Fisheries in the Southern Border Zone of Takamanda - Impact ...

Smithsonian Institution 

SI/MAB Biodiversity Program 

SI/MAB Series #8 

© 2003 by SI/MAB Biodiversity Program 

All rights reserved 

ISBN # 1-893912-12-4 

Library of Congress 

Catalog Control Number: 2003106957 

Cover design and inserts: Velvette De Laney 

Cover photographs: Western Bluebill, Spermophaga haematina (Carlton Ward, Jr). Views, animals, communities and 

research inthe Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon (Sunderland, Dallmeier, Ward Jr, Lucas). 

Opinions expressed in the SI/MAB Series are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the 

Smithsonian Institution or partner organizations. 

Suggested citation: Comiskey, J. A., T. C. H. Sunderland, and J. L. Sunderland-Groves, eds. 2003. Takamanda: the 

Biodiversity of an African Rainforest, SI/MAB Series #8. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. 

Printed in the United States of America by Charter Printing, Alexandria, VA, on recycled paper. This publication was 

made possible through the support of the International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups.

Table of Contents 

Recent SI/MAB Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii 

Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv 

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi 

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii 

1. Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves, Terry C. H. Sunderland, James A. Comiskey 

Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Marina Mdaihli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

2. Adaptive Management: A Framework for Biodiversity Conservation in Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon 

James A. Comiskey and Francisco Dallmeier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

3. Vegetation Assessment of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Terry C.H. Sunderland, James A. Comiskey, Simon Besong, Hyacinth Mboh, 

John Fonwebon, and Mercy Abwe Dione. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

4. Butterfly Fauna of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Ebwekoh Monya O’ Kah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 

5. Biodiversity Assessment of the Odonate Fauna of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Graham S. Vick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 

6. Reptiles in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Matthew LeBreton, Laurent Chirio, and Désiré Foguekem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

7. The Birds of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Marc Languy and Francis Njie Motombe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 

8. Large Mammals of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves and Fiona Maisels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 

9 Surveys of the Cross River Gorilla and Chimpanzee Populations in Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, Cameroon 

Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves, Fiona Maisels, and Albert Ekinde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

ii 

10. Fisheries in the Southern Border Zone of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Marina Mdaihli, Tim Du Feu and Julius S.O. Ayeni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 

11. Distribution, Utilization, and Sustainability of the Non-Timber Forest Products from Takamanda 

Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Terry C.H. Sunderland, Simon Besong, and Julius S. O. Ayeni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 

12. Landcover Change in the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon: 1986 - 2000 

Dan Slayback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 

13. Future Conservation and Management of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Terry C. H. Sunderland, Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves, James A. Comiskey, 

Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Marina Mdaihli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Recent SI/MAB Publications 

Dallmeier, F., A. Alonso, and P. Campbell, eds. 2002. Special Issue: Biodiversity Monitoring and Assessment for 

Adaptive Management: Linking Conservation and Development. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 76. 

Dallmeier, F., A. Alonso and D. Kloepfer. 2002. Adventures in the Rainforest: Discovering Biodiversity. Smithsonian 

Institution/Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

Alonso, A., F. Dallmeier, and P. Campbell, eds. 2001. Urubamba: The Biodiversity of a Peruvian Rainforest, SI/MAB 

Series #7. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. 

Alonso, L. E., A. Alonso, T. S. Schulenberg, and F. Dallmeier. 2001. Biological and social assessments of the Cordillera 

de Vilcabamba, Peru. RAP Working Papers 12 and SI/MAB Series #6. Conservation International. Washington, 

DC, USA. 

Alonso, A., F. Dallmeier, E. Granek, and P. Raven. 2001. Biodiversity: Connecting with the Tapestry of Life. 

Smithsonian Institution/Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity Program and President’s Committee of 

Advisors on Science and Technology. Washington, DC, USA. 

Alonso, A. and F. Dallmeier. 2000. Working for Biodiversity. Smithsonian Institution/Monitoring and Assessment of 

Biodiversity Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

Comiskey, J. A., F. Dallmeier, and A. Alonso. 2000. Framework for assessment and monitoring of biodiversity. In: 

Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (S. Levin, ed.). Volume 3, 63-73pp. Academic Press. San Diego, CA. 

Ojasti, J. 2000. Manejo de Fauna Silvestre Neotropical. Edited by F. Dallmeier. SI/MAB Series #5. Smithsonian 

Institution/MAB Biodiversity Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

Herrera-MacBryde, O., F. Dallmeier, B. MacBryde, J.A. Comiskey and C. Miranda, eds. 2000. Biodiversidad, 

Conservación y Manejo en la Región de la Reserva de la Biosfera Estación Biológical del Beni, Bolivia / 

Biodiversity, Conservation and Management in the Region of the Beni Biological Station Biosphere Reserve, 

Bolvia, SI/MAB Series #4. Smithsonian Institution/MAB Biodiversity Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

Alonso, A. and F. Dallmeier, eds. 1999. Biodiversity Assessment and Monitoring of the Lower Urubamba Region, 

Peru: Pagoreni Well Site Assessment and Training, SI/MAB Series #3. Smithsonian Institution/MAB Biodiversity 

Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

Alonso, A. and F. Dallmeier, eds. 1998. Biodiversity Assessment and Monitoring of the Lower Urubamba Region, 

Peru: Cashiriari-3 Well Site and the Camisea and Urubamba Rivers, SI/MAB Series #2. Smithsonian 

Institution/MAB Biodiversity Program, Washington, DC, USA. 

Dallmeier, F. and J. Comiskey, eds. 1998. Forest Biodiversity in North, Central and South America, and the Caribbean: 

Research and Monitoring, Man and the Biosphere Series, Vol. 21. Parthenon Press, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK. 

Dallmeier, F. and J. Comiskey, eds. 1998. Forest Biodiversity Research, Monitoring and Modeling: Conceptual 

Background and Old World Case Studies, Man and the Biosphere Series, Vol. 20. Parthenon Press, Carnforth, 

Lancashire, UK.

Mercy Abwe Dione 

Dept. of Biology, University of Buea 

Buea, Southwest Province 

Cameroon 

Julius S. O. Ayeni 

Project for the Protection of Forests around Akwaya 

(PROFA) 

GTZ-MINEF 

Mamfe, Manyu Division, Southwest Province, 

Cameroon 

Simon Besong 

Botanical Researcher 


(PROFA), 

GTZ-MINEF 

Mamfe, Manyu Division, Southwest Province, 

Cameroon 

Laurent Chirio 

14 Rue des Roses 

06130 Grasse 

France 

James A. Comiskey 


SI/MAB Program 

Conservation and Research Center, NZP 

1100 Jefferson Dr., SW, Suite 3123 

Washington, DC 20560-0705 

USA 

Francisco Dallmeier 


SI/MAB Program 

Conservation and Research Center, NZP 

1100 Jefferson Dr., SW, Suite 3123 

Washington, DC 20560-0705 

USA 

Contributors 

Albert Ekinde 

Cross River Gorilla Research Project (Cameroon) 

Wildlife Conservation Society 

C/O Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens 

PO Box 437 

Limbe, Southwest Province 

Cameroon 

Tim du Feu 

Jersey JE3 6AW 

Channel Isles 

UK 

Désiré Foguekem 

Cameroon Biodiversity Conservation Society 

PB 3055 Messa Yaounde 

Cameroon 

John Fonwebon 

Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens 

PO Box 437 


Cameroon 

Marc Languy 

BirdLife International Cameroon Programme 

Currently: 

Albertine Rift Ecoregion Coordinator 

WWF-Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office 

BP 62440 

00200 Nairobi 

Kenya 

Fiona Maisels 


International Programmes 

2300 Southern Boulevard 

Bronx, NY 10460, USA 

and 

I.C.A.P.B., Edinburgh University, U.K.

Matthew LeBreton 

Cameroon Biodiversity Conservation Society 

PB 3055 Messa Yaounde 

Cameroon 

Hyacinth Mboh 

Cross River Gorilla Research Project (Cameroon) 



PO Box 437 


Cameroon 

Marina Mdaihli 


(PROFA), 

GTZ-MINEF 

Mamfe, Manyu Division, Southwest Province 

Cameroon 

Ebwekoh Monya O' Kah 

Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens 

P.O Box 437 


Cameroon 

Francis Njie Motombe 

Club Ornithologique du Cameroun 

PO Box 437, Limbe, Southwest Province 

Cameroon 

Dan Slayback 

Science Systems and Applications, Inc. 

Biospheric Sciences Branch, Code 923 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 

Greenbelt, MD 20771 

USA 

Terry C.H. Sunderland 

SI/MAB Biodiversity Program 


and 

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 


PO Box 437, Limbe, Southwest Province 

Cameroon 

Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves 

Department of Biological Sciences 

University of Sussex, UK 

and 

Cross River Gorilla Research Project (Cameroon), 



PO Box 437, 


Cameroon 

Graham S. Vick 

Department of Biology 

Imperial College, University of London 

Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks, SL5 7PY 

United Kingdom 

v

The Smithsonian Institution has long been aware of 

the importance of southwestern Cameroon to global 

biodiversity and as a storehouse of resources with 

potentially significant value to humankind. In the 1990s, 

scientists from the Division of Experimental Therapeutics 

at Walter Reed Army Institute of Research and the 

Bioresources Development and Conservation Programme 

approached the Smithsonian with an offer to join research 

in Nigeria and Cameroon aimed at using development of 

pharmaceutical drugs to catalyze conservation of 

biodiversity. Out of those initial discussions, the 

International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups for West 

Africa was formed, based on the belief that the discovery 

and development of pharmaceuticals and other useful 

products from natural resources can, under appropriate 

circumstances, promote sustained economic growth in 

developing countries and conserve the biological 

resources from which the products are derived. Priority 

objectives were to establish and maintain an inventory of 

species used in traditional medicine; collect, chemically 

analyze, and test plant samples for potential medicinal 

development; identify key compounds for the treatment 

of diseases such as malaria, HIV-AIDS, cancer, cystic 

fibrosis, and leischmaniasis; establish and maintain 

research plots for long-term assessment of ecological 

dynamics in rainforests; conduct economic value 

assessments of major species in host countries; and train 

Nigerian and Cameroonian scientists and technicians in 

the various aspects of plant research and ecology. 

For nearly ten years, the Smithonsian and 

Bioresources Development and Conservation Programme 

have coordinated biodiversity conservation and training 

for the International Cooperative Biodiversity Group. The 

Smithsonian has focused on establishing an extensive 

network of biodiversity monitoring plots in Nigeria and 

Cameroon and an intensively researched forest dynamics 

plot in Korup National Park, Cameroon. The goal is 

Preface 

increased understanding of the processes that maintain 

biodiversity in Central and West African forests. 

Smithsonian has conducted detailed forest 

biodiversity assessments in collaboration with numerous 

partner organizations to provide baseline information 

needed to develop regional conservation strategies. We 

have also provided professional training in plant 

taxonomy, collection techniques, biodiversity monitoring, 

data analysis, and environmental leadership for in-country 

students and natural resource technicians. Our other 

efforts in the region include support of herbariums, 

computer facilities, and other components of local 

infrastructure and capacity. Partners who have joined in 

the drug screening and resource development aspect of 

the program include Walter Reed Army Institute of 

Research, University of Buea (Cameroon), University of 

Dschang (Cameroon), University of Jos (Nigeria), Pace 

University (New York), Southern Research Institute 

(Alabama), the University of Utah, the University of 

Miami, and Florida State University. 

Funding for the overall program stems from the 

International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups Program, 

a consortium of the National Institutes of Health, the 

Biological Sciences Directorate of the National Science 

Foundation, and the Foreign Agriculture Service of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Cooperating National 

Institutes of Health agencies include Fogarty International 

Center, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of 

Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institute of 

Mental Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and 

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. 

The Takamanda Project was a collaborative, multiinstitutional 

effort to provide an initial series of 

assessments for selected taxa in this region of 

southwestern Cameroon and elicit the data needed to form

a baseline for future research and conservation. 

Takamanda Forest Reserve was relatively unexplored 

until this project. Increasing threats to the long-term 

survival of both flora and fauna in the Reserve prompted 

the authors and their respective affiliations to conduct the 

biodiversity assessments that we report on in this book.. 

An additional outcome of the Takamanda Project 

was formal training through courses conducted by the 

Smithsonian Institution in collaboration with the 

Bioresources Development and Conservation Program, 

the International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups, 

WWF Cameroon, the Wildlife Conservation Society and 

the US Agency for International Development’s Central 

African Regional Program for the Environment. 

vii 

Continued capacity building was conducted throughout 

the different field activities. 

As an outgrowth of the International Cooperative 

Biodiversity Groups Program, the Takamanda Project is 

based on the premise that the discovery and development 

of products (including pharmaceuticals) from natural 

resources may well promote sustainable use of those 

resources and contribute to the economic and social wellbeing 

of local communities. 

Francisco Dallmeier 

National Zoological Park 

Smithsonian Institution

The editors of this publication extend their gratitude to the 

many people who assisted in the preparation of this book, 

particularly those who worked in the field and whose 

valuable contributions are reflected in the chapters 

contained within. 

Dan Slayback of NASA(formerly of the Peace Corps 

in Cameroon) was key to the production of maps, far 

beyond the call of duty. 

We thank the many technicians who worked on this 

project, especially "tree spotters" Anacletus Koufani of 

the National Herbarium and Bioresources Development 

Conservation Programme-Cameroon, Maurice Elad of 

Tropenbos, and Aron Bibout and Paul Owono Nguille of 

ONADEF. With their expertise, much of this work and 

that which preceded it was of great value. 

Marina Mdaihli and Julius Ayeni of the GTZ-funded 

project PROFA were instrumental in developing the 

multi-taxa approach employed throughout the study and 

were the source of much logistical, financial, and moral 

support. Thanks also to Raphael Ebot, former Division 

Chief of Forestry for Manyu Division, for his unstinting 

support of the study and to the MINEF staff in Mamfe. 

The Ministry of Scientific and Technical Research, 

most notably Mr. John Che, deserves our gratitude for 

facilitating the procurement of relevant research and 

export permits. 

We are most pleased to recognize Dr. Nouhou Ndam 

and the staff of Limbe Botanical and Zoological Gardens 

and its marvelous herbarium for giving us an institutional 

home. We hope that our work has succeeded in promoting 

the excellent research facilities of this center. 

Acknowledgments 

We appreciate the staff of the Smithsonian MAB 

Program, most assuredly Tatiana Pacheco for her 

administrative skills. Thanks also to Patricia Ojeda for her 

thorough work in verifying species taxonomic 

nomenclatures, Deanne Kloepfer for reviewing and 

editing the chapters, and Bryan Hayum for his assistance 

in formatting the final publication, while Patrick 

Campbell, Alfonso Alonso, Francisco Dallmeier, Roger 

Soles, Adam Wilcox, Sandra Rubini, and Geri Philpott 

provided additional reviews. Carlton Ward Jr. and authors 

of the chapters are responsible for photographs, while 

Velvette De Laney expertly executed the insert and cover 

designs. 

Funding for the vegetation assessments, training 

courses, and current publication was provided by the 

International Cooperative Biodiversity Group for West 

and Central Africa. We thank the Bioresources 

Development and Conservation Programme, and 

especially Professor Maurice Iwu, for continued support 

for the Smithsonian Institution's work in Cameroon and 

Nigeria. Additional funds for training were provided by 

USAID’s Central African Regional Program for the 

Environment. 

Last but not least, we extend our heartfelt 

appreciation to all Chiefs, Traditional Council Members, 

Youth Leaders, and community representatives of the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve and its environs for their help, 

hospitality, and significant contributions to this 

publication. Martin Ashu, Zach Abang, Martin Tiko, Yisa 

Emmanuel, Jasper Obi, Denis Agbor, Esalo Godwin, and 

Jackson Aveh deserve special mention, although many 

others showed dedication in making this publication 

possible. As the saying goes, "It takes two hands to tie a 

bundle!"

1 The region 

Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves, Terry C. H. Sunderland, 

James A. Comiskey, Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Marina Mdaihli 

The Republic of Cameroon extends from 2° N to 13° N 

latitude and between 8° 25' E and 16° 20' W longitude. 

The country has a total area of 475,440 km² and is 

bordered by Chad, Nigeria, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial 

Guinea and a 350-km stretch of the Atlantic Ocean 

coastline. Takamanda Forest Reserve (TFR) is located in 

the Southwest Province of Cameroon. The Reserve is 

part of the Guineo-Congolean forest, which 

encompasses approximately 2.8 million km 2 mostly 

below 600 m, except where Precambrian highlands such 

as the Jos Plateau of Nigeria and the Cameroon 

Highlands rise above 1000m (Lawson 1996). The 

highest point is Mount Cameroon at 4,079 m. 

Rainfall in this vast forest varies from 1500 to more 

than 10,000 mm per year, giving rise to a variety of 

vegetation floristic regions (White 1983). The region 

contains 84% of known African primates, 68% of known 

African passerine birds, and 66% of known African 

butterflies (Groombridge and Jenkins 2000). For this 

reason, the Guineo-Congolian rainforest is an important 

focal point for conservation efforts in Africa. 

The Southwest Province and adjacent portions of 

southeastern Nigeria are rich in biodiversity. 

Floristically, this area is part of the Hygrophylous Coastal 

Evergreen Rainforest, which occurs along the Gulf of 

Biafra. This vegetation sub-unit is associated with high 

rainfall levels (White 1983) and is part of the Cross- 

Sanaga-Bioko Coastal Forest ecoregion, an area of 

52,000 km 2 (Olson et al. 2001, World Wildlife Fund 

2001). The ecoregion is considered an important center 

of plant diversity because of its probable isolation during 

the Pleistocene (Davis et al. 1994). 

Chapter 1 

Protected areas in the region include Cross River 

National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in 

Cameroon, as well as an extensive network of forest 

reserves such as Ejagham and Takamanda (Figure 1). 

2 Takamanda Forest Reserve 

Takamanda Forest Reserve (05º59’-06º21’N: 09º11- 

09º30’E), covering 67,599 ha, is situated in the 

northernmost corner of the Southwest Province, 

northeast of the extensive Cross River Valley. The 

Reserve stretches along the eastern border of Nigeria 

(Figure 2), which forms the north and northwest 

boundaries of TFR (Gartlan 1989). 

Created by decree in 1934, the area was first gazetted 

as part of a network of forest reserves (production 

forests) by the British colonial administration in what 

was then the British Cameroons. Akin with forest policy 

throughout the British Empire, TFR was initially 

established to protect watersheds and restrict the 

expansion of agricultural, but more importantly to 

conserve areas for future logging. As with all gazetted 

areas in Cameroon, the Reserve is managed on the 

national level by the Cameroon Government Forestry 

Department’s Ministry of Environment and Forests 

(MINEF) through the Ministry’s Manyu Division Office 

in Mamfe. The Manyu office is responsible to the 

Provincial Delegate in Buea. 

3 Geomorphology and drainage 

Much of the lowland forest area in the southern and 

central part of the Reserve lies between 100 and 400 m. 

The terrain is rolling in the lowland areas, but rises 

sharply to an altitude of 1,500 m in the northern part of 

the Reserve, where slopes are extremely steep. Small 

SI/MAB Series #8, 2003, Pages 1 to 8

2 Sunderland-Groves et al. 

Figure 1. Southwest Province of Cameroon and the associated protected areas. 

Takamanda: the Biodiversity of an African Rainforest 

Protected areas 

(NP=National Park; FR=Forest 

Reserve; WS=Wildlife Sanctuary; 

CF=Community Forest) 

1 Korup NP 

2 Cross River NP, 

Oban Division 

3 Cross River NP, 

Okwangwo Division 

4 Afi Mountain WS 

5 Afi River FR 

6 Bakala FR 

7 Bambuko FR 

8 Banyang Mbo WS 

9 Cross River North FR 

10 Cross River South FR 

11 Dibombe Mabobe FR 

12 Ejagham FR 

13 Ekinta FR 

14 Mbe CF 

15 Mbulu Hills CF 

16 Meme River FR 

17 Mokoko River FR 

18 Mone River FR 

19 Mouyouka Kompina FR 

20 Nta Ali FR 

21 Rumpi Hills FR 

22 S Bakundu FR 

23 Stubbs Creek FR 

24 Ukpon River FR

3 

Takamanda Forest Reserve 

SI/MAB Series #8, 2003 

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Figure 2. Takamanda Forest Reserve and nearby villages.


Rainfall (mm) 

600 

400 

200 

0 

Humidity 

Rainfall 

Temperature 

JAN 

FEB 

MARCH 

APRIL 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 

AUG 

SEPT 

hills, up to 725 m in elevation, lie to the north of the 

Obonyi villages along the border with Nigeria. The hills 

separating the villages of Kekpane and Basho are similar 

in elevation, rising to between 600 and 700 m. 

A basement complex of granite, gneisses, schist, and 

quartzites underlies the region, giving to shallow 

sedimentary soils (ENPLAN 1974). Marine sediment 

deposition occurred during the Precambrian, resulting in 

ferrite derived from crystalline rock and large areas of 

alluvial soil toward the southern end of the reserve. 

The Cross River and its numerous headwater 

tributaries form the main water system in the region. The 

general direction of the drainage pattern is from north to 

south, with two major rivers, the Makone and Magbe, 

flowing through the Reserve. (The Magbe is called the 

Oyi on the Nigerian side of the border.) The Makone 

drains the Matene Highlands and runs southwest through 

the Reserve to meet the Munaya River. The Magbe flows 


OCT 

NOV 

DEC 

Figure 3. Climatic data for Besong-Abang to the south of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

100 

Humidity (%) 

from Matene through Nigeria and curves back into 

Takamanda; it represents a portion of the Reserve’s 

western boundary and eventually drains into the Mamfe 

River. 

4 Climate and temperature 

The Takamanda area lacks accurate climatological data, 

which undoubtedly vary due to the elevational gradient 

that occurs within the reserve. In general, the region has 

two distinct seasons with most rainfall occurring from 

April to November, peaking in July and August with a 

second peak in September (Figure 3). The total annual 

rainfall is probably similar to that of the Nigerian side of 

the border in the Okwangwo region—up to 4,500 mm 

per year (World Wildlife Fund 1990). From November to 

April, the climate is mainly dry; some months, usually 

January and February, may receive no rain at all. The 

mean annual temperature is about 27º C. Normally, it is 

cooler in the rainy season than in the dry season. 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

Temperature (degrees centigrade)


5 Settlement and culture 

Three enclaved villages, Kekpane, Obonyi I, and Obonyi 

III, lie in the Reserve. Five more villages are located 

along the Reserve’s boundary, and there are additional 

outlying villages. Letouzey (1985) estimated the human 

population of Takamanda to be between 6 and 12 

individuals per km 2. A more recent survey calculated that 

the 43 villages within and around TFR, including 12 

villages on the Nigerian side of the border, contain 

15,707 people (Schmidt-Soltau et al. 2001). 

The dominant tribe within the area is Anyang, and 

the main spoken language is Denya. The majority of 

villagers, especially those located close to the Nigerian 

border, also speak or understand the closely-related Boki 

language, which is spoken on the Nigerian side of the 

border. Because of ethnic ties, people in Takamanda 

communities appear to have long-standing affinity with 

nearby Nigerian villagers. 

During gazettement of the Reserve, local 

poplulations were granted traditional rights to use the 

forest for their subsistence-based livelihoods. They also 

have legal right of passage through TFR, and themain 

travel route is the basis of a strong cross-border trading 

pattern. Agriculture, hunting, fishing, and the gathering 

of non-timber forest products are widespread throughout 

the Reserve (Mdahli et al. this volume, Sunderland et al. 

this volume). The main agricultural activities are 

subsistence farming for maize, plantain, banana, yams, 

and cassava. Cultivation of these annual crops often 

extends for some distance from the villages and has 

resulted in the removal of virtually all the trees in the 

immediate vicinity of settlements. Further from the 

villages, less extensive cultivation occurs, notably for oil 

palm, which is a major export from the Takamanda area. 

In anticipation of improved road access, cash crops— 

primarily cocoa and coffee—have recently been 

introduced to the area. 

6 Flora and fauna 

Despite identification of the area as a priority for 

conservation (Gartlan 1989), biodiversity in the 

Takamanda region was not well known until relatively 

recently. Early expeditions concentrated on large 

mammals, particularly gorillas (Sanderson 1940, March 

1957, Critchley 1968 Struhsaker, 1967, Thomas 1988, 

Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). A more 

comprehensive study of TFR provides significantly more 

information on the unique fauna of the area (Groves and 

Maisels 1999, Groves 2002). It is now known that the 

Reserve and the neighboring Okwangwo region in 

Nigeria are important areas for many large mammals, 

including an isolated population of the Cross River 

gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli) and the Nigerian 

chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes vellerosus), drill 

(Mandrillus leucophaeus), and Preuss’s Guenon 

(Cercopithecus preussi). As well, the forest elephant 

(Loxodonta africana cyclotis) and buffalo (Syncerus 

caffer nanus) are local denizens. 

The wider biodiversity of the area, including the 

vegetation, remained unstudied, although it was 

speculated that because of the transition from lowland 

forest to montane savanna, the area would be particularly 

diverse for all biological taxa (Gartlan 1989). Letouzey 

(1985) and ONADEF (n.d.) mapped vegetation in the 

Reserve and the surrounding area as part of a national 

vegetation survey, providing two broad classification 

categories. Those studies were based on aerial 

photographs, however, ground-truthing was not 

conducted. Subsequent work by Thomas (1988) and 

Etuge (1998) elicited more details within the wide 

categories of Letouzey and ONADEF. Still, until the 

present work (see Sunderland et al. this volume), 

knowledge of TFR vegetation was inadequate. 

The present study provides for the first time a 

comprehensive overview of biodiversity in the 

Takamanda area using analytical techniques developed 

by the Smithsonian Institution’s Monitoring and 

Assessment of Biodiversity Program (SI/MAB) within 

the context of an adaptive management approach for 

conducting assessments and monitoring of biodiversity. 

The work was modeled in part on SI/MAB projects in 

other regions of the world, including Peru and Gabon 

(Comiskey et al. 2000, Dallmeier et al. 2002). 

5 

SI/MAB Series #8, 2003


7 Conservation issues at 


In the past, Takamanda and the surrounding area had 

largely been protected, more by default than by design, 

because of its inaccessibility. However, recent human 

activities such as a logging concession granted in 1995 

outside the Reserve and the development of a road from 

Mamfe to Akwaya (ongoing) have enabled easier access 

to the area. Subsequently, the export of non-timber forest 

products, including bushmeat, has increased. With 

enhanced access, future logging and agricultural 

expansion, either by the local population or through 

government concessions, have become major concerns. 

Without official elevation of the protected status of the 

Reserve, the forest is open to such activities. 

The major threat facing fauna in the Reserve is 

hunting. Local people have had hunting rights, using 

traditional methods, since the area was gazetted in 1934, 

but they were prohibited from using firearms. Thus, most 

hunting in bygone years was for subsistence. Today, 

smaller mammals such as duikers are killed through wire 

traps or snares, while larger mammals, including apes, 

primates, elephants, and buffalos, are killed with rifles or 

locally made shotguns (“dane” guns). Almost all hunters 

in the area own a gun, and with few other options for 

alternative employment, hunting to provide bushmeat for 

trade (income) is now common. Meat is consumed 

locally and exported to Mamfe and Bamenda in 

Cameroon and across the border to Nigeria in large 

quantities. As a result, many mammal populations are 

being depleted at an alarming rate. 

One of the most important conservation species in 

Takamanda is the gorilla. Recently, scientists concluded 

that the gorillas from this region are geographically and 

morphologically distinct from other gorillas (Sarmiento 

and Oates 2000), and they are now recognized as the 

fourth gorilla sub–species—the Cross River gorilla—and 

classified as critically endangered (IUCN 2000). Groves 

et al. (this volume) estimated in 2002 that there were 

approximately 180 Cross River gorillas remaining in 

TFR and the adjacent forest areas of Mone Forest 


Reserve and Mbulu, with a total overall population in 

Cameroon and Nigeria of only about 270 weaned 

individuals. This total density is considerably less than 

that of the better known mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla 

beringei). In the past, the main threat to survival of the 

gorilla was hunting. But since 1998, when biological 

studies began in Takamanda, hunting of apes all but 

ceased through local community hunting bans. Now by 

far the greatest threat facing the Cross River gorilla is 

continued habitat fragmentation. Presently, the Cross 

River gorillas are restricted to highland areas where the 

terrain is difficult to access and hunting pressure is thus 

lower. The gorillas appear to be unwilling or unable to 

cross large tracts of lowland forest to interact with other 

groups. The road from Mamfe to Akwaya, under 

construction, will almost certainly have an effect on any 

current gorilla movements between Takamanda Forest 

Reserve and adjacent Mbulu forest, thereby increasing 

the isolation of Cross River gorilla groups. If lowland 

forest corridors cannot be secured and if gorillas are 

deterred from using lowland corridors to reach gorilla 

groups in other highland sites, inbreeding and loss of 

genetic variation may imperil these isolated groups. 

The forests of Takamanda are also important for a 

great diversity of birds as recognized by Birdlife 

International when it designated the Reserve an 

Important Bird Area. Surveys by Languy and Motombe 

(this volume) registered 309 species, bringing the total 

count for TFR to 313 species. Of these, nine species are 

classified threatened, one endangered, and two 

vulnerable within IUCN categories. Sixteen additional 

bird species have restricted ranges—their total world 

range is less than 50,000 km 2 . Two species are new 

records for Cameroon, while an additional 20 species 

extend their range within the country (Languy and 

Motombe this volume). 

Reptile diversity is equally impressive. The present 

study described 81 species in TFR, or about 30% of 

Cameroon’s total (LeBreton et al. this volume). An 

additional three undescribed species were collected 

during recent visits, and several endemics and regional 

endemics as well as endangered species have been 

registered.


Butterflies (111 species, O’Kah this volume) and 

dragonflies (67 species, Vick this volume) have high 

levels of diversity. Both groups are important indicators 

of forest change. Likewise, 54 species of fish were 

registered, many of which provide an important protein 

source to local communities (Mdaihli et al. this volume). 

Flora also proves to be extremely rich with more 

than 950 species of plants registered over the course of 

the present surveys. Of these, 351 species were trees with 

diameters greater than 10 cm (Sunderland et al. this 

volume). All species were registered in the biodiversity 

plots in the Reserve that will be the basis of long-term 

monitoring of Takamanda’s forest at different elevations. 

8 About the Takamanda Project 

The Takamanda Project arose from a general interest in 

the area expressed by numerous government agencies 

and non-governmental organizations that have been 

conducting biodiversity assessments in Cameroon and 

neighboring Nigeria. Large mammal studies focusing on 

the Cross River gorilla in the Akwaya area, supported by 

World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the Wildlife 

Conservation Society (WCS), were initiated in late 1997 

and are continuing. In early 2000, the Smithsonian 

Institution conducted a training course (“Biodiversity 

Assessment and Monitoring for Adaptive Management”) 

in Mundemba, Cameroon, where participants expressed 

their desire to conduct biodiversity assessments in 

Takamanda Forest Reserve. Follow-up activities led to 

the current project. The authors of the various chapters 

coordinated field teams in the Reserve. Primary 

objectives follow. 

• Identify key habitats using cartographic information 

and remote sensing. 

• Describe forest structure, composition, and diversity. 

• Determine the current conditions (species 

composition, frequency of encounters, population 

densities) of key taxonomic groups, including large 

mammals, birds, reptiles, and selected arthropods. 

• Gather and understand indigenous knowledge on the 

species and their uses. 

• Evaluate fisheries activities. 

• Develop land-use change maps. 

This volume presents the findings of the surveys, 

which were conducted by numerous researchers and 

agencies. It provides an important first step in 

documenting the impressive biodiversity of an area that 

has high conservation priority in Cameroon. Our goal is 

to provide a solid foundation for future conservation and 

management of Takamanda Forest Reserve and the 

species that call it their home. 


We gratefully acknowledge the contribution of all 

authors and their respective organizations. We thank the 

Smithsonian Institution for its support and the 

International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups for its 

funding of the vegetation studies and the current 

publication. Thanks to Dan Slayback for preparing the 

maps. 

References 

Comiskey, J. A., F. Dallmeier, and A. Alonso. 2000. 

Framework for assessment and monitoring of 

biodiversity. Pages 63-73 in: Levin, S. ed. 

Encyclopedia of Biodiversity: Volume 3. San 

Diego, CA: Academic Press. 

Critchley, W. R. 1968. Final report on Takamanda 

gorilla survey. Unpublished report to Winston 

Churchill Memorial Trust (typescript). 

Dallmeier, F., A. Alonso, and M. Jones. 2002. 

Planning an adaptive management process for 

biodiversity conservation and resource 

development in the Camisea River Basin. 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 

76(1): 1-17. 

Davis, S. D., V. H. Heywood, and A. C. Hamilton. 

1994. Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and 

Strategy for their Conservation. Volume 1: 

7 



Europe, Africa, South West Asia and the Middle 

East. Cambridge, UK: IUCN Publications Unit. 

Etuge, M. 1998. Botanical collections and 

classifications of forest types throughout the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve. Report to 

Takamanda Forest Surveys Project CM 00.36.02, 

WWF-Cameroon. 

Gartlan, S. 1989. La Conservation des Ecosystemes 

forestiers du Cameroon. IUCN Programme pour 

les Forets Tropicales. Gland. Switzerland: IUCN. 

Groombridge, B., and M. D. Jenkins. 2000. Global 

Biodiversity: Earth’s Living Resources in the 

21st Century. Cambridge, UK: UNEP-World 

Conservation Monitoring Centre. 

Groves, J. L. 2002. Good news for the Cross River 

Gorillas? Gorilla Journal (24): 12. 

Groves, J. L., and F. Maisels. 1999. Report on the 

large mammal fauna of the Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, South West Province, Cameroon, with 

special emphasis on the gorilla population. 

Unpublished report to WWF Cameroon. 

IUCN. 2000. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened 

Species. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, 

UK: IUCN 

Lawson, G. W. 1996. The Guinea-Congo lowland 

rain forest: An overview. Proceedings of the 

Royal Society of Edinburgh Section B Biological 

Sciences 104: 5-13. 

Letouzey, R. 1985. Notice de la Carte 

Phytogeographique du Cameroon. Toulouse, 

France: Institute de la Carte Internationale de la 

Vegetation. 

March, E. W. 1957. Gorillas of eastern Nigeria. Oryx 

4: 30-34. 

Olson, D. M., E. Dinerstein, E. D. Wikramanayake, 

N. D. Burgess, G. V. N. Powell, E. C. 


Underwood, J. A. D’Amico, I. Itoua, H. E. 

Strand, J. C. Morrison, C. J. Loucks, T. F. 

Allnutt, T. H. Ricketts, Y. Kura, J. F. Lamoreux, 

W. W. Wettengel, P. Hedao, and K. R. Kassem. 

2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: A new 

map of life on earth. Bioscience 51(11): 933-938. 

ONADEF. No date. Carte Forestiere d’Akwaya: NB- 

32-XVI. Scale 1:200 000. 

Sanderson, I. T. 1940. The mammals of the north 

Cameroon forest area. Transactions of the 

Zoological Society of London 14: 623-725. 

Sarmiento, E. E., and J. F. Oates. 2000. The Cross 

River Gorillas: A distinct subspecies Gorilla 

gorilla diehli Matschie (1904). American 

Museum of Natural History Novitates 3304. 

Schmidt-Soltau, K., M. Mdaihli, and J. S. O. Ayeni. 

2001. Socioeceonomic baseline survey of the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve. Unpublished report 

to PROFA (GTZ-MINEF) Office, Mamfe. 

Struhsaker, T. T. 1967. Preliminary report on a survey 

of high forest primates in West Cameroon. 

Report to Rockefeller University and the New 

York Zoological Society. 

Thomas, D. 1988. Status and Conservation of 

Takamanda Gorillas (Cameroon). Final Report, 

WWF-1613. Washington, DC: WWF-USA. 

White, F. 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. Paris: 

UNESCO. 

World Wildlife Fund. 1990. Cross River National 

Park (Okwango Division): Plan for Developing 

the Park and Its Support Zone. London: WWF- 

UK. 

World Wildlife Fund. 2001. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the 

World: A New Map of Life on Earth. Web page: 

http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terres 

trial_at.html.

Adaptive Management: A Framework for Biodiversity Conservation 

in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

1 Introduction 

James A. Comiskey and Francisco Dallmeier 

As the world’s human population increases, the threat to 

biodiversity becomes greater (WRI 2000). The situation 

is much more pronounced in tropical regions, with sub- 

Saharan Africa expecting a rise in the current population 

of 133 million to an estimated 189 million by 2020 and 

307 million by 2050. For Cameroon, a country with 18 

protected areas covering just over 2 million has, or 4.4% 

of the country (WRI 2001), the current population of 

about 15 million is estimated to increase to 20 million by 

2020 and 31 million by 2050. The associated increased 

demand for natural resources is likely to be expressed 

through land clearance for agriculture and bushmeat 

hunting at levels far beyond those now experienced in the 

region. The demand for bushmeat has had the greatest 

impact on regional biodiversity, resulting in localized 

species extinctions (Eves et al. 2002). Under these 

circumstances, there is an urgent need to protect and 

study what biodiversity remains and develop strategies 

for its conservation. 

Southwestern Cameroon and adjacent southeastern 

Nigeria are known as an important area for biodiversity 

(Obot and Ogar 1997, Sunderland-Groves et al. this 

volume). The Guineo-Congolian rainforest in the area is 

unique because of high rainfall levels (White 1983) and 

the presence of highlands that provide a variety of 

habitats for flora and fauna. The forests of Takamanda 

Forest Reserve (TFR), located in the northernmost tip of 

Cameroon’s Southwest Province and ranging from 100 

to 1,500 m in elevation, are of particular value 

(Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume) and are regarded 

as having significant conservation importance (Gartlan 

1989). Surveys in the greater region have been conducted 

in Korup National Park to the south (for example, 

Rodewald et al. 1994, Larsen 1997, Cheek and Stuart 

1997), Ejagham Forest Reserve (Sunderland et al. 1997), 

Chapter 2 

and the Rumpi Hills (Usongo 1995). But until recently, 

most surveys conducted in the Takamanda area focused 

primarily on large mammals and apes (Groves and 

Maisel 1999), and there is little information to develop 

comprehensive conservation and monitoring strategies 

for overall biodiversity. 

The series of biodiversity assessments in the current 

volume are an important step in providing baseline 

information for management of TFR. The Smithsonian 

Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity Program 

(SI/MAB), in collaboration with the Wildlife 

Conservation Society, devised the framework for the 

assessments, and the results confirm that TFR harbors a 

rich diversity of species, including 15 large mammal 

species—eight of them primates (Sunderland-Groves 

and Maisels this volume), more than 950 species of 

plants (Sunderland et al. this volume), 313 bird species 

(Languy this volume), and 71 species of reptiles 

(LeBreton and Motombe this volume). 

In this paper, we take into consideration the findings 

and recommendations from the assessments to present an 

overview of an adaptive management framework, which 

we propose as a means of implementing conservation 

and monitoring strategies for Takamanda Forest Reserve. 

Adaptive management has been employed extensively in 

the United States (for example, Walters 1986) and 

recently for conservation projects in Latin America 

(Dallmeier et al. 2002) and Africa (SI/MAB 2002). A 

more detailed description of adaptive management 

principles and implementation has been published by 

Comiskey et al. (2000). 


10 Comiskey and Dallmeier 

2 Challenges Facing Takamanda 

Forest Reserve 

Until recently, the biotic resources of TFR have remained 

isolated because of the Reserve’s remote location. The 

1990s, however, saw an increase in the number and 

activities of logging concessions in the vicinity of TFR. 

The human population has grown in the region as access 

has improved to extract timber, with a subsequent 

increase in the clearance of forest for agriculture 

(Slayback this volume) and a dramatic rise in the trade of 

bushmeat (Sunderland-Groves and Maisel this volume). 

Illegal hunting is of particular concern because of the 

presence of the endemic and highly threatened Cross 

River Gorilla in the Reserve and the adjoining highlands 

of Nigeria (Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). An 

additional threat is posed by current construction of a 

road from Mamfe to Akwaya that will further increase 

access to the area, resulting in additional immigration and 

hunting. Fragmentation of the landscape as more families 

build houses and grow their crops is likely to have a 

negative impact on large mammal species in the area, 

especially the Cross River Gorilla population that is 

already isolated in highland areas. Likewise, 

fragmentation is likely to affect other taxonomic groups 

including the birds (Languy and Motombe this volume), 

reptiles (LeBreton et al. this volume) as well as the 

arthropod populations (O’Kah this volume, Vick this 

volume). Population growth will likely put further strain 

on the limited resources, resulting in a rise in bushmeat 

hunting, fisheries (Mdaihli et al. this volume), and nontimber 

forest product use (Sunderland et al. this volume). 

3 The Adaptive Management 

Framework 

Adaptive management provides a means by which 

conservation and management practices can be improved 

through lessons learned. The process assumes that there 

are uncertainties in management and that different 

practices can be tested and measured (Elzinga et al. 1998, 

Comiskey et al. 2000). Within the adaptive management 

framework, monitoring of biodiversity provides the 

information to determine whether practices must be 

changed to achieve desired outcomes—in the case of 


TFR, maintaining biodiversity in an optimally 

functioning state. Human activities can have drastic 

impacts that may require long and costly investment for 

recovery of landscapes or species or that may cause 

irreversible changes such as the loss of species. For these 

reasons, management to conserve biodiversity can help 

avoid or mitigate such impacts (Naveh 1994, Freitag et 

al. 1998, van Jaarsveld et al. 1998, Poiani et al. 2000). 

This model has proven successful in combination with 

development projects in the tropical forests of Peru 

(Dallmeier et al. 2002) and Gabon (SI/MAB 2002), 

helping to minimize the negative impacts of natural 

resource extraction on biodiversity. 

Adaptive management is a cyclical process that 

involves four major steps, each of which allows for the 

calibration of goals and objectives through feedback 

from monitoring (Figure 1). The steps are: (1) determine 

the monitoring objectives and plan, (2) implement 

management practices, (3) assess and monitor 

management practices, and (4) evaluate the results and 

make appropriate decisions, altering management 

practices, if necessary. Each step is periodically reviewed 

to assure that the appropriate information feeds the next 

level. The cyclical nature of the process is essential to 

validate the results of each step (Holling 1978, Walters 

1986, Comiskey et al. 2000). 

4 Initial Steps in Takamanda Forest 

Reserve 

Recommendations for conservation and management of 

Takamanda Forest Reserve require a basic understanding 

of conservation priorities and, where possible, ecosystem 

functions. The Takamanda Project, undertaken to provide 

this information, represented a multidisciplinary, 

coordinated approach for gathering, analyzing, and 

disseminating information about TFR and the 

surrounding area that has been influenced by different 

land-use activities. The World Wildlife Fund and Wildlife 

Conservation Society initiated work in the Reserve 

through a series of surveys to determine the status of the 

Cross River Gorilla, sub-species with high conservation 

priority (Sarmiento and Oates 2000). The two 

organizations sought assistance from the Smithsonian

Adaptive management 

Institution’s Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity 

Program (SI/MAB) to help establish a biodiversity 

monitoring program and build in-country capacity. 

4.1 Consultation and Training 

SI/MAB and the Wildlife Conservation Society, in 

collaboration with the Bioresources Development 

Conservation Program, consulted stakeholders with an 

interest in TFR. These included local, national, and 

international experts and institutions with knowledge 

about the region (WWF, Birdlife International, 

Cameroon Ornithology Club, CamHerp, Limbe Botanic 

Gardens, GTZ) as well as government agencies 

(MINEF), representatives from the different 

communities in the area, and national universities. From 

the outset, most stakeholders expressed a desire to share 

expertise, costs, and logistical arrangements in 

conducting assessments and monitoring in the remote 

TFR. 

As part of the International Cooperative Biodiversity 

Groups funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, 

the Smithsonian Institution and WWF with additiona 

support from the Central African Regional Program for 

the Environment conducted a training course on 

biodiversity assessment and monitoring in Mundemba, 

Cameroon, in 2000. The participants, all of whom were 

stakeholders with an interest in conservation in 

Cameroon, learned about use of the adaptive 

management framework as a tool for conservation 

management in their respective projects. Initial plans and 

consultation for the Takamanda Project were discussed, 

and several organizations agreed to participate in the 

project. Training of the field personnel was conducted at 

the time of the training course and continued during field 

assessments at TFR. 

4.2 Biodiversity Assessments 

Multi-stakeholder biodiversity assessments were 

completed in TFR during 2001 and 2002 in different 

seasons. A series of protocols and sampling 

methodologies were developed and used by teams of 

researchers at different locations. The research sites 

represented a range of vegetation types and elevations. 

The protocols helped ensure credible scientific research 

and analysis, the results of which can be used in making 

conservation and management recommendations for the 

area. 

The project emphasized the following site-specific 

objectives: 

• Identify key habitats, using cartographic information 

and remote sensing. 

• Describe forest structure, composition, and diversity. 

• Determine the current conditions (species 

composition, frequency of encounters, population 

densities) of key taxonomic groups, including large 

mammals, birds, reptiles, and selected arthropod 

groups. 

• Gather and understand indigenous knowledge on the 

species and their uses. 

• Evaluate fisheries activities. 

• Develop land use change maps. 

Conducting the assessments over dry and rainy 

seasons allowed the scientists to generate a robust 

baseline of information about biodiversity in TFR for the 

long-term monitoring program. 

4.3 Information Dissemination 

The current publication forms an important first step in 

determining future activities for TFR. Each institution 

involved in the Takamanda Project produced a variety of 

reports for their agencies and funders, as well as the 

papers published in this book. The consensus among all 

participants was that TFR is extremely important to 

biodiversity and that we are only just beginning to gain 

an understanding of the different ecological components 

of the area. Nevertheless, TFR remains threatened by 

many land uses, including road construction that will 

open the region to increased immigration. 

The remainder of this paper proposes adaptive 

management as a framework to achieve conservation and 

management goals in TFR and suggests potential next 

steps to implement such a program. 

11 



5 Adaptive Management in 

Takamanda 

Much more baseline information needs to be collected 

from TFR, but as knowledge of the different taxonomic 

groups increases, conservation and management 

recommendations will be developed and adjusted. 

Design and implementation of conservation efforts that 

sustain biodiversity at an optimal level are a key goal for 

stakeholders in the region. Thus, the effectiveness of 

conservation and management decisions must be closely 

monitored in the future. There is no land-use or 

management plan for TFR. Such a plan will comprise the 

first step to protect and manage the reserve. The plan 

should describe the resources that are of importance to 

the area and strategies for their conservation, leading to a 

monitoring program to ensure the most effective 

management. 

5.1 Monitoring Objectives and Planning 

Monitoring within the adaptive management framework 

involves the collection and analysis of repeated 

measurements to evaluate progress toward meeting 

conservation management objectives (Comiskey et al. 

2000). The initial steps in defining and establishing the 

monitoring program involve the collection of baseline 

information that helps to establish conservation priorities, 

a process that has been initiated in TFR. 

Changes in biodiversity have many causes, 

including (among others) variations in natural population 

cycles, climatic effects, and direct impacts from human 

activities, and these are not fully known for the Reserve. 

Some monitoring activities are already in place at TFR; 

ten one-hectare biodiversity plots have been established 

along an altitudinal gradient to evaluate long-term 

changes in floristic communities (Sunderland et al. this 

volume); monitoring of large mammals and apes—key 

indicators of general ecosystem health and human 

activities—is in place (Sunderland-Groves et al. this 

volume); and changes in land use have been monitored 

using remote sensing over a ten-year interval (Slayback 

this volume). The other assessments described in this 

volume will provide the baseline upon which priority 


taxa can be defined for monitoring and against which 

future change can be evaluated. 

5.1.1 Stakeholder consultation 

Further stakeholder participation will help to identify the 

next steps and priorities based on current knowledge of 

TFR. Through continued stakeholder workshops and 

consultations, critical biodiversity issues can be 

identified, including priority areas for further 

assessments, indicator species or taxa for monitoring 

based on current knowledge, potential conservation and 

management strategies, and resources needed for the 

next steps. For example, it is known that the population 

of apes in the region is unique and threatened 

(Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume) and may be 

flagship species for conservation. Likewise, several 

important bird species may serve as indicators for 

monitoring and conservation purposes (Languy and 

Motombe this volume). 

5.1.2 Identify resource needs 

An understanding of resource needs is essential to ensure 

success of the project. Critical resources include time 

commitment and funding allocated to the project, as well 

as a sufficient number of trained people to conduct 

biodiversity assessments, devise monitoring strategies, 

and improve sampling protocols. These elements must be 

balanced with professional expertise, adequate 

technology to manage information and voucher 

collections, and an appropriate budget for field 

equipment, data management, and publications. For 

TFR, resources are a particular challenge because of the 

remoteness of the region and the difficulty in accessing 

sites where assessment and monitoring must be 

conducted. 

5.1.3 Capacity building 

Continued support for local capacity is definitely needed 

for the long-term success of monitoring projects. Support 

and training should focus on developing the capacity of 

ecologists who are already familiar with the ecosystem 

types in the Reserve, taxa-specific specialists, skilled


Monitoring 

Objectives 

and Planning 

field technicians who can gather and identify field 

samples, data managers, and geographic information 

system (GIS) specialists to compile the information. 

SI/MAB has found it useful to conduct courses in which 

participants with an interest in continued training are 

identified and supported through on-the-ground training 

during biodiversity assessments. Such candidates can 

reach a high level of expertise through hands-on 

experience, and, in some cases, this has facilitated their 

continued academic and professional careers. Through 

SI/MAB’s vegetation assessments at TFR, three 

Cameroonian collaborators have furthered their 

education by completing Masters-level studies at local 

institutions. 

Implement 

Management 

Evaluation 

and 

Decision 

Making 

Figure 1. Phases in the adaptive management cycle as a model for Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Assessment 

and 

Monitoring 

5.1.4 Defining specific management 

objectives and responses 

Once conservation priorities and the potential indicators 

or species of conservation interest are identified through 

consultations, the next step is to design a management 

strategy. For the TFR, the ideal management plan should 

include clear and specific objectives related to 

biodiversity—for example, maintaining the population 

of Cross River Gorillas at current levels. Such objectives 

provide the base for launching the monitoring program, 

which should be targeted at meeting the objectives. 

A “threshold” level should also be determined, 

beyond which some form of intervention would be 

required to ensure the long-term survival of the 

population(s) being monitored. In the case of the Cross 

River Gorilla, a threshold population density must be 

13 



identified at the outset, with the goal of defining the point 

at which inaction will imperil the population. Where 

sufficient knowledge of the biology of populations is 

lacking, it is particularly challenging to determine the 

proper threshold and identify the appropriate 

management response. That is why initial assessments 

and more in-depth studies are so important. 

5.2 Implement Management 

Implementation of management and subsequent 

monitoring enables researchers to decide whether they 

are achieving the desired conservation goals. At TFR, 

implementing the management plan may prove difficult 

because of the tenuous legal status of the Reserve and 

because sufficient personnel and financing are not yet 

available. Therefore, monitoring should be aimed at 

providing baseline information that can be used to 

establish both a legal mandate and a conservation 

strategy. As an example, current construction of the road 

between Mamfe and Akwaya is likely to increase 

immigration into the area with a subsequent increase in 

land clearance and bushmeat extraction. Monitoring, 

using remote sensing, can help evaluate the extent and 

type of land-use changes in the region caused by the road 

(Slayback this volume), and the amount of habitat 

fragmentation can be correlated to impacts on species 

such as large mammals (Sunderland-Groves and Maisel 

this volume). The information can identify areas of the 

Reserve that are most at risk and provide the basis for 

implementing conservation strategies. Market surveys 

can provide an evaluation of local bushmeat 

consumption and can be correlated to mammal survey 

data from the field. 

5.3 Assessment and Monitoring 

The next stage of the adaptive management process 

addresses monitoring options to establish potential 

alternatives for gathering additional knowledge over a 

shorter period of time. The two most typical kinds of 

monitoring for this purpose are baseline monitoring and 

management-based monitoring. Baseline monitoring 

elicits information to increase understanding of how 

natural processes operate on biotic components in the 


study area. In TFR, baseline monitoring has been 

employed for vegetation along the altitudinal gradient 

(Sunderland et al. this volume). Information obtained 

over time from the plots add to our knowledge of the 

dynamics of these habitat types and constitute the 

baseline for making management recommendations 

related to forest resources in the Reserve and other forests 

of the region. 

In the adaptive management process, monitoring is 

also linked to the implementation of some form of 

management, providing information on whether 

management practices are achieving the desired outcome 

and, if not, pointing to needed changes in the 

management approach. At TFR, information from 

monitoring through remote sensing of the road 

construction could well be used to evaluate land-use 

changes. Monitoring of large mammal populations, as 

well as market surveys, will indicate the degree to which 

increased access for bushmeat hunting caused by the 

road is impacting those populations. 

5.3.1 Monitoring design 

Initial assessments provide a baseline to study long-term 

changes. Subsequent assessments help researchers 

evaluate changes that can be related to ecosystem health. 

Nevertheless, it is important to bear in mind that 

ecosystems are extremely complex entities, primarly 

because of numerous ecological interactions among 

different biotic and edaphic variables in space and across 

time (for example, Diamond and Case 1986). A 

challenge for any monitoring program is to distinguish 

the changes that are inherent in the natural population— 

the noise—from those that are influenced by external 

factors—the signal. In monitoring, we compare the 

results over time to those gleaned from baseline 

monitoring to detect whether change is an actual “signal” 

or merely “noise.” 

Monitoring protocols should take into consideration 

sampling design, data management and analysis, 

interpretation of results, and reporting mechanisms. 

Objectives must specify the limits of change permitted 

before management action must be taken, and each


objective must be realistic, specific, and measurable. For 

example, qualitative monitoring (habitat condition) is 

quicker and less expensive to conduct than quantitative 

monitoring (estimates of the frequency and abundance of 

a species). However, qualitative monitoring is often more 

variable because of the differences among observers. 

This has important implications—not only in 

distinguishing real changes from those caused by 

sampling variability but also for management actions. 

5.3.2 Spatial and temporal scales 

Biodiversity assessment and monitoring plans should be 

carried out at both local and regional scales to provide 

decision-makers with high-quality data and costeffective 

choices. At the spatial scale in TFR, sampling 

should take into consideration proximity to local 

communities and variability in habitats along the 

Reserve’s altitudinal gradient. For example, the current 

vegetation monitoring strategy is focused on natural 

forest habitats at different elevations (Sunderland et al. 

this volume); future strategies might seek to gather 

baseline information in areas that are under management 

by local communities, thus increasing our understanding 

of human impacts on biodiversity. At the temporal scale, 

sampling in TFR must take into account the variability in 

biotic communities during the wet and dry seasons 

because seasons affect our ability to detect noticeable 

changes in biodiversity over time. 

5.3.3 Sampling design 

Sampling strategies can be systematic, random, or 

stratified, depending on the taxa and sampling objectives. 

Random sampling, where points have an equal 

probability of being sampled, was used to conduct 

general collections of plants in TFR (Sunderland et al. 

this volume). Systematic sampling (employing a grid or 

transect) was conducted for the mammal and ape surveys 

(Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). Stratified 

sampling, which involves the definition of different 

habitats within the reserve, was used to monitor 

vegetation (Sunderlant et al. this volume) and bird 

populations (Languy and Motombe this volume). 

Ultimately, the most appropriate method will stem from 

the specific objectives defined for the monitoring 

program. 

The number and size of the samples will be 

determined by the precision required for monitoring. If 

the monitoring program is attempting to detect a small 

change, then a large number of samples are needed. It is 

also necessary to decide whether the samples should be 

permanent or temporary. Permanent points allow for 

repeated sampling, although they cost more in time and 

money to establish. In TFR, the large ape populations are 

known to have a low density, but accurate estimates are 

difficult because even during intense survey, only a few 

sightings have been registered (Sunderland-Groves et al. 

this volume). It will be very difficult to record precise 

estimates of changes in ape density because current 

personnel and financial resources are not sufficient to 

enact the large-scale sampling strategy that is needed. For 

vegetation, the investment in sampling will be 

significantly less because the same populations, which 

are stationary, can be monitored over time (Sunderland et 

al. this volume). 

5.3.4 Data collection and management 

Data collection entails the measurement and assimilation 

of information in the field under consistent standards. 

During assessments conducted to date in TFR, assistants 

and local guides have been trained specifically for this 

task. Standard protocols were used to facilitate cross-site 

comparisons and evaluation in multi-taxa monitoring. 

Accurate transfer of data from field data sheets and 

secure storage of information are required to ensure the 

availability of credible data for analysis. Managing the 

datasets includes data entry, verification, validation, 

archiving, and documentation. To assist in the detection 

of errors at TFR, the vegetation team used the 

Biodiveristy Monitoring Database (BioMon), which 

incorporates validity checks into the process of 

transferring data from the field forms to the computer 

(Comiskey and Mosher 1999). In planning the 

monitoring program, the costs of data management 

should be included in long-term budgets. 

15 



5.4 Evaluation and Decision-making 

Evaluation elicits answers to the questions that underly a 

project’s objectives and thus facilitates the process of 

making recommendations and the calibration of the 

overall program. Future activities in the Takamanda 

Project should include an evaluation process whereby the 

results of biodiversity assessments and monitoring are 

used to help achieve the project’s objectives. The 

evaluation should consist of a determination of whether 

the collected data are subject to appropriate techniques 

for data management and analysis and if the data 

gathered can be coupled with new technologies for 

analysis and management. 

Such an evaluation will enable team members to 

identify those mechanisms that work best in the timely 

transfer of data and information for conservation 

decisions. Alternatives should be devised if it is 

determined that the monitoring is not providing the 

necessary information to evaluate management actions. 

Likewise, if management is not having the desired 

outcome, other options must be explored. Ultimately, we 

must remember that the adaptive management process 

can help ensure the overall objective to maintain 

biodiversity at Takamanda Forest Reserve in an optimal 

state. 

References 

Cheek, M. and S. Cable. 1998. Preliminary results of 

the botanical inventory of the Ekundu Kundu 

Region of the Korup Park. Pages 72-80 in: 

Songwe, N.C. (ed.) 1997 Proceedings of 

Workshop on Korup National Park & Project 

Area. Korup Project, Mundemba, Cameroon. 

Comiskey, J.A., and R. Mosher. 1999. Biodiversity 

Monitoring Database for Windows (BioMon). 

Version 2.0. Washington, DC: SI/MAB, 

Smithsonian Institution. 

Comiskey, J.A., F. Dallmeier, and A. Alonso. 2000. 

Framework for assessment and monitoring of 

biodiversity. Pages 63-73 in: Levin, S. (ed.) 


Encyclopedia of Biodiversity: Volume 3. San 

Diego, CA: Academic Press. 

Dallmeier, F., A. Alonso, and M. Jones. 2002. 

Planning an adaptive management process for 

biodiversity conservation and resource 

development in the Camisea River Basin. 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 

76(1): 1-17. 

Diamond, J.M., and T.J. Case, eds. 1986. Community 

Ecology. New York: Harper and Row. 

Elzinga, C.L., D.W. Salzer, and J.H. Willoughby. 

1998. Measuring and Monitoring Plant 

Populations. BLM Technical Reference 1730-1. 

Denver: Bureau of Land Management 

Eves, H.E., J.T. Stein, D.S. Wilkie, and BCTF. 2002. 

BCTF Fact Sheet: The Bushmeat Crisis in West 

and Central Africa. Silver Spring, MD: 

Bushmeat Crisis Task Force. 

Freitag, S., A.O. Nicholls, and A.S. van Jaarsveld. 

1998. Dealing with established reserve networks 

and incomplete datasets in conservation 

planning. South African Journal of Science 94: 

79-86. 

Gartlan, S. 1989. La Conservation des Ecosystemes 

forestiers du Cameroon. IUCN Programme pour 

les Forets Tropicales. Gland: IUCN. 

Groves, J.L., and F. Maisels. 1999. Report on the 

Large Mammal Fauna of the Takamanda Forest 


Special Emphasis on the Gorilla Population. 

Unpublished report to WWF Cameroon. 

Holling, C.S., ed. 1978. Adaptive Environmental 

Assessment and Management. New York: John 

Wiley & Sons.


Larsen, T.B. 1997. Korup Butterflies: Biodiversity 

Writ Large. Report on the butterfly study mission 

to Korup park. Mamfe: WWF Cameroon. 

Naveh, Z. 1994. From biodiversity to ecodiversity: 

Landscape ecology approach to conservation and 

restoration. Restoration Ecology 2: 180-189. 

Obot, E.A., and G. Ogar. 1997. Biodiversity Surveys 

in Cross River National Park as Contribution to 

Park Management. African Rainforests and 

Conservation of Biodiversity: Proceedings of the 

Limbe Conference. Oxford, UK: Earthwatch 

Institute. 

Poiani, K.A., B.D. Richter, M.G. Anderson, and H.E. 

Richter. 2000. Biodiversity conservation at 

multiple scales: Functional sites, landscapes, and 

networks. BioScience 50: 133-146. 

Rodewald, P.G, P.A. Dejaifve, and A.A. Green. 1994. 

The birds of Korup National Park and Korup 

Project Area, Southwest Province, Cameroon. 

Bird Conservation International 4: 1-68. 

Sarmiento, E.E., and J.F. Oates. 2000. The Cross 

River gorillas: A distinct subspecies Gorilla 

gorilla diehli Matschie 1904. American Museum 

of Natural History Novitates 3304. 

SI/MAB. 2002. Gabon Biodiversity Program: 

Biodiversity Research, Monitoring and Training 

in the Gamba Complex, Gabon. (Ed. Campbell, 

P., F. Dallmeier, and A. Alonso). Briefing Paper 

#3. Washington, DC: SI/MAB, Smithsonian 

Institution. 

17 

Sunderland, T.C.H., C.J. Ros, J.A. Comiskey, and A. 

Njiamnshi. 1997. The Vegetation of the Campo 

Faunal Reserve and Ejagham Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon. Washington, DC: SI/MAB, 

Smithsonian Institution. 

Usongo, L. 1995. Biological and socio-economic 

survey of Rumpi and Nta Ali reserves. Report to 

the Korup Project, WWF Cameroon. 

van Jaarsveld, A.S., S. Freitag, S.L. Chown, C. 

Muller, S. Koch, H. Hull, C. Bellamy, M. Krüger, 

S. Endrödy-Younga, M. Mansell, and C.H. 

Scholtz. 1998. Biodiversity assessment and 

conservation strategies. Science 279: 2106-2108. 

Walters, C.J. 1986. Adaptive Management of 

Renewable Resources. New York: McGraw-Hill. 


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WRI. 2000. A Guide to World Resources 2000 to 

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Cameroon. Earthtrends. Washington, DC: World 

Resources Institute. 


18 

Takamanda: the Biodiversity of an African Rainforest

Vegetation Assessment of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Chapter 3 

Terry C.H. Sunderland, James A. Comiskey, Simon Besong, Hyacinth 

Mboh, John Fonwebon and Mercy Abwe Dione 


Aside from South Africa, Cameroon is the most 

biologically rich country known to date on the African 

continent (IUCN 1986). It encompasses an intricate 

mosaic of diverse habitats, with moist, tropical forest 

dominating in the south and southeast and covering 54% 

of the country (WCMC 1994), montane forest and alpine 

savannah in the highlands, and sub-sahelian savannah 

and near desert in the far north (Letouzey 1968 and 1985, 

White 1983). These diverse habitats harbor more than 

9,000 species of plants, 160 of which are endemic 

(WCMC 1994). The majority of the endemic taxa are 

concentrated around Mount Cameroon and other 

highland areas. 

The forests of the cross-border region between 

Cameroon and Nigeria are also extraordinarily diverse, 

with a high degree of endemism (Davis et al. 1994). This 

area, where forest types are heavily influenced by 

drainage patterns and topographical features, is the last 

refuge in Cameroon for the Cross River gorilla (Gorilla 

gorilla deihli; Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). 

Compared to other forests in the Guineo-Congolian 

region, Cross River border forests are floristically 

diverse, with forest formations in Takamanda Forest 

Reserve (TFR) representing much of this diversity. 

This paper presents the findings of a vegetation 

study conducted in TFR between September 2000 and 

July 2001. For a more complete description of the 

Reserve, see Sunderland-Groves et al. (this volume). 

1.1 Vegetation Surveys 

Botanical expeditions have been conducted in the larger 

study area since the 1920s when numerous collections 

were made in the Obudu Plateau of Nigeria, which forms 

the western extension of the Bamenda Highlands of 

Cameroon (Hall and Medler 1975). Keay (1979) 

provides descriptions of habitats identified during a 

botanical expedition conducted in 1948. On the 

Cameroon side, attention has focused on the 

mountainous region, especially Mount Cameroon (for 

example, Cable and Cheek 1998, Hall 1973, Richards 

1963a and b). To the west and bordering on Nigeria’s 

Cross River National Park, Korup National Park has 

been the setting for extensive botanical and ecological 

work, including quantitative assessments (Newbery and 

Gartlan 1996), phenology (Newbery et al. 1996), and 

studies of nutrients and mycorrhizae (Gartlan et al. 1986, 

Newbery et al. 1988, Newbery et al. 1997). A 

preliminary botanical expedition to Takamanda was 

conducted by Etuge (1998). Two 1-ha biodiversity plots 

were established in 1997, the first in Cross River 

National Park and the second in the Okwangwo Division 

(Comiskey et al. unpublished data). 

Recently, the Smithsonian Institution established a 

forest dynamics plot where all trees with a diameter 

greater than 1 cm were measured in a 50-ha area in 

Korup National Park (Schuster et al. 1999, Thomas et al. 

2003, Songwe et al. in press). To the north of Korup in 

the Ejagham Forest Reserve, two 1-hectare biodiversity 

plots were established in 1997 (Sunderland et al. 1997). 

These plots were remeasured in 2002 and provide the 

first quantitative information on dynamics of forests in 

the region (Comiskey and Sunderland unpublished data). 

1.2 Takamanda Vegetation Assessment 

Until recently, there was a considerable lack of detailed 

knowledge about vegetative composition in the 

Takamanda area. As part of the present assessment, a 


20 Sunderland et al. 

preliminary landuse change and vegetation map was 

prepared by Slayback and Sunderland (see photo gallery, 

this volume). This chapter provides comprehensive 

descriptions of the forest types found in TFR. 

The objectives of the vegetation survey were to: 

• Elicit baseline information on the structure and 

composition of the different forested habitat types in 

TFR. 

• Initiate long-term monitoring of vegetation in the 

area to help better understand the natural dynamics 

of the different habitat types. 

• Build a framework for the assessment of other 

taxonomic groups. 

• Complete a biological baseline to inform elaboration 

of a management plan for the area. 

The current study presents the first comprehensive 

vegetation survey for Takamanda Forest Reserve. The 

vegetation assessment we conducted is part of the 

network of long-term vegetation monitoring sites 

established in Cameroon and Nigeria through the 

International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups, a project 

examining the link between biodiversity and human 

health and drug discovery. Two long-term biodiversity 

monitoring plots have been established in the Ejagham 

Forest Reserve, located south of TFR, and three at the 

Campo Faunal Reserve in South Province, Cameroon. 

3 Methods 

3.1 Introduction 

The methodology employed for these surveys 

concentrated on both quantitative and qualitative 

assessments of vegetative composition. In the former, 

both permanent 1-ha biodiversity plots (BDPs) were 

established in conjunction with Modified Whitaker plots 

(MWPs). Ten 1-ha BDPs and 38 MWPs were established 

throughout the Reserve (Table 1). In addition to the 

quantitative vegetation assessment, qualitative surveys 

were undertaken through textensive collection of 

voucher specimens. 


3.2 Quantitative sampling 

The assessment sites were determined from an initial 

reconnaissance survey of TFR, accompanied by 

examination of available aerial photographs and the main 

vegetative components identified (Sunderland 2000). At 

each site, it was intended that: 

• the area should contain species representative of the 

habitat type; 

• the common and/or dominant species should be 

represented, and 

• the plots should be located in each habitat type to 

provide a “true” representation of the area’s 

diversity. 

At each site, one BDP and four MWPs were 

established, using standard protocols (Figure 1). The 

protocol for establishing a BDP (100 x 100 m), reported 

in detail by Dallmeier et al. (1992) and Dallmeier and 

Comiskey (1996), is in use at more than 300 plots in 23 

countries (Dallmeier and Comiskey 1998a, 1998b) and 

provides a unique comparative data set from forested 

regions throughout the tropics. All trees with a diameter 

at breast height (dbh; 1.3 m) ≥ 10 cm were measured, 

tagged, and marked. Where possible, measurements 

MWP 

100m 

MWP 

50 m 

1-ha Biodiversity 

Plot (BDP) 

100m 

MWP 

20 m 

500m 

Figure 1. Field arrangement of 1-ha biodiversity plots 

(BDPs) and modified Whitaker plots (MWPs) 

MWP

Vegetation Assessment 

Table 1. Location of plots in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. The ten BDPs are numbered from P6 through P15. Plots 1- 

3 are sited in the Campo Faunal Reserve and plots 4 and 5 in the Ejagham Forest Reserve, Cameroon. MWPs are numbered M1 

to M36. 

Plot # Location Gazeteer Elevation Terrain and 

site description 

P6 Basho hills 06Ê07’818’’N; 

320m Steep sloping 

M1, 

M2, 

M3, 

M4 

09Ê24’776’’E 

ridges 

P7 Basho hills 06Ê07’871’’N; 

400m On hillside 

M5, 

M6, 

M7, 

M8 

09Ê24’589’’E 

plateau 

P8 Matene to Mendi hills 06Ê18’349’’N; 

780m Steep sloping 

M9, 

M10 

09Ê22’396’’E 

hillside 

P9 Mendi hills to Obudu 06Ê19’400’’N; 

1,200m Montane gallery 

M11, 

09Ê23’474’’E 

forest in 

M12 

grassland 

P10, Mboh-Matene 06Ê11’340’’N; 

210m Flat plateau in 

M13, 

M14, 

M15, 

M16 

09Ê20’339’’E 

lowland forest 

P11 Mboh-Matene 06Ê11’815’’N; 


M17, 

M18, 

M19, 

M20 

09Ê20’302’’E 


P12 Magbe 06Ê07’488’’N; 

150m Riverine forest; 

M21, 

M22, 

M23, 

M24 

09Ê12’888’’E 

flat plateau 

P13 Magbe 06Ê07’885’’N; 

150m Riverine forest; 

M25, 

M26, 

M27, 

M28 

09Ê13’109’’E 

flat plateau 

P14 Takamanda camp 06Ê03’160’’N; 


M29, 

M30, 

M31, 

M32 

09Ê16’794’’E 


P15 Takamanda camp 06Ê03’264’’N; 


M33, 

M34, 

M35, 

M36 

09Ê16’507’’E 


21 



avoided protrusions occurring at dbh on the trunk. The 

height of all individuals was also measured. 

Through the inclusion of herbs and other life forms, 

MWPs provide a more comprehensive overview of 

forest diversity, composition, and structure than do 

BDPs, where the focus is trees ≥10cm dbh. To represent 

as wide a vegetation sample as possible, MWPs were 

established in a standard formation in close proximity to 

BDPs. Along each of the four 100-m long sides of each 

BDP, a MWP was sited perpendicular at a linear distance 

of 500 m (Figure 1). Hence, each BDP had four 

“satellite” MWPs sited around it except plots P8 and P9 

that were sited in narrow strips of montane gallery forest 

and where only two MWPs were established. 

MWPs, each 0.1-ha (20 x 50 m) in size, are 

composed of 13 multi-scale, rectangular, nested subplots 

of proportional dimensions, corrected for slope 

(Stohlgren 1995). All trees ≥ 10 cm dbh were measured, 

marked, and identified throughout MWPs. In the center 

20 x 5-m ‘C’subplot, all trees ≥ 5 cm dbh were measured, 

marked, and identified. In a similar fashion, all trees ≥ 1 

cm dbh were measured in the two 5 x 2-m ‘B1’ and ‘B2’ 

subplots. All individual stems of herbaceous plants were 

identified and counted, but not marked, in the ten 2 x 0.5m 

‘A’ subplots. 

3.3 Qualitative sampling 

Random collections of fertile material were undertaken 

throughout the Reserve for the duration of the field work, 

both by professional botanists and villagers trained as 

parataxonomists to ensure intense local involvement in 

the data collection process and to help allay suspicions 

regarding the removal of botanical samples. The local 

collectors were responsible for the sampling of the 

majority of the voucher specimens outside the plots 

(more than 50% of the total specimens), and they 

contributed significantly to knowledge of the Reserve’s 

flora. The presence of the collectors on a year-round basis 

also helped in the recording of phenological differences 

between seasons. 


3.4 Identification of plant material 

Through the use of professional tree spotters, many of the 

species encountered on the plots were identified in the 

field. Voucher specimens were not collected where a 

consensus was achieved as to identification of a sampled 

individual (that is, three individuals agree on each field 

identification). Voucher specimens were collected for 

specimens that could not be identified in the field. To 

avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, morphospecies 

were identified and a single representative voucher 

collected for each. These vouchers, along with the fertile 

vouchers collected during the qualitative surveys, were 

identified at the Limbe Botanic Garden Herbarium. 

Duplicates have been sent for confirmation to family 

specialists in herbaria around the world, and it is likely 

the checklist will continue to be revised as the duplicates 

are examined. Name changes, authorities, and synonymy 

were checked using the Missouri Botanical Garden’s 

Tropicos nomenclature database. 

3.5 Data analysis 

Each assessment site was described based on the species 

“importance value index” (IVI). Hence, species with the 

highest IVI are referred to as the most “important” at that 

site (Comiskey et al. 2001). The IVI is calculated as 

follows: 

Rel. Density = 

Basal Area (BA) = pi (½ dbh) 2 

Relative Basal Area = 

# of individual s of 

BA of 

species 

species 

x 100 

# of individual s of allspecies 

x 100 

BA all species 

Frequency = Number of quadrats in which a species is 

found 

Frequency of a species 

Rel. Frequency = 

x 100 

Frequency of all species 

Cover value index (CVI) = Relative density + Relative 

dominance.


Importance value index (IVI) = CVI + Relative 

frequency 

The most appropriate measures of diversity to use 

for 1-ha plots are the Shannon-Weiner index (H’) and 

Fischer’s index (α), which have been shown to be more 

representative of diversity in larger areas. Shannon’s 

index is a measure of uncertainty, providing the 

probability of picking a dominant species at random: 

∑ 

H © 

= − pi 

ln pi 

where p i is the proportion of individuals of a species 

(Relative density of species/100), and ln is the natural 

logarithm. The maximum value of H’ is the natural 

logarithm of the number of species (ln S). Evenness (E) 

describes the distribution among species, reaching a 

value of 1 when all species have equal numbers of 

individuals. Pielou’s evenness is described by the 

following equation: 

H © 

E = 

ln S 

Fisher’s Index (α) is defined by the following 

equation: 

⎛ N 

S = α ln ⎜1 + 

⎝ α 

⎞ 

⎟ 

⎠ 

where α was calculated using Biodiversity Professional. 

Alpha is particularly useful as it enables accurate 

extrapolation to larger population sizes. 

4 Results 

4.1 General floristics 

The results and discussion in this section are based on 

analysis of the data gathered during the present study. 

These data consist of 14,374 individual plant records 

from TFR that were gathered during the field surveys. In 

summary, these plant records: 

• total 4,628 individual trees ≥ 10cm dbh measured in 

ten BDPs and representing 351 species, 210 genera, 

and 58 families. Cumulatively, the trees have a mean 

dbh of 29 cm and a mean basal area (BA) of 30.8 

m 2 /ha. 

• total 8,885 individuals, representing 442 species, 243 

genera, and 75 families recorded from MWPs; 

• total 861 voucher specimens representing 612 

species, 277 genera, and 91 families. 

In all, the 14,374 individual records represent 953 

species, 504 genera, and 113 families (Appendix 1). 

4.2 Vegetation classification 

The plots were locaed in five main habit types. For 

purposes of this study, these are defined as lowland forest 

(with a number of sub-types), lowland ridge forest, midelevation 

forest, montane forest, and high-altitude 

grassland. Table 2 shows general characteristics of each 

plot. 

4.2.1 Lowland forest 

Lowland forest covers much of the southern half of TFR 

and despite some variation, is somewhat homogenous in 

its structure and composition. A common component of 

the lowland forests is the family Huaceae, represented by 

the extremely gregarious Afrostyrax kamerunensis that 

occurs in great abundance (Figure 2). This species is 

present throughout the forest formations of the entire 

TFR. The Irvingiaceae is well represented in the lowland 

forest and exhibits particularly high levels of diversity. 

Along with Klainedoxa gabonensis and Desbordesia 

glaucescens, the genus Irvingia is represented by I. gabonensis, 

I. wombolu, I. robur, I. Smithii, and I. grandifolia. 

Other large canopy trees include Alstonia congensis, 

Blighia welwitchii, Canarium schweinfurthii, Carapa 

procera, Duboscia macrocarpa, Entandrophragma 

angolense, Lophira alata, Lovoa trichilioides, Ongokea 

gore, Panda oleosa, Parkia bicolor, Parinari exselsa, 

Pentaclethra macrophylla, Pentadesma butyracea, 

Piptandeniastrum africanum, Plagiostylea africanum, 

Pterocarpus soyauxii, Symphonia globulifera, and 

Terminalia invorensis. To a lesser extent, the 

Caesalpiniaceae is also represented in the forest canopy, 

23 



Table 2. Summary of floristic data for plots in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Site Plot # # of 

trees 

with species including Berlinia bracteosa, B. craibiana, 

Afzelia pachyloba, A. bipindensis, Microberlinia bisulcata, 

Erythrophloem ivorense, Gilbertiodendron brachystegioides, 

G. deweveri, Monopetalanthus letestui, M. 

microphyllus, and Brachystegia kennedyi. 

Along with Afrostyrax kamerunensis, the family 

Olacaceae dominates the middle-story of lowland forest 

with Strombosia grandiflora, S. pustulata, S. scheffleri, 

and Strombosiopsis tetandra being particularly abundant. 

The Ebenaceae are also a common component of the 

middle-story, particularly the genus Diospyros 

represented by D. crassiflora, D. preussii, D. sanzaminika, 

D. simulans, D. suaveolens, and D. zenkeri. The 

Celastraceae are also abundant with many species of 

Salacia present. Other abundant species are Angylocalyx 

zenkeri, Annickia chlorantha, Anonidium mannii, 

Polyalthia suaveolens, Calpocalyx dinklagei, 

Corynanthe pachyceras, Cyrtogonone argentea, 

Dacryodes igaganga, Dactyladenia mannii, Dialium 

bipindensis, Discoglypremna caloneura, Garcinia 

mannii, Grewia coriacea, Homalium dolichophyllum, 

Hypnodaphnis zenkeri, Isolona hexaloba, Monodora 

tenuifolia, Pausinystalia macroceras, Plagiostyles 

africana, Polayalthia suaveolens, Protomegabaria 

stapfiana, Scottelia mimfiensis, Sorindeia grandifolia, 

Tabernaemontana crassa, Tapura africana, Treculia 

obovoidea, Usteria guineensis, Xylopia staudtii, and the 

stilt-rooted Santiria trimera and Uapaca guineensis. 


# of 

species 

Shannon©s 

Index (H©) 

Evenness 

(E) 

Common small trees in the understory include 

Antidesma laciniatum var. laciniatum, Baphia 

leptobotrys, B. nitida, Dorstenia tubinata, Lasianthera 

africana, Maesobotrya dusenii, Mareya micrantha, 

Mareyopsis longifolia, Massularia acuminata, Rinorea 

dentate, and Rothmannia lujae. 

Common herbs in the closed-canopy lowland forest 

are Costus englerianus, Dracaena camerooniana, D. 

phrynoides, Dorstenia mannii, D. barteri var. multiradiata, 

Mapania amplivaginata, Renealmia polypus, and 

Scadoxus cinnabarinus. The Commelinaceae is also well 

represented in the herbaceous layer, notably Aneilmia 

beninense, Palisota ambigua, P. barteri, P mannii, P. 

capitata, and Pollia condensata. Groups of the crimson 

rosettes of the parasitic Thonningia sanguinea are often 

seen on the forest floor. 

In the lowland forest, additional vegetation sub-types 

are distinguishable; that is, riverine forest and extensive 

areas of secondary forest. Two plots were established in 

the riverine forest, but only qualitative collections were 

conducted in the secondary forests. 

4.2.1.1 Riverine forest 

Fisher©s 

Index 

Mean dbh 

(cm) 

Total 

BA 

Lowland ridge forest 6 491 103 3.95 0.85 39.7 30.0 34.7 

Lowland ridge forest 7 498 98 3.82 0.83 36.0 32.8 42.1 

Lowland rainforest 10 414 90 3.86 0.86 34.8 29.7 28.7 


Lowland (riverine) rainforest 12 426 93 3.81 0.84 36.1 30.9 32.0 

Lowland (riverine) rainforest 13 477 118 4.03 0.84 50.2 29.3 32.1 



Mid-altitude 8 527 64 3.29 0.79 19.1 24.4 24.6 

Montane/savanna 9 523 74 3.59 0.84 23.5 21.3 18.6 

The extensive drainage pattern of the Takamanda region 

has given rise to large areas of lowland forest heavily 

influenced by seasonal inundation and periodic flooding. 

This forest formation is relatively extensive within the


Figure 2. Structure and composition of lowland forest habitat in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity plots, 

showing relative density and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family. 

(a) 

Afrostyrax kamerunensis 

Strombosiopsis tetrandra 

Strombosia grandifolia 

Treculia obovoidea 

Irvingia gabonensis 

Klainedoxa gabonensis 

Cylicodricus gabunensis 

Tabernaemontana crassa 

Duboscia macrocarpa 

(b) 

Alstonia congensis 

Olacaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

Leg-Mimosoideae 

Huaceae 

Irvingiaceae 

Leg-Caesalpinioideae 

Apocynaceae 

Annonaceae 

Leg-Papilionoideae 

Sterculiaceae 

Relative Density 

Relative BA 

0 2 4 6 8 10 


Relative BA 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 

25 



lowland forest, somewhat distinct in composition from 

the terra firma forest described above, and particularly 

characteristic of the forests along the Magbe and Oyi 

rivers. The vegetation is dominated by Protomegabaria 

stapfiana and Uapaca staudtii with Oubangia alata, 

Aningeria sp. Aubrevillea kerstingii, Cynomentra 

sanagaensis, Diogoa zenkeri, and Belonophora talbotii 

less abundant. Large populations of Pandanus and the 

utilitarian palm Raphia hookeri are common where there 

is seasonal flooding, creating swamp forest. Other 

monocotyledons such as rattan palms as well as members 

of the Marantaceae (especially Aetnidia conferta and 

Sarcophrynium priogonium var. priogonium) and 

Zingiberaceae (Aframomum spp.) are also a common 

component of this formation. 

At the edges of wider rivers such as the Makone, 

Kanahia laniflora (Asclepiadaceae) is commonly seen 

growing in gravel. Along smaller rocky streams, the 

forest is often characterized by a rich herbaceous flora, in 

particular a number of species of Impatiens (I. irvingii, 

and I. namniamensis) and Begonia (B. ciliobracteata and 

B. quadrialata subsp. quadrialata). The highly seasonal 

nature of the Takamanda area also means that variations 

in water levels in many rivers and streams expose 

extensive rocky areas. Common and persistent colonizers 

of these oft-flooded rocks in open areas are Biophytum 

umbraculum and in forest streams Anubias barteri. Both 

are found throughout the lowland forest areas of the TFR. 

4.2.1.2 Secondary forest 

Because agriculture is an important component of 

survival throughout the TFR area, cultivated areas of 

annual crops surround villages in and outside the Reserve 

boundary. Trees are generally removed from cultivated 

land, although the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and 

characteristic Ceiba pentandra are regularly found on 

intensively cropped farmland. Further from villages, 

other cultivated areas are more commonly cleared on a 

rotational basis in extensive formations of farm fallow 

and later secondary forest. Farm fallow contains 

extensive groves of oil palm, many of which are planted 

as annual crops along with early colonizers such as 

Alchornea floribunda, Musanga cecropioides, and 


Anthocleista vogellii and dense thickets of Marantaceae 

(particularly Marantochloa spp. and Thaumatococcus 

danielii) and Zingiberaceae (Aframomum sp.). Climbers 

and scandent shrubs such as Adenia cissampeloides, 

Clerodendrum splendens, C. umbellatum, Heinsia 

crinita, Gloriosa superba, Jateorhiza macrantha, 

Momordica cissoides, Mussaenda tenuifolia, Paullinia 

pinnata, and Smilax anceps are also common in 

secondary forest. 

Land in the area that is not cultivated for up to 20 

years regenerates well and forms dense secondary forest 

formations that grade easily into closed-canopy forest. 

This late-secondary forest is characterized by large trees 

such as Piptadeniastrum africanum, Ricinodendron 

heudelotii subsp. africanum, Vitex grandifolia, 

Pycnanthus angolensis and smaller trees: Leea guineensis, 

Milletia barteri, Myrianthus arboreus, Harungana 

madagascariensis, Barteria fistulosa,Rauvolfia vomitoria, 

Tabernaemontana crassa,and Voacanga bracteata. 

4.2.2 Lowland ridge forest (300-500 m) 

As the altitude increases sharply in the north of TFR, 

long finger-like ridges protrude into the lowland forest. 

Although they contain many elements of lowland forest 

flora, these ridges provide gradation from true lowland 

forest to mid-elevation and montane forest and in some 

areas are quite distinct in their vegetative composition. 

The ridge forest formation is particularly prevalent in the 

Kekpani/Basho hills and to a lesser extent in the higher 

areas to the north of Obonyi I and to the south of Matene 

as the lowland expanse gives way to higher land. 

These long ridges are often characterized by stands 

of even-aged canopy trees (Figure 3), usually Lophira 

alata, Canarium schweinfurthii, Terminalia superba, 

Nauclea diderichii, and Poga oleosa. The 

Caesalpiniaceae is better represented in the ridge forest 

through Berlinia bracteosa, Afzelia bipindensis, 

Microberlinia bisulcata, and Erythrophloem ivorense. 

All of these species are valued as timber, and these ridges 

probably contain the greatest abundance of merchantable 

timber in TFR. The abundance of such large individuals, 

with a correspondingly clear understory, often creates an


Figure 3. Structure and composition of lowland ridge forest habitat in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity 

plots, showing relative density and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family. 

(a) 

Treculia obovoidea 

Desbordesia glaucescens 

Lophira alata 

Carapa procera 

Calpocalyx dinklagei 

Protomegabaria stapfiana 

Berlinia bracteosa 

Tabernaemontana crassa 

Plagiostyles africana 

(b) 

Tapura africana 

Euphorbiaceae 

Leg-Mimosoideae 


Moraceae 


Ochnaceae 

Meliaceae 

Olacaceae 

Leg-Papilionoideae 

Guttiferae 


Relative BA 

0 2 4 6 8 10 


Relative BA 

0 5 10 15 20 

27 



impressive cathedral-like effect. The Myristicaceae is 

represented by large numbers of Scyphocephalium 

mannii and Coelocaryon preussii. Other trees present 

include Allanblackia floribunda, Tapura africana, 

Bielschmiedia obscura, Canthium arnoldianum, 

Chrysophyllum beguei, C. boukokoensis, Zanthoxylum 

heitzii, Aubrevillea kerstingii, Pseudospondias 

microcarpa, Camptostylus mannii, Maranthes glabra, 

Newtonia grandifolia, and Dacryodes klaineana. 

The ridge forests are not only species diverse. Their 

flora is also unique in TFR. In the Kekpani/Basho hills, 

the following species were not recorded elsewhere 

during our surveys: Allophyllus bullatus, Anisophyllea 

polyneura, Anopyxis klaineana, Antrocaryon 

klaineanum, Aulacocalyx talbotii, Camptostylus mannii, 

Chytranthus mortenhanii, Cola anomala, C. verticillata, 

C. semecarpophylla,Dialium pachyphyllum, Diospyros 

cococarpa, D. physocalycina, Drypetes preussii, 

Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, Leonardoxa africana, 

Manniophyton fulvum, Maprounea membranacea, 

Microdesmis zenkeri, Petersianthus africanus, Pterygota 

macrocarpa, Rhabdophyllum affine, Soyauxia 

gabonensis, Strychnos asterantha, Trichilia gilgiana, 

Trilipisium madagascariensis, Uapaca acuminata, 

Uapaca staudtii, and Uvariodendron connivens 

The understory of the ridge forests is relatively open 

with a notable absence of herbs and smaller shrubs. The 

genera Cola and Diospyros dominate this layer, and in 

many areas Cola semecarpophylla form sparse, 

monospecific stands. 

4.2.3 Mid-elevation forest (500-800 m) 

At higher elevations, particularly in the northern part of 

the Reserve, there is a distinct and perceptible shift in the 

forest—from strictly lowland forest to mid-elevation 

and, consequently, montane forest and savannah 

grassland. The characteristic vegetation of mid-elevation 

forest is particularly evident in the dramatic alteration in 

relief from the villages of Matene to Mende, where the 

forest changes from lowland forest (200 m) to midelevation 

forest (700 m) over a relatively small linear 

distance. 


Alower canopy, a denser understory, and an increase 

of epiphytic flora, particularly Pteridophytes and 

Orchidaceae, characterize the mid-elevation forest. The 

tree flora is dominated by of Vitex doniniana and V. 

ferruginea (Figure 4), the latter species occurring only in 

mid-elevation forest. The flora is less diverse than the 

lowland forest, and the main species include Anthonotha 

cladantha, Homalium dolichophyllum, Tabernaemontana 

pachysiphon, Syzygium guineense, Santiria trimera, 

Garcinia smeathmannii, Dactyledenia mannii, 

Allanblackia floribunda, Spondianthus preussii, and 

Xylopia staudtii. Other species characteristic of this 

forest formation and not encountered elsewhere in TFR 

are Aidia micrantha, Bielschmiedia preussii, 

Camptostylus mannii, Casearia barteri, Carpolobia 

lutea, Clausena anisata, Garcinia afzelii, Homalium 

doligophyllum, Hymenocardia acida, Microdesmis 

puberula, Ophiobotrys zenkeri, Oricia trifoliolata, 

Spondianthus sp., Synsepalum msolo, Syzygium 

guineense, and Trichilia heudelotii. 

Not surprisingly, the tree flora of this forest 

formation contains both lowland and montane elements, 

including Strombosia grandifolia, Strombosiopsis 

tetandra, Cola ficifolia, Tabernaemontana pachysiphon, 

Santiria trimera, Allanblackia floribunda, and Garcinia 

smeathmannii, which are generally regarded as lowland 

species, and Vernonia frondosa, Syzygium guineense, 

Olea capensis, Psychotria mannii, and Schefflera 

abyssinica, which are generally found at higher altitudes. 

The middle layer of the mid-altitude forest is 

dominated by Rinorea dentata, Ixora marcrocarpa, 

numerous Salacia sp., Dichranolepis disticha, 

Campylospermum flavum, C. mannii, C. reticulatum, C. 

subcordatum, Dichapetalum heudelotii, Idertia axillaris, 

Massularia acuminata, Ixora nematopoda, and 

Lasianthus batangensis. The tree fern Cyathea manniana 

also occurs at these altitudes, mostly along streams and 

ravines. The herbaceous Acanthaceae are well 

represented (Acanthus montanus, Crossandrella 

dusenii), and many species such as Brachystephanus 

nemoralis, Oreocanthus mannii, and Brilliantasia 

owariensis form dense thickets.


Figure 4. Structure and composition of mid-elevation forest habitat in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity 

plots, showing relative density and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family. 

(a) 

Vitex ferruginea 

Anthonotha cladantha 

Chrysophyllum sp. 

Homalium dolichophyllum 

Syzygium guineense 

Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 

Santiria trimera 

Garcinia smeathmannii 

Drypetes sp. 1 

Tricalysia sp. 

(b) 

Verbenaceae 


Sapotaceae 

Samydaceae 

Myrtaceae 

Apocynaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

Guttiferae 

Burseraceae 


Relative BA 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 


Relative BA 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 

29 



Herbaceous flora of this forest formation is 

particularly diverse and includes Acanthus montanus, 

Aframomum pilosum, Marantochloa leucantha, 

Halopegia azurea, Nephthytis poisonii, Mapania 

amplivaginata, Impatiens kamerunensis var. 

kamerunensis, and Osmunda regalis, with many species 

of Begonia (Begonia capillipes, B. ciliobracteata, B. 

microsperma, B. oxyloba, B. staudtii). 

4.2.4 Montane forest (800-1500 m) 

The montane forest formation is characterized by an 

extremely low and often disjunct canopy, large numbers 

of trees, a low total basal area, and lower species richness 

than lowland and mid-elevation forests. The epiphytic 

flora is also particularly well developed. At their 

altitudinal limit, these forests tend to be restricted to 

valley bottoms and water courses where they form 

distinctive “gallery” forests. 

The dominant woody species in the montane forest 

are Syzygium guineense (Figure 5), Xylopia staudtii, 

Macaranga occidentalis, Santiria trimera, Harungana 

madagascariensis, Bridelia micrantha, Anthonotha 

cladantha, Bridelia grandis, Sapium cornutum, 

Polyscias fulva, and Vernonia conferta. Other species 

seemingly restricted to montane forest include 

Anthocleista vogelii, Barteria nigritiana, Bersama 

abysinica, Blighia unijugata, Calycosiphonia 

macroclamys, Craterosiphum montanum, Dactyladenia 

staudtii, Dracaena arborea, Eugenia spp., Ficus 

thonningii, F. vogeliana, Hannoa klaineana, Homalium 

doligophyllum, Hymenocardia acida, Maranthes glabra, 

Margaritaria discoidea, Olea capensis, Psychotria 

mannii, P. camptopus, Sapium cornutum, Sapium 

ellipticum, Schefflera abyssinica, Sericanthe sp., 

Synsepalum brevipes, Trichilia monodelpha, Vernonia 

conferta, and Xylopia acutiflora. 

The herbaceous layer is dominated by many 

members of the Costaceae (particularly Costus 

lucanusianus) and the Zingiberaceae (Aframomum 

pilosum and A. arundinaceum) as well as Dracaena 

phrynoides. 


4.2.5 High-altitude grassland 

This unique vegetation community forms a small part of 

TFR plant communities and as such does not warrant a 

detailed discussion for purposes of this chapter. 

Significant work has been undertaken on vegetation of 

Obudu Plateau in Nigeria, just across the border, and a 

number of checklists and vegetation descriptions of this 

high-altitude grassland have been published (Tuley 1966, 

Hall and Medler 1975a and b, Medler and Hall 1975, 

Keay 1979, Chapman and Chapman 2001). The 

transition zone between montane forest and grassland is 

comprised of large herbs and woody shrubs such as A. 

arundinaceum, Brilliantasia lamium, and 

Dichaetanthera africana. The bracken Pteridium 

aquilinum subsp. aquilinum is also a common 

component of this transition zone, as is the spectacular 

Lobelia columnaris. 

The grassland is composed of a number of 

gregarious Graminae: Hyparrhenia diplandra, H. 

familiaris, H. rufa, H. bracteata, Andropogon 

auriculatus, Setaria anceps, Monocymbium 

ceeresiiforme, Loudetia camerunensis, Panicum 

hochstetteri, Eragrostis tenuifolia, and E. cameroonensis. 

Colonists include many small herbs and woody shrubs, 

notably Ageratum sp., Aspilia africana, Bartsia petitiana, 

Desmodium repandum, Oldenlandia sp. Cyanotis 

barbata, and Kyllinga. In the small peaty hollows of 

exposed rocks, the tiny insectivorous Utricularia mannii 

is also relatively common. 

5 Discussion 

5.1 Montane Forest Zones 

As has been observed elsewhere (for example, Morton 

1986), Takamanda forests are divided into different 

vegetation types characterized by elevation and degree of 

exposure. The upper reaches of Takamanda Forest 

Reserve give way to grassland at an elevation of 1500 m. 

Though this comprises a low total area of the reserve, it 

is interesting to note the low altitude at which it occurs. 

At Mount Cameroon, the grassland habitat does not start 

until 2000 m (Richards 1963b), a characteristic observed


Figure 5. Structure and composition of montane forest habitat in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, from biodiversity plots, 

showing relative dentity and relative basal area by (a) species, and (b) family. 

(a) 

Syzygium guineense 

Xylopia staudtii 

Santiria trimera 

Symphonia globulifera 

Macaranga occidentalis 

Harungana madagascariensis 

Bridelia micrantha 

Anthonotha cladantha 

Sapium cornutum 

Vepris sp. 

(b) 

Myrtaceae 

Euphorbiaceae 

Guttiferae 

Annonaceae 

Burseraceae 


Compositae 

Sapotaceae 

Rutaceae 

Rubiaceae 


Relative BA 

0 5 10 15 20 


Relative BA 

0 5 10 15 20 25 

31 



Table 3. Comparison of structure and diversity of Takamanda Forest Reserve biodiversity plots with other biodiversity plots in 

Cameroon and Nigeria. 

Plot # 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

# of trees 491 498 527 523 414 428 426 477 406 438 

# of species 103 98 64 74 90 113 93 118 83 91 

Mean dbh (cm) 30.0 32.2 24.4 21.3 29.7 25.4 30.9 29.3 35.6 31.1 

Total BA (m 2 Takamanda 

/ha) 34.7 42.1 24.6 18.6 28.7 21.7 32.0 32.1 40.5 33.2 

Plot # 1 2 3 4 5 

# of trees 397 402 394 525 526 

# of species 74 81 74 71 80 

Mean dbh (cm) 28.8 30.6 26.0 28.5 27.8 

Total BA (m 2 /ha) 30.8 30.0 35.0 33.2 34.0 

elsewhere in West Africa’s montane forests (Morton 

1986). The lower montane forest occurs at higher 

elevations elsewhere in the region than was observed in 

Takamanda. Nevertheless, the proximity of the 

Okwangwo region of Nigeria and the Obudu Plateau 

means that the two areas are similar in relation to 

altitudinal zonation of vegetation types (Hall and Medler 

1975, Keay 1979). 

5.2 Species Richness and Diversity 

The forests of southwestern Cameroon are generally 

known to contain a rich species diversity because of their 

location in an area of high rainfall. It is also believed that 

the area formed a Pleistocene refugium during the last 

glacial advance, becoming isolated and allowing for the 

development of regional endemic species (Lawson 

1996). The forests of Takamanda appear to be even more 

diverse than those of surrounding areas. The number of 

species in the lowland forest plots ranged from 83 to 113 

species/ha, with the riverine plots containing between 93 

and 118 species/ha, and the ridge forests between 98 and 

103 species/ha (Table 3). To the south of Takamanda lies 

the Ejagham Forest Reserve, where richness in 

biodiversity plots reached 80 species/ha. The 50-ha 

Smithsonian forest dynamics plot at Korup averaged 86 

species greater than 10 cm dbh per ha (Songwe et al. in 

press, Thomas et al. 2003). The Nigerian plots had lower 


Campo Ejagham Akampka 

N2 

471 

128 

21.2 

16.8 

Okwangwo 

N3 

467 

82 

26.9 

26.5 

species richness values in the Okwangwo region, while 

the highest species richness of all plots compared to the 

study area was the Akampka site in the Oban region (128 

species/ha). 

TFR’s relatively high levels of diversity are 

undoubtedly due to the intricate mosaic of vegetation 

types and forest formations found along the Reserve’s 

altitudinal gradients. While it is agreed that species 

richness generally decreases with increasing altitude, this 

correlation is not significant at TFR and only becomes 

marked in the transition between the lowland forests 

(including the ridge forest) and the mid-elevation and 

montane forest. Species diversity does show a slight but 

significant decline with altitude (r 2 = 0.436, P = 0.038). 

Likewise, tree density shows a significant increase with 

elevation (r 2 = 0.618, P = 0.07; Figure 6). These trends 

are in line with what has been observed at other sites. 

5.3 Vegetation Similarities 

Based on Sorensen’s coefficient, TFR’s montane and 

mid-altitude vegetation share more species than 

montane/lowland and lowland/mid-altitude vegetation. 

Comparable results were obtained from Jaccard’s 

coefficient of similarity. The shared taxa might be due to 

continuous vegetation belts that these habitats share. 

Interestingly, despite the unique composition of TFR


Table 4. Similarity of Takamanda plots to other plots in 

Cameroon. 

habitats, some taxa were recorded at every assessment 

site, ranging from lowland forest to montane forest. 

These include Protomegabaria stapfiana, Santiria 

tremira, Hypnodaphnis zenkeri, Xylopia staudtii, 

Tabernaemontana crassa, Strombosia grandifolia, 

Strombosia pustulata, Strombosiopsis tetandra, and 

Treculia oboviodea. 

5.4 Floristic Affinities 

The Reserve encompasses a unique region that includes 

the full altitudinal vegetation range found in this part of 

Cameroon. From our surveys, it is clear that vegetation of 

the area is somewhat distinctive and concurs with studies 

from the Nigerian side of the border (Hall and Medler 

1975, Keay 1979). As evidence of this uniqueness, the 

Number of trees per hectare 

Takamanda/ 

Campo 


/ Ejagham 

Campo / 

Ejagham 

560 

540 

520 

500 

480 

460 

440 

420 

400 

Sorensen©s 

Coefficient 

Jaccard©s 

Coefficient 

0.277 0.161 

0.308 0.182 

0.491 0.325 

380 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 

Altitude (m) 

r2 = 0.618 

Figure 6. Relationship between altitude and tree density in 

the biodiversity plots of Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Camerooon. 

Caesalpinaceae are relatively poorly represented in TFR 

lowland forests, unlike the Ejagham and Korup forests to 

the south and the majority of forested areas in Southwest 

Province. Rather, TFR lowland forests possess a far 

richer tree flora than these other forests. Indeed, diversity 

decreases significantly as one moves from Takamanda 

(H′=4.61) to Ejagham (H′=3.69). 

This uniqueness is also evident when floristic 

similarities and evenness at TFR are compared to the 

Ejagham forest, also in the Southwest Province, and the 

Campo region in southern Cameroon. It came as a 

surprise that the geographically disjunct 

Campo/Ejagham shared more species than 

Takamanda/Ejagham and Takamanda/Campo (Table 4). 

For the montane forest and high-altitude grassland, 

however, the floristic affinities are more complex, 

resulting from climatic change and phytogeographical 

variance. Hall (1981) suggests that the montane forest 

flora of the Obudu area represents “an impoverished 

variant of the flora of the lowland forest of the Oban 

hills,” a known Pleistocene refuge, with the addition of 

an Afromontane element. The presence (if not 

dominance) of many lowland species in TFR montane 

forest, along with Afromontane taxa, supports this 

hypothesis and suggests that: 

• The “montane” forest is influenced by 

anthropogenic interventions such as burning of highaltitude 

grassland that is reducing its altitudinal 

extent and ability to regenerate; hence, the tree line is 

gradually reducing. This accounts for the significant 

numbers of lowland forest species in this forest 

formation. 

• At lower altitudes (


5.5 Economic Potential and Forest 

Exploitation 

A number of studies undertaken concurrently with this 

vegetation assessment present information with regard to 

the economic importance of TFR flora (for example, 

Zapfack 2001, Sunderland et al. this volume). These 

studies show clear evidence that lowland forests in the 

area provide the greatest economic benefit to villagers in 

and around TFR because of their value as a repository of 

timber and non-timber species. Hence, there is far less 

emphasis on exploitation of mid-elevation and montane 

forests for their plants (see also Schmidt-Soltau 2001). 

However, knowledge of the density, abundance, and 

spatial distribution for many of these taxa is, at best, 

patchy. 

The picture with regard to timber is still far from 

complete. Not surprisingly, this study found that midelevation 

and montane forest formations contain few 

individual species of timber value. In contrast, the 

relatively unexploited lowland forests are relatively well 

stocked with timber species, but by far the most valuable 

areas for timber potential are the lowland ridge forests 

that contain large numbers of highly merchantable timber 

species. The inaccessibility of these forests, particularly 

those in the Kekpani/Basho hills, suggest that these 

“timber reservoirs” may remain untouched in the 

foreseeable future. Of greater concern are the more 

accessible forest areas, particularly those along navigable 

waterways where timber exploitation is already under 

way in the immediate vicinity of TFR and possibly 

within the Reserve’s boundaries (particularly in the forest 

areas around Takamanda village). It should be a 

management priority to delineate clear guidelines for the 

timber resource as was recently done for non-timber 

forest products. 

5.6 Species of Conservation Priority 

Due to their restricted range, biological uniqueness, or 

over-exploitation, a number of TFR taxa have been 

identified for varying degrees of conservation priority 

(Table 5 and Appendix 2). Of particular note is the 

presence of many timber species that have become 


endangered elsewhere through exploitation. As discussed 

above, the inaccessibility of many areas in TFR has 

precluded attempts at logging, and currently the stocking 

of merchantable timber species throughout the area 

remains high. Furthermore, many taxa recorded below as 

possessing conservation value have restricted ranges, and 

their presence in TFR supports the observation that the 

levels of endemism recorded in the Cameroon highlands 

are represented at TFR. 

Although the majority of the taxa of conservation 

value and importance occur mostly in the intricate 

mosaic of lowland and ridge forest formations, the 

ecological fragility and anthropogenic pressure on the 

montane forest and high-altitude grassland suggest these 

ecotypes are of considerable conservation value. In this 

latter ecosystem, the presence of many species more 

commonly associated with the East African highlands 

(see Hedberg 1964) make this entire region of particular 

floristic interest. 

In summary, the main taxa of conservation 

importance within the TFR include: 

Afzelia africana. Vulnerable. Although a 

widespread species of drier forest, it has declined 

significantly through over-exploitation for timber to 

supply international markets. In TFR, it is found in 

lowland forests around Obonyi I. 

Afzelia pachyloba. Vulnerable. A rainforest species 

that is heavily exploited for its commercial timber value, 

Afzelia pachyloba is found in TFR lowland forest around 

Takamanda and Obonyi I and in the Kekpani/Basho hills. 

Ancistrocladus letestui. Vulnerable. This extremely 

rare forest climber is restricted to the forests of Cameroon 

and Gabon. The two records (Kekpani/Basho hills and 

Mende hill) from TFR are significant. 

Anopyxis klaineana. Vulnerable. This monotypic 

genus has notably poor regeneration. In TFR, it was 

recorded only from the Basho hills.


Antrocaryon micraster. Vulnerable. Scattered 

throughout semi-deciduous forests in tropical Africa, this 

emergent species is heavily exploited for its timber value. 

The species regenerates well in canopy gaps, and its fruit 

is an important food source for mammals (it is found 

commonly in gorilla dung in TFR). It is still present in 

significant numbers in TFR lowland forest. 

Brachystegia kennedyi. Vulnerable. Restricted to 

southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon, this 

species is a tall, straight timber tree with reputed local 

cultural importance. The species is in some decline due 

to land conversion in Nigeria and exploitation for its 

timber value. The largest and most stable population 

occurs in Cross River National Park in Nigeria, which 

makes those populations in TFR of particular value. We 

recorded it only from the Mboh-Matene area. 

Commelina cameroonensis. Gold star rated. A herb 

of the forest/savannah interface restricted to the uplands 

of Cameroon, Bioko, and southeastern Nigeria, 

Commelina cameroonensis is threatened by annual 

burning of grassland. 

Dacryodes iganganga. Vulnerable. This species of 

limited distribution (Cameroon and Gabon) has been 

logged in large numbers for timber. Habitat destruction is 

also affecting its regeneration. However, this species is 

relatively abundant in the lowland forest formations of 

TFR. 

Diospyros crassiflora. Endangered. This species, 

restricted to the Guineo-Congolian forest, has been 

virtually eradicated throughout much of its range for 

ebony wood. It is present only in remote areas such as 

TFR, where it is present in the Magbe and Takamanda 

areas of the Reserve. 

Drypetes preussii. Vulnerable. A rare species 

confined to forest patches in southeastern Nigeria and 

southwestern Cameroon (notably Cross River and Korup 

national parks), Drypetes preussii was recorded in TFR 

lowland forest formations. 

Eremospatha tessmanniana. Vulnerable. This 

extremely rare species of rattan palm is known from only 

three localities—Ebolowa in southern Cameroon, 

Ebebiyin in Equatorial Guinea, and the Basho hills of 

TFR. 

Eremospatha quinquecostulata. Vulnerable. An 

uncommon species of rattan palm restricted to the closed 

canopy forests of southeastern Nigeria and southwestern 

Cameroon, this tree is relatively abundant throughout 

TFR. 

Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum. Endangered. 

Endemic to the Guineo-Congolian forests of Central 

Africa, this species is declining rapidly becuase of heavy 

exploitation and habitat loss. It occurs only in 

undisturbed forest and was encountered only in the 

Mboh-Matene area of TFR. 

Microberlinia bisulcata. Critically endangered. 

This species is restricted to the coastal forests of 

Cameroon extending to the Oban hills in southeastern 

Nigeria. Large-scale habitat decline and exploitation for 

timber have caused a significant population decline. 

Within TFR, it was recorded only from farmbush in the 

vicinity of Takamanda village. 

Oricia trifoliolata. Vulnerable. A small forest tree 

previously recorded only from Korup National Park and 

the forests around Mount Cameroon, Oricia trifoliolata 

was recorded from the Basho hills in TFR. 

Palisota lagopus. Gold star rated. A rare species of 

Commelinaceae, known from very few collections and 

restricted to Cameroon, Palisota lagopus was collected 

alongside the Magbe River in TFR. 

5.7 Current Threats to Vegetation 

In general, TFR vegetation is subject to relatively little 

disturbance. The lack of significant encroachment greatly 

enhances the potential for management and conservation 

efforts within the area. However, current activities by 

villagers in and outside the Reserve pose a long-term 

threat to TFR’s biological integrity as summarized below. 

35 



Table 5. Summary of taxa of conservation priority in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Family Species Conservation status 

ACANTHACEAE Pseuderanthemum tunicatum Endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

ANACARDIACEAE Antrocaryon micraster Vulnerable (Oldfield et al., 1998) 

ANCISTROCLADACEAE Ancistrocladus letestui Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

ANNONACEAE Uvariodendron connivens Lower risk, but conservation dependent (Oldfield et 

al. 1998) 

BORAGINACEAE Cordia platythyrsa Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

BURSERACEAE Dacryodes igaganga Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

CAESALPINIACEAE Afzelia africana Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

A. bipindensis Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

A. pachyloba Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

Brachystegia kennedyi Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

Dialium bipindensis Lower risk, near threatened (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum Endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

Microberlinia bisulcata Critically endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

CELASTRACEAE Salacia volubilis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek, 1998) 

COMBRETACEAE Terminalia ivorensis Vulnerable (Oldfield et al., 1998) 

COMMELINACEAE Commelina camerunensis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek, 1998) 

Palisota lagopus Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

COMPOSITAE Crassocephalum boughyanum Black star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

EBENACEAE Diospyros crassiflora Endangered (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes preussii Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

Uapaca vanhouttei Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

GUTTIFERAE Garcinia kola Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998) 

LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia mannii Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

MELIACEAE Entandrophragma angolense Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998) 

Guarea cedrata Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

G. thomsonii Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998) 

Lovoa trichilioides Vulnerable (Oldfield et al, 1998) 

MENISPERMACEAE Penianthus camerunensis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

OCHNACEAE Campylospermum mannii Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

C. subcordatum Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

Lophira alata Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

PALMAE Eremospatha quinquecostulata Vulnerable (Sunderland 2001) 

E. tessmanniana Vulnerable (Sunderland 2001) 

Oncocalamus tuleyi Vulnerable (Sunderland 2001) 

RHIZOPHORACEAE Anopyxis klaineana Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

RUBIACEAE Nauclea diderichii Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998); scarlet star rated 

(Cable and Cheek 1998) 

Pavetta longibracteata Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

P. owariensis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

Petiticodon parviflorum Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

Psychotria biferia var. biferia Black Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

P. camptopus Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

Tarenna lasiorachis Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

RUTACEAE Oricia trifoliolata Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

STERCULIACEAE Cola flaviflora Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 

C. semecarpophylla Lower risk, but conservation dependent (Oldfield et 

al. 1998) 

Pterygota macrocarpa Vulnerable (Oldfield et al. 1998) 

THYMELIACECEAE Dicranolepis glandulosa Gold Star rated (Cable and Cheek 1998) 



• Agricultural encroachment in TFR has affected 

patches of forest vegetation, some of which are 

extensive, particularly in the lowland forest 

formation that contains the greatest floristic 

diversity. 

• Uncontrolled and destructive harvesting of nontimber 

forest products is having a deleterious effect 

on the populations of certain high-value plants 

(particularly Carpolobia spp. and Massularia 

acuminata). This exploitation will undoubtedly 

increase as access is “improved” through current 

road-building plans. 

• Although very little timber exploitation has occurred 

within TFR, intensive logging activities undertaken 

in places such as the Kekukusem-Takamanda area 

suggest this might not be the case for much longer. 

• Intensive hunting is having an as-yet unquantified 

effect on the remaining flora of the area. Elimination 

of the faunal agents of pollination and seed dispersal 

will affect the regeneration potential of many plant 

species over the long term. 

• Annual burning of high-altitude grassland by 

nomadic cattle herders to provide fresh grazing land 

is having a negative impact on the remaining areas of 

montane forest. The fires often spread into the forest, 

seriously affecting regeneration and thereby causing 

the forest to shrink and the tree line to recede. 

Burning is also destroying the transition zone—often 

the habitat of many unique plant species—between 

forest and grassland to the extent that there is little, if 

any, transition zone. The forest abruptly ends, and 

grassland begins. 

6 Conclusion and Recommendations 

for Conservation 

Broadly speaking, TFR forest formations are species rich 

and diverse, qualities that are enhanced by the confluence 

of several habitat types in the area. The Reserve is special 

in that it represents a sharp gradation from lowland forest 

to sub-montane (highland) forest with intact associated 

floristic variations. These forests are home to a wide 

range of other biological taxa that also exhibit remarkable 

diversity. 

The unique biological and socio-economic nature of 

the region makes implementation of applied 

conservation and sustainable management strategies a 

priority. Establishment of a focused, long-term 

monitoring and research program will determine the 

efficacy of such efforts (Comiskey and Dallmeier this 

volume). 

Based on the findings of this report, key 

recommendations for the conservation and management 

of TFR are: 

• In relation to floristic conservation priority, our 

surveys indicate that all areas are of equal 

importance. While lowland forest formations, 

notably the ridge forest, contain the greatest levels of 

diversity, the occurrence of taxa of greater 

conservation need lie at higher altitudes. In short, the 

presence of an intricate mosaic of forest types within 

each vegetation classification provides a patchwork 

of highly diverse, yet unique, habitats within the 

entire TFR area. In addition, there are few protected 

areas remaining in Cameroon that exhibit the full 

range of vegetation gradients from lowland forests to 

high-altitude grassland. Therefore, TFR is of 

extreme national and international conservation 

interest. The implication of these findings is that 

conservation and management efforts should focus 

on the vegetation of TFR in its entirety. 

• To “measure” the efficacy of conservation and 

management initiatives within TFR, it is imperative 

to monitor over time any changes in vegetation and 

floristic composition. Such a vegetation assessment 

provides a baseline from which the monitoring 

program can be further developed. The 10 BDPs 

should be reassessed in 2004 and at subsequent fiveyear 

intervals. These guidelines should form the 

basis of a long-term strategy for vegetation 

monitoring. It is important to develop the 

37 



monitoring program in close collaboration with 

MINEF. 

• To provide a macro-level assessment of vegetation 

changes over time, monitoring should incorporate 

the periodic examination of satellite images (every 

three to five years). This monitoring effort, 

additional to that undertaken at the field level, will 

help determine changes in land cover (both natural 

and anthropomorphic) over time and will enable the 

evaluation over the long term of the effectiveness of 

future management interventions. 

• Existing agricultural encroachment into TFR 

should be controlled through enforced respect of 

the demarcated Reserve boundaries. Agricultural 

encroachment is a particular problem around the 

communities of Takamanda, Obonyi, Mfakwe, and 

Matene. Residents of these communities should be 

made fully aware of the location of the boundaries 

and encouraged to respect them. 

• Current uncontrolled exploitation of species used 

for non-timber forest products must be addressed 

immediately. Recommendations in the recent GTZcommissioned 

study conducted by Sunderland et al. 

(this volume) provide relevant guidelines. 

• There is an urgent need to assess stocking of the 

timber resource in and around TFR and provide 

institutional, technical, and logistical support to 

ensure that exploitation is undertaken in as 

sustainable a manner as possible. Immediate 

management interventions should include: (a) a 

community-based inventory of the existing and 

potential (through regeneration studies) timber 

resources of the lowland forest areas; (b) a review of 

the institutional issues surrounding timber 

exploitation, particularly aimed at encouraging local 

communities to control exploitation of timber by 

outsiders; and (c) the provision of guidelines (and 

perhaps technical support) to allow small-scale 

exploitation of timber—based on sound ecological 

and social considerations—by villagers in and 

around TFR for direct marketing and sale. 


• Burning of high-altitude grassland needs to be 

assessed and reviewed. A pilot study on the Obudu 

Plateau by the non-governmental organization 

Development in Nigeria (DIN) has shown that 

grassland protected from burning exhibits greater 

species diversity through maintenance of the forestto-savannah 

transition zone. Reductions in burning 

also enable the fragile montane forest to regenerate 

and maintain itself. 

• When compared to other highly diverse areas in 

Cameroon, TFR vegetation is considerably underrepresented 

in “indicator groups;” that is, specialist 

taxa such as orchids, ferns, and fern allies and some 

key families of higher plants (for example, Violaceae 

and Lauraceae). Additional field-based research is 

urgently needed to further evaluating vegetation 

diversity and species richness. The focus of future 

activities should be on the continued collection of 

fertile voucher specimens. Hiring local 

parataxonomists proved extremely useful in 

garnering specimens, while also providing gainful 

employment for villagers. Identification of 

herbarium specimens and additional floristic 

analysis could be undertaken in collaboration with 

either the National Herbarium in Yaounde or the 

herbarium at Limbe Botanic Garden. 


Special thanks are extended to Nkeng Philip, Anacletus 

Koufani, and Maurice Elad for their technical expertise in 

the field and to all the community-based 

parataxonomists, whose work was particularly valuable 

in preparation of this chapter. Much gratitude is 

expressed to the Chiefs, Council Members, and villagers 

who provided considerable logistical support during the 

field surveys. The authors also appreciate Marina 

Mdaihli, Julius Ayeni, Jacqui Groves, and Dan Slayback 

for their comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. 

Additional financial and logistical resources were 

provided by GTZ/MINEF Project for the Protection of 

forests around Akwaya (PROFA). This support enabled 

an increased sampling intensity than would otherwise 

have been possible. Thanks to Dan Slayback for the


preparation of the maps including the vegetation 

classification and land use change maps in the photo 

gallery. 

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Tropical Forest Science of the Smithsonian 

Tropical Research Institute and Bioresources 

Development and Conservation Programme- 

Cameroon, Washington, D.C. 

Tuley, P. 1966. The Obudu Plateau: utilisation of a 

high altitude tropical grassland. Bulletin de 

l’IFAN 28(3): 899-911. 


UNESCO. 

World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). 

1994. Cameroon: Conservation Status Listing of 

Plants. Report compiled from the WCMC Plants 

Database. Cambridge, UK: WCMC. 

Zapfack, L. 2001. Ethnobotanical Survey of the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve. Unpublished report 

for PROFA/MINEF. 

41 



Appendix 1. Plant species recorded in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

DICOTYLEDONS 

Acanthaceae 

Acanthus montanus (Nees) T. Anders. 

Anisotis sp. 

Asystasia sp. 

Brachystephanus nemoralis S. Moore 

Brillantaisia lamium (Nees) Benth. 

Brillantaisia owariensis P. Beauv. 

Brillantaisia vogeliana (Nees) Benth. 

Brillantaisia sp. 1 

Brillantaisia sp. 2 

Crossandra guineensis Nees. 

Crossandrella dusenii (Lindau) S. Moore 

Dicliptera verticillata (Forsk) C. Christus 

Dischistocalyx grandifolius C.B. Cl. 

Eremomastax speciosa (Hochst.) Cufod. 

Hypoestes arisata (Vahl) Soland. ex Roem. & Schult. 

Justicia extensa T. Anderson 

Justicia sp. 

Lankesteria brevior C.B. Cl. 

Phaulopsis ciliata (Willd.) Hepper 

Pseuderanthemum tunicatum (Afzel) M.-Redh. 

Stenandrium guineense (Nees) Vollesen 

Thomandersia hensii De Wild. & Th. Dur. 

Alangiaceae 

Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms 

Amaranthaceae 

Cyathula prostrata Blume 

Anacardiaceae 

Antrocaryon klaineanum Pierre 

Antrocaryon micraster A. Chev. & Guill. 

Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl. 

Pseudospondias sp. 

Sorindeia grandifolia Engl. 

Sorindeia sp. 1 

Sorindeia sp. 2 

Trichoscypha acuminata Engl. 

Trichoscypha arborea (A. Chev.) A. Chev. 

Trichoscypha sp. 

Ancistrocladaceae 

Ancistrocladus letestui Pellegrin 

Anisophylleaceae 

Anisophyllea polyneura Floret 

Anisophyllea sp. 

Poga oleosa Pierre 

Annonaceae 

Annickia chlorantha (Oliv.) Setten & Maas 

Annickia sp. 

Annona sp. 

Anonidium mannii (Oliv.) Engl. & Diels 


Artobotrys sp. 

Cleistopholis patens (Benth.) Engl. & Diels 

Friesodielsa sp. 

Hexalobus crispiflorus A. Rich. 

Isolona hexaloba (Pierre) Engl. & Diels. 

Monodora sp. 

Monodora tenuifolia Benth. 

Polyalthia sauveolens Engl. & Diels 

Popowia sp. 

Uvaria sp 

Uvariodendron connivens (Benth.) R.E. Fries 

Uvariodendron molundense R.E. Fries 

Uvariodendron sp. 1 

Uvariodendron sp. 2 

Ghesq. 

Uvaropsis sp. 

Xylopia acutiflora (Dunal) A. Rich. 

Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal.) A. Rich 

Xylopia hypolampra Mildbr. 

Xylopia parviflora (A. Rich.) Benth. 

Xylopia quintasii Engl. & Diels. 

Xylopia staudtii Engl. & Diels. 

Xylopia sp. 

Apocynaceae 

Alstonia boonei De Wild. 

Alstonia congensis Engl. 

Baissea multiflora A.DC. 

Baissea sp 

Funtumia elastica (Preuss) Stapf 

Funtumia sp. 

Hunteria umbellata (K. Schum.) Hallier f. 

Landolphia robustior (K.Schum.) Persoon 

Landolphia sp. 1 

Landolphia sp. 2 

Picralima nitida (Stapf.) Th. Dur. 

Picralima sp. 1 

Picralima sp. 2 

Pleiocarpa mutica Benth. 

Pleiocarpa rostrata Benth. 

Pleiocarpa sp. 

Rauvolfia caffra Sond. 

Rauvolfia mannii Stapf 

Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel. 

Strophanthus hispidus DC. 

Strophanthus sp. 

Tabernaemontana pendulifolia K.Schum. 

Tabernaemontana crassa Benth. 

Tabernaemontana eglandulosa Stapf 

Tabernaemontana grandulosa (Stapf) Pichon 

Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf 

Voacanga africana Stapf


Voacanga bracteata Stapf 

Voacanga psilocalyx Pierre ex Stapf 

Voacanga sp. 1 

Voacanga sp. 2 

Araliaceae 

Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms 

Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst.) Harms 

Aristolochiaceae 

Pararistolochia promissa (Mast.) Keay 

Pararistolochia sp. 

Ascelpiadaceae 

Kanahia laniflora (Forsk.) R. Br. 

Gongronema latifolium Benth. 

Mondia sp. 

Balanophoraceae 

Thonningia sanguinea Vahl 

Balsaminaceae 

Impatiens irvingii Hook.f. 

Impatiens kamerunensis var. kamerunensis Warb. 

Impatiens niamnamensis Gilg 

Begoniaceae 

Begonia capillipes Gilg 

Begonia ciliobracteata Warb. 

Begonia microsperma Warb. 

Begonia oxyloba Welw. ex Hook.f 

Begonia quadrialata subsp. quadrialata Warb. 

Begonia staudtii Gilg 

Begonia sp. 1 

Bignoniaceae 

Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau 

Bombacaceae 

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. 

Boraginaceae 

Cordia platythyrsa Baker 

Burseraceae 

Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. 

Dacryodes edulis (G. Don.) H.J. Lam. 

Dacryodes igaganga Aubr. & Pellegr. 

Dacryodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J. Lam. 

Santiria trimera Oliv. 

Cecropiaceae 

Musanga cecropioides R. Br. 

Myrianthus arboreus P. Beauv. 

Myrianthus preussii Engl. 

Celastraceae 

Salacia alata De. Wild. 

Salacia erecta (G.Don) Walp. 

Salacia lehmbachii Loes. 

Salacia loloensis Loes. 

Salacia loloensis Loes. 

Salacia pyriformoides Loes. 

Salacia staudtiana Halle 

Salacia talbotii Bak.f. 

Salacia volubilis Loes. & Winkl. 

Salacia sp. 1 

Salacia sp. 2 

Salacia sp. 3 

Salacia sp. 4 

Salacia sp. 5 

Salacighia letestuana (Pellegr.) Blakelock 

Chrysobalanaceae 

Dactyladenia lujae (De Wild.) Prance & F. White 

Dactyladenia mannii (Oliv.) Prance & F.White 

Dactyladenia staudtii (Engl.) Prance & F.White 

Dactyladenia sp. 1 

Dactyladenia sp. 2 

Maranthes glabra (Oliv.) Prance 

Maranthes sp. 1 

Maranthes sp. 2 Blume 

Parinari excelsa Sabine 

Parinari glabra Oliv. 

Parinari sp. 

Combretaceae 

Combretum bracteatum (Laws.) Engl. & Diels 

Combretum cuspidatum Planch ex Benth 

Combretum hispidum Laws. 

Combretum latialatum Engl. Ex Engl. & Diels 

Combretum orophilum Liben 

Combretum sp. 1 



Pteleopsis hylodendron Mildbr. 

Strephonema mannii Hook.f. 

Strephonema sp. 

Terminalia ivorensis A.Chev. 

Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels 

Compositae 

Ageratum conyzoides L. 

Ageratum sp. 

Aspilia africana (Pers.) C.D. Adams 

Cassinia sp. 

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. 

Crassocephalum bougheyanum C.D. Adams 

Gutenbergis nigritiana Sch. Bip. 

Spilanthes uliginosa Sw. 

Syndrella nodiflora Gaertn. 

Vernonia amygdalina Delile 

Vernonia biafrae Oliv. & Hearn 

Vernonia conferta Benth. 

Vernonia frondosa Oliv. & Hiern 

Connaraceae 

Agelaea obliqua (P. Beauv.) Baill. 

43


Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill. 

Agelaea sp. 1 

Agelaea sp. 2 

Cnestis aurantica Gilg. 

Cnestis ferruginea DC. 

Cnestis macrophylla Gilg. ex. Schellenb. 

Cnestis tomentosa Hepper 

Cnestis sp. 1 

Cnestis sp. 2 

Cnestis sp. 3 

Connarus sp. 

Jollydora duparquetiana (Baill.) Pierre 

Convulvulaceae 

Neuropeltis acuminata (P. Beauv.) Benth. 

Cucurbitaceae 

Momordica cissoides Planch ex Benth. 

Momordica sp. 

Dichapetalaceae 

Dichapetalum choristilum Engl. 

Dichapetalum heudelotii (Planch ex Oliv.) Baill. 

Dichapetalum insigne Engl. 

Dichapetalum madagascariense Poir 

Dichapetalum pallidum (Oliv.) Engl. 

Dichapetalum rudatisii Engl. 

Dichapetalum tomentosum Engl. 

Dichapetalum sp. 1 





Tapura africana Oliv. 

Dilleniaceae 

Tetracera alnifolia Willd. 

Ebenaceae 

Diospyros conocarpa Gurke & K. Schum. 

Diospyros crassiflora Hiern. 

Diospyros hoyleana subsp. hoyleana F. White 

Diospyros iturensis (Gurke) Letouzey & F. white 

Diospyros monbuttensis Gurke 

Diospyros physocalycina Gurke 

Diospyros preussii Gurke 

Diospyros sanza-minika A. Chev. 

Diospyros simulans F. White 

Diospyros suaveolens Gurke 

Diospyros zenkeri (Gurke) F. White 

Diospyros sp. 

Erythroxyllaceae 

Erythroxylum mannii Oliv. 

Euphorbiaceae 

Alchornea floribunda Mull. Arg. 

Alchornea hirtella Benth. 


Antidesma laciniatum var laciniatum Mull. Arg. 

Antidesma membranaceum Mull. Arg. 

Antidesma venosum Mull. Arg. 

Antidesma vogelianum Mull. Arg. 

Antidesma sp. 

Bridelia grandis Pierre 

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. 

Bridelia sp. 

Crotonogyne preussii Pax. 

Crotonogyne sp. 

Cyrtogonone argentea (Pax) Prain 

Dichostemma glaucescens Pierre 

Discoclaoxylon hexandrum (Mull. Arg.) Pax & K. 

Hoffm. 

Discoglypremna caloneura (Pax) Prain 

Drypetes gossweileri S. Moore 

Drypetes leonensis Pax 

Drypetes molunduana Pax & K. Hoffm. 

Drypetes preussii (Pax) Hutch. 





Erythrococca anomala (Juss. ex Poir) Prain 

Grossera major Pax 

Hymenocardia acida Tul. 

Hymenocardia heudelotii Mull. Arg. 

Hymenocardia lyrata Tul. 

Leptopus sp. Sprague & Hutch. 

Macaranga barteri Mull. Arg. 

Macaranga hurifolia Beille 

Macaranga monandra Mull. Arg. 

Macaranga occidentalis (Mull. Arg.) Mull. Arg 

Macaranga spinosa Mull. Arg. 

Macaranga sp. 1 

Macaranga sp. 2 

Maesobotrya dusenii (Pax) Hutch. 

Maesobotrya staudtii (Pax) Hutch. 

Maesobotrya sp. 

Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Mull. Arg. 

Manniophyton fulvum Mull. Arg. 

Maprounea membranacea Pax & K. Hoffm. 

Mareya micrantha Mull. Arg. 

Mareya sp. 

Mareyopsis longifolia (Pax) Pax & K. Hoffm. 

Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) Webster 

Phyllanthus discoides Mull. Arg 

Phyllanthus mannianus Mull. Arg. 

Plagiostyles africana (Mull. Arg.) Prain 

Protomegabaria stapfiana 

Protomegabaria sp. (Beille) Hutch.


Pycnocoma cornuta Mull. Arg. 

Pycnocoma macrophylla Benth. 

Sapium cornutum Pax 

Sapium ellipticum (Hochst.) Pax 

Sapium guineensis (Kuntze) Benth. 

Sapium sp. 

Spondianthus preussii Engl. 

Spondianthus sp. 

Tetracarpidium conophorum (Mull. Arg.) Hutch. & Dalz. 

Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Baill.) Pax & K. Hoffm. 

Thecacoris batesii Hutch. 

Thecacoris leptobotyra (Mull. Arg.) Brenan 

Thecacoris stenopetala (Mull. Arg.) Mull. Arg. 

Thecacoris sp. 

Tragia sp. 

Uapaca acuminata (Hutch.) Pax & K.Hoffm. 

Uapaca guineensis Mull. Arg. 

Uapaca paludosa Aubr. & Landri 

Uapaca staudtii Pax 

Uapaca vanhouttei De Wild. 

Flacourticaceae 

Caloncoba glauca (P. Beauv.) Gilg 

Caloncoba sp. 

Camptostylus mannii (Oliv.) Gilg 

Casearia barteri Mast. 

Casearia sp. 

Homalium letestui Pellegr. 

Homalium sp. 

Lindackeria dentata (Oliv.) Gilg. 

Ophiobotrys zenkeri Gilg 

Scottellia coriacea Chev. 

Scottellia klaineana Pierre 

Scottellia mimfiensis Gilg. 

Scottellia sp. 

Guttiferae 

Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. 

Allanblackia sp. 

Garcinia afzeli Engl. 

Garcinia gnetoides Hutch. & Dalziel 

Garcinia kola Heckel 

Garcinia mannii Oliv. 

Garcinia punctata Oliv. 

Garcinia smeathmannii (Planch. & Triana) Oliv. 

Garcinia sp. 1 

Garcinia sp. 2 

Harungana madagascariensis Lam ex Poir 

Mammea africana Sabine 

Pentadesma butyracea Sabine 

Pentadesma grandifolia Bak.f. 

Symphonia globulifera L. 

Huaceae 

Afrostyrax kamerunensis Perkins & Gilg. 

Hypericaceae 

Endodesmia calpophylloides Benth. 

Endodesmia sp. 

Icacinaceae 

Alsodeiopsis mannii Oliv. 

Alsodeiopsis poggei var. robynsii Boutique 

Alsodeiopsis weissenborniana J. Braun & K. Schum 

Chlamydocarya thomsoniana Baill. 

Chlamydocarya sp. 

Lasianthera africana P. Beauv. 

Lavigeria macrocarpa (Oliv.) Pierre 

Lavigeria sp. 


Desbordesia glaucescens Tiegh 

Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O' Rorke) Baill. 

Irvingia grandifolia (Engl.) Engl. 

Irvingia robur Mildbr. 

Irvingia smithii Hook.f. 

Klainedoxa gabonensis Pierre 

Ixonanthaceae 

Ochthocosmus calothyrsus (Mildbr.) Hutch. & Dalz. 

Ochthocosmus sessiflorus (Oliv.) Baill. 

Labiatae 

Ocimum gratissimum L. 

Ocimum sp. 

Platostoma africanum P. Beauv. 

Plectranthus decurrens (Gurke) J.K. Morton 

Solenostemon mannii (Hook.f.) Baker 

Lauraceae 

Beilschmiedia annacardioides (Engl. & K. Krauss) Robyns 

& Wilczek 

Beilschmiedia obscura Engl. 

Beilschmiedia preussi Engl. 

Beilschmiedia sp. 

Hypodaphnis zenkeri (Engl.) Stapf. 

Lecythidaceae 

Napoleonaea talbotii Bak.f. 

Napoleonaea sp. 

Petersianthus africanus (Welw. ex Benth. & Hook.f) Merr 

Petersianthus macrocarpus (P. Beauv.) Liben 

Leeaceae 

Leea guineensis G. Don 

Leguminosae 

Abrus precatorius L. 

Afzelia africana Sm. 

Afzelia bipindensis Harms 

45 



Afzelia pachyloba Harms 

Albizia adianthifolia (Schum.) W.F. Wright 

Albizia glaberrima (Schum. & Thonn.) Benth. 

Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F. Macbr. 

Albizia sp. 

Amphimas ferrugineus Pellegr. 

Amphimas pterocarpoides Harms. 

Amphimas sp. 

Angylocalyx oligophyllus (Bak.) Bak.f. 

Angylocalyx zenkeri Harms 

Angylocalyx talbotii Bak.f. 

Angylocalyx sp. 

Anthonotha cladantha (Harms) J. Leonard 

Anthonotha fragrans Exell & Hill. 

Anthonotha macrophylla P. Beauv. 

Anthonotha sp. 1 

Anthonotha sp. 2 

Aubrevillea kerstingii (Harms.) Pellegr. 

Baphia laurifolia Baill. 

Baphia leptobotrys Harms. 

Baphia nitida Lodd. 

Baphia sp. 

Berlinia bracteosa Benth. 

Berlinia craibiana Bak.f. 

Brachystegia kennedyi Hoyle 

Calpocalyx dinklagei Harms. 

Copaifera mildbraedii Harms 

Crudia gabonensis Pierre ex Harms 

Cylicodricus gabunensis Harms 

Cynometra hankei Harms 

Cynometra mannii Oliv. 

Cynometra sanagaensis Aubr. 

Cynometra sp. 1 

Cynometra sp. 2 

Desmodium repandum (Vahl.) DC. 

Detarium macrocarpum Harms 

Dialium bipidensis Harms 

Dialium dinklagei Harms 

Dialium guineensis Willd. 

Dialium pachyphyllum Harms. 

Dialium zenkeri Harms 

Dialium sp. 

Didelotia africana Baill. 

Erythrophleum ivorense A. Chev. 

Erythrophleum sauveolens (Guill.&Perr.) Brenan 

Erythrophleum sp. 

Gilbertiodendron brachystegioides (Harms) J. 

Leonard. 

Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (De Wild.) J.Leonard. 

Gilbertiodendron sp. 

Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum (Vermosen) 

Harms 


Gossweilerodendron joveri Normand ex Aubr. 

Hylodendron gabunense Taub. 

Hymenostegia afzelii (Oliv.) Harms 

Isoberlinia sp. 

Leonardoxa africana Aubrev. 

Leucomphalos capparideus Benth. ex Planch 

Microberlinia bisulcata A. Chev. 

Millettia barteri (Benth.) Dunn 

Millettia mannii Baker. 

Millettia sanagana Harms 

Millettia sp. 1 

Millettia sp. 2 

Monopetalanthus letestui Pellegr. 

Monopetalanthus microphyllus Harms 

Mucuna flagellipes T. Vogel ex Hook.f. 

Newtonia grandifolia J.F. Villiers 

Newtonia griffoniana (Baill.) Bak.f. 

Newtonia sp. 

Oddoniodendron normandii Aubr. 

Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.) D.C. 

Ormocarpum sp. 

Parkia bicolor A. Chev. 

Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth. 

Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan 

Plagiosiphon longitubus (Harms) J. Leonard. 

Plagiosiphon multijugus (Harms) J. Leonard. 

Pterocarpus osun Craib. 

Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub. 

Rhynchosia mannii Baker 

Rhynchosia sp. 

Senna alata L. 

Stachyothrsus sp. 

Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. 

Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum & Thonn) Taub. 

Zenkerella capparidecea (Taub.) J.Leonard 

Zenkerella sp. 

Lentibulariaceae 

Utricularia mannii Oliv. 

Lepidobotryaceae 

Lepidobotrys staudtii Engl. 

Lobeliaceae 

Lobelia columnaris Hook.f. 

Loganiaceae 

Anthocleista obanensis Wernham 

Anthocleista schweinfurthii Gilg. 

Anthocleista vogelii Planch. 

Mostuea brunonis Didr. 

Strychnos asterantha Leeuwenb 

Strychnos boonei De. Wild. 

Strychnos camptoneura Gilg & Busse. 

Strychnos asterantha Leeuwenb.


Strychnos phaeotricha Gilg 

Strychnos staudtii Gilg 

Strychnos sp. 1 



Usteria guinneensis Willd. 

Malvaceae 

Urena lobata L. 

Medusandraceae 

Soyaneia sp, 

Soyauxia gabonensis Oliv. 

Melastomataceae 

Dichaetanthera africana (Hook.f.) Jac. Fel. 

Dinophora spenneroides Benth. 

Dissotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Triana 

Melastomastrum sp. 

Memecylon engleranum Cogn. 

Tristemma littorale Benth. 

Meliaceae 

Carapa procera D.C. 

Carapa sp. 

Ekebergia sp. 

Entandrophragma angolense (Welw.) C. DC. 

Guarea cedrata (A. Chev) Pellegr. 

Guarea glomerulata Harms 

Guarea thompsonii Sprague & Hutch. 

Lovoa trichilioides Harms. 

Trichilia dregeana Sond. 

Trichilia gilgiana Harms. 

Trichilia heudelotii Planch. 

Trichilia monodelpha (Thonn.) J.J. de Wilde 

Trichilia rubescens Oliv. 

Trichilia tessmannii Harms. 

Trichilia welwitschii C. DC. 

Trichilia sp. 1 

Trichilia sp. 2 

Melianthaceae 

Bersama abyssinica Fresen. 

Menispermaceae 

Cissampelos owariensis P. Beauv. ex D.C. 

Jateorhiza macrantha Excell & Mendonca 

Penianthus camerounensis A. Dekker. 

Penianthus longifolius Miers 

Penianthus sp. 

Stephania laetificata (Miers) Benth. 

Tiliacora funifera (Miers) Oliv. 

Tiliacora lehmbachii Engl. 

Tiliacora sp. 

Moraceae 

Antiaris africana Engl. 

Dorstenia africana (Baill.) C.C. Berg 

Dorstenia barteri var barteri Bureau 

Dorstenia barteri var multiradiata (Engl.) Hijman & 

C.C. Berg 

Dorstenia ciliata Engl. 

Dorstenia mannii Hook.f. 

Dorstenia turbinata Engl. 

Dorstenia sp. 1 

Dorstenia sp. 2 

Ficus thonningii Blume 

Ficus vogeliana (Miq.) Miq. 

Ficus sp. 

Neosleotiopsis kamerunensis 

Treculia africana Decne 

Treculia obovoidea Decne 

Treculia sp. 

Trilepisium madagascariense DC. 

Myristicaceae 

Coelocaryon preussii Warb. 

Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb 

Scyphocephalium mannii (Benth.) Warb. 

Staudtia kamerunensis Warb. 

Staudtia stipitata Warb. 

Staudtia sp. 

Myrsinaceae 

Ardisia staudtii Gilg. 

Ardisia sp. 

Maesa lanceolata Forsk. 

Myrtaceae 

Eugenia sp. 1 

Eugenia sp. 2 

Psidium guajava L. 

Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. 

Syzygium rowlandii Sprague 

Syzygium sp. 

Nyctaginaceae 

Boerhavia sp. 

Ochnaceae 

Campylospermum elongatum (Oliv.) Tiegh 

Campylospermum flavum (Schum & Thonn.) Farron 

Campylospermum mannii (Oliv.) Tiegh 

Campylospermum reticulatum P. Beauv. 

Campylospermum subcordatum (Stapf) Farron 

Campylospermum sp. 1 




Idertia axillaris (Oliv.) Farron 

Lophira alata Banks 

Rhabdophyllum affine (Hook.f.) Tiegh 

Rhabdophyllum calophyllum (Hook.f.) Tiegh 

47 



Rhabdophyllum sp. 

Olacaceae 

Aptandra zenkeri Engl. 

Diogoa zenkeri (Engl.) Exell & Mendonca 

Heisteria parvifolia Sm. 

Olax latifolia Engl. 

Olax mannii Oliv. 

Olax subscorpoidea Oliv. 

Ongokea gore (Hua) Pierre. 

Strombosia grandifolia Hook.f. 

Strombosia pustulata Oliv. 

Strombosia scheffleri Engl. 

Strombosia zenkeri Engl. 

Strombosia sp. 1 



Strombosiopsis tetrandra Engl. 

Oleaceae 

Olea capensis L. 

Opiliaceae 

Opilia sp. 

Oxalidaceae 

Biophytum umbraculum Welw. 

Biophytum zenkeri Guillaumin 

Pandaceae 

Microdesmis pierlotiana J. Leonard 

Microdesmis puberula Hook.f. 

Microdesmis zenkeri Pax 

Microdesmis sp. 

Panda oleosa Pierre. 

Passifloraceae 

Adenia cissampeloides (Planch. ex Benth.) Harms 

Barteria fistulosa Mast. 

Barteria nigritiana Hook.f. 

Piperaceae 

Peperomia fernandopoiana C. DC. 

Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn. 

Polygalaceae 

Carpolobia alba G. Don 

Carpolobia lutea G. Don 

Primulaceae 

Vitaliana sp. 

Rhamnaceae 

Lasiodiscus marmoratus C.H. Wright 

Maesopsis eminii Engl. 

Rhizophoraceae 

Anisophyllea polyneura Floret 

Anopyxis klaineana (Pierre) Engl. 

Poga oleosa Pierre 

Rosaceae 

Rubus pinnatus var afrotropicus (Engl.) C.E. Gust. 


Rubiaceae 

Aidia micrantha (K. Schum.) White 

Aidia sp. 

Aoranthe cladantha (K. Schum.) Somers 

Argocoffeopsis rupestris Robbrecht 

Atractogyne bracteata (Wernham) Hutch. & Dalz. 

Aulacocalyx talbotii (Wernham) Keay 

Aulacocalyx sp. 1 

Aulacocalyx sp. 2 

Belonophora talbotii (Wernham) Keay 

Bertiera breviflora Hiern 

Bertiera arctistipula N. Halle 

Bertiera iturensis K. Krause 

Bertiera laxa Benth. 

Bertiera racemosa (G. Don) K.Schum 

Bertiera sp. 

Brenania brieyi (De Wild) Petit 

Calycosiphonia macroclamys (K. Schum.) J.F. Leroy 

Canthium arnoldianum (De. Wild. & Th. Dur.) Heppe 

Canthium sp. 

Chassalia cristata (Hiern) Bremek. 

Chazaliella sciadephora (Hiern) Petit & Verde. 

Chazaliella oddonii (De Wild.) Petit & Verde. 

Chazaliella sp. 

Coffea sp. 1 

Coffea sp. 2 

Colletoecema sp. 1 

Colletoecema sp. 2 

Corynanthe pachyceras K. Schum. 

Corynanthe sp. 

Crateristermum aristatum Wernham 

Cremaspora thomsonii Hiern 

Cuviera subulifera Benth. 

Euclinia longifolia Salisb. 

Gaertnera fissistiplua (K. Schum & K. Krause) Petit 

Gaertnera paniculata Benth. 

Gardenia imperialis K. Schum. 

Gardenia vogelii Hook.f. ex Planch. 

Geophila afzelii Hiern 

Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnston 

Geophila sp. 1 

Geophila sp. 2 

Heinisa crinita (Afzel.) G. Tayl. 

Hekistocarpa minutiflora Hook.f. 

Hymenocoleus sp. 

Hymenodictyon biafranum Hiern 

Ixora coccinea L. 

Ixora guineensis Benth. 

Ixora nematopoda K. Schum. 

Ixora sp. 1 

Ixora sp. 2


Lasianthus batangensis K. Schum. 

Massularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock ex Hoyle 

Mitracarpus scaber Zucc. 

Mitragyna ciliata Aubr. & Pellegr. 

Mitriostigma sp. 

Morinda lucida Benth. 

Mussaenda elegans Schum. & Thonn. 

Mussaenda sp. 

Mussaenda tenuiflora Benth. 

Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Merr. 

Nauclea pobeguinii (Pob. ex Pellegr.) Merr. ex Petit 

Oldenlandia lancifolia (Schumach.) DC. 

Oldenlandia sp. 

Oxyanthus laxiflorus K. Schum. ex Hutch. & Dalz. 

Oxyanthus formosus Hook.f. ex Planch 

Oxyanthus gracilis Hiern 

Pauridiantha canthiiflora Hook.f. 

Pauridiantha venusta N. Halle 

Pauridiantha viridiflora (Schweinf.) Hepper 

Pausinystalia macroceras (K. Schum.) Pierre 

Pausinystalia sp. 

Pavetta staudtii Hutch. & Dalz. 

Pavetta longibracteata Bremek. 

Pavetta owariensis P. Beauv. 

Pavetta sp. 1 

Pavetta sp. 2 

Pentodon pentandrus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke 

Petitiocodon parviflorum 

Poecilocalyx schumannii Bremek. 

Polysphaeria macrophylla K. Schum. 

Porterandia cladantha (K.Schum.) Keay 

Psychotria biferia var biferia Hiern 

Psychotria camptopus Verdc. 

Psychotria ceratalabastron K. Schum. 

Psychotria gabonica Hiern 

Psychotria globosa Hiern 

Psychotria mannii Hiern 

Psychotria peduncularis (Salisb.) Systerm. 

Psychotria sp. 1 









Rothmannia hispida (K. Schum.) Fagerlind 

Rothmannia lujae (De.Wild.) Keay 

Rothmannia sp. 1 

Rothmannia sp. 2 

Rutidea hispida Hiern 

Sabicea calycina Benth. 

Schumanniophyton magnificum (K. Schum) Harms 

Sericanthe sp. 

Sherbournia zenkeri Hua 

Tarenna thomasii Hutch. & Dalz. 

Tarenna eketensis Wernham 

Tarenna fusco-flava (K. Schum.) N. Halle 

Tarenna lasiorachis (K. Schum. & K.Krauss) Bremek. 

Tarenna sp. 

Temnocalyx sp. 

Tricalysia sp. 1 



Virectaria sp. 1 

Virectaria sp. 2 

Rutaceae 

Citropsis articulata (Willd. ex Spreng) Swingle & M. 

Kellerm. 

Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. 

Clausena sp. 

Oricia sp. 1 Pierre 

Oricia sp. 2 

Oricia trifoliolata (Engl.) Verdoorn 

Vepris sp. 

Zanthoxylum gillettii (De Wild.) P.G. Waterman 

Zanthoxylum heitzii (Aubr. & Pellegr.) P.G. Waterman 

Zanthoxylum poggei (Engl.) P.G. Waterman 

Zanthoxylum sp. 1 

Zanthoxylum sp. 2 

Samydaceae 

Homalium dolichophyllum Gilg. 

Sapindaceae 

Allophylus africanus P. Beauv. 

Allophylus bullatus Radlk. 

Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig 

Blighia unijugata Bak. 

Blighia welwitschii (Hiern) Radlk. 

Blighia sp. 

Chytranthus macrobotrys (Gilg.) Exell & Mendonca 

Hauman 

Chythranthus sp. 

Eriocoelum macrocarpum Gilg 

Laccodiscus ferrugineus (Baker) Radlk. 

Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch. 

Majidea fosteri (Sprague) Radlk. 

Pancovia sp. Willd. 

Paullinia pinnata L. 

Placodiscus glandulosus Radlk. 

Sapotaceae 

Aningeria altissima (A. Chev.) Aubr. & Pellegr. 

49 



Aningeria robusta (A. Chev.) Aubr. & Pellegr. 

Chrysophyllum beguei Aubr. & Pellegr. 

Chrysophyllum boukokoensis Aubr. & Pellegr. 

Chrysophyllum sp. L. 

Englerophytum sp. K. Krause 

Omphalocarpum elatum Miers 

Omphalocarpum procerum P. Beauv. 

Pouteria alnifolia (Baker) Roberty 

Synsepalum brevipes (Baker) T.D. Penn. 

Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) T.D. Penn. 

Scrophulariaceae 

Bartsia petitiana (A. Rich.) Hemsl. 

Torenia thouarsii (Cham. & Scltdl.) 

Veronica abyssinica Fresen. 

Scytopetalaceae 

Oubanguia alata Bak.f. 

Rhaptopetalum coriaceum Oliv. 

Rhaptopetalum sp. 

Simaroubaceae 

Hannoa klaineana Pierre & Engl. 

Sterculiaceae 

Melochia sp. 

Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. 

Cola anomala K. Schum. 

Cola ballayi Cornu ex Heckel 

Cola chlamydantha K. Schum. 

Cola digitata Mast. 

Cola ficifolia Mast. 

Cola flaviflora Engl. & K. Krauss 

Cola flavo-velutina K. Schum. 

Cola lepidota K. Schum. 

Cola millenii K. Schum. 

Cola nitida (Vent) Schott & Endl. 

Cola rostrata K. Schum. 

Cola semecarpophylla K. Schum. 

Cola verticillata (Thonn.) Stapf 

Cola sp. 1 

Cola sp. 2 

Cola sp. 3 

Leptonychia multiflora K.Schum. 

Leptonychia sp. 

Pterygota macrocarpa K. Schum. 

Pterygota sp. 

Scaphopetalum sp. 

Sterculia oblonga. Mast 

Sterculia subviolacea K. Schum. 

Sterculia tragacantha Lindl. 

Sterculia sp. 1 

Sterculia sp. 2 

Thymeliaceae 

Dicranolepis disticha Planch. 


Dicranolepis glandulosa Engl. 

Tiliaceae 

Ancistrocarpus densispinosus Oliv. 

Ancistrocarpus sp. 

Desplatsia chrysochlamys (Mildbr. & Burret) Mildbr. & 

Burret 

Desplatsia dewevrei (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) Burret 

Duboscia macrocarpa Bocq. 

Glyphaea brevis (Spreng.) Monach. 

Glyphaea sp. 

Grewia coriacea Mast. 

Grewia pubescens P. Beauv. 

Triumfetta sp. 

Ulmaceae 

Celtis tessmannii Rendle. 

Celtis zenkeri Engl. 

Trema orientalis (L.) Blume 

Urticaceae 

Pilea angolensis (Hiern.) Rendle 

Pilea sp. 

Verbenaceae 

Clerodendron dusenii Gurke 

Clerodendron grandifolium Gurke 

Clerodendrum globuliferum B. Thomas 

Clerodendrum splendens G. Don 

Clerodendrum umbellatum Poir. 

Clerodendrum sp. 1 



Vitex doniana Sweet 

Vitex ferruginea Schum. & Thonn. 

Vitex grandifolia Gurke 

Vitex rivularis Gurke 

Vitex sp. 

Violaceae 

Allexis sp. 

Rinorea dentata (P. Beauv.) Kuntze 

Rinorea oblongifolia (C.H. Wright) Marquand ex Chipp 

Rinorea welwitschii (Oliv.) Kuntze 

Rinorea kamerunensis Engl. 

Rinorea sp. 1 





Vitaceae 

Ampelocissus cf cavicaulis (Baker) Planchon 

Cissus dinklagei Gilg. & Brandl. 

Vochysiaceae 

Erismadelphus exsul Mildbr.


MONOCOTYLEDONS 

Amaryllidaceae 

Scadoxus cinnabarinus (Decaisne) Friis & Nordal 

Scadoxus pseudocaulus (Bjornst & Friis) Friis 

Araceae 

Anchomanes difformis (Blume) Engl. 

Anubias barteri Schott. 

Cercestis camerunensis (Ntepe-Nyame) Bogner 

Cercestis dinklagei Engl. 

Cercestis kamerunianus (Engl.) R. Br. 

Cercestis mirabilis (N.E. Br.) Bogner 

Culcasia dinklagei Engl. 

Culcasia scandens P. Beauv. 

Culcasia striolata Engl. 

Culcasia sp. 1 

Culcasia sp. 2 

Nephthytis poissonii (Engl.) N.E. Br. 

Nephthytis sp. 

Rhaphidophora africana N.E. Br. 

Stylochaeton sp. 

Commelinaceae 

Aneilema beniniense (P. Beauv.) Kunth 

Aneilema sp. 

Coelotrype laurentii K. Schum. 

Commelina camerunensis J.K. Morton 

Commelina sp. 

Cyanotis barbata D. Don 

Palisota ambigua (P. Beauv.) C.B. Cl. 

Palisota barteri Hook. 

Palisota capitata Benth. 

Palisota hirsuta (Thunb.) K. Schum. 

Palisota lagopus Mildbr. 

Palisota mannii C.B. Cl. 

Palisota sp. 

Pollia condensata C.B. Cl. 

Polyspatha paniculata Benth. 

Polyspatha sp. 

Costaceae 

Costus fissiligulatus Gagnepain 

Costus englerianus K. Schum. 

Costus lucanusianus J. Braun & K. Schum. 

Cyperaceae 

Carex echinochloë Kunze 

Cyperus reduncus Hoechst ex Boeck 

Cyperus tenuis Sw. 

Kyllinga sp. 

Mapania amplivaginata K. Schum. 

Mapania macrantha (Boeck) H. Pfeiffer 

Dioscoreaceae 

Dioscorea mangenotiana J. Miege 

Dioscorea sp. 

Dracaenaceae 

Dracaena camerooniana Baker 

Dracaena phrynoides Hook. 

Dracaena sp. 

Graminae 

Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desr. 

Leptapsis zeylanica Nees 

Panicum sp. 

Guaduella sp. 

Melinis sp. 

Olyra latifolia L. 

Setaria megaphylla Th. Dur. & Schinz. 

Liliaceae 

Chlorophytum sparsiflorum Bak. 

Chlorophytum sp. 

Gloriosa superba L. 

Marantaceae 

Aetinidia conferta (Benth.) Milne-Redh. 

Halopegia azurea (K. Schum.) K. Schum. 

Marantochloa filipes (Benth.) Hutch 

Marantochloa leucantha (K.Schum.) Milne-Redh. 

Marantochloa sp. 1 



Megaphrynium sp. 1 

Megaphrynium sp. 2 

Megaphrynium trichogynum Koechlin 

Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Benth.) K. Schum. 

Sarcophrynium brachystachyum var brachystachyum 

(Benth.) K. Schum. 

Sarcophrynium priogonium var priogonium (K.Schum 

K. Schum. 

Sarcophrynium sp. 

Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.) Benth. 

Trachyphrynium braunianum (K.Schum.) Bak. 

Orchidaceae 

Ancistrochilus thomsonianus (Rchb.f.) Rolfe 

Ancistrorhynchus capitatus (Lindl.) Summerh. 

Angraecum angustipetalum Rendle 

Angraecum aporoides Summerh. 

Angraecum birrimense Rolfe 

Brachycorythis macrantha (Lindl.) Summerh. 

Cyrtorchis arcuata (Lindl.) Schltr. 

Cyrtorchis chailluana (Hook.f) Schltr. 

Diaphananthe bueae (Schltr.) Schltr. 

Diaphananthe pellucida (Lindl.) Schltr. 

Diaphananthe plehniana (Schltr.) Schltr. 

Diaphananthe sp. 

Eurychone rothschildiana (O' Brien) Schltr. 

Graphorkis lucida (Sw.) O. Kuntze 

Liparis sp. 

51 



Nervilia sp. 

Plectrelminthus caudatus (Lindl.) Summerh. 

Polystachya albescens Ridl. 

Polystachya odorata Lindl. 

Polystachya sp. 

Solenangis scandens (Schltr.) Schltr. 

Palmae 

Elaeis guinensis Jacq. 

Eremospatha macrocarpa (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. 

Wendl. 

Eremospatha quinquecostulata Becc. 

Eremospatha tessmanniana Becc. 

Eremospatha wendlandiana Dammer ex Becc. 

Eremospatha sp. 

Laccosperma opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude 

Laccosperma robustum (Burr.) J. Dransf. 

Laccosperma secundiflorum (P.Beauv.) Kuntze 

Laccosperma sp. nov. 

Oncocalamus tuleyi Sunderland 

Raphia hookeri G. Mann & H. Wendl. 

Smilacaeae 

Smilax kraussiana Meisn. 

Smilax anceps Willd. 

Zingiberaceae 

Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridley) K.Schum. 

Aframomum arundinaceum (Oliv. & Hanb.) K. Schum 

Aframomum citratum (Piereira) K.Schum. 

Aframomum flavum Lock 

Aframomum pilosum (Oliv. & Hanb.) K. Schum 

Aframomum sp. 1 




Renealmia africana (K. Schum.) Benth. 

Renealmia cincinnata (K. Schum.) Baker 

Renealmia polypus Gagnepain 

Renealmia sp. 


GYMNOSPERMS 

Gnetaceae 

Gnetum africanum Welw. 

FERNS & allies 

Aspleniaceae 

Asplenium sp. 

Cyatheaceae 

Cyathea manniana Hook. 

Dennstaedtiaceae 

Pteridium aquilinum subsp aquilinum (L.) Kuhn 

Dryopteridaceae 

Filix sp. 

Lastreopsis barteriana (Hook.) Tardieu 

Hymenophyllaceae 

Osmunda regalis L. 

Lomariopsidaceae 

Bolbitis sp. 

Lomariopsis guineensis (Underw.) Alston. 

Lomariopsis sp. 1 

Lomariopsis sp. 2 

Marattiaceae 

Marattia fraxinea J. Sm. 

Selaginellaceae 

Selaginella myosurus (SW) Alston 

Selaginella sp. 1 

Selaginella sp. 2


Appendix 2. Conservation priority speicies in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

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5


Butterfly Fauna of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Butterflies (order Lepidoptera) constitute about 1% of all 

named insects (Larsen 1996) and are one of the most 

intensively studied groups (Borror et al. 1989). Their 

comparatively large size and bright colors, species 

distributions and abundances, and the relative ease in 

rearing some species in captivity has led to a considerable 

amount of research—and some very interesting findings. 

As example, it was genetic information from research on 

the polymorphic Swallow Tail (Larsen 1996), which in 

Cameroon is represented by Papilio dardanus, that 

uncovered the Rhesus factor in human blood. Other 

important advances made possible in part by research on 

butterflies include studies on the evolution of plantherbivore 

interactions (Ehrlich and Raven 1964, Johnson 

1994). 

From the human perspective, butterflies are both 

beneficial and harmful. In the beneficial category, some 

species of butterflies are prolific plant pollinators, and 

many of these creatures have relatively high economic 

value as they are used for entertainment, decorative art, 

and collections (Johnson 1994, Spiers 1990). The fact 

that some butterflies exhibit a high host specificity makes 

them a potential biological control agent. 

On the other hand, Lepidoptera such as the gypsy 

moth (Lymantria dispar) can defoliate trees across large 

tracts of forest (Work and McCullough 2000), while 

others are crop pests (Haile and Hofsvang 2001). 

Of the 17,280 species of butterflies already 

described worldwide (Shields 1989), about 3,600 

occur in Africa (Carcasson et al. 1995)—many in the 

Guineo-Congolian tropical rainforest, part of a larger 

region that contains the “greatest density of butterfly 

Ebwekoh Monya O’ Kah 

Chapter 4 

species” and is one of the richest units of butterfly 

diversity, mainly because of humid and warm climatic 

conditions that allow several broods and a “consequent 

rapid evolution” (Carcasson et al. 1995). 

Takamanda Forest Reserve (TFR) in 

Southwest Province of Cameroon is included in this 

diverse rainforest. While the Reserve is expected to 

harbor a highly diverse butterfly fauna, no systematic 

study had been undertaken for this group (Fomete 

Nembot and Tchanou 1998) until the research that 

forms the basis for this paper. An assessment of 

Lepidoptera at the Reserve took place during 21 days 

between April and June 2001. The objective was to 

obtain initial data on the composition of the butterfly 

fauna and elaborate the first-ever checklist for TFR. 

2 Methods 

Specimens were collected using 20 locally constructed 

aerial bait traps (Davies, 1994) placed at 16 survey sites 

that ranged between 200 and 800m above sea level, 

many of which were also used for vegetation, mammal, 

and bird surveys at Takamanda. All sites were georeferenced, 

using a Garmin 12XL GPS (Figure 1, Table 

1). 

The traps were set at different heights in the canopy 

to capture and record species that typically feed at 

progressively higher levels. Bait (rotten fruit and dog 

faeces) was changed daily, and the traps were checked 

twice daily. Trapped butterflies were collected and 

identified. 

Sweep-netting was also carried out along forest 

paths at the sites where the aerial traps were placed and 

while traveling among the sampling locations. 


56 O’Kah 

f22 

y2@w—Ã 

g—22@IE2—A 

ƒ22@IE2A 

H S IH 

u 

Specimens were placed in butterfly envelopes and 

preserved in airtight containers with mothballs to prevent 

deterioration and protect the specimens from invading 

insects. Information on collection site, date, collector, and 

method of trapping (SN = Sweep Netting and CN = 

Canopy Netting) was documented. 

Identification was completed in Limbe, using 

identification keys and manuals as well as color plates as 

suggested by Larsen (1996). Where possible, specimens 

were identified to family, sub-family, species, and race. 

Classification followed that of the Afrotropical Catalogue 

(Carcasson et al. 1995). Specimens whose full 

identification was not possible on site were sent to 

specialists. Specimens will be deposited primarily in the 

Limbe Botanic and Zoological Gardens, Cameroon. 


w— 

w— 

w—— 

Figure 1. Sampling locations of butterflies in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

3 Results and Discussion 

A total of 111 species representing 4 families were 

identified from the 384 specimens collected 

(Appendix 1), with 79 specimens identified to 

species (Appendices 1 and 2). 

The majority (78%) of specimens were collected 

using sweep netting, while the canopy traps 

accounted for 22% of the collection. During the 

survey 85 (22%) of individuals were trapped using 

canopy traps, while 298 (78%) individuals were 

captured using sweep-nets. Canopy traps are known 

to attract only those species that prefer fruits. This 

method is best used during the dry season when the 

butterflies can forage freely over longer distances. 

The difference between capture rates in the canopy

Butterfly Fauna 

Table 1. Study sites locations in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Study sites Altitude (m) Site code Forest Type 

Between Obonyi I & Assam

58 O’Kah 

Table 3. Species found in intact forest formations Takamanda 


Species 

1. Pseudopontia paradoxa (wet forest) 

2. Graphium (Arisbe) latreillianus (moist forest) 

3. Aterica galene galene 

4. Bicyclus mesogena 

5. Catuna crithea conjuncta 

6. Harma theobene blassi 

7. Hypolimnas dinarcha 

8. Hypolimnas salmacis 

9. Neptis clarei 

10. Euxanthe (Euxanthe) eurinome elgonae 

11. Eurema (Terias) senegalensis 

12. Epitola viridana 

Table 4. Summary of Butterfly conservation status for 

Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

# of Spp. 

Rare 5 

Common 76 

Primary forest species 

56 

Disturbance tolerant 

species 

Total no. of species 

fully identified 

were identified in our samples. It is not certain 

whether these species are threatened in Takamanda 

Forest Reserve and face local extinction if 

precautions are not taken. However, the presence of 

Family 


25 

81 

No. of 

specimens 

collected 

% 

specimens 

No. of 

species 

these rare species may indicate undetermined 

qualities of their habitats, which underscores the 

need for their conservation and additional research. 

Table 2 presents the relative abundance of the 10 

most frequent and 10 least frequent species in TFR. 

Most of the common species are typical of forests 

(Appendix 2), and their abundance here indicates that 

the vegetation is characteristic of a nondegraded 

rainforest. The Takamanda area is dominated by 

primary forest (see Sunderland et al. this volume), a 

condition verified by the proliferation of butterfly 

species such as Neptis clarei, Leptosia alcesta 

inalcesta, and Catuna crithea conjuncta that will 

disappear at the first sign of forest disturbance 

(Larsen 1992). The least common species are also 

forest dwellers, but are more prone to disturbed 

and/or open forest formations, which comprise just a 

small portion of the Takamanda area (see Slayback 

this volume). 

Table 3 shows the degree of intactness of the 

Takamanda forest through the much higher number 

of primary forest-dependent species (56, or 69% of 

all identified species) compared to disturbance 

tolerant species (25, or 31%). The majority of the 

species found were common within the forest reserve 

(Table 4). This is probably explained by the fact that 

the forest is generally conducive to their survival. 

The Nymphalidae is the dominant family in the 

area (Table 5), with 260 (68%) specimens of the total 

384 collected and 74 (67%) of the 111 identified to 

Table 5. Butterfly families represented with their respective number of specimens in the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

% 

species 

Papilionidae 35 9 12 11 

Pieridae 60 16 14 13 

Lycaenidae 13 3 6 5 

Nymphalidae 260 68 74 67 

Unidentified 16 4 5 5 

Total 384 100 111 100


7 8 109 

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 

species. Lycaenidae were the least common, 

accounting for 13 (3%) of all specimens and 6 (5%) 

of identified species. These findings are not 

surprising; the Nymphalidae are among the most 

successful families in Africa at 1,517 species 

(Carcasson et al. 1995). Most members of the family 

are known to adapt to a variety of habitats, and 

species diversity within the group is high. The family 

consists of many sub-taxa that were originally 

considered separate families, while the danaids, 

satyrids, libytheids, and riodinids were once deemed 

to be the same family (Feltwell 1993). 

While Lycaenidae is a larger family than the 

Nyphalidae, it was far surpassed by the latter in 

specimens collected. This can probably be explained 

by collector bias; Lycaenids are generally smaller in 

size and less colourful than the Nymphalids, and 

hence less likely to be seen. Therefore, it is possible 

that the study area contains more species of all 

families collected from this survey and, if the bias is 

addressed in future studies, the checklist of 

butterflies for Takamanda may be much longer. 

14 

10 

15 

13 

22 

17 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

No. of s pecimens No. of spec ies 

Figure 2. Species richness of study sites expressed as species abundance in relation to the number of individuals sampled for 

Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon (see Table 1 for site codes). 

28 

18 

36 

24 

52 

28 

Figure 2 illustrates the species richness of each 

site in relation to the number of individuals sampled 

and the species that were identified. Takamanda, 

Matene Camp, and Obonyi I Camp were the three 

richest sites both in identified species and specimens 

collected. The least rich sites were Obonyi, Assam, 

Kekpane, and Obonyi I Camp Hills. The vegetation 

composition of a particular area will determine 

whether butterflies will inhabit or visit the area and 

also their population density at any point in time. 

Thus, it can be inferred that Takamanda, Matene 

Camp, and Obonyi I Camp are more productive for 

and conducive to butterfly survival. 

Although species indicating forest disturbance, like 

those listed in Table 6 (for example, Junonia oenone 

oenone), are present in the study area, their numbers are 

sufficiently low enough to suggest failure in effectively 

colonizing the area. This can only be explained by the 

fact that the forest does not provide conditions for their 

survival. Moreover, most of the species encountered are 

forest generalists rather than disturbed forest species. The 

generalists prefer forest clearings, forest edges, and forest 

paths, all of which occur throughout TFR. 

84 

43 

100 

49 

59 


60 O’Kah 

Table 6. Indicators of secondary or disturbed forest in 

Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Species Sites occurring 

1. Eurema (Terias) 

hecabe solifera 

2. Danaus (Anosia) 

chrysippus aegyptius 

3. Junonia oenone 

oenone 

B/W Obonyi I & III, 

Matene Camp, 

Takamanda areas 

Assam, Obonyi I Magbe 

and Takamanda 

Assam and Takamanda 

Camp areas 

4. Junonia terea elgiva Assam, Matene Camp, 

Obonyi I Magbe 

Using butterflies as indicators of forest quality 

suggests that Assam is the most degraded site, as nearly 

all species that occur there prefer secondary habitat. 

Takamanda, Matene Camp, and Obonyi I Magbe also 

show signs of degradation. Even though the sampling 

sites were located in undisturbed areas away from the 

camps, the species composition indicates that some 

unseen factor is influencing species composition in favor 

of butterflies that are adapted to degraded habitats. Three 

of the four campsites sampled in the study are popular 

with such species. 

Table 7. Indicators of secondary or disturbed forest and 

their sites of occurrence in Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon. 


1. Papilio Obonyi I Camp 

(Princeps) 

dardanus 

2. Nepheronia Matene Camp, Kekpani Camp 

argia argia XI and Takamanda 

3. Leptosia alcesta 

inalcesta 

4. Euphaedra 

medon fraudata 

B/W Obonyi III and Kekpani, 

Obonyi I Camp and Obonyi I 

Magbe. 

B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani, 

B/W Okpambe & Assam, 

Kekpani Camp XI, Obonyi I 

Camp, Obonyi I Hills, Obonyi I 

Magbe, & Takamanda 


In short, our findings may demonstrate that TFR is 

an intact forest in the initial stages of degradation. This 

was not directly apparent from field observations, but 

analysis of the results of this study point to the fact that 

butterfly composition is more sensitive to changes and 

thus may provide a good indicator of future conditions. 

Still, we found species that are common throughout the 

Reserve in different habitat types (Table 7). 

Though very little work has been undertaken on 

the butterfly fauna of Cameroon, the immediate 

neighboring forests between Korup (including the 

Rumpi Hills) and Oban Hills in Nigeria have been 

studied (Obot and Ogar 1997). A cursory analysis of 

the results from these areas and those from our 

studies reveals an association in the butterfly fauna. 

About 40% of the species identified for TFR were 

also found to occur in Korup and/or the Oban Hills. 

Genera such as Eurema, Junonia, Bicyclus, 

Charaxes, Acrea, Euphaedra, are all represented in 

the communities of each site. There are, however, 

some common species (e.g. Papilio lormieri, 

Belenois sudanensis) that one would expect to find in 

the Korup list, but that curiously do not appear. The 

affinities between Korup and TFR are explained by 

the fact that the two forests are virtually contiguous 

and share similar physical and biological 

characteristics. Many of the butterfly species of both 

forests are migrant species, some local migrants, and 

hence should be able to move between the two areas. 

Thus, it is likely attributed to the less degraded 

conditions in Takamanda Forest Reserve compared 

with Korup. 

4 Conclusion 

Because little data are available on butterfly 

distribution in Cameroon (Larsen 1997), the results 

of this study will contribute to: 

• a better understanding of the natural history of 

different butterfly species, 

• their range, distribution, and affinity for different 

habitat types,


Table 8. Species common to all forest categories occurring in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 


1. Papilio (Princeps) dardanus Obonyi I Camp 

2. Nepheronia argia argia Matene Camp, Kekpani Camp XI and Takamanda 

3. Leptosia alcesta inalcesta 

B/W Obonyi III and Kekpani, Obonyi I Camp and 

Obonyi I Magbe. 

B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani, B/W Okpambe & Assam, 

4. Euphaedra medon fraudata Kekpani Camp XI, Obonyi I Camp, Obonyi I Hills, 

Obonyi I Magbe, & Takamanda 

• a checklist of species for Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, and 

• baseline information needed to monitor the 

success of conservation measures that use 

butterflies as indicators. 

This study represents an important first step in 

identifying likely sites to concentrate conservation 

efforts, based on the changing composition of species 

within the butterfly community. Areas where 

degradation has occurred or is beginning to take 

place should be targeted for initial conservation 

measures. 

The study can be improved through additional 

research over longer periods time to cover seasonal 

ranges within the variety of habitat types. A key 

question that remains to be answered is whether or 

not using butterflies as indicators will enable 

researchers to predict the presence of other taxa and 

thereby contribute immensely to studies of overall 

ecosystem health at TFR. 

References 

Borror, D. J., C. A. Triplehorn, and N. F. Johnson. 

1989. An Introduction to the Study of Insects. 6th 

edition. Saunders College Pub., Philadelphia . 

Carcasson, R. H., P. R. Ackery, C. R. Smith, and R.I. 

Vane-Wright (eds.). 1995. Carcasson’s African 

Butterflies: An Annotated Catalogue of the 

Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea of the 

Afrotropical Region. CSIRO, East Melbourne 

and Natural History Museum, London. 

Davies, G. 1994. Guidelines for wildlife surveys in 

tropical forests. 

Ehrlich, P. R., and P. H.Raven. 1964. Butterflies and 

plants: A study in coevolution. Evolution 18: 

586-608. 

Feltwell, J. 1993. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 

Butterflies. Quarto Publishing, London. 

Fomete Nembot, T., and Z. Tchanou. 1998. La 

gestion des ecosystems forestiers du Cameroun a 

l’aube de l’an 2000. Volume 2 (Monographies 

des sites critiques et annexes). IUCN, Yaoundé. 

Haile, A., and T. Hofsvang. 2001. Infestation, 

damage, and insecticidal control of the stem 

borer, Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera; 

Noctuidae) on sorghum in Eritrea. Tropical 

Agriculture (Trinidad) 78(4): 249-254. 

Johnson, S. D. 1994. Evidence for Batesian mimicry 

in a butterfly-pollinated orchid. Biological 

Journal of the Linnean Society 53: 91-104. 

Larsen T. B. 1996. The Butterflies of Kenya and their 

Natural History. Oxford University Press. New 

York.. 

61 


62 O’Kah 

Larsen, T. B. 1997. Butterfly Inventory in Korup 

National Park, Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve and 

Surrounding Areas. Interim report for the Korup 

Project, Mundemba, Ndian Division, Cameroon. 

Libert, M. 1992. Notes fauniques sur les 

Lépidoptères, Rhompoalocères du Cameroun. 

Lambillionea 92: 21-34. 

Obot, E. A., and G. Ogar. 1997. Biodiversity surveys 

in Cross River National Park as contribution to 

park management. In: S. Doolan (ed.). African 

Rainforests and Conservation of Biodiversity 

Proceedings of the Limbe Conference. 

http://www.earthwatch.org/europe/ 

limbe/limbe.html 

Palmer, W. A., and G. Diatloff. 1987. Host specificity 

and biology of Bucculatrix ivella Busck, a 

potential biological control agent for Baccharis 

halimifolia L. in Australia. Journal of the 

Lepidopterist’s Society 41(1): 23-28. 


Shields, O. 1989. World numbers of butterflies. 

Journal of the Lepidopterits’ Society 43(3): 178- 

183. 

Slabbekoorn, H., and J. Ellers. The ‘Ecotonebiodiversity 

Project’: The Impact of Habitat 

Differences on the Genetic Population Structure 

in the Tropical Butterflies. Field report. 

Spiers, G. 1990. The management of butterfly 

houses. Pp. 15-20 in: N.M. Collins (ed.). The 

Management and Welfare of Invertebrates in 

Captivity. National Federation of Zoological 

Gardens, London. 

Work, T. T., and D. G. McCullough. 2000. 

Lepidopteran communities in two forest 

ecosystems during the first gypsy moth 

outbreaks in northern Michigan. Environmental 

Entomology 29(5): 884-900.


Appendix 1. Checklist of Butterflies of the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon (after Carcasson et al. 1995) 

Genus Species Race Authority and Year of 

publication 

PAPILIONIDAE 

Papilio Linnaeus, 1758 

Papilio (Princeps) dardanus Brown 

Papilio (Princeps) echerioides zoroastres Druce, 1878 

Papilio (Princeps) hesperus hesperus Westwood, 1843 

Papilio (Princeps) jacksoni Sharpe 

Papilio (Princeps) lormieri Distant 

Papilio sp1 

Papilio sp2 

Graphium Scopoli, 1777 

Graphium (Arisbe) latreillianus theorini (Aurivillius), 1881 

Graphium (Arisbe) leonidas leonidas (Fabricius), 1793 

Graphium (Arisbe) policenoides liponesco Suffert, 1904 

Graphium (Arisbe) porthaon (Hewitson) 

Graphium (Arisbe) ucalegon ucalegon (Hewitson), 1865 

PIERIDAE 

Pseudopontia Pl!tz, 1870 

Pseudopontia paradoxa (Felder and Felder) 

Eurema Hubner, 1819 

Eurema (Terias) hapale (Mabille) 

Eurema (Terias) hecabe solifera (Butler), 1875 

Eurema (Terias) senegalensis (Boisduval) 

Nepheronia Butler, 1870 

Nepheronia argia argia (Fabricius), 1775 

Colotis Hubner, 1819 

Colotis sp1 

Belenois Hubner, 1819 

Belenois sudanensis (Talbot) 

Dixeia Talbot, 1932 

Dixeia orbona vidua (Butler), 1900 

Appias Hubner, 1819 

Appias (Glutophrissa) epaphia orbona (Boisduval), 1833 

Appias (Glutophrissa) sabina phoebe (Butler), 1901 

Mylothris Hubner, 1819 

Mylothris continua continua Talbot, 1944 

Mylothris sp1 

Leptosia Hubner, 1818 

Leptosia alcesta inalcesta Bernardi, 1959 

Leptosia nupta nupta (Butler), 1873 

Continued 

63 


64 O’Kah 

Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist of Butterflies of the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon (after Carcasson et al. 1995) 


publication 

NYMPHALIDAE 

Acraea Fabricius, 1807 

Acraea (Acraea) aganice ugandae (van Someren), 1936 

Acraea (Acraea) tellus tellus (Aurivillius), 1893 

Acraea (Actinote) conradti conradti Oberthur, 1893 

Acraea (Actinote) sotikensis Sharpe 

Acraea sp1 

Acraea sp2 

Acraea sp3 

Acraea sp4 

Acraea sp5 

Danaus Kluk, 1802 

Danaus (Anosia) chrysippus aegyptius (Schreber), 1759 

Amauris Hubner, 1816 

Amauris (Amauris) niavius niavius (Linnaeus), 1758 

Bicyclus Kirby, 1871 

Bicyclus mesogena (Karsch) 

Bicyclus smithi (Aurivillius) 

Bicyclus sp1 

Bicyclus sp2 

Bicyclus sp3 

Lachnoptera Doubleday, 1847 

Lachnoptera anticlia (Hubner) 

Phalanta Horsfield, 1829 

Phalanta eurytis (Doubleday) 

Kallimoides Shir!zu & Nakanishi , 19 

Kallimoides rumia (Doubleday) 

Hypolimnas Hubner, 1819 

Hypolimnas anthedon anthedon Doubleday, 1845 

Hypolimnas dinarcha (Hewitson) 

Hypolimnas salmacis (Drury), 1773 

Hypolimnas sp1 

Salamis Boisduval, 1833 

Salamis anacardii (Linnaeus) 

Junonia Hubner, 1819 

Junonia oenone oenone (Linnaeus), 1758 

Junonia sophia infracta Butler, 1888 

Junonia stygia gregorii Butler, 1896 

Junonia terea elgiva Hewitson, 1864 

Junonia sp1 


Continued




publication 

Sallya Hemming, 1964 

Sallya amulia rosa (Hewitson), 1877 

Sallya sp1 

Cyrestis Boisduval, 1832 

Cyrestis (Azania) camillus camillus (Fabricius), 1781 

Neptis Fabricius, 1807 

Neptis agouale Pierre-Baltus 

Neptis carcassoni van Son, 1959 

Neptis clarei Neave 

Neptis laeta Overlaet 

Neptis melicerta (Drury) 

Neptis nicobule Holland 

Neptis strigata Aurivillius 

Harma Doubleday, 1848 

Harma theobene blassi (Weymer), 1892 

Cymothoe Hubner, 1819 

Cymothoe caenis (Drury) 

Cymothoe fumana (Westwood) 

Cymothoe hobarti hobarti Butler, 1900 

Cymothoe sp1 

Pseudoneptis Snellen, 1882 

Pseudoneptis bugandensis bugandensis Stoneham, 1935 

Pseudacraea Westwood, 1850 

Pseudacraea lucretia protracta (Butler), 1874 

Euriphene Boisduval, 1847 

Euriphene (Euriphene) saphirina saphirina (Karsch), 1894 

Euriphene (Euryphura) chalcis (Felder and Felder) 

Euriphene sp1 

Euphaedra Hubner, 1819 

Euphaedra eupalus (Fabricius) 

Euphaedra medon inaequabilis Thurau, 1904 

Euphaedra orientalis Rothschild 

Euphaedra rex Stoneham 

Euphaedra sp1 

Euphaedra sp2 

Euphaedra sp3 

Bebearia Hemming, 1960 

Bebearia chriemhilda (Staudinger) 

Bebearia mardania mardania (Fabricius) 

Bebearia sophus audeoudi (Riley), 1936 

Bebearia sp1 


65 


66 O’Kah 



publication 

Bebearia sp2 

Bebearia sp3 

Aterica Boisduval, 1833 

Aterica galene galene (Brown), 1776 

Cynandra Schatz, 1887 

Cynandra opis (Drury) 

Catuna Kirby, 1871 

Catuna crithea conjuncta Aurivillius, 1922 

Catuna sp1 

Catuna sp2 

Catuna sp3 

Catuna sp4 

Charaxes Ochsenheimer, 1816 

Charaxes etheocles (Cramer) 

Charaxes lucretius intermedius van Someren, 1971 

Euxanthe Hubner, 1819 

Euxanthe (Euxanthe) eurinome birbirica Ungemach, 1932 

Euxanthe (Hypomelaena) trajanus (Ward) 

Libythea Fabricius, 1807 

Libythea labdaca labdaca Westwood, 1851 

LYCAENIDAE 

Argyrocheila Staudinger, 1892 

Argyrocheila inundifera Hawker-Smith 

Epitola Westwood, 1851 

Epitola viridana Joicey and Talbot 

Hypolycaena C. & R. Felder, 1862 

Hypolycaena hatita ugandae Sharpe, 1904 

Anthene Doubleday, 1847 

Anthene larydas (Cramer) 

Triclema Karsch 

Triclema nigeriae (Aurivillius) 

Azanus Moore, 1881 

Azanus ubaldus (Stoll) 

UNIDENTIFIED 

V sp1 

W sp1 

X sp1 

y sp1 

Z sp1 


Appendix 2. Butterfly species ecological and conservation status and their distribution/abundance at study sites in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon.Note: With 

contributions from Ngalame Ebenezar who collected the specimens. 


Species distribution 

Takamanda Camp 



Obonyi I Hills 

Obonyi I Camp Hills 

Obonyi I Camp 

Matene Camp 

Kekpani Camp XI 

Kekpani Camp 

Kekpani 

B/W Okpambe & Assam 

B/W Obonyi III & Kekpani 

B/W Obonyi I & III 

B/W Obonyi I & Assam 

B/W Assam & Obonyi I 

Assam 

Secondary forest 

Primary forest 

Abundance 

Genus Species Race 

1 Acraea sp1 x 1 





6 Acraea (Acraea) tellus tellus c x x 2 

7 Acraea (Acraea) aganice ugandae c x x x 2 

8 Acraea (Actinote) conradti conradti c x x 1 

9 Acraea (Actinote) sotikensis c x x 1 

10 Amauris (Amauris) niavius niavius c x x 1 

11 Anthene larydas c x x 1 

12 Appias (Glutophrissa) epaphia orbona c x x x 2 

13 Appias (Glutophrissa) sabina phoebe c x x x 2 

14 Argyrocheila inundifera r x x x 2 

15 Aterica galene galene c x x x x x 4 

16 Azanus ubaldus c x x 1 

17 Bebearia chriemhilda c x x 1 

18 Bebearia mardania mardania c x x x 2 

19 Bebearia sophus audeoudi c x x 1 

20 Bebearia sp1 x 1 



23 Belenois sudanensis c x x x 2 

67 


68 O’Kah 







Obonyi I Camp 

Matene Camp 


Kekpani Camp 

Kekpani 






Assam 



Abundance 



24 Bicyclus mesogena c x x 1 

25 Bicyclus smithi c x x 1 

26 Bicyclus sp1 x 1 



29 Catuna crithea conjuncta c x x x x x x 5 

30 Catuna sp1 x x x x x 5 

31 Catuna sp2 x 1 

32 Catuna sp3 x x x 3 

33 Catuna sp4 x 1 

34 Charaxes etheocles c x x 1 

35 Charaxes lucretius intermedius c x x 1 

36 Colotis sp1 x 1 

37 Cymothoe caenis c x x x x 3 

38 Cymothoe fumana c x x x x x x x 6 

39 Cymothoe hobarti hobarti c x x x x x 4 

40 Cymothoe sp1 c x 1 

41 Cynandra opis c x x x 2 

42 Cyrestis (Azania) camillus camillus c x x 1 

43 Danaus (Anosia) chrysippus aegyptius c x x x x 3 

44 Dixeia orbona vidua c x x 1 

45 Epitola viridana c x x 1 

46 Euphaedra eupalus c x x x x 3 

47 Euphaedra medon inaequabilis c x x x x x x x x 7


48 Euphaedra orientalis c x x x x x x x x 7 

49 Euphaedra rex c x x x x x x 5 

50 Euphaedra sp1 x 1 

51 Euphaedra sp2 x 1 

52 Eupheadra sp3 x 1 

53 Eurema (Terias) hapale x x x 2 

54 Eurema (Terias) hecabe solifera c x x x x 3 

55 Eurema (Terias) senegalensis c x x x x x x 5 

56 Euriphene sp1 x x 2 

57 Euriphene (Euriphene) saphirina saphirina c x x x x 3 

58 Euriphene (Euryphura) chalcis c x x 1 

59 Euxanthe (Euxanthe) eurinome birbirica c x x 1 

60 Euxanthe (Hypomelaena) trajanus c x x 1 

61 Graphium (Arisbe) latreillianus theorini c x x x 2 

62 Graphium (Arisbe) leonidas leonidas c x x x x 3 

63 Graphium (Arisbe) policenoides liponesco r x x x 2 

64 Graphium (Arisbe) porthaon c x x 1 

65 Graphium (Arisbe) ucalegon ucalegon r x x 1 

66 Harma theobene blassi c x x x x x 4 

67 Hypolimnas anthedon anthedon c x x x 2 

68 Hypolimnas dinarcha c x x 1 

69 Hypolimnas salmacis c x x x x x x x x 7 

70 Hypolimnas sp1 x 1 

71 Hypolycaena hatita ugandae c x x 1 

72 Junonia sp1 x 1 

73 Junonia stygia gregorii c x x x x x 4 

74 Junonia terea elgiva c x x x x 3 

75 Junonia oenone oenone c x x x 2 

76 Junonia sophia infracta c x x x 2 

77 Kallimoides rumia c x x x x x 4 

78 Lachnoptera anticlia c x x x x 3 

79 Leptosia alcesta inalcesta c x x x x x 3 

80 Leptosia nupta nupta c x x x x 3 

69 


70 O’Kah 







Obonyi I Camp 

Matene Camp 


Kekpani Camp 

Kekpani 






Assam 



Abundance 



81 Libythea labdaca labdaca c x x 1 

82 Mylothris continua continua c x x x x 3 

83 Mylothris sp1 c x 1 

84 Nepheronia argia argia c x x x x x 3 

85 Neptis agouale c x x x x x 4 

86 Neptis carcassoni c x x 1 

87 Neptis clarei c x x 1 

88 Neptis laeta c x x 1 

89 Neptis melicerta c x x 1 

90 Neptis nicobule c x x 1 

91 Neptis strigata c x x x 2 

92 Papilio sp1 x 1 

93 Papilio sp2 x 1 

94 Papilio (Princeps) dardanus c x x 1 

95 Papilio (Princeps) echerioides zoroastres c x x x 2 

96 Papilio (Princeps) hesperus hesperus c x x x x 3 

97 Papilio (Princeps) jacksoni c x x 1 

98 Papilio (Princeps) lormieri c x x 1 

99 Phalanta eurytis c x x x x x x 5 

100 Pseudacraea lucretia protracta c x x 1 

101 Pseudoneptis bugandensis bugandensis c x x x x 3 

102 Pseudopontia paradoxa r x x x x 3 

103 Salamis anacardii c x x x x 3


104 Sallya amulia rosa c x x x 2 

105 Sallya sp1 c x 1 

106 Triclema nigeriae r x x 1 

107 V sp1 x x 2 

108 W sp1 x 1 

109 X sp1 x x x x 4 

110 Y sp1 x x 2 

111 Z sp1 x 1 

TOTAL 55 25 13 9 1 18 17 5 1 2 10 43 24 1 5 28 49 3 

71 


72 


Biodiversity Assessment of the Odonate Fauna of Takamanda 



Dragonflies (Odonata) are attractive insects which are 

ideal for biodiversity studies. They are sensitive to 

pollution and habitat disturbance. They are excellent 

indicators of ecological health. Their present-day 

distributions are the result of past geological events and 

climatic fluctuations. There are approximately 6500 

species worldwide, classified in about 600 genera, but the 

African dragonfly fauna, with about 900 species and 125 

genera, is generally considered to be impoverished 

compared with that of South-East Asia or Central and 

South America. This is probably caused by the long 

periods of aridity which occurred during the Pleistocene. 

Only drought-adapted species could survive in large 

areas of the continent. The upland mountain chain which 

runs into the Gulf of Guinea, receives very high rainfall; 

up to 10,000 mm (400”) in the vicinity of Mount 

Cameroon, and over 3,000 mm at Mamfe (Vick 1999) 

and the dry season is short (usually at least 50 mm of rain 

even in the driest month). The natural vegetation is 

evergreen ‘Biafran’ rainforest. During the Pleistocene 

when the rainforest in Africa was drastically reduced; a 

few areas persisted as lowland rainforest refuges. These 

are generally near the coast and in areas which have the 

heaviest rainfall now. Botanical evidence suggests that 

the Cameroon/Nigeria border area is one of these refugia 

(Mayr and O’Hara 1986), possibly the richest in Africa, 

and this survey was conducted to investigate the 

dragonfly fauna and determine whether this also held true 

for Odonata. 

The Cameroon Dragonfly Project (CDP) was 

established in 1995 by Graham Vick and David 

Chelmick of England and Otto Mesumbe of Cameroon. 

Professor Philip Corbet is the president. It is the first 

long-term dragonfly project in tropical Africa. The initial 

Graham S. Vick 

concentration of effort has been in the Southwest 

Province as this region appears to be an important 

biodiversity hotspot. The objectives are to describe the 

fauna taxonomically and produce a species list; to 

produce an identification key to adults (completed by 

Graham Vick); to describe the larvae and write larval 

keys (completed by David Chelmick); and finally, to 

identify areas of greatest conservation importance. 

Perhaps the most important of all is to gain the interest 

and cooperation of local people. 

2 Methods 

Chapter 5 

The main recording effort of the CDP is based upon 

obtaining samples of the adult dragonflies using a 

standard 38 cm diameter butterfly net. Specimens were 

preserved dry. When acetone was available, the samples 

were soaked for 12 hours prior to drying to preserve 

colour. Efforts were made to examine all possible 

habitats: ponds, streams and larger rivers. Careful 

searching is necessary for some of the most elusive 

species which breed in small trickles, in seepages, and in 

one case, in the waterfilm flowing over rocks near 

waterfalls. The species composition depends upon the 

degree of shade offered by the waterside vegetation and 

the proximity of extensive areas of forest for maturation 

and feeding. Undoubtedly the quality of the forest cover 

is crucial, and the most of the endemics appear to need 

extensive areas of primary forest. Other species can 

tolerate more open habitats; disturbed forest and 

farmland must be examined thoroughly if a full species 

list is to be obtained. 

One of the most significant challenges encountered 

when attempting to sample Odonata in tropical forests is 

that the adults on which the specific identity depends are 

extremely elusive, can be difficult to catch, and 


74 

h—2@y——A 

2 

IE2— 

y2@w—Ã 

H S IH 

u 

Figure 1. Odonata sampling locations in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

frequently have behaviour patterns which mean that they 

only visit water rarely. Feeding and mating often take 

place in the tree canopy, and females only descend for 

oviposition. Larvae are surprisingly easy to find in the 

small streams and rainforest pools which the rarest 

species occupy. The breeding of larvae to adulthood 

therefore provides us with an unequivocal determination 

and is often the only way to build up data for larval keys. 

We have already produced keys to African Anax spp. 

(Chelmick 1999) and to African Aeshna spp. (Chelmick 

2001), and descriptions of larvae of three of the most 

interesting damselflies (Nubiolestes diotima, 

Stenocnemis pachystigma and Pentaphlebia stahli; Vick 

1998). A provisional version of the larval key is presently 

being tested in the field (Chelmick in prep). Once keys 

are available it will be relatively easy for non-experts and 


w— 

w— 

w—— 

Vick 

para-taxonomists to improve odonate site databases. 

Breeding also provides records of species which are 

never seen as adults. Another method which has been 

very successful is the use of emergence traps which are 

placed over trickles and seepages in the forest; adults are 

discovered with the larval shucks and this provides 

another method of associating the two stages. The larval 

work has been one of the most productive aspects of the 

Project and it is an excellent way of involving local 

people who enjoy the practical side of the work and the 

wonder of seeing such a beautiful creature emerge from 

a drab aquatic ‘grub’. The research conducted in 

Takamanda is a collaborative effort between CDP, the 

Smithsonian Institution and the World Wildlife Fund.

Odonate assessment 

Table 1. Collection locations within the Takamanda and Mone Forest Reserves and the Mbulu Forest, 1997-2001. (TFR = 

Takamanda Forest Reserve; MFR = Mone Forest Reserve: MF = Mbulu Forest 

AREA CODE / DESCRIPTION CO-ORDINATE / ALTITUDE 

01 Akwa Village, MFR 9Ê29©E, 6Ê03©N, 98m 

02 Ashunda Hill, MF 9Ê35©E, 6Ê10©N,

76 

The sites which have been surveyed in the period 

since 1997 are presented in Table 1. 

4 Discussion 

4.1 The Southwest province is a diversity 

‘hotspot’ 

The greatest priority for the conservation of Odonata in 

Western Africa lies in Cameroon and the adjacent regions 

of Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon (Dijkstra and 

Vick, in press). Both the highland and lowland rainforests 

have an odonate diversity that is unrivalled elsewhere in 

Africa. This diversity seems to be especially high in the 

Southwest Province of Cameroon, a mountainous region 

adjacent to the eastern Nigerian border. The African 

dragonfly fauna may be less rich than that of tropical Asia 

and the neotropics but our recent work has discovered 

that Southwest Cameroon has species diversities that are 

almost as high (Vick 1999). The total number of species 

recorded in this province alone stands at 182; the number 

of forest-adapted species with restricted ranges are 

particularly high, and many of the widespread species of 

the African savannah are absent (Vick 1999). 

As more sampling takes place in the region to the 

west, extending from Guinea to Ghana, it appears that 

odonate species richness approaches that of Southwest 

Cameroon; for example the richest is in the Ivory Coast 

with 175 species recorded. However, these species totals 

are made up of a greater number of taxa which are 

characteristic of the African savannah (O’Neill and 

Paulson 2001); many of these taxa are widespread and 

occur over a huge area which extends from Senegal to 

the southern Africa. 

The province also stands out from other species-rich 

areas of West Africa in terms of the number of 

phylogenetically interesting taxa present, such as those 

with affinities to the fauna of South America or 

Madagascar. It is also a center of diversity, possibly the 

most important in Africa, for many forest-stream 

specialists such as the Calopterygidae (Vick in prep.). 

The Cameroon Dragonfly Project surveys between 

1995 and 2001 have focused on the areas around Mount 


Cameroon, Mount Kupe, the lowlands in the vicinity of 

Kumba, the Bakossi Highlands, and Takamanda. All of 

our recording has been in the Southwest Province, except 

for a limited amount in Littoral Province on the east of 

Kupe. 

4.2 Subsets of the fauna 

Vick 

In Southwest Cameroon there is a marked faunal break at 

around 700m. In the lowlands there is a rich 

representation of the Guineo-Congolian fauna, but a 

limited degree of endemism. On the other hand, there is 

a distinct submontane fauna above 700m which breeds in 

the rapid rocky-bedded streams of the forested uplands, 

together with associated marshes, seepages and 

waterfalls. Most of the phylogenetically interesting taxa 

which have broader geographic affinities occur above 

700m in undisturbed forest. In fact, there is a 

characteristic suite of these species which are susceptible 

to disturbance and opening of the canopy; these have the 

potential to be used as indicators of forest quality. 

Apart from the altitudinal break mentioned, there is 

some evidence to suggest that there may be two slightly 

different faunas which may be associated with distinct 

Pleistocene refugia (or at least parts of one refugium 

which have perhaps been separated in the past into two 

rainforest ‘islands’). North of the Cross River, in 

Takamanda, there are interesting faunal elements which 

appear to be lacking to the south. The converse appears 

to also be true but further work is needed to establish this. 

Takamanda appears to be of major importance for 

odonate diversity. Surveying is at an early stage in the 

region and has only been carried out on the Cameroon 

side of the border, however initial results indicate a rich 

fauna, which is distinct from that further south in the 

Province. To date, 67 species have been recorded, 

compared with 182 from the Province as a whole (Vick 

1999). 

4.3 Important relict elements in the fauna 

In the Southwest Province there are relict genera with 

tropical American affinities. Pentaphlebia (only three


species extant in the subfamily - two species in the 

Cameroon and Nigeria border region and one species in 

the Guyana Highlands). The larvae are adapted to cling 

to the undersides of boulders in cold torrential streams. 

The species P. stahli occurs both north (including 

Takamanda) and south of the Cross River, and it is 

essentially the indicator species of submontane streams 

flowing through undisturbed forest. There is another 

species, P. gamblesi, which is only known from Obudu, 

Nigeria (only one specimen has ever been found) and this 

could be expected in higher altitude forests in 

Takamanda. Its larva awaits discovery and its 

relationships will be fascinating to discern. 

Nubiolestes diotima is the only African species of a 

small family, the Perilestidae, which is otherwise 

neotropical. The discovery of its larva at Kupe and the 

observation of synapomorphisms has added strength to 

its placement in the family (Vick 1998). It has been found 

at Takamanda. It occurs in backwaters of submontane 

streams which flow through dense forest. 

Genera with affinities with the Madagascar fauna are 

in the Megapodagrionidae: Nesolestes and Neurolestes. 

Neurolestes is represented by one species, trinervis, 

which appears to be relatively common in Takamanda 

(and less so to the south); Nesolestes is known from 

across the border in Obudu, Nigeria, and at Mount Oku 

in Northwest Province, and could be expected in 

Takamanda, perhaps occurring with Pentaphlebia 

gamblesi at higher elevations than Pentaphlebia stahli 

and Neurolestes trinervis. 

Other biogeographical puzzles occur in the area such 

as Stenocnemis a platycnemidid not closely related to any 

other taxon (Vick 1998) and Tragogomphus (three 

species endemic to Cameroon and Nigeria). 

4.4 African demoiselles: the Calopterygidae 

The Southwest Province is a hotspot for calopterygid 

diversity. Three genera are present, and in the Province 

alone there are 12 species (including two ‘forms’ which 

appear to be specifically distinct) present in the genera 

Umma, Phaon, and Sapho. In contrast, sampling to date 

in Ghana has revealed four species, while Uganda and 

Kenya share two; even Congo (DRC) only has five 

(O’Neill and Paulson 2001, Clausnitzer 2001). Most taxa 

are rainforest-stream specialists. There appears to be a 

difference between the fauna of Takamanda, north of the 

Cross River, and that of the area to the south. Widespread 

taxa (i.e. occurring north and south of the Cross River) 

are Umma mesostigma (see below) and Sapho 

orichalcea (mostly in submontane rainforest). Phaon 

iridipennis is a common African taxon which occurs in 

disturbed habitat in the region. A much more localised 

taxon, Phaon camerunense occurs from Guinea to 

Cameroon and it appears to be confined to lowland 

rainforest. Both species of Phaon have been found in 

Takamanda and the areas to the south. 

In the genus Sapho, we have two taxa present to the 

south (possibly a third pending verification), but to date 

in the Takamanda region we have only found the 

predominantly submontane, or cool-stream lowland 

species, Sapho orichalcea. 

In the genus Umma we have recorded eight taxa for 

the SW Province. Umma mesostigma is the most 

widespread species,occurring in Takamanda, and south 

of the Cross River, in both submontane and lowland 

habitats, usually in forests, but not necessarily 

undisturbed. Another species Umma longistigma occurs 

in two forms which may be separate species: one form 

occurs to the south of the Cross River from the Bakossi 

mountains southwards, while another form with 

narrower inferior appendages occurs in Takamanda, 

Korup, and in adjacent parts of Nigeria. An endemic 

species Umma mesumbei occurs in submontane streams 

at Kupe and the Bakossi Mountians (Vick 1996). This 

species has not been recorded within Takamanda. 

However, current surveys have rediscovered Umma 

purpurea, described from Mamfe in 1961. The species 

appears to be absent to the south, but curiously it is 

locally common on Bioko (Brooks and Jackson 2001). 

Umma puella is another taxon which has only rarely been 

encountered since its discovery in 1917. The species was 

found near Mount Cameroon in 1979 and at several sites 

in Takamanda in the current study. This is an interesting 

77 


78 

species from a phylogenetic point of view as it does not 

fit neatly into either genus according to present 

definitions. 

There is only one other calopterygid taxon, Umma 

saphirina known from the Rumpi Hills and adjacent 

areas of Nigeria. 

With seven genera present, the Southwest Province 

also seems to be one of the centres of diversity for the 

Tetrathemistinae, a pleisiomorphic subfamily of the 

worldwide Libellulidae. They are not colourful like most 

libellulids, their colours being yellow-green and black, 

and the species are almost entirely confined to streams 

and ephemeral pools in dense rainforest. This subfamily 

is of great evolutionary interest as they show a striking 

diversity of behaviour (Clausnitzer and Lempert 1998). 

In the majority of libellulid species, the females oviposit 

in flight by dipping the tip of the abdomen into the water 

so that they are ‘washed’ off and sink to the bottom. In 

the tetrathemistines there is a range of oviposition 

strategies: species of Tetrathemis which breed 

exclusively in rainforest pools settle and oviposit 

epiphytically on leaves several metres above the water; 

Notiothemis, Eothemis, Malgassophlebia and 

Micromacromia which breed in rainforest streams and 

pools oviposit in flight on banks well above water level; 

species of Allorhizucha oviposit in flight directly into 

water as in the more ‘modern’ libellulids. The recent 

discovery of an apparently endemic tetrathemistine 

genus and species, Mesumbethemis takamandensis, in 

the Takamanda Forest north of Mamfe illustrates the 

potential of this region (Vick 2000). 

Although surveying is in its preliminary stages in 

Takamanda, the discoveries so far indicate that the area is 

likely to be one of the highest importance for odonate 

diversity in Africa. Although clearly part of the main 

‘hotspot’ in Southwest Cameroon there is some evidence 

to suggest that its species composition may be different 

from that in the southern part of the province. As very 

little sampling has yet taken place above the critical 

700m altitude at which most endemics would be 

expected, I would anticipate some exciting discoveries to 

be made in the future. 



I am grateful for the efforts of Otto Mesumbe, Jacqui 

Groves and Christopher Wild, and their helpers, who 

have provided me with samples to study. I would like to 

acknowledge the financial assistance that has been 

provided by the International Dragonfly Fund for help 

with Otto Mesumbe’s expenses when visiting 

Takamanda. I am grateful to the Smithsonian Institution 

and CRES for encouraging researchers who have been 

concentrating on other projects to help the Cameroon 

Dragonfly Project with our work. 

Re-collecting in Takamanda, WWF funded research 

in 1998/99 and Smithsonian 2000/01. We are grateful to 

Jacqui Sunderland-Groves, Christopher Wild and Otto 

Mesumbe, and helpers for samples from Takamanda. 

This total species list is based upon sampling funded by 

World Wildlife Fund, Cameroon Dragonfly Project and 

the Smithsonian Institution. Thanks to Dan Slayback for 

preparation of the map. 

References 

Vick 

Brooks, S.J. and K.A.Jackson. 2001. The Odonata of 

Bioko, Republic of Equatorial Guinea, with the 

description of fan-shaped setae on early instar 

Libellulid larvae. Odononatologica 30(1): 29-38. 

Chelmick, D.G. 1999. Larvae of the genus Anax in 

Africa (Anisoptera: Aeshnidae). Odonatologica 

28(3): 209-218. 

Chelmick, D.G., 2001. Larvae of the genus Aeshna 

Fabricius in Africa south of the Sahara 

(Anisoptera: Aeshnidae). Odonatologica 30(1): 

39-47. 

Chelmick, D.G., in prep. A key to the dragonfly 

larvae of Cameroon. 

Clausnitzer, V. 2001. Notes on the species diversity 

of East African Odonata, with a checklist of 

species. Odonatologica 30(1): 49-66.


Clausnitzer, V. and J. Lempert. 1998. Preliminary 

comparative approach of the reproductive 

behaviour of African Tetratheminae (sic) 

(Anisoptera: Libellulidae) Journal of African 

Zoology 112(2): 103-107. 

Dijkstra, K.-D.B. and G. S. Vick. 2002. Afrotropical 

Region: Western Africa. IUCN Odonata 

Specialists Group: Regional Report. 

International Journal of Odonatology (in press). 

Mayr, E. and R.J. O’Hara. 1986. The Biogeographic 

evidence supporting the Pleistocene Forest 

Refuge Hypothesis. Evolution 40(1): 55-67. 

O’Neill, G., and D. Paulson. 2001. An annotated list 

of Odonata collected in Ghana in 1997, a 

checklist of Ghana Odonata, and comments on 

West African odonate biodiversity and 

biogeography. Odonatologica 30: 67-86. 

Vick, G.S.1996. Umma mesumbei spec. nov., with 

records of some other dragonfly species from the 

South West Province of Cameroon (Zygoptera: 

Calopterygidae). Odonatologica 25(2): 167-178. 

Vick, G.S.1998. Notes on some damselfly larvae 

from Cameroon (Zygoptera: Perilestidae, 

Amphipterygidae, Playcnemididae). 

Odonatologica 27(1): 87-98. 

Vick, G.S. 1999. A checklist of the dragonflies of the 

South West Province of Cameroon with a 

description of a new species of the genus 

Phyllogomphus Selys, 1854. Odonatologica 

28(3): 219-256. 

Vick, G.S. 2000. Mesumbethemis takamandensis 

gen. nov., spec.nov., a new genus and species of 

the Tetrathemistinae from Cameroon, with a key 

to the African genera of the subfamily 

(anisoptera: Libellulidae). Odonatologica 29(3): 

225-237. 

Vick, G.S. in prep. A study of the dragonflies of the 

Southwest Province of Cameroon with a key to 

the regional species. 

79 


80 

Appendix 1. Species list and sampling locations in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Family / Species 

Calopterygidae 

Notes Locations 

Phaon camerunensis Sj stedt, 1900 very local, shady rainforest streams, 

mainly lowland 

01, 11, 13, 24 

Phaon iridipennis (Burmeister, 1839) widespread open- stream species 11, 13, 18, 24 

Sapho orichalcea McLachlan, 1869 rainforest streams, mainly submontane 01, 02, 07, 08, 

10, 11, 12, 14, 

17, 19, 21 

Umma longistigma (Selys, 1869) narrow inferior appendages rainforest 06, 07, 08, 10, 

streams, mainly lowland 

11, 13, 18, 19, 

21, 23, 24 

Umma mesostigma (Selys, 1879) rainforest streams, range of altitudes, 

fairly tolerant of farmbush 

05, 10, 17, 19, 21 

Umma puella Sj stedt, 1917 occurs north of Cross River and near 07, 11, 15, 17, 

Mount Cameroon- rainforest streams 18, 19, 21 

Umma purpurea Pinhey, 1961 

Amphipterygidae 

possibly two disjunct populations: north 01, 05, 18, 21, 24 

of Cross River and Bioko- rainforest 

streams 

Pentaphlebia stahli F rster, 1909 rocky submontane streams, larvae cling 

to underside of rocks. Related to 

Rimanella arcana in Venezuela 

17 

Chlorocyphidae very colourful, all stream-dwellers, 

striking courtship behaviour which 

usually requires some breaks in tree 

canopy to provide sunny spots for 

displaying 

Chlorocypha cancellata (Selys, 1879) 01, 12, 14, 21 

Chlorocypha curta (Hagen in Selys, 1853) 14, 23 

Chlorocypha glauca (Selys, 1879) 07, 18, 23 

Chlorocypha rubida (Hagen in Selys, 1853) 11, 17, 23 

Chlorocypha selysi Karsch, 1899 9 

Platycypha rufitibia (Pinhey, 1961) 

Perilestidae 

23 

Nubiolestes diotima (Schmidt, 1941) very local endemic of 

Cameroon/Nigerian border, backwaters 

of streams in submontane rainforest. All 

other perilestids are neotropical 

10 

Megapodagrionidae 

Neurolestes trinervis Selys, 1885 local endemic - submontane rainforests. 

Close to Madagascar species in genus 

Nesolestes 


08, 19, 24 

Vick


Family / Species Notes Locations 

Coenagrionidae all stream-dwellers, usually tolerant of 

canopy loss 

Pseudagrion epiphonematicum Karsch, 1891 01, 02, 06, 16, 21 

Pseudagrion flavipes Sj stedt, 1900 11, 18 

Pseudagrion melanicterum Selys, 1876 01, 05, 09, 15, 

18, 24 

Pseudagrion serrulatum Karsch, 1894 13 

Pseudagrion sjostedti F rster, 1906 01, 14, 16, 17 

Pseudagrion hamoni* Fraser, 1955 09, 23 

Protoneuridae stream dwellers, usually in rainforest 

Chlorocnemis contraria Schmidt, 1951 12, 16, 17, 19, 21 

Chlorocnemis nigripes Selys, 1886 10, 11, 16, 17, 18 

Elattoneura balli Kimmins, 1938 11 

Elattoneura nigra Kimmins, 1938 11 

Elattoneura pruinosa ( Selys, 1886) 02, 05, 08, 09, 

10, 11, 12, 13, 

16, 17, 18, 22 

Prodasineura vittata (Selys, 1886) 

Platycnemididae 

18, 21 

Mesocnemis singularis Karsch, 1891 Streams and larger rivers, usually habitat 01, 16, 17, 19 

tolerant 

Platycnemis rufipes (Selys, 1886) Stream dwellers, usually in rainforest 24 

Gomphidae Almost all are stream-dwellers in 

rainforest 

Diastatomma tricolor (Palisot de Beauvois, 1805) 17, 18 

Gomphidia gamblesi Gauthier, 1987 Assam - reared specimen from larva 19 

Lestinogomphus angustus Martin, 1911 23 

Paragomphus genei (Selys, 1841) Stream-dweller, usually habitat tolerant 3 

Paragomphus sp.3 12 

Paragomphus sp.4 6 

Tragogomphus aurivillii Sj stedt, 1900 Possibly first record since description in 17 

1900 

Corduliidae Stream dwellers, usually in rainforest 

Phyllomacromia bicristulata [Legrand, 1975] 18, 24 

Phyllomacromia caneri (Gauthier, 1987) 17, 18 

Phyllomacromia funicularia (Martin, 1906) 18 

81 


82 

Family / Species Notes Locations 

Libellulidae Very diverse habitat requirements 

Allorrhizucha klingi Karsch, 1890 Stream dweller, tolerates partial loss of 

canopy 

Atoconeura biordinata Karsch, 1899 Rapid streams associated with forested 

habitats 


Vick 

02, 05, 08, 11, 

12, 13, 15, 18, 21 

Crocothemis erythraea (Brull!, 1832) Widespread, avoids rainforest 16 

Cyanothemis simpsoni Ris, 1915 Sluggish silty streams in rainforest 6 

Eothemis zygoptera Ris, 1909 7 

Hadrothemis camarensis Kirby, 1889 Rainforest 12, 17 

Hadrothemis versuta (Karsch, 1891) Rainforest 11 

Hemistigma albipuncta (Rambur, 1842) Widespread and tolerant 02, 07, 18, 19, 23 

Mesumbethemis takamandensis Vick, 2000 Described as new species and genus in 

2000, known from Assam in Takamanda 

only, presumably breeding in rainforest 

streams or pools 

19 

Micromacromia camerunica Karsch, 1889 Rainforest streams 7 

Notiothemis robertsi Fraser, 1944 Shady rainforest pools 24 

Orthetrum camerunense Gambles, 1959** Grassland pools and marshes 5 

Orthetrum chrysostigma (Burmeister, 1839) Widespread 18, 19 

Orthetrum julia Kirby, 1900 Widespread in secondary and disturbed 

rainforest 

01, 18, 20, 21, 23 

Orthetrum microstigma Ris, 1911 7 

Orthetrum stemmale (Burmeister, 1839) Farmbush and disturbed forest 02, 11, 17, 

Palpopleura lucia (Drury, 1773) Widespread 07, 10, 15, 18 

Pantala flavescens (Fabricius, 1798) Widespread 5 

Porpax bipunctus Pinhey, 1966 Possibly forest streams 07, 11, 21 

Tetrathemis bifida Fraser, 1941 Shady rainforest pools, tolerates 

secondary forest 

6 

Trithemis aconita Lieftinck, 1969 Streams often in farmbush and disturbed 19 

forest 

Trithemis arteriosa (Burmeister, 1839) Widespread, avoiding rainforest 05, 07, 09, 16, 

18, 23 

Porpacithemis sp.* 11 

Trithemis dichroa Karsch, 1893 Streams often in farmbush and disturbed 04, 18 

forest 

Trithemis pruinata Karsch, 1899 Streams often in rainforest. 05, 23 

Zygonyx flavicosta (Sj stedt, 1900) Rapid streams associated with forested 

habitats 

12, 13, 17, 18, 21 

Zygonyx speciosa (Karsch, 1891) Rapid streams associated with forested 

habitats 

11, 21 

* = provisional determination - identity at present unconfirmed 

**= this is a good species distinct from caffrum in the author©s opinion, based upon the very distinctive hamular structure - 

published in Vick, 1999 

21


Reptiles of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Matthew LeBreton, Laurent Chirio, and Désiré Foguekem 

Cameroon has a rich reptile fauna of more than 265 

species (Chirio and LeBreton in prep.), resulting from the 

country’s varied landscape and climate and its center of 

diversity in the western highlands. 

While this diversity is well known and although 

many unique and characteristic species have been 

recorded from Cameroon, there are few published local 

inventories. Most lists were compiled during general 

expeditions across Cameroon (Sternfeld 1908, 1909; 

Müller 1910; Neiden 1910a,b; Mertens 1938, 1940, 

1968; Monard 1951; Perret and Mertens 1957; Böhme 

1975b; Joger 1982; Böhme and Schneider 1987) or 

through studies of a taxonomic nature based on 

specimens in European or American museums (e.g., 

Loveridge 1947, Klaver and Böhme 1992). Notable 

exceptions include studies of snake fauna from Yaoundé 

(Gauduin 1970) and western Cameroon (Stucki-Stern 

1979) and short-term research on fauna in Campo Fauna 

Reserve (Ota et al. 1987) and Korup National Park 

(Lawson 1993). 

The non-governmental organization (NGO) 

CAMHERP has been operating in Cameroon since 1998, 

compiling an atlas of reptiles and providing regional and 

local inventories for other NGOs, the government sector, 

and regional projects. This paper presents the first list of 

reptiles from Takamanda forest (Takamanda Forest 

Reserve and adjoining areas), based on four excursions to 

the area in 2001 and 2002, in cooperation with the 

Takamanda Forest Surveys Project (GTZ/MINEF 

PROFAMAMFE) and Wildlife Conservation Society. 

2 Study area 

Chapter 6 

The southern border of Takamanda Forest Reserve 

(TFR) is located approximately 15 km north of Mamfe in 

the Southwest Province of Cameroon (Figure 1 Chapter 

1). The reserve, approximately 67,500 ha in size, follows 

the Cameroon/Nigeria border for about 30 km. 

In a simple breakdown of natural vegetation, four 

major types can be determined: lowland forest, medium 

altitude forest, montane forest, and elevated savanna 

(Sunderland et al. this volume). Derived vegetation types 

include cultivated areas, farm bush, and secondary forest 

around the reserve. Altitude varies from 100 m to about 

1,600 m. 

Four field trips were conducted in and around TFR 

over the course of one year. The first, from 14 - 30 May 

2001, focused the areas of Matene and Mende. At 

Matene, palm plantations, farm bush, dense lowland 

humid forest, and mid-elevation forest were examined, 

while at Mende, gallery forest, montane forest, elevated 

grassland, and farmland were surveyed. The second trip, 

from 2 - 17 August 2001, centered on the villages of 

Atolo—where sub-montane forest, ridge forest, farm 

bush and cocoa farms were the dominant vegetation 

types—and Tinta, where woodland savanna, moist 

evergreen forest, and the interface between these 

vegetation types were assessed. The third and fourth 

trips, from 6 - 19 December 2001 and 28 – 31 May 2002, 

examined lowland forest areas in the south of the reserve 

in the vicinity of the villages of Takamanda, Obonyi 1 

and 2, and Kekpane (Figure 2 in Chapter 1). 


84 LeBreton et al. 

3 Methods 

A team of experienced herpetologists, a graduate student, 

and field assistants from the Takamanda area carried out 

the field work. Field searches took place in areas 

where—and at times when—reptiles were known to be 

active or detectable, based on the experience of the field 

researchers. Searchers looked for active reptiles on the 

ground and in trees and shrubs. Inactive and burrowing 

reptiles were sought beneath rocks, exfoliating layers of 

bark, leaf litter, and fallen logs and in dark tree hollows 

and rock crevices (with the aid of a torch). Some 

searching was undertaken at night along tracks and in 

trees and houses, again with a torch. Captured reptiles 

were kept in cloth bags and small plastic containers lined 

with moistened moss. 

Bottles of 10% unbuffered formalin were left with 

volunteers in the villages of Mendé and Bidjan (close to 

Mamfe) from May to August 2001, in Atolo and Tinta 

from August 2001 to February 2002, and Obonyi 1 and 

2, Kekpane, and Takamanda villages from December 

2001 to May 2002 (Figure 1). Any reptiles killed in the 

villages were preserved in the formalin and removed 

during subsequent field work. Shells, bones, and skins of 

tortoises and crocodiles were also recorded from some 

villages. 

All specimens were preserved in 10% unbuffered 

formalin or 70% alcohol. Specimens collected will be 

deposited in the University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon, and 

the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. 

Principal works used in the identification of species 

include: for geckoes, Loveridge (1947), van den 

Audenaerde (1967), and Perret (1963, 1986); for 

Mabuya, Hoogmoed (1974) and Chirio and Ineich 

(2000); for Panaspis, Perret (1973); for chameleons, 

Klaver and Böhme (1992) and Wild (1993); and for 

snakes, Chippaux (2001), Meirte (1992), Laurent (1964), 

and unpublished data of Van Wallach. 

4 Results 

A total of 71 described species from 15 families were 

identified from TFR and the immediately surrounding 


area during the field work. The 41 species of snakes 

made up 59% of all species encountered, and the family 

Colubridae was the most species-rich family (26 

species). Three additional—and possibly undescribed— 

species were also recorded, two of which have been 

found in numerous localities in Cameroon’s forests, 

while one is known only from the Takamanda and Furu- 

Awa areas. 

Ten other species, not recorded from Takamanda, 

have been recorded from the adjacent towns of Mamfe 

and Bidjan (approximately 15 km to the south) during the 

current study (three species) or by Stucki-Stern (1979) 

(seven species). Unfortunately, the specimens collected 

by Stuki-Stern (1979) were destroyed, and identifications 

cannot be confirmed (Chris Wild pers.comm.). 

Two species—Chamaeleo montium and C. 

pfefferi—found in the Takamanda area are endemic to 

Cameroon, while three other species—Chamaeleo 

wiedersheimi, Cnemaspis koehleri, and Panaspis 

rohdei—could be classed as regional endemics because 

their distribution also includes small areas in Nigeria, 

Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. 

The tortoises Kinixys erosa and K. homeana are 

listed as Data Deficient and the Dwarf Crocodile 

Osteolaemus tetraspis as Vulnerable in the IUCN’s Red 

Lists. 

Eleven species included in Appendix II of the CITES 

convention, which regulates international commerce in 

wildlife, were recorded from the area, including the 

terrestrial tortoises and dwarf crocodile noted above and 

chameleons, monitor lizards, and pythons. 

5 Discussion 

The number (81) of described reptile species in the 

Takamanda area is similar to other locations in the 

volcanic chain mountains of Cameroon (65 species at 

Korup National Park [Lawson 1993] and 81 non-marine 

reptile species in the Mount Cameroon area [LeBreton 

2002]). Also typical of African forests is the high 

proportion (62%) of snakes in the species present at

Reptile Surveys 

Takamanda; compare to 65% at Korup National Park 

(Lawson 1993), 53% at Kibale National Park in Kenya 

(Vonesh 2001), and 56% in the Mount Cameroon area 

(LeBreton 2002). 

5.1 Affinities/relationships with other areas 

Seventy-five percent of the 65 reptile species found at 

Korup (Lawson 1993) and 78% of the 81 non-marine 

reptile species found in the Mount Cameroon area 

(LeBreton 2002) are also found at Takamanda. By 

contrast, the Bouba-Njida National Park area, dominated 

by savana, in northern Cameroon has only 25% of its 43 

species in common with the Takamanda area 

(unpublished CAMHERP data). 

Most of reptile species found at Takamanda are 

forest dwellers, giving the area an affinity with montane 

and sub-montane forest in the western parts of the 

country, including Mount Cameroon and Korup. There 

are, however, a number of savanna species that appear to 

reach their southern limit—at least in western 

Cameroon—in the Takamanda area. 

5.2 Species of interest 

The chameleons comprise a distinctive portion of the 

fauna in any part of Cameroon, and Takamanda is no 

exception. Five species have been recorded from the 

area, including the Dwarf Chameleon (Rhampholeon 

spectrum spectrum), Crested Chameleon (Chamaeleo 

cristatus), Mountain Chameleon (C. montium), 

Wiedersheim’s Chameleon (C. wiedersheimi) and 

Pfeffer’s Chameleon (C. pfefferi). The latter three species 

are Cameroon endemics, or near endemics, and are 

known only from restricted areas in Cameroon. 

The presence of Pfeffer’s Chameleon at Mendé 

extends the range of this species west from the Bamenda 

area where it was recently found (unpublished 

CAMHERP data); other populations of the species are 

about 150 km further south in the mountains of Kupe and 

Manengouba (Wild 1993) and Nlonako (Herrmann et al. 

1999). 

Two subspecies (C. w. wiedersheimi and C. w. 

perreti) of the near-endemic chameleon C. wiedersheimi 

are known from Cameroon, C. w. perreti has an 

extremely restricted distribution and is known only from 

around the Manengouba Mountains in Cameroon, while 

C. w. wiedersheimi, found at Mendé in the Takamanda 

area, is much more widespread. The Takamanda 

individuals bridge the gap between known populations 

on the Obudu Plateau of Nigeria (Böhme 1975a, 

Gartshore 1986) and populations at Bafut in Cameroon 

(Böhme 1975b) and west of Bamenda in Cameroon 

(unpublished CAMHERP data). This subspecies occurs 

in grassland and in gallery forests between about 1500 

and 2200 m (Gartshore 1986). 

The Mountain Chameleon (C. montium) was found 

during the current field work at Tinta to the north of TFR, 

and there is a single record from nearby Atolo (Klaver 

and Böhme 1992). While these two locations are close to 

each other, they are otherwise very isolated from other 

known populations of Mountain Chameleon at Mt. 

Cameroon, Mt. Kupe, Manengouba, and Rumpi Hills. 

Forests to the northeast of Takamanda have not been 

surveyed, however, and the population may be more 

extensive in that area. This species is usually found in 

moderate- to high-altitude forest (500 to 1300 m), often 

along forest edges and sometimes in cultivated areas 

(Klaver and Böhme 1992). 

A number of geckos, not endemic to Cameroon and 

known only from scattered localities, were found in the 

Takamanda area. Three of these species, Cnemaspis 

koehleri, Hemidactylus echinus, and H. intestinalis, 

apparently depend on large, old trees where they shelter 

beneath decorticating bark, among the roots of epiphytes, 

and in other crevices. This dependency on older trees has 

perhaps led to a patchy distribution; much of the forest in 

Cameroon is at least partially exploited, and few large, 

old trees remain in many areas. Two other gecko species 

were recorded in this study. Cnemaspis spinicollis is 

found in rocky outcrops in densely forested areas, and 

Lygodactylus conraui is commonly found in palm 

plantations. Both are known only from scattered 

locations. 

85 



Bothrolycus ater is a non-venomous snake restricted 

to central African forests, and in Cameroon there are only 

scattered records from the extensive rainforests of the 

south and the elevated forests of the west (unpublished 

CAMHERP data). A single specimen was found during 

this field work in the elevated forests at Mendé. 

5.3 Savanna species 

A number of savanna species known from the plains in 

northern Cameroon were found in the Takamanda area. 

The Royal Python (Python regius) is well known from 

the northern edge of the Cameroon’s Adamawa Plateau 

north to Waza National Park. It is usually found in drier 

habitats, including rocky hills and sometimes houses. In 

Nigeria, it is known from farmland and dryland rainforest 

(Luiselli and Akani 1999). The records of this species 

from Bidjan during this study are extremely isolated 

from the other known locationsities in Cameroon, but are 

likely contiguous with populations in adjacent Nigeria 

(e.g., Cross River National Park; Jim Comiskey pers. 

obs. 2001). 

Another savanna species, the egg-eating snake 

(Dasypeltis scabra), was recorded in elevated grassland 

around Mendé. This species is better known from the dry 

savanna further north in Cameroon, but has also been 

recorded from Bamenda (unpublished CAMHERP data) 

and from elevated savanna in other parts of Africa 

(Hughes 1983). This was the only snake recorded from 

the elevated grassland at Mende. All other species are 

apparently restricted to gallery forests. 

Panaspis kitsoni is a small skink commonly found in 

lowland gallery forests on the Bénoué Plain in northern 

Cameroon, but it is also known from scattered locations 

in western Cameroon and from Nigeria. During the 

current field work, it was found in Takamanda village 

and at Bidjan. The distribution of this species and its 

continuity with Nigerian populations is not yet clearly 

defined in western Cameroon. 


5.4 Undescribed species 

Three possibly undescribed species were found during 

these surveys. An Agama, superficially similar to Agama 

agama and found in similar habitats but restricted mostly 

to the coast and hinterland, was found in four locations in 

the Takamanda forest area. A species of Mabuya allied to 

Mabuya affinis was also recorded. Mabuya affinis is 

found throughout the forests of Cameroon, including 

some of the gallery forests on the Bénoué Plain. The 

closely related undescribed species has been recorded 

from numerous locations throughout the Cameroon and 

Central African Republic forest block. The third species 

is a large gecko (Hemidactylus), similar to H. fasciatus 

but bigger and with less distinct broad bars on the back. 

In Cameroon, it has also been recorded from the Furu- 

Awa area north of Wum near the Nigerian border. 

6 Concluding remarks 

6.1 Implications for conservation 

6.1.1 Endemics and other species with 

localized or restricted distributions 

Much of the Cameroon highlands are being converted to 

agriculture and settlement. Thus, certain species with 

restricted distributions are of conservation concern. 

Species found in areas particularly suitable for intensive 

grazing or cultivation may be affected by deterioration in 

habitat quality caused by poor land management such as 

overgrazing or clearing of habitat (especially elevated 

forests) for cultivation. These problems have already 

been identified in the Manengouba and Bamboutos 

highlands where a number of lizards and frogs are 

exhibiting sings of stress brought on by human activities 

(Gartshore 1986). Our recording of a number of these 

lizards in the area of Takamanda Forest Reserve 

enhances the potential for conservation. 

6.1.2 Red List Species 

Numerous undescribed species have recently been 

discovered in Cameroon, and we are now obtaining 

increased knowledge of the distribution of other species. 

It is likely that better understanding of species 

distribution and the factors that threaten some reptiles


will lead to a revision of IUCN’s Red Lists. Some species 

may be removed, while others are added. 

As noted above, the Red List species found at 

Takamanda include the Data Deficient terrestrial 

tortoises (Kinixys homeana and K. erosa) and the 

Vulnerable Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis). 

Local people consume these species, but it is not known 

how this affects populations of these reptiles in the 

Takamanda area. 

6.1.3 Local hunting 

The people of the Takamanda area collect several reptile 

species for food, most often as by-catch in fishing nets or 

on fishing lines, through encounters during cultivation, 

and along on forest paths or in villages. Direct hunting is 

unlikely, except perhaps for crocodile species. 

As stated above, many people in Cameroon 

consume the terrestrial tortoises Kinixys homeana and 

Kinixys erosa. They are likely to be captured while 

walking on forest tracks or during cultivation. Numerous 

dried shells of both species were seen in local villages 

during this study. Insufficient data exist regarding 

distribution and stresses to assess their conservation 

status, which is why they are listed as Data Deficient in 

the Red Lists. However, a recent article on hunting 

pressure in southwestern Cameroon (Lawson 2001) 

indicated that around some villages and even in reserves, 

these species are intensely collected, with annual harvests 

up to 0.7 Kinixys per km 2 . 

Trionyx triunguis, a soft-shelled aquatic tortoise 

known from scattered locations in Cameroon, inhabits 

medium to large rivers in both savanna and forest areas. 

One dried shell of this species, kept after the meat of the 

animal had been eaten, was found in the village of 

Obonyi I during this field work. 

Larger species of snakes, including the Gabon Viper 

(Bitis gabonica), Horned Viper (Bitis nasicornis), Forest 

Cobra (Naja melanoleuca melanoleuca), Green Mamba 

(Dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni), and African Rock 

Python (Python sebae), are all likely to be consumed by 

villagers in the Takamanda area. These creatures are 

probably encountered during cultivation, while walking 

on forest tracks, or when they enter villages. The aquatic 

snakes of the genus Grayia attain a considerable size and 

are also likely to be consumed, as in other parts of 

Cameroon, if they are captured in fishing nets or on 

fishing lines. However, some of the people inhabiting the 

area avoid eating snakes for traditional reasons (Jacqui 

Sunderland-Groves pers. comm.). 

The Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis 

tetraspis) is locally consumed, as are the other crocodile 

species (Crocodylus cataphractus and C. niloticus) that 

are likely to occur in the area. This factor may contribute 

to low numbers of crocodiles, but even as early as the 

1960s, crocodile populations had been greatly reduced in 

central Africa (Cott and Pooley 1972) and remain so 

today (Luiselli et al. 2000), probably because of hunting 

for meat, export of skins, and degradation of habitat in 

some areas. 

6.1.4 Intercontinental Trade Species 

Because of the relative inaccessibility of Takamanda 

Forest Reserve, the collection of species such as 

chameleons, tortoises, and pythons for intercontinental 

trade is unlikely to pose a conservation issue in the area. 

6.2 Additional study 

In reptile research, even a near-comprehensive list of 

species is difficult to compile. The encounter rates for 

many snake species are low, and this is further 

complicated by the large number of secretive, burrowing 

species found in the forests of Cameroon and variance in 

weather conditions during field work. For a 

comprehensive list, extensive field work during different 

seasons and varying climatic conditions is necessary. 

In Cameroon, many traditional beliefs are associated 

with reptile species, and these beliefs are often extremely 

localized. Some beliefs preclude the killing or eating of 

certain species. Management of reserves should therefore 

be sensitive to such beliefs, embracing those that enhance 

the conservation of certain species. Given that reptiles are 

87 



an important part of the forest fauna for the people of 

Takamanda—as food, in the preparation of medicines, 

and for traditional rituals—more research related to the 

relationships between local villagers and reptiles could 

prove to be an important resource for future management 

of the forest. 


We appreciate the assistance of the GTZ, Takamanda 

Forest Survey Project, and Wildlife Conservation Society 

(which funded this research), especially the work of 

Jacqui Sunderland-Groves, Terry Sunderland, Marina 

Mdaihli, Eric Tah, and David Hoyle. Fieldwork was 

carried out by the co-author, Désiré Foguekem, Masters 

student at the University of Yaoundé I, Paul Maklowodé, 

field herpetologist with 15 years experience in Central 

Africa, Cyriaque Ebodé, field herpetologist with 2 years 

experience in Cameroon, and field assistants from the 

Takamanda area. The Ministry for the Environment and 

Forests, through Dr. Denis Koulagna, helpfully provided 

CAMHERP with permits to undertake the research. 

Thanks also to Jim Comiskey of the Smithsonian 

Institution’s Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity 

Program, who provided advice on the manuscript. The 

Cameroon Ornithological Club and its director, 

Guillaume Dzikouk, generously accommodate the 

CAMHERP office in Yaoundé. We thank Dr. Ivan Ineich 

of the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle for helping 

to guide CAMHERP and its work. Thanks to Dan 

Slayback for preparing the map. 

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Appendix 1. Reptiles from the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon.(a: Klaver and Böhme 1992; b: Stucki-Stern 1979; other 

records come from the present work) 

Testudinidae (terrestrial tortoises) 


Kinixys erosa (Schweigger 1812) 

Kinixys homeana ( Bell 1827) 

Trionychidae (soft-shelled tortoises) 

Trionyx triunguis (Forsk!l 1775) 

Crocodilidae (crocodiles) 

Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis (Cope 1861) 

Gekkonidae (geckoes) 

Cnemaspis koehleri (Mertens 1937) 

Cnemaspis spinicollis (Müller 1907) 

Hemidactylus brookii angulatus (Hallowell 1852) 

Hemidactylus echinus (O©Shaughnessy 1875) 

Hemidactylus fasciatus fasciatus (Gray 1842) 

Hemidactylus intestinalis (Werner 1897) 

Hemidactylus mabouia mabouia (Moreau de 

Jonnès 1818) 

Hemidactylus sp. 

 

Obonyi 1 

 

 

 

Obonyi 3 

Kekpane 

Basho 2 

Mamfe/Bidjan 

Maten! 

 

 

Lygodactylus conraui (Tornier 1902) 

Agamidae (dragon lizards) 

Agama agama (Linnaeus 1758) 

Agama cf. agama 

Agama sylvanus (Macdonald 1981) 

Chamaeleonidae (chameleons) 

Chamaeleo cristatus (Stutchbury 1837) (a) 

Chamaeleo montium (Buchholz 1874) (a) 

Chamaeleo pfefferi (Tornier 1900) 

Chamaeleo wiedersheimi wiedersheimi (Nieden 

1910) 

Rhampholeon spectrum spectrum (Buchholz 

1874) 

Lacertidae (lacertid lizards) 

Holaspis guentheri (Gray 1863) 

Lowland forest sites 

Mend! 

 

 

Atolo 

91 

Tinta 

 

 

Highland 

sites 

Savanna/ 

forest 




Appendix 1 (cont.). Reptiles from the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Scincidae (skinks) 



Mabuya affinis (Gray 1838) 

Mabuya cf affinis 

Mabuya albilabris (Hallowell 1857) 

Mabuya maculilabris maculilabris (Gray 1845) 

Mabuya polytropis (Boulenger 1903) 

Mochlus fernandi (Burton 1836) 

Panaspis breviceps (Peters 1873) 

Panaspis kitsoni (Boulenger 1913) 

Panaspis rohdei (Muller 1910) 

Varanidae (monitor lizards) 

Varanus ornatus (Daudin 1803) 

Typhlopidae (blind or worm snakes) 

Typhlops angolensis (Bocage 1866) 

Typhlops congestus (Duméril and Bibron 1844) 

Typhlops steinhausi (Werner 1909) 

Pythonidae (pythons) 

Calabaria reinhardti (Schlegel 1848) 

Python regius (Shaw 1802) 

Python sebae (Gmelin 1788) (b) 

Colubridae (colubrid snakes) 

Afronatrix anoscopus (Cope 1861) (b) 

Bothrolycus ater (Günther 1874) 

Buhoma depressiceps depressiceps (Werner 

1897) 

Dasypeltis fasciata (Smith 1849) 

Dasypeltis scabra (Linnaeus 1758) 

Dipsadoboa underwoodi (Rasmussen 1993) 

Dipsadoboa unicolor unicolor (Günther 1858) 

Dipsadoboa viridis (Peters 1869) 

Gonionotophis brussauxi brussauxi (Mocquard 

1889) 

Grayia smythii (Leach 1818) 

Obonyi 1 

 

 


Obonyi 3 

 

Kekpane 

Basho 2 

Mamfe/Bidjan 

 

(b) 

 

(b) 

Maten! 

Highland 

sites 

Hapsidophrys lineatus (Fischer 1856) 

Hapsidophrys smaragdina (Schlegel 1837) (b) 

Mend! 

 

 

 

Savanna/ 

forest 

Atolo 


 




Lamprophis olivaceus (Duméril 1856) 

Lamprophis virgatus (Hallowell 1854) 


Mehelya capensis savorgnani (Mocquard 1887) 

Mehelya guirali (Mocquard 1887) (b) 

Mehelya poensis (Smith 1847) 

Mehelya stenophthalmus (Mocquard 1887) (b) 

Meizodon coronatus (Schlegel 1837) 

Natriciteres fuliginoides (Günther 1858) (b) 

Natriciteres olivacea (Peters 1854) 

Philothamnus carinatus (Andersson 1901) 

Philothamnus heterodermus (Hallowell 1857) (b) 

Philothamnus heterolepidotus (Günther 1863) 

Philothamnus nitidus (Günther 1863) 

Psammophis phillipsii (Hallowell 1844) 

Thelotornis kirtlandi (Hallowell 1844) 

Thrasops aethiopissa (Günther, 1862) 

Thrasops flavigularis (Hallowell 1852) 

 

Thrasops occidentalis (Parker 1940) (b) 

Toxicodryas blandingii (Hallowell 1844) 

Toxicodryas pulverulenta (Fischer 1856) (b) 

Elapidae (front-fanged snakes) 

Dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni (Traill 1843) 

Naja melanoleuca melanoleuca Hallowell 1857 

Pseudohaje goldii (Boulenger 1895) (b) 

Viperidae (vipers) 

Atheris squamigera (Hallowell 1854) (b) 

Bitis arietans (Merrem 1820) 

Bitis gabonica (Duméril and Bibron 1845) (b) 

Bitis nasicornis (Shaw 1802) (b) 

Causus lichtensteinii (Jan 1859) 


Obonyi 1 

 

 

Obonyi 3 

 

Kekpane 

Basho 2 

Mamfe/Bidjan 

 

(b) 

(b) 

(b) 

(b) 

Maten! 

Highland 

sites 

Causus maculatus (Hallowell 1842) 

Mend! 

Atolo 

93 

Savanna/ 

forest 



 

 




Atractaspididae (burrowing asps) 



Obonyi 1 

Obonyi 3 

Aparallactus modestus (Günther 1859) 

Atractaspis irregularis irregularis (Reinhardt 

1843) 


Kekpane 

Basho 2 

Mamfe/Bidjan 

Maten! 

Highland 

sites 

Mend! 

Savanna/ 

forest 

Atolo 


 

Polemon collaris collaris (Peters 1881) 

Polemon gabonensis gabonensis (Duméril 1856) 

(b)


Birds of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Marc Languy and Francis Njie Motombe 

Cameroon, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake 

Chad, boasts a varied topography and many habitats. As 

a result, the avifauna is particularly rich; 928 species have 

been recorded to date (Languy et al. in press). The 

Cameroon government and international organizations 

realize the need to document and protect the country’s 

biological diversity, and a number of field surveys were 

conducted from 1999 to 2001 to identify sites of high 

biological—particularly ornithological—value in 

Cameroon through the Important Bird Area process, 

coordinated by BirdLife International and implemented 

by the Cameroon Ornithological Club (COC). 

Still, the avifauna of Cameroon is poorly known 

when compared to countries in eastern and southern 

Africa as well as some West African countries. During a 

national workshop organized by BirdLife International 

and the COC in September 1998, Cameroon’s 

Takamanda region and the area west and north of Mamfe 

were identified as areas in need of field surveys (COC 

1998). 

Prior to this study, only a brief survey undertaken by 

World Wildlife Fund in 1988 (Thomas et al. 1989) had 

been completed in Takamanda vicinity, recording fewer 

than 50 species. However, even that short list indicated 

the presence of three sub-montane species—Blackcapped 

Woodland Warbler Phylloscopus herberti, 

Bocage’s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei, and Crossley’s 

Ground-thrush Zoothera crossleyi. This sub-montane 

component, together with vast areas of lowland forest, 

point to potentially high bird diversity at Takamanda and, 

possibly, rare or even threatened species. In recognition 

of that potential, COC and BirdLife International 

proposed in 1998 that Takamanda be considered as an 

Important Bird Area; that is, a site of special conservation 

value for birds. IBAs are selected using internationally 

recognized objective, scientific criteria. 

A portion of Takamanda is adjacent to Obudu 

Plateau in Nigeria and thus is part of the Cameroon- 

Nigeria Mountain range that stretches from Bioko to 

Tchabal Mababo and Tchabal Ngandaba and includes 

Mt. Cameroon, Rumpi Hills, Mt. Nlonako, Bakossi 

Mountains, Mt. Kupé, Mt. Manenguba, and Bamenda 

Highlands. This mountain range is well known for its 

high degree of endemism in many taxa. For example, 24 

species of birds are restricted to this mountain range. 

While birds on the ridge are relatively well known, 

Takamanda is an outlier that deserves attention. 

2 Methods 

Chapter 7 

The discovery of three sub-montane bird species by 

WWF in 1988 prompted us to focus on sampling the 

highest altitudes of the Takamanda Reserve and check 

whether afro-montane species occur. At the same time, 

we recognized that most of the Reserve is covered by 

lowland forest (see Sunderland et al. this volume), and a 

special effort was made to cover this biome to the extent 

possible. 

Our primary method of investigation was to walk 

slowly in the forest and to remain sitting quietly at 

regular intervals to record as many birds as possible, 

using binoculars. Fourteen sites were sampled in this 

manner (Table 1 and Figure 1), and many species were 

identified by their calls or songs. We incorporated the use 

of field guides, including plates from Borrow and Demey 

(2002), and color copies of selected plates from Birds of 

Africa. See Appendix 1 for a list of the species we 

recorded. 


96 Languy and Motombe 

f 

5 q—2˜— 

w22@IE2—A 

y2@w—Ã 

H S IH 

u 

5 5 

Figure 1. Bird sampling sites in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Camerooon 

In addition to general observations, we used mist 

nets at eight sites (Figure 1 and Table 2) to maximize the 

chances of recording shy forest species. 

The bird survey lasted for a total of 36 field days 

(excluding transport) and was undertaken during three 

time intervals: 8-29 January 2001, 10-18 March 2001, 

and 10-22 December 2001. An experienced bird observer 

(Njie) was in the field during all three intervals and was 

responsible for data collection. Assistants from nearby 

villages acted as guides and also helped in erecting the 

mist nets. 


5 

w— 

w— 

5 

5 

5 

5 

w—— 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

3 Results 

3.1 Species richness 

A total of 309 species of birds were recorded during the 

surveys, not including four species recorded by World 

Wildlife Fund in 1988 through the use of mist nets. 

Including those species brings the total to 313 species 

known to occur in Takamanda—an impressive number 

when compared to protected areas such as Campo 

National Park, Dja Faunal Reserve, or Lobeke National 

Park, which have been more extensively surveyed. We 

estimate that further surveys at different times of the year 

and in different sectors (particularly at the highest 

altitudes) of the Reserve should increase the total number 

of species.

Assessment of the Bird Fauna 

Table 1. Location of observations in Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, Cameroon. 

Site Name Coordinates 

Kekpani 06Ê05’841”N: 09Ê23’929”E 

Mbu 06Ê00’786”N: 09Ê27’389”E 

Assam 06Ê00’501”N: 09Ê27’559”E 

Mfakwe 06Ê03’695”N: 09Ê25’520”E 

Takamanda 06Ê01’146”N: 09Ê16’267”E 

Takwo 06Ê08’157”N: 09Ê.36.253”E 

Obonyi I 06Ê07’938”N: 09Ê15’465”E 

Obonyi III 06Ê07’784”N: 09Ê17’233”E 

Matene 06Ê16’150”N: 09Ê21’404”E 

Mende 06Ê19’385”N: 09Ê22’779”E 

Mbilishi 06Ê11’693”N: 09Ê27’401”E 

Basho I 06Ê08’366”N: 09Ê27’091”E 

Akwa 06Ê03’442”N: 09Ê28’500”E 

Nyang 05Ê57’115”N: 09Ê25’364”E 

This high diversity is almost certainly the result of 

the variety of ecosystems found in the Reserve: lowland 

Guineo-Congolian forest (including forested rivers), 

montane forests, and high-altitude grasslands. Of special 

significance is the transition forest between montane and 

lowland forests, a forest type that suffers from 

encroachment in Cameroon and Africa in general, but 

that holds a large variety of birds. 

Table 2. Location of mist nets in Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon. 

Site Name Coordinates 

Obonyi I forest 06Ê07’488”N; 09Ê12’888”E 

near Magbe 

River 

Mende Hills 06Ê19’400”N; 09Ê23’474”E 

Kekpani forest 06Ê05’841”N; 09Ê23’929”E 


forest 

06Ê03’160”N; 09Ê16’794”E 

Mblishi forest 06Ê11’693”N: 09Ê27’401”E 

Obonyi III forest 06°07’784”N; 09°17’233”E 

Mbu 06Ê00’786”N: 09Ê27’389”E 

Nyang 05Ê57’115”N: 09Ê25’364”E 

3.2 Threatened species 

As shown in Table 3, nine threatened species have been 

recorded so far in Takamanda. Of these, one—the Whitethroated 

Mountain Babbler Kupeornis gilberti—is 

considered “endangered.” Two—Grey-necked 

Picathartes Picathartes oreas and Bannerman’s Weaver 

Ploceus bannermani—are “vulnerable,” while six 

others—Hartlaub’s Duck Pteronetta hartlaubii, Yellowcasqued 

Wattled Hornbill Ceratogymna elata, Cameroon 

Montane Greenbul Andropadus montanus, Crossley’s 

Ground-thrush Zoothera crossleyi, Bangwa Forest 

Warbler Bradypterus bangwaensis, and White-tailed 

Warbler Poliolais lopezi—are “near threatened” 

(BirdLife International 2000). 

The occurrence of these species confirms the global 

significance of Takamanda Forest Reserve for imperiled 

bird species. 

3.3 Restricted-range/endemic species 

A key outcome of the survey was the discovery of 16 

species with restricted ranges (Table 4). Restricted-range 

species have a total world range of less than 50,000 km² 

and thus are very limited in their distribution. The species 

are grouped by Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), areas which 

encompass the overlapping breeding ranges of restrcitedrange 

bird species, such that the complete ranges of at 

least two restricted-range species are entirely included 

within the boundary of the EBA (Stattersfield et al. 

1998). Thirteen of the 16 restricted-range species found 

in Takamanda are confined to the Cameroon-Nigeria 

mountain chain, and three are restricted to the Cameroon- 

Gabon lowlands. 

Such a vast array of restricted-range species shows 

the importance of Takamanda Forest Reserve as a 

sanctuary for species that are endemic to the Cameroon 

mountains. 


97


Table 3. Threatened bird species of Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, Cameroon. EN: endangered; VU: vulnerable; NT: 

near-threatened. 

IUCN English name Scientific name 

EN White-throated 

Mountain Babbler 

Kupeornis gilberti 

VU Grey-necked 

Picathartes 

Picathartes oreas 

VU Bannerman©s Weaver Ploceus 

bannermani 

NT Hartlaub©s Duck 

Pteronetta 

hartlaubii 

NT Yellow-casqued 

Wattled Hornbill 

Ceratogymna elata 

NT 

Cameroon Montane 

Greenbul 

Andropadus 

montanus 

NT 

Crossley©s Groundthrush 

Zoothera crossleyi 

NT 

Bangwa Forest 

Warbler 

Bradypterus 

bangwaensis 

NT White-tailed Warbler Poliolais lopezi 

3.4 Biome-restricted species: Afromontane 

biome 

The survey also discovered a significant component of 

afro-montane avifauna. Altogether, 28 afro-montane 

species were recorded (Appendix 1), more than 

previously believed existed in this area. For many 

species, their occurrence at Takamanda significantly 

extends their known range in Cameroon; for some, 

including Kupeornis gilberti and Poliolais lopezi, the 

closest known records in Cameroon are more than 100 

km distant. Most montane species at Takamanda are 

known from the nearby Obudu Plateau in Nigeria 

(Fishpool and Evans 2001) however, so their presence is 

not totally unexpected. 

3.5 Biome-restricted species: lowland 

(Guineo-Congolian) forest biome 

The occurrence of 139 species restricted to the Guineo- 

Congolian forest (Appendix 1), although expected, is 


particularly interesting and confirms that Takamanda 

Forest Reserve holds a vast component of lowland forest 

avifauna. Protection of the Reserve would preserve a 

representative sample of the lowland forest avifauna. 

It should be noted that two species—Sun Lark 

Galerida modesta and the Bush Petronia Petronia 

dentate—which are more typical of Guinean savannas 

were recorded in the grasslands. 

3.6 Other interesting records 

The survey recorded two species that are new to 

Cameroon—Ussher’s Flycatcher Muscicapa ussheri, 

observed twice (once in the vicinity of its close relative 

Sooty Flycatcher Muscicapa infuscate) and Grey-headed 

Bristlebill Bleda canicapilla, which was captured in mist 

nets on two occasions. The discovery of Ussher’s 

Flycatcher was not totally unexpected, given that there 

are records of this bird about 50 km from Takamanda in 

eastern Nigeria (Elgood 1994). Grey-headed Bristlebill 

reaches its eastern limit at the Cameroon-Nigeria border. 

Other species of interest include Tufted Duck Aythya 

fuligula (Bobo et al. 2000), recorded on the Magbe River 

with other aquatic species, and Capuchin Babbler 

Phyllanthus atripennis, recorded at Obonyi 1 and 

Kepani. 

On four occasions, we recorded Kemp’s Longbill 

Macrosphenus kempi, a West African species that is 

sympatric with Yellow Longbill Macrosphenus flavicans 

as the two species meet along the Cameroon-Nigeria 

border. The only other site for Kemp’s Longbill in 

Cameroon is Korup National Park (Rodewald and 

Bowden 1995). 

An interesting record from a biogeographical 

perspective is the presence of both Red-cheeked Wattleeye 

Dyaphorophyia blisseti and Black-necked Wattleeye 

Dyaphorophyia chalybea. These two closely related 

species replace each other: Red-cheeked Wattle-eye is a 

West African species reaching its eastern limit in 

Cameroon, with records around Mt. Cameroon and 

Kumba (Louette 1981). The two species were not


Table 4. Restricted range (total world range less than 50.000 

km²) bird species of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

GCL: species confined to the Gabon-Cameroon Lowland 

Forest Endemic Bird Area; CNM: species confined to the 

Cameroon-Nigeria Mountain. 

EBA English name Scientific name 

GCL Forest Swallow Hirundo fuliginosa 

GCL Grey-necked 

Picathartes 

GCL Rachel©s Malimbe 

CNM 


Greenbul 

CNM Grey-throated 

Greenbul 

CNM 

Cameroon Olive 

Greenbul 

CNM 

Mountain Robin- 

Chat 

CNM 

Bangwa Forest 

Warbler 

CNM Brown-backed 

Cisticola 

Picathartes oreas 

Malimbus 

racheliae 

Andropadus 

montanus 

Andropadus 

tephrolaemus 

Phyllastrephus 

poensis 

Cossypha isabellae 

Bradypterus 

bangwaensis 

Cisticola discolor 

CNM Green Longtail Urolais epichlora 

CNM White-tailed Warbler Poliolais lopezi 

CNM Black-capped 

Woodland Warbler 

Phylloscopus 

herberti 

CNM White-throated 

Mountain Babbler 

Kupeornis gilberti 

CNM 

Cameroon Blueheaded 

Sunbird 

Cyanomitra oritis 

CNM Yellow-breasted 

Boubou 

Laniarius 

atroflavus 

CNM Bannerman©s Weaver Ploceus 

bannermani 

recorded together at the same spot (they were about 3 km 

apart), but their ranges obviously meet in Takamanda, 

with possibly an overlap and an ecological separation as 

shown by Eisentraut (1973) to occur around Mt. 

Cameroon and Kumba. 

The current surveys also extended to the north the 

range in Cameroon of more than 20 lowland forest 

species. 

Finally, we recorded two adult males of an 

unidentified Malimbe Malimbus species at Obonyi I for 

more than 15 minutes on a dead tree in farm bush. The 

description of the birds fits the highly threatened and 

local Ibadan Malimbe Malimbus ibadanensis, which is 

so far known only from western Nigeria. The birds were 

vocal, and the song and calls did not fit any other species 

of Malimbe. Unfortunately, there are no recordings of M. 

ibadanensis for comparison. Because Ibadan Malimbe is 

very rare and local, we need confirmation of our 

observation. We also note several unconfirmed records of 

the closely related Cassin’s Malimbe Malimbus cassini 

west of the Sanaga, where this species is not found 

(Louette 1981, Keen 1993, Williams 1993). We do not 

rule out the possibility that these records may refer to the 

unknown species of Malimbe that we recorded or to 

Ibadan Malimbe. 

4 Conclusions 

4.1 Takamanda is an Important Bird Area 

Takamanda Forest Reserve clearly qualifies as an 

Important Bird Area, based on the three following 

criteria: presence of endangered species, presence of 

restricted-range species, and occurrence of a vast array of 

biome-restricted species. 

4.2 Regional significance of Takamanda 

Forest Reserve 

The montane and sub-montane avifauna of Takamanda is 

more important than previously thought. The highest 

sector of Takamanda Forest Reserve must be considered, 

from a biological point of view, as an extension of the 

Obudu plateau. The occurrence of a large montane 

avifauna, with several endangered and endemic species, 

definitely deserves special attention from a conservation 

perspective. As noted, of special significance is the midaltitude 

transition forest, which suffers from 


99


encroachment in Cameroon and Africa in general but 

holds a large variety of birds. 

This study also confirmed that Takamanda holds a 

large array of lowland forest species. This is an important 

finding that further emphasizes the conservation value of 

the area because of its location at the northern limit of the 

lowland forest block. For many species, Takamanda is 

the largest forest block at the northern limit of their 

distribution. 

The Reserve also corresponds to the limit of several 

West African species, some of them being immediately 

replaced by their Central or East African equivalents. In 

addition to the conservation value of the Reserve’s 

position at the border between West and Central African 

avifauna, Takamanda represents an opportunity for field 

research in biogeography. 

5 Recommendations 

Following our preliminary surveys, we recommend the 

following: 

1. The highest elevations of Takamanda Forest Reserve 

should be fully protected, together with a significant 

proportion of transition forest. 

2. Because montane avifauna in Takamanda and 

Obudu plateau form one biological unit, a transboundary 

conservation measure should be 

implemented for long-term protection. 

3. The lowland sector of the reserve is particularly 

important because it represents true Guineo- 

Congolian forest. This sector, at the northern edge of 

the large Central African forest block, deserves 

conservation attention. 

4. There are approximately10 montane species and 10 

to 20 lowland forest species that are likely to be 

found in Takamanda but that have not yet been 

recorded. More surveys should be conducted, of at 


least 10 days duration in the montane sector and two 

to three weeks duration in the lowland sector. 

Optimal timing for the surveys is December at the 

beginning of the breeding season. Both tape 

recordings (playback) and mist netting should be 

employed. 


The authors thank the Smithsonian Institution 

Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity Program 

(SI/MAB), BirdLife International, the Takamanda Forest 

Surveys Project, and GTZ for their interest and support in 

this study. Thanks to Dan Slayback for preparing the 

map. 

References 

BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the 

World. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx 

Edicions and BirdLife International. 

Borrow N., and R. Demey. 2001. A Guide to the 

Birds of Western Africa. London: Christopher 

Helm. 

Bobo, K.,S., D. A. Ndeh, K. Y. Djabo, and L. 

Nayuoh. 2000. First records of Tufted Duck 

Aythya fuligula in Cameroon. Malimbus 22: 91- 

92. 

Cameroon Ornithological Club. 1998. Report on the 

IBA workshop held in Yaoundé, September 

1998. Cameroon Ornithological Club (unpublished 

report). 

Eisentraut, M. 1973. Die wirbeltierfauna von 

Fernando Po and Westkamerun. Bonn Zoolog. 

Monogr. 3: 428. 

Elgood, J. H. 1994. The birds of Nigeria. B.O.U. 

Checklist No. 4 (second edition). British 

Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK.


Fishpool, L. D. C. and M. L. Evans, eds. 2001. 

Important Bird Areas in Africa and Associated 

Islands: Priority Sites for Conservation. 

Newbury and Cambrdige, UK: Pisces 

Publications and BirdLife International 

(BirdLife Conservation Series No. 11). 

Keen. 1993. Bird trip report to Cameroon 

(unpublished report). 

Languy M., S. K. Bobo, F. M. Njie, K. Y. Njabo, J.M. 

Lapios, and R. Demey, in press. Species new to 

Cameroon and other interesting records. 

Submitted to Malimbus. 

Louette, M. 1981. Birds of Cameroon: An annotated 

checklist. Verhand. A.W.L.S.K. 163: 1-295. 

101 

Rodewald, P. G., and C. G. R. Bowden. 1995. First 

record of Kemp’s Longbill Macrosphenus kempi 

in Cameroon. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 115: 66-68. 

Stattersfield, A. J., M. J. Crosby, A. J. Long and D. C. 

Wege 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World. 

Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation. Birdlife 

Conservation Series No. 7. BirdLife 

International, Cambridge, UK. 

Thomas, D. W. 1988. Status and Conservation of 

Takamanda Gorillas (Cameroon). World Wildlife 

Fund 1613 (unpublished final report to WWF- 

Cameroon). 

Williams, E. 1997. Records made by E. Williams in 

Cameroon (unpublished report). 



Appendix 1. Checklist of the birds of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. IUCN: Threatened species, EN: endangered; VU: 

vulnerable; NT: near-threatened. RR: restricted-range species (total world range less than 50.000 km²). Biome: Species confined 

to Afro-montane biome (Montane Forests: MF); Guineo-congolian forest biome (Lowland Forests: LF); Sudan-Guinea Savanna 

biome (Savanna: SV). Status: Status of bird in Takamanda Forest Reserve. 

IUCN RR Biome English name Scientific name Status MGR, Status 

Long-tailed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus Uncomm 

Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus Uncomm 

Little Egret Egretta garzetta Uncomm 

Hamerkop Scopus umbretta Frequent 

Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus Rare 

Hadada Ibis Bostrychia hagedash Frequent 

NT LF Hartlaub©s Duck Pteronetta hartlaubii Uncomm 

African Pygmy Goose Nettapus auritus Uncomm 

Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula Uncomm 

Osprey Pandion haliaetus Uncomm P. Migrant 

Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus Uncomm 

Black Kite Milvus migrans 

Int / African, 

Common 

Migrant 

African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer Uncomm 

Palm-nut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis Frequent 

Western Banded Snake 

Eagle 

Circaetus cinerascens Uncomm 

LF Congo Serpent Eagle Dryotriorchis spectabilis Uncomm 

African Harrier Hawk Polyboroides typus Common 

Montagu©s Harrier Circus pygargus Uncomm P. Migrant 

European Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus Uncomm P. Migrant 

African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro Uncomm 

LF 

Chestnut-flanked 

Sparrowhawk 

Accipiter castanilius Uncomm 

LF 

Western Little 

Sparrowhawk 

Accipiter erythropus Rare 

Black Sparrowhawk Accipiter melanoleucus Frequent 

LF Long-tailed Hawk Urotriorchis macrourus Uncomm 

Lizard Buzzard 

Kaupifalco 

monogrammicus 

Common 

Red-necked Buzzard Buteo auguralis Frequent 

Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

LF Cassin©s Hawk Eagle Spizaetus africanus Uncomm 

Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus Frequent 

Crested Guineafowl Guttera pucherani Uncomm 

Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Rare 

LF Latham©s Forest Francolin Francolinus lathami Frequent 

Scaly Francolin Francolinus squamatus Common 




Appendix 1 (cont.). Checklist of the birds of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 


Double-spurred Francolin Francolinus bicalcaratus Frequent 

LF Nkulengu Rail Himantornis haematopus Rare 

LF White-spotted Flufftail Sarothrura pulchra Common 

African Finfoot Podica senegalensis Frequent 

Rock Pratincole Glareola nuchalis Rare 

Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia Uncomm P. Migrant 

Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus Uncomm P. Migrant 

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Frequent 

African Green Pigeon Treron calva Common 

LF Blue-headed Wood Dove Turtur brehmeri Common 

Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria Common 

Blue-spotted Wood Dove Turtur afer Common 

LF Afep Pigeon Columba unicincta Common 

Red-eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata Frequent 

LF Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus Frequent 

LF Black-collared Lovebird Agapornis swindernianus Uncomm 

Great Blue Turaco Corythaeola cristata Common 

LF Green Turaco Tauraco persa Common 

LF Yellow-billed Turaco Tauraco macrorhynchus Common 

Levaillant©s Cuckoo Oxylophus levaillantii Frequent 

Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus Frequent 

Olive Long-tailed Cuckoo Cercococcyx olivinus Common 

African Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus Common 

LF Yellow-throated Cuckoo Chrysococcyx flavigularis Frequent 

Klaas©s Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas Common 

Didric Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius Frequent 

Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus Common 

LF Black-throated Coucal Centropus leucogaster Uncomm 

Senegal Coucal Centropus senegalensis Common 

Barn Owl Tyto alba Uncomm 

African Scops Owl Otus senegalensis Uncomm 

LF Vermiculated Fishing Owl Scotopelia bouvieri Rare 

LF Red-chested Owlet Glaucidium tephronotum Rare 

African Wood Owl Strix woodfordii Frequent 

LF Brown Nightjar Caprimulgus binotatus Rare 

LF Black-shouldered Nightjar Caprimulgus 

nigriscapularis 

Uncomm 

Standard-winged Nightjar Macrodipteryx longipennis Frequent 

LF Sabine©s Spinetail Rhaphidura sabini Frequent 

LF Black Spinetail Telacanthura melanopygia Rare 

Mottled Spinetail Telacanthura ussheri Rare 


103 





LF Cassin©s Spinetail Neafrapus cassini Frequent 

African Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus Common 

European Swift Apus apus Common 

LF Bates©s Swift Apus batesi Frequent 

Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus Uncomm 

MF Bar-tailed Trogon Apaloderma vittatum Uncomm 

Narina Trogon Apaloderma narina Frequent 

LF Bare-cheeked Trogon Apaloderma aequatoriale Uncomm 

LF 

Chocolate-backed 

Kingfisher 

Halcyon badia Frequent 

Grey-headed Kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala Uncomm 

Blue-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon malimbica Frequent 

Woodland Kingfisher Halcyon senegalensis Frequent 

LF African Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx lecontei Rare 

African Pygmy Kingfisher Ceyx picta Frequent 

LF White-bellied Kingfisher Alcedo leucogaster Uncomm 

Malachite Kingfisher Alcedo cristata Frequent 

Shining-blue Kingfisher Alcedo quadribrachys Uncomm 

Giant Kingfisher Megaceryle maxima Uncomm 

LF Blue-headed Bee-eater Merops muelleri Rare 

LF Black Bee-eater Merops gularis Uncomm 

Blue-breasted Bee-eater Merops variegatus Uncomm 

White-throated Bee-eater Merops albicollis Common Migrant 

LF Blue-throated Roller Eurystomus gularis Uncomm 

Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus glaucurus Uncomm 

LF White-crested Hornbill Tockus albocristatus Uncomm 

LF Black Dwarf Hornbill Tockus hartlaubi Rare 

LF Red-billed Dwarf Hornbill Tockus camurus Frequent 

LF African Pied Hornbill Tockus fasciatus Common 

LF Piping Hornbill Ceratogymna fistulator Frequent 

LF White-thighed Hornbill Ceratogymna albotibialis Common 

LF 

Black-casqued Wattled 

Hornbill 

Ceratogymna atrata Uncomm 

NT LF 

Yellow-casqued Wattled 

Hornbill 

Ceratogymna elata Rare 

Grey-throated Barbet Gymnobucco bonapartei Frequent 

LF Bristle-nosed Barbet Gymnobucco peli Common 

LF Naked-faced Barbet Gymnobucco calvus Frequent 

LF Speckled Tinkerbird Pogoniulus scolopaceus Common 

MF Western Green Tinkerbird Pogoniulus coryphaeus Uncomm 

LF Red-rumped Tinkerbird Pogoniulus atroflavus Frequent 






LF 

Yellow-throated 

Tinkerbird 

Pogoniulus subsulphureus Common 

Yellow-rumped Tinkerbird Pogoniulus bilineatus Common 

LF Yellow-spotted Barbet Buccanodon duchaillui Frequent 

LF Hairy-breasted Barbet Tricholaema hirsuta Frequent 

LF Yellow-billed Barbet Trachyphonus purpuratus Common 

LF Spotted Honeyguide Indicator maculatus Uncomm 

Lesser Honeyguide Indicator minor Frequent 

Thick-billed Honeyguide Indicator conirostris Uncomm 

Least Honeyguide Indicator exilis Rare 

MF Tullberg©s Woodpecker Campethera tullbergi Uncomm 

LF Buff-spotted Woodpecker Campethera nivosa Uncomm 

LF Brown-eared Woodpecker Campethera caroli Rare 

Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens Common 

LF Fire-bellied Woodpecker Dendropicos pyrrhogaster Rare 

LF 

Yellow-crested 

Woodpecker 

Dendropicos xantholophus Rare 

Elliot©s Woodpecker Dendropicos elliotii Uncomm 

LF Grey-headed Broadbill Smithornis sharpei Uncomm 

LF Rufous-sided Broadbill Smithornis rufolateralis Frequent 

SV Sun Lark Galerida modesta Rare 

LF Square-tailed Saw-wing Psalidoprocne nitens Common 

Black Saw-wing Psalidoprocne pristoptera Common 

Grey-rumped Swallow Pseudhirundo griseopyga Uncomm 

Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Frequent 

X LF Forest Swallow Hirundo fuliginosa Rare 

LF 

White-throated Blue 

Swallow 

Hirundo nigrita Uncomm 

Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Common 

House Martin Delichon urbica Uncomm 

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Uncomm 

Mountain Wagtail Motacilla clara Uncomm 

African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp Uncomm 

Plain-backed Pipit Anthus leucophrys Rare 

LF Long-legged Pipit Anthus pallidiventris Uncomm 

Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis Common 

Red-shouldered Cuckoo- 

Shrike 

Campephaga phoenicea Uncomm 

LF Petit©s Cuckoo-Shrike Campephaga petiti Uncomm 

Purple-throated Cuckoo- 

Shrike 

Campephaga quiscalina Rare 

105 






MF Grey Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina caesia Rare 

LF Blue Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina azurea Common 

NT X MF 


Greenbul 

Andropadus montanus Rare 

X MF Grey-throated Greenbul Andropadus tephrolaemus Frequent 

Little Greenbul Andropadus virens Common 

LF Little Grey Greenbul Andropadus gracilis Uncomm 

LF Ansorge©s Greenbul Andropadus ansorgei Uncomm 

LF 

Cameroon Sombre 

Greenbul 

Andropadus curvirostris Rare 

Slender-billed Greenbul Andropadus gracilirostris Common 

Yellow-whiskered 

Greenbul 

Andropadus latirostris Common 

LF Golden Greenbul Calyptocichla serina Uncomm 

LF Honeyguide Greenbul Baeopogon indicator Common 

LF 

Sj!stedt©s Honeyguide 

Greenbul 

Baeopogon clamans Rare 

LF Spotted Greenbul Ixonotus guttatus Common 

LF Simple Greenbul Chlorocichla simplex Common 

LF Swamp Palm Bulbul 

Thescelocichla 

leucopleura 

Common 

X MF Cameroon Olive Greenbul Phyllastrephus poensis Uncomm 

LF Icterine Greenbul Phyllastrephus icterinus Common 

LF Xavier©s Greenbul Phyllastrephus xavieri Uncomm 

LF White-throated Greenbul Phyllastrephus albigularis Uncomm 

LF Grey-headed Bristlebill Bleda canicapilla Uncomm 

LF Red-tailed Bristlebill Bleda syndactyla Uncomm 

LF Green-tailed Bristlebill Bleda eximia Common 

LF Eastern Bearded Greenbul Criniger chloronotus Common 

LF Red-tailed Greenbul Criniger calurus Common 

Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus Common 

LF Forest Robin Stiphrornis erythrothorax Common 

Bocage©s Akalat Sheppardia bocagei Uncomm 

MF White-bellied Robinchat Cossyphicula roberti Rare 

X MF Mountain Robin-Chat Cossypha isabellae Rare 

Snowy-crowned Robin- 

Chat 

Cossypha niveicapilla Uncomm 

LF Fire-crested Alethe Alethe diademata Common 

Brown-chested Alethe Alethe poliocephala Uncomm 

LF White-tailed Ant Thrush Neocossyphus poensis Common 

LF Rufous Flycatcher-Thrush Neocossyphus fraseri Common 






Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata Uncomm 

Whinchat Saxicola rubetra Uncomm 

NT MF Crossley©s Ground-thrush Zoothera crossleyi Uncomm 

African Thrush Turdus pelios Uncomm 

NT X MF Bangwa Forest Warbler Bradypterus bangwaensis Rare 

Black-faced Rufous 

Warbler 

Bathmocercus rufus Rare 

African/Eurasian Reed 

Warbler 

Acrocephalus 

baeticatus/scirpaceus 

Rare 

Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina Rare 

LF Chattering Cisticola Cisticola anonymus Rare 

X MF Brown-backed Cisticola Cisticola discolor Uncomm 

Croaking Cisticola Cisticola natalensis Uncomm 

Short-winged Cisticola Cisticola brachyptera Uncomm 

Tawny-flanked Prinia Prinia subflava Frequent 

Banded Prinia Prinia bairdii Frequent 

X MF Green Longtail Urolais epichlora Uncomm 

White-chinned Prinia Schistolais leucopogon Frequent 

MF Black-collared Apalis Apalis pulchra Uncomm 

Black-throated Apalis Apalis jacksoni Rare 

LF Black-capped Apalis Apalis nigriceps Uncomm 

LF Buff-throated Apalis Apalis rufogularis Common 

Grey Apalis Apalis cinerea Uncomm 

NT X MF White-tailed Warbler Poliolais lopezi Rare 

Grey-backed Camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura Common 

LF 

Yellow-browed 

Camaroptera 

Camaroptera superciliaris Common 

LF Olive-green Camaroptera Camaroptera chloronota Common 

LF Yellow Longbill Macrosphenus flavicans Common 

LF Kemp©s Longbill Macrosphenus kempi Uncomm 

LF Grey Longbill Macrosphenus concolor Common 

LF 

Rufous-crowned 

Eremomela 

Eremomela badiceps Common 

LF Green Crombec Sylvietta virens Common 

Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Frequent P. Migrant 

Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix Uncomm P. Migrant 

X MF 

Black-capped Woodland 

Warbler 

Phylloscopus herberti Rare 

Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Uncomm P. Migrant 

LF Green Hylia Hylia prasina Common 

LF Cassin©s Flycatcher Muscicapa cassini Common 


107 





African Dusky Flycatcher Muscicapa adusta Uncomm 

LF Yellow-footed Flycatcher Muscicapa sethsmithi Uncomm 

LF Dusky-blue Flycatcher Muscicapa comitata Uncomm 

LF Sooty Flycatcher Muscicapa infuscata Uncomm 

Ussher©s Flycatcher Muscicapa ussheri Frequent 

Grey Tit-Flycatcher Myioparus plumbeus Frequent 

European Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Uncomm P. Migrant 

LF 

Chestnut-capped 

Flycatcher 

Erythrocercus mccallii Common 

African Blue Flycatcher Elminia longicauda Common 

LF Dusky Crested Flycatcher Elminia nigromitrata Uncomm 

MF 

White-bellied Crested 

Flycatcher 

Elminia albiventris Uncomm 

LF 

Blue-headed Crested 

Flycatcher 

Trochocercus nitens Common 

African Paradise 

Flycatcher 

Terpsiphone viridis Frequent 

LF 

Rufous-vented Paradise 

Flycatcher 

Terpsiphone rufocinerea Frequent 

LF 

Bates©s Paradise 

Flycatcher 

Terpsiphone batesi Common 

LF 

Red-bellied Paradise 

Flycatcher 

Terpsiphone rufiventer Common 

LF Shrike-Flycatcher Megabyas flammulatus Uncomm 

LF Chestnut Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia castanea Common 

LF White-spotted Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia tonsa Uncomm 

LF Red-cheeked Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia blisseti Rare 

LF Black-necked Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia chalybea Uncomm 

Yellow-bellied Wattle-eye Dyaphorophyia concreta Uncomm 

Scarlet-spectacled Wattleeye 

Platysteira cyanea Common 

Black-headed Batis Batis minor Uncomm 

MF Grey-chested Illadopsis Kakamega poliothorax Common 

LF Brown Illadopsis Illadopsis fulvescens Common 

Pale-breasted Illadopsis Illadopsis rufipennis Common 

LF Blackcap Illadopsis Illadopsis cleaveri Common 

EN X MF 

White-throated Mountain 

Babbler 

Kupeornis gilberti Uncomm 

LF Capuchin Babbler Phyllanthus atripennis Uncomm 

VU X LF Grey-necked Picathartes Picathartes oreas Rare 

LF Tit-hylia Pholidornis rushiae Uncomm 






LF Fraser©s Sunbird Deleornis fraseri Common 

Collared Sunbird Hedyptina collaris Common 

LF Bates©s Sunbird Cinnyris batesi Rare 

Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea Common 

X MF 

Cameroon Blue-headed 

Sunbird 

Cyanomitra oritis Uncomm 

Green-headed Sunbird Cyanomitra verticalis Uncomm 

LF 

Blue-throated Brown 

Sunbird 

Cyanomitra cyanolaema Common 

LF Green-throated Sunbird Chalcomitra rubescens Uncomm 

Olive-bellied Sunbird Cinnyris chloropygia Common 

MF 

Northern Double-collared 

Sunbird 

Cinnyris reichenowi Uncomm 

Orange-tufted Sunbird Cinnyris bouvieri Rare 

Splendid Sunbird Cinnyris coccinigastra Uncomm 

LF Johanna©s Sunbird Cinnyris johannae Uncomm 

LF Superb Sunbird Cinnyris superba Uncomm 

Yellow White-eye Zosterops senegalensis Common 

LF 

Western Black-headed 

Oriole 

Oriolus brachyrhynchus Common 

LF Black-winged Oriole Oriolus nigripennis Uncomm 

Mackinnon©s Shrike Lanius mackinnoni Uncomm 

LF 

Black-shouldered 

Puffback 

Dryoscopus senegalensis Frequent 

Pink-footed Puffback Dryoscopus angolensis Uncomm 

Brown-crowned Tchagra Tchagra australis Uncomm 

Tropical Boubou Laniarius aethiopicus Uncomm 

X MF Yellow-breasted Boubou Laniarius atroflavus Rare 

MF F!lleborn©s Black Boubou Laniarius fuelleborni Frequent 

LF Sooty Boubou Laniarius leucorhynchus Uncomm 

Many-coloured Bush 

Shrike 

Malaconotus multicolor Uncomm 

LF Western Nicator Nicator chloris Common 

Red-billed Helmet Shrike Prionops caniceps Uncomm 

Square-tailed Drongo Dicrurus ludwigii Common 

LF Shining Drongo Dicrurus atripennis Common 

Velvet-mantled Drongo Dicrurus modestus Uncomm 

Pied Crow Corvus albus Uncomm 

MF 

Waller©s Chestnut-winged 

Starling 

Onychognathus walleri Uncomm 

109 






LF 

Forest Chestnut-winged 

Starling 

Onychognathus fulgidus Uncomm 

Splendid Glossy Starling Lamprotornis splendidus Common 

Grey-headed Sparrow Passer griseus Uncomm 

SV Bush Petronia Petronia dentata Rare 

VU X MF Bannerman©s Weaver Ploceus bannermani Rare 

Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis Rare 

MF Black-billed Weaver Ploceus melanogaster Uncomm 

LF Vieillot©s Black Weaver Ploceus nigerrimus Common 

Village Weaver Ploceus cucullatus Common 

LF Yellow-mantled Weaver Ploceus tricolor Uncomm 

LF Maxwell©s Black Weaver Ploceus albinucha Uncomm 

Dark-backed Weaver Ploceus bicolor Frequent 

LF Blue-billed Malimbe Malimbus nitens Frequent 

LF Crested Malimbe Malimbus malimbicus Frequent 

LF Red-vented Malimbe Malimbus scutatus Common 

X LF Rachel©s Malimbe Malimbus racheliae Uncomm 

LF Red-headed Malimbe Malimbus rubricollis Uncomm 

Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis Uncomm 

Grey-crowned Negrofinch Nigrita canicapilla Common 

LF Pale-fronted Negrofinch Nigrita luteifrons Uncomm 

LF 

Chestnut-breasted 

Negrofinch 

Nigrita bicolor Uncomm 

LF White-breasted Negrofinch Nigrita fusconota Uncomm 

MF Red-faced Crimsonwing Crytospiza reichenovii Rare 

LF Western Bluebill Spermophaga haematina Uncomm 

Green Twinspot Mandingoa nitidula Uncomm 

Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild Common 

Black-crowned Waxbill Estrilda nonnula Common 

Bronze Mannikin Lonchura cucullata Common 

Black-and-white Mannikin Lonchura bicolor Uncomm 

MF Oriole Finch Linurgus olivaceus Rare 

TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES: 

313 


Large Mammals of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 


Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves and Fiona Maisels 

Until recently, information regarding the fauna of 

Takamanda Forest Reserve (TFR) was, at best, 

fragmentary (Allen 1930, Sanderson 1940, Struhsaker 

1967, Critchley 1968). No survey had been carried out in 

the Takamanda area since 1987 (Thomas 1988). Due to 

the lack of available information, Sanderson’s specimen 

collections from areas surrounding Takamanda, housed 

in the British Museum of Natural History, provided the 

basis for a faunal checklist (Appendix 1). Fifty years 

later, Thomas (1988) confirmed the continued existence 

of 11 species of large mammals in the area reported by 

Sanderson. Before the start of the 1998 survey, the 

Sanderson 1934 collection, consisting of all dry skin 

specimens except ungulates and bats, was examined and 

verified (Dowsett 1997). 

The major objectives of the 1998 study were to 

assess the current status of and threats to the population 

of the Critically Endangered (IUCN 2002) Cross River 

Gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli. In addition, status of and 

threats to other large mammals in the Reserve were 

investigated: several large mammal species or subspecies 

were known to be endemic to the region, including 

chimpanzee Pan troglodytes vellerosus, drill Mandrillus 

leucophaeus, Preuss’s guenon Cercopithecus preussi, 

and red eared guenon Cercopithecus erythrotis. 

In the forests of Central and West Africa, hunting for 

meat is of increasing concern and is the major cause of 

ape decline (Walsh et al. 2003) and of other large 

mammal decline in general (Fa et al. 2002). Hunting is 

facilitated by increased access made possible by the 

construction of logging roads (Minnemeyer et al. 2002, 

Wilkie et al. 2000). In the Bamenda Highlands just east 

of the Takamanda area, most species of large mammals 

have been locally extirpated within the last century 

(Maisels et al. 2001). 

A commercial road is currently being built in the 

Takamanda area between the towns of Mamfe and 

Akwaya (Sunderland-Groves et al. this volume). When 

complete, the road will cut directly between the 

Takamanda forest and the Mone and Mbulu forests, 

allowing ready access to the forests and, subsequently, 

increased export of agricultural and forest products, 

including bushmeat. 

Although development projects such as roads are 

important for the local human population, increased 

accessibility to the area will undoubtedly affect the future 

survival of wildlife populations unless strict measures are 

taken to protect the animals. Following the 1998 survey, 

emphasis was placed on working with local communities 

and the Cameroon Ministry of Environment and Forestry 

(MINEF) to protect wildlife populations. Education 

materials were disseminated to increase conservation 

awareness and promote Cameroon’s laws concerning 

illegal hunting of protected species. 

2 Methods 

2.1 Field methods 

Chapter 8 

In Takamanda Forest Reserve, two primary vegetation 

strata—lowland forest, including riverine forest, and submontane 

forest, encompassing ridge or “highland” 

forest—were identified and surveyed, using the stratified 

random sampling technique. Within these strata, two 

lowland sites were sampled: Oyi on the edge of the 

Reserve and Makone in the center of the Reserve. 

Variation in sites was meant to reflect predicted 

differences in hunting pressure, where we presumed 

areas on the edge of the reserve would be subject to more 


112 Sunderland-Groves and Maisels 

hunting. Three highland sites were also selected for 

survey: Matene in the northern section of the Reserve, 

Obonyi I in the eastern part of the Reserve along the 

border with the Okwangwo division of Cross River 

National Park in Nigeria, and Basho on the western edge 

of the Reserve (Figure 2 in Chapter 1). 

The survey used standard line transect methods that 

are practiced widely in animal density censusing 

(Burnham et al. 1980, Buckland et al. 1993). General 

transect protocols followed White and Edwards (2000). 

Forest in the transects was cut just enough to allow one 

person to pass. All transects were marked at 25-m 

intervals with flagging tape and allowed to settle for a 

minimum of three days before they were walked and data 

collected. The reason was to ensure that the disturbance 

and noise caused by cutting the transects did not bias 

direct observations of mammals such as monkeys. 

In the lowland forest, 40 transects—all 2 km in 

length, except for one that measured 3 km (81 km in 

total) were laid out perpendicular to the main rivers, the 

Makone and the Oyi (20 along each river, each transect 1 

km apart from and parallel to the next). In this manner, 

the rivers were sampled along much of their lengths 

within the Reserve, and vegetation on each side of the 

rivers was sampled in the same proportion as it occurs in 

the environment (Buckland et al. 1993). Four sampling 

sections, Makone River East, Makone River West, Oyi 

East, and Oyi West, contained 10 transects each and were 

surveyed during both the dry and wet seasons. The other 

two lowland sites were sampled only in the wet season. 

Sixteen transects were cut in submontane/ridge 

forest (8 km in total), five in the Matene and Obonyi 1 

hills, and six in the Basho hills. An additional 6 km of 

baseline was used to calculate encounter rates in the 

submontane forest. Transect starting points were selected 

randomly from a map and located using GPS. The 

baseline was located parallel to the contour of the hill, 

and transects were cut perpendicular to it. Each transect 

was 500 m in length; longer transects would not have 

sampled the desired topographical areas. The three 

highland forest areas were surveyed only during the dry 

season as time constraints made it impossible to repeat 


sampling of the highland strata during the wet season. 

Using portions of the baseline as separate transects is 

statistically invalid because they are not independent. 

The data collected included indirect mammal sign 

such as dung and tracks and direct observations (animals 

seen or heard). All evidence of human presence such as 

traps, snares, hunter paths, bush houses, spent cartridges, 

and gunshots was recorded to evaluate hunting pressures. 

Changes in topography and vegetation were also 

recorded along each transect. 

To standardize the sampling effort, the number of 

observers, speed of travel, and time of day were kept 

constant for each transect. Transects were not walked 

during heavy or medium rainfall because such conditions 

affect mammal movements and observer reliability. 

Additional reconnaissance surveys in the other 

vegetation types of the Reserve were carried out, 

especially in the higher altitude areas, and all signs of 

large mammals were recorded. 


Although the survey was designed to estimate densities 

of animals, there were too few observations to use the 

DISTANCE program (Thomas et al. 2002), which 

requires at least 60 observations per species per stratum. 

Thus, we used encounter rate (number of animals or their 

sign encountered per kilometer) as the standard unit to 

assess the relative abundance of animal (and human) 

sign. Analysis of differences between datasets were made 

using the Mann-Whitney U test; unless data was paired, 

where we used the Wilcoxon Paired Rank test (Siegel 

and Castellan 1988). 

3 Results 

3.1 Species presence 

Fifteen species of large mammal were recorded within 

the TFR, including forest elephant Loxodonta africana 

cyclotis in both lowland strata (Table 1). Of the eight 

primate species recorded, several are endemic, and some 

are internationally endangered. The gorilla Gorilla 

gorilla diehli is classified by IUCN (2002) as Critically

Large mammals assessment 

Table 1. Large mammal species recorded through transect and additional survey observations, Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon (S = Seen; H = Heard; T = Tracks seen; D = dung piles seen; P = path (where no fresh tracks were seen); F = feeding 

sign; N = nest; red duikers refers to all medium-sized duikers, as species could not be reliably separated) 

Order 

Species 

Proboscidea 

Loxodonta 

africana 

cyclotis 

Artiodactyla 

Potamochoerus 

porcus 

Hyemoschus 

aquaticus 

English name 

Makone 

River 

East 

Makone 

River 

West 

Oyi 

East 

Oyi 

West 

Forest elephant D, T D, T D, T P 

Obonyi 1 

Hills 

Basho 

Hills 

Red river hog T T T T T T 

Giant forest hog T T T T 

Lowland Sites Highland Sites 

113 

Matene 

Hills 

Syncerus caffer 

Forest buffalo 

nanus 

T S, T T H 

Cephalophus 

silvicultor 

Yellow backed 

duiker 

T T T T 

Red duikers S, D, T S, T S, D, T T D, T T D, T 

Cephalophus 

monticola 

Primates 

Blue duiker S, H, D, T S, T S, H, T T D, T T 

Gorilla gorilla 

diehli 

Cross River 

gorilla 

N N, F D, N, F 

Pan troglodytes 

Chimpanzee 

vellerosus 

H, T, N H, D, N H, N N 

Mandrillus 

leucophaeus 

Drill D S 

Cercopithecus 

erythrotis 

Red-eared 

guenon 

S, H S S, H S, H H 


mona 

Mona monkey S, H S, H S, H S, H S, H 


nictitans 

Putty nosed 

guenon 

S, H S, H S, H S, H H H H 


pogonias 

Crowned 

guenon 

H 


preussi 

Preuss’s guenon S, H, D D S, H S H, F 



Table 2. Encounter rates for large mammal species per kilometer of transect walked, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon . 

Species Common Name N/L Individuals N/L Groups 

Cercopithecus mona Mona monkey 0.110 

Cercopithecus nictitans Putty nosed monkey 0.103 

Cercopithecus erythrotis Red eared guenon 0.081 

Cercopithecus preussi Preuss’s guenon 0.044 

Mandrillus leucophaeus Drill 0.007 

Red duikers Red duikers 0.037 

Cephalophus monticola Blue duiker 0.022 

Syncerus caffer Buffalo 0.007 

Endangered (Sunderland-Groves et. al. this volume), and 

three—chimpanzee Pan troglodytes vellerosus, drill 

Mandrillus leucophaeus, and Preuss’s guenon 

Cercopithecus preussi—are classed as Endangered. The 

red eared guenon Cercopithecus erythrotis is classified 

Vulnerable. Other fauna encountered include duikers 

Cephalophus spp., forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus, 

and red river hog Potamochoerus porcus. All medium to 

large mammal species seen and heard or for which sign 

was recorded during the study are listed by site in Table 

1. Some of the sites were previously surveyed by 

Thomas (1988), and the mammals recorded at that time 

are listed in Appendix 2 for comparison with the results 

of this study. 

3.2 Sightings 

During the transect surveys, encounter rates were very 

low (Table 2). No apes were seen at any site in any 

season, no ungulates were seen in the highlands, and red 

duikers and Cephalophus monticola were seen only 

twice during the 12-month survey period. There were no 

sightings of any large mammals in the Matene hills. Only 

one large mammal sighting was recorded in Obonyi I 

hills (a troop of C. mona monkeys), and only one sighting 

was recorded in the Basho hills (a troop of C. preussi 

monkeys). C. preussi was seen only on the east banks of 

the Makone and Oyi Rivers. Drills were seen only once, 

on the east side of the Oyi River. Sighting data may be 

few in the highlands for two reasons, apart from that of 

few animals. First, the total length of transect surveyed 

was much shorter in the three hill strata than in the 

lowlands. Second, the hill sites were only surveyed in the 

dry season when noise is created by walking on leaf litter. 


3.3 Vocalizations 

Vocalizations were recorded mostly from primates, 

although an occasional ungulate alarm call was heard. 

Cercopithecus nictitans was the most commonly heard 

monkey species. There were no significant differences 

between the frequency of vocalizations at the highland 

and the lowland sites for C. mona (P= 0.62) or C. 

nictitans (P=0.59). However, monkeys called more 

frequently on the east side of the Makone River than on 

the west side (all monkeys pooled: P=0.0001; C. 

nictitans: P=0.0019) and more frequently on the east side 

of the Oyi River than on the west side (all monkeys 

pooled: P= 0.0013; C. nictitans: P= 0.0313). In addition, 

C. mona and C. nictitans called more during the wet than 

the dry season (P=0.0501; P=0.021). The encounter rate 

of all monkey vocalizations combined was highest in the 

Figure 1. Encounter rate of monkey vocalizations at each 

site (95% confidence limits), Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon. 

Encounter rate/ km & 95% conf. limits 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

Basho 

Makone E 

Obonyi 

Oyi E 

Makone W 

Matene 

Oyi W 

Site surveyed


Table 3. Encounter rates for primates heard per kilometer of transect walked, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Species 

Makone 

River 

East 

Makone 

River 

West 

Oyi 

East 

Basho hills (Figure 2) and, for C. nictitans, the Obonyi 1 

hills (Table 3). In the Matene hills, only C. nictitans was 

heard along the transects, although C. erythrotis was 

heard during a ‘site selection’ walk.C. erythrotis was not 

seen at all along transects in the highlands and rarely seen 

or heard in the lowland areas (a total of 10 sightings and 

7 vocalization records in 12 months). Cercopithecus 

preussi was heard just 8 times on transect walks in 12 

months, twice in the hills of the Basho area. 


Oyi 

West 

Obonyi 1 

Hills 

Basho 

Hills 

Matene 

Hills 


nictitans 

0.452 0.250 0.175 0.050 1.111 0.400 0.222 

Cercopithecus 0.143 0.100 0.175 0.050 0.800 


preussi 

0.119 0.025 0.400 


erythrotis 

0.095 0.050 0.050 

Makone 

River 

East 

Makone 

River 

West 

Oyi 

East 

3.4 Tracks, dung, and other signs 

115 

Track data were recorded at the hill sites during the dry 

season when leaf litter covered the ground, making it 

difficult to see tracks. In addition, the hill strata were 

mostly rocky, and tracks did not show up well. In the 

lowland sites, frequent heavy rainstorms during the wet 

season washed away tracks. Because of these conditions, 

the results in this section are somewhat subjective. 

Encounter rates for tracks were low throughout. The 

different animal tracks recorded along the transects were 

mostly made by ungulates, and most of those were 

Table 4. Encounter rates for large mammal species tracks per kilometer of transect walked, Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon. 

Species 


Oyi 

West 

Obonyi 1 

Hills 

Basho 

Hills 

Matene 

Hills 

Red duikers 1.74 2.15 2.68 1.05 4.22 0.20 0.22 

Loxodonta 1.12 2.20 0.25 0.20 

Cephalophus 

monticola 

0.55 0.95 0.50 0.15 0.22 0.20 

Potamochoerus 

porcus 

0.29 1.10 0.85 1.25 0.89 

Syncerus caffer 0.12 0.20 0.10 

Hyemoschus 

aquaticus 

0.10 0.05 0.18 0.10 

Cephalophus 

silvicultor 

0.02 0.10 0.15 0.05 



Table 5. Summary of the indices of human pressure, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon (data are encounter rates/km 

surveyed; numerical data stem from transects, "present" stems from reconnaissance surveys). 

Site Traps Hunter paths Other paths 

assigned to medium-sized red duikers (Table 4.). The 

majority of the other tracks were from Cephalophus 

monticola and P. porcus. There were more C. monticola 

tracks in the Makone area than in the Oyi area (P=0.004), 

but no significant differences between the two lowland 

sites for P. porcus (P=0.09) or “red” duikers (P=0.88). 

There were very few tracks in the highland forest areas, 

perhaps due to expanses of rocky outcrops and large 

quantities of leaf litter. The Matene site was particularly 

poor in tracks; only one red duiker track was recorded. 

No significant difference (P=0.125; P=0.21) in the 

frequencies of elephant paths or tracks on the two sides 

of the Makone River was noted. A few elephant tracks 

and paths were recorded on the west side of the Oyi, but 

the frequency was not different from the east side 

(P=0.69). There were no seasonal differences (P=0.11; 

P=0.29) for elephant paths at either Makone or Oyi, both 

of which were surveyed in the wet and dry seasons. No 

elephant signs were seen in the hill areas along transects, 

but elephant dung was seen on the steep part of the 

Makone East site. 

So little dung was seen during the study period, it 

was impossible to analyze. Only 15 dung piles of eight 

different mammal species were observed. The maximum 

nunber of dung piles for any one species was four. These 

records were not sufficient for analysis. 


Other signs (e.g., 

cartridges, huts, gunshots) 

Makone River East 0.76 1.62 0.24 0.04 

Makone River West 0.30 2.97 1.00 0.02 

Oyi East 0.23 1.50 0.38 0.18 

Oyi West 1.10 1.55 0.55 0.04 

Obonyi 1 Present 1.33 - - 

Basho 0.80 1.00 - - 

Matene 0.22 2.00 - 0.04 

3.5 Human pressure 

Overall, more human signs (3.3 signs/km) were recorded 

at the lowland sites than in the highlands (1.9 signs/km). 

The only types of sign seen in the highlands were traps, 

hunter paths, and bent sticks, while in the lowlands, 11 

different types were recorded. The highest encounter rate 

for hunter’s paths was in the Makone River West area 

(Table 5). The number of hunter’s paths was significantly 

higher in this area than on the east side during the wet 

season (P=0.01). There was no significant difference 

between the two sides of the river for cartridge cases or 

non-hunting paths (P=0.58; P=0.061). There was no 

difference between the east and west sides of the Oyi 

river during the wet season for any human sign (traps: 

P=0.11; hunting paths: P=0.24; cartridges: P= 0.19; other 

paths: P=0.78). Therefore the two sides of the Oyi River 

form a single stratum in terms of measurable human 

pressure. There was no significant difference between 

any of the three highland sites for hunting paths for pairs 

of sites compared (P=0.32 to 0.85). Basho and Matene 

were compared for trap encounter rate: there was no 

significant difference between them (P=0.32). 

When all the data from the lowlands are compared 

with all data from the highlands (dry season only), there 

were significantly more traps and hunter’s paths in the 

lowlands than in the highlands (P=0.005; P=0.019), 

reflecting the higher hunting pressure in the lowlands.


4 Discussion 

Because this was the first long-term survey of large 

mammals in Takamanda Forest Reserve, no data exist to 

compare changes in encounter rates over time, except for 

gorillas in the 1950s (see Sunderland-Groves et al. this 

volume). However, we did examine previous work in the 

area to determine whether species that were once in 

Takamanda no longer occur. 

The surveys revealed that the Matene forest had both 

the lowest diversity and abundance of large mammals. 

Local hunters at Matene village reported that they now 

have to hunt in the Makone River area because there are 

so few large mammals remaining in their own forests. 

The Makone area was found to have the greatest hunting 

pressure, which may be indicative of the recent migration 

of Matene (and other) hunters to Makone. 

Species that are currently very scarce in the area 

include elephant, buffalo, water chevrotain, and yellowbacked 

duiker. Elephants and buffalo were reported by 

Thomas to be “common” in the center of the Reserve 

during the 1987 survey, but elephants were neither seen 

nor heard in 1998 and 1999. Local hunters claimed that 

elephants entered Takamanda forest during the wet 

season to feed on fruits such as bush mango Irvingia 

gabonensis, and that they returned to Nigeria where they 

were not subjected to the same hunting pressure as in 

Takamanda. 

Buffalo tracks and a single sighting were recorded in 

the lowlands. Water chevrotain and yellow-backed 

duiker sign was very rare throughout the surveys and was 

recorded only in the lowlands. Drill and crowned guenon 

were also rare. However, a more recent study (Groves 

2002) observed drills in the Basho hills, Mone Forest 

Reserve, and parts of Mbulu forest, finding these animals 

to be more widespread than reported here. 

Comparing our findings with those of Sanderson 

(1940) and Struhsaker (1967), it appears that at least one 

species of large mammal has gone extinct during the last 

30 years; we did not record grey-cheeked mangabey 

Cercocebus albigena, although they were noted by 

117 

Struhsaker. Local Takamanda hunters accurately 

described the color, size, and vocalization of this species 

and reported that a group remained in the Obonyi III area. 

The vernacular name for this species in Takamanda is 

gebilika. The vernacular name of kebilika in the adjacent 

forest area of Okwangwo in Nigeria is similar (Oates et 

al. 1990). However, C. albigena has not been recorded 

since 1967, and it is probably now locally extinct in both 

Okwangwo (Oates pers. comm) and in Takamanda. 

The red-capped mangabey Cercocebus torquatus 

was recorded by Thomas (1988) near Makone West, and 

a specimen was collected just outside the Reserve (near 

the village of Atolo) in 1933 (Sanderson 1940). But these 

are the only two reports of this primate species having 

existed in the area, and during this study, local hunters 

could not identify the species from a description of the 

animal, vocalizations, or a photograph. It appears that C. 

torquatus previously existed in the area, but was hunted 

out or that C. albigena was mistakenly identified as C. 

torquatus in earlier studies. 

The Sanderson collection includes two tantalus 

monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) sampled from around 

Mamfe. C. aethiops is mostly a grassland species, and it 

is possible that a few still remain in grassland sites north 

and east of Takamanda. Certainly, it still occurs in the 

grasslands of the Kilum-Ijim area, some 100 km due east 

of Takamanda (Maisels et al. 2001). During our 1998- 

1999 survey, local people said that this primate did not 

occur within the Reserve. 

Leopard (Panthera pardus) and the giant pangolin 

(Smutsia gigantea) were reported by local hunters in 

Takamanda during this study. Neither species was 

collected by Sanderson (1940), recorded by Thomas 

(1988), or observed during this study. Occasional reports 

of leopard sightings were received, along with stories of 

leopard skins traded across the border with Nigeria in 

previous years. Pangolins are a very popular bushmeat in 

Africa, and although smaller sized pangolins were 

observed several times in villages, it was widely reported 

that giant pangolins had been extirpated from the area. 



Bushmeat is still a prominent source of income and 

protein for villagers in TFR. Although traditional hunting 

rights were granted to the local communities during 

establishment of the Reserve, the use of firearms has 

been prohibited since 1934. Still, firearm hunting is 

widespread throughout the area. Until recently, access 

was limited mostly to footpaths, but hunting has been 

relatively intensive and will only increase with the new 

road if normal tropical forest trends (Bennett and 

Robinson 2000a) apply. In 1988, Thomas reported that 

the Takamanda Forest Reserve probably contained the 

most significant populations of large mammals in 

Cameroon west of the Sanaga River. This is no longer the 

case. We found that the perceptions of local people were 

paradoxical: on the one hand, hunters claimed that their 

forest resources such as bushmeat would never 

disappear. On the other hand, most people admitted that 

bushmeat was easily found ten years before our study, 

but had become very hard to find by 1999. This is a 

familiar story throughout forested Africa, where the 

forest itself “hides” the fact that the fauna is vanishing 

(Redford 1992, Bennett and Robinson 2000b, Redford 

and Feinsinger 2000, Robinson and Bennett 2000c). 

Although Takamanda still hosts a wide diversity of fauna, 

unsustainable hunting rates are having a rapid negative 

effect on wildlife populations. If such hunting practices 

continue at the current rate, more of the large mammal 

species found today will vanish. 

In most humid tropical forests, protein requirements 

of local communities are either partly or almost entirely 

provided by wild animals, including mammals, birds, 

fish, and insects (Wilkie and Curran et al. 1998, Wilkie 

and Sidle et al. 1998, Bowen-Jones and Pendry 1999, 

Robinson et al. 1999, Robinson and Bennett 2000c). In 

tropical forests, the carrying capacity for people who 

depend exclusively on wild meat cannot greatly exceed 

one person /km 2 (Bennett and Robinson 2000a, b). No 

commercial hunting (that is, hunting for income rather 

than protein) of wild animals in tropical forests has, to 

date, been proved sustainable over the long term 

(Robinson and Bodmer 1999, Bennett and Robinson 

2000c). In 1999, the human population density in the area 

within and around Takamanda Forest Reserve was 

estimated at about 3.6 people/km 2 (Groves and Maisels 


1999) and has more recently been estimated at more than 

4.6 people/km 2 (Schmidt-Soltau et. al. 2001.) Clearly, 

use of wildlife as the sole source of protein by the 

populations of the Takamanda area is unsustainable, 

particularly when coupled with commercial hunting. 

Acknowledgements 

This research was supported by WWF Netherlands 

through the WWF Cameroon Program Office, Yaounde. 

We thank Cameroon’s Ministry of Environment and 

Forestry (MINEF) and Ministry of Scientific and 

Technical Research (MINREST) as well as the Chiefs 

and Traditional Council members of the villages in the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve. A note of appreciation goes 

to John Oates, Steve Gartlan, Jaap Schoorl, Terry 

Sunderland, Bryan Curran, and all at the Mount Kupe 

Project, Cameroon, for their support and assistance. We 

are grateful to the field team—Albert Ekinde and Mpako 

Johannes—and guides Zacharia Abang, Martin Tiko, 

Jasper Obi, Dennis Agbor, Martin Ashu, and many 

others. Thanks to Dan Slayback for preparing the maps. 

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Appendix 1. Checklist of all British Museum of Natural History specimens excluding ungulates and bats, collected by 

Sanderson in the areas surrounding the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Species Common Name Year 

collected 

# Dry skins 

Specimens examined 

by 

Area of Collection 

Gorilla gorilla Cross River gorilla 4 JG 

Pan troglodytes Chimpanzee 1933 2 RD Kendem (Mamfe Division) 

Mandrillus 

leucophaeus 

Drill 1932/1993 5 RD 

Mamfe, Atolo, Bali (Mamfe 

div.), Ikom Division 

Cercocebus 

torquatus 

Red capped 

mangabey 

1933 1 RD Atolo 


aethiops 

Tantalus monkey 1932/1933 2 RD Mamfe 

Mamfe, Bashor II (=Basho II?), 


mona 

Mona monkey 1932/1933 21 RD 

Tinta, Atlo (=Atolo), Assumb (= 

Assumbo), Mainyu bridge 

(=Manuy bridge) 


pogonias 

Crowned guenon 1933 2 RD Basho II, Atolo 


preussi 

Preuss’s guenon 1933 2 RD Tinta 


erythrotis 

Red-eared guenon 1932/1933 4 RD 

Tinta, Mamfe, Ishobi (=Eshobi?), 

Bashor? 


nictitans 

Puttynose monkey 193? 5 RD 

Mamfe, Mainyu bridge (=Manyu 

bridge) 

Galago elegantulus 

Elegant needle- 

(Euoticus 

clawed galago 

elegantulus) 

1932/1933 18 RD 

Mamfe, Mafe, Bagi (Mamfe 

div.), Eschobi “bush” (=Eshobi) 

Galago alleni 

Galago demidovii 

Allen’s squirrel 

galago 

1932/1933 7 RD Nchang, Mamfe, Mfatok 

(Galagoides 

demidoff) 

Demidoff’s galago 1933 1 RD Eshobi 

Arctocebus 

(calabrensis) 

aureus 

Calabar 

angwantibo 

1932/1933 5 RD Mamfe 

Peridicticus potto Potto 1932/1933 4 RD Mamfe 

Crocidura olivieri White-toothed 

shrew 

1932/1933 16 RD 

Mamfe, Eshobi, Eschobi-Mamfe 

bush, 

Civettictis civetta African civet cat 1932/1933 9 RD Mamfe, Atolo, Manyu bridge 

Genetta servalina Servaline genet 1932/1933 10 RD 

Mamfe, Bakebe, Okogong, 

Basso, Olulu (Assumbo) 


121 



Appendix 1 (cont.). Mammal checklist of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 


collected 




by 


Genetta tigrina Blotched genet 1932/1933 6 RD 

Mamfe, Kembong, N’dekwa, 

Victoria 

Mamfe, Eshobi, Victoria, 

Nandinia binotata African palm civet 1932/1933 21 RD Mbilishi (=Mblishe), Mkani 

(Obrubra div.) 

Herpestes naso 

Long-snouted 

mongoose 

1932/1933 3 RD 

Mamfe, Okoyong, Mainyu 

bridge (= Manyu bridge) 

Atilax paludinosus Marsh mongoose 1932 2 RD Mamfe 

Crossarchus 

obscurus 

Cusimanse 1932/1933 6 RD 

Mamfe, Bachua etia, Nko 

(Abrubra div.?), Mainyu bridge 

(=Manyu bridge), Bakebe 

Bdeogale nigripes Black-legged 

mongoose 

1932/1933 3 RD Mamfe, Bashauo 

Anomalurus 

derbianus 

Lord Derby’s 

anomalure 

1932/1933 9 RD 

Bassor, Bashor II, Bashaou, 

Bashor, Eshobi, Mamfe div. 

Anomalurus 

beecrofti 

Beecroft’s 

anomalure 

1932/1933 5 RD Eshobi, Mamfe 

Idiurus macrotis 

Long-eared flying 

mouse 

1932/1933 7 RD Eshobi, Besong Abang, Tinta, 

Idiurus zenkeri 

Zenker’s flying 

mouse 

1933 1 RD Eshobi 

Protoxerus 

stangeri 

African giant 

squirrel 

1932/1933 12 RD 

Okoyong, Mainyu-Bali Mamfe, 

Eshobi, Tinta 

Heliosciurus 

rufobrachium 

Funisciurus 

Red-legged sun 

squirrel 

1933 12 RD 

Tinta, Mkpani (Obrubra div.) 

Nko 

auriculatus 

(oliviae) 

Rope squirrel 1933 2 RD Mamfe Eshobi 

Funisciurus 

Rope squirrel 

auriculatus (boydi) 

Funisciurus 

1933 1 RD Tinta 

leucostigma 

(talboti) 

Rope squirrel 1932/1933 11 RD Mamfe, Ekuri (Obrubra), Nko 

Aethosciurus 

poensis 

1933 2 RD Mamfe, Bashor Mamfe 

Myosciurus 

pumilio 

African pygmy 

squirrel 

- - RD 

SPECIMEN NOT FOUND AT 

BM 

Oenomys 

hypoxanthus 

Rusty-nosed rat 1932/1933 10 RD 

Mamfe, Assumbo, Bashor 

Mamfe 



Appendix 1 (cont.). Mammal checklist of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 


collected 

Lophuromys 

sikapusi 

Hylomyscus alleni 

(canus) 



by 

Brush-furred mouse 1932 5 RD Mamfe 

African wood 

mouse 

1932/1933 8 RD 

Stochomys Target rat - - RD 

Thamnomys 

rutilans 

Malacomys 

longipes 

Hybomys 

univittatus 

Broad-footed 

thicket rat 

1933 1 RD Mamfe-Eshobi 

Long-footed rat 1932/1933 12 RD 


123 

Mamfe, Besong Abang, Eshobi, 

Eschobi-Mamfe bush 

SPECIMEN NOT FOUND AT 

BM 

Mamfe-Eshobi bush, Mamfe, 

Eshobi 

Hump-nosed mouse 1932/1933 4 RD Mamfe, Assumbo 

Mastomys coucha Multimammate rat 1932/1933 18 RD Mamfe, Assumbo, Tinta, 

Cricetomys 

gambianus 

Giant-pouched rat 1933 1 RD Bachania Assumbo area 

Cricetomys emini Giant-pouched rat 1932/1933 9 RD 

Lemniscomys 

striatus 

Mamfe, Bashauo, Bashor II, 

Assumbo, Tinta, Atolo 

Zebra mouse 1932/1933 11 RD Mamfe, Mamfe-Eshobi 

Praomys tullbergi Soft-furred rat 1932/1933 31 RD 

Atherurus 

africanus 

Brush-tailed 

porcupine 

1932 4 RD Mamfe 

Tinta, Mamfe, Eshobi, Assumbo, 

Bakebe 



Appendix 2. Large mammals observed in 1987 and 1998-99 in the Takamanda Forest Reserve. Data from Thomas et al. (1988) 

and the current study. Some of the sites surveyed in 1998 were not surveyed in by Thomas et al. The observational data are from 

the current study (1998). 

Site Stratum Site Name Species in 1987 Species in 1998 Observed Heard Dung Nests 

(1987) (1998) (1998) 

Camp 5 Stratum Makone Not mentioned in Loxodonta africana Y 

River East text Procavia ruficeps Y 

‘Wild cat© Y 

Red duikers Y Y 

Cephalophus 

monticola 

Y Y 

Gorilla gorilla Y 

Pan troglodytes Y Y 


erythrotis 

Y Y 

Cercopithecus mona Y Y 


nictitans 

Y Y 


preussi 

Y Y Y 

"Squirrels" Y 

Crossarchus 

obscurus 

Y 

Opposite 

Camp 

Stratum 

2 

Makone 

River West 

Loxodonta 

africana 

Loxodonta africana 

Y 

5 & 6 Syncerus caffer 

Potamochoerus 

porcus 

Syncerus caffer Y 

Red duikers Y 

Gorilla gorilla 

Cephalophus 

monticola 

Y 

Mandrillus 

leucophaeus 

Y 


erythrotis 


erythrotis 

Y Y 


mona 

Cercopithecus mona 

Y Y 


nictitans 


pogonias 


nictitans 

Y Y 


preussi 


preussi 

Y 




Appendix 2 (cont.). Large mammal observational data from Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Site 

(1987) 

Stratum 

(1998) 

Site Name 

(1998) 

Species in 1987 Species in 1998 

125 

Observed Heard Dung Nests 

Cercocebus 

torquatus 

- Stratum Oyi/Magbe Not mentioned Loxodonta africana Y 

East in text Red duikers Y Y 

Cephalophus 

monticola 

Y 

Mandrillus 

leucophaeus 

Y 


erythrotis 

Y Y 

Cercopithecus mona Y Y 


nictitans 

Y Y 


preussi 

Y Y 

- Stratum 

4 

Oyi/Magbe Not mentioned in Cercopithecus 

text 

erythrotis 

Y Y 

West Cercopithecus mona Y 


nictitans 

Y 

- Stratum Obonyi 1 Not mentioned Red duikers Y 

5 Hills in text Cephalophus 

monticola 

Y 

Gorilla gorilla Y 

Pan troglodytes Y Y Y 


nictitans 

Y 

- Stratum Basho Hills Not mentioned Procavia ruficeps Y 

6 in text Gorilla gorilla Y Y 

Pan troglodytes Y Y 


Y Y 


nictitans 

Y 


preussi 

Y 

Atherurus africanus Y 




Appendix 2 (cont.). Large mammal observational data from Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Site 

(1987) 

Stratum Site Name 

(1998) (1998) 

Species in 1987 Species in 1998 

Observed Heard Dung Nests 

Footpath Stratum Matene Red duikers Y 

between 7 Hills Pan troglodytes Y 

Mbilishe- 

Matene 


erythrotis 


erythrotis 

Y 


mona 


Y 


nictitans 


pogonias 

Mandrillus 

leucophaeus 


nictitans 

Y 



Appendix 3. Distribution of large mammal sightings in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

g2 

@‚E—2A 

5 

g2— 

@g2A 

5 

5 

5 

5 5 

55 

5 

g—2— 

@‚2A 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

v—2——— 

@i—A 

g2— 

@€E2A 

5 

g2 

@€92A 

5 

5 

5 5 

5 

5 

g—2 

@‰E˜—2A 

5 

5 

5 5 

55 

5 

w2—— 

@‡—2—A 

g2— 

@w—2A 

5 

g—2— 

@f2A 

5 

w—2— 

@hA 

5 

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€—2 

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127 


128 


Surveys of the Cross River Gorilla and Chimpanzee Populations in 


Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves, Fiona Maisels and Albert Ekinde 


Takamanda and Mone rorest reserves and the Mbulu 

forest are located on the Cameroon side of the Nigerian- 

Cameroon border. Together with the adjoining area in 

Nigeria—the Okwangwo division of the Cross River 

National Park—they form part of the last stronghold of 

the Cross River gorillas Gorilla gorilla diehli. These 

gorillas are classified as Critically Endangered (IUCN 

2000) and now occur only in four isolated subpopulations 

(Afi, Mbe, Obudu, and Okwangwo/ 

Takamanda/Mone/Mbulu) within an area of about 5,000 

km 2 . 

Cross River gorillas were originally described as a 

new species (Gorilla diehli) by the German taxonomist 

Paul Matschie in 1904. Later taxonomic research 

reduced this species rank to that of a sub-species, leading 

to their eventual amalgamation with other lowland 

gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Rothschild 1904, 1906, 

Elliot 1912, Coolidge 1929, Groves 1970). However, 

craniometric research by Stumpf et al. (1998) reopened 

the question as to whether the Cross River gorilla is a 

sub-species. Additional study by Sarmiento and Oates 

(2000), including the re-measurement of Nigerian and 

Cameroonian gorilla skulls, concluded that these gorillas 

are indeed more taxonomically distinct than previously 

described, and they are now recognized as the fourth subspecies 

of gorilla. 

Information on gorilla abundance and distribution 

within this region has been documented for more than 70 

years (Allen 1930, Sanderson 1940, March 1957, 

Struhsaker 1967, Critchley 1968, Harris et al. 1987, 

Thomas 1988, Harcourt et al. 1988, 1989, Oates et al. 

1990, Groves 1996, Obot et al. 1997, Oates 1998). A call 

for surveys of the Mamfe-Obudu region (Oates 1996) 

mentioned that hunting was a major environmental 

problem and recommended that biological surveys of 

Takamanda should be undertaken, then followed by 

conservation management. Field surveys were 

subsequently conducted by Sunderland-Groves in 1998 

and 1999 in Cameroon, which led to additional research 

in 2000 and 2001 that continues today. 

The objectives of the initial 1998-1999 surveys were 

to collect baseline data on the large mammals of the 

reserves, focusing on the gorilla population, and assess 

conservation threats and potential. In relation to the 

gorilla population, the aim was to obtain an estimate of 

size and of habitat types most used by the animals. 

Results on apes from the 1998-1999 surveys are reported 

in detail in Sunderland-Groves and Maisels (in prep). To 

compare the results obtained in 2000 and 2001, the 1998- 

1999 data are summarized in this paper. 

Although there is still much to learn about this subspecies 

of gorilla, considerable progress has been made 

over a relatively short period of time, elicting a more 

comprehensive overview of their range, distribution, and 

abundance within Cameroon. 

2 Ape Conservation Status 

Chapter 9 

According to local tradition in this region, the meat of 

great apes may not be sold, but gorilla hunting occurred 

before this survey started and still occasionally takes 

place in areas outside of Takamanda. Ape populations are 

more vulnerable to hunting than smaller primates; they 

recover very slowly from population reduction because 

of their inter-birth interval of about four years, late date 

of maturity, and complex social system (see Walsh et al. 

2003 for an overview of present gorilla status in the 

region as a whole). 



In more recent years, gorilla groups in Cameroon- 

Nigeria border region the study area have become more 

fragmented and isolated as their habitat has succumbed to 

agricultural and other land development activities. 

Construction of the new road between the towns of 

Mamfe and Akwaya, when completed, will cut directly 

between Takamanda and the Mone and Mbulu forests, 

preventing gorilla movement between the areas. 

Hunting and agricultural activities will have a similar 

effect on the chimpanzee populations of the area that, like 

the gorillas, are fragmented and confined to highland 

areas. In 1997, the chimpanzees of eastern Nigeria and 

Takamanda were described as a distinct sub-species Pan 

troglodytes vellerosus (Gonder et al. 1997), and although 

their numbers in the wild have not been thoroughly 

investigated, it is thought that the populations are 

declining. 

The Cross River Gorilla Research Project 

(Cameroon) has initiated conservation efforts to 

eliminate hunting of these two species in the region. The 

focus is on working with local communities and 

dissemination of educational materials in collaboration 

with the joint Ministry of Environment and Forests 

(MINEF)/GTZ project—Protection of the Forests 

Around Akwaya (PROFA). 

3 Study area 

The 675-km 2 Takamanda Forest Reserve is mostly 

covered by Atlantic evergreen forest, ranging from 100 m 

to 1500 m above sea level (Figure 2 in Chapter 1). Much 

of the lowland forest in the southern and central parts of 

the Reserve is between 100 m and –400 m in elevation. 

The terrain is rolling in the lowlands, but rises sharply to 

1500 m in the northern part of the Reserve where slopes 

are extremely steep and areas of semi-deciduous forest, 

woody savannah (often degraded), and montane woody 

savannah with grasslands prevail between 1200 m and 

2200 m (Letouzey 1985). Around villages, the vegetation 

has been modified and is degraded evergreen lowland 

forest and farmbush (a mosaic of cultivation and fallow). 

The lowland forest is particularly diverse; it is thought to 

be part of a Pleistocene refugium. The forest formation is 


distinct as there is a relative paucity of the 

Caesalpinioides, which are normally common in the 

Atlantic coastal forest (see Sunderland et al. this volume 

for a more detailed discussion of the vegetation in the 

area). 0 

In 1985, the human population density in the 

Takamanda area was estimated at between 6 and 12 

people/km 2 (Letouzey 1985). In 1999 the approximate 

total human population, based on a complete census of 

nine villages, was estimated at 2,490 (Groves and 

Maisels 1999). A more recent socio-economic survey 

conducted by PROFAthat covered 43 villages within and 

surrounding the Takamanda Forest Reserve, including 12 

villages on the Nigerian side of the border, estimated total 

human population at 15,707 (Schmidt-Soltau et al. 

2001). Socio-economic activities in the region revolve 

strongly around the forest and its resources, especially for 

the villages that are far from markets (Ifeka 1999, 

Sunderland et al. this volume), and people who live in the 

most remote villages depend almost entirely on 

bushmeat for their protein requirements. They also rely 

on the harvest and sale of non-timber forest products as 

their main source of cash, particularly Irvingia 

gabonensis, or “bush mango,” rather than on cultivated 

crops or livestock. 

The area has been historically partially protected by 

lack of access, but this is changing. Accessibility to the 

Takamanda Reserve from the Nigerian side is by foot 

only, but a new road from Mamfe (Figure 2 in Chapter 1) 

now allows access to within 5 km of its limits from the 

Cameroonian side. The Mone Forest Reserve is 

separated from the Takamanda reserve by a corridor of 

ungazetted forest, which, at its narrowest, is about 7 km 

wide. 

During the 1998-1999 surveys, two main vegetation 

types were sampled: lowland forest and sub-montane 

forest. The study area comprised two lowland sites along 

the Makone and Oyi/Magbe rivers and three hill, or 

highland, areas—Matene, Obonyi, and Basho Hills— 

within Takamanda Forest Reserve (Figure 2 in Chapter 

1). The Makone flows through the middle of the Reserve, 

and the Oyi forms part of the Reserve’s southwestern

Gorilla and Chimp Surveys 

boundary. The 2000-2001 surveys concentrated solely 

on highland sites within the area. 

4 Methods 

4.1 Sampling design: 1998-1999 

A sampling design established prior to commencement 

of the surveys, based on 1:50 000 maps of the area. The 

design comprised a series of standard line transects, 

which are widely used in animal density studies 

(Buckland et al. 1993). Transects were straight lines 

oriented at right angles to the Makone and Oyi rivers in 

the lowlands and at right angles to the slope in the hill 

country. These orientations enabled sampling of the 

different vegetation types in the proportions in which 

they occur in the environment. The objective of the 

design was to estimate the density of apes and other large 

mammals in terms of numbers per km². 

Data analysis would normally be carried out using 

the computer program DISTANCE (Laake et al. 1993), 

which requires at least 10 transects per stratum (where 

“stratum” can be vegetation type, hunting pressure, or a 

combination of the two) and at least 60 observations per 

species per stratum to obtain a reliable density estimate. 

Sightings of large mammals were too rare to use 

DISTANCE. But the transect design allowed subsequent 

comparisons between zones (and seasons), using the 

encounter rate of observations per km (usually expressed 

as number of observations/km walked) and considering 

the transects as replicates. 

In 1998-1999, 40 transects, totaling 81km in length, 

were cut at the lowland sites and 8 km of transects were 

established at the highland sites. An additional 6km 

baseline was used to calculate encounter rates in the submontane 

forest. All lowland transects were sampled 

during the wet season. The transects on the east sides of 

the Makone River and the Oyi/ Magbe East were also 

sampled in the dry season. The three highland forest 

areas were sampled only in the dry season. See 

Sunderland-Groves and Maisels (this volume) for 

additional information on 1998-1999 methodology. 

4.2 Sampling design: 2000-2001 

Since practically no ape data were recorded in the 

lowlands during the earlier surveys, the 2000-2001 

surveys concentrated on highland sites within 

Takamanda. Five highland areas were selected for 

survey, using line transects within and bordering the area. 

Obonyi I hills and Basho hills were revisited, but the 

Matene hills were not because so few animal signs were 

recorded in 1998-1999. Three additional highland sites 

were surveyed in 2000-2001: Takpe hill, Mblishe hill, 

and Atolo hill. Strictly speaking, the areas of Mblishe and 

Atolo fall in the Mbulu forest outside the Takamanda 

boundary. However, the original Takamanda boundary 

reached close to the village of Atolo (Order 1937), and 

hence the sites were included in the Takamanda data set. 

Four 500-m transects were surveyed at each hill site, for 

a total of 20 transects. 

Obonyi I, Basho, and Takpe were surveyed in both 

the dry and wet seasons. The hills at Mblishe and Atolo 

were sampled only in the wet season. Highland transects 

were not pre-cut because it was reported that sections of 

the transects cut at the lowland sites in 1998 were being 

used by local people as hunter paths. Instead, transects 

were simply measured using a hip-chain (measuring 

thread). Random nest searches (walking through the 

forest looking for gorilla nest sites off the transects) were 

also carried out in each area, and we attempted to locate 

as many fresh nest sites as possible. These data 

supplemented information recorded on transects to 

obtain a more accurate estimate of group size and 

population per area. General reconnaissance nest 

searches were carried out in an additional six highland 

sites (Takpe east hills, Makile hills, Obonyi 3 hills, 

Takamanda hills, Mende hills and Umbuli hills) to 

confirm the presence or absence of apes. 

4.3 Data collection 

131 

Data collected on transects included indirect signs of apes 

(dung and tracks), ape nests, direct observations (animals 

seen or heard), and rough age of sign (fresh, recent, old). 

We also recorded the perpendicular distance from the 

center line of the transect for DISTANCE, although this 



proved unnecessary. All evidence of human activity 

(traps, snares, hunter paths, bush houses, spent cartridges, 

gunshots heard, etc.) was recorded to evaluate hunting 

pressures. We also recorded changes in topography and 

vegetation along each transect. The sampling effort 

between transects was standardized by keeping the 

number of observers, speed of travel, and time of day 

consistent. Transects were not walked during heavy or 

medium rainfall as this affects mammal movements and 

observer reliability (see Sunderland-Groves and Maisels 

this volume). 

For ape nests, care was taken to distinguish “definite 

gorilla nest” (nest on the ground or tree nest with gorilla 

dung underneath) from “definite chimp nest” (tree nests 

with chimp dung underneath). If a nest site had both tree 

and ground nests, it was a definite gorilla nest site 

because chimps never build ground nests. Ape dung is 

easily distinguished by smell and form, but old tree nests 

without dung cannot be assigned to gorillas or chimps 

with confidence. Therefore, nest sites where all nests 

were in trees were recorded as “tree-only nest sites.” 

Upon locating a nest site each area was thoroughly 

searched to ensure that all nests within the group were 

identified and recorded. These data were then used to 

calculate mean nest group size. 

Random nest searches were conducted in highland 

areas either after data collection on transects had been 

completed or to confirm presence or absence of apes at 

sites where time was not sufficient to conduct transect 

surveys. The additional data recorded during nest 

searches were used to calculate overall mean group size. 

Nest data collection during random nest searches 

followed the same protocols as those undertaken during 

transect surveys. 


4.4.1 Distribution of apes and of human 

pressure 

Distribution of gorillas and chimps within the 

Takamanda Reserve and adjoining forests was inferred 

from the geographic location of sign that could be 

definitely assigned to one of the two species. 


4.4.2 Group size 

Each nest site is the sleeping site for one group of apes 

for one night. All weaned individuals make one nest per 

night, so the size of each nest group is an indicator of 

group size. There are variations as occasionally apes may 

make a second nest during the night or sleep on the 

ground without making a nest. However, mean group 

size can be roughly calculated for gorillas using all nest 

groups that can definitely be assigned to gorillas. Mean 

nest group size and standard deviation for nest groups 

that could only be assigned to “apes” were calculated 

from the tree-only nest sites. 

4.4.3 Abundance of apes and of human sign 

The encounter rate (number of observations per km of 

transect) was used to estimate relative abundance of 

humans and apes throughout the survey and also to 

compare between sites and seasons. 

Because DISTANCE could not be used, gorilla and 

chimpanzee densities were roughly calculated under the 

formula proposed by Tutin and Fernandez (1984): 

[(N/A)/V][M]=D, 

where N=number of sleeping sites, A=area sampled 

in km 2, V=mean number of days the nest remains visible, 

M=median nest group size, and D=number of weaned 

individuals/km². 

Encounter rates were calculated (number of nests or 

nest sites per km walked, per stratum, and/or per season) 

and compared between strata and seasons between this 

study and previous work by March (1957) in the same 

region, and gorilla surveys carried out elsewhere in 

Africa (Williamson and Usongo 1995, Maisels and 

Cruickshank 1996, Hall et al. 1998). 

In the lowland forest at Lopé, Gabon, gorilla nests 

remained visible for an average of 78 days (Tutin et al. 

1995). Mean chimp nest duration in Gabon was 113.6 

days (Tutin and Fernandez 1984). Since no data are 

available on the deterioration rate of nest sites in


Cameroon, this survey used the same figures recorded in 

Lopé. It is possible that by using average nest duration for 

Gabon in this study, errors may have occurred. Due to the 

faster decay rate and disappearance of ground nests, it is 

possible that some of the tree-only nests sites were 

actually made by gorillas. Subsequent work in Gabon by 

Tutin et al. (1995) showed that about 26% of gorilla nest 

groups “convert” to chimpanzee nests as they age. If a 

gorilla group made nests in trees and on the ground, 

which is common (Tutin et al. 1995), only the tree nests 

will be visible after a given time, and the nest group may 

be erroneously assigned to chimps. Therefore, when the 

densities of chimps and gorillas at a site have been 

calculated from formula 1, the missing 26% of the gorilla 

nest groups must be calculated from the chimp density 

and reassigned to gorillas. 

It is not known whether the ratio of gorilla ground 

nests to tree nests is the same at all sites. Until evidence 

proves otherwise, we use the same conversion factor as 

the Lopé team. 

Site 

Approximate 

altitude (m) Gorilla 

5 Results 

5.1 Sampling Effort 

We walked 122 km of transects in the lowlands in 1998- 

1999 (some transects were walked twice in different 

seasons) and 8 km of transects and 6 km of baseline in 

the highlands. An additional 28 km of transects and 

baseline were walked (some transects were walked 

during two different seasons) in the highlands in 2000- 

2001, and additional nest searches were conducted at 

each site. 

5.2 Ape Distribution 

133 

During the course of surveys between 1998 and 2001,we 

investigated 12 highland areas and two lowland sites 

(Makone east/west and Oyi east/west). Gorillas were 

found to exist at six of the highland sites, and chimpanzee 

or tree-only nests were located at nine of the highland 

sites. There was ape sign at two of the highland sites 

(Takamanda and Mende). 

Table 1. Summary of gorilla and chimpanzee distribution from transect surveys and nest searches, Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, Cameroon, 1998 - 2001 (+ indicates that the species was present; T=transect; NS=nest search) 

Treeonly 

sites 

Transect/nest 

search 

Makone east and 

west (lowland) 

0-720 + + T, NS 

Oyi east and west 

(lowland) 

0-700 T, NS 

Takpe Hill 560 + + T 

East Takpe Hills 400 + + NS 

Basho Hill 640 + + T, NS 

Obonyi 1 Hills 725 + + T, NS 

Obonyi 3 Hills 260 + NS 

Mblishe Hills 740+ + T, NS 

Atolo Hills 1250 + T, NS 

Takamanda Hill 570 NS 

Mende Hills 1530 NS 

Umbuli Hills (nr 

Matene) 

240-1500 + NS 

Matene Hills 420-875 + T, NS 



q—2—2g— 

h˜ 

G g q— 

y2@w—Ã 

H S IH 

u 

In the lowlands, gorilla and chimpanzee signs were 

found at one site—Makone River east. Although this was 

classified as a lowland site (


Table 2. Ape nests: Summary of all data both off and on transects, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 1999 and 2001 

(1999: L=136 km; 2001: L=28 km) 

Year Species 

1999 Gorilla gorilla 

deihli 


vellerosus 

2001 Gorilla gorilla 

deihli 


vellerosus 

Total # 

nest 

groups 

rate for tree-only nest groups was found to be higher in 

both the Obonyi 1 hills and the Basho hills than in the 

lowland forests of Makone east, once more indicating 

that apes were found more frequently in the higher 

altitude areas. We assigned about 74% of these tree-only 

nests to chimpanzees. 

Although the sample size was small, a very rough 

estimate of ape density was made for the highlands and 

the lowlands following the Tutin and Fernandez (1984) 

formula and their suggested correction factor (Tutin et al. 

1995). In the highland areas, gorilla density was 

calculated between 1.2 and 1.8 individuals/km², while 

chimpanzee density was 0.93 to 1.40 individuals/km². 

For the lowlands, gorilla density was 0.03 to 0.05/km², 

and chimpanzee density was 0.10 to 0.12/km². These are 

estimates with unknown precision because the sample 

size was so small. We therefore suggest that there was 

about one gorilla/km² and perhaps one chimpanzee/km² 

in the highlands, and almost no gorillas and fewer than 

0.1 chimpanzees/km² in the lowlands. 

5.4 Ape Density Estimates 2000-2001 

Mean Median 

group size group size 

Fifty-eight gorilla nest sites and 76 chimpanzee or treeonly 

nest sites were recorded during transect surveys and 

nest searches from September 2000 to August 2001. 

Eighteen gorilla nest sites and 15 chimpanzee or treeonly 

nest sites were recorded along 17 km of transect. 

# of nest groups seen 

from transects, all 

strata combined 

135 

Encounter rate of 

nest groups seen on 

transects (#/L) 

12 3.00 2.5 9 0.066 

49 2.73 2.0 30 0.221 

58 3.45 2.5 18 0.642 

76 2.86 2.5 15 0.536 

Three of the areas surveyed were sampled twice, once in 

the dry season and once in the wet season, for a total of 

28 observer-kms. When all nest data are considered, 

including nests that appeared to be from single 

individuals, mean group size and standard deviation for 

gorillas was 3.45 ± 3.52 (median 2.5), and mean 

chimpanzee (tree-only nests) was 2.86 ± 1.76 (median 

2.5) (Table 2). 

Along transects, the encounter rate for gorilla nest 

groups and individual nests was higher at Obonyi 1 hills 

and Basho hills than at Takpe (Table 3). No gorilla nests 

were encountered in either Mblishe or Atolo during 

transect surveys, although gorilla nest sites were located 

in Atolo during nest searches. Additional gorilla nest sites 

were recorded on the east side of the Makile hill (Makone 

east). 

There were more chimpanzee (tree-only) nest sites 

recorded in the Obonyi I hills than at any other highland 

site (Table 4). Only one tree-only nest was observed in 

the Takpe hills along transects, but six additional 

chimpanzee nest sites were recorded during nest 

searches. Chimp (tree-only) nests were not recorded in 

the highland area close to Atolo. One chimp nest site was 

observed in the hills of Obonyi 3 and one close to the 

village of Umbuli, located on the Nigerian border. More 

tree-only nest sites were recorded on the east side of the 

Makile hill (Makone east). 



Table 3. Encounter rate for gorillas along transects, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 2001 

Site Nest groups 

Individual 

nests 

Survey distance 

(km) 

Groups/km Individuals/km 

Takpe Hill 4 6 7.0 0.57 0.86 

Basho Hill 7 14 7.0 1.00 2.00 

Obonyi I Hill 7 24 7.0 2.00 2.00 

Mblishe Hill - - 3.5 - - 

Atolo Hill - - 3.5 - - 

Total 18 44 28 

In all, 84% of the gorilla nests detected were within 

5 m of the transects (roughly 275,000m²), and 33% of the 

chimpanzee nests were within 10 m of the transects 

(280,000 to 555,400m²). Following the formula of Tutin 

and Fernandez (1984), a rough estimate of ape density 

was made (again based on small sample sizes). In 

applying this formula, we estimate that there were 

approximately 2.06 gorillas/km 2 a n d 0.59 

chimpanzees/km 2 . 

To summarize, the Takamanda Forest Reserve 

covers 676 km 2 ; 19% of this area is above 500 m, which 

during these surveys was classified as highland. Using 

the gorilla density figures calculated during the 2000- 

2001 surveys results in an estimate of about 286 gorillas. 

Encounter rate/km walked 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

traps 

hunters paths 


This seems highly unlikely given the estimate from the 

1998-1999 surveys and because gorilla sign was not 

recorded at all highland sites. We therefore maintain that 

the estimate is about 100 gorillas. 

5.5 Human Sign 

highlands lowlands 

When all data from the lowlands were compared with all 

data from the highlands (dry season only), there were 

significantly more traps and hunters’ paths in the 

lowlands than in the highlands, reflecting more hunting 

pressure in the lowlands (Figure 2). 

The 2000-2001 surveys were only conducted in 

highland areas, so we only compared hunting pressure 

among the highland sites (Figure 3). During transect 

Figure 2. Encounter rates of hunters paths and traps in the highlands and lowlands, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 

1998-1999


Table 4. Encounter rate for chimpanzees along transects, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 2001 

Site Nest groups Individual nests 

Survey distance 

(km) 

Groups/km Individuals/km 

Takpe Hill 1 1 7.0 0.14 0.14 

Basho Hill 4 5 7.0 0.57 0.71 

Obonyi I Hill 8 26 7.0 1.14 3.71 

Mblishe Hill 2 5 3.5 0.57 1.43 

Atolo Hill - - 3.5 - - 

Total 15 37 28 

surveys, no bush huts were encountered in the highland 

areas. As was the case in 1999, no traps were seen on 

transects in the Obonyi I hills or on the hill at Mblishe. 

All human sign (paths, traps, cartridges) combined 

indicated that Mblishe had the lowest encounter rate in 

relation to human pressure, suggesting that it is the least 

hunted of all sites 

6 Discussion 

The most recent estimate of the Cross River gorilla 

population in Cameroon is approximately 100 in 

Takamanda Forest Reserve with perhaps an additional 75 

to 80 individuals in the adjacent Mone and Mbulu forests 

(Groves 2002b), for an overall population in Cameroon 

and Nigeria of 250 to 270 gorillas. March (1957), 

Encounter rate/ km 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

137 

surveying the Nigerian side of the border, reported an 

encounter rate of 12 to 13 gorilla nests per km walked. 

The highest encounter rate for gorillas during the 1998- 

2001 surveys was two nests/km, which is significantly 

lower than March’s observations. 

Cross River gorilla and Nigerian chimpanzee 

populations face a tenuous future. In particular, Cross 

River gorillas have been recorded in Cameroon only in 

Takamanda Forest Reserve and adjacent forest areas of 

Mone Forest Reserve and Mbulu forest. These small subgroups 

and populations are now restricted to hill areas 

because of increased hunting and other human activities 

in the lowlands. Thus, the overall population is 

fragmented, with little chance of the sub-populations 

meeting. Such fragmentation may not be recent. Studies 

Takpe Basho Obonyi I Mblishe Atolo 

Site 

Figure 3. Encounter rate of human sign at all sites, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, 2001 



from more than 70 years ago (Allen 1932) reported that 

gorillas existed on steep, inaccessible slopes in highland 

areas. Presumably hunters using guns were not as 

common then as now, so the question of why the gorillas 

appear to prefer these higher altitude (less hunted) sites 

and are unwilling or unable to cross large tracts of 

lowland forest awaits resolution. 

In Takamanda Forest Reserve, vegetation surveys 

(Sunderland et al. this volume) have not revealed a 

dramatic difference of known preferred gorilla foods in 

the higher altitude sites. One possible determining factor 

of fragmentation of at least some of the gorilla groups in 

Takamanda could be the existence of major rivers. It 

would be nearly impossible for gorillas of the Obonyi I 

hills to cross the Makone, Makwere, and Manyu rivers to 

reach gorillas in either Takpe or Basho hills. This factor, 

coupled with high hunting pressure in the lowland areas, 

may have caused the widespread fragmentation of the 

gorilla population. 

Construction of the road from Mamfe to Akwaya 

will cause more fragmentation. To date, the road has 

reached the village of Bandolo in Mbulu forest and has 

already created an ecological divide between Takamanda 

and Mone. If the road is completed, which seems likely, 

it will cut directly between Takamanda and Mbulu, and 

ape movement between the two forested areas will 

certainly cease. 

The main threats to gorilla and chimp populations in 

most areas of Central Africa are commercial hunting, 

followed by ebola haemorrhagic fever in some localities 

(Walsh et al. 2003). The primary immediate threats to 

gorillas in the Takamanda area appears to be hunting 

connected to human activities, especially road 

construction. On the more positive side, villagers in 

Takamanda Forest Reserve implemented a local ban in 

1998 on the shooting of gorillas and chimpanzees, and no 

credible reports of gorilla killings have been registered 

since the ban went into effect. In 2002, the Cross River 

Gorilla Research Project launched an education program 

that focuses on conservation of Cross River gorillas. 

These initiatives, along with recent anti-poaching 

projects of the Cameroon and GTZ/PROFA partnership, 


are having an effect with regard to conservation of 

endangered species in Takamanda. Atotal ban on hunting 

of all endangered species must be instigated and 

monitored to ensure survival of the gorilla population 

into the future—especially in light of inevitable further 

fragmentation of the population as people move into the 

area of the growing road network. 


This research was supported by WWF-Cameroon, 

Wildlife Conservation Society, the Margot Marsh 

Biodiversity Foundation through Conservation 

International, and the Whitley Foundation. We thank the 

Cameroon Ministry of Environment and Forests and 

Ministry of Scientific Research, as well as the Chiefs, 

Traditional Council members, and guides from villages 

in Takamanda and Mone forest reserves and Mbulu 

forest. Thanks to Dan Slayback for preparing the maps. 

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National Park (Okwango Division). 

The Forestry Ordinance. 1937. Takamanda Native 

Administration Forest Reserve. Order No. 38. 

Rothschild, W. 1904. Notes on anthropoid apes. Proc. 

Zool. Soc. London 2: 413-440. 

Rothschild, W. 1906. Further notes on anthopoid apes. 

Proc. Zool. Soc. London 2: 465-468. 




Cameroon forest area. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 24: 

623-725. 

Sarmiento, E. E., and J. F. Oates. 2000. The Cross River 

gorillas: A distinct subspecies Gorilla gorilla diehli 

Matschie (1904). American Museum of Natural 

History Novitates 3304. 

Schmidt-Soltau, K., M. Mdaihli. and J. S. O. Ayeni. 

2001. Socioeceonomic Baseline Survey of the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve. Unpublished report to 

PROFA (GTZ-MINEF) Office, Mamfe 

Struhsaker, T. T. 1967. Preliminary Report on a Survey of 

High Forest Primates in West Cameroon. Report to 

Rockefeller University and the New York Zoological 

Society. 

Sunderland-Groves, J. L., and F. Maisels. In prep. Status 

of the Gorilla gorilla diehli Population of the 

Takamanda and Mone Forest Reserves and the 

Mbulu Forest, Cameroon. 

Thomas, D. 1988. Status and Conservation of 

Takamanda Gorillas (Cameroon). Final Report. 

Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund. 


Tutin, C. E. G., and M. Fernandez. 1984. Nationwide 

census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee 

(Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon. American 

Journal of Primatology 6: 313-336. 

Tutin, C. E. G., R. Parnell, L. J. T. White, and M. 

Fernandez. 1995. Nest building by lowland gorillas 

in the Lope Reserve, Gabon: Environmental 

influences and implications for censusing. 

International Journal of Primatology 16: 53-76. 

Walsh, P. D., K. A. Abernathy, M. Bermejo, R. Beyers, P. 

D. Wachter, M. E. Akou, B. Huijbregts, D. I. 

Mambounga, A. K. Toham, A. M. Kilbourn, S. A. 

Lahm, S. Latour, F. Maisels, C. Mbina, Y. Mihindou, 

S. N. Obiang, E.N., Effa, M. P. Starkey, P. Telfer, M. 

Thibault, C. E. G. Tutin, L. J. T. White, and D. S. 

Wilkie. 2003. Commercial hunting, ebola and 

catastrophic ape decline in western equatorial Africa. 

Nature 422:611-614. 

Williamson, L., and L. Usongo. 1995. I. Survey of 

Primate Populations and Large Mammal Inventory. 

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Cameroon: ECOFAC Composante Cameroun and 

Ministere de l’Environnement, Cameroun.


Fisheries in the Southern Border Zone of 


Marina Mdaihli, Tim du Feu, and Julius S. O. Ayeni 

The Cameroonian–German (GTZ) Project for the 

Protection of Forests Around Akwaya (PROFA) 

collaborates with local communities and authorities to 

achieve community-based conservation 1 . This approach 

aims to maintain the biological diversity of Takamanda 

Forest Reserve (TFR) and improve the forest-based 

living conditions of local peoples. 

In the course of collecting baseline data for planning 

sustainable resource use in TFR, fishing was found to 

contribute as much as game hunting to consumption and 

the trading economy of villages within and around the 

Reserve (du Feu 2002). Yet, forest managers concentrate 

on the generation of revenue from timber and wildlife 

harvests. Within the context of formulating a sustainable 

management plan for TFR, it therefore was necessary to 

provide baseline scientific information on fish biology 

and on the economic benefits of fisheries in the TFR area. 

This paper reports on fisheries of the southern border 

zone of the Reserve, based on a fisheries baseline study 

undertaken from 23 October-3 December, 2000, under 

commission by PROFA. Information from the study and 

baseline socio-ecological data (Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001, 

1 Community-based conservation attempts to move the 

responsibility for natural resource management from the elite 

to the rural poor and from the urban to the village hamlets. 

This approach is focused on the people who live with and 

directly bear the costs of natural resource conservation. It 

enables local people to define their own priorities and 

develop at their own pace and in their own way—gaining 

knowledge and skills as they go (Uphoff 1985). In an ideal 

situation, community-based conservation arises within a 

community rather than being imposed through a top-down 

external force. 

Schmidt-Soltau 2001) are being used to draft a 

participatory plan for sustainable management of TFR 

forests. 

1.1 PROFA 

PROFA is administered by the Divisional Delegation for 

Environment and Forests (Manyu Division at Mamfe), 

an agency of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry 

in Yaoundé. The overall goal during the first phase of the 

PROFA (March 2000 to February 2003) was to develop 

a management plan that ensures the maintenance of 

biodiversity in TFR and contributes to improvement of 

living conditions for people within the Reserve’s border 

zones. A positive outcome of the first phase will enable 

expansion of the project to cover the nearby Mone Forest 

Reserve and extension of the timeframe to 12 years 

(three-year orientation, eight-year implementation phase, 

and a “handing over” phase of one year). 

The following are the anticipated project outputs: 

• Draft forest management plan for TFR, partially 

tested. 

• Participatory forest management capacity of local 

populations and the Divisional Delegation is 

strengthened through cooperation among all 

involved parties. 

• Traditional income-generating activities and selfhelp 

initiatives are identified, and a gender-sensitive 

strategy for sustainable resource management is 

developed and tested. 

2 Site description 

Chapter 10 

The Reserve is situated at the northern most corner of 

Southwest Province, Cameroon, north of the Cross River 


142 Mdaihli et al. 

Basin and is separated from the southeastern section of 

the Cross River National Park in Nigeria by the 

Cameroon-Nigeria international border. Covering an 

area of 67, 599 ha, TFR contains an additional 6,500 ha 

of village enclaves. Matene settlements in Cameroon are 

sandwiched between the Cross River National Park and 

the TFR. The introductory chapter by Sunderland- 

Groves et al. (this volume) provides full details of the 

project area including a map of the village locations. 

The most prominent water body in the region, the 

Cross River, and its many tributaries drain southwestern 

Cameroon and southeastern Nigeria. The Oyi River, a 

tributary of the Cross River, forms the greater part of it’s 

the Reserve’s western border, while the eastern and 

southern borders of the Reserve follow small rivulets and 

footpaths. Several small rivers flow south into the 

Munaya and the Cross River. In the northern part of the 

Reserve, the hilly terrain rises to more than 1,000 m with 

mountains reaching up to 1,600 m. 

Two seasons, dry and wet, characterize rainfall in the 

study area. Typically, heavy rains start in mid-March and 

last to mid-November, with the dry season extending 

from the latter half of November to mid-March. Average 

yearly rainfall ranges from 2,500 to 3,500 mm. Average 

monthly relative humidity at Besong-Abang south of the 

study area ranges between 76% and 89%. The mean 

annual temperature is 23º C with an average maximum 

of 30º C and minimum of 21º C. The hottest months are 

December to February. Temperatures decrease with 

altitude, and Mamfe at an elevation of 152 m records a 

maximum of 34º C in March compared to a minimum of 

18º C in January. Akwaya at an altitude of 1,500 m in the 

northern extremity of the study area is much cooler than 

Mamfe in the south, and receives more rainfall because 

of the effect of the highlands. 

3 Materials and methods 

The data that form the basis for this paper were collected 

in two surveys—a fisheries baseline study and a fisheries 

framework survey of TFR’s border zone areas. 


3.1 Fisheries Baseline Study 

The fisheries baseline survey (du Feu 2001) provided: 

• A checklist of fish species and literature on the 

fishery in the study area. 

• A description of the composition and the 

approximate distribution of fish species and of 

fisherfolk, fishing methods, and seasonality of the 

fishery. 

• A summary of fish processing and fish marketing in 

the area. 

Information on the fishery was obtained from 

discussions with fisherfolk and through two 

questionnaires, one for the whole fishing village and the 

other for individual fisherfolk. Resident literate persons, 

identified by the village chief and trained by the project 

team, administered the individual questionnaires to 474 

people in the study area. 

To establish preliminary yields, a total of 72 catches 

were measured over five consecutive days. Using that 

information, it was difficult to estimate catch per unit 

effort (CpUE) for different gear types because a variety 

of fishing gear was used over the measurement period. In 

addition, fishing activity was not estimated from 

fisherfolk who had their catches weighed because they 

were fishing at the time of questioning and therefore 

would have an unrepresentative high level of activity. 

Instead, activity questions were included on the 

individual questionnaire, specifically: Had the individual 

gone fishing over the past three days. This question alone 

produced a total of 1,440 activity records or an average 

of 3.04 activities per person (474 individuals) over the 

three-day period. 

To establish preliminary yield estimates for the 

survey area and the whole of TFR, the total number of 

fisherfolk was obtained from the questionnaires in the 

south and from interviews with village chiefs in the 

northern areas. The mean catches and activity levels were 

derived from CpUE calculations for two villages and 

activity data from the fisheries baseline survey. CpUE is 

based on the general assumption that the number of

Fisheries Surveys 

Percentage activity 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

individual fish removed from a population will be 

proportional to the effort expended in taking the sample. 

Total population data, obtained from estimates of 

Grooves and Maisels (1999) and Ayeni and Mdaihli 

(2001), were used to estimate per capita consumption of 

fish. Because published literature on fisheries in the study 

area is scanty, reliance was placed on the collection of 

unpublished reports of field expeditions on fisheries 

surveys (King 1996, Roberts 1975, Simon 1998) in 

nearby Cross River National Park. 

Nomenclature and taxonomy used in the current 

paper follows that of Lévêque et al. (1990, 1992) and 

Froese and Pauly (2003). 

3.2 Fisheries Framework Survey 

The fisheries framework survey was designed on the 

basis of the findings of the baseline study above. In 18 

fishing villages in the TFR border zone area, all people 

who fish were counted, their names were recorded, and 

they were grouped as follows: 

• Resident adult fishermen 

• Resident adult fisherwomen 

• Fisher children 

• Fishermen from other Cameroonian villages 

• Nigerian fishermen 

Adult fishermen 

Adult fisherwomen 

Fisherchildren 

Migrant fisherfolk 

Jan 

Feb 

March 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

Figure 1. Seasonality of fishing by fisherfolk in the border zone south of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

143 

In addition, the number and types of fishing gear, 

boats, and engines they own were recorded. 

4 Results and discussion 

4.1 Seasonality of Fishing 

Fishing is an activity conducted in all sorts of waters with 

peak activity extending from the end of the rainy season 

(December) into the short, dry season in March (Figure 

1). At this time, the water currents are slow and the 

river/stream levels less variable than during the wet 

season. Fish also become more concentrated as the river 

level drops, making them easier to catch. 

There is a rapid rise in fishing activity from October 

to December after the wet season when streams and 

rivers are emptying. During this period, a large number 

of juvenile fish that hatched during the rains and used 

flooded areas and streams as nursery grounds are 

caught—primarily through the use of fish fences, traps, 

cast nets, and cross-over nets. However, fishing for 

juveniles that have not had a chance to reproduce reduces 

the overall annual fish production of the water bodies. 

4.2 The Fisherfolk 

The 2001 fisheries framework survey identified 

approximately 2,400 part- and full-time fisherfolk in the 


144 

Table 1. Type and number of fisherfolk in TFR, Cameroon. 

Type of Fisherfolk Number 

Resident fishermen 911 

Resident fisherwomen 625 

Fishing children 722 

Migrant fishermen from Nigeria 31 

Migrant fishermen from Cameroon 110 

study area, of which 38% were resident adult males, 30% 

were children, 26% were resident adult females, 5% were 

migrants from within Cameroon, and 1% were migrants 

from Nigeria (Table 1). 

4.3 Fishing Equipment 

Dugout canoes or canoes made of sawn timber (planked 

canoes) are commonly used for fishing, propelled by 

paddling since there are virtually no outboard engines in 

the study area (Table 2). Fishing gear includes gill nets, 

cast nets, drift nets, beach seines, hand nets, hooks of all 

kinds, poles and lines, traps, fish fences, cutlasses, and 

bare hands. 

Typical gill nets have a mesh size of 3 inches. When 

set parallel to the shore, these nets have no harmful effect 

on the fishery. If set across the river, however, they can 

block upstream breeding movement and migration and 

capture large numbers of juvenile fish. 

Cast nets have a small mesh size of 1.5 – 2 inches 

that can damage fish stocks through premature 

harvesting of juvenile fish. 

Drift nets usually target breeding adults as they 

migrate upstream to spawn. The number of nets is not 

sufficient to warrant concern, but should be monitored. 

Beach seines, or “keli-keli,” are extremely 

destructive because as they are hauled along, they dredge 

the riverbed and thus destroy breeding and nursery sites. 

This is a particular problem for continuous spawners 

such as cichlids. 


Mdaihli et al. 

Scoop/hand net, commonly called “nylon trap” nets, 

have a mean mesh size of just one inch. Large catches of 

juveniles can be expected. Cichlids, the main species 

caught, are not highly fecund and therefore prone to 

decline in yield if juveniles are over-fished. . Also of 

concern is disturbance of breeding nests as people wade 

through the streams with their nets. 

Large Hook, or the “number 1 hook,” represents the 

least damaging of all fishing methods, apart from the 

associated fishery required for bait fishes. Large hooks 

target predator fishes; through decreases in the number of 

predators, increased yields of prey species lower in the 

food chain can be expected. 

Poles and lines, known as “day hooks,” probably 

account for a large mortality of juveniles, judging from 

the number of children fishing and the small size of the 

hooks that they use. 

Wire traps are made of chicken wire with a single 

opening; they are up to one meter in length. Traps are 

notorious for catching juvenile fish, particularly of 

cichlids. Traps probably cause the highest mortality of 

these species. 

Fish fences catch all species of fish during the 

juvenile’s migration from the streams where they were 

spawned to the main river from November to January. 

Care must be taken to accurately determine the number 

of fish fence sites and composition of the catch to make 

an accurate assessment of impacts. 

Table 2. Fishing equipment used by fisherfolk in Takamanda 


Equipment # Equipment # 

Canoes 438 Hand nets 1,457 

Engines 1 Hooks 20,917 

Gill nets 6,793 Poles and lines 2,328 

Cast nets 1,029 Traps 5,833 

Drift nets 422 Fish fences 84 

Beach seines 21 Baskets 1,199


4.4 Fish Poisons 

Two types of fish poison exist. The most dangerous is the 

organo-chlorine insecticide Gammalin 20 (Reid 1989), 

which are applied during low water (November-March). 

Poisons from local plants are more widely used, 

especially by women, and have been recorded as far back 

as 1905 (Teugels et al. 1992). Traditional poisons include 

Trephosia, a leaf tree (local name Tachinkot, Kachi), the 

bark of the Piptadeniastrum africanum (a tree; Groves 

and Maisels 1999), and two types of fruit—one of 

Randia sp. (local names Ejibi, Kembu, Epum, and 

Otchuwatumwa) and the other of Omphalocarpum 

procerum. 

Cameroon law now bans chemical poisons. There is 

no prohibition on use of traditional poisons from local 

plants, but herbal poisons are banned if classified under a 

provision of Cameroon law that covers “all other 

methods deemed to be destructive against fauna or 

balance of the aquatic ecosystem.” 

4.5 Fish Processing and Marketing 

The only form of fish processing is hot smoking, 

commonly referred to as “drying.” All excess fish are 

smoked either for storage in the home or for sale to other 

households or markets. The most common fish eaten by 

village folk are fresh Clarias, Labeo, and tilapia. They 

sell larger, higher-priced fish and retain smaller ones for 

home consumption. 

Every fishing household performs its own smoking. 

This may appear to be a waste of firewood and effort, 

especially given periodic, small catches. However, the 

fish smoker is a simple structure made of a slatted shelf 

(usually bamboo) placed above the kitchen fire. Because 

the kitchen fire is always lit, there is adequate smoke for 

curing. 

Prior to smoking, the fish are de-scaled, and the 

intestines and gills are removed. The fish is then washed 

and, if smaller than 15 cm, placed flat on the smoking 

shelf. If larger, a wood skewer is inserted through the 

mouth to the tail so that the fish is bent circular. The 

person who caught the fish is usually responsible for 

preparing it, although this activity is sometimes shared 

with other members of the household. Fish are smoked 

for up to three days, then placed in covered rattan baskets 

on a shelf about 2 m above the fire to remain dry. 

There are few fish markets in the study area. Fish are 

either consumed by the household (23% of surveyed 

catches) or taken to other houses for sale (77%). Thus, 

fish are an important source of protein and income. 

The main market for fish is in the study area is 

Mamfe; it is held every Saturday. A roadside market 

exists along the Mamfe-Nyang road. Its stops include 

Nyang (Wednesday), Mukonyong (Thursday), and 

Eshobi (Friday). Only two fish stalls were seen in the 

road market, and both sold smoked crayfish of very poor 

quality. There are no fish markets west of the Mamfe- 

Nyang road. 

During the rainy season when this survey was 

conducted, sea fish were sold mainly at Mamfe market, 

which had 12 stalls selling salt-water fish compared to 8 

selling freshwater fish. Fish sellers offered either 

freshwater or salt-water fish, never a mix. There was no 

price difference between the two. Salt-water fish came 

from Limbe on the coast and included small stone heads, 

mullets, barracuda, and shrimp. Women take most 

freshwater fish to the Mamfe market and use the 

proceeds from selling the fish to purchase household 

items, although sometimes fish traders go to villages to 

buy fish for market. Fish sold at Mamfe are used for local 

consumption and not exported elsewhere. 

4.6 Fish Breeding and Migration 

145 

From October to December, fish breeding and migration 

occur in the small streams draining the project area. This 

period marks the time when hatchlings produced in the 

preceding rainy season use the flooded streams as 

breeding grounds before returning to the main rivers. It is 

during the same period, fish fencing, traps, cast nets and 

cross-over nets that cause high mortality to juvenile fish 

are frequently operated. 


146 

Migrating Labeo spp. make up 10% of all recorded 

catches. This level is probably much higher when one 

includes catches during annual migrations. The 

commercial importance of these fish presents a case for 

controlling the fishing effort during their migration in 

November. 

Within the forest streams, large breeding migrations 

of four species were recorded between October and 

December. The most common was migration of Labeo 

batesii, Hemigrammopetersius brevidorsalis, and Barbus 

sp. Similar migration of L. batesii have been reported in 

streams of nearby Okwangwo Division of Cross River 

National Park at the villages of Bemi, Okwa I, Okwa II, 

and Kanyang (King 1997). Large-scale fish migrations of 

Labeo coubie were also reported by Simon (1998) for the 

same area of the national park. 

4.7 Fish Species Caught 

About 40% of the adult populations (above 15 years in 

age) in the villages fish, mostly for home consumption. 

Fish that are sold are either fresh (50%) or smoked 

(50%). Figure 2 shows the main fish groups harvested 

using various fishing gear. Fishermen stated that cichlids 

dominate in their catch followed by predatory 

Hydrocynus sp. and Hepsetus sp. The Clariidae—for 

example, Clarias, Mochokidae, and Bagridae—are also 

abundant. Popular fish for consumption in the area are 

Tilapia, Crow–crow nose, Mbanga, Mudfish, Dog fish, 

and Snake fish (see Appendix 1 for common and specific 

names). 

It is interesting that predators such as Hydrocynus 

vittatus, Hydrocynus brevis, and Hepsetus odoe figure 

behind prey fish such as cichlids in the catch. This may 

indicate an abundance of prey species and perhaps a 

healthy fishery. The presence of flooded forest banks 

undoubtedly assists predators, providing “lay in wait and 

stealth” habitat for effective predation. 

Snake fish (Mastacembelidae) are also high on the 

list of species captured, possibly because they are easy to 

catch and therefore frequently mentioned. Not 

surprisingly, the Siluriformes (Clarias sp. and Barbus 

sp.), ideally suited to the riverine/stream environment 


and able to withstand low levels of oxygen in flooded 

areas, were also on the list, in fourth and fifth places. 

Bagridae and Mochokidae were also represented. 

4.8 Estimate of Fish Production 

Extrapolating the sample to the total number of fisherfolk 

in the survey area and multiplying by the CpUE recorded 

from Bache and Kajifu villages and activity data from the 

individual questionnaire survey resulted in a yield 

estimate of 106.3 tons for November (Table 3). The 

methodology used here is a standard practice for 

determination of fish yields in African rivers (Welcome 

1976). It is likely that annual yields may differ from that 

obtained through simple multiplication by 12 months, 

given the varying levels of activity and CpUE expected 

during the dry season. Levels of monthly activity 

obtained from the questionnaire survey were multiplied 

by the November CpUE (assumed constant) to more 

accurately project the annual yield and to give an idea of 

the expected monthly variation (Figure 3). The result was 

an estimated annual yield of 1,056 ton, worth 

approximately FCFA 400 million, or about $700,000. 

4.9 Fish Biodiversity 


In the southern sector of TFR along the Munaya River, 

some 54 fish species belonging to 22 families have been 

recorded to date (Appendix 1). While not exhaustive, this 

list compares favorably with that of the Okwangwo 

Division of the Cross River National Park, whose 

tributaries also partly drain the greater portion of the 

study area. For the Okwangwo Division, King (1997) 

recorded 31 species representing 6 orders and 9 families. 

Several of the 90 species from the upper Cross River 

(Reid 1989) were confirmed as endemics, including 

Tetraodon pustulatus, Gobiocichla trewavasae, 

Afromastacembelus sexdecimspinus, and a new species 

of Leptocypris. 

Literature on the fishery in the region is almost solely 

centered on checklists and descriptions of fish species, 

with little emphasis on the overall fishery (Moses 1981, 

1987; Reid 1989; Schliewen 1996; King 1997; Simon 

1998). Teugels et al. (1992) provides the most


Eleotridae sp. 

Mormy rids 

Citharinidae/Dishicho 

Mochokidae 

Bagridae 

Lates/Poly centropsis 

Clarias sp. 

Barbus/Alestes 

Mastacembelidae 

Hy rocy nus/Hepsetus 

Tilapia 

Labeo sp. 


Citharinidae/Dishicho 

Bagridae 

Lates/Polycentropsis 

Mormyrids 

Clarias sp. 



Hyrocynus/Hepsetus 

Labeo sp. 

Tilapia 

Raiamas sp. 



Clarias sp. 

Labeo sp. 



Hyrocynus/Hepsetu 

Tilapia 

Raiamas sp. 

Bagridae 


Labeo sp. 

Turtle 



Tilapia 



Clarias sp. 

0 5 10 15 20 

Percentage frequency 

Gill Net 

Sample size: 1,335 

0 5 10 15 20 


Cast net 

Sample size = 791 

0 5 10 15 20 


Hand net 

Sample size: 186 

No 1 Hook 

Sample no: 635 

0 5 10 15 20 25 


Figure 2. Frequency of species groups caught in the border zones south of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

147 



Mochokidae 


Cover pot 

Ekpe 


Labeo sp. 

Clarias sp. 

Mormyrids 

Turtle 


Bagridae 

Labeo sp. 

Ekpe 



Clarias sp. 

Tilapia 



Lates/Polycentro 

Postmaster 

Police dog 


Mochokidae 

Clarias sp. 


Tilapia 

Hyrocynus/Heps 


Ekpe 


Hyrocynus/Heps 

Tilapia 


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 


Foul hook longline 


0 5 10 15 20 


Baited hooks 


0 5 10 15 20 


All fish traps: 

rattan trap 

w ire trap 

bamboo trap 


Figure 2 (cont.). Frequency of species groups caught in the border zones south of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon.


comprehensive list of fish species available and 

recognizes 166 species from 15 orders. Species include 

those from the lower Guinean ichthyo-faunal province 

and the upper Guinean, Nilo-Sudanian, and Zairian 

provinces. The Cross River has more fish species than 

any other comparable West African river basin and 

presents a rich Ichthyofauna (Teugels et al. 1992). At the 

present moderate levels of fishing intensity in the study 

area, no species can be classified as endangered, although 

the threats caused by specific fishing methods are of 

concern. 

4.10 Other Aquatic Animals 

This study also included questions asking fisherfolk how 

often they observed other animals while fishing. The 

objective was to provide additional information on the 

abundance of aquatic wildlife. The monitor lizard was 

the most common creature seen, followed by the otter 

(Table 4). As expected, manatees and hippos, once 

Total Adult 

fishermen 

Adult 

fisherwomen 

149 

common, are now less so. Some shellfish such as prawns 

Macrobrachium sp. are harvested inside hollow Indian 

bamboo traps. Crabs, frogs, and toads receive little 

attention. 

5 Recommendations 

To obtain a good understanding of fisheries, especially to 

enable PROFA to recommend measures that will prevent 

the valuable stocks of the Upper Cross River from being 

over-fished, it is recommended that the fisheries 

monitoring system that was initiated in March 2001 be 

carried on throughout the project’s lifespan. In particular, 

monitoring should focus on beach seines, cast nets, and 

the catch by fish fences and small hooks. Whenever the 

catch exceeds the maximum sustainable fish yield, 

management measures to regulate the particular fishery 

will be needed. 

Table 3. Estimates of fishing effort, catch per unit effort, and yields for the border zones south of Takamanda FR, Cameroon 

Fisherchildren Cameroon 

Fisherfolk 

Nigerian 

fisherfolk 

# 

Total number 

(frame) 

399 286 1,114 3 2 

Mean gear types 

used day -1 fisher -1 # 

3.7 1.7 1.6 

Percent activity 46 33 57 - - 

Effort (total fisher 

days month -1 ) ² 

5,560 2,860 18,973 - - 

CpUE (Kg fisher -1 

day -1 ) 

8.96 5.62 2.13 - - 

Total yield (t) south 

of TFR ²² 

106.3 49.8 16.1 40.4 0 0 

Total yield TFR 

Total yield (t) 

239.2 132.6 48 58.6 0 0 

extrapolated to 

entire TFR area 

345.5 182.4 64.1 99 0 0 

² Fishing effort = Activity x total number x 30 days per month, 

²² Where south of TFR = survey area, Entire area = survey area +TFR 

TFR= Reserve enclaves and support zones 


150 

Monthly yield (t) 

200 

160 

120 

80 

40 

0 

Jan 

Feb 

March 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

Figure 3. Predicted monthly yield estimates of Takamanda 

Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

It is further recommended that the campaign against 

the use of Gammalin and traditional herbal fish poisons 

be continued. Awareness already exists in the villages, 

and almost all fisherfolk are against this practice. 

To further protect fish stocks, it is recommended that 

collection of fish eggs from migrating Labeo sp. be 

prohibited before the November migration. 

In addition, PROFA should open a small research 

center to store preserved fish specimens to assist in 

compilation of fish species checklists and provide a 

useful fish identification training tool for data recorders. 

More research is required to determine any declining 

patterns in mean sizes of fish caught by hand nets. The 

cichlids of importance in the fishery must be examined to 


determine when precise remedial management measures 

should be implemented. In the meantime, it is safe to 

recommend that the minimum gear mesh size of 3 inches 

recommended for most African lakes and rivers is 

appropriate for the study region. 

References 


Ayeni, J.S.O., and M. Mdaihli.. 2001. Communitybased 

approach to biodiversity conservation of 

the Takamanda Forest Reserve, South West 

Province Cameroon. Wildlife and Nature: FAO 

International journal of nature conservation 

Africa. Accra: FAO Regional Office. 

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Table 4. Reported frequency of sightings of aquatic wildlife while fishing in support zones south of Takamanda FR, Cameroon. 

Monitor 

lizard Otter Crocodile Manatee Hippo 

Varanus Aonyx Crocodylus Trichechus Hippopotamus 

Frequency niloticus capensis niloticus senegalensis amphibius 

Every week 59 31 21 16 18 

Once a month 23 29 41 20 20 

Once a year 

Sample size (# 

18 39 38 65 63 

fisher 

interviewed) 

255 347 226 192 91


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Appendix 1. List of fish species with "Pidgin" English and local dialect names of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Family Species English Name Pidgin Name 

Bagridae Auchenoglanis bisculatus (Geoffrey Saint- 

Hillaire, 1808) 

Catfish 

Bagridae Bagrus docmak (Forskall, 1775) Silver catfish Male belly up 

Bagridae Bagrus flamentosus (Pellegrin, 1924) Silver catfish Male belly up 

Bagridae Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (La Cép"de, 

1803) 

Catfish Belly up (female) 

Centropomidae Late niloticus (Linnaeus, 1762) Nile perch Go#per 

Characidae Brycinus brevis (Boulenger, 1903) African tetras Mbanga 

Characidae Brycinus longipennis (Gunther, 1864) African tetras Mbanga 

Characidae Hydrocynus brevis (Gunther, 1864) Tiger fish Dog fish 

Characidae Micralestes elongates (Draget, 1957) Mbanga 

Characidae Micralestes humilis (Boulenger, 1899) Mbanga 

Cichlidae Pelvicachromis pulcher (Boulenger, 1901) Tilapia Bone back 

Cichlidae Pelvicachromis taeniatus (Boulenger, 1901) Tilapia Bone back 

Cichlidae Sarotherodon galilaeus (Linnaeus, 1758) Tilapia Bone back 

Cichlidae Tilapia mariae (Boulenger, 1899) Tilapia Bone back 

Citharinidae Citharinus citharus (Geoffrey Saint-Hillaire, Moon fish 

1808) 

Sand leaf fish 

Citharinidae Citharinus latus (Muller & Troschel, 1845) Moon fish Sand leaf fish 

Clariidae Clarias agboyiensis (Sydenham, 1980) Catfish Mudfish 

Clariidae Clarias anguillaris (Linnaeus, 1758) Catfish Mudfish 

Clariidae Heterobranchus bidorsalis (Geoffrey Saint- 

Hillaire, 1809) 

Catfish Mudfish 

Cyprinidae Barbus bynni occidentalis (Boulenger, 1911) Barbs Mbanga 

Cyprinidae Barbus lagoensis (Gunther, 1868) Barbs Mbanga 

Cyprinidae Labeo parvus (Boulenger, 1902) African carps Craw-craw nose 

Cyprinidae Labeo senegalensis (Valenciennes, 1942) African carps Craw-craw nose 

Cyprinidae Raiamas nigeriensis (Daget, 1959) Aeroplane fish 

Dasyatidae Dasyatis garouaensis (Stauch & Blanc, 

1962) 

Ray Cover pot 

Denticiptidae Denticeps clupeoides (Clausen, 1959) Mbanga fish 

Distichodontidae Distichodus engycephalus (Gunther, 1864) Grass-eaters 

Distichodontidae Ichthyborus monodi (Pellegrin, 1929) Grass-eaters 

Hepsetidae Hepsetus odoe (Bl0ch, 1794) African pike Dog fish 

Malapteruidae Malapterurus electricus (Gmelin, 1789) Electric fish Electric fish 

Mastacembelidae Aethiomastacembelus nigromarginatus 

(Boulenger, 1898) 

Spiny-eel Snake fish 

Mastacembelidae Caecomastacembelus decorsei (Pellegrin, 

1919) 

Spiny-eel Snake fish 

153 



Appendix 1 (cont). List of fish species with "Pidgin" English and local dialect names of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Family Species English Name Pidgin Name 

Mochokidae Brachysynodontis batensoda (Ruppell, 1832) Catfish Knock-a-knock 

Postmaster 

Mormyridae Campylomormyrus tamandua (Gunther, 

1864) 

Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Gnathonemus petersii (Gunther, 1862) Elephant fish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus pictus (Marcusen, 1864) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Hippopotamyrus psittacus (Boulenger, 1897) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Marcusenius cyprinoides (Linnaeus, 1758) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Mormyrops oudoti (Daget, 1954) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Mormyrus macrophthalmus (Gunther, 1866) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Mormyrus rume (Valenciennes, 1846) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Mormyrus spp. Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Mormyridae Mormyrus tapirus (Pappenheim, 1905) Trunkfish Elephant fish 

Nandidae Polycentropsis abbreviata (Boulenger, 1901) Grouper 

Notopteridae Papyrocranus afer (Gunther, 1868) Feather back Canda planty 

Notopteridae Notopterus nigri (Gunther, 1868) African knife- fish Canda planty 

Osteoglossidae Heterotis niloticus (Cuvier, 1829) Bony tongue 

Phractolaemidae Phractolaemus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1901) Blood fish Mudskip 

Polypteridae Polypterus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1910) Bichir / Thorny-eel Snake fish 

Schilbeidae Schilbe brevianalis (Pellegrin, 1929) Butterfish Female belly up 

Schilbeidae Schilbe intermedius (Ruppel, 1832) Butterfish Female belly up 

Tetraodontidae Tetradon lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Puffer fish Football fish 

Tetraodontidae Tetradon pustulatus (Murray, 1857) Puffer fish Football fish 


Distribution, Utilization, and Sustainability of Non-Timber Forest 

Products from Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Terry C.H. Sunderland, Simon Besong, and Julius S.O. Ayeni 


Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are materials 

derived from forests—excluding timber but including 

“bark, roots, tubers, corms, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, 

sap, resins, honey, fungi, and animal products” (Clark 

and Sunderland in press). NTFPs are collected from a 

wide range of ecotypes such as high forest, farm fallow, 

otherwise disturbed forest, and farmland (Peters 1996) 

for use as food, medicine, and barter. In some cases, they 

are the only means for residents of remote forests to 

participate in the cash economy (Arnold and Ruiz-Perez 

1996). People throughout the tropics rely on the harvest 

and sale of NTFPs for their economic well being. 

It is only relatively recently that non-timber forest 

products have become the focus of research and 

development initiatives (Neumann and Hirsch 2000), 

primarily to ensure sustainable use of forest resources to 

meet human needs while conserving the natural systems 

that produce the goods (Wilkie 1999). This paradigm 

shift reflects the important role of NTFPs in conservation 

and community development initiatives through both 

product promotion and coherent strategies for sustainable 

use (Wollenberg and Ingles 1999, Neumann and Hirsch 

2000). 

The framework for sustainable use of NTFPs must 

include adequate baseline knowledge of the species 

concerned, an understanding of the marketing systems in 

which these products are traded, and appropriate 

legislation (Cunningham 1999). Such a framework can 

serve as the mechanism for equitable distribution of 

benefits, community participation in resource 

management, and generation of revenues from nontimber 

forest products (Neumann and Hirsch 2000). 

2 Importance of NTFPs in 


Chapter 11 

In common with many areas in the tropics and elsewhere 

in West and Central Africa, the inhabitants of Takamanda 

Forest Reserve (TFR) and its environs depend heavily on 

exploitation of forest resources (Groves and Maisels 

1999, Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001, Schmidt-Soltau 2001, 

Zapfack et al. 2001). In particular, NTFPs help to 

stabilize incomes because they can be harvested when 

demand for farm labor is low but when NTFP production 

is at its peak (Schmidt-Soltau 2001). It is estimated that 

70% of the total population in the larger study area 

collects forest products for consumption and sale, 

representing an estimated income of 500 million CFA 

(about $850,000) a year (Ayeni and Mdaihli 2001), or a 

mean of 190,000 CFA (about $320) per household— 

39% of total household income (Schmidt-Soltau 2001). 

Recent findings also estimate that the majority (68%) of 

harvested NTFPs are sold in home communities, 19% 

are transported for sale in Nigeria, and 13% are traded in 

local Cameroon markets (Schmidt-Soltau 2001, 

Sunderland 2001). 

In Takamanda, bush mango and eru combined 

contribute to 82.2% of household income (Table 1) and 

are by far the most valuable products to the communities 

within the Reserve. The retail value per unit of other 

products such as the Carpolobia cattle stick and Randia 

chewing stick is relatively high, but most local 

communities realize very little from the harvest and sale 

of these products, an inequity that is a key component in 

the management of NTFPs in TFR as discussed in more 

detail below. 



Table 1. Major plant NTFPs from Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon, and their contribution to household income (from 

Schmidt-Soltau 2001, Sunderland 2001) 

Common 

name 

Scientific name 

Plant part 

used 


Use 

% 

contribution 

to cash 

Main market(s) 

Bush mango Irvingia gabonensis Seed Condiment, soup 

income 

58.9 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria) 

and I. wombolu 

thickener 

Mamfe 

Eru Gnetum africanum and Leaves Edible vegetable 23.3 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria) 

G. buccholzianum 

Mamfe 

Njansang Ricinodendron 

heudelotii 

Seed Condiment 6.6 Mbu, Nyang, Mamfe 

Bush pepper Piper guineensis Seed, leaf Condiment, leafy 2.9 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria) 

vegetable 

Mamfe 

Chewing Garcinia mannii Wood Dental hygiene 1.9 Agbokim, Ikom (Nigeria) 

stick 

Mamfe 

Bush onion Afrostyrax 

Seed Condiment 

1.5 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria) 

kamerunensis 

Mamfe 

Bitter kola Garcinia kola Seed Stimulant, 

medicinal 

1.0 Mbu, Nyang, Mamfe 

Raffia Raphia hookeri Leaves Thatching 0.7 Local sale within TFR 

Hausa stick Carpolobia lutea and 

C. alba 

Stems Cattle stick 0.4 Ikom (Nigeria) 

Cola nut Cola nitida Seed Stimulant, cultural 0.4 Ikom, Amana (Nigeria) 

Mamfe 

Alligator 

pepper 

Aframomum spp. Seed Medicinal 0.3 Mbu, Nyang, Mamfe 

Akpa Tetrapleura tetraptera Seed pod Condiment 0.1 Mamfe 

Njabe Baillonella toxisperma Seed Oil 0.1 Local sale, Mamfe 

Essok Mushroom Edible 0.1 unknown 

Screw pine Pandanus 

candelabrum 

Leaves Thatching for mats 0.07 Local sale within TFR 

Rattan Laccosperma 

secundiflorum 

L. robustum and 

Eremospatha 

macrocarpa 

Stems Weaving 0.07 Local sale within TFR 

Ngongo Marantaceae Leaves Weaving, wrapping 0.06 Local sale within TFR 

Bush plum Dacryodes edulis Fruits Edible 0.06 Local sale within TFR 

Poga Poga oleosa Seed Edible 0.06 Local sale within TFR

Distribution, Utilization, and Sustainability of NTFPs 

Figure 1. Location of NTFP surveys in the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

2.1 Recent trends in NTFP trade in TFR 

Until the 1980s, most of TFR and its environs were 

relatively inaccessible, except through pedestrian access. 

The majority of NTFPs were traded locally or were 

carried on the heads of residents across the Cameroon- 

Nigeria border. Logging in the late 1980’s logging 

activities, particularly to the south of the Reserve, led to 

the construction of access roads that reached as far as 

Bache and Okpambe (Figure 1) These roads facilitated 

greater access to TFR and its resources, with a 

corresponding increase in the harvest and trade of many 

NTFPs by both indigenous peoples and Nigerian traders. 

By early 1994, many Nigerians began “invading the 

forest” (Ebot 2001) to harvest Gnetum, Carpolobia, bush 

mango, and Garcinia chewing stick, with the complicity 

157 

of the local population. More recently, construction of the 

Akwaya road, albeit sporadic, has led to the opening of 

rural markets from Mamfe to Mbu (the latter operates 

only in the dry season), providing additional means of 

selling forest products. These changes in infrastructure 

and marketing conditions, coupled with the absence of 

any formal controls, have led to the “significant overexploitation 

of NTFPs” within the study area (Ebot 

2001). 

This paper is based on the findings of a study of 

NTFPs in Takamanda Forest Reserve as part of the GTZfunded 

Protection of the Forests around Akwaya 

(PROFA) project. It reviews the NTFP sector with 

emphasis on the few forest resources that contribute 

significantly to household incomes. Each of these 



resources and the conditions under which they are 

harvested and utilized or sold are discussed, along with 

the traditional, legislative, and institutional constraints 

pertaining to their sustainable and equitable exploitation. 

Recommendations linked to the paper’s conclusions are 

provided to assist in creation of a framework for 

strategies that promote the NTFP sector. 

3 Methods 

The study was conducted from 19 November 2001 to18 

February 2002. It consisted of a series of semi-structured 

and informal interviews with resource users and staff of 

the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in Yaoundé 

(MINEF), an inventory-based resource assessment, and 

market surveys. A comprehensive literature review 

preceded the fieldwork. 

3.1 Semi-structured interviews 

A series of semi-structured interviews—employing an 

open format that allowed conversational, two-way 

communication—was undertaken in the communities of 

Kajifu, Takamanda, Obonyi I, Obonyi III, Matene, 

Mblishi, and Mfakwe (Figure 1). In each community, the 

interviews were conducted primarily with village council 

members and with resource users of key non-timber 

forest products. The users often included women and 

members of youth organisations, which led to a more 

representative assessment of the NTFP sector. To 

determine the institutional and legislative constraints 

related to NTFPs, informal interviews commenced with 

MINEF staff in Mamfe. 

3.2 NTFP resource inventory 

A randomly stratified, transect-based inventory was 

completed during January 2002 at four key communitymanaged 

forest areas in TFR: Takamanda, Obonyi I, 

Matene, and Mfakwe (Figure 1) These sites represent 

ecological and socio-economic variables prevalent in the 

Reserve, as identified by a number of researchers 

(Groves and Maisels 1999, Sunderland 2000, Schmidt- 

Soltau 2001) and provide a useful overview of the NTFP 


sector from both perspectives. The inventory 

methodology included the following: 

3.2.1 Layout 

In common with a tested methodology for NTFPs in the 

Mokoko River Forest Reserve (Sunderland and Tchouto 

1999), the inventory for this study consisted of a series of 

temporary, parallel, 10m-wide transects established 

along a baseline at predetermined intervals of 100m 

(10% sampling). Each transect was 1km in length along 

a predefined compass bearing. Maintaining a constant 

and correct bearing along the transect is critical to ensure 

that all transects are parallel. The goal is to include the 

full range of forest types along the length of each 

transect. 

3.2.2 Enumeration 

Once the transects were established, the enumeration 

team moved slowly along the transect and carefully 

searched within 5 m either side of the central line for 

individuals of all species selected for this inventory 

(Table 2). The 5-m distance was checked with a tape 

measure for individuals considered borderline. All trees 

at least 4 cm in diameter at breast height (1.3 m above the 

ground) were included, as were all rattans, treelets, and 

shrubs at least 50 cm in height. 

Villagers proved to be the best spotters of the desired 

taxa. A field botanist reviewed all individuals before they 

were measured for dbh and/or height. The information 

was recorded on field worksheets along with the location 

of the individuals along the transects. Additional 

information included life form, phenology, and evidence 

of harvest. 

3.2.3 Regeneration 

At 100-m intervals along each transect, nested 5-m x 5m 

regeneration plots were established. All seedlings of 

the desired species below 50cm in height in the plots 

were counted and recorded. The recording sheets for the 

regeneration plots were separate from the recording 

sheets for the transect data.


Table 2. NTFPs sampled in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 

Resource Species name Common name 

Bush mango Irvingia gabonensis and 

I. wombolu 

Eru Gnetum africanum and 

Gnetum buchholzianum 

Carpolobia 

cattle sticks 

Randia 

chewing sticks 

3.3 Market surveys 

Carpolobia alba and C. 

lutea 

Massularia (syn. 

Randia ) acuminata 

A series of informal surveys were undertaken in January 

2002 at markets in Mbu, Nyang, Mukonyong, Eshobi 

and Mamfe. While these surveys do not comprise a 

wholly representative assessment of the conditions under 

which most NTFPs are traded (particularly with the 

influence of seasonality), they do provide a useful 

overview of the products being traded, by whom, and 

bush mango (vern.); ogbono (Igbo); bojep 

(Boki); eloweh (Ovande); kelua (Basho); gluea 

(Anyang) 

eru (Efik); eru (Ibibio); ukasi (Igbo); ikokoh 

(Ovande); gelu (Anyang); ecole (Boki) 

cattle stick (vern.); sanda (Hausa); nyerem-mbe 

(Ovande); okah (Boki); essa (Anyang); fesha 

(Basho) 

Randia chewing stick (vern.); pako (Yoruba); 

odeng (Boki); egili (Ovande); egili (Anyang); 

feyili (Basho) 

njansang (vern.); ngoku (Basho); itche 

(Becheve); ngoge (Boki); ngongeh (Anyang) 

Njansang Ricinodendron 

heudelotii 

Bush pepper Piper guineensis kakwale (Ovande); iyeyeh (Becheve); ashoesie 

(Boki); taquale (Basho); acachat (Anyang) 

Garcinia Garcinia mannii Igbo chewing stick (vern.); osun ojie (Boki); 

chewing sticks 

okok (Efik); aku ilu (Igbo) 

Bush onion Afrostyrax kamerunensis felou (Basho); elonge (Becheve); eloweh 

(Ovande); elu (Anyang) 

Njabe oil Baillonella toxisperma moabi (Trade); bojie = stump, edjie = fruits 

(Boki); mpoh (Basho) 

Rattan canes Laccosperma 

gekwiya (Anyang) = large rattan; echie (Anyang) 

secundiflorum, L. 

robustum (large 

diameter); Eremospatha 

macrocarpa (small 

diameter) 

= cane ropes 

Fever bark Annickia (syn. Enantia) 

chlorantha 

kakerim (Boki); foukou (Basho); ekwoh 

(Anyang); ofaechi (Becheve) 

159 

how. Assessments of markets at Ikom and Amana during 

a recent study of NTFPs of Cross River State, Nigeria, 

elicited additional useful information about the nature 

and scale of the cross-border trade (Sunderland 2001). 



No. of individuals (n = 142) 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

0~10 

10~20 

20~30 

30~40 

40~50 

4 Results and Discussion 

4.1 Bush mango (Irvingia gabonesis 1 ) 

Table 3 summarizes the transect data for Irvinga 

gabonensis). The Takamanda and Matene sites have a 

greater abundance of bush mango than Obonyi I and 

Mfakwe. Takamanda and Obonyi I have relatively few 

large-diameter individuals (>10 cm dbh), indicating that 

there are less productive trees in these areas. In the case 

of Takamanda, this is because of poor recruitment and 

survival to maturity, most likely stemming from overharvesting 

of fruit. Matene is by far the most productive 


50~60 

60~70 

Size-class (cm) 

70~80 

80~90 

90~100 

Figure 2. Number of individuals sampled and size-classes for bush mango, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Site 

Total no. of 

individuals 

Mean no. of 

individuals/ha 

>100 

area for bush mango, with high numbers of individual 

trees >10 cm dbh. 

The cumulative size-class distribution for bush 

mango shows irregularities in recruitment (Figure 2). 

This may be caused by the tendency of bush mango to 

mast, but is more likely due to long-term harvesting of 

fruits and seeds. 

1 Irvingia wombolu is not common in the TFR and was 

not encountered during the inventory. 

Table 3. Summary of data collected from transects for bush mango in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 



>10cm dbh 

Mean dbh 

(cm) 

Takamanda 51 12.75 2.5 10.07 

Obonyi I 23 5.75 3 43.7 

Matene 46 11.5 8.25 38.02 

Mfakwe 22 5.5 3.75 23.5 

Mean (all sites) 35.5 8.88 4.38 28.82



200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

4.2 Randia chewing stick (Massularia 

acuminata) 

2~3 3~4 4~5 5~6 6~7 >7 

Table 4 summarizes the transect data for Massularia 

acuminata. Distribution of Randia is relatively constant 

throughout the Reserve, with correspondingly constant 

numbers of productive stems / ha. The low mean dbh is 

a result of over-exploitation of larger individuals. 

The erratic cumulative size-class distribution shows 

irregular regeneration and recruitment, corresponding to 


Figure 3. Number of individuals sampled and size-classes for Randia, Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. 

Site 





the removal of mature individuals (Figure 3). Hence, 

exploitation is having a long-term effect on the 

population. 

4.3 Hausa cattle stick (Carpolobia spp.) 

161 

Table 5 summarizes the transect data for Carpolobia spp. 

These are predominantly lowland species and hence are 

not present in any significant numbers in higherelevation 

Matene. Over-exploitation in Obonyi I and 

Mfakwe resulted in low numbers of mature individuals, 

Table 4. Summary of data collected for Randia from transects in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon 



>10cm dbh 

Mean dbh 

(cm) 

Takamanda 157 39.25 13.75 3.23 

Obonyi I 143 35.75 8.75 3.19 

Matene 91 22.75 11 4.23 

Mfakwe 99 24.75 10.5 4.05 

Mean (all sites) 122.5 30.6 11 3.68 



200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

2~3 3~4 4~5 5~6 6~7 

Size-class (cm)


300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

4.4 Chewing stick (Garcinia mannii) 

0~10 10~20 20~30 30~40 >40 

Table 6 summarizes the transect data for Garcinia 

mannii. Obonyi I has by far the greatest populations of G. 

mannii, followed by the other lowland sites at 

Takamanda and Mfakwe. This species is poorly 

represented in higher-elevation Matene, as expected. In 

general, the mean dbh for G. mannii is high for this 

species at Takamanda, when compared with the Mokoko 

area where the mean dbh is 4.28, and indicates minimum 

impacts from exploitation. 

Size class (cm) 

G. mannii shows a healthy cumulative size-class 

distribution, evidence of healthy regeneration and 

recruitment and few immediate impacts from 

exploitation (Figure 5). However, this population should 

be monitored, particularly with the recent increase in 

harvesting of mature individuals. 

4.5 Bush onion (Afrostyrax kamerunensis) 

Table 7 summarizes the transect data for the bush onion. 

Bush onion is abundant at Takamanda and Matene,


1000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

where there are greater proportions of secondary forest, 

and common in Obonyi I and Mfakwe. The cumulative 

size-class distribution indicates good regeneration and 

recruitment and no immediate impacts of utilization 

(Figure 6). 

4.6 Fever bark (Annickia chlorantha) 

Table 8 summarizes the transect data for Fever bark. 

Compared to the other three sites, Takamanda is 

characterized by fewer individuals of A. chlorantha. 

Matene and Mfakwe in particular have high 

50 


concentrations of individuals with a high proportion of 

productive stems. 

The cumulative size-class distribution for this 

species exhibits good regeneration and recruitment and 

no immediate impacts of utilization (Figure 7). 

4.7 Lianas: Eru (Gnetum spp.) and bush 

pepper (Piper guineensis) 

Piper guineensis shows a greater abundance in 

Takamanda Forest Reserve at 6.45 individuals/ha (Table 

9) than in Mokoko Forest Reserve as 4 stems/ha. 

Although there are no comparative figures for Gnetum


100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

spp. and these data do not show the species as 

uncommon, there are many reports of local scarcity in 

areas of high exploitation. 

4.8 Rattan palms 

50 

As Table 10 indicates, both commercial species of rattan 

(L. secundiflorum and E. macrocarpa) can be considered 

abundant. Regeneration and recruitment for these species 

are significant, and rattan is not at risk of over-harvesting 

in Takamanda Forest Reserve. 


4.9 Results from interviews and surveys 

The remainder of this paper is based primarily on the 

results of our literature review, interviews, and market 

surveys. 

4.9.1 Sustainability issues 

In general, NTFP exploitation that is not destructive (for 

example, the removal of the fruits of bush mango) can be 

described as relatively sustainable as long as there is 

evidence that the population is not declining over time 

through the constant removal of reproductive material 

(Cunningham 1999). Destructive harvesting practices 

that are undertaken at low levels of exploitation such as

Gnetum spp. Piper guineensis 

Site 









Takamanda 86 21.5 42 10.5 

Obonyi 1 181 45.25 33 8.25 

Matene 0 0 16 3 

Mfakwe 220 55 25.75 4 

Mean (all sites) 121.75 30.4 103 6.45 

the removal of bark strips (for example, Annickia 

chlorantha) may pose a threat to the individual, but likely 

not to the population or species as a whole (Table 11). In 

general, many NTFPs such as bush mango, njansang, 

bush onion, and bush pepper, where the impacts of 

harvesting are minimal, are not at immediate risk of 

being over-exploited, and there are few reports of 

increasing scarcity of these products. 

Destructive harvesting such as felling and removal 

of the individual is wholly unsustainable. In terms of 

conservation, over-exploitation is exacerbated when a 

species occurs in low densities or has a restricted natural 

distribution (for example, Garcinia mannii). As 

important, the removal of all mature individuals from an 

area poses a threat to local populations (for example, 

Carpolobia, Garcinia, and Randia). In such cases, the 

removal of reproductively mature individuals 

significantly impacts the regenerative potential of the 

population, which has considerable long-term effects on 

the capacity of the species to replace itself. 

Recent increases in the harvest of many NTFPs at 

TFR for export to Nigeria is evidence of significant local

Resource Life form Part Impact of Level of Sustainability 

harvested harvesting 

Bush mango Canopy-emergent Fruits Low Relatively sustainable, good regeneration 

tree 

and community-level cultivation 

Eru Woody liana Leaves Low to medium Relatively sustainable if leaves are 

to high plucked and the stem is not cut, but 

(depending on destructive unsustainable harvesting is 

technique) often undertaken 

Njansang Canopy-emergent Fruits Low Relatively sustainable, good regeneration 

tree 

and community-level “encouragement” 

Carpolobia cattle Small to medium Stems High Highly unsustainable because of removal 

sticks 

tree 

of whole stem, including root collar 

Garcinia chewing Medium to large Bole High Highly unsustainable; species has limited 

stick 

tree 

geographical range and is in danger of 

extinction over the long term 

Randia chewing Small to medium Stems High Highly unsustainable; population 

stick 

tree 

beginning a significant decline 

Njabe Canopy-emergent Fruits (more Low to high Relatively sustainable if harvested for 

tree 

commonly 

fruits, but unsustainable is harvested for 

timber) 

timber 

Bush pepper Climbing Leaves and Moderate Relatively sustainable if leaves and fruits 

fruits 

are plucked and the stem is not cut 

Rattan canes Climbing palms Mature stems Low to medium Relatively sustainable at current levels of 

harvest 

scarcity of these resources in that country (Sunderland 

2001), a situation that is largely determining, and 

exacerbating, the current unsustainable harvest of many 

NTFPs discussed in this paper. 

For example, harvest of Carpolobia stems is wholly 

unsustainable. These stems are cut below the swollen 

root collar to capture natural “handles” for the cattle 

sticks. The damage is so great that there is little or no 

prospect of regeneration through re-shooting, or 

coppicing. Coupled with this, the individuals preferred 

for harvest are adolescents (dbh of 4-6cm); hence, many 

Carpolobia stems are removed before reaching 

reproductive maturity. The loss of these immature 

individuals seriously affects the population’s long-term 

potential for recruitment through seed production. In the 

Kajifu area, Carpolobia no longer exists because of this 

practice. 

In addition, both harvesters and traders report that 

Randia is becoming increasingly scarce in the Reserve. 

Harvesters must travel farther and farther into the bush to 

find mature stems. While the species is still relatively 

common, destructive harvesting is leading to a serious 

population decline. 

4.9.2 The effects of seasonality on NTFP 

activities 

While many non-timber forest products are available for 

harvest and sale all year, some are somewhat seasonal, 

and the economic cycle for many communities relies 

heavily on the timing of these resources (Table 12). The 

effects of seasonality are particularly pronounced for 

bush mango and other fruit-producing species and have 

significant implications for household budgets.

Resource Impacts of 

seasonality 

Availability 

Bush mango High Rainy season type (I. gabonensis ) available June to 

September; dry season type (I. wombolu ) available 

February to April 

Eru Moderate All year, although there is less plucking and reduction of 

supply during early rains as people are occupied with 

farming 

Carpolobia cattle sticks Low All year, although transportation problems in rainy season 

restrict supply to markets 

Randia chewing sticks Low All year, although transportation problems in rainy season 

restrict supply to markets 

Njansang Moderate Fruits produced during rainy season, but after processing, 

they can be stored indefinitely 

Bush pepper Moderate Fruits produced in dry season; leaves can be harvested all 

year 

Garcinia chewing sticks Moderate All year, although increased availability in rainy season 

because of better boat access to remote creeks in forest 

Bush onion Moderate Fruits produced during rainy season, but after drying, they 

can be stored for some time 

Njabe oil Moderate Fruits produced in early rains; oil can be stored 

indefinitely 

4.9.3 Traditional resource management 

systems 

For some key resources, the majority of 

communities in the Reserve have clear regulations 

concerning the harvest of NTFPs from their forestlands. 

For example, regulatory controls on access to eru and 

bush mango are particularly well developed—for the 

most part, they exclude “outsiders” from harvest—and 

generally throughout the study area, communities benefit 

substantially from the harvest and sale of these resources. 

However, the harvest of other forest products such as 

Randia or Carpolobia that are not traditionally valued in 

TFR contributes little to either household incomes or the 

community purse. Dealers who purchase such NTFPs 

directly from community collectors pay only a token fee 

to register with the community. This nominal fee is an 

encouraging sign of an institutional structure in place that 

is able to regulate access to the harvesting of key NTFPs. 

Nevertheless, the proportion of benefits that accrue to the 

communities of origin is but a small fraction of the final 

sales price of many nontimber forest products. 

Community members who are often involved at the 

collector level generally do not move the products along 

the marketing chain, and hence the majority of the 

benefits from the final point-of-sale for many NTFPs 

accrue mostly to non-indigenous wholesalers and traders. 

This is true even for traditionally valued products such as 

eru and bush mango. 

A primary reason for the lack of indigenous 

involvement along the marketing chain is that most 

communities do not have a realistic notion of the true 

market value of some forest products. This is particularly 

the case for products that are not used locally to any great 

extent (for example, Randia and Carpolobia). In this 

regard, access to the resource base, or the resource itself, 

is often unknowingly undersold to outside harvesters or 

dealers, with many communities, at best, benefiting only 

from the provision of labor. In addition, an inability to 

process and store raw materials at the community level 

means that only the price of raw material production 

accrues to the communities. For bush mango, this is

further exacerbated by the fact that the markets are 

flooded during times of production, and prices are 

correspondingly low. If the material could be dried and 

stored effectively and released when prices are higher a 

greater level of income would result at the community 

level. 

Many of the people who participated in this study’s 

interviews expressed a desire to enter the formal 

wholesale trade for some products, which would enable 

them to sell directly in Nigeria. Lack of credit facilities 

was cited as a main barrier to success. 

4.9.4 Formal legislation 

Generally, people who harvest and sell NTFPs are 

from the “informal sector;” that is, they are essentially 

self-employed, not recognized in official statistics, have 

little access to capital, and earn money from laborintensive 

enterprises. From harvest to final consumption, 

the domestic trade in NTFPs is thus part of the “hidden” 

economy. As a result, “informal” taxation practices 

abound, by both forestry officials and customs officers, 

particularly given the extent of the cross-border trade. 

It is clear that the NTFP sector is a significant income 

generating activity for communities in TFR. Capturing 

the benefits of this trade on a more formal basis would 

significantly change the manner in which these resources 

are perceived and managed. Ensuring that NTFP harvest 

and trade contributes to both rural and urban incomes, as 

well as to forest conservation, is the focus of the 

discussion surrounding the entire sector. In Cameroon, a 

fundamental institutional change is needed to ensure that 

NTFPs can enter the formal trading, revenue, and 

taxation systems that apply to the timber resource, for 

example. Such change must occur at both the community 

level, where communities receive a fair price for access 

to the resource, and the level of MINEF. 

A major constraint to the realization of formal 

revenues from the trade and sale of major NTFP 

resources at the community level is inadequate provision 

for NTFPs in existing forestry legislation. Aside from 

permits issued by MINEF for the transport and 

evacuation of eru (Ndoye pers. comm.), many products, 

no matter their market value, are not included in the 

current permit system, which focuses primarily on 

medicinal plants (see box). 

MINEF recently created a directorate for NTFPs. 

Ideally this unit will be responsible for formalizing 

revenue collection for the NTFP sector. To date, no 

policy changes have been proposed. 

Despite the lack of an adequate permit system, a key 

issue in the control of forest resources is the lack of 

capacity within MINEF, an agency suffering from 

shortfalls in staff expertise, inadequate basic 

infrastructure, and logistical support to implement much 

of the formal forestry legislation. This has undoubtedly 

fostered a culture of “private settlement” as accepted 

practice. 

Historically, a number of bilateral aid projects and 

other conservation initiatives have essentially created 

parallel institutions to Cameroon’s government services 

that function adequately while they receive funding and 

are serviced by ex-patriot technical staff. However, many 

have no hope of continuing once, predictably, aid and 

support are withdrawn at the end of the project cycle. 

This sidelining of MINEF has contributed to the current 

poor capacity of the Ministry, and in a twist of irony, poor 

capacity is cited as the reason why many aid agencies do 

not directly support MINEF. It might be argued that 

strengthening of MINEF staff, providing logistical and 

technical support, and establishing improved systems of 

accountability and transparency within MINEF would be 

a far better approach to management of forest resources. 

In this regard, some of the more innovative forest 

legislation currently under discussion would likely have 

more chance of success, particularly for the NTFP sector. 

4.9.5 Cultivation 

In certain instances, cultivation can provide a long-term 

solution to over-exploitation of certain forest resources if 

it is economically and biologically feasible. It is unlikely 

that cultivation is a viable option for many over-exploited 

NTFPs in the Reserve, particularly with the poor market 

access prevalent in the area. However, community-level

Box. Large-scale exploitation of non-timber forest products 

(mostly medicinal plants) is subject to obtaining a permis 

d’exploitation. This permit determines the quantities to be 

exploited or collected within a specified geographic area. The 

length of the exploitation permit usually does not exceed one year 

(National Forestry Law no. 94/01; article 56; October 1994), 

except by special arrangement. 

The volume or amount of material allowed for exploitation 

depends on the desired material (fruits, bark, leaves, etc.). This 

quota is set by Cameroon’s Department of Forestry. However, 

even the most rudimentary baseline and monitoring data for 

estimating potential sustainable yield is woefully incomplete for 

most, if not all, taxa. 

Exploitation permits also apply to special products such as eru. 

Even if special products are found on lands belonging to private 

individuals, they remain the property of the state, except where 

they have been “acquired” by the individual concerned (although 

it is not specified how acquisition may take place). 

initiatives at planting bush mango have proved relatively 

successful, and there is considerable opportunity to 

improve the varieties planted through early-yield 

cultivars of bush mango developed by Dr. Jonathon 

Okafor. This could alleviate an often-heard concern of 

many community members that they bush mango takes 

many years to begin to bear fruit. 

In addition to bush mango, many residents of TFR 

showed enthusiasm for growing eru in home 

compounds. A number of Takamanda village Chiefs who 

visited Limbe Botanic Gardens in late 2000, where eru 

cultivation is well advanced, indicated considerable 

interest in this possibility. 

4.9.6 Product diversification 

The heavy reliance on just a few forest resources for 

income at TFR can pose considerable hardship for some 

communities. The Matene area, in particular, is primarily 

dependent on the bush mango resource for access to the 

cash economy, leaving villagers vulnerable during years 

of poor production. Product diversification would make 

a huge difference in this community and others that also 

rely on two or three key products. For example, the 

Matene people have historically gathered honey for sale 

to other TFR communities, and the current value of this 

product (1,000 CFA/liter or about $1.30) could make this 

a viable income-generating activity. 

4.9.7 Gender issues 

In contrast to the NTFP sector in other areas, there is 

considerable equity in the division of forest resource use 

and management at TFR. Women are active in the 

harvest and sale of NTFPs, particularly eru (harvesting 

only) and the harvest and local sale of njabe oil, njansang, 

and bush onion. Local development initiatives aimed at 

promoting and developing household strategies for 

improving incomes from NTFPs (for example, providing 

basic machinery for cracking njabe nuts and training in 

eru cultivation) would likely have a better chance of 

success if targeted to women’s groups within the 

communities. 

5 Conclusions 

Forest resources such as Carpolobia and Randia that are 

harvested by non-indigenous peoples are removed with 

very few, if any, benefits accruing to TFR communities. 

Although harvest of these resources is unsustainable at 

current rates, MINEF has too few resources to protect 

these species. The rudimentary village systems for 

controlling forest resources (for example, Chiefs, village 

councils, and youth groups) are not fully capable of 

ensuring that an equitable share of the NTFP trade and 

benefits accrues to local communities. In addition, the 

highly porous Cameroon-Nigeria border and the lack of 

adequate guidelines for taxation of and revenue 

collection from the trade in NTFPs means that trade 

benefits are focused in the “informal” economy. 

The current rate of harvest of most NTFPs exceeds 

the ability of many species to regenerate, and the harvest 

of a number of species can be regarded as unsustainable. 

This is obvious for species such as Carpolobia and 

Randia, but there may also be deleterious long-term 

effects on regeneration from seed removal (bush mango) 

and the plucking of leaves (Gnetum spp.) that may be 

unquantifiable in the short term. Long-term monitoring

should be implemented both to determine the impacts of 

harvesting high-value NTFPs and to aid in devising 

guidelines for sustainable management of all NTFPs. 

There is considerable potential to introduce 

cultivation for some high value NTFPs, especially earlyyield 

cultivars of bush mango and eru for both household 

use and formal sale. 

Product diversification could help reduce the current 

heavy reliance on a few high-value NTFPs at TFR. 

Additional forest products should be investigated for 

their potential to contribute to household incomes. 


The authors are grateful to all the Chiefs, village councils, 

youth groups, and resource users who provided the 

majority of the information contained within this paper. 

Special gratitude is extended to Yisa Emmanuel of 

Obonyi III for valuable insights into the NTFP trade and 

Tambe George for useful information regarding MINEF 

and the Forestry Law. Thanks also to PROFA Project 

Advisor Ms. Marina Mdaihli for her comments on the 

study report and for her support, both logistical and 

moral, throughout its preparation. Thanks to Dan 

Slayback for preparing the map. 

References 

Arnold, J. E. M., and M. Ruiz-Perez. 1996. Framing the 

issues relating to non-timber forest products 

research. Pp. 1-18 in: J. E. M. Arnold and M. Ruiz- 

Perez (eds.). Current Issues in Non-timber Forest 

Products Research. CIFOR, Bogor. 

Ayeni, J. S. O., and M. Mdaihli. 2001. Cameroonian- 

German (MINEF-GTZ) project for the Protection of 

Forests Around Akwaya (PROFA): Project planning 

workshop. Mamfe. 

Clark, L. E., and T. C. H. Sunderland. In press. CARPE: 

Building knowledge of the non-timber forest product 

sector in Central Africa. In: T. C. H. Sunderland and 

L. E. Clark (eds.). The Key Non-timber Forest 

Products of Central Africa: A State-of-theknowledge. 

University of Missouri Press, Missoula. 

Cunningham, A. B. 1999. The management of non-wood 

forest products in protected areas: Lessons of a case 

study in multiple-use in Bwindi Impenetrable 

National Park, Uganda. Pp.143-160 in: T. C. H. 

Sunderland, L. E. Clark, and P. Vantomme (eds.). 

The Non-wood Forest Products of Central Africa: 

Current Research Issues and Prospects for 

Conservation and Development. Food and 

Agriculture Organisation, Rome.. 

Ebot, R. 2001. Project for the Protection of Forest 

Around Akwaya (PROFA). Paper presented at the 

PROFA planning workshop, Mamfe, 8th-13th May. 

Groves, J. L., and F. Maisels. 1999. Report on the Large 

Mammal Fauna of the Takamanda Forest Reserve, 

Cameroon, with Special Emphasis on the Gorilla 

Population. Unpubl. report for World Wildlife Fund- 

Cameroon. 

Neumann, R. P., and E. Hirsch. 2000. Commercialisation 

of Non-timber Forest Products: Review and 

Analysis of Research. CIFOR, Bogor. 

Peters, C. M. 1996. Observations on the sustainable 

exploitation of non-timber forest products: An 

ecologist’s perspective. Pp. 19-40 in: J. E. M. Arnold 

and M. Ruiz-Perez (eds.). Current Issues in Nontimber 

Forest Products Research. CIFOR, Bogor. 

Schmidt-Soltau, K. 2001. Human Activities in and 

around the Takamanda Forest Reserve. Unpubl. 

report for PROFA, Mamfe. 

Sunderland, T. C. H. 2000. Report of a Reconnaissance 

Mission to the Takamanda Forest Reserve, SW 

Province, Cameroon. Unpubl. report for the 

Smithsonian Institution’s Monitoring and 

Assessment of Biodiversity Program (SI/MAB), 

Washington, DC.

Sunderland, T. C. H. 2001. Cross River State Community 

Forest Project: Non-timber Forest Products Advisor 

Report. Department for International Development / 

Environmental Resources Management / Scott 

Wilson Kirkpatrick & Co Ltd., UK. 

Sunderland, T. C. H., a n d P. Tchouto. 1999. AParticipatory 

Survey and Inventory of Timber and Non-timber 

Forest Productsof the Mokoko River Forest Reserve, 

SW Province, Cameroon. Unpubl. report for 

USAID/CARPE. 

Wilkie, D. 1999. CARPE and non-wood forest products. 

Pp. 3-18 in: T. C. H. Sunderland, L. E. Clark, and P. 

Vantomme (eds.). The Non-wood Forest Products of 

Central Africa: Current Research Issues and 

Prospects for Conservation and Development. Food 

and Agriculture Organization, Rome. 

Wollenberg, E., and A. Ingles (eds.). 1999. Incomes from 

the Forest: Methods for the Development and 

Conservation of Forest Products for Local 

Communities. CIFOR, Bogor.

Landcover change in the Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon: 

1986-2000 


As with many areas of conservation interest, the 

Takamanda Forest Reserve (TFR) is part of a dynamic, 

human-influenced landscape. Although located in a fairly 

remote region along the Nigerian border, the reserve is 

surrounded by numerous small villages on its eastern and 

southern sides, with three villages enclaved within the 

reserve itself (see figure 2 in Chapter 1). Figure 1 

graphically indicates the relative proximity of much of 

the reserve to human settlements and movement. 

Additionally, numerous old village sites scattered 

throughout parts of the reserve indicate the extent and 

fluidity of previous human settlements. 

Until recently, access to the reserve was relatively 

difficult, often requiring a day’s journey on foot to reach 

either the southern boundary (from Mamfe) or the 

northern boundary (from the Obudu Cattle Ranch in 

Nigeria). Since the late 1980s, however, access to the 

area has been improved with the completion of a largespan 

bridge over the Manyu river at Mamfe. With this 

bridge in place, both logging companies and the 

government have constructed unpaved roads into the 

region. The government has also made significant 

progress on the long-awaited Mamfe-to-Akwaya road, 

which may be completed within the next few years at 

current rates of progress. A network of footpaths 

currently connects most villages in the region to one 

another. 

Given the existing pattern of settlements and the 

recently improved access to the region, we wanted to 

examine recent landcover change in and around TFR. 

Fortunately, the archive of high-resolution satellite 

imagery for the region includes clear images from 1986 

Dan Slayback 

and 2000, allowing a study of landcover changes over 

that 14-year period. 

2 Methods 

2.1 Data 

Chapter 12 

NASA’s Landsat series of earth-observing satellites have 

been acquiring medium to high-resolution multispectral 

earth imagery since 1972. Starting with the launch of 

Landsat 4 in 1982, the satellites began carrying the 30meter 

resolution Thematic Mapper (TM) instrument. The 

resulting TM data archive, from 1982 to present, is the 

most extensive global collection of high-resolution 

imagery. 

However, the archive contains relatively few cloudfree 

images from the coastal areas of central Africa, 

including the scene covering the TFR (identified as WRS 

path 187 row 56). This is in part due to the extreme 

cloudiness of the region and the satellite’s 16-day repeat 

coverage (any scene is observed only once every 16 

days). Also, previous data acquisition policies and 

technical difficulties hindered the acquisition of imagery 

over central Africa until the launch of Landsat 7 in 1999. 

Fortunately, one relatively clear Landsat 5 image is 

available from December 12, 1986. This image and a 

clear Landsat 7 image from December 10, 2000 were 

acquired for this analysis. 

To ensure the precise image-to-image registration 

required for detecting changes between an image pair, 

both scenes were orthorectified (by the EarthSat 

corporation). Orthorectification uses the known locations 

of many ground reference points to remove the artificial 

curvature of satellite-acquired imagery, which is an 

artifact of the satellite’s viewing geometry. Further 

preprocessing of the imagery was unnecessary; due to the 


174 Slayback 

7 

H S IH 

type of automated change detection methods used (a 

composite multi-date classification; more below), 

atmospheric correction was not required (Song, 

Woodcock et al. 2001). The full Landsat scenes were 

subset to a 1600 x 1760 pixel (~46 x 50 km) window 

surrounding the TFR (Photo gallery). 

The Landsat TM instrument records imagery at 30meter 

resolution in 6 different spectral bands, including 3 

bands in the visible and 3 in the infrared. Vegetation is 

known to respond strongly in the red and infrared bands; 

healthy green leaf matter absorbs red radiation and 

strongly reflects near-infrared. Additionally, Boyd and 

Duane (2001) found that the green (band 2) and middle 

infrared (bands 5 and 7) wavelengths are useful in 

discriminating tropical forest regeneration. In humid 

tropical environments, imagery in the blue wavelengths 


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u 

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w— 

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(band 1) is generally dominated by scattering off of water 

vapor particles, and so appears very hazy, and relatively 

little useful ground-reflected signal penetrates this haze. 

Thus, I used the green (band 2), red (band 3), near 

infrared (band 4) and middle infrared (bands 5 and 7) 

bands for this analysis. 

2.2 Change classification 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

Changes in landcover between the two dates of imagery 

were estimated using standard supervised classification 

techniques. Specifically, the maximum likelihood 

algorithm method was used in PCI’s Imageworks 

software package. This method assigns class 

membership based on the statistical properties (mean and 

standard deviation) of each defined class for all included 

image bands. The classes are defined manually; typically 

7 7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

w 

p 

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Figure 1. 5 km buffers around village sites and 1 km buffers around roads and footpaths; much of the reserve is within a few 

hours walk of human settlements. 

7

Landcover change 

an operator with knowledge of the imagery manually 

delineates sites (groups of pixels) of each class on the 

imagery. Based on the spectral character of these training 

sites, the maximum likelihood algorithm then makes 

probability-based class assignments of all image pixels. 

To generate landcover change classes using these 

classification methods, the training sites were selected to 

include both change classes (such as “forest to nonforest”) 

and non-change classes (“unchanged lowland 

forest”), and the spectral bands from both dates of 

imagery were input to the classification procedure 

simultaneously. This is sometimes termed composite 

multi-date classification, since images from both dates 

are composited and used together, as if from a single date. 

The preliminary orthorectification step makes this 

approach possible as it ensures the precise overlay of 

images from different dates. After running the 

classification, some post-classification processing and 

manual editing were conducted to clean up and finalize 

the classification map. 

Various statistics were calculated from this final 

classification map to quantify changes in landcover. To 

provide better insight into where changes might be 

occurring most rapidly, these measures were calculated 

for several regions: the entire 1600 x 1740 image subset; 

the area within the TFR boundaries (excluding enclave 

communities); the areas of the two enclave communities 

(Obonyi and Kekpane); and the area within a 5-km buffer 

zone surrounding the TFR. 

3 Results 

3.1 Change Classification 

Training sites for nine different classes were initially 

defined (see Sunderland et al. this volume) to include 

eight static classes (lowland forest, ridge forest, midelevation 

forest, montane forest, grassland/bare, 

secondary forest/farms, water, shadow), and one change 

class indicating forest conversion (forest → secondary 

forest/farms). Note that in a static interpretation of the 

output classification (e.g. for a year 2000 landcover 

map), the forest conversion class would be added to the 

secondary forest/farms class. No distinction was made 

175 

between secondary forest and farms because these two 

landcover types are fluid and difficult to distinguish; 

farms usually have a scattering, or more, of larger trees, 

and due to the agricultural practices in the region, areas 

of secondary forest will be farmed again after several 

years of forest regrowth. The four different types of 

undisturbed forest (lowland, ridge, mid-elevation, and 

montane) were included in the classification both 

because we wanted to map the extent of these forest types 

(see Sunderland et al. this volume), and because lumping 

them together produces an overly broad and poorly 

defined forest class, which becomes confused with 

secondary forest in the classification results. Several 

other types of change might have also been included, but 

were not, such as grassland → burned grassland, and 

forest regrowth (farms → secondary forest); these were 

either not of interest (the former) or too difficult to 

consistently differentiate (the latter). In either case, we 

verified that these areas were satisfactorily classified with 

the existing scheme. For example, the grassland → 

burned grassland areas were routinely classified as 

grassland, and the areas of possible regrowth (farms → 

secondary forest) were classified as secondary forest. A 

class for shadow was necessary because the poor and 

variable illumination on the shadowed sides of hills 

makes differentiation of different landcovers much more 

difficult. 

The resulting classification was then visually 

inspected, and in an iterative process, minor adjustments 

were made to the training classes and certain 

classification parameters. Despite many such 

adjustments, it became apparent that an additional class 

would be useful to indicate areas of “possible” secondary 

forest. These areas can typically be classified as either 

lowland forest, secondary forest, or ridge forest, 

depending on the set of training sites and classification 

parameters. However, as these areas do not appear to be 

separable solely from image reflectances, it was decided 

to create a separate “possible secondary forest” (PSF) 

class. Generally, firsthand knowledge of the area is 

required to assign definitive labels to these regions, but 

many can be labeled based on a closer inspection of the 

imagery; for example, the areas on hillsides not in the 

vicinity of villages are most likely undisturbed forest 


176 Slayback 

(ridge or lowland). On the other hand, a PSF area just 

south of the Obonyi enclave’s southernmost point is 

known to be “elephant bush” – an area where extensive 

elephant activity has significantly affected the forest 

strFucture (and thereby its reflectance). It is important to 

note that inclusion of this additional class did not 

significantly impact the change class of primary interest 

here (forest → secondary forest); the PSF is a static class 

and only significantly affected the areas of lowland, 

secondary, and ridge forests. 

The classification output was then sieve-filtered to 

remove isolated individual or small groups of pixels. This 

filtering improves the appearance of the results by 

removing what often appears to be speckle and noise, and 

increases the accuracy of the results (see “Accuracy 

assessment” below), since most of the landcover types in 

this region naturally occur as fairly homogenous 

landscape features. The sieving was applied to isolated 

groups of pixels with 6 or fewer members 

(approximately 0.5 ha); these groups were changed to the 

most common surrounding class. The final landcover 

change classification can be found in the photo gallery. 

3.2 Accuracy assessment 

In this area, there is a fairly continuous gradation between 

farms, secondary forest, and undisturbed forest. Teasing 

out these at-times subtle differences can often push the 

limits of the information available in this imagery. For 

this classification, the principal difficulty was in finding 

a balance between a good classification of secondary 

forest around villages and a good classification of 

undisturbed forest between villages. This final result is 

felt to be the best compromise, although a conservative 

one; it may be underestimating to a small extent 

secondary forest around villages, in favor of lowland 

forest. However, the areas of change (forest conversion 

between 1986 and 2000) were quite stable in all versions 

of the classification due to the clear signature produced 

by a change, over time, from undisturbed to secondary 

forest. The accuracy of the classification was assessed 

both quantitatively, using testing sites, and qualitatively, 

relying upon personal familiarity with the region. 


Along with the training sites, a separate set of testing 

sites was also selected for each class. As with the training 

sites, their selection was based largely on visible imagery 

characteristics and knowledge of the different landcover 

types, and not on ground-truth data. Since these testing 

sites are not input to the classification procedure, they can 

be used to independently evaluate the classification 

output via a confusion matrix; confusion matrices 

indicates how the pixels in each testing site were actually 

classified. Given the confusion matrix, the accuracy of 

each class’ classification can be computed as a 

percentage. 

For the final output classification (after sieving), the 

average accuracy (for example, the average of all 

accuracies) for the landcover classes, excluding water 

and shadow, was 87%, and the overall accuracy 

(weighted by the number of pixels in each testing site) 

was 94%. (The overall accuracy is higher because the 

undisturbed forest sites were relatively large and well 

classified). The confusion matrix shows that the main 

error is a tendency towards classification as lowland 

forest; 18% of ridge forest, 9% of forest conversion, and 

6% of secondary forest test sites were classified as 

lowland forest. Also, 35% of PSF test sites were 

classified as lowland, but this is less surprising, since we 

expect the PSF to really be either lowland or secondary 

forest. Table 1 shows the classification accuracies for 

each class (for example, the percent of each testing site 

that was classified correctly). 

Table 1. Accuracy (percent classified correctly) based on 

testing sites 

Class Accuracy 

Lowland forest 100 

Secondary forest 92 

Possible secondary 

forest (PSF) 

65 

Forest conversion 91 

Ridge forest 70 

Mid-elevation forest 99 

Montane forest 86 

Grassland / bare 100


Note that the generality of these results are 

dependent on the quality and representativeness of the 

testing site pixels. For this study, only limited ground 

truth data was collected, and the testing sites were 

determined manually based on limited data and personal 

familiarity with the region. For example, it is possible 

that the 9% of the forest conversion testing site pixels that 

were classified as lowland forest actually are lowland 

forest; no site visits to those specific locations were 

made, and the testing site pixels for forest conversion 

may actually contain some lowland forest pixels. 

Nevertheless, these results do indicate that the 

classification tends to a conservative estimate of forest 

conversion areas; none of the lowland forest testing site 

pixels were misclassified. 

The accuracy of the classification was also evaluated 

qualitatively, based on personal knowledge of the area 

and supplemented by a visit to the reserve in June 2002. 

During this visit, the locations of transitions between 

secondary forest or farms and primary forest were noted 

and recorded with GPS measurements. During 

preliminary classifications, these locations were used to 

help tune the training sites and classification parameters. 

With the final classification, they were also checked to 

evaluate the result. Qualitatively, the result appears to 

capture quite well the areas of forest conversion around 

villages. As indicated by the accuracy results above, there 

may be some underestimation of the amount of forest 

conversion, in favor of lowland or secondary forest. 

Lacking more extensive ground truth data, this 

conservative result is preferable. 

The main areas of confusion surround the ridge 

forest class, and the results for certain areas of the image. 

The ridge forest class, although botanically distinct, has 

not been mapped to any extent previously, so selection of 

training and testing sites was based mostly on visual 

image characteristics and expected locations of this forest 

type. Geographically, the classification of ridge forest 

around Matene village (see figure 1 in chapter 1) is of 

particular concern; this area was visited, and much of 

what comes out in the classification as ridge forest is 

most likely secondary forest. However, the higher 

elevation here may contribute to secondary forest 

appearing as what elsewhere is ridge forest. Aside from 

this area around Matene, almost all ridge forest appears 

(in the classification, as we believe is true in the field) on 

the sides or ridges of hills. To some extent, this may 

simply reflect the different illumination conditions on 

hillsides, but lacking more extensive ground surveys of 

this forest type, we cannot be sure. The other area of 

concern is the northeastern corner of the image, in the 

vicinity of Akwaya. No visit was made to this region, 

which is at a significantly higher altitude than most of the 

image, and since the vegetation of the region is quite 

different structurally from the lowland areas, we simply 

cannot know if the secondary and forest conversion 

classes are correct here. 

3.3 Change patterns 

177 

With the final classification output, total areas were 

computed for each class, for 5 different zones in the 

image: (1) the Takamanda Forest Reserve (excluding 

enclave communities), (2) the Kekpane enclave, (3) the 

Obonyi enclave, (4) a 5-km buffer zone around the 

outside of TFR, and (5) the entire 1600 x 1760 pixel 

image subset. Table 2 shows these totals, omitting the 

water and shadow classes. 

As can be seen in the final classification image 

(Figure in photo gallery), most of the areas of forest 

conversion are located on the periphery of existing 

villages and areas of preexisting secondary forest/farms. 

This suggests that clearing for farming is expanding into 

previously undisturbed forest; if the areas of forest 

conversion were also located within these village centers 

and within patches of secondary forest, that would tend 

to indicate that those forest conversions were really from 

older secondary forest, not from undisturbed lowland 

forest. In a few cases, however, most of the farms around 

a village are from ‘recent’ forest conversion, such as 

Obonyi 1 (on the W side of the enclave) and Obonyi 2 (to 

the west of TFR); for those villages, farming may not be 

significantly expanding beyond previously farmed areas. 

From the general patterns visible in this classification, 

however, one would tend to conclude that the farm 

rotation cycle is probably too short for secondary forest 


178 Slayback 

Table 2: Areas of output classes (hectares) (*totals include areas of the water and shadow classes) 

Class Entire 

image 

from abandoned farms to return to the appearance of 

undisturbed lowland forest. 

Significantly, some of the areas of the most apparent 

farming expansion are those along the new Mamfe- 

Akwaya road, along the western side of the Mone Forest 

Reserve. Also, the villages on the southern side of the 

image (Kajifor and Bache) have only recently become 

accessible by road (due to recent logging operations) and 

show considerable farming expansion in their vicinity, 

perhaps as a direct result. The longer term impact of these 

roads on patterns of clearing in the region remains to be 

seen. 

4 Conclusion 

The Takamanda Forest Reserve is currently undergoing 

relatively little forest clearing activity, except in the 

vicinity of enclaved villages and some villages located 

just outside the reserve boundary (for example, 

Takamanda village). However, rates of forest clearing 

appear to be increasing, as the expanding patterns of 

forest conversion indicate. Potentially half of all 

secondary forest within TFR has been cleared in the past 

14 years; if “possible secondary forest” is not included 

as secondary forest, then 110 ha of secondary forest were 

preexisting in 1986, and since 1986 an additional 140 ha 

have been created from previously undisturbed forest. 

Within the TFR, the PSF class appears generally not to be 

secondary forest, except for the elephant bush areas to the 


Takamanda Kekpane Obonyi 5-km 

buffer 

Lowland forest 144,425 40,750 1,540 2,550 42,240 

Secondary forest 5,010 110 70 300 1,280 

Possible sec. for. (PSF) 1,740 410 10 230 470 

Forest conversion 4,120 140 40 110 1,430 

Ridge forest 11,460 2,190 30 0 4,380 

Mid-elevation forest 12,090 5,260 0 0 4,430 

Montane forest 9,310 510 0 0 3,910 

Grassland / bare 15,170 3,220 4 10 8,440 

Total* 224,940 57,430 1,690 3,250 71,800 

south of the Obonyi enclave. What is unclear is how 

much regrowth needs to occur before secondary forest in 

this region appears as primary forest in Landsat imagery. 

To some extent, such old secondary forest might be the 

source of some of the clearing near villages, rather than 

relatively undisturbed lowland forest. 

To fully understand whether these clearing activities 

are significantly encroaching upon the reserve would 

require a more detailed study. Although the historical 

satellite imagery archive is sparse, additional imagery of 

the area could be examined to determine more precisely 

when patches of forest were converted to farms. Also, 

any historical population data for the area would help 

shed light on how population pressure might be affecting 

clearing activities. 

Although rates of clearing may not be alarming at 

the present for the TFR itself, the current and likely future 

activities around the reserve are alarming. Presently, the 

reserve is ringed by villages on almost all sides, and these 

villages show active and expanding areas of farming 

activity. Furthermore, the expansion of roads into the 

areas to the south and east of the reserve may not bode 

well for the flora or fauna of the region; it is possible that 

the greatly improved access to markets and services 

provided by these roads may lead to a significant increase 

in clearing activity. This could be for both the planting of 

both cash crops (such as cocoa, coffee, and palm nuts), 

and for increased subsistence crop farming, if


populations also increase; if improved access brings 

better schools and health services, out-migration from 

these villages may be somewhat discouraged, or even 

reversed. The roads also provide improved market access 

for bushmeat, leading to increased hunting pressures. 

Furthermore, all of the above pressures – increased 

clearing, farming, and hunting – will contribute to the 

increased fragmentation of the forest, with potentially 

negative impacts on wide-ranging species, such as the 

endangered Cross River gorilla or the forest elephant 

populations. Even now, the Cross River gorilla 

populations are thought to be largely cutoff from one 

another and critically endangered (Sunderland-Groves et 

al.this volume) 

References 

179 

Boyd, D. S. and W. J. Duane. 2001. Exploring spatial 

and temporal variation in middle infrared 

reflectance (at 3.75mm) measured from the 

tropical forests of west Africa. International 

Journal of Remote Sensing 22(10): 1861-1878. 

Song, C., C.E. Woodcock, K. Seto, M. Pax-Lenney, 

and S.A. Macomber. 2001. Classification and 

change detection using Landsat TM data: When 

and how to correct atmospheric effects? Remote 

Sensing of Environment 75(2): 230-244. 


180 


Future Conservation and Management of the Takamanda Forest 

Reserve, Cameroon 

Terry C. H. Sunderland, Jacqueline L. Sunderland-Groves, 

James A. Comiskey, Julius S. O. Ayeni, and Marina Mdaihli 

The studies presented in this volume reflect the overall 

biological importance of Takamanda Forest Reserve 

(TFR), the urgent need to protect the area to ensure its 

viability into the future, and, ideally, implementation of 

sustainable management practices. The studies also 

provide an important biological baseline for initiation of 

long-term monitoring that will aid evaluations of 

conservation and management interventions. Both flora 

and fauna in the area are extremely rich and diverse. The 

Reserve holds a wealth of biodiversity of national and 

regional importance. 

Three primary challenges face conservation efforts 

in the Reserve, as described here. 

1. Uncontrolled hunting and unsustainable harvest 

levels of non-timber forest resources such as the 

hunting of wildlife for bushmeat. If conservation 

measures are not undertaken in the near term, the 

Reserve may well become yet another “empty 

forest” (Redford 1992) in Cameroon. 

2. Loss of forest cover to developments such as 

construction of the Mamfe-to-Akwaya road. This 

road will have several impacts: (a) the opening of 

natural forest in the Reserve to large-scale motorized 

travel for people who normally pass through the area 

on foot; (b) the proliferation of trade routes; (c) 

increased access for even more intensive 

exploitation of the Reserve’s resources, notably 

timber and bushmeat. At the moment, a significant 

swath of forest is being cleared and converted to 

cocoa and coffee plantations in anticipation of the 

Mamfe-to-Akwaya road. 

3. Current legal status of TFR. The Reserve is a 

“production forest,” a designation that leaves open 

Chapter 13 

the potential for future commercial logging. Failure 

to ensure legal protection for the Reserve 

immediately augers ill for the area’s outstanding 

biodiversity. 

Conservation in an area where people rely on 

exploitation of forest resources for their livelihoods is a 

sensitive and complex challenge. Despite considerable 

investments related to resolving this issue in recent years, 

there are few successful examples or models of 

integrated conservation and development initiatives 

where improved quality of life and conservation 

objectives have proved to be mutually compatible (Oates 

1999). 

In Takamanda, an area that is still relatively isolated, 

local amenities are few and far between. There are no 

piped water facilities, no electricity, few schools, and 

only one health center that is seldom staffed and carries 

few supplies. Local peoples are desperate for such 

amenities and view construction of the Mamfe-to- 

Akwaya road as a huge step forward in connecting their 

villages to the rest of Cameroon. In conjunction with this 

enthusiasm for “progress,” however, is the need to create 

an awareness of the grave environmental problems that 

roads and other alterations in forest cover create 

(Trombulak and Frissell 2000, Wilkie et al. 2000)— 

changes that may alter not only the environment but the 

very lifestyle of the villagers and which must be 

constantly monitored to ensure the minimum amount of 

environmental damage. 

Despite such complex issues, a number of activities 

are underway to address future conservation and 

management of the area. Since 1998, researchers have 

been conducting surveys focusing on the Cross River 

gorilla and other large mammals in TFR and adjacent 



Mone Forest Reserve and Mbulu forest. Funded by 

Wildlife Conservation Society’s Africa Program, this 

program records baseline data, incorporates a 

conservation/education component, collaborates with the 

Cameroonian government through the Ministry of 

Environment and Forests (MINEF) and the GTZ 

collaborative project PROFA to support the enforcement 

of national wildlife laws. An immediate impact of these 

efforts has been implementation of a community-led 

local ban on hunting for gorillas, chimpanzees, and drills. 

At the present time, this program is working with 

PROFA to assess the potential of upgrading the 

protective status—possibly to “wildlilfe sanctuary”—of 

TFR and Mone Forest Reserve and to provide a degree 

of future protection for the Mbulu forest, which currently 

enjoys no formal protected area status. 

With regard to the future of the MINEF/GTZ project 

PROFA in Takamanda and Mone, the aims are as 

follows: 


• Undertake a review of the current protection area 

status of TFR according to available, and 

appropriate, levels of protection under Cameroon’s 

1994 forestry law. 

• Complete the long-term management plan for TFR, 

with participation from stakeholders, for approval 

from the governments of Cameroon and Germany, 

to be followed by implementation of the plan. 

• Initiate (beginning in 2004) a comprehensive 

“village development program” to encourage the 

inhabitants of the area to commence economic 

activities that do not cause over-exploitation of forest 

resources. A possible component of this program 

will be to compensate hunters for lost income if they 

forego earnings obtained from the sale of bushmeat. 

• Continue the monitoring program for vegetation, 

large mammals—with special emphasis on 

gorillas—and monitoring of other priority 

taxonomic groups as appropriate given available 

resources. . 


Mone Forest Reserve 

• Most immediate, demarcate the Reserve’s boundary. 

• Initiate baseline biological and socio-economic data 

collection. 

• Complete a management plan, with participation 

from stakeholders, for approval from the 

governments of Cameroon and Germany to be 

followed by implementation of the plan. 

• Initiate a monitoring program for vegetation and 

large mammals to provide comparative information 

to that for TFR. 

The process followed by the various teams 

conducting assessments in TFR, as described in this 

volume, was highly successful in providing baseline 

biological information for conservation management. 

This model can easily be replicated at a relatively low 

cost spread over various conservation and funding 

organizations to conduct similar biodiversity assessments 

in other areas of Cameroon and Central and West 

Africa—particularly in areas that are known to be rich in 

biotic resources but for which limited information is 

available. Multi-stakeholder, multi-taxonomic 

assessments are an important first step in defining 

conservation priorities and potential management 

solutions. 

References 

Oates, J. F. 1999. Myth and Reality in the Rain Forest: 

How Conservation Strategies Are Failing in West 

Africa. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 

Redford, K. H. 1992. The empty forest. BioScience 

42(6): 412-422 

Trombulak, S. C., and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review of 

ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic 

communities. Conservation Biology 14(1): 18–30. 

Wilkie, D., E. Shaw, F. Rotberg, G. Morelli, and P. Auzel. 

2000. Roads, development, and conservation in the 

Congo Basin. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1614- 

1622.

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