Biodiversity of Plant Pathogenic Fungi - Kerala Forest Research ...
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<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong><br />
in the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats<br />
(Final Report <strong>of</strong> the Project No. KFRI 375/01)<br />
C. Mohanan<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Pathology Discipline<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Protection Division<br />
K. Yesodharan<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Botany Discipline<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Ecology & <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Conservation Division<br />
KFRI<br />
<strong>Kerala</strong> <strong>Forest</strong> <strong>Research</strong> Institute<br />
An Institution <strong>of</strong> <strong>Kerala</strong> State council for Science, Technology and Environment<br />
Peechi 680 653 <strong>Kerala</strong><br />
January 2005<br />
0
ABSTRACT OF THE PROJECT PROPOSAL<br />
1. Project No. : KFRI/375/01<br />
2. Project Title : <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong><br />
part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats<br />
3. Objectives:<br />
i. To undertake a comprehensive disease survey in natural forests, forest<br />
plantations and nurseries in the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats and to<br />
document the fungal pathogens associated with various diseases <strong>of</strong> forestry<br />
species, their distribution, and economic significance.<br />
ii. To prepare an illustrated document on plant pathogenic fungi, their<br />
association and distribution in various forest ecosystems in this region.<br />
4. Date <strong>of</strong> commencement : November 2001<br />
5. Date <strong>of</strong> completion : October 2004<br />
6. Funding Agency: Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India<br />
1
CONTENTS<br />
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….. 3<br />
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………… 4<br />
Introduction……………………………………………………………………….. 6<br />
Materials and Methods…………………………………………………….……... 11<br />
Results and Discussion…………………………………………………….……... 15<br />
Diversity <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems ……………. 27<br />
West coast tropical evergreen forests…………………………………..…... 31<br />
Southern montane wet temperate forests……………………………………. 35<br />
West coast tropical semi-evergreen forests…………………………...…….. 36<br />
South Indian moist deciduous forests……………………………………….. 38<br />
Southern tropical dry deciduous forests…………………………………….. 39<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> plantations…………………………………………………………… 40<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> nurseries………………………………………………………………<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi: Distribution, host plants, disease symptoms and<br />
43<br />
taxonomic characteristics……………………………………………………… 44<br />
Conclusions………………………………………………………………………. 271<br />
References………………………………………………………………………… 273<br />
Legend for photographic plates ………………………………………………….. 286<br />
Photographic plates……………………………………………………………….. 289<br />
Appendix I Study sites selected in the Western Ghtas…………………………... 313<br />
Appendix II Host index………………………………………………………….. 319<br />
Appendix III Pathogen index……………………………………………………. 323<br />
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s,<br />
Government <strong>of</strong> India, New Delhi for financial assistance to this project. Authors are grateful to<br />
Dr. J. K. Sharma, Director, KFRI for his valuable suggestions and constant encouragement during<br />
the course <strong>of</strong> this study and to Dr. R. Gnanaharan, <strong>Research</strong> Coordinator, KFRI for various<br />
suggestions during the course <strong>of</strong> work and also to improve the manuscript. Authors extend<br />
sincere thanks to Dr. R.V. Varma, Programme Coordinator, Division <strong>of</strong> <strong>Forest</strong> Protection, for his<br />
encouragements and support.<br />
The co-operation and generous help received from the staff <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Kerala</strong> <strong>Forest</strong> Department in<br />
conducting the field studies and invaluable helps rendered by Dr. N. Sasidharan and Sri. P.<br />
Sujanapal for identification and confirmation <strong>of</strong> the plant specimens are gratefully acknowledged.<br />
Thanks are also due to Dr. K. Sivaram for statistical analyses <strong>of</strong> the data. Mr. K.C. Rajesh<br />
Kumar, Mrs. Laya P. Nair and Ms. Leena C. Mohan served as <strong>Research</strong> Fellows in the project<br />
and their assistance in carrying out the project work is gratefully acknowledged. Help rendered by<br />
Sri. N. Ratheesh and Sri. Shaju K. Francis in processing the disease specimens is also gratefully<br />
acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Dr. K.V. Sankaran and Dr. C. Renuka for critically going<br />
through the text and <strong>of</strong>fering editorial comments which have helped to improve the presentation<br />
<strong>of</strong> this report.<br />
3
ABSTRACT<br />
An extensive survey on plant pathogenic fungi in the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats carried out<br />
during 2001-2004 revealed a rich flora <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi harboring the plants in different<br />
forest ecosystems. <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi are found widely distributed in moist deciduous, semievergreen,<br />
and evergreen forests and forest plantations. A total <strong>of</strong> 4101 fungal isolates were<br />
obtained from the disease specimens collected and processed from 237 study sites selected in<br />
different forest ecosystems. The fungal isolates fall under 102 fungal genera and 247 species. Of<br />
these, fungi belonging to the Hyphomycetes and Coelomycetes classes (<strong>Fungi</strong> Imperfecti) were<br />
the most predominant ones. Coelomycetes were represented by 36 genera and 84 species, while<br />
Hyphomycetes were represented by 28 genera and 85 species. Basidiomycetes were represented<br />
by 19 genera and 44 species and Ascomycetes were represented by 16 genera and 29 species.<br />
Oomycetes were represented by only one genus and two species and Agonomycetes (Mycelia<br />
sterilia) were represented by two genera and three species.<br />
Of the 4101 fungal isolates obtained in the present study, 60 pathogenic fungi were given the<br />
status <strong>of</strong> new species. A total <strong>of</strong> 151 pathogenic fungi were found to be new records from the<br />
Western Ghats, while 104 pathogenic fungi are reported for the first time from India. Altogether<br />
639 plant species belonging to 395 genera were found infected with the pathogenic fungi in<br />
various forest ecosystems. Of these, 175 plant species were found as new host records for<br />
different pathogens.<br />
Among the 237 study sites which fall under 96 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges surveyed, 109 sites belonging to<br />
the moist deciduous forests located in different parts <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats, registered a maximum<br />
number <strong>of</strong> 164 pathogenic fungi (1237 isolates), which is about 30% <strong>of</strong> the total isolates <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
pathogens obtained in the study. Representative study sites in 59 localities in semi-evergreen<br />
forests, falling in 36 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges in the State, yielded 892 isolates belonging to 79 pathogenic<br />
fungal species. From evergreen forests including a Myristica swamp, 605 isolates belonging to<br />
50 pathogenic fungal species were recorded. Exploration made in the wet evergreen forests<br />
yielded 582 isolates belonging to 16 pathogenic fungal species. From forest nurseries, 45<br />
pathogenic fungal species were recorded as causing diseases in 154 host plant species. From the<br />
shola forests, 19 fungal species and from the dry deciduous forests, 16 fungal species were<br />
obtained. From forest plantations 106 pathogenic fungal species were recorded.<br />
Among the different forest ecosystems studied, forest plantations supported a rich pathogenic<br />
fungal flora with plant - pathogenic fungal ratio as high as 1:14. In moist deciduous forests and<br />
semi-evergreen forests, the figures <strong>of</strong> plant - pathogenic fungal ratio are 1:3.1 and 1:3.48<br />
respectively. Shola forests and wet evergreen forests registered comparatively low plantpathogenic<br />
fungal ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:1.65 and 1:1.46 respectively. In forest nurseries, though, a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> host plants (154) were found diseased with the fungal pathogens, the plant -<br />
pathogenic fungal ratio is only 1: 3.77. The incidence, spread and severity <strong>of</strong> diseases and also<br />
the distribution <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems are influenced by various<br />
climatic and edaphic factors as well as pathogen-host interrelationships. Monoculture exotic<br />
plantations and disturbed natural stands support a large number <strong>of</strong> fungal pathogens. Disturbances<br />
caused by anthropogenic factors including forest fires seem to be the major contributing factors<br />
for incidence and spread <strong>of</strong> fungal diseases and thereby build-up <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungal<br />
populations.<br />
4
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> indices for plant pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems in the Western<br />
Ghats were worked out separately. Fungal species richness indices (Margalef’s index and<br />
Menhinick’s index) ranged from 2.5605 to 5.6652 and 4.0899 to 21.0853 respectively. Among<br />
the eight forest ecosystems studied, moist deciduous forests exhibited maximum fungal species<br />
richness. Fungal species diversity indices (Simpson’s index and Shannon’s index) were deduced<br />
for each forest ecosystem which ranged from 0.0228 to 0.1183 and 2.4482 to 1.1026<br />
respectively. Among the forest ecosystems studied, maximum fungal species diversity was<br />
recorded in forest plantations followed by moist deciduous and semi evergreen forests.<br />
Diseases affecting the plants in different ecosystems include foliage diseases, stem cankers, wilt,<br />
heart rot, root rot, etc. Foliage disease, including rust infections, powdery mildews and black<br />
mildews, account for 96% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal infections in the different forest ecosystems studied.<br />
The obligate parasite, rust fungi, caused 3.04% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal infection, while the figures for<br />
powdery mildews and black mildews were 0.43% and 2.65% respectively. Only 2.43% stem<br />
diseases were recorded in all the ecosystems studied, while root infection including wilt disease<br />
was 0.85%. The results show that Mitosporic fungi, which belong to 65 genera and 150 species<br />
are widely distributed in the different forest ecosystems and harbor the host substratum, mostly<br />
the foliage, for their growth and survival.<br />
In forest nurseries, technological change in seedling production system brought out by the<br />
introduction <strong>of</strong> root trainers has had a major impact on incidence and spread <strong>of</strong> fungal diseases.<br />
In root trainer nurseries, as soil-free or soil less growing media are used and high input seedling<br />
management practices are followed, many <strong>of</strong> the seedling pathogens could be excluded from the<br />
nursery. The plant - pathogenic fungal ratio in forest nurseries is only 1: 3.8.<br />
In forest plantations, eucalypts dominate the system and a single host species (Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis) harbors more than 25 genera <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi. This is almost 25% <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
fungal genera encountered in the study. The recently introduced exotic plant, Acacia mangium<br />
also harbors 21 genera <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi, and was found severely affected with vascular wilt<br />
pathogen, Fusarium solani and root rot pathogen Ganoderma lucidum. The results show that<br />
exotic host species are more vulnerable to the indigenous fungal pathogens and the monoculture<br />
exotic plantations serve as reservoir <strong>of</strong> inoculum <strong>of</strong> different phyto-pathogenic fungi.<br />
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum, a virulent foliage pathogen <strong>of</strong> eucalypts was found associated<br />
with more than 25 different indigenous host species in wet evergreen, evergreen, semi-evergreen<br />
and moist deciduous forests, which reveals the adaptability as well as over dominance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pathogen in different ecosystems. In the evergreen and wet ever green forests, though large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> fungal pathogens were found causing foliage infections, they are not probably making<br />
any serious damage to the ecosystems. Diversity <strong>of</strong> obligate parasites like rust fungi is found<br />
more in evergreen, wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.<br />
With regard to the community and species composition, almost same fungal flora was observed in<br />
moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests, and forest plantations, however, fungal species<br />
dominance and abundance occurred depending on the environmental conditions, level <strong>of</strong><br />
disturbances as well as host plant status. <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi viz., Aecidium, Alternaria, Bipolaris,<br />
Calonectria, Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Coniella, Corticium, Corynespora, Cryphonectria,<br />
Curvularia, Cylindrocladium, Cytospora, Fusarium, Glomerella, Guignardia, Hemileia,<br />
Mycosphaerella, Myrothecium, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma, Phomopsis, Phyllachora, Phyllosticta,<br />
Pseudocercospora, Puccinia, Septoria, Uredo, and Uromyces are the most widely distributed and<br />
dominant ones in different forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats.<br />
5
INTRODUCTION<br />
The recorded forest area <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Kerala</strong> State, by legal status is 1.1223 million ha. The<br />
effective forest area in the State is estimated at 0.94 million ha, which constitutes 24.2%<br />
<strong>of</strong> the State’s geographical area. Most <strong>of</strong> the forests in the State are natural and although<br />
nearly 150 years <strong>of</strong> conservancy and protection have improved their stocking to some<br />
degree, the overall density <strong>of</strong> these forests is by no means optimum. Dense forest (crown<br />
density above 40%) constitutes over 81% <strong>of</strong> the actual forest cover, the balance being<br />
largely open forest with a crown density <strong>of</strong> 10 to 40%. The extensive dispersion <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
over the State is accompanied by considerable richness and diversity in composition.<br />
The various forest ecosystems support rich flora and fauna. However, there is no<br />
comprehensive account that would give a realistic estimate <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> species and<br />
their bio-geographic distribution in the State. It is estimated that the flora <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Kerala</strong><br />
part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats comprises as many as 3700 vascular plants. However, our<br />
knowledge on the diversity <strong>of</strong> lower plants including microorganisms is so inadequate,<br />
despite their economic, medicinal, industrial, and ecological potential. No serious efforts<br />
have ever been made to understand the taxonomy, ecology, distribution and productive<br />
potentials <strong>of</strong> such invaluable biological resources.<br />
The generally accepted estimate <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>of</strong> fungi on earth is a<br />
conservative 1.5 million (Hawksworth, 1991,1993, 2001; Heywood, 1995). The estimate<br />
was derived by extrapolating both from data on known fungi from well-studied regions as<br />
well as data on well-studied fungi from plant hosts (Hawksworth, 1991). Estimates <strong>of</strong> the<br />
species numbers in each major fungal group corroborate this conclusion (Rossman, 1995).<br />
Even though, it is quite uncertain exactly how many fungal species are already known, it<br />
may be in the range <strong>of</strong> 72,000 (Hawksworth et al., 1995) to 100,000 (Rossman, 1995).<br />
This shows that we know as little as 5% species <strong>of</strong> fungi that exist.<br />
6
From the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats, so far, a total <strong>of</strong> 1200 fungal species have been<br />
recorded. If the vascular plant-fungi ratio <strong>of</strong> 1:6 (Hawksworth, 1991) is applied, there<br />
should be around 24,000 fungal species. If this estimate approximates to the real situation,<br />
it means, more than 95% <strong>of</strong> the fungal flora <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats is yet to be made<br />
known.<br />
Many biodiversity specialists are <strong>of</strong> the opinion that tropical forests are more species-rich<br />
than temperate forests; thus this may be true for fungi as well. However, this hypothesis<br />
has not been rigorously tested for fungi, although a few comprehensive studies have been<br />
undertaken that provide supportive evidence (Cannon and Hawksworth, 1995;<br />
Hawksworth, 1993). In exploring tropical regions for fungi, it is anticipated that the most<br />
widespread and common species in a site will tend to be found first. Most likely, such<br />
species have been collected before and have been described already. However, the longer<br />
the time spent on intensive exploration, the more are the species discovered.<br />
The known 200,000 species <strong>of</strong> vascular plants continue to serve as the major reservoir <strong>of</strong><br />
novel fungi. It has been estimated that there may be around 270,000 species <strong>of</strong> plantpathogenic<br />
fungi in the tropics (Shivas and Hyde, 1997)! In the tropics, it is particularly<br />
difficult to ascertain patterns <strong>of</strong> species richness. Batista and coworkers (1995) recorded<br />
3,340 fungi from Brazil associated with 523 plant species, equivalent to an average <strong>of</strong> 6.4<br />
fungi per host plant studied. Such data were not collected for an analysis <strong>of</strong> species<br />
richness and are difficult to assess, because not all plants were studied and plant species<br />
without fungi were not listed.<br />
<strong>Plant</strong> pathogenic fungi include a very large and heterogeneous group <strong>of</strong> organisms that<br />
occupy positions <strong>of</strong> great economic importance in agriculture, forestry and natural plant<br />
communities. More than 8000 species <strong>of</strong> fungi have been reported as causing diseases and<br />
disorders in plants. They show an enormous diversity in life-history strategies and the<br />
ways in which they interact with their hosts. These interactions range from species that<br />
establish perennial, systemic infection that castrate their hosts, to pathogens that kill their<br />
7
hosts with considerable rapidity, to pathogens that form discrete lesions whose individual<br />
effects are very limited (Burdon, 1993). Many pathogenic fungi can survive for a long<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time on dead host tissue or saprophytically in soil; other relies entirely on living<br />
host cells for sustenance. Collectively, the pathogens can attack virtually any plant part,<br />
although, individually they may be highly specialized. As a consequence, the range <strong>of</strong><br />
pathogens found on different hosts also shows considerable diversity that may be<br />
associated with the evolutionary history <strong>of</strong> their hosts (Clay, 1995) or ecological criteria<br />
like the host’s architectural complexity or the extent <strong>of</strong> pathogen’s natural range (Strong<br />
and Levin, 1979).<br />
To know the role <strong>of</strong> pathogens in shaping the genetic structure <strong>of</strong> plant populations and<br />
communities requires an understanding <strong>of</strong> the pathogens’ diversity, their origins, and the<br />
evolutionary interplay that occurs between pathogens and their hosts. As is common with<br />
most organisms, plant pathogenic fungi rely on the process <strong>of</strong> mutation and recombination<br />
as the ultimate source <strong>of</strong> genetically based variation. Within a species, gene flow between<br />
populations supplements these processes as propagules spread from one epidemiological<br />
area to another and from one deme to the next. Studies <strong>of</strong> a wide variety <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
pathogens have highlighted the importance <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the mechanisms behind these broad<br />
groupings as sources <strong>of</strong> diversity. Rarely, however, have these studies addressed the way<br />
in which these mechanisms intermesh to generate the overall variation encountered within<br />
a species.<br />
Of the three broad sources <strong>of</strong> variation in plant pathogenic fungal populations, gene flow<br />
is perhaps the simplest, although its contribution to diversity may be underestimated. The<br />
process <strong>of</strong> migration leading to founding <strong>of</strong> new pathogen populations in areas in which<br />
they previously were absent has been recorded on many occasions (Sharma et al., 1985a;<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> Cryphonectria cubensis in eucalypt plantations in <strong>Kerala</strong>). However, where a<br />
pathogen population already exists, the recognition <strong>of</strong> such events tends to be restricted to<br />
instances that lead to obvious shifts in the genetic structure <strong>of</strong> the recipient deme. There<br />
are many examples <strong>of</strong> long distance gene flow that can make to the genotypic diversity <strong>of</strong><br />
8
populations. In fact, in at least some wild host-pathogen systems, extinction and<br />
recolonization events occur at noticeable frequencies (Boland, 1992; Burdon, 1993),<br />
suggesting that migration and subsequent gene flow play an important role in contributing<br />
to genotype diversity in pathogen populations. This is the case especially when pathogen<br />
populations are small, and simple mutation is unable to substitute for the advantages <strong>of</strong><br />
sexual reproduction (Maynard, 1968). In plant pathogen, recombination occurs either<br />
through sexual reproduction or through a process <strong>of</strong> somatic hybridization, in which<br />
nuclear and cytoplasmic material may be exchanged. The extent to which mutation<br />
contributes to the effective diversity <strong>of</strong> populations is affected by the inherent rate <strong>of</strong><br />
mutation, the ploidy level <strong>of</strong> the pathogen (haploid versus diploid or dikaryotic), the size<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pathogen population, and the selective advantage conferred by the mutant<br />
phenotype (Burdon, 1992).<br />
Thus, interplay <strong>of</strong> selection, genetic drift, migration, and mutation has a major effect on<br />
the genetic structure and diversity <strong>of</strong> all plant pathogenic fungal populations. The relative<br />
role <strong>of</strong> these factors may change markedly between different pathogen-host associations,<br />
between stages in the epidemiological cycle, and between associations in man-made and<br />
natural ecosystems. Size <strong>of</strong> the pathogen population is the one <strong>of</strong> the important factors in<br />
this interactive process. This is the case especially for obligate pathogens for which the<br />
patchy distribution <strong>of</strong> natural host populations tends to result in fungal populations that<br />
show large amplitude in size, relatively local and frequent extinctions, and asynchrony in<br />
the dynamics <strong>of</strong> neighboring demes (Antonovics et al., 1994).<br />
Studies <strong>of</strong> natural pathogen populations show some <strong>of</strong> the potential diversifying<br />
consequences <strong>of</strong> this patchiness in natural pathogens are extremely limited. However,<br />
circumstantial evidence is available in local populations <strong>of</strong> fungal pathogens like<br />
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum parasiting a series <strong>of</strong> small populations <strong>of</strong> its hosts<br />
(Eucalyptus tereticornis and E. grandis) in the Western Ghats (Mohanan and Sharma,<br />
1985b; Sharma and Mohanan, 1992b). Details <strong>of</strong> these populations show examples <strong>of</strong><br />
9
MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />
Selection <strong>of</strong> study areas and sample plots<br />
A reconnaissance survey was carried out in the natural stands and forest plantations<br />
throughout the Western Ghats in the State and a total <strong>of</strong> 237 study areas were selected in<br />
different forest ecosystems, wet evergreen forests, evergreen forests, shola forests, semievergreen<br />
forests, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, and forest plantations<br />
which fall under 96 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges including Protected Areas (Appendix I; Fig.1). From<br />
each selected study area, three sample plots <strong>of</strong> 100 x 100 m were laid out employing line<br />
transect method.<br />
Ten forest nurseries including <strong>Forest</strong> Central Nurseries at Kulathupuzha (8 0 54’N, 77 0 44’<br />
E), Chettikulam (10 0 22’N, 76 0 23’E), Valluvassery (11 0 18’N, 76 0 16’E) and<br />
Cheruvancherry (11 0 50’N, 75 0 41’E) were selected for the study (Appendix I). The<br />
disease survey was carried out during 2001-2004. The study areas were visited during<br />
wet (June-October) and dry period (December-May) and the nurseries were visited<br />
during the months <strong>of</strong> December - July in each year.<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> diseases in forest stands and nurseries and collection <strong>of</strong> disease<br />
specimens<br />
Disease assessment was made in nurseries, plantations and natural stands and severity <strong>of</strong><br />
foliage infection was rated on a numerical scale (0-3) <strong>of</strong> disease severity index ( 0: no<br />
disease; 1: low infection up to 25% <strong>of</strong> foliage infected; 2: medium, 25-50% foliage<br />
infected and >10% defoliation; 3: severe, 50-75% or more foliage infection and > 25%<br />
defoliation). Disease severity <strong>of</strong> stem, bark and root diseases in forest plantations was<br />
rated on a numerical scale (0-3) <strong>of</strong> disease severity index. Disease symptoms were<br />
recorded on disease data sheet and disease specimens (leaf, bark, stem, root, fruit, seed)<br />
11
considerable change in the occurrence and relative frequency <strong>of</strong> particular pathotype<br />
(Sharma and Mohanan, 1982a,b, 1990,1991a,b, 1992b).<br />
Studies on pathogenic fungi and diseases <strong>of</strong> forest stands have been systematically and<br />
intensively carried out in developed countries (Brown and Davidson, 1968, Hepting,<br />
1971). In India, Bakshi (195) initiated inventory <strong>of</strong> forest diseases during 1970s. In the<br />
<strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats, Sharma and Mohanan initiated problem-oriented<br />
researches on prime forestry species like teak, eucalypts, etc. during 1980s and 1990s<br />
(Sharma and Mohanan, 1981, 1982a,b, 1992a,b; Sharma et al., 1984a,b,c,d,e; 1985a,b;<br />
Sharma and Sankaran, 1984), and Mohanan during 1990s (Mohanan, 1994a,b, 1995 a, b,<br />
c, 1997 a, b; Mohanan and Sharma, 1982,1984, 1985, 1986 a, b, 1987, 1989a,b, 1990,<br />
1991, 1993, 1994). Epidemiological studies on major diseases in man-made forests and<br />
forest nurseries in the Western Ghats and their management have also been worked out to<br />
avoid catastrophe (Sharma and Mohanan, 1992; Mohanan, 1990, 2202). However, in<br />
natural stands, so far, no systematic inventory on phytopathogenic fungi, except on heart<br />
rot fungi (Mohanan, 1991) has been carried out. The present study was undertaken with<br />
the following objectives:<br />
i. To undertake a comprehensive disease survey in natural forests, forest<br />
plantations and nurseries in the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats and<br />
to document the fungal pathogens associated with various diseases <strong>of</strong><br />
forestry species, their distribution, and economic significance.<br />
ii. To prepare an illustrated document on plant pathogenic fungi, their<br />
association and distribution in various forest ecosystems in this region.<br />
10
were collected in polythene bags separately, assigned a specimen number and transported<br />
to the laboratory.<br />
Identification <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
Floral and foliar samples were collected from the host plants and identity <strong>of</strong> the host plant<br />
confirmed. If there was any uncertainty concerning the identity <strong>of</strong> the host plant, flowers,<br />
fruits and bark samples were also collected and the specimens referred to experts and<br />
identity established. Herbarium specimens were processed and appropriate labeling was<br />
done and KFRI (Path) Herb. No. assigned.<br />
Isolation and identification <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi<br />
Appropriate samples from the specimens were taken for isolation <strong>of</strong> the causal fungi.<br />
Isolation <strong>of</strong> the causal organisms was made on Potato dextrose agar medium (PDA) after<br />
surface sterilization with 0.01% mercuric chloride. Inoculated plates were incubated at 25<br />
± 2 0 C. Isolates <strong>of</strong> fungal species retrieved from various host species were separated and<br />
identification up to species level made. Special culture media (Potato sucrose agar<br />
medium (PSA), <strong>Plant</strong> extract agar medium (PEA), Oat meal agar medium (OMA), Maize<br />
meal agar medium (MMA), Czapek Dox agar medium (CDA) and different techniques<br />
were employed for sporulating the non-sporulating isolates. For obtaining production <strong>of</strong><br />
fructifications and sporulation <strong>of</strong> the fungi, sterilized leaves, preferably <strong>of</strong> the host plant<br />
were used as the substratum. Sterilized leaves <strong>of</strong> host plant were kept over the Petri plates<br />
containing 2% water agar and incubated for > 7 days. To study the detailed structure <strong>of</strong><br />
fructifications <strong>of</strong> various pathogenic fungi (pycnidia, rust sori, perithecia, basidiocarp,<br />
etc.) appropriate specimens were selected and their sections cut. Free hand sections <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fresh materials were taken using double-edged razor blades. Dried herbarium specimens<br />
or lignified plant tissues were s<strong>of</strong>tened by wetting the materials with ethanol followed by<br />
soaking for 1- 48h, depending on the materials, either in water or in 2% aqueous solution<br />
<strong>of</strong> KOH. For taking sections (2-6 µm) <strong>of</strong> plant tissues containing fungal fructifications as<br />
12
well as fructifications in culture medium, a freeze microtome (Minotome-Cryostat, IEC,<br />
USA) was also used. The sections <strong>of</strong> fructifications <strong>of</strong> various fungi were observed under<br />
Leitz Dialux –20 Microscope and photomicrographs were prepared. Identification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fungi up to species level, as far as possible, was made based on their cultural and<br />
morphological characteristics. The fungal isolates which belong to possibly new taxa and<br />
hitherto unpublished were assigned species number as Sp.1, Sp.2, etc. for publication<br />
elsewhere. However, information on the cultural characteristics, morphological and<br />
pathological peculiarities are provided for all such fungi at appropriate places in the text.<br />
All the fungal isolates were pure cultured and assigned KFRI. Culture No. and<br />
maintained in the Microbial Culture Collection Facility at KFRI.<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong>ity trials<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> fungal isolates was tested using seedlings <strong>of</strong> the respective host plants<br />
raised in the glasshouse. As it is not practical to test all the fungi isolated to their<br />
respective host plants to establish the pathogenic status, only selected fungi (rarely<br />
encountered ones, new species and weak pathogens) were screened. <strong>Pathogenic</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fungal isolates to the respective hosts was tested by using 3-6 month-old seedlings and<br />
spraying conidial suspension (2 x 10 3 conidia/ml <strong>of</strong> sterile water) <strong>of</strong> the respective<br />
fungus. Three to five seedlings <strong>of</strong> the respective host plants were inoculated and the<br />
inoculated seedlings were incubated in humidity chamber (>90% r.h, 26 ± 2 0 C with 12 h<br />
dark and light period). Disease symptoms developed in the host plants were recorded and<br />
fungus was re-isolated from the diseased host tissues and pathogenicity <strong>of</strong> the respective<br />
fungal species confirmed.<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> analyses<br />
Numerical data on pathogenic fungi obtained from representative study plots under each<br />
forest ecosystem were pooled and Species richness indices (Margalef’s index and<br />
Menhinick’s index), Species diversity indices (Simpson’s index and Shannon’s index)<br />
13
were worked out. The following equations were used for deducing the species diversity<br />
indices:<br />
Simpson : λ =Σpi 2<br />
Pi is the proportion <strong>of</strong> the individuals (isolates) in the ith species. Proportional abundance<br />
is obtained by dividing the density, biomass or number <strong>of</strong> plots in which the fungus was<br />
observed by the total density, or observations.<br />
D = Σ n i (n i –1)<br />
N (N-1)<br />
ni is the number <strong>of</strong> individuals (isolates) in the ith species, and N is the total number <strong>of</strong><br />
isolates.<br />
Shannon : H’ = Σ p i 1n p i<br />
pi (ni / N) is the proportional abundance <strong>of</strong> the ith (each) species. In is the normal log<br />
(base e).<br />
14
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
An extensive survey on plant pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems in the<br />
Western Ghats, viz., moist-deciduous, semi-evergreen, evergreen and wet evergreen<br />
forests, shola forests, dry deciduous forests, forest plantations and forest nurseries<br />
conducted during 2001-2004 revealed a rich flora <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi harboring the<br />
plants and causing different diseases <strong>of</strong> various intensities.<br />
A total <strong>of</strong> 4101 fungal isolates were obtained from the disease specimens viz., foliage,<br />
stem, bark, root, fruit, seed, etc. collected and processed from 237 study sites selected in<br />
eight different forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats. The fungal isolates fall under 102<br />
fungal genera and 247 species. Of these, fungi belong to the Hyphomycetes and<br />
Coelomycetes Classes (<strong>Fungi</strong> Imperfecti) were the most widespread and predominant<br />
ones. Coelomycetes are represented by 36 genera and 84 species, while Hyphomycetes<br />
are represented by 28 genera and 85 species. Basidiomycetes are represented by 19<br />
genera and 44 species, while Ascomycetes represented by 16 genera and 29 species.<br />
Oomycetes are represented by only one genus and two species and Agonomycetes<br />
(Mycelia sterilia) represented by two genera and three species (Fig.2).<br />
Fig.2: <strong>Plant</strong> pathogenic fungi belonging to different fungous classes recorded from the<br />
Western Ghats<br />
Oomycetes<br />
Agonomycetes<br />
Hyphomycetes<br />
Coelomycetes<br />
Basidiomycetes<br />
Ascomycetes<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90<br />
Fungal species<br />
15
Among 4101 fungal isolates obtained in the study, 60 fungal pathogens were given the<br />
status <strong>of</strong> new species. A total <strong>of</strong> 151 fungal pathogens were newly recorded from the<br />
Western Ghats and 104 fungal pathogens were reported for the first time from India<br />
(Fig.3). By following the existing practices in assigning new species status to a<br />
pathogenic fungi based on their association with particular host species/family, hundreds<br />
<strong>of</strong> new taxa can be erected from the isolates obtained in the present study. For example,<br />
a total <strong>of</strong> 608 isolates <strong>of</strong> Phomopsis were retrieved from 222 host plant species and<br />
treated here only as Phomopsis sp. Similarly, as more detailed taxonomic investigations<br />
are required to assign the status <strong>of</strong> new taxa, most <strong>of</strong> the new fungal isolates are treated<br />
here merely as species <strong>of</strong> the respective genus.<br />
Fig. 3. <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi recorded from the Western Ghats and their status<br />
New to India<br />
New to WG<br />
New species<br />
No.<strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
species<br />
0 50 100 150 200 250 300<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungal species<br />
Altogether 639 plant species belonging to 395 genera were found infected with the fungal<br />
pathogens in various forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats. Of these, 175 plant species<br />
were found as new host record for different pathogens. It is interesting to note that more<br />
than 26% <strong>of</strong> the plant species studied from different forest ecosystems were found new<br />
host record for different fungal pathogens.<br />
16
Among the 237 study sites surveyed, 109 sites belonging to the moist-deciduous forests<br />
located in different parts <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats, recorded maximum number <strong>of</strong> 164<br />
pathogenic fungi (1237 isolates) which is about 30.16% <strong>of</strong> the total isolates <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
pathogens obtained in the study (Table 2). Representative study sites in 59 localities in<br />
semi-evergreen forests, falling in 36 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges in the State, yielded 79 pathogenic<br />
fungi (892 isolates) which is about 21.75% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal isolates retrieved from the<br />
disease specimens collected and processed. In the evergreen forests, including a<br />
Myristica swamp in the Western Ghats, a total <strong>of</strong> 605 isolates <strong>of</strong> 50 pathogenic fungi<br />
were found associated with the ecosystems. Interestingly, exploration made from two<br />
sample plots in the wet evergreen forests yielded 16 phyto-pathogenic fungi. From the<br />
survey conducted in 10 forest nurseries (root trainer nurseries and conventional<br />
nurseries), 582 isolates belonging to 45 pathogenic fungi were isolated from seedling <strong>of</strong><br />
154 plant species. From the shola forests (6 study sites), altogether 19 pathogenic fungi<br />
and from the dry deciduous forests, 16 pathogenic fungi were obtained. Study sites in 19<br />
forest plantations selected in different <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions in the Western Ghats recorded a<br />
total <strong>of</strong> 546 fungal isolates belonging to 106 pathogenic fungi which is about 18.97% <strong>of</strong><br />
the total fungal isolates obtained in the study (Table 1; Fig.4). Thus, a total <strong>of</strong> 247 fungal<br />
pathogens belonging to 102 fungal genera were found causing diseases in different forest<br />
ecosystems. Some pathogens were found common in most <strong>of</strong> the forest ecosystems,<br />
while a few showed their restricted occurrence in certain forest ecosystems.<br />
Table 1: Distribution <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems<br />
Sl.No. <strong>Forest</strong> ecosystem No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study sites<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
pathogens<br />
recorded<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
isolates recorded<br />
% to total<br />
1 Wet evergreen forests 2 16 582 14.14<br />
2 Evergreen forests 30 50 605 14.75<br />
3 Shola forests 6 19 142 3.46<br />
4 Semi evergreen forests 59 79 892 21.75<br />
5 Moist-deciduous forests 109 164 1237 30.16<br />
6 Dry deciduous forests 2 16 50 1.22<br />
7 <strong>Forest</strong> plantations 19 106 546 0.133<br />
8 Nurseries 10 45 582 14.19<br />
Total 237 247* 4101 100<br />
* Many fungal pathogens are common to different ecosystems<br />
17
Fig.4: Distribution <strong>of</strong> fungal pathogens in different forest ecosystems in the WG<br />
Fungal<br />
pathogens<br />
180<br />
160<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
WEV EV SH SEV MDF DDF PLN NUR<br />
Among the different forest ecosystems studied, forest plantations support a rich<br />
pathogenic fungal flora and the plant - fungal ratio is 1:14.75. In moist deciduous forests<br />
and semi-evergreen forests, the plant-fungal ratio is 1:3.1 and 1:3.48 respectively. In<br />
shola forests (Meppadi shola, Mannavan shola, Pampadum shola, Old Devikulam Shola,<br />
Devimala shola and Eravikulam shola) and wet evergreen forests, the ratio is 1:1.65 and<br />
1:1.46 respectively.<br />
In forest nurseries, seedlings <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> host plant species (154) are found<br />
affected with 45 fungal pathogens; however, the plant-fungal ratio is only 1: 3.77 (Table<br />
2). This is mainly because <strong>of</strong> the technological change in the seedling production system<br />
employing the root trainers, where only soil-less or soil free potting media (growing<br />
media) are used and there by most <strong>of</strong> the soil-borne nursery pathogens are excluded from<br />
the nursery.<br />
In all the forest ecosystems, a few common fungal pathogens exhibited their<br />
predominance irrespective <strong>of</strong> the host species distribution, environmental conditions, as<br />
well as the level <strong>of</strong> disturbances caused. Colletotrichum and its teleomorph Glomerella<br />
18
were found widely distributed and caused diseases in altogether 396 and 220 host species<br />
respectively in the Western Ghats. Nine species <strong>of</strong> Cylindrocladium were found causing<br />
diseases in different host plants and the fungal genus was found distributed in all the<br />
ecosystems studied (Fig. 5). Similarly, Phomopsis sp. was found widely distributed in the<br />
different ecosystems and caused foliage diseases in about 222 host species. The fungus<br />
was found widely distributed in the moist deciduous forests causing diseases in about 124<br />
host plants (Fig. 6). Data on the selected major fungal pathogens are given in Figure 7.<br />
Fig. 5: Distribution <strong>of</strong> Cylindrocladium in different forest ecosystems<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> host<br />
plants affected<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> host plants affected<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Distribution <strong>of</strong> Cylindrocladium spp. in different forest<br />
ecosystems<br />
18<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Wev Ev Sh Sev Mdf Ddf Pln Nur<br />
Distribution <strong>of</strong> Phomopsis sp. in different forest ecosystems<br />
Wev Ev Sh Sev Mdf Ddf Pln Nur<br />
Fig.6: Distribution <strong>of</strong> Phomopsis sp. in different forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats<br />
* Wev: wet evrgreen forests; Ev: evergreen forests; Sh: shola forests; Sev: semievergreen forests; Mdf: moist deciduous forests; Ddf:<br />
dry deciduous forests; Pln: plantations; Nur: nurseries<br />
19
Fig. 7. Distribution <strong>of</strong> major fungal pathogens in the Western Ghats<br />
Distribution <strong>of</strong> major plant pathogenic fungi in the Western<br />
Ghats<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
400<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
1<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi<br />
Alternaria<br />
Colletotrichum<br />
Coniella<br />
Corynespora<br />
Curvularia<br />
Cylindrocladium<br />
Fusarium<br />
Glomerella<br />
Guignardia<br />
Myrothecium<br />
Pestalotiopsis<br />
Phoma<br />
The distribution <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi in the forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats is<br />
largely depended on various climatic and edaphic factors as well as host pathogen<br />
interrelationship. Moreover, disturbances caused by anthropogenic factors also influence<br />
to a great extent in the build up <strong>of</strong> pathogen inoculum potential and thereby development<br />
and spread <strong>of</strong> disease(s) even to an epidemic proportion and also the distribution <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pathogenic fungi over a large extent <strong>of</strong> area.<br />
Diseases affecting the plants in different ecosystems include foliage diseases, stem<br />
cankers, wilt, heart rot, root rot, etc. The foliage diseases include leaf spots, leaf blotches,<br />
leaf blight, powdery mildews, black mildews, and leaf rust. Among the diseases affecting<br />
the forest stands and nurseries, foliage diseases are the most predominant. Foliage<br />
disease, including rust infections, powdery mildews and black mildews, accounts for<br />
about 95.90% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal infections in the different forest ecosystems studied. The<br />
obligate parasite, rust fungi, caused 3.04% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal infection, while the figures<br />
for powdery mildews and black mildews are 0.43% and 2.65% respectively. Only 2.43%<br />
stem diseases were recorded in all the sample plots studied, while root infection including<br />
wilt disease was only 0.85%. The results show that Mitosporic fungi, which belong to 64<br />
20
genera and 169 species are found widely distributed in the different forest ecosystems<br />
and harbor the host substratum, mostly the foliage, for their growth and survival.<br />
Ecosystem specificity as well as host specificity was recorded in fungal pathogens and<br />
also periodicity in occurrence and spread <strong>of</strong> disease was noticed. Definite patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
incidence <strong>of</strong> various fungal diseases in different host species could be observed during<br />
pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and during the dry period (February-April) in all the forest<br />
ecosystems investigated. In the case <strong>of</strong> evergreen and wet evergreen forests, the initial<br />
fungal colonizer remains round the year or a succession takes place by eliminating the<br />
initial colonizer or a large number <strong>of</strong> fungal pathogens co-existed and affect the same<br />
host substratum simultaneously. <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi recorded from different forest<br />
ecosystems and their status are given in Table 2.<br />
Table 2: <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi recorded from the Western Ghats and their status<br />
Sl.<br />
No.<br />
<strong>Fungi</strong> No.<br />
isolat<br />
es<br />
made<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
host<br />
plants<br />
affected<br />
New<br />
spp.<br />
New<br />
Host<br />
record<br />
New<br />
record<br />
from<br />
1 Aecidium meliosmae-myrianthae Henn. & Shirai. 5 1 - - - -<br />
2 Aecidium mori Barclay 1 1 - - - -<br />
3 Aecidium Pers. sp. 1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
4 Aecidium Pers sp. 2. 1 1 + + + +<br />
5 Aecidium Pers sp. 3. 1 1 + + + +<br />
6 Aecidium Pers sp. 4. 1 1 + + + +<br />
7 Aecidium Pers sp. 5. 2 1 + + + +<br />
8 Aecidium Pers sp. 6. 1 1 + + + +<br />
9 Aecidium Pers sp. 7 1 1 + + + +<br />
10 Aecidium Pers sp. 8. 1 1 + + + +<br />
11 Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler 4 3 - + - -<br />
12 Alternaria citri Ellis & Pierce apud Pierce 5 5 - + + -<br />
13 Alternaria Nees ex Fr. Nees spp. 120 77 + + + +<br />
14 Ascochyta dendrocalami Mohanan 4 2 - - - -<br />
15 Ascochyta sp.1. 13 13 + + + +<br />
16 Asperisporium pongamiae (H. Syd.) Deighton 3 1 - - - -<br />
17 Asterina jambolanae Kar. & Maity 1 1 - + - -<br />
18 Aulographina eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Arx 3 2 - + + +<br />
& E. Mull.<br />
19 Balansia linearis (Rehm.) Diehl. 2 2 - - - -<br />
20 Bartalinia Tassi sp. 2 2 - - - -<br />
21 Beltrania rhombica O. Penzig. 3 3 - - + -<br />
22 Beltrania sp.1. 8 7 + + + +<br />
WG<br />
21<br />
New<br />
record<br />
from<br />
India
23 Beltraniella sp.1. 3 3 + + + +<br />
24 Beltraniopsis sp.1. 4 4 + + + +<br />
25 Bipolaris bambusae Mohanan 2 1 - - - -<br />
26 Bipolaris ellisii (Danq.) Alcorn 4 4 - - - -<br />
27 Bipolaris maydis (Nishikado & Miyake) Shoem. 2 2 - - - -<br />
28 Bipolaris spicifera (Bainier) Subram. 4 4 - + - -<br />
29 Bipolaris sp. 4 4 + + + +<br />
30 Botritis cinera Pers. . 4 4 - + + -<br />
31 Botryobasidium salmonicolor(Berk.& Br.) 4 4 - - - -<br />
Venkatnarayanan<br />
32 Botryosphaeria Ces & de Not sp. 3 2 + + + +<br />
33 Calonectria floridana Sobers 2 2 - - - -<br />
34 Calonectria ilicicola Boedijn & Reitsam 3 3 - - - -<br />
35 Calonectria theae Loos 3 3 - - - -<br />
36 Camptomeris albiziae (Petch) Mason. 1 1 - + + -<br />
37 Cercospora bombacina T.S. & K. Ramakr. 1 1 - + + -<br />
38 Cercospora mitragynae Bhargava & Nath 2 2 - + + -<br />
39 Cercospora rubi Sacc. 1 1 - + + -<br />
40 Cercospora scopariae Thirum. & Lacy 1 1 - - + -<br />
41 Cercospora terminaliae Syd. 1 1 - - + -<br />
42 Cercospora sp.1 2 2 + + + +<br />
43 Cerodothis aurea Muthappa 2 2 - - - -<br />
44 Cerotelium flacourtiae (Mundk. & Thirum.) 8 3 + + + -<br />
Cumm.<br />
45 Chaetomella raphigera Swift 9 7 - - + -<br />
46 Chaetospermum carneum Tassi 2 2 - - - -<br />
47 Chaetospermum gossypinum (Atkinson) Nag Raj 1 1 - + + +<br />
48 Chaetospermum sp.1 5 4 + + + +<br />
49 Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fres.) De Vries 18 18 - + + -<br />
50 Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.)Link ex Gray 4 4 - - - -<br />
51 Cladosporium sp.1 16 16 + - - -<br />
52 Coccodiella ochlandrae Mohanan 3 3 - - - -<br />
53 Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds 9 7 - + + +<br />
54 Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butl. & Bisby 19 13 - + + -<br />
55 Colletotrichum coccodes (Waller.) Hughes 1 1 - + + +<br />
56 Colletotrichum c<strong>of</strong>feanum Noack 1 1 - + + +<br />
57 Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.)Arx. 10 8 - + + -<br />
58 Colletotrichum dematium (Pers. Ex zFr.) Grov. 13 13 - + + +<br />
59 Colletotrichum falcatum Went. 4 4 - + + +<br />
60 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. 427 187 - + - -<br />
61 Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc.& Magn.) 2 2 - + - -<br />
Br. & Cav.<br />
62 Colletotrichum Corda sp. 1. 4 4 + + + +<br />
63 Colletotrichum sp. 2. 3 3 + + + +<br />
64 Colletotrichum sp. 3. 3 3 + + + +<br />
65 Colletotrichum sp. 4. 2 2 + + + +<br />
66 Colletotrichum spp. 387 148 - + + -<br />
67 Coniella australiensis Petrak 2 2 - + - -<br />
68 Coniella castaneicola (Ell. & Ev.) Sutton 1 1 - - - -<br />
69 Coniella fragariae (Oudem) Sutton 79 31 - + - +<br />
70 Coniella granati (Sacc.) Petrak & Syd. 1 1 - - - -<br />
71 Coniella minima Sutton & Thaung apud Sutton 6 4 - + + +<br />
22
72 Coniella petrakii Sutton 5 3 - + + +<br />
73 Coniella spp. 17 13 - + + +<br />
74 Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. 13 12 - + - -<br />
75 Corynespora cassiicola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis)<br />
Wei<br />
31 31 - + - -<br />
76 Corynespora citricola M.b. Ellis 3 3 - + + +<br />
77 Corynespora sp. 20 20 + + + +<br />
78 Crossospora premnae-tomentosae Ramkr. & 1 1 - - + -<br />
Soumini<br />
79 Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges 2 1 - - - -<br />
80 Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk & Br.) Sacc. 2 2 - + - -<br />
81 Cryptosphaera mangiferae Died. 1 1 - - + +<br />
82 Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Sankaran & B. 2 2 - - - -<br />
Sutton<br />
83 Cryptosporiopsis sp.1 10 8 - + + +<br />
84 Curvularia borrerae (Viegas) M.B. Ellis 1 1 - + +<br />
85 Curvularia clavata Jain 1 1 - + + +<br />
86 Curvularia eragrostidis (P. Henn.) J.A. Mayer 1 1 - + + +<br />
87 Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 1 1 - + + +<br />
88 Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 23 19 - + - -<br />
89 Curvularia lunata var. aeria (Batista, Lima & 2 2 - + - -<br />
vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis<br />
90 Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan.) Muntanola 2 2 - + + -<br />
91 Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 10 10- - + - -<br />
92 Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subram. 3 3 - + + -<br />
93 Curvularia verruculosa Tandon & Bilgrami ex. 1 1 - + + -<br />
M.B. Ellis<br />
94 Curvularia sp.1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
95 Curvularia spp. 66 64 + + + +<br />
96 Cylindrocarpon Wollenw. Sp. 1 1 - - - -<br />
97 Cylindrocladium candelabrum Viegas 1 1 - + + +<br />
98 Cylindrocladium clavatum Hodges & May 1 1 - + - -<br />
99 Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally 3 3 - + - -<br />
100 Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour 9 9 - + - -<br />
101 Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn & 2 2 - + - -<br />
Reitsma<br />
102 Cylindrocladium ovatum El-Gholl, Alfenas,<br />
Crous & Schubert<br />
1 1 - + + +<br />
103 Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Boedijn &<br />
Reitsma<br />
166 25 - + - -<br />
104 Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan 2 2 - + - -<br />
105 Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian 2 2 - + - -<br />
106 Cytospora eucalypti Sharma & Mohanan 3 3 - - - -<br />
107 Cytospora eucalypticola van der Westhuizen 4 3 - - + -<br />
108 Cytospora sp.1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
109 Cytospora sp.2. 1 1 + + + +<br />
110 Dactylaria Sacc. sp. 1 1 - + + +<br />
111 Dasturella divina (Syd.) Mundk. & Kheshwala 2 2 - - - -<br />
112 Dendrophoma eucalypti Mohanan 1 1 + + + +<br />
113 Dothiorella acaciae Mohanan 1 1 + + + +<br />
114 Dothiorella Sacc. sp. 2 2 + + + +<br />
115 Drechslera Ito sp. 4 4 + + + +<br />
23
116 Drechslera state <strong>of</strong> Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson 1 1 - - + -<br />
117 Exobasidium vexans Massee 1 1 - - - -<br />
118 Exserohilum sp. 1. 2 2 + + + +<br />
119 Fairmaniella leprosa (Fairm.) Petr. & Syd. 3 3 - + + +<br />
120 Fomitopsis dochmius (Berk. & Br.) Ryv. 2 2 - - - -<br />
121 Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. & Curt.)Gilbn. &<br />
Ryv.<br />
3 3 - - + -<br />
122 Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schw. Ex. Fr.) P. 1 1 - - - -<br />
Karst.<br />
123 Fusariella Sacc. 1 1 + + + +<br />
124 Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everhart 2 2 - + + -<br />
125 Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. 1 1 - + + -<br />
126 Fusarium culmorum(W.G. Smith) Sacc. 5 5 - + + +<br />
127 Fusarium decemcellulare Bri 4 4 - + - -<br />
128 Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. 9 9 - + - -<br />
129 Fusarium fusarioides (Frag. & Cif.) Booth 2 1 - + + +<br />
130 Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fr. 1 1 - + + +<br />
131 Fusarium lateritium Nees 2 2 - + - -<br />
132 Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon 5 5 - + - -<br />
133 Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans<br />
2 2 - + - -<br />
Wollenw. & Reink.<br />
134 Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. 14 14 - - - -<br />
135 Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel 2 2 - + + -<br />
136 Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. 18 16 - + - -<br />
137 Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. 10 9 - + - -<br />
138 Fusarium sporotrichoides Sherb. 1 1 - + + +<br />
139 Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. 1 1 - + + -<br />
140 Fusarium spp. 11 11 - - + -<br />
141 Ganoderma applanatum ( Pers. ex S.F. Gray)<br />
Pat.<br />
3 3 - + + -<br />
142 Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.) Fr.) Karst. 9 9 - + - -<br />
143 Gleosporidinia Petrak sp. 3 3 - + + +<br />
144 Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & 613 218 - + - -<br />
Schrenk.<br />
145 Glomerella tucumanenesis (Speg.) Arx & Muller 2 2 - + + +<br />
146 Guignardia citricarpa Kiely 11 11 - + - -<br />
147 Guignardia dioscoreae A.K. Pande. 1 1 - + + +<br />
148 Guignardia spp. 388 169 - + - -<br />
149 Helminthosporium Link. sp.1. 2 2 - - - -<br />
150 Hemileia holarrhenae Syd. 10 1 - - + -<br />
151 Hemileia vastatrix Racib. 2 2 - - - -<br />
152 Hemileia wrightiae Racib. 1 1 - - + -<br />
153 Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl. 75 75 - - - -<br />
154 Macrovalseria megalospora (Mont.) Sivan. 1 2 - + - -<br />
155 Maravalia ichinocarpi (Thirum.) Cumm. 1 1 - - + -<br />
156 Marssonina Magnus sp. 9 6 - + + -<br />
157 Meliola ailanthii Sharma, Mohanan & Florence 1 1 - - - -<br />
158 Meliola spp. 59 59 - + + -<br />
159 Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
160 Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 2. 1 1 + + + +<br />
161 Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 3. 8 3 + + + +<br />
162 Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp.4. 1 1 + + + +<br />
24
163 Mycosphaerella cryptica Cook & Hansf. 1 1 - - + +<br />
164 Mycosphaerella Johanson sp.1. 8 7 + + + +<br />
165 Mycotribulus mirabilis Nag Raj & Kendrick. 8 5 + + + +<br />
166 Mycovellosiella sp. 1. 8 1 + + + +<br />
167 Myrothecium gramineum Lib. 4 4 - + + -<br />
168 Myrothecium masonii Tulloch 3 3 - + + +<br />
169 Myrothecium roridum Tode 19 13 - + - -<br />
170 Myrothecium sp. 1. 15 10 + + + +<br />
171 Myrothecium sp. 2 1 1 + + + +<br />
172 Neomelanconium deightoni Petrak 1 1 - + + +<br />
173 Oidium Link spp. 14 14 - + - -<br />
174 Olivea tectonae (T.S. & K. Ramakr.) Mulder 3 1 - - - -<br />
175 Pestalotiopsis karstenii (Saccardo & Sydow) 1 1 - + + +<br />
Steyaert<br />
176 Pestalotiopsis macrospora (Cesati) Steyaert 13 12 - + + +<br />
177 Pestalotiopsis maculans (Corda) Nag Raj 72 72 - + + +<br />
178 Pestalotiopsis metasequoiae (Gucsvicz) Nag Raj 2 2 - + + +<br />
179 Pestalotiopsis palustris Nag Raj 10 10 - + + +<br />
180 Pestalotiopsis perseae Nag Raj<br />
181 Pestalotiopsis smilacis (Schweinitz) Sutton 2 2 - + + +<br />
182 Pestalotiopsis tecomicola Nag Raj 6 6 - + + +<br />
183 Pestalotiopsis uvicola (Spegazzini) Bissett 14 14 - + + +<br />
184 Phacidiopycnis Potebnia sp. 12 11 - + + +<br />
185 Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) 5 5 - + - -<br />
Crous<br />
186 Phaeoramularia Muntanola sp.1 3 3 - + + -<br />
187 Phellinus gilvus (Schw.)Pat. 1 1 - - - -<br />
188 Phoma cava Schulz. 1 1 - + - -<br />
189 Phoma eupyrena Sacc. 2 2 - + + -<br />
190 Phoma glomerata (Cda) Wollenw. & Hochaf. 3 1 - - - -<br />
191 Phoma herbarum Westd. 2 2 - + - -<br />
192 Phoma multirostrata (Mathur et al.) Dorenbosch<br />
& Boerema<br />
1 1 - - + -<br />
193 Phoma nebulosa Thum 1 1 - + + -<br />
194 Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma, Dorenbosch & 4 4 - + - -<br />
van Kesteren<br />
195 Phoma Sacc. spp. 88 65 - - - -<br />
196 Phomopsis (Sacc.) Sacc. spp. 608 222 - + - -<br />
197 Phyllachora calamigena 1 1 - - - -<br />
198 Phyllachora dalbergiae Niessl. 1 1 - - - -<br />
199 Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel 6 4 + + + +<br />
200 Phyllosticta Pers. spp. 59 50 - + + -<br />
201 Physalospora dalbergiae Sharma & Mohanan 1 1 - - - -<br />
202 Polynema Leveille sp. 8 5 - + + +<br />
203 Pseudocercospora ranjita (Chaudhury) Deighton 1 1 - - - -<br />
204 Pseudocercospora Speg. spp. 24 18 - + - -<br />
205 Pseudoepicoccum tectonae Sharma and Mohanan 1 1 - - - -<br />
206 Pseudorobillarda sojae Uecker & Kulik 1 1 - + + +<br />
207 Pseudorobillarda sp.1 1 1 + + + +<br />
208 Puccinia Pers.sp.1. 1 1 - + + -<br />
209 Puccinia Pers. sp. 2. 1 1 + + + +<br />
210 Puccinia Pers. sp. 3. 1 1 + + + +<br />
25
211 Puccinia Pers. sp.4. 1 1 + + + +<br />
212 Pullospora Fraul & Schotter sp.1 8 8 - + + +<br />
213 Pullospora macrospora Nag Raj 1 1 - + + +<br />
214 Pyrenochaeta De Not sp.1. 2 2 + + + +<br />
215 Pythium ultimum Throw. 1 1 - - - -<br />
216 Pythium sp. 1 1 - + - -<br />
217 Ravenelia emblicae Syd. 1 1 - - + -<br />
218 Ravenelia Berk. sp. 1. 1 1 + - + +<br />
219 Readeriella mirabilis H.& P. Syd. 5 5 - + + +<br />
220 Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler 1 1 - - - -<br />
221 Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. 27 21 - + - -<br />
222 Roestelia Rebent. sp.1. 1 1 - - + +<br />
223 Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 21 19 - + - -<br />
224 Septoria cassicola Kell & Swing 1 2 - - + -<br />
225 Septoria grewiae Sukapure & Thirum. 1 2 - - + -<br />
226 Septoria Sacc. sp. 10 12 + + + +<br />
227 Staganopsora vitensis Unam. 1 1 - + + +<br />
228 Stagonopsora (Sacc.) Sacc. sp.1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
229 Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton 3 3 - + + -<br />
230 Trichoconis Clem. sp.1 1 1 - - + -<br />
231 Trichosporum vesiculosum Butler 2 1 - - - -<br />
232 Uncinula tectonae Salm. 1 1 - - - -<br />
233 Uredo bombacis Petch 2 2 - - - -<br />
234 Uredo sissoo Syd. 2 2 - + - -<br />
235 Uredo terminaliae P. Henn. 1 1 - - + -<br />
236 Uredo Pers. sp. 1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
237 Uredo Pers. sp. 2. 1 1 + + + +<br />
238 Uredo Pers. sp. 3. 1 1 + + + +<br />
239 Uredo Pers. sp.4. 1 1 + + +<br />
240 Uredo Pers. sp.5. 1 1 + + + +<br />
241 Urohendersonia pongamiae Nag Raj &<br />
1 1 - - - -<br />
Ponnappa<br />
242 Uromyces (Link) Unger sp. 1. 1 1 + + + +<br />
243 Uromyces (Link) Unger sp.2. 2 2 + + + +<br />
244 Valsa eucalypti Cooke & Harkness 2 2 - + - -<br />
245 Valsa eucalypticola Sharma & Mohanan 1 1 - + - -<br />
246 Verticillium Nees sp.1. 9 9 + + + +<br />
247 Zaghouania olea (Butler) Cumm. 1 1 - - - -<br />
Total 4101 2244 60 175 151 104<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the Western Ghats<br />
The forests <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats exhibit considerable variation in floristic composition,<br />
physiognomy, life forms, etc. because <strong>of</strong> the climatic, edaphic, and physiographic<br />
variations. The forests in this region have been classified into seven major types which<br />
26
are divided into 20 sub-types and many further sub-divisions depending upon the floristic<br />
composition. In the present study, eight forest ecosystems including forest nurseries were<br />
selected for investigating the fungal diversity.<br />
Most fungi consist <strong>of</strong> filaments (hyphae) that increase in length by the deposition <strong>of</strong> cell<br />
wall material from a growing tip. As these tips expand and produce new growing points,<br />
a network <strong>of</strong> mycelium develops. Once established, fungal mycelia are capable <strong>of</strong><br />
essentially unlimited growth and persistence. The mycelial nature <strong>of</strong> most fungi affects<br />
the definition and interpretations <strong>of</strong> fungal diversity and makes the protocols and<br />
assumptions used for estimating fungal biodiversity inherently different from those used<br />
for plants and animals. To understand the limitations associated with estimations <strong>of</strong><br />
fungal biodiversity, one must consider methods for counting fungal units used for most<br />
macro-organisms.<br />
The level <strong>of</strong> cellular aggregations that fulfills the criterion for fungi and other<br />
microorganisms, however, is not very clear. For example, isolates <strong>of</strong> a single species <strong>of</strong><br />
fungus obtained from an infected leaf at spatially disjunctive locations in the foliage may<br />
represent the mycelium <strong>of</strong> a single individual or the mycelium <strong>of</strong> several individuals. As<br />
a result, counting individual fungal colonies on an isolation plate, whether the isolate was<br />
obtained from a 1 mm 2 piece <strong>of</strong> substratum does not represent the same information<br />
obtained from counting plants or insects that occur within a defined area. Thus, one<br />
cannot be sure if fungal isolates <strong>of</strong> a species from a single habitat have been obtained<br />
from one individual or from several individuals. Although, the latter situation is<br />
common, the former circumstance may also occur.<br />
With these existing limitations, the present investigation focuses on the presence or<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> a particular fungal species within an ecosystem in order to assess some aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> biodiversity. Species richness (Menhinick’s index (R2), Margalef’s index (R1)) and<br />
species diversity indices (Simpson’s index, Shannon index (H’) ) <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi in<br />
these different ecosystems were worked out and an overall picture is given in Table 3.<br />
27
Table 3: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> ecosystem Menhinick’s Margalef’s Simpson’s index Shannon’s index<br />
index (R2) index (R1)<br />
(H’)<br />
Wet evergreen forests 2.56205 4.094376 0.0850202429 2.448233<br />
Evergreen forests 3.7909 9.618165 0.0559238797 3.269729<br />
Shola forests 2.832354 4.728552 0.0626262626 2.68539<br />
Semi evergreen forests 4.8225694 13.951025 0.0531891106 3.536353<br />
Moist deciduous forests 4.307260 21.085314 0.0471795878 3.70955<br />
Dry deciduous forests 2.404164 4.089955 0.1118367347 2.413801<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> plantations 5.665242 17.697342 0.0228204041 4.102671<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> nurseries 3.946762 9.039484 0.0578413834 3.200247<br />
Species richness<br />
Species richness is the most widely used parameter for evaluating aspects <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
diversity. In fact, three kinds <strong>of</strong> species richness can be distinguished: (1) numerical<br />
species richness, (2) species density, and (3) total species richness (Hurlbert, 1971;<br />
Kempton, 1979; Brown, 1995; Rosenzweig, 1995). The cumulative number <strong>of</strong> species<br />
based on a series <strong>of</strong> samples from a habitat is the total species richness. It would appear<br />
that an unambiguous and straightforward index <strong>of</strong> total species richness, S, would be the<br />
cumulative numbers <strong>of</strong> unique species present in a series <strong>of</strong> samples. The magnitude <strong>of</strong><br />
S, however, depends on the size, number, and dispersion <strong>of</strong> samples in a particular<br />
ecosystem. Indeed, three mathematical relations (Power, Exponential, and Logistic) have<br />
been championed in the literature to predict the way in which S increases with effort, A<br />
(number, area, or volume <strong>of</strong> samples). Unlike the Power and Exponential species-effort<br />
curves, the logistic relation predicts the S, eventually will reach a plateau or asymptote.<br />
The value <strong>of</strong> S at this asymptote is an accurate estimate <strong>of</strong> the true species richness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
domain <strong>of</strong> interest. However, given the dependence <strong>of</strong> S on collection effort and the fact<br />
that limited financial resources, personnel or logistic support <strong>of</strong>ten prevent the collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> samples sufficient to attain asymptote values, S is <strong>of</strong> limited value as a comparative<br />
28
index. Consequently, a number <strong>of</strong> indices that are independent <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> samples<br />
taken have been developed to estimate species richness. Those indices are based on the<br />
relationship between S and n, the total number <strong>of</strong> individuals in the collection <strong>of</strong> samples.<br />
The two well-known species-richness indices, the Margalef index (1988) and Menhinick<br />
index (1964), make specific assumptions concerning the relationship between S and n (S<br />
= k n 0.5 , where k is a constant). In the present study, both Margalef index and Menhinick<br />
index <strong>of</strong> species richness were worked out for each forest ecosystem, which ranged from<br />
2.5605 to 5.665242 and 4.089955- 21.085314 respectively (Table 4). Among the eight<br />
forest ecosystems investigated, moist-deciduous forests and forest plantations exhibited<br />
maximum species richness and dry deciduous forests showed the least species richness<br />
value (Table 4).<br />
Species diversity indices<br />
Diversity is a measure <strong>of</strong> the complexity <strong>of</strong> structure in an ecological community. It<br />
comprises two distinct attributes: species richness and species evenness. Simpson (1949)<br />
proposed the first index <strong>of</strong> diversity used in ecology. The index varies from 0 to 1 and is<br />
referred to as dominance measure because it is influenced strongly by the abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
the most common species. Originally Simpson’s index ( λ ) was restricted to ecological<br />
units in which all members <strong>of</strong> the unit (in the present case community) could be<br />
enumerated. As it is impossible to count all members, Simpson developed an unbiased<br />
estimator (D) <strong>of</strong> diversity based on a sample <strong>of</strong> N individuals. In the current study,<br />
Simpson’s index was worked out for each forest ecosystem which ranged from<br />
0.0228204041 to 0.1118367347.<br />
The Shannon index <strong>of</strong> diversity (H’) (Shannon and Weaver, 1949) is currently the most<br />
popular index in community ecology. H’ is a measure <strong>of</strong> the average degree <strong>of</strong><br />
uncertainty in predicting the specific identity <strong>of</strong> an individual chosen at random from a<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> S species and N individuals. Average uncertainty will increases as the<br />
29
number <strong>of</strong> species increases and as the distribution <strong>of</strong> individuals among species becomes<br />
more even. Ludwig and Reynolds (1988) emphasized the two properties <strong>of</strong> the index that<br />
make it popular. First H’ = 0 if (and only if) the sample includes only a single species.<br />
Second, H’ reaches its maximum only when all species are equally abundant. The<br />
magnitude <strong>of</strong> H’ is usually between 1.5 and 3.5 and is rarely greater than 4.5 (Margalef,<br />
1972). In the present study, Shannon index ranged from 2.448233 to 4.102671. Among<br />
the forest ecosystems studied, maximum fungal species diversity was observed in forest<br />
plantations followed by moist-deciduous forests and semi-evergreen forests. Dry<br />
deciduous forests exhibited least fungal species diversity (Table 4). A limitation <strong>of</strong><br />
species diversity indices is that they compress the data to a single value that conveys little<br />
information about the abundance <strong>of</strong> the species in the ecological unit. Aspects <strong>of</strong> the<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> fungal assemblages are based not only on species composition and richness,<br />
but also by evaluation <strong>of</strong> how abundances are partitioned among the component species.<br />
Common species like Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Phomopsis<br />
sp. etc. exhibited their abundance in all the forest ecosystems studied, however, certain<br />
rare pathogenic species were also found in abundance in particular ecosystems which are<br />
highlighted in the following sections.<br />
West coast tropical evergreen forests<br />
(Wet evergreen and Evergreen forests)<br />
This type <strong>of</strong> forests constituted the climax vegetation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western<br />
Ghats, characterized by at least three tiers, the highest <strong>of</strong>ten attaining a height <strong>of</strong> 40-45 m.<br />
This forests occupy between 600 and 1100 m a.s.l. and prefer an annual rainfall <strong>of</strong> more<br />
than 2000 mm, temperature between 15 0 and 30 0 C and humidity between 70 and 100<br />
per cent. The upper storey consists <strong>of</strong> Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Bisch<strong>of</strong>ia javanica<br />
Blume, Canarium strictum Roxb., Cullenia exarillata Robyns, Drypetes elata (Bedd.)<br />
Pax. & H<strong>of</strong>fm., Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern, Elaeocarpus tuberculatus<br />
Roxb., Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f., Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz, Mesua ferrea<br />
L., Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baill., Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm.,<br />
30
Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd., Polyalthia c<strong>of</strong>feoides (Thw. ex Hook.f. & Thoms.)<br />
Hook.f. & Thoms., Vateria macrocarpa Guptha, etc.<br />
The second storey is characterized by species like Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A. Juss.) Benth.,<br />
Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell.-Arg., Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.)<br />
Blume, Dimocarpus longan Lour., Elaeocarpus serratus L., Litsea wightiana (Nees)<br />
Hook.f., Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim., Myristica dactyloides non Gaertn., etc.<br />
These trees attain a height <strong>of</strong> 15 to 30 m. The third storey which is less than 15 m in<br />
height consists <strong>of</strong> small trees like Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax & H<strong>of</strong>fm., Jambosa<br />
munronii (Wight) Walp., Memecylon sisparense Gamble, Turpinia malabarica Gamble,<br />
Xanthophyllum flavescens Roxb., etc. Pr<strong>of</strong>use growth <strong>of</strong> shrubs like Solanum surattense<br />
Burm.f., Thottia siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou, Psychotria sp., Moghania sp., Strobilanthes<br />
spp., etc. occurs. Only a few monocot species like Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Becc. &<br />
Hook, Calamus hookerianus Becc., Pandanus furcatus Roxb., Ochlandra travancorica<br />
(Bedd.) Benth. ex Gamble, O. ebracteata Raizada & Chatterjee, Oxytenanthera sp., etc.<br />
occurs. Ground flora is composed <strong>of</strong> herbs like Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton,<br />
Amorphophallus sp., Heckeria sp., ferns, etc. Climbers like Pothos scandens L., Piper<br />
spp., Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Smilax sp., etc. are common.<br />
Ecologically, this type <strong>of</strong> forest is the most advanced stage with high floristic richness<br />
and provides much <strong>of</strong> the tangible and intangible benefits. These forests are the<br />
storehouse <strong>of</strong> many wild relatives <strong>of</strong> the cultivated plants. About 25 per cent <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
forests cover in the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats belongs to this category.<br />
In the wet evergreen forests at Sirendri and Panthanthodu (Silent Valley National Park<br />
and Attapady <strong>Forest</strong> Range), periodic surveys revealed that only 39 plant species were<br />
found infected with 16 fungal pathogens. Fungal infections were found mostly on foliage<br />
including leaf spots, leaf blight, leaf blotches, leaf rust and black mildew disease.<br />
Aecidium, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, Curvularia, Guignardia, Phoma, Phomopsis,<br />
etc. are the important foliage pathogens.<br />
31
In the wet evergreen forests, only 0.78 % <strong>of</strong> the total disease specimens collected from all<br />
the forest ecosystems was found infected with fungal pathogens. In other words, about<br />
5% <strong>of</strong> the total plant host species collected from different forest ecosystems, harbors<br />
pathogenic fungi in the wet evergreen forests in the Western Ghats. Species richness<br />
indices (Menhinick’s index and Margalef’s index) show that when compared to other<br />
forest ecosystems studied, wet evergreen forests support least species richness <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
pathogens. This is also true in the case <strong>of</strong> species diversity, where both Simpson’s and<br />
Shannon indices also showed least values among the eight forest ecosystems studied<br />
(Table 4). Among the 16 pathogenic fungal pathogens encountered in this forest<br />
ecosystem, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Colletotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp. and<br />
Guignardia sp. were the most common and abundant ones (Table 5).<br />
Table 4: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the wet-evergreen<br />
forest ecosystems<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
2 2.56205 4.094376 0.0850202429 2.448233<br />
Table 5: Fungal species abundance in the wet evergreen forests<br />
Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
% to total<br />
1 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 7 17.94<br />
2 Colletotrichum sp. 6 15.38<br />
3 Phomopsis sp. 5 12.82<br />
4 Guignardia sp. 5 12.82<br />
5 Glomerella cingulata 4 10.25<br />
In the tropical evergreen forests, 30 study sites including one site in Myristica swamp<br />
forests, falling in 19 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges were surveyed. About 226 plant species were found<br />
infected with 51 pathogenic fungi. As in the case <strong>of</strong> wet evergreen forests, foliage<br />
infection was the most predominant disease and 605 fungal isolates were retrieved from<br />
32
the diseased portions <strong>of</strong> the specimens including leaf spots, leaf blight, leaf blotches, leaf<br />
rust and black mildew disease. Foliage rust infection was prevalent in this type <strong>of</strong> forests<br />
and accounted for 3.69% <strong>of</strong> the total foliage infection. Aecidium, Colletotrichum,<br />
Corynespora, Coniella, Crossospora, Curvularia, Fusarium, Glomerella, Guignardia,<br />
Phoma, Phomopsis, etc. are the important foliage pathogens. Stem disease including<br />
heart rot accounts for 2% <strong>of</strong> the total infection. In the evergreen forests, about 5.48% <strong>of</strong><br />
the total diseased host samples from all the forest ecosystems were found infected with<br />
fungal pathogens. In other words, about 34.82% <strong>of</strong> the total plant host species collected<br />
from different forest ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in the evergreen forests in the<br />
Western Ghats.<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungal species richness indices (Menhinick’s index and Margalef’s index)<br />
were found higher than the wet-evergreen forests, shola forests and dry deciduous forests (Table<br />
6). Simpson’s and Shannon species diversity indices also showed higher values than the wet<br />
evergreen forest, shola forest and dry deciduous forest ecosystems (Table 6). Among the 50<br />
pathogenic fungal species encountered in this forest ecosystem, Colletotrichum<br />
gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Colletotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp. and<br />
Guignardia sp. were the most common and abundant ones (Table 7).<br />
Table 6: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the evergreen forest<br />
ecosystems<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
30 3.7909 9.618165 0.0559238797 3.269729<br />
Table 7: Fungal species abundance in the evergreen forests<br />
Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
% to total<br />
1 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 24 13.25<br />
2 Glomerella cingulata 19 10.49<br />
3 Phomopsis sp. 18 9.94<br />
4 Guignardia sp. 15 8.28<br />
5 Colletotrichum sp. 15 8.28<br />
33
Southern montane wet temperate forests (Shola forests)<br />
This type <strong>of</strong> forests occurs in the upper reaches <strong>of</strong> the hills, especially on cliffs and<br />
sheltered folds above 1900 m.a.s.l. Southern montane wet temperate forests are also<br />
known as shola and are found in pockets supporting stunted trees, which seldom attain<br />
more than 10 m. The temperature is very low (10 0 -15 0 C) and the forests receive a very<br />
high rainfall (>4000 mm). The relative humidity is very high (80-100%). The altitude<br />
and high winds control the height growth <strong>of</strong> the trees. These forests are interspersed with<br />
rolling grasslands. The vegetation comprised <strong>of</strong> less number <strong>of</strong> tree species like<br />
Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast., Gordonia obtusa Wall.ex Wight & Arn., Meliosma<br />
pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp.barbulata (Cufod.) Beus., Schefflera sp., Symplocos sp., and<br />
many Lauraceous and Myrtaceous members. Strobilanthes species forms the main under<br />
storey. The shola forests constitute only 0.2 % <strong>of</strong> the total area <strong>of</strong> the State and play an<br />
important role in the hydrological cycle.<br />
In shola forests, six study sites falling in five <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges were surveyed and 45 plant<br />
species were found infected with 19 fungal pathogens. Mostly foliage infection was<br />
recorded from the shola forests and 142 fungal isolates <strong>of</strong> different fungi were found<br />
associated with foliage diseases including leaf spots, leaf blight, leaf blotches, leaf rust<br />
and black mildew disease. Aecidium, Alternarira, Colletotrichum, Corynespora,<br />
Curvularia, Guignardia, Meliola, Pestalotipsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phomopsis,<br />
Puccinia, Uromyces, etc. are the common foliage pathogens. Colletotrichum<br />
gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Meliola sp. were the most abundant fungal<br />
pathogens in this forest ecosystem (Table 9). <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungal species richness and<br />
species diversity indices are found comparatively higher than those recorded for the wet<br />
evergreen forest and dry deciduous forest ecosystems (Table 8).<br />
Table 8: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the shola forests<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
6 2.832353 4.728552 0.06262626 2.68539<br />
34
Table 9: Fungal species abundance in the shola forests<br />
Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
% to total<br />
1 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 6 13.33<br />
2 Glomerella cingulata 6 13.33<br />
3 Meliola sp. 6 13.33<br />
4 Guignardia sp. 3 6.66<br />
West coast tropical semi-evergreen forests (Semi-evergreen forests)<br />
This forest type is generally considered as a transitional stage between evergreen and<br />
moist deciduous forests. It is also found in localities where the evergreen forests are<br />
subjected to high disturbances. It occurs between 600 to 800 m.a.s.l. and in some places<br />
it extends up to 900 m.a.s.l. The floral composition is an admixture <strong>of</strong> both evergreen<br />
and deciduous species in the top storey. The prominent evergreen species are Artocarpus<br />
heterophyllus Lam., Bisch<strong>of</strong>ia javanica Blume, Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex<br />
Choisy, Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Hartley, Mangifera indica L., Mesua ferrea L.,<br />
Myristica dactyloides non Gaertn., etc. The deciduous floral elements are Acrocarpus<br />
fraxinifolius Wight & Arn., Bombax ceiba DC., Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss., Dalbergia<br />
latifolia Roxb., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Pterospermum<br />
sp., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Toona ciliata Roem., etc.<br />
The species occurring in the lower layer are almost the same seen in the evergreen<br />
forests. This forest type constituted about 11.40 per cent <strong>of</strong> the forest area <strong>of</strong> the State.<br />
This forest supports trees <strong>of</strong> more commercial value.<br />
In the semi-evergreen forests, 59 study sites falling in 36 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges were surveyed<br />
and the study revealed that 268 plant species were infected with fungal pathogens. <strong>Fungi</strong><br />
causing foliage and stem diseases were recorded from these forests; 892 fungal isolates<br />
belonging to 79 fungal pathogens were found associated with the diseases. Aecidium,<br />
Alternarira, Beltrania, Beltraniella, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, Coniella, Curvularia,<br />
35
Cylindrocladium, Guignardia, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis, Myrothecium,<br />
Mycosphaerella, Pestalotipsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phomopsis, Puccinia, Uromyces,<br />
etc. are the important pathogenic fungi. Fomitopsis, Phellinus, etc. are the important heart<br />
rot fungi. In the semi-evergreen forests, about 6.44% <strong>of</strong> the total disease specimens<br />
collected from all the forest ecosystems were found infected with fungal pathogens. In<br />
other words, 41.46% <strong>of</strong> the total plant host species collected from different forest<br />
ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in the semi-evergreen forests in the Western Ghats.<br />
<strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungal species richness indices were found higher than those recorded for<br />
evergreen, wet-evergreen and shola forests. Also, species diversity indices were found<br />
high and reached very close to those recorded for the moist-deciduous forests (Table 10).<br />
Among the 79 fungal pathogens recorded in this forest ecosystem, Phomopsis sp. was<br />
found the most abundant species, followed by Colletotrichum spp. (Table 11).<br />
Table 10: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the semi-evergreen<br />
forests<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
59 4.825693 13.951025 0.0531891106 3.536353<br />
Table 11: Fungal species abundance in the semi-evergreen forests<br />
Sl. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host % to total<br />
No.<br />
plants affected<br />
1 Phomopsis sp. 40 14.92<br />
2 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 27 10.07<br />
3 Glomerella cingulata 24 8.95<br />
4 Guignardia sp. 19 7.08<br />
5 Colletotrichum sp. 17 6.34<br />
6 Curvularia sp. 11 4.10<br />
36
South Indian moist deciduous forests (Moist deciduous forests)<br />
The trees in this type <strong>of</strong> forests reach 30 to 35 m in height. Compared to the evergreen<br />
forests, the plant species diversity is very poor. Buttressed trees are rare and fluting is<br />
common in species like Xylia xylocarpa, Tectona grandis, etc. Bamboos and reed<br />
bamboos are common. The differentiation into various layers is not very distinct. This<br />
type <strong>of</strong> forests thrives well at 200-1250 m a.s.l. The temperature regime is 20 0 C- 35 0 C.<br />
Relative humidity varies from 40-70 per cent. It prefers per annum rainfall between<br />
1500 to 2500 mm. The principal species encountered are Bombax ceiba L., Dalbergia<br />
latifolia Roxb., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Schleichera<br />
oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Tectona grandis L.f., Terminalia paniculata Roth, Tetrameles<br />
nudiflora R.Br., Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub., etc. Giant lianas like Spatholobus sp,<br />
Entada sp etc. are very common. Common ground flora consists <strong>of</strong> many herbs, most<br />
which possess medicinal properties. These forests are in the seral stage in the succession<br />
towards climatic climax vegetation which is the wet evergreen forests. But due to<br />
successive fire incidence and anthropogenic disturbances, the forests have advanced<br />
towards the climax stage.<br />
In moist deciduous forest, 109 study sites falling in 58 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges were taken and the<br />
disease surveys revealed that 416 plant species were infected with 164 fungi. Foliage<br />
infections were the most predominant disease recorded from these forests; about 1237<br />
fungal isolates were obtained from the disease specimens. Comparatively very severe<br />
foliage infection caused by rust fungi was observed in these forests. The rust infection<br />
accounts for 4% <strong>of</strong> the total foliage infections. Aecidium, Alternarira, Beltrania,<br />
Beltraniella, Beltranipsis, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, Coniella, Curvularia,<br />
Cylindrocladium, Guignardia, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis, Myrothecium,<br />
Mycosphaerella, Pestalotipsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phyllachora, Phomopsis, Puccinia,<br />
Ravenelia, Uredo, Uromyces, etc. are the important pathogenic fungi. Ganoderma,<br />
Fomitopsis, Phellinus, etc. are the important heart rot fungi. In moist deciduous forests,<br />
7.38% <strong>of</strong> the total disease specimens collected from all the forest ecosystems was found<br />
37
infected with fungi. In other words, about 65.08% <strong>of</strong> the total plant host species collected<br />
from different forest ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in the moist deciduous forests<br />
in the Western Ghats. Moist-deciduous forests registered maximum fungal species<br />
richness index (Margalef’s index ); fungal species diversity index (Shannon index) was<br />
found higher than the semi-evergreen forests and very close to the forest plantations<br />
(Table 12,13). Glomerella cingulata, Phomopsis sp., Guignardia sp., Colletotrichum sp.,<br />
Lasiodiplodia theobromae, etc. were the most abundant fungi among the 164 pathogenic<br />
fungi recorded in this forest ecosystem (Table 13).<br />
Table 12: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the moist-deciduous<br />
forests<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
109 4.307259 21.085314 0.0471795878 3.70955<br />
Table 13: Fungal species abundance in the moist-deciduous forests<br />
Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
% to total<br />
1 Glomerella cingulata 135 10.98<br />
2 Phomopsis sp. 124 10.08<br />
3 Guignardia sp. 93 7.56<br />
4 Colletotrichum sp. 87 7.07<br />
5 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 81 6.59<br />
6 Lasiodiplodia theobromae 55 4.47<br />
7 Alternaria sp. 52 4.23<br />
8 Pestalotiopsis maculans 40 3.25<br />
9 Meliola sp. 38 3.09<br />
10 Curvularia sp. 38 3.09<br />
Southern tropical dry deciduous forests (Dry deciduous forests)<br />
This forest type is open with trees reaching 15 to 20 m. The presence <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong><br />
forests in high elevation is mainly due to the aspect, low rainfall and frequent fires. This<br />
forests receive less rainfall (
Acacia sp., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. DC.) Wall.ex Guill. & Perr., Bauhinia sp.,<br />
Cleistanthus collinus Benth., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Pavetta indica L., Pterocarpus<br />
marsupium Roxb., Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K.Schum., Santalum album L.,<br />
Tectona grandis L.f., etc. The lower storey is comprised <strong>of</strong> Cycas circinalis L.,<br />
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don, Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br.,<br />
etc. Dioscorea sp. and Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. are the common climbers.<br />
Many annual herbs make their appearance during rainy season.<br />
Disease survey carried out in dry deciduous forests (2 study sites) in Chinnar Wildlife<br />
Sanctuary, 25 plant species were found infected with 50 fungal isolates belonging to 16<br />
fungal pathogens. Only foliage infection was recorded from these study sites. Alternaria,<br />
Colletotrichum, Curvularia, Phoma, Phomopsis, Pestalotiopsis, Phyllachora, Uromyces,<br />
Uredo, etc. are the important foliage pathogens. In dry deciduous forests, <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
disease specimens from all the forest ecosystems, 0.60% was found infected with fungal<br />
pathogens. Among the eight forest ecosystems studied, dry deciduous forests registered<br />
the lowest fungal species richness indices as well as fungal species diversity indices<br />
(Table 14). Among the 16 pathogenic fungi, Colletotrichum sp. was the most abundant<br />
pathogenic fungus in this ecosystem.<br />
Table 14: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the dry deciduous<br />
forests<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
2 2.404163 4.089955 0.1118367347 2.413801<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> plantations<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> different forestry species have been raised through out the State. Tectona<br />
grandis L.f., Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith, Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden,<br />
Eucalyptus regnans Muell., Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Bombax ceiba L., Ceiba<br />
39
pentandra (L.) Gaertn., Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston, Gmelina arborea Roxb.,<br />
Hevea braziliensis (Willd.ex A. Juss.) Muell.-Arg, Elaeis guinensis Jacq., Acacia<br />
auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex Benth., Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn.ex Benth., Acacia mangium<br />
Willd., Swietenia macrophylla King, etc. are the important species raised in plantations.<br />
Among these, teak, eucalypts and acacias are raised extensively.<br />
Survey carried out in forest plantations (19 study sites) situated in 19 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges in<br />
the Western Ghats, showed 37 plant species infected with 106 fungi; about 546 fungal<br />
isolates belonging to 106 fungi were retrieved from this forest ecosystem. Almost all the<br />
plant species raised in forest plantations were found affected with one or the other<br />
pathogenic fungi. <strong>Fungi</strong> causing foliage diseases were very common in this forest<br />
ecosystem, and account for 88.88% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal isolates obtained from the disease<br />
specimens from all the forest ecosystems. Aecidium, Alternarira, Beltrania, Beltraniella,<br />
Beltraniopsis, Bipolaris, Exserohilum, Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Corynespora,<br />
Coniella, Curvularia, Cylindrocladium, Guignardia, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis,<br />
Myrothecium, Mycosphaerella, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phyllachora,<br />
Phomopsis, Uredo, Uromyces, etc. are the important pathogenic fungi. Stem diseases<br />
(stem canker and blight) caused by Corticium salmonicolor and root diseases (root rot<br />
and wilt) were common in plantations located in high rainfall areas.<br />
Severe wilt (vascular wilt caused by Fusarium solani), basal stem rot and root rot caused<br />
by Ganoderma lucidum were noticed in 1-2-year-old Acacia mangium Willd. plantations<br />
in the State. Eucalyptus grandis plantations at high elevated areas registered very severe<br />
stem infection caused by Cryphonectria cubensis.<br />
In forest plantations, 0.90% <strong>of</strong> the total disease specimens from all the forest ecosystems<br />
were found infected with fungi. In other words, about 3.91% <strong>of</strong> the total plant host<br />
species specimens collected from different forest ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in<br />
the plantations. <strong>Forest</strong> plantations registered very high fungal species richness values<br />
which are close to those recorded for the moist-deciduous forests. Among the eight<br />
40
forest ecosystems studied, forest plantations registered the highest fungal species<br />
diversity indices (Table 15); about 106 fungal pathogens were found causing various<br />
diseases in this ecosystem. Among the host plants, exotic species were found most<br />
vulnerable to these fungal pathogens at their different growth phases.<br />
Table 15: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the forest plantations<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
19 5.665241 17.697342 0.0228204041 4.102671<br />
Table 16: Fungal species abundance in the forest plantations<br />
Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
% to total<br />
1 Guignardia sp. 21 6.23<br />
2 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 19 5.63<br />
3 Glomerella cingulata 18 5.34<br />
4 Phomopsis sp. 17 5.04<br />
5 Coniella fragariae 14 4.15<br />
6 Corticium salmonicolor 12 3.56<br />
7 Alternaria sp. 12 3.56<br />
8 Pestalotiopsis maculans 12 3.56<br />
9 Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum 10 2.96<br />
10 Curvularia sp. 10 2.96<br />
11 Lasiodiplodia theobromae 10 2.96<br />
12 Guignardia citricarpa. 10 2.96<br />
Among 106 fungal pathogens recorded from this ecosystem, common fungal pathogens<br />
like Guignardia sp., Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Phomopsis<br />
sp., etc. showed abundance. Of the nine species <strong>of</strong> Cylindrocaldium recorded, C.<br />
quinqueseptatum was found the most virulent as well as predominant fungal pathogen in<br />
this ecosystem. Similarly, among various species <strong>of</strong> Coniella, recorded from the forest<br />
plantations, C. fragariae was the most abundant species (Table16). Corticium<br />
salmonicolor, the most dreaded canker pathogen was also found abundant in forest<br />
plantations affecting both indigenous as well as exotic plantation species.<br />
41
<strong>Forest</strong> nurseries<br />
Disease survey carried out in forest nurseries (10 nurseries) located in 6 <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges in<br />
the State, revealed fungal infection in 154 plant species. A total <strong>of</strong> 582 fungal isolates<br />
belonging to 45 fungal genera were found associated with the seedling diseases in<br />
nurseries. Coniella, Cylindrocladium, Colletotrichum, Cercospora, Corynespora,<br />
Fusarium, Glomerella, Phoma, Phomopsis, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, etc. are the<br />
important nursery pathogens. Conventional forest nurseries support a large number <strong>of</strong><br />
fungal pathogens. In the forest nurseries, introduction <strong>of</strong> root trainer technology has had a<br />
tremendous impact on the seedling production system including nursery diseases caused<br />
by several fungal pathogens. As soil less or soil-free growing media are used in the root<br />
trainers for raising seedlings, most <strong>of</strong> the soil-borne pathogens were totally excluded<br />
from the nursery production system. However, new foliage pathogens like Phoma<br />
glomerata and P. eupyrena have attained new status in the nurseries causing severe<br />
damage <strong>of</strong> seedlings. Species richness indices as well as species diversity indices were<br />
found higher than the wet evergreen, shola forests and dry deciduous forests (Table 17).<br />
Among the 45 fungal pathogens encountered in this forest ecosystem, Rhizoctonia solani<br />
and Sclerotium rolfsii exhibited their abundance (Table 18).<br />
Table 17: Species richness and diversity indices <strong>of</strong> plant pathogenic fungi in the forest nurseries<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
study<br />
plots<br />
Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index<br />
(R1)<br />
Simpson’s index Shannon index<br />
(H’)<br />
10 3.946761 9.039484 0.0578413834 3.200247<br />
Table 18: Fungal species abundance in the forest nurseries<br />
Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. <strong>of</strong> host plants<br />
affected<br />
% to total<br />
1 Rhizoctonia solani 16 12.30<br />
2 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 16 12.30<br />
3 Sclerotium rolfsii 15 11.53<br />
4 Phomopsis sp. 11 8.46<br />
5 Glomerella cingulata 9 6.92<br />
6 Guignardia sp. 8 6.15<br />
42
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285
LEGEND FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES<br />
Plate No.1. 1: Myrothecium roridum colony on PDAmedium; 2: Myrothecium gramineum colony;<br />
3:Myrothecium masonii colony; 4: Fusarium culmorum colony on PDA medium; 5:Fusarium<br />
decemcellulare; 6: Coniella fragariae; 7: Fusarium oxysporum; 8: F. culmorum; 9: F. solani; 10: F.<br />
semitectum; 11: F. solani; 12: F. moniliforme colony<br />
Plate No.2. 1: Adhathoda vasica – Rhizoctonia solani leaf spots; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium – R. solani<br />
leaf blight; 3: Albizia odoratissima – Camptomeris leaf spots; 4: Pongamia pinnata - Sclerotium rolfsii leaf<br />
blight; 5: Pterocarpus santalinus – Phomopsis leaf blight; 6: Kaempferia galanga Rhizoctonia solani leaf<br />
spots; 7: Pterocarpus marsupium – Sclerotium rolfsii leaf blight; 8: Acacia mangium: Colletotrichum<br />
gloeosporioides leaf spot.<br />
Plate No. 3. 1: Albizia lebbeck - Rhizoctonia solani web blight; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium – Sclerotium<br />
rolfsii leaf blight; 3: Dalbergia sissoides – Rhizoctonia solani damping-<strong>of</strong>f; 4: Pterocarpus marsupium –<br />
Sclerotium rolfsii leaf blight; 5: Tectona grandis- Phoma leaf bight; 6: Cassia fistula – Phomopsis leaf<br />
spot; 7: Acacia mangium – Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum leaf blotch; Tectona grandis – Phoma leaf<br />
blight.<br />
Plate No. 4. 1: Albizia odoratissima – Camptomeris leaf spot; Xylia xylocarpa – Pestalotiopsis leaf spot;<br />
2: Azadirachta indica – Cylindrocladium scoparium leaf spot; 4; Pterocarpus santalinus – Rhizoctonia<br />
solani: Pongamia pinnata – Colletotrchum capsici leaf spot; 6: Syzygium cumini – Guignardia leaf spot; 7:<br />
Cinnamomum zeylanicum – Phomopsis leaf spot; 8: Grevillea robusta – Glomerella cingulata – foliage<br />
blight; 9: Cinnamomum malabatrum – Colletotrichum leaf blight.<br />
Plate No. 5. 1: Eucalyptus tereticornis – Coniella leaf blight; 2: Bombax insigne – Myrothecium roridum<br />
leaf spots; 3: Tectona grandis – Phomopsis target leaf spot; 4: Camelia sinensis – Exobasidium vexans<br />
blister blight; 5: Bombax ceiba – Myrothecium roridum leaf spots; 6:Acacia mangium – Oidium, powdery<br />
mildew; 7:Pinus sp. – Colletotrichum needle blight; 8;Eucalyptus grandis- Cylindrocladium leaf spots;<br />
9:Eucalyptus tereticornis – Coniella leaf blotch.<br />
Plate No. 6. 1: Helicteres isora –Mycovellosiella target spot; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium – Phomopsis leaf<br />
blight; 3: Ochlandra travancorica – Fusarim semitectum leaf blight; Mitragyna parvifolia – Phomopsis leaf<br />
spots; 5: Cycas circinalis – Glomerella leaf spots; Dillenia pentagyna –Colletotrichum leaf blotch;<br />
Terminalia paniculata- Phomopsis target sopots; Ficus hispida – Mycovellosiella target spot; Macaranga<br />
peltata – Coniella fragariae spots.<br />
Plate No. 7. 1: Polyalthia c<strong>of</strong>feoides – Colletotrichum leaf spots; 2: Ochlandra travancorica – Balansia<br />
witches’ broom; 3:Tetrameles nudiflora – Phomopsis leaf spot; 4: Eucalyptus tereticornis –<br />
Cylindrocladium leaf spots; 5: Tectona grandis – Phomopsis leaf spot; 6: Eucalyptus tereticornis-<br />
Cryptosporiopsis leaf spots; 7: Tectona grandis – Scleotium rolfsii leaf blight; 8; Eucalyptus<br />
camaldulensis- Cryptosporiopsis leaf spots; E. tereticornis- Aulographina leaf spot.<br />
Plate No. 8. 1:Terminalia paniculata – Cryphonectria gyrosa stem canker; 2: Eucalyptus grandis –<br />
Cryphonectria cubensis canker; 3: Acacia mangium – Botryosphaeria canker; 4: Acacia mangium-<br />
Ganoderma lucidum- basal stem rot; 5: Acacia mangium – pink disease caused by Corticium salmonicolor;<br />
6: Eucalyptus tereticornis- Cylindrocladium twig blight; 7: Tectona grandis – Phoma leaf blight; 8:<br />
Azadirachta indica – Fusarium twig blight; 9: Eucalyptus tereticornis – pink disease caused by Corticium<br />
salmoniclor.<br />
Plate No. 9: Acacia auriculiformis- die-back caused by Botryosphaeria ; 2: Acacia mangium- vascular wilt<br />
caused by Fusarium solani; 3: Cupresses sp. – Colletotrichum foliage blight; 3: Teak – basal stem and root<br />
rot caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae; 5;: Eucalyptus tereticornis – foliage blight caused by<br />
286
Phaeophleospora eucalypti; Acacia auriculiformis- canker caused by Valsa sp.; 7,8: Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis – Cryptosporiopsis leaf spot and Mycosphaerella leaf spots.<br />
Plate 10: 1. Dysoxylum malabaricum - Colletotrichum leaf spots;2: Dysoxylum malabaricum - Phoma leaf<br />
spot; : 3: Gmelina arborea - Pseudocercospra leaf spot; 4: Dalbergia latifolia - Phomopsis leaf spots: 5:<br />
Pterocarpus marsupium- Phomopsis leaf spots; 6: Gluta travancorica Pestalotiopsis -leaf blight 7:<br />
Syzygium cumini – Guignardia leaf spot; 8: Allophyllus cobbe – Phomopsis leaf spot; 9: Meliosma pinnata<br />
– Colletotrichum gloeosporioides leaf spot.<br />
Plate No. 11. 1: Olea dioica – Cylindrocladium leaf blight; 2: Erythrina stricta – Colletotrichum leaf spot;<br />
3: Actinodaphne malabarica – Colletotrichm sp. associated with leaf galls; Bisch<strong>of</strong>ia javanica –<br />
Glomerella cingulata leaf spots; Cinnamomum malabatrum- Colletotrichum gloeosporioides target spot;<br />
6,7: Cordia gharaf – Aecidium leaf rust; 8: Maesa indica – Myrothecium roridum leaf spots; ; 9: Syzygium<br />
cumini – Guignardia lead blotch;10: Olea dioica – Phomopsis target spots; 11: Litsea sp. – Colletotrichum<br />
leaf spots.<br />
Plate No. 12. 1: Bisch<strong>of</strong>ia javanica - Pestalotiopsis uvicola leaf spots; 2, 3: Meliosma simplicifolia –<br />
Aecidium leaf rust; 4, 5: Clerodendrum viscosum – Fusarim sp. leaf blotch, 6: Cinnamomum malabatrum –<br />
Pestalotiopsis maculans leaf blotch; 7: Aporusa lindleyana – Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum leaf<br />
blotch; 8: Mitragyna parvifolia – Phomopsis leaf blotch; 9: Symplocos sp. – Phyllachora tar spot.<br />
Plate No. 13. 1,2: Neolamarckia cadamba – Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Lagerstroemia sp. Phyllachora tar<br />
spots; 4-6: Ixora notoniana – Pestalotiopsis sp., Alternaria leaf spots; 7: Strychnos potatorum –<br />
Colletotrichum leaf spots; 8; Litsea sp. Phomopsis leaf spots.<br />
Plate No. 14. 1 : Garcinia gummi-gutta – Coniella minima leaf blotch; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium-<br />
Pestalotiopsis leaf blotch; 3: Haldina cordifolia – Phoma leaf spots; 4: Strychnos nux-vomica –<br />
Colletotrichum leaf spots; 5: Tetrameles nudiflora – Coniella leaf spots; 6: Dysoxylum malabaricum –<br />
Sclerotim rolfsii leaf spots; 7: Wrightia tinctoria – Giuignardia leaf spots; 8: Calamus thwaitesii –<br />
Sphaerodothis sp. leaf spot; 9: Oclandra travancoricus – Colletotrichum, Coniella leaf spots.<br />
Plate No. 15. 1: Terminalia paniculata – Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Dioscorea pentaphylla – Phomopsis leaf<br />
spots; 3: Ficus hispida – Phomopsis sp.; Aporusa lindleyana – Cylindrocladium leaf blotch; 5: Polyalthia<br />
fragrans – Glomerella leaf blotch; 6 : Aporusa lindleyana – Cylindrocladium leaf blotch; 7: Mitragyna<br />
parvifolia – Colletotrichum sht hole; 8: Mallotus Philippensis – Phomopsis leaf spot; 9: Diospyros sp.-<br />
Phomopsis leaf spots.<br />
Plate No. 16. 1: Cinnamomum verum- Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Xanthophyllum arnottianum –<br />
Colletotrichum leaf spots; 3: Cassia fistula – Septoria leaf spots; 4: Bridelia scandens – Colletotrichum leaf<br />
spots; 5: Glycosmis pentaphylla – Glomerella cingulata leaf spots; 6: Terminalia paniculata – Phomopsis<br />
shot-hole; 7: Bombax ceiba – Myrothecium roridum leaf spots; 8: Bombax insigne – Myrothecium l;eaf<br />
spot; 9: Haldinia cordifolia – Phomopsis leaf spots.<br />
Plate No. 17. 1: Syzygium palghatense – Phoma foliage and flower bud blight; 2: Unidentified host plant-<br />
Phomopsis leaf spot; 3: Gmelina arborea – Coniella leaf spot; 4,5: Pongamia pinnata – Urohendersonia<br />
leaf spots; Hopea parviflora – Phomopsis leaf spot; 7: Cinnamomum malabatrum – Beltrania rhombica<br />
leaf spots; 8: Madhuka longifolia – Phomopsis leaf blotch; 9: Helicteres isora – Mycovellosiella leaf spots;<br />
10 Dalbergia latifolia – Phyllachora leaf spots.<br />
Plate No. 18. 1: Neolamarckia cadamba - Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Eucalyptus pellita – Coniella leaf spot;<br />
3; Vateria indica – Pestalotiopsis maculans leaf spots; 4: Acacia mangium – Glomeralla cingulata leaf<br />
spots; 5: Garcinia gummigutta- Coniella minima leaf spots; 6: Sapindus trifoliate – Pestalotiopsis leaf<br />
blotch; 7: Bauhinia variegata – Colletotrichum leaf blotch; Unidentified host plant- Puccinia sp.;<br />
Strobilanthes luridus – Aecidium leaf rust; 10: Flacourtia montana – Colletotrichum leaf blotch; 11:<br />
Unidentified host – Glomerella cingulata leaf spots; Dalbergia latifolia – Uredo sissoo leaf rust.<br />
287
Plate No.19. 1: Canthium – Uromyces leaf rust; 2: Mitragyna parvifolia – Colletotrichum leaf spots; 3:<br />
Pongamia pinnata – Urohendersonia leaf spots; 4: Gluta travancoricus- Pestalotiopsis leaf blotch; 5:<br />
Unidentified hosts- Colletotrichum leaf spots; 6: Acacia auriculiformis – Meliola bl;ack ildew; 7: Albizia<br />
odoratissima Uromyces leaf rust; 8:Tectona grandis – Pseudoepicoccum leaf spots; 8: Eucalyptu pellita –<br />
Coniella leaf spots.<br />
Plate No.20. 1: Aeciospores (Aecidium rust infection in Meliosma simplicifolia); 2:<br />
Teleutospores <strong>of</strong> Albizia rust (Uromyces); 3: Ravenelia emblicae - section through teleutosori,; 4:<br />
Teleutospores; 5: Aecia (Aecidium sp.) infection in M. simplicifolia; 6: Section through Teleutosori<br />
(Uromyces – A. lebbeck); 7: Aecial cups in M. simplicifolia; 8: Aecial column and aeciospores (Aecidium<br />
sp. in M. simplisifolia).<br />
Plate No. 21. 1,2: Uredo terminaliae rust pustules; 3: Roestalia pustules in Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.)<br />
Maxim. ssp.barbulata; 4: Crossospora premnaetomentosae leaf rust in Premna tomentosa; 5: Uredo sp.<br />
rust pustules on Plumeria rubra leaf.; 6: Zaghouania olea rust in Olea dioica; 7,8: Olivia tectonae rust<br />
pustules in Tectona grandis.<br />
Plate No. 22. 1: Aecidium aecial cups in Diospyros sp.; 2: Uromyces teleutosori on Canthium sp., 3:<br />
Cryphonectria cubensis spore (pycnidiospores) tendril on Eucalyptus grandis stem; 4: Leaf rust <strong>of</strong> Premna<br />
tomentosa; 5: Septoria spore masses on Cassia fistula leaf; 6: Aulographina infection on Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis leaf; 7: Myrothecium roridum sporodochia; 8: Coniella fragariae pycnidia.<br />
Plate No.23. 1: Chaetospermum stromata (6x); 2: Myrothecium sporodochia; 3: Cercospora spores on<br />
Mitragyna parviflora; 4: Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum conidia; 5: Beltrania sp. conidia and<br />
conidiophores ; 6: Mycosphaerella- asci and ascospores; 7: Pullospora conidia; 8: Colletotrichum capsici<br />
conidia and seta.<br />
288
Appendix III: Pathogen Index<br />
Aecidium 44<br />
Aecidium meliosmae-myrianthae Henn & Shirai 45<br />
Aecidium mori Barclay 45<br />
Aecidium Pers. sp. 1. 46<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 2. 47<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 3. 47<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 4. 48<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 5. 49<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 6. 49<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 7 50<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 8. 50<br />
Alternaria 51<br />
Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler 52<br />
Alternaria citri Ellis & Pierce apud Pierce 52<br />
Alternaria Nees ex Fr. Nees spp. 53<br />
Ascochyta 56<br />
Ascochyta dendrocalami Mohanan 57<br />
Ascochyta sp.1. 57<br />
Asperisporium 58<br />
Asperisporium pongamiae (H. Syd.) Deighton 58<br />
Asterina 59<br />
Asterina jambolanae 59<br />
Aulographina 60<br />
Aulographina eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Arx & E.<br />
Mull. 60<br />
Balansia 65<br />
Balansia linearis (Rehm.) Diehl. 60<br />
Bartalinia<br />
Bartalinia Tassi sp. 61<br />
Beltrania<br />
Beltrania rhombica O. Penzig. 62<br />
Beltrania sp.1. 63<br />
Beltraniella<br />
Beltraniella sp.1. 64<br />
Beltraniopsis<br />
Beltraniopsis sp.1. 65<br />
Bipolaris<br />
Bipolaris bambusae Mohanan 66<br />
Bipolaris ellisii (Danq.) Alcorn 66<br />
Bipolaris maydis 67<br />
Bipolaris spicifera 67<br />
Bipolaris sp. 68<br />
Botritis<br />
Botritis cinera Pers. 69<br />
Botryobasidium<br />
Botryobasidium salmonicolor 70<br />
Botryosphaeria<br />
Botryosphaeria Ces & de Not sp. 70<br />
Calonectria<br />
Calonectria floridana Sobers 72<br />
Calonectria ilicicola Boedijn & Reitsam 72<br />
Calonectria theae Loos 72<br />
Camptomeris<br />
Camptomeris albiziae (Petch) Mason. 73<br />
Cercospora<br />
Cercospora bombacina T.S. & K. Ramakr. 74<br />
Cercospora mitragynae 74<br />
Cercospora rubi 75<br />
Cercospora scopariae 76<br />
Cercospora terminaliae 76<br />
Cercospora sp.1 77<br />
Cerodothis<br />
Cerodothis aurea 77<br />
Cerotelium<br />
Cerotelium flacourtiae (Mundk. & Thirum.) Cumm.<br />
78<br />
Chaetomella<br />
Chaetomella raphigera Swift 79<br />
Chaetospermum<br />
Chaetospermum carneum Tassi 80<br />
Chaetospermum gossypinum (Atkinson) Nag Raj 81<br />
Chaetospermum sp.1 81<br />
Cladosporium<br />
Cladosporium cladosporioides 82<br />
Cladosporium herbarum 83<br />
Cladosporium sp.1 83<br />
Coccodiella<br />
Coccodiella ochlandrae Mohanan 84<br />
334
Colletotrichum<br />
Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds 85<br />
Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butl. & Bisby 86<br />
Colletotrichum coccodes (Waller.) Hughes 88<br />
Colletotrichum c<strong>of</strong>feanum Noack 88<br />
Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.)Arx. 89<br />
Colletotrichum dematium (Pers. Ex zFr.) Grov. 90<br />
Colletotrichum falcatum Went. 92<br />
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. 93<br />
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc.& Magn.)<br />
Br. & Cav. 97<br />
Colletotrichum Corda sp. 1. 97<br />
Colletotrichum sp. 2. 98<br />
Colletotrichum sp. 3. 99<br />
Colletotrichum sp. 4. 99<br />
Colletotrichum spp. 99<br />
Coniella 102<br />
Coniella australiensis Petrak 103<br />
Coniella castaneicola (Ell. & Ev.) Sutton 103<br />
Coniella fragariae (Oudem) Sutton 104<br />
Coniella granati (Sacc.) Petrak & Syd. 105<br />
Coniella minima Sutton & Thaung apud Sutton 106<br />
Coniella petrakii Sutton 107<br />
Coniella spp. 107<br />
Corticium<br />
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. 110<br />
Corynespora<br />
Corynespora cassicola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Wei<br />
112<br />
Corynespora citricola M.b. Ellis 113<br />
Corynespora sp.114<br />
Crossospora<br />
Crossospora premnae-tomentosae Ramkr. &<br />
Soumini 114<br />
Cryphonectria<br />
Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges 115<br />
Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk & Br.) Sacc. 117<br />
Cryptosphaera<br />
Cryptosphaera mangiferae Died. 118<br />
Cryptosporiopsis<br />
Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Sankaran & B. Sutton<br />
120<br />
Cryptosporiopsis sp.1 120<br />
Curvularia<br />
Curvularia borrerae (Viegas) M.B. Ellis 122<br />
Curvularia clavata Jain 122<br />
Curvularia eragrostidis (P. Henn.) J.A. Mayer 123<br />
Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 123<br />
Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 124<br />
Curvularia lunata var. aeria (Batista, Lima &<br />
vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis 125<br />
Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan.) Muntanola<br />
126<br />
Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 126<br />
Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subram. 127<br />
Curvularia verruculosa Tandon & Bilgrami ex. M.B.<br />
Ellis 127<br />
Curvularia sp.1. 128<br />
Curvularia spp. 128<br />
Cylindrocarpon<br />
Cylindrocarpon Wollenw. Sp. 130<br />
Cylindrocladium<br />
Cylindrocladium candelabrum Viegas 131<br />
Cylindrocladium clavatum Hodges & May 132<br />
Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally 132<br />
Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour 133<br />
Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn &<br />
Reitsma 134<br />
Cylindrocladium ovatum El-Gholl, Alfenas, Crous &<br />
Schubert 135<br />
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Boedijn &<br />
Reitsma 136<br />
Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan 138<br />
Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian 138<br />
Cytospora 139<br />
Cytospora eucalypti Sharma & Mohanan 140<br />
Cytospora eucalypticola van der Westhuizen 140<br />
Cytospora sp.1. 141<br />
Cytospora sp.2. 141<br />
Dactylaria 142<br />
Dactylaria Sacc. sp.142<br />
Dasturella 143<br />
Dasturella divina (Syd.) Mundk. & Kheshwala 143<br />
Dendrophoma<br />
Dendrophoma eucalypti 143<br />
Dothiorella<br />
Dothiorella acaciae 143<br />
Dothiorella Sacc. sp. 143<br />
Drechslera<br />
Drechslera Ito sp. 145<br />
Drechslera state <strong>of</strong> Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson<br />
146<br />
Exobasidium<br />
Exobasidium vexans 146<br />
Exserohilum<br />
Exserohilum sp. 1. 147<br />
Fairmaniella<br />
Fairmaniella leprosa (Fairm.) Petr. & Syd. 148<br />
Fomitopsis<br />
Fomitopsis dochmius (Berk. & Br.) Ryv. 149<br />
Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. & Curt.)Gilbn. & Ryv.<br />
149<br />
Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schw. Ex. Fr.) P. Karst.<br />
150<br />
335
Fusariella 151<br />
Fusariella Sacc. 151<br />
Fusarium<br />
Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everhart 152<br />
Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. 152<br />
Fusarium culmorum(W.G. Smith) Sacc. 153<br />
Fusarium decemcellulare Bri 154<br />
Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. 155<br />
Fusarium fusarioides (Frag. & Cif.) Booth 156<br />
Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fr. 156<br />
Fusarium lateritium Nees 156<br />
Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon 157<br />
Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans Wollenw. &<br />
Reink. 158<br />
Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. 159<br />
Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel 160<br />
Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. 161<br />
Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. 162<br />
Fusarium sporotrichoides Sherb. 163<br />
Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. 163<br />
Fusarium spp. 164<br />
Ganoderma<br />
Ganoderma applanatum ( Pers. ex S.F. Gray) Pat.<br />
164<br />
Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.) Fr.) Karst. 165<br />
Gleosporidinia<br />
Gleosporidinia Petrak sp. 166<br />
Glomerella<br />
Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk.<br />
167<br />
Glomerella tucumanenesis (Speg.) Arx & Muller<br />
172<br />
Guignardia<br />
Guignardia citricarpa Kiely 173<br />
Guignardia dioscoreae A.K. Pande. 174<br />
Guignardia spp. 175<br />
Helminthosporium<br />
Helminthosporium Link. sp.1. 179<br />
Hemileia<br />
Hemileia holarrhenae Syd. 179<br />
Hemileia vastatrix Racib. 180<br />
Hemileia wrightiae Racib. 180<br />
Lasiodiplodia<br />
Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl.<br />
181<br />
Macrovalseria<br />
Macrovalseria megalospora (Mont.) Sivan. 184<br />
Maravalia<br />
Maravalia ichinocarpi (Thirum.) Cumm. 184<br />
Marssonina<br />
Marssonina Magnus sp. 185<br />
Meliola<br />
Meliola ailanthii Sharma , Mohanan & Maria<br />
Florence 187<br />
Meliola spp. 188<br />
Microsphaeropsis<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 1. 190<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 2. 190<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 3. 190<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp.4. 190<br />
Mycosphaerella<br />
Mycosphaerella cryptica Cook & Hansf. 192<br />
Mycosphaerella Johanson sp.1. 193<br />
Mycotribulus<br />
Mycotribulus mirabilis Nag Raj & Kendrick. 193<br />
Mycovellosiella<br />
Mycovellosiella sp. 1. 194<br />
Myrothecium 197<br />
Myrothecium gramineum Lib. 198<br />
Myrothecium masonii Tulloch 198<br />
Myrothecium roridum Tode 199<br />
Myrothecium sp. 1. 201<br />
Myrothecium sp. 2 202<br />
Neomelanconium<br />
Neomelanconium deightoni Petrak 202<br />
Oidium<br />
Oidium Link spp. 203<br />
Olivea<br />
Olivea tectonae (T.S. & K. Ramakr.) Mulder 204<br />
Pestalotiopsis 205<br />
Pestalotiopsis karstenii (Saccardo & Sydow)<br />
Steyaert 206<br />
Pestalotiopsis macrospora (Cesati) Steyaert 206<br />
Pestalotiopsis maculans (Corda) Nag Raj 208<br />
Pestalotiopsis metasequoiae (Gucsvicz) Nag Raj 210<br />
Pestalotiopsis palustris Nag Raj 211<br />
Pestalotiopsis perseae Nag Raj 212<br />
Pestalotiopsis smilacis (Schweinitz) Sutton 213<br />
Pestalotiopsis tecomicola Nag Raj 214<br />
Pestalotiopsis uvicola (Spegazzini) Bissett 215<br />
Phacidiopycnis<br />
Phacidiopycnis Potebnia sp. 217<br />
Phaeophleospora<br />
Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Crous<br />
217<br />
Phaeoramularia 218<br />
Phaeoramularia Muntanola sp.1 219<br />
336
Phellinus<br />
Phellinus gilvus (Schw.)Pat. 220<br />
Phoma<br />
Phoma cava Schulz. 221<br />
Phoma eupyrena Sacc. 222<br />
Phoma glomerata (Cda) Wollenw. & Hochaf. 223<br />
Phoma herbarum Westd. 224<br />
Phoma multirostrata Dorenbosch & Boerema 225<br />
Phoma nebulosa Thum 225<br />
Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma, Dorenbosch & van<br />
Kesteren 226<br />
Phoma Sacc. spp. 227<br />
Phomopsis 228<br />
Phomopsis (Sacc.) Sacc. spp.230<br />
Phyllachora 235<br />
Phyllachora calamigena 235<br />
Phyllachora dalbergiae Niessl. 236<br />
Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel 236<br />
Phyllosticta 236<br />
Phyllosticta Pers. spp. 236<br />
Physalospora<br />
Physalospora dalbergiae Sharma & Mohanan 238<br />
Polynema<br />
Polynema Leveille sp. 238<br />
Pseudocercospora 239<br />
Pseudocercospora ranjita (Chaudhury) Deighton<br />
240<br />
Pseudocercospora Speg. spp. 236<br />
Pseudoepicoccum 241<br />
Pseudoepicoccum tectonae Sharma & Mohanan 241<br />
Pseudorobillarda 241<br />
Pseudorobillarda sojae Uecker & Kulik 241<br />
Pseudorobillarda sp.1 242<br />
Puccinia 243<br />
Puccinia Pers.sp.1. 243<br />
Puccinia Pers. sp. 2. 243<br />
Puccinia Pers. sp. 3. 243<br />
Puccinia Pers. sp.4. 243<br />
Pullospora<br />
Pullospora Fraul & Schotter sp.1 246<br />
Pullospora macrospora Nag Raj 246<br />
Pyrenochaeta<br />
Pyrenochaeta De Not sp.1. 247<br />
Pythium<br />
Pythium ultimum Throw. 248<br />
Pythium sp. 248<br />
Ravenelia<br />
Ravenelia emblicae Syd. 249<br />
Ravenelia Berk. sp. 1. 250<br />
Readeriella 251<br />
Readeriella mirabilis H.& P. Syd. 251<br />
Rhizoctonia 251<br />
Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler 251<br />
Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. 252<br />
Roestelia 253<br />
Roestelia Rebent. sp.1. 253<br />
Sclerotium<br />
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 254<br />
Septoria<br />
Septoria cassicola Kell & Swing 256<br />
Septoria grewiae Sukapure & Thirum. 256<br />
Septoria Sacc. sp.257<br />
Staganopsora<br />
Staganopsora vitensis Unam.257<br />
Stagonopsora (Sacc.) Sacc. sp.1. 257<br />
Stenocarpella<br />
Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton 258<br />
Trichoconis<br />
Trichoconis Clem. sp.1 259<br />
Trichosporum 260<br />
Trichosporum vesiculosum Butler 260<br />
Uncinula<br />
Uncinula tectonae Salm. 260<br />
Uredo 261<br />
Uredo bombacis Petch 261<br />
Uredo sissoo Syd. 261<br />
Uredo terminaliae P. Henn. 262<br />
Uredo Pers. sp. 1. 263<br />
Uredo Pers. sp. 2. 263<br />
Uredo Pers. sp. 3. 264<br />
Uredo Pers. sp.4. 264<br />
Uredo Pers. sp.5. 265<br />
Urohendersonia<br />
Urohendersonia pongamiae Nag Raj & Ponnappa<br />
265<br />
Uromyces<br />
Uromyces (Link) Unger sp. 1. 266<br />
Uromyces (Link) Unger sp.2. 267<br />
Valsa<br />
Valsa eucalypti Cooke & Harkness 268<br />
Valsa eucalypticola Sharma & Mohanan 268<br />
Verticillium<br />
Verticillium Nees sp.1. 269<br />
Zaghouania<br />
Zaghouania olea (Butler) Cumm. 270<br />
337
Appendix III: Pathogen Index<br />
Aecidium 44<br />
Aecidium meliosmae-myrianthae Henn & Shirai 45<br />
Aecidium mori Barclay 45<br />
Aecidium Pers. sp. 1. 46<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 2. 47<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 3. 47<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 4. 48<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 5. 49<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 6. 49<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 7 50<br />
Aecidium Pers sp. 8. 50<br />
Alternaria 51<br />
Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler 52<br />
Alternaria citri Ellis & Pierce apud Pierce 52<br />
Alternaria Nees ex Fr. Nees spp. 53<br />
Ascochyta 56<br />
Ascochyta dendrocalami Mohanan 57<br />
Ascochyta sp.1. 57<br />
Asperisporium 58<br />
Asperisporium pongamiae (H. Syd.) Deighton 58<br />
Asterina 59<br />
Asterina jambolanae 59<br />
Aulographina 60<br />
Aulographina eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Arx & E.<br />
Mull. 60<br />
Balansia 65<br />
Balansia linearis (Rehm.) Diehl. 60<br />
Bartalinia<br />
Bartalinia Tassi sp. 61<br />
Beltrania<br />
Beltrania rhombica O. Penzig. 62<br />
Beltrania sp.1. 63<br />
Beltraniella<br />
Beltraniella sp.1. 64<br />
Beltraniopsis<br />
Beltraniopsis sp.1. 65<br />
Bipolaris<br />
Bipolaris bambusae Mohanan 66<br />
Bipolaris ellisii (Danq.) Alcorn 66<br />
Bipolaris maydis 67<br />
Bipolaris spicifera 67<br />
Bipolaris sp. 68<br />
Botritis<br />
Botritis cinera Pers. 69<br />
Botryobasidium<br />
Botryobasidium salmonicolor 70<br />
Botryosphaeria<br />
Botryosphaeria Ces & de Not sp. 70<br />
Calonectria<br />
Calonectria floridana Sobers 72<br />
Calonectria ilicicola Boedijn & Reitsam 72<br />
Calonectria theae Loos 72<br />
Camptomeris<br />
Camptomeris albiziae (Petch) Mason. 73<br />
Cercospora<br />
Cercospora bombacina T.S. & K. Ramakr. 74<br />
Cercospora mitragynae 74<br />
Cercospora rubi 75<br />
Cercospora scopariae 76<br />
Cercospora terminaliae 76<br />
Cercospora sp.1 77<br />
Cerodothis<br />
Cerodothis aurea 77<br />
Cerotelium<br />
Cerotelium flacourtiae (Mundk. & Thirum.) Cumm.<br />
78<br />
Chaetomella<br />
Chaetomella raphigera Swift 79<br />
Chaetospermum<br />
Chaetospermum carneum Tassi 80<br />
Chaetospermum gossypinum (Atkinson) Nag Raj 81<br />
Chaetospermum sp.1 81<br />
Cladosporium<br />
Cladosporium cladosporioides 82<br />
Cladosporium herbarum 83<br />
Cladosporium sp.1 83<br />
Coccodiella<br />
Coccodiella ochlandrae Mohanan 84<br />
334
Colletotrichum<br />
Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds 85<br />
Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butl. & Bisby 86<br />
Colletotrichum coccodes (Waller.) Hughes 88<br />
Colletotrichum c<strong>of</strong>feanum Noack 88<br />
Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.)Arx. 89<br />
Colletotrichum dematium (Pers. Ex zFr.) Grov. 90<br />
Colletotrichum falcatum Went. 92<br />
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. 93<br />
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc.& Magn.)<br />
Br. & Cav. 97<br />
Colletotrichum Corda sp. 1. 97<br />
Colletotrichum sp. 2. 98<br />
Colletotrichum sp. 3. 99<br />
Colletotrichum sp. 4. 99<br />
Colletotrichum spp. 99<br />
Coniella 102<br />
Coniella australiensis Petrak 103<br />
Coniella castaneicola (Ell. & Ev.) Sutton 103<br />
Coniella fragariae (Oudem) Sutton 104<br />
Coniella granati (Sacc.) Petrak & Syd. 105<br />
Coniella minima Sutton & Thaung apud Sutton 106<br />
Coniella petrakii Sutton 107<br />
Coniella spp. 107<br />
Corticium<br />
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. 110<br />
Corynespora<br />
Corynespora cassicola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Wei<br />
112<br />
Corynespora citricola M.b. Ellis 113<br />
Corynespora sp.114<br />
Crossospora<br />
Crossospora premnae-tomentosae Ramkr. &<br />
Soumini 114<br />
Cryphonectria<br />
Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges 115<br />
Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk & Br.) Sacc. 117<br />
Cryptosphaera<br />
Cryptosphaera mangiferae Died. 118<br />
Cryptosporiopsis<br />
Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Sankaran & B. Sutton<br />
120<br />
Cryptosporiopsis sp.1 120<br />
Curvularia<br />
Curvularia borrerae (Viegas) M.B. Ellis 122<br />
Curvularia clavata Jain 122<br />
Curvularia eragrostidis (P. Henn.) J.A. Mayer 123<br />
Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 123<br />
Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 124<br />
Curvularia lunata var. aeria (Batista, Lima &<br />
vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis 125<br />
Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan.) Muntanola<br />
126<br />
Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 126<br />
Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subram. 127<br />
Curvularia verruculosa Tandon & Bilgrami ex. M.B.<br />
Ellis 127<br />
Curvularia sp.1. 128<br />
Curvularia spp. 128<br />
Cylindrocarpon<br />
Cylindrocarpon Wollenw. Sp. 130<br />
Cylindrocladium<br />
Cylindrocladium candelabrum Viegas 131<br />
Cylindrocladium clavatum Hodges & May 132<br />
Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally 132<br />
Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour 133<br />
Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn &<br />
Reitsma 134<br />
Cylindrocladium ovatum El-Gholl, Alfenas, Crous &<br />
Schubert 135<br />
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Boedijn &<br />
Reitsma 136<br />
Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan 138<br />
Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian 138<br />
Cytospora 139<br />
Cytospora eucalypti Sharma & Mohanan 140<br />
Cytospora eucalypticola van der Westhuizen 140<br />
Cytospora sp.1. 141<br />
Cytospora sp.2. 141<br />
Dactylaria 142<br />
Dactylaria Sacc. sp.142<br />
Dasturella 143<br />
Dasturella divina (Syd.) Mundk. & Kheshwala 143<br />
Dendrophoma<br />
Dendrophoma eucalypti 143<br />
Dothiorella<br />
Dothiorella acaciae 143<br />
Dothiorella Sacc. sp. 143<br />
Drechslera<br />
Drechslera Ito sp. 145<br />
Drechslera state <strong>of</strong> Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson<br />
146<br />
Exobasidium<br />
Exobasidium vexans 146<br />
Exserohilum<br />
Exserohilum sp. 1. 147<br />
Fairmaniella<br />
Fairmaniella leprosa (Fairm.) Petr. & Syd. 148<br />
Fomitopsis<br />
Fomitopsis dochmius (Berk. & Br.) Ryv. 149<br />
Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. & Curt.)Gilbn. & Ryv.<br />
149<br />
Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schw. Ex. Fr.) P. Karst.<br />
150<br />
335
Fusariella 151<br />
Fusariella Sacc. 151<br />
Fusarium<br />
Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everhart 152<br />
Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. 152<br />
Fusarium culmorum(W.G. Smith) Sacc. 153<br />
Fusarium decemcellulare Bri 154<br />
Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. 155<br />
Fusarium fusarioides (Frag. & Cif.) Booth 156<br />
Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fr. 156<br />
Fusarium lateritium Nees 156<br />
Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon 157<br />
Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans Wollenw. &<br />
Reink. 158<br />
Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. 159<br />
Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel 160<br />
Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. 161<br />
Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. 162<br />
Fusarium sporotrichoides Sherb. 163<br />
Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. 163<br />
Fusarium spp. 164<br />
Ganoderma<br />
Ganoderma applanatum ( Pers. ex S.F. Gray) Pat.<br />
164<br />
Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.) Fr.) Karst. 165<br />
Gleosporidinia<br />
Gleosporidinia Petrak sp. 166<br />
Glomerella<br />
Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk.<br />
167<br />
Glomerella tucumanenesis (Speg.) Arx & Muller<br />
172<br />
Guignardia<br />
Guignardia citricarpa Kiely 173<br />
Guignardia dioscoreae A.K. Pande. 174<br />
Guignardia spp. 175<br />
Helminthosporium<br />
Helminthosporium Link. sp.1. 179<br />
Hemileia<br />
Hemileia holarrhenae Syd. 179<br />
Hemileia vastatrix Racib. 180<br />
Hemileia wrightiae Racib. 180<br />
Lasiodiplodia<br />
Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl.<br />
181<br />
Macrovalseria<br />
Macrovalseria megalospora (Mont.) Sivan. 184<br />
Maravalia<br />
Maravalia ichinocarpi (Thirum.) Cumm. 184<br />
Marssonina<br />
Marssonina Magnus sp. 185<br />
Meliola<br />
Meliola ailanthii Sharma , Mohanan & Maria<br />
Florence 187<br />
Meliola spp. 188<br />
Microsphaeropsis<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 1. 190<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 2. 190<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 3. 190<br />
Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp.4. 190<br />
Mycosphaerella<br />
Mycosphaerella cryptica Cook & Hansf. 192<br />
Mycosphaerella Johanson sp.1. 193<br />
Mycotribulus<br />
Mycotribulus mirabilis Nag Raj & Kendrick. 193<br />
Mycovellosiella<br />
Mycovellosiella sp. 1. 194<br />
Myrothecium 197<br />
Myrothecium gramineum Lib. 198<br />
Myrothecium masonii Tulloch 198<br />
Myrothecium roridum Tode 199<br />
Myrothecium sp. 1. 201<br />
Myrothecium sp. 2 202<br />
Neomelanconium<br />
Neomelanconium deightoni Petrak 202<br />
Oidium<br />
Oidium Link spp. 203<br />
Olivea<br />
Olivea tectonae (T.S. & K. Ramakr.) Mulder 204<br />
Pestalotiopsis 205<br />
Pestalotiopsis karstenii (Saccardo & Sydow)<br />
Steyaert 206<br />
Pestalotiopsis macrospora (Cesati) Steyaert 206<br />
Pestalotiopsis maculans (Corda) Nag Raj 208<br />
Pestalotiopsis metasequoiae (Gucsvicz) Nag Raj 210<br />
Pestalotiopsis palustris Nag Raj 211<br />
Pestalotiopsis perseae Nag Raj 212<br />
Pestalotiopsis smilacis (Schweinitz) Sutton 213<br />
Pestalotiopsis tecomicola Nag Raj 214<br />
Pestalotiopsis uvicola (Spegazzini) Bissett 215<br />
Phacidiopycnis<br />
Phacidiopycnis Potebnia sp. 217<br />
Phaeophleospora<br />
Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Crous<br />
217<br />
Phaeoramularia 218<br />
Phaeoramularia Muntanola sp.1 219<br />
336
Phellinus<br />
Phellinus gilvus (Schw.)Pat. 220<br />
Phoma<br />
Phoma cava Schulz. 221<br />
Phoma eupyrena Sacc. 222<br />
Phoma glomerata (Cda) Wollenw. & Hochaf. 223<br />
Phoma herbarum Westd. 224<br />
Phoma multirostrata Dorenbosch & Boerema 225<br />
Phoma nebulosa Thum 225<br />
Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma, Dorenbosch & van<br />
Kesteren 226<br />
Phoma Sacc. spp. 227<br />
Phomopsis 228<br />
Phomopsis (Sacc.) Sacc. spp.230<br />
Phyllachora 235<br />
Phyllachora calamigena 235<br />
Phyllachora dalbergiae Niessl. 236<br />
Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel 236<br />
Phyllosticta 236<br />
Phyllosticta Pers. spp. 236<br />
Physalospora<br />
Physalospora dalbergiae Sharma & Mohanan 238<br />
Polynema<br />
Polynema Leveille sp. 238<br />
Pseudocercospora 239<br />
Pseudocercospora ranjita (Chaudhury) Deighton<br />
240<br />
Pseudocercospora Speg. spp. 236<br />
Pseudoepicoccum 241<br />
Pseudoepicoccum tectonae Sharma & Mohanan 241<br />
Pseudorobillarda 241<br />
Pseudorobillarda sojae Uecker & Kulik 241<br />
Pseudorobillarda sp.1 242<br />
Puccinia 243<br />
Puccinia Pers.sp.1. 243<br />
Puccinia Pers. sp. 2. 243<br />
Puccinia Pers. sp. 3. 243<br />
Puccinia Pers. sp.4. 243<br />
Pullospora<br />
Pullospora Fraul & Schotter sp.1 246<br />
Pullospora macrospora Nag Raj 246<br />
Pyrenochaeta<br />
Pyrenochaeta De Not sp.1. 247<br />
Pythium<br />
Pythium ultimum Throw. 248<br />
Pythium sp. 248<br />
Ravenelia<br />
Ravenelia emblicae Syd. 249<br />
Ravenelia Berk. sp. 1. 250<br />
Readeriella 251<br />
Readeriella mirabilis H.& P. Syd. 251<br />
Rhizoctonia 251<br />
Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler 251<br />
Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. 252<br />
Roestelia 253<br />
Roestelia Rebent. sp.1. 253<br />
Sclerotium<br />
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 254<br />
Septoria<br />
Septoria cassicola Kell & Swing 256<br />
Septoria grewiae Sukapure & Thirum. 256<br />
Septoria Sacc. sp.257<br />
Staganopsora<br />
Staganopsora vitensis Unam.257<br />
Stagonopsora (Sacc.) Sacc. sp.1. 257<br />
Stenocarpella<br />
Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton 258<br />
Trichoconis<br />
Trichoconis Clem. sp.1 259<br />
Trichosporum 260<br />
Trichosporum vesiculosum Butler 260<br />
Uncinula<br />
Uncinula tectonae Salm. 260<br />
Uredo 261<br />
Uredo bombacis Petch 261<br />
Uredo sissoo Syd. 261<br />
Uredo terminaliae P. Henn. 262<br />
Uredo Pers. sp. 1. 263<br />
Uredo Pers. sp. 2. 263<br />
Uredo Pers. sp. 3. 264<br />
Uredo Pers. sp.4. 264<br />
Uredo Pers. sp.5. 265<br />
Urohendersonia<br />
Urohendersonia pongamiae Nag Raj & Ponnappa<br />
265<br />
Uromyces<br />
Uromyces (Link) Unger sp. 1. 266<br />
Uromyces (Link) Unger sp.2. 267<br />
Valsa<br />
Valsa eucalypti Cooke & Harkness 268<br />
Valsa eucalypticola Sharma & Mohanan 268<br />
Verticillium<br />
Verticillium Nees sp.1. 269<br />
Zaghouania<br />
Zaghouania olea (Butler) Cumm. 270<br />
337
Appendix I: Details on sites selected for the fungal biodiversity study in the Western Ghats<br />
1.Northern Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Types Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
1 Kannur 1 Kannavam N Kadalkandam Nursery<br />
N Cheruvanchery Nursery<br />
SEF Mundayadu Medicinal Garden<br />
SEF Kadalkandam<br />
SEF Peruvam<br />
MDF Kannoth<br />
EF Nedumpoyil<br />
2 Kottiyur EF Kottiyur<br />
3 Thaliparamba MDF Thaliparamba<br />
4 Kanhangad EF Manjuchola<br />
5 Kasaragod SEF Parappa<br />
2 Calicut 6 Peruvannamoozhy P Peruvannamuzhy<br />
7 Kuttiyadi MDF Kuttiyadi<br />
8 Thamarassery EF Kanalad<br />
SEF Thamarassery Churam<br />
MDF Thenhippalam<br />
3 Wayanad North 9 Begur SEF Thrissillery, Muthumary<br />
SEF Ambalamoola<br />
EF Brahmagiri<br />
EF Kuruva Island<br />
10 Periya EF Chandanathodu<br />
EF Periya<br />
SEF Alat<br />
SEF Ambalakkandy<br />
11 Mananthavady MDF Mananthavady<br />
MDF Varayal<br />
4 Wayanad South 12 Kalpetta P / MDF Thariode<br />
SEF Kalpetta<br />
SEF Puthurvayal<br />
MDF Manikunnumala<br />
13 Meppady MDF Kaappankolli<br />
SF Meppady chola, Chembra peek<br />
MDF Pookodu<br />
14 Chethalath MDF Chethalath<br />
MDF Kuppady<br />
5 Wyanad WLD 15 Tholpetty MDF Tholpetty<br />
MDF Kudhirakkode<br />
MDF Appapara<br />
MDF Kattikulam<br />
SEF Thirunelli<br />
SEF Moolappara<br />
16 Kurichiyath MDF Goloor<br />
MDF Vandikadavu<br />
MDF Kurichiyad<br />
SEF Palammoola<br />
17 Muthanga MDF Muthanga<br />
SEF Noolpuzha<br />
18 Sulthan Bathery MDF Rampur<br />
P Muthanga North<br />
19 Aralam WLS EF Aralam<br />
EF Meenmutty<br />
313
2. Olavakkode Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Types Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
6 Nilambur North 20 Nilambur MDF KFRI Sub Center<br />
N Valluvassery Central Nursery<br />
MDF Valluvassery<br />
21 Edavanna MDF Edavanna<br />
22 Vazhikadavu MDF Nellikuthu,Karappuram<br />
SEF Nadukani Churam<br />
MDF Anamari<br />
7 Nilambur South 23 Kalikavu MDF Padukka, Palayankara<br />
24 Karulai SEF Injar<br />
SEF Nedumkayam<br />
MDF Churulipotti<br />
MDF Kanjiramkodu<br />
SEF Paattakarimbu<br />
8 Mannarkad 25 Attappadi WEF Panthanthodu<br />
EF Mukkali<br />
26 Agali MDF Manjachola<br />
MDF Kollankadavu<br />
SEF Paravalavu<br />
MDF Kallamala<br />
MDF Agali<br />
27 Mannarkad EF Mandampotty<br />
SEF Churam<br />
9 Palakkad 28 Olavakode MDF Mundoor<br />
MDF Dhoni<br />
29 Walayar 240msl MDF Pudussery North (Palamarakoopu)<br />
MDF Vattappara<br />
30 Ottapalam P Ottapalam<br />
10 Nemmara 31 Nelliyampathy EF Pothumala<br />
32 Kollengode P Kollengode<br />
33 Alathur P Alathur<br />
11 Silent Valley NP 34 Silent Valley NP WEF Sirendhri<br />
12 Parambikulam WLD 35 Sungam EF Pandaravarii<br />
P Sungam Teak plantationn.<br />
36 Parambikulam MDF Parambikulam<br />
SEF Seethathodu<br />
MDF Thunakadavu<br />
SEF Pooppara<br />
37 Orukomban P Orukomban<br />
38 Karimala P / MDF Karimala<br />
314
3. Central Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD No <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR<br />
No<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Types Locality<br />
13 Trichur 39 Vadakkanchery P / MDF Poongodu, Arissery<br />
P / MDF Perinkunnam<br />
P Kayampoovam<br />
P / MDF Mayannur, Beetikunnu<br />
P / MDF Methukku<br />
P / MDF Poolakunnu<br />
MDF Kuttimaruthu<br />
40 Pattikkad SEF Kuthiran, Van Vijnanakendram<br />
41 Machad MDF Machad<br />
SEF Vazhani part <strong>of</strong> Machade<br />
MDF Ungumchola<br />
MDF Akamala<br />
MDF Attoor, Asurankundu dam<br />
14 Chalakudy 42 Pariyaram MDF Thumburmuzhi<br />
MDF Karikadu<br />
43 Palappilly MDF Veluppadam<br />
N Chettikulam Central Nursery<br />
MDF Palappilly<br />
44 Vellikulangara EF Anapandam, Thachampally Reserve<br />
EF Adivarathodu<br />
P / MDF Punnakuzhi, way Rama Varma Teak <strong>Plant</strong>ation<br />
15 Vazhachal 45 Charpa SEF Charpa<br />
EF Anappara<br />
P / SEF Panjanamkuthu<br />
46 Vazhachal SEF Vazhachal<br />
EF Sidhanpocket<br />
MDF Irumpupalam<br />
47 Sholayar 900msl EF Malakkappara<br />
EF Anakayam<br />
EF KKN Plot Upper Sholayar<br />
48 Kollathirumedu EF Karadippara<br />
EF Thavalakuzhippara<br />
SEF Pathadipalam<br />
49 Athirappally P / MDF Vettilappara<br />
P / MDF Athirappally<br />
16 Malayattur 50 Kalady MDF Vazhakulam South<br />
P Kalady<br />
51 Kodanadu P / MDF Kottappara<br />
P / MDF Pezhad<br />
P / MDF Plamudi<br />
P / MDF Paniyeli<br />
MDF Vembooram<br />
52 Thundathil MDF Malayattoor<br />
MDF Pondanthodu<br />
MDF Thundam<br />
SEF Idamalayar<br />
SEF Bhoothathankettu<br />
53 Kuttampuzha P Kuttampuzha<br />
17 Peechi WLD 54 Peechi-Vazhani MDF Peechi KFRI Campus<br />
N Orappanppara KFRI Nursery<br />
N Marottichal KFD Nursery<br />
SEF Kuthiran (Peechi side)<br />
MDF KFRI Medicinal Garden<br />
55 Chimmony SEF Chimmony Dam site<br />
P Chimmony<br />
315
4. High Range Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
Types<br />
18 Kothamangalam 56 Thodupuzha P Vazhakulam<br />
57 Kothamangalam P Orukunnu<br />
58 Kaliyar P Kaliyar<br />
59 Mullaringad P Mullaringad<br />
19 Munnar 60 Munnar SEF Mattupetti<br />
SF Mannavan Shola<br />
61 Marayur SF Pambadum Shola<br />
P / SEF Vattavada<br />
SEF Chunduvaraii<br />
P / MDF Anakallu<br />
P / MDF Marayur Sandal Plot<br />
62 Devikulam SEF Upper Devikulam<br />
SF Old Devikulam Shola<br />
SEF Devikulam<br />
SEF Devikulam Lake<br />
SF Devimala Shola<br />
63 Adimali P Kaithachal<br />
P / MDF Chenkulam<br />
64 Neryamangalam MDF Injathotti, Munippara<br />
MDF Adichili<br />
MDF Valara<br />
20 Mankulam 65 Mankulam SEF Mankulam<br />
66 Anakulam P Anakulam<br />
21 Kottayam 67 Erumeli MDF Plappilly, Erumeli<br />
68 Ayyappancoil SEF Kanjiyar (Pezhumkandam)<br />
P / MDF Ayyappancoil<br />
69 Nagarampara MDF Nagarampara<br />
P Nagarampara Eucaly. <strong>Plant</strong>ation<br />
70 Kumili MDF Kumili<br />
22 Idukki WLD 71 Idukki MDF Cheruthoni<br />
72 Thattekkad SEF Thattekkad<br />
23 Eravikulam WLD 73 Eravikulam NP SF Eravikulam<br />
74 Chinnar DDF Chinnar<br />
DDF Chinnar to Marayur<br />
24 Thekkady WLD 75 Thekkady SEF Thekkady<br />
76 Vallakkadavu SEF Vallakadavu<br />
EF Pachakkanam<br />
SEF Gavi<br />
*<br />
FD No: <strong>Forest</strong> Division Code; FR No: <strong>Forest</strong> Range Code; DDF: Dry Deciduous <strong>Forest</strong>; MDF: Moist Deciduous<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>; SEF: Semi Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; EF: Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; WEF: Wet Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; SF: Shola <strong>Forest</strong>; MS:<br />
Myristica Swamp <strong>Forest</strong>; P / MDF: <strong>Plant</strong>ations within Moist Deciduous <strong>Forest</strong>; P / SEF: <strong>Plant</strong>ations within Semi<br />
Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; P: <strong>Plant</strong>ations; N: Nurseries<br />
316
5. Southern Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
Types<br />
25 Ranni 77 Ranni MDF Chittar<br />
SEF Kattachira<br />
SEF Neelipilavu<br />
SEF Angamoozhy<br />
SEF Ottuppara<br />
78 Goodrickal EF Gurunathanmannu<br />
MDF Rajampara<br />
SEF Nilakkal<br />
EF Chinnakayam<br />
EF Chalakayam<br />
EF Manipuzha<br />
SEF Plachery<br />
SEF Pamba<br />
SEF Kundanpuzha<br />
79 Vadasserikkara SEF Chelikuzhi<br />
SEF Nellimala, Kanamala<br />
MDF Elavumkallu<br />
26 Konni 80 Konni N Konni Nursery<br />
N North Kumaramperur<br />
P / MDF Ilamullumplakal<br />
81 Naduvathumuzhi P / MDF Naduvathumuzhi<br />
P / MDF Kokkathodu<br />
82 Mannarappara P Mannarappara<br />
27 Achenkovil 83 Achenkovil P / MDF Achenkovil<br />
84 Kallar P / MDF Kallar<br />
85 Kanayar P / MDF Kanayar<br />
28 Punalur 86 Anchal P / MDF Pathupara<br />
P / MDF Kelankavu<br />
SEF Urakkathumpara<br />
MDF Onthupacha<br />
SEF Sanjeevani Vanam<br />
P / MDF Maruthimoodu<br />
87 Pathanapuram P / MDF Punnala<br />
P / MDF Kadakam<br />
MDF Kaithakettu<br />
29 Thenmala 88 Arienkavu P / MDF Arienkavu<br />
89 Thenmala P / MDF Kattileppara<br />
SEF Palaruvi<br />
P / MDF Choodal<br />
30 Trivandrum 90 Kulathupuzha N Kandamchira KFD Nursery<br />
MS Arippa<br />
MDF Peringamala, Chittoor<br />
P / MDF Kulathupuzha<br />
N Kandamchira<br />
P / MDF Kulathupuzha KFRI Plot<br />
P / MDF Choolady<br />
EF Ammayambalam<br />
91 Palode SEF Braemore<br />
P / MDF Palode<br />
92 Paruthippally SEF Ponmudi<br />
31 Shendurney WLD 93 Shendurney P / MDF Sangily, Nadathara<br />
94 Peppara MDF Peppara<br />
32 Trivandrum WLD 95 Neyyar MDF Neyyar dam site<br />
33 Agasthyavanam<br />
*<br />
96 Agasthyavanam SEF Kottoor Reserve<br />
317
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
Appendix II: Coniella species identified from different host plants in the Western Ghats, <strong>Kerala</strong><br />
Herb<br />
No<br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
types<br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
Range<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> locality Host Botanical Name Disease Sev<br />
erit<br />
1473 P Anchal Kelankavu Acacia<br />
auriculiformis A.<br />
Cunn.ex Benth.<br />
4347 MDF Marayur Marayur Anogeissus latifolia<br />
(Roxb.ex DC.)<br />
Wall.ex Guill. &<br />
Perr.<br />
2919 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Azadirachta indica<br />
Vazhani Nursery A. Juss.<br />
4228 N Palappilly Central Nursery<br />
Chettikulam<br />
3274 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Butea monosperma<br />
(Lam.) Taub.<br />
4229 N Palappilly Central Nursery<br />
Stem<br />
Infection<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Fungal Genera<br />
isolate 1<br />
y<br />
L Coniella<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
L Coniella<br />
Bombax ceiba L. Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
Canthium sp Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
Chettikulam<br />
Spot<br />
3345 EF Periya Chandanathodu Careya arborea Leaf M Coniella petrakii<br />
Roxb.<br />
Target<br />
Spot<br />
145 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Cleistanthus collinus Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
Benth.<br />
Spot<br />
3636 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Dalbergia latifolia Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
Vazhani Nursery Roxb.<br />
Blotch<br />
3317 EF Periya Chandanathodu Erythropalum Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
scandens Blume Angular<br />
Spot<br />
1485 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella<br />
ram<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1486 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf Tip L Coniella<br />
ram<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Blight<br />
1548 P Kulathupu Kandamchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella<br />
zha<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1489 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
ram<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1546 P Kulathupu Kandamchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
zha<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1685 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Blotch<br />
2582 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha KFDC<br />
camaldulensis Spot<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations Dehnh.<br />
2583 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha KFDC<br />
camaldulensis Spot<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations Dehnh.<br />
312
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
2584 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2586 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
Eucalyptus<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Eucalyptus<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations Dehnh.<br />
1684 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
spot<br />
3000 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus citriodora Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
zha Central Nursery Hook.<br />
Spot<br />
3019 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip H Coniella<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blight<br />
1611 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
1616 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
1617 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
1623 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
3002 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3008 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3012 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
3006 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
vein<br />
+ Coniella<br />
banding austalensis<br />
3011 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip M Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blight + Coniella minima<br />
2998 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
2999 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
3003 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3017 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3020 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone K3 Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
2472 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella<br />
u HNL Nursery KFRI 16<br />
Blotch<br />
3010 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery KFRI 25<br />
Spot<br />
2476 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella<br />
u HNL Nursery KFRI 49<br />
Blotch<br />
2580 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone P Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
14<br />
Spot<br />
3340 P Periya Chandanathodu Eucalyptus grandis Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
Hill ex Maiden Spot<br />
2819 P Kalpetta Thariode 11th Eucalyptus grandis Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
mile<br />
Hill ex Maiden Blotch<br />
313
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
2570 N Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2579 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2590 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2592 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
3001 N Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
Central Nursery<br />
Decent Mook<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
Central Nursery<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
4222 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Chettikulam Muell.<br />
4225 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Chettikulam Muell.<br />
1526 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith.<br />
139 P Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1474 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1514 P Pathanapu Kaithakettu Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1519 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1523 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1525 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1597 P Kulathupu Kulathupuzha Eucalyptus<br />
zha<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1670 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1678 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1733 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1739 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2576 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2591 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2596 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2773 N Nilambur Central Nursery Eucalyptus<br />
Valluvassery tereticornis Smith<br />
3277 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Target<br />
spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
spot<br />
Leaf<br />
spot<br />
Leaf<br />
blotch<br />
Concent<br />
ric Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
H Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
H Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
H Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
314
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
3278 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Spot<br />
3886 SEF Karulai Pattakarimbu Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Blotch<br />
3887 SEF Karulai Pattakarimbu Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Blotch<br />
4234 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
Chettikulam tereticornis Smith Spot<br />
1740 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith spot<br />
3280 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Spot<br />
1669 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Blotch + Coniella graneti<br />
2995 P Kulathupu Arippa Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella granatii<br />
zha<br />
tereticornis Smith Tar Spot<br />
1618 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery Blake<br />
Blotch<br />
1619 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery Blake<br />
Spot<br />
1681 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
Blake<br />
Blotch<br />
3005 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery Blake<br />
Blotch<br />
1321 MDF Tholpetty Tholpetty Fern Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
211 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch<br />
1816 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Garcinia gummi - Leaf L Coniella minima<br />
Vazhani Nursery gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch<br />
2981 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
Vanam<br />
gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch<br />
2376 EF Vellikulan Anapandam Gmelina arborea Leaf M Coniella<br />
gara<br />
Roxb.<br />
Spot /<br />
Target<br />
spot<br />
3677 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Gmelina arborea Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
Roxb.<br />
Blotch<br />
3775 N Palappilly Central Nursery Holarrhena<br />
Leaf H Coniella<br />
Chettikulam pubescens (Buch.-<br />
Ham.) Wall.ex G.<br />
Don<br />
Spot<br />
3674 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Leea indica<br />
Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
(Burm.f.) Merr. Tip<br />
Blight<br />
2444 MDF Thundathil Panthanthodu Macaranga peltata Leaf M Coniella<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Blotch<br />
4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella<br />
l<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Target<br />
Spot<br />
1759 MDF Palappilly Veluppadam Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg spot<br />
australiensis<br />
1566 P/SEF Kulathupu Arippa Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Spot<br />
4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
315
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
l (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Target<br />
Spot<br />
4342 MDF Ayyappan Periyakanal- Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
kovil Anayirangal (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot<br />
1484 P/MDF Pathanapu Kadakam Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
ram<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot<br />
1688 P/MDF Kodanadu Kottapara Mikania micrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
H.B.K.<br />
spot<br />
3683 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Ochlandra<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
travancorica Benth.<br />
ex Gamble<br />
Spot<br />
4120 EF Goodricka Chinnakayam Ochlandra<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
l<br />
travancorica Benth. Target<br />
ex Gamble<br />
Spot<br />
3675 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
(Nees) Kosterm. Spot<br />
2975 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella frageriae<br />
Vanam<br />
(Nees) Kosterm. Gall<br />
3283 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Pongamia glabra Leaf L Coniella<br />
Vent.<br />
Tip<br />
Blight<br />
4226 N Palappilly Central Nursery Strychnos nux- Sooty M Coniella fragariae<br />
Chettikulam vomica L.<br />
Mould<br />
2977 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Syzygium<br />
Leaf M Coniella petrakii<br />
Vanam<br />
caryophyllatum (L.)<br />
Alston<br />
Spot<br />
3357 EF Periya Chandanathodu Syzygium<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
mundagam (Bourd.)<br />
Chitra<br />
Spot<br />
147 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Tabernaemontana Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
heyneana Wall. Spot<br />
2697 MDF Agasthyav Kotoor Terminalia chebula Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
anam<br />
Retz.<br />
Spot<br />
146 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Terminalia<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
paniculata Roth Spot<br />
144 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Terminalia<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
paniculata Roth Spot<br />
3891 MDF Kodanadu Vembooram Tetramelus nudiflora Leaf M Coniella<br />
R.Br.<br />
Spot<br />
1789 SEF Chimmon Chimmony Dam Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella<br />
y<br />
plant<br />
spot<br />
3292 EF Periya Chandanathodu Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella minima<br />
plant<br />
Angular<br />
Spot<br />
3609 N Nilambur Central Nursery Vateria indica L. Leaf L Coniella<br />
Valluvassery<br />
Blotch castaneicola<br />
316
Appendix I: Details on sites selected for the fungal biodiversity study in the Western Ghats<br />
1.Northern Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Types Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
1 Kannur 1 Kannavam N Kadalkandam Nursery<br />
N Cheruvanchery Nursery<br />
SEF Mundayadu Medicinal Garden<br />
SEF Kadalkandam<br />
SEF Peruvam<br />
MDF Kannoth<br />
EF Nedumpoyil<br />
2 Kottiyur EF Kottiyur<br />
3 Thaliparamba MDF Thaliparamba<br />
4 Kanhangad EF Manjuchola<br />
5 Kasaragod SEF Parappa<br />
2 Calicut 6 Peruvannamoozhy P Peruvannamuzhy<br />
7 Kuttiyadi MDF Kuttiyadi<br />
8 Thamarassery EF Kanalad<br />
SEF Thamarassery Churam<br />
MDF Thenhippalam<br />
3 Wayanad North 9 Begur SEF Thrissillery, Muthumary<br />
SEF Ambalamoola<br />
EF Brahmagiri<br />
EF Kuruva Island<br />
10 Periya EF Chandanathodu<br />
EF Periya<br />
SEF Alat<br />
SEF Ambalakkandy<br />
11 Mananthavady MDF Mananthavady<br />
MDF Varayal<br />
4 Wayanad South 12 Kalpetta P / MDF Thariode<br />
SEF Kalpetta<br />
SEF Puthurvayal<br />
MDF Manikunnumala<br />
13 Meppady MDF Kaappankolli<br />
SF Meppady chola, Chembra peek<br />
MDF Pookodu<br />
14 Chethalath MDF Chethalath<br />
MDF Kuppady<br />
5 Wyanad WLD 15 Tholpetty MDF Tholpetty<br />
MDF Kudhirakkode<br />
MDF Appapara<br />
MDF Kattikulam<br />
SEF Thirunelli<br />
SEF Moolappara<br />
16 Kurichiyath MDF Goloor<br />
MDF Vandikadavu<br />
MDF Kurichiyad<br />
SEF Palammoola<br />
17 Muthanga MDF Muthanga<br />
SEF Noolpuzha<br />
18 Sulthan Bathery MDF Rampur<br />
P Muthanga North<br />
19 Aralam WLS EF Aralam<br />
EF Meenmutty<br />
313
2. Olavakkode Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Types Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
6 Nilambur North 20 Nilambur MDF KFRI Sub Center<br />
N Valluvassery Central Nursery<br />
MDF Valluvassery<br />
21 Edavanna MDF Edavanna<br />
22 Vazhikadavu MDF Nellikuthu,Karappuram<br />
SEF Nadukani Churam<br />
MDF Anamari<br />
7 Nilambur South 23 Kalikavu MDF Padukka, Palayankara<br />
24 Karulai SEF Injar<br />
SEF Nedumkayam<br />
MDF Churulipotti<br />
MDF Kanjiramkodu<br />
SEF Paattakarimbu<br />
8 Mannarkad 25 Attappadi WEF Panthanthodu<br />
EF Mukkali<br />
26 Agali MDF Manjachola<br />
MDF Kollankadavu<br />
SEF Paravalavu<br />
MDF Kallamala<br />
MDF Agali<br />
27 Mannarkad EF Mandampotty<br />
SEF Churam<br />
9 Palakkad 28 Olavakode MDF Mundoor<br />
MDF Dhoni<br />
29 Walayar 240msl MDF Pudussery North (Palamarakoopu)<br />
MDF Vattappara<br />
30 Ottapalam P Ottapalam<br />
10 Nemmara 31 Nelliyampathy EF Pothumala<br />
32 Kollengode P Kollengode<br />
33 Alathur P Alathur<br />
11 Silent Valley NP 34 Silent Valley NP WEF Sirendhri<br />
12 Parambikulam WLD 35 Sungam EF Pandaravarii<br />
P Sungam Teak plantationn.<br />
36 Parambikulam MDF Parambikulam<br />
SEF Seethathodu<br />
MDF Thunakadavu<br />
SEF Pooppara<br />
37 Orukomban P Orukomban<br />
38 Karimala P / MDF Karimala<br />
314
3. Central Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD No <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR<br />
No<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Types Locality<br />
13 Trichur 39 Vadakkanchery P / MDF Poongodu, Arissery<br />
P / MDF Perinkunnam<br />
P Kayampoovam<br />
P / MDF Mayannur, Beetikunnu<br />
P / MDF Methukku<br />
P / MDF Poolakunnu<br />
MDF Kuttimaruthu<br />
40 Pattikkad SEF Kuthiran, Van Vijnanakendram<br />
41 Machad MDF Machad<br />
SEF Vazhani part <strong>of</strong> Machade<br />
MDF Ungumchola<br />
MDF Akamala<br />
MDF Attoor, Asurankundu dam<br />
14 Chalakudy 42 Pariyaram MDF Thumburmuzhi<br />
MDF Karikadu<br />
43 Palappilly MDF Veluppadam<br />
N Chettikulam Central Nursery<br />
MDF Palappilly<br />
44 Vellikulangara EF Anapandam, Thachampally Reserve<br />
EF Adivarathodu<br />
P / MDF Punnakuzhi, way Rama Varma Teak <strong>Plant</strong>ation<br />
15 Vazhachal 45 Charpa SEF Charpa<br />
EF Anappara<br />
P / SEF Panjanamkuthu<br />
46 Vazhachal SEF Vazhachal<br />
EF Sidhanpocket<br />
MDF Irumpupalam<br />
47 Sholayar 900msl EF Malakkappara<br />
EF Anakayam<br />
EF KKN Plot Upper Sholayar<br />
48 Kollathirumedu EF Karadippara<br />
EF Thavalakuzhippara<br />
SEF Pathadipalam<br />
49 Athirappally P / MDF Vettilappara<br />
P / MDF Athirappally<br />
16 Malayattur 50 Kalady MDF Vazhakulam South<br />
P Kalady<br />
51 Kodanadu P / MDF Kottappara<br />
P / MDF Pezhad<br />
P / MDF Plamudi<br />
P / MDF Paniyeli<br />
MDF Vembooram<br />
52 Thundathil MDF Malayattoor<br />
MDF Pondanthodu<br />
MDF Thundam<br />
SEF Idamalayar<br />
SEF Bhoothathankettu<br />
53 Kuttampuzha P Kuttampuzha<br />
17 Peechi WLD 54 Peechi-Vazhani MDF Peechi KFRI Campus<br />
N Orappanppara KFRI Nursery<br />
N Marottichal KFD Nursery<br />
SEF Kuthiran (Peechi side)<br />
MDF KFRI Medicinal Garden<br />
55 Chimmony SEF Chimmony Dam site<br />
P Chimmony<br />
315
4. High Range Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
Types<br />
18 Kothamangalam 56 Thodupuzha P Vazhakulam<br />
57 Kothamangalam P Orukunnu<br />
58 Kaliyar P Kaliyar<br />
59 Mullaringad P Mullaringad<br />
19 Munnar 60 Munnar SEF Mattupetti<br />
SF Mannavan Shola<br />
61 Marayur SF Pambadum Shola<br />
P / SEF Vattavada<br />
SEF Chunduvaraii<br />
P / MDF Anakallu<br />
P / MDF Marayur Sandal Plot<br />
62 Devikulam SEF Upper Devikulam<br />
SF Old Devikulam Shola<br />
SEF Devikulam<br />
SEF Devikulam Lake<br />
SF Devimala Shola<br />
63 Adimali P Kaithachal<br />
P / MDF Chenkulam<br />
64 Neryamangalam MDF Injathotti, Munippara<br />
MDF Adichili<br />
MDF Valara<br />
20 Mankulam 65 Mankulam SEF Mankulam<br />
66 Anakulam P Anakulam<br />
21 Kottayam 67 Erumeli MDF Plappilly, Erumeli<br />
68 Ayyappancoil SEF Kanjiyar (Pezhumkandam)<br />
P / MDF Ayyappancoil<br />
69 Nagarampara MDF Nagarampara<br />
P Nagarampara Eucaly. <strong>Plant</strong>ation<br />
70 Kumili MDF Kumili<br />
22 Idukki WLD 71 Idukki MDF Cheruthoni<br />
72 Thattekkad SEF Thattekkad<br />
23 Eravikulam WLD 73 Eravikulam NP SF Eravikulam<br />
74 Chinnar DDF Chinnar<br />
DDF Chinnar to Marayur<br />
24 Thekkady WLD 75 Thekkady SEF Thekkady<br />
76 Vallakkadavu SEF Vallakadavu<br />
EF Pachakkanam<br />
SEF Gavi<br />
*<br />
FD No: <strong>Forest</strong> Division Code; FR No: <strong>Forest</strong> Range Code; DDF: Dry Deciduous <strong>Forest</strong>; MDF: Moist Deciduous<br />
<strong>Forest</strong>; SEF: Semi Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; EF: Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; WEF: Wet Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; SF: Shola <strong>Forest</strong>; MS:<br />
Myristica Swamp <strong>Forest</strong>; P / MDF: <strong>Plant</strong>ations within Moist Deciduous <strong>Forest</strong>; P / SEF: <strong>Plant</strong>ations within Semi<br />
Evergreen <strong>Forest</strong>; P: <strong>Plant</strong>ations; N: Nurseries<br />
316
5. Southern Circle and Protected Areas<br />
FD <strong>Forest</strong> Divisions FR <strong>Forest</strong> Ranges <strong>Forest</strong> Locality<br />
No<br />
No<br />
Types<br />
25 Ranni 77 Ranni MDF Chittar<br />
SEF Kattachira<br />
SEF Neelipilavu<br />
SEF Angamoozhy<br />
SEF Ottuppara<br />
78 Goodrickal EF Gurunathanmannu<br />
MDF Rajampara<br />
SEF Nilakkal<br />
EF Chinnakayam<br />
EF Chalakayam<br />
EF Manipuzha<br />
SEF Plachery<br />
SEF Pamba<br />
SEF Kundanpuzha<br />
79 Vadasserikkara SEF Chelikuzhi<br />
SEF Nellimala, Kanamala<br />
MDF Elavumkallu<br />
26 Konni 80 Konni N Konni Nursery<br />
N North Kumaramperur<br />
P / MDF Ilamullumplakal<br />
81 Naduvathumuzhi P / MDF Naduvathumuzhi<br />
P / MDF Kokkathodu<br />
82 Mannarappara P Mannarappara<br />
27 Achenkovil 83 Achenkovil P / MDF Achenkovil<br />
84 Kallar P / MDF Kallar<br />
85 Kanayar P / MDF Kanayar<br />
28 Punalur 86 Anchal P / MDF Pathupara<br />
P / MDF Kelankavu<br />
SEF Urakkathumpara<br />
MDF Onthupacha<br />
SEF Sanjeevani Vanam<br />
P / MDF Maruthimoodu<br />
87 Pathanapuram P / MDF Punnala<br />
P / MDF Kadakam<br />
MDF Kaithakettu<br />
29 Thenmala 88 Arienkavu P / MDF Arienkavu<br />
89 Thenmala P / MDF Kattileppara<br />
SEF Palaruvi<br />
P / MDF Choodal<br />
30 Trivandrum 90 Kulathupuzha N Kandamchira KFD Nursery<br />
MS Arippa<br />
MDF Peringamala, Chittoor<br />
P / MDF Kulathupuzha<br />
N Kandamchira<br />
P / MDF Kulathupuzha KFRI Plot<br />
P / MDF Choolady<br />
EF Ammayambalam<br />
91 Palode SEF Braemore<br />
P / MDF Palode<br />
92 Paruthippally SEF Ponmudi<br />
31 Shendurney WLD 93 Shendurney P / MDF Sangily, Nadathara<br />
94 Peppara MDF Peppara<br />
32 Trivandrum WLD 95 Neyyar MDF Neyyar dam site<br />
33 Agasthyavanam<br />
*<br />
96 Agasthyavanam SEF Kottoor Reserve<br />
317
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
Appendix II: Coniella species identified from different host plants in the Western Ghats, <strong>Kerala</strong><br />
Herb<br />
No<br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
types<br />
<strong>Forest</strong><br />
Range<br />
<strong>Forest</strong> locality Host Botanical Name Disease Sev<br />
erit<br />
1473 P Anchal Kelankavu Acacia<br />
auriculiformis A.<br />
Cunn.ex Benth.<br />
4347 MDF Marayur Marayur Anogeissus latifolia<br />
(Roxb.ex DC.)<br />
Wall.ex Guill. &<br />
Perr.<br />
2919 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Azadirachta indica<br />
Vazhani Nursery A. Juss.<br />
4228 N Palappilly Central Nursery<br />
Chettikulam<br />
3274 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Butea monosperma<br />
(Lam.) Taub.<br />
4229 N Palappilly Central Nursery<br />
Stem<br />
Infection<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Fungal Genera<br />
isolate 1<br />
y<br />
L Coniella<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
L Coniella<br />
Bombax ceiba L. Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
Canthium sp Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
Chettikulam<br />
Spot<br />
3345 EF Periya Chandanathodu Careya arborea Leaf M Coniella petrakii<br />
Roxb.<br />
Target<br />
Spot<br />
145 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Cleistanthus collinus Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
Benth.<br />
Spot<br />
3636 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Dalbergia latifolia Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
Vazhani Nursery Roxb.<br />
Blotch<br />
3317 EF Periya Chandanathodu Erythropalum Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
scandens Blume Angular<br />
Spot<br />
1485 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella<br />
ram<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1486 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf Tip L Coniella<br />
ram<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Blight<br />
1548 P Kulathupu Kandamchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella<br />
zha<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1489 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
ram<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1546 P Kulathupu Kandamchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
zha<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Spot<br />
1685 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Blotch<br />
2582 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha KFDC<br />
camaldulensis Spot<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations Dehnh.<br />
2583 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha KFDC<br />
camaldulensis Spot<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations Dehnh.<br />
312
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
2584 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2586 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
Eucalyptus<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
Eucalyptus<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations Dehnh.<br />
1684 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
camaldulensis<br />
Dehnh.<br />
spot<br />
3000 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus citriodora Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
zha Central Nursery Hook.<br />
Spot<br />
3019 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip H Coniella<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blight<br />
1611 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
1616 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
1617 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
1623 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
3002 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3008 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3012 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
3006 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
vein<br />
+ Coniella<br />
banding austalensis<br />
3011 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip M Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blight + Coniella minima<br />
2998 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
2999 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Blotch<br />
3003 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3017 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
3020 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone K3 Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery<br />
Spot<br />
2472 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella<br />
u HNL Nursery KFRI 16<br />
Blotch<br />
3010 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery KFRI 25<br />
Spot<br />
2476 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella<br />
u HNL Nursery KFRI 49<br />
Blotch<br />
2580 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone P Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
14<br />
Spot<br />
3340 P Periya Chandanathodu Eucalyptus grandis Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
Hill ex Maiden Spot<br />
2819 P Kalpetta Thariode 11th Eucalyptus grandis Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
mile<br />
Hill ex Maiden Blotch<br />
313
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
2570 N Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2579 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2590 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
2592 P Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
3001 N Kulathupu<br />
zha<br />
Central Nursery<br />
Decent Mook<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
Kandanchira<br />
Central Nursery<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Muell.<br />
4222 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Chettikulam Muell.<br />
4225 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus pellita<br />
Chettikulam Muell.<br />
1526 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith.<br />
139 P Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1474 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1514 P Pathanapu Kaithakettu Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1519 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1523 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1525 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus<br />
ram<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1597 P Kulathupu Kulathupuzha Eucalyptus<br />
zha<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1670 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1678 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1733 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
1739 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2576 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2591 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2596 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus<br />
zha KFDC<br />
<strong>Plant</strong>ations<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
2773 N Nilambur Central Nursery Eucalyptus<br />
Valluvassery tereticornis Smith<br />
3277 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus<br />
tereticornis Smith<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Target<br />
spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
spot<br />
Leaf<br />
spot<br />
Leaf<br />
blotch<br />
Concent<br />
ric Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
Leaf<br />
Blotch<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
H Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
H Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
H Coniella fragariae<br />
M Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
314
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
3278 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Spot<br />
3886 SEF Karulai Pattakarimbu Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Blotch<br />
3887 SEF Karulai Pattakarimbu Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Blotch<br />
4234 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
Chettikulam tereticornis Smith Spot<br />
1740 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith spot<br />
3280 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Spot<br />
1669 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
tereticornis Smith Blotch + Coniella graneti<br />
2995 P Kulathupu Arippa Eucalyptus<br />
Leaf H Coniella granatii<br />
zha<br />
tereticornis Smith Tar Spot<br />
1618 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery Blake<br />
Blotch<br />
1619 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery Blake<br />
Spot<br />
1681 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
Blake<br />
Blotch<br />
3005 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
zha Central Nursery Blake<br />
Blotch<br />
1321 MDF Tholpetty Tholpetty Fern Leaf<br />
Spot<br />
L Coniella fragariae<br />
211 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch<br />
1816 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Garcinia gummi - Leaf L Coniella minima<br />
Vazhani Nursery gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch<br />
2981 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima<br />
Vanam<br />
gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch<br />
2376 EF Vellikulan Anapandam Gmelina arborea Leaf M Coniella<br />
gara<br />
Roxb.<br />
Spot /<br />
Target<br />
spot<br />
3677 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Gmelina arborea Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
Roxb.<br />
Blotch<br />
3775 N Palappilly Central Nursery Holarrhena<br />
Leaf H Coniella<br />
Chettikulam pubescens (Buch.-<br />
Ham.) Wall.ex G.<br />
Don<br />
Spot<br />
3674 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Leea indica<br />
Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
(Burm.f.) Merr. Tip<br />
Blight<br />
2444 MDF Thundathil Panthanthodu Macaranga peltata Leaf M Coniella<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Blotch<br />
4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella<br />
l<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Target<br />
Spot<br />
1759 MDF Palappilly Veluppadam Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg spot<br />
australiensis<br />
1566 P/SEF Kulathupu Arippa Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
zha<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Spot<br />
4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
315
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Plant</strong> <strong>Pathogenic</strong> <strong>Fungi</strong> in the <strong>Kerala</strong> Part <strong>of</strong> Western Ghats Appendices<br />
(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment and <strong>Forest</strong>s, Govt. <strong>of</strong> India)<br />
_____________________________________________________<br />
l (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Target<br />
Spot<br />
4342 MDF Ayyappan Periyakanal- Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
kovil Anayirangal (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot<br />
1484 P/MDF Pathanapu Kadakam Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
ram<br />
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot<br />
1688 P/MDF Kodanadu Kottapara Mikania micrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
H.B.K.<br />
spot<br />
3683 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Ochlandra<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
travancorica Benth.<br />
ex Gamble<br />
Spot<br />
4120 EF Goodricka Chinnakayam Ochlandra<br />
Leaf H Coniella fragariae<br />
l<br />
travancorica Benth. Target<br />
ex Gamble<br />
Spot<br />
3675 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
ly<br />
(Nees) Kosterm. Spot<br />
2975 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella frageriae<br />
Vanam<br />
(Nees) Kosterm. Gall<br />
3283 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Pongamia glabra Leaf L Coniella<br />
Vent.<br />
Tip<br />
Blight<br />
4226 N Palappilly Central Nursery Strychnos nux- Sooty M Coniella fragariae<br />
Chettikulam vomica L.<br />
Mould<br />
2977 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Syzygium<br />
Leaf M Coniella petrakii<br />
Vanam<br />
caryophyllatum (L.)<br />
Alston<br />
Spot<br />
3357 EF Periya Chandanathodu Syzygium<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
mundagam (Bourd.)<br />
Chitra<br />
Spot<br />
147 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Tabernaemontana Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
heyneana Wall. Spot<br />
2697 MDF Agasthyav Kotoor Terminalia chebula Leaf M Coniella fragariae<br />
anam<br />
Retz.<br />
Spot<br />
146 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Terminalia<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
paniculata Roth Spot<br />
144 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Terminalia<br />
Leaf L Coniella fragariae<br />
paniculata Roth Spot<br />
3891 MDF Kodanadu Vembooram Tetramelus nudiflora Leaf M Coniella<br />
R.Br.<br />
Spot<br />
1789 SEF Chimmon Chimmony Dam Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella<br />
y<br />
plant<br />
spot<br />
3292 EF Periya Chandanathodu Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella minima<br />
plant<br />
Angular<br />
Spot<br />
3609 N Nilambur Central Nursery Vateria indica L. Leaf L Coniella<br />
Valluvassery<br />
Blotch castaneicola<br />
316
CONCLUSIONS<br />
The forests in the <strong>Kerala</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats support a rich pathogenic fungal flora.<br />
The distribution and level <strong>of</strong> parasitism <strong>of</strong> various fungi in different forest ecosystems are<br />
governed mostly by the climatic and edaphic factors as well as host parasite interrelationships.<br />
Among the forest ecosystems explored, maximum fungal species diversity<br />
was observed in forest plantations, which was followed by moist deciduous forests and<br />
semi-evergreen forests. <strong>Forest</strong> plantations support a rich pathogenic fungal flora and the<br />
plant - fungal ratio recorded in this ecosystem is as high as 1:14. In moist deciduous<br />
forests and semi-evergreen forests, the plant-fungal ratio is 1:3.1 and 1:3.48 respectively.<br />
The results show that monoculture plantations and disturbed forest ecosystems support a<br />
large number <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi, which cause root, stem, and foliage diseases and thrive<br />
well under conducive environmental conditions. Build up <strong>of</strong> pathogen inoculum occurs<br />
over the years and the disease caused by the fungal pathogen may even spread to an<br />
epidemic proportion. In forest plantations, eucalypts dominate the system and a single<br />
host species (Eucalyptus tereticornis) harbors more than 25 genera <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi.<br />
This is almost 25% <strong>of</strong> the total fungal genera encountered in the study. The recently<br />
introduced exotic plant, Acacia mangium also harbors 21 genera <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi, and<br />
was found severely affected with vascular wilt pathogen, Fusarium solani and root rot<br />
pathogen Ganoderma lucidum.<br />
The results show that exotic host species are more vulnerable to the indigenous fungal<br />
pathogens and the monoculture plantations serve as reservoir <strong>of</strong> inoculum <strong>of</strong> different<br />
phytopathogenic fungi. In forest nurseries the plant-fungal ratio is only 1: 3.8. Earlier,<br />
conventional seedbed nurseries supported a large number <strong>of</strong> pathogenic fungi and the<br />
recent technological change in the seedling production system using root trainers and<br />
high input management in nurseries excluded many nursery pathogens.<br />
Disturbances caused by anthropogenic factors including forest fires seem to be the<br />
important factor for incidence and spread <strong>of</strong> diseases and thereby the increase in<br />
271
pathogenic fungi. More fungi were encountered in disturbed stands than less disturbed<br />
stands in evergreen and wet evergreen forests. In evergreen and wet ever green forests,<br />
though fungal pathogens are found causing foliage infections, they are not probably<br />
making any serious damage to the systems. Diversity <strong>of</strong> obligate parasites like rust fungi<br />
is found more in evergreen, wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forest.<br />
With regard to the community and species composition, almost same fungal flora was<br />
observed in moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests and forest plantations,<br />
however, fungal species dominance and abundance occurred depending on the<br />
environmental conditions as well as host plants. Among the fungal groups, Mitosporic<br />
fungi were found widely distributed in all the forest ecosystems and exhibit wide host<br />
range. Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum causing diseases in forest nurseries and<br />
eucalypt plantations was found associated with more than 25 indigenous host species in<br />
wet evergreen, evergreen, semi-evergreen to moist deciduous forests, which reveals the<br />
adaptability <strong>of</strong> the pathogen in different ecosystems. <strong>Pathogenic</strong> fungi viz.,<br />
Colletotrichum state <strong>of</strong> Glomerella, Curvularia, Phomopsis, Guignardia, Phyllosticta,<br />
Calonectria, Corynespora, Fusarium, Myrothecium, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma,<br />
Cylindrocladium and Coniella are the most widely distributed ones in different forest<br />
ecosystems in the Western Ghats. Monoculture plantations in the Western Ghats serve as<br />
reservoir <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> phyopathogenic fungi, which may become threat to other<br />
crops in due course.<br />
Diversity is a dynamic aspect <strong>of</strong> ecosystems and whose importance and contributions to<br />
system functions are still not well understood. It is well known that listing <strong>of</strong> fungal<br />
species from various ecosystems without attempting to evaluate and understand the<br />
dynamic mechanisms that contribute to the observed patterns <strong>of</strong> total biodiversity is only<br />
describing the shadows <strong>of</strong> the ecological actors that are participating in a complex and<br />
interesting evolutionary play. Hence, more in-depth research programmes incorporating<br />
current methodologies <strong>of</strong> sampling designs that account for effects <strong>of</strong> scale on patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
fungal biodiversity – both temporal variation and spatial heterogeneity are warranted.<br />
272
Appendix II: Host Index<br />
Abrus precatorius L. 203<br />
Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93<br />
Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93<br />
Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. 159<br />
Acacia crassicarpa Cunn.ex Benth .93<br />
Acacia dealbata Link 91<br />
Acacia holosericea A.Cunn.ex Benth.94<br />
Acacia horida (L.f.) Willd. 93<br />
Acacia mangium Willd.41,51,93,131,165,175<br />
Achras sapota L. 99<br />
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight & Arn.36,67,79<br />
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. 83,93<br />
Actinodaphne madraspatana Bedd. 93,175<br />
Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr.65,100<br />
Adenanthera pavonina L. 93<br />
Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) Willd.67,94<br />
Adhatoda vasica Nees.67,93,175<br />
Adiantum lunulatum Burm.94,<br />
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.53,87,120,175,208<br />
Aganope thyrsiflora (Benth.) Polhill 94<br />
Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) King & Robins.53<br />
Aglaia lawii (Wight) Sald. 93<br />
Aglaia perviridis Hiern.230<br />
Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm & Binn. 93,230<br />
Agrostistachys borneensis Becc. 32,53,95,164<br />
Ailanthus sp. 208<br />
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston 40, 94,187<br />
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang 92, 164<br />
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. 87, 267<br />
Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. 73,93,267<br />
Albizia sp. 151<br />
Allamanda cathartica L.94,175<br />
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Rausch.94,128, 175, 230<br />
Alnus nepalensis Wall.ex Wight & Arn. 57<br />
Alpinia calcarata Rosc. 93<br />
Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. 53,164<br />
Alpinia sp. 93,230<br />
Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees 63<br />
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 93, 176, 230<br />
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 94<br />
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicols. 32<br />
Anacardium occidentale L. 92,136,231<br />
Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.133<br />
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.ex Grah. 93<br />
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees128<br />
Angiopteris erecta 93,208<br />
Annona reticulata L. 94,175<br />
Annona sp. 93<br />
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. DC.) Wall.ex Guill. &<br />
Perr. 39,93<br />
Anthodium sp. 93<br />
Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 100<br />
Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker.93,164<br />
Aporosa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. 53,82,93, 139<br />
Ardisia solanacea Roxb.93,175, 230<br />
Areca catechu L.93, 128, 164,230<br />
Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawl. 93, 128<br />
Argyreia hirsuta Wight & Arn.93,128, 164<br />
Aristolochia bracteata Retz. 93, 128,230<br />
Artocarpus gomezianus Wall ex Trek 93, 164, 208<br />
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.31, 93, 128, 208,230<br />
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.57, 94,230<br />
Artocarpus sp. 93<br />
Asplenium sp. 93, 164<br />
Asystasia gangetica T. And.93<br />
Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. 53,93, 164,230<br />
Averrhoa carambola L. 93,230<br />
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.90, 94, 128, 164,208,230<br />
Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell. - Arg. 32, 94,<br />
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell. - Arg. 87<br />
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss 66, 94,143, 230<br />
Bambusa vulgaris Schrader Wendl. 66,90<br />
Barleria sp. 93<br />
Bauhinia purpurea L.53,65,93,231<br />
Bauhinia racemosa Lam. 53,65,93,165<br />
Bauhinia sp.53,93,175<br />
Bauhinia variegata L.63,93,175,230<br />
Begonia floccifera Bedd.93,164<br />
Beilschmiedia wightii (Nees) Benth. ex Hook.f. 93<br />
Belamcanda chinensis 98<br />
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. 94,98,208<br />
Bisch<strong>of</strong>ia javanica Blume 31,36,93,131,175,230<br />
Bixa orellana L. 94<br />
Blachia umbellata Baill. 52,95<br />
Blepharistemma serratum (Dennst.) Suresh 155,230<br />
Blumea pterodonta DC. 93,164,230<br />
Bolbitis appendiculata 93<br />
Bolbitis sp. 97<br />
Bombax ceiba L. 36,38,74, 93,175,208,261<br />
Bombax insigne Wall. 94,261<br />
Borassus flabellifer L. 94,208,230<br />
Borreria latifolia (Aublet.) Schum. 94,128<br />
Briedelia airy-shawii P.T.Li 93,175,230<br />
Briedelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. 93,100,128,164<br />
Briedelia sp.93<br />
Briedelia squamosa Bl .94,129<br />
Buchanania lanzan Springer 93,100<br />
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.93<br />
Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb. 94,230<br />
Caesalpinia sappan L. 87,93,175,231<br />
Calamus hookerianus Becc.32<br />
Calamus sp.93<br />
Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Becc. & Hook. 32,67<br />
Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Becc. & Hook.f.67<br />
Calamus vattayila Renuka 57<br />
Calliandra sp.82<br />
Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray 93,231<br />
Calophyllum inophyllum L. 36<br />
Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex Choisy 94, 164<br />
Calotropis gigantea R.Br. 93,231<br />
Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Poir.53,57,176<br />
Camelia sinensis (L.) O.Ktze.53,147,175<br />
Canarium strictum Roxb.31,63<br />
Canthium neilgherrense Wight 63,231<br />
Canthium sp.93<br />
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. 93,175<br />
Careya arborea Roxb.82<br />
Caryota urens L. 53,167<br />
Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. 93<br />
Cassia alata L. 93,165<br />
318
Cassia fistula L. 53,56,86,111,175,230<br />
Cassia siamea Lam. 93,251<br />
Cassia tora L. 90<br />
Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. & Fraser 95<br />
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& G. Forst.60, 111, 230<br />
Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirveng. 100<br />
Cayratia pedata A.L. Jussieu. 94<br />
Cayratia sp. 94<br />
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. 94, 175,247<br />
Celastrus paniculatus Willd 48<br />
Centella asiatica Urb. 100,167<br />
Centrosema pubescens Benth. 94,231<br />
Chassalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Craib. 94,128,208<br />
Chassalia sp. 94<br />
Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green 53<br />
Christella parasitica (L.) H. Lev. 53,175<br />
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins.82<br />
Chrysophyllum cainito L. 94,164,208<br />
Chrysophyllum sp.94,128,230<br />
Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. 36,94,164,230<br />
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl 94,128,164,230<br />
Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm. 94<br />
Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) Blume 32,88<br />
Cinnamomum sp. 94, 208<br />
Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees 53,94,208<br />
Cinnamomum verum Presl 94,175,208,230<br />
Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. 82<br />
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Bl. 94,208,230<br />
Cipadessa sp. 94<br />
Cissampelos pareira L. 94,164<br />
Cissus discolor Blume 94,175<br />
Cissus repens Lam. 94<br />
Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. 53,222<br />
Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver 53,222<br />
Clausena sp.53<br />
Cleistanthus collinus Benth. 39,94,175,230<br />
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon 57, 94,175,230<br />
Clerodendrum sp. 57<br />
Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. 53,90<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea arabica L.53,94,230<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea robusta Linden.53,94,128<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea sp. 53,94<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea travancorensis Wight & Arn.94<br />
Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith 94,164<br />
Combretum sp. 94<br />
Commelina sp. 94<br />
Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 82<br />
Connarus monocarpus L. 94,100<br />
Connarus sp. 94<br />
Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 46,94,230<br />
Cordia gharaf (Forssk.) Ehrenb. ex Asch.46,94,230<br />
Cordia monoica Roxb. 46<br />
Cordia sp.46<br />
Cordia wallichii G.Don 94,129<br />
Croton malabaricus Bedd. 94<br />
Cryptocarya bourdillonii Gamble94,164,231<br />
Cullenia exarillata Robyns 31,136<br />
Cupressus sp. 94,164<br />
Cupressus torulosa D. Don 94<br />
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. 93,128<br />
Curcuma sp.128<br />
Cyathea nilgirensis Holttum 94,175,230<br />
Cycas circinalis L. 40,90,94,230<br />
Cyclea fissicalyx Dunn. 94<br />
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms. 128,231<br />
Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. 95<br />
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Watson 129<br />
Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. 95<br />
Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabber 95,208<br />
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 36,89,128,167,236,261<br />
Dalbergia sissoides Grah. ex Wight & Arn. 94,262<br />
Dalbergia sp.83<br />
Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) Rosenth.95<br />
Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. 95,230<br />
Delonix regia (Boj.) Rafin. 83,113<br />
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees 61, 72,143,230<br />
Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz 61, 72,94,230<br />
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. 53,86<br />
Derris brevipes (Benth.) Baker 95<br />
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 94,168<br />
Desmodium sp.94<br />
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. 53<br />
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underwood 53,94<br />
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.77,95,169,230<br />
Dillenia sp.77<br />
Dimocarpus longan Lour.32,63,94,122<br />
Dimorphocalyx lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Hook.f.95<br />
Dioscorea hispida Dennst. 93<br />
Dioscorea pentaphylla L. 69<br />
Dioscorea sp.175<br />
Dioscorea wallichii Hook.f.94<br />
Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern. 95,208<br />
Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.95,208,231<br />
Diospyros sp.94<br />
Diploclisia glaucescens Diels 94<br />
Dipterocarpus bourdillonii Brand. 94,169,209<br />
Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. 94,169,230<br />
Dipterocarpus sp.94,128<br />
Dracaena ternifolia Roxb. 94<br />
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) Smith94,169,209<br />
Drynaria sp.94<br />
Dryopteris sp.94<br />
Drypetes confertiflora (Hook.f.) Pax & H<strong>of</strong>fm.94<br />
Drypetes elata (Bedd.) Pax. & H<strong>of</strong>fm.31,94<br />
Drypetes wightii (Hook.f.) Pax & H<strong>of</strong>fm. 31,94,208<br />
Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern 31,63,94<br />
Elaeis guinensis Jacq.40<br />
Elaeocarpus glandulosus Wall. ex Merr.95,231<br />
Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast.95,231<br />
Elaeocarpus serratus L. 95<br />
Elaeocarpus sp.94,209<br />
Elephantopus scaber L. 94,129,164<br />
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton32,185<br />
Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.- Bip. 70<br />
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) DC.70,9<br />
Epiprinus mallotiformis (Muell.-Arg.) Croizat94,129<br />
Eragrostis sp. 94,129<br />
Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. 94<br />
Erythrina stricta Roxb.5394,176<br />
Erythropalum scandens Blume 95<br />
Eucalyptus alba Blume53,72,131<br />
Eucalyptus brassiana Blake53,9<br />
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 48,94,131,<br />
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 48,94,76,131<br />
329
Eucalyptus clone 48,94,102,136<br />
Eucalyptus clone K2 136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone K3 136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 100,136,137,175<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 11 131,136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 15, 100,131,136,230<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 16, 131<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 25, 136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 38, 100, 137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 49, 100,136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 56, 100,131,137,139<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 68, 100,131,136,137, 167<br />
Eucalyptus clone P 14,137<br />
Eucalyptus deglupta Blume 40,134<br />
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 40,53,131<br />
Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden 40,60,72,131<br />
Eucalyptus hybrid 131<br />
Eucalyptus pallida Muell.134,146<br />
Eucalyptus phyrocarpa Johnson & Blaxil 40<br />
Eucalyptus regnans Muell. 133<br />
Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith 40,53,60,90,131,176<br />
Eucalyptus tessellaris Muell.40,53,128<br />
Eucalyptus torelliana F.v. Muell. 40,53,94<br />
Eucalyptus urophylla Blake 53,131<br />
Eugenia sp.95<br />
Eupatorium sp.94, 129<br />
Exacum anamallayanum Bedd. 83<br />
Exacum sp.83<br />
Fagraea ceylanica Thunb. 94,129<br />
Fahrenheitia integrifolia (Airy Shaw) Airy Shaw 95<br />
Ficus benghalensis L. 95,129,165,231<br />
Ficus exasperata Vahl 95<br />
Ficus gibbosa Blume var. parasitica (Koenig ex<br />
Willd.) 95,165<br />
Ficus hispida L.f. 52<br />
Ficus racemosa L.52<br />
Ficus religiosa L. 52,129<br />
Ficus rigida Jack. var. bracteata (Corner) Bennet52<br />
Ficus sp.100<br />
Ficus tsjahela Burm.f. 95<br />
Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br.100<br />
Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 78<br />
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. 78<br />
Flacourtia montana Graham 78<br />
Flacourtia sp. 78<br />
Flemingia grahamiana Wight & Arn.100<br />
Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. ex Ait.f. 94<br />
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.79,95,231<br />
Garcinia rubro-echinata Kosterm.79,95<br />
Garcinia sp.79<br />
Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. 99<br />
Gardenia resinifera Roth 95,231<br />
Geophila repens (L.) Johnston 169<br />
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.169<br />
Glochidion ellipticum Wight 95<br />
Glochidion sp.95<br />
Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. Juss. 95,165<br />
Gloriosa superba L95.<br />
Gluta travancorica Bedd. 94,209<br />
Glycosmis arborea DC.92<br />
Glycosmis macrocarpa Wight 92<br />
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC 91<br />
Glyptopetalum sp 91<br />
Gmelina arborea Roxb. 40,53,240<br />
Gomphostemma heyneanum Benth.53,126<br />
Gordonia obtusa Wall.ex Wight & Arn.35<br />
Grevillea robusta Cunn.95,231<br />
Grewia hirsuta Vahl 95<br />
Grewia sp.95,165<br />
Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 38,53,68,165<br />
Gyrocarpus asiaticus Willd. 95<br />
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. 57<br />
Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Rosc.68,146<br />
Hedyotis sp.94<br />
Helicteres isora L.94<br />
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.53<br />
Heritiera papilio Bedd.53<br />
Hevea braziliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.)Muell.-Arg. 40<br />
Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. ex DC.94<br />
Hibiscus sp.94<br />
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don<br />
40<br />
Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. 31,94<br />
Holigarna ferruginea Marchand 31,94<br />
Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz 31<br />
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. 53,94,231<br />
Homalium zeylanicum (Gard.) Benth. 53<br />
Hopea parviflora Bedd.89,94,221<br />
Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabber 94<br />
Hopea racophloea Dyer 94<br />
Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gard. ex Thw. 94<br />
Hydnocarpus alpina Wight94,165<br />
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.- Ham.) Oken 94<br />
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. 53<br />
Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabber 53,231<br />
Hypericum mysurense Heyne ex Wight & Arn.94<br />
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.40<br />
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. 40,91,231<br />
Impatiens sp.94<br />
Ipomoea hederifolia L. 53<br />
Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 94,164<br />
Ixora brachiata Roxb. ex DC. 94,164,231<br />
Ixora coccinea L. 231<br />
Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don. 165<br />
Ixora sp. 129<br />
Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. var. sessiliflorum<br />
(Vahl) P. S. Green 244<br />
Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andr. 95,244<br />
Jasminum sp. 244<br />
Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. 245<br />
Justicia wynaadensis (Nees) Heyne ex Anders. 53,95<br />
Kaempferia galanga L. 94<br />
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 94<br />
Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms. 95<br />
Knema attenuata ( Wall. ex. Hook.f.& Thomas )<br />
Warb.95<br />
Kunstleria keralensis Mohanan & Nair 95<br />
Kydia calycina Roxb. 94,176<br />
Lagerstroemia hirsuta (Lam.) Willd. 38,87<br />
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 38,87<br />
Lagerstroemia reginae Roxb. 38,87,95<br />
Lagerstroemia sp.95<br />
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 95,231<br />
Lantana camara L. 86<br />
330
Appendix II: Host Index<br />
Abrus precatorius L. 203<br />
Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93<br />
Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93<br />
Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. 159<br />
Acacia crassicarpa Cunn.ex Benth .93<br />
Acacia dealbata Link 91<br />
Acacia holosericea A.Cunn.ex Benth.94<br />
Acacia horida (L.f.) Willd. 93<br />
Acacia mangium Willd.41,51,93,131,165,175<br />
Achras sapota L. 99<br />
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight & Arn.36,67,79<br />
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. 83,93<br />
Actinodaphne madraspatana Bedd. 93,175<br />
Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr.65,100<br />
Adenanthera pavonina L. 93<br />
Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) Willd.67,94<br />
Adhatoda vasica Nees.67,93,175<br />
Adiantum lunulatum Burm.94,<br />
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.53,87,120,175,208<br />
Aganope thyrsiflora (Benth.) Polhill 94<br />
Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) King & Robins.53<br />
Aglaia lawii (Wight) Sald. 93<br />
Aglaia perviridis Hiern.230<br />
Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm & Binn. 93,230<br />
Agrostistachys borneensis Becc. 32,53,95,164<br />
Ailanthus sp. 208<br />
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston 40, 94,187<br />
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang 92, 164<br />
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. 87, 267<br />
Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. 73,93,267<br />
Albizia sp. 151<br />
Allamanda cathartica L.94,175<br />
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Rausch.94,128, 175, 230<br />
Alnus nepalensis Wall.ex Wight & Arn. 57<br />
Alpinia calcarata Rosc. 93<br />
Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. 53,164<br />
Alpinia sp. 93,230<br />
Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees 63<br />
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 93, 176, 230<br />
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 94<br />
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicols. 32<br />
Anacardium occidentale L. 92,136,231<br />
Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.133<br />
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.ex Grah. 93<br />
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees128<br />
Angiopteris erecta 93,208<br />
Annona reticulata L. 94,175<br />
Annona sp. 93<br />
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. DC.) Wall.ex Guill. &<br />
Perr. 39,93<br />
Anthodium sp. 93<br />
Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 100<br />
Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker.93,164<br />
Aporosa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. 53,82,93, 139<br />
Ardisia solanacea Roxb.93,175, 230<br />
Areca catechu L.93, 128, 164,230<br />
Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawl. 93, 128<br />
Argyreia hirsuta Wight & Arn.93,128, 164<br />
Aristolochia bracteata Retz. 93, 128,230<br />
Artocarpus gomezianus Wall ex Trek 93, 164, 208<br />
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.31, 93, 128, 208,230<br />
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.57, 94,230<br />
Artocarpus sp. 93<br />
Asplenium sp. 93, 164<br />
Asystasia gangetica T. And.93<br />
Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. 53,93, 164,230<br />
Averrhoa carambola L. 93,230<br />
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.90, 94, 128, 164,208,230<br />
Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell. - Arg. 32, 94,<br />
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell. - Arg. 87<br />
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss 66, 94,143, 230<br />
Bambusa vulgaris Schrader Wendl. 66,90<br />
Barleria sp. 93<br />
Bauhinia purpurea L.53,65,93,231<br />
Bauhinia racemosa Lam. 53,65,93,165<br />
Bauhinia sp.53,93,175<br />
Bauhinia variegata L.63,93,175,230<br />
Begonia floccifera Bedd.93,164<br />
Beilschmiedia wightii (Nees) Benth. ex Hook.f. 93<br />
Belamcanda chinensis 98<br />
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. 94,98,208<br />
Bisch<strong>of</strong>ia javanica Blume 31,36,93,131,175,230<br />
Bixa orellana L. 94<br />
Blachia umbellata Baill. 52,95<br />
Blepharistemma serratum (Dennst.) Suresh 155,230<br />
Blumea pterodonta DC. 93,164,230<br />
Bolbitis appendiculata 93<br />
Bolbitis sp. 97<br />
Bombax ceiba L. 36,38,74, 93,175,208,261<br />
Bombax insigne Wall. 94,261<br />
Borassus flabellifer L. 94,208,230<br />
Borreria latifolia (Aublet.) Schum. 94,128<br />
Briedelia airy-shawii P.T.Li 93,175,230<br />
Briedelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. 93,100,128,164<br />
Briedelia sp.93<br />
Briedelia squamosa Bl .94,129<br />
Buchanania lanzan Springer 93,100<br />
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.93<br />
Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb. 94,230<br />
Caesalpinia sappan L. 87,93,175,231<br />
Calamus hookerianus Becc.32<br />
Calamus sp.93<br />
Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Becc. & Hook. 32,67<br />
Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Becc. & Hook.f.67<br />
Calamus vattayila Renuka 57<br />
Calliandra sp.82<br />
Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray 93,231<br />
Calophyllum inophyllum L. 36<br />
Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex Choisy 94, 164<br />
Calotropis gigantea R.Br. 93,231<br />
Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Poir.53,57,176<br />
Camelia sinensis (L.) O.Ktze.53,147,175<br />
Canarium strictum Roxb.31,63<br />
Canthium neilgherrense Wight 63,231<br />
Canthium sp.93<br />
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. 93,175<br />
Careya arborea Roxb.82<br />
Caryota urens L. 53,167<br />
Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. 93<br />
Cassia alata L. 93,165<br />
318
Cassia fistula L. 53,56,86,111,175,230<br />
Cassia siamea Lam. 93,251<br />
Cassia tora L. 90<br />
Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. & Fraser 95<br />
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& G. Forst.60, 111, 230<br />
Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirveng. 100<br />
Cayratia pedata A.L. Jussieu. 94<br />
Cayratia sp. 94<br />
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. 94, 175,247<br />
Celastrus paniculatus Willd 48<br />
Centella asiatica Urb. 100,167<br />
Centrosema pubescens Benth. 94,231<br />
Chassalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Craib. 94,128,208<br />
Chassalia sp. 94<br />
Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green 53<br />
Christella parasitica (L.) H. Lev. 53,175<br />
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins.82<br />
Chrysophyllum cainito L. 94,164,208<br />
Chrysophyllum sp.94,128,230<br />
Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. 36,94,164,230<br />
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl 94,128,164,230<br />
Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm. 94<br />
Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) Blume 32,88<br />
Cinnamomum sp. 94, 208<br />
Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees 53,94,208<br />
Cinnamomum verum Presl 94,175,208,230<br />
Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. 82<br />
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Bl. 94,208,230<br />
Cipadessa sp. 94<br />
Cissampelos pareira L. 94,164<br />
Cissus discolor Blume 94,175<br />
Cissus repens Lam. 94<br />
Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. 53,222<br />
Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver 53,222<br />
Clausena sp.53<br />
Cleistanthus collinus Benth. 39,94,175,230<br />
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon 57, 94,175,230<br />
Clerodendrum sp. 57<br />
Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. 53,90<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea arabica L.53,94,230<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea robusta Linden.53,94,128<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea sp. 53,94<br />
C<strong>of</strong>fea travancorensis Wight & Arn.94<br />
Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith 94,164<br />
Combretum sp. 94<br />
Commelina sp. 94<br />
Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 82<br />
Connarus monocarpus L. 94,100<br />
Connarus sp. 94<br />
Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 46,94,230<br />
Cordia gharaf (Forssk.) Ehrenb. ex Asch.46,94,230<br />
Cordia monoica Roxb. 46<br />
Cordia sp.46<br />
Cordia wallichii G.Don 94,129<br />
Croton malabaricus Bedd. 94<br />
Cryptocarya bourdillonii Gamble94,164,231<br />
Cullenia exarillata Robyns 31,136<br />
Cupressus sp. 94,164<br />
Cupressus torulosa D. Don 94<br />
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. 93,128<br />
Curcuma sp.128<br />
Cyathea nilgirensis Holttum 94,175,230<br />
Cycas circinalis L. 40,90,94,230<br />
Cyclea fissicalyx Dunn. 94<br />
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms. 128,231<br />
Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. 95<br />
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Watson 129<br />
Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. 95<br />
Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabber 95,208<br />
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 36,89,128,167,236,261<br />
Dalbergia sissoides Grah. ex Wight & Arn. 94,262<br />
Dalbergia sp.83<br />
Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) Rosenth.95<br />
Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. 95,230<br />
Delonix regia (Boj.) Rafin. 83,113<br />
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees 61, 72,143,230<br />
Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz 61, 72,94,230<br />
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. 53,86<br />
Derris brevipes (Benth.) Baker 95<br />
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 94,168<br />
Desmodium sp.94<br />
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. 53<br />
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underwood 53,94<br />
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.77,95,169,230<br />
Dillenia sp.77<br />
Dimocarpus longan Lour.32,63,94,122<br />
Dimorphocalyx lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Hook.f.95<br />
Dioscorea hispida Dennst. 93<br />
Dioscorea pentaphylla L. 69<br />
Dioscorea sp.175<br />
Dioscorea wallichii Hook.f.94<br />
Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern. 95,208<br />
Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.95,208,231<br />
Diospyros sp.94<br />
Diploclisia glaucescens Diels 94<br />
Dipterocarpus bourdillonii Brand. 94,169,209<br />
Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. 94,169,230<br />
Dipterocarpus sp.94,128<br />
Dracaena ternifolia Roxb. 94<br />
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) Smith94,169,209<br />
Drynaria sp.94<br />
Dryopteris sp.94<br />
Drypetes confertiflora (Hook.f.) Pax & H<strong>of</strong>fm.94<br />
Drypetes elata (Bedd.) Pax. & H<strong>of</strong>fm.31,94<br />
Drypetes wightii (Hook.f.) Pax & H<strong>of</strong>fm. 31,94,208<br />
Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern 31,63,94<br />
Elaeis guinensis Jacq.40<br />
Elaeocarpus glandulosus Wall. ex Merr.95,231<br />
Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast.95,231<br />
Elaeocarpus serratus L. 95<br />
Elaeocarpus sp.94,209<br />
Elephantopus scaber L. 94,129,164<br />
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton32,185<br />
Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.- Bip. 70<br />
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) DC.70,9<br />
Epiprinus mallotiformis (Muell.-Arg.) Croizat94,129<br />
Eragrostis sp. 94,129<br />
Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. 94<br />
Erythrina stricta Roxb.5394,176<br />
Erythropalum scandens Blume 95<br />
Eucalyptus alba Blume53,72,131<br />
Eucalyptus brassiana Blake53,9<br />
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 48,94,131,<br />
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 48,94,76,131<br />
329
Eucalyptus clone 48,94,102,136<br />
Eucalyptus clone K2 136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone K3 136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 100,136,137,175<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 11 131,136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 15, 100,131,136,230<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 16, 131<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 25, 136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 38, 100, 137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 49, 100,136,137<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 56, 100,131,137,139<br />
Eucalyptus clone KFRI 68, 100,131,136,137, 167<br />
Eucalyptus clone P 14,137<br />
Eucalyptus deglupta Blume 40,134<br />
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 40,53,131<br />
Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden 40,60,72,131<br />
Eucalyptus hybrid 131<br />
Eucalyptus pallida Muell.134,146<br />
Eucalyptus phyrocarpa Johnson & Blaxil 40<br />
Eucalyptus regnans Muell. 133<br />
Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith 40,53,60,90,131,176<br />
Eucalyptus tessellaris Muell.40,53,128<br />
Eucalyptus torelliana F.v. Muell. 40,53,94<br />
Eucalyptus urophylla Blake 53,131<br />
Eugenia sp.95<br />
Eupatorium sp.94, 129<br />
Exacum anamallayanum Bedd. 83<br />
Exacum sp.83<br />
Fagraea ceylanica Thunb. 94,129<br />
Fahrenheitia integrifolia (Airy Shaw) Airy Shaw 95<br />
Ficus benghalensis L. 95,129,165,231<br />
Ficus exasperata Vahl 95<br />
Ficus gibbosa Blume var. parasitica (Koenig ex<br />
Willd.) 95,165<br />
Ficus hispida L.f. 52<br />
Ficus racemosa L.52<br />
Ficus religiosa L. 52,129<br />
Ficus rigida Jack. var. bracteata (Corner) Bennet52<br />
Ficus sp.100<br />
Ficus tsjahela Burm.f. 95<br />
Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br.100<br />
Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 78<br />
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. 78<br />
Flacourtia montana Graham 78<br />
Flacourtia sp. 78<br />
Flemingia grahamiana Wight & Arn.100<br />
Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. ex Ait.f. 94<br />
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.79,95,231<br />
Garcinia rubro-echinata Kosterm.79,95<br />
Garcinia sp.79<br />
Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. 99<br />
Gardenia resinifera Roth 95,231<br />
Geophila repens (L.) Johnston 169<br />
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.169<br />
Glochidion ellipticum Wight 95<br />
Glochidion sp.95<br />
Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. Juss. 95,165<br />
Gloriosa superba L95.<br />
Gluta travancorica Bedd. 94,209<br />
Glycosmis arborea DC.92<br />
Glycosmis macrocarpa Wight 92<br />
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC 91<br />
Glyptopetalum sp 91<br />
Gmelina arborea Roxb. 40,53,240<br />
Gomphostemma heyneanum Benth.53,126<br />
Gordonia obtusa Wall.ex Wight & Arn.35<br />
Grevillea robusta Cunn.95,231<br />
Grewia hirsuta Vahl 95<br />
Grewia sp.95,165<br />
Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 38,53,68,165<br />
Gyrocarpus asiaticus Willd. 95<br />
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. 57<br />
Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Rosc.68,146<br />
Hedyotis sp.94<br />
Helicteres isora L.94<br />
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.53<br />
Heritiera papilio Bedd.53<br />
Hevea braziliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.)Muell.-Arg. 40<br />
Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. ex DC.94<br />
Hibiscus sp.94<br />
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don<br />
40<br />
Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. 31,94<br />
Holigarna ferruginea Marchand 31,94<br />
Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz 31<br />
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. 53,94,231<br />
Homalium zeylanicum (Gard.) Benth. 53<br />
Hopea parviflora Bedd.89,94,221<br />
Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabber 94<br />
Hopea racophloea Dyer 94<br />
Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gard. ex Thw. 94<br />
Hydnocarpus alpina Wight94,165<br />
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.- Ham.) Oken 94<br />
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. 53<br />
Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabber 53,231<br />
Hypericum mysurense Heyne ex Wight & Arn.94<br />
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.40<br />
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. 40,91,231<br />
Impatiens sp.94<br />
Ipomoea hederifolia L. 53<br />
Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 94,164<br />
Ixora brachiata Roxb. ex DC. 94,164,231<br />
Ixora coccinea L. 231<br />
Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don. 165<br />
Ixora sp. 129<br />
Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. var. sessiliflorum<br />
(Vahl) P. S. Green 244<br />
Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andr. 95,244<br />
Jasminum sp. 244<br />
Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. 245<br />
Justicia wynaadensis (Nees) Heyne ex Anders. 53,95<br />
Kaempferia galanga L. 94<br />
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 94<br />
Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms. 95<br />
Knema attenuata ( Wall. ex. Hook.f.& Thomas )<br />
Warb.95<br />
Kunstleria keralensis Mohanan & Nair 95<br />
Kydia calycina Roxb. 94,176<br />
Lagerstroemia hirsuta (Lam.) Willd. 38,87<br />
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 38,87<br />
Lagerstroemia reginae Roxb. 38,87,95<br />
Lagerstroemia sp.95<br />
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 95,231<br />
Lantana camara L. 86<br />
330
Lasianthus acuminatus Wight 95<br />
Lawsonia inermis L. 95,129<br />
Leea guineensis G. Don. 89<br />
Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 89<br />
Lepianthes umbellatum (L.) Raf. 95<br />
Lepisanthes erecta (Thw.) Leenh. 95<br />
Lepisanthes sp. 95,231<br />
Leptochilus decurrens Bl. 148<br />
Leptonychia caudata (Wall. ex G. Don.) Burrett 95<br />
Ligustrum robustum 169<br />
Litsea bourdillonii Gamble 54<br />
Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook.f. 54<br />
Litsea deccanensis Gamble 54,95<br />
Litsea floribunda (Blume) Gamble 54<br />
Litsea laevigata (Nees) Gamble 94<br />
Litsea oleoides (Meissn.) Hook.f. 94<br />
Litsea sp. 94<br />
Litsea wightiana (Nees) Hook.f.32,53<br />
Loeseneriella arnottiana (Wight) A.C. Smith 50<br />
Loeseneriella sp. 50<br />
Lophopetalum wightianum Arn. 98<br />
Loranthus sp. 155<br />
Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H. Hara 95<br />
Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. 129<br />
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. 54,100, 102<br />
Macaranga sp. 100<br />
Madhuca longifolia (Koenig.) Macbr.94<br />
Madhuca sp.94<br />
Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. 94, 165<br />
Maesa perrottetiana A. DC. 95<br />
Mahonia leschenaultii (Wight & Arn.) Takeda 95<br />
Mallotus Philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. 94<br />
Mallotus sp.94<br />
Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz 94<br />
Mangifera indica L.36,118,117,119<br />
Manihot sp. 95<br />
Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair 94<br />
Meiogyne sp.94<br />
Melaleucum leucodendron L. 79<br />
Melastoma malabathricum L. 86<br />
Melia dubia Cav.94,176,231<br />
Melia sp. 95<br />
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Hartley 36,94<br />
Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. 32<br />
Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp. barbulata<br />
(Cufod.) Beus.35, 45<br />
Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. 35,45,68<br />
Memecylon lawsonii Gamble 94<br />
Memecylon sp. 32,94<br />
Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f.94<br />
Mesua ferrea L.31,36,95,231<br />
Mesua pulchella Planch. & Triana 94<br />
Mesua sp.95, 169<br />
Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana 94,231<br />
Michelia champaca L.94<br />
Mikania micrantha H.B.K. 54,95<br />
Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair 95<br />
Millettia rubiginosa Wight & Arn. 94<br />
Mimosa pudica L. 94,129,209<br />
Mimusops elengi L. 94,231<br />
Mitracarpus verticillatus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke 94<br />
Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.75,94<br />
Mitragyna tubulosa (Am.) Hav.75,94,231<br />
Morinda coreia Buch. - Ham. 94,129<br />
Morinda tinctoria Roxb.94,169,176<br />
Morus alba L.45<br />
Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC.54<br />
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack.55,209<br />
Myristica beddomei King 81<br />
Myristica dactyloides non Gaertn.32,36<br />
Myristica fragrans Houtt.36,169<br />
Myristica malabarica Lam. 36,169,231<br />
Myristica sp. 65,94<br />
Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. 83<br />
Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. 94<br />
Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson 208<br />
Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser 94,209<br />
Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meissn.) Gamble 94<br />
Neolitsea sp. 94,169<br />
Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabber 99<br />
Nothopegia travancorica Bedd. ex Hook.f. 94<br />
Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst.) Fischer 32,61,84<br />
Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Benth. ex Gamble 61<br />
Ocimum gratissimum L. 94,129<br />
Olea dioica Roxb.54,82,270, 270<br />
Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G.Don 82<br />
Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. 95<br />
Orophea uniflora Hook.f. & Thoms. 95<br />
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth ex Kurz 95,129<br />
Otonephelium sp. 165<br />
Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radlk.94, 176<br />
Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baill.31,97<br />
Paracroton pendulus (Hassk.) Miq.94<br />
Passiflora foetida L. 95<br />
Pawlonia sp.159<br />
Pavetta indica L. 39,47<br />
Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. Ex J.E. Smith 47,48<br />
Pellionia heyneana Wedd. 94<br />
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex Heyne94<br />
Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult. 129<br />
Persea americana Mill. 94<br />
Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm.31,57,94<br />
Persicaria chinensis (L.) Gross.246<br />
Phaeanthus malabaricum 95<br />
Phaseolus sp.95,176<br />
Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet.95,169<br />
Phoebe lanceolata Nees 169<br />
Phyllanthus emblica L. 249<br />
Phymatosorus nigrescens (Bl.) Pic.95<br />
Physalis minima L. 95<br />
Pinus sp. 169<br />
Piper argyrophyllum Miq. 91<br />
Piper hymenophyllum Miq. 91,172<br />
Piper longum L. 91,172,208<br />
Piper mullesua Bunch-Ham. ex D.Don 95<br />
Piper nigrum L.94<br />
Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. 94, 209<br />
Plectranthus malabaricus (Benth.) Willemse244<br />
Plumbago indica L. 95<br />
Plumbago rosea L.95,209<br />
Plumeria rubra L.266<br />
Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd. 31,83<br />
Poeciloneuron sp. 95<br />
Polyalthia c<strong>of</strong>feoides Thw. ex Hook.f. & Thoms. 31<br />
331
Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Bedd. 94,231<br />
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. 94<br />
Polyalthia sp.94<br />
Polygonum chinense L. 94<br />
Pongamia glabra Vent. 95<br />
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 54,59, 231<br />
Populous alba L. 114<br />
Premna coriacea Clarke 114<br />
Premna tomentosa Willd. 114<br />
Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq. 209<br />
Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn.169,209<br />
Psidium guajava L. 94<br />
Psychotria anamalayana Bedd.32,158<br />
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. 54,146<br />
Pteris biaurita L.131,196<br />
Pteris quadriaurita Retz. 131<br />
Pteris sp.131, 209<br />
Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb.94,129,231<br />
Pterocarpus indicus Willd. 94,231,251<br />
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 251,254<br />
Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. 79,254<br />
Pterospermum diversifolium Blume 54,98<br />
Pterospermum reticulatum Wight & Arn.54<br />
Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Wild.) DC. 54,209<br />
Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Nooteb. 94<br />
Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K. Schum. 95<br />
Randia sp. 95,143<br />
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz 95, 231<br />
Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott 95, 209<br />
Rhododendron arboreum J.E. Smith spp. nilagiricum<br />
(Zenk.) Tagg. 95,129<br />
Ricinus communis L.95, 129<br />
Rivea ornate (Roxb.) Choisy 95,209<br />
Rottboellia sp. 209<br />
Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Merr.95<br />
Rubus ellipticus Smith 54,57<br />
Rubus niveus Thunb.54,57,75<br />
Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson54,209<br />
Samadera indica Gaertn.95<br />
Santalum album L.95<br />
Sapindus trifoliata L.95<br />
Saprosma glomerata (Gard.) Bedd.95<br />
Saprosma sp.95<br />
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde95,231<br />
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken 35,38,68<br />
Schumannianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Rolfe 95<br />
Scleria rugosa R. Br.95,169<br />
Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabber 209<br />
Scleropyrum sp. 209<br />
Scolopia crenata (Wight & Arn.) Clos 95<br />
Scoparia dulcis L. 76<br />
Semecarpus travancorica Bedd. 95,231<br />
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss.95,197<br />
Sida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming 197<br />
Simarouba glauca 111<br />
Smilax sp. 95<br />
Smilax zeylanica L. 95,169<br />
Solanum virginianum L. 95<br />
Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.95<br />
Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.95<br />
Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb. ex DC.) O. Ktze.95<br />
Spondias indica (Wight & Arn.) Airy Shaw 83<br />
Stachyphrynium spicatum (Roxb.) Schum.95<br />
Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl.95<br />
Stenochlaena palustris (Brum ) Beddomi 95,231<br />
Stephania sp. 95<br />
Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC.83, 95,176,231<br />
Sterculia urens Roxb. 95,231<br />
Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex DC. 231<br />
Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC.53,64<br />
Strobilanthes anceps Nees 95<br />
Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees 54,95,209<br />
Strobilanthes gracilis Bedd. 169<br />
Strobilanthes kunthianus (Nees) T. Anders. ex<br />
Benth.95<br />
Strobilanthes luridus Wight51, 95<br />
Strobilanthes sp.32,48<br />
Strychnos colubrina L.54<br />
Strychnos nux-vomica L. 54,95,135<br />
Strychnos potatorum L.f. 54,95,231<br />
Swietenia macrophylla King 41<br />
Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 54<br />
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.Moore 95<br />
Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex A. DC. ssp. Rosea<br />
(Bedd.) Nooteb.95<br />
Symplocos sp. 95<br />
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry 95<br />
Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston 95,231<br />
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 59,70<br />
Syzygium laetum (Buch.-Ham.) Gandhi 54<br />
Syzygium mundagam (Bourd.) Chithra 95<br />
Syzygium munronii (Wight) Chandr.95<br />
Syzygium palghatense Gamble 95<br />
Syzygium sp.95<br />
Syzygium travancoricum Gamble 95,231<br />
Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC.95,129,165,175,231<br />
Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall. 83<br />
Tamarindus indica L.95<br />
Tamarindus sp.95<br />
Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirveng. & Sastry 53<br />
Tarenna asiatica (L.) O. Ktze. ex Schum.95<br />
Tectona grandis L.f. 38,53,46,204,223,241,251,257<br />
Tectona hamiltoniana 95<br />
Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 96<br />
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. 134<br />
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.52,76<br />
Terminalia catappa L.95<br />
Terminalia chebula Retz. 96<br />
Terminalia crenulata Roth 95<br />
Terminalia paniculata Roth 38,70<br />
Terminalia sp. 70,95<br />
Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br.38,95<br />
Theobroma cacao L.95<br />
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. 95,231<br />
Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa 95, 169<br />
Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou 32,95<br />
Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) Anders. 95,209<br />
Tiliacora acuminata (Poir.) Miers ex Hook.f. &<br />
Thoms.63,198<br />
Toona ciliata Roem. 95<br />
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume 57<br />
Trema sp. 95<br />
Trewia nudiflora L.95,209<br />
Trichilia connaroides (Wight & Arn.) Bentv.95,209<br />
332
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br.95,169,209<br />
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 95<br />
Turpinia malabarica Gamble 32,100<br />
Tylophora sp. 95<br />
Urena lobata L. 77<br />
Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall.ex Hook.f. & Thoms. 77<br />
Vaccinium neilgherrense Wight 95<br />
Vallaris solanacea (Roth) O. Ktze. 169<br />
Vanilla planifolia Andr.95<br />
Vateria indica L.54,95,231<br />
Vateria macrocarpa Guptha 31, 95,231<br />
Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Arn.) Engl.54<br />
Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. 95<br />
Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek 159<br />
Vitex altissima L.f.95<br />
Vitex negundo L.95,164,209<br />
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabber 95<br />
Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br. 40,95, 180<br />
Xanthium strumarium L.95<br />
Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight 95,209<br />
Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Rafin.95, 170<br />
Xylia dolabriformis Benth.38<br />
Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. 38,53,63,95,231<br />
Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. 54<br />
Zehneria mysorensis (Wight & Arn.) Arn. 95<br />
Zingiber sp. 96<br />
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith 100<br />
Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. 95, 170<br />
Zizyphus rugosa Lam. 100,170,209<br />
333