Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India - India Environment ...

This issue 

Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India 

WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA 

Post Box # 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248001 

Tel.: +91-135-2640111-115, +91-135-2640304 Fax: +91-135-2640117 

E-mail: envis@wii.gov.in; wii@envis.nic.in 

URL http://www.wii.gov.in/envis; http://www.wiienvis.nic.in 

Special Habitats and 

Threatened Plants of India 

ISSN 0972-088X 

Vol. 11 No.1 2008 

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Envis 

Wildlife and Protected Areas

The Environmental Information System (ENVIS) Centre at the Wildlife Institute 

of India, set up in September 1997, is part of the ENVIS setup of the Ministry of 

Environment and Forests, Government of India. It deals with general matters 

concerning ‘wildlife’ and specifically those related to ‘protected areas’. Its 

objectives are to: 

♦ Establish a data bank on information related to wildlife and wildlife 

protected areas, and thereby build up a repository and dissemination centre 

for information on wildlife science; 

♦ Promote national and international cooperation, and exchange of wildlife 

related information; 

♦ Provide decision makers at the apex level with information related to 

conservation and development 

Envis Envis Bulletin 

Bulletin 

Wildlife and Protected Areas 

Project Leader 

P.R. Sinha 

Project Coordinator 

V.B. Mathur 

Project Co-coordinator 

S.A. Hussain 

Research Associate 

Jatinder Chadha 

Advisory Committee 

P.K. Mathur 

B.C. Choudhury 

K. Sivakumar 

Y.S. Verma 

R. Thapa 

K.K. Shrivastva 

WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA 

Post Bag #18, Chandrabani, Dehradun - 248 001, India 

Tel.: +91 135 2640111-115, Fax : +91 135 2640117 

Email: envis@wii.gov.in; wii@envis.nic.in 

Website: http://wii.gov.in/envis; http://wiienvis.nic.in


Bulletin 



The contents of the bulletin may be freely used for non-commercial 

purposes with due acknowledgement 

Citation : Rawat, G.S. (Ed.). 2008. Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India. ENVIS Bulletin: 

Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. pp. 239. 

Citation for individual papers : Kumar P. & G.S. Rawat. 2008. Chotanagpur Plateau: Relict Habitats and 

Endemic Plants. pp. 167-173. In: Rawat, G.S. (Ed.). 2008. Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of 

India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. 

ENVIS Bulletin : Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Printed in 2008. 

Credits : 

Front Cover : 

Design : Pankaj Kumar 

Central Photo : Semi-evergreen forests during monsoon: Manoj V. Nair 

Inset Photos (Left to Right) : Exbucklandia populnea: H. J. Chowdhery, Hoya wightii ssp. palniensis: 

Robert Stewart, Pleione praecox: S.Z. Lucksom, Strobilanthes zenkerianus: Jomy Augustine, Caralluma 

edulis: Amit Kotia, Eulophia flava: Pankaj Kumar, Rheum nobile: Sandeep Tambe 

Editorial Processing : Jyoti Prasad Nautiyal & Rajeev Thapa 

Design & Layout : Jyoti Prasad Nautiyal 

Maps : Umeshkumar L. Tiwari & Amit Kotia 

Printer : Print Vision, Dehradun Tel. : 0135 | 2741702 | 6532172 

ENVIS Bulletin is also available on the internet at 

WII website : http://www.wii.gov.in/envhome/eindex


Bulletin 



Editor 

G.S. Rawat 

Editorial Associate 

Jatinder Chadha 

Photo Editor 

Pankaj Kumar

Contents 

Mail Bag x 

Director’s Note xiii 

P.R.Sinha 

Foreword xv 

M. Sanjappa 

Monitoring Threatened Plants and their Habitats: Way Forward xvii 

Editorial 

SECTION I 

Trans-Himalaya 

1.0 Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of Ladakh 

G.S. Rawat 

2.0 Nilang: A Little Known Trans-Himalayan Valley in Uttarakhand and 

its Floral Wealth 

S. Chandola, H.B. Naithani & G.S. Rawat 

3.0 Cold Deserts of Himachal Pradesh: Unique Habitats and Threatened 

Plants 

Vaneet Jishtu & G.S. Goraya 

SECTION II 

North-West and Western Himalaya 

4.0 Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of Kashmir Himalaya 

G.H. Dar 

5.0 Threatened Plants of Jammu Region, North-West Himalaya and 

Strategies for their Conservation 

O.P. Sharma 

6.0 Rare and Little Known Plants from Lower Himachal Pradesh 

Krishan Lal 

7.0 Some Plants of Taxonomic and High Conservation Significance in 

Uttarakhand Himalaya 

Manoj Chandran 

8.0 Threatened Plants of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Himalaya 

Gajendra Singh & Ishwari Dutt Rai 

9.0 Distribution, Status and Conservation of Picrorhiza kurrooa in the 

Himalayan Region 

Anjali Uniyal & Sanjay Kumar Uniyal 

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SECTION III 

Central / Eastern Himalaya and North-East India 

10.0 Endemic and Threatened Orchids of Sikkim and Their Conservation 

S.Z. Lucksom 

11.0 The Alpine Landscape in Western Sikkim: Special Habitats and 

Threatened Plants 

Sandeep Tambe & G. S. Rawat 

12.0 Arunachal Pradesh – The Cradle of Flowering Plants 

H.J.Chowdhery 

13.0 Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of Meghalaya 

Swapna Prabhu 

Section IV 

Upper Gangetic Plains, Arid & Semi-Arid Zone 

14.0 Threatened Plants and their Habitats in Indian Thar Desert 

Amit Kotia 

15.0 Status Survey of Threatened Plants in Kachchh Desert, Gujarat 

Justus Joshua, S.F. Wesley Sunderraj & Pankaj N. Joshi 

16.0 Semiarid Region of India : Vegetation Characteristics and Threatened 


Amit Kotia, Umeshkumar L. Tiwari & G.S. Rawat 

17.0 Gangetic Khadar : One of the Most Threatened Biomes in India 

Athar Ali Khan, Afifullah Khan & Sweta Agrawal 

Section V 

Western Ghats 

18.0 Threatened Ceropegias of the Western Ghats and Strategies for 

Their Conservation 

S. R. Yadav & Mayur Y. Kamble 

19.0 Rare Flora of the Upper Palnis 

Robert Stewart & Tanya Balcar 

20.0 Genus Strobilanthes in High Ranges of Kerala : Diversity, Distribution 

and Endemism 

Jomy Augustine 

21.0 Rocky Outcrops as Special Habitats in North Western Ghats, 

Maharashtra 

Aparna Watve 

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Section VI 

Deccan Peninsula 

22.0 Vegetation Characteristic and Special Habitats in the Transition 

Zone of Vidarbha – Dandakaranya, Deccan Plateau 

Ravikiran Govekar 

23.0 Vegetation and Floral Characteristics of Kanger Valley National Park, 

Chhattisgarh 

Amit Kotia & A. N. Parsad 

24.0 Chotanagpur Plateau : Relict Habitats and Endemic Plants 

Pankaj Kumar & G.S. Rawat 

25.0 Threatened Plants of Orissa and Priority Species for Conservation 

A.K. Biswal & Manoj V. Nair 

26.0 Floristic wealth of Javvadhu Hills, Eastern Ghats, With Special 

Emphasis on Threatened Plants 

R. Vijaya Sankar, K. Ravikumar & G.S. Goraya 

27.0 Shola Forests and Some Important Species of Southernmost Eastern 

Ghats 

L. Arul Pragasan, C. Muthumperumal & N. Parthasarathy 

Section VII 

Coasts and Islands 

28.0 Mangroves of Orissa Coast : Floral Diversity and Conservation Status 

H. N. Thatoi & A.K. Biswal 

29.0 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests of India: Plants of High Conservation 

Significance 

N. Parthasarathy 

30.0 Endemic Plants of Andaman and Nicobar Islands 

H.B. Naithani 

Section VIII 

Miscellaneous 

31.0 Sacred Groves : People’s Contribution to Conservation 

Seema Dhaila-Adhikari & B. S. Adhikari 

32.0 Endemic Pteridophytes of India : Distribution and Threat Status 

Jatinder Chadha, Hem Chander & Brijesh Kumar 

33.0 Selected Bibliography on Threatened Plants and Special Habitats of 

India (Published after 1990) 

J.S. Kathayat, Jatinder Ch adha & J.P. Nautiyal 

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PLATES 

List of Plates & Boxes 

Plate – 1 Landforms and Little Known Taxa from Ladakh 

Plate – 2A Location and Landforms of Nilang Valley, Uttarakhand 

Plate – 2B Unique Plants of Nilang Valley 

Plate – 3A Lahaul-Spiti: Important Localities and Habitats 

Plate – 3B Threatened Plants of Lahaul-Spiti 

Plate – 4 Kashmir Himalaya: Landscape and Threatened Species 

Plate – 5 Some Threatened Plants of Jammu Region, NW Himalaya 

Plate – 6 Little Known Plants from Lower Himachal Pradesh 

Plate – 7A Some Interesting Plants of Uttarakhand - I 

Plate – 7B Some Interesting Plants of Uttarakhand - II 

Plate – 8 Threatened Plants and Their Habitats in Kedarnath WLS 

Plate – 9 Distribution of Picrorhiza kurrooa in Western Himalaya 

Plate – 10 Threatened Orchids of Sikkim 

Plate – 11A Alpine Habitats of Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim 

Plate – 11B Some Threatened Plants of Alpine Zone of Sikkim 

Plate – 12 Plants of High Conservation Significance in Arunachal 

Pradesh 

Plate – 13A Special Habitats and Threats in Meghalaya 

Plate – 13B Threatened Plants of Meghalaya 

Plate – 14A Special Habitats and Landforms in Arid Zone 

Plate – 14B Threatened Plants of Indian Arid Zone 

Plate – 15 Threatened Plants of Kachchh, Gujarat 

Plate – 16A Important Habitats of Botanical Interest in Semi-Arid 

Zone 

Plate – 16B Threatened Plants of Semi-Arid Zone 

Plate – 17A The Gangetic Khadar: A Threatened Habtat 

Plate:- 17B Characteristics Flora of Gangetic Khadar 

Plate – 18A Threatened Ceropegias of Western Ghats - I 

Plate – 18B Threatened Ceropegias of Western Ghats - II 

Plate – 19 Rare Flora of the Upper Palni Hills 

Plate – 20A Strobilanthes of High Ranges, Kerala - I 

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Plate – 20B Strobilanthes of High Ranges, Kerala - II 

Plate – 21A Rock Outcrops as Special Habitats in Western Ghats 

Plate – 21B Threatened Species of Rocky Habitats – W. Ghats 

Plate – 22A Little known species from Vidarbha 

Plate – 22B Special Habitats of Eastern Vidarbha 

Plate – 23 Threatened Plants of Kanger Valley NP, Chhatisgarh 

Plate – 24A Chotanagpur Plateau: Vegetation and Habitat Features - I 

Plate – 24B Chotanagpur Plateau: Vegetation and Habitat Features - II 

Plate – 24C Threatened Orchids from Chotanagpur 

Plate – 25A Some Localities of Special Botanical Interest in Orissa 

Plate – 25B Threatened Plants of Orissa 

Plate – 26A Vegetation of Javvadhu Hills 

Plate – 26B Threatened Plants of Javvadhu Hills 

Plate – 27 Shola Formations of Southernmost Eastern Ghats 

Plate – 28 Mangrove Vegetation of Orissa: Special Communities 

and Threatened Species 

Plate – 29 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests : Plants of High Conservation 

Significance 

Plate – 30 Endemic Plants of Andaman & Nicobar Islands 

Plate – 31 Sacred Grooves of Western Himalaya 

BOXES 

Box – 1 Glechoma nivalis (Benth.) Press: An Interesting Plant of 

Alpine Scree Slopes from Spiti 

B. S. Rana 

Box – 2 An Interesting Species of Pteris from Mizoram 

Lallawmkimi & H. Lalramnghinglova 

Photo Credits : All photos by respective author (s) unless specified. 

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Mail Bag 

ENVIS Bulletin Vol. 10 No. 1, 2007: Galliformes of India 

It was most kind and thoughtful of you to send me the formidable and beautifully brought out copy of the 

ENVIS publication and CD on the 'Galliformes of India'. I have been much enjoying the past month 

rummaging through the stupendous mine of information, with lovely illustrations of a species in those 

early years over two decades ago when we feared their rapid extinction. It is so reassuring to see so much 

research since done to show that these so-called 'game birds' are secure and largely in good health. 

I am really happy to have a copy of this splendid labour of love, put together with such meticulous care 

skill and professionalism, and feel short of words in praise of a monumental work by so many dedicated 

contributors. Dr. Sathyakumar's editing, as always, in the Nanda Devi tradition if I may say so, along with 

Dr. K. Sivakumar, has been superb. I am particularly delighted that you focused among avian species on 

the Galliformes, which includes on the cover our National bird, the dancing Peacock! 

My warmest congratulations to your WII team - I feel so privileged and proud to have been closely 

associated with the creation almost three decades ago of a great institution doing such splendid work in 

building knowledge and thus helping to save our natural world. 

N.D. Jayal, Former Secretary 

Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, Vasanth Vihar, Dehradun, India 

It looks like an excellent publication and my compliments to WII in this regard. My only comment is 

that the publication would have had an added more value if the sub-species and their distribution had 

also been mentioned in brief. This would particularly apply to a species like the Kalij Pheasant. 

Dr. M.K. Ranjitsinh 

Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi, India 

This document provides a brilliant reference for those seeking to conserve the Galliformes of India as it 

summarizes the work carried out so far and gives guidance and ideas of what should be done to conserve 

this important group of birds in India in the future. I congratulate you for this great achievement and look 

forward to receive copies of further series that hopefully will be published in the future. 

Dr Francis Buner, Grey Partridge Ecologist 

Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust 

Fordingbridge, Hants, SP6 1EF, United Kingdom 

It is a wonderful work that will be useful to many conservationists not only in India but also over the 

world. I'm preparing a book about Partridge, Quails and Francolins and I found already new information 

in this CD. Our century will be probably the conservation century for the threatened species and I'm 

pleased to see that now the conservationists originate from the countries where these species live. 

Congratulations to you and to all participants in this work. I wish you a Happy New Year with many 

successes in the conservation of the Indian Galliformes. 

Alain Hennache, Chair EAZA Galliformes TAG 

EEP Coordinator for the Edwards' Pheasant, European Studbookeeper for the Crestless Fireback 

Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Parc de Clères, 76690 Clères, France 

Many thanks for the wonderful overview on Galliformes of India. I was very impressed. My best wishes 

for your future work. 

Dr. Siegfried Klaus 

Lindenhöhe 5, D-07749 Jena, Germany

I have gone through the CD on the 'Galliformes of India' that has depicted your excellent country's 

beautiful birds. It has been nicely prepared and the information in the bulletin is very helpful for our 

study. But I wonder why the information on the incubation period of Chukar (Alectoris chukar) has been 

mentioned as 'unknown' in the bulletin. I wish to inform you that we have been studying Chukar and 

Rock partridge since 1995 and have found that the incubation period for Chukar is 23-24 days. The 

results of our study are available in the internet now and the same may be included in the bulletin. 

Dr. Alper Yilmaz, 

University of Selcuk, Turkey. 

This is a path breaking effort and I am sure there will be many more additions to the series in time to 

come. Congratulations! This one that I have received will find a pride of place in my small library once I 

am through. 

D. Datta Roy, Former Chief Wildlife Warden, 

Tripura, Bagdogra, West Bengal, India 

I can not resist complimenting you and your dedicated team to have produced such a valuable book on 

'Galliformes of India'. Your project leader Sh. P.R. Sinha deserves "kudos" for encouraging and inspiring 

the scientists to bring out such scientific literature. The get up and design of the bulletin is attractive in 

addition to almost errorless printing. I appreciate the really exhaustive bibliography, so strenuously 

prepared. The color pictures of birds and their distribution maps are nicely depicted. 

V.S. Saxena, IFS (R) 

Member Appellate Authority Pollution Control, Government of Rajasthan, India 

It is an excellent document. I want to congratulate all your staff for bringing out this valuable document. 

It is a rich source of reference for researchers like me. I think it should be widely distributed to Institutes 

and Universities. 

Dr. Asad Rahmani 

Director, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India 

We found 'Galliformes of India' to be extremely useful. We would like to congratulate you and your team 

for bringing out this bulletin. 

Manoj Kumar Misra, Executive Director, 

PEACE Institute Charitable Trust, Delhi, India 

My congratulations to you and your team in WII-ENVIS, Dr. S. Sathyakumar and Dr. K. Sivakumar on 

producing a great volume on 'Galliformes of India'. It speaks greatly about the planning and hard work 

that has been put in. The design, color plates and layout of the printed volume as well as the CD is superb. 

Dr. Rajiv S. Kalsi, Head, Department of Zoology 

M.L.N. College, Yamuna Nagar, Haryana, India 

It is a nice review of the status and distribution of the group in the country. Congratulations to you, Dr. 

S. Sathyakumar and Dr. K.Sivakumar and the reviewers for putting this together. 

The publication is extremely informative and beautifully done. 

Dr. Salim Javed, Deputy Manager, 

Bird Conservation Environment Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates 

Ajai Saxena, Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) 

Van Sadan Haddo, Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India 

xi

I am very pleased to receive the well-produced and useful ENVIS Bulletin entitled "Galliformes of India" 

brought out by the Wildlife Institute of India. 

xii 

Dr. Raghavendra Gadagkar, Professor and JC Bose National Fellow 

Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India. 

Many thanks for sending me the ENVIS Bulletin on 'Galliformes of India'. It appears very nicely done 

and I will read it with interest. 

Dr. Ullas Karanth, Director, 

Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, India 

Please accept my heartiest congratulations for an excellent publication brought out by the Wildlife 

Institute of India. I look forward to going through this wonderful compilation. 

Vasant Saberwal, Program Officer, 

Environment and Development, Ford Foundation, New Delhi, India 

Congratulations for the Herculian Task achieved by bringing out the book: 'Galliformes of India' 

Harsh Vardhan, 

TWSI, C 158-A, Dayanad Marg, Tilak Nagar, Jaipur, India 

We are sure that the information provided in 'Galliformes of India' will be useful to our readers. 

Atish Chatterjee, Chief, Acquisitions Division 

United States Library of Congress, Field Office, American Center, New Delhi, India 

'Galliformes of India' is a valuable document in our library collection. 

Yashwant G Kanade, 

Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India 

'Galliformes of India' is very useful to us in our environment and awareness activities in Mumbai and 

Maharashtra. 

Dr. Goldin Quadros 

Education Officer & Interim State Director, WWF-India, MSO. 

This is another remarkable and extraordinary contribution from the scientists of Wildlife Institute of 

India towards the scientific research. This book will not only be helpful to the researchers and academicians 

but is equally beneficial and important for the layman. 

Kuldip Shiva, Honorary Director, 

NAVDANYA, Rajpur Road, Dehradun, India 

Thank you for making the Galliformes Bulletin release function such an intellectually stimulating one. 

Vijai Sharma 

Secretary (E & F), MoEF, New Delhi 

Thank you all for your valuable comments and suggestions which will help us to improve the 

quality of our ENVIS publications. We will incorporate these as appropriate in the online edition 

of this issue. 

- Dr. V.B. Mathur, Project Coordinator

DIRECTOR’S NOTE 

Wildlife Institute of India is one of the ENVIS Centres of Ministry of 

Environment & Forests, Government of India for publication and dissemination of 

researched information in the subject area of Wildlife and Protected Areas. So far, it has 

brought out 10 thematic ENVIS bulletins. These bulletins are available as hardcopies and 

CDs, and are also hosted on Institute's website http:wii.gov.in/envis/publications.html. 

Considering the importance of the floral wealth of the country, this publication on "Special 

Habitats and Threatened Plants of India" covering various Biogeographic zones of the country 

has been compiled. It is an attempt to make its readers aware about the varied and unique 

floral wealth of our country and draw their attention towards the threat to their long term 

persistence as part of our natural ecosystem. 

It is hoped that nature lovers and protected area managers would find the information contained 

in this publication very useful. It would also help policy makers and professional managers in 

developing appropriate strategies for conservation and monitoring of the plants species and 

their habitats. 

P.R. Sinha 

Director 

xiii

xiv

Dr. M. Sanjappa 

Director 

FOREWORD 

India with vast geographical expanse and amazing diversity in climate, soil and topography support almost 

all types of ecosystems found anywhere in the world. The varied ecosystems span from the alpine grasslands 

of Himalayas to coastal mangroves of Sundarbans; hot deserts of Rajasthan to tropical evergreen and semi 

evergreen forests of North-East and Western Ghats; the flood plains of Gangetic belt to coral reefs of 

Andaman sea; the cold deserts of Ladakh and Lahaul -Spiti to tropical Island ecosystems Andaman & 

Nicobar Islands, and so on. In each of these ecozones there are hundreds of biotopes- each supporting its 

distinctive floristic components. The confluence of three major biogeographical realms (Eurasian, Afro- 

tropical and Indo-Malayan) has further enhanced the intermingling of floristic elements of these regions 

in Indian flora. Though the country constitutes merely 2% of the world’s geographical area, it harbors ca 

45000 species, nearly 11% of the known world flora, and thus ranking third in Asia and eleventh among the 

top mega-diversity countries of the world. Studies undertaken so far on floras in several parts of the world 

have shown that many plant species are in danger of extinction while some have turned extinct. On a global 

basis, the IUCN have estimated that about 10% of world’s vascular plant species are under varying degrees 

of threat and started publication of Red Data Books on animals and plants to include data on threatened 

species and facilitate their conservation. 

In India, the problem on threatened plants was first discussed in the 11th Technical Meeting of the IUCN 

in 1969 in which important papers were presented on the subject. Subsequently, the Botanical Survey of 

India published a small book-let: Threatened plants of India- A State-of-the Art Report, in 1980. Concerted 

efforts were made on the subject and valuable base-line data on nearly 1000 threatened species gathered, 

all this data had given impetus for writing up of Red Data Books by the Botanical Survey. Endemicity and 

xv

usefulness leading to overexploitation are essentially two reasons for a species to come under threat. Apart 

from it, rapid changes in land use have resulted in degradation of specialized natural habitats and along 

with it rapid depletion of plants confined to these habitats. 

Specialized habitats and threatened plants undeniably deserve exceptional concern for endured conservation 

and sustained monitoring in different phytogeographic regions in the country. Shared collaboration, 

coordination and harmonization among institutions and also among naturalists, plant taxonomists, forest 

and protected area managers and volunteers possibly give the essential boost to realize this objective. I am 

happy to know that the Wildlife Institute of India has taken an initiative to bring out a special issue 

focusing on the theme ‘Specialized Habitats and Threatened Plants. The articles in this issue are contributed 

by professional taxonomists as well as amateur naturalists in the country and covered Western Himalayas, 

North East India and also Western and Eastern Ghats. Thar Desert, Ran of Kachchh, and some semi arid 

regions of Deccan are also covered. Many threatened species and their habitats are discussed. Undeniably, 

this is a beginning for a focused documentation on specialized habitats and threatened species but certainly 

not an exhaustive account in view of the vastness and diversity of the country. This will act as a stimulant to 

similar such publications. 

I am sure, this publication would prompt personnel manning forest and protected areas to take up follow up 

measures recommended for different biogeographic zones and also specific to species to strengthen plant 

conservation efforts in the country. 

xvi 

M. Sanjappa

Monitoring Threatened Plants and Their Habitats: 

Way Forward 

- Editorial 

Conscious of current conservation crisis, a number of leading institutions and 

individuals are currently engaged in the systematic study of flora and fauna including threatened 

species. The responsibility of implementing in situ conservation of biodiversity is primarily vested with 

the State Forest Departments (SFDs) which have the backing of several policy documents including 

recently notified Biodiversity Act (2002) and technical support of research institutions. Though a 

considerable effort has been made to strengthen the protected area network (PAN) in the country 

(4.8% of the geographical area), all habitats, threatened plants and ecologically sensitive areas cannot 

be contained within the PAN. The PA boundaries in the past were decided based on administrative 

convenience rather than ecological considerations. As a result, several macro and microhabitats which 

harbour unique assemblages of plants remain outside the current PAN and continue to face 

anthropogenic pressures. 

Generally, well managed parks ensure conservation of major ecosystems and representative biota. 

However, conservation of rare and threatened plants requires concerted efforts and baseline information. 

As part of conservation planning and habitat management activities the PA managers are required to 

know about the plants of high conservation value but this is not taken into consideration in all the 

parks due to lack of floral inventory and paucity of information on rare endemic species. Conservation 

of gene pool and native crop varieties are often recommended in the Biosphere Reserves but precious 

little has been achieved in this direction so far. Very few PAs have been set aside exclusively for the 

conservation of floral diversity. Even prioritized areas lack trained manpower and adequate ecological 

information on rare and vulnerable species. More often than not, interested staff do not get involved in 

the search and protection of such plants due to lack of incentives, initiatives and relevant literature. 

Therefore, despite having enormous conservation potential, most of the PAs and other forests are 

unable to play an active role in the restoration and conservation of threatened, rare and endemic 

plants, which could be of local, regional or global interest. 

In order to promote practical plant conservation and monitoring in various Biogeographic zones of 

India, it is high time that we initiate an all India coordinated programme on monitoring and restoration 

of highly threatened plants. The programme would need the involvement of leading institutions and 

taxonomists, SFDs, Universities and Volunteers. This would help in the following ways: (i) 

xvii

Establishment of linkages between the Field Botanists and frontline staff of SFDs; (ii) Restoration, 

habitat improvement, protection and monitoring of threatened taxa on priority basis; and (iii) 

Strengthening biodiversity conservation in various Biogeographic zones of the country. At the outset, 

such an initiative would require identification of rare and threatened species and habitats and major 

threats to such species, priority listing for in-situ conservation, and restoration. Following this, the 

participants or the collaborating agencies will need to carry out status surveys of selected taxa within 

and outside the PAs, identification of the restoration sites in consultation with the SFDs and identified 

botanists. The third and most important step would be to evolve appropriate monitoring protocols for 

various species through a series of training workshops in the field involving SFDs (Range Officers or 

equivalent staff) in which identity of species, survey methods, restoration of microsites, and baseline 

data collection for future monitoring can be ascertained. Preparation of distribution maps and 

information on the micro-habitats for various areas and further analysis in GIS domain may be achieved 

within a stipulated time. 

In this issue of ENVIS Bulletin, we have made an attempt to collate information on special habitats 

and threatened plants needing further monitoring and restoration in different Biogeographic zones of 

India. Altogether, there are thirty three articles covering various biogeographic regions of the country. 

In addition, there are two short notes (Box items) and a compendium of selected references on 

threatened and endangered plants of India. The contributors range from amateur naturalists to senior 

foresters and professional botanists. It is hoped that this volume would enthuse naturalists and amateur 

botanists to take up further monitoring and documentation of threatened plants in their respective 

regions and this will serve as a much needed baseline information for the field staff of SFDs. 

xviii 

G. S. Rawat 

Editor

G. S. Bhardwaj

Introduction 

G.S. Rawat 

Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun 

rawatg@wii.gov.in 

Located in the rain shadow of the Great Himalayan massif, Ladakh forms a major portion of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. 

Also known as ‘Little Tibet’, this region is spread over some 96,700 km 2 area in the state of Jammu & Kashmir. The 

region exhibits typical biophysical features of cold deserts having low precipitation and mean annual temperature, 

short growing season, low primary productivity and sparse vegetation cover. Biogeographically, it is divisible into two 

provinces viz., Ladakh Mountains and Eastern Plateau (Rodgers & Panwar 1988). The former includes rugged mountain 

ranges and valleys while the latter is gently undulating elevated landscape that forms the western extension of Tibetan 

Plateau (Plate 1). Floristically, Ladakh is not as rich as comparable altitudes of Greater Himalaya, but it supports a 

unique assemblage of flora having close affinity with Central Asia and Tibetan plateau. The region has an enormous 

variation in altitude (2600 to >6500 m asl). Snowline in the Trans-Himalaya is located at much higher altitude (5800 – 

6000 m) as compared to Greater Himalaya where it is usually around 5500 m. This provides adequate area for the 

plants of high alpine and sub-nival zone. The interface between the moist alpine zone of Greater Himalaya and the cold 

arid region is generally sharp. Mean annual precipitation varies from 50 to 150mm and it increases at higher altitudes, 

while deep river valleys such as lower Nubra and Zanskar are particularly dry. The arid landscape is interspersed with 

glacial streams, rivers and lake basins which form crucial Life -Support System for all living forms and provide ecosystem 

services. Geologically, Ladakh is quite diverse and divisible into several zones, each comprising a series of formations 

and sedimentary sequences ranging in age from recent to Cretaceous period which have undergone complex tectonic 

evolution (Frank et al. 1977, Thakur & Rawat 1992). In the extreme west there are basaltic formations (Dras volcanics), 

while in the north-eastern parts one comes across the remnant Tethyan sea beds. 

Based on extensive floristic surveys, Kachroo et al. (1977) have reported 611 species of flowering plants from Ladakh. 

However, recent estimates suggest that the number may be much higher. Dickore & Miehe (2002) estimate that for 

most of the ladakh the richness of vascular plants may be about 500-1000 species per 10,000 km 2 , while in Karakoram 

and north-eastern Ladakh the plant species richness is much lower i.e.,

Envis Bulletin 

2 


distribution across all the habitats. Here, only a few examples of special landforms and corresponding vegetation types 

have been described. These ‘Special Habitats’ reflect peculiar ecological settings and harbour unique plant 

assemblages including some of the rare and threatened species (Plate 1). 

i. Moist meadows Zanskar Ranges 

The areas immediately north of Greater Himalaya, especially in the moist pockets of Zanskar range and northern 

slopes of Nun Kun, Kolahoi and Zoji La are characterized by the presence of moist meadows rich in herbaceous flora. 

The basins of larger mountains e.g., Surru, Kargil and Dras, especially towards higher slopes receive higher snow 

during winter which support extensive grassy slopes dominated by Festuca kashmeriana, Oryzopsis munroi and 

Melica persica. Moist slopes harbour a rich array of medicinal and aromatic plants including Ephedra gerardiana, 

Podophyllum hexandrum, Inula rhizocephala, Iris ensata, Swertia speciosa, Arnebia euchroma, Bistota affinis, Cicer 

microphyllum, Geranium grevilleanum, Allium carolinianum and Rheum australe to name a few. Pulsatilla wallichiana, 

one of the little known anemones, can be seen occasionally on these slopes. Colchicum luteum, a valuable medicinal 

herb is found in moist meadows around Dras. 

ii. Marsh meadows of Changthang 

Several lake basins and seasonally inundated banks of Indus in Changthang have given rise to lush green marsh 

meadows which are patchy but rich in plant life. Pools of shallow water support a number of aquatic species such as 

Potamogeton pectinatus, Myriophyllum verticillatum, Hippuris vulgaris, Ranunculus natans and R. trichophyllus. The 

marsh meadows are dominated by sedges (species of Carex, Blysmus, Kobresia and Eleocharis) and a few grasses 

e.g., Calamogrostis holciformis, Poa spp., Puccinellia spp. Typical herbaceous elements in marsh meadows include 

species of Ranunculus, Pedicularis, Gentiana, Gentianella and Primula. Some of the species, typical of saline marshes 

(halophytes) are Atriplex tatarica, Pucinellia himalaica, Suaeda olufsenii, Triglochin maritimum and Glaux maritima. 

Rawat & Adhikari (2005) have identified several communities along moisture gradients in Tso Kar basin, Changthang. 

iii. Craggy Rock Surfaces in Zanskar 

A few pockets in the Zanskar range exhibit special lithological features making them unique. For example, higher 

slopes of Naki La, adjacent to Lachung La that rise abruptly above Yunam River consist of monotonous, phyllitic, olive 

coloured shales with fine graded sandstones intermingled with ‘exotic’ limestone. Geologically such areas correspond 

with Namik La Flysch. Floristically such areas are quite diverse and interesting. Among the rocky crags of Naki La 

(eastern Zanskar) the plant communities comprise dwarf Isopyrum anemonoides, Silene viscosa, Minuarta biflora, 

Valeriana himalayana, Rhodiola fastigiata, Saxifraga spp., Biebersteinia odora and Festuca kashmiriana to name a 

few. 

iv. Scree bases 

Scree bases (colluvial deposits) and tallus along valley bottoms in Zanskar and other parts of Western Ladakh represent 

yet another special habitat. Such areas, usually parallel to stream or river courses, harbour several characteristic 

species e.g., Lamium rhomboideum, Corydalis crassifolia, C. moorcroftiana, Astragalus nivalis, Oxytropis tatarica, 

Rheum tibeticum, Elymus nutans, Aquilegia fragrans, Thermopsis inflata and Silene hispida. It appears that most of 

these species are dispersed mechanically along with loose cobbles and are well adapted to grow in such habitats. 

Some of the species viz., C. crassifolia, T. inflata and A. nivalis have typically swollen or inflated fruits to aid wind 

dispersal along valley bottoms.

v. Riverine Scrub 

Two species of Hippophae, viz., H. rhamnoides ssp. turkistanica and H. tibetana form major constituents of riverine 

scrub in Ladakh. While the former is much taller (>1 m) and forms dense thickets along the banks of Indus, Shyok and 

Nubra rivers, the latter, a dwarf (



4 


Ladakh lies at the cross roads of floral migration between Central Asia and Greater Himalaya. Therefore, the level of 

endemism in the flora of Ladakh is relatively low (

1 

Ladakh & Zanskar Ranges Changthang Plateau Marsh meadow, Ladakh 

A. Caloplaca 

flavorubescens: An 

orange lichen with 

Buddhist inscriptions 

1. Colchicum luteum 

2. Inula rhizocephala 

3. Saussurea medusa 

4. Allium przewalskianum 

5. Arnebia euchroma 

Plate 1 

Landforms and Little Known Taxa from Ladakh 

Rajender Sharma 

BG Provinces of J&K : 

Trans-Himalaya (Ladakh mountains) 

Trans-Himalaya (Tibetan plateau) 

North-West Himalaya 

PAs in Ladakh 

1. Hemis NP 

2. Changthang WS 

3. Karakoram WS 

2 3 

4 5 

Special Habitats and Threatened 

Plants of Ladakh


4. Allium przewalskianum Regel (Alliaceae) 

Local Name : Skotze 

6 


A perennial bulbous herb. Leaves shorter than scape, cylindrical hollow. Scape 10-40 cm, cylindrical, covered with leaf 

sheaths only at base. Umbels globose, densely many flowered. Perianth pink to red or dark purple. Filaments equal, 1.5 

-2 times as long as perianth segments, connate at base and adnate to perianth segments. Ovary globose, without 

concave nectaries at base. Style much longer than ovary, exserted. Fls. and Frs. June – September. 

Dry, open scrub and rock crevices between 4000 - 4800 m. Leaves collected locally to prepare condiments and also 

used medicinally. Distributed in Pakistan, India (Karakoram and Ladakh ranges), Nepal and China (Tibet). The species 

is locally collected but also protected in agricultural fields in Durbuk and Nubra Valleys. 

5. Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnston (Boraginaceae) 

Local Name : Dimmok, Aambokh 

Perennial herbs with dense stiff hairs and thick root stock. Basal leaves long, linear. Upper leaves shorter and broader. 

Flowers pink or purplish white in terminal dense (globular) racemes. Occasional on dry sandy / stony slopes 3500 – 

4500 m asl. Roots yield purple dye which is mixed with oil and used as hair tonic. The roots are also used as ingredient 

of Amchi medicine for the treatment of cough, backache and several other ailments. 

Rocky and gravelly slopes. Distributed in Afghanistan, NW India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, 

Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Over extraction for local as well as commercial use is the major cause of its 

decline. 

Conservation Measures 

Most of the high value and threatened species of Ladakh including those listed above, can best be conserved with the 

help of local institutions such as Amchi Association of Ladakh, Women’s Alliance of Ladakh and other Self Help 

Groups. The Department of Forest and Wildlife needs to initiate dialogues with such organizations to identify and set 

aside a few localities in different watersheds where natural habitats can be protected and restored in order to promote 

natural regeneration of high value medicinal plants. Amchis and their collectors would be the best judges to set the 

limits of harvest for various species on a sustainable basis. A network of medicinal plant conservation areas (MPCAs) 

needs to be established across Ladakh so as to ensure the in-situ conservation of medicinal and associated threatened 

plants. 

References 

Anonymous. 2001. Conserving Bio-Diversity in the Trans-Himalaya: New Initiatives of Field Conservation in Ladakh. 

First annual Technical Report (1999-2000), Wildlife Institute of India, International Snow Leopard Trust and US 

Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Chundawat, R.S. & G. S. Rawat. 1994. Indian Cold Deserts – a Status Report on Biodiversity. Wildlife Institute of India 

(WII), Dehra Dun, India. 

Dickoré, W.B. & G. Miehe. 2002. Cold spots in the highest mountains of the world - Diversity patterns and gradients in 

the flora of the Karakorum. pp. 1-18. In: Proceedings of the Rigi conference, Sept. 2000, Global Mountain Biodiversity 

Assessment. Lancaster -Parthenon Publishers. 

Frank, W., A. Gansser & V. Trommsdorff. 1977. Geological observations in the Ladakh area (Himalayas): A preliminary 

report. Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt. 57 (1): 89 – 113.


Plants of Ladakh 

Kachroo, P., B.L. Sapru & U. Dhar. 1977. Flora of Ladakh: an ecological and taxonomic appraisal. Bishen Singh 

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 

Klimes, L. 2003. Life-forms and clonality of vascular plants along an altitudinal gradient in E Ladakh (NW Himalaya). 

Basic Appl. Ecol. 4: 317-328. 

Rawat, G.S. & B.S. Adhikari. 2005. Floristics and Distribution of Plant Communities across Moisture and Topographic 

Gradients in Tso Kar Basin, Changthang Plateau, Eastern Ladakh. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 37 (4): 

539-544. 

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a Wildlife Protection Area Network in India. Vol. I. Report. Wildlife Institute 

of India, Dehra Dun. 

Thakur, V. C. & B.S. Rawat. 1992. Geological Map of Western Himalaya. Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, 

Dehradun. 

7


8 

Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India

Introduction 

2.0 Nilang : A Little Known Trans-Himalayan Valley 

in Uttarakhand and its Floral Wealth 

1 2 3 S. Chandola, H.B. Naithani & G.S. Rawat 

1Additional Chief Conservator of Forests & Chief Wildlife Warden, Government of Uttararkhand 

s_chandola2002@yahoo.com 

2Consultant, Botany Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun 

naithanihb@icfre.org 

3Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun 


The landscape immediately north of main central thrust (MCT) in the state of Uttarakhand represents a unique cold 

arid ecosystem that has largely escaped the attention of the ecologists, geographers and natural resource managers, 

owing to the remoteness, inaccessibility and harsh climatic conditions. This area forms a narrow strip (50 – 80 km 

wide) between the crest of Greater Himalaya and water divide between Satluj and Yarlung-Tsangpo that also forms the 

international boundary between India and Tibet (Valdiya 2001, Mazari 2007). One of such valleys in the state is Nilang 

(31 o 00 44.1" to 31 o 27' 06.26" N latitudes and 78 o 53' 39" to 79 o 15" E longitudes), located in Uttarkashi District. It is 

spread over an area of about 1100 km 2 and forms the entire catchment of the river Jahnavi or Jad Ganga and its 

tributaries. Biogeographically, the Nilang Valley exhibits close affinities with the Tibetan Plateau both in terms of 

proximity and species composition. Although, Rodgers and Panwar (1988) had categorized the entire region of 

Uttarakhand (erstwhile Uttar Pradesh) under Western Himalaya (2B), this area can safely be categorized into Trans- 

Himalaya (Zone 1). However, owing to rapid transition between the Greater Himalaya (2B) and juxtaposition of valleys 

and varied topography it is rather difficult to mark sub-division and characteristics of any provinces within zone A. 

Presence of snow leopard (Uncia uncia), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), historical presence of wild yak (Bos grunniens), 

seasonal movement of great Tibetan sheep (Ovis ammon), characteristic cold arid steppe vegetation and dominance 

of floral elements similar to Ladakh and Tibetan Plateau qualifies this area to be classified under Indian Trans- 

Himalaya. 

Historical account of Nilang Valley is given by Atkinson (1981 Rep.). The original inhabitants of this valley (Jadhs) were 

resettled at lower altitudes viz., Harsil and Dunda following Chinese aggression in north India in 1962. Presently this 

area forms a part of Gangotri National Park . 

This article highlights the botanical wealth and a few species of high conservation significance from Nilang Valley. 

The Landscape and Vegetation Characteristics 

The area is dissected broadly by snow fed tributary streams of the Jadh Ganga that drain the area to meet the Bhagirathi 

River at Bhaironghati. These tributaries are arranged in almost parallel lines where the mountain slopes are steep in 

the area of the central crystalline granites closer to Bhaironghati towards the southern portion of the Jadh Ganga valley 

but assume a dendritic pattern towards the north where slopes are comparatively gentler and the gradient of the Jadh 

Ganga is also less severe due to the plateau like formation proximal to Tibet. At some points on the Jadh Ganga more 

than one tributaries confluence to form an important drainage plexus, as at Tirpani, where the southerly flowing Jadh 

Ganga is met by the Rangmanch Gad from the west and the East Nala from the east. The lower portion of the valley is 

9


10 


extremely rugged and steep in the form of a canyon formed by the river Jadh Ganga. Visually, the study area is divisible 

into glacial and periglacial types of landforms. The valley gradually widens as one goes for about 10 -15 kms from 

Bhaironghati. The areas close to MCT are highly broken and unstable owing to regular avalanches and enormous 

glacial erosion. On the right flank of Jad ganga between Gartang and Nilang there are deep gorges, visually impenetrable. 

One of such gorges leads to Sangla Valley in Himachal Pradesh, traditionally used by Gaddis for annual movement 

between Nilang Valley and their homeland with their domestic livestock. Nilang (3400 m asl) is the first traditional 

village that has been abandoned subsequent to Chinese aggression. The mountain slopes around Nilang and beyond 

up to Tipani, Jadung and Neelapani Gad are extremely broken, at places with extensive scree slopes, colluvial 

deposits and lateral moraines. The morainic deposits are prone to wind erosion giving rise to typical barnacles 

at several places. The areas around Rangmanch Gad, Plumsumdo (PDA) and beyond are gentle and stable 

(Plates 2A, 2B). 

The lower parts of Jadh Ganga (Jahnavi) especially around Bhaironghati support Dry Temperate Deodar forests 

(Champion & Seth 1968) with open canopy and stunted growths. Pinus wallichiana occurs as a common associate. 

Second storey generally consists of Ribes alpestre, Rosa macrophylla, Abelia triflora, Viburnum cotinifolium, Jasminum 

humile, Berberis aristata, B. pseudumbellata, Artemisia japonica, etc. Broad-leaved species occurring in the shallow 

depressions are Populus ciliata, Acer acuminatum, Sorbaria tomentosa, Rubus niveus and Salix karelinii. Ground 

vegetation consists of Thalictrum foetidum, T. minus, Mirabilis himalaica, Veronica stewartii, Impatiens scabrida, I. 

brachycentra, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Arabidopsis himalaica, Arisaema flavum and Salvia nubicola. Between Karchha 

and Nilang the vegetation undergoes rapid transition from Deodar mixed blue pine to open juniper woodland and 

alpine scrub. Commonly associated tree species including Prunus cornuta and Euonymus fimbriatus, Artemisia 

dracunculus, A. santolinifolia, A. dubia, Abelia triflora, Viburnum cotinifolium, Juniperus communis, J. indica, Cotoneaster 

roseus, Berberis umbellata, B. pachyacantha and Lonicera hypoleuca are the common shrubs and the ground vegetation 

consists of Arenaria serpyllifolia, A. neelgherensis, Erigeron acer var. multicaulis, Asparagus filicinus and a few grasses 

such as Phaceleurus speciosus, Piptatherum munroi etc. 

Along the side stream courses near Karcha and on opposite slopes a few remnant patches of birch / Bhoj Patra (Betula 

utilis) can be seen. Ground vegetation of scattered birch patches consists of Anaphalis royleana, Astragalus maddenianus, 

Danthonia schneideri, Erigeron multiradiatus and Solidago virga-aurea. Beyond Nilang – on way to Naga, Nilapani and 

Sonam the vegetation is rather sparse and in the form of scattered scrub. Characteristic species include Rhamnus 

prostrata, Ephedra gerardiana, Rosa webbiana, Spiraea canescens, Hyssopus officinale, and Astragalus candolleanus. 

Stream courses and river banks are often dominated by Myricaria elegans and Salix flabellaris. The past camping sites 

and nitrogen rich areas are frequented by the high altitude nettle Urtica hyperborea, Chenopodium tibeticum, Rumex 

patentia and Atriplex hybrida. 

The interior valleys and undulating slopes exhibit characteristic steppe vegetation dominated by Lonicera spinosa and 

Caragana versicolor and at places by Eurotia ceratoides. Here the unstable scree slopes harbour a distinct community 

characterized by Aconogonum tortuosum, Lamium rhomboideum, Cicer microphyllum and Rubia tibetica. Gregarious 

patches of Aconogonum tortuosum on scree slopes turn reddish pink during autumn making the hill slopes picturesque. 

The seemingly barren rock surfaces have luxuriant growth of colourful lichens e.g., Xanthoria elegans (orange red) 

and Acarospora chlorophoea (lemon yellow). The valley bottoms and moist places with clayey soil support patches of 

sedge meadows dominated by Kobresia schoenoides, Kobresia royleana and various species of Carex. Towards 

Shankar glacier and Thag La (above 4500 m) the vegetation reflects the characteristic features of arctic tundra 

dominated by a few cushion forming dwarf herbs such as Thylacospermum caespitosum, Arenaria festucoides, 

Androsace globifera and Rhodiola tibetica. Thus the flora of the Nilang Valley typically reflects the prevalence of Trans- 

Himalayan elements.

Plate 2A 

Location and Landforms of Nilang Valley, Uttarakhand 

Gartang Block 

Nilang 

Sumla 

Tirpani 

FCC of Nilang Valley 

Karcha Block 

Location of Nilang in Uttarakhand 

Vegetation and Landforms Riverine Scrub and Scree Slopes

Allium carolinianum 

Plate 2B 

Unique Plants of Nilang Valley 

Malus baccata Acarospora chlorophoea Biebersteinia odora 

Hyssopus officinalis 

Arnebia euchroma Dictamnus albus 

Ephedra gerardiana

Floral Wealth and Plants of High Conservation Significance 

Naithani (1988) gave the first botanical account of this Valley in which he reported about 170 species of flowering plants 

from this valley. The authors have been conducting regular floristic surveys in the valley since past 3-4 summers. Our 

latest estimate reveals that this valley harbours about 221 genera and 421 species of vascular plants distributed over 69 

families. A detailed break up of the general flora is given below : 

Groups Families Genera Species 

Pteridophytes 3 6 9 

Gymnosperms 4 4 7 

Dicotyledons 53 174 341 

Monocotyledons 9 37 64 

Total 69 221 421 

Some of the little known species of high conservation value in this area are briefly described below : 

1. Allium carolianum DC. (Amaryllidaceae) 

Local Name: Rogba; Rukba 

Bulbous, delicate herbs. Leaves 5-6, flat, linear, strongly aromatic. Flowering scape up to 30 cm. Flowers pink in 

many flowered umbels. Frequent in alpine moist meadows 3000 – 4500 m asl. Bulbs and leaves of this herb are 

used in the treatment of constipation. 

2. Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnston (Boraginaceae) 

Local Name: Khami 

Perennial herbs with dense stiff hairs and thick root stock that yields purplish – red dye. Basal leaves long, linear. Upper 

leaves shorter and broader. Flowers pink or purplish white in terminal dense (globular) racemes. Occasional on dry 

sandy / stony slopes 3500 – 4500 m asl. Roots yield purple dye which is mixed with oil and used as hair tonic. The roots 

are also used as ingredient in Tibetan medicine especially for the treatment of cough, back-ache and several other 

ailments. 

3. Biebersteinia odora Steph. (Geraniaceae) 

Local Name: Taksha 

Strongly aromatic, glandular-pubescent herb. Rootstocks densely tufted. Leaves pinnately compound with irregularly 

lobed leaflets. Flowers yellow in short terminal racemes. Occasional in tussocks on rocky slopes between 4500-5000 

m asl. Whole plant is used in the treatment of cuts, wounds and peptic ulcer. It is also used in the treatment of diarrhoea. 

4. Cicer microphyllum Benth. (Fabaceae) 

Local Name: Chhel; English Name: Wild Gram 

Nilang: A Little Known Trans-Himalayan 

Valley in Uttarakhand and its Floral Wealth 

A low spreading glandular-hairy herb. Leaves pinnate, ending in a coiled trendril. Flowers solitary or paired, purple to 

white. Pod 2-3 cm, inflated, explosive, beaked and densely hairy. Occasional on dry sandy river beds and stable scree 

slopes between 3500-4500 m asl. It is also a source of vitamin C and used as ingredient in various medicines. 

13


5. Ephedra gerardiana Wall. (Ephedraceae) 

Local Name : Chesna; Trade Name: Som Lata 

14 


A low rigid tufted shrub up to 60 cm tall. Branches slender, numerous and jointed. Joints covered with scales. Fruits 

ovoid 7-10 mm, with freshy red succulent bracts enclosing the 1-2 seeds. Frequent on alluvial fans, gravel terraces and 

rocky slopes between 3000-5000 m asl. Young branches used for the extraction of ephedrine which is used for 

instantaneous cure of asthma, rheumatism and as heart stimulant. It is also used in preparation of nasal sprays to cure 

sinusitis and inflammation of mucous membrane. 

6. Dictamnus albus L. (Rutaceae) 

English Name : Burning Bush 

Strongly aromatic herb up to 50 cm. Stem and leaves clothed with glandular hairs. Leaves pinnate 20-30 cm long. 

Flowers 2.5-4 cm in erect racemes. Petals pink, easily falling. Sparse in inner dry ranges 2800 – 3300 m among 

bouldery scrub vegetation. Not in much local use but its potential as aromatic herb needs to be explored. 

7. Hyssopus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae) 

Local Name : Chhabra 

Perennial much branched and tufted herbs. Stem and leaves rough in texture, highly aromatic. Flowers bluish – purple. 

Frequent on inner dry ranges, especially on dry gravelly soil between 3400 – 4000 m asl. Leaves are used for extraction 

of certain oils by Ayurvedic industries. Tea of Hyssop flower tops are highly useful in the treatment of respiratory 

problems and for easing cough, sore throat and for loosening phlegm. 

8. Lillium polyphyllum Don. (Liliaceae) 

Local Name : Kakoli, Kashir Kakoli 

Perennial, erect herbs upto 50 cm tall. Leaves sessile, alternate or nearly opposite or whorled, narrowly lanceolate or 

linear, 8-12 x 1 – 2 cm. Bracts leaf-like, often whorled. Flower solitary or whorled with 4 – 10 long stalk. Perianth 5 – 8 

cm long, greenish white with purple dots inside, segments obtuse, recurved when fully expanded. Stigma obscurely 3lobed. 

Capsule 2.5 to 3.5cm long. 

Rather sparse in a few patches upto Karcha under open deodar forests. Tubers are said to be highly medicinal. One 

of the rare lilies of higher Himalaya. 

The Jadh Ganga valley has hosted large scale grazing for millennia and an estimated 30,000 sheep, goats and mules 

graze these pastures intensively even today, entering from Bhaironghati in May and branching out into various microcatchments 

to spend the summer. Lonicera and Caragana are heavily browsed during onward passage while Eurotia 

is favoured on the return journey with the onset of autumn. The plant diversity of Nilang is seriously threatened by heavy 

grazing even as the inclemency of the climate leaves a very short period for its revival. It is imperative that the Forest 

Department should involve the local communities and evolve a practical strategy of rotational grazing, allowing sufficient 

rest to grazed valleys to restore their diversity.

References 

Nilang: A Little Known Trans-Himalayan 

Valley in Uttarakhand and its Floral Wealth 

Atkinson, E.T. 1981 (Reprint). The Himalayan Gazetteer, Vol. III (Part 1 & 2). Cosmo Publications, New Delhi. 

Champion, H.G. & S. K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, 

Government of India Press, New Delhi. 

Mazari, R.K. 2007. Outline Geomorphology of the Upper Bhagirathi Basin, Garhwal Himalaya. Himalayan Geology 

28 (2): 45 -57. 

Naithani, B.D. 1988. Botanising the Jadh Ganga Valley in Uttarkashi, Garhwal, U.P. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 19 (1): 63-74. 

Rodgers, W.A. & H. S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vols. I & II. Wildlife Institute of 

India, Dehra Dun. 

Valdiya, K. S. 2001. Himalaya: Emergence and Evolution. University Press (India) Limited, Hyderabad. 

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16 


Introduction 

3.0 Cold Deserts of Himachal Pradesh: 

Unique Habitats and Threatened Plants 

1 2 Vaneet Jishtu & G.S. Goraya 

1Division of Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation, 

Himalayan Forest Research Institute 

Conifer Campus, Panthaghati, Shimla–171 009 

jishtu@yahoo.com 

2Chief Conservator of Forests, 

HP State Forest Department, Talland, Shimla–171 002 

gurinder9@hotmail.com 

The northern flank of Himachal Pradesh (HP), separated by the Great Himalayan range and partly by the Pir Panjal (to 

the west), forms the southern extension of Indian Cold Desert. A major portion of this land mass has been categorized 

under the Biogeographic zone 1 i.e., Indian Trans-Himalaya by Rodgers and Panwar (1988), and administratively this 

area falls under Lahaul & Spiti district of HP. Far from being barren wasteland, as has been erroneously referred in 

some texts, this region represents a unique ecosystem hosting an array of specialized plants and animals adapted to 

the harsh conditions prevailing here. This tract is among the sub-continent’s last remaining citadels of total wilderness. 

Along with the unique floral elements several birds and mammals exhibit seasonal migrations up and down the steep 

mountain slopes and depend on contiguous habitat for their movement. If any of the habitat layers are lost or degraded, 

numerous biological processes are disrupted. Therefore, conservation of this ecoregion is critical for the conservation 

of biodiversity not confined here but extending afar of its boundary limits. 

This article gives an overview of biophysical features, habitat and vegetation characteristics within cold deserts of HP. 

A few species of angiosperms, representing these habitats have been appended along with their uses, distribution and 

threat status. 

Biophysical Features 

The cold deserts in the HP lie extending between 31° 44' 34'' N to 32° 59' 57'' N latitudes and 76° 46' 29'' E to 78° 41' 

34'' E longitudes, covering Lahaul & Spiti district and part of Pooh Sub-division in Kinnaur. The altitude ranges from 

2400 to 6400m above mean sea level and the area above 5600m remains perpetually under snow. The region exhibits 

typical alpine characteristics with low vegetation cover and primary productivity and stark seasonality. The region forms 

an integral part of the Himalayan ecosystem, with interconnected processes that extend from the riparian scrub along the 

river and stream courses to the high alpine meadows and boulder-strewn scree that spreads over the vast landscape. 

However, to overcome these environmental stresses, both plants and animals have adapted themselves in many ways. 

Typical Trans-Himalayan faunal elements include the elusive snow leopard, brown bear, Tibetan wolf, majestic ibex and 

blue sheep (Plate 3A). 

Despite harsh climatic conditions, the cold deserts have been occupied by human beings since the dawn of civilization. 

Secluded in selected pockets, the indigenous people have managed to eke out their living by adapting themselves to 

the harshness of their chosen habitat with tradition. The unpleasant face of development and the increasing biotic 

pressure in recent years along with the lack of appropriate technologies has led to the overuse and degradation of the 

natural resources of the region. The scarce vegetation cover is steadily getting degraded, and the limited water 

resources are getting depleted and polluted. Waste accumulation and poor sanitation and hygiene are new problems 

17


18 


of the region, and are leading to health problems among the local people. Firewood is scarce and power inadequate 

and unreliable for both domestic and occupational use. Very little research interest and technology development has 

been focused on these regions. Moreover few technologies that have been transferred have frequently not been 

aligned to the special needs and conditions of the region. Agriculture is done on terraced fields. One of the major 

features in the region is agro-forestry, under which local people have adopted willows and poplars which are planted 

along the margins of the agricultural fields. In the Patton sub-valley, however, fruit trees, such as walnut, 

plum, and peach, are also cultivated. Seabuckthorn (Hippophae spp.) is found in smaller patches on the interspaces 

of the terraces, particularly in those parts of the fields through which the irrigation channels pass (Rawat et al. 2006). 

Habitat and Vegetation Characteristics 

The evolutionary history of landscape features and habitat characteristics in the cold deserts of Western Himalaya is 

beyond the scope of this article. However, current physical features and eco-climatic conditions reflect a mosaic of 

numerous habitats and corridors for dispersal of the floral and faunal elements thereby resulting in high degree of 

biodiversity. Though this particular region does not harbor a spectacularly rich flora like many other biomes of the world 

in terms of species diversity yet their morphological, ecological and behavioral adaptations are necessarily unique. 

The region has several focal species of immense conservation importance (Plates 3A & 3B). Some of the interesting 

features of natural habitats and corresponding vegetation have been described below: 

i. The Moist Meadows of Pir Panjal 

The areas along and immediately north of Pir Panjal range, especially towards Lahaul exhibits characteristic features 

of alpine moist meadows similar to Greater Himalaya. It forms a transition zone between the moist temperate and 

alpine habitats. One of the most accessible and typical sites where this habitat can be seen is around Rohtang Pass 

that forms the beginning of Pir Panjal range. The meadows are dominated by species of Poa, Festuca and a large 

number of herbaceous species. A few species of high conservation significance in these habitats include Primula 

rosea, Meconopsis aculeata, Rheum australe, Lagotis spp., and Bistorta affinis. The lush green meadows around 

Rohtang slopes harbor the summer grazing grounds for herds of sheep, goats and mules. These grazing grounds over 

the years have become vulnerable to unpalatable native species in the company of some ever-increasing invasive 

elements, belonging mainly to the Polygonaceae and Brassicaceae family. The unpalatable plant species include 

Bistorta vaccinifolia, Primula denticulata, Meconopsis aculeata, Geranium wallichianum, Bistorta affinis, Geum elatum, 

Impatiens thomsonii, Salvia glutinosa, Senecio chrysanthemoides and Urtica hyperborea. Some other species like 

Anemone rivularis, Iris kemaonensis, Morina longifolia, Potentilla argyrophylla, Taraxacum officinale and Thermopsis 

barbata thrive under these stressed conditions and can be seen in gregarious formations. 

ii. Riverine scrub of Bhaga Valley 

The riverine scrub along Bhaga river is dominated by Hippophae rhamnoides, Salix alba, Myricaria elegans and Rosa 

webbiana. Regions where the adjoining glacial streams meet the river, glacial moraines and scree are covered with 

good Juniperus regeneration, e.g., the area opposite Jispa. At higher altitudes, the snow on the north facing slopes lasts 

longer into the summers. This results in the formation of special habitats which show a prominent effect on the 

composition of the flora. Betula utilis formation can be observed in moist gulleys among craggy cliffs and slopes, while 

the adjacent sun facing slopes have drier conditions favouring arid floristic elements like Juniperus spp. with undergrowth 

of Rosa webbiana, Ribes alpestre and Lonicera myrtillus. A good formation of Juniperus forest is found around Stingri 

near Keylong.

iii. Juniper woodland and sub-alpine Scrub of Miyar Valley 

Miyar forms the North-Western part of Lahaul. This remote fascinating valley of Lahaul is hidden behind the lofty 

Udaipur Range and remains snow bound for over half the year and is amongst the most inaccessible areas in the 

region. During the short summer months, however, the alpine passes, mountain slopes, meadows and moraines 

present a spectacular display of colours as the vegetation bursts into life. Quite a few patches of juniper tree (Juniperus 

semiglobosa Regel) can be seen here, which represents sub-alpine forests in the region. This is one of the featured 

species of high conservation and religious importance in the valley. In the moist valley area along Miyar rivulet, the cool 

temperate and sub-alpine zones are dominated by dry zone Cedrus deodara in association with gnarled trees of 

Juniperus spp. Other prominent taxa in this zone are stunted associations of Juglans regia, Pyrus baccata, Prunus 

cornuta, Berberis spp., Rosa webbiana, Rosa eglanteria, Ribes grossularia, Cotoneaster bacillaris, Crataegus songarica, 

Populus balsamifera and Betula utilis. The mouth of the valley has a dominant presence of Datisca cannabina along 

the steep river valley and further into the valley the slopes are dotted with a dominance of beautiful flowered Eremurus 

himalaica (‘Praey’) during the onset of summer (Kapoor & Jishtu 2008). 

iv. Alpine Dry Scrub of Spiti 

Spiti valley, in general is characterized by sloppy mountain deserts with the growing season of 5 – 6 months (April to 

September). The annual snowfall varies from 150-200 cm with very negligible rainfall. The minimum average 

temperature during winters touches as low as -30 o C. Sub zero temperature prevails from December to February, 

whereas, around 0.5 0 C temperature is experienced during winter months. The air is very dry particularly in the summer 

months. Very high wind velocity in the afternoon and night hours results in heavy soil erosion and soil moisture losses. 

This area harbours typical alpine dry scrub dominated by Caragana versicolor, Lonicera spinosa, Rheum spp., and 

Kraschenninikovia ceratoides. In riverine / moist areas gregarious patches of Hippophae tibetana can be seen, especially 

around Losar upstream of Kaza. 

v. Alpine Mixed Communities of Pin Valley 

Pin Valley, located to the south of Spiti river adjacent to Great Himalayan range, is peculiar in many ways. The 

vegetation exhibits characteristics of both the Greater and Trans-Himalaya. Common shrubs in the valley are Rosa 

webbiana, Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. turkistanica (‘Charma’) and Salix elegans (‘Changma’). The herbaceous 

vegetation turns to be profuse during the summers and is predominantly constituted of grasses and sedges. Here, the 

flora is remarkably rich, prominent taxa being species of Aquilegia, Allium, Corydalis, Iris, Ranunculus, Potentilla, 

Pedicularis, Saxifraga, Sedum and Primula. Numerous plant species thrive in the area, among them many varieties of 

medicinal plants. In summer, wild flowers create a riot of colours in some areas. One of the important woody species 

Juniperus semiglobosa (~ J. macropoda auct.) is reported to have become almost extinct in the valley due to overexploitation. 

vi. Riverine Scrub of Lingti Valley 

Cold Deserts of Himachal Pradesh: 


It is the longest side valley in Spiti and is a living geological museum famous for shale’s and fossils in a geological 

history dating back 250 million years. Gya (6794m), the highest peak in HP, stands above the northern head of the valley 

and present a stupendous monolith where the boundaries of Ladakh, Spiti and Tibet meet. Hippophae rhamnoides 

subsp. turkistanica (‘Charma’) forms the major constituent of riverine scrub in the valley. Common associates are 

Myricaria elegans (‘Humbok’), Rosa webbiana and Clematis orientalis. At places dwarf Juniper can be seen lower 

down in the valley. 

19


Some Taxa of High Conservation Significance 

20 


First comprehensive documentation of the flora for Lahaul & Spiti was by Aswal and Mehrotra (1994) who reported 79 

families, 353 genera and 985 species of seed plants (Angiosperms and Gymnosperms) from the district. Many of the 

taxa listed in this work are rare and threatened. Others are extremely valuable for their medicinal properties, e.g., Allium 

carolinianum (‘Loadh’), Artemisia brevifolia (‘Nyurcha’), Ephedra gerardiana (‘Chhe’), Heracleum candicans (‘Raswal’), 

Meconopsis aculeata (‘Charr-Bongcha’), Podophyllum hexandrum (‘Omo-Shey’), Physochlaina praealta (‘Lang Tang’) 

and Saussurea costus (‘Koonth’). Populations of many of these plants have suffered high depletion rates in the last 

decade or so. Species of Arnebia, Betula, Dactylorhiza, Juniperus and Podophyllum are on the threatened list of plants. 

What is also critical is that some of the plants are endemic to the region and extinction from the region would imply a 

loss in global biodiversity. Over harvesting for use and trade, destructive forms of harvesting, overgrazing, are some of 

the causes leading to depletion and fragmentation of the species populations. Very little of the supply of plant material, 

which constantly falls short of the escalating demand, is from regenerative sources, and much of the harvesting is 

through destructive collection methods. Collectors’ earnings are limited, much of the returns from the sale of the herbs 

going to middlemen and traders. This also makes them uncaring of the regeneration and long-term survival aspect of 

the plants. Some of the taxa of high conservation significance in the region are given below: 

1. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle (Podophyllaceae) 

Syn : Podophyllum emodi Wall. ex Honig. 

Local Name : Omo-Shey, Bankakri 

Erect perennial herb; Stem smooth, fleshy; rhizome short, horizontally creeping, scaly above. Leaves palmate, deeply 

3 (5) lobed; sharp toothed, acute, sessile. Flowers white - pink, terminal in bud, supra axillary later. Sepals 3, caducous, 

petaloid. Petals (4-) 6, obovate-oblong. Berry oblong-ovoid to ellipsoid, scarlet or red, pulpy, many seeded. 

Habitat : It is a shade loving plant growing in rich humus; 2000 – 4500 m. Miyar Valley. 

Fl. & Fr. : April - May. 

Distribution : Throughout Himalayas, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and China. 

Uses : The plant is poisonous but when processed have medicinal properties. Powdered roots in chronic constipation. 

Ripe fruit edible and also used in tuberculosis and cough. 

Threat Status : Listed as Critically Endangered in Appendix II of CITES. Endangered in Uttaranchal, Himachal 

Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir as per CAMP Workshop, Shimla. 

2. Capparis himalayensis Jafri (Capparidaceae) 

Syn: Capparis spinosa L. var. himalayensis (Jafri) Jacobs (Plate 3B) 

Local Name: Rohtokpa – Martopka 

Perennial straggling shrub; branches white pubescent, becoming glabrescent. Stipular spines pale yellow, apex 

recurved. Leaf blade ovate/ suborbicular, as long as wide, fleshy when fresh, later leathery. Flowers in upper axils, 

solitary. Petals dimorphic, anterior 2 white; posterior 2 yellowish green. Fruit dark green, ellipsoid, with vertical ridges, 

dehiscent; mesocarp red. Seeds numerous, red brown, reniform, smooth. 

Habitat : Plains, desert flats, open drier areas; More common in Spiti valley (Tabo, Hurling, Kaza, Pin valley). 

Fl. & Fr. : June - September. 

Distribution : NW India, Nepal, NE Pakistan, Tajikistan; SW Asia, Iran Afghanistan, Kazakhstan and China. 

Uses : Ripe fruits edible and pickled. Medicinally used for urinary and liver problems. 

Threat Status : Data Deficient (DD). Fruit collection has limited its regeneration as most of the fruits are collected for 

domestic uses. Medicinal.

3. Colutea nepalensis Sims (Fabaceae) 

Syn : Colutea arborescens var. nepalensis (Sims) Baker 

Shrublet up to 3m tall; Stems pilose, red brown, shining. Leaves stipulate leaflets 7-13, elliptic to ovate, pubescent. 

Inflorescence 3-5 flowered raceme; flowers yellow. Fruit oblong, distinctively inflated with curved fruit stalk, beaked and 

pubescent; seed smooth, flat, black to dark brown. 

Habitat : Found on scree slopes on the mountains, roadside /riverside gravel; 2600-3300 m; Hurling. 

Fl. & Fr. : July - September. 

Distribution: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (J & K, HP, Uttarakhand), Tibet, Nepal. 

Uses: Used for making household articles as well as agricultural implements. Fuelwood. 

Threat Status: Data Deficient (DD). Having limited distribution mainly in the Spiti Valley. 

4. Crataegus songarica K. Koch. (Rosaceae) 

Syn : Crataegus oxycantha auct. non L. 

Local Name : Ramiya, Ramjagh 

Small Tree; Branchlets purplish brown to grayish brown when old. Leaf blade broadly ovate, glabrescent, base cuneate, 

margin remotely serrate with 2-3 pairs of deep lobes; lobes oblong, apex acute. Corymbs many flowered, white. Fruit 

a pome; reddish black, pulp yellow, globose to ellipsoid, glabrous; sepals persistent; seeds 2 - 3, smooth. 

Habitat : Valleys, field boundaries, thickets; 2800—3600 m. Miyar, Trilokinath. 

Fl. & Fr. : May - August. 

Distribution : Afghanistan, Kazakhstan; SW Asia (Iran). 

Uses : Fruit edible and considered cardiac tonic. Wood used for making handles, walking sticks and for engraving 

(Anonymous 1986). 

Threat Status : Data Deficient (DD). Populations have dwindled considerably and only individual trees are found 

sporadically in the vicinity of Udaipur in Lahaul. 

5. Rosa webbiana Wallich ex Royle (Rosaceae) 

Local Name : Shaybala, Chuaa, Sia 

Spinescent Shrub; Branchlets purple-brown; prickles present, yellow, terete, straight. Leaves 3–4 cm; stipules adnate; 

leaflets 5–9, suborbicular, glabrous, margin serrate at upper part, entire near base, apex rounded. Flowers solitary, red 

or rose, rarely 2-3, fasciculate. Fruit a nodding hip, bright-red, subglobose or ovoid, glabrous, with persistent, spreading 

sepals. 

Habitat : Forests, scrub, meadows, valleys, slopes, fields; 2200 - 4200 m. Common across the region. 

Fl. & Fr. : June - September. 

Distribution : Afghanistan, NW India, Kashmir, Mongolia, W Nepal. 

Uses : Peeled young stems and ripe fruits edible. Finds use in religious customs to ward away evil spirits. Thorny stems 

used as bio fence. Dried stems used as firewood. Flowers offered in gompas and used as stomachic in Lahaul (Koelz 

1979). 

Threat Status : Data Deficient (DD). 

6. Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don (Boraginaceae) 

Syn : Onosma hispida var. kashmiricum (I.M. Johnston) I. M. Johnston 

Local Name : Khomig, Ratanjot 



Perennial Herb; Stems many, hollow, and densely hairy. Basal leaves linear to oblanceolate, middle cauline leaves 

often larger uppermost smaller. Inflorescence a terminal cyme. Bracts lanceolate, leaf-like, but smaller. Calyx densely 

21


22 


hairy; lobes lanceolate. Corolla creamish-white to light yellow, tubular-campanulate, puberulous outside, deflexed. 

Nutlets shiny. 

Habitat : Usually occurs near glacial moraines and drier slopes; 3200 – 4200 m. It is mainly distributed in western 

areas of Lahaul bordering Pangi area of Chamba and is occasionally met in drier parts of Kinnaur. 

Fl. & Fr. : May - September. 

Distribution : Kashmir, parts of Himachal Pradesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, westward to Syria, Turkey and Europe. 

Uses : Medicinally, the plant has cooling, laxative, anthelmintic, and alexipharmic effects and is also used in treating 

diseases of the eye, disorders of the blood, bronchitis, and abdominal pain (George 1972). The plant is also used as 

a dye (Supiriya 1994) and root mixed with mustard oil as a hair tonic (Rawat & Pangtey 1987). 

Threat Status : Data Deficient (DD). Limited and specific distribution. 

7. Rheum australe D. Don (Polygonaceae) 

Syn : Rheum emodi Wallich ex Meisner 

Local Name : Archo, Tuksu, Goggul 

Stout Perennial Herb; Stem sulcate, glabrous, pubescent at nodes. Petiole of basal leaf equal to blade or slightly longer, 

pubescent; leaf blade broadly ovate, basal veins 5-7, base cordate, margin entire, apex obtuse. Stem leaves ovate, 

narrow; ocrea large. Panicle large, branched; perianth purple-red. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, base subcordate; wings purplered. 

Seeds ovoid. 

Habitat : Grassy slopes; 3000-4300 m. Miyar, Jispa, Lingti valley. 

Fl. & Fr. : August - October. 

Distribution : China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sikkim. 

Uses : Stems and petioles chewed to avoid high altitude uneasiness and also to quench thirst. Root as dye for woolen 

products (Sood et al. 2001) 

Threat Status : Endangered in Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir as per CAMP Workshop, 

Shimla. 

8. Ephedra intermedia Schrenk ex C. A. Meyer (Ephedraceae) 

Syn : Ephedra intermedia var. tibetica Stapf. 

Local Name : Chhee, Somlata, Tse 

Dwarf Shrublet; Stems dense branched, erect to spreading. Branches yellowish or bluish green, pruinose. Leaves in 

whorls of 3. Male cones up to 8, whorled, usually clustered at nodes, often sessile; bracts in 3-4 pairs/ whorls. Seed 

cones ellipsoid to oblong-ovoid, globose, red, fleshy. Berry ovoid, red. Seeds 2-3, ovoid/elongate-ovoid, concealed by 

bracts. 

Habitat : Found in grasslands, deserts, river valleys, floodplains, sandy beaches, cliffs, and other dry, sandy or rocky 

places; 2800-4600 m; Hul, Gue. 

Fl. & Fr. : May - September. 

Distribution : Afghanistan; Kazakstan; Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Pakistan; NW India; Russia; Tajikistan; Turkmenistan; 

Uzbekistan; SW Asia and China. 

Uses : Fresh twigs as toothbrush and burnt twigs ash as snuff (Koelz 1979). Medicinally to cure liver disorders and for 

cardiac ailments. Uprooted to burn as fuelwood. 

Threat Status : Data Deficient (DD). Not very common having limited distribution. 

9. Betula utilis D. Don (Betulaceae) 

Syn : Juniperus macropoda auct. Boiss. 

Local Name : Shiag, Bhojpatra

Plate 3A 

Lahaul-Spiti: Important Localities and Habitats 

LAHAUL SPITI 

Alpine pastures of Gete (Kibber) 

Asiatic Ibex in its habitat Miyar Valley (Lahaul)

Plate 3B 

Threatened Plants of Lahaul-Spiti 

Capparis himalayensis 

Colutea nepalensis 

Ephedra intermedia 

Crataegus songarica 

Dactylorhiza hatagirea Rheum australe Onosma hispidum

Medium sized to small deciduous trees; Bark whitish, papery, peeling off in layers. Leaves ovate, base rounded, 

margins irregularly serrated, woolly haired below when young. Male flowers in reddish catkins; female spikes solitary. 

Fruiting bracts 3 lobed; Nutlets winged. 

Habitat : Drier mountainous regions in shaded moist pockets; near the river basin of Mudgram area; 2800 4300 m. 

Ghandal, Pomerang, Mudgram, Khanzar. 

Fl. & Fr. : July – October. 

Distribution : Pakistan, NW Himalaya, Nepal, SW China. 

Uses : Bark used as aromatic and for wrapping food, lighting fire and in religious functions. Twigs as brooms and in 

roof thatching of houses. Medicinally used as antiseptic, carminative and as contraceptive. Also used in hysteria and 

jaundice. 

Threat Status : Critically Endangered (CR) in J&K; Endangered (EN) in Himachal Pradesh and Near Threatened 

(NT) in Uttaranchal as per CAMP Workshop, Shimla. 

10. Juniperus semiglobosa Regel. (Cupressaceae) 

Syn : Juniperus macropoda auct. Boiss. 

Local Name : Shukpa, Shur 

Monoecious medium sized trees; Stem gnarled. Leaves on upper branches scale like, opposite, decussate, broadly 

ovate, closely appressed, on the lower branches subulate, pungent. Male cones terminal on branchlets, scales imbricate. 

Berries subglobose, blue black when ripe. Seeds 3 5, brownish yellow, testa thick. 

Habitat : Forming forests in Lahaul (Stingri) and sporadic in the inner drier valleys of the Lahaul and Spiti; 2000 4200 

m. Stingri, Poh, Pattan Valley, Miyar Valley. 

Fl. & Fr. : May – October. 

Distribution: S.W. Europe, Caucasus, Iran, Arabia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, NW Himalaya, Nepal. 

Uses : Used as Incense and to cleanse the house. It finds use in all religious and cultural ceremonies as it is sacred 

to the community. 

Threat Status : Endangered in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir as per CAMP Workshop, 

Shimla (Polunin & Stainton 1984, Aswal & Mehrotra 1994, Kapoor & Jishtu 2008). 

The taxon, according to IUCN red list categories is Data Deficient (DD), i.e. when there is inadequate information to 

make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution (IUCN 1993). Therefore these 

plant taxa may be well studied, and its biology may be well known, with appropriate data on abundance and distribution. 

Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future 

research will show that a threatened classification is appropriate. Basic knowledge of these threatened habitats and 

their floristic composition is of fundamental importance to biodiversity conservation (Arkadiusz & Sylwia 2006). It will be 

especially helpful in active management of rare plant communities, estimation of restoration possibilities and to assess 

their effective conservation. Floristic surveys are indispensable in analysing the environmental conditions of threatened 

habitats and the flora thriving there. 

Major Threats and Conservation Strategies 



i. NTFP Collection : Traditionally, people of the region are engaged in little mountain farming and animal husbandry. 

Collecting medicinal plants from various mountain ecosystems is an important part of their traditional medicine 

system, but only trained medicine men or Amchis do this. However, some people are engaged in collection of medicinal 

plants for augmenting their income. Large-scale collection of the fodder and fuelwood from this ecoregion by the local 

people for storage and use during the prolonged cold winters is a substantial threat, especially because the floral 

25


26 


species in the region are very slow to regenerate. Some plants like Myricaria elegans, Colutea nepalensis, Rosa 

webbiana and species of Caragana are destructively harvested for fuel wood and other domestic uses by the local 

inhabitants. There is no exact figure to show how many and how much of the plants are collected from different habitats 

in the region. In recent years, due to increased domestic market demand, over harvesting of wild plants is a common 

problem world-over resulting in the threat to some of these species. 

ii. Habitat Alteration : Land use change is seen as the main factor to cause the habitat loss for native flora in the 

region. The loss of habitat is being seen as one of the major causes of threats to biodiversity, and there are numerous 

threatened species of plants distributed in the region, e.g. Betula utilis, Juniperus spp., Arnebia euchroma, Allium spp., 

Saussurea spp., etc. Like in other parts of the state the people in the cold deserts too are directly engaged in animal 

husbandry, agriculture and horticulture. The cattle and sheep population is almost three times the humans, coupled 

with hordes of additional sheep and goats of the nomadic graziers coming to the alpine regions each summer. 

Moreover, the wild populations of wild sheep and goats have increased over the years due to complete ban on hunting. 

Protected areas that overlap the region are Pin Valley National Park, Rupi Bhabha Wildlife Sanctuary and Kibber 

Wildlife Sanctuary. Therefore, there seems to be a great pressure on the alpine pastures of the cold deserts. Indiscriminate 

use of the grazing areas has therefore resulted in critically low biomass availability along with the emergence of weeds 

that have threatened the native species. Pastures Meadow steppe and scrub ecosystems are the special habitats for 

some rare medicinal flora in the region. Due to overgrazing, vegetation degradation occurs in many areas of this region. 

Distinct plant assemblages can be identified in the moist alpine vegetation that is strongly aggregated by altitudinal 

variations suggesting the presence of distinct zones of the alpine flora. Elevation and specific locations are the dominant 

environmental gradients underlying the species composition in these specific habitats. Hence, the alpine pasture 

habitat in the cold deserts is not only a group of grasses but is an ecosystem in itself. Here, the survival of this habitat is 

directly related to the survival of native flora, fauna and the inhabitants of the region. All the three components therefore, 

interact with each other and maintain the dynamic equilibrium within an ecosystem. Some of the strategies for long 

term conservation of threatened taxa in the region include enhanced monitoring of the effects of exploitation for 

species, particularly for the species under trade. 

Conservation in such areas can not be achieved without the involvement of local communities, who are directly 

dependent on these resources for their livelihood. Their involvement in management would certainly help in conservation. 

These communities could be encouraged to set aside some habitats for in situ conservation of high value medicinal 

plants. Efforts are needed to establish cold desert conservatorium / medicinal plant gardens, MPCA’s in the region. 

There is a need to focus on the development of packages for cultivation of economically important medicinal plants 

with modern techniques including tissue culture and genetic engineering. 

References : 

Anonymous. 1986. The useful plants of India. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. 

Arkadiusz, N. & Sylwia, N. 2006. Anthropogenic habitats can shelter threatened plants. pp. 107-115. In: Dan Gafta 

& John Akeroyd (eds.) Nature Conservation: Concepts and Practice. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 

Aswal, B.S & B.N. Mehrotra. 1994. Flora of Lahaul-Spiti: A Cold Desert in North West Himalaya. Bishen Singh 

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 

George, W. 1972. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Vol. V, Cosmo Publications, Delhi. 

IUCN. 1993. Draft IUCN Red List Categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.



Kapoor, K.S. & Vaneet Jishtu. 2008. Flora of Miyar Valley-Lesser known Lahaul. Himachal Forest Research Institute 

Booklet No. 029. 

Koelz, W.N. 1979. Notes on the ethnobotany of Lahaul, a province of the Punjab. Quatr. J. Crude Drug Res. 17: 1- 

56. 

Polunin, O. & A. Stainton. 1984. Flowers of the Himalayas. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 

Rawat, G.S.& Y.P.S. Pangtey. 1987. A contribution to the ethnobotany of Alpine regions of Kumaon. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 

11: 139-148. 

Rawat, Y.S., Santaram, S. Oinam, Subhash, V., C. R., P.C. Kuniyal & J.C. Kuniyal. 2006. Willow (Salix fragilis L.): A 

Multipurpose Tree Species under Pest Attack in the Cold Desert of Lahaul Valley, Northwestern 

Himalaya, India. AMBIO 35 (1): 43-48. 

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vols. I & II. Wildlife 

Institute of India, Dehradun. 

Sood, S.K., Ram Nath & D.C. Kalia. 2001. Ethnobotany of Cold Desert Tribes of Lahaul-Spiti (N.W. Himalayas). 

Deep Publications, New Delhi. 

Supiriya, K. B. 1994. Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Vol. III, Pointer Publishers, Jaipur. pp. 1689-1699. 

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Glechoma nivalis (Benth.) Press: 

An Interesting Plant of Alpine Scree Slopes from Spiti 

B. S. Rana IFS 

Divisional Forest Officer, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh 

bsrana61@gmail.com 

While posted as Director, Pin Valley National Park, located in Spiti Sub-Division of Himachal Pradesh (HP) during 

1994, I frequently visited parts of Kibber WS. During one of such visits to Kibber, I came across an interesting, 

strongly aromatic plant on dry steep scree slopes near Komik village (4300m), which was identified by Dr. G.S. 

Rawat of WII Dehradun as Glechoma nivalis (Benth.) Press (Lamiaceae). This species had only a few individuals 

and it was restricted to loose scree slopes. Aswal & Mehrotra (1994) in the ‘Flora of Lahaul – Spiti’ have stated that 

there are no specimens of G. nivalis from HP in the Indian Herbaria. Hence this note is being sent herewith along 

with a photograph (from Kibber WS) to authenticate the presence of G. nivalis in Spiti.

G. S. Rawat

Introduction 

4.0 Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of 

Kashmir Himalaya 

G.H. Dar 

Department of Botany, the University of Kashmir 

Hazratbal, Srinagar-190 006, Jammu & Kashmir, India. 

ghdar99@yahoo.com 

Kashmir, commonly called the Kashmir Valley, the ‘paradise on earth’, is situated in the Northwest Himalayan 

biogeographic zone in India between 33 0 .20' -34 0 .54' N latitudes and 73 0 .55' -75 0 .35' E longitudes, covering an area of 

15,948 km 2 . Topographically, it is a deep elliptical bowl-shaped valley bounded by lofty mountains of the Pir Panjal in 

the south and southwest and by the Great Himalayan range in the north and east, with 64% of the total area being 

mountainous. The Valley is asymmetrical, with 187 km diagonal length (from southeast to northwest corner), and 

considerably varying breadth, being 115.6 km along the latitude of Srinagar (Kaul 1977). The altitude of the Valley basin 

at Srinagar is 1,600 m and rises to 5, 420 m at Kolahoi or “Gwashibror’, the highest peak among its surrounding 

mountains. Traversing the Valley is the river Jhelum and its tributaries, which feed many lakes for which Kashmir is 

famous. The Valley is divided into six administrative districts: Srinagar, Budgam, Pulwama, Anantnag, Baramulla and 

Kupwara. 

Owing to great heterogeneity in its topography, altitude and climate, Kashmir harbours diverse habitats which support 

a rich floristic wealth that has been used as a resource-base by its people since times immemorial. No wonder, the 

region has been called a “biomass State” (Khoshoo 1997). Indeed Kashmir has ever been known for its economicallyvalued 

plants and their products, such as food, fodder, fibre, medicinal and aromatic plants, spices, perfumes, 

ornamentals, timber, small wood, and variety of other non-wood timber produce. 

The written records of floristic studies in Kashmir date back to 1822 when William Moorcroft first collected plants from 

this Valley, followed by other western explorers, namely Victor Jacquemont, Royle, von Huegel and Vigne. Royle, for the 

first time published illustrations and taxonomic diagnoses of many plants from Kashmir. J. D. Hooker, in his Flora of 

British India (1872-1897), cited plant material from this area with a large number of taxa. This was followed by 

important contributions to the flora of Kashmir by three botanists: Coventry (1923-1930), Blatter (1928-1929), and 

Stewart (1972). 

The floristic studies in this region received a great boost with the establishment of the Jammu & Kashmir University at 

Srinagar in 1961. The same year, a Botanical Garden was laid down adjacent to the Department of Botany. Many a 

local students and teachers started research on various floristic aspects, including monographs, and with the plant 

material collected during the course of these studies was established a herbarium, the KASH, in 1972. The establishment 

of the Centre of Plant Taxonomy (COPT) in 1981, as an adjunct of the Department of Botany, was yet another milestone 

in the onward progress of floristic research in this area. This Centre has paved the way for publication of numerous 

research papers and some important books on the Kashmir Himalayan flora (e.g., Singh & Kachroo 1976, Dhar & 

Kachroo 1983, Munshi & Javeid 1986, Sharma & Jamwal 1988, 1998, Singh & Kachroo 1994, Navchoo & Kachroo 

1995, Dar et al., 2002, and Nasreen et al. 2003). 

The ancient flora of Kashmir is said to have been tropical, having changed to subtropical and temperate types during 

glacial phase of the Pleistocene era (Puri 1943, 1947; Vishnu-Mittre 1963). Thereafter, plants from various floristic 

29


30 


regions have entered the Valley through normal dispersal and anthropogenic interventions, rendering its present flora 

as Holarctic, and mostly a confluence of various floristic elements from many adjacent regions. A vivid vegetation 

pattern is seen along the gradient of altitudinal climatic belts. Beginning from somewhat subtropical formations, one 

finds in the temperate Valley domesticated plant systems and wetland and aquatic formations, followed higher up in the 

mountains by forests, sub-alpine and alpine meadowlands, alpine scrubs, etc. 

The wild-growing gymnosperms comprise not more than a dozen conifers, yet they dominate the forests. Dar & Naqshi 

(2002) and Dar et al. (2002) have reported 2,000 species of flowering plants from the Kashmir region; these are 

distributed over 710 genera in 132 families. Asteraceae, Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Rosaceae, and Lamiaceae are the 

first five larger families with regard to number of species; while Carex, Polygonum (sensu lato), Potentilla, Artemisia and 

Nepeta are the larger genera. Presence of a large number of grasses and sedges is significant. In all, about 20% 

angiosperm species occur as weeds [Kaul (1986) recorded 401 species as weeds in 251 genera and 56 families]; 

15% species comprise indigenous and exotic trees and shrubs [Ara et al. (1995) listed 295 arboreal species in 120 

genera and 60 families]; the aquatic and wetland flora is also rich [Kak (1990) listed 196 species in 82 genera and 44 

families]; some 8% species are exclusively endemic to Kashmir (Dar et al. 2008), which is significant considering the 

fact that this region forms only 0.48 % land mass of India. 

Special Habitats 

For the purpose of habitat study, Kashmir may be divided into two broad ecological zones: the main valley zone, and the 

surrounding montane zone. Mostly under human habitation and cultivation, the main valley is beset with varied habitats; 

besides it possesses the following special habitats with interesting attendant vegetation types. 

1. Swamps and marshes 

Kashmir Valley is very rich in freshwater swamps and marshes. The swamps are water logged areas with water level 

above the soil surface. These support reed-swamp vegetation dominated by reeds (Phragmites australis), rushes 

(Juncus spp.), and sedges (Scirpus spp.); other tall plants, such as Butomus umbellatus and species of Typha, Equisetum, 

and Alisma, also occur occasionally. The marshes are like swamps but with the water level not rising above the surface. 

These support a luxuriant helophytic vegetation comprising rushes and sedges ( species of Scirpus, Carex, Cyperus 

and Fimbristylis), with occasional hygrophilous associates such as Lythrum salicaria, Galium palustre, Bidens tripartita, 

Prunella vulgaris, Triglochin palustre, Ranunculus sceleratus, Spiranthes sinensis and Persicaria hydropiper. 

2. Floating gardens 

Kashmir Valley abounds in lakes, which are home to a varied hydrophytic vegetation, both benthon and pleuston. Within 

and along the lakes occur stabilized islands that have been formed ingeniously by local boat men -‘Hanjis’ using willow 

trees ( Salix spp.) as tent poles along margins and being used for growing a rich variety of local vegetables. Some 

common weeds associated with these island farms are Bidens cernua, Persicaria hydropiper, Mentha arvensis, Rorippa 

sylvestris, Sium latijigum, Lythrum salicaria, Galium palustre, Myosotis palustris, Veronica anagallis-aquatica, Plantago 

major and Cyperus difformis. 

3. Graveyard sites 

Every village/habitation site in Kashmir has a graveyard, which is rich in nutrients. The graveyards are frequently planted 

with a few trees of Celtis australis and Morus alba and harbor a distinct vegetation. It is customary to grow some bulbous 

geophytes, such as species of Sternbergia, Narcissus and Iris on and around fresh graves. After some time these get

naturalized and grow profusely on such sites. Sternbergia fischeriana and Narcissus tazetta are the first to bloom in 

February-March, while species of Iris, such as I. germanica, I. kashmiriana and I. ensata bloom in April-May, rendering 

a colorful look to these sites. 

4. Mud wall and masonry wall sites 

The mud walls are raised to cover the kitchen gardens, orchards and lawns. They form a characteristic habitat for 

vegetation which shows more or less a seasonal rhythm. During spring, under moderate temperature and high moisture 

content of the substratum, a luxuriant growth of plants, such as Veronica persica, V. biloba, Poa annua, Cardamine 

hirsuta and Stellaria media is seen. The summer, exhibiting an increase in temperature with a corresponding decrease 

in moisture content of the substratum, shows a decline in the number of plant species and the main taxa colonizing 

mud walls during this season include Anthemis cotula, Galinsoga parviflora, Sisymbrium loesellii, and Eragrostis 

minor. During autumn the substratum becomes almost dry and only some hardy species, such as Artemisia 

tournefortiana, Ipomoea eriocarpa and Urtica dioica are able to bloom. Dar & Kachroo (1983) recorded 68 species of 

flowering plants, belonging to 27 families, growing on the mud walls of Ganderbal in Srinagar, all of which are 

herbaceous with 75% being annual, revealing predominance of therophytic life forms on these walls. 

Masonry walls are frequently raised as bounds along water courses. They support species such as Oxalis corniculta, 

Arenaria serpyllifolia, Stellaria media, Campanula pallida, Plantago lanceolata, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Veronica 

persica and Epilobium spp., together with many composites (Taraxacum spp., Gnaphalium affine and Lactuca dissecta) 

and grasses (Poa annua, P. bulbosa and Calamagrostis pseudophragmites). 

5. Rocky gorges 

These are narrow passages of rocks, rocky slopes and rocky banks through which flow the nallahs and streams in the 

montane terrain. The vegetation along these sites is mainly lithophytic, including characteristic scrubs of Isodon 

rugosus, Viburnum foetens and Clemaris spp., together with herbaceous elements such as Arisaema jacquemontii, 

Campanula cashmeriana, Cirsium falconeri, Gentiana cachemirica, Leonurus cardiaca, Minuartia kashmirica, Oxyria 

digyna, Rumex hastatus, Dictamnus albus, Stachys sericea, and species of Corydalis, Epilobium, Nepeta, Sedum, 

Thalictrum, and Swertia. 

6. Moist alpine meadows 

Kashmir is known for its beautiful alpine valleys, locally known as ‘margs / bahaks’. These are used as summer 

pastures by graziers and harbor open grassland communities, comprising colorful species of Aconitum, Aquilegia, 

Delphinium, Callianthemum, Aster, Inula, Salvia, Phlomis, Campanula, Geranium, Barbarea, Potentilla, Geum, 

Chaerophyllum, Selinum and Fritillaria. 

Certain stretches within alpine meadows have mostly a frozen and poorly-drained soil surface, resulting in damper or 

marshy depression-like situations. This moor-like habitat is covered by mossy mats and its vegetation is dominated by 

hygrophytic sedges such as Juncus sphaceluros, Luzula spicata, Kobresia nitens, Carex spp., and grasses such as 

Poa alpina, P. versicolor, Phleum alpinum, Alopecurus himalaicus, etc. A few ground-hugging herb-like shrubs (Salix 

flabellaris and Gaultheria trichophylla) with the hygrophilous herbaceous species of Pedicularis, Primula, Anemone, 

Aconitum, Ranunculus, Epilobium, Gentiana, Jaeschkea, Lomatogonium, and Swertia are also common here. 

7. Alpine rocky and scree slopes 

Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of 


These comprise bare rock and scree with interstitial gravel above the alpine scrubs. This special habitat shows a rich 

growth of epilythic lichens and numerous xerophilous plants. Dwarf patches of Ephedra gerardiana and Cassiope 

31


32 


fastigiata manage to grow on these slopes, together with a number of hardy rosette and other lithophytes, such as 

Corydalis crassissima, Papaver nudicaule, Paraquilegia anemonoides, Anemone rupicola, Potentilla curviseta, Arnebia 

benthamii, Minuartia foliosa, Sedum crassipes, Bistorta vivipara, Dolomiaea baltalensis, Jurinea ceratocarpa, Lactuca 

laevigata, Waldheimia tomentosa, Arabis spp., Chorispora sabulosa, Draba spp., Ermania kashmiriana, Saussurea 

gossypiphora and S. sacra. 

8. Glacial moraines 

Glaciers usually occur in gulleys, criques and coles along high alpine mountains in Kashmir, though at some places 

they descend to elevations of 3,300m. They comprise huge masses of ice and provide inimical conditions for vascularplant 

growth. However, the fringes of glaciers melt during summer, providing melt water to the substratum throughout 

the growing season. This moist habitat along melting glaciers supports distinctive vegetation represented by species 

such as Adonis chrysocyathus, Trollius acaulis, Oxygraphis polypetala, Aquilegia nivalis, Anemome polyanthes, 

Ranunculus munroanus, Thlaspi cochlearioides, Bergenia stracheyi, Saxifraga sibirica, Pedicularis spp., Swertia 

petiolata, Aster diplostephioides, Lloydia serotina, Milium effusum, and Juncus leucomelas. Occasionally, species of 

Rhododendron are also seen growing along glaciers. 


A century ago, Kashmir would have been a naturalist’s paradise. Dense forests in Kashmir descended up to the interior 

of present-day city and towns, the wood was easily and abundantly available from these forests and formed the main 

item of the timber and fuel, and that the preponderant medicinal plants were the main source of the local Hakim 

(Unani) system of medicine. Over the decades, however, a large number of species have been rendered threatened 

due to various anthropogenic causes, such as habitat loss or modification (particularly deforestation and expanding 

urbanization), over-exploitation of economically important plants, alien species invasion, unchecked grazing, unplanned 

development, and great tourist influx. Dar & Naqshi (2002) have reported 356 plant taxa (346 species + 3 subspecies 

+ 7 varieties) as threatened in Kashmir and Ladakh phytogeographical region. Some critically endangered plants of 

Kashmir (Plate 4) are given as follows: 

1. Aquilegia nivalis Falc. ex Jackson (Ranunculaceae) 

English Name : Columbine 

A small perennial herb with few ternate leaves divided into kidney-shaped 3-lobed leaflets, and deep purple flowers. 

Growing on moist, shady or open alpine slopes, screes or rocks, in slightly hard, pebbled soil, between 3000-4000 m. 

Threats : Shrunk populations, fragile habitats, grazing pressures. 

2. Aconitum kashmiricum Stapf. ex Coventry (Ranunculaceae) 

Local Name : Pevak 

A smaller plant than A. heterophyllum, with coarsely-toothed entire leaves, and smaller dark-purplish flowers. Growing 

in loose soils, less-pebbled, moist and open alpine slopes, between 3000-4000 m. 

Threats : Harsh and fragile habitats, squeezed populations and restricted distribution, extensive herbivory of flowering 

portions, exploitation of tubers for medicinal purposes. 

3. Artemisia amygdalina Decne. (Asteraceae) 

Local Name : Veri tethvan. 

A robust perennial herb, with simple leaves resembling those of a willow, and yellowish-green flowers. Growing in 

moderately moist, relatively hard, open or partially shaded sub-alpine situations, between 2600-3200 m.

Threats : Shrunk populations and restricted distribution, extensive herbivory of flowering tops. 

4. Gentiana cachemirica Decne. (Gentianaceae) 

English Name : Rock Gentian 

A tufted perennial herb with many leafy stems, each with few or solitary pale-blue funnel-shaped terminal flowers. 

Growing always on rocks, in their crevices and ledges, between 3200-4000 m. 

Threats: Extremely harsh and fragile alpine habitats, with highly specific and very narrow ecological niche. 

5. Lagotis cashmeriana (Royle) Rupr. (Scrophulariaceae) 

English Name : Hare’s ear. 

A small plant with oblong to elliptic rounded-toothed leaves, and dense cylindrical spikes of dark blue tubular flowers. 

Growing in wet places (usually glacier-fed) in open or shady, loose-soiled and less-pebbled patches in typical alpine 

situations, between 3000-3800 m. 

Threats : Narrow and fragile habitats, patchy distribution, extensive herbivory (especially of flowering spikes), very 

small number of flowering individuals, and very low seed set. A very important medicinal plant. The paste of leaves is 

applied for wound-healing in cattle; rhizome is used as adulterant in place of Picrorhiza kurrooa. 

6. Hedysarum cachemirianum Benth. ex Baker (Fabaceae) 

English Name : Kashmir Hedysarum 

A nearly hairless erect perennial herb, with pinnate leaves having numerous leaflets, and dense clusters of numerous 

large drooping red-purple flowers. Growing on moderately moist, rocky alpine slopes, between 3200-4000 m. 

Threats: Small populations, very restricted distribution in a few alpine areas, very low number of flowering individuals, 

and scanty seed production. 

7. Meconopsis latifolia Prain (Papaveraceae) 

English Name : Blue Poppy 

A perennial erect bristly-spiny herb, with long-stalked basal leaves, sessile upper leaves, and large beautiful blue 

flowers. Growing in dry rock crevices with thin soil, under rocks or among big boulders in sandy soils, between 2800- 

4200 m. 

Threats: Extremely fragile habitats, very narrow ecological niche, highly shrunk populations, fragile nature of rootstock 

affecting vegetative propagation, very small number of flowering individuals, grazing pressures. Roots are dried, 

powdered and taken with water as stomachic. 

8. Megacarpaea polyandra Benth. (Brassicaceae) 

Local Name : Chatter 

A robust perennial herb with a stout stem, large deeply pinnately-lobed basal leaves, and a large terminal dense cluster 

of small flowers. Growing on moderately moist, less pebbled open alpine slopes between 3200-4200 m. 

Threats: Extremely shrunk and restricted populations, small number of reproductive individuals, harsh alpine habitats, 

and over-exploitation. The fleshy roots are relished as pot herb or eaten raw; young leaves are locally cooked as 

vegetable. 

9. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. (Asteraceae) 

Local Name: Kuth 



A tall robust perennial herb, with triangular long-stalked basal leaves and large clasping upper leaves. 

33

1 

Plate 4 

Kashmir Himalaya: Landscape and 

Threatened Species 

2 3 

4 5 6 

A. Landscape of Gurej Valley; 1. Saussurea costus; 2. Artemisia amygdalina; 

3. Aconitum kashmiricum; 4. Lagotis cashmeriana; 5. Aquilegia nivalis; 

6. Meconopsis latifolia 

A 

Y.V. Bhatnagar

Growing on moist, shady slopes among juniper shrubs or in open places, between 2800-3800 m. 

Threats : Reduced, restricted populations, less sexual reproductive effort, over-exploitation for medicinal purposes, 

illicit trade. Rhizome is used as spasmodic in asthma, cough and cholera, in skin disease and rheumatism, also as 

insect repellent. 

10. Ulmus wallichiana Planchon (Ulmaceae) 

English Name : Himalayan Elm 

A large tree with rough grey bark and elliptic to obovate, long-pointed, double-toothed leaves. Growing in broad-leaved 

deciduous forests and moist ravines, between 1700- 2600 m. 

Threats: Over-exploitation for its wood and lopping pressure. Bark contains a strong fibre used locally for rope and 

sandals. 

References 

Ara, S., A. R. Naqshi & M.Y. Baba.1995. Indigenous and exotic trees and shrubs of Kashmir Valley. Indian J. Forestry 

(Addl. Ser.) 8: 233-272. 

Blatter, E. 1928-1929. Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir. Vols. I & II. John Bale and Staples, London. 

Coventry, B. O. 1923-1930. Wild Flowers of Kashmir. Series 1-3. Raithby Lawrence, London. 

Dar, G. H. & A. R. Naqshi. 2002. Plant resources of Kashmir: diversity, utilization and conservation. pp. 109-122. In: A. K. 

Pandit (ed.) Natural Resources of Western Himalaya. Valley Book House, Srinagar, Kashmir. 

Dar, G. H., A. A. Khuroo & N. Aman. 2008. Endemism in the angiospermic flora of Kashmir Valley, India: a stock taking. 

pp. 123. In: Souvenir & Abstracts of XVIII Annual Conference of IAAT and International Seminar on 

Multidisciplinary Approaches in Angiosperm Systematics, held from 11-13 Oct. 2008 at the Department of 

Botany, University of Kalyani, Kolkata. 

Dar, G. H., R. C. Bhagat & M. A. Khan. 2002. Biodiversity of the Kashmir Himalaya. Valley Book House, Srinagar, 

Kashmir. 

Dhar, U. & P. Kachroo. 1983. Alpine Flora of Kashmir Himalaya. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. 

Hooker, J. D. 1872-1897. Flora of British India. Vols. I-VII. L. Reeve & Co., London. 

Kak, A. M. 1990. Aquatic and wetland vegetation of Kashmir Himalaya. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 14(1): 1-14. 

Kaul, A. K. 1977. Kashmir physiography. Inquiry 4(7): 1-20. 

Kaul, M. K. 1986. Weed Flora of Kashmir Valley. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. 

Munshi, A. H. & G. N. Javeid. 1986. Systematic Studies in Polygonaceae of Kashmir Himalaya. Scientific Publishers, 

Jodhpur, India. 

Nasreen, A., G. H. Dar & A. R. Naqshi. 2003. Scrophulariaceae of the Kashmir Himalaya. Valley Book House, Srinagar, 

Kashmir. 

Navchoo, I. A. & P. Kachroo. 1995. Flora of Pulwama (Kashmir). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. 

Puri, G. S. 1943. The occurrence of Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. in the Karewa deposits of Kashmir with remarks on 

changes of altitude and climate during the Pleistocene. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 22: 125-131. 

Puri, G. S. 1947. Fossil plants and the Himalayan uplift. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 25: 167-184. 



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36 


Sharma, B. M. & P. S. Jamwal. 1988. Flora of Upper Liddar Valleys of Kashmir Himalaya. Vols. I & II. Scientific 

Publishers, Jodhpur. India. 

Singh, G. & P. Kachroo. 1976. Forest Flora of Kashmir and Plants of Neighbourhood. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal 

Singh, Dehra Dun, India. 

Stewart, R. R. 1972. An annotated catalogue of the vascular plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir. pp. 1-1028. In: E. 

Nasir & S. I. Ali (eds.) Flora of West Pakistan. Fakhri Press, Karachi. 

Vishnu-Mittre. 1963. Oaks in the Kashmir Valley with remarks on their history. Grana Palynologica 4(2): 306-312.

5.0 Threatened Plants of Jammu Region, North-West 

Himalaya and Strategies for Their Conservation 

Introduction 

O.P. Sharma 

State Forest Research Institute 

Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir 

Jammu region in the North-West Himalaya is characterized by a rapid transition from sub-tropical to alpine ecoclimatic 

conditions as one moves from south (Kathua) to north (Kishtwar). The region harbours a rich array of flora and 

fauna manifested by diverse habitat conditions. However, the region is subjected to enormous anthropogenic pressures 

such as over exploitation of timber as well as non-timber forest products especially wild medicinal plants, livestock 

grazing, ill planned developmental activities and deforestation. As a result, natural forests and grasslands have degraded 

and top soil has eroded from most of the mountain slopes. The soil erosion is particularly severe in the Shiwaliks. 

The floristics and distribution of rare and threatened plants of Jammu region has been worked out by several authors 

e.g., Sharma & Kachroo (1981), Singh & Kachroo (1983, 1994), Swami & Gupta (1998), Singh et al. (2002), Choudhary 

& Rao (2002), Kapoor et al. (1964) to name a few. The forest types recorded in the state range from thorn scrub to 

temperate and alpine types (Champion & Seth 1968). However, there have been marked and perceptible changes in 

flora as well as vegetation of the region since the publication of above works. Distribution and abundance of many 

species has drastically reduced. For example, shady moist ravines and semi-evergreen forests along the foot-hills are 

extremely rare now. In such habitats species such as Myrica esculenta (Myricaceae), Bischofia javanica, vern Chiuntar, 

Cheentar or Paniala (Euphorbiaceae), and Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae) used to grow profusely 2 – 3 decades 

ago but these trees have become extremely rare. Presently, Myrica esculenta can be seen growing only at two localities, 

one in Kardoh Nala (Basohli-Bani) and second in Saamna banj (Ram Nagar Forest Division). Buxus wallichiana 

(Buxaceae), an evergreen tree of temperate forests seen growing at Pancheri-Laander (Udhampur Forest Division), 

Saamna banj (Ram Nagar Forest Division), Budhal and Thannamandi (Rajouri Forest Division). It prefers well drained 

soil having pH range from 5.5 to 7.4. Its crocodilian fissured bark looks elegant. Fruit set is low and as a result 

regeneration is poor. It is called Chikhri in Dogri and Pahari languages and is in great demand by the handicraft artisans 

who use it for making variety of articles like snuff boxes, combs, forks, spoons, toys & decoration pieces. The wood 

sustains a whole cottage industry in Rajouri – Poonch area of Jammu. On account of its overexploitation, its populations 

are dwindling day by day. Other taxa of high conservation significance in the region include Holmskioldia sanguinea 

(Verbenaceae), Pittosporum eriocarpum (Pittosporaceae), Taxus wallichiana (Taxaxeae), Litsea glutinosa (Lauraceae), 

Corylus jacquemontii (Corylaceae). 

In this article, a few rare and threatened species (Plate 5) of Jammu region have been appended along with their 

dwindling status and strategies for long term conservation. 

1. Eremurus himalaicus Baker (Liliaceae) : Wild ornamental and edible herb of dry temperate region. Recorded 

from Padder area of Kishtwar where it has declined drastically during last two decades. Locally known as Kaihloon, 

Dharshaag, Chhil haak, Bulkutor Yalun. It is overexploited for its edible leaves and roots. It also grazed by the cattle 

and seed formation is hampered in the natural habitat. Edible young leaves are also sold in the Kishtwar market 

during March-April. This herb grows under the canopy of Pinus gerardiana in the open blanks. Soil in its natural 

habitat is usually prone to avalanches during winter and early spring. 

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38 


2. Eremostachys superba Royle ex Benth. (Lamiaceae) : Wild ornamental herb of sub-tropical areas viz. Nandni 

Wildlife Sanctuary, Sunderbani, Channi Paraat area of Rajouri and Pauni Bharkh area of Reasi Forest Division. 

The last area is under stress due to overexploitation by nomadic Gujjars who feed its tuberous roots to the milch 

cattle for enhancing milk yield. Digging of roots and plucking of handsome golden yellow spikes leaves this herb 

without adequate seed formation. As the plant is pollinated by insects, non-availability of pollinators in sufficient 

number is likely to be a major factor causing its depletion in the wild. Dr. Susheel Verma, Scientist, Centre for 

Biodiversity Studies, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, Rajouri has carried out detailed study on its floral 

biology and ex situ conservation. Habitat of this magnificent herb is under anthropogenic pressure due to soil 

erosion, soil compaction and loss of moisture in the ground soil of forests in the Shiwaliks. 

3. Gentiana kurroo Royle (Gentianaceae) : A very handsome gentian of temperate Chir pine and oak forests 

which flowers during September-October. It is declining at an alarming rate in the state. Once, abundant around 

Termain, Kalounta (Ram Nagar Forest Division), Pancheri, Maungri Basnot (Udhampur Forest Division), Banjal, 

Jouriyan Mata, Baikan, Lohai Malhar (Billawar Forest Division), this herb has sufferred due to habitat loss, dam 

building, over-exploitation, forest fires and illegal trade under the name Karu booti. It is also called as Ram Vaan 

because of its effective healing properties. It is mixed and traded with true Karu or Kaur, Picrorrhiza kurrooa which 

stands almost wiped out in the sub-alpine meadows in the Jammu region and is seen only in areas like Marwah 

Dachhan in Kishtwar and Seoj Dhar in Ram Nagar. 

4. Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G. Don) Johns. (Boraginaceae) : A rare species of higher altitudes especially in 

dry temperate slopes e.g., Marwah-Dachhan and Kishtwar mountains. It is locally dwindling due to overexploitation 

for its medicinal roots under the name ‘Ratanjot’ or ‘Rattmundi’. Flowering spikes are useful for cardiac ailments. 

It’s allied species, A. euchroma is reported from Trikuta hills, around Hathi Matha and Bhairoo Ghati in the Reasi 

Forest Division. 

5. Meconopsis aculeata Royle (Papaveraceae) : Also known as ‘Queen of Himalayan Flowers’, this Himalayan 

Blue Poppy can be seen growing naturally in the Simthan pass, Margan Top, Wadwan and Marwah area of 

Kishtwar in the Jammu region. It usually prefers dry temperate stony habitats near mountain streams and forest 

edges. It is locally called Gul-Neelmi because of its sky blue flowers. Degradation of soil due to over grazing, 

deforestation in the fir-spruce forest areas, multiple dam building over the river Chenab and large scale deforestation 

in the upper mountains are the major causes of its decline. It grows sporadically and shows poor seeding. It needs 

to be put under cultivation in the hill stations as wild ornamental plant. 

6. Habenaria intermedia D. Don (Orchidaceae) : A handsome orchid found in temperate forest fringes and grassy 

meadows. Tuberous roots are harvested for medicine. It is very sensitive to changes in habitat and restricted to a 

few localities like Marta (Ram Nagar), Chew (Billawar) and Moungri Basnot (Udhampur). Despite repeated search 

the author could not relocate its populations in the areas where it used to occur in the past. 

7. Balanophora involucrata Hook. f. (Balanaphoraceae) : A saprophytic angiosperm, usually seen growing under 

bushes of Viburnum grandiflorum (Vern. Guchh, Teldi) and Rhododendron campanulatum (Vern. Sarangar) in the 

temperate forests of Rajouri-Poonch where it is collected by Gujjars and used as tea substitute. Soil erosion, loss 

of habitat due to landslides and deforestation are the main threats. It is called ‘Mastaani Booti’ by the local people 

in Kashmir. 

8. Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. (Asclepiadaceae) : Slender climber of sub-tropical deciduous forests of Rajouri and 

Udhampur Forest Divisions. Because of deforestation of Khair trees, its habitat has been disturbed in recent 

decades. Widespread invasion of weeds such as Parthenium hysterophorus has also suppressed its growth in the

1 

4 

Plate 5 

Some Threatened Plants of Jammu Region, 

NW Himalaya 

5 

2 3 

7 8 9 10 

1. Dactylorhiza hatagirea; 2. Eremostachys superba; 3. Gloriosa superba; 

4. Arnebia benthamii; 5. Gentiana kurroo; 6. Jurinea dolomiaea; 

7. Eremerus himalaicus; 8. Atropa belladona; 9. Podophyllum hexandrum; 

10. Aconitum heterophyllum 

G.S. Rawat 

6


40 


wild. Tubers are eaten by locals. It used to be abundant in Khadakpanjaah area of Kalakote and Tikri in Udhampur 

but is quite rare these days. 

9. Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindley (Solanaceae) : Deadly poisonous mountain perennial found growing in 

wild especially around Loran, Bufliaz of Poonchh Forest Division and Gool-sangaldaan area of Ramban Forest 

Division. It also grows along the fringes of Kail, Fir and oak forests. It is called Bisraal, Braand and Tookan Sool by 

the locals. 

10. Notholirion thomsonianum (Royle) Stapf. (Liliaceae) : Fragrant flowering bulbous herb which grows in rocky 

places along the Ban-Ganga. It is quite an attractive plant of Jammu region but quite rare in the area. Author 

collected this herb for the first time during March, 2008 from a hillock along the side of Ban-Ganga at Katra. This 

species is recommended for cultivation in the gardens. 

For the conservation of above mentioned species and also for all other threatened taxa of the region both in situ and ex 

situ measures would be essential. Forest Department needs to raise the nurseries of high value medicinal and 

aromatic trees and execute population recovery programmes in various reserved forests. Volunteers and non-government 

organizations can also be motivated to grow such species along the fringes of forests and cultivated fields. The Centre 

for Biodiversity Studies, Baba Ghulam Shah Budshah University Rajouri has taken an initiative of raising the seedlings 

of Buxus wallichiana in the nurseries for its rehabilitation in the Pir Panjal Biodiversity Park of Rajouri. Such efforts need 

to be upscaled and replicated in other parts of the state. The Horticulture Department can take up a few species for ex 

situ conservation and genetic improvement. For example, the hedgel nut (Corylus jacquemontii), locally called Thaangi, 

Urmuni in Pahadi and Pogli dialects, is sold in the local market but it has poor regeneration in the forests. It needs to be 

grown as a horticultural crop. Superior grafting with Turkish varieties is desirable for enhancing yield of its nuts. 

Likewise, State Forest Department can include several woody and herbaceous species for afforestation and reforestation 

programmes under Clean Development Mechanism to serve the dual purpose of biodiversity conservation and carbon 

sequestration. 

References 

Champion, H. G. & A.K. Seth. 1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt. of India, 

New Delhi. 

Chaudhary, L.B. & R.R. Rao. 2002. A New site for endemic and rare Aconitum falconeri Holmes et Stapf (Ranunculaceae) 

in Jamuu & Kashmir Himalaya, J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 26(1): 169-172. 

Kapoor, L.D., Y.K. Sarin & A.K. Datta. 1964. A Baotanical tour to Trikuta Hills. J. Bomaby Nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 530-545. 

Sharma, B.M. & P. Kachroo. 1981. Flora of Jammu and Plants of Neighbourhood. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, 

Dehradun. 

Singh, J.B. & P. Kachroo. 1983. Plant Community characteristics in Pir Pinjal Forest range J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 4(3): 911- 

937. 

Singh, J.B. & P. Kachroo. 1994. Forest Flora of Pir Pinjal Range (Northwestern Himalaya). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal 

Singh Dehradun. 

Singh, N.P., D.K. Singh & B.P. Uniyal. 2002. Flora of Jammu & Kashmir. Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India. Kolkata. 

Swami, A. & B.K. Gupta. 1998. Flora of Udhampur. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

6.0 Rare and Little Known Plants from 

Lower Himachal Pradesh 

Krishan Lal 

Himachal Pradesh PWD, Sangrah, Sirmaur - 173 023 

kishan.1956@rediffmail.com 

The Shivaliks and outer Himalayan ranges in Himachal Pradesh have received relatively less attention of plant explorers 

and phytogeographers. Some of the important contributors on the flora of this region include Collett (1921), Chowdhery 

& Wadhwa (1984) and Kaur & Sharma (2004). However, there have been rapid changes in habitat conditions in this 

region due to heavy anthropogenic pressures. The author has been making observations on the flora of the lower 

Himachal especially the Sirmaur district for the past ten years. In this article, a few rare and little known species from the 

lower parts of Himachal Pradesh have been appended along with their colour photos (Plate 6). Most of these species 

have very small and fragmented populations and they need to be given high priority for in situ conservation and regular 

monitoring. 

1. Hibiscus trionum Linn. (Malvaceae) : So far recorded only 3-5 individuals near cultivated fields at Mangrah, 

Sarahan (1300m). 

2. Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz. (Apocynaceae) : It had been reported only from Simbalwara 

Wildlife Sanctuary in the past but despite repeated search it has not been located since the past 10 years. It is feared 

that this species has gone locally extinct from the above sanctuary. 

3. Sphaeranthus indicus DC. (Asteraceae) : Once frequent in paddy fields around Poanta Sahib, Barma 

Papri (Nahan). Now species is rarely seen perhaps due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers and intensive 

farming. 

4. Uraria picta Desv. ex DC. (Papilionaceae) : Rare, reported from Himachal Pradesh but it seems to have 

gone locally extinct from most of the localities due to changes in habitat conditions and over exploitation. 

5. Onosma thomsonii Clark (Boraginaceae) : Extremely rare. Only 3-4 individuals seen at Devadhar near 

Sangrah (1500 m), on limestone rocks. There has been heavy quarrying of lime stone from the quoted locality and 

the species is on the verge of extinction. This species was reported for the first time recently (Lal & Rawat 2008). 

Previously known only from west of Kishenganga valley in Kashmir including Banihal Pass, Swat, Hazara and 

Kagan between 1000 – 2000 m asl. 

6. Tricholepis roylei Hook. (Asteraceae) : An erect under-shrub up to 1.5 m high. Branches, petioles and 

leaves densely clothed with white tomentum. Leaves elliptic, 8 x 3 cm, toothed. Heads solitary, terminal, up to 5 cm 

in diameter, pink. Flowering and Fruiting: August – September. Sparse, 15 – 20 individuals were seen on way to 

Renuka between Shiv Temple to Raicha (1200-1400 m asl), especially dry rocky slopes (Lal & Rawat 2008). 

7. Nervillia gammieana Hook.f. (Orchidaceae) : Rather sparse, on moist forest floors of Sal (Shorea robusta), 

seen at Shambhuwala, Nahan 700m. 

8. Eulophia dabia D.Don (Orchidaceae) : Extremely rare. Recently located near Una (600 m) on the bank of 

seasonal stream in association with Imperata cylindrica and Saachrum benghalense. 

41

Plate 6 

Some Little Known Plants from Lower Himachal Pradesh 

1 2 3 4 

5 6 7 8 

9 10 11 12 

13 14 15 16 

1. Hibiscus trionum; 2. Peristylus constrictus; 3. Nervillia gammieana; 

4. Abrus pulchellus; 5. Herminium monophyllum; 

6. Pecteilis gigantea; 7. Semecarpum andcardium; 8. Rauvolfia serpentina; 

9. Tylophora tennerima; 10. Cordia rothii; 11. Habenaria marginata; 

12. Uraria picta; 13. Habenaria furcifera; 

14. Pueraria montana var. chinensis; 15. Tricholepis roylei; 16. Eulophia dabia

9. Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult. (Boraginaceae) Rare. Only three individual plants could be seen at Nahan 

at 900 m. 

10. Pecteilis gigantea J.E. Smith (Orchidaceae) : Very sparse, seen on moist grassy slopes between Nahan 

and Kakog, Sangrah (900-1000 m). 

References 

Rare and Little Known Plants from 

Lower Himachal Pradesh 

Chowdhery, H. J. & B.M. Wadhwa. 1984. Flora of Himachal Pradesh: An Analysis. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Vols 

1, 2 & 3. pp. 860. 

Collett, H. 1921. Flora Simlensis. Reprint (1980). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. pp. 652. 

Kaur, H. & M. Sharma. 2004. Flora of Sirmaur District (Himachal Pradesh). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra 

Dun. pp. 770. 

Lal, Kishan & G.S. Rawat. 2008. Additions to the flora of Himachal Pradesh from Sirmaur District. Indian J. Forestry 31 

(1): 113-115. 

43


44 


7.0 Some Plants of Taxonomic and High Conservation 

Significance in Uttarakhand Himalaya 

Introduction 

Manoj Chandran 

Almora Forest Division, Almora 

chandranmanoj@hotmail.com 

Uttarakhand Himalaya has received attention of a large number of botanists yet it remains rather under explored. The 

state lies in the watersheds of Yamuna, Ganga, Ramganga and Kali (Sharda) rivers and its tributaries. It has four broad 

eco-climatic zones, viz., the Terai-Bhabar and Shiwaliks, the middle Himalaya, the Greater Himalayas and the Trans- 

Himalaya. The wide variation in altitude and climate makes it ideal for sustaining a rich diversity of plant and animal 

species. The major vegetation types includes Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Subtropical Pine Forests, Subtropical 

Broad Leaved Forests, Temperate Conifer and Broad Leaved Forests, Alpine meadows and Alpine scrub as one goes 

from the lower to higher altitudes in the state. Some of the botanical hotspots in the state are Corbett National Park, 

Patwadangar, Lower Gori valley, Kalamuni ridge, Mandal, Deoban, Binsar, Thalkedar, Yamunotri, Valley of Flowers, 

Nanda Devi and Ralam Valley. Even though the region has been extensively surveyed by the botanists in the past, 

several localities remain under-explored. Some of the groups need taxonomic revision and others need status surveys. 

It is interesting to note that some of the species reported as common are very rare. For example, Cupressus torulosa, 

the Himalayan Cypress is supposed to be a common coniferous tree in the Western Himalaya (Osmaston 1927), but 

the reality is different. There are only few isolated populations at Naina Peak in Nainital on the ascent to Kalamuni in 

Pithoragarh, Chakarata and small scattered trees elsewhere. All these populations are in the altitudinal range of 2000- 

2500 m above msl. The common species mistaken as Cupressus torulosa in Mussorie, Naintal and many other 

plantations are actually a mixture of different species of exotic Cupressus, Juniperus and other similar genera. One of 

the plantations near Nainital proved to be a mixture of 12 species of exotic Cupressus. This mixture is a result of 

collection of seeds from the exotic Cupressus collection in the FRI campus at Dehradun by the local seed suppliers in 

the past, resulting in mixed mother plantations from where further seed collection was done. The Forest Department 

has started measures to identify true populations as seed plots and supply certified seeds so that only the real Cupressus 

torulosa is introduced in future planations. 

This article deals with ten interesting species of taxonomic value highly discussed among botanists regarding their 

rarity, systematic position and restricted distribution (Plates 7A & 7B). 

Details of the species 

1. Butea pellita Hook. f. (Fabaceae) 

A perennial herbaceous legume of subtropical pine forests. It remains dormant (underground) during autumn and 

winter and sprouts up during the pre-monsoon showers in May. Leaves large, trifoliate, pubescent. Branches end in a 

terminal inflorescence. After seed fall above the ground portion of the plant dries off and becomes dormant till the next 

summer. This plant is found only at a few locations like Patwadangar and Banoliya in Nainital Forest Division, both at 

an altitude of 1500-1600m above msl. This plant is locally called ‘Patwa’ and the name of the place Patwadangar 

means ‘The rocky hill full of Patwa’. The total population in this area is estimated to be around 100 plants. 

45


2. Symplocos ferruginea Roxb. (Styraceae) 

46 


A medium sized evergreen tree, having restricted distribution, again around Patwadangar. It is easily identified by its 

large elliptic, serrate leaves. Petioles and veins underneath rusty. The inflorescence and peduncles are also rusty 

brown in colour, hence the specific name ‘ferruginea’. There may be around 20 trees only in this area. The other 

associates in this area are Symplocos crataegoides, Glochidion velutinum and Michelia kissopa. 

3. Toricella tiliaefolia DC. (Toricelliaceae) 

A small tree with large cordate leaves and is the only representative of the family Toricelliaceae. The leaves resemble 

those of the family Aristolochiaceae. There are only two populations identified so far, Guini Band near Birhi, where a 

small population is visible from the roadside and Patal Bhubaneswar, where there are a few isolated trees. Both the 

places are in Pithoragarh Forest Division and the altitude ranges from 1500-1900m above msl. 

4. Trachycarpus takil Becc. (Arecaceae) 

A medium sized palm thought to be endemic to the Kumaon and Western Nepal Himalayas. The only known natural 

populations are Girgaon near Kalamuni and Thalkedar in Pithoragarh Forest Division. The palm grows on steep cliffs 

and is easily identified by the terminal rosette of orbicular, palmate, plicate and deeply incised leaves with glaucous 

shining undersides. The leaf sheaths shred out into fibrous material remaining persistent on the stem for a long time at 

least below the terminal rosette. This species is often confused with the ornamental palm Trachycarpus fortunei 

commonly grown in Mussoorie and Nainital, which is distinguished by the strap like long ligule unlike the short pointed 

ligule of T. takil. The specific name originates from the local name of the palm, ‘Thakal’. One opinion is also that the 

specific name originates from the locality name Thalkedar. It is also possible that the name Thalkedar has come from 

‘Thakal Dhar’, meaning ‘the ridge of palms’. The species is under threat due to use of leaves for thatching, brooms and 

ornamental purposes and also due to fires in the steep grassy slopes. 

5. Cyathea spinulosa Wall. (Cyatheaceae) 

Only tree fern found in the Himalayan region and is in restricted distribution unlike its common occurrence in the 

Western Ghats and North Eastern States. This fern is easily identified by its tree like trunk and a rosette of terminal 

tripinnate fronds with spiny petioles. Only three populations are identified so far, viz., below Sandev forests in Pithoragarh 

Forest Division, Birahi Ganga catchment in Badrinath Forest Division and above a landslide on Gopeswar-Tangsa 

road in Kedarnath Wildlife Division. All these populations are in the average altitude of 1100-1300m above msl. The 

population on a stream across Gopeswar-Tangsa Road was washed off in a landslide in 2007 leaving behind only a 

few individuals and some regeneration. 

6. Ceropegia wallichii Wight. (Asclepiadaceae) 

An erect and beautiful herb recently discovered during a survey in the Himalayan Botanic Gardens at Nainital where a 

degraded forest land was allowed to regenerate naturally by means of protection measures. This is a small perennial 

bushy plant unlike its counterparts which are climbers. The species is easily identified by the peculiar flower shape of 

all Ceropegias and by the very long slender follicles with numerous pappous hairy seeds inside. The plant has since 

been preserved, multiplied and planted in other places inside the garden.

Plate 7A 

Some Interesting Plants of Uttarakhand -I 

1 2 

3 4 

5 6 

1. Wallichia densiflora; 2. Phaius tankervilleae; 

3. Toricellia tiliaefolia; 4. Dimeria ornithopoda; 

5. Cyathea spinulosa; 6. Symplocos ferruginea

Plate 7B 

Some Interesting Plants of Uttarakhand - II 

7 8 

9 10 11 

7. Glyceria tonglensis; 8. Butea pellita; 9. Quercus lanuginosa; 

10. Trachycarpus takil; 11. Ceropegia wallichii

7. Phaius tankervillae (Banks) Blume (Orchidaceae) 

A ground orchid found in the swampy evergreen microclimates in the Sal forests of the Shiwalik and foothills of the 

Himalaya. This orchid was presumed to be extinct in the wild due to its heavy exploitation in the past for ornamental 

purposes. This species was recently rediscovered in a small population in a swamp near Gajar sot in Corbett National 

Park. The plant is easily identified by its long plicate leaves and the large showy inflorescence with brown tepals with 

white undersides. The labellum forms a small cylindrical tubular structure in the middle of the flower. 

8. Wallichia densiflora Mart. (Arecaceae) 

A dwarf palm endemic to Himalaya found in dense moist shady regions and is very rare and restricted in distribution. 

The palm can be easily identified by its size and large lobed pinnate leaves with sinuate margins and shiny, glaucous 

undersides. The inflorescence is a dense axillary spadix. This palm is found in extremely small populations, the main 

localities being Gajar swamp in Corbett National Park, Mundiapani and Domunda in Kalagarh Forest Division, Kyari in 

Ramnagar Forest Division and Dogaon water falls in Nainital Forest Division. The palm is of high ornamental value and 

hence its exploitation has restricted its occurrence in rather inaccessible areas only. 

9. Glyceria tonglensis C.B. Clarke (Poaceae) 

A semi-aquatic grass found near the high altitude lakes and ponds and spends most of its life under submerged 

conditions and rest in the dried swampy portion of the lake side. The subsurface runners enable the species to extend 

all along the moist region around the lake. The plant can be easily identified by its branched panicle with stiff branches 

at an angle to the main rachis. The spikelets have several florets with overlapping glumes and blunt tips (Bor 1960). 

10. Dimeria ornithopoda Trin. (Poaceae) 

This is a very common ephemeral grass of mostly in peninsular India, but is found in the Himalayas in so far only one 

report from Chakori at 2000m altitude on a moist rocky ground, probably a granite outcrop, where it is found in a 

gregarious population. The other isolated record of this species is from Robber’s cave in Dehradun. The disjunct 

distribution of this grass species, that too at a high altitude, is a mystery to be solved. 

References 

Some Plants of Taxonomic and High Conservation 

Significance in Uttarakhand Himalaya 

Bor, N.L. 1960. Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan. Pergamon Press, London 

Osmaston, A. E. 1927. A Forest Flora for Kumaon. Superintendent, Govt. Press, United Provinces, Allahabad. 

49


50 


Introduction 

8.0 Threatened Plants of Kedarnath Wildlife 

Sanctuary,Western Himalaya 

1Gajendra Singh & Ishwari Dutt Rai 

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun 

1gajendrawat@yahoo.com The Western Himalaya is well known for its floral, faunal, cultural and aesthetic values. Though it forms only about 

seven percent of India’s land surface, it plays a major role in shaping the Indian monsoon bestowing a tremendous life 

sustaining values to the Indian subcontinent. The establishment of several protected areas (PAs) in recent years in the 

Himalaya as well as other parts of the country (Rodgers & Panwar 1988) raises hopes for the long term conservation of 

representative ecosystems and biota. The existing PA network in the Himalaya covers diverse natural habitats for 

maximum species of flora and fauna but planning the proper size and shape of PAs suffers due to lack of information 

on the specific habitats of rare and endemic plants. Several workers have stressed the need for conservation of 

threatened flora in Himalaya e.g., Deva (1968), Sahani (1979), Jain & Sastry (1980), Pangtey & Rawat (1984), Rao & 

Hajra (1986), Hajra & Rao (1990), and Rao et al. (2003). In this paper, we give a brief overview of the vegetation and 

threatened plants of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctury. Patterns of their rarity and endemism are discussed along with their 

conservation status in and around the sanctuary. 

The Sanctuary 

The Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS) is one of the largest PAs (975 km 2 ) in the Western Himalaya, located in 

Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. It is bordered by high peaks viz., Kedarnath (6940m), Mandani (6193m) and 

Chaukhamba (7068m) and extensive alpine meadows i.e., Kham, Mandani, Pandavshera, Rudranath, Manpai in the 

north. The sanctuary covers a wide altitudinal range and has sizeable areas with limited human pressure. Hence, it 

harbours a great diversity of flora (>2000 species). However, some parts of the sanctuary which are heavily used by 

human beings for pilgrimage and livestock grazing, a few species have witnessed rapid decline during recent decades 

e.g. disappearance of Oaks, Taxus, Cypripedium, Dactylorhiza, Aconites and Picrorhiza kurrooa, etc. 

Table 1. List of Threatened and Endangered plants of Kedarnath WS 

Botanical name Family Habit Indian RDB Habitat 

Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis Aceraceae T V 5, 6 

Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC. 

var. membranaceum Benerji Aceraceae T E 6 

Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Seringe Ranunculaceae H I 1 

Allium stracheyi Baker Alliaceae H V 1,3 

Arnebia benthamii Benth. Boraginaceae H E 1,5 

Berberis pseudoumbellata R. Parker Berberidaceae S I 5 

Coelogyne cristata Lindley Orchidaceae H I 6 

Cyananthus integer Wall. ex Benth. Campanulaceae H R 3 

Dendrobium normale Falc. Orchidaceae H I 6 

Kobresia duthiei Cl. Cyperaceae H I 1,3 

Oreorchis indica (Lindl.) Hook.f. Orchidaceae H I 5 

Saussurea roylei (DC.) Sch. Bip. Asteraceae H I 3 

Saussurea bracteata Decne. Asteraceae H R 1,3 

Schizandra grandiflora (Wall.) Hk.f. & T. Magnoliaceae C I 6 

Silene kumaonensis Williams Caryophyllaceae H R 1 

Habit: H=Herb, S=Shrub, T=Tree, C=Climber, RDB Status: V=Vulnerable, E=Endangered, I=Indeterminate, R=Rare, 

Habitats: 1=Mixed herbaceous meadows, 2= Caves & Caverns, 3= Boulders and scree slopes, 4= Stream courses, 5= 

Alpine moist scrub, 6= Temperate oak forests. 

51


52 


Fifteen species of vascular plants found in KWS have been listed in the Red Data Book of Indian plants (Rao et al. 2003) 

under the different threat categories (Table 1). These include Endangered (2), Vulnerable (2), Rare (3) and Indeterminate 

(8). In addition, four species endemic to Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) have been recorded from the sanctuary which 

falls under restricted range species (Dhar and Samant 1993, Samant et al. 1998, Samant 1999). Among these, three 

species (Aconitum heterophyllum, Allium stracheyi and Angelica glauca) are endemic to Himalayan region and one 

species (Falconeria himalaica) is endemic to Uttarakhand. 

Critical habitats for plants conservation in and around Kedarnath WS 

Kedarnath WS has several extensive alpine meadows and quite a few dense broad leave forests in the fringes of the 

sanctuary which forms various habitats for the rare and threatened species. Following are the few critical habitats and 

corresponding species (Plate 8) within the sanctuary: 

1. Mixed herbaceous meadows : Gentle and moist meadows above tree line have a large number of plant species 

e.g., Ranunculus hirtellus, Bistorta affinis, B. vivipara, Anemone rivularis, Geranium wallichianum, Potentilla 

atroisanguinea, P. argerophylla, Geum elatum. These meadows support high value medicinal and aromatic plants 

such as Aconitum heterophyllum, A. violaceum, A. ferox, Arnebia benthamii, Pichrorhiza kurrooa and Gentiana spp. 

2. Caves and Caverns : Rock crevices and caverns are shaded areas close to tree line. These habitats support some 

of the specific species e.g., Circaeaster agrestis, Woodsia alpina, Chamabania cuspidata, Parietaria debilis and 

Primula edgeworthii. 

3. Boulders and scree slopes : In the high altitude (above 3600m) regions of the sanctuary, especially the sites 

exposed to snow blizzard are characterized by dwarf cushionoid species clinging to the ground. Some of the species 

on moist aspects covered by boulders at such heights are Saussurea obvallata, S. graminifolia, Falconeria himalaica, 

Bergenia strachyei, Nardostachys grandiflora, Allium stracheyi, Rheum moorcroftianum, Pleurospermum densiflorum. 

These species are favoured for grazing by sheep, goats as well as blue sheep. 

4. Stream courses : The stream courses in the sub-alpine and alpine regions of the sanctuary are mainly dominated 

by Caltha palustris, species of Corydalis, Pedicularis and Primula. Other species frequently seen in such habitats are 

Meconopsis aculeata, Equisetum debile and Swertia speciosa. 

5. Alpine moist scrub : Shady moist slopes especially in adjacent to timber line between 3300-3700m asl often have 

extensive patches of dwarf Salix lindleyana, Cassiope fastigiata and Rhododendron anthopogon. The mat forming 

species support some of the threatened species e.g., Cypripedium himalaicum, C. cordigerum, C. elegans and Picrorhiza 

kurrooa. 

6. Temperate oak forests : Moist temperate forest of the region is mainly dominated by Banj oak (Quercus 

leucotrichophora), Rhododendron arboreum and Lyonia ovalifolia. These habitats are under tremendous pressure of 

human activities. Certain threatened plants e.g., Dendrobium normale, Paeonia emodi, Zeuxine flava are associated 

with Banj Oak forests. 

Above mentioned habitats need to be given high priority for conservation in Kedarnath Wildlife Sancturary. Some of the 

important localities suggested for restoration and monitoring of these habitats are Kedarnath, Kham, Tungnath and 

Bansinarayan. The impact of man and his domestic animals on the vegetation is seen everywhere. Excessive lopping 

in the temperate region and overgrazing of high altitude pastures by sheep, goats and buffaloes is an important factor 

responsible for change in the composition of vegetation in many regions in the sanctuary. Excess of tourism and 

pilgrimage has been an important reason for degradation of habitats and species. During peak summer, one can

Plate 8 

Threatened Plants and their habitats in Kedarnath WLS 

Cypripedium cordigerum C. elegans 

Alpine Rocky Areas and Caves as 

Special Habitats for Primula edgeworthii 

1= Kedarnath 

2= Kham 

3= Mandani 

4= Thauli 

5= Pandavshera 

6= Bisuri 

7= Tungnath 

8= Rudranath 

9= Brahm Kharak 

10= Manpai 

11= Bansinarayan 

A= Kedarnath 

B= Madhmaheshwar 

C= Mandal 

D= Rudranath 

E= Urgam 

C. himalaicum 

Temperate Oak forests support various 

orchids (inset : Dendrobium normale)


54 


observe several shops selling holy flowers i.e., davine lotus (Brahmakamal) being sold to pilgrims especially around the 

holy shrine of Kedarnath, Madhmaheshwar, Tungnath and Rudranath. Several herbs with beautiful flowers are plucked 

by tourists just for fun. 

Conservation of these valuable species would not be possible without the active participation of the local people. It is 

high time that the management authorities of KWS initiate dialogues with the temple management committees / traots 

at each of the five Kedars to set aside a part of temple premise for protection of habitats and not to allow collection and 

sale of wild flowers such as Brahamkamal at these places. A new approach of habitat conservation rather than species 

conservation needs to be established. Conservation of forests at fringes of villages needs to be initiated to save various 

components of these forests to improve the habitat conditions. 

Acknowledgments 

The authors are thankful to the Director and Dean, Wildlife Institute of India for encouragements. Uttarakhand Forest 

Department is thanked for providing necessary permission and support in conducting field work. Thanks are also due 

to Dr. G.S. Rawat and Dr. B.S. Adhikari for helping us in various ways. 

References 

Deva, S. 1968. A Plant (Eremostachys superba Royle) in danger of extinction. Cheetal 11(1): 63-64. 

Dhar, U & S.S. Samant. 1993. Endemic diversity of Indian Himalaya I. Ranunculaceaae and Paeoniaceae. Journal of 

Biogeography 20: 59-68. 

Hajra, P.K. & Rao, R.R. 1990. Distribution of vegetation types in North West Himalaya with brief remarks on floral 

resource conservation. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Pl. Sci.) 100(4): 263-277. 

Jain, S.K. & A. R. K. Sastry. 1980. Plant resources in the Himalaya. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Resources, 

Development and Environment in the Himalayan region. Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of 

India, New Delhi. pp. 98-107. 

Pangtey, Y.P.S. & G.S. Rawat. 1984. On the collections of two imperfectly known plants from Kumaun Himalaya. J. Econ. 

Tax. Bot. 5(1): 241-243. 

Rao, C.K., B.L. Geetha & G. Suresh. 2003. Red List of Threatened Vascular Plant Species in India. Botanical Survey of 

India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. 

Rao, R.R. & P.K. Hajara. 1986. Floristic diversity of Eastern Himalaya in a conservation perspective. Pro. Indian Acad. 

Sci. (Plant & Animal Sci.) Suppl. pp. 103-125. 

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a Wildlife Protected Area network in India. Vol. I & II. Wildlife Institute of 


Sahni, K.C. 1979. Endemic, Relict, Primiive and Spectacular taxa in Eastern Himalaya and strategies for their 

conservation. Indian J. of Forestry 2(2): 181-190. 

Samant, S.S. 1999. Diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular plants in a part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in 

West Himalaya I. Himalayan Biosphere Reserves 1(1&2): 1-28. 

Samant, S.S., U. Dhar, & L.M.S. Palni. 1998. Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: Diversity Distribution Potential 

Values. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital.

9.0 Distribution, Status and Conservation of Picrorhiza 

kurrooa in the Himalayan Region 

Introduction 

1 Anjali Uniyal & 2 Sanjay Kumar Uniyal 

1Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun 

anjalincv@yahoo.co.in 

2Biodiversity Division, IHBT, Palampur 

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. (Scrophulariaceae), popularly known as Kutki, Kadawi or Kuru, is not a new name 

for Ayurvedic practitioners, Vaids, Hakims and herbal industry. It is also not a new plant for botanists and plant ecologists. 

However, rapid decline of this species from wild during recent years is a new thing which has serious conservation 

implications. The increasing market demand of the plant has led to unscientific, unmanaged and overharvesting of the 

plant, raising concern amongst many ecologists, scientists and conservationists (Rai & Sharma 2000, Uniyal et al. 

2002, Rawat 2005). As a result, the species has been included in the Negative List of Export by the Govt. of India and 

Appendix II of CITES. Based on the extensive collection for trade and dwindling population in the wild, the plant has 

also been categorized as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book (Nayar & Sastry 1987) and as ‘Endangered’ as per 

Conservation Assessment and Management Planning (CAMP) workshop (Ved et al. 2003). 

This article deals with the status and distribution of P. kurrooa in the Himalayan region. Current levels of extraction and 

trade from different regions and conservation implications are discussed. 

The Plant: Habit, Habitat and Distribution 

P. kurrooa is a perennial herb with stout and creeping rhizome (Plate 9). Leaves are simple, spathulate with serrate 

margins. Flowers purplish blue in terminal racemes, seen during July-August. Its fruiting period is September-October. 

It is generally found in association with Salix lindleyana, Nardostachys jatamansi, Gaultheria trichophylla, Selinum 

candollii and Meconopsis aculeata. In India P. kurrooa is mainly distributed in the North-West (2A), West (2B) and Trans- 

Himalayan (1A) biogeographic zones. It has also been reported from some parts of central and North-east Himalaya 

(Rai & Sharma 2002, Haridasan et al. 2002). In Uttarakhand it has been reported from Valley of flowers National Park 

(VOF NP), Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS), Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), and alpine ranges of 

Ralam, Gori, Pindar, Bhagirathi, Yamuna, Dhauli and Kali valleys (Uniyal 1968, Rawat 1983, Kala et al. 1998, Uniyal et 

al. 2002, Rawat 2005, Semwal et al. 2007) In Himachal Pradesh its distribution ranges from as far as Trans-Himalayan 

regions of Lahaul-Spiti to alpine regions of Mandi, Kullu, Chamba, Kinnaur and Kangra districts. It has also been 

reported from Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP), Dhauladhar WLS (DWLS) and Kugti WLS (KWLS) (Shabnam 

1964, Kala 2000, Singh & Rawat 2000, Samant et al. 2002, Uniyal et al. 2006). In Kashmir it has been reported from 

Gurez, Gulmarg, Lolab Karna and Padar ranges (Kaul & Handa 2002). P. kurrooa, like many other medicinal plants 

also has habitat specificity. It generally occurs 3600m above msl in the moist rocky habitats with well drained soil (Plate 

9). As rhizome is the main source of the drug, the collectors uproot the entire plants thus affecting regeneration and 

population of P. kurrooa and degrading its habitat. 

Population Status, Regeneration and Cultivation Efforts 

Information on population and regeneration of medicinal plants is not only important to assess their availability in wild 

but is also a key requirement for threat categorization. Though emphasis on generating information on the population 

of medicinal plants has been laid, little work has actually been done in this aspect. One of the reasons is the difficult 

55


56 


terrain and unfavourable weather of high altitudes where these plants grow and the other is the lack of enthusiasm to 

work in the Himalaya. Recently, some workers have collected data on the distribution, abundance and uses of some 

important medicinal and aromatic plants of Himalaya including P. kurrooa (Singh 1999, Kala 2000, Rai et al. 2000, 

Uniyal et al. 2002, Kala 2004, Rawat 2005, Uniyal et al. 2006, Semwal et al. 2007). It has been proven through some 

habitat based studies that P. kurrooa has restricted and localized distribution. Its highest density has been reported from 

moist rocky slopes and under scrub habitats of >3600m altitudes (Uniyal et al. 2002, Semwal et al. 2007). In alpine 

ranges of Gori valley, its mean density was 3.89 individuals/ m 2 . It was highest (12.92 individuals/m 2 ) in the moist rocky 

slopes and least in the grassy slopes (0.085 individuals / m 2 ). It was completely absent in the undulating and marsh 

meadows (Uniyal et al. 2002) whereas in the VOF NP, the population of P. kurrooa was 4.5 individuals/ m 2 (Kala et al. 

1998). In another assessment of P. kurrooa from different valleys of Uttarakhand, the mean density of P. kurrooa has 

been reported to be 2.21 individuals / m 2 . The highest population (1.61 individuals / m 2 ) being from alpine meadows of 

Gidara while lowest (0.11 individuals / m 2 ) was in the Kushkalyani (Rawat 2005). In Kedarnath WLS mean density of P. 

kurrooa was 2.2 individuals/ m 2 . It was highest in the under scrub (5.6 individuals/ m 2 ) and steep slopes (5.2 individuals/ 

m 2 ) habitats while it was lowest (1.21 individuals / m 2 in the undulating alpine meadows (Semwal et al. 2007). However, 

highest density estimates for P. kurrooa have been reported from the Trans-Himalayan region. Distribution of P. kurrooa 

was very localized and found in patches and a density of 70.6 individual/ m 2 in Tarbak region of Spiti valley has been 

reported (Kala 2000). These studies indicate that the species not only has restricted and localized distribution but their 

population has also been influenced due to anthropogenic activities. None of the studies so far have actually collected 

information on its regeneration and taken time series information. Still, the baseline information that has been generated 

will certainly help in future monitoring of the plant population and its habitats. However, research on its cultivation and 

propagation methods has already provided very good results. A very high ranking has been given to P. kurrooa (ranked 

II nd ) for ex situ cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. Its cultivation prospects have been ranked “A” (second highest rank) and 

marketing at national and international levels is also “A” (Badola 2002). P. kurrooa can be propagated through seeds as 

well as by vegetative means. Cultivation by vegetative means is more advantageous for eliminating difficulties associated 

with seed germination and seedling survival. It also reduces the length of cultivation cycle (Nautiyal 1995, Sundriyal & 

Sharma 1995). It has been reported that maximum seed production in P. kurrooa takes place when it grows under 

scrub dominated canopy (Nautiyal & Nautiyal 2004). Hence it’s intercropping with saunf and Digitalis purpurea gave a 

better yield. Its production was 320kg/ha indicating a benefit of Rs. 87,600/ha when harvested during third year of 

growth at 1800 m elevation in the Himalaya. It has been found that post harvest drying at room temperature (15-20 o C) 

retains high picrotin and picrotoxin. Whereas drying in direct sun or in oven decreases the active compounds rapidly 

(Nautiyal & Nautiyal 2004). Besides these, plant tissue culture technique can also be employed for its clonal multiplication 

and it can provide an effective strategy for its conservation (Ahuja 2002). Though, it has been found through cost-benefit 

analysis that cultivation of P. kurrooa (Rs. 88284) can be far more profitable than cash crops such as potatoes (Rs. 

12600) and rajma (Rs.5325), still no large scale cultivation of P. kurrooa is done in high altitude areas. Cultivation is 

restricted either to research sites developed by some institutions in collaboration with villagers (Haridasan et al. 2002, 

Kaul & Handa 2002, Rai & Sharma 2002, Ahuja 2002) or to few interior villages in Uttarakhand (Silori & Badola 2000, 

Uniyal et al. 2002). Most of the cultivation done in these villages is also through transplantation of species from wild to 

fields (Virdi 2002) and not through proper cultivation techniques. The main reason for which is the lack of proper 

information and guidance to villagers and problems associated with storage, transportation and marketing of medicinal 

plants. Hence, besides cultivation, research efforts on above mentioned aspects should also be undertaken for 

community based cultivation of P. kurrooa. Demonstration of propagation techniques and distribution of elite propagules 

to farmers interested in their commercial cultivation will not only generate self employment opportunities for the local 

people but will also pave the way for its in situ conservation. 

Extraction and Trade 

The roots and rhizomes of P. kurrooa contain 26-27% Picrorhizin in addition to other active constituents such as 

kutkoside. Picrorhizin is a major constituent of many important liver and stomach medicines. Besides, it is also used in 

drugs prescribed for treatment of respiratory diseases and allergic manifestations (Sarin 2008). Traditionally the plant

was collected during August – September, however, in order to maximize economic gains, now the collection starts in 

month of July itself. The entire plant is uprooted and material is cleared of adhering rootlets and dried in sun for a week. 

It is largely collected from Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim. Annual transaction of 

10,000 kg of P. kurrooa takes place in Delhi market. During 1998-99 it was sold at a price of Rs. 100-150/ kg which has 

increased to Rs. 230-280/kg in 2006 (Samant et al. 2002), while local people who actually traverse high altitudes to 

collect the plant still get a meager sum of Rs.10-60/kg (Awasthi and Uniyal 2003). Global supply (excluding China and 

Pakistan) of P. kurrooa is around 375 tons with India contributing around 70 tons next only to Nepal (250 tons). In order 

to meet the demand often Lagotis cashmiriana is adultered with P. kurrooa. In Nepal, P. kurrooa is traded in the name 

of Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Shrestha and Jha 2009). 

Because of its great therapeutic importance, demand for P. kurrooa is very high and steady in the market. It is one of the 

top 15 plant species traded in India (Malaisamy and Ravindran 2003). The demand for P.kurrooa is more than 5000 

tons; however, its supply is less than 100 tons (Kumar 2006). With an annual growth of 20% in Ayurvedic medicine 

sector demand of medicinal plants has also increased by 11.1 % in recent years, resulting in an augmentation in the 

extraction of P. kurrooa. It has been reported that earlier (1988-89) only 1.468 tons of P. kurrooa was extracted from the 

entire state of Himachal Pradesh (Sharma 1995). Today, the extraction is 10 times higher (Singh 1999). Similar 

patterns have been reported from Uttarakhand, where more than 5 tons of P. kurrooa was extracted by 12 villages of 

Gori valley during 2000-01 (Virdi 2004). From Sikkim also, P. kurrooa to a tune of 6 tons is annually extracted (Rai et al. 

2000). The amount of extraction figure available is just the tip of the iceberg as most of the trade in medicinal plants is 

illegal and secretive and data for which are still not available. Though cultivation practices for P. kurrooa have been 

developed (Nautiyal et al. 2001), still 90% of the plant material in trade comes from wild and is harvested following 

destructive methods. This has threatened the status of P. kurrooa in wild. As a result, P. kurrooa once plentiful, is now 

restricted to areas not easily accessible to man. A large majority of collectors have stated unambiguously that there is 

a decrease in the availability of medicinal plants. Now they have to spend more time and cover long distance for 

collecting same quantity of medicinal plant (Kumar 2006). Thus, it seems time is not far when these species will be 

locally extinct. A very good example of this is the Chhangu and Lachung valleys in Sikkim where rampant collection of 

Podophyllum hexandrum and Panax pseudoginseng have now made these areas devoid of both these herbs. Another 

important threat to its habitat highlighted recently is the complete receding of small glaciers (Shrestha & Jha 2009). On 

one hand there is dearth of information on the ecology, distribution and population of P. kurrooa and on other hand its 

population and habitat is shrinking. 

Conservation and Management Implications 

Distribution, Status and Conservation of Picrorhiza 


Keeping in view the status of P. kurrooa in wild, its sensitivity to anthropogenic impacts and its increasing demand in the 

market, it has been listed among top 20 species prioritized for conservation and development (Dhar et al. 2000). 

National medicinal plant board (NMPB) has also identified P. kurrooa for conservation and propagation through its 

various schemes. A total of 212 acres of land has been supported by NMPB for cultivation of P. kurrooa (which has 

increased from 7 acres in 2002-03 to 97 acres in 2005-06) (Kala & Sajwan 2007). It has already been provided 

protection under various conservation initiatives such as CITES, Red Data Book and IUCN list of threatened plants. 

Classification of species based on its area, distribution, abundance and use value at local and regional level is not only 

useful for its conservation but would also help in its proper management. Based on above mentioned classification 

P.kurrooa has been listed in RDHP (Restricted distribution and heavy pressure) category for alpine areas of Gori valley 

and KWLS (Uniyal et al. 2002, Semwal et al. 2007). For some other parts of Uttarakhand it has been listed as LCHP 

(locally common and heavy pressure) (Rawat 2005). Based on this criterion, some P. kurrooa specific conservation 

plots in wild should be marked in different valleys. Similarly, areas already reported to be rich in population of P. kurrooa 

should be marked as control sites for future monitoring and repeated sampling. 

P. kurrooa being in steady demand has very high harvesting pressure. It is reported that a total of 286 plants as shoot part 

and 500 as root parts are harvested to make a kilogram weight of P. kurrooa (Rai et al. 2000). Hence collection from wild 

57

Plate 9 

Distribution of Picrorhiza kurrooa in Western 

Himalaya 

Localities with good population of P. 

kurrooa in Himachal Pradesh 

Typical habitat of P. kurrooa 

Collection of P .kurrooa 

Distribution of P. kurrooa in a part 

of Dhauladhar WS, HP 

A blooming P. kurrooa in the in the 

alpine areas of Western Himalaya

should be done on a rotational basis which will help in the recuperation of the area and a sustainable harvest. It has also 

been reported that plants in the alpine areas complete their reproductive phase during the months of September and 

October. Hence harvesting should be done during the month of October when active constituents have the highest 

proportion (Nautiyal & Nautiyal 2004). This knowledge should also be spread amongst the collectors so that harvest is 

done after seed set. 

Awareness generation amongst the local people and collectors will go a long way in medicinal plant conservation. 

Elite plant population with complete agro-technique package that includes good agricultural practices, good collection 

practices and post harvest management should be made available to the farmers for cultivation. Associated with 

cultivation is the marketing and trade. Trade related studies are very few and therefore need to be proposed and carried 

forward. We still do not have quantitative information on the distribution and population of medicinal plants from many 

interior areas of the Himalaya. This has been pointed out to be one of the major drawbacks in medicinal plant research. 

Therefore, concentrated surveys and exploration is the need of the hour. Studies on impact of changing climate on 

these rare and threatened plants of Himalaya should also be taken up. 

Acknowledgements 

Director IHBT and WII are acknowledged for the support and facilities. Senior author (AU) thanks the Department of 

Science and Technology (DST) for funding that helped in mapping sites rich in P. kurrooa. 

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Sandeep Tambe

Introduction 

10.0 Endemic and Threatened Orchids of 

Sikkim and Their Conservation 

S.Z. Lucksom 

Himalayan Zoological Park, Gangtok 

Government of Sikkim 

szlucksom@yahoo.com 

Sikkim (7096 km 2 ; 27º 5’ to 28º 9¢ N latitudes and 87º 59' to 88º 56' E longitudes), is the smallest state of Indian Union, 

well known for its diverse eco-climatic zones and rich biological diversity. The major climatic zones in the state are 

Tropical, Sub-Tropical, Temperate, Dry-Alpine and Wet-Alpine. Through deep valleys, especially along Teesta, the 

hot and moist tropical climate penetrates right into the heart of the state, providing hotter southern and cooler northern 

slopes. Because of these geographical features, the state harbours a range of interesting plants including orchids. The 

state surpasses all other states of India in the diversity of orchids, trailing just behind Arunachal Pradesh. However, if the 

ratio of orchids with land mass is compared, the state ranks among the richest areas in the world. Arunachal Pradesh, 

whose geographical area is more than eleven times that of Sikkim has only 620 orchid species and Bhutan whose 

geographical region is six times the size of Sikkim has only 372 orchid species as compared to 523 species in Sikkim. 

One more reason for high diversity and endemism among orchids of Sikkim could be its unique topography. The horse 

shoe shaped mountain ranges on the west act as a barrier for dispersal of many species and strongly influence 

regional climate. This has led to the formation of unique habitats in the state. Besides, the windward side on the 

southern part of the Dongkya range receives the maximum monsoon rain giving rise to wet alpine type of climate. The 

general trend of mountain ranges in Sikkim is from east to west-Mt Pandim (6691m), Mt Simvo (6811m), Mt Siniolchu 

(6887m), Mt Kabru (7338m) and Mt Narsing (5825m), but there are two main long south north directed ridges running 

parallel to each other 64 to 96 km apart. The Singalila range which is about 64 km long, almost starts from plains level, 

separates Sikkim from Nepal in the West and culminates near its northern extremity in world’s third highest mountain, 

the Mt Khanchendzonga (8598m). The Chlola range in the East, in comparison is much higher in elevation and 

separates Sikkim from Bhutan East. Besides that there is the deep Chumbi valley separating Sikkim and Bhutan. There 

is another central longitudinal ridge which separates the great Teesta catchment in the East from the Rangit catchment 

in the west, culminating at Moinam Peak (3234m). In general, the valleys are narrow at the top and broader at the base. 

But in Sikkim valleys are broad at the top. Broad valleys like Donkong, Gyamchona, Cholamu and Muguthang are 

stretches of plain areas with unique faunal and floral diversity similar to that of Tibetan plateau. 

Studies on Orchids of Sikkim 

First collection of orchid in the state was done by Griffith, followed by Cathcart, then Sir J D Hooker (Mathew 1970). 

Kataki et al. (1984) documented the threatened and endemic orchids of Sikkim. King & Pantling were the first to carry 

out orchid surveys in Sikkim during 1898, that led to the publication of “The Orchids of Sikkim Himalaya”. These 

authors recorded 448 species of orchids from the state. Despite several floristic surveys in the state no comprehensive 

account and update on the orchids of state was available until recently when the author initiated systematic studies in 

1986. More recent works on the orchids of the state include Shukla et al. (1998), Sathish kumar (2001). A detailed 

investigation for two decades has resulted in several new discoveries and new records. Presently, the state has more 

than 523 species spread over 134 genera (Lucksom 2007). It is to be noted that still there are quite a few underexplored 

and virgin forests which may yield several interesting varieties and new records in the state. 

63


Distribution of Orchids in the state 

64 


The sub-tropical belt (1000 – 1500 m asl) in the state is richest in terms of orchid diversity. The following table gives an 

idea about the distribution of orchids in various altitudinal zones (though there is some overlap): 

Table 1 : Altitudinal distribution of orchids in Sikkim 

Climatic Zonation Altitudinal Zonation 

(m) 

Number of orchid species 

Tropical Forest Upto 1000m 80 

Sub-Tropical Forest 1000 – 1500m 240 

Temperate Forest 1500 – 3500m 170 

Alpine grasslands & Scrub 3500 - 4500m 33 

Total 523 

Some of the endemic and threatened orchids of Sikkim have been listed below (Table 2) along with their habitat and 

altitudinal range (Plate 10). 

Table 2. Some Threatened and Endemic orchids of Sikkim and their altitudinal distribution. 

Sl.No. Species Habitat Altitudinal Range 

1. Bulbophyllum trichocephalum var. 

capitatum S.Z. Lucksom 

Lithophytic 800 – 1000 m 

2 Calanthe anjanii S.Z.Lucksom Terrestrial 2000 – 2500 m 

3 Calanthe keshabii S.Z.Lucksom Terrestrial 2000 – 2600 m 

4. Calanthe yuksomnensis S.Z.Lucksom Terrestrial 1000 – 2700 m 

5. Coelogyne pantlingii S.Z. Lucksom Epiphyte 2100 – 2500 m 

6. Epigeneium treutleri (Hook.f.) Ormerod Epiphyte

Endemic and Threatened Orchids of 


massive afforestation and plantation of several miscellaneous species such as Populus gamblei might have affected 

the vegetation structure and micro-habitat of many orchids leading to their decline. Close to Pabong, there is a small 

town named as Sintam. This town also had a good population of Dendrobium aphyllum. However, there has been a 

decline in tree cover due to mushrooming of buildings and other developmental activities. Even now a few scattered 

trees continue to support good population of these orchids. 

In the deep wooded areas where the tree canopy is very high and where no sun rays can penetrate into the forest floor, 

we do not find any epiphytic orchids. In such areas especially between 2000 – 2700m altitude several saprophytic or 

holomycotrophic orchids such as Aphyllochis montana, A. alpina, Galeola falconeri, G. lindleyana and G. cathcartii can 

be seen. Some orchids e.g., Rhynchostylis retusa and Aerides multiflora show close affinity with their host trees. These 

two orchid species are seen growing profusely on Mangifera indica and Polyalthia longifolia near Siliguri at Salugarh 

on both sides of the National Highway. But as soon as one leaves the area, both sides of the National Highway are lined 

with tall trees of Shorea robusta. Though these trees are full of other types of orchid species yet not a single tree is seen 

with the plants of Rhynchostylis retusa and Aerides multiflora. But these two species suddenly reappear in small 

population at Ranpo Baghey area. Rhynchostylis retusa has been seen up to 1600 m. Similarly, at Mangley (West 

Sikkim) populations of Aerides multiflora can be seen growing naturally at ca 1300 m. Occurrence of Zeuxine 

seidenfadenii Deva & Naithani was first reported in the state by Deva and Naithani in 1986. Present author confirmed 

its presence in the Sub-tropical mixed deciduous forest at an altitude of 900m. 

Bulbophyllum sterile (Lam.) Suresh grows frequently in Rangit valley Legshep at 600m altitude in West Sikkim and 

up to 2000m altitude at Rumtek in East Sikkim. It can be seen often on Schima wallichii below Forest Secretariat 

Building at Gangtok, Sikkim. N.R. Pearce & P.J. Cribb the authors of “Orchids of Bhutan” have not named the places of 

its occurrence in Bhutan; rather they have mentioned the species location in the state of Sikkim. Even the orchid 

species in the list of Eastern Arunachal Pradesh by A.N Rao and Ajay Rastogi have not named the place of its occurrence. 

But its presence in Nepal is mentioned in “The Orchids of Nepal Himalaya” by N.L.Banerjee and Prabha Pradhan. 

Hence it can be said that Sikkim and Eastern Nepal form the seat of origin of this species. 

Hara (1971) reported the distribution of Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo from Kashmir to Bhutan. However, Pearce 

and Cribb as well as A. Nageswara Rao and Ajay Rastogi have not listed the species from Bhutan and Arunachal 

Pradesh. In Sikkim the species is not yet reported; rather it is always confused with Gymnadenia orchidis whose under 

ground tubers resemble that of Dactylorhiza hatagirea. Tubers of G. orchidis are short, joined in halfway whereas the 

tubers of Dactylorhiza hatagirea are longer, tubular and joined at the base. Besides that the flowers in former are much 

smaller and compact but tubular head as compared to latter. 

Cypripedium cordigerum D.Don has been reported from Jammu & Kashmir to Nepal (Deva and Naithani 1986). So 

far this species has not been reported from Sikkim. But Pears and Cribb have reported it from various parts of Bhutan. 

This needs to be verified. 

After sudden disappearance of Cymbidium whiteae King & Pantling, an endemic orchid from the Gangtok town, several 

individuals and institutions became concerned. Consequently two schools of thought emerged out on this issue of how 

and why the species disappeared from the place of its discovery. One school of thought is of the opinion that removal 

of trees is the main cause of the disappearance. But on the contrary, the other school of thought is of the opinion that the 

disappearance is due to over plantation. Based on a careful analysis the author came to the conclusion that, unlike 

other orchid species, Cymbidium whiteae may be very sensitive to air pollution. Because of this fact the species has 

totally vanished from Gangtok from where its first discovery was made by Mrs Claude White, the wife of political agent 

during 1989. Till late sixties its presence was reported from Gangtok. But now it is no more there, even when the habitat 

of Gangtok town is as it was before; even when the populations of preferred host trees of Engelhardtia spicata are in 

65

Pleione humilis 

Plate 10 

Threatened Orchids of Sikkim 

Pleione praecox Gastrodia elata 

Odontochilus grandiflorus Phaius maculatus Geodorum densiflorum

good numbers. It is also possible that certain pollinators have vanished from Gangtok town due to pollution. But the 

species can be seen in good number at Rumtek forest, the opposite hill of Gangtok town where pollution is almost nil 

as compared to Gangtok. This shows that the main cause of disappearance of the species is air pollution. 

Till 1990 Dendrobium amoenum used to occur commonly at altitude between 900 – 1600 m in Sikkim. Till then there 

was no report of the species from Gangtok town. But during 1990 its presence was observed in Gangtok town at 1800 

m. Now it is very common around Gangtok town especially on the bark of Alnus nepalensis trees. Some tall trees of 

Alnus nepalensis in B.S.I. campus are laden with the species. Similarly, Cleisostoma linearilobulatum (Seidenf. and 

Smitinand) Garay was never reported by King and Pantling within the greater Sikkim. But during recent survey, the 

author discovered this species occurring from 700m to 1200m altitude. But then its occurrence was only up to 1200m. 

More recently it has been found on the Pear trees at 2000m in Rumtek Botanical Garden. 

Presence of some ground orchid species in the said areas indicates the Forest types of the area. For example the 

presence of ground orchids like Cymbidium lancefolium indicates that the forest area is dominated by Castanopsis 

hyxtrix. 

Calanthe brevicornu Lindl : C. brevicornu in East Sikkim occurs at an altitude of 2200 – 2500m (Plate 10) and the 

host trees in this zone are mainly Castanopsis tribuloides, Machilus odoratissima and Ehretia wallichiana along with 

some bamboo, ferns and grasses species. Similarly the occurrence of Calanthe brevicornu in Rabdentse Monastery 

area in West Sikkim at the same altitude have about 80% of similar types of trees and herb species combination as that 

of E. Sikkim. 

References 

Deva S. & H.B. Naithani. 1986. The Orchid Flora of North West Himalaya. Print and Media Associates, New Delhi. 

Hara, H. (ed.) 1971. Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Second Report. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. 

Kataki, S. K., S. K. Jain & A. R. K. Sastry. 1984. Threatened and Endemic Orchids of Sikkim and Northeastern India. 

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 

Lucksom, S.Z. 2007. The Orchids of Sikkim and North-east Himalaya. S.Z. Lucksom, Sikkim, India. 984 pp. 

Matthew, K. M. 1970. A bibliography of the Botany of Sikkim. J. Bot. Soc. Bengal 24(1-2): 57-59. 

Pearce, N. R. & P.J. Cribb. 2002. The Orchids of Bhutan. Royal Botanic Garden. Edinburgh. 

Endemic and Threatened Orchids of 


Sathish Kumar, C. 2001. Orchids of Sikkim-A Historical Perspective. pp. 102-143. In: P. Pathak, R. N. Sehgal, N. 

Shekhar, M. Sharma & A. Sood 2001 (eds.). Orchids: Science and Commerce. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal 

Singh, Dehra Dun. 

Shukla, B. K., P. Singh & A. S. Chauhan 1998(1999). Orchid diversity in Sikkim and its conservation. J. Orchid Soc. India 

12(1-2): 53-76. 

67


68 


Introduction 

11.0 The Alpine Landscape in Western Sikkim: 

Special Habitats and Threatened Plants 

1 2 Sandeep Tambe & G. S. Rawat 

1Gram Vikas Bhawan, Near Tashiling Secretariat, Gangtok 737 101, Sikkim 

sandeep_tambe@yahoo.com 

2Department of Habitat Ecology, Wildlife Institute of India, 

Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand 


The alpine landscape in the Himalaya is lined up as an archipelago on high mountains at the southern periphery of the 

high central Asia, separated from each other by deeply incised transverse valleys (Miehe 1997). Spread on either side 

of the Greater Himalaya or Himadri, this zone exhibits exceptional ecological, geohydrological, aesthetic and biological 

values. This zone is demarcated by a distinct treeline towards lower elevation that lies around 3300+200 m above msl 

in the western and 3800+200 m in the eastern Himalaya. The area immediately above natural treeline is usually 

occupied by a range of vegetation formations such as Krummholz (= stunted forest or crooked wood, German), matted 

strands of shrubs, herbaceous meadows, bogs, and fell-fields paved with mosses and lichens. 

The alpine region in Sikkim and other parts of eastern Himalaya differs considerably from that of western Himalaya in 

terms of extent, terrain, climate, plant community composition, primary productivity, faunal assemblages and history of 

human use. This zone becomes rather limited in extent and fragmented from west to east. The eastern Himalaya has 

a prolonged monsoon season from June to September and little precipitation is received from western disturbances in 

winter. The western Himalaya, on the other hand, has a short monsoon from July to August and a fairly long wet season 

from November to April. The eastern Himalaya is more tropical in latitude and is geographically closer to the Bay of 

Bengal and heavily influenced by the monsoon winds. Consequently, it has an oceanic climate with higher humidity 

and exhibits higher seasonal primary productivity. The tree line is higher at 4000 m and the permanent snow line at 

5500 m. The krummholz and alpine scrub zone is also more extensive. It has a relatively recent history of extensive 

grazing and pristine areas with an insignificant history of grazing still exist. The recent geological origin, limited extent 

and fragmentation, steeper terrain and higher rainfall make them more fragile as compared to the western Himalaya. 

The Khangchendzonga NP is located on the western flank of Sikkim (India) between 27 o 30' to 27 o 55' N latitude and 

88 o 02' and 88 o 37' E longitude and spreads over 1784 km 2 adjacent to Nepal. The park is named after Mt. 

Khangchendzonga (8586 m), the third highest peak in the world. The park covers nearly 25% of the geographical area 

of the state (Sikkim). The climate of KNP is characterized by a long monsoon followed by a long winter. The annual 

rainfall varies from more than 300 cm in the southern part to less than 150 cm in the north and altitude ranges from ca. 

1220 m to 8586 m. As per the classification by Champion & Seth (1968), as many as 18 distinct types and sub-types are 

discernible within KNP. Floristic study by Maity and Maiti (2007) indicates that the KNP and surrounding buffer forests 

harbour about 1580 species of vascular plants which include 106 species of Pteridophytes, 11 Gymnosperms and 

1463 Angiosperms. The alpine zone as used in this article includes the areas between 4000 and 5000 m elevation. 

Physiognomically it starts from where the Krummholz thickets end and the alpine scrub begins and extends up to the 

subnival vegetation. About 22% of the park with an extent of 390 km 2 falls within this zone. 

69


Vegetation Structure and Composition 

70 


The alpine meadows of KNP are dominated by sedges namely Kobresia nepalensis (on smooth slopes), Kobresia 

duthiei (on broken slopes) and Kobresia pygmaea and Kobresia schoenoides (in dry meadows). Grassy meadows of 

Danthonia cachemyriana and tall forb communities in deep soil are more characteristic of the western Himalaya and 

were virtually absent in KNP (Rawat 2005). The major grass-dominated vegetation in the KNP is the Deschampsia 

caespitosa marsh meadow found only in the fringes of glacial lakes and streams. The subalpine thickets of Rhododendron 

and alpine scrub vegetation of Rhododendron, Cassiope and Juniperus is much more extensive in the Sikkim Himalaya. 

Based on numerical classification the vegetation of the alpine zone was segregated into 11 types namely, krummholz 

thicket, Juniper scrub, Rhododendron scrub, morainic scrub, Salix sikkimensis riverine thicket, Myricaria rosea riverine 

scrub, Kobresia nepalensis moist meadow, Kobresia duthiei moist meadow, Kobresia pygmaea moist meadow, 

Deschampsia caespitosa marsh meadow and Anaphalis xylorhiza dry meadow (Plates 11 A & 11B). Brief description of 

the special habitats is as follows: 

(i) Krummholz thickets : Extensive Krummholz thickets are found between 3600 to 4200 m. This category extends 

upwards from the tree line and gradually becomes stunted with elevation before giving way to the alpine scrub 

communities. They favour shady and moist localities and are most luxuriant in the north and northwest aspects 

especially on rocky slopes. The vegetation formation is dense, thicket forming and impenetrable with the canopy 

height generally varying between one to four meters mostly dominated by various species of Rhododendron. The 

following associations are easily identifiable viz., Rhododendron campanulatum, R. lanatum, R. thomsonii and R. 

wightii – R. fulgens. The floor is thickly carpeted with mosses and fallen leaves and the ground flora is generally sparse 

(Plate 11A). 

(ii) Alpine scrub : Dwarf Rhododendron scrub is widespread in the higher reaches above the Krummholz zone. This 

category (less than 1 meter tall) represents alpine moist scrub and favours the north - northeastern aspects between 

3900 to 4600 m. This vegetation is very dense and the Ericaceous cover is more than 50% with very few gaps or 

openings. The shrub layer is co-dominated by three species of Rhododendron, viz., R. anthopogon (sun-pate), R. 

setosum and R. lepidotum. Juniper scrub is found generally between 3700 to 4400 m on warmer slopes i.e, south and 

southwest aspect. The characteristic species are Juniperus recurva and J. indica. The former is prostate in habit and 

found more commonly between 3700 - 4100 m, while the latter usually occurs in the form of erect shrub between 4000 

to 4400 m. In the inner dry valleys this Juniper ascends up to 4800 m. 

(iii) Kobresia nepalensis moist meadow is the most widespread and dominant vegetation in altitudes ranging from 

4000 to 5100 m in the alpine zone. It occurs most luxuriantly on the smooth slopes and ridge tops in the upper reaches 

of moist, exposed, glaciated valleys. This dense soft mat like formation has an average height of 0.1 m. The cover of 

Kobresia nepalensis (sun buki) varies a lot with micro-topography and co-dominates with Bistorta milletii, Potentilla 

peduncularis, Rhododendron lepidotum, Primula capitata and species of Arenaria, Juncus and Carex. Openings in 

rich soils are colonized by Potentilla peduncularis, around cattle camps by Ranunculus hirtellus (khorsane) and 

compacted soils by Bistorta sp., Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (kurki), Lomatogonium spp. (Vern. Sharmaguru and 

Mahaguru) are the valuable ethno-medicinal plans found in this vegetation. This is the most extensive and nutrient rich 

vegetation that sustains livestock and wild ungulate populations in the KNP. 

(iv) Kobresia duthiei moist meadow found in pockets prefers moist valleys on slopes that are bouldery and steep in 

the 4000 to 4600 m elevation zone. The vegetation is tussock forming dominated by Kobresia duthiei (cover greater

than 40%) with an average height of 0.30 m. In openings K. nepalensis, Kobresia capillifolia, Rheum acuminatum, 

Rhododendron anthopogon, Geranium donianum and species of Heracleum, Swertia sp. and Pleurospermum and 

Juncus are usually found. Good population of valuable medicinal plants like Aconitum ferox, Nardostachys grandiflora, 

Bergenia purpurascens can be seen at such sites. 

(v) Kobresia pygmaea moist meadow is found in the upper reaches of the glaciated and relatively dry Zemu and 

Lhonak valleys in the elevation range of 4400 to 5100 m. As the name suggests in the upper reaches this vegetation is 

stunted having average height of 0.05 m. In the lower reaches, especially along streams Kobresia schoenoides and 

Bistorta vivipera and in the upper reaches Kobresia spp., Bistorta milletii, Potentilla fruiticosa and Aster falconeri codominate. 

(vi). Anaphalis xylorhiza dry meadows are found in the trans-Himalayan glaciated valley flats usually between 4500 

to 5100 m. This Tibetan steppe like vegetation grows in dry, arid conditions and is characterized by dwarf herbaceous 

formations (average height is 0.1 m). The total vegetation cover is not more than 40%. Anaphalis xylorhiza is the 

dominant species (cover greater than 20%) with other associates such as Bistorta vivipera, Kobresia schoenoides, 

Kobresia nepalensis, Lancea tibetica and various species of Arenaria and Pedicularis. Other species include Aster 

diplostephiodes, Delphinium caeruleum, Cyananthus incanuns, Cortiella sp., Scabiosa sp., Gentiana stipitata, Lonicera 

rupicola, Elymus nutans and species of Rhodiola and Oxytropis. 

Floristic Structure and Threatened Plants 

The Alpine Landscape in Western Sikkim: 


Based on extensive floristic surveys conducted during 2004 - 2007, we have recorded a total of 585 species of 

angiosperms within the alpine zone of KNP. These belong to 67 families and 243 genera. The dominant families are 

Asteraceae (69 species), Ranunculaceae (35 species), Poaceae (32 species), Scrophulariaceae (30 species), 

Cyperaceae (28 species) and Rosaceae (28 species). The prominent genera are Pedicularis (21 species), Carex (18 

species), Saxifraga (18 species) and Rhododendron (17 species). The gymnosperms in the subalpine and alpine 

zones include Taxus baccata subspecies wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa, Abies densa, Juniperus indica, Juniperus recurva 

and Ephedra gerardiana. The KNP along with the adjacent reserve forests is home to as many as 22 endemic and 22 

rare and threatened plants. Species of high conservation value and botanical interest in sub-alpine and alpine areas 

include Schizandra grandiflora (a primitive climber with flowers like miniature Magnolia), Helwingia himalaica (bearing 

flowers at the center of the leaf and endemic to the Eastern Himalaya), Circaeaster agrestis (Chloranthaceae of 

uncertain affinity), Pinguicula alpina (an insectivorous plant), Triosteum himalayanum (endemic to Himalaya), 

Brachycaulos simplicifolius (an unusual herb of Rosaceae) among others. Few more alpine plants needing special 

mention for their high conservation significance are the wild poppies (Meconopsis sp.) which bear spectacular flowers 

and have several medicinal properties, species of Corydalis, Rhodiola, Pleurospermum, Saussurea, Primula, Gentiana, 

Swertia, Pedicularis, Polygonatum and several ground orchids. Among the rhubarb species Rheum nobile is particularly 

vulnerable owing to its striking inflorescence which is often plucked by the herders and local communities to make 

pickle. 

Key floral species for conservation are Rheum nobile (Kenjo), Gymnadenia orchidis (panch amle), Nardostachys 

grandiflora (jatamansi), Ephedra gerardiana, Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (kurki), Aconitum ferox (Bikh), Saussurea 

obvallata, wild Alliums, Giant Lily (Cardiocrinum giganteum), Pseudo-ginseng (Panax pseudo-ginseng), Pleurospermum 

sp. and Caterpillar-mushroom (Cordyceps sinensis). Status of a few species is given below : 

71


72 


Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Sch.-Bip. (Asteraceae) 

Local Name : Brahma-Kamal 

Distribution : Relatively drier valleys of Lachen and Lachung in North Sikkim 

Habitat : Along streams in sub-alpine fir and alpine scrub habitats between 3,500 to 4,000 meters elevation 

Threat : Grazing and inflorescence valued as an offering to Hindu deities 

Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. (Orchidaceae) 

Local Name : Panch-Amle 

Distribution : Relatively moist valleys in West and North Sikkim 

Habitat : Sub-alpine fir and alpine scrub habitats between 3,000 to 4,000 meters elevation 

Threat : Digitate tuber collected for medicinal purposes 

Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Thorns. (Polygonaceae) 

Local Name : Kenjo 

Distribution : Endemic to Eastern Himalaya, it is distributed in the moist valleys of Sikkim 

Habitat : Scree slopes in the high alpine areas between 4,700 to 5,500 meters elevation in skeletal soils 

Threat : Grazing and collection by herders for making pickle 

Aconitum ferox Seringe (Asteraceae) 

Local Name : Bikh 

Distribution : Moist valleys of Sikkim 

Habitat : Sub-alpine fir and alpine scrub habitats between 3,000 to 4,000 meters elevation 

Threat : Tuber collected for medicinal purposes 

Impacts of Anthropogenic Activities 

Pastoralism, collection of medicinal and aromatic plants and subsistence hunting were the main livelihoods prevalent 

in the KNP traditionally, while trekking tourism has expanded rapidly since early 1990s. Major impacts of anthropogenic 

activities on alpine vegetation are discussed below: 

i. Impacts of Pastoral Practices : In the KNP the livestock biomass increased from 608 metric tonnes in 1950 to 763 

metric tonnes in 2004 owing to a substantial rise in the populations of yak and cow-yak crossbreeds. The livestock 

impact units in the winter pastures increased more than 8 times from 2 to 17 Livestock Unit days ha -1 during this period. 

The main impacts of pastoralism on the natural environment are clearing and burning of forests, localized extraction 

of slow growing Juniper and Rhododendron firewood and a decline in the population of grazing sensitive plants. The 

herders carried out habitat manipulation by converting vegetation types like Juniper scrub in the alpine zone and the 

oak, hemlock and fir forests in the temperate and sub alpine zones into artificial pastures. Plants sensitive to yak grazing 

found in pastures not grazed by them are Heracleum sp. (ganer), Allium pratti (dandu), Kobresia duthiei (bhalu buki), 

Pleurospermum spp. (seto cheeru and shyamphul), Saussurea obvallata (brahma kamal) and Saussurea uniflora 

(thulo dudhe jhaar). These plants are annual or biannual, tall and regarded as nutrient rich by the herders. 

ii. Impacts of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Collection : Alpine medicinal plants mostly Aconitum ferox (bikh) and 

Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora (kurki) were in high demand and were collected from 1970s to 1990s in truckloads with 

dried tubers of Bikh fetching USD 0.33 kg -1 and dried stems of Kurki fetching USD 0.44 kg -1 . The state government 

banned the commercial collection of medicinal plants for ten years from 2001 onwards. Aromatic plants Juniperus 

recurva (sikpa) and Juniperus indica (bhairung) were in high demand for incense making and large scale commercial 

collection was done by the yak and dzo herders between 1970s and 1990s. Dried Juniperus recurva used to fetch USD

Plate 11A 

Alpine Habitats of Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim 

Rhododendron scrub (4000 – 4500 m) 

Krummholtz thicket (3800 – 4400m) 

Juniper scrub (4000 – 4400m) 

Kobresia meadow 

Kobresia pygmaea moist meadow Anaphalis xylorhiza dry meadow

Plate 11B 

Some Threatened Plants of Alpine Zone of Sikkim 

Saussurea obvallata 

(BRAHMA-KAMAL) 

Rheum nobile 

(KENJO) 

Gymnadenia orchidis 

(PANCH-AMLE) 

Aconitum ferox 

(BIKH)

0.033 kg -1 while dried Juniperus indica USD 0.056 kg -1 in the local market and were collected in truckloads. At present 

no apparent impact of past collection was noticeable except very low populations of the high value species in southwestern 

parts of KNP. The abundance of these plants is relatively better in Zemu valley, which has remained relatively 

untouched in terms of commercial exploitation of plants. 

Conservation Action : In Sikkim a determined political leadership along with strong support from the local people is 

initiating conservation action to reduce the yak (and their hybrid) numbers in the greater Himalayan part of KNP while 

also providing alternative livelihood support to the herders from ecotourism enterprise. Consequently over the last few 

years the livestock population in the KNP has reduced significantly. Commercial harvest and transit of medicinal and 

aromatic plants has been banned from the forest areas of the State since 1990 owing to degradation of habitat and 

rapid depletion of this valuable resource. 


We gratefully acknowledge the support received from The Mountain Institute (TMI), International Center for Integrated 

Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Department of Forest, Environment and Wildlife Management, Government of 

Sikkim, Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and village based institutions namely Sindrabung Khangchendzonga Ecofriendly 

Society and Khangchendzonga Conservation Committee. 

References 

The Alpine Landscape in Western Sikkim: 


Champion, H. G. & S.K. Seth. 1968. A revised survey of forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Government of 

India, New Delhi. 

Maity, D. & G.G. Maiti. 2007. The wild flowers of Kanchenjunga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim. Naya Udyog, Kolkata. 

Miehe, G. 1997. Alpine vegetation types of the Central Himalaya. pp. 161-184. In: Wielgolaski F.E. (ed.) Polar and 

alpine tundra Ecosystems of the world. Volume 3. Elsevier, Amsterdam and New York. 

Rawat, G. S. 2005. Alpine Meadows of Uttaranchal: Ecology, Landuse and Status of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 

Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 

75


76 


Introduction 

12.0 Arunachal Pradesh – 

The Cradle of Flowering Plants 

H.J. Chowdhery 

Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun 

hjchowdhery_bsi@yahoo.co.uk 

The land of the rising sun, Arunachal Pradesh or the NEFA (North-East Frontier Agency) of yester years is situated in the 

extreme north-eastern corner of India. It covers an area of 83740 km2 and lies between 26° 28' to 29° 30' North latitudes 

and 90° 30' to 97° 30' East longitudes. It is bounded by Mc-Mohan Line in the north that separates India from Tibet 

(China), by Myanmar (Burma) in the east, the states of Nagaland and Assam in the south and by Bhutan in the west. 

Administratively, the state is divided into 15 districts which represent more or less distinct water-sheds or ethnographic 

sub-regions, invariably named after a river. The state is well known for its diverse ethnic groups, inhabiting various 

regions, each with its distinct culture and dialect. Traditionally, the state is divided into 5 ethnographic regions (based 

on the predominance of native communities): i. Aka hills, ii. Daphla hills, iii. Miri hills, iv. Abor hills and v. Mishmi hills. 

Biogeographically, Arunachal Pradesh forms major part of Eastern Himalaya (2C), the richest biogeographic province 

in India. The entire territory forms a complex system of hills with varying elevation ranging from 50m asl adjacent to 

Assam plains to about 7750m in the Great Himalayan range. The hill ranges are extremely rugged, dissected by deep 

river valleys and streams which run more or less in north-south direction. The rainfall spreads over 8-9 months except 

during winter season and it varies from 2,000 mm in the higher reaches to 8,000 mm in the foot hills. There are six 

major rivers flowing through the state, viz., Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Lohit, Tirap and Dibang. These rivers and their 

tributaries form distinct catchments culminating at snow peaks towards higher reaches and finally drain into 

Brahmaputra. There are six principal rivers in the state namely: Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Lohit, Tirap and Dibang. 

Physiographically the state can be divided into three zones from south to north as follows: 

i. The Alluvial Plains : This is a narrow division running parallel to foot-hills along the southern border of Arunachal 

Pradesh and includes the longitudinal alluvial plains Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Dibang and Lohit. The area has 

a more or less flat topography that gradually merges with the plains of Assam in the northern part of Brahmaputra 

valley. 

ii. The Lesser Himalaya: Rising abruptly from the foot hills, this region is interspersed by heavily dissected Shiwalik 

formations and sedimentary rocks of Lesser Himalaya. The highest altitude of this zone is about 1000m. 

iii. The Greater Himalaya: It is the dominant division of the state, marked by the peaks reaching as high as 6000m and 

more. Some of the known peaks of this division are: Gorichen (7300m), Kangto (7090m), Namche Barwa (7756m) 

and Kulangri (7544m). 

77


General Vegetation 

78 


The diversity of topographical features and climatic conditions has favoured the growth of luxuriant forests, which cover 

about 61.55% of the total geographic area. The forest vegetation comprises some of the tallest trees, tree ferns, 

bamboos, a large number of orchids, rhododendrons, several botanical curios, rare, endemic, primitive flowering 

plants and a store house of a large number of economically important species. Such an unparallelled occurrence of 

life forms can be attributed to the peculiar location of the state which is at the junction of the Paleoarctic, Indo-Chinese, 

and Indo-Malayan biogeographic regions. The biotic elements from all these regions occur in this state making its 

biological diversity extremely rich. 

The characteristic three storeyed sequence of vegetation particularly in the tropical and subtropical zones is one of the 

significant features in Arunachal Pradesh where the shrubs and small trees form the ground storey, the medium sized 

trees form the middle storey and the lofty trees with dense canopy form the top storey. The vegetation of Arunachal 

Pradesh can be divided into following categories: 

(A) Tropical Forests: Based on the composition and structure this can be further divided into two subtypes viz., Tropical 

Evergreen, and Tropical Semi-evergreen. The former typically extends from foothills up to 1000m in the areas receiving 

maximum rainfall. Species of Altingia, Amoora, Artocarpus, Terminalia, Canarium, Castanopsis, Dysoxylum, 

Cinnamomum, Quercus, Magnolia, Mesua, Duabanga, Lagerstroemia, Ptereospermum, Dillenia, Bischofia and Gmelina 

are some of the common trees of this type. The top canopy or the upper storey in these forests cover stifle plants of the 

lower storeys providing ideal conditions for the profuse growth of understorey vegetation as well as epiphytes including 

orchids, ferns and a variety of climbers. 

(B) Subtropical Forests: These forests, basically evergreen in nature and having continuous dense canopy, occur 

mainly between 900-2000m. The trees attain large dimensions i.e., 25-40m in height. These forests are dominated by 

species of Acer, Alnus, Beilschmiedia, Litsea, Kydia, Quercus and Magnolia and harbour profuse growth of epiphytic 

orchids, ferns and climbers. The humus rich forest floors are occupied with dense and diverse ground flora consisting 

of a large number of herbaceous species and terrestrial orchids. 

(C) Pine Forests: These forests extend both in subtropical and temperate belt in between 1000 m to 1800m elevation. 

Generally occupying the smaller rain shadow areas, these forests are represented by three species of Pinus, viz., P. 

roxburghii, P. wallichiana and P. merkusii occasionally mixed with species of Alnus, Betula, Rhododendron, Quercus, 

Lyonia, Tsuga and Prunus. The ground flora is less diverse compared to other categories and do not support luxuriant 

growth of vascular and non-vascular epiphytes. 

(D) Moist Temperate Forests : These forests occur in all districts as a continuous belt between 1800-3500 m altitude 

and can be divided into two subtypes, viz., Temperate broad leaved and Temperate Conifer forests. The former extend 

from 1800 to 2800m. Quercus-Michelia-Acer, Castanopsis-Acer-Magnolia, Magnolia-Quercus- Exbucklandia and 

Rhododendron- Quercus- Magnolia are some of the common associations found in these forests. The epiphytic flora 

is dominated by a number of species of orchids, Rhododendrons, ferns and fern allies. The ground flora abounds in 

terrestrial species of orchids and other herbaceous elements. The Temperate conifer forests are found between 2800 

to 3500m elevation except in Tale valley. These areas experience heavy snowfall during winter. The domoinent 

species of this zone are Abies, Taxus, Picea, Larix, Juniperus mixed with species of Pinus, Acer, Rhododendron, 

Viburnum, Gaultheria, Berberis with gregarious undergrowth of temperate bamboo at places and terrestrial orchids.

(E) Subalpine and Alpine Forests : There is no sharp division between subalpine and alpine type and only a rough 

distinction can be made with concentration of certain elements. The zone between 3500-4000 m is termed as the 

subalpine zone characterized by tree species like Abies spectabilis, Cupressus corneyana, Juniperus recurva, Larix 

griffithiana, Pinus wallichiana, Rhododendron spp., Taxus wallichiana and Tsuga dumosa. The common shrubs are 

Berberis asiatica, B. wallichiana, Eurya acuminata, Gaultheria fragrantissima, Photinia integrifolia and species of 

Vaccinium. Towards higher altitude a few terrestrial orchids and other small alpine herbs like Aconitum, Primula, 

Saussurea, Gentiana, Polygonum, Rhodiola, Sedum, Saxifraga dominate the ground vegetation. 

The alpine zone (4000 to 5500m asl), i.e. area above tree line remains covered with snow for the major part of the year. 

The vegetation is dominated by dwarf shrubs such as species of Rhododendron and herbaceous elements with 

attractive brilliantly coloured flowers. Various species of Aconitum, Arenaria, Gentiana, Meconopsis, Polygonum, Primula, 

Rhodiola, Saussurea, Saxifraga and Sedum abound in the alpine region. 

(F) Secondary Forests: Degraded forests as a result of anthropogenic pressures in the form of shifting cultivation, 

developmental activities and urbanization and forest fires lead to secondary scrub and open woodlands. Such forests 

at the lower altitudes are characterized by the presence of species of Bauhinia, Callicarpa, Glochidion, Mallotus 

alongwith common shrubs like Capparis, Clerodendrum, Croton, Eurya, Randia, Rubus, Viburnum species weeds like 

Ageratum, Eupatorium and Mikania. In temperate belt, subsequent to ‘Jhum’ cultivation species of bamboo, e.g., 

Bambusa, Chimonobambusa, Dandrocalamus, Schizostachyum take over. Open forests and areas with poor soil are 

dominated by various grasses e.g., species of Arundinella, Chrysopogon, Eragrostis, Imperata, Mnesithea, Paspalum, 

Saccharum, Setaria, Themeda and Thysanolaena. 

Floristic Diversity and Plants of High Conservation Significance 

Arunachal Pradesh – 

The Cradle of Flowering Plants 

The state is home of myriad plant and animal species making it one of the important biodiversity hotspots in the world 

(Chowdhery et al., 1996, 2008; Chowdhery 1997). It harbours over 5000 species of flowering plants distributed across a 

wide range of habitats. These include a large number of economically important, interesting and biologically curious 

plants which are confined to this state. The early history of botanical explorations in the state can be seen in Burkill (1924 

– 25). Some of the angiosperm groups having high conservation significance (Plate 12) are briefly described below: 

(a) Wild Edible Plants : A large number of wild plants are consumed as vegetable, fruits, etc. these are collected from 

the forests by the locals and many of them are sold in the local markets also. Alternanthera philoxeroides (leafy 

vegetable), Baccaurea ramiflora (fruits), Begonia josephii (leafy vegetable), Calamus erectus (fruits), Castenopsis 

indica (seeds), Dioscorea bulbifera (tubers), Elaeagnus latifolia (fruits), Flemingia procumbens (tuberous roots), 

Houttuynia cordata (leafy vegetable), Impatiens longipe (leafy vegetable), Polygonum spp. (leafy vegetable), Rhus 

semialata (fruits), Viburnum spp. (fruits), etc. are some of the commonly used plants for food. 

(b) Wild Relatives of Cultivated Plants: Arunachal Pradesh falls under ‘Hindustan Centre of Origin of Cultivated plants’. 

Several species from which the present day cultivated plants were selected still continue to exist alongwith their close 

relatives. The genes from wild relatives may help plant breeders to breed crops that can resist pests and diseases and 

thus are in utmost need more than ever before to feed the fast expanding world population. The state is rich in wild 

varieties of Musa, Citrus, Allium, Brassica, barley, maize, buckwheat, fingermillet, foxtail- millet, amaranth, french bean, 

soybean, cowpea, blackgram, pea, scarlet bean, pumkin, cucumber, ginger, chayote, tree tomato, pome and stone 

fruits. Apart from these, the state is equally rich in tall and drought-hardy types of Sesame, tree cotton, taros, yam and 

species of Colocasia and Capsicum. 

79


80 


(c) Species of Medico-ethnobotanical Importance: The north-eastem region especially Arunachal Pradesh is the home 

of a large number of tribal population having immense information on the use of natural resources acquired over 

centuaries through their experience. A large number of plants and animals are used by them in their day to day life for 

food, medicine, fish-poisoning, dye making, local drinks, etc. A wide range of medicinal plants are used by the local 

people for health care and a majority of them are used in the preparation of various Ayurvedic, Homoeopathic and 

Unani medicines. In addition there are several species of other ethnobotanical value e.g., Acacia rugata (powdered 

stems are used in fish-poisoning); Amischotolype mollissima (plant juice is used as arrow-poison); Gallium mollugo 

(decoction is used in dying clothes); Anisomeles ovata (used to relief mascular pain); Berberis wallichana (bunch of 

spines are used in tattooing chin and forehead); Bidens biternata (leaves are as substitute for tea); Callicarpa arborea 

var. ovalifolia (stems are used as bstitute of tobacco); Chenopodium album (seeds are used for preparation of country 

liquor’ Apong’); Chimonobambusa callosa (bark is used as rope);Chlrophytum arundinaceum (used as substitute of 

onion); Crassocephalum crepidioides (leaf juice is used to prevent bleeding); Dendrobium hookerianum (flowers are 

used to prepare yellow dye); Dendrocalamus strictus (planted near the house in spiritual belief of keeping the devil spirit 

away); Elscholtzia blanda (paste prepared from leaves is used to clear pus and maggot of cattle); Gaultheria 

fragrantissima (leaves and tmigs are used as incense); Gentiana bryoides (whole plant mixed with’ sillu’ leaves used 

as incense, leaves are used in malaria and dysentery); Geranium nepalense (the paste prepared from whole plant 

mixed with turmeric and mustard oil is used in cases of eczema, itch and other skin diseases); Gerbera piloselloides 

(used as hot fomentation to relief rheumatic pain); Impatiens racemosa (whole plant is used in malarial fever); Lasianthus 

longicauda (fruit extract is used as gum for catching birds); Plectranthus hispidus (whole plant is used in cough and 

cold); Rubus paniculata (leaves are used as substitute for peper betel); Scrophularia elatior (decoction of whole plant 

is used in urinary trouble); Tacca integrifolia (decoction of leaves is used in blood dysentery and diarrhoea). 

(d) Botanical Curiosities: Several species of angiosperms represent unique evolutionary links and botanical curiosities. 

For example, Sapria himalayana -one of the largest root parasites first reported by Griffith from Mishmi hills in Lohit 

district, Rhopalocnemis phalloides in Namdapha in Changlang district, Balanophora dioica, Aeginetia indica and 

Boschniakia himalaica, a parasite on the roots of Rhododendron spp. is found in the alpine meadows of the state. 

Among the common saprophytes, Monotropastrum humile and orchids such as Epipogium spp. and Galeola spp. are 

found in dense humid forests on humus rich soil. Among other curious plants mention may be made of Drosera peltata, 

an insectivorous plant and Zeylanidium olivaceum, a lichen like thallose herb which grows under water in fast running 

streams. 

(e) Endemic species: The state abounds in endemic plant species. Some of the important endemic taxa include Acer 

oblongum var. microcarpum, A. sikkimense var. serrulatum, Aconogonum pangianum, Begonia aborensis, B. scintillum, 

Capparis pachyphylla, Coptis teeta, Hedychium longipedunculaturn, Illicium cambodianum, Lysimachia congestiflora 

var. santapaui, Maesa arunachalensis, Merrilliopanax listeri, Paphiopedilum wardii, Pholidota watii, Primula subansirica, 

Pternopetalum senii, Pueraria bella, Rhododendron santapaui, Rhynchoglossum lazulinum, Schefflera venulosa, 

Tricarpelema glanduliferum, and Wallichia triandra, etc. 

(f) Rare and Endangered Plants: Shifting cultivation, over exploitation of medicinal and other useful economic plants, 

rapid development of infra-structure such as new townships, roads, industries, clearing of forest land for permanent 

agriculture have led to decline of many plant populations and degradation of their habitats. Some of the rare, endangered 

and vulnerable categories of plants are: Ardisia rhynchophylla, Aquilaria malaccensis, Cymbidium hookerianum, 

C.eburneum, Coptis teeta, Dioscorea laurifolia, D. orbiculata, Diplomeris hirsuta, Drosera peltata, Eria ferruginea, 

Galeola falconeri, Gastrochilus inconspicuus, Huodendron biaristatum, Ilex venulosa, Nomocharis synaptica, 

Rhododendron nuttalli, R. santapaui, Rhopalocnemis phalloides, Sapria himalayana, Saurauia griffithii, Sunipia fuscopurpurea, 

and Tylostyli discolor.

1 

5 

8 

Plate 12 

Plants of High Conservation Significance in 

Arunachal Pradesh 

2 3 4 

6 7 

9 10 11 

12 13 

1. Coptis teeta Wall.; 2. Dimocarpus longan Lour.; 

3. Magnolia griffithii Hook.f. &Thoms.; 4. Aspidocarya uvifera Hook.f. & Thoms.; 

5. Exbucklandia populnea (R. Br. ex Griffith) R. Br.; 

6. Zeylanidium olivaceum (Gardn.) Engl.; 7. Alsophila spinulosa (Wall. ex Hook.) Tryan; 

8. Caryota urens L.; 9. Arundina graminifolia Hochr.; 

10. Renanthera imshootiana Rolfe; 11. Epipogium indicum H.J.Chowdhery et al.; 

12. Sapria himalayana Griffith; 13. Magnolia hodgsoni (Hook.f. & Thoms.) King


82 


(g) Primitive Angiosperms : Presence of a large number of primitive Angiosperms in the state such as Altingia excelsa, 

Aspidocarya uvifera, Betula alnoides, Decaisnea insignis, Euptelea pleiosperma, Exbucklandia populnea, 

Haematocarpus validus, Holboellialatifolia var. angustifolia, Houttuynia cordata, Magnolia caveana, M. grifflthii, M. 

hodgsonii, M. pterocarpa, Pycnarrhena pleniflora, Tetracentron sinense and species of Camellia, Magnolia, Michelia, 

Rhododedron, orchids and several wild and economic plants suggest that perhaps in this region evolutionary 

development of Angiosperms have taken place. Takhtajan (1969) has suggested North Eastern Region of India as the 

true “Cradle of flowering plants” due to the presence of large number of primitive Angiosperms. 

References 

Burkill, I. H. 1924-1925. The Botany of Abor Expedition. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 10(1): 1-154 & 10(2): 155- 420, tt. 1-10. 

1925. 

Chowdhery, H.J. 1997. Orchid Flora of Arunachal Pradesh. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. pp. 824. 

Chowdhery, H.J., G.S.Giri, G.D. Pal, A. Pramanik & S.K. Das. 1996. Materials for the Flora of Arunachal Pradesh. Vol.I. 

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. pp. 693. 

Chowdhery, H.J., G.S.Giri, G.D. Pal, A. Pramanik & S.K. Das. 2008. Materials for the Flora of Arunachal Pradesh. Vol. II. 

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. pp. 693. 

Takhtajan, A. 1969. Flowering plants: Origin and Dispersal, Edinburg.

Introduction 

13.0 Special Habitats and Threatened 

Plants of Meghalaya 

Swapna Prabhu 

Bombay Natural History Society 

Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Marg, Dr. Salim Ali Chawk, Mumbai - 400 001. 

swapnaprabhu@gmail.com 

The North-eastern region of India assumes a special significance in the biogeography of the country due to its unique 

location and varying eco-climatic conditions. It is located at the confluence of Indian Peninsula, Indo-Malayan and 

Indo-Chinese biogeographical zones (Rao 1994). It is regarded as one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world 

(Myers 1988). The undulating topography, high rainfall and varied altitudes are main factors that have contributed to its 

rich ecosystem and habitat diversity. The region represents about 50% of the floristic wealth of India and contains about 

8000 species of flowering plants including several representatives of primitive or ancient angiosperms (Takhtajan 

1969). It abounds in gene pool of cultivars and land races of crop plants. So far, about 64 species of Citrus have been 

recorded from this region, of which, Citrus assamensis, Citrus indica and Citrus latipes are confined within Nokrek 

National Park of Meghalaya suggesting a strong indication that North-eastern region has been the centre of origin for 

Citrus (Singh 1984). However, this biodiversity is dwindling at an alarming rate due to high population pressure and 

ruthless exploitation of the forest resources. Consequently, more than 700 taxa of plants have been pushed to various 

categories of threat in this region (Nayar & Sastry 1988 - 90). 

The state of Meghalaya is characterized by a wide range of physiographic, edaphic and climatic conditions making it 

a congenial area for luxuriant growth of vegetation. The recorded forest cover of the state is 9,496 km2 (42.34 % of the 

total geographic area). More than eight different forest types ranging from tropical to temperate categories, a large 

number of primitive species (Haridasan & Rao 1985-87) and high level of endemism (1236 species i.e. 37.11% of total 

plant species including ferns and bryophytes) make this state extremely important for plant conservation point of view 

(Khan et al. 1997). The three ethnographic zones of the state viz., the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills have long been focal 

points of botanical exploration. According to Champion & Seth (1968), Assam Sub-tropical Hill Savanna, Khasi Subtropical 

Hill Forests, Assam Sub-tropical Pine Forests and Assam Sub-tropical Pine Savannah are the major forest 

types in the state of Meghalaya. Haridasan & Rao (1985-87) recognized following major categories of vegetation in 

Meghalaya: Tropical Evergreen Forests in low-lying, high rainfall areas; Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests (up to 

elevation of 1200m, where annual rainfall is 1500-2000mm); Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests in areas with less than 

1500 mm rainfall; grasslands and savanna on the tops of Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills. Isolated patches of temperate 

forests are found at higher altitudes in Khasi and Jaintia hills. Sub-tropical Pine Forests are also found at higher 

altitudes in such areas where the original broad-leaved forests were felled or disturbed otherwise. 

The major anthropogenic activities such as shifting cultivation, infra-structure development and mining have led to 

decrease in forest cover, habitat fragmentation and loss of biodiversity. This article deals with some of the important 

vegetation types (broad habitats, sensu lato) and corresponding plant species peculiar to such areas. 

83


Major Habitat / Vegetation Types : 

84 


1. Tropical Evergreen forests : This forest type spreads over the lower reaches of Khasi and Garo hills, up to 1200m. 

The dominant tree species include Castanopsis indica, Callophyllum polyanthum, Dysoxylum gobara, Elaeocarpus 

rugosus, Engelhardtia spicata, Gynocardia odorata and Helicia robusta, which are densely interwoven by lianas and a 

few emergents. The shrub species are Dendrocnide sinuata, Lasianthus hookerii, Rhynchotechum ellipticum, Boehmeria 

platyphylla, Leea crispa and Allophyllus distachys. During monsoon season members of Acanthaceae are quite 

abundant. The ground vegetation is dominated by Impatiens spp., Polygonum spp., Ophiorrhiza sp., Globba clarkei, 

Hedychium spp., and Costus specious among others. The forest floors are laden with a variety of ferns. The tree trunks 

and branches are covered with profuse growth of mosses, ferns, orchids and other epiphytes. Lianas and climbers like 

Rhaphidophora spp. are also abundant. 

2. Semievergreen forests : These forests constitute the major natural habitat type of the state (IIRS 2003) and occupy 

the north-eastern and northern slopes with lesser rain-fall. The deciduous elements such as Albizzia spp., Callicarpa 

arborea, Careya arborea, Dillenia pentagyna, Parkia roxburghii, Rhus javanica and Shorea robusta are common. 

Other dominant species are Elaeocarpus floribundus, Micromelum integerrium, Garcinia spp., Sapindus rarak and 

Symplocos paniculatus. The forest floor has luxuriant growith of several shade loving species such as Boehmeria 

sidifolia along with members of Acanthaceae, Rubiaceae and Zingiberaceae. 

3. Moist Deciduous forests : These forests are found in areas of lower rainfall (

compressus along with the members of Cyperaceae, (e.g., Fymbristylis dichotoma, Cyperus spp.) and Eriocaulaceae. 

Moist hill slopes have dense growth of Gualtheria fragrantissima, Eurya spp., Polygonum spp., Osbeckia stellata, 

Drosera peltata, Utricularia stiatula and U. bifida. 

8. Sacred groves : The age old traditions of all three tribes of Meghalaya, namely the Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos, 

have saved the patches of forests in prestine conditions till date. These secred groves chiefly fall in the subtropical zone 

represent the tropical broad-leaved hill forests (as described by Champion & Seth 1968) of the region. These groves 

harbour a plant wealth uncomparable with any other forest types of the region. Many of the endangered species are 

presently confined to the sacred groves. Members of Fagaceae family, Rhododendron arboreum and Elaeocarpus 

spp. dominate the vegetation. The trees show typically stunted growth. Epiphytes are found completely covering the 

tree trunks which support a number of epiphytic orchids and ferns (Plate 13A). 

Threatened and Endemic Species 

1. Aeschynanthus superba Wall. ex DC. (Gesneriaceae) 

An epi- or lithophytic species with long, branched stem. Leaves 15 x 5 cm., entire, petiole 1.2 cm. Peduncles 1 – 1.5 cm, 

terminal and on short axillary spur, stout. Bracts upto 2.5 cm., ovate, deciduous, rose-red. Inflorescence sub-umbelled. 

Sepals thin, caducous. Corolla tubular, curved, mouth slightly oblique. Filaments exerted, minutely glandular hairy. 

Capsule 20 – 35cm. 

Distribution : North-east India (Meghalaya upto 2000 m). 

Status : Endangered 

2. Balanophora dioica R.Br. ex Royle (Balanophoraceae) 

Very variable root parasite. Rootstalks tuberculous. Shoots 3.5 – 7 cm, stout, covered with glabrous, imbricate scales. 

Flowers in a fleshy clubshaped usually unisexual receptacle. Perianth surrounded by fleshy, linear, truncate reddish 

bracts. Heads ovoid. Perianth segments white, generally 4, ovate, reflexed when open, Anther one, sessile, domeshaped. 

Female flowers closely packed, stigma protruded, white. 

Distribution : Tropical and Sub-tropical belt of North-east India, Meghalaya (1000 – 2000m), Myanmar. 

Habitat : Usually in evergreen forests of tropical and subtropical zone. 

Status : Near Endemic and Rare 

3. Citrus latipes (Swingle) Tanaka (Rutaceae) 

Local names : Khasi – Soh- kymphor 

A tree more than 15m in height, mostly furrowed at the base. Spines small and ascending. Leaflets 2.5 – 8 x 2.5 – 6 cm,, 

ovate- elliptic to lanceolate, petiole winged, wings of the same size or even larger than the leaflet. Entire or minutely 

crenulate, glabrous, coreaceous, punctate with oil glands. Flowers axillary, solitary or in few flowered cymes, white or 

light purplish, upto 2.5 cm in diameter, pedicels 6 cm long. Calyx small, 4-5 sepals. Petals 4. Stamens 20-25. Fruit 7 – 

10 cm in diameter, punctate with large oil glands, pulp colourles, juice very acidic. 

Distribution : Mikir Hills, gregarious in Khasi Hills. 

Status : Endemic. 

4. Citrus indica Tanaka (Rutaceae) 

Local names : Khasi – Soh-manong ; Garo – Narang 


Plants of Meghalaya 

85


86 


A shrub with straight, ascending spines. Leaflets light green, 8- 15 x 5 – 8 cm, elliptic- ovate to oblong-lanceolate, 

crenulate-serrate, with translucent dots at the sinuses, petiole without wings. Flowers white, usually tinged with red, 

sweet scented, solitary or up to 10 in a receme, often unisexual. Petals linear- oblanceolate, gland- dotted. Stamens 

20-40, filaments reddish. Fruit 8 – 12 x 5 – 7 cm, obovoid-oblong, often mamilate at the apex,yellow when ripe, 

aromatic, with thick spongy rind and colourless vescicles. 

Distribution : Assam, along the edge of marshes and streams, up to about 1400m. 

Status : Endemic 

5. Dendrobium williamsonii Day & Reichb. f. (Orchidaceae) 

Epiphytic herb. Leaves and sheaths puberulous, leaves oblong or lanceolate. Flowers 1-2 on a short bracteate peduncle. 

Sepals lanceolate, acuminate, dorsal ovate acute. Petals oblanceolate, mentum funnel shaped, side lobes of lip 

rounded, midlobe orbicular, ciliate. Disc obscurely 3-ridged. Flowers yellowish, lip dashed with red within. 

Distribution : Assam, Khasi Hills. 

Habitat : Epiphyte 

Status: Endemic to northeast India, Endangered 

6. Monotropa uniflora L. (Ericaceae) 

A glabrous saprophytic herb. Stem single flowered, covered with scales upto 2 cm, ovate – lanceolate. Flowers 

nodding. Calyx lobes 4, resembling scales. Corolla lobes 5-6, ultimately deciduous, hardly saccate at the base, 

Stamens 10-12, anthers peltate, horizontal. Ovary 5-celled, ovules many on axile placenta. Capsule globose, 5-celled, 

5-valved. 

Distribution : Temperate Himalayas, Khasi Hills, upto 6000 ft. 

Habitat : Mostly present in the Pine forests. 

Status : Rare and endemic. 

7. Nepenthus khasiana Hook.f. (Nepenthaceae) 

Local names : Khasi – Tiew-rakot; Garo – Memang kokshi 

A scandent shrub. Dioecious, climbing by leaves. Leaves alternate, an expanded lamina with tendril terminated by a 

pendant, coloured cylindrical pitcher with a recurved fluted rim and operculum. Inflorescence raceme or panicle. 

Flowers actinomorphic. Tepals 3 – 4, in 2 whorls, nectariferous. Male flowers: stamens 2 – 24, filaments connate, 

anthers bilocular. Female flowers : carpels 3 – 4, ovary superior, ovules many, style 1, stigma discoid. Fruits elongated, 

leathery capsule. Seeds numerous, filiform. 

Destribution : Endemic to Meghalaya. 

Habitat : Forest margins surrounded by grasslands. 

Status : Critically endangered and endemic, confined to a few pockets of its natural habitat in Meghalaya. 

8. Osbeckia capitata Benth. (Melastomataceae) 

A lax branched perrenial shrub. Leaves ovate acute from a broad cordate base, subsessile, flowers capitate, mauve in 

colour, calyx segments lanceolate rounded, ciliate on the back, not persistant. Anthers with a beak more than half their 

own length. Ovary with bristles on its apex. Fruit ovoid. 

Distribution : Bhutan, North-east, Meghalaya (upto 1800m). 

Habitat : Forest edges 

Status : Near endemic (North-east).

Plate 13A 

Special Habitats and Threats in Meghalaya 

Grassland at Cherrapunji 

Ravee Bhat 

Balphakram National Park 

Mawphalang Sacred Grove, 

East Khasi Hills 

Riverine Habitat at Mawlynnong Limestone Mining near Cherrapunji 

G.S. Rawat 

Hemant Tripathi

1 

4 

7 

Ravee Bhat 

G.S. Rawat 

Plate 13B 

Threatened Plants of Meghalaya 

8 

2 

Ravee Bhat 

5 

Ravee Bhat 

9 

1. Citrus indica; 2. Citrus latipes; 3. Aeschynanthus superba; 

4. Dendrobium williamsonii; 5. Osbeckia capitata; 6. Panax pseudoginseng; 

7. Nepenthes khasiana (showing pitcher); 8. Nepenthes khasiana (in flowers); 

9. Balanophora dioica; 10. Monotropa uniflora 

John Lakadong 

3 

6 

10 

John Lakadong 

John Lakadong 

John Lakadong

9. Panax pseudoginseng Wall. (Araliaceae) 

Herb with a horizontal root stalk. Stem 12 – 35 cm, erect, glabrous, terminated by a whorl of leaves. Leaflets 3 to 5, 5 

12 x 2 – 4 cm, acuminate, caudate, tapering at base, serrate or bi-serrate, with scattered bristles. Petiole 5 - 12 cm, 

Inflorescence simole or with 2-5 umbellate heads. Bracteoles upto 0.6 cm, lanceolate. Flowers monoecious. Fruits 

red or black and red. 

Destribution : North-east, Meghalaya 

Habitat : Evergreen forests. 

Status : Vulnerable. 

10. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Taxaceae) 

A small tree, dioecious, 6 m high. Stem fluted; bark thin, reddish brown; branchlets spreading. Leaves linear, 2-3.8 x 0.3 

cm, coriaceous, flattened, arranged in two vertical opposite rows, dark grey glossy green above, paler beneath. Cones 

axillary, sessile, male and female cone on separate trees. Male cone solitary, axillary, sub-globose, bracts empty; 

stamens 10. Female cone solitary, few imbricate scales around an erect ovule; ovule surrounded at base by membranous 

cup shaped disc. Disc in fruit bright red, succulent, enlarged; 7-8 mm. Seeds olive green. 

Distribution : Myanmar, South West China, Vietnam. Himalayas, Meghalaya, Naga hills, Manipur. 

Habitat : In temperate moist and riverine forests. 

Status : Globally the species has been cateorized under ‘Least Concern’, but it is very sparse in Meghalaya. It is 

basically a Himalayan element and its occurrence at lower altitude (up to 15 m asl) in the state calls for further genetic 

studies and it is vulnerable on account of its high value drug ‘Taxol’. 

Conservation 

Although there are two National Parks, three Wildlife Sanctuaries and more than twenty-five reserved forests established 

to safeguard the floral and faunal diversity of the state, most of the threatened species occur outside the existing 

network of protected areas. In addition, there are a number of forest patches which are conserved by the local communities 

on the religious and cultural ground. The reserved and community forests altogether, constitute only about 5% of the 

state, while the protected areas cover


90 


IIRS (Indian Institute of Remote sensing) 2003. Biodiversity characterization at landscape level using Satellite Remote 

Sensing and Geographic Information System: North East India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and 

Andaman Nicobar Islands. Department of Space and Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. pp. 

36. 

Khan, M.L., S. Menon & K.S. Bawa. 1997. Effectiveness of protected areas network in biodiversity conservation - a case 

study of Meghalaya State. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 853-868. 

Myers, N. 1988. Threatened biotas: hotspots in tropical forests. The Environmentalist 8:178-208. 

Nayar, M. P. & A. R. K. Sastry. 1988, 1990. Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 

Roy, P.S. & S. Tomar. 2000. Biodiversity characterization at landscape level using geospatial modelling technique. 

Biological Conservation 95(1): 95-109. 

Rao, R.R. 1994. Biodiversity in India: Floristic aspects. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. 

Takhtajan, A. 1969. Flowering plants: Origin and Dispersal. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh and Otto Koeltz Science 

Publishers, India. 

Singh, B. 1984. Conservation of genetic resources of Eastern Himalayan Region with special reference to Citrus. Proc. 

Resour. Poten. North-East India. Vol-II. pp. 17-21.

An Interesting Species of Pteris from Mizoram 

Lallawmkimi & H. Lalramnghinglova* 

Department of Forest Ecology, Biodiversity & Environmental Sciences 

Mizoram University, Aizawl 

* deanmzu@yahoo.co.in 

An Interesting Species of Pteris 

from Mizoram 

During a recent floristic survey in Tawi Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram (18 th January 2007), we collected an interesting fern 

from dense forests. On critical examination this species turned out to be Pteris tricolor. After a detailed scrutiny of 

literature it was revealed that this species has never been collected from the state so far. The specimen (collection no: 

40630) was later confirmed by Chris Fraser – Jenkins, Kathmandu. This is the first collection from Mizoram. The 

species grows as an understorey in the undisturbed semi-evergreen forests among dense leaf litter. We could locate 

only a single clump on the forest floor. The forest was dominated by Callophyllum polyanthum, Ostodes paniculata, 

Engelhardtia spicata, Diospyros toposia, Phoebe attenuata, Quercus polystachya, Cinnamomum bejolghota. 

Pteris tricolor 

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G. S. Bhardwaj

Introduction 

14.0 Threatened Plants and Their Habitats in 

Indian Thar Desert 

Amit Kotia 

Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun 

kotia.amit@gmail.com 

The arid region of India lies between 24° to 29° N latitudes and 70° to 76° E longitudes. It occupies nearly 9% of India’s 

geographical area and covers 208,751 km² in Rajasthan alone and about 62180 km² in Gujarat (Rahmani 1997). 

Biogeographically, it is divisible into two provinces viz., Thar Desert of Rajasthan (3B) and Katchh Desert of Gujarat (3A) 

(Rodgers & Panwar 1988). The Thar Desert comprises southern Dune systems, northern Dune systems, eastern 

transition or Bagar located in Jalore, Jodhpur, Nagaur and Churu districts. The Katchh is further divisible into Little 

Rann, Great Rann, Islands and southern hills or Bets. 

The Thar Desert is the eastern extension of the vast Persio-Arabian desert, which joins the great Sahara desert. It is 

about 640 km long and 160 km wide. It is covered by a depth of several meters of sands which are constantly shifted by 

winds blowing from the southwest (Krishnan 1982). The sand covers an irregular rocky floor, but occasionally local 

prominences and ridges rise above the level of the sand. Covering an area of around 62% in 12 districts of Rajasthan, 

this desert extends in the eastern part of Pakistan. Sand dunes are present in nearly 58% of the area (Shankarnarayan 

1988). 

A major portion of western Rajasthan falls under Sand dunes and sandy plains. Occurrence of saline-sodic soil with pH 

up to 9.0 is a common feature. The soils of the desert plains are sandy loam with a significant proportion of lime within 

150 cm of soil profile (Dhir & Jain 1982).The average annual rainfall in the region is 275 mm and it is less than 100 mm 

in the extreme west. Luni River forms the main drainage system during rainy season. The climate of the desert region 

also shows extremes with temperatures ranging from sub-zero in winter to as high as 52°C in summer. Dust storms in 

the desert tracts may reach a velocity of 130 km/h and may deposit 50-75 mm of dust on the ground per storm. The 

relative humidity varies from 25% (April) to 85% (July). Frosts are generally severe during winter, particularly in the sandy 

areas. Tree saplings up to 2 m in height, sometimes, succumb to such frosts. The vegetation is extremely sparse in 

most of the land forms and generally described as Tropical thorn scrub and desertic formations. 

The flora of the Indian desert is an admixture of the western (65.8%) as well as the eastern (34.2%) taxa migrated from 

both the regions, while only 9.4% species are endemic (Anonymous 1988). Blatter & Hallberg (1988) reported 507 

species of flowering plants which was later updated by Bhandari (1990). The flowering plants in Indian desert including 

both indigenous and naturalized plants comprises of 682 species belonging to 356 genera of 87 families. Poaceae, 

Fabaceae, Asteraceae and Cyperaceae are the dominating families having about 111, 65, 41 and 36 species respectively 

(Bhandari 1990). The flora of the Thar desert are adapted to exploit the special microhabitats influenced by peculiar 

topography, geology, edaphic and climatic conditions. The Thar Desert harbours about 16 endemic plant species 

(Pandey et al. 1983, Singh & Pandey 1999). 

Special habitats 

Extremely harsh climatic conditions and varied micro-topographic features give rise to various plant associations 

which exhibit stark seasonality. The vegetation is mainly dry open and interspersed grasslands consisting mainly of 

stunted, thorny or prickly shrubs and perennial herbs which are mostly drought resistant. The ephemerals come up 

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during the rainy season, complete their life cycle before the advent of summer and the bulk of area is once more 

transformed into open sandy plains, desolate and barren. Desert vegetation is mainly categorized on the basis of its 

habitat (Shetty & Singh 1987). This article gives basic information on some of the special habitats, corresponding 

vegetation and unique plants associations in the arid zone (Plates 14A & 14B). 

a. The Sandy plain and Sand dunes : The major portion of the desert is covered by sandy plains and sand dunes with 

varying degree of stability. The area is characteristic for its various vegetation associations in different regions. Generally 

the stabilized sandy plains and sand dunes are covered with vegetation of trees and shrubs viz., Leptadenia pyrotechnica, 

Crotalaria burhia, Sericostoma pauciflorum, Calligonum polygonoides, Capparis decidua, Lycium barbatum, Zizyphus 

nummularia, Aerva tomentosa, Calotropis procera, Acacia jacquemontii, Acacia senegal, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora 

oleoides, S. persica, Tecomella undulata and Maytenus emarginatus. Common herbs include Argemone mexicana, 

Tephrosia purpurea, T. falciformis, Farsetia hamiltonii, Convolvulus microphyllous, Boerhavia diffusa, Heliotropium sp., 

Indigofera linifolia, I. cordifolia, Tribulus terrestris, T. rajasthanensis and Echinops echinatus. Citrullus colosynthis, C. 

lanatus, Cucumis sp., Cocculus pendulus, Mukia maderaspatana, Momordica dioica, Coccinia grandis and Pergularia 

daemia are the typical climbers of sandy plains and sand dunes. Some grasses viz., Aristida funiculata, A. adscensionis, 

Cenchrus ciliaris, C. biflorus, C. prieurii, C. setigerus, Eragrostis sp., Cyperus sp., Dactyloctenium sindicum, D. aegyptium 

and Lasiurus scindicus. Whereas inter dune areas also support similar vegetation but abundance of species may vary 

depending upon the availability of moisture and stability of sand dunes. Sandy and unstable areas lack any vegetation 

but at times some ephemerals can be seen during the rainy seasons e.g., Cleome viscosa, Polycarpaea corymbosa, 

Corchorus tridens, Triumfetta pentandra, Tribulus terrestris, Gisekia pharnaceoides, Mollugo cerviana, Mollugo 

nudicaulis, Pedalium murex, Sesamum indicum, Martynia annua, Amaranthus spinosus and Euphorbia sp. Cistanche 

tubulosa a root parasite usually seen in this habitat and commonly associated with Calligonum polygonoides, Capparis 

decidua and Calotropis procera. 

Pandey et al. (1983) and Bhandari (1990) reported a few threatened plants from the sandy habitats, e.g., Gisekia 

pharnacioides, var. pseudopaniculata, Ceropegia bulbosa, Caralluma edulis, Tecomella undulata, Cleome gynandra 

var. nana, Convolvulus auricomus var. ferruginosus, Convolvulus auricomus var. volubilis, Convolvulus blatteri var. 

Convolvulus scindicus, Euphorbia jodhpurensis, Alysicarpus monilifer var. venosus, Psoralea odorata, Rhynchosia 

schimperi, Tephrosia falciformis, Abutilon pakistanicum, Zizyphus truncata, Withania coagulans, Tribulus rajasthanensis, 

Cenchrus prieurii, Cenchrus rajasthanensis and Ephedra ciliata. 

b. Gravelly or rocky plain : Gravelly pediments or rocky plains, known as Magra, are important areas of desert, 

generally seen around Pokaran - Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner. Common species of this habitat are Cleome 

vahliana, C. viscosa, C. gracilis, Fagonia indica, Rostellularia procumbens and Sericostoma pauciflora. Besides this, 

some common prostrate plants growing in the gravelly ground are Tribulus terrestris, Indigofera linnaei, I. linifolia, I. 

cordifolia, Heliotropium rariflorum, Euphorbia prostrata, E. granulata, E. clarkeana, Mollugo cerviana and Mollugo 

nudicaulis. Common shrubs of gravelly habitat include Euphorbia caudicifolia, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Capparis 

decidua, Calotropis procera, Zizyphus nummularia, Acacia senegal, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides and 

Maytenus emarginatus. Dactyloctenium sindicum, Blepharis sindica, Melanocenchris jaquemontii, M. abyssinica, 

Oropetium thomaeum and Tragus roxburghii are some of the common grasses in such habitat. The rocky areas 

represent different geological formations ranging from shallow depressions to elevated areas and foot hills. The rocky 

slopes have typical species such as Anogeissus pendula, Asparagus racemosus, Balanites aegyptiaca and Euphorbia 

caudicifolia. 

According to Pandey et al. (1983) and Bhandari (1990), the plants of gravel habitat which are threatened in Thar desert 

include Odontanthera varians, Commiphora wightii, Farsetia macrantha, Heliotropium rariflorum, Alysicarpus 

tetragonolobus, Monsonia heliotropioides, Abutilon bidentatum var. major, Pavonia arabica var. massuriensis, Tribulus

ajasthanensis Aristida royleana, Cenchrus prieurii var. scabra, Cenchrus prieurii var. prieurii and Cenchrus prieurii var. 

scabra. 

c. Small hillocks and rocky projections : There are many small hillocks and rocky projections isolated form Aravalli 

range e.g., Massuria hill, Mador, Kailana hill, Viratra hill, Neemdi and Mata ki phadi which support a rich assemblage 

of plants such as Capparis decidua, Grewia tenax, Euphorbia caudicifolia (often associated with root parasite Striga 

sp.), Rhus mysorensis, Commiphora wightii, Zizyphus nummularia, Acacia senegal, Anogeissus pendula, Boswellia 

serrata, Maytenus emarginatus along with herbs viz., Tephrosia sp., Convolvulus sp., Boerhavia diffusa, Heliotropium 

sp., Tridax procumbens, Tribulus terrestris, Anticharis senegalensis, Barleria sp., Rhynchosia minima, Asparagus 

racemosus and Fagonia indica. 

Some of the threatened taxa found in such habitat are: Convolvulus stocksii, Abutilon fruticosum var. chrysocarpa, 

Pavonia arabica var. massuriensis, Sida tiagii, Anticharis glandulosa var. caerulea, Tribulus rajasthanensis, Aristida 

royleana and Cenchrus prieurii var. scabra. 

d. Saline tracts : Saline-sodic soil is a common feature in this area with pH up to 9.0. Such habitats are characterized 

by the presence of salt tolerant taxa such as Prosopis juliflora, Tamarix indica, Trianthema portulacastrum, T. triquetra, 

Zaleya govidea, Chenopodium album, C. murale, Salsola baryosoma, Suaeda fruticosa, Haloxylon recurvum, Sesuvium 

sesuvioides, and Portulaca oleracea. Pulicaria rajputanae is endemic plant for saline habitat of Rajasthan and has very 

low abundance. 

e. Aquatic and marshy habitats : Some natural and artificial water bodies and marshes harbour characteristic 

aquatic species such as Lemna paucicostata, Naja graminea, N. welwitschii, Potamogeton crispus, P. pectinatus, 

Spirodela poyrhiza, Vallisneria spiralis, Nelumbo nucifera, water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes and Wolffia species. 

According to Panday et al. 1983, Ammannia desertorum is a threatened plant for aquatic habitat. 


Drastic changes in the land use in recent decades and changes in habitat conditions due to invasion of alien invasive 

species are the major causes of concern in Thar Desert. For example, Indira Gandhi Canal has changed the moisture 

regime and soil pH in many parts that has led to changed species composition and decline in typical desert species. 

Water hyacinth (Eicchornia crassipes), which never occurred in the region has invaded several water bodies. A few 

species of water logged habitat such as Arundo donax, Typha angustifloia, Phragmitis karka have proliferated in 

waterlogged areas (Prakash 2001). Invasion of a thorny shrub Prosopis juliflora is a major threat to native flora and 

fauna. Some of the threatened plants of Thar Desert which need immediate conservation measures are mentioned 

below: 

(i) Ephedra foliata Boiss. & Kotschy. (Family Ephedraceae) 

Local Name : Lana (Macadam), Suo-Phogaro, Unth Phog or Andho-Khimp 

Threatened Plants and Their 

Habitats in Indian Thar Desert 

Only Gymnosperm in the Thar Desert, rare in sandy habitat and occasionally climbing on shrub or a tree. It is a 

perennial, climbing fascicled branches, smooth, slender, striated, knotted stems. Male flowers in spikes, 1 to 3 together, 

on 1-2 cm long peduncles. Bracts 1.5-2 X 1.2-15 mm, rotund, obtuse, connate, ciliate. Perianth-lobes ca 2.5m m long, 

obovate, ciliate. Staminal column slightly exserted. Female spikes 2 to 3 flowered, subsessile, in pedunculate cymes. 

Bracts connate: outer ca 1mm long: inner ones 4-5mm long. Fruits 6-7 X 5.5- 6.5mm, ovoid-globose, fleshy, white. 

Seeds 2, 5-6 X 2-2.5mm, plano-convex, acute at apex, glabrous, brown. Fl. & Fr.: Sep.-Dec. 

Ephedra foliata is a typical Gymnosperm of hot deserts reported from Afghanistan, Syria, Pakistan and India. In India it 

is distributed in Ajmer, Bikaner, Churu, Barmer, Jodhpur and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan. However, its status in 

various districts has not been assessed so far. 

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(ii) Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Benth. & Hook.f (Family: Asclepiadaceae) 

Local Name : Pimpa 

An annual erect succulent herb, 15-60 cm high, branches, 4-angled. Leaves 0.6-1.3cm long, linear or ovate-lanceolate 

and acute. Flowers 1-3, in the axils of leaves, all along distal nodes. Corolla campanulate, c.7mm long, purplish inside; 

lobes ovate-lanceolate, acute, glabrous within. Corona in two rows; outer, 5-lobed, each lobe produced into 2 distinct, 

subulate teeth; inner one linear, subacute. Follicles 8-17cm long, lanceolate, terete, smooth. Seeds brown, winged on 

the margins; coma c.2.5cm long. Fl. & Fr.: Feb.-Sep. 

According to Bhandari (1990), C. edulis is endemic to deserts of Pakistan and Western Rajasthan. The young shoots 

are eaten as vegetable and often sold in market at Jaisalmer (Mohangarh). 

(iii) Farsetia macrantha Blatter & Hallberg (Family: Brassicaceae) 

Local Name : Motio-Hiran Chobbo 

A twiggy, rigid undershurb. Leaves 4-7 x 1.5-2.5 cm, broadly linear-lanceolate, attenuated at the base, sub-coriaceous. 

Flowers in 5 to 15 terminal racemes, creamy white to pinkish white. Fruits 30-35 x 5-6 mm, oblong, compressed, 

densely strigose, narrowed at both ends. Seeds 6 x 3mm, compressed, brown. Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-Jan. 

Threatened and endemic to deserts, a few individuals can be seen on rocks of Mataji’s temple in Barmer. 

(iv) Tephrosia falciformis Ramasw. (Family: Fabaceae) 

Local Name : Rati Biyani 

A shrub with white silky branches. Leaflets 5-17, 2.5-4.5 x 0.3-1.0cm, oblanceolate or oblong, mucronate or emarginated, 

appressed hairy. Flowers in racemes, longer than leaves, purple-red. Calyx-teeth as long as tube. Standard silvery-white 

outside. Style incurved. Pods flat, sparsely hairy and 3-5-seeded. Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-Oct. 

It is a threatened species, endemic to Thar Desert. Occasionally seen in sand-dunes and distributed in Churu, 

Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Pali districts of Rajasthan. 

(v) Withania coagulans (Stocks.) Dunal. (Family: Solanaceae) 

Local Name : Paneer-bandh 

A stiff, ashy-grey undershurb, up to 1m high. Stem woody, terete, densely clothed with mealy, stellate tomentum, sulcate 

when dry. Leaves 2-7 x 1.0-2.5cm, elliptic-lanceolate or oblanceolate, coriaceous, obtuse at apex, attenuated at base 

into an obscure, flat petiole, grey tomentose on both surfaces. Male flower stamens reaching up to top of corolla tube, 

filaments glabrous. Female flower ovary ovoid, style glabrous, stigma 2 lamellate. Berries globose, surrounded by 

scurby-pubescent, membranous calyx. Seed ear-shaped, glabrous. Fl & Fr.: Nov-March. 

W. coagulans is distributed in drier tracts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In Rajasthan, it has been reported from 

parts of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur and locally called Paneer-Bandh because the fruit are used for coagulating 

milk and making Paneer. It’s earlier name Punneria coagulans was perhaps related to this property. This species is has 

become extremely rare now. 

(vi) Zizyphus truncata Blatt. & Hallb. (Family: Rhamnaceae) 

Local Name : Boti 

A rare endemic shrub with divaricate branches, younger parts downy. Leaves up to 3.5 x 3.0cm, orbiculate, subcordate, 

serrulate, coriaceous, and 3-nerved from the base. Stipular prickles 2, tomentose at the base, one shorter and straight,

Plate 14A 

Special Habitats and Landforms in Arid Zone 

Unstable sand dunes 

Withania coagulans 

Caralluma edulis 

Farsethia macrantha 

Ephedra foliata 

Tephrosia falciformis 

Arid zone of India with distribution of Threatened plants 

Sandy plain 

NASA satellite image of 

Thar Desert 

Gravelly plains with Salvadora oleoides Inter-dune vegetation 

Grassland of Lasiurus scindicus Saline habitats

Plate 14B 

Threatened Plants of Indian Arid Zone 

Ziziphus truncata 

Farsetia macrantha 

Ephedra foliata climbing on 

Salvadora oleoides 

Withania coagulans 

Tephrosia falciformis 

Caralluma edulis

the other longer and recurved. Flowers in short axillary cymes, greenish yellow. Drupes c. 0.75cm across, globose, 

glabrous, yellow when ripe. Fl. & Fr.: Oct.-Jan. 

Ziziphus truncata is endemic to N. W. Rajasthan, distributed in Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts. 

References 

Anonymous. 1988. Floral wealth and Plant adaptation of the Indian Desert. Scientific Publishers, Rajasthan. 

Bhandari, M.M. 1990. Flora of the Indian desert. M.P.S. Repros., Rajasthan. 

Blatter, E. & F. Hallberg. 1988. The Flora of the Indian Desert. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, Rajasthan India. 

Dhir, R.P. & S.V. Jain. 1982. Review of soil research in India. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. 2: 474- 

483. 

Krishnan, M. S. 1982. Geology of India and Burma. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, India. 

Pandey, R.P., B. V. Shetty & S. K. Malhotra. 1983. A Preliminary census of rare and threatened plants of Rajasthan. In: S.K. 

Jain & R.R. Rao. (eds.). An assessment of threatened plants of India. Naba Mudran Private Limited, Calcutta, 

India: Director, Botanical Survey of India 

Prakash, I. 2001. Biological invasion and loss of endemic biodiversity in Thar Desert. Resonance: 76-85. 

Rahmani, A. R. 1997. Wildlife in the Thar. WWF-India, New Delhi. 

Threatened Plants and Their 

Habitats in Indian Thar Desert 

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a wildlife protection area Network in India. Vols. I & II Wildlife Institute of 


Shankarnarayan, K. A. 1988. Ecological degradation of the Thar Desert and Eco-regeneration. In: I. Prakash. (ed.). 

Desert Ecology. Scientific Publishers, India. 

Shetty B. V. & V. Singh 1987. Flora of Rajasthan. Vols. I-III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 

Singh. V. & P. R. Pandey. 1999. Rajasthan. In: V. Mudgal & P K. Hajra (eds.) Floristic Diversity and conservation 

Strategies in India 3: 1383-1418. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 

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Introduction 

15.0 Status Survey of Threatened Plants in 

Kachchh Desert, Gujarat 

1 2 2 Justus Joshua, S.F. Wesley Sunderraj & Pankaj N. Joshi 

1Foundation for Ecological Security, No.18, New Ahinsapuri, Fatehpura 

Udaipur, Rajasthan – 313001 

justmonk@rediffmail.com 

2Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, P.O.Box # 83, Opp Changleshwar Temple, 

Mundra Road, Bhuj – 370 001, Kachchh, Gujarat. 

Kachchh, the second largest district in India forms major portion of a biogeographic province within Indian Desert 

(Rodgers et al. 2000). This dry land is endowed with varied micro-habitats and an array of xerophytic vegetation adding 

uniqueness to the biodiversity of the Gujarat state and India. This district (45,652 km 2 ; 22 o 41' 11'' to 24 o 41' 47'' N and 

68 o 9' 46'' to 71 o 54' 47'' E), located in the westernmost part of Gujarat state, covers about 73% of the total arid region 

in the state. It experiences extreme climatic conditions from very hot in summer (mean maximum temperature 39 – 

45 0 C) and cold (mean minimum 2 0 C) in winter. Droughts are frequent with normal rains once in two to three years, 

which averages to 326mm in 13 rainy days. These climatic conditions have resulted in unique habitats which vary from 

tropical thorn forest to extensive grasslands, mangroves, mud flats along the coast, seasonal wetlands and the most 

unique Rann (saline desert) interspersed with elevated land masses, called ‘Beyts’. These habitats support several 

species of plants many of them are highly threatened. 

As per the classification by Champion & Seth (1968), as many as 14 different sub-types or categories of vegetation can 

be seen in the area. Approximately 768 plant species have been recorded from this region so far, which constitutes 

about 18% flora of the state (Shah 1978). However, being a typical desert, the region is marked by sparse vegetation 

cover and low biomass productivity. According to Nayar & Sastry (1988, 1990) as many as 48 species of vascular plants, 

typical of Indian Deserts are found in the Kachchh region, which fall in one or other category of Red Data Book (RDB). 

Major causes of their depletion are ever increasing anthropogenic pressures, changes in land use practices and 

resultant alteration of natural habitats. Therefore, it becomes imperative to identify and locate populations of rare and 

threatened taxa in different biogeographic zones and evolve strategies for their conservation. In this paper we present 

the findings of a short status survey of selected RDB plants in the Kachchh deserts of Gujarat and discuss the conservation 

strategies. 

Present Survey 

Nineteen plant species categorized as ‘Threatened’ by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1994) and also 

listed under various threat categories in the RDB of Indian Plants (Nayar & Sastry 1988, 1990) were surveyed in the 

Kachchh region of Gujarat during 1998 to 2001. The localities from where these plants had been reported in the 

literature were revisited and known habitats were sampled for their populations. The survey was done using belt 

transects and circular plots (Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg 1967, Kershaw 1973). The belt transects (1- 5 km x 6 m 

wide) were walked across the sampling patches along a fixed direction starting from a random point within the patch. 

The number of line transects depend upon the size of the patch. Along these transects the targeted species were 

searched. Whenever a threatened species was encountered, plant specific circular plots of varying radii (1m for herbs 

and 3m for shrubs and climbers) were laid to enumerate the number of individuals. In addition, site specific intensive 

search was made using belt transects (herb 10 x 2m and shrubs 25 x 4m) in six different directions leaving the line of 

movement to document the abundance of the target species. 

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Information on the type of habitat and perceived threats were recorded based on subjective rating (low, medium and 

high). The major threats identified were: Habitat degradation (grazing and soil erosion), Habitat loss (industrial and 

urban development, mining, agriculture expansion, encroachment), Natural factors (pest attack, low propagation) and 

Exploitation (extraction and cutting). Threat status were assigned (based on status within survey area) to all these 

species within the study area by grouping them into highly threatened (HT), moderately threatened (MT) and less 

threatened (LT) categories. This was done based on the number of individuals, number of habitats and locations they 

were found. The species with 20 locations were classed as LT species. The total length of 

transects sampled in various habitats were: Wetland - 11kms, Open scrub - 40kms, Forest - 34kms, Grassland - 19kms, 

Borders of agricultural fields - 18kms and coastal areas - 23kms. This exercise was attempted to prioritize the species 

which need immediate conservation action. Sighting locations were plotted on a base map to identify the threatened 

botanical hotspots for in-situ conservation. 

Results and Discussion 

Abundance and distribution: The 19 species surveyed include eight herbs, six shrubs and five herbaceous climbers. 

Among these, Carollocarpus conocarpus and Ammania desertorum had very low numbers i.e. seven (3 locations) and 

16 individuals (two locations) respectively and had highly restricted distribution. Commiphora wightii and Helichrysum 

cutchicum showed wider distribution (75 and 40 locations respectively) and had 9774 and 6586 individuals respectively 

(Table 1). 

Table 1 : Abundance, Distribution and Local Threat Status (LTS) of Threatened Plants in Kachchh 

Desert 

Habit: H = Herb, S = Shrub, C = Climber, HC = Herbaceous Climber 

LTS: HT-Highly Threatened, MT–Moderately Threatened, LT–Less Threatened 

S. N Species Habit Total # Talukas No. of LTS 

Abundance (Locations) Habitats 

1 Ammania desertorum Blat. & Hallb. H 16 2 (2) 1 HT 

2 Campylanthus ramosissimus Wight S 3240 4 (11) 4 MT 

3 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. HC 1980 6 (21) 7 LT 

4 Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari S 9774 8 (75) 13 LT 

5 Convolvulus stocksii Boiss. HC 2184 5 (19) 7 LT 

6 Corallocarpus conocarpus (Dalz. & Gibs.) 

Hook. f. ex Clarke C 7 2 (3) 2 HT 

7 Dactyliandra welwistschii Hk.f. C 38 1 (4) 1 HT 

8 Dipcadi erythraeum Webb. & Berth. H 1555 3 (13) 7 MT 

9 Ephedra foliata Boiss. S 1109 4 (21) 10 MT 

10 Helichrysum cutchicum (Clarke) Rao H 6586 7 (40) 9 LT 

11 Heliotropium bacciferum 

var. suberosum (Clarke) Bhandari S 2740 5 (14) 8 MT 

12 Heliotropium rariflorum Stocks. S 2261 6 (34) 9 LT 

13 Indigofera coerulea 

var. monosperma (Sant) Sant. S 1887 3 (12) 8 MT 

14 Ipomoea kotschyana Hochst. ex Choisy HC 1777 4 (16) 6 MT 

15 Limonium stocksii (Boiss.) O. Kuntze H 405 2 (2) 1 HT 

16 Pavonia ceratocarpa Dalz.ex Mast. H 124 5 (10) 5 HT 

17 Sida tiagii Bhandari H 3218 5 (23) 8 LT 

18 Schweinfurthia 

papilionacea (Burm. f.) Boiss. S 136 1 (1) 1 HT 

19 Tribulus rajasthanensis 

Bhandari & Sharma H 1071 4 (16) 8 MT 

Habitat Specific Distribution: These species occupied six major habitat types, of which open scrub harboured highest 

number (eight) of species. These species had higher abundance in this habitat (35-100% of the total population). The 

second highest number of species (four) was recorded from grasslands (51-82%) and three in forested (41-65%)

habitats (Figure 1). Ammania desertorum, Dactyliandra welwitschii, Limonium stocksii and Schweinfurthia papilionacea 

were restricted to single habitat viz. wetlands, agricultural and fallow lands, coastal dunes and open scrub respectively. 

Heliotropium bacciferum var. suberosum (90%) also showed more affinity to the coastal habitats. Low abundance of 

some species could be inherent and for others it may be failure of regeneration. Water availability during and after 

germination in desert region is uncertain, which leads to high stress and mortality of annual plants (Le Houwrou 1984, 

and Van Rooyen et al. 1991). Singh (1998) noticed low propagation of even perennials due to frequent drought and high 

grazing pressure in the semi-arid area of Saurashtra. It is true for arid Kachchh which experienced 14 spells of drought 

within 23 years i.e. 1972 – 1994 (Anonymous 1996). 

Commiphora wightii was recorded at 75 locations, eight areas (Talukas) and mostly occupied open scrub (57%) and 

forest (40%) on undulating terrain (Figure 1). This being a hardy species is reported to occur on undulating terrain, 

loamy and gravelly soil, with shallow depth, pebbly substratum low grazing area with open canopy favoring high density 

(Dixit & Rao 2000). 

Total abundance 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

1000 

0 

Habitat specific distribution of Threatened Plants 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

Species 

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 

Wet- land Open scrub Forest Grass land Agricultural fields Coastal 

Figure 1. Habitat specific distribution of Threatened Plants. Species numbers are in the same sequence as 

given in Table 1. 

Local Conservation Status: Based on abundance and distribution, six species viz. A. desertorum, C. conocarpus, D. 

welwitschii, L. stocksii, Pavonia ceratocarpa and S. papilionacea were found to be HT as these had low number (


104 


habitat degradation due to excessive livestock grazing (Table 2). A recent study on grasslands of Kachchh estimated 

that out of nine Talukas, four were with very high and three with high intensity of grazing pressure (Anonymous 2004), 

which also induced erosion of top soil. It has been estimated that soil erosion in Kachchh ranges between 25-50% in 

different Talukas (Anonymous 1994). 

Habitat loss is the second major threat to affect several species. This includes mining and industrial development. 

Nine species were under the threat of natural factors, of which C. colocynthis and I. caerulea faced lack of regeneration. 

However, survey of these species after rainy season would give a true picture. Rest of the seven species were affected 

by termite attack (Table 2). Among the assessed 19 species, 13 species are reported to be medicinally important in 

Kachchh (Silori et al. 2005). Of these, C. colocynthis, D. welwistschii, E. foliata and S. papilionacea are used at low 

level, while C. wightii is heavily exploited for local medicine. It has been reported that a mature C. wightii ( Guggal), can 

produce 250-500 gm of gum (Atal et al. 1975) and an estimated 300-400 tones of Guggal has been sold in Bhuj every 

year. However, this plant was found to be widely distributed in Kachchh. Crude methods of gum extraction from younger 

plants (Joshi et al. 2004) is likely to affect its abundance in future. 

Table 2 : Evaluation of Threats faced by Threatened Plants 

S. N Species Habit Total # Talukas No. of LTS 

Abundance (Locations) Habitats 

1 Ammania desertorum Blat. & Hallb. H 16 2 (2) 1 HT 

2 Campylanthus ramosissimus Wight S 3240 4 (11) 4 MT 

3 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. HC 1980 6 (21) 7 LT 

4 Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari S 9774 8 (75) 13 LT 

5 Convolvulus stocksii Boiss. HC 2184 5 (19) 7 LT 

6 Corallocarpus conocarpus (Dalz. & Gibs.) 

Hook. f. ex Clarke C 7 2 (3) 2 HT 

7 Dactyliandra welwistschii Hk.f. C 38 1 (4) 1 HT 

8 Dipcadi erythraeum Webb. & Berth. H 1555 3 (13) 7 MT 

9 Ephedra foliate Boiss. S 1109 4 (21) 10 MT 

10 Helichrysum cutchicum (Clarke) Rao H 6586 7 (40) 9 LT 

11 Heliotropium bacciferum 

var. suberosum (Clarke) Bhandari S 2740 5 (14) 8 MT 

12 Heliotropium rariflorum Stocks. S 2261 6 (34) 9 LT 

13 Indigofera coerulea 

var. monosperma (Sant) Sant. S 1887 3 (12) 8 MT 

14 Ipomoea kotschyana Hochst. ex Choisy HC 1777 4 (16) 6 MT 

15 Limonium stocksii (Boiss.) O. Kuntze H 405 2 (2) 1 HT 

16 Pavonia ceratocarpa Dalz.ex Mast. H 124 5 (10) 5 HT 

17 Sida tiagii Bhandari H 3218 5 (23) 8 LT 

18 Schweinfurthia 

papilionacea (Burm. f.) Boiss. S 136 1 (1) 1 HT 

19 Tribulus rajasthanensis 

Bhandari & Sharma H 1071 4 (16) 8 MT 

Threatened Botanical Hotspots: Nineteen threatened species were recorded from 337 locations covering all the nine 

Talukas of Kachchh district. Threatened Botanical Hotspots were identified by plotting all the 125 locations of only 

highly and moderately threatened species. Both HT and MT species were present in all the Talukas, except in Anjar. 

Among the talukas, Bhuj showed presence of 11 species at a maximum of 41 locations, which formed 32.80% of the 

total locations, followed by Abdasa (six species at 26 locations, forming 21%). Grouping of locations based on their 

distribution resulted in two threatened botanical hotspots. Of these, one hotspot is located in Abdasa taluka at the south 

western part. This hotspot identified as Naliya Biodiversity Reserve (NBR), is predominantly a grassland habitat, locally 

known as Naliya grassland. The second hotspot is located at southern part covering the area at the tri-junction of Bhuj, 

Mandvi and Mundra talukas, which includes the forested areas of Megpar and Dhunai villages in Mandvi, Kera and 

Dahisara villages of Bhuj, and Dahisara Reserved Forests (Figure 2 & Plate 15). This has been identified as Kachchh 

Threatened Plant Reserve (KTPR), which included 30 (46.88%) of the total 64 locations of the three talukas. Further, 

this area is predominantly with hilly terrain dominated by Acacia senegal and A. nilotica thorn forest interspersed with 

Euphorbia cadusifolia and Grewia tenex open scrub.

Figure 2. Distribution of Threatened Plants in Arid Kachchh, Gujarat 

Conservation Strategies : 

Status Survey of Threatened Plants in 


(i) Since majority of the threatened species are annuals and more susceptible to uncertain arid climate and prolonged 

drought, it would be necessary to carry out an intensive survey of these species following good monsoon which will 

give true picture of the distribution, abundance and regeneration status of these species. 

(ii) The intensive survey of HT and MT species would be needed so as to identify more sites and initiate in- situ 

conservation measures. 

(iii) The Naliya Biodiversity Reserve (NBR) encompasses the Naliya grassland covering roughly 100km 2 of almost 

continuous grassland with few shrubs (Savannah). This area needs to be brought under Protected Area Network, 

considering that this ecosystem itself is endangered and it is home of ten threatened animal species in addition to 

eight threatened plant species. 

includes the environs of Megpar and Dhunai villages in Mandvi and Dahisara village of Bhuj, which includes Dahisara 

Reserved Forests that needs to be immediately brought under strict protection from wood cutting, livestock grazing, 

quarry lease (small scale mining), the major threats of the area. This can possibly be notified as a Kachchh 

Threatened Plant Reserve as it harbours overall nine threatened plants. 

(v) Considering the rarity of these species, steps should be taken immediately to grow or propagate both the HT and MT 

species in botanical gardens so as to conserve them as part of ex situ conservation plan. In addition, propagation 

techniques for the species which are under heavy exploitation for enthno-medicine should be developed and the 

possibilities of cultivating them must also be encouraged so as to reduce the pressure on the wild population. 

105

5 

1 

3 

Plate 15 

Threatened Plants of Kachchh, Gujarat 

2 

4 

1. Heliotropium bacciferum 

2. Sida tiagii 

3. Helichrysum cutchicum 

4. Ephedra foliata 

5. Commiphora wightii

(vi) Awareness on the rarity and the conservation significance of the different species should be created among the 

locals especially the native healers involved in using these plants in Traditional Health Care System for healing 

various types of diseases. 


We are grateful to Gujarat Ecological Commission (GEC), Baroda, Government of Gujarat for funding and Gujarat 

Institute of Desert Ecology for encouraging and facilitating this study. Gujarat State Forest Department, Kachchh district 

is thanked for permitting us to work in the forest areas. We sincerely thank Ms. Rashmi Dineshan, Mr. Ramnaresh 

Guleria and Ms. S.D. Oswin for helping in the field and Mr. Jagadeesh M. Menon for providing technical assistants in 

preparing the map. 

References 

Status Survey of Threatened Plants in 


Anonymous. 1994. Preparation of taluka level ecological profile–Operational Research Group–Baroda. Technical 

Report. Gujarat Ecology Commission, Baroda. 

Anonymous. 1996. Process of Desertification in Kachchh and Banaskantha Districts of Gujarat, India (1961-1991). 

Final Report. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj (Kachchh), Gujarat. 83 pp. 

Anonymous. 2004. Grassland Action Plan for Kachchh District, Gujarat State. Final Report. Gujarat Institute of Desert 

Ecology, Bhuj (Kachchh), Gujarat. 

Atal, C.K., O.P. Gupta & S.H. Abag. 1975. Commiphora mukul: Sources of Guggal in Indian Systems of Medicine. 

Economic Botany. 29: 208 -218. 

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth. 1968. A revised Survey of the Forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt. of India, 

New Delhi. 

Dixit, A.M. & S.V. Subba Rao. 2000. Observation on distribution and habitat characteristics of Gugal (Commiphora 

wightii) in the arid region of Kutch, Gujarat (India). Tropical Ecology 41: 81-88. 

Joshi. P.N., J. Joshua & S.F.W. Sunderraj. 2004. Population structure and dynamics of threatened plant species in Bhuj 

and Mandvi talukas of Kachchh district. Advances in Biological Sciences. 3: 13-17. 

Kershaw, K.A. 1973. Sampling test of comparison and application of quadrat measures. pp: 21-39. In: Quantitative and 

dynamic plant ecology. Second edition. William Clowes & Sons Limited, London. 

Le Houwrou, H.N. 1984. Rain use efficiency: a unifying concept in arid-land ecology. Journal of Arid Environment 7: 213 

-247. 

Mueller-Dombois, D. & H. Ellenberg. 1967. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 

London. 545 pp. 

Nayar, M.P. and A.R.K. Sastry. 1988, 1990. Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vols. II & III. Botanical Survey of India, 

Calcutta. 

Rodgers, W. A., H.S. Panwar & V.B. Mathur. 2000. Wildlife Protected Area Network in India: A review (Executive summary). 

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. 

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Shah, G.L. 1978. Flora of Gujarat State. Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidhaynagar, Gujarat. 

Silori, C.S., A.M. Dixit, L. Gupta & N. Mistry. 2005. Observation on Medicinal Plant richness and associated conservation 

issues in district Kachchh, Gujarat. In: Medicinal Plant:s: Utilization and Conservation. (ed.) P.C. Trivedi. 

Rajasthan University. 

Singh, H.S. 1998. Study on Biodiversity on Hingolgadh Nature Education Sanctuary. Indian Forester 124: 825-832. 

Van Rooyen, M.W., N. Grobbelaar, G.K. Theron & N. Van Rooyen. 1991. The ephemerals of Namaqualand: Effect of 

photoperiod, temperature and moisture stress on development and flowering of three species. Journal of 

Arid Environment 20:15-29.

16.0 Semiarid Region of India: Vegetation Characteristics 

and Threatened Plants 

Introduction 

1Amit Kotia, Umeshkumar L. Tiwari & G.S. Rawat 

Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248001, Uttarakhand 

1kotia.amit@gmail.com The arid and semiarid region of India covers ca. 3,17,090 km 2 area and is mainly spread over seven states viz., 

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and portions of Jammu & Kashmir. Climatically, 

the semi-arid region (annual rainfall 400 – 1000 mm) is further divisible into two zones (Rodgers & Panwar 1988). The 

first zone lies in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana, immediately west of which lies the 

Indian Desert. The second zone extends to the rain-shadow area of Western Ghats in Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, 

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The former zone has been recognized as Zone 4 (semiarid) while the latter forms a part of 

Zone-6 (the Deccan Plateau). Zone 4 is further divisible into 4A (The Punjab Plains) and 4B (Gujarat-Rajputana) (Plate 

16A). The semiarid region in the country is generally demarcated based on 400mm isohyets. 

The semiarid zone in India represents ‘Savannah’ vegetation and extensive xerophilous grasslands rich in legumes 

and shrubs. Some of the wildlife protected areas in this region attain very high ungulate biomass e.g., Ranthambore, 

Sariska, Gir, Velavadar, Nalsarovar, Jessore, National Chambal Sanctuary, Karera Sanctuary, Kuno - Palpur Sanctuary, 

Mount-Abu Sanctuary, Sitamata and Kumbalgarh Sanctuary. Dicliptera abuensis, Strobilanthes hallbergii, Berberis 

asiatica, Ceropegia odorata, C. hirsuta, Ceropegia vincaefolia are some of the interesting plants of this zone. In this 

article we discuss salient features of semiarid vegetation in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh along with 

description of special habitats and some examples of threatened plants. 

Vegetation Characteristics 

In Rajasthan, Aravalli Hill range separates semiarid tract from the arid zone. The average annual rainfall to the east of 

Aravalli ranges between 525-675 mm and reaches 1000 mm at some location. Eastern Rajasthan has rich alluvial soil 

that supports good forests and agricultural crops. The vegetation comprises Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests, Savannah 

woodland and Tropical Thorn Forest. Anogeissus pendula is the dominant species. Other associates are Buchanania 

lanzan, Diospyros melanoxylon, Mitragyna parvifolia, Cassia fistula, Schrebera swietenioides, Pterocarpus marsupium, 

Holoptelea integrifolia, Butea monosperma and Mallotus philippensis. Boswellia serrata occupies hill crests of Aravallis, 

Terminalia arjuna forms riparian forests. Sterculia urens is distributed throughout Aravalli range and Anogeissus latifolia 

is mainly found in open forest of Aravallis range in southern Rajasthan. Other locally common species in the region are 

Kydia calycina, Mangifera indica, Woodfordia fruticosa, Lannea coromandelica, Cochlospermum religiosum, Flacourtia 

indica, Tectona grandis and species of Bauhinia, Albizia, Acacia, Ziziphus, Capparis, and Ficus (Sharma & Tiagi 1979, 

Shetty & Singh 1987). 

The Gujarat state is divided into six geomorphologically distinct regions viz., South Gujarat, Central Gujarat, Aravalli 

and adjoining tract, Kathiavad Peninsula, the Kutchh Peninsula with the Rann (true saline desert) and the Costal tract. 

The semiarid region in the state is formed by Central Gujarat, Aravalli and adjoining tracts, Kathiavad Peninsula, with 

an average rainfall of 250mm to 1250mm. According to Champion & Seth (1968) four different forest types are found in 

this region viz., Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest, Littoral and swamp Forest, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest and 

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110 


Northern Tropical Thorn Forest. Tectona grandis, Anogeissus pendula, Boswellia serrata, Acacia nilotica, Euphorbia 

caducifolia, Flacourtia indica, Helicteres isora, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Bridelia squamosa, Emblica officinallis, 

Butea monosperma, Diospyros melanoxylon, Anogeissus latifoia, Lannea coromandelica, Sterculia urens, Mitragyna 

parviflora and species of Wrightia, Carissa, Zizyphus, and Capparis are common woody elements. Heteropogon 

contortus, Aristida spp., Eragrostis spp., Chloris spp., and Aeluropus spp., are the common grasses (Shah 1978, 

Patel 1971). 

The semiarid tract in Madhya Pradesh is represented by Chambal catchment extending up to Narmda and Betla 

Rivers. The forest types of the region are Tropical Dry Deciduous and Tropical Thorn Forests where more than 1000 

flowering plants have bean reported. The common tree species include Anogeissus latifoia, A. pendula, Tectona 

grandis, Lannea coromandelica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Sterculia urens, Mitragyna parviflora, Butea monosperma, 

Emblica officinalls, Boswellia serrata, Bridelia squamosa and Hardwickia binata. Species composition at shrub 

and ground layer is similar to that of semiarid regions of Gujarat. A few climbers of this area include species of 

Rhynchosia, Atylosia, Cocculus, Cissampelos, Ipomoea, Pergularia daemia, Pueraria tuberosa and Tinospora cordifolia 

(Verma et al. 1993). 


Sambhar Lake 

Sambhar, the largest salt lake of the India, has been recognized as a wetland of international importance i.e., Ramsar 

site (Plate 16A). The length is 32 km from northeast to southwest, while the width varies between 3-2 km. The wetland 

area is a key wintering area for tens of thousands of flamingos and other migratory birds from northern Asia. The 

different group of algae (Cyanophyceae and Rhodophyceae) and bacteria growing in the lake provide striking water 

colour and support the lake ecology that, in turn, sustains the migrating wetland birds. Distinguished among the 

species are halophytes, which can be seen in this area. Salsola baryosoma, Suaeda fruticosa, Haloxylon recurvum, 

Sesuvium sesuvioides, Chenopodium album and C. murale. The other species of interest around Sambhar lake 

include Portulaca oleracea, Trianthema portulacastrum, T. triquetra, Zaleya govidea, Aeluropus logopoides, Tamarix 

troupii, Acacia nilotica, Calotropis procera, Capparis deciduas, Salvadora oleoides and Prosopis juliflora. 

Rocky outcrops of Aravalli Ranges 

The metamorphic rocks of Aravalli generally support poor soil and sparse vegetation. The dominant species being 

Anogeissus pendula, commonly associated with Diospyros melanoxylon, Acacia leucophloea, Bauhinia racemosa 

and Wrightia tinctoria. In parts of Jaipur and Ajmer districts, Acacia senegal is common on the upper slopes with 

different plant associates e.g. Sterculia urens, Boswellia serrata and Lannea coromandelica and along the foothills with 

Butea monosperma. The other species found are Dichrostachys cineraria, Balanites aegyptiaca, Maytenus emarginata, 

Rhus mysurensis, Securinga leucopyrus, Grewia flavescens and G. tenax. Acacia catechu forests are common in the 

south-eastern regions of Rajasthan e.g. Baran, Jhalawar, Kota, Swaimadhopur, Chittorgarh and Alwar. The area under 

this type covers roughly 3% of the total forest area (Sharma & Tiagi 1979). 

Mount Abu 

Mount Abu, situated on the south western border of Rajasthan, is the highest peak between western Himalayas and 

Nilgiri hills with a maximum height of 1727m. The vegetation is peculiar due to relatively high altitude together with 

climatic and edaphic factor for semiarid habitat and again highlights this area as a hotspot due to the presence of some 

endemic and threatened plants viz. Dicliptera abuensis, Strobilanthes hallbergii, Bonnaya bracteoides, Oldenlandia 

clausa, Veronica anagallis var. bracteoa, Ceropegia odorata, C. hirsuta, C. vincaefolia, Ischaemum kingii, Rosa involucrate,

Sterculia villosa, Eulophia ochreata, Aerides crispum, A. multiflora, A. maculosum and Vanda testacea and associated 

with common plants Carvia callosa, Erythrina sp., Kydia calycina, Mangifera indica, Mallotus pilippensis, Lannea 

coromandelica, Jasminum humile, Flacourtia indica, Crateva nurvala and Ficus spp. (Mehta 1979, Sharma & 

Kotia 2008). 

Ravines of Chambal 

Around 4.5 lakh hectares area in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan falls under ravines. These areas face a continuous 

threat of human encroachment for reclamation and habitation. Thorny bushes or small trees commonly found in this 

area include Capparis deciduas, Capparis sepiaria, Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia senegal, A. nilotica, A. leucophloea, 

Prosopis juliflora, Butea monosperma, Maytenus emarginata, Tamarix sp., Salvadora persica, S. oleoides, Crotalaria 

medicaginea, C. burhia, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Calotropis procera, Xanthium indicum and Leptadenia pyrotechnica 

associated with climbers such as Maerua oblongifolia, Pergularia daemia, Ceropegia bulbosa, herbs e.g., Argemone 

mexicana, Farsetia hamiltonii, Tephrosia purpurea, Cleome viscosa, Tribulus terrestris, Glinus lotoides, Sericostoma 

pauciflorum, Rivea sp., Ipomoea sp., Pedalium murex, Sesamum mulayanum, Lepidagathis sp, Boerhavia diffusa, 

Chrozophora sp., and grasses like Cyprus sp., Fimbristylis sp., Brachiaria sp., Cenchrus sp., Dichanthium sp., etc. 

Malwa plateau 

The south-eastern part of Rajasthan, eastern part of Gujarat and western MP come under Malwa plateau. Anogeissus 

pendula, Acacia catechu, Boswellia serrata, Tectona grandis, Aegle marmelos, Madhuca indica, Mitragyna parvifolia, 

Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Terminalia tomentosa, T. bellirica, Diospyros melanoxylon are the common species 

associated with various shrubs and grasses. Moist areas have good abundance of Syzygium sp., Terminalia arjuna, 

Mitragyna parvifolia, Hiptage bengalensis, Ixora arborea, Mangifera indica, Carissa congesta, Cissus sp. and Pueraria 

tuberosa among others. 


According to Puri (1952), Pandey et al. (1983), Sabnis & Rao (1983), Shah (1983), Shetty & Singh (1991) and Pandey 

& Teotia (2000) following plants have been recognized as typical and threatened species of semiarid zone: Dicliptera 

abuensis, Strobilanthes hallbergii, Bonnaya bracteoides, Oldenlandia clausa, Veronica anagallis var. bracteoa, Ceropegia 

odorata, C. hirsuta, C. vincaefolia, Ischaemum kingii, Rosa involucrata, Sterculia villosa, Eulophia ochreata, Aerides 

crispum, A. multiflora, A. maculosum, Nervilia oragonna, Vanda testacea, Anogeissus sericea var. nummularia, Blumea 

bovei, Chlorophytum bharuchae, Commiphora wightii, Convolvulus auricomus, C. stockii, Gloriosa superba, Heliotropium 

rariflorum, Tribulus rajasthanensis, T. jamnagarensis, Butea monosperma var. lutea, and Cochlospermum religiosum. 

Main threats for these plants include degradation of forests due to excessive biotic pressure including livestock 

grazing. Besides, invasive species like Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara are big competitors and inhibitors for 

native flora as they occupy continuously major portion of habitat. Some of the threatened plants of the semiarid region 

which need immediate conservation attention (Plate 16B) are as follows: 

Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. (Berberidaceae) 

Local name : Kantela, Kamadi 

Semiarid Region of India: Vegetation 

Characteristics and Threatened Plants 

Erect, spiny bush with pale bark. Leaves unifoliolate, leaflets in fascicles, 2.5-7.5 cm long, obovate or orbicular, subentire 

or with large distant spinescet teeth, whitish beneath, rigidly coriaceous. Flowering in short corymbose racemes. 

Berries 8 mm ovioid or subglobose, red or black, glaucous. Fl.: Feb.-April & Fr.: May-June. 

111


112 


Commonly found in the Himalayan region but a small isolated population can be seen in Mount Abu. This species has 

declined rapidly in Mount Abu due to habitat loss and over exploitation for its medicinal values. 

Ceropegia odorata Nimmo. ex Hook.f. (Asclepiadaceae) 

Local Name : Khilodia, Khadulia 

Slender, tuberous twiner. Stem mostly glabrous. Leaves hairy above. Cymes few to many-flowered, peduncles hirsute, 

pedicels usually glabrous. Corolla 3-4 cm long, bright yellow, fragrant, tube 1.8-20cm corona of 5 entire lobes, glabrous, 

inner linear or elongate- triangular, erect, divergent at apex. Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-Sept. 

An endemic plant of India, distributed in Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Gujarat, Konkan and Maharashtra (Ansari 1984). Over 

exploitation of tubers, over grazing and rapid invasion by Lantana camara are the major causes fo its decline. 

Ceropegia vincaefolia Hook. f. (Asclepiadaceae) 

Local Name : Khilodia, Khadulia 

Tuberous twiner. Branches glabrous. Leaves 5-10cm, narrowly lanceolate or ovate-cordate, obtusely acuminate to 

acute. Flowers in few-umbellate cymes, peduncles hirsute, pedicels glabrous. Corolla 3-8 cm long, greenish. Blotched 

with purple, tube inflated at base, funnel-shaped at mouth, lobes pubescent inside. Follicles linear-lanceolate, finely 

pointed glabrous. Fl. & Fr.: July-Oct. 

A threatened plant for Maharashtra (Jain & Sikarvar 2004). It is distributed in Maharashtra and Rajasthan (Ansari 1984). 

It grows in the similar areas as Ceropegia odorata and has similar threats. 

Cordia crenata Delile. subsp. crenata (Boraginaceae) 

Local Name : Gundi 

According to Pandey & Teotia (2000) this taxon is almost extinct in wild. Small tree, wholly glabrous except minutely 

hairy inflorescence. Leaves alternate or subopposite, 2.5 - 7.5 cm long, elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate, rounded, subacute 

or shortly acuminate at the apex, obliquely rounded or crenate at the base, margins crenate- dentate or deeply 

dentate at least towards the apex. Flowers in small, compact, pendunculate cymes from the axils of the uppermost 

leaves. Drupes ca. 8 mm long, ovoid, acute. Fl. & Fr.: Jan.-April. 

Dicliptera abuensis Blatter (Acanthaceae) 

Much Branched, stragling shurbs. Leaves up to 5 x 2.75 cm, ovate, acute, subentire, sparingly hairy. Flowers in dense 

axillary cymes, white with deep pink tinge. Bracts 2, ovate-laneolate, unequal, with densely ciliate and scarious margins. 

Calyx-lobes 5, subulate. Corolla glabrous. Stamens 2. Capsules ca. 4.0 x 1.5 mm, yellowish. Seeds 4, ca.1 mm across, 

suborbicular, compressed, brown, covered with many capitate hairs. Fl. & Fr.: Nov. - March. 

First Type collection of this species was made from Mount Abu by Hallberg in 1916. After this, there is no collection 

recorded and population status in the wild has not been assessed. It is possible that its taxonomic status may be 

ambiguous. 

Strobilanthes hallbergii Blatter (Acanthaceae) 

Shrubs, up to 3 m high. Leaves 2.5 cm long, ovate-elliptic, acuminate, with dentate-ciliate margins. Flowers in spike, 

purple. Bracts 2, opposite, ovate, obtuse, entire. Calyx 5 partite, hairy. Corolla bearded at the throat with yellow hairs. 

Stamens 4, longer filaments bearded. Capsules ca. 0.75 x 0.5 cm, compressed, 2-seeds, flattened, rectangular, 

glabrous. Fl. & Fr.: Oct.-March.

The Semiarid Zone 

Plate 16A 

Important Habitats of Botanical Interest in 

Semiarid Zone 

Malwa Plateau 

A Deep Valley Ravines near the Chambal River 

The Aravalli Range 

Important Habitats and 

Localities of Botanical Interest 

Sambhar Lake 

1 - Sambhar Lake 

2 - Mount Abu 

3 - Ravines of Chambal 

4 - Malwa Plateau

Plate 16B 

Threatened Plants of Semiarid Zone 

Tecomella undulata Ceropegia vincaefolia 

Cordia crenata subsp. crenata Ceropegia odorata 

Tribulus rajasthanensis Berberis asiatica 

© S. Ingalhalikar 

© S. Ingalhalikar

According to Shetty & Singh (1991) and Pandey et al. (1983) it is an endemic and threatened plant of Mount Abu. Over 

exploitation for fuel wood, overgrazing and intention of Lantana camara are the main causes 

of its decline. 

Tecomella undulata Seem. (Bignoniaceae) 

Local Name : Rohida, Marwar Teak 

A small tree. Leaves simple, with undulating margin. Corymbs few flowered. Corolla tubular, orange - yellow. Stamens 

scarcely exerted. Seeds winged. Fl. & Fr.: Dec.-May. 

Its distribution is restricted to the drier parts of the Arabia, southern Pakistan and northwest India. In India, it occurs 

naturally in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The species is mainly found in western Rajasthan. 

As Tecomella undulata wood is strong and durable, it forms a source of timber. It is also used widely in various Ayurvedic 

medicines. Hence, overexploitation is the reason for its decline. 

Tribulus rajasthanensis Bhandari & Sharma (Zygophyllaceae) 

Local Name : Marwadi Gokharu 

Prostrate to procumbent, annual herb, branches hirsute. Leaves 1.5-4.5 cm, leaflets 4-7 pair, elliptic-oblong to ovateoblong, 

pubescent above, villous beneath. Flowers yellow, Stamens 10, 5mm long, Fruits c. 15mm across, mericarp 

densely hispid. Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-Nov. 

It is distributed in southern Rajasthan to North Gujarat and west Rajasthan to Pakistan. According to Jain & Sikarvar 

(2004) habitat loss is the major cause of threat. 


The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Mr. Shrikant Ingalhalikar for providing photograph of Ceropegia 

species. 

References 

Ansari, A. S. 1984. Asclepiadaceae: Genus-Ceropegia. In: Fascicles of Flora of India. Vol. 16. Botanical Survey of India, 

Calcutta, India. 

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Type of India. Manager of Publications, Government 

of India, New Delhi. 

Jain, S.K. & S. L. Sikarvar. 2004. Bharat Ke Durlabh Podhe. National Book Trust of India. 

Mehta, M. R. 1979. The Flora of Mount Abu. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. 

Panday, R.P., B. V. Shetty & S. K. Malhotra 1983. A preliminary census of rare and threatened plants of Rajasthan. pp. 55- 

69. In: An assessment of threatened plants of India. Naba Mudran Private Limited, Calcutta, India: Director, 

Botanical Survey of India. 

Pandey, R.P. & P. Teotia. 2000. Cordia crenata Delile. subsp. crenata- a taxon almost extinct in wild. Indian J. Forestry 

23(1): 129-134. 

Patel, R .I. 1971. Forest Flora of Gujarat state. Gujarat Forest Dept., Baroda, Gujarat. 

Semiarid Region of India: Vegetation 

Characteristics and Threatened Plants 

Puri, G.S. 1952. Present position of plant ecology of the desert of Rajasthan and Saurashtra. Bull. Nat. Inst. India 1: 233- 

241. 

115


116 


Rodgers, W.A & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a Wildlife protection area Network in India. Vol.I & II. Wildlife Institute of 


Sabnis, S.D. & K.S.S.Rao. 1983. Observations on some Rare or Endangered, Endemics of Southeastern Kutch. pp. 71 

– 77. In: An assessment of threatened plants of India. Naba Mudran Private Limited, Calcutta, India: Director, 

Botanical Survey of India. 

Shah, G. L. 1978. Flora of Gujarat State. Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidhyanagar, Gujarat. 

Shah, G.L 1983. Rare Species with Retricted Distribution in South Gujarat. pp. 71-77. In: An assessment of threatened 

plants of India. Naba Mudran Private Limited, Calcutta, India: Director, Botanical Survey of India. 

Sharma, S. & B. Tiagi. 1979. Flora of Northeast Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. 

Sharma, S. K. & A. Kotia. 2008. Orchids of Rajasthan. pp. 432-438. In: A. Verma (ed.) Conservation of Biodiversity of 

Rajasthan, Himanshu Publications, New Delhi, India. 

Shetty B. V. & V. Singh. 1987, 1991. Flora of Rajasthan, Vol. I & II . Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 

Verma, D. M., N. P. Balakrishnan & R. D. Dixit. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 

472 pp.

Introduction 

17.0 Gangetic Khadar: 

One of the Most Threatened Biomes in India 

1 2 3 Athar Ali Khan, Afifullah Khan & Sweta Agrawal 

1,3Department of Botany 

1khan_ath@yahoo.com 2 Department of Wildlife Sciences 

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh – 202002 (India) 

Human beings have been modifying their environment since time immemorial in a number of ways without giving 

much thought to the long term ecological consequences. Though human activities at low magnitude usually do not 

lead to palpable changes in the ecosystems but those of chronic and high magnitude have visually discernible 

impacts. Most obvious changes include local extinction of species, changes in community structure and composition, 

and modification of biophysical features in a landscape. One of the most prominent examples where human impacts 

can be discerned is the Gangetic Khadar. Based on the physical structure, soil type, soil moisture and structure of floral 

and faunal communities the Gangetic plains can be divided in to two sub-regions, viz., the Khadar and Bhangar. 

Gangetic Khadar represents a unique biome in the sense that low lying areas remain inundated with water during most 

part of the year. Such low lying areas adjacent to the river course have tall wet grasslands. It is followed by slightly raised 

ground, largely dry sandy beds, where short grasses grow along with some herbs and shrubs and termed as dry 

grasslands. These sand beds merge into gently sloping and undulating terrain locally known as khola(s) which ultimately 

give way to the leveled plains (Bhangar). Kholas are characterized by sandy to loamy soil and used to support luxuriant 

growth of trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. Today, there are a few places along the flood plains of Ganges where 

discrimination between Khola and Bahngar is possible. Most of the Kholas have now been leveled off and converted 

into crop fields. Once extensive tracts of luxuriant tall wet grasslands in this biome have now reduced to a few 

intermittent and relic patches in a modified landscape. Dry grasslands have also been extensively converted into 

croplands. 

This article presents salient findings of a case study on recent changes in land use / land cover and eco-floristic 

account of major habitats in Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary (HWS), Uttar Pradesh. Based on past floristic surveys 

conducted by various workers (Murty & Singh 1959, 1960, 1961) and recent update on the flora by the authors (Khan 

1987, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005; Khan & Khan 2000; Khan et al. 1984, 1985, 1986, 2006), the habitat specificity and 

declining trends in some species and preponderance of a few alien invasive plants are presented along with a plea for 

conservation of this highly threatened ecosystem as this is perhaps the only area along the the Ganges which still holds 

few natural patches of the Gangetic Khadar. 

The Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary 

The HWS (28 o 462 to 29 o 352 N and 77 o 302 to 78 o 302 E), covering an area of 2073 km 2 , along the banks of the Ganges 

was established in 1986 with stated objective of conserving and preserving an example of Gangetic Khadar biome and 

its attendant fauna especially the swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli). The sanctuary is heavily interspersed by 

human habitation and agriculture with several hundred villages inside and a few large cities at the periphery. Broadly, 

it has three distinct habitats types, viz., (i) the tall wet grasslands (swamps), (ii) short dry grasslands, and (iii) forests on 

Khola. A sizable portion of the sanctuary i.e., about 32% is under cultivation while only about 10% is covered by tall 

wet grasslands. About 13% is scrub, 5% dry grasslands and an equal proportion is under the category of forest (Plate 

17A & 17B). 

117


Recent Changes in Land Use and Land Cover 

118 


An analysis of recent changes in land use / land cover in and around HWS was carried out using remote sensing data 

and it was revealed that between 1992 and 2000 tall wet grasslands have shrunk by 21.2% (223.58 km 2 in 1992 and 176 

km 2 in 2000) and the forest area has reduced by 59.0% (201.44 km 2 in 1992 and 81.37 km 2 in 2000). At the same time 

this area has witnessed 28% increase in agiculture and about 68% increase in other infrastructure especially buildings. 

Such large scale changes in the landuse/ landcover must have had significant impacts on the biological community 

in this ecosystem. However, in the absence of any baseline data and indepth scientific study it would be rather difficult 

to ascertain the magnitute of impact and exact changes in the ecosystem characteristics and species composition. 

There are only a few past records on selected taxa which provide some clue to the changing scenario on the region. 

For instance, Schaller (1972) observed large herds of swamp deer comprising several hundred individuals in and 

around the present limits of HWS during early 1960’s. Today, swamp deer population is reduced to less than 500 and 

confined to a few scattered small groups within the limit of HWS only. A small and relict population (ca. 120) has recently 

been located some 100 kms north of this sanctuary along the course of Ganges in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand. 

The two populations might have been contiguous in the historical past. The changes in floristic composition over the 

last few decades is hard to assess due to the paucity of detailed analysis of flora. Considering these gaps we conducted 

surveys to document floristic composition within the sanctuary 

Floristic Structure and Threatened Plants 

Extensive floristic surveys were conducted during 2003 to 2006 covering major habitat types of Gangetic Khadar in and 

around HWS through a project funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Khan et al. 2006). During these 

surveys a total of 740 species of angiosperms, belonging to 452 genera and 123 families, were collected, identified and 

recorded from this area. As expected, largest family of flowering plants in the sanctuary is grass Family (Poaceae) with 

60 genera and 108 species, followed by Leguminosae (43 genera and 94 species; of which Fabaceae was the richest 

having 31 genera and 62 species). Asteraceae (42 gen., 59 spp.) and Cyperaceae (10 gen., 43 spp.) are other 

dominant families. Brassicaceae, Apiaceae and Rubiaceae had relatively high generic diversity and lower species 

diversity. Following is the general statistics of the flora of HWS: 

Table 1: Number of Dicot and Monocot (Angiosperm) Families, Genera and Species recorded from Hastinapur 

WS, Uttar Pradesh. 

Group Number of Families Number of Genera Number of Species 

Dicots 98 345 540 

Monocots 25 107 200 

Total 123 452 740 

A comparison of present floristic inventory and earlier record (Murty & Singh 1961) reveals that while 425 angiosperm 

species were recorded in both the studies, as many as 117 species reported earlier could not be found during the 

present study. Some examples of such plants include Ranunculus aquatilis, Maerua arenaria, Hybanthus enneaphylla, 

Abutilon hirtum, Abutilon ramosum, Kydia calycina, Corchorus tridens, Fagonia arabica, Atylosia platycarpa, Crotalaria 

alata, C. mysorensis, Dalbergia latifolia, Indigofera cordifolia, Lathyrus sativus, Rhynchosia sericea, Uraria picta, 

Cassia obtusifolia, Acacia gageana, A. sinuata, Melothria purpusilla, Morinda tinctoria, Artemisia parviflora, Carthamus 

oxyacantha, Cotula anthemoides, Launaea asplenifolia, Seigesbeckia orientalis, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Enicostemma 

axillaris, Hydrolea zeylanica, Heliotropium eichwaldii, Acalypha ciliata, Breynia vitis-idaea, Sapium sebiferum, Commelina 

attenuata, Cyanotis cristata, Aponogeton natans, Fimbristylis aestivalis, F. cynosa, Juncellus inundatus, Kyllinga 

nemoralis, Mariscus compactus, M. squarrosus, Acrachne racemosa, Aristida funiculata and A. hystrix. 

The study, however, resulted in the collection of 196 species which had not been recorded by the earlier authors. Many 

of these species are recently naturalized exotics or alien invasive species. Invasion by such species had initially been 

recorded by Singh (1973). The species which have seemingly declined during recent decades and now highly

Plate 17A 

The Gangetic Khadar: A Threatened Habitat 

N 

Hastinapur WLS 

Uttar Pradesh 

Upper Gangetic Plain (7A) 

Hastinapur WS: A Remnant Ecosystem 

in Gangetic Khadar 

Threats 

View of different Habitats 

Swamp Deer Featured Species of 

Terai Grasslands 

Hygroryza aristata – 

A typical grass of marshy areas 

G. S. Bharadwaj 

Amit Kotia

Plate 17B 

Characteristic Flora of Gangetic Khadar 

Operculina turpethum 

Ammania baccifera 

Pavonia repanda Zeuxine 

strateumatica 

Arnebia hispidissima Bacopa 

monnieri 

Veronica agrestis Withania somnifera Cephalanthus 

occidentalis 

Pankaj Kumar

threatened include Bacopa monnieri, Hygrorhiza aquatica, Coix lachryma-jobi, Sisymbrium irio, Capparis zeylanica, 

Hypericum japonicum, Crotalaria orixensis, Alternanthera philoxeroides, Polygonum plebejum var. sindica, Rumex 

crispus and Mallotus philippensis. 

Some of the species recorded in the study area are specific to certain peculiar habitat types, for instance, Celastrus 

paniculata, Combretum nanum, Galium aparine, Gloriosa superba, Jasminum arborescens and Mallotus philippensis 

were restricted to Kholas only, while Cephalanthus tetrandra and Epilobium hirsutum were found only in swamps or tall wet 

grasslands. The wetlands are most vulnerable to local extension due to over growth of alien invasive species such as 

Eichornia crassipes, Cyathocline purpurea and Potamogeton nodosus. 

Conclusions 

The Hastinapur WS represents a small sample of highly threatened hygrophilous grassland ecosystem (Gangetic 

Khadar). The entire Terai ecosystem in Upper Gangetic Plain including this sanctuary has been facing onslaught of 

anthropogenic pressures leading to degradation and transformation of natural habitat and representative biota including 

threatened swamp deer and several species of plants. Some of the plant species recorded as frequent during early 

1960s have gone locally extinct and other species are surviving in extremely low abundance. Considering the present 

rate of habitat loss (about 10% per annum) and rapid invasion by exotic species it is plausible that several remnant 

habitat islands and extant fragmented populations of native flora and fauna species would be vanished from this 

biogeographic region. This calls for an urgent conservation initiative on part of the government as well as nongovernment 

agencies in order to save this fast vanishing biome. 

References 

Gangetic Khadar: One of the 

Most Threatened Biomesin India 

Khan A. A., Sweta Agrawal & Afifullah Khan. 2006. Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murr. - A new record for Uttar 

Pradesh from Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 30(3): 697-698. 

Khan, A. A., W. Husain & A. H. Khan. 1984. Oenothera simuata Linn. – A new record for India from Bijnor. Jour. Sci. Res. 

6(2): 99-100. 

Khan, A. A., W. Husain & A. H. Khan. 1985. Sisymbrium sophia Linn. – A new record for India from Bijnor. Jour. Sci. Res. 

2&3: 125. 

Khan, A. A., W. Husain & A. H. Khan. 1986. Lactuca scariola Linn. – A new record for India from Bijnor. Jour. Sci. Res. 6(2): 

99 – 100. 

Murty, Y. S. & V. Singh. 1959. Angiospermic vegetation of Hastinapur. Vijn. Paris. Anus. Pat. 2: 201-209. 

Murty, Y. S. & V. Singh. 1960. Grasses of Hastinapur. Indian Forester 86: 740- 747. 

Murty, Y. S. & V. Singh. 1961. Flora of Hastinapur. Agra University Journal of Research (Science) 10 (2): 193- 242. 

Schaller, G. B. 1972. The Deer and the Tiger: A study of Wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 370pp. 

Singh, V. 1973. Recently introduced exotics in the flora of Meerut District. Current Science 42: 734-735. 

Khan, A. A. 1987. Floristic Studies on Bijnor District (Bijnor Tehsil). Ph. D. Thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 

(India). 

Khan, A. A. 2000. Anaphalis busua (Buch.–Ham. ex D. Don) DC. An interesting new record from Bijnor (U. P.) India. J. 

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 314 – 315. 

Khan, A. A. 2002. The grasses of Bijnor district, Uttar Pradesh. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 26(1): 42- 48. 

Khan, A. A. 2003. Asteraceous flora of Bijnor, Uttar Pradesh, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 27 (Suppl.): 1130 – 1136. 

Khan, A. A. 2005. Herbaceous angiospermous species diversity of Khadar ecosystem of Bijnor – I. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 

29(4): 805-814. 

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Jomy Augustine

Introduction 

18.0 Threatened Ceropegias of the Western Ghats 

and Strategies for Their Conservation 

1S. R. Yadav & Mayur Y. Kamble 

Department of Botany, Shivaji University, 

Kolhapur-416004 (MS) 

1sryadavdu@rediffmail.com Ceropegia L. (Asclepiadaceae), a pantropical Old World genus of about 200 species exhibits a tremendous diversity 

with reference to habit, habitat, flower architecture and ecological adaptations. It is distributed over most of Africa, 

Madagascar, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, the Far East and Northern parts of Australia. Ansari (1984) 

revised the Indian Ceropegia and reported 44 species, of which 28 are said to be endemic to India. After this revision, 

some 5 novelties have been added to the list. Presently the genus is represented by about 50 species of which about 38 

occur in Western Ghats. Several species of Ceropegia are narrow endemics and fall under one or another IUCN Red- 

List category (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-89). In recent years, the genus has attracted an attention of several workers due 

to rarity of its species and recognized importance of conservation of rare plants of the globe. Species of Ceropegia 

possess curious flytrap flowers (Percival, 1969) with great diversity in flower design; corolla size, shape and coloring 

patterns; corona structures and mechanisms for illumination of essential organs (Yadav, 1996). Pollination biology of 

Indian species has been studied to some extent by Chaturvedi, 1993a, 1993b and Yadav, 1996. Morph-taxonomical 

(Patil, 1990) and physiological studies (Gaikwad et al., 1989; Supate et al., 1990) on some of the Indian species of 

Ceropegia have helped in better understanding of morpho-physiological adaptations in the genus. 

Most of the endemic species of Ceropegia, by virtue of being restricted only to a special habitat and narrow ecological 

niche, are highly vulnerable and merit special consideration in their conservation. Reasons for their decline are many, 

e.g., destruction of forests, modifications of habitats, industrialization, pollution and introduction of exotic weeds, etc. In 

order to evolve long term conservation strategies for this group, it is essential to collate information on their distribution, 

present status, immediate threats, etc. In this article, we give a brief overview of the threatened Ceropegias of Western 

Ghats (Plates 18A & 18B), information on their habitats, threats and ways to conserve them. 

The Threatened Ceropegias of Western Ghats 

The IUCN criteria for assigning threat categories to species of Ceropegia are at times difficult to meet. For example, 

some of the endemic species are known only from type locality and the individuals are to meet very sparsely distributed. 

It would be virtually impossible to come up with information on total population especially in case of sparsely distributed 

species which can be identified only in flowers. In any case, all the endemic Ceropegias deserve special status and 

demand immediate conservation measures. So far 38 species of Ceropegia have been reported from the Western 

Ghats. Based on an extensive and intensive search of this genus made by the authors, especially in the Northern 

Western Ghats, it can be said that of the 38 species 15 are narrow endemic and all of them are highly threatened. 

Based on detailed field investigations, present distribution and status, phenology, ecology and threats for these species 

have been summarized below. 

1. Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai & Gaikwad in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1): 141-143, Jan.-Apr. 2004. 

Fls. & Frts : Aug.-Oct. 

123


124 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Salva hills in Sindhudurg district). 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra & Endangered. Recently described species. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme. It grows on top of hill at an altitude 

of about 500 m in rocky places among grasses. About 100 individuals were observed in type locality during September 

1998. Later it is found growing in shrubby vegetation in rocky places around Salva hills. It is restricted to about 20 sq. km. 

only. 

Remarks : It is closely related to Ceropegia attenuata but differs in shape of corolla, type of light window and has 

characteristic dark purple two spots on either side of corolla lobe in lower region. 

It is one of the endangered species and needs conservation measures. 

2. C. anjanerica Malpure, Kamble & Yadav in Current Science, 91 (9): 1140-1142. 2006. 

Fls. & Frts : Aug.-Nov. 

Distrib. : Maharashtra (Anjaneri hills near Nasik) 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra & Critically Endangered. Recently described species, 

Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme. It grows at an altitude of about 1296 

m in well drained soil. The hill tops enjoy misty, humid climate throughout the rainy season during which the species 

shows vegetative growth and start flowering in August. The species is restricted to about 1 sq. km. 

Remarks : It is closely related to C. attenuata but differs in having shorter flowers, flat corolla lobes forming an obovate 

head. It is restricted to exposed plateau of Anjaneri hills in Nasik district of Maharashtra. About 100 individuals were 

located in September 2005. It needs immediate action for conservation. 

3. C. attenuata Hook. Ic. Pl. 9: t. 867. 1852. 

Local Name : Tilori 


Distrib. : Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Rajasthan. 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic and Vulnerable. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme found throughout shrubby open 

forest of Konkan, Goa and North Kanara. It grows in crevices of lateritic rocks in hilly tract ranging in altitude between 

300-700 m. 

Remarks : Tubers are edible. Flowers are long and are of ornamental value. It is easy to grow in gardens. It shows 

good fruit and seed setting both under cultivation as well as in wild. It shows great variations with reference to corolla 

size and colour. Due to forest clearing, the populations of the species are decreasing day by day. 

4. C. bulbosa Roxb. var.bulbosa Roxb., Pl. Corom. 1: 11, t. 7. 1795 & Fl. Ind. 2: 38. 1832. 

Local Name : Kharpudi 

Fls. & Frts : July-Oct. 

Distrib. : India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, N Yemen, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Widely distributed species. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, broad leaved variety with many flowered cyme. Found in drier hilly regions 

amongst spiny and thorny bushes, which provide protection from grazing animals. 

Remarks : Leaves and tubers are edible. It is easy to grow in gardens. It is a CAM plant (Gaikwad et al., 1989) which 

explains its wide distribution range in drier parts.

5. C. bulbosa Roxb. var. lushii (Grah.) Hook.f. in Fl. Brit. India 4: 68. 1883. C. lushii Grah. in Bot. Mag. t. 3300. 1834. 



Distrib. : India 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic & Common. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, narrow leaved variety with many flowered cyme. It is comparatively rare in 

occurrence but usually found in vicinity of C. bulbosa Roxb. var.bulbosa. 

Remarks: Leaves and tubers are edible. It is easy to grow in gardens and shows good fruit setting in wild as well as 

under cultivation. 

6. C. evansii McCann in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 209. 1945. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Satara, Pune, Ratnagiri, Kolhapur). 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra & Endangered. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It is sparsely distributed throughout 

Sahyadri range from Khandala in North to Amboli in South. Usually it grows in Carvia callosa canopy on steep slopes 

at an altitude of 300-1000 m. 

Remarks : It is difficult to locate in thick canopy of Carvia callosa. It does not thrive under garden conditions. During last 

20 years author could locate only 10-15 mature individuals in the field. 

7. C. fantastica Sedgwick in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 2: 124. 1921. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Amboli), Karnataka (Sulgeri, North Kanara) and Goa (South Goa, Netravali) 

Present Status : Endemic to Western Ghats & Critically Endangered. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows in partly cleared up semievergreen 

open forest at an altitude of about 300-700 m. 

Remarks : The species can be easily distinguished from all other species by the curiously much elongated sepals 

longer than corolla. It is extremely rare species and on the verge of extinction. It is very sparsely distributed in its area of 

occurrence and needs immediate steps for its conservation. Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur has 

under taken a program funded by DBT, New Delhi on its restoration. It performs well in home gardens. 

8. C. hirsuta Wight & Arn. in Wight, Contrib. 30. 1834. 

Local Name : Haamana 


Distrib. : Throughout India except Himalayan region and Thailand. 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Common. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows in and around bushes in 

hilly tracts and shows wide ecological amplitude. 

Remarks : The tubers are edible. The flowers show great variations in corolla size, colour and blotching pattern. The 

flowers are elegant. It is easy to grow in gardens and shows fairly good fruit formation and seed setting. 

9. C. huberi Ansari in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10 (2): 219. 1968 (1969). 



Distrib. : Maharashtra (Kolhapur, Ratnagiri, Satara). 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra and Critically Endangered. 

Threatened Ceropegias of the Western 

Ghats and Ways to Save Them 

125


126 


Field note: It is a tuberous, twining, narrow leaved species with many flowered cyme. It is restricted to higher peaks of 

Sahyadri ranges. It grows among the grasses (Tripogon lisboe) on steep western slopes of Sahyadri from 700 to 1200 

m altitude. It enjoys misty climate prevailing in the region from June- Sept. 

Remarks: It has glistening snow-white flowers and flat topped curiously formed corolla. It grows well in garden. Larvae 

of some butterflies feed on the leaves. Tubers are edible. It is of phytogeographical significance as the species 

possesses form of corolla similar to some of the species found in Africa. 

10. C. jainii Ansari & Kulkarni in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22 (1-4): 221. 1980 (1982). 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Satara, Kolhapur, Sindhudurg) 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra and Endangered. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme. It grows in crevices 

of lateritic plateaus of higher altitudes (1200-1400 m). It grows in open rocky grounds on tops of Sahyadri ranges. 

Remarks : The tubers are edible and mostly eaten by cowboys. It has curiously formed and beautifully coloured 

flowers. It faces problems in sexual reproduction probably due to disappearance of the pollinators. As the species is 

very specific in its edaphic and climatic requirements, it is difficult to maintain in gardens and needs in-situ conservation. 

11. C. juncea Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1: 12, t. 10. 1795. 

Local Name : Kanvel 


Distrib. : Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. 

Chr. No. : 2n=66. 

Present Status : Rare. 

Field note : It is a non-tuberous, twining, scaly leaved, succulent species with many flowered cyme. It grows in rocky 

places along hill slopes throughout drier parts of Peninsular India. The stem is thick, fleshy and photosynthetic. 

Remarks : It is the only Indian species which has thick fleshy twinning stem with Crassulean Acid Metabolism (CAM) 

[Supate et al., 1990]. It is under cultivation in number of gardens for its curiously formed flowers and as a succulent. It 

performs very well under cultivation. 

12. C. lawii Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. India 4: 67. 1883. 

Local Name : Tilori, Kharpudi 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Pune, Satara, Ratnagiri) 


Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows on steep slopes at 

inaccessible places of higher altitudes of about 1000-1400 m. It is closely related to C. sahyadrica. 

Remarks : The tubers are edible. Very few individuals are found in its places of occurrence. The major threat to the 

species is destruction of habitats. It is of botanical interest. It needs immediate focus for its survival and conservation. 

13. C. maccannii Ansari in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22 (1-4) : 227. (1980) 1982. Ceropegia lawii auct. plur. nom Hook. f. 

Fl. Brit. India 4: 67. 1883. 



Distrib. : Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Pune) 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra and Endangered.



Field note: It is a tuberous, erect, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. Flowers are small and bottle shaped. 

It grows on slopes of hills at an altitude from 600 to 1200 m. 

Remarks: It has very narrow range of distribution and it could be eliminated in few decades if appropriate steps are not 

taken towards its conservation. It is allied to C. panchganiensis. 

14. C. mahabalei Hemadri & Ansari in Indian Forester 97(2): 105. 1971. 

Local Name : Gauti Kharpudi 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Pune, Thane) 


Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme. It is found growing on steep slopes 

of Ralegaon and Kasara hills. It grows at an altitude of about 750-1000 m. 

Remarks : It has probably longest flower among Indian species of Ceropegia and is very closely related to the rather 

little known African C. campanulata -C. insignis- C. turricula group (Bruyns, 1997). It is of ornamental, botanical and 

phytogeographical significance. It needs immediate steps for its conservation. 

15. C. media (Huber) Ansari in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11: 199-201. 1969. Ceropegia evansii McCann var. media Huber 

in Mem Soc. Broter. 12: 67. 1957. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Pune, Satara, Ratnagiri) 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 


Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, narrow to broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows around the 

bushes, shrubs and in grasses on steep slopes along forest borders of higher elevations of main Sahyadri ranges. It 

shows fairly good fruit and seed setting. 

Remarks : The tubers are edible. The flowers are delicate and of ornamental value. It is difficult to maintain in Gardens 

and in-situ conservation is essential. 

16. C. mohanramii Yadav, Gavade & Sardesai in Rheedea 16 (1): 33-36. 2006. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Sindhudurg) 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra and Critically Endangered. Recently described species. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme. The species grows on lateritic 

plateau at an altitude of 50-60 m in accumulated soil in rocky places. 

Remarks: The species is extremely rare and so far known only from type locality-Kochara. Even in type-locality the 

population is restricted to 1-2 sq. km. It is critically endangered species and needs immediate steps for its conservation. 

17. C. noorjahaniae Ansari in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 250, t. 1, f. 1-5. 1972. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Satara, Amravati) 


Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, sometimes twining, narrow leaved species with three-flowered cyme. It grows in 

grasslands on slopes of hills. 

Remarks : The species has elegant, delicate flowers of great ornamental value. As it is sparsely distributed and 

restricted to few localities, it needs immediate steps for its conservation. It is easy to grow in gardens. 

18. C. oculata Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 4093. 1844. 

Local Name: Kharpudi, Khapar-khutti 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Ahmednagar, Amaravati, Mumbai, Kolhapur, Pune, Raigad, Ratnagiri, Satara, Sindhudurg), 

Kerala, Tamil Nadu. 

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Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic to Western Ghats and Vulnerable. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows in bushes at an altitude 

ranging between 300 to 1200 m. 

Remarks : The tubers are edible and the flowers are very curious and of great ornamental value. It shows great 

variations in the form of corolla, its colour and variegation pattern. It performs well in garden and deserves place in any 

home garden for its fascinating flowers. 

19. C. odorata Nimmo in Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 118. 1839, (nom. nud.) ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit India 4: 75. 1883. 

Local Name : Sulati Khutti 


Distrib. : Rajasthan(Mt. Abu), Gujarat (Pavagadh in Panchamahal), Maharashtra (Amravati, Bombay, Nandurbar, 

Dhule and Thane). 

Present Status : Endemic and Critically Endangered. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, narrow leaved species with many flowered cyme. It flowers profusely under 

cultivation and the flowers are odorous. 

Remarks : It is very sparsely distributed species. It needs immediate conservation measures. 

20. C. panchganiensis Blatter & McCann in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 534. 1933. 

Local Name : Kharpudi, Khartundi 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Satara, Ahmednagar) 


Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It is known from Mahableshwar 

range in Satara district and Harishchandragad in Ahmednagar district. It grows on steep slopes of highest peaks of an 

altitude of about 1200 m. 

Remarks : It is restricted to very small area and there are few individuals only. In nature, it has been observed that some 

butterflies larvae feed on leaves of the species. There is an urgent need for its conservation. 

21. C. rollae Hemadri in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10(2): 123-125, t. 1, f. 1-6. 1969. 



Distrib. : Maharashtra (Pune). 


Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. During September, 1998 about 50 

individuals were observed at Durga fort and Dhaka fort in Pune district which is it’s type locality. It grows on the open top 

of both the forts at an altitude of about 1200-1300 m. 

Remarks : Fruit setting is rare. It is difficult to maintain in gardens. As it is restricted to a very small area of about 2 acres 

with countable number of individuals (about 50-75), which may be wiped out at any time. It needs immediate measures 

for its conservation. 

22. C. sahyadrica Ansari & Kulkarni in Indian Forester 97: 688, t. 1, f. 1-4 & t. 2, f. A(1 & 2) & B (1). 1971. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Pune, Kolhapur, Sindhudurg). 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 


Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows on steep, slopes and 

plateaus of altitude at about 700-1000 m in Sahyadri range. It grows on Western most main crest of the Sahyadri. 

Although it shows profuse flowering, fruit setting is very rare.

Remarks: Land slides and destruction of tubers by cowboys are the two major threats to the species. Similarly failure of 

seed setting (probably failure of pollination in absence of pollinators) seems to be major reason for its rarity. It is easy to 

grow in gardens. Butterflies larvae feed on the leaves. It needs steps towards conservation. 

23. C. santapaui Wadhwa & Ansari in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10: 95, t. 1, f. 1-9. 1968. 

Local Name : Khartundi 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Satara) 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 


Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, narrow leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows among grasses on the 

unstable rocks along roadsides in Mahabaleshwar- Mahad ghat at an altitude of about 1150 m. Flowers are small and 

white. 

Remarks : As the species is restricted to a very narrow area, it faces high risk of extinction due to landslides and road 

repairs and roadside clearing. It needs careful steps towards in situ and ex-situ conservation. 

24. C. spiralis Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 4: t. 1267. 1848. 


Distrib. : Andra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. 

Present Status : Endemic to Peninsular India and Endangered. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, erect, some times twining, narrow leaved species with one-flowered cyme. It has wide 

distribution in Peninsular India. 

Remarks : It has flowers with spirally twisted corolla lobes and the architecture of the flower is of great ornamental 

value. It needs ex situ as well as in situ conservation. 

25. C. vincaefolia Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 3740. 1839. 


Distrib. : Maharashtra (Culaba, Pune, Ratnagiri, Raigad, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sindhudurg). 

Chr. No. : 2n= 22. 

Present Status : Endemic to Maharashtra and Vulnerable. 

Field note : It is a tuberous, twining, broad leaved species with many flowered cyme. It grows at higher altitudes 

ranging between 800 to 1200 m along forest borders. It is sparsely distributed throughout Northern Western Ghats. It 

shows great variations with reference to size, colouring pattern and shape of flower. 

Remarks : It is one of the highly variable species. It grows well in gardens and it is easy to maintain. The tubers are 

edible. It is one of the Ceropegias with beautiful and curiously formed flowers. The flower has distinct kind of light 

window of translucent ring and small circular pore like areas in inflated bottom. 

Numerical Analysis of Ceropegia species : 

On the basis numerical analysis of morphological characters, 24 species studied fall under five following groups 

indicating their relationship: 

Group I: C. anantii, C. anjanerica, C. attenuata, C. jainii, C. mahabalei, C. mohanramii, C. noorjahaniae and C. spiralis. 

Group II: C. lawii, C. sahyadrica, C. rollae, C. panchganiensis, C. maccannii. 

Group III: C. odorata, C. media, C. santapaui, C. huberi 

Group IV: C. evansii, C. fantastica, C. hirsuta, C. oculata, C. vincaefolia. 

Group V: C. bulbosa, C. juncea 

Conservation Significance of Ceropegias : 



In India, Ceropegia bulbosa and C. hirsuta are the only two widespread species. Out of the 38 species in Western 

Ghats, 32 are endemic to the region. About 15 species of Northern Western Ghats are narrow endemics and some of 

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them are known only from their type localities. Ceropegia anjanerica, C. evansii, C. fantastica, C. huberi, C. lawii, C. 

maccannii, C. mahabalei, C. mohanramii, C. noorjahaniae, C. odorata, C. panchganiensis, C. rollae, C. sahyadrica, and 

C. santapaui are critically endangered and if not cared for may vanish during the next few decades. 

Indian species could be grouped into three groups on the basis ecophysiological and leaf characters. Ceropegia 

bulbosa possess succulent stem as well as leaves while C. juncea has small reduced scaly leaves and fleshy green 

stem. Both the species show Crassulean Acid Metabolism (CAM) (Supate et al. 1990; Gaikwad et al. 1989) and grow 

in comparatively drier parts of the country. Majority of the species have membranous broad or narrow leaves, C 3 

pathway of photosynthesis and grow in semi-evergreen, evergreen forests, shrubby vegetation and on plateaus. Erect 

species usually grow in open grassy grounds, while climbing species grow in open shrubby forest. While erect habit is 

the inevitable result of open situations, climbing habit is in response to the support. 

Tubers are starchy and edible. Some of the wild animals feed on Ceropegia tubers. Some of the butterflies rear on 

Ceropegia species and complete their life cycles. Some of the butterflies are host specific and disappearance of 

Ceropegia species may also lead to their disappearance from the region. Therefore, Ceropegias have well-established 

biological role. The tubers are used as a nutritive tonic in the bowel complaints of children that cure dysentery and 

diarrhoea. The alkaloid ceropegin from the tubers of C. bulbosa is used in Bihar in cold, eye-diseases and to cure 

sneezing (Kirtikar & Basu 1975.). The tuber of C. bulbosa is bitter, cures diarrhoea and dysentery, inflammation of gums 

and delirious fevers of parturition [Ayurveda] (Kirtikar & Basu 1975). 

The Stapelieae to which Ceropegias belong are principally adapted to fly-pollination and have reached a great 

diversity in flower architectures (Leach 1978, Dyer 1983, Bruyns & Forster 1991, Endress 1994). The most complicated 

flowers of dicots are found in the genus Ceropegia, which, in itself, is a wealth of wonderful radiation (Huber 1957, Vogel 

1961, Endress 1994). Indian Ceropegia species possess strange flowers of beauty and curiosity (Yadav 1996). The 

flytrap flowers and pollination mechanisms in the species of Ceropegia are interesting in understanding diversification 

and evolution of the genus. 

Both Africa and Peninsular India belong to the same Gondvanaland and possess closely allied Ceropegia species of 

phytogeographical significance, which like many other examples, support theory of continental drift. Ceropegia bulbosa 

shows close relationship with C. linophyllum from West Africa; C. mahabalei has clear affinities to African species C. 

campanulata-C. insignis - C. turricula group; some of the non-succulent species without tubers from the Western ghats 

seem to be both vegetatively and florally quite similar to species from West Africa and even to C. cumingiana from 

Australia while C. juncea is not closely allied to any other species (Bruyns 1997). 

Most of the Indian species of Ceropegia are very specific in their habitat preferences. The starchy tubers are prone to 

fungal infections and thus decay of tubers is major problem in their cultivation and maintenance. They dislike organic 

manure and excess watering. There is an urgent need for both ex-situ as well as in-situ conservation of Ceropegias. 

Species of Ceropegia are very difficult to propagate, cultivate and maintain in gardens. Conservation of Ceropegia species 

is a challenge to biologists. Concentrated and co-ordinated efforts by universities, forest departments, and local communities 

are needed to save Ceropegias of Western Ghats. 

Short Term and Long Term Conservation Strategies 

Prodigious task of saving vanishing Ceropegias of Western Ghats: 

1. They are restricted in distribution and each has species-specific edaphic/climatic requirements. 

2. The individuals of endemic species are very sparsely distributed and extremely rare in occurrence being 

restricted to small areas in remote places. 

3. The tubers of Ceropegias are exploited by cowboys, cattlemen and also eaten by wild animals.

Plate 18A 

Threatened Ceropegias of Western Ghats - I 

Ceropegia anantii C. anjanerica C. attenuata C. bulbosa 

C. evansii 

C. fantastica 

C. hirsuta 

C. huberi 

C. jainii C. juncea C. lawii C. maccannii

Plate 18B 

Threatened Ceropegias of Western Ghats - II 

C. mahabalei 

C. oculata 

C. sahyadrica 

C. mohanramii C. media C. noorjahaniae 

C. odorata 

C. santapaui 

C. panchganiensis 

C. spiralis 

C. rollae 

C. vincaefolia

4. There is a great pressure on Western Ghats due to modification and destruction of the habitats leading to 

further decline and fragmentation of populations. 

5. Most complicated flowers with highly specialized pollination mechanisms and species-specific pollinators 

resulting into low fruit and seed setting. 

6. Many of seeds are worn out as they do not reach to proper place for seed germination and seedling establishment. 

7. There is no easy way for their propagation. 

8. The tubers are highly susceptible to microbial/fungal decay. 

9. It is extremely difficult to maintain and store the tubers during dry spell of the year. 

10. It is difficult to simulate growth requirements in ex situ conditions. 

11. Destruction of aerial plant parts by caterpillars. 

12. There are no apparent direct economic gains from Ceropegia species and unawareness of policy makers, 

people and researchers. 

Ways to save Ceropegias of Western Ghats : 

Micro-propagation is the only viable means to get planting materials. Hardening of plant materials is another critical 

step in reintroduction of planting material, which needs to be standardized. Following are probable and appropriate 

steps in saving the fascinating group of Ceropegias of Western Ghats. 

1. Protecting habitats of Ceropegias. 

2. Micropropagation and reintroduction. 

3. Study pollination biology and fruit setting in Ceropegia species and to know constraints in sexual reproduction 

and production of seeds. 

4. Establish methods for maintenance, storage and protection of tubers from microbes/fungi, 

5. Understand suitable edaphic and climatic factors in maintenance of Ceropegia species. 

6. Training forest officials in identification, protection and maintenance of Ceropegia species. 

7. Cryo-preservation of germplasm of Ceropegias. 

8. Develop package of practices to grow, maintain and protect Ceropegia species. 

9. Coordinated efforts of researchers, forest officials and people to grow, maintain and protect Ceropegia species. 

10. Popularization of Ceropegias through workshops, greeting cards, calendars, and photographs and distribution 

of planting materials to nurseries, botanical, private and home gardens. 

11. Provision of finance for micro-propagation and hardening of Ceropegia species. 

12. Establish field gene bank of all the Ceropegia species of Western Ghats. 

13. Undertake restoration programs on Ceropegias 

References 



Ansari, M.Y. 1984. Asclepiadaceae: Genus-Ceropegia. In: Fascicles of Flora of India 16: 1-34. 

Bruyns, P. V. & P. I. Foster. 1991. Recircumscription of the Stapelieae (Asclepiadaceae). Taxon 40: 381-91. 

Bruyns, P. V. 1997. A note on Ceropegia L. (Asclepiadaceae) of Silent valley, Kerala, India. Rheedea 7: 107-114. 

Chaturvedi, S. K. 1993a. Modes of pollination in some Indian Ceropegias (Asclepiadaceae). pp. 160-164. In: G. K. 

Veeresh, R. Uma Shaanker & K. N. Ganeshaiah (eds.) Proceedings of the International Symposium on 

Pollination in the Tropics. International Union for the Study of Social Insects – Indian Chapter, Bangalore. 

Chaturvedi, S. K. 1993b. Significance of light windows in the pollination of some Indian Ceropegias (Asclepiadaceae) 

Cactus and Succulent Jour. (U. S.) 65: 148-151. 

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Dyer, R. A. 1983. Ceropegia, Brachystelma and Riocreuxia in Southern Africa. Rotterdam, Balkema. 

Endress, Peter K. 1994. Diversity and evolutionary biology of tropical flowers. Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 302-319. 

Gaikwad, D.K., A. R. Supate, S. R. Yadav & P. D. Chavan. 1989. Occurrence of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism in stem 

tissues of Ceropegia juncea Roxb. Photosynthetica 23: 216 - 220. 

Huber, H. 1957. Revision der Gattung Ceropegia. Mem. Soc. Brot. 12: 1-203. 

Kirtikar, K. R. & B. D. Basu. 1975. (Reprint ed.) Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. III. pp.1636-1638.. Lalit Mohan Basu, 

Allahabad, India. 

Leach, I. C. 1978. A contribution towards a new classification of Stapelieae (Asclepiadaceae) with a primary review of 

Orbea Haw. and description of three new genera. Excelsa 1: 1-75. 

Nayar, M. P. & A.R.K. Sastry. (eds.). 1987-89. Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. I-III. BSI. Calcutta. 

Patil, V. N.1990. Morphotaxonomical studies in Asclepiadaceae: Genus Ceropegia L. and Brachystelma R. Br. M. Phil. 

dissertation, Shivaji University, Kolhapur. 

Percival, M. G. 1969. Floral Biology. Pergaman Press Oxford. pp.1-243. 

Supate, A. R., D. K. Gaikwad, S. R. Yadav & P. D. Chavan. 1990. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism features occur in leafy 

forms of Ceropegia also. Photosynthetica 24: 53 - 55. 

Vogel, S. 1961. Dei Bestaubung der kasselfallen-Bluten von Ceropegia. Beitr. Biol. Pfl. 36:159-237. 

Yadav, S. R. 1996. Fly trap flowers of the Western Ghats. Hornbill 1: 2-7.

Introduction 

19.0 Rare Flora of the Upper Palnis 

Robert Stewart & *Tanya Balcar 

P.O. Box 109, Kodaikanal – 624101 Tamil Nadu 

*tanya.balcar@gmail.com 

The Palni Hills are an eastward spur of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu connected to the larger Annamalai hills of 

Kerala. They have a maximum (east to west) length of 65 km, a maximum width of 40 km (mean width 24km) and an 

area of 2068 sq km. The hills fall into two geographically distinct zones, the upper and the lower Palnis, divided by a 

pass running from Palni in the north towards Periakulam in the south. The base rock of the Palnis is almost entirely 

Charnockite; a bluish black granite formed some two and a half billion years ago. Soils, generally a sandy loam 

belonging to a class of “red” (black) soils common in S. India. Being in the rain shadow of the main body of the Western 

Ghats, the upper hills remain relatively dry during the south west monsoon but receive heavy cyclonic rains during the 

retreating north east monsoon in October to December. Total annual rainfall is c.1665mm while the general climate is 

often described as quasi temperate with the maximum temperature being about 25ºC. and the minimum 4ºC. Frost 

often occurs in the hollows of the plateau during December and January. 

The upper Palnis above 1500m 

After years of deliberation, we have come to the conclusion that 1500m is the altitude at which the Shola grassland ecosystem 

should begin in these hills, while at the same time recognising that the western plateau around 385sq km has 

a unique character of its own. The plateau, at an average altitude of 2200m, originally consisted of undulating grasslands 

with numerous streamlets and marshes with peaks rising to 2500m. Within the sheltered folds of these extensive 

grasslands pockets of woodland locally known as Sholas are found. 

These Sholas often stretch down from the slopes and valleys of the plateaus providing corridors between the lower and 

upper hills. The evergreen trees of the Sholas are characteristically stunted, seldom above 15m, profusely branched, 

upon often massive trunks and supporting a large number of epiphytes like lichens, mosses and ferns in addition to 

numerous creepers, stragglers and on the forest floor several species of shrubs and herbs. 

For some three decades the Sholas have been the focus of intense conservation activity in South India. “Save our 

Sholas” (S.O.S) being the rallying cry of the professional biologists as well as school students and even small traders. 

Much of this activity, and the history of forest degradation has been centred around the popular hill resort of Kodaikanal, 

a sleepy place in the mid 1980’s that has since then undergone massive commercialisation. Despite this growth the 

campaigns to conserve and restore the Sholas have met with considerable success. It was our chance find of Pambar 

Shola in 1985 as resident tourists in Vattakanal, and a realisation of its specialness and the need to save it from rapid 

destruction that put a halt to our travels and launched us into a life of conservation and a deep association, knowledge 

and love of the plants of the Shola grasslands of the Southern Western Ghats. 

The work we embarked on was all made possible by the formidable Flora of the Tamil Nadu Carnatic (1983) and the 

promise of the Flora of the Palni Hills (1999) to come authored by Dr. Fr. K.M Matthew. In these huge volumes we not 

only found the means to know, but we found the assurance that there was a solid base of sound committed people 

around us. 

It took a few years of coming and going before we finally founded a tree nursery in the vicinity of Pambar Shola. It was 

another year or two though before we realised what an extraordinary treasure house of plants we found ourselves in the 

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midst of. In the odd 2 sq. km of Sholas, ravines and rocky grasslands around us many plants could be found that had 

passed into extinction elsewhere in the hills. In past decades the western plateau grasslands had supported hundreds of 

plant species but by the end of the 1980’s most of these grasslands had been put under Pine, Wattle and Eucalyptus, and 

many of the plants described as common and abundant by Dr. K.M. Matthew, had to us become rare and threatened; 

extinction within the plantations was close to 100%. 

Choosing a few plants from this vast catalogue for this article has proven difficult, but the rediscovery and cultivation of 

those officially thought to be extinct has a special meaningfulness. Probably the best example is the Shola tree 

Elaeocarpus blascoi, which was discovered only in the 1970’s – a single tree near Kodaikanal that had by the time of 

publication of the Flora of the Palni Hills in 1999 fallen to the axe. It was somehow extraordinary that we should 

rediscover it in our own back yard in 2000, and later discover we had unknowingly planted a sapling from a seed of this 

tree in 1997. Plate 19 shows the photo of this plant from its first flowering in 2005. 

Restoration was at the heart of our work with plants, and for that the forest component presented no difficulties, 

degraded Shola was there for us to restore so that rare “extinct” species like the tree Psydrax ficiformis and the globally 

threatened Elaeocarpus recurvatus could be planted in the weed infested degraded areas around Pambar Shola. 

The most threatened plants of all, nevertheless, were those of the grasslands, and there was no obvious way of reintroducing 

these short of a systematic restoration of their grassland habitat. 

Many of these plants, however, such as Cotoneaster buxifolius, Coelogyne mossiae and Kalanchoe grandiflora make 

excellent garden ornamentals, and there were plenty of people happy to give them a home. The big prize of grassland 

restoration would have to be fought for and now more than five years after that struggle began in earnest we (Vattakanal 

Conservation Trust) and the Forest Department planted our first 1000 grasses together on 9.09.08 in a plot of cleared 

Wattle with a large and beautiful marsh at the centre of the restoration. Apart from the desire to restore the complex 

diversity of the grasslands, issues such as human animal conflict and declining water tables under timber plantations 

entwined together in this new policy of restoration which is still in its pilot stage. Before we can think of planting out the 

many rare and threatened species, we have to make sure that when a plantation coupe is felled alien weeds, most 

notably Ageratina adenophora (Eupatorium), do not take over, coupled with planting some of the more common 

grasses in the Genus Chrysopogon, Themeda, Tripogon and Heteropogon to assist the re-grassing process. 

We look forward to re-introducing grassland herbs and shrubs, among these Exacum wightianum in Gentianaceae and 

Lilium neilgherrense (Plate 19). 

Exacum wightianum Arn. (Gentianaceae) 

A sub-shrubby herb, usually to a metre in height flowering from June to December. It is reported from a number of places 

in the Western Ghats but we have not seen it outside the Palni Hills. This plant is not among our officially listed 

threatened species but we have seen its occurrence decline sharply, along with its grassland habitat. It has been seen 

over the years to find refuge as a wayside plant, but with the ever increasing numbers of self drive tourists taking to the 

roads no plant with showy flowers is now safe from being plucked to extinction in this particular kind of habitat. We 

quickly found in the restoration of Pambar Shola that we had to hide from view the most beautiful of our herbaceous 

plants. 

This short lived plant is very difficult to cultivate from its tiny seeds which it produces in great quantities. It does not 

tolerate being moved and wild plants taken by gardeners always fail. Direct sowing of seeds in suitable restored habitat 

offers perhaps the best chance of halting its decline.

Plate 19 

Rare Flora of the Upper Palni Hills 

Exacum wightianum 

Hoya wightii ssp. palniensis Lilium neilgherrense 

Elaeocarpus blascoi 

Ceropegia thwaitesii 

G.S. Goraya


Lilium neilgherrense Wight (Liliaceae) 

138 


This erect unbranched herb with alternate lanceolate leaves can occasionally attain a height of 2m and sometimes 

bear as many as 5 flowers although solitary flowering is most common. Matthew (1996) described the plant as being 

common on exposed grassy slopes, but being decimated from over collecting for the showy, scented flowers. Today it 

is never seen as Matthew described as all the slopes are under plantation. Now it is most commonly seen surviving 

among steep stony fragments of land, growing alongside bananas and other crops at around 1500 to 1700m. Its 

general distribution is the S.W. Ghats and the Nilgiris but we have only seen it in the Palnis. 

Fortunately, it is an easy plant to reproduce by separating the “flakes” that make up the bulb of the plant. Each flake may 

produce a flowering plant within 4 or 5 years. For obvious reasons any restoration of this plant to the wild will have to be 

kept well hidden. 

Elaeocarpus blascoi Weibel (Elaerocarpaceae). 

A large Shola tree that is endemic to the Palni Hills. There is only one known surviving adult specimen in the wild but we 

have planted one along our roadside and have several saplings. The tree flowers in June and sets seed by October. 

Unfortunately, our mother tree is located beside a steep stream that runs down to the plains and most seed gets washed 

down in the monsoon. 

Ceropegia thwaitesii Hook. (Asclepiadaceae) 

Another plant of the wayside, described by Matthew as occasional above 1800m, is now considered to be vulnerable 

(Nayar & Sastry 1987-88), is Ceropegia thwaitesii, an extensive twiner in the family Asclepiadaceae. We have only ever 

found one clump of this plant on the edge of our own Pambar Shola at 2100m. The genus is much favoured by 

horticulturalists on account of their interesting lantern like flowers. At 5cm C. thwaitesii has the largest flower of the six 

species found in the Palni Hills. It is fortunately very easy to reproduce from stem cuttings. The plant is also found in Sri 

Lanka and the far Southern Western Ghats of Tinnevely district of Tamil Nadu. Some web sites we have found falsely 

claim the plant to be a Pambar endemic. 

Hoya wightii Hook. f. ssp. palniensis K.T. Matthew (Asclepiadaceae) 

Staying in the same family (Asclepiadaceae) we should finish with a true Pambar Shola endemic. This sub species 

was only described in 1992. Another genus favoured by horticulturalists on account of its “wax” flowers. The plant has 

thick, coriaceous, elliptic leaves on stems that trail over massive boulders that lie at the bottom of Pambar ravine. There 

was some doubt as to whether the plant would survive in the wild as a seed bearing follicle had not been seen since 

1914. This was until late 2007 when one of our plants raised from a stem cutting bore two follicles which successfully 

produced seedlings in August of this year. 

References 

Matthew, K.M. 1996. Illustrations on the flora of Palni hills. The Rapinat Herbarium, Tiruchirapalli. 

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry. 1987-1988. Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. I & II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Introduction 

20.0 Genus Strobilanthes in High Ranges of Kerala: 

Diversity, Distribution and Endemism 

Jomy Augustine 

Department of Botany, St. Thomas College, Pala, 

Kottayam District, Kerala, India 

jomyaugustine@rediffmail.com 

Since the Cenozoic uplift, the vegetation of Western Ghats has witnessed drastic transformation from humid tropical 

Malaysian and Afro-tropical types to present form and composition. The formation of the lava plateau namely Deccan 

Trap and the geodynamic events such as continental drift and Pleistocene glaciation accelerated the formation of new 

and unique microclimates in the region (Nayar 1996). The massive depopulation of vegetation occurred during the 

movements of Indian plate towards northward to duck on to Laurasia (Raven & Axelrod 1974) making this landmass a 

unique cradle with numerous micro-habitats. These habitats were gradually re-vegetated giving rise to present day 

physiognomic types some of which are unique to these ranges such as Shola-Grassland complex, which represent 

the juxtaposition of distinct ecosystems and abrupt changes in habitat types. 

The genus Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae), an old world taxon having over 300 species within South / South-east Asia, 

has speciated and diversified in the hill ranges of Western Ghats. This genus has over half of world’s species in India. 

The hill ranges of peninsular India have 59 species. The most popular character of Strobilanthes is its monocarpic 

nature and they flower after a long period of vegetative growth ranging from 1-15 years and some rare species produce 

flowers even after 35 years. The Neelgiri hills of south India (Blue Mountains) are named after Strobilanthes kunthianus, 

locally known as ‘Neelakkurinji’ that flowers in profusion once in 12 years. Likewise a number of other species within 

this group exhibit the unique features of habitats and phytogeography which have little been investigated. This article 

throws some light on the diversity, distribution and habitat specificity of this genus in the High Ranges of Kerala, Western 

Ghats. 

The High Ranges of Kerala 

The southern Western Ghats i.e., the hill tops south of Palakkad Gap in the state of Kerala (Idukki district), represent 

highly dissected valleys and camel-hump peaks and unique habitats. These ranges include some of the tallest peaks 

in Peninsular India, highest being the famous ‘elephant head’ or Anamudi peak (2690m). The lower parts of these 

ranges are highly productive and therefore, for last two centuries these tracts have been encroached for commercial 

plantations. Presently three categories of land use can be seen this area (Moench 1991). These are: (i) Protected 

Areas (PAs), (ii) Tea plantations, and (iii) areas of extensive cardamom cultivation. The PAs include Periyar Tiger 

Reserve, Eravikulam National Park, Chinnar and Idukki Wildlife Sanctuaries and Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary. In addition 

to these five PAs, there are 35 tea estates spread over Munnar and Peermade of the High Ranges (Anonymous 1970). 

The rest of the High Ranges, were opened since early 1800s to establish cardamom cultivation. This area is known as 

Cardamom Hill Reserve (CHR). It was reserved in 1897 as Government Reserved Forest and had an area of 870 km 2 

that falls under Udumbanchola Panchayat (old) of Idukki District (Anonymous 1978, Nair 1991). From early 1800s, the 

area has undergone severe deforestation due to extensive planting of cash crops, especially cardamom (Anonymous 

1984). The major vegetation types include Tropical Wet Evergreen, Tropical Semi-evergreen, Montane Shola and 

Grasslands (Champion & Seth 1968, Chandrasekharan 1962). 

139


140 


Diversity and Distribution of Strobilanthes in the High Ranges of Kerala 

The hilltops and understory of evergreen forests in the High ranges of Kerala and other parts of Western Ghats are are 

well known for the Strobilanthes thickets (Plates 20A & 20B). The evident domination of Acanthaceae in the shrubby 

layers of evergreen forests of Peninsular India is mainly due to diversity of genus Strobilanthes. There are altogether 43 

species of Strobilanthes known from the state of Kerala. Of these, 38 are endemic to Peninsular India (Sasidharan 

2000). Three species are endemic to Kerala viz., S. dupeni, S. homotropus and S. virendrakumarana . Two species, S. 

homotropus and S. andersonii are exclusive endemic Idukki District. Strobilanthes andersonii is so far not known from 

Kerala and it is the first report of its occurrence in the state. Almost all the species (40) of Strobilanthes are found in the 

High ranges. Fortunately, most of them occur within the existing PAs. For example, 17 species and one sub-species 

were known to occur in Eravikulam NP according to earlier researchers (Biju 2004). The author has added five more 

species from Eravikulam which are being reported here. These are S. andersonii, S. neoasper, S. urceolaris, S. 

anamallaica and S. barbatus. Anamudi Chola NP harbours 18 species (Kishore 2004) while Periyar TR has as many 

as 27 species. Interestingly only one species (Strobilanthes cuspidatus) has been reported from Chinnar WS so far. 

More studies are required within this and adjacent sanctuaries. The species of Strobilanthes in high ranges (40) are 

as follows: 

1. Strobilanthes amabilis Clarke: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Rare along shola margins. Flowering 

periodicity: 10 years. 

2. S. anamallaica Wood: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Common along margins of evergreen forests. 

Flowering periodicity: Annual. 

3. S. anceps Nees: South India and Sri Lanka. Common; in evergreen forests at high elevations. Flowering 

periodicity: Not known. 

4. S. andersonii Bedd.: Endemic to Eravikulam National Park. Rare along shola margins. It was collected by 

Beddome (Beddome 1868-1874) and there was no collection after that and is considered as extinct. 

Flowering periodicity: not known. 

5. S. asperrimus Dalz. ex Gibbs.: S. India and Sri Lanka. Common; along forests margins. Flowering 

periodicity: Annual. 

6. S. aurita Wood.: Western Peninsular India; endemic. Rare; in evergreen forests at high elevations. Flowering 


7. S. barbatus Nees: Endemic to Western Ghats. Common in Evergreen forests. Flowering periodicity: 7 years. 

8. S. calycina Nees: Southern India and Sri Lanka. This species was so far considered endemic to Sri Lanka. 

Flowering periodicity: not known. 

9. S. ciliatus Nees: Southern Western Ghats; endemic. Common; in evergreen forests. Flowering periodicity: 

Annual. 

10. S. consanguineus (Nees) Clarke: Peninsular India. Common; in evergreen forests at higher elevations. 

Flowering periodicity: 4 years. 

11. S. cuspidatus (Benth.) T. Anders.: Peninsular India. Common; in evergreen forests. Flowering periodicity: 7 

years. 

12. S. decurrens Nees: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen forests. Flowering periodicity: 5-6 

years. 

13. S. dupeni Bedd. ex Clarke. Endemic to Kerala (Nayar 1997). Flowering periodicity: 3-5 years. 

14. S. foliosus (Wight) T. Anders.: Peninsular India. Rare; in evergreen forests at high elevations. Flowering 


15. S. gracilis Bedd.: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen shola forests at higher elevations. 

Flowering periodicity: 10 years.

Genus Strobilanthes in High Ranges of Kerala: 


16. S. heyneanus Nees: Southern Western Ghats. Very common; in evergreen forests at lower elevations. 


17. S. homotropus Nees: Southern Western Ghats. Rare; in evergreen shola forests at higher elevations. 


18. S. integrifolius (Dalzell) Kuntze: Endemic to Western Ghats. Evergreen forests at higher elevations. 


19. S. ixiocephalus Benth.: Endemic to Western ghats. Common along margins of Evergreen forests. Flowering 


20. S. jeyporensis Bedd.: Peninsular India. Very rare; along the margins of evergreen forests. Flowering 


21. S. kunthianus (Nees) T. Anders. ex Benth.: Peninsular India. Common; in grasslands at higher elevations. 


22. S. lawsonii Gamble: Southern Western Ghats. Rare; along the cuttings in evergreen forests. Flowering 


23. S. luridus Wight: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen forests at higher elevations. Flowering 


24. S. matthewiana Scotland: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats Flowering periodicity: not known. 

25. S. micranthus Wight: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen forests at higher elevation. Flowering 


26. S. microstachya Benth. ex Hohen.: Endemic to Peninsular India. Flowering periodicity: 5 years. 

27. S. neilgherrensis Bedd.: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Flowering periodicity: 7 years. 

28. S. neoasper Venu & P. Daniel: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Flowering periodicity: 3-5 years. 

29. S. papillosus T. Anders.: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Occasional; along shola borders at low 

altitudes. Flowering periodicity not known. 

30. S. perrottetianus Nees: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Common; in low and medium altitude sholas. 


31. S. pulneyensis Clarke: Southern Western Ghats. Very common; in semi-evergreen forests. Flowering periodicity: 

Annual. 

32. S. rubicundus (Nees) Anders.: Peninsular India. Common; in evergreen forests. Flowering periodicity: 5 

years. 

33. S. sessilis Nees: Southern Western Ghats (Kerala). Rare; in grasslands. Flowering periodicity: Annual. 

34. S. tristis (Wight) T. Anders.: Southern Western Ghats. Very common; in evergreen forests. Flowering 


35. S. urceolaris Gamble: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen forests at high elevations. Flowering 

periodicity: Annual. 

36. S. violaceus Bedd.: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Occasional; in shola borders at medium altitudes. 


37. S. virendrakumarana Venu & P Daniel: Endemic to Kerala. Flowering periodicity: 10 years. 

38. S. warreensis Dalz.: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen forests. in all elevations. Flowering 


39. S. wightianus Nees: Southern Western Ghats. Common; in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. 


40. S. zenkerianus (Nees) T. Anders.: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats. Flowering periodicity: 16 years. 

141


Discussion 

142 


Based on the distribution and diversity of this genus, it can be ascertained that the High ranges of Kerala is a hotspot of 

endemic Strobilanthes. Possible reasons for species explosion and endemism could be geographical isolation of 

many highland valleys and gorges coupled with compression of altitudinal and eco-climatic zones within small 

geographical area. The High Ranges range between 700 and 2690m asl and there are many hills and peaks above 

2000 m. Only a few species are found to occur below 500m namely S. barbatus, S. warrensis, S. heyneanus, S. 

rubicundus which may reach up to 1400m asl. Likewise, some species such as S. homotropus, S. violaceous, S. 

zenkerianus, S. andersonii, S. gracilis, S. wightianus, S. urceolaris, S. foliosus, etc. are seen exclusively above 2000m 

asl. S. andersonii and S. zenkerianus are present in certain pockets of shola forests only in Eravikulam NP. The altitude 

specific distribution of these 40 species can be attributed to recent isolation of the various populations of the ancestral 

stock and speciation of these taxa as neoendemics. The evolution of grassland specific species like S. kunthianus and 

S. sessilis are still more recent as the evolution of grasslands in South Indian hills are thought as comparatively recent 

(Subhash Chandran 1997). But the distribution of S. kunthianus is wider than many other species which are with 

narrower distribution. It may be noted that habitat destruction may not be the only cause for the narrow distribution of 

Strobilanthes spp. Micro-habitats specificity may also contribute towards narrow distribution. Cladistics and adaptations 

of ancestral stock within the group may through some light on the evolutionary divergence. It is interesting also to note 

that several species (around 50%) are vagile and do not disperse far from their habitats. 

Occurrence of largest number of Strobilanthes species (27) within Periyar TR can be attributed to the large tract of 

evergreen forests and wide ranges of altitudinal variation (200 to 2016m asl). Species like S. tristis, S. warrensis, S. 

rubicundus, S. pulneyensis, S. micranthes, S. luridus, S. homotropus, S. heyneanus, S. decurrens, S. ciliatus, S. 

asperrimus, S. anceps, S. virendrakumarana, S. ixiocephalus, S. andersonii, S. barbatus and S. dupenii prefer evergreen 

habitats. Strobilanthes foliosus, S. wightianus, S. urceolaris, S. caudatus, S. violacea, S. zenkerianus and S. gracilis 

prefer margins of evergreen shola forests. 

The monocarpic nature and gregarious flowering (species specific periodicity) makes the biology of this species most 

interesting. The periodicity of flowering varies from annual to 16 years. Species such as S. anamallaica, S. asperrimus, 

S. ciliatus, S. heyneanus, S. pulneyensis, S. sessilis, S. urceolaris and S. wightianus produce flowers every year while 

S. amabilis, S. gracilis, S. homotropus, S. jeyporensis, S. kunthiana, S. micranthus, S. perrottetianus, S. violceus and S. 

zenkarianus flower after more than 10 years of vegetative growth. There are six species which flower after seven years 

of growth. Except for certain well known popular species like S. kunthianus, S. carvi, etc. the flowering periodicity can 

be studied only through tracing the herbarium collection. But it is not always correct. There are sporadic flowering for 

some species which may also be included in the herbarium collection. Also, in certain species there is more than one 

population in the same locality. Best example of this is S. kunthianus, which is with three different populations in 

Munnar (a major centre of S. kunthianus distribution). One population of this species is located on one side of a hill and 

the second is on the other side. During the last 8 years, there were three massive blooming of this shrub whose 

flowering periodicity is once in 12 years. This may due to the delay of seed germination due to some reason in earlier 

seasons. The species with long flowering periodicity and monocarpic nature is also a potential cause for their rarity. In 

many local floras there are some unidentified or misidentified collections of Strobilanthes which were collected during 

their vegetative stage. So at least some rare species were left unidentified in many local floras and the presence of them 

were not documented. 

The mass flowering is a usual feature of Strobilanthes spp. The process has been well documented in case of S. 

kunthianus. During the last flowering (year 2008) in Eravikulam NP, flowering started at Rajamala (southernmost part), 

moved northward and the entire NP was covered with the gregarious flowering. Mass flowering of S. homotropus and

Plate 20A 

Strobilanthes of High Ranges, Kerala - I 

1 2 

3 4 5 

6 

9 10 

7 8 

1. Eravikulam NP, S. kunthianus 

flowering 

2. People queuing to view Kurunji 

flowering 

3. S. andersonii; 4. S. kunthianus; 

5. S. anamalaica; 6. S. barbatus; 

7. S. consanguineus; 8. S. dupenii; 

9. S. foliosus; 10. S. gracilis

11 

Plate 20B 

Strobilanthes of High Ranges, Kerala - II 

12 13 

14 15 16 

17 18 19 

20 21 22 

11. S. heyneanus; 12. S. homotropous; 13. S. ixiocephalus; 14. S. lawsonii; 

15. S. luridus; 16. S. micranthus; 17. S. neoasper; 18. S. pulniensis; 19. S. tristis; 

20. S. urceolaris; 21. S. wightianus; 22. S. zenkerianus

S. gracilis makes the entire shola as a flowering forest. When we analyze the last flowering of Strobilanthes spp. in the 

High Ranges it is again miraculous. More than 25 different species flowered simultaneously and the entire High 

Ranges became the paradise of Strobilanthes. One wonders how much of intermixing and hybridization goes on when 

25 different species flower synchronously. 

Conservation and management implications of mass flowering 

Ecologically mass blooming of Strobilanthes and synchronous flowering of various species can have several 

consequences, which are not understood fully. The dying out of these species subsequent to flowering produces 

enormous combustible material within and around shola forests which are very susceptible to forest fires. Most of the 

25 species flowered during 2008 are shola specific and they occupied more than 90 percent of shrubby regime. So the 

entire shrubby stratum of shola forests has become vulnerable to fire. The seeds of these species are just liberated into 

soil and some of them are at the state of maturing. Occurrences of fire in these shola forests will definitely burn the 

seeds and hence it may cause extinction of narrow endemics. As a strategy for the future development of Idukki District 

the tourism industry (Anonymous 1998) is much significant. In this context the blooming of Strobilanthes (Kurinji) is an 

item for revenue. It is estimated that the last mass blooming of Strobilanthes kunthianus (Neelakkurinji) had generated 

a revenue of around Rs. 2000 crores within three months. Sadly, very little of this money is ploughed back for effective 

conservation and management of these species. 


The author is highly grateful to Kerala Forest Department especially field staff at Eravikulam NP, Mathikettan Chola NP, 

Anamudi Chola NP, Pampadum Chola NP and Periyar Tiger Reserve. 

References 

Anonymous, 1970. The Kannan Devan Hills. KDHP CO’s pamphlet. Ganges Printing Company Ltd., Calcutta. 

Anonymous, 1978. A Brief History of Administration of Cardamom Lands in Idukki District. Collectorate of Idukki, Kerala. 

Anonymous, 1984. Land use plan for Idukki District. Kerala State Land Use Board, Kerala. 

Anonymous, 1998. Vikasana Rekha (Development Plan) Idukki District Panchayaat. 

Genus Strobilanthes in High Ranges of Kerala: 


Beddome, R.H. 1868-1874. Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis. Gantz Brothers, Madras. 

Biju, S.D. 2004. Floristic Studies on Eravikulam National Park. TBGRI Research Report. Tropical Botanical Garden 

and Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 

Champion H.G. & S.K. Seth. 1968. A Revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publication, Govt. of India, 

New Delhi. 

Chandrasekharan, C. 1962. Forest types of Kerala state 1, 2 & 3. Indian Forester 88(9,10&11): 660-674; 731-747 & 837- 

847. 

Kishore, K. 2004 Taxonomic and Ecological studies of the Shola Forests of Kerala. PhD Thesis submitted to Calicut 

University, Kerala. 

Moench, M. 1991. Politics of Deforestation: Case study of Cardamom Hills of Kerala. Economic and Political Weekly 

Jan. 26. 

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146 


Nair, S.C. 1991. The Southern Western Ghats: A Biodiversity Conservation Plan. INTACH, New Delhi 

Nayar, M.P. 1996. Hot Spots of Endemic Plants of India Nepal and Bhutan. Tropical Botanical garden and Research 

Institute, Trivandrum. 

Nayar, M.P. 1997. Biodiversity challenges in Kerala and Science of conservation Biology. In: P. Pushpangadan & K.S.S. 

Nair (eds.) Biodiversity of Tropical Forests, the Kerala scenario. State Committee on Science Technology and 

Environment, Govt. of Kerala, India. 

Raven, R.H. & D. Axelrod, D. 1974. Angiosperm Biogeography and past continental movements. Ann. Missouri Botanical 

Garden 61: 529-573. 

Sasidharaan, N. 2000. Diversity and endemism among the Flora of Western Ghats with Reference to Kerala. pp. 33-37. 

In: M. Sivadasan & K.V. Mohanan (eds.) Biodiversity and Ecology: Concepts and Facts. Department of Botany, 

University of Calicut. 

Subhash Chandran, M.D. 1997. On the Ecological History of the Western Ghats. Current Science 73(2) 

: 141-155.

Introduction 

21.0 Rocky Outcrops as Special Habitats in 

North Western Ghats, Maharashtra 

Aparna Watve 

34/6, Gulawani Maharaj Rd, Pune 411 004, Maharashtra 

aparnawatve1@gmail.com 

“Rock outcrops” is the term used for habitats where portions of freely exposed bedrock protrude above the soil level due 

to natural reasons. Rocks exposed due to human activities such as deforestation are not included in this habitat 

category. Cliffs, isolated hills and platforms of rocks formed due to landscape level activities of weathering are the types 

of outcrops seen commonly in India. Well known rock outcrops habitats in the world are inselbergs, barrens, cedar 

glades, cliffs, serpentine, ultramafic, limestone and gypsum outcrops. Each of which is known to harbour highly 

specialized vegetation rich in habitat specific and endemic plants. 

Rock outcrop habitats are generally of small extent within a region and present particular habitat limitations e.g., 

exposure to sun and lack of soil. The microenvironment at the rock surface ranges from very hot and arid in dry season 

to water logged in the wet season. Hence edaphically controlled herbaceous plant communities are characteristic of 

rock outcrops. On an outcrop a variety of microhabitat types have been recognized such as seasonal rock pools, 

ephemeral flush communities, shallow depressions, boulders, crevices, etc. Owing to the diversity of microhabitats, 

rock outcrop are actually “habitat complexes” sheltering a diversity of plant groups ranging from succulents to hydrophytes 

within a relatively small area. Extreme microenvironmental conditions present on the outcrops differ widely from the 

surrounding mesic areas and hence they function as terrestrial habitat islands. In many regions of Africa, America and 

Australia, it has resulted in the formation of narrowly endemic species which are adapted to the microclimatic conditions 

of the outcrops and cannot thrive elsewhere. 

In India, the habitat is represented in many ways. Large monolithic inselbergs and koppjes are common in South India. 

Cliffs are dominant outcrop type in the mountainous regions. Rocky plateaus of basalt and laterite present in Western 

Maharashtra (between 16 0 -19 0 N latitude), are of high botanical value due to presence of endemic plants (Plates 21A 

& 21B). In spite of western Maharashtra being floristically well studied and rich in endemic species, scant information 

is available about the general ecology and diversity of vegetation of these outcrops. 

The lateritic outcrops are indurated rocky plateaus of laterite, known as duricrusts or ferricretes. These are formed 

around 65m years ago, due to chemical leaching of the parent rock in high rainfall conditions followed by hardening 

leading to formation of laterite, a red coloured stone rich in iron and aluminium. Lateritic outcrops (known as ‘sadas’ in 

Marathi) can be divided into high level laterites located between 800-1200m asl in the Western Ghats and low level 

laterites located below 100m asl in the Konkan region. They occur between 16 0 -18 0 N in Maharashtra. The outcrops 

of basalt are exposed on flat topped hills of the northern Western Ghats and are more common at the northern tip of the 

Western Ghats, between 18 0 - 21 0 N. All the outcrops are widely separated from each other by highly weathered 

landscape, predominantly covered by woody vegetation, and thus exist as “terrestrial island habitats”. 

Soil formation on the outcrops is extremely slow. Soil depth varies from a few centimeters on flat areas to about a meter 

in deep cracks and depressions. It is sandy to sandy loam in texture, highly acidic and poor in phosphates. In the dry 

period, the temperature of exposed rock surface is very high (maximum recorded 58 0 C) and humidity is very low 

(lowest recorded 14%). In the monsoon, conditions go to other extreme when the rains are continuous and heavy from 

July to September, leading to formation of ephemeral wetlands. Scarcity of soil and extremes of microclimate are 

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148 


unfavourable for the growth of perennial vegetation. Hence, vegetation dominated by annuals thrives on outcrops only 

in moist conditions. Following vegetation types can be categorized on these outcrops. The microhabitat categories 

follow Porembski et al. (1998) with some modifications. 

Vegetation of rock surfaces 

Cryptogamic vegetation of rock surfaces [R] : 

Exposed rock surfaces on laterite as well as basalt are completely covered by cyanobacterial crust and some crustose 

and foliose lichens. Immediately after the onset of monsoon, the rocks become slippery due to the slimy sheaths of the 

cyanobacteria. 

Cryptogamic vegetation of boulders [B] : 

Boulders of different sizes up to a meter in height occur often on the outcrop surfaces. On some lateritic plateaus, the 

entire surface is covered by loose boulders which make it look like rock field. The boulders are also covered by 

cyanobacterial crust, and have other species according to the available surface, crags and height of the boulders. 

Moss cushions and ferns including desiccation tolerant Cheilanthes sp. are frequent on the boulders. Lithophytic 

orchids such as Eria find this a suitable place for growth. 

Vegetation of rock crevices [CR] : 

Crevices in rocks provide opportunities for establishment of the plants. Depending upon the depth and width, they can 

be small or large. Small crevices are very common on the outcrops and provide safe growing sites for mosses, ferns 

and some angiosperms like Flemingia neilgheriensis. 

Vegetation of depressions: 

Vegetation of ephemeral pools [SRP] : 

c1.1. Shallow pools are commonly formed in places where water accumulates after flowing over a gently sloping area. 

They have gently sloping sides, little accumulated soil at bottom and about 2-5cm depth of water. Shallow pools on 

lateritic plateaus of the Western Ghats are habitats of rare Ericaulon tuberiferum and Aponogeton saterensis. 

c1.2. Deep pools are more common on the basaltic outcrops. They form in large potholes, with well defined and 

almost vertical rocky edges, have 10cm or more water depth and often have a few cm of soil accumulated at the bottom 

of the pothole. Some of the deep pools can be more than 1m deep and retain some water in the deepest part almost 

through the year. 

Soil filled depressions: Soil filled depressions occur where rock is relatively flat and soil and humus have accumulated 

over the years. 

Ephemeral flush vegetation [EFV] : 

The term ephemeral flush vegetation (EFV) is a special type of vegetation that grows on rocky areas where water slowly 

seeps through soil. During the rainy season, EFV has a meadow-like physiognomic appearance whereas the dry 

season aspect is almost desolate with the bare exposed soil covered with sparse desiccated plant remnants. It is the

most interesting community on outcrops and includes high percentage of insectivorous Utricularia together with 

Eriocaulon spp. 

Seasonality of the vegetation is very marked on the outcrops. The rocky plateaus present an entirely dry almost barren 

appearance during the summer and winter. However, with the first monsoon showers, the plateaus become water 

logged leading to a sudden greening of the rocks. Although the actual species composition varies with the type of 

outcrop and its location, the vegetation follows a similar pattern viz. vegetative growth of flora and flowering of geophytes 

in early monsoon, followed by gregarious flowering of ephemerals in late monsoon followed by flowering of grasses 

signifying the end of vegetation cycle on the outcrops in this region. Very few perennials are seen persisting through 

summer and winter. A general description of vegetation is provided here. 

In the early monsoon, during June and July Poaceae members such as Glyphochloa forficulata, Isachne lisboae are 

abundant and dominant together with Fimbristylis tenera (Cyperaceae) and Eriocaulon spp. although all are in vegetative 

conditions. This phase is marked by the flowering of Hypoxis aurea, Iphigenia stellata. In August few species such as 

Dipcadi montanum, Habenaria heyneana, H. panchganiensis, Swertia minor reach flowering peak. 

In the late monsoon phase in September, several species of early phases reach flowering peak. Most dominant are 

Fimbristylis tenera together with Poaceae members. Hedyotis stocksii, Rotala sp., Flemingia neilgheriensis , Jansenella 

griffithiana Coelachne minuta, Indopoa paupercula are most abundant at this time. This phase also shows mass 

blooming of Utricularia and Eriocaulon spp. Plant diversity and richness is highest in this phase (Highest recorded 

H’=4.417, N=47 in the Western Ghats outcrops). In one monsoon, up to 23 species were recorded in a single 1X1m 

quadrat indicating very high species richness. 

In the post monsoon phase, abundance and dominance of Poaceae reaches peak with some grasses such as 

Glyphochloa forficulata almost singly dominant in most quadrats. Sub dominants include endemic Dimeria spp. 

Ischaemum spp. and Dichanthium spp. mostly in the fruiting stages. During winter the lateritic outcrops are parched dry 

with the exception of a few individuals of Blumea malcolmii, B. oxyodonta, Crotalaria vestita, etc. In locally moist areas 

such as drying rock pools, Pogostemon deccanensis and Rotala densiflora remain. Indigofera dalzellii that occurs 

commonly on the lateritic plateaus starts flowering in May with pre-monsoon showers and continues to flower throughout 

the monsoon, reaching fruiting stage in October. 

Abundance and dominance of endemics is an important feature of this habitat. Based upon primary and secondary 

data, about 150 endemic species have been recorded to occur on rocky plateaus in the Northern Western Ghats and 

Konkan areas. Many of these endemics (viz. Aponogeton satarensis, Ceropegia jainii) show highly restricted geographical 

distribution and are specific to microhabitats. Forty of these are listed as threatened according to IUCN criteria by the 

Botanical Survey of India. Monotypic Indopoa paupercula and Bhidea burnsiana are restricted to the rocky areas in 

general and are abundant on the rock outcrops. Dimeria woodrowii is exclusively seen on the low level lateritic 

plateaus. Others like Ceropegia, Hedyotis have obligate endemic species on ferricretes in addition to several related 

species in the surrounding shrub savannahs, forests and wetlands. Highly specialized ephemeral flush vegetation and 

abundance of endemic species seen no where else in world, makes outcrop vegetation in Maharashtra globally 

unique. 

Details of some important threatened plants seen on outcrops are provided here: 

Cyathocline lutea: endangered 

Rocky Outcrops as Special Habitats in 


This is a small annual of Asteraceae which grows on basaltic outcrops in shallow depressions. Secondarily it is also 

seen growing along field edges and in areas of moist soil. It has a small rosette of leaves through which emerges a long 

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stalk about 10-15 cm high bearing bunch golden yellow coloured capitula. Though small in size the herbs spread over 

large areas and bloom en masse in September, imparting golden yellow colour to entire landscape. The species is 

found only on basaltic outcrops atop the Western Ghats, in Nasik and Pune districts. Though locally abundant, it is 

threatened by changes in land use such as conversion of outcrops in agricultural areas, overgrazing and fires which 

change the species composition. It is necessary to prevent these activities to conserve this beautiful species. 

Habenaria panchganiensis : Critically endangered 

This beautiful ground orchid grows mostly on lateritic plateaus at 1000-1200mASL. A cluster of radical leaves emerge 

from the bulb during heavy rainfall of July. The flowers are bright white and bloom for about two weeks between July and 

August. Locally the populations are small about 2-3 individuals per 5X5 square meters. The populations are seriously 

threatened by conversion of the outcrops into entertainment areas for monsoon tourism. In addition mining for bauxite 

is seriously threatening the habitat. It is necessary to provide special protection from trampling tourists and also develop 

ex situ conservation techniques for this species. 

Aponogeton satarensis : Endangered 

This tiny geophyte grows in shallow seasonal rock pools on lateritic plateaus at 1000-1200mASL. A short stalk and few 

leaves emerge above water. The inflorescence stalk is bifurcated, with characteristic Y-shape appearance, bearing 

tiny pink flowers during July, August. It is known from only a few localities so far and has small populations. These sites 

are threatened by landscape conversion by mining, tourism development and windmill farms leading to slow degradation 

of the microhabitats. It can be conserved by protecting the sites and also by ex situ conservation in shallow aquatic 

gardens. 

Euphorbia panchganiensis : endangered 

This geophyte has a large underground rhizome which remains dormant for almost 7 months. The inflorescence of 

bright red colour emerges above ground during summer (March-April). The radicle leaves appear as rosettes during 

monsoon after the fruiting and dispersal of seed is over. Locally the populations of this species are moderate sized, but 

the sites are heavily grazed, and trampled. Summer fires set by people are highly disturbing to the outcrop vegetation, 

and though this species survives through it, the dispersal becomes limited. It is necessary to develop ex situ as well as 

in situ measures for its conservation. 

Dipcadi concanense : Critically endangered 

This is one of the most beautiful ground lilies which grow during the monsoon on lateritic plateaus of Konkan. The 

species was first recorded about a century ago from Malvan, but has now vanished almost completely through its 

range. It still survives on the extensive plateau of Ratnagiri town, sometimes growing in the backyards of houses. A few 

more localities are also known from the same area and Goa. The underground bulb gives out few narrow linear leaves 

and the flowering scape is tall, about 30cm tall and bears one or two long tubular flowers abt 4cm long and of purest 

white. The site in Ratnagiri area is being converted for housing and is proposed MIDC area, threatening the large 

population there. Ex situ conservation is thus absolutely necessary for this ornamental species. 

The rock outcrops also support insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds which have adapted to live in the stressful 

environment. Small mammals like rodents feed on underground parts of the vegetation. Bats inhabit underground 

lateritic caves. During the survey, activity of large mammals such as gaur, leopards was often seen on outcrops in 

Protected Areas. Recently new species of caecilians have been identified on lateritic outcrops.

Plate 21A 

Rock Outcrops as Special Habitats in Western Ghats 

Ephemeral flush vegetation on lateritic outcrops in Konkan with dense 

growth of Utricularia reticulata and Eriocaulon spp. ©Ashok Captain 

Crevices: on outcrops are very common microhabitats 

for moss and Poaceae ©Ashok Captain 

Seasonal rock pool: on 

lateritic outcrop with 

dense growth of rare 

Eriocaulon tuberiferum 

©Aparna Watve

Plate 21B 

Threatened Species of Rocky Habitats – W. Ghats 

Cyathocline lutea growing in soil filled 

depressions on basalt outcrop 

[©Aparna Watve] 

Habenaria panchganiensis 

[©Sanjay Thakur] 

Dipcadi concanense [©Ashok Captain] 

Euphorbia panchganiensis 

[©Aparna Watve ] 

Aponogeton satarensis [© Sanjay Thakur]

Rock outcrops are important as grazing lands for surrounding villages. The shrines of deities worshipped by shepherds 

and places of ancestral worship on these outcrops have a special socio-cultural value for local communities. The 

rocky plateaus also serve as watershed areas, and support large ponds or have perennial water sources along the 

edges which are extremely important for local people as well as livestock. 

There is however, a serious lack of awareness in society regarding the biological, social and cultural importance of 

rock outcrop habitats. The dry physical appearance has misled government departments to classify these as wastelands. 

This has led to disastrous results as many activities have been allowed on the outcrops without adequate Ecological 

Impact Assessments. Mining for bauxite has led to destruction of prime habitats in Kolhapur. Ferricretes in Konkan are 

converted into mango orchards. Extensive rocky plateaus in Satara district have been converted to windmill farms, 

causing a slow degradation of vegetation by invasion of weeds, changes in drainage pattern and fragmentation by 

roads and fencing. Rocky plateaus at Panchgani and Kas, known for exceptional natural beauty are under threat from 

growing tourism, insensitive to the fragility of their environment. Only those outcrops which are present within wildlife 

sanctuary areas of Chandoli, Koyana, Radhanagari and Dajipur receive some protection. However, they have not 

received any special locale specific importance. It is thus necessary to take immediate steps towards the preservation 

of these unique habitats both within and outside PAs. 

Suggested measures: 

• Limiting destructive activities such as mining, plantation, tourism, constructions and burning on plateaus 

• Enhanced protection of rock outcrops within existing protected areas and protection of additional representative 

sites to complement currently protected outcrops 

Complete assessment of the floral and faunal richness of the habitat including those in the Reserved Forests and 

revenue lands 

• Awareness generation about the importance of preserving these habitats 

In addition to this, it is extremely necessary for researchers, environmental managers and others to understand the 

special nature and uniqueness of rock outcrop habitats and their global conservation significance. 

References 

Rocky Outcrops as Special Habitats in 


Porembski, S., U. Becker & R. Seine. 1998. Islands on islands: habitats on Inselbergs. Ecological Studies 146: 

49-67. 

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a k u r 

P n aj K ma

Introduction 

22.0 Vegetation Characteristic and Special Habitats 

in the Transition Zone of Vidarbha – 

Dandakaranya, Deccan Plateau 

Ravikiran Govekar 

Allapalli Wildlife Division, CFRC Campus 

Mul Road Chandrapur, Maharashtra 442402 

govekiran@yahoo.com 

The eastern Vidarbha in Maharashtra- especially the Gadchiroli and Gondia districts, forms part of biogeographic 

province 6B i.e., Central Plateau (Rodgers & Panwar 1988). This province is contiguous with southern flanks of 

Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh; MP), Chhattisgarh, and northern districts of Andhra Pradesh (AP) and more or less uniform 

in terms of floral diversity, physiography, geology and zoogeography. The soil is sandy to sandy-loam in texture and 

reddish in colour. Mean annual rainfall is about 150cm. The boundaries of biogeographic provinces i.e., Eastern 

Plateau (6B2) and Eastern Highlands (6C2) are not very sharp and they inter-grade into each other. Interestingly the 

recent physiographic map adopted by the Forest Survey of India also classifies this region into three zones viz., North 

Deccan, East Deccan and South Deccan by apparently giving more weightage to the political boundary between 

Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh. The entire area forms the South-Western and Westernmost part of historical 

Dandakaranya region. This region extends up to North- Eastern Ghats. 

Vidarbha – Dandakaranya transition harbours some of the charismatic wildlife species of India including the tiger 

(Panthera tigris), wild buffalo (Bubalus arnee) and chousinga (Tetraceros quadricornis). There is high diversity of 

butterflies all over the area. All the hill streams above 400m altitude show presence of majestic Orange oak leaf butterfly 

(Kallima inachus) with remarkably high density (about 40-50 individuals per every 10 m length of stream). The Southern 

open lands along the Godavari plains have been known for the presence of Jerdon’s courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), 

the endangered bird while the hill forests form the abode of Indian hill myna (Gracula religiosa ssp. peninsularis) which 

is the indicator of this habitat. Giant squirrel, Ratufa indica ssp. centralis shows its easternmost distribution in this region 

and is confined to moist riverine forests. 

The floristic account of Vidarbha and South Chhattisgarh region is known from the works of Malhotra & Moorthy 

(1971,1992), Moghe (1993), Patil (1991), Verma et al. (1985), Ugemuge (1985), Almeida (1996, 1998), Sharma et al. 

(1996) and Singh et al. (2000, 2001). This article gives a brief overview of the habitat and vegetation characteristics in 

this tract along with status of selected rare and locally threatened plant species. 


The Vidarbha – Dandakaranya tract falls under Godavari river basin which consists of Wainganga, Indravati, Pranhita 

sub-basins. This area encompasses the Northern Maikal- Satpura ranges and Southern Abujhmarh - Bastar hills with 

several deep valleys, minor hill ranges and peaks (locally called as metta) and lateritic plateaus (locally called as 

madum). The other important hill ranges in this landscape include Dongargad, Tipagad-Palasgarh, Borgaon, Wadwi 

(Surjagad), Gatta (Damkondawahi), Sirikonda, Aheri, Lakkametta and Kolamarka. On eastern side Rajnandgaon 

plateau and Bastar - Bijapur highlands form a part of larger Chhattisgarh plateau, flanked by Chhattisgarh plains. 

These hill ranges, except Abujhmar, are more or less scattered and discontinuous. Several small streams passing 

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156 


through the valleys finally meet the main river of the sub-basin. The rainfall starts in late June and lasts up to November 

in some hilly parts. Summers are relatively cooler in comparison to adjoining plains. Altitude ranges from 250m to 

almost 900 m and temperature fluctuates from about 3 o C to 47 o C. 

Since the area discussed above is situated in the transition zone of North Deccan (Eastern Maharashtra), South 

Deccan (Telangana) and East Deccan (West Dandakaranya), it shows influence of all the elements and forest types of 

all adjoining areas. The floristic elements show some affinities with the flora of Assam- Bihar, Eastern Ghats, Western 

Ghats as well as Central region. Sal (Shorea robusta) is confined to the eastern part of the region (Rajnadgaon- 

Rengakhar) while best quality teak forests (C P Teak) flourishes towards West in the places like Sironcha and Allapalli 

and influence of Assamese flora can be seen along entire North South length (e.g. Cephalostachyum pergracile, Lasia 

spinosa, Bambusa tulda). Influence of Eastern and Western Ghats can be seen in the form of species such as 

Macaranga peltata, Eriolaena hookeriana, Syzygium heyneanum, Schefflera venulosa, Homonoia retusa, Bridelia 

retusa, and Curcuma pseudomontana among others. Some of the relatively rare species of Bastar and East Gadchiroli 

area include Naravelia zeylanica, Canseja rheedii, Osbeckia muralis, Canscora heteroclita, Hygrophila balsamica, 

Rhenacanthus nasutus, and Amorphophallus sylvaticus. The predominant forest types in the region are Tropical Dry 

Deciduous and Tropical Moist Deciduous forests with scattered Tropical Semi-evergreen and Dry Evergreen forests. 


The region exhibits a great deal of habitat heterogeneity in the form of highlands, valleys, moist slopes and riverine 

areas which run along North-South direction and connecting Maikal range with Chattisgarh highlands. The Indravati 

and Wainganga sub-basins have contributed a lot in plant dissemination and influenced the flora of the region. There 

are several hundred hill streams connected through rivulets to the Indravati river, which itself crosses Bailadilla hill 

ranges some hundred kilometers eastwards. Thus, Indravati must have played a major role bringing Eastern Ghats 

elements as well as Orissa- Mahanadi Basin elements through Bailadilla towards Abujhmar – Bastar highlands and 

Lower Godavari basin. Some of the habitats have been discussed here. 

i. Salekasa-Darekasa-South Balaghat- Dongargarh Forests 

The tracts in Gondia district of Maharashtra adjacent to Dongargad hills (West Kawardha) and South Balaghat form a 

kind of moist and swamp forests thereby representing a unique habitat. These forests being moist almost throughout 

the year and the presence of several water bodies and marshy areas and pools (locally called as ‘doh’) in the lowland 

areas, represent flora which otherwise is missing from Western part of Maharashtra. The Navegaon and Nagzira area 

and other marshy areas support very interesting aquatic and semi-aquatic flora as well as fauna. Plants like Butomopsis 

latifolia, Oryza rufipogon, Lasia spinosa, Cephalostachyum pergracile are noteworthy. 

ii. Abujhmar-Bastar hills - Lahiri - Damkondawahi Hill Forests 

These forests are a mix of moist deciduous, dry evergreen and riverine forests. Although they are not as marshy as those 

of Darekasa-Gondia forests, they have formed a unique habitat with respect to deep valleys and riverine moist forests 

where water is available throughout the year in deeper hill streams. These streams are very important water source for 

all the fauna during pinch period. The moist areas harbour diverse insect and reptile species. Butterfly diversity and 

density in the summers is amazing. The summer flora even includes plants like Drosera burmanii, Utricularia scandens, 

Pteridophytes, 10-12 species of Ficus a variety of grasses and sedges, which are altogether missing from the adjoining 

lowland flora. Memecylon umbellatum var. umbellatum which otherwise found at a higher altitudes in moist Western 

and Eastern Ghats, is common at streamside at altitude 250 to 300m, while species like Melastomata malbathricum,

Macaranga peltata which are found even at lower altitudes in Western Ghats are found only above 500m in this region. 

Abujhmar hills- Bastar hills is a compact but huge block of large number of undulated hills, valleys and streams 

bounded by Indravati on the Southern side, Parlkota on the Northern side and Pamulgautam passing through its 

middle. These hill ranges extend both in Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh and through Bastar-Jagdalpur are remotely 

linked with Eastern Ghats through Bailadilla hills and other discontinuous hill ranges. The plateau or madum occurring 

between altitude 650 m to 850 m shows lateritic formation and trees are represented by typical stunted dry type 

vegetation. The Abujhmar hills habitat spreads over 3000 km 2 area. 

iii. Kopela – Kolamarka-Bijapur Ghati and Parsewada Forests 

These forests extend to the South-eastern Gadchiroli district which continues in the Dantewada area (through Indravati Tiger 

Reserve-Sundra- Pharsegarh up to Bijapur Ghati-Alabaka hills) in the east and adjoining eastern Adilabad District towards 

West. These are basically moist deciduous forests with dry evergreen patches interspersed in them. The dry evergreen 

species include Manilkara hexandra, Vitex leucoxylon, Syzygium heyneanum, Diospyros malabarica. The Eastern flat 

areas adjoining Indravati river (e. g. Chitweli) provides swampy habitat for endangered wild buffalo. These forests are 

unique in the sense that the hills are not so prominent but lowland areas show rich moist dense vegetation including 

canebrakes in some patches (Plate 22A). Pure Hardwickia binata and Manilkara hexandra patches are interspersed with 

other forest types in drier areas. 

Plants of High Conservation Significance 

Though this landscape is quite rich in plant species diversity, it exhibits very low degree of endemism. This may be due 

to contiguity of landmass with adjacent phytogeographic regions. Nevertheless a large number of species in this tract 

are common between Western Ghats, Central Highlands, Chotanagpur and North-East India which signify the past 

climatic conditions and corridor for floral migration. Macaranga peltata, Melastomata malabathricum, Memycelon 

umbelatum, Glochidion zeylanicum, Ficus semicordata, Entada phaseoloides, Buchnania axillaris, Calamus 

pseudotenuis, Euonymus godaverensis, Calophyllum inophyllum, Thysonalena maxima, Caryota urens, Ardisia 

solanacea, Cephalostachyum pergracile, Premna gmelinoides, Bauhinia retusa, Hydrocotyle sibthorpiodes, Schefflera 

elliptica and Butomopsis latifolia among others occur in this region which have otherwise distribution along moist 

areas of rest of the India or Western Ghats of Maharashtra. One of the prominent species in this region, Hardwickia 

binata, can be considered a typical (broad endemic) of Deccan plateau. Locally, several species of lower plants e.g., 

Isoetes and other pteridophytes may turn out to be endemic which await detailed taxonomic studies. A few species of 

high conservation significance (Plate 22 B) have been given below: 

i. Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro. (Poaceae) 

Local Name : Panbamboo, Bansari bans 

Vegetation Characteristic and Special Habitats in the 

Transition Zone of Vidarbha – Dandakaranya, Deccan Plateau 

A beautiful bamboo 10 -25 m tall, having yellow-brown sheath and black hair. Culms thin, 5-8cm in diameter. Internode 

up to 70 cm, branching divergent from all nodes. This species has been recently reported by the author from hilly tracts 

of Gadchiroli district (Maharashtra). Earlier, it was known to occur in moist tracts of northern AP and MP. Its present 

distribution in this area gives a complete picture on its pattern of dispersal i.e., Assam to northern parts of AP through 

Chhota Nagpur Rajmahal- Maikal –Abujhmar and western Orissa. It is confined to hilly regions above 450m, especially 

in cooler valleys and moist slopes. 

Since the culm is hollow it is used by the local communities for ‘Toddy’ extraction. Its long internodes and fine straight 

fiber is useful in fine bamboo crafts. It is heavily exploited in the region without any conservation or management inputs. 

157


ii. Bambusa tulda Roxb. (Poaceae) 

Local Name : Bhalin bans 

158 


Another interesting bamboo, 7-20 m high, culms 5-10 cm in diameter, sometimes with yellow streaks. Till recently this 

species was known to occur only in the North Eastern parts of Central Highlands . However, it has recently been 

recorded from Bhamaragad forests of Gadchiroli district, Maharashtra. (Dr. Mukteshkumar, KFRI Pers. Comm.) This 

species mainly grows in moist localities above 400m asl and invariably along narrow strips of hill streams. This species 

flowered gregariously during summer of 2008. Presently it is found with about 150 km 2 area of Surjagad, Gatta, 

Bhamaragad-Abujhmar hills. 

The species has largely been neglected so far as it was though to be an ordinary bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus. No 

proper strategies for its scientific management has been evolved. 

iii. Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites (Araceae) 

An aroid herb. Rootstock stout with horizontal stem and spiny petioles. Leaves peltate-entire to saggitate dissected. 

Lasia spinosa is a recent addition to the flora of this region. Basically this is an eastern element seen in riparian marshy 

places and spring sites. Its present distribution is discontinuous, however habitat is well defined. It will be quite interesting 

to study the probable movement of this species from North-East to the South and its restricted distribution.. 

This species is restricted to Gondia (Darekasa) and Gadchiroli districts (along Bhamaragad, Surajagad and Venkatapur- 

Aheri hill streams and Abujhmar). At present no specific threats are known except restricted habitats and small, 

vulnerable populations. 

Strobilanthes auriculata Nees (Acanthaceae) 

This species also grows in moist streamside areas at higher altitudes of Darekasa forests of Gondia. It has recently 

been rediscovered from Maharashtra from where it was thought to have gone extinct. (Dr. Bhuskute, Principal, Godia 

College, Pers. Comm.) Earlier, it was known to occur in moist forests of Panchmarhi hills (MP). As it represents semievergreen 

moist forests and has affinities with the species of Western Ghats as well as Himalaya, it has special 

conservation significance. As of now, no direct use and immediate threats are known. 

Threats to Habitats and Conservation Implications 

One of the major threats in this region is shifting cultivation which is practiced in and around Abujhmar hills- Rajnandgaon 

and Bastar Hills by Mainly Maria and Bada Maria tribes. Thousands of hectares of prime moist and subtropical- hill forests 

are slashed, burned and used for cultivation of Kosari, the local minor millet (a variety of Panicum sumatrens). Earlier 30- 

40 years of cultivation cycle has now come down to 15 years. Thus pristine moist forests are converted rapidly into 

miscellaneous low quality open forest dominated with bamboo. This also leads to soil erosion. The area is prone to 

frequent fire, which is largely intentional for NTFP collection, getting better Tendu leaves and hunting. Since the terrain is 

rugged, one can hardly control forest fires once set. Another serious threat to the habitat and threatened species in this tract 

is spread of alien invasive species such as Lantana camara and Eupatorium adenophorum especially in shifting cultivation 

area. 

The Vidarbha – Dandakaranya landscape harbours one of the ancient forest formations in Deccan plateau that has 

undergone several changes over the millennia. Today one can trace back a number of relict patches of vegetation 

representing interesting micro-habitats and special assemblages of plants. These elements indicate that this landscape 

is unlike general Deccan plateau but has great affinity with Eastern highlands. The ecotone between dry and moist

Plate 22A 

Little Known Species from Vidarbha 

Localities of Botanical Interest & Distribution of Important 

Plants in Vidarbha-Dandakarnya Landscape 

3 4 5 

1. Bambusa tulda; 2. Cephalostachyum pergracile; 3. Lasia spinosa 

4. Ochna obtusa; 5. Memycelon umbellatum var. umbellatum 

1 

2

Plate 22B 

Special Habitats of Eastern Vidarbha 

Abujhmar forests in April. 

Bhamaragad Sanctuary 

Surjagad 

Summer pools at about 600m 

Moist riverine forests at low altitude 

Shifting cultivation at 600m, Abujhmar Plateau flora at 650m, Abujhmar

deciduous forests, dry evergreen and riparian forests formed due to hill streams and soil type. Distribution of birdlife and 

other animals and butterflies distribution also indicate the cohesiveness of the two regions. Presence of butterfly 

species Orange Oak-leaf in such a high density as reported by the author in the hill streams has a significant bearing 

on the distribution of plants. This species has been reported to occur in eastern Ghats south of Godavari, Jharkhand, 

hilly places like Panchmarhi and Bhimashankar. The exceptionally high density of this species in this transition zone 

underlines the fact that flora and fauna have distribution along the moist gradients on entire Deccan. 

This region can be treated as a large ‘in situ’ plant conservation laboratory and studies on phytogeography and floral 

migration. It is believed that moist and cool forested habitats of past have gradually transformed form much of the 

Deccan plateau but for certain pockets which can be seen even today. Thus, there is an urgent need for studying 

conservation status of such micro-habitats and plants assemblage which would help in understanding the ecological 

history of the area and predicting the future changes. 

References 

Vegetation Characteristic and Special Habitats in the 

Transition Zone of Vidarbha – Dandakaranya, Deccan Plateau 

Almeida, M. R. 1996, 1998. Flora of Maharashtra. Vol. I & II. Orient Press, Mumbai. 

Malhotra, S. K. & S. Moorthy. 1971. Materials for the flora of Chandrapur district. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 13(3-4): 292-138. 

Malhotra, S. K. & S. Moorthy. 1992. Flora of Tadoba Tiger reserve. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 

Moghe. 1993. Dicot flora of Chandrapur Forest division of Vidarbha, Maharashtra. Ph. D. thesis, Nagpur University. 

Patil, B. M. 1991. Monocot flora Chandrapur Forest division of Vidarbha, Maharashtra. Ph. D. thesis, Nagpur University. 

Rodgers, W. A. & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning Wildlife Protected Network in India. Vols. I & II. Wildlife Institute of India. 

Dehradun. 

Sharma, B.D., S. Karthikeyan & N.P. Singh. 1996. Flora of Maharashtra state-Monocot. Botanical Survey of India, 

Calcutta. 

Singh, N.P. & S. Karthikeyan. 2000. Flora of Maharashtra state (Ranunculaceae to Rhizophoraceae) Vol. I. Botanical 

Survey of India, Calcutta. 898 pp. 

Singh, N.P., P. Lakshminarasimhan, S. Karthikeyan & P.V. Prasanna. 2001. Flora of Maharashtra State (Combretaceae 

to Ceratophyllaceae). Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 1080pp. 

Ugemuge, N. R. 1985. Flora of Nagpur District. Shree Prakashan, Nagpur 

Verma, D.H., P.C. Pant & M.I. Hanfi. 1985. Flora of Raipur, Durg and Rajnandgao. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 

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23.0 Vegetation and Floral Characteristics of Kanger 

Valley National Park, Chhattisgarh 

Introduction 

1 2 Amit Kotia & A. N. Parsad 

1c/o Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun 

kotia.amit@gmail.com 

2Kanger valley national park, Jagdalpur-494001, Chhattisgarh (India) 

prasad.amarnath@gmail.com 

Kanger Valley National Park (KVNP; 200 km 2 ; 18 0 45'00'' to 18 0 56' 30'' N and 81 0 51' 30'' to 82 0 10' 00" E) is located in the 

Bastar district of Chhattisgarh state. It is approachable from Jagdalpur town, some 25 kms towards south-east on 

Jagdalpur-Darbha road (Plate 23). The park, starting from Tirathgarh waterfalls to the Kolab River (Orissa boundary), 

is nearly 33.5 km long and about 6 km broad. The Kanger River forms the main drainage that begins near the 

Tirathgarh and runs through the middle of the park. The altitude varies from 338 to 781m. The mean annual rainfall is 

ca 1516.31mm while the mean temperature varies from 10 to 38 ÚC with relative humidity ranging from 40% to 98% 

(Jha & Khanna 2005). So far, 456 species of flowering plants have been reported (Dixit & Roy 1992, Jha & Khanna 

2005). However, during recent floristic surveys the authors have added more than 60 species to the existing list 

including about 30 species of orchids. 

The KVNP comes under Chhattisgarh-Dandakaranya (Province 6 C2) of Deccan Peninsula (Rodgers & Panwar, 

1988). According to Vedic literature Dandakaranya has mythological importance where Lord Rama spent a considerable 

time during exile. Dandakaranya is derived from the Sanskrit word: Dandaka (= punishment) aranya (= jungle). According 

to Ramayana, it was home of many deadly creatures and demons. Exiled persons resided here and sages had to cross 

it in order to reach the Vindhya Mountain Range. 

This article gives a brief description of vegetation, habitat and selected plants of high conservation significance. 

Vegetation Types 

The KVNP has a special ecological significance as it forms a natural transition zone between Sal (Shorea robusta) and 

Teak (Tectona grandis) forests in Peninsular India. Though the park is relatively small in size, it supports several distinct 

vegetation types in close vicinity of each other viz., Tropical Moist Deciduous, Tropical Dry Deciduous and Tropical 

Semi-Evergreen Forests (Champion & Seth 1968, Jha & Khanna 2005). The special habitats within the park are 

riverine forests, rocky outcrops and hill tops which harbour a large number of interesting species and a variety of 

medicinal plants. Broadly the forests of this park can be categorized into following types: 

i. The Tropical Moist Deciduous (Sal) Forests : This type consists of two sub-types (a) Moist Peninsular Hill Sal and 

(b) Moist Peninsular Valley Sal. The former type occurs in undulating slopes and hill tops. The common trees of this 

type include Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, Dillenia pentagyna, Miliusa tomentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, 

Pterocarpus marsupium, Emblica officinalis, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros melanoxylon, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Kydia 

calycina, Bridelia retusa, Dendrocalamus strictus, Phoenix acaulis, Grewia sp., Woodfordia fruticosa, Bauhinia vahlii, 

Smilax zeylanica, and Butea superba. The Moist Peninsular Valley Sal is largely found along the valleys. The common 

associates of Sal in this category are Terminalia tomentosa but Dillenia is not present. Champion & Seth (1968) 

reported excellent Sal regeneration in these forests. 

163


164 


ii. Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous (Mixed) Forests : Tirathgarh and Darbha come under this type of forest. 

The dominant species are Boswellia serrata, Chloroxylon swietenia, Sterculia urens, Bridelia retusa, Erythrina suberosa, 

Butea monosperma, Garuga pinnata, Cleistanthus collinus, Lannea coromandelica, Bombax ceiba, Anogeissus latifolia, 

Gardenia sp., Madhuca longifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, Woodfordia fruticosa, Ziziphus oenoplia, Celastrus 

paniculatus, Dendrocalamus strictus, etc. 

iii. Tropical Moist Deciduous (Teak) Forest : Teak forest is present in small portion of the Kotomser range and the 

major plant species includes is Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, Bombax ceiba, Diospyros tomentosa, Dalbergia 

paniculata, Schleichera oleosa, Syzygium cumini, Careya arborea, Miliusa tomentosa, Bauhinia vahlii, Butea superba, 

Combretum decandrum, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Clerodendrum viscosum and Dendrocalamus strictus. 

Special Habitats and Interesting Plant species 

Some of the special and interesting habitats of KVNP which harbour rich flora and interesting species are described, 

in brief, below: 

(a). Undulating and Rocky Slopes : The terrain of KVNP is almost hilly with deep gorges of Kanger river. Hill tops and 

slopes have poor and skeletal soil derived from lateritic and ferruginous conglomerates. This type of habitat is dominated 

by Shorea robusta in association with Dillenia sp., Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, Pterocarpus marsupium, 

Syzygium sp., Schleichera oleosa, Haldina cordifolia, Mallotus philippensis, Garuga pinnata, Xylia xylocarpa, 

Zanthoxylum rhetsa and Hedyotis auricularia. A few species of high conservation significance in these areas include 

Zingiber roseum, Curcuma amada, Costus speciosus, Curculigo orchioides, Asparagus racemosus, and Chlorophytum 

arundinaceum. Besides, a few terrestrial orchids (e.g., Geodorum densiflorum, Habenaria spp., and Peristylus 

plantagineus), some epiphytic orchids viz., Rhynchostylis retusa, Aerides sp., Dendrobium sp., Cymbidium aloifolium 

and Pelatantheria insectifera can be seen in this habitat. Dendrophthoe falcata, Viscum angulatum, and V. orientale are 

common parasites. 

(b). Dry Plateaus : Some parts of Tirathgarh, Kotamsar, Darbha and Koleng area represent dry plateau which have 

mixed Sal and Teak forests. Other characteristic species on the plateau Chloroxylon swietenia, Boswellia serrata, 

Sterculia urens, Alstonia venenata, Lannea coromandelica, Anogeissus latifolia, Gardenia turgida, G. latifolia, Madhuca 

longifolia, Butea monosperma and Ziziphus oenoplia. Around Darbha and Koleng, Sal grows in association with 

Cleistanthus collinus, Erythrina suberosa, Ochna obtusata, Garuga pinnata, Sterculia urens, Anogeissus latifolia, 

Lannea coromandelica, Bombax ceiba, Cochlospermum religiosum, Dendrobium peguanum and Dendrocalamus 

strictus. The Kotamsar and Tirathgarh plateaus have open teak forests with common associates such as Pterocarpus 

marsupium, Sterculia urens, Schleichera oleosa, Lannea coromandelica, Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon 

and Dillenia species. 

(c). Riverine Habitats : Kanger River and some perennials streams represent riverine habitats which are characterized 

by the presence of Salix tetrasperma, Trema orientalis, Terminalia arjuna, Diospyros malabarica, Mitragyna parvifolia, 

Pongamia pinnata, Syzygium spp, Ficus racemosa and Memecylon umbellatum. Typical herbaceous species of riverine 

area include Centella asiatica, Caesulia axillaries, Ludwigia hyssopifolia, Ludwigia perennis, Ficus lanceolata, Lippia 

javanica, Polygonum sp., Carex cruciata, Cyperus sp., Fimbristylis sp., Kyllinga sp. and Vetiveria zizanioides. In addition, 

several seasonal herbs appear in such areas subsequent to rains. Ottelia alismoides, Vallisneria natus, Hydrilla 

verticillata are common submerged aquatic herbs. Open moist areas harbour a few insectivorus plants such as 

Drosera burmannii, Utricularia aurea and U. bifida, associated with lower plants viz., Pteridium sp., Pteris sp., Equisetum 

sp., Marsilea sp. and Riccia fluitans. 

(d). Bamboo brake : Bhainsadarha area is dense with bamboo forest including four different species viz. 

Dendrocalamus strictus, Oxytenanthera nigrociliata, Cephalostachyum pergracile and Bambusa arundinacea. Foothills 

and shady moist ravines are mostly covered by Cephalostachyum pergracile.

Caryota urens 

Dendrobium peguanum 

Plate 23 

Threatened Plants of Kanger Valley NP, 

Chhatishgarh 

Rauvolfia serpentina 

Drosera burmannii 

Riverine Habitat 

Dry Plateau 

Dense Bamboo Patch 

Undulating and Rocky Slopes


166 


Threatened Plants: Roy & Chaturvedi (1987) and Kumar & Sikarwar (2002) studied the rare and endangered plants of 

Bastar region and reported that over exploitation, invasive species and encroachment are the major threats to native 

plants and their habitat. Drosera burmannii, Eulophia sp., Dendrobium peguanum, Rauvolfia serpentina, Gymnema 

sylvestre, Strychnos nux-vomica, Vitex leucoxylon, Gloriosa superba, Caryota urens, Riccia fluitans and Costus speciosus 

have declined in the area over the years and hence, need to be prioritized for long term conservation. Some of these 

species are briefly described below: 

1. Drosera burmannii Vahl. (Droseraceae) 

Local Name: Mohinibooty 

Insectivorous herb. Leaves in basal rosettes, appressed to ground, green with purple center, margin glandular-hairy. Fl. 

& Fr.: Sep.-Jan. growing along the bank of Kundru-Jodi nallah (Plate 23). 

2. Caryota urens Linn. (Arecaceae) 

Local Name: Salphi 

A tall palm. Spadices 3-4m long, Flowers unisexual. Fl. & Fr.: October-March. Stem sap is tapped for making alcohol 

(Sulphi). At places it is planted by the local people because it serves as cash crop. However, it is highly threatened in 

other areas due to over exploitation. Within KVNP only 2-3 individuals can be seen especially in Pulcha beat. 

3. Dendrobium peguanum Lindl. (Orchidaceae) 

Epiphytic orchid. Pseudobulbs globose with membranous sheaths. Leaves linear-oblong. Inflorescence terminal on 

leafless stem. Flowers fragrant, 1–1.5cm across, white, lip pale brown, veined with dark brown to purple, anterior lobe 

purple. Fruits globose. Fl. & Fr.: December–March. Threatened species for Central India. A few individuals can be seen 

in Koleng beat. 

4. Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. (Apocynaceae) 

Local Name: Kukut-chandi 

Erect under-shrubs. Leaves in whorls of 3-7. The flowers are drupaceous, white, pinkish or red. Heavily exploited 

throughout India for its medicinal properties. Rare in KVNP. Fl. & Fr.:Oct.-Dec. 

References 

Champion, H. G. & S. K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt. of 

India, New Delhi. 

Dixit, S. K. & G. P. Roy 1992. Additions to the flora of Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 16(2): 351-365. 

Jha, A. K. & K. K. Khanna. 2005. Plant Wealth (Angiosperms) of Kanger Valley National Park, Bastar (Chhattisgarh). 

Phytotaxonomy 5: 12-31. 

Kumar, V. & R.L.S. Sikarwar. 2002. Observations on some rare and endangered Plants of Chhattisgarh State, India. 


Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planning a wildlife protection area Network in India.Vol. I & II. Wildlife Institute of 


Roy, G. P. & K. K. Chaturvedi. 1987. Less known medicinal uses of rare and endangered plants of Abujh-marh reserve 

area, Bastar. (M. P.). J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 9: 325-328.

24.0 Chotanagpur Plateau: Relict Habitats and Endemic 


Introduction 

1Pankaj Kumar & G.S. Rawat 

Department of Habitat Ecology, Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, 

Dehradun – 248001, Uttarakhand, India 

1pankajsahani@rediffmail.com Chotanagpur plateau is one of the oldest landmasses on earth. It is composed of Precambrian rocks which are more 

than 540 million years old. It is a collective name for the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Koderma plateaus, having an area 

of ca 65,509 km 2 . Of these, Ranchi is the largest. The plateau in its entirety lies between the basins of the Ganges and 

Son rivers to the north and the Mahanadi River to the south. Through its centre, from west to east, runs the coal-bearing, 

faulted Damodar Valley. Numerous streams have dissected the uplands into a peneplain (an area reduced almost to a 

plain by erosion) with isolated hills. To the north of Chotanagpur lies the Rajmahal Hills which are very important on 

account of their fossiliferous deposits. Some of the important fossils found in the area are Sahnioxylon rajmahalense, 

Pentoxylon sahnii, Sahania nipaniensis, Nipaniophyllum hobsoni, Carnoconites compactus and Nipanioxylon guptaii. 

Biogeographically, Chotanagpur plateau has a special significance. It forms the northern limit of Peninsular India that 

lies within Paleotropic region. Rodgers and Panwar (1988), in their Biogeographic Classification of India, recognized 

this plateau as part of province 6B (Deccan peninsula). The plateau has drawn the attention of several phytogeographers. 

Nayar (1996) identified 20 centres of plant endemism in India, of which Chotanagpur is one that has been recognized 

as an important ‘microcentre’. 

In this article we give an overview of the plant wealth, patterns of plant endemism and localities of botanical interest on 

the Chotanagpur plateau and suggest a few measures for their conservation. 


The forest vegetation of the Chotanagpur Plateau is represented by three major groups as per the classification by 

Champion & Seth (1968): (i) Tropical Moist Dedicuous Forests (3C/C3a and 3C/E1), (ii) Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous 

Forests (5B/C1c, 5B/C2 and 5/DS2) and (iii) Central Indian Subtropical Hill Forests (8A/C3). The total vegetation cover 

on the plateau is about 29.61 %. Out of this, 3.19% area is under very dense forest cover whereas 11.39% has 

moderately dense forests, 13.76% has open forests and 0.92% area has scrubland. There are 3 National Parks and 20 

Wildlife Sanctuaries (Singh et al. 2001). According to Wildlife database there is 1 existing National Park and 2 proposed, 

whereas 11 Wildlife Sanctuaries existing and 2 are proposed (http://www.wii.gov.in/nwdc/index.html). 

The climate of the plateau is Tropical monsoon type with three distinct seasons, viz., summer (March to mid June), 

Monsoon (mid June to October) and winter (November to February). May is the hottest month with temperature going 

up to 45ÚC. During May and June the state also experiences hot winds knows as loo. January is the coldest month with 

temperature ranging from 6ÚC to 22ÚC. The average rainfall varies between 100 cm to 150 cm. Likewise, the humidity 

varies from 38% (April - May) to 94% (August – September). On the basis of the ratio of total monthly precipitation and 

total monthly evaporation, Thronthwaite (1933) has placed the state under dry sub-humid category. The plateau has 

predominantly red soil that is derived from peculiar rock formations. This soil exhibits high percentage of acid soluble 

Ferric oxide and lower pH ranging from 5 – 6.8. In some higher parts of the plateau laterite soil is also found. 

167


168 


Chotanagpur has a human population of around 26.91 million of which 22.50% are of tribal origin, belonging to more 

than 30 different tribes. They are mostly dependent on the forest resources for their living. Some of these tribes are, 

Baiga, Santal, Asur, Chero, Gond, Larmali, Kond, Kurmi, Tharu, Munda, etc. Recent findings have suggested that the 

pre-Dravidian aborigines, whose descendants are speakers of the Munda Austric languages, living today in parts of 

Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bengal, and so on are the original inhabitants of India. This fact 

makes the area anthropologically unique. 

(http://en.wikepedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_people). 

Floral Wealth and Endemism 

Despite a large number of floral surveys, there is no comprehensive account on the angiosperm flora of Chotanagpur 

Plateau. However the flora of erstwhile Bihar (that includes the state of Jharkhand which encompasses maximum part 

of the Chotanagpur Plateau), has recorded 186 families, of which 148 are dicotyledons and 38 are monocotyledons. 

Total number of species in erstwhile Bihar is 2963 which belongs to 1151 genera (Singh et al. 2001). The plateau has 

played an important role in the migration of plants from Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Myanmar, Malaya and other 

countries of the South-East. Plants have migrated from here to Western and Eastern Ghats and Sri Lanka. It is also 

believed that in the geological past, this plateau formed a link between Satpura Hill Ranges and eastern Himalaya that 

allowed species exchanges between these ranges (Hora 1949). Jharkhand is even recognised as a distinct geographic 

region (IND-JK) in Indian subcontinent by Kew (Brummitt 2001). 

The plateau has altogether 14 endemic taxa (Some endemic to India and others endemic to Jharkhand). The following 

table gives the details of these taxa: 

Table 1 : List of Endemic Plant species of the Chotanagpur plateau (Singh et al. 2001) 

No. Species name Family 

1. Clematis roylei Rehder var. patens (Haines) Kapoor Ranunculaceae 

2. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees var. sericeus (Munro) Gamble Poaceae 

3. Dimeria ornithopoda Trin. var. gracillima Bor Poaceae 

4. Iseilema holei Haines Poaceae 

5. Leucas lanata Wallich ex Benth. var. nagpurensis C.B.Clarke ex Haines Lamiaceae 

6. Ligusticum alboalatum Haines Apiaceae 

7. Sophora bakeri C.B.Clarke ex Prain Fabaceae 

8. Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham ex D.Don var. pyramidalis Haines Gentianaceae 

9. Zingiber purpureum Roscoe var. palamaunsis (Haines) K.K.Khanna Zingiberaceae 

Table 2 : List of Orchid species Endemic to India and found in Chotanagpur Plateau 

(* found only in India and Sri Lanka) 

No. Species name Habit Remarks 

1. Dendrobium herbaceum Lindl. E+L Wide Endemic * 

2. Dendrobium regium Prain E Endemic 

3. Habenaria gibsoni var. foetida Blatt. et McCann T Endemic 

4. Nervilia carinata (Roxb.) Schltr. T Endemic 

5. Nervilia falcata (King et Pantl.) Schltr. T Endemic 

Some Unique Habitats and Associated Flora 

i. Parasnath Hills : Parasnath Hills are situated towards the centre of the state of Jharkhand in the Giridih District. Apart 

of it (49.3 km2) was designated as a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1984. The highest elevation goes to approximately 1500m 

asl. Clarke (1898) and Haines (1921 – 24) have suggested that the hills of Parasnath may have served in the past as 

stepping stone for the passage of plant species between the hills of Peninsular India and Eastern Himalaya. With 

respect to vegetation this area is unique due to the presence of Montane subtropical forests (8A/C3) above 1220 m asl

on this hills (Champion & Seth 1968). Some of the commonly found species in this area above 1220m are, Pittosporum 

wightii, Grewia spp., Meyna spinosa, Berberis asiatica, Reinwarditia indica, Thallictrum foliolosum, Polygala spp., 

Lobelia alsinoides,, L. heyneana, Clematis gouriana, etc. The areas between 650 – 1220 are dominated by Litsea 

monopetala, Ficus microcarpa, F. mollia, Symplocos racemosa, Alangium salvifolium, Indigofera pulchella, Vitis spp., 

Bauhinia vahlii, B. sericea var. anguina, Persea bombycina, Chionanthus ramiflorus and Caesalpinia bonduc to name 

a few (Plates 24A, 24B & 24C). 

ii. Saranda Forests : Saranda is a dense forest in the hilly region of West Singhbhum district. Saranda literally means 

seven hundred hills. It is supposed to be one of the largest sal forests in Asia. The forest covers an area of 820 km². 

Amongst these forests lies a scenic village, called Thalkobad, at a height of 550 m (1,800 ft) in the heart of the forest. 

This area represents a very nice habitat for Orchids including all the 11 species of Dendrobiums and it is a home for the 

last remnant population of Bulbophyllum, an epiphytic orchid represented by single species, Bulbophyllum crassipes. 

Another interesting orchid of this region is Pecteilis triflora, which is found only at two places in India, one being 

Saranda forests and the other site is in the western Himalaya in Tons Valley, Uttarkhand. Saranda also hides amongst 

its dense forests, Ligirdah swamp which harbours unique swamp vegetation dominated by the members of family 

Zingiberaceae such as Hedychium coronarium and other families of sedges and grasses. The swamp is deep enough 

to engulf huge wild Elephants and is surrounded by dense sal forests. The reserved forests are the home for many 

animals like, wild elephants (common), sambar, chital, bison, leopards and even tigers, though they were never 

numerous but they are there. 

iii. Netarhat : This is a densely forested area dominated by both moist and dry deciduous sal forests. The elevation 

ranges from 600m – 950m asl, with minor and major streams. One of the highest waterfalls called the Lodh Falls is 

located in these forests along with the famous Mahuadanr Wolf Sanctuary. Lodh Falls represents an ideal riverine 

ecosystem, harbouring a very important economic orchid of this region, called Pholidota imbricata, locally called 

“Pathal Kela”, literally meaning, ‘banana growing on high cliff rocks’. The forests are ideal habitat for orchid species, 

especially Dendrobiums (Plate 24C). Ten out of 11 species of Dendrobiums are found in this locality. Economically this 

area is highly suited for the cultivation of Pyrus cummunis (Family: Rosaceae), commonly called as Naspati. 

iv. Barkapahar, Ranchi – Khunti Highway : This is a small hillock of aproximately 130m high ranging from 650m - 

780m above sea level and it is called Barka Pahar by the locals of the area, which is basically in comparison to another 

small barren hillock nearby. On the steep slopes there are Sal forests at some places and at some places there are 

mixed forests with Acacia spp. and Bauhinia variegata. On the gentle slopes towards the foothills are Shorea robusta, 

Bauhinia, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. There are some Terminalia alata trees too scattered all over the hillock. In the mixed 

forests Shorea robusta is dominant species alongwith many species of undershrubs. A river runs along half the stretch 

of its foothills. 

This hillock practically remained untouched by the scientific community and uninhabited by the local tribal community. 

Local tribal communities, use the land at the foot of the hillock for agriculture. The hillock recently gained importance 

due to the presence of 24 species of orchids of which 19 were collected specifically from the hillock and rest were from 

the trees scattered distantly on the plains below the hillock. Out of these 19 species, 16 are terrestrial, 2 are epiphytic 

and 1 is saprophytic. These represent around 40% of the total Orchids found in the whole state of Jharkhand. 

Conservation Issues and Strategies 

Chotanagpur Plateau: 

Relict Habitats and Endemic Plants 

Despite all its marvelous biogeographical significance and uniqueness, Chotanagpur Plateau is not even prioritized for 

conservation by the Indian government, most probably because nowadays, conservation is based on effortlessness, 

rather than the necessity! 

169

Plate 24A 

Chotanagpur Plateau: Vegetation and Habitat Features - I 

Sal Forest, Netarhat, Latehar Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest, Saraikela 

Swamp Vegetation 

(Ligirdah, Thalkobad, West Singhbhum) 

Riverine Habitat 

(Lodh Falls or Budhha Ghag Falls, Latehar)

Plate 24B 

Chotanagpur Plateau: Vegetation and Habitat Features - II 

Parasnath Wildlife Sanctuary 

(Giridih) 

Netarhat Plateau, Latehar 

Forested Habitat Islands around Chainpur, Gumla 

Saranda Forests, West Singhbhum 

Barkapahar, Ranchi – Khunti Highway

Geodorum attenuatum Griff. 

Dendrobium herbaceum Lindl. 

Plate 24C 

Threatened Orchids from Chotanagpur 

Odisha cleistantha S.Misra 

Bulbophyllum crassipes Hook.f. 

Habenaria marginata Colebr. 

Acampe papillosa (Lindl) Lindl. 

Dendrobium formosum Roxb. ex Lindl. Pholidota pallida Lindl.

According to Joshi and Dash (2006), the biodiversity of Jharkhand is under severe threat due to human induced 

activities, industries, mining, settlement, development projects and removal of forest products, overgrazing and forest 

fires. Majority of forest is lost due to industrialization and extraction of minerals from the earth crust. There is an urgent 

need to conserve the rich biodiversity of the state before the treasure is lost. There is an immediate need for the in situ 

conservation of this special habitat, i.e., Chotanagpur Plateau on whole as well as its biodiversity. Being one of the 

oldest landmasses on earth, the Chotanagpur Plateau might be hiding some unforeseen information concerning the 

evolution of earth as well as its biodiversity. 


Authors are grateful to Director and Dean, Wildlife Institute of India for providing the necessary facilities. 

References 

Brummitt, R.K. 2001. World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions. Plant Taxonomic Database. The 

Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. 

Champion, H. G. & S. K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt. of India, 

Delhi. 

Clarke, C. B. 1898. Subareas of British India Illustrated by the Detailed Description of Cyperaceae in that Empire. 

Journal of Linnean Society of London 34: 1 - 146. 

Haines, H. H. 1921-1924. The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. 6 parts. Allard & Son and West Newman Ltd. London. 5: 1150 

– 1182 (Rep. ed. 1961. Bulletin of Botanical Survey of India. Calcutta, 3 vols.). 

Hora, S. L. 1949. Satpura hypothesis of the distribution of the Malayan fauna and flora to Peninsular India. In: Proceedings 

of National Institute of Science, India. 15: 309 -314. 

Joshi, P. K. & P. P. Dash. 2006. Biodiversity characterisation at Landscape level using Satellite Remote Sensing and 

GIS. Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehra Dun. 

Nayar, M. P. 1996. Hot Spots of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan. Tropical Botanic Garden and Research 

Institute, Thiruvananthapuram. 

Rodgers, W. A. & H. S. Panwar. 1988. Planning Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vols. I & II. Wildlife Institute of 

India, Dehradun. 

Singh, N. P., V. Mudgal, K. K. Khanna, S. C. Srivastava, A. K. Sahoo, S. Bandopadhayay, N. Aziz, M. Das, R. P. Bhhatacharya 

& P. K. Hajra. 2001. Flora of Bihar: Analysis. Botanical Survey of India, CalcuttaTakhtajan, A. L. 1978. Floristic 

regions of the World, Nauka, Leningrad. (English edn. translated by T. J. Crovello & A. Cronquist, 1986). 

University of California Press, Berkeley. 

Thornthwaite, C. W. 1933. The climates of the Earth. The Georgraphical Review 23: 433-440. 

http://en.wikepedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_people). 

http://www.wii.gov.in/nwdc/index.html. 

Chotanagpur Plateau: 

Relict Habitats and Endemic Plants 

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174 


Introduction 

25.0 Threatened Plants of Orissa and Priority 

Species for Conservation 

1 2 A.K. Biswal & Manoj V. Nair 

1P.G. Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Takatpur, Baripada-757003, Orissa 

anilkbiswal@yahoo.com 

2Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 

mvnmanu@yahoo.co.uk 

The state of Orissa (1,55,707 km 2 ; 17 0 49' N to 22 0 34' N and 81 0 27' to 87 0 29' E) is situated on the eastern coast of India. 

It is bestowed with varied physiographic conditions, moderately high rain fall (142.2-157.5 cm. per annum) and relative 

humidity (61.5-78.0%), and a fine network of perennial river systems providing congenial conditions for a rich flora. The 

state has about 37% forest cover which is much higher than the national average (Anonymous 2006) and it is credited 

with five of the sixteen major forest types and 32 sub-types occurring in India (Champion & Seth 1968). The five main 

categories of forests within the state are (i) Orissa Semi-evergreen forests (ii) Tropical moist deciduous forests (iii) 

Tropical dry-deciduous forests (iv) Central Indian hill forests and (v) Littoral and Tidal swamp forests (Panigrahi 1983). 

Biogeographically, the state falls in three zones viz., Deccan Peninsula (Chotanagpur and Eastern Highlands), Lower 

Gangetic Plain (7B) and East Coast (8B) as per classification by Rodgers et al., (2002). Meher-Homji (2001) has 

recognized three phytogeographic regions in the state, i.e., Deccan Plateau, Eastern Ghats and the Coastal Plains. 

The state is underlain largely by the Precambrian rocks. The geological formations reflect a complex of igneous 

metamorphic and sedimentary rocks with alluvial and coastal alluvial plains, each giving rise to distinct soil type which 

range from alluvial (coastal and riverine types) to lateritic and Black cotton. 

Till date about 3,000 species of angiosperms and Pteridophytes have been recorded from the state (Panigrahi 1990). 

The flora of the state is mainly known through the monumental work of H.H. Haines (1921-25). His treatise “The Botany 

of Bihar and Orissa”, supplemented by H.F. Mooney (1950) serves as a much-needed baseline for all further floristic 

studies in the state. The contribution by Gamble & Fischer (1915-36) who provided accounts of northern forest circle 

of the Madras Presidency (southern part of modern Orissa) also remains invaluable. Similarly, the work of Panigrahi et 

al. (1964), Rao & Banerjee (1967) and Saxena & Brahmam (1994-96) and the district flora scheme of Botanical Survey 

of India covering different districts of the state have made significant contributions in recent times. In addition, exhaustive 

work by S. Mishra and A.K. Dubey need special mention who have contributed immensely on Orchidaceae and 

Poaceae of Orissa respectively. Biswal & Choudhury (1994) have documented flora of different protected areas in the 

state. However, no comprehensive assessment of the rare, threatened and endangered species have been carried out, 

except for report of the CAMP (Conservation Assessment of Medicinal Plants) Workshop organized under the aegis of 

Orissa Forest Department and Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions, Bangalore which has listed 41 

species (Ved et.al. 2008). Other exercises which aim at prioritization have been woefully short of their desired aim – for 

instance, in a recently concluded meeting of experts for state-wide identification of critically endangered species, just 

a single species was identified for Orissa. This was despite the fact that the habitat and species richness of the state is 

very rich and represents about 20 percent of the total flora of India (Panigrahi 1990) with 2727 species (1062 genera, 

228 families of angiosperms with 28 endemic species) reported from the entire state (Saxena & Brahmam 1983). 

175


176 


In this paper we present a synoptic overview of the state and its floristic regions with special emphasis on botanical 

hotspots, along with a tentative list of the rare, endangered and threatened (RET) species with brief descriptions of 

selected threatened taxa. A few localities of high botanical interest have been mentioned which have remained underexplored 

and need studies. This exercise has largely been undertaken by consulting existing information derived from 

published works mentioned above, supplemented by primary data collected by the first author from various parts of the 

state during the last two decades and intensive field work done by both authors in Mayurbhanj district from 2006 to 

2008. The IUCN Red list categories (Mace & Stuart 1994) have been followed for the criteria used for the present 

assessment, which includes factors such as population reduction, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population 

size and the probability of extinction in wild. We realize that in many cases, there is data deficiency on the exact 

population status of different taxa due to paucity of studies. Further, there might also be differences in opinion regarding 

the relative abundances, degree of threats and potential for long-term survival in different areas of the state. Nevertheless, 

an attempt is made to generate a baseline which can be supplemented/modified in future with availability of more 

concrete data from field. 

Prioritising taxa for conservation : the approach 

The plant specimens from Orissa housed in various herbaria viz., Central National Herbarium Calcutta (CAL), Forest 

Research Institute, Dehradun, Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Regional Plant Resource Centre, P.G. 

Department of Botany, Utkal University (all three in Bhubaneswar) and that of P.G. Department of Botany, North Orissa 

University, Baripada were critically examined. The work of some notable workers (Haines (l.c.), Mooney (l.c.), Gamble 

& Fischer (1925-1936), Jain & Rao (1983), Jain & Sastry (1983), Nayar & Sastry (1987), Saxena & Brahmam (1994-96), 

Anonymous (2007a) and Ved et al. (2008) also served as major sources of information. In addition, field observations 

made in the forests of Orissa since 1989 in connection with different projects provided supplementary information for 

assessing the status. The CAMP workshop report (Ved et. al. 2008) was also referred. 

Phytogeographical Divisions and Characteristic Floral Elements 

Orissa has four distinct geographical and ecological divisions: 

Coastal plains having 40,191 sq. km (18% of the state) and a forest cover of 7958 sq. km, includes 11 districts and the 

brackish water Chilika lake and Bhitarkanika mangrove forests. Apart from a host of mangrove and mangrove associates, 

species of special conservation significance which occur in this region include Rhizophora stylosa, Sonneratia griffithii, 

Avicennia marina var. acutissima, Kandelia candel, Indigofera, aspalathoides, Synostmon bassiforme, Stylosanthes 

fruticosa, Cassipourea ceylanica, Salicornia brachiata, Phoenix paludosa, etc. 

The Northern Plateau with 28,433 sq. km. in area, includes four districts with a forest cover of 11,046 sq.km covering 

the Similipal Biosphere and large hill ranges with a general slope from North to South. The important hill ranges are 

Malayagiri (1,188 m), Mankarnacha (1,177 m) and the Meghasani (1,116 m). The major rivers namely Brahmani, 

Baitarani and Budhabalanga and numerous rivulets have their origin from this plateau. Among the the threatened 

species confined to this region are Eria meghasanienesis, Hypericum gaitiii, Aspidopterys tomentosa var. hutchinsonii, 

Zeuxine affinis, Peristylus parishii, Acanthephippium bicolor, Acanthephippium sylhetens, Phoebe lanceolata, Clematis 

roylei, Baccaurea ramiflora, etc. 

Central table lands having 36,536 sq. km in area and which includes seven districts with a forest cover of 10,536 sq. 

km. The three prominent rivers Mahanadi, Brahamani and Baitarani flow parallel to each other making this region 

agriculturally fertile and thickly populated. Eusteralis griffithii, Homonoia intermedia, Uvaria eucincta, Aglaia haslettiana, 

Psoralia corylifolia, Desmos longiflorus, etc. are among the interesting taxa of conservation importance.

Eastern Ghats having 49,827 sq. km with 17041 sq. km of mountainous region and forests, spread in eight districts. 

The prominent mountain peaks of the state namely Mahendragiri (1,500 mt), Singharaju (1,515 mt), Turiakonda 

(1,599 mt) and Deomali (1,673 mt) are located in this tract. The area is noted for the presence of Dimeria 

mahendragiriensis, Oryza jeyporensis, Selaginella nairii, Themeda mooneyi, Wendlandia gamblei, Pecteilis henryi 

and Strobilanthes jeyporensis. 

Results and Discussion 

After analysis, 117 taxa belonging to Angiospermic, Gymnospermic and Pteridophytic flora have been prioritized for 

conservation in Orissa (Table-1). Of these, 19 have been enlisted as threatened taxa based on IUCN criteria. While 7 

taxa were found to be near-threatened, 28 were vulnerable, 22 were data deficient and 21 were not evaluated. Of the 

62 families represented, Orchidaceae was the dominant family with 8 taxa followed by Fabaceae with 7; Meliaceae, 

Clusiaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Mimosaceae with 4 each; Annonaceae, Bignonceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Liliaceae 

and Lauraceae with 3 each; Acanthaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Loganiaceae, Myrtaceae, Salvadoraceae and 

Sterculiaceae with 2 each while the rest had a single species. In terms of growth form these species represent 47 trees, 

20 shrubs, 19 climbers, 27 herbs and 3 ferns. 

Some species of high conservation priority 

Threatened Plants of Orissa and Priority 


Albizia thompsonii Brandis (Mimosaceae) : Large trees, Fls: March. Frts: Nov-Jan. Occurrence: Anugul, Lanjigarh, 

Kalahandi. No collection made in recent time. Distribution: Orissa, T.N. & Maharastra. Extremely limited distribution 

with threatened habitat. 

Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. (Angiopteridaceae) : A magnificent, large fern, 2-3 m. high. Fertile: March-Aug. 

Occurrence : Similipahar, Mayurbhanj, Pal lahara; Bonai, Mahandrigiri. 

Distribution: India, China, Japan. Vulnerable in Orissa due to fragmentation of habitat. 

Aspidopterys tomentosa (Bl.) Juss. var. hutchinsonii (Haines) Srivastav (Malpighiaceae) : 

Stout climber, Occurrence: Bhanjam hills, Mayurbhanj. Highly localized distribution. 

Distribution: Orissa. This taxon was reported by Haines in 1920. No collection/report made in recent times. 

Atylosia cajanifolia Haines (Fabaceae) : Perenial shrub up to 2m. Occurrence: Damp forest Hills of southern 

Orissa: Khurda and Ganjam. Distribution: Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu. 

Blepharispermum subsessile DC. (Asteraceae) : Perennial, glabrous shrubs. Rare in moist deciduous forest, 

Nawapara and Koraput. Distribution:- India.Assessed as Endangered taxon from Orissa, FRLHT, Bangalore. 

Cerbera odollam Gaertn. (Apocynaceae) : Small mangrove-associate tree, Fls.: March-Apr. Frts.: August. 

Occurrence: Bhitarkanika, Threatened due to over exploitation for medicine. Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia. 

Cycas spherica Roxb. (Cycadaceae) : Cycad having an extremely limited distribution. Occurence: Mals of Puri, 

Distribution: Orissa. Vulnerable in the state due to loss of habitat and overexploitation. 

Dendrobium cathcartii Hook.f. (Orchidaceae) : Epiphytic orchid. Fls & Frts: April. Occurrence: Similipal, Mayurbhanj, 

Rare. Distribution: India. 

Eria meghasaniensis (Misra) Misra (Orchidaceae) : Pseudobulbous epiphytic orchid. Occurence: Entire global 

population remain confined to a few trees and one rock on the twin peaks of Meghasani and Khairiburu in Similipal 

hills. Very rare. Distribution: India (Orissa). Endemic. 

177


178 


Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. & Arn. var. viridis Haines (Sterculiaceae) : Shrubs. Occurrence: Haines (1921) reported 

the taxon from Orissa. No report/collection made in recent times. Distribution: Orissa, Endemic. 

Gnetum ula Brongn. (Gnetaceae) : Woody climber of high botanical interest. Occurrence: Occassional in semi 

evergreen forests, Locally common in Similipal. Keonjhar, Mahendragiri, Kotgarh.Distribution: Peninsular India, 

Andaman, Myanmar. Vulnerable due to exploitation as well as accidental destruction due to silvicultural operations like 

climber-cutting. 

Hypericum gaitii Haines (Hypericaceae) : Conspicuous flowering shrubs, having patchy distribution. Occurence: 

Along streams in cool valleys of central and southern Similipal .Note: Mooney, 1950 reported from Malaygiri Hill, in 

Angul District, Orissa. No collection is made from these localities in recent times. Distribution : Orissa & Bihar 

Lasiococca comberi Haines (Euphorbiaceae) : A handsome trees with characteristically fluted bole, often showing 

gregarious growth, in moist valley with semi-evergreen forests; Puri, Angul. Good population in southern Similipal. 

Distribution: Orissa and Hills of Vishakpatnam, A.P. 

Nothopegia heyneana (Hook.f) Gamble (Anacardiaceae) : Small trees growing in rocky ravines. Baula forest, 

Keonjhar; Mals of Puri, Orissa. Distribution:- Orissa, Western Ghats, T.N. 

Oryza jeyporensis Govind & Krishnam. (Poaceae) : Erect annual grass up to 1m, Occurrence: Jeypore, Koraput. 

Distribution:- Endemic to Orissa. 

Pomatocalpa decipiens (Lindl.) J.J. Sm. (Orchidaceae) : Epiphytic orchid. Rajin reseve forest, Puri. Distribution; 

Orissa. Sri Lanka. 

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde (Caesalpiniaceae) : State tree of Orissa. Small evergreen tree occasional in valleys 

along streams. Planted in gardens. The population is declining due over exploitation for bark. Distribution: Indian Subcontinent, 

Malaysia. 

Stemona tuberosa Lour. (Roxburghiaceae) : Climbing herbs.Occurrence: Mahendragiri, Ganjam; Similipal, 

Mayurbhanj; Kotgarh, Vulnerable because of medicinal use extraction. Distribution:- India, Bangaladesh, China. 

Strobilanthes circarensis Gamble (Acanthaceae) : Shrubs. Fls: Dec.Occurrence: Tankanmai, Karlapat, Kalahandi 

(Mooney 1950). No collection is made in recent times. Distribution: Endemic. 

Strobilanthes jeyporensis Bedd. (Acanthaceae) : Shrubs. Occurence :In damp ravines; Kalahandi, Ganjam and 

Koraput. Distribution: A.P and Madhya Pradesh,India. This taxon has been included as endangered in the Red Data 

Book of India. (Nayar and Sastry, 1987). 

Uvaria eucinata Bedd. ex Dunn. (Annonaceae) : Shrubs. Occurrence:Russelkonda, Ganjam. No collection is 

made in recent times. Distrubution: Orissa; endemic 

Xylocarpus granatum Koenig. (Meliaceae) : Moderate-sized mangrove-associate tree. Fls; April-Sept. Frts: Oct-May. 

Occurrence: Tidal forest, Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi delta. Note: Fruites having therapeutic use, endangered in Orissa 

due to habitat conversion. Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Malay, Africa, North Australia 

Floral hotspots and suggested areas for future exploration 

Orissa enjoys the unique privilege of being the meeting ground of the flora of the northern tropical forests and the largely 

endemic flora of the southern India. As a whole, it exhibits wide-ranging affinity with the flora of other phytogeographic

egions of the country, viz. Eastern Himalayas, Gangetic Plains and the Western Ghats. Though the state has a vast 

forest area, there are certain landscapes/areas which harbours a series of unique and special habitats with exceptional 

floristic richness. The notable among them are the extensive hills of Similipal in Mayurbhanj along with its staellite 

areas of Kuldiha and Hadgarh, Gonasika-Kanjipani-Telkoi tract in Keonjhar, Karlapat in Kalahandi, Sunabeda plateau 

in Nawapara, Kotgarh in Phulbani and the high E.Ghat hills of Deomali, Mahendragiri, Niyamagiri and Kondakameru 

in southern Orissa. Others worth mentioning are Badarama and Khalasuni forests in Western Orissa, and the gorge of 

Mahanadi at Satkosia. Not to be forgotten are the river deltas of Mahanadi, Brahmani and Baitarani which support a 

luxuriant mangrove flora, especially at Bhitarkanika. The vast brackish water lagoon of Chilika is also home to an 

unparalleled aquatic and semi-aquatic floral diversity. Many of these remain poorly explored and await detailed studies 

which are sure to reveal hitherto unknown species. Predominant among the largely unexplored areas are the remote 

gorges and evergreen forests of southern Similipal, especially in the core area of the Tiger Reserve; the extensive 

forests of Daringbadi-Bhanjnagar complex of Phulbani district, Rebna and Ranjagarh hills; Palaspal and forests 

around Meghanada Parbat; secluded hills east of Banaigarh; the high hills of Kalahandi including Karlapat with peaks 

beyond 5000 ft; highlands of Koraput, interiors of Sunabeda plateau and high lands of Khariar. Among other relatively 

less-explored areas are the hilly tracts near Jeypore and Koraput bordering Andhra Pradesh, hills near Russelkonda 

and Subarnagiri, the spurs east of Rairakhol, and the hilly tracts north-west of Sambalpur. Also of high botanical interest 

are the farther islands of Chilika lake and some remote tidal creeks and swamps along the deltas of Mahanadi and 

Dhamra rivers (Plates 25A & 25B). 

Threats and Conservation efforts 



Among the myriad threats to floral wealth, loss of habitat and fragmentation at an alarming rate must certainly rank as 

the first. Though anthropogenic habitat alteration by way of cropland conversion, shifting cultivation, etc. has existed 

since eons, there has been unprecedented acceleration recently by way of increasing mining activity, especially in the 

hilly mineral-rich tracts of hinterland Orissa. Many of the hotspots mentioned elsewhere in this paper are under the 

imminent threat of being destroyed gradually. Increasing encroachments and subsequent urbanization is also a serious 

threat to erstwhile pristine areas. Aquatic ecosystems including a number of wetlands get altered irreparably by 

aquaculture and land reclamation. In addition to these are the chronic problems of forest fire, especially in the dry 

deciduous forests of western and southern Orissa and gradual spread of invasive species in almost all the forest types. 

A more serious and recent cause for concern is also the emergent market for herbal products, which has resulted in 

unscrupulous and unsustainable collection of medicinal plants, many local populations of which have either been 

wiped out or are at the verge of local extinction. Species which were extremely common till the recent past like 

Rauvolfia serpentina, Rubia cordifolia and Gloriosa superba are all nearing extermination in the state. The state tree 

of Orissa, Saraca asoca is also no exception! 

However, a slew of in situ and ex situ conservation measures is being adopted by both by government agencies as well 

as organizations in the non-governmental sector. As many as eighteen wild life sanctuaries and two national parks have 

been established in order to safeguard the wildlife in general and threatened species in particular. In addition, 5 in situ 

Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs) have been established at Satkosia (Mayurbhanj), Patalganga (Nuapada), 

Pradhanpat (Deogarh), Kapilas (Angul) and Berbera (Khurda). Ex situ collections as in the various Botanical Gardens, 

most notably that in Nandan Kanan and Regional Plant Research Centre, Bhubaneswar are also valuable steps in the 

right direction. The recent initiative by the Forest Department to identify, map and conserve all forest blocks with Saraca 

asoca and mass-propagate and plant seedlings is also a commendable initiative aimed at species-specific conservation. 

More such measures are needed if we are to conserve the entire spectrum of floral diversity of the state for posterity. The 

first step, however, has to be a comprehensive field-based assessment of threatened flora be carried out in a phased, 

state-wide and systematic manner in the light of existing information so that existing hotspots can be prioritized for 

effective conservation and fresh ones identified for future action. 

179

Plate 25A 

Some Localities of Special Botanical Interest in Orissa 

Localities of Special Botanical Interest & 

Conservation Significance in Orissa 

Moist deciduous slopes 

Steep Gorges 

Sacred grove (Jahira) of 

Kolha Tribe 

High hills of Eastern Ghats 

Semi-evergreen Forests 

Hill stream vegetation 

Grasslands

Doryopteris ludens 

Cochlospermum religiosum 

Plate 25B 

Threatened Plants of Orissa 

Hypericum gaitii 

Gnetum ula 

Lasiococca comberi 

Stemona tuberosa


182 


Table-I : Species of high conservation priority in Orissa with their distribution and status. 

Habit : C=Climber, H=Herb, T=Tree, F=Fern, S=Shrub; 

Threat Status : CR=Critically endangered, EN=Endangered, VU=Vulnerable, NT=Near Threatened, DD=Data 

Deficient & NE= Not Evaluated. Fls.= flowering time, Frts.= fruiting time 

States :- APS=Andhra Pradesh, APN= Arunachal Pradesh, AS= Assam, CHTGH= Chhattisgarh, HP= Himachal 

Pradesh JK= Jammu & Kashmir, KA= Karnataka, KL= Kerala, MH=Maharastra, MP= Madhya Pradesh, OR= 

Orissa, TN= Tamil Nadu, UTA=Uttaranchal. 

S.No. Botanical name Family Habit Threat status 

1 Acacia donaldii Haines Mimosaceae T V U 

2 Acacia tomentosa Willd. Mimosaceae C DD 

3 Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.) Hunt Orchidaceae H V U 

4 Acanthephippium bicolor Lindl. Orchidaceae H VU:OR 

5 Acrostichum aureum L. Acrostichaceae F N E 

6 Aerides crispum Lindl. Orchidaceae H N E 

7 Aglaia cucullata (Roxb.) Pellegrin Meliaceae T DD 

8 Albizia thompsoni Brandis Mimosaceae T N E 

9 Albizia orissensis Sahni & Bennet Mimosaceae T N E 

10 Alphonsea madraspatana Bedd. Annonaceae T DD 

11 Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. Angiopteridaceae F EN:APS CHTGH, MP 

12 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Meliaceae T VU: KA,KL, OR 

13 Aristolochia tagala Cham. Aristolochiaceae C DD: OR 

14 Aspidopteris tomentosa (Bl.)Juss. 

var. hutchinsonii (Haines) Srivastav. Malpighiaceae C V U 

15 Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. Rutaceae S NT:OR 

16 Atylosia cajanifolia Haines Fabaceae S VU:OR 

17 Azima tetracantha Lam. Salvadoraceae S DD:OR 

18 Balanophora polyandra Griff. Balanoporaceae H DD 

19 Blepharispermum subsessile DC. Asteraceae S EN:OR 

20 Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Burseraceae T VU; CHTGH MP 

21 Brucea mollis Wall. ex Kurz Simaroubaceae T EN: APN, AS 

22 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Sav. Rhizophoraceae T NT 

23 Caesalpinia digyna Rottl. Caesalpiniaceae S VU:CHTGH, OR 

24 Casearia rubescens Dalz. Flacourtiaceae S DD 

25 Cassipourea ceylanica (Garden.) Aston Rhizophoreaceae DD 

26 Celastrus paniculata Willd. Celastraceae C VU: OR, KL, CHTGH, MP 

27 Cerbera odollam Gaertn. Apocynaceae S VU: OR 

28 Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker Liliaceae H EN: MH: LC: APS 

29 Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker Liliaceae H VU:CHTGH, MP 

30 Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss Meliaceae T DD: OR 

31 Clausena excavata Burm. f. Rutaceae S NT: OR 

32 Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon Verbenaceae S EN: CHTGH MP 

33 Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston Cochlospermaceae T VU:CHTGH, MP 

34 Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook.f.Thoms. Ehretiaceae T EN: OR



35 Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm. Costaceae S VU: CHTGH, MP NT: APS 

36 Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC Capparaceae T VU:CHTGH, MP, OR 

37 Cryptocarya amygdalina Nees Lauraceae T DD: OR 

38 Curculigo capitulata (Lour.) Kuntze Hypoxidaceae H NE 

39 Cycas spherica Roxb. Cycadaceae T VU: OR 

40 Cynometra iripa Kostel. Caesalpiniaceae T NT:OR 

41 Dendrobium cathcartii Hook.f. Orchidaceae H NT 

42 Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Orchidaceae H EN:AS, VU: APN, SK 

43 Desmos longiflorus (Roxb.) Safford Annonaceae T N E 

44 Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. Euphorbiaceae T N E 

45 Diospyros candolleana Wight Ebenaceae T VU: KA, KL, TN 

46 Diplopora championi (Lindl.) Hook.f. Orchidaceae H DD 

47 Doryopteris ludens 

(Wall. ex Hook.) J. Sm. Sinopteridaceae F N E 

48 Drosera peltata Sm. Droseraceae H EN: KA, TN VU: KL, 

49 Embelia ribes Burm.f. Myrsinaceae C CR: APS VU: KA,TN, OR 

50 Embelia tsjeriam cottam 

(Roem. & Schult.) DC. Myrsinaceae C VU: OR 

51 Eria meghasaniensis (Misra) Misra Orchidaceae H Rare/Endemic: OR 

52 Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. & Arn. 

var. viridis Haines Sterculiaceae S N E 

53 Eulophia nuda Lindl. Orchidaceae H EN:MH 

54 Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. Euphorbiadceae H DD 

55 Garcinia cowa Roxb.ex DC Clusiaceae T VU: OR 

56 Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. Clusiaceae T VU; OR 

57 Gardenia gummifera L.f. Rubiaceae T VU:KA,KL, TN,OR 

58 Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae C VU: ASP, MH, KA, 

KL,MP, EN: OR 

59 Gnetum ula Brongn. Gnetaceae T VU: OR 

60 Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. Hernandiaceae T DD: OR 

61 Hedychium coronarium Koenig. Zingiberceae S NT: KA,KL, VU: OR 

62 Heliotropium currassavicum L. Boraginaceae H N E 

63 Heritiera littoralis Dryand ex Ait. Sterculiaceae T N E 

64 Hibiscus platanifolius (Willd.) Sweet Malvaceae T NE 

65 Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl ex DC. Fabaceae S N E 

66 Kandelia candel (L.) Druce Rhizophoraceae S N E 

67 Lasiococca comberi Haines Euphorbiaceae T N E 

68 Licuala peltata Roxb. Arecaceae S DD 

69 Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb) Clusiaceae T DD 

70 Melasma thomsonni (Hk.f.) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae H N E 

71 Mesua ferrea L. Clusiaceae T EN: OR 

72 Mucuna gigantea (Willd.)DC Fabaceae C NT: CHTGH MP EN:OR 

73 Natsiatum herpeticum Buch. Ham.ex Arn. Icacinaceae C DD 

183


184 


74 Neocinnamomum caudatum (Nees) Merr. Lauraceae T N E 

75 Nothopegia heyneana (Hook.f.) Gamble Anacardiaceae T V U 

76 Operculina turpethum (L.) S. Manso Convolvulaceae H VU:KA,OR EN:KL, MH 

77 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Bignoniaceae T VU: KA, APS, HTGH, 

MP EN: KL, MH, OR, 

78 Oryza jeyporensis Govind. & Krishnam Poaceae H DD, Endemic 

79 Pachystylidium hirsutum (Bl.) 

Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae C N E 

80 Paederia foetida L. Rubiaceae C NT: APS VU:OR 

81 Pandanus fascicularis Lam. Pandanaceae S DD 

82 Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Lauraceae T EN:KA,TN VU: KL 

83 Peucedanum dhana Buch.-Ham. 

Var. dalzelli.C.B.Cl. Apiaceae H N E 

84 Peucedanum nagpurense (C.B.Cl.) Prain Apiaceae H VU:CHTGH, MP 

85 Phoenix paludosa Roxb. Arecaceae T N E 

86 Piper longum L. Piperaceae C EN:TN, OR VU: CHTGH 

NT:KL NE:KA 

87 Pittosporum wightii A.K. Mukherjee Pittosporaceae DD 

88 Polyalthia simiarum (Buch.-Ham.) 

Hook.f. & Thomas. Annonaceae T VU: OR 

89 Psilotum nudum P. Psilotaceae H CR: MP 

90 Psoralia corylifolia L. Fabaceae F VU:OR 

91 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae T VU:MH, CHTGH, MP, 

EN: OR 

92 Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC Fabaceae C VU: OR 

93 Radermachera xylocarpa (Roxb.) 

K. Schum. Bignoniaceae T DD 

94 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Apocynaceae H CR: APS, MH, CHTGH, 

PN,HPEN: KA,KL,TN, 

95 Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae C 

OR VU: MP, AS,JK,UTA 

VU: APS, MH, 

CHTGH, MP 

96 Salacia reticulata Wt. Hippocrateaceae S EN: KA DD: KL 

97 Salvadora persica L. Salvadoraceae T VU: OR 

98 Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde Caesalpiaceae T EN: KA, APS, MH, 

DD:KL,TN, CR:OR 

99 Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. Oleaceae T VU:KA,OR 

100 Scindapsus officinalis (Roxb.) Schott Araceae C VU: OR 

101 Stemona tuberosa Lour. Stemoniaceae C VU: APS, OR 

102 Stereospermum suaveolens (Roxb.) DC. Bignoniaceae T EN:OR 

103 Strobilanthes circarensis Gamble Acanthacae S Endemic: OR 

104 Strobilanthes jeyporensis Bedd. Acanthaceae S N E 

105 Strychnos nuxvomica L. Loganiaceae T VU: CHTGH

106 Strychnos potatorum L.f. Loganiaceae T VU:OR 

107 Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Gentianaceae H DD:OR 

108 Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Symplocaceae T VU: KA, MH, 

NT: TN DD:KL CR:OR 

109 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. Combretaceae T NT:KA,KL,MH,CHTGH, MP 

110 Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Ranunculaceae H VU:CHTGH, MP,OR 

111 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Menispermaceae C VU:KA NT:KL,MH 

112 Tylophora fasciculata Buch.Ham. ex Wight Asclepiadaceae C DD 

113 Uraria picta (Jacq.) Desv. ex DC. Fabaceae H VU:CHTGH, MP: EN:OR 

114 Uvaria eucinata Bedd. ex Dunn Annonaceae S EN:OR 

115 Xylocarpus granatum Koenig Meliaceae T EN:OR 

116 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Rutaceae C EN:HP VU:JK,UTA,OR 

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117 Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC Rutaceae T EN:APS, VU:OR 



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Panigrahi, G. 1990. An inverntory of the Economic Plants and Potential germplants of Orissa, Part-I. J. Env. Sci. 3(1): 20. 

Panigrahi, G., S. Choudhury, D.C.S. Raju & G.K. Deka. 1964. A contribution to the Botany of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 

6(2-4): 237-266. 

185


186 


Rao, T.A. & L.K. Banerjee. 1967, Some plant records from Orissa State. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3); 584-584. 

Rodgers, W.A., H.S. Panwar & V.B. Mathur. 2002. Wildlife Protected Area Network in India: A Review (Executive Summary). 

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 

Saxena, H.O & M. Brahmam. 1994-96. The flora of Orissa. Orissa Forest Development Corporation Ltd., Bhubaneswar. 

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam. 1983. Rare and Endemic flowering plants of Orissa. pp. 80-90. In: S.K. Jain & R.R. Rao. 

(eds.) An assessment of threatened plants of India. Naba Mudran Private Limited, Calcutta, India: Director, 

Botanical Survey of India 

Ved, D.K, G.A. Kinhal, K. Ravi Kumar, R. Vijaya Sankar, R. Sumathi, A.K. Mahapatra & P.C. Panda. (eds.) 2008. Conservation 

Assessment & Management Prioritisation for Medicinal Plants of Orissa. Regional Plant Research Centre, 

Bhubaneswar and Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions, Bangalore.

26.0 Floristic wealth of Javvadhu Hills, Eastern Ghats, 

With Special Emphasis on Threatened Plants 

Introduction 

R. Vijaya Sankar, * K. Ravikumar & G.S. Goraya 

Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) 

# 74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Attur (P.O.) 

Yelahanka, Bangalore – 560 064 Karnataka, India 

*: k.ravikumar@frlht-india.org 

Javvadhu hills, an important extension of Eastern Ghats, are spread across Vellore, Tiruvannamalai and Krishnagiri 

districts of Tamil Nadu. This hill range stretches over 80 kms in length and 32 kms in width. Oriented in northeast – 

southwest direction, this range lies in the northern part of the Tamil Nadu between 12º 15' to 12º 40' N latitudes and 78º 

2' to 79º 10' E longitudes. The hills rise steeply from the plains forming an undulating plateau on the top to the altitude 

of about 800 m and enclose small valleys. Melpattu, on the Thenmalai hills with an altitude of 1045 m is the highest 

peak in the range. The average height of the Javvadhu hills is c 500 m. Malayalis - the hill dwelling tribes inhabit in the 

hill range (Ravikumar & Vijaya Sankar 2003). 

Vegetation and Habitat Characteristics 

Javvadhu hills are known for their rich vegetation. They also harbour a number of wild plant resources such as edible 

fruits, tubers and vegetables and other non-timber forest produces including medicinal plants. The forest types found 

in this hill range, as per the classification by Champion & Seth (1968) are: Southern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forests, 

Southern Dry Deciduous Scrub Forests, Southern Dry Savannah Forests, Dry Bamboo Brakes, Dry Tropical Riverain 

Forests, Southern Tropical Thorn Forests and Southern Thorn Scrub Forests. The hill range is home for 

several endemics and threatened plants. About 800 taxa of plants are reported to be present in the entire range of 

Javvadhu hills. 

Geologically the Javvadhu hills represent ancient rock formations which are largely ferruginous in composition and 

chiefly containing hornblende and feldspar. This has given rise to peculiar reddish loam of varying depth and fertility. On 

the plateaus the soil is usually loamy or gravelly often greyish brown in colour due to admixture of humus. In valleys the 

soil is clayey and cankarous. The high iron content is always apparent in most of the reserved forests in disturbed areas, 

where the surface soil has been completely eroded leaving only the hardened subsoil devoid of any fertility owing to 

excessive grazing in these parts. There is a deficiency of lime in the soils where sandalwood trees are present. 

The climate of the hill range is tropical and moderately hot and dry. Forest areas in higher altitudes are cooler than the 

lower areas. The year can be divided into three seasons viz. summer during March-May, rainy during June-October 

and winter from November to February. It is very hot during April to June. The average maximum temperature in shade 

is 32º C and the average minimum is 19ºC. Frost does not occur here except for a few occasional dewfalls. The hill 

range receives maximum rainfall from the southwest as well as northeast monsoons. The average annual rainfall in 

the district is 1,075 mm. 

The Red Listed Plants 

The following Red Listed species assessed during rapid assessment workshops conducted by the FRLHT in different 

states of India (Ravikumar & Ved 2000) have been collected from Javvadhu hills: 

187


Critically Endangered 

188 

1. Cochlospermum religiosum DC. (Bixaceae) 

2. Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. (Asclepiadaceae) 

3. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Fabaceae) 

4. Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. (Fabaceae) 

Endangered 


1. Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae) 

2. Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Burseraceae) 

3. Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. (Asclepiadaceae) 

4. Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon (Verbenaceae) 

5. Corollacarpus epigaeus (Rottler & Willd.) Clarke (Cucurbitaceae) 

6. Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn. (Periplocaceae) 

7. Drosera indica L. (Droseraceae) 

8. Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) 

9. Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. (Asclepiacaceae) 

10. Leptadenia reticulata (Asclepiadaceae) 

11. Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard (Sapotaceae) 

12. Operculina turpethum (L.) Silva Manso (Convolvulaceae) 

13. Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr. (Fabaceae) 

14. Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) 

15. Sterculia urens Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 

16. Stereospermum colais (Bignoniaceae) 

Vulnerable 

1. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Rutaceae) 

2. Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth (Araceae) 

3. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees (Acanthaceae) 

4. Arisaema tortuosum (Araceae) 

5. Buchanania lanzan Spreng. (Anacardiaceae) 

6. Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (Celastraceae) 

7. Chlorophytum tuberosum Baker (Liliaceae) 

8. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Kuntze (Cucurbitaceae) 

9. Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. (Capparidaceae) 

10. Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae) 

11. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A.DC. (Myrsinaceae) 

12. Gardenia gummifera L.f. (Rubiaceae) 

13. Gnetum ula Brongn. (Gnetaceae) 

14. Limonia acidissima L. (Rutaceae) 

15. Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Dalz. & Gibson (Moringaceae) 

16. Mucuna monosperma DC. (Fabaceae) 

17. Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson (Rutaceae) 

18. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae) 

19. Phyllanthus indofischeri Benn. (Euphorbiaceae) 

20. Plumbago zeylanica L. (Plumbaginaceae) 

21. Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. (Fabaceae) 

22. Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott (Araceae)

23. Rubia cordifolia L. (Rubiaceae) 

24. Salvadora persica L. (Salvadoraceae) 

25. Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae) 

26. Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. (Oleaceae) 

27. Smilax zeylanica L. (Liliaceae) 

28. Strychnos nux-vomica L. (Strychnaceae) 

29. Strychnos potatorum L.f. (Strychnaceae) 

30. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. (Combretaceae) 

31. Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) 

32. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. (Menispermaceae) 

33. Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. (Asclepiadaceae) 

34. Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth (Liliaceae) 

Endemic species 

Floristic wealth of Javvadhu Hills, Eastern Ghats, 


Javvadhu hills are one of the ‘ecological islands’ of Eastern Ghats harbouring a number of endemic plants (Plate 26A). 

A study on the flora of Tiruvannamalai district (Vijaya Sankar 2006) reports several endemic plant species for the hill 

range such as: 

i) Endemic to Tamil Nadu state : Barleria pilosa, Brachystelma brevitubulatum, Indigofera trita var. marginulata, 

Jasminum trichotomum, Panicum fischeri and Premna latifolia var. henryi. 

ii) Endemic to the peninsula : Acalypha alnifolia, Aglaia elaeagnoidea var. beddomei, Alysicarpus scariosus var. 

pilifer, Andrographis affinis, A. serpyllifolia, Anisochilus eriocephalus, Argyreia cuneata, A. daltonii, Asystasia crispata, 

Barleria acuminata, B. buxifolia, B. longiflora, B. montana, B. tomentosa, Byttneria herbacea, Cadaba fruticosa, 

Caralluma adscendens, C. diffusa, Carissa salicina, Chionanthus mala-elengi, Chrysopogon orientalis, Cleome 

felina, Commiphora berryi, Cordia evolutior, C. obliqua var. tomentosa, Crotalaria paniculata, C. subperfoliata, 

Cryptolepis grandiflora, Curcuma neilgherrensis, Cyanotis arcotensis, C. tuberosa, Dalbergia rubiginosa, Decalepis 

hamiltonii, Deccania pubescens var. candolleana, Dicliptera cuneata, Didymocarpus tomentosa, Dioscorea 

belophylla, Diospyros chloroxylon, Dolichandrone atrovirens, D. falcata, Elaeagnus indica, Endostemon viscosus, 

Eragrostis riparia, Gardenia gummifera, Grewia abutilifolia, G. orbiculata, Habenaria ovalifolia, H. roxburghii, 

Hedyotis brachiata, H. erecta, Helicanthes elastica, Hemidesmus indicus var. pubescens, Hibiscus canescens, 

Indigofera barberi, Iphigenia maysorensis, Justicia glauca, J. neesii, J. nilgherrensis, Kalanchoe bhidei, Lepidagathis 

cristata, Leucas wightiana, Lindernia oppositifolia, Mallotus philippensis var. tomentosus, M. resinosus, Maytenus 

heyneana, M. ovata, Melhania incana, Micrargeria wightii, Moringa concanensis, Neolitsea scrobiculata, Ochna 

gamblei, Peperomia candolleana, P. dindigulensis, Phyllanthus indofischeri, Polyalthia cerasoides, Polycarpaea 

corymbosa var. longipetala, Premna latifolia var. mollissima, Psilotrichum nudum, Pterospermum reticulatum, P. 

xylocarpum, Pupalia lappacea var. velutina, P. lappacea var. orbiculata, Radermachera xylocarpa, Randia brandisii, 

Reidia floribunda, Rhynchosia heynei, Rostellularia diffusa var. hedyotidifolia, Sansevieria roxburghiana, Santalum 

album, Senecio hohenackeri, Senna montana, Shorea roxburghii, Taxillus heyneanus, Terminalia coriacea, T. 

paniculata, Theriophonum fischeri, Tragia involucrata var. angustifolia, Triumfetta rotundifolia and Tylophora 

capparidifolia. 

iii) Endemic to India : Aganosma dichotoma, Alysicarpus bupleurifolius var. gracilis, A. heterophyllus, Andropogon 

pumilus, Aspidopterys indica, Boswellia serrata, Cassia fistula, Cymbopogon coloratus, Decaschistia crotonifolia, 

Dipteracanthus beddomei, D. prostratus, Ehretia pubescens, Eragrostiella bifaria, E. brachyphylla, Eriolaena 

hookeriana, E. stocksii, Gardenia latifolia, Glossocardia bosvallea, Hardwickia binata, Indigofera prostrata, Leucas 

diffusa, Miliusa tomentosa, Nervilia plicata, N. prainiana, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Pavetta indica, Phyllanthus debilis, 

P. kozhikodianus, Rauvolfia tetraphylla, Rostellularia quinqueangularis, Tribulus lanuginosus, T. subramanyamii 

and Urena lobata subsp. sinuata. 

189

Paruvathamalai Peak 

Plate 26A 

Vegetation of Javvadhu Hills 

Melapattu Javadhi Hills 

Brachystelma brevitubulatum 

Savannah Forest in Paruvathamalai Hills

Plate 26B 

Threatened Plants of Javvadhu Hills 

Santalum album 

Decalepis hamiltonii 

Panicum fischeri 

Justicia nilgherrensis Phyllanthus indofischerii Acorus calamus


192 


Though several taxa of plants in the hill range are facing a high risk of threat owing to a variety of factors, the following 

are worth mentioning and need immediate conservation action. 

1. Brachystelma brevitubulatum (Bedd.) Gamble (Asclepiadaceae) 

Slender twiners. Leaves linear-lanceolate, 8-11 × 0.4-0.8 cm, base cuneate, with a brown gland, apex acuminate. 

Cymes umbellate, 3(4)-flowered. Flowers c 3.5 cm long, c 1.5 cm across; corolla-tube short, connate at base and 

apex, up to 3 mm long; petals 5, ovate-lanceolate, 2-3.5 × 0.5-0.8 cm, purple-brown within, greenish yellow without. 

Follicles c 7.5 × 0.4 cm, tapering towards apex. Seeds c 10, oblong, compressed, c 5 × 2 mm, brown; coma silky-white, 

unequal, up to 3 cm long (Plate 26B). 

This species is Endemic to Javvadhu hills in Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. It is rarely found along exposed grassy 

slopes in Paruvathamalai and Swamimalai R.F. Fl.: Oct.-Nov.; Fr.: Nov.-Apr. 

Note: This potentially ornamental plant was first collected by Beddome in 1871 from Amerdy (Amirthi) forest of Javvadhu 

hills near Vellore. During floristic study of Tiruvannamalai district it was rediscovered after a lapse of 131 years and also 

from other than the type locality. So far only eleven individuals have been noticed (8 from Paruvathamalai and 3 from 

Swamimalai R.F.) as a result of thorough perambulation in the above localities. There is every possibility for its 

occurrence in similar habitats (i.e. grassy, rocky slopes in woodland savannahs) in adjescent districts too. Planned and 

focused explorations may help to ascertain the actual population size and distribution of this narrow endemic species. 

This species is of prime conservation concern due to its taxonomical and distributional importance. The present 

locations are facing threats of forest fire and grazing in addition to the growing human interference in the form of 

pilgrims. An appropriate in situ conservation action is urgently needed to preserve this precious species before it 

disappears from its prestine locality. Moss multiplication through seeds and tissue culture technique and reintroduction 

in the suitable habitats are also suggested (Vijaya Sankar et al., 2003). 

2. Panicum fischeri Bor (Poaceae) 

Tufted herbs, up to 1 m high. Leaves linear, c 30 × 1 cm, base narrowed, apex acuminate. Panicles diffuse, up to 45 × 

30 cm. Spikelets: one short-pedicelled (3 mm long), another with long pedicel (11 mm long); lower glume 2 mm long, 

lobed, acuminate, 3-nerved, midnerve prominent; upper glume 4.2 × 2 mm, 7-nerved, acuminate, lead-grey. Lower 

floret male or barren; lower lemma 4 mm long, lead-grey, 9-nerved, nerves prominent on the upper half, lower half of 

lemma transparent; palea scareous, keeled, folded, up to 3 mm long. Upper floret bisexual, with an appendage (which 

2.5 mm long), transparent, stiff, acuminate, lanceolate; lemma 3 mm long, smooth, boat-shaped, obtuse; upper palea 

3 mm long, smooth, scarious, shiny; stamens 3, pink, 2 mm, divergent; stigma plumose (that starts from 1 mm), 2.5 mm 

long, dark purple; lodicules 2. 

This species is Endemic to Tamil Nadu. It grows among other grasses such as Apluda mutica, Cymbopogon spp. in the 

slopes of Savannah forests in Paruvathamalai above 500 m altitude. Fl. & Fr.: Oct.-Dec. RVS 71245, 102223. 

Note: Gamble first collected this unique grass from Kullar (Kallar) in the Nilgiris, Western Ghats, in 1886. The present 

collection from Paruvathamalai, Javvadhu hills, after a lapse of about 120 years from its type collection, shows its 

extended distribution in the Eastern Ghats. In the present locality this species also is facing threats of grazing, forest fire 

and soil erotion in addition to human interference in the form of pilgrims. Suitable conservation measures have to be 

taken up in order to protect this endemic species before it vanishes from this habitat. Grazing should be completely 

banned and collection of thatch grass should be regulated. Strict vigilance on forest fire and establishing horizontal 

raised bunds along slopes may prevent this species from extinction.(Vijaya Sankar 2006).

3. Barleria pilosa Wall. ex Nees (Acanthaceae) 

Tamil : Sunnaambu chedi 

Undershrubs, up to 1 m high; young parts pilose; mature branchlets terete, young ones obscurely 4-gonous. Leaves 

ovate-elliptic, 2-4 × 1-2.5 cm, subcoriaceous, densely lineolate and pilose along nerves above, base attenuate, apex 

acute to very shortly acuminate, margin ciliate; lateral nerves 4-pairs, converging towards apex; petioles up to 5 mm 

long. Flowers solitary, axillary, shortly pedicellate; bracts ovate-elliptic, c 5 × 4 mm, pilose; calyx-lobes 4, outer ones 

broadly ovate, c 2 × 1.5 cm, 5-7-nerved, reticulate, long-pilose, base obtuse, apex acute, margin sharply denticulateciliate; 

inner lobes 2, linear-oblong, c 7 × 1.5 mm, pilose; corolla c 3 cm across, 5-lobed, puberulous without; tube c 2 

cm long, greenish white; fertile stamens 2; styles c 2.5 cm long; stigma truncate. Capsules ovoid-oblong, compressed, 

c 1.5 × 0.8 cm, without a woody base, glabrous. Seeds 4, appressed-pubescent. 

This species is endemic to Tamil Nadu. It is rarely found along streams in Karnatigur R.F., Javvadhu hills. Fl. & Fr.: 

Dec.-Feb. RVS 102201. 

Note: This species has so far been reported only from the W.Ghats of Coimbatore (Anamalai hills) and Tirunelveli 

(Courtallam) districts. The present collection of this endemic species from Javvadhu hills forms new report to the 

E.Ghats as well as extends the known distribution towards north of the State. Only few old collections by Rottler, Wight 

(Courtallam), Beddome and Fischer (Coimbatore) are available at MH, BSI, Coimbatore. 

4. Premna latifolia Roxb. var. henryi D. Naras. (Verbenaceae) 

Shrubs, up to 4 m high. Leaves ovate-elliptic, 3-7 × 2-4.5 cm, base truncate to subcuneate, apex subacuminate, margin 

irregularly dentate at upper half. Corymbs c 3 × 5 cm. Flowers c 4 mm across, greenish white. Drupes subglobose, c 5 

mm across. 

This is an another taxon endemic to Tamil Nadu. This species has been collected after type collection and also from 

other than the type locality, nearly after 23 years. It is occasionally seen in open rocky slopes in the hill range. Fl. & Fr.: 

Mar.-Jun. RVS 73672. 

References 

Floristic wealth of Javvadhu Hills, Eastern Ghats, 


Champion, H. G. & A.K. Seth. 1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt. of India, 

New Delhi. 

Ravikumar, K. & D.K. Ved. 2000. Illustrated field guide to 100 red-listed medicinal plants of conservation concern in 

Southern India. Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions, Bangalore. 

Ravikumar, K. & R. Vijaya Sankar. 2003. Ethnobotany of Malayali tribes in Melpattu village, Javvadhu hills of Eastern 

Ghats, Tiruvannamalai district, Tamil Nadu. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 27(3): 715-726. 

Vijaya Sankar, R. 2006. Floristic and ethnobotanical inventories of Tiruvannamalai District, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis. 

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Thirunelveli. 

Vijaya Sankar, R., K. Ravikumar & P. Ravichandran. 2003. Endemic species, Brachystelma brevitubulatum (Bedd.) 

Gamble (Asclepiadaceae), relocated after a century. Phytotaxonomy 3: 130-133. 

193


194 


Introduction 

27.0 Shola Forests and Some Important Species of 

Southernmost Eastern Ghats 

L. Arul Pragasan, C. Muthumperumal & *N. Parthasarathy 

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, 

Puducherry – 605 014, India 

*parthapu@yahoo.com 

Loss of forest cover in the tropics has always been associated with burgeoning human population and rapid changes 

in land use (Rudel & Roper 1997, Lamb et al. 2005). Extensive deforestation leads to formation of forested islands 

within larger landscapes (Cayuela et al. 2006). Forests not only form the most important renewable natural resource on 

earth but also render numerous ecosystem services to mankind which cannot be equated in monetary terms as some 

of the economists try to do these days. In developing countries like India, dependence of people on forests is inevitable 

and in most of the economically impoverished areas pressure on forests is mounting at alarming rate (Jayakumar et al. 

2002). The poorer forest dwellers regard logging and forest clearing as the only way to earn their livelihood and hardly 

respond to conservation appeals in the absence of any better alternative (Barbier 1993). As a result, most of the official 

conservation programmes fail (Rudel 2006). Depletion of forest has many ecological, social and economic 

consequences, one among them being the loss of biodiversity (Jayakumar et al. 2002, Wills et al. 2006). 

The Eastern Ghats of India harbour diverse tropical forests, which have undergone drastic degradation and 

fragmentation. Contemporary history of forest fragmentation and its ecological consequences in this tract have not 

been documented. At the same time there are quite a few natural pockets of evergreen forests which have evolved 

under peculiar micro-habitats and geomorphological conditions. Such forests are limited in extent and resemble the 

‘shola’ forests of Western Ghats and can be considered as special habitats. Very little ecological studies have been 

conducted on these forests. In this article we give a brief description of these forests and report the occurrence of a few 

characteristic plant species which need conservation action. 

Shola (Evergreen) Forests of south Eastern Ghats as Special Habitats 

The Eastern Ghats of India is a broken chain of hills that runs almost parallel to east coast of India covering three states 

viz., Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The southern portion of Eastern Ghats comprises a few major hills 

namely, Sathyamangalam, Melagiris, Javadi, Shervarayan, Chitteri, Kalrayan, Bodamalai, Pachamalai and Kolli hills. 

Shervarayan hills with maximum altitude of 1649 m above mean sea level is the most elevated hill in southern Eastern 

Ghats. In terms of geographical area, Sathyamangalam (1719 km 2 ) is the largest hill range in the Eastern Ghats. These 

ranges harbour five major forest types, viz. tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, mixed-deciduous, dry deciduous and 

thorn forests. Evergreen forests are distributed only at the hill tops. Semi-evergreen forests are distributed at high 

altitude, and mixed- and dry deciduous forests are distributed on the slopes with middle altitude. While the thorn forests 

are typically found in the foot hills. Some times they also occur at middle elevation, as a result of degradation of dry 

deciduous forests. In southern Eastern Ghats, evergreen forests are considered as special habitat as their distribution 

is restricted to small patches in a few high altitude hill tops of Sathyamamgalam, Shervarayan, Chitteri, Kalrayan, 

Pachamalai and Kolli hills. Of particular mention include sites such as Alathi shola of Kalrayan hills, Kannimar shola of 

Pachamalai and Ariyur and Kuzhivalavu sholas of Kolli hills are patches of dense evergreen forests as good and dense 

as of wet evergreen forests of Western Ghats. Threats to these patches include land use change for hill agriculture and 

various plantation crops including fruit crop particularly pine apple in Kolli hills, tapioca cultivation in Alathi shola. 

195


196 


The evergreen sholas of southern-most Eastern Ghats are peculiar in various ways. They are located usually at hill tops 

between 750 to 1649m asl. They share many species with shoals of Western Ghats. They have moderately high plant 

species diversity with dominant evergreen elements and multi-layered canopy structure. The epiphytic orchids, ferns 

and mosses are common. Interestingly, they have high frequency of occurrence of latex / resinous rich woody plants. 

The trees are usually tall and voluminous, loaded with epiphytes and leaves with epiphylls. Climax forest canopy tree 

species can reach up to 30-40 m in height. Trees are rarely multi-stemmed and lianas are usually abundant and thick 

stemmed. The forest floor is usually laden with thick layer of litter that harbors dense arthropod population. Site photos 

and some important plants of southern-most Eastern Ghats are shown in Plate 27. 

Geologically these hill ranges comprise masses of charnokite associated with gneisses and varied metamorphic 

rocks. Sathyamangalam has two large reservoirs, Bavanisagar dam on the south-west and Mettur dam on the northeast 

direction. Cauvery is the major river that passes through Sathyamangalam forests. Vellar, Ponnaiyar and Kollidam 

are the three rivers which originate from southern Eastern Ghats. These rivers are the major water source for the 

farmers in central Tamil Nadu. Among all the areas S Sathyamangalam hills have special biogeographic significance 

as several floral and faunal elements find their dispersal path through this range between Western and Eastern Ghats. 

Among large mammals, the Asian elephant and tiger are reported from this area. The other animals of Sathyamangalam 

include common leopard, sambar, wild dog, Indian bison or gaur, wild pig and golden jackal. 

Tribal settlements are common in all hills. The tribal people of southern Eastern Ghats are called ‘Malayalees’. The 

hilly terrain and the surrounding plains of southern Eastern Ghats are densely populated. The ever-increasing human 

population and settlements in forested areas, and construction of roads and dams, lead to degradation of forest 

landscape and ultimately forest habitats are threatened at an alarming rate. 

Notable plant taxa of high conservation significance 

1. Memecylon parvifolium Thwaites (Melastomataceae) 

A small tree, reaching up to 10 m, with many branches and greyish bark. Branchlets stout, subquadrangular. Leaves 

elliptic to elliptic-obovate, cuneate at the base and narrowed into a short but distinct petiole, obtuse to rounded or 

notched or sometimes acute at the apex, occasionally shortly and indistinctly caudate, often with revolute margins, with 

indistinct intramarginal and lateral veins, coriaceous, more or less shining above, drying dark green. Flowers white, few 

in nearly sessile cyme. Fruit globose, black. 

This species was known to occur only in Srilanka till recently. It forms a new record to tree flora of India (Pragasan & 

Parthasarathy, in press). 

2. Memecylon madgolense Gamble (Melastomataceae) 

A large shrub or small tree. Leaves green when dry, ovate-lanceolate, base acute, apex caudate-acuminate. Intramarginal 

nerves about 8 pairs, indistinct. Flowers few in lateral cymes. Fruit a berry. It is endemic to Eastern Ghats of 

India. It has been recently rediscovered after a century from Eastern Ghats of India (Pragasan & Parthasarathy, in press) 

3. Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm. F.) Blume ( Lauraceae) 

Vernacular Name : Ilavangappattai (Tamil) 

Evergreen tree to 15 m; crown compact. Lvs (sub) opp, darh green, shiny, 3-nerved, new flesh reddish brown. Fls in 

panicles cream. Fruit green ellipsoid-globose berry. Epicarp coriaceous. Economically important species, used as 

medicine and also as substitute of C. zeylanicum. Endemic to Indian Peninsula.

4. Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. (Moraceae) 

Vernacular Name : Mara-Uri (Tamil). English: The Upas Tree 

A lofty tree with buttressed base. Young shoots, petioles and midrib velvety. Flowers unisexual, male flowers crowded on 

the surface of flat pedunculate and fascicled receptacles. Fruits red, velvety, fleshy up to 2 cm in diameter. So far mostly 

known from Western Ghats. Distributed in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia. 

Economically important 

5. Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. (Myristicaceae) 

Vernacular Name : Katujathika (Tamil). 

Densely foliaceous, dioecious evergreen tree. Stem up to 1.6 m in girth. Leaves elliptic to broadly lanceolate. Flowers 

in umbels. Fruit a drupe, ovoid to elliptic, 4-6 x 3-4 cm. Seeds ovoid covered by yellowish orange aril. Endosperm 

ruminate. An economically important species used as spice. Distributed in India and Sri Lanka. 

6. Dimocarpus longan Lour. (Sapindaceae) 

Vernacular Name : Kattupuvan (Tamil) 

Evergreen tree. Lvs even-pinnate; lflets (sub)opp, c.7 pairs, oblong-lanceolate. Flowers regular. Fruit Schizocarp; Seed 

with fleshy aril. 

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, New Guinea 

Economically important 

7. Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp. arnottiana (Wight) Beus. (Meliosmaceae) 

Tree to 15 m. Lvs odd-pinnate; lflets c.6 pairs, (sub)opp, oblong-lanceolate, inequilateral. Flowers in panicles. Fruit 

drupe, smooth. Hills >1200 m. 

Distribution: Sri Lanka, India, E & SE Asia, Malaysia, Philippines. 

8. Canarium strictum Roxb. (Burseraceae) 

Vernacular Name : Karuppu Kungiliam (Tamil) 

Evergreen tree to 20 (30) m; girth to 4.5 m. Lvs odd-pinnate; lflets 3-5 pairs, opp, oblong; rusty-villous below. Panicles 

axillary, interrupted. Flowers 3-merous, polygamous. Fruit drupe, oblong. Hills > 1100 m. An economically important 

species. 

Distribution: India, Myanmar 

9. Diploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels (Menispermaceae) 

Vernacular Name : Morasankodi (Tamil) 

A large climber in sheltered forests, up to 1500m. Leaves broad ovate, 5-nerved at back, glaucous beneath; flowers 

yellow-cauliflorous; drupes red. 

Distribution: Peninsular India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia. 

10. Embelia basaal (Roem. ex Schultes) A. DC. (Myrsinaceae) 

Shola Forests and Some Important Species of 


Large climber, leaves oblong lanceolate, dots and streak-like glands spread over whole leaf, racemes of orange 

colored flowers from the older branchlets. 

Distribution: Peninsular India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia. 

197

Plate 27 

Shola Formations of Southernmost Eastern Ghats 

Map of Eastern Ghats based on NDVI and Digital Elevation Model 

Undisturbed Evergreen forest 

Disturbed Evergreen forest 

Myristica dactyloides Canarium strictum Antiaris toxicaria 

Diploclisia glaucescens Embelia basaal

11. Entada pursaetha DC. (Mimosaceae) 

Vernacular Name : Vattavalli (Tamil) 

A gigantic unarmed liana with very small yellowish flowers and huge flat pods. Leaflets 2.5-4.5 cm long, oblong, 

shining, obtuse or emarginate. Stems spirally twisted. 

Distribution: Tropical & South Africa, Sri Lanka, Peninsular India, Malaysia to Australia. 

12. Capparis shevaroyensis Sund.-Ragh. (Capparaceae) 

A spreading much-branched thorny straggler. Leaves lanceolate or oblanceolate, caudate acuminate at apex, 

glabrous, dull green above, yellowish green at beneath; flower - creamy white; Fruit-yellowish brown – globose. 

Distribution: Restricted forests Eastern and Western Ghats of Peninsular India. 

Threats: Land use change. 

13. Rhaphidophora laciniata (Burm.f.) Merr. (Araceae) 

Vernacular Name : Anaitippili (Tamil) 

A large epiphytic climber, from plains to higher elevations; leaves ovate to sub orbicular in outline, inequilateral, 

sometimes entire and if so perforate with elliptic holes, sometimes pinnatisect. 

Distribution: Peninsular India 

14. Gymnema tingens (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. (Asclepiadaceae) 

A gigantic climber, branches soft, not woody; Leaves bright green, membranous, broadly ovate, usually cordate, 

acute, acuminate or caudate; A spiral raceme with pale yellow flowers. 

Distribution: Peninsular India 

Category: Rare 

References 

Shola Forests and Some Important Species of 


Barbier, E. 1993. Introduction: economics and ecology – the next frontier. pp. 1-10. In: E. Barbier (ed). Economics and 

ecology: new frontiers and sustainable development. Chapman and Hall, London. 

Cayuela, L., D.J. Golicher, J.M.R. Benayas, M.G. Gonzalez-Espinosa & N. Ramirez-Marcial. 2006. Fragmentation, 

disturbance and tree diversity conservation in tropical montane forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 43: 1172-1181. 

Jayakumar, S., D.I. Arockiasamy & S.J. Britto. 2002. Conservation forests in the Eastern Ghats through remote sensing 

and GIS – a case study in Kolli hills. Current Science 82: 1259-1267. 

Lamb, D., P.D. Erskine & J.A. Parrotta. 2005. Restoration of degraded tropical forest landscapes. Science 310: 1628- 

1632. 

Pragasan, L.A. & N. Parthasarathy. Memecylon parvifolium Thwaites (Melastomataceae) from southern Eastern 

Ghats – a new record to tree flora of India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. (in press). 

Pragasan, L.A. & N. Parthasarathy. Rediscovery of Memecylon madgolense Gamble (Melastomataceae), after a 

century from Eastern Ghats of India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. (in press). 

Rudel, T. & J. Roper. 1997. The paths to rain forest destruction: cross-national patterns of tropical deforestation, 1975- 

90. World Development 25: 53-65. 

199


200 


Rudel, T.K. 2006. Shrinking tropical forests, human agents of change, and conservation policy. Conservation Biology 

20: 1604-1609. 

Shankarnarayan, K.A. & M.V. Dalbholkar. 1959. Studies on the vegetation of Salem district. Indian Forester 85: 577-580. 

Subramanyam, K. & A.N. Henry. 1967. On a collection of plants from Javadi hills, North Arcot district. Indian Forester 93: 

507-518. 

Wills, C., K.E. Harms, R. Condit, et al. 2006. Nonrandom processes maintain diversity in tropical forests. Science 311: 

527-531.

. N. Thatoi 

T

28.0 Mangroves of Orissa Coast: Floral Diversity and 

Conservation Status 

Introduction 

1 2 H. N. Thatoi & A.K. Biswal 

1P.G. Department of Biotechnology, North Orissa University, Takatpur, Baripada-757003, Orissa 

hn_thatoi@rediffmail.com 

2P.G. Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Takatpur, Baripada-757003, Orissa 

anilkbiswal@yahoo.com 

The mangroves are unique ecosystems found in the tropical and sub-tropical inter-tidal regions of the world. They are 

among the most productive habitats dominated by salt tolerant vegetation, popularly known as ‘Tidal Swamp Forests’, 

‘Littoral Swamp Forests’, or Oceanic Rain Forests’. The word ‘mangrove’ is interchangeably used for salt tolerant 

plants as well as forest ecosystem. Hence, Macnae (1968) proposed the terms ‘Mangal’ to denote this special ecosystem 

and ‘Mangroves’ for the plants adapted to grow in such habitats. The mangrove plants are specialized to tolerate high 

salinity, tidal extremes, high fluctuations in wind, temperature and muddy anaerobic soil. No other groups of terrestrial 

plants survive well under such conditions. A muddy substratum of varying depth and consistency is necessary for their 

growth. The plants have special adaptations such as stilt roots, viviparous germination, salt-excreting leaves, breathing 

roots, and knee roots by which these plants survive in water-logged, anaerobic saline soils of coastal environments. 

Also, the mangrove plants have great potential to adapt to the changes in climate, rise in sea levels and to the incidence 

of solar ultraviolet–B radiation (Rahaman 1990, Swaminathan 1991, Moorthy 1995, Moorthy & Kathiresan 1996). 

India harbours some of the best mangrove forests of the world which are located in the alluvial deltas of major rivers 

such as the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and also on the bay of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 

According to the Forest Survey of India (Anonymous 2003) total area under mangrove forests in the country is 4,461 km 2 

which forms 0.14% of the country’s geographical area and is 5% of the world’s mangrove vegetation. About 58.32% of 

India’s mangrove forests are located along the east coast and 24.61% on the west coast. The Bay Islands (Andaman 

& Nicobar) account for 15.04% of the country’s mangroves. Mangroves are much more extensive on the east coast of 

India due to nutrient-rich alluvial soil formed by the several rivers which also supply fresh water along the deltaic coast. 

The west coast mangroves are dominated by estuarine back waters, which include the coastal areas of Gujarat, 

Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. The east coast has a smooth and gradual slope which provides larger areas 

for colonization of mangroves whereas the west coast has a steep and vertical slope. Mangroves in Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands are oceanic in nature, fringing the creeks, back waters and muddy shores. 

Mangroves of Orissa 

Mangrove forests along coast of India cover approximately an area of 207 km 2 . These forests are distributed in the 

deltas of six rivers viz., Subernarekha, Budhabalanga, Baitarani, Brahmani, Mahanadi and Devi. While mangroves of 

Subarnarekha, Budhabalanga and Devi river deltas have been degraded, they are still intact in Bhitarkanika (Baritarani 

and Brahmani deltaic complex). In fact, Bhitarkanika mangroves (130 km 2 ) contribute substantially to the state’s 

mangrove vegetation and form second largest mangrove ecosystem in the Indian sub-continent after Sunderbans. 

Mangroves of Mahanadi delta to the south of Bhitarkanika are open and in a state of degradation due to intensive 

human interference such as developmental projects and industries. Mangroves were also reported to occur in the 

fringes of Chilika lake till the turns of previous century which have been disappeared now. Besides protection of the 

coastal environment from the fury of cyclone, mangroves provide multiple economic benefits to the coastal communities. 

201


Floral Diversity 

202 


The Indian mangroves comprise approximately 59 species, belonging to 41 genera of 29 families. Of these, 34 

species under 25 genera belong 21 families are present in the mangrove and tidal vegetation along the east coast. 

There are about 25 mangrove species along the west coast (Banerjee et al. 1989). The east coast of India and 

Andaman-Nicobar Islands exhibit a higher degree of species diversity as well as a unique distribution of mangrove 

elements. The important mangrove families represented in India are Avicenniaceae, Combretaceae, Arecaceae 

(Palmae), Rhizophoraceae and Sonneratiaceae (Banerjee et al. 1989). Review of literature revealed that about 42 true 

mangroves and 40 mangrove associates are extant in the Bhitarkanika mangrove forest in Orissa. A comparative 

account of mangrove and mangrove associates occurring in Mahanadi delta and Bhitarkanika of Orissa and other 

states along the east coast including Andaman and Nicober Islands have been provided in Table-2. Mangrove 

ecosystem of Bhitarkanika exhibits maximum species diversity in the country (Rao et al. 1970, Banerjee & Das 1972, 

Rao & Sastry 1974, Banerjee 1984 & 1986, Banerjee & Rao 1990). Cerbera manghas, Sonneratia caseolaris, Heritiera 

kanikensis, Amoora cuculata, Acanthus volubilis, Merope angulata, Xylocarpus mekongensis, Ceriops tagal and 

Sonneratia alba are some of the rare and threatened mangrove species in Orissa coast (Plate 28). 

Status and Distribution 

Orissa has comparatively larger mangrove habitats in the country due to nutrient rich alluvial soils formed by the river 

Mahanadi delta and the Brahamani-Baitarani delta. The coast also has a smooth and gradual slope which provides 

larger areas for colonization of mangroves. As per an estimate the state has a total mangrove areas of 207 km 2 

distributed over four coastal districts (Table-1) that include 160 km 2 (77%) moderately dense mangroves and 47 km 2 

(23 %) open mangroves cover in 2003 (State of Forest Report 2003). Mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Brahmani-Baitarani 

river deltas) are quite extensive and abundant as compared to those present in the Mahanadi delta. The mangroves of 

Devi river mouth, Budhabalanga and Subarnarekha river mouths are in highly degraded state. 

Table 1. Mangrove distribution in Orissa 

Sr. No District Moderately dense Open Total (km 2 ) 

mangrove (km 2 ) mangrove (km 2 ) 

1 Balasore 0.0 4.0 4.0 

2 Bhadrak 17.0 3.0 20.0 

3 Jagatsinghpur 1.0 2.0 3.0 

4 Kendrapara 142.0 38.0 180.0 

Total 160.0 47.0 207.0 

Source: State of Forest Report, Forest Survey of India, 2003 

River Mouths of Subernarekha and Budhabalanga : Mangroves of river mouths of Subernarekha and Budhabalanga 

covering an area of 563ha, at present are in highly degraded state owing to heavy biotic pressure. Vegetation is 

represented by shrubby elements and stunted forms of tree species. The notable mangrove species are Avicennia 

officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia apetala, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera 

cylindrica, Ceriops decandra, Acanthus ilicifolius, Caesalpinia nuga, Myriostachya wightiana, Suaeda maritima, 

Porteresia coarctata, etc. About 50 ha of degraded lands have been planted with seedlings of Avecennia spp., Excoecaria 

agallocha, Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguira gymnorrhiza, Aegiceras corniculatum, etc. by the Orissa 

Forest Department during 2001-2002 (Reddy 2002). 

Bhitarkanika : Bhitarkanika (672 km 2 ) harbours luxuriant and wide-spread mangrove vegetation (130 km 2 ). This area 

has a total of 42 true mangroves, 40 mangrove associates and 9 obligate mangroves. It provides ideal habitat to 

estuarine crocodile and several other faunal communities (Pandav 1996, Daniels and Acharjyo 1997). The mangrove

Mangroves of Orissa Coast: 

Floral Diversity and Conservation Status 

species occurring in Bhitarkanika exhibits two storey systems (Choudhury 1990). The ground flora is either poor or 

absent, top canopy is dominated by mangrove species viz., Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia officinalis, A. alba, Excoecaria 

agallocha, Heritiera fomes, Pongamia pinnata, while the second storey is composed of shrubby and under tree species 

such as Brownlowia tersa, Kandelia candel, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops decandra, Cynometra 

iripa, Clerodendrum inerme, Aegiceras corniculatum, Hibiscus tiliaceus, etc. Gregarious and luxuriant growth of Avicennia 

spp. and Sonneratia apetala are found along banks of river and creeks in Bhitarkanika. While Pongamia pinnata and 

Xylocarpus granatum occupy habitats close to the water bodies, in more elevated areas mixed forests of Heritiera 

fomes and Excoecaria agallocha are met with. While Phoenix paludosa, Tamarix indica, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Heritiera 

littoralis are found in pure formations, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Cerbera manghas, Ceriops decandra, etc. are found in 

low frequency. The ground level, close to river banks and estuaries is muddy and studded with pneumatophores. 

Except a few patches of grasses herbaceous elements are devoided. However, a little distance from the river banks, 

Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Flagellaria indica, etc. in the moist areas and Salicornia brackiata, Suaeda 

nudiflora, Tylophora indica, etc. are in the dry region are usually found as herbaceous elements. The common associates 

as the category of climbers/thinners are Derris trifoliata, Mucuna gigantean, Acanthus volubilis, Caesalpinia nuga, 

Dalbergia spinosa, etc. Some mangrove species like Cerbera manghas, Acanthus volubilies and Heritiera kanikensis 

are found only in Bhitarkanika. Of these, the later two species are endemic to Orissa. Occurrence of 3 species each of 

Avicennia, Heritiera, Sonneratia, Rhizophora and Xylocarpus and 4 species of Bruguira are significant for Bhitarkanika 

forests (Mukherjee and Mukharjee 1978). 

Mahanadi Delta : The dominant mangrove species occurring in Mahanadi delta are Avicennia officinalis, A. marina, 

A. alba, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora mucronata, and Sonneratia apetala, etc. The mangroves in the region are 

degrading rapidly due to habitat alteration for agricultural system, development of prawn firms and of port facilities at 

Paradeep. These developmental activities moved many taxa towards threatened categories i.e., Merope angulata, 

Tamarix dioica, Bruguira sexangula, Sonneratia caseolaris, Sonneratia alba, Sonneratia griffithii, Sarcolobus carinatus, 

S. globosus, Xylocarpus mekongensis and Dolichandrone spathacea. There are 34 true mangroves, 42 mangrove 

associates and 20 obligate mangroves are present in Mahanadi delta. 

Devi River Mouth : Devi river arises from river Kathjodi, a tributary of river Mahanadi drains into Bay of Bengal forming 

a tidal estuary with meandering creeks and channels. The estuary of Devi river is almost devoid of typical mangrove 

elements mainly due to habitat destruction connected with human settlement and paddy cultivation in the areas. 

Moreover, the ecological conditions have been changed due to formation of sand bars which considerably checked 

inundation. Only patches of Acanthus ilicifolius, Tamarix troupii, Excoecaria agallocha, Myriostachya wightiana, Phoenix 

paludosa, etc. are found in denuded condition. At places old stumps of Avicennia sp. and Heritiera fomes are reminiscent 

of the existence of past mangrove vegetation. In mud flats, Suaeda maritima, Suaeda monoica, Sesuvium portulacastrum 

and Fimbristylis ferruginea are common elements. Recently, efforts have been made by State Forest Department and 

M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, to introduce a number of species i.e., Avicennia officinalis, Sonneratia 

apetala, Aegiceras corniculatum, Ceriops decandra, Bruguira gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora apiculata, Avicennia marina, 

etc. in the form of plantation. In total, there are 12 true mangroves and 4 mangrove associates are present in Devi river 

mouth. 

Mangroves of Chilika Lake : The typical mangroves have disappeared from the fringes of the Chilika lake and its 

adjoining regions. Only mangrove associates and transitory taxa like Aegiceras corniculatum, Azima tetracantha, 

Salvadora persica, Cressa cretica, etc. are found at places. However, species like Clerodendrum inerme, Excoecaria 

agallocha, etc. are reported by Narayan swami and Cater (1922) could not be traceable at present. About 10 ha of land 

near Sipakuda and adjoining area have been planted with species i.e., Rhizophora apiculata, Avicennia marina, A. 

alba, A. officinalis and Kandelia candel by Forest Department of Orissa. 

203


204 


Table 2: A comparison of true mangrove species in Orissa, adjacent regions of east coast and Andaman & 

Nicobar Islands [C = Common, O= Occasional, F = Frequent, R = Rare, + = Present, - = Absent] 

No Name of the family & species 

ACANTHACAE 

Mahanadi Bhitarkanika Sunderbans Tamil Nadu 

Andaman & 

Nicober 

1 Acanthus ilicifolius L. 

ARECACEAE 

C C + + C 

2 Nipa fruticans Wurmb. + F + - - 

3 Phoenix paludosa Roxb. F F + - - 

AVICENNIACEAE _ _ _ _ + 

4 Avicennia alba Bl. + + + - - 

5 Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. + + + + - 

6 Avicennia marina Var. acutissima Staf. & + + - - - 

Mold 

7 Avicennia officinalis L. + + + + + 

COMBRETACEAE 

8 Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. + + + + + 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

9 Excoecaria agallocha L. + + + + 

10 Excoecaria indica (Sapium indicum) - + - - - 

11 Excocaria bicolor Muell. - - + - - 

FABACEAE 

12 Cynometra iripa Kostel. + + - - + 

13 Cynometra ramiflora L. - + + - - 

14 Derris trifoliatia Lour. + + + + + 

15 Derris umbellatum DC. - - + - - 

16 Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Kuntze - + - - - 

MALVACEAE 

17 Hibiscus tortussus Wall. - - + - - 

MELIACEAE 

18 Aglaia cucullata Roxb. - + + - R 

19 Xylocarpus granatum Koenig + + + - C 

20 Xylocarpus molucensis (L.) Roem. + + + - R 

21 Xylocarpus mekongensis (Prain) Pierre + + - + - 

MYRSINACEAE 

22 Aegiceros corniculatum (L.) Blanco + + + + C 

PLUMBAGINACEAE 

23 Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb. + + - - + 

POACEAE 

24 Porteresia coarctata Roxb. Takeoka + + + - - 

RHIZOPHORACEAE 

25 Bruguiera cylindrica Bl. + + + + - 

26 B. gymnorrhiza (L.). Sav. + + + - C 

27 B. parviflora (Roxb.) Wt & Arn. + + + - + 

28 B. sexangula(Lour) Poir + + + - + 

29 Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou + + + + + 

30 Ceriops tagal (Perr.) Robb. - + + R + 

31 Kandelia candel (L.) Druce + + + - + 

32 Rhizophora apiculata Bl. + + + + C 

33 R. larmarckii Montr. - - - + R 

34 R. mucronata Lamk. + + + + C 

35 R. stycosa Giff. - + - - R 

RUBIACEAE 

36 Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f - - - R F 

RUTACEAE 

37 Merope angulata (Willd.) Sw. + + - - - 

SONNERATIACEAE 

38 Sonneratia alba J. Sm + + - - + 

39 S. caseolaris (L.) Engl. + + + - + 

40 S. apetala Buch.-Ham + + + + - 

41 S. griffithii Kurz. + + - - - 

STERCULIACEAE 

42 Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham. + + + - - 

43 H. kanikensis Majumdar et. Banarjee - + - - - 

44 H. littoralis Dryand - + + - C 

TILIACEAE 

45 Brownlowia tersa (L.) + + + - R 

Total 34 42 35 15 28

Xylocarpus granatum - 

an endangered 

medicinal plant 

Plate 28 

Mangrove Vegetation of Orissa: 

Special Communities and Threatened Species 

Kandelia candel - exhibiting 

vivipary 

Sonneratia grifithii Sesuvium portulacastrum- 

forming pure patches in 

hypersaline soils 

Bhitarkanika Mangroves 

Lumnitzera racemosa - A 

Sparsely Distributed Taxon 

Pnematophores of 

Avicennia officinalis


Conservation and Management 

206 


Mangroves of Orissa did not receive adequate protection in the past. Bhitarkanika forest area was under the control of 

the erstwhile Zamindari Forests of Kanika Raj till 1951. On abolition of Zamindari system the management of mangrove 

forests was vested on Government of Orissa. At present, mangroves of Bhitarkanika, Mahanadi and Devi river mouth are 

being managed by the Mangrove Forest Division, Rajnagar, mangroves of Subarnarekha, and Budhabalanga are 

managed by Baripada Forest Division and mangroves planted in Chilika are being managed by Chilika Forest Division. 

Due to reclamation of mangrove forests for settlement of the immigrants, paddy cultivation, prawn culture, overexploitation 

of woody mangroves, establishment of port and factories the mangrove forests have been denuded in most 

part of the state. However, in recent years much effort is being made by State Forest Department, Government of Orissa 

not only to conserve mangrove forests but also to restore the degraded mangrove areas. Apart from the Forest Department, 

certain NGOs such as M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation are also involved in conservation and restoration of 

mangroves in the state. In view of much devastation of super cyclone that hit Orissa coasts during 29 and 30 November 

1999, the ecological role of mangroves has been realized much more than ever before and more emphasis has been 

laid on protection of this fragile forest ecosystem. 

References 

Anonymous. 2003. State of the Forest Report. Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of 

India, Dehradun. 

Banerjee L.K. & G.C. Das. 1972. New distributional records from Orissa coast. Bull. Bot. Surv. India. 14(1-4): 184-186 

Banerjee L.K. 1986. New distributional records of some mangrove species from Orissa coast India. J. Bombay Nat. 

Hist. Soc. 83: 271-273.. 

Banerjee L.K., A.R.K. Sastry & M.P. Nayar. 1989. Mangroves in India. Identification Manual. Botanical Survey of India, 

Calcullta. 

Banerjee, L. K. & T.A. Rao. 1990. Mangroves of Orissa coast and their ecology. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, 

Dehradun. 

Banerjee, L. K. 1984. Vegetation of the Bhitarkanika Sanctuary in Cuttack district, Orissa, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5 (5): 

1065-1079 

Choudhury, B.P. 1990. Bhitarkanika Mangrove Swamps. J. Env. Sci. 3(1): 1-16. 

Daniels, R.J.R. & L.N. Acharjyo. 1997. Rejuvenation of Degraded Mangroves and Development of Seed Banks at 

Bhitarkanika. Final Technical Report Submitted to NORAD. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, 

Chennai 

Macnae, W. 1968. A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps in the Indo-West Pacific region. 

Adv. Mar. Biol. 6: 73 – 270 

Moorthy, P. & K. Kathiresan. 1996. The ultra-violet solar radiation “Syndrome” in marine biota. Seshaiyana 4: 116 – 

118. 

Moorthy, P. 1995. Effects of ultra violet - B radiation on mangrove environment: Physiologicl responses of Rhizophora 

apiculata Blume. Ph.D. thesis, Annamalai University, India. 130 pp. 

Mukherjee, B.B. & J. Mukharjee. 1978. Mangroves of Sunderbans. Phytomorphology 28(2): 197. 

Narayanswami, V. & H.G. Carter. 1922. Systematic list of plants of Barakuda. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 7(4): 289-319.

Pandav, B. 1996. Birds Of Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Eastern India. Forktail, 12: 9-17. 

Mangroves of Orissa Coast: 

Floral Diversity and Conservation Status 

Rahaman, A.A. 1990. Living resources as indicators of sea level variations. pp. 245. In: G.V. Rajamanickam (ed.) 

Sea Level Variation and its Impact on Coastal Environment. Tamil University Press, Thanjavur. 

Rao T. A. & A.R.K. Sastry. 1974. An ecological approach towards classification of coastal vegetation of India II. 

Estuarine Border Vegetation. Indian Forester 100: 438-452. 

Rao,T. A., L. K. Banerjee & A. K. Mukharjee. 1970. Some interesting plant records from the Orissa Coast. J. Bombay 

Nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 659-660 

Reddy, V. R. 2002. Mangrove forests of Subernarekha and Budhabalanga river deltas and their conservation. In: 

Patnaik S.K & Thatoi, H.N. (eds.) Mangrove Conservations and Restoration. M.S. Swaminathan Research 

Foundation, Chennai. 

Swaminathan, M.S. 1991. Foreward. In: Sanjay V. Deshmukh & Rajeshwari Mahalingam (eds.) Proceedings of workshop 

on conservation and sustainable utilization of Mangrove Forest Genetic Resources. M. S. Swaminathan Research 

Foundation, Madras University, India. 

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208 


Introduction 

29. Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests of India: 


N. Parthasarathy 

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 

Pondicherry University, Puducherry – 605 014, India. 

parthapu@yahoo.com 

The tropical dry evergreen forests are among the least known and unique vegetation types confined to a few localities 

in the world. These forests are reported to occur in Antigua, Bahamas, British Guiana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago 

in Tropical America; Ethiopian highlands, Tanzania and Zambia in Africa; Thailand, Sri Lanka and Coromandel coast 

of Peninsular India in Asia. There are no unified features for this rare and unique forest type and it has been chosen 

based on local climatic, biotic and edaphic factors, which influence the physiognomy, stand structure, species 

composition, and dynamics. 

Champion & Seth (1968) recognized a zone of tropical dissymmetric climate along east coast of southern India where 

climax vegetation is Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest (TDEF). This type of forest occurs in patches along the Coromandel 

coast that extends for about 80-100 km inland (Mani 1974). These forests are typically low at 9 to 12 m high with 

continuous canopy and evergreen species having small, coriaceous leaves. Boles of the trees are short with spreading 

crowns with some deciduous emergents, without marked differentiation of canopy layers. Floristically, it is distinguished 

by a fair representation of characteristic and preferential species peculiar to this type (Meher-Homji 1974). Venkateswaran 

& Parthasarathy (2005) described the TDEF as short statured, largely three-layered evergreen forest with a sparse and 

patchy ground flora. This author has been conducting ecological studies on the TDEF for a decade documenting 

plant species diversity, resource use pattern and conservation status covering as many as 75 sites in Pondicherry 

(11°562 N and 79°53' E), Villupuram (11°93' N 79°48' E), Cuddalore (11°43' N and 79°49' E) and Pudukottai (10°23' 

N and 78°52' E) areas on the Coromandel coast (Plate 29). The areal extent of TDEF sites studied ranged from 0.5 ha 

to ~10 ha. In reality, most of the Indian TDEFs, with the exception of two large areas, namely the Kurumbaram section 

of the Marakanam Reserve Forest and the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, occur as patches of forest dotted along 

the Coromandel Coast, and invariably protected as “sacred groves” based on the religious belief of the local people. 

This unique dry evergreen forest is relatively under-studied on aspects of structural and functional ecology, as compared 

to the tropical wet evergreen forests. 


The Coromandel coast receives much of rainfall during the northeast monsoon (October-December), while southwest 

monsoon (June to September) is very little and inconsistent. The mean annual rainfall recorded at three major towns 

viz., Pondicherry, Cuddalore, and Pudukottai are 1,282, 1,079 and 1,033 mm respectively. The dry season lasts for six 

months (January to June), and monthly average rainfall during rest of the months is less than 60 mm. Mean annual 

maximum and minimum temperatures are 32.58°C and 24.51°C in Pondicherry, 22.75°C and 33.64°C in Cuddalore, 

and 33.4°C and 25.4°C in Pudukottai. General physiognomy of TDEFs and characteristic plant species are featured 

(Plate 29). 

Systematic study of vascular plants at 75 TDEF sites in the Coromandel coast yielded 149 woody species belonging to 

122 genera and 49 families. Of the 149 woody plant species 102 are trees, 47 lianas, and three are characteristic native 

herbs (Parthasarathy et al. 2008) which include the widely-distributed, colony-forming Sansevieria roxburghiana, fairly 

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distributed Ecbolium viride, and the rare Amorphophallus sylvaticus. Dominant families in Indian TDEFs include 

Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae with 11 species each, followed by Capparaceae, Mimosaceae, Fabaceae and Moraceae 

with 8 species each, while Alangiaceae, Barringtoniaceae and Burseraceae are represented by single species. 

Among various Life-forms, Phanerophytes (trees) are dominant representing 102 species (68% of the total) species, 

while lianas formed 32% (47 species). Earlier floral inventories in 12 one ha TDEF permanent plots (Parthasarathy & 

Karthikeyan 1997; Venkateswaran & Parthasarathy 2003; Mani & Parthasarathy 2005; Reddy & Parthasarathy 2003, 

2007; Anbarashan & Parthasarathy 2008) resulted in 86 tree species with a range of 19 to 35 species. An ubiquitous 

tree, Memecylon umbellatum, was the most dominant species, accounting for 32% of tree density, followed by Tricalysia 

sphaerocarpa (10.5%) and Pterospermum canescens (9.7%) in the TDEF. A total of 44 liana species were recorded 

with a range of 21-29 species ha -1 in the eight one ha plots. Among lianas, Combretum albidum (19.2%), Strychnos 

minor (14%), and Reissantia indica (6.5%) were predominant species. 

Out of 149 species, 75 are evergreen (50%), followed by deciduous (45 species, 30%) and brevi-deciduous species 

[species with brief deciduous period followed by synchronous leaf-flushing, e.g., Pterospermum canescens (29 species; 

20%). Analysis of qualitative reproductive traits of TDEF species (Selwyn & Parthasarathy 2006) reveals that many 

species had rotate-type, white-colored, scented flowers with nectar and pollen as rewards. Drupe and berry were the 

common fruit types and were found in black and red color, respectively. A strong association between the qualitative 

reproductive traits and pollination and dispersal spectrum among the TDEF species has been demonstrated (Selwyn 

& Parthasarathy 2006). 

The bioresource potential, especially the medicinal importance of TDEF species, deserves detailed documentation 

within several unstudied sites. In addition to 75 TDEF sites studied, many more sites remain unexplored. The current 

understanding of aut-ecology and reproductive biology of most of the dry evergreen species is still at infant stage. The 

promising areas of future research include: (i) Reproductive biology of important species such as Pterospermum 

xylocarpum, Casearia elliptica, Aglaia elaeagnoidea, Tiliacora acuminate, Strychnos minor, Sansevieria roxburghiana 

and Amorphophallus sylvaticus, (ii) Genetic diversity of polymorphic species such as Memecylon umbellatum, 

Pterospermum xylocarpum, (iii) Bioresource potential of various medicinal plants, typically found within TDEF, (iv) 

Mass multiplication of multi-purpose species such as Sansevieria roxburghiana (used in the treatment of ear diseases 

and cough, yields silky fiber, leaf mucilage used locally as face cream, an effective sand binder and a hedge plant), 

Ormocarpum cochinchinensis (for bone setting) and Amorphophallus sylvaticus (for piles), to name a few, (v) Phytochemical 

screening of important species such as Memecylon umbellatum, Trichosanthes tricuspidata, Cassytha filiformis, 

Cissus vitiginea, Sarcostemma acidum, Atalantia monophylla, and Jasminum angustifolium among others. Threats to 

TDEFs include forest fragmentation, land use change, encroachments for agriculture, soil removal, over grazing by 

domestic livestock, and extraction of fuel wood and medicinal plants. 

Conservation of TDEF patches and representative floral elements is of utmost priority considering the restricted 

geographical distribution and unique features. It is high time that the conservation agencies, academicians and nongovernmental 

organizations come together and draw a conservation action plan involving local communities. 

Key Floral Elements of High Conservation Significance 

Selected economically and ecologically important species of TDEF along with their brief description, distribution and 

threats are given below: 

Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f. (Melastomataceae) 

Tamil: Kasan.

Plate 29 

Important Plants of High Conservation Significance 

in Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests 

Map 

3 4 

5 6 7 

1 

1. & 2. TDEF sites 

3. Memecylon umbellatum Burm., 4. Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka, 

5. Strychnos minor Dennst., 6. Sansevieria roxburghiana Schultes & Schultes f., 

7. Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. 

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212 


Predominant and characteristic tree species of TDEFs. Small to medium tree bark thinly fissured. Leaves opposite, 

coriaceous, fibrous. Flowers blue to pink and purple. Fruits purplish black. Medicinally valuable and also yields dye. 

Tricalysia sphaerocarpa Dalz. (Rubiaceae) 

Common English name: Wild coffee. 

A tree. Outer bark often attacked by termites giving it creamish appearance. Leaves dark green. Flowers white, scented. 

Fruits greenish yellow dispersed by mammals and birds. 

Pterospermum canescens Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 

Important tree, endemic to Coromandel coast of India and Sri Lanka. Leaves white beneath. Flowers white. Fruit woody 

capsule. Seeds winged. 

Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka (Rutaceae) 

Common shrub or small tree in all TDEFs. Leaves pinnately compound, gives smell of chilly when bruised. Flowers 

white. Fruits fleshy, rosy red berry, edible. 

Garcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook. (Clusiaceae) 

An evergreen tree. Leaves dark green, coriaceous. Flowers cauliflorous. Fruit yellowish berry dispersed by small 

mammals. 

Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard (Sapotaceae) 

Large tree, particularly voluminous in Pudukottai TDEFs. Leaves coriaceous. Flowers white. Fruit yellow berry, edible. 

Endemic to Coromandel coast and Sri Lanka. 

Strychnos minor Dennst. (Loganiaceae) 

A liana. Tendrils bi-forked. Leaves dark green, tri-nerved. Flowers white, fragrant. Fruits profuse and the berries dispersed 

by mammals and birds. 

Sansevieria roxburghiana Schultes & Schultes f. (Ruscaceae) 

Gregarious herbs. Leaves succulent and fiber yielding. Flowers in long panicle, greenish white. Fruit red berries 

vertebrate dispersed. Medicinally valuable. 

Tamil: Marul 

References 

Anbarashan, M. & Parthasarathy, N. 2008. Comparitive tree community analysis of two old-growth tropical dry evergreen 

forests of peninsular India. pp 202-211. In: P.C. Trivedi (ed.) Biodiversity impact and assessment. Pointer 

publishers, Jaipur. 

Champion, H. G., & S.K. Seth. 1968. Revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt. of India, 

New Delhi.

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests of India: 


Mani, M. S. 1974. (ed.) Ecology and biogeography in India. Dr. W. Junk B.V Publishers, The Haque, The Netherlands. 

Mani, S., & N. Parthasarathy. 2005. Biodiversity assessment of trees in five inland tropical dry evergreen forests of 

peninsular India. Systematics and Biodiversity 3: 1-12. 

Meher-Homji, V. M. 1974. On the origin of tropical dry evergreen forest of south India. Int. Jour. Eco. Env. Sci. 1: 19-39. 

Parthasarathy, N., & R. Karthikeyan. 1997. Plant biodiversity inventory and conservation of two tropical dry evergreen 

forests on the Coromandel Coast, South India. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 1063-1083. 

Parthasarathy, N., M.A. Selwyn & M. Udayakumar. 2008 Tropical dry evergreen forests of peninsular India: ecology and 

conservation significance. Tropical Conservation Sciences 1: 89-110. 

Reddy, M. S. & N. Parthasarathy 2003. Liana diversity and distribution in four tropical dry evergreen forests on the 

Coromandel coast of south India. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 1609-1627. 

Reddy, M. S. & N. Parthasarathy. 2007. Liana diversity and distribution on host trees in four inland tropical dry evergreen 

forests of peninsular India. Tropical Ecology 47: 103-116. 

Selwyn, M. A. & N. Parthasarathy. 2006. Reproductive traits and phenology of plants in tropical dry evergreen forest on 

the Coromandel coast of India. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 3207-3234. 

Venkateswaran, R. & N. Parthasarathy. 2003. Tropical dry evergreen forests on the Coromandel coasts of India: 

Structure, composition and human disturbance. Ecotropica 9: 45-58. 

Venkateswaran, R. & N. Parthasarathy. 2005. Tree population changes in a tropical dry evergreen forest of south India 

over a decade (1992-2002). Biodiversity and Conservation 14:1335-1344. 

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30. Endemic Plants of Andaman and Nicobar Islands 

Introduction 

H.B. Naithani 

Botany Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun 

hbnaithani@icfre.org 

Since the time of Darwin and Wallace, oceanic islands have been recognized to be of great significance in studies of 

organismic diversity, biogeography and evolution. Isolated from the main lands by vast expanses of water and with 

relatively little or no human interference, they provide ideal sites for the study of evolution, speciation and adaptive 

radiation. Such island groups display enormous variety of biota and more importantly, with a sizeable endemic component. 

However, most of these islands have been subject to overexploitation of natural resources and ill planned developmental 

activities leading to widespread destruction of natural habitats and loss of biodiversity, which is not yet fully understood 

and catalogued. 

Andaman & Nicobar (A&N) Islands, situated between 6 o 45' to 13 o 41' N latitudes and 92 o 12' to 93 o 57' E longitudes (Fig 

- 1), form the largest archipelago in the Bay of Bengal, consisting of 306 islands and 206 rocks and rocky outcrops. 

Often described as ‘Islands of the marigold sun’, they were known as ‘Kalapani’ because of their having been an area 

of penal settlement during British rule. These groups of islands are projections of a long narrow submarine range of 

mountains, with only the peaks being visible above the sea. Geologically these islands are quite young in age, probably 

formed in upper Mesozoic (ca 100 million years ago). This mountain range has a narrow deep oceanic furrow on the 

western boundary that abuts on the main continental plate on the west. The total geographical area of these islands is 

8,249 km 2 , coast line of 1,962 kms. The northern group of islands, the Andaman group, is 6,408 km 2 and the Nicobar 

group is 1,841 km 2 . This large archipelago is separated from mainland India by almost 1000 kms; the nearest landmass 

in the north is Myanmar, roughly 280 km north of Landfall Island, the northern-most island is the Andaman Group. The 

closest landmass to the Great Nicobar Island is Sumatra, 145 km south. 

The Great Andaman group of islands comprises North, Middle and South Andaman Islands, with Baratang Island 

situated between Middle and South Andaman Island. Andaman group is 352 km in length, its extreme width, however 

is nowhere more than 52 kms. Ritchie’s Archipelago, a group of islands, is located east of Middle Andaman while 

Labyrinth group of islands lies southwest of South Andaman (Plate 30). The Little Andaman is located 55 km south of 

South Andaman, across the Duncan passage. The land area of 6408 km 2 of the Andaman Group constitutes almost 

90% (5629 km 2 ), as reserve or protected forest of which 36% is Tribal Reserve. The elevation in the Andamans ranges 

from 0-732m, the Saddle Peak in North Andaman being the highest. 

The Nicobar group is spread over an area of 1,841 km 2 of which, 1,542 km 2 area falls under recorded forests. The 

Nicobars are separated from the Andamans by the 10 0 Channel, a wide gap of 160 km with heavy tidal flows, making 

sea transport by small boasts difficult. The Nicobars consists of 24 islands in three distinct clusters of which 12 are 

inhabited having 170 villages and hamlets. The Northern Group consists of Car Nicobar, Batti Malv and the Central or 

the Nancowry Group. The latter includes Car Nicobar, Tillanchong, Chowra, Teressa, Bompoka, Trinkat, Kamrota, 

Katchal and Nancowry islands. The southern group consists of the two large islands Little and Great Nicobar, together 

with Pigeon, Megapode, Kondul, Pilo Milo, Menchal, Treis, Trak and Meroe Islands. The entire Nicobar is a Tribal 

Reserve and has four sanctuaries. An area of 885 km 2 in Great Nicobar Island is designated as the Great Nicobar 

Biosphere Reserve and two other areas within it as national parks (Jayaraj & Andrews, 2005). The climate is humid 

tropical. The average annual rainfall varies from 1,400 mm to 3,000 mm and average annual temperature varies from 

24 o C to 28 o C. 

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The A&N islands are the homeland of six tribal communities, viz., Great Andamanese, Onge (numbering only 97), 

Jarwa, Sentinels (numbering 100 – 150). Shompen and Nicobarese. However, there is a distant racial difference 

between the Andaman tribes and their counter parts in the Nicobars. The former four are Negrito, while the latter are 

Mongoloid. The Nicobarese are well integrated and assimilated to the Indian mainstream and the Shompen, who are 

still shy and avoid any interaction with the outsiders but they are not particularly hostile. The Onge, Jarwas and Great 

Andamanese have accepted outside intervention and are being rehabilitated by the A&N Administration. However, the 

Sentinels are still hostile. 

Vegetation 

The A&N has a rich wealth of vegetation. While describing the vegetation of these islands Parkinson (1923) wrote “from 

the water’s edge to tops of the highest hills, the islands are nearly every where densely wooded”. According to Balakrishnan 

& Ellis (1996) and Rao (1999), the climatic climax of the islands is typically the Tropical Lowland Rain Forest, which 

is in a state of equilibrium, seemingly undisturbed, influenced by warm and wet conditions. These forests are floristically 

the richest, highly complex, most exuberantly developed, though somewhat influenced by altitude and intensity of 

monsoons. The higher reaches are also affected by high wind velocity, causing dessication, exhibiting stunted, scrublike 

vegetation, called Hill-top vegetation as seen on Saddle Peak in North Andamans, and mount Thuiller in Great 

Nicobar. Kurz (1876) while working on the Nicobar group of islands has grouped the vegetation of this area into 

following categories: (i) Mangrove forests; (ii) Beach forests; (iii) Tropical Forests, (iv) Grass-heaths of Car Nicobar and 

Kamrota islands; (v) Marine vegetation with some sea grasses such as Halophia ovalis and Enhalus acoroides. 

Champion & Seth (1968) treated the forests of A&N Islands under 11 types, viz. (i) Giant evergreen forest, (ii) Andaman 

tropical evergreen forest, (iii) Southern hill-top tropical evergreen forest, (iv) Cane brakes, (v) Wet bamboo brakes, (vi) 

Andaman semi evergreen forest, (vii) Andaman moist deciduous forest, (viii) Andaman secondary moist deciduous 

forest, (ix) Littoral forest, (x) Tidal swamp forest, and (xi) Submontane hill valley swamp forest. 

According to Balakrishnan & Ellis (1996) the configuration and composition of some of the above major types of forests 

can be summarized as follows: The giant evergreen forests are typically climatic climax, where optimum conditions 

are prevalent. Characteristically the top canopy, though irregular, is almost covered. The soil is deep alluvial and able 

to retain the water content of the abundant rainfall of about 300 cm for long periods. Several species of Dipterocarpus 

viz., D. alatus, D. gracilis, D. incanus, D. turbinatus var. andamanica and Hopea odorata are found here. The second 

storey comprises Baccaurea sapida, Sideroxylon longipetiolatus, Endospermum malaccense, Artocarpus gomezianus, 

Myristica glaucesens and Buchanania platyneura. 

The Andaman tropical evergreen forests are less luxuriant, the top storey being irregular and the canopy not complete. 

They occur at the top of hills with elements of moist deciduous type on the slopes. Many species of Dipterocarpus 

occur here among which D. kerrii is prominent, intermixed with Artocarpus chaplasha, Panchonia andamanica, Hopea 

odorata, Sideroxylon longipetiolatum, associated with Garcinia andamanica, Myristica andamanica, M. glaucescens 

and Baccaurea sapida. The climbers include Gnetum scandens, Ancistrocladus tectorius, the climbing bamboo 

Dinochloa scandens var. andamanica, Artabotrys speciosus, Calamus longisetus, C. palustris, C. pseudorivalis, etc. the 

last three making cane-brakes at disturbed places having exposed canopy. 

The Andaman Semi-evergreen forests occur on immature, alluvial soil, distributed in the main valleys of the Andamans 

forming some of the densest forests. The top layer mainly includes Dipterocarpus alatus, D. pilosus, Petrocymbium 

tinctorium, Sterculia campanulata, Terminalia bialata, Calophyllum soulattri, Atrocarpus lakoocha, A. chaplasha and 

Pterocarpus dalbergioides intermixed with Dillenia pentagyna, Pometia pinnata, Litsea panamonja, Xanthophyllum

Endemic Plants of Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands 

andamanicum, Mangnolia andamanica, Garcinia andamanica, Caryota mitis and Parishia insignis. Climbers include 

Dinochloa scandens var. andamanica, Combretum latifolium, Thunbergia fragrans and Calamus spp. Because of many 

good timber yielding plants, these forests are economically the most important. 

The Andaman moist deciduous forests are with leaf-shedding plants reaching a height of about 45 m, attaining large 

girth and often predominantly buttressed. The second storey includes some evergreen species. Shrubby climbers are 

common, including canes. These are commonly met with in the Andaman Islands, rarely so in the Nicobars. The hard 

coarse grained sandstone forms the underlying rock with shale and conglomerate. The soil is rather shallow and 

sandy loamy. The characteristic species include: Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, Chukrasia 

tabularis, Sterculia alata, Pterocymbium tinctorium, Terminalia bilata, T. procera, etc. The second storey comprises 

Adenanthera pavonina, Dillenia pentagyna, Lannea coromandelica, Diospyros marmorata, etc., followed by similar 

trees like Murraya paniculata, Pterospermum alatum, Ixora grandifolia, Atlantia monophylla, Antiaris toxicaria, Artocarpus 

chaplasha, Canarium euphyllum, Spondias mangifera, Garuga pinnata, Gyrocarpus americanus, Zanthoxylum 

budrunga, etc. 

The Andaman secondary moist deciduous forests comprise elements intermixed with preceeding forest, and they are 

essentially composed of two canopies, the upper one comprising Bombax ceiba, Pterocymbium tinctorium, Terminalia 

bialata, Tetrameles nudiflora, Parishia insignis, etc. and the lower canopy comprising Pterocarpus dalbergioides, 

Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, Albizia lebbeck, Adenanthera pavonina, Planchonia andamanica, Diploknema butyracea, 

etc. This type is more regenerated secondary forests, where semi-evergreen type existed previously. 

The Southern hill-top tropical evergreen forests are to be found in some of the high hill tops of these islands, i.e., Saddle 

Peak of North Andamans and Mount Thuiller of Great Nicobar Island. These hills are subject to high velocity wind with 

heavy rainfall of over 450 cm per year associated with high humidity during the monsoon season. The trees of these 

forests are stunted and surrounded by wet evergreen forests at lower hill slopes. The common trees include Dipterocarpus 

costatus, Phyllanthus andamanica, Memecylon collinum, M. caeruleum, Psychotria balakrishnaii, Grewia indandamanica, 

Canarium manii, Mesua ferrea, Hopea andamanica, Cratoxylum formosum, Euphorbia epiphylloides, Chionanthus 

sumatranus, Crytocarya ferrarsi, Phoenix andamanica and the climbing bamboo Dinochloa scandens var. andamanica 

and Schizostachyum andamanicum making impenetrable thickets with entangled and matted stems. The ground layer 

has grasses such as Oryza indandamanica, Imperata cylindrica, Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogon aciculatus, 

associated with several species of mosses, Sonerila sp., Utricularia exoleta and Rostellularia procumbens. The rocks 

and boulders here are usually covered by dense moss, especially during monsoon season bearing amidst them the 

rare North east Indian orchids Porpax meirax and Ascocentrum ampullaceum. 

Parkinson (1923), while dealing with only Andaman Islands, expounds the main forest types under: (i) Mangrove 

forests, (ii) Littoral forests, (iii) Evergreen forests, (iv) Deciduous and semideciduous forests, and (v) Forests of the 

parched and shallow-soiled slopes of high hills as at Saddle Peak, the Cladius Range and Mt. Farrington in the Middle 

Andaman and Mt. Ford on Rutland Island. Thothathri (1960) treats the Andaman forests under seven types including 

vegetation of the cleared lands and open areas and marine vegetation. Saldanha (1989) demarcates six forest types in 

the Andamans: (i) Giant Andaman Evergreen, (ii) Andaman Tropical Evergreen, (iii) Andaman Moist Deciduous forests, 

(iv) Andaman Hill-top Evergreen, (v) Littoral forests and (vi) Mangrove forests. He also calls Bamboo and Cane brakes 

as local variations. 

While dealing with the natural vegetation of the entire A&N Islands, Balakirshnan (1977, 1989) broadly classified the 

vegetation into 2 major groups consisting of eight types, giving importance not only to forests but also to the other types 

occurring in various ecological zones. According to him the vegetation of these islands can be broadly classified as 

tropical evergreen with minor variations from north to south depending upon rainfall, type of soil and degree of salinity 

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in the soil. Based on the proximity to the sea and salinity of the soil, the vegetation can be placed into two major groups, 

i.e. Littoral and Inland types, each further subdivided as follows: 

A. Littoral: (i) Submerged vegetation, (ii) Mangrove vegetation (iii) Strand vegetation, (iv) Tidal or swamp forests. 

B. Inland: (i) Evergreen forests, (ii) Deciduous forests, (iii) Grasslands, (iv) Aquatic vegetation. 

Floristically, A&N Islands shows close affinities with Indo – Chinese and Indo – Malayan region. Presence of over 2,000 

indigenous and 500 non – indigenous angiosperm species within a land mass of 8,290 km 2 is a significant feature of 

the islands, making them a cynosure not only for plant taxonomists but also for conservationists. Among the nonendemic 

angiosperms, about 40% are found in mainland India. As regards Pteridophyes, 120 species are known 

under 36 families. Nearly 365 species are considered as ‘threatened’ while 40 species have been listed under Red 

Data Book of Indian Plants. More than 600 species of exotic plants have been introduced to these islands, many of 

them being aggressive and invasive in nature, which pose serious threat to the native flora and fauna. 

Of about 2000 native angiosperms, 14% are endemic to these islands. At the generic level endemism is rather less with 

only three genera viz., Sphyranthera (Euphorbiaceae) with 2 species. Pubistylis (Rubiaceae) with one species and 

Nicobariodendron (Celastraceae) with one species. Recently Garbyal et al. (2008), Naithani (2008) and Naithani et al. 

(2008) have mentioned some rare, endemic lesser known trees from the Islands. An updated list of endemic vascular 

plants from these islands is given in Table 1 (Plate 30). 

Table 1: Endemic Plants of Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Distribution among major islands and habitat 

types. 

P = Present; A = Absent. Habitats: GAE = Giant Andaman Evergreen; ATE = Andaman Tropical Evergreen; AMD = 

Andaman Moist Deciduous forests; AHTE = Andaman Hill Top Evergreen; LF = Littoral Forests; MF = Mangrove 

Forests. 

Name of species Family Habitat Great Car Andaman 

Nicobar Nicobar 

Cyathea albosetacea Cyatheaceae AMD P A A 

Cyathea nicobarica Cyatheaceae AMD P A A 

Alstonia kurzii Apocyniaceae LF A A P 

Artabotrys nicobaricus Annonaceae AMD P A A 

Chilocarpus denudatus 

var. nicobaricus Apocynaceae ATE P A A 

Chisocheton nicobaricus Meliaceae ATE P A A 

Cleistanthus balakrishanani Euphorbiaceae ATE P A A 

Claoxylon rostratum Euphorbiaceae ATE A A P 

Clematis smilacifolia var. 

andamanica Ranunculaceae AMD A A P 

Codiocarpus andamanica Icacinaceae ATE A A P 

Connarus nicobaricus Connaraceae ATE P A A 

Coptophyllum nicobaricum Rubiaceae ATE P A A 

Cyclea pendulina Menispermaceae ATE A A P 

Cyrtandroemia nicobarica Scrophulariaceae ATE P A A 

Cyrtandra burttii Gesneriaceae ATE P A A 

Cyrtandra occidentalis Gesneriaceae LF P A A 

Cyathostemma micranthum Annonaceae LF A A P 

Dillenia andamanica Dilleniaceae AMD P A P 

Diospyros marmorata Ebenaceae AMD P 

Drypetes bhattacharyae Euphorbiaceae LF A A P 

Dysoxylum alliaceum Meliaceae AMD A A P

Elatostema novorea Urticaceae AMD A P A 

Embelia microcalyx Myrsinaceae LF A P A 

Friesodielsia forniculata Annonaceae ATE P A A 

Friesodielsia khoshooi Annonaceae LF P A A 

Garcinia andamanica Garciniaceae ATE P 

Genianthus horei Asclepiadaceae AHTE P A A 

Glochidion calocarpum Euphorbiaceae LF A A P 

G. mauritiana 

var. andamanensis Rutaceae AMD A A P 

Grewia colophylla Teliaceae AMD A A P 

Hedyotis paradoxa Rubiaceae ATE A A P 

Ixora brunnescens Rubiaceae LF A A P 

Ixora cunifolia var. macrocarpa Rubiaceae LF A P A 

Ixora grandifolia var. kurziana Rubiaceae AMD A P A 

Ixora tenuifolia Rubiaceae AMD A P A 

Jasminum multiflorum 

var. nicobaricum Oleaceae AMD P A A 

Knema andamanica Myrsinaceae GAE A A P 

Lagestroemia hypoleuca Lythraceae AMD P P 

Leea grandifolia Vitaceae LF A P A 

Litsea kurzii Lauraceae LF A P A 

Macaranga nicobarica Euphorbiaceae LF A P A 

Mallotus oblongifolius 

var. rubriflorus Euphorbiaceae LF A A P 

Maesa andamanica Myrsinaceae AMD A A P 

Mangifera andamanica Anacardiaceae AHTE P 

Mangifera nicobarica Anacardiaceae ATE P 

Magnolia andamanica Magnoliaceae A A P 

Memecylon andamanicum Memecylaceae ATE P A A 

Mesua manii Clusiaceae ATE P 

Nicobariodendron sleumeri Celastraceae ATE P A A 

Nothophoebe nicobaricus Lauraceae ATE P A A 

Ophiorrhiza infundibularis Rubiaceae ATE P A A 

Ophiorrhiza nicobarica Rubiaceae ATE P A A 

Oropheo katschallica Annonaceae ATE A A A 

Otanthera nicobarensis Melastomataceae ATE P A A 

Paramignya andamanica Rutaceae ATE A A P 

Pellionia procridifolia Urticaceae LE A P A 

Phyllanthus andamanicus Euphorbiaceae AHTE P 

Phyllanthus sanjappae Euphorbiaceae AHTE A 

Polyalthea crassa Annonaceae A A P 

Polyalthea parkinsonii Annonaceae LF A A P 

Pseuduvaria prainii Annonaceae AHTE A A P 

Psychotria andamanica Rubiaceae AHTE A A P 

Psychotria platyneura Rubiaceae AHTE A A P 

Semecarpus kurzii Anacardiaceae AMD A A P 

Sphyranthera airyshawii Euphorbiaceae AHTE P 

Sphyranthera lutescen Euphorbiaceae ATE A A P 

Sterculia rubiginosa Sterculiaceae ATE P A P 

Strobilanthes glandulosus Acanthaceae AHEE A A P 

Tabernaemontana crispa Apocynaceae LF A A P 

Tarenna weberaefolia Rubiaceae ATE A A P 

Terminalia procera Combretaceae ATE A A P 

Tetrastigma andamanica Vitaceae LF A A P 

Uvaria nicobarica Annonaceae ATE P A A 

Trigonostemon villosus 

var. nicobaricus Euphorbiaceae AHTE P A A 

Vitex diversifolia Verbenaceae LF A 

Vitex wimberleyi Verbenaceae AMD A 

Aerides emericii Orchidaceae ATE P A A 

Anoectochilus nicobaricus Orchidaceae ATE P A A 

Aglaonema nicobaricum Araceae ATE P A A 

Endemic Plants of Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands 

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220 


Bentinckia nicobarica Araceae LF P A A 

Calamus andamanicus Arecaceae ATE p A P 

Calamus baratangensis Arecaceae ATE A A P 

Calamus basui Arecaceae ATE A A P 

Calamus dilaceratus Arecaceae ATE P A A 

Calamus pseudo –rivalis Arecaceae ATE P A A 

Calamus semierectus Arecaceae ATE A P A 

Calamus uniforms 

var. pantong Arecaceae ATE P A A 

Daemonorops aurus Arecaceae ATE A A p 

Daemonorops rarispinosa Arecaceae ATE A A P 

Daemonoropos 

wrightmyoenisis Arecaceae ATE A A P 

Dioscorea vexans Dioscoreaceae ATE P A A 

Dinochloa scandens 

var. andamanica Bambusoideae ATE P P P 

Dracaena brachyphylla Agavaceae ATE A A P 

Dendrobium shompenii Orchidaceae ATE P A A 

Eria bractescens var. kurzii Orchidaceae ATE A A P 

* Freycinetia insignis Pandanaceae P A A 

Homalomena griffithii 

var.ovata Araceae ATE P A A 

Hornstedtia fenzlii Zingiberaceae ATE P A A 

Korthelsia rogersii Arecaceae ATE A A P 

Pandanus leram 

var. andamanensium Pandanaceae LF P A A 

Phalaenopsis speciosa Orchidaceae ATE A A P 

Phrynium paniculatum Marantaceae ATE P A A 

Pinanga manii Arecaceae AMD P A A 

Pomatocalpa andamanicum Orchidaceae ATE A A P 

Rhopaloblaste augustata Arecaceae ATE P A A 

Trichoglottis quadricornuta Orchidaceae LF A P A 

Vanilla andamanica Orchidaceae ATE A A P 

* Only woody climber in family Pandanaceae, also found in Malay Peninsula, Java. 

References 

Balakrishnan, N.P. & J.L. Ellis 1996. Andaman and Nicobar Islands. pp. 523-538. In: P.K.Hajra, B.D.Sharma, M. Sanjappa 

& A.R.K.Sastry (eds.) Flora of India introductory volume (Part 1). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 

Balakrishnan, N.P. 1977. Recent botanical studies in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 19: 132 – 138. 

Balakrishnan, N.P. 1989. Andaman islands Vegetation and floristics. pp. 55-69. In: Saldanha, C. J. (ed.) Andaman, 

Nicobar and Lakshdweep. An environment impact assessment. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New 

Delhi. 

Champion, H.G. & S. K. Seth. 1968. A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Government 

of India Press, New Delhi. 

Garbyal, S.S., H.B. Naithani & J. Allappatt. 2008. Bamboo Resource of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India. Indian 

Forester 134(9): 1129 – 1135. 

Jayraj, R.S.C. & H.V. Andrews. 2005. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory Biodiversity strategy and Action 

Plan. Department of Environment & Forests, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Port Blair. pp. 1 – 54. 

Kurz, S. 1876. A stretch to the vegetation of Nicobar Islands. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 45(2): 105 – 164. 

Ltd., New Delhi.

Fig - 1 : Location of Andaman & Nicobar Islands

1 

4 

7 

10 

Plate 30 

Endemic Plants of Andaman & Nicobar Islands 

1. Vanilla andamanica 

2. Calamus dilaceratus 

3. Cyrtandroemia nicobarica 

4. Cyathea albosetacea 

2 

5 

8 

11 

5. Dillenia andamanica 

6. Dinochloa andamanica 

7. Freycinetia insignis 

8. Hornstedtia fenzlii 

3 

6 

9 

12 

9. Bentinckia nicobarica 

10. Freycinetia insignis 

11. Pinanga manii 

12. Calamus semierectus

. ri 

B S. Adhika

31.0 Sacred Groves: People’s Contribution to Conservation 

Introduction 

1 Seema Dhaila-Adhikari & 2 B. S. Adhikari 

1Type IV-2, Residential Block, 

Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 

simada@rediffmail.com 

2Department of Habitat Ecology, 

Wildlife Institute of India, PO Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 

adhikaribs@wii.gov.in 

Today when the earth is in a state of biodiversity crunch, environmentalists are looking back through the ages to our 

ancestors, who had some indigenous ways to conserve nature. One of the traditional ways to conserve nature is the 

system of Sacred Groves (SGs). Sacred groves must be the first temple of worship in the world, made by primitive 

human societies to worship nature. If defined, the sacred groves are forest patches of varying size, from a few trees to 

several hectares. They are sometimes dedicated to some deity or ancestral spirit and are sanctified to the extent that 

they become divine and cutting them becomes a taboo. Though this tradition has now been receded to remote villages 

and in some cases to folklores and folk tales, they are quite relevant even today as they always have been. According to 

famous folklorist of 20 th century Charlotte Burne, the tribes of Votiaks of eastern Russia sing that the woods are always 

sacred from where not a single tree may cut down or else the God of the woods will avenge the injury. Like wise in many 

parts of the world trees were regarded as being divine and the place having these trees was regarded as sacred groves. 

Such groves were often located around homes and surrounding the village and to break even a twig off was a sacrilege 

(Frazer 1919). The supernatural power of some water bodies like healing and curing some ailments in different parts 

of the world has been documented by many workers (Olsen 2004, Tarasov 2003). Very often sacred groves were 

considered as having infinite magical power to grant punishment or to carry out miracles (Philpot & Mac Millan 1897, 

Parish 2005, Altman 2000). 

Role of Sacred Groves 

Besides social, cultural and economic services, the sacred groves have the potential to serve as gene pool and may 

help to maintain ecological balance. National Forest Policy (1988) states that the SGs are the last remnants of natural 

forests and are extremely valuable store house of biodiversity. Larger sacred groves can harbour high species richness 

and they play a significant role in in situ conservation of plants. Sometimes SGs give refugia to rare, endangered and 

endemic species. The SGs preserve the micro-climate within its area and increase nutrient cycling; it also recharges 

aquifers and act as primary source of perennial streams. Keeping in view the value of SGs, researchers have given 

various names to the SGs, such as Refugia for rare and threatened species, Laboratory of environmentalists, 

Compensation for carbon emissions (Carbon sink), Recreational and spiritual point, Reservoir of medicinal plants, 

Socially valued ecosystem, Heritage of cultural and traditional knowledge. If harnessed properly these groves along 

with the indigenous wisdom of its community can serve as multi-functional units of conservation. 

Sacred Groves in Uttarakhand 

The rural communities in Uttarakhand also have retained the tradition of worshipping sacred places such as Bugiyals 

(sacred alpine meadows), Dev Vans, etc. Mostly a few individual trees of a species e.g., Cedrus, Cupresuss, Pinus and 

Quercus or single tree of some importance in the vicinity of the village are sanctified along with small temple. Such 

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places are locally known as ‘Thans’. They are well preserved lush green patches. Sometimes individual of trees that 

attain giant size are considered sacred as they are believed to witness the changing history of the place and hence 

dedicated to local deities. For example, Deodar (Cedrus deodara) tree in Jageshwar (8.3m girth and 30m height), 

Noble cypress (Cupressus torulosa) tree in Devi Anusuea temple (6.25m girth and 32m height), Silk cotton (Bombax 

ceiba) tree near Sitarganj (12m girth and 28m height), Mulberry (Morus serrata) tree in Joshimath (18m girth and 

>5096 yrs old). 

Though, detailed surveys of sacred groves have not been done in Uttarakhand so far, some of the well known sacred 

groves which support either an ecosystem or single species conservation are dedicated to a number of deities like 

Bhadraj (the deity who is known to teach cattle rearing), Mahasu, Shakumbari and Tarkeshwar Mahadev. Other places 

such as Patal Bhubaneshawar (rocks and caves with calcareous tufa), Garanath, Binsar, Mayadevi Ashram and 

Narayan Ashram harbor various floral and faunal elements, some of which could be rare, threatened and endemic 

species. 

Most of the sacred groves in the state are located in Deodar zone or dominated by this species, which support various 

medicinal plants. Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana is one of the most important medicinal plants growing under its 

canopy in Jageshwar and hence protected, while outside the grove this species is under tremendous pressure. The 

sacred Deodar forest patches spread over 2-5 km 2 area and are devoted to various deities. Some examples of sacred 

Deodar forests include Jageshwar and Dhauladevi in Almora district, Tarkeshwar in Pauri district, Devalsari (temple 

devoted to a saint) in Tehri district, Hat-Kali and Chamunda in Pithoragarh district. Some times natural structures 

(caves and crevices) also enhance the value of forest patches, e.g., Patal-Bhuwaneshwar in Pithoragarh and Gauri 

Udiyar in Bageshwar districts. The famous deity Golu Devta of Kumaun region has several groves (Chitai, Ghorakhal, 

Gairar, Minar, Chamarkhan, Bari Goljyu) which are mostly under mixed pine-oak forests. Padiyar Devta, a well known 

local deity at 3400m altitude above Auli, Joshimath is seated under Quercus semecarpifolia forest, where the herders 

pray before entering the forest to safeguard their cattle from natural calamities and wild animals (Plate 31). Although, 

the groves have patchy distribution still they play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and provide protection to the 

local flora and fauna (Dhaila-Adhikari & Adhikari 2007). 

Sometimes the sacred places give refuge to the rare tree species as in case of Chandhak temple of Pithoragarh. The 

‘Sweet Osmanthus’ (Osmanthus fragrans) tree, which is an evergreen small tree with lustrous medium sized leaves. 

The flowers are extremely fragrant and perfume the entire landscape during winter to spring. Larger sacred groves 

also have their own micro-climate which increase nutrient cycling, recharge aquifers and act as primary source of 

perennial streams. For example, Shikhareshwer SG in Gangolihat (Pithoragarh) where Deodar forest forms catchment 

for perennial water stream (Naula). 

In many groves villagers perform rituals and ceremonies to please the deity for well being and prosperity of the 

community. Sacred groves are the mirror image of cultural and economic set up of a community and their respect for 

nature. Some of the trees which are considered as sacred and worshiped in the state are Peepal (Ficus religiosa), 

Bargad (F. benghalensis), Bel (Aegle marmelos), Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Padam (Prunus cerasoides), Timur 

(Xanthoxylum alatum), Amla (Emblica officinalis), Mango (Mangifera indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Doob (Cynodon 

dactylon) and Banana (Musa paradisiaca). Peepal tree in the villages near Lohaghat is worshiped. These trees had 

been planted by the ancestors of the village and are still revered by their progeny. These trees are treated as family 

members and all the rituals, due to family members such as thread ceremony and marriage with some other religious 

trees as Mango and Aonla, are performed. In Kumaun region of Uttarakhand it is observed that the forest patches which

Plate 31 

Sacred Groves of Western Himalaya 

A Sacred Grove under Kharsu Oak 

Forest near Auli, Joshimath (3400 m) 

Gairar Sacred Grove under Chir Pine 

forest 

Dhaula Devi Sacred Grove 

under Deodar Forest 

Himalayan Cypress, one of the 

important species planted around 

religious sites in Uttarakhand Group of temples at Jageshwar Sacred 

Grove under deodar forest


226 


were under severe biotic pressure and over exploited have been dedicated to the local deity after a concent of the 

community e.g., Shyahi devi in Almora. 

There are a number of small SGs in Uttarakhand, but they have not been documented due to their small size. Hence, 

it is not possible for the forest department to take any action to protect such SGs. Likewise, several other states are still 

waiting to enlist the SGs. So far, no legal protection has been given to these groves, except at few places e.g., sites of 

Archaeological Survey of India or where Forest Department is involved. In other places, its belief, taboo or fetishism 

which makes them inviolate. So, the institute of sacred groves is the cradle, where the faith and beliefs are nurtured 

together with the habitats and biodiversity. 

Threats and challenges 

The SGs are rapidly loosing their ground in many parts of India due to following reasons: 

• Erosion of traditional beliefs and rapid socio-economic advancement has led to the deterioration of sacred 

groves. Fading respect towards traditional knowledge among youngsters is one of the causes of concern, 

• Developmental projects such as roads, dams, highways and encroachment by people migrating from outside 

having no respect for traditional values, 

• Transformation of traditional worship of nature into formal Hindu practice, which is called Sanskritization like 

shifting the focus to idols than a simple stone, building temples which include clearing of the area. 

• Heavy tourism sometimes becomes a burden to SGs, if the tourists are not aware of the fragile aspect of the 

nature. 

• Fragmentation or split among families owning sacred groves. 

Way forward 

Progress and modernity not at all means avoiding the old customs and traditions. Therefore, the following aspects can 

be made for well being of SGs conservation. 

• Inventory, documentation and the status of SGs. 

• Revitalization of traditional culture, such as folk tales and folklores. 

• Incentives to the local communities for maintaining and restoring SGs. 

• Role of NGOs, Forest department and academia through community participation. 

Acknowledgement 

The author SDA is thankful to Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for financial support. 

References 

Altman, N. 2000. Sacred trees. Sierra Club Books, San Fransisco.

Sacred Groves: People’s 

Contribution to Conservation 

Dhaila-Adhikari S. & B.S. Adhikari. 2007. Veneration of a Deity by Restoration of Sacred Grove in a Village Minar, 

Kumaun Region of Uttarakhand: A Case Study. Journal of American Science 3(2): 45-49. 

Frazer, J.G. 1919. Folklore in the Old Testament: Studies in Comparative Religion, Legend and Law. MacMillan, 

London. 

Olsen, B. 2004. Sacred places around the world. CCC publishing, St. Fransisco. 

Parish, H. 2005. Monks, Miracles and Magic: Reformation of Medieval Church. Routledge, London. 

Philpot, J.H. & Mac Millan. 1897. The sacred tree in religion and myth. Bover Publications, Mineola. 

Tarasov, O. 2003. Icon and devotion: Sacred spaces in Empireal Russia.Reaktion books, London. 

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Introduction 

32.0 Endemic Pteridophytes of India: 

Distribution and Threat Status 

1 2 3 Jatinder Chadha, Hem Chander & Brijesh Kumar 

1,2Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun 

1dr.jatinderchadha@gmail.com 2 hem_chander@rediffmail.com 

3 Botanical Survey of India,Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun 

India is extremely rich in the diversity of Pteridophytic flora due to its remarkable variation in eco-climatic conditions, 

soil types and altitude. Recent assessments reveal that about 900-1000 species of Pteridophytes occur in India 

(Chandra et al. 2008). However, richness of flora is closely linked with palaeo-history and intermingling of flora with 

other regions. Incidentally, India has only about 5% of the Pteridophytes as endemic. The Himalayan and North Eastern 

Pteridophytic flora forms an integral part of the large Sino-Himalayan and S.E. Asian floristic zones. This is the reason 

for a low percent of endemism in Pteridophytes from these zones. In contrast, peninsular India and Islands have 

relatively higher percentage of endemics as they are insulated by the Indian Ocean and other biogeographic barriers. 

The most authentic and foremost attempt to record the endemic Pteridophytes of India was made by Chandra (1982). 

He reported 96 species endemic to India. Later, Chandra & Kaur (1984) added 41 species to the previous list. Dhir & 

Saiki (1984) listed 58 species of ferns as endemic to the Himalaya, whereas Dixit (1984) listed 214 species of Pteridophytes 

endemic to India. Further information on the distribution of endemic Pteridophytes was provided by Bir (1987 & 1989). 

After that a phytogeographic analysis of the endemic species was done by Dixit & Bal Krishna (1990). Manickam & 

Irudayaraj (1992) in the Pteridophytic Flora of the Western Ghats enumerated 16 endemics from South India, whereas 

17 endemic species were reported from South India by Nayar & Geevarghese (1988, 1993). Subsequently Chandra 

(1998) catalogued a total of 234 endemic Pteridophytes from India removing 25 species from the earlier lists and 

adding 14 new taxa. A more significant and valuable contribution has been made recently by Fraser-Jenkins (2008). He 

has removed many of the earlier endemic species of Pteridophytes as pseudo-endemics which arose mainly due to 

mistaken synonyms or the lack of understanding of the range of species. He has listed only 47 species of Indian 

Pteridophytes as endemics. It is observed that there is a vast difference among the observations of Pteridologists 

regarding the endemic status of the Indian Pteridophytes. One of the reasons for this is that the taxonomy and 

nomenclature of Pteridophytes is much more confusing than those of any other group of plants. 

This article deals with a brief phytogeographic analysis of Indian Pteridophytes with special reference to the distribution 

of endemic species in different biogeographic regions of India. 

Distribution 

A total of 49 species of Pteridophytes can be said as endemic to India. This includes three allopolyploids which are 

neo-endemics of fairly recent origin viz., Athyrium kumaonicum, Dryopteris khullari and Polystichum polyodon. These 

species are distributed in as many as 6 of the 10 biogeographic zones of India (Table 1). Eight species found in the 

Indian Himalayan region are endemic, while 7 species of endemic Pteridophytes are reported from North-East India. 

Among these, four species are common between the Himalayan and North-Eastern zones. The highest number of 

endemic Pteridophytes (33) is reported from peninsular India (Deccan Peninsula and Western Ghats). The only 

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species reported as endemic in Semi-Arid zone is also found in Deccan Peninsular region. Five species of Pteridophytes 

are localized in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Other biogeographic zones viz., Trans-Himalaya, Desert, and 

Coasts harbour no endemic Pteridophytes. 

Threat status 

The Pteridophytes appear to face relatively less threat as compared to the angiosperms. The reasons for this may be 

the efficiency with which their spores are dispersed and the deep forested habitats they occupy making them less 

vulnerable. Moreover, fewer Pteridophytes are exploited commercially for herbal industries and as non-timber forest 

products (NTFPs). However, widespread environmental degradation restrains them to grow even in their safe haven. 

The Pteridophytes with creeping rhizome colonize a habitat more efficiently as compared to the species with erect 

rhizome. This explains why polyploid species are more successful compared to the diploids as the former are with 

creeping rhizome unlike the later. Likewise, epiphytic species require specific hosts and are therefore more vulnerable 

to population decline. Unfortunately, the conservation status of Indian Pteridophytes has not been assessed as yet in 

view of all the biological and ecological factors and CAMP workshop is still awaited as per the latest IUCN criteria. 

However, eleven of the endemic Pteridophytes fall into one or the other categories of threatened plants (Extinct, 

Vulnerable, Endangered and Rare) as per 1997 IUCN Red List (Walter & Gillet 1998). Besides, literature survey and 

authors’ personal observations reveal that populations of 13 species have been reduced to a critical level and they are 

at a very high risk. Slight disturbance in their habitat can lead to their total extinction. Eight species are thought to be 

‘very rare’ and are likely to be in peril if immediate steps are not taken to stop the destruction of their habitats. 

Table 1. Distribution and threat status of the endemic Pteridophytes. 

Ex=Extinct, V=Vulnerable, E=Endangered, R=Rare (IUCN Categories); *At Risk; #Very Rare 

Name of the species Distribution Threat Status 

Arthromeris notholaenoides 

V.K. Rawat & Fras.-Jenk. 

2D: AP: Lower Debang Valley, Mehao * 

Asplenium exiguum Bedd. 5B: TN: Nilgiri * 

Asplenium khasianum Sledge 2D: East AP; 9B: Meghalaya: Khasi hills * 

Asplenium rivulare Fras.-Jenk. 6: Deccan Peninsula # 

Athyrium kumaonicum Punetha 2B: Uttarakhand: Nainital, Pithoragarh # 

Athyrium parasnathense (C.B. Clarke) Ching ex Bir 4B: Rajasthan: Aravali Ranges; 

6A: Deccan Peninsula: Central Highlands 

Bolbitis presliana (Fée) Ching 5A: Kerala: Malabar; 

5B: Goa: Dudhsagar; Karnataka: 

Castle Rock, Shimoga, Coorg 

# 

Bolbitis semicordata (Baker) Ching 5A: Kerala: Malabar; 

5B: TN: Anamalais; Kerala: Munnar # 

Bolbitis subcrenatoides Fras.-Jenk. 5A: Kerala: Malabar: 

5B: Karnataka: Chikmagalur 

Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Copel. 10B: Nicobar Islands: Camorta, Kotchall V 

Cyathea gamblei R.D. Dixit 2C: Sikkim; 9A: Assam 

Cyathea nicobarica N.P. Balakr. & R.D. Dixit 10B: Nicobar Islands 

Cyathea nilgirensis Holtt. 5B: Karnataka: Coorg, Hassan, Kodagu; 

TN: Nilgiri, Anamalais, Palni, Shevroy hills; 

Kerala: Munnar, Travancore hills; 

6A: MP: Pachmarhi 

E 

Dryopsis scabrosa (Kze.) Holtt. & Edwards 5B: TN: Anamalais, Palni hills, Nilgiri 

Dryopteris austroindica Fras.-Jenk. 5B: TN: Shevaroy hills (probably extinct), Nilgiri * 

Dryopteris khullarii Fras-Jenk. 2A: HP: Chamba; 2B: Uttarakhand: 

Below Trijugi-Narayan en route Kedarnath 

# 

Dryopteris odontoloma (Bedd.) C. Chr. 5B: TN: Anamalais, Nilgiri # 

Elaphoglossum beddomei Sledge 5A: Kerala: Malabar; 5B: TN: Nilgiri, 

Anamalais, Tirunelveli hills; Kerala: Munnar, 

Ponmudi hills 

R

Elaphoglossum nilgiricum Krajina ex Sledge 5A: Kerala: Malabar; 5B: TN: Nilgiri hills, E 

Pykara falls, Anamalais; Kerala: Travancore 

Elaphoglossum stigmatolepis (Fée) T.Moore 5B: TN: Nilgiri, Palni hills V 

Huperzia nilagirica (Spring) R.D. Dixit 5B: TN: Anamalais, Agasthiar hills; # 

Kerala: Ponmudi 

Isoetes panchananii D.D. Pant & G.K. Srivast. 6A: MP: Pachmarhi 

var. pachmarhiensis 

Isoetes sahadriensis Mahabale 5B: Maharashtra; Tamil Nadu; Sahyadri hills 

Isoetes sampathkumaranii L.N.Rao 6: Karnataka; Andhra Pradesh E x 

Lindsaea andamanica R.D. Dixit & S.R. Ghosh 10: Andaman & Nicobar Islands 

Lindsaea malabarica (Bedd.) Baker 5A: Kerala: Malabar; 6A: MP; 6E: TN: Kolli hills R 

Lindsaea tenera Dryand. 10: Andaman & Nicobar Islands R 

Oreogrammitis austroindica (Parris) Parris 5B: TN: Nilgiri hills (probably extinct 

not reported since 1960) * 

Oreogrammitis pilifera (Ravi & J. Joseph) Parris 5A: Kerala: Malabar; 5B: Karnataka: Chikmagalur * 

Osmunda huegeliana C. Presl 5B: TN: Anamalais 

Phymatosorus beddomei S.R. Ghosh 5B: Kerala: Idduki; TN: Anamalais 

Polystichum manickamianum Benniamin 5B: TN: Agasthiar hills * 

Polystichum palniense Fras.-Jenk. 5B: TN: Palni hills 

Polystichum polyodon Wall. ex Ching 9B: Meghalaya * 

Polystichum subinerme (Kze.) Fras.-Jenk. 5B: TN: Agasthiar hills * 

Pteris perrottetii Hieron. 5B: TN: Nilgiri hills 

Selaginella adunca A. Braun ex Hieron. 2B: HP: Simla; Uttarakhand: Pithoragarh, Lohagarh E 

Selaginella cataractarum Alston 5B: TN; Kerala E 

Selaginella ganguliana R.D. Dixit 5B: Kerala 

Selaginella keralensis R.D. Dixit 5B: Kerala 

Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak. 5B: Maharashtra; Goa # 

Selaginella pentagona Spring 2D: AP; 9B: Meghalaya 

Selaginella radicata (Hook. & Grev.) Spring 5B: TN: Palni hills;6E: TN: Kolli hills 

Selaginella tenera (Hook. & Grev.) Spring 5B: TN: Anamalais, Tirunelveli hills 

Tectaria subconfluens (Bedd.) Ching 9B: Meghalaya: Khasi Hills * 

Thelypteris didymochlaenoides (C.B. Clarke) Ching 9B: Meghalaya: Sohra (Cherrapunji) R 

Thelypteris kurzii (Holtt.) Fras.-Jenk. 10B: Nicobar Islands * 

Thelypteris namburensis (Bedd.) C.F.Reed 2D: East AP; 9A: Assam: Nambor Forest, Jorhat * 

Trichomanes agasthianum (Madhus. & C.A. Hameed) 5B: Kerala: Athirapalli, Trichur * 

C.A. Hameed, K.P. Rajesh & Madhus. 

Concluding Remarks 

A comprehensive analysis is still required to be undertaken to re-evaluate the taxonomy and status of endemic 

Pteridophytes. Methodologies for the same are not yet very explicit, each researcher trying to evolve his or her own view 

about these species. The number of endemic species is likely to increase or decrease following further nomenclature 

revision of some of the species. The populations of these species also need to be regularly observed. This is crucial for 

the successful understanding of their conservation status. Nevertheless these key species are of particular concern 

requiring adequate efforts for both their in situ and ex situ conservation. Presently, several in situ conservation measures 

have been adopted for the angiosperms, however, Pteridophytes have not or only been partially given importance in this 

context. Furthermore, it has been found that in most of the Indian ferneries only ornamental ferns are grown and not the 

endemic or threatened species. Consequently, ex situ conservation of these species also needs to be reinforced 

through in vitro culture techniques. 


Endemic Pteridophytes of India: 

Distribution and Threat Status 

Authors are thankful to Director and Dean, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun for providing the necessary facilities. 

231


References 

232 


Bir, S. S. 1987. Pteridophytic Flora of India, Rare and Endangered Elements and their Conservation. Indian Fern J. 4: 

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