Inoculum 63(3) - Mycological Society of America

Newsletter of the Mycological Society of America 

— In This Issue — 

Articles 

At the grave of William Alphonso Murrill 

Yeast Diversity Studied from the Gut of Australian 

Passalid Beetles 

MSA Business 

Secretary’s Report 

Mycological News 

Erast Parmasto, 1928-2012 

Items Needed for MSA Auction 

MSA Student Section 

Invitation to a Roundtable discussion: a Roadmap 

for Fungal Conservation Research in North America 

Dominican Amber with Unknown Inclusions 

(help needed) 

MSA 2012 Abstracts 

Mycological Bookshelf 

Books in Need of Reviewers! 

Review: Waxcap Mushrooms of Eastern North 

America 

Review: Biology of Lichens – Symbiosis, Ecology, 

Environmental Monitoring, Systematics and Cyber 

Applications 

Mycological Classifieds 

Mold and fungus testing and identification services 

Biological control, biotechnology and regulatory 

services 

Mycology On-Line 

Calendar of Events 

Sustaining Members 

— Important Dates — 

June 30 

Late registration deadline 

MSA annual meeting 

July 15 

Deadline for submission to Inoculum 63(4) 

July 15-19 

MSA Annual Meeting 

Yale University 

July 31 

Registration Deadline 

EMBO Conference on Comparative Genomics 

of Eukaryotic Microorganisms 

Editor — Donald O. Natvig 

Department of Biology 

University of New Mexico 

Albuquerque, NM 87131 

Telephone: (505) 277-5977 

Fax: (505) 277-0304 

Email: dnatvig@gmail.com 

Supplement to 

Mycologia 

Vol. 63(3) 

June 2012 

At the grave of William Alphonso 

Murrill 

On May 2, 2012 Tom Bruns, Rytas Vilgalys, Matt 

Smith (most recent Murrill successor at Florida), and their 

associates made a pilgrimage to the William Alphonso Murrill 

grave site. Shown in the photograph resulting from this 

trip are front row: Sunny Liao, Matt Smith, Zaiwei 

Ge, Jenny Talbot; back row: Laura Hubbard, Sara Branco, 

Rytas Vilgalys, Dylan Smith, Tom Bruns. An earlier photograph 

(also shown here) was made at the same site of Josiah 

Lowe, Robert L. Gilbertson, and Edson Setliff during the 

MSA – AIBS meeting, Gainesville, Florida, August 1985. 

William Alphonso Murrill (October 13, 1869-December 25, 

1957), one of the interesting personalities of mycology, was 

memorialized simply as he wished, as “author, naturalist, 

and editor” (which included serving as editor of Mycologia) 

(http://sciweb.nybg.org/science2/hcol/intern/murrill1.a 

sp). James W. Kimbrough, a successor to Murrill as a University 

of Florida mycologist, has researched Murrill’s life 

and published on him in the Mushroom Journal 

(http://www.mushroomthejournal.com/bestof/articles.html) 

. The cemetery is the type locality for Xenosperma murrillii 

(Gilbertson, R. L., and M. Blackwell. 1987. Notes on 

wood-rotting fungi on junipers in the Gulf Coast Region. II. 

Mycotaxon 28:369-402.) 

Memorial information on Robert L. Gilbertson and a slide 

show including the photograph at the Murrill grave site can be 

found online at (http://lsb380.plbio.lsu.edu/Gil%20memorial.html). 

—Meredith Blackwell 

Louisiana State University 

Continued on following page

Yeast Diversity Studied from the Gut of Australian Passalid Beetles 

Hector Urbina, LSU graduate student from Caracas, 

was awarded an MSA Graduate Fellowship in 

2011, and he is very grateful to the Society for the 

award. MSA funding and a small grant from a program 

sponsored by the National Science Foundation 

and the Louisiana Board of Regents provided resources 

for a month in tropical forests in Queensland, 

Australia. The objective 

of the trip was to collect 

Australian passalid beetles 

(Passalidae, 

Coleoptera) and to isolate 

and purify yeasts 

from the gut of the 

wood-ingesting beetles. 

Strains associated with 

the gut of individuals in 

this family of the lignicolous 

insects are able to 

degrade and ferment a 

number of plant cell 

wall components. 

This family of insects 

mostly feed on decaying 

wood, and more 

than 30 species of passalids 

have been report- 

2 Inoculum 63(3), June 2012 

ed in from Australia. Yeasts from the Australian beetles 

as well as from the southeastern US, Guatemala, 

Panama, and Thailand will give Hector a snapshot of 

the diversity of passalid-associated yeasts in several 

tropical regions of the world. Hector was successful 

in isolating more than 1000 yeasts from 200 adult 

Continued on following page 

Fig. 1. View of the Lamington National Park, Brisbane (Australia)

eetles in at least seven species of passalids. The beetle collecting 

was done under the guidance of his Australian colleagues, 

Roger Shivas, Justin Bartlett, Alistar McTaggant, and 

Desley Tree of the Department of Employment, Economic Development 

and Innovation, Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; 

and Dr. Owen Seeman, expert in Australian passalids and Collection 

Manager for Arachnida and Myriapoda, Biodiversity 

Program at the Queensland Museum. The research team visited 

a number of national parks including, Barron Gorge, 

Wooroonooran, Daintree, D’Agilar, Lamington, Main Rage and 

others. The beetle vouchers have arrived in Baton Rouge, and 

the yeasts are on their way to characterization. This work will 

increase our understanding of the diversity, phylogeny, and biochemical 

abilities of yeasts associated with the passalid gut. 

Hector also thanks his other Australian collaborators, Tomas 

Marney, who has helped in preparation of media and culturing 

of yeasts, and Dean Beasley for his help in depositing the yeast 

strains into the BRIP culture collection in Brisbane. 

Secretary’s Report 

Hello everyone! By the time you read this, summer 

will be upon us and we will be getting ready 

for the 2012 Annual Meeting at Yale University 

in New Haven, CT. Jean Lodge and the Program 

Committee have put together an exciting program 

for us this year; it will be a meeting to remember, 

and my final meeting as MSA Secretary. It has 

been an honor to serve! 

Council Business: Since my last report, the 

Council approved 6 actions by email poll. These 

included: Council support for Honorary Members 

and MSA Fellows selected by the Honorary 

Awards Committee; approval of Louise Glass for 

the Editorial Advisory Committee; and the approval 

of Tim James and Ignazio Carbone as Associate 

Editors of Mycologia. 

New Members: It is my pleasure to extend a 

warm welcome to new or returning members. 

Their membership will be formally approved at the 2012 Annual 

Business Meeting at Yale University. 

Canada - Tanay Bose, Michelle Hubbard, Hai Dt Nguyen, Judith 

Gagnon 

Czech Republic - Petr Baldrian 

Guyana - Dillon Husbands 

India- Krishnendu Acharya 

Mexico - Fidel Jaime 

—Hector Urbina 

MSA BUSINESS 

Jessie Glaeser, 

Secretary 

(Photo by Tom Volk) 

Fig. 2. Hector Urbina with a passalid collection 

at Jumrum Creek Conservation Park, 

Kuranda, Photo by Berndt Reinhard 

Netherlands - Maria Dam 

Sri Lanka - Dimuthu Manamgoda 

Thailand - Saranyaphat Boonmee 

Turkey - Mustafa Isiloglu 

United States - Suzette Senerez Arcibal, Silvia 

Bibbo, Kathryn E. Bushley, Lauren S Coffua, 

Sharifa Crandall, Andrea Davis, Wade Elmer, 

Karen Fisher, Serita D Frey, Erica Goldberger, 

Christine V Hawkes, Benjamin Held, Elizabeth 

Heppenheimer, Jaqueline X Hess, Miriam I 

Hutchinson, Eric Johnson, Justin Kaffenberger, 

Prasanna Kandel, Chinyere Knight , Melina 

Kozanitas, Samantha Lee, James Lendeme, 

Lotus A Lofgren, Sara R Lopez, Shiloh 

Lueschow, Jing Luo, Benjamin Morgan, Eric 

Morrison, Kyle Patton, Eimy Plata, Elizabeth 

Roberts, Sarah Robinson, Katy Ryan, Jesse J Sadowsky, 

Jeffrey Shaw, Xiaomei Shu, Jason Slot, 

Daniel J Spakowicz, Iman Sylvain, Alexander Tice, Jeffrey 

Townsend, Gilberto Uribe Valdez, Roo W. Vandegrift, Gloria 

Wada, Eric Walberg, Holly Williams, Yuka Yajima, Kolea C 

Zimmerman 

Viet Nam - Hoang Pham 

Emeritus Members: There were no applications for Emeritus 

status in the past two months. Emeritus status is granted to 

MSA members who are retired from active professional em- 


Inoculum 63(3), June 2012 3

ployment and who have been MSA members for 15 years or 

more. There is no membership fee for Emeritus members although 

there is a reduced fee for access to Mycologia. If you 

are interested in becoming an Emeritus member, please contact 

me directly at msasec01@yahoo.com. 

Deceased Members: We are saddened to hear of the passing 

of Erast Parmasto, an Honorary Member of MSA. Historian 

Ron Petersen has information about Dr. Parmasto’s career later 

in this issue. We were also sorry to learn, belatedly, of the passing 

of B.T. Lingappa, Dexter H. Howard, and Marjorie Anchel. 

Reminder: Renewing your MSA membership is easier than 

ever! Just log in to the MSA website at http://www.msafungi.org. 

There is now an email reminder system available if you 

have forgotten your MSA user id or password. 

REMINDER: MSA Directory Update: Is your information 

up-to-date in the MSA directory? The Society is relying more 

and more on email to bring you the latest MSA news, awards 

announcements and other timely information. To ensure that 


you receive Society blast emails and the Inoculum as soon as it 

comes out, and so that your colleagues can keep in touch, 

please check the accuracy of your email address and contact information 

in the online directory. This can be accessed via our 

web site at www.msafungi.org. If you need assistance with 

updating your membership information, please contact our Association 

Manager at Allen Press, the always-helpful Kay Rose 

at krose@allenpress.com. 

Please do not hesitate to contact me about MSA Business or any 

questions that you may have about the Society. In recent years 

we have suffered an alarming decline in membership and it 

would be wonderful to reverse this trend. The first step is for 

everyone who is currently a member to renew for the upcoming 

year. And don’t forget to recommend MSA to your amateur or 

professional colleagues who are interested in fungi – be they 

pathologists, geneticists, ecologists, or people who just like to 

wander around in the woods. There is room in MSA for all! 

MYCOLOGICAL NEWS 

Erast Parmasto, 1928-2012 

The MSA has lost one of its honorary members, Erast 

Parmasto of Tallin, Estonia. 

Erast was an academician of the Academy of Sciences 

of Estonia and expert in biosystematics, especially in the taxonomy 

of Hymenomycetes and statistics of spore production 

and measurement. An outstanding student in Estonian 

schools during World War II, Erast thereafter became a student 

of Apollinari Bondarzew in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), 

thereby establishing a promising foundation on which 

to build a career, were it not the early days of the “Cold War” 

and difficult communication outside the Soviet hegemony. 

By 1972, Erast was elected a member of the Estonian Academy 

of Sciences, at the beginning of a career spent at the Institute 

of Biology of the Estonian Academy of Sciences in 

Tartu, Estonia. 

Like many of his age and geographic location, Erast 

lived through the days of Germany occupation, followed by 

years of Soviet Russian domination. During the latter 

period, it was almost impossible to gain recognition be- 

yond the “Iron Curtain,” but Erast persisted in publishing 

(always correctly in Russian) scientific papers, including 

several major monographs and, when possible, 

putting them in the hands of workers outside the Russian 

hegemony. 

A personal note: I first met Erast in Stockholm, 

Sweden. He had been invited to join a foray to the 

Swedish north, and we spent hours on the train from 

Stockholm to Umeå. Although we plied him with questions 

about conditions in Estonia, he would not answer 

directly, implying that “the walls have ears.” Even on 

the ferry he would not comment on such things. At last 

we reached our destination near the Norwegian border 

—Jessie A. Glaeser 

MSA Secretary 

msasec1@yahoo.com 

and the following morning we climbed a nearby hill and rested 

on a large rock, where Erast, as was his habit, lit a cigarette. 

There, surrounded for many meters by nothing by nature, 

he offered, “Now I will tell you about conditions in 

Estonia.” And they were grim but revelatory to those of us 

working in freer, less ideological circumstances. Only relatively 

recently did life become appreciably more comfortable 

for science in the Baltic States. 

Author of over 400 scientific papers, an obituary with 

photos is available at http://erast.ut.ee/ErastParmasto/. He is 

survived by his wife and scientific collaborator, Ilmi. Erast 

will be remembered affectionately for his dry wit (necessary 

for survival in his lifetime) and careful attention to scientific 

detail. He mentored numerous younger colleagues who will 

carry on with the benefit of his experience. 

MSA Auction Items 

—Ron Petersen 

University of Tennessee 

The MSA auction (Wednesday evening, July 18) is one of 

the major fundraising efforts of the society. All donations to the 

auction, silly or serious, are very welcome. If you plan to donate 

an item (or items) to the auction, please bring them with you 

and drop me an e-mail to let me know what you are bringing. If 

you don’t plan to come this year but still would like to donate, 

please send items to the address below. 

—Karen Hughes 

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology 

Hesler Biology Building Rm 330 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville 37920

MSA Student Section 

At the 2012 meeting this year in 

New Haven, the Mycological Society 

of America will be launching a Student 

Section. This student-run group 

within the MSA will provide opportunities 

for students to network with 

other students in their own fields and 

beyond. It will also be valuable for 

student members of MSA seeking 

connections with those performing 

cutting edge research in mycology 

and thus has the potential to inspire 

future collaborative research. The 

Student Section is open and inclusive; 

we welcome the participation of all 

students (and faculty!) in building this 

group. We look forward to your participation 

in our new mentorship program 

and hope you can also join us at 

the following events. 

Sunday July 15 MSA Student Workshop: 

Using fungi to get a job 

Join us as Harvard University mycology professor Anne 

Pringle leads our first MSA Student Section event. This professional 

development workshop will take place after the 

Foray and before the Welcome Reception on Sunday. 

Abstract. Some ads specifically ask for mycologists, 

more often, departments are looking for conceptually oriented 

biologists. Fungi offer myriad opportunities for connecting 

to broader themes in ecology, evolution, and other fields; 

making those connections can be critical to a successful job 

hunt. I’ll talk about my own experiences on the job market 

and share the research and teaching statements I used to find 

my current position. We’ll then practice job strategies by tak- 

Invitation to a Roundtable Discussion 

Toward a Roadmap for Fungal Conservation 

Research in North America: Tools, 

Data Needs and Collaborations 

MSA Annual Meeting 

Monday 16 July, 4-6 PM 

The 80 th annual meeting of the MSA will include a 

roundtable discussion on the tools, data, and collaborations 

that are needed for fungal conservation in North America. 

The threat of large-scale species extinctions during this 

century makes understanding the extent, functions, and consequences 

of loss of biodiversity one of the most imperative 

areas of biological research of our time. At the same time 

that environmental DNA studies highlight the depths of unknown 

fungal diversity, taxonomic specialists are continuing 

to decrease in number. And while studies of fungal community 

ecology are abundant, there have been very few studies 

ing the time to talk about our research 

“mission statements” and 

“cocktail-party tidbits”. I’ll explain 

why these are useful and we’ll finish 

by sharing our newly crafted statements 

with each other. 

Monday July 16th: First 

Annual Student Section 

Mixer 

Join us before the poster session 

as we gather in the poster area for a 

casual meet and greet with coffee, 

dessert, and other drinks provided. 

The mixer will go from 6:00-6:30 

p.m. 

Mentorship Program 

Mentorship programs are an excellent 

way to introduce students to 

other researchers with similar interests. 

In addition, mentors may assist in steering student research 

or by providing information about previous studies or 

future opportunities. 

For these reasons, all students who expressed interest on 

their registration form have been assigned a senior mycologist 

who will serve as their mentor for the duration of the 

New Haven meeting. Students will meet their senior mycologist 

mentor at the Student Section Mixer on Monday, July 

16th. 

We appreciate your involvement in the commencement 

of the new MSA Student Section and look forward to seeing 

you all in New Haven! 

—Mia Maltz 

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology 

University of California, Irvine 

in North America conducted with an explicit conservation 

biology focus; the large-scale Survey and Manage program 

of the U.S. Forest Service under the Northwest Forest Plan 

(Molina 2008) is a rare example. The extent of species endemism 

and rarity is unknown for most habitat types, and 

fungi have not been considered for conservation action (e.g., 

RED data lists) in the U.S.A. 

Our goal for this roundtable is to consider ways to make 

progress in fungal conservation by considering the tools, data 

needs, and collaborations necessary to place fungi in a conservation 

framework comparable to that which exists for plant 

and animal species. In terms of tools, potential topics include 

harnessing molecular tools, training new taxonomic specialists, 

and informatics tools for information gathering and transfer 

for herbarium collections and ecological and distribution 

data. Potential types of data necessary for conservation in- 



clude threat assessments; taxonomic identifications; distributions; 

life cycle and fruiting patterns; habitat requirements; 

species interactions; diversity, endemism and the characteristics 

of fungal biodiversity hotspots; and the dynamics inherent 

to many of these data. We have to consider how to integrate 

existing conservation-relevant, but not explicitly 

conservation-oriented, data into a clearer conservation framework; 

for example, whether inferences about fungal distribution 

and occurrence can be made from studies of ecological 

community composition based on small plots (e.g., recent 

studies using high-throughput environmental DNA sequencing). 

Potential types of collaboration include stronger networks 

between ecologists, taxonomists, and population geneticists, 

but also professional-amateur collaborations as a 

means to address the “dwindling taxonomists” issue. 

An anticipated result of the roundtable will be increased 

clarity on whether to – and if so, how to – bring greater attention 

to fungal conservation and lay out a roadmap for a 

collaborative, scientifically rigorous way forward – specific 

areas in which we need to concentrate our research efforts, 

how to set priorities, how to integrate knowledge from many 

different sources, how to include conservation issues in our 

Dominican Amber with Unknown Inclusions 

Can you identify the inclusion? Trapped in a Dominican 

amber specimen is a cluster of what looks 

like fungi, including one that is suspended in 

the amber. There appears to be five gilled clusters, 

which are partially exposed on the back of the piece. 

I would like assistance in classifying these inclusions. 

Please contact me at mail.acton@gmail.com if 

you can offer guidance in identifying these mystery 

inclusions. 


—Jeanette Acton 

other research (Molina et al. 2011), and how to educate, inform 

and involve the general public. 

We invite all attenders of the upcoming annual meeting 

to attend the roundtable discussion, ready to bring your 

thoughts and experiences to these issues. Invited facilitators 

will provide brief (approximately 5-minute) introductions on 

several topics (see the meeting website, 

http://msa2012.net/schedule/symposia.php#roadmap, for 

more details) to stimulate discussion, but for the main part it 

will be an ‘open mike’ format with active participation of 

anyone in attendance. We hope to see you there. 

—On behalf of the MSA Conservation Committee: 

Todd Osmundson and Else Vellinga 

University of California, Berkeley 

REFERENCES 

Molina R. 2008. Protecting rare, little known, old-growth forest-associated 

fungi in the Pacific Northwest USA: a case 

study in fungal conservation. Mycological Research 112: 

613-638. 

Molina R, Horton TR, Trappe JM, Marcot BG. 2011. Addressing 

uncertainty: How to conserve and manage rare or 

little-known fungi. Fungal Ecology 4: 134-146.

MSA 2012 ABSTRACTS 

Adenipekun, Clementina O 1 , Omasan E Ejoh 2 , and Adeniyi A Ogunjobi 2 . 

1 Department of Botany, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, 2 Department of 

Microbiology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Effect of Pleurotus tuberregium 

Singer and microorganisms on degradation of unsterilized soil contaminated 

with cutting fluids 

The study of Pleurotus tuber-regium Singer and indigenous microorganisms 

isolated from unsterilized soil polluted with cutting fluids were investigated 

over an incubation period of 0 and 2 months. The ability of these organisms to degrade 

Total Petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) present in the cutting fluids, lignin 

content of rice straw, their enzyme activity as well as their ability to accumulate 

heavy metals present in the polluted soils were monitored. In all the soil samples 

(unsterilized soil polluted with cutting fluids (US) and unsterilized soil polluted 

with cutting fluids incubated with P. tuber-regium (USP), a significant increase in 

the nutrient content was observed with USP recording the highest. The heavy 

metal content of the three soil samples decreased with increase in incubation period 

showing that bioaccumulation of the heavy metals had occurred. The indigenous 

microbes alone in US accumulated heavy metals better than the indigenous 

microbes in USP. TPH loss (36.23%) was recorded at 10% cutting fluids concentration 

in USP compared to US with 19.6%. The unsterilized contaminated 

soil inoculated with P. tuber-regium recorded the highest lignin degradation as the 

polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity of the organisms in all the samples 

showed a gradual increase. The microorganisms isolated from unsterilized soil 

samples included Bacillus licheniformis, B. cereus, Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa, Pseudomonas sp., Corynebacterium sp., Neisseria sp., Trichoderma 

harzanium, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. glaucus, Mucor sp. and Rhizopus sp. 

Acharya, Krishnendu 1 , Arun K Dutta 1 , Prakash Pradhan 1 , and Anirban Roy 2 1 

. 

Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department 

of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA, 2 West Bengal Biodiversity 

Board, Paribesh Bhawan, Kolkata, INDIA. Habitat diversity of macrofungi in 

the Indian part of Sundarban 

The Sundarban Biosphere Reserve covers an area of approximate 25,500 

sq km. However, only 9,630 sq km is in India, with the rest located in Bangladesh. 

This area in India is demarcated by the Hoogly River in the west, the Bay-of-Bengal 

in the south, and the Harinbhanga and Raimangal Rivers in the east and the 

Dampier-Hodges line in the north. The wide range of phyto-topographical features, 

presence of spatial and temporal variability in hydrological regimes and the 

diverse substrata has contributed to the high biodiversity of this region. Mangrove 

forest dominates in the core area and some margins of the deltic island, where inhabited 

lands show typical coastal vegetation. Several anthropogenic activities, 

recurring natural calamities and recent incidences of cyclones (e.g., Aila) have 

added to the vulnerability of this biologically rich world heritage site. The climate 

is characterized by relatively high temperature and humidity (>80%) throughout 

the year, and well-distributed rainfall during the monsoon season. Temperatures 

rise from a daily minima of 10ºC in the winter to a maximum of about 43ºC in 

March and may exceed 32ºC during the monsoon season. The average annual 

rainfall in the Indian part of the Sundarban region is 1,662 mm. During our survey 

(2010-2011), 77 quadrates were studied each measuring 20 _ 20 meters. 

Macrofungi were collected, photographed, identified and were preserved with accession 

numbers. A total of 71 species of macrofungi belonging to 29 families, 53 

genera were identified and their ecology was evaluated. 

Afshan, Najam-ul-Sahar, Abdul Nasir Khalid, and A R Niazi. Centre for Undergraduate 

Studies, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, 

54950, Pakistan. Rust fungi of Himalayan Moist Temperate forests of Pakistan, 

their diversity and distribution: An overview 

Himalayan Moist Temperate forests of Pakistan have coniferous species, 

mixed evergreen and deciduous patches and broad leaved forests. These forests of 

Pakistan merge downward with the tropical thorn forests and upwards with the 

alpine meadows. The precipitation may exceed 600 mm, thus making of these 

montane forests a bio-geographical crossroad between submontane and alpine 

meadow vegetation. Being rich in plant diversity, these forests harbor a large 

number of rust fungi that are obligate parasites of plants. Although the fungal flora 

of Pakistan has been explored by several workers in the past, the important group 

of rust fungi has largely been neglected resulting in a paucity of literature and very 

fragmentary knowledge of these fungi, particularly in Himalayan Moist Temperate 

forests of Pakistan. This study was undertaken to explore and assess the diversity 

and distribution of rust fungi along with their respective host plants in this 

floristically rich area. This preliminary study of the hosts and their rusts includes 

approximately 169 species and 19 genera of rust fungi on approximately 260 

species of host plants. These rust fungi include one species each of genus Cronartium, 

Hyalopsora, Miyagia, Monosporidium, Pucciniastrum, Pucciniostele, 

Thekopsora and Uredinopsis respectively; two species each of Gymnosporangium, 

Peridermium, Pucciniastrum and Uredo; three and four species of 

Caeoma and Coleosporium respectively; seven of Melampsora; nine of Aecidium; 

eleven of Phragmidium; twenty four species of Uromyces and ninety five 

species of largest genus of rust fungi, Puccinia. This study enlists rust fungi of Himalayan 

Moist Temperate forests of Pakistan and presents their species richness 

and geographical distribution. This work will help to prepare a checklist of rust 

fungi of this area and will ultimately lead to the documentation and preparation of 

monograph of the rust fungi of Pakistan. 

Ahrendt, Steven R and Jason E Stajich. Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, 

University of California, Riverside, CA 92521. Analysis of a putative 

sensory rhodopsin in the Chytridiomycota 

Rhodopsin is a seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor 

(GPCR) that responds to light through photoisomerization of a covalently bound 

11-cis-retinal molecule. This action forces helical motion and subsequent signal 

transduction through activation of the coupled G-protein. Rhodopsin homologs 

have only been identified in metazoan lineages, and while Dikarya fungi are 

known to have opsins, phytochromes, and cryptochromes to sense light, this type 

of rhodopsin has only been found encoded in the genomes of the early diverging 

Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota fungi. Previous and current work has 

shown that zoosporic fungi are phototaxic but the molecular mechanisms of light 

sensing in early diverging fungi has not been explored. Here we describe structural 

and functional analyses of rhodopsin proteins identified in two species of 

Chytridiomycota, the amphibian pathogen Batracochytrium dendrobatidis and 

the terrestrial saprotroph Spizellomyces punctatus. Comparative genomics analyses 

of rhodopsin and flagellum genes in the Chytridiomycota, Zygomycetes, and 

Dikarya show a correlation of flagella and rhodopsin presence across the fungi. 

Computational modeling of the B. dendrobatidis and S. punctatus proteins indicates 

that they both adopt the seven transmembrane helix formation typical of 

rhodopsin proteins. Additionally, structural features associated with rhodopsin 

proteins are observed as well. The B. dendrobatidis protein sequence is notably 

lacking the conserved lysine residue, however this residue is present in the S. 

punctatus sequence. Phototaxis assays were performed to determine in vivo function 

of the rhodopsin proteins. Ongoing work to characterize protein function 

through expression in Pichia pastoris may provide insight into the mechanism of 

retinal binding and photoisomerization in these chytrid rhodopsins. 

Aime, M Catherine. Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Department 

of Plant Pathology and Crop Physiology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. Basidiomycete 

taxonomy without dual nomenclature 

The new International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants 

(Melbourne Code) discontinued the application of dual nomenclature in Fungi. 

Under earlier Codes Article 59 permitted more than one name for pleomorphic 

non-lichenized basidiomycetes. Effective immediately all names will compete for 

priority. As of January 1, 2013, publication of alternative names for species or 

genera will not be allowed. These changes affect basidiomycete taxonomy in several 

ways. To make one example, anamorphic yeast states occur in all three subphyla 

of Basidiomycota. Under previous versions of the Code these were treated 

separately from teleomorphic species and assigned to form genera principally 

based on carbon assimilation tests. Molecular data are now used to place these 

within a phylogenetic framework, highlighting the artificiality of the old system. 

For example, species of Sporobolomyces occur across most of the yeast-forming 

Pucciniomycotina classes and species of Rhodotorula can be found across both 

Ustilaginomycotina and Pucciniomycotina, although the type species for both 

genera are placed in Sporidiobolales. Thus restriction of generic names to include 

only those species within a monophyletic lineage will dictate the necessity of 

many name changes within these groups as extra-Sporobolomyces, -Rhodotorula 

and other anamorphic basidiomycete yeast species are integrated into a phylogenetic-based 

taxonomy. These and many other taxonomic challenges for the community 

will be discussed as they apply to different groups of impacted Basidiomycota. 

Ainsworth, A Martyn 1 , David Parfitt 2 , Hilary J Rogers 2 , and Lynne Boddy 2 1 

. 

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew / Natural England, Mycology Section, Jodrell 

Lab., Kew. TW9 3AB. United Kingdom, 2 Cardiff University, Cardiff School of 

Biosciences, Cardiff. CF10 3AX. United Kingdom. Species concepts in European 

stipitate hydnoid fungi 



The standard taxonomic treatment of European stipitate hydnoid species 

(ectomycorrhizal tooth fungi in the genera Bankera, Hydnellum, Phellodon and 

Sarcodon), written by R.A. Maas Geesteranus, is almost 40 years old. It is timely 

therefore to re-examine the morphological species concepts therein using the 

results of a combined molecular and morphological approach. These fungi have 

received conservation-related publicity across Europe and are now generally regarded 

as nitrogen-sensitive tree symbionts frequently associating with roots of 

Fagaceae and Pinaceae. A decline in European fruiting populations is mainly ascribed 

to increased habitat loss and aerial nitrogen deposition. Of the 18 extant 

stipitate hydnoid species currently included on the British and Irish checklist, 15 

are recognised as of conservation importance (priority BAP species) in the UK. 

However all conservation status assessments currently depend on morphological 

taxonomic concepts and accurate identification of fruit bodies. Recognising that a 

mushroom is a stipitate hydnoid is often straightforward, but naming the species 

on existing fruit body criteria can be fraught with difficulty. This is due to a combination 

of identification and taxonomic issues. In order to improve assessments 

of species distributions, conservation status and ecological/conservation requirements, 

we have adopted a combined approach using molecular (ITS1 sequencing) 

and traditional (fruit body and spore morphology) methods. We have discovered 

that the list of extant taxa is rather longer (and increasing) than the list of currently 

accepted names. There are undoubtedly cryptic and not-so-cryptic hydnoid taxa 

to be described in Britain and elsewhere in Europe. We are now comparing 

species names with sequence-based groupings in order to pin-point the undescribed 

species. This combined approach will facilitate stipitate hydnoid identification, 

help to locate their “best” sites for conservation and accelerate their belowground 

ecological study. 

Albu, Sebastian, Tomas A Rush, and M Catherine Aime. Louisiana State University 

Agricultural Center, Department of Plant Pathology and Crop Physiology, 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70803. Description of two anamorphic yeasts in the 

Ustilaginales 

Two basidiomycete yeasts belonging to the Ustilaginales were isolated in 2011 

from the leaves of several fern species in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Based on a 

combination of assimilation tests and phenotypic characterization, Farysizyma sp. 

nov. SA209 (Anthracoideaceae) and Pseudozyma sp. nov. SA575 (Ustilaginaceae) 

represent previously undescribed anamorphs in the Ustilaginomycetes. 

Colony morphologies are initially yeast-like, subsequently developing pseudohyphal 

tufts around the growing margin. Maximum likelihood analyses using four 

loci, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, large subunit (LSU) and small 

subunit of the nuclear rDNA cistron, and translation elongation factor 1-alpha indicate 

that both isolates belong within Ustilaginales. The LSU and ITS regions of 

these isolates were compared to sequences of other available Farysizyma and 

Pseudozyma anamorphs and to related teleomorphs. Farysizyma sp. nov. SA209 

is part of a Farysizyma/Farysia clade in Anthracoideaceae containing all other 

known species of Farysizyma. Pseudozyma sp. nov. is sister to Sporisorium 

hwangense within a larger clade of predominantly Sporisorium species that includes 

the type (S. sorghi). Comparison of our data with phenotypic descriptions 

and sequence data from all known species of Farysizyma and Pseudozyma indicates 

that neither isolate has been previously described in the anamorphic yeast 

state. However, without sequence information from all known members of Ustilaginales, 

we cannot rule out the possibility that either of these isolates may represent 

a previously described teleomorphic Farysia or Ustilago/Sporisorium 

species. 

Allen, Michael F. Center for Conservation Biology, University of California, 

Riverside, CA 92521 USA. Mycorrhizae and resource acquisition: dynamics 

in fluctuating environments 

Mycorrhizae exist from organic layers deep into soil profiles, even into fracturing 

bedrock. As soils dry, deeper water either from groundwater or from water bound 

in cracks and pockets is acquired and utilized or reallocated via hydraulic redistribution. 

N is acquired from surface soils even under drought conditions. We utilized 

shifts in natural abundance isotope ratios to better understand spatial and 

temporal patterns of resource acquisition. Subsequently, utilizing continuous sensor 

and observation platforms, we monitored shifts in roots, mycorrhizal fungi, 

and respiration in response to changing temperature and moisture. Acute perturbations 

consisting of either large storms or drought result in plant mortality, but 

also subsequently re-order root and fungal symbiosis shifting both the types and 

spatial structure of resource acquisition. This may be because in seasonal environments, 

root and fungal activity show complex and often rapid responses to environmental 

change. We can utilize these shifts to develop a better understanding 

of belowground response dynamics to more chronic climate change or to acute 

perturbations such as hurricanes or drought. 

Annis, Seanna L 1 , Rafael Garcia 2 , Beth Calder 2 , and Kathryn L Hopkins 3 1 2 

. 

School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, ME, 04469, Department 

of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Maine, Orono, 


ME, 04469, 3 Cooperative Extension, University of Maine, Orono, ME, 04469. 

Identification of fungal contamination in bottled maple syrup 

Maple syrup processors in the northeastern USA occasionally observe fungal contamination 

in their bottled maple syrup containers. The concern is that the contaminants 

may pose a health risk. We identified fungal organisms in 32 bottles of 

syrup from different processors in the northeastern USA. Most containers had one 

fungus, but some were contaminated with multiple fungi. Fungi were identified 

by morphology and DNA sequences of their ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 

regions and B tubulin genes. Multiple species of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, 

single species of Wallemia, and as yet unidentified yeasts were isolated 

from multiple bottles. Species of Paecolimyces and Cladosporium were isolated 

from single bottles of syrup. Some of the genera of Penicillium and Aspergillus 

identified are known to produce mycotoxins, and the production of these compounds 

in maple syrup is being evaluated. Syrup is typically bottled at 82 C to decrease 

the risk of microbial contamination. Spores from some of the fungi were 

able to germinate after treatment at 70 C for 3 minutes. A higher bottling temperature 

may be one of the changes in bottling practices required to minimize fungal 

contamination. This research will result in new recommendations to maple syrup 

processors on preventing future fungal contamination of bottled syrup. 

Baldrian, Petr, Tomás Vetrovsky, Jana Vorísková, Ivana Eichlerová, Jaroslav 

Snajdr, Lucia Zifcáková, and Martina Stursová. Laboratory of Environmental Microbiology, 

Institute of Microbiology of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic. Exploring 

fungal community structure and function in forest soils: challenges 

and limitations of current methodologies 

Presently, the structure and function of soil fungal communities receives considerable 

attention. This attention is fuelled by the recognition of the key role of fungi 

in the C and N cycling in soils, especially of the forest biomes. In addition, the recent 

establishment of high-throughput-sequencing methods, labelling with stable 

isotopes or metaproteomics offers a much higher resolution of the current studies. 

The interpretation of experimental results is, however, still challenging due to the 

fact that many methods may potentially contain more or less apparent biasses. 

This contribution aims to point at the most important limitations of current 

methodologies to explore fungal abundance, community composition and function 

in forest soils as studied using biomass quantification techniques (PLFA, ergosterol, 

qPCR), shotgun or amplicon-based next-generation-sequencing, stable 

isotope probing and environmental metaproteomics. In the case of microbial biomass 

surveys, our results show that various methods (rDNA quantification, PLFA 

or ergosterol assays) yield widely different results of the fungal biomass content 

or fungal/bacterial biomass ratio and identify the differences in the composition 

of fungal mycelia / genomes as a source of such errors. For the next-generationsequencing 

data, we show that shotgun methods are not consistent with PCRbased 

methods and that the use of rDNA markers is highly biased due to uneven 

content of ITS copies per fungal genome as can be demonstrated if single-copy 

genes are sequenced. The approaches to explore the active fraction of the total 

fungal community by the analysis of RNA-derived sequencing or the use of Stable 

Isotope Probing and, most recently, environmental metaproteomics offer an 

attractive insight into the functioning of fungal communities. However, even the 

use of these methods must be careful in order to avoid experimental errors. 

Barge, Edward G and Cathy L Cripps. Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology Department, 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59715. Systematics of Lactarius 

in the Rocky Mountain alpine zone 

Lactarius is an important ectomycorrhizal genus in the Arctic-Alpine 

Biome where it associates primarily with Salix and Betula species. The Arctic- 

Alpine Biome covers roughly 8% of the earth’s land and in the Rocky Mountains 

of North America the alpine is comprised of scattered “islands” above timberline 

in mountainous areas. Beginning in 1999 Cripps, Horak and others surveyed arctic-alpine 

macromycete distributions in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, Colorado 

and Wyoming. Studies of the ectomycorrhizal fungi present in arctic-alpine 

areas are of importance as climate change impacts this biome, which includes the 

range expansion of Salix species, a key alpine ectomycorrhizal phytobiont. This 

study focuses on the systematics of Lactarius in alpine areas of the Rocky Mountains. 

Macromorphological descriptions made at the time of collection, microscopic 

examination of dried material and phylogenetic analysis (rough) have contributed 

to identification. Drawings of spores, pleuromacrocystidia and 

cheilomacrocystidia were completed for each species using a Leica drawing tube 

and are complemented with SEM photographs for each species. DNA from upwards 

of 48 collections was successfully extracted and the ITS region amplified 

using primers ITS1-F and ITS4. Preliminary analysis shows morphologically 

identified species grouping together nicely. Thus far, the study has resulted in 

identification of six alpine Lactarius species: L. glyciosmus, L. lanceolatus, L. 

nanus, L. pseudouvidus, L. repraesentaneus and L. salicis-reticulatae. Other than 

a preliminary report, most are first documentations for these species in alpine 


habitats south of the Canadian border. Host patterns are possible among the 

species that occur with dwarf and shrub Salix and one species seems to occur only 

with Betula. These species are known from many arctic-alpine habitats throughout 

the world in places such as Greenland, Iceland, the Alps, Svalbard and Scandinavia 

and are now documented for the Rocky Mountains of Montana, 

Wyoming and Colorado. 

Baroni, Timothy J 1 , Ana Esperanza Franco-Molano 2 , Marcelo Betancur 2 , and 

Tatiana Sanjuan 2 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, P. O. Box 2000, State 

University of New York - College at Cortland, Cortland, NY 13045, USA, 2 Laboratorio 

de Taxonomía y Ecología de Hongos, Instituto de Biología, Universidad 

de Antioquia, A.A. 1226, Medellín, Colombia. New species of agarics from the 

Páramo region in Colombia 

In May of 2011 a one-day field excursion was made to the Páramo 

ecosystem (Luteyn, 1999) in the department of Tolima, Colombia, as part of a 

longer research excursion to the cloud forest mountainous regions of south central 

Colombia. Fifteen collections of mostly agarics were made in the Páramo, 

several growing directly on decaying leaves of standing Espeletia. Two of these 

collections are clearly new species, one a Melanotus, the other a Hypsizygus. 

These new taxa will be illustrated and the other collections found on that excursion 

will also be displayed and discussed. This isolated area with its distinctive 

vegetation clearly deserves further exploration over longer time periods as it appears 

to be under explored. 

Bartnicki-Garcia, Salomon. Dept. Microbiology, CICESE, Ensenada Center for 

Research & Higher Education, Baja California, Mexico. Lysine pathways and 

cell wall chemistry revealed the existence of two evolutionary lines within the 

Kingdom Fungi 

Henry Vogel’s discovery (1960’s) splitting fungi into two camps based on 

lysine biosynthesis provided the first and strongest piece of evidence for the existence 

of two evolutionary lines within Fungi. By synthesizing lysine via the common 

route characteristic of bacteria, algae and plants, diaminopimelic acid path 

(DAP), Oomycetes and Hypochytridomycetes proved to be distinct from most 

Fungi, namely Chytridiomycetes, Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes 

which synthesize lysine via aminoadipic acid pathway (AAA), a 

unique route found almost exclusively in fungi. Concurrent studies on cell wall 

chemistry of various fungi revealed drastic differences that correlated with lysine 

pathways, thus DAP fungi became members of the Cellulosic line, and AAA 

fungi of the Chitinous line. Later, molecular phylogeny convincingly confirmed 

the evolutionary schism among organisms traditionally called fungi but it also 

placed Mycology in an existential dilemma: either preserve phylogenetic purity 

by removing a most important group of organisms, the cellulosic fungi, from the 

kingdom or continue maintaining both cellulosic and chitinous fungi within the 

kingdom boundaries. While the first alternative has become widely adopted, it has 

serious negative repercussions. The second alternative would seem more practical 

and beneficial to the science of Mycology and to other fields where cellulosic 

fungi are of great importance. It benefits nobody to exclude Oomycetes from the 

real world of fungi namely, publications, review articles, congresses, classrooms, 

textbooks, and all sorts of academic and research opportunities focused on Fungi. 

I advocate setting aside the issue of phylogenetic purity, and declare the Kingdom 

Fungi as made of two separate evolutionary lines each giving rise to individuals 

different in biochemical details but displaying common physiologic and morphologic 

features... and please let’s not refer to a classic fungus of the genus Phytophthora 

as a “protista-like” organism. 

Bates, Scott T 1 , J Gregory Caporaso 2 , D Lee Taylor 3 , and Noah Fierer 1 . 1 Cooperative 

Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, 

Boulder, CO, USA, 2 Department of Computer Science, Center for Micro- 

3 

bial Genetics and Genomics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA, 

Institute of Arctic Biology and Department of Biology and Wildlife, University 

of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, USA. High-throughput sequencing to explore 

the biogeography of soil fungi and the use of network analyses to examine 

fungal-bacterial interactions 

High-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have paved the way for 

new analytical approaches that move beyond basic descriptive inventories of microbial 

communities. With the aim of deciphering the structure of complex microbial 

communities across spatial or temporal gradients, network analysis allows 

for the examination of potential interactions between microbial taxa in natural systems 

using large environmental sequence datasets. Here, we sampled soils from 

numerous sites across North and South America, and used fungal ITS and bacterial 

16S rRNA gene sequencing with Illumina technology to recover millions of 

environmental sequences from our sample sites. In addition to examining biogeography 

for soil fungi, we also applied network analysis approaches to identify 

significant co-occurrence patterns between fungi and bacteria on the basis OTU 

abundance and occupancy. We outline factors that influence broad-scale biogeographical 

patterns for fungi in terrestrial systems, and describe the topology of the 

resulting fungal/bacterial co-occurrence network. Finally, we discuss the utility of 

the network approach for exploring inter-taxon correlations to gain a more integrated 

understanding of microbial community structure and the ecological rules 

guiding community assembly. 

Beard, Charles E 1 and Abdullah Inci 2 . 1 Clemson University, School of Agricultural, 

Forest, and Environmental Sciences, 114 Long Hall, Clemson, SC, 

29634, USA, 2 Ericyes University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Parasitology 

Department, Kayseri, Turkey. Potential of the trichomycete fungus Harpella 

melusinsae to inhabit the midgut of mosquito hosts. 

Trichomycete fungi are symbiotic inhabitants of the guts of aquatic 

Diptera. The midguts and hindguts of Chironomidae (midges) and Simuliidae 

(black flies) have trichomycetes, whereas only the hindguts of Culicidae (mosquitoes) 

have trichomycetes. We asked why no trichomycetes use the midguts of 

mosquitoes even though the midguts are similar among the three families. We hypothesized 

four broadly defined limitations that prevent trichomycetes from occupying 

mosquito midguts: behavioral, structural, physiological, or host habitat. 

The first three limitations were investigated by exposing mosquitoes to Harpella 

melusiane, which normally grows only in black fly larval midguts. Larval black 

flies from the field sites were allowed to feed in glass jars and shed frass that contained 

trichomycete spores. Mosquito larvae were then exposed to the water containing 

shed Harpella melusinae trichospores. They were allowed to feed on the 

spores, and then assayed for colonization. We found that Harpella melusinae 

grew in the mosquito midguts (prevalence up to 66%). These results suggest that 

mosquito behavior, gut structure, or physiological limitations do not explain the 

lack of trichomycete fungi in the midguts of field-collected mosquitoes. We suggest 

that host-habitat limitations are probably important in limiting trichomycete 

colonization of mosquito midguts. 

Beaulieu, Wesley T 1 , Wittaya Kaonongbua 1 , Daniel G Panaccione 2 , and Keith 

Clay 1 . 1 2 

Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, 

Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, 

WV 26506. Molecular, chemical and morphological diversity of Periglandula, 

clavicipitaceous symbionts of Convolvulaceae (Morning Glories) 

Fungal endophytes in the Clavicipitaceae (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) 

have received considerable attention for production of bioactive ergot alkaloids in 

associations with monocotyledonous plants, primarily economically important 

grasses. The source of ergot alkaloids in the dicotyledonous Convolvulaceae 

(morning glories) was unknown until the description of two clavicipitaceous 

fungi, Periglandula ipomoeae and P. turbinae, which form associations with different 

host species in the Convolvulaceae. There are dozens of Convolvulaceae 

known to contain ergot alkaloids, with potentially hundreds more, suggesting 

each harbors a clavicipitaceous symbiont responsible for alkaloid production. 

Here we report on a molecular, chemical and morphological survey of six species 

of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) which contain ergot alkaloids for the presence of 

clavicipitaceous fungal symbionts. All six host species exhibited characteristic 

epiphytic mycelia on adaxial surfaces of young leaves similar to those of described 

Periglandula (visualized with SEM) and contained unique profiles of 

ergot alkaloids in seeds (measured with HPLC). There were considerable intraspecific 

differences in the density of epiphytic mycelia on young leaves and the 

presence and composition of ergot alkaloids in foliage. Using PCR and molecular 

cloning we sequenced two loci from fungi derived from each host: the internal 

transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the dimethylallyl tryptophan synthase gene 

(dmaW), which codes for the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in ergot alkaloid 

biosynthesis. In phylogenetic analyses, fungal ITS sequences from each host 

species were quite similar except for those from the two most divergent hosts (I. 

hildebrandtii and I. amnicola) and together formed a clade with described 

Periglandula spp. Sequences of dmaW were more variable, and sequences from 

each fungus formed a distinct clade, suggesting they are unique species, except for 

fungi from the two most closely related species (I. gracilis and I. muelleri), which 

grouped together. These results suggest there are many species of Periglandula 

beyond the two described. 

Benitez, Maria S 1 , Michelle H Hersh 2 , Brantlee S Richter 3 , Rytas Vilgalys 4 , 

and James S Clark 1 . 1 Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, 

Durham, NC, 2 Program in Biology, Bard College and Cary Institute of Ecosystem 

Studies, Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, 3 Plant Pathology, University of Florida, 

Gainesville, FL, 4 Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC. Endophyte 

and pathogen communities of symptomatic and asymptomatic 

seedlings of tree species from a temperate forest 

Fungal pathogens can impact plant community composition through negative 

density dependence regulation. Pathogen identification is required to quantify 

their effects on plant host species and diversity. To identify potential seedling 

pathogens we compared fungal communities associated with symptomatic and 



asymptomatic seedlings from seven plant species sampled at the Duke Forest 

(NC) on multiple years. Surface sterilized plant tissue was used for fungal pure 

culture isolation and total DNA extraction for community analysis. Taxonomic 

identification of pure cultures was performed based on sequence information of 

the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS). A collection of over 1300 pure cultures, 

classified into 316 fungal taxa (97% similarity at the ITS region), was generated 

from 320 seedlings. The most abundant fungal groups present in symptomatic 

seedlings differed from those most commonly isolated from asymptomatic 

seedlings and often represent known plant pathogenic groups. In addition, the 

most abundant pathogen taxa were isolated from five of the seven host species 

studied, and were isolated at lower frequency from asymptomatic seedlings. The 

most abundant isolates from asymptomatic seedlings most closely matched samples 

from GenBank with no clear taxonomic identification. For individual 

seedlings studied, the fungal community appears to be simple at this stage, dominated 

by one or two taxa. At the isolate level, no host-specificity was observed; 

however, preliminary results from culture-independent analyses reveal community 

structure separation according to host species. The implications of host specificity 

of fungal pathogens in forest seedlings are discussed. 

Berbee, Mary L 1 , Satoshi Sekimoto 1 , Ludovic LeRenard 1 , Joseph W Spatafora 

2 , and AFTOL2 Working Group 1 . 1 Dept. of Botany, University of British Columbia, 

Vancouver BC Canada, 2 Dept. of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon 

State University, Corvallis OR USA. Becoming A Fungus: Comparative Phylogenetic 

Studies of Evolution of Absorptive Nutrition 

Most fungi gain nutrients by secreting digestive enzymes from their hyphae 

into the surrounding matrix, and then absorbing the nutrients that diffuse 

back. We are exploring data from our community sequencing proposal to the US 

Joint Genome Institute to better understand the metabolic capabilities of early 

fungi. With new genome sequences from early-diverging fungi including aquatic 

chytrids and terrestrial zygomycetes, it becomes possible to compare secreted enzymes 

across phyla and to speculate on the evolutionary origins of their underlying 

genes. The enzymes that fungi secrete to break down cellulose or proteins 

have paralogs that are not secreted but function instead in housekeeping within the 

cell, in modifying polysaccharides or in recycling proteins. Duplication of the 

housekeeping genes, modification for secretion, and addition of domains for binding 

to particular substrates can result in enzymes adapted for extracellular function. 

The Ascomycota and Basidiomycota share secreted enzymes with functions 

including breaking down cellulose. The chytrids and zygomycetes also have the 

housekeeping homologs to the secreted enzymes. However, true orthologs to the 

secreted enzymes of the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota seem to be rare among 

the early diverging clades. Assuming that it was the accumulation of plant biomass 

on land that selected for the maintenance of the enzymes of the Ascomycota 

and Basidiomycota, the absence of conserved secreted enzymes across other 

phyla could be explained if other fungi diverged too early to encounter land plants 

as a readily available source of nutrients. 

Birkebak, Joshua M and Brandon Matheny. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary 

Biology, University of Tennessee, 332 Hesler Biology Building 

Knoxville, TN 37996-1610. A systematic revision of Clavariaceae (Agaricales) 

from the Pacific Northwest 

The diversity of Clavariaceae has been underestimated in the Pacific 

Northwest of North America and thorough taxonomic revisions are much needed. 

Molecular methods of species recognition have not been extensively used in 

the Clavariaceae and are found to elucidate species level diversity previously 

unidentified. Several species complexes exhibiting high morphological and sequence 

diversity have been observed. Morphological differentiation of some molecularly 

distinctive species is not yet possible, and cryptic species may be present. 

A monographic revision of the Clavariaceae in the Pacific Northwestern North 

America with taxonomic keys, illustrations and descriptions is being compiled 

and will be published pending further investigation. At present, twenty-eight 

species in the family have been identified based on herbarium and recent field collections. 

Ten of these are tentatively considered undescribed. Overall, the Pacific 

Northwest is represented by two species of Camarophyllopsis (one new), eight 

species of Clavaria (one new), one species of Clavicorona, four species of 

Clavulinopsis (two new), four species of Mucronella, and nine species of Ramariopsis 

(six new). 

Bittleston, Leonora S and Anne Pringle. Harvard University,16 Divinity Avenue 

Cambridge, MA 02138. The insect and yeast communities of carnivorous 

pitcher plants 

Carnivorous pitcher plants are models for food web dynamics. The Northern 

pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea, has modified leaves, or pitchers, which 

are sterile until they open. Soon after opening the pitchers are filled with rainwater, 

and accumulate a diverse community of organisms. The microbes in pitchers 

are still relatively unknown, although recent studies have shown that a keystone 

predator, the mosquito Wyeomyia smithii, controls bacterial diversity. Numerous 


yeasts have been found within the pitchers, and they are different from those present 

in the surrounding bog water. We examined how insects affected the diversity 

and abundance of yeasts in S. purpurea pitcher plants. Insect exclusion with 

gauze coverings successfully excluded W. smithii, and the abundance of yeasts 

was positively correlated with insect counts. The gauze treatment did not reduce 

the abundance or diversity of yeasts in the pitchers, suggesting that insects introduce, 

attract, or promote the growth of yeasts. Additionally, we found that one 

commonly associated yeast, Candida globosa, is present internally in surfacesterilized 

adult W. smithii, indicating that the pitcher plant mosquito acts as a vector 

and may have a more complex association with this yeast. Convergently 

evolved pitcher plants in the genus Nepenthes exist in Southeast Asia, and our preliminary 

research show that there is also convergent community assembly of insect 

and arachnid associates between Nepenthes and Sarracenia. These results 

may extend to the communities of yeasts found within similar pitcher habitats on 

opposite sides of the planet. 

Blair, Jaime E and Nahill H Matari. Department of Biology, Franklin & Marshall 

College, Lancaster, PA 17603. A timescale for Oomycete evolution estimated 

from conserved regulators of gene expression 

The fungal-like oomycetes are ubiquitous in nature, occupying niches in 

marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. While the diversity of saprophytic 

oomycetes is most certainly underestimated, this group is primarily known for the 

important plant and animal pathogens it contains. The oldest accepted fossil evidence 

of biotrophic oomycetes associated with vascular plants comes from the 

Early Devonian Rhynie chert (approx 400 Ma); however, the affinity of fossil 

oomycetes to modern lineages remains unclear. Currently, genomic resources 

exist for a number of oomycete species, as well as close relatives within the Stramenopiles 

(diatoms, brown algae). The goal of this project was to use a comparative 

genomics approach to identify conserved regulators of gene expression 

within each of these genomes, and use Bayesian techniques to co-estimate phylogeny 

and divergence times. We focused primarily on genes involved in key 

processes such as RNA silencing and chromatin modification, as well as core eukaryotic 

transcription factors. Oomycete genomes do contain the necessary complement 

of genes for RNA silencing, including orthologs of Dicer, Argonaut, 

dsRNA-binding proteins, and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase; other researchers 

have shown that these genes are expressed during various life stages in 

Phytophthora infestans. Oomycetes also possess a full array of genes for histone 

modification, including deacetylases, acetyltransferases, methyltransferases, and 

chromodomain-containing proteins. Surprisingly, no homologs to canonical eukaryotic 

DNA methyltransferases could be identified in the genomes of 

oomycetes or in the outgroups. Bayesian divergence times were estimated from a 

dataset of 53 proteins using conservative calibrations from the diatoms and the 

Rhynie chert oomycetes. The sensitivity of estimated divergence times to model 

specification on the prior parameters will also be discussed. 

Blair, Jaime E, Lauren Coffua, Alison Greidinger, Amy Chabitnoy, and Lauren 

Cook. Department of Biology, Franklin & Marshall College, Lancaster, PA 

17603. Measuring oomycete biodiversity in aquatic, forest, and agricultural 

ecosystems: culture-based and metagenomic approaches 

The fungal-like Oomycota have long been studied by mycologists given 

their osmotrophic lifestyle and habit of hyphal growth. Many species of 

oomycetes are devastating pathogens, such as the notorious potato late blight 

agent, Phytophthora infestans, and the cause of rare human pythiosis, Pythium insidiosum; 

it is not surprising then that most research has focused on host-pathogen 

interactions, with relatively little study concerning the natural diversity of saprotrophic 

species. This knowledge gap has important ramifications on our estimates 

of oomycete biodiversity, as well as on our understanding of the evolutionary history 

of this important group. The goal of this study is to estimate and compare 

oomycete biodiversity from several distinct habitats, including aquatic environments, 

undisturbed forest soils, and highly managed agricultural settings. Our ongoing 

culture-based surveys have relied on various baiting techniques and have 

revealed a high level of diversity in aquatic and agricultural environments. However, 

it has been shown that baiting methods can lead to biased estimates of biodiversity 

as they tend to favor fast-growing organisms and those producing motile 

zoospores. We have therefore developed a complementary metagenomic approach 

using massively parallel pyrosequencing to more thoroughly sample 

species diversity from the different environments. We are currently verifying two 

markers for analysis, the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) 

locus and the nuclear ribosomal RNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and large 

subunit (LSU) region; previous studies have shown that these loci are able to discriminate 

among closely related species, and provide phylogenetic signal at a 

number of taxonomic levels. We expect that this combination of culture-based 

and sequence-based identification methods will enhance our understanding of 

oomycete ecology and evolution, and perhaps give us more insight into the roles 

of certain species in the outbreak of disease. 


Boddy, Lynne. Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 

3AS, UK. Interactions among saprotrophic fungi and invertebrate grazers 

under climate change 

Interspecific interactions between fungi drive changes in fungal community 

structure. The progress and final outcome of these interactions, i.e. deadlock 

or replacement, are affected by the abiotic environment, changes in temperature, 

water potential and CO2 regime sometimes completely reversing outcomes. Similarly, 

invertebrate grazers can exert selective pressures on fungal decomposer 

communities in soil by feeding selectively on certain fungi and reversing the outcomes 

of competitive interactions. For example, by feeding selectively on the 

cord-forming fungus Resinicium bicolor, isopods prevented the competitive exclusion 

of Hypholoma fasciculare and Phanerochaete velutina in soil and wood. 

Nematode populations also reversed the outcomes of competitive interactions by 

stimulating growth of less competitive fungi. Composition of fungal communities 

affects decomposition rate, but so also can fungal-fungal and fungal-invertebrate 

interactions themselves stimulate or inhibit decomposition and extracellular enzyme 

production. Climate change has the potential to alter the activity of, and interactions 

between, saprotrophic fungi and soil invertebrate grazers, with implications 

for decomposer community composition, decomposition, ecosystem 

regulation and carbon feedback. 

Bojantchev, Dimitar. 345 Shipwatch Ln, Hercules, CA 94547. Vernal fruiting 

Cortinarii from the mountains of California and the Pacific Northwest 

The mountains of California and Western North America feature a diverse 

set of Cortinarius species that fruit in the spring, during, or shortly after 

snowmelt. This vernal-fruiting phenomenon is much more prevalent in the American 

West than in Europe. Based on several years of intense collecting in California 

and adjacent states, utilizing morphological and molecular methods, we have 

become familiar with 26 Cortinarius species that fruit in the spring and early summer. 

Their subgeneric breakdown is 16 species in subg. Telamonia, 8 in subg. 

Phlegmacium (including 2 hypogeous forms), 2 in subg. Dermocybe, 1 in sect. 

Leprocybe and 1 in sect. Anomali. About one third of these species are very rare 

and so far represented by single collections only. Every season we encounter 

species that we had not collected before. Almost all of these are new to science 

and we are in the process of describing them. Some of these vernal fruiting Cortinarii 

have a broad distribution throughout the West, while others seem to exhibit 

a degree of endemism, as so far they are known only from California. Most of 

these vernal fruiting species span the clades within genus Cortinarius, except for 

one group of Telamonia featuring UV active universal veil that form a well-defined 

clade (/colymbadinus). Only two of the vernal species are known to fruit in 

the fall. In this session will review the current state of the studies and present the 

challenges and directions of future research. 

Bonito, Gregory 1 , Christopher Schadt 2 , Gerald (Jerry) Tuskan 2 , Mitchel Doktycz 

2 , and Rytas Vilgalys 1 . 1 2 

Biology Department, Duke University, Durham NC, 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Department of Energy, Oak Ridge TN 37831. 

Populus species, genotype, and soil inoculum influences on the assemblage of 

rhizospheric fungal and bacterial communities 

Populus deltoides is a common riparian tree species in southeastern North 

America. Populus forms root associations with both arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal 

fungi and also with bacterial and fungal endophytes. To address the influence 

of edaphic and genotypic factors on the structuring of rhizospheric assemblages, 

we carried out a series of trap-plant experiments using rooted cuttings of 

various Populus genotypes. Two other tree species (Quercus phellos and Pinus 

taeda) were included for comparison. Plants were grown in field soils in growth 

chambers. We used 454 multiplex amplicon pyrosequencing to characterize fungal 

and bacterial root communities. Specifically, we were interested in the effects 

of host species, P. deltoides genotype, and soil inoculum on the structuring of rhizospheric 

communities. Although species richness of endophytic root fungi was 

higher for Populus than for oak or pine, Populus hosted fewer ectomycorrhizal 

taxa. Total richness of root associated bacteria taxa (283) was also significantly 

greater for Populus than for oak (175-f;184-b) or pine (157-f;185-b) and Populus 

was characterized by a higher relative abundance of Actinobacteriales and Sphingobacteriales, 

and a lower abundance of Rhizobiales and Burkholderiales. There 

were minor responses of bacterial and fungal communities to Populus genotype, 

but the Populus hybrid associated with a wider variety of fungi and a greater frequency 

and relative abundance of ectomycorrhizal taxa (e.g. Inocybe, Tomentella, 

Hebeloma). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi belonging to the Glomerales and 

Paraglomales were present in all Populus genotypes but sequences belonging to 

the Diversisporales were only detected in the hybrid Populus genotype. Soils had 

a large impact on microbial communities, and abundant species in some soils 

were absent in others. In conclusion, rhizospheric microbiota of P. deltoides is diverse 

and unique from other tree species, and appears to be structured both by the 

microbial inoculum available in soils and, to a lesser extent, by plant genotype. 

Bonito, Gregory1 , Matthew Smith, Michael Nowak, Rosanne Healy, Gonzalo 

Guevara, Efren Cázares, Akihiko Kinoshita, Eduardo Nouhra, Laura Domínguez, 

Leho Tedersoo, Claude Murat, Yun Wang, Baldomero Arroyo Moreno, Donald 

Pfister, Kazuhide Nara, Alessandra Zambonelli, James Trappe, and Rytas Vilgalys. 

1Deparment of Biology, 125 Science Drive, Duke University, Durham NC 

27708, USA. Phylogeography and diversification of Truffles in the Tuberaceae 

Truffles have evolved from epigeous (above-ground) ancestors in nearly 

every major lineage of fleshy fungi. Because accelerated rates of morphological 

evolution accompany the transition to the truffle form, closely related epigeous 

ancestors remain unknown for most truffle lineages. This is the case for the quintessential 

truffle genus Tuber, which includes species with socio-economic importance 

and esteemed culinary attributes. Ecologically, Tuber spp. form obligate 

mycorrhizal symbioses with a diverse species of plant hosts, including pines, 

oaks, poplars, orchids, and commercially important trees such as hazelnut and 

pecan. Unfortunately, limited geographic sampling and inconclusive phylogenetic 

relationships have obscured our understanding of their origin, biogeography, 

and diversification. To address this problem, we present a global sampling of Tuberaceae 

based on DNA sequence data from four loci for phylogenetic inference 

and molecular dating. Our well-resolved Tuberaceae phylogeny shows high levels 

of regional and continental endemism. We also identify a previously unknown 

epigeous member of the Tuberaceae - the South American cup-fungus Nothojafnea 

thaxteri (Cash) Gamundí. Phylogenetic resolution was further improved 

through the inclusion of a previously unrecognized Southern Hemisphere sister 

group of the Tuberaceae. This morphologically diverse assemblage of fungi includes 

truffle forms endemic to Australia and South America (e.g. Gymnohydnotrya 

spp.) and non-truffle species. The Southern hemisphere taxa appear to 

have diverged more recently than the Northern Hemisphere lineages. Our analysis 

of the Tuberaceae suggests that Tuber evolved from an epigeous ancestor in 

close association with angiosperm hosts. Molecular dating estimates of ~134 million 

years ago for Tuberaceae are in accord with this hypothesis. Intra-continental 

diversification, limited long-distance dispersal, and ecological adaptations 

have driven evolution and Tuberaceae biodiversity. 

Boonmee, Saranyaphat and Amy Y Rossman. Systematic Mycology and Microbiology 

Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA. Tropical 

species of Tubeufiaceae (Dothideomycetes) in northern Thailand 

Fifteen species of Tubeufiaceae were found on decaying wood in northern 

Thailand. Genera in this family are characterized by pseudothecial ascomata 

that are superficial, light brown, dark brown to black, often smooth. The bitunicate 

asci are cylindrical to broadly clavate and contain eight ascospores that are 

filiform, cylindrical to narrowly fusiform, tapering towards rounded to sub-acute 

ends, multiseptate, hyaline, and pale yellow or brown. Some of these fungi produce 

a hyphomycetous asexual state in culture such as Chlamydotubeufia khunkornensis 

with chlamydospores, Thaxteriella inthanonensis with helicoma-like 

conidia, and Thaxteriellopsis lignicola with helicomyces-like conidia. The relationship 

between sexual and asexual states is poorly known especially for species 

from Thailand. Several of these taxa appear to be new to science. 

Borovicka, Jan 1,2 , Martin Mihaljevic 3 , and Milan Gryndler 4 . 1 Academy of Sciences 

of the Czech Republic, Nuclear Physics Institute, v.v.i., Department of Nuclear 

2 

Spectroscopy, Rez 130, CZ-250 68 Rez near Prague, Czech Republic, 

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Geology, v.v.i., Laboratory 

of Environmental Geology and Geochemistry, Rozvojová 269, CZ-165 00 

Prague 6, Czech Republic, 3 Charles University, Faculty of Science, Institute of 

Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral Resources, Albertov 6, CZ-12843 Prague 

2, Czech Republic, 4 Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Microbiology, 

v.v.i., Laboratory of Fungal Biology, Vídenská 1083, CZ-142 20 

Prague 4, Czech Republic. Lead isotopic composition of macrofungi: possible 

applications in fungal ecology 

Macrofungi are able to effectively take up various trace elements, including toxic 

heavy metals, translocate them through mycelia and deposit them in fruiting bodies. 

This ability is species-specific; certain macrofungal species are effective accumulators 

of such metals as cadmium, zinc, mercury, silver, gold and vanadium. 

Despite growing at sites with an arsenic/silver soil concentration at “background” 

levels, several macrofungal species have been reported to hyperaccumulate arsenic 

or silver. The mechanisms of uptake and transport of the accumulated elements 

are unclear. However, a lead isotopic analysis might represent an efficient 

tool for tracing the origin of elements in soil profile. Lead is a non-essential toxic 

metal whose biogeochemical cycle has been affected to a great degree by man and 

lead isotopes have been thus introduced as “fingerprints” of environmental pollution. 

Each source of lead can have distinct or sometimes overlapping isotopic ratio 

ranges and the isotopic composition of lead in soils reflects a mixing of these 

sources. At sites with contrasting 206 Pb/ 207 Pb and 208 Pb/ 206 Pb ratios in partic- 



ular soil horizons, the isotopic composition of macrofungal fruiting bodies might 

be a useful tool for tracing lead origin. Our preliminary data from a case study in 

Agaricus bernardii have supported this hypothesis. Furthermore, the isotopic 

composition of lead in saprotrophic macrofungi (Agaricus campestris, A. 

bernardii, A. xanthodermus and Leucoagaricus leucothites) of various origins has 

reflected more or less the expected pollution sources. 

Brewer, Marin T and Ashley N Turner. Department of Plant Pathology, University 

of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Genetic diversity and reproductive isolation 

in Didymella bryoniae, a fungal pathogen of cucurbits 

We are interested in determining the center of diversity, as well as historical 

and ongoing migration patterns in the cucurbit pathogen Didymella bryoniae. 

This fungus causes gummy stem blight and black rot of cucurbits everywhere they 

are grown, yet relatively little is known about how it is dispersed. Previous studies 

with dominant markers have indicated that this species is diverse and contains 

at least two distinct genetic groups. We sequenced four nuclear regions, including 

calmodulin (CAL), beta-tubulin (TUB2), chitin synthase 1 (CHS-1), and the internal 

transcribed spacer of the rDNA (ITS) of thirty-four isolates from diverse cucurbit 

hosts across the United States (US). Isolates from both genetic groups were 

represented in our sample. A total of 1415 bp were sequenced, resulting in 41 

polymorphic sites and 13 unique haplotypes. A haplotype network constructed 

with TCS demonstrated that there are two distinct genetic groups, which is consistent 

with previous studies. However, a single isolate collected from a greenhouse 

in California was quite distinct from both groups. There is no association 

with genetic group and host species of origin, which is not surprising because earlier 

studies indicated that host specialization is not evident with D. bryoniae. Geographic 

associations were detected, however, as one of the groups was present 

only in the northeastern US whereas the other group was found throughout the 

US. There are no detectable morphological differences between the two genetic 

groups indicating that these groups represent cryptic species that are reproductively 

isolated. Studies on a worldwide collection of isolates are currently underway. 

Coalescent analyses on this collection will be aimed at understanding migration 

patterns, geographic origin, and approximate age of the divergence of the 

genetic groups to elucidate the evolutionary processes contributing to the observed 

patterns of diversity. 

Broders, Kirk 1 , Andre Boraks 1 , Laura Barbison 2 , John Brown 2 , and Greg 

Boland 2 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, 

Durham, NH 03824, 2 School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 

Guelph, ON N1G 2W1. Invasion biology of the butternut canker fungus 

Ophiognomonia clavigignenti-juglandacearum 

Butternut canker caused by the fungal pathogen Ophiognomonia 

clavigignenti-juglandacearum (Oc-j) remains the primary cause for range-wide 

mortality of butternut trees. The disease was first reported in Wisconsin in 1967, 

however the fungus may have been present for several years prior. Several questions 

still remain largely unanswered regarding the invasion by Oc-j. These questions 

include; how many times was the fungus introduced; where was it introduced; 

were more virulent strains introduced; and how was it able to spread so 

rapidly within the native butternut population. Therefore, our objective was to 

evaluate the invasion biology of this fungus including investigations into the ecology, 

epidemiology, and population structure of Oc-j in North America. To complete 

these objective flowers, developing seeds, and mature seeds of butternut, 

heartnut and black walnut were assessed as potential vectors of Oc-j; Sixteen isolates 

were evaluated for virulence on butternut, heartnut, and black walnut; and 

100 isolates of Oc-j from across North America were used to analyze the population 

structure of the fungus. Bayesian analyses based on 16 SNP markers revealed 

that the Oc-j population in North American is composed of four genetically distinct 

clonal lineages, suggesting multiple introductions of Oc-j, through successive 

or simultaneous introductions of isolates having differentiated genetic backgrounds. 

Isolates of Oc-j recovered from heartnut and black walnut caused larger 

lesions on all three Juglans species compared to isolates originally recovered from 

butternut. Four of the five isolates, which caused the largest lesions on butternut 

belonged to a single genetic cluster. The pathogenicity data in combination with 

geographic and population structure data indicate this fungus was introduced into 

North America on multiple occasions, and a more virulent clonal lineage was recently 

introduced into Minnesota and Wisconsin and subsequently spread 

throughout the rest of the butternut canker population in North America. 

Buchanan, Peter K and Peter R Johnston. Landcare Research, Private Bag 

92170, Auckland 1142, New Zealand. Conservation of Fungi - threat status of 

fungi in New Zealand and globally 

Fungi have been included in threat status assessments of New Zealand’s 

biota since 2002. Assessments have mainly addressed macrofungi, as well as obligate 

species of fungi on threatened plants. The initial inclusion of fungi, and subsequent 

need for reassessment of threat status, has generated new research initiatives 

and raised awareness of fungal conservation. Aspects of fungal biology such 


as ephemeral reproductive stages add difficulty to threat status assessments. Examples 

are presented of fungal species listed in the highest (Nationally Critical) 

and other threat categories. Over 1,000 species of fungi are listed as Data Deficient 

due to inadequate distribution data. Fungi have been included in a prioritization 

exercise spanning all New Zealand’s threatened taxa that are in decline, to 

evaluate methodology, feasibility, and cost of long-term recovery plans. Using 

molecular techniques, new records of ectomycorrhizal fungi listed as Data Deficient 

have been discovered by comparing environmental sampling of ectomycorrhizas 

with DNA sourced from herbarium specimens. Responding to increasing 

global awareness of the need for fungal conservation, the International Society for 

Conservation of Fungi was formed in 2010, and five Fungal Specialist Groups 

have been established under IUCN. 

Burchhardt, Kathleen M and Marc A Cubeta. North Carolina State University, 

Department of Plant Pathology, Raleigh, NC 27695. Population dynamics of 

Monilinia vaccinii-corymbosi in blueberry fields throughout the United 

States 

Mummy berry disease of blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) is caused by the ascomycete 

Monilinia vaccinii-corymbosi (Mvc). The fungus produces asexual and 

sexual spores that infect blueberry shoots and fruit. While spore dispersal and sexual 

reproduction can contribute to the spread and evolution of fungal populations, 

little is known about the population dynamics of Mvc. The primary objective of 

this study was to utilize microsatellite-based genetic markers to examine intraspecific 

genetic diversity, population structure, and gene flow among populations 

of Mvc throughout blueberry growing regions of the United States. In this 

study, 438 isolates of Mvc sampled from 15 blueberry fields in New York, New 

Jersey, Massachusetts, Georgia, Mississippi, Oregon, Washington, Michigan, and 

North Carolina were screened with 10 polymorphic microsatellite markers. Results 

based on analyzing a geographically diverse subsample of 55 isolates from 

six fields indicate high intraspecific genetic diversity. Forty-eight private alleles 

were detected across the 10 loci, providing evidence for population differentiation 

and restricted gene flow among fields. Results from population genetic analyses 

of a more comprehensive dataset of 438 isolates will be presented. 

Burleigh, J Gordon 1 , Keith Crandall 2 , Karen Cranston 3 , Karl Gude 4 , David S 

Hibbett 5 , Mark Holder 6 , Laura A Katz 7 , Richard H Ree 7 , Stephen A Smith 7 , 

Douglas E Soltis 7 , and Tiffani Williams 7 . 1 Department of Biology, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, 2 Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 

Provo, UT 84602, 3 NESCENT, Durham, NC 27705, 4 College of Communication, 

5 

Arts and Sciences, Michigan State University, E. Lansing 

6 

MI 45622, 

Biology Department, Clark University, Worcester MA 01610, Department of 

Ecology 

7 

and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence KS 66045, 

and elsewhere. Open Tree of Life: Community driven synthesis of the Tree 

of Life 

Reconstructing the phylogeny of all species has been a grand challenge 

ever since Darwin. The scope of the problem is immense: current estimates of extant 

biodiversity range from 1.8 million to 8.7 million species, a large fraction of 

which are Fungi. Much progress has recently been made in resolving the tree, and 

systematists continue to generate new phylogenetic knowledge at all depths of ancestry. 

Nevertheless, despite 150 years of effort, 55 AToL projects, and numerous 

other funded projects, we lack a comprehensive tree of life. Synthesis is currently 

inhibited by limits of available data, analytical power, and informatics infrastructure. 

Perhaps more importantly, it is also limited by a lack of compelling 

means and incentives for community participation. A comprehensive synthesis 

would yield great benefits across the life sciences, especially if it were self-sustaining, 

community-driven, and continually updated. We describe a recently funded 

project named “Open Tree of Life” that aims to establish a community-driven, 

continually updated estimate of the entire tree, and develop new software tools 

and new methods for merging and sharing data. Open Tree of Life will: 1) within 

one year, compile the first comprehensive draft tree of life by synthesizing existing 

phylogenetic and taxonomic knowledge; 2) enable the community to improve, 

annotate, and expand this initial tree; 3) initiate a cultural transformation in 

systematics towards pervasive and ingrained practices of data sharing; and 4) develop 

novel methods for synthetic tree reconstruction. By engaging the systematics 

community, including mycologists, our overarching goal is to cultivate ongoing 

synthesis on a large scale, in a manner that will transform current cultural 

norms in the field. 

Bushley, Kathryn E and Joseph W Spatafora. Department of Botany and Plant 

Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330. Convergent and divergent 

evolution of nonribosomal peptide synthetases 

Nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) are large multimodular enzymes 

which produce small bioactive peptides (NRPs) without the aid of ribosomes. 

While the function of many NRPs remains unknown, it is becoming clear 


that many help shape the ecologies and lifestyles of their producing fungi. Production 

of a host-selective toxin, for example, confers the ability to colonize a specific 

host while production of antibiotics may increase competitive ability in a particular 

habitat. As such, the ability to produce these compounds is likely under 

selective pressure. Drawing on examples from across the fungi and focusing on 

the order Hypocreales, which consists of fungi with diverse ecologies and 

lifestyles ranging from plant pathogens to insect/animal pathogens, to fungal 

pathogens, we explore correlations between the evolution of NRPSs biosynthetic 

pathways, their chemical products, and fungal lifestyles. We examine expansions 

and contractions of phylogenetic clades of NRPS adenylation domains correlated 

with lifestyle and address evolutionary and genetic mechanisms that may lead to 

diversification of chemical products. We also address the extent to which these 

correlations result from independent expansions versus acquisition by horizontal 

transfer or non-vertical evolutionary pathways. 

Cafaro, Matias J. Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, 

PR 00681. The protist trichomycete genus Enterobryus in the Caribbean 

Trichomycetes are organisms that live within the digestive tracts of arthropods. 

Historically, they have been considered one class in the Zygomycota, but 

molecular studies have determined that the group is not monophyletic. The current 

phylogenetic position of the orders Amoebidiales and Eccrinales falls within the 

protist group Ichthyosporea (also known as Mesomycetozoa). Eccrinales is a morphologically 

diverse order with 17 genera, which inhabit a wide range of hosts: 

crustaceans, beetles and millipedes in varied habitats (marine, freshwater, and terrestrial). 

The order is characterized by unbranched, non-septate, multinucleate thalli 

and sporangiospores that are formed basipetally from the thallus apex. No species 

have been axenically cultured. Our current effort in the Eccrinales is to understand 

the diversity and systematics of the largest genus, Enterobryus, typically associated 

with millipedes. Enterobryus produces two types of sporangiospores, a primary 

infestation type, which is typically uninucleate, isodiametric and thin-walled, and 

a secondary infestation type, which is multinucleate, cylindrical and also thinwalled. 

Species delimitation in this genus is extremely difficult with morphology 

alone. Intraspecific variation is greater than interspecies variation in some species. 

In addition, most species descriptions are based on few collections, which do not 

include details of character variation. In the Caribbean, most islands have endemic 

millipedes and almost all hosts investigated seem to be infected with Enterobryus. 

We have been identifying morphological species and including molecular 

markers to test species hypothesis. Sequence data from multiple clones of 28S 

rDNA present significant sequence variation within samples indicating high heterogeneity 

in DNA repeats and hence possible relaxation in the concerted evolution 

process. New protein markers are needed to generate robust phylogenies. 

Capelari, Marina 1 , Fernanda Karstedt 1 , Jadson JS Oliveira 1 , and Nelson 

Menolli, Jr. 1,2 1 Instituto de Botânica, Núcleo de Pesquisa em Micologia, Caixa 

Postal 68041, 04045-972 São Paulo, SP, Brazil, 2 Instituto Federal de Educação, 

Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo, Campus São Paulo, CCT / Biologia, Rua 

Pedro Vicente, 625, 01109-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil. A preliminary checklist 

of Agaricales from Reserva Biológica do Alto da Serra de Paranapiacaba, 

Santo André, SP, Brazil 

The Atlantic Forest is a long but discontinuous strip of tropical rainforest 

more than one hundred kilometers wide along the coast, from north to south 

Brazil. The “Reserva Biológica do Alto da Serra de Paranapiacaba” located at 

23°46´00´´-23°47´10´´S and 46°18´20´´-46°20´40´´W, comprises 336 ha of this 

forest, with an annual rainfall and temperature of 3,300 mm and 14-15°C in the 

winter to 21-22°C in the summer, respectively. Altitude varies from 750 m to-891 

m and the vegetation comprises high forests, low forests, scrub, dark scrub and 

grassland in different successional stages. The fungi were collected randomly 

across several trails in the forest, during the period of April/2006 to April/2010, 

with ca. of 367 collections. 140 collections represent 52 species belonging to 18 

genera (Calliderma, Collybia, Crepidotus, Cyptotrama, Cystoderma, Gymnopus, 

Hypholoma, Inocephalus, Leptonia, Marasmius, Melanotus, Mycena, Nolanea, 

Pholiota, Pluteus, Pyrrhoglossum, Ripartitella and Stropharia). The remainder 

belong to, at least, 32 genera (Agaricus, Amanita, Camarophyllus, Collybia s.l., 

Conocybe, Coprinus, Crepidotus, Dictyopanus, Favolaschia, Filoboletus, Gerronema, 

Hygrocybe, Gloiocephala, Gymnopilus, Gymnopus s.l., Hypholoma, Lepiota, 

Leptonia, Leucocoprinus, Marasmiellus, Marasmius, Melanotus, Mycena, 

Pholiota, cf. Physocystidium, Pluteus, Psathyrella, Psilocybe, Rimbachia, Trogia, 

Tetrapyrgos and Tubaria). New taxa were recorded, some of them, already described 

(Calliderma fibulatum Karstedt & Capelari, Marasmius cystidioccultus J. 

S. Oliveira & Capelari, Marasmius plenicystidiosus J. S. Oliveira & Capelari), 

and some are in process of publication, especially of the genus Marasmius. 

Carlson, Alexis L, Alfredo Justo, and David S Hibbett. Clark University. Biology 

Department. 950 Main St, 01610, Worcester (MA). Species delimitation in 

Trametes (Polyporales, Basidiomycota): a comparison of ITS, TEF1, RPB1 

and RPB2 phylogenies 

Trametes is a cosmopolitan genus of white rot polypores, including the 

“turkey tail” fungus, T. versicolor. Although Trametes is one of the most familiar 

genera of polypores, its species-level taxonomy is unsettled. The ITS region is the 

most commonly used molecular marker for species delimitation in fungi and, despite 

some problems and limitations, it generally offers a good level of resolution. 

During our phylogenetic study of the genus Trametes we observed a low level of 

molecular variation in the ITS that resulted in poorly resolved phylogenies and 

unclear species boundaries, especially in the Trametes versicolor species group 

(T. versicolor, T. ochracea, T. pubescens, T. ectypa). In this study we will evaluate 

the performance of three protein-coding genes (TEF1, RPB1, RPB2) for 

species delimitation and phylogenetic reconstruction in Trametes. Preliminary results 

suggest that all three protein-coding genes outperform ITS for separating 

species in the T. versicolor complex 

Carris, Lori, Kalyn Thomas, Sean McCotter, and Tobin Peever. Department of 

Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman WA 99164-6430. Identification 

of the anamorphs of morels and false morels in Pacific Northwestern 

U.S. forests 

Morels (Morchella), false morels (Gyromitra) and allied genera are widely 

distributed spring macrofungi in the Pacific Northwestern (PNW) US, and recent 

studies have supported a western North American origin and diversification 

for morels. However, relatively little is known about the biology and ecology of 

this iconic group of fungi, and many parts of the inland PNW remain under sampled. 

As part of an ongoing study on the diversity and mating systems of black 

morels (M. elata group) and allied genera, specimens from 15 morel and false 

morel populations were sampled at three locations in northern Idaho and eastern 

Washington in May-June 2011. Putative anamorphs were collected at these same 

sites in Oct-Dec. Anamorph colonies and ascocarps were photographed, morphologically 

characterized, and established in culture. Brown and white anamorph 

morphotypes were distinguished based on mycelium color and presence or absence 

of setae, respectively. Portions of ITS rDNA, RPB1, RPB2, and EF1-alpha 

were sequenced, and used to confirm anamorph-teleomorph connections for 

brown anamorphs with black morel lineages, and white anamorphs with Disciotis 

and Gyromitra spp. This is the first report of anamorphs for Disciotis and Gyromitra, 

and the first report of the Morchella anamorph from nature. An anamorphic 

state corresponding to the genus Costantinella has been reported in cultured 

morels, but nothing is known about the role of the anamorph in the morel life 

cycle in nature. Identification of the widespread occurrence of the anamorphs of 

morels and false morels promises to fill major gaps in our understanding of the biology 

and ecology of these fungi. 

Carver, Jonathan P and Thomas J Volk. Department of Biology, University of 

Wisconsin, La Crosse, WI. Fungal root endophytes in barley, tomato, and eggplant 

In recent years it has become apparent that fungal root endophytes are 

both ubiquitous in nature and can have significant effects on host plant fitness. In 

fact many fungal root endophytes have extraradical hyphae that may allow them 

to function in a manner similar to mycorrhizae. Many of these extraradical root 

endophytes (ERE) are also facultative associates and can be easily cultured in the 

lab. The ability of these endophytes to be easily cultured, along with their ability 

to improve plant growth, means that there is a great potential for using these fungi 

to improve agricultural productivity and sustainability. Despite this potential we 

still know very little about ERE ecology and diversity and even less about the 

EREs naturally present in agricultural systems. In this research project putative 

fungal endophytes were isolated from three crop plants grown in garden soil; barley 

(Hordeum vulgare), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and eggplant (Solanum 

melongena). From these plants a total of 119 fungal isolates were obtained. Microscopic 

traits and culture morphology were used to group isolates into operational 

taxonomic units (OTUs) likely equivalent to morphological species or 

strains. Twelve of the most abundant OTUs were separated for further study and 

identified by sequencing the ITS region. These endophytes were subsequently cocultured 

with each of the three crop plants in axenic growth media under indoor 

lights for 30 days. Effect of endophyte inoculation on shoot and root biomass was 

assessed and endophytes were re-isolated in order to fulfill Koch’s postulates. Additionally, 

roots were stained with Trypan Blue and Sudan IV to confirm ERE 

habit of isolates and to compare percent colonization with effects on plant growth. 

The results of this study may be useful in improving agriculture by expanding our 

current knowledge of the specific extraradical root endophytes found in crop 

plants and their ecology. 

Chen, Ko-Hsuan 1 , Gregory Bonito 1 , Hannah Reynolds 1 , Chris Schadt 2 , and 

Rytas Vilgalys 1 . 1 Dept. of Biology, Duke University Box 90338, Durham, 

27708, 2 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Department of Energy, Oak Ridge TN 

37831. From trees to grasses: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi community is 

shaped by host plant preference 



Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important to terrestrial ecosystems; 

however, most of AMF community studies focused on AMF associate with 

grasses rather than trees. We examined the AMF community on a forest tree, Populus 

deltoides, which is associated with ectomycorrhizal fungi as well as AMF. Soil 

samples from different localities (North Carolina and Tennessee) were used to inoculate 

P. deltoides cuttings. Mycorrhization of P. deltoides roots was characterized 

using 454 pyrosequencing and cloning of the AMF SSU rRNA genes. Subsequently, 

fungal communities from P. deltoides roots were transferred to Sorghum bicolor, 

a common plant host used for retaining AMF in pot cultures. To detect AMF 

community associated with S. bicolor, spores were extracted and identified based on 

PCR amplification of the SSU rRNA gene using several different primer sets. We 

compared data generated by these three approaches (1) P. deltoides roots/ 454 pyrosequencing; 

(2) P. deltoides roots/cloning and Sanger sequencing; (3) S. bicolor 

roots and rhizosphere /PCR. Each method recovered 35, 10 and 10 OTUs, respectively, 

but only 2 common OTUs were detected by all three methods. Combined results 

reveal the dominance of Glomerales and Paraglomerales in the P. deltoides 

AMF community, with few (less than 0.01%) of the fungal OTUs detected from the 

Diversisporales and none from Archaeosporales. P. deltoides appears to be preferably 

mycorrhized by Glomerales and Paraglomerales. Several Rhizophagus OTUs 

were only detected by S. bicolor/PCR method, suggesting Rhizophagus fungi might 

exist in Populus roots in very low numbers, but are favored by S. bicolor once this 

host is available. These results suggest that Sorghum may not always be an optimal 

alternate host for culturing AMF fungi, particularly those that preferentially associate 

with Populus. Currently we are investigating the transferability of AMF communities 

from S. sorghum back to P. deltoides. 

Choi, Jong-In 1 , Jeon Dae-Hoon 1 , Tai- Moon Ha 1 , Young-Cheul Ju 1 and Geon- 

Sik Seo 2 . 1 Mushroom Research Institute, Gyeonggido Agiricultural Research & 

Extension Services, 430-8 Sam-Ri Goniliam-Eup Gwangju-Si, Gyeonggi-Do 

464-873, Republic of Korea. 2 Korea National College of Agriculture and Fisheries, 

11-1 Donghwa-Ri Bongdam-Eup Hwaseong-Si Kyeonggi-Do 445-760, 

Republic of Korea. Characteristics of a new mid-high temperature adaptable 

oyster mushroom variety ‘Gonji-5ho’ for bag culture 

‘Gonji-5ho,’ a new variety of oyster mushroom that is suitable for production 

in bag culture, was bred by matings between monokaryons isolated from 

chiak-3ho and Suhan-1ho. The major characteristics of the fruit body included a 

thick and gray pileus and thick, long and soft stipes. Tissue elasticity and cohesivness 

was superior to Suhan-1ho. The optimum temperature for mycelial 

growth was around 26 to 29C and that for pinheading and growth of fruitbodies 

was around 18 to 20C. In the bag culture, it 18 days of incubation was required 

and 3 days for the formation of primordia. The fruit bodies grew to maturity and 

were uniform in size, yielding 221.4g/1kg bag. 

Cifuentes, Joaquín B and Rosalva A Vázquez-Estup. Biología, Facultad de 

Ciencias, UNAM, México DF. Cystolepiota and Echinoderma: tropical spp. in 

México 

Cystolepiota as currently defined (Vellinga, 2007) contains between 10 

and 55 taxa (Kirk et al., 2008; Vellinga, 2010). Echinoderma is considered either 

a synomyn of Lepiota (Kirk et al., op. cit., Vellinga, 2010) or a separate genus 

with up to 14 taxa (Bon, 1992; Knudsen et Versterholt, 2008). Phylogenetic 

analysis suggested a close relationship between these genera (Vellinga, 2003). 

Only the following species have been reported from Mexico (under different genera): 

C. acutesquamosa, C. cygnea and L. hemisclera (Herrera and Guzmán, 

1972; Bandala et al., 1988; Cifuentes, 2008). Our ongoing revision of lepiotaceous 

fungi from Mexico has revealed some interesting tropical taxa in these genera. 

Here we describe and illustrate two taxa in Cystolepiota (one C. aff. petasiformis 

and a putative new taxon) and two putative new taxa in Echinoderma. 

Corradi, Nicolas and Stefan Amyotte. University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, 

Canada. Comparative transcriptomics and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are notorious for benefiting most 

land plants by establishing a widespread association with their roots; the mycorrhizal 

symbiosis. Despite their tremendous importance for terrestrial plants worldwide, 

however, the content and nature of their genomes has long remained elusive. 

Here, we report the acquisition of large-scale sequence data from the 

transcriptome of two different strains of AMF in the genus Rhizophagus (previously 

known as Glomus) using Illumina sequencing. A total of 39,000 contigs 

from these strains were assembled, annotated and compared against sequence data 

(over 40,000 contigs) recently acquired by others from the model AMF Rhizophagus 

(Glomus) intraradices. Overall, these high-throughput approaches resulted 

in the first large-scale comparison of biochemical processes occurring among 

closely related AMF strains; providing first-hand and long-awaited information 

about the diversity, evolution, origin and plasticity of the AMF proteome. In particular, 

our study revealed a number of evolutionary novelties and molecular 

mechanisms that were previously unknown to occur in the genome of these ecologically 

critical organisms. 


Crandall, Sharifa G and Gregory S Gilbert. University of California, Santa Cruz, 

1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064. Airborne fungal spore dispersal and 

trait diversity in coastal mixed-evergreen forests in California 

Although some studies characterize fungal spore dispersal dynamics in 

tropical forests, spore dynamics in temperate forests is still largely unknown. Airborne 

spore abundance in tropical forests is stratified: there is a higher density of 

spores in the still, dark, and moist understory compared to the windy, light, and 

dry conditions of the forest canopy. This spatial stratification suggests that spore 

dispersal is influenced by abiotic factors and that species may be dispersal limited. 

Moreover, once spores are discharged, specific spore traits such as size or ornamentation 

may restrict or facilitate spore movement. This study examines the 

spatial dynamics of airborne spores in a temperate coastal mixed-evergreen forest 

in California. We ask: 1) is there is a difference in spore density under different 

site conditions (open vs. closed canopy)? 2) do fungal spore traits differ among 

sites and vertically from the forest floor into the canopy? 3) which spore traits are 

phylogenetically conserved across taxa? Spores from different fungal species 

were trapped in closed versus open canopy forest sites at the University of California, 

Santa Cruz Upper Campus Reserve during the wet season in 2012. Spore 

density and traits are characterized by imaging of spores under a light microscope 

and analyzed using the software analysis tool imageJ®. Traits measured include 

spore diameter, size, outer ornamentation, cell wall thickness, and presence/absence 

of melanin. Spore samples will be identified using next generation sequencing 

(NGS) methods. We report on the spatial distribution of airborne spores 

and suggest phylogenetically conserved traits across fungal communities. 

Cripps, Cathy L 1 , Erin Lonergan 1 , and Cyndi M Smith 2 . 1 Plant Sciences and 

Plant Pathology Department, Montana State University Bozeman MT 59717, 

USA, 2 Parks Canada, Waterton Lakes National Park, P.0. 200, Waterton Park, 

AB TOK 2MO, Canada. Linking fungal biology to restoration: Use of hostspecific 

ectomycorrhizal fungi to restore whitebark pine, a ‘threatened’ 

species in western North America 

North America’s only stone pine (Pinus albicaulis) is under consideration 

for ‘endangered species’ status in the USA and is assessed as ‘endangered’ in 

Canada awaiting legal listing. This five-needle pine forms extensive forests of 

magnificent old growth or gnarled krummholz at treeline in western North America. 

It has a unique ecology that requires bird dispersal of seeds; squirrels compete 

for seeds and grizzly bears raid squirrel caches in a complicated food web that includes 

ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF). The invasive white pine blister rust and 

mountain pine beetle have reduced forests 12-70% in parts of their original range. 

Large restoration efforts are underway as summarized in the 2012 ‘Range-Wide 

Restoration Strategy for Whitebark Pine’ that promotes plantings of rust-resistant 

nursery seedlings. However survival rates of previously planted seedlings are low. 

We are investigating the use of native EMF as a tool to enhance survival for various 

projects including “Working together to Restore Terrestrial Ecosystems” for 

Parks Canada. Our surveys of EMF with this pine have revealed limited EMF diversity 

and an important set of suilloids. Some of the suilloids also occur with 

stone pines in Europe and Asia; others appear limited to whitebark pine. Host-specific 

fungi could confer an advantage not available to competitive trees. However 

host-specific fungi are also at risk and could decline with the tree species making 

restoration more difficult. Screening of 26 native EMF showed Suillus species 

related to those used to inoculate cembrean pine in Europe to be effective colonizers 

in the nursery; Rhizopogon lagged in colonization. We are currently developing 

inoculation methods for effective colonization of this tree species. Large 

out-plantings of inoculated seedlings are being monitored in Waterton Lakes National 

Park to determine if survival is enhanced. Restoration recommendations 

specific to whitebark pine will be presented with preservation strategies for hostspecific 

EMF. 

Cui, Yunluan and Nicholas P Money. Miami University 316 Pearson Hall Oxford 

Ohio 45056. Actin dynamics in constricting ring traps formed by nematophagous 

fungi 

The microfilament network of F-actin plays an essential role in fungal 

morphogenesis by coordinating cell wall synthesis, cytoplasmic migration, and 

organelle positioning. We are investigating the connection between the behavior 

of the actin cytoskeleton and trap development in nematophagous fungi that form 

constricting ring traps. We have constructed a fluorescence-tagged actin-binding 

protein (Lifeact) driven by the ToxA promoter through recombinant PCR. The 

vector pBChygro harboring an ampicillin resistant gene and hygromycin B phosphotransferase 

gene was used as a backbone to accept the chimeric gene into multiple 

clone sites through enzyme digestion and linkage. Restriction enzyme mediated 

integration (REMI) and the CaCl2-polyethylene glycol methods were used 

to transform fungal protoplasts with the Lifeact-expressing plasmid. This efficient 

transformation system facilitated the random insertion of the HindIII linearized 

plasmid into the fungal genome. Transformed protoplasts were imaged using flu- 


orescence microscopy. Treatment with restriction enzymes had no effect on protoplast 

survival and hyphae generated from protoplasts expressed the fluorescent 

protein tag. This indicates that heterogeneous Lifeact protein is expressed under 

the ToxA promoter, and that integration of the plasmid into the fungal genome was 

successful. This is the first report of the successful transformation of a fungus that 

produces ring traps using heterogeneous Lifeact by REMI. Data obtained from 

these experiments will be helpful in the future investigation of functional genes 

contributing to trap development. 

Davey, Marie L 1,2 , Håvard Kauserud 2 , and Mikael Ohlson 1 . 1 Department of 

Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 

N-1432 Ås, Norway, 2 Molecular Evolution Research Group, Department 

of Biology, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway. Amplicon pyrosequencing 

reveals shifts in the fungal communities associated with boreal 

bryophytes along an elevation and vegetation-type gradient 

Bryophytes are a dominant vegetation component of the boreal and alpine 

ecosystems and are thought to host a high diversity of fungi that play important 

ecological roles in nutrient cycling. However, relatively little is known about fungal 

community size and composition dynamics in these systems. Four bryophyte 

hosts (Dicranum scoparium, Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi, and 

Polytrichum formosum) were collected along elevational transects spanning three 

distinct vegetation zones: low alpine meadow, sub-alpine birch forest, and montane 

conifer forest. 454 amplicon pyrosequencing of the ITS2 region of rDNA 

was used to characterize the fungal communities associated with these mosses and 

to investigate community dynamics in composition and diversity along the gradient. 

The biochemical marker compound ergosterol was quantified and used as a 

proxy for fungal biomass to allow for estimations of the size of these fungal communities. 

The overall fungal biomass associated with the moss communities varied 

between both the host species and the photosynthetic and senescent tissues of 

the moss but remained constant across the different vegetation types. Although 

community size (fungal biomass) remained constant across the gradient, distinct 

shifts in community composition occurred between the three vegetation types, 

with a transition occurring between the community associated with the hosts in 

the subalpine birch vegetation type and those in the montane conifer forest type. 

The four moss hosts displayed varying degrees of patchiness and spatial auto-correlation 

in their associated fungal communities. 

Davidson, Bill E and Marcelo D Serpe. Department of Biological Sciences, 1910 

University Drive, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725-1515. Improvement 

in colonization and seedling survival of Wyoming big sagebrush following inoculation 

with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

Inoculation of seedlings with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is a 

common practice aimed at improving seedling establishment. The success of this 

practice largely depends on the ability of the inoculum to colonize the growing 

root system after transplanting. These events were investigated in Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) seedlings inoculated with native 

AMF. Seedlings were first grown in a greenhouse in 50 mL containers containing 

sterilized pot cultures (control seedlings) or pot cultures having a mixture 

of seven mycorrhizal phylotypes (inoculated seedlings). In early spring, threemonth 

old seedlings were transplanted to 24 L pots filled with soil collected from 

a sagebrush habitat and grown under natural climatic conditions. At the time of 

transplanting the percent colonization was 0.3 and 57% for control and inoculated 

seedlings, respectively. Two and a half and five months after transplanting, the 

percent colonization remained higher in inoculated than in control seedlings with 

values of about 48 and 20%, respectively. These differences in colonization were 

associated with differences in seedling survival, which was 24% higher in inoculated 

than control seedlings. In contrast, biomass per plant and the shoot over root 

ratio were similar for both treatments. Overall, our results indicate that the inoculum 

contributed to the colonization of the roots that developed after transplanting 

resulting in higher levels of colonization than those naturally occurring in the soil. 

The increased colonization by mycorrhizal fungi may have led to an increase in 

seedling survival. 

Davis, William J, Martha J Powell, Peter M Letcher, and Jonathan Antonetti. Department 

of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 

35487. Exploring sporangial surface features to characterize members of the 

Chytriomycetaceae (Chytridiales) 

Understanding species boundaries is critical to understanding biodiversity. 

In the past plasticity of the chytrid thallus led to the consolidation of morphologically 

variable isolates into a single species. Recent molecular phylogenetic 

analyses have often revealed great genetic diversity among isolates and validated 

the separation of these isolates into distinct species. It has also been revealed that 

morphologically similar isolates can show great genetic diversity. This is true of 

Chytriomyces hyalinus, one of the most commonly collected chytrids. Isolates 

identified as C. hyalinus based on thallus morphology and habitat form four wellsupported 

clades in molecular analyses. These results suggest the presence of 

cryptic species. Characters that distinguish these potential cryptic species need to 

be identified in order to delineate and describe them as new species. Examination 

of sporangial cell surface features with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has 

revealed that many of these isolates of C. hyalinus have ridge-like surfaces, which 

are not readily detected with light microcopy and were not observed in the original 

description of C. hyalinus. The purpose of this study is to explore whether sporangial 

surface features can be used to distinguish members in different sub-clades 

of the C. hyalinus complex. Thus, representatives of each of the sub-clades of the 

C. hyalinus complex, as well as sister clades, were examined with SEM. 

Davoodian, Naveed. New York Botanical Garden, Institute of Systematic 

Botany, 2900 Southern Blvd, Bronx, NY 10458. Toward a monograph of Gyroporus 

The genus Gyroporus is a group of poroid ectomycorrhizal mushrooms in 

the Boletales with representatives documented from every major continent except 

Antarctica. They are strongly implicated as symbionts with Pinaceae, Fagaceae, 

Myrtaceae, and Casuarinaceae and there is evidence for associations with Betulaceae, 

Salicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Fabaceae as well. Though the genus is 

fairly easily distinguished (by a yellow spore print, broadly circumferentially 

arranged stipe hyphae, and clamp connections), and some members have been 

known since before Fries, the group has never been monographed. Research is 

currently underway on a contribution toward a monograph of Gyroporus. A preliminary 

overview of the research is presented, with emphasis on problems in the 

study of this group. Several major nomenclatural problems exist within the group. 

Also, preliminary phylogenetic studies by other investigators have yielded equivocal 

results; this is further compounded by the problem of morphologically similar 

taxa exhibiting disjunct, multi-continental distributions. As such, some of the 

well-accepted species in the genus are suspected to actually be species complexes. 

A global approach with broader sampling has been adopted to address these 

issues, and recent fieldwork in Australia has generated important collections and 

likely new species. 

de Beer, Z Wilhelm 1 , Keith A Seifert 2 , and Michael J Wingfield 1 . 1 Department 

of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 

South Africa, 2 Biodiversity (Mycology and Botany), Agriculture and Agri-Food 

Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada. The impacts of 1F:1N on the 

Ophiostomatales (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) 

The Ophiostomatales includes mainly bark beetle associated fungi, the 

majority of which are responsible for blue stain of freshly exposed timber, while 

a few species are tree-killing pathogens. Under the dual nomenclature system, 

four teleomorph genera were recognized in the Ophiostomatales: Ophiostoma, 

Ceratocystiopsis, Grosmannia, and Fragosphaeria. Anamorphs in the order were 

treated in recent years primarily in Sporothrix, Leptographium, Pesotum, Raffaelea 

and Hyalorhinocladiella, while seven additional anamorph genera were treated 

as synonyms of these five genera. The adoption of the one fungus one name 

(1F:1N) principles in the ICN has ‘released’ the unused genus names for application 

to newly emerging lineages in the Ophiostomatales, which include species 

with known teleomorphs. The aims of this study were to consider the impact of 

the application of the 1F:1N principles on the Ophiostomatales, to redefine genera, 

to reconsider synonymies and to resurrect generic names where applicable. 

To achieve this, we re-assessed all published rDNA sequences for the Ophiostomatales, 

selected the most reliable sequences representing 269 taxa, and conducted 

phylogenetic analyses using these data. The resulting phylogenies confirmed 

the monophyly of Ceratocystiopsis and Fragosphaeria, but also showed 

that Ophiostoma, Grosmannia, and Raffaelea are polyphyletic. The S. schenckii- 

O. stenoceras- and P. fragrans species complexes, previously treated in Ophiostoma, 

emerged as distinct genera, namely Sporothrix and Graphilbum. We thus 

redefined both these genera to include species with teleomorphs previously assigned 

to Ophiostoma. However, presently available data are insufficient to clarify 

the generic status of several other lineages currently treated in Ophiostoma s.l., 

including the status of Leptographium versus Grosmannia, or that of the R. lauricola 

complex. Because it is presently not possible to propose definitive generic 

names for some clades, the relevant species are left in their current classification 

in order to minimize nomenclatural changes, pending the selection of acceptable 

generic names. 

Dentinger, Bryn TM 1,2 , D Jean Lodge 3 , A Martyn Ainsworth 1 , Paul F Cannon 

1 , and Gareth W Griffith 2 . 1 Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 

Richmond, Surrey TW9 3DS, UK, 2 Institute of Biological, Environmental and 

Rural Sciences, Prifysgol Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion Wales SY23 

3DD, UK, 3 Center for Forest Mycology Research, US Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northern Research Station, P.O. Box 1377, Luquillo, Puerto 

Rico 00773. Systematics and DNA barcoding of waxcap fungi 



Fungi are crucial components of all ecosystems and their conservation requires 

strategies specifically tailored to them. However, a major stumbling block 

in fungal conservation is our lack of knowledge of their true diversity. In the UK, 

waxcap fungi (Hygrocybe s.l. and Cuphophyllus) have been the subject of longterm 

monitoring, they have excited the attention of non-specialists, their presence 

has led to designation of a few Special Sites of Scientific Interest in the UK, and 

they are included in the sites analyzed in the Important Fungus Areas survey. 

Moreover, all four national statutory conservation bodies have funded survey and 

monitoring of these fungi. However, over the last decades, application of molecular 

markers to species diagnosis in fungi has called into question the reliability 

of a strictly morphology-based approach. A key requirement for many fungi of 

conservation concern in the UK is the need for molecular diagnostic tools to assist 

in species definition (including recognition of cryptic taxa). For this project, 

we focused on generating DNA barcodes from waxcap fungi to assist in identification 

of cryptic species that may need to be considered for conservation management. 

New citizen-led survey work has contributed over 500 new collections 

across Great Britain. In addition, sequencing information was harvested from over 

650 fungarium specimens representing most of the known species in the UK. 

Over 200 new ITS barcode sequences were analyzed in combination with all of 

the Hygrocybe ITS sequences available on GenBank plus unpublished reference 

sequences, revealing a number of cryptic species and species with identification 

problems in the UK and USA. A reevaluation of morphological characters correlated 

with distinct ITS clades will inform future rapid, field-based surveys and 

monitoring efforts. In addition, these sequences have helped in revising infrageneric 

names in Hygrophoraceae - the first full revision since Hesler and Smith 

(1963). 

Desai, Nikhilesh S. Chicago Botanic Garden, Plant Science Center, 1000 Lake 

Cook Rd, Glencoe, IL 60022. Mycorrhizal community composition of Quercus 

oleoides as a function of stand maturity in a regenerating dry tropical 

forest 

Species rich dry tropical forests (DTFs) are the most endangered ecosystems 

in the tropical biome, threatened by many anthropogenic activities. In Costa 

Rica, deforestation of the DTF has occurred for centuries; however, conservation 

efforts over the past 30 years have restored these forests to 47.9% of their original 

extent. To better understand the role of mycorrhizal fungi in the regeneration 

of DTFs, this project studies the mycorrhizal communities associated with a 

younger (10 years old) and older (25 years old) stand of Quercus oleoides (tropical 

live oak). The study site is Sector Santa Rosa of the Área de Conservación 

Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica, where Q. oleoides were once regionally 

dominant. This project is intended to evaluate: 1) the ectomycorrhizal 

(EM) diversity in older and younger stands of oak and the overlap in community 

composition between stands; 2) whether older stands contain more rare EM 

species than younger stands; and 3) how the balance between arbuscular mycorrhizal 

(AM) and EM abundance reflects stand age. Data collection occurred over 

two weeks in July 2011. Using two 20-m x 50-m plots from young and old stands, 

soil cores were collected and the associated EM root tips were pooled for analysis 

of species composition using molecular methods. Sporocarps were collected 

for DNA analysis of fresh fungal tissue. DNA sequences were used to identify 

EM fungi using BLAST searches against GenBank and UNITE databases. Oak 

roots without mantles were analyzed for AM presence by staining with Trypan 

blue. More EM root tip colonization was observed in soil cores from older stands. 

Preliminary RFLP results suggest that this reflects a greater EM richness in these 

communities. Further results and discussion will be presented in the poster. 

Li, De-Wei 1 and Guihua Zhao 2 . 1 The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Valley Laboratory, 153 Cook Hill Road, Windsor, CT 06095, 2 Center of 

Biotechnology R&D, Jiangsu Polytechnic College of Agriculture and Forestry, 3 

Jushu Road, Jurong, Jiangsu 212400, China. Two new hyphomycetes, Strelitziana 

windsorensis sp. nov. and Zeloasperisporium toonae sp. nov., from 

Toona sinensis in Connecticut 

Two new hyphomycetes, Strelitziana windsorensis and Zeloasperisporium 

toonae, that were collected from Toona sinensis in Windsor, Connecticut were 

found to be new to science according to the morphological characters and analysis 

of ITS sequences. Strelitziana windsorensis is described and illustrated with 

filiform conidia, smooth, 63-103 _ 2.0-2.5 _m and conidiophores reduced to conidiogenous 

cells and Zeloasperisporium toonae with conidia, smooth, 12.3-17 µ 

3.5-4.4 µm, 0-2 (1) septate. Keys to the species of Strelitziana and Zeloasperisporium 

are provided. 

van Diepen, Linda TA 1 , Serita D Frey 1 , and W Kelley Thomas 2 . 1 Department 

of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of New Hampshire, 

Durham, NH 03824, 2 Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New 

Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824. Soil metatranscriptomics reveals changes in 

expression of transcripts encoding lignocellulolytic enzymes in the forest 

floor of a temperate forest under increased nitrogen deposition 


Fungi are ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems and play an important role 

in biogeochemical cycling because of their function as litter decomposers. It has 

been demonstrated that increased nitrogen (N) deposition decreases fungal biomass 

and changes the relative abundance of particular groups and species. In addition 

increased N can slow litter decomposition and reduce lignolytic enzyme activity. 

To understand the functioning of fungi under increased N addition in more 

detail, we performed a soil metatranscriptomic analysis on forest floor samples 

from a chronic N-addition experiment at Harvard Forest (MA, USA). We extracted 

total RNA, followed by reverse transcription of poly-A tailed mRNA and 

Illumina paired-end sequencing of the cDNA. In the forest floor of control and N 

amended plots, a total of ~460,000 genes were expressed at the time of sampling, 

of which 172,000 and 95,000 were uniquely expressed in the N addition and control 

plots, respectively. More than 20,000 genes (~5% of all expressed genes) 

were either significantly up-regulated or down-regulated in the control versus the 

N-amended plots (P5, Reads Per Kilobase of exon per Million 

mapped sequence reads) in either the control or N-amended plots. Most of the differences 

in expression were found within primary metabolic and cellular processes. 

More specifically, several genes closely related to fungal glycoside hydrolases 

and laccases, involved in lignocellulose degradation, were found to be down-regulated 

in the N-amended plots compared to the control plots. Within our study, 

metatranscriptomics proved to be a useful technique to study the activity of specific 

genes of interest, while at the same time revealing shifts in the activity of 

genes that would be overlooked in gene-specific qPCR analysis. 

Dillon, Husbands R 1 and Henkel W Terry 2 . 1 Department of Agriculture, Faculty 

of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana, 2 Department 

of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521. 

Synopsis of Boletaceae from the central Guiana Shield 

Mycological exploration in the remote tropical forests of Guyana, in the 

central Guiana Shield phytogeographic region of northeastern South America, has 

uncovered upwards of 30 species of the pore mushroom family Boletaceae sensu 

lato. Boletes have heretofore been poorly documented from the South American 

tropics. These species are distributed across eight sensu lato genera including Austroboletus, 

Boletellus, Chalciporus, Fistulinella, Phylloporus, Pulveroboletus, 

Tylopilus, and Xerocomus. Eighteen of these species, most of which were new to 

science, have been formally described. Molecular analysis of roots has confirmed 

that at least sixteen of these bolete species are ECM associates of the Fabaceae 

hosts Dicymbe spp., Aldina insignis, the endemic dipterocarp Pakaraimaea dipterocarpacea, 

or Coccoloba spp. (Polygonaceae). We will discuss current work on 

new species of Xerocomus from this bolete-rich region. 

Duong, Tuan A 1 , Z Wilhelm de Beer 2 , Brenda D Wingfield 1 , and Michael J 

Wingfield 1 . 1 Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology 

Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa, 2 Department of Microbiology 

and Plant Pathology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, 

University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa. Cloning, characterization 

and population analysis of the mating-type genes from Leptographium 

procerum and L. profanum 

Leptographium procerum and its sibling species, L. profanum, are ascomycetes 

associated with root-infesting beetles of respectively pines and hardwood 

trees. Both species are native to North America, although L. procerum has 

been introduced into Europe, New Zealand, and South Africa. The latest introduction 

of L. procerum was into China in association with the red turpentine beetle 

(Dendroctonus valens), where the fungus apparently contributes to killing of 

millions of native Chinese pine trees. As for many other Leptographium species, 

sexual states have never been observed in L. procerum and L. profanum. The objectives 

of this study were to clone and characterize the mating type loci of these 

fungi, and to develop markers that can be used to characterize the mating-type of 

individual isolates. To achieve this, we amplified a partial sequence of MAT1-2- 

1 using degenerate primers targeting the high mobility group (HMG) box. A complete 

MAT1-2 idiomorph of L. procerum was subsequently obtained by screening 

a genomic library using the HMG sequence as a probe. Long range PCRs were 

used to amplify the complete MAT1-1 idiomorph of L. procerum and both the 

MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 idiomorphs of L. profanum. Characterization of the MAT 

idiomorphs suggested that the MAT genes are fully functional and that individuals 

of both these species are self-sterile in nature with a heterothallic mating system. 

Mating type markers were developed and tested on a population of L. procerum 

isolates from the USA, the assumed center of origin for this species. The 

results suggested that cryptic sex is occurring or has recently taken place within 

this population. The information regarding the MAT genes and mating type markers 

developed in this study will now be used in studies considering the population 

genetics and origin of these fungi. 


Duong, Tuan A 1 , Z Wilhelm de Beer 2 , Brenda D Wingfield 1 , and Michael J 

Wingfield 1 . 1 Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology 

Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa., 2 Department of Microbiology 

and Plant Pathology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, 

University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa. Characterization of 

MAT genes reveals unexpected patterns of sexual compatibility in Leptographium 

and Grosmannia 

Species of Leptographium sensu lato (Ophiostomatales, Ascomycetes) 

are sap-stain fungi vectored by bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytinae) and some 

cause or are associated with root diseases in conifers. Sexual states have been reported 

for more than 30 species, and following the dual nomenclature system, 

these have been treated in the teleomorph genus Grosmannia. No sexual state is 

known for at least 47 additional species and these reside in the anamorph genus 

Leptographium. The discovery of sexual states for species of Leptographium relies 

mainly on the presence of fruiting bodies on host tissue at the time of isolation 

and/or intensive laboratory mating studies, which are often undirected and 

labor intensive with a low success rate. Very little is known regarding the mating 

systems in Leptographium and Grosmannia and the aim of this study was to investigate 

the sexual compatibility of species in these two genera by characterization 

of the mating type loci. To achieve this objective, we cloned and identified 

mating type genes in six selected species by screening genomic libraries in combination 

with long range PCR. Based on these sequences, primers were designed 

to amplify MAT genes in other Grosmannia and Leptographium species. The 

primers successfully amplified portions of the mating type genes of more than 30 

species and confirmed their thallism, in many species for the first time. Populations 

of several species were also investigated to obtain evidence of sexual reproduction 

by comparing the mating type ratio in available isolates. The results suggested 

that sexual reproduction probably occurs in nature for several of these 

species, even though their sexual states have never been seen. The mating type 

genes and primers developed in this study represent important tools to further 

study the biology and population diversity in the Ophiostomatales. 

Eberlein, Chris, Angela M Schäfer, and Dominik Begerow. Ruhr-University 

Bochum, Geobotanik, ND03/174, 44780 Bochum, Germany. Alaska - Europe: 

Biogeography of arctic populations of Microbotryum 

Climatic changes over millions of years have shaped the vegetation of our 

earth. Especially plants of extreme habitats were heavily influenced and many 

species are extinct due to various ice ages in Europe. While there have been several 

studies on the population structure of higher plants of artic and alpine distribution, 

very little is known about the associated, host specific parasites. The aim 

of this study is the establishment of microsatellites for Microbotryum silenesacaulis 

based on low coverage genome sequencing and the analysis of populations 

from the Alps, Scandinavia and Alaska. Although the coverage is low, 

genome sequence data revealed hundreds of microsatellites of various sizes. 

While the number of bi- and trinucleotid repeats seems somehow limited, there 

are especially many longer motives of up to nine basepairs repeated many times. 

To differentiate neighbouring populations as well, we used highly variable satellites 

to analyse the structure of alpine and arctic populations. The link of M. 

silenes-acaulis collected one year ago during the MSA meeting in Fairbanks to 

European alpine or arctic populations will be discussed. 

Eyre, Catherine A, Melina Kozanitas, and Matteo Garbelotto. Forest Mycology 

and Pathology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and 

Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. Population 

dynamics of aerial and terrestrial populations of Phytophthora ramorum in a 

California watershed under different climatic conditions 

In the attempt to better understand the epidemiology of Sudden Oak 

Death in California, we present the first combined genetic analysis of soil and leaf 

genotypes performed for a plant pathogen. Isolates of Phytophthora ramorum 

were collected from leaves and soil in six plots during a drought and an averagerainfall 

year, and analyzed using polymorphic SSRs. Leaf populations were resampled 

in different seasons during both years to provide information on how seasonal 

weather patterns may affect population dynamics. Confirmed SOD 

symptoms on leaves of the transmissive host Bay Laurel increased from 15 to 

39% between dry and wet conditions. Symptoms caused by other foliar pathogens 

were highest (69%) in dry conditions, suggesting that, while P. ramorum and 

other pathogens occupy the same niche, they are favored by different climatic 

conditions. Some foliar genotypes of P. ramorum were more abundant in wet than 

in dry conditions and persistent through time. Conversely, persistence of soil 

genotypes was limited. Soil and foliar populations were genetically distinct, 

(FST>0.15), but not segregated into different portions of a minimum spanning 

network, suggesting intermixing of the two. We surmise that the genetic structure 

between substrates results from genotype-specific differences in substrate adaptation 

rather than lack of gene flow; this hypothesis is supported by different genotype 

rank order abundances between soil and leaf populations. In climatic condi- 

tions unfavorable to the pathogen, genetic diversity increases both within and between 

sites, while in favorable conditions diversity decreases due to greater migration 

levels of some genotypes. Foliar genotypes can spread farther in wet 

years, and soil appears to be re-inoculated on a yearly basis. Cumulatively, our results 

indicate that leaves act as a relatively persistent source of inoculum, while 

soil is a sink that is genetically very diverse, but potentially inconsequential for the 

natural spread of the disease. 

Fisher, Karen E, Ricardo Reyes, David Lowry, and Robert W Roberson. School 

of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287. Changes in hyphal 

growth and ultrastructure in two chitin synthase mutants of Neurospora 

crassa 

The primary fibrillar component of the fungal cell wall is chitin; a linear 

polymer of ß-1,4-N-acetylglucosamine. Chitin synthesis occurs at the cell surface, 

primarily at sites of growth, and is catalyzed by a trans-membrane enzyme known 

as chitin synthase (CHS). Seven CHSs have been identified in Neurospora crassa. 

Previous research utilizing GFP fusions of CHS-1, CHS-3 and CHS-6 has 

documented their accumulation in the core of the Spitzenkörper (Spk) in growing 

hyphae of N. crassa. The translocation of these enzymes, presumably by vesicle 

motility, towards the Spk from subapical locations has also been reported. Given 

the importance of chitin synthesis in fungal cell growth and morphogenesis, we 

have conducted a study of two chitin synthase deletion mutants in N. crassa: 

∆CHS-1 and ∆CHS-6. In this presentation, hyphal growth behavior will be described 

in these mutants relative to wild-type hyphae. In addition, ultrastructural 

analysis of cytoplasmic organization will be documented. 

Floudas, Dimitrios and David S Hibbett. Biology Department, Clark University, 

Worcester, MA, 01610. Addressing the polyphyletic origin of Phanerochaete 

(Polyporales, Basidiomycota) based on a multi-gene dataset: how many lineages 

exist? 

Phanerochaete Karst. is a saprotrophic basidiomycete genus of the Polyporales, 

which harbors white rot species that remove both lignin and carbohydrates 

from wood. One species in the genus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, is a 

model system for the study of white rot biochemistry and its genome has been sequenced, 

revealing a wide range of genes related to lignocellulose degradation. 

Despite progress on deciphering the white rot mechanism of P. chrysosporium, 

we lack a deeper understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of the genus as 

a whole. The lack or simplicity of macro and micro-morphological characters of 

the basidiocarps has rendered the identification of Phanerochaete species and the 

delimitation of the genus perplexing. Molecular studies, based mainly on ribosomal 

genes, have shown that the genus as traditionally delimited is of polyphyletic 

origin nested in Polyporales, but only a few Phanerochaete species have been 

incorporated in multi-locus phylogenetic studies. The fragmented phylogenetic 

picture for Phanerochaete hinders understanding of the morphological, biochemical 

and ecological evolution in the genus. We are sampling here multiple loci 

across Phanerochaete and related genera, as a part of the PolyPEET project, in an 

attempt to provide the first higher-level phylogeny of the genus, to assess its relationships 

with other genera in the Polyporales, and reassess the phylogenetic distribution 

of morphological characters. The preliminary results indicate that 

Phanerochaete s.l. species are found in at least 6 lineages in the phlebioid clade, 

highlighting the necessity for nomenclatural rearrangements in the genus. 

Gajdeczka, Michael T, Wenjun Li, Catharine B Kappauf, and Joseph Heitman. 

Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical 

Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America. Like a rock?: Lack 

of sequence variation in clinical isolates of the dermatophyte Trichophyton 

rubrum 

Trichophyton rubrum (Ascomycota) - the cause of athlete’s foot, ringworm 

and nail infections - is the most common dermatophyte affecting humans. 

Despite availability of an annotated genome, this microbe’s pathogenicity, epidemiology 

and genetics remain poorly understood due to an inability to conduct 

genetic crosses, lack of adequate sampling and apparent clonality. The only evidence 

of sexual mating in T. rubrum is indirect - a single genetic hybrid was 

formed between T. rubrum and Arthroderma simii, the teleomorph of a related 

species (T. mentagrophytes). T.rubrum lacks a known teleomorph, and although 

its genome contains mating type genes, only a single MAT allele (MAT1-1) is 

known. This study has three aims: (1) survey sequence variation in our 194 clinical 

samples using sequence-based and previously-developed variable number 

tandem repeat (VNTR) markers; (2) use paired-end Illumina sequencing to identify 

additional polymorphism within and among strains belonging to different 

VNTR types, and (3) search for evidence of (same-sex) mating using genetic and 

culture-based methods. First, we sequenced 7.5 kb of mainly non-coding regions 

located within 20 kb of the ABC1 and CAP59 genes in ten T. rubrum isolates collected 

over a span of ten years. These sequences revealed six singleton polymor- 



phisms, which distinguished only half of the strains. We are now transitioning to 

VNTR genotyping and whole genome Illumina sequencing to characterize the diversity 

more completely. Lastly, in order to test for formation of ascomata (sexual 

structures), we will co-culture ten of our T. rubrum isolates and a T. tonsurans 

isolate (MAT1-2) in single, pair-wise and triple combinations on dermatophyte 

mating medium. Cultures with extensive hyphal coiling (indicative of early sexual 

development) will be dissected and examined for presence of ascomata or ascospores. 

Thus far, our results provide no evidence of sexual reproduction and reconfirm 

low sequence variation in T. rubrum clinical isolates. 

Garbelotto, Matteo M and Todd W Osmundson. Department of Environmental 

Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, 

USA. Is there a “best” unit of conservation for valuable mushroom species? 

A scientific approach based on studies on matsutakes, morels and truffles 

In the presence of limited economic resources, an approach is needed to 

maximize the results of conservation efforts focused on valuable mushroom 

species. Although the genomic nature of desirable mushroom phenotypes is still 

mostly unknown, we propose that a biogeographical approach combined with 

population genetics studies provide a concrete way to enact mushroom conservation 

plans. In the absence of precise knowledge of why a specific population 

should be protected, we suggest that the unit of conservation should be that of the 

“metapopulation” within each broad geographic region. It was first suggested in 

the late 1990s that habitat fragmentation was a major driver of speciation in Matsutakes. 

That intuition was recently confirmed by formal analysis on the effects 

of forest fragmentation on fungal community structure. The logistical advantage 

of focusing on habitat conservation, rather than on individual fungal species, is 

obvious. We show here that for recently evolved species, distribution of species 

tracks the presence of continuous forest cover, and an “isolation-by-distance” approach 

can be used to identify valuable conservation units. However, we present 

four examples of exceptions that need to be taken into account: a) The presence 

of significant geographic barriers, such as high mountain ranges, may accelerate 

drift; b) Significant bottlenecks caused by geologically recent events like glaciations 

may have led to genetic isolation between populations surviving in different 

refugia; c) Natural ecological events such as fires may be triggers of speciation 

and of hybridization among mushrooms; and d) Forest management may accelerate 

genetic drift by favoring short rotations where gene flow among populations 

is hindered. 

Gause, Justin W and Merlin M White. Boise State University, Dept. of Biological 

Sciences, Boise, ID 83725. Entangled and nearly deceived in a web of gut 

fungi: two intermingled, dimorphic Smittium species from Idaho 

Since 2007 we have been prospecting for gut fungi near Boise, Idaho. The 

Boise River, which runs parallel to Boise State’s campus, sporadically has been a 

convenient and favorable system for aquatic insect collection, despite that it runs 

through this metropolitan area. Collections have included midges (Chironomidae), 

which are hosts of several genera of Harpellales, including Smittium. In 

2008, several collections of larval midges revealed an astonishing density of 

hindgut dwelling gut fungi. Upon morphometric analysis of vouchered slides, two 

species of Smittium, both with dimorphic trichospores, were found to be coexisting 

inhabitants in the midge population. In addition to the dimorphic trichospores, 

zygospores were also recovered. Zygospores are often the missing “piece of the 

puzzle” for taxonomic considerations, and we were fortunate enough to have 

them within a few dissections. However, these specimens were remarkably well 

developed and presented intermingled thalli, demanding careful scrutiny to tease 

apart the key morphological aspects belonging to each. We present our data on the 

two species of Smittium and compare them with records of putatively closely related 

Smittium species, with suggestions for future efforts with these and other 

host populations in pursuit of gut fungi worldwide, perhaps in an area near you? 

Geiser, David M 1 , Alejandro P Rooney 2 , Todd J Ward 2 , Takayuki Aoki 3 , 

Seogchan Kang 1 , Stephen A Rehner 4 , and Kerry O’Donnell 2 . 1 Department of 

Plant Pathology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, 2 USDA- 

ARS-NCAUR, 1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604, 3 MAFF, NIAS, 2–1–2, 

Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305–8602, Japan, 4 Systematic Mycology and Microbiology 

Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Beltsville, MD 20705. Phylogenetically 

marking the limits of the genus Fusarium for post-Article 59 usage 

Fusarium (Hypocreales, Nectriaceae) is one of the most important and 

systematically challenging groups of mycotoxigenic, plant pathogenic and human 

pathogenic fungi. We conducted maximum likelihood (ML), maximum parsimony 

(MP) and Bayesian (B) analyses on partial nucleotide sequences of genes encoding 

the largest (RPB1) and second largest (RPB2) RNA polymerase II subunits 

on 94 fusaria to infer phylogenetic relationships within the genus and 20 of 

its near relatives. Our analysis revealed that Cylindrocarpon spp. formed a basal 

monophyletic sister to a ‘terminal Fusarium clade’ (TFC sensu Gräfenhan et al. 

2011), which comprised 20 strongly informally named clades. Inclusion of the 

basal most divergences within the TFC received strong support only from the 


Bayesian analysis (posterior probability (B-PP) = 0.99-1), with clades including 

F. ventricosum and F. dimerum forming the two earliest diverging lineages. An 

internode supporting the remaining TFC, however, was strongly supported by MP 

and ML boostrapping (ML-BS 100%, MP-BS 87%) and a B-PP of 1. This contrasts 

with the published analysis of a phylogeny based on RPB2 and acyl citrate 

lyase gene sequences, which did not yield significant support for this clade. Diversification 

time estimates were made to infer the origins of the genus and its 

clades. Because 1) the TFC includes all economically important fusaria, 2) virtually 

all of its members produce a recognizable Fusarium anamorph, 3) the Fusarium 

anamorph names are widely used compared to the associated teleomorphs; 

applied mycologists rarely if ever see the latter, and 4) it corresponds most closely 

to a fairly stable concept of the genus that has existed for nearly a century, herein 

we formally combine several teleomorph genera within the TFC and their types 

into Fusarium. The present study provides a robust framework to guide future 

comparative phylogenetic and phylogenomic analyses, including work to test and 

extend the hypotheses developed herein. 

Geml, Jozsef 1 , Eduardo R Nouhra 2 , Christian Y Wicaksono 1 , Nicolas Pastor 2 , 

Lisandro Fernandez 2 , and Alejandra G Becerra 2 . 1 Nationaal Herbarium Nederland, 

Nederlands Centrum voor Biodiversiteit Naturalis, Universiteit Leiden, P.O. 

Box 9514, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands, 2 Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología 

Vegetal (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, cc 495, cp 5000 

Córdoba, República Argentina. Mycota of the Andean Yungas forests: assessments 

of fungal biodiversity and habitat partitioning in a threatened ecosystem 

The Yungas, a system of subtropical montane forests on the eastern slopes 

of the Andes, reach their southern limit in northwestern Argentina. These forests 

are extremely diverse and, despite covering only 2% of the country’s area, they 

harbour about 50% of Argentina’s biodiversity. Unfortunately, the Yungas are 

among the ecosystems most threatened by anthropogenic pressure and climatic 

changes. Previous mycological works in the Yungas focused on wood-decay 

fungi (e.g., polypores) and mycorrhizae in Alnus acuminata cloud forests, while 

diverse Yungas communities still remain virtually unexplored. We carried out 

massively parallel pyrosequencing of ITS rDNA from soil samples to provide the 

first kingdom-wide fungal biodiversity assessment for the Yungas. Samples were 

taken in the three major forest types along an altitudinal gradient: the piedmont 

forest (400-700 m asl), the montane forest (700-1500 m asl), and the montane 

cloud forest (1500-3000 m asl). Using a 97% similarity cut-off value, we delimited 

1839 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in total. The majority belonged 

to the phylum Ascomycota (52.49%), followed by Basidiomycota 

(18.85%), Glomeromycota (0.012%), and various zygomycete lineages (0.02%), 

while 24.91% showed highest similarity to other unidentified environmental sequences 

and could not be assigned to phylum. The distribution of the total 1839 

OTUs among the major altitudinal vegetation types were as follows: 909 OTUs 

in the piedmont forest, 826 in the montane forest and 929 in the montane cloud 

forest. Fungal communities were significantly different among all three forest 

types, with many OTUs showing strong habitat preference for a certain altitudinal 

zone. Our data offers an unprecedented insight into the fungal biodiversity of 

the Yungas and into the zonal changes in fungal community structure, with potential 

applications in conservation strategies to preserve the unique biodiversity 

of the Andean forests. 

Gonzalez, Maria C 1 , Anthony E Glenn 2 , Edmundo Rosique-Gil 3 , Kevin D 

Hyde 4 , and Richard T Hanlin 5 . 1 Departamento de Botánica, Instituto de Biología, 

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, DF 04510, 

Mexico, 2 Russell Research Center, Toxicology & Mycotoxin Research Unit, 

USDA, ARS, Athens, GA 30605, USA, 3 División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, 

Universidad Autónoma Juárez de Tabasco, Villahermosa Tab 86039, 

Mexico, 4 5 

School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand, 

Museum of Natural History Annex, University of Georgia, Bogart, GA 30622, 

USA. A new species of Aliquandostipite from an urban lagoon of Tabasco, 

Mexico 

During a continued survey of Ascomycota diversity from different lentic 

freshwater habitats, we recorded several interesting fungi from a lagoon located 

in the urbanized area of the Villahermosa City, capital of the State of Tabasco. An 

uncommon specimen was obtained using a submerged wood-baiting technique. 

This Mexican microorganism shows some of the typical characteristics of Aliquandostipite 

type species, A. khaoyaiensis i.e. subglobose, ostiolate ascomata; 8spored, 

bitunicate, asci; bi-celled, multiguttulate, sheated ascospores and pigmented 

hyphae up to 40 µm wide. However, in addition, it has other relevant 

features such as the presence of very long, subcylindrical, contorted, branched, ascomatal 

neck that when young is covered with hyaline, straight, attenuated, 20-50 

µm x 2-4 µm hairs, a characteristic is not described in Aliquandostipite species. 

Other characteristics that the new fungus exhibits include different average size of 

mature ascomata, asci and ascospores, the distinctly bitunicate, thin-walled, deli- 


quescent asci and ascospores deeply constricted at the septum that separate into 

two part spores. The analysis of morphological set of characters and ITS rDNA 

sequence data confirmed this Mexican lignicolous fungus belongs to Aliquandostipite, 

but it is genetically different from all the other described species. Therefore, 

this fungus is proposed as a new species and is described and illustrated. The 

high frequency of occurrence of this ascomycete at heavily polluted tropical urban 

lagoon possibly indicates a successful adaptation to that habitat. 

Goodwin, Stephen B. USDA-ARS, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, 

915 West State Street, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054. Evolution 

of plant pathogenesis within Dothideomycetes 

The Dothideomycetes is the largest class of fungi, occurring on every continent 

and in very diverse habitats. In addition to many plant pathogens in the orders 

Capnodiales and Pleosporales, which collectively cause economically important 

diseases on almost every major crop, Dothideomycetes can endure 

extremes of heat or cold, high solar radiation, desiccation, live in fresh- or saltwater 

habitats, persist as lichens or can form mycorrhizal associations with plants. 

To better understand plant pathogenicity and the genetic basis for this huge ecological 

diversity, the genomes of more than 20 Dothideomycetes have been sequenced 

or are in progress, ranging in size from 22 Mb for the extremophile Baudoinia 

compniacensis to 74 Mb for the banana pathogen Mycosphaerella fijiensis. 

Genome expansion seems to have occurred primarily by proliferation of retrotransposons, 

but other mechanisms were noted including the first evidence for 

transduplication by DNA transposons in fungi. An unusual component of the M. 

graminicola genome was a “dispensome” of eight chromosomes that can be lost 

with no obvious effect on fitness, appears to have originated by horizontal transfer 

more than 10,000 years ago, and is highly variable in field populations. Some 

other Dothideomycetes genomes have possible dispensable chromosomes that are 

unrelated to those in M. graminicola. Functional characterization of the genomes 

revealed that many species of Mycosphaerella have reduced sets of genes for cell 

wall-degrading enzymes and other proteins, possibly as an adaptation to avoid detection 

by their hosts to facilitate stealth pathogenicity. Effectors identified in the 

genome of M. fijiensis by similarity to those in the tomato pathogen Cladosporium 

fulvum could be recognized by the heterologous resistance gene to elicit a defense 

response. The extensive genomic resources for the Dothideomycetes provide 

tools for a comprehensive understanding of the genetics and evolution of 

adaptations to very diverse environments and modes of nutrition. 

Gossage, Zachary T 1 , Sagar Yeraballi 1 , Katherine Suding 2 , Robert Sinsabaugh 

3 , and Andrea Porras-Alfaro 1 . 1 Biological Sciences, Western Illinois University, 

Macomb, IL, 2 Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management, 

University of California Berkeley, CA, 3 Department of Biology, University 

of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. Root-associated fungi of Geum rossii and 

Deschampsia cespitosa at the Niwot LTER site 

Plant-associated fungi are known to play an important role in plant productivity 

and ecosystem sustainability. Endophytic fungal diversity in the alpine 

tundra is unknown for the majority of plant species. The main goal of this study 

was to identify and describe fungal symbionts associated with two alpine tundra 

co-dominant plants: Geum rossii and Deschampsia cespitosa. Plants were collected 

at Niwot Ridge long-term nitrogen fertilization experiments in Colorado. 

Forty-two plants were collected from four different treatments: control, nitrogen 

fertilized, D. cespitosa removal with nitrogen fertilization, and D. cespitosa removal 

with no nitrogen addition in 2008 and additional plants were collected from 

control plots in 2010. Roots were harvested from each treatment and stained to determine 

fungal colonization. Roots were surface sterilized and plated on malt extract 

agar with antibiotics. One hundred and ten pure cultures of endophytic fungi 

were isolated and identified by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer rDNA. 

Analysis of the sequences at 97% similarity yielded 25 contigs and 24 unique sequences. 

The majority of the isolates, 91%, belong to the phylum Ascomycota 

and the remaining to Basidiomycota and other undetermined phyla. Dominant orders 

included Helotiales (23%), Hypocreales (23%) and Eurotiales (21%). Within 

Helotiales, dominant taxa were closely related to Phialocephala fortinii and 

Cryptosporiopsis ericae. Within Hypocreales some common taxa included 

Tolypocladium and Beauveria. Dominant taxa within Eurotiales included isolates 

related to Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. Endophytic communities showed 

very little plant specificity suggesting that most taxa are adapted to colonize both 

of these dominant species. 

Grigoriev, Igor. US DOE Joint Genome Institute, 2800 Mitchell Dr, Walnut 

Creek, CA 94598. Fueling the future with fungal genomics 

Until recently, genomic diversity of Fungi was biased towards ascomycetes 

of medical importance. To correct this bias the Fungal Genomics Program 

(jgi.doe.gov/fungi) of the US Department of Energy (DOE) Joint Genome 

Institute (JGI) has partnered with international scientific community to explore 

fungal diversity in several large scale genomics initiatives aligned with the 2010 

Grand Challenges for Biological and Environmental Research: a long term vision. 

The first initiative, the Genomic Encyclopedia of Fungi, is focused on diversity 

among DOE relevant fungi in the areas of plant health, to explore the interactions 

of bioenergy crop species with symbionts and pathogens, and of biorefinery, to 

catalog industrially relevant genes, pathways, and hosts for bioenergy applications. 

The second initiative, the 1000 Fungal Genomes project, is aimed to explore 

fungal diversity across the Fungal Tree of Life in order to provide references 

for research on plant-microbe interactions and environmental metagenomics. The 

third initiative is to support functional studies of fungal systems of varying complexity: 

from new model organisms to metagenomes of complex communities. 

Open to all scientists around the world, these initiatives result in massive amounts 

of genomic information integrated with analytical tools and community-driven 

experiments. Several examples produced by these initiatives will illustrate how 

genomic data and different sampling strategies can improve our understanding of 

fungal diversity, interactions, and evolution. 

Grube, Martin 1 , Cene Gostincar 2 , and Lucia Muggia 1 . 1 Institute of Plant Sciences, 

Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Graz, Austria, 2 Department of Biology, 

Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Evolutionary 

aspects of oligotrophism and extremotolerance in Ascomycota 

As widely distributed colonizers of rocks, black meristematic fungi endure 

temperature extremes, desiccation and usually a low supply of nutrients. Certain 

traits, such as phenotypic plasticity and melanized cell walls have been suggested 

as important factors of their polyextremotolerance. Some of their adaptive 

abilities, e.g. growth at elevated temperatures, may also be considered as health 

concerns, especially since black fungi can often establish themselves in manmade 

habitats. Facultative lichen-like associations of black fungi with algae could 

contribute to the persistence in poor natural habitats on rocks. We detected several 

cases of such associations. Phylogenetic analyses already suggested an ancestral 

proximity of oligotrophic black fungi and certain lineages of lichen-forming 

fungi. We included further lichenized and lichenicolous species in phylogenetic 

analyses that seem to link certain groups of lichens with black fungi. We believe 

that the upcoming information on genomes from black fungi and comparative genomics 

will provide us with new insights into the pre-adaptations for extremotolerance 

and oligotrophism of black fungal lineages. This knowledge may also be 

used to predict the future evolutionary potentials of certain fungal lineages. 

Gryganskyi, Andrii P 1,5 , Richard A Humber 2 , Matthew E Smith 3 , Jolanta Miadlikovska 

1 , Steven Wu 1 , Kerstin Voigt 4 , Iryna M Anishchenko 5 , Oleksandr V 

Savytskyi 6 , and Rytas Vilgalys 1 . 1 Duke University, Department of Biology, 

Durham, NC 27708-90338, USA, 2 USDA-ARS BioIPM Research, RW Holley 

Center for Agriculture & Health 538 Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA, 3 Department 

4 

of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA, 

Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Institute of Microbiology, 25 Neugasse, 

Jena 07743, Germany, 5 M. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of 

Sciences of Ukraine, 2 Tereshchenkivska St., Kyiv 01601, Ukraine, 6 Institute of 

Molecular Biology and Genetics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 150 

Acad. Zabolotnogo St., Kyiv 03680, Ukraine. Molecular phylogeny of the Entomophthoromycota. 

The Entomophthoromycota, a recently recognized new phylum, is a ubiquitous 

group of fungal pathogens of a wide variety of economically important insect 

pests, and other soil invertebrates. This group also includes a small number 

of parasites of reptiles, vertebrates (including humans), macromycetes, fern gametophytes, 

and desmid algae, as well as some saprobes. Here we report recent 

studies to resolve the phylogenetic relationships within the Entomophthoromycota 

and to place this group reliably among other basal fungal lineages. Bayesian Interference 

and Maximum Likelihood analyses of four loci (nuclear 18S and 28S 

rDNA, mitochondrial 16S, and the protein-coding RPB2) as well as non-molecular 

data consistently and unambiguously identify 31 taxa of Entomophthoromycota 

as a monophyletic group distinct from other Zygomycota and flagellate fungi. 

Using the constraints of our multi-gene dataset we constructed the most comprehensive 

rDNA phylogeny yet available for Entomophthoromycota. The taxa studied 

here belong to five distinct, well-supported lineages. The Basidiobolus clade 

is the earliest diverging lineage. The Conidiobolus lineage is a paraphyletic grade 

of trophically diverse species that include saprobes, insect pathogens, and facultative 

human pathogens. Three well supported lineages in the exclusively entomopathogenic 

Entomophthoraceae center around the genera Batkoa, Entomophthora 

and Zoophthora, although several genera within this latter crown clade are 

resolved as non-monophyletic. Ancestral state reconstruction suggests that the ancestor 

of all Entomophthoromycota was morphologically similar to species of 

Conidiobolus. Analyses using strict, relaxed, and local molecular clock models 

documented highly variable DNA substitution rates among lineages of Entomophthoromycota. 

Despite the complications caused by different rates of molecular 

evolution among lineages, our dating analysis indicates that the Entomophthoromycota 

originated 405±90 million years ago. We suggest that 

entomopathogenic lineages in Entomophthoraceae probably evolved from sapro- 



ic or facultatively pathogenic ancestors during (or shortly after) the evolutionary 

radiation of the arthropods. 

Hameed, Khalid 1 , Gregory Bonito 1 , Michael Gajdeczka 1 , Christopher Schadt 2 , 

and Rytas Vilgalys 1 . 1 Biology Department, Duke University, Durham NC 

27708, 2 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Department of Energy, Oak Ridge TN 

37831. Fungal communities of Populus - comparisons between culture-based 

and culture independent approaches 

Populus is an economically important genus of woodland and riparian 

trees that forms both arbuscular and ectomycorrhizas. Populus also harbors a 

wide-diversity of root endophytes but this diversity is still largely uncharacterized. 

To address this field and greenhouse studies were conducted on different Populus 

species and genotypes. Fungal community diversity in roots was determined with 

culture-independent 454 pyrosequencing of phylogenetically informative fragments 

of genomic rDNA (ITS, LSU, SSU). Companion culture-based studies of 

Populus root associates were carried out to: 1) describe the culturable diversity of 

Populus root associates; 2) determine discrepancies between culture-based and 

culture-independent methods; 3) obtain a culture library of fungal root associates 

of Populus for future experiments and genome sequencing. Using sterile technique 

and selective isolation medias, we isolated >300 cultures from individual 

surface sterilized root tips of Populus deltoides collected from our field site and 

greenhouse experiments. We also isolated fungi from roots of Pinus taeda (loblolly 

pine) and Quercus alba (white oak) for comparison. Pure cultures were sequenced 

at the ITS and LSU. DNA sequences were identified by comparing them 

to accessions in the NCBI nucleotide database and to sequences assembled from 

pyrosequencing data. We estimate our cultures represent ~65 OTUs based on 

97% similarity of the ITS. Despite using benomyl in our media to select for basidiomycetes, 

the majority of OTUs from sequenced isolates were ascomycetes. 

We obtained cultures from a number of the fungi that were among the most abundant 

sequence type in our 454 datasets (e.g., Atractiellales spp., Ilionectria spp., 

Mortieriella spp, and Thelephoraceae sp.). Further, fruitbodies of Laccaria were 

found under a number of trap-plants and this species has been obtained in pure 

culture. These isolates will be valuable for further studies on Populus-microbial 

relations. 

Hansen, Karen and Ibai Olariaga. Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department 

of Cryptogamic Botany, P.O. Box 50007, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden. 

A multigene phylogenetic assessment of species boundaries in Otidea 

Species of Otidea are among the more conspicuous Pyronemataceae 

(Pezizomycetes), producing large, typically ear-shaped apothecia. Otidea is restricted 

to the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest diversity in boreal-temperate 

forests, and is ectomycorrhizal. The genus is monophyletic and easy to recognize, 

but species delimitation is highly controversial. To resolve species 

boundaries and relationships within Otidea, we provide a multigene (LSU rDNA, 

RPB1, RPB2 and EF1; 4908 bp), worldwide phylogeny of Otidea and comparative 

morphological data. Two main lineages are supported within Otidea: I) O. 

alutacea, O. apophysata, O. daliensis, O. platyspora, and O. subterranea, and II) 

the rest of Otidea, which encompasses several sub-lineages. Otidea papillata and 

a clade of O. leporina and Otidea sp., are identified as successive sister lineages 

to the rest of lineage II. No unique morphological characters distinguish the two 

main lineages. The sub-lineages are supported by a combination of morphological 

characters, such as the apothecia shape and color, spore shape and ornamentation, 

paraphyses shape and content, and outer excipulum features. Our results, 

including sequences of type collections, show clear species limits, except within 

two species complexes: the O. alutacea-cochleata and O. phlebophora-rainierensis 

complexes. A number of Otidea names currently in use are shown to be synonyms. 

Several names have been interpreted differently in Europe, North America 

and Asia. At the same time some species seem to show continental endemism. 

Five new species have been discovered. The ITS region is too variable to align 

across Otidea, but appears to be useful for delimiting species; the ITS region is 

highly variable between species, but conserved within. To delimit species within 

the two species complexes we will perform separate analyses of these, including 

also the ITS region, and explore various analytical approaches for independent 

corroboration of the species identified. We estimate that Otidea comprises at least 

35 species. 

Hart, Andrew M and Thomas J Volk. Department of Biology, University of 

Wisconsin, La Crosse, WI 54601, USA. Trametes versicolor: A tremendously 

versatile fungus 

Since microbes are generally seen in a negative public light, it is refreshing 

to take a look at one that is not only beneficial, but has the potential to serve 

multiple human interests. Trametes versicolor is a white rot polypore commonly 

referred to as the “turkey tail” mushroom. It is named for and characterized by the 

many concentric zones of color on the fruiting body. It is important to note that 

due to its prevalence in the northern forests, the turkey tail is an important saprophyte, 

but this might be the least useful quality of T. versicolor. The same versa- 


tile enzyme (laccase) that degrades lignin is key to several of T. versicolor’s applications. 

Laccases are used in biopulping and the bioremediation of a variety of 

environmental contaminants. T. versicolor produces this valuable enzyme, and 

also gives us polysaccharide-K (PSK). Polysaccharide-K is anecdotally proven to 

function as an adjuvant (immunostimulatory). Polysaccharide-K is thought to enhance 

immune response to cancer cells. In addition to medical and environmental 

uses, T. versicolor is also used for its pigments. The pigments increase the 

wood’s monetary value and in turn are prized by woodworkers and artists. The inoculated 

wood forms streaks of color, called spalting. T. versicolor pigments are 

also used to dye fabrics such as wool. The multi-colored velvety fruiting body is 

used to make art of all kinds. These are the uses we’ve found for the turkey tail so 

far. As more research is done we will see the common fungus even more. This 

poster is applicable for education in courses related to Mycology, Medicine, 

Bioremediation and Biodegradation, Environmental Toxicology, Ecology, Biochemistry, 

and Biology. 

Hayward, Jeremy and Thomas R Horton. Department of Environmental and 

Forest Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13210. Thelephoroid symbionts 

of Pisoniae are limited to a small group of closely related taxa 

throughout the range of the plant tribe 

While several studies have demonstrated greater ectomycorrhizal (ECM) 

specificity in the tropics than in the temperate zone, little is known about the patterns 

underlying this specificity. Here, we present preliminary results from a study 

investigating the structure of specificity between members of the Nyctaginaceae 

and the ECM /tomentella-thelephora lineage. Within the Nyctaginaceae ectomycorrhizal 

plants are restricted to the genera Neea, Pisonia and Guapira, all members 

of the tribe Pisoniae. Following a previous observation that two Pisoniae 

species in opposite hemispheres associated with closely related thelephoroids, we 

hypothesized that members of the Pisoniae, whatever their geographic context, 

would also associate with this clade. We sampled ectomycorrhizas from members 

of the Pisoniae growing in the Pacific and on the Caribbean islands of Dominica, 

Vieques and Puerto Rico. We used molecular barcoding to identify ECM fungi 

and analyzed their phylogenetic placement using Bayesian and Maximum-Likelihood 

techniques. We also undertook a literature review to identify fungi previously 

detected associating with members of the Pisoniae. We found that at the familial 

level, the ectomycorrhizal specificity of the Pisoniae is low: species 

associate with members of at least five ECM fungal families. In contrast to this 

pattern of family-level generalism, those thelephoroid ECM fungi associating 

with the Pisoniae cluster strongly within a single lineage, implying narrow specificity 

between the Pisoniae and their thelephoroid symbionts at a subgeneric level. 

This clustering pattern is well supported in nonparametric tests of phylogenetic 

signal. This pattern of specificity holds true in the Pacific, in the Caribbean and in 

South America; it also holds true for representatives of all ectomycorrhizal plant 

genera within the Pisoniae. Based on these results, we hypothesize that phylogenetic 

placement may matter more than location in determining associations 

among tropical trees displaying ECM specificity. This hypothesis should be tested 

in associations between other tropical ECM plants and fungi. 

Healy, Rosanne A 1 , Gregory M Bonito 2 , Matthew E Smith 3 , Gonzalo G Guevara 

4 , Jonathon Frank 5 , Darlene Southworth 5 , James M Trappe 6 , and David J 

Mclaughlin 1 . 1 Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 

MN 55108, USA, 2 Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 

27708, USA, 3 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville 

FL, USA, 4 Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Victoria, Biology, Ciudad Victoria, 

Mexico, 5 Department of Biology, Southern Oregon University, Ashland, OR 

97520, 6 Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, 

Corvalis, OR, USA. What is a cup fungus doing fruiting from a truffle tree? 

The case of the truffle-cup fungus lineage /pachyphloeus-scabropezia 

The ectomycorrhizal genera Pachyphloeus, a truffle, and Scabropezia, a 

cup fungus, are found primarily in broad-leaved forests of the Northern Hemisphere. 

Respectively they have twelve (plus two varieties) and three accepted described 

species. Molecular phylogenetic analyses have placed Scabropezia within 

Pachyphloeus. Previous inferences of truffle evolution in the Pezizales suggest 

that fruitbody evolution proceeds from cup fungus form to truffle form with no 

known reversals. Current data is unclear on whether Scabropezia branches from 

the base of the Pachyphloeus lineage, or is nested within Pachyphloeus, making 

it paraphyletic. The latter scenario may imply a reversal of form from truffle to 

cup fungus. Taxonomic confusion in Pachyphloeus from poorly understood type 

descriptions has resulted in expansion beyond original species limits, which in 

turn has led to confusion regarding the relationship of Scabropezia to Pachyphloeus. 

The goals of this study were to revise the /pachyphloeus-scabropezia lineage 

using multigene analyses from sporocarp and anamorph DNA sequences, 

and to infer the relationship of Scabropezia to Pachyphloeus. The ITS rDNA was 

sequenced from representative specimens from across the Northern Hemisphere, 

and then sorted into phylotypes based on 96% similarity. The LSU, RPB1 and 


RPB2 loci were sequenced from selected specimens to better resolve relationships 

within the lineage. Morphological data was mapped onto one of the best-supported 

maximum likelihood phylograms to identify phylogenetically informative features. 

Preliminary results suggest that 1) the Scabropezia clade branches from the 

base of the /pachyphloeus lineage, but includes P. austro-oregonensis, 2) there are 

at least 25 species of Pachyphloeus and four species of Scabropezia, 3) P. lateritius 

and P. macrosporus are not part of the lineage, and 4) anamorph color, sporocarp 

color, ascus shape, and spore wall ornamentation are congruent with molecular 

data. 

Heidmarsson, Starri 1 , Sergio Perez-Ortega 2 , Holger Thüs 3 , Cecile Gueidan 3 , 

Asuncíon de los Ríos 2 , and Francois Lutzoni 4 . 1 Icelandic Institute of Natural History, 

Borgir Nordurslod, IS-600 Akureyri, Iceland, 2 Departamento de Biología 

Ambiental, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, Spain, 3 Botany, Natural 

History Museum, London, United Kingdom, 4 Biology, Duke University, 

Durham, United States. Diversity and phylogeny of marine and freshwater 

Verrucariaceae 

Verrucariaceae consists mainly of lichenized members, although the 

lichenicolous lifestyle can also be found among members of this family. The family 

consists of crustose, squamulose, foliose and even subfruticose taxa. Within 

Verrucaria s. lat., delimitations of taxa has been problematic because only few 

phenotypic characters have been useful to infer relationships. Recent DNA-based 

phylogenetic analyses across this family have already resulted in the description 

of a genus comprising only marine members of Verrucaria s. lat. (Wahlenbergiella) 

and another genus which contains taxa that either grow by freshwater 

or in marine habitat (Hydropunctaria). Recently it was shown that Mastodia, 

which forms symbiosis with a leafy green alga, is part of the Wahlenbergiella 

clade. We will present the diversity of aquatic Verrucaria s. Lat. in Iceland, from 

both marine and freshwater habitats. Phylogenetic analyses of the genera Hydropunctaria 

and Wahlenbergiella were conducted, mainly based on Icelandic 

material, within a broader phylogenetic framework. These analyses revealed that 

the strictly marine clade Wahlenbergiella consists of at least two, fairly distinct 

clades. One of these clades comprises members of Wahlenbergiella, such as W. 

mucosa, W. striatula, W. Tavaresiae, and Verrucaria ceuthocarpa. The other 

clade consists of Mastodia tesselata and several taxa, which have been only collected 

in the southern hemisphere, so far. 

Heimdal, Rune 1 , Marie L Davey 1,2 , and Håvard Kauserud 1 . 1 Molecular Evolution 

Research Group, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, 

Norway, 2 Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian 

University of Life Sciences, N-1432 Ås, Norway. Host and tissue specificities 

in Galerina and Mycena species associated with boreal forest mosses 

revealed by data-mining of amplicon pyrosequencing fungal inventories 

The agaricoid basidiomycete genera Galerina and Mycena are both common 

saprophytes in the boreal forest that are frequently reported in ‘mossy habitats’ 

or in the presence of mosses. ITS2 Sequences with BLAST matches to Galerina 

and Mycena were extracted from three large scale, amplicon 

pyrosequencing-based inventories of moss-associated fungi in southern Norway, 

and used for investigations into the genetic diversity of both groups and their ecological 

preferences. In both genera, genetic diversity was high relative to reported 

alpha diversity in those habitats. A relatively small number of OTUs occurred 

with high frequency and abundance, and in addition, a larger number of taxa were 

rare and occurred at very low frequencies and abundances. Among those common 

taxa, most OTUs showed a distinct preference for senescent moss tissues, supporting 

the idea that these fungi are decomposers of bryophytes. However, a number 

of OTUs also occurred with high frequency and abundance in photosynthetic 

tissues, suggesting some species have a facility for colonization and persistence in 

living moss tissues. In addition, some OTU’s showed a distinct predilection for 

particular moss hosts, suggesting that identifying the moss associated with fruitbodies 

of these fungi may prove useful in the identification of the fungus. 

Henkel, Terry W 1 , Michael A Castellano 2 , Hannah T Reynolds 3 , M Catherine 

Aime 4 , Steven L Miller 5 , and Matthew E Smith 6 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, 

Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521, 2 USDA, Forest Service, 

Northern Research Station, 3200 Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331, 3 Department 

of Biology, University of Akron, Akron OH 44023, 4 Department of Plant 

Pathology and Crop Physiology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 

Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA, 5 Department of Botany, University of Wyoming, 

Laramie, WY 82071, 6 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, 

Gainesville FL 32611. Ectomycorrhizal ascomycetes from the Guiana Shield: 

Elaphomyces and Pseudotulostoma 

The hypogeous false truffle genus Elaphomyces Fries (Elaphomycetaceae, 

Eurotiales, Ascomycota) contains ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi with a 

gleba of powdery, dark ascospores, a thick peridium, and large ascomata relative 

to other members of the Eurotiales. Of the ~67 species of Elaphomyces currently 

described worldwide, many are known from north temperate forests with ECM 

host plants in the Pinaceae, Fagaceae, and Betulaceae. Nearly a century ago 

Cooke and Rodway provided the first reports of Elaphomyces from the Southern 

Hemisphere (Australia), but erroneously assigned European names to their specimens. 

Recent efforts by Castellano et al. have uncovered at least 16 new 

Elaphomyces species from Australia and New Zealand. While Corner and Hawker 

in 1955 were the first to publish new Elaphomyces species from the lowland 

tropics in association with Dipterocarpaceae in Singapore, few other tropical 

species have been described. The recently discovered Elaphomyces digitatus ined. 

and Elaphomyces compleximurus ined. from Guyana constitute the first records 

for the genus for the lowland South American tropics. These fungi occur in rainforests 

dominated by ECM trees of the genus Dicymbe (Fabaceae subfam. Caesalpinioideae) 

and constitute the first records of Elaphomyces in association with 

leguminous host plants. Pseudotulostoma volvata, a stipitate, volvate member of 

the Elaphomycetaceae, is common in the same forests. So far, these fungi are the 

only ECM ascomycetes known from this lowland tropical ecosystem, despite the 

fact that more than 200 species of ECM basidiomycetes are present. We will discuss 

the morphology and ecology of these taxa, the evolution of ascoma form in 

the Elaphomycetaceae, and “missing” Elaphomyces diversity uncovered by rootbased 

sequencing studies. 

Herr, Joshua R. 321 Forest Resources Building, School of Ecosystem Sciences, 

The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801. Fungal diversity 

associated with differing monoculture forest types measured by next-generation 

metabarcoding. 

It has long been understood that fungi contribute to many key ecosystem 

processes. This is particularly important in forest soils, where saprotrophic fungi 

are the main drivers of plant organic matter decomposition and ectomycorrhizal 

fungi facilitate nutrient uptake for the host plants, thereby affecting plant growth 

and fitness. Additionally, the presence of soil fungi shape seedling establishment 

and evidence suggests that ectomycorrhizal fungi may contribute to the distribution 

of photosynthate from one tree to another, directly regulating the survival of 

nurse seedlings. Despite their important ecological roles, there is a paucity of information 

regarding taxonomic diversity and abundance associated with plant 

host. Largely this is due to the fact that many fungi are unculturable, lack known 

sexual structures, and are recorded only by environmental sequencing. In order to 

understand the diversity of fungi associated with differing forest types, we have 

utilized next-generation sequencing techniques (454/Roche and Illumina/Solexa) 

to probe soil fungal diversity. Seven monoculture forest types (Fagus, Quercus, 

Pinus, Pseudotsuga, Picea, an “old-growth” native forest dominated by Fagus, 

and an early successional Populus bio-energy plantation) were sampled. Nextgeneration 

sequencing showed extreme diversity of fungal taxa. Only 24% of taxonomic 

sequence reads were able to be identified with existing fungal databases. 

This finding agrees with recent studies employing new sequencing techniques to 

probe fungal diversity. Our sequencing shows an average of more than 2000 

unique fungal taxa in as little as four grams of forest soil. This presentation will 

discuss diversity across forest type surveyed and across seasonal sampling. 

Herrera, Cesar S 1 , Amy Y Rossman 2 , Gary J Samuels 2 , and Priscila Chaverri 

1 . 1 University of Maryland, Department of Plant Sciences and Landscape Architecture, 

2102 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, MD 20742, 2 United 

States Department of Agriculture, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Lab, 

Rm. 246, Bldg. 010A, BARC-West, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 

20705. A new monotypic genus to accommodate Cosmospora vilior and related 

species 

Cosmospora sensu Rossman (Ascomycota, Hypocreales, Nectriaceae) 

has included nectroid fungi with small, reddish, KOH+, smooth, thin-walled, laterally 

collapsing when dry, non- or weakly stromatic perithecia. Recently, the 

group was found to be polyphyletic based on molecular data, and has been segregated 

into multiple genera. However, not all Cosmospora-like fungi have been 

treated systematically. Some of these species form a clade that includes C. vilior 

(= Nectria vilior) and many species often labeled as “Cosmospora sp.” The objectives 

of this research were to designate an epitype for N. vilior, which has been 

misapplied based on examination of the type specimen, and determine its phylogenetic 

position within Cosmospora sensu lato and the Nectriaceae. A multilocus 

phylogeny was constructed based on six loci (ITS, LSU, RPB1, MCM7, TEF1, 

and TUB) to estimate the species tree. Results from the phylogenetic analyses indicated 

that C. vilior forms a monophyletic group with other Cosmopora-like 

fungi that have an Acremonium-like anamorph and that parasitize Eutypa and Eutypella 

(Diatrypaceae). The group is phylogenetically distinct from other previously 

segregated genera, and for that reason, a new genus is described to accommodate 

these species. 

Herrera, Jose and Ravin Poudel. Department of Biology, 100 E. Normal, Truman 

State University, Kirksville, MO 63501. The effect of soil on the fungal 

root endophyte community of Zea mays 



Zea mays is, arguably, the most economically important grass domesticated 

by man. Yet, few studies have examined and fully characterized the fungal 

root endophyte community inhabiting the belowground portion of the plant. Taxonomic 

molecular identification of fungal species based upon the internal transcribed 

spacer (ITS) region of rDNA obtained from roots reveal soil as a prominent 

factor determining the composition of microfungal communities within the 

roots of maize (Zea mays subsp. mays, previously fully sequenced variety B73) 

and its progenitor, teosinte (Zea mays subsp. parviglumis), grown in Missouri clay 

soil or Missouri clay soil mixed with desert soil from New Mexico. Fungal communities 

in maize and teosinte grown in mixed soils were dominated by different 

proportions of Hypocreales spp. and dark septate endophytes (Pleosporales spp., 

and Sordariales spp., primarily) while those grown only in Missouri clay soils 

were dominated by Glomerales spp. Moreover, fungal communities colonizing 

roots of Z. mays differed significantly from those colonizing roots of native (and 

co-habiting) fescue grass (Festuca arundinacea). Interestingly, Pleosporean sequences 

also include Paraphaeosphaeria spp., one of the dominant and common 

fungal species described in various grass species across North America. The presence 

of such cosmopolitan fungal root endophytes suggests that some fungal associations 

are general in nature and could function as evolutionary hinges that 

help plants develop adaptations to a variety of environmental challenges. 

Hess, Jaqueline 1 , Inger Skrede 2 , and Anne Pringle 1 . 1 Department of Organismic 

and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Ave., Cambridge, 

MA 02130, 2 Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biology, 

University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway. 

Transposable element dynamics in ectomycorrhizal genomes: a close-up 

perspective 

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbiosis between plants and fungi has evolved 

several times in the Fungal Kingdom. Ongoing genome sequencing of ectomycorrhizal 

(ECM) fungi is increasing the understanding of the genetic mechanisms 

central to the evolution of the symbiosis. Besides changes in gene content and 

gene family sizes, differences in genome architecture are also apparent, likely 

caused by changes in the ecology and population dynamics of ECM fungi. A 

common feature of ECM genomes sequenced to date is greatly elevated transposable 

element (TE) content: approximately 20% of the genome of Laccaria bicolor 

and 60% of the genome of Tuber melamsporum is made up of TEs. The 

genus Amanita encompasses an evolutionary transition from a free-living, saprotrophic 

to ECM niche and provides a powerful model for interrogating genome 

evolution across closely related, ecologically distinct species. To investigate 

changes in TE dynamics after evolution of the ECM niche we used next generation 

sequencing technologies to shotgun sequence the genomes of five species, 

covering the major clades of the genus Amanita (three ECMs and two saprotrophs) 

and the saprotrophic outgroup species Volvariella volvacea. We found the 

ECM genome sizes to be expanded, ranging from one and a half to nearly double 

the size compared to the saprotrophic genomes. Here, we will present our informatics 

approach for TE detection from short read data and fragmented assemblies 

and discuss the patterns of TE invasion in the different ECM clades of Amanita. 

Hicks, Sarah L 1 , Emily Farrer 2 , Robert Sinsabaugh 1 , Andrea Porras-Alfaro 1,3 , 

and Katherine N Suding 2 . 1 Biology Dept, University of New Mexico, MSC03 

2020 1 University of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM 87105, 2 Environmental 

Science, Policy & Management University of California at Berkeley Berkeley, 

CA 94720, 3 Department of Biological Sciences Western Illinois University 1 

University Circle Waggoner Hall 372 Macomb, IL 61455. Effect of nitrogen 

pollution on root fungal endophyte communities from two co-dominant 

alpine tundra plants at Niwot, LTER 

Due to pollution from Boulder and Denver, CO, Nitrogen (N) deposition 

is increasing at Niwot Ridge, LTER. Over the last decade, one of the co-dominant 

alpine tundra plants, Geum rossii, has experienced substantial dieback, while the 

other co-dominant, Deschampsia caespitosa, gains dominance. G. rossii dieback 

has been attributed to elevated soil N rather than inter-species competition. The 

mechanism by which N kills G. rossii is still unknown. We hypothesize elevated 

soil N causes shifts in endophytic fungal communities, and that these shifts are responsible 

for G. rossii death. We expect G. rossii communities to become more 

pathogenic and parasitic in response to N. G. rossii and D. caespitosa roots were 

sampled from N-addition and control plots. Samples were surface sterilized prior 

to DNA extraction and 454 titanium pyrosequencing of fungal ITS ribosomal 

DNA. Sequences were clustered into OTUs by 97% similarity in Qiime. OTU 

correlation with N was assessed with ANOVA and community composition correlation 

with N was assessed with RDA, using the nlme and vegan packages in R 

respectively. G. rossii endophyte communities only clustered by N treatment at 

species level. Community shifts occurred among closely related species, and most 

sensitive taxa responded to N positively, including taxa that belong to pathogenic 

groups. Deschampsia caespitosa communities clustered by N at all taxonomic 

levels, and community shifts occurred between distantly related species, so that 

whole fungal Classes responded to N. Most affected taxa responded negatively. 


These data indicate that endophyte communities of D. caespitosa and G. rossii respond 

substantially differently to N addition. Deschampsia caespitosa endophyte 

communities appear to change more fundamentally. These changes may be important 

to D. caespitosa’s ability to adapt to changing nutrients. If so, these data 

may provide insight into the mechanisms by which abiotic soil factors alter above 

ground vegetation dynamics. 

Hobbie, Erik A. Earth Systems Research Center, University of New Hampshire, 

Durham, New Hampshire, USA. Assessing fungivory in rodents, marsupials, 

and kiwi from stable isotope evidence 

Fungivory is both a common dispersal mechanism for many fungi and an 

important source of nutrients and energy for many small animals, particularly rodents 

and marsupials. Studies of fungivory generally rely on scat or gut content 

analyses. An alternate technique, stable isotope measurements on animal protein, 

relies on sporocarps of ectomycorrhizal fungi having distinctive carbon and nitrogen 

isotope ratios ( 13 C/ 12 C and 15 N/ 14 N, expressed as d 13 C and d 15 N) compared 

to other ecosystem components. This approach allows retrospective studies 

by using archived museum specimens; here, I present three case studies of this approach. 

In studies of western Oregon rodents, mean isotopic values for the five 

sampled taxa separate into three main groups, with creeping vole and red tree vole 

quite similar (low in d 13 C and d 15 N, herbivorous), red-backed vole and flying 

squirrel similar (high in d13C and d15N, indicating high levels of fungivory), and 

Douglas squirrel different from the other two groupings (high in d 13 C, low in 

d 15 N, probably primarily a seed-eater). In ten genera of Australian marsupials, 

potoroos and bettongs appeared highly fungivorous, as expected from prior dietary 

studies. Kiwi in New Zealand may perform the same dispersal function for 

truffles as small mammals do elsewhere. Kiwis were isotopically distinct from 

frugivorous and insectivorous birds, but truffle consumption probably cannot be 

distringuished isotopically from consumption of soil invertebrates. Isotopic analysis 

appears to be a potentially useful tool to determine levels of fungivory in historic 

and current animal populations. 

Hodgins-Davis, Andrea 1 , Aleksandra Adomas 2 , Daniel Rice 3 , and Jeffrey 

Townsend 1 . 1 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, 

New Haven, CT 06520, 2 National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, 3 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary 

Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138. Modelling transcriptional 

reaction norm evolution in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae 

Genetic variation for plastic phenotypes has the potential to contribute a 

large proportion of the phenotypic variation available to selection for novel adaptation. 

Models for linking population variation with plasticity make predictions 

about how selection may constrain the evolution of gene expression variation 

across transcriptional reaction norms. To empirically test these models, we have 

characterized population variation for transcriptional reaction norms in Saccharomyces 

cerevisiae for an ecologically relevant gradient of copper concentrations 

from starvation to toxicity. We find that although the vast majority of transcriptional 

variation is small in magnitude, not just some, but most genes demonstrate 

variable expression across environments or genetic backgrounds. Functionally, 

the most highly expressed genes defined three distinct cellular states across the 

copper reaction norm consistent with previous results characterizing eukaryotic 

responses to copper starvation, copper-replete fermentation, and copper overdose. 

These cellular states included direct transcriptional responses to intracellular levels 

of copper ions and diverse indirect metabolic adjustments to the consequences 

of changed copper levels. Indirect homeostatic changes of expression were more 

variable among genotypes in their direction of response than were the reaction 

norms of genes directly regulated by copper-binding transcription factors. To interpret 

this variability in transcriptional reaction norms in the context of the 

processes of natural selection and neutral drift, we account for variation in mutation 

and regulatory degree across the genome by parameterizing classic models of 

phenotypic evolution. Empirically estimating population genetic variance, mutational 

variance, and regulatory degree, we infer the strength of stabilizing selection 

operating on gene expression levels. We present evidence consistent with either 

weak or infrequent stabilizing selection on most gene expression phenotypes, 

and discuss the implications of the lack of constraint for the evolvability of transcriptional 

reaction norms. 

Hodkinson, Brendan P 1 and James C Lendemer 2 . 1 International Plant Science 

Center, The New York Botanical Garden, 2900 Southern Blvd., Bronx, NY 

10458-5126, 2 Institute of Systematic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden, 

2900 Southern Blvd., Bronx, NY 10458-5126. A modern, high-throughput 

workflow for biodiversity research integrating floristics, taxonomy, phylogeny, 

ecology and conservation 


The field of Systematic Biology has increasingly become fragmented in 

recent years, with many scientists focusing in on a small number of methods or 

approaches for studying biodiversity and its origins. Here we present an integrated 

workflow for studying the many facets of biodiversity and systematics. This 

workflow is currently being used to conduct a large-scale inventory of lichens in 

the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain of the United States that includes the collection and 

analysis of ~35,000 new specimens. Using floristic habitat sampling (FHS), specimens 

representing the organismal group of interest are collected from individual 

sites throughout the study region, and are subsequently analyzed anatomically and 

chemically. Specimens that cannot be identified taxonomically with anatomical/chemical 

analyses alone are sequenced using a multi-locus 454-based approach. 

Sequences from the genes of interest (in our case, mtSSU, nucLSU and 

nucITS) are compared with publicly available reference sequences to determine 

the phylogenetic affinities of species that remain either unnamed or ‘incertae 

sedis.’ All collections are databased rapidly using modular databasing software 

(KE EMu). Large-scale ecological analyses are performed on database-generated 

taxon lists by hijacking data management software originally designed for organizing 

and analyzing large molecular sequence data sets. Overall results are compiled 

and made available on the web in the form of, e.g., checklists (for regions, 

sub-regions and sites), detailed taxonomic treatments, molecular sequence alignments, 

phylogenetic trees, and specimen-based ecological data sets. Both through 

these online resources and workshops/forays for the public, information is disseminated 

for integration into conservation and management plans to preserve 

biodiversity for the future. 

Hoppe, Björn 1 , Tiemo Kahl 2 , François Buscot 1 , and Dirk Krüger 1 . 1 UFZ - 

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Soil Ecology, Th.- 

Lieser-Str. 4, D-06120 Halle/Saale, Germany, 2 University of Freiburg, Institute 

of Silviculture, Tennenbacherstr. 4, D-79085 Freiburg i. Brsg., Germany. A study 

of correlations between fungal and bacterial communities in dead wood 

Dead wood (a.k.a. coarse woody debris, CWD) is a major habitat in forest 

ecosystems that is home and food for various types of organisms. Usually, researchers 

study the fungi and xylobiontic insects present and active in the wood 

decay process. The role of bacteria in the decomposition of this complex substrate 

is yet underexplored. One aspect of the project FunWood of the DFG (German 

Science Foundation) Biodiversity Exploratories is to investigate interrelations between 

fungal and bacterial diversity on CWD of European beech, Norway spruce 

and Scots pine along a gradient of forest sites that were under different silvicultural 

management practices. The same DNA extractions from drilled CWD 

served as templates for PCR subsequently processed for functional and diversity 

fingerprints (nitrogenase nifH T-RFLP, ARISA) as well as Sanger sequencing. 

Preliminary results entail 16S rDNA sequences from highly diverse eubacterial 

communities in CWD comprising 10 different classes. The detected families Beijerinckiaceae, 

Rhizobiaceae and Bradyrhizobiaceae are known to include potent 

nitrogen fixing bacteria. Conceivably, the extreme C/N ratios of CWD reaching 

350-800:1 make it increasingly harder for wood decay fungi to meet their nitrogen 

demands as the wood decay process goes on. Thus, we aim to test further for 

the presence of actually nitrogen fixing bacteria and their potential role in filling 

the fungal nitrogen needs in this habitat. We hitherto found 26 different nifH sequences 

from 5 logs. None was closer than 97% similarity to any on GenBank, 

indicating the presence of uncharacterized, potentially unknown bacteria. By the 

time of presentation, statistically analyzed nifH sequence data of 48 CWD logs are 

ready to be discussed, along with fungal diversity data based on sporocarps and 

DNA. 

Horn, Bruce W 1 , Ronald B Sorensen 1 , Marshall C Lamb 1 , Victor S Sobolev 1 , 

and Ignazio Carbone 2 . 1 National Peanut Research Laboratory, USDA, ARS, 

Dawson, GA, 39842, 2 Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, 

Raleigh, NC, 27606. Formation of Aspergillus flavus sclerotia on corn 

grown under different drought stress conditions 

Aspergillus flavus is a major producer of carcinogenic aflatoxins worldwide 

in corn, peanuts, tree nuts, cottonseed, spices and other crops. Many countries 

have strict limits on the amount of aflatoxins permitted in human commodities 

and animal feed. Sclerotia produced by A. flavus serve several functions in the 

life cycle of the fungus: (1) resistance to adverse environmental conditions; (2) 

colonization of substrates through myceliogenic and sporogenic germination; and 

(3) sexual reproduction. Drought stress in corn results in an increase in aflatoxin 

contamination, but little is known about the effects of drought on sclerotium production. 

Corn was grown at Shellman, Georgia, in 2010 under different drought 

stress conditions consisting of: rainfall only (0% irrigation) and 33, 66 and 100% 

of the recommended irrigation amounts. Decreasing water availability showed a 

progressive reduction in grain yield (r = 0.96, p < 0.001) and an increase in aflatoxin 

concentration (r = –0.62, p < 0.05), but had no significant effect on percentage 

of ears showing Aspergillus section Flavi sporulation or percentage of ears 

with sclerotia. Of the 8706 ears examined, sclerotia (n = 6022) were recovered 

from 84 ears (1%). Sclerotia of A. flavus L (large sclerotial) strain were dominant 

(78 ears); less common were sclerotia of A. flavus S (small sclerotial) strain (8 

ears), A. parasiticus (3 ears) and A. alliaceus (2 ears). The sexual stage was not 

detected in any sclerotia, including those of homothallic A. alliaceus, suggesting 

that sclerotia may require additional incubation after dispersal onto soil. 

Horton, Thomas R 1 , Martin A Nuñez 2 , Yazmin Rivera 1 , G Amico 2 , R Dimarco 

2 , N Barrios 2 , Jeremy Hayward 1 , and Dan Simberloff 2 . 1 Department of Environmental 

and Foresty Biology, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, NY 13210, 2 Department 

of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

37919. On the role of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Pinaceae invasions 

Establishment of Pinaceae in locations with no history of the trees requires 

the co-introduction of compatible ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi, which are 

also required to facilitate invasions. Compatible fungi disperse from plantations 

through mycelial networks that grow from plantation edges (short distance), and 

spores dispersed by wind, water and mammals (potentially long distance). Invasion 

of Pinaceae from plantations into native forests has been limited on Puerto 

Rico (USA) and Isla Victoria (Argentina). The trees do not associate with native 

EM fungi to any great extent, if at all. On Puerto Rico most established pines are 

within decimeters of plantations, but some trees have established at 1000m. Root 

tips collected from established pines at 1000m from plantations yielded Rhizopogon 

spp., as well as Pisolithus tinctorius, Wilcoxina mikolae and a member of 

the Atheliaceae. This indicates mammalian (Rhizopogon) as well as other dispersal 

vectors (Pisolithus, Wilcoxina, Atheliaceae). Bioassays with dried soils collected 

in areas 1000m from plantations and without pines only yielded Rhizopogon. 

Dispersal of fungi may be facilitated by rats and mice introduced since the 

1500s. In addition, tropical storms and anthropogenic activity may vector the 

fungi over long distances. On Isla Victoria establishment is largely restricted 

around plantations. We have not observed the rare native deer or any rodents in 

or near plantations. However, nonnative deer were first introduced with conifers 

about 100 years ago and pigs have become numerous since 2004. A bioassay with 

ponderosa pine and Douglas fir using fecal pellets from the nonnative mammals 

collected away from plantations yielded Rhizopogon, Suillus, and Hebeloma mycorrhizae. 

Severe weather during the peak fruiting period is probably less important 

for spore dispersal on Isla Victoria than it is on Puerto Rico. We hypothesize 

the degree long-distance dispersal and accumulation of compatible propagules 

can impact the rate at which these invasions proceed. 

Hughes, Karen W and Ronald H Petersen. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996. Current fungal data from the 

Great Smoky Mountains ATBI are inadequate to determine conservation 

status: what is needed? 

Rapid urbanization and deforestation in the Southeastern US has heavily 

impacted native plants, and many remain only in small reserves. While there is no 

similar assessment for fungi, it is likely that fungal species follow similar patterns 

of fragmentation and localized extirpation. Determining endemism and rarity, 

however, is significantly hampered by a lack of focused species-level research 

and data concerning fungal distribution patterns. The Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park (GSMNP) is a protected reserve that exhibits high biological diversity 

for fungi, salamanders and plants. The GSMNP and adjacent regions of 

the southern Appalachian Mountains provide an opportunity to identify remnants 

of native southeastern mycota. We report studies at the species level that identify 

putative endemics for further study, examine distributions in so far as is possible 

and note high levels of cryptic speciation in fungi that may influence estimates of 

richness and endemism. 

Hung, Richard. Plant Biology, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Rd., New 

Brunswick, NJ 08901. Trichoderma viride volatile organic compound profile: 

The effect of individual components on Arabidopsis thaliana 

Several Trichoderma species are successful biocontrol agents. Their effects 

include plant growth promotion, stimulation of systemic defense responses, 

and protection from pathogens. Our research has shown that the volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs) of Trichoderma viride have plant growth promoting effects 

on Arabidopsis thaliana without physical contact. GC-MS analysis of the VOC 

profile of T. viride has resulted in 51 unique detectable compounds of which 

isobutyl alcohol, isopentyl alcohol, and 3-methylbutanal were the most abundant. 

Experiments have been performed to determine which components of the T. viride 

profile are responsible for the observed growth in A. thaliana. These compounds, 

in addition to mushroom alcohol (1-octen-3-ol) and geosmin, have been 

tested on model systems with A. thaliana. Exposure to 1-octen-3-ol has resulted 

in increased growth both above and below ground. The average root mass of control 

plants was 0.36g and the average mass of VOC exposed plants was 0.77g 

showing a 113% increase in plant mass. In addition there was a 60% increase in 

chlorophyll concentration (5.5mg/g control, 8.8mg/g test). Conductivity readings 

of the tested plants were the same as controls at 12% ± 2% indicating no cell wall 



instability. Trypan blue staining showed no necrotic lesions and hydrogen peroxide, 

a reactive oxygen species (ROS) that is precursor to necrotic lesions was not 

detected with 3,3’-diaminobenzidine (DAB) staining. Exposure to ethanol, another 

component of the VOC profile, resulted in reduced seedling formation 

(73%) as compared to control (92%). More seeds were unable to throw off their 

seed coat and complete seedling formation (15%) than control (2%) at the end of 

three days. 

Hustad, Vincent P 1,2 and Andrew N Miller 2 . 1 Dept. of Plant Biology, University 

of Illinois, 505 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, 2 Illinois Natural History 

Survey, University of Illinois, 1816 South Oak St., Champaign, IL 61820. 

Studies in Geoglossomycetes systematics 

Geoglossomycetes are a widespread and diverse class of fungi known 

from every continent except Antarctica. Commonly referred to as earth-tongues 

due to their morphology and terrestrial habitat, these fungi have long been a subject 

of mycological interest, although few molecular systematic studies have been 

conducted within the group. This research presents the latest results of our attempt 

to generate the first modern, multi-gene, species-level phylogeny within Geoglossomycetes. 

Sequences of the partial nuclear ribosomal 28S large subunit and 

internal transcribed spacer genes, as well as the protein-coding genes, RPB1 and 

MCM7, were generated for numerous species previously thought to belong in Geoglossomycetes. 

Results of maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and 

Bayesian analyses confirmed previous findings that Geoglossomycetes is a wellsupported 

monophyletic class that includes the genera Geoglossum, Nothomitra, 

Sarcoleotia, and Trichoglossum. Polyphyletic genera within Geoglossomycetes 

were also observed and two new genera, Glutinoglossum and Sabuloglossum, 

were established. 

Hutchinson, Miriam I 1 , Amy J Powell 2 , Kylea J Parchert 2 , Joanna L Redfern 1 , 

Andrea M Martinez 1 , Randy M Berka 3 , Eric Ackerman 2 , Blake Simmons 4,5 , 

Igor V Grigoriev 6 , and Donald O Natvig 1 . 1 Department of Biology, University 

of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, 2 Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, 

NM 87123, 3 Novozymes, Inc., Davis, CA 95618, 4 Sandia National 

Laboratories, Livermore, CA 94551, 5 Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 

94608, 6 DOE Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA 94598. Reproductive 

genetics and development in the fungus Myceliophthora heterothallica, a 

thermophilic model for the Chaetomiaceae 

Members of the Chaetomiaceae are among the most reported fungi in 

studies of biomass degradation. They are of interest for their abilities to produce 

thermostable carbohydrate-active enzymes, which led to the sequencing of 

genomes from two thermophilic species, Myceliophthora thermophila and 

Thielavia terrestris. Until now, there has been no genetically tractable model either 

for this family, or more generally, for thermophilic fungi. We have characterized 

reproduction in the thermophile Myceliophthora heterothallica towards 

the goals of establishing this organism as a model for the group and developing it 

as an expression platform. M. heterothallica was reported to be heterothallic 

based on the fact that matings between two strains resulted in the production of 

fruiting bodies and ascospores. Prior to our work, however, heterothallism had not 

been confirmed with independent assortment of mating loci and autosomal genes. 

We speculate that this lack of confirmation of true heterothallism resulted from a 

failure to obtain ascospore germination. We found that ascospores are resistant to 

germination at temperatures below 47-50 ° C. This discovery allowed us to confirm 

heterothallism and analyze the segregation of markers in crosses. Sequences 

from opposite mating types show that mating regions are conserved relative to 

other Sordariales. Interestingly, different stages of development have different 

temperature optima: ascospore germination occurs at 47 ° C and above, ascocarp 

formation is optimal at 30 ° C, and growth is optimal at 45 ° C. We have successfully 

crossed M. heterothallica strains from Indiana, New Mexico and Germany, 

and we are expanding the number of known strains by surveying across latitudinal 

and elevation gradients. In addition, we are developing methods for transformation 

and gene replacement. Our goal is to develop M. heterothallica as a model 

organism to study fundamental aspects of thermophily and the biology of Chaetomiaceae. 

Hwang, Jonathan 1 , Qi Zhao 2 , Zhuliang Yang 2 , Zheng Wang 1 , and Jeffrey P 

Townsend 1 . 1 Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, Yale University, 

165 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA, 2 Key Laboratory of Biodiversity 

and Biogeography, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of 

Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China. Ecological diversification of saddle fungi: 

Helvella indicated by phylogeny and secondary structure of ITS sequences 

from annotated collections and environmental samples 

Saddle fungi Helvella (Helvellaceae, Pezizomycotina) species are morphologically 

well-defined and have been intensively studied for their taxonomy 

and classification. Ecological roles as being saprotrophic or mycorrhizal have 

been suggested with indirect evidence, including molecular data from environmental 

samples, for some species in the genus. Recent molecular phylogenies 


based on internal transcribed spacer of rDNA (ITS) did not support morphological 

groupings; however, a robust phylogeny of ITS was not achieved due the large 

divergence observed among Helvella ITS sequences, which makes a dependable 

alignment of representative ITS sequences in the genus out of reach of traditional 

alignment programs. In this study, we applied SATé, a software that combines 

progressive alignment and tree building to build so far the most inclusive ITS 

alignment for annotated Helvella species and their related environmental ITS sequences. 

Estimated secondary structures for selected ITS2 sequences verified the 

robustness of the phylogeny based on the best SATé alignment. Our results suggested 

a high homoplasious similarity in key morphologies in Helvella, and morphological 

groupings of the genus do not reflect the true evolutionary histories 

within the group. ITS phylogeny including environmental samples also provides 

strong evidence that ectomycorrhizal association is maintained in a clade of 

Helvella and diversified to adapt for different hosts and geographic conditions. 

However, saprotrophic life styles in other Helvella species requires expanded 

metagenomic investigation on plant materials and soil samples, as no single ITS 

sequence was recovered from studies examining various soil samples for those 

common fungi. 

Isiloglu, Mustafa, Hakan Alli, and Hayrunisa Bas Sermenli. Mugla University 

Dept. of Biology, Campus, Mugla, Turkey. The Ecology of Morchella anatolica 

Morchella anatolica Isiloglu, Spooner, Alli & Solak was described in 

2010 from a very interesting area in Mugla, Turkey. In this paper, its remarkable 

and unique ecology is discussed. 

James, Timothy Y 1* , Adrian Pelin 2 , Stefan Amyotte 2 , Courtney S Frye 1 , Nicolas 

Corradi 2 , and Jason E Stajich 3 . 1 Dept. of Ecology and Evol. Biol., University 

of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA, 2 Dept. of Biology, University of Ottawa, 

Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5, 3 Dept. of Plant Pathology and 

Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521 USA. The biology 

and phylogeny of Rozella (phylum Cryptomycota) revealed by genome sequencing 

The enigmatic genus Rozella is a chytrid-like endoparasite of water molds 

that is related to a diverse array of organisms (Cryptomycota) known only from 

environmental DNA sequences. Rozella and other Cryptomycota are suggested to 

lack a chitinous cell wall during at least part of their trophic phase. We produced 

a draft genome sequence for Rozella using a combination of next generation sequencing 

technologies. Rozella possesses at least 5 chitin synthase genes that it 

uses during both resting sporangium formation and host invasion. The mitochondrial 

genome of Rozella is reduced in size and gene content, displaying a genome 

remarkably convergent with that of Plasmodium. A phylogenomic analysis confirms 

the placement of Rozella on the primary (earliest diverging) branch of the 

fungal kingdom along with other Cryptomycota such as microsporidia. The nuclear 

genome, however, has not undergone the major reduction in coding potential 

as observed in microsporidia. 

Jarvis, Susan G 1,2 , Andy F S Taylor 1,2 , Ian J Alexander 1 , and Steve Woodward 

1 . 1 School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 

3UU, UK, 2 The James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, 

UK. Community composition of ectomycorrhizal fungi along a climatic gradient 

in Scotland 

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi play fundamental roles in forest ecosystems 

through tree nutrition and nutrient cycling. Understanding the responses of 

ECM fungi to environmental change will be important to maintain forest productivity 

for the future. Assessing the distribution of ECM communities along existing 

large-scale environmental gradients provides an insight into the environmental 

factors driving community composition. Previous studies have suggested 

nitrogen deposition to be the main environmental driver of ECM community variation 

over large-scale gradients in Europe. However, these studies have included 

areas with very high nitrogen deposition, which can dramatically alter ECM communities, 

and this may have masked any climatic effect on these communities. In 

Scotland nitrogen deposition varies with latitude but is less severe than in continental 

Europe, with total nitrogen deposition below 20 kg N ha -1 yr -1 in most 

areas. Utilising the latitudinal gradient in nitrogen deposition and a longitudinal 

climate gradient a survey of the ECM fungi present on the roots of native Scots 

pine (Pinus sylvestris) across Scotland was conducted to assess the relative impacts 

of climate and moderate nitrogen deposition on ECM community composition. 

Ectomycorrhizal pine roots were collected from 15 native pinewoods and 

fungal species were identified from root tips by sequencing of the ITS rDNA region. 

Non-metric multidimensional scaling of community composition and vector 

fitting of 17 climatic, nitrogen and soil chemistry variables identified temperature 

and rainfall variables to be correlated with the primary axis of community 

variation. Nitrogen deposition was shown to have little influence on community 


composition, although there was some effect of total soil nitrogen. This work 

highlights the potential for climate to influence ECM fungal communities and the 

need to understand the impacts, and possible interactions, of multiple drivers on 

community composition. 

Je, Hee Jeong, Chak Han Im, Na Hee Kwon, Mi Jin Kim, Min Keun Kim, Ki 

Kwan Park, and Jae San Ryu. Eco-friendliness Research Department, 

Gyeongsangnam-do Agricultural Research and Extension Services, Jinju 660- 

360, Republic of Korea. Colorimetric method for discriminating abnormal 

strains of Flammulina velutipes and SSR markers linked to the defective 

symptoms 

Winter mushroom, F. velutipes is one of the most popular mushrooms in 

Asian countries, including Korea, Japan, and China. The strain is preserved on 

slants or under mineral oil in mushroom farms, but occasionally it degenerates by 

unknown reasons, resulting in loss in yield and malformation. Therefore, a 

method is needed that is easy enough to be managed by farmers to detect abnormal 

strains using a pH indicator and carbon source. Media including MCM, PDA, 

YP supplemented with 0.5% of carbon sources (sawdust, lactose Avicel, CMC, 

etc) and pH indicators (bromothymol blue, congo red, methyl orange, bromocresol 

green, methyl red, bromocresol purple, phenol red, and bromophenol blue) 

were tested for addressing difference between normality and abnormality of 

strains. YP supplemented popular sawdust and BTB was useful to detect 2 highly 

abnormal and 6 slightly abnormal strains that were undetectable by the previous 

method. 275 SSRs were identified to design primers and to develop markers 

linked to the defective symptoms. 2 SSR markers showing a polymorphism between 

normal and abnormal strains were screened. The difference in length of 

bands was just 4 - 8 bases, so an automatic electrophoresis system will be required 

to detect such a small difference. 

Jenkinson, Thomas S 1,2 , Brian A Perry 3 , Rainier E Schaefer 1 , and Dennis E 

Desjardin 1 . 1 Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway 

Ave., San Francisco, CA 94132, 2 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary 

Biology, University of Michigan, 830 North Universty Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 

48109, 3 Department of Biology, University of Hawaii, Hilo, 200 West Kawili St., 

Hilo, HI 96720. Cryptomarasmius gen. nov. is proposed in the Physalacriaceae 

to accommodate members of Marasmius section Hygrometrici 

Phylogenetic placement of the infrageneric section Hygrometrici (genus 

Marasmius sensu stricto) in prior molecular phylogenetic studies have been unresolved 

and problematical. Molecular analyses based on newly generated ribosomal 

nuc-LSU and 5.8S sequences resolve members of section Hygrometrici to 

the family Physalacriaceae, within the Agaricales. The new genus Cryptomarasmius 

is proposed in the Physalacriaceae to accommodate members of Marasmius 

section Hygrometrici. Taxonomic transfers of fourteen species within section Hygrometrici 

are recommended to reflect phylogenetic affinity. 

Johnson, Eric M, Eric D Tretter, Prasanna Kandel, and Merlin M White. Boise 

State University, Dept. of Biological Sciences, 1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 

83725. Molecular-based phylogenetic placement of the Asellariales, an enigmatic 

order of arthropod gut endosymbionts 

The order Asellariales is comprised of three genera, Asellaria, Orcheselleria, 

and Baltomyces, which are endosymbionts in the guts of isopods and springtails. 

Ultrastructural studies suggest placement of Asellariales in the subphylum 

Kickxellomycotina, and life history further suggests a relationship to the Harpellales, 

an order of insect gut endosymbionts. However, placement of the Asellariales 

at any level has eluded verification due to a lack of molecular data. Attempts 

to obtain gene sequences for any member of the Asellariales have been seriously 

hindered for a variety reasons, including sparse DNA samples due to the microscopic 

size of the specimens; lack of culturability; and contaminating DNA from 

the host animal as well as other fungi, bacteria, and even host food material in the 

gut. Here we report the successful amplification and sequencing of partial sequences 

of 5 genes (SSU and LSU rDNA, RPB1, RPB2, B-tubulin) for Asellaria 

ligiae, as well as a single gene (LSU rDNA) for Orchesellaria mauguoi. We 

also describe the development and use of custom primers to obtain the sequences, 

as well as the unusual nature of A. ligiae rDNA and challenges associated with it. 

Finally, we can place representatives of the Asellariales using Bayesian inference 

on the basis of molecular data from Asellaria and Orchesellaria. 

Johnson, Lynnaun 1 , Shiloh Lueschow 1 , Jason Stonewall 1 , Robert McCleery 2 , 

Rod McClanahan 3 , Joseph Kath 4 , and Andrea Porras-Alfaro 1 . 1 Biological Sciences, 

Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL 61455, 2 Wildlife Ecology and 

Conservation PO Box 110430, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611- 

0430, 3 4 

USDA Forest Service, Shawnee National Forest, Harrisburg, IL 62946, 

Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Springfield, IL 62702-1271. Description 

of mycobiomes associated with three species of bats in Illinois 

Geomyces destructans is the causative agent of Geomycosis better known 

as White Nose Syndrome (WNS). This fungus was documented in 2009 as a 

novel fungal species. Since 2006 it has killed more than a million bats to date with 

losses in bat populations of 75% or more in the northeastern United States. 

Though hypotheses suggest that G. destructans originated in Europe, the fungus 

currently shows no serious threat to European bats. With the high mortality 

caused by WNS in North America, much focus has been placed on the fungus G. 

destructans and current literature is lacking detailed analysis about the composition 

and structure of fungal communities (mycobiomes) in healthy bats. The main 

objectives of this project are 1) to document fungal flora of hibernating bats in 

northern IL caves, 2) to determine the presence of other potential Geomyces 

species and pathogens amongst bats. We sampled 30 bats including Myotis 

septentrionalis, Myotis sodalis, Perimyotis subflavus from four hibernacula within 

Illinois (before WNS arrival) and we isolated and sequenced 141 fungi using 

ITS primers. We found approximately 53 OTUs at 97% similarity. Fungi associated 

with bats were primarily dominated by Ascomycota (72% of the OTUs). 

Dominant orders include Eurotiales, Hypocreales, Capnodiales, Pleosporales and 

Sordariales. Common species isolated from bats included Cladosporium, Geomyces, 

Fusarium, Mortierella, Penicillium and Trichosporon. Thirteen Geomyces 

isolates were obtained from different bat species and phylogenetic analysis 

indicated at least three potential novel Geomyces clades. Temperature tests 

showed all Geomyces isolates were psychrotolerant, different than G. destructans, 

a psychrophilic fungus. The widespread distribution of Geomyces among bat mycobiomes 

can lead to false positives when detecting WNS. The role of these diverse 

bat mycobiome and their potential pathogenicity and interactions with G. 

destructans will require further analysis. 

Jumper, Katherine E 1 , Nishanta Rajakaruna 2 , and David Porter 3 . 1 122 Cottage 

Street Bar Harbor, ME 04609, 2 College of the Atlantic 105 Eden Street Bar Harbor, 

ME 04609, 3 Department of Plant Biology University of Georgia Athens, GA 

30602. Diversity and heavy metal content of macrofungi found on serpentine 

andgranite outcrops, Deer Isles, Maine, USA 

Fungal diversity in relation to edaphic conditions has rarely been studied. 

We are conducting a year-long comparative survey of macrofungi on serpentine 

and granite outcrops to determine whether there are differences in fungal biodiversity 

based on edaphic factors, and whether fungi tissue differ in heavy metal 

content based on the substrate upon which they are found. Previous studies we 

have conducted document differences in diversity of lichens, bryophytes, and vascular 

plants at these two sites, including significant differences in heavy metal accumulation 

in vascular plant species found at both sites. Serpentine soils contain 

high amounts of heavy metals and low amounts of essential nutrients and are a 

challenging environment for plant growth. Serpentine outcrops are known to harbor 

many rare and endemic plants, but very little is known about the ecology of 

macrofungi in serpentine habitats. We predict that we will find differences in 

species diversity between the two outcrops, reflecting differing abilities in the fungal 

species to adapt to the contrasting soil conditions. The poster presents our experimental 

design and findings from preliminary collections made during fall of 

2011 and spring of 2012. 

Jumpponen, Ari. Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, 

KS66506. Tallgrass prairie soil microbial communities are resilient to climate 

change 

Climate models for central United States predict increasing temperatures 

and greater variability in precipitation. Combined, these shifts in environmental 

conditions are likely to impact many ecosystem properties and services. The existing 

Rainfall Manipulation Plots (RaMPs) experiment permits addressing address 

soil microbial community responses to simultaneous manipulation of temperature 

and temporal variability in precipitation. The RaMPs experiment is 

located in the tallgrass prairie at Konza Prairie Biological Station and has been operational 

since 1998 providing therefore a potential to address soil community responses 

to environmental manipulations in the long term. To test whether community 

composition, richness, or diversity respond to environmental change, 

more than 100,000 bacterial and fungal amplicons across 48 experimental units 

were 454-sequenced. The acquired data suggest that the soil communities are 

compositionally resilient to predicted environmental changes. This is the case 

both for the communities overall as inferred from ordination analyses as well as 

analyses of variance for each of the most common Operational Taxonomic Units 

(OTUs). However, while seemingly compositionally resilient, other data sources 

as well as on-going functional assays strongly indicate functional shifts in these 

communities. 

Justo, Alfredo. Clark University. Biology Department. 950 Main St, 01610, 

Worcester (MA). Lepiotaceous fungi (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota) in Northeastern 

North America 

Collections of Lepiotaceous fungi (Lepiota and allied genera in the Agaricaceae) 

made in the Northeastern U.S.A between 2009-2011 were studied using 



morphological and molecular (nrITS) data. Two taxa are currently under revision 

and probably represent undescribed species: (i) Lepiota novae-angliae, nom. 

prov., recorded from Massachusetts and New Hampshire closely resembles L. 

clypeolaria in morphology but it’s ITS sequences do not match those of L. clypeolaria 

or any of the species of sect. Lepiota currently available in GenBank; (ii) 

Leucoagaricus allochthonus, nom. prov., was recorded in an indoors (greenhouse-like) 

garden in central Massachusetts and is probably a tropical alien 

species. Microscopically, it is characterized by the presence of pleurocystidia, a 

feature only shared by 3-4 other species in the very diverse Leucoagaricus/Leucocoprinus 

lineage (> 100 described species). Molecular data confirmed the presence 

of widespread cosmopolitan species in our area (e.g. Lepiota cristata, Leucoagaricus 

leucothites) but also revealed molecular differences between isolates 

of northeastern lepiotaceous fungi (e.g. Leucoagaricus rubrotinctus, Lepiota felina) 

and GenBank sequences deposited under the same name but with a different 

geographic origin. 

Kaffenberger, Justin T and Jonathan S Schilling. Department of Bioproducts 

and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, 2004 Folwell Avenue, St. 

Paul, MN 55108. Insights into the potential diversity of the brown rot decay 

mechanism provided by substrate compositional analysis 

Wood-degrading fungi are typically designated by the type of decay that 

they produce: the two main types being brown rot and white rot. While much effort 

has been put into understanding the biochemical mechanism by which brownrot 

occurs, the process remains poorly understood. Evidence suggests that brownrot 

fungi incorporate a Fenton reaction-based oxidation to rapidly de-polymerize 

substrate components and several mechanisms incorporating Fenton chemistry 

have been proposed. These proposed mechanisms have been based largely on 

studies performed on only a few brown-rot species. The polyphyletic nature of 

brown-rot, however, suggests that there may be several routes to brown rot decay. 

While these fungi all ultimately produce brown decay residues, details regarding 

the chemical composition of these residues over the course of degradation have 

not been explored. Details regarding this chemistry may elucidate similarities and 

differences in the nature of underlying decay mechanisms. To this end, one representative 

from each of the known seven clades of brown rot fungi (Gloeophyllum 

trabeum, Fomitopsis pinicola, Ossicaulis lignatilis, Serpula lacrymans, Fistulina 

hepatica, Wolfiporia cocos, and Dacryopinax sp.) were used to decay 

representative hardwood (Populus tremuloides), softwood (Pinus radiata), and 

grass (Zea mays) species. Compositional analyses of the residues were performed 

at six time points over the course of 4 months of exposure. Details of these compositions 

and their implications are discussed. 

Kauserud, Håvard 1 , Einar Heegaard 2 , Ulf Büntgen 3 , Simon Egli 3 , Rune 

Halvorsen 4 , and Lynne Boddy 5 . 1 Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), 

Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316 

Oslo, Norway, 2 Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Fanaflaten 4, N-5244 

Fana, Norway, 3 Swiss Federal Research Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape 

(WSL), Birmensdorf, Switzerland, 4 Department of Research and Collections, 

Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, PO Box 1172 Blindern, NO-0318 

Oslo, Norway, 5 Cardiff School of Biosciences, Biomedical Building, Museum 

Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK. Temporal patterns of fungal fruiting reveal 

ongoing climate change effects 

Effects of climate change on fungi may manifest in various ways. Time 

of fruiting may change, yields of fruit bodies can be altered and distributional 

ranges of species may shift. We are studying these three aspects using statistical 

analyses of time series data and digitized field and herbarium records. We show 

that the annual fruiting period across Europe has changed during the last 50 years. 

In Austria, Norway, Switzerland and the UK, the average annual fruiting time of 

autumn fruiters has been delayed. Moreover, the start and end of the annual fruiting 

period, using the 5 and 95 percentiles as proxies, have changed towards earlier 

and later, respectively. Changes in fruiting time have been especially dramatic 

in the UK, which deviates from the other regions by a more oceanic climate. Time 

series data from a Swiss forest plot indicates that the annual yields of ectomycorrhizal 

fruit bodies has increased dramatically during the last 40 years. We hypothesize 

that changes in the regional climate, including higher temperatures and 

more precipitation, can be linked to the increased fruit body yields. In another ongoing 

study we are exploring the extent to which fungi in the UK have shifted distributional 

ranges during the last 50 years and whether this can be linked to climate 

change. 

Kepler, Ryan M 1 , Jonathan Shao 2 , and Stephen A Rehner 1 . 1 Systematic Mycology 

2 

and Microbiology Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Beltsville, MD, 20705, 

Molecular Plant Pathology Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Beltsville, MD, 20705. 

Genome-enabled marker development for evolutionary studies of the insect 

pathogen Metarhizium 

Genome sequence resources for fungi enable development of custom genetic 

markers scaled to specific evolutionary inferences that improve greatly on 


information derived from the more limited set of generic legacy genetic markers. 

Using recently available genome sequences for M. anisopliae and M. acridum, we 

have developed a suite of novel genetic markers for investigating cryptic speciation, 

phylogeography and population genetics within Metarhizium s.l. To exploit 

the inherent variability of nuclear intergenic (nucIGS) regions we have created a 

simple graphical approach to visually scan for variable nucIGS regions flanked by 

conserved gene sequences that can serve as anchors for robust primer development. 

Using pairwise alignments of selected genomic scaffolds from the two 

species created in the Mummer 3.0 genome alignment program, a simple script 

was developed that tabulates the number of SNPs via a scalable sliding window 

function, facilitating visualization of trends in nucleotide substitutions and similarity 

between syntenic genomic regions among pairs of sequences. We describe 

the development of novel markers developed using this approach and demonstrate 

their utility to infer cryptic phylogenetic partitions previously missed or poorly resolved 

by pre-existing phylogenetic markers. We demonstrate the superior performance 

of these new versus preexisting markers by comparison of their phylogenetic 

informativeness using PhyDesign and Genealogical Sorting Indices. In 

addition we: 1) summarize the numbers, types and genomic distribution of microsatellite 

markers and compare these to those developed by enrichment methods, 

and 2) discuss the mating locus and development of improved mating type 

assignment PCR assays. Through selected examples we illustrate the improvements 

in evolutionary inference achieved with these newly developed genetic 

markers. 

Kerekes, Jennifer F 1 , Michael Kaspari 2 , Bradley S Stevenson 3 , and Thomas D 

Bruns 1 . 1 111 Koshland Hall, Dept. of Plant and Microbial Biology, UC Berkeley, 

Berkeley CA 94720, USA, 2 Graduate Program in EEB, Dept. of Zoology, 

University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA, 3 Graduate Program in EEB, 

Dept. of Botany and Microbiology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, 

USA. Nutrient enrichment increased species richness of leaf litter fungal 

communities in a diverse lowland tropical forest 

We explored leaf litter fungal diversity in a diverse lowland tropical forest 

in which a replicated factorial N, P, K, micronutrient fertilization experiment 

of 40 x 40 m plots had been on going for nine years. Fertilized plots were compared 

with control plots that did not receive fertilization to evaluate possible nutrient 

effects on leaf litter fungal communities. We extracted DNA from leaf litter 

samples collected on the Gigante peninsula, Barro Colorado Nature Monument 

(BCNM), Republic of Panama and used fungal-specific amplification and a 454 

pyrosequencing approach to sequence two loci, the nuclear ribosomal internal 

transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the nuclear ribosomal large subunit (LSU) D1 

region. Overall, both the ITS and LSU gene regions had similar results. The use 

of two separate gene regions for the analysis provided a complimentary look at 

the data. Ascomycota (including approximately 29 orders, 44 families, and 88 

genera) are the dominant phylum among the leaf litter fungi, followed by Basidiomycota 

(including approximately 31 orders, 38 families and 52 genera). The 

long-term addition of nutrients increased species richness relative to the control 

plots, and had an effect on the taxonomic composition of the leaf litter fungal 

communities at lower taxonomic levels (i.e. family, genus and species), but not at 

higher taxonomic levels (i.e. phylum, class and order). Nitrogen has the largest effect, 

followed by phosphorus and potassium. 

Kerrigan, Julia and Virginia Waldrop. School of Agricultural, Forest, and Environmental 

Sciences, 114 Long Hall, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634- 

0310. Biofilm formation by Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium pullulans, and 

Cladosporium cladosporioides 

A biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms adhered together, to each 

other and to a substrate, surrounded by an extracellular matrix. Biofilms are ubiquitous, 

occurring in natural and artificial water systems, and are of great concern 

because of their persistence in industrial, medical, and household environments. 

Although bacterial biofilm research is well established, fungal biofilm research is 

comparatively new and the vast majority of the research has been conducted on 

yeasts. This research was undertaken to develop a repeatable system for studying 

biofilm formation by different types of filamentous fungi and to document their 

phenotypic changes throughout biofilm development. Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium 

pullulans, and Cladosporium cladosporioides were studied because 

they are cosmopolitan, commonly found in biofilms, and have characteristic culture 

morphology allowing for easy detection of contaminants. We established a 

method for engineering biofilms in a controlled reactor that models those growing 

under low sheer. This method can be modified for different types of filamentous 

fungi and other microbes. The first stage of filamentous fungal biofilm formation 

involves spore attachment and germination. Hyphal tip growth produces 

an extracellular polysaccharide that helps the fungus grow and allows for attachment 

within the liquid environment. Hyphae form an interconnected network that 

attaches to itself and other surfaces. As hyphal proliferation continues, spores are 

produced, germinate, and give rise to additional biofilm mass. A mature biofilm 


is composed of a confluent mucilaginous hyphal matrix covered with conidia; 

however, the morphological changes during biofilm formation vary substantially 

among the species. The establishment of a repeatable filamentous fungus biofilm 

formation system and understanding the morphological steps involved in biofilm 

formation allow for future studies on how to prevent and remove them. 

Kim, Seong Hwan 1 , Hyuk Woo Kwon 1 , Min Woo Hyun 1 , Gi-Ho Sung 2 , and 

Hyung-Kyoon Choi 3 . 1 Department of Microbiology, Dankook University, Cheonan, 

Chungnam 330-714, Korea, 2 2Mushroom Research Division, National Institute 

of Horticultural and Herbal Science, Rural Development Administration, 

Suwon 441-707, Korea, 3 College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 

156-756, Korea. Microscopic analysis of Cordyceps bassiana (anamorph 

stage: Beauveria bassiana) stromata during artificial cultivation for commercial 

Use 

Cordyceps bassianais is an insect-borne medicinal fungus that has recently 

been cultivated artificially. To determine the proper time for harvesting 

fruit bodies of C. bassiana with commercial value, stereo and scanning electron 

microscopic images of perithecium formation on stomata were analyzed during 

13 weeks of artificial cultivation. Perithecia formation initiated on the stromata 

after 5 weeks in culture. After 6 weeks they were nearly mature on the stromata 

but ascospores had not been released. Fully matured perithecia producing ascospores 

were found on the stromata after 7 weeks. The best looking morphological 

features of fruit bodies with good commercial value were found after 6 to 7 

weeks culture. The highest level of total phenolics content was obtained from fruit 

bodies after 6 weeks culture. Our work suggests the formation and degree of 

perithecia maturity could be determined according to fruit body development and 

applied as a criterion for harvest time determination in the production of secondary 

metabolites from artificially grown C. bassiana stromata. 

Kluting, Kerri L 1 , Sarah E Bergemann 1 , and Timothy J Baroni 2 . 1 Middle Tennessee 

State University, Biology Department, PO Box 60, Murfreesboro TN 

37132, 2 State University of New York, College at Cortland, Department of Biological 

Sciences, PO Box 2000, Cortland NY 13045. Resolving the generic 

boundaries within the Rhodocybe/Clitopilus clade (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota) 

The Entolomataceae (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota) is a highly diverse 

assemblage of euagarics with well over 1000 taxa worldwide. These macrofungi 

are recognized as a cohesive unit by their pink or flesh brown basidiospores 

that are angular in polar view, have some form of a ridged or pustulate ornamentation 

and the walls of the spores are evenly cyanophilic. Recent published phylogenetic 

analyses support the separation of these taxa into two clades, typically 

referred to as the ‘Entoloma’ and ‘Rhodocybe/Clitopilus’ clades. The 

Rhodocybe/Clitopilus clade is the focus of our investigation, as a recent publication 

suggests that the genus Rhodocybe (pustulate spores) should be subsumed 

under the genus Clitopilus (longitudinally ridged spores) in order to form a monophyletic 

clade. Our goal is to conduct a systematic revision of the Rhodocybe/Clitopilus 

clade, focusing on delimitation of generic boundaries using a phylogenetic 

framework. Initial efforts have focused on obtaining sequences of 

mitochondrial and low-copy nuclear loci [mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal 

RNA (mtSSU) and ATPase subunit 6 (ATP6), the nuclear RNA polymerase second 

largest subunit (RPB2) and the translation elongation factor alpha gene 

(TEF)] to define the generic boundaries. To date, we have sequenced and performed 

a phylogenetic analysis utilizing 86 collections of Clitopilus and 

Rhodocybe. The results of our combined analysis of the four genes provide significant 

support for the delineation of the following clades within Rhodocybe: i) a 

clade containing Clitopilopsis hirneola (formerly as Rhodocybe hirneola); ii) a 

fallax/mundula/popinalis clade nested between Clitopilus and Clitopilopsis; iii) a 

Rhodocybe s.s. clade with several Rhodocybe taxa, including the type for the 

genus, R. caelata and; iv) a clade containing R. nitellina. A discussion of possible 

scenarios to explain evolution in the Rhodocybe/Clitopilus clade will be presented. 

Koch, Rachel A 1 , Terry W Henkel 2 , and M Catherine Aime 1 . 1 Department of 

Plant Pathology and Crop Physiology, Louisiana State University Agricultural 

Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 USA, 2 Department of Biological Sciences, 

Humboldt State University, Arcata, California 95521 USA. Resolving the 

phylogenetic relationship between Armillaria and the newly discovered 

genus Guyanagaster 

Recent mycological work in the remote Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana 

uncovered Guyanagaster necrorhiza, a new gasteromycete genus and species in 

the Physalacriaceae (Agaricales). The original study showed that Guyanagaster is 

most closely related to the agaricoid genus Armillaria and has a similar root parasitism/wood 

decay habit. While Armillaria species exhibit typical lamellate 

mushroom morphologies Guyanagaster basidiomata are entirely sequestrate with 

a thick, hard peridium, tough, decay-resistant gleba with highly modified hymenium 

and heavily ornamented basidiospores, and a short stipe attached directly to 

root substrata. Molecular phylogenetic analyses using different gene regions and 

varying numbers of taxa were, however, not in complete agreement as to the exact 

relationship between Guyanagaster and Armillaria; some analyses suggested that 

Guyanagaster is sister to Armillaria, whereas others indicated that Guyanagaster 

is nested within Armillaria. To better understand the phylogenetic relationships of 

Guyanagaster and Armillaria within the Physalacriaceae as well as implications 

for evolution of basidioma forms, we built an expanded three-gene supermatrix 

(ITS, LSU and EF1a) from an increased number of Armillaria species, Guyanagaster, 

and other exemplar Physalacriaceae taxa. A maximum likelihood analysis 

of these data suggested that Guyanagaster may be derived from within Armillaria, 

a result consistent with demonstrated origins of sequestrate taxa within other 

lamellate lineages. In light of these results we feel that retaining generic status for 

Guyanagaster is warranted due to its extreme morphological divergence from 

Armillaria; such an approach will, however, render Armillaria sensu lato paraphyletic. 

We also present a new species of Armillaria that occurs sympatrically 

with Guyanagaster and is the first record of an Armillaria species in Guyana. 

Kozanitas, Melina, Todd W Osmundson, and Matteo Garbelotto. Forest Mycology 

and Pathology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and 

Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. Temporal 

fluctuations and the role of disturbance in disease progression of the Sudden 

Oak Death epidemic 

With its high host mortality and ability to cause landscape-scale alterations 

in forest cover and composition, Sudden Oak Death (etiological agent 

Phytophthora ramorum, Stramenopila, Oomycota) mirrors past forest disease 

epidemics such as Chestnut Blight and Dutch Elm Disease. In contrast with these 

past epidemics, however, the appearance of Sudden Oak Death converges with a 

time of significant advancement in the development of molecular genetic tools 

that allow the movement of individuals (or individual genotypes) to be tracked 

and the role of evolutionary processes in disease progression to be assessed. Such 

methods have been instrumental in reconstructing the likely origins and geographic 

pathways of spread of the pathogen; however, little is yet known about 

the local-scale processes contributing to disease maintenance and progression. 

Since 2008, we have surveyed a network of sampling plots in the San Francisco 

Bay Area multiple times per year in order to examine seasonal patterns in the incidence 

and population genetic structure of infection foci. A period of severe 

drought in 2007-2009 followed by a period of normal to above-normal precipitation 

in 2010-2011 provide a significant opportunity to examine the effects of abiotic 

disturbance on disease progression. Here, we present recent and ongoing research 

focused on assessing seasonal patterns in genotypic diversity of viable 

infections that can act as reservoirs of new infectious propagules, assessing the effect 

of drought as a potential agent of selection on pathogen genotypes, examining 

the relationship between infections on dead-end (Oak) and amplifying (California 

Bay Laurel) hosts, and assessing the possible role of competitive 

interactions with sympatric Phytophthora species (P. pseurosyringae, P. 

nemorosa) using culture-based surveys, culture-independent (qPCR) assays, and 

analyses of population genetic structure (based on variable microsatellite loci) to 

infer the underlying processes of pathogen demographic expansion, contraction 

and spread. 

Krüger, Dirk 1 , Björn Hoppe 1 , Witoon Purahong 1 , Danuta Kapturska 1 , Kristin 

Baber 2 , Marek Pecyna 3 , Tobias Arnstadt 3 , Renate Rudloff 1 , Harald Kellner 3 , 

Peter Otto 2 , Tiemo Kahl 4 , François Buscot 1 , Jürgen Bauhus 4 , and Martin 

Hofrichter 3 . 1 UFZ - Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department 

of Soil Ecology, Th.-Lieser-Str. 4, D-06120 Halle/Saale, Germany, 2 University 

of Leipzig, Institute of Biology I, Herbarium Universitatis Lipsiensis (LZ), Johannisallee 

21-23, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany, 3 International Graduate School 

Zittau – IHI, Markt 23, D-02763 Zittau, Germany, 4 University of Freiburg, Institute 

of Silviculture, Tennenbacherstr. 4, D-79085 Freiburg i. Brsg., Germany. 

Overview of research activities of the FunWood and FuPerS project consortia 

of the German Biodiversity Exploratories: fungal and bacterial diversity 

and wood and litter decay 

In forests ecosystems, coarse woody debris (CWD, a.k.a. dead wood) and 

litter are dominant habitats rich in lignin and cellulose. Their degradation, mainly 

by Fungi, is an important part of nutrient cycling. Intensive use of forests for timber 

production increases loss of CWD, thus may affect the diversity of organisms 

sharing this habitat. The FunWood project of the DFG (German Science Foundation) 

Biodiversity Exploratories investigates the postulated effect of forest management 

intensity on the diversity of wood-decaying fungi and dead wood decomposition. 

In the first project phase the fungal diversity was approached both 

by molecular biological methods (fingerprinting and sequencing of clone libraries) 

and surveying fruit bodies. In addition, preliminary investigations on bacterial 

diversity, including nitrogen fixation genes (nifH), were performed. Potentially 

new bacteria were identified by nifH. The follow-up, second phase of this 

project (started 2011) scales up the study on wood decay fungi to encompass 150 



plots in all three exploratory locations (Schwäbische Alb, Hainich-Dün, 

Schorfheide-Chorin). Thirteen species of trees whose logs were placed there as 

the BeLongDead experiment are now included. A two-year experiment of adding 

nitrogen to dead wood was also initiated. We discuss some results of phase 1 and 

some planned activities in phase 2. In addition, some current aspects of a related 

project, FuPerS, studying leaf litter degradation, are discussed. 

LeBlanc, Nicholas, Linda Kinkel, and H Corby Kistler. Department of Plant 

Pathology, University of Minnesota, 495 Borlaug Hall 1991 Upper Buford Circle, 

St. Paul, MN 55108. Soil fungal lineages respond to host plant identity and 

community diversity in a model grassland system 

Grassland soils are known to harbor diverse fungal communities but the 

effects of host plant identity and the diversity of the surrounding plant community 

on these fungi is unknown. We have focused on rhizosphere fungal communities 

in a model grassland system using targeted metagenomics and well-annotated 

reference material for taxonomic assignment. A total of twenty-four samples 

were analyzed from hosts grown in monoculture or polyculture. Hosts included 

Big Bluestem, Little Bluestem, Round-Headed Bush Clover, and Sundial Lupine. 

We hypothesized that host family (grasses and legumes) and plant community diversity 

(monoculture and polyculture) would influence fungal community compositions 

and diversity. Amplicon libraries, derived from rhizosphere DNA, were 

sequenced using 454 technology. Sequences were aligned to a custom database of 

4030 unique accessions published in phylogenetic studies, derived from genome 

databases, and obtained from the AFTOL consortium. Initial NCBI taxon IDs 

were used to assign reads to higher taxonomies using Perl scripts. Approximately 

800 fungal genera were detected from the prairie soils. More diverse fungal 

communities were associated with hosts grown in polyculture. Many of the assigned 

taxonomies represent slow-growing, poorly- studied fungi, such as 

Chaetothyriales and Verrucariales, which were enriched in the grass rhizosphere. 

Other taxa, like Helotiales, were preferentially enriched in more diverse plant 

communities but also significantly correlated with soil potassium. This work 

highlights the first steps towards linking plant host and community diversity with 

the abundance of root-associated fungi that likely play important, but poorly understood 

roles in plant growth and development. 

Lehr, Nina A 1 , Zheng Wang 1 , Francesc Lopez-Giraldez 1 , Ning Li 1 , Frances 

Trail 2 , and Jeffrey Townsend 1 . 1 2 

Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA, 

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA. The importance of 

carotenoids for sexual development of fungi 

Carotenoids are terpenes which belong to the most widespread group of 

compounds in nature and which are produced by plants, bacteria and fungi. Terpenes 

fulfill diverse functions such as protection against reactive oxygen species 

(ROS) and are beneficial for the nutrition of humans and animals. The orange pigmentation 

of the fungus Neurospora crassa derives from the accumulation of the 

xanthophyll neurosporaxanthine and other precursor carotenoids in response to 

asexual spore development upon exposure to light. Carotenoid biosynthesis in N. 

crassa has been studied intensively and it is known that blue light controls induction 

of carotenoid production in the mycelium, formation of protoperithecia as 

well as phototropism of perithecial beaks and perithecial polarity. Carotenoid 

biosynthesis involves five different enzymes, amongst which are three “albino” 

genes al-1, al-2 and al-3, encoding enzymes essential for carotenogenesis but not 

for growth. In its life cycle, Neurospora undergoes either an asexual or a sexual 

phase depending on environmental conditions. The asexual phase results in hyphal 

growth leading to the formation of macro- and microconidia while in the sexual 

phase complex, three-dimensional fruiting bodies, perithecia, are formed. So 

far there is no information on the linkage between carotenoid biosynthesis and the 

sexual life cycle. We have performed Illumina next generation sequencing of 

three Neurospora species over the time course of sexual development, followed 

by a comparative gene expression analysis with a pipeline we have generated to 

measure the levels of gene expression. We have quantified the amount of total 

carotenoids present in the mycelium at each individual time point. A screen of 

knockout mutants has revealed a linkage of carotenoid biosynthesis to the formation 

of perithecia. 

Lehr, Nina 1 , Zheng Wang 1 , Usha Sikhakolli 2 , Francesc Lopez-Giraldez 1 , Ning 

Li 1 , Frances Trail 2 , and Jeffrey P Townsend 1 . 1 Department of Ecology and 

Evolutionary Biology and Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, 

Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA., 2 Department of 

Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824. Comparative 

transcriptomics reveals new Neurospora crassa genes important to 

perithecial development 

In recent years, a plethora of genomic sequences have been released for 

fungal species, accompanied by functional predictions for genes based on protein 

sequence comparisons. However, identification of genes involved in particular 

processes has been extremely slow, and new methodologies for identifying genes 

involved in a particular process have not kept pace with the exponential increase 


in genome sequence availability. We have performed transcriptional profiling of 

five species of Neurospora and Fusarium during six stages of perithecium development. 

Because we maintained a strictly common medium across experiments, 

our transcriptomic data revealed solely evolved differences in the transcriptional 

basis of morphological changes. We estimated ancestral gene expression profiles 

and transcriptional shifts across this developmental process, facilitating identification 

of genes whose transcription had substantially and significantly shifted during 

the evolutionary process. We examined one hundred genes whose expression 

greatly increased in Neurospora crassa perithecial development compared to 

Neurospora tetrasperma, compared to Neurospora discreta, or compared to 

Fusarium spp. Phenotypes of knockouts of these genes included substantial 

changes in the timing and environmental sensitivity of perithecial development. 

These genes were not previously identified as candidates for function in perithecium 

development, illustrating the utility of this method for identification of genes 

associated with specific functional processes. 

Lendemer, James C 1 and Brendan P Hodkinson 2 . 1 Institute of Systematic 

Botany, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5126, U.S.A., 2 International 

Plant Science Center, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 

10458-5126, USA. Sterile asexually reproducing crustose lichens: improving 

classification, conservation, and communication in the 21st century 

Although many lichens reproduce through the dispersal of sexual diaspores, 

asexual reproduction is not uncommon and occurs in nearly all of the diverse 

lineages that comprise lichen-forming fungi. This type of reproduction can 

occur through either purely fungal diaspores or lichenized diaspores. The latter 

comprise a morphologically diverse array of structures that have evolved to facilitate 

the co-dispersal of the components of the lichen microbiome. The majority 

of crustose lichens that reproduce exclusively via lichenized diaspores are poorly 

understood, under collected, or undescribed and they represent a large component 

of lichen biodiversity that is currently overlooked and underestimated. We present 

a conceptual summary of the results of five years of research on this group in 

the context of a revision of the sterile crustose genus Lepraria s.l. In addition to 

extensive morphological studies of thallus ultrastructure, and integrated studies of 

molecular and non-molecular datasets to resolve species boundaries, we show that 

Lepraria s.l. is polyphyletic at the ordinal level and contains disparate elements 

belonging to four families in three orders, one of which was previously unrecognized. 

Drawing upon this body of work we present a standard protocol to improve 

our understanding of sterile crustose lichens, communicate this understanding to 

a diverse array of interdisciplinary researchers, and translate this understanding 

into meaningful applications to promote real-world conservation. 

Letcher, Peter M, Satoshi Sekimoto, and Martha J Powell. Department of Biological 

Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Characterizing 

the paracrystalline inclusion in zoospores of members of the 

Chytridiales (Chytridiomycota) 

Orders within Chytridiomycota (=chytrids) have now been circumscribed 

as monophyletic lineages, each with zoospores exhibiting unique suites of character 

states. Molecular phylogenetic analyses allow us to hypothesize zoospore 

character evolution through tracking modifications, losses, or appearances of 

characters along these lineages. The presence of a paracrystalline inclusion is one 

zoosporic character within Chytridiomycota that has been reported only among 

members of the Chytridiales. We are investigating the structure and function of 

the paracrystalline inclusion in zoospores of the Chytridiales. Although the 

Chytridiales includes a variety of zoospore sub-types defining the families 

Chytridiaceae and Chytriomycetaceae, zoospores of all members studied with 

electron microscopy contain a paracrystalline inclusion. Consequently, the presence 

of a paracrystalline inclusion unites the Chytridiales and serves as a diagnostic 

character for this order within Chytridiomycota. Because paracrystalline inclusions 

found in organisms outside the Chytridiomycota are typically associated 

with the accumulation of proteins, our hypothesis is that the paracrystalline inclusion 

in zoospores of Chytridiales is composed of protein. We have found that 

number, size, and complexity of paracrystalline inclusions vary with species. The 

long-term aim of this study is to isolate the paracrystalline inclusion and characterize 

it biochemically. 

Levesque, C Andre, Gregg Robideau, Chen Wen, and Lewis Christopher. Agriculture 

& Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Oomycete barcoding and applications 

The ITS region is the de facto DNA barcode in oomycetes as in true 

Fungi. However, the cytochrome oxidase 1 (COI) region is the NCBI accepted 

barcode region and it must be ruled out to pave the way for an alternative marker 

such as ITS. COI does not work for the true Fungi, primarily because of numerous 

introns, but in oomycetes COI works at least as well as ITS. The prevalence 

of ITS in mycology has led to the proposal that it be included as barcode in addi- 


tion to COI for oomycetes. Recently, the oomycete COI database was expanded 

to have comparable coverage of oomycetes species to the existing ITS data. COI 

has the advantage of being easy to align across all oomycetes because there are no 

introns and indels, whereas it is impossible to align ITS between genera. However, 

ITS was found to be a more valuable target in a DNA array system developed 

for most Phytophthora species. Specificity of hybridization probes is increased 

when they fall within an insertion or span deletions in closely related species. On 

the other hand, changes at the synonymous third codon positions are not as effective 

as they often yield very few base pair differences between closely related 

species over short oligonucleotides. Next generation sequencing provides additional 

applications of barcode sequence databases. The most common universal 

primers for ITS do amplify oomycete DNA and generate oomycete sequences in 

the large pool of PCR products processed by pyrosequencing. However, when 

studying ecology of oomycetes, the use of oomycete specific primers provides a 

better profile of species that are present at low propagule concentration. 

Li, Ning and Jeffrey P Townsend. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology 

and Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, 

New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA. Estimating selective pressure 

across the coding sequences of the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae 

The impact of natural selection on the genome has been well studied in 

diverse model species. However, genome-wide scans of polymorphism and divergence 

in synonymous and replacement sites within genes have yielded surprisingly 

few genes whose tallies reject a null hypothesis, especially in organisms 

with very high effective population sizes such as the model yeast Saccharomyces 

cerevisiae. The surprising dearth may arise because targets of selection are often 

likely to be restricted to a single functional domain or a few local, interacting sites 

within a protein. Unfortunately, most data sets lack sample size under previous 

methodologies to effectively detect selection at these levels, leading to a tyranny 

of the null hypothesis. Additionally, local variation in mutation rate of synonymous 

sites presents a challenge for fine-scale detection of a history of natural selection. 

To address these challenges, we have developed an approach that performs 

model-averaged clustering of intragenic polymorphism and divergence. 

Applying Poisson Random Field theory to the model-averaged polymorphism 

and divergence over all potential clusters, we graphically profile the model-averaged 

level of selection and its 95% confidence intervals for each site. Our genomic 

analysis of genes across the S. cerevisiae genome demonstrates that although 

much of the coding sequence is under purifying rather than adaptive 

natural selection, nearly 50% of coding sequence overall has been evolving under 

positive selection. Moreover, adaptively evolving sites are distributed across 

about 80% of the genes in the whole genome. The presence of extensive regions 

of purifying selection explains the finding that few genes are significant under traditional 

tests of polymorphism and divergence, even though many critical sites or 

regions within individual genes are playing important adaptive roles in an evolutionary 

history of adaptive natural selection. 

Lim, Young Woon 1 , Hyun Lee 1 , Changmu Kim 2 , and Jin Sung Lee 2 . 1 School 

of Biological Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-747, Korea, 2 National 

Institute of Biological Resources (NIBR), Incheon, 404-708, Korea. Fungal 

diversity associated with oaks in Korea 

Eleven species of oak trees are common in Korean forests in association 

with evergreen pines. Although they have great economic value, oak trees have 

received little attention. With the goal to manage oak forests effectively, we investigated 

the diversity of decay-causing fungi and ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi 

from the eight species of oak trees. Through examination of the specimens deposited 

in the Seoul National University Fungus Collection (SFC) and the National 

Institute of Biological Resources (NIBR) of the Ministry of Environment, 

a total of 523 decay fungi (104 species) associated with oak trees were identified 

and listed. No host specificity of decay fungi was evident. However, many decay 

fungi preferentially attacked specific sites within oak trees. To investigate the diversity 

of the ectomycorrhizal fungi, cloning and pyrosequencing were carried 

out. Through the sequence analysis of 243 clones, 67 sequences were identified 

as the plant and 176 sequences (62 phylotypes) were the fungi (Basidiomycota- 

142 (43), Ascomycota-34 (19)). Major phylotypes were ecotomycorrhizal fungi 

such as Russula and Lactarius, and the others were litter/decay rotters and dark 

septate endophytes. A total of 17,694 sequence reads were obtained from pyrosequencing, 

where 9,951 were fungi and 5,597 were plant. Compared with RFLP 

and cloning, the pyrosequencing approach yielded more diverse results. 

Little, Damon P. Cullman Program for Molecular Systematics, The New York 

Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458. The use of DNA barcode techniques to 

identify the constituents of teas and herbal dietary supplements 

Dried fragmentary plant materials, such as those found in teas and herbal 

dietary supplements, are difficult to identify to species using only morphological 

characteristics. Fortunately, PCR amplifiable DNA can be extracted from most 

dried fragments and the resulting DNA barcodes can be used to reliably make 

identifications. For example, black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) herbal dietary supplements 

are commonly consumed to treat menopausal symptoms. Accidental 

misidentification and/or deliberate adulteration results in harvesting other, related, 

species that are then marketed as black cohosh. Some of these species are known 

to be toxic to humans. Two nucleotides in the plant barcode region consistently 

distinguish black cohosh from related species. Of 36 dietary supplements sequenced, 

27 (75%) have a sequence that exactly matches black cohosh. The remaining 

9 samples (25%) have a sequence identical to that of three Asian Actaea 

species (A. cimicifuga, A. dahurica, and A. simplex). Another example comes 

from commercial herbal tea products that are often composed of a number of plant 

species. Although barcode sequences could be generated for 60 of 71 (84%) 

herbal tea products examined, matching DNA identifications to listed ingredients 

was limited by incomplete databases, shared or nearly identical barcodes among 

some species, and a lack of standardized common names for all plant species. 

Analysis of the barcodes generated indicates that 25 (35%) of the herbal teas examined 

contained ingredients not mentioned on their labels. 

Lonergan, Erin R and Cathy L Cripps. Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology Department, 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59715. The use of native ectomycorrhizal 

fungi in the restoration of whitebark pine 

Whitebark pine is a keystone species in high elevation ecosystems of 

Western North America; it is rapidly declining throughout much of its range due 

to blister rust, a mountain pine beetle epidemic and fire suppression. The U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service found it warranted but currently precluded for protection 

under the Endangered Species Act. Huge restoration efforts are on going with 

over 200,000 nursery-grown seedlings planted in the Western U.S.; however, 

seedling survival rates are low. Ectomycorrhizal fungi can enhance conifer survival 

after out-planting, but previous to this research, whitebark pine seedlings 

were not inoculated before out-planting. Rhizopogon is often used for inoculation, 

but we found Suillus species specific to five needle pines to be important ectomycorrhizal 

partners for young and mature whitebark pine trees. Suillus species 

are also used for inoculation of cembran pines in Europe. Here the effects of inoculation 

of whitebark pine seedlings with native strains of Suillus sibiricus were 

investigated in greenhouse and field studies. In the greenhouse, lower levels of 

fertilization resulted in a greater abundance of ectomycorrhizae, although all treatments 

with low N fertilizer allowed for colonization. Long containers promoted 

colonization, while short containers appeared to promote root disease. The field 

study in Waterton Lakes National Park, Alberta, Canada, is examining the survival 

of out-planted whitebark seedlings inoculated with native ectomycorrhizal 

fungi (Suillus sibiricus). A thousand seedlings were planted in “clusters” to mimic 

the planting strategy of Clark’s nutcracker. Each cluster included one, two, or 

three inoculated seedlings (in addition to non-inoculated controls). Clusters were 

planted in burned and un-burned areas, with and without beargrass. First year survival 

of seedlings was high with 95% of seedlings surviving regardless of treatment 

or habitat type. Monitoring in 2012 will examine survival rates in the second 

year when higher mortality rates are likely to occur. 

Lopez, Sara R 1 , Robert L Sinsabaugh 1 , David T Hanson 1 , and Andrea Porras- 

Alfaro 2 . 1 Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 

87131, 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Western Illinois University, Macomb, 

IL, 61455. Estimating fungal contributions to nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from nitrogen fertilized grasslands using tunable diode laser absorption 

spectroscopy. 

The use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers has created international concern as 

denitrification of fertilizer-derived nitrate could result in higher rates of N2O release 

to the atmosphere. The discovery that many eukaryotic fungi can transform 

N through nitrification and denitrification pathways is significant from both biochemical 

and ecological perspectives, because fungi dominate microbial metabolism 

in many terrestrial ecosystems. It is known that roots from semi-arid grasslands 

are colonized by a diverse fungal community, and suppression of such 

fungal biomass can cause a substantial reduction of N2O production. N2O production 

by six soil fungal species was estimated by analyzing gas samples from 

pure cultures isolated from blue-grama rhizosphere soils at the Sevilleta Long- 

Term Ecological Research site in Central New Mexico. Cultures were maintained 

in liquid medium containing nitrate as N source and incubated at 25°C for 10 days 

prior to sealing the flasks to limit aeration. Gas samples obtained after 24, 48 and 

72 hours of incubation were injected into a Tunable Diode Laser (Campbell Scientific). 

CO2 production was recorded to normalize N2O generation by fungal 

respiration. Preliminary results indicate that there is a high variability in N2O production 

among species but, overall, N2O production tends to increase with time 

of incubation. After 72 hours of incubation, the highest levels of N2O and CO2 were produced by Gibberella avenacea (4.63x10 -6 µmol 100 ml -1 mg dry mass - 

1 -1 -1 

and 0.3 µmol 100 ml mg dry mass respectively) and an unidentified group 

(Genbank AJ875391; 4.07x10 -4 µmol 100 ml -1 mg dry mass -1 and 4.95 µmol 

100 ml -1 mg dry mass -1 respectively. 



Lueschow, Shiloh 1 , Lynnaun Johnson 1 , Robert McCleery 2 , Rod McClanahan 3 , 

and Andrea Porras-Alfaro 1 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Western Illinois 

University, Macomb, IL, 2 Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL, 3 USDA Forest Service, Shawnee National Forest, Harrisburg, 

IL. Morphological, physiological and molecular characterization of 

different strains of Geomyces 

Geomyces destructans is a fungus responsible for the mycoses in bats 

known as White Nose Syndrome (WNS), which has already killed millions of 

bats and may be driving some species towards extinction. Different Geomyces 

species are commonly found in the natural environment such as soils and caves, 

but it is not clear why G. destructans shows greater pathogenicity. G. destructans 

is considered a psychrophilic fungus (optimal grow is at low temperatures), but 

little is known about the growth requirements of other closely related Geomyces 

strains and species. The main goal of this study was to characterize the growth 

rates of various Geomyces isolates from Illinois and compare them to the 

pathogen G. destructans. Fourteen Geomyces isolates including G. destructans 

were plated on sabouraud dextrose agar. Isolates were identified using ITS rDNA. 

The isolates were obtained from bats collected in Illinois before the arrival of 

WNS. Isolates were incubated at 25ºC and 6 ºC. Growth rates were measured 

weekly to determine differences between the various isolates and G. destructans. 

Geomyces destructans showed no growth after three weeks at 25º C. The other 

Geomyces isolates obtained from bats in Illinois showed growth after the first 

week at 25º C. In all cases except for G. destructans, the isolates grew faster at 25º 

C than at 6º C. Excluding G. destructans, the growth rate range for 25º C was 5 

mm/week to 9 mm/week. The growth rate range for 6º C was 3mm/week to 

5mm/week. Our study suggests that the psychrophilic (cold loving) nature of G. 

destructans may be an important factor influencing its pathogenecity. 

Luo, Jing and Ning Zhang. Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers 

University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901. A phylogenetic study on the 

Magnaporthaceae (Ascomycota) 

The phylogenetic relationships among taxa in the Magnaporthaceae were 

investigated based on DNA sequences of multiple genes including ITS, SSU, 

LSU, RPB1, TEF and MCM7. The genera Magnaporthe and Gaeumannomyces 

were shown to be polyphyletic and their members were divided into four major 

groups based on the phylogenetic analyses. With the combination of morphological, 

biological and molecular data, we propose to establish and typify a new 

genus for the well-supported clade including M. poae, M. rhizophila, and G. incrustans. 

The current generic concepts of Gaeumannomyces, Magnaporthe and 

Pyricularia are revised. The constituent species of these genera are listed. 

Maltz, Mia R 1 , Kathleen Treseder 1 , and Jutta Burger 2 . 1 Department of Ecology 

and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, 2 Irvine Ranch 

Conservancy. Mycorrhizal associations in restored and invaded grasslands 

Mycorrhizal fungi perform a variety of ecosystem services, including facilitating 

plant establishment and improving nutrient uptake by plants. However, 

little is known about which Southern Californian mycorrhizal fungi facilitate native 

plant biodiversity in grasslands invaded by Brassica nigra. To compare 

among restoration sites, soil samples were taken from intact native grasslands 

(>50% native), manually managed B. nigra plots (30-50% native) highly invaded 

B. nigra cover (

microsatellite markers were developed and used to genotype ascospore progeny 

from 44 perithecia isolated from two nearly adjacent sites at West Rock Ridge 

State Park in New Haven, CT. The 13 markers ranged in allelic diversity from 2- 

15 alleles/locus, with an average of 4.3 alleles per locus in this population. Pooled 

sibling ascospore haplotypes for each of the 44 perithecia were used to infer 27 

unique multilocus diplotypes, from which parameters of population structure 

were estimated. Minimally significant (p≤0.05) linkage disequilibrium (LD) was 

observed between several pairs of loci, but a standardized estimate of multilocus 

LD was not significant. Genetic differentiation between the two subpopulations 

was minimally significant at three loci (Dest = 0.11, 0.17, 0.19), while the harmonic 

mean across all loci was not (Dest = 0.01); therefore, all subsequent analyses 

were performed on the entire population. Absence of segregation among sibling 

haplotypes was observed in 23 of the 44 perithecia, yielding a selfing rate, s, 

of 0.52. Heterozygote deficiencies were observed at all loci; Fis , the inbreeding 

coefficient, ranged from 0.39 to 1.0, and averaged 0.71 over all loci. Fis estimated 

from only the outcrossed portion of the population (n=21) was 0.42, supporting 

the hypothesis that biparental inbreeding contributed significantly to overall 

inbreeding in this population. These observations support theoretical models that 

posit the importance of biparental inbreeding to the evolutionary stability of 

mixed mating. 

McCluskey, Kevin 1 and Jessie Glaeser 2 . 1 University of Missouri-KC, 5100 

Rockhill Road, Kansas City, MO 64110, 2 Center for Forest Mycology Research, 

USDA-Forest Service, NRS, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot 

Drive, Madison, WI 53726. Research Coordination Network for US culture 

collections of microorganisms associated with plants 

A network bringing together scientists working with laboratory-based collections 

of microbes is being established. The network will hold numerous workshops 

teaching best practices for managing, preserving, and distributing bacteria, fungi, 

and other microscopic organisms in the context of formal culture collections. 

Biosecurity and regulatory issues will also be emphasized at workshops. Additional 

goals include re-establishing a professional society of culture collection researchers 

in the US, developing internet based collection management tools, and 

fostering communication between US collections, foreign collections, and international 

collection networks. Collections of living microbes assure that current 

and past research and innovation are available to future generations of scientists. 

Biological materials that are made available via well-managed collections represent 

the foundation of the modern biotechnology industry. Materials in culture 

collections impact fields as diverse as human health, agricultural productivity, 

biotechnology, and biodiversity research. While there are several professional collections 

in the US, most collections in the US are small and do not have long-term 

strategies for survival. The network supported by this grant will ensure that smaller 

collections benefit from expertise available at larger living microbe collections. 

NSF has recommended our RCN proposal for funding, but funding has not yet 

been approved. All interested parties are invited to participate. 

McCormick, Meghan A, Marc A Cubeta, and Larry F Grand. North Carolina 

State University, Department of Plant Pathology, Box 7567, Raleigh, NC 27695. 

Geographic distribution of Fomes fasciatus and F. fomentarius in the United 

States 

Fomes fasciatus and F. fomentarius can cause a white heart rot in multiple 

species of trees and play important roles in forest ecology and management. 

F. fasciatus is distributed across the Southeastern U.S., throughout Central America 

and into South America., while F. fomentarius is distributed throughout the 

boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere. North Carolina is a unique geographic 

transition area for these species as it represents the northern limit for F. fasciatus 

and the southern limit for F. fomentarius. In this study, U.S. distribution maps 

(by county) of F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius were developed based on records 

from 26 mycological herbaria, publications, and collections made for this study. 

The geographic distribution for both species was expanded to include six counties 

in four states not included in previous publications. Both species are associated 

with a diverse range of trees, which includes hardwood species from multiple genera. 

In the US, F. fasciatus has been reported predominantly on species of oak 

(Quercus) and hickory (Carya), while F. fomentarius typically decays species of 

birch (Betula), beech (Fagus), and maple (Acer). The distribution of host species 

in many cases extends beyond the known limits of the distribution of F. fomentarius 

and F. fasciatus indicating that other delimiting factors contribute to the distribution 

and occurrence of these fungi. 

McCormick, Meghan A, Larry F Grand, and Marc A Cubeta. North Carolina 

State University, Department of Plant Pathology, Box 7567, Raleigh, NC 27695. 

Characterization of the wood decay fungi Fomes fasciatus and F. fomentarius 

using sequence analysis, morphology, and growth response to temperature 

in vitro 

The wood decay fungi Fomes fasciatus and F. fomentarius are endemic 

to the United States. Both fungi cause a white heart rot of multiple species of trees 

and have essential roles in forest ecology and management. Little is known about 

the genotypic and phenotypic diversity of these species. For this study, basidiocarps 

of F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius were collected from 13 states within the 

United States. Pure cultures of each species were isolated from basidiocarp context 

tissue and/or single basidiospores. Ten morphological characteristics were 

recorded for basidiocarps and pure cultures. F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius were 

morphologically similar, but could be differentiated based on the smaller average 

basidiospore size of F. fasciatus. The average colony diameter (mm) was measured 

every 3 d for 9 d using five isolates each of F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius 

on malt extract agar at temperatures ranging from 12 to 36 °C in 4 °C increments. 

The temperature optima of F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius were 32 °C and 28 °C, 

respectively. In a separate study, we found that F. fasciatus grew at 39 °C while 

F. fomentarius did not. The genetic relatedness of the two species was examined 

using maximum parsimony analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region 

(ITS) of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and the RNA polymerase II gene (RPB2). 

Preliminary results based on 100 replications indicate that the two species represent 

distinct lineages that form two distinct clades with 100 percent bootstrap support. 

Further analysis of ITS rDNA and RPB2 sequences will be discussed. 

McLaughlin, David J, TK Arun Kuman, and Rosanne Healy. Department of 

Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108. What can nuclear 

division, spindle pole body, and septal pore characters reveal about fungal 

phylogeny? 

A major goal of the AFTOL2 project has been to integrate molecular and 

structural data for key taxa at critical branches in the fungal tree of life to better 

understand phylogenetic relationships and character evolution. Nuclear division, 

spindle pole body (SPB) and septal pore characters have supported molecular 

phylogenies, but structural data is often absent for major clades or for taxa at key 

branch points within the fungal tree of life. We will consider recent data related to 

a number of hypotheses addressed by AFTOL2 and how the results of structural 

studies bear on them. These hypotheses include multiple losses of the flagellum 

and the transition to SPB’s in Fungi. In the Kickxellomycotina a ring-shaped SPB 

occurs in Coemansia reversa, which differs from SPB’s reported for other subphyla 

of zygomycetous fungi. The hypothesis that Orbiliomycetes is the earliest 

diverging lineage of Pezizomycotina gains support from septal pore analyses 

within the fruiting body of an Orbilia sp. and from ascus characters. The link between 

Ascomycota and Basidiomycota based on similarities in septal pore structure 

remains unresolved despite new insights into septal pore structure in Neolecta 

irregularis (Taphrinomycotina) and Helicogloea spp. (Pucciniomycotina), 

while a new septal type has emerged in Agaricomycotina through serial section 

reconstruction of the septal pore apparatus of Wallemia sebi. The latter supports 

the early divergence of the Wallemiomycetes. These data are retrievable for character 

analysis from the AFTOL Structural and Biochemical Database, but the 

database is a work in progress with a need for greater community involvement to 

make it more complete. Major gaps remain in the analysis of nuclear division, 

SPB and septal pore characters with some phyla and subphyla unstudied and a 

major phylum greatly understudied. 

McTaggart, Alistair R and M Catherine Aime. Department of Plant Pathology 

and Crop Physiology Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 302 Life 

Sciences Bldg. Baton Rouge, LA 70803. ITS, problematic to amplify a rust 

barcode 

DNA barcoding offers a rapid and accurate means to identify fungi and 

other organisms in comparison to traditional, morphological methods. Rusts (Pucciniales, 

Pucciniomycotina), the largest group of phytopathogenic fungi, are challenging 

for both morphological and molecular identification. They have a dynamic 

life cycle with five spore stages that infect different, often unrelated hosts. 

They are obligate parasites and cannot be maintained in pure culture, thus pure 

DNA is difficult, if not impossible to obtain. A molecular barcode that could differentiate 

between rust species and identify cryptic taxa is a necessity for diagnosticians 

and plant pathologists who rely mainly on morphology and host associations 

for species identification. One genus of rusts, Coleosporium, is 

taxonomically challenging and infects several agricultural and ornamental plants, 

such as pine and frangipani. Within northern America and Asia, C. asterum is believed 

to form a species complex. This study used Coleosporium as a model organism 

to investigate: 1. The systematic relationships of eight species of 

Coleosporium in northern America, including the C. asterum species complex. 2. 

The utility of the ITS region as a molecular barcode for rust fungi. 3. The potential 

of other loci, such as the LSU region, as rust barcodes. 

Medina Rivera, Mariely and Matias J Cafaro. Department of Biology, University 

of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, PR 00681. Microfungi community associated 

with yeast agriculture ant Cyphomyrmex minutus 



Fungus-growing ants belong to the tribe Attini. They cultivate a single 

fungus (Basidiomycota) colony as food. To protect their cultivar from specific 

parasites in the genus Escovopsis (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) the ants engage in 

another association with antibiotic-producing Actinobacteria. In addition, the ants 

have specific hygienic behaviors that include farming and grooming of the cultivar. 

The ants also rearrange and transport the refused organic material inside and 

out of the nest. Because the cultivar pathogen is more abundant at the refuse material 

of the nest of other Attini ants in comparison with the cultivar garden is very 

important for the health of the cultivar to maintain this behavior. Cyphomyrmex 

minutus is the only Lower Attini species reported from Puerto Rico that practices 

yeast agriculture. We have investigated the microfungi community from both, the 

yeast cultivar and the refuse material piles. Our main objective was to detect and 

identify the cultivar pathogen Escovopsis and other microfungi associated with C. 

minutus. We obtained 152 cultures from 26 nests collected in Cambalache Forest 

in Puerto Rico. We also extracted total DNA from refuse samples and amplified 

the ITS region and cloned the products. The microfungi community associated to 

C. minutus is diverse. Three major classes of fungi are represented in our isolates 

(Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Zygomycota). Aspergillus, Bionectria, Fusarium, 

Microdochium, Penicillium and Pestalotiopsis were shared between the cultivar 

and refuse material among 48 different genera detected. So far C. minutus 

yeast cultivar does not show signs of infection with Escovopsis or any other 

pathogens. We hypothesize that Escovopsis may not be present in Puerto Rico or 

that yeast agriculture is an effective adaptation to prevent pathogen infection. 

Mena-Ali, Jorge, Erica Goldberger, Elizabeth Heppenheimer, and Maggie Serpi. 

Department of Biology, Franklin & Marshall College, Lancaster PA 17603. An 

Evolutionary examination of ecological and physiological resistance within 

host-pathogen interactions: a Montiaceae and Microbotryum model 

Historically, coevolution is considered the primary process to justify disease 

evolution between hosts and their pathogens. However recent research has 

highlighted the relative importance of host shift events in the evolutionary divergence 

of pathogen species. The purpose of this project is to examine the evolutionary 

history of the association between smut fungi (Microbotryum spp.) that infect 

plants within the Montiaceae family. In this system, when fungal spores infect 

a susceptible host, a severe form of anther-smut disease develops, leading to complete 

sterilization of both male and female fertility in the plant. Through largescale 

herbarium surveys we were able to analyze the prevalence and global distribution 

of the disease. To date, we have surveyed 11,864 sheets from 21 herbaria 

representing 206 species. Of these, 51 sheets showed disease giving a 0.43% disease 

rate. However, if we exclude those species without signs of disease, the disease 

rate increases to 9.9%. Additionally, we collected spore samples from infected 

specimens for molecular analysis. These samples were analyzed with 

fungal-specific markers (NADH, ITS). Initial phylogenetic analysis suggests a 

pattern of divergence among Microbotryum isolates that reflects host taxonomic 

classification. However, geographic distribution also seems to have contributed to 

isolation and speciation. These results will be used to analyze the evolutionary history 

of Microbotryum species associated with Montiaceae in the context of varying 

pathogenicity and host specificity. 

Menolli, Nelson, Jr 1,2 and Marina Capelari 1 . 1 Instituto de Botânica, Núcleo de 

Pesquisa 

2 

em Micologia, Caixa Postal 68041, 04045-972 São Paulo, SP, Brazil, 

Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo, Campus São 

Paulo, CCT / Biologia, Rua Pedro Vicente 625, 01109-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil. 

One hundred and twelve years of Pluteus knowledge in Brazil: revision of the 

first collections studied by J. Rick and P. Hennings 

The genus Pluteus comprises ca. 300 species worldwide of which 70 have 

been mentioned from Brazil; however, it is believed that about 23 are certainly 

known. To solve some of the taxonomic problems, techniques of molecular biology 

can be used, but there is some limitations e.g. when studying old collections, 

and an accurate morphological study may be an alternative. Complementing the 

Brazilin knowledge of Pluteus, the first collections studied in the early 20th century 

were re-examined. At first, Hennings described P. scruposus, P. cervinus var. 

griseoviridis and P. termitum. Later, between 1907 and 1961, Rick recorded 21 

more Pluteus taxa. The holotypes of P. scruposus and P. termitum deposited in 

Berlin were probably destroyed. Collections of nine taxa recorded by Rick (P. 

cervinus var. patricius, P. cristatulus Rick, P. eximius, P. fibrillosus Rick, P. 

melanodon, P. nanus var. podospileus, P. umbrosus) also were not found. All 

other collections are deposited at PACA and SP and despite the bad conservation, 

some micromorphological structures were recovered and the following considerations 

could be made correcting the European names attributed in the past by Rick 

and Hennings. P. brunneopictus: is probably P. tucumanus Singer; P. cervinus 

and P. cervinus var. griseoviridis: represent P. xylophillus (Speg.) Singer; P. exiguus: 

is probably P. jamaicensis Murrill; P. granulatus: is possibly P. glaucotinctus 

Horak; P. hispidulus: is probably P. yungensis Singer; P. leptonia Rick: is 

a species of Entoloma s.s.; P. nanus: is possibly P. pulverulentus Murrill; P. pellitus: 

is probably P. petasatus; P. phlebophorus: represents two collections which 


probably are P. pulverulentus and P. tucumanus; P. sensitivus Rick: is probably 

P. albostipitatus; P. straminellus Rick: is a nomen dubium; P. velatus Rick: is a 

nomen dubium; P. wehlianus: is a species of Bolbitiaceae or Strophariaceae. 

Methven, Andrew S 1 and Andrew N Miller 2 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, 

Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL 61920, 2 Illinois Natural History 

Survey, University of Illinois, Champaign, IL 61820. Evolutionary relationships 

of the gomphoid genus Clavariadelphus: One genus or two? 

The genus Clavariadelphus includes a group of club-shaped basidiomes 

most commonly collected in late summer and fall in northern, boreal forests 

throughout North America. A monograph of Clavariadelphus in North America 

divided the genus into two subgenera: subgenus Clavariadelphus which includes 

ectomycorrhizal species that are associated with coniferous or deciduous trees, 

broadly ellipsoid basidiospores (length:width ratio < 2.5), and little or no hyphae 

at the base of the basidiomes; and, subgenus Ligulus with saprotrophic species 

that function ecologically as litter decomposers in coniferous forests, narrowly ellipsoid 

basidiospores (length:width ratio > 2.5), and copious amounts of hyphae 

which bind the substrate to the base of the basidiomes. While some agaricologists 

have argued that these two subgenera are distinct enough to be recognized as separate 

genera, questions about the range of variation in morphological characters, 

chemical spot tests and cultural characters have precluded recognition of the two 

groups as segregate genera. We hypothesize that the genus Clavariadelphus is 

polyphyletic and, in order to adhere to a natural system of classification, needs to 

be subdivided into two monophyletic groups or genera. Two nuclear ribosomal 

genes, ITS and LSU were amplified, sequenced and analyzed in a phylogenetic 

context to determine if Clavariadelphus should be segregated into two genera. 

Based on ITS and LSU sequences, Subgenus Ligulus is well supported as a monophyletic 

group that is distinct from and basal to Subgenus Clavariadelphus. Since 

the type species of the genus, C. pistillaris, belongs to Subgenus Clavariadelphus, 

a new genus will be proposed for the taxa included in Subgenus Ligulus. 

Miadlikowska, Jolanta 1 , Bernie Ball 1 , Francesc López-Giráldez 2 , Jeffrey P 

Townsend 2 , Ester Gaya 1 , Tami McDonald 1 , Suzanne Joneson 1 , Andrii Gryganskyi 

1 , Teresita M Porter 1 , Brandon Matheny 3 , Kassian Kobert 4 , Alexandros Stamatakis 

4 , Barbara Robbertse 5 , Joseph Spatafora 5 , David Hibbett 6 , Rytas Vilgalys 

1 , and François Lutzoni 1 . 1 Department of Biology, Duke University, 

Durham, NC 27708, 2 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale 

University, New Haven, CT 06520, 3 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary 

Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, 4 Heidelberg Institute for 

Theoretical Studies, Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg 35, D-69118 Heidelberg, Germany, 

5 Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, 

Corvallis, OR 97331, 6 Department of Biology, Clark University, Worcester, MA 

01610. Novel molecular markers and their utility in molecular systematics of 

Fungi 

Although next generation sequencing methods have proven to be very 

successful in accelerating data acquisition, selecting the optimal set of molecular 

markers for phylogenetic studies has remained a complex endeavor. Existing fungal 

phylogenies demonstrate the urgent need for novel single-copy protein-coding 

genes to resolve phylogenetic relationships among fungi at all taxonomic levels 

with high confidence. As part of the Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life project 

(AFToL 2), a comparative genomic approach was adopted to select all singlecopy 

orthologous genes with the greatest potential to resolve the most challenging 

supraordinal nodes of the fungal tree of life. Based on the comparison of 39 

fungal genomes, 71 potentially single-copy orthologous genes were selected, and 

a total of 243 universal primer pairs were designed and tested on six exemplar 

species representing Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and early-diverging fungi. The 

successful amplification and sequencing of 19 new gene regions adds a total of 

ca. 13,000 bp per taxon, in addition to the commonly sequenced nucLSU, nuc- 

SSU, mitSSU, MCM7, RPB1 and RPB2. The final datasets used to evaluate the 

performance of these new genes include 37 non-lichenized fungi, for which genomic 

sequence data are available, and up to 24 lichen-forming members of the 

Arthoniomycetes, Dothideomycetes, Eurotiomycetes, Lecanoromycetes, and 

Lichinomycetes, for which the sequences were obtained mostly from cultures of 

the mycobionts using single-gene Sanger sequencing, but also through next generation 

genome sequencing. Maximum likelihood analyses were completed on 

each of the 19 novel and 8 commonly used gene regions independently and on 

various multi-locus combinations on the same set of taxa when possible. Phylogenetic 

efficiency (i.e., the level of resolution and internode robustness) and phylogenetic 

informativeness (sensu Townsend) among all loci was compared. The 

performance of novel versus older genes used to infer phylogenetic relationships 

among fungi is also compared. 

Miller, Stephen J, Jr 1 , Hayato Masuya 2 , and Ning Zhang 1 . 1 Dept Plant Biology 

and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA, 2 Dept 

Forest Microbiology, Forestry & Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato 


1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687, JAPAN. Assessing the effects of radiation after 

the Fukushima Daiichi meltdown on dogwood endophyte communities 

Radionuclide contamination in the environment is one of the predominate 

concerns to human and environmental health. Radionuclide contamination enters 

the environment in the form of fallout from nuclear weapons, nuclear waste generated 

from industries, medical use of radioisotopes, and accidents from nuclear 

meltdowns. Previously, the role of fungi played in mediating radionuclide movement 

after the Chernobyl accident was examined. These studies were conducted 

a few years after the initial accident. Recently, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear 

meltdown has released radionuclides in the environment, with radiation levels detectable 

in North America. In this study, we analyzed the fungal endophytic communities 

associated with Cornus kousa (Kousa dogwood) leaf samples collected 

in Japan in June 2010 and June 2011, which was three months after the initial incident. 

For the June 2010 samples, 320 of 600 leaf segments from 6 samples 

yielded fungal cultures. For the June 2011 samples, fungi were recovered in 116 

of 400 leaf segments from 4 samples located 60-100 km from the Fukushima Daiichi 

site. In the June 2010 samples, Colletotrichum and Penicillium were the dominant 

genera. Cosmospora, Phomopsis, and Diaporthe were the dominant genera 

in the samples recovered after the nuclear meltdown. More melanized fungi were 

isolated from the 2011 dogwood samples than those collected in 2010. The results 

indicate that the sampled fungal endophyte communities changed significantly 

from 2010 to 2011, likely affected by radiation pollution. 

Minnis, Andrew M. Center for Forest Mycology Research, Northern Research 

Station, USDA-Forest Service, Madison, WI, 53726. Ascomycete taxonomy 

and the outset of the one name era for fungi 

Multiple correct names, including one for each stage of non-lichen forming 

ascomycetes with pleomorphic life cycles, have been allowed under formalized 

Codes used to name fungi for a significant period of the history of mycology. 

Due to philosophical preferences of a large group of mycologists, the most 

important article that allowed for multiple names (Art. 59) was essentially deleted 

at the 2011 Melbourne International Botanical Congress. The replacement text 

(Art. 59) in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants allows 

only one correct name for non-lichen forming ascomycetes with pleomorphic 

life cycles. Although already enacted, these changes, which will formally and 

retroactively take effect in 2013 and have substantial impact on how mycologists 

and other users of fungal names will communicate about fungi, will be summarized. 

Pragmatic considerations will be noted and illustrated by examples of the 

impact on ascomycete taxonomy at the various ranks, especially in regards to priority, 

legitimacy, and validity of names as well as author citations and types. Some 

observations on what in general will be “the rise of the anamorphs” will be made. 

The means by which the mycological community can avoid disadvantageous 

changes to names during the transitional period to one name while maintaining a 

connection to important historical works will be outlined and a call for much 

needed participation and help in the process will be shared. The importance of 

studying the whole fungus and integrating the taxonomy of anamorphs and teleomorphs 

in future works will be emphasized. 

Mohan, Jacqueline E 1 , Jerry M Melillo 2 , James S Clark 3 , Fahkri A Bazzaz 4 , 

Katherine J Bridges 1 , Charles Cowden 1 , Paul Frankson 1 , Richard Shefferson 1 , 

Richard Sicher 5 , Timothy Sipe 6 , and Lewis Ziska 5 . 1 Odum School of Ecology, 

University of Georgia Athens, GA 30602, 2 The Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological 

Laboratory Woods Hole, MA 02543, 3 Nicholas School of the Environment 

Duke University Durham, NS 27278, 4 Harvard University Department of 

Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Cambridge, MA 02138, 5 USDA, Crop 

Systems and Global Change Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, 6 Franklin and Marshall 

College Lancaster, PA 17604-3003. The arbuscular advantage: Soil warming 

stimulates the growth of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)-associated tree 

species and poison ivy over 8 years at Harvard Forest 

Impacts of warmer soils for nutrient biogeochemical cycling are fairly 

well known, particularly from soil warming experiments situated on fertile soils 

of mid-high latitudes; namely, warmer soils cycle nitrogen (N), carbon (C), and 

in one previous study, phosphorus (P) faster. Potential impacts of warmer soils 

and increased availabilities of inorganic soil nutrients on plant-mycorrhizal interactions 

are less clear, as is the scaling up of plant-mycorrhizal relations with 

warming for ecosystem composition and functioning. Here we present results 

from the Harvard Forest large-plot (900-m 2 ) soil warming experiment demonstrating 

that warmer soils with higher availabilities of inorganic N enhance the 

growth of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)-associated woody species with important 

implications for future carbon sequestration by forests. In the pre-treatment growing 

seasons of 2001 and 2002, juvenile trees had similar growth rates in the to-be- 

Heated and the Control plots. Following warming, commenced May 2003, juvenile 

trees associating with AM fungi displayed significant and consistent growth 

increases in the Heated plot. This enhanced growth was sustained over time 

(2003-2010) and by the following taxa: sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red maple 

(A. rubrum), black cherry (Prunus serotina), white ash (Fraxinus americana), and 

poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). Co-dominant oaks, pines, and birches did 

not grow faster with warming. Further, mycorrhizal root colonization was significantly 

less in the maple species growing under warming while foliar %N and %P 

values were maintained, suggesting faster growth of AM-species may be due to 

decreased C costs of mycorrhizal associates. These results suggest a future shift 

in eastern temperate composition towards less productive tree species with important 

implications for future carbon dynamics. These finding may partially explain 

the increasing abundance of red maple and woody vines observed over the 

last several decades in eastern forests and globally, respectively. 

Moll, Julia 1,2 , Dörte Dibbern 3 , Susanne Kramer 4 , François Buscot 1,2 , Dirk 

Krüger 1 , Tillmann Lueders 3 , Sven Marhan 4 , and Ellen Kandeler 4 . 1 UFZ - 

Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Soil Ecology, Th.- 

Lieser-Str. 4, D-06120 Halle/Saale, Germany, 2 University of Leipzig, Institute of 

Biology I, Johannisallee 21-23, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany, 3 Helmholtz Zentrum 

München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of 

Groundwater 

4 

Ecology, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany, 

University of Hohenheim, Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Soil 

Biology Group, D-70593 Stuttgart, Germany. Fungal and bacterial diversity in 

connection with soil decomposition processes resolved using 13 C rRNA-SIP 

Soil fungi and bacteria play an important role in global nutrient cycles because 

of their decomposition of organic materials. The use of rRNA-based stable 

isotope probing (SIP) allows us to follow the carbon flux into soil microbial communities. 

Using this novel approach, we aimed at quantifying the carbon flow 

from plant-derived substrates into the bacterial and fungal channel at different 

stages of decomposition and to link these microorganisms to specific degradation 

processes. Highly 13 C-labeled labile (glucose) and recalcitrant (cellulose, maize 

roots, maize leaves) substrates were mixed into soil microcosms and incubated for 

32 days. Following cesium chloride density gradient ultracentrifugation of RNA 

extracts 

13 

(separating heavy labeled from light unlabeled RNA) from controls and 

C-microcosms sampled at 2, 8, 16 and 32 days post-incubation, rRNA was converted 

to cDNA and amplified. T-RFLP on the SSU and 16S amplicons was applied 

to detect the fungi and bacteria utilizing these substrates. It was possible to 

identify carbon-assimilating microbes for all substrates and time points representing 

substrate degradation stages. For both fungi and bacteria, the community (of 

operational taxonomic units, OTUs) that consumed carbon from labile substrate 

clearly differed from that consuming it from recalcitrant material. The bacterial 

communities that appeared to be actively assimilating carbon in an early stage of 

decomposition differed from that active in later stages. The fungal utilizers, however, 

rather remained the same over time. To validate our results and to better 

identify active taxa, clone library or pyrosequencing approaches are currently 

added onto the analysis of our experiment. By using SIP, this study will thus gain 

first insights into the relationship between carbon quality and availability and it 

will link soil microbial taxonomic with functional diversity. 

Monacell, James T and Ignazio Carbone * . Department of Plant Pathology, 

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606. Mobyle SNAP Workbench: 

a phylogenetic and genomic analysis web portal 

The SNAP Workbench toolkit is a stand-alone software application that integrates 

a wide array of bioinformatics tools for phylogenetic and population genetic 

analyses. We have developed a web-portal frontend, using the Mobyle portal 

framework, which runs all of the programs available in the stand-alone SNAP 

Workbench on a high-performance Linux cluster. Additionally, we have expanded 

the selection of programs to over fifty tools, including 1) a suite of genome assembly 

and analysis tools such as Fastx-Toolkit, Quake, Burrows-Wheeler Alignment 

Tool, Velvet, SOAPdenovo, GeneMark-ES, and Augustus, 2) large-scale 

phylogenetic methods as implemented in RAxML, and 3) metagenomic analysis 

tools such as Mothur and Esprit. The Mobyle SNAP Workbench web-portal allows 

researchers to seamlessly execute and manage otherwise complex commandline 

programs with multiple input files and parameters, as exemplified in the coalescent 

approaches implemented in Genetree, MDIV, IM, IMa, MIGRATE, and 

LAMARC; these tools are parameter-rich and therefore computationally intensive, 

often requiring several days or weeks to run. Our optimization includes 1) selecting 

appropriate number of compute nodes and machine architecture for MPI programs 

and 2) parallelization of computational tasks to execute on multiple machines 

when possible (e.g. Genetree). A unique feature of the portal is the 

implementation of workflows that link together several programs sequentially. 

This greatly facilitates exploratory analyses for the beginner but also allows for efficient 

use of cluster resources. The possibility of making the portal accessible to 

the public, as a web service on Amazon EC2 or at NC State, will be discussed. 

Moore, Geromy G and Kenneth C Ehrlich. Southern Regional Research Center, 

USDA, ARS, New Orleans, LA, USA. Competition experiments to test the efficacy 

of Aspergillus flavus biocontrol strains 



Several non-aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus have been in use 

for nearly a decade to inhibit colonization of important food commodities by toxigenic 

Aspergilli such as A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Annual application of these 

biocontrol strains is necessary because they do not appear to persist in the field. 

The reason(s) for this are unknown. One possible mechanism to explain the loss 

of an atoxigenic biocontrol competitor strain is that it could be recombining with 

the native toxigenic population and reacquiring toxigenic properties. A second 

possibility is that aflatoxin production increases the likelihood of survival for toxigenic 

strains in the soil, during overwintering, compared to that of an atoxigenic 

strain. To test the relative efficacy of these non-aflatoxigenic strains as bio-competitors, 

and to assess the reason for the loss of the field inoculum with time (posttreatment), 

we transformed six different biocontrol strains with a plasmid containing 

DNA for expressing an ‘enhanced green fluorescent protein’ (eGFP) tag. 

Competition experiments in petri plates have been set up to test the efficacy of the 

transformed biocontrol strains to colonize cotton seed. Tests included: GFP-transformed 

biocontrol strains vs non-transformed (homologous and heterologous) 

biocontrol strains, and GFP-transformed biocontrol strains vs toxigenic strains of 

A. flavus and A. parasiticus. These in vitro studies will test if the GFP tag diminishes 

the aggressiveness of the biocontrol strain, as well as the relative abilities of 

the individual strains to compete against toxigenic strains. If these tests show 

promise in using GFP-tagged strains to track the introduced fungi, subsequent 

studies will be done under conditions imitating the growing environment of the 

cotton plant in order to track the longevity and recombining potential of these biocontrol 

strains. 

Morgado, Luis N 1 , Manon Neilen 1 , Machiel E Noordeloos 1 , D Lee Taylor 2 , Ina 

Timling 2 , and József Geml 1 . 1 Netherlands Centre for Biodiversity Naturalis, Leiden 

University, P.O. Box 9514, Einsteinweg 2, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, 

2 Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, 

AK 99775-7000. Phylogenetic diversity of the ectomycorrhizal genus Cortinarius 

(Agaricales, Basidiomycota) in the Arctic 

Mycorrhizal associations are abundant and widespread in almost all 

ecosystems, and c. 80% of land plant species form associations with mycorrhizal 

fungi. They play a particularly important role in the functioning of terrestrial arctic 

ecosystems, where arctic plants are highly dependent on mutualistic relationships 

with mycorrhizal fungi for survival in these nutrient-poor environments. Ectomycorrhiza 

(ECM) is the predominant mycorrhiza type in arctic and alpine 

environments, and ECM fungi are crucial for the survival of arctic shrubs (e.g. Betula, 

Dryas, Salix). Although recent molecular studies have revealed high diversity 

in arctic ECM communities, the systematic treatment of several arctic ECM 

genera is still not adequate. Cortinarius is one of the most abundant genera in the 

Arctic. Here we present preliminary results on the phylogenetic diversity of the 

genus Cortinarius in the North American and European Arctic. We analyzed internal 

transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences from basidiomata and soil samples 

collected in northern Alaska and Svalbard using likelihood-based phylogenetic 

methods. We detected at least 28 phylogroups, from which 18 matched 

sequences from sporocarps deposited in public databases. These included C. umbilicatus, 

C. biformis, C. delibutus, C. favrei, C. cinnamomeus, C. aureomarginatus, 

C. urbicus, C. fulvescens, among others. The other 8 represent previously 

unsequenced taxa that may or may not be newly discovered species. Future 

investigations will include multi-gene phylogenetics and morphological analyses. 

Morgado, Luis N 1 , Machiel E Noordeloos 1 , Delia Co-David 1 , Yves Lamourex 

2 , and József Geml 1 . 1 National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Netherlands 

Centre for Biodiversity Naturalis, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9514, Einsteinweg 

2, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands, 2 505, Rue Saint-Alexandre, app. 401, 

Longueuil (Québec), Canada, J4H3G3. Biogeographic and phylogenetic relationships 

of four easily recognizable morphospecies of Entoloma Section Entoloma 

(Basidiomycota), inferred from molecular and morphological data 

Species from Entoloma section Entoloma are commonly recorded from 

both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and, according to literature, most of 

them have, at least, Nearctic-Palearctic distribution. However, all records are 

based on morphological analysis, and studies relating morphology, molecular data 

and species distribution are lacking. In this study, we selected four morphospecies 

from Section Entoloma, to answer specific questions considering species concept 

and geographic distribution: E. sinuatum (E. lividum auct.), E. prunuloides (typespecies 

of section Entoloma), E. nitidum and the European red-listed E. bloxamii, 

with collections from Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. We 

combined molecular phylogenetics (based on nuclear LSU, ITS and rpb2 and mitochondrial 

SSU sequences) with morphological analysis to infer interspecific relationships 

and distribution patterns. Our results indicate that most species appear 

to have more restricted distribution than previously assumed. None of the collections 

studied from North Hemisphere and South Hemisphere proved to be conspecific. 

Entoloma sinuatum and E. nitidum contain phylogeographical groups 

that are partly recognizable using morphological characters. Entoloma bloxamii is 

paraphyletic, falling apart into 3 distinct lineages, one represented in Europe, a 


second restricted to North America, and a third represented in both these continents. 

The European and North American E. prunuloides appear to be conspecific. 

Furthermore the accepted taxa appear to belong to two distinct clades, (1) Entoloma 

clade, with E. sinuatum, E. subsinuatum, E. whiteae, E. flavifolium, and 

(2) Prunuloides clade, with E. prunuloides, E. bloxamii and E. nitidum. 

Morgenstern, Ingo 1,2 , Justin Powlowski 1,3 , and Adrian Tsang 1,2 . 1 Centre for 

Structural and Functional Genomics, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke 

Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2 Department of Biology, Concordia 

University, 3 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University. 

Transcriptional activity of “GH61”-encoding genes from various fungal 

species grown on straws 

The efficient degradation of lignocellulosic biomass using microbial enzymes 

is considered a key step for the production of second generation biofuel 

and value-added by-products. Efforts to improve commercial cellulase mixtures 

include the spiking with auxiliary enzymes. Recently, members of the so-called 

glycosyl hydrolase family 61 (GH61) have attracted much interest due to their cellulase-enhancing 

properties in enzyme mixtures. Copies for GH61 encoding 

genes are present in the majority of fungal genomes; however, the copy number 

of GH61s differs tremendously among the investigated genomes, exceeding thirty 

copies in some species. Currently, it is not known whether this is merely an example 

of high redundancy or how far functional differences are present among 

GH61 paralogs. We are examining the transcriptional profile of “GH61s” both 

from ascomycete and basidiomycete species grown on alfalfa and/or barley straw 

as substrate and are interpreting the results in a phylogenetic context. 

Morrison, Eric W 1 , Serita D Frey 2 , W Kelley Thomas 3 , and Anne Pringle 4 1 

. 

Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New 

Hampshire, Durham, NH, 2 Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, 

University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 3 Hubbard Center for Genome 

Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 4 Organismic and Evolutionary 

Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Diversity and composition 

of soil fungal communities under long-term nitrogen enrichment 

Nitrogen (N) deposition from fossil fuel burning has the potential to affect 

ecosystem processes such as the decomposition and storage of soil organic matter. 

The Harvard Forest Chronic Nitrogen Addition experiment (HFCN) was established 

in 1989 to test the effects of long-term N fertilization on ecosystem 

processes in a northeastern mixed-hardwood forest. Three plots receive one of 

three treatments: ambient N deposition (control), 50 kg N ha -1 yr -1 (low N), or 

150 kg N ha -1 yr -1 (high N). Researchers at this site have observed an accumulation 

of soil C in the N fertilized plots and a decrease in fungal biomass, ligninolytic 

enzyme activity, and rates of litter decay. Soil fungi are the primary decomposers 

of lignin in these communities. We hypothesized that decreased 

decomposition rates in N fertilized plots may be due to decreased diversity and 

changes in the composition of the fungal community. We performed a marker 

gene study of the fungal community in the organic soil horizon using 454 sequencing 

of three loci: ITS1, ITS2, and rDNA large subunit D2-D3 region. The 

dominant fungal family in soils under ambient N deposition was the Russulaceae. 

This family underwent a significant decrease in relative abundance in N treated 

soils. Unknown fungi dominated N treated soils. Control soils had significantly 

fewer unknown OTUs. High N soils had higher numbers of OTUs and singleton 

OTUs then control soils and low N soils, and had higher predicted richness. Fungal 

communities in high N soils had different community structure than control 

and low N soils as predicted with OTU based and phylogenetic beta-diversity 

metrics. Differences in community composition and higher numbers of unknown 

OTUs in high N soil fungal communities may suggest that a previously uncatalogued 

portion of the community is released by the decline of the dominant Russulaceae. 

Mueller, Olaf 1 , Scott Baker 3 , Guillaume Blanc 2 , Frank Collart 3 , Fred Dietrich 1 , 

Peter Larsen 3 , Jon Magnuson 3 , Francis Martin 4 , Emmanuelle Morin 4 , François 

Lutzoni 1 , and Daniele Armaleo 1 . 1 Department of Biology, Duke University, 

Durham, NC 27708 USA, 2 Information Génomique et Structurale (IGS), CNRS- 

UPR2589, IFR-88, Marseille, 3 Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, 

Argonne, IL 60439, 4 IUMR 1136, INRA-Nancy University, Interactions 

Arbres/Microorganismes, INRA-Nancy, 54280 Champenoux, France. Insights 

from comparative genomics in lichen symbiosis 

Mutual recognition and response among plants and fungi are central to either 

pathogenic or symbiotic associations. Genomes of the lichen-forming ascomycete 

Cladonia grayi (mycobiont) and its photoautotrophic symbiont, the single-celled 

green alga Asterochloris sp. (photobiont), were sequenced and 

analyzed to identify genes specific for the establishment and maintenance of 

lichen symbiosis. Annotated gene models of C. grayi and Asterochloris were 

compared to reference genomes representing related Ascomycota taxa (Euro- 


tiomycetes, Leotiomycetes, Sordariomycetes and Dothideomycetes) and Chlorophyta 

taxa (Chlorophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae and Prasinophyceae), respectively. 

A mutual best-hit blast approach was performed to identify similarities and differences 

in gene inventories and to provide a scaffold for detailed phylogenetic 

analyses. Markov cluster (MCL) studies compiled expanded and contracted gene 

families in the Cladonia symbionts. Gene families were investigated phylogenetically. 

Reduced rates of evolution driven by purifying selection are expected for 

genes essential to the lichen symbiosis, in order to maintain the lichen-symbiosis 

for a period of more than 400 million years. Candidate genes identified in this 

manner will be discussed in light of results from transcriptomic analyses derived 

from RNA isolated from the mycobiont and photobiont grown separately and together 

in experiments aimed at reconstituting the initial developmental interactions 

of the lichen symbiosis. 

Mujic, Alija B and Joseph W Spatafora. Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, 

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331. A draft genome of Rhizopogon 

vesiculosus using the next generation Illumina sequencing platform 

The ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi Rhizopogon vinicolor and R. vesiculosus 

(Boletales, Basidiomycota) are cryptic sister species of false truffles that form 

obligate EM relationships with Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas Fir). They both 

form unique tuberculate mycorrhizae and possess a sympatric distribution 

throughout their range where sampled. Previous and ongoing studies have revealed 

that while the sporocarp and EM morphology of these fungi may be highly 

similar, they possess striking life history differences. Rhizopogon vesiculosus 

produces larger vegetative genets and shows patterns of inbreeding within a patch 

size of approximately 120 meters. These trends are also reflected at the landscape 

scale, where R. vesiculosus has been found to display moderate population differentiation. 

In contrast, R. vinicolor produces smaller genets and shows no patterns 

of restricted gene flow within sites and only marginal population differentiation at 

the landscape scale. The frequency and distribution of both EM root tips and 

sporocarps of these species are relatively equivalent at all sites sampled and surveys 

of the nuclear count of basidiospores have revealed equal potential for secondary 

homothallism. These findings afford some explanation of the forces driving 

divergence between these species, but basic elements of these species’ biology 

such as the mating type system and biogeography remain unknown and limit our 

ability to test evolutionary hypotheses of sympatric and allopatric speciation. Recent 

advancements in high throughput sequencing technologies allow for greater 

applicability of genomic data for population and species-boundaries studies of 

non-model organisms. In this study we present the partial draft genome of R. 

vesiculosus as sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq platform. This genome will allow 

for comparative analysis of gene content and mating type system with other Basidiomycota 

and ultimately for population/species-level genomic studies between 

R. vesiculosus and R. vinicolor. 

Nagy, Laszlo G 1 , Dimitrios Floudas 1 , Manfred Binder 1 , Igor Grigoriev 2 , Francis 

Martin 3 , and David S Hibbett 1 . 1 2 

Biology Department, Clark 

3 

University, 

Fungal Genomics Program Lead, DOE Joint Genome Institute, Plant Biology 

Department of Nancy University. Does ECM induce a clean sweep of decay related 

genes in Agaricomycetes? 

Ectomycorrhizae (ECM) are symbiotic interactions between fungi and 

green plants with an enormous impact on many ecosystems. The ECM association 

can be found in several lineages of both the Agaricomycetes and the 

Viridiplantae, with most of the species found in the Agaricales and Boletales in 

mushrooms and the Pinales the Rosidae in plants. Macroevolutionary aspects of 

the origin of ECM formation have been studied extensively by phylogenetic comparative 

methods, resulting in highly discordant estimates regarding the number 

of gains and losses throughout the Agaricomycetes, however, its genetic basis is 

very poorly known. Recent and preliminary results suggest that the evolution of 

decay-related gene families show spectacular patterns in switches between different 

nutritional modes of fungi. Therefore, in this study, we set out to record gene 

family expansions and contractions in selected ECM and saprotrophic taxa and 

correlate these changes with switches in nutritional mode. Gene phylogenies and 

comparisons of gene copy numbers reinforce predictions based on single 

genomes. Of the 9 gene families studied, GH6, GH7, GH61, GH12 and fPOX 

show considerable loss of gene copies in ECM lineages, whereas gene copy numbers 

of the Multicopper peroxidase, Dye decolorizing peroxidase, GH5 and GH28 

gene families are comparable to those in white-rot and brown rot lineages. This 

suggests that while some of the decay-related gene families tend to be released 

from selection in mycorrhizal lineages, eventually leading to extensive gene loss 

over longer timescales, others retain a function, presumably because these gene 

families confer more general functions and/or ECM lineages maintain some capability 

to attack wood. 

Neilen, Manon, Machiel E Noordeloos, Luis N Morgado, and Jozsef Geml. Nationaal 

Herbarium Nederland, Nederlands Centrum voor Biodiversiteit Naturalis, 

Universiteit Leiden, PO Box 9514, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands. Willows - 

the arctic connection: biodiversity of arctic-alpine ectomycorrhizal fungi in 

Salix repens communities in Dutch North Sea sand dunes 

Dwarf willow (Salix) species are ubiquitous in the Arctic and are the primary 

hosts for the majority of arctic ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi. In Western 

Europe, the sand dune communities of creeping willow (S. repens) are known to 

harbour a rich mycoflora and are highly important for nature conservation, water 

resource management, and recreational purposes. In this project, we assess the 

biodiversity of ECM fungi in the Arctic (Alaska and Svalbard) and in Dutch 

coastal dune communities. We generated DNA sequence data from both soil and 

fruitbody samples and conducted phylogenetic analyses for the major Salix-symbiont 

ECM genera, such as Cortinarius, Russula, Hebeloma, Inocybe and Tomentella. 

Our results show that the majority of the ECM basidiomycete species 

found in soil samples taken from S. repens beds in the Dutch maritime sand dunes 

also occur in various arctic tundra communities. When comparing our results with 

long-term records of aboveground diversity (i.e., sporocarp mapping data generated 

by the Werkgroep Paddenstoelenkartering Nederland, WPN), we found that 

many of these ‘arctic’ species are considered rare and/or threatened, and therefore, 

red-listed in the Netherlands. In addition, we could confidently identify several 

OTUs to arctic species that had never been reported from the Netherlands before, 

e.g., Cortinarius favrei, Cortinarius laetissimus, Inocybe straminipes, Russula 

nana. Based on the many similarities in the ECM communities in arctic tundra 

and maritime sand dunes, it appears that, in the temperate zone, S. repens may 

serve as an ecological analog of arctic dwarf willows. In coastal dunes, S. repens 

is among the very few ECM hosts and its presence strongly enhances fungal biodiversity 

in these areas. Knowledge on ECM biodiversity can provide insight into 

the functioning and sustainability of these ecosystems. 

Nguyen, Nhu H 1 , Karen Hansen 2 , Rosanne Healy 3 , and Else C Vellinga 1 . 1 

Dept. of Plant and Microbial Biology, 111 Koshland Hall, UC Berkeley, Berkeley 

CA 94720, USA, 2 Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Cryptogamic 

Botany, PO Box 50007, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden, 3 Department of 

Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA. Helvella vespertina 

and Helvella dryophila, two new Helvella lacunosa look-alikes from 

western North America 

Fungal taxonomists have long suspected that the macrofungi of western 

North America are distinct from eastern North America and Europe. Yet, we continue 

to apply European species name to western North American species. One 

such case is Helvella “lacunosa”, a very common ectomycorrhizal species. We 

collected and sequenced ITS and LSU rRNA genes of Helvella “lacunosa” from 

California and compared them to European and eastern North American H. lacunosa. 

Specimens from western North America are distinct from European specimens 

and from American specimens east of the Rocky Mountains. Furthermore, 

the western North American “lacunosa” resolved into two species, one occurring 

with conifers (pines and Douglas fir) and one occurring with hardwood, mostly 

oak. These two species will be described as Helvella vespertina and Helvella 

dryophila. Intensive sampling in eastern North America and Mexico is desperately 

needed to resolve the H. “lacunosa” complex occurring in North America. 

This effort is a contribution to the North American Mycoflora Project. 

Nguyen, Hai, Nancy Nickerson, and Keith Seifert. Agriculture and Agri-Food 

Canada | 960 Carling Avenue | Ottawa, Ontario, Canada | K1A 0C6. Basidioascus: 

a new lineage of heat resistant and xerotolerant basidiomycetes 

Basidioascus was originally described from soil in Australia by Matsushima, 

who considered the type species, B. undulatus, to be an ascomycete with 

some basidiomycete characters. We isolated this fungus commonly from soil in 

temperate areas or Canada and the United States, using methods designed to isolate 

heat resistant and xerotolerant fungi. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of 

rDNA loci reveals that Basidioascus is a member of the Basidiomycota, with a 

sister-group relationships with Wallemia, a xerotolerant basidiomycetous mould 

that contaminates food and house dust. Microscopy and molecular phylogenetic 

analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) barcode region support the recognition 

of B. undulatus and two undescribed species. Our interpretation of microscopic 

observations is that ontogenesis starts with the development of lateral or 

terminal clavate, probasidia on hyphae, which become obovate when mature. 

After self-fertilization, the basidium ruptures, producing 1-3 dark, thick-walled 

globose to subglobose basidispores near the surface of the agar, leaving behind a 

collapsed basidium. 

Njambere, Evans N 1 , Frank Wong 2 , and Ning Zhang 1 . 1 Dept. of Plant Biology 

and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, 2 Bayer Environmental 

Science, Alexandria, VA. Microsatellite markers reveal isolation by 

distance and recent population expansion of Waitea circinata var. circinata 

Waitea circinata var. circinata (Wcc) is an emerging pathogen of turf 

grass in North America. It causes brown ring patch of turf grass in golf courses 



and amenity areas. The population dynamics and dispersal pathway of this 

pathogen in the US have not been well studied. In attempt to elucidate this, we 

isolated eight promising microsatellite markers from an enriched genomic library 

of Wcc. Seven of these markers were used to study the population diversity of 

eastern and western US populations of Wcc and the association with phenotypic 

characteristics. In general, the microsatellite markers were highly polymorphic, 

with an observed heterozygosity of > 0.5. The eastern population was differentiated 

from the western population but both populations showed the presence of immigrant 

individuals across boundaries. Analysis of population structure with geography 

revealed a significant clinal expansion, r 2 = 0.11, P = 0.01, of Wcc within 

a radius of about 150 km. However, it became more stochastic with increase in 

distance. No host specific clusters were observed based on UPGMA clustering, 

suggesting a lack of association between host and pathogen genotypes. 

Norvell, Lorelei L 1 and Scott A Redhead 2 . 1 Mycotaxon, PNW Mycology 

Service, Portland OR 97229-1309 USA, 2 National Mycological Herbarium, Eastern 

Cereal & Oilseed Research Centre C.E.F., Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 

Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6 Canada. A mycologist’s guide to the Melbourne Code. 

The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants 

(ICN) replaced the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) during 

the 2011 International Botanical Congress (IBC) in Melbourne. The new ICN permits 

diagnoses/descriptions in English (no longer requiring Latin) and electronic 

publication of fungal names (via PDFs in ISSN/ISBN numbered publications). 

With registration of fungal names required for valid publication in 2013, the IBC 

Nomenclature Committee for Fungi (NCF) is now moving to approve one or 

more nomenclatural registries. The ICN also excludes names of microsporidians 

and organisms treated in other Codes, refines typification procedures and spelling 

of sanctioned names, and recommends how to designate type cultures. The Melbourne 

Congress also referred mechanical typification issues and governance of 

fungal nomenclature to special committees and approved NCF recommendations 

on the conservation and rejection of notable fungal names. The new ICN does not 

permit multiple names for fungi with pleomorphic life cycles, which the ICBN 

(under Art. 59) previously allowed for non-lichenized ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. 

After 2013, alternative new names will be either illegitimate or not 

valid, although alternatives published through 2012 may be valid or legitimate. 

Although teleomorph- and anamorph-typified names will compete equally for priority, 

the ICN dictates delay in adopting anamorph-typified names with priority 

over commonly used teleomorph-typified names. To buffer the effects of this 

major change regarding alternative names, NCF-sanctioned subcommittees will 

compile and adjudicate lists of conserved/rejected names of non-lichenized fungi 

(not restricted to the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota) for approval by the IBC. 

The NCF and International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi (ICTF) - collaborating 

to issue joint guidelines, updates, and advice - recognize that mycological 

opinion over the Art. 59 change is still deeply divided and must be considered. 

Nuhn, Mitchell, Roy E Halling, Manfred Binder, David S Hibbett, and Todd W 

Osmundson. Department of Biology, Clark University, 950 Main St, Worcester, 

MA 01610. The Boletineae of Queensland, Australia 

The Boletineae is a group of mushrooms with many species highly sought 

after by both animals and humans as food. The majority of Boletineae species are 

ectomycorrhizal with woody plants, making them important members of forest 

ecosystems. This study will provide the first biodiversity inventory of the Boletineae 

in Queensland, Australia, including three of Australia’s Biodiversity 

Hotspots and World Heritage listed sites. To accomplish the inventory, modern 

molecular and phylogenetic techniques will be used, in combination with traditional 

taxonomic methods. A sequence dataset of nuclear ribosomal large subunit 

(nuclsu) and translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1) sequences has been generated 

for the systematic overview of the Boletineae of Queensland. The study has 

already resulted in one publication, designating a new cosmopolitan genus and at 

least two species for a previously described species, Sutorius eximius and S. australianses 

(previously Tylopilus eximius). Further study is ongoing, providing an 

overview of amorphologically distinct, cosmopolitan taxon, Tylopilus chromapes, 

that appears to be polyphyletic based on preliminary results. An overview of additional 

Boletineae species occurring in Queensland, Australia and their relationships 

in the context of a worldwide phylogeny of Boletineae is in progress. 

Olarte, Rodrigo A 1 , Bruce W Horn 2 , Carolyn J Worthington 1 , and Ignazio Carbone 

1 . 1 Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, 

Raleigh, NC 27695, 2 National Peanut Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research 

Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Dawson, GA 39842. Matingtype 

heterokaryosis and population shifts in Aspergillus flavus 

Aspergillus flavus is a fungal pathogen of many agronomically important 

crops worldwide. We sampled A. flavus strains from a cornfield in Rocky Mount, 

NC. This field was planted in 2010 and plots were inoculated at tasseling with either 

AF36 or NRRL 21882 (=Afla-Guard) biocontrol strains, both of which are 


mating type MAT1-2. Subsequently, toxigenic strain NRRL 3357 (MAT1-1) was 

applied to all plots, including control plots not inoculated with biocontrol strains. 

Sclerotia were harvested from infected corn ears approximately 4.5 months after 

planting (2.5 months after biocontrol treatment); ninety single-ascospore isolates 

were isolated from ascocarps originating from plots treated with AF36 and NRRL 

21882. In addition, eighty A. flavus isolates were collected from soil one month 

after planting (before biocontrol application) and one year after biocontrol application, 

for a grand-total of 250 isolates. Aflatoxin (AF) and cyclopiazonic acid 

(CPA) production were determined using standard thin-layer chromatography 

and HPLC. Three distinct toxin classes were identified: AF-/CPA-, AF+/CPA+ 

and AF-/CPA+. PCR amplification revealed grouping of isolates into three distinct 

mating-type classes: MAT1-1, MAT1-2 and MAT1-1/MAT1-2. A significant 

proportion (54%) of isolates sampled prior to biocontrol treatments were heterokaryotic 

for mating type (MAT1-1/MAT1-2), and 39% of isolates obtained 

from ascospores were heterokaryotic as well as 9% of isolates from soil after biocontrol 

treatments. The vertical transmission of MAT1-1/MAT1-2 to progeny ascospore 

isolates suggests that heterokaryosis can be maintained in subsequent 

generations. The population genetic structure before and after the application of 

biocontrol treatments will be discussed. Further characterization of heterokaryons 

and their frequency in A. flavus populations may be important in understanding 

the adaptation of these fungi to changing environmental conditions. 

Oliver, Jason P and Jonathan S Schilling. University of Minnesota, 320 Kaufert 

Laboratory, 2004 Folwell Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108-6130. Manure gas eating 

microbes: Effect of fungal and bacterial biomass on biofiltration of livestock 

production emissions 

Though specific data is only just being analyzed, scientists and regulators 

are beginning to recognize the significant emission of particulate matter, odor, 

hazardous and greenhouse gases from livestock production and manure management. 

Biofiltration - use of a biologically active porous media to capture and degrade 

gaseous pollutants - is a low-cost and adaptable mitigation technology suitable 

for manure storage emissions. Improving the design and management of 

biofilters (and ultimately adoption by producers) rests on our ability to understand 

the microbial ecology of the filter media, the underpinnings of biofilter effectiveness 

and efficiency. Studying biofilters at multiple scales, we are beginning to resolve 

the effect of fungal and bacterial biomass on reductions of gases generated 

by long-term storage of livestock manure. 

Orwin, Kate H 1 , Miko U F Kirschbaum 2 , Julie R Deslippe 2 , and Ian A Dickie 

3 . 1 Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, 

United Kingdom, 2 Landcare Research, Private Bag 11052, Palmerston North 

4442, New Zealand, 3 Landcare Research, Box 40, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand. 

The impact of mycorrhizal fungal traits on ecosystem responses to global 

change: a modeling approach 

Ecosystems are currently being subjected to multiple global change factors, 

from nitrogen deposition to increasing CO2 concentrations and changes in 

temperature. Understanding the consequences of these effects on ecosystem 

processes such as carbon cycling is of prime importance, as this will determine 

whether ecosystems are likely to cause positive or negative feedbacks to climate 

change. Current evidence suggests that carbon cycling can be strongly affected by 

the traits of the plant community, with most studies focusing on litter quality and 

plant growth rates. However, recent modelling work has demonstrated that the 

traits of plant symbionts can also play a significant role in determining ecosystem 

carbon storage. In particular, the ability of mycorrhizal fungi to directly access organic 

nutrients can be as important as a major shift in litter quality for carbon storage. 

The two main mechanisms behind this effect were direct access to organic 

nutrients causing i) an increase in plant nutrition resulting in enhanced photosynthetic 

rates and subsequent carbon inputs to the soil and ii) a reduction in microbial 

access to nutrients, which reduced the rate of soil organic matter decomposition. 

We have little understanding of the way in which such interactions among 

mycorrhizal symbionts, their hosts and other soil decomposers may modify the effect 

of global change factors on ecosystem carbon dynamics. Here, we use a 

newly developed model (MySCaN: Mycorrhizal Status, Carbon and Nutrient cycling) 

to examine the impact of global change factors on carbon storage, and how 

these trends can be affected by mycorrhizal traits. We show that global change effects 

on carbon storage are not universal, but are modified by the interaction between 

plants and their mycorrhizal symbionts. 

Osmundson, Todd W and Matteo Garbelotto. Forest Mycology and Pathology 

Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, 

University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. Fire drives habitat specialization, 

speciation, and hybridization of Morel mushrooms in western 

North America 


Morels (Morchella spp.) are commercially valuable edible mushrooms 

and non-timber forest products. Several species reproduce prolifically the year 

after wildfires, suggesting a response to - and perhaps important role in - post-fire 

forest regeneration. Although post-fire seed regeneration may accelerate evolutionary 

diversification compared to adult persistence in plants, similar comparisons 

for fungi are lacking. Using multilocus phylogenies and diversification 

analyses, we demonstrate the evolutionary importance of fire-associated reproduction 

in morels through (i) high ecological specificity of fire association; (ii) 

phylogenetic conservatism of fire-association, with diversification concurrent 

with shifts in fire-association status; and (iii) gene introgression between phylogenetically 

distinct but ecologically similar fire-associated species. Rates of phylogenetic 

diversification and molecular evolution do not differ between fire- and 

non-fire-associated lineages, suggesting that rate-enhancing factors (e.g., population 

turnover, large population sizes) are counteracted by rate-limiting ones (e.g., 

long fire-return intervals). Genetic introgression was observed only between fireassociates, 

suggesting that fire can counteract diversification by synchronizing 

sexual reproduction between species, a process potentially relevant to other 

species that reproduce in response to disturbance. 

Owensby, Alisha C, Kathryn E Bushley, and Joseph W Spatafora. Department 

of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. Comparative 

genomics reveals complex patterns of secondary metabolite evolution 

in the genus Elaphocordyceps 

Hypocreales is an order characterized by a dynamic evolutionary history 

of interkingdom host jumping, with members that parasitize animals, plants, and 

other fungi. The monophyly of taxa attacking members of the same kingdom has 

not been supported by molecular phylogenetics, however. For example, Trichoderma 

spp. and Elaphocordyceps spp. are both mycoparasitic, but are members 

of two different families within the Hypocreales, the Hypocreaceae and Ophiocordycipitaceae, 

respectively. In fact, both species are more closely related to insect 

pathogens, than they are to each other. Three species of Trichoderma have 

sequenced genomes, and more recently the genomes of several insect pathogens 

in the Hypocreales have been published (e.g. Cordyceps militaris, Metarhizium 

anisopliae, M. acridum) and others are in progress (e.g. Tolypocladium inflatum). 

Elaphocordyceps is a genus within this clade that primarily parasitizes ectomycorrhizal 

truffles in the genus Elaphomyces, representing a yet unsampled ecology 

within Hypocreales. To compare gene space of a truffle pathogen with closely related 

insect pathogens and distantly related mycoparasites, we sequenced the 

genome of Elaphocordyceps ophioglossoides. Our draft assembly of the E. 

ophioglossoides genome has a size of approximately 32 MB and 10,779 predicted 

genes. Here, we present a survey of E. ophioglossoides genes involved in secondary 

metabolism. Notably, E. ophioglossoides is missing the cyclosporin producing 

nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) found in its congener, T. 

inflatum, but possesses the destruxin NRPS, recently identified in Metarhizium 

anisopliae. The three largest genes in E. ophioglossoides are related to peptaibol 

NRPS genes, which are only described from Trichoderma spp., and are indicated 

as being important to mycoparasitism. Our work represents the first genome of an 

Elaphocordyceps species parasitic on other fungi and will provide insights into 

mechanisms underlying mycoparasitism and interkingdom host jumping. 

Padamsee, Mahajabeen 1 , Stanley E Bellgard 2 , Ian Dickie 3 , Scott Fraser 4 , 

Duckchul Park 1 , Bryan Stevenson 4 , and Bevan Weir 1 . 1 Biosystematics Team, 

Landcare Research, Auckland, New Zealand, 2 Biodiversity and Conservation 

Team, Landcare Research, Auckland, New Zealand, 3 Ecosystem Processes, 

Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand, 4 Soils and Landscape Responses, 

Landcare Research, Hamilton, New Zealand. Stuff in Duff: a metagenomic 

study of fungi in kauri forests 

Kauri (Agathis australis, Araucariaceae) is restricted in distribution to the 

northern tip of the North Island of New Zealand. Living to 2,500 years or more 

and having trunks to 7 m diam., kauri is a keystone species. Kauri was extensively 

logged and now less than 1% remains of undisturbed old-growth forests. Since 

the 1970s these trees have also been under threat from the exotic invasive, Phytophthora 

taxon Agathis (PTA) that causes kauri dieback. We are interested in understanding 

how the fungal community associated with the large amount of kauri 

duff (i.e., leaf litter) will be affected after infection of the tree by this exotic root 

pathogen. However, there has been no thorough study of the fungi associated with 

kauri and as a result we have no baseline data of the composition of a “healthy” 

fungal community in kauri leaf litter. We used pyrosequencing to study fungal 

biodiversity and assess changes in fungal community composition after invasion 

by PTA. The sampling scheme was optimized and several methods of analyzing 

the data were tested. A sequence database of known fungi was created with which 

to compare the metagenomic data. 

Padamsee, Mahajabeen and Eric McKenzie. Biosystematics Team, Landcare 

Research, Auckland, New Zealand. Are there New Zealand-only clades of rust 

fungi? 

Of the 250 species of rust fungi (Pucciniales) recorded in New Zealand, 

approximately 90 are believed to be endemic since they occur on native plants. 

Over the last 150 years, the number of non-native rusts has risen sharply from 33 

to over a hundred. Although most of these rusts are recorded on non-native plants, 

several have been also recorded on native hosts. This begs the question, if host 

jumping has been observed in such a short time, what implication does this have 

for the origin of endemic rusts, i.e., are they really endemic? If not, then when and 

from where were the rusts introduced? Recent evidence suggests that many of the 

non-native rusts have been introduced from Australia by trans-Tasman airflows, 

which suggests that historically dispersal from Australia may have influenced the 

current distribution of rust fungi. A multi-gene phylogeny of New Zealand rust 

fungi was constructed and when combined with data from non-native rusts suggested 

the strong likelihood that there are New Zealand-only clades of rust fungi. 

Preliminary results indicate that several rust fungi may have evolved on closely 

related hosts in New Zealand. 

Pagliaccia, Deborah P, Elinor P Pong, Brandon M McKee, and Greg W Douhan. 

Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, 

Riverside, CA 92521. Population genetic structure of Phytophthora cinnamomi 

Rands associated with Phytophthora root rot of avocado within California 

and the potential introduction of a new clonal lineage 

Phytophthora root rot (PRR) of avocado (Persea americana Mill), caused 

by Phytophthora cinnamomi, is the most serious disease of avocado worldwide. 

Previous studies have determined that this pathogen exhibits a primarily clonal reproductive 

mode but no population level studies have been conducted in the avocado 

growing regions of California (Ca). Therefore, we used AFLP and matingtype 

to investigate pathogen diversity from 138 isolates collected in 2009-2010 

from 15 groves from the Northern and Southern avocado growing regions. Additional 

isolates collected from avocado from 1970 to 2007 as well as isolates from 

other countries and hosts were also used for comparative purposes. Three distinct 

clades were found based on UPGMA analysis of 22 polymorphic loci. One clade 

contained only A1 isolates collected from various hosts and locations. Two A2 

clades were found; one clade contained both newer and older collections from 

Northern and Southern Ca whereas the other clade only contained isolates collected 

in 2009-10. A total of 16 genotypes were found with only 1 to 4 genotypes 

identified from any one location. The results indicate significant population structure 

in the Ca avocado P. cinnamomi population, low genotypic diversity consistent 

with asexual reproduction, potential evidence for the movement of clonal 

genotypes between the two growing regions, and a potential introduction of a new 

clonal lineage into Southern CA. Current studies are underway to investigate the 

phenotypic variation (in vitro and in vivo) within our collection of P. cinnamomi 

isolates to determine if these new findings will affect our efforts towards breeding 

PRR tolerant rootstocks of avocado to control this important disease. 

Perry, Brian A, Erin Datlof, and Mali‘o Kodis. Biology Department, University 

of Hawai‘i at Hilo, 200 W. Kawili St., Hilo, HI 96720. Foliar endophytic community 

structure in wild and cultivated stands of Hawaiian ‘ohi’a lehua 

(Metrosideros polymorpha) 

Although associated with all plants that have been investigated, the taxonomic, 

genetic and functional diversity of endophytic fungi remains undocumented 

for many regions, including the Hawaiian Islands. Fungal endophytes 

have been shown to confer such benefits as increased draught tolerance, resistance 

to pathogens, and anti-herbivory properties. Additionally, fungal endophyte composition 

has been shown to play a large role in altering vegetation dynamics and 

plant community composition. Given the potential roles of fungal endophytes, it 

is clear that a detailed understanding the taxonomic and genetic diversity of these 

symbionts should be addressed as conservation and management plans for host 

species are developed. To assess such diversity in a native Hawaiian taxon, we examined 

foliar fungal endophytic community structure in elevational phenotypes 

of wild and cultivated Metrosideros polymorpha (‘ohi’a lehua) using environmental 

PCR methods. Preliminary results based on ITS sequence data indicate 

that low and high elevation populations on Hawai’i Island harbor disparate endophytic 

communities. Additionally, seeds collected from high and low elevation 

populations and reared together in a mid-elevation garden harbor endophytic 

communities similar to those of their parent populations, suggesting strong host 

selection and/or vertical symbiont transmission. Seeds isolated from cultivated M. 

polymorpha individuals are currently being examined as potential vectors of endophytic 

communities similar to those recovered from foliar samples. 

Petersen, Ronald H and Karen W Hughes. Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tn 37996-1100. The “Big Ditch” project: 

TransAtlantic mushroom disjunction tested using multiple taxonomic tools 

Written descriptions and illustrations by historical Euro-Scandinavian 

mycologists crossed the Atlantic to America, where they were matched to fungi 



of the New World. Doubts about the accuracy of name applications across the 

ocean have persisted, but molecular phylogenies now provide a new level of resolution. 

Our research targets fleshy fungi whose names originated in Europe, but 

which bear the same name and superficial form in eastern North America. Several 

examples can be identified in which DNA sequences reveal differences across 

the ocean, including saprophytic (Marasmius rotula; Baeospora myosura; 

Sparassis crispa) and ectomycorrhizal (Strobilomyces strobilaceus; Tricholoma 

populinum) fungi. In addition, it appears that genes for sexual compatibility and 

recognition are more highly conserved than the internally transcribed spacer 

(ITS), but morphological differences vary with the individual taxon. Implications 

of this research include the necessity for new names for heretofore cryptic taxa on 

both continents and resultant adjustment of biodiversity inventory reports. 

Peterson, Stephen W. USDA-ARS NCAUR, 1815 North University Street, Peoria, 

IL 61604. Aspergillus section Versicolores: nine new species and multilocus 

DNA sequence based phylogeny 

ß-tubulin, calmodulin, internal transcribed spacer and partial lsu-rDNA, 

RNA polymerase, DNA replication licensing factor Mcm7, and pre-rRNA processing 

protein Tsr1 were amplified and sequenced from 62 A. versicolor clade 

isolates and analyzed phylogenetically using the concordance model to establish 

species boundaries. We used phylogeny to define species and phenotype from 10d 

CYA cultures to describe the species. Aspergillus austroafricanus, A. creber, A. 

cvjetkovicii, A. fructus, A. jensenii, A. puulaauensis, A. subversicolor, A. tennesseensis 

and A. venenatus are described as new species and A. amoenus, A. protuberus, 

A. tabacinus and A. versicolor are accepted as distinct species on the 

basis of molecular and phenotypic differences. PCR primer pairs used to detect A. 

versicolor in sick building syndrome studies have a positive reaction for all of the 

newly described species. 

Phookamsak, Rungtiwa 1 , Amy Y Rossman 2 , Ekachai Chukeatirote 1 , and 

Kevin D Hyde 1 . 1 School of science, Mae Fah Luang University, 57100, Chiang 

Rai, Thailand., 2 Mycology & Microbiology Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, 

MD 20705, USA. Taxonomic and phylogenetic studies of Dothideomycetes 

on bamboo in Chiang Rai Province, Northern of Thailand 

Bamboos are fascinating and useful plants that have a wide range of uses. 

The traditional people in Southeast Asia, China, Japan, India and South America 

have used bamboos in their cultures and survival since ancient times. There are 

several studies on endophytic, pathogenic and saprobic fungi on bamboo. However, 

phylogenetic information based on molecular data is poorly known for many 

bambusicolous fungi. We studied the taxonomy and phylogeny of Dothideomycetes 

on bamboo in Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand. Specimens 

were collected from six locations in Chiang Rai. Pure cultures were obtained 

using single spore isolation. We identified bitunicate fungi on dead stems or 

branches of bamboo that belong to the families of Aigialaceae, Didymosphaeriaceae, 

Lophiostomataceae, Massarinaceae and Melanommataceae. Some fungi 

are illustrated and a checklist of fungi examined on bamboo is presented. Among 

the 33 saprobic fungi on dead materials two isolates of Aigialaceae, four of Didymosphaeriaceae, 

three of Lophiostomataceae and Massarinaceae and 11 of 

Melanommataceae were identified. The molecular phylogeny of Dothideomycetes 

on bamboo is inferred based on combined sequences of rDNA, the 

internal transcribed spacers (ITS rDNA), small subunit nuclear rDNA (18S, 

SSU), large subunit nuclear rDNA (28S, LSU) and partial RNA polymerase second 

largest subunit (RPB2). 

Picard, Kathryn T 1 , Rowena F Stern 2 , and François Lutzoni 1 . 1 Duke University, 

Durham, NC 27708, 2 Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science, Plymouth, 

UK. Investigating early-diverging fungi from marine and estuarine 

habitats in North America and Europe 

Despite increasing efforts to characterize and catalog early-diverging 

fungi, marine and estuarine habitats remain largely unexplored. Further, traditional 

culturing methods commonly employed in taxonomic surveys provide only 

limited insight into the breadth of zoosporic fungal diversity. However, with the 

application of culture-independent molecular techniques, including environmental 

cloning and, increasingly, high-throughput sequencing, the presence, distribution, 

and variety of these previously unculturable microbes is being elucidated. 

For this study, marine and estuarine habitats in North America and Europe were 

surveyed for novel fungal phylotypes using next-generation sequencing methods. 

North American samples originated from a yearlong sampling effort in coastal 

North Carolina. Monthly sediment and plankton samples were collected from 

three small estuarine islands located within the Beaufort Inlet in Pamlico Sound. 

Quarter-annual collections of marine sediments from the shallow waters of Cape 

Lookout Bight were also made. Using the Ion Torrent platform, the 5’ end of the 

nuclear large subunit (28S) was sequenced from these samples, resulting in ~200 

bp reads. European samples originated from open water collections made across 

the English Channel over the course of three months. Partial nuclear small subunit 

(18S) rDNA sequences (~200-400 bp) were generated from English Channel 


samples using 454 pyrosequencing. The conserved 18S and 28S markers were 

chosen over more variable regions, such as ITS1 and ITS2, based on greater availability 

of publicly accessible reference sequences. Preliminary analysis of both 

North American and European sequence data reveals novel fungal phylotypes 

from across the fungal tree. 

Porras-Alfaro, Andrea 1,4 , Liu Kuan-Liang 3 , Zachary Gossage 1 , Lynnaun 

Johnson 1 , Tabitha Williams 1 , Gary Xie 2 , and Cheryl R Kuske 2 . 1 Department of 

Biological Sciences, Western Illinois University, Illinois, USA, 2 Los Alamos National 

Laboratory, Bioscience Division, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA, 3 Institute 

of Information Management, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, 

Taiwan, Republic of China, 4 Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, 

Albuquerque, USA. ITS and LSU automated classification: the fungal RDP 

naïve Bayesian classifier 

The introduction of next generation sequencing (NGS) in ecological studies 

has created a major revolution in fungal ecology. Analyses of large fungal 

datasets are common but currently limited by the lack of databases and reliable 

tools that will allow the classification of thousands of fungal sequences from environmental 

samples. The main objective of this project was to create curated 

databases for the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region and the large-subunit 

rRNA (LSU) gene and to evaluate their performance in the Ribosomal Database 

Project (RDP) naïve Bayesian classifier. We created and compared hand-curated 

LSU and ITS databases (more than 8 000 fungal sequences per database). Taxonomic 

gaps in fungal databases and challenges in the creation and maintenance of 

these databases will be discussed. When compared with the traditional BLASTN 

approach, the RDP fungal classifier was more rapid (>460-fold with our system) 

with similar or superior accuracy. Performance of fungal classifier at different taxonomic 

levels, sequence lengths and regions was also evaluated. Classification 

was more accurate with 400-bp sequence reads than with 100-bp reads and location 

of hyper variable regions played an important role in accuracy of sequence 

classification. The fungal classifier shows to be a highly effective tool to analyze 

large NGS datasets from environmental surveys, and to determine target regions 

in LSU and ITS sequences that will improve accuracy of taxonomic classification 

when short sequences are obtained. The LSU training set and tool are publicly 

available through the Ribosomal Database Project (http://rdp.cme.msu.edu/classifier/classifier.jsp) 

Porter, Teresita M and G Brian Golding. McMaster University, Biology Department, 

Life Sciences Building, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 

4K1 Canada. Assigning ITS and LSU rDNA ‘barcodes’ with confidence 

Whereas PCR, cloning and Sanger-based sequencing can generate libraries 

comprised of thousands of sequences up to about 600-1000 bp in length; 

current highly parallel sequencers are now generating amplicon libraries comprised 

of millions of relatively short sequences of about 200-400 bp in length. We 

are interested in how these shorter sequences affect the quality of automated taxonomic 

assignments. Here we present the results from two simulation studies that 

specifically address the accuracy and error rate of ITS and LSU rDNA markers 

using several tools suitable for automating assignments. We compare the performance 

of programs using similarity-, phylogeny-, and composition-based 

methods. Generally, we find that database completeness is perhaps the biggest 

factor determining assignment accuracy, followed by query sequence length, assignment 

method, primer choice, and sequence error. Specifically, we find that 

MEGAN lowest common ancestor (LCA) parsing produces the lowest error rate 

when assigning unknown ITS and LSU rDNA sequences; and, the fungal LSU 

naïve Bayesian classifier available through the Ribosomal Database Project website 

performs significantly faster than BLAST-based methods. 

Powell, Martha J and Peter M Letcher. Department of Biological Sciences, The 

University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487. Using cellular structure and 

biochemistry for insights into fungal cell biology and phylogeny 

Chytridiomycota (chytrids) are now recognized as highly adaptable fungi, 

not limited in geography or habitat by the constraints of reproduction with a flagellated, 

unwalled-spore (=zoospore). As our examination of chytrid zoospore ultrastructure 

has expanded, we have discovered tremendous variety in organellar 

structures and organization. Molecular-based reconstructions of phylogeny have 

also revealed great genetic diversity among chytrids. The intersection of molecular 

phylogenies with analyses of organellar function is helping us understand how 

zoospore structures have evolved within lineages. Zoospore architectural differences 

are good predictors of molecular-based phylogenies. Selective pressures associated 

with habitat differences may be drivers in the evolution of zoospore ultrastructure. 

Evolution of zoospore architecture in the Chytridiales is discussed as 

an example of how structures have been modified and lost within evolutionary lineages. 

Our challenge now is discovering more about the functional roles of architectural 

design differences in chytrid zoospores. 


Presley, Gerry N and Jonathan Schilling. Department of Bioproducts and 

Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108. Spatial 

mapping of gene expression in the brown rot fungus Postia placenta during 

wood decay 

Wood is an abundant, renewable feedstock for the production biofuels 

and biomaterials, however it is very recalcitrant and obtaining fermentable sugars 

from it and other lignocellulosic material is energetically costly. Brown rot fungi 

are able to obtain carbohydrates from wood at low temperatures by using a unique 

mechanism that is thought to involve the production of hydroxyl radicals that 

modify lignin and allow endoglucanases to access to cellulose in wood cell walls 

to aid in the release of glucose. Analysis of spruce wafers degraded by Postia placenta 

suggest that the fungus pretreats its substrate ahead of the advancing hyphal 

front with oxidative, lignin-modifying chemical reactions followed by saccharification 

of the substrate, indicated by an increase in endoglucanase activity behind 

the hyphal front. This project will focus on determining spatial gene expression 

patterns along a spatial gradient in wood degraded by Postia placenta. Wood sections 

taken along the length of degrading spruce wafers will be analyzed using 

Fluorescence in situ hybridization to determine where mRNA from genes thought 

to be involved in oxidative pretreatment such as quinone reductases and saccharification 

related genes such as endoglucanases are localized in the degrading 

wafer. Further analysis of gene expression will be done using qRT-PCR to determine 

the levels of gene expression for pretreatment and saccharification related 

genes along the length of degrading spruce wafers. This work will spatially map 

the expression of genes involved brown rot pretreatment and saccharification and 

help determine which genes are important in mediating those processes. 

Pringle, Anne. Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, 

MA, 02138. MSA Student Workshop: Using fungi to get a job 

Some ads specifically ask for mycologists, more often, departments are 

looking for conceptually oriented biologists. Fungi offer myriad opportunities for 

connecting to broader themes in ecology, evolution, and other fields; making 

those connections can be critical to a successful job hunt. I’ll talk about my own 

experiences on the job market and share the research and teaching statements I 

used to find my current position. We’ll then practice job strategies by taking the 

time to talk about our research “mission statements” and “cocktail-party tidbits”. 

I’ll explain why these are useful and we’ll finish by sharing our newly crafted mission 

statements and tidbits with each other. 

Pringle, Anne 1 , Shugeng Cao 2 , and Jon Clardy 2 . 1 Organismic and Evolutionary 

Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, 2 Harvard Medical School, 

Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115. Chemical diversity across individual 

lichens 

Fungi often grow as modular networks, and fungi in the genus Xanthoparmelia 

form foliose lichens. Foliose lichens grow radially from a center. 

Edges are younger than the middle of a thallus, and to test whether modules of 

different ages are chemically equivalent, we took samples from the edges and centers 

of transects laid across lichens of different sizes and used HPLC to characterize 

chemical diversity. The modules of a single thallus are not equivalent. The 

same suite of compounds is found across an individual, but dramatic differences 

in amounts of the different compounds mean the diversity of chemicals is greatest 

at lichen edges, regardless of the size of the thallus. The centers of very large, 

old lichens are chemically depauperate, as compared to edges, but even in small 

individuals centers possess fewer amounts of compounds as compared to edges, 

suggesting the pattern is not driven by age, and is caused instead by the need for 

edges to maintain abundant chemical arsenals to colonize new habitats. These 

data provide a context for our previous work on bacterial diversity across the thalli 

of lichens, and are also contextualized by ongoing research on demographies 

and life histories of filamentous fungi. 

Quintanilla, Laura A and Brian D Shaw. Department of Plant Pathology and 

Microbiology, Program for the Biology of Filamentous Fungi, 2132 TAMU, 

Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA. Actin dynamics in 

Aspergillus nidulans 

Actin is a major cytoskeletal protein required for the polarized growth of 

filamentous fungi. To study actin dynamics in living cells, Aspergillus nidulans 

was transformed with the Lifeact reporter construct that has been used to document 

actin patch, cable, and ring dynamics in other systems. Lifeact is a 17 amino 

acid peptide derived from the Saccharomyces cerevisiae actin binding protein 

Abp140p. Localization patterns for strains expressing Lifeact from three different 

promoters displayed similar actin localization patterns and all strains that were 

tested grew and developed as wild-type. Lifeact labeled actin localized to a subapical 

collar of endocytic actin patches that was located approximately 2 µm from 

the apex. Cortical actin patches were also present along the periphery of the hyphae. 

Actin patches displayed anterograde and retrograde movement throughout 

the hypha. The presence of a dense, complex, and highly dynamic network of 

actin cables (SAW - Sub-apical Actin Web) located at varying distances from the 

apex was also observed. This network of actin cables was hypothesized to be associated 

with branch site or septation site selection. An alternative hypothesis was 

that the SAW acted as a diffusion barrier. Actin cables also spanned the length of 

growing hyphae and were associated with the Spitzenkörper. When a hyphal 

branch was newly formed, an actin cable network formed inside the parent hypha 

and then entered the newly formed branch. A complex of actin cables predicted 

septation sites and then condensed to form a double acto-myosin ring, which 

eventually depolymerized as septal wall material was deposited. Further experiments 

designed to test our hypotheses will be discussed. 

Ratekin, Angela K 1 , Bernadette C Taylor 1 , and Thomas J Volk 2 . 1 Department 

of Microbiology, University of Wisconsin La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601, 2 Department 

of Biology, University of Wisconsin La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601. 

How bad is BAD1? Looking at the relationship between Blastomyces dermatitidis 

Virulence Factor BAD1 and Human Neutrophils, the “Infantry” of 

our Initial Immune Response 

Blastomycosis, a fungal infection, presents with a variety of disease states. 

The causative agent, Blastomyces dermatitidis, a thermally dimorphic fungal 

pathogen, is capable of infecting immunocompetent hosts. The mechanisms of invasion 

and the evasion of the immune response mounted by the human host are not 

clearly understood. The broad based budding yeast form is large, making it difficult 

for the phagocytic cells of the immune system to engulf. Blastomyces ADhesin 

Factor (BAD1) is a virulence factor associated with the yeast form of B. dermatitidis. 

Neutrophils are the predominant immune cell involved in phagocytosis and 

the predominant cell populating the initial defense of the immune system. BAD1 

attaches to these phagocytic cells resulting in immunomodulation, a change in 

chemical messaging. This change may result in an increased activation of neutrophils, 

resulting in an increase in Neutrophil Extracellur Trap (NET) production. 

Since the yeast cells are too large to be readily engulfed by the neutrophils, a net 

with a DNA backbone embedded with antimicrobial peptides and enzymes may 

aid in the containment and elimination of pathogens. However, with some strains 

the activation of neutrophils may become overzealous resulting in excess lung tissue 

damage, presenting as Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS). Looking 

at isolates with known clinical presentation, BAD1 expression is measured by 

flow cytometry. The production of NETs is observed by fluorescence microscopy 

and quantified by measuring elastase, a component of NETs. A percent killed assay 

is being used to determine the survival of B. dermatitidis post NET production. Our 

hypothesis is that the level of BAD1 expression correlates with neutrophil activation 

and NET production, which in turn plays a part in determining the type of clinical 

manifestation. A high level of BAD1 expression results in tissue damage, 

ARDS, whereas a lower level results in dissemination of the organism. 

Reynolds, Hannah T 1 , M Kevin Keel 2 , and Hazel A Barton 1 . 1 Department of 

Biology, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, 2 Department of Population 

Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602. Assessment of the saprotrophic 

ability of the White Nose Syndrome agent, Geomyces destructans 

White Nose Syndrome, an emerging disease of hibernating bats, has 

killed over 5.5 million bats in northeastern North America. Its rapid spread across 

the country, beginning in New York in 2006 and currently reaching as far south 

as Alabama, has led to numerous cave closures across the United States. The fungus 

Geomyces destructans was isolated and described from infected bats and was 

recently shown to be the causal agent of the disease. Geomyces, the anamorph of 

Pseudogymnoascus, consists of 11 species known predominately from cold soils. 

Understanding the natural history of Geomyces destructans, particularly its ecology 

in caves, is crucial for disease management. To investigate the saprotrophic 

potential of Geomyces destructans, we used a combination of enzyme bioassays 

and cave community ecology. First, we tested G. destructans and other Geomyces 

species for the ability to decompose several common substrates, including chitin, 

keratin, and cellulose. We also tested for the production of siderophores, ironchelating 

molecules that allow survival in low iron conditions and are important 

virulence factors for several pathogens. For positive tests, we compared the enzyme 

activity of G. destructans with that of closely related species. Second, we 

tested the growth ability of G. destructans in sterilized and unsterilized soils and 

sediments collected from multiple locations in caves in Cumberland Gap National 

Historical Park. For each sample, the microbial communities and soil composition 

were analyzed to determine the abiotic and biotic factors that permit the survival 

and growth of Geomyces destructans in caves. 

Reynolds, Nicole K 1 , Emma R Wilson 1 , Prasanna Kandel 1 , Matthew Laramie 1 , 

David Pilliod 2 , and Merlin M White 1 . 1 Boise State University, Department of Biological 

Sciences, 1910 University Dr. Boise, ID 83725, 2 U.S. Geological Survey, 

Snake River Field Station, 970 Lusk St. Boise, ID, 83706. Extending 

knowledge of Trichomycetes by fixing on preserved immature aquatic insects 

in Idaho 



Trichomycetes (gut fungi) are obligate symbionts of various arthropods 

and have been found in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats on every continent 

except Antarctica. Minimally, gut fungi associate commensally with their immature 

aquatic hosts (including black flies, mayflies, stoneflies, isopods, and others) 

attaching to the chitinous lining of the mid- or hindgut, although relationships 

may shift depending on the situation. Both the geographic distribution and the biodiversity 

of gut fungi are vastly underestimated. Idaho is no exception, as it presents 

many opportunities for discovery in unique habitats, including the sagebrush 

steppe. Fourteen locations in remote forest streams of Idaho were surveyed for 

macroinvertebrates, which were immediately preserved in 95% ethanol upon collection. 

Inspection of fixed specimens revealed gut fungi were occasionally protruding 

beyond the anus of the host. Specimens were rehydrated, dissected, slide 

mounted and those vouchers of gut fungi were used for identification. Hosts included 

black flies, mayflies and a few stoneflies. Gut fungi are more typically dissected 

from living hosts. These specimens, fixed in the field, presented both challenges 

and rewards. Whereas some fungi naturally extend beyond the anus at 

maturity, such extension in black fly larvae is not well known. Interestingly, a new 

species of Genistellospora, which has unusually large tricho- and zygospores, and 

is being described from a separate, less remote sampling location, was also observed 

in many of the black fly samples. We suggest that examination of fixed 

specimens may present similar opportunities for discovery. Additionally, with 

these data collected from fixed specimens, it is clear that these and similar other 

habitats in Idaho provide a healthy repository and diversity of trichomycetes. 

Richards, Thomas A. Dept. of Zoology. DC1 406C, The Natural History Museum, 

Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, United Kingdom. Horizontal gene 

transfer and public goods games in fungi and fungi-like organisms 

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is the transmission of genetic material between 

organisms, specifically across species boundaries. A growing body of data 

suggests that fungi and fungal-like protists have gained genes by HGT. This is an 

exciting result because fungi at first glance represent the most recalcitrant of all 

organisms to gene transfer, possessing robust cell walls and having lost 

phagotrophic capacities because they feed exclusively by osmotrophy. Using phylogenetic 

methods we investigate the role HGT has played in the evolution of 

fungi and fungal-like protists, including HGT between plants and fungi. This 

work demonstrates that HGT has actually played a role in shaping osmotrophic 

phenotypes and furthermore has been important for the evolution of plant parasitic 

mechanisms in the oomycetes. I then use this data to argue that HGT has also 

shaped public goods games, an important factor in the evolution of osmotrophic 

eukaryotes. Together this data suggests HGT in osmotrophic eukaryotes, although 

relatively rare compared to prokaryotes, seems to be an important factor for shaping 

the evolution of biological functions in these groups. 

Riley, Rohan 1 , Alexander Idnurm 2 , Philippe Charron 1 , Yolande Dalpé 3 , and 

Nicolas Corradi 1 . 1 Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Department of Biology, 

2 

University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Priv. Ottawa ON Canada K1N 6N5, 

School of Biological Sciences 5007 Rockhill Road University of Missouri- 

Kansas City Kansas City, MO 64110, USA, 3 Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research 

Center, 960 Carling Ave. Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6. Searching for clues 

of sexual reporoduction in the genomes of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) represent an ecologically important 

and evolutionary intriguing group of land plant symbionts that have been long 

regarded as an ancient asexual lineage. However, the recent acquisition of large 

sequence datasets has revealed the presence of an alternative scenario for their 

supposed long evolutionary clonal history; including the presence of cryptic sexuality. 

Here we report the identification of many AMF genes that are commonly 

linked with the presence of sex in many fungi across the genome of different 

strains of Glomus. These include homologues of MATA_HMG proteins, which to 

our surprise were found to be extremely diverse in both number and sequence 

variant. This elevated diversity is unmatched by any other known fungal species, 

and preliminary evidence suggests that some of these loci might be involved in 

partner recognition in these ecologically important organisms. 

Rivas Plata, Eimy, François Lutzoni, Orvo Vitikainen, Trevor Goward, Emmanuel 

Sérusiaux, Nicolas Magain, and Jolanta Miadlikowska. Department of Biology, 

Duke University. 130 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27708-0338. Cophylogenetic 

study of the lichen-forming fungus Peltigera and its cyanobiont 

Nostoc at an intercontinental spatial scale 

The Peltigera aphthosa and P. leucophlebia species complexes are classified 

within two sections, Peltidea and Chloropeltigera, respectively. These sections 

include mostly tripartite lichens associated with a green alga (Coccomyxa) as the 

primary photobiont (in the thallus) and a cyanobacterium (Nostoc) as the secondary 

photobiont (in the external cephalodia). Only two species, P. malacea and P. 

frippii, both from section Peltidea, are bipartite with Nostoc as the only photobiont. 

Members of both sections are restricted to the coldest regions of the northern 

hemisphere with a peak of species richness in boreal forests. Although P. aph- 


thosa and P. leucophlebia are morphologically similar, to the point of being difficult 

to distinguish phenotypically, genetically they have diverged extensively 

with both clades recovered as paraphyletic but never well supported by bootstrap 

analyses. The phenotypical variation in both clades has triggered the description 

of several species, such as P. britannica, P. chionophila, P. latiloba, and P. nigripunctata. 

Using sequence data of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and two 

protein-coding genes (beta-tubulin and RPB1), we inferred phylogenetic relationships 

for the fungal partner of lichen thalli sampled from North America, Europe, 

and Asia. Our phylogenies partially support existing species but also suggest a 

more complex taxonomic structure that requires a reassessment of current species 

delimitations in these sections. In parallel, we generated a phylogeny for Nostoc 

from the same thalli using the rbcLx locus, and found a pattern of associations between 

clades of lichen mycobionts and Nostoc photobionts. In particular, samples 

of P. malacea, regardless of their geographic origin, appear to be associated with 

a unique clade of Nostoc, absent in other species, indicating a mycobiont-photobiont 

cospeciation event during their coevolution. This rare case of cospeciation 

could result from a secondary acquisition of the bipartite state, following a transition 

to a tri-partite state in that section. 

Roberson, Robert W. School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, 

AZ 85287. The structure of the hyphal apex: Spitzenkörper or not? 

The defining feature of filamentous fungi is the hypha. Hyphal growth has 

aided the Fungi to successfully utilize a wide range of ecological habitats and develop 

multiple lifestyles. Cellular and molecular studies of hyphal growth have 

placed great emphasis on the Spitzenkörper (Spk). The Spk is a dense, roughly 

spheroidal cluster of vesicles, cytoskeletal components and signaling proteins 

found at the tips of most growing hyphae. It plays crucial roles in optimizing hyphal 

extension rates and in determining patterns of growth and morphogenesis by 

acting as a dynamic organizing center in the reception of secretory vesicles and 

orchestrating their delivery to the apical membrane. The Spk appears to have 

evolved only in filamentous fungi where it is present in all members of the Basidiomycota 

and Ascomycota studied thus far. Interestingly, a structural equivalent 

of the Spk is not common or has not been observed in hyphae of the zygomycete 

fungi (e.g., Mucoromycotina), or many the other relatively early 

diverging lineages. As notable exceptions to this, Spk have been identified in hyphae 

of Basidiobolus sp. (a zygomycete of uncertain phylogeny) and Allomyces 

macrogynus (Blastocladiomycota). In fungi that lack a recognizable Spk, vesicle 

clusters are often present in the hyphal apex. Although the arrangement of these 

vesicles is less organized and complex, there are characteristic patterns that are 

recognized. For example, in Rhizopus species, and other members of the Mucoromycotina, 

a thin crescent-shaped band of closely packed vesicles is present 

just beneath the apical plasma membrane. Although there have been great advances 

in understanding the biology and distribution of the Spk, profound questions 

remain. In this presentation, light and electron microscopy data will used to 

review cytoplasmic features of the hyphal apex from diverse fungal groups in 

hopes to better understand hyphal cell biology and fungal phylogeny. 

Robert, Vincent, Joost Stalpers, and Pedro W Crous. CBS-KNAW, Fungal Biodiversity 

Center, Uppsalalaan 8, 3534CT Utrecht, The Netherlands. Nomenclatural 

databases as working tools for taxonomists: opportunities and challenges 

During the 18th IBC held in Melbourne, important decisions were made 

to adapt the CODE to accommodate novel developments. One of them was to enforce 

registration in online repositories. This will guarantee easy access to newly 

published taxa and associated data. A number of issues remain to be addressed: 1. 

possibility of multiple repositories that could act as official registrars has major 

implications. Presently Mycobank (IMA) and Index Fungorum (CABI) are the 

only repositories, but more might emerge in the future; 2. coexistence of several 

repositories necessitates heavy synchronization to reach the desired aims. However, 

no collaboration rules are imposed; 3. decisions of the NCF are needed with 

regards to the data that have to be deposited (minimum and extended datasets); 4. 

future scientific developments will require regular adaptations of the system (e.g. 

environmental sampling, genomic data), with cost implications for repositories; 5. 

access to type information of taxa should be available and unequivocal to allow 

proper taxonomic revisions, especially in the light of one fungus one name; 6. registration 

of species data should be regulated, especially concerning types (epitype, 

neotype, lectotype) and barcodes; 7. updates from and relations with journals will 

have to be clearly established in order to prevent differences between deposits and 

publications; 8. taxonomic data are not always up to date and finding experienced 

curators willing to spend time on maintaining taxonomic databases is a challenge 

that should not be underestimated; 9. high availability of the system has to be ensured 

and no serious down-time is acceptable; 10. continuous and professional 

services will have cost implications with regard to both hard- and software. Such 

questions will have to be addressed and solved by the mycological community before 

January 1, 2013. 


Robinson, Sarah L and Daniel G Panaccione. West Virginia University, Division 

of Plant and Soil Sciences, Morgantown, WV 26505. Chemotypic and 

genotypic diversity in the ergot alkaloid pathway of Aspergillus fumigatus 

Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic human pathogen that synthesizes 

a group of mycotoxins via a branch of the ergot alkaloid pathway. This fungus 

is globally distributed, and genetic data indicate that isolates recombine freely 

over that range; however, previous work on ergot alkaloids has focused on a limited 

number of isolates. We hypothesized that A. fumigatus harbors variation in 

the chemotype of ergot alkaloids and genotype of the ergot alkaloid gene cluster. 

Analysis of thirteen isolates by high performance liquid chromatography revealed 

four distinct ergot alkaloid profiles or chemotypes. Five isolates completed the A. 

fumigatus branch of the ergot alkaloid pathway to fumigaclavine C. Six independent 

isolates accumulated fumigaclavine A, the pathway intermediate immediately 

prior to fumigaclavine C. One isolate accumulated only the early pathway 

intermediates chanoclavine-I and chanoclavine-I aldehyde, and one isolate lacked 

ergot alkaloids altogether. A genetic basis for each of the observed chemotypes 

was obtained either by PCR analysis of the ergot alkaloid gene cluster or through 

sequencing of easL, the gene encoding the prenyl transferase that reverse prenylates 

fumigaclavine A to fumigaclavine C. Isolates also exhibited differences in 

pigmentation and sporulation. The ergot alkaloid chemotypes were widely distributed 

geographically and among substrate of origin. 

Rodriguez Estrada, Alma E 1 , Michael L Draney 1 , and Vicki Medland 2 . 1 University 

of Wisconsin Green-Bay. Department of Natural and Applied Sciences 

ES-317. 2420 Nicolet Dr. Green Bay, WI 54311, 2 University of Wisconsin 

Green-Bay. Cofrin Center for Biodiversity. Mary Ann Cofrin Hall 218E. 2420 

Nicolet Dr. Green Bay, WI 54311. Mycological Research in Panama: A highimpact 

field experience for students with variable levels of training 

Research experiences for undergraduate students have been recently recognized 

as a high-impact educational practice to accomplish excellence in any academic 

field. The University of Wisconsin-Green Bay encourages research experiences 

and international courses where undergraduate students have the chance 

to fully participate in formal scientific work while experiencing life in a different 

culture. The upper level course “Research Experience in Panama” is offered every 

year in January. During this course, faculty members and students (biology and 

environmental science majors) travel to Panama to perform research for two 

weeks. For four years, research themes related to mammals, birds, fish, spiders, 

and coral reef and seagrass benthic invertebrates. In 2012, mycological research 

was implemented for the first time. This work utilizes a protocol that allows students 

with different levels of mycological training (undergraduate and masterlevel 

students, inexperienced and students who took an upper level mycology 

course) to help with ecological macromyetes data collection. This protocol also 

allows to rapidly assess the diversity of ground-accessible macromycetes using 

standardized, repeatable and randomized samples. Data were collected to study 

the ecology of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic macrofungi at a variety of sites 

near Bocas del Toro and Gamboa field stations (Smithsonian Tropical Research 

Institute). Specifically, this research seeks to study the effects of altitude and vegetation 

on macromycetes richness and abundance across a range of Panamanian 

rainforest (lowland, mid and high elevation). Parallel transects of 250 m 2 (50 x 5 

m) were delimited within 0.25 hectare sites where macromycetes were collected, 

described and counted. The sites sampled in 2012 will be sampled in subsequent 

years, and different students will participate. Ecological research on 

macromycetes is a high-impact practice that strengths students’ understanding of 

science and elevates students’ awareness of the importance of fungi in the ecosystems. 

Rosales, Antonio 1 , Terri Tobias 1 , Katherine Suding 2 , Robert Sinsabaugh 3 , and 

Andrea Porras-Alfaro 1 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Western Illinois 

University, 2 Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, 

Berkeley, 3 Department of Biology, University of New Mexico. Vertically transmitted 

endophytes from plants in the alpine tundra 

Alpine tundra plants are able to survive harsh conditions with the help of 

endophytes and mycorrhizal fungi. Endophytes are fungi or bacteria that live 

within plants without causing apparent damage. These symbiotic relationships between 

plants and endophytic fungi are known to have a direct impact on plant 

community structure, fitness, and diversity. Endophytes can colonize plants by either 

horizontal or vertical transmission and little is known about their abundance, 

taxonomy and function. The objective of this study was to isolate and quantify 

vertically transmitted endophytes from plant seeds that were collected at the 

Niwot LTER Site in Colorado. Six plant species (Geum rossii, Erigeron simplex, 

Artemisia scopulorum, Deschampsia cespitosa, Bistorta bistortoides, and Trisetum 

spicatum) were studied. Thirty seeds of each plant were surface sterilized and 

plated on malt extract agar with antibiotics. Fungi were sequenced using the ITS 

rDNA region. Thirty-three endophytes were isolated from the seeds. Ten different 

morphotypes were present. E. simplex and D. cespitosa show the highest ger- 

mination rates. Germination rates varied between 67% to 0% and colonization 

rates varied between 6% to 33%. B. bistortoides seeds did not germinate and 

showed the highest fungal colonization rates. Preliminary identification of some 

isolates using ITS rDNA shows that G. rossii and D. cespitosa seeds are colonized 

by a fungus closely related to Cladosporium uredinicola. Additional tests need to 

be conducted to determine the potential role that these seed endophytes may have 

in plant germination, seed establishment and the structure of plant communities in 

the alpine tundra. 

Runa, Farhana 1 , Ignazio Carbone 1 , Deepak Bhatnager 2 , and Gary A Payne 1 1 

. 

2 

Department of Plant pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 

Southern Regional Research Center, USDA , New Orleans, LA. Nuclear condition 

of Aspergillus flavus by heterokaryosis and ploidy analysis 

Conidia of Aspergillus flavus are multinucleate but it is unknown whether 

they are predominantly homo- or heterokaryotic. A heterokaryon could serve as a 

source of genetic diversity within strains for pathogenicity and aflatoxin production 

if homokaryotic as well as heterokaryotic nuclei are packaged selectively into 

conidia during conidiation. To study nuclear condition in A. flavus we transformed 

strain AFC (arg7, pyrG) with either plasmid HH2B-ECFP to create AFC- 

ECFP (pyr), a strain expressing nuclei with cyan fluoresce, or with plasmid 

HH2A-EYFP to create AFC-EYFP (arg), a strain expressing yellow fluorescing 

nuclei. Protoplasts from the two strains were subjected to polyethylene glycol mediated 

cell fusion. Putative fusants were selected for their ability to grow on minimal 

medium, which should not allow the growth of neither nutritional mutant 

AFC-ECFP (pyr) nor AFC-EYFP (arg). The putative fusants produced mycelia 

with some nuclei expressing ECFP and other nuclei expressing EYFP. We also 

observed that conidia from these fusants have three types of nuclei: only EYFP 

expressing, only ECFP expressing, or both EYFP and ECFP expressing. Ploidy 

analysis by flow cytometry indicated that the putative 11-2 fusant is heterokaryotic. 

Moreover, flow cytometry and merged fluorescence microscopy image data 

showed that the majority of conidia within 11-2 are homokaryotic, expressing either 

EYFP or ECFP in subsequent generations; however, a very small percentage 

of conidia maintain nuclei expressing both. Conidia having nuclei with merged 

fluorescence have been separated and sorted by FACS. We will determine 

whether the merged fluorescence microscopy images are indicative of nuclei expressing 

EYFP+ECFP, maintained predominantly as heterokaryons or as 

diploids. Confocal microscopy will be applied to track the migration of 

EYFP+ECFP nuclei during germination and conidiation. This work will allow us 

to understand the mechanism whereby heterokaryons or diploids are maintained 

in multinucleated conidia of A. flavus. 

Ryan, Katy L and Daniel G Panaccione. West Virginia University, Division of 

Plant and Soil Sciences, Morgantown, WV 26505. Partial reconstruction of the 

ergot alkaloid pathway in Aspergillus nidulans 

Ergot alkaloids are pharmaceutically and agriculturally important secondary 

metabolites produced by several species of fungi. A better understanding of 

the biosynthetic pathway of ergot alkaloids may allow for modification of these 

compounds to produce effective pharmaceuticals or control their accumulation in 

agriculture. Ergot alkaloid pathways vary among fungi, but the pathway intermediate 

chanoclavine appears to be evolutionarily conserved among ergot alkaloid 

producers. Chanoclavine synthesis occurs in at least five steps, and knockout and 

heterologous expression studies have demonstrated that four genes, dmaW, easF, 

easE, and easC, are required for pathway steps prior to chanoclavine. However, 

it is currently unknown whether these genes are sufficient to synthesize chanoclavine. 

DmaW prenylates tryptophan to produce dimethylallyltryptophan 

(DMAT), and easF encodes a methyl transferase that produces the second intermediate, 

N-Me-DMAT. The roles of EasE and EasC have not been established. 

Four genes, dmaW, easF, easE, and easC were amplified from the human 

pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus and transformed into Aspergillus nidulans, which 

does not contain any of the ergot alkaloid synthesis genes and produces no ergot 

alkaloids. We determined by HPLC and LC/MS that the A. nidulans strains containing 

the four A. fumigatus genes produced chanoclavine and earlier pathway intermediates. 

The specific roles of EasE and EasC are being investigated through 

the generation of transformants containing DmaW, EasF, and EasC, or DmaW, 

EasF, and EasE, compared to appropriate controls. HPLC and LC/MS data 

demonstrated that EasC catalyzes the formation of a new intermediate; the role of 

EasE is still being investigated. We conclude that the four genes listed above are 

sufficient for the synthesis of chanoclavine in A. nidulans and that our approach 

of expressing ergot pathway genes in A. nidulans will provide a better understanding 

of the early steps in ergot alkaloid synthesis. 

Ryu, Jae San, Kyung Hee Kim, Min Keun Kim, Su Myung Chae, Hee Jeong Je, 

and Won Du Song. Eco-friendliness Research Department, Gyeongsangnam-do 

Agricultural Research and Extension Services, Jinju 660-360, Republic of Korea. 

The genetic structure of mating type locus B3 in Pleurotus eryngii 



King oyster mushroom Pleurotus eryngii is a heterothallic homobasidiomycete 

with a tetrapolar incompatibility system controlled by the two mating 

type loci, A and B. RAPD and BSA were performed to screen primers linked to 

the specific mating types. Out of 100 random primers, OPS-03 showed the specific 

band, OPS-032100 co-segregated with AxB3. The mating type B3 locus was 

identified based on a SCAR marker derived from OPS-032100 from a genomic 

library of the dikaryotic strain KNR2312. Sequence analysis suggested the genetic 

basis for B3 locus in P. eryngii was similar to those in model mushrooms. Interestingly, 

4 putative pheromone receptor genes, instead of 3 that are typical, and 

6 putative pheromone genes were predicted. Every pheromone receptor was 

packed with two pheromone precursors in three receptors while the extra one receptor; 

pepr3 does not have any cognate pheromone beside its sequences. B3 

locus specific RNAs were isolated and reverse transcribed further into cDNA to 

characterize their sequence and role as signal factors. qRT-PCR showed transcription 

levels of the pheromone and the pheromone receptor in monokaryons 

were much higher than in a dikaryon. Such a study could be useful for developing 

self-fertilizing monokaryotic strains using RNAi (knock-down) and for deciphering 

comparative gene expression. 

Ryu, Jae San 1 , Song Hee Lee 2 , Kyung Hee Kim 1 , Hee Jeong Je 1 , Min Keun 

Kim 1 , Hyun sook Lee 2 , and Su Myung Chae 1 . 1 Eco-friendliness Research Department, 

Gyeongsangnam-do Agricultural Research and Extension Services, 

Jinju 660-360, Republic of Korea, 2 Departments of Microbiology, Gyeongsang 

National University, Jinju, 660-900, Republic of Korea. Complete genome sequence 

of Pleurotus eryngii using the next generation sequencing 

Pleurotus eryngii (King oyster mushroom) is an edible mushroom with potential 

health benefits that thrives on a parasitic host in the steppe area. P. eryngii 

is a basidiomycete with a tetrapolar incompatibility system comprising two mating 

type loci, A and B. Two monokaryons P5 and P6 from P. eryngii KNR 2312 strain 

by a de-dikaryotization were analyzed by CHEF, revealing 10 chromosomal bands 

with a size range from 3.0 to 7.1 Mbp and an estimated total genome size of 43.8 

Mbp. GS-FLX and HiSeq TM Sequencing analysis of P5 as a Next Generation Sequencing 

(NGS) strategy was performed to clarify its genetic composition. Shotgun 

and mate paired libraries were constructed for NGS. The read count was 

650,812 and 433,267,606 total bases for the shotgun library. Average length of 

read was over 665 bases. For the mate paired library, read count was 122,368, total 

bases was 47,889,870, and average of length was 391.36. Scaffolding was performed 

to assemble contigs and mate-paired data. The number of scaffolds and 

bases were 1,506 and 43,991,976, respectively. The scaffold accounted for 100% 

of the genome size estimated by karyotyping. To estimate function, sequences 

were compared with those in the NCBI blastx database. Over 1,000 genes were 

aligned with the sequences within the contigs. Functional genomics will be required 

to elucidate unknown genes. Results of this genome project will soon allow 

sequence-based breeding like MAS (marker assisted selection). 

Sadowsky, Jesse J, Linda TA van Diepen, and Serita D Frey. University of New 

Hampshire, 114 James Hall, Durham, NH 03824. Contributions of ectomycorrhizal 

fungi to organic matter formation and degradation in response to 

chronic nitrogen deposition 

Nitrogen deposition promotes carbon storage in temperate forests by altering 

organic matter decomposition processes and decomposer communities. Ectomycorrhizal 

(ECM) fungi participate in soil organic matter dynamics by producing 

abundant mycelium and actively degrading labile and recalcitrant organic 

matter, but have not been considered explicitly for their role in organic matter contribution 

and decomposition in simulated long-term nitrogen enrichment studies. 

Plots within a temperate mixed-hardwood stand at the Harvard Forest Long-Term 

Ecological Research site in Petersham, MA, USA have been amended with 50 or 

150 kg N ha -1 yr -1 since 1988 to simulate projected future N deposition levels or 

N saturation, respectively. We determined how chronic N deposition affects annual 

organic matter input by ECM fungi by collecting hyphae in root-excluded 

sand bags. We assessed potential organic matter decomposition by ECM fungal 

communities by measuring activity of five C, N, or P hydrolases and two oxidases 

on the mantle of ECM root tips and of foraging extraradical mycelium collected 

in sand bags. Fungal symbionts were identified by DNA sequencing. ECM hyphal 

production was reduced at the highest nitrogen deposition rate. Nitrogen 

deposition increased cellulolytic and chitinolytic activity of ECM root tips in the 

organic soil horizon and decreased aminopeptidase activity in the mineral soil 

horizon. This generally agrees with earlier observations in bulk soil at this and 

other sites receiving multiple years of nitrogen enrichment. In root-excluded sand, 

chitinase activity increased by three-fold at both rates of added nitrogen, while 

laccase activity declined by one-third and three-fourths at low and high nitrogen 

rates. ECM fungal species richness was least at the highest nitrogen deposition 

rate. Further efforts towards determining the fate of organic matter pools contributed 

and decomposed by ECM fungi communities will help to clarify their 

role in soil organic matter dynamics under elevated nitrogen deposition and other 

anthropogenic disturbances. 


Salamone, Amy and Allison Walker. Department of Coastal Sciences, University 

of Southern Mississippi, 703 East Beach Dr., Ocean Springs, MS 39564. On 

the rocks: the first look at fungal biodiversity in marine biofilms of submerged 

artificial reefs 

This study was the first characterization of natural mixed-species fungal 

communities in biofilm on artificial reefs in the marine environment. Previous 

fungal biofilm studies have failed to observe the naturally occurring biodiversity 

in coastal areas, which are the most utilized zones of the marine environment. 

Fungi have evolved to form biofilms for protection, to communicate via quorum 

sensing, to gain access to nutrients, and to exchange genetic information. These 

communities fuel many primary consumers that support artificial reef habitats. 

Fungi, along with bacteria, archaea, protists, algae, and diatoms, quickly form a 

complex biofilm on immersed surfaces in seawater. This settlement and succession 

calls for further examination, given the major trophic implications therein, as 

properties of the biofilm can influence future establishment of other marine organisms. 

For this study, an optimized extraction technique for fungal DNA from 

biofilm was developed. Fungal biofilm communities were characterized by culturing, 

morphological identification, ITS T-RFLP analysis, and ITS gene sequencing. 

The role of seasonality and other abiotic factors in structuring these 

communities was also examined. Fungal biodiversity in these biofilms is high, 

spanning over 25 genera, including species of Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Zygomycetes, 

and potential novel yeast species. This assessment of fungal community 

biodiversity in marine biofilm yields insight into artificial reef fungal succession 

and functionality in the North-Central Gulf of Mexico. 

Salgado-Salazar, Catalina 1 , Amy Y Rossman 2 , and Priscila Chaverri 1 . 1 2102 

Plant Sciences Bld, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, 2 USDA- 

ARS, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland 

20705. Molecular systematics of saprophytic and plant pathogenic isolates of 

the cosmopolitan fungus Thelonectria discophora (Nectriaceae, Hypocreales, 

Ascomycota) 

Thelonectria discophora, previously placed in Neonectria, (anamorph 

“Cylindrocarpon” ianthothele var. majus) is a cosmopolitan species found on a 

wide range of living or recently dead woody plants, including gymnosperms and 

dicotyledonous plants and less frequently on palm trunks and herbaceous materials. 

A variety of this species, “Neonectria” discophora var. rubi, has been associated 

with a distinctive basal canker of cultivated Rubus sp. Molecular techniques 

have been useful to define species limits and have revealed that many widespread 

and cosmopolitan organisms can be formed by multiple genetically distinct cryptic 

species or sub-species that may be geographically or ecologically correlated. 

In order to test if T. discophora is a group of cryptic species with geographic or 

ecological restrictions, multi-gene phylogenetic analyses were conducted using 

Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference approaches on a worldwide collection 

of isolates. Fifteen cryptic groups could be distinguished within T. discophora 

distributed in three major clades. These clades were supported by high 

bootstrap values and posterior probabilities. Some cryptic groups were composed 

by isolates coming from close geographic locations; however geographic clustering 

is not the rule as isolates from distant regions also grouped together. Interestingly, 

saprophytic isolates on plants, soil and pathogens were found to form separate 

groups seemingly isolated by ecology. Genetic divergence and fixation 

index values indicate that the cryptic groups are highly divergent, not forming a 

single panmictic population. 

Sanchez-Garcia, Marisol and P Brandon Matheny. Department of Ecology and 

Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996-1610, 

USA. A phylogenetic evaluation of the tribe Leucopaxilleae: polyphyly, the 

LPD grade, and novel taxa from the Southern Appalachians 

The tribe Leucopaxilleae Singer comprises eight genera that have been 

placed at various taxonomic ranks. Phylogenetic analysis of a four-gene region 

supermatrix (nuclear rRNA regions, rpb2) shows the tribe to be highly polyphyletic, 

with genera distributed in the Tricholomatoid, Marasmioid, Hygrophoroid 

and Pluteoid clades. Leucopaxillus, Porpoloma and Dennisiomyces, 

occur in the Tricholomatoid clade. Dennisiomyces, primarily a neotropical genus, 

has not been previously considered part of the Leucopaxilleae. We present preliminary 

data that suggest Dennisiomyces is closely related to Leucopaxillus and 

Porpoloma forming the ‘LPD’ grade from which the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) 

genus Tricholoma appears to be derived. These results also suggest that Leucopaxillus 

and Porpoloma are polyphyletic. Additionally, three unknown species 

that form a clade nested in the ‘LPD’ grade have been collected recently from the 

Southern Appalachians of the southeast United States. They are distinguished 

from other species in the LPD grade by possession of distinct cheilocystidia and 

pleurocystidia, presence of clamp connections and inamyloid, smooth spores. At 

present, we are unable to ascribe any known genus to this clade. 


Sandberg, Dustin C and A Elizabeth Arnold. School of Plant Sciences, The University 

of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA. Host- and geographic structure of 

endophyte communities in aquatic plants of northern Arizona 

Many of the general themes in endophyte biology have been developed 

from studies of terrestrial plants. However, aquatic plants represent a suite of morphological 

and physical traits that are distinct from those living on land: thin cuticles, 

frequently open stomata, and specialized roots that are often adapted for 

oxygen uptake. The goal of this study was to evaluate the diversity, composition, 

host- and tissue affiliations, and geographic structure of fungal endophytes associated 

with diverse aquatic plants. In Fall 2011, the four most abundant species of 

submergent and emergent macrophytes were collected from three sites in each of 

six reservoirs and lakes in north-central Arizona. Endophytes were isolated in culture 

from roots, stems, and photosynthetic tissues of each species, and were evaluated 

using a culture-free approach by cloning directly from plant genomic DNA 

isolated from each tissue type. All isolates and clones were sequenced for a 

1000bp fragment comprising the internal transcribed spacers, 5.8S gene, and partial 

nuclear ribosomal large subunit. The resulting data were used to evaluate five 

predictions: (1) endophytes of aquatic plants will be dominated by cosmopolitan 

genera of fungi that can take advantage of the limited structural defenses of aquatic 

plants to colonize them more readily than terrestrial plants; (2) endophytes of 

aquatic plants will be diverse, with many different lineages capable of persisting 

in tissues of macrophytes; (3) endophyte communities will differ as a function of 

tissue type and depth beneath the water surface; (4) endophyte communities will 

be similar among hosts within lakes but will differ between lakes; (5) culture-free 

approach will reveal more specialized endophytes, including aquatic specialists, 

than culture-based surveys. These analyses provide a first quantitative estimation 

of endophytic associations in diverse, ecologically important, and economically 

relevant aquatic plants, and provide a basis for evaluating general trends based on 

plants in terrestrial ecosystems. 

Sandona, Katrina 1 , Terri Tobias 1 , Antonio Rosales 1 , Katherine Suding 2 , 

Robert Sinsabaugh 3 , and Andrea Porras-Alfaro 1 . 1 Western Illinois University, 1 

University Circle, Macomb IL. 61455, 2 University of California Berkeley, 130 

Mulford Hall 3144, Berkeley CA. 94720, 3 University of New Mexico, 167A 

Castetter Hall, Albuquerque NM. 87131. Effect of a dominant endophytic fungus, 

Phialocephala fortinii, on plant growth 

Dark septate endophytes have been detected in over 600 plant species 

worldwide. Phialocephala fortinii have been reported multiple times as a common 

dark septate endophyte in the alpine tundra, heathlands, and forests. The objective 

of this study was to determine the effect on seed germination and plant 

growth of Phialocephala fortinii isolates on different commercial plants. Fungi 

were isolated from roots that were collected at the Niwot Long Term Ecological 

Research Site in Colorado. Root isolates were identified using ITS rDNA and 

Phialocephala fortinii was selected for germination experiments. The fungus 

SS37 was plated in five culture jars containing malt extract agar with antibiotics. 

Five jars with no fungus were used as controls. After a week six surfaced sterilized 

seeds of Zea mays (corn) and Glycine max (soybean) where planted in each 

jar. Seeds were allowed to grow for one week. Plants were harvested from the 

jars; the roots and stems were measured. The fungus Phialocephala significantly 

stimulated the growth of corn seeds with an average number of roots of 8.3±0.3 

(SE) with respect to 2.4±0.3 SE for the control (P

merization of wood with little weight loss, using a reduction-oxidation pathway 

that yields highly reactive hydroxyl radicals through a chelator-mediated Fenton 

reaction (CMFR). While hydroxyl radicals would readily damage cellulases, the 

fungus is believed to conduct both reactions, enzymatic and oxidative, in the same 

wood sample. We are examining the spatial and temporal relationship of these 

two reaction systems, complemented by proof-of-concept biomimick experiments. 

The results have shown clear reaction partitioning at coarse scale in wood 

wafers, which will be presented. The outcomes from such fundamental inquiry in 

a novel application context are useful, given the traditional pest-oriented focus on 

these fungi and the targeted focus on wood strength loss. Our systems-based research 

should help better understand these fungi, not only for potential in application 

but as key players in the global carbon cycle. 

Seifert, Keith A 1 and Andrew N Miller 2 . 1 Eastern Cereal & Oilseed Research 

Centre, 

2 

Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0C6, 

University of Illinois, Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, IL 61820- 

6970 USA. Subcommissions, working groups, and protected lists 

The International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi (ICTF) is a 20member 

group affiliated with both the International Mycological Association and 

the International Union of Microbiological Societies. Its activities over the past 30 

years have been focused on the taxonomy and nomenclature of economically important 

fungal groups, with subcommissions or affiliated commissions working 

on Penicillium and Aspergillus, Trichoderma and Hypocrea, and Fusarium. Informal 

working groups on Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma, and on the Mycosphaerella 

complex, have been periodically active. In the wake of the nomenclature 

changes discussed in this symposium, additional groups on Colletotrichum 

and the Hypocreales are in the process of forming. The activities of these groups 

will briefly be reviewed in this talk. Although over the long term the ICTF will 

continue its focus on economically important fungi, in the short term we plan to 

assist with the formation of working groups to address the broadest possible taxonomic 

scope. This is an exciting time for increased cooperation and collaboration 

among fungal taxonomists, as we work towards developing consensus on the 

selection of genus and species names, and the development of lists of protected 

and/or rejected names. 

Shaw, Brian D, Da-Woon Chung, Srijana Upadhyay, Charles Greenwald, 

Sheng-Li Deng, Heather H Wilkinson, and Daniel J Ebbole. Program for the Biology 

of Filamentous Fungi, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, 

2132 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station TX 77843, USA. Regulation 

of conidiation in Aspergillus nidulans and Neurospora crassa 

Did conidiation arise more than once in ascomycete lineages or did extant 

condiation strategies diverge from an ancestral form? To begin to address these 

questions, transcriptional regulation of conidiation from the two best-studied conidiating 

ascomycetes, Aspergillus nidulans and Neurospora crassa, was examined. 

We hypothesized that a conidiation regulatory pathway was present in the 

ancestral species, and became specialized in the extant species by gaining and/or 

losing specific regulators. N. crassa orthologs of seven regulatory genes in A. 

nidulans (fluG, flbC, flbD, abaA, wetA, medA, and stuA) were examined. Expression 

of the N. crassa orthologs complemented defective conidiation in the A. nidulans 

fluG, flbD, wetA, medA, and stuA mutants. We detected four patterns for the 

conidiation regulators: (i) Non-homologous genes with analogous roles in conidiation 

(brlA and fl), (ii) Orthologs with retained biochemical function that lack an 

analogous role in conidiation (fluG, flbD, and wetA), (iii) Orthologs with retained 

biochemical function with analogous roles in conidiation (medA and stuA), and 

(iv) Orthologs with biochemical function not conserved with analogous roles in 

conidiation (abaA). It is reasonable to expect that if the extant conidiation strategies 

for these two species evolved from the same ancestral pathway the sets of 

genes co-regulated with known targets of conidiation regulators would exhibit 

considerable overlap. However, transcriptional profiling of both species across a 

time course of conidiation using RNASeq revealed no overlap in co-regulaiton of 

these gene sets, thus providing no evidence for shared mechanisms below the regulators. 

Taken together, our data for the roles of conidiation regulator orthologs 

and the behavior of known conidiation associated genes that are likely targets of 

regulators across these distantly related species provides little support for a common 

pathway. 

Shaw, Jeffrey, Daniel Spakowicz, Cambria Alpha, Brian Dunican, Kaury 

Kucera, and Scott Strobel. Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, 

Yale University, 260 Whitney Ave., JW Gibbs Room 321, New Haven, CT 

06520. Biological and volatile organic compound diversity in fungal endophytes 

from Malaysian and Ecuadorian rainforests 

Fungal endophytes comprise a ubiquitous yet understudied source of biological 

diversity. We have targeted this endophytic diversity for study as part of 

an effort to identify new secondary metabolite chemistry in microorganisms. The 

concentration of endophyte diversity has been shown be greatest in tropical rainforests 

so, through collaborations with the governments of Ecuador and the 


Malaysian state of Sarawak, we have undertaken collection expeditions to investigate 

the biological and chemical diversity of endophytes in these regions. The 

Ecuador expedition is done in conjunction with the Yale “Rainforest Expedition 

and Laboratory” course which includes 15 undergraduate students. Based on sequencing 

of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the ribosomal RNA in 

our isolates and comparison to GenBank, the endophytes isolated from the rainforests 

of Ecuador and Malaysia are among the most divergent fungi currently 

known. Of the isolates collected, 23% of those from Sarawak (36 total) and 18% 

of those from Ecuador (121 total) have less than 95% identity to any cultured organism. 

This metric can be used to roughly estimate the number of new species 

in our collection, although ITS divergence among species of fungi can vary widely. 

Of the total sample, 72 isolates (approximately 9%) have less than 85% identity 

to the cultured organisms in GenBank. Isolates from these expeditions were 

assayed for volatile organic compound production (VOC) by GC/MS. We have 

identified several unique metabolites produced by these organisms that have not 

been previously observed. Among these are a series of molecules, produced by 

several different fungi, identified as nonatetraenes. Other hydrocarbons were produced 

with a range of carbon chain lengths (C8 - C20 ) and varying degrees of unsaturation, 

branching and cyclization. Several of the compounds identified have 

interesting bioactivity or properties that may make them attractive biofuels. 

Shu, Xiaomei. Department of Plant Pathology, Box 7567, 267 Partners III, North 

Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7567. Pathogenesis and host response 

during infection of seeds by Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides 

Both Aspergillus flavus, a saprophyte, and Fusarium verticillioides, an endophyte, 

can colonize developing maize seeds and contaminate them with mycotoxins. 

Susceptibility is conditioned by plant stress, but little is known about the 

infection processes by the two fungi, and whether their different trophic lifestyles 

affect tissue colonization and host response. To unravel the biology and pathogenesis 

of these two fungi, we followed fungal infection and host defense response 

of developing maize seed for three days after introducing the conidial suspension 

through the seed pericarp. Histological examination of thin sections of 

maize seeds showed that the fungi were restricted to the site of inoculation 48 

hours post inoculation. Within the next 24 hours mycelium was detected in the 

aleurone, the endosperm and the embryo-endosperm interface. Mycelium of A. 

flavus was observed on the surface of either enlarged or shrunken cells of the aleurone, 

but never inside intact cells. In contrast, F. verticillioides was sometimes observed 

inside intact aleurone cells. RNA in situ hybridization showed the transcriptional 

induction of two maize defense genes, PRms (Pathogenesis related 

protein, maize seeds) and UGT (UDP-glucosyltransferases), in specific seed tissues 

in advance of visible fungal colonization, suggesting that the fungal virulent 

factors or plant defense signaling transduction molecules may be involved. Induction 

of gene transcription often appeared first in the tip of scutellum, which is 

the cotyledon of the seed. This observation suggests that the scutellum may be 

very important in plant-microbe communication. Even though these two fungi are 

characterized as having different trophic lifestyles, they follow a similar pattern of 

colonization, and induce two known defense genes in maize seeds. Perhaps structural 

or chemical characteristics of seeds favor a common path of colonization, or 

the two fungi share a common toolbox for the infection of maize seeds. 

Sikhakolli, Usha 1 , Nicholas Harrison 1 , Nina Lehr 2 , Zheng Wang 2 , Ning Li 2 , 

Frances Trail 1* , and Jeffrey P Townsend 2 . 1 Department of Plant Biology, 

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 2 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary 

Biology, Yale Univeristy, New Haven CT. Comparative transcriptomics 

identifies new genes important to perithecium development and function 

in Fusarium 

In recent years, a plethora of genomic sequences have been released for 

fungal species, accompanied by functional predictions for genes based on protein 

sequence comparisons. However, identification of genes involved in particular 

processes has been extremely slow, and new methodologies for identifying genes 

involved in a particular process have not kept pace with the exponential increase 

in genome sequence availability. We have performed transcriptional profiling of 

five species of Neurospora and Fusarium during six stages of perithecium development. 

We estimated the ancestral transcriptional shifts during the developmental 

process among the species and identified genes whose transcription had substantially 

and significantly shifted during the evolutionary process. We examined 

genes whose expression greatly increased in Fusarium graminearum perithecium 

development compared to Fusarium verticilloides or compared to Neurospora 

spp. Functional studies through gene disruption resulted in substantial changes in 

Fusarium graminearum perithecium morphology in the mutants of many of these 

genes. These genes were not previously identified as candidates for function in 

perithecium development, illustrating the utility of this method for identification 

of genes associated with specific functional processes. 


Slot, Jason C, Matthew A Campbell, Han Zhang, John G Gibbons, and Antonis 

Rokas. Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN. 

Fungal gene clusters, transfer, tinkering and death 

The association of metabolically linked genes in chromosomal gene clusters 

has been shown to facilitate accelerated evolution of fungal genomes through 

whole pathway acquisition by horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and through accelerated 

pathway loss. How gene clusters originate and integrate into novel fungal 

genomes following HGT is not well understood, however. In order to address 

these questions, we investigated the evolution of several secondary metabolite 

gene clusters with highly restricted distributions among closely related fungal 

taxa. Here we present evidence that novel gene clusters can persist along with alternative 

assemblages of genes in polymorphic loci. These variable loci could explain 

the dramatic differences in secondary metabolic diversity between closely 

related fungi. Recently acquired clusters may alternatively be scrapped, with some 

components being repurposed and the rest left to decay. These results provide 

more insight into the importance of gene clusters in fungal metabolic diversity and 

suggest that the rate of gene cluster HGT is likely underestimated. 

Smith, Matthew E 1 , Terry W Henkel 2 , H David Clarke 3 , Alex K Fremier 4 , and 

Rytas Vilgalys 5 . 1 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, 

Gainesville FL 32611, 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, 

Arcata CA 95521, 3 Department of Biology, University of North Carolina-Asheville, 

Asheville, NC 28804, 4 Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, 

University of Idaho, Moscow ID 83844, 5 Department of Biology, Duke University, 

Durham NC 27708. Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Pakaraimaea 

dipterocarpacea, an endemic neotropical dipterocarp 

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) plants and fungi can be well represented in certain 

tropical regions. For example, the predominantly paleotropical ECM Dipterocarpaceae 

is one of the most widespread and speciose tree families in Southeast 

Asia. Pakaraimaea dipterocarpacea is one of only two species of dipterocarp 

known from the western hemisphere, and is the only member of the monotypic 

Dipterocarpaceae subfam. Pakaraimoideae. The species was discovered in 

Guyana by Bassett Maguire of the New York Botanical Garden in the 1950’s, and 

is endemic to the sandstone highlands of Guyana and Venezuela in dense stands 

of multi-stemmed trees. In 2006 Bernard Moyersoen showed that Pakaraimaea 

forms ectomycorrhizas and provided evidence for a vicariant distribution relative 

to its Old World relatives. Despite the unique phylogenetic position of P. dipterocarpacea 

within the Dipterocarpaceae and its unique geographical distribution, 

little is known about the ECM fungi associated with the species. In 2010 we sampled 

ECM fungi on roots of P. dipterocarpacea and the leguminous ECM tree Dicymbe 

jenmanii where these species co-occur in the Upper Mazaruni River Basin 

of Guyana. Using molecular methods we documented 52 species of ECM fungi 

across 11 independent lineages. While many of ECM fungi found on 

Pakaraimaea roots were conspecific with taxa known from the region as sporocarps, 

a number of “unknowns” were found across several basidiomycete families 

and genera. Due to the phylogenetic distance between host taxa we hypothesized 

that P. dipterocarpacea would host ECM fungi not found on D. jenmanii, 

and vice versa. While statistical tests suggested that several ECM fungal species 

exhibited preference for either P. dipterocarpacea or D. jenmanii, most were generalists. 

In addition to these findings, unique ECM fungi collected as sporocarps 

in the Pakaraimaea forests will be discussed. 

Soares, William RO, Eliane AS Armando, and José C Dianese * . Depto. de Fitopatologia, 

Universidade de Brasília, 70910900 Brasília, DF, Brazil. A new 

species, and first record of Meliola weigeltii var. fraxinifoliae, on anacardiaceous 

hosts from the Brazilian Pantanal 

A new Meliola species was found on leaves of Spondias lutea (Brazilian 

plum), a cultivated fruit crop also occurring in wild environments through the 

Neotropics. Our specimen was collected in the Pantanal Matogrossense (UB 

Mycol. Col. 21456) showing characteristic features related to: mycelial setae up 

to 267 _ 5.5-9.5 µm, mostly erect, sometimes curved, with a broad apex when single 

containing 2-4 denticles up to 13.5 µm tall or 2-3 furcate with denticles up to 

22 µm tall; ascomata 90-162 µm diam., superficial, glabrous, dark brown, globose 

to subglobose, spread on the superficial mycelium; ascospores 31-41 _ 9.5- 

13 µm, oblong to elliptical with obtuse terminal cells, dark brown when mature, 

4-septate, with constrictions at each septum. This specimen morphologically differs 

from all known Meliola species, strongly indicating that it belongs in a new 

taxon. This is also the fourth record of a Meliola species on plants of the genus 

Spondias. Meliola weigeltii var. fraxinifoliae was found on Astronium fraxinifolium, 

which is the first record for the entire Pantanal Region, although it is already 

known from the Cerrado and from the Northeastern region of Brazil. 

Soares, William RO, Maria DM Santos, Érica SC Souza, and José C Dianese * . 

Depto. de Fitopatologia, Universidade de Brasília, 70910900 Brasília, DF, Brazil. 

A new synnematous hyphomycete parasitic on a Phyllachora species 

A new Phyllachora species on leaves of an unknown angiosperm was recently 

found. However, very seldom the stromata of the fungus and its immerse 

ascomata were free of an absolutely inedited hyphomycete. This new hyperparasite 

was studied both using light and scanning electron microscopy, and shown to 

invade the Phyllachora ascomata and the surrounding pseudostromata that resulted 

from the incorporation of the neighboring plant tissue by the host fungus. The 

hyphomycete develops into a widespread internal compact hyaline mycelium that 

later will grow erumpently through the plant epidermis as well as through the 

melanin-impregnated clypeus of the fungus. Thus, cylindrical compact synnemata 

showing textura intrincata grow to 285-500 µm long 57-70 µm diam., completely 

covered, from base to apex, by a multitude of closely packed verrucose 

polyphialidic conidiogenous cells (1-2 µm diam.). The conidia [(4)-13-18 x 1-3 

µm)] formed are hyaline, mostly 1-septate, elliptical to fusiform. Given the absolutely 

inedited morphology of the hyphomycete, it becomes clear that it has to 

be assigned to a new anamorphic genus. 

Song, Zewei and Jonathan Schilling. Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems 

Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108. Initial population 

abundance shaped the competition between two wood-degrading fungi 

Competition of wood-degrading fungi determines the structure of their 

community and the resulting ecological processes. During wood decomposition, 

brown and white rot fungi utilize different forms of carbon while competing for 

the same space. In this research, we studied the effect of initial population abundance 

on the competition outcome and residue properties of two wood-degrading 

fungi on four wood types. A microcosm system was used to allow brown and 

white rot fungi invade and compete on wood substrates (oak, birch, pine and 

spruce). The initial population size was controlled by the area of agar inoculated 

into the microcosm. A brown rot fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum) was inoculated 

in larger amounts (646mm 2 ) than a white rot fungus (Irpex lacteus, 77mm 2 ), simulating 

a stronger brown rot population due to earlier colonization. Decay residues 

were harvested after 3 and 8 weeks. A previous experiment showed that when 

both fungi were inoculated at the same size, the white rot fungus always dominated 

the system. The wood residue after 3 weeks showed distinctive white rot 

properties, with low solubility (~20%) and high pH (~4). However, after 8 weeks, 

a proportion of wood residues showed distinctive brown rot properties, which 

were high solubility (~60%) and low pH (~2). Quantitative PCR also showed that 

at 3 weeks the white rot fungus was dominant in wood. But after 8 weeks, some 

of the residues showed much higher percentage of the brown rot fungus. It is possible 

that the brown rot fungus was unsuccessful in invading wood at an early 

stage of competition, but was able to survive in feeder strips and outcompeted the 

white rot fungus after 8 weeks. Our study indicated that initial population abundance 

has a profound effect on the competition outcome. 

Spakowicz, Daniel J, Jeffrey J Shaw, Rahul S Dalal, Gang Fang, Brian F Dunican, 

and Scott A Strobel. Dept of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale 

University, New Haven, CT 06511. Genomic and transcriptomic analysis of 

the novel endophytic isolate E5202H for the identification of natural product 

pathways 

Endophytes are a diverse niche of fungi that produce potentially useful 

secondary metabolites. Isolate E5202H is an endophyte that was isolated from the 

plant Guazuma ulmifolia (Sterculiaceae) in the Cerro Blanco dry forest of 

Ecuador in 2009. This isolate is likely a new species in the genus Massarina, with 

86% similarity in its internal transcribed spacer rDNA sequence to the closest 

named organism in GenBank by Smith-Waterman alignment. In addition, 

E5202H produces a novel molecule with anti-oomycete activity, shown by mass 

spectrometry and NMR to be (2E,4E,6E)-6-methylocta-2,4,6-trienoic acid. Also, 

it produces a volatile hydrocarbon with potential biofuel properties, shown by 

mass spectrometry and NMR to be (3E,5E,7E)-nona-1,3,5,7-tetraene. Metabolic 

labeling studies suggest that (3E,5E,7E)-nona-1,3,5,7-tetraene is produced by a 

polyketide synthase-like mechanism. Genomic and transcriptomic analyses of 

E5202H are being pursued to identify the genes involved in the production of 

these molecules. The E5202H genome has been assembled to 20 scaffolds with 

an estimated size of 52 MB. We pursued transcriptome sequencing from five different 

conditions where different volatile metabolites were produced, as determined 

by GCMS. Correlating the transcription with metabolite production and 

isotopic labeling data allows us to generate hypotheses for the genes responsible 

for the production of these products. The functions of candidate genes will be determined 

by heterologous expression studies. 

Spiegel, Frederick W. Department of Biological Sciences, University of 

Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA. Nucletmycea, Holozoa, Opisthokonta, 

and the problem with the “Entagled Bank” 



In the famous last paragraph of the Origin, Darwin states, “There is 

grandeur in this view of life...that...from so simple a beginning endless forms most 

beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.” From this, in 

part, comes the hard to shake idea that the progenitors of lineages were both primitive 

and simple. By definition, the characters of the ancestor of a lineage are primitive. 

However, many aspects of an ancestor, even a deep ancestor, were very 

complex, not simple at all. The last common ancestor of living eukaryotes was a 

sexual organism that had to have had a flagellate stage in its life cycle. These characters 

had to have been true of the first opisthokont, and it was certainly more 

complex than many members of the extant opisthokonts. Rather than worry about 

whole organisms, perhaps it is better to compare sets of characters that we can hypothesize 

result from share ancestry. For instance, multicellularity has arisen numerous 

times in eukaryotes. In opisthokonts, multicellularity that includes cell migration 

has arisen at least three times, at least once in Holozoa (Metazoa), and at 

least twice in Nucletmycea (the sorocarpic Fonticula and the dikaryomycetes). 

Do the seeds for using cell migration in multicellular development come from 

characters of the last common ancestor of the extant opisthokonts? We do not yet 

know, but if we learn to “think outside the box” as comparative biologists, it will 

become easier to recognize those characters that need to be compared and to develop 

a set of model organisms and that allow hypotheses to be tested. 

Stajich, Jason E 1 , David A Hewitt 2 , and Gregory Jedd 3 . 1 Plant Pathology and 

Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA USA, 2 Department of 

Botany, 

3 

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 

Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and Department of Biological Sciences, The 

National University of Singapore, Singapore. Insights into independent origins 

of multicellularity in Neolecta from comparative genomics 

The evolution of multicellular tissues in fungi, from the most fundamental 

aspects of hyphal growth to development of complex fruiting bodies, required 

a host of changes in cellular biology of fungi. Genome sequence comparisons provide 

a means to study the molecular evolutionary changes across species through 

the inventories of gene content and genome organization. Phylogenomic comparison 

of genes in the filamentous Pezizomycotina fungi reveals a collection of lineage 

specific genes including some known to be important for the filamentous 

lifestyle such as the Hex proteins of Woronin body organelles, which are necessary 

for septal pore plugging after hyphal wounding. Neolecta, a Taphrinamycotina 

fungus, is phylogenetically distinct from the Pezizomycotina and may represent 

an independent lineage where hyphal growth and complex fruiting bodies 

evolved. By sequencing and comparing the genome of Neolecta irregularis to the 

rest of the Ascomycete fungi we have found further evidence that filamentousspecific 

genes in Pezizomycotina remain specific to the clade. Microscopy reveals 

Wornin-body like structures in the hyphae of Neolecta, yet Woronin body genes 

hex, wsc, leashin and spa9 are not found, suggesting independent origins for this 

adaptation. The NADPH oxidases appear to be expressed in all multicellular fruiting 

bodies, and one of these is encoded in the Neolecta genome, suggesting shared 

traits that might have been present in a complex Dikarya ancestor. These and ongoing 

analyses will reveal further patterns of genome evolution that link cell biology 

changes to evolutionary transitions between unicellular and multicellular 

forms in fungal history. 

Sthultz, Christopher M 1 , Linda TA Van Diepen 2 , Serita D Frey 2 , and Anne 

Pringle 1 . 1 Organismic & Evolutionary Biology Harvard University 16 Divinity 

Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138, 2 Department of Natural Resources and the Environment 

University of New Hampshire 56 College Road James Hall Durham, 

NH 03801. Influences of nitrogen deposition and soil warming on saprophytic 

fungal community structure, fungal growth, and litter decomposition 

Impacts of global change on microbial communities remain poorly understood. 

However, because microbes are important drivers of biogeochemical 

cycles, anthropogenically mediated changes may have strong influences on 

ecosystem function. Saprophytic fungi are primarily responsible for decomposition 

in temperate forest systems, yet relatively little is known about whether global 

changes, including nitrogen deposition and soil warming, will alter community 

assembly processes. Here we focus on results from the first year of a multi-year 

litterbag/decomposition experiment using long-term experimental N addition 

(control, low and high N treatments) and soil warming plots (control and elevated 

5 o C treatments) in a northeastern hardwood forest. We examined saprophytic 

fungal community structure, fungal growth, and decomposition from 95 litter 

bags harvested after 1 year in the field. Using metagenomics, culturing, and laboratory 

microcosms we tested the influence of nitrogen deposition and soil warming 

on fungal communities and ecosystem function. We document four major patterns: 

1) Fungal communities in elevated nitrogen deposition and soil warming 

plots were different from control plots. 2) Decomposition varied between treatment 

and control plots in both experiments. 3) In the nitrogen experiment fungal 

community composition and decomposition were influenced not only by treatment 

but also by the source of the litter in the bags (from control, low, or high N 

plots). There was a significant interaction effect on the community composition. 


4) There were differences in growth rates of the same fungal species cultured from 

each of the three nitrogen treatments. Our results increase understanding of the 

ecology and evolution of saprophytic fungi in a global change context, and add to 

what is known about the biodiversity of decomposer fungi. In addition, our results 

suggest global change may influence the fungi found in the environment, but also 

the evolution of some fungal species. 

Sweeney, Katarina, Michael Freitag, and Jeffrey Stone. Oregon State University, 

Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, 2082 Cordley Hall, Corvallis, OR 

97331-2902. Estimating genetic diversity of Cronartium ribicola populations 

in Oregon by RAD marker genotyping 

The pathogen, Cronartium ribicola, was introduced to North America in 

1910 and found in SW British Columbia and NW Washington by 1922. Evidence 

of evolutionary change in North American C. ribicola since its introduction is apparent 

and spread of two virulent races pathogenic to WPBR-resistant genotypes 

of Pinus monticola and P. lambertiana have been observed. The C. ribicola vcr1 

race is virulent to P. lambertiana carrying a major gene (Cr1) that confers resistance 

to “wild-type” C. ribicola and was first found in California in 1978. The vcr2 

race is virulent to P. monticola carrying Cr2 that also confers resistance to “wildtype” 

C. ribicola, and was found in Oregon in the early 1970s. Neither vcr1 or 

vcr2 races are virulent to the resistant genotypes of the other species. Few studies 

have been completed to estimate the genetic diversity of natural populations of C. 

ribicola in western North America, but accurate characterization of host phenotypes 

in resistance breeding programs requires more detailed understanding of the 

diversity of C. ribicola populations. Resistance screening is carried out with wild 

populations known to be predominantly vcr1, vcr2, or “wild-type” C. ribicola. In 

order to gain a more precise understanding of the molecular basis of natural variation 

in wild-type strains of C. ribicola in Oregon, we are employing restriction 

site associated DNA (RAD) marker genotyping of C. ribicola aeciospores. RAD 

sequencing generates short sequence reads adjacent to restriction enzyme sites 

that serve to identify restriction polymorphisms between samples or can be used 

to identify the presence of SNPs. We are using aeciospore samples from multiple 

locations in Oregon. RAD mapping will allow us to relate the variation seen in 

pine host reactions to infection by C. ribicola with informative SNPs in the 

pathogen. 

Sylvain, Iman A and Timothy Y James. University of Michigan, Department of 

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. 830 North University Ann Arbor, MI 48109. 

Global population genetic structure of Aspergillus niger and Eurotium 

rubrum in green coffee beans 

Whether small species are ubiquitous and cosmopolitan remains a significant 

question in mycological research. Whether “everything is everywhere,” and 

how habitat properties or historical contingency influence the distribution of fungi 

has yet to be fully understood. Determining species ranges for fungi can be challenged 

by reliance on morphological characters for the identification of species, 

and enlisting molecular techniques has shown that fungi may have varied ranges 

that scale from largely global to narrowly endemic. Fungi associated with highly 

mobile agricultural products may have global distributions that mirror the trade of 

their plant hosts, or show patterns of biogeographic structure influenced by the 

ecology of distinct agroecosystems. Trans-global gene flow in fungi may be facilitated 

by the movement of agricultural commodities, resulting in panmictic 

populations, and the observation that fungi show no correspondence between genetic 

and geographic ranges. We are developing global coffee agriculture as a 

model system to understand how the movement of food products influences the 

dispersal of fungi. We have used a multi-locus sequencing technique to analyze 

the population structure of two mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species, A. niger and 

Eurotium rubrum, cultured from green coffee beans. Coffee beans were sourced 

from eight countries: Kenya, Ethiopia, Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Papa 

New Guinea, Bali, and Sumatra. The coffee was either produced as USDA-certified 

organic, or by conventional agricultural methods, and either wet or dryprocessed. 

Phylogenetic trees constructed from rRNA ITS sequences suggest that 

multiple distinct, possibly cryptic species are present within the sampled A. niger 

and E. rubrum clades. Beta-tubulin and calmodulin sequences show no geographic 

structure in these species, suggesting that Aspergillus species associated 

with coffee production may truly be everywhere. 

Taerum, Stephen 1 , Z Wilhelm de Beer 2 , Tuan A Duong 1 , Min Lu 3 , Nancy 

Gilette 4 , Jianghua Sun 3 , and Michael J Wingfield 1 . 1 Department of Genetics, 

Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, 

Pretoria 002, South Africa, 2 Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, 

Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, 

Pretoria 002, South Africa, 3 State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of 

Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 

Beijing 100101, P. R. China, 4 Ecosystem Function and Health, PSW Research 

Station, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710. Fungal symbionts suggest an 


alternative origin for the red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens) invasion 

in China 

Species invasions are among the greatest threats to biodiversity, ecosystem 

stability, and the global economy. Invasive species frequently co-invade with 

numerous symbionts, some of which are themselves problematic in their new environments. 

Interestingly, the symbionts associated with an invading species can 

be useful in discerning the possible origins of invasive pests. We used phylogenetic 

analyses to determine and compare the composition of fungal communities 

associated with a forest pest, the red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens), in 

its native [eastern (ENA) and western (WNA) North America] and invaded 

(China) environments. In total, 28 different species of Ophiostomatalean fungi 

were isolated in the three regions: 14 spp. in China, 13 in ENA and 11 in WNA. 

Five fungal species were shared between RTB populations in ENA and WNA. 

Two species (O. ips and O. floccosum) occurred in both China and WNA, but 

both were present in very low numbers and have a global distribution. Three 

species were present in ENA and China, including O. abietinum, also with a global 

distribution, L. koreanum, thus far only reported from East Asia, and L. procerum. 

The first two species respectively constituted 1% and 6% of the ophiostomatalean 

isolates obtained in both regions, while L. procerum was the dominant 

fungus in both regions, constituting 50% of the isolates in ENA and 56% in China. 

This fungus is pathogenic to pine trees in China, but not in the USA, and was conspicuously 

absent from RTB in WNA. These findings suggest that the RTB may 

have been introduced into China from ENA, contrary to previous reports based on 

population studies of the beetle, suggesting that RTB was introduced into China 

from WNA. 

Talbot, Jenny, Lotus Lofgren, and Kabir Peay. University of Minnesota Plant 

Pathology 1991 Upper Buford Circle 495 Borlaug Hall St. Paul, MN 55108- 

6030A. Degradative enzyme production: a function of phylogenetic or niche 

relatedness? 

Fungi produce an array of extracellular enzymes that assist in the degradation 

of organic materials. Fungi occupying different ecological niches are expected 

to have different enzymatic capabilities but the extent to which these capabilities 

are restricted by genetic lineage is unclear. We are testing the hypothesis 

that fungi occupying similar ecological niches have similar enzyme profiles but 

that this capability is restricted by genetic lineage. To test this hypothesis, we are 

using 18 sets of closely related fungi across the Basidiomycota in a laboratorybased 

microcosm study to directly quantify the production of degradative enzymes 

among functionally and phylogenetically distinct taxa. Each set consists of 

‘three pairs’ of fungi occupying distinct ecological niches: a mycorrhizal fungus, 

a white rot fungus, and a brown rot fungus, for a total of 54 taxa. We are measuring 

the production of cellulases, hemicellulases, proteases, and oxidases by each 

taxa as they colonize litter and soil in axenic culture. We will then correlate genetic 

distance to functional distance among taxa and test the effect of ecological 

niche on enzyme production using ANOVA. ECM fungi form associations with 

host plants under which fungal-sequestered nutrients are exchanged for plantfixed 

carbon. By contrast, white rot fungi and brown rot fungi acquire carbon 

from detritus, with white rot fungi having stronger lignin degrading capabilities 

than brown rot. Viewing enzyme production as an adaptive functional trait, we expect 

that the enzymatic profiles of different fungal species will vary most strongly 

with ecological niche, with a lesser effect of phylogenetic distance between lineages. 

However, we expect that closely related species will produce a similar suite 

of enzymes. 

Tanney, Joey B and Keith A Seifert. Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, 

960 Carling Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6. The occurrence of 

Phialosimplex in the built environment 

House dust samples were collected from 14 countries as part of an ongoing 

project comparing the indoor mycota detected by dilution-to-extinction culturing 

and pyrosequencing. A modified isolation method using microtubes and 

low water activity agar media was used to culture slow-growing and xerophilic 

fungi that would potentially be missed by classical methods, which favor fastgrowing 

mesophilic molds. Strains identified as Phialosimplex comprised approximately 

15% of identified cultures from house dust samples from Micronesia, 

0.8% from Indonesia, and an as yet unquantified percentage of strains from 

Thailand. Phialosimplex is a recently described anamorphic genus within the Trichocomaceae. 

Morphologically, it is characterized by narrow phialides borne on 

vegetative hyphae or on short, unbranched conidiophores, with aseptate subglobose 

to ovoid conidia in long chains. There are three known species, P. caninus, 

P. chlamydosporus, both associated with disseminated mycoses in dogs, and P. 

sclerotialis, originally isolated from hay. In a recently published study, the latter 

species comprised 37% of fungi identified in a poultry facility using pyrosequencing. 

Preliminary ITS data suggest the presence of at least one novel 

Phialosimplex species among the house dust isolates. Our ITS sequences of 

Phialosimplex will be used to identify OTUs in the 454 pyrosequencing data generated 

from the same dust samples, allowing us to compare the sensitivity of the 

microbiological and molecular methods for detecting species of this genus. The 

frequent occurrence in house dust of Phialosimplex, a genus previously considered 

as an obscure agent of canine disease, should encourage further investigation 

into its significance in the built environment. 

Taylor, Andy F S 1,2 , Greg W Douhan 3 , Allan E Hills 4 , Giampaolo Simonini 5 , 

Manfred Binder 6 , and Ursula Eberhardt 7 . 1 The James Hutton Institute, 

Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, Scotland, UK, 2 Institute of Biological and 

Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Cruickshank Building, St 

Machar Drive, Aberdeen, AB24 3UU, UK, 3 Department of Plant Pathology and 

Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA, 4 ‘Megera’, 

Acremead Road, Wheatley, Oxon, OX33 1NZ, England, UK, 5 Via Bellaria 8, 

42100 Reggio Emilia, Italy, 6 Clark University, Biology Department, Lasry Biosciences 

7 

Center, 950 Main Street Worcester, Massachusetts 01610-1477, U.S.A., 

CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, 

P. O. Box 85167, NL-3508 AD UTRECHT, The Netherlands. A molecular 

analysis of European and North American taxa within the Xerocomus 

chrysenteron complex and the description of X. redeuilhii Taylor, Eberhardt 

& Simonini sp. nov. 

The taxonomy within the genus Xerocomus has not been fully resolved 

and remains controversial. For example, in North America, Smith and Thiers collapsed 

all species within the genus Xerocomus into the genus Boletus in the 

1970’s. Nevertheless, Xerocomus is widely recognized as a distinct genus in Europe 

and phylogenetic analysis based on LSU-rDNA supports that Xerocomus is 

a distinct genus. Phylogenetic analyses have also revealed that the type species for 

the genus, Xerocomus subtomentosus, is distinct from other Xerocomus species 

that have been studied at the molecular level, which suggests that additional genera 

could be split off. In this paper we examine the taxa in the Xerocomus chrysenteron 

complex in Europe and North America using rDNA-ITS sequence data. 

We describe Xerocomus redeuilhii A.F.S. Taylor, Eberhardt & Simonini sp. nov., 

a widespread species from southern Europe that was formerly considered to be the 

North American species X. dryophilus (Theirs) Singer. Xerocomus fennicus (Harmaja) 

Ladurner & Simonini described from Finland is shown to be synonymous 

with the North American taxon Xerocomus intermedius (Smith & Thiers) Heinemann, 

Rammeloo &. Rullier and X. marekii Šutara & Skála is shown to be a red 

form of X. porosporus Imler. Phylogenetic analysis of the complex demonstrated 

that few taxa are shared between North America and Europe, with a number of 

lineages within the complex requiring taxonomic re-evaluation in North America. 

Taylor, Lee 1 , Jack W McFarland 2 , Teresa N Hollingsworth 3 , and Roger W 

Ruess 1 . 1 Institute of Arctic Biology, 311 Irving I Building, University of Alaska 

Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775, 2 U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield 

Road, M.S. 962, Menlo Park, CA 94025, 3 Boreal Ecology Cooperative Research 

Unit, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Fairbanks, AK 99775. Saturated 

molecular census of soil fungi in boreal Alaska suggests 6 million 

species of fungi on earth 

There are 98,000 described fungal species and the true number of fungal 

species is estimated to range from 0.6M based on a comparison of animal species 

to 1.5 M based on the number of pathogenic fungi associated with plants. Because 

systematics in fungi and other microbes is vastly different from that in animals, 

because most fungi are not plant pathogens, and because molecular methods were 

not used, existing estimates are likely to be very wrong. We used an environmental, 

molecular approach to census plant and fungal diversity in a simple 

ecosystem, with particular concern for adequacy of sampling and accuracy of 

species assessment. Our estimate, based on fungi found in soil associated with 

plants at a ratio of 17 fungi to 1 plant, is 6M fungal species, itself a conservative 

estimate. Our result indicates fungal diversity has been greatly underestimated. 

Our data offer an explanation for this underestimate; niche partitioning on a very 

fine scale. Furthermore, we find that species in the same genus and broad functional 

guild often occupy different niches. With the ongoing reorganization of biodiversity 

on Earth, it is critical to accelerate our documentation of the distribution 

and function of the likely 98% of fungal species that are currently undescribed. 

Taylor, Steven J 1 , Andrew N Miller 1* , Anthony C Yannarell 2 , Joseph F Merritt 

1 , Nohra Mateus-Pinilla 1 , Edward J Heske 1 , Vincent P Hustad 3 , H M Lin 2 , 

Joseph A Kath 4 , and Rod D McClanahan 5 . 1 Illinois Natural History Survey, University 

of Illinois, 1816 South Oak St., Champaign, IL 61820, 2 Dept. of Natural 

Resources and Environmental Science, University of Illinois, 1102 South Goodwin 

Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, 3 Dept. of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, 505 

South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, 4 Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 

One Natural Resources Way, Springfield, IL 62702, 5 US Forest Service, 

Shawnee National Forest - Hidden Springs RD, 602 North First St., Vienna, IL 

62995. White-nose syndrome and Illinois bat hibernacula 



We are monitoring the invasion of Geomyces destructans in bat hibernacula 

in Illinois. Our team includes three mammalogists, a mycologist, a microbial 

ecologist, a wildlife veterinary epidemiologist, and a cave biologist, and is assisted 

by several resource managers. We use molecular and culture-based 

approaches to evaluate dead and live-caught bats and cave and mine substrates for 

the presence of G. destructans, and describe the microbial and fungal communities 

of sampled animals and caves. Beginning in winter 2012, we will visit about 

eight hibernacula per year for three years, and sample active bats during summer. 

We are collecting swab and wing-punch samples from asymptomatic and symptomatic 

bats; soil, air, and various other substrate samples from hibernacula; and 

temperature, humidity, and light data to characterize cave environments. Our 

study will provide data on the occurrence and distribution of G. destructans in hibernacula 

on the leading edge of the spread of white-nose syndrome, and the microbial 

ecosystems in which it becomes established. Circumstances permitting 

(i.e., timing and extent of the invasion), we hope to better understand potential 

competing or synergistic interactions between G. destructans and microbial communities 

on bats and in caves that influence the establishment of G. destructans. 

Thiers, Barbara M, Deb Paul, Cathy Bester, and Jason Grabon. iDigBio, 

FLMNH, Dickinson Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611. Integrated Digitized Biocollections 

(iDigBio): A national resource for digitization 

iDigBio, Integrated Digitized Biocollections, is the National Resource 

funded by the National Science Foundation for Advancing Digitization of Biological 

Collections (ADBC). Through iDigBio, data and images for millions of biological 

specimens are being curated, connected and made available in electronic 

format for the biological research community, government agencies, students, 

educators, and the general public. The mission of iDigBio is to develop a national 

infrastructure that supports the vision of ADBC by overseeing implementation 

of standards and best practices for digitization; building and deploying a customized 

cloud computing environment for collections; recruiting and training personnel, 

including underserved groups; engaging the research community, collections 

community, citizen scientists, and the public through education and outreach 

activities; and planning for long-term sustainability of the national digitization effort. 

In addition to the iDigBio central digitization HUB, there are partner institutions 

referred to as “Thematic Collection Networks” (TCNs) that consists of networks 

of institutions with a strategy for digitizing information that addresses a 

particular research theme. The current TCNs include InvertNet - An Integrative 

Platform for Research on Environmental Change, Species Discovery and Identification; 

Plants, Herbivores and Parasitoids: A Model System for the Study of Tri- 

Trophic Associations; and North American Lichens and Bryophytes: Sensitive Indicators 

of Environmental Quality and Change. Additional TCNs will be added 

yearly, with four new TCNs to be announced in April 2012. Through the iDigBio 

HUB cyberinfrastructure, compilation and the inter-linking of data from the 

TCNs and existing collaborative databases, there will be opportunities to address 

research questions and education interests regarding biodiversity, climate change, 

species invasions, natural disasters, and the spread of pests and diseases. New 

TCNs will be funded in succeeding years based on solicitations from NSF. The 

iDigBio HUB is based at the University of Florida (UF), in partnership with Florida 

State University (FSU). 

Thomas, Elizabeth, Nick Taylor, Pio Moises Figueroa-Contreras, Zhi Zhang, 

Kelly L Ivors, and Marc A Cubeta. Department of Plant Pathology, North Carolina 

State University, Raleigh, NC 27695. Investigation of sclerotial morphogenesis 

in the soil fungus Rhizoctonia solani 

The soil fungus Rhizoctonia solani (teleomorph=Thanatephorus cucumeris) 

is an important pathogen of cultivated and native species of plants. The 

fungus is a competitive saprobe that promotes the decomposition of organic matter 

and survives in soil in the absence of a host plant by forming sclerotia. Although 

there has been an accumulating body of knowledge generated on sclerotial 

forming fungi, little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in the 

formation of sclerotia by R. solani. To examine the biochemical and physiological 

changes of the fungus during sclerotial morphogenesis, an in vitro assay was 

developed to induce sclerotia formation in a wild type strain of R. solani anastomosis 

group 3 (Rhs 1AP) and two protoplast-derived strains with a reduced nuclear 

genome (Rhs 1AP-115 and Rhs 1AP-123E) that had lost their ability to produce 

monilioid cells and sclerotia on nutrient media and potato tubers. The 

addition of xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, maltose, trehalose, raffinose, 

starch, cellulose, xylan oat-spelt, and casein to minimal medium stimulated radial 

mycelial growth of Rhs1AP but not Rhs 1AP-115 and Rhs 1AP-123E. The supplementation 

of minimal media with arabinose, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, glycerol, 

and myo-inositol induced formation of sclerotia in strain Rhs 1AP but not in 

strains Rhs 1AP-115 and Rhs 1AP-123E. Growth of the latter strains in the presence 

of cAMP or under nutrient deprived conditions also did not result in the formation 

of sclerotia. Results from the analysis of the transcriptome of strains Rhs 

1AP (sclerotia plus) and Rhs 1AP-123E (sclerotia minus) will be discussed. 


Tobias, Terri L 1 , Katrina P Sandona 1 , Antonio D Rosales 1 , Andrea Porras-Alfaro 

1 , Robert L Sinsabaugh 2 , and Katharine N Suding 3 . 1 Western Illinois University, 

1 University Circle, Macomb IL. 61455, 2 University of New Mexico, 

167A Castetter Hall, Albuquerque NM. 87131, 3 University of California Berkeley, 

130 Mulford Hall 3144, Berkeley CA. 94720. In search for a function: Endophytic 

fungi in the alpine tundra and their effect on cultivated plants. 

Plants in the alpine tundra are anatomically adapted to survive harsh environmental 

conditions. They also rely on endophytic and mycorrhizal fungi for 

acquisition of nutrients and potential protection against pathogens. Microbial interactions 

with plants are known to play an important role in maintaining the biodiversity 

in the alpine tundra. Besides their importance, very little is known about 

fungal endophytic abundance, taxonomic and functional relationships with dominant 

plants. The main objective of this research is to examine the mechanism of 

transmission, diversity and function of seed and root associated fungi in an alpine 

tundra site located at the Niwot Long Term Ecological Research Site in Colorado. 

Seed endophytes were compared with root and soil communities using sequencing 

and culturing techniques. Dominant fungi were also tested in germination experiments. 

Dominant plants in alpine tundra harbor a community of endophytic 

fungi dominated by Ascomycota. A total of 33 endophytes were isolated from 

surface sterilized seeds. Greenhouse experiments with a dominant root fungal isolate 

identified as Philocephala fortinii showed significant positive effects on both 

germination and plant growth in two commercially cultivated plants (Zea mays 

and Glycine max). The average number of roots for soybeans after eleven days 

was 8.6 roots per plant as compared to the control of only 1.9 roots per plant. Likewise 

corn showed similar results with an average of 6.8 roots compared to the 

controls with 4.8 roots after seven days. Modern agriculture faces the serious issue 

of feeding a growing population while preserving the environment. This research 

will not only help understand the role of these fungi in natural ecosystems but has 

the potential to provide new insights in plant health and management. 

Toome, Merje and M Catherine Aime. Department of Plant Pathology and Crop 

Physiology, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, 

Louisiana 70803, USA. Microbotryomycetes: Higher-level classification and 

description of a new genus 

Microbotryomycetes, i.e., the “anther smuts” are a class of diverse Pucciniomycotina 

for which higher-level (e.g., order and family) classification has 

been largely unresolved. Recently, phylogenetic reevaluation of Microbotryomycetes 

was prompted by the isolation of a previously undescribed ballistosporic 

yeast from a neotropical forest in South America. The isolate, recovered 

from the surface of a fern leaf, forms butyrous cream-colored colonies with polar 

budding cells on solid media and rosette-like formations in liquid media. Based 

on phylogenetic, morphological and physiological analyses a new genus and 

species, Blackwellia eburnea nom. prov., are proposed. Phylogenetic analyses 

show that B. eburnea is most closely related to Kriegeria eriophori, a sedge parasite, 

the aquatic fungus Camptobasidium hydrophilum, and several recently described 

anamorphic yeasts that have been isolated from various plant or psychrophilic 

environments. Blackwellia eburnea makes an interesting addition to 

this clade since it represents the only species known thus far from the neotropics; 

all other species are either from temperate or cold environments. This indicates 

that additional studies of fungal biodiversity from poorly examined habitats like 

ice, water and tropical plant surfaces could greatly contribute to the species discovery 

and provide valuable information for improving the taxonomy of predominantly 

anamorphic clades in Microbotryomycetes. A higher-level classification 

is proposed to accommodate this and other species that until now have been 

incertae sedis within the Microbotryomycetes. 

Tournas, V H 1 , J Rivera Calo 2 , and C Sapp 3 . 1 Center for Food Safety and Applied 

2 

Nutrition/FDA, 5100 Paint Branch Parkway, 

3 

College Park, MD, USA, 

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 

Baltimore, MD, USA. Fungal profiles in various milk thistle botanicals 

from the US market 

Milk thistle (MT) dietary supplements are widely consumed due to their 

possible beneficial effect on liver health. As botanicals, they can be contaminated 

with a variety of fungi and their secondary metabolites, mycotoxins. This study 

was conducted in an effort to determine the mycological levels and profiles in various 

MT botanical supplements (seeds, herb, tea bags, liquid seed extracts, capsules 

and soft gels) obtained from U.S. retail. Conventional plating methods were 

used for the isolation and enumeration of fungi, while conventional microscopy 

as well as molecular methods were employed for species-level identification of 

the isolated fungal strains. Results showed that a high percentage (62%) of the MT 

samples tested were contaminated with fungi. Total yeast and mould (Y&M) 

counts ranged between

tentially toxigenic moulds from the Aspergillus flavus and A. niger groups as well 

as Eurotium, Penicillium, Fusarium and Alternaria species were isolated from 

MT supplements. The predominant moulds were A. flavus, Eurotium spp. (E. 

repens, E. amstelodami and E. rubrum), A. tubingensis, A. niger and A. candidus. 

To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting on fungal contamination profiles 

of MT botanicals. 

Tournas, V H 1 , Naomi Santillan 2 , and Nicholas S Niazi 3 . 1 CFSAN/FDA, 5100 

Paint Branch Parkway, College Park, MD, USA, 2 HACU/University of Texas, 

Rio Grande Valley, TX, USA, 3 JIFSAN/University of Maryland, College Park, 

MD, USA. Viability and efficacy of probiotic yeast supplements from U.S. retail 

Yeast (Saccharomyces boulardii) probiotic preparations from three U.S. 

companies (A, B and C) were tested for viability and efficacy. A total of 33 samples 

were analyzed for levels of live organisms per gram and per capsule using the 

dilution plating method. All samples were tested before their expiration dates. Results 

showed that overall S. boulardii levels ranged between 2.6 x 10 9 to 4.0 x 

10 10 colony forming units per gram (cfu/g) or 1.4 x 10 9 -8.0 x 10 9 cfu/capsule. 

Probiotic supplements from company A had S. boulardii levels similar to/or higher 

than those on the label, while all samples from company B had significantly 

higher counts than the ones claimed on the label. Most samples from company C 

contained significantly lower yeast counts than the ones claimed on their respective 

labels. Variation in viable yeast levels existed among companies, among lots 

from the same company as well as within lots. 

Treseder, Kathleen K and Krista L McGuire. Dept of Ecology and Evolutionary 

Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine CA 92697. The role of fungi 

in mediating ecosystem responses to global change 

We address whether trait-based mechanisms determine which fungal 

species respond to global warming, and whether the species that proliferate are 

those that will target recalcitrant C compounds, thereby reduce long-term C sequestration. 

The phylogenetic breadth of each trait should determine the degree to 

which the two traits may overlap within species. We hypothesized that larger, 

more complex (i.e., more recalcitrant) organic C compounds will be decomposed 

by a narrower phylogenetic range of taxa than are more labile C compounds, because 

the enzymatic machinery required to break down more recalcitrant compounds 

may be more complex and should evolve less frequently. Conversely, we 

hypothesized that a relatively broad phylogenetic range of taxa would respond to 

warming, given that multiple physiological changes can confer adaptation. We 

tested these predictions in an Alaskan boreal ecosystem. We used DNA sequencing 

to identify fungal taxa that were positively or negatively affected by warming. 

In addition, we assessed the relative abundance of recalcitrant- and labile-C users 

in situ by using nucleotide analog labeling of DNA. We found that taxa that fungi 

that used lignocelluloses and tannin-proteins, which are relatively recalcitrant 

compounds, were more phylogenetically narrow than expected by random chance 

(net relatedness index or NRI = 0.6 and 1, respectively). Fungal taxa that occupied 

warmed plots were neutrally-related to one another, as were those occupying 

control plots. The two traits were linked within fungal taxa, with recalcitrant C 

users responding positively to warming (P = 0.026). Ultimately, warming may 

lead to decreases in long-term C sequestration in the boreal forest. 

Tretter, Eric D, Eric M Johnson, Yan Wang, Prasanna Kandel, and Merlin 

White. Boise State University, Dept. of Biological Sciences, 1910 University 

Drive, Boise, ID 83725. Utilizing new genes (MCM7 and TSR1) for the phylogenetic 

analysis of early-diverging fungi 

The Kickxellomycotina is a group of early-diverging fungi with highly diverse 

morphologies and life histories that were previously part of the non-monophyletic 

Zygomycota phylum. Phylogenetic studies of the Kickxellomycotina 

have been limited by our current inability to culture many members of the Harpellales 

and all members of the Asellariales, and the tendency of some clades to suffer 

from severe long-branch attraction (particularly the Dimargaritales). This reduces 

our ability to sample taxa within each order, and makes it difficult to find 

congruent gene trees to produce concatenated multi-gene analyses. Traditional 

gene loci may also have severe problems with alignment that limit phylogenetic 

power (ITS), have problems with paralogs (beta-tubulin), or may prove very difficult 

to amplify for samples not taken from culture (RPB1, RPB2). In an attempt 

to address these problems and find additional genes to improve our resolution 

within this subphylum, we have investigated the use of the genes MCM7 and 

TSR1, which have been proven to be powerful for phylogenetic inference within 

the Dikarya and congruent with trees produced by phylogenomic analysis. We developed 

primers suitable for the amplification of MCM7 and TSR1, within three 

of the current orders of Kickxellomycotina (Harpellales, Dimargaritales, and 

Kickxellales) and four genera that may represent new orders. To determine if 

these genes reveal phylogenies congruent with the evolutionary history of the organisms, 

we compare the TSR1 and MCM7 phylogenies to an analysis based on 

ribosomal RNA genes, the most commonly used and accepted gene locus for 

these taxa. Finally, we report on the success of attempts to amplify species within 

other groups of early-diverging fungi, and provide suggestions as to which 

primers could potentially work with other clades. 

Udayanga, Dhanushka 1,2 , Xingzhong Liu 2 , Amy Y Rossman 3 , Ekachai 

Chukeatirote 1 , and Kevin D Hyde 1 . 1 Institute of Excellence in Fungal Research, 

School 

2 

of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand, 

State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy 

of Sciences, No 3 1st West Beichen Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, 

P.R. China, 3 Systematic Mycology & Microbiology Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 

Beltsville, MD 20705, USA. Taxonomic and molecular phylogenetic studies 

of the phytopathogenic genus Diaporthe (Phomopsis) 

The genus Diaporthe (anamorph Phomopsis) comprises phytopathologically 

important microfungi with a diverse host association and worldwide distribution. 

Species recognition of Diaporthe has historically been based on morphology, 

cultural characteristics and host affiliation. Difficulties in accurate species 

identification using morphology have led to the application of alternative approaches 

to differentiate species; these include virulence and pathogenicity, biochemistry, 

metabolites, physiology, antagonism, molecular phylogenetics and 

mating. We investigate and evaluate the taxonomy and phylogeny based on specimens 

collected from northern Thailand, specimens and cultures obtained from 

BPI and various other collections. The complexes of species that occur on each of 

the selected hosts and families are also considered. Fresh specimens are identified 

by means of molecular phylogenetic data based on the ITS rDNA, partial elongation 

factor 1-a (EF), B-tubulin (TUB), calmodulin (CAL) coupled with morphology. 

Backbone phylogenetic trees are inferred based on type derived sequences 

and used to identify the species and define novel taxa and phylogenetic species 

recognition of Diaporthe is re-evaluated. The older generic name Diaporthe is put 

forward and several species combinations and new taxa are proposed. The need 

for epitypification of prevalent phytopathogens and adoption to a single generic 

name is emphasized. 

Uehling, Jessie K 1 , Terry W Henkel 1 , Rytas Vilgalys 2 , and Matthew E 

Smith 2,3 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata 

CA 95521, USA, 2 Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham NC 

27708, USA, 3 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville 

FL 32611, USA. Membranomyces species are common ectomycorrhizal symbionts 

across the northern hemisphere 

Membranomyces Jülich is an ectomycorrhizal (ECM) resupinate basidiomycete 

genus that currently contains two species, M. delectabilis and M. 

spurius, known from Europe and Canada. Studies have suggested that Membranomyces 

falls within the Clavulinaceae (Cantharellales), which otherwise consists 

of the largely coralloid genus Clavulina. Some phylogenetic analyses have 

resolved Membranomyces as sister to Clavulina, while others suggested that 

Membranomyces is nested within Clavulina. With the recent discovery of two 

tiny, resupinate Clavulina species in Guyana, we hypothesized that some of the 

“missing” Clavulina species diversity indicated by belowground molecular studies 

in Guyana may be composed other similarly cryptic taxa. Given that a number 

of temperate belowground ECM studies have found Clavulinaceae root tip sequences 

that were unidentified at the species level, we suspected that a missing 

diversity situation might also apply to Membranomyces. We sequenced ITS 

rDNA from herbarium specimens of M. delectabilis and M. spurius to provide a 

database from which to determine if conspecific sequences were already present 

from root or soil samples deposited in GenBank. We found numerous Membranomyces 

environmental sequences on GenBank; subsequent phylogenetic analyses 

including these and specimen sequences indicated that 1) Membranomyces 

species are more widely distributed in the northern hemisphere than previously 

thought, forming ectomycorrhizas with a diverse array of gymnosperm and angiosperm 

host plants, and 2) unidentified Membranomyces species exist. Host 

plant genera with Membranomyces associates included Arctostaphylos, Betula, 

Carpinus, Fagus, Populus, Quercus, Pinus and Tsuga, with an apparent new distribution 

including Europe, the Mediterranean Arc, the Middle East, Japan, New 

Zealand, and United States. We discuss the taxonomic, ecological, and biogeographical 

implications of these findings. 

Urbina, Hector 1 , Janet J Luangsa-ard 2 , Sung O Suh 3 , and Meredith Blackwell 1 1 

. 

Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 

Louisiana 70803, USA, 2 Phylogenetics Laboratory, BIOTEC, Thailand Science 

Park, 113 Paholyothin Rd., Khlong 1, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand, 

3 Mycology and Botany Program, American Type Culture Collection 

(ATCC), 10801 University Blvd., Manassas, Virginia 20110, USA. Xylose-fermenting 

yeasts from the gut of passalid beetles: geographical distribution 

Passalid beetles (Passalidae, Polyphaga, Coleoptera) have a worldwide 

distribution with approximately 960 species classified in five subfamilies. Our 



previous studies of gut symbionts of Odontotaenius disjunctus, a common passalid 

beetle in the eastern USA, showed that several xylose-fermenting (X-F) 

yeasts are almost always associated with the beetle species. However, similar information 

on yeast associates of other passalids remains limited. In order to understand 

more about the associations between these beetles and X-F yeasts, a variety 

of passalids were collected from Guatemala and Thailand. Over 2500 yeast 

strains were isolated from about 200 adult beetles belonging to 32 passalid species 

collected in the two countries. Multi-locus phylogenetic analyses and biochemical 

characterizations indicated that the X-F yeasts were present in all of the passalid 

beetles studied. The most notable geographical difference was that the X-F 

members of the Scheffersomyces clade, especially S. shehatae and S. stipitis, were 

the most common ascomycete yeasts in the gut of passalids collected in 

Guatemala. By contrast, Scheffersomyces species, except for Scheffersomyces lignicola, 

were rare in the gut of passalids from Thailand. The most common Thai 

yeasts were X-F species in the Spathaspora clade. Based on molecular and other 

taxonomic characters, several X-F yeasts were determined to be new species of 

Scheffersomyces and Spathaspora. These results support the conclusion that the 

X-F yeasts are closely associated with passalid beetles across continents, although 

further studies with more extensive sampling from additional distant regions will 

be necessary to understand the nature of the yeast associations with passalid beetles. 

Urbina, Hector 1 , Sung-Oui Suh 2 , and Meredith Blackwell 1 . 1 Department of Biological 

2 

Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA, 

Mycology and Botany Program, American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 

Manassas, Virginia 20110, USA. The gut of arthropods: a source for isolation 

of new Trichomonascus species 

The gut of insects has been a source for the isolation of several unrelated 

groups of yeasts, including members of the Candida tanzawaensis and Candida 

kruisii clades and species related to Candida albicans (Lodderomyces clade). Recently, 

these clades have been significantly enlarged as a result of intensive exploration 

of gut yeast community. The genus Trichomonascus (Trichomonascaceae: 

Saccharomycotina) is currently composed of 25 yeast species 

found primarily on decayed and fresh fungal sporophores or in association with 

insects. During our survey of gut yeasts, we isolated 93 Trichomonascus strains 

from the gut of a number of beetle families, including Anthribidae, Erotylidae, 

Endomychidae, Mycetophagidae, Nitidulidae, Scarabaeidae, Staphylinidae, and 

Tenebrionidae collected from Panama and the southeastern USA. Our molecular 

and morphological characterization identified the insect-associated Trichomonascus 

taxa as Trichomonascus petasosporus and as many as 15 undescribed 

species. The new Trichomonascus species are related to Trichomonascus 

indianensis and Trichomonascus farinosus previously isolated from fungal 

sporophores, as well as Trichomonascus capitulata and Trichomonascus nivea 

isolated from plant tissues. The gut of fungus-feeding beetles has proven to be a 

rich source of a number of yeasts, including undescribed Trichomonascus species. 

U’Ren, Jana M and A Elizabeth Arnold. School of Plant Sciences, University of 

Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721. Multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the Xylariaceae: 

what are the roles of previously unknown endophytic and endolichenic 

fungi? 

The Xylariaceae (Sordariomycetes) comprise one of the largest and most 

diverse families of filamentous Ascomycota, with at least 73 accepted genera and 

ca. 800 species. Currently recognized species include many facultative saprotrophs 

of wood, litter, soil and dung, and a few plant pathogens that cause canker 

diseases, root rots, and needle blight in agricultural and natural systems. Despite 

a strong tradition of taxonomic work on Xylariaceae, recent studies illustrate that 

an enormous amount of undescribed diversity within the family occurs as previously 

unstudied endophytic and endolichenic fungi. Previous studies have examined 

the evolutionary relationships between described Xylariaceae species and 

unknown fungi for a limited number of genera using SSU rDNA and ITS rDNA, 

but ribosomal genes either lack resolution (i.e., SSU) or are unalignable across diverse 

taxa (i.e, ITS), precluding robust phylogenetic analyses at the family level. 

We isolated fungi from the interior of living leaves, senescent leaves, decaying 

leaves, and lichen thalli in five biotically and geographically diverse locations 

across North America, and sequenced ITS-partial LSU rDNA for 2062 xylariaceous 

isolates. Cluster analyses suggested the presence of 94 putative species 

(based on 95% sequence similarity) and 249 unique genotypes. For one representative 

of each putative species, we sequenced two protein-coding genes (RPB2 

and beta-tubulin), which were aligned with sequence data from 300 described 

species of Xylariaceae and analyzed using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference 

methods. Preliminary analyses indicate that endophytic and endolichenic 

fungi frequently form novel well-supported clades relative to described species. 

Some endophytic/endolichenic fungi were found in clades not previously known 

to contain symbiotrophic taxa. On-going work will pair phylogenetic analyses 

with ancestral state reconstructions to examine the evolution of major trophic 

modes and the role of symbiosis in diversification of this important group of fungi. 


U’Ren, Jana M and A Elizabeth Arnold. University of Arizona, School of Plant 

Sciences, Tucson, AZ 85719. Surveys at five sites across North America reveal 

taxonomic and functional differences among fungi from living, senescent, 

and fallen leaves 

Some fungi recovered from the interior of living, asymptomatic leaves 

(endophytes) have been isolated from leaf litter, suggesting that many of these 

symbiotrophs are decomposer fungi with only a transiently endophytic life stage. 

However, communities rarely are sampled to statistical completion and surveys 

rarely encompass multiple host species and sites. We examined the specificity, 

composition, and geographic turnover of fungi inhabiting the interior of leaves of 

the same host individuals and in the same seasonal cohorts but that represented 

three different stages (living, senescent/dead attached to branches, fallen/decomposing). 

Analysis of 2064 isolates from 3-4 abundant species of woody plants in 

five temperate and boreal sites consistently revealed that fungal communities 

change in response to leaf senescence and incorporation into leaf litter. Although 

boundaries among leaf life-stages were blurred by some fungi that occurred in 

both living and dead leaves, genotypes that were highly abundant in leaf litter 

were seldom found as endophytes. Communities in each leaf stage differed 

among hosts and sites, but fungi in dead leaves were less host- and geographically 

specific than those in living leaves. Fungi from each leaf class differed in their 

relationships with environmental factors, with fungi in dead leaves demonstrating 

less strict association with precipitation and growing season duration than endophytes. 

On-going work pairing these data with functional traits will inform the 

breadth of ecological roles of endophytes and provide the basis for hypothesis 

testing with culture-free methods. 

Uribe Valdez, Gilberto and Greg W Douhan. Department of Plant Pathology 

and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA. Hostparasite 

relationships between California boletes and bolete-infecting Hypomyces 

species. 

Fungi in the genus Hypomyces are mycoparasites of various fungal 

groups, including boletes. Until recently, most studies within this genus primarily 

dealt with taxonomic descriptions without much focus on their biology in natural 

ecosystems. Currently, there are eight formally described bolete-infecting 

Sepedonium anamorphs linked to the Hypomyces teleomorph. Our current objective 

is to determine the level of host specificity between these parasites and their 

hosts using a phylogenetic approach, since previous reports regarding specificity 

have been based mostly on morphological observations and a small molecular 

dataset. Our long-term goal is to then determine whether we can infer any patterns 

of co-evolution within this system. As determined in a previous study in California, 

two cryptic species were found within H. microspermus and H. chrysospermus 

sensu lato, though based on a very limited sample size. We have set out to 

corroborate the presence of these multiple, phylogenetic species with a multi-gene 

phylogeny approach. Currently, sequencing of the ITS regions, actin, and elongation 

factor genes support the multispecies complex hypothesis, though more sequencing 

will be done to further strengthen our findings. Also, two additional 

species previously reported to occur in California, H. ampullosporum and H. laevigatum, 

will be further analyzed and included in our new host-parasite analyses. 

Currently, we have collected over 400 parasitized boletes within California, cultured 

the parasites, and isolated DNA from both the hosts and pathogens. Putative 

basidiomycete-specific primers are being used to identify and establish host relationships 

based on sequencing of the variable ITS regions and a partial region of 

the more conserved LSU-rDNA. These host sequences are being used to create 

species level phylogenies that will be compared to phylogenies of the parasite. We 

are finding that many bolete clades are being parasitized by closely related Hypomyces 

isolates, and results for all samples in our collection will be presented. 

Valent, Barbara. Department of Plant Pathology, Kansas State University, Manhattan 

KS 66506-5502 USA. Stealth strategies of a cereal killer 

Magnaporthe oryzae includes host-adapted populations that collectively 

threaten rice, wheat and other cereal crops worldwide. Past studies have focused 

on understanding development and function of the pathogen’s appressorium, the 

dome-shaped cell that builds up and focuses enormous pressures to force a tiny 

penetration peg through the tough outer plant surface. Now, new understanding 

of host tissue colonization after penetration has emerged from live cell imaging of 

the fungus expressing fluorescently-labelled components during invasion of optically-clear 

rice sheath cells. The blast fungus colonizes its host using specialized 

intracellular hyphae that successively invade living plant cells. Filamentous hyphae 

that enter each rice cell invaginate the host plasma membrane, and then differentiate 

into enlarged, bulbous invasive hyphae that are cloaked in a tight coat 

of plant membrane. Fungal cells directly involved in the morphological switch are 

associated with a highly-localized biotrophic interfacial complex (BIC) that appears 

to function as the staging center for translocation of effectors, pathogen proteins 

that hijack host processes, into the cytoplasm of the invaded host cell. In- 


deed, some of the translocated effectors move ahead into neighboring rice cells 

before the fungus enters them, possibly preparing rice cells before invasion. The 

thickened invasive hypha again undergoes extreme constriction, forming a tiny 

penetration peg-like structure for crossing the plant cell wall into the next cell. The 

fungus searches for locations to cross the wall, suggesting that it recognizes and 

manipulates the plant’s plasmodesmata, the tiny communication channels between 

plant cells, for its cell-to-cell movement. Knowledge important for controlling 

a major disease threat to global food security comes back down to understanding 

fundamental mechanisms for hyphal polymorphism, for fungal protein 

secretion and targeting, and for sensing and adapting to harsh environments. 

Vujanovic, Vladimir. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A8 

Canada. Monitoring Fusarium complex mycelia replacement by mycopathogenic 

Sphaerodes using ATPtest, qPCR and HPLC 

The biotrophic mycoparasite-host interface and replacement remain poorly 

described, yet their understanding is important for effective biocontrol of 

Fusarium plant pathogens. Alcohol percentage test (APT) and real-time PCR 

quantification of DNA were employed to evaluate the efficiency of mycopathogenic 

Sphaerodes mycoparasitica mycelia to replace an array of pathogenic/toxigenic 

Fusaria in co-cultures. Shifts in Fusarium mycelial growth and hydrophobicity 

measured (APT) at the interaction zone with S. mycoparasitica indicated 

the degree of Fusarium mycelia replacement by the mycoparasite (P

associated with Panicum. In 2011, we sampled cultivated P. virgatum in New Jersey 

(NJ) and naturally occurring Panicum from New Jersey and Hawaii. Root and 

shoot tissue was surface sterilized and plated on acidified malt extract agar. Fungi 

were recovered from 79 of 1600 root and shoot segments and were identified 

based on morphology and DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 

region of ribosomal RNA genes. Isolation of fungi was twice as high in NJ natural 

locations than cultivated. The dominant fungal species isolated from the natural 

NJ locations were Fusarium, Bionectria, and Stagnospora. For cultivated NJ 

samples, Fusarium, Bionectria, and Cladosporium were the most frequently isolated 

fungi. The most prevalent species in all locations was Fusarium oxysporum. 

Impact of the F. oxysporum strain on the switchgrass host is under investigation. 

Wang, Yan 1 , Eric D Tretter 1 , Eric M Johnson 1 , Prasanna Kandel 1 , Robert W 

Lichtwardt 2 , and Merlin M White 1 . 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Boise 

State University, 1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 83725, 2 Department of Ecology 

& Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Avenue, 

Lawrence, KS 66045. Ribosomal RNA gene-based and multi-gene phylogenies 

of Smittium (Harpellales) and allies-toward unraveling relationships 

among early-diverging fungi 

Smittium is one of the oldest members of the Harpellales, a group commonly 

referred to as the gut fungi. Gut fungi are endosymbiotic microorganisms 

that live in the digestive tracts of various Arthropods, worldwide. During the 75 

years since the first species, Smittium arvernense, was described, Smittium has 

grown to include 81 species. This genus has also helped to advance our understanding 

of the gut fungi, by serving as a “model” for laboratory studies of the fungal 

trichomycetes. Many isolates of Smittium have been used for ultrastructural, 

physiological, host feeding, serological, as well as isozyme, and now ongoing molecular 

systematic studies. Previous and current molecular studies have shown 

that Smittium is polyphyletic but with consistent separation of Smittium culisetae, 

one of the most common and widespread species, from the remainder of Smittium 

species. Morphological (zygospore and trichospore shape), molecular (18S and 

28S rDNA), immunological, and isozyme evidence were used to establish a new 

genus Zancudomyces, and to accommodate Smittium culisetae. A multi-gene 

dataset, consisting of 18S and 28S rDNA, RPB1, RPB2, and MCM7 translated 

protein sequences for Smittium and related Harpellales (Austrosmittium, 

Coleopteromyces, Furculomyces, Pseudoharpella, Stachylina and Trichozygospora), 

was used for phylogenetic analyses and provided strong support at multiple 

levels in the trees generated. The clades and branches of the consensus tree 

were assessed relative to morphological traits for the taxa of interest, including 

thallus branching type, holdfast shape, trichospore or zygospore characters as an 

aid to inform the taxonomy and eventual systematic revisions and reclassification. 

Wang, Zheng 1 , Nina Lehr 1 , Francesc Lopez-Giraldez 1 , Marta Farré 2 , Frances 

Trail 3 , and Jeffrey P Townsend 1 . 1 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 

Yale University, New Haven, CT06520, USA, 2 2Departament de Biologia 

Cellular, Fisiologia i Immunologia. Universitat Autònoma deBarcelona. Campus 

UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain, 3 Department of Plant 

Biology, Department of Plant Pathology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 

MI 48824, USA. Multidimensional regulation in transcriptome during 

sexual development in Neurospora crassa revealed with RNA sequencing 

Fungi exhibit a huge diversity in morphology and ecology. The genetic 

basis of morphological development in sexual reproduction of multi-cellular 

fungi, including the model organism Neurospora crassa, has not been fully investigated 

with genome-wide approaches. RNA were sampled for eight time 

points cross perithecial development, including two points right before and after 

crossing, for which mat A protoperithecia were fertilized with mat a conidia. 

Transcription profiles for 9717 genes were obtained for all eight time-points using 

multi-targeting priming and for five time-points using random hexamer priming. 

The majority of the genome showed continually up- or down- regulated expression 

patterns during the later perithecial development stages after 72 and 96 h. 

Functionally unclassified proteins were counted for most up-regulated genes, 

while genes were enriched with different functions for various down-regulated 

patterns. We observed a significant increase in transcription for mat a-1 and 

pheromone precursor ccg-4 during perithecial development. In addition, expression 

of genetic markers for morphological traits in perithecium, ascus, and ascospore, 

and for development traits in meiosis often showed multiple peaks during 

the experiment. Expression patterns for genes involved in Meiotic Silencing 

and Repeat Induced Point Mutation, and for a gene similar to stc-1, were correlated 

and correspondent to morphological development. Interesting transcription 

profiles were also observed for genes involved in heterokaryotic and vegetative 

incompatibility, in the heterotrimeric G protein signaling systems, and in the MAP 

kinase signaling pathways. Knockouts of these regulatory genes are being studied 

for their phenotypes in sexual development of N. crassa. 

Weete, John D 1 , Maritza Abril 2 , and Meredith Blackwell 2 . 1 Auburn Research 

& Technology Foundation, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36832 USA, 


2 

Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 

Louisiana 70803 USA. Biochemical characters support fungal lineages 

In the mid 20 th Century, prominent mycologists began to express the 

view that fungal biologists had accepted the “strong and growing opinion ... that 

the fungi may have originated from animal-like forms.” Before there were DNA 

sequences, morphological and biochemical characters (e.g., cell wall components, 

flagellation, site of meiosis, carbohydrate storage, lysine synthesis, membrane 

sterols) were important to separate fungi from other organisms and define monophyletic 

groups. The characters have been useful in establishing the degree of relatedness 

among organisms, but they have supported lineages that later were validated 

by DNA analyses. On closer inspection some of the characters are more 

variable than were appreciated previously. For example the type of sterol, previously 

thought to be ergosterol for all fungi, actually varies qualitatively within the 

fungi. Although ergosterol is the major sterol in the vast majority of Dikarya and 

certain zygosporic fungi (Mucorales, Zoopagales, Dimargaritales), ergosterol is 

not known in all fungi. In fact, end products of other sterol pathways (cholesterol, 

24-methyl cholesterol, 24-ethyl cholesterol, and brassicasterol) occur as major 

sterols among the lineages. For example members of Pucciniomycota, the earliest 

diverging Basidiomycota, contain 24-ethyl cholesterol; the few zoosporic fungi 

tested (Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota) contain a variety of sterols with 

double bonds only in the C-5 position such as cholesterol and 24-ethyl cholesterol, 

and Zygosporic groups outside of Mucorales, Zoopagales, and Dimargaritales, 

also lack ergosterol and contain a variety of C28 sterols. Several studies have used 

ergosterol as a measure of fungal biomass in the soil, but the method omits arbuscular 

mycorrhizal fungi (Glomeromycota), which contain 24-ethyl cholesterol 

as the major membrane sterol. Taxon sampling is poor in certain groups, but biochemical 

characters hold great promise for looking at lineages as genomics information 

becomes readily available. 

Williams, Gwendolyn C 1 , Matthew E Smith 2 , Terry W Henkel 3 , and Rytas J 

Vilgalys 1 . 1 Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, 2 Department 

of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, 3 Department 

of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521. 

Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with seedlings of a monodominant tree in 

the Neotropics 

The ectomycorrhizal (EM) leguminous canopy tree Dicymbe corymbosa 

forms monodominant stands in the tropical forests of the central Guiana Shield region. 

Within these stands, D. corymbosa maintains a large bank of shade-tolerant 

seedlings that result from mast fruiting events. It has been proposed that common 

mycorrhizal networks support Dicymbe seedling recruitment and facilitate persistent 

monodominance, and that an absence of appropriate symbionts may inhibit 

these seedlings from successfully establishing in nearby mixed forests of AM-associated 

trees. Little is known, however, about the actual fungi forming mycorrhizae 

with these seedlings. Using molecular methods we examined EM fungi associated 

with roots of D. corymbosa seedlings within monodominant stands and 

along transition zones into AM-dominated mixed forest. Seedlings within monodominant 

stands hosted significantly higher EM fungal species diversity than 

those in transition zones, but no effect of distance from parent tree was detected 

in either location. EM fungi commonly recovered on seedlings included members 

of the Clavulinaceae, Inocybaceae, Russulaceae, and Thelephoraceae, all of 

which have been consistently found on adult D. corymbosa roots. The Boletaceae, 

however, were notably under-represented on seedlings. These preliminary results 

will be discussed in relation to high-throughput environmental sequencing of soils 

from the monodominant stands and transition zones. 

Williams, Tabitha F 1 , Robert McCleery 2 , Rod McClanahan 3 , and Andrea Porras-Alfaro 

1 . 1 Biology Department, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL 

61455, 2 Wildlife Ecology and Conservation PO Box 110430, University of Florida, 

Gainesville, FL 32611, 3 United States Forest Service, Shawnee National Forest, 

Harrisburg, IL 62946. Comparison of fungal communities associated with 

different bat species in Southern Illinois 

Bats are indispensable to ecosystem stability; they play an important role 

in the control of insect populations and plant pollination. White Nose Syndrome 

(WNS), caused by the fungus Geomyces destructans, is a new disease infecting 

bats in the USA and Canada. WNS was first reported in 2006 in New York and 

has since then spread across the eastern and central United States where it had 

made its way to the Illinois borders. The major objective of this research was to 

identify, characterize and compare psychrophilic (“cold loving”) fungal communities 

associated with different bat species in southern Illinois. Bats were trapped 

using a harp trapping technique following USGS National Wildlife Center protocols. 

Swabs were taken from the bat wings and were inoculated in situ on petri 

plates in MEA (Malt Extract Agar) with antibiotics. Samples were incubated at 

6°C to select for psychrophilic fungi. We evaluated seven different bat species; 

approximately 20 to 30 colonies were obtained in each petri dish, with an average 


of four unique morphospecies per swabbed- area (2-3cm 2 ). From the swab plates 

about 300 psychrotolerant pure cultures were obtained. DNA extractions, PCR 

and sequencing reactions were used to identify fungal cultures. Fungal communities 

were dominated by Ascomycota followed by Zygomycota and Basidiomycota. 

Common fungi in bat wings include Penicillium corylophilum, Cladosporium 

spp, Epicoccum, and Alternaria. Most abundant species were isolated multiple 

times from different bat species and caves. This research will increase our knowledge 

about all fungal communities associated with bats that are endangered and 

currently facing local extinctions. 

Wilson, Andrew W 1 , Norman Wickett 1 , Paul Grabowski 2 , Jeremie Fant 1 , 

Justin Borevitz 2,3 , and Gregory M Mueller 1 . 1 Chicago Botanic Garden, Plant 

Conservation Science, 1000 Lake Cook Rd, Glencoe, IL 60022, 2 University of 

Chicago, Ecology and Evolution, 1101 E 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, 3 Australian 

National University, Research School of Biology, Canberra, Australia. 

Using new techniques in genotyping by sequencing to rejuvenate population 

genetic studies in fungi. 

Challenges in obtaining sufficient numbers of informative population 

level markers has been an impediment to understanding the population genetics 

of fungi. Recent developments in high-throughput technologies have led to the innovation 

of new methods in genotype by sequencing (GBS) analysis. Restriction 

site associated DNA (RAD) sequencing is a relatively new technology that allows 

for identification of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) by sequencing 

many small fragments in highly variable regions of the genome resulting from a 

restriction digest. Restriction sites are fairly conserved within a species, and RAD 

has been demonstrated as an effective way to generate loci from which SNPs can 

be identified for population genetic analysis. We tested the effectiveness of a 

novel GBS approach on 18 samples of the ectomycorrhizal species Laccaria bicolor. 

Initial data collection (one multiplexed lane of paired-end HiSeq 2000) produced 

over 64 million 101 bp reads. Preliminary analysis of all samples identified 

13,528 SNPs consisting of 1919 multi-allelic loci. A comparison of Illinois (3 

samples) and Wisconsin (2 samples) populations found 268 heterozygous loci, 

which produced an FST of 0.3229. Despite the small sample size, these preliminary 

results demonstrate the ability of the GBS approach to produce the data necessary 

for studying Agaricomycete populations. The results of a comprehensive 

analysis of the data generated in this pilot study as well as further discussion on 

the potential of these methods for fungal population genetic research will be presented. 

Wilson, Nathan J 1 , Kathryn M Dunn 2 , Han Wang 2 , and Deborah L McGuinness 

2 . 1 Marine Biological Laboratory, Center for Library and Informatics, 7 

MBL St., Woods Hole, MA 02543, 2 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 Eighth 

Street, Troy, NY USA 12180. Application of semantic technology to define 

names for fungi 

The need for well-defined, persistent descriptions of taxa that can be accurately 

interpreted by computers is becoming increasingly clear. The goal of this 

work is to develop named descriptions of Fungi that enable automated reasoning 

by computers. We encode these descriptions using the Web Ontology Language 

(OWL). The initial target audience is field mycologists using the Mushroom Observer 

website, who range from professional scientists to beginning mushroom 

enthusiasts. We describe our mycology ontology along with a transparent, community-based 

ontology evolution process. The ontology was designed to focus on 

properties that can be observed in the field, but the framework is proving to be 

suitable for microscopic, chemical, and genomic properties as well. Concrete examples 

are provided where field mycologists need names for groups of similarlooking 

Fungi that are known to belong to different species, and where our approach 

can significantly increase the precision of information recorded by the 

observer. Such a system is important for enabling the field mycologist to make 

more meaningful contributions to the modern scientific literature. In addition, the 

resulting ontology and descriptions provides a foundation for consistent, unambiguous, 

computational representations of Fungi. Finally, we expect that such a 

system will enable more people to become active field mycologists by providing 

a more robust way to document field observations and connect those observations 

with information about similar fungi. 

Wong, Valerie l, Christopher Schwebach, and Georgiana May. Department of 

Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, 100 Ecology Building, 1987 Upper Buford 

Circle, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108. Effects of heating on the 

frequency and diversity of endophytic fungi in boreal Picea and Populus 

Fungal endophytes, which live in plant tissue without causing obvious 

signs of disease, constitute an understudied, hyperdiverse group of organisms that 

have been implicated in mediating interactions between plants and herbivores, 

other fungi, and abiotic factors. This study examines the effect of heating on endophytes. 

We sampled leaves from Picea glauca and Populus tremuloides in the 

B4Warmed experiment, located at the Cloquet Forestry Center, which examines 

how Minnesota trees respond to climate warming. Plots of seedlings are at ambi- 

ent temperature or heated to 1.8°C or 3.8°C above ambient, and these heat treatments 

are replicated in closed and open canopy. Over 1,500 leaf samples were 

collected from each tree species and plated for culturing. We find a relatively low 

isolation frequency in both P. glauca (2%) and P. tremuloides (1.8%). We also 

found a comparable frequency of non-filamentous isolates (2.4% in P. glauca and 

1.3% in P. tremuloides). Slightly more endophytes were found in heat treatment 

plots. To our knowledge, our efforts represent the first characterization of the endophyte 

community in Minnesota’s boreal forest and the repercussions of climate 

change on that community. 

Wu, Tiehang 1 and Dan Chellemi 2 . 1 Department of Biology, Georgia Southern 

University, Statesboro, GA 30460, 2 USDA-ARS-USHRL, Fort Pierce, FL 

34945. Molecular approaches profiling of soil fungal diversity and composition 

under different land and crop management systems 

Diversity and composition of soil and root colonizing fungi were examined 

in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) plots subjected to diverse land and 

crop management systems. Culture-dependent colony counting was used to identify 

communities of fungi colonizing roots, and length heterogeneity polymerase 

chain reaction (LH-PCR) analysis of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) profiles was 

used to characterize soil fungal communities. Diversity of soil fungi in bahiagrass 

(Paspalum notatum var. notatum ‘Argentine’) or undisturbed weed fallow plots 

was significantly lower when compared to diversity in organically managed plots. 

However, the diversity of root colonizing fungi was significantly lower in organic 

plots when compared to the bahiagrass or weed fallow plots. Multivariate 

analysis of root colonizing fungi and genetic ITS-1 profiles of soil fungi both indicated 

a higher degree of similarity among fungal communities in weed fallow 

and bahiagrass plots. Soil fungal communities in organically managed plots displayed 

a high degree of similarity to each other and were unique when compared 

to communities in other land management systems. A dominant 341-bp amplicon 

was identified in all soil fungal communities except those from organic plots. The 

amplicon was identified as Fusarium oxysporum by cloning and sequence analysis 

and confirmed by the LH-PCR amplicon size and sequences for a known 

Fusarium oxysporum isolate. Fusarium oxysporum dominated all communities of 

root colonizing fungi except those subjected to organic management practices. 

This study addresses the benefits of integrating molecular approaches to profile 

whole soil fungal community with a correlation to target the functional subset of 

root colonizing fungi. 

Wu, Yuan. Chang Bai Road 155, Chang Ping District, Beijing, China. Yeast infections 

in an intensive care unit of a general hospital in Beijing 

Hospital infections caused by pathogenic yeasts has increased in recent 

years. In the past year, we collected 100 yeasts strains from different medical departments 

in a general hospital in Beijing. Thirty-one yeast strains were isolated 

from the intensive care unit (ICU) from blood, urine, feces and drainage. Identification 

of the 31 strains revealed that 13 were Candida tropicalis, 7 were C. albicans, 

4 were C. glabrata and C. parasilosis, 2 were Pichia sp. and 1 was Saccharomyces 

cerevisiae. In this study, C. tropicalis was the predominant pathogen 

isolated from ICU patients, which further confirms that non-albicans Candida infections 

in hospitals are increasing. 

Young, Darcy 1 , Rachael Martin 1 , James Rice 2 , Dimitrios Floudas 1 , Igor V 

Grigoriev 3 , and David S Hibbett 1 . 1 Biology Department, Clark University, 

Worcester, MA, 01610, 2 School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, 

RI, 02912, 3 US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, 

CA, 94598. Analyzing the role of white-rot fungi in bioremediation using 

transcriptome and degradation assays following growth on Number 6 fuel oil 

The extracellular enzymes that white-rot fungi secrete during lignin decay 

have been proposed as promising agents for oxidizing persistent pollutants like 

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, synthetic dyes, explosives, and pesticides. We 

investigated the abilities of the white-rot fungi Punctularia strigoso-zonata, Irpex 

lacteus, Trichaptum biforme, Phlebia brevispora, Trametes versicolor, and Pleurotus 

ostreatus to degrade Number 6 fuel oil in wood sawdust cultures. Our goals 

are to advise the bioremediation efforts underway at a brownfield redevelopment 

site on the Blackstone River in Grafton, Massachusetts and to contribute to a 

broader understanding of the mechanisms of decay in white-rot fungi. We have 

preliminary results from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses suggesting 

that Irpex lacteus degrades a significant portion of the compounds in No. 

6 oil. Punctularia strigoso-zonata is also the subject of transcriptome profiling to 

determine if there are genes that are differentially regulated during growth in the 

presence of No. 6 oil on two different wood substrates. We plan to characterize 

the genes in the four sequenced transcriptomes using the unpublished annotated 

genome of P. strigoso-zonata. A clearer understanding of the decay mechanisms 

of P. strigoso-zonata could streamline the use of other white-rot fungi in bioremediation. 



Young-Cheol, Ju, Lee Yun-Hae, and Jang Myoung-Jun. Mushroom Research 

Institute, Gyeonggido Agricultural Research & Extension Services 430-8 Sam-Ri 

Silchon-Eup Gwangju-Si Gyeonggi-Do, Postal code : 464-873. Utility of Albasia 

sawdust for cultivating Pleurotus ostreatus in bottles 

In this study, we attempted to find substitute materials for cottonwood 

sawdust used in the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus in bottles. Chemical characteristics 

of mixed substrates substituting albasia sawdust for cottonwood sawdust 

were not different significantly. Tests for 184 pesticides (Acrinathrin, etc.) 

showed that none were detected in the sawdust. The incubation period was shorter 

using 50% albasia sawdust compared to 100% albasia sawdust. The yield of 

fruit-bodies was similar to the control and those obtained with 50% albasia sawdust. 

However, the 50% albasia sawdust treatment was higher in bio-efficiency 

than the control. Therefore, it is suggested that the 50% albasia sawdust treatment 

be substituted for cottonwood sawdust for cultivation of P. ostreatus. 

Zelski, Steven E 1 , Andrew N Miller 2 , and Carol A Shearer 1 . 1 Department of 

Plant Biology, University of Illinois, 505 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 

61801, 2 Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois, 1816 South Oak 

St., Champaign, IL 61820. Environmental sampling as a means of rapid identification 

of freshwater fungal assemblages on submerged woody debris 

Quickly identifying the members of a fungal community colonizing submerged 

woody debris is a goal for those interested in studying aquatic fungi. Traditional 

methods are both time consuming and require expert knowledge of freshwater 

fungal taxonomy, thus a molecular identification method is desirable to 

address these issues. While environmental sampling has been done on various 

other substrates, no previous work has been performed on submerged woody debris. 

To fill this void a sampling protocol for submerged woody debris was developed 

to follow changes in the fungal community on submerged balsa wood 

baits over a seven month time period. Balsa wood baits were attached to bricks 

and set out in two transects in an Illinois stream. One sample from each transect 

was retrieved each month of the study and water temperature and pH were recorded. 

Water temperature ranged from 2.2-19.5 C and pH ranged from 8.0-10.0. 

Whole community fungal DNA was extracted from the wood samples, the Internal 

Transcribed Spacer (ITS) of the nuclear rDNA was amplified, clone libraries 

were constructed, and individual clones were sequenced. Sequences were then 

sorted into operational taxonomic units and BLAST searches performed in Gen- 

Bank. In total, 25 taxa were recovered over the course of the study. Species diversity 

was found to be lower on balsa wood baits than on naturally occurring substrates, 

which may reflect differences in substrate quality. This study illustrates 

that not only is it possible to rapidly assess the species present on submerged 

woody debris, but that there is also the potential to recover a greater diversity of 

species using this method. 

Zelski, Steven E 1 , Carol A Shearer 1 , Huzefa A Raja 3 , and Andrew N Miller 2 1 

. 

Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, 

IL 61801, 2 Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois, 1816 

South Oak St., Champaign, IL 61820, 3 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 

University of North Carolina Greensboro, 457 Sullivan Science Building, 

Greensboro, NC 27402-6170. Species richness and distribution patterns of 

freshwater ascomycetes along an altitudinal gradient in the Peruvian Andes 

We sampled freshwater ascomycetes along an altitudinal gradient in the 

Peruvian Andes to determine their spatial distribution patterns along a climatic 

gradient. Previous, but as yet unpublished work has shown a near complete 

turnover of species along a latitudinal gradient reaching from the sub-Arctic to the 

tropics and one might expect a similar pattern to emerge with elevation, as has 

been shown for terrestrial plants and aquatic invertebrates. Submerged woody debris 

was collected from a variety of aquatic habitats including palm swamps, 

ponds, streams and rivers along with environmental data such as water temperature, 

pH, dissolved oxygen content and GPS location. For data analyses, sites 

were categorized as low, medium, or high elevation along an altitudinal gradient 

ranging from 218-3870 m. Approximately 30 pieces of decomposing plant debris 

were collected at each site and examined in the laboratory for the presence of fun- 


gal fruiting structures. Data for this abstract is based on two collecting trips, one 

in May and the other in September and October of 2010. Over 1250 individual 

fungal specimens have been documented, representing nearly 300 species. Preliminary 

analysis of the distribution data suggests that the three elevational levels 

differ in their community assemblages and that species turnover occurred along 

the altitudinal gradient. Species richness was highest at mid elevation (153 

species), followed by low elevation (95 species) and high elevation (39 species). 

Low and mid elevation showed the highest degree of similarity (.481 Sørensen 

similarity index), while both low and mid elevations showed low similarity to 

high elevation (.285 and .263 Sørensen similarity index, respectively). Comparison 

of the Peru species with a summary list of species from several inventories 

from another tropical region, namely Thailand, reveals a Sørensen similarity 

index of .152 suggesting there are pantropical species, but differences in longitudinal 

assemblages do exist. 

Zhang, Ning. Dept. of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New 

Brunswick, NJ 08901. Barcodes and a MycoCHIP - a case study on turfgrass 

pathogen barcoding and diagnosis 

The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal RNA genes is 

one of the most commonly sequenced loci in fungi and has been declared as the 

official fungal barcode. Usually ITS sequences allow differentiation of fungi at 

the species level, which makes them ideal for designing species specific probes in 

molecular detection methods such as DNA diagnostic array. The diagnostic array 

tool offers a fast, culture-independent alternative for the detection of microbes 

from field samples. It supports simultaneous detection and differential identification 

of multiple target species in a single assay. Our current objective is to develop 

a highly sensitive Turf PathoCHIP for rapid detection of known and emerging 

turfgrass pathogens, based on ITS sequences of fungi. The development of this 

product will allow for efficient pathogen identification resulting in more effective 

disease management, improved plant health and potential reductions in pesticide 

usage. As the bacterial PhyloChip, this technology can be extended to form a 

“MycoCHIP”, which may cover fungi of all known diversity, in order to detect 

and identify fungi in other habitats on earth. 

Zimmerman, Kolea C 1 , Daniel Levitis 2 , and Anne Pringle 1 . 1 Department of 

Organismic 

2 

and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge MA, 

Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany. High 

throughput analyses of early life history traits of Neurospora crassa 

Many organisms experience high mortality during initial growth. This is 

especially relevant for most fungi because of the large ratio between propagules 

produced and the number of those propagules that germinate and grow into a mature 

mycelium. In this study, we developed flow cytometry methods that can be 

used to determine the fine scale germination dynamics of Neurospora crassa 

conidia and ascospores. Specifically, we determined germination dynamics of 

conidia harvested from eight genetically distinct WT strains and we also optimized 

conditions for the cytometry of ascospores. Conidia and ascospores were 

germinated in liquid culture and sampled at intervals. Aliquots were fixed and nucleic 

acids of the germinating spores were fluorescently labeled. Processed samples 

were measured with a BD Fortessa flow cytometer using a 488 nm laser for 

all parameters. Spearman rank correlations showed that side-scatter-width and 

fluorescence-width were the most informative parameters for germination over 

time. Increased nucleic acid content preceded physical growth and nucleic acid 

content was the most variable growth trait. This indicates that nucleic acid content 

and rate of change are informative parameters for further quantitative genetic and 

heritability analyses. Germination rates and percent germination of conidia differed 

significantly amongst the wild isolates tested. Finally, we developed a 

framework to test the effects of parent relatedness on the viability of meiotically 

produced offspring. We calculated precise genetic distances between environmental 

isolates of N. crassa using publicly available RNAseq data and devised 

crosses to represent the range of calculated distances. Our research will facilitate 

further experimental work on the evolutionary demography of early life history 

traits in the Fungi.

MYCOLOGIST’S BOOKSHELF 

We have two reviews for this issue, and I’ve added a few new titles to the list of available books below. 

Just as a reminder, I’ve adopted a new process for getting books to you, whereby books will be “drop-shipped” 

directly from publisher to reviewer; this will streamline the process at my end and will save the Society the 

shipping expense. Also of note, and perhaps a trend: one of the publishers whose books we frequently review 

is adopting a new policy that currently only applies to some of their books: the review will have to be done 

using an online version (though not a pdf or something for a Kindle or e-reader); once they receive a copy of 

the published review, they’ll ship the reviewer the hard copy. This will be the case with the Springer “Laboratory 

Protocols in Fungal Biology” by Gupta et al. 

If you would like to review a book or CD, please contact me (robert.marra@ct.gov). A book goes to the 

first person requesting it, and I ask that you get your reviews to me in a reasonably timely manner. Also, if you 

know of a newly published book that might be of interest to mycologists, please let me know so I can request 

it from the publisher. 

—Bob Marra 

Books in Need of Reviewers 

• Biodiversity in Dead Wood. 2012. Juha Siitonen, Bengt Gunnar 

Jonsson. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 

www.cambridge.org. ISBN: 9780521717038. 524 pp, 92 b/w 

illus. 21 tables. Price: £38.00 (paperback). New this Issue. 

• Fungi of Serbia and Western Balkans [Gljive Srbije I Zapadnog 

Balkana]. 2009. Branislav Uzelac (photographs by 

Goran Milosevic). BGV Logik, Belgrade, Serbia. Branislav 

Uzelac. 2009. BGV Logik, Serbia (english@glijvari.org.rs) or 

(goran.milosevic@poducavanje.co.rs. ISBN 978-86-912677-0- 

4. 464 pp., ca. 1200 color photographs. Price 120 €. New this 

Issue. 

• Cytology and Plectology of the Hymenomycetes. 2012 (2 nd revised 

edition). Heinz Clémençon. Schweizerbart Science Publishers. 

Stuttgart. www.schweizerbart.de. ISBN 978-3-443- 

50037-5. 520 pp, 636 figures, 12 tables. Price: €98.00 

(paperback). New this Issue. 

• The Mycota, Vol. 10: Industrial Applications, 2 nd ed. 2011. 

Martin Hofrichter (Ed.). Karl Esser (Series Ed.). Springer-Verlag, 

Berlin. www.springer.com. ISBN: 978-3-642-11457-1. 485 

pp, 152 illus. Price: $269.00 (hardcover). 

• Biomonitoring, Ecology, and Systematics of Lichens. Bibliotheca 

Lichenologica vol 106. 2011. Scott T Bates, Frank Bungartz, 

Robert Lucking, Maria A Herrera-Campos, Angel Zambrano 

(Eds.). Borntraeger/Schweizerbart Science Publishers, 

Stuttgart. www.schweizerbart.de. ISBN: 978-3-443-58085-8 442 

pp, 102 figures, 33 tables, 16 color plates. Price: €109.00 (softcover). 

• Plant Fungal Pathogens: Methods and Protocols. 2012. 

Melvin D Bolton, Bart PHJ Thomma (Eds). Part of the “Methods 

in Molecular Biology” series, v.835. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 

www.springer.com. ISBN: 978-1-61779-5008. 769 pp, 138 

illus., 74 in color. Price: $159.00 (hardcover). 

• Key For Identification of Common Phytophthora Species. 

2011. Jean Beagle Ristaino. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. www.apsnet.org. 

ISBN: 978-0-89054-397-9. CD-ROM. Price: $269.00 

(single user). 

• Pollination Biology. 2012. D. P. Abrol. Biodiversity, Conservation, 

and Agricultural Production. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 

www.springer.com. ISBN: 978-94-007-1941-5. 792pp, 23 illus., 

18 in color. Price: $209.00 (hardcover). 

• Fundamentals of Mold Growth in Indoor Environments and 

Strategies for Healthy Living. 2011. Olaf CG Adan & Robert 

A Samson (Eds). Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen. 

www.wageningenacademic.com. 978-90-8686-135-4. 524 pp. 

(hardback). Price: €97. 

• Elements of Evolutionary Genetics. 2010. Brian Charlesworth 

and Deborah Charlesworth. Roberts & Company Publishers, 

Greenwood Village, CO. www.roberts-publishers.com/. ISBN: 

978-0-9815-1942-5. 768 pp, b&w. Price: $64 (softcover). 

• The Analysis of Biological Data. 2009. Michael Whitlock and 

Dolph Schluter. Roberts & Company Publishers, Greenwood 

Village, CO. www.roberts-publishers.com/. ISBN: 978-0-9815- 

1940-1. 704 pp, full color. Price: $80 (hardback). 

• Evolution: Making Sense of Life. Available August 2012 

(copyright year 2013). Carl Zimmer and Douglas J. Emlen. 

Roberts & Company Publishers, Greenwood Village, CO. 

www.roberts-publishers.com/. ISBN: 978-1-9362-2117-2. 800 

pp, printed in four colors. Price: $92 (hardback). 

• Laboratory Protocols in Fungal Biology: Current Methods 

in Fungal Biology. Avail June 2012. Vijai Kumar Gupta, Maria 

Tuohy, Eds. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. www.springer.com. ISBN: 

978-1-4614-2355-3. 802 pp, 105 illus., 40 in color. Price: 

$279.00 (hardcover). Review Copy online only; hardcover copy 

provided following receipt of published review. 

• Fungal Plant Pathogens (Principles and Protocols Series). 

March 2012. CR Lane, P Beales, KJK Hughes (Eds). CABI, Oxfordshire, 

UK. www.cabi.org. 978-1-8459-3668-6. 324 pp. Price: 

$75. 


Books with Reviewers Assigned 

• Waxcap Mushrooms of Eastern North America. 2012. Alan E. 

Bessette, William C. Roody, Walter E. Sturgeon, and Arleen R. 

Bessette. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, NY. www.syracuseuniversitypress.syr.edu. 

ISBN: 978-0-8156-3268-9. 192 pp, 

167 color, 3 b&w illustrations. Price: $95.00 (hardcover). Reviewed 

this issue. 

• Biology of Lichens – Symbiosis, Ecology, Environmenta Monitoring, 

Systematics and Cyber Applications. Bibliotheca 

Lichenologica vol 105. 2010. Thomas Nash III, Linda Geiser, 

Bruce McCune, Dagmar Triebel, Alexandru M Tomescu, William 

Sanders (Eds.). Borntraeger/Schweizerbart Publishers, Stuttgart. 

www.schweizerbart.de. ISBN: 978-3-443-58084-1 256 pp, 81 figures, 

19 tables. Price: €79.00 (softcover). Reviewed this issue. 

• Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides. 2011. Richard Latin. 

APS Press, St. Paul, MN. www.apsnet.org. ISBN: 978-0-89054- 

392-4. 280 pp, 115 images, 29 chemical structures. Price: $139.95 

(hardcover). 

• Coalescent Theory: An Introduction. 2009. John Wakely. 

Roberts & Company Publishers, Greenwood Village, CO. 

www.roberts-publishers.com/. ISBN: 978-0-9747-0775-4. 352 pp, 

b&w. Price: $48 (softcover). 

• The Tangled Bank: An Introduction to Evolution. 2010. Carl 

Zimmer. Roberts & Company Publishers, Greenwood Village, 

CO. www.roberts-publishers.com/. ISBN: 978-0-9815-1947-0. 

394 pp, full color. Price: $48 (hardback). 

• Biology of Marine Fungi. 2012. Chandralata Raghukumar (Ed). 

Part of the “Progress in Molecular and Subcellular Biology” series, 

v.53. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. www.springer.com. ISBN: 978-3- 

642-23341-8. 354 pp, 83 illus., 27 in color. Price: $209.00 (hardcover). 

• Tree Thinking: An Introduction to Phylogenetic Biology. 

Available July 2012. David Baum and Stacey Smith. Roberts & 

Waxcap Mushrooms of Eastern North America 

Waxcap Mushrooms 

of Eastern North America. 

2012. By Alan E. Bessette, 

William C. Roody, 

Walter E. Sturgeon, and 

Arleen R. Bessette. Syracuse 

University Press. 

ISBN: 978-0-8156-3268- 

9. 179 pages. Cloth 

$95.00. 

Mushrooms belonging 

to the Hygrophoraceae 

are some of 

the most visually striking 

among the agaric fungi. 

Many are brightly colored, 

often easily identified on macroscopic appearance 

alone, and consequently some of these are routinely included 

in general mushroom field guides. Commonly referred to 

as “waxcaps,” they are often encountered in field and forest 


Company Publishers, Greenwood Village, CO. www.roberts-publishers.com/. 

ISBN: 978-1-9362-2116-5. 400 pp, b&w. Price: $60 

(hardback). 

• Parasites in Ecological Communities: from Interactions to 

Ecosystems. 2011. Melanie J. Hatcher and Alison M. Dunn. Part 

of the Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation series. Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, UK. www.cambridge.org. ISBN: 

9780521718226. 464 pp, 113 b/w illus., 7 tables. Price: $60.00 (paperback). 

• Forest Health: An Integrated Perspective. 2011. John D. Castello, 

Stephen A. Teale (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 

UK. www.cambridge.org. ISBN: 9780521766692. 404 pp, 

80 b/w illus. 7 tables. Price: £65.00 (hardcover). 

• Yeast Research: An Historical Overview. 2011. James A. Barnett, 

Linda Barnett. ASM Press, Washington, DC. www.asmpress.org. 

ISBN: 978-1-55581-516-5. 392 pp, illus. Price: $159.95 

(hardcover). 

• Medically Important Fungi: A Guide to Identification, 5 th ed. 

2011. Davise H. Larone. ASM Press, Washington, DC. www.asmpress.org. 

ISBN: 978-1-55581-660-5. 508 pp, illus, color plates. 

Price $109.95 (hardcover). 

• The Mycota, Vol. 14: Evolution of Fungi and Fungal-Like Organisms. 

2011. Stefanie Pöggeler, Johannes Wöstemeyer (Eds.). 

Karl Esser (Series Ed.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 

www.springer.com. ISBN: 978-3-642-19973-8. 345 pp, 60 illus., 

10 in color. Price: $269.00 (hardcover). 

• Microbial Biofilms: Current Research and Applications. 2012. 

Gavin Lear, Gillian D. Lewis (Eds.). Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, 

UK. www.caister.com. 228 pp. Price: GB £159, US $310 

(hardcover). 

as saprobes or mycorrhizal symbionts in both tropical and 

temperate zones. 

This guide is touted as comprehensive coverage to the 

waxcaps as they occur in eastern North America. That region 

is defined as portions of Canada and the United States east of 

the Rocky Mountains and is illustrated on a map. The authors 

have divided the book into logical portions: a preface, acknowledgements, 

and map precede an introductory section 

outlining the group covered, attribution to those who have 

contributed expertise to waxcap diversity, enumeration of 

macroscopic features, edibility, and possible lookalikes from 

other genera. While several genera are almost universally 

recognized in the Hygrophoraceae, the authors justify their 

acceptance of two in this guide, Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus. 

In defining the group, the authors give some attention to 

the waxy nature of the basidiomes as well as microscopic details 

(e.g., the orientation of the lamellar trama) used to characterize 

genera. Descriptions and color images follow and 

the guide finishes up with a glossary, bibliography, separate 


indices to common and scientific names, photo credits, and 

short bio-sketches of the authors. 

The main part of the book is taken up with 70 pages of 

descriptions followed by slightly more than 160 high quality 

color images. The descriptive text is alphabetical by species 

(Hygrocybe then Hygrophorus) and for a particular taxon 

gives the accepted name, synonymy, if any, page number of 

illustration, common name, concise macroscopic description, 

spores size and morphology, followed by observations 

on distribution and ecology, a note on edibility, and a commentary 

usually giving comparisons to and distinctions from 

other species. The color images are mostly confined to an approximately 

80 page color plate section where 2, 8.5 × 13 cm 

pictures reside on a page; but there are 8 exceptions (pp. 89, 

91, 98, 109, 116, 118, 124, 153) where some images are 

slightly smaller. Image quality is outstanding, and the majority 

of the images were captured in natural settings, although 

there are few studio images as well. These color plates are 

grouped by genus, Hygrocybe then Hygrophorus, and within 

those, the arrangement follows a color scheme from white or 

pale colored species to those that are more highly pigmented. 

There is one subgroup of Hygrocybe, called “Chameleons” 

for those usually reddish hygrocybes with changeable colors 

(e.g., H. conica). 

There are no technical identification aids (i.e., dichotomous 

or synoptic keys) of any kind. If the user is attempting 

an identification of a waxcap, then the only way to do this is 

to compare a collection with an image and/or read a description. 

This method may well work for the average to advanced 

user, and I suspect that this modus is one employed more 

Biology of Lichens 

Biology of Lichens – 

Symbiosis, Ecology, EnvironmentalMonitoring, 

Systematics and 

Cyber Applications. 

2010. By Thomas Nash 

III, Linda Geiser, Bruce 

McCune, Dagmar 

Triebel, Alexandru M 

Tomescu, William 

Sanders (Eds.). Bibliotheca 

Lichenologica vol 105. 

Borntraeger/Schweizerbart 

Publishers, Stuttgart. 

256 pp, 81 figures, 19 tables. 

ISBN: 978-3-443- 

58084-1. Price: €79.00 

(softcover). 

Bibliotheca Lichenologica is a series including several 

monographs of lichens within various taxonomic groups or 

from cryptogamically unexplored geographic regions. To 

date, the series comprises 107 volumes, the earliest of which 

date back to the mid-1980s. Biology of Lichens – Symbiosis, 

Ecology, Environmental Monitoring, Systematics and Cyber 

often than not with general field guides. The authors clearly 

do not intend this guide as an authoritative scientific treatment, 

but rather as a comprehensive illustrative guide to hygrophori 

which they believe fills a gap between general field 

guides and monographic treatments. This lack may seem as 

a fault to some, but many of these taxa are readily identifiable 

from macroscopic features. 

There are two idiosyncrasies of note. In more than one 

instance, nomenclatural novelties are provided. For example, 

Hygrocybe basidiosa (Peck) on p 17 is offered as a new combination, 

but the authors do not provide the original bibliographic 

reference even though the basionym is given. Further, 

in the observations portion of the description, another 

comb. nov., Hygrocybe albipes (Peck) is presented without 

basionym and without original bibliographic citation. Both 

of these instances are invalid and that is a pity because proper 

nomenclatural compliance would have been easily accomplished. 

Secondly, publishers and authors of mushroom field 

guides always publish a disclaimer about using the book for 

determining if an entity is edible. I would then question why 

there is a two page section on edibility, and in the descriptive 

section, why there is a note on edibility of a species. Those 

quirks aside, there are quite satisfactory descriptions coupled 

with some of the best photographs of mushrooms that I have 

ever seen. The goal of providing non-technical, well-illustrated 

documentation for waxcaps of eastern North America 

is well-done. 

—Roy E. Halling 

The New York Botanical Garden 

rhalling@nybg.org 

Applications (Volume 105) includes selected papers related 

to the International Association for Lichenology (IAL) 6 

symposium held in Asilomar, California in 2008. The first 

IAL symposium, held at the University of Münster in 1986, 

was published in Volume 25 of Bibliotheca Lichenologica, 

and IAL 3 and IAL 4 were published in Volumes 68 and 82, 

respectively. Proceedings for IAL 2 were published in Cryptogamic 

Botany, while Folia Cryptogamica Estonia contained 

several contributions from IAL 5. 

Biology of Lichens – Symbiosis, Ecology, Environmental 

Monitoring, Systematics and Cyber Applications includes 

26 papers compiled into 9 sections. As the title implies, the 

papers cover a broad spectrum of lichen topics. This volume 

includes: holes in the symbiosis literature; current advances 

in data networking as related to lichenology; recent studies 

using lichens to quantify air pollution; and reports of new 

species. The remaining third of the papers fit roughly into the 

Ecology placeholder specified in the book subtitle, yet have 

little true topical overlap. 

As paper and poster presentations from an international 

symposium, each of the studies offers novel research, which 

contributes to the field of lichenology as a whole. The greatest 

original strength of this compilation, however, is the section 



on data networking. Significant progress has been made in the 

past two decades to query the volumes of information amassed 

in the literature and in herbaria on lichens. These search tools 

(e.g., LIAS, CNALH, RLL and KeyToNature) are freely 

available to novices and experts alike, from every corner of the 

earth where a lichen grows and piques someone’s curiosity. 

This section of four informative papers provides a tidy description 

of this work largely lacking from the lichen literature 

(as evidenced from RLL and Mattick’s index). 

My favorites among this melting pot of lichen bioinformation, 

however, were the two papers by Tomescu et al. 

(2010) and Schwartzman (2010). Tomescu and others’ inventive 

methodology to simulate fossilization (i.e., 4 days of wet 

compression followed by 4 hours of heating at 130°C), represents 

a novel way to understand the prevalence of problematic 

cryptogamic fossils or paucity of non-vascular plant and 

fungal fossils all together. Moreover, their study compliments 

Schwartzman’s insights on the environmental triggers for the 

lichen symbiosis. I found his paper a refreshing read of big 

ideas and little data. His hypothesis transported me millions 

of years into the past, and let me watch a gasping photobiont 

clutch its way around its surroundings until finally collapsing 

into the hyphae of its partner and taking in a deep breath. 


The primary weakness of the book is its lack of coherence. 

Within 256 pages, there were 9 sections, which made 

the text read like a journal rather than a book. Only one line 

on the inside cover clarifies that this volume was intended to 

reflect the variety of lichen information presented at IAL 6; 

nevertheless, as a single work it is a bit disjointed. Upon 

reading the title and subtitle, I had anticipated a general introduction 

on lichen biology providing a primer on a variety 

of topics for new lichenologists. In retrospect, the title aptly 

describes the contents of this text, yet its generality led me to 

anticipate a book suitable for novices. Prolific esoteric lichen 

terminology, the journal-like format, and studies narrowly 

focusing on one geographic problem or taxonomic group 

limit its utility to this audience. Ironically, this text may be 

more appropriate for professional lichenologists who, in all 

likelihood, attended the IAL symposium themselves. So if 

you prepare yourself for a journal-like read, you will be rewarded 

with gems of lichen inquiry and documentation of 

the technological transformation of our field. 

REMINDER: MSA Directory Update 

—Emily A Holt 


Utah Valley University 

eholt@uvu.edu 

MYCOLOGICAL CLASSIFIEDS 

Mold and Fungus Testing and Identification Services 

Biochallenge tests for ink, microfluidic materials; testing for resistance 

of materials to fungal invasion. Identification of fungal contaminants 

in manufactured products. Epifluorescent microbial detection 

in deionized water systems, microfluidic devices, medical 

fluids, manufactured goods. Identification of fungi from buildings, 

animal and plant diseases. 10% discount for regular and sustaining 

MSA members. Email info@pacificanalytical.com. For more information 

see www.pacificanalytical.com 

Biological Control, Biotechnology and Regulatory Services 

Center for Regulatory Research, LLC specializes in regulatory 

permit application services for biological control and biotechnology 

organisms/products. Let us evaluate your research discoveries for 

commercial potential and environmental impacts. We also offer assistance 

with writing proposals for SBIR grant programs (Small 

Business Innovation Research) that fund new commercial ventures. 

Contact Dr. Sue Cohen by email (sdcohen@regresearch.com) or by 

phone (612-246-3838). For more information about our company, 

visit our website at www.regresearch.com. 

Is your information up-to-date in the MSA directory? The Society is relying more and more on email to 

bring you the latest MSA news, awards announcements and other timely information, and our newsletter. To 

ensure that you receive Society blast emails and the Inoculum as soon as it comes out, and so that your colleagues 

can keep in touch, please check the accuracy of your email address and contact information in the online 

directory. This can be accessed via our web site at www.msafungi.org. If you need assistance with updating 

your membership information, or help with your membership log-in ID and password, please contact 

Kay Rose, Association Manager at Allen Press, at krose@allenpress.com.

MYCOLOGY ON-LINE 

Below is an alphabetical list of websites featured in Inoculum. Those wishing to add sites to this directory or to edit addresses should email 

dnatvig@gmail.com. Unless otherwise notified, listings will be automatically deleted after one year (at the editors discretion). 

A New Web Page About Tropical Fungi, Hongos Del Parque “El Haya” (58-5) 

hongosdelhaya.blogspot.com/ 

ASCOFrance.com, a very useful site for illustrations of ascomycetes including 

anamorphs (accessible in both French and English) 

ascofrance.com/?lang=us 

Ascomycota of Sweden 

www.umu.se/myconet/asco/indexASCO.html 

Basidiomycete Research Group (University of Helsinki, Finland) studies 

systematics, ecology and evolution of fungi in forest environment. 

www.basidio.fi 

Bibliography of Systematic Mycology 

www.speciesfungorum.org/BSM/bsm.htm 

Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; Meetings & Courses Programs (58-2) 

meetings.cshl.edu 

Collection of 800 Pictures of Macro- and Micro-fungi 

www.mycolog.com 

Cordyceps Website 

www.mushtech.org 

Cornell Mushroom Blog (58-1) 

http://blog.mycology.cornell.edu/ 

Cortbase (58-2) 

andromeda.botany.gu.se/cortbase.html 

Corticoid Nomenclatural Database (56-2) 

www.phyloinformatics.org/ 

The Cybertruffle internet server for mycology seeks to provide information 

about fungi from a global standpoint (59-3). 

www.cybertruffle.org.uk 

Cyberliber, a digital library for mycology (59-3). 

www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber 

Cybernome provides nomenclatural and taxonomic information about 

fungi and their associated organisms, with access to over 548,000 records 

of scientific names (59-3). 

www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cybernome 

Dictionary of The Fungi Classification 

www.indexfungorum.org/names/fundic.asp 

Distribution Maps of Caribbean Fungi (56-2) 

www.biodiversity.ac.psiweb.com/carimaps/index.htm 

Entomopathogenic Fungal Culture Collection (EFCC) 

www.mushtech.org 

Fungal Environmental Sampling and Informatics Network (58-2) 

www.bio.utk.edu/fesin/ 

Fungi of Ecuador 

www.mycokey.com/Ecuador.html 

German Mycological Society DGfM 

www.dgfm-ev.de 

Glomeromycota PHYLOGENY 

amf-phylogeny.com 

MYCO-LICH facilitates mycology and lichenology studies in Iran. 

www.myco-lich.com 

Mycologia 

mycologia.org 

Humboldt Institute — Located on the eastern coast of Maine, the institute 

is known for the extensive series of advanced and professional-level natural 

history seminars it has offered in Maine since 1987, along with ecological 

restoration seminars and expeditions to the neotropics. It publishes 

the Northeastern Naturalist and Southeastern Naturalist, two scholarly, 

peer-reviewed, natural history science journals. 

www.eaglehill.us 

Website relating to the taxonomy of the Hysteriaceae & Mytilinidiaceae 

(Pleosporomycetidae, Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota) to facilitate species 

identification using a set of updated and revised keys based on those first 

published by Hans Zogg in 1962. 59(4) 

www.eboehm.com/ 

Index of Fungi 

www.indexfungorum.org/names/names.asp 

Interactive Key to Hypocreales of Southeastern United States (57-2) 

nt.ars-grin.gov/sbmlweb/fungi/keydata.cfm 

ISHAM: the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology 

www.isham.org 

JSTOR (58-3) 

jstor.org 

Libri Fungorum Mycological Publications (58-3) 

194.203.77.76/LibriFungorum/ 

Mold Testing and Identification Services (58-2) 

www.pioneer.net/~microbe/abbeylab.html 

McCrone Research Institute is an internationally recognized not-for-profit 

institute specializing primarily in teaching applied microscopy. 59(4) 

www.mcri.org 

Mountain Justice Summer (58-3) 

www.MountainJusticeSummer.org 

Mycology Education Mart where all relevant mycology courses can be 

posted. www2.bio.ku.dk/mycology/courses/ 

MycoKey 

www.mycokey.com 

The Myconet Classification of the Ascomycota 

www.fieldmuseum.org/myconet 

New Electronic Journal about mushrooms from Southeast Mexico (61-4) 

http://fungavera.blogspot.com 

Northeast Mycological Federation (NEMF) foray database (58-2) 

www.nemfdata.org 

Pacific Northwest Fungi — A peer-reviewed online journal for information 

on fungal natural history in Alaska, British Columbia, Idaho, Montana, 

Oregon and Washington, including taxonomy, nomenclature, ecology, 

and biogeography. 

www.pnwfungi.org/ 

Pleurotus spp. 

www.oystermushrooms.net 

Rare, Endangered or Under-recorded Fungi in Ukraine (56-2) 

www.cybertruffle.org.uk/redlists/index.htm 

Registry of Mushrooms in Art 

members.cox.net/mushroomsinart/ 

Robigalia provides information about field observations, published records 

and reference collection specimens of fungi and their associated organisms, 

with access to over 685,000 records (59-3). 

www.cybertruffle.org.uk/robigalia 

Searchable database of culture collection of wood decay fungi (56-6) 

www.fpl.fs.fed.us/rwu4501/index.html 

Small Things Considered — A microbe blog on microbes in general, but 

carries occasional pieces specifically on fungi. 

schaechter.asmblog.org/schaechter/ 

Tree canopy biodiversity project University of Central Missouri (58-4) 

faculty.cmsu.edu/myxo/ 

Trichomycete site includes monograph, interactive keys, a complete 

database, world literature, etc. (61-4) 

www.nhm.ku.edu/~fungi 

The TRTC Fungarium (58-1) 

bbc.botany.utoronto.ca/ROM/TRTCFungarium/home.php 

U.S. National Fungus Collections (BPI) 

Complete Mushroom Specimen Database (57-1) 

www.ars.usda.gov/ba/psi/sbml 

Valhalla provides information about past mycologists, with names, dates of 

birth and death and, in some cases, biographies and/or portraits (59-3). 

www.cybertruffle.org.uk/valhalla 

Website for the mycological journal Mycena (56-2) 

www.mycena.org/index.htm 

Wild Mushrooms From Tokyo 

www.ne.jp/asahi/mushroom/tokyo/ 


CALENDAR OF EVENTS 

NOTE TO MEMBERS: 

Those wishing to list upcoming mycological courses, workshops, conventions, symposia, and forays 

in the Calendar of Events should include complete postal/electronic addresses and submit to 

Inoculum editor Don Natvig at dnatvig@gmail.com. 

July 9-13, 2012 

The XVII th Biennial Workshop on the Smuts 

and Bunts 

Shenzhen, Guangdong, China 

Contact Dr. Wu Pinshan, smut2012@163.com 

July 15-19, 2012 

2012 MSA Meeting 

Yale University, New Haven, CT 

July 31 - Aug 5, 2012 

Yeast Genetics and Molecular Biology Meeting 

Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 

http://www.yeast-meet.org/2012/ 

August 2-5, 2012 

36th Annual Samuel Ristich Foray, NEMF 

East Stroudsburg, PA 

http://www.nemf.org/files/menu.htm 

August 4-8, 2012 

American Phytopathological Society 

Providence, RI 

http://www.apsnet.org/Pages/default.aspx 


Aug 5-10, 2012 

Ecological Society of America 

Portland, OR 

http://www.esa.org/portland/ 

Sept 3-6, 2012 

BMS Fungal Interactions 

Alicante, Spain 

http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/science/scientific-meetings/2012-alicante/ 

Dec 13-16, 2012 

NAMA Foray 

Scotts Valley, CA 

http://www.namyco.org/ 

Mar 12-17, 2013 

The 27th Fungal Genetics Conference 

Asilomar Conference Center 

Pacific Grove, CA 

http://www.fgsc.net/announc.html 

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emirico@msn.com 

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inoculum 

The Newsletter 

of the 

Mycological 

Society of America 

Supplement to Mycologia 

Volume 63, No. 3 

June 2012 

Inoculum is published six times a year in 

even numbered months (February, April, 

June, August, October, December). Submit 

copy to the Editor by email as attachments, 

preferably in MS Word. If you submit pictures, 

these need to be sent as separate 

JPGs or GIFFs, not embedded in the word 

document. The Editor reserves the right to 

edit copy submitted in accordance with the 

policies of Inoculum and the Council of the 

Mycological Society of America. 

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University of New Mexico 

Albuquerque, NM 87131 

Telephone: (505) 277-5977 

Fax: (505) 277-0304 

dnatvig@gmail.com 

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Clark University 

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Fax: 604-822-6089 

berbee@interchange.ubc.ca 

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