Biodiversity of Plant Pathogenic Fungi - Kerala Forest Research ...

Biodiversity of Plant Pathogenic Fungi 

in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats 

(Final Report of the Project No. KFRI 375/01) 

C. Mohanan 

Forest Pathology Discipline 

Forest Protection Division 

K. Yesodharan 

Forest Botany Discipline 

Forest Ecology & Biodiversity Conservation Division 

KFRI 

Kerala Forest Research Institute 

An Institution of Kerala State council for Science, Technology and Environment 

Peechi 680 653 Kerala 

January 2005 

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ABSTRACT OF THE PROJECT PROPOSAL 

1. Project No. : KFRI/375/01 

2. Project Title : Biodiversity of Plant Pathogenic Fungi in the Kerala 

part of the Western Ghats 

3. Objectives: 

i. To undertake a comprehensive disease survey in natural forests, forest 

plantations and nurseries in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats and to 

document the fungal pathogens associated with various diseases of forestry 

species, their distribution, and economic significance. 

ii. To prepare an illustrated document on plant pathogenic fungi, their 

association and distribution in various forest ecosystems in this region. 

4. Date of commencement : November 2001 

5. Date of completion : October 2004 

6. Funding Agency: Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India 

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CONTENTS 

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….. 3 

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………… 4 

Introduction……………………………………………………………………….. 6 

Materials and Methods…………………………………………………….……... 11 

Results and Discussion…………………………………………………….……... 15 

Diversity of plant pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems ……………. 27 

West coast tropical evergreen forests…………………………………..…... 31 

Southern montane wet temperate forests……………………………………. 35 

West coast tropical semi-evergreen forests…………………………...…….. 36 

South Indian moist deciduous forests……………………………………….. 38 

Southern tropical dry deciduous forests…………………………………….. 39 

Forest plantations…………………………………………………………… 40 

Forest nurseries……………………………………………………………… 

Pathogenic fungi: Distribution, host plants, disease symptoms and 

43 

taxonomic characteristics……………………………………………………… 44 

Conclusions………………………………………………………………………. 271 

References………………………………………………………………………… 273 

Legend for photographic plates ………………………………………………….. 286 

Photographic plates……………………………………………………………….. 289 

Appendix I Study sites selected in the Western Ghtas…………………………... 313 

Appendix II Host index………………………………………………………….. 319 

Appendix III Pathogen index……………………………………………………. 323 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, 

Government of India, New Delhi for financial assistance to this project. Authors are grateful to 

Dr. J. K. Sharma, Director, KFRI for his valuable suggestions and constant encouragement during 

the course of this study and to Dr. R. Gnanaharan, Research Coordinator, KFRI for various 

suggestions during the course of work and also to improve the manuscript. Authors extend 

sincere thanks to Dr. R.V. Varma, Programme Coordinator, Division of Forest Protection, for his 

encouragements and support. 

The co-operation and generous help received from the staff of the Kerala Forest Department in 

conducting the field studies and invaluable helps rendered by Dr. N. Sasidharan and Sri. P. 

Sujanapal for identification and confirmation of the plant specimens are gratefully acknowledged. 

Thanks are also due to Dr. K. Sivaram for statistical analyses of the data. Mr. K.C. Rajesh 

Kumar, Mrs. Laya P. Nair and Ms. Leena C. Mohan served as Research Fellows in the project 

and their assistance in carrying out the project work is gratefully acknowledged. Help rendered by 

Sri. N. Ratheesh and Sri. Shaju K. Francis in processing the disease specimens is also gratefully 

acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Dr. K.V. Sankaran and Dr. C. Renuka for critically going 

through the text and offering editorial comments which have helped to improve the presentation 

of this report. 

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ABSTRACT 

An extensive survey on plant pathogenic fungi in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats carried out 

during 2001-2004 revealed a rich flora of plant pathogenic fungi harboring the plants in different 

forest ecosystems. Pathogenic fungi are found widely distributed in moist deciduous, semievergreen, 

and evergreen forests and forest plantations. A total of 4101 fungal isolates were 

obtained from the disease specimens collected and processed from 237 study sites selected in 

different forest ecosystems. The fungal isolates fall under 102 fungal genera and 247 species. Of 

these, fungi belonging to the Hyphomycetes and Coelomycetes classes (Fungi Imperfecti) were 

the most predominant ones. Coelomycetes were represented by 36 genera and 84 species, while 

Hyphomycetes were represented by 28 genera and 85 species. Basidiomycetes were represented 

by 19 genera and 44 species and Ascomycetes were represented by 16 genera and 29 species. 

Oomycetes were represented by only one genus and two species and Agonomycetes (Mycelia 

sterilia) were represented by two genera and three species. 

Of the 4101 fungal isolates obtained in the present study, 60 pathogenic fungi were given the 

status of new species. A total of 151 pathogenic fungi were found to be new records from the 

Western Ghats, while 104 pathogenic fungi are reported for the first time from India. Altogether 

639 plant species belonging to 395 genera were found infected with the pathogenic fungi in 

various forest ecosystems. Of these, 175 plant species were found as new host records for 

different pathogens. 

Among the 237 study sites which fall under 96 Forest Ranges surveyed, 109 sites belonging to 

the moist deciduous forests located in different parts of the Western Ghats, registered a maximum 

number of 164 pathogenic fungi (1237 isolates), which is about 30% of the total isolates of fungal 

pathogens obtained in the study. Representative study sites in 59 localities in semi-evergreen 

forests, falling in 36 Forest Ranges in the State, yielded 892 isolates belonging to 79 pathogenic 

fungal species. From evergreen forests including a Myristica swamp, 605 isolates belonging to 

50 pathogenic fungal species were recorded. Exploration made in the wet evergreen forests 

yielded 582 isolates belonging to 16 pathogenic fungal species. From forest nurseries, 45 

pathogenic fungal species were recorded as causing diseases in 154 host plant species. From the 

shola forests, 19 fungal species and from the dry deciduous forests, 16 fungal species were 

obtained. From forest plantations 106 pathogenic fungal species were recorded. 

Among the different forest ecosystems studied, forest plantations supported a rich pathogenic 

fungal flora with plant - pathogenic fungal ratio as high as 1:14. In moist deciduous forests and 

semi-evergreen forests, the figures of plant - pathogenic fungal ratio are 1:3.1 and 1:3.48 

respectively. Shola forests and wet evergreen forests registered comparatively low plantpathogenic 

fungal ratio of 1:1.65 and 1:1.46 respectively. In forest nurseries, though, a large 

number of host plants (154) were found diseased with the fungal pathogens, the plant - 

pathogenic fungal ratio is only 1: 3.77. The incidence, spread and severity of diseases and also 

the distribution of pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems are influenced by various 

climatic and edaphic factors as well as pathogen-host interrelationships. Monoculture exotic 

plantations and disturbed natural stands support a large number of fungal pathogens. Disturbances 

caused by anthropogenic factors including forest fires seem to be the major contributing factors 

for incidence and spread of fungal diseases and thereby build-up of pathogenic fungal 

populations. 

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Biodiversity indices for plant pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems in the Western 

Ghats were worked out separately. Fungal species richness indices (Margalef’s index and 

Menhinick’s index) ranged from 2.5605 to 5.6652 and 4.0899 to 21.0853 respectively. Among 

the eight forest ecosystems studied, moist deciduous forests exhibited maximum fungal species 

richness. Fungal species diversity indices (Simpson’s index and Shannon’s index) were deduced 

for each forest ecosystem which ranged from 0.0228 to 0.1183 and 2.4482 to 1.1026 

respectively. Among the forest ecosystems studied, maximum fungal species diversity was 

recorded in forest plantations followed by moist deciduous and semi evergreen forests. 

Diseases affecting the plants in different ecosystems include foliage diseases, stem cankers, wilt, 

heart rot, root rot, etc. Foliage disease, including rust infections, powdery mildews and black 

mildews, account for 96% of the total fungal infections in the different forest ecosystems studied. 

The obligate parasite, rust fungi, caused 3.04% of the total fungal infection, while the figures for 

powdery mildews and black mildews were 0.43% and 2.65% respectively. Only 2.43% stem 

diseases were recorded in all the ecosystems studied, while root infection including wilt disease 

was 0.85%. The results show that Mitosporic fungi, which belong to 65 genera and 150 species 

are widely distributed in the different forest ecosystems and harbor the host substratum, mostly 

the foliage, for their growth and survival. 

In forest nurseries, technological change in seedling production system brought out by the 

introduction of root trainers has had a major impact on incidence and spread of fungal diseases. 

In root trainer nurseries, as soil-free or soil less growing media are used and high input seedling 

management practices are followed, many of the seedling pathogens could be excluded from the 

nursery. The plant - pathogenic fungal ratio in forest nurseries is only 1: 3.8. 

In forest plantations, eucalypts dominate the system and a single host species (Eucalyptus 

tereticornis) harbors more than 25 genera of pathogenic fungi. This is almost 25% of the total 

fungal genera encountered in the study. The recently introduced exotic plant, Acacia mangium 

also harbors 21 genera of pathogenic fungi, and was found severely affected with vascular wilt 

pathogen, Fusarium solani and root rot pathogen Ganoderma lucidum. The results show that 

exotic host species are more vulnerable to the indigenous fungal pathogens and the monoculture 

exotic plantations serve as reservoir of inoculum of different phyto-pathogenic fungi. 

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum, a virulent foliage pathogen of eucalypts was found associated 

with more than 25 different indigenous host species in wet evergreen, evergreen, semi-evergreen 

and moist deciduous forests, which reveals the adaptability as well as over dominance of the 

pathogen in different ecosystems. In the evergreen and wet ever green forests, though large 

number of fungal pathogens were found causing foliage infections, they are not probably making 

any serious damage to the ecosystems. Diversity of obligate parasites like rust fungi is found 

more in evergreen, wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. 

With regard to the community and species composition, almost same fungal flora was observed in 

moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests, and forest plantations, however, fungal species 

dominance and abundance occurred depending on the environmental conditions, level of 

disturbances as well as host plant status. Pathogenic fungi viz., Aecidium, Alternaria, Bipolaris, 

Calonectria, Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Coniella, Corticium, Corynespora, Cryphonectria, 

Curvularia, Cylindrocladium, Cytospora, Fusarium, Glomerella, Guignardia, Hemileia, 

Mycosphaerella, Myrothecium, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma, Phomopsis, Phyllachora, Phyllosticta, 

Pseudocercospora, Puccinia, Septoria, Uredo, and Uromyces are the most widely distributed and 

dominant ones in different forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats. 

5

INTRODUCTION 

The recorded forest area of the Kerala State, by legal status is 1.1223 million ha. The 

effective forest area in the State is estimated at 0.94 million ha, which constitutes 24.2% 

of the State’s geographical area. Most of the forests in the State are natural and although 

nearly 150 years of conservancy and protection have improved their stocking to some 

degree, the overall density of these forests is by no means optimum. Dense forest (crown 

density above 40%) constitutes over 81% of the actual forest cover, the balance being 

largely open forest with a crown density of 10 to 40%. The extensive dispersion of forest 

over the State is accompanied by considerable richness and diversity in composition. 

The various forest ecosystems support rich flora and fauna. However, there is no 

comprehensive account that would give a realistic estimate of the number of species and 

their bio-geographic distribution in the State. It is estimated that the flora of the Kerala 

part of the Western Ghats comprises as many as 3700 vascular plants. However, our 

knowledge on the diversity of lower plants including microorganisms is so inadequate, 

despite their economic, medicinal, industrial, and ecological potential. No serious efforts 

have ever been made to understand the taxonomy, ecology, distribution and productive 

potentials of such invaluable biological resources. 

The generally accepted estimate of the number of species of fungi on earth is a 

conservative 1.5 million (Hawksworth, 1991,1993, 2001; Heywood, 1995). The estimate 

was derived by extrapolating both from data on known fungi from well-studied regions as 

well as data on well-studied fungi from plant hosts (Hawksworth, 1991). Estimates of the 

species numbers in each major fungal group corroborate this conclusion (Rossman, 1995). 

Even though, it is quite uncertain exactly how many fungal species are already known, it 

may be in the range of 72,000 (Hawksworth et al., 1995) to 100,000 (Rossman, 1995). 

This shows that we know as little as 5% species of fungi that exist. 

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From the Kerala part of the Western Ghats, so far, a total of 1200 fungal species have been 

recorded. If the vascular plant-fungi ratio of 1:6 (Hawksworth, 1991) is applied, there 

should be around 24,000 fungal species. If this estimate approximates to the real situation, 

it means, more than 95% of the fungal flora of the Western Ghats is yet to be made 

known. 

Many biodiversity specialists are of the opinion that tropical forests are more species-rich 

than temperate forests; thus this may be true for fungi as well. However, this hypothesis 

has not been rigorously tested for fungi, although a few comprehensive studies have been 

undertaken that provide supportive evidence (Cannon and Hawksworth, 1995; 

Hawksworth, 1993). In exploring tropical regions for fungi, it is anticipated that the most 

widespread and common species in a site will tend to be found first. Most likely, such 

species have been collected before and have been described already. However, the longer 

the time spent on intensive exploration, the more are the species discovered. 

The known 200,000 species of vascular plants continue to serve as the major reservoir of 

novel fungi. It has been estimated that there may be around 270,000 species of plantpathogenic 

fungi in the tropics (Shivas and Hyde, 1997)! In the tropics, it is particularly 

difficult to ascertain patterns of species richness. Batista and coworkers (1995) recorded 

3,340 fungi from Brazil associated with 523 plant species, equivalent to an average of 6.4 

fungi per host plant studied. Such data were not collected for an analysis of species 

richness and are difficult to assess, because not all plants were studied and plant species 

without fungi were not listed. 

Plant pathogenic fungi include a very large and heterogeneous group of organisms that 

occupy positions of great economic importance in agriculture, forestry and natural plant 

communities. More than 8000 species of fungi have been reported as causing diseases and 

disorders in plants. They show an enormous diversity in life-history strategies and the 

ways in which they interact with their hosts. These interactions range from species that 

establish perennial, systemic infection that castrate their hosts, to pathogens that kill their 

7

hosts with considerable rapidity, to pathogens that form discrete lesions whose individual 

effects are very limited (Burdon, 1993). Many pathogenic fungi can survive for a long 

period of time on dead host tissue or saprophytically in soil; other relies entirely on living 

host cells for sustenance. Collectively, the pathogens can attack virtually any plant part, 

although, individually they may be highly specialized. As a consequence, the range of 

pathogens found on different hosts also shows considerable diversity that may be 

associated with the evolutionary history of their hosts (Clay, 1995) or ecological criteria 

like the host’s architectural complexity or the extent of pathogen’s natural range (Strong 

and Levin, 1979). 

To know the role of pathogens in shaping the genetic structure of plant populations and 

communities requires an understanding of the pathogens’ diversity, their origins, and the 

evolutionary interplay that occurs between pathogens and their hosts. As is common with 

most organisms, plant pathogenic fungi rely on the process of mutation and recombination 

as the ultimate source of genetically based variation. Within a species, gene flow between 

populations supplements these processes as propagules spread from one epidemiological 

area to another and from one deme to the next. Studies of a wide variety of fungal 

pathogens have highlighted the importance of some of the mechanisms behind these broad 

groupings as sources of diversity. Rarely, however, have these studies addressed the way 

in which these mechanisms intermesh to generate the overall variation encountered within 

a species. 

Of the three broad sources of variation in plant pathogenic fungal populations, gene flow 

is perhaps the simplest, although its contribution to diversity may be underestimated. The 

process of migration leading to founding of new pathogen populations in areas in which 

they previously were absent has been recorded on many occasions (Sharma et al., 1985a; 

presence of Cryphonectria cubensis in eucalypt plantations in Kerala). However, where a 

pathogen population already exists, the recognition of such events tends to be restricted to 

instances that lead to obvious shifts in the genetic structure of the recipient deme. There 

are many examples of long distance gene flow that can make to the genotypic diversity of 

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populations. In fact, in at least some wild host-pathogen systems, extinction and 

recolonization events occur at noticeable frequencies (Boland, 1992; Burdon, 1993), 

suggesting that migration and subsequent gene flow play an important role in contributing 

to genotype diversity in pathogen populations. This is the case especially when pathogen 

populations are small, and simple mutation is unable to substitute for the advantages of 

sexual reproduction (Maynard, 1968). In plant pathogen, recombination occurs either 

through sexual reproduction or through a process of somatic hybridization, in which 

nuclear and cytoplasmic material may be exchanged. The extent to which mutation 

contributes to the effective diversity of populations is affected by the inherent rate of 

mutation, the ploidy level of the pathogen (haploid versus diploid or dikaryotic), the size 

of the pathogen population, and the selective advantage conferred by the mutant 

phenotype (Burdon, 1992). 

Thus, interplay of selection, genetic drift, migration, and mutation has a major effect on 

the genetic structure and diversity of all plant pathogenic fungal populations. The relative 

role of these factors may change markedly between different pathogen-host associations, 

between stages in the epidemiological cycle, and between associations in man-made and 

natural ecosystems. Size of the pathogen population is the one of the important factors in 

this interactive process. This is the case especially for obligate pathogens for which the 

patchy distribution of natural host populations tends to result in fungal populations that 

show large amplitude in size, relatively local and frequent extinctions, and asynchrony in 

the dynamics of neighboring demes (Antonovics et al., 1994). 

Studies of natural pathogen populations show some of the potential diversifying 

consequences of this patchiness in natural pathogens are extremely limited. However, 

circumstantial evidence is available in local populations of fungal pathogens like 

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum parasiting a series of small populations of its hosts 

(Eucalyptus tereticornis and E. grandis) in the Western Ghats (Mohanan and Sharma, 

1985b; Sharma and Mohanan, 1992b). Details of these populations show examples of 

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MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Selection of study areas and sample plots 

A reconnaissance survey was carried out in the natural stands and forest plantations 

throughout the Western Ghats in the State and a total of 237 study areas were selected in 

different forest ecosystems, wet evergreen forests, evergreen forests, shola forests, semievergreen 

forests, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, and forest plantations 

which fall under 96 Forest Ranges including Protected Areas (Appendix I; Fig.1). From 

each selected study area, three sample plots of 100 x 100 m were laid out employing line 

transect method. 

Ten forest nurseries including Forest Central Nurseries at Kulathupuzha (8 0 54’N, 77 0 44’ 

E), Chettikulam (10 0 22’N, 76 0 23’E), Valluvassery (11 0 18’N, 76 0 16’E) and 

Cheruvancherry (11 0 50’N, 75 0 41’E) were selected for the study (Appendix I). The 

disease survey was carried out during 2001-2004. The study areas were visited during 

wet (June-October) and dry period (December-May) and the nurseries were visited 

during the months of December - July in each year. 

Assessment of diseases in forest stands and nurseries and collection of disease 

specimens 

Disease assessment was made in nurseries, plantations and natural stands and severity of 

foliage infection was rated on a numerical scale (0-3) of disease severity index ( 0: no 

disease; 1: low infection up to 25% of foliage infected; 2: medium, 25-50% foliage 

infected and >10% defoliation; 3: severe, 50-75% or more foliage infection and > 25% 

defoliation). Disease severity of stem, bark and root diseases in forest plantations was 

rated on a numerical scale (0-3) of disease severity index. Disease symptoms were 

recorded on disease data sheet and disease specimens (leaf, bark, stem, root, fruit, seed) 

11

considerable change in the occurrence and relative frequency of particular pathotype 

(Sharma and Mohanan, 1982a,b, 1990,1991a,b, 1992b). 

Studies on pathogenic fungi and diseases of forest stands have been systematically and 

intensively carried out in developed countries (Brown and Davidson, 1968, Hepting, 

1971). In India, Bakshi (195) initiated inventory of forest diseases during 1970s. In the 

Kerala part of the Western Ghats, Sharma and Mohanan initiated problem-oriented 

researches on prime forestry species like teak, eucalypts, etc. during 1980s and 1990s 

(Sharma and Mohanan, 1981, 1982a,b, 1992a,b; Sharma et al., 1984a,b,c,d,e; 1985a,b; 

Sharma and Sankaran, 1984), and Mohanan during 1990s (Mohanan, 1994a,b, 1995 a, b, 

c, 1997 a, b; Mohanan and Sharma, 1982,1984, 1985, 1986 a, b, 1987, 1989a,b, 1990, 

1991, 1993, 1994). Epidemiological studies on major diseases in man-made forests and 

forest nurseries in the Western Ghats and their management have also been worked out to 

avoid catastrophe (Sharma and Mohanan, 1992; Mohanan, 1990, 2202). However, in 

natural stands, so far, no systematic inventory on phytopathogenic fungi, except on heart 

rot fungi (Mohanan, 1991) has been carried out. The present study was undertaken with 

the following objectives: 

i. To undertake a comprehensive disease survey in natural forests, forest 

plantations and nurseries in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats and 

to document the fungal pathogens associated with various diseases of 

forestry species, their distribution, and economic significance. 

ii. To prepare an illustrated document on plant pathogenic fungi, their 

association and distribution in various forest ecosystems in this region. 

10

were collected in polythene bags separately, assigned a specimen number and transported 

to the laboratory. 

Identification of host plants 

Floral and foliar samples were collected from the host plants and identity of the host plant 

confirmed. If there was any uncertainty concerning the identity of the host plant, flowers, 

fruits and bark samples were also collected and the specimens referred to experts and 

identity established. Herbarium specimens were processed and appropriate labeling was 

done and KFRI (Path) Herb. No. assigned. 

Isolation and identification of pathogenic fungi 

Appropriate samples from the specimens were taken for isolation of the causal fungi. 

Isolation of the causal organisms was made on Potato dextrose agar medium (PDA) after 

surface sterilization with 0.01% mercuric chloride. Inoculated plates were incubated at 25 

± 2 0 C. Isolates of fungal species retrieved from various host species were separated and 

identification up to species level made. Special culture media (Potato sucrose agar 

medium (PSA), Plant extract agar medium (PEA), Oat meal agar medium (OMA), Maize 

meal agar medium (MMA), Czapek Dox agar medium (CDA) and different techniques 

were employed for sporulating the non-sporulating isolates. For obtaining production of 

fructifications and sporulation of the fungi, sterilized leaves, preferably of the host plant 

were used as the substratum. Sterilized leaves of host plant were kept over the Petri plates 

containing 2% water agar and incubated for > 7 days. To study the detailed structure of 

fructifications of various pathogenic fungi (pycnidia, rust sori, perithecia, basidiocarp, 

etc.) appropriate specimens were selected and their sections cut. Free hand sections of the 

fresh materials were taken using double-edged razor blades. Dried herbarium specimens 

or lignified plant tissues were softened by wetting the materials with ethanol followed by 

soaking for 1- 48h, depending on the materials, either in water or in 2% aqueous solution 

of KOH. For taking sections (2-6 µm) of plant tissues containing fungal fructifications as 

12

well as fructifications in culture medium, a freeze microtome (Minotome-Cryostat, IEC, 

USA) was also used. The sections of fructifications of various fungi were observed under 

Leitz Dialux –20 Microscope and photomicrographs were prepared. Identification of the 

fungi up to species level, as far as possible, was made based on their cultural and 

morphological characteristics. The fungal isolates which belong to possibly new taxa and 

hitherto unpublished were assigned species number as Sp.1, Sp.2, etc. for publication 

elsewhere. However, information on the cultural characteristics, morphological and 

pathological peculiarities are provided for all such fungi at appropriate places in the text. 

All the fungal isolates were pure cultured and assigned KFRI. Culture No. and 

maintained in the Microbial Culture Collection Facility at KFRI. 

Pathogenicity trials 

Pathogenicity of fungal isolates was tested using seedlings of the respective host plants 

raised in the glasshouse. As it is not practical to test all the fungi isolated to their 

respective host plants to establish the pathogenic status, only selected fungi (rarely 

encountered ones, new species and weak pathogens) were screened. Pathogenicity of the 

fungal isolates to the respective hosts was tested by using 3-6 month-old seedlings and 

spraying conidial suspension (2 x 10 3 conidia/ml of sterile water) of the respective 

fungus. Three to five seedlings of the respective host plants were inoculated and the 

inoculated seedlings were incubated in humidity chamber (>90% r.h, 26 ± 2 0 C with 12 h 

dark and light period). Disease symptoms developed in the host plants were recorded and 

fungus was re-isolated from the diseased host tissues and pathogenicity of the respective 

fungal species confirmed. 

Biodiversity analyses 

Numerical data on pathogenic fungi obtained from representative study plots under each 

forest ecosystem were pooled and Species richness indices (Margalef’s index and 

Menhinick’s index), Species diversity indices (Simpson’s index and Shannon’s index) 

13

were worked out. The following equations were used for deducing the species diversity 

indices: 

Simpson : λ =Σpi 2 

Pi is the proportion of the individuals (isolates) in the ith species. Proportional abundance 

is obtained by dividing the density, biomass or number of plots in which the fungus was 

observed by the total density, or observations. 

D = Σ n i (n i –1) 

N (N-1) 

ni is the number of individuals (isolates) in the ith species, and N is the total number of 

isolates. 

Shannon : H’ = Σ p i 1n p i 

pi (ni / N) is the proportional abundance of the ith (each) species. In is the normal log 

(base e). 

14

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

An extensive survey on plant pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems in the 

Western Ghats, viz., moist-deciduous, semi-evergreen, evergreen and wet evergreen 

forests, shola forests, dry deciduous forests, forest plantations and forest nurseries 

conducted during 2001-2004 revealed a rich flora of plant pathogenic fungi harboring the 

plants and causing different diseases of various intensities. 

A total of 4101 fungal isolates were obtained from the disease specimens viz., foliage, 

stem, bark, root, fruit, seed, etc. collected and processed from 237 study sites selected in 

eight different forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats. The fungal isolates fall under 102 

fungal genera and 247 species. Of these, fungi belong to the Hyphomycetes and 

Coelomycetes Classes (Fungi Imperfecti) were the most widespread and predominant 

ones. Coelomycetes are represented by 36 genera and 84 species, while Hyphomycetes 

are represented by 28 genera and 85 species. Basidiomycetes are represented by 19 

genera and 44 species, while Ascomycetes represented by 16 genera and 29 species. 

Oomycetes are represented by only one genus and two species and Agonomycetes 

(Mycelia sterilia) represented by two genera and three species (Fig.2). 

Fig.2: Plant pathogenic fungi belonging to different fungous classes recorded from the 

Western Ghats 

Oomycetes 

Agonomycetes 

Hyphomycetes 

Coelomycetes 

Basidiomycetes 

Ascomycetes 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

Fungal species 

15

Among 4101 fungal isolates obtained in the study, 60 fungal pathogens were given the 

status of new species. A total of 151 fungal pathogens were newly recorded from the 

Western Ghats and 104 fungal pathogens were reported for the first time from India 

(Fig.3). By following the existing practices in assigning new species status to a 

pathogenic fungi based on their association with particular host species/family, hundreds 

of new taxa can be erected from the isolates obtained in the present study. For example, 

a total of 608 isolates of Phomopsis were retrieved from 222 host plant species and 

treated here only as Phomopsis sp. Similarly, as more detailed taxonomic investigations 

are required to assign the status of new taxa, most of the new fungal isolates are treated 

here merely as species of the respective genus. 

Fig. 3. Pathogenic fungi recorded from the Western Ghats and their status 

New to India 

New to WG 

New species 

No.of fungal 

species 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 

Pathogenic fungal species 

Altogether 639 plant species belonging to 395 genera were found infected with the fungal 

pathogens in various forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats. Of these, 175 plant species 

were found as new host record for different pathogens. It is interesting to note that more 

than 26% of the plant species studied from different forest ecosystems were found new 

host record for different fungal pathogens. 

16

Among the 237 study sites surveyed, 109 sites belonging to the moist-deciduous forests 

located in different parts of the Western Ghats, recorded maximum number of 164 

pathogenic fungi (1237 isolates) which is about 30.16% of the total isolates of fungal 

pathogens obtained in the study (Table 2). Representative study sites in 59 localities in 

semi-evergreen forests, falling in 36 Forest Ranges in the State, yielded 79 pathogenic 

fungi (892 isolates) which is about 21.75% of the total fungal isolates retrieved from the 

disease specimens collected and processed. In the evergreen forests, including a 

Myristica swamp in the Western Ghats, a total of 605 isolates of 50 pathogenic fungi 

were found associated with the ecosystems. Interestingly, exploration made from two 

sample plots in the wet evergreen forests yielded 16 phyto-pathogenic fungi. From the 

survey conducted in 10 forest nurseries (root trainer nurseries and conventional 

nurseries), 582 isolates belonging to 45 pathogenic fungi were isolated from seedling of 

154 plant species. From the shola forests (6 study sites), altogether 19 pathogenic fungi 

and from the dry deciduous forests, 16 pathogenic fungi were obtained. Study sites in 19 

forest plantations selected in different Forest Divisions in the Western Ghats recorded a 

total of 546 fungal isolates belonging to 106 pathogenic fungi which is about 18.97% of 

the total fungal isolates obtained in the study (Table 1; Fig.4). Thus, a total of 247 fungal 

pathogens belonging to 102 fungal genera were found causing diseases in different forest 

ecosystems. Some pathogens were found common in most of the forest ecosystems, 

while a few showed their restricted occurrence in certain forest ecosystems. 

Table 1: Distribution of pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems 

Sl.No. Forest ecosystem No. of 

study sites 

No. of fungal 

pathogens 

recorded 

No. of fungal 

isolates recorded 

% to total 

1 Wet evergreen forests 2 16 582 14.14 

2 Evergreen forests 30 50 605 14.75 

3 Shola forests 6 19 142 3.46 

4 Semi evergreen forests 59 79 892 21.75 

5 Moist-deciduous forests 109 164 1237 30.16 

6 Dry deciduous forests 2 16 50 1.22 

7 Forest plantations 19 106 546 0.133 

8 Nurseries 10 45 582 14.19 

Total 237 247* 4101 100 

* Many fungal pathogens are common to different ecosystems 

17

Fig.4: Distribution of fungal pathogens in different forest ecosystems in the WG 

Fungal 

pathogens 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

WEV EV SH SEV MDF DDF PLN NUR 

Among the different forest ecosystems studied, forest plantations support a rich 

pathogenic fungal flora and the plant - fungal ratio is 1:14.75. In moist deciduous forests 

and semi-evergreen forests, the plant-fungal ratio is 1:3.1 and 1:3.48 respectively. In 

shola forests (Meppadi shola, Mannavan shola, Pampadum shola, Old Devikulam Shola, 

Devimala shola and Eravikulam shola) and wet evergreen forests, the ratio is 1:1.65 and 

1:1.46 respectively. 

In forest nurseries, seedlings of a large number of host plant species (154) are found 

affected with 45 fungal pathogens; however, the plant-fungal ratio is only 1: 3.77 (Table 

2). This is mainly because of the technological change in the seedling production system 

employing the root trainers, where only soil-less or soil free potting media (growing 

media) are used and there by most of the soil-borne nursery pathogens are excluded from 

the nursery. 

In all the forest ecosystems, a few common fungal pathogens exhibited their 

predominance irrespective of the host species distribution, environmental conditions, as 

well as the level of disturbances caused. Colletotrichum and its teleomorph Glomerella 

18

were found widely distributed and caused diseases in altogether 396 and 220 host species 

respectively in the Western Ghats. Nine species of Cylindrocladium were found causing 

diseases in different host plants and the fungal genus was found distributed in all the 

ecosystems studied (Fig. 5). Similarly, Phomopsis sp. was found widely distributed in the 

different ecosystems and caused foliage diseases in about 222 host species. The fungus 

was found widely distributed in the moist deciduous forests causing diseases in about 124 

host plants (Fig. 6). Data on the selected major fungal pathogens are given in Figure 7. 

Fig. 5: Distribution of Cylindrocladium in different forest ecosystems 

No. of host 

plants affected 

No. of host plants affected 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Distribution of Cylindrocladium spp. in different forest 

ecosystems 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Wev Ev Sh Sev Mdf Ddf Pln Nur 

Distribution of Phomopsis sp. in different forest ecosystems 

Wev Ev Sh Sev Mdf Ddf Pln Nur 

Fig.6: Distribution of Phomopsis sp. in different forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats 

* Wev: wet evrgreen forests; Ev: evergreen forests; Sh: shola forests; Sev: semievergreen forests; Mdf: moist deciduous forests; Ddf: 

dry deciduous forests; Pln: plantations; Nur: nurseries 

19

Fig. 7. Distribution of major fungal pathogens in the Western Ghats 

Distribution of major plant pathogenic fungi in the Western 

Ghats 

No. of host plants 

affected 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1 

Pathogenic fungi 

Alternaria 

Colletotrichum 

Coniella 

Corynespora 

Curvularia 

Cylindrocladium 

Fusarium 

Glomerella 

Guignardia 

Myrothecium 

Pestalotiopsis 

Phoma 

The distribution of pathogenic fungi in the forest ecosystems in the Western Ghats is 

largely depended on various climatic and edaphic factors as well as host pathogen 

interrelationship. Moreover, disturbances caused by anthropogenic factors also influence 

to a great extent in the build up of pathogen inoculum potential and thereby development 

and spread of disease(s) even to an epidemic proportion and also the distribution of the 

pathogenic fungi over a large extent of area. 

Diseases affecting the plants in different ecosystems include foliage diseases, stem 

cankers, wilt, heart rot, root rot, etc. The foliage diseases include leaf spots, leaf blotches, 

leaf blight, powdery mildews, black mildews, and leaf rust. Among the diseases affecting 

the forest stands and nurseries, foliage diseases are the most predominant. Foliage 

disease, including rust infections, powdery mildews and black mildews, accounts for 

about 95.90% of the total fungal infections in the different forest ecosystems studied. The 

obligate parasite, rust fungi, caused 3.04% of the total fungal infection, while the figures 

for powdery mildews and black mildews are 0.43% and 2.65% respectively. Only 2.43% 

stem diseases were recorded in all the sample plots studied, while root infection including 

wilt disease was only 0.85%. The results show that Mitosporic fungi, which belong to 64 

20

genera and 169 species are found widely distributed in the different forest ecosystems 

and harbor the host substratum, mostly the foliage, for their growth and survival. 

Ecosystem specificity as well as host specificity was recorded in fungal pathogens and 

also periodicity in occurrence and spread of disease was noticed. Definite patterns of 

incidence of various fungal diseases in different host species could be observed during 

pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and during the dry period (February-April) in all the forest 

ecosystems investigated. In the case of evergreen and wet evergreen forests, the initial 

fungal colonizer remains round the year or a succession takes place by eliminating the 

initial colonizer or a large number of fungal pathogens co-existed and affect the same 

host substratum simultaneously. Pathogenic fungi recorded from different forest 

ecosystems and their status are given in Table 2. 

Table 2: Pathogenic fungi recorded from the Western Ghats and their status 

Sl. 

No. 

Fungi No. 

isolat 

es 

made 

No. of 

host 

plants 

affected 

New 

spp. 

New 

Host 

record 

New 

record 

from 

1 Aecidium meliosmae-myrianthae Henn. & Shirai. 5 1 - - - - 

2 Aecidium mori Barclay 1 1 - - - - 

3 Aecidium Pers. sp. 1. 1 1 + + + + 

4 Aecidium Pers sp. 2. 1 1 + + + + 





9 Aecidium Pers sp. 7 1 1 + + + + 


11 Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler 4 3 - + - - 

12 Alternaria citri Ellis & Pierce apud Pierce 5 5 - + + - 

13 Alternaria Nees ex Fr. Nees spp. 120 77 + + + + 

14 Ascochyta dendrocalami Mohanan 4 2 - - - - 

15 Ascochyta sp.1. 13 13 + + + + 

16 Asperisporium pongamiae (H. Syd.) Deighton 3 1 - - - - 

17 Asterina jambolanae Kar. & Maity 1 1 - + - - 

18 Aulographina eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Arx 3 2 - + + + 

& E. Mull. 

19 Balansia linearis (Rehm.) Diehl. 2 2 - - - - 

20 Bartalinia Tassi sp. 2 2 - - - - 

21 Beltrania rhombica O. Penzig. 3 3 - - + - 

22 Beltrania sp.1. 8 7 + + + + 

WG 

21 

New 

record 

from 

India

23 Beltraniella sp.1. 3 3 + + + + 

24 Beltraniopsis sp.1. 4 4 + + + + 

25 Bipolaris bambusae Mohanan 2 1 - - - - 

26 Bipolaris ellisii (Danq.) Alcorn 4 4 - - - - 

27 Bipolaris maydis (Nishikado & Miyake) Shoem. 2 2 - - - - 

28 Bipolaris spicifera (Bainier) Subram. 4 4 - + - - 

29 Bipolaris sp. 4 4 + + + + 

30 Botritis cinera Pers. . 4 4 - + + - 

31 Botryobasidium salmonicolor(Berk.& Br.) 4 4 - - - - 

Venkatnarayanan 

32 Botryosphaeria Ces & de Not sp. 3 2 + + + + 

33 Calonectria floridana Sobers 2 2 - - - - 

34 Calonectria ilicicola Boedijn & Reitsam 3 3 - - - - 

35 Calonectria theae Loos 3 3 - - - - 

36 Camptomeris albiziae (Petch) Mason. 1 1 - + + - 

37 Cercospora bombacina T.S. & K. Ramakr. 1 1 - + + - 

38 Cercospora mitragynae Bhargava & Nath 2 2 - + + - 

39 Cercospora rubi Sacc. 1 1 - + + - 

40 Cercospora scopariae Thirum. & Lacy 1 1 - - + - 

41 Cercospora terminaliae Syd. 1 1 - - + - 

42 Cercospora sp.1 2 2 + + + + 

43 Cerodothis aurea Muthappa 2 2 - - - - 

44 Cerotelium flacourtiae (Mundk. & Thirum.) 8 3 + + + - 

Cumm. 

45 Chaetomella raphigera Swift 9 7 - - + - 

46 Chaetospermum carneum Tassi 2 2 - - - - 

47 Chaetospermum gossypinum (Atkinson) Nag Raj 1 1 - + + + 

48 Chaetospermum sp.1 5 4 + + + + 

49 Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fres.) De Vries 18 18 - + + - 

50 Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.)Link ex Gray 4 4 - - - - 

51 Cladosporium sp.1 16 16 + - - - 

52 Coccodiella ochlandrae Mohanan 3 3 - - - - 

53 Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds 9 7 - + + + 

54 Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butl. & Bisby 19 13 - + + - 

55 Colletotrichum coccodes (Waller.) Hughes 1 1 - + + + 

56 Colletotrichum coffeanum Noack 1 1 - + + + 

57 Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.)Arx. 10 8 - + + - 

58 Colletotrichum dematium (Pers. Ex zFr.) Grov. 13 13 - + + + 

59 Colletotrichum falcatum Went. 4 4 - + + + 

60 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. 427 187 - + - - 

61 Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc.& Magn.) 2 2 - + - - 

Br. & Cav. 

62 Colletotrichum Corda sp. 1. 4 4 + + + + 

63 Colletotrichum sp. 2. 3 3 + + + + 



66 Colletotrichum spp. 387 148 - + + - 

67 Coniella australiensis Petrak 2 2 - + - - 

68 Coniella castaneicola (Ell. & Ev.) Sutton 1 1 - - - - 

69 Coniella fragariae (Oudem) Sutton 79 31 - + - + 

70 Coniella granati (Sacc.) Petrak & Syd. 1 1 - - - - 

71 Coniella minima Sutton & Thaung apud Sutton 6 4 - + + + 

22

72 Coniella petrakii Sutton 5 3 - + + + 

73 Coniella spp. 17 13 - + + + 

74 Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. 13 12 - + - - 

75 Corynespora cassiicola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) 

Wei 

31 31 - + - - 

76 Corynespora citricola M.b. Ellis 3 3 - + + + 

77 Corynespora sp. 20 20 + + + + 

78 Crossospora premnae-tomentosae Ramkr. & 1 1 - - + - 

Soumini 

79 Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges 2 1 - - - - 

80 Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk & Br.) Sacc. 2 2 - + - - 

81 Cryptosphaera mangiferae Died. 1 1 - - + + 

82 Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Sankaran & B. 2 2 - - - - 

Sutton 

83 Cryptosporiopsis sp.1 10 8 - + + + 

84 Curvularia borrerae (Viegas) M.B. Ellis 1 1 - + + 

85 Curvularia clavata Jain 1 1 - + + + 

86 Curvularia eragrostidis (P. Henn.) J.A. Mayer 1 1 - + + + 

87 Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 1 1 - + + + 

88 Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 23 19 - + - - 

89 Curvularia lunata var. aeria (Batista, Lima & 2 2 - + - - 

vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis 

90 Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan.) Muntanola 2 2 - + + - 

91 Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 10 10- - + - - 

92 Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subram. 3 3 - + + - 

93 Curvularia verruculosa Tandon & Bilgrami ex. 1 1 - + + - 

M.B. Ellis 

94 Curvularia sp.1. 1 1 + + + + 

95 Curvularia spp. 66 64 + + + + 

96 Cylindrocarpon Wollenw. Sp. 1 1 - - - - 

97 Cylindrocladium candelabrum Viegas 1 1 - + + + 

98 Cylindrocladium clavatum Hodges & May 1 1 - + - - 

99 Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally 3 3 - + - - 

100 Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour 9 9 - + - - 

101 Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn & 2 2 - + - - 

Reitsma 

102 Cylindrocladium ovatum El-Gholl, Alfenas, 

Crous & Schubert 

1 1 - + + + 

103 Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Boedijn & 

Reitsma 

166 25 - + - - 

104 Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan 2 2 - + - - 

105 Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian 2 2 - + - - 

106 Cytospora eucalypti Sharma & Mohanan 3 3 - - - - 

107 Cytospora eucalypticola van der Westhuizen 4 3 - - + - 

108 Cytospora sp.1. 1 1 + + + + 

109 Cytospora sp.2. 1 1 + + + + 

110 Dactylaria Sacc. sp. 1 1 - + + + 

111 Dasturella divina (Syd.) Mundk. & Kheshwala 2 2 - - - - 

112 Dendrophoma eucalypti Mohanan 1 1 + + + + 

113 Dothiorella acaciae Mohanan 1 1 + + + + 

114 Dothiorella Sacc. sp. 2 2 + + + + 

115 Drechslera Ito sp. 4 4 + + + + 

23

116 Drechslera state of Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson 1 1 - - + - 

117 Exobasidium vexans Massee 1 1 - - - - 

118 Exserohilum sp. 1. 2 2 + + + + 

119 Fairmaniella leprosa (Fairm.) Petr. & Syd. 3 3 - + + + 

120 Fomitopsis dochmius (Berk. & Br.) Ryv. 2 2 - - - - 

121 Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. & Curt.)Gilbn. & 

Ryv. 

3 3 - - + - 

122 Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schw. Ex. Fr.) P. 1 1 - - - - 

Karst. 

123 Fusariella Sacc. 1 1 + + + + 

124 Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everhart 2 2 - + + - 

125 Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. 1 1 - + + - 

126 Fusarium culmorum(W.G. Smith) Sacc. 5 5 - + + + 

127 Fusarium decemcellulare Bri 4 4 - + - - 

128 Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. 9 9 - + - - 

129 Fusarium fusarioides (Frag. & Cif.) Booth 2 1 - + + + 

130 Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fr. 1 1 - + + + 

131 Fusarium lateritium Nees 2 2 - + - - 

132 Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon 5 5 - + - - 

133 Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans 

2 2 - + - - 

Wollenw. & Reink. 

134 Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. 14 14 - - - - 

135 Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel 2 2 - + + - 

136 Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. 18 16 - + - - 

137 Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. 10 9 - + - - 

138 Fusarium sporotrichoides Sherb. 1 1 - + + + 

139 Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. 1 1 - + + - 

140 Fusarium spp. 11 11 - - + - 

141 Ganoderma applanatum ( Pers. ex S.F. Gray) 

Pat. 

3 3 - + + - 

142 Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.) Fr.) Karst. 9 9 - + - - 

143 Gleosporidinia Petrak sp. 3 3 - + + + 

144 Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & 613 218 - + - - 

Schrenk. 

145 Glomerella tucumanenesis (Speg.) Arx & Muller 2 2 - + + + 

146 Guignardia citricarpa Kiely 11 11 - + - - 

147 Guignardia dioscoreae A.K. Pande. 1 1 - + + + 

148 Guignardia spp. 388 169 - + - - 

149 Helminthosporium Link. sp.1. 2 2 - - - - 

150 Hemileia holarrhenae Syd. 10 1 - - + - 

151 Hemileia vastatrix Racib. 2 2 - - - - 

152 Hemileia wrightiae Racib. 1 1 - - + - 

153 Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl. 75 75 - - - - 

154 Macrovalseria megalospora (Mont.) Sivan. 1 2 - + - - 

155 Maravalia ichinocarpi (Thirum.) Cumm. 1 1 - - + - 

156 Marssonina Magnus sp. 9 6 - + + - 

157 Meliola ailanthii Sharma, Mohanan & Florence 1 1 - - - - 

158 Meliola spp. 59 59 - + + - 

159 Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 1. 1 1 + + + + 



162 Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp.4. 1 1 + + + + 

24

163 Mycosphaerella cryptica Cook & Hansf. 1 1 - - + + 

164 Mycosphaerella Johanson sp.1. 8 7 + + + + 

165 Mycotribulus mirabilis Nag Raj & Kendrick. 8 5 + + + + 

166 Mycovellosiella sp. 1. 8 1 + + + + 

167 Myrothecium gramineum Lib. 4 4 - + + - 

168 Myrothecium masonii Tulloch 3 3 - + + + 

169 Myrothecium roridum Tode 19 13 - + - - 

170 Myrothecium sp. 1. 15 10 + + + + 

171 Myrothecium sp. 2 1 1 + + + + 

172 Neomelanconium deightoni Petrak 1 1 - + + + 

173 Oidium Link spp. 14 14 - + - - 

174 Olivea tectonae (T.S. & K. Ramakr.) Mulder 3 1 - - - - 

175 Pestalotiopsis karstenii (Saccardo & Sydow) 1 1 - + + + 

Steyaert 

176 Pestalotiopsis macrospora (Cesati) Steyaert 13 12 - + + + 

177 Pestalotiopsis maculans (Corda) Nag Raj 72 72 - + + + 

178 Pestalotiopsis metasequoiae (Gucsvicz) Nag Raj 2 2 - + + + 

179 Pestalotiopsis palustris Nag Raj 10 10 - + + + 

180 Pestalotiopsis perseae Nag Raj 

181 Pestalotiopsis smilacis (Schweinitz) Sutton 2 2 - + + + 

182 Pestalotiopsis tecomicola Nag Raj 6 6 - + + + 

183 Pestalotiopsis uvicola (Spegazzini) Bissett 14 14 - + + + 

184 Phacidiopycnis Potebnia sp. 12 11 - + + + 

185 Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) 5 5 - + - - 

Crous 

186 Phaeoramularia Muntanola sp.1 3 3 - + + - 

187 Phellinus gilvus (Schw.)Pat. 1 1 - - - - 

188 Phoma cava Schulz. 1 1 - + - - 

189 Phoma eupyrena Sacc. 2 2 - + + - 

190 Phoma glomerata (Cda) Wollenw. & Hochaf. 3 1 - - - - 

191 Phoma herbarum Westd. 2 2 - + - - 

192 Phoma multirostrata (Mathur et al.) Dorenbosch 

& Boerema 

1 1 - - + - 

193 Phoma nebulosa Thum 1 1 - + + - 

194 Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma, Dorenbosch & 4 4 - + - - 

van Kesteren 

195 Phoma Sacc. spp. 88 65 - - - - 

196 Phomopsis (Sacc.) Sacc. spp. 608 222 - + - - 

197 Phyllachora calamigena 1 1 - - - - 

198 Phyllachora dalbergiae Niessl. 1 1 - - - - 

199 Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel 6 4 + + + + 

200 Phyllosticta Pers. spp. 59 50 - + + - 

201 Physalospora dalbergiae Sharma & Mohanan 1 1 - - - - 

202 Polynema Leveille sp. 8 5 - + + + 

203 Pseudocercospora ranjita (Chaudhury) Deighton 1 1 - - - - 

204 Pseudocercospora Speg. spp. 24 18 - + - - 

205 Pseudoepicoccum tectonae Sharma and Mohanan 1 1 - - - - 

206 Pseudorobillarda sojae Uecker & Kulik 1 1 - + + + 

207 Pseudorobillarda sp.1 1 1 + + + + 

208 Puccinia Pers.sp.1. 1 1 - + + - 

209 Puccinia Pers. sp. 2. 1 1 + + + + 

210 Puccinia Pers. sp. 3. 1 1 + + + + 

25

211 Puccinia Pers. sp.4. 1 1 + + + + 

212 Pullospora Fraul & Schotter sp.1 8 8 - + + + 

213 Pullospora macrospora Nag Raj 1 1 - + + + 

214 Pyrenochaeta De Not sp.1. 2 2 + + + + 

215 Pythium ultimum Throw. 1 1 - - - - 

216 Pythium sp. 1 1 - + - - 

217 Ravenelia emblicae Syd. 1 1 - - + - 

218 Ravenelia Berk. sp. 1. 1 1 + - + + 

219 Readeriella mirabilis H.& P. Syd. 5 5 - + + + 

220 Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler 1 1 - - - - 

221 Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. 27 21 - + - - 

222 Roestelia Rebent. sp.1. 1 1 - - + + 

223 Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 21 19 - + - - 

224 Septoria cassicola Kell & Swing 1 2 - - + - 

225 Septoria grewiae Sukapure & Thirum. 1 2 - - + - 

226 Septoria Sacc. sp. 10 12 + + + + 

227 Staganopsora vitensis Unam. 1 1 - + + + 

228 Stagonopsora (Sacc.) Sacc. sp.1. 1 1 + + + + 

229 Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton 3 3 - + + - 

230 Trichoconis Clem. sp.1 1 1 - - + - 

231 Trichosporum vesiculosum Butler 2 1 - - - - 

232 Uncinula tectonae Salm. 1 1 - - - - 

233 Uredo bombacis Petch 2 2 - - - - 

234 Uredo sissoo Syd. 2 2 - + - - 

235 Uredo terminaliae P. Henn. 1 1 - - + - 

236 Uredo Pers. sp. 1. 1 1 + + + + 

237 Uredo Pers. sp. 2. 1 1 + + + + 

238 Uredo Pers. sp. 3. 1 1 + + + + 

239 Uredo Pers. sp.4. 1 1 + + + 

240 Uredo Pers. sp.5. 1 1 + + + + 

241 Urohendersonia pongamiae Nag Raj & 

1 1 - - - - 

Ponnappa 

242 Uromyces (Link) Unger sp. 1. 1 1 + + + + 

243 Uromyces (Link) Unger sp.2. 2 2 + + + + 

244 Valsa eucalypti Cooke & Harkness 2 2 - + - - 

245 Valsa eucalypticola Sharma & Mohanan 1 1 - + - - 

246 Verticillium Nees sp.1. 9 9 + + + + 

247 Zaghouania olea (Butler) Cumm. 1 1 - - - - 

Total 4101 2244 60 175 151 104 

Biodiversity of plant pathogenic fungi in the Western Ghats 

The forests of the Western Ghats exhibit considerable variation in floristic composition, 

physiognomy, life forms, etc. because of the climatic, edaphic, and physiographic 

variations. The forests in this region have been classified into seven major types which 

26

are divided into 20 sub-types and many further sub-divisions depending upon the floristic 

composition. In the present study, eight forest ecosystems including forest nurseries were 

selected for investigating the fungal diversity. 

Most fungi consist of filaments (hyphae) that increase in length by the deposition of cell 

wall material from a growing tip. As these tips expand and produce new growing points, 

a network of mycelium develops. Once established, fungal mycelia are capable of 

essentially unlimited growth and persistence. The mycelial nature of most fungi affects 

the definition and interpretations of fungal diversity and makes the protocols and 

assumptions used for estimating fungal biodiversity inherently different from those used 

for plants and animals. To understand the limitations associated with estimations of 

fungal biodiversity, one must consider methods for counting fungal units used for most 

macro-organisms. 

The level of cellular aggregations that fulfills the criterion for fungi and other 

microorganisms, however, is not very clear. For example, isolates of a single species of 

fungus obtained from an infected leaf at spatially disjunctive locations in the foliage may 

represent the mycelium of a single individual or the mycelium of several individuals. As 

a result, counting individual fungal colonies on an isolation plate, whether the isolate was 

obtained from a 1 mm 2 piece of substratum does not represent the same information 

obtained from counting plants or insects that occur within a defined area. Thus, one 

cannot be sure if fungal isolates of a species from a single habitat have been obtained 

from one individual or from several individuals. Although, the latter situation is 

common, the former circumstance may also occur. 

With these existing limitations, the present investigation focuses on the presence or 

absence of a particular fungal species within an ecosystem in order to assess some aspects 

of biodiversity. Species richness (Menhinick’s index (R2), Margalef’s index (R1)) and 

species diversity indices (Simpson’s index, Shannon index (H’) ) of pathogenic fungi in 

these different ecosystems were worked out and an overall picture is given in Table 3. 

27

Table 3: Species richness and diversity indices of pathogenic fungi in different forest ecosystems 

Forest ecosystem Menhinick’s Margalef’s Simpson’s index Shannon’s index 

index (R2) index (R1) 

(H’) 

Wet evergreen forests 2.56205 4.094376 0.0850202429 2.448233 

Evergreen forests 3.7909 9.618165 0.0559238797 3.269729 

Shola forests 2.832354 4.728552 0.0626262626 2.68539 

Semi evergreen forests 4.8225694 13.951025 0.0531891106 3.536353 

Moist deciduous forests 4.307260 21.085314 0.0471795878 3.70955 

Dry deciduous forests 2.404164 4.089955 0.1118367347 2.413801 

Forest plantations 5.665242 17.697342 0.0228204041 4.102671 

Forest nurseries 3.946762 9.039484 0.0578413834 3.200247 

Species richness 

Species richness is the most widely used parameter for evaluating aspects of fungal 

diversity. In fact, three kinds of species richness can be distinguished: (1) numerical 

species richness, (2) species density, and (3) total species richness (Hurlbert, 1971; 

Kempton, 1979; Brown, 1995; Rosenzweig, 1995). The cumulative number of species 

based on a series of samples from a habitat is the total species richness. It would appear 

that an unambiguous and straightforward index of total species richness, S, would be the 

cumulative numbers of unique species present in a series of samples. The magnitude of 

S, however, depends on the size, number, and dispersion of samples in a particular 

ecosystem. Indeed, three mathematical relations (Power, Exponential, and Logistic) have 

been championed in the literature to predict the way in which S increases with effort, A 

(number, area, or volume of samples). Unlike the Power and Exponential species-effort 

curves, the logistic relation predicts the S, eventually will reach a plateau or asymptote. 

The value of S at this asymptote is an accurate estimate of the true species richness of the 

domain of interest. However, given the dependence of S on collection effort and the fact 

that limited financial resources, personnel or logistic support often prevent the collection 

of samples sufficient to attain asymptote values, S is of limited value as a comparative 

28

index. Consequently, a number of indices that are independent of the number of samples 

taken have been developed to estimate species richness. Those indices are based on the 

relationship between S and n, the total number of individuals in the collection of samples. 

The two well-known species-richness indices, the Margalef index (1988) and Menhinick 

index (1964), make specific assumptions concerning the relationship between S and n (S 

= k n 0.5 , where k is a constant). In the present study, both Margalef index and Menhinick 

index of species richness were worked out for each forest ecosystem, which ranged from 

2.5605 to 5.665242 and 4.089955- 21.085314 respectively (Table 4). Among the eight 

forest ecosystems investigated, moist-deciduous forests and forest plantations exhibited 

maximum species richness and dry deciduous forests showed the least species richness 

value (Table 4). 

Species diversity indices 

Diversity is a measure of the complexity of structure in an ecological community. It 

comprises two distinct attributes: species richness and species evenness. Simpson (1949) 

proposed the first index of diversity used in ecology. The index varies from 0 to 1 and is 

referred to as dominance measure because it is influenced strongly by the abundance of 

the most common species. Originally Simpson’s index ( λ ) was restricted to ecological 

units in which all members of the unit (in the present case community) could be 

enumerated. As it is impossible to count all members, Simpson developed an unbiased 

estimator (D) of diversity based on a sample of N individuals. In the current study, 

Simpson’s index was worked out for each forest ecosystem which ranged from 

0.0228204041 to 0.1118367347. 

The Shannon index of diversity (H’) (Shannon and Weaver, 1949) is currently the most 

popular index in community ecology. H’ is a measure of the average degree of 

uncertainty in predicting the specific identity of an individual chosen at random from a 

collection of S species and N individuals. Average uncertainty will increases as the 

29

number of species increases and as the distribution of individuals among species becomes 

more even. Ludwig and Reynolds (1988) emphasized the two properties of the index that 

make it popular. First H’ = 0 if (and only if) the sample includes only a single species. 

Second, H’ reaches its maximum only when all species are equally abundant. The 

magnitude of H’ is usually between 1.5 and 3.5 and is rarely greater than 4.5 (Margalef, 

1972). In the present study, Shannon index ranged from 2.448233 to 4.102671. Among 

the forest ecosystems studied, maximum fungal species diversity was observed in forest 

plantations followed by moist-deciduous forests and semi-evergreen forests. Dry 

deciduous forests exhibited least fungal species diversity (Table 4). A limitation of 

species diversity indices is that they compress the data to a single value that conveys little 

information about the abundance of the species in the ecological unit. Aspects of the 

diversity of fungal assemblages are based not only on species composition and richness, 

but also by evaluation of how abundances are partitioned among the component species. 

Common species like Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Phomopsis 

sp. etc. exhibited their abundance in all the forest ecosystems studied, however, certain 

rare pathogenic species were also found in abundance in particular ecosystems which are 

highlighted in the following sections. 

West coast tropical evergreen forests 

(Wet evergreen and Evergreen forests) 

This type of forests constituted the climax vegetation of the Kerala part of the Western 

Ghats, characterized by at least three tiers, the highest often attaining a height of 40-45 m. 

This forests occupy between 600 and 1100 m a.s.l. and prefer an annual rainfall of more 

than 2000 mm, temperature between 15 0 and 30 0 C and humidity between 70 and 100 

per cent. The upper storey consists of Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Bischofia javanica 

Blume, Canarium strictum Roxb., Cullenia exarillata Robyns, Drypetes elata (Bedd.) 

Pax. & Hoffm., Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern, Elaeocarpus tuberculatus 

Roxb., Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f., Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz, Mesua ferrea 

L., Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baill., Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm., 

30

Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd., Polyalthia coffeoides (Thw. ex Hook.f. & Thoms.) 

Hook.f. & Thoms., Vateria macrocarpa Guptha, etc. 

The second storey is characterized by species like Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A. Juss.) Benth., 

Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell.-Arg., Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) 

Blume, Dimocarpus longan Lour., Elaeocarpus serratus L., Litsea wightiana (Nees) 

Hook.f., Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim., Myristica dactyloides non Gaertn., etc. 

These trees attain a height of 15 to 30 m. The third storey which is less than 15 m in 

height consists of small trees like Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm., Jambosa 

munronii (Wight) Walp., Memecylon sisparense Gamble, Turpinia malabarica Gamble, 

Xanthophyllum flavescens Roxb., etc. Profuse growth of shrubs like Solanum surattense 

Burm.f., Thottia siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou, Psychotria sp., Moghania sp., Strobilanthes 

spp., etc. occurs. Only a few monocot species like Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Becc. & 

Hook, Calamus hookerianus Becc., Pandanus furcatus Roxb., Ochlandra travancorica 

(Bedd.) Benth. ex Gamble, O. ebracteata Raizada & Chatterjee, Oxytenanthera sp., etc. 

occurs. Ground flora is composed of herbs like Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, 

Amorphophallus sp., Heckeria sp., ferns, etc. Climbers like Pothos scandens L., Piper 

spp., Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Smilax sp., etc. are common. 

Ecologically, this type of forest is the most advanced stage with high floristic richness 

and provides much of the tangible and intangible benefits. These forests are the 

storehouse of many wild relatives of the cultivated plants. About 25 per cent of the total 

forests cover in the Kerala part of Western Ghats belongs to this category. 

In the wet evergreen forests at Sirendri and Panthanthodu (Silent Valley National Park 

and Attapady Forest Range), periodic surveys revealed that only 39 plant species were 

found infected with 16 fungal pathogens. Fungal infections were found mostly on foliage 

including leaf spots, leaf blight, leaf blotches, leaf rust and black mildew disease. 

Aecidium, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, Curvularia, Guignardia, Phoma, Phomopsis, 

etc. are the important foliage pathogens. 

31

In the wet evergreen forests, only 0.78 % of the total disease specimens collected from all 

the forest ecosystems was found infected with fungal pathogens. In other words, about 

5% of the total plant host species collected from different forest ecosystems, harbors 

pathogenic fungi in the wet evergreen forests in the Western Ghats. Species richness 

indices (Menhinick’s index and Margalef’s index) show that when compared to other 

forest ecosystems studied, wet evergreen forests support least species richness of fungal 

pathogens. This is also true in the case of species diversity, where both Simpson’s and 

Shannon indices also showed least values among the eight forest ecosystems studied 

(Table 4). Among the 16 pathogenic fungal pathogens encountered in this forest 

ecosystem, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Colletotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp. and 

Guignardia sp. were the most common and abundant ones (Table 5). 

Table 4: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the wet-evergreen 

forest ecosystems 


study 

plots 

Menhinick’s index (R2) Margalef’s index 

(R1) 

Simpson’s index Shannon index 

(H’) 

2 2.56205 4.094376 0.0850202429 2.448233 

Table 5: Fungal species abundance in the wet evergreen forests 

Sl. No. Abundant fungal species No. of host plants 

affected 

% to total 

1 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 7 17.94 

2 Colletotrichum sp. 6 15.38 

3 Phomopsis sp. 5 12.82 

4 Guignardia sp. 5 12.82 

5 Glomerella cingulata 4 10.25 

In the tropical evergreen forests, 30 study sites including one site in Myristica swamp 

forests, falling in 19 Forest Ranges were surveyed. About 226 plant species were found 

infected with 51 pathogenic fungi. As in the case of wet evergreen forests, foliage 

infection was the most predominant disease and 605 fungal isolates were retrieved from 

32

the diseased portions of the specimens including leaf spots, leaf blight, leaf blotches, leaf 

rust and black mildew disease. Foliage rust infection was prevalent in this type of forests 

and accounted for 3.69% of the total foliage infection. Aecidium, Colletotrichum, 

Corynespora, Coniella, Crossospora, Curvularia, Fusarium, Glomerella, Guignardia, 

Phoma, Phomopsis, etc. are the important foliage pathogens. Stem disease including 

heart rot accounts for 2% of the total infection. In the evergreen forests, about 5.48% of 

the total diseased host samples from all the forest ecosystems were found infected with 

fungal pathogens. In other words, about 34.82% of the total plant host species collected 

from different forest ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in the evergreen forests in the 

Western Ghats. 

Pathogenic fungal species richness indices (Menhinick’s index and Margalef’s index) 

were found higher than the wet-evergreen forests, shola forests and dry deciduous forests (Table 

6). Simpson’s and Shannon species diversity indices also showed higher values than the wet 

evergreen forest, shola forest and dry deciduous forest ecosystems (Table 6). Among the 50 

pathogenic fungal species encountered in this forest ecosystem, Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Colletotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp. and 

Guignardia sp. were the most common and abundant ones (Table 7). 

Table 6: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the evergreen forest 

ecosystems 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

30 3.7909 9.618165 0.0559238797 3.269729 

Table 7: Fungal species abundance in the evergreen forests 


affected 

% to total 






33

Southern montane wet temperate forests (Shola forests) 

This type of forests occurs in the upper reaches of the hills, especially on cliffs and 

sheltered folds above 1900 m.a.s.l. Southern montane wet temperate forests are also 

known as shola and are found in pockets supporting stunted trees, which seldom attain 

more than 10 m. The temperature is very low (10 0 -15 0 C) and the forests receive a very 

high rainfall (>4000 mm). The relative humidity is very high (80-100%). The altitude 

and high winds control the height growth of the trees. These forests are interspersed with 

rolling grasslands. The vegetation comprised of less number of tree species like 

Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast., Gordonia obtusa Wall.ex Wight & Arn., Meliosma 

pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp.barbulata (Cufod.) Beus., Schefflera sp., Symplocos sp., and 

many Lauraceous and Myrtaceous members. Strobilanthes species forms the main under 

storey. The shola forests constitute only 0.2 % of the total area of the State and play an 

important role in the hydrological cycle. 

In shola forests, six study sites falling in five Forest Ranges were surveyed and 45 plant 

species were found infected with 19 fungal pathogens. Mostly foliage infection was 

recorded from the shola forests and 142 fungal isolates of different fungi were found 

associated with foliage diseases including leaf spots, leaf blight, leaf blotches, leaf rust 

and black mildew disease. Aecidium, Alternarira, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, 

Curvularia, Guignardia, Meliola, Pestalotipsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phomopsis, 

Puccinia, Uromyces, etc. are the common foliage pathogens. Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Meliola sp. were the most abundant fungal 

pathogens in this forest ecosystem (Table 9). Pathogenic fungal species richness and 

species diversity indices are found comparatively higher than those recorded for the wet 

evergreen forest and dry deciduous forest ecosystems (Table 8). 

Table 8: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the shola forests 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

6 2.832353 4.728552 0.06262626 2.68539 

34

Table 9: Fungal species abundance in the shola forests 


affected 

% to total 



3 Meliola sp. 6 13.33 


West coast tropical semi-evergreen forests (Semi-evergreen forests) 

This forest type is generally considered as a transitional stage between evergreen and 

moist deciduous forests. It is also found in localities where the evergreen forests are 

subjected to high disturbances. It occurs between 600 to 800 m.a.s.l. and in some places 

it extends up to 900 m.a.s.l. The floral composition is an admixture of both evergreen 

and deciduous species in the top storey. The prominent evergreen species are Artocarpus 

heterophyllus Lam., Bischofia javanica Blume, Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex 

Choisy, Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Hartley, Mangifera indica L., Mesua ferrea L., 

Myristica dactyloides non Gaertn., etc. The deciduous floral elements are Acrocarpus 

fraxinifolius Wight & Arn., Bombax ceiba DC., Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss., Dalbergia 

latifolia Roxb., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Pterospermum 

sp., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Toona ciliata Roem., etc. 

The species occurring in the lower layer are almost the same seen in the evergreen 

forests. This forest type constituted about 11.40 per cent of the forest area of the State. 

This forest supports trees of more commercial value. 

In the semi-evergreen forests, 59 study sites falling in 36 Forest Ranges were surveyed 

and the study revealed that 268 plant species were infected with fungal pathogens. Fungi 

causing foliage and stem diseases were recorded from these forests; 892 fungal isolates 

belonging to 79 fungal pathogens were found associated with the diseases. Aecidium, 

Alternarira, Beltrania, Beltraniella, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, Coniella, Curvularia, 

35

Cylindrocladium, Guignardia, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis, Myrothecium, 

Mycosphaerella, Pestalotipsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phomopsis, Puccinia, Uromyces, 

etc. are the important pathogenic fungi. Fomitopsis, Phellinus, etc. are the important heart 

rot fungi. In the semi-evergreen forests, about 6.44% of the total disease specimens 

collected from all the forest ecosystems were found infected with fungal pathogens. In 

other words, 41.46% of the total plant host species collected from different forest 

ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in the semi-evergreen forests in the Western Ghats. 

Pathogenic fungal species richness indices were found higher than those recorded for 

evergreen, wet-evergreen and shola forests. Also, species diversity indices were found 

high and reached very close to those recorded for the moist-deciduous forests (Table 10). 

Among the 79 fungal pathogens recorded in this forest ecosystem, Phomopsis sp. was 

found the most abundant species, followed by Colletotrichum spp. (Table 11). 

Table 10: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the semi-evergreen 

forests 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

59 4.825693 13.951025 0.0531891106 3.536353 

Table 11: Fungal species abundance in the semi-evergreen forests 

Sl. Abundant fungal species No. of host % to total 

No. 

plants affected 






6 Curvularia sp. 11 4.10 

36

South Indian moist deciduous forests (Moist deciduous forests) 

The trees in this type of forests reach 30 to 35 m in height. Compared to the evergreen 

forests, the plant species diversity is very poor. Buttressed trees are rare and fluting is 

common in species like Xylia xylocarpa, Tectona grandis, etc. Bamboos and reed 

bamboos are common. The differentiation into various layers is not very distinct. This 

type of forests thrives well at 200-1250 m a.s.l. The temperature regime is 20 0 C- 35 0 C. 

Relative humidity varies from 40-70 per cent. It prefers per annum rainfall between 

1500 to 2500 mm. The principal species encountered are Bombax ceiba L., Dalbergia 

latifolia Roxb., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Schleichera 

oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Tectona grandis L.f., Terminalia paniculata Roth, Tetrameles 

nudiflora R.Br., Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub., etc. Giant lianas like Spatholobus sp, 

Entada sp etc. are very common. Common ground flora consists of many herbs, most 

which possess medicinal properties. These forests are in the seral stage in the succession 

towards climatic climax vegetation which is the wet evergreen forests. But due to 

successive fire incidence and anthropogenic disturbances, the forests have advanced 

towards the climax stage. 

In moist deciduous forest, 109 study sites falling in 58 Forest Ranges were taken and the 

disease surveys revealed that 416 plant species were infected with 164 fungi. Foliage 

infections were the most predominant disease recorded from these forests; about 1237 

fungal isolates were obtained from the disease specimens. Comparatively very severe 

foliage infection caused by rust fungi was observed in these forests. The rust infection 

accounts for 4% of the total foliage infections. Aecidium, Alternarira, Beltrania, 

Beltraniella, Beltranipsis, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, Coniella, Curvularia, 

Cylindrocladium, Guignardia, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis, Myrothecium, 

Mycosphaerella, Pestalotipsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phyllachora, Phomopsis, Puccinia, 

Ravenelia, Uredo, Uromyces, etc. are the important pathogenic fungi. Ganoderma, 

Fomitopsis, Phellinus, etc. are the important heart rot fungi. In moist deciduous forests, 

7.38% of the total disease specimens collected from all the forest ecosystems was found 

37

infected with fungi. In other words, about 65.08% of the total plant host species collected 

from different forest ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in the moist deciduous forests 

in the Western Ghats. Moist-deciduous forests registered maximum fungal species 

richness index (Margalef’s index ); fungal species diversity index (Shannon index) was 

found higher than the semi-evergreen forests and very close to the forest plantations 

(Table 12,13). Glomerella cingulata, Phomopsis sp., Guignardia sp., Colletotrichum sp., 

Lasiodiplodia theobromae, etc. were the most abundant fungi among the 164 pathogenic 

fungi recorded in this forest ecosystem (Table 13). 

Table 12: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the moist-deciduous 

forests 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

109 4.307259 21.085314 0.0471795878 3.70955 

Table 13: Fungal species abundance in the moist-deciduous forests 


affected 

% to total 






6 Lasiodiplodia theobromae 55 4.47 

7 Alternaria sp. 52 4.23 

8 Pestalotiopsis maculans 40 3.25 

9 Meliola sp. 38 3.09 


Southern tropical dry deciduous forests (Dry deciduous forests) 

This forest type is open with trees reaching 15 to 20 m. The presence of this type of 

forests in high elevation is mainly due to the aspect, low rainfall and frequent fires. This 

forests receive less rainfall (

Acacia sp., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. DC.) Wall.ex Guill. & Perr., Bauhinia sp., 

Cleistanthus collinus Benth., Grewia tiliifolia Vahl, Pavetta indica L., Pterocarpus 

marsupium Roxb., Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K.Schum., Santalum album L., 

Tectona grandis L.f., etc. The lower storey is comprised of Cycas circinalis L., 

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don, Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br., 

etc. Dioscorea sp. and Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. are the common climbers. 

Many annual herbs make their appearance during rainy season. 

Disease survey carried out in dry deciduous forests (2 study sites) in Chinnar Wildlife 

Sanctuary, 25 plant species were found infected with 50 fungal isolates belonging to 16 

fungal pathogens. Only foliage infection was recorded from these study sites. Alternaria, 

Colletotrichum, Curvularia, Phoma, Phomopsis, Pestalotiopsis, Phyllachora, Uromyces, 

Uredo, etc. are the important foliage pathogens. In dry deciduous forests, of the total 

disease specimens from all the forest ecosystems, 0.60% was found infected with fungal 

pathogens. Among the eight forest ecosystems studied, dry deciduous forests registered 

the lowest fungal species richness indices as well as fungal species diversity indices 

(Table 14). Among the 16 pathogenic fungi, Colletotrichum sp. was the most abundant 

pathogenic fungus in this ecosystem. 

Table 14: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the dry deciduous 

forests 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

2 2.404163 4.089955 0.1118367347 2.413801 

Forest plantations 

Plantations of different forestry species have been raised through out the State. Tectona 

grandis L.f., Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith, Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden, 

Eucalyptus regnans Muell., Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Bombax ceiba L., Ceiba 

39

pentandra (L.) Gaertn., Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston, Gmelina arborea Roxb., 

Hevea braziliensis (Willd.ex A. Juss.) Muell.-Arg, Elaeis guinensis Jacq., Acacia 

auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex Benth., Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn.ex Benth., Acacia mangium 

Willd., Swietenia macrophylla King, etc. are the important species raised in plantations. 

Among these, teak, eucalypts and acacias are raised extensively. 

Survey carried out in forest plantations (19 study sites) situated in 19 Forest Ranges in 

the Western Ghats, showed 37 plant species infected with 106 fungi; about 546 fungal 

isolates belonging to 106 fungi were retrieved from this forest ecosystem. Almost all the 

plant species raised in forest plantations were found affected with one or the other 

pathogenic fungi. Fungi causing foliage diseases were very common in this forest 

ecosystem, and account for 88.88% of the total fungal isolates obtained from the disease 

specimens from all the forest ecosystems. Aecidium, Alternarira, Beltrania, Beltraniella, 

Beltraniopsis, Bipolaris, Exserohilum, Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Corynespora, 

Coniella, Curvularia, Cylindrocladium, Guignardia, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis, 

Myrothecium, Mycosphaerella, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Phyllachora, 

Phomopsis, Uredo, Uromyces, etc. are the important pathogenic fungi. Stem diseases 

(stem canker and blight) caused by Corticium salmonicolor and root diseases (root rot 

and wilt) were common in plantations located in high rainfall areas. 

Severe wilt (vascular wilt caused by Fusarium solani), basal stem rot and root rot caused 

by Ganoderma lucidum were noticed in 1-2-year-old Acacia mangium Willd. plantations 

in the State. Eucalyptus grandis plantations at high elevated areas registered very severe 

stem infection caused by Cryphonectria cubensis. 

In forest plantations, 0.90% of the total disease specimens from all the forest ecosystems 

were found infected with fungi. In other words, about 3.91% of the total plant host 

species specimens collected from different forest ecosystems, harbors pathogenic fungi in 

the plantations. Forest plantations registered very high fungal species richness values 

which are close to those recorded for the moist-deciduous forests. Among the eight 

40

forest ecosystems studied, forest plantations registered the highest fungal species 

diversity indices (Table 15); about 106 fungal pathogens were found causing various 

diseases in this ecosystem. Among the host plants, exotic species were found most 

vulnerable to these fungal pathogens at their different growth phases. 

Table 15: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the forest plantations 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

19 5.665241 17.697342 0.0228204041 4.102671 

Table 16: Fungal species abundance in the forest plantations 


affected 

% to total 





5 Coniella fragariae 14 4.15 

6 Corticium salmonicolor 12 3.56 

7 Alternaria sp. 12 3.56 

8 Pestalotiopsis maculans 12 3.56 

9 Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum 10 2.96 


11 Lasiodiplodia theobromae 10 2.96 

12 Guignardia citricarpa. 10 2.96 

Among 106 fungal pathogens recorded from this ecosystem, common fungal pathogens 

like Guignardia sp., Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Glomerella cingulata, Phomopsis 

sp., etc. showed abundance. Of the nine species of Cylindrocaldium recorded, C. 

quinqueseptatum was found the most virulent as well as predominant fungal pathogen in 

this ecosystem. Similarly, among various species of Coniella, recorded from the forest 

plantations, C. fragariae was the most abundant species (Table16). Corticium 

salmonicolor, the most dreaded canker pathogen was also found abundant in forest 

plantations affecting both indigenous as well as exotic plantation species. 

41

Forest nurseries 

Disease survey carried out in forest nurseries (10 nurseries) located in 6 Forest Ranges in 

the State, revealed fungal infection in 154 plant species. A total of 582 fungal isolates 

belonging to 45 fungal genera were found associated with the seedling diseases in 

nurseries. Coniella, Cylindrocladium, Colletotrichum, Cercospora, Corynespora, 

Fusarium, Glomerella, Phoma, Phomopsis, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, etc. are the 

important nursery pathogens. Conventional forest nurseries support a large number of 

fungal pathogens. In the forest nurseries, introduction of root trainer technology has had a 

tremendous impact on the seedling production system including nursery diseases caused 

by several fungal pathogens. As soil less or soil-free growing media are used in the root 

trainers for raising seedlings, most of the soil-borne pathogens were totally excluded 

from the nursery production system. However, new foliage pathogens like Phoma 

glomerata and P. eupyrena have attained new status in the nurseries causing severe 

damage of seedlings. Species richness indices as well as species diversity indices were 

found higher than the wet evergreen, shola forests and dry deciduous forests (Table 17). 

Among the 45 fungal pathogens encountered in this forest ecosystem, Rhizoctonia solani 

and Sclerotium rolfsii exhibited their abundance (Table 18). 

Table 17: Species richness and diversity indices of plant pathogenic fungi in the forest nurseries 


study 

plots 


(R1) 


(H’) 

10 3.946761 9.039484 0.0578413834 3.200247 

Table 18: Fungal species abundance in the forest nurseries 


affected 

% to total 

1 Rhizoctonia solani 16 12.30 


3 Sclerotium rolfsii 15 11.53 




42

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LEGEND FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES 

Plate No.1. 1: Myrothecium roridum colony on PDAmedium; 2: Myrothecium gramineum colony; 

3:Myrothecium masonii colony; 4: Fusarium culmorum colony on PDA medium; 5:Fusarium 

decemcellulare; 6: Coniella fragariae; 7: Fusarium oxysporum; 8: F. culmorum; 9: F. solani; 10: F. 

semitectum; 11: F. solani; 12: F. moniliforme colony 

Plate No.2. 1: Adhathoda vasica – Rhizoctonia solani leaf spots; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium – R. solani 

leaf blight; 3: Albizia odoratissima – Camptomeris leaf spots; 4: Pongamia pinnata - Sclerotium rolfsii leaf 

blight; 5: Pterocarpus santalinus – Phomopsis leaf blight; 6: Kaempferia galanga Rhizoctonia solani leaf 

spots; 7: Pterocarpus marsupium – Sclerotium rolfsii leaf blight; 8: Acacia mangium: Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides leaf spot. 

Plate No. 3. 1: Albizia lebbeck - Rhizoctonia solani web blight; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium – Sclerotium 

rolfsii leaf blight; 3: Dalbergia sissoides – Rhizoctonia solani damping-off; 4: Pterocarpus marsupium – 

Sclerotium rolfsii leaf blight; 5: Tectona grandis- Phoma leaf bight; 6: Cassia fistula – Phomopsis leaf 

spot; 7: Acacia mangium – Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum leaf blotch; Tectona grandis – Phoma leaf 

blight. 

Plate No. 4. 1: Albizia odoratissima – Camptomeris leaf spot; Xylia xylocarpa – Pestalotiopsis leaf spot; 

2: Azadirachta indica – Cylindrocladium scoparium leaf spot; 4; Pterocarpus santalinus – Rhizoctonia 

solani: Pongamia pinnata – Colletotrchum capsici leaf spot; 6: Syzygium cumini – Guignardia leaf spot; 7: 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum – Phomopsis leaf spot; 8: Grevillea robusta – Glomerella cingulata – foliage 

blight; 9: Cinnamomum malabatrum – Colletotrichum leaf blight. 

Plate No. 5. 1: Eucalyptus tereticornis – Coniella leaf blight; 2: Bombax insigne – Myrothecium roridum 

leaf spots; 3: Tectona grandis – Phomopsis target leaf spot; 4: Camelia sinensis – Exobasidium vexans 

blister blight; 5: Bombax ceiba – Myrothecium roridum leaf spots; 6:Acacia mangium – Oidium, powdery 

mildew; 7:Pinus sp. – Colletotrichum needle blight; 8;Eucalyptus grandis- Cylindrocladium leaf spots; 

9:Eucalyptus tereticornis – Coniella leaf blotch. 

Plate No. 6. 1: Helicteres isora –Mycovellosiella target spot; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium – Phomopsis leaf 

blight; 3: Ochlandra travancorica – Fusarim semitectum leaf blight; Mitragyna parvifolia – Phomopsis leaf 

spots; 5: Cycas circinalis – Glomerella leaf spots; Dillenia pentagyna –Colletotrichum leaf blotch; 

Terminalia paniculata- Phomopsis target sopots; Ficus hispida – Mycovellosiella target spot; Macaranga 

peltata – Coniella fragariae spots. 

Plate No. 7. 1: Polyalthia coffeoides – Colletotrichum leaf spots; 2: Ochlandra travancorica – Balansia 

witches’ broom; 3:Tetrameles nudiflora – Phomopsis leaf spot; 4: Eucalyptus tereticornis – 

Cylindrocladium leaf spots; 5: Tectona grandis – Phomopsis leaf spot; 6: Eucalyptus tereticornis- 

Cryptosporiopsis leaf spots; 7: Tectona grandis – Scleotium rolfsii leaf blight; 8; Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis- Cryptosporiopsis leaf spots; E. tereticornis- Aulographina leaf spot. 

Plate No. 8. 1:Terminalia paniculata – Cryphonectria gyrosa stem canker; 2: Eucalyptus grandis – 

Cryphonectria cubensis canker; 3: Acacia mangium – Botryosphaeria canker; 4: Acacia mangium- 

Ganoderma lucidum- basal stem rot; 5: Acacia mangium – pink disease caused by Corticium salmonicolor; 

6: Eucalyptus tereticornis- Cylindrocladium twig blight; 7: Tectona grandis – Phoma leaf blight; 8: 

Azadirachta indica – Fusarium twig blight; 9: Eucalyptus tereticornis – pink disease caused by Corticium 

salmoniclor. 

Plate No. 9: Acacia auriculiformis- die-back caused by Botryosphaeria ; 2: Acacia mangium- vascular wilt 

caused by Fusarium solani; 3: Cupresses sp. – Colletotrichum foliage blight; 3: Teak – basal stem and root 

rot caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae; 5;: Eucalyptus tereticornis – foliage blight caused by 

286

Phaeophleospora eucalypti; Acacia auriculiformis- canker caused by Valsa sp.; 7,8: Eucalyptus 

tereticornis – Cryptosporiopsis leaf spot and Mycosphaerella leaf spots. 

Plate 10: 1. Dysoxylum malabaricum - Colletotrichum leaf spots;2: Dysoxylum malabaricum - Phoma leaf 

spot; : 3: Gmelina arborea - Pseudocercospra leaf spot; 4: Dalbergia latifolia - Phomopsis leaf spots: 5: 

Pterocarpus marsupium- Phomopsis leaf spots; 6: Gluta travancorica Pestalotiopsis -leaf blight 7: 

Syzygium cumini – Guignardia leaf spot; 8: Allophyllus cobbe – Phomopsis leaf spot; 9: Meliosma pinnata 

– Colletotrichum gloeosporioides leaf spot. 

Plate No. 11. 1: Olea dioica – Cylindrocladium leaf blight; 2: Erythrina stricta – Colletotrichum leaf spot; 

3: Actinodaphne malabarica – Colletotrichm sp. associated with leaf galls; Bischofia javanica – 

Glomerella cingulata leaf spots; Cinnamomum malabatrum- Colletotrichum gloeosporioides target spot; 

6,7: Cordia gharaf – Aecidium leaf rust; 8: Maesa indica – Myrothecium roridum leaf spots; ; 9: Syzygium 

cumini – Guignardia lead blotch;10: Olea dioica – Phomopsis target spots; 11: Litsea sp. – Colletotrichum 

leaf spots. 

Plate No. 12. 1: Bischofia javanica - Pestalotiopsis uvicola leaf spots; 2, 3: Meliosma simplicifolia – 

Aecidium leaf rust; 4, 5: Clerodendrum viscosum – Fusarim sp. leaf blotch, 6: Cinnamomum malabatrum – 

Pestalotiopsis maculans leaf blotch; 7: Aporusa lindleyana – Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum leaf 

blotch; 8: Mitragyna parvifolia – Phomopsis leaf blotch; 9: Symplocos sp. – Phyllachora tar spot. 

Plate No. 13. 1,2: Neolamarckia cadamba – Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Lagerstroemia sp. Phyllachora tar 

spots; 4-6: Ixora notoniana – Pestalotiopsis sp., Alternaria leaf spots; 7: Strychnos potatorum – 

Colletotrichum leaf spots; 8; Litsea sp. Phomopsis leaf spots. 

Plate No. 14. 1 : Garcinia gummi-gutta – Coniella minima leaf blotch; 2: Pterocarpus marsupium- 

Pestalotiopsis leaf blotch; 3: Haldina cordifolia – Phoma leaf spots; 4: Strychnos nux-vomica – 

Colletotrichum leaf spots; 5: Tetrameles nudiflora – Coniella leaf spots; 6: Dysoxylum malabaricum – 

Sclerotim rolfsii leaf spots; 7: Wrightia tinctoria – Giuignardia leaf spots; 8: Calamus thwaitesii – 

Sphaerodothis sp. leaf spot; 9: Oclandra travancoricus – Colletotrichum, Coniella leaf spots. 

Plate No. 15. 1: Terminalia paniculata – Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Dioscorea pentaphylla – Phomopsis leaf 

spots; 3: Ficus hispida – Phomopsis sp.; Aporusa lindleyana – Cylindrocladium leaf blotch; 5: Polyalthia 

fragrans – Glomerella leaf blotch; 6 : Aporusa lindleyana – Cylindrocladium leaf blotch; 7: Mitragyna 

parvifolia – Colletotrichum sht hole; 8: Mallotus Philippensis – Phomopsis leaf spot; 9: Diospyros sp.- 

Phomopsis leaf spots. 

Plate No. 16. 1: Cinnamomum verum- Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Xanthophyllum arnottianum – 

Colletotrichum leaf spots; 3: Cassia fistula – Septoria leaf spots; 4: Bridelia scandens – Colletotrichum leaf 

spots; 5: Glycosmis pentaphylla – Glomerella cingulata leaf spots; 6: Terminalia paniculata – Phomopsis 

shot-hole; 7: Bombax ceiba – Myrothecium roridum leaf spots; 8: Bombax insigne – Myrothecium l;eaf 

spot; 9: Haldinia cordifolia – Phomopsis leaf spots. 

Plate No. 17. 1: Syzygium palghatense – Phoma foliage and flower bud blight; 2: Unidentified host plant- 

Phomopsis leaf spot; 3: Gmelina arborea – Coniella leaf spot; 4,5: Pongamia pinnata – Urohendersonia 

leaf spots; Hopea parviflora – Phomopsis leaf spot; 7: Cinnamomum malabatrum – Beltrania rhombica 

leaf spots; 8: Madhuka longifolia – Phomopsis leaf blotch; 9: Helicteres isora – Mycovellosiella leaf spots; 

10 Dalbergia latifolia – Phyllachora leaf spots. 

Plate No. 18. 1: Neolamarckia cadamba - Phomopsis leaf spots; 2: Eucalyptus pellita – Coniella leaf spot; 

3; Vateria indica – Pestalotiopsis maculans leaf spots; 4: Acacia mangium – Glomeralla cingulata leaf 

spots; 5: Garcinia gummigutta- Coniella minima leaf spots; 6: Sapindus trifoliate – Pestalotiopsis leaf 

blotch; 7: Bauhinia variegata – Colletotrichum leaf blotch; Unidentified host plant- Puccinia sp.; 

Strobilanthes luridus – Aecidium leaf rust; 10: Flacourtia montana – Colletotrichum leaf blotch; 11: 

Unidentified host – Glomerella cingulata leaf spots; Dalbergia latifolia – Uredo sissoo leaf rust. 

287

Plate No.19. 1: Canthium – Uromyces leaf rust; 2: Mitragyna parvifolia – Colletotrichum leaf spots; 3: 

Pongamia pinnata – Urohendersonia leaf spots; 4: Gluta travancoricus- Pestalotiopsis leaf blotch; 5: 

Unidentified hosts- Colletotrichum leaf spots; 6: Acacia auriculiformis – Meliola bl;ack ildew; 7: Albizia 

odoratissima Uromyces leaf rust; 8:Tectona grandis – Pseudoepicoccum leaf spots; 8: Eucalyptu pellita – 

Coniella leaf spots. 

Plate No.20. 1: Aeciospores (Aecidium rust infection in Meliosma simplicifolia); 2: 

Teleutospores of Albizia rust (Uromyces); 3: Ravenelia emblicae - section through teleutosori,; 4: 

Teleutospores; 5: Aecia (Aecidium sp.) infection in M. simplicifolia; 6: Section through Teleutosori 

(Uromyces – A. lebbeck); 7: Aecial cups in M. simplicifolia; 8: Aecial column and aeciospores (Aecidium 

sp. in M. simplisifolia). 

Plate No. 21. 1,2: Uredo terminaliae rust pustules; 3: Roestalia pustules in Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) 

Maxim. ssp.barbulata; 4: Crossospora premnaetomentosae leaf rust in Premna tomentosa; 5: Uredo sp. 

rust pustules on Plumeria rubra leaf.; 6: Zaghouania olea rust in Olea dioica; 7,8: Olivia tectonae rust 

pustules in Tectona grandis. 

Plate No. 22. 1: Aecidium aecial cups in Diospyros sp.; 2: Uromyces teleutosori on Canthium sp., 3: 

Cryphonectria cubensis spore (pycnidiospores) tendril on Eucalyptus grandis stem; 4: Leaf rust of Premna 

tomentosa; 5: Septoria spore masses on Cassia fistula leaf; 6: Aulographina infection on Eucalyptus 

tereticornis leaf; 7: Myrothecium roridum sporodochia; 8: Coniella fragariae pycnidia. 

Plate No.23. 1: Chaetospermum stromata (6x); 2: Myrothecium sporodochia; 3: Cercospora spores on 

Mitragyna parviflora; 4: Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum conidia; 5: Beltrania sp. conidia and 

conidiophores ; 6: Mycosphaerella- asci and ascospores; 7: Pullospora conidia; 8: Colletotrichum capsici 

conidia and seta. 

288

Appendix III: Pathogen Index 

Aecidium 44 

Aecidium meliosmae-myrianthae Henn & Shirai 45 

Aecidium mori Barclay 45 

Aecidium Pers. sp. 1. 46 

Aecidium Pers sp. 2. 47 





Aecidium Pers sp. 7 50 


Alternaria 51 

Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler 52 

Alternaria citri Ellis & Pierce apud Pierce 52 

Alternaria Nees ex Fr. Nees spp. 53 

Ascochyta 56 

Ascochyta dendrocalami Mohanan 57 

Ascochyta sp.1. 57 

Asperisporium 58 

Asperisporium pongamiae (H. Syd.) Deighton 58 

Asterina 59 

Asterina jambolanae 59 

Aulographina 60 

Aulographina eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Arx & E. 

Mull. 60 

Balansia 65 

Balansia linearis (Rehm.) Diehl. 60 

Bartalinia 

Bartalinia Tassi sp. 61 

Beltrania 

Beltrania rhombica O. Penzig. 62 

Beltrania sp.1. 63 

Beltraniella 

Beltraniella sp.1. 64 

Beltraniopsis 

Beltraniopsis sp.1. 65 

Bipolaris 

Bipolaris bambusae Mohanan 66 

Bipolaris ellisii (Danq.) Alcorn 66 

Bipolaris maydis 67 

Bipolaris spicifera 67 

Bipolaris sp. 68 

Botritis 

Botritis cinera Pers. 69 

Botryobasidium 

Botryobasidium salmonicolor 70 

Botryosphaeria 

Botryosphaeria Ces & de Not sp. 70 

Calonectria 

Calonectria floridana Sobers 72 

Calonectria ilicicola Boedijn & Reitsam 72 

Calonectria theae Loos 72 

Camptomeris 

Camptomeris albiziae (Petch) Mason. 73 

Cercospora 

Cercospora bombacina T.S. & K. Ramakr. 74 

Cercospora mitragynae 74 

Cercospora rubi 75 

Cercospora scopariae 76 

Cercospora terminaliae 76 

Cercospora sp.1 77 

Cerodothis 

Cerodothis aurea 77 

Cerotelium 

Cerotelium flacourtiae (Mundk. & Thirum.) Cumm. 

78 

Chaetomella 

Chaetomella raphigera Swift 79 

Chaetospermum 

Chaetospermum carneum Tassi 80 

Chaetospermum gossypinum (Atkinson) Nag Raj 81 

Chaetospermum sp.1 81 

Cladosporium 

Cladosporium cladosporioides 82 

Cladosporium herbarum 83 

Cladosporium sp.1 83 

Coccodiella 

Coccodiella ochlandrae Mohanan 84 

334


Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds 85 

Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butl. & Bisby 86 

Colletotrichum coccodes (Waller.) Hughes 88 

Colletotrichum coffeanum Noack 88 

Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.)Arx. 89 

Colletotrichum dematium (Pers. Ex zFr.) Grov. 90 

Colletotrichum falcatum Went. 92 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. 93 

Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc.& Magn.) 

Br. & Cav. 97 

Colletotrichum Corda sp. 1. 97 

Colletotrichum sp. 2. 98 



Colletotrichum spp. 99 

Coniella 102 

Coniella australiensis Petrak 103 

Coniella castaneicola (Ell. & Ev.) Sutton 103 

Coniella fragariae (Oudem) Sutton 104 

Coniella granati (Sacc.) Petrak & Syd. 105 

Coniella minima Sutton & Thaung apud Sutton 106 

Coniella petrakii Sutton 107 

Coniella spp. 107 

Corticium 

Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. 110 

Corynespora 

Corynespora cassicola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Wei 

112 

Corynespora citricola M.b. Ellis 113 

Corynespora sp.114 

Crossospora 

Crossospora premnae-tomentosae Ramkr. & 

Soumini 114 

Cryphonectria 

Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges 115 

Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk & Br.) Sacc. 117 

Cryptosphaera 

Cryptosphaera mangiferae Died. 118 

Cryptosporiopsis 

Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Sankaran & B. Sutton 

120 

Cryptosporiopsis sp.1 120 

Curvularia 

Curvularia borrerae (Viegas) M.B. Ellis 122 

Curvularia clavata Jain 122 

Curvularia eragrostidis (P. Henn.) J.A. Mayer 123 

Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 123 

Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 124 

Curvularia lunata var. aeria (Batista, Lima & 

vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis 125 

Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan.) Muntanola 

126 

Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 126 

Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subram. 127 

Curvularia verruculosa Tandon & Bilgrami ex. M.B. 

Ellis 127 

Curvularia sp.1. 128 

Curvularia spp. 128 

Cylindrocarpon 

Cylindrocarpon Wollenw. Sp. 130 


Cylindrocladium candelabrum Viegas 131 

Cylindrocladium clavatum Hodges & May 132 

Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally 132 

Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour 133 

Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn & 

Reitsma 134 

Cylindrocladium ovatum El-Gholl, Alfenas, Crous & 

Schubert 135 

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Boedijn & 

Reitsma 136 

Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan 138 

Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian 138 

Cytospora 139 

Cytospora eucalypti Sharma & Mohanan 140 

Cytospora eucalypticola van der Westhuizen 140 

Cytospora sp.1. 141 


Dactylaria 142 

Dactylaria Sacc. sp.142 

Dasturella 143 

Dasturella divina (Syd.) Mundk. & Kheshwala 143 

Dendrophoma 

Dendrophoma eucalypti 143 

Dothiorella 

Dothiorella acaciae 143 

Dothiorella Sacc. sp. 143 

Drechslera 

Drechslera Ito sp. 145 

Drechslera state of Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson 

146 

Exobasidium 

Exobasidium vexans 146 

Exserohilum 

Exserohilum sp. 1. 147 

Fairmaniella 

Fairmaniella leprosa (Fairm.) Petr. & Syd. 148 

Fomitopsis 

Fomitopsis dochmius (Berk. & Br.) Ryv. 149 

Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. & Curt.)Gilbn. & Ryv. 

149 

Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schw. Ex. Fr.) P. Karst. 

150 

335

Fusariella 151 

Fusariella Sacc. 151 

Fusarium 

Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everhart 152 

Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. 152 

Fusarium culmorum(W.G. Smith) Sacc. 153 

Fusarium decemcellulare Bri 154 

Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. 155 

Fusarium fusarioides (Frag. & Cif.) Booth 156 

Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fr. 156 

Fusarium lateritium Nees 156 

Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon 157 

Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans Wollenw. & 

Reink. 158 

Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. 159 

Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel 160 

Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. 161 

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. 162 

Fusarium sporotrichoides Sherb. 163 

Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. 163 

Fusarium spp. 164 

Ganoderma 

Ganoderma applanatum ( Pers. ex S.F. Gray) Pat. 

164 

Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.) Fr.) Karst. 165 

Gleosporidinia 

Gleosporidinia Petrak sp. 166 

Glomerella 

Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk. 

167 

Glomerella tucumanenesis (Speg.) Arx & Muller 

172 

Guignardia 

Guignardia citricarpa Kiely 173 

Guignardia dioscoreae A.K. Pande. 174 

Guignardia spp. 175 

Helminthosporium 

Helminthosporium Link. sp.1. 179 

Hemileia 

Hemileia holarrhenae Syd. 179 

Hemileia vastatrix Racib. 180 

Hemileia wrightiae Racib. 180 

Lasiodiplodia 

Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl. 

181 

Macrovalseria 

Macrovalseria megalospora (Mont.) Sivan. 184 

Maravalia 

Maravalia ichinocarpi (Thirum.) Cumm. 184 

Marssonina 

Marssonina Magnus sp. 185 

Meliola 

Meliola ailanthii Sharma , Mohanan & Maria 

Florence 187 

Meliola spp. 188 

Microsphaeropsis 

Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp. 1. 190 



Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp.4. 190 

Mycosphaerella 

Mycosphaerella cryptica Cook & Hansf. 192 

Mycosphaerella Johanson sp.1. 193 

Mycotribulus 

Mycotribulus mirabilis Nag Raj & Kendrick. 193 

Mycovellosiella 

Mycovellosiella sp. 1. 194 

Myrothecium 197 

Myrothecium gramineum Lib. 198 

Myrothecium masonii Tulloch 198 

Myrothecium roridum Tode 199 

Myrothecium sp. 1. 201 

Myrothecium sp. 2 202 

Neomelanconium 

Neomelanconium deightoni Petrak 202 

Oidium 

Oidium Link spp. 203 

Olivea 

Olivea tectonae (T.S. & K. Ramakr.) Mulder 204 

Pestalotiopsis 205 

Pestalotiopsis karstenii (Saccardo & Sydow) 

Steyaert 206 

Pestalotiopsis macrospora (Cesati) Steyaert 206 

Pestalotiopsis maculans (Corda) Nag Raj 208 

Pestalotiopsis metasequoiae (Gucsvicz) Nag Raj 210 

Pestalotiopsis palustris Nag Raj 211 

Pestalotiopsis perseae Nag Raj 212 

Pestalotiopsis smilacis (Schweinitz) Sutton 213 

Pestalotiopsis tecomicola Nag Raj 214 

Pestalotiopsis uvicola (Spegazzini) Bissett 215 

Phacidiopycnis 

Phacidiopycnis Potebnia sp. 217 

Phaeophleospora 

Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Crous 

217 

Phaeoramularia 218 

Phaeoramularia Muntanola sp.1 219 

336

Phellinus 

Phellinus gilvus (Schw.)Pat. 220 

Phoma 

Phoma cava Schulz. 221 

Phoma eupyrena Sacc. 222 

Phoma glomerata (Cda) Wollenw. & Hochaf. 223 

Phoma herbarum Westd. 224 

Phoma multirostrata Dorenbosch & Boerema 225 

Phoma nebulosa Thum 225 

Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma, Dorenbosch & van 

Kesteren 226 

Phoma Sacc. spp. 227 

Phomopsis 228 

Phomopsis (Sacc.) Sacc. spp.230 

Phyllachora 235 

Phyllachora calamigena 235 

Phyllachora dalbergiae Niessl. 236 

Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel 236 

Phyllosticta 236 

Phyllosticta Pers. spp. 236 

Physalospora 

Physalospora dalbergiae Sharma & Mohanan 238 

Polynema 

Polynema Leveille sp. 238 

Pseudocercospora 239 

Pseudocercospora ranjita (Chaudhury) Deighton 

240 

Pseudocercospora Speg. spp. 236 

Pseudoepicoccum 241 

Pseudoepicoccum tectonae Sharma & Mohanan 241 

Pseudorobillarda 241 

Pseudorobillarda sojae Uecker & Kulik 241 

Pseudorobillarda sp.1 242 

Puccinia 243 

Puccinia Pers.sp.1. 243 

Puccinia Pers. sp. 2. 243 


Puccinia Pers. sp.4. 243 

Pullospora 

Pullospora Fraul & Schotter sp.1 246 

Pullospora macrospora Nag Raj 246 

Pyrenochaeta 

Pyrenochaeta De Not sp.1. 247 

Pythium 

Pythium ultimum Throw. 248 

Pythium sp. 248 

Ravenelia 

Ravenelia emblicae Syd. 249 

Ravenelia Berk. sp. 1. 250 

Readeriella 251 

Readeriella mirabilis H.& P. Syd. 251 

Rhizoctonia 251 

Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler 251 

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. 252 

Roestelia 253 

Roestelia Rebent. sp.1. 253 

Sclerotium 

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 254 

Septoria 

Septoria cassicola Kell & Swing 256 

Septoria grewiae Sukapure & Thirum. 256 

Septoria Sacc. sp.257 

Staganopsora 

Staganopsora vitensis Unam.257 

Stagonopsora (Sacc.) Sacc. sp.1. 257 

Stenocarpella 

Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton 258 

Trichoconis 

Trichoconis Clem. sp.1 259 

Trichosporum 260 

Trichosporum vesiculosum Butler 260 

Uncinula 

Uncinula tectonae Salm. 260 

Uredo 261 

Uredo bombacis Petch 261 

Uredo sissoo Syd. 261 

Uredo terminaliae P. Henn. 262 

Uredo Pers. sp. 1. 263 



Uredo Pers. sp.4. 264 


Urohendersonia 

Urohendersonia pongamiae Nag Raj & Ponnappa 

265 

Uromyces 

Uromyces (Link) Unger sp. 1. 266 

Uromyces (Link) Unger sp.2. 267 

Valsa 

Valsa eucalypti Cooke & Harkness 268 

Valsa eucalypticola Sharma & Mohanan 268 

Verticillium 

Verticillium Nees sp.1. 269 

Zaghouania 

Zaghouania olea (Butler) Cumm. 270 

337

Appendix III: Pathogen Index 

Aecidium 44 

Aecidium meliosmae-myrianthae Henn & Shirai 45 

Aecidium mori Barclay 45 

Aecidium Pers. sp. 1. 46 






Aecidium Pers sp. 7 50 


Alternaria 51 

Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler 52 

Alternaria citri Ellis & Pierce apud Pierce 52 

Alternaria Nees ex Fr. Nees spp. 53 

Ascochyta 56 

Ascochyta dendrocalami Mohanan 57 

Ascochyta sp.1. 57 

Asperisporium 58 

Asperisporium pongamiae (H. Syd.) Deighton 58 

Asterina 59 

Asterina jambolanae 59 

Aulographina 60 

Aulographina eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Arx & E. 

Mull. 60 

Balansia 65 

Balansia linearis (Rehm.) Diehl. 60 

Bartalinia 

Bartalinia Tassi sp. 61 

Beltrania 

Beltrania rhombica O. Penzig. 62 

Beltrania sp.1. 63 

Beltraniella 

Beltraniella sp.1. 64 

Beltraniopsis 

Beltraniopsis sp.1. 65 

Bipolaris 

Bipolaris bambusae Mohanan 66 

Bipolaris ellisii (Danq.) Alcorn 66 

Bipolaris maydis 67 

Bipolaris spicifera 67 

Bipolaris sp. 68 

Botritis 

Botritis cinera Pers. 69 

Botryobasidium 

Botryobasidium salmonicolor 70 

Botryosphaeria 

Botryosphaeria Ces & de Not sp. 70 

Calonectria 

Calonectria floridana Sobers 72 

Calonectria ilicicola Boedijn & Reitsam 72 

Calonectria theae Loos 72 

Camptomeris 

Camptomeris albiziae (Petch) Mason. 73 

Cercospora 

Cercospora bombacina T.S. & K. Ramakr. 74 

Cercospora mitragynae 74 

Cercospora rubi 75 

Cercospora scopariae 76 

Cercospora terminaliae 76 

Cercospora sp.1 77 

Cerodothis 

Cerodothis aurea 77 

Cerotelium 

Cerotelium flacourtiae (Mundk. & Thirum.) Cumm. 

78 

Chaetomella 

Chaetomella raphigera Swift 79 

Chaetospermum 

Chaetospermum carneum Tassi 80 

Chaetospermum gossypinum (Atkinson) Nag Raj 81 

Chaetospermum sp.1 81 

Cladosporium 

Cladosporium cladosporioides 82 

Cladosporium herbarum 83 

Cladosporium sp.1 83 

Coccodiella 

Coccodiella ochlandrae Mohanan 84 

334


Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds 85 

Colletotrichum capsici (Syd.) Butl. & Bisby 86 

Colletotrichum coccodes (Waller.) Hughes 88 

Colletotrichum coffeanum Noack 88 

Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.)Arx. 89 

Colletotrichum dematium (Pers. Ex zFr.) Grov. 90 

Colletotrichum falcatum Went. 92 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc. 93 

Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc.& Magn.) 

Br. & Cav. 97 

Colletotrichum Corda sp. 1. 97 




Colletotrichum spp. 99 

Coniella 102 

Coniella australiensis Petrak 103 

Coniella castaneicola (Ell. & Ev.) Sutton 103 

Coniella fragariae (Oudem) Sutton 104 

Coniella granati (Sacc.) Petrak & Syd. 105 

Coniella minima Sutton & Thaung apud Sutton 106 

Coniella petrakii Sutton 107 

Coniella spp. 107 

Corticium 

Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br. 110 

Corynespora 

Corynespora cassicola (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Wei 

112 

Corynespora citricola M.b. Ellis 113 

Corynespora sp.114 

Crossospora 

Crossospora premnae-tomentosae Ramkr. & 

Soumini 114 

Cryphonectria 

Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges 115 

Cryphonectria gyrosa (Berk & Br.) Sacc. 117 

Cryptosphaera 

Cryptosphaera mangiferae Died. 118 

Cryptosporiopsis 

Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Sankaran & B. Sutton 

120 

Cryptosporiopsis sp.1 120 

Curvularia 

Curvularia borrerae (Viegas) M.B. Ellis 122 

Curvularia clavata Jain 122 

Curvularia eragrostidis (P. Henn.) J.A. Mayer 123 

Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 123 

Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 124 

Curvularia lunata var. aeria (Batista, Lima & 

vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis 125 

Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan.) Muntanola 

126 

Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 126 

Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subram. 127 

Curvularia verruculosa Tandon & Bilgrami ex. M.B. 

Ellis 127 

Curvularia sp.1. 128 

Curvularia spp. 128 

Cylindrocarpon 

Cylindrocarpon Wollenw. Sp. 130 


Cylindrocladium candelabrum Viegas 131 

Cylindrocladium clavatum Hodges & May 132 

Cylindrocladium colhounii Peerally 132 

Cylindrocladium floridanum Sobers & Seymour 133 

Cylindrocladium ilicicola (Hawley) Boedijn & 

Reitsma 134 

Cylindrocladium ovatum El-Gholl, Alfenas, Crous & 

Schubert 135 

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Boedijn & 

Reitsma 136 

Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan 138 

Cylindrocladium theae (Petch) Subramanian 138 

Cytospora 139 

Cytospora eucalypti Sharma & Mohanan 140 

Cytospora eucalypticola van der Westhuizen 140 



Dactylaria 142 

Dactylaria Sacc. sp.142 

Dasturella 143 

Dasturella divina (Syd.) Mundk. & Kheshwala 143 

Dendrophoma 

Dendrophoma eucalypti 143 

Dothiorella 

Dothiorella acaciae 143 

Dothiorella Sacc. sp. 143 

Drechslera 

Drechslera Ito sp. 145 

Drechslera state of Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson 

146 

Exobasidium 

Exobasidium vexans 146 

Exserohilum 

Exserohilum sp. 1. 147 

Fairmaniella 

Fairmaniella leprosa (Fairm.) Petr. & Syd. 148 

Fomitopsis 

Fomitopsis dochmius (Berk. & Br.) Ryv. 149 

Fomitopsis palustris (Berk. & Curt.)Gilbn. & Ryv. 

149 

Fomitopsis rosea (Alb. & Schw. Ex. Fr.) P. Karst. 

150 

335

Fusariella 151 

Fusariella Sacc. 151 

Fusarium 

Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everhart 152 

Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. 152 

Fusarium culmorum(W.G. Smith) Sacc. 153 

Fusarium decemcellulare Bri 154 

Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. 155 

Fusarium fusarioides (Frag. & Cif.) Booth 156 

Fusarium heterosporum Nees ex Fr. 156 

Fusarium lateritium Nees 156 

Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon 157 

Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans Wollenw. & 

Reink. 158 

Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. 159 

Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel 160 

Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. 161 

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. 162 

Fusarium sporotrichoides Sherb. 163 

Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. 163 

Fusarium spp. 164 

Ganoderma 

Ganoderma applanatum ( Pers. ex S.F. Gray) Pat. 

164 

Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.) Fr.) Karst. 165 

Gleosporidinia 

Gleosporidinia Petrak sp. 166 

Glomerella 

Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk. 

167 

Glomerella tucumanenesis (Speg.) Arx & Muller 

172 

Guignardia 

Guignardia citricarpa Kiely 173 

Guignardia dioscoreae A.K. Pande. 174 

Guignardia spp. 175 

Helminthosporium 

Helminthosporium Link. sp.1. 179 

Hemileia 

Hemileia holarrhenae Syd. 179 

Hemileia vastatrix Racib. 180 

Hemileia wrightiae Racib. 180 

Lasiodiplodia 

Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl. 

181 

Macrovalseria 

Macrovalseria megalospora (Mont.) Sivan. 184 

Maravalia 

Maravalia ichinocarpi (Thirum.) Cumm. 184 

Marssonina 

Marssonina Magnus sp. 185 

Meliola 

Meliola ailanthii Sharma , Mohanan & Maria 

Florence 187 

Meliola spp. 188 

Microsphaeropsis 




Microsphaeropsis Hohn. sp.4. 190 

Mycosphaerella 

Mycosphaerella cryptica Cook & Hansf. 192 

Mycosphaerella Johanson sp.1. 193 

Mycotribulus 

Mycotribulus mirabilis Nag Raj & Kendrick. 193 

Mycovellosiella 

Mycovellosiella sp. 1. 194 

Myrothecium 197 

Myrothecium gramineum Lib. 198 

Myrothecium masonii Tulloch 198 

Myrothecium roridum Tode 199 

Myrothecium sp. 1. 201 

Myrothecium sp. 2 202 

Neomelanconium 

Neomelanconium deightoni Petrak 202 

Oidium 

Oidium Link spp. 203 

Olivea 

Olivea tectonae (T.S. & K. Ramakr.) Mulder 204 

Pestalotiopsis 205 

Pestalotiopsis karstenii (Saccardo & Sydow) 

Steyaert 206 

Pestalotiopsis macrospora (Cesati) Steyaert 206 

Pestalotiopsis maculans (Corda) Nag Raj 208 

Pestalotiopsis metasequoiae (Gucsvicz) Nag Raj 210 

Pestalotiopsis palustris Nag Raj 211 

Pestalotiopsis perseae Nag Raj 212 

Pestalotiopsis smilacis (Schweinitz) Sutton 213 

Pestalotiopsis tecomicola Nag Raj 214 

Pestalotiopsis uvicola (Spegazzini) Bissett 215 

Phacidiopycnis 

Phacidiopycnis Potebnia sp. 217 

Phaeophleospora 

Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) Crous 

217 

Phaeoramularia 218 

Phaeoramularia Muntanola sp.1 219 

336

Phellinus 

Phellinus gilvus (Schw.)Pat. 220 

Phoma 

Phoma cava Schulz. 221 

Phoma eupyrena Sacc. 222 

Phoma glomerata (Cda) Wollenw. & Hochaf. 223 

Phoma herbarum Westd. 224 

Phoma multirostrata Dorenbosch & Boerema 225 

Phoma nebulosa Thum 225 

Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma, Dorenbosch & van 

Kesteren 226 

Phoma Sacc. spp. 227 

Phomopsis 228 

Phomopsis (Sacc.) Sacc. spp.230 

Phyllachora 235 

Phyllachora calamigena 235 

Phyllachora dalbergiae Niessl. 236 

Phyllachora Nitschke ex Fuckel 236 

Phyllosticta 236 

Phyllosticta Pers. spp. 236 

Physalospora 

Physalospora dalbergiae Sharma & Mohanan 238 

Polynema 

Polynema Leveille sp. 238 

Pseudocercospora 239 

Pseudocercospora ranjita (Chaudhury) Deighton 

240 

Pseudocercospora Speg. spp. 236 

Pseudoepicoccum 241 

Pseudoepicoccum tectonae Sharma & Mohanan 241 

Pseudorobillarda 241 

Pseudorobillarda sojae Uecker & Kulik 241 

Pseudorobillarda sp.1 242 

Puccinia 243 

Puccinia Pers.sp.1. 243 



Puccinia Pers. sp.4. 243 

Pullospora 

Pullospora Fraul & Schotter sp.1 246 

Pullospora macrospora Nag Raj 246 

Pyrenochaeta 

Pyrenochaeta De Not sp.1. 247 

Pythium 

Pythium ultimum Throw. 248 

Pythium sp. 248 

Ravenelia 

Ravenelia emblicae Syd. 249 

Ravenelia Berk. sp. 1. 250 

Readeriella 251 

Readeriella mirabilis H.& P. Syd. 251 

Rhizoctonia 251 

Rhizoctonia bataticola (Taub.) Butler 251 

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. 252 

Roestelia 253 

Roestelia Rebent. sp.1. 253 

Sclerotium 

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 254 

Septoria 

Septoria cassicola Kell & Swing 256 

Septoria grewiae Sukapure & Thirum. 256 

Septoria Sacc. sp.257 

Staganopsora 

Staganopsora vitensis Unam.257 

Stagonopsora (Sacc.) Sacc. sp.1. 257 

Stenocarpella 

Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton 258 

Trichoconis 

Trichoconis Clem. sp.1 259 

Trichosporum 260 

Trichosporum vesiculosum Butler 260 

Uncinula 

Uncinula tectonae Salm. 260 

Uredo 261 

Uredo bombacis Petch 261 

Uredo sissoo Syd. 261 

Uredo terminaliae P. Henn. 262 






Urohendersonia 

Urohendersonia pongamiae Nag Raj & Ponnappa 

265 

Uromyces 

Uromyces (Link) Unger sp. 1. 266 

Uromyces (Link) Unger sp.2. 267 

Valsa 

Valsa eucalypti Cooke & Harkness 268 

Valsa eucalypticola Sharma & Mohanan 268 

Verticillium 

Verticillium Nees sp.1. 269 

Zaghouania 

Zaghouania olea (Butler) Cumm. 270 

337

Appendix I: Details on sites selected for the fungal biodiversity study in the Western Ghats 

1.Northern Circle and Protected Areas 

FD Forest Divisions FR Forest Ranges Forest Types Locality 

No 

No 

1 Kannur 1 Kannavam N Kadalkandam Nursery 

N Cheruvanchery Nursery 

SEF Mundayadu Medicinal Garden 

SEF Kadalkandam 

SEF Peruvam 

MDF Kannoth 

EF Nedumpoyil 

2 Kottiyur EF Kottiyur 

3 Thaliparamba MDF Thaliparamba 

4 Kanhangad EF Manjuchola 

5 Kasaragod SEF Parappa 

2 Calicut 6 Peruvannamoozhy P Peruvannamuzhy 

7 Kuttiyadi MDF Kuttiyadi 

8 Thamarassery EF Kanalad 

SEF Thamarassery Churam 

MDF Thenhippalam 

3 Wayanad North 9 Begur SEF Thrissillery, Muthumary 

SEF Ambalamoola 

EF Brahmagiri 

EF Kuruva Island 

10 Periya EF Chandanathodu 

EF Periya 

SEF Alat 

SEF Ambalakkandy 

11 Mananthavady MDF Mananthavady 

MDF Varayal 

4 Wayanad South 12 Kalpetta P / MDF Thariode 

SEF Kalpetta 

SEF Puthurvayal 

MDF Manikunnumala 

13 Meppady MDF Kaappankolli 

SF Meppady chola, Chembra peek 

MDF Pookodu 

14 Chethalath MDF Chethalath 

MDF Kuppady 

5 Wyanad WLD 15 Tholpetty MDF Tholpetty 

MDF Kudhirakkode 

MDF Appapara 

MDF Kattikulam 

SEF Thirunelli 

SEF Moolappara 

16 Kurichiyath MDF Goloor 

MDF Vandikadavu 

MDF Kurichiyad 

SEF Palammoola 

17 Muthanga MDF Muthanga 

SEF Noolpuzha 

18 Sulthan Bathery MDF Rampur 

P Muthanga North 

19 Aralam WLS EF Aralam 

EF Meenmutty 

313

2. Olavakkode Circle and Protected Areas 


No 

No 

6 Nilambur North 20 Nilambur MDF KFRI Sub Center 

N Valluvassery Central Nursery 

MDF Valluvassery 

21 Edavanna MDF Edavanna 

22 Vazhikadavu MDF Nellikuthu,Karappuram 

SEF Nadukani Churam 

MDF Anamari 

7 Nilambur South 23 Kalikavu MDF Padukka, Palayankara 

24 Karulai SEF Injar 

SEF Nedumkayam 

MDF Churulipotti 

MDF Kanjiramkodu 

SEF Paattakarimbu 

8 Mannarkad 25 Attappadi WEF Panthanthodu 

EF Mukkali 

26 Agali MDF Manjachola 

MDF Kollankadavu 

SEF Paravalavu 

MDF Kallamala 

MDF Agali 

27 Mannarkad EF Mandampotty 

SEF Churam 

9 Palakkad 28 Olavakode MDF Mundoor 

MDF Dhoni 

29 Walayar 240msl MDF Pudussery North (Palamarakoopu) 

MDF Vattappara 

30 Ottapalam P Ottapalam 

10 Nemmara 31 Nelliyampathy EF Pothumala 

32 Kollengode P Kollengode 

33 Alathur P Alathur 

11 Silent Valley NP 34 Silent Valley NP WEF Sirendhri 

12 Parambikulam WLD 35 Sungam EF Pandaravarii 

P Sungam Teak plantationn. 

36 Parambikulam MDF Parambikulam 

SEF Seethathodu 

MDF Thunakadavu 

SEF Pooppara 

37 Orukomban P Orukomban 

38 Karimala P / MDF Karimala 

314

3. Central Circle and Protected Areas 

FD No Forest Divisions FR 

No 

Forest Ranges Forest Types Locality 

13 Trichur 39 Vadakkanchery P / MDF Poongodu, Arissery 

P / MDF Perinkunnam 

P Kayampoovam 

P / MDF Mayannur, Beetikunnu 

P / MDF Methukku 

P / MDF Poolakunnu 

MDF Kuttimaruthu 

40 Pattikkad SEF Kuthiran, Van Vijnanakendram 

41 Machad MDF Machad 

SEF Vazhani part of Machade 

MDF Ungumchola 

MDF Akamala 

MDF Attoor, Asurankundu dam 

14 Chalakudy 42 Pariyaram MDF Thumburmuzhi 

MDF Karikadu 

43 Palappilly MDF Veluppadam 

N Chettikulam Central Nursery 

MDF Palappilly 

44 Vellikulangara EF Anapandam, Thachampally Reserve 

EF Adivarathodu 

P / MDF Punnakuzhi, way Rama Varma Teak Plantation 

15 Vazhachal 45 Charpa SEF Charpa 

EF Anappara 

P / SEF Panjanamkuthu 

46 Vazhachal SEF Vazhachal 

EF Sidhanpocket 

MDF Irumpupalam 

47 Sholayar 900msl EF Malakkappara 

EF Anakayam 

EF KKN Plot Upper Sholayar 

48 Kollathirumedu EF Karadippara 

EF Thavalakuzhippara 

SEF Pathadipalam 

49 Athirappally P / MDF Vettilappara 

P / MDF Athirappally 

16 Malayattur 50 Kalady MDF Vazhakulam South 

P Kalady 

51 Kodanadu P / MDF Kottappara 

P / MDF Pezhad 

P / MDF Plamudi 

P / MDF Paniyeli 

MDF Vembooram 

52 Thundathil MDF Malayattoor 

MDF Pondanthodu 

MDF Thundam 

SEF Idamalayar 

SEF Bhoothathankettu 

53 Kuttampuzha P Kuttampuzha 

17 Peechi WLD 54 Peechi-Vazhani MDF Peechi KFRI Campus 

N Orappanppara KFRI Nursery 

N Marottichal KFD Nursery 

SEF Kuthiran (Peechi side) 

MDF KFRI Medicinal Garden 

55 Chimmony SEF Chimmony Dam site 

P Chimmony 

315

4. High Range Circle and Protected Areas 

FD Forest Divisions FR Forest Ranges Forest Locality 

No 

No 

Types 

18 Kothamangalam 56 Thodupuzha P Vazhakulam 

57 Kothamangalam P Orukunnu 

58 Kaliyar P Kaliyar 

59 Mullaringad P Mullaringad 

19 Munnar 60 Munnar SEF Mattupetti 

SF Mannavan Shola 

61 Marayur SF Pambadum Shola 

P / SEF Vattavada 

SEF Chunduvaraii 

P / MDF Anakallu 

P / MDF Marayur Sandal Plot 

62 Devikulam SEF Upper Devikulam 

SF Old Devikulam Shola 

SEF Devikulam 

SEF Devikulam Lake 

SF Devimala Shola 

63 Adimali P Kaithachal 

P / MDF Chenkulam 

64 Neryamangalam MDF Injathotti, Munippara 

MDF Adichili 

MDF Valara 

20 Mankulam 65 Mankulam SEF Mankulam 

66 Anakulam P Anakulam 

21 Kottayam 67 Erumeli MDF Plappilly, Erumeli 

68 Ayyappancoil SEF Kanjiyar (Pezhumkandam) 

P / MDF Ayyappancoil 

69 Nagarampara MDF Nagarampara 

P Nagarampara Eucaly. Plantation 

70 Kumili MDF Kumili 

22 Idukki WLD 71 Idukki MDF Cheruthoni 

72 Thattekkad SEF Thattekkad 

23 Eravikulam WLD 73 Eravikulam NP SF Eravikulam 

74 Chinnar DDF Chinnar 

DDF Chinnar to Marayur 

24 Thekkady WLD 75 Thekkady SEF Thekkady 

76 Vallakkadavu SEF Vallakadavu 

EF Pachakkanam 

SEF Gavi 

* 

FD No: Forest Division Code; FR No: Forest Range Code; DDF: Dry Deciduous Forest; MDF: Moist Deciduous 

Forest; SEF: Semi Evergreen Forest; EF: Evergreen Forest; WEF: Wet Evergreen Forest; SF: Shola Forest; MS: 

Myristica Swamp Forest; P / MDF: Plantations within Moist Deciduous Forest; P / SEF: Plantations within Semi 

Evergreen Forest; P: Plantations; N: Nurseries 

316

5. Southern Circle and Protected Areas 


No 

No 

Types 

25 Ranni 77 Ranni MDF Chittar 

SEF Kattachira 

SEF Neelipilavu 

SEF Angamoozhy 

SEF Ottuppara 

78 Goodrickal EF Gurunathanmannu 

MDF Rajampara 

SEF Nilakkal 

EF Chinnakayam 

EF Chalakayam 

EF Manipuzha 

SEF Plachery 

SEF Pamba 

SEF Kundanpuzha 

79 Vadasserikkara SEF Chelikuzhi 

SEF Nellimala, Kanamala 

MDF Elavumkallu 

26 Konni 80 Konni N Konni Nursery 

N North Kumaramperur 

P / MDF Ilamullumplakal 

81 Naduvathumuzhi P / MDF Naduvathumuzhi 

P / MDF Kokkathodu 

82 Mannarappara P Mannarappara 

27 Achenkovil 83 Achenkovil P / MDF Achenkovil 

84 Kallar P / MDF Kallar 

85 Kanayar P / MDF Kanayar 

28 Punalur 86 Anchal P / MDF Pathupara 

P / MDF Kelankavu 

SEF Urakkathumpara 

MDF Onthupacha 

SEF Sanjeevani Vanam 

P / MDF Maruthimoodu 

87 Pathanapuram P / MDF Punnala 

P / MDF Kadakam 

MDF Kaithakettu 

29 Thenmala 88 Arienkavu P / MDF Arienkavu 

89 Thenmala P / MDF Kattileppara 

SEF Palaruvi 

P / MDF Choodal 

30 Trivandrum 90 Kulathupuzha N Kandamchira KFD Nursery 

MS Arippa 

MDF Peringamala, Chittoor 

P / MDF Kulathupuzha 

N Kandamchira 

P / MDF Kulathupuzha KFRI Plot 

P / MDF Choolady 

EF Ammayambalam 

91 Palode SEF Braemore 

P / MDF Palode 

92 Paruthippally SEF Ponmudi 

31 Shendurney WLD 93 Shendurney P / MDF Sangily, Nadathara 

94 Peppara MDF Peppara 

32 Trivandrum WLD 95 Neyyar MDF Neyyar dam site 

33 Agasthyavanam 

* 

96 Agasthyavanam SEF Kottoor Reserve 

317

Biodiversity of Plant Pathogenic Fungi in the Kerala Part of Western Ghats Appendices 

(No. 23/10/2001-RE – Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India) 

_____________________________________________________ 

Appendix II: Coniella species identified from different host plants in the Western Ghats, Kerala 

Herb 

No 

Forest 

types 


Range 

Forest locality Host Botanical Name Disease Sev 

erit 

1473 P Anchal Kelankavu Acacia 

auriculiformis A. 

Cunn.ex Benth. 

4347 MDF Marayur Marayur Anogeissus latifolia 

(Roxb.ex DC.) 

Wall.ex Guill. & 

Perr. 

2919 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Azadirachta indica 

Vazhani Nursery A. Juss. 

4228 N Palappilly Central Nursery 

Chettikulam 

3274 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Butea monosperma 

(Lam.) Taub. 


Stem 

Infection 

Leaf 

Spot 

Fungal Genera 

isolate 1 

y 

L Coniella 

L Coniella fragariae 

Leaf 

Spot 

L Coniella 

Bombax ceiba L. Leaf 

Spot 

M Coniella fragariae 

Leaf 

Blotch 


Canthium sp Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

Chettikulam 

Spot 

3345 EF Periya Chandanathodu Careya arborea Leaf M Coniella petrakii 

Roxb. 

Target 

Spot 

145 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Cleistanthus collinus Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

Benth. 

Spot 

3636 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Dalbergia latifolia Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

Vazhani Nursery Roxb. 

Blotch 

3317 EF Periya Chandanathodu Erythropalum Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

scandens Blume Angular 

Spot 

1485 P Pathanapu Kadakam Eucalyptus 

Leaf L Coniella 

ram 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 


Leaf Tip L Coniella 

ram 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Blight 

1548 P Kulathupu Kandamchira Eucalyptus 


zha 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 


Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

ram 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 


Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

zha 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 

1685 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus 


camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Blotch 

2582 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus 

Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

zha KFDC 

camaldulensis Spot 

Plantations Dehnh. 



zha KFDC 



312



_____________________________________________________ 

2584 P Kulathupu 

zha 


zha 

Kandanchira 

KFDC 

Plantations 

Kandanchira 

KFDC 

Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 






camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

spot 

3000 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus citriodora Leaf H Coniella minima 

zha Central Nursery Hook. 

Spot 

3019 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip H Coniella 

zha Central Nursery 

Blight 

1611 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella 


Spot 

1616 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella fragariae 


Spot 



Spot 



Blotch 

3002 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella fragariae 


Spot 



Spot 



Blotch 



vein 

+ Coniella 

banding austalensis 

3011 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip M Coniella fragariae 


Blight + Coniella minima 

2998 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella minima 


Blotch 

2999 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella petrakii 


Blotch 



Spot 



Spot 

3020 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone K3 Leaf H Coniella fragariae 


Spot 

2472 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella 

u HNL Nursery KFRI 16 

Blotch 


zha Central Nursery KFRI 25 

Spot 

2476 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella 


Blotch 

2580 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone P Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

zha KFDC 


14 

Spot 

3340 P Periya Chandanathodu Eucalyptus grandis Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

Hill ex Maiden Spot 

2819 P Kalpetta Thariode 11th Eucalyptus grandis Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

mile 

Hill ex Maiden Blotch 

313



_____________________________________________________ 

2570 N Kulathupu 

zha 


zha 


zha 


zha 


zha 

Central Nursery 

Decent Mook 

Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 


Eucalyptus pellita 

Muell. 


Muell. 


Muell. 


Muell. 


Muell. 

4222 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus pellita 

Chettikulam Muell. 



1526 P Pathanapu Punnala Eucalyptus 

ram 

tereticornis Smith. 

139 P Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Eucalyptus 

tereticornis Smith 


ram 


1514 P Pathanapu Kaithakettu Eucalyptus 

ram 



ram 



ram 



ram 


1597 P Kulathupu Kulathupuzha Eucalyptus 

zha 






1733 P Kodanadu Plamudi Eucalyptus 





zha KFDC 




zha KFDC 




zha KFDC 



2773 N Nilambur Central Nursery Eucalyptus 

Valluvassery tereticornis Smith 

3277 P Muthanga Muthanga Eucalyptus 


Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Target 

spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

spot 

Leaf 

spot 

Leaf 

blotch 

Concent 

ric Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 





H Coniella fragariae 



L Coniella 

















314



_____________________________________________________ 



tereticornis Smith Spot 

3886 SEF Karulai Pattakarimbu Eucalyptus 


tereticornis Smith Blotch 




4234 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus 


Chettikulam tereticornis Smith Spot 



tereticornis Smith spot 






tereticornis Smith Blotch + Coniella graneti 

2995 P Kulathupu Arippa Eucalyptus 

Leaf H Coniella granatii 

zha 

tereticornis Smith Tar Spot 

1618 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

zha Central Nursery Blake 

Blotch 



Spot 

1681 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

Blake 

Blotch 

3005 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf H Coniella fragariae 


Blotch 

1321 MDF Tholpetty Tholpetty Fern Leaf 

Spot 


211 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima 

gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch 

1816 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Garcinia gummi - Leaf L Coniella minima 

Vazhani Nursery gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch 

2981 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima 

Vanam 


2376 EF Vellikulan Anapandam Gmelina arborea Leaf M Coniella 

gara 

Roxb. 

Spot / 

Target 

spot 

3677 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Gmelina arborea Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

ly 

Roxb. 

Blotch 

3775 N Palappilly Central Nursery Holarrhena 

Leaf H Coniella 

Chettikulam pubescens (Buch.- 

Ham.) Wall.ex G. 

Don 

Spot 

3674 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Leea indica 


ly 

(Burm.f.) Merr. Tip 

Blight 

2444 MDF Thundathil Panthanthodu Macaranga peltata Leaf M Coniella 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Blotch 

4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella 

l 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Target 

Spot 

1759 MDF Palappilly Veluppadam Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg spot 

australiensis 

1566 P/SEF Kulathupu Arippa Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

zha 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Spot 

4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

315



_____________________________________________________ 

l (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Target 

Spot 

4342 MDF Ayyappan Periyakanal- Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

kovil Anayirangal (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot 

1484 P/MDF Pathanapu Kadakam Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

ram 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot 

1688 P/MDF Kodanadu Kottapara Mikania micrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

H.B.K. 

spot 

3683 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Ochlandra 


ly 

travancorica Benth. 

ex Gamble 

Spot 

4120 EF Goodricka Chinnakayam Ochlandra 


l 

travancorica Benth. Target 

ex Gamble 

Spot 

3675 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

ly 

(Nees) Kosterm. Spot 

2975 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella frageriae 

Vanam 

(Nees) Kosterm. Gall 

3283 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Pongamia glabra Leaf L Coniella 

Vent. 

Tip 

Blight 

4226 N Palappilly Central Nursery Strychnos nux- Sooty M Coniella fragariae 

Chettikulam vomica L. 

Mould 

2977 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Syzygium 

Leaf M Coniella petrakii 

Vanam 

caryophyllatum (L.) 

Alston 

Spot 

3357 EF Periya Chandanathodu Syzygium 


mundagam (Bourd.) 

Chitra 

Spot 

147 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Tabernaemontana Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

heyneana Wall. Spot 

2697 MDF Agasthyav Kotoor Terminalia chebula Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

anam 

Retz. 

Spot 

146 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Terminalia 


paniculata Roth Spot 




3891 MDF Kodanadu Vembooram Tetramelus nudiflora Leaf M Coniella 

R.Br. 

Spot 

1789 SEF Chimmon Chimmony Dam Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella 

y 

plant 

spot 

3292 EF Periya Chandanathodu Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella minima 

plant 

Angular 

Spot 

3609 N Nilambur Central Nursery Vateria indica L. Leaf L Coniella 

Valluvassery 

Blotch castaneicola 

316

Appendix I: Details on sites selected for the fungal biodiversity study in the Western Ghats 

1.Northern Circle and Protected Areas 


No 

No 

1 Kannur 1 Kannavam N Kadalkandam Nursery 

N Cheruvanchery Nursery 

SEF Mundayadu Medicinal Garden 

SEF Kadalkandam 

SEF Peruvam 

MDF Kannoth 

EF Nedumpoyil 

2 Kottiyur EF Kottiyur 

3 Thaliparamba MDF Thaliparamba 

4 Kanhangad EF Manjuchola 

5 Kasaragod SEF Parappa 

2 Calicut 6 Peruvannamoozhy P Peruvannamuzhy 

7 Kuttiyadi MDF Kuttiyadi 

8 Thamarassery EF Kanalad 

SEF Thamarassery Churam 

MDF Thenhippalam 

3 Wayanad North 9 Begur SEF Thrissillery, Muthumary 

SEF Ambalamoola 

EF Brahmagiri 

EF Kuruva Island 

10 Periya EF Chandanathodu 

EF Periya 

SEF Alat 

SEF Ambalakkandy 

11 Mananthavady MDF Mananthavady 

MDF Varayal 

4 Wayanad South 12 Kalpetta P / MDF Thariode 

SEF Kalpetta 

SEF Puthurvayal 

MDF Manikunnumala 

13 Meppady MDF Kaappankolli 

SF Meppady chola, Chembra peek 

MDF Pookodu 

14 Chethalath MDF Chethalath 

MDF Kuppady 

5 Wyanad WLD 15 Tholpetty MDF Tholpetty 

MDF Kudhirakkode 

MDF Appapara 

MDF Kattikulam 

SEF Thirunelli 

SEF Moolappara 

16 Kurichiyath MDF Goloor 

MDF Vandikadavu 

MDF Kurichiyad 

SEF Palammoola 

17 Muthanga MDF Muthanga 

SEF Noolpuzha 

18 Sulthan Bathery MDF Rampur 

P Muthanga North 

19 Aralam WLS EF Aralam 

EF Meenmutty 

313

2. Olavakkode Circle and Protected Areas 


No 

No 

6 Nilambur North 20 Nilambur MDF KFRI Sub Center 

N Valluvassery Central Nursery 

MDF Valluvassery 

21 Edavanna MDF Edavanna 

22 Vazhikadavu MDF Nellikuthu,Karappuram 

SEF Nadukani Churam 

MDF Anamari 

7 Nilambur South 23 Kalikavu MDF Padukka, Palayankara 

24 Karulai SEF Injar 

SEF Nedumkayam 

MDF Churulipotti 

MDF Kanjiramkodu 

SEF Paattakarimbu 

8 Mannarkad 25 Attappadi WEF Panthanthodu 

EF Mukkali 

26 Agali MDF Manjachola 

MDF Kollankadavu 

SEF Paravalavu 

MDF Kallamala 

MDF Agali 

27 Mannarkad EF Mandampotty 

SEF Churam 

9 Palakkad 28 Olavakode MDF Mundoor 

MDF Dhoni 

29 Walayar 240msl MDF Pudussery North (Palamarakoopu) 

MDF Vattappara 

30 Ottapalam P Ottapalam 

10 Nemmara 31 Nelliyampathy EF Pothumala 

32 Kollengode P Kollengode 

33 Alathur P Alathur 

11 Silent Valley NP 34 Silent Valley NP WEF Sirendhri 

12 Parambikulam WLD 35 Sungam EF Pandaravarii 

P Sungam Teak plantationn. 

36 Parambikulam MDF Parambikulam 

SEF Seethathodu 

MDF Thunakadavu 

SEF Pooppara 

37 Orukomban P Orukomban 

38 Karimala P / MDF Karimala 

314

3. Central Circle and Protected Areas 

FD No Forest Divisions FR 

No 

Forest Ranges Forest Types Locality 

13 Trichur 39 Vadakkanchery P / MDF Poongodu, Arissery 

P / MDF Perinkunnam 

P Kayampoovam 

P / MDF Mayannur, Beetikunnu 

P / MDF Methukku 

P / MDF Poolakunnu 

MDF Kuttimaruthu 

40 Pattikkad SEF Kuthiran, Van Vijnanakendram 

41 Machad MDF Machad 

SEF Vazhani part of Machade 

MDF Ungumchola 

MDF Akamala 

MDF Attoor, Asurankundu dam 

14 Chalakudy 42 Pariyaram MDF Thumburmuzhi 

MDF Karikadu 

43 Palappilly MDF Veluppadam 

N Chettikulam Central Nursery 

MDF Palappilly 

44 Vellikulangara EF Anapandam, Thachampally Reserve 

EF Adivarathodu 

P / MDF Punnakuzhi, way Rama Varma Teak Plantation 

15 Vazhachal 45 Charpa SEF Charpa 

EF Anappara 

P / SEF Panjanamkuthu 

46 Vazhachal SEF Vazhachal 

EF Sidhanpocket 

MDF Irumpupalam 

47 Sholayar 900msl EF Malakkappara 

EF Anakayam 

EF KKN Plot Upper Sholayar 

48 Kollathirumedu EF Karadippara 

EF Thavalakuzhippara 

SEF Pathadipalam 

49 Athirappally P / MDF Vettilappara 

P / MDF Athirappally 

16 Malayattur 50 Kalady MDF Vazhakulam South 

P Kalady 

51 Kodanadu P / MDF Kottappara 

P / MDF Pezhad 

P / MDF Plamudi 

P / MDF Paniyeli 

MDF Vembooram 

52 Thundathil MDF Malayattoor 

MDF Pondanthodu 

MDF Thundam 

SEF Idamalayar 

SEF Bhoothathankettu 

53 Kuttampuzha P Kuttampuzha 

17 Peechi WLD 54 Peechi-Vazhani MDF Peechi KFRI Campus 

N Orappanppara KFRI Nursery 

N Marottichal KFD Nursery 

SEF Kuthiran (Peechi side) 

MDF KFRI Medicinal Garden 

55 Chimmony SEF Chimmony Dam site 

P Chimmony 

315

4. High Range Circle and Protected Areas 


No 

No 

Types 

18 Kothamangalam 56 Thodupuzha P Vazhakulam 

57 Kothamangalam P Orukunnu 

58 Kaliyar P Kaliyar 

59 Mullaringad P Mullaringad 

19 Munnar 60 Munnar SEF Mattupetti 

SF Mannavan Shola 

61 Marayur SF Pambadum Shola 

P / SEF Vattavada 

SEF Chunduvaraii 

P / MDF Anakallu 

P / MDF Marayur Sandal Plot 

62 Devikulam SEF Upper Devikulam 

SF Old Devikulam Shola 

SEF Devikulam 

SEF Devikulam Lake 

SF Devimala Shola 

63 Adimali P Kaithachal 

P / MDF Chenkulam 

64 Neryamangalam MDF Injathotti, Munippara 

MDF Adichili 

MDF Valara 

20 Mankulam 65 Mankulam SEF Mankulam 

66 Anakulam P Anakulam 

21 Kottayam 67 Erumeli MDF Plappilly, Erumeli 

68 Ayyappancoil SEF Kanjiyar (Pezhumkandam) 

P / MDF Ayyappancoil 

69 Nagarampara MDF Nagarampara 

P Nagarampara Eucaly. Plantation 

70 Kumili MDF Kumili 

22 Idukki WLD 71 Idukki MDF Cheruthoni 

72 Thattekkad SEF Thattekkad 

23 Eravikulam WLD 73 Eravikulam NP SF Eravikulam 

74 Chinnar DDF Chinnar 

DDF Chinnar to Marayur 

24 Thekkady WLD 75 Thekkady SEF Thekkady 

76 Vallakkadavu SEF Vallakadavu 

EF Pachakkanam 

SEF Gavi 

* 

FD No: Forest Division Code; FR No: Forest Range Code; DDF: Dry Deciduous Forest; MDF: Moist Deciduous 

Forest; SEF: Semi Evergreen Forest; EF: Evergreen Forest; WEF: Wet Evergreen Forest; SF: Shola Forest; MS: 

Myristica Swamp Forest; P / MDF: Plantations within Moist Deciduous Forest; P / SEF: Plantations within Semi 

Evergreen Forest; P: Plantations; N: Nurseries 

316

5. Southern Circle and Protected Areas 


No 

No 

Types 

25 Ranni 77 Ranni MDF Chittar 

SEF Kattachira 

SEF Neelipilavu 

SEF Angamoozhy 

SEF Ottuppara 

78 Goodrickal EF Gurunathanmannu 

MDF Rajampara 

SEF Nilakkal 

EF Chinnakayam 

EF Chalakayam 

EF Manipuzha 

SEF Plachery 

SEF Pamba 

SEF Kundanpuzha 

79 Vadasserikkara SEF Chelikuzhi 

SEF Nellimala, Kanamala 

MDF Elavumkallu 

26 Konni 80 Konni N Konni Nursery 

N North Kumaramperur 

P / MDF Ilamullumplakal 

81 Naduvathumuzhi P / MDF Naduvathumuzhi 

P / MDF Kokkathodu 

82 Mannarappara P Mannarappara 

27 Achenkovil 83 Achenkovil P / MDF Achenkovil 

84 Kallar P / MDF Kallar 

85 Kanayar P / MDF Kanayar 

28 Punalur 86 Anchal P / MDF Pathupara 

P / MDF Kelankavu 

SEF Urakkathumpara 

MDF Onthupacha 

SEF Sanjeevani Vanam 

P / MDF Maruthimoodu 

87 Pathanapuram P / MDF Punnala 

P / MDF Kadakam 

MDF Kaithakettu 

29 Thenmala 88 Arienkavu P / MDF Arienkavu 

89 Thenmala P / MDF Kattileppara 

SEF Palaruvi 

P / MDF Choodal 

30 Trivandrum 90 Kulathupuzha N Kandamchira KFD Nursery 

MS Arippa 

MDF Peringamala, Chittoor 

P / MDF Kulathupuzha 

N Kandamchira 

P / MDF Kulathupuzha KFRI Plot 

P / MDF Choolady 

EF Ammayambalam 

91 Palode SEF Braemore 

P / MDF Palode 

92 Paruthippally SEF Ponmudi 

31 Shendurney WLD 93 Shendurney P / MDF Sangily, Nadathara 

94 Peppara MDF Peppara 

32 Trivandrum WLD 95 Neyyar MDF Neyyar dam site 

33 Agasthyavanam 

* 

96 Agasthyavanam SEF Kottoor Reserve 

317



_____________________________________________________ 

Appendix II: Coniella species identified from different host plants in the Western Ghats, Kerala 

Herb 

No 


types 


Range 

Forest locality Host Botanical Name Disease Sev 

erit 

1473 P Anchal Kelankavu Acacia 

auriculiformis A. 

Cunn.ex Benth. 

4347 MDF Marayur Marayur Anogeissus latifolia 

(Roxb.ex DC.) 

Wall.ex Guill. & 

Perr. 

2919 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Azadirachta indica 

Vazhani Nursery A. Juss. 


Chettikulam 

3274 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Butea monosperma 

(Lam.) Taub. 


Stem 

Infection 

Leaf 

Spot 

Fungal Genera 

isolate 1 

y 

L Coniella 


Leaf 

Spot 

L Coniella 

Bombax ceiba L. Leaf 

Spot 


Leaf 

Blotch 


Canthium sp Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

Chettikulam 

Spot 

3345 EF Periya Chandanathodu Careya arborea Leaf M Coniella petrakii 

Roxb. 

Target 

Spot 

145 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Cleistanthus collinus Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

Benth. 

Spot 

3636 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Dalbergia latifolia Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

Vazhani Nursery Roxb. 

Blotch 

3317 EF Periya Chandanathodu Erythropalum Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

scandens Blume Angular 

Spot 



ram 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 


Leaf Tip L Coniella 

ram 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Blight 



zha 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 



ram 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 



zha 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Spot 



camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Blotch 



zha KFDC 





zha KFDC 



312



_____________________________________________________ 


zha 


zha 

Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 

KFDC 

Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 






camaldulensis 

Dehnh. 

spot 

3000 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus citriodora Leaf H Coniella minima 

zha Central Nursery Hook. 

Spot 

3019 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip H Coniella 


Blight 

1611 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella 


Spot 



Spot 



Spot 



Blotch 



Spot 



Spot 



Blotch 



vein 

+ Coniella 

banding austalensis 

3011 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf Tip M Coniella fragariae 


Blight + Coniella minima 

2998 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella minima 


Blotch 



Blotch 



Spot 



Spot 

3020 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone K3 Leaf H Coniella fragariae 


Spot 

2472 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf H Coniella 


Blotch 


zha Central Nursery KFRI 25 

Spot 

2476 N Thundathil Bhoothathankett Eucalyptus clone Leaf L Coniella 


Blotch 

2580 P Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus clone P Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

zha KFDC 


14 

Spot 

3340 P Periya Chandanathodu Eucalyptus grandis Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

Hill ex Maiden Spot 

2819 P Kalpetta Thariode 11th Eucalyptus grandis Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

mile 

Hill ex Maiden Blotch 

313



_____________________________________________________ 


zha 


zha 


zha 


zha 


zha 


Decent Mook 

Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 

KFDC 


Kandanchira 



Muell. 


Muell. 


Muell. 


Muell. 


Muell. 






ram 

tereticornis Smith. 

139 P Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Eucalyptus 



ram 


1514 P Pathanapu Kaithakettu Eucalyptus 

ram 



ram 



ram 



ram 


1597 P Kulathupu Kulathupuzha Eucalyptus 

zha 











zha KFDC 




zha KFDC 




zha KFDC 



2773 N Nilambur Central Nursery Eucalyptus 

Valluvassery tereticornis Smith 



Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Target 

spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

spot 

Leaf 

spot 

Leaf 

blotch 

Concent 

ric Spot 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 

Leaf 

Spot 

Leaf 

Blotch 








L Coniella 

















314



_____________________________________________________ 










4234 N Palappilly Central Nursery Eucalyptus 


Chettikulam tereticornis Smith Spot 



tereticornis Smith spot 






tereticornis Smith Blotch + Coniella graneti 

2995 P Kulathupu Arippa Eucalyptus 

Leaf H Coniella granatii 

zha 

tereticornis Smith Tar Spot 



Blotch 



Spot 

1681 P Kodanadu Kottapara Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

Blake 

Blotch 

3005 N Kulathupu Kandanchira Eucalyptus urophylla Leaf H Coniella fragariae 


Blotch 

1321 MDF Tholpetty Tholpetty Fern Leaf 

Spot 


211 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima 


1816 N Peechi KFRI Silvi Garcinia gummi - Leaf L Coniella minima 

Vazhani Nursery gutta (L.) Robs. Blotch 

2981 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Garcinia gummi - Leaf H Coniella minima 

Vanam 


2376 EF Vellikulan Anapandam Gmelina arborea Leaf M Coniella 

gara 

Roxb. 

Spot / 

Target 

spot 

3677 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Gmelina arborea Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

ly 

Roxb. 

Blotch 

3775 N Palappilly Central Nursery Holarrhena 

Leaf H Coniella 

Chettikulam pubescens (Buch.- 

Ham.) Wall.ex G. 

Don 

Spot 

3674 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Leea indica 


ly 

(Burm.f.) Merr. Tip 

Blight 

2444 MDF Thundathil Panthanthodu Macaranga peltata Leaf M Coniella 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Blotch 

4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella 

l 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Target 

Spot 

1759 MDF Palappilly Veluppadam Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg spot 

australiensis 

1566 P/SEF Kulathupu Arippa Macaranga peltata Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

zha 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. Spot 

4106 SEF Goodricka Nilakkal Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

315



_____________________________________________________ 

l (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Target 

Spot 

4342 MDF Ayyappan Periyakanal- Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

kovil Anayirangal (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot 

1484 P/MDF Pathanapu Kadakam Macaranga peltata Leaf H Coniella fragariae 

ram 

(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg Spot 

1688 P/MDF Kodanadu Kottapara Mikania micrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

H.B.K. 

spot 

3683 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Ochlandra 


ly 

travancorica Benth. 

ex Gamble 

Spot 

4120 EF Goodricka Chinnakayam Ochlandra 


l 

travancorica Benth. Target 

ex Gamble 

Spot 

3675 MDF Athirappal Athirappally Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

ly 

(Nees) Kosterm. Spot 

2975 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Persea macrantha Leaf L Coniella frageriae 

Vanam 

(Nees) Kosterm. Gall 

3283 MDF Muthanga Muthanga Pongamia glabra Leaf L Coniella 

Vent. 

Tip 

Blight 

4226 N Palappilly Central Nursery Strychnos nux- Sooty M Coniella fragariae 

Chettikulam vomica L. 

Mould 

2977 SEF Anchal Sangeevani Syzygium 

Leaf M Coniella petrakii 

Vanam 

caryophyllatum (L.) 

Alston 

Spot 

3357 EF Periya Chandanathodu Syzygium 


mundagam (Bourd.) 

Chitra 

Spot 

147 MDF Nilambur KFRI Sc campus Tabernaemontana Leaf L Coniella fragariae 

heyneana Wall. Spot 

2697 MDF Agasthyav Kotoor Terminalia chebula Leaf M Coniella fragariae 

anam 

Retz. 

Spot 







3891 MDF Kodanadu Vembooram Tetramelus nudiflora Leaf M Coniella 

R.Br. 

Spot 

1789 SEF Chimmon Chimmony Dam Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella 

y 

plant 

spot 

3292 EF Periya Chandanathodu Unidentified host Leaf L Coniella minima 

plant 

Angular 

Spot 

3609 N Nilambur Central Nursery Vateria indica L. Leaf L Coniella 

Valluvassery 

Blotch castaneicola 

316

CONCLUSIONS 

The forests in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats support a rich pathogenic fungal flora. 

The distribution and level of parasitism of various fungi in different forest ecosystems are 

governed mostly by the climatic and edaphic factors as well as host parasite interrelationships. 

Among the forest ecosystems explored, maximum fungal species diversity 

was observed in forest plantations, which was followed by moist deciduous forests and 

semi-evergreen forests. Forest plantations support a rich pathogenic fungal flora and the 

plant - fungal ratio recorded in this ecosystem is as high as 1:14. In moist deciduous 

forests and semi-evergreen forests, the plant-fungal ratio is 1:3.1 and 1:3.48 respectively. 

The results show that monoculture plantations and disturbed forest ecosystems support a 

large number of pathogenic fungi, which cause root, stem, and foliage diseases and thrive 

well under conducive environmental conditions. Build up of pathogen inoculum occurs 

over the years and the disease caused by the fungal pathogen may even spread to an 

epidemic proportion. In forest plantations, eucalypts dominate the system and a single 

host species (Eucalyptus tereticornis) harbors more than 25 genera of pathogenic fungi. 

This is almost 25% of the total fungal genera encountered in the study. The recently 

introduced exotic plant, Acacia mangium also harbors 21 genera of pathogenic fungi, and 

was found severely affected with vascular wilt pathogen, Fusarium solani and root rot 

pathogen Ganoderma lucidum. 

The results show that exotic host species are more vulnerable to the indigenous fungal 

pathogens and the monoculture plantations serve as reservoir of inoculum of different 

phytopathogenic fungi. In forest nurseries the plant-fungal ratio is only 1: 3.8. Earlier, 

conventional seedbed nurseries supported a large number of pathogenic fungi and the 

recent technological change in the seedling production system using root trainers and 

high input management in nurseries excluded many nursery pathogens. 

Disturbances caused by anthropogenic factors including forest fires seem to be the 

important factor for incidence and spread of diseases and thereby the increase in 

271

pathogenic fungi. More fungi were encountered in disturbed stands than less disturbed 

stands in evergreen and wet evergreen forests. In evergreen and wet ever green forests, 

though fungal pathogens are found causing foliage infections, they are not probably 

making any serious damage to the systems. Diversity of obligate parasites like rust fungi 

is found more in evergreen, wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. 

With regard to the community and species composition, almost same fungal flora was 

observed in moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests and forest plantations, 

however, fungal species dominance and abundance occurred depending on the 

environmental conditions as well as host plants. Among the fungal groups, Mitosporic 

fungi were found widely distributed in all the forest ecosystems and exhibit wide host 

range. Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum causing diseases in forest nurseries and 

eucalypt plantations was found associated with more than 25 indigenous host species in 

wet evergreen, evergreen, semi-evergreen to moist deciduous forests, which reveals the 

adaptability of the pathogen in different ecosystems. Pathogenic fungi viz., 

Colletotrichum state of Glomerella, Curvularia, Phomopsis, Guignardia, Phyllosticta, 

Calonectria, Corynespora, Fusarium, Myrothecium, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma, 

Cylindrocladium and Coniella are the most widely distributed ones in different forest 

ecosystems in the Western Ghats. Monoculture plantations in the Western Ghats serve as 

reservoir of a large number of phyopathogenic fungi, which may become threat to other 

crops in due course. 

Diversity is a dynamic aspect of ecosystems and whose importance and contributions to 

system functions are still not well understood. It is well known that listing of fungal 

species from various ecosystems without attempting to evaluate and understand the 

dynamic mechanisms that contribute to the observed patterns of total biodiversity is only 

describing the shadows of the ecological actors that are participating in a complex and 

interesting evolutionary play. Hence, more in-depth research programmes incorporating 

current methodologies of sampling designs that account for effects of scale on patterns of 

fungal biodiversity – both temporal variation and spatial heterogeneity are warranted. 

272

Appendix II: Host Index 

Abrus precatorius L. 203 

Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93 

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93 

Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. 159 

Acacia crassicarpa Cunn.ex Benth .93 

Acacia dealbata Link 91 

Acacia holosericea A.Cunn.ex Benth.94 

Acacia horida (L.f.) Willd. 93 

Acacia mangium Willd.41,51,93,131,165,175 

Achras sapota L. 99 

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight & Arn.36,67,79 

Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. 83,93 

Actinodaphne madraspatana Bedd. 93,175 

Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr.65,100 

Adenanthera pavonina L. 93 

Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) Willd.67,94 

Adhatoda vasica Nees.67,93,175 

Adiantum lunulatum Burm.94, 

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.53,87,120,175,208 

Aganope thyrsiflora (Benth.) Polhill 94 

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) King & Robins.53 

Aglaia lawii (Wight) Sald. 93 

Aglaia perviridis Hiern.230 

Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm & Binn. 93,230 

Agrostistachys borneensis Becc. 32,53,95,164 

Ailanthus sp. 208 

Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston 40, 94,187 

Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang 92, 164 

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. 87, 267 

Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. 73,93,267 

Albizia sp. 151 

Allamanda cathartica L.94,175 

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Rausch.94,128, 175, 230 

Alnus nepalensis Wall.ex Wight & Arn. 57 

Alpinia calcarata Rosc. 93 

Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. 53,164 

Alpinia sp. 93,230 

Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees 63 

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 93, 176, 230 

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 94 

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicols. 32 

Anacardium occidentale L. 92,136,231 

Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.133 

Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.ex Grah. 93 

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees128 

Angiopteris erecta 93,208 

Annona reticulata L. 94,175 

Annona sp. 93 

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. DC.) Wall.ex Guill. & 

Perr. 39,93 

Anthodium sp. 93 

Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 100 

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker.93,164 

Aporosa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. 53,82,93, 139 

Ardisia solanacea Roxb.93,175, 230 

Areca catechu L.93, 128, 164,230 

Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawl. 93, 128 

Argyreia hirsuta Wight & Arn.93,128, 164 

Aristolochia bracteata Retz. 93, 128,230 

Artocarpus gomezianus Wall ex Trek 93, 164, 208 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.31, 93, 128, 208,230 

Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.57, 94,230 

Artocarpus sp. 93 

Asplenium sp. 93, 164 

Asystasia gangetica T. And.93 

Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. 53,93, 164,230 

Averrhoa carambola L. 93,230 

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.90, 94, 128, 164,208,230 

Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell. - Arg. 32, 94, 

Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell. - Arg. 87 

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss 66, 94,143, 230 

Bambusa vulgaris Schrader Wendl. 66,90 

Barleria sp. 93 

Bauhinia purpurea L.53,65,93,231 

Bauhinia racemosa Lam. 53,65,93,165 

Bauhinia sp.53,93,175 

Bauhinia variegata L.63,93,175,230 

Begonia floccifera Bedd.93,164 

Beilschmiedia wightii (Nees) Benth. ex Hook.f. 93 

Belamcanda chinensis 98 

Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. 94,98,208 

Bischofia javanica Blume 31,36,93,131,175,230 

Bixa orellana L. 94 

Blachia umbellata Baill. 52,95 

Blepharistemma serratum (Dennst.) Suresh 155,230 

Blumea pterodonta DC. 93,164,230 

Bolbitis appendiculata 93 

Bolbitis sp. 97 

Bombax ceiba L. 36,38,74, 93,175,208,261 

Bombax insigne Wall. 94,261 

Borassus flabellifer L. 94,208,230 

Borreria latifolia (Aublet.) Schum. 94,128 

Briedelia airy-shawii P.T.Li 93,175,230 

Briedelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. 93,100,128,164 

Briedelia sp.93 

Briedelia squamosa Bl .94,129 

Buchanania lanzan Springer 93,100 

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.93 

Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb. 94,230 

Caesalpinia sappan L. 87,93,175,231 

Calamus hookerianus Becc.32 

Calamus sp.93 

Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Becc. & Hook. 32,67 

Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Becc. & Hook.f.67 

Calamus vattayila Renuka 57 

Calliandra sp.82 

Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray 93,231 

Calophyllum inophyllum L. 36 

Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex Choisy 94, 164 

Calotropis gigantea R.Br. 93,231 

Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Poir.53,57,176 

Camelia sinensis (L.) O.Ktze.53,147,175 

Canarium strictum Roxb.31,63 

Canthium neilgherrense Wight 63,231 

Canthium sp.93 

Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. 93,175 

Careya arborea Roxb.82 

Caryota urens L. 53,167 

Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. 93 

Cassia alata L. 93,165 

318

Cassia fistula L. 53,56,86,111,175,230 

Cassia siamea Lam. 93,251 

Cassia tora L. 90 

Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. & Fraser 95 

Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& G. Forst.60, 111, 230 

Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirveng. 100 

Cayratia pedata A.L. Jussieu. 94 

Cayratia sp. 94 

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. 94, 175,247 

Celastrus paniculatus Willd 48 

Centella asiatica Urb. 100,167 

Centrosema pubescens Benth. 94,231 

Chassalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Craib. 94,128,208 

Chassalia sp. 94 

Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green 53 

Christella parasitica (L.) H. Lev. 53,175 

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins.82 

Chrysophyllum cainito L. 94,164,208 

Chrysophyllum sp.94,128,230 

Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. 36,94,164,230 

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl 94,128,164,230 

Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm. 94 

Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) Blume 32,88 

Cinnamomum sp. 94, 208 

Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees 53,94,208 

Cinnamomum verum Presl 94,175,208,230 

Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. 82 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Bl. 94,208,230 

Cipadessa sp. 94 

Cissampelos pareira L. 94,164 

Cissus discolor Blume 94,175 

Cissus repens Lam. 94 

Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. 53,222 

Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver 53,222 

Clausena sp.53 

Cleistanthus collinus Benth. 39,94,175,230 

Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon 57, 94,175,230 

Clerodendrum sp. 57 

Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. 53,90 

Coffea arabica L.53,94,230 

Coffea robusta Linden.53,94,128 

Coffea sp. 53,94 

Coffea travancorensis Wight & Arn.94 

Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith 94,164 

Combretum sp. 94 

Commelina sp. 94 

Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 82 

Connarus monocarpus L. 94,100 

Connarus sp. 94 

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 46,94,230 

Cordia gharaf (Forssk.) Ehrenb. ex Asch.46,94,230 

Cordia monoica Roxb. 46 

Cordia sp.46 

Cordia wallichii G.Don 94,129 

Croton malabaricus Bedd. 94 

Cryptocarya bourdillonii Gamble94,164,231 

Cullenia exarillata Robyns 31,136 

Cupressus sp. 94,164 

Cupressus torulosa D. Don 94 

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. 93,128 

Curcuma sp.128 

Cyathea nilgirensis Holttum 94,175,230 

Cycas circinalis L. 40,90,94,230 

Cyclea fissicalyx Dunn. 94 

Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms. 128,231 

Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. 95 

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Watson 129 

Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. 95 

Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabber 95,208 

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 36,89,128,167,236,261 

Dalbergia sissoides Grah. ex Wight & Arn. 94,262 

Dalbergia sp.83 

Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) Rosenth.95 

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. 95,230 

Delonix regia (Boj.) Rafin. 83,113 

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees 61, 72,143,230 

Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz 61, 72,94,230 

Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. 53,86 

Derris brevipes (Benth.) Baker 95 

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 94,168 

Desmodium sp.94 

Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. 53 

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underwood 53,94 

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.77,95,169,230 

Dillenia sp.77 

Dimocarpus longan Lour.32,63,94,122 

Dimorphocalyx lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Hook.f.95 

Dioscorea hispida Dennst. 93 

Dioscorea pentaphylla L. 69 

Dioscorea sp.175 

Dioscorea wallichii Hook.f.94 

Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern. 95,208 

Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.95,208,231 

Diospyros sp.94 

Diploclisia glaucescens Diels 94 

Dipterocarpus bourdillonii Brand. 94,169,209 

Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. 94,169,230 

Dipterocarpus sp.94,128 

Dracaena ternifolia Roxb. 94 

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) Smith94,169,209 

Drynaria sp.94 

Dryopteris sp.94 

Drypetes confertiflora (Hook.f.) Pax & Hoffm.94 

Drypetes elata (Bedd.) Pax. & Hoffm.31,94 

Drypetes wightii (Hook.f.) Pax & Hoffm. 31,94,208 

Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern 31,63,94 

Elaeis guinensis Jacq.40 

Elaeocarpus glandulosus Wall. ex Merr.95,231 

Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast.95,231 

Elaeocarpus serratus L. 95 

Elaeocarpus sp.94,209 

Elephantopus scaber L. 94,129,164 

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton32,185 

Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.- Bip. 70 

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) DC.70,9 

Epiprinus mallotiformis (Muell.-Arg.) Croizat94,129 

Eragrostis sp. 94,129 

Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. 94 

Erythrina stricta Roxb.5394,176 

Erythropalum scandens Blume 95 

Eucalyptus alba Blume53,72,131 

Eucalyptus brassiana Blake53,9 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 48,94,131, 

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 48,94,76,131 

329

Eucalyptus clone 48,94,102,136 

Eucalyptus clone K2 136,137 


Eucalyptus clone KFRI 100,136,137,175 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 11 131,136,137 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 15, 100,131,136,230 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 16, 131 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 25, 136,137 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 38, 100, 137 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 49, 100,136,137 


Eucalyptus clone KFRI 68, 100,131,136,137, 167 

Eucalyptus clone P 14,137 

Eucalyptus deglupta Blume 40,134 

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 40,53,131 

Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden 40,60,72,131 

Eucalyptus hybrid 131 

Eucalyptus pallida Muell.134,146 

Eucalyptus phyrocarpa Johnson & Blaxil 40 

Eucalyptus regnans Muell. 133 

Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith 40,53,60,90,131,176 

Eucalyptus tessellaris Muell.40,53,128 

Eucalyptus torelliana F.v. Muell. 40,53,94 

Eucalyptus urophylla Blake 53,131 

Eugenia sp.95 

Eupatorium sp.94, 129 

Exacum anamallayanum Bedd. 83 

Exacum sp.83 

Fagraea ceylanica Thunb. 94,129 

Fahrenheitia integrifolia (Airy Shaw) Airy Shaw 95 

Ficus benghalensis L. 95,129,165,231 

Ficus exasperata Vahl 95 

Ficus gibbosa Blume var. parasitica (Koenig ex 

Willd.) 95,165 

Ficus hispida L.f. 52 

Ficus racemosa L.52 

Ficus religiosa L. 52,129 

Ficus rigida Jack. var. bracteata (Corner) Bennet52 

Ficus sp.100 

Ficus tsjahela Burm.f. 95 

Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br.100 

Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 78 

Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. 78 

Flacourtia montana Graham 78 

Flacourtia sp. 78 

Flemingia grahamiana Wight & Arn.100 

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. ex Ait.f. 94 

Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.79,95,231 

Garcinia rubro-echinata Kosterm.79,95 

Garcinia sp.79 

Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. 99 

Gardenia resinifera Roth 95,231 

Geophila repens (L.) Johnston 169 

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.169 

Glochidion ellipticum Wight 95 

Glochidion sp.95 

Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. Juss. 95,165 

Gloriosa superba L95. 

Gluta travancorica Bedd. 94,209 

Glycosmis arborea DC.92 

Glycosmis macrocarpa Wight 92 

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC 91 

Glyptopetalum sp 91 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. 40,53,240 

Gomphostemma heyneanum Benth.53,126 

Gordonia obtusa Wall.ex Wight & Arn.35 

Grevillea robusta Cunn.95,231 

Grewia hirsuta Vahl 95 

Grewia sp.95,165 

Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 38,53,68,165 

Gyrocarpus asiaticus Willd. 95 

Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. 57 

Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Rosc.68,146 

Hedyotis sp.94 

Helicteres isora L.94 

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.53 

Heritiera papilio Bedd.53 

Hevea braziliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.)Muell.-Arg. 40 

Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. ex DC.94 

Hibiscus sp.94 

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don 

40 

Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. 31,94 

Holigarna ferruginea Marchand 31,94 

Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz 31 

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. 53,94,231 

Homalium zeylanicum (Gard.) Benth. 53 

Hopea parviflora Bedd.89,94,221 

Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabber 94 

Hopea racophloea Dyer 94 

Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gard. ex Thw. 94 

Hydnocarpus alpina Wight94,165 

Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.- Ham.) Oken 94 

Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. 53 

Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabber 53,231 

Hypericum mysurense Heyne ex Wight & Arn.94 

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.40 

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. 40,91,231 

Impatiens sp.94 

Ipomoea hederifolia L. 53 

Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 94,164 

Ixora brachiata Roxb. ex DC. 94,164,231 

Ixora coccinea L. 231 

Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don. 165 

Ixora sp. 129 

Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. var. sessiliflorum 

(Vahl) P. S. Green 244 

Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andr. 95,244 

Jasminum sp. 244 

Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. 245 

Justicia wynaadensis (Nees) Heyne ex Anders. 53,95 

Kaempferia galanga L. 94 

Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 94 

Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms. 95 

Knema attenuata ( Wall. ex. Hook.f.& Thomas ) 

Warb.95 

Kunstleria keralensis Mohanan & Nair 95 

Kydia calycina Roxb. 94,176 

Lagerstroemia hirsuta (Lam.) Willd. 38,87 

Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 38,87 

Lagerstroemia reginae Roxb. 38,87,95 

Lagerstroemia sp.95 

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 95,231 

Lantana camara L. 86 

330

Appendix II: Host Index 

Abrus precatorius L. 203 

Acacia aulacocarpa Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93 

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.ex Benth. 41,93 

Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. 159 

Acacia crassicarpa Cunn.ex Benth .93 

Acacia dealbata Link 91 

Acacia holosericea A.Cunn.ex Benth.94 

Acacia horida (L.f.) Willd. 93 

Acacia mangium Willd.41,51,93,131,165,175 

Achras sapota L. 99 

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight & Arn.36,67,79 

Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. 83,93 

Actinodaphne madraspatana Bedd. 93,175 

Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr.65,100 

Adenanthera pavonina L. 93 

Adenia hondala (Gaertn.) Willd.67,94 

Adhatoda vasica Nees.67,93,175 

Adiantum lunulatum Burm.94, 

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.53,87,120,175,208 

Aganope thyrsiflora (Benth.) Polhill 94 

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) King & Robins.53 

Aglaia lawii (Wight) Sald. 93 

Aglaia perviridis Hiern.230 

Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm & Binn. 93,230 

Agrostistachys borneensis Becc. 32,53,95,164 

Ailanthus sp. 208 

Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston 40, 94,187 

Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang 92, 164 

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. 87, 267 

Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. 73,93,267 

Albizia sp. 151 

Allamanda cathartica L.94,175 

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Rausch.94,128, 175, 230 

Alnus nepalensis Wall.ex Wight & Arn. 57 

Alpinia calcarata Rosc. 93 

Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. 53,164 

Alpinia sp. 93,230 

Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees 63 

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 93, 176, 230 

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 94 

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicols. 32 

Anacardium occidentale L. 92,136,231 

Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.133 

Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.ex Grah. 93 

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees128 

Angiopteris erecta 93,208 

Annona reticulata L. 94,175 

Annona sp. 93 

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. DC.) Wall.ex Guill. & 

Perr. 39,93 

Anthodium sp. 93 

Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 100 

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker.93,164 

Aporosa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. 53,82,93, 139 

Ardisia solanacea Roxb.93,175, 230 

Areca catechu L.93, 128, 164,230 

Argyreia cuneata (Willd.) Ker-Gawl. 93, 128 

Argyreia hirsuta Wight & Arn.93,128, 164 

Aristolochia bracteata Retz. 93, 128,230 

Artocarpus gomezianus Wall ex Trek 93, 164, 208 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.31, 93, 128, 208,230 

Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.57, 94,230 

Artocarpus sp. 93 

Asplenium sp. 93, 164 

Asystasia gangetica T. And.93 

Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. 53,93, 164,230 

Averrhoa carambola L. 93,230 

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.90, 94, 128, 164,208,230 

Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell. - Arg. 32, 94, 

Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell. - Arg. 87 

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss 66, 94,143, 230 

Bambusa vulgaris Schrader Wendl. 66,90 

Barleria sp. 93 

Bauhinia purpurea L.53,65,93,231 

Bauhinia racemosa Lam. 53,65,93,165 

Bauhinia sp.53,93,175 

Bauhinia variegata L.63,93,175,230 

Begonia floccifera Bedd.93,164 

Beilschmiedia wightii (Nees) Benth. ex Hook.f. 93 

Belamcanda chinensis 98 

Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. 94,98,208 

Bischofia javanica Blume 31,36,93,131,175,230 

Bixa orellana L. 94 

Blachia umbellata Baill. 52,95 

Blepharistemma serratum (Dennst.) Suresh 155,230 

Blumea pterodonta DC. 93,164,230 

Bolbitis appendiculata 93 

Bolbitis sp. 97 

Bombax ceiba L. 36,38,74, 93,175,208,261 

Bombax insigne Wall. 94,261 

Borassus flabellifer L. 94,208,230 

Borreria latifolia (Aublet.) Schum. 94,128 

Briedelia airy-shawii P.T.Li 93,175,230 

Briedelia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. 93,100,128,164 

Briedelia sp.93 

Briedelia squamosa Bl .94,129 

Buchanania lanzan Springer 93,100 

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.93 

Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb. 94,230 

Caesalpinia sappan L. 87,93,175,231 

Calamus hookerianus Becc.32 

Calamus sp.93 

Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Becc. & Hook. 32,67 

Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Becc. & Hook.f.67 

Calamus vattayila Renuka 57 

Calliandra sp.82 

Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murray 93,231 

Calophyllum inophyllum L. 36 

Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex Choisy 94, 164 

Calotropis gigantea R.Br. 93,231 

Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Poir.53,57,176 

Camelia sinensis (L.) O.Ktze.53,147,175 

Canarium strictum Roxb.31,63 

Canthium neilgherrense Wight 63,231 

Canthium sp.93 

Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. 93,175 

Careya arborea Roxb.82 

Caryota urens L. 53,167 

Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. 93 

Cassia alata L. 93,165 

318

Cassia fistula L. 53,56,86,111,175,230 

Cassia siamea Lam. 93,251 

Cassia tora L. 90 

Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. & Fraser 95 

Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.& G. Forst.60, 111, 230 

Catunaregam torulosa (Dennst.) Tirveng. 100 

Cayratia pedata A.L. Jussieu. 94 

Cayratia sp. 94 

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. 94, 175,247 

Celastrus paniculatus Willd 48 

Centella asiatica Urb. 100,167 

Centrosema pubescens Benth. 94,231 

Chassalia ophioxyloides (Wall.) Craib. 94,128,208 

Chassalia sp. 94 

Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green 53 

Christella parasitica (L.) H. Lev. 53,175 

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins.82 

Chrysophyllum cainito L. 94,164,208 

Chrysophyllum sp.94,128,230 

Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss. 36,94,164,230 

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl 94,128,164,230 

Cinnamomum keralaense Kosterm. 94 

Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) Blume 32,88 

Cinnamomum sp. 94, 208 

Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees 53,94,208 

Cinnamomum verum Presl 94,175,208,230 

Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. 82 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Bl. 94,208,230 

Cipadessa sp. 94 

Cissampelos pareira L. 94,164 

Cissus discolor Blume 94,175 

Cissus repens Lam. 94 

Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. 53,222 

Clausena indica (Dalz.) Oliver 53,222 

Clausena sp.53 

Cleistanthus collinus Benth. 39,94,175,230 

Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon 57, 94,175,230 

Clerodendrum sp. 57 

Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. 53,90 

Coffea arabica L.53,94,230 

Coffea robusta Linden.53,94,128 

Coffea sp. 53,94 

Coffea travancorensis Wight & Arn.94 

Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith 94,164 

Combretum sp. 94 

Commelina sp. 94 

Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 82 

Connarus monocarpus L. 94,100 

Connarus sp. 94 

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 46,94,230 

Cordia gharaf (Forssk.) Ehrenb. ex Asch.46,94,230 

Cordia monoica Roxb. 46 

Cordia sp.46 

Cordia wallichii G.Don 94,129 

Croton malabaricus Bedd. 94 

Cryptocarya bourdillonii Gamble94,164,231 

Cullenia exarillata Robyns 31,136 

Cupressus sp. 94,164 

Cupressus torulosa D. Don 94 

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. 93,128 

Curcuma sp.128 

Cyathea nilgirensis Holttum 94,175,230 

Cycas circinalis L. 40,90,94,230 

Cyclea fissicalyx Dunn. 94 

Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms. 128,231 

Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. 95 

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Watson 129 

Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. 95 

Dalbergia horrida (Dennst.) Mabber 95,208 

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 36,89,128,167,236,261 

Dalbergia sissoides Grah. ex Wight & Arn. 94,262 

Dalbergia sp.83 

Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) Rosenth.95 

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. 95,230 

Delonix regia (Boj.) Rafin. 83,113 

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees 61, 72,143,230 

Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz 61, 72,94,230 

Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting. 53,86 

Derris brevipes (Benth.) Baker 95 

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. 94,168 

Desmodium sp.94 

Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. 53 

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underwood 53,94 

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.77,95,169,230 

Dillenia sp.77 

Dimocarpus longan Lour.32,63,94,122 

Dimorphocalyx lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Hook.f.95 

Dioscorea hispida Dennst. 93 

Dioscorea pentaphylla L. 69 

Dioscorea sp.175 

Dioscorea wallichii Hook.f.94 

Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern. 95,208 

Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.95,208,231 

Diospyros sp.94 

Diploclisia glaucescens Diels 94 

Dipterocarpus bourdillonii Brand. 94,169,209 

Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. 94,169,230 

Dipterocarpus sp.94,128 

Dracaena ternifolia Roxb. 94 

Drynaria quercifolia (L.) Smith94,169,209 

Drynaria sp.94 

Dryopteris sp.94 

Drypetes confertiflora (Hook.f.) Pax & Hoffm.94 

Drypetes elata (Bedd.) Pax. & Hoffm.31,94 

Drypetes wightii (Hook.f.) Pax & Hoffm. 31,94,208 

Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex Hiern 31,63,94 

Elaeis guinensis Jacq.40 

Elaeocarpus glandulosus Wall. ex Merr.95,231 

Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast.95,231 

Elaeocarpus serratus L. 95 

Elaeocarpus sp.94,209 

Elephantopus scaber L. 94,129,164 

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton32,185 

Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.- Bip. 70 

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) DC.70,9 

Epiprinus mallotiformis (Muell.-Arg.) Croizat94,129 

Eragrostis sp. 94,129 

Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. 94 

Erythrina stricta Roxb.5394,176 

Erythropalum scandens Blume 95 

Eucalyptus alba Blume53,72,131 

Eucalyptus brassiana Blake53,9 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 48,94,131, 

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 48,94,76,131 

329

Eucalyptus clone 48,94,102,136 



Eucalyptus clone KFRI 100,136,137,175 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 11 131,136,137 


Eucalyptus clone KFRI 16, 131 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 25, 136,137 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 38, 100, 137 

Eucalyptus clone KFRI 49, 100,136,137 


Eucalyptus clone KFRI 68, 100,131,136,137, 167 

Eucalyptus clone P 14,137 

Eucalyptus deglupta Blume 40,134 

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 40,53,131 

Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden 40,60,72,131 

Eucalyptus hybrid 131 

Eucalyptus pallida Muell.134,146 

Eucalyptus phyrocarpa Johnson & Blaxil 40 

Eucalyptus regnans Muell. 133 

Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith 40,53,60,90,131,176 

Eucalyptus tessellaris Muell.40,53,128 

Eucalyptus torelliana F.v. Muell. 40,53,94 

Eucalyptus urophylla Blake 53,131 

Eugenia sp.95 

Eupatorium sp.94, 129 

Exacum anamallayanum Bedd. 83 

Exacum sp.83 

Fagraea ceylanica Thunb. 94,129 

Fahrenheitia integrifolia (Airy Shaw) Airy Shaw 95 

Ficus benghalensis L. 95,129,165,231 

Ficus exasperata Vahl 95 

Ficus gibbosa Blume var. parasitica (Koenig ex 

Willd.) 95,165 

Ficus hispida L.f. 52 

Ficus racemosa L.52 

Ficus religiosa L. 52,129 

Ficus rigida Jack. var. bracteata (Corner) Bennet52 

Ficus sp.100 

Ficus tsjahela Burm.f. 95 

Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br.100 

Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 78 

Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. 78 

Flacourtia montana Graham 78 

Flacourtia sp. 78 

Flemingia grahamiana Wight & Arn.100 

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. ex Ait.f. 94 

Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs.79,95,231 

Garcinia rubro-echinata Kosterm.79,95 

Garcinia sp.79 

Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. 99 

Gardenia resinifera Roth 95,231 

Geophila repens (L.) Johnston 169 

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.169 

Glochidion ellipticum Wight 95 

Glochidion sp.95 

Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. Juss. 95,165 

Gloriosa superba L95. 

Gluta travancorica Bedd. 94,209 

Glycosmis arborea DC.92 

Glycosmis macrocarpa Wight 92 

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC 91 

Glyptopetalum sp 91 

Gmelina arborea Roxb. 40,53,240 

Gomphostemma heyneanum Benth.53,126 

Gordonia obtusa Wall.ex Wight & Arn.35 

Grevillea robusta Cunn.95,231 

Grewia hirsuta Vahl 95 

Grewia sp.95,165 

Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 38,53,68,165 

Gyrocarpus asiaticus Willd. 95 

Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. 57 

Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Rosc.68,146 

Hedyotis sp.94 

Helicteres isora L.94 

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.53 

Heritiera papilio Bedd.53 

Hevea braziliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.)Muell.-Arg. 40 

Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. ex DC.94 

Hibiscus sp.94 

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don 

40 

Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. 31,94 

Holigarna ferruginea Marchand 31,94 

Holigarna grahamii (Wight) Kurz 31 

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. 53,94,231 

Homalium zeylanicum (Gard.) Benth. 53 

Hopea parviflora Bedd.89,94,221 

Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabber 94 

Hopea racophloea Dyer 94 

Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gard. ex Thw. 94 

Hydnocarpus alpina Wight94,165 

Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.- Ham.) Oken 94 

Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. 53 

Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabber 53,231 

Hypericum mysurense Heyne ex Wight & Arn.94 

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.40 

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. 40,91,231 

Impatiens sp.94 

Ipomoea hederifolia L. 53 

Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith 94,164 

Ixora brachiata Roxb. ex DC. 94,164,231 

Ixora coccinea L. 231 

Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don. 165 

Ixora sp. 129 

Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. var. sessiliflorum 

(Vahl) P. S. Green 244 

Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andr. 95,244 

Jasminum sp. 244 

Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. 245 

Justicia wynaadensis (Nees) Heyne ex Anders. 53,95 

Kaempferia galanga L. 94 

Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 94 

Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms. 95 

Knema attenuata ( Wall. ex. Hook.f.& Thomas ) 

Warb.95 

Kunstleria keralensis Mohanan & Nair 95 

Kydia calycina Roxb. 94,176 

Lagerstroemia hirsuta (Lam.) Willd. 38,87 

Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 38,87 

Lagerstroemia reginae Roxb. 38,87,95 

Lagerstroemia sp.95 

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 95,231 

Lantana camara L. 86 

330

Lasianthus acuminatus Wight 95 

Lawsonia inermis L. 95,129 

Leea guineensis G. Don. 89 

Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 89 

Lepianthes umbellatum (L.) Raf. 95 

Lepisanthes erecta (Thw.) Leenh. 95 

Lepisanthes sp. 95,231 

Leptochilus decurrens Bl. 148 

Leptonychia caudata (Wall. ex G. Don.) Burrett 95 

Ligustrum robustum 169 

Litsea bourdillonii Gamble 54 

Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook.f. 54 

Litsea deccanensis Gamble 54,95 

Litsea floribunda (Blume) Gamble 54 

Litsea laevigata (Nees) Gamble 94 

Litsea oleoides (Meissn.) Hook.f. 94 

Litsea sp. 94 

Litsea wightiana (Nees) Hook.f.32,53 

Loeseneriella arnottiana (Wight) A.C. Smith 50 

Loeseneriella sp. 50 

Lophopetalum wightianum Arn. 98 

Loranthus sp. 155 

Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H. Hara 95 

Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. 129 

Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. 54,100, 102 

Macaranga sp. 100 

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig.) Macbr.94 

Madhuca sp.94 

Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. 94, 165 

Maesa perrottetiana A. DC. 95 

Mahonia leschenaultii (Wight & Arn.) Takeda 95 

Mallotus Philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. 94 

Mallotus sp.94 

Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz 94 

Mangifera indica L.36,118,117,119 

Manihot sp. 95 

Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair 94 

Meiogyne sp.94 

Melaleucum leucodendron L. 79 

Melastoma malabathricum L. 86 

Melia dubia Cav.94,176,231 

Melia sp. 95 

Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Hartley 36,94 

Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. 32 

Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp. barbulata 

(Cufod.) Beus.35, 45 

Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. 35,45,68 

Memecylon lawsonii Gamble 94 

Memecylon sp. 32,94 

Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f.94 

Mesua ferrea L.31,36,95,231 

Mesua pulchella Planch. & Triana 94 

Mesua sp.95, 169 

Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana 94,231 

Michelia champaca L.94 

Mikania micrantha H.B.K. 54,95 

Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair 95 

Millettia rubiginosa Wight & Arn. 94 

Mimosa pudica L. 94,129,209 

Mimusops elengi L. 94,231 

Mitracarpus verticillatus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke 94 

Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.75,94 

Mitragyna tubulosa (Am.) Hav.75,94,231 

Morinda coreia Buch. - Ham. 94,129 

Morinda tinctoria Roxb.94,169,176 

Morus alba L.45 

Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC.54 

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack.55,209 

Myristica beddomei King 81 

Myristica dactyloides non Gaertn.32,36 

Myristica fragrans Houtt.36,169 

Myristica malabarica Lam. 36,169,231 

Myristica sp. 65,94 

Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. 83 

Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. 94 

Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson 208 

Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser 94,209 

Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meissn.) Gamble 94 

Neolitsea sp. 94,169 

Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabber 99 

Nothopegia travancorica Bedd. ex Hook.f. 94 

Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst.) Fischer 32,61,84 

Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.) Benth. ex Gamble 61 

Ocimum gratissimum L. 94,129 

Olea dioica Roxb.54,82,270, 270 

Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G.Don 82 

Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. 95 

Orophea uniflora Hook.f. & Thoms. 95 

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth ex Kurz 95,129 

Otonephelium sp. 165 

Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radlk.94, 176 

Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Baill.31,97 

Paracroton pendulus (Hassk.) Miq.94 

Passiflora foetida L. 95 

Pawlonia sp.159 

Pavetta indica L. 39,47 

Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. Ex J.E. Smith 47,48 

Pellionia heyneana Wedd. 94 

Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex Heyne94 

Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult. 129 

Persea americana Mill. 94 

Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm.31,57,94 

Persicaria chinensis (L.) Gross.246 

Phaeanthus malabaricum 95 

Phaseolus sp.95,176 

Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet.95,169 

Phoebe lanceolata Nees 169 

Phyllanthus emblica L. 249 

Phymatosorus nigrescens (Bl.) Pic.95 

Physalis minima L. 95 

Pinus sp. 169 

Piper argyrophyllum Miq. 91 

Piper hymenophyllum Miq. 91,172 

Piper longum L. 91,172,208 

Piper mullesua Bunch-Ham. ex D.Don 95 

Piper nigrum L.94 

Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. 94, 209 

Plectranthus malabaricus (Benth.) Willemse244 

Plumbago indica L. 95 

Plumbago rosea L.95,209 

Plumeria rubra L.266 

Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd. 31,83 

Poeciloneuron sp. 95 

Polyalthia coffeoides Thw. ex Hook.f. & Thoms. 31 

331

Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Bedd. 94,231 

Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. 94 

Polyalthia sp.94 

Polygonum chinense L. 94 

Pongamia glabra Vent. 95 

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 54,59, 231 

Populous alba L. 114 

Premna coriacea Clarke 114 

Premna tomentosa Willd. 114 

Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq. 209 

Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn.169,209 

Psidium guajava L. 94 

Psychotria anamalayana Bedd.32,158 

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. 54,146 

Pteris biaurita L.131,196 

Pteris quadriaurita Retz. 131 

Pteris sp.131, 209 

Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb.94,129,231 

Pterocarpus indicus Willd. 94,231,251 

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 251,254 

Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. 79,254 

Pterospermum diversifolium Blume 54,98 

Pterospermum reticulatum Wight & Arn.54 

Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Wild.) DC. 54,209 

Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Nooteb. 94 

Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) K. Schum. 95 

Randia sp. 95,143 

Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz 95, 231 

Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott 95, 209 

Rhododendron arboreum J.E. Smith spp. nilagiricum 

(Zenk.) Tagg. 95,129 

Ricinus communis L.95, 129 

Rivea ornate (Roxb.) Choisy 95,209 

Rottboellia sp. 209 

Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Merr.95 

Rubus ellipticus Smith 54,57 

Rubus niveus Thunb.54,57,75 

Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson54,209 

Samadera indica Gaertn.95 

Santalum album L.95 

Sapindus trifoliata L.95 

Saprosma glomerata (Gard.) Bedd.95 

Saprosma sp.95 

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde95,231 

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken 35,38,68 

Schumannianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Rolfe 95 

Scleria rugosa R. Br.95,169 

Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabber 209 

Scleropyrum sp. 209 

Scolopia crenata (Wight & Arn.) Clos 95 

Scoparia dulcis L. 76 

Semecarpus travancorica Bedd. 95,231 

Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss.95,197 

Sida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming 197 

Simarouba glauca 111 

Smilax sp. 95 

Smilax zeylanica L. 95,169 

Solanum virginianum L. 95 

Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.95 

Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.95 

Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb. ex DC.) O. Ktze.95 

Spondias indica (Wight & Arn.) Airy Shaw 83 

Stachyphrynium spicatum (Roxb.) Schum.95 

Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl.95 

Stenochlaena palustris (Brum ) Beddomi 95,231 

Stephania sp. 95 

Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex DC.83, 95,176,231 

Sterculia urens Roxb. 95,231 

Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex DC. 231 

Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC.53,64 

Strobilanthes anceps Nees 95 

Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees 54,95,209 

Strobilanthes gracilis Bedd. 169 

Strobilanthes kunthianus (Nees) T. Anders. ex 

Benth.95 

Strobilanthes luridus Wight51, 95 

Strobilanthes sp.32,48 

Strychnos colubrina L.54 

Strychnos nux-vomica L. 54,95,135 

Strychnos potatorum L.f. 54,95,231 

Swietenia macrophylla King 41 

Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 54 

Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.Moore 95 

Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex A. DC. ssp. Rosea 

(Bedd.) Nooteb.95 

Symplocos sp. 95 

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry 95 

Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston 95,231 

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 59,70 

Syzygium laetum (Buch.-Ham.) Gandhi 54 

Syzygium mundagam (Bourd.) Chithra 95 

Syzygium munronii (Wight) Chandr.95 

Syzygium palghatense Gamble 95 

Syzygium sp.95 

Syzygium travancoricum Gamble 95,231 

Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC.95,129,165,175,231 

Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall. 83 

Tamarindus indica L.95 

Tamarindus sp.95 

Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirveng. & Sastry 53 

Tarenna asiatica (L.) O. Ktze. ex Schum.95 

Tectona grandis L.f. 38,53,46,204,223,241,251,257 

Tectona hamiltoniana 95 

Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 96 

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. 134 

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.52,76 

Terminalia catappa L.95 

Terminalia chebula Retz. 96 

Terminalia crenulata Roth 95 

Terminalia paniculata Roth 38,70 

Terminalia sp. 70,95 

Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br.38,95 

Theobroma cacao L.95 

Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. 95,231 

Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa 95, 169 

Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou 32,95 

Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) Anders. 95,209 

Tiliacora acuminata (Poir.) Miers ex Hook.f. & 

Thoms.63,198 

Toona ciliata Roem. 95 

Trema orientalis (L.) Blume 57 

Trema sp. 95 

Trewia nudiflora L.95,209 

Trichilia connaroides (Wight & Arn.) Bentv.95,209 

332

Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br.95,169,209 

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 95 

Turpinia malabarica Gamble 32,100 

Tylophora sp. 95 

Urena lobata L. 77 

Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall.ex Hook.f. & Thoms. 77 

Vaccinium neilgherrense Wight 95 

Vallaris solanacea (Roth) O. Ktze. 169 

Vanilla planifolia Andr.95 

Vateria indica L.54,95,231 

Vateria macrocarpa Guptha 31, 95,231 

Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Arn.) Engl.54 

Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. 95 

Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek 159 

Vitex altissima L.f.95 

Vitex negundo L.95,164,209 

Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabber 95 

Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br. 40,95, 180 

Xanthium strumarium L.95 

Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight 95,209 

Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Rafin.95, 170 

Xylia dolabriformis Benth.38 

Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. 38,53,63,95,231 

Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. 54 

Zehneria mysorensis (Wight & Arn.) Arn. 95 

Zingiber sp. 96 

Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith 100 

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. 95, 170 

Zizyphus rugosa Lam. 100,170,209 

333

Biodiversity of Plant Pathogenic Fungi - Kerala Forest Research ...

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