New Pest Response Guidelines - aphis - US Department of Agriculture

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Animal and 

Plant Health 

Inspection 

Service 

Plant Protection 

and Quarantine 

New Pest Response 

Guidelines 

Dendrolimus Pine Moths

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First Edition Issued 2012

Dendrolimus 

Pine Moths 

Contents 

Contents TOC-1 

Figures LOF-1 

Tables LOT-1 

Acknowledgements AKN-1 

Introduction 1-1 

Pest Information 2-1 

Identification 3-1 

Survey Procedures 4-1 

Regulatory Procedures 5-1 

Control Procedures 6-1 

Environmental Compliance 7-1 

Pathways 8-1 

References REFERENCES-1 

Resources A-1 

Forms B-1 

How to Submit Insect Specimens C-1 

Taxonomic Support for Surveys D-1 

Images E-1 

Biological Control F-1 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths TOC-1

Contents 

TOC-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Dendrolimus 

Pine Moths 

Figures 

Figure 2-1 World Distribution of A) Dendrolimus sibiricus and B) Dendrolimus 

superans. Maps obtained from the European Plant Protection 

Organization database 2-9 

Figure 2-2 NAPPFAST Risk Map for Establishment Potential Based on Climatic 

Suitability of the PTL in the Conterminous United States 

(map created by Jessica Engels, Roger Magarey and Dan Borchart; 

USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Raleigh, NC). The NAPPFAST risk 

map describes the relative climatic suitability (on a scale of 1- 

10) for a pest to grow and survive. The maps are based on 10years 

of daily data from NAPPFAST. A value of one represents 

a low likelihood of pest growth and survival, while a 10 indicates 

high likelihood of pest growth and survival. 2-11 

Figure 2-3 Life cycle of Dendrolimus pini illustrating the observed presence 

and timing of different stages throughout the typical calendar 

year. Vertical lines with a W indicate break in the calendar for 

winter months when the larvae are not actively feeding. Arrows 

indicate the migration of larvae down to the forest floor or returning 

up into the tree canopy. White boxes with numbers indicate 

the instar number of overwintering larvae. Adult emergence, 

mating and egg laying is approximated with a butterfly icon on 

the calendar. 2-18 

Figure 2-4 Life cycle of Dendrolimus punctatus illustrating the observed 

presence and timing of different stages throughout the typical 

calendar year. Illustration legend follows Figure 2-3, except 

overwintering period is indicated completely across the calendar 

in this figure instead of abbreviated. Lighter lines indicate 

successive generations, indicating the possibility that overlapping 

generations might be present in the same population. 2- 

20 

Figure 2-5 Life cycle of Dendrolimus sibiricus illustrating the observed 


calendar year, following conventions used in Fig. 2-3. 2-22 

Figure 2-6 Life cycle of Dendrolimus superans illustrating the observed 


calendar year, following conventions used in Fig. 2-3. Moths 

that overwinter once have a 2 season life cycle, while some 

moths overwinter twice and diapause in the summer, resulting 

in a three season life cycle. 2-23 

Figure 2-7 Defoliated larch trees by Dendrolimus sibiricus in Mongolia 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths LOF-1

Figures 

(Vladimir Petko, V.N. Sukachev Institute of Forest SB RAS, 

Bugwood.org). 2-37 

Figure 3-1 Images of male (left) and female (right) Dendrolimus pini (L), 

pine-tree lappet (PTL) adults. © Serge Peslier 3-3 

Figure 3-2 Pine-tree lappet eggs on pine needle. © Jeroen Voogd 

(www.ukmoths.org.uk) 3-3 

Figure 3-3 Pine-tree lappet eggs with larvae on Scot’s pine (Pinus sylvestris) 

needles (Hannes Lemme, Bugwood.org) 3-4 

Figure 3-5 Pine-tree lappet cocoon containing pupa (Hannes Lemme, 

Bugwood.org) 3-5 

Figure 3-4 Pine-tree lappet larva. (Jeroen Voogd, 

www.ukmoths.org.uk). 3-5 

Figure 3-6 Eggs of Dendrolimus punctatus, Masson pine moth, on pine 

needles (William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International, 

Bugwood.org) 3-7 

Figure 3-7 Masson pine caterpillar, Dendrolimus punctatus (William M. 

Ciesla, Forest Health Management International, 


Figure 3-8 Cocoons containing pupae of Masson pine caterpillar found on 

the tips of pine branches (William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management 

International, Bugwood.org). 3-9 

Figure 3-9 Adult Siberian silk moth, Dendrolimus sibiricus, photographs 

showing dorsal view of female (top) and male (bottom)(Pest and 

Diseases Image Library, Bugwood.org). 3-10 

Figure 3-10 Siberian silk moth eggs in clusters (John H. Ghent, USDA Forest 

Service, Bugwood.org). 3-11 

Figure 3-11 Siberian silk moth larva (Yuri Baranchikov, Institute of Forest SB 

RASC, Bugwood.org). 3-12 

Figure 3-12 Siberian silk moth cocoons on Siberian larch, Larix sibirica 

(John H. Ghent, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org). 3-13 

Figure 3-13 Adults of the Douglas-fir Tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata 

(Sources: Ladd Livingston, Idaho Department of Lands, Bugwood.org(top) 

and Jerald E. Dewey, USDA Forest Service, 


Figure 3-14 Larva of the Douglas-fir Tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata 

(Source: Ladd Livingston, Idaho Department of Lands, 


Figure 3-15 Morphological structures of the genitalia of (a) Dendrolimus pini 

and (b) D. sibiricus (Mikkola and Ståhls 2008). 3-18 

Figure 4-1 Trimming branches from Khasia pine, Pinus kesiya, to examine 

Masson Pine Caterpillar infestation levels (William M. Ciesla, 

Forest Health Management International, Bugwood.org). 4-6 

Figure 4-2 Surveying for migrating caterpillars using glue bands. Bands 

with glue are placed at eye level (1.5 to 2 m) around the tree and 

used to trap migrating caterpillars (between March and April and 

between November and December) and, to a lesser extent, 

adult moths flying. © Crown Copyright 2010. Photo courtesy of 

Forest Research, Scotland, UK/ Roger Moore. 4-8 

LOF-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Figure 4-3 Forest stand with glue bands attached to trees for surveying migrating 

caterpillars. © Crown Copyright 2010. Photo courtesy of 

Forest Research, Scotland, UK/ Roger Moore. 4-9 

Figure 4-4 Soil sampling to survey overwintering larva. Sampling is done 

by collecting soil and forest litter 1-2 m from the tree and visually 

searching for overwintering larva. © Crown Copyright 2010. 

Photo courtesy of Forest Research, Scotland UK / Roger 

Moore. 4-9 

Figure 4-5 Overwintering larva in forest litter. Larva can be found individually 

or in groups (Hannes Lemme, Bugwood.org). 4-10 

Figure 4-6 An example of placement for monitoring of Dendrolimus moths 

(William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International, 


Figure 4-7 A milk carton trap for gypsy moth can be modified for use in trapping 

Dendrolimus moths (Daniel Herms, The Ohio State University, 


Figure B-1 Example of PPQ Form 391 Specimens For Determination, side 

1 B-2 

Figure B-2 Example of PPQ Form 391 Specimens For Determination, side 

2 B-3 

Figure B-3 Example of PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification B-7 

Figure E-1 Field guide for the identification of Dendrolimus pini (L.), the 

pine-tree lappet. Adult moths photograph by Peslier Serge. Larva 

photograph by Jeroen Voogd. E-1 

Figure E-2 Typical one generation per year life cycle of Dendrolimus pini 

(L.), pine-tree lappet. Roman numerals correspond to the larval 

stages. See Pest Identification section for specific pictures of 

each developmental stage. Silhouette picture of Scots pine by 

Ian Burt at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ 

File:Pinus_sylvestris_Silhouette_(oddsock).png E-2 

Figure E-3 Dendrolimus pini (L.) Life Cycle and Survey. Chronological development 

of Dendrolimus pini (L.), pine-tree lappet and suggested 

types of survey for each specific developmental stage. 

During an outbreak, pesticides applications are normally done 

early in the spring, at the end of the overwintering period between 

March and May. E-3

Figures 

LOF-4 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Dendrolimus 

Pine Moths 

Tables 

Table 1-1 How to Use Decision Tables 1-8 

Table 2-1 Classification of Dendrolimus spp. 2-1 

Table 2-2 Reported Distribution of Dendrolimus pini in Eurasia and Asia 

() 2-5 

Table 2-3 Reported Distribution of Dendrolimus sibiricus in Eurasia and 

Asia 2-7 

Table 2-4 Reported Hosts Species for Dendrolimus pine moths 2-13 

Table 2-5 Average larval developmental time (in days) for the SaSM in 

one and two-year life cycles 2-29 

Table 2-6 Daily Consumption (in g) of PTL 2-30 

Table 2-7 Change in growth conditions in silk moth affected Larix 

forests 2-42 

Table 3-1 Head capsule width and body weighs of the PTL larval instars 

(means ± S.E) 3-4 

Table 6-1 Insecticides Available For Use to control Dendrolimus moths in 

the United States 6-5 

Table A-1 Resources for Dendrolimus Pine Moths A-1 

Table B-1 Instructions for Completing PPQ Form 391, Specimens for 

Determination B-5 

Table F-1 Reported potential biological control agents of Pine Tree Lappet, 

Dendrolimus pini (L.) F-1 

Table F-2 Reported biological control agents of Dendrolimus sibiricus 

Tschetverikov, the Siberian silk moth (SSM) and D. superans 

(Butler), the Sakhalin silk moth (SaSM) F-7 

Table F-3 Reported biological control agents of Dendrolimus punctatus 

(Walker), the Masson pine caterpillar (MPC). F-15 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths LOT-1

Tables 

LOT-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Dendrolimus 

Pine Moths 

Authors 

Reviewers 

Acknowledgements 

Jesse A. Hardin, Ph.D., USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL 

Alonso Suazo, Ph.D., USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST-PERAL 

Yuri Baranchikov, Professor, Department of Forest Zoology, V.N. Sukachev, 

Institute of Forest, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 

Krasnoyarsk, Russia 

Roger Moore, Research Scientist, Centre for Forestry and Climate Change, 

Forest Research,Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian, UK 

Alicja Sierpinska, Zaklad Ochrony Lasu, Instytut Badawczy Lesnictwa, 

Poland 

Technical Assistance and Comments 

Karl Suiter, Dave Prokrym, Gary Cave, Esther Spaltenstein, Lynn Garrett, 

Stefano Costanzo, Katherine Kamminga, Karen Maguylo 

Cover Images 

Josef Dvořák (www.biolib.cz), and Pest and Diseases Image Library, 

Bugwood.org 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths AKN-1


AKN-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Chapter 

1 Introduction 

Contents 

Introduction 


Users 1-2 

Contacts 1-2 

Initiating an Emergency Pest Response Program 1-3 

Preventing an Infestation 1-4 

Scope 1-4 

Authorities 1-5 

Program Safety 1-5 

Support for Program Decisionmaking 1-6 

How to Use the Guidelines 1-6 

Conventions 1-6 

Advisories 1-6 

Boldfacing 1-7 

Lists 1-7 

Disclaimers 1-7 

Table of Contents 1-7 

Control Data 1-7 

Change Bar 1-7 

Decision Tables 1-8 

Footnotes 1-8 

Heading Levels 1-8 

Hypertext Links 1-8 

Italics 1-8 

Numbering Scheme 1-9 

Transmittal Number 1-9 

Acknowledgements 1-9 

How to Cite the Guidelines 1-9 

How to Find More Information 1-9 

Use New Pest Response Guidelines: Dendrolimus Pine Moths when designing 

a program to detect, monitor, control, contain, or eradicate, an outbreak of any 

of the following in the United States and collaborating territories: 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 1-1

Introduction 

Users 

Contacts 

Dendrolimus pini (L.), pine-tree lappet (PTL) 

Dendrolimus punctatus (Walker), the Masson pine caterpillar (MPC) 

Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetverikov, the Siberian silk moth (SSM) 

Dendrolimus superans (Butler), the Sakhalin silk moth (SaSM) 

The United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine (USDA–APHIS–PPQ) 

developed the guidelines through discussion, meeting, or agreement with staff 

members at the USDA-Agricultural Research Service and advisors at 

universities. 

Any new detection may require the establishment of an Incident Command 

System to facilitate emergency management. This document is meant to 

provide the necessary information to launch a response to a detection of 

Dendrolimus moths. 

If a species of Dendrolimus is detected, PPQ personnel will produce a sitespecific 

action plan based on the guidelines. As the program develops and new 

information becomes available, the guidelines will be updated. 

The guidelines is intended as a reference for the following users who have 

been assigned responsibilities for a plant health emergency for any of the 

selected Scots pine blister rust: 

PPQ personnel 

Emergency response coordinators 

State agriculture department personnel 

Others concerned with developing local survey or control programs 

When an emergency pest response program for Cronartium flaccidum and 

Peridermium pini has been implemented, the success of the program depends 

on the cooperation, assistance, and understanding of other involved groups. 

The appropriate liaisons and information officers should distribute news of the 

program’s progress and developments to interested groups, including the 

following: 

Academic entities with agricultural interests 

1-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Agricultural interests in other countries 

Commercial interests 

Grower groups such as specific commodity or industry groups 

Land-grant universities and Cooperative Extension Services 

National, State and local news media 

Other Federal, State, county, and municipal agricultural officials 

Public health agencies 

The public 

State and local law enforcement officials 

Tribal governments 

Introduction 

Initiating an Emergency Pest Response Program 

An emergency pest response program consists of detection and delimitation, 

and may be followed by programs in regulation, containment, eradication and 

control. The New Pest Advisory Group (NPAG) will evaluate the pest. After 

assessing the risk to U.S. plant health, and consulting with experts and 

regulatory personnel, NPAG will recommend a course of action to PPQ 

management. 

Follow this sequence when initiating an emergency pest response program: 

1. A new or reintroduced pest is discovered and reported 

2. The pest is examined and pre-identified by regional or area identifier 

3. The pest’s identity is confirmed by a national taxonomic authority 

recognized by USDA–APHIS–PPQ-National Identification System 

4. Published New Pest Response Guidelines are consulted or a new NPAG 

is assembled in order to evaluate the pest 

5. Depending on the urgency, official notifications are made to the National 

Plant Board, cooperators, and trading partners 

6. A delimiting survey is conducted at the site of detection 

7. An Incident Assessment Team may be sent to evaluate the site 

8. A recommendation is made, based on the assessment of surveys, other 

data, and recommendation of the Incident Assessment Team or the 

NPAG, as follows: 

A. Take no action 

B. Regulate the pest 


Introduction 

C. Contain the pest 

D. Suppress the pest 

E. Eradicate the pest 

9. State Departments of Agriculture are consulted 

10. If appropriate, a control strategy is selected 

11. A PPQ Deputy Administrator authorizes a response 

12. A command post is selected and the Incident Command System is 

implemented 

13. State departments of agriculture cooperate with parallel actions using a 

Unified Command structure 

14. Traceback and trace-forward investigations are conducted 

15. Field identification procedures are standardized 

16. Data reporting is standardized 

17. Regulatory actions are taken 

18. Environmental Assessments are completed as necessary 

19. Treatment is applied for required pest generational time 

20. Environmental monitoring is conducted, if appropriate 

21. Pest monitoring surveys are conducted to evaluate program success 

22. Programs are designed for eradication, containment, or long-term use 

Preventing an Infestation 

Federal and State regulatory officials must conduct inspections and apply 

prescribed measures to ensure that pests do not spread within or between 

properties. Federal and State regulatory officials conducting inspections should 

follow the sanitation guidelines in the section Survey Procedures on page 4-1 

before entering and upon leaving each property to prevent contamination. 

Scope 

The guidelines is divided into the following chapters: 

1. Introduction on page 1-1 

2. Pest Information on page 2-1 

3. Identification on page 3-1 


Authorities 

4. Survey Procedures on page 4-1 

5. Regulatory Procedures on page 5-1 

6. Control Procedures on page 6-1 

7. Environmental Compliance on page 7-1 

8. Pathways on page 8-1 

Introduction 

The guidelines also includes appendixes, a references section, a glossary, and 

an index. 

The Introduction contains basic information about the guidelines. This chapter 

includes the guideline’s purpose, scope, users, and application; a list of related 

documents that provide the authority for the guidelines content; directions 

about how to use the guidelines; and the conventions (unfamiliar or unique 

symbols and highlighting) that appear throughout the guidelines. 

The regulatory authority for taking the actions listed in the guidelines is 

contained in the following authorities: 

Plant Protection Act of 2000 (Statute 7 USC 7701-7758) 

Executive Order 13175, Consultation and Coordination with Indian and 

Tribal Governments 

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 

Endangered Species Act 

Endangered and Threatened Plants (50 CFR 17.12) 

National Environmental Policy Act 

Program Safety 

Safety of the public and program personnel is a priority in pre-program 

planning and training and throughout program operations. Safety officers and 

supervisors must enforce on-the-job safety procedures. 


Introduction 

Support for Program Decisionmaking 

USDA–APHIS–PPQ-Center for Plant Health, Science and Technology 

(CPHST) provides technical support to emergency pest response program 

directors about risk assessments, survey methods, control strategies, regulatory 

treatments, and other aspects of pest response programs. PPQ managers meet 

with State departments of agriculture in developing guidelines and policies for 

pest response programs. 

How to Use the Guidelines 

The guidelines is a portable electronic document that is updated periodically. 

Download the current version from its source, and then use Adobe Reader ® to 

view it on your computer screen. You can print the guidelines for convenience. 

However, links and navigational tools are only functional when the document 

is viewed in Adobe Reader ® . Remember that printed copies of the guidelines 

are obsolete once a new version has been issued. 

Conventions 

Conventions are established by custom and are widely recognized and 

accepted. Conventions used in the guidelines are listed in this section. 

Advisories 

Advisories are used throughout the guidelines to bring important information 

to your attention. Please carefully review each advisory. The definitions have 

been updated so that they coincide with the America National Standards 

Institute (ANSI) and are in the format shown below. 

EXAMPLE Example provides an example of the topic. 

Important Important indicates information that is helpful. 

! CAUTION 

CAUTION indicates that people could possibly be endangered and slightly hurt. 


! 

DANGER 

DANGEROUS indicates that people could easily be hurt or killed. 

NOTICE 

Introduction 

NOTICE indicates a possibly dangerous situation where goods might be damaged. 

! WARNING 

WARNING indicates that people could possibly be hurt or killed. 

Boldfacing 

Boldfaced type is used to highlight negative or important words. These words 

are: never, not, do not, other than, prohibited. 

Lists 

Bulleted lists indicate that there is no order to the information being listed. 

Numbered lists indicate that information will be used in a particular order. 

Disclaimers 

All disclaimers are located on the unnumbered page that follows the cover. 

Table of Contents 

Every chapter has a table of contents that lists the heading titles at the 

beginning to help facilitate finding information. 

Control Data 

Information placed at the top and bottom of each page helps users keep track of 

where they are in the guidelines. At the top of the page is the chapter and firstlevel 

heading. At the bottom of the page is the month, year, title, and page 

number. PPQ–EDP-Emergency Programs is the unit responsible for the 

content of the guidelines. 

Change Bar 

A vertical black change bar in the left margin is used to indicate a change in the 

guidelines. Change bars from the previous update are deleted when the chapter 

or appendix is revised. 


Introduction 

Decision Tables 

Decision tables are used throughout the guidelines. The first and middle 

columns in each table represent conditions, and the last column represents the 

action to take after all conditions listed for that row are considered. Begin with 

the column headings and move left-to-right, and if the condition does not 

apply, then continue one row at a time until you find the condition that does 

apply. 

Table 1-1 How to Use Decision Tables 

If you: And if the condition 

applies: 

Read this column cell and 

row first 

Find the previous condition 

did not apply, then read this 

column cell 

Then: 

Continue in this cell TAKE the action listed in this 

cell 

Continue in this cell TAKE the action listed in this 

cell 

Footnotes 

Footnotes comment on or cite a reference to text and are referenced by number. 

The footnotes used in the guidelines include general text footnotes, figure 

footnotes, and table footnotes. General text footnotes are located at the bottom 

of the page. 

When space allows, figure and table footnotes are located directly below the 

associated figure or table. However, for multi-page tables or tables that cover 

the length of a page, footnote numbers and footnote text cannot be listed on the 

same page. If a table or figure continues beyond one page, the associated 

footnotes will appear on the page following the end of the figure or table. 

Heading Levels 

Within each chapter and section there can be four heading levels; each heading 

is green and is located within the middle and right side of the page. The firstlevel 

heading is indicated by a horizontal line across the page, and the heading 

follows directly below. The second-, third-, and fourth-level headings each 

have a font size smaller than the preceding heading level. The fourth-level 

heading runs in with the text that follows. 

Hypertext Links 

Figures, headings, and tables are cross-referenced in the body of the guidelines 

and are highlighted in boldface type. These appear in blue hypertext in the 

online guidelines. 

Italics 

The following items are italicized throughout the guidelines: 


Cross-references to headings and titles 

Names of publications 

Scientific names 

Introduction 

Numbering Scheme 

A two-level numbering scheme is used in the guidelines for pages, tables, and 

figures. The first number represents the chapter. The second number 

represented the page, table, or figure. This numbering scheme allows for 

identifying and updating. Dashes are used in page numbering to differentiate 

page numbers from decimal points. 

Transmittal Number 

The transmittal number contains the month, year, and a consecutively-issued 

number (beginning with -01 for the first edition and increasing consecutively 

for each update to the edition). The transmittal number is only changed when 

the specific chapter sections, appendixes, or glossary, tables, or index is 

updated. If no changes are made, then the transmittal number remains the 

unchanged. The transmittal number only changes for the entire guidelines 

when a new edition is issued or changes are made to the entire guidelines. 


Writers, editors, reviewers, creators of cover images, and other contributors to 

the guidelines, are acknowledged in the acknowledgements section. Names, 

affiliations, and Web site addresses of the creators of photographic images, 

illustrations, and diagrams, are acknowledged in the caption accompanying the 

figure. 

How to Cite the Guidelines 

Cite the guidelines as follows: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant 

Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. 2011. New Pest 

Response Guidelines: Dendrolimus Pine Moths. Washington, D.C. http:// 

www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/online_manuals.shtml 

How to Find More Information 

Contact USDA–APHIS–PPQ–EDP-Emergency Management for more 

information about the guidelines. Refer to Resources on page A-1 for contact 

information. 


Introduction 


Chapter 

2 

Contents 

Introduction 

Classification 

Pest Information 


Classification 2-1 

Taxonomic History and Synonyms 2-4 

Ecological Range 2-5 

Potential Distribution 2-11 

Hosts 2-12 

Life Cycle 2-17 

Developmental Rates 2-23 

Behavior 2-30 

Population Dynamics 2-33 

Dispersal 2-36 

Damage 2-37 

Economic Impact 2-38 

Environmental Impact 2-41 

Use Chapter 2 Pest Information to learn more about the classification, history, 

host range, and biology of the Dendrolimus pine moths: 

Pine-tree lappet, Dendrolimus pini (L.) 

Masson pine caterpillar, Dendrolimus punctatus (Walker) 

Siberian silk moth, Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetverikov 

Sakhalin silk moth, Dendrolimus superans (Butler) 

Use Table 2-1 on page 2-1 as a guide to the classification of the Dendrolimus 

pine moths and the names used to describe it in the guidelines. 

Table 2-1 Classification of Dendrolimus spp. 

Phylum 

Class 

Arthropoda 

Insecta 




Order 

Suborder 

Family 

Subfamily 

Tribe 

Genus 

Full Name and Authority 

Lepidoptera 

Glossata 

Cronartiaceae 

Pinarinae 

Pinarini 

Dendrolimus 

Dendrolimus pini (Linneaus), Dendrolimus punctatus 

(Walker), Dendrolimus sibiricus (Tschetverikov (= Chetverikov)), 

Dendrolimus superans (Butler) 



Synonyms 

Common Names 


Dendrolimus pini: Bombyx pini Linneaus; Dendrolimus 

segregattis, Butler; Gastropacha pini Linneaus; Lasiocampa 

pini Linneaus; Phalaena pini Linneaus (Davis et 

al., 2008) 

Dendrolimus punctatus: Dendrolimus baibarana Matsumura, 

Dendrolimus innotata Walker, Dendrolimus 

kantozana Matsumura, Dendrolimus pallidiola Matsumura, 

Dendrolimus punctata, Eutricha punctata 

Felder, Metanastria punctata Walker, Oeona punctata 

Walker (CABI, 2011b) 

Dendrolimus sibiricus: Dendrolimus sibiricus Chetverikov, 

Dendrolimus laricis Tschetverikov, Dendrolimus 

superans sibiricus Chetverikov, (EPPO, 2005; Matsumura, 

1926a; Mikkola and Stahls, 2008; Orlinskii, 

2000) 

Dendrolimus superans: Odonestis superans Butler, 

Dendrolimus jezoensis Matsumura, Dendrolimus superans 

albolineatus Butler, Dendrolimus albolineatus Matsumura 

(EPPO, 2005 CABI, 2011a; Mikkola and Stahls, 

2008). Other synonyms reported by Masumura (1926a) 

include Eutricha dolosa Butler, E. fentoni Butler, E. 

zonata Butler, E. pini Leech and Bombyx pini Sasak 

Dendrolimus pini: PTL, Pine-tree lappet, pine lappet, 

pine moth, European pine moth, nun moth,(English); 

lasiocampe du pin (French); lasiocampa del pino (Spanish); 

kiefernspinner (German); barczatka sosnówka 

(Polish); tallspinnare (Swedish); furuspinner (Norwegian); 

bombice del pino (Italian) 

Dendrolimus punctatus: MPC, Masson pine caterpillar, 

Masson pine moth 

Dendrolimus sibiricus: SSM, Siberian silk moth, Siberian 

moth, Siberian conifer silk moth, Siberian lasiocampid, 

larch caterpillar (English translation of Chinese 

common name), сибирский шелкопряд or Sibirkiy shelkopryad 

(Russian), Sibirischer Arven-Spinner (German), 

DENDSI (EPPO code) (CABI, 2011a; EPPO, 2005; 

Orlinskii, 2000 ) 

Dendrolimus superans: SaSM, Sakhalin silk 

moth,White-lined silk moth, Japanese hemlock caterpillar 

(English translation of Japanese common name), 

Japanischer Douglasien-Spinner (German), 

белополосьҐй шелкопряд (Russian), Tuga-kareha 

(Japanese), Feuille morte de tsuga du Japon (French), 

Japanischer Douglasien Spinner (German), DENDSU 

(EPPO code) (CABI, 2011a; EPPO, 2005) 



Taxonomic History and Synonyms 

The species-level assignments within the genus Dendrolimus have been 

subject to several revisions and some uncertainty about the distinctions 

between species and subspecies. In particular, two of the species under 

consideration in these guidelines, SSM and SaSM, are considered to be 

separate species by many in the international community. However, many 

Russian scientists condisider these to be a single species with subspecies 

Dendrolimus superans sibiricus Chetverikov and Dendrolimus superans 

albolineatus Butler, respectively (EPPO, 2005), as synonymized by 

LaJonquiere (1973). To add to this confusion, the author’s name for the new 

species D. sibiricus in 1908 has been variously translated as ‘Tschetverikov’ 

and ‘Chetverikov’ (Davis et al., 2005). 

Nomenclature rules have also influenced proper taxonomic authority of this 

group, including cases of gender agreement in Latin. The first description of 

MPC was given the name Oneona punctata (in Walker 1855) but the species 

was later moved to Dendrolimus punctata in 1892. However, the genus name 

‘Dendrolimus’ is a ‘masculine’ Latin word and by convention the species 

name should be ‘masculine’ as well. Since ‘punctata’ is the ‘feminine’ Latin 

form, the correct usage should be ‘punctatus’ following the revision (CABI, 

2011a). The Genus Dendrolimus is described from the lectotype D. pini (L.), 

although Linneaus originally named the species as Phalaena pini Linneaus. 


Ecological Range 


Dendrolimus pini 

The PTL is Native to Europe and Asia. There is no evidence of PTL presence 

in Oceania, North, Central and South America and the Caribbean Region. The 

natural range of PTL follows that of its primary host, the Scots pine (P. 

sylvestris). It covers an area that extends from Western Europe, including the 

United Kingdom to Middle Asia (Northern China, middle Asian Russia and 

Kazakhstan). Current distribution of the species sensu lato is shown in Table 

2-2 on page 2-5. The ecological range of PTL subspecies is limited to smaller 

areas in Europe: D. pini ibericus is found only in Spain and Portugal, D. pini 

calabria in Italy (Marini, 1986), D. pini cederensis in Greece, D. pini 

schultzeana in Spain (Zolotuhin and Van Nieukerken, 2004), D. pini adriatica 

and D. pini paulae in Southern Turkey (Omer Kocak and Kemal, 2007) and D. 

pini corsaria in Northern France the(Coulondre, 1983). 

Table 2-2 Reported Distribution of Dendrolimus pini in Eurasia and Asia 1 

Continent Country Reference 

Africa Morocco Le-Cerf, 1932 

Central Asia China Han et al., 2004 

Kazakhstan 

Georgia 

Asian Russia from Western 

and Middle Siberia to the 

Transbaikal region 

(Issaev and 

Shividenko, 2002; 

Nupponen and 

Michael, 2002; 

Savela, 2010) 

Europe Andorra 

Austria 

Belarus 

Belgium 

Boznia-Herzegovina 

Bulgaria 

Croatia 

Czech Republic Cila, 2002 

Denmark (including Borholm 

island) 

Estonia 

Finland 

France Coulondre, 1983 

Germany 

Greece 



Table 2-2 Reported Distribution of Dendrolimus pini in Eurasia and Asia 1 

Continent Country Reference 

Hungary 

Italy (including Sicily and 

adjacent islands: Lipari, 

Ustic, Egadi, Pantelleria and 

Pelagie Is.) 

Latvia 

Liechtenstein 

Lithuania (Dapkus, 2004) 

Luxembourg 

Macedonia 

The Netherlands 

Norway (Aarvik and Bakke, 

1999) 

Poland 

Portugal 

Romania 

Russia 

Slovakia 

Slovenia 

Spain (including the Balearic 

and Alboran Is.) 

Sweden (Anonymous, 2009; 

Kiddie, 2007) 

Switzerland 

Turkey (Oner et al., 2006) 

United Kingdom 

Ukraine 

Yugoslavia (including Serbia, 

Kosovo, Voivodina and 

Montenegro) 

1 Unless otherwise specified, sources are from Zolotuhin and Van Nieukerken, 2004. 

Dendrolimus punctatus 

The range of MPC is across southeastern Asia, including eastern China, 

Taiwan, and Vietnam (Billings, 1991; Chang, 1991; Matsumura, 1926a). The 

northern limit is approximately 33 degrees latitude (Ya-Jie et al., 2005), with a 

western limit in China of Sichuan province (CABI, 2011b). 



Dendrolimus sibiricus 

The SSM is found in Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Korea. It is 

widely distributed in Russia from the west of the Ural mountains in the 

European part of Russia to the Primorsky Krai in the Far East region of Russia 

but not found in the extreme north, the Kurile Islands and Sakalin Island (Table 

2-2 on page 2-5 and Figure 2-1 on page 2-9). In China it has been reported in 

the provinces of Jilin, Liaoning, Beijing and Neimenggu ( EPPO, 2005; Hou, 

1987). 

Table 2-3 Reported Distribution of Dendrolimus sibiricus in Eurasia and Asia 

Country Region or Province 

Locality or 

Areas 

Russia Perm Krai Forest near 

Cherdyn 

Reference 

Mikkola and Stahls, 

2008 

Udmurtia Near Kilmez Mikkola and Stahls, 

2008 

Chelyabinsk Oblast Near Miass Mikkola and Stahls, 

2008 

Primorye Mikkola and Stahls, 

2008 

Mari El Novotalyarsky 

forest 

Gninenko and Kryukov, 

2007 

Moscow Oblast Near Pushkino Gninenko and Kryukov, 

2007 

Novosibirsk (Siberia: 

West) 

Krasnoyarsk krai 

(Siberia: Mid Plateau) 

Chulim-Ket Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002; Kharuk et 

al., 2004 

Priangr’e; 

Prienisey; Kan- 

Birusa; Kan- 

Agul; Kuznetz- 

Alatau; Sisim- 

Tuba; West 

Sayan; Usa 

Krasnoyarsk krai Near Krasnoyarsk,Evenkia 

Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002; Kharuk et 

al., 2004 

Galkin, 1993; Krasnoshchekov 

and 

Bezkorovainaya, 

2008; Valendik et 

al., 2006; Y.N. and 

Y.P., 1997 

Amur Gninenko, 2003; 

Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Khabarovsk Bolshe- 

Mikhailovskoye,Udylskoye 

and 

Kisilevskoye 

forest districts 

Gninenko, 2003 



Table 2-3 Reported Distribution of Dendrolimus sibiricus in Eurasia and Asia 

Country Region or Province 

Yakutia Khangalassky; 

Gorny, Namsky,Khangalassky, 

Gorny, 

Amginsky forests; 

Central 

Yakutia 

Averensky et al., 

2010; Gninenko and 

Orlinskii, 2002; 

Vinokurov and 

Petrovich, 2010 

Tuva Republic Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Buryat Replublic Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Irkutsk Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Altai Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Tomsk province Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Bashkiriya Republic Gninenko and Orlinskii, 

2002 

Mongolia Inner Mongolia Aershan Forest CABI, 2011a; Fei et 

al., 2008; Ghent and 

Onken, 2003 

China Jillin province CABI, 2011a; Liu 

and Shih, 1957 

Hebei and Beijing 

province 

Locality or 

Areas 

Weichang 

county 

Hou, 1987; Kong et 

al., 2007 

Liaoning province Pulandian City Kong et al., 2007; 

Liu and Shih, 1957 

Neimenggu province CABI, 2011a 

Heilongjiang Huanan, 

Shangzhi, Huachuan, 

Longjian; 

Shibazhan, 

Huma, Xinlin, 

Songling, Qiqihar, 

Yichun, 

Jamusi, Bei’an, 

Dedu, Dailing 

Reference 

CABI, 2011a; Yu 

and He, 1987; Yue 

et al., 1996 

Kazakhstan CABI, 2011a; Orlinskii, 

2001 

Korea (DPR) CABI, 2011a 

Republic of Korea CABI, 2011a 



Dendrolimus superans 

The present worldwide distribution of the SaSM is restricted to Japan 

(Hokkaido and Northern Honshu) (EPPO, 2005; Fukuyama, 1980; Maeto, 

1991 ) and Russia (Sakalin and Kurile Islands as well as some regions of the 

Russian far east) (Fukuyama, 1980)(Figure 2-1 on page 2-9). 



Organization database 





Organization database 


Potential Distribution 



Based on climatological suitability and host presence and density in the United 

States (Figure 2-2 on page 2-11) the risk of establishment of the PTL is higher 

in temperate coniferous and mixed (coniferous and deciduous) forests. These 

forests are distributed throughout the southern Appalachian mountain range, 

the northeast, midwest (Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin, North Dakota), the 

northwest regions of the United States and Alaska and are primarily found in 

hardiness zones 4-7. Ecological and environmental conditions are not 

appropriate for establishment in Puerto Rico, Hawaii or any of the United 

States territories in the Pacific. The PTL has the highest risk of establishment 

in temperate forests with high densities of Pinus spp. 

Figure 2-2 NAPPFAST Risk Map for Establishment Potential Based on Climatic 

Suitability of the PTL in the Conterminous United States (map 

created by Jessica Engels, Roger Magarey and Dan Borchart; 

USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Raleigh, NC). The NAPPFAST risk map 

describes the relative climatic suitability (on a scale of 1-10) for a 

pest to grow and survive. The maps are based on 10-years of 

daily data from NAPPFAST. A value of one represents a low 

likelihood of pest growth and survival, while a 10 indicates high 

likelihood of pest growth and survival. 



Hosts 


Althought the main host for MPC, P. massoniana, is not found in the 

conterminous United States, several alternate hosts are either native or used in 

plantation foresty. Known alternative hosts (see Hosts on page 2-12) such as P. 

echinata, P. elliotii, and P. taeda are abundant and widely used timber 

resources across the Southeastern United States. 

Dendrolimus sibiricus and Dendrolimus superans 

Based on climatological match data obtained from the pest native range 

(Figure 2-1 on page 2-9) and the potential host distribution in the United 

(Alaska included) (Figure 2-3 on page 2-18), the SSM and the SaSM have the 

highest potential to establish in coniferous forests of the northern half of the 

Western United States, Alaska, the upper Northeastern states and in areas of 

Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan. Although several species of Pinaceas are 

widely distributed in the Southeastern and Midwestern part of the 

conterminous United State, the likelihood of establishment is low because of 

undesirable climatological conditions. The relatively warm fall and winter in 

these areas are unsuitable for the development of the SSM or the SaSM, 

potentially resulting in the death of hibernating larvae (Baranchikov, Personal 

communication). 

The larvae of species in the genus Dendrolimus only infest conifer trees. 

Potential hosts are listed in Table 2-3 on page 2-7. 


The primary host of PTL is Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). The PTL can also 

successfully develop on 17 species of pine, as well as Douglas-fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Although most of 

the species were tested under laboratory conditions, these data clearly show 

that the PTL host range is possibly broader than is currently known. Most of 

these species are of economic importance in the United States. 

Some of the coniferous tree species in the United States are also reported as 

primary or secondary host in Europe and Asia (i.e., Picea sitchensis, Pinus 

contorta, P. strobus and P. sylvestris). 


Table 2-4 Reported Hosts Species for Dendrolimus pine moths 

Species Common Name D. pini 

D. 

punctatu 

D. 

sibiricus 

D. 

superans 

Abies alba Miller European silver fir Yes Yes Yes 

(NC) 

Abies concolor 

(Gord. & Glend.) 

Lindl. 

Abies grandis 

(Dougl. &D.Don) 

Lindl. 

Abies holophylla 

Maxim. 

Abies nephrolepis 

(Trautv.) Maxim. 

Abies nordmanniana 

(Steven) Loud. 

Abies sachalinensis 

Fr. Schmidt. 

U.S. Reference 


Baldassari, 1996; 

Kirichenko et al., 

2009a; Kirichenko 

et al., 2008b 

White fir Yes Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Grand fir Yes Yes Yes Borowski, 2005; 


2008b; Kirichenko 

et al., 2009b 

Manchurian fir Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Khingan fir Yes CABI, 2011a; 

EPPO, 2005; 


2008b 

Nordmann fir Yes Kirichenko et al., 


et al., 2008b; Matsumura, 

1926a; 

Sakhalin fir or 

Todo-fir 

Yes Yes CABI, 2011a; 

EPPO, 2005; 


2008b 

Abies sibirica Ldb. Siberian fir Yes CABI, 2011a; 

EPPO, 2005; Kharuk 

et al., 2007; 


2008b 

Pseudotsuga menziesii 

(Mirb.) (= 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia 

Britt.) 

Cedrus atlantica 

glauca Manetti 

Cedrus deodara 

(Roxb.) G.Don 

Douglas-fir Yes Yes Yes Baldassari, 1996; 

Borowski, 2005; 

Fuldner, 2001; 



et al., 2009a; 


2009b 

Blue atlas cedar Yes Kirichenko et al., 


et al., 2009b 

Deodar or Himalayan 

cedar 

Yes Yes Yes Baldassari, 1996; 

Kamata, 2002 

Cedrus libani Rich. Lebanon cedar Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 





Larix cajanderis 

Mayr. 

Larix dahurica 

Turcz. 

Larix decidua P. 

Mill 

Larix eurolepis 

Henry 

Larix gmelinii 

(Rupr.) 

Larix kaempferi 

(Lamb.) Carr. 

Yes Averensky et al., 

2010; Kirichenko et 

al., 2008b 

Yes Matsumura, 1926b 

European larch Yes Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2009a 

Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Dahurian larch Yes Yes CABI, 2011a; 


et al., 2007; 


2008b; 

Japanese larch Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Larix kamtschatica Yes Yes EPPO, 2005 

Larix kurilensis 

Mayr. 

Yes Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b; Meng et al., 

2010 

Larix olgensis Olga bay larch Yes Liu and Shih, 1957 

Larix sibirica Ldb. Siberian larch Yes CABI, 2011a; 


et al., 2007; 


2008b 

Larix sukaczewii 

Dyl. 

Russian larch Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Picea abies L. Norway spruce Yes Yes Yes Fuldner, 2001; 



et al., 2008b; 


2009b 

Picea excelsa L. Yes Matsumura, 1926b 

Picea glehni Mast. Yes Matsumura, 1926b 

Picea jezoensis 

(=P.ajanensis) 

Fisch. 

D. 

punctatu 

D. 

sibiricus 

D. 

superans 


Yeddo spruce Yes Yes CABI, 2011a; 


2008b 

Picea obovata Ldb. Siberian spruce Yes CABI, 2011a; 


et al., 2007; 


2008b 

Picea pumila Dwarf Norway 

spruce 

Yes EPPO, 2005 




Picea sitchensis 

Bong. 

Pinus caribaea 

Morelet 


Sitka spruce Yes Yes Yes Kirichenko et al., 


et al., 2009b 

Caribbean pine Yes HI, PR Billings, 1991 

Pinus cembra L. Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Pinus contorta 

Douglas ex Louden 

Lodgepole pine Yes Lindelow and 

Bjorkman, 2001 

Pinus echinata Mill. Shortleaf pine Yes Yes Zhang et al., 2003; 

Chang and Sun, 

1984 

Pinus elliotii 

Engelm. 

Pinus halepensis 

Mill. 

Pinus kesiya Royle 

ex Gordon 

Pinus koraiensis 

Sieb. & Zucc. 

Pinus luchuensis 

Mayr 

Pinus massoniana 

Lamb. 

Pinus merkussi 

Jungh 

Swamp pine Yes Yes Ying, 1986a; 

Chang and Sun, 

1984 

Allepo pine Yes Yes Marini, 1986 

Khasi pine Yes Billings, 1991 

Fruit pine, Chinese 

pinenut 

Luchu pine Yes 

Yes Yes 1 CABI, 2011a; 

EPPO, 2005; 


2008b 

Chinese Red Pine Yes Billings, 1991; 

Zhang et al., 2003 

Tenasserim pine Yes Billings, 1991 

Pinus mugo Turra Mugo pine Yes Yes Kolk and Starzyk, 

1996 

Pinus nigra J.F. 

Arnold (= Pinus 

laricio Poir) 

Pinus oocarpa 

Scheide 

Pinus pinaster 

Aiton 

European black 

pine 

Yes Yes Yes Marini, 1986; 


2009a 

Ocote chino Yes Billings, 1991 

Maritime pine Yes Yes Marini, 1986 

Pinus pinea L. Italian stone pine Yes Marini, 1986 

Pinus pumila Rgl. Dwarf Siberian pine Yes Yes 1 Kirichenko et al., 

2008b; Matsumura, 

1926b 

Pinus sibirica Du 

Tour 

D. 

punctatu 

D. 

sibiricus 

D. 

superans 


Siberian stone pine Yes Yes Yes Borowski, 2005; 


et al., 2007 





Pinus strobus L. Eastern white pine Yes Yes Yes 1 Yes Borowski, 2005; 




1926b 

Pinus sylvestris (L.) Scots pine Yes Yes Yes 1 Yes Fuldner, 2001; 

Kharuk et al., 2007; 




1926b 

Pinus taeda L. Loblolly pine Yes Yes Yes 1 Yes Zhang et al., 2003 

Matsumura, 1926b 

Pinus thunbergii 

Franco 

Tsuga canadiensis 

(L.) Carr. 

Tsuga diversifolia 

(Max) Mast. 

Tsuga sieboldii 

Carr. 

1 Rarely observed. 

Japanese black 

pine 

Yes Yes Yes Yes Borowski, 2005; 

Zhang et al., 2003; 


2008a 

Eastern Hemlock Yes Yes Yes Borowski, 2005; 


2009b 

Northern Japanese 

Hemlock 

Southern Japanese 

Hemlock 

D. 

punctatu 

D. 

sibiricus 

D. 

superans 


Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b 

Yes Yes Kirichenko et al., 

2008b; Matsumura, 

1926a 


The primary host of MPC is Masson pine, Pinus massoniana (Zhang et al., 

2003). The caterpillars are known to develop on other pines such as P. elliottii, 

P.taeda and P. thunbergii (Zhang et al., 2003), all of which are common in the 

Southeastern United States. 


Life Cycle 



The preferred hosts for the SSM are Abies sibirica, Abies nephrolepsi, Pinus 

sibirica, Pinus koraiensis, Larix gmelinii, Larix sibirica, Picea ajanensis and 

Picea obovata (Table 2-3 on page 2-7). Because of its current westward 

migration trend and the potential to establish in Europe (Gninenko and 

Orlinskii, 2002), the development of the SSM was tested on several species of 

European Pinaceae not found in the pest native range in Asia (Kirichenko et 

al., 2006; Kirichenko et al., 2009b). In all species tested, the SSM had the best 

survival and growth rate when fed Larch (Larix decidua). Compared to Larch, 

survival on Pinus nigra and Pinus silvestris (Scots pine) was very poor (9 and 

30% respectively) and development did not occur in Cupressaceae species 

(Kirichenko et al., 2009b). The development on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) was comparable to that of Larch. Douglas-fir is a species of 

economic importance in the United States and was intentionally introduced to 

Europe where it is an economically important non-indigenous forest species 

(Kirichenko et al., 2006). Other economically important species tested and 

found in the United States include the Scots pine (Pinus silvestris), Eastern 

white pine (Pinus strobus), Grand fir (Abies grandis), Sitka spruce (Picea 

sitchensis) and the Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canandiensis) (Table 2-3 on page 

2-7) (Kirichenko et al., 2009b). The potential of the SSM to develop in 

Pinaceae species not found in their natural ecological range is high and 

therefore, a large number of species in the United States can potentially be 

secondary host species (Table 2-3 on page 2-7). 


The preferred hosts for the SaSM are Abies sachalinensis, Larix kamtschatica, 

L. dahurica, Picea jezoensis (= P. ajanensis), P. glehni, and Tsuga sieboldii 

(Matsumura, 1926a). It is known to rarely eat the following: Pinus funebris, P. 

taeda, P. koraiensis, P. pumila, P. strobus, and P. sylvestris (Table 2-3 on page 

2-7). There is little experimental or observational data on the diet breadth of 

the SaSM outside of the known geographic range for this moth. 

The Dendrolimus moths are generally heterovoltine, completing their life 

cycles within one to five years with some populations consisting of individuals 

of one or multiple year-cycles living together (Baranchikov and Kirichenko, 

2002; Rozhkov, 1963). Factors affecting the duration of a complete life cycle 

include the population and host density, climatological conditions 

(temperature, humidity and precipitation) and the density and type of natural 

enemies (Malyshev, 1987; Malyshev, 1988). 




Adult 

The PTL is a nocturnal moth with a life cycle normally completed in two or 

three years. Moths with a two season life cycle are more common in Central 

and Southern Europe whereas three season life cycle moths are more common 

in Russia (Malyshev, 1988). However, Melis, (1940) reported two generations 

per year in Italy. Unfavorable conditions for the development of the larvae will 

normally result in a population with a three season life cycle (Figure 2-3 on 

page 2-18). High population densities and depletion of food resources will 

result in 1-year cycle whereas low population densities will result in a 3 season 

life cycle (Malyshev, 1988). In its native range in Europe and Asia, the moths 

will normally start their flight activity in June and July (Lesniak, 1976; Varga, 

1966). 

Figure 2-3 Life cycle of Dendrolimus pini illustrating the observed presence 

and timing of different stages throughout the typical calendar 

year. Vertical lines with a W indicate break in the calendar for 

winter months when the larvae are not actively feeding. Arrows 

indicate the migration of larvae down to the forest floor or 

returning up into the tree canopy. White boxes with numbers 

indicate the instar number of overwintering larvae. Adult 

emergence, mating and egg laying is approximated with a 

butterfly icon on the calendar. 

Egg 

Mated females will lay a total of 150-250 eggs in their lifespans on the needles, 

twigs or bark of pine trees in clusters averaging 10-50 eggs/cluster (Ciesla, 

2004; Kojima, 1933; Lebedev and Savenkov, 1930; Melis, 1940). 



Larva 

After 16-25 days, the first instar larvae will emerge and start feeding on the 

outer edges of young needles, progressively feeding until the needles are 

completely consumed (Ciesla, 2004). The larvae will molt two or three times 

during the fall feeding season. At the start of the winter season, the fourth or 

fifth instar larvae will move down from the trees to the forest undercover 

where they will burrow beneath the leaves, forest litter or soil and remain 

dormant during the entire winter season (Heitland, 2002). Larvae will begin 

diapause after their third instar. Larval diapause is triggered by the 

photoperiod, usually when the day length is less than 12 hours for an average 

of 38 days and it is inhibited with longer days, when the day length is more 

than 17 hours (Geispits et al., 1972). Before diapausing, the larva will 

gradually decrease its feeding and locomotion activity and excrete the gut 

content (Geispits et al., 1972; Pszczolkowski and Smagghe, 1999). When the 

spring starts the following year, and the day length is more than 17 hrs, the 

larvae will climb back to the tree and resume their feeding activity until ready 

to pupate. It is during this time that the larvae cause most of the damage to the 

trees because of their size and the quantity of food consumed during feeding. 

Spring feeding can be as much as 3 to 5 times more per larva than fall feeding 

(Ciesla, 2004). Before they pupate, PTL larvae will undergo two to three 

additional molts in the spring. 

Pupa 

When ready to pupate, the seventh or eighth instar larvae will crawl several 

hundred meters in search of a suitable pupation site, normally on the tree 

crowns, bark and occasionally on the understory vegetation. During pupation 

the larvae spin spindle-shaped cocoons with silk sometimes covered with pine 

needles and twigs. Pupation starts in late spring (May-June) and will last 

between four to five weeks (Melis, 1940). 


Adult 

In southern portions of the known range, e.g., Vietnam, MPC is reported to 

have four generations per year, as follows: March to May; June and July; 

August and September; and overwintering from October to March (Billings, 

1991). The number of generations is variable, ranging from one to five per 

year. In more northen latitudes there are generally fewer generations per year 

(Figure 2-4 on page 2-20). Overlapping generations have been observed with 

insects in several life-stages on the same tree, while coastal climates may allow 

larvae to remain active throughout the year. Females lay an average of 300-400 

eggs. 



Figure 2-4 Life cycle of Dendrolimus punctatus illustrating the observed 


calendar year. Illustration legend follows Figure 2-3, except 

overwintering period is indicated completely across the 

calendar in this figure instead of abbreviated. Lighter lines 

indicate successive generations, indicating the possibility that 

overlapping generations might be present in the same 

population. 

Egg 

The development time within the eggs stage varies depending on the area and 

generation. CABI, (2011b) reports: 

[i]n Hunan, the first generation requires 11 days, the second and third 

generations require 7 days; in Guangxi, the first generation needs 8 days, 

the second and third generations require 6 days. Newly hatched larvae may 

feed on the eggshells. Hatching mostly occurs in the early morning (Hou, 

1987). 

Larva 

Hatched larvae can disperse via wind using silk threads, while first and second 

instar larvae will use the silk threads to suspend in the air when disturbed 

(CABI, 2011b). Normal development includes six instars. Diapuase can be 

induced by photoperiod responses during the first 14 days of the larval period, 

with a critical night length of 10h and 40min at 25-31°C Huang et al., 2005. 

Nutritional quality has also been implicated as an influence on larval 

development operating through diapause induction, with increases in the total 

amount of damage to host pine tree serving to increase the incidence of 

diapause (Huang et al., 2008). These increases in night length or damage to the 

plant would have the effect of increasing overall development time in the larval 

life stage. It has been suggested that serious damage to the host pine trees in the 

first and second generations of a growing season would tend to decrease the 

population of the subsequent generations via the diapause mechanisms (Huang 

et al., 2008). 



Pupa 

Larvae spin hairy cocoons attached to needles and small branches (CABI, 

2011b). 


Adults 

In the northernmost latitudes of Russia, adults SSM start emerging from mid to 

late June and sometimes until the beginning of August (Galkin, 1993). In the 

southernmost range in China, adults emerge from July to the end of August 

with peak emergence in mid August (Liu and Shih, 1957 ). A few hours after 

emergence, adult moths will fly and mate. Flight is more intense during clear 

nights and can last up to 4 hours. Flight activity is suppressed during rainy 

days, during which the moths will remain on the tree crowns hanging from the 

underside of branches (Galkin, 1993; Liu and Shih, 1957). Galkin (1993) 

reports that flight duration is shorter in the northernmost limits of the SSM 

natural range as a possible adaptation of the moths to shorter growing seasons. 

Mating takes place as soon as 2 to 3 hours after emergence with females 

normally mating once with a single male (Liu and Shih, 1957). Mated females 

will start laying fertilized eggs the same night they mate, usually in rows or 

clusters with up to 200 eggs per cluster or egg mass. A single female can lay 

from 200-300 eggs with a maximum of 800 eggs (EPPO, 2005). 



Larva 

After 16 to 21 days, the first instar larvae of the SSM hatch and will remain in 

groups (Galkin, 1993; Liu and Shih, 1957). The total number of instars in a full 

life cycle varies from six to eight depending on whether the life cycle is 

completed in one, two or three years. For a one year life cycle, the larvae will 

molt three more times to reach the fourth instar. In September, the fifth instar 

larvae migrate to the forest floor to overwinter underneath the forest litter. 

Exact determination of overwintering is triggered by a drop in temperatures, an 

increase in precipitation, changes in the biochemical composition and 

coloration of larch needles and a shortening of the photoperiods (Galkin, 1993; 

Geispits, 1965). In spring of the following year, when the soil temperature 

average 3.5 to 5.0ºC the overwintering larvae break diapause, climb to the tree 

and resume feeding (FAO, 2007). This is the most destructive stage because of 

the size of the larvae and its voracious feeding. The larvae will complete seven 

instars and pupate in June. Before pupation, ~90% of larvae will move to the 

tree crown and spin a silken cocoon, where they will remain for 18-22 days 

until they emerge as adults (Galkin, 1993; Liu and Shih, 1957). Three season 

life cycles are typical for populations in the southern portions of the SSM 

ecological range. In an expanded three season life cycle, larve in the first to 

third instar overwinter in the first year. In spring of the following year the 

larvae will climb back to the tree, molt to fifth instars and overwinter as fifth or 

sixth instar larvae until they reemerge in spring of the second year, pupate and 

emerge as adults (Figure 2-5 on page 2-22). 

Figure 2-5 Life cycle of Dendrolimus sibiricus illustrating the observed 


calendar year, following conventions used in Fig. 2-3. 




Adult 

Emergence of the adults begins in June through July and lasts until August 

(Fukuyama, 1980). The general patterns of the life cycle are similar to D. 

sibiricus or have not been distinctly defined by research literature. Both two 

season and three season life cycles are known; Figure 2-6 on page 2-23 shows 

general phenology throughout the year which may vary depending on local 

geographic conditions. 

Figure 2-6 Life cycle of Dendrolimus superans illustrating the observed 


calendar year, following conventions used in Fig. 2-3. Moths that 

overwinter once have a 2 season life cycle, while some moths 

overwinter twice and diapause in the summer, resulting in a 

three season life cycle. 

Larva 

Life cycles can typically require more than one year for development to 

complete, therefore, generations are often overlapping and hibernation occurs 

in various instars. Summer diapause is observed to coordinate generations 

emerging in synchrony, facilitating mating. 

Developmental Rates 

The duration and development of the life cycle of Dendrolimus moths is 

affected by the interplay of many factors including temperature, humidity, 

photoperiod, food quality and quantity (type and density of host species), 

population densities, the abundance and type of natural enemies and certain 

physiological factors (Galkin, 1993). Specific details relevant to each of the 

species under consideration are presented below. 




Adult 

Developmental time for males and females during the pupal stage does not 

differ although males will, on average, emerge first, late in the afternoon 

(around 5:00pm) and females will emerge later during the night (around 

8:00pm) (Winokur, 1991). Lifespan of mated females is 7-10 days and that of 

virgin females is 17-20 days (Lebedev et al., 1929). Mated and virgin females 

will lay about the same number of eggs during their lifespans, however, eggs 

laid by virgin females are significantly smaller (Lebedev and Savenkov, 1930). 

Males live on average 17 days (Lebedev and Savenkov, 1930). Males and 

females moths will not feed during their lifetime surviving only from the 

reserves accumulated during larval development (Chainey, 2010). 

Food quantity and quality are also important factor that affect the development 

of the PTL. Smelyanets (1977) showed that oils in Scots pine can be important 

larval feeding stimulants for example, borneol and camphene; terpenoids like 

α-pinene, β-pinene and α-terpineol can be feeding deterents and, other 

terpenoids like limonene, bornilacetate and α-terpineol can be toxic. When 

found at high concentrations, these toxic compounds will kill the larvae and 

feeding deterrent terpenoids will reduce larval weigh and increase 

developmental time (Smelyanets, 1977). Sukovata et al., 2003) found positive 

correlations between levels of β-pinene and abundance of PTL larvae in Scots 

pine crowns. The development of larval and pupal stages on different host is 

variable. Pine-tree lappet larva feeding on Scots pine or spruce (Picea abies) 

develop faster than those feeding on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 

(Fuldner, 2001). 

Development is also affected by voltinism. Larva developing in 1 or 2 year life 

cycles will show differences in their pupal developmental time and in the 

ability of females to fly. Malyshev, (1987) found that the pupal developmental 

time for 1 year cycle larva was shorter (15 days on average) than those with 2 

year cycle (22 days average) and, unlike the 1 year cycle females, females 

from 2 year cycle moths will normally fly upon emergence (Malyshev, 1988). 



Egg 

Optimum temperature-humidity combination for PTL egg development was 

established at 24°C and 80-85% relative humidity, with a range of 14 to 31°C 

and a relative humidity between 40 to 98% resulting in only 5% egg mortality 

(Kojima, 1933). Temperatures below 8.5°C and above 33.5°C result in 100% 

mortality. Eggs developing at optimum temperature but high relative humidity 

(more than 85%) will normally die because of high levels of potentially 

pathogenic fungi growing on the surface (Kojima, 1933). However, eggs are 

more tolerant to incubation at low relative humidity than high humidity 

conditions. Incubation with relative humidity below 25% will result only in 

15% to 18% mortality (Kojima, 1933). At optimal relative humidity, egg 

development ranged from an average of 10 days at 31.5°C to 48 days at 

11.5°C. At the optimum developmental temperature (24°C) and humidity (80- 

85%) the average developmental time was 11 days. Egg size is another 

important factor in the development of eggs. Small eggs will normally develop 

faster than large eggs, possibly related to their nutritional content (Kojima, 

1933). 

Larva 

In first instar larvae, the boundaries of tolerance for temperature and humidity 

are more restricted than in the egg. A range of 18.0° to 26.5°C and of 55 to 

100% relative humidity will result in 5% mortality. However, first instar larvae 

will tolerate higher and lower temperatures (100% mortality above 37°C and 

below 7°C) better than the eggs. First instar larvae are also more tolerant to 

high humidity. Mortality due to pathogenic fungi is observed only when the 

temperature is above 33°C and 100% relative humidity (Kojima, 1933). The 

optimum larval developmental temperature and relative conditions was 24°C. 

For other larval stages, the conditions were comparable to those of first instar 

larvae (Kojima, 1933). 

Pupa 

Optimal temperature for pupal development is between 13 and 29.5°C and 

relative humidity levels between 17% and 100%. Normal pupation is still 

observed at 7°C. Pupal developmental time ranged from 95 days at 12°C to 14 

days at 32°C. Developmental time was 25 days at 24°C (Kojima, 1933; 

Winokur, 1991). 


Limited information is available for the optimum developmental conditions of 

MPC. The development period for each generation varies according to climate, 

the number of generations and region. 



Adult 

Adult lifespan is approximately one week. Reports of adult lifespan vary 

depending on the region. In Hunan, the average moth life span is 7.5 days in 

the overwintering generation, 7 days in the first generation, and 8 days in the 

second generation. In Guangxi, the average life span is 8 days in the 

overwintering generation and 7 days in other generations (CABI, 2011b). 

Egg 

Under average temperatures of 28°C, the egg stage is about 8 days; decreases 

in temperature to average 25°C will increase the egg stage to between 9 and 11 

days. At 30°C, egg development is a shorter duration of about 6 days (CABI, 

2011b; Hou, 1987; Peng, 1959). 

Larva 

Larval development time can be greatly extended by diapause but also varies 

with the number of generations and region. At 28°C, the larvae stage lasts 

about 32 days, which shortens as the average daily temperature increase to 

about 26 days at 30°C (Peng, 1959). The diapause period is controlled by day 

length, but the photoperiod response is also compensated by temperature. The 

diapause period can last approximately 20 days in Guangdong, 90 days in 

Hunan, and 120 days in Henan province The reported larvae lifespan is greater 

than 45 days and less than 65 days, although this range is highly dependent on 

the region and generation number (CABI, 2011b). 

Pupa 

In northern parts of its range through China, the pupal stage lasts 21 days in the 

overwintering generation, 16 days in the first generation, and 13 days in the 

second generation. In southern China, the pupal stage lasts 16 days in the 

overwintering generation and from 12 to 17 days depending on which 

generation is developing (CABI, 2011b). 


In their native range in Russia, optimal development of the moth is found in 

areas with growing-degree days above 5ºC (GGD5) between 950 and 1350 and 

annual moisture index values (AMI) between 1.3 and 3.0 and, outbreaks are 

more prevalent in areas with GGD5 between 1110 and 1250 and, AMI between 

2.0 and 2.5 (Baranchikov et al., 2009). In Europe, areas that map with these 

values are found above latitude 54-56ºN (Baranchikov et al., 2009). 

Adult 

Newly emerged SSM females will lay eggs for 7-10 days. Average lifespan of 

mated females is 9 days and that of unmated females is 13 days (Liu and Shih, 

1957). 



Egg 

Development normally takes 13-15 days with a maximum of 20 to 22 days 

(EPPO, 2005). 

Larva 

During a typical two-calendar year cycle the number of larval stages for the 

SSM will vary between five to eight for males and six to nine for females 

(Baranchikov et al., 1997; EPPO, 2005). First instar larvae molt 9-12 days after 

emergence. Second instar larvae will develop in 3-4 weeks. The larvae 

overwinter as second or third instar larvae. In the second year, larvae will 

either complete development into adults, or will undergo a second winter 

diapause as fifth or sixth instar larvae on the forest floor. One month after the 

last winter diapause, the fifth instar larvae molts to sixth instar and complete 

regular development (EPPO, 2005). 

Variations in developmental time for the SSM have been observed in different 

populations that develop in the same geographic location, some of which 

complete their life cycle in one, two or three years depending on the local 

temperature conditions (Galkin, 1993) (Figure 2-5 on page 2-22). It has been 

also observed that a population can switch from a one to a two year cycle based 

on weather conditions (Galkin, 1993). During warm summer and fall seasons, 

the larvae will grow and molt more readily than those growing in cold summer 

and fall conditions (Galkin, 1993). Another important factor affecting 

developmental time is the photoperiod. Long days will accelerate development 

and days with a LD of 12:12h will stimulate diapause (Geispits, 1965). The 

combination of long days with warm summer and fall temperatures is ideal for 

the fast development of both the SSM and the SaSM, a condition that also 

applies to one of their primary host species, Larix spp. (Galkin, 1993). Winter 

conditions for normal moth development require no autumn thaws, which 

would be fatal for the hibernating larva (Baranchikov et al., 2009). 

One of the most important physiological factors affecting the development of 

the SSM is the presence and timing of summer diapause (Baranchikov and 

Kirichenko, 2002). Although it is known that winter diapause is triggered by 

photoperiod in the fall, the causes that initiate summer diapause in the SSM are 

not well understood. During summer diapauses, the time spent as a fourth 

instar larvae increases by 50%, probably as an outcome of a reduction in food 

consumption and assimilation compared to larvae that do not diapause 

(Baranchikov and Kirichenko, 2002). Larvae that overwinter as second instars 

in the first year of their development are not able to fully complete their life 

cycle in the following year and therefore diapause, or delay growth, in the 

summer to overwinter as fifth or sixth instars and complete the cycle in the 

third year, after the second overwintering period. This synchronization is 

essential to increase the probabilities of mating when the adults emerge 

(Baranchikov and Kirichenko, 2002). 



There is a noted effect of host type on larval development for the SSM. Choice 

tests show that the SSM prefers and develops faster in Larix spp. than on those 

considered to be poorer quality hosts: Abies spp., Pinus spp., Picea spp. and 

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Kirichenko et al., 2006; Kirichenko et al., 2009b). 

Larvae fed on Larix were on average three times heavier, had a shorter 

developmental time and the lowest mortality rates compared to those reared on 

pine species, particularly P. sylvestris and P. nigra (Kirichenko et al., 2009a; 

Kirichenko and Baranchikov, 2007). Mortality rates of larvae reared on P. 

nigra were as high as 83% compared to 3.2% in Larix spp. (Kirichenko et al., 

2008a). It is worth noting that larvae fed on Douglas-Fir, a species of economic 

importance in Europe and North America, had a development and mortality 

rate comparable to those reared on Larix (Kirichenko et al., 2008a). Compared 

to other Pinacea, needles from Larix have lower essential oil content and 

higher nitrogen, water and fiber content, a nutritional condition that might 

favor development and reduce mortality of SSM larvae (Vshivkova, 2004). 

Variations in optimal population densities can have an effect in the 

development, mortality and the physiology of the SSM, and competition for 

food in populations with high density may extend the developmental time of 

the larvae and increase the number of instars (Kirichenko and Baranchikov, 

2004 Ghent and Onken, 2003). The mortality rate of first instar larvae reared in 

large numbers (n=20) was reduced 20-fold when compared to individually 

reared larvae (Kirichenko and Baranchikov, 2004). Population density also 

affects the duration of development, but studies are mixed on the timing of the 

effects. Although the duration of development was not affected in first and 

second instar larvae reared either in groups or isolated, third and fifth instar 

larvae developed faster and gained more weight when reared in groups 

(Kirichenko and Baranchikov, 2004). The efficiency of utilization of food (i.e., 

the measured fraction of assimilated food that turns into tissues) increased in 

grouped larvae until the fourth instar and dropped in the fifth and sixth instars. 

Alternatively, in solitary larvae this efficiency was significantly lower in the 

first to fifth instars relative to the grouped-reared larvae. Finally, development 

was significantly higher in the isolated sixth instar larvae as compared to 

grouped larvae (Kirichenko and Baranchikov, 2004). This information 

suggests that the effect of density correlates with accelerated development of 

the SSM at early stages of their life cycle (first to third instars) when the larvae 

are more vulnerable. However, the development of later instar larvae (i.e., 

fourth to sixth instar) is faster when the larvae grow in isolated conditions, 

possibly due to reduced competition for food resources (Kirichenko and 

Baranchikov, 2004). 



Pupa 

Siberian silk moth pupa develops in one month (EPPO, 2005) but shorter 

periods of 17-18 days have been reported (Liu and Shih, 1957). The transition 

of larva to pupa takes on average 3 days (Liu and Shih, 1957). Pupal 

developmental time in the SaSM is between 19 and 26 days (Inoue and 

Koizumi, 1958). 


Adult 

Newly emerged SSM females will lay eggs for 7-10 days. Average lifespan of 

mated females is 9 days and that of unmated females is 13 days (Liu and Shih, 

1957). 

Larva 

The SaSM develop in one or two year-cycles with 6-7 larval instars for oneyear 

cycle and 7 to 8 instars for a two-year cycle (Inoue and Koizumi, 1958). 

Total larval developmental time for a one-year cycle is between 340 to 360 

days and 676 to 690 days for a two-year cycle. Larval developmental time for 

one and two-year cycle is shown in Table 2-5 on page 2-29. 

Table 2-5 Average larval developmental time (in days) for the SaSM in one and 

two-year life cycles 1 

Instar 1-year cycle 2-year cycle 

I 8.0 8.0 

II 9.8 8.5 

III 18.8 17.5 

IV 258.0 269.0 

V 21.7 34.0 

VI 26.5 27.5 

VII 44.5 

VIII 280.5 

1 Values correspond to the average of both males and females. Data from Inoue and Koizumi, 

1958. 

Pupa 

Siberian silk moth pupa develops in one month (EPPO, 2005) but shorter 

periods of 17-18 days have been reported (Liu and Shih, 1957). The transition 

of larva to pupa takes on average 3 days (Liu and Shih, 1957). Pupal 

developmental time in the SaSM is between 19 and 26 days (Inoue and 

Koizumi, 1958) 



Behavior 


Adult 

Virgin females emerge from the cocoons in the evening and produce a femalespecific 

sex pheromone that is used to attract males. The primary pheromone 

components have been identified as (Z,E)-5,7-dodecadienal (Priesner et al., 

1984) and additional components that enhance male searching behavior 

identified as dodeca-cis-5, trans-7-dien-1-ol and the acetate of dodec-cis-5- or 

trans 7-en-1-ol (Kovalev et al., 1993). Sexual maturation of females happens 

within a few minutes of emergence and (Lebedev and Savenkov, 1930). 

Normally, virgin females do not fly when they are newly emerged and will 

remain in the same tree until mating, which can happen the same night of 

emergence or can be delayed for up to eight days (Lebedev and Savenkov, 

1930). After mating, females will start laying eggs for an average of 8 days 

(ranging from 3-18 days) before dying (Kojima, 1933; Lebedev and Savenkov, 

1930). During the first two days after mating, a mated female will lay 73% of 

the total number of eggs after which oviposition will greatly decrease until the 

female dies (Kojima, 1933). Females will fly soon after mating (Kojima, 

1933). 

Larva 

Pine-tree lappet larvae will consume 95% of their food at dawn and dusk 

(Malyshev, 1987). At first, feeding will be concentrated in old pine needles of 

20 to 30 year old trees and as the old needles are consumed, the larvae will feed 

more on fresh, new needles (Varga, 1966). Young, first instar larvae will start 

feeding on the outer edges of needles and, as the larva grows, the entire needles 

will be consumed. Table 2-6 shows the average daily consumptions of each 

instar, calculated based on a consumption/defecation value (C/F) of 1.2 for 

Dendrolimus pini L. (Tenow and Larson, 1987) and daily frass production 

values estimated by Gosswald (1934). 

Table 2-6 Daily Consumption (in g) of PTL 

Instar 1 Consumption (g/day) 2 Frass (g/day) 

(Gosswald, 1934) 

I 0.011 0.009 

II 0.033 0.028 

III 0.067 0.056 

IV 0.202 0.169 

V 0.856 0.714 

VI 1.436 1.197 


Table 2-6 Daily Consumption (in g) of PTL 

Instar 1 


Consumption (g/day) 2 

VII 2.709 2.258 

VIII 3.360 2.800 

Frass (g/day) 

(Gosswald, 1934) 

1 The number of instars varies. Gosswald, 1934 reported VIII larval stages. 

2 Consumption calculated as 1.2×F, where F is the value for frass production 


Adult 

Adults emerge occurs at dusk with mating and oviposition taking place at night 

(Speight and Wylie, 2001). Female moths use needle volatiles to locate 

suitable host plants for oviposition (Zhao and Yan, 2003), choosing to lay eggs 

on the needles of shorter, younger Masson pine (Pinus massoniana) in 

preferences to taller, older trees (Zhang et al., 2003). Generations can overlap 

on the same tree (Billings, 1991). 

Larva 

Newly hatched larvae stay in a group on needles near the eggshells. When 

population numbers are low, larvae prefer older needles (Billings, 1991). If the 

first- and second-instar larvae are disturbed, they suspend in the air through a 

silk thread extended from the mouth (CABI, 2011b). They may also roll off the 

needles. Wind, storm and natural enemies kill a large percentage of the young 

larvae before entering pupation (CABI, 2011b). 

Pupa 

Mature larvae spin cocoons for pupation on branches or needles of the host 

tree, occasionally on nearby vegetation (Speight and Wylie, 2001). 




Adult 

Female moths will produce a sex-specific pheromone to attract males and mate 

one to four days after they emerge (Khrimian et al., 2002; Klun et al., 2000; 

Liu and Shih, 1957). Mating normally takes place at night between 1am and 

3am (Liu and Shih, 1957). Right before mating, both males and females will 

vibrate their wings. Wing vibrations are more intense in males. Males will 

immediately approach a female and dance around it while vibrating their wings 

and mate. During mating, a male and a female moth pair together at their 

abdomen, aligning their bodies with heads facing in opposite directions. They 

will remain in this position for an average of 13 hours before they separate. A 

few hours after they separate, the female starts laying viable, fertilized eggs 

(Liu and Shih, 1957). If females do not mate during this time, they will start 

laying unfertilized eggs, however, virgin females that are laying eggs can 

eventually mate and produce viable, fertilized eggs (Liu and Shih, 1957). Eggs 

are laid in clusters or in straight lines on the pine needles or branches. A female 

will normally lay between 165 to 501 eggs during her lifetime, most of them 

(60%) the first day, right after mating (Liu and Shih, 1957). Oviposition 

normally takes place at night between 7 and 10pm and last on average 8.1days 

after which the females die (Liu and Shih, 1957). 

Larva 

Newly emerged larvae will normally remain grouped during the first instar 

stage. When disturbed, they will produce a silky thread and drop to the forest 

floor where they will rapidly move in characteristics side to side twisting 

movements. This behavior is unique to the first instar larvae. Larvae of other 

instars will not drop and twist when disturbed, instead, they will curl in a Clike 

position and move slower than the first instar larva (Liu and Shih, 1957). 

First instar larvae feeds on the outer surface of pine needles, rarely consuming 

the entire needle. As the larvae grow, the entire needle will be consumed (Liu 

and Shih, 1957). When ready to overwinter (normally III or IV instar) the 

larvae migrates to the forest floor where they will search under the forest litter 

for a suitable place (normally with 1 to 7 cm of moss or leaves) to overwinter. 

If there is no forest litter or moss near, the larvae will overwinter in crevices of 

stones or in larch roots (Galkin, 1993). Overwintering rarely happens in the 

soil. Larvae will overwinter on average at a 25 cm radius from the tree trunk 

with a maximum of 82cmts on the east side of the trees (Liu and Shih, 1957). If 

the affected forested area is in a hill, the majority of overwintering larvae are 

found at the top of the hill and not the base (78 larvae were found around 17 

trees sampled on top of a hill compared to 26 larvae in the same number of 

trees at the bottom of the hill) (Liu and Shih, 1957). When the temperature is 

around 10ºC in the spring, the overwintering larvae will break diapause and 

start migrating from the forest floor to the tree tops. 




Because of taxonomic similarities, most information about behavior of 

Dendrolimus superans is combined with D. sibiricus and is not distinguished 

in the literature. Therefore, consult sections on D. sibiricus behavior for what 

is known about these moths. 

Population Dynamics 

Localized outbreaks of Dendrolimus moths generally follow periodic cycles in 

timing. Certain conditions have been observed to play an increased role in the 

outbreaks. Environmental factors of temperature and precipitation are most 

closely correlated with these outbreaks, but the proximate causes are still not 

well understood. Details for each species are included below. 


Pine-tree lappet outbreaks are periodical and have been reported in Germany, 

Poland, Lithuania, Austria, Hungary, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Russia and 

China (Gedminas, 2003; Han et al., 2004; Kolubajiv, 1950; Komarek and 

Kolubajiv, 1941; Lesniak, 1976; Malyshev, 1997; Meshkova, 2002; 

Mozolevskaya et al., 2002b; Sierpinska, 1998; Varga, 1966; Varley, 1949). In 

Lithuania, outbreaks were first reported in 1993 and in Hungary in 1969 

(Gedminas and Ziogas, 2008; Varga, 1966). Data available for outbreaks in 

Poland since 1791 shows periodic outbreaks lasting from 1 to 11 years 

(Sierpinska, 1998). In the present century, these outbreaks have been reported 

more frequently in Poland and Germany. In Poland, the average time between 

outbreaks was 40 years during the 19 and 20 th centuries, compared to 7 year 

intervals in the present century (Sierpinska, 1998). Climatic and 

meteorological conditions are important factors determining the extent of a 

population outbreak (Lesniak, 1976). Temperature, relative humidity, 

precipitation, and number of days with snow covering the ground are among 

the most important factors. Regions with the most severe outbreaks are 

characterized by high mean annual temperature (average of 7.8°C) (Lesniak, 

1976). Outbreaks will normally occur when the isotherm line in July is around 

a minimum value of 18°C and for January, the coldest month, around -2.0°C. 

Outbreaks are usually weaker when the number of days with temperatures 

below freezing exceeds 50 (Lesniak, 1976). 

Outbreaks are also determined by the amount of precipitation in an area. Low 

precipitation (less than 350mm during the summer) in the driest, warmest areas 

is a favorable condition (Lesniak, 1976). The amount of snow cover is a factor 

that will affect the hibernating larvae. The duration and amount of snow cover 

can have a direct and indirect impact on the survival of hibernating larvae. The 

lack of snow cover and therefore, insulation, can result in an increased 



mortality of overwintering larvae found under a shallow layer of litter on the 

forest (Lesniak, 1976). Temperatures below -4°C will usually kill the larvae. 

On the other hand, the long prevalence of a snow cover can indirectly affect the 

overwintering larvae early in the spring when the snow melts because of the 

proliferation of pathogenic fungi including Cordyceps militaris (L.), Beaveria 

sp. and Paecilomices farinosus (Holmskjold) (Lesniak, 1976). 

Strong outbreaks are usually observed when the summers are long, typically 

between 90-100 days. Longer summers will allow the larvae to feed for longer 

and thus grow bigger, a condition that will help the larvae better survive the 

winter. Longer winters, however, are decrease survival of the overwintering 

larvae. Short winters with 70-80 days are considered more favorable 

conditions for outbreaks (Lesniak, 1976). 

A climate indicator known as the hydrothermal coefficient (or Seljaninov’s 

coefficient) (HTC) uses precipitation and temperature values for a specific 

region at a specific time of the year to describe conditions favorable to 

outbreaks. The strong correlation between the values of the hydrothermal 

coefficient and the severity of outbreaks suggests that HTC can be used to 

predict outbreaks in a region (Meshkova, 2002). The hydrothermal coefficient 

is calculated as: HTC= (p x 10)/ (t x n) where p is the average monthly 

precipitation in mm, t the average monthly temperature (in °C) and n the 

number of days during that month (Lesniak, 1976). 

In Poland, weaker outbreaks occur in areas with slightly high humidity and 

hydrothermal coefficient values between 1.4 and 1.6 and strong outbreaks in 

areas with the lowest HTC values, below 1.4 (Lesniak, 1976). 


As with other Dendrolimus spp., the MPC is periodical in outbreaks. The 

cycles range between 3-5 years. Trees in the 7-15 year age class are the most 

frequently attacked (Ciesla, 2001); average infestations of 200 larvae per tree 

can increase up to more than 600 larvae per tree in cases of severe population 

expansion (Billings, 1991). Overwintering larvae appear to be attracted to each 

other and assume an aggregated distribution (Liu, 2010), a feature that should 

be considered when predictions of population dynamics are generated from 

survey data. 




Outbreaks of SSM are periodical and occur on average every 10-11 years 

(Baranchikov et al., 1997; Orlinskii, 2000). Outbreaks have been strongly 

correlated to cycles of solar activity (Galkin, 1975). Climatological factors 

such as rain and amount of snow during the winter play an important role in 

regulating the populations of SSM. A shallow snow cover during the winter 

can cause high mortality on hibernating larvae because of inadequate 

insulation to the extreme temperatures during the winter. 

Elevation, slope steepness and altitude are topographical characteristics that 

affect the severity of an outbreak. Kharuk (2007) found that the most severe 

defoliation and tree mortality was observed at an elevation between 200 and 

310 meters. Slopes with southwestern exposure receive more solar radiation 

which creates drier and warmer conditions, favorable for larval development. 

Maximum damage was observed on slopes between 5° and 20ºC ( Kharuk et 

al., 2007). The highest concentration of SSM larvae is normally found on the 

hill tops (Liu and Shih, 1957) a place that is more effective for females to 

disperse their pheromones, attract males, mate and lay their eggs (Li et al., 

1987). 

The development and intensity of an outbreak is also dependent on the forest 

species composition and abundance. Outbreaks in Larch forests normally last 2 

years until trees are completely defoliated but because of the high resistance of 

Larix trees to both moth species, these outbreaks will not result in high tree 

mortality and very rarely, affected trees are attacked by secondary pest like 

insect borers (Averensky et al., 2010; Baranchikov et al., 1997; Rozhkov, 1970 

). In exceptional cases, when the outbreaks last more than two years, possibly 

due to extended developmental time of the larvae resulting from insufficient 

amounts of food and malnutrition, some tree mortality can be observed 

(Rozhkov, 1970). In contrast to Larch forests, other coniferous forests are more 

susceptible to outbreaks and tree mortality followed by secondary pests attack 

and forest fires are more common (Rozhkov, 1970). The severity of the 

outbreak is also determined by the age of the forest stand. SSM outbreaks are 

more severe when the forest is composed primarily of trees older than 15 years 

(Li et al., 1987 ). 


Outbreaks of SaSM are normally preceded by two to three years of drought 

with mean summer temperatures above the normal average (Maeto, 1991). In 

Hokkaido, Japan, major outbreaks of D. superans were normally preceded by 

three years of summer temperatures 1ºC higher than the normal temperatures 

(Maeto, 1991). Excessive rainfall can cause high mortality of first instar larvae, 

the most vulnerable of all larval stages (Maeto, 1991). 



Dispersal 

Generally, SaSM needs more than one year to complete a generation, and 

spends one or two winters in overwintering as a larva (Fukuyama, 1980). 

Although the density increases dramatically with outbreak levels, which can be 

greater than 1,000 individuals per tree (Fukuyama, 1980), population levels are 

normally do not exceed between 1 and 50 larvae per tree Maeto, 1991). 

Outbreak years typically follow summers with abnormally high mean 

temperatures, falling within or just after periods in which 3-year average 

temperatures of August or September were about 1°C higher than normal 

(Maeto, 1991). 

Adults of all Dendrolimus spp. can fly several kilometers, although females 

with eggs may not fly as far (Ciesla, 2001). Air currents may affect adult flight 

and early instar larvae are capable of balloon flight using silk threads (Speight 

and Wylie, 2001). 


Damage 


The main damage is caused by the larva feeding on the needles of pine tree 

hosts causing extensive defoliation. Completely defoliated trees will normally 

die if the outbreaks last a few years. The severity of the damage in a forest is 

determined by the factors affecting the intensity of an outbreak (see Population 

Dynamics above). When larvae densities reach outbreak levels, complete forest 

stands can be affected causing tree death in a period of 2 to 3 years and 

covering millions of ha of forested areas (Figure 2-7 on page 2-37). Trees that 

survive a period of outbreak are weak and more vulnerable to the attack of 

secondary pests including wood borers in the families Cerambycidae and 

Scolytidae (EPPO, 2005; Orlinskii, 2000). 

Figure 2-7 Defoliated larch trees by Dendrolimus sibiricus in Mongolia (Vladimir 

Petko, V.N. Sukachev Institute of Forest SB RAS, Bugwood.org). 



Economic Impact 

In the United States, the populations of Scots pine and other potential 

coniferous host species of Dendrolimus are probably more vulnerable to attack 

than those in Europe and Asia because they have not been exposed and have 

probably not evolved natural plant defense mechanisms to these pests. Scots 

pine, the PTL primary host, and Douglas-Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), are two 

of the most popular species of conifers used for Christmas trees, an industry 

that in the United States has an estimated value of $506 million USD per year 

(USDA-NASS, 2009). Christmas tree production is also important in other 

states like Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Washington and Michigan. The 

establishment of any invasive Dendrolimus spp.in the United States would 

therefore represent a high risk to this industry. Other coniferous species in the 

United States with significant commercial value for the production of timber 

and pulp that can also be severely affected include ponderosa pine (P. 

ponderosa), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), fir (Abies spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), 

pinyon pines (several species including P. cembroides, P. orizabensis and P. 

edulis) and junipers (Juniperus spp.) in the west coast and, longleaf (P. 

palustris), shortleaf (P. echinata), slash pine (P. elliottii) and loblolly pine (P. 

taeda) in the east coast (National Atlas, 2000). 

Affected trees are also more vulnerable to the attack of other forest pests. Trees 

that recover from the extensive defoliation caused by the larval feeding have a 

reduced growth and weak natural defenses, making them more susceptible to 

attack by secondary pests like wood borers including Acanthocinus 

carinulatus, Ips typographus, I. subelongatus, Melanophila guttulata, 

Monochamus galloprovincialis, M. urussovi, M. sutor, Phaenops cyanae, 

Scolytus morawitzi, and Xylotrechus altaicus (Ciesla, 2004; EPPO, 2005; Fei 

et al., 2008; Ma et al., 1998 ). Recovery of damaged trees can take several 

years and depends on the severity of the damage, particularly damage to the 

crown and weather conditions (Sliwa and Cichowski, 1975). In severely 

affected areas, the increase in the number of defoliated and dead trees results in 

higher risks of forest fires (Baranchikov, 1997; Ciesla, 2004; Orlinskii, 2000). 

The introduction and establishment of Dendrolimus moths in the United States 

could also have a negative impact on domestic and international trading. 

Exports of wood and wood products from the United States would have to be 

subjected to additional quarantine regulations and treated to prevent the spread 

of Dendrolimus moths to other countries where they are absent. 

Forests in states and national parks in the western United States are primarily 

composed of coniferous tree species with pine trees alone covering an 

estimated 13.8% of the total forest area (CAPS, 2008). High defoliation during 


outbreaks of Dendrolimus spp. can make these forests less attractive, 

negatively impacting tourism (Davis et al., 2008). 



PTL is a serious pest of coniferous forests in Europe and Asia where it causes 

extensive defoliation to pine trees during periods of outbreaks. Outbreaks can 

cover thousands of hectares and last for as long as nine years in areas where 

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), the moth’s primary host, is the dominant forest 

species (Malyshev, 1997; Sierpinska, 1998; Varley, 1949). In forests in Poland, 

where Scots pine covers an estimated 70% of the total forested areas, outbreaks 

have been reported since the late nineteen century. Between 1946 and 1995 

these outbreaks have resulted in extensive aerial treatments of 233,000 ha to 

control PTL (Sierpinska, 1998). During severe outbreaks, pine trees can be 

completely defoliated. Trees with more than 90% defoliation will die after the 

second or third year of the outbreak and those that survive after several years 

of infestation will show a significant reduction in growth and thus, wood 

production (Csoka, 1991; Gedminas, 2003; Sliwa and Cichowski, 1975). Sliwa 

and Cichowski (1975) estimated that defoliated trees that regenerated foliage 

showed a 60% reduction in height growth, 30% reduction in diameter growth 

and 30% reduction in wood volume. 

Outbreaks have also been reported in Germany and Russia. In Germany, more 

than 100,000 ha of forest were affected in the period between 1994 to1995. 

Insecticide applications to control the moth covered an estimated 105,000 ha 

between 2004 and 2006 (Moeller and Engelmann, 2008). In Russia, the area of 

pine stands completely killed by PTL between 1990 and 2001 was 116,000 ha 

(Mozolevskaya et al., 2002b). 


MPC is a serious defoliator of pine plantations in Southeast Asia, particularly 

damaging in southern China and Vietnam where it feeds on P. massoniana and 

P. merkusii in silvicultural settings (Ying, 1986b) . Outbreaks can rapidly lead 

to high deforestation, resulting in more than 50% deforestation of affected 

areas (Billings, 1991). The severity and impact of infestations can variable 

depending on the many factors listed in the relevant sections above (including, 

e.g., environmental factors, generation times, host plant species and density). 




SSM is the most devastating defoliator pest of coniferous forests in Russia, 

China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan where it feeds primarily on Pinus sibirica, 

Larix sibirica, Abies sibirica, Picea obovata, Larix cajanderi (in Russia and 

Kazakhstan) and Larix gmelinii (in China) (Averensky et al., 2010; CABI, 

2011a; EPPO, 2005). Periodical outbreaks results in the death of millions of 

trees over extensive areas and may last up to 12 years (Averensky et al., 2010 ). 

In Russia, trees covering an estimated area of 14.67 million ha were killed by 

extensive SSM defoliation between 1990 and 2001 with the outbreak of 2000- 

2001 being one of the most devastating (13.11 million ha). By comparison 

damages were estimated at 116,000 ha from PTL and 9.76 million ha from 

Lymantria dispar, the Gypsy moth, over the same time period (Mozolevskaya 

et al., 2002a). In Siberia, ten outbreaks have been recorded since 1873 of 

which the last five (over the period of 1935 to 1997) have resulted in the 

defoliation and death of trees in an estimated area of 5.40 million ha 

(Baranchikov, 1997 ). In Yakutia, eight outbreaks have been reported from 

1948 to 1999 resulting in 870,000 ha of Larix forests defoliated (Averensky et 

al., 2010 ). During the period of 1980 to 1990 it was estimated that 15 million 

m 3 of wood were lost in Siberian forests due to SSM damage (Shvidenko et al., 

1998 ). Outbreaks in Mongolia have been equally devastating. In the Khan 

Khentii and Bogd regions an estimated one million ha of larch and pine forest 

were severely damaged by SSM (Ghent and Onken, 2003 ). In Jilin province in 

China, 13 million trees were lost due to extensive defoliation in 1953 alone 

(Liu and Shih, 1957). 

Affected trees die during extensive periods of outbreaks lasting several years. 

However, certain species, most notably Larix cajanderi can tolerate heavy 

infestations better than other species (For example pines, fir and spruce) 

because of their high capacity to regenerate leaves. Larix cajanderi can tolerate 

50-70% defoliation during two consecutive seasons and trees can fully recover 

from the damage in a few years thus, facilitating the recovery of the forest and 

the ecosystem (Averensky et al., 2010 ). 




The SaSM is one of the most serious defoliators of coniferous forests in 

Hokkaido (Japan) and the Sakhalin Islands (Russia) with periodical outbreaks 

occurring on average every 10 years (Fukuyama, 1980 ). Damage to forests in 

Hokkaido and the Sakhalin Island is comparable to that of SSM in continental 

Russia and China with outbreaks reported in 1919 (200,000 ha damaged), 

1941, 1952, 1962 (15,356 ha damaged) and 1976 covering thousands of ha of 

larch-pine forests (EPPO, 2005; Fukuyama, 1980; Maeto, 1991). On Hokkaido 

Island it reaches outbreaks levels feeding on Abies sachaliensis whereas in 

Honshu Island the outbreaks are restricted to Picea jezoensis (Kamata, 2002 ). 

Like other Dendrolimus spp., trees that survive defoliation by the SaSM are 

weak and susceptible to attack by wood borers (mostly cerambicids and 

scolytids) during and after periods of outbreaks (EPPO, 2005). 

Environmental Impact 

The massive defoliation caused by the Dendrolimus moths during an outbreak 

dramatically changes the ecosystem of a forest. Defoliation allows the entry of 

more light and precipitation and alters the microclimatic conditions of the 

forest floor creating growth conditions ideal for other plant and animal species 

(Gedminas and Ziogas, 2008; Ierusalimov, 1973). Larval feeding on pine 

needles make nutrients readily available for plants (carbon and nitrogen) 

through their large production of frass (Mellec and Michalzik, 2008). 

Extensive defoliation in a forest also increases the risk of forest fires as a result 

of the accumulation of dry wood from dead trees, which also represents a loss 

of habitat for many forest living species of plants and animals that rely on the 

affected tree species for food and shelter (Davis et al., 2008). A more direct 

environmental impact is the effect of pesticides on non-target organisms and, 

the accumulation of pesticides residues in the soil and water sources like rivers, 

streams and lakes (Hilszczanski, 1998; Jakel and Roth, 1998). 

There is a direct risk to human health consisting of allergies and dermatitis 

resulting from exposure to larvae droppings and toxic compounds secreted 

from the spines and hairs of live and/or dead larvae and cocoons (Diaz, 2005; 

Moore et al., 2006). Direct contact with hair and spines of live or dead larvae 

can result in severe dendrolimiasis, a form of dermatitis produced by larvae of 

the genus Dendrolimus and characterized by severe dermatitis, inflammatory 

arthritis, cartilage inflammation, chronic osteoarthritits and acute scleritis in 

some cases (Diaz, 2005; Moore et al., 2006). Reports from China strongly 

correlate the incidence of dendrolimiasis in both male and female patients with 

outbreaks of Dendrolimus species (Diaz, 2005), particularly D. punctatus 

Huang, 1991. Affected patients usually recover after the outbreaks but a small 



percentage (7%) suffered permanent damage including ankyloses of finger 

joints or deformed auricles (Diaz, 2005). 

Sunlight intensity and therefore, soil temperature increase at the forest floor 

promoting the growth of plant species commonly found at high densities at the 

forest edges in unaffected forests. Averensky (2010) summarized this effect 

between intact and silk moth affected larch forest (Table 2-7 on page 2-42). 

Table 2-7 Change in growth conditions in silk moth affected Larix forests 1 

Larix forest 

Light 

intensity, 

thousand 

luxe 

Ground 

thawing 

depth (cm) 

Surface air 

temperature, 

ºC 

Soil temperature ºC 

Depth (cm) 

5 10 20 30 40 50 80 

Intact 11.8±8.5 60-80 24.3 13.7 10.2 6.9 4.9 3.9 3 0.6 

Silk moth 

affected 

26.8±4.2 110 24.6 16.3 13.1 9.2 7.5 6.4 5.0 0.7 

1 From Averensky et al., 2010. 

The increase in temperature on the forest floor can also represent a threat to 

permafrost taiga landscapes as it leads to the development of thermokarst 

(irregular surfaces that form lakes) as higher soil temperatures thaw the 

permafrost, thereby increasing the soil water content (Averensky et al., 2010). 

Methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, stored in the permafrost is released into 

the atmosphere leading to an increase in greenhouse gases and potentially 

contributing to global climate change (Anisimov, 2007; Zhuang et al., 2009 ). 

The massive amounts of frass produced during an outbreak directly affect soil 

fertility and increase the levels of microorganisms such as ammonifying 

phototrophs and microorganisms involved in humus mineralization. Frass also 

increases the leaching of water soluble carbon (Krasnoshchekov and 

Bezkorovainaya, 2008; Krasnoshchekov and Vishnyakova, 2003 ). 

There are no known US distributions of hosts for Dendrolimus moths listed on 

the Federally Registered Threatened and Endangered Species lists. 


Chapter 

3 Identification 

Contents 

Introduction 

Authorities 


Authorities 3-1 

Reporting 3-2 

Description 3-2 

Similar Species 3-15 

Molecular Identification 3-18 

Use Chapter 3 Identification as a guide to recognizing the following 

Dendrolimus moths: 


Pine caterpillar, Dendrolimus punctatus Walker 



Accurate identification of the pest is pivotal to assessing its potential risk, 

developing a survey strategy, and determining the level and manner of control. 

Qualified State, County, or cooperating University, personnel may perform 

preliminary identification and screening of suspect Dendrolimus moths. Before 

survey and control activities are initiated in the United States, an authority 

recognized by USDA–APHIS–PPQ-National Identification Services must 

confirm the identity of such pests. Submit specimens to the USDA-National 

Identification Services (NIS). 


Identification 

Reporting 

Description 

Forward reports of positive identifications by national specialists to PPQ- 

National Identification Service (NIS) in Riverdale, Maryland, according to 

Agency protocol. NIS will report the identification status of these tentative and 

confirmed records to PPQ-Emergency and Domestic Programs (EDP). EDP 

will report the results to all other appropriate parties. 

For further information on reporting and submitting samples, refer to How to 

Submit Insect Specimens on page C-1 and Taxonomic Support for Surveys on 

page D-1. 

Use the morphological characteristics described in this section to identify 

Dendrolimus moths. 


Adults 

Sexual dimorphism in the PTL is well defined. Females are stocky, covered by 

rusty brown to dark brown hairs in the abdomen and thorax respectively, large 

with a wing span between 70-90mm. Although individual variation in wing 

pattern and coloration is large, the female moth hind wings are normally dark 

brown with no marks. The fore wings have three distinctive transverse black 

lines (antemedian, postmedian and subterminal) that define very distinctive 

transverse rusty-brown and grey areas (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008). The 

outermost line, (subterminal) with a clear and very characteristic serrated and 

undulated pattern borders the rusty-brown area formed between the 

subterminal and postmedian lines, overlying an ash-grey background. In the 

female, these areas are generally paler than males (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008). 

The coloration of the band defined by the subterminal and postmedial lines is 

very similar to that of the hind wing. Wing color outside these brown areas is 

normally grey or brownish-grey. A white and/or black shaded spot is located 

on the antemedial line about one third from the frontal wing edge. These 

markings are very useful to distinguish the pine-tree lappet from other similar 

species (for example SSM and SaSM) (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008). The female 

head has a pair of big globular eyes, small ocelli and short, pectinate to nearly 

filiform antennae composed of 53-60 segments (Melis, 1940; Mikkola and 

Stahls, 2008) (Figure 3-1 on page 3-3). 



Males are smaller and more slender than females with a wing span from 50- 

70mm. Bipectinated antennae with 58-64 segments are designed to detect the 

pheromone produced by the females (Melis, 1940). 

Figure 3-1 Images of male (left) and female (right) Dendrolimus pini (L), pinetree 

lappet (PTL) adults. © Serge Peslier 

Eggs 

Newly laid eggs are green or blue and will turn grey after a few days (Figure 

3-2 on page 3-3). Eggs are 2.6-2.8 mm long and 2 mm wide and chorion with 

grainy texture (Melis, 1940), laid in clusters of 50 to 100 on the tips of 

branches. 

Figure 3-2 Pine-tree lappet eggs on pine needle. © Jeroen Voogd 

(www.ukmoths.org.uk) 



Figure 3-3 Pine-tree lappet eggs with larvae on Scot’s pine (Pinus sylvestris) 

needles (Hannes Lemme, Bugwood.org) 

Larvae 

Seven to eight instars are observed during larval development. The last larval 

instar is about 80 mm long and covered with soft red or gray hair. The thorax is 

distinctively marked with a white band bordered by two blue bands and the 

abdomen has characteristic V marks on the last two segments (Melis, 1940) 

(Figure 3-4 on page 3-5). Head capsule measurements and larval weighs for 

each instar are given in Table 3-1 on page 3-4 (Pszczolkowski and Smagghe, 

1999). 

Table 3-1 Head capsule width and body weighs of the PTL larval instars (means 

± S.E) 

Instar Head capsule width (mm) Body weight (mg) 

I 1.27 ± 0.02 12.5 ± 0.1 

II 1.63 ± 0.02 30.6 ±2.2 

III 1.84 ± 0.04 54.1 ± 3.7 

IV 2.22 ± 0.09 76.8 ± 4.2 

V 2.94 ± 0.15 197.1 ± 18.5 

VI 3.33 ± 0.16 583.8 ± 27.4 

VII 5.01 ± 0.22 2542.3 ± 74.8 


Figure 3-4 Pine-tree lappet larva. (Jeroen Voogd, www.ukmoths.org.uk). 


Pupae 

Larvae create spindle-shaped cocoons for pupation with variable coloration 

ranging from grey to brown. Cocoon length is between 45 to 54 mm and 15 to 

20 mm in diameter. Pupae are dark brown or reddish brown and measure on 

average 30 to 35 mm long and 9 to12 mm wide (Melis, 1940). Cocoons with 

female pupae are longer and wider than cocoons containing male pupae, 

averaging 54 ± 4.2mm in length and 19 ± 2.5mm in width compared to 47 ± 

2.6mm by 16 ± 2.0mm in males (Winokur, 1991). Blue thoracic hairs of the 

last instar larvae can be usually seen on the exterior surface of the newly spun 

cocoons (Melis, 1940). 

Figure 3-5 Pine-tree lappet cocoon containing pupa (Hannes Lemme, 

Bugwood.org) 




Adults 

Adult wingspan is approximately 50 to 80 mm, the females typically larger 

than the males (Ciesla, 2001). Males measure in length from 21 to 32 mm, with 

a wingspan of 38-62 mm. Female length is between 20 to 32 mm long, with a 

wingspan of 42 to 80 mm (CABI, 2011b). In coloration, the forewings are 

medium, dull grey or brown (Ciesla, 2001 with 5 lines including an 

antemedial, medial, double postmedial, and a submarginal line interrupted into 

dark brown series of spots (Matsumura, 1926a). Additional descriptions of 

these wing markings from CABI include: 

The front wings are longer and narrower than the hind wings. From the 

base to the tip of the front wing, there are a series of transverse marks or 

dark stripes. The outer stripe is dentate. The middle stripe is weakly 

double-lined. The white spot at the end of median cell of the front wing is 

small. There is a dark spot in the middle of the hind wing. The hairs on the 

wing border are greyish-white or greyish-brown. There is a dark curved 

band underneath the wings. (CABI, 2011b) 

The antennae are pectinate (CABI, 2011b) with short branches (Matsumura, 

1926a). 

The genitalia are important in distinguishing the MPC from other Dendrolimus 

spp., especially in the male where the minor harpe is entirely wanting 

(Matsumura, 1926a) or slender and very sharp, rarely more than half the length 

of the major harpe (CABI, 2011b). A single row of small teeth runs along the 

outer edge of the chitinized portion of the clasper (CABI, 2011b; Matsumura, 

1926a). 



Eggs 

The eggs are found in rows on pine needles (Figure 3-6 on page 3-7), oval in 

shape and range in color from rose to light brown (Ciesla, 2001) or palegreenish, 

purplish or pale-yellow (CABI, 2011b). 

Figure 3-6 Eggs of Dendrolimus punctatus, Masson pine moth, on pine needles 


Bugwood.org) 

Larvae 

Larvae grow through 6 instars and are between 5.5 and 7 cm in length when 

mature (Billings, 1991; Ciesla, 2001). The larvae have alternating patterns of 

light grey and dark bands with orange markings in the black bands and 

longitudinal bands along the body from head to the last abdominal segment 

(CABI, 2011b). White setae are found on the lateral sides of the body. There 

are urticating hairs on the thorax and abdomen of the larvae that can cause skin 

and eye irritation as well as other health difficulties (Ciesla, 2001; Huang, 

1991). Two color forms of the larvae have been noted: brownish-red and black 

(CABI, 2011b). For a more detailed description, Matsumura (Matsumura, 

1926a) provide the following: 

Head reddish brown and concolorously pubescent; epicranial suture paler, 

along which on each side is a fuscous stripe, scattering some fuscous spots 

on the lateral borders, and some of them altogether building 2 or 3 

longitudinal stripes; clypeus black; labrum very shallowly emarginated in 

the middle; antennae brown. Cervical shield reddish brown, with 2 

conspicuous dark stripes, which end anteriorly in some long black hair. 

Body testaceous brown, marmorated with black; the hair clusters in the 

second and third segments purplish dark brown, the interspace of which is 

pubescent with long white hair; from the 3rd to the last segments covered 



dorsally with narrow silvery white scales, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th. and 6th 

with some golden yellow scales; the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 8th segments on the 

subdorsal regions with each pair of long stalked, spaturated, bluish black 

scale clusters; each segment dorsally black, but as it covered with white 

scales, its ground colour being not conspicuous; subdorsal stripes paler; 

stigmatical line broad, black, interrupted at the junctures; some long white 

hair on the lateral protuberances above the legs. Thoracic legs black, each 

at the apex yellowish brown; abdominal legs brown, in the middle with a 

wedge-shaped black spot, which is lined 011 both sides with pale yellow; 

ventral spot-series fuscous (Matsumura, 1926a). 

Figure 3-7 Masson pine caterpillar, Dendrolimus punctatus (William M. Ciesla, 

Forest Health Management International, Bugwood.org). 



Pupae 

Male pupae are 19 to 26 mm long, while females are larger at 26 to 33 mm in 

length (CABI, 2011b). Pupation occurs in hairy cocoons, attached to needles 

and small branches (Billings, 1991). In other respects, the pupae are not well 

described in the literature and would not be diagnostic to identify this species. 

Figure 3-8 Cocoons containing pupae of Masson pine caterpillar found on the 

tips of pine branches (William M. Ciesla, Forest Health 

Management International, Bugwood.org). 




Adults 

The SSM is a relatively large moth with a wingspan measuring between 40 and 

60mm in males and 60 to 80mm in females. Females are larger than males with 

a body length averaging 39mm compared to 31mm in males (EPPO, 2005; 

Mikkola and Stahls, 2008). The hind wing has no markings and is normally 

light brown to reddish-brown. The front wings have 3 distinctive black 

transverse lines and a distinctive white spot within or along the antemedial line 

(from the thorax outward these lines are named antemedial, postmedial and 

subterminal) (Figure 3-9 on page 3-10). There exists extensive color variation 

in the adults, associated with geographic origin. The most common are the 

dark grayish form found mostly on the western part of Russia. The unicolorous 

brown forms are generally found in Eastern Siberian and the Russian Far East; 

the melanic forms are mainly found in the Buryatiya and the Altai region in 

Russia (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008). 



Diseases Image Library, Bugwood.org). 





Diseases Image Library, Bugwood.org). 

Eggs 

The eggs of SSM appear oblong and oval, measuring 2.2 X 1.9 mm, and having 

a light green coloration when first laid turning to a much darker coloration 

when mature (EPPO, 2005; Rozhkov, 1970). Eggs are laid in clusters on the 

surface of leaves or branches (Figure 3-10 on page 3-11). The chorion turns 

transparent two days before the larvae hatch (Liu and Shih, 1957). 

Figure 3-10 Siberian silk moth eggs in clusters (John H. Ghent, USDA Forest 

Service, Bugwood.org). 



Larvae 

Final instar larvae of the SSM are on average smaller (50-80mm) than SaSM 

larvae (60-82mm) (EPPO, 2005; Rozhkov, 1970). For both species, the larvae 

are hairy, with distinctive blue bands of hairs behind the 1st and 2nd thoracic 

segment (Figure 3-11 on page 3-12). A description of the SSM larvae 

according to Matsumura, 1926b follows: 

Larva dark brown; head reddish brown, opaque, at the occiput with two 

obsolete short fuscous stripes; clypeus in the middle with a fuscous spot; 

labrum shining, in the middle shallowly incised. Abdomen yellow, with 

numerous minute fuscous spots, shield plate of the first segment reddish 

brown, on its sides marmorated with red, 2 nd and 3 rd segment dorsally 

covered with silvery scales, 4 th to 12 th segments each dorsally with 2 

large silvery scaly spots and a diamond marking, the latter being larger at 

6 th to 8 th segment. Stigma yellowish, with black periphery. Thoracic legs 

except the bases black, abdominal legs yellowish, each on the outer side 

with a broad fuscous stripe, that of the spurial leg with 2 whitish stripes 

in it. Venter with a series of fuscous spots, which becoming smaller 

towards both ends (Matsumura, 1926b). 

Figure 3-11 Siberian silk moth larva (Yuri Baranchikov, Institute of Forest SB 

RASC, Bugwood.org). 



Pupae 

The pupae of SSM are dark brown to almost black, between 33 and 39mm in 

length and 10 to 11mm in width for females and between 28 and 34mm in 

males (EPPO, 2005). Wing sheaths reach to the 4 th abdominal segment of the 

pupae. The cocoon is gray or brownish, measuring 70mm in length and 12 and 

15mm in width, appearing compact in shape, with a rough surface (Figure 3-12 

on page 3-13). Blue thoracic hairs from the larva are sometime visible on the 

cocoon (Rozhkov, 1970). An estimated 90% of the last instar larvae pupate 

underneath branches on the tree crown, with a small percentage (8.3%) on the 

tree trunk and very rarely (1%) in other places (Liu and Shih, 1957; Rozhkov, 

1970). On average, the last instar larvae pupate in 3 days (Liu and Shih, 1957). 

Figure 3-12 Siberian silk moth cocoons on Siberian larch, Larix sibirica (John 

H. Ghent, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org). 




Adults 

The SaSM is on average larger than the SSM. The wingspan in males ranges 

between 70 and 75mm and from 80 to 110mm in females (De Lajonquiere, 

1973; Matsumura, 1926a). Within the species, the females’ bodies are larger, 

ranging from 28 to 45mm in length compared to between 24 to 37mm for 

males (Hou, 1987). Adult moths vary in coloration from reddish-yellow to 

reddish-brown. The characteristic markings of paired transverse lines on the 

forewings are always present, but can range from well-marked to almost 

nonexistent. A white spot on the center of the forewing is also variable in size 

and distinction, in similarity with the SSM. Several major color 

polymorphisms have been described by De Lajonquiere (1973). 

Eggs 

Egg of the SaSM are similar in appearances to other Dendrolimus moths, 

oblong or oval shaped, dark green in coloration when mature and laid on 

needles or small branches in clusters. 

Larvae 

Larvae of the SaSM are larger, on average, compared to the similarly 

appearing SSM. The vertex (top of the head) of the larvae has a longitudinal, 

yellowish-brown stripe (EPPO, 2005 paired on each side black stripe 

(Matsumura, 1926a). The body is greyish-brown, with marmorated, fuscous 

(reddish-brown) and yellow markings (Matsumura, 1926a and long hairs; the 

2 nd and 3 rd segments crossed with blue-black stripes and silvery scales, and 

each segment with a horseshoe-like or hexagonal darker marking (EPPO, 

2005). Prior to entering pupation, the larvae reach lengths of 60 to 82mm 

(EPPO, 2005; Rozhkov, 1970). 

Pupae 

The pupae are not distinguished from Dendrolimus sibiricus in the literature, 

appearance is the same. 



Similar Species 

In the United States the PTL can be easily confused with a number of 

Lasiocampidae and Lymantriidae moths, for example, the gypsy moth 

(Lymantria dispar), the Eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum, 

Fabricius), Western tent caterpillar (M. californicum (Packard)), Pacific tent 

caterpillar (M. constrictum (H. Edwards)), Southwestern tent caterpillar (M. 

incurvum (H. Edwards)), White satin moth (Leucoma salisis L.) and the 

Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata McDunnough). In addition to 

morphological differences, these moth species show clear ecological 

differences. None of them, with the exception of the Douglas fir Tussock moth, 

feeds on conifers and except for the Douglas-fir tussock moth, they all lack the 

white spot on the front wing that is characteristic of several species of 

Dendrolimus. None of the larvae of these species have the distinctive white 

band between two dark blue or black bands on the thorax and the V shaped 

marks on the dorsal part of the last abdominal sections (Figure 3-13 on page 

3-16). 

The Douglas-fir tussock moth (O. pseudotsugata McDunnough) can be 

distinguished because the adults are much smaller than the adult PTL (30 mm) 

and darker. Two white spots on the forewings can clearly confuse this moth 

with the PTL moth, however, the white spots are positioned at the distal edges 

and not the proximal or basal portion of the front wing (Figure 3-13 on page 

3-16). The spots in Dendrolimus moths are located closer to the moth body. 

The larva of the Douglas-fir tussock moth have two long, dark tufts resembling 



horns on the terminal dorsal side of the abdomen. Tufts are absent in the PTL 

larva (Figure 3-14 on page 3-17). 

Figure 3-13 Adults of the Douglas-fir Tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata 

(Sources: Ladd Livingston, Idaho Department of Lands, 

Bugwood.org(top) and Jerald E. Dewey, USDA Forest Service, 

Bugwood.org). 



Figure 3-14 Larva of the Douglas-fir Tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata 

(Source: Ladd Livingston, Idaho Department of Lands, 

Bugwood.org). 



Dendrolimus Species 

Male genitalia are the most important morphological character used to 

distinguish between the PTL and SSM. Detailed description was presented by 

Mikkola and Stahls (2008) including keys for the identification of Palearctic 

species of the genus Dendrolimus. For proper identification, the scales and the 

8 th ventral sclerite of the male abdomen are removed to expose the genitalia. In 

the Siberian silk moth, five appendages are clearly visible, one large birdbill 

process (dagger-like structure), two erected appendages termed valve and two 

additional appendages located to the side of the birdbill process named harpe 

extend to about two third the length of the process (Baranchikov et al., 2007; 

Mikkola and Stahls, 2008)(Figure 3-15 on page -18). In the pine-tree lappet, 

the harpe is considerably reduced to about one third the length of the birdbill 

process, or is lacking, giving the impression that only three appendages are 

visible (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008)(Figure 3-15 on page 3-18). 

Figure 3-15 Morphological structures of the genitalia of (a) Dendrolimus pini 

and (b) D. sibiricus (Mikkola and Ståhls 2008). 

Molecular Identification 

Molecular identification of Dendrolimus species, including PTL, has utilized 

the polymorphisms found at the sequences from the mitochondrial 

Cytochrome Oxidase I gene (COI) and the nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer 

gene region (ITS2) (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008) as well as microsatellite 

markers (Moore, 2010). Detailed protocols for the analysis and primer 

sequences used to amplify the COI and the ITS2 DNA fragments can be found 

in Mikkola and Stahl (2008). 



Molecular tools have been used to characterize populations, to identify new 

species and to clarify taxonomic ambiguities between species (D. superans and 

D. sibiricus, previously believed to be the same species, have been clearly 

separated as two distinctive species (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008)) and, more 

recently, to elucidate the origin of introductions of PTL in Scotland (Moore, 

2010). 




Chapter 

4 

Contents 

Introduction 

Survey Procedures 


Survey Types 4-2 

Preparation, Sanitization, and Clean-Up 4-2 

Detection Survey 4-3 

Delimiting Survey after Initial U.S. Detection 4-3 

Monitoring Survey 4-5 

Targeted Survey 4-5 

Sentinel Site Survey 4-5 

Visual Inspection of Plants 4-5 

Pheromone Traps and Chemical Lures 4-10 

Light Traps 4-13 

Preparing Samples 4-13| 

Shipping Samples 4-14 

Collecting and Handling Samples and Specimens 4-14 

Data Collection 4-14 

Cooperation with Other Surveys 4-15 

Use Chapter 4 Survey Procedures as a guide when conducting a survey for 

Dendrolimus moths, Dendrolimus pini (L), pine-tree lappet (PTL); 

Dendrolimus punctatus Walker, Masson Pine caterpillar (MPC); Dendrolimus 

sibiricus Tschetverikov, Siberian silk moth (SSM); and Dendrolimus superans 

(Butler), Sakhalin silk moth (SaSM). For some sections of this chapter, 

Dendrolimus species have been combined where relevant information or 

recommendations support similar survey methodology. 



Survey Types 

Plant regulatory officials will conduct detection, delimiting, and monitoring 

surveys for Dendrolimus moths. Conduct detection surveys to ascertain the 

presence or absence of moths in an area where they are not known to occur. 

After a new U.S. detection, or when detection in a new area is confirmed, 

conduct a delimiting survey to define the extent of an infestation. Conduct a 

monitoring survey to determine the success of control or mitigation activities 

conducted against a pest. 

Preparation, Sanitization, and Clean-Up 

This section provides information that will help personnel prepare to conduct a 

survey; procedures to follow during a survey; and instructions for proper 

cleaning and sanitizing of supplies and equipment after the survey is finished. 

Conduct surveys at the proper time. The schedule should be on a regular time 

interval that coincides with weather and temperature conditions most suitable 

for Dendrolimus. Surveys of adult moths should be conducted during the time 

of flight activity and oviposition; for active larva during periods of feeding and 

periods of movement between the forest canopy and ground litter; and for 

inactive, overwintering larvae during periods of diapauses. For appropriate 

timing, consider the stages present and climate conditions in Life Cycle on 

page 2-17. 

Once an appropriate survey type and timing has been determined, undertake 

proper precautions for the specific sites, including the following: 

1. Obtain permission from the landowner before entering a property. 

2. Determine if quarantines for other pests are in effect for the area being 

surveyed. Comply with any and all quarantine requirements. 

3. When visiting the field, nurseries, or landscape planting to conduct 

surveys or to take samples, all participants must take strict measures to 

prevent contamination by Dendrolimus moths or other pests between 

properties during inspections. 

Before entering a new property, make certain that clothing and footwear 

are clean and free of pests and soil to avoid moving soil-borne pests and 

arthropods from one property to another. Wash hands. Change clothes if 

clothing is covered with bugs. 

4. Gather together all supplies. 



5. Clearly mark the areas sampled whether it is an area on the ground where 

soil samples were taken or a tree. Mark the sampled location with 

flagging whenever possible, and draw a map of the immediate area and 

indicate reference points so that the areas can be found in the future if 

necessary. Do not rely totally on the flagging or other markers to relocate 

a site as they may be removed by other parties or degraded over 

time. Record the GPS coordinates for each infested host plant location so 

that the area or plant may be re-sampled if necessary. 

Survey task forces should consist of an experienced survey specialist or 

entomologist familiar with Dendrolimus moths and the symptoms of 

infestation. 

Detection Survey 

Use a detection survey to determine whether a pest is present in a defined area 

where it is not known to occur. The detection survey can be broad in scope, as 

when assessing the presence of the pest over large areas or it may be restricted 

to determining if a specific pest is present in a focused area (i.e., a greenhouse). 

Statistically, a detection survey is not a valid tool to claim that a pest does not 

exist in an area, even if results are negative. Negative results can be used to 

provide clues about the mode of dispersal, temporal occurrence, or industry 

practices. Negative results are also important when compared with results from 

sites that are topographically, spatially, or geographically similar. 

Procedure 

Use the following tools singly or in any combination to detect Dendrolimus 

moths: 

1. Focus on high risk areas where moths are more likely to be found. See 

Targeted Survey on page 4-5 for detailed information. 

2. Establish regular sites to inspect along your normal surveying route. See 

Sentinel Site Survey on page 4-5 for detailed information. 

3. Check plants for pest presence and damage. See Visual Inspection of 

Plants on page 4-5 for detailed information 

Delimiting Survey after Initial U.S. Detection 

Use a delimiting survey to determine the type and extent of control measures to 

apply. If Dendrolimus moths are detected in the United States, delimiting 

surveys will be needed to determine the distribution of the pest. In large areas, 

locating the source of an infestation could be difficult. 



Procedure 

Use the procedure in Detection Survey on page 4-3 as a guide. Once 

Dendrolimus moths are detected additional surveys should continue in nearby 

areas in order to determine the full extent of the infestation. Inspections should 

encompass continually larger areas, particularly where hosts are known to 

occur. Surveys should be most intensive around the known positive detections 

and any discovered through traceback and trace-forward investigations, if 

possible. 

Traceback and Trace-Forward Investigations 

Traceback and trace-forward investigations help surveyors to set priorities for 

delimiting survey activities after an initial detection. Use traceback 

investigations to determine the source of an infestation. Use trace-forward 

investigations to determine the potential dissemination of the pest, through 

means of natural and artificial spread (commercial or private distribution of 

infested plant material). Once a positive detection is confirmed, conduct 

investigations in order to determine the extent of the infestation or suspect 

areas in which to conduct further investigations. 

If this pest is found attacking nursery stock, surveyors should compile a list of 

facilities associated with infested nursery stock. The lists will be distributed by 

the State to the field offices, and are not to be shared with individuals outside 

USDA–APHIS–PPQ and State regulatory cooperators. Grower names and 

field locations on the lists are strictly confidential, and any distribution of lists 

beyond appropriate regulatory agency contacts is prohibited. 

Each State is only authorized to see locations within their State and sharing of 

confidential business information may be restricted between State and Federal 

entities. Check the privacy laws with the State Plant Health Director for the 

State. 

When notifying growers on the list, be sure to identify yourself as a USDA or 

State regulatory official conducting an investigation of facilities that may have 

received material infested with Dendrolimus. Speak to the growers or farm 

managers and obtain proper permission before entering private property. If any 

sales or distribution has occurred from an infested nursery during the previous 

six months, surveyors should check nursery records to obtain names and 

addresses for all sales or distribution sites. 

If Dendrolimus moths are detected in the United States, a Technical Working 

Group will be assembled to provide guidance on using monitoring surveys to 

measure the effectiveness of applied treatments on the pest population. 


Monitoring Survey 



Examples of permanent forecasting stations were reported to have been 

established in Vietnam for the purposes of monitoring the MPC. For an area of 

500 hectares, a line of four survey plots consisting of 100m 2 each were used to 

monitor and predict pending outbreaks (Billings, 1991). Infested sample trees 

were monitored for population density with 1m 2 excrement traps, over a 10d 

period (Billings, 1991). Threshold numbers vary with tree species and insect 

life-stages. 

Targeted Survey 

Conduct targeted surveys in areas where introduction of Dendrolimus moths 

may be considered more likely. 

Sentinel Site Survey 

Sentinel sites are locations that are regularly inspected along the surveyors’ 

normal route. The sites are selected based on their ease of access and the large 

number of coniferous trees known as primary or potentially secondary hosts. 

Once the sentinel site is established the surveyor should re-inspect the site on a 

regular basis (monthly or bi-monthly) as permitted by the person’s regular 

survey schedule. Any larva, adult, pupa or egg should be processed as 

described. GIS can be used to map the sentinel site locations to help visualize 

an even coverage, particularly in high risk areas 

Visual Inspection of Plants 

This section contains instructions for inspecting trees, the forest undercover 

and soil for infestation by the Dendrolimus moths. 

Low level infestations are difficult to detect. Symptoms characteristic of moth 

damage have to be surveyed from the ground with the naked eye and/or 

binoculars. It may be necessary to remove branches from the upper canopy to 

assess infestation or collect samples (Figure 4-1 on page 4-6). Symptoms of 

caterpillar presence include: 

Defoliation or needle discoloration in the tree top. 



Caterpillar frass droppings on the forest floor below the tree canopy. This 

can be collected in nylon nets (300 µm) set up around the perimeter of a 

tree (le-Mellec and Michalzik, 2008). 

Fragments of pine tree needles that fall to the forest ground as a result of 

feeding. 

Figure 4-1 Trimming branches from Khasia pine, Pinus kesiya, to examine 

Masson Pine Caterpillar infestation levels (William M. Ciesla, 

Forest Health Management International, Bugwood.org). 



What To Look For 

Refer to the specific seasons below for details on what to monitor and look for 

during relevant phases of the Dendrolimus moth life cycle. Because local 

climate conditions may alter the calendar months corresponding to the stages 

of the life cycle of Dendrolimus moths, the following seasonally specific 

recommendations will provide guidance on appropriate search techniques. 

Early spring and late fall: This is the most effective time of the year to look for 

migrating larva. At the end of the overwintering period and early in the spring, 

the larva starts moving up to the tree canopy. Larva ready to overwinter will 

start moving down from the tree canopy to the forest undercover or soil late in 

the fall before the winter starts. Migrating larvae can be monitored by putting 

glue bands around trees during this time period (Figure 4-2 on page 4-8 to 

Figure 4-3 on page 4-9). Normally, these larvae are of the IV to VI instars and 

because of their size, they should be relatively easy to see. 

Summer: Preferred time to monitor adult populations using pheromone or light 

traps. Adult moths are more active at night and are difficult to spot during the 

day because they camouflage with the bark of pine trees and remain inactive. 

During the day, look for adult moths on the bark of trees and the presence of 

egg clusters on branches and needles. The larvae are actively feeding during 

this period particularly during dusk and dawn and therefore, monitoring for 

defoliation and larvae presence is recommended. 

Late spring and early summer: Late instar larvae pupate at the end of the 

spring. Cocoons are visible during this time and can be spotted with binoculars 

or with the naked eye on tip of branches, logs or on the tree canopy. Look for 

presence of cocoons. 

Winter: Larvae overwinter in the leaf litter during the winter. Look for 

overwintering larvae by sampling between the forest litter and soil and in a 2 m 

perimeter around the trees. As much as 85% of larvae have been found 



overwintering inside one-third radius of the tree canopy projection on the 

ground (Sliwa, 1992) (Figure 4-4 on page 4-9 to Figure 4-5 on page 4-10). 

Figure 4-2 Surveying for migrating caterpillars using glue bands. Bands with 

glue are placed at eye level (1.5 to 2 m) around the tree and used 

to trap migrating caterpillars (between March and April and 

between November and December) and, to a lesser extent, adult 

moths flying. © Crown Copyright 2010. Photo courtesy of Forest 

Research, Scotland, UK/ Roger Moore. 



Figure 4-3 Forest stand with glue bands attached to trees for surveying 

migrating caterpillars. © Crown Copyright 2010. Photo courtesy 

of Forest Research, Scotland, UK/ Roger Moore. 

Figure 4-4 Soil sampling to survey overwintering larva. Sampling is done by 

collecting soil and forest litter 1-2 m from the tree and visually 

searching for overwintering larva. © Crown Copyright 2010. 

Photo courtesy of Forest Research, Scotland UK / Roger Moore. 



Figure 4-5 Overwintering larva in forest litter. Larva can be found individually or 

in groups (Hannes Lemme, Bugwood.org). 

Pheromone Traps and Chemical Lures 

Dendrolimus pini and Dendrolimus sibiricus 

Pheromone traps with chemical lures are the preferred method to monitor adult 

populations. Population surveys for adult males should be done during the 

season of flight activity, normally between mid-summer months between June 

and August using pheromone traps or light traps. Pheromone traps and 

chemical lures to monitor adult male populations of Dendrolimus moths are 

commercially available. Delta, tetra, bucket, funnel and Variotrap traps which 

were designed to monitor lepidopteran populations are the most commonly 

used and are fitted with a lure containing the synthetic pheromone blend 

produced by the female moth. The pheromone components included in the lure 

are (Z,E)-5,7-Dodecadienal (also Z5,E7-12:Ald) and (Z,E)-5,7-Dodecadien-1ol 

(also Z5,E7-12:OH), typically in a 1:1 blend providing the highest capture 

rates (Kovalev et al., 1993, Alekseev et al., 2000, Klun et al., 2000; Kong et al., 

2001, Khrimian et al., 2002, Kong et al., 2007, Baranchikov et al., 2007, 

Ostrauskas and Ivinskis, 2010). The chemical lures are placed on a rubber 

septum and hung inside the trap. A killing agent should be placed in the bottom 

of any traps to limit escape of insects, DDVP is recommended (Jackson, 

2011b). 




Trapping studies using pheromones have been effective for monitoring 

populations of SaSM (Zhang et al., 2003). The components of pheromone lures 

have included (Z, E)-5,7-Dodecadien-1-ol (Z5,E7-12:OH) as well as (Z,E)- 

5,7-Dodecadienyl acetate (also Z5,E7-12:Ac), and (Z,E)-5,7-Dodecadienyl 

propionate (also Z5,Z7-12-propionate) for trapping studies (Liénard et al., 

2010; Zhang et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 1993). Methods would be similar to PTL 

and SSM, however updated trap types and methodology can be found by 

consulting Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) recommendations 

(Jackson, 2011a). 


Attractants for SaSM are not available at the time of writing of this document. 

Consult experts at the National Agricultural Pest Information System (NAPIS) 

or Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) for updated information on 

pheromone traps or chemical lures. 



Procedure 

Traps are hung from the branches of trees with a wire placing them at eye level 

(Fig. 4-6), between 1.5 and 2.0 m height and separated to a minimum of 100m 

between traps. Because the Dendrolimus moths are relatively large, 

consideration should be taken in using a trap size suitable for this species 

normally, including those commercially available for large lepidopterans. 

Modifications to milk carton traps (Fig. 4-7) have been approved for CAPS 

surveys (Jackson, 2011b). Altenkirch (1996) successfully used Variotraps with 

pheromone lures to monitor PTL populations. 

Figure 4-6 An example of placement for monitoring of Dendrolimus moths 


Bugwood.org). 


Light Traps 


Figure 4-7 A milk carton trap for gypsy moth can be modified for use in trapping 

Dendrolimus moths (Daniel Herms, The Ohio State University, 

Bugwood.org). 

Light traps are commercially available and are the most effective method to 

monitor adult populations but are more expensive and time-consuming to 

monitor. Light traps were instrumental in detecting the first pine-tree lappets in 

the Southern coast of England and the English Channel islands in 2005 

(Anonymous, 2009) and have been effectively used by amateur entomologists 

to report new sightings of adult pine-tree lappet in the United Kingdom (Gould 

et al., 2009). Light traps are more effective when used during the late afternoon 

hours (right after sunset) until midnight when adult moths are more actively 

flying. Males fly earlier than mated females. Light traps are not specific to 

Dendrolimus moths and may attract many different Lepidoptera, therefore, 

specimens should be preserved and identified properly by a qualified 

taxonomist. 

Preparing Samples 

Preserve unknown Lepidoptera in 70-95% percent alcohol and send for 

identification and preservation. 



Shipping Samples 

Call the laboratory prior to shipping the samples via overnight delivery service. 

Instructions and contact information are located in How to Submit Insect 

Specimens on page F-1 and Taxonomic Support for Surveys on page G-1. 

Collecting and Handling Samples and Specimens 

Adults—Moths captured alive adults should be transferred to a killing jar with 

ethyl acetate (killing agent). Adults will be quickly stunned but will be killed 

slowly. The body will remain limp (unless they are left in the killing jar 

overnight) in case spreading or removal of genitalia is needed (USDA, 1986). 

Alternatively, adults can be collected and placed in 95 percent alcohol. 

Collecting adults and storing them in dry ice will keep them in good shape in 

case further taxonomic studies are planned. 

Larvae and Pupae—For museum quality specimens, larvae and pupae 

extracted from plant material should be placed in a vial with ethanol at 70 to 80 

percent and 5 percent glacial acetic acid. This combination of chemicals 

(referred to as acetic alcohol) aids in ethanol penetration and keeps specimen 

tissues relaxed (USDA, 1986). For surveys, glacial acetic acid is not necessary 

and 70 to 80 percent ethanol alone is all that is needed. 

Immature Stages in Plant Material—Place suspect material in a plastic bag and 

store in a cooler, but not frozen. A photograph should be taken in the field to 

document the plant materials original state. 

Data Collection 

Recording negative results in surveys is just as important as positive detections 

since it helps define an area of infestation. A system of data collection should 

include an efficient tracking system for suspect samples such that their status is 

known at various stages and laboratories in the confirmation process. If 

available, use pre-programmed hand-held units with GPS capability. 

Data collected during surveys should include the following: 

Date of survey 

Collector’s name and affiliation 

Full name of business, institution, or agency 

Full mailing address including country 



Type of property (commercial nursery, hotel, natural field, residence) 

GPS coordinates of the host plant and property 

Host species and cultivar 

General conditions or any other relevant information 

Positive or negative results from specimen collection 

Whenever possible, record wind direction 

Time of capture (day or night) 

Cooperation with Other Surveys 

Other surveyors regularly sent to the field should be trained to recognize 

infestations of Dendrolimus moths. 




Chapter 

5 

Contents 

Introduction 

Regulatory Procedures 


Instructions to Officials 5-1 

Regulatory Actions and Authorities 5-2 

Tribal Governments 5-3 

Overview of Regulatory Program After Detection 5-3 

Record-Keeping 5-4 

Issuing an Emergency Action Notification 5-4 

Regulated Area Requirements Under Regulatory Control 5-4 

Establishing a Federal Regulatory Area or Action 5-5 

Regulatory Records 5-5 

Use of Chemicals 5-5 

Use Chapter 5 Regulatory Procedures as a guide to the procedures that must be 

followed by regulatory personnel when conducting pest survey and control 

programs against the Dendrolimus moths: 





Instructions to Officials 

Agricultural officials must follow instructions for regulatory treatments or 

other procedures when authorizing the movement of regulated articles. 

Understanding the instructions and procedures is essential when explaining 

procedures to people interested in moving articles affected by the quarantine 

and regulations. Only authorized treatments can be used in line with labeling 

restrictions. During all field visits, ensure that proper sanitation procedures are 

followed as outlined in Preparation, Sanitization, and Clean-Up on page 4-2. 



Regulatory Actions and Authorities 

After an initial suspect positive detection, an Emergency Action Notification 

may be issued to hold articles or facilities, pending positive identification by a 

USDA–APHIS–PPQ-recognized authority and/or further instruction from the 

PPQ Deputy Administrator. If necessary, the Deputy Administrator will issue a 

letter directing PPQ field offices to initiate specific emergency action under the 

Plant Protection Act until emergency regulations can be published in the 

Federal Register. 

The Plant Protection Act of 2000 (Statute 7 USC 7701-7758) provides the 

authority for emergency quarantine action. This provision is for interstate 

regulatory action only; intrastate regulatory action is provided under State 

authority. 

State departments of agriculture normally work in conjunction with Federal 

actions by issuing their own parallel hold orders and quarantines for intrastate 

movement. However, if the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture determines that an 

extraordinary emergency exists and that the States measures are inadequate, 

USDA can take intrastate regulatory action provided that the governor of the 

State has been consulted and a notice has been published in the Federal 

Register. If intrastate action cannot or will not be taken by a State, PPQ may 

find it necessary to quarantine an entire State. 

PPQ works in conjunction with State departments of agriculture to conduct 

surveys, enforce regulations, and take control actions. PPQ employees must 

have permission of the property owner before entering private property. Under 

certain situations during a declared extraordinary emergency or if a warrant is 

obtained, PPQ can enter private property without owner permission. PPQ 

prefers to work with the State to facilitate access when permission is denied, 

however each State government has varying authorities regarding entering 

private property. 

A General Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) exists between PPQ and 

each State that specifies various areas where PPQ and the State department of 

agriculture cooperate. For clarification, check with your State Plant Health 

Director (SPHD) or State Plant Regulatory Official (SPRO) in the affected 

State. Refer to Resources on page A-1 for information on identifying SPHD’s 

and SPRO’s. 



Tribal Governments 

USDA–APHIS–PPQ also works with federally-recognized Indian Tribes to 

conduct surveys, enforce regulations and take control actions. Each Tribe 

stands as a separate governmental entity (sovereign nation) with powers and 

authorities similar to State governments. Permission is required to enter and 

access Tribal lands. 

Executive Order 13175, Consultation and Coordination with Indian and Tribal 

Governments, states that agencies must consult with Indian Tribal 

governments about actions that may have substantial direct effects on Tribes. 

Whether an action is substantial and direct is determined by the Tribes. Effects 

are not limited to Tribal land boundaries (reservations) and may include effects 

on off-reservation land or resources which Tribes customarily use or even 

effects on historic or sacred sites in States where Tribes no longer exist. 

Consultation is a specialized form of communication and coordination 

between the Federal and Tribal governments. Consultation must be conducted 

early in the development of a regulatory action to ensure that Tribes have 

opportunity to identify resources which may be affected by the action and to 

recommend the best ways to take actions on Tribal lands or affecting Tribal 

resources. Communication with Tribal leadership follows special 

communication protocols. For more information, contact PPQ’s Tribal Liaison. 

Refer to Table A-1 on page A-2 for information on identifying PPQ’s Tribal 

Liaison. 

To determine if there are federally-recognized Tribes in a State, contact the 

State Plant Health Director (SPHD). To determine if there are sacred or historic 

sites in an area, contact the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO). For 

clarification, check with your SPHD or State Plant Regulatory Official (SPRO) 

in the affected State. Refer to Resources on page A-1 for contact information. 

Overview of Regulatory Program After Detection 

Once an initial U.S. detection is confirmed, holds will be placed on the 

property by the issuance of an Emergency Action Notification. Immediately 

put a hold on the property to prevent the removal of any host plants of the pest. 

Traceback and trace-forward investigations from the property will determine 

the need for subsequent holds for testing and/or further regulatory actions. 

Further delimiting surveys and testing will identify positive properties 

requiring holds and regulatory measures. 



Record-Keeping 

Record-keeping and documentation are important for any holds and 

subsequent actions taken. Rely on receipts, shipping records and information 

provided by the owners, researchers or manager for information on destination 

of shipped plant material, movement of plant material within the facility, and 

any management (cultural or sanitation) practices employed. 

Keep a detailed account of the numbers and types of plants held, destroyed, 

and/or requiring treatments in control actions. Consult a master list of 

properties, distributed with the lists of suspect nurseries based on traceback 

and trace-forward investigations, or nurseries within a quarantine area. Draw 

maps of the facility layout to located suspect plants, and/or other potentially 

infected areas. When appropriate, take photographs of the symptoms, property 

layout, and document plant propagation methods, labeling, and any other 

information that may be useful for further investigations and analysis. 

Keep all written records filed with the Emergency Action Notification copies, 

including copies of sample submission forms, documentation of control 

activities, and related State issued documents if available. 

Issuing an Emergency Action Notification 

Issue an Emergency Action Notification to hold all host plant material at 

facilities that have the suspected plant material directly or indirectly connected 

to positive confirmations. Once an investigation determines the plant material 

is not infested, or testing determines there is no risk, the material may be 

released and the release documented on the EAN. 

Regulated Area Requirements Under Regulatory Control 

Depending upon decisions made by Federal and State regulatory officials in 

consultation with a Technical Working Group, quarantine areas may have 

certain other requirements for commercial or research fields in that area, such 

as plant removal and destruction, cultural control measures, or plant waste 

material disposal. 

Any regulatory treatments used to control this pest or herbicides used to treat 

plants will be labeled for that use or exemptions will be in place to allow the 

use of other materials. 



Establishing a Federal Regulatory Area or Action 

Regulatory actions undertaken using Emergency Action Notifications continue 

to be in effect until the prescribed action is carried out and documented by 

regulatory officials. These may be short-term destruction or disinfestation 

orders or longer term requirements for growers that include prohibiting the 

planting of host crops for a period of time. Over the long term, producers, 

shippers, and processors may be placed under compliance agreements and 

permits issued to move regulated articles out of a quarantine area or property 

under an EAN. 

Results analyzed from investigations, testing, and risk assessment will 

determine the area to be designated for a Federal and parallel State regulatory 

action. Risk factors will take into account positive testing, positive associated, 

and potentially infested exposed plants. Boundaries drawn may include a 

buffer area determined based on risk factors and epidemiology. 

Regulatory Records 

Maintain standardized regulatory records and databases in sufficient detail to 

carry out an effective, efficient, and responsible regulatory program. 

Use of Chemicals 

The PPQ Treatment Manual and the guidelines identify the authorized 

chemicals, and describe the methods and rates of application, and any special 

instructions. For further information refer to Control Procedures on page 6-1. 

Agreement by PPQ is necessary before using any chemical or procedure for 

regulatory purposes. No chemical can be recommended that is not specifically 

labeled for this pest. 




Chapter 

6 

Contents 

Introduction 

Control Procedures 


Overview of Emergency Programs 6-2 

Treatment Options 6-2 

Eradication 6-2 

Cultural Control 6-3 

Barriers 6-4 

Suppression 6-4 

Chemical Control 6-5 

Biological Control 6-8 

Predators 6-12 

Microorganisms 6-12 

Integrated Pest Management 6-15 

Summary 6-15 

Environmental Documentation and Monitoring 6-16 

Use Chapter 6: Control Procedures as a guide to controlling the Dendrolimus 

moths: 





Consider the treatment options described within this chapter when taking 

action to eradicate, contain, or suppress Dendrolimus moths. 

A successful integrated pest management system (IPM) will consider 

chemical, biological and cultural techniques to reduce pest populations. 



Overview of Emergency Programs 

Plant Protection and Quarantine develops and makes control measures 

available to involved States. United States Environmental Protection Agencyapproved 

treatments will be recommended when available. If the selected 

treatments are not labeled for use against the pest or in a particular 

environment, PPQ’s FIFRA Coordinator is available to explore the 

appropriateness in developing an Emergency Exemption under Section 18, or a 

State Special Local Need under section 24(c) of FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, 

Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act), as amended. 

The PPQ FIFRA Coordinator is also available upon request to work with EPA 

to rush the approval of a product that may not be registered in the United 

States, or to get labeling for a new use. The PPQ FIFRA Coordinator is 

available for guidance pertaining to pesticide use and registration. Refer to 

Resources on page A-1 for information on contacting the Coordinator. 

Treatment Options 

Insecticides have been used to control the population levels of Dendrolimus 

moths during outbreaks. However, biological control and biopesticides have 

also been used successfully. In natural conditions, biological control plays an 

important role in controlling outbreaks and, the diversity of biological control 

agents is an important component of an integrated pest management program. 

It is the National Program Manager’s responsibility to verify that treatments 

are appropriate and legal for use. Upon detection and when a chemical 

treatment is selected, the National Program Manager should consult with 

PPQ's FIFRA Coordinator to ensure that the chemical is approved by EPA for 

use in the United States prior to application. 

Eradication 

Treatments can include any combination of the following options: 

Sanitation 

Application of insecticides 

Other cultural control methods 

Eradication is the first action to consider with the introduction of a new pest. 

Eradication may be feasible under some conditions, but if it fails then other 

strategies will be considered. Eradication may be feasible when the following 

conditions exist: 


Cultural Control 

Pest population is confined to a small area 

Detection occurs soon after the introduction 

Pest population density is low 


If an infestation of Dendrolimus moths is discovered that meets the above 

named conditions, eradication will be attempted. Measures will include but 

may not be limited to removal and destruction of all infested plant material, 

removal of host material within 2 miles (3.2 km) of the find, and treatment of 

the soil and surrounding vegetation with an approved pesticide after removal 

of the infested plants. 

Sanitation 

When visiting fields to conduct surveys or take samples, everyone (including 

regulatory officials) must take strict measures to prevent contamination by 

Dendrolimus moths between properties during inspections. Before entering a 

new property make certain that footwear and clothing are clean and free of soil 

and bugs to avoid moving moths from one property to another. 

Carry out sanitation in forests, nurseries, gardens, landscapes, fields, and other 

establishments where hosts are present within the core and buffer areas. 

Depending on the circumstances and equipment available, use the following 

techniques: 

Clean cultivation 

Burning of host plants 

Field sanitation 

Rely on a combination of cultural and biological control methods in 

nonemergency situations. Cultural control may be subject to obtaining 

environmental documentation under the National Environmental Policy Act 

(NEPA) and the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Check with the program 

manager to make sure such documentation is in order. 



Barriers 

Suppression 

10cm wide vinyl tape may be wrapped around trees at the base to impede the 

movement of caterpillars up the tree at the end of winter. This simple 

procedure results in a reduction of between 65 to 79% of the larvae of 

Dendrolimus superans and a corresponding reduction in damage to the tree 

(Higashiura, 1991). A variation of the above is to add a 1¼ cm strip of 

waterproof material just below the tape and run it sideways up the tape to just 

about the middle of the tape at a point halfway across the trunk and hang a net 

there to catch caterpillars crawling up the strip and falling into the net. This 

will provide a population estimation of the pest population (Fukuyama, 1978). 

Both the above two procedures will expose caterpillars to predators and 

parasites. 

Strings treated with 2.5% deltamethrin or 20% pyrethroids with diesel oil and 

machine oil (3:80:20) are wrapped around trees at the base in April or May 

when Dendrolimus superans caterpillars are gathered around the bottom of the 

trunks and ready to climb. This is also when these larvae are very weak after 

the winter. This technique produces a mortality rate of 100%. Sunshine or rain 

does not affect the results (Guo et al., 1984). 

Note: These techniques are labor intensive and should be used only if the 

infected area is very limited in extent and/or there is a real chance of 

eliminating the invasive population by interrupting the life cycle in this 

manner. 

Pest management includes steps taken to either contain or suppress a pest 

population. Damage attributed to Dendrolimus moths is most effectively 

managed with the controls described below. 


Chemical Control 


Insecticides 

Pesticides play an important role in controlling population outbreaks of 

Dendrolimus in natural and commercial forest stands. Considerations should 

be taken into account when using pesticides because of their effect on nontarget 

organisms including natural populations of parasitoids and predators. 

When using pesticides, it is also important to consider the non-target effect of 

soil-inhabiting biological control agents that play an important role in 

controlling larva that hibernate (fungi and bacteria) and those predators that 

feed on the larva that fall from the tree canopy due to wind or other natural 

causes (Jakel and Roth, 1998). Pesticides used to control Dendrolimus moths 

are primarily pyrethroids, insect growth regulators or biopesticides and are 

applied as Ultra Low Volume (ULV) formulations to increase their coverage 

and efficacy (Sierpinska, 1998; Sierpinska and Sierpinski, 1995). Sprays are 

more effective when treatment occurs in the spring and fall to coincide with 

active feeding by the larva. Spring sprays are preferable to allow more time for 

biological control agents to have an effect on moth populations and to conduct 

population monitoring. 


Ultra low volume aerial sprays of pine stands in forests in Poland using zeta 

cypermethrin resulted in a 80% mortality of PTL two days after spraying and 

99% mortality seven days after spraying (Sierpinska, 1998). Sierpinska, 1998) 

also tested commercial preparations of biopesticides formulated from selected 

strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and found mortality rates comparable (97%) to 

those using pyrethroid formulations; however, this mortality rate was observed 

23 days after spraying. 

Table 6-1 Insecticides Available For Use to control Dendrolimus moths in the 

United States 1 

Pesticide Common 

Name 

Type/Strain 

Registered for 

use in United 

States 

Reference 

Pyrethroids 

Deltamethrin Contact Yes Sierpinska, 1998; 

Woreta and 

Malinowski, 1998; 

(Alekseev and 

Chankina, 1998); 

Guo et al., 1984 



Table 6-1 Insecticides Available For Use to control Dendrolimus moths in the 

United States 1 

Pesticide Common 

Name 

Type/Strain 

Registered for 

use in United 

States 

Reference 

Lambda-cyhalothrin Contact Yes Moeller and Engelmann, 

2008; Sierpinska, 

1998 Woreta 

and Malinowski, 

1998 

Esfenvalerate Contact Yes Sierpinska, 1998; 

Guo et al., 1984 

Etofenprox Contact Yes Sierpinska, 1998 

Zeta-cypermethrin 

Insect Growth Regulators 

Contact Yes Sierpinska, 1998 

Woreta and 

Malinowski, 1998 

Diflubenzuron 

Biopesticides 

Chitin-inhibiting Yes Sierpinska, 1998 

Miao et al., 1989; 

Moeller and Engelmann, 

2008;Liang 

et al., 1999 

Bacillus thuringiensis Kurstaki HD-1 Yes Sierpinska, 1998 

2002; Talalaev, 

1959, 1962 

Bacillus thuringiensis 

Other groups 

EG 2348 Yes Moeller and Engelmann, 

2008; Sierpinska, 

1998 

Azadirachtin Yes Dobrowolski, 2002; 

Malinowski et al., 

1998 

1 All treatments listed in the guidelines should only be used as a reference to assist in the regulatory 

decision making process. It is the National Program Manager’s responsibility to verify 

that treatments are appropriate and legal for use. Upon detection and when a chemical treatment 

is selected, the National Program Manager should consult with PPQ's FIFRA Coordinator 

to ensure that the chemical is approved by EPA for use in the United States prior to 

application. 

Pyrethroids 

Synthetic pyrethroids are available for control, including Lambda-cyhalothrin 

(Moeller and Engelmann, 2008; Sierpinska, 1998; Woreta and Malinowski, 

1998), esfenvalerate, etofenprox, deltamethrin, and zeta-cypermethrin 

(Reviewed in Sierpinska, 1998). 



Insect Growth Regulators 

Aerial sprays of diflubenzuron during an outbreak resulted in a 90% mortality 

rate in a 790 ha section of the Piska Primaeval Forest, while aerial sprays of 

teflubenzuron over 2101 ha in the Bydgoska Primaeval Forest in Poland 

resulted in 90-96% mortality (Adomas, 1997, 2003). Diflubenzuron is a 

molting inhibitor which has been shown to have reliable efficiency against 

Dendrolimus superans (Miao et al., 1989). If a colloidal suspension is used, it 

is even more efficient, as the solution holds together against rain and is 

effective for about 20-30 days. This suspension was shown to be quite 

effective against D. spectabilis and D. tabulaeformis (Miao and Zhang, 1986). 

Biopesticides 

Bacillus thuringiensis 

Bacillus thuringiensis is a Lepidoptera-specific microbial that, when ingested, 

disrupts the midgut membranes. Certain strains have shown some efficacy 

against Dendrolimus spp., notably Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk) 

has shown mortality rates comparable (97%) to using pyrethroid formulations. 

This mortality rate was observed, however, 23 days after spraying (Sierpinska, 

1998). Some Bt strains are specific for SSM, such as strain L-93 (Zhao et al., 

1998a; Zhao et al., 1998b) or strain BtMP-342 (Shukui et al., 1996). 

Apply as a full-coverage spray when larvae are present. Repeat at 10 to 14 day 

intervals while larvae are active. Effectiveness of aerial delivery is enhanced if 

done by helicopter, since the downdraft turns the needle surfaces for better 

exposure. 

Azadirachtin 

Azadirachtin is the key insecticidal ingredient found in neem tree (Azadirachta 

indica) oil. It is structurally similar to ecdysones, insect hormones that control 

metamorphosis. After ingestion, insects stop feeding; however, death may not 

occur for several days. Azadirachtin has been shown to be effective on 

Dendrolimus larvae and pupae (Malinowski et al., 1998; Dobrowolski, 2002). 

Timing of applications 

Apply an insecticide immediately upon discovery of a Dendrolimus moth 

detection. Apply insecticides in the late afternoon, evening or at night to 

coincide with the nocturnal habits of adults. 

Consider delaying applications if weather reports indicate greater than 50% 

chance of precipitation within 48 hours after application. If rain reduces the 

effectiveness of an application, retreat the area immediately, or as soon as the 

label permits. 



After an estimated two generations of negative trapping and survey, 

applications may be discontinued and monitoring should resume to determine 

the effectiveness of eradication. 

Biological Control 

In natural conditions, biological control plays an important role in regulating 

the population densities of all Dendrolimus moths and in some cases, in 

suppressing outbreaks. Biological control is an important component of an 

integrated pest management approach in forest ecosystems. Natural biological 

control agents include parasitoid and predatory arthropods, entomopathogens 

like Bauveria bassiana, and nuclear and cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses, 

among others. For example, mortality of hibernating PTL larva in two-year life 

cycle populations was as high as 94% because of high parasitism by the 

tachinid fly Masicera cuculliae Robineau-Desvoidy and the fungus B. 

bassiana (Malyshev, 1987). Application of microorganisms, particularly insect 

viruses has provided some of the most effecting methods for integrated pest 

management of Dendrolimus moths. 

To a lesser extent, vertebrates like birds, bats and chipmunks are also important 

for example, during the 1956 outbreak of SSM in Siberia a large number of 

pupae were consumed by jackdaws (Boldaruev, 1959). 

Egg Parasitoids 


In Germany during the 1934 and 1935 outbreak the percentage of PTL pupa 

parasitized increased from 20% to 58% in the spring and resulted in a 

significant population reduction in the fall (Varley, 1949). In the state of 

Brandenburg, Germany, mortality rate of PTL was as high as 100% due to egg 

parasitism by the parasitic wasp Telenomus laeviusculus (Ratzeburg)(Moeller 

and Engelmann, 2008). In Russia, hymenopteran and dipteran parasitoids have 

played an important role in controlling PTL. Telenomus tetratomus Keiffer was 

found parasitizing 54% of eggs with as many as 17 maggots / egg and 

Trichogramma embryophagum (Hartig) parasitism was 65% (Malyshev, 1996). 




Trichogramma dendrolimi Matsumura is a major egg parasitoid of D. 

punctatus (Lung, 1957). The large scale propagation and release of T. 

dendrolimi has been responsible for 80 to 85% parasitism levels and resulted in 

effective suppression of Dendrolimus populations in China (Wu et al., 1988). 

Anastatus spp. are regarded as another good biological agent for controlling 

the MPC (Chen and Lee, 1985). Anastatus albitarsis Ashmead released at 

45,000 wasps/ha has led to levels as high as 68% parasitism of the first 

generation of MPC (Tong and Ni, 1989). 

By additional supplementation with eggs from an alternative host, the saturniid 

moth Antheraea pernyi (Guérin-Méneville), researchers increased T. 

dendrolimi populations and the parasitism rates on MPC (Tong et al., 1988). 

When silkworm eggs were supplemented 3 times per month throughout the 

year, the population density of the parasitoid was 1.4 times higher than when 

egg supplements were made twice monthly before the appearance of MPC 

eggs. Different methods of supplementing host eggs are suggested for forests 

of different ecological characteristics. More frequent supplements of host eggs 

are needed for forests with less vegetation cover (see Tong et al., 1988). 


Egg parasitoids found attacking SSM include Telenomus gracilis Mayr, T. 

tetratomus, Trichogramma dendrolimi and Ooencyrtus pinicolus (Matsumura). 

Reported egg parasitism of SSM under natural conditions has been as high as 

97% (EPPO, 2005; Nikiforov, 1970; Yu, 1982). 


In China, the use of Trichogramma dendrolimi to control SSM has been 

effective with reported egg parasitism levels as high as 97%, and with levels of 

parasitism as high as 76% with the release of only 550 wasps per ha (Yu, 

1982). Enu (1982), discussed Trichogramma releases against D. superans and 

found timing Trichogramma releases to be extremely important in success. The 

emergence period of the wasps must coincide with the oviposition period of the 

moths. The quality of the parasites released and the times of release are 

decided on the basis of host population levels. The two species under 

consideration are T. semblidis (Aurivillius) and T. dendrolimi. The latter is 

commercially produced in Germany as given in Appendix B: Resources. There 

is a third Trichogramma parasite (Kolomiec, 1962), but not much is known 

about its biology. Unfortunately, other parasites have not been developed for 

mass production and release and it may be necessary to test some of the larval 

and pupal parasites listed above in order to determine what impact they could 

have on pest population suppression. 



Larval Parasitoids 

The impact of parasitoids on the larval stage differs with the level of outbreak 

and location of insect species determining the effectiveness of these natural 

regulators upon pest population density. A listing of the more important 

Dendrolimus parasites is provided in Appendix A. 


Numerous parasitic insects have been noted to attack PTL larvae including 

Agria (Pseudosarcophaga) affinis (Fallen), Nemorilla floralis (Fallen) and 

Sturmia inconspicua (Meigen), Tricolyga segregata Rondani, Sarcophaga dux 

(Thompson), Tachina (Exorista) larvarum (L.), and a braconid of the genus 

Apanteles (Melis, 1940). 

For example, A. affinis reduced numbers of PTL larvae and pupae by 10% to 

40% in Poland (Sitowski 1928). In 1947-48 and 1956-57, because of high 

parasitism of pine moth larvae by Apanteles sp. and Meteorus sp., the Polish 

forest administration decided not to initiate control treatments (Sliwa 1992). In 

stands where sticky bands were used as a method of PTL control, Muscina 

pabulorum Fallen parasitized 40-to 60% of pine moth larvae in the first year 

and Stomoxys calcitrans L. parasitized up to 30% of the larvae (Sierpinska, 

1998). 


Ichneumonid wasps are important parasitoids of the larvae and pupae of 

Masson pine caterpillar. A study from China conducted from 1983 to 1984 

found parasitism by Casinaria nigripes (Gravenhorst) to be an important factor 

in mortality of the MPC. The ichneumonid had five generations a year and 

overwintered in the larval stage in the third to fourth larval instar of the host 

(Qian, 1987). C. nigripes parasitism was reported to range from 67% 

parasitism in Hunan province (Ma et al.,1989) to 23% to the third generation of 

D. punctatus in Jiangsu province (Qian, 1987; CABI, 2011b). 

The uji fly, Blepharipa zebina Walker, is commonly found in MPC larvae and 

pupae (CABI, 2011b). Wong and Zhou (1995) reported parasitic rates by 

Carcelia matsukarehae Shima, B. zebina and Sarcophaga beesoni Senior- 

White on the second generation of MPC as 14, 16, and 34%, respectively, in 

Guangdong province. The tachinid Exorista xanthaspis (Wiedemann) is 

another parasitoid of the forest pest of MPC. Having five to six generations a 

year, parasitism of MPC in the first, second and third generations was 22, 45 

and 1%, respectively. Most of the eggs were laid on the hosts' prothoracic legs, 

with 1 to 33 eggs being placed on each host. Some of the hosts (3%) were able 

to survive parasitism if they had an average of 2.5 eggs or less. In the field in 

China fluctuations in the parasitoid population were positively correlated with 

temperature during May but negatively correlated in late July to early August 

(Ma et al., 1988). 




Larval and pupal parasitoids such as Rhogas dendrolimi Matsumura and 

Masicera zimini Kolomeits have been shown to be very important parasitoid of 

SSM pupae in Siberia with parasitism level reaching 80% (Rozhkov, 1961). 

Apanteles sp. and Carcelia excisa (Fallen) are important biocontrol agents of 

SSM and SaSM in Japan and Russia with levels of parasitism as high as 85% 

(EPPO, 2005; Matsumura, 1926a, 1926b). Boldaruev (1958) reported 

parasitism efficiencies between 65 and 85% in natural populations of low (1 to 

20 larvae/tree) and high (100 to 500 larvae/tree) densities of SSM larvae. 

However, mass-rearing and release of these parasitoids is time consuming 

(Boldaruev, 1958). 


A suite of larval parasitoid have been found emerging from SaSM larvae, 

including such generalists that are used in biological control including 

Theronia atalantae (Poda), Glyptapanteles liparidis (Marsh) and Apanteles 

ordinarius Ratzeburg (Fukuyama, 1980. 

The tachinid Masicera zimini Kolomiets has been reported to attack SaSM. 

Adults of M. zimini were present in August and part of September, with 

females laying eggs on the needles of the trees which are apparently ingested 

by host larvae in the first instar with their food. The life-cycle lasts two years, 

with the larvae overwintering twice. On an average the parasitism rate varied 

from 20 to 63% (Boldaruev, 1952). 

A braconid wasp, Rhogas dendrolimi (Matsumura) has also been found to 

parasitize SaSM and SSM larvae. R. dendrolimi, like M. zimini, had a two-year 

life-cycle. Parasitized moth larvae hibernated and reached the fourth instar at 

the same time as non-parasitized individuals, but their development then 

ceased almost completely. These parasitized larvae hibernated a second time, 

but ceased feeding in the following May and crawled about on the lower parts 

of the trees. The parasitized larvae resumed feeding in spring, killed their hosts 

by gnawing a hole through the thorax, glued them to the trunks by means of a 

liquid ejected through the hole, and completed their development in the 

remains (Boldaruev, 1952). 



Predators 

Predators including insects, birds, and mammals are also important biological 

control agents in a forest ecosystem (Sierpinska, 1998). Ants such as Formica 

polyctena Foerster and F. nigricans Emery have shown to be effective 

biological control agents for first and second instar larva of Dendrolimus 

moths (Malysheva, 1963). Ants are important natural enemies of young 

Dendrolimus larvae. Predation on first, second and third instar larvae on the 

forest floor by Camponotus japonicus Mayr was 70, 23, and 10%, respectively 

(Wang et al., 1991). Similarly, predation by Formica japonica Motschoulsky 

was 47, 27 and 10%, respectively (Wang and Wu, 1991). In Guangxi, China, 

Polyrhachis dives Smith and Crematogaster artifex Mayr build nests in trees or 

on the ground. In stands where these ants are common, D. punctatus seldom 

reach large numbers (Chen, 1990). Other important predatory enemies include 

praying mantis, wasps, katydids, predatory true bugs (e.g., Pentatomidae, 

Reduviidae), spiders and birds (CABI, 2011b) (Refer to Appendix D for more 

detailed lists. 

Microorganisms 

Representatives of the genus Dendrolimus are carriers of the Dendrolimus 

cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (DsCPV-1) and susceptible to infection by the 

virus from another closely related species. Data has been presented on the 

virulence of D. pini DsCPV-1 for D. spectabilis and D. superans 

(Chkhubianishvili and Katagiri, 1983). Other Dendrolimus moth species 

isolated with the same virus include D. punctatus, D. tabulaeformis, D. p. 

tehchangensis, and D. p. wenhangensis. (Zhao et al., 2004b) 

This approach is still under study. It should be possible to produce and release 

this virus in the quantity required to seriously affect any invasive Dendrolimus 

moth population and should be incorporated into an IPM system when 

available 




Detailed descriptions of entomopathogenic fungi used to control forest insects 

including PTL are found in Malinowski, 2009) and in Sierpinska, 1998). 

Beauveria brongniartii, B. bassiana, Paecilomyces farinosus, Metarhizium 

anisopliae and Verticillium lecanii have shown good control of forest pests. 

Cordyceps militaris is also an important biocontrol agent of hibernating larvae 

causing up to 80% mortality (Sierpinska, 1998). During the outbreak of 1996 

in Lithuania’s forests, C. militaris was found in 70% of hibernating larva, 

causing up to 66% mortality (Gedminas, 2000). Fungi are highly dependent on 

humidity for their effective control. 

Among bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis preparations are the most widely used 

to control the PTL (Moeller and Engelmann, 2008; Sierpinska, 1998) (see 

Chemical Control on page 6-5). 

The introduction and establishment of the granulosis virus (GV) of D. sibiricus 

into populations of PTL resulted in the mortality of 65-80% of pupa and a 

significant reduction of PTL populations in Voronezh, Russia. The 

establishment of the virus caused a prolonged suppression of populations for 

22 years (Orlovskaya, 1998). This method is based on the inoculation of eggs 

with viral preparations and its release in the forest for further dissemination. 

The cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus of the pine moth, Dendrolimus pini L 

(CPVPTL) is another potential biological control agent (Slizynski and Lipa, 

1975). In laboratory tests, the mortality of PTL second instar larva inoculated 

with 6.8 x10 6 polyhedral inclusion bodies/larva was as high as 100% (Slizynski 

and Lipa, 1975). 

Other Lepidoptera of the families Lymantridae and Lasiocampidae were also 

affected by CPVPTL with comparable levels of mortality (Slizynski and Lipa, 

1975). Viral preparations have also been used and applied as pesticides but this 

is a more expensive approach because of the high costs associated with the 

mass production of virus (Orlovskaya, 1998). 




Microorganism-based control methods against the MPC have been successful 

when achieved using multiple agents including cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus 

of D. spectabilis from Japan (Chang, 1991), and an insect parasitic fungus 

(Isaria sp.) isolated from infected bodies of pine caterpillar collected in local 

pine forests (Ying, 1986b) and the entomopathogenic fungus B. bassiana (Lu 

et al., 2008). Microbial pesticides made from B. bassiana are commonly used 

to suppress high larval populations of D. punctatus in China (Pan et al., 1983). 

Metarhizium anisopliae has similar toxicity against MPC and may be superior 

to B. bassiana in certain environmental conditions (Jiang, 2000). Other 

methods of control include Bt and a cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (Chen et 

al., 1997; Hou, 1986; Zhao et al., 2000). Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus 

(CPV) powder applied at a rate between 3.0 and 7.5 billion polyhedra/ha 

provided an average 63% population reduction of third to fifth instar larvae 

(Fan and Jiang, 1983). Peng et al. (Peng et al., 1998) reported that 

Trichogramma dendrolimi carrying D. punctatus CPV can significantly 

increase the control efficacy (CABI, 2011b). 


A variety of microorganisms can be used against SSM including Bacillus 

thuringiensis var. kurstaki, B. dendrolimus, B. thuringiensis subsp. 

dendrolimus (sotto) (Bacteria), B. bassiana (fungi) and DsCPV and DsNPV 

(cytoplasmic and nuclear polyhedrosis viruses) (EPPO, 2005 Koyama, 1961; 

Shternshis, 2005). Preparations of Bt subspecies provided the basis for the 

formulation of several commercial products used for the control of forest pests 

in Russia (Shternshis, 2005; Talalaev, 1959, 1962). 


A specific cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus isolated from D. spectabilis was 

described in 1956 and has shown strong virulence for that species as well as D. 

superans (Koyama, 1961. As with other species of Dendrolimus considered 

here, there is a high degree of cross-specific activity for CPVs as at least 6 

isolates have been found (Chkhubianishvili Ts and Katagiri, 1983; Zhao et al., 

2004a). 



Integrated Pest Management 

Integrated pest management approaches to manage and control established 

populations of pine-tree lappet have been suggested and described by 

Sierpinksa (Sierpinska, 1998). The goal of these programs is to establish a 

healthy forest ecosystem that will promote the existence of natural populations 

of insect parasitoids and predators, entomopathogenic microorganisms (fungi, 

bacteria and viruses), insectivorous birds and bat populations. Creating the 

environmental conditions that favor the existence of these biological control 

agents will greatly help in controlling pine-tree lappet populations and 

minimize the use of pesticides. An IPM program for Dendrolimus moths may 

include combinations of frequent monitoring (suggested at five to seven times/ 

year in high risk areas), establishment of surveys to monitor economic 

thresholds, limiting impacts from human activities, use of light traps to reduce 

moth populations, and applying biological pesticides to reduce larval 

population levels (Chen, 1990). When possible, different pine species or mixed 

tree species are recommended in forestry programs. For example, short-term 

approaches in Vietnam focused on biological control, including mass 

production and application of microbial agents and parasitic insects. 

Recommended long-term strategies have included establishing mixed stands of 

different pine species or pines and broad-leaved trees, or to replace pines with 

non-host species in high-hazard areas, increases in fire prevention, and 

enhanced training of protection personnel in all phases of integrated pest 

management (Billings, 1991). 

Summary 

The most effective control program for suppression of Dendrolimus moths will 

likely incorporate the use of chemical and biological control measures in an 

integrated pest management approach. 

If an established population is found in a coniferous forest production area, a 

science advisory panel will be asked to determine the best course of action. If 

eradication is not possible, as determined by the science advisory panel, it will 

be the responsibility of University extension services to determine the best 

management practices. 



Environmental Documentation and Monitoring 

Obtain all required environmental documentation before beginning. Contact 

Environmental Services Staff for the most recent documentation. For further 

information, refer to Environmental Compliance on page 7-1. 


Chapter 

7 Environmental 

Compliance 

Contents 

Introduction 

Overview 


Overview 7-1 

National Environmental Policy Act 7-2 

Categorical Exclusion 7-3 

Environmental Assessment 7-3 

Environmental Impact Statement 7-3 

Endangered Species Act 7-3 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act 7-3 

Clean Water Act 7-4 

Tribal Consultation 7-4 

National Historic Preservation Act 7-4 

Coastal Zone Management Act 7-4 

Environmental Justice 7-5 

Protection of Children 7-5 

Use Chapter 7 Environmental Compliance as a guide to the Dendrolimus 

moths: 





Program managers of Federal emergency response or domestic pest control 

programs must ensure that their programs comply with all Federal Acts and 

Executive Orders pertaining to the environment, as applicable. Two primary 

Federal Acts, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the 

Endangered Species Act (ESA), often require the development of significant 

documentation before program actions may begin. 


Environmental Compliance 

Program managers should also seek guidance and advice as needed from 

Environmental and Risk Analysis Services (ERAS), a unit of APHIS’ Policy 

and Program Development (PPD) staff. ERAS is available to give guidance 

and advice to program managers and prepare drafts of applicable 

environmental documentation. 

In preparing draft NEPA documentation ERAS may also perform and 

incorporate assessments that pertain to other acts and executive orders 

described below, as part of the NEPA process. The Environmental Compliance 

Team (ECT), a part of PPQ’s Emergency Domestic Programs (EDP), will 

assist ERAS in the development of documents, and will implement any 

environmental monitoring. 

Leaders of programs are strongly advised to meet with ERAS and/or ECT 

early in the development of a program in order to conduct a preliminary review 

of applicable environmental statutes and to ensure timely compliance. 

Environmental monitoring of APHIS pest control activities may be required as 

part of compliance with environmental statutes, as requested by program 

managers, or as suggested to address concerns with controversial activities. 

Monitoring may be conducted with regards to worker exposure, pesticide 

quality assurance and control, off-site chemical deposition, or program 

efficacy. Different tools and techniques are used depending on the monitoring 

goals and control techniques used in the program. Staff from ECT will work 

with the program manager to develop an environmental monitoring plan, 

conduct training to carry out the plan, give day-to-day guidance on monitoring, 

and provide an interpretive report of monitoring activities. 

National Environmental Policy Act 

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires all Federal agencies 

to examine whether their actions may significantly affect the quality of the 

human environment. The purpose of NEPA is to inform the decisionmaker 

before taking action, and to tell the public of the decision. Actions that are 

excluded from this examination, that normally require an Environmental 

Assessment, and that normally require Environmental Impact Statements, are 

codified in APHIS’ NEPA Implementing Procedures located in 7 CFR 372.5. 

The three types of NEPA documentation are Categorical Exclusions, 

Environmental Assessments, and Environmental Impact Statements. 



Categorical Exclusion 

Categorical Exclusions (CE) are classes of actions that do not have a 

significant effect on the quality of the human environment and for which 

neither an Environmental Assessment (EA) nor an environmental impact 

statement (EIS) is required. Generally, the means through which adverse 

environmental impacts may be avoided or minimized have been built into the 

actions themselves (7 CFR 372.5(c)). 

Environmental Assessment 

An Environmental Assessment (EA) is a public document that succinctly 

presents information and analysis for the decisionmaker of the proposed 

action. An EA can lead to the preparation of an environmental impact 

statement (EIS), a finding of no significant impact (FONSI), or the 

abandonment of a proposed action. 

Environmental Impact Statement 

If a major Federal action may significantly affect the quality of the human 

environment (adverse or beneficial) or the proposed action may result in public 

controversy, then prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). 

Endangered Species Act 

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) is a statute requiring that programs 

consider their potential effects on federally-protected species. The ESA 

requires programs to identify protected species and their habitat in or near 

program areas, and document how adverse effects to these species will be 

avoided. The documentation may require review and approval by the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service before 

program activities can begin. Knowingly violating this law can lead to criminal 

charges against individual staff members and program managers. 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act 

The statute requires that programs avoid harm to over 800 endemic bird 

species, eggs, and their nests. In some cases, permits may be available to 

capture birds, which require coordination with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 



Clean Water Act 

The statute requires various permits for work in wetlands and for potential 

discharges of program chemicals into water. This may require coordination 

with the Environmental Protection Agency, individual States, and the Army 

Corps of Engineers. Such permits would be needed even if the pesticide label 

allows for direct application to water. 

Tribal Consultation 

The Executive Order requires formal government-to-government 

communication and interaction if a program might have substantial direct 

effects on any federally-recognized Indian Nation. This process is often 

incorrectly included as part of the NEPA process, but must be completed 

before public involvement under NEPA. Staff should be cognizant of the 

conflict that could arise when proposed Federal actions intersect with Tribal 

sovereignty. Tribal consultation is designed to identify and avoid such potential 

conflict. 

National Historic Preservation Act 

The statute requires programs to consider potential impacts on historic 

properties (such as buildings and archaeological sites) and requires 

coordination with local State Historic Preservation Offices. Documentation 

under this act involves preparing an inventory of the project area for historic 

properties and determining what effects, if any, the project may have on 

historic properties. This process may need public involvement and comment 

before the start of program activities. 

Coastal Zone Management Act 

The statute requires coordination with States where programs may impact 

Coastal Zone Management Plans. Federal activities that may affect coastal 

resources are evaluated through a process called Federal consistency. This 

process allows the public, local governments, Tribes, and State agencies an 

opportunity to review the Federal action. The Federal consistency process is 

administered individually by states with Coastal Zone Management Plans. 



Environmental Justice 

The Executive Order requires consideration of program impacts on minority 

and economically disadvantaged populations. Compliance is usually achieved 

within the NEPA documentation for a project. Programs are required to 

consider if the actions might impact minority or economically disadvantaged 

populations and if so, how such impact will be avoided. 

Protection of Children 

The Executive Order requires Federal agencies to identify, assess, and address 

environmental health risks and safety risks that may affect children. If such a 

risk is identified, then measures must be described and carried out to minimize 

such risks. 




Chapter 

8 Pathways 

Contents 

Introduction 

Overview 


Overview 8-1 

Geographical Distribution 8-2 

Destinations 8-3 

Establishment and Spread 8-3 

Natural Spread 8-3 

Human-Assisted Spread 8-4 

Use Chapter 8: Pathways as a source of information on the pathways of 

introduction of the Dendrolimus spp. moths in the United States, including 

Dendrolimus pini (L.) Pine-tree lappet; Dendrolimus punctatus (Walker), 

Masson pine caterpillar; Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetverikov, Siberian silk 

moth; and Dendrolimus superans (Butler), Sakhalin silk moth. 

The entry and establishment of Dendrolimus moths poses a serious threat to the 

United States coniferous forests and to those industries that rely on forest 

species like the Christmas tree industry. In the US, several species of conifers 

with significant value for timber, Christmas trees and wood by-products are 

listed as natural hosts for this pest. With the increase volume of international 

trade and passengers arriving to the United States, the risk of unintentional 

introductions of pine-tree lappet increases. Dendrolimus moths have not been 

reported in this United States by the time this report was written. 


Pathways 

Geographical Distribution 


Currently found across Europe, Asia, and North Africa, Pine-tree lappet has a 

natural range that matches its primary host, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Both 

temperate coniferous and mixed (coniferous and deciduous) forests are 

considered to be at risk for spread of PTL, within the United States. These 

forests make up a considerable portion (47%) of the U.S. forest, including the 

southern Appalachian mountain range, the Northeast, Midwest (Minnesota, 

Michigan, Wisconsin, North Dakota), the northwest regions of the United 

States and Alaska (Davis et al., 2008) (Refer to Potential Distribution on page 

2-11 and Figure 2-1 on page 2-9). 


The Masson pine caterpillar occurs across southeastern Asia, including eastern 

China, Taiwan, and Vietnam (Billings, 1991; Chang, 1991; Matsumura, 

1926a). The northern limit is approximately 33 degrees latitude (Ya-Jie et al., 

2005), with a western limit in China of Sichuan province (CABI, 2011b). 


At present, SSM is expanding its habitat, now occupying coniferous forest of 

the Russian Plain (Gninenko, 2000) including China, Kazakhstan, Korea, 

Mongolia, and Russia (EPPO, 2005; Molet, 2012; Orlinskii, 2000). In 

connection with global processes of climate change, there is a risk of the 

expansion of this pest into northern and north-eastern regions of Siberia, 

including coniferous forests of Kamchatka and the Magadan region where it 

will be very difficult to control (CABI, 2011a). The pattern of movement of 

this pest into forests of Eastern Europe is occurring naturally. The 

transportation of forest products, especially of round wood, has little influence 

on the rate of spread of SSM to new regions (CABI, 2011a). 


The present worldwide distribution of SaSM is restricted to Japan (Hokkaido 

and Northern Honshu) (EPPO, 2005; Fukuyama, 1980; Maeto, 1991) and far 

eastern Russia, including the Sakhalin and Kurile Islands (Fukuyama, 1980) 

(Figure 2-1 on page 2-9). 


Destinations 

Pathways 

When an actionable pest is intercepted, officers ask for the intended final 

destination of the conveyance. Materials infested with Lasiocampidae were 

destined for 8 states. The most commonly reported destinations were Florida 

and California (25% each), Texas (10%), and New York (10%) (USDA- 

AQAS, 2007). Some portion of each of state identified as the intended final 

destination has a climate and hosts that would be suitable for establishment by 

these moths (Davis et al., 2005) 

Establishment and Spread 

In its native range, these insects damage more than 20 species of trees in 

several genera including Pinus, Abies, Larix, Picea and Tsuga. These host 

genera are also widely distributed in North America, but there is uncertainty 

about the ability to utilize congeneric hosts. Dendrolimus moths are found 

across a wide climatic range and are considered the most important pest of 

coniferous forests in Russia (from the center of European Russia to the Far 

East), Kazakhstan, Northern China, Korea and Northern Mongolia. 

Both males and females fly and can disperse over long distances either on their 

own or assisted by air currents. Larvae are also subject to wind dispersal. In 

Russia this insect is presently extending its range westward at the rate of 

between 12 and 50 km per year. All Dendrolimus spp. have a high reproductive 

potential. Females lay an average of 200-300 eggs. Conifer forests have more 

or less continuous distributions in North America, especially in the boreal 

forests of Canada and the Western and Northeastern forests of the United 

States. Populations could go undetected, especially in remote areas and 

eradication techniques would be logistically difficult and probably ineffective. 

This insect has a broad host range and could adapt to many North American 

conifers. (Orlinskii, 2000). 

Natural Spread 

Natural introductions of pine tree lappet due to wind, flight and/or other natural 

causes to the continental United States are very unlikely. Unlike females, males 

are strong fliers and have been reported to fly from continental Europe to the 

Southern coast of the United Kingdom (Moore, 2009). A transoceanic flight 

from Europe to the United States is, however, very unlikely 


Pathways 

Officers with USDA-APHIS and the Department of Homeland Security 

reported only one interception of Dendrolimus sp. at US ports of entry from 

1984-2006 (USDA-AQAS, 2007). This interception was from a shipment of 2 

branches of Pinus sp. in baggage from Japan coming into Hawaii on March 

19th, 1984. 

Dendrolimus spp. may have arrived in the US slightly more frequently than 

suggested by this record. Specimens identified as Lasiocampidae are 

actionable, and no further identification would be needed to make a regulatory 

decision. Specimens identified as Lasiocampidae have been intercepted at least 

20 times at US ports of entry between 1985 and 2004 (incomplete records 

complicate the accuracy of this count). Annually, only about 0.8 (±0.24 

standard error of the mean) interception has been reported nationally (USDA- 

AQAS, 2007). The majority of interceptions (35%) were considered ‘at large’ 

or loosely associated with unspecified plants or wood and were reported from 

Miami, FL (20%), Laredo, TX (10%), and JFK International airport, NY 

(10%). These ports are the first points of entry for infested material coming 

into the US and do not necessarily represent the final destination of infested 

material (Davis et al., 2005). 

Human-Assisted Spread 

Human assisted pathways are probably the most likely way of introduction 

from Europe or Asia to the United States. In 1984, a larva of Dendrolimus sp. 

was intercepted in luggage from a passenger flying from Japan to Hawaii 

(USDA-AQAS, 2007). Between 1985 and 2004 twenty interceptions of insects 

from the Lasiocampidae family were made at ports of entry in the United 

States with 35% of these interceptions associated with plant material and/or 

wood (Selness, 2006; USDA-AQAS, 2007). 

Potential human-assisted pathways include but are not limited to: 

Plant material. Probably the most likely pathway. Eggs, larva and pupa can 

be easily transported in infested plant material and are likely to survive 

transport from Europe or Asia to the United States (See Pest Information 

on page 2-1). Infested plant material include: 

Live plants especially from the genus Pinus infested with eggs, larva, 

pupa or adult. It is also important to consider overwintering larva present 

in the soil of host plants and overwintering larva in the soil of non-host 

plants when these are grown in nurseries close to a forested area where 

pine-tree lappet outbreaks are known to occur. 

Plant parts including cut branches, foliage (Christmas trees) and logs with 

bark where eggs and pupal cocoons can be found. 


Pathways 

Contaminated vehicles and or machinery with soil or plant fragments 

infested with eggs and/or pupal cocoons from highly contaminated 

forested areas. 

Conveyances and containers: In ports close to forested areas, moths can be 

attracted to the light from ships or cargo planes. 

People: Any life-stage of the pine tree lappet can be transported by passengers 

in personal equipment including clothing, tools and vehicles and/or in 

baggage. 

The known range of Dendrolimus spp. in Europe and Asia normally means that 

this pest cannot get to the United States on its own through migratory patterns 

or other natural means of spread. However, the Siberian silk moth appears to 

have originated in Siberia but has been spreading westwards at a rate that has 

been variously estimated from 12 km to 40 - 50 km per year with its most 

western point at longitude 52° (Rozhkov, 1963). Although the SSM has been 

detected on the European side of Russia, east of the Ural mountain range, it has 

been suggested that future dispersal to most of Europe is difficult because of 

the lack of suitable hosts (Mikkola and Stahls, 2008). This would indicate that 

Some of the uncertainty in the past about the precise distribution of 

Dendrolimus moths may derive from confusion among the species, especially 

between Dendrolimus sibiricus and D. superans (Orlinskii, 2000). 


Pathways 


Dendrolimus 

Pine Moths 

References 

Use References to learn more about the publications, Web sites, and other 

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Materiay Sesji Instytutu Ochrony Roslin 35(2):153-156. 

Sitowski, L. 1928. Parasites of D. pini, L., and L. monacha, L. Rocz h' auk rol 

lesn 19:12. 

Sliwa, E. 1992. Barczatka sosnowka [The pine moth]. Forest Research 

Institute, Warsaw. 

Sliwa, E., and P. Cichowski. 1975. The nature and extent of damage caused by 

Dendrolimus pini, and the recovery of the damaged stands. Sylwan 119(2):14- 

29. 

Slizynski, K., and J. J. Lipa. 1975. A cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus of pine 

moth Dendrolimus pini L. (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae). Prace Naukowe 

Instytutu Ochrony Roslin 17(2):29-60. 

Smelyanets, V. P. 1977. Mechanisms of plant resistance in Scotch pine (Pinus 

sylvestris). 4. Influence of food quality on physiological state of pine pests 

(trophic preferendum). Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie 84(3):232- 

241. 

Speight, M. R., and F. R. Wylie. 2001. Insect Pests in Tropical Forestry. CABI 

Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 307 pp. 

Sukovata, L., A. Kolk, J. Jaroszynska, U. Krajewska, A. Purzynska, and V. 

Isidorov. 2003. Host-tree preferences of the pine moth (Lepidoptera: 

Lasiocampidae) and pine beauty moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae in 

relation to needle quality. Pages 98-106 in Proceedings: Ecology, Survey and 

Management of Forest Insects GTR-NE-311. 

Sun, X., Y. Tan, and J. Chen. 1990. Study on the Utilization of Trichogramma 

dendrolimi to Control the Masson Pine Moth Dendrolimus punctatus at 

Longshan Forest Farm China. Forest Research 3(4):407-410. 


References 

Tabata, S., and K. Tamanuki. 1940. On the Hymenopterous Parasites of the 

Pine Caterpillar, Dendrolimus sibiricus albolineatus Mats, in southern 

Sakhalin. Rep Cent Exp Sta Sakhalin 33(2):50. 

Talalaev, E. V. 1959. A bacteriological method of controlling Dendrolimus 

sibiricus. Transactions of the First International Conference of Insect 

Pathology and Biological Control, Prague, August 1958. 

Talalaev, E. V. 1962. Bacillus-carrying by Dendrolimus sibiricus larvae, 

caused by dendrobacillin. Ent Obozr, Moskva 41(1):54-64. 

Tenow, O., and S. Larson. 1987. Consumption by needle-eating insects on 

Scots pine in relation to season and stand. Holartic Ecology 10:249-260. 

Tong, X. W., L. X. Ni, and X. M. Lao. 1988. Enhancement of egg 

parasitization of Dendrolimus punctatus (Lep.: Lasiocampidae) by 

supplementing host eggs in the forest. Chinese Journal of Biological Control 

4(3):118-122. 

USDA-AQAS. 2007. Agricultural Quarantine Activity System, Pest ID 

Database. USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA Internal 

Database. 

USDA-NASS. 2009. National Agricultural Statistics Service. 

Valendik, E. N., J. C. Brissette, Y. K. Kisilyakhov, R. J. Lasko, S. V. 

Verkhovets, S. T. Eubanks, I. V. Kosov, and A. Y. Lantukh. 2006. An 

experimental burn to restore a moth-killed boreal conifer forest, Krasnoyarsk 

Region, Russia. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 

11(4):883-896. 

Varga, F. 1966. A mass outbreak of Dendrolimus pini in Hungary. Erdesz 

Faipari Egyetem tud Kozl, Sopron (1/2):49-62. 

Varley, G. C. 1949. Population changes in German forests pests. Journal of 

Animal Ecology 18(1):117-122. 

Vinokurov, N., and A. I. Petrovich. 2010. Siberian moth in Yakutia. Last 

accessed http://st-yak.narod.ru/index3-6-2.html. (Archived at PERAL). 

Vshivkova, T. A. 2004. Biochemical composition of needles in Pinaceae trees 

and its relation to Siberian moth larvae growth. Uspekhi Sovremennoi Biologii 

124(5):501-506. 


References 

Wang, C., J. Wu, and G. Xiao. 1991. A Study on the Bionomics and Predatory 

Effect of Camponotus japonicus to Dendrolimus punctatus. Forest Research 

4(4):405-408. 

Wang, W. X., and W. Q. Liu. 1993. Field surveys on the pupal parasitism of 

Dendrolimus punctatus (Lep.: Lasiocampidae) in Guangxi and Hunan. Chinese 

Journal of Biological Control 9(3):143-144. 

Wang, Y. H., and Y. J. Liao. 1990. Attracting beneficial birds for the biological 

control of Dendrolimus punctatus tehchangensis (Lep.: Lasiocampidae). 

Chinese Journal of Biological Control 6(1):25-26. 

Wei, G., N. Rong, G. Ye, and Q. Gao. 2005. A new host based on the hostrecognition 

kairomone of Telenomus theophila (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) - 

Dendrolimus punctatus. Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis 17(2):69-73. 

Winokur, L. 1991. Phenology and development in Dendrolimus pini (L.) 

(Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae): a preliminary study. Entomologist' s Gazette 

42(4):243-250. 

Woreta, D., and H. Malinowski. 1998. Activity of several contact insecticides 

against selected forest insect pest in Poland. Pages 317-321 in M. L. McManus 

and A. M. Liebhold, (eds.). Proceedings: Population Dynamics, Impacts, and 

Integrated Management of Forest Defoliating Insects. USDA Forest Service 

General Technical Report NE-247, Warsay, Poland. 

Xia, Y., and J. Zhou. 1992. Study on the Control Effect and Community of 

Natural Enemies of Dendrolimus punctatus in Different Type of Masson Pine 

Stand. Forest Research 5(3):356-360. 

Xu, Y., X. Sun, R. Han, and Z. He. 2006. Parasitoids of Dendrolimus punctatus 

in China. Chinese Bulletin of Entomology 43(6):767-773. 

Y.N., B., and K. Y.P. 1997. Outbreaks of Siberian moth, Dendrolimus superans 

sibiricus Tschtvrk, in Central Siberia. S. L. C. Fosbroke and K. W. Gottschalk, 

(eds.). Proceedings: U.S. Department of Agriculture Interagency Gypsy Moth 

Research Forum Annapolis, Maryland. 

Ya-Jie, J., H. Yue-Ping, L. Yu-Di, L. Hua-Tao, S. Cheng-Min, L. Dian-Mo, and 

Z. De-Xing. (Article). 2005. Ten polymorphic microsatellite markers 

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References 

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Dendrolimus superans in Xiaoxing'anling Mountains. Chinese Journal of 

Biological Control 21(2):88-90. 

Ying, S. L. 1986a. A decade of successful control of pine caterpillar, 

Dendrolimus punctatus Walker (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), by microbial 

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Ying, S. 1986b. A decade of successfull control of pine caterpillar, 

Dendrolimus punctatus Walker (Lepidoptera:Lasiocampidae), by microbial 

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superans (Butler). Journal of North East Forestry University, China 15(2):1-6. 

Yu, E. 1982. Control of larch caterpillar Dendrolimus superans (Butler) with 

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Bionomics and natural enemies of Dendrolimus superans. Journal of Northeast 


Zhang, A., Z. Wang, S. Tan, and D. Li. 2003. Monitoring the masson pine 

moth, Dendrolimus punctatus (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) with 

synthetic sex pheromone-baited traps in Qianshan County, China. Applied 

Entomology and Zoology 38(2):177-186. 

Zhao, C. H., Q. Li, X. Y. Guo, and X. Y. Wang. 1993. New components of sex 

pheromone in the pine caterpillar moth, Dendrolimus punctatus: Identification 

of chemical structures and field tests. Acta Entomologica Sinica 36(2):247- 

250. 

Zhao, C., and Y. Yan. 2003. Oviposition behaviour of the pine caterpillar moth, 

Dendrolimus punctatus influenced by needle volatiles of Pinus massoniana. 

Scientia Silvae Sinicae 39(6):91-93. 

Zhao, Q., Z. Xiaohong, and W. Baoguo. 1998a. The orthogonal test and 

metabolization of the culture medium for Bt L-93. Journal of Northeast 


Zhao, Q., Z. Xiaohong, L. Guangping, and W. Baoguo. 1998b. Isolation and 

determination of a plant pathogen of Dendrolimus superans. Journal of 

Northeast Forestry University 26(1):70-71. 


References 

Zhao, T. H., C. J. Chen, J. Xu, and Q. W. Zhang. 2004a. Host range and cross 

infection of cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses from Dendrolimus spp. Acta 

Entomologica Sinica 47(1):117-123. 

Zhao, T. H., C. J. Chen, and Q. W. Zhang. 2004b. Host range and cross 

infection of cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses from Dendrolimus spp. Acta 

Entomologica Sinica 47(1):117-123. 

Zhao, T. h., Y. a. Zhang, Y. z. Wang, D. h. Yan, C. j. Chen, and G. c. Wang. 

2000. The effect of different temperatures on controlling pine caterpillars, 

Dendrolimus punctatus, by B. t pesticide. Forest Research 13(2):213-216. 

Zhuang, Q., J. M. Melack, S. Zimov, K. M. Walter, C. L. Butenhoff, and M. A. 

Khalil. 2009. Global methane emissions from wetlands, rice paddies, and 

lakes. EOS, Transactions, America Geophysical Union 90(5):37-44. 

Zolotuhin, V., and E. J. Van Nieukerken. 2004. Fauna Europea. Dendrolimus 

pini (L). http://www.faunaeur.org/full_results.php?id=367645. (Archived at 

PERAL). 


References 


Appendix 

A Resources 

Use Appendix A Resources to find the Web site addresses, street addresses, and 

telephone numbers of resources mentioned in the guidelines. To locate where 

in the guidelines a topic is mentioned, refer to the index. 

Table A-1 Resources for Dendrolimus Pine Moths 

Resource Contact Information 

Center for Plant Health, Science, and 

Technology (USDA–APHIS–PPQ–CPHST) 

Emergency and Domestic Programs, 

Emergency Management (USDA–APHIS– 

PPQ–EDP–EM) 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/ 

cphst/index.shtml 


plant_pest_info/index.shtml 

PPQ Manual for Agricultural Clearance http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/ 

plants/manuals/online_manuals.shtml 

PPQ Treatment Manual http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/ 

plants/manuals/online_manuals.shtml 

Host or Risk Maps http://www.nappfast.org/caps_pests/ 

CAPs_Top_50.htm 

Plant, Organism, and Soil Permits (APHIS– 

PPQ 

National Program Manager for Native 

American Program Delivery and Tribal 

Liaison (USDA–APHIS–PPQ) 

Biological Control Coordinator (USDA– 

APHIS–CPHST) 

FIFRA Coordinator (USDA–APHIS–PPQ– 

EDP) 

Environmental Compliance Coordinator 

(USDA–APHIS–PPQ–EDP) 


permits/index.shtml 

14082 S. Poston Place 

Tucson, AZ 85736 

Telephone: (520) 822-544 


cphst/projects/arthropod-pests.shtml 

4700 River Road 

Riverdale, MD 20737 

Telephone: (301) 734-5861 

4700 River Road 

Riverdale, MD 20737 

Telephone: (301) 734-7175 

PPQ Form 391 http://www.aphis.usda.gov/library/forms/ 

List of State Plant Health Directors (SPHD) http://www.aphis.usda.gov/services/ 

report_pest_disease/ 

report_pest_disease.shtml 

List of State Plant Regulatory Officials (SPRO) http://nationalplantboard.org/member/ 

index.html 

National Climatic Center, Data Base 

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ncdc.html 

Administration, Box 34, Federal Building, 

Asheville, North Carolina 28801 

CAPS Survey Manuals http://caps.ceris.purdue.edu/ 

Leafhopper and treehopper genera in New 

Zealand 

http://www1.dpi.nsw.gov.au/keys/leafhop/ 

deltocephalinae/opsiini.htm 

GenBank ® http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 

iPhyClassifier http://plantpathology.ba.ars.usda.gov/cgi-bin/ 

resource/iphyclassifier.cgi 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths A-1

Resources 

A-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Appendix 

B Forms 

index. 

Contents 

Use Appendix B Forms to learn how to complete the forms mentioned in the 

guidelines. To locate where in the guidelines a form is mentioned, refer to the 

PPQ Form 391 Specimens For Determination B-2 

PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification B-7 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths B-1

Forms 

SENDER AND ORIGIN 

PURPOSE 

HOST DATA 

PEST DATA 

PPQ Form 391 Specimens For Determination 

This report is authorized by law (7 U.S.C. 147a). While you are not required to respond 

your cooperation is needed to make an accurate record of plant pest conditions. 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE 

SPECIMENS FOR DETERMINATION 

Figure B-1 Example of PPQ Form 391 Specimens For Determination, side 1 

FORM APPROVED 

See reverse for additional OMB information. OMB NO. 0579-0010 

Instructions: Type or print information requested. Press hard and print legibly 

when handwritten. Item 1 - assign number for each collection beginning with 

year, followed by collector’s initials and collector’s number. Example (collector, 

John J. Dingle): 83-JJD-001. 

Pest Data Section – Complete Items 14, 15 and 16 or 19 or 20 and 21 as 

applicable. Complete Items 17 and 18 if a trap was used. 

1. COLLECTION NUMBER 2. DATE 3. SUBMITTING AGENCY 

4. NAME OF SENDER 

6. ADDRESS OF SENDER 

MO DA YR 

ZIP INTERCEPTION SITE 

8. REASON FOR IDENTIFICATION (“x” ALL Applicable Items) 

PPQ Other 

FOR IIBIII USE 

LOT NO. 

PRIORITY 

5. TYPE OF PROPERTY (Farm, Feedmill, Nursery, etc.) 

7. NAME AND ADDRESS OF PROPERTY OR OWNER 

A. Biological Control (Target Pest Name ) E. Livestock, Domestic Animal Pest 

COUNTRY/ 

COUNTY 

B. Damaging Crops/Plants F. Possible Immigrant (Explain in REMARKS) 

C. Suspected Pest of Regulatory Concern (Explain in REMARKS) G. Survey (Explain in REMARKS) 

D. Stored Product Pest H. Other (Explain in REMARKS) 

9. IF PROMPT OR URGENT IDENTIFICATION IS REQUESTED, PLEASE PROVIDE A BRIEF EXPLANATION UNDER “REMARKS”. 

10. HOST INFORMATION 11. QUANTITY OF HOST 

NAME OF HOST (Scientific name when possible) 

NUMBER OF 

PLANTS AFFECTED (Insert figure and 

ACRES/PLANTS 

indicate Number 

Percent): 

12. PLANT DISTRIBUTION 13. PLANT PARTS AFFECTED 

LIMITED 

SCATTERED 

WIDESPREAD 

14. PEST DISTRIBUTION 

FEW 

COMMON 

ABUNDANT 

Leaves, Upper Surface 

Leaves, Lower Surface 

Petiole 

Stem 

NUMBER 

SUBMITTED 

ALIVE 

EXTREME DEAD 

16. SAMPLING METHOD 

Trunk/Bark 

Branches 

Growing Tips 

Roots 

Bulbs, Tubers, Corms 

B-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01 

Buds 

Flowers 

Fruits or Nuts 

Seeds 

15. INSECTS NEMATODES MOLLUSKS 

LARVAE PUPAE ADULTS CAST SKINS EGGS NYMPHS JUVS. CYSTS 

17. TYPE OF TRAP AND LURE 

18. TRAP NUMBER 

19. PLANT PATHOLOGY – PLANT SYMPTOMS (“X” one and describe symptoms) 

ISOLATED GENERAL 

20. WEED DENSITY 

21. WEED GROWTH STAGE 

FEW 

22. REMARKS 

SPOTTY GENERAL 

SEEDLING VEGETATIVE FLOWERING/FRUITING MATURE 

23. TENTATIVE DETERMINATION 

24. DETERMINATION AND NOTES (Not for Field Use) FOR IIBIII USE 

DATE RECEIVED 

SIGNATURE DATE RR 

PPQ FORM 391 Previous editions are obsolete. 

(AUG 02) 

This is a 6-Part form. Copies must be disseminated as follows: 

State 

Cooperator 

NO. 

LABEL 

SORTED 

PREPARED 

DATE ACCEPTED 

PART 1 – PPQ PART 2 – RETURN TO SUBMITTER AFTER IDENTIFICATION PART 3 – IIBIII OR FINAL IDENTIFIER 

PART 4 – INTERMEDIATE IDENTIFIER PART 5 – INTERMEDIATE IDENTIFIER PART 6 – RETAINED BY SUBMITTER

OMB Information 

According to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995, no persons are required to respond to a collection 

of information unless it displays a valid OMB control number. The valid OMB control number for this 

information collection is 0579-0010. The time required to complete this information collection is 

estimated to average .25 hours per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching 

existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the 

collection of information. 

Instructions 

Use PPQ Form 391, Specimens for Determination, for domestic collections (warehouse inspections, 

local and individual collecting, special survey programs, export certification). 

BLOCK INSTRUCTIONS 

1. Assign a number for each collection beginning the year, followed by the 

collector’s initials and collector’s number 

1 

EXAMPLE 

2. Enter the collection number 

2 Enter date 

3 Check block to indicate Agency submitting specimens for identification 

4 Enter name of sender 

5 Enter type of property specimen obtained from (farm, nursery, feedmill, etc.) 

6 Enter address 

7 Enter name and address of property owner 

8A-8L Check all appropriate blocks 

9 Leave Blank 

10 Enter scientific name of host, if possible 

11 Enter quantity of host and plants affected 

12 Check block to indicate distribution of plant 

13 Check appropriate blocks to indicate plant parts affected 

14 Check block to indicate pest distribution 

15 

Check appropriate block to indicate type of specimen 

Enter number specimens submitted under appropriate column 

16 Enter sampling method 

17 Enter type of trap and lure 

18 Enter trap number 

19 Enter X in block to indicate isolated or general plant symptoms 

20 Enter X in appropriate block for weed density 

21 Enter X in appropriate block for weed growth stage 

22 Provide a brief explanation if Prompt or URGENT identification is requested 

23 Enter a tentative determination if you made one 

24 Leave blank 

In 2001, Brian K. Long collected his first specimen for determination 

of the year. His first collection number is 01-BLK-001 

Distribution of PPQ Form 391 

Distribute PPQ Form 391 as follows: 

1. Send Original along with the sample to your Area Identifier. 

2. Retain and file a copy for your records. 

Figure B-2 Example of PPQ Form 391 Specimens For Determination, side 2 

Forms 


Forms 

Purpose 

Submit PPQ Form 391, Specimens for Determination, along with specimens 

sent for positive or negative identification. 

Instructions 

Follow the instructions in Table B-1 on page B-5. Inspectors must provide all 

relevant collection information with samples. This information should be 

shared within a State and with the regional office program contact. If a sample 

tracking database is available at the time of the detection, please enter 

collection information in the system as soon as possible. 

Distribution 

Distribute PPQ Form 391 as follows: 

1. Send the original along with the sample to your area identifier 

2. Keep and file a copy for your records 

B-4 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01


Determination 

Block Description Instructions 

Forms 

1 COLLECTION NUMBER 1. ASSIGN a collection number for each collection 

as follows: 2-letter State code–5-digit sample 

number (Survey Identification Number in 

Parentheses) 

Example: PA-1234 (04202010001) 

2. CONTINUE consecutive numbering for each 

subsequent collection 

3. ENTER the collection number 

2 DATE ENTER the date of the collection 

3 SUBMITTING AGENCY PLACE an X in the PPQ block 

4 NAME OF SENDER ENTER the sender’s or collector’s name 

5 TYPE OF PROPERTY ENTER the type of property where the specimen 

was collected (farm, feed mill, nursery, etc.) 

6 ADDRESS OF SENDER ENTER the sender’s or collector’s address 

7 NAME AND ADDRESS OF 

PROPERTY OR OWNER 

8A-8H REASONS FOR 

IDENTIFICATION 

9 IF PROMPT OR URGENT 

IDENTIFICATION IS 

REQUESTED, PLEASE 

GIVE A BRIEF 

EXPLANATION UNDER 

"REMARKS" 

ENTER the name and address of the property 

where the specimen was collected 

PLACE an X in the correct block 

LEAVE blank; ENTER remarks in Block 22 

10 HOST INFORMATION 

NAME OF HOST 

If known, ENTER the scientific name of the host 

11 QUANTITY OF HOST If applicable, ENTER the number of acres planted 

with the host 

12 PLANT DISTRIBUTION PLACE an X in the applicable box 

13 PLANT PARTS AFFECTED PLACE an X in the applicable box 

14 PEST DISTRIBUTION 

FEW/COMMON/ 

ABUNDANT/EXTREME 

PLACE an X in the appropriate block 

15 INSECTS/NEMATODES/ 

MOLLUSKS 

PLACE an X in the applicable box to indicate type 

of specimen 

NUMBER SUBMITTED ENTER the number of specimens submitted as 

ALIVE or DEAD under the appropriate stage 

16 SAMPLING METHOD ENTER the type of sample 

17 TYPE OF TRAP AND LURE ENTER the type of sample 

18 TRAP NUMBER ENTER the sample numbers 

19 PLANT PATHOLOGY- 

PLANT SYMPTOMS 

If applicable, check the appropriate box; 

otherwise LEAVE blank 

20 WEED DENSITY If applicable, check the appropriate box; 



Forms 


Determination (continued) 

Block Description Instructions 

21 WEED GROWTH STAGE If applicable, check the appropriate box; 


22 REMARKS ENTER the name of the office or diagnostic 

laboratory forwarding the sample; include a 

contact name, email address, phone number of 

the contact; also include the date forwarded to 

the State diagnostic laboratory or USDA–APHIS– 

NIS 

23 TENTATIVE 

DETERMINATION 

ENTER the preliminary diagnosis 

24 DETERMINATION AND 

NOTES (Not for Field Use) 

LEAVE blank; will be completed by the official 

identifier 


PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification 

According to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995, no persons are required to respond to a collection of information unless it displays a valid OMB control number. The valid OMB control number for this 

information is 0579-0102. The time required to complete this information collection is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, 

gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. 

FORM APPROVED - OMB NO. 0579-0102 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE 

PLANT PROTECTION AND QUARANTINE 

EMERGENCY ACTION NOTIFICATION 

3. NAME AND QUANTITY OF ARTICLE(S) 

6. SHIPPER 

9. OWNER/CONSIGNEE OF ARTICLES 

Name: 

Address: 

PHONE NO. FAX NO. 

SS NO. 

17. AFTER RECEIPT OF THIS NOTIFICATION COMPLETE SPECIFIED ACTION 

WITHIN (Specify No. Hours or No. Days): 

1. PPQ LOCATION 

4. LOCATION OF ARTICLES 

Figure B-3 Example of PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification 

5. DESTINATION OF ARTICLES 

7. NAME OF CARRIER 

8. SHIPMENT ID NO.(S) 

10. PORT OF LADING 11. DATE OF ARRIVAL 

13. COUNTRY OF ORIGIN 

18. SIGNATURE OF OFFICER: 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF RECEIPT OF EMERGENCY ACTION NOTIFICATION 

I hereby acknowledge receipt of the foregoing notification. 

SIGNATURE AND TITLE: DATE AND TIME: 

ACTION TAKEN: 

TAX ID NO. 

19. REVOCATION OF NOTIFICATION 

SIGNATURE OF OFFICER: DATE: 

PPQ FORM 523 (JULY 2002) Previous editions are obsolete. 

15. FOREIGN CERTIFICATE NO. 

15a. PLACE ISSUED 

15b. DATE 

Under Sections 411, 412, and 414 of the Plant Protection Act (7 USC 7711, 7712, and 7714) and Sections 10404 through 10407 of the Animal Health Protection 

Act (7 USC 8303 through 8306), you are hereby notified, as owner or agent of the owner of said carrier, premises, and/or articles, to apply remedial measures for 

the pest(s), noxious weeds, and or article(s) specified in Item 12, in a manner satisfactory to and under the supervision of an Agriculture Officer. Remedial 

measures shall be in accordance with the action specified in Item 16 and shall be completed within the time specified in Item 17. 

AFTER RECEIPT OF THIS NOTIFICATION, ARTICLES AND/OR CARRIERS HEREIN DESIGNATED MUST NOT BE MOVED EXCEPT AS DIRECTED BY 

AN AGRICULTURE OFFICER. THE LOCAL OFFICER MAY BE CONTACTED AT: 

16. ACTION REQUIRED 

TREATMENT: 

RE-EXPORTATION: 

DESTRUCTION: 

OTHER: 

SERIAL NO. 

12. ID OF PEST(S), NOXIOUS WEEDS, OR ARTICLE(S) 

12a. PEST ID NO. 

2. DATE ISSUED 

12b. DATE INTERCEPTED 

14. GROWER NO. 

Should the owner or owner's agent fail to comply with this order within the time specified below, USDA is authorized to recover from the owner or 

agent cost of any care, handling, application of remedial measures, disposal, or other action incurred in connection with the remedial action, 

destruction, or removal. 

Forms 


Forms 

Purpose 

Issue a PPQ 523, Emergency Action Notification (EAN), to hold all host plant 

material at facilities that have the suspected plant material directly or indirectly 

connected to positive confirmations. Once an investigation determines the 

plant material is not infested, or testing determines there is no risk, the material 

may be released and the release documented on the EAN. 

The EAN may also be issued to hold plant material in fields pending positive 

identification of suspect samples. When a decision to destroy plants is made, or 

in the case of submitted samples, once positive confirmation is received, the 

same EAN which placed plants on hold also is used to document any actions 

taken, such as destruction and disinfection. More action may be warranted in 

the case of other fields testing positive for this pest. 

Instructions 

If plant lots or shipments are held as separate units, issue separate EAN’s for 

each unit of suspected plant material and associated material held. EAN’s are 

issued under the authority of the Plant Protection Act of 2000 (statute 7 USC 

7701-7758 ). States are advised to issue their own hold orders parallel to the 

EAN to ensure that plant material cannot move intrastate. 

When using EAN’s to hold articles, it is most important that the EAN language 

clearly specify actions to be taken. An EAN issued for positive testing and 

positive-associated plant material must clearly state that the material must be 

disposed of, or destroyed, and areas disinfected. Include language that these 

actions will take place at the owner’s expense and will be supervised by a 

regulatory official. If the EAN is used to issue a hold order for further 

investigations and testing of potentially infested material, then document on 

the same EAN, any disposal, destruction, and disinfection orders resulting 

from investigations or testing. 

Find more instructions for completing, using, and distributing this form in the 

PPQ Manual for Agricultural Clearance. 


Appendix 

C How 

Contents 

to Submit Insect 

Specimens 

Insects and Mites C-1 

Liquids C-2 

Sticky Trap Samples C-2 

Dry Specimens C-3 

Documentation C-3 

Insects and Mites 

Taxonomic support for insect surveys requires that samples be competently 

and consistently sorted, stored, screened in most cases, and submitted to the 

identifier. The following are submission requirements for insects. 

1. Sorting Trap Samples 

Trapping initiative is most commonly associated with a pest survey 

program, such as Wood Boring and Bark Beetles (WBBB), see Bark 

Beetle Submission Protocol from the PPQ Eastern Region CAPS 

program for detailed procedures. As such, it is important to sort out the 

debris and non-target insect orders from the trap material. The taxonomic 

level of sorting will depend on the expertise available on hand and can be 

confirmed with the identifier. 

2. Screening Trap Samples 

Consult the screening aids on the CAPS website for screening aids for 

particular groups. The use of these aids should be coupled with training 

from identifiers and/or experienced screeners before their use. These can 

be found at: http://pest.ceris.purdue.edu/caps/screening.php 

3. Storing Samples 

Where appropriate, samples can be stored indefinitely in alcohol, 

however samples of dried insects such as those in sticky traps may 

decompose over time if not kept in a cool location such as a refrigerator 

or freezer. If insect samples have decomposed, do not submit them for 

identification. 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths C-1

How to Submit Insect Specimens 

Liquids 

4. Packaging and Shipping 

Ensure specimens are dead before shipping. This can be accomplished 

by placing them in a vial of alcohol or putting the dry specimens in the 

freezer for at least 1day. The following are a few tips on sorting, 

packaging and shipping liquids, sticky traps and dry samples. 

Factors such as arthropod group, their life-stage and the means they were 

collected determine the way the specimens are handled, preserved and shipped 

to the identifier. In general mites, insect larvae, soft-bodied and hard-bodied 

adult insects can be transferred to vials of 75-90 percent Ethanol (ETOH), or 

an equivalent such as isopropyl alcohol. At times, Lingren funnel trap samples 

may have rainwater in them. To prevent later decay, drain off all the liquid and 

replace with alcohol. Vials used to ship samples should contain samples from a 

single trap and a printed or hand-written label with the associated collection 

number that is also found in the top right corner of form 391. Please make sure 

to use a writing utensil that isn’t alcohol soluble, such as a micron pen or a 

pencil. It is important not to mix samples from multiple traps in a single vial so 

as to preserve the locality association data. Vials can be returned to field 

personnel upon request. 

If sending specimens in alcohol is an issue with the mail or freight forwarder, 

most of the liquid can be decanted off from the vial and then sealed tightly in 

the container just before shipping. Tell the identifier that the vials will need to 

have alcohol added back to them as soon as they are received. During the brief 

time of shipping, the specimens should not dry out if the vial is properly 

sealed. 

Sticky Trap Samples 

Adult Lepidoptera, because of their fragile appendages, scales on wings, etc. 

require special handling and shipping techniques. Lepidoptera specimens in 

traps should not be manipulated or removed for preliminary screening unless 

expertise is available. Traps can be folded, with stickum-glue on the inside, but 

only without the sticky surfaces touching, and secured loosely with a rubber 

band for shipping. Inserting a few styrofoam peanuts on trap surfaces without 

insects will cushion and prevent the two sticky surfaces from sticking during 

shipment to taxonomists. Also DO NOT simply fold traps flat or cover traps 

with transparent wrap (or other material), as this will guarantee specimens will 

be seriously damaged or pulled apart – making identification difficult or 

impossible. 

C-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01


An alternative to this method is to cut out the area of the trap with the suspect 

pest and pin it securely to the foam bottom of a tray with a lid. Make sure there 

is some room around the specimen for pinning and future manipulation. For 

larger numbers of traps, placing several foam peanuts between sticky surfaces 

(arranged around suspect specimens) can prevent sticky surfaces from making 

contact when packing multiple folded-traps for shipment. DO NOT simply 

fold traps flat or cover traps with transparent wrap (or other material), as this 

will guarantee specimens will be seriously damaged or pulled apart – making 

identification difficult or impossible. 

Dry Specimens 

Some collecting methods produce dry material that is fragile. Dry samples can 

be shipped in vials or glassine envelopes, such as the ones that can be 

purchased here: http://www.bioquip.com/Search/default.asp. As with the 

alcohol samples, make sure the collection label is associated with the sample at 

all times. This method is usually used for larger insects and its downside is the 

higher chance of breakage during shipping. Additionally, dry samples are often 

covered in debris and sometimes difficult to identify. 

Be sure that the samples are adequately packed for shipment to ensure safe 

transit to the identifier. If a soft envelope is used, wrap it in shipping bubble 

sheets; if a rigid cardboard box is used, pack it in such a way that the samples 

are restricted from moving in the container. Please include the accompanying 

documentation and tell the identifier before shipping. Remember to tell the 

identifier that samples are on the way, giving the approximate number and to 

include your contact information. 

Documentation 

Each trap sample/vial should have accompanying documentation along with it 

in the form of a completed PPQ form 391, Specimens for Determination. The 

form is fillable electronically and can be found here: 

http://cals-cf.calsnet.arizona.edu/azpdn/labs/submission/PPQ_Form_391.pdf 

It is good practice to keep a partially filled electronic copy of this form on your 

computer with your address and other information filled out in the interest of 

saving time. Indicate the name of the person making any tentative 

identification before sending to an identifier. Please make sure all fields that 

apply are filled out and the bottom field (block 24: Determination and Notes) is 

left blank to be completed by the identifier. Include the trap type, lure used, and 

trap number on the form. Also, include the phone number and/or e-mail 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths C-3


address of the submitter. Other documentation in the form of notes, images, 

etc. can be sent along with this if it useful to the determination. It is important 

that there be a way to cross-reference the sample/vial with the accompanying 

form. This can be done with a label with the “Collection Number” in the vial or 

written on the envelope, etc. 

C-4 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Appendix 

D Taxonomic 

Contents 

Background 

Support for 

Surveys 

Background D-1 

The National Identification Services (NIS) coordinates the identification of 

plant pests in support of USDA’s regulatory programs. Accurate and timely 

identifications are the foundation of quarantine action decisions and are 

essential in the effort to safeguard the nation’s agricultural and natural 

resources. 

NIS employs and collaborates with scientists who specialize in various plant 

pest groups, including weeds, insects, mites, mollusks and plant diseases. 

These scientists are stationed at a variety of institutions around the country, 

including federal research laboratories, plant inspection stations, land-grant 

universities, and natural history museums. Additionally, the NIS Molecular 

Diagnostics Laboratory is responsible for providing biochemical testing 

services in support of the agency’s pest monitoring programs. 

On June 13, 2007, the PPQ Deputy Administrator issued PPQ Policy No. PPQ- 

DA-2007-02 which established the role of PPQ NIS as the point of contact for 

all domestically- detected, introduced plant pest confirmations and 

communications. A Domestic Diagnostics Coordinator (DDS) position was 

established to administer the policy and coordinate domestic diagnostic needs 

for NIS. This position was filled in October of 2007 by Joel Floyd (USDA, 

APHIS, PPQ-PSPI,NIS 4700 River Rd., Unit 52, Riverdale, MD 20737, phone 

(301) 734-4396, fax (301) 734-5276, e-mail: joel.p.floyd@aphis.usda.gov). 

Taxonomic Support and Survey Activity 

Taxonomic support for pest surveillance is basic to conducting quality surveys. 

A misidentification or incorrectly screened target pest can mean a missed 

opportunity for early detection when control strategies would be more viable 

and cost effective. The importance of good sorting, screening, and 

identifications in our domestic survey activity cannot be overemphasized. 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths D-1

Taxonomic Support for Surveys 

Fortunately most states have, or have access to, good taxonomic support within 

their states. Taxonomic support should be accounted for in cooperative 

agreements as another cost of conducting surveys. Taxonomists and 

laboratories within the State often may require supplies, develop training 

materials, or need to hire technicians to meet the needs of screening and 

identification. As well, when considering whether to survey for a particular 

pest a given year, consider the challenges of taxonomic support. 

Sorting and Screening 

For survey activity, samples that are properly sorted and screened before being 

examined by an identifier will result in quicker turn around times for 

identification. 

Sorting 

Sorting is the first level of activity that assures samples submitted are of the 

correct target group of pests being surveyed, that is, after removal of debris, 

ensure that the correct order, or in some cases family, of insects is submitted; or 

for plant disease survey samples, select those that are symptomatic if 

appropriate. There should be a minimum level of sorting expected of surveyors 

depending on the target group, training, experience, or demonstrated ability. 

Screening 

Screening is a higher level of discrimination of samples such that the suspect 

target pests are separated from the known non-target, or native species of 

similar taxa. For example, only the suspect target species or those that appear 

similar to the target species are forwarded to an identifier for confirmation. 

There can be first level screening and second level depending on the difficulty 

and complexity of the group. Again, the degree of screening appropriate is 

dependent on the target group, training, experience, and demonstrated ability 

of the screener. 

Check individual survey protocols to determine if samples should be sorted, 

screened or sent entire (raw) before submitting for identification. If not 

specified in the protocol, assume that samples should be sorted at some level. 

Resources for Sorting, Screening, and Identification 

Sorting, screening, and identification resources and aids useful to CAPS and 

PPQ surveys are best developed by taxonomists who are knowledgeable of the 

taxa that includes the target pests and the established or native organisms in the 

same group that are likely to be in samples and can be confused with the target. 

Many times these aids can be regionally based. They can be in the form of 

dichotomous keys, picture guides, or reference collections. NIS encourages the 

development of these resources, and when aids are complete, post them in the 

CAPS Web site so others can benefit. If local screening aids are developed, 

D-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01


please notify Joel Floyd, the Domestic Diagnostics Coordinator, as to their 

availability. Please see the following for some screening aids available: http:// 

pest.ceris.purdue.edu/caps/screening.php 

Other Entities for Taxonomic Assistance in Surveys 

When taxonomic support within a state is not adequate for a particular survey, 

in some cases other entities may assist including PPQ identifiers, universities 

and state departments of agriculture in other states, and independent 

institutions. Check with the PPQ regional CAPS coordinators about the 

availability of taxonomic assistance. 

Universities and State Departments of Agriculture 

Depending on the taxonomic group, there are a few cases where these two 

entities are interested in receiving samples from other states. Arrangements for 

payment, if required for these taxonomic services, can be made through 

cooperative agreements. The National Plant Diagnostic Network (NPDN) also 

has five hubs that can provide service identifications of plant diseases in their 

respective regions. 

Independent Institutions 

The Eastern Region PPQ office has set up multi-state arrangements for 

Carnegie Museum of Natural History to identify insects from trap samples. 

They prefer to receive unscreened material and work on a fee basis per sample. 

PPQ Port Identifiers 

There are over 70 identifiers in PPQ that are stationed at ports of entry who 

primarily identify pests encountered in international commerce including 

conveyances, imported cargo, passenger baggage, and propagative material. In 

some cases, these identifiers process survey samples generated in PPQ 

conducted surveys, and occasionally from CAPS surveys. They can also enter 

into our Pest ID database the PPQ form 391 for suspect CAPS target or other 

suspect new pests, prior to being forwarded for confirmation by an NIS 

recognized authority. 

PPQ Domestic Identifiers 

PPQ also has a limited number of domestic identifiers (three entomologists and 

two plant pathologists) normally stationed at universities who are primarily 

responsible for survey samples. Domestic identifiers can be used to handle 

unscreened, or partially screened samples, with prior arrangement through the 

PPQ regional survey coordinator. They can also as an intermediary alternative 

to sending an unknown suspect to, for example, the ARS Systematic 

Entomology Lab (SEL), depending on their specialty and area of coverage. 



They can also enter into our Pest ID database the PPQ form 391 for suspect 

CAPS target or other suspect new pests, prior to being forwarded for 

confirmation by an NIS recognized authority. 

PPQ Domestic Identifiers 

Bobby Brown 

Domestic Entomology Identifier 

Specialty: forest pests (coleopteran, hymenoptera) 

Area of coverage: primarily Eastern Region 

USDA, APHIS, PPQ 

901 W. State Street 

Smith Hall, Purdue University 

Lafayette, IN 47907-2089 

Phone: 765-496-9673 

Fax: 765-494-0420 

e-mail: robert.c.brown@aphis.usda.gov 

Julieta Brambila 


Specialty: adult Lepidoptera, Hemiptera 

Area of Coverage: primarily Eastern Region 

USDA APHIS PPQ 

P.O. Box 147100 

Gainesville, FL 32614-7100 

Office phone: 352- 372-3505 ext. 438, 182 

Fax: 352-334-1729 

e-mail: julieta.bramila@aphis.usda.gov 

Kira Zhaurova 


Specialty: to be determine 

Area of Coverage: primarily Western Region 


Minnie Belle Heep 216D 

2475 TAMU 

College Station, TX 77843 

Phone: 979-450-5492 

e-mail: kira.zhaurova@aphis.usda.gov 

Grace O'Keefe 

Domestic Plant Pathology Identifier 

Specialty: Molecular diagnostics (citrus greening, P. ramorum, bacteriology, 

cyst nematode screening) 

Area of Coverage: primarily Eastern Region 



105 Buckhout Lab 

Penn State University 

University Park, PA 16802 

Lab: 814 - 865 - 9896 

Cell: 814 – 450- 7186 

Fax: 814 - 863 – 8265 

e-mail: grace.okeefe@aphis.usda.gov 


Craig A. Webb, Ph.D. 

Domestic Plant Pathology Identifier 

Specialty: Molecular diagnostics (citrus greening, P. ramorum, cyst nematode 

screening) 

Area of Coverage: primarily Western Region 


Department of Plant Pathology 

Kansas State University 

4024 Throckmorton Plant Sciences 

Manhattan, KS 66506-5502 

Cell (785) 633-9117 

Office (785) 532-1349 

Fax: 785-532-5692 

e-mail: craig.a.webb@aphis.usda.gov 

Final Confirmations 

If identifiers or laboratories at the state, university, or institution level suspect 

they have detected a CAPS target, a plant pest new to the United States, or a 

quarantine pest of limited distribution in a new state, the specimens should be 

forwarded to an NIS recognized taxonomic authority for final confirmation. 

State cooperator and university taxonomists can go through a PPQ area 

identifier or the appropriate domestic identifier that covers their area to get the 

specimen in the PPQ system (for those identifiers, see table G-1-1 in the 

Agriculture Clearance Manual, Appendix G link below). They will then send it 

to the NIS recognized authority for that taxonomic group. 

State level taxonomists, who are reasonably sure they have a new United 

States. record, CAPS target, or new federal quarantine pest, can send the 

specimen directly to the NIS recognized authority, but must notify their State 

Survey Coordinator (SSC), PPQ Pest Survey Specialist (PSS), State Plant 

Health Director (SPHD), and State Plant Regulatory Official (SPRO). 

Before forwarding these suspect specimens to identifiers or for confirmation 

by the NIS recognized authority, please complete a PPQ form 391 with the 

tentative determination. Also fax a copy of the completed PPQ Form 391 to 



“Attention: Domestic Diagnostics Coordinator” at 301-734-5276, or send a 

PDF file in an e-mail to mailto:nis.urgents@aphis.usda.govwith the overnight 

carrier tracking number. 

The addresses of NIS recognized authorities of where suspect specimens are to 

be sent can be found in The Agriculture Clearance Manual, Appendix G, tables 

G-1-4 and G-1-5: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ 

ports/downloads/mac_pdf/g_app_identifiers.pdf 

Only use Table G-1-4, the “Urgent” listings, for suspected new United States 

records, or state record of a significant pest, and Table G-1-5, the “Prompt” 

listings, for all others. 

When the specimen is being forwarded to a specialist for NIS confirmation, 

use an overnight carrier, insure it is properly and securely packaged, and 

include the hard copy of the PPQ form 391 marked “Urgent” if it is a suspect 

new pest, or “Prompt” as above. 

Please contact Joel Floyd, the Domestic Diagnostics Coordinator if you have 

questions about a particular sample routing, at phone number: 301-734-5276, 

or e-mail: joel.p.floyd@aphis.usda.gov 

Digital Images for Confirmation of Domestic Detections 

For the above confirmations, do not send digital images for confirmation. Send 

specimens in these instances. For entry into NAPIS, digital imaging 

confirmations can be used for new county records for widespread pests by state 

taxonomists or identifiers if they approve it first. They always have the 

prerogative to request the specimens be sent. 

Communications of Results 

If no suspect CAPS target, program pests, or new detections are found, 

communication of these identification results can be made by domestic 

identifiers or taxonomists at other institutions directly back to the submitter. 

They can be in spread sheet form, on hard copy PPQ form 391’s, or other 

informal means with the species found, or “no CAPS target or new suspect pest 

species found”. Good record keeping by the intermediate taxonomists 

performing these identifications is essential. 

All confirmations received from NIS recognized authorities, positive or 

negative, are communicated by NIS to the PPQ Emergency and Domestic 

Programs (EDP) staff in PPQ headquarters. EDP then notifies the appropriate 

PPQ program managers and the SPHD and SPRO simultaneously. One of these 

contacts should forward the results to the originating laboratory, diagnostician, 

or identifier. 


Data Entry 


Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) 

For survey data entered into NAPIS, new country and state records should be 

confirmed by an NIS recognized authority, while for others that are more 

widespread, use the identifications from PPQ identifiers or state taxonomists. 




Appendix 

E Images 

Figure E-1 Field guide for the identification of Dendrolimus pini (L.), the pinetree 

lappet. Adult moths photograph by Peslier Serge. Larva 

photograph by Jeroen Voogd. 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths E-1

Images 

Figure E-2 Typical one generation per year life cycle of Dendrolimus pini (L.), 

pine-tree lappet. Roman numerals correspond to the larval 

stages. See Pest Identification section for specific pictures of 

each developmental stage. Silhouette picture of Scots pine by 

Ian Burt at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ 

File:Pinus_sylvestris_Silhouette_(oddsock).png 

E-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Images 

Figure E-3 Dendrolimus pini (L.) Life Cycle and Survey. Chronological 

development of Dendrolimus pini (L.), pine-tree lappet and 

suggested types of survey for each specific developmental 

stage. During an outbreak, pesticides applications are normally 

done early in the spring, at the end of the overwintering period 

between March and May. 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths E-3

Images 

E-4 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Appendix 

F Biological 

Control 


Dendrolimus pini (L.) 

Organism group Species Host stage affected References 

Bacteria 

Achromobacter sp. Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Aerobacter aerogenes Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Aerobacter cloaceae Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Bacillus brevis Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Bacillus cereus Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Bacillus cereus var. mycoides 

Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Bacillus megaterium Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. 

Sotto biotype dendrolimus 


Klebsiella aerogenes Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Proteus rettgeri Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Pseudomonas chlororaphis Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Sarcina flava Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Serratia marcescens Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Fungi 

Acremonium aranearum Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Aspergillus parasiticus Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Beauveria bassiana Larva Malinowski, 2009; Sierpinska, 

1998 

Beauveria tenella Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Cordyceps militaris Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Fusarium sp. Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Metarhizium anisopliae Larva Malinowski, 2009 

Mucor sp. Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Paecilomyces farinosus Larva Malinowski, 2009; Sierpinska, 

1998 

Paecilomyces fumosoroseus 


Penicillum sp. Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Scopulariopsis brevicaulis Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Verticillum falcatum Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

12/2012-01 Dendrolimus Pine Moths F-1





Verticillum lecanii Larva Malinowski, 2009; Sierpinska, 

1998 

Verticillum sp. I Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Verticillum sp. II Larva Sierpinska, 1998 

Viruses 

Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis 

Virus of D. pini 

Granulosis virus of Dendrolimus 

sibiricus 

Insects 

Order: Family 

Larva Slizynski and Lipa, 1975 

Egg, Larva, Pupa Orlovskaya, 1998 

Coleoptera: Carabidae 

Calasoma sycophanta L. Larval and pupal predator Sierpinska, 1998; Melis, 

1940 

Carabus violaceus L. Larva predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Carabus coriaceus L. Larva predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Diptera: Muscidae 

Amphiochaeta rufipes Meig Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998;Sitowski, 

1928 

Muscina pabulorum Fallen Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Melis, 

1940 

Muscina stabulans Fallen Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Sitowski, 

1928 

Stomoxys calcitrans L. Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998;Sitowski, 

1928 

Diptera: Sarcophagidae 

Agria affinis (Fallen) Larval parasitoid Melis, 1940; Sitowski, 1928 

Parasarcophaga harpax Larval and pupal parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Malyshev, 

Pandellé 

1996 

Parasarcophaga portschinskyi 

Rohdendorf 

Pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Pseudosarcophaga affinis 

(Fallen) 

Sarcophaga albiceps Meigen 

Sarcophaga schuetzei 

Kramer 

Larval parasitoid Matsumura, 1926a; Melis, 

1940 

Larval parasitoid Melis, 1940 

F-2 Dendrolimus Pine Moths 12/2012-01

Sarcophaga tuberosa Pandellé 

Sarcophaga uliginosa 

Kramer 

Diptera: Tachinidae 

Campylochaeta inepta (Meigen) 

Compsilura concinnata (Meigen) 





Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Melis, 

1940 


Larval parasitoid Ford and Shaw, 2010 

Larval parasitoid 

Parasitoid 

Malyshev, 1996 Melis, 1940 

Blepharipa pratensis (Mei- Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996;Ford and 

gen) 

Shaw, 2010 

Blondelia nigripes (Fallen) Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Drino atropivora (Robineau- 

Desvoidy) 

Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Drino inconspicua (Meigen) Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Exorista affinis Fallen Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Exorista larvarum L. Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 Melis, 1940 

Lydella nigripes Fallen Larval and pupal parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Masicera cuculliae Robineau-Desvoidy 


Nowickia ferox (Panzer) Larval and pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Pales pavida (Meigen) Larval and pupal parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Parasetigena silvestris 

(Robineau-Desvoidy) 


Phryxe vulgaris Fallen Larval and pupal parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Sturmia bimaculata Hartig Larval and pupal parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Hymenoptera: Braconidae 

Apanteles liparidis Larval parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Meteorus versicolor Wesmael 

Meteorus bimaculatus Wesmael. 

Microgaster memorum Ratzeburg 

Microgaster gastropachae 

Bouché 

Microgaster glomeratus 

Brischke 

Microgaster ordinarius 

Brischke 

Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Malyshev, 

1996 






Perilitus secalis Haliday Larval parasitoid Melis, 1940 






Perilitus bicolor Wesmael Larval parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Perilitus unicolor Ratzeburg Larval parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Rhogas esenbeckii Ratzeburg 

Hymenoptera: Chalcididae 


Anastatus bifasciatus (Fonscolombe) 

Egg parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Chrysolampus solitarius 

Hartig 


Encyrtus chalconotus 

Brischke 


Encyrtus embryophagus 

Hartig 


Entendon evanescens Ratzeburg 


Entendon xanthopus Nees. Egg parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Eurytoma abrotani Ratzeburg 


Monodontomerus aureus 

Walker 


Monodontomerus minor 

Brischke 


Pentarthron carpocapsae 

Schreiner 


Pteromalum muscarum Ratzeburg 


Pteromalum eucerum 

Brischke 


Tetrastichus xanthopus 

Nees 


Torymus anephelus Ratzeburg 


Torymus minor Ratzeburg Egg parasitoid Melis, 1940 

Hymenoptera: Formicidae 

Formica polyctena Forster Larval predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Formica nigricans Emery Larval predator Malysheva, 1963 

Formica rufa L. Larval predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae 

Anomalon giganteum Ratzeburg 

Anomalon unicolor Ratzeburg 

Melis, 1940 

Melis, 1940 


Aphanistes bigutattus Grav Melis, 1940 

Blaptocampus nigricornis 

Wesmael 

Melis, 1940 

Ephialtes mediator Ratzeburg 

Melis, 1940 

Exochilum circumflexum L. Melis, 1940 

Habronyx heros Wesmael Melis, 1940 

Hemiteles brunnipes Ratzeburg 

Melis, 1940 

Hemiteles fulvipes Gravenhorst 

Matsumura, 1926a 

Hemiteles areator Ratzeburg 

Melis, 1940 

Ichneumon fusorius L. Melis, 1940 

Ichneumon ratzeburgii Ratzeburg 

Melis, 1940 

Ischchnoceros marchicus 

Ratzeburg 

Melis, 1940 

Iseropus stercorator (Fabricius) 

Larval and Pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Mesochorus ater Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 

Ophion luteus Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 





Ophion obscurus Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 

Paniscus testaceus Ratze- 

Melis, 1940 

burg 

Pezomachus agilis Ratze- 

Melis, 1940 

burg 

Pezomachus cursitans Rat- 

Melis, 1940 

zeburg 

Pezomachus latrator Ratze- 

Melis, 1940 

burg 

Pezomachus pedestris Rat- 

Melis, 1940 

zeburg 

Pimpla bernuthii Brischke Melis, 1940; Matsumura, 

1926a 

Pimpla didyma Grav Melis, 1940 

Pimpla flaconotata Brischke Melis, 1940 

Pimpla favicans Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 

Pimpla holmgreni Schmiedeknecht 

Larval parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Melis, 

1940 

Pimpla instigator Fabricius Larval and pupal parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Melis, 

1940 

Pimpla musii Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 






Pimpla turionella Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 

Trogus lutorius Ratzeburg Melis, 1940 

Hymenoptera: Scelionidae 

Telenomus laeviusculus 

(Ratzeburg) 

Telenomus verticillatus 

Kiefer 

Telenomus phalaenarum 

Nees 

Telenomus tetratomus Kieffer 

Hymenoptera: Tetrastichidae 

Tetrastichus xanthops (Ratzeburg) 

Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae 

Trichogramma cocoeciae 

Marchal 

Trichogramma embryophagum 

Hartig 

Trichogramma evanescens 

Westwood 

Raphidoptera: Raphidae 

Egg parasitoid Moeller and Engelmann, 

2008 

Egg parasitoid Sierpinska, 1998; Ruivkin, 

1950 


Egg parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Larval/Pupal parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Egg parasitoid Malyshev, 1996, 1996 

Egg parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 1996; Sierpinska, 

1998 

Egg parasitoid Malyshev, 1996 

Rhaphidia ophiopsis L. Egg and larval predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Rhynchota: Pentatomidae 

Picromerus bidens L. Larva predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Troilus luridus L. Larva predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Birds and Mammals 

Cuckoo (Cuculidae) Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Golden orioles (Oriolus oriolus) 

Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Starlings (Stumus vulgaris) Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Coal-tits (Periparus sp.) Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Jays (Cyanocitta sp.) Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Thrushs (Turdidae) Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 


Jackdaws (Corvus monedula) 

Chaffinchs (Fringilla coelebs) 



Woodpeckers Larval and adult predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Moles Hybernating larva predator Sierpinska, 1998 

Bats Adults predator Sierpinska, 1998 





Table F-2 Reported biological control agents of Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetverikov, the Siberian silk 

moth (SSM) and D. superans (Butler), the Sakhalin silk moth (SaSM) 

Organism group 

Species 

Host stage affected D.sibiricus D.superans References 

INSECTS Order: 

Family 

Diptera: Bombyliidae 

Hemipenthes maurus 

L. 

Diptera: Chalcididae 

Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Brachymeria minuta 

L. 

Diptera: Heleidae 


Forcypomia sp. 

Diptera: Muscidae 

Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Muscina stabulans 

Fallen 


Muscina assimilis 

Fallen 

Diptera: Sarcophagidae 


Sarcophaga albiceps 

Meigen 


Blepharipa schineri 

(Mesnil) 

Blepharipa scutellata 

(Robineau-Desvoidy) 

Blepharipa pratensis 

(Meigen) 

Carcelia excisa 

Fallen 

Carcelia gnava Meigen 

Predacious Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

1926b 




Larval-pupal parasitoid 


Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

1926b 

Yes Matsumura, 1926a 






Species 

Ctenophorocera pavida 

(Meigen) 

Echinomyia dendrolimi 

Matsumura 

Echinomyia dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Exorista fasciata 

Fallen 

Exorista larvarum 

(L.) 



Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Yes Matsumura, 1926b 


Yes Matsumura, 1926a 

Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962; Yue 

et al., 1996 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 

Kolomiec, 1962 

Tachina grossa L. Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Hubneria affinis 

(Fallen) 


Kramerea schutzei 

Kramer 


Masicera sphingivora(Robineau-Desvoidy) 


Masicera zimini Kolo- Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 

miets 


Nemosturmia Larval-pupal parasit- Yes Yue et al., 1996 

amoena (Meigen) oid 

Pales pavida Meigen Larval parasitoid Yes CABI, 2011a 

Parasarcophaga albiceps 

Meigen 

Parasarcophaga 

harpax Pand 

Parasarcophaga 

pseudoscoparia 

(Kramer) 

Parasarcophaga uliginosa 

Kramer 

Pseudosarcophaga 

affinis (Fall) 








Hemiptera: Pentatomidae 

Picromerus bidens L. Larval Predator Yes Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Picromerus lewisi Larval predator Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

Scott 

1926b 

Zicrona coerulea L. 

Hemiptera: Reduvidae 

Larval predator Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

1926b 

Harpactor leucospi- Larval predator Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

lus Stal 

1926b 


Nabis kurilensis Matsumura 

Coleoptera: Carabidae 

Calosoma chinensis 

Kirby 

Calosoma ogumae 

Matsumura 

Calosoma maximowiczi 

Mor. 





Species 


1926b 


1926b 


1926b 


1926b 

Hymenoptera: Braconidae 

Apanteles dendrolimi 

Matsumura 

Larval parasitoid Yes Matsumura, 1926b 

Apanteles dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Apanteles eucosmae 

Wilkinson 

Apanteles liparidis 

Bouche 

Apanteles ordinarius 

(Ratzeburg) 

Apanteles rubripes 

(Haliday) 

Cotesia ordinaria 

(Ratzeburg) 

Phanomerus dendrolimi 

Matsumura 

Phanomeris dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Rhogas dendrolimi 

(Matsumura) 

Rhogas spectabilis 

(Matsumura) 

Larval parasitoid Yes Matsumura, 1926a 

Larval parasitoid Yes Liu and Shih, 1957 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Fukuyama, 1980; 

Kasparyan, 1965; 



Kolomiec, 1962; Liu 

and Shih, 1957; 

Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940; Yue et 

al., 1996 






Kolomiec, 1962; 


1940 


Hymenoptera: Callimomidae 

Monodontomerus 

minor (Ratzeburg) 

Pupal parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Monodontomerus 

obsoletus Fabricius 








Species 

Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae 

Encyrtus pinicola 

Matsumura 

Ooencyrtus pinicolus 

(Matsumura) 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

1926b 

Egg parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962; Yao 

et al., 2005 

Ooencyrtus sp. Egg parasitoid Yes Yue et al., 1996 

Ooencyrtus dendrolimusi 

Chu 

Ooencyrtus pinicolus 

(Matsumura) 

Egg parasitoid Yes Liu and Shih, 1957 

Egg parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae 

Anastatus disparis 

Ruschka 

Egg parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Eupelmella vesicularis 

(Retzius) 


Eupelmus microzonus 

Forster 

Hymenoptera: Eurtomidae 


Eurytoma sp. Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 


Formica rufa L. Larval predator Yes Kolomiec, 1962 


Amblyteles amatorius 

(Muller) 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

1926b; Tabata and 

Tamanuki, 1940 

Anilasta valida Pfank Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 


Apechthis compunctor 

(L.) 


Apechthis dendrolimi 

(Matsumura) 

Astiphromma strenuum 

(Holmgren) 

Campoplex proximus 

Foster 

Larval parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 



Campoplex sp Larval parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Casinaria nigripes 

(Gravenhorst) 

Coccygomimus instigator 

(Fabricius) 

Cratocryptus opacus 

Thompson 


Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962; Yue 

et al., 1996 

Pupal parasitoid Yes Yue et al., 1996 



Delomerista mandibularis 

Gravenhorst 





Species 


Epiurus sp Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Exochilum circumflexum 

(L.) 

Exochilum dendrolimi 

Matsumura 

Exochilum dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Exochilum giganteum 

Gravenhorst 

Exochilum laricis 

Matsumura 

Exochilum sachalinense 

Matsumura 

Exolytus splendens 

(Gravenhorst) 


1940 






1926b 


1926b 


Gelis spp. Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Habronyx gigas Larval-pupal parasit- Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Kriechbaumer oid 

Habronyx heros Larval parasitoid Yes Fukuyama, 1980; 

(Kriechbaumer.) 



1940; Yue et 

al., 1996 

Habronyx matsukemushii 

Matsumura 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926b 

Habronyx jozankeanus 

Matsumura 


Larval parasitoid Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

1926b 

Hemiteles sp Larval parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Hemiteles dendrolimi 

Matsumura 


Hemiteles dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 


Hyposoter sp. Larval parasitoid Yes Fukuyama, 1980 

Hyposoter takagii 

(Matsumura) 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yue et al., 1996 

Iseropus stercorator Pupal parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 

(Fabricius) 


Itoplectis alternans 

(Gravenhorst) 


Mesochorus sp. Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 






Species 

Mesochorus 

kuwayamae Matsumura 

Mesostemus matsukemushiiMatsumura 

Opheltes apicalis 

Matsumura 

Opheltes glaucopterus 

L. 

Paniscus testaceus 

Gravenhorst 

Pezomachus dendrolimi 

Matsumura 

Pezomachus dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Phygadeuon canaliculatus 

Thompson 





1926b 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926b 


1940 

Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 




Phygadeuon sp. Larval parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Pimpla disparis 

Viereck 

Pimpla instigator 

(Fabricius) 

Pimpla jezoensis 

Matsumura 

Pimpla pluto Ashmead 

Pimpla tabatai 

Uchida 


1940 

Pupal parasitoid Yes Yes Kolomiec, 1962; 


1940 


Pupal parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Pupal parasitoid Yes Tabata and Tamanuki, 

1940 

Pimpla turionellae L. Pupal parasitoid Yes Yes Kolomiec, 1962; 


1940 

Spilichneumon oratorius 

(Fabricius) 

Schizoloma amictum 

(Fabricius) 

Stylocryptus profligator 

(Fabricius) 






1940 


1940 


Theronia atalantae 

Poda 

Theronia japonica 

Ashmead 





Species 



Kolomiec, 1962; 


1940 


Hymenoptera: Perilampidae 

Perilampus nitens 

Walker 


Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae 

Dibrachys cavus 

(Walker) 


Eutelus matsuke- Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 

mushii Matsumura 


Habrocytus sp. Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Holcaerus dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Hypopteromalus 

apantelophagus 

(Crawford) 

Mesopolobus superansi 

Yang & Gu 

Pachyneuron nawai 

Ashmead 

Pachyneuron solitarium 

(Hartig) 



1940 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yao et al., 2005 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Liu and Shih, 1957; 


1940 

Larval parasitoid Yes Yes Kolomiec, 1962; Yao 

et al., 2005; Yue et 

al., 1996 

Pteromalus sp. Larval parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Pteromalus dendrolimi 

Matsumura 


Pteromalus dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Pteromalus matsukemushii 

Matsumura 

Pteromalus matsuyadorii 

Matsumura 

Pteromalus 

kuwayamae Matsumura 


Telenomus gracilis 

(Mayr) 




1926b 


1926b 


1926b 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 







Species 

Telenomus tetratomus 

Kieffer 

Telenomus dendrolimusi 

Matsumura 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Kolomiec, 1962; Yao 


al., 1996 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Liu and Shih, 1957; 


1940 

Hymenoptera: Tetrastichidae 

Geniocerus xanthopus 

(Ratzeburg) 



Trichogramma dendrolimi 

Matsumura 


Westwood 

Trichogramma semblidis 

(Aurivillius) 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Kasparyan, 1965; 

Kolomiec, 1962; Yao 


al., 1996 

Egg parasitoid Yes Liu and Shih, 1957 

Egg parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Trichogramma sp. Egg parasitoid Yes Kolomiec, 1962 


Matsumura 

Egg parasitoid Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926b; 


1940 

Hymenoptera: Vespidae 

Polystes galicus L. Larval predator Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Polystes chinensis Larval predator Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

Fabricius 

1926b 

Vespa rufa sibirica Larval predator Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

Andre 

1926b 

Vespa japonica Larval predator Yes Yes Matsumura, 1926a, 

Sause 

SPIDERS and MITES 

Acarina: Trombiidae 

1926b 

Trombidium sp. Predator Yes Kolomiec, 1962 

Araneae: Araneidae 

Araneus marmoreus 

Clerck 

Araneus ventricosus 

L. 

Xysticus ephippiatus 

Simon 

VIRUSES 


Predator Yes Yue et al., 1996 





Cytoplasmic Polihydrosis 

Virus (DsCPV) 


Nuclear Polihydrosis 

Virus (DsNPV) 

BIRDS and OTHER 

VERTEBRATES 

Parus major artatus 

(Great tit bird) 

Coloeus monedula L. 

(Jackdaws birds) 

Cuculus canorus 

canorus (Cuckoo 

bird) 

Eutamias sibiricus 

(Siberian Chipmunk) 





Species 


Larva Yes Yue et al., 1996 

Larva Yes Yue et al., 1996 


Pupal predators Yes Boldaruev, 1959 


Predator Yes Liu and Shih, 1957 


(Walker), the Masson pine caterpillar (MPC). 


Species 

Host stage affected References 

BACTERIA 

Bacillus thuringiensis Larva Ying, 1986b 

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. 

dendrolimus 

FUNGI: ASCOMYCOTA 

Larva Li et al., 1984 

Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) 

Larva Hsiao, 1981; Jiang, 2000 

Isaria farinosa (Holmskjold) Larva Ying, 1986b 

Metarhizium anisopliae 

(Metschnikoff) 

INSECTS Order: Family 


Larva Jiang, 2000 

Blepharipa zebina Walker Larval/Pupal parasitoid Bassus, 1974; CABI, 2011b 

Carcelia matsukarehae 

Shima 

Larval parasitoid Wang and Liu, 1993 

Exorista xanthaspis (Wiedemann) 

Hymenoptera: Chalcididae 

Larval/Pupal parasitoid Xia and Zhou, 1992 

Brachymeria donganensis 

Liao & Chen 

Larval/Pupal parasitoid 






Species 

Brachymeria euploaeae 

Westwood 

Larval parasitoid Chu, 1933 

Brachymeria lasus Walker Pupal parasitoid Wang and Liu, 1993 

Eurytoma sp. Pupal parasitoid Wang and Liu, 1993 

Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae 

Anastatus gastropachae 

Ashmead 

Egg Parasitoid Xia and Zhou, 1992 

Mesocomys albitarsis (Ashmead) 


Egg parasitoid Chu, 1937 

Camponotus japonicus Mayr Larval/Pupal predator Wang et al., 1991 

Formica japonica 

Motschoulsky 

Larval predator CABI, 2011b 

Polyrhachis dives Smith Larval predator Hsiao, 1981 


Casinaria nigripes (Gravenhorst) 

Pupal parasitoid Qian, 1987 

Pimpla disparis Viereck Pupal parasitoid Wang and Liu, 1993 

Theronia zebra (Vollenhoven) 

Xanthopimpla japonica 

Kreiger 

Xanthopimpla pedator Fabricius 


Telenomus dendrolimi (Matsumura) 

Telenomus theophilae (Wu 

& Chen) 


Trichogramma chilonis Ishii 

(attacks eggs) 


Matsumura 


Westwood 

MICROSPORIDIA 

Larval parasitoid Wang and Liu, 1993 

Pupal parasitoid Chu, 1937 

Pupal parasitoid Wang and Liu, 1993 

Egg parasitoid Chu, 1937; Xu et al., 2006 

Egg parasitoid Wei et al., 2005 

Egg parasitoid 

Egg parasitoid Peng et al., 1998; Shen et 

al., 1992; Sun et al., 1990 

Egg parasitoid Chu, 1937 

Nosema bombycis Naegeli. Larval/Pupal parasite Lu et al., 1986 

VIRUSES 







Species 


cytoplasmic polyhedrosis 

virus 

BIRDS and other VERTE- 

BRATES 

Larva Hsiao, 1981; Ying, 1986b 

Parus major Larval predator Wang and Liao, 1990 

Parus monticolus 

yunnanensis 

Larval predator Wang and Liao, 1990 

Passer rutilans Larval predator Wang and Liao, 1990

New Pest Response Guidelines - aphis - US Department of Agriculture

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