 

r LENTIL 

( \ .,..- 

A 

I 

TABRIZ 

REZAIYEH. a RASHI 

HAMADAN 

® 

- 

A 

.-,'-.---. \.. 

N 

-- 'N 

/ 

BROAD BEAN 

TEH(RAN__ ., 'N, [ MASHHAD 

, 

\ \ ( 

ESFAHAN \ 

ARADAN \ \ 

N' 

SHIRAZ \ 

"I) 

\\ L 

\\ 

\ \ 

I) / 

- RANDAR ARBAS 

Fig. 1. Agroecological divisions and some pu/se-growing areas of Iran. A, Caspian Sea area; B, 

mountain region; C, Central and Eastern Plateau, D, Khouzistan Plains; E, dry south and southeast.. 

TABLE 1. Estimated area ('000 ha), production ('000 metric tonnes), and average yield (kg/ha) of 

legume crops in Iran, 

Crop 

Chick-peas 

Beans (mcI. 

cowpeas) 

Lentils 

Mungbeans 

Broad beans 

Area 

Rainfed Irrigated Total 

Production 

' 

$1 

L 

Avg 

Yield 

236 57 293 149 508 

3 36 39 48 1231 

45 2.5 47.5 22 483 

- 25 25 12.5 500 

9.9 8.6 18.5 23.2 1250 

52

Dry beans, cowpeas, and broad beans are grown 

throughout the country, and with the 

exception of production in the Caspian region, are cultivated under irrigation. The high 

rainfall of the Caspian region enables these crops to be produced without supplementary 

watering. In this area they are grown in rotation with rice and are planted between late 

March and mid-May, depending on climatic conditions. In the Central Plateau areas and 

the south and southwestern parts of Iran, where production involves irrigation, the planting 

seasons are late April to late June and late December to early February respectively. 

Harvesting of green pods commences 

2hI23 months after planting and of dry seed 11/2 

months after this, the season being very extended as a result of the wide range of planting 

dates. 

Mungbeans are grown in very small plots and often follow cereal crops in a rotation. 

Planting starts from early June in the Central Plateau to mid-July in the Khouzistan plains, 

and the harvesting season extends from late September to late October. 

Diseases 

The two diseases of major importance to chick-pea production in Iran are chick-pea 

blight caused by Ascochyta rabiei and root rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani and possibly 

also Fusariutn and Pythium species. Both these diseases cause severe yield losses in the 

main chick-pea producing areas. Fungicides such as Captan, Dyrene, Benlate, and Zineb 

have been found to give good control of blight, and seed treatment with Thiabendazole or 

Benlate is effective in reducing root rot infections. 

Root rot is also a major problem in dry (Phaseolus) beans, where, together with bean 

common mosaic virus (BCMV), it causes considerable damage to the crop. Fortunately 

bean varieties with varying degrees of resistance to these diseases have been found and are 

at present being used in the production of resistant cultivars as a control measure. 

Viruses are also the main disease-causing organisms in cowpeas (common aphidtransferred 

mosaic virus (CAMY)), broad beans (bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV)), and 

mungbeans (BCMV and BYMV). Viral diseases are very damaging and cause considerable 

yield reduction. They are especially important in the broad bean crop. Although some 

resistance to CAMV has been found in cowpeas and is being used in the production of 

hybrid varieties, no resistance to BYMV has yet been discovered in broad bean lines. 

Pests 

Aphids, which include the green aphid (Acyrthosiphon sesbaniae), the broad bean 

aphid (Aphisfahae), and the chick-pea aphid (Therioaphis trifolii), are very damaging to 

all the pulse crops, both as a result of their infestation and due to their virus transmission 

abilities. Army worms (Laphgma exigua) are also a major pest of all the legumes. 

Chick-peas are specifically affected by pod borers (Heliothis armigera and H. 

dipsaceae) and the seed corn maggot (Hylemia cilicrura), which may cause considerable 

crop losses under favourable conditions. 

Other important field pests include the chick-pea fly (Liriomyza congesta) and thrips 

(Thrips inpurus) on lentils; leafhopper 

EmpoascaJabae), striped beetle .4griotis sp.) and 

spider mite (Tetranchus bimaculatus) on beans; and bean butterfly (Lycaena haeticae) on 

cowpeaS. 

Cowpea beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus) and lentil beetle Wruchus lens) are 

important pulse storage pests and can result in considerable losses in seed quality as well as 

quantity. 

Each of these pests has been studied in detail and appropriate control measures 

developed through pesticides, cultural practices, and, in some cases, particularly in 

cowpea storage pests, through the evolution of resistant varieties. 


With the cooperation of the Ministry of Agriculture the Planning Organization, 

USDA, and the University of Tehran, the Pulse Improvement Project was established at the 

53

Karaj College of Agriculture in 1965. The main objective of this project is to produce 

high-yielding, good quality, disease-resistant varieties together with improved practices 

for their production. Since its inception, the project has built up a germ-plasm collection of 

over 12 000 lines of the major pulse crops in Iran and has produced and released over 17 

improved varieties of chick-pea, lentil, cowpea, dry bean, and mungbean for production 

throughout the country. Varietal development has been geared mainly to cultivation under 

irrigation and it is estimated that 20 000 ha of land are now annually sown to these 

varieties, which yield two or three times the level of the traditionally grown types. 

Experiments and tests are carried out at Karaj, in the experimental stations of the 

Ministry of Agriculture throughout the country, and at various other Agricultural Colleges, 

to ensure that the investigations are appropriate to the wide range of climatic conditions 

that exist within Iran. In this way, agronomic research, in support of varietal development, 

to determine crop water requirements, fertilizer needs, optimum planting dates, and 

planting densities and other cultural practices and requirements is being carried out across 

the country. Such work aims to promote the production and spread of the pulse crops, 

which play such an important role in the nutrition of such a large part of the population of 

Iran. 

54

Food Legumes in Iraq 

Mahmoud A. Mayouf 

Ministry of Agriulture, Bugdud, Iraq 

The Iraqi climate is continental and arid, with temperatures reaching 47 °C in summer 

and dropping to 1 °C in winter. The annual rainfall, which is concentrated between the 

months of October and May, ranges from 50 to 1200mm across the country. On this basis 

and from its overall agroecology, Iraq can be divided into three main zones: 

the mountain region, where the annual rainfall of 600-1200 mm falls mainly as 

snow and where temperatures are extreme; the soils are brown and chestnut 

lithasols and are subject to considerable erosion; food legumes are, in general, not 

grown in this region; 

the dryland farming region, in which rainfall varies between 250 and 500 mm and 

temperatures are less extreme; in the upper plains, the soil lacks organic matter, 

hut in the steppe areas it is deep and fertile and well suited to the rainfed 

cultivation of chick-peas, lentils, and broad beans; 

the central and southern region, which includes a large part of the Tigris and 

Euphrates Valley, with rainfall averaging only 50-150mm per annum; the soil is 

mainly silty clay loam to clay loam with a high pH, and legumes such as broad 

beans, peas, blackeye beans, and green gram are grown under predominantly 

irrigated conditions. 

The area production and yield of the food legume crops vary between regions (Table 

I). 


Food legumes are predominantly utilized for human consumption in Iraq, and are 

eaten as green pods (broad bean, cowpea, and Phaseolus bean), green seed (broad bean and 

pea), and dry seed (chick-pea, lentil, broad bean, cowpea, and green gram). In addition, 

some crops, such as green gram, are used for pasture and as a green manure, and crop 

residues from grain production provide a valuable fodder for livestock. 

All pulses are produced for the domestic market and there is no exportation of these 

commodities. Prices are unstable and vary over time as a result of variations in supply and 

demand. However, the prices paid to producers are fixed by the government each year and 

this lends some stability to the market. Prices (in Iraqi dinars/tonne (I Iraqi dinar = ca. 

U.S. $0035)) for 1978 are as follows: 

Broad beans Green pods 80 

Dry seed 

150 

Cowpeas Dry seed 250 

Lentils Dry seed 150 

Chick-peas Dry seed 140 

Green gram Dry seed 160 

55

TABLE 1. Area (ha), production (metric tonnes). and average yield (kg/ha) of the major pulse crops in Iraq. 1973-77. 

Broad bean Lentil Chick-pea Cowpea Green gram 

Area Prod. Yield' Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield 

P R I R I R R R R R R R I I I I I I 

1973 32710 8935 103521 18779 880 760 4271 2425 568 8291 4515 544 9703 35000 804 9495 7216 760 

(5200) (5200) 

1974 28650 8750 126946 20200 1040 920 3983 2573 648 9555 5296 556 8341 26770 870 13958 9216 660 

(4800) (3600) (4404) 

1975 34521 8400 126946 20200 1000 800 5140 4819 936 11411 7494 656 6341 26798 1016 13071 6887 528 

(6000) (4000) 

1976 26575 8500 72801 24267 1000 880 5654 5204 920 13675 7180 525 6565 28160 858 11331 7643 680 

(6000) (4520) 

(4200) 

1977 33800 7512 154810 24931 1120 920 6335 5919 928 15000 9165 8727 38911 4760 8000 5422 676 

(6400) (4000) 

a I = irrigation; R = rainfed. 

Unbracketed = dry seed yieId bracketed = green pod yield.


The production of pulses in Iraq relies mainly on the traditional techniques of 

cultivation. Chick-peas and lentils are grown in rotation with cereals in the northern 

dryland farming areas of the country, while government farms are developing different 

rotations under irrigated conditions for broad beans and green gram. All tillage involves 

traditional implements and the seed is broadcast in the case of chick-peas, lentils, and 

green gram, or hand planted in furrows in the case of broad beans, cowpeas, and peas. 

Broad beans and lentils are winter sown, generally being planted in November at seed rates 

of 120 kg/ha and 60-80 kg/ha respectively, whereas chick-peas, cowpeas, and green gram 

are summer crops sown from March, in the case of chick-peas, through to July. Chick-peas 

are sown at 60-80 kg/ha and cowpeas and green gram at 30 kg/ha. Only local unimproved 

varieties of all these crops are used. Although fertilizers are not normally applied by the 

farming community, government farms usually add about 200 kg/ha of ammonium sulfate 

and 100 kg/ha of superphosphate to their crops. 

Pests and Diseases 

The diseases of pulse crops of major importance in Iraq include rust (Uromyces 

phaseoli), leaf blotch (Alternaria sp.), and wilt (Fusarium sp.). Considerable yield losses 

can result from infections of these pathogens, and control measures in use and being 

developed involve an integration of resistant varieties with chemical and cultural methods. 

Black bean aphid (Aphisfabae) is the single-most important insect pest affecting grain 

legumes throughout the country, causing damage from viral transmission as well as from 

its own infestation of the plants. Control is achieved through the use of Malathion and 

Fapoma sprays. 

Despite favourable soil and climatic conditions, the production of grain legumes in 

Iraq is beset by several major problems that at present prevent any real expansion. These 

problems are based around the lack of improved varieties with higher yields, pest and 

disease resistance, and adaptation to the Iraqi environment, and the untimely and costly 

traditional production practices involving a high labour input. The high and increasing cost 

of manual labour and its scarcity at peak times are making the problems considerably more 

acute and are currently emphasizing the necessity for substantially expanded research 

efforts aimed at introducing new varieties and production technologies suited to the 

conditions of the country. 


In appreciation of this need, a Legume and Forage Division has recently been added to 

the Field Crops Section of the Department of Research. This division is involved with the 

development of new varieties from selections made from local and introduced legume 

material and the evolution of agronomic practices suited to their widespread production. 

Specifically the work to date has involved screening nurseries received from FAO, the 

regional centre for legumes in Tehran, and other research institutes in the region; 

conducting yield trials on the promising lines identified in these nurseries; and 

establishing, through experimentation, optimum dates of planting, plant populations, and 

rates of fertilization. Although no breeding work has yet been undertaken, it is hoped to 

initiate several crossing programs in the near future. 

With both weather and soil being well suited to the large-scale production of a wide 

variety of legume crops, the provision of improved varieties and appropriate mechanization 

for the main operations of sowing, weeding, harvesting, and threshing will enable the 

cultivation of grain legumes in Iraq to expand considerably. For this reason the legume and 

forage research program is looking toward expanding its activities through increased 

cooperation with research institutes throughout the region to provide technical training for 

its personnel and to interact with specialists from all over the region who are working with 

and toward solving the same critical problems. 

57

Food Legume Research and Development 

in the Sudan 

Farouk A. Salih 

Hudeiba Research Station, Plant Breeding Section, P.O. Box 31, Ed-Darner, Sudan 

The Sudan, with the exception of the Red Sea hills, lies within the region of summer 

rainfall. The rains last for up to 9 months in the far south of the country where the total 

annual rainfall may reach 1500 mm, but the length of the season shortens and distribution 

becomes more erratic as one moves northward, precipitation being practically zero in the 

northern-most parts. Temperature conditions are correspondingly more extreme in the 

north, which may remain relatively cold for 3-4 months of the year. The cool winters and 

their long duration in these parts of the country (the Northern and Nile provinces, Fig. 1), 

coupled with the availability of irrigation water from the river Nile, permit the production 

of winter crops, which include broad beans, haricot beans, chick-peas, lentils, lupins, field 

peas, and berseem. Of these crops, broad bean (Vicia faba L.) is the most important, 

occupying 60% of the pulse acreage, followed by haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), 

chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), and lentil (Lens culinaris) (see Table I). 

Broad Bean (Viciafaba L.) 

Broad bean is grown as an irrigated crop in Northern Sudan and its cultivation is 

limited to the zone between latitudes l3°N and 22°N, primarily around the cities of 

Dongola, Berber, and Shendi (Fig. 1). An estimated area of 30 000 feddans (I feddan = 

0.42 ha) is cropped annually but yields vary greatly between years depending on climatic 

conditions. 

Agronomic Aspects 

The recommended sowing time is between mid-October and early November. 

Planting earlier than this causes considerable losses due to infections of wilt and root rot 

diseases soon after planting, the prevalence of which increases with temperature. 

Late-sown crops also suffer and those sown in December may give no yield at all due to 

high spring temperatures coinciding with flowering and causing a large amount of flower 

shedding. Many experiments have been conducted at the Hudeiba Research Station to 

investigate the effect of seed rate and spacing on broad bean yield. Results of these studies 

have shown that very large variations in plant population have little effect on grain yield 

due to the compensatory nature of its components. Large-seeded varieties (e.g., Rebaya 

34) have been found to emerge earlier and produce larger plants than small-seeded types 

such as Baladi; however, this phenomenon has not been effectively translated into 

appreciably superior seed yield due to the relatively faster growth rates of the small-seeded 

varieties. 

Considerable experimentation has yielded conflicting information on the effect of 

fertilization on broad bean seed yield: responses to fertilizer application rtnge from zero to 

23% increases in different investigations. The inconclusiveness of these studies has led to 

increased interest in rhizobial inoculation as a means of increasing seed yield. Inoculation 

with a Sudanese strain of Rhizobiurn has produced increases of 18% in the early nodulation 

58

OAR FUR 

oBROAD BEANS 

DDRY BEANS 

LCH IC K-P E A S 

NORTHERN 

I 

BAHR EL GHAZAL 

00 ES 

KORDO VAN 

".5-. 

EQUATOR/A 

. 

59 

NILE 

r 

0 SERB/B 

OH US/NA STATION 

KHARTOUM KA SALA 

WOOMEOSNI STATION S 

BLUE 

UPPER 

Fig. I. Main legume production areas of Sudan. , 

research stations, main production areas. 

of plants, but the use of a French strain has been found to reduce nodulation. Nitrogen 

application has been shown to reduce nodulation in both strains, affecting the French type 

more than the native Sudanese type. 

The high temperatures prevailing during the growing season have a considerable 

effect on the moisture regime of the plants, producing appreciable water stress at certain 

stages. Research has indicated that the frequency of irrigation is of great importance in 

minimizing this stress. A watering interval of 5 days gives significantly higher seed yields 

than longer intervals, and increasing the interval of watering at pod formation from 7 to 14 

and 21 days has been shown to decrease seed yield by 36 and 76%, respectively. This 

appreciable effect may be due to the fact that water infiltration is slow as a result of soil 

type, and hence evaporation may be considerable. 

JUBA

TABLE 1. Total area (in '000 feddansa) and total production (in '000 metric tonnes) of broad bean, 

haricot bean, and chick-pea in the Sudan from 1967 to 1977. 

Broad bean Haricot bean Chick-pea 

Crop year Area Prod. Area Prod. Area Prod. 

1967-68 22.9 13.0 9.5 3.8 8.7 1.9 

1968-69 22.6 11.3 7.5 2.5 3.5 1.6 

1969-70 22.7 15.6 7.8 4.0 4.4 0.8 

1970-71 27.2 18.8 8.4 4.2 4.8 4.9 

1971-72 43.7 38.! 7.9 4.9 4.8 2.0 

1972-73 27.8 17.3 6.3 4.0 - - 

1973-74 35.0 20.6 8.0 4.4 3.0 0.9 

1974-75 38.0 29.0 11.8 12.0 3.6 1.4 

1975-76 35.9 30.7 11.6 9.3 6.5 2.6 

1976-77 33.4 24.6 9.0 6.3 - - 

a i feddan = 4200 m2 = 0.420 ha = 1.0379 acres. 

TABLE 2. Effect on seed yield and yield components of harvesting broad beans at different stages of 

maturity, in the Sudan. 

Age of plant 

at harvest 

(days) 

a T.S.W. = thousand seed weight. 

Some farmers in the north of the Sudan harvest their broad bean crop after only 80 

days, with the aim of getting high prices at the time of lowest supply. However, it has been 

found that the difference in price obtained will not compensate for the yield reduction due 

to early harvesting. Investigations have indicated that the highest seed yield can be 

obtained by harvesting at 110 and 120 days after planting, but this of course will vary with 

the environmental conditions of the season (Table 2). 

Infestations of weeds also result in substantial yield reductions in broad beans. 

Weeding has been traditionally carried out by hand, but because of the increasing cost of 

labour there is now an urgent need to investigate alternative control measures. 

Varietal Improvement 

Seed yield 

tkg/f eddan) 

1976 1977 

Selection 

Broad bean breeding work was initiated in 196 1-62, with selections from Rebaya 40 

and Baladi varieties, to identify tolerance to powdery mildew combined with earliness and 

a high yield potential. Selection and testing in 1963, 1964, and 1965 led to the release of 

the variety Baladi in the 1967-68 season. 

Single plant selections for high pod number were made from Baladi and Rebaya 40 in 

1962-63. Continuous selection and yield testing led to the identification of the strain BF 

2/2, which showed a 47.7% increase in yield over the Baladi parent. The variety was 

released for commercial production in the 1969-70 season. 

Further yield tests over a range of locations in northern Sudan have produced the strain 

60 

Yield components (1977) 

T.S.W.a 

(g) Pods/plant Seed/pod 

80 - 492 262 18.3 2.5 

90 245 604 271 19.8 2.1 

100 578 934 355 21.2 2.5 

110 918 993 398 19.0 2.6 

120 902 904 389 21.5 2.6 

130 753 - 

140 683 -

Rebaya 29, which outyielded BF 2/2 as well as being stable over the range of 

environments. Rebaya 29 was released in the 1973-74 season. 

In the 1972-73 season, a large-scale cooperative program between the Agricultural 

Research Corporation and ALAD provided the breeding efforts with thousands of varieties 

and segregating populations. Most of these were either susceptible to powdery mildew or 

mosaic virus, or flowered too late to give reasonable yields, but 53 promising lines were 

screened and adapted from this collection. Of these, a number of lines were found to 

outyield BF 2/2 and Hudeiba 72 by between 35 and 52% in trials during the 1975-76 

season. Further yield testing has narrowed this down to 13 lines, which are entered in plot 

variety trials this season. 

Varietal Crosses 

Crosses were made with the aim of combining good agronomic characters, such as 

high pod set percentage, high pod number per plant, good seed size, and tolerance or 

resistance to powdery mildew, from different parents into selected genotypes. 

Single crosses involving 10 varieties were made in the 1969-70 season and selections 

made in the F2, F3, and F5 generations. Pilot yield trials have shown that the yields of all 

selections were greater than, or equal to, the controls used. Further yield trials are now 

under way on this material. In addition, the most promising crosses have also been crossed 

with Hudeiba 72 and some promising F2 material has been obtained. Breeding work has 

also involved the crossing of five varieties in a 5 x 5 dialled cross, and the subsequent 

growing out of all seed in isolation, while encouraging intermating and crossing in an 

attempt to break linked characters. The highest yielding 10 selections from this program 

have been included in further yield assessment trials. 

Specific Programs 

Correlation studies have shown broad bean yield to be highly dependent on the 

number of pods per plant or per unit area. As a result, selections for high numbers of pods 

per plant have been made from all varietal crosses, screening nurseries, and irradiated 

material. Selection for autofertility is currently being carried out in these lines. 

Breeding for resistance or tolerance to powdery mildew is considered to be of major 

importance in view of the damage caused by this disease. Selection for tolerance was made 

in local selections from Baladi and Rebaya 40 in 1962-63, from the varietal crosses made 

in 1970-71, from the three-way crosses made in 1975-76, from the new set of single 

crosses made between ALAD introductions and promising local varieties, and from X-ray 

irradiated material of three local types. In addition, sources of resistance were introduced 

from Germany and Russia and have been included in a backcross program. Although 

results of all these selections and testings are not yet available, as a consequence of the 

relative failure of disease development in the country over the past 2 years, progress looks 

promising. 

Haricot Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 

The haricot bean, or dry bean, is one of the main cash crops of farmers in the Northern 

Province of Sudan, especially in the area around Shendi and Berber, which grows over 

97% of the small dry white bean acreage of this province and where yields are of the order 

of 0.6 tons/feddan. 


The optimum sowing date for dry beans is during the last 2 weeks of October, and 

early sowing will again result in yield reduction, this time from plant injury due to sodium 

toxicity. It has been shown that seed yield is highly positively correlated with decreasing 

plant spacings, a spacing of 60 x 20 cm giving the highest yield. Investigations on 

fertilization have revealed that applications of nitrogen at sowing give significantly 

increased yields, but that phosphate fertilizers have little or no effect. Nodulation was 

61

appreciably improved and the nitrogen content of plants increased by inoculation with a 

local strain of Rhizobium. Short watering intervals of about 7 days result in substantially 

higher yields than either 14- or 21-day intervals, and this appears to be due to both a 

reduction of soil temperature and to the fact that sodium ions are kept at low 

concentrations, thus preventing damage to the crop, which is widespread when 

concentrations build up. 


Selection work was initiated at Hudeiba in the 1962-63 season in an endeavour to 

discover a more suitable variety than the long-established white and medium Baladi type. 

Work also commenced on breeding for tolerance to a blastlike disorder observed during the 

active pod-filling phase of plant growth. Few selections matched the performance of the 

Baladi variety and it became clear that improvements in yield and seed quality could be 

best achieved in this crop by selection from the standard Baladi type. The strain R0/2/l, 

developed from selections from the original Baladi parent, was found to consistently 

outyield Baladi in trials in the 1966-67 and 1967-68 seasons, and in 1969 it was released 

to farmers. Since then it has remained the standard variety of dry bean in the Northern 

Province. In 1969-70, breeding work was initiated to develop resistance and tolerance to 

curly top virus disease, which is transmitted by the white fly and can cause serious yield 

losses. Single plant selections with desirable characters for resistance to this disease were 

made from Baladi, R0/2/l, and some introduced varieties. Slow progress is being made in 

this work. To select for plants tolerant to the blastlike disorder, which has been discovered 

to be mainly due to sodium toxicity, the whole collection of breeding material was 

subjected to a variety of sowing dates and hence to a variety of exposures to sodium 

toxicity. This procedure will continue for a number of years and hopefully produce some 

degree of tolerance. 

Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum L.) 

The cultivation of chick-pea in Sudan is confined to the northern provinces, where 

about 12 000 feddans are grown annually and where yields are generally very low due to 

the insufficiency of basic agronomic information in the farming community. 


Sowing date trials have shown that all plants sown in September and early October 

died within 1 month of sowing. The highest yields appear to be obtained from mid- to late 

November plantings, and sowing 2 weeks earlier or later than this optimum time results in 

considerable yield reductions. The density of planting also has an appreciable effect on 

seed yield, and planting on both sides of a 70-cm ridge with an interplant spacing of 5 cm 

has been shown to give the highest yields. The optimum recommended between- and 

within-row spacings for production under irrigation are 60 cm and 5 cm with one plant per 

hole (or 10 cm with two plants per hole). Application of 36 kg N/feddan at sowing 

increased yield significantly, and splitting this dressing between sowing and flowering 

gave even greater yield benefits. However, no response has been reported to either 

phosphate or potash fertilization. The high response to nitrogen application suggests that 

the soils have a low N status and/or rhizobial activity is poor. Inspection of plant roots 

revealed no nodulation and this has led to the introduction of two rhizobial strains from 

ICRISAT, which, although final results are not yet available, have produced very good 

nodulation in trials so far. Investigations into watering intervals have shown no differences 

in seed yield between 7-day and 21-day irrigation cycles, demonstrating that chick-pea has 

a reasonable level of drought tolerance. 


Chick-pea breeding work began in the 1972-73 season in cooperation with ICRISAT 

and ALAD, who supplied a large number of germ-plasm entries, segregating populations, 

62

disease-screening nurseries, and yield trials. The main aim of this effort is to produce 

varieties that combine a superior yielding ability with adaptation to a wide range of sowing 

dates, tolerance to sodium toxicity, and resistance or tolerance to diseases, especially wilt 

and stunt virus. At the same time the work emphasizes the evolution of varieties that can be 

fitted into improved croppiiig patterns. 

Of the material collected from both within and outside the country, about 100 white 

seeded varieties were selected and grown in a large pilot trial iii 1976-77. Twelve entries, 

outyielding the local variety Baladi by about 20%, have been entered into a standard 

variety trial this season and the results are being awaited. 

Lentil (Lens culinaris) 

In response to the high prevailing prices, small areas (not exceeding 200 feddans) of 

lentils are grown annually in the Dongola and HaIfa vicinity, but crop failure is very 

frequent, as the climate tends to be too hot. Lack of suitable high-yielding, heat-tolerant 

genotypes and appropriate agronomic practices prevent the better performance of lentils in 

this area. However, lentil is the second-most important grain legume foodstuff in Sudan, 

and as a result every year the government has to import about U.S. $1 million worth of 

lentils to fill the gap between domestic production and consumption. To boost production 

and thereby replace imports, an improvement project was started at the Hudeiba Research 

Station in 1972. 


In general the optimum sowing date for lentils is well defined in the last week of 

November, deviations resulting in dramatic yield reductions. However, highly significant 

interactions have been found between sowing date and soil type as affecting seed yield, the 

highest yields being obtained from plantings around early to mid-November on the lighter 

soils, and in mid- to late November for the heavier types (Table 3). Although yield 

increases with seed rate up to 100 kg/feddan. diminishing returns from the higher rates 

make the optimum rate around 60 kg/feddan. Drought stress is a very important 

consideration in lentil production in the Sudan, and investigations have shown that 

increasing the watering interval from the optimum of 7 days produced appreciable yield 

reductions. Neither nitrogen, phosphate, nor potash applications had any effect on seed 

yield, and studies have shown that this is probably due to the excessively high levels of soil 

salinity under which the crops are grown. Soil salinity and sodicity (excess salt in the soil 

ion-exchange complex) are major problems of crop production in northern Sudan. Lentils 

may be particularly badly affected by these conditions and studies are currently under way 

to investigate the levels and mechanisms of salt tolerance within the crop. 

TABLE 3. Effect of sowing dates and different soil types on seed yield (kg/feddan) of lentils 

in the Sudan.a 

Sowing date 

a Source: Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

63 

Soil type 

Sandy clay lean Lean clay Heavy clay 

8 Oct. 4.6 5,9 13.4 

22 Oct. 466.8 134.8 42.4 

5 Nov. 671.0 671.0 353.4 

19 Nov. 650.8 702.1 640.8 

3Dec. 331.9 81.1 308.8 

170cc, 163.4 31.1 91.2 

360cc. 18.1 0.8 2,1 

l4ian. 1.3 0 0


Breeding activities in lentils were initiated in 1973 at the Hudeiba Station. Since then 

they have mainly focused on the screening of both domestic and imported genetic stocks, 

on the basis of yielding ability and agronomic traits to provide a base for future breeding 

programs. Cooperative programs were established with ALAD in 1973 and latterly with 

ICARDA in 1977 and these supply all the genetic stocks and materials for the breeding 

work. 

The Future Scope for Legume Crops 

For the last 10 years, about 46 000 feddans of land have been devoted to legume 

production in the Northern and Nile provinces of the Sudan. To satisfy the projected 

growth in domestic consumption, and hence demand, for these commodities, considerable 

increases in production must be achieved over the next 10 years. This can be accomplished 

through an expansion in cultivated area to approximately 120 000 feddans or a similarly 

large increase in average yields of the existing area under cultivation. Obviously, any 

reasonable expansion must involve a combination of these two aspects; increasing the 

acreage in the northern provinces and initiating production on an increasing scale in those 

areas such as the White Nile and Kassala provinces, which are not traditional foci of 

legume production, while at the same time developing varieties that will give improved 

yields under the production conditions of the areas in question. 

Special emphasis should be given to crops such as lentils, for import replacement, and 

dry white beans, the production of which has dropped appreciably in recent years as a result 

of marketing problems, as well as the more traditionally important and widely grown broad 

bean. 

With the research programs geared to the evolution of high-yielding varieties with a 

good response to irrigation and other agronomic factors, including population density, 

sowing date, and fertilizer application with rhizobial inoculation, and with the potential for 

expansion as a substitute for cotton in the White Nile provinces schemes, the future for 

legume crops in the Sudan looks bright. Of course there are problems, but the continuing 

expansion in the scope and the emphasis of both the breeding and agronomic components 

of research is reducing these problems to a manageable size. 

64

Food Legume Improvement in Tunisia 

M. Bouslama 

Division technique dc/Office de céréals, 30A/ain Savory, Tunis 

and M. Djerbi 

INAT, 43 avenue Charles Noco/le, Tunis 

Agriculture is considered to be the main source of the national economy of Tunisia. 

Most of the cultivated land is restricted to the north of the country and farming is almost 

entirely under rainfed conditions. In this region, with mild winters and hot summers, the 

annual rainfall varies from 400 to 800 mm. The bulk of this precipitation normally occurs 

in the late fall, winter, and early spring, but its amount, intensity, and distribution 

fluctuates widely between years. This interseasonal variability is a feature of most of the 

climatic factors within the Tunisian environment. Great variations in the total rainfall, the 

onset of the growing season and its duration, the rainfall distribution during the season, the 

occurrence of frost and hail, and the timing of stress periods make predictions based on 

seasonal averages of environmental conditions very misleading and dangerous. Data 

derived and observations made in any one season must thus be considered against this 

background of variability when making predictions concerning the future. 

The soils in northern Tunisia are very variable: black and greybrown rendzinas are 

common, but good deep soils of alluvial origin are also found throughout the region. 

Grain legumes are generally only grown in areas with an annual rainfall greater than 

350 mm and on average occupy 100 000 ha of land, which is 6% of the cereal production 

area. The annual acreage of grain legumes, however, varies considerably (see Table 1), 

being dependent on the amount and distribution of the rainfall over the whole season. 

Average yields of grain legume crops are low, about 800 kg/ha for broad beans, 650 kg/ha 

for lentils, 600 kg/ha for dry peas, and 850 kg/ha for chick-peas (Table I), and could easily 

be doubled or tripled with adequate fertilization and other practices. However, farmers are 

wary of using fertilizers, as previous experience has given very poor returns, probably due 

to the use of varieties with low yield potentials, late maturity, and disease susceptibility. 


Most of the grain legumes are consumed as dry seed by the population, although a 

small amount is also used for animal feed. Although Tunisia exports approximately II 000 

tonnes of broad beans and 4600 tonnes of chick-peas per year, the substantial difference 

between production and domestic consumption of dry beans and peas necessitates the 

annual importation of about 2600 and 1350 tonnes of these crops, respectively. 

Although the average price of grain legumes has increased rapidly over the past 2 

years as a result of lower average yields, the prices paid to farmers remain very unstable 

due to low quality and irregular production. This instability results from factors that 

include the variable climate, the poor varieties, and the losses from disease and pest 

attacks, which cause low and variable yields; and the lack of on-farm storage facilities, 

which means that the farmers must sell their produce soon after harvest in a glutted market 

and at a consequently low price. 

65

Area (ha), production (metric tonnes). and average yield (kg/ha) of dry legumes in Tunisia for the period 1971-77. 

TABLE I 

Broad beans Lentils Dry peas Dry beans Chick-peas 

Year Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield 

1971 37507 22504 600 4567 2284 500 6947 3474 500 - - - 25000 17500 700 

a 1972 30000 18000 600 7000 3000 430 8000 4800 600 - - - 30000 21000 700 

1973 - 37000 - - 4000 - - 5000 - - - - - 19000 - 

1974 53571 43515 812 5085 4248 840 5634 4383 780 - - - 19940 17620 880 

1975 57847 54105 940 3372 3562 1060 5351 4605 860 - - - 20565 18387 900 

1976 61177 66476 1090 628 436 700 5416 4296 790 - - - 19799 19148 970 

1977 58500 24170 423 1400 730 520 7800 2950 380 2200 2180 990 21700 16900 780


Cultivation generally follows a 2- or 3-year rotation scheme, the 2-year system 

involving a legume followed by a cereal, and the 3-year rotation a foragelegume--wheat 

pattern. Both rotations are common throughout the arable areas and give good control over 

weeds in the cereal crops. However, the three-course system is the most economic and 

farmers are increasingly favouring it over the more simple traditional two-course rotation. 

Grain legumes are always grown as rainfed crops. Broad beans are planted from 

mid-October to late November and harvested from late May onward; lentils and peas are 

planted during the period mid-November to late December and harvested in mid- to late 

June; and chick-peas and dry beans have the shortest growing season from planting in early 

March to mid-April to harvesting from the end of July. Production practices are 

mechanized in some regions of the country, but in many areas sowing, weed control, and 

harvesting are all carried out by hand. Although still well below the optimum, fertilizer use 

on legumes in Tunisia has been steadily increasing in recent years. Currently, phosphate is 

the only fertilizer routinely applied (at between 130 and 180 kg/ha), as the soils do not lack 

potash, and nitrogen is not normally required by legume crops especially under conditions 

of reasonable soil fertility. Together with moisture stress, weeds are perhaps the most 

important constraint to pulse production in Tunisia, and the elimination of these 

competitors will do much to increase yields and hence total production in the country. 

Herbicides have been used for weed control for several years, but usage has been confined 

to only 10% of the legume area, while over 50% is still hand weeded. At present, Treflan is 

used to control grass weeds, and other compounds such as Gesatop 50 for dicotyledons, but 

much work still needs to be done on the phytotoxicity of such chemicals to the current or 

succeeding crops in the rotation, to prevent adverse effects from their more widespread 

usage. 

Insects 

The two most important insect pests are the larvae of Hypera crinita (leaf weevils), 

which are very common in broad beans, and aphids, which affect all the pulse crops to a 

varying degree depending upon climatic conditions during the growing season, higher 

temperatures tending to result in earlier and heavier infestations and hence more crop 

damage. At present, control of Hypera is achieved through spraying with Phosaline 

(Azophene), and of aphids by Primor and Dimethoate. 

Diseases 

The main disease problems on legume crops include chocolate spot (Botrytis sp.), blight 

(Ascochyta sp.), wilt (Fusarium sp.), and rust (Uromyces sp.). Crop losses vary with climatic 

conditions and may be considerable in some seasons. Benomyl (Benlate) is currently used to 

control infections of Botrvtis, whereas the other diseases are usually minimized through the 

modification of cultural techniques. 

Other Pests 

Orobanche, the parasitic broomrape, can be a problem in some areas and, although there 

are no sharply defined control measures, infestations may be minimized by cultural and 

rotational techniques. 

Most grain legume varieties grown in Tunisia are local cultivars traditionally adapted to 

survive the unfavourable growing conditions characteristic of rainfed culture in thedry lands. 

However, these varieties have low yield potentials and very little resistance to pests and 

diseases and, as a result, regularly produce low and very variable yields. The identification 

and introduction of improved grain legume varieties with disease and pest resistance and 

adaptability, combined with high yield potential, stability, and adequate grain quality are thus 

essential prerequisites to the expansion of legume production in Tunisia. Lack of sufficient 

mechanization in these crops is a further problem, and considerable work remains to be done 

in this field to popularize the pulse crops with the farming community. 

67


Legume research and extension work is mainly carried out by the Technical Division of 

the Office of Cereals (ex-Wheat Project) in cooperation with the National Agronomic 

Institute of Tunisia (INAT) and the National Agronomic Research Institute of Tunisia 

(INRAT). 

Research is predominantly geared to the development and introduction of high-yielding 

varieties and the screening of varieties for disease and lodging resistance, drought tolerance, 

and adequate grain quality; the improvement of local varieties through selection and crossing 

with high-yielding cultivars; and the optimization of cultural practices, including fertilizer 

applications (especially phosphorus), rates and dates of sowing, weed and insect control 

measures, tillage practices, and rotational systems. The varietal testing work involves a 

number of different nurseries of broad beans and chick-peas grown at two locations, namely 

Bourbia, with an annual precipitation of 320-400 mm, and Mateur, where the rainfall is 

between 500 and 600 mm per year. 

Extension work, on the other hand, involves encouraging the farming community to 

adopt improved technologies and practices through information dissemination by the mass 

media; conducting farmer's field demonstrations; organizing meetings and field days to 

illustrate the results of good technical practices; and helping to ensure the availability and 

timely distribution of adequate supplies of seed, fertilizer, and herbicides to the farmers. 

However, both research and extension activities are severely hampered by the scarcity of 

physical resources and trained manpower. As a result, the food legume crops, which are so 

important in terms of their contributions to the protein nutrition of the population and to soil 

fertility, have been seriously neglected in terms of practical research related to varietal and 

cultural improvement. It is becoming increasingly urgent that we focus much more research 

attention and expertise on improving the two major legume crops of specific importance to 

the country, namely broad beans and chick-peas, to allow the expansion of production 

justified by their contributions to both agriculture and nutrition. This can only be done by 

establishing increasing linkages and cooperative activities with other national and 

international research efforts working in the region, especially in the fields of training and 

information exchange, as well as the more widely used facilities of the regional nursery 

program. At the same time, it is vital that increasing linkages be established between the 

research and the extension activities of the national improvement efforts, so that the new 

technologies and practices developed by research, together with cooperating research 

programs, can be translated into the real improvements in production that result from farmers 

actually implementing these innovations in the correct way. 

68

Food Legume Production and Improvement 

in Lebanon 

R. Lahoud, M. Mustafa, and M. Shehadeh 

Agricultural Research Institute, Tel A,nara, Lebanon 

Lebanon, with a total land area of only 10 500 km2, is the smallest country in the 

eastern Mediterranean region. It is characterized by an extreme yariability in environmental 

conditions. The terrain changes, as one moves inland, from flat coastal plains, through 

mountain ranges, to the high altitude Beka'a Valley; the average annual rainfall varies from 

250 mm in the inland areas to 1400 mm in the mountains, which may be under snow for 

3-4 months of the year; and temperatures range from -8 °C in the winter to 36 °C in the 

summer months. 

Due to the reasonably high summer temperatures and long growing period, coupled 

with the availability of irrigation water in the drier regions, the role of food legume crops in 

the agricultural sector of the economy is relatively minor in comparison with other more 

intensive and high-return fruit and vegetable crops. The average annual production of 

legume crops in Lebanon between 1963 and 1973 is shown in Table I. 

The rather low yields of legume crops thrOughout the country reflect the lack of 

importance attached to these crops by the farming community, and possibly also the lesser 

overall importance of agriculture in the national economy. Grain legumes are normally 

grown in a 3-year rotation with cereals and summer vegetables and are almost invariably 

produced using traditional means. Lentils, chick-peas, and broad beans are usually 

broadcast, often into shallow furrows that are then covered with a cultivator and appear 

almost as row-planted crops. Lentils are sown in November and December at a rate of 

about 200 kg/ha, whereas chick-peas and broad beans are both sown at 150 kg/ha, the 

former as a spring crop in March and the latter as a winter crop in November. Planting 

dates vary somewhat with location, and in general are earlier in the lowland coastal plains 

than in the higher elevations of the Beka'a. Fertilizers are seldom applied to the crop. 

Although hand harvesting is still practiced throughout the country, most threshing involves 

the use of cereal threshers. 

The lack of mechanization for planting and harvesting is a major production 

constraint, especially in view of the increasing cost and scarcity of hand labour at these 

times. Diseases, such as Ascochyta blight, Alternaria spot, rust (Uromvces spp.), and 

chocolate spot (Botrytis cinerea), frequently become severe, causing considerable crop 

losses. In addition, lentils are infested with weevils, chick-peas with caterpillars, and 

broad beans are very prone to aphid damage. The lack of improved varieties with resistance 

TABLE 1. Area (ha), production (metric tonnes), and yield (t/ha) of legumecrops m Lebanon, 

1963-73. 

Crop Area Prod. Yield 

Dry beans 908 861 0.9 

Broad beans 572 667 1.2 

Lentils 3067 t232 0.4 

Chick-peas 2769 1866 0.7 

Dry peas 161 142 0,9 

69

or tolerance to these diseases and pests, and the poor general standard of agronomic 

practices used for legume cultivation in lebanon, coupled with the problems resulting from 

its labour intensiveness are making legume production increasingly less economic, 

especially when compared with alternative crops such as cereals, fruits, and vegetables, 

which give more stable yields and higher returns. 

Both the Agricultural Research Institute and the Faculty of Agriculture at the 

American University of Beirut are actively involved in agricultural research, which 

includes work on the legume crops. Studies on nutritional quality, agronomy, nitrogen 

fixation, and breeding and selection are carried out by these institutes and results have been 

published and used both locally and internationally. In recent years research work 

involving food legume crops has been given a considerable boost by assistance provided by 

international organizations such as ALAD (now ICARDA), FAO, and IDRC. The food 

legume component of the ALAD regional project initiated in Lebanon in the early l970s 

has stimulated an increased expansion of research activities, and its continuation and 

elaboration in the recently formed ICARDA is seen as a great advantage for future work in 

this field. Unfortunately, the recent and continuing civil disturbances throughout the 

country are at present making the planning and implementation of research work very 

difficult. 

70

Grain Legume Production in Turkey 

D. Eser 

Department of Plant Growing and Breeding. Faculty of Agriculture, 

Ankara University. Ankara, Turkey 

Turkey forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, and is bounded by sea on three 

sides. It covers 779 452 km2 and can be divided into nine distinct agroecological zones 

(Fig. I). The climate varies considerably across the country; extremes of summer heat and 

winter cold, and a meagre 250-300 mm 

annual rainfall are experienced in the interior areas 

and in East and Southeast Anatolia; and the coastal areas, by virtue of the maritime 

influence, have a milder, less extreme climate with between 550 and 1000 mm of rainfall 

per annum. The soils also exhibit appreciable variation, but are, in general, rich in lime and 

potash and deficient in available phosphate and nitrogen. 

Grain legume crops occupy about 461 000 ha or approximately 2.8% of the total g 

from its labou Lentils are the most widely grown of these crops, followed by chick-peas, 

Phaseolus (dry) beans, broad beans, dry peas, and cowpeas. The changes in area, 

production, and yield of these pulses in Turkey between 1960 and 1976 are illustrated in 

Table 1. Lentils, chick-peas, and dry beans are grown throughout the country, with the 

possible exception of the very mountainous East Anatolian area. The cultivation of dry 

peas and broad beans, however, is confined to the milder coastal regions, and cowpeas are 

grown solely in West Ariatolia. Yields vary between regions depending on environmental 

conditions, but these differences are not significant. 


In Turkey, food legumes are used almost exclusively for human consumption, 

chick-peas and lentils mainly being eaten as the dry seed, and broad beans, peas, Phaseolus 

beans, and cowpeas eaten as green pods, green seeds, or dry seeds., The green seeds of 

A ARA 

NASA 

WESTERN 

INTERMEDIATE 

AEGEAN\ REGION 

REGIONS 

/ 

BLACK SEA 

EAST 

REGION - ANATOLIAN 

REGION 

/MEDITERRA;EAN - NA 

REGION 

Fig. 1. Main agroecological regions of Turkey. 

71 

/ . L 

S 

/ \ 

GINA 

CENTRAL ANATOLIAN 

REGION 

EASTERN 

'INTERMEDIATE / REGION ' - 

N 

-, 

N 

SAIlER 7 

/ ,,,_" 

/ SOUTII_ EAST 

ANATOLIAN 

REGION

Area (ha), production (metric tonnes), and yield (kg/ha) of grain legumes in Turkey, 1960-76. 

TABLE I 

Chick-pea Lentil Dry peas Dry beans Broad beans Cowpeas 

Year Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield Area Prod. Yield 

1960 86500 97000 1121 104000 98000 942 2000 2400 1200 115000 150000 1304 39000 51000 1308 2000 2000 1000 

1965 85000 89000 1047 100000 90000 900 5000 6000 1200 110000 140000 1273 35000 45000 1286 2400 3000 833 

1970 100000 109000 1090 108000 92000 852 3700 4000 1051 99000 138000 1394 29000 39000 1345 2500 2300 920 

1971 110000 133000 1209 105000 101000 962 3000 4200 1400 102000 153000 1500 31000 42000 1355 2250 2050 911 

1972 161902 182964 1130 103209 105400 1021 3160 4538 1436 104511 158465 1516 32735 46736 1428 2150 2100 977 

1973 184092 185271 1006 85044 67204 790 3000 4400 1467 99498 147000 1477 31000 45998 1484 2100 1900 905 

1974 175050 195000 1114 115960 120000 1035 2500 3490 1396 100000 144000 1440 34000 54000 1588 2000 1800 900 

1975 139991 171900 1228 124428 135000 1085 2750 3500 1273 94001 155000 1649 30950 49920 1613 2000 2500 1250 

1976 137960 170003 1232 186000 210040 1129 2900 4000 1379 102001 158375 1553 29994 47500 1584 1949 1850 949

these latter crops are also used in the canned food industry. The by-products of legume seed 

production are used extensively as animal feeds and fetch much higher prices than the 

by-products of cereal crops. 

Turkey annually exports considerable quantities of chick-peas and lentils and smaller 

amounts of Phaseolus beans, broad beans, and cowpeas, but no dry peas. In the past 4 

years the quantities of chick-peas and lentils exported have risen dramatically and these 

crops now make an appreciable contribution to the agricultural foreign earnings of the 

country. 


Lentils and chick-peas are commonly grown in a 2-year rotation with winter cereals, 

especially wheat. The other pulses can be grown in several alternative systems involving 

cereals and industrial crops, such as cotton and sugar beet. 

Lentils can be grown as a winter or summer crop, being sown in November and 

February for harvest in mid-May in the southeast, and in OctoberNovember and 

FebruaryMarch for harvest in MayJune in the central areas. Broad beans and peas, 

predominantly cultivated in the Mediterranean and Aegean coastal regions, are sown as 

winter crops in November for early green seed and as summer crops in FebruaryMarch for 

dry seed production in July. In contrast to the other crops, chick-peas, Phaseolus beans, 

and cowpeas are only produced as spring-sown crops. Chick-peas are sown in an extended 

season from March to May and harvested, depending upon sowing date, between June and 

mid-August. The planting of Phaseolus beans and cowpeas is governed by the occurrence 

of the last frost of the season, and usually takes place at the end of March in south and west 

regions, mid-April in central regions, and later still in the east of the country. Harvesting is 

carried out during the month of August. 

With the exception of lentils, no improved varieties of grain legumes are currently 

being grown by the farming community. However, four winter and two summer varieties 

of lentils stemming from the breeding work at the University of Ankara and the 

Agricultural Research Institute at Eskisehir are now available. More emphasis is placed on 

the winter crop as yields can be 100% greater than with summer production. 

Seedbed preparation is carried out with a heavy plough, duckfoot plough, or sweep 

plough, the latter of which has become increasingly favoured in recent years. The seed is 

usually broadcast, but row sowing is now gaining in importance. Seed rates are calculated 

according to the seed size and the field spacing, which is 15-20cm between rows and 2-3 

cm within rows in the case of lentils, 20-30 cm between rows, and 10-15 cm within rows 

for chick-peas, broad beans, Phaseolus beans, and cowpeas, and 30-40 cm between rows 

for dry peas. None of the seed is inoculated with Rhizobium bacteria before sowing. 

Until recently, fertilization of legume crops was nonexistent, but most pulse crops 

now receive about 40 kg/ha of nitrogen and 60 kg/ha of phosphate at sowing. Besides 

chick-pea and lentil, which are traditionally grown under rainfed conditions, broad beans 

and dry peas are also cultivated without recourse to irrigation in Turkey. This is because 

the coastal areas in which they are predominantly grown receive high rates of rainfall. 

However, Phaseolus beans and cowpeas may receive furrow or flood irrigation in the drier 

areas when conditions dictate. 

All the pulse crops are harvested by hand, although in some areas lentils are now being 

reaped with the aid of a grass cutter. After harvesting they are field dried and then threshed 

on a hard piece of ground before the seed is finally separated from the chaff by winnowing. 

Lentils are also threshed using wheat threshers in some parts of the country. 

Pests and Diseases 

Seed beetles (Bruchus sp.) cause considerable seed losses in all the pulses with the 

exception of chick-peas, where Liriomyza congesta (the chick-pea fly), may be very 

damaging. A large amount of damage is also caused by various soil-living pests, such as 

the army worm (Laphygma exigua) and the cutworms (Agrotis sp.). The control of these 

insects can be achieved through the treatment of the soil with suitable chemicals or seed 

73

treatment with insecticides such as Ceresan. Bruchids are controlled by fumigating the 

threshed seed with phostoksin before storage. 

Both fungal and viral pathogens are fairly widespread in the country, affecting all the 

legume crops. Root rot caused byFusarium oxysporum and Pythium ultirnum has become a 

major problem in all the pulses, especially in chick-peas, where together with Ascochyta 

blight (A. rabiei) it causes the bulk of crop disease losses. 

Weeds are removed manually in one or two operations during the season; herbicides 

are not used for weed control as yet. 

There is currently a great opportunity for considerable increases in the production of 

the major grain legume crops in Turkey, especially in view of the buoyant export market 

for grain legume products. However, at present, expansion is hindered by several major 

yield-limiting factors. These include disease problems, costly and inefficient manual weed 

control and harvesting practices, and high overall production costs, which, together with 

variable yields, make the legume crops poor competitors with the proven profitable crops 

such as wheat. With the elimination of these important constraints, the chances of real 

increases in the production of pulses, especially lentils and chick-peas, are high, as these 

crops can be cultivated on land otherwise kept fallow and hence not affect the production of 

the other major crops. This effect can be illustrated by the 86 000-ha increase in the area 

under lentil cultivation that has taken place over the past 4 years as a result of the 

introduction and use of winter-hardy varieties. 


The Department of Plant Growing and Breeding in the Faculty of Agriculture of the 

University of Ankara has pioneered research on food legume crops. In the past 4 years, 

however, various other agricultural faculties, together with some agricultural research 

institutes supported by the Ministry of Agriculture, have also initiated work on thesecrops. 

The results and improvements generated by this research are extended to the farming 

community through the Ministry of Agriculture. Seeds, fertilizers, and machinery are also 

made available through this channel. 

Research priorities in grain legumes emphasize the evolution of varieties of lentils, 

chick-peas, broad beans, and dry peas that are resistant to cold, drought, diseases, and 

pests, and suitable for mechanization, and that have desirable seed characteristics (white 

and large-seeded chick-peas are preferred by consumers). 

Research to date has virtually ignored broad beans and dry peas in favour of a 

concentration on the more popular lentil and chick-pea crops. Four improved winter 

varieties and two improved summer varieties have already been registered as a result of 

breeding work in lentils, and this and other work on the effect of plant spacing on growth 

and yield characteristics is continuing. Investigations on yield determinants, and the effect 

of plant spacing and sowing dates on crop development, are also underway in the chick-pea 

program. Studies of heritability percentages and the incorporation of Ascochyta blight 

resistance into local varieties have been the main emphases of chick-pea breeding work. 

There is an obvious need to expand both the breeding and agronomy work in Turkey so that 

the high potential of the legume crops in the agriculture of the country can be more fully 

realized in the near future. 

74

Food Legume Research and Production 

in Cyprus 

J. Photiades and G. Alexandrou 

Agricultural Research Institute Ministry of Agriculture 

and Natural Resources Nicosia Cyprus 

The island of Cyprus is situated in the eastern Mediterranean and has a semi-arid 

climate. In the coastal plains, 

rainfall varies with location and ranges between 200 and 500 

mm per annum, of which the bulk falls during the period November to May leaving the 

summers almost completely dry. The winters are mild with monthly minimum (night) 

temperatures around 5-7 °C and maximum (day) temperatures 15-20 °C, and the summers 

hot with mean monthly maximum 

temperatures reaching 35-38 °C. The inland plains are 

characterized by lower rainfall and wider differences between day and night temperatures 

than the coastal plains, where the influence of the Mediterranean produces a wetter less 

variable climate with warmer winters and a lower incidence of frost. It is thus in these 

coastal regions that food legume crops perform particularly well, although they are also 

cultivated on a small scale during the summer months on the mountains of Troodos (central 

to western Cyprus), where 

rainfall may reach 1200 mm per annum. 

Legume Production and Utilization 

The distribution of the major food legume-growing areas across the country is 

illustrated in Fig. 1, and the area and production levels of the various different legume 

crops for the years 1960 and 1975 are shown in Table 1. 

Chick-peas and lentils are produced under rainfed conditions, haricot beans are 

entirely irrigated, and the other pulses produced in Cyprus, which include broad beans, 

cowpeas, field peas, and "louvana" may or may not be grown under irrigation, depending 

on the seasonal availability of water. 

Broad Beans ( Vicia faba) 

Broad beans are consumed locally as dry seeds, green seeds, and green pods. Green 

seeds are eaten fresh during season and preserved by canning or freezing outside season. 

By-products of seed production, which include the stubble and the pods from green seed, 

are utilized for animal feed. 

The crop is commonly grown in rotation with cereals or vegetables, such as potato, the 

local large seeded variety being exclusively used. Almost any type of soil is suitable for 

broad bean cultivation, and the crop growth period is 3-5 months when harvested green, or 

5-6 months when used for dry seed production. Planting usually takes place during the 

period December to February, although small areas maybe sown in SeptemberOctober to 

supply the early market for green pods in December. Such areas are confined to the coastal 

lands, as a low incidence of frost is necessary for this early season production. For the 

more normal production pattern, the land is cultivated once or twice prior to sowing for 

weed control, fertilizer, or manure incorporation and seedbed preparation. Fertile soils 

receive no additional fertilization, although up to 100 kg/ha of phosphorus and 30 kg/ha of 

nitrogen and potassium may be used on the poorer lands if soil analysis shows a deficiency. 

The seed is either broadcast or sown in rows 30, 45, or 60 cm apart, and seed rates range 

from 150 to 200 kg/ha, the lower seed rates 

and wider spacing being preferred on the more 

75

Crop 

CYPRUS 

!AREAS WHERE FOOD LEGUMES ARE GROWN 

iI///I/i!i///I/I/I,, 

NICOS/A 

Fig. I Areas where food legumes are grown in Cyprus. 

TaLE I. Area (ha). production (metric tonnes), yield (kg/ha), and consumption (tonnes) of the major 

pulses in Cyprus, 1960 and 1975. 

Broad bean 

Phaseolus bean 

Chick-pea 

Lentil 

Cowpea 

Area Production Yield Consumption 

1960 1975 1960 1975 1960 1975 

2943 1338 1611 1524 548 1139 

1605 803 1745 813 1087 1013 

683 535 305 305 447 570 

1204 268 448 203 372 758 

1338 937 339 406 253 433 

a Consumption = production + imports - exports. 

1974 figure. 

1960 1975 

1838 1162 

1699 1659 

830 448 

482 380 

847 509 

fertile lands. In all cases, sowing is by hand and a mouldboard plough is used to cover seed 

sown in 30-cm rows, although this operation is carried out with a ridger plough for the 

wider spacings. 

Postplanting weed control usually involves spraying with Gramoxone upon the 

emergence of the first few seedlings, followed by hand hoeing later in the season, when the 

plants are about 15-20cm high. A selective herbicide has been used effectively recently to 

replace these measures. but at present it is still under test and has not been released for 

widespread use. 

Traditionally all harvesting is carried out by hand, dry seeds being threshed from the 

plant debris on a threshing floor by means of a special piece of wood or a tractor rolling 

over them, and then winnowed. Last year, however, a specially modified combine 

harvester was used to successfully harvest large areas of broad beans in the west of the 

country. 

Production is limited by a number of pests and diseases, the most important of these 

being insect pests, including aphids (Aphis ru,nicis L.), weevils (Sitona lineata), and seed 

beetles (Bruchus rufimanus), and fungal diseases such as chocolate spot (Botrytisfabae), 

rust (Uroinvcesfabae), and Fusarium spp. 

Haricot Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) 

These beans are also consumed as green pods, which may be preserved by freezing, 

and dry seed, preserved for export in cans, as baked beans. 

Improved varieties such as Harvester, Bush Blue Lake, and Stringless Blue Lake are 

grown for green pod production, whereas the local variety Morphitico is used for dry seed 

production. Haricot beans are grown on a wide range of soil types. After an initial deep 

76

cultivation, the fields are flood irrigated and the seedbed prepared. The beans are then 

sown into the moist soil and not irrigated until after emergence. Seed rates depend on the 

variety and range from 65 to 85 kg/ha for bush types to 30-50 kg/ha for climbing varieties. 

No fertilizer is applied to soils of high fertility, but 150 kg/ha of phosphorus and 30 kg/ha 

of nitrogen and potassium as required are used on the poorer soils. 

Green pod production only takes place in small areas, and sowing, which is in rows, 

weeding (hoeing), and harvesting are all carried out by hand. The growing period usually 

extends from March to October, but some crops are also produced during the cold winter 

months in green houses. Both bush and climbing varieties are used for green pod 

production; however, cultivation under glass normally involves the climbing variety, 

Stringless Blue Lake. 

There are two main crops of haricot beans for dry seed production: the spring crop, 

sown from the end of March to the beginning of April; and the autumn crop usually sown in 

August. In both cases, the seed is normally broadcast by hand and harrowed into the moist 

soil. Weed control is achieved mainly by presowing cultivations in the spring crop, which 

only requires limited irrigation, whereas the autumn crop, which needs four to five flood 

irrigations during its 3-4 month growing period, requires hand hoeing for adequate control 

of weeds. Production costs for the autumn crop are thus much higher than for the spring 

one, but this is offset by the higher yields and larger seed obtained from the autumn crop. 

Both crops are harvested just before the pods dry completely, the plants being pulled out by 

hand, heaped, and left to dry in the field and then threshed with stationary threshers. 

The main disease problems of economic importance are rust (Uromyces appenticu/atus), 

Scierotinia scierotiorurn, Fusarium solani, and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), 

and the major pests include aphids (Aphis spp.), weevils tSitona lineata), bean fly 

t4gromyza phaseoli), and spider mite (Tetranychus tetanus). 

Chick-peas (Cicer arietinum) 

Chick-peas are consumed almost entirely as dry seed, either preserved in cans as 

hommos, mainly for export, or roasted as a snack. The dry stubble is used extensively for 

livestock feed and forms a very valuable by-product. 

As with broad beans and haricot beans, chick-peas are usually grown in rotation with 

either cereals or vegetables. Sowing takes place between January and March following 

several cultivations for weed control and seedbed preparation. Late sowing is preferred to 

ensure adequate weed control, but results in lower yields than sowing earlier in the season. 

The seed is normally sown, broadcast or in rows, by hand, and seed rates vary from 40 to 

75 kg/ha. On the poorer soils up to 75 kg/ha of phosphorus and 20 kg/ha of nitrogen may 

be applied at sowing. Weed control within the crop is mainly achieved through hand 

hoeing; however, there is currently an increasing tendency toward greater reliance on 

chemical control methods. Harvesting is by hand and follows the same procedure as dry 

haricot bean seed production. 

The main diseases are blight (Ascochyta rabiei) and powdery mildew Erysiphe 

polygoni), and pests include spider mite (Tetranychus spp.) and pentatomid bugs 

(Dolycoris baccarum). 

Cowpeas or Black-Eye Beans (Vigna unguiculata) 

These are consumed as green pods or dry seed, the dry seed also being preserved in 

cans for consumption outside the season. 

Cowpeas are sown in AprilMay on heavy soils in rotation with cereals and are 

expected to grow and mature on residual soil moisture resulting from the winter rains, 

without the need for irrigation. Only small areas are devoted to cowpea production; a local 

variety is used and all operations are carried out by hand. The seeds are either broadcast or 

row planted using seed and fertilizer rates similar to haricot beans. Weed control is by 

preplanting and postemergence cultivations, and the main diseases and pests are similar to 

those affecting haricot beans, with the addition of Lampides baeticus, an insect whose 

larvae feed on the grain in the pods. 

77

Field Peas (Pisum sativum) 

Peas are eaten as green or dry seed, and green pods. The green seed is preserved in 

cans or frozen for off-season consumption. 

Only a very limited area is used for dry seed production under the direction of the Seed 

Production Department. Peas for green seed are sown in August for autumnearly winter 

harvest or in autumn for harvesting in the spring. The main variety used is Onward, and the 

seed is usually broadcast, although some is sown in rows, at the rate of about 80 kg/ha. 

Fertilizer rates vary from zero to 100 kg/ha of phosphorus and 15-20 kg/ha of nitrogen. 

Both weed control and harvesting are carried out by hand. 

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni), blight (Ascochyta pisi), rust (Uromyces pisi) 

root rot/wilt (Fusarium spp.), and TMV are the major disease problems of peas. Pests such 

as seed beetles (Bruchus spp.), aphids (Aphis spp.), spider mites (Tetranychus spp.), 

weevils (Sitona spp.), and pentatomid bugs (Dolycoris Baccarum) may cause considerable 

economic damage to the crop. 

Lentils (Lens culinaris) 

The local variety is grown exclusively and on light alkaline soils, mainly in hilly areas 

in rotation with cereals. Sowing takes place between December and February, following 

the weed control and seedbed preparation cultivations. All the seed is broadcast by hand at 

the rate of about 50 kg/ha. Fertilizer may be applied at 40-50 kg/ha of phosphorus, with 

small doses of nitrogen at the time of sowing. The mature seed is harvested by hand, 

heaped in the field to dry, and threshed in stationary threshers. 

The main diseases are Ascochyta blight and powdery mildew (Erysiphepolygoni) and 

the pests include Bruchus spp., Aphis spp., and Tetranychus spp. 

Louvana (Lathyrus ochrus) 

This crop is consumed exclusively as dry seed, is only grown on a limited area, and is 

not of any economic importance. A local variety is used and most operations are carried out 

by hand. 

No seed inoculation is practiced in any of the legume crops. Tests have shown no yield 

responses to inoculation and it has been concluded that sufficient nitrogen-fixing bacteria 

already exist in the soil. 

Weeds vary with location and soil type, but in general the major species and genera of 

importance in food legume crops are: Gallium sefaria, Digitaria, Poa, Panicum, Ma/va, 

Convonvulus arvensis, Amarathus, Fumaria, He/ychrysum, Alopecurus, Sinapis arvensis, 

Oxalis corniculata, Papaver rhoeas, Chrysanthemum segetum, Sonchus, Urtica euphobna, 

and Cynodon dactylon. When legumes are grown in rotation with cereals, there may 

also be infestations of wild oats (Avena sp.) and ryegrass (Lolium sp.). 

All pests and diseases are controlled through chemical and cultural methods used 

separately and in combination. 

Two major and closely related factors, namely mechanization and weed control, at 

present limit food legume production in Cyprus. Lack of mechanization, especially in 

sowing and harvesting, make it impossible to cultivate grain legumes on large areas. The 

decreasing availability of labour and its rising costs are making the absence of 

mechanization in all production processes much more acute. As a result, legumes are only 

produced on very limited areas normally confined to the coastal plains where soil fertility is 

high. 


Most research in Cyprus is carried out by the Agricultural Research Institute, although 

some work is also undertaken by the farmers themselves and other organizations such as 

food processing companies and seed merchants. There is no legume section, as such, in the 

Agricultural Research Institute, but staff from the Vegetables, Plant Protection, Soils and 

Water Use, and Economics sections are involved in investigations on these crops. As a 

78

esult, work on food legumes has so far been rather limited. Varietal improvement has 

consisted solely of testing introductions of broad beans, haricot beans, peas, chick-peas, 

and lentils. Studies of mechanization of sowing, weed control, and harvesting have been 

confined to chick-peas, and to some extent broad beans, but, although only carried out on a 

small scale, have proved quite successful and encouraging. And investigations into 

production techniques and irrigation and fertilizer requirements have so far only 

emphasized haricot bean production. Research into plant protection methods has been, in 

general, wider, but much work still remains to be done on broad beans, chick-peas, and 

lentils. 

Extension support has been traditionally provided by the Department of Agriculture, 

but chemical products agents are currently becoming increasingly involved in advising 

farmers regarding plant protection methods. The supply, distribution, and export of seeds 

is mainly the responsibility of the Seed Production Unit, and this organization and other 

groups involved in grain legume production, distribution, and marketing conduct various 

investigations in this overall field. 

Until recently, food legumes in Cyprus were produced almost exclusively for the 

home market. However, despite the declining trend in home consumption (see Table I), 

the increasing export demand, especially for broad beans, chick-peas, and lentils and all 

processed legume foods, has more than compensated for the flagging home market; and it 

is currently providing a very great incentive to expand grain legume production in the 

country. To be able to respond to these pressures for expansion it will first be necessary to 

pave the way by reducing or eliminating the severe constraints to increased production 

resulting from insufficient mechanization and inadequate and costly weed control 

measures, amongst other problems. This can be accomplished by a considerable expansion 

and strengthening of legume research capabilities and activities within the country as a 

whole. Such an effort is the first step toward elevating the grain legume crops to their 

rightfully important place in the agriculture of Cyprus. The other steps will follow from 

this base. 

79

Broad Beans (Viciafaba) and Dry Peas (Pisum sativum) 

in Ethiopia 

Asfaw Telaye 

Crops Department, Institute ofAgriculture, Addis Aba ha , Ethiopia 

Ethiopia lies entirely within the tropics between latitudes 3° and 18°N and longitudes 

33° and 48°E. The climate ranges from permanently humid with hot summers to tropical 

semidesert and desert, and on this basis the country can be divided into four main zones: 

the "Quola" or hot zone, with altitudes below 1800 m and an average annual 

temperature greater than 20 °C; the cropping of broad beans and peas is very 

limited in this area due to the severe and numerous diseases; 

the "Weyna dega" or temperate zone, where the altitude varies from 1800 to 2400 

m and average temperatures are between 16 and 20 °C; within this zone the 

importance of broad bean and pea cropping is considerable and increases with 

altitude; 

the "Dega" or cool zone, which has altitudes of 2400-3800 m and where average 

temperatures vary from 10 to 16 °C; the cropping of broad beans in this region 

extends up to an altitude of about 3000 m; however, above 2900 m chocolate spot 

(Botrytisfabae) and frost severely limit production; 

the mountain zone, with altitudes in excess of 3800 m and an alpine climate; the 

vegetation here is predominantly alpine and there is no cropping. 

In the major broad bean and pea production area, the "Weyna dega," the bulk of the 

annual precipitation normally falls during the period June to mid-September. Maximum 

temperatures rarely exceed 27 °C, and although diurnal variations during the dry period 

may be as great as 22 C°, variations during the period of rainfall are usually of the order of 

6 C°. At altitudes greater than 2100 m night frosts may occur between November and the 

end of January. 

Ethiopian soils are generally of a very high clay content and vary from red to 

red/brown on the mountains, through red/brown on the slopes and brown to dark in the 

rolling country, to very dark and nearly black in the plain lands. 

Broad Beans (Viciafaba) 

Pulse crops are grown on an estimated 8% of the total Ethiopian arable area, in 

contrast to the cereals, which occupy over 70%. 

Although broad beans are generally considered to be secondary in importance to 

chick-peas in the agriculture of the country, Ethiopia is one of the leading nations in the 

world in terms of broad bean production. Approximately 150 000 ha, or 1.5% of the total 

cultivated area, is annually devoted to the production of broad beans, which exceeds 

140 000 metric tonnes (Table 1). 

Broad beans can be found growing in every province in Ethiopia, usually in rotation 

with small grain cereals. The provinces of Shoa, Wello, Tigrai, Begumdir, and Gojam 

(Fig. 1) are the most important production areas. 

Current Production Practices 

Broad beans are produced almost exclusively by traditional methods. The land is 

prepared using traditional wooden- and steel-pointed ploughs, which break the soil but do 

80

Year 

TABLE 1. 

Area 

('000 ha) 

7 

/ 

Broad bean and dry pea production in Ethiopia 1967-77. 

" BEGUMDII1 

/ SIMEN 

ASMERAØ 

- 

AKSa1O 

TIGRAI 

.,AMATAMA 

OGONIJEB 

WELLO 

I _OMA6OAA 

L. GO JAM 

) 0BURVE - -- 

_/_ - s,,. 

- 

WOLLEGA .. 40015- ABAtE 

- SHOA 

OHARER 

L 

- ,nsi '7 HARARGIE 

/ 

-- 

- / c-- / 

I )-../. 5 

-- ILUBABOR/ KAFFA 

.., 

-, BALE 

\ f-(,-- 

\ 

,___ 

MAIIO / 6I00LEB BIJOOIO 

1 

( 1 

Broad beans 

Yield 

(Q/ha) 

'GAMUGOFA 

Prod. 

('000 t) 

I -, SIDAMO . - 

'N 

/ 

'.., , 

Fig. I. Provincial divisions of Ethiopia. The provinces 

of Shoa, WelIo, Tigrai. Begumdir, and Gojam are 

the most important production areas for broad beans. 

81 

Area 

('000 ha) 

Dry peas 

Yield 

(Q/ha) 

,1 

/ 

Prod. 

('OOOt) 

1967 131.4 9.2 120.9 130.0 9.2 119.6 

1968 136.0 9.3 125.9 131.8 9.2 121.6 

1969 140.2 9.4 137.5 133.5 9.3 123.9 

1970 144.0 9.6 137.8 135.0 9.4 126.4 

1971 147.3 9.8 144.9 136.2 9.5 129.5 

1972 150.0 10.2 152.9 137.1 9.7 132.4 

1973 137.0 8.5 118.7 150.0 4.9 73.5 

1974 138.0 8.6 294.8 151.4 4.9 74.2 

1975 259.0 11.1 304.4 108.0 4.4 47.5 

107.0 4.8 65.1 

1976 

138.4 7.4 51.8 

1977

not turn it; three ploughings are normal prior to broad bean planting, whereas only two are 

usual for pea production. Broad beans, in common with legumes in general, are frequently 

grown on poor and sometimes badly eroded soils where cereals are expected to fail. They 

may also be grown in mixtures with field peas. Planting normally takes place at the 

beginning of the rainy season in June and the crop is thus harvested in December or 

January. In some regions, however, namely Wello, and the north of Bale and Sidamo, 

broad beans are produced off-season during the winter months. 

Trials conducted at research stations throughout Ethiopia have established that the 

optimum plant density for broad bean production may be obtained with a sowing rate of 

150-200 kg/ha and a spacing of 5 cm between plants and 40 cm between rows. However, 

most farmers broadcast their seed at about 150 kg/ha and receive average returns of 

between 7 and 10 quintals/ha, which is well below the optimum. Applications of 100 kg/ha 

of phosphate are generally recommended for broad beans. 

The crop is normally harvested when most of the leaves have dropped, most of the 

pods have turned black, and the upper pods are yellowing. The harvesting date varies with 

altitude but may start as early as late October. Once the crop is cut, it is stacked and left in 

the field to dry for about 6 weeks before being threshed, using animals (oxen or horses) that 

trample the crops spread out on a hard piece of ground. Wooden forks and shovels are then 

used to toss the grain in the air to winnow out the chaff. 

Diseases and Pests 

Broad beans are susceptible to a large number of fungal diseases that may cause 

considerable crop losses. The most important of these are rust (Uromvcesftibae), chocolate 

spot (Botrytis ftibae), powdery mildew (Erisyphe polygoni), and root rot diseases 

(Fusarium and Rhizoctonia spp.). Several viral diseases have also been noted affecting the 

crop. 

The major insect problems are the American bollworm (Heliothis armigera), which 

may be serious in late September and October, aphids (Aphis fahae), and thrips 

(Teaniothrips sijotedt trybom), which attack the reproductive organs and interfere with 

fertilization. 

Weeds are also great problems in broad bean crops, resulting in severe yield 

reductions. Early removal is thus essential and two weedings are recommended. 

Uses and Marketing 

In many parts of Ethiopia broad beans are a daily part of the diet of the population. 

They are an important source of dietary protein, especially valuable during the numerous 

days of fasting that are observed. Broad beans may be consumed green, either raw, 

roasted, or boiled; as dry seed, having been soaked, roasted, or boiled; in a preparation 

with a hot sauce called "wot"; ground and mixed with barley, wheat, or teff flour to form 

"injera" (a kind of pancake-type bread); or used in the preparation of various sauces (e.g., 

in a mixture with mustard and spices that is fermented for 4S days). 

The bulk of the broad bean crop is consumed locally, but a certain proportion is 

exported every year, particularly to the countries of the Arabian peninsula, western 

Europe, and Southeast Asia. The quantity and value of pulse exports over the past 7 years 

is shown in Table 2. 

Field Peas (Pisum sativum) 

The field pea is grown predominantly as a dry pulse but can also be harvested 

immature as a green vegetable. As with the broad bean crop, most of the production is 

consumed locally, with the exception of a small amount that is exported (Table 2). 

In common with broad beans, peas are generally grown in areas between 1800 and 

3000 m above sea level, and are normally sown at the beginning of the rains (mid-June to 

July) for harvesting from mid-October onward. The area devoted to field pea production is 

in general only slightly less than that for broad beans, but the considerable decline in yields 

over the past 6 years has meant that present production is very much lower (Table 1). 

82

Year 

TABLE 2. Quantity ('000 t) and value (U.S. 5) of pulse exports from Ethiopia 1970-77. 

Chick-peas 

Quant. Value 

Broad beans 

Quant. Value 

Exportation 

Haricot beans 

Quant. Value 


The major production areas are in the north, west, and southwest of the country, and 

the crop is often grown on poor badly eroded soils where cereal production is not possible. 

Field peas are generally grown in monoculture 

but may be produced in a mixture with 

broad beans and occasionally also with barley. The crop is usually broadcast sown at the 

rate of 100-ISO kg/ha (the latter figure being the recommended rate), and covered using a 

local plough. This practice, however, frequently 

results in uneven germination and the loss 

of young seedlings to both birds and ants. 

Peas are harvested in a similar manner to broad beans, when the upper pods are 

yellowing and the lower ones are almost dry. 

Harvesting usually takes place in the early 

morning or afternoon to reduce losses from pod shattering and the cut plants are then 

stacked in the field to dry for 4-5 weeks before being threshed and winnowed. 

Diseases and Pests 

The diseases causing the most severe crop losses to field peas in Ethiopia are powdery 

mildew (Erisyphe polygoni). wilt (caused mainly by Fusarium species), and 4scochyta 

blight. 

The most serious pest of field peas is probably the American bollworm (Heliothis 

armigera), but there is very little information available on the other important pests of the 

crop. 

Weeds cause some yield losses, but weed control is rarely practiced and under good 

growing conditions the tall and viney Ethiopian peas compete fairly effectively with the 

weed population once complete ground cover has been achieved. 

Highland Pulse Research 

The agroecological systems existing within Ethiopia are highly complex in their 

structure, different ecological conditions being encountered within relatively short 

distances. As a result of this situation, a large number of trial sites must be used for 

experimentation to achieve proper representation. 

The research and development work on food legumes is coordinated through the 

National Crop Improvement Committee, which 

evaluates research proposals prepared by 

the individual crop coordinators. Despite the importance of broad beans and chick-peas to 

the agriculture of the country, research on these crops is still in its infancy in Ethiopia. 

Germ-plasm collections of both these crops have been built up as a result of collecting 

expeditions by a number of individuals and 

organizations. However, most collections to 

date have been predominantly from market samples and the information on such samples is 

generally very poor. In spite of this drawback, a considerable range of variation has been 

found within the collections and this has formed a useful base for improvement efforts. In 

fact some of the highest yielding lines developed so far have resulted from selections from 

such germ-plasm collections. In 1977, a systematic collection from the major growing 

83 

Lentils 

Quant. Value 

Field peas 

Quant. Value 

1970 2.2 235 15.6 225 17.1 396 15.8 312 0.4 257 

1971 6.3 283 16.6 268 22,6 447 18.0 3l4 0.2 265 

1972 10.7 279 19.0 299 25.6 402 21.9 322 0.5 284 

1973 8.1 444 29.7 295 19.7 633 22.2 564 2.4 643 

1974 8.2 682 28.0 489 46.0 1032 30.0 955 10.5 769 

1975 10.0 539 22.0 404 41.5 622 37.3 832 - - 

1976 - 600 26.7 434 - - 17.6 670 - 583 

1977 10.0 171.5 26.7 264.6 - .- 17.6 641 -. -

provinces of Shoa and Gojam yielded more than 300 samples of broad bean and pea 

material. Further collection and systematic documentation, however, is required for both 

crops. In addition, broad bean germ plasm has been obtained from both national and 

international sources; in 1977-78, for example, 817 accessions from ICARDA, 81 from 

the USA, 50 from the U.K., and 129 from Ethiopia were screened by the program. 

Promising lines selected from such screenings are promoted into national level yield trials 

for further evaluation. Some cultivars have performed well in these trials: record yields of 

40-50 quintals/ha have been reported, and under certain conditions the best cultivars have 

shown a two- to fourfold yield improvement over traditionally cultivated varieties. 

The varieties and selections of broad beans and peas that have been shown to be 

superior to the presently cultivated types are for broad beans: Kuse 2.27.33, CS2DK, 

CS1IAK, and CS38BK; for field peas: Prussian blue, CS436, Kulumsa, and Mahandar4. 

Agronomic trials have established that row planting of broad beans gives an increased 

yield over broadcast seeding over a wide range of seed rates. Studies on plant populations 

have been carried out both with broad beans and field peas and various seed rates and 

spacings have been recommended. Investigations have also revealed a significant 

interaction between date of planting, soil type, and seed yield in field peas, the best results 

being obtained with mid-June plantings on the red clay soils and early July plantings on the 

black clay soils. 

Future Research Priorities 

The average yields of pulse crops grown in Ethiopia's traditional pulse-growing 

regions tend to be very low (7-10 Q/ha) in comparison to yields obtained under 

experimental conditions (up to 50 QIha). This difference largely results from the continued 

use of local unimproved varieties grown under traditional agronomic means. 

To increase yields at the national level, research on broad beans and field peas in the 

future must focus on two major thrusts: firstly and most importantly, the development of 

improved cultivars that combine a high yielding ability with resistance to the major 

diseases, insect pests, and frost, all of which are severe constraints to production; and 

secondly, the evolution and introduction of improved agronomic practices, such as proper 

seedbed preparation, accurate planting, and efficient weed control, which will enable the 

potential of these new varieties to be more fully expressed. Considerable emphasis will be 

placed on the development, testing, and distribution of such new cultivars and production 

practices and it is hoped that this will result in yields under commercial conditions that are 

more comparable to those at present being achieved on the research stations throughout the 

country. 

84

Food Legumes in Syria 

Sadek E1-Matt 

Agricultural Research Institute Ministry of Agriculture 

Douma, Damascus, Syria 

Food legumes are considered to be important in the nutrition of both humans and 

livestock in most countries of the Near East and North Africa by virtue of their high content 

of both protein and carbohydrate. In addition, food legumes are important sources of 

minerals, such as iron, copper, and phosphorus, 

and vitamins. These crops are relatively 

inexpensive sources of dietary nutrients and have hence been named "the poor man's 

meat," which reflects their dominant position in the diets of a large part of the population 

of the country, especially the rural poor. Lentils are used in soups, salads, and various 

combinations with crushed rice and wheat, or vegetables and lemon juice, and chick-peas 

form a variety of foods, from homos (mashed with sesame oil and lemon) and falafel 

(mashed with peppers and fried) to sweets when covered with sugar. 

Legume crops are also important for the benefits they provide both to soil fertility and 

structure, and therefore figure significantly in rotations throughout Syria. Furthermore 

legume grains provide the country with important export revenue. 

Production and Marketing 

Legumes are a very important crop in the agricultural economy of Syria and the annual 

surplus of supply over domestic consumption is exported to neighbouring countries (see 

Table 1). 

Broad bean production in Syria is predominantly under irrigated conditions, which is 

reflected in the higher and more stable yields of this crop. In contrast to this, lentils and 

chick-peas are produced almost exclusively under 

rainfed conditions and their yields are 

consequently low and variable (Table I). 


In general, the planting of food legumes in Syria is considered to be semimechanized; 

the land is ploughed, usually by tractor, several times prior to planting, and fertilizer is 

applied at the rate of 250-450 kg of single superphosphate per hectare on irrigated land and 

125-225 kg/ha on rainfed land. Fertilization is normally by hand broadcasting and usually 

takes place immediately before planting. Legume seeds are also generally sown by hand, 

lentils and chick-peas being broadcast into shallow furrows at the rates of 80-100 kg/ha 

and 80-150 kg/ha, respectively, and broad beans normally row planted at about 160-200 

kg/ha. After sowing, the seed is covered by a cultivator to a depth of about 10cm. 

One or two manual cultivations are common during the season to control weeds and 

moisture infiltration. 

Almost all the legume crops are hand harvested, left to dry in the field, and then 

transported to a hard area of ground where they are threshed, using an animal-drawn 

thresher, and winnowed. Seed losses may be considerable as a result of this procedure. 


All investigations into legume improvement and production are the responsibility of 

85

TABLE I. Area (ha), production and exports (metric tonnes), and average yield (kg/ha) of grain legumes in Syria, 1972-76. 

Lentils Broad beans Chick-peas 

Area Area Area 

Year ía Ra Prod. Exp. Yield I R Prod. Exp. Yield I R Prod. Exp. Yield 

1972 2151 113949 96200 29555 835 3676 5659 12994 735 1559 191 44108 36422 1299 822 

1973 1467 90614 23711 28530 258 2573 4169 7117 2153 1056 354 68130 27841 5281 407 

1974 1722 83689 83369 14954 976 2781 4027 7251 1050 1509 427 90282 60265 11651 664 

1975 2641 95203 66624 10097 681 3966 1859 9336 1203 1603 581 54608 26698 8463 484 

1976 6061 140418 136227 21756 930 4833 3372 13690 - 1669 518 67035 50753 2591 751 

a J = irrigated conditions; R = rainfed conditions.

the Directorate for Scientific and Agricultural Research, which carries out its studies at 

centres in 11 of the 16 governates into which the country is divided. 

The main emphasis of food legume research in Syria is on improving legume varieties 

through the testing of introductions and local cultivars, segregating generations of crosses 

and promising selections throughout the country on the basis of yield, disease resistance, 

and adaptation to the various production regions. 

To date, the research program has isolated 18 local varieties of broad beans and seven 

of lentils that have been subjected to comparative tests to determine their yielding ability 

and adaptation. In addition to this work, the research efforts on chick-peas have resulted in 

the introduction of three improved varieties, namely Nobokho, Koliakan, and Registered 

466. 

Critical Constraints to Production 

Perhaps the most serious problem facing legume producers in Syria is the very costly 

reliance on hand labour for most production operations, especially at harvest time when 

labour is both scarce and expensive. This, coupled with the unavailability of sufficient 

improved and adapted varieties exhibiting tolerance to adverse climatic conditions, disease 

and pest resistance, and good seed qualities, is making legume crops increasingly less 

economic to produce and resulting in producers favouring the more economic and proven 

cereal production enterprises. In addition, it has been noted that workers continually 

involved in legume production may develop bad allergic reactions. 

Priorities for Production Improvement 

Recognizing these major production problems, 

the research efforts of the Directorate 

are being focused on the identification of high-yielding 

disease-resistant varieties that have 

a good adaptation to the production conditions of the different parts of the country. To 

ensure that improved legume varieties reach the producers, who must use them if 

improvements in overall production are to result, it will be essential to considerably 

strengthen the capabilities of the seed multiplication and distribution network. Furthermore, 

the urgent problems of insufficient and inadequate production equipment and 

outmoded production practices must be solved to enable legumes to compete as an 

economic crop in the agriculture of the country. 

87

Food Legume Improvement in the People's 

Democratic Republic of Yemen 

Shafiq Mohsin Atta 

Research Centre, El-Kod, Aden, People's Democratic Republic of Yemen 

The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, lying between latitudes I 2.40°N and 

19.00°N and longitudes 43.30°E and 53.00°E, covers an area of 310 km2, of which only 

1% is suitable for agriculture. The climate is hot, with the humidity varying from high in 

the coastal areas to very low inland. Sand storms and high winds are major agricultural 

problems, especially in the months of June and July. Mean maximum temperatures, 

recorded at the El-Kod Research Station (35 miles from Aden) vary from 35.08 °C in the 

summer months of May to September to about 20.60°C in the winter (OctoberApril). The 

coastal areas receive only light showers in the winter, and the annual rainfall in these areas 

varies between 25 and 63 mm. In contrast to this, the mountainous region receives up to 

346 mm of rainfall per year, concentrated mainly in the summer months. 

Agricultural activities are largely concentrated in the big wadies and deltas where the 

soils consist of deep and fertile alluvial silts. Because rainfall is insufficient to support the 

cropping, almost all production is irrigated by flood water in the summer and, to a lesser 

extent, also in the winter. This flooding acts as a regulator to the acreage of crops that can 

be grown in any given area, and makes annual production extremely variable. To achieve 

greater stability in the cropped area, government schemes are at present bringing large 

areas of cultivatable land into use through tube-well irrigation. Problems of salinity, 

however, are likely to become increasingly important, as much of the irrigation water is 

already of a very high salt content. This will severely limit the choice of crops that can be 

grown under these schemes. 

Currently the actual area under cultivation ranges between 100 000 and 150 000 ha. 

Of this, about 60% is under spate irrigation, and the area under well irrigation, although 

still limited, is increasing rapidly. In the coastal areas, the main field crops are cotton, 

maize, sorghum, and tobacco, together with vegetables, such as tomato and cucurbits, and 

fruits, which include banana, mango, and papaya. The cropping in the mid- and 

high-altitude plains consists mainly of wheat, sorghum, potato, tomato, and various citrus 

and stone fruits. 

In general, legumes are not considered to be economically important crops in Yemen 

and have consequently received very little research attention and few incentives to 

production. However, alfalfa is an undeniably important fodder crop throughout the 

country and the need for other crops, apart from sesame and cotton, for oil extraction is at 

present creating an interest in the introduction of groundnuts. This, together with the 

undoubted nutritional importance of the small areas of dry legumes grown for domestic 

consumption by many farmers, has prompted the agronomy section of the El-Kod 

Agricultural Station to initiate work on pulse crops. 

Work commenced in the 1974-75 season with the multiplication of varieties of 

cowpea and green gram. Experiments using green gram intercropped with cotton have so 

far proved disappointing, showing no beneficial effects of this treatment on the incidence 

of Rhizoctonja root rot on cotton and a significant increase in pest problems. Initial trials on 

groundnut were also started in this season, and during 1975-76, 13 varieties introduced 

from the USA, Sudan, East Africa, Egypt, and India were evaluated for their performance 

under local conditions. Results have shown the varieties NC2 and Ashford to be 

88

particularly promising and future prospects for increasing the popularity of this crop are 

encouraging. Thirty-nine varieties of cowpeas, mostly received from the International 

Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria, were also tested in the 1975-76 season 

in three separate trials designed to identify suitable varieties for planting in different 

seasons. Evaluations of these varieties on the basis of grain size and colour, which partly 

determine consumer acceptability, were also carried out. Results have indicated some 

promising varieties and shown that seed yield can be raised from Ito 2.2 tonnes/ha. Seven 

varieties with red seed and white seed with black spots, which are likely to receive 

consumer acceptability, have already been identified. 

In view of the very limited amount of land available for agriculture in the country, the 

People's Democratic Republic of Yemen is expanding its efforts to intensify and develop 

its agriculture. The search for new, highly productive, and nutritious crops is creating 

increasing interest in the legumes, which are proven in this field under small-scale 

cultivation. The challenge now facing the country is to achieve these benefits as part of a 

much wider and larger scale of production. 

89

Food Legume Production in Libya 

Au Salim 

Agricultural Research Centre Ministry of Agriculture, Tripoli, Libya 

In comparison with other food crops, such as wheat and barley, the production of 

legumes in Libya takes place on a very small scale. Even the most important of these crops, 

namely broad beans, is only cultivated on an average annual area of about 4000 ha, a figure 

that has remained static for the past 10 years. Together with the other pulse crops, which 

include lentils, field beans, and peas, broad bean cultivation is confined to the northern part 

of the country along the Mediterranean coast. In this strip of land, which varies from 4 to 

40 km in width and extends the length of the country from Tunisia in the west to Egypt in 

the east, the annual rainfall ranges between 250 to 300 mm and temperatures fluctuate from 

25 to 30 °C. The soils are generally sandy with occasional patches of clay or gypsiferous, 

and many farms rely almost completely on groundwater for their crop production. 

With this very limited production situation, the bulk of the country's consumption 

requirements are imported from its neighbours. 

Both large- and small-seeded types of broad beans are grown and varieties include 

Local land 40, Cyprus, and Sax. The crop is consumed as green pods, green seeds, or dry 

seeds. The production of lentils, which used to be on a fairly large scale to provide animal 

feed, has decreased considerably in recent years with the increasing popularity and 

availability of alternative fodder crops, and at present Libya has to import its total 

requirements. Peas are, however, grown on a somewhat greater area for seed, with 

varieties such as Sidi Masri 1 and 2 and Little Marvel dominating. Field bean varieties 

include Stringless Blue Lake and FAO, but bean production is of very little importance in 

the country. 

The production of food legumes is severely limited by several constraints, which 

include the total lack of research emphasis on the crops and the corresponding lack of 

trained research personnel; the low and variable fertility and salinity problems of many of 

the soils; the great variability of annual rainfall and the shortage of irrigation water; disease 

problems that reduce production in years of adequate rainfall; and the scarcity of hand 

labour coupled with the difficulty of mechanizing production, which is resulting in greatly 

increased production costs and rapidly making the crops uneconomic to produce. 

The way to expansion in food legume production in Libya lies in placing considerably 

more emphasis upon research into these critical problem areas. In recognition of this, a 

committee composed of representatives of the Agricultural Research Centre, the Faculty of 

Agriculture of the University of Tripoli, and the Ministry of Agriculture has recently been 

established and has recommended that legume research and production be promoted 

throughout the country. This is a first, vital step and the way is now clear for increased 

cooperation with organizations such as ICARDA, FAO, and ACSAD to build up a base of 

personnel and material with which to form the foundation of a strong future development 

program for these hitherto neglected but vitally important crops. 

90

Status of Food Legume Production in Afghanistan 

N. Wassimi 

Food Legume Improvement Program, ICARDA, .4leppo, Syria 

Afghanistan is a mountainous country with a dry climate. Rainfall ranges from 100 to 

400 mm annually, with the exception of some 

high altitudes, where it may reach 1200 mm. 

The climate ranges from hot subtropical desert in the south, through semi-arid and 

continental Mediterranean types in the central areas, to continental desert in the extreme 

north of the country. Figure 1 shows the provincial divisions of the country. 

Afghanistan has been classified into four major ecological zones on the basis of 

physiography, climate, soils, and present and potential land use. These are as follows: 

the MazariSharif zone, an area of 30 000 km2 in the north of the country with a 

semi-arid continental Mediterranean-type climate and an annual rainfall of 200 

mm concentrated in the winter and spring; the elevation varies between 200 and 

500 m above sea level and the soils are calciferous, loamy, and deep with a 

reasonable level of organic matter; the predominant crops are wheat, cotton, rice, 

sugarbeet, and maize; 

the Central Mountain zone, which includes all the mountainous area with 

elevations of above 2000 m; the terrain is mainly hilly and steeply sloping, 

interspersed with mountain valleys, and the 

FA A H 

JMROZ 

(' )8ADAKHSHAN 

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climate is semi-arid Mediterranean 

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IGHAZN/ 

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Fig. I. Provincial divisions of Afghanistan. 

91 

1 

)

with a mean annual precipitation of 250-400 mm occurring predominantly in the 

winter months; the soils are very shallow on the upper slopes, loamy or clayey 

with gravel and stones on the lower slopes, and deep and loamy in the valley 

bottoms; wheat, melons, and deciduous fruits are grown under irrigation; 

the Farah-Kandahar zone, covering the whole of the Herat and Chakhansur 

provinces and the northwestern part of Helmand province in the southwest of the 

country; the elevation ranges from 200 to 2000 m and the zone can further be 

subdivided on the basis of this range to include (a) the foothills, with elevations of 

between 1000 and 2000 m. The mean annual precipitation varies between 100 and 

200 mm and the soils are loamy or clayey, moderately to strongly calcereous, with 

a marked zone of lime accumulation. When sufficient water is available, wheat, 

maize, melons, pomegranates, grapes, and some alfalfa are grown; (b) the 

nonsaline plateau, 500-1000 m above sea level and with a gently rolling hilly 

relief. The climate is subtropical and arid, and the soils mainly calcereous, silty 

barns, or silty clays, again with a strong zone of lime accumulation. The main 

crops are wheat, millets, and melons grown under irrigation; (c) the Playa, which 

is a nearly level concave area in which the soils are strongly saline and where, as a 

consequence, the vegetation consists almost exclusively of bushes that thrive 

under salt conditions. 

the Registan Zone, in the southeast, which is a sandy desert with an arid climate 

where annual rainfall is only 100-150 mm; the land is used for little else apart 

from rangeland grazing of livestock. 

Of a total land area of 64.75 million ha, only 7.95 million (12.28%) is potentially 

arable. Much of this remains fallow for long periods due to insufficient moisture and only 

the 2.44 million ha that are under irrigation are cropped regularly. Crop production in 

Afghanistan is dominated by the cereals (wheat, maize, rice, and barley) that occupy 44% 

of the arable area. Other important crops include cotton, pulses, fruits, and vegetables (see 

Table 1). 

It has been reported that chick-peas (Cicer arietinun), lentils (Lens cu/mans), broad 

beans (Viciafaba), mungbean (Vigna radiata), dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), pea Pisum 

sativum), and chickling vetch Lathyrus sativus) are the main food legume species 

cultivated in Afghanistan, but there are unfortunately no statistics available on the area, 

yield, and production of these crops. 

Very little research has been carried out on grain legume crops in Afghanistan. 

However, various germ-plasm collection expeditions have yielded some information about 

the relative importance of the legume crops within the country: 

Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) is the most important pulse in Afghanistan and is grown 

under both irrigated and rainfed conditions in the Badakhshan, Balkh, Takhar, Herat, 

Kunduz, and Kandahar districts. 

Peas (Pisum sativum) are grown over a very wide range of conditions in Afghanistan 

and may be cultivated up to altitudes of over 3000 m. Twenty botanical varieties, all small 

seeded and green in colour, have been reported. 

Lentils (Lens cu/mans) are the second-most important cultivated grain legume in the 

TABLE 1. Area ('000 ha), yield (kg/ha), and total production ('000 metric tonnes) of major crops in 

Afghanistan as reported in FAO production year book 1976. 

Crop Acreage Yield Prod. 

Wheat 2400 1229 2950 

Maize 490 1612 790 

Barley 390 1026 400 

Rice (paddy) 210 2143 450 

Cotton 150 1067 160 

Pulses 35 1624 57 

Sugarbeets 9 12941 116 

Sugarcane 2 37859 55 

92

country. They are grown predominantly at intermediate altitudes, between 500 and 2400 

m, and mainly in eastern Afghanistan. 

Broad beans (Vicio faba) are cultivated mainly in the upland areas and are the 

principal food of the mountain population. In the Bamyan district, for instance, they are 

second only to wheat in importance. Broad beans may be grown in a mixture with barley, 

peas, and Lathyrus, and are characteristically small seeded and dark in colour. 

Mungbeans (Vigna radiata) are grown under irrigated conditions in Badakhstan, 

Badghis, Baghian, Balkh, Kunduz, Kandahar, and Nangrahar. In the latter province they 

are grown in a mixture with maize and used as fodder for oxen. 

Of the other grain legumes grown in Afghanistan, cowpeas and Phaseolus beans are 

primarily grown under irrigated conditions and chickling vetch under rainfed conditions in 

the Balk, Kabul, Herat, Kunduz, Hilmand, and Nangrahar provinces. 

Peas, Phaseolus beans, and broad beans are consumed as both green and dry seed, 

whereas lentils, chick-peas, and mungbeans are eaten only in the dry state. Lentils are used 

in soups, cooked with meat and rice, or cooked alone and served with oil, onions, and 

garlic. Chick-peas are commonly eaten as a snack; boiled and served with salt, pepper, and 

vinegar; cooked with meat and served with rice; cooked alone and eaten with bread; 

covered with candy and eaten as sweets; or mixed with wheat flour in the preparation of 

"Pickawara." Broad beans are generally eaten alone as a snack or with onions and garlic; 

peas and dry beans are consumed with meat or cooked with "ashak"; and mungbeans are 

mixed with rice and cooked as ''Mujaddara" or dehulled, cooked, and eaten as a 

vegetable. 

Because there has been so little work carried out on grain legumes in Afghanistan, the 

major production problems cannot be confidently enumerated. However, utilization 

problems concerning cookability are of major importance in determining acceptability 

amongst the population. The major pest and disease problems recorded include rust, root 

rot, powdery mildew, and aphids on broad beans, and root rot, aphids, and pod borers on 

chick-peas. 

Considerable work in both research and extension will be required in the future, first 

to define the major production problems, and then to increase the popularity of these crops 

with the farmers so that they can provide a valuable complement to cereals in rotations and 

assist in bringing much of the presently fallowed land into more intensive cultivation. 

93

Food Legumes in India 

A. S. Tiwari 

J. N. Agricultural Universirs', Jabalpur, India 

India possesses the largest area in the world under grain legume cultivation. Grain 

legumes have proved to be the mainstay of Indian agriculture for the past few decades, 

enabling the land to produce reasonable quantities of food grains despite the almost total 

lack of manuring or fertilization. This has primarily resulted from the legumes' ability to 

fix atmosphcric nitrogen, which gives them a comparative advantage under these growing 

conditions. In addition to this, as a group the legumes exhibit considerably higher drought 

tolerance than other crops and have thus found a niche in areas characterized by regular 

moisture stress. Because of these characteristics, legume crops are invariably included in 

rotations throughout the country and also figure prominantly in crop mixtures. 

Apart from these agronomic advantages, grain legumes occupy an important place in 

dietary considerations, supplying, as they do, most of the protein requirements of India's 

predominantly vegetarian population. Some of the crops also serve as excellent forages and 

grain concentrates in the feed of the country's large cattle population and others are 

favoured for use as green manures. 

Production Position 

In 1976, the area under pulse crops was approximately 24 million ha, or 20% of the 

total area under food grain crops, and the production from this was about 13 million tonnes. 

The major pulse crops and their relative importance to Indian agriculture are given in Table 

Chick-pea is by far the most important food legume crop in India, occupying an area 

of 8.37 million ha throughout the country. The others are of less importance overall, but 

TABLE I. Major pulse crops of India and their relative importance in the country's agriculture. 

Crop % of total 

Botanical name English name Area (ha) Prod. 

Cicer arietinum Linn. Gram or Bengal gram 41.0 51.0 

Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp Pigeon pea or red gram 9.8 11.2 

Lathyrus sativus Linn. Chickling vetch 7.9 7.6 

Vigna mungo Black gram 6.5 3.9 

Dolichos hiflorus Linn. Horse gram 6.3 3.0 

Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq Moth 6.2 2.6 

Pisum arvense Linn. and Peas 5.4 9.8 

Pisum sativu,n Linn. 

Vigna rod law (L) Wilczek Green gram 5.4 2.5 

Lens culinaris Mebic. Lentil 3.3 2.9 

Other pulsesa 

Includes: Vigna unguiculata L. (cowpea), Cyamopsis tetragonoleba L. (clusterbean), Do! ichos 

lab/oh L. (Indian bean or field bean), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (French bean), Phaseolus trilobus L. 

(pillipesara), Glycine max, L. (soybean). 

94

each crop has its own unique place in the agriculture of the country dependent upon its 

suitability for particular rotations and crop mixtures and/or its adaptation to specific 

agroecological conditions. Among the less widely cultivated pulses for example, cowpea 

and Phaseolus bean are grown in most regions of the country, whereas soybean is a staple 

pulse only in the temperate regions of the Himalayas. Similarly, french bean cultivation is 

restricted to regions with a cool monsoon season; guar is an important field crop in the 

western part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the north; and pillipesara assumes more 

importance in the south of the country. The cultivation of some crops (e.g., soybean), 

which are relatively more productive and tolerant to adverse conditions, is now tending to 

spread from their more traditional niches into the plains of northern and central India. 

Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Mahrashtra, and Bihar are considered to 

be the most important food legume-growing areas in the country (Fig. 1). 

Agronomic and Nutritional Uses 

Pulses as Food and Fodder 

In most parts of India, pulses form an essential part of the daily diet of the population 

and serve as the major source of dietary protein. They are thus used as food in a wide 

r 

RAJASTHAN 

KASHMIP 0 

'JAMMU AND 

0' 

I PUTJJ/US 

KASHMIR 

.HlMAGHAL"..L 

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05555 

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... MERHALARA., 

IKTSNLPUR 

TRIpS A-- .1 

MIZARA 

¼.. 

j) 

AAALANO 

Fig. I. Provincial divisions of India; Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and 

Bihar are the most important food legume-growing areas in the country. 

95

variety of forms. The most common of these is soup; the split grains are boiled in spiced 

water and seasoned to form "dal" or "sambar." The grains may also be ground and 

boiled, roasted or fried; sprouted and then cooked; made into sweetmeats; or used as a flour 

in the preparation of bread and other foodstuffs. The grain and pods of some pulses (e.g., 

pea, guar, cowpea, and Phaseolus beans) are often cooked and eaten in the green 

condition. It is largely the brown seeded desi types of chick-pea that are cultivated for 

human consumption in India; the pink, green, and black kabuli types are used only to a 

very limited extent in the country. 

Some of the pulse crops, such as guar, cowpea, pea, chickling vetch, horse gram, and 

pillipesara, are commonly used as fodder for draft and milk animals. Legume grains are 

also used to some extent as concentrates in the diets of animals. Guar grain is especially 

preferred for this purpose for draft animals and chick-pea is held in high esteem for feeding 

bullocks and horses. 

Pulses as Green Manures 

Legume crops, such as green gram, clusterbean, cowpea, and pillipesara, are 

excellent green manure crops, although their use for this purpose is secondary to that of the 

well-recognized green manure sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea). This is mainly because they 

provide less organic matter, and hence possibly also less nitrogen, to the soil when turned 

in. However, they are considered to be very useful as manures because, by virtue of their 

rapid rate of decomposition, they become thoroughly incorporated into the soil at a much 

faster rate than the more woody, conventional green manure crops. 

Pulses in Crop Mixtures and Rotations 

Their ability to thrive under a wide range of soil and climatic conditions ensures the 

legumes an important place in a large number of crop mixtures and rotations throughout 

India. 

Pigeon pea is generally grown in a mixture with millets or cotton, or as a border crop 

in sugarcane fields. In the northern and central parts of the country, where late (250-day) or 

medium (200-day) maturing varieties are grown, they are almost invariably mixed with 

millets such as "jowar" (Sorghum vulgare), "bojra" (Pennisetum typhoides), or 

"kodon" (Paspalum scrobiculatum). Sometimes a small proportion of othercrops, such as 

green gram, black gram, or sesamum, are also added to the mixture. These mixtures are 

normally broadcast sown in the months of June or July, depending upon the onset of the 

monsoon. During the first 4 months, the more rapidly growing millet is the dominant crop, 

but after the millet harvest in OctoberNovember the pigeon pea crop grows rapidly to give 

complete field cover by the end of the winter season. As it flowers and forms pods after the 

associated millet crop is removed, and has a full season in which to complete its growth and 

development, the pigeon pea crop recovers well from its earlier cramping, giving 

reasonable yields. The sowing of this mixture is popular throughout the country as it 

enables two, or sometimes more crops to be grown within one season under dryland 

farming conditions; it also causes a marked reduction in the incidence of wilt disease in 

pigeon pea plants. Although generally grown as a single crop, chick-pea is often sown in a 

mixture with wheat, barley, linseed, or mustard in the unirrigated areas of Uttar Pradesh 

and Madhya Pradesh. This is primarily because, having a deeper rooting system than cereal 

crops, the chick-pea component of the mixture provides a certain amount of guarantee 

against crop failure in the event of the winter rains being insufficient to support the cereal 

component. Similarly, horse gram is usually grown as a single crop, but is often grown in a 

mixture with castor, groundnut, or cotton in Karnataka and other areas. Other legume crops 

commonly included in mixed cropping regimes include short duration varieties of black 

gram with maize; field bean (Dolichos lablab) in "ragi" (Eleusine coracana) mixtures; 

and cowpea and black gram with millets and oilseeds. 

Grain legume crops figure prominently in rotations all over India. They may occupy a 

field once in every 2 or 3 years or often even more frequently, because of their ability to 

grow well under conditions of limited soil moisture and at the same time improve soil 

fertility. In Northern India rotation of dryland paddy, which matures in 80-90 days, with 

96

chick-pea is a widespread practice. Where the paddy crop is of a long duration, however, 

field pea (Pisum sativuni) orLathyrus sativus replaces the gram crop in the rotation. 

To ensure good germination of the legume crop in this rotation it is customary in the 

important paddy-growing areas of Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh to sow the pulse into 

a standing paddy crop just prior to harvest when the soil is still wet. However, the crop 

most commonly involved in this rotation, Lathyrus sativus, contains a neurotoxin, which 

may accumulate in the body and cause paralysis of the lower limbs (lathyrism). It has 

proved hard to identify an alternative to replace Lathyrus in the rotation, as this crop is 

ideally suited to growing in paddy soils, which on drying become as hard as steel and when 

wetted are quickly waterlogged. Such conditions preclude the utilization of chick-peas, 

lentils, or peas, which are sensitive to both drought and overwatering. Investigations 

continue and results to date indicate that some lentil varieties that are better adapted to 

these conditions might be used to replace the currently grown Lathyrus cultivars. A 

recently developed low-neurotoxin Lath yrus line (Pusa 24) might also be used as a 

replacement. 

Under rainfed conditions chick-pea and lentil are almost invariably grown as a single 

crop in rotation with a cereal, millet, oilseed, or cotton, depending upon the region. In 

irrigated areas, however, double cropping is frequently practiced. This has been made 

possible through the evolution of short duration genotypes of green gram, black gram, and 

cowpea, which are also tending to popularize multiple cropping under rainfed conditions, 

especially on land that usually remains fallow for 5-6 months of the year. 

Pulses and Soil Improvement 

The value of leguminous crops to Indian agriculture, by virtue of their ability, in 

symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria, to fix atmospheric nitrogen and supply it to the soil, is 

immense. Some of the nitrogenous compounds formed in this way are able to pass into the 

soil in the vicinity of the plant roots. These compounds are easily assimilable by 

nonleguminous plants, and the advantages obtained by crops grown in association with 

legumes may be one of the major reasons for their popularity in crop mixtures. 

Besides their undoubted contribution to soil fertility, grain legumes have a 

considerable improvement effect on soil structure, their deep and extensive rooting systems 

opening out the subsoil layer and providing a large amount of organic matter to this layer 

upon death or shedding. Such deep rooting systems and spreading growth habits also mean 

that the legumes are important for their erosion-resistant properties. This attribute is often 

exploited by planting legumes either singly or between spaced rows of other crops on 

erosion-prone soils. 

Unfortunately, however, the fact that food legume crops possess such important 

agronomic advantages is tending to mitigate against achieving yield improvements in many 

parts of India. This results from the farmers' traditional and continuing reliance upon 

legumes to replenish soil fertility, to assist other crops, to reduce soil damage and erosion, 

and to produce yields from very marginal lands, under minimum input conditions. In using 

legumes in this way it is often forgotten that, in common with other food crops, high soil 

fertility is required for the production of high yields. There is thus considerable potential 

for yield improvement in India, and indeed throughout the Middle East, through the 

widespread introduction of improved methods of agronomy, especially phosphate 

fertilization, coupled with an inherent change in the way that legume crops are perceived at 

the farmers' level. 

97

Sectioti ITT 

Disease Problems 

on 

Legume Crops 

Diseases of Major Food Legume Crops in Syria 

S. B. Hanounik 

Plant Pathologist, Tobacco Research Institute, Lattakia, Syria 

Broad bean (Vicia faba), lentil (Lens culinaris), and chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) are 

the major food legume crops grown in Syria, and have been used for thousands of years as 

major sources of low-cost protein food for both human and livestock consumption. They 

are produced on average areas of 15 000, 140 000, and 70 000 ha, respectively and thus 

contribute considerably to the agriculture of the country. Lentils are grown predominantly 

in the northern and central areas of Syria, whereas the production of chick-peas is 

concentrated in the southern provinces. Broad beans are cultivated throughout the country 

under a very wide range of environmental conditions and are frequently irrigated, unlike 

the other two crops, which are almost exclusively produced under rainfed conditions. 

The yield and quality of these important crops are affected appreciably by a number of 

diseases that, depending on weather conditions, host susceptibility, and pathogen 

virulence, may cause severe losses in certain seasons and at certain locations. Of the three 

crops, broad bean is the most severely affected, followed by chick-pea and then lentil. 

Disease severity is usually greater in the coastal districts of Syria, where both rainfall and 

humidity are higher, as opposed to the drier areas of the interior. For this reason, this 

report, which aims to analyze the disease situation in the three major legume crops in Syria 

in an attempt to identify the most important disease problems and to indicate research 

priorities geared to their solution, is based mainly on studies conducted in the coastal 

districts. It involves the locational spread and severity of broad bean diseases, the 

development of these diseases as related to planting date, and observations on 

disease-screening nurseries of lentil, chick-pea, and broad bean. 

Diseases of Broad Beans 

The importance of diseases as a major limiting factor in broad bean production has 

become clear throughout the world in recent years. Broad beans in Syria are affected by a 

number of diseases including root rot/wilt complex, chocolate spot, Ascochyta blight, 

Alternaria spot, rust, powdery mildew, and several viruses. Local cultivars of the crop are 

generally susceptible to many of the pathogens, and diseases of one type or another are 

evident on almost all farms. 

Disease Survey 

In an attempt to analyze the disease situation and identify the major broad bean disease 

problems, a preliminary survey was conducted during the 1976-77 season in the coastal 

districts of the country. Representative collections of 10-15 diseased plants were taken 

from each of 61 fields distributed along 130 km of the region from north to south. Disease 

development was encouraged in the diseased plant parts through incubation under moist 

and favourable conditions and the pathogens involved were identified by microscopic 

examination of these parts. Diseases were recorded as being present when the specimen 

showed both the characteristic symptoms and the causal organisms of the particular 

diseases. This survey indicated the presence of two viral and six fungal diseases, as follow. 

98

Viral Diseases 

Diseases caused by viral pathogens were characterized by two distinct patterns of 

symptoms, namely, blotching of the young leaves with light and dark green areas, 

producing a mottled mosaic pattern; and yellowing and curling of the upper and younger 

leaves. No attempt was made to purify or identify the causal organisms. 

Fungal Diseases 

RustSmall light-coloured pustules on the leaves, developing into well-defined 

circular reddish pustules, containing thick-walled, single-celled, oval spores on long stalks 

indicated an infection of rust, apparently caused by Uromycesfabae. The disease was very 

widespread during the season under consideration, being present in 93% of the sample 

fields. It was rarely identified early in the season, but became severe in February and 

March, causing considerable defoliation. However, yield losses are probably slight except 

on late planted crops, as the disease appears late after many of the pods have already been 

set. 

Chocolate spot - Starting as small, well-defined, slightly sunken, reddish spots, 2-5 

mm in diameter with dark brown margins, the characteristic symptoms of chocolate spot 

become larger later in the season and may coalesce to form irregular and dark lesions. 

These symptoms were resolved into two distinct types of host reaction: small, brown, 

well-defined spots; and darker, coalesced lesions. Whether these two reactions are due to 

different strains of the pathogen or to differences in host physiology at the time of infection 

has still not been determined. Under microscopic examination, the oval/spherical, 

single-celled conidia borne in clusters at the tips of irregular conidiophores indicated 

Botrytis fabae as the causal agent. The disease was widespread and reached epiphytotic 

levels in December and January, a period characterized by cool and humid weather and the 

formation of dew on broad bean leaves. It was present in 86% of the sample locations and 

was probably the most destructive of the diseases studied in the 1976-77 season. A 

comparison of a sample of heavily infected plants with a similar sample of disease-free 

material indicated losses of up to 75% in the green seed weight of the crop. Furthermore, 

during extended periods of cool wet weather, infection caused total crop loss. Chocolate 

spot has been controlled successfully in certain parts of Syria by the application of 

dithiocarbamate fungicides. However, a similar approach to control in the coastal areas has 

failed, due presumably to the rapid washing off of the chemical from crop leaves as a result 

of the higher precipitation in these areas. The use of dithiocarbamates combined with a 

sticking agent is currently being tested as a way around this problem. 

Ascochyta blight - The symptoms of the disease, namely circular/oval, tan-coloured 

spots with dark margins containing small black pycnidia, and the examination, which 

revealed the presence of masses of oblong, one to two septate spores, confirmed that the 

infection was caused by Ascochytafabae. This disease also reached epiphytotic conditions 

during January and February and was found in 85% of the samples. Although the 

symptoms were mainly confined to the leaves, pod and stem infections were also observed, 

and appreciable losses were apparent. Ascochyta blight is a seed-borne disease and isolates 

of the pathogen obtained from local seeds have been shown to possess a high degree of 

virulence in artificial inoculation trials. The use of clean seed is therefore an important step 

in minimizing infection and reducing yield losses caused by this disease. 

Brown spot - The causal agent of this disease was identified as an A Iternaria species 

from the characteristic circular, dark-brown lesions with concentric markings and a 

surrounding halo of pale tissue and the brown chains of clavate, septate conidia that these 

lesions contained. The lesions were mostly confined to the lower leaves during the early 

part of the season, but spread to the upper leaves and pods as the season progressed. The 

disease was encountered in 84% of the sites and its severity appeared to be enhanced by 

interactions withBotrytisfabae andAscochytafabae, which seem to predispose the host to 

infections by Alternaria spp. 

Powdery mildew - Chlorotic leaf spots with a covering of powdery grey mycelium, 

consisting of hyphae and conidiophores bearing one-celled conidia, indicated that these 

infections were probably caused by Erysiphe polygoni. The disease was of minor 

99

importance during the 1976-77 season, as weather conditions did not favour disease 

development, and only 5% of the sample locations were found to be infected. 

Black root rot/wilt complex - Plants infected by this complex of diseases exhibit 

general wilting and collapse. Infection usually occurs in isolated loci but in severe cases 

most plants in the field become infected, stunted, and may die before flowering. 

Preliminary identification of the causal agents indicate that this complex is caused by a 

number of different pathogens. So far, several fungi, namely Rhizocronia spp. (from the 

necrotic xylem), Phialophora spp. (from the pith tissue at the base of the stem), and a 

Pythium spp. (from the roots of seedlings) have been isolated from infected plants. About 

77% of the sample fields were infected, and, even though loss can be severe, it is highly 

dependent on the stage at which the plant is attacked, younger plants in general being more 

susceptible than older ones. In addition, it appears that heavy soils tend to favour disease 

development, probably due to their superior water-retention characteristics. 

Disease Development and Planting Date 

By altering dates of crop planting, the relation between susceptible stages in the host, 

environmental conditions, abundance of disease inoculum, and the incidence and 

development of infections can also be changed. Investigations with local broad bean 

varieties planted on 10 December, 25 December, 10 January, 25 January, and 18 February 

have indicated that the severity of Ascochyta blight, chocolate spot, and root rot decreased 

significantly with delay in planting. These decreases may have been associated with the 

decreasing precipitation, increasing temperatures, or changes in relative humidity that 

occurred during the period under consideration. No statistically significant differences 

were detected between plantings in the development of Alternaria leaf spot, although 

earlier plantings showed slightly lower levels of infection than the later ones. 

Differences in disease development between dates of planting were probably due in 

part to differences in the susceptibility of the broad bean plants at different stages of growth 

and the abundance of disease inoculum at these stages, as well as to the environmental 

considerations already mentioned. Additional research is needed to understand the 

development of these diseases in relation to the physiological growth stages of the host 

plants, so that control methods based on cultural practices can be put on a much more 

rational base. 

Diseases of Chick-peas 

Chick-peas grown in Syria are affected significantly by both the diseases of the root 

rot/wilt complex and Ascochyra blight. Disease severity is greater in the coastal zones, but 

as this crop is grown predominantly in the drier south of the country, disease considerations 

may be less important than in broad beans, which are cultivated under conditions much 

more beneficial to disease preservation and development. 

Root Rot/Wilt Complex 

As with broad beans, preliminary attempts to identify the causal agent have revealed 

the association of a number of fungi with the disease. These include Rhizoctonia sp. 

(isolated from the tap roots), Fusarium sp. (from the vascular tissue), Peyronelleae sp. 

(from the stem near the soil surface), and Phialophora sp. (from the lateral roots). Work is 

currently under way to confirm the association of these organisms with the disease and to 

establish their pathogenicity. Losses due to root rot/wilt complex are difficult to estimate, 

but it is evident that severity is greater on plants grown in heavy and wet soils, and on the 

crops planted early, during the rainy part of the season. 

Ascochyta Blight 

This is probably the most important disease of chick-peas in Syria, especially in years 

when the rains continue late into spring. It can be very destructive in the humid coastal 

districts where rainfall is high and may be particularly severe in crops that are early sown in 

100

November. Close examination of diseased tissue has shown the causal organism to be 

Ascochvta rahiei. 

Stemphylium 

Attack by species of Stemphylium results in chlorosis of the leaves followed by 

necrosis of their tips. The disease is considered to be of minor importance and is normally 

found only on leaves of plants already infected with root rot. It appears that root and stem 

infections by pathogens of the root rot/wilt complex increase the susceptibility of the plants 

to infection by this organism. 

Diseases of Lentils 

Of the three major pulses grown in Syria, lentils are least affected by diseases. A few, 

however, including root rot/wilt complex, downy mildew, rust, andAscochyta blight, have 

been observed on farmers' fields. 

Diseases caused by the pathogens of the root rot/wilt complex are probably the most 

important of these. Infection is more severe in the coastal districts but, as lentils are 

primarily grown in the inland areas with lower rates of annual rainfall, losses are rarely 

very appreciable. One causal agent has been preliminarily identified as Phialophora sp., 

which was isolated from necrotic stem and root tissues. However, it seems likely that other 

pathogens, such as Rhizoctonia and Fusariurn sp., are also associated with this disease 

complex. More work on isolation and pathogenicity testing is required before any firm 

identification can be made. As in chick-peas, infections by root rot/wilt pathogens appear 

to render lentil foliage more susceptible to attack by Stemphylium sp. 

At present, detailed information on the distribution and economic importance of 

downy mildew (Peronospora sp.), rust (Uromycesfabae), andAscochyta blight of lentils is 

not available. These diseases do not seem to have precipitated major losses as yet but may 

remain as a potential problem in lentil-producing areas. 

Research Priorities 

In Syria, disease infection constitutes one of the most important constraints to the 

production of broad beans and, to a lesser extent, chick-peas and lentils. The disease 

situation in the country is complex and considerably more studies, especially disease 

survey programs, similar to that initiated in the broad bean-producing coastal areas, should 

be conducted throughout Syria in the major legume-producing areas. These surveys will 

enable the identification of the disease problems of significance, their distribution, and 

economic importance. Survey work to ascertain the countrywide importance of virus 

diseases and their insect vectors Aphis sp. will also be necessary. 

Information gained from this survey work will help to concentrate research activities 

on the problems of prime importance and provide a valuable base from which the 

development of effective disease control strategies for different diseases and locations can 

proceed. At present no resistant cultivars are available for local production and thus 

considerable emphasis should be placed on the identification of sources of resistance, the 

incorporation of this resistance into improved varieties, and increasing the availability of 

these varieties to the farmers. Due to its very favourable environment for disease 

development, the coastal district of Syria is an excellent location for work of this type. 

However, in support of this emphasis, much work still remains to be done on screening 

techniques and methods of creating artificial epiphytotic conditions in the field, before 

reasonable advances can be expected. With the present undeveloped state of breeding work 

aimed at the production of resistant varieties, short-term efforts should also be geared 

toward development of chemical controls together with modified agronomic practices, 

including measures to control various weed reservoirs of inoculum, whereas long-term 

research should focus more on an integrated control strategy in which resistant varieties 

play the major role. 

101

Besides its more obvious effect on seed yield, disease can also affect seed quality and 

hence the price that the farmer receives for his produce. Seeds infected with Ascochyta, for 

example, are covered with brown spots and thus have a low market value. The relation 

between disease infection and seed quality, in terms of protein quantity and quality, and the 

presence of antinutritional factors need study, and quality considerations must be taken into 

account in determining the economic feasibility of various disease control measures. 

Much work remains to be done, but recognition of the magnitude of the problem and 

the critical areas of importance within it are enabling research to focus itself much more 

finely on providing solutions to the specific disease constraints, which at present prevent a 

greatly increased production of these important food crops in Syria. 

102

Food Legume Diseases in North Africa 

M. Djerbi 

INAT, 43 avenue Charles Nicolle, Tunis, Tunisia 

and 

A. Mlaiki and M. Bouslama 

Division technique de l'Office de céréals, 30 A/am Savoury, Tunis, Tunisia 

Food legumes have been important crops for some considerable time in the countries 

of North Africa, and recent increases in demand for dry pulses in Western Europe appear to 

be promoting a renewed interest in these crops. Food legumes provide a valuable source of 

dietary protein to the population and also play an important role in maintaining soil 

productivity in rotations by accumulating plant nutrients, such as nitrogen, and improving 

soil physical conditions. 

The area occupied by grain legumes has fluctuated around 800 000 ha for the past 10 

years, and the production from this area similarly around 600 000 metric tonnes. The low 

and variable yields obtained from these crops are to a large extent a result of the number 

and severity of the diseases that habitually affect them. These diseases affect both the yield 

and quality of the food legumes and constitute perhaps the most limiting factors to their 

production. 

Diseases of Broad Bean (Viciafaba) 

Broad beans are the dominant grain legume crop in North Africa, but yields are low 

and erratic as the commonly grown land varieties are poor yielders and susceptible to many 

pests and diseases. Fungal pathogens that affect the crop that may cause appreciable 

damage includeBotrytisfabae (chocolate spot), Uromycesfabae (rust), Cercosporafabae, 

Peronosporafabae (downy mildew), Fusarium culmorum and F. avenaceum (root rot and 

wilt), and Pleospora herbarum. Of these, Botrylis fabae is by far the most important, 

becoming epidemic in hot and humid spring weather during flowering and fruit maturity 

and causing very great yield losses. Infection, for example, was so severe in 1970 and 1973 

that farmers had no alternative but to plough in their crops. The disease is characterized by 

the appearance of circular brown spots on the leaves, from which it gets its common name, 

chocolate spot. These spots are usually from ito 3 mm in diameter, but can reach up to 15 

mm and coalesce to form large necrotic areas in some cases. Diseased plants are also 

covered with necrotic lesions at their base and on their stems, and the flower parts and pods 

become covered in small black spots, which may result in a high percentage of flower 

sterility. 

Although the other diseases are endemic to North Africa and appear regularly on the 

crop, they appear to have little economic importance in the region. 

Diseases of Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) 

Chick-pea is the second-most important grain legume crop in North Africa and is 

grown on approximately half the acreage devoted to broad beans. Several pathogens affect 

the crop causing considerable yield losses. These include ,4scochyta rabiei (blight) (also 

103

ecorded as Mycosphaerella rabiei), Fusarium oxysporum (wilt), and Pleospora herbarum. 

Perhaps the most severe of these diseases in the region is Ascochyta blight, which 

causes elongated cankers on the stems, and circular/oval, brown to white spots with red 

margins about 8-10 mm in diameter on the young leaves. The pods are also infected and 

the pathogen enters the seed in which it is preserved to cause future infections. Mild attacks 

of this disease usually cause losses of the order of 40%, but plants infected early in the 

season, or in humid springs when the disease takes on epidemic proportions, may lose all 

their green tissues and have to be ploughed in. 

All land varieties grown in Tunisia are susceptible toA. rabiei, and, as the fungus can 

be preserved in very hardy structures on plant parts left in the soil as well as in the seed, it 

recurs regularly every year in the chick-pea crops, becoming very severe only when 

environmental conditions are favourable. Seeds with coloured seed coats have been shown 

to be tolerant to the pathogen, but are unfortunately of no commercial value. 

In contrast to Ascochyta blight, the yellowing and wilting of plants caused by species 

of the genus Fusarium (F. oxysporum and F. lateritium) are particularly serious in dry 

seasons. Losses resulting from these pathogens, which are also preserved both in the seed 

and in diseased plant parts in the field, have been recorded as between 20 and 40% in 

Tunisia during 1977. 

Pleospora herbarum, which is predominantly seed transmitted, causes a decreased 

germination capacity in infected seeds. However, the economic impact of the pathogen is, 

at present, negligible. 

Diseases of Dry Peas (Pisum sativum) 

Although ranking third in importance after broad beans and chick-peas in the region as 

a whole, dry peas are more important in Morocco. The presence of several pathogenic 

agents, which include Ascochyta sp. (A. pisi, A. Pinodella, and A. Pinodes) and F. 

oxysporum, has been confirmed on this crop. 

Of these, Ascochyta sp. are the group most frequently observed and most 

economically important. Variations in the size of the fruiting bodies (pycnidia), the spores, 

and in the symptoms caused allow an easy distinction between the three important species 

of the pathogen. A. pisi has spores measuring approximately 4.2 x 13.9 microns, and 

causes large pale-brown spots containing black pyncidia intermediate in size, on the leaves 

and pods. Some stem injury may also be apparent. Whereas the other two species cause 

darker leaf spots with purple margins, A. pinodella has small pycnidia and spores 

measuring 3.7 x 8.8 microns and mainly causes root rot, while A. pinodes attacks all the 

plant parts and has large fruiting bodies and spores measuring 4.5 x 12.3 microns. All 

three species can be seed transmitted as well as preserved on plant parts in the soil and yield 

losses from infection may be severe, especially in Morocco, which, as a result of the 

oceanic influence, has a higher April to June rainfall and humidity than the other two 

countries. 

Wilting caused by F. oxysporum f. pisi and other Fusarium species is characterized by 

yellowing of the foliage and dwarfing and may result in severe plant injury and yield loss. 

The disease favours dry soil and high temperature conditions and generally appears in the 

field in isolated circular foci, which enlarge as the season progresses and may coalesce to 

cause extensive field infection in serious attacks. 

Diseases of Dry Beans (Phaseolus spp.) 

Dry beans are cultivated on only approximately 14 000 ha of land in North Africa and 

thus make little contribution to the agricultural economy of the region. Many pathogens 

have been reported as infecting this crop, among which Colletotrichum lindemuthianum f. 

sp. phaseoli, which causes anthracnose (characterized by yellowing and wilting 

symptoms), bean mosaic virus (BMV), and bacterial diseases are the most significant. 

104

Diseases of Lentils (Lens sp.) 

Few studies have been carried out on the disease problems of this crop to date; 

however, Botrvtis sp. and F. oxvsporum appear to be the most important pathogens. 

Research Efforts 

From the limited volume of work so far undertaken on legume diseases in the North 

African region, it appears thatBotrytisfabae is the fungal pathogen of major importance in 

broad beans and Ascochyta spp. and Fusarium spp. cause the most problems in chick-pea 

and dry pea crops. Past research on diseases of grain legumes has been concentrated on 

studies ofA. rabiei, and insufficient importance has been attached to these other disease 

problems. Present research aims to correct this imbalance by focusing on the estimation of 

losses caused by all three major legume diseases; the evolution of reliable inoculation 

techniques for these pathogens to promote good artificial infections for screening purposes; 

the identification of lines of broad bean and chick-pea resistant to the major diseases; the 

analysis of symptom expression for the evaluation of host reaction to diseases and the 

determination of tolerance as well as general field resistance; and the evaluation of cultural 

and chemical control methods as supplements to the main control program, which focuses 

on host plant resistance. In this way a greater understanding of the mechanisms involved in 

disease infection and development, leading to the establishment of integrated strategies for 

minimizing these severe constraints to production, can be achieved. 

105

Food Legume Diseases in Ethiopia 

Alemu Mengistu 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia 

The most important food legume crops in Ethiopia are grown in the highland regions, 

at altitudes of between 2800 and 3000 m where annual rainfall varies from 950 to 1500 

mm. These crops include chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), broad bean (Viciafaba), lentil (Lens 

cu/mans), grasspea (Lathyrus sativus), and field pea (Pisum sativum). Of these, chick-pea 

is the most important, occupying 30% of the total pulse acreage. Other relatively newly 

introduced species, such as soybean (Glycine max), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), lima 

bean (Phaseolus lunatus), and haricot bean Phaseolus vulgaris), are also grown on a small 

scale and predominantly at the lower altitudes. 

The pulse improvement program in Ethiopia is still in its infancy. However, the 

limited studies made to date on legume crops have indicated that diseases caused by several 

species of soil and foliar fungi, nematodes, viruses, and mycoplasma result in serious crop 

losses and are a severe constraint to the more widespread and intensive cultivation of food 

legumes in the country. 

Important Diseases 

As it is the most widely grown pulse crop, chick-pea has benefited from considerably 

more work on its disease problems than the other food legumes. Of the diseases that cause 

serious yield losses in chick-peas, the complex of wilt and root rot is the most significant. 

These diseases, caused by a group of pathogenic fungi that include Fusarium oxysporum, 

Scierotium roifsii, Rhizoctonia bataticola, andR. solani, may result in losses of up to 80% 

in farmers' fields and contribute significantly to the low yields usually obtained from this 

crop (630-790 kg/ha). Similar problems of wilt and root rot also beset lentils, broad beans, 

and field peas. 

Both chick-pea and safflower may suffer considerable losses from infection by a 

species of Melodogyne (the root knot nematode) and rust (Uromyces ciceri arietini), and 

more recently blight (Ascochyta rabiei) has been found to cause great damage under certain 

conditions. 

On lentils, anthracnose (Colletotrichum destructivum), rust Uromyces fabae), and 

blight (Ascochyta lini) are the most significant diseases, whereas chocolate spot (Botrytis 

fabae) and rust cause the greatest yield loss in broad beans. Yield reductions of up to 35% 

have been caused by attacks of powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) on field peas, and 

haricot beans suffer mainly from rust, anthracnose, and bacterial blights. Full details of the 

diseases recorded throughout Ethiopia are given in Table 1. 

Studies on seed-borne microflora involving bioassays have revealed 38 fungi, 1 virus, 

and I bacteria (Bacillus subtilis) associated with soybean seed, and 15 fungi together with 

B. subtilis in association with seeds of chick-pea. Tests have shown that many of these 

fungi are pathogenic and such seeds may thus provide an important source of primary 

inoculum for disease development in the country. 

Control Measures 

Seed dressings of Furaden, Polyram combi, and Folcidin, when used in combination 

with insecticides, have been found to increase chick-pea yields by an average of 14% as a 

106

TABLE I. List of important pulse diseases recorded from surveys made between 1976 and 1977. 

Chick-pea 

Ascoc/ivia rabaej 

Fusariu,n oxysporum3 

Rhizoctonia 50/0ja 

Rhizoctonia bataticola° 

Scierotium rolfciP1 

Uromyces cicer arietini 

Leveillula taurica 

Melodogvne Spp. 

Stunt virus 

Phyllody 

Lentils 

Ascochyta lini 

Rhizoctonia solani3 

Sclerotium rolfsii3 

Fusarium oxysporum 

Stunt virus 

Uro,nvces fahae 

Colletotrichu,n destructiv,4,n 

Powdery mildew 

Broad beans 

Botrvtisfabae3 

Urornvces fahae" 

Sclerotium rolftui 

Rhizoctonia hataticola 

Root knot nematodes 

Erysiphe po!vgoni 

Colletorrichum ljndemuthiwiurn 

Viruses 

Presently identified as the most important diseases. 

Field peas 

Fusariurn 

Oidium spp. (F. polvgoni)3 

Ascochyta pisi 

Septori pisi 

Cercospora leaf spot 

Uromvces pisi 

Haricot beans 

Xanthomonas phaseoli3 

Pseudomonas phaseolicola 

Virus complex 

Uromyces phaseoli var. tvpica 

Co/letotrichum linde,nuihianum 

Fucari,on wilt 

Soybeans 

Pseudomonas glycinea 

Soybean mosaic virus 

Downy mildew 

Scierorinia sclerotiurn 

Diaporthe phaseolorum var.sojae 

Macrophonina phaseolina 

Colletotrichuin demalium var. trunca ruin 

Selerotiurn rolfsii 

Green pea (rough pea) 

Rust 

Root rot3 

Cowpea 

Bacterial blight3 

Virus 

Yellowing flecks 

result of control of pathogens causing both wilt and rot and the control of soil-living insect 

pests. Treatments with the fungicide Thiram together with the insecticide Aidrin have also 

resulted in considerable yield increases (about 69%) over untreated checks. 

Fungicide sprays of Tridemorph and Dinocap have given adequate control of powdery 

mildew, but dusting with powdered sulfur or spraying with Karathane results in much 

better control. 

Dusting with sulfur has also been found to be useful in controlling rust diseases, but 

the development of resistant varieties appears to be a more practical method of consistent 

control. In controlling anthracnose, spraying with copper or dithiocarbamate fungicides, 

using disease-free seed, and planting resistant varieties have proved very effective 

measures. The use of disease-free seed, resistant varieties, and seed treatment with 

organomercurial fungicides is recommended for control of bacterial blights. 

Screening of chick-pea lines for resistance to wilt, root rot, and Ascochyta blight is 

under way and has so far yielded some indication of a correlation between seed coat colour 

and wilt/root rot resistance, black and red seeded lines, in general, being fairly resistant to 

these diseases and white seeded varieties being more susceptible. Because there is a 

definite consumer preference for light seeded types, the combination of resistance and high 

yield into light seeded varieties has been a focus of previous research work. 

At present, nurseries of chick-pea material from ICRISAT and of lentil material from 

ICARDA planted and screened in Ethiopia are yielding some promising lines. However, 

much more rigorous screening must be undertaken in the future to fully evaluate these 

varieties. Other research work currently under way includes the evaluation of field pea 

107

lines for resistance toAscochyta blight, powdery mildew, and root rot, and of haricot bean 

varieties for resistance to bacterial blight and viruses. 

Studies of cultural practices have shown that date of planting and planting depth have 

a definite influence on wilt and root rot incidence and development and hence yield loss. 

Planting around the end of July has given significantly higher yields than when planting is 

delayed, and the percentage recovery of pathogenic fungi from plants was found to 

decrease with delay in planting. Investigations have also shown definite improvements in 

plant stand and seed yield to be associated with planting at a depth of 6 cm as opposed to 

higher (2cm) or lower (Il cm and 15 cm) in the profile. This may be as a result of the seed 

being less exposed on the one hand to adverse weather conditions and on the other to the 

seed-rotting organisms. Losses from wilt/rot diseases may also be minimized by avoiding 

the planting of susceptible varieties on low-lying and wet fields. 

Research Priorities 

The present survey work on pulse diseases will be extended to provide adequate and 

up-to-date information on the important diseases and the level of losses that result from 

them across the country. 

The collection of local germ plasm and its evaluation alongside introduced material 

will be continued in an effort to produce a number of high-yielding varieties resistant to the 

specifically important diseases that prevail in Ethiopia. 

Studies on the effect of cultural practices and chemicals on disease incidence and 

severity will be expanded to complement the breeding and selection work and to evolve a 

wide range of individual and integrated control measures. 

Seed inspection by the plant quarantine section of the Ministry of Agriculture will be 

strengthened and a seed health-testing centre needs to be established so that pathogens on 

imported seeds can be detected and eliminated before causing damage within the country. 

These developments, it is hoped, will provide a good and solid base to pulse pathology 

work in Ethiopia. However, severe constraints, such as inadequate laboratory facilities, 

insufficient field equipment, and trained manpower, and poor access to scientific work and 

information generated outside the country, are at present combining to prevent the rapid 

evolution that is necessary within the legume improvement program as a whole. The 

reduction of these constraining factors will pave the way for the development of adequate, 

appropriate, and consistent disease control measures, which will in turn reduce limitations 

to more widespread and intensive production of these legume crops. 

108

Diseases of Broad Beans (Viciafaba) in the Sudan 

Mustafa M. Hussein and Sami 0. Freigoun 

Hudeiha Research Station, P.O. Box 3/, Ed-Darner, Sudan 

Broad bean, or 'ful masri" to use its Arabic name, is a popular food crop in the 

Sudan. The dry beans, cooked overnight on a low flame and served with sesame oil, salt, 

and pepper, constitute a very common dish for the masses throughout much of the country. 

Although the price has almost doubled in the past few years (now equalling 240 Sudanese 

pounds per tonne) consumption is steadily rising. This is a good sign because nutritionally 

broad bean is a good protein substitute for meat, which itself is rapidly becoming 

increasingly expensive. 

In the north of Sudan, where suitable climatic conditions prevail, comparatively large 

areas are annually sown to broad beans. The acreage, however, fluctuates considerably 

depending on the farmers' preference for the crop as opposed to its main alternative, 

French beans, which in turn is determined by market prices. Average yields vary from 

1200 kg/feddan (I feddan = 1.0379 acres) under research conditions to about 600 

kg/feddan in the farmers' fields. This difference and the large annual yield fluctuations 

experienced can be attributed in part to the considerable number of diseases that affect the 

crop. Some of the more important of these diseases are currently under investigation at the 

Hudeiba Research Station. 

Viral Diseases 

Broad Bean Mosaic Disease 

This is a common disease, widespread in broad bean-growing areas and especially 

severe in late sown crops. Its causal organism, Sudanese broad bean mosaic virus 

(SBBMV), is considered to consist of two distinct virus particles, namely pea mosaic virus 

(PMV) and broad bean mottle virus (BBMV), which can be present separately or in 

combination. PMV is the most common component and appears to be responsible for most 

of the damage (Table 1). Both viruses produce similar symptoms (i.e., mottling and (or) 

vein clearing) and can be carried symptomless in the plant. Transmission of PMV is 

through insects, specifically aphids, as well as mechanically and in seeds as with BBMV. 

PMV transmission in broad bean seed has been found to be more frequent than that of 

either BBMV or the complex SBBMV. 

Disease development is closely related to sowing date; incidence and final percentage 

infection increases steadily with delay in sowing. Artificial infection with a mixture of the 

two viruses under field conditions has been shown to significantly reduce the plant height, 

number of pods per plant, and seed weight of crops sown at the optimum date. This effect, 

however, was masked in late sown plants (Table 2). Neither application of nitrogen nor 

TABLI I. Effects of the individual components of SBBMV on the components of broad bean yield. 

Treatment No. pods/plant Seed wt (g) 

PMV 9.0 4.9 

BBMV 17.5 13.2 

SBBMV 17.7 15.7 

Control 28.5 23.4 

(no disease) 

109

TABLE 2. Effect of SBBMV on the components of broad bean yield and its variation with sowing date. 

Seed wt 

(g) 

1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 

Seed wt 

Mean no. 

Seed wt 

Mean no. 

(g) 

pods/plant 

(g) 

pods/plant 

Mean no. 

pods/plant 

NI I NI I NI I NI I NI I NT 

Sowing date 

7Oct. 26.0 35.9 23.9 40.5 2.5 29.0 1.1 24.9 17.9 36.9 15.1 30.9 

21 Oct. 25.6 36.3 22.9 36.7 1.4 23.5 1.1 19.1 16.9 26.4 14.4 23.7 

4Nov. 18.9 20.3 20.9 25.6 1.0 14.9 0.4 10.8 14.1 18.4 10.7 13.7 

18 Nov. 11.4 11.9 8.5 10.2 0.4 7.6 0.1 2.7 7.8 6.7 4.9 3.7 

I = inoculated with SSBMV; NI = not inoculated.

spraying against the vector has had any effect on disease incidence. This indicates that the 

extent of seed transmission may be considerably greater than at present envisaged. At this 

time the only control measure that can be advocated involves sowing at the optimum time 

(the second half of October). 

Phillody (Green Flower) Disease 

This is a minor disease that has previously been attributed to the group of 

witches'-broom viral diseases. Extensive and detailed surveys have consistently shown the 

incidence to be low and insufficient to justify concern at present. No insect vector nor any 

indication of secondary spread is evident and all attempts to transmit the virus by insects on 

dodder or in seeds have proved unsuccessful. Disease incidence diminishes sharply with 

delayed sowing but so far no other consistent control method has been discovered. 

Fungal Diseases 

Powdery Mildew 

This is one of the major fungal diseases in Sudan, causing considerable losses in years 

favourable for its development and spread. It is caused by Leive/lula taurica Lev., which 

infects the crop early in the season, and Erysiphe polygoni and an Oidium species that 

appear later in the season. Disease incidence can be significantly reduced by applications 

of several fungicides, especially sulfur-based compounds, but this has not been found to be 

associated with a reduction in yield losses, even if used as a protective measure before the 

appearance of infection symptoms. However, losses can be greatly reduced by sowing at 

the optimum time (late October). All local and previously introduced varieties are 

susceptible to the disease and hence sources of resistance introduced from Russia and 

Germany are currently being used in breeding programs aimed at achieving better control. 

Wilt and Root Rot Diseases 

Since 1972, the incidence and severity of diseases causing a variety of wilting 

symptoms has increased considerably, especially in seasons with conditions of relatively 

high temperature. The variation in disease symptoms suggests the involvement of more 

than one pathogen, and this has been confirmed by the isolation from diseased material of 

Fusarium oxysporum, responsible for the typical wilt symptoms characterized by general 

leaf yellowing and discolouration of the xylem vessels, and Fusarium solani f.sp. fabae, 

causing the yellowing of the margins and gradual death of older leaves and the sudden 

death of younger leaves associated with basal rotting of the roots. 

In addition to the negative effect on seed yield, which can be considerable, infection 

by these pathogens has been found to significantly reduce seed quality, especially protein 

content. Results of investigations into chemical control of these diseases have so far proved 

negative, and although there are significant differences between varieties in the degree of 

infection, no good source of resistance has yet been discovered. However, again, sowing 

date can be seen to positively affect disease development (Table 2) and losses due to these 

diseases may be minimized by late sowing. 

Disease Complex 

This is a newly recorded disease, causing necrosis of stems, leaves, and pods, basal 

root rotting, and the rapid collapse of plants. Isolation tests suggest that the disease is 

caused by a combined infection of Fusarium spp. and Helminthosporium spiciferuin. It is 

aggravated by water stress and high temperatures but severity can be to some extent 

reduced by avoiding early sowing of the crop. 

Diseases of broad beans in the Sudan cause considerable loss almost every year. 

However, losses vary with environmental conditions and can be minimized by choosing the 

optimum sowing date when only one disease prevails or a compromised sowing date where 

more than one disease is important. At present, control through chemicals and varietal 

resistance has proved largely ineffective in reducing disease losses. Nevertheless work 

continues in the development of effective control methods aimed at giving a much greater 

and more stable production of this crop, which is so important to the life of Sudan. 

Ill

Section IV 

Major Pests and Weeds of Food Legumes 

Insect Pests of Food Legumes in the Middle East 

Nasri S. Kawar 


Food legumes are attacked by a variety of insect and mite pests that feed on the leaves, 

the seeds in their pods, or on the underground parts of the plants. A key of the most 

important insect and mite pests of beans, peas, chick-peas, and lentils grown in Middle 

Eastern countries is as follows. 

Key to the most important insect and mite pests of beans, peas, chick-peas, and lentils 

in the Middle East 

A. Insects and notes sucking sap from the leaves and stems 

(I) Small, greenish, long-legged aphids feeding on undersides of leaves and stems and causing 

Macrosiphum pisi 

plants to look bronzy and wither 

Black aphids found on the terminal growth of beans; plants often become covered with sooty 

Aphisfabae 

mould 

Bean leaves become yellow or bronzed in colour and die; white webs on underside of leaves, 

among which are many microscopic eight-legged reddish or greenish mites Tetranychus urticae 

B. Insects eating holes in the leaves or tunneling in stems 

(I) A tiny weevil with a striped body that feeds by eating crescent-shaped pieces from the margins 

Sitona lineata 

of leaves 

(2) Wilted bean plants and dead stems with tiny white maggots inside 

Melanagronvza phaseoli 

C. Insects attacking seeds within the pods in the field and in slorage 

(I) Peas within pods partly eaten by cream-coloured caterpillars (up to 13 mm long) covered by 

webs and surrounded by pellets of excrement 

Laspeyresia ngricana 

Chick-pea pods containing large greenish caterpillars with alternating light and dark stripes 

along the length of the body 

Heliothis armigera 

Interior of peas in the field and in storage eaten by tiny white grubs and brownish beetles with 

two small black spots at tip of abdomen; only one insect in each seed Bruchu,s pisorum 

Interior of beans and peas in the field and in storage eaten by grubs similar to C3 and by smaller 

brownish beetles; often several insects in a seed 

Bruchus rufimanus 

D. Insects cutting off plants near the surface of ground or feeding on underground parts 

(I) Plants chewed off near surface of ground by brown, gray, black, or dull-green greasy-looking 

and variously striped or spotted caterpillars 

Cutwornts 

(2) Seedlings uprooted and roots cut off by a weird-looking brown cricket with strong digging 

shovel-like front legs 

Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa 

Pea Aphid 

The pea aphid, Macrosiphum pisi (Harris), belongs to the family Aphididae of the 

order Homoptera. The adult aphid is long-legged and green in colour, and the largest 

individual measures about 5 mm long. It has red eyes, and its legs and cornicles are usually 

tipped with yellow. Winged and wingless forms are found together on the plants. 

Host Plants 

Peas, sweet peas, clover, sweet clover, alfalfa, and weeds of the legume family are 

commonly attacked by the pea aphid. 

112

Damage 

Infested plants wilt as a result of the sap sucking of the aphids and bronzy patches 

appear in the field. The pea aphid is also a vector of pea enation mosaic virus, which infects 

peas, vetch, and sweet clover, and of the yellow bean mosaic of peas and alfalfa. 

Life Cycle 

M. pisi may continue to breed during the winter in areas where host plants are 

available and climatic conditions are favourable for its development. In spring, the aphid 

population increases sharply and several generations are produced during the spring and 

summer months. Winged forms appear when the aphids become crowded on the plant and 

these spread to other plants to start new colonies. In areas where the temperature in autumn 

drops and winters are cold, the pea aphid follows a holocyclic life pattern. In autumn the 

viviparous females give birth to young aphids, some of which develop into winged males 

and others into winged and wingless females. These become sexually mature, copulate, 

and the females lay their eggs on the leaves and stems of alfalfa and red clover. The eggs 

are light green in colour at first and gradually change to shiny black; after overwintering 

they hatch into wingless parthenogenetic stem-mothers in the following spring. 


A number of systemic organophosphate insecticides are effective against the pea 

aphid. In recent years, several aphicides have been developed; these have the added 

advantage over broad-spectrum insecticides of specificity of action against aphids alone. 

Bean Aphid 

The bean aphidAphisfabae (Scop.) also belongs to the family Aphididae of the order 

Homoptera. The adult aphid is black in colour and smaller in size than the pea aphid. 

Winged and wingless forms are found together on plants. 

Host Plants 

Bean plants are the main host of A.fabae. Many weeds are also infested by this aphid. 

Damage 

The aphids are found mainly on the terminal growth of plants where they suck the sap 

and cause yellowing of leaves and dwarfing of plants. Black sooty mould develops on the 

leaves as a result of the secretion of sugary substances by the aphids. A. fabae is also a 

vector of bean common mosaic, yellow mosaic, and soybean mosaic viruses. 

Life Cycle 

It is very common to find bean aphids on plants all the year round in areas where 

climatic conditions are favourable for their development. Under such conditions they 

continue to reproduce parthenogenetically, producing many generations per year. 

However, in colder areas sexual forms appear late in autumn and the eggs are laid on 

woody plants. The eggs hatch as soon as weather conditions become favourable and 

parthenogenetic reproduction is resumed. 


These are similar to the measures used for the control of pea aphids. 

Spider Mites 

Spider mites belong to the family Tetranychidae of the order Acarina, class 

Arachnida. They are cosmopolitan in distribution and infest a wide variety of plants. Many 

species exist, of which the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae (Koch) is the most 

113

common and widely distributed. The adult female mite is about 0.5 mm long and many 

range in colour from pale green to brown and orange. The male is smaller, about 0.35 mm 

long, with a narrower body and pointed abdomen. The body is oval in shape, 

nonsegmented, and covered with spines. The two dark spots that give the mite its name are 

readily visible on the back. The larval stage has three pairs of legs, and subsequent stages 

have four pairs. The egg is spherical and pearly white in colour at first, changing to 

yellowish orange with embryonic development. 

Host Plants 

T. urticae is a highly polyphagous mite and attacks a wide variety of crops including 

beans, squash, eggplants, tomatoes, apples, and many ornamental plants and weeds. 

Damage 

The leaves of plants infested with two-spotted spider mite turn brown due to the 

suckling of the mites, gradually die, and are shed. The female mites spin webs on the 

undersides of leaves within which they lay their eggs. In heavily infested plants, mites are 

readily seen moving about in the web. 

Life Cycle 

Only the fertilized females ofT. urticae overwinter in protected locations, usually on 

trees, the males having died immediately following copulation. In spring, the mites at first 

infest the weeds and then migrate to vegetables and fruit trees. The egg hatches into the 

larval stage, which has only three pairs of legs. The larva then passes through a resting 

stage known as the nymphochrysalis and emerges as the protonymph with four pairs of 

legs. Again it passes through a resting stage, the deutochrysalis, and into the second active 

stage, the deutonymph. A third resting stage, known as the teleiochrysalis, follows, which 

culminates in the adult stage. The adult male and female copulate shortly after emerging 

and the female starts to lay eggs 2 days later. The larvae reach the adult stage in 6 days at 

22 °C and in 32 days at 10 CC. Therefore, several generations may be produced per year, 

and it is very common to see all stages of development on one plant. 


The indiscriminate use of broad spectrum insecticides like DDT, which had no effect 

on mites and killed only their natural enemies, has resulted in a tremendous increase in 

mite populations. At present, mites are the most serious pest on many crops all over the 

world. They have acquired resistance to many commonly used pesticides and new 

chemicals have to be developed constantly to keep abreast of the mite problem. Several 

specific acaricides are available on the market at present. In a study on the control of the 

two-spotted spider mite on apples, two acaricides proved to be very effective: they were 

Plictran, tricyclohexyltin hydroxide and Phosalone, a phosphorodithioate compound. 

Pea Leaf Weevil 

The pea leaf weevil Sitona lineata (L.) belongs to the family Curculionidae of the 

order Coleoptera. The adult is a beetle measuring 4-5 mm long, dark in colour, and 

covered with a dense coat of short hairs. Dark- and light-coloured rows of hairs on the back 

of the beetle give it a striped appearance. The larvae are legless, whitish in colour, and bear 

brownish hairs on their bodies. The egg is oval in shape, yellowish white in colour when 

first laid, and darkens in colour as embryonic development proceeds. 

Host Plants 

The pea leaf weevil attacks many leguminous plants, including peas, beans, alfalfa, 

and clover. 

Damage 

The adult beetles feed on the host plants by chewing small crescent-shaped areas from 

114

the leaves. The larvae feed on the nitrogen-fixing bacterial nodules and on the roots. 

Damage by this insect is most serious in newly emerged seedlings, as the feeding of the 

beetles results in total destruction of the young leaves. 

Life Cycle 

S. lineata passes the winter in the adult stage. In early spring, when the temperature 

reaches about 15 °C, the adults start to appear and feed on the host plants. Copulation takes 

place in about 2 weeks, and the females lay their eggs on the soil below the plants. The 

incubation period of the eggs is considerably influenced by humidity and temperature. 

High relative humidity is very important for embryonic development. The newly hatched 

larvae crawl into the soil and feed on the nodules and the roots. The larval stage is 

completed in 3-4 weeks and pupation takes place in the soil, requiring 10-15 days for 

completion. Adults of the new generation start to appear in mid-July but most emerge in 

August and September. 


The adult beetles should be controlled as soon as they appear on the young seedlings. 

Many of the contact organophosphorus insecticides are effective against this insect. 

Bean Fly 

The bean fly Malanagromyza phaseoli (Cog.) belongs to the family Agromyzidae of 

the order Diptera. The adult fly is blackish in colour with red eyes and measures about 2.5 

mm long. The larvae are cream white in colour and reach a maximum length of 4 mm. The 

egg is pearly white and oval shaped. 

Host Plants 

Bean, soybeans, and a variety of weeds are the hosts of this fly. 

Damage 

The larva feeds by mining through the leaf and the petiole; it reaches the stem where it 

continues moving downward. Feeding of the larva introduces rot-causing microorganisms 

into the plant and these cause breakdown of tissues and consequent wilting of the plants. 

Life Cycle 

M. phaseoli has several generations per year. The time required to complete one 

generation depends on temperature and ranges from 12 days in summer to 19-26 days in 

autumn. The adult lays its eggs in the tissues of the upper surface of bean leaves. The 

newly hatched larvae tunnel in the leaves and into the stem where they continue feeding 

until they reach full size. Several larvae usually pupate together in the stem. Attack by this 

insect is almost continuous on beans grown in the autumn. 


Chemical control of M. phaseoli is difficult to achieve as the larvae feed inside the 

plants. Soil treatment at planting time with granular systemic insecticides, such as 

carbofuran, followed by foliar sprays with systemic insecticides, have proved effective in 

preventing early damage to plants. 

Pea Moth 

The pea moth Laspeyresia nigricana (Stephens) belongs to the family Olethreutidae of 

the order Lepidoptera. The adult is a small and delicate moth measuring about 15 mm 

across the spread wings. The moths, which are brown in colour with short black and white 

oblique lines along the front margin of the first pair of wings, are usually seen flying about 

the plants in late afternoon. The larva is yellowish white in colour and measures about 13 

115

mm long. It has small dark spots and short hairs scattered over the body. The egg is white, 

flattened, and minute. 

Host Plants 

Damage 

The pea moth attacks field and garden peas, sweet peas, and vetches. 

The caterpillars attack the seeds inside the pods and their presence is not easily 

detected unless the pods are opened. The seeds are spoiled and the pods partially filled with 

excreta and the silken webs of the caterpillars. Often fungus may develop and spoil seeds 

that are not damaged by the worms. 

Life Cycle 

L. nigricana overwinters in the larval stage inside silken cocoons. These are usually 

found in the soil a short distance below the surface. In late spring the larvae pupate and the 

adults appear as the peas start to blossom. Eggs are laid on the plants, and as soon as the 

tiny larvae emerge they eat their way into the pods without leaving noticeable holes. They 

stay in the pods until they become full grown, when they emerge to drop into the soil. 

There is usually only one generation per year. 


Chemical control of this insect is difficult, as all the caterpillars do not emerge from 

the eggs at the same time and they are protected inside the pods. Therefore, control 

measures should concentrate on the removal of crop remnants from the field, deep plowing 

in autumn to kill overwintering larvae, and planting of early maturing varieties. 

Corn Earworm 

The corn earworm Heliothis armigera (Hb.) is also known as the tobacco budworm, 

tomato fruitworm, cotton bollworm, and vetchworm. It belongs to the family Noctuidae of 

the order Lepidoptera. The adult moth has a wingspan of about 40 mm, the front wings 

being light grayish brown with dark-gray irregular lines and with dark areas near their tips, 

while the hind wings are white with dark bands around the margins. The caterpillars vary in 

colour from light green to brown or black and are marked with alternating longitudinal light 

and dark stripes. The head is yellow and the legs are dark or nearly black. A full-grown 

caterpillar reaches 40 mm long. The egg is hemispherical and longitudinally striped. 

Host Plants 

The corn earworm is a highly polyphagous pest attacking a wide variety of crops and 

weeds. It is most serious on corn, tomato, tobacco, cotton, and vetch. It also attacks 

chick-peas but infestations are not normally serious. In a study conducted in the Beka'a 

(Lebanon), it was found that chick-peas planted in May and June were almost free of 

damage whereas those planted in March and April had about 6% infested pods. 

Damage 

The caterpillars feed on the fruits of infested plants and render them unmarketable. 

Life Cycle 

H. armigera overwinters in the pupal stage in the soil. The moths appear between 

mid- and late April, depending on weather conditions, and copulation starts shortly 

afterward. The females lay their eggs on host plants and the young caterpillars feed briefly 

on the leaves before boring into the fruits. In about 20-25 days, the larvae become full 

grown, leave the fruits, and drop to the soil to pupate. New moths appear in about 15 days 

and the insect thus has several generations per year. 

116


Chemical control of the caterpillars is vital especially on crops that are heavily 

attacked by this pest. A variety of contact organophosphate and carbamate insecticides may 

be used and early treatment is important. 

Pea Weevil 

The pea weevil Bruchus pisorum (Linne) belongs to the family Bruchidae of the order 

Coleoptera. The adult is a short oval-shaped beetle, about 4 mm long, brownish in colour 

with white and black patches and two small black spots at the tip of the abdomen. The larva 

is tiny, whitish to yellowish in colour, with a brown head. It has very short legs and spines 

on the body that help it in burrowing in the pod and seeds. The eggs are elongate and 

yellowish in colour. 

Host Plants 

Peas are the only plants attacked. 

Damage 

This insect feeds inside pea seeds in storage and renders them unfit for human or 

animal consumption. Green peas are also attacked, and infested seeds lose their viability, 

failing to produce a good stand when planted. 

Life Cycle 

B. pisorum overwinters in the adult stage either in stored peas or in crop remnants in 

the field. The weevils emerge when the plants are in blossom, feed on various parts of the 

plant, and the females lay their eggs on the pods. The eggs hatch in about a week, and the 

tiny larva eat their way through the pod and into the seeds. Only one insect develops in 

each seed. The larva continues to feed inside the seed until it becomes full grown and 

pupates inside a gluey substance that it secretes. There is only one generation per year. The 

weevils do not reproduce in stored peas, as the female can only lay her eggs on growing 

plants. 


Field infestations may be controlled with contact organophosphate insecticides 

applied to the plants during the early bloom period before the eggs are laid. Removal of 

plant remnants by plowing under or burning is very effective in controlling the 

overwintering weevils. Fumigation is used to control the insects infesting stored peas; 

camphor gave 100% mortality in the weevils when applied as a fumigant in airtight 

containers at concentrations of 12, 24, 48, and 96 ppm. 

Broad Bean Weevil 

The broad bean weevil Bruchus rufimanus (Boheman) also belongs to the family 

Bruchidae of the order Coleoptera. The adult is similar to the pea weevil except that it is 

smaller in size and lacks the two black spots at the tip of the abdomen so conspicuous in the 

pea weevil. Furthermore, the tooth near the apex of the femur is broader and more blunt 

than in the pea weevil. 

Host Plants 

Broad beans are the preferred host of this insect, but it also attacks peas and vetches. 

Damage 

Like the pea weevil, this insect continues its feeding inside stored seeds and renders 

them unfit for human or animal consumption. 

117

Life Cycle 

B. rufimanus resembles the pea weevil in its habits and development. The only 

striking difference is that several insects infest a single seed in contrast to the pea weevil, 

where only one insect is found per seed. 


These are similar to the measures used for controlling pea weevils. 

Cutworms 

Cutworms include many species of the family Noctuidae, order Lepidoptera. An 

example is the greasy cutworm Agrotis ypsilon (Hufn.). The adult is a moth with narrow 

gray-brown front wings and hind wings that are pearly white in colour with dark veins and 

margins. It measures about 48 mm across the spread wings. The caterpillar is grayish in 

colour, greasy, and almost hairless except for some very short spines. When full grown, 

the caterpillar measures about 40-45 mm long. The egg is round and ribbed, white in 

colour at first, but changing to yellow with embryonic development. 

Host Plants 

Cutworms are highly polyphagous and attack a wide variety of plants including 

vegetables, cotton, corn, tobacco, and clover. 

Damage 

Cutworms injure plants in several different ways; certain species kill the plant by 

cutting off the stems at the crown or at a short distance below the surface of the soil, 

moving about and damaging several plants at a time; other species remain in the soil and 

feed mainly on the roots, and still others (the climbing type) crawl on plants and feed on the 

leaves, fruits, and buds. 

The caterpillars of A. ypsilon feed on the leaves of plants when they are young, but as 

they grow, they move to the soil and feed on stems, cutting them off and killing the plants. 

Life Cycle 

A. ypsilon overwinters in the soil either in the larval or pupal stage. In spring, the 

moths start to appear, and after a short period, the females lay their eggs on the leaves of 

host plants. The caterpillars emerge in 3-12 days, depending on weather conditions, and 

feed on the host plant until they become full grown, after which they pupate in the soil. One 

generation needs anywhere from 5 to 10 weeks to be completed, and thus several 

generations are produced per year. 


Controlling cutworms, especially those that remain constantly in the soil, is not very 

easy. Furthermore, cyclodicides, which are effective against cutworms, are no longer 

recommended for use due to their long persistance. Soil-applied insecticides of the 

carbamate group are used at present in applications, either at planting time or shortly after 

seed germination. 

Mole Cricket 

The mole cricket Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa (L.) belongs to the family Gryllotalpidae of 

the order Orthoptera. The adult is a weird-looking dark-brownish insect about 45-50 mm 

long. It has short semimembranous wings and a pair of long and jointed cerci extending 

from the tip of the abdomen. Its first pair of legs are short, stout, flattened, and specially 

adapted for digging. The egg is ovoid and white in colour. 

118

Host Plants 

Mole crickets attack a wide variety of crops including legumes, crucifers, potato, 

corn, tobacco, and cotton. 

Damage 

Mole crickets are especially damaging to seedlings and young plants. The insect lives 

in the soil killing the plants by feeding on the roots and underground parts. Its presence can 

be easily noticed by the zig-zag cracks it leaves in the soil as it moves just below the 

surface. The insect feeds on several plants at a time and thus can cause extensive damage. 

It is specially abundant in soils rich with animal manure. 

Life Cycle 

G. gryllotalpa overwinters in the nymphal or adult stages in the soil. In spring, it 

resumes its activity and development. After copulation, the female lays its eggs in a special 

chamber formed in the soil. Shortly after emerging, the nymphs start feeding on plants and 

causing damage, which increases as the insect grows older. 


The best method of controlling mole crickets is by the use of poison baits applied to 

the soil where the zig-zag cracks are visible. As the insect feeds at night, the bait should be 

spread early in the evening, preferably after irrigation. The bait consists of an insecticide 

mixed with wheat bran and small quantities of molasses and water. BHC, chlordane, and 

carbaryl are equally effective against this insect. However, carbaryl is preferred to the 

other two because it is less persistent in the environment. In a study on the control of mole 

crickets infecting corn, BHC containing 2.6% of the gamma isomer and 5% Carbaryl dust 

each mixed with wheat bran in the ratio of 1:5 and 50% WP Chlordane at the ratio of 1:20 

has proved very effective in controlling these crickets when applied a few days after 

planting. In heavily infested areas a second treatment, applied 10 days later, is required. 

119

Insect Pests of Chick-pea and Lentils in the Countries 

of the Eastern Mediterranean: A Review 

G. Hariri 

Department of Plant Protection, Faculty ofAgriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria 

This review covers the major insect pests of chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) and lentil 

(Lens culinaris) found in Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. In these 

countries, lentils and chick-peas are grown under rainfed or partly irrigated regimes and 

form an important part of agricultural production. Both crops are attacked in the field and 

in store by a large number of insects. Some of these pests are considered to be present 

regularly, whereas others are sporadic in occurrence. Few are regarded as important 

agricultural pests, although damage may be severe in some cases. 

Aphids 

(Order Hemiptera; suborder Homoptera; family Aphididae) 

Aphid species are generally of lesser importance in the eastern Mediterranean than in 

Europe and are rarely considered to be major pests of either lentil or chick-pea. Damage 

results from the insects sucking plant sap from the leaves, stems, flowers, and pods, 

feeding from the flowers and pods causing the greatest injury. In addition to this direct 

damage, further injury may be caused both by the honeydew secretion of the insects, which 

may interfere with photosynthesis and pollination, and the aphids' virus transmission 

capabilities. 

Aphis craccivora and Acyrthosiphon pisum are the two species of economic 

importance attacking lentil and chick-pea respectively. They are cosmopolitan in 

distribution and whereas A. craccivora infests several widely differing plant genera, A. 

pisum is restricted to leguminous plants. Aphid infestations in the region normally occur 

between late April and May and can cause severe problems of virus infection in the 

attacked plants. 

A survey carried out in Iran has shown that almost all the viruses infecting 

leguminous crops are aphid transmitted, A. craccivora and A. pisum figuring among the 

major vectors. These aphids, together with A. sesbaniae, have been shown to be the major 

aphid vectors of alfalfa mosaic virus (AMy), bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), 

cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), and pea leaf roll virus (PLRV), all of which cause 

considerable damage to legume crops. In Australia, A. craccivora has also been found to 

transmit subterranean clover stunt virus; and a similar virus causing stunting of chick-peas 

in India has also been transmitted by this insect in laboratory tests. 

The control of aphids through the use of chemicals appears at present to be largely 

uneconomic, and thus the development of virus-resistant lines of chick-pea and lentil 

seems to afford the best means of minimizing plant injury and yield loss. In addition to 

these methods, biological control mechanisms may also be evolved using such parasitic 

and predatory insects as Trioxys angelica; Lysiphiebusfabarum and other Lysiphiebus spp. 

(parasitic wasps); Coccinella 7-punctata L. and Adalia spp. (ladybirds); and Adonia 

variegata, all of which have been found attacking aphid species. 

120

Moths 

(Order Lepidoptera; suborder Ditrysia; family Noctuidae) 

The insects of this family are considered to be the most damaging pests of field crops 

in the eastern Mediterranean. They are polyphagous (capable of raising several generations 

per year), and some species even migrate between countries in the region. 

Lentils and chick-peas are infested by several species of this important family, the 

most significant of these being; the lesser army worm (Spodoptera exigua); the winter 

cutworm (Agrotis segetum) and the black cutworm (A. ipsilon); the chick-pea podworm 

(Heliothis armigera) and other Heliothis spp., such as H. peltigera, H. nubigera, and H. 

viriplaca; the watermelon looper (Trichoplusia ni); and the silvery moth (Plusia gamma). 

Of these, the chickpea podworm, the cutworms, and the lesser armyworm are the most 

important and regular pests. 

The chick-pea podworm (Heliothis armigera) is an old world species and is variously 

also called the African or American cotton bollworm or the tomato fruitworm, depending 

upon its location and host plants. The economic damage is caused exclusively by the 

larvae, which when young feed on the flowers and in the later stages of their growth on the 

developing fruits. Chick-peas, beans, and peas are affected as well as a wide range of other 

crops including cotton, tobacco, tomato, green pepper, maize, sorghum, and groundnut. 

The appearance of adult moths in the crop depends largely upon the climate and geographic 

location of the country concerned, which govern the emergence of the adults from the 

pupal phase in the soil. Adults are usually observed from April onward but in mild winters 

they have been seen as early as the end of February. This is the case in Syria, Northern 

Iran, Northern Iraq, Turkey, and Eastern Europe where the insect overwinters in the pupal 

stage, but in other areas, where the insect passes the winter as an adult, emergence varies 

considerably. 

In West Bengal, where H. armigera is a serious pest of chick-pea, it has been found 

that the degree of infestation and resultant yield loss increases proportionately to the delay 

in sowing. This is mainly because early sown crops are past the critical flowering stage, to 

which infestation is largely restricted, by the time the adult moths have appeared. In 

support of this it has been shown that lines of chick-pea resistant to frost and drought, and 

thus able to be sown earlier than normal varieties, have proven significantly less 

susceptible to attacks of H. armigera. In view of the short period during which oviposition 

takes place, it has been suggested that inseminated females are attracted to the flowers by 

suitable physiological cues. The identification of these cues could assist in the breeding of 

resistant varieties. 

Other species of Heliothis have also been observed infesting chick-pea plants in the 

region. These include H. peltigera, which attacks several crops in Iraq. 

Of the cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon is a cosmopolitan species, whereas A. segetum is 

confined to the old world. Both are voracious feeders on a wide range of cultivated and 

wild plants, but A. ipsilon is considered to be the most injurious to crop plants. Although 

all the larvae cause injury to plants, the last instar larvae result in the most significant 

damage, as they live in the soil and attack the plants at their crowns, cutting them off 

completely. One larva may destroy a large number of plants in this way. 

A. ipsilon causes considerable crop injury in the autumn and spring months, but is 

usually scarce in the summer, having generally only three to four generations per year. 

However, in Syria and Lebanon the insect may have as many as six generations and can 

thus cause appreciably more damage. A. ipsilon attacks a number of cereal crops, but 

within the Leguminoseae is primarily a pest of lentils. A. segetum is also a pest of both 

winter and summer crops, having from three to four generations per year and causing 

serious damage to maize and cotton as well as to chick-peas. 

Spodoptera exigua, the lesser armyworm, is both cosmopolitan and polyphagous, 

feeding as it does on a wide range of crop plants that include the grasses, legumes, cotton, 

beet, and potato. It is one of the major pests of field crops in the Eastern Mediterranean 

region. 

The number of generations raised per year varies with location but has been estimated 

as five in Syria and six in the Karaj area of Iran. The second and third generations are 

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probably the most damaging, starting in May and continuing through until June or July. 

The larvae rest in the soil during the day and at night feed on the plant leaves; the young 

larvae destroy the leaf laminae, leaving a fine network of veins, whereas the older ones 

consume the whole leaves. In a serious attack, the larvae move in large masses (hence the 

name "armyworm") and may destroy all the vegetation in a field. 

Several other Noctuid pests also cause economic damage under certain conditions. 

The pyralid legume pod moth (Etiella zinckenella) is an insect cosmopolitan in 

distribution, but confined to leguminous plants in its host range. The larvae feed upon the 

soft seeds in the pods, and in the case of small seeds a single larva may consume several 

pods. In one study in the Punjab area of India, 12-15% of lentil pods were found to be 

infested by this pest. 

P. gamma and T. ni are both polyphagous insects feeding on a range of hosts, among 

which chick-peas and lentils are particularly important. The damage is caused by the 

larvae, which feed upon the leaves of the host and may be severe in some years, especially 

in the spring months. 

Weevils 

(Order Coleoptera; suborder Polyphaga; family Cucujoidea) 

In the eastern Mediterranean countries leguminous plants are infested by many species 

of the genus Sitona. The most common and economically important members of this group 

include S. lividepes, S. hispidulus, S. crinitus, S. lineatus, and S. limosus. 

In general, in the Mediterranean area, adults of Sirona aestivate in the soil during the 

summer, and the termination of diapause takes place in the winter, in contrast to their 

behaviour in colder climates, where the adults hibernate over the winter and become active 

in the summer months. Thus, in eastern Turkey, S. crinitus resumes its activity in April, 

whereas in the southern Mediterranean it becomes active in NovemberDecember. In all 

areas the insect only has one generation per year. The adults cause damage, especially to 

young plants, as a result of their feeding on the leaves and the larvae also injure the plants 

by attacking the root nodules. 

S. crinitus has been recorded feeding on lentil, chick-pea, and vetch in northeast Syria 

and, in addition to these, on lucerne in Turkey. It is perhaps one of the most significant 

weevil pests attacking legume crops. S. lineatus is, however, the single-most important 

leguminous weevil pest, attacking peas, broad beans, and vetches voraciously. Feeding 

tests have shown that in the absence of legumes this insect will attack a large number of 

other plants, mostly of the Rosidae and the Hammelidae, but that if legumes are present it 

will feed exclusively upon them. 

In addition to the Sitona weevils, Hypera postica (the alfalfa weevil) has also been 

observed infesting lentils in Syria, and Apion spp., such as A. arrogans, A. aestivum, and 

A. seniculus, have been recorded feeding on the ovules, buds, and young seeds of vetch, 

broad bean, alfalfa, and clover in countries of the southeastern Mediterranean. 

Seed Beetles 

(Order Coleoptera; suborder Polyphaga; family Bruchidae) 

Bruchid beetles attack legume seeds almost exclusively and many species are serious 

pests of stored lentils and chick-peas. The most important species found in the east 

Mediterranean include: Bruchus ervi, B. lentis, B. emarginatus, B. signaticornis, B. 

pisorum, Ca//osobruchus chinensis, C. macularus, C. analis, Acanthoscel ides obtectus, 

and Spermophagous sericeus. 

Of these pests, B. lends, B. ervi, and B. signaticornis may cause infestations of up to 

80% of lentil seeds in Syria, Turkey, Iran, and other neighbouring countries. These species 

raise only one generation per year. Infestations start in the field, but larval development, 

pupation, and adult emergence take place in the stored seed, the females being incapable of 

laying eggs on dry seed. 

122

Other seed beetles of the genus Caflosobruchus raise several generations per year and 

can thus be considerably more destructive. C. chinesis and C. maculatus, for example, 

have six and eight generations per year, respectively, and cause very heavy infestations of 

lentil and chick-pea seeds. 

It has been found that rearing of C. macularus at low temperatures (15-18 °C) resulted 

in fewer eggs and a steady decline in insect population over time, with no noticeable 

acclimatization. This points the way for the development of practical control measures 

along these lines. Studies on the resistance of chick-peas to attack by seed beetles has 

shown that varieties with rough-textured or spiny seed coats appear to act as deterrants to 

oviposition by species of Callosobruchus and are thus less heavily attacked than 

smooth-coated varieties. It has also been found that, due to the presence of a heat 

labile-trypsin inhibitor and a dietary deficiency of cholesterol, lentil is an unsuitable host 

for the knapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium. Further studies of this resistance might also 

be profitable in controlling damage by other seed beetle species. 

Agromyzid Flies 

(Order Diptera; suborder Cyclorrhapha; family Agromyzidae) 

The tiny larvae of these flies mine through the leaves of leguminous plants, feeding on 

the mesophyll and leaving transparent trails. Chick-peas are infested principally by 

Liriomyza cicerina, and severe damage may be caused when the density of the larvae 

exceeds 50 per plant. The life history of this insect was studied near Izmir in Turkey and it 

was discovered to have two generations per year and to overwinter in the pupal stage. Upon 

emergence in late April, the female deposits her eggs in the leaf tissue, laying one in each 

puncture and one to three eggs in each leaf. The larvae mine throughout the leaves and then 

pupate in the soil. In Syria some larvae have also been found to pupate inside the gallery 

and this indicates that infestations are also caused by larvae of the species Phytomyza 

atricornis. 

123

Some Insect Pests of Leguminous Crops 

in Syria 

Ara A. Kemkemian 

Entomology Program, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

Preliminary observations on the infestation of legume crops by various insect pests at 

the ICARDA site at Tel Hadia near Aleppo in northern Syria over the bulk of the 1978 

growing season (February to April 1978) has enabled the following partial list of insect 

pests of economic importance to legumes in the area to be drawn up. This list is of 

necessity incomplete, but future observations and investigations over several growing 

seasons will enable a more exhaustive tabulation to be completed. 

Leaf Weevils (Sitona spp.) 

Adults of Sitona sp. have been observed infesting lentils and broad beans from the 

first week of February. Percentages of infestation varied between plots from 12 to 62%. 

Preliminary results of tests on 544 entries of lentils indicate no correlation between 

infestation and leaflet size or plant variety. There also appears to be little, if any, relation 

between date of planting, plant spacing, or crop density and percentage of infestation. 

Leaf Midges (Contarina spp.) 

Damage symptoms, resulting from larvae attacking the upper leaves, were observed 

during the first week of March on lentils, broad beans, and other Vicia species. 

Approximate percentages of infestation, calculated on the 1-5 grading system, varied from 

10 to 40% in lentils to 80-90% in broad beans. In the latter case infestation was 

particularly high in late-sown varieties due to the emergence peak of the insect's second 

generation coinciding with the crop's young and more susceptible stage. Damage up to 

80% was also observed on Vicia narbonensis, a forage legume. 

Leaf Miners (Phytomyza spp.) 

The larvae of this insect were observed mining through the leaves of pea plants in 

mid-March. Percentages of infestation varied from 15 to 30% upon the emergence of the 

second generation insects. Mining by another Agromyzid species was observed on 

chick-peas, causing leaf damage of up to 50%. 

Seed Weevils (Apion spp.) 

Damage became obvious in mid-March and adults of the species could be seen on the 

leaves of lentils, while the larvae infested the floral parts. Infestations recorded varied from 

10 to 75%. 

Aphids 

Aphids were first observed on broad beans, lentils, peas, and medics in the second 

half of March, and thereafter the population built up continuously, as many as 300 insects 

per plant being recorded. 

124

Pod Borers (Heliothis spp.) 

Adult moths were evident in the field by the end of March, but larvae boring into the 

chick-pea pods were not observed until the second week of April. Larval counts of up to 50 

per mm2 were recorded, and infestation ranged from 4 to 21%. Varietal differences in the 

level of infestation were evident. 

Pea Moths (Lasperesia spp.) 

Pea pods containing larvae of this insect were discovered during the first week of 

April. Pod damage varied between plots and was as high as 98% in one plot with 73% of 

the seeds infested, and only 48% in another where seed infestation was as low as 19%. 

Thrips 

These insects have been observed mostly in broad bean flowers, and counts as high as 

10 thrips per blossom were recorded. Hypera and Linux species were also observed but 

have shown no economic damage to date. 

125

The Biology and Control of Orobanche: 

A Review 

A. R. Saghir and F. Dastgheib 


Orobanche species, commonly known as broomrapes, are important root parasites of 

many groups of broad-leaved plants, especially of the Leguminoseae and Solanaceae. They 

are very widespread throughout the semi-arid regions of the world and are common in 

Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean basin, the Middle East, Asia, and parts of Russia. In the 

USA, Orobanche spp. have been observed in California, Kentucky, and Louisiana. More 

than 140 species are reported to parasitize different crops and wild plants. In the 

Mediterranean region, two major species, namely 0. ramosa and 0. crenata, prevail and 

cause considerable yield losses in tomato, potato, tobacco, sunflower, and broad bean, 

amongst other crops. 

Characteristics of the Genus Orobanche 

Occurrence and Host Range 

All members of the family Orobanchaceae lack chlorophyll and are obligate parasites. 

Their distribution is wide, encompassing many different environments; however, they 

thrive best under typical Mediterranean conditions of wet winter and spring, followed by 

dry summer and fall. It appears that broomrapes are not found in tropical rain forests, 

which may be because they require a dry and windy atmosphere for seed dissemination. 

The host range varies with species of Orobanche: 28 crop and ornamental species 

grown in California and more than 20 weed species have been reported as hosts for 0. 

ramosa (branched broomrape). It appears that in the absence of a suitable crop host or after 

its harvest, the parasite survives and increases through infestation of weed hosts. 

Orobanche, however, has not been reported as infesting monocotyledons, ferns, or 

gymnosperms. 

In the case of legume crops, 0. aegyptiaca, 0. crenata, 0. lutea, and 0. minor are 

considered to be serious. Although 0. ramosa is not listed here, it has been shown to 

parasitize broad bean plants when grown in greenhouse pots and in Egypt complete yield 

loss has been found to occur in heavily infested broad beans. 

Some plants that are not themselves parasitized by Orobanche are known to be able to 

stimulate the germination of its seeds. These so called trap crops include Capsicum annum, 

Tridax procumbens, and Bidens pilosa. 

Life Cycle and Growth Habit 

Orobanche is an annual and its life cycle consists of two phases: firstly the induction 

of seed germination and the formation of an unconnected seedling; and secondly the 

attachment of this seedling to the host and the commencement of true parasitism. The latter 

part of this cycle can further be divided into two stages: the hypogeal stage, lasting for 

45-50 days, during which the vegetative subterranean organs develop and food material is 

removed from the host and accumulated in the parasite; and the epigeal stage, in which the 

vegetative organs grow rapidly and produce reproductive organs above the ground. This 

lasts for about 30 days. 

126

Seed Size and Dormancy 

In general, Orobanche seeds are very minute and produced in abundance. They 

measure approximately 0.3 x 0.2 mm and it has been reported that one plant of branched 

broomrape can produce 5000 or more seeds. 0. picridis, moreover, is known to be able to 

produce 94 000-116 000 seeds with a 1000 seed weight of 0.0029 g. 

The seeds of 0. ramosa are oval in shape with a narrow micropylar and a wide 

chalazal end. The seed coat consists of sclerified cells and has a reticulate pattern and 

encloses a mass of endosperm cells in which is embedded an undifferentiated embryo. 

Orobanche seeds undergo a period of dormancy and may need from 18 months to 2 

years of storage for the after-ripening processes to take place. After this the seeds can 

remain viable in the soil for at least 12 years. 

Germination 

In 1823 it was first shown that broomrape seeds germinate only in the immediate 

vicinity of a host root. Subsequently a dry residue that could stimulate seed germination 

when redissolved in water was obtained from the roots of a host. It was shown that no 

spontaneous germination could occur in 0. crenata in the absence of such a stimulatory 

substance. It appears that the chemical stimulant secreted by the host roots can cause 

germination of seeds up to a distance of 1 cm from the root, but that only seeds within 2 or 

3 mm of the root can actually infest the host. 

In studies of the effect of root exudates from several crops it was found that seedlings 

of linseed, maize, and sorghum, which are not parasitized by 0. minor, had a better 

stimulating effect on its germination than those of clover, which is a normal host. Linseed 

had the best stimulatory effect and paper strip chromatography of its root diffusate has 

shown the stimulatory fluid to consist of more than one substance. This fluid has a reducing 

power and, on the basis of its relative stability in weakly acidic solutions and instability in 

alkaline solutions, it has been suggested that the stimulant contains an acidic or potentially 

acidic lactone group, possibly similar to "strigol," the germination stimulant for Striga 

hermonthica extracted from the roots of cotton. However, tests on a variety of synthetic 

compounds have shown that organic acids, sugars, amino acids, vitamins, and lactones 

have no stimulatory activity. 

Orobanche seeds need to undergo some metabolic changes before germination and it 

has been found that gibberellic acid can act as a stimulus to these changes. This may be 

because the dormant seed contains a low content of endogenous gibberellins and, as a 

result, responds well to an exogenous source. 

Temperatures of between 20 and 25 °C generally favour the germination of the 

parasite; at a temperature of 25 °C, 0. crenata has been shown to cause considerably 

greater damage to broad beans than at 15 °C. There are contradictory reports about the 

effect of light on Orobanche germination; studies on some species have indicated that light 

may promote germination whereas with others the opposite seems to be the case. 

Soil conditions also appear to have some influence on the germination and subsequent 

growth of the broomrapes. Alkalinity tends to inactivate the germination stimulant rather 

rapidly; the degree of infestation and timing of the first appearance of the parasite seem to 

vary with soil type; and the parasite is more troublesome in soils low in fertility. 

Fertilization, especially with K and P205, may decrease infestation by promoting early 

maturity. 

Early Development and Anatomy 

The early development of the parasite seedling and the establishment of physiological 

contact with the host is a relatively complex process, considerably influenced by the host 

itself through its root exudates. Stimulation of the seed by these chemicals causes cells of 

the radicular pole to expand, possibly without mitotic division, burst through the testa, and 

grow toward the host root. The radicle penetrates the host root, without causing it much 

injury, passes through the epidermis and cortex, and, on reaching the stele, forms a 

channel for the transfer of food materials. The main part of this food channel, or 

127

haustorium, is composed of undifferentiated parenchyma. There is no phloem tissue, and 

the xylem, in contrast to other parasites, consists only of tracheids and may be present as 

irregular strands. Studies of 0. ramosa have established the xylem elements and the 

undifferentiated parenchyma of the host and parasite to be continuous in the haustorium, 

but no phloem continuity with the host has been observed. 

While this haustorial development is proceeding, the external parts of the parasite, 

slender worm-like rootlets consisting of an epidermis, cortex, and xylem vessels and 

without root caps or hairs, are being formed. Secondary haustoria develop upon contact 

between these roots and the roots of the host. The function of these secondary attachments 

is more likely to be storage rather than physical support or stability. 

Cross sections of young Orobanche shoots have revealed xylem and phloem elements 

and a large number of starch grains. No starch grains were evident, however, in mature 

shoots. The Orobanche bract consists of an epidermal layer with trichomes, a spongy 

mesophyll, and vascular strands, but no palisade cells. The bract cells have been found 

through electron microscopy to be composed of large vacuoles containing a tannin-like 

substance, an endoplasmic reticulum mitochondria, and a nucleus. No chloroplasts have 

been identified in these cells. 

Morphology and Seed Production 

Orobanche spp. have erect, branched or unbranched, aerial flowering shoots 

completely devoid of chlorophyll. The leaves, which have stomata, are reduced to scales 

and are alternate in arrangement. The shoots may be smooth or hairy and they bear the 

zygomorphic and bisexual tubular flowers in spikes. These flowers have a 4-5-lobed calyx 

and corolla, are two-lipped, and range in colour from white to faint yellow and from violet 

to blue. These characteristics imply that insects play an important role in pollination and 

this is indeed the case, with wind playing little or no role in the process. The four stamens, 

which are of two different lengths, are attached to the upper lip of the petals as are the two 

chambered anthers, which usually have spurs designed to cover pollinating insects with 

pollen. The floral morphology implies adaptation to a specific type of honey or bumblebee 

and indeed the outer epidermis of the calyx and corolla is covered with stalked glands that 

may serve to prevent ants and other insects entering the flower, thereby reserving the nectar 

for the effective pollinators. Cross-pollination is presumably a usual feature of the 

Orobanchaceae, but parthogenesis has been reported to occur in 0. uniflora. 

The seeds are produced in capsules that dehisce into two halves from the top. 

Dissemination can be mechanical, through handling, by surface water, carrying seeds 

below the soil into the rhizosphere of the hosts; or by means of the wind, which is 

facilitated by cavities in the seed testa and by the fact that after the death of the plant the 

pedicels remain stiff so that the fruits vibrate in the air like pepperpots. 

Chemistry and Physiology 

It had been reported that traces of chlorophyll were observable in some species of 

Orobanche, but more recent studies on the pigment system of 0. hederae have revealed 

only negligible amounts, if any, of this pigment in chromatographic separations. '4CO2 

fixation was also shown to be very low in Orobanche under either light or dark conditions. 

However, large amounts of carotenoids, identified as flavochrome, neoxanthin, and 

flavoxanthin, have been found in Orobanche extracts, together with low concentrations of 

B carotenes. Further studies of acetone extracts of 0. ramosa shoots with a scanning 

spectrophotometer have produced absorption spectra different from chlorophyll a or b, 

which reinforces the suggestion that pigments other than chlorophyll are found in this 

parasite. 

By using radiolabeled materials, it has been found that materials can move easily from 

host to parasite in the light, but that translocation of materials from host to parasite in the 

dark or from parasite to host in general is negligible (Fig. 1). This is considered as further 

evidence of the heterotrophic nature of the Orobanche species. Translocation across the 

haustorium appears to be apoplastic, whereas that within the shoot is symplastic. A very 

rapid rate of transport of sugars, herbicides, and water between the root of broad bean and 

128

B 

OROBANCHE EXPOSED 

Fig. 1. Tomato exposed to UCOS shows that radiolabled materials could move easily from the host to 

the parasite (a), whereas no translocation occurred from the parasite to the host when Orobanche was 

exposed to 14CO2 (b). 

129 

A

0. crenata has been noted; and the rate of translocation of 2,4-D applied to the foliage of 

bean plants to the Orobanche parasitizing it was found to be similar to that of sugar 

translocation. The herbicide accumulated in the Orohanche tissue up to a maximum 

concentration of 14 times that in the bean root at 125 hours after application and thereafter 

the concentration declined. 

Reports concerning the transfer of plant hormones in the hostparasite relationship are 

conflicting. Flowering was obtained in 0. minor parasitizing red clover when the host was 

exposed to a long-day treatment, but not under short-day conditions, indicating the 

likelihood of a transfer of a specific host-flowering hormone or its precursor to the parasite. 

However, it was also found possible to induce several species of Orohanche to flower on 

hosts still in their vegetative stage. A partial answer to this anomaly has been provided by 

further studies that have shown that Orohanche is incapable of synthesizing all the 

necessary growth substances by itself and so must obtain some but not all of these 

hormones from its host. 

Effects of Orobanche on the Host 

Growth and Yield 

Infestations of Orobanche may cause severe yield losses to their different host crops. 

In general, yield reduction is related to the number of parasites per host plant and the 

earliness of attack. Losses in sunflower due to infestations of 0. cernua and 0. ramosa 

have been reported as ranging from 15 to 34%. 0. crenata infestations in broad beans have 

resulted in total crop loss under some conditions. 

Water and Minerals 

Transpiration in Orohanche is extremely high, especially from the scale leaves, where 

the effective rate may be 35% greater than from the stems or flowers. The active excretion 

of water from the glandular hairs (hydathodes) rather than from the small and 

nonfunctional stomata has been shown to be responsible for this major withdrawal of water 

from the host and the consequent injury inflicted upon it. This injury, it has been 

emphasized, results more from the decreased ability of the carbohydrate-starved host roots 

to absorb water from the soil than from the extraction of water by the parasite per Se. 

Moreover, studies have shown that the osmotic pressure of 0. crenata, while being greater 

than that of its bean host roots, is less than that of the shoots, implying that water is not 

removed from the shoots but is diverted directly from the roots of the host. 

Broomrape parasitism causes considerable changes in the host's mineral content. 

Percentages of nitrogen and potassium were reduced in beans infested by 0. crenata, but 

no changes in the phosphorus and calcium contents were observed. A comparison of the 

shoots of the host and the parasite, however, in this case, revealed the parasite to contain 

higher contents of phosphorus and potassium and lower contents of nitrogen and calcium 

than its host. 

Metabolites 

Orobanche infestation has been found to significantly reduce the starch content per 

gram dry weight of the host, which results from the parasite's dependence on the host's 

intermediates for its starch synthesis; and to increase the level of phosphorulase activity in 

the host, which provides an increased supply of readily diffusable carbohydrates for the 

parasite. Infestation of Petunia hyhida and Nicotiana tahacum by 0. aegytiaca also 

resulted in a 35-70% reduction in the hosts' C:N ratio. No marked changes have been 

found in the net assimilation rate of tomato as a result of broomrape infestation, and it has 

thus been proposed that the internal factors controlling this, namely photosynthesis and 

protein synthesis, are not affected by the parasitism. 

Control Methods 

It appears that, as yet, there is no consistent and economical method for controlling 

Orobanche. However, there are some practices that might prove helpful in reducing or 

even eradicating this harmful pest. 

130

Mechanical 

Control is achieved through the regular cutting of the emerged spikes of the plants. 

Reductions in infestation of 85% after 2 years and 96% after 4 years have been achieved as 

a result of weekly hand pulling. Removal of the plants should be carried out before full 

flower development and collected material should be burnt to ensure that seeds are not 

dispersed during pulling or left to develop on the detached shoots. 

Biological 

Fusarium orohanches has been found to be effective in destroying 0. ramosa in 

tobacco before the emergence of the shoots and field trials have shown that Orohanche in 

watermelons can be controlled by the application of the fungus extract "product F" with 

the seed, followed by irrigation. The toxicity of this extract lasted 80 days and was found to 

be effective against both seeds and seedlings of the parasite. 

The mining fly Phytomyza orobanchia is reported to cause considerable damage to 

both 0. cumana and 0. rainosa. Approximately 500-1000 insects per hectare are 

sufficient to kill more than 50% of the broomrapes and prevent the remainder from setting 

seed. 

Livestock have been found to contribute to control by feeding on 0. cernua and 0. 

minor shoots. However, viable seeds are excreted with the feces and thus improper 

management may result in dissemination rather than control by this means. 

Cultural 

Although pot experiments have shown that drying helped to kill seeds of 0. ramosa, 

unsatisfactory control of the parasite was obtained in dried soil during a summer fallow. 

However, parasitism of 0. aegyptiaca is known to be reduced under conditions of 

insufficient soil moisture. Deep plowing of the soil to a depth of 40-50 cm has also been 

found to be helpful in reducing Orobanche infestation. 

Increasing the soil fertility seems to be an effective way of controlling some species 

(e.g., 0. minor) and applications of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium have been found 

to reduce infestation by 33-50%, giving a corresponding yield increase in various crops, 

whereas 250-500 kg/ha dressings of superphosphate have been reported to give partial 

control of this parasite in clover. 

However, other reports indicate that the use of dry fallows, various rotations, heavy 

manuring, lowering of soil pH, planting in deep furrows, and deep ploughing have all been 

found largely ineffective as control mechanisms. 

Trap crops may also be used in rotations to minimize infestations. Good control has 

been achieved through ploughing under a crop of Sinapis a/ba at its flowering stage, and by 

incorporation of dried sunflower meal into the soil prior to planting or transplanting the 

host crop. However, trap crops may not be an efficient method of control because relatively 

few of the Orohanche seeds present in the infested field are sufficiently close to the trap 

crop roots to be stimulated into germination. 

Crop immunity is considered to be the best method for the control of broomrape. In 

the case of sunflower, Eastern Europe and the USSR have been using resistant cultivars for 

the last 30-40 years. The development of resistance in legumes is less advanced, but in 

certain studies of resistance to 0. crenata in broad beans, resistant genes tended to be 

dominant to susceptible ones, and susceptibility to infestation was positively correlated to 

bean seed weight (e.g., varieties with larger seeds were found to be more susceptible). 

For maximum control of Orohanche it has been recommended that an integrated 

program of control involving both cultural and biological mechanisms be used. 

Chemical 

In vitro Studies Tests of 237 herbicides over a range of concentrations showed that 

most of these chemicals were ineffective in inhibiting the germination of seeds of 0. 

aegyptiaca. There were, however, several notable exceptions: the phenoxy compounds, 

which are unfortunately not selective for the common host crops; the phenols and endothal, 

131

which show very little persistence; chemicals such as barban, benzadox, diquat, and 

paraquat, which because they do not show preemergence activity are also unlikely to be 

useful aids to control; and chioramben, chlorthiamjd, dischlobenil, nitralin, and oryzalin, 

which may prove useful. Further tests have shown that diphenamid, trifluralin, and R 

38418 were able to significantly reduce the germination percentage of seeds of 0. ramosa. 

Greenhouse Studies - Of 13 soil-applied herbicides tested, only one (DCU) was 

found to give consistent control of Orobanche on tomato. Two others (Endothal and 

NAA), although toxic to the parasite, also proved toxic to the tomato host. Tests on 

herbicides from the dinitroaniline and carbamate groups indicated that: trifluralinreduced 

0. ramosa infestation when incorporated in the soil at transplanting, but when applied after 

haustoria development was much less effective; CGA 14397 was also effective in 

controlling Orobanche; but Profluralin (CGA 10832), although it increased the dry weight 

of the tomato host, did not reduce the dry weight of the parasite. With specific regard to 

legumes, Terbutol applied as a dust with bean seeds at planting has been shown to give 

maximum bean seed yield with minimum incidence of 0. crenata. 

Glyphosate, applied as a foliar spray, has also been reported to be highly effective in 

controlling both 0. aegyptiaca and 0. ramosa. Rates of application, however, must be low 

and carefully controlled as the chemical is toxic to the host crops in higher concentrations. 

Field Studies Among the effective soil-applied herbicides, methyl bromide or a 2:1 

mixture of methyl bromide with chloropicrin are reported to give the best control of 

Orobanche. However, these chemicals have to be injected into the soil as fumigants and 

require a 24-hour coverage of the treated area with polythene sheets. For this reason, 

application on a field scale is likely to be cost-prohibitive. Preplanting applications of 

Chlorpropham, Dalapon, TCA, and DCU (dichloral urea) and preemergence application of 

sesone (2,4-DES) and allyl alcohol have variously been reported as effective control 

measures. Diphenamid and a mixture of diphenamid with trifluralin have been shown to 

reduce broomrape infestation in tobacco by 62% and 58%, respectively; double 

applications of methamsodium in November and March have proved effective in killing all 

seeds of 0. ramosa and 0. mute/i to a depth of about 25 cm in the soil; and good control of 

Orobanche in broad beans has been obtained through 1 ,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane 

applied in irrigation water. 

Foliar applications of several compounds appear to give effective broomrape control. 

Allyl alcohol, applied as a 1% solution at flowering or as a 0.22% solution at 2-week 

intervals, gave good control of 0. ramosa in tomatoes. Very effective control of 0. ramosa 

and 0. aegyptiaca in tobacco was achieved using a 2% solution of MH-triethylamine, 

which was translocated via the host roots into the parasite. Hedolit (based on DNOC) and 

glyphosate also gave excellent control of 0. ramosa, and glyphosate has further proved to 

give good control of 0. crenata in broad beans when applied after flowering. 

A new approach to Orobanche control, involving the use of synthetic germination 

stimulants, is currently under investigation at the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and 

preliminary results indicate that host crops planted a few weeks after treatment with GR 7 

may escape parasitism. 

Work is proceeding at several locations in the Middle East and on several fronts in an 

attempt to achieve a better understanding of this parasite that causes such dramatic yield 

reductions in almost all the food legume crops. This understanding, it is hoped, will lead to 

the evolution of more consistently effective control measures and, in reducing the 

incidence and severity of infestations in these crops, will contribute considerably to the 

increased stability and productivity so badly needed in the food legumes. 

132

Broomrape (Orobanche crenata) Resistance in Broad Beans: 

Breeding Work in Egypt 

Abdullah M. Nassib, Ali A. Ibrahim, and Hamdy A. Saber 

Agricultural Research Institute, Giza, Ornian, Egypt 

The parasitic weed broomrape (Orohanche sp.) is a severe pest of all legume crops in 

Egypt. Infestations, particularly of broad beans (Vicia faba), which are the most widely 

cultivated grain legume in the country, cause very high annual crop losses. At present there 

is no truly effective method for 

controlling this damaging parasite, and current emphasis is 

being placed on the development of resistant varieties as the most effective and economic 

control measure. Four branched and four unbranched species of Orohanche have been 

identified in Egypt. Although all the species infest legume plants, Orobanche crenata is 

without doubt the most serious pest, attacking the important broad bean crop and causing 

considerable damage. 

Comparatively resistant cultivars have beenreported in broad beans in Italy. melons in 

the USSR, and hemp in France and grafting experiments have shown the decisive 

characters determining resistance to be in the root. In sorghum, which is infested by 

parasitic plants of Striga spp., two forms of resistant mechanism have been found: firstly, 

resistance arising from the low production of Striga germination stimulant by the root, 

resulting in low infestations due to reduced germination of the parasite; and secondly, 

resistance based on barriers to the successful 

establishment of the parasite on the host, 

either through mechanical obstruction, 

involving thick-walled endodermis or heavy 

deposits of silica in the endodermis, or by physiological barriers preventing adequate 

haustorial nourishment. In addition, research on Striga resistance in sorghum has revealed 

that different strains of the parasite exist and that these differ in their virulence on different 

hosts. This presents further complications in attempting to achieve a good and stable 

resistance. A similar situation should be expected in Orohanche species. 

Screening and Selection for Orobanche Resistance in Broad Bean 

This program was initiated in 1972 at Giza Research Station. A collection of germ 

plasm, comprising land strains (families) and hybrid derivative lines, were subjected to 

selection for three seasons in a heavily infested plot; 315 lines of Orobanche-free and 

less-infected plants selected from this material were then tested against a new unselected 

population of 121 entries. This investigation showed the percentage of tolerant lines in the 

selected population to be 44.5, in comparison with 21.0 in the unselected material, thereby 

illustrating the effectiveness of selection in raising the resistance level in populations. 

Evaluation of Promising Tolerant Families 

Twenty-two families derived through a 3-year cycle of individual plant selection in an 

F7 line of the cross Rebaia 40 (commercial variety) >< F 216 (land strain) were evaluated 

with seven commercial varieties and land strains for Orohanche tolerance. Results (Table 

1) indicated the family F 402 to have a higher level of tolerance than either the other 

selected families or the check varieties. Further tests on this family have shown that on 

average it had 57.5% less Orohanche spikes per hill and nearly four times more Orohanche 

free hills (each hill with two bean plants) than the commercial variety Giza 2. 

F 402 has also proved to have a high level of field resistance to root rot and wilt 

133

TABLE 1. A comparison of the tolerance of selected families and unselected populations of broad bean 

to Orobanche crenata, Giza Research Station, 1974-75. 

Broad bean 

material 

No. Orohanche 

spikes/infected 

plant 

a Visual rating using 1-5 scale: I, vegetative growth and pod setting almost normal, due to very 

low infestation; 5, plants stunted and dried out before maturity with few pods set, due to heavy 

infestation. 

diseases caused by species of the genera Rhizoctonia and Fusarium, in contrast to the 

commercial varieties Giza 2 and Giza 4, which are severely affected under field conditions. 

The tolerance of F 402 to both Orobanche and root rot/wilt diseases has resulted in seed 

and straw yields 16.9 and 4.4 times higher respectively than those obtained from Giza 2. 

An evaluation of families selected for Orobanche tolerance at Giza and Sids, in 

Middle Egypt, and Shandaweel, in Upper Egypt, conducted at the Shandaweel Station has 

shown selections originating from Giza to be considerably more tolerant than selections 

originating from either of the other two sites. This probably reflects the light selection 

pressure brought to bear on the material from Sids and Shandaweel (one season only), 

compared to the more intensive selection, over three to five seasons, carried out at Giza. 

The investigation also revealed that Orobanche infestation on F 402 selections was about 

four times higher than at Giza, where the selections originated. This result suggests that the 

virulence of the parasite varies with location, or that different physiological races exist. 

Evaluation under Controlled Conditions 

Screening for tolerance to Orobanche under field conditions introduces a number of 

errors due to the fluctuating parasite population, its distribution around the plants, and 

other soil and management factors. To enable better estimates to be made of host resistance 

and to facilitate studies of the nature and mode of inheritance of resistance, the reaction of 

catch and trap crops, and the variations in virulence of parasite collections from different 

locations, a technique for creating artificial infestations has been evolved at Giza. This 

involves inoculating the root mass of a 25-day-old plant in a soil core of 5 cm in diameter 

with sufficient Orohanche seed and then growing the plant under irrigation in a 25-cm pot. 

Using this technique, an estimation of Orobanche infestation ofF 402 and Giza 2 has 

revealed highly significant reductions in Orohanche populations both above and below the 

surface in the case of F 402 (Table 2). Based on these findings the resistance of F 402 may 

be ascribed both to reduced production of a germination stimulant and the erection of 

mechanical and physiological barriers to the successful establishment of the parasite. This 

resistance is associated with slower tap root growth, less production of lateral roots, and an 

altogether more compact root mass in F 402 than in other more susceptible varieties, such 

as Giza 2. 

Toward More Resistant Broad Bean Lines 

The research efforts to date have primarily involved screening and selection from 

within the available indigenous germ plasm and from a number of hybrid lines, not 

134 

Infestation 

% Orobanchefree 

plants 

Visual 

rating' 

Selected fwnilies 

F 402 1.1 22.2 1.3 

F 408a 3.3 0.0 2.7 

F403a 4.0 9.1 2.3 

F 401 4.3 2.6 3.7 

F 4lOc 4.9 7.5 1.7 

Unselecred populations 

L 53/536/63 5.9 2.2 5.0 

F 216 6,6 0.0 5.0 

Giza 2 7.4 0.0 3,3

TAHLE 2. Orobanche crenata infestations of F 402 and Giza 2 under artificial infestation conditions, 

Giza Research Station, 1977-78 season. 

Cultivar 

F402 2.2 

Giza 2 11.4 

No. Orobanche stems 

and spikes/plant 

Above Below 

soil soil 

surface surface Total 

Infestation 

specially bred for Orobanche resistance. Although this selection program has proved to be 

fairly successful in increasing the level of resistance in populations, the rather narrow 

genetic base and geographical spread of the screening nurseries inherent in the work means 

that a ceiling will soon be reached in improvement achievements. 

For the future, a truly effective breeding program must combine a massive amount of 

screening of a wide range of material over a large number of locations with studies of a 

wide collection of parasite seed under artificial infestation conditions. This will enable the 

identification of sources of resistance to the suspected different races of the parasite as well 

as the clarification of the different resistance mechanisms. Once defined, this resistance 

can be introduced into adapted lines by multiple hybridization followed by recurrent 

selection to obtain lines that are both highly productive under a variety of environmental 

conditions and resistant to Orobanche. 

In this way the highly destructive effect of this parasite on the very important broad 

bean crop in Egypt can, it is hoped, be greatly reduced, if not completely eliminated. 

135 

% Orohanche 

% of total free plants 

above soil Max. spike (above 

surface height surface) 

13.4 15.6 14.1 1.8 53.9 

26.1 37.5 30.8 10.6 0.0

Accentuation of Weed Control Problems in the Dry Areas with 

Relevance to Herbicides in Food Legumes 

F. Basler 


Over a large part of the subtropical, semi-arid zone, both highland and lowland, a 

cerealfallow rotation system has traditionally been practiced. The main weed control 

methods in such a system have involved grazing during the fallow period and cultivation 

prior to planting the cereal crop. For economic reasons the largest possible area is 

maintained under cereals each year and as a result grazing has often been reduced to the 

off-season or in some cases completely abandoned. This has allowed the proliferation of 

many winter weeds, which infest autumn-sown cereal and legume crops, because by the 

time that grazing occurs these weeds have already, to a large extent, shed their seeds. With 

this increasing tendency toward intensification of cropping systems, curative weed control 

is becoming imperative to the maintenance of high levels of productivity. 

Constraints of Curative Weed Control in Dry Areas 

Water availability is the major factor affecting the productivity of crops in the dry 

areas. Even in good years the productivity of field crops in these areas is suboptimal and 

the profitability is generally low and variable. Farmers thus attempt to minimize the cost of 

their inputs and avoid as far as is possible the relatively costly fertilizers and pesticides that 

are applied early in the cropping season and that would thus be wasted in the event of crop 

failure due to insufficient rainfall. 

At present the feasible curative weed control methods available are threefold: 

Firstly, there is manual weeding, which can be through hand pulling in broadcast 

crops and where weeds are well established, or with tools if the crop is row planted or the 

weeds are not too far developed. Farmers often use hand-pulled weeds as animal fodder but 

although this may at first sight seem a very useful practice, to be suitable for fodder the 

weeds must have reached a certain size and will have already exerted a considerable 

yield-reducing effect on the crop by the time they are removed. Manual weeding is very 

labour intensive and according to recent studies at ICARDA requires at least 60 man-days 

per hectare for the minimal two weedings that are necessary. The advantage of this control 

method, however, is that it can be foregone in the event of crop failure due to drought. 

Mechanical weeding is the second available control practice and involves the use of 

animal or tractor power. It can only be carried out in row-planted crops and where the rows 

are sufficiently spaced to allow for the passage of the machine without causing severe crop 

damage. This method is ineffective for the control of in-row weeds; requires a relatively 

level soil surface; can cause considerable soil compaction and loss of soil moisture; and is 

not possible when the land is wet. However, considerable savings in labour can be made 

over manual weeding, although investment in machinery may be high and increases with 

decreasing between-row spacing, meaning that fewer plants can be grown on a given area 

unless investment is considerable. These requirements and disadvantages have tended to 

hamper the widespread introduction of mechanical methods in the relatively poor marginal 

areas. 

Finally there is chemical weed control. This requires some skill and accuracy to apply 

the right herbicide at the right dosage at the right time and again considerable investment in 

equipment. Results can be excellent when the chemicals are used in the correct way but 

136

lack of operator skill and variable environmental conditions can result in total wastage of 

the investment or even destruction of the crop being treated. In addition, the use of 

herbicides can considerably reduce moisture loss as no soil disturbance is generally 

required and as water-consuming weeds are effectively eliminated. However, despite the 

cost of chemical control in most of the countries of the dryland region being far below that 

of correspondingly effective manual methods, the relatively high risks involved in their use 

and the high costs of the chemicals, which are largely imported, have so far inhibited the 

large-scale use of herbicides, especially by the small farmers. 

A better understanding of the actions of these chemicals under dryland conditions will 

perhaps enable us to evolve recommendations and procedures that will reduce the risks and 

costs of this more effective and economic means of weed control and as a result increase its 

popularity with the farming community. 

Selectivity Mechanisms of Soil Herbicides 

Phytotoxic chemicals have a very wide range of modes of action. Amongst the soil 

herbicides these include retarding root growth, inhibiting photosynthesis, interfering in cell 

meiosis, and affecting the uptake of minerals and water, to name but a few. Irrespective of 

their modes of action all chemicals must first be absorbed by the plant and translocated to 

their place of action before they can begin to be effective. In considering herbicides we 

would do well to remember Paracelsus' assertion of 500 years ago, that all substances are 

poisonous to living organisms at a certain quantity. The critical factor to be considered is 

thus the quantity of the herbicide that reaches its specific site of action. The variation in this 

determines the selectivity of the chemical (i.e., which plants will be killed by a certain 

dosage of herbicide under certain conditions and which plants under the same conditions 

will survive). Selectivity is of tantamount importance in the use of herbicides and it may be 

achieved by a number of different mechanisms. These mechanisms include physical 

placement of the chemical; ease of penetration of the root epidermis; metabolism to 

harmless derivatives within the plant; and ease of transport within the plant. In hydroponic 

culture the explanation would stop here, but in agriculture the soil, which is the link 

between the application of the chemical and its absorption by the plant, plays a very 

important role in determining the action of herbicides, most of which are soil applied. The 

soil represents a very complex system but certain important factors, such as quantity of 

water in the soil, adsorption of herbicides on soil particles, and movement of herbicides in 

the soil, that affect selectivity can be identified. 

Quantity of Water in the Soil 

Herbicides are translocated within the soil from their site of placement to their site of 

uptake either in solution with water or in a gaseous state. Chemicals commonly absorbed in 

solution include the groups of substituted ureas, uracils, triazines, diphenylethers, 

acetamides, and thiocarbamates, which are mainly applied to the soil surface. Gastransported 

chemicals are largely of the group of nitroanilines generally incorporated in the 

soil prior to planting due to their high vapour pressure. 

With solution-absorbed herbicides, uptake by the plant depends to a large extent on 

the water solubility of the chemical, which is in turn affected by the temperature and pH of 

the soil water and the rate of plant water uptake. In this context, the amount of available 

soil water is very important, as with less water to dissolve a given quantity of chemical the 

resulting solution will be more concentrated and the amount of chemical taken up by the 

plant over a fixed time will thus be greater. Thus it appears that, providing a chemical 

dissolves readily in water, its action will be considerably more vigorous under dry soil 

conditions than when the soil is wet. Comparison of the quantity of water required to 

dissolve a given quantity of various chemicals could thus be used as a good guide to the 

chemicals likely to act more aggressively under dry land conditions. 

137

Chemical 

Solubility 

in water 

Amt water 

to dissolve I kg 

mm rain required 

to dissolve 1 kg 

End 

effect 

A 1000 ppm I m3 0.1 Increased 

B 100 ppm lOma 1.0 Increased 

C 10 ppm 100 m3 10.0 Increased 

D I ppm 1000 m3 100.0 Normal 

E 0.1 ppm 10000 m 1000.0 Ineffective 

The application of high dosages of herbicides with very low solubilities (e.g., F) is a 

waste of resources under dry conditions because much of the chemical will remain 

immobilized in the soil due to insufficient water. However, above the level of I ppm 

solubility (A, B, and C), the total quantity of chemical can be dissolved in increasingly less 

soil water, the concentration of chemical in solution is increased, and, as the degree of 

interplant selectivity is not altered, the effect on the crop is considerably enhanced (Table 

I). 

In general those herbicides that are translocated and absorbed by plants in their 

gaseous state have a very low solubility in water. This fact largely prevents the absorption 

of these chemicals through the soil-water solution and movement to the plant is thus mainly 

by means of the soil-air system. The moisture condition of the soil is also a crucial factor in 

influencing the action of these herbicides, because the rate of diffusion depends largely on 

the available airspace in the soil. When the soil is in a dry condition a larger proportion of 

the soil pores are air-filled, as opposed to water filled, and the soil airspace is thus greater. 

Greater airspace means more rapid diffusion of the chemicals in the soil and enhanced 

absorption by the plant. Thus herbicides taken up by plants in their gaseous state are also 

more aggressive under dryland conditions. 

Adsorption of Herbicides on Soil Particles 

A further factor bearing on the action of herbicides is the degree to which they are 

adsorbed onto soil particles. The amount of adsorption depends on a number of factors 

related to the nature of the soil and of the specific chemical. This phenomenon significantly 

reduces and balances the quantity of herbicides available to the plants and thus 

considerably affects their activity. 

It has been shown that within a group of herbicides (which therefore have a similar 

means of bonding) the amount of adsorption is positively correlated to the chemical's 

solubility in water (Table 2). This therefore balances to some degree the increased 

aggressiveness shown by highly soluble chemicals under dryland conditions. 

The physical and chemical properties of the soil play a very important role in 

determining the degree of herbicide adsorption. Soil particle size is particularly significant 

in this respect, in that small particles offer a larger surface area for adsorption per unit area 

of soil. Thus the degree of adsorption increases with decreasing soil particle size. This 

effect, however, is modified by the relative reactivity of the particle surface, expressed in 

the cation exchange capacity. Because the soils of the arid zones are usually low in soil 

constituents with a high cation exchange capacity, such as organic matter, vermiculite, 

montmorillonite, and illite (Table 2), the amount of herbicide adsorbed is relatively low 

Herbicide 

TABLE I Solubility and selective rates of some herbicides (from various sources). 

Solubility 

in water 

(ppm) 

Selective rates 

recommended 

(kg active ingredient/ha) 

Fluorodifen 2 2.0-4.0 

Simazine 5 0.25-1.0 

Prometryne 48 1.0-2.0 

Methabenzthiazuron 59 2.0-4.0 

Linuron 75 0.5-1.0 

Alachlor 240 1.0-2.0 

Metolachlor 530 1.0-2.0 

Metribuzin 1200 0.5-1,0 

138

TABLE 2. Magnitude of adsorption on Na-niontmorilloniie of selected herbicides with different 

solubilities in water expressed with Freundlich 'k" and "n' values,a 

Water solubility "k' 

Adsorbate (ppm) value value 

Simetone 3200 2200 323 

Atratone 1800 400 2,08 

Prometone 750 150 1.56 

Trietazine 20 58 1.00 

Propazine 8 18 0.89 

Atrazine 70 IS 1.18 

Source: Bailey, G. W. et al. 1968. Adsorption of organic herbicides by montmorillonite soil. 

Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 32: 222, 

and its availability to plants correspondingly high. This means that the effect of the 

herbicide will be greater than in more highly adsorptive soils. 

High soil pH reduces the degree of adsorption especially with herbicides that depend 

on an acid-charged particle surface or on the weak positivity of their radicals (nitrogen in 

the case of anilines, ureas, and carbamates) for adsorption. Most soils found in the arid 

lands have a pH of greater than or equal to 8 and thus tend to adsorb chemicals much less 

readily than the majority of soils, 

Environmental conditions such as temperature also have a considerable effect on the 

adsorption properties of soils. As high temperatures tend to decrease adsorption, particular 

attention must be paid to treating summer- or autumn-sown crops in the dry areas. 

Movement of Herbicides in the Soil 

The direction and amount of a herbicide transported in the soil, or the ability of it to 

diffuse from one place to another, depends largely on the amount and frequency of water 

infiltration into the soil and the degree of adsorption by the soil particles. When 

precipitation and infiltration are high, the chemical tends to be leached downward and 

diluted within a large quantity of soil. This increases the degree of adsorption and further 

reduces the effect of the herbicide by reducing its concentration in the root zone where it 

must remain to be effective. In contrast to this, under dryland conditions the dilution of the 

chemical is less, as a result of less water infiltrating into the soil and so the effect of the 

herbicide is enhanced. This is further exacerbated by reconcentration of the herbicide near 

the soil surface as a result of upward soil water movement during spells of dry weather. 

It can be seen that the factors underlying the behaviour and efficacy of soil herbicides 

are of a very complex nature. Much work needs to be carried out to evolve 

recommendations for herbicide use suited to the specific situation of the arid zones. 

However, with the knowledge that soil herbicides act more aggressively under dryland 

conditions, weed control methods can now be developed involving smaller quantities of 

chemicals. This will reduce the cost of treatments to a level that will better suit the low-cost 

input requirements of the agricultural systems of the Middle East and North Africa. 

139

Genetic Resources of Grain Legumes in the Middle East 

L. J. G. Van der Maesen 

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

Hyderabad 500016, A.P., India 

(ICRISAT), 1-11-256 Begumpet 

Genetic resources form the base for all crop improvement efforts. Our obligation to 

avoid loss of genetic variability through the preservation and maintenance of these 

resources is thus of vital importance to future plant-breeding efforts. This task may be 

accomplished through a number of means, including cold storage of seeds, and the 

establishment of gene parks and gene banks. However, the first necessity of any 

conservation is to ensure that the resource base is made as wide as possible by extensive 

and thorough collection of varieties from their habitats before they are completely replaced 

by improved cultivars or otherwise lost. 

The Middle East is very rich in the genetic resources of many crops, especially pulses, 

and several species are considered to have originated there. Although Vavilov's "Centres 

of Origin" are no longer considered to be centres in the sense in which he described them, 

the areas concerned, and especially the Fertile Crescent, are important areas of diversity 

where many related wild species have been found to occur. There have been many 

collection efforts in the region, but most have tended to place special emphasis on the 

cereal species. Pulse collections are quite reasonable in quality, but specific gaps remain 

that it may not now be possible to fill with original germ plasm because of replacement of 

land races by improved cultivars. The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources 

(IBPGR), established in 1974 to stimulate germ-plasm conservation, lists southwest Asia 

and the Mediterranean as top priority areas for the conservation of primitive cultivars and 

their wild relatives. Full-scale collection of pulses in the region probably needs to continue 

for a further 10 years to ensure an adequate coverage of all the countries through searches 

based on a reasonably sized grid system. 

Occurrence and Diversity of Grain Legumes in the Middle East 

Most of the important subtropical grain legumes can trace their origins to the Middle 

East area. However, two notable exceptions are Phaseolus and Vigna, which, although 

originating outside the region, have achieved considerable importance within it. Although 

collections of these crops in the region would not yield primitive cultivars orwild relatives 

as with the other legumes, they would provide good examples of the local variation and 

adaptation achieved over the centuries by these crops. 

Phaseolus 

Phaseolus beans (P. vulgaris L.) probably originated in Mexico and South America 

and were only introduced into the Middle East after the Spanish conquests. Since then they 

140

have become widespread in the region. Lima beans (P. lunatus L.) were also introduced 

about this time but have spread comparatively little. 

Pisum 

Peas are found in three main centres: the Mediterranean, 

Ethiopia, and Central Asia, 

the Near East being considered a secondary centre. Only two species are now recognized: 

P. sativum L., which includesP. elatius (M.Bieb) Aschers & Graebn. and P. humile (Mil), 

as varieties due to proven intercrossing; and P. fulvum (Sibth. & Smith). Some authorities 

(Townsend) still consider P. forinosum (Stev) Alef., a perennial species, as belonging to 

Pisum and not to the separate genus Vavilovia despite the absence of intercrossing with 

peas. 

Cicer 

Chick-peas probably have their origins in the Middle EastMediterranean complex. 

The closest relative crossable with chick-pea, Cicer reticulatum Ladizinsky, is found in 

southeastern Turkey, and other morphologically closely related species such as C. b(juguni 

(K. H. Rech) and C. echinospermuni (P. H. Davis) also occur in this area. Substantial 

evidence for the relations between these species has been provided by Ladizinsky and 

Adler (1976). 

Chick-peas were introduced into India and Ethiopia in ancient times, and secondary 

centres of variability now exist in these areas. The kabuli-type chick-pea (large-seeded, 

cream-coloured, and white-flowered) preferred in the Middle East was introduced into 

India in the l8h century and into Ethiopia only this century. 

Lens 

Lentils probably also originated in the Middle East. Lens orientalis (Boiss) Hand. 

Mazz. certainly had a part in the ancestry of the cultivated lentil and according to some 

authorities (Williams et al. 1974) should be considered to be subspecies of the lentil (L. 

culinaris Medik). The genus Lens is difficult to separate from Vicia and Lath yrus and at 

present is considered to consist of five species (Table I). 

Vicia 

This genus contains about 150 species in the temperate parts of the northern 

hemisphere and South America. Of these, 59 have been found to occur in Turkey and 22 in 

Iraq. Broad bean (V. faba L.) and bitter vetch (V. ervilia 

L. Willd.) are important as grain 

legumes, and many other species, especially V. sativa L., are used as animal fodder in 

natural or cultivated pasture. 

Broad beans seem to have originated in the Near East (northern Iran) and to have 

spread to Europe, North Africa, and Spain along the Nile to Ethiopia and through 

Mesopotamia to India. The crop is also widely grown in China where it has been known 

since AD. 1200. Other species in the division Faha of the genus are V. hithynica L., V. 

narbonensis L., V. galilaea (Plitm. & Zoh), and V. hyaeniscyamus (Mout). Although these 

are morphologically related, studies of cytology, crossability, and seed protein profiles 

have ruled them out as wild progenitors of broad bean. Nevertheless a common ancestry 

can still be postulated for these species. 

Common vetch is grown throughout Europe and Asia, except in the extreme north and 

in the tropical areas. In other continents it is a naturalized introduction. The variety 

angustifolia L. is perhaps the original wild ancestor but, in general, the seeds have proved 

difficult to trace in archaeological work and so relatively little is known of the origins of 

this species. 

Vigna 

Cowpea, V. unguiculata (L.) Walp., originated in Ethiopia and the subspecies 

dekindtiana (Harma) Vardc. is now quite common in the wild throughout Africa. It arrived 

in the Middle East via India sometime before 300 B.C. and is now grown under irrigation 

141

TABLE I. Distribution, altitude, and flowering season of grain legume species and some of their wild 

relatives 

Genus Species Area Altitude Flowering 

Pisum sativu,n L. subsp. sat ivum Middle East, 0-2000 AprMay 

var. saovum cosmopolitan 

sari rum L. subsp. .sativum Mediterranean, 0-2400 AprMay 

var. arvense (L.) SW. Asia, Ethiopia, 

cult, cosmopolitan 

sari vum L. subsp. elatius Mediterranean, 700-1600 

var. darius Crimea, 

Middle East, 

Caucasus 

sari vum L. subsp. elazius Middle East, 700-1600 AprMay 

var. pumilio Cyprus 

son VU!fl L. subsp. abvssinieum N. Ethiopia 2000-2400 SepOct 

lu/rum S. Turkey, JunJul 

W. Syria, Lebanon. 

Jordan, Israel 

formosum Lebanon, Turkey 

varjormosum Caucasus, Iran 

var. pubescens Iraq, S. E. Turkey 2900-3350 AugSep 

Cicer reticulatum S.E. Turkey 500-1500 Jun 

heterophyl/um Manavgat-Akseki 1100 May (Jun) 

Lens cu/mans Mediterranean, 0-2900 AprJun 

SW. Asia, India, (M. East) 

China, America 

erveides S. Europe, NW. Africa, 0-600 AprMay 

SW. Turkey, W. Syria 

N. Israel, Crimea, 

Caucasus 

monthrctii S.E. Turkey, 1000-1300 AprMay 

N. Iraq 

,iigricans Spain, Morocco, 

Aegean, Turkey, 

Crimea, 

E. Mediterranean 

0-900 May 

onmenta/is Turkey, Syria. Greece, 

Israel, N. Iraq, W & N 

Iran, Transcaucasia 

450-1300 AprMay 

Vicia fitha L. var. jitha Mediterranean, 0-3000 FebMay 

(= var. molar) 

Yemen, USSR, 

M. East, 

cosmopolitan 

JanMay 

var. equina Mediterranean 

M. East 

0-1500? FebApr 

JanJun 

var. minuta Near East 0-3200 JanMay 

(= var. minor) Ethiopia, 

N. India, Tibet 

Afghanistan 0-4000 

JanFebJul? 

narbonen.sis L. Mediterranean, C. & 0-1500 MarJun 

var. narbonensis 

var. serratifolia 

S. Europe 

M. East, India, 

C. Asia 

50-350 MarJun 

142

(Table I concluded) 

galilaea Israel, Syria, 0-1300 Mar-Jun 

Turkey, Lebanon 

bithynica L. W. Syria, 0-500? Mar-Jun 

Cyprus, Crimea, 

W.& S. Europe, 

NW. Africa 

hvaenischamus Turkey, Syria, 0-1300 Mar-Jun 

Lebanon, Israel 

ervilia (L.) Mediterranean, 0-3100 Apr-Jun 

M. East, Afghanistan 

sativa L. Europe to China 0-1300 Feb-May; 

var. angustifolia L. & India, N. Africa, Nov 

naturalized in Australia, 

S. Africa, W. Indies 

var. sari vu Same as above 0-1700 Mar-Jun 

var. amphicarpa S. Europe, N. Africa, 100-700 Mar-Apr 

Middle East, Caucasus 

Lathyrus sativus L. M. East, Europe 0-100 Mar-May 

N. Africa 0- Mar-May 

N. India 0- Jan-Feb 

C. Asia, Afghanistan 200-3100 Jul-Sep 

Ethiopia 1800-2000 May-Jun 

as a summer vegetable, gram, or fodder crop. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilzek. (green gram or 

mungbean) and V. mungo (L.) Hepper. (black gram) are natives of India and have spread to 

parts of the Middle East. 

Lath yrus 

This is a large genus comprising about 130 species that are found all over the 

temperate region of the northern hemisphere and the high altitudes of tropical Africa and 

South America. Many species are useful as fodders or in pasture and about 20 species are 

of horticultural interest. 

Chickling vetch, L. sativus L., is the most important species in the Middle East and is 

sometimes used for human consumption though more commonly as a cattle feed. Its 

presumed area of origin is in southwestern and central Asia, but its widespread cultivation 

and naturalization throughout Europe (excepting the north), the Mediterranean, Sudan, 

Ethiopia, Afghanistan, and northern India have obscured its native distribution. The 

Middle East is obviously an important area of diversity. 

Lupinus 

In total, about 300-400 species exist within this genus and lupins have achieved 

considerable importance in the Middle East. Lupinus albus L. (= L. termis Forsk., 

Egyptian lupin) originated in the Balkans and L. mutabilis probably in South America. 

Materials Requiring Collection and Maintenance 

Four distinct types of material can be identified as ingredients for any germ-plasm 

collection: 

143

Cultivars in Current Use 

Currently used cultivars have an important 

place in germ-plasm collections as they are 

usually the starting point for the development of improved varieties. The need to maintain 

pure cultivars is obvious and for some cross-pollinated crops (e.g., broad beans) this is not 

a simple task. 

Primitive Cultivars 

This category of material requires urgent maintenance as many landraces of certain 

crops have already disappeared or are only available as a negligible admixture with other 

improved varieties. This is especially the case with chick-peas in Turkey. 

Wild and Weedy Species 

Wild species are often useful sources of disease resistance and tolerance to adverse 

environmental conditions. For example, Cicer reticulatum and C. judaicum (Boiss.) have 

been found to be resistant to Ascochyta blight and Fusarium wilt of chick-pea, 

respectively. Despite initial difficulties experienced in crossing wild species to cultivated 

ones, modern techniques may eventually overcome these problems and allow the 

exploitation of such useful resources. Until recently, accessions of wild species have only 

been entered in small numbers and screening has only just got under way. 

As these species often occur in small isolated populations, genetic variability may be 

considerable and it should be stressed that more accessions of each species should be 

collected as a priority. 

Genetic Stocks and Mutants 

These materials fulfill a useful purpose in breeding programs as semifinished products 

and, when certain characteristics are required, they can be drawn upon as a readily 

available stock of already evaluated material. Such material must also be given proper 

maintenance at genetic resource centres. 

Pulse Germ-Plasm Collection Efforts and Existing Collections 

Since 1920, over 40 collection trips throughout the Middle East and the Mediterranean 

area have contributed a large amount of legume germ plasm to agricultural research 

institutes This has been supplemented by material gathered in the course of collection trips 

in the region primarily aimed at other species (e.g., cereals). 

Collections of varying size exist both within and outside the region. Within the region, 

Algeria (INRA, Jardin d'Essais, Algiers), Israel (Rehovot), Pakistan (Lyallpur and 

Tandojam), and Turkey (Iskisehir) have had small- to medium-sized collections for a 

considerable time. Larger collections have recently been established at the Ege 

Agricultural Research Institute near Izmir in Turkey and at ICARDA at Aleppo in Syria. In 

addition, national research institutes throughout the region house small but useful 

collections of legume species. In India, apart from the relatively recent collection at 

ICRISAT at Hyderabad, there are sizeable collections of pulse species at Hissar, 

Pantnagar, and New Delhi. Other institutions outside the Middle East, such as the NI 

Vavilov Institute in Leningrad, the Institute of Agronomy at Ban (Italy), and the Zentral 

Institut fur Genetik und KulturpflanzenforschUng in the German Democratic Republic, also 

house considerable collections of pulse germ plasm from the region. 

The contents of some of the more important legume collections are summarized in 

Table 2. Obvious duplication and triplication exist in these and other collections but for 

reasons of safety this is generally considered to be an advantage. 

Conservation 

Conservation of genetic resources primarily involves the long-term cold storage of 

seeds. Most grain legumes can be stored, as orthodox seeds, atl8 °C and 5% seed 

humidity for long periods, perhaps up to a century. However, very few long-term 

144

TABLE 2. Some important collections containing grain legume germ plasm from the Middle East. 

Institute Crop No. of 

samples 

Germ plasm Laboratory, Cicer arlelinum 100 

Instituto di Agronomia, Pisum 700 

Ban, Italy Viciafaba 60 

Vicia saliva 

900 

Ege Agricultural Research 

and Introduction Centre. 

P.O. Box 9, Menemen 

Izmir, Turkey 

Cicer arietinum 

Forage legumes 

Len.s culinaris 

Phaseolus vulgaris 

Viciafaba 

2 17 

2146 

142 

966 

135 

NI Vavilov All-Union tnst. 

of Plant Industry (VIR), 

44 Herzen Street, 

Leningrad 19000 USSR 


Laihyrus sativus 

Lens culinaris 

Phaseolus spp. 

Pisum spp. 

Vicia ervilia 

Viciafaba 

Vicia saliva 

All pulses 

27 

62 

24 

76 

164 

3 

26 

42 

25000 

Zentralinstitut fur 

Genetik und Kulturpflanzen 

forschung, 

Gatersleben, Kreis 

Aschersleben, 

German Democratic Republic 


Larhyrus 


Phaseolus spp. 

Pisurn sat! vu,n 

Viciafaba 

Vicia spp. 

65 

288 

193 

1856 

1232 

434 

788 

ICRISAT, 

1-11-256 Begumpet, 

Hyderabad 500016, 

A. P. India 

Cajanus cajan 


Cicer spp. 

6000 

11500 

47 

ICARDA, 

Cicer arieiinu,n 

P.O. Box 5466, 

Aleppo, Syria 

Lathyrus sativus 


Pisum sat ivu,n 

Vicia ervilia 

Vicia faba 

Vicia saliva 

cold-storage rooms are operational and in the Middle East only Izmir has these facilities at 

present. As a consequence, medium-term storage at 4-16 °C is more usually practiced. 

Naphtalene balls as an insect repellant have been found to be a useful complement to this 

method, but where soft-coated seeds (i.e., chick-peas) remain in close contact with the 

chemical for too long growth, grow out will be stunted. Between storage periods, seeds 

must be grown out for rejuvenation and the population structure should be maintained as 

well as possible. The size of the sample in store should not be too small: 5000 seeds or .5-2 

kg is sufficient for homogeneous samples. 

Perennial wild species pose considerably more difficulties in growing out. Other 

conservation methods, such as natural reserves where farming is prohibited and gene parks 

with low- or medium-grazing intensities, are thus often advocated for such material. The 

use and size of these facilities is still at present under discussion. 

Evaluation and information 

Elite germ plasm can be more closely evaluated in replications. At present, evaluation 

of large amounts of germ-plasm samples are hampered by the lack of detailed replicated 

145

and multilocation trials. Detailed cataloguing of germ-plasm collections will be required in 

the near future and computerization will become essential in this process. This is one area, 

together with collection missions and germ-plasm exchange, where the benefits of much 

closer cooperation between national, regional, and international institutions are considerable. 

Such cooperation would do much to hasten the achievement of a comprehensive and 

catalogued ''world" germ-plasm collection to which every research institute could have 

access. 

References 

Ladizinsky, G., and Adler, A. 1976. The origin of chickpea (Cicer arietinuin L.). Euphytica 25: 

211-217. 

Williams, J. T., Sanches, A. M. C., and Jackson, M.T. 1974. Studies on lentils and their variation. I. 

The taxonomy of the species. SABRAO J. 6-2: 133-145. 

146

Strategies for the Genetic Improvement of Lentils, 

Broad Beans, and Chick-peas, with Special Emphasis on 

Research at ICARDA 

Geoffrey C. Hawtin 

Food Legume Improvement Program, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

With the establishment of ICARDA in 1977, incorporating the food legume 

improvement program of ALAD, which was originally initiated in 1972 with funding from 

IDRC, a considerable expansion in the objectives and scope of legume improvement 

activities became possible. 

The overall objective of the food legume breeding program of ICARDA is thus to 

encourage and support national food legume improvement efforts through: 

the collection, maintenance, development, and distribution of genetic materials of 

lentils (Lens culinaris), broad beans ( Viciafaba), and chick-peas (Cicer arietinum); 

the undertaking of genetic improvement work and applied research in the areas of 

breeding and genetics, and the widespread dissemination of research results; 

the training of scientists from the national research programs of the region in the 

techniques and theory of food legume improvement; and 

the building of an international network of food legume researchers to engender 

increased cooperation and understanding between programs and thereby to facilitate the 

free exchange of research results and materials. 

The International Cooperative Breeding Program 

Breeding work is being conducted in Syria and Lebanon to serve the needs of the low 

and medium elevation Mediterranean-type 

environments, and near Tabriz in northern Iran 

for the development of food legumes adapted to the more extreme high elevation 

conditions. Although these locations represent a considerable range of environments, they 

are not representative of the entire range of conditions under which broad beans, lentils, 

and chick-peas are grown throughout the world; from the Andean region of Latin America 

and the irrigated conditions of Egypt and the Sudan to the "Rabi" production following the 

monsoon in India and Southeast Asia. 

To adequately address the needs of the national programs in all these differing 

environments, the ALAD Regional Nursery Program has been expanded into an 

International Cooperative Breeding Program that aims: to provide for the widespread 

dissemination of promising elite genetic materials; to make available to the national 

programs materials exhibiting special characteristics (such as disease resistance) for further 

evaluation, testing, and possibly also hybridization; to disseminate promising early 

generation segregating material for development under local environments; and to provide 

a mechanism for the multilocation testing of elite lines to reduce the time necessary for 

evaluation prior to cultivar release and allow the identification of genotypes with wide 

adaptability. 

The materials distributed by ICARDA under this program include nurseries of 

selected germ plasm and(or) advanced lines for screening, evaluation, or hybridization; 

early generation segregating populations (usually F3 bulks); and yield trials. 

147

Lentil Breeding 

The lentil improvement program aims to develop materials of both the maerosperrnae 

and microspermue types with acceptable organoleptic and nutritional quality and 

possessing the following attributes: 

A high and stable dry seed yield through: 

an inherently high yield potential 

tolerance to stress conditions (cold, heat, drought, salinity) 

resistance to the major diseases and pests (including Orobanche) 

high plasticity; 

A wide adaptability, primarily as a result of reduced photoperiod and temperature 

sensitivity; 

A high total biological yield; 

Characteristics suited to mechanized harvesting: 

a tall erect growth habit 

resistance to lodging and pod shattering 

pods borne high above the ground. 

Disease and Pest Resistance 

Lentils are comparatively free from major disease problems. However, the most 

serious and ubiquitous problem is wilt, a disease that can be caused by a complex of a 

number of different pathogens including Fusarium oxysporum F.sp. lentis, F. orthoceras, 

F. avenaceum, Rhizoctonja solanj, and Scierotium rolfsii. Survey work is urgently 

required to establish the relative importance and distribution of these pathogens, so that 

breeding efforts can be directed toward developing multiple resistance to the most 

important species. 

The only other disease of major importance in lentils is rust, caused by Uromyces 

fabae, which can be particularly severe in some parts of the Indian sub-continent, but is 

rarely a major problem in the Middle East. Some sources of rust resistance have already 

been identified in India, and it is planned to screen for further sources of resistance in the 

field using artificial inoculation techniques, at a coastal location in Syria, where the disease 

can be severe. 

Breeding for resistance to other lentil diseases, such as downy mildew (Peronospora 

lentis), Ascochyra blight (Ascochyta lentis), pea enation mosaic virus (PEMV), alfalfa 

mosaic virus (AMy), bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), and pea leaf roll virus (PLRV), 

will only receive minor attention at present. 

Several insect pests have been reported to cause severe losses in lentils both in the 

field and in store. These include: pod borers (Etiella zinckinella), reported to be the major 

insect field pest of lentils in India; several species of aphids; Sirona weevils; and storage 

pests, such as the lentil beetle (Bruchus analis). No good sources of resistance have been 

reported to any of these pests, although differential reactions to infestation have been 

observed and there are other encouraging signs that the development of resistant cultivars 

may be possible. In breeding for resistance to bruchid beetles care must be taken to ensure 

that resistance is not associated with poor cooking quality. 

Initial screening of lentil germ plasm for resistance to the parasitic weed Orobanche is 

under way and cultivar differences in the degree of susceptibility have already been 

recorded. This work will be continued and expanded in the future. 

Wider Adaptability 

Lentils are long-day sensitive plants and it is felt that this is an important factor 

contributing to the very narrow adaptability of most local cultivars. Narrow adaptability 

severely limits the progress that can be made through breeding, and the development of 

cultivars with a reduced photoperiod/temperature sensitivity is thus an important objective 

of the program. In an attempt to achieve this, selections will be made alternately for 

yielding ability under long-day conditions (in Aleppo or Tabriz), and for earliness and 

vigour under short days (in Egypt or Ethiopia) in generations following crosses between 

genotypes adapted to each environment. 

148

Genotypes with wide adaptability can also be identified through the international 

cooperative trials and nurseries, and in fact several lines identified as being widely adapted 

in nurseries conducted under the ALAD program have already been included as parents in 

the hybridization program at ICARDA. 

Improved Plant Ideotype 

The development of plants with a larger vegetative frame and a high total biological 

yield is considered to be of great importance in the strategy for lentil improvement. This is 

primarily because a high total biological yield is indicative of improved efficiency 

characteristics, such as a high crop growth rate (CGR) and leaf area index (LAI), and will 

result in a higher total seed yield, providing that the harvest index is not allowed to fall. In 

addition, larger, more plastic plants might be reasonably expected to be more stable and to 

have lower optimum seeding rates, thus allowing considerable savings on the very high 

rates of seed currently used in much of the region. Combined with resistance to lodging 

such plants would also allow for easier mechanized harvesting, and would furthermore 

provide an increased volume of straw for animal fodder, which is a very important 

consideration in many countries. A more vigorous early growth might also increase the 

crop's competitiveness with weeds. 

The identification of genotypes capable of continued growth at the high temperatures 

that frequently limit the spring growth of present cultivars, might be a useful start on the 

road to the development of cultivars with a higher total biological yield. 

Germ Plasm 

The conservation of genetic resources of lentils has received relatively little attention 

and germ-plasm collections are generally considered incomplete. The ICARDA collection 

now stands at nearly 4500 accessions and although many countries are well represented 

(Table I). more germ plasm is being sought, especially from North Africa, Bangladesh, the 

TABLE I. Origin of lentil and broad bean entries in the ICARDA germ-plasm collections. 

No. accessions 

149 

No. accessions 

Country Lentils Broad beans Country Lentils Broad beans 

Afghanistan 116 89 Japan - 5 

Algeria 8 18 Jordan 38 9 

Argentina 3 1 Lebanon 47 14 

Bulgaria 2 I Mexico 24 

Bolivia - I Morocco 16 33 

Canada I - Nepal 10 

Chile 378 3 Pakistan 24 6 

Colombia 10 14 Palestine 1 7 

Costa Rica I - Peru 2 1 

Ceylon - 2 Poland - 12 

Cyprus 6 10 Portugal - 5 

Czechoslovakia I - S. Africa - 

Ecuador 6 13 Somalia I - 

Egypt 62 59 Spain 30 62 

Ethiopia 359 lOS Sudan 1 32 

Finland - 23 Sweden - 9 

France 2 II Switzerland - 

Germany - 41 Syria 92 38 

Greece 53 5 Tunisia 7 38 

Guatemala 3 - Turkey 290 119 

Holland - 98 UK - 69 

Hungary 49 12 USA - 3 

India 1759 7 USSR 65 21 

Iran 1006 33 Yemen 3 5 

Iraq 20 49 Yugoslavia 22 14 

Italy 5 4 Unknown 10 234

USSR, and countries of Central and South America. Special emphasis is being placed 

throughout west Asia on the collection of wild Lens species. Descriptors are currently 

being developed, the data will be computerized, and it is intended to produce a complete 

germ-plasm catalogue in the near future. 

Breeding Methodology 

Most of the cultivars released throughout the world to date have been derived by 

selection from germ plasm as opposed to hybridization programs. The degree of further 

genetic improvement possible by continued selection from local germ plasm is expected to 

be limited in most countries and major yield advances are only expected to result from 

selections following hybridization. 

Lentils are almost completely self-pollinated and artificial cross-pollination is made 

difficult by the small and delicate flowers. Crossing under field conditions has thus proved 

particularly difficult. However, high success rates (over 70%) have been achieved from 

crosses in greenhouses, where the plants are sown in early autumn and flowering is 

induced, and synchronized, by creating artificial long-day (18-20 hours) conditions during 

the winter. 

Due to the difficulty in crossing, the major part of the ICARDA lentil improvement 

work follows modified pedigree or bulk population methods. Efforts, however, are being 

made to develop techniques for making a large number of crosses under field conditions 

and thereby enabling the use of population improvement methods, such as modified 

recurrent selection. 

Other breeding methods, including induced mutation and interspecific hybridization, 

will also be considered, especially for the development of specific characters for which 

genes are not available in the germ-plasm collection. A number of crosses have already 

been made with the wild species Lens orientalis (considered by some to be conspecific with 

L. cu/mans) with the main aim of developing drought resistance. Although the two species 

cross readily, the work is still at an early stage and the usefulness of these wide crosses in 

lentil improvement remains to be firmly established. 

Broad Bean Breeding 

The main objectives of broad bean improvement at ICARDA are to develop a range of 

materials having different maturities and seed sizes together with the following 

characteristics: 

A high and stable dry seed yield through: 

resistance to the major diseases and pests (including Orobanche) 

tolerance to stress conditions (cold, heat, drought, and salinity) 

a more efficient growth habit 

increased autofertility 

reduced flower drop; 

A wider adaptability; 

Resistance to lodging, pod-shattering, and storage pests; 


An improved nutritional value, especially increased protein quantity, together with 

reduced levels of toxic factors, and maintained protein and cooking qualities. 

Although the major emphasis of the program is geared to the development of the crop 

for dry seed production, some attempts will also be made at genetic improvement for the 

production of green seed and pods. 

Diseases and Pest Resistance 

Broad beans are particularly susceptible to damage resulting from disease infection. A 

wide range of diseases, including pathogens of the root rot/wilt complex, chocolate spot 

(Botrytis fabae), Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta fabae), brown spot (Alternaria sp.), 

powdery mildew (Erisyphe polygoni and Leveiulla taurica), rust (Uromyces fabae), and 

several viruses, have been reported to cause serious economic losses. Diseases are in 

150

general a greater problem under more humid environments than with irrigated production 

under dry conditions. In recognition of this, ICARDA's program concentrates its efforts 

toward the development of resistance (multiple where possible) at a humid Mediterranean 

coastal site near Lattakia. Few good sources of resistance have so far been discovered and 

it is expected that emphasis will have to be placed upon building up resistance levels 

through population improvement methods for the accumulation of minor resistance genes. 

For certain specific diseases the use of induced mutation may also be considered in the 

future. 

The most important insect pests of broad bean are aphids. Differential reactions to 

infestations of this pest have been observed in the ICARDA germ-plasm collection and 

breeders elsewhere have reported useful levels of aphid resistance and demonstrated the 

value of this in increasing seed yields. 

Orobanche is also a major problem in this crop, causing serious losses. Several 

breeders have reported finding useful levels of resistance and the ICARDA germ-plasm 

collection is currently being grown in artificially infested pots as a preliminary screening 

for resistance. As with the development of disease and aphid resistance, it is expected that 

population improvement methods will prove most useful in raising Orobanche resistance 

levels. 

Improved Plant Ideotype 

The opportunity for alterations in plant growth habit in broad beans is considerable. 

Although little work has yet been carried out on the establishment of optimum plant 

ideotypes for different agroecological conditions, types having a greater degree of 

determinacy, less top growth, a greater synchronization of flowering., reduced height, a 

canopy structure allowing increased light penetration, and reduced tillering are being 

sought in initial improvement efforts. Genes affecting all these characteristics are available 

and are at present being utilized. 

Autof'ertility 

Many broad bean cultivars require tripping of the flowers by bees in order to obtain 

maximum seed set. In the absence of insect pollinators (which can be caused by spraying 

against insect pests), seed yield may be reduced. However, because most of the autofertile 

lines so far discovered have originated outside the Middle East and most of the autofertility 

work has been carried out in northern Europe, the extent of the problem in this region is not 

yet clear. A selection pressure in favour of autofertility may be applied through the 

currently used breeding methods involving selfing through bagging or growing the plants 

in insect-free cages if artificial tripping is not practiced. 

Nutritional Factors 

One screening of 511 accessions from the germ-plasm collection at ICARDA has 

resulted in values in excess of 37% protein (N >< 6.25, dry weight basis) being recorded. A 

population of high protein lines was initiated in 1976 and this will be advanced through 

recurrent selection with S or S2 testing. Protein levels of greater than 40% with no 

concurrent loss in yield are considered possible by some researchers. 

The occurrence of the disease favism has been widely reported in the Mediterranean 

region. Little work has been carried out on this problem, but the presence of two 

pyrimidines (divicine and isouramil) has been tentatively identified as the cause in 

genetically susceptible humans. Once the causal agents have been firmly established, 

screening methods can be developed for their estimation and attempts to breed for nontoxic 

types can be initiated. 

Apart from these two positive nutritional improvement aspects, all advanced lines of 

lentils and chick-peas as well as broad beans will be routinely screened to ensure that their 

nutritional and organoleptic properties do not fall below acceptable standards. 

Germ Plasm 

The ICARDA germ-plasm collection contains only 1300 entries, making it the 

151

smallest of the food legume collections retained at the centre (Table 1). Efforts are thus 

continually being made to expand the collection, germ plasm being especially sought from 

China (which accounts for two-thirds of the world broad bean production), the Indian 

subcontinent, eastern Europe, and Central and South America. Germ plasm from northern 

Europe frequently fails to set seed under the conditions of this region and assistance in the 

maintenance of this material is currently being sought. 

Broad beans are a partially outcrossed species. In the 1975-76 nurseries in Egypt, for 

example, outcrossing ranged from 11% between rows (spaced at 65 cm) and 33% between 

plants at one location to over 20% between rows and 40% between plants at another. As a 

consequence of this high level of natural outcrossing, the germ plasm at ICARDA is 

maintained in two separate collections: a broad-based collection in which no attempt is 

made to purify accessions except by subdivision; and a working collection of inbred lines, 

developed through the selfing of individual plants within the broad-based collection. 


As a result of their high degree of outcrossing, ICARDA's approach to breeding broad 

beans involves considering the crop as both self-pollinated and cross-pollinated. 

Development of Pure Lines 

Since its initiation at Tel Amara (Lebanon) in 1975, the hybridization program has 

involved approximately 750 field crosses. Both bulk population and pedigree methods of 

selection are being followed and compared. No pollination control is normally attempted in 

early generations; but a separate system, involving the bagging of one or two plants in each 

progeny row and basing selection of the selfed plants on the performance of the open 

pollinated family, is currently being tested. This method allows a more rapid increase in 

homozygosity, enabling the required levels of phenotypic uniformity to be achieved in 

fewer generations and at the same time permits selection for high autofertility. 

There is some evidence of inbreeding depression in broad beans, and selection of 

inbred lines for high yield and autofertility is thus under way among lines derived from the 

germ plasm. The best selected lines, together with advanced inbred lines from the 

hybridization program, will be tested for general combining ability (GCA) and synthetic 

varieties, composed of inbred lines with high GCA's, will be constituted and evaluated. 

Population Improvement 

A program of recurrent selection has been started and for this purpose three 

populations were initiated in 1976-77 and a further three during the present cropping 

season. Following three or four generations of random intercrossing using honeybees in 

cages, it is proposed to follow either an S2 testing (4 seasons, 2 years/cycle) system if 

recombination can be carried out in the off seasons, or an S1 system (involving 3 seasons 

and 2 years/cycle) if recombination using honeybees proves to be only feasible in the main 

season. 

It is proposed to develop a series of mainstream populations based primarily on seed 

size, maturity, and major adaptation group, and another series of subpopulations for 

particular characters, such as disease, pest, and Orobanche resistance, protein content, etc. 

When the frequency of desirable genes has increased to a sufficient level in these 

subpopulations, they will be introgressed with the mainstream ones through intermediate 

"back-up" populations. 

Hybrid bulk populations from the recurrent selection program will be distributed to 

national programs through the international scheme and will serve as a source of genetic 

variation for the future development of pure lines as well as a basic population for further 

improvement by mass selection or for direct release. 

Male Sterility 

All attempts at crossing between V. faba and other Vicia species have so far proved 

unsuccessful. Work on this aspect will be encouraged, however, due to the great potential 

152

for improvement by this method; for example, one of the closest relatives of the broad 

bean, V. narbonensis, a wild weedy species found in the region, has been shown to have 

resistance to a number of diseases and pests, including chocolate spot, Ascochyta blight, 

and certain aphid species. 

Chick-Pea Breeding 

ICARDA and ICRISAT are working very closely to ensure a good coordination of the 

activities of their respective chick-pea programs: research at ICARDA is emphasizing the 

kabuli cultivars, and that at ICRISAT mainly the desi types. 

The ICARDA chick-pea improvement program thus focuses on the development of 

kabuli materials with the following attributes: 

A high and stable dry yield through: 

an inherently high yield potential 

tolerance to stress conditions (cold, heat, drought, and salinity) 

resistance to the major diseases and pests (Ascochyta blight, root rot/wilt, pod 

borers, and leaf miners); 

A wide adaptation; 


Characteristics suited to mechanized harvesting. 

Winter Planting 

Throughout western Asia, chick-peas are, in general, planted in the spring and grown 

on residual moisture. It has been well demonstrated that autumn planting could 

dramatically increase seed yield; however, the greatly increased risk of a severe attack of 

Ascochyta blight normally prevents this practice. An autumn-sown trial at Aleppo in 1978 

has shown one entry (NEC 2305) to have a moderate level of resistance to Ascochyta; all 

the other entries in the trial were almost completely destroyed by the disease. This entry 

produced a yield of over 3 tonnes of seed per hectare as compared to the 950 kg/ha 

produced by the same variety when spring planted. 

At low and medium elevations in the region, much of the material tested to date has 

shown sufficient cold tolerance to survive the winter and so the prospects for increasing 

yield through autumn-planted varieties appear promising. Special breeding efforts are, 

however, planned for the Tabriz site to develop adequate cold tolerance for the plants to 

survive the extreme winter conditions of the high plateau region. 

Disease and Pest Resistance 

Ascochyta blight is without doubt the most economically important disease of 

chick-peas throughout the region. Not only does it prevent the practice of winter planting, 

but it is also a major yield-limiting factor in the spring-sown crop. Resistance to the disease 

has been reported, but it is almost exclusively confined to desi cultivars. 

A preliminary screening nursery at ICARDA in 1977-78, involving 1200 kabuli 

cultivars, has revealed about 30 entries with a moderate level of resistance and 7 entries 

that failed to show any disease symptoms at all. Although it is still necessary to confirm 

these findings at other locations, the indications that resistant kabuli cultivars can be 

developed seem promising. 

The wild species C. reticulatum appears to be a promising source of resistance genes, 

and one accession has been found to be very highly resistant in seedling tests carried out at 

ICRISAT. 

Improved Plant Type 

Several lines originating from the USSR are currently being used as a source of genes 

for the development of a taller, more erect plant type, which would both facilitate 

mechanized harvesting and should also result in higher yields at high plant population 

levels. Some progenies of crosses between these lines and locally adapted types appear 

very promising in this respect. 

153

The "double podding" condition, where two flowers are produced per peduncle 

instead of the normal one, is a further character that may be important in increasing the 

yield potential and stability. Research is also under way on this aspect. 

Germ Plasm 

A world germ-plasm collection has been developed at ICRISAT and it is planned that 

a duplicate of this collection will be maintained at ICARDA. A subcollection of kabuli 

types is also being developed at ICARDA as a working collection. 


It is estimated that approximately 75% of the chick-pea production in the main 

producing areas arises from unselected landraces and, of the improved cultivars that have 

been released, almost all have originated from selections from this germ-plasm base. 

Chick-peas are comparatively easy to cross under field conditions and with the 

establishment of both the ICRISAT and ICARDA programs, large-scale crossing can be 

undertaken, allowing the development of population improvement methods in addition to 

the pedigree or bulk methods traditionally used in chick-pea breeding. 

One approach currently being followed is the introgression of kabuli and desi germ 

plasm. These two groups have been separated for many hundreds of years and it is 

therefore probable that the genetic divergences between them are appreciable. The 

introduction of new "exotic" genes into locally adapted cultivars may thus result in 

significant yield advances, especially in the improvement of kabuli types, for which the 

available germ-plasm base is considerably narrower. There is some evidence, however, 

that coadaptation is important in chick-peas and that wide crossing tends to break up 

coadapted gene blocks. If this is the case, then backcrossing to the adapted parent would 

help to prevent excessive adaptation breakdown, while at the same time giving the added 

advantage of increasing the frequency of genes for acceptable seed characters (the small, 

coloured seeds of the desi types being unacceptable throughout most of the Middle East). 

Work on this scheme was started in 1975 with 158 kabuli x desi crosses, and 217 back 

crosses and three-way crosses were made in 1977. The effectiveness of this method, 

however, still awaits a more comprehensive evaluation. 

154

Some Agronomic and Physiological Aspects of the 

Important Food Legume Crops in West Asia 

M. C. Saxena 

Food Legume Improvement Program, IC'ARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

The extent to which a plant can harness the natural resources of solar radiation, carbon 

dioxide, water, and other inorganic nutrients available to it in the production of yield is 

dependent upon its genetic composition. The genetic control of yield is achieved through 

regulation of the morphological structure of the plant and its physiological functioning. 

The genetic constitution of the plant thus determines its potential yielding ability, but the 

degree to which this potential is realized depends to a large extent on the environment in 

which it grows. Because the crop environment can be partly regulated by agronomic 

manipulations, the achievement of high yields, which is one of the main objectives of crop 

improvement work, demands that aspects of agronomic management be given active 

consideration alongside the genetic alteration of plant structure and functioning. 

Lentils (Lens culinaris), chick-peas (Cicer arietinum), and broad beans (Viciafaba) 

are the three food legume crops of major importance to the agriculture of West Asia and 

North Africa. Their respective average productivity is reported to be 1068, 950, and 1872 

kg/ha in the Near East and even lower in the Far East and Africa, as against maximum 

yields of 3500, 4400, and 7500 kg/ha, respectively, reported from experimentation. Quite 

a substantial part of this apparent gap between the potentially realizable and actually 

realized yield may be attributed to inadequate agronomic management. 

With this background, the present paper briefly reviews the current state of knowledge 

on the agronomy and production physiology of the three food legumes with the aim of 

highlighting the importance of the various factors that affect yield and identifying areas 

requiring further research emphasis in the future. 

Environmental Conditions 

The temperature optima for the growth of lentils, chick-peas, and broad beans lies 

between 10 and 30 °C and the crops will thus grow at all locations where altitude and 

latitude permit these temperature ranges. All three crops, for instance, are grown 

extensively at low elevations between latitudes 15 and 40°N; and chick-peas are also 

produced between 0 and l5°N, but at higher elevations to meet the low temperature 

requirements; and broad beans may be cultivated up to 60°N at low altitudes and in close 

proximity to the sea. 

Chick-peas, lentils, and to some extent also broad beans are subject to decreasing 

temperatures and day lengths immediately after planting in India, Pakistan, and some parts 

of North Africa, whereas they experience increasing temperatures and day length when 

grown in Iran, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, Italy, and Spain. 

The soil moisture availability and stresses under which these crops are produced also 

vary considerably throughout the region, with the differences in rainfall pattern (and 

irrigation) and thermal regimes experienced. They are raised on conserved soil moisture in 

the Indian subcontinent and in parts of Iran and Turkey, while production in Egypt and 

Sudan is almost entirely irrigated. In Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and adjoining areas, broad 

beans are grown exclusively under irrigation, except at high rainfall coastal locations, 

whereas chick-peas and lentils are produced mainly under rainfed conditions, the former on 

155

esidual moisture after the winter rains and the latter during the rains, but exposed to the 

desiccating atmosphere and moisture stress during flowering and crop maturity. 

The environmental conditions under which these crops are produced can thus be seen 

to be very varied with respect to many aspects. 

Agronomic Requirements 

Emergence 

Lentils 

Lentils are ecologically well adapted to cooler environments, but are adversely 

affected by long and intense periods of frost. They are therefore grown as winter crops only 

in areas experiencing mild winters, and where winters are severe are usually spring sown. 

The optimum temperature for germination ranges between 15 and 25 °C, the rate of 

emergence being slower at the lower temperatures. Sowing at a depth of 4-5 cm has been 

found to ensure rapid emergence and a better dry matter production than either shallower or 

deeper planting. Greater delays in emergence have been observed with deeper plantings as 

soil temperature decreases and small-seeded cultivars appear to be more sensitive to deep 

planting than the larger ones. Varietal differences in the rate of emergence have been noted 

in preliminary studies at the ICARDA site in Syria during the 1977-78 season. 

Date of Planting 

The performance of lentils is affected markedly by planting date, the optimum time 

varying between locations. Under Indian conditions, the second half of October has been 

found to be the best time, but the highest yields achieved in Egypt have been obtained from 

planting in the first half of November. The optimum planting date in Karaj (Iran) was found 

to be in mid-March, but at higher elevations, planting generally takes place in late April or 

early May. 

Delayed plantings invariably result in conspicuous yield reductions as a result of 

reduced vegetative growth and the early termination of growth and onset of senescence due 

to the rapid temperature rises experienced during the reproductive phase. 

Plant Population 

Responses of lentils to planting density have been highly variable and depend largely 

upon the growing conditions and the cultivar type. Many common cultivars exhibit a high 

degree of plasticity and therefore little yield differences have been obtained with large 

variations in sowing rate, particularly under conditions of adequate moisture supply and 

high soil fertility. However, a general trend for yield to increase with sowing rate has been 

observed by some researchers, a density of about 300-450 seeds per m2 giving the highest 

yields. Such densities may be obtained with seeds spaced at 1.5-3 cm in rows 15-30 cm 

apart. Under conditions allowing only restricted vegetative growth (e.g., late sowing; 

under inadequate moisture conditions) or with cultivars possessing a lesser plasticity, 

narrower spacings and higher seed rates are recommended. This will enable the 

development of a closed leaf canopy, permitting optimum interception of incident radiation 

and resulting in higher yields. Based on calculations from seed density studies and a series 

of seed rate trials, rates of 60-80 kg/ha for small-seeded types and 160-200 kg/ha for the 

large-seeded varieties appear to be optimum for dryland areas. 

Farmers over much of the region use higher seed rates than these, broadcast the seed, 

and then mix it into the soil with a country plough. This process converts the seedbed into a 

series of ridges and furrows and concentrates the seed in bands at the top of the ridges. 

Such a situation gives a suboptimal utilization of the space available and results in a high 

level of interplant competition. To avoid this yield-limiting problem, seeds may be drilled 

or planted into rows about 22.5-30 cm apart, without any subsequent cultivation. 

Fertilizer Requirement 

A lentil crop yielding 2 tonnes of grain per hectare may take up in the process about 

156

95-100 kg of nitrogen per hectare. Under Egyptian conditions it has been reported that 

about 77% of this requirement could be satisfied through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. 

However, this level of performance will only be possible with very effective fixation. The 

need for inoculation with effective strains of Rhizobium leguminosarum has thus been 

emphasized and a consideration of host variety/rhizobium specificity is an important factor 

in such inoculations, as significant specificity has been recorded. Several studies have 

shown that applications of 20-30 kg N/ha are necessary as a starter to ensure the adequate 

nitrogen nutrition of the crop, despite the large contribution made by rhizobial nitrogen 

fixation. 

Farmyard manure has been found to have a positive effect on the performance of 

lentils and is commonly recommended for lentil production in Pakistan. 

The soils of many lentil-growing areas are characterized by a low available 

phosphorus status and economic responses have been obtained from phosphate application 

in India, Pakistan, Iran, Egypt, Syria, and Greece. The optimum rate varies from 40 to 100 

kg P205 per hectare, depending upon the fertility status and phosphate fixation capacity of 

the soil. Studies on high pH, low phosphorus soils of Syria have revealed that an available 

P status of 4 ppm was required in the soil during periods receiving normal levels of rainfall, 

but that when precipitation was scarce, a range of 7-9 ppm was necessary for the highest 

yields. This work highlights the importance of phosphate fertilization in lentil crops, 

particularly during years of suboptirnal rainfall. 

In contrast to phosphate, positive responses to potassium application have been few. 

Significant yield increases have been obtained with applications of 22 kg/ha of K20 in 2 

years out of 3 on a sandy loam soil in the Punjab of India, but no responses have been 

obtained in Iran or Sudan. An improvement in the cooking quality of lentils has, however, 

been reported from K applications to the crop raised in pots and adequately supplied with 

other macro and microplant nutrients. 

Studies on the response of lentils to micronutrient applications have, to date, been 

limited. Micronutrient deficiency problems are, however, likely to be encountered in the 

crop, because lentils are frequently grown under edaphic conditions where the availability 

of such nutrients is likely to be restricted. Lentils show a high susceptibility to zinc 

deficiency (fairly widespread on paddy rice soils in India and Pakistan) and, although 

varietal differences have been observed, most of the varieties show yield improvements 

from soil applications of 10-15 kg/ha of zinc sulfate or a foliar spray of 5 kg/ha of the 

chemical when deficiency symptoms are first evident. Experiments have shown the crop to 

exhibit deficiency symptoms when the P:Zn ratio was higher than 400 and the Fe:Zn ratio 

higher than 11 in the whole shoot. It has also been found that application of zinc at the rate 

of 5 ppm increased the survival of lentil rhizobia in the rhizosphere, decreased the P:Zn and 

Fe:Zn ratios in the lentil shoots, and increased the number, dry weight, and leghemoglobin 

content of root nodules, resulting in increased nitrogen fixation and dry matter 

yields in zinc-deficient soils. Positive responses have been obtained to molybdenum 

application in Bulgaria, increases of 15.5 and 17.5% in seed yield being obtained by 

soaking the lentil seed in ammonium molybdate solutions designed to provide an 

equivalent of 50 and 100 g Mo/ha. Although some workers failed to achieve a response 

through foliar spraying, others have reported increased yields, crude protein contents, and 

phosphate uptake through sprays of the chemical at concentrations of 0.01, 0.02, and 

0.04% and a rate of 60 litres/ha. 

Water Management 

Under adequate moisture conditions, lentils are known to use water at least as 

luxuriously as cereal crops. The transpiration ratio appears to vary with region and variety, 

ranging between 200 and 500 in the humid region and from 800 to 1500 in the semi-arid 

region. Growth chamber studies have revealed that leaf area and dry matter production 

increase with increasing irrigation frequency, and positive responses have also been 

obtained in the field. The crop is, however, very sensitive to overwatering and yield 

reductions will occur if irrigation is excessive. Flowering appears to be a critical growth 

stage for water supply and delaying irrigation beyond this stage has been shown to cause 

yield reductions. 

157

In general, lentils, however, are grown as a rainfed crop. In the Indian subcontinent, 

where they are produced on residual moisture, the moisture conserved from late rains in the 

monsoon season determines crop performance, whereas in the Mediterranean-type climate 

the yield depends largely upon the rains received during the period December to March. In 

both cases irrigation is rare. 

Weed Control 

Morphologically lentils are at a disadvantage with respect to competition with weeds, 

and yield reductions of up to 75% have been reported as a result of weed infestations. Weed 

competition is most serious in winter crops between 30 and 60 days after crop emergence in 

areas with mild winters and between 60 and 90 days after emergence where the winter 

conditions are more severe. Mechanical weed control during this period has proved an 

effective and economical method under Indian conditions and has generally been superior 

to the use of herbicides. Results of tests on several herbicides applied at different crop 

stages have indicated some promising chemical control methods: trifluralin, when used as a 

preplant-incorporated herbicide, has proved good under adequate moisture conditions 

although tolerance to this chemical is generally low in the crop; and linuron, prometryne, 

and dosanex have shown promise as preemergence herbicides. Considerably more 

herbicide screening, especially on the basis of toxicity to weeds and crop tolerance, is now 

necessary to evolve appropriate chemical weed control for the dryland production of 

lentils. 

Harvesting 

The conventional method of lentil harvesting involves the hand pulling of plants 

before they are completely dry to avoid pod shattering. However, considerable yield losses 

still occur, particularly during the gathering and transporting of the plants after they have 

been field dried in the sun. 

Mechanical harvesting, which is already practiced in the United States, is becoming 

an increasingly urgent consideration in West Asia as a result of the declining availability 

and consequently increasing cost of hand labour at harvesting. However, the generally 

short plant stature and susceptibility to lodging evident in currently grown varieties poses a 

great problem to the introduction of this technology. The development of taller varieties 

with stronger stems is thus an obvious way to facilitate mechanical harvesting and in turn 

reduce harvesting losses. Experiments have indicated that some height increase may be 

obtained in lentil by sprays of gibberellic acid, but more studies on this aspect are 

necessary before it could be put into practical use. Investigations have shown that 

Camerli,w spp. and yellow mustard in mixture with lentils help to prevent lodging and 

facilitate harvesting, but such a technique appears to have only limited applicability. 

Physiological Aspects 

Although lentils have frequently been used in biochemical studies, work on their 

physiology has been limited. Additional information on the physiological aspects of the 

crop will assist in understanding the reasons for the adaptability of existing cultivars to 

rather narrow agroecological regions and in the development of genotypes with a wider 

adaptability. 

Photoperiodic and Vernalization Requirements 

Lentils are sensitive to photoperiodic conditions and are classed as "long day" plants. 

Genotypes may, however, differ, some showing "quantitative" requirements whereas 

others behave as "qualitative long day" plants. 

Vernalization studies involving the exposure of soaked seeds to a temperature of 6 °C 

for about 5 weeks have shown that lentils respond to vernalization by a hastening of 

flowering and a reduction of the period of vegetative growth. 

158

Salt, Drought, and Heat Tolerance 

Stress from salinity, drought, and heat causes a considerable reduction in the 

productivity of lentil crops. This stress varies appreciably with season and climate and the 

development of varieties tolerant to these conditions may lead to real increases in the yield 

stability. 

A 50% reduction in the germination of lentils was observed at a soil conductivity of 20 

mmhos/cm, whereas yield reductions of 50% occurred at 3.9 mmhos/cm conductivity 

level. Investigations on two varieties have shown the salt tolerance limit to lie between 8.4 

and 13.1 mmhos/cm conductivity and conspicuous reductions in dry matter yield to occur 

beyond 5.0 mmhos/cm. The cultivar Large Blonde was found to tolerate salinity better than 

Anicia, the other cultivar tested. 

Differences in tolerance to drought have also been observed between cultivars: white 

lentils from Syria appear to be more tolerant than the red lentils from Egypt; and 

evaluations of 100 genotypes near Sofia (Bulgaria) have indicated that large-seeded types, 

with their longer growing period, are less tolerant to drought than small-seeded cultivars. 

Canopy Development and Photosynthesis 

The mean crop growth rate is very low in the early vegetative phase, particularly at 

low temperatures. However, there are indications that genetic differences exist in the rate 

of canopy development and dry matter production under such conditions. Total dry matter 

production and grain yield have been found to be very highly correlated with the degree of 

interception of photosynthetically active radiation during the pod-filling stage, a closed 

canopy, permitting 90% interception of incident radiation at the flowering period, giving 

the highest yields. Canopy closure is dependent upon the branching pattern and leaf area 

development. Genotypes can be seen to differ appreciably in both these characters and in 

the degree to which they are expressed in differing environments. Genotypic differences 

have also been observed in the photosynthetic rate and the partitioning of dry matterinto 

different components of yield. Such a variability means that the potential for evolving more 

productive genotypes, in terms of dry matter as well as economic yield, is considerable. 

Growth Regulation 

Seed treatment with growth regulators, such as indoleacetic acid and indolebutyric 

acid have been demonstrated as affecting the rate of seedling establishment and early 

growth. The role of growth regulators in modifying the canopy structure and productivity 

of lentil has also been investigated. Under conditions of late planting, permitting restricted 

plant growth, significant increases in lentil yield have been recorded following a foliar 

spray of a 20-ppm solution of the sodium salt of naphthyl acetic acid 50 days after planting. 

High rates of applications of 2,3,5-Triiodobenzoic acid, however, resulted in reduced 

yields in one lentil cultivar through the production of an intertwined canopy. The role of 

growth regulators and antitranspirants on drought tolerance and water use economy still 

remains to be established. 

Chick-peas 

Agronomic Requirements 

A general review of the agronomic requirements of chick-peas has previously been 

carried out as have agronomic studies under Indian conditions (Saxena and Yadav 1976; 

Van der Maesen 1972). The present coverage is therefore mainly restricted to work in West 

Asia and North Africa. 

Planting Date 

Chick-peas produced in the region may be planted from early winter to late spring, 

depending upon the location. It has been observed in studies of plantings from 16 August to 

20 October that delayed sowing results in reduced growing, preflowering and flowering 

periods, and a considerable depression of plant development, leading to drastically reduced 

159

yields. Studies in Sudan have established the optimum planting time as late November to 

early December; earlier as well as later plantings result in appreciable yield reductions. At 

lower elevations in Iran, the highest yields have been obtained from October plantings, but 

at higher elevations autumn plantings have led to winter injury and thus chick-peas are 

generally spring sown, early April proving to be the best time in Karaj and late Aprilearly 

May being the optimum at Tabriz. In general, the winter temperatures over much of the 

Mediterranean region are not sufficiently severe to cause damage to autumn-sown 

chick-peas. However, most farmers still adhere to spring plantings and the subsequent 

exposure to moisture stress and high temperatures during the early phase of reproductive 

growth, which result in reduced yields. This is primarily because, despite the higher yields 

that can be obtained from autumn planting, the incidence and destructiveness of Ascochyta 

blight is considerably increased and total crop loss often results. The development of 

genotypes suitable for winter planting (i.e., with cold tolerance and tolerance or resistance 

to Ascochyta blight) will thus fulfill a great need and enable very great yield increases in 

this crop. 


Optimum plant population appears to depend very much on growing conditions, 

especially moisture supply. Investigations undertaken over a 3-year period in Karaj (Iran) 

with irrigated chick-peas have shown that yield increases with plant population, the highest 

yields being obtained with 0.5 million plants per hectare. Subsequent studies at Tabriz 

have confirmed this trend under irrigated conditions and have indicated lower populations 

(about 0.248 million plants/ha) to give the highest yield in rainfed crops. Information is 

currently required on optimum plant populations and planting geometry for genotypes with 

different growth habits and planted at different seasons in the Mediterranean-type climates. 

Fertilizer Use 

The removal of plant nutrients by a chick-pea crop yielding about 3 tonnes of grain 

and 4.5 tonnes of straw per ha has been estimated to be approximately 144 kg N, 31 kg 

P205 per ha. It has also been estimated that 100 kg N/ha, or 77% of the total nitrogen 

content of the crop, is annually supplied through symbiotic fixation under Egyptian 

conditions. The contribution of symbiosis to total nitrogen yield in the crop probably varies 

with host genotype, rhizobial strain, and environmental conditions. Under favourable 

conditions, therefore, symbiotic fixation could account for almost all of the crops' nitrogen 

requirements, as was probably the case in studies carried out in India and Iran as part of the 

Regional Pulse Improvement Project, which showed no large-scale responses to nitrogen 

fertilization. However, other experiments in Sudan have shown positive responses to 

increasing applications of nitrogen (up to 120 kg/ha in irrigated crops). Split applications 

(one-half at sowing and one-half at flowering) were found to be best in these cases, 

particularly at intermediate levels of fertilization (80 kg/ha). Poor nitrogen status of the 

soils and the lack of nodulation (possibly due to salinity) were considered to be responsible 

for this positive response and the need for inoculation with effective strains of Rhizobia 

was emphasized under such conditions. The use of solid inoculant in the furrow, rather 

than the slurry inoculation of the seeds after treatment with Cerasan fungicide, has been 

recommended as the key to good nodulation. 

No response to the application of either phosphorus or potassium could be obtained in 

experiments at Karaj, and investigations on phosphorus-deficient soils at ICRISAT (India) 

have also failed to obtain yield increases from phosphorus applications. The reasons for 

this apparent lack of response must be investigated. Perhaps this will lead to a revision of 

the standards of deficiency and sufficiency levels and the development of improved 

methods of assessing the availability status of phosphorus in soils. Chick-peas are known 

to have a high sulfur requirement and responses to applications of sulphur also warrant 

future studies. 

Only limited studies have been conducted on crop response to micronutrients to date. 

Iron deficiency symptoms have been observed in some chick-pea cultivars when grown on 

highly calcareous soils in Lebanon and Syria, although the majority of the locally grown 

160

cultivars showed no such problems. This deficiency may be easily corrected by foliar 

sprays of a 0.5% solution of ferrous sulfate, but care should be taken to ensure that the trait 

for more efficient iron utilization is retained in genotypes being bred for calcareous soils. 

Zinc deficiency has also been observed in chick-peas and varietal differences in 

susceptibility have been recorded and may be used in breeding programs, although the 

deficiency can be corrected by spraying zinc sulfate (0.5% solution). 

Water Use 

The water requirement (i.e. transpiration ratio) of chick-peas is reportedly as high as 

1000. In most parts of the region this requirement must be met from moisture conserved in 

the soil profile from the preceding rainy season. If this conserved moisture is insufficient to 

the needs, the crop responds well to supplementary irrigation. Studies at Shiraz (Iran) have 

shown a 6-day irrigation interval to give yields almost twice as great as with irrigations 

every 9 days. A higher irrigation efficiency was obtained with basin irrigation (45.4%) as 

opposed to furrow irrigation (35.5%), although this had no effect upon yield. The greatest 

yield response in work at Karaj has been achieved by irrigation at the prebloom stage every 

time the soil moisture fell to 33% of field capacity, and during the period after full bloom 

every time the level reached 66% of field capacity. Field experiments conducted in Sudan 

have given the best results with a 14-day irrigation interval; more or less frequent 

irrigations depress the yields. 

Urgently needed at the present time are agronomic methods designed to increase the 

conservation of moisture in the soil profile in the preplanting period and to reduce its loss 

during crop growth. Such methods will greatly increase the efficiency of the use of 

moisture received through precipitation. 

Weed Control 

Although better competitors than lentils, chick-peas also suffer from weed competition. 

Screening for suitable herbicide control measures is currently under way at ICARDA 

and detailed studies are now required to devise an effective system of weed management 

through a combination of cultural and chemical methods. 

Harvesting 

The need for mechanization of harvesting is widely recognized in this crop, as in 

lentils, throughout the region. The effects of various cultural practices on harvest loss in 

chick-peas must be investigated and breeding work should emphasize the development of 

taller plants with a more upright growth habit. 


Germination 

Although germination may be obtained at temperatures as low as 10 °C and as high as 

40 °C, the optimum soil temperature for germination appears to lie between 25 and 35 °C. 

At lower temperatures the time lag before germination increases; with decreasing 

temperatures the crop emergence is decreased; and no emergence occurs at soil 

temperatures above 44 °C. 

Photoperiodic and Vernalization Responses 

Chick-peas seem to be sensitive to photoperiod and to respond to vernalization. This 

may be partly responsible for the observed adaptability of genotypes to rather specific 

locations. Although chick-peas have been generally found to be "long day" plants, some 

genotypes appear to flower under day lengths as low as 8 hours. Such genotypes may be 

less sensitive to photoperiod and thus have considerable potential for use in breeding 

efforts designed at achieving wider adaptability. Flower bud initiation and flower 

development have been shown to be hastened by long day conditions and the effect of 

vernalization to complement this. 

161

Salinity Tolerance 

Chick-peas are highly sensitive to salinity, irrigation with water of a conductivity of 

10 mmhos/cm reducing yield by as much as 55%. The development of salt-tolerant 

genotypes is thus a priority consideration for areas where the crop is grown under irrigation 

and the water tends to be brackish. In addition, because root nodule function seems 

relatively insensitive to salinity after establishment, special inoculation methods should be 

developed to enable successful establishment of Rhizobia with the host roots under saline 

conditions. 

Drought, Heat, and Frost Tolerance 

As most chick-peas are grown on conserved moisture, the rooting pattern may be an 

important determinant of crop performance. Genotypic differences in rooting pattern are 

evident and such differences may thus be of use in the development of varieties with some 

tolerance to drought and hence greater yield stability. However, the effective use of this 

character in varietal improvement work requires that a quick technique be developed for 

screening genotypes for their potential root growth. 

Tolerance to high temperature during reproductive growth would also be a very 

desirable character for crop production in the drier areas. The double pod character (two 

pods per peduncle rather than the usual one) has been reported to express itself well under 

the adverse conditions that tend to shorten the flowering period. This character may prove 

very useful in the breeding of more stable varieties for production under these conditions. 

Frost tolerance is also a desirable character for the development of high-yielding 

varieties for the high elevation plateau areas of the region, where spells of frosty weather 

are likely to occur during seedling establishment and early vegetative growth. 

Photosynthesis 

Chick-peas possess considerable genetic variation in their photosynthetic rates. The 

rate of photosynthesis normally decreases sharply with the onset of flowering, although 

varietal differences in this respect were also conspicuous. 

Photorespiration is responsible for considerable losses of photosynthate and the 

temperature conditions under which reproductive growth takes place in the region tend to 

increase this process and thus reduce net carbon gain by the crop. The identification of 

genotypic differences for a more efficient photosynthetic system, reduced photorespiration, 

and higher nitrogenase activity during reproductive growth should thus greatly 

increase the potential for developing more productive cultivars. 

It has been shown in some cultivars that photosynthesis in the pod wall may make a 

significant contribution to the carbon pool in the developing seed. Although studies have 

shown that the "exposed pod'' character does not seem to confer an advantage to a 

genotype, its importance needs to be further examined with a wider range of genotypes and 

environmental conditions before any firm conclusions can be drawn. 

Broad Beans 


Agronomic studies of the broad bean crop have been carried out fairly extensively in 

Egypt and Sudan where production is under irrigation, but little published information is 

available from other parts of the region. 

Date of Planting 

Experiments conducted over a 3-year period and at a number of different locations in 

Egypt have revealed that 15 October1 November is the best planting date for broad beans. 

Similar and subsequent studies with improved varieties in Sudan have confirmed these 

findings. Varietal differences in yield reduction with delay in planting were conspicuous. 


Yield per unit area has been reported to reach a maximum at a plant density of 35-45 

162

plants/rn2 in winter types and at 67 plants/rn2 in spring cultivars. It has also been found 

that, for a given density, alterations in the between-row distance had little influence on 

plant development. Studies in Sudan have shown that yield increases with seed rate 

between 83 and 166 kg/ha, but that seed rates beyond 332 kg/ha caused yield reductions. 

Within this range it appears that closer row spacings and higher plant populations tended to 

result in higher yields; the plants, however, showed considerable compensatory 

mechanisms between their yield components, so that large variations in density caused 

relatively small yield differences. Similar results have been obtained from investigations in 

Egypt, where varietal and locational differences have also been detected; a row spacing of 

30 cm and a hill spacing of 15 cm (with two plants per hill) gave much greater yield 

increases over spacings of 60 and 20-25 cm, respectively, in Middle Egypt than in the Nile 

Delta region. Egyptian studies have established the optima for seed rate at 140-180 kg/ha 

and studies in Ethiopia at a field spacing of 20 x 15 cm. 

Fertilizer Use 

Broad bean is known to fix more atmospheric nitrogen than either lentils or 

chick-peas. Estimates of N fixation under Egyptian conditions are about 135 kg/ha, which 

may account for approximately 70% of the total N content of the plant. The contribution of 

symbiotic nitrogen to total plant nitrogen may vary with soil N content and rates of 

fertilizer N application. Positive responses have been obtained to inoculations with suitable 

rhizobial strains. Broad bean yields have been increased by 10-12% with the application of 

18 kg of inorganic N/ha, but in these studies no further response was obtained with 

applications over 36 kg/ha. However, good responses have been found from 42 kg N/ha 

applications in Sudan, particularly when fertilization was delayed until 2 months after 

planting or split into three dressings (33% at planting, 33% after 1 month, and 33% after 2 

months). 

Conspicuous responses to phosphorus applications have been observed in Egypt and 

rates of 72 kg P205/ha are recommended. Foliar application has been reported as better 

than applying the fertilizer to the soil in northern Sudan. 

Positive responses to fertilization with potassium have been found outside the region 

but no reports of responses are available from within West Asia and North Africa. The 

favourable effect of potassium upon nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation is well 

known and there is thus a need to study the importance of fertilization with this nutrient 

chemical in broad bean production in the region. 

Studies on crop response to micronutrient applications are also limited and little 

information is available from the region. However, an application of molybdenum has been 

shown to improve the symbiotic nitrogen fixation and nitrogen nutrition of broad beans on 

a soil containing 0. 18-0.29 mg Mo/kg. 

Water Management 

The transpiration ratio of broad beans has been reported to vary with climatic 

conditions, being 282 in Germany as against 736 in Colorado (USA) and, in both cases, 

higher than the corresponding values for wheat. 

Water stress has been shown to reduce the absolute growth rate of leaf area and thus 

overall vegetative growth in broad beans. This effect is also extended into a significant 

reduction of grain yield. In addition, nitrogen fixation appears to be very highly correlated 

with the available moisture content of the soil. Studies have illustrated that the yield of 

broad beans is 80% higher under a "wet" regime (involving nine irrigations in both the 

vegetative and reproductive phases) than under a "dry" regime (with only six irrigations). 

These studies also revealed that it was better to maintain a wet regime during vegetative 

growth followed by a dry one from flowering to pod development, rather than vice-versa, 

but they were unable to pinpoint the critical stages very precisely. No significant responses 

to irrigation were obtained in Lower Egypt because of the rainfall, but between four and six 

irrigations were needed for good crop performance in the drier areas of Middle and Upper 

Egypt. Higher irrigation frequencies have also been reported to suppress infection by the 

very damaging parasitic weed Orobanche. 

163

Excessive water supply can damage the broad bean crop. It is known, for example, 

that a water table at 5 cm below the soil surface can result in rotting of the seeds. The water 

management of this crop must thus be very good to prevent either prolonged periods of 

moisture stress or water logging. 


Germination 

Germination rate has been found to increase as night temperature is raised from 5 to 20 

°C with a constant daytime temperature of 20 °C. Highest seed yields were obtained when 

the night temperature was held at 10 °C. 

Photoperiodic and Vernalization Response 

Broad bean cultivars appear to behave either as long day or day neutral plants and 

showed some response to vernalization. Quantitative long day responses have been 

observed and flower initiation may be hastened by increasing the day length from 6 to 16 

hours or a brief exposure of the plant to low temperatures (10 °C proving better than 4 °C in 

this respect). Such low temperature treatment may serve to overcome a reaction inhibitory 

to flower initiation that has been observed at temperatures above 14 °C during the flower 

initiation period. Vernalization of broad bean seed has also been found to be possible on 

the mother plant itself and this treatment leads to more rapid development of plants derived 

from treated seed. 

Plant Ideotype 

Most of the conventional varieties of broad bean are "top heavy" and tend to lodge 

under favourable growing conditions. It appears that only a fraction of the total leaf canopy 

is responsible for the interception of most of the incident light and therefore there is 

considerable mutual shading, a theory well borne out by the observation that precision 

planting gives much higher yields than normal drilling and that seed number and seed yield 

per plant increases linearly with the increase in available space from 200 to 500 cm2 per 

plant. The development of a more open canopy with a terminal bud culminating in an 

inflorescence has been suggested as a means to evolve a more efficient plant type. 

Investigations are currently under way into this aspect at several locations using a topless 

mutant from the variety Primus, developed in Sweden. 

Of the different contributory characters to yield in broad bean, it has been reported 

that the number of pods/plant was most important and that this was regulated more by the 

number of pods/node than by the number of nodes forming pods. An analysis of the 

relations between number of podded nodes/plant, pods/podded node, seeds/pod, and seed 

weight has revealed slightly negative correlations or no relations at all. From these studies 

it was concluded that the number of podded nodes/plant was the most important 

yield-determining character, although under adverse conditions the reduction in this 

character could be compensated for by an increase in the number of pods/node. There is an 

obvious need for more detailed examination of the role of these characters as they affect 

yield under conditions of scarce moisture supply and heat stress. 

In general, the varieties grown in the Mediterranean area are more branched than those 

cultivars grown in Europe. This character may be important in stabilizing the yield of the 

crop in dry areas and requires further investigation. 

Flower Drop 

The loss of flowers and young pods may be substantial in broad beans: it has been 

reported, for example, that 86.7% and 93.7% of the buds produced by the varieties Baladi 

and Giza I were lost from flower and young pod drop. Dropping apparently starts at the 

lower internodes and progresses upward and intra- and interinflorescence competition 

between the young pods leads to drops from the nonpreferred positions. This problem may 

be compounded in the indeterminate types, where vegetative growth continues for a long 

period and overlaps with reproductive growth. It appears that the younger fruits have to 

164

overcome a lag phase and only when sufficient photosynthates are available can more 

young fruits begin to develop. It should thus be possible to increase yield by reducing 

competition between vegetative and reproductive growth through breeding, treatment with 

growth regulators, or detopping. Other possible reasons have also been suggested for 

flower drop apart from the deficiency of assimilates for the developing reproductive sink. 

These include: nitrogen supply; hormonal factors; gaseous exchange; temperature and 

humidity in the canopy; mineral nutrient supply; and soil moisture. One or more of these 

factors may well be responsible for flower shedding and it is thus necessary to identify the 

prime causes to permit eventual regulation of fruit set and yield. 

The productivity of the three major legume crops produced in West Asia can thus be 

seen to be considerably affected by a very large number of physiological and agronomic 

factors, which limit both the yield potential and the degree to which this genetic potential is 

expressed in the production of the crops. A deeper and more comprehensive understanding 

of the physiological mechanisms that enable survival and determine yielding ability under 

the harsh dryland conditions of the region will provide a much more solid and logical base 

to breeding efforts designed to produce cultivars better able to exploit these environments. 

In addition, to ensure that these cultivars actually result in the improved yield for which 

they have the potential under field conditions, studies of crop agronomy must figure very 

highly in the overall strategy for their improvement. 

References 

Saxena, M. C., and Yadav, D. S. 1976. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Grain 

Legumes, June 13-16, 1975. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, tndia. p. 31-61. 

Van der Maesen, L. J. G. 1972 Cicer L., a monograph of the genus. Mededelingen, 

Landbouwhogeshool, Wageningen. 

165

The Role of Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in 

Food Legume Production 

Rafiqul Islam 

Food Legume Program, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria 

Food legumes represent the most economically available source of protein for human 

consumption, and many of the legumes compare very favourably with animal protein in 

relation to quality and amino acid content. Despite the increasing use of nitrogenous 

fertilizers in agriculture (ca. 36.5 million tonnes in 1973), estimates suggest that 

throughout the world, biological nitrogen fixation contributes at least five times as much 

nitrogen to the soil as artificial fertilization. Hence, in addition to supplying the nutritional 

needs of a large proportion of the world's population, legumes, through their symbiotic 

relation with Rhizobium bacteria, which are the perhaps most important contributors to 

biological nitrogen fixation, provide the mainstay for the agriculture of the world. 

Biologically fixed nitrogen has several advantages over nitrogen supplied by chemical 

fertilization. Much of a chemical fertilizer applied to the soil is made unavailable to plants 

through leaching or combination into insoluble compounds. The "efficiency value" of 

sulfate of ammonia, for example, is about 30-60%. However, as symbiotically fixed 

nitrogen is in the organic form, it becomes available more slowly and in a different form, 

resulting in little loss of nitrogen. For this reason a symbiotic fixation of 100 kg of nitrogen 

is equivalent to an effective application of considerably more than 100 kg of nitrogen as 

sulfate of ammonia. In addition to this obvious advantage, chemical fertilizers are very 

costly to produce and transport, and many farmers in developing countries cannot afford to 

apply effective amounts of these fertilizers even to such crops as cereals, which have high 

net rates of return. Legume crops, with their generally low returns, are thus rarely able to 

justify application of inorganic fertilizers in these areas. However, the nitrogen-fixing 

ability of Rhizobia, in association with legume plants, provides an effective solution to this 

problem. Our aim, in promoting the cultivation of food legumes in the developing world, 

should thus be to make as much use of this important attribute as possible in the 

maximization of yields. 

The amount of nitrogen fixed and the production of dry matter or grain yield vary 

considerably as a result of genotypic and locational differences and the errors inherent in 

making such estimations. Estimations of the quantities of nitrogen fixed by different food 

legumes in different locations across the world (Table I) show a wide range in almost all 

crops. This variation may reflect differences in varieties, environments, or husbandry, and 

immediately suggests the large potential for improvements in nitrogen fixation and hence 

in overall crop yield. Studies on Desi-type chick-peas in India have shown that the 

application of 150 kg of nitrogen per hectare can increase grain yield by 62% over the 

control, whereas rhizobial inoculation led to a 65% increase. 

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is considerably affected by the various environmental 

factors outlined in Fig. 1. 

A study of nitrogen fixation at different temperatures in chick-peas has shown that, in 

general, Rhizobia will fix more atmospheric nitrogen at a root temperature of 23 °C than at 

30 °C. However, different strains of Rhizobia appear to vary in their tolerance to 

temperature, so that the strain Ca-2 fixed 60% as much N2 at 30 °C as at 23 °C, whereas the 

strain 27A2 fixed only 17%. This resulted in Ca-2 fixing four times as much nitrogen as 

27A2 at 30 °C, although the differences in fixation at 23 °C were not appreciable. Similarly 

one can predict the occurrence of cold-tolerant Rhizobium strains as well. 

166

- RADIATION 

- TEMPERATURE 

- RELATIVE HUMIDITY 

- CO2 CONGENTF1A11ON 

- RAINFALL 

CLIMATIC FACTORS 

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS 

- NATURAL RHIZOBIUM 

POPULATION AND ITS 

EFFECTIVENESS 

- PESTS AND DISEASES 

DEGREE OF SYMBIOTIC RHIZOBIAL 

NITROGEN FIXATION 

- DIFFERENT PLANT 

SPECIES 

- DIFFERENT CULTIVARS 

°Assembled from various sources by Nulman (1976) and Ayanaba (1977). 

167 

HOST FACTORS 

EDAPHIC FACTORS 

- ACIDITY / ALKALINITY 

ORGANIC MAilER 

- PLANT NUTRIENTS 

(N, P. K, M,, M,( 

Fig. I. Various environmental factors affecting symbiotic nitrogen fixation. 

The salinity of soils has also been shown to affect different strains of Rhizohiii in 

different ways: a strain isolated from saline soil in India produced more nodules and a 

greater nodule mass than other strains when tested in saline soils in northern Sudan. There 

is, as yet, however, no indication of whether this advantage will also be reflected in an 

increased grain yield. 

There is considerable variability in both the response of different cultivars of legume 

species (i.e., chick-peas) to inoculation with a single strain ofRhizobmin and the response 

of different strains of Rhizohia when inoculated into the same chick-pea variety. This is 

illustrated in Fig. 2 and 3, which show differences in both nodule number and weight of 

nodule tissue between strains and varieties. Such variation suggests thatRhizohia possesses 

a reasonable degree of host specificity, and means that one can, by experimentation, select 

a suitably good Rhizobiutn strain for a given improved cultivar and, in view of the varying 

responses of strains to growing conditions, for a given range of environment. 

Microbiology work at ICARDA commenced in February 1978 and special emphasis is 

being given in these early stages to studies of nodulation on chick-peas, as this is a 

TABLE 1. Estimates of nitrogen fixation by some food Iegumes. 

Crop 

Nitrogen fixation No. 

Species Common name range (kg/ha) 

estimates 

Cicer arietinu,n Chick-pea 73-103 3 

Lens cu/jnaris Lentil 83-114 2 

Viciafaba Broad bean 45-552 4 

Pisun, sOtivum Dry pea 52- 77 

Glycine max Soybean 64-206 3 

Vigna unguiculata Cowpea 73-240 3 

Arachis hypogea Ground nut 72-240 3

40 

30 

20 

10 

40 

30 

LOCAL LARGE 

i-h 10 

0 

NEC -2304 

20 ± 20 - 

- N. (0 ' e 0 0 

Fig. 2. Nodule production of two chick-pea cultivars when inoculated with eight Rhizobium strains. 

Fig. 3. Nodule tissue development of two chick-pea cultivars when inoculated with eight Rhizobium 

strains. 

particular problem at the ICARDA site near Aleppo. These studies are mainly geared 

toward the identification of Rhizobium strains suitable to the local environment and the 

development of host-strain combinations aimed at maximizing grain yield. In addition, the 

program is also attempting to identify chick-pea lines that have a superior nodule-forming 

ability both under conditions of low soil Rhizobium population in the absence of 

inoculation, and when inoculated artificially. Results to date and through observations on 

nodule-forming ability in lentils have enabled us to draw up lists indicating the chick-pea 

and lentil lines with superior and inferior nodule-forming ability (Table 2). 

During the nodule assays, many hollow nodules were observed, apparently as the 

result of insect damage. The percentage nodule damage was scored for different lines and it 

was possible to identify certain lines that were more resistant and others that were highly 

susceptible to attack (Table 3). As this damage could be a major factor limiting nitrogen 

fixation and plant growth, especially if it occurs at a critical growth stage, more detailed 

studies of this problem are planned for the future. 

This work, together with surveys of nodulation in farmers' fields and isolation of local 

Rhizobia, is building up more and more information on the base of variation available to 

plant breeders in the region and the ways in which this important attribute of the legume 

crops can be used in the overall crop improvement strategy of food legume research at 

ICARDA. 

168 

40- 

30 

20 - 

0 

to 

LOCAL LARGE 

HECK_ 2304

TABLE 2. Nodule-forming ability in various tines of chick-peas and lentils. 

Crop Cultivar Source Nodule no/plant 

High-Nodulating Cultivars 

Chick-pea NEC-K 201 USDA 18.5 

NEC 82 INIA, Spain 15.0 

P-134-1 ICRISAT, India 14.5 

NECK2IO USDA 12.0 

NEC-K 221 USDA 9.7 


Lentil Local Large Syria 56.7 

74TA 138 Morocco 56.0 

Giza 9 Egypt 50.1 

NEL833 Egypt 48.0 

74TA 190 Turkey 34.9 

NEL 827 Egypt 33.4 

Local Small Syria 33.3 

Low-Nodulating Cultivars 

Chick-pea F-272 ICRISAT, India 0.3 

PG-72-8 ICRISAT, India 0.7 

NEC-K 85 INIA, Spain 1.0 

C-235 ICRISAT, India 1.3 

NEC-K 139 IPI, USSR 1.3 


Lentil NEL 435 Mexico 15.9 

74TA 567 Mexico 17.7 

NEL44I Mexico 20.1 

74TA 550 Syria 20.3 

NEL 924 Iran 22.6 

aChickpea, 103 lines tested; lentil, 32 lines tested. 

TABLE 3. Resistance to nodule damage in lentil cultivars. 

Cultivar Source % nodule damage 

Resistant 

NEL 466 Chile 25.9 

NEL 827 Egypt 38.5 

74TA 260 Australia 38.9 

Local Large Syria 40.8 

Highly susceptible 

NEL 280 Greece 84.4 

74TA 434 Mexico 80. I 

74TA 587 USSR 66.9 

74TA 577 Mexico 64.5 

74TA 209 Costa Rica 64.4 

References 

Ayanaba, A. 1977. In Stanton and DaSilva. ed., GIAM: State of the art 1976 and its impact on 

developing countries. University of Malaya Press. 

Nutman, P.S. 1976. In Nutman, ed., Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in plants. Cambridge. Cambridge 

University Press. 

169

The ICRISAT Chick-pea Program with Special 

Reference to the Middle East 

K. B. Singh 

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad, India 

Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) seems to have originated in western Asia and to have 

spread throughout Asia and North Africa at an early date. On the basis of the most recent 

evidence, Cicer reticulatum appears to be the most likely wild progenitor of the crop. The 

chick-pea plant is efficient in moisture utilization, and it thus thrives in semi-arid areas. 

Among the grain legumes, it ranks third in total world production and second in the Middle 

East, although, as most countries consume their produce locally, it figures only nominally 

in world trade. 

The Production Situation 

Since 1950, as is illustrated below, although there has only been a nominal increase in 

the area of chick-peas grown throughout the world, production has increased by about 

16%: 

Area Production 

mil1ions of ho) (millions of metric tonnes) 

1950-53 10.03 5.47 

1961-63 11.83 7.24 

1974-76 10.23 6.34 

During this same period, the area and production in the Middle East and North Africa 

have increased approximately 200% and 78% respectively, now standing at 707 000 ha and 

586 000 metric tonnes. However, statistics indicate that since 1971 production from this 

region has in fact been declining. The bulk of the world's chick-pea production is derived 

from the Indian subcontinent (Table I), with the Middle East and North Africa second and 

third in importance respectively. When seen against the background of the average world 

TABLE 1. Area ('000 ha), yield (kg/ha), and production ('000 metric tonnes) of important areas of 

chick-pea during 1976. 

Important area Area Production Yield 

a FAO estimate. 

Source: FAO Production Year Book, Vol. 30, 1976. 

170 

% of total 

production 

Indian subcontinent 9727 6658 637 89.18 

North Africa 383 214 807 2.87 

Middle East 265 250 867 3.35 

Europe 202 105 520 1.41 

(Mediterranean) 

Central America 190 l90 1000 2,54 

South America 14 9 723 0.12 

World 10784 7466 692 100.00

yield the comparatively high productivity of chick-pea production in the Middle East and 

North Africa is highlighted. This is to a large extent a reflection of the importance of the 

crop to the region and the consequent depth of interest in its cultivation by the farmers. 

Some Facts about the Crop 

Chick-peas are grown in 34 countries of the world and of these, 24, including the 

countries of the Middle East, grow the large-seeded, white-coloured, kabuli types 

exclusively. The remaining 10 countries primarily produce the smaller seeded, multicoloured 

desi types, although these occupy more than 90% of the total area under 

chick-pea cultivation. In western Asia, northern Africa, and southern Europe, chick-peas 

are produced as a summer crop, in contrast to the Indian subcontinent, Ethiopia, Mexico, 

and certain other countries where they are grown over the winter months. Only a small 

proportion of the chick-pea area is irrigated; most of the crop is produced on conserved soil 

moisture with minimum inputs. Until recently, there has been a marked absence of 

chick-pea breeding efforts in the world and breeders in the past have worked on a relatively 

narrow genetic base, achieving consequently limited success. Systematic work on breeding 

for disease resistance has also been very limited, and other problems such as frost and 

winter hardiness, iron chlorisis, and heat, drought, and salt tolerance have remained 

largely unaddressed. 

International Research on Chick-peas 

ICRISAT, established in 1972 as part of a global effort to increase agricultural 

stability and productivity coordinated by the Consultative Group on International 

Agricultural Research (CGIAR), was assigned the international responsibility for the 

improvement of chick-peas. It has thus become the world coordinator for chick-pea 

research with a team of agronomists, plant breeders, germ-plasm botanists, pathologists, 

entomologists, physiologists, microbiologists, and biochemists contributing to the active 

improvement of the crop. More recently, with the establishment of ICARDA in 1976 to 

take responsibility for the improvement of chick-peas (amongst other crops) in the Middle 

East and North Africa, the capacity for research has been expanded. In view of the 

common objectives of both centres, a close working relationship has evolved between them 

to make the best use of the available resources and to avoid undue duplication of efforts, 

while at the same time strengthening the capabilities of the national research programs 

throughout the region to undertake their own improvement work. Situated at Hyderabad in 

India, ICRISAT is well placed to gear its primary efforts toward the desi cultivars, which 

are almost exclusively grown in the subcontinent, whereas ICARDA's work is 

emphasizing research into the kabuli types predominantly produced in the Middle East and 

North Africa. 

Research at ICRISAT 

The initial emphasis in chick-pea breeding at ICRISAT has been geared toward 

increasing the genetic potential of the crop for yield. Systematic breeding for the 

development of Fusarium wilt-resistant varieties has now been initiated and selection for 

other characters will be included in the program as rapid screening techniques are 

developed. 

Breeding efforts are geared toward the generation of material and the development of 

technologies for rainfed and low-input chick-pea cultivation, and for this reason nurseries 

are grown, as far as is possible, without irrigation and with a minimum of fertilizer and 

pesticide input. 

To make use of a wide genetic base, the breeding program involves large-scale 

hybridization. Early crosses of desi X desi types have produced some very good segregants 

and testing at 13 locations throughout India after bulking in the F generation has revealed 

171

five lines yielding significantly better than the local checks at all locations. Such results 

indicate that the performance of desi types can be considerably improved by crossing 

within the group. At the same time, intercrosses between desi and kabuli types are 

considered to be important to introgress "yield genes" from one type to the other. To date, 

evidence suggests a limited scope for improving desi types by introgressions of kabuli 

genes, but introgressing desi genes into kabuli types may have some advantage. This is 

illustrated by the fact that 20 of the 29 kabuli varieties included in recent international 

nurseries resulted from intercrosses with desi cultivars. Studies of the performance of 

backcrosses of these intercrosses to both parents at two sites in India, and in Lebanon, have 

indicated that material generated at the Hissar site in the north of India may prove very 

useful for the conditions of the Middle East. Although this finding still requires 

confirmation, seed of selections made at Hissar is now being furnished to the countries of 

the Middle East for further testing. 

Morphological Studies 

Chick-peas are a relatively short crop and it is quite possible that the yield could be 

significantly increased by increasing plant height. However, the tall, compact, and erect 

types are at present very prone to lodging, are late in maturity, and bear few pods. A 

program initiated in the 1973-74 season in an attempt to remove these weaknesses has 

indicated that it is now feasible to develop tall cultivars with high yields and a normal 

maturity. Work in this field has, as a result, been intensified. 

Disease Resistance 

Chick-pea suffers from a large number of fungal diseases, of which the most important 

are wilt (caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Ciceri), root rot (Rhizoctonja bataticola), 

and blight (Ascochyta rabiei). 

Laboratory and field techniques for screening for wilt have been developed at 

ICRISAT and a wilt screening nursery and a combined wilt/root rot screening nursery have 

been established. A large number of segregating populations from crosses with resistant 

sources were screened in the field for wilt resistance in 1977-78. Resistant material was 

identified in all generations (F2 to F7) and will shortly be made available to cooperators. 

Ascochyta blight does not occur in the Hyderabad environment and all screening is 

thus carried out in an Isolation Plant Propagator in the laboratory. To date more than 3000 

lines have been screened, but no source with a high degree of resistance has yet been 

identified, although a number of lines have given a rating of 3 on a 1-9 scale. In the future, 

field-screening at the ICARDA site at Aleppo, where the incidence of blight is high in early 

planted nurseries, should give more positive results. A number of wild species of Cicer 

have also been screened for blight resistance and one accession in the collection of Cicer 

reticulatum has been found to be apparently immune. Work is currently under way in an 

attempt to transfer this resistance into two desi cultivars. 

There are indications of biotypes in both Fusarium and Ascochyta species and this 

could present problems in achieving stable resistance to these diseases. Investigations into 

this complication are also in progress. 

Stress Tolerance 

Physiologists at ICRISAT are at present investigating techniques for future 

improvement work designed to minimize the effects of stressful conditions on crop yield. 

Preliminary drought-screening tests under limited moisture conditions indicate that 

selection for yield under stress is not very effective when moisture supply is adequate, and 

that early maturing cultivars tend to perform relatively well under moisture stress. Drought 

tolerance per se does not appear to be sufficiently closely related to yield to enable this 

character to be used as an indicator of yielding ability. 

Experiments in progress indicate that the overall level of salinity tolerance in 

chick-peas is low, as compared to wheat or barley, and lower than other legumes, such as 

pigeon pea. However, there are indications that, at moderate levels of salinity, cultivaral 

differences in tolerance may exist and thus may be exploited in breeding efforts. 

172

Cultivaral differences have also been noted in susceptibility to iron chiorosis, which 

may cause significant yield reductions in some varieties. Sprays of FeSO4 have been shown 

to be useful in reducing losses in the more susceptible varieties. 

Insect Resistance 

Studies of insect damage at ICRISAT have confirmed that Heliothis armigera, the 

chick-pea podworm, is the most important insect pest of chick-peas, and that the losses 

caused by this pest are substantially higher in the kabuli cultivars than in the desi types. 

Limited observations made over the past 2 years have indicated differences in host 

susceptibility to this pest, and further investigations are currently under way in an attempt 

to discover sources of resistance and to develop screening techniques. 

Protein Content 

Over the past 2 years several hundred entries resulting from crosses made at ICRISAT 

have been analyzed for protein content. These studies indicate a range of 13.7-28.6% 

protein from the lowest to the highest and no differences between desi and kabuli types. 

Seed size does not appear to affect protein content in chick-peas. An experiment to 

investigate the effect of environment on protein content has shown that this factor may 

have a significant effect, and further investigation continues in this field. Studies designed 

to ascertain the mode of inheritance and to develop rapid screening tests for protein content 

are also in progress. 

International Cooperation 

Since 1975-76, ICRISAT has been coordinating international chick-pea nurseries and 

trials with the objectives of: making available elite germ plasm developed by the chick-pea 

breeders of the world to all cooperating breeders for testing; identifying genotypes suitable 

for use in the national breeding efforts; and supplying segregating populations of material 

to supplement the stocks of national and regional programs. All the cooperators are free to 

use any of the material provided, or even to release a cultivar in their own country, but they 

are asked to acknowledge the source. During 1977-78 the third international chick-pea 

nursery in the ICRISAT program was sent out to over 60 locations in 28 countries (Table 

2.) 

The results of the first and second nurseries are at present being compiled and will 

soon be available to cooperators. It has already become obvious though that many countries 

have found material from these two nurseries very useful in their own research efforts. For 

example, five of the highest yielding P6 bulks have shown substantial improvements over 

local varieties in multilocation testing throughout India, conducted in the All India 

Coordinated Trials. 

Training facilities at degree and nondegree levels are available at ICRISAT and it is 

hoped to expand this program in the near future. 

ICRISAT's Contribution to the Middle East 

Within the overall spheres of research being conducted on chick-peas at ICRISAT, 

there are a number of ways that the centre can supplement and support the work of 

chick-pea improvement in the countries of the Middle East. These include: furnishing seed 

for nurseries and trials of desi varieties; actively exchanging kabuli breeding material 

between the Syrian and Indian centres; providing laboratory and field screening facilities 

for Fusarium wilt and root rot diseases, and laboratory screening facilities for Ascochyta 

blight; supplying seed of elite material especially developed for protein and other quality 

characters, such as insect resistance, nitrogen fixation, etc.; 

making available the world 

inclusive germ-plasm collection for use in ICARDA's program; providing training 

opportunities for personnel from the region; and assisting in the transfer and adaptation of 

new technologies developed throughout the region. 

173

TABLE 2. International nurseries and trials sent out in 1977-78. a 

Material 

Location ICCT. ICSN F3 bulk 

Country No. DE DL K DE DL K DxD DXK MPT 

Winter Planting 

India 29 5 10 5 13 17 5 11 3 I 

Pakistan 4 - 4 4 - 4 - 2 2 - 

Nepal I - 1 1 - I - I I - 

Bangladesh 2 - 2 1 - 2 - - - - 

Burma 1 I 1 1 1 - - I I - 

Thailand 2 - - - - - - - - 2 

Philippines I - - - - - - - - 

Ethiopia 1 2 - 2 I - - I I - 

Sudan 1 - - I - - I I - - 

Mexico I - 2 1 - 1 1 1 1 - 

Yemen Arab Rp. I 1 - I - - - - - - 

Chile 2 - - 2 - - I - I - 

Argentina I - - 1 - - I - - - 

Peru I - - 1 - - - - - - 

Venezuela I - - - - - - - - 

- - - I I I 1 - 

Australia 1 - 

Afghanistan I - 1 1 - - - - - - 

Iraq 1 - I 1 - - - - - - 

Iran 1 1 1 1 - - 1 - I - 

Jordan I - - I - - I - - - 

Syria 1 - - 1 - - I - 1 - 

Lebanon I - - I - - - - - - 

Turkey 2 - - 2 - - 2 - 2 - 

Spain I - - I - - I - 1 - 

Tunisia I - - 1 - - - - - - 

Summer Planting 

Morocco 1 - - I - - I - - - 

Libya 1 - - 1 - - - - - - 

Tanzania 1 1 - - - - I - - - 

Total(28) 62 11 23 33 15 6 18 19 16 5 

MPT, Micro-plot testing; DE, desi-early; DL, desi-late; K, 

a ICCT, International Chick-pea Cooperative Trial; ICSN, International Chick-pea Screening Nursery; 

kabuli; A, B, and C are equivalent to DE. DL, and K, respectively.

With both ICRISAT and ICARDA scientists working hand in hand with each other 

and with the other scientists of the region in the common goal of improving the productivity 

and stability of the chick-pea crop throughout the world, this important objective is brought 

closer with every day that passes. 

175

Methods of Population Improvement 

in Broad Bean Breeding in Egypt 

Abdullah M. Nassib, Au A. Ibrahim, and Shaaban A. Khalil 

Food Legume Research Section, Field Crops Institute, Agricultural Research Centre, Giza, Orman, 

Egypt 

The commercial varieties of broad bean currently used in Egypt are the latest in a 

series of varieties evolved through individual plant selection or hybridization in the 

cultivated Egyptian landraces, which are mainly of the medium- and small-seeded types. 

These varieties have a rather extended flowering period and are tolerant to chocolate spot 

(Botrytis fabae) and rust (Uromyces fabae), the most common fungal diseases of the 

country, especially severe in the North Delta of the Nile. As a result, the large-scale 

distribution and adoption of these improved types has led to a considerable improvement in 

both the level and stability of seed yield. 

Selection from this rather narrow genetic base has, however, tended to result in 

varieties with very similar branching, flowering, and fruiting characteristics, and it seems 

that most of the original genotypic variation available from natural sources within the 

country has been exploited. As a consequence, little further progress is expected from the 

traditional improvement scheme involving selection from local land varieties. Despite this, 

studies of selected strains collected from different parts of the country have revealed 

differences in agronomic characters that could be used for further improvement and so this 

method still continues to be a part of the overall Egyptian breeding program. 

In addition to the selection program, improvement efforts have also focused 

extensively on biparental crosses involving selections of landraces or landraces and 

introductions and aimed at improving disease resistance and adaptability. However, to 

date, only 1 cross out of 66, NA 29 (Holland) x Giza I (Commercial variety) has proved 

highly successful. This cross has resulted in the production of two varieties, namely Giza 3 

and Giza 4, through the pedigree method. Giza 3 is tolerant to fungal diseases and has an 

average seed yield 11% greater than its parent Giza I; it is well adapted to production in the 

North Nile Delta region. In contrast, Giza 4 is much more widely adaptable, yielding 5% 

more than Giza 3 in the South Delta and Middle Egypt regions and 6% more than the local 

variety Revaia 40 in Upper Egypt. 

Population Improvement 

In spite of the advances achieved by past breeding efforts it appears that line breeding 

based on recombinations from biparental crosses does not permit rapid progress in broad 

bean improvement. New approaches are thus needed to achieve the improvements in yield 

level and stability that seem possible. 

Broad bean stands midway between a completely self-fertilized and a completely 

cross-fertilized crop, having on average one-third outcrossing and two-thirds selfing. In 

Egypt, considerable variation was found in the percentage of cross pollination, and this 

could be attributed to the varying climatic conditions affecting the prevalence of insect 

pollinators. However, unlike most self-fertile crops, broad beans require the action of an 

insect alighting on the flower to cause the dehiscing anthers to come in contact with the 

stigma (a process known as tripping). So, despite being only 33% cross pollinated, broad 

176

eans may be considerably reliant upon insects, specifically wild bees, to give adequate 

fertilization and hence good pod set. This is one of the reasons why seed yields tend to vary 

greatly between years and locations, depending to a large extent on the wild bee 

population. 

In England, studies on the possibility of producing a completely autofertile broad bean 

crop have revealed the presence of many of the necessary characters in available lines but, 

in general, in association with low levels of seed yield and adaptation. The total number of 

pods per plant has been found to be a good selection index for improving seed yield in 

broad beans; however, a negative correlation between seed weight and pods/plant tends to 

limit the improvements that are possible by using this criterion. 

It thus appears that there is considerable scope for improvement of this crop by 

methods aimed at breaking the association between low yield and high autofertility levels 

on the one hand and low number of pods per plant and high seed weight on the other. Even 

in the absence of linkages between characters, frequent hybridization is necessary to 

release variability, which is the prerequisite for selection. Therefore, a population 

improvement program that involves continual crossing designed to give the maximum 

opportunity for the rearrangement of genes in linkage groups and designed to provide a 

wide range of genetic backgrounds against which the genes and gene arrangements can be 

expressed seems to be the best method of tackling this problem. In addition, continuous 

selection will be essential so that the improvements generated by each series of crosses are 

accumulated and concentrated in the population. A system of recurrent selection, under 

which pressure is applied to a freely intercrossing population and the selected material is 

again intercrossed and subjected to selection, so that a series of crossing and selection 

cycles result in continuous genetic improvement, appears to be the breeding method best 

suited to satisfying both these criteria. This method, by which the population itself is 

improved from generation to generation, steadily increases the chance of identifying 

individuals with the required combinations of characters. These individuals are then 

propogaged as pure lines and form the new variety for multiplication. 

Establishing Populations 

Recognizing the potential of this breeding method, the broad bean improvement 

program in Egypt has been focusing on recurrent selection since 1974. Nine composite 

populations aimed at achieving varieties with higher adaptability, disease resistance, and 

good protein quality have been established in the intervening 4 years. Entries included in 

these composites are characterized by genetic diversity and desirable agronomic 

characters. They include cultivated landraces, hybrid derivative lines selected from yield 

trials, commercial varieties, and introductions. Each entry is represented by 5-10 seeds in 

each composite, which is grown in a I or 2 Saran screen compartment (mesh=20X20 mm) 

of7.20m x3.60m x 1.80 mm size. 

Increasing Random Mating by using Honeybees 

To increase both cross-pollination and seed set, a small framed nucleolus beehive (60 

x 45 cm) is placed in each Saran compartment immediately following flower initiation. 

The hive is supplemented with a new brood of honeybees every 10-15 days during the 

flowering season, which usually extends for up to 60 days. Studies using a genetic marker 

have indicated that, under these conditions, cross pollination can be as high as 79.9%. It 

thus appears that this technique is very useful as a breeding method to ensure a freely 

intercrossing population. 

Recurrent Selection 

Random mating, using the honeybees, is continued in the composite for three seasons, 

the composite in the second and third seasons being composed of the seed bulk from one or 

two pods sampled from each plant grown in the previous season. The remnant seed bulk 

can be handled as a hybrid bulk population on which the pedigree or improved bulk 

breeding method is applied to identify lines with the desirable characteristics. 

177

After three seasons of recombination, the populations are then grown out for 

selection. Composites destined for selection with regard to disease resistance are grown at 

the Nubaria and Sakha research stations, and while those to be selected for adaptability, 

protein content, and other characters are grown at Seds. Replicated tests for yield 

determination are carried out in the S2 generation at these three locations in addition to 

Giza, where the best selected lines from all the locations are grown for selection and 

recycling (Fig. I). 

Base composite 

Bo 

Hybrid pop. 

Bi 

Hybrid pop. 

B2 

Grow out S0 Generation 

Nubaria Sakha 

4 

Nubarta 

1 

Sakha 

2 

2 

2 Testing 

or Seds 

3 

I I 

± 

or 

Grow out i Generation 

± Giza 

178 

20-1 00 entries: random 

mating by honeybees, 1-2 

pods/plant are bulked for 

random mating next season. 

1-2 pods/plant are bulked 

for random mating next season 

Seed bulked. 

Loc. 1 & 2 for disease resistance, 

bc. 3 for adaptability, 500- 

1000 plants each. Select for 

desirable characters on single 

plant basis. 

Short unreplicated progeny rows 

200-300). Select for desirable 

qualities on a family basis. 

Replicated tests of 50-1 00 

in bc. 1,2, & 3. Same but unreplicated 

in bc. 4 where 5 best 

plants per line are selected 

in screen house. 

aonly the five selections in each of the 100/, best performing lines over locations are recycled. 

bOfftake for pedigree, selection, or bulk population improvement can be done at all stages. 

4 

Seds 

Nubaria Sakha ± Seds 

or 

1 2 3 

Recyclea 

Offtakeb 

Fig. I. Recombination and selection procedure for population improvement in broad beans (Vicia 

faba L). 

With this program it is hoped that selection from continuously improving populations 

will result in the continuous generation of improved high-yielding disease-resistant and 

adaptable varieties suitable for production in Egypt. 

3

Pollinating Insects: A Review 

Ara A. Kemkemian 

IC.4RDA, Aleppo, Syria 

Plant species of economic importance are either self-fertile and can set seed with their 

own pollen, or self-infertile, requiring pollen from other plants of the same species in order 

to set seed. Some self-fertile plants are automatically pollinated with pollen from their own 

flowers (self-pollinating) but often the flowers are so constructed that the pollen must be 

transferred from the anthers to the stigmas either by wind or through insects. The tasks 

required of an insect pollinator will thus depend upon whether the plant species is 

self-fertile but not self-pollinating, or self-infertile, and the efficiency per insect visit will 

vary accordingly. 

Pollination of Vicia faba 

Broad beans illustrate the effects of pollinating insects well as they are both self- and 

cross-fertilized. Insects contribute to seed set in two ways: upon entering the flower they 

cause the anthers to come into contact with the stigma (a progress called tripping), which 

results in self-pollination, and which may not otherwise occur; and they can cause 

cross-pollination by transferring pollen collected from other flowers recently visited. The 

degree of cross-pollination varies considerably between years and locations, depending 

largely upon the population of pollinators; it can be as high as 80% or as low as 5% under 

field conditions. With this degree of variation autofertility is obviously an important 

characteristic in broad beans, as it enables good yields to be produced even in the absence 

of pollinating insects, and thereby reduces seasonal yield variations. 

Pollinating Insects 

Broad bean flowers are quite large and conspicuous and, having nectaries both at the 

base of the corolla tube and on the underside of the stipule, are fairly attractive to insects. 

The essential pollinators of legumes in general and broad beans in particular are 

bumblebees of the genus Bombus and honeybees of the genus Apis. These insects have 

sufficient body hairs for effective pollen transfer; the necessary behaviour patterns at the 

flower; and forage continuously, visiting a large number of flowers every day. Apart from 

these essential pollinators, other insects, especially Dipterans from the genera Eristalis, 

Syrphus, Platycheirus, Rhingia, Calliphora, Lucilia, Sarcophaga, Bibio, Dilophus, and 

Bombylius, are considered to be useful secondary pollinators. 

Within the genus Bombus, some species of bumblebee (e.g., B. lucorum and B. 

terrestris) may collect the nectar by biting holes into nectaries at the corolla base. They 

thus do not enter the flower and are not effective at either self- or cross-pollination. 

However, other species, such as B. ugroruni and B. hortorum have proved to be excellent 

pollinators. 

The pollinating potential of a single honeybee colony becomes evident when it is 

realized that its bees make up to 4 million foraging trips per year and that during each trip 

an average of about 100 flowers are visited. Estimates of the number of colonies needed to 

effectively pollinate a given area of crop vary considerably and are usually based on the 

experience and assumptions of individual growers. The rate of 2.5 colonies per hectare has 

179

een quoted extensively; however, the population required will obviously vary considerably 

with the concentration of flowers, their attractiveness and the percentage that are open 

at any given stage of flowering, competing insects, crop species, and location, so it would 

be misleading to quote flat rate figures. 

Bees are attracted to flowers and recognize them by their colour, shape, and smell. 

They are able to distinguish four qualities of colours (yellow, blue-green, blue, and 

ultraviolet) and when they are working flowers of a single colour, tend to become 

co'ditioned to that colour and fail to visit different coloured flowers. However, when a 

species has flowers of more than one colour, bees readily change between them and thus 

may be seen to ignore colour as a distinguishing character. Bees are also able to learn the 

general shape of flowers and the general form of plants, but their visual perception is slight 

and they readily move between tall and stunted plants and flowers at different stages of 

opening. Although the general form of the plant and the colour of its flower seems to guide 

bees from a distance, these insects have a highly developed sense of smell, and scent 

apparently provides the stimulus to alight on the flower when a bee is close to it. It has been 

shown that the addition of a strange scent to flowers will discourage foragers from visiting. 

Pollination Control 

From a breeder's point of view, pollination control implies two aspects: the need to 

increase cross-pollination as a breeding technique on the one hand; and the need to reduce 

cross-pollination to ensure purity of lines on the other. 

Studies are under way to determine the best way of distributing colonies among crops 

so that foraging and the proportion of flower visits is increased. Various cultural methods, 

including fertilizer use, the presence or absence of irrigation, plant spacing, and the use of 

wind breaks, have been investigated in an attempt to improve the attractiveness of crops. 

Whenever practicable, the arrangement of competing crops so that they flower at different 

times and restriction of the acreage of any one crop reduces the dilution of the pollinators 

and results in improved pollination. 

There appears to be a relation between the intensity of a pollen's odour, its 

attractiveness to bees, and hence its selection. It has been reported that pollen contains 

phytosteroles that attract bees and has been further demonstrated that the removal of 

materials contained in a hexane or ethyl extract of pollen results in a rejection of the residue 

by bees, despite its containing over 97% of the dry weight and the bulk of the nutritive 

substances. Further studies have isolated and identified a C18 straight chain trienoic acid 

that was highly attractive to honeybees and that, when added to a dish of cellulose powder, 

precipitated 15 times as many visits from foraging bees as similar control dishes. The 

artificial synthesization of such attractants and their use in target crops may prove an 

effective way of increasing visits by bees and consequently pollination. 

The control of pollinators to reduce cross-pollination is an altogether more difficult 

task. At present the only fully effective method of excluding bees from the crop is to isolate 

it within a cage. However, little work has been carried out on this problem and the use of 

varieties bred for flowers with long corolla tubes, attractive crops planted around the 

desired bee-free area, and insect repellants are subjects deserving attantion in future work 

in this field. 

180

Section VI 

Cooperathe Approaches 

to 

lood legume Imp ro veinent 

at the 

ationaI Level 

The Training and Communications Program 

at ICARDA 

S. Barghouti 


The training and communications effort at ICARDA is designed to assist in the 

process of exchange of information, knowledge, skills, and technology related to the 

development and improvement of food legumes. To this end, staff from the Training and 

Communications Program and the legume scientists at ICARDA have been working closely 

together in the development of a series of training courses, conferences, workshops and 

seminars, educational materials and audiovisual aids, and public information materials 

featuring current efforts and results of field research. While providing the necessary 

support for ICARDA's research efforts, this program also addresses itself to the needs of 

the national research institutions for technical information and trained manpower. More 

specifically the objectives of the food legumes training and communications efforts are: 

to provide research workers from the region with training opportunities leading to 

a better understanding of new skills and a comprehensive knowledge of food legume field 

research methods; 

to make available to researchers the necessary scientific information concerning 

effective research technology and findings related to food legume improvement in the 

Middle East and North Africa Region; 

to bring together researchers from various countries to discuss problems and 

exchange ideas and strategies concerning the improvement of food legume research and 

production; 

to assess the structure, nature, and limitations of current food legume research and 

production efforts within the region; 

to develop, with the national research programs, methods and strategies for the 

identification of research problems related to food legumes at the local level in each 

country; to establish a common understanding of the major problems of research and 

development of food legumes and their place within the farming systems of the region. 

To accomplish these objectives, the Training and Communications Program focuses 

its efforts on four main thrusts: 

(I) The conducting of training courses at various levels of technical skill for research 

personnel in the region; 

the production of publications, newsletters, and other illustrative materials 

required for publicity, technical information dissemination, or educational purposes; 

the organization of workshops, conferences, seminars, and field days relevant to 

the issues and problems concerned with the research and development work carried out at 

ICARDA; 

181

(4) the coordination and support of cooperative research both between ICARDA and 

the research efforts of the region and between the national programs themselves. 

These areas are seen as the fundamental functions existing within the overall sphere of 

communication itself. They are considered as being intimately connected so that efforts in 

any one sector provide benefits to the sphere as a whole. 

Priorities and Guidelines 

The Training Program 

This program is aimed and geared toward several different levels of education and is 

seen as serving the dual functions of increasing and improving cooperative work and 

generating publicity, as well as its more basic role of increasing the technical expertise of 

the participants. The program is structured to provide three main types of training. 

In-Service Training 

At the present time the main emphasis of ICARDA's training efforts has been placed 

on the middle level research personnel from the national research programs of the region. 

The bulk of these people have not enjoyed in-depth academic training; some of them are 

not university graduates and many of those who are have little experience in the theory and 

practice of field research. Through residential courses, varying from 2 weeks to 8 months 

in length, it is aimed to provide such participants with the training necessary to effectively 

bridge the gap between the high level theorists and the low level technicians at present 

existing in many of the research efforts of the region. 

Observations have indicated that research as a job must be learned by experience. In 

recognition of this, ICARDA's in-service courses emphasize field training and the 

acquisition of practical skills related to research work. These skills are taught alongside a 

background of theoretical scientific training, which aims to give the participants sufficient 

confidence to effectively undertake practical work and at the same time provide them with 

the scientific knowledge essential to the structuring and implementation of effective 

research work. 

Degree-Related Research Training 

Through the provision of opportunities to conduct relevant thesis research under the 

guidance and supervision of ICARDA scientists, this program aims to give graduates at the 

M.Sc. and Ph.D. levels the field experience and specialized training necessary for their 

future work with the research efforts of their own countries. 

Training with Universities 

Students from agricultural faculties of universities in the region are encouraged to 

work on ICARDA field experiments to gain practical research skills under the supervision 

of the scientific staff of ICARDA. At present, this activity is limited but it is hoped that as 

facilities expand, the program will be able to cater for an increasing number of participants 

from neighbouring countries. 

Organization 

The Training and Communications Program has administrative, organizational, and 

educational responsibility for these activities. The courses themselves are run under the 

supervision of senior research personnel from the Food Legume Program, together with a 

training officer who is qualified in agronomy and charged with the development of 

educational materials and instructional techniques, as well as the overall course 

organization. 

Current training activities are confined almost exclusively to the training of middle 

level personnel through in-service courses, which usually span the cropping season from 

February to July. The participants spend the bulk of their time in the field putting into 

practice the main concepts and skills necessary for a successful legume research program. 

182

In addition, lectures, manuals, and other educationsi materials, focusing on both 

theoretical and practical research methods related to the development and improvement of 

lentils, chick-peas, and broad beans are provided as a supporting core of background 

information. The courses, apart from providing the participants with the necessary 

knowledge of legume research, also aim to give them a comprehensive overview of the 

position of food legumes in the economic, social, and farming systems of the region. 

The Publications and Communications Service 

Guidelines 

The main function of this component of the overall Communications Program is the 

provision of information. The information services provided by the program fall into four 

major categories: 

the provision of information, in the form of technical reports and comprehensive 

descriptions of experiments and trials undertaken and results obtained at ICARDA or at any 

of the national research institutions, to collaborating scientists; 

the development and provision of educational materials and training packages, 

including manuals, visual aids, and other materials, based on the research work being 

carried out at ICARDA, both to trainees at ICARDA and to national programs wishing to 

initiate their own training components; 

the provision of general reports and other informative material to the public, 

specifically agricultural planners, donor agencies, and other interest audiences, to enable 

them to stay abreast of the latest developments and achievements at ICARDA and 

throughout the region as a whole; 

the assistance, where necessary, of the communications efforts of national 

programs in the region, involving the preparation and production of technical reports, 

information, and educational materials related to the improvement and production of food 

legumes. 

Organization 

To fulfill these functions, the following publications are being produced: 

An ICARDA Newsletter, published quarterly in English, French, Arabic, and 

possibly also Farsi, providing general information on developments at ICARDA for a very 

wide audience. 

A Food Legume Newsletter, published biannually and focusing on food legume 

research, development, and improvement at ICARDA, in the region, and at other 

international centres and research institutions. This publication is designed for distribution 

to collaborating national programs, government officials, and research workers in the 

region. An Experimental News Service (similar to that already developed in Canada for 

lentils) covering all aspects of broad bean research around the world and aimed at all 

scientists involved in the improvement of this crop. 

Annual Technical Reports on activities and accomplishments at ICARDA, and 

Special Reports on specific projects. These are directed toward policymakers, agricultural 

planners, and other concerned audiences. 

Comprehensive Scientific Reports, with detailed descriptions of the design, 

implementation, and results of experiments carried out at ICARDA, for dissemination to 

scientists in other international and national institutions concerned with food legume 

research. 

Popularized articles, publications, and monographs related to food legume 

production projects undertaken or supported by ICARDA. These articles will be written by 

local and international journalists and writers and geared for the layman and other 

audiences not involved with the technical aspects of agricultural research. 

Training manuals, technical publications, and booklets in support of ICARDA 

training courses and for use by research personnel at the national level. All this material 

will be published in English and translated through special contracts at the local level to 

ensure applicability and relevance to the local situations. 

183

Conferences and Workshops 

This component of the Training and Communications Program is involved with the 

organization, together with participating scientists, of conferences, workshops, seminars, 

and field days related to ICARDA's activities. It is closely integrated with the other 

communication functions so that in addition to its primary role, it also provides 

opportunities for trainees to gain experience through participation, stimulates the 

strengthening and promotion of increased cooperative activities at all levels, and generates 

material for publications to serve a variety of purposes. 

Specifically these activities involve the organization of: workshops related to 

problems of food legume production and improvement within the region; seminars and 

symposia related to specific problem areas identified by ICARDA or the national legume 

research programs; and field days designed to demonstrate to national research workers the 

operations and achievements of food legume research at ICARDA. 

Cooperative Support Service 

Work in this field involves supporting ICARDA'a efforts in establishing cooperative 

programs and thereby strengthening its contribution to national research and production 

programs. Furthermore, this service will provide the necessary support to ICARDA 

scientists in the planning and implementation of cooperative projects aimed at the effective 

transfer of newly developed technologies to the national research efforts of the countries of 

the region. Activities primarily involve assisting in the organization of training and 

research workshops and conferences at the national and local level, together with the 

collection, interpretation, and dissemination of technical information concerning the 

countries of the region and information feedback to these countries about the results of 

ICARDA's research and training activities. 

The four components of the food legume training and communications efforts at 

ICARDA, namely, training, information provision, conferences and workshops, and 

cooperative activities, are organized by communications and legume research personnel in 

very close association. These efforts are providing a channel through which the legume 

improvement work of ICARDA is becoming closely linked with the other relevant research 

efforts, both within the region and throughout the world. Such strong and developing 

linkages are helping to ensure that the work of ICARDA is finely tuned to the real problems 

of food legume production and improvement facing the farmers of the region, and that 

ICARDA and the national research efforts of the region work hand-in-hand toward the 

solution of these problems and thereby bring closer their common aim of increased and 

more stable food legume production. 

184

FAO Food Legume Programs in the 

Middle East and North Africa 

Hazirn A. Al-Jibouri and A. Bozzini 

Plant Production and Protection Division, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy 

Broadly defined, food legumes include the group of crop species of the family 

Leguminosae that are consumed by human beings either directly as mature dry seed, 

immature green seed or green pods, or indirectly as vegetable oil. Food legumes consumed 

as dry seed are often referred to as grain legumes or pulses. 

Food legumes are of special social and 

economic significance because they provide an 

important fraction of vegetable protein, oil, and calories to the diets of the rural poor. In 

addition, these crops are of high value to agriculture as a result of their ability to maintain 

soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. They are widely cultivated by small holders for 

domestic consumption, and are frequently grown as subsistence crops on marginally 

productive land. 

Yields of pulse crops in many developing 

countries are generally very low relative to 

other food staples, especially cereals, and to legumes produced in the more developed 

countries. The low yields and low overall productivity may be attributed to many major 

constraints, which include: the inadequate appreciation of the importance of the crops by 

policymakers and planners; the strong competition exerted by other main food and cash 

crops yielding a higher economic return, resulting in the replacement of pulses by more 

profitable crops or the stagnation of area and production, such as has occurred in the 

Middle East and North Africa (see Table I); the lack of effective research programs and 

TABLE I. Area ('000 ha) and yield (kg/ha) of food legumes in the Middle East and North Africa. 

Country 

1961-65 (avg) 

Source: FAO Production Yearbook, Vol. 30, 1976. 

Area Yield Area 

185 

1976 

Yield 

Afghanistan 28 1585 35 t624 

Algeria 66 526 98 768 

Egypt 242 1697 168 2117 

Iran 198 835 173 1040 

Iraq 42 851 56 722 

Jordan 48 630 23 359 

Lebanon ii 1033 21 907 

Libya 6 351 7 988 

Morocco 403 603 567 853 

Pakistan 1674 511 1477 531 

Saudi Arabia 2 1593 3 1643 

Sudan 47 1090 72 1073 

Syria 194 775 231 738 

Tunisia 84 395 133 626 

Turkey 570 1038 613 1235 

Yemen Arab Republic 37 1021 75 1221 

Total 3652 3752

experienced personnel, and the consequently minimal amount of varietal improvement, 

introduction, evaluation, and germ-plasm conservation work under way in many of the 

countries of the region; the embryonic state of development of many of the seed 

mutliplication and distribution efforts; and the deficiency of production technologies 

designed to maximize resource use and pathways through which such information can be 

channeled to the farming community. 

In recognition of the importance of food legume crops to agricultural development in 

many of the less developed countries, the post of "Agricultural Officer - Food Legumes" 

was created at FAO headquarters in Rome. The incumbent of this post is directly 

responsible for matters involving the improvement and implementation of programs related 

to improving productivity. 

Further involvement in the field of grain legume improvement arises from FAO's 

position as one of the three cosponsors of the Consultative Group on International 

Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR has in turn sponsored the establishment of 

nine International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs), five of which are actively 

involved with research and development programs on a wide range of legume crops, which 

include broad bean, dry bean, chick-pea, cowpea, groundnut, lentil, mung bean, pigeon 

pea, winged bean, and soybean. 

The Food Legume Production Program 

FAO's global program designed to improve food legume production both quantitatively 

and qualitatively involves three main spheres of activity: general agronomy, research 

and training, and liaison and information. 

General Agronomy 

Within this area, FAO organizes intercountry cooperative variety trials aimed at 

identifying high-yielding varieties with improved agronomic characteristics and wide 

adaptability; supports the development of suitable agrotechniques, which include better 

crop management and improved pre- and postharvest technology; promotes the expansion 

of food legume production into new areas through the encouragement of intensive 

production methods, such as intercropping, multiple cropping, and the development of 

suitable farming strategies aimed at better utilization of land and water resources and an 

increased income per unit area; and attempts to determine the quantitative requirement for 

food legume seed and to identify potential national and intercountry level, medium- to 

long-term seed production programs that could be developed to meet this requirement, 

together with the necessary investment costs. 

Research and Training 

FAO is involved with the promotion of intensive plant breeding programs designed to 

identify high-yielding and high quality pulse varieties with improved nutritive value and 

plant ideotype. In addition, considerable support is given in the strengthening of national 

research efforts to improve these programs and increase their technical manpower, 

facilities, efficiency, and effectiveness. FAO cooperates in the collection, conservation, 

utilization, and exchange of plant material and genetic resources and is instrumental in 

organizing training courses, workshops, and seminars for wide audiences. Such courses 

involve breeders, agronomists, extension workers, farm managers, and farmers and are 

aimed at developing increased national competence in the solution of problems at the farm 

level. 

Liaison and Information 

The development of suitable regional cooperation in research and development of 

food legume crops is considered to be of great importance, and FAO is actively involved in 

establishing linkages between relevant regional and international centres, institutes, and 

programs to facilitate the free exchange of materials and information. FAO also acts as a 

186

collector, processor, and disseminator of information related to the most efficient and 

effective technologies for food legume production and improvement. 

Current Program Activities 

Within the overall global framework outlined, 

FAO's current food legume program in 

the Middle East and North Africa involves a large number of interrelated projects covering 

all FAQ's spheres of activity. 

General Projects 

Since 1951, under the auspices of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 

FAO has been assisting the countries of the region through a variety of projects of varying 

size, embracing grain legumes as an important component of the development of food 

crops in general. Furthermore, through its regular program, FAO staff, based at 

Headquarters in Rome and at the Regional Office in Cairo, provide technical advice and 

policy guidelines for the operation of improvement programs in specific countries. 

A project concerned with a coordinated and cooperative program of improvement and 

production of cereals, food legumes, and oilseeds has been under way in the Near East and 

North Africa for several years. This project involves programs carried out in collaboration 

with the national research institutes of 22 of the countries of the region and is coordinated 

by a Regional Food Legume Officer located in Teheran. The work of the project includes: 

the organization and assistance of multidisciplinary national research task forces; the 

conducting of, and preparation and distribution of the results of cooperative yield trials 

involving promising varieties of food crops; and the identification of national needs for 

additional manpower. 

Field performance trials on five food legumes, namely chick-pea, dry bean, broad 

bean, cowpea, and lentil have been operated in seven countries of the Middle East since 

1974. 

A large-scale project is currently being considered, in cooperation with the Swedish 

International Development Agency (SIDA), for implementation in Bangladesh, Egypt, 

Ethiopia, India, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey. This project aims to link relevant research in 

developed countries with that in developing countries, promote intercountry cooperation 

through training, and aid in the more widespread dissemination of information and material 

between countries. 

Genetic Resources Activities 

The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), the secretariat of 

which is located at FAO headquarters, is supporting national genetic resources programs in 

several countries of the region, and encouraging, as far as is possible, regional and 

interregional cooperation in these activities. Under a new IBPGR project, two plant genetic 

resources scientists have been stationed in Iran, where they are assisting with the 

development of the Iranian program, as do comparable units in Syria and Afghanistan. 

Collection missions involving food legume species have been undertaken in cooperating 

countries and additional missions are planned for the near future. 

Specific Research Projects 

A project involving disease and pest resistance in grain legumes is currently being 

conducted in Morocco under the International Program on Horizontal Resistance (IPHR), 

initiated by FAQ in 1975. The main problems being addressed are blight and leaf miner 

attacks in chick-peas, and infestations of the parasitic broomrape (Orobanche) in broad 

beans. Methodologies for effective transfer of resistance through breeding are at present 

being developed for both crops and these will be used in this, and hopefully other similar 

projects, to build a high degree of horizontal disease and pest resistance into these crops. 

In 1977, FAQ established an Action Program for the Prevention of Food Losses 

in Cereals, Grain Legumes, Roots and Tubers. This project is specifically designed to 

187

assist developing countries in their efforts to identify food losses that occur throughout the 

postharvest system, and to plan and implement national programs to reduce these losses. 

Seed Production and Distribution Activities 

The development of sound national seed multiplication and distribution programs for 

the production of quality seed of newly developed high-yielding varieties is considered of 

vital importance by FAO. To this end, the FAO Seed Improvement and Development 

Program (SIDP), which started activities in 1973, is now providing assistance to 73 

countries (including all of the Middle Eastern and North African nations). SIDP acts as a 

forum for the channeling and coordination of assistance offered by governmental, 

nongovernmental, and international institutions in the development of seed production, 

quality control, and distribution activities. It assists in the identification, formulation, and 

implementation of national seed programs and field projects at all stages, with the overall 

objective of enabling countries to become self-sufficient in seed production. 

At its headquarters in Rome, the FAO Seed Exchange Laboratory handles between 

60 000 and 100 000 seed samples annually and is continuously supplying countries of the 

region with seed for experimental work. Food legume seeds distributed include broad bean, 

chick-pea, dry bean, lentil, mung bean, pea, groundnut, cowpea, and soybean. Material 

for distribution under this program is obtained from various sources: soybean from 

INTSOY (the International Soybean Program) based in Illinois, USA, and the International 

Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria; chick-pea from the International Crops 

Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India; cowpea again from IITA; 

and mungbean from the Asian Research Centres. 

With financial support from the government of Bahrein, FAO also operates a regional 

project for the supply of seeds in bulk (up to several tonnes) to the countries of the region. 

To date, this has involved supplying improved seed of soybean and groundnut varieties to 

Egypt, Pakistan, Syria, and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen for extensive 

testing and early multiplication. 

Training and Conference Projects 

In collaboration with the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), a 

4-month training course concerned with the improvement and production of food legumes 

was organized in 1975. This course involved 16 participants from 10 countries of the 

region and its success has prompted a similar, but longer duration, course to be arranged 

for 1980, together with an appreciable increase in the training opportunities offered to 

legume research personnel in the region. 

Also in operation is a project aimed at strengthening national institutions through the 

training of scientists in field food crops, sponsored by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This 

project has two aspects, namely a 12-month group training program on systems of farming 

in rainfed areas conducted at Roseworthy Agricultural College in South Australia on an 

annual basis; and a training program on production of important field crops, which offers 

four fellowships on soybean production agronomy and two on groundnut production 

agronomy at universities specializing in these fields. 

The Second FAO/SIDA Seminar on Field Crops in Africa and the Near East, attended 

by 146 participants was held in 1977. An important section of this seminar was devoted to 

the problems of food legume production and the strategies for the improvement of these 

crops. 

Information Services 

The collection and dessimination of information concerning new developments in 

crop improvement and production methodology is a very important part of FAO's central 

assistance role. This is achieved through the preparation of technical publications (three 

recent technical papers have been devoted to food legumes), and the documentation and 

indexing of current materials. 

188

FAQ provides the coordination for all the activities of the International Information 

System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS). This is a decentralized 

system that collects information from participating countries and organizations, processes 

it, and then provides selected information to field workers, research organizations, 

educational institutions, and other interested parties through a worldwide current 

awareness service and a network of information and documentation centres divided into 

subject matter or geographical location. 

Another mechanism for information dissemination located at the FAO headquarters is 

CARIS (the Current Agricultural Research 

Information Service). CARIS is a cooperative 

system that provides developing countries with information on current research at various 

institutions and in various programs throughout the world. Its basic aim is to improve 

communication between research efforts to evaluate their adequacy and thus identify major 

gaps and weaknesses in the overall sphere of agricultural research, thereby assisting in 

decision-making at both the national and international levels. The CARIS project is, 

moreover, an attempt, the first of its kind in the world, to make as complete an inventory as 

possible of the sum total of agricultural research efforts in the developing countries. 

Assistance Available 

The projects and activities outlined are 

examples of the wide range of work at present 

being undertaken by FAQ in the important field of supporting and promoting 

improvements in food legume production across the world as well as in the Middle East and 

North Africa region. FAQ is committed to cooperate with and assist member governments 

and institutions concerned with food legume production and improvement as much as its 

resources permit, along the following lines: 

FAO has a long and wide experience in project identification, preparation, 

appraisal, and implementation and in the methods of acquiring suitable financing. 

Assistance in any of these areas will be gladly given; 

FAO has a strong and expanding training program 

for the development of research 

and technical manpower at all levels and would welcome further participation in these 

activities; 

FAQ has recently initiated a new technical cooperation program under which 

assistance up to the value of $250 000 is granted to any project of 1 year's duration 

requested by member governments, subject of course to it meeting certain criteria; 

The services offered by the FAQ SIDP are always available for utilization; 

The FAQ Seed Exchange Laboratory will supply seed samples and genetic material 

of food legume crops to scientists of the region on request; 

Provision for holding meetings, consultations, 

seminars, and workshops at FAO is 

always made if such gatherings are 

programmed and planned well in advance; 

Under FAQ's regular program, short-term consultancies can be commissioned 

when advice is urgently required for any particular situation; 

FAQ's information gathering, documentation, and dissemination system is unique 

in its scope and geographical coverage. This system is open to use by all interested 

scientists, researchers, and institutes in the region; 

FAO will maintain active and strong relations with national, regional, and 

international institutes and centres located in the Middle East and North Africa and 

concerned with aspects of food legume improvement 

and production, and will always be 

available to assist in any of these ventures. 

189

The Food Legume Improvement and Development 

Program of the Field Crops Section at ACSAD 

L. R. Morsi 

The Arab Center for Studies of the Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), Douma, Damascus, Syria 

Wheat, barley, sorghum, lentil, chick-pea, and broad bean are the main food crops 

cultivated in the arid and semi-arid areas, and are considered to be of vital importance as 

sources of nutrition in the countries of the Arab world. To increase the production of these 

crops horizontally is difficult, if not impossible, in many of these countries due to the 

severely limited amount of land that can be used for rainfed agriculture. Any increases in 

production must thus arise primarily through vertical expansion (i.e., increasing the yield 

per unit area). This may be achieved through a combination of crop development through 

breeding, and adaptation of high-yielding varieties to the conditions of the region; 

development of cultural methods and practices designed to conserve soil moisture and 

ensure its most efficient utilization by the crops; and evolution of production machinery 

and methods specifically designed for dryland agriculture. 

To this end, the Field Crops Section of the Arab Center for Studies of the Arid Zones 

and Dry Lands (ACSAD) has been established to combine the efforts of specialists from the 

Arab countries and the available physical resources of the region into a program aimed at 

developing crops that will produce high and stable yields under the prevailing low and 

variable rainfall conditions of this part of the world. 

Most of the fieldwork at ACSAD is carried out at Izra'a, in southern Syria, which has 

a Mediterranean-type climate with an average annual rainfall of 300 mm. The soils of this 

area tend to be of the terra rosa type. 

The Food Legumes Research Program 

This program, which was initiated in 1977, focuses on the improvement of the three 

major food legumes of the region, namely, lentils, chick-peas and broad beans. Research 

will initially be directed toward the development of improved varieties and production 

practices specifically suited to the drought region of the Arab world, through an 

interdisciplinary approach involving breeding, physiology, agronomy, weed control, 

mechanization, microbiology, and seed quality. It is planned to commence a regional 

nursery program, distributing screening/observation nurseries, field trials, and segregating 

populations to cooperators in Arab countries in 1979. 

Work on food legumes during the 1978 season involved the testing of segregating 

populations, observation lines, yield trials, and other specific nurseries received from a 

number of different sources in the region. 

Segregating Populations 

A collection of populations from various sources is at present being studied to identify 

germ plasm that may be of value for crop production under dryland conditions. Some 

crosses between promising lines are planned for the 1978-79 season. 

Observation Lines 

Since the 1975-76 season, observation lines have been maintained for the three main 

legume crops. These lines are a composite of a number of local selections together with 

190

material received from regional and international nurseries. Lines planted at Izra'a in the 

current season include: 

No. entries 

The Lentil Regional Nursery (LRN-78) 

The Chick-pea Regional Nursery (CRN-78) 

The International Chick-pea Observation Nursery 

The Broad bean Regional Nursery (BRN-78) 

The Arabian Broad bean Observation Nursery 

The Arabian Chick-pea Observation Nursery 

The Arabian Lentil Observation Nursery 

Variety Yield Trials 

Six of these trials were planted during the 1977-78 season. These were: 

No. entries 

The Lentil Regional Preliminary Yield Trial (LRPYT-78) 

The Lentil Advanced Yield Trial (LAYT) 

The Chick-pea Regional Preliminary Yield Trial (CRPYT-78) 

The Broad bean Regional Preliminary Yield Trial (BRPYT-78) 

(large-seeded) 

The Broad bean Regional Preliminary Yield Trial (BRPYT-78) 

(small-seeded) 

The International Chick-pea Cooperative Trial 

As the legume research work at ACSAD expands in the coming years, it is looking 

forward to increasing and fruitful cooperation with other research programs and 

international agencies. In this way all the related agricultural research in the region can 

work together toward the common goal of increasing agricultural productivity, especially 

in the more marginal areas of the region. 

191 

91 

91 

100 

76 

120 

150 

180 

36 

36 

36 

21 

25 

25

The Role of IDRC in Food Legume Improvement Research 

F. Kishk 

International Development Research Centre, Middle East Regional Office, Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt 

The importance of food legumes, particularly in the diets of the poorer and less 

well-nourished people of the world, is a well-established fact. In most of the developing 

countries, most of the poorest people, especially in the rural areas, derive perhaps 75% or 

more of their nutritional requirements, in terms of calories and protein, from plant sources. 

The cereal and pulse crops dominate in this respect and, in their protein supply, 

complement each other well in human nutrition. 

In spite of their very significant role in human nutrition, their ability to survive and 

yield under extremely marginal conditions, their contribution to crop rotations, and their 

nitrogen-fixing capacity, little emphasis or importance has been attached to the 

improvement of food legume crops by the agricultural scientific community in the past, the 

cereal crops being the main focus of research and development efforts. It is thus hardly 

surprising that world cereal production is currently increasing at a much more rapid rate 

than the production of legumes. In fact available statistics indicate that during the past 20 

years per capita legume production in Asia and Africa has been declining while cereal 

consumption has increased. The improvement of only one component of these two 

complementary staple food crops, at the expense of the other, to a certain extent suggests 

that the nutritional quality of the diets of the poorer sections of the population of this region 

may be deteriorating. 

Recognizing this situation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) is 

working toward the correction of this imbalance through the encouragement and support of 

research designed to develop legumes capable of giving higher yields combined with 

improved nutritional quality, in the major producing regions of the semi-arid tropics and 

West Asia. 

Since its inception in 1972, the Pulse Improvement Program of the International Crops 

Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), based in Hyderabad, India, has 

received active support from the Centre. Breeding and selection of lines of chick-pea and 

pigeon pea at ICRISAT is geared toward achieving higher and more stable yields together 

with higher protein content and resistance to diseases, pests, and other stressful conditions. 

Thousands of different lines of these two crops have been collected from all over the world 

and a very active improvement effort is now fully under way. 

Other IDRC-supported food legume research projects are under way in the West 

Indies, Kenya, and Sri Lanka, and a network of cowpea improvement efforts is currently 

being initiated in West Africa, involving several countries, and the International Institute 

for Tropical Agriculture (IITA). 

In West Asia, IDRC was instrumental, in cooperation with the Arid Lands 

Development Program of the Ford Foundation (ALAD), in the setting up of a regional food 

legume program. This was expanded with the formation of ICARDA into an internatinoal 

effort focusing upon lentil, broad bean, and chick-pea improvement. In coordination with 

ICARDA, a network of national pulse improvement programs involving Algeria, Sudan, 

Egypt, Syria, and Turkey is being built up at the present time. This development is in line 

with the IDRC philosophy manifest in all its programs that indigenous scientists should be 

encouraged and assisted to develop their own national research competence with the 

technical backup and assistance of the international research community embodied in the 

international research centres. 

192

With this approach, IDRC attempts to bring together the legume research efforts of the 

developing world on the national, regional, and international levels into a coordinated and 

cooperative endeavour to improve the production of food legume crops and through them 

the nutrition of the world's population. The fast-developing relationship between ICARDA 

and the national pulse programs of West Asia and North Africa, and the new links in the 

chain of this cooperation that are continually being forged, provide a good example of the 

ways in which research efforts on all levels should work together toward their common 

aim. In this way research can make a real and lasting contribution to the alleviation of the 

hunger and hardship that exists in the world today. 

193

Section VII 

Recommendations 

for 

Pr 

During the workshop, much of the participants' time was spent in small problemoriented 

discussion groups. These were designed to focus on specific areas of interest 

within the whole sphere of food legume production and improvement and to evolve 

concrete recommendations for future research priorities. The findings of these groups are 

set out in the section that follows. 

Dietary Importance and Consumer Requirements 

The dietary importance of food legumes is considerable in light of the deficiency 

in animal protein sources in most of the countries of the region. More information is now 

required on quality demands, which vary between crops and groups of people (babies, 

growing children, adults, etc.). 

The processing industry is growing rapidly in some of the countries of the region 

and processing methods and factors affecting the quality of canned legumes need to be 

clarified to develop improved products. 

The term "cooking quality" is not well defined. Standardized methods must be 

developed for testing different quality components (e.g., flavour, cooking time, seed 

texture, palatability, etc.), so that results from different institutions may be compared. 

Little information is available on the incidence of ''favism" in the different 

countries of the region. The extent of the disease and the factors responsible require more 

study. Proper testing and screening methods must be sought to eliminate these factors from 

improved varieties. 

Contradicting data are available on the patterns of legume use (dry seed vs green 

pods and seed), especially for broad beans. Present improvement efforts should be directed 

more toward dry seed production than to the other types. 

Flatulence is considered to be a major problem limiting the consumption of food 

legumes, and testing and screening methods should be developed to produce cultivars that 

do not cause this. Some people have a greater tendency toward the problem than do others. 

Breeding for Nutritional Improvement 

Breeding for higher protein content should receive some attention, providing that 

protein quality or seed yield are not affected. 

Attributes contributing to cooking quality vary with different crops. There is a 

need to determine the importance of these attributes in relation to cooking quality, together 

with the development of rapid determination techniques. 

Genotype x environment interactions controlling cooking and nutritive quality 

are important and require further study. Preliminary data suggest a generally greater effect 

from environmental rather than genotypic factors, and different components of the 

environment (i.e., soil structure, fertility and fertilizers, trace elements, climate, and crop 

management) should be surveyed and studied against this aspect. Large-scale screening of 

seed material for cooking and nutritive qualities under detrimental environmental 

conditions may reveal genetic differences and enable selection and breeding for superior 

genotypes. 

Food Legume Production 

(1) The lack of basic information on improved production practices and availability of 

high-yielding varieties with resistance to adverse conditions, together with the poor 

194

transfer of existing improved technologies, are recognized as some of the major constraints 

to increased legume production in most parts of the region. Identification of the major 

production constraints should be undertaken by an interdisciplinary group of scientists, 

including socioeconomic expertise, through the establishment of direct contact with the 

farmers concerned. 

The relative proportion of small- to large-scale farming enterprises should be 

assessed in any given situation, so that the research priorities can be modified to develop 

technologies relevant to that situation. 

The development of varieties and production practices permitting the mechanical 

harvesting of lentils should be considered as a priority. 

The demonstration of the economic viability of improved production 

technologies, and the provision of credit and inputs are essential to the effective promotion 

of new technologies in areas where such technologies are available. 

International support should also be given to research on other food legume crops 

such as dry peas, dry beans, and soybeans. 

Diseases of Food Legumes 

(1) Although it is recognized that different diseases require different methods of 

scoring, some standardization is highly desirable. In line with the need for computerization 

of data and for a simple practical approach to scoring, the following system should be used: 

0 No data 

1 No infection 

2 Very mild infection 

3 Moderate infection 

4 High infection 

5 Very high infection 

6 Escape 

This method of scoring is not intended for detailed pathological studies but rather for 

plant breeders making a general evaluation of hundreds or thousands of lines. 

(2) International disease-screening nurseries are of great value and all national and 

international research efforts should be encouraged to exchange material and information 

in this and other ways. 

(3) Based on the reported importance of the various diseases in the region, the 

following are considered to be research priorities: chick-peas - Ascochyta blight, root 

rot/wilt; Lentils - root rot/wilt; broad beans - chocolate spot, Ascochyta blight, root 

rot/wilt. 

(4) Root rot/wilt diseases require further investigation to establish the major causal 

organisms in the various parts of the region. Centralized facilities should be established for 

the identification of root rot/wilt pathogens so that the presently confused situation can be 

clarified, especially in those countries that do not have their own facilities. 

(5) Diseases of lesser importance should not be overlooked. 

(6) Handbooks for the recognition, scoring, and control of the various diseases are 

urgently needed. 

Pests and Pollinating Insects 

Priority should be given to the study of the biology, extent of damage, and control 

of the following insects: broad beans - aphids and bruchids; chick-peas - pod borers and 

leaf miners; lentils - aphids and bruchids. 

Other insects of secondary or localized importance that should receive research 

attention include Sitona weevil, thrips, and stem borer, the latter specifically on broad bean 

crops. The importance of the larvae of Sitona sp. in causing damage to root nodules needs 

assessment. 

Reports concerning the biologies of these important insects and the extent of the 

195

damage caused by them in the various countries of the region should be compiled by 

ICARDA. 

A survey of pollinating insects in the region is also required. 

There is an urgent need for a comprehensive handbook covering the main insect 

pests of food legumes. 

Weed Control 

ICARDA should extend its weed research activities to the region by supplying 

national programs with results of weed control trials and by collecting and disseminating 

information on the major weed problems, levels of crop losses, and current control 

methods in the various countries of the region. 

Cooperation in weed research is essential. There is a need to establish a series of 

cooperative weed control trials within the countries of the region, coordinated by 

ICARDA, who should supply the packages of materials and instructions for experimentation 

and analyze and disseminate the results. 

There is a serious lack of information on Orobanche and its impact on food 

legume production. National programs should be encouraged and assisted in their efforts to 

assess the extent of Orobanche problems in their countries and to develop and implement 

methods for its prevention and control, especially in the field of breeding resistant 

varieties. 

Germ Plasm and Breeding Strategy 

There are obvious gaps in the collection of food legume germ plasm in the region 

and additional support is needed by the national programs for collection activities. 

ICARDA, in conjunction with the IBPGR and other agencies, should give assistance in 

fully exploring the region before valuable material is completely lost. 

A complete catalogue of all collections maintained at both the national institutions 

of the region and other relevant organizations, such as ICARDA, should be prepared and 

distributed to all the interested researchers in the region. 

With regard to agroclimatic conditions, altitudes, and latitudes, the Near East and 

North Africa can be tentatively divided into three subregions: 

High Plateau Areas: Iran and Turkey 

Lowland Areas: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Tunisia, 

Algeria, Libya, and Morocco 

Southern Areas: Sudan, Egypt, South Iraq, South Iran 

In order to better clarify the tentative divisions outlined above, a small-scale 

international trial comprising one or two of the best entries from each crop in each country 

should be conducted for 2 or 3 years. Scientists from the countries of the region should 

furnish seed of broad bean, lentil, and chick-pea to ICARDA as soon as possible to enable 

this program to be initiated. 

International uniform yield trials, screening nurseries, and segregating populations 

are of great importance to the research programs of the countries of the region and ICARDA 

should give considerable emphasis to this aspect of its work. 

Agronomy, Physiology, and Microbiology 

There is a need for more detailed information on current production practices in the 

region, such as dates and rates of seeding, rates of fertilization, and weed control practices. A 

survey of the prevailing practices used by farmers would provide this information and should 

be seen as a priority. 

Intercropping of food legumes in perennial plantations is a common practice and its 

significance needs careful study. 

In view of the current variable results of N fertilization, investigations on crop 

response to starter dressings should be initiated. 

196

Studies of production under irrigated conditions should be expanded. 

Problems requiring priority research include: drought tolerance; photosynthetic 

efficiency; symbiotic nitrogen fixation; flower drop. 

Support is required from ICARDA and other agencies in the development of 

facilities for the production of Rhizobium inoculum. 

Coordinated agronomic research should be initiated within the region and details of 

the requisite trials and nurseries should be evolved by a working party comprised of 

researchers from national programs and from ICARDA. 

Training and Communications 

'Iraining in tbod legume improvement is required at three levels: technical training; 

training of junior scientists; training and meetings of senior scientific personnel. Courses in 

basic technical training, lasting for approximately 6 months and held at the ICARDA research 

station at Aleppo, are very useful, but short intensive courses in specialized subjects are also 

required by some national programs and should be organized by ICARDA if possible. 

A workshop/seminar on lentils should be held at Aleppo in 1979. There is a 

continuing need for general-type workshop activities to evaluate changes in national problems 

and research to reorientate ICARDA's approach to these changes. Such a workshop on grain 

legumes should be held every 3-4 years. 

Future workshops may be held either by ICARDA or by national programs, and in 

either case the participation of other national programs in the organization of such workshops 

would be highly desirable. These workshops should be more specific in their objectives and 

country reports should be more problem orientated. 

All available training material on food legumes should be gathered and compiled 

into comprehensive manuals for widespread use. Solid links should be forged between the 

training program of ICARDA and other pertinent training activities, such as are conducted by 

ICRISAT & FAQ. 

ICARDA should undertake the compilation of annotated bibliographies on lentils, 

broad beans, and Pisum species, which could form a valuable source of information for 

researchers in the region. In addition, the publication of a regular general bulletin, containing 

news about food legumes and people working in that field, together with extension 

information, would prove very useful. 

In the light of the severe shortage of trained manpower specialized in food legume 

improvement within the region as a whole, international and national grant-giving bodies 

should actively support both graduate and technical training in this field, either directly to the 

trainees themselves or indirectly through the financial support of ICARDA. 

ICARDA should provide facilities, in cooperation with universities in the region, to 

support students undertaking research for higher degrees on subjects of relevance to the 

objectives of its food legume improvement program. 

'97

Section 1 

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199 

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foodstuffs. Composition of pulses, seeds, nuts, and cereal products of Lebanon. J. Sci. Food 

Agric. 17: 82-84. 

Mameesh, MS., Aprahamian, S., Salji, J., and Cowan, J.W. 1970. Availability of iron from 

labelled wheat, chickpea, broadbean, and okra in anemic blood donors. Amer. J. Clinical Nutr. 

23: 1027-1032. 

Mann, R. 1978. The effects of government policy on income distribution. A case study of wheat 

production in Turkey since World War II. Ankara, Turkey, M.E. University. 

Mattson, S. 1946. The cookability of yellow peas. A colloid-chemical and biochemical study. 

Acta. Agr. Scand. 2: 185-231. 

Mattson, S., Akeberg, E., Eriksson, E., Koutler-Anderson, E., and Vahtas, K. 1950. Factors 

determining the composition and cookability of peas. Acta. Agr. Scand. 1:40-61. 

Muller, F.M. 1967. Cooking quality of pulses. J. Sci. Food Agric. 18: 292-295. 

Nuwayhid, H.Y. 1975. Nutritional evaluation of biscuits prepared from chickpea and broadbean 

protein isolates. Master of Science Thesis. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, American University 

of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon. 58p. (Advisor: R. Tannous) 

Pao, S.K. 1972. Variables affecting the thermal processing of selected Lebanese foods. Master of 


Lebanon. 68p. (Advisor: R. Tannous) 

Pellet, P.L., and Shadarevian S. 1970. Food composition tables for use in the Middle East. 

American University of Beirut. Beirut, Lebanon, Heidelberg Press. ll6p. 

Shibaklu, U. M. 1972. Utlization of legumes in weaning food mixtures. Master ofScience Thesis. 

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon. 57p. (Advisor: 

R. Tannous) 

a p

Tannous, RI., Cowan, 3W., Asfour, FRY., and Sabry, Z.I. 1965. Protein-rich food mixtures 

for feeding infants and preschool children in the Middle East. I. Development and evaluation of 

Laubina mixtures. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 17: 143-147. 

Tanrious, RI., Shaderevian, S., and Cowan, J.W. 1968a. Rat studies on quality of protein and 

growth-inhibiting action of alkaloids of lupin Lupinus term is . 3. Nutr. 94(2): 161-165. 

Tannous, RI., and Ullah, M. 1969. Effects of autoclaving on nutritional factors in legume seeds. 

Trop. Agric. 46: 123-129. 

Tukan, S. 1969. Infant food mixtures based on burghol and lentil. Master of Science Thesis. 

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon. 90p. (Advisor: 

P. Pellet) 

Ullah, M. 1966. Effect of autoclaving on the protein quality of legume seeds. Master of Science 

Thesis. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon. 86p. 

(Advisor: R. Tannous) 

Wassirni, N. 1976. Effect of plant nutrition on the cooking quality of lentils. Master of Science 

Thesis. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon. 

(Advisor: S. Abu-Shakra) 

Wassimi, N., Abu-Shakra, S., Tannous, R., and Hallab, A.H. 1978. Effect of mineral nutrition 

on cooking quality of lentils. Can. 3. Plant Sci. 58(1): 165. 

Section II 

Abdel Gabbar, AG. 1969. Effect of plant density on yield components of broadbean (ful masri). 

Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

1969-70. I. Effect of variety sowing time and plant denisty on yield components of haricot 

bean. II. Effect of nitrogen, water regimes and type of seed bed on yield of fasulia (haricot bean). 


Abu Salih, H.S. 1970-71. Effect of sowing date and incidence of broadbean mosaic virus on 

yields of broadbean. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

1972/73/74. Sudanese broadbean mosaic virus (field experiment). Effect of spraying, time of 

sowing and nitrogen application on the incidence of the disease. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research 

Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Abu Salih, H.S., Ishag, H.M., and Sidding, S.A. 1973. Effect of sowing date on the incidence of 

Sudanese broadbean mosaic virus in, and yield of Viciafaba L. Ann. AppI. Biol. 74: 37 1-378. 

Ageeb, O.A.A. 1974. Lentils sowing date and soil. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, 

Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

1974-75. Chickpea: fertilizer, nitrogen, watering intervals and plant spacing. Annual Report, 

Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

1974/75/76. Field beans variety and watering intervals. Annual Reports, Hudeiba Research 


1976. I: Broadbean time of harvest experiment. II: Chickpea NPK Experiment. III: Chickpea 

population trial. IV: Chickpea levels and time of nitrogen fertilizer application. V: Lentils NPK 

fertilizer experiment. VI: Lentils seed rate and levels of nitrogen fertilizer. VII: Lentils levels and 

time of nitrogen application. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Ageeb, O.A.A., and Ayoub, Al. 1977. Effect of sowing date and soil type on plant survival and 

grain yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). J. Agric. Sci. Carnbr. 88: 521-528. 

Ageeb, O.A.A., and El Sarag, G. 1973. I: Effect of sowing date on the grain yield of chickpea. II: 

Lentils sowing date trial. III: The effect of plant spacing and planting density on the seed yield of 

two types of fasulia (haricot bean). Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Ageeb, O.A.A., and Freigoun, SO. 1976. Effect of sowing date, and watering intervals on 

broadbean. Annual Report, Hudejba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Ahmed, M. 1969a. A new strain of fasulia (Phaseolus vulgaris) for the Northern Province. Annual 

Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

1969b. A new strain of ful masri for the Northern province. Annual Report, 1-ludeiba Research 


Ali, M.A., and Khalifa, 0. 1965/66/67. Effect of plant population, watering intervals and 

nitrogen on powdery mildew in broadbean. Annual Reports, Hudeiba Research Station, 

Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

Al Nadi, A.H. 1969. Water relations of beans. Effect of water stress on growth and flowering. 

Exptl. Agric. 5: 195-208. 

1970. Water relations of beans. Effects of differential irrigation on yield and seed size of 

broadbean. Exptl. Agric. 6: 107-111. 

200

Ayoub, AT. 197 1/72/73a. Ful masri fertilizer experiment. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research 

Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

197 l/72/73b. Ful masri (broadbean) watering experiment. Annual Reports, Hudeiba Research 


1974. Causes of inter-varietal differences in susceptibility to sodium toxicity injury in 

Phaseolus vulgaris. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 83: 539-543. 

1975. Effeet of some soil amendments on sodium uptake and translocation in dry beans 

(Phaseolus vulgaris)in relation to sodium toxicity. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 84: 537-541. 

1977. Salt tolerance of lentil (Lens esculenta). J. Hort. Sci. 52: 163-168. 

Ayoub, A.T., and Ishag, H.M. 1974. Sodium toxicity and cation inbalance in dry beans 

(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 82: 339-342. 

Babiker, l.A. 1976. 1: Ful masri: N, P fertilizer and time of application experiment. II: Fasulia: N, 

P fertilizer and times of application experiment. III: Ful masri: N, P fertilizer application & 

watering interval experiment. IV: Fasulia: N, P fertilizer application and watering intervals 

experiment. Annual Reports, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

Baghdadi, A.M., and Khalifa, 0. 1967/68/69. Control of powdery mildew by different sowing 

dates. Annual Reports, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

Brulina, El. 1928. Lentils of Afghanistan. Bull. Appi. Bot. Gen. Plant Breed. 19(2): 1-48. 

Dafalla, A.D. 1966/67. Haricot bean (fasulia) sowing date, nitrogen and watering interval 

experiment. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Department of Agriculture, Cyprus. 1975. Enemies and diseases of vegetables. Dep. Agric. Bull. 

19/1975. (In Greek) 

1976a. Phaseolus and Lubia. Dep. Agr. Bull. 16/1976. (In Greek) 

1976b. Broadbeans. Dep. Agric. Bull. 30/1976. (In Greek) 

Dickinson, D., Knight, M., and Rees, D.J. 1967. Varieties of broadbeans suitable for canning. 

Chem. Ind. 16 Nov. 1967. 

El Karouri M.O.H. 1968/69. Effect of N, P and compost on the yield of fasulia. Annual Report, 

Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

El Saeed, E.A.K. 1967. Seed size as a varietal difference in broadbean (Viciafaba L.). J. Agric. 

Sci. Camb. 68: 69-73. 

1968. Agronomic aspects of broadbean (Viciafaba L.) grown in the Sudan. Exptl. Agric. 4: 

151-160. 

Eser, D. 1970. Study of important morphological characters of lentil varieties grown in Turkey. 

Ank. Univ. Ziraat Fak. Yay 383: 79p. 

1975. Karyotype analysis of lentil. Ank. Univ. Ziraat Fak. Yilligi 25(2): 462-472. 

1976. Heritability of some important plant characters, their relationships with plant yield and 

inheritance of.4scochyta blight resistance in chickpea. Ank. Univ. Ziraat Fak. Yay 620: (360): 

4Op. 

1977. The effect of different sowing and emergence dates on yield and relations between yield 

and some physiological characters in chickpea. T.B.T.A.K.V. Bilim Kongresi 1975, 360(67): 

247-257. 

Eser, D., and Soran, H. 1978. A comparison of local and introduced chickpea varieties 

considering earliness, yielding ability and resistance to diseases in Central Anatolian conditions. 

Ank. Univ., Ziraat Fak. Yayinlari. (In press) 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1977. FAO production yearbook, Vol. 

30. 

Genckan, 5. 1958. Studies on important characters of chickpea varieties of Turkey. Ege Univ. 

Matbaasi. lO7p. 

Habish, H.A., and Ishag, H.M. 1974. Nodulation of legumes in the Sudan. III. Response of 

haricot bean to inoculation. Exptl. Agric. 10: 45-50. 

Hawtin, G.G., and Van der Maesen, L.J.G. 1975. Food legume collection in Afghanistan. 

Aleppo, Syria, ALAD/ICRISAT Report 1975. 

Hiepke, G.H. 1961. I. Ful masri factorial experiment. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, 

Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

1962/63. Factorial experiment with ful masri (Vicia faba L.). Annual Report, Hudeiba 

Research Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

1964. Fasulia sowing date and size of ridge experiment. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research 


Hiepke, G.H., and Kaufman, H. 1964. Ful masri sowing date, spacing and nitrogen experiment. 

Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

Hiepke, G.H., and Sulieman, A.M.M. 1961. Fasulia sowing date and spacing experiment. 


201

Hue. A.H. 1968/69. Effect of spacing and method of planting on chickpea seed yield. Annual 

Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Ishag, H.M. 1970. Effect of plant population in yield and yield components of field beans. II. 

Responses of field bean to inoculation. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, 

Sudan. 

Ishag, H.M., and Ayoub, A.T. 1974. Effect of sowing date and soil type on yield, yield 

components and survival of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 82: 343-347. 

Kachroo, P. 1970. Pulse crops of India. New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 

Last, Fl., and Nour, M.A. 1961. Cultivation of Viciafaba L. in Northern Sudan. Emp. J. Exptl. 

Agric. 29: 60. 

Mesfin,W/Mariam. 1969. An atlas of Ethiopia. Asmara, Ethiopia, Ilpoligrafico, Priv. Ltd. Co. 

Ministry of Information, Ethiopia. 1964. Agriculture in Ethiopia. II. Publication and Foreign 

Languages Department, Ministry of Information, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 

1972. The feasibility of producing pulse crops for export markets. Addis Ababa, Planning and 

Programming Dep., Rep. No. I. Mm. of Agr. 

1973. Final report of crop condition survey for 1972-73. Addis Ababa, Harvest Planning and 

Programming Dep., Mm. of Agr. 

Mohr, P.A. 1971. The geology of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Haile Selassie I University Press. 

Mulder, E.G., and Van Veen, W.L. 1960. Plant and Soil 13: 91. 

Murphy, H.F. 1968. A report on the fertility status and other data on some soils of Ethiopia. 

College of Agriculture, Haile Selassie I University. 

Musa, M.M., and Burhan, HO. 1974. The relative performance of forage legumes as rotation 

legumes as rotational crop in the Gezira. Exptl. Agric. 10: 13 1-140. 

Perira, H.C. 1969. Soil erosion in Ethiopia and proposal for remedial action. Addis Ababa, Dep. 

of Agric. Res. 

Government of Tunisia. 1972/73. Progress report on grain legume research. Technical Division, 

Office of Cereals (ex-wheat project), Tunis, Tunisia. 

1973/74. Progress report on grain legume research. Technical Division, Office of Cereals 

(ex-wheat project), Tunis, Tunisia. 





1976/77. Progress report on grain legume research. Technical Division. Office of Cereals 


Rafiq, M. 1976. Crop ecological zones of nine countries of the Near East region. Rome, FAO. 

Rizk, 5G. 1962. J. Soil Sci. 2: 253. 

Salih, S.H., and Salih Farouk, A. 1975. Breeding of ful masri. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research 


Salih Farouk, A. 1975/76/77. I: Ful masri: standard variety trial. II: Ful masri: NEB - variety 

trial. III: Ful masri: new series of crosses. Annual Reports, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, 

Sudan. 

1976. I.Effect of seed size on yield and some other characteristics of three varieties of ful 

masri. II.Ful masri: sowing date/variety experiment. III.Effect of nitrogen rates and time of 

application on full masri yield and yield components. IV.Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and time of 

application on fasulia yield. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

1977. Broadbean time of harvest experiment. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, 

Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Siddig, A.S. 1968. Effect of spraying and nitrogen on factors influencing yield of haricot bean 

(fasulia). Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Siddig, A.S., and Abu Salih, H.S. 1969/70/71/73. Effect of variety, spraying and nitrogen on 

yield of fasulia. Annual Report, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

SoIh, M., et al. 1974. Food legume collection in Afghanistan. ALAD 1974 Report. 

Agricultural Research Institute, Cyprus, 1960-84. Time series data on vegetables and field crops 

of Cyprus. Agricultural Economics Section, Agricultural Research Institute, Cyprus. 

Tindall, H.D. 1968. Commercial vegetable growing. In Oxford tropical hand book. London, 

Oxford University Press. 

Tosun, 0., and Eser, D. 1975a. Registered winter lentils varieties. Ank. Univ. Ziraat Fak. Yilligi 

1974, 24(3-4): 502-5 12. 

1975b. Relationships between yield and some morphological characters of chickpea. Ank. 

Univ., Ziraat Fak. Yilligi, 25(1): 1-19. 

1975c. Research on plant spacing in chickpea: I. The effect of plant spacing on yield. Ank. 

Univ., Ziraat Fak. Yilligi 25(1): 171-180. 

1975d. Research on plant spacing in chickpea: II. The relationships between yield and 

202

changing plant morphological characters according to the plant spacing. Ank. Univ. Ziraat Fak. 

Yilligi, 25(1): 192-201. 

1978a. Studies of plant density in lentil: I. The effect of plant density on yield. Ank. Univ. 

Ziraat Fak. Yilligi. (In press) 

I 978b. Studies of plant density in lentil: II. The relationships between yield and different plant 

characters according to the plant densities. Ank. Univ. Ziraat Fak. Villigi. (In press) 

United States Department of Agriculture. 1974. Guide for field crops in tropics and subtropics. 

Washington. D.C.. USDA. 

Van der Maesen, L.J.G. 1977. Food legume collections in Afghanistan in 1976 and 1977. 

ICRISAT 1977 Report. 

Wallace, A. 1968. Effect of temperature and P on sodium translocation and sodium exchange 

reactions in bush beans. Soil Sci. 106: 144-148. 

1971. Low root temperature, calcium and nitrogen ion interactions on non-exchangeable 

rubidium, cesium and sodium absorption by bush beans. Plant Soil 34: 121-131. 

Westphal, E. 1974. Pulses in Ethiopia. Wageningen, Centre for Agricultural Publishing and 

Documentation. 

1975. Agricultural systems in Ethiopia. Wageningen, Centre for Agricultural Publishing and 

Documentation. 

Yassin, T.E. 1973. Analysis of yield stability in field beans (Vicia faba L.) in the northern 

provinces of the Sudan. J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 80: 119-124. 

Section III 

Abu Salih H.S. 1973. Annual Report 1972/73, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

1974. Annual Report 1973/74, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Baghdadi, A.M. 1969. Annual Report 1968/69, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Damer, Sudan. 

Beaumont, A. 1950. On the ascochyta spot disease of broadbeans. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 

33:345-349. 

Bos, L. 1963. Symptoms of virus diseases in plants. Centre for Agricultural Publications and 

Documentations, Wagenigen, Holland. 

El Nur, E., and Freigoun, S. 1970. Helminthosporium spiciferum pathogenic to broadbean in the 

Sudan. Plant Dis. Rep. 54(5):405-407. 

Gilpatrick, iD., and Busch, L.V. 1950. Studies of the pathogenicity of different isolates of 

Ascochytapisi. Plant Dis. Rep. 34:383-387. 

Gourley, CO., and Delbridge, R.W. 1973. Botrytisfabae and Ascochyta faba on broadbeans in 

Nova Scotia. Can. Plant Dis. Surv. 53 :79-82. 

Grosier, W.F. 1939. Occurrence and longevity ofAscochytapisi in seeds of hairy vetch. J. Agric. 

Res. 59:683-697. 

Heinrichs. E.A. 1974. Report of the plant protection consultant to the Ada Agricultural 

Development Project, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. 

Hewitt, PD. 1966. Ascochytafabae Speg. on tick bean seed. Plant Pathol. (Loud). 16:161-163. 

Hussein, M.M. 1975. Annual Report 1974/75, Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Ibrahim, G. 1973. Annual Report 1972/73, Hudeiba Research Station, Sudan. 

Ibrahirn, G., and Hussein, M.M. 1975. A new record of root rot of broadbean (Viciafaba) from 

Sudan. J. Agric. Sci. 83(3):381. 

Ikata, S. 1933. Studies on red spot disease of Vicia faba. Rep. Agric. Exp. Sta. Okayarnaken, 

38:28 p. (Abstracted in Rev. Appl. Mycol. 13:206.) 

Institutes of Agricultural Research, Ethiopia. 1969. Report for the period Mar. 196810 Mar. 1969, 

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 

1975. Proceedings fifth annual research seminar, 30 Oct. to 1 Nov. 1974, Addis Ababa, 

Ethiopia. 

Kaiser, W.J. 1973. Factors affecting growth, sporulation, pathogenicity and survival of Ascochyta 

rabiei. Myco. 65:444 457. 

Khalifa, 0., and Ali, M.A. 1967. Plant diseases of the Northern Province and their control. Proc. 

10th Agric. Res. CoIl. Hudeiba Research Station, Ed-Darner, Sudan. 

Mansfield, J.W., and Deverall, B.J. 1974. The rates of fungal development and lesion forrnation 

in leaves of Viciafaba during infection by Botrytis cinerea and Botrytisfabae. Ann. Appl. Biol. 

76:77-89. 

Nene, Y.L., and Mengistu, A. 1978. An annotated bibliography of chickpea diseases. ICRISAT 

publication. (In press). 

Paine, 5G., and Lacey, M.S. 1923. Studies in bacteriosis. IX Streak disease of broadbeans. Ann. 

AppI. Biol. 10:194-203. 

Spegazzini, C. 1899. Fungi Argentini. An. Mus. Nac. B. Aires 6:81-367. 

203

Stewart, RB., and Dagnachew, Y. 1967. Index of plant diseases in Ethiopia. Exp. Stat. Bull. 30 

Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. 

Walker, J.C., and Snyder, W.C. 1933. Pea wilts and root rots. Wis. Agr. Exp. Stn. Res. Rep. 

424 p. 

Walter, J.K. 1973. Biology of bean yellow mosaic and pea leaf roll virus affecting V/cia faba in 

Iran. Phytopathol. Z. 78:253-263. 

Westphal, E. 1974. Pulses in Ethiopia: their taxonomy and agricultural significance. Centre for 

Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, Holland. 

Yirgou, D. 1976. Plant diseases of economic importance in Ethiopia. Haile Selassie I University 

College of Agricultural Experiment Station, Exp. Stn. Bull. 50 Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. 

Section IV 

Abivardi, C. 1976. Additional studies on insecticide activities of camphor to stored product 

insects, Z. Pflanzenkr. Pflanzenschutz. 83:397-400. 

Abou-Raya, M.A., Radi, A.F., and Darwish Heikal, M.M. 1973. Host parasite relationship of 

Orobanche species. In Proceedings of the European Weed Research Council symposium on 

parasitic weeds. Malta, Malta University Press. 295p. 

Abueva, A.A. 1966. Influence of different herbicides upon tomatoes and broomrape. Izv. 

Timirjazev. S-Kh. Akad. 4:156-165. (Abstracted in Horticultural Abstracts (3119), Vol. 36, 

1966.) 

Abu-Gharbieh, WI., Makkouk, K.M., and Saghir, A.R. 1978. Response of different tomato 

cultivars to the root-knot nematode, tomato yellow leaf curl virus and Orobanche in Jordan. Plant 

Dis. Rep. 62(3). 

Al-Ali, AS. 1977. Phytophagous and entomophagous insects and mites of Iraq. Univ. Baghdad, 

Nat. Hist. Res. Cent. PubI. No. 33. l42p. 

Aleksiev, A. 1966. Sinapis a/ba: a proceeding crop for tobacco on soils infested by broomrape, 

Orobanche sp. BuIg. Tyutyum. 11: 17-19. (Abstracted in Field Crop Abstracts (1255), Vol. 21, 

1968.) 

1967. Trench ploughing as a control measure against broomrape on tobacco. BuIg. Tyutyum. 

12: 13-16. (Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (1592), Vol. 17, 1968.) 

1969. Investigation of total pesticides to control broomrape in tobacco crops. BuIg. Tyutyum. 

14:4-13. (Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (622), Vol. 20, 1971.) 

Alexandri, A.V., and Gheorghiou, E. 1963. Control of broomrape, Orobanche, on tomatoes by 

chemical means. Gradina, Via si Livada. 12: 79-81. (Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (163), Vol. 

13, 1964.) 

Alkan, B. 1966. (Turkiyenin zararli tohum bocekleri (Coleoptera-Bruchidae) fauna'si uzerinde 

calismalar) Ankara Univ. Ziraat Fab. Yayinlari, 277: 56p. (In Turkish) 

Ampova, 0., Shabanov, D., Stefanov, D.P., and Tomov, N. 1967. Studies on Fusarium on 

broomrape in tobacco crops. BuIg. Tyutyum. 12:17-19. (Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (1836), 

Vol. 17, 1968.) 

Antonets, N.P. 1970. Phytomysa against broomrape. Zashch. Rast. (MOSC). 15(7):13-14. 

Baccarini, A., and Melandri, B.A. 1967. Studies on Orobanche hederae physiology: pigments 

and CO2 fixation. Physiol. Plant. 20:245-250. 

Bailey, G .W. et al. 1968. Adsorption of organic herbicides by montmorillonite soil. Soil Sci. Soc. 

Am. Proc. 32:222. 

Bailey, G.W., and White, J.L. 1964. Review of adsorption and desorption of organic pesticides 

by soil colloids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 12:324. 

1970. Factors influencing the adsorption, desorption and movement of pesticides in soil. 

Residue Rev. The Triazine Herbicides, Vol. 32. 

Barbulescu, A. 1973. (Uncle aspecte privind biologia, ecologia si atacul larvelor de buha 

semanaturilor in conditiile de Ia Rasht-Iran.) Probl. Prot. Plant. 1:101-110. (In Spanish) 

Basu, A.C., and Pramanik, L.M. 1969. Effects of planting dates of gram on the infestation of 

Heliothis armigera and the gram yield. Indian J. Entomol. 31:181-183. 

Beilin, 1.0. 1967. Control of dodder and broomrape. Kolos, Maskova: 88. (Abstracted in Weed 

Abstracts (1303), Vol. 18, 1969.) 

Beilin, 1G. 1968. Flowering semi-parasites and parasites. Publishing house 'Nauka", Moscow. 

Berg, G. Ed. 1977. Farm chemicals handbook. Willoughby, Ohio, Meister Publishing Co. 

Bhattacharga, A.K.,and Pant, N.C. 1969. Nature of growth inhibitors for Trogoderma granarium 

Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) in lentil (Lens esculenta Moench) and French bean (Phaseolus 

vulgaris L.). J. Stored Prod. Res. 5: 379-388. 

Bhattacherjee, N.S. 1976. Control of soybean Agromyza. Entomologists' Newsletter 6(4/5): 36. 

(Abstracted in Rev. Appl. Entomol. (A) Vol. 65, No. 9 (5009), 1977.) 

204

Bond, D.A., and Pope, M. 1970. Factors affecting the proportion of cross-bred and selfed seed 

obtained from field bean (Viciafaba L.) crops. J. Agric. Sci. 83:343-351. 

Boskovic, M. 1962. Orobanche on sunflower. Shorn. Mat. Spiske Prirodne Nauk. 22. 

(Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (1531), Vol. 12, 1963.) 

Brown, E.S., and Dewhurst, C.F. 1975. The genus Spodoptera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in 

Africa and the Near East. Bull. Entomol. Res. 65:221-262. 

Brown, R., Greenwood, A.D., Johnson, A.W., and Long, A.G. 195 la. The stimulant involved in 

the germination of Orobanche minor: Sm. I. Assay technique and bulk preparation of the 

stimulant. Biochem. J. 48:559-564. 

195 lb. The stimulant involved in the germination of Orobanche minor: Sm. 2. Chromatographic 

purification of crude concentrates. Biochem. J. 48:564-568. 

Calderon, M., and Donahaye, E. 1964. Records on the occurrence and hosts of stored product 

insects. Rev. Parasit. 25: 55-68. 

Cubero, J.I. 1973. Resistance toOrobanche crenata Forsk. in Viciafaba L. In Proceedings of the 

European Weed Research council symposium parasitic weeds. Malta, Malta University Press. 

Danesh, D., and Kaiser, W.J. 1969. Chickpea virus diseases in Iran. Iran J. PlantPath. 5:50-56. 

Davies, W.E. 1959. Experiments on the control of broomrape in red clover. Plant Pathol. (Lond). 

8: 19-22. 

Doggett, H. 1970. Sorghum. London, Longmans Green & Co Ltd., 403 pp. 

Elia, M. 1964. (Indagina preliminari sulla resistenza varietale della Fava (Vicia faba) all 

Orobanch. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 3:31-32. (In Italian) 

Evans, D.C. 1960. Preliminary investigations into broomrape in Cootamundra district. In 

Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Weed conference 60:4. (Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (346), 

Vol. 10, 1961. 

Evtushenko, G.A. 1967. Recommendations for farm-scale trials on the chemical control of 

Orobanche in tobacco. Frunze, 'ILIM': 34. (Abstracted in Weed Abstracts (2622), Vol. 17, 

1968.) 

Free, J.B. 1966. The pollination requirements of broadbeans and field beans. J. Agric. Sci. 

66:395-397. 

1970. Insect pollination of crops. London and New York, Academic Press, Inc. Ltd. 

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Section V 

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evaluation for food legume breeders. Ottawa, Canada, International Development Research 

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1976a. Priorities among crops and regions. Rome, Italy, IBPGR, 24p. 

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seed storage facilities. Rome, Italy, IBPGR, I9p. 

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their branching, flowering and fruiting characteristics. M.Sc thesis, Cairo University, Cairo, 

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components. J. Agric. Sci. 80: 181-189. 

Jaquiery, R., Gehrunger, W., and Keller, E.R. 1977. Physiological investigations on yield and 

yield stability of V/cia faba L. Proceeding EC Working Group on Seed Legumes. Stuttgart- 

Hohenheim. 30 June-3 July 1977. 

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broadbeans. Hortic. Res. 3: 13-26. 

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13 1-138. 

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Khan, T.N. 1973. A new approach to the breeding to pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Formation of 

composites. Euphytica 22: 373-377. 

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