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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET
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1. uONTROL NUMBER 2. SUBJECT CLASSIF! CT:ON (695T<br />
<strong>BIBLIOGRAPHIC</strong> <strong>DATA</strong> <strong>SHEET</strong> PN-AAJ-689 AE30-0000-00o0<br />
3. TITLE AND SUBTITLE (240)<br />
Agricultural development present and potential role of edible wild plants, Part II:<br />
Sub--Saharan Africa<br />
4. PERSONAL AUTHORS f100)<br />
Grivetti, L. E.<br />
5. CORPORATE AUTHORS (. 1)<br />
Calif. Univ., Davis.<br />
6. DOCUMENT DATE (110)<br />
1980<br />
9. REFERENCE ORGANIZA. iV (130)<br />
Calif. --Day<br />
10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES (500)<br />
7.NUMER<br />
l47p.<br />
(Part I, Central ard South America and the Caribbean<br />
East Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania : PN-AAJ-690)<br />
11. ABSTRACT (950)<br />
OF PAGES (120) 8. ARC NUMBER (1I0<br />
631.54.G872<br />
: PN-AAJ--688; Part III, India,<br />
12. DESCRIPTORS (920) 13. PROJL'T NUMBER (150)<br />
Africa South of Sahara<br />
Agricui.tural deve.opment<br />
Plants<br />
Food supply<br />
AID 590-7 (10-79)<br />
Diets<br />
Wild plants .. 14. CONTRACT NO.(]1)<br />
AIDi'OTR-147-80--87<br />
16. TYPE OF DOCUMENT (160?<br />
1. CONTRACT<br />
TYPE (140)
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND POTENTIAL<br />
ROLE OF EDIBLE WILD PLANTS<br />
PART II<br />
SUB-SAHAIRAN AFRICA<br />
November 1980
REPORT TO THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE<br />
AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT<br />
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND POTENTIAL<br />
ROLE OF EDIBLE WILD PLANTS<br />
PART 2<br />
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA<br />
by<br />
Louis Evan Grivetti<br />
Departments of Nutrition and Geography<br />
University of California<br />
Davis, California 95616<br />
With the Research Assistance of:<br />
Christina J. Frentzel<br />
Karen E. Ginsberg<br />
Kristine L. Howell<br />
Britta M. Ogle<br />
1980
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
INTRODUCTION ------ 1. i-------------<br />
M[ETHODS ------ 2.<br />
WILD PLANTS AS HUMAN FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA<br />
Introduction to the Region and Theme --------- 3.<br />
Introduction to Botanical Resources for Sub-Saharan Africa ---------- 9.<br />
West Africa: General ---- --------- - --- ---- 20.<br />
West Afriza: Botanical/Dietary Data by State<br />
Page<br />
Senegal 21.<br />
Mali 21.<br />
Ghana 21.<br />
Nigeria 22.<br />
Cameroons 23.<br />
Zaire (Congo) ------- 23.<br />
East Africa: General --------------------- 35.<br />
East Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State<br />
Chad-Sudan-Ethiopia-Somaliland 35.<br />
Uganda ---------- ----------- 37.<br />
Kenya 38.<br />
Tanzania (Tanganyika; Zanzibar) 39.<br />
South Africa: General 51.<br />
South Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State<br />
Swaziland-Lesotho-Malawi-Mozambique 51.<br />
Zimbabwi (Southern Rhodesia) and Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) --- 52.<br />
Republic of South Africa 54.
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)<br />
WILD PLANTS AS HUMAN FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (CONTINUED)<br />
South Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State (Continued)<br />
Page<br />
Republic of Botswana 58.<br />
DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS ------------------------- 82.<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS --------------- ------------------ -- 86.<br />
APPENDICES<br />
1. Sub-Saharan Africa Search Request ---------------- 88.<br />
2. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Being an Appendix<br />
to the Flora of West Tropical Africa by J. Hutchinson and J.<br />
M. Dalziel: Sample Page and Sample Index 89.<br />
3. Woody Plants of Ghana. With Special Reference to Their Use, by<br />
F. R. Irvine: Sample F3ges ------------------------ 91.<br />
4. The Role of Wild Plants in the Native Diet in Ethiopia, by Amare<br />
Getahun: Table II, Wild Edible Plants of Ethiopia ---------- 102.<br />
REFERENCES CITED --------- ---- ------------ ------ 109.
TABLES<br />
1. Library Research Organizational Plan ----- 12<br />
2. Classification of African Cultivated Plants by Type and Origin -------- 13<br />
3. Wild Edible Foods of /Gwi and //Gana Bushmen ------------- 14<br />
4. Plants Used by Bushmen in Obtaining Food and Water --------------- 15<br />
5. Nutrient Composition of Some Edible Wild Fruits; Transvaal,<br />
Republic of South Africa ----------- 16<br />
6. Staple Wild Plants and Famine Foods of the Sandawe------ 17<br />
7. Edible Wild Plants of Zanzibar and Pemba --------------- 19<br />
8. Supplementary and Emergency Wild Food Plants of West Africa ----------- 24<br />
9. Edible Semi-Cultivated Leaves of West Africa --------------- 29<br />
10. Edible Wild Plants from Bamako, Mali ------------------ 30<br />
11. Nutritive Value of Some Ghanaian Edible Wild Plants --------------- 31<br />
12. Indigenous Wild Edible Plants of Nigeria ----------------- ---- 32<br />
13. Edible Wild Plants, Benin, Nigeria ------------ 33<br />
14. Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms, Upper-Shaba, Zaire ---- 34<br />
15. Edible Wild Plants of the Zaghawa, Sudan and Chad ----------- 41<br />
16. Indigenous Edible Wild Plants, West Nile and Madi Districts, Uganda --- 42<br />
17. Edible Wild Plants of the Masai and Kipsigis, Kenya --------- 44<br />
18. Indigenous Plants Used as Food by East African Coastal Fishermen ------ 47<br />
19. Edible Wild Plants, Shinyanga District, Sukumaland, Tanzania --- 49<br />
20. Edible Wild Plants, Lushoto District, Tanzania ---- 50<br />
21. Swazi Edible Wild Plants ------------------- 64<br />
22. Edible Wild Plants of the baSotho --------------------- 65<br />
23. Edible Wild Plants of Malawi ---------------- 66<br />
24. Gwembe Tonga Edible Wild Plants, Zambia -------- 70<br />
Page
TABLES (CONTINUED)<br />
25. Xhosa Edible Wild Plants, Transkei, Republic of South Africa ---------- 74<br />
26. Pedi Edible Wild Plants, Republic of South Africa ----- 75<br />
27. Nutritional Value of Selected Edible Wild Plants, Natal, Republic<br />
of South Africa ------------------------------------------------ 76<br />
28. Anti-Pellagragenic Properties of Selected Edible Wild Plants, Natal,<br />
Republic of South Africa ------------------------ 77<br />
29. Edible Wild Cucumbers (Cucurbitaceae) of Botswana and Selected<br />
iv.<br />
Page<br />
Kalahari Edible Species 78<br />
30. Edible Wild Plants Used by the Moshaweng Tlokwa, Botswana ------ 79<br />
31. Comparative Utilization of Edible Wild Plants: Agro-Pastoral<br />
Moshaweng Tlokwa and !Kung, /Gwi, =/Kade San, and !Xo<br />
Bushman Societies ------------------ -------- 81
INTRODUCTION<br />
Before domestication of plants and animals all humans lived as hunter<br />
gatherers. The agricultural revolution, first in China and Southeast Asia at<br />
least 20,000 years ago, radically altered human economic systems and food pat<br />
terns, permitting the development of agricultural, pastoral, and ultimately<br />
urban societies. While domesticated plants allowed expansion of human activi<br />
ties, with associated social and technological developments, domestication<br />
also initiated a basic human nutritional paradox. As reliance upon domesti<br />
cated foods increases, dietary diversity and food selection diminishes -- as<br />
food selection diminishes, the probability that all essential nutrients can be<br />
obtained from the diet also diminishes.<br />
While principle efforts in agricultural development, heretofore, have been<br />
directed toward improving productivity -- not the diversification of domesticat<br />
ed plants and animals -- a major question may be posed: can nutritionally im<br />
portant wild plants offer a legitimate focus for development research? Recent<br />
reports by Doughty (1979a;1979b), National Research Council/National Academy of<br />
Sciences (1975; 1979), Nietschmann (1971), Pirie (1962; 1969a; 1969b), Robson<br />
(1976), von Reis (1973), and Wilkes (1977) suggest that substantial economic and<br />
nutritional gains can be achieved by increasing dietary utilization of wild<br />
plants.<br />
Such suggestions form the objective of this report, to explore the role<br />
wild plants already play in human diet in Sub-Saharan Africa. To accomplish<br />
this objective three goals are established: 1) document dietary uses for wild<br />
plants, using published accounts of the past 150 years, 2) identify the relative<br />
dietary-nutritional importance of selected species, and 3) examine the research
potential for such species within the context of agricultural development as<br />
part of existing USAID themes of improving agriculture and nutrition in Third<br />
World nations.<br />
Basic study questions associated with these objectives may be identified.<br />
In regions or societies where wild plants are used as human food, are the plants<br />
central or peripheral to maintaining dietary quality? Is their use seasonally<br />
important, or is utilization common throughout the agricultural year? Do wild<br />
species complement or duplicate energy and nutrients obtained from domesticated<br />
field crops? What role do wild plants have in maintaining nutritional quality<br />
of diet during drought and periods of associated social unrest? Should research<br />
on dietary wild plants be sponsored directly by USAID within the context of<br />
agricultural development, or be assigned a low USAID priority?<br />
METHODS<br />
This contract, awarded September 1980, was designed for library research<br />
only; no field surveys or correspondence with appropriate governmental agencies<br />
were initiated due to time and financial constraints. Four assistants trained<br />
in library research-retrieval methods were employed to assist the principal<br />
investigator. One computer literature-retrieval search was coordinated using<br />
DIALOG/AIRS systems available through the Peter J. Shields library, University<br />
of California, Davis. This system, drawing from a publication data base exceed<br />
ing 12 million articles is a cross-tabulation process whereby key words associat<br />
ed with wild plant use in diet were matched with respective countries of Sub-<br />
Saharan Africa (Appendix 1). The literature search using the DIALOG/AIRS system<br />
was disappointing, yielding less than twenty suitable references. Accordingly,<br />
a standard literature search on dietary wild plants was initiated using a method<br />
ology outlined in Table 1. Basic anthropological, botanical, geographical,<br />
2.
medical, nutritional, and sociological journals appropriate to each country<br />
were scanned for the years 1975-1980. Any journal containing one article<br />
appropriate to the topic of human utilization of wild plants as food during<br />
the most recent five years was scanned chronologically to volume 1; if no*<br />
suitable article appeared within the survey period, the journal was not<br />
further inspected.<br />
Each article identified was read, reference cards prepared, and coded<br />
for region, country, ethnic group, and specific plants utilized. Information<br />
was summarized on index cards to permit rapid assembly of data. Data<br />
presented in subsequent sections of this report are arranged by general region<br />
then by specific reports on pla-Lt use within each country. The accounts<br />
are quite diverse and time of publication is not the criterion of quality; stme<br />
accounts are merely passing reference to human dietary use of wild plants while<br />
others provide detailed botanical documentation by Latin terminology. Still<br />
others give nutritional information on the vitamins and minerals by plant species.<br />
Following the presentation of information on wild plant use as human food<br />
in Sub-Saharan Africa will be a summary and recommendations.<br />
WILD PLANTS AS HUMAN FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA<br />
Introduction to the Region and Theme<br />
The question of food production within the tropics and the interrelation<br />
ships between domesticated and wild species has long attracted botanists and<br />
social scientists (Anderson, 1952). At first inspection it appears easy to<br />
distinguish wild from domesticated species; cultivated from uncultivated; diet<br />
ary from non-dietary species. On close examinatiun, however, these semantical<br />
boundaries become blurred. Numerous wild plants are carefully cultivated;<br />
former domesticated species may dot long abandoned humah settlements; and many<br />
3.
medicinal plants are ingested, providing important nutritional returns. Thus,<br />
any approach to understanding the interrelationships between dietary roles of<br />
wild or domesticated species must be carefully documented, especially given the<br />
long historical-archaeological history of plant use exhibited in Sub-Saharan<br />
Africa.<br />
The relationships between cultivated field crops, forest-bush destruction,<br />
and dietary use of domesticated and wild food resources are considered in depth<br />
by several writers on African agrarian, agricultural systems, among them Allan<br />
(1965), de Schlippe (1956), Gourou (1955), and McLoughlin (1970). All consider<br />
patterns of variation within shifting cultivation systems and address the question<br />
whether technological change automatically improves food sufficiency. Theynote<br />
that under tropical conditions shifting cultivation -- a mixed blessing -- has<br />
generally provided substantial quantities of food and permitted maintainence of<br />
quality human nutrition.<br />
Other writers have examined African food production systems throughout the<br />
tropical regions of the continent. Some, like Schnell (1957), Murdock (1960),<br />
Jones (1961), and Joy (1966), have described dietary patterns and food resources<br />
whereas others, among them Githens and Wood (1943), Baker (1949), Lagercrantz<br />
(1950), and Jardin (1967), have focused on regional patterns of food intake.<br />
It is the view of this writer, however, that any examination of African<br />
food systems must consider the processes associated with plant and animal do<br />
mestication as well as the shift from hunting-gathering to agriculture. Current<br />
evidence advanced by Chang (1973; 1977), Solheim (1971), and Gorman (1969) sug<br />
gests domestication of plants first evolved in east China, subsequently in the<br />
Middle East and Africa. Whatever the dates, direction, or impetus for domesti<br />
cation, two regions of Africa must be considered early centers of agricultural<br />
activity; the Egyptian Nile valley and highland Ethiopia. Murdock (1959, pp.<br />
4.
64-77) advanced a third region in West Africa, among the ancestors of the<br />
Nuclear Mande peoples.<br />
Archaeological data documenting early human use of wild plants as food<br />
and the subsequent shift to cultivation in Africa have been summarized by<br />
Clark (1959; 1960; 1962; 1968) and Seddon (1968, pp. 489-494). Murdock (1959,<br />
pp. 17-24) presents a synthesis of African food patterns based on domesticat<br />
ed plants that reached Africa from four geographical sources: Southwest Asia,<br />
Southeast Asia, Europe, and the New World (Table 2). Other authors, specifical<br />
ly Greenway (1944a; 1944b), Goodwin (1939), and Mc1aster (1963), have reviewed<br />
the geographical origins and dispersals of non-African foods and their result<br />
ing nutritional role in Eastern and Southern Africa.<br />
The most important archaeological record of food in Africa has been reveal<br />
ed along the Nile Valley where recent suggestions by Wendorf et aL (1970) and<br />
Wendorf et al. (1979) show wild cereals used as human food at least by 19,000<br />
B.C. in the vicinity of southern Egypt/northern Sudan. There, human use of wild<br />
barley, teff, and other cereals with associated tool technologies, suggests a<br />
shift from gathering to insipient agriculture. Such early archaeological data<br />
become soundly based with research on wild and domesticated plant foods utiliz<br />
ed by the pre-dynastic ancient Egyptians (before 3200 B.C.) and subsequent mono<br />
graphs outlining dietary use of wild and domesticated plants throughout the<br />
historical periods of Egyptian civilization. Of specific importance in assembl<br />
ing the ancient data on wild and domesticated plant use are monographs by<br />
Daressy (1922) on wild rice; Keimer (1924) on Egyptian garden plants; Lauer et<br />
al. (1951) on early cereals associated with the site of Saqqara; Loret (1886;<br />
1892; 1893) on the plant foods used by the ancient Egyptians; Ruffer<br />
(1919) on the diet and nutritional status of the Egyptians; Schweinfurth (1873;<br />
5.
1883) on diet and plants in ancient Egypt; and research by Unger (1860) and<br />
b6nig(1886) on the plants known, named, and used by the ancient Egyptians<br />
(see also Darby et al., 1977, Vols. 1 and 2).<br />
The aridity of the Nile valley protected t-b archaeological remains of<br />
ancient plant foods and the dry zones of West Africa also provide a wealth<br />
of information on Medieval African diet and the use of wild plants. Lewicki<br />
(1963; 1974) identified early travel accounts by Arab geographers and physicians<br />
noting use throughout much of West Africa wild grasses as human food, namely<br />
Panicum turgidum, Sorghum virgatum, Poa abyssinica, Eragrostis spp., Cenchrus<br />
echinatus, and Pennisetum distichum. Lewicki also notes Medieval use of se<br />
veral West African wild fruits, specifically Blighia sapida, Adansonia digitata,<br />
Balanites aegyptica, Hyphaene thebaica, Ziziphus jujuba, Ziziphus mauritiana,<br />
Ziziphus spina-Christi, Ziziphus mauritiana, Ampelocissus bakeri, wild forms of<br />
Phoenix dactylifera, and numerous unidentified "truffles". Parallel data on<br />
the use of domesticated and wild plants as food for the Egyptian Nile valley<br />
have been gathered by Schweinfurth (1888; 1912).<br />
Existing in the 20th century and forming a bridge between the archaeological<br />
data on wild plants and any understanding of the shift from gathering to plant<br />
domestication are numerous African societies still living as hunter-gatherers.<br />
Hunter-gatherer ethnobotanical/dietary utilization of wild plants has attracted<br />
botanists, physicians, and social scientists for nearly one hundred years, es<br />
pecially on the Bushman societies of southern Africa. Early research on wild<br />
dietary plants use by Bushmen was conducted by Stow (1910, pp. 44-45, 54-61)<br />
and Theal (1910, pp. 36-38), with subsequent notes by Dornan (1925, pp. 114<br />
123), Fourie (1928, pp. 98-103), Schapera (1930, pp. 91-102, 127-147), and<br />
Dunn (1931, pp. 28-31). These early works, however, focused on nutritional<br />
6.
odditities of Bushman diet and must be considered ethnocentric in organization<br />
when evaluating the dietary role of wild plants.<br />
Systematic examination of the dietary ecological relationships between<br />
wild plants, seasonality, and Bushman nutritional status stem from the report<br />
of Tobias (1956) alerting social scientists to field research opportunities<br />
on these Kalahari peoples. Subsequently, teams of social scientists and phy<br />
sicians have spent nearly twenty-five years conducting work on Bushman food<br />
habits, the quest for food, and nutritional status. Many of these reports are<br />
classic and deserve mention in any assessment of cultural nutrition, especial<br />
ly accou-its by Thomas (1959, pp. 102-113), Marshall (1960; 1961), and Lee (1965;<br />
1968; 1969), who worked among !Kung Bushman populations describing food procure<br />
ment strategies during wet and dry years, social division of scarce plant food<br />
resources, and ultimately examining the associations between sound Bushman diet<br />
and good health.(see also J. Tanaka, 1976).<br />
Other important research on wild plants used by Bushman societies of the<br />
Kalahari has been conducted by Heinz and Maguire (1974) and Heinz (1975) on the<br />
!Xo Bushman and that by Silberbauer (1965) and Tanaka (1969) on the /Gwi and<br />
//Gana Bushmen of the central Kalahari (Table 3).<br />
Medical-nutritional research on Bushman societies of southern Africa has<br />
also focused on the dietary role played by wild plant foods in maintaining<br />
adequate nutrition during periods of drought and environmental stress. Early<br />
research blending botany-medicine-nutrition was conducted by Maingard (1937),<br />
Brock and Bronte-Stewart (1960), Bronte-Stewart and Brock (1960), Truswell and<br />
Hansen (1968), Truswell et al. (1969), Truswell (1977), and Wilmsen (1978).<br />
Central to these works is the theme of sound Bushman diet and a Bushman economy<br />
based on wild plant consumption. Perhaps the most important of the nutritional<br />
7.
eports, however, is that by Metz et al. (1971) documenting clearly that rapid<br />
acculturation may lead to serious deterioration of health and nutritional<br />
status and suggesting that dietary deficiencies may have resulted initially<br />
(historically) after the shift from hunting-gathering to agrarian food pro<br />
duction.<br />
Complementing these cultural and medical-nutritional accounts of Bushman<br />
hunter-gatherers are reports providing nutritional data on the composition of<br />
wild plants used by these Kalahari peoples. Story (1958) presents information<br />
on more than seventy species (Table 4) while subsequent work by Wehmeyer (1966;<br />
1971) and Wehmeyer et al. (1969) includes information on six important wild<br />
foods and suggests that they be examined closely for potential economic/nutritional<br />
reward: Sclerocarya caffra (high in ascorbic acid and protein), Ricinodendron<br />
rautanenii (high in ascorbic acid and protein), Adansonia digita:.ta (high in<br />
ascorbic acid and protein), Bauhinia esculenta (high in protein), Carissa<br />
marcocarpa (high in ascorbic acid), and Vigna dinteri (high in calories) (Table<br />
5). Augmenting these reports is the important paper by Lee (1973) on mongongo<br />
(Ricinodendron rautanenii) and its dietary role in !Kung Bushman diet -- a role<br />
that casts serious doubt on the validity of the theme "Man the Hunter" and ele<br />
vates t'e important roles played by "Woman the Gatherer".<br />
Elsewhere in East Africa researchers have investigated the dietary role<br />
of wild plants in ot' hunter-gatherer societies. Newman (1970; 1975) con<br />
ducted basic research on the wild plants used by Sandawe hunters (Table 6), a<br />
topic also reviewed by Porter (1979, p. 70). In addition to identifying the<br />
basic wild staples of Sandawe, Newman noted important "famine" foods, plants<br />
consumed on: ing drought or periods of social distress that provide impor<br />
8.
tant nutrients and calories to diet, specifically Ceropegia spp., Coccinia<br />
trilobata, Commiphora caerulea, Dactyloctenium giganteum, Panicum hetero<br />
stachyum , Rynchosia comosa, and Thylachium africanum.<br />
Woodburn (1962-1963) provided vernacular terms for the edible wild plants<br />
used by Tindiga hunters while Tomita (1966) and Woodburn (1968; 1970; 1972)<br />
focused on the ecological-dietary relationships between wild plants and diet<br />
of Hadza (Hadzapi) bands, noting snecific use of Cordia gharaf, Cordia oralis,<br />
Grewia bicolor, Grewia villosa, Momordica spp., 0pilia spp., and Salradora<br />
persiea.<br />
Introduction to Botanical Resources for Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
Information on African botany is extensive. Most accounts provide not<br />
only taxonomic data, but include information on cultural uses, even dietary<br />
data. Many botanical texts, especially those by Hendrick (1919), Upton (1968),<br />
U3her (1974), and Tanaka (1976), consider the African continent, providing data<br />
on nearly 15,000 plants utilized by humans! Other resources, however, are more<br />
regional or thematic in orientation.<br />
The botany of West and Central Africa is especially well documented. Im<br />
portant contributions to West Africa as a region have been made by Irvine (1952a),<br />
Dalziel (1937), Hutchinson and Dalziel (1954; 1963; 1968), Lawson (1966), van<br />
Eijnatten (1968), Pille (1962), and Busson (1965) and Busson and Lunven (1963)<br />
(see Appendix 2). Specific country/national accounts providing detailed notes<br />
on edible wild plants have been produced by Berhaut (1954; 1967) for Senegal;<br />
Boughey (1955) on eastern Nigeria (Biafra) and by Holland (1922) on Nigeria;<br />
Chipp (1913) on the Ashanti territory of northern Ghana (Gold Coast) and Irvine<br />
(1960) on Ghana (see Appendix 3); Deighton (1957) on Sierra Leone; Percival<br />
(1968) on Gambia; Savonnet (1973) on Upper Volta; Williams'(1969) on Dahomey;<br />
and Sillans (1953) and Thomaq (19,1) on the Central African Republic,<br />
9.
Turning to East Africa, important botanical monographs may be noted for<br />
Kenya by Greenway (1937) and Dale and Greenway (1961). Eggeling and Dale (1951)<br />
have written on the botany of Uganda, while Williams (1949) (Table 7) and<br />
Fleuret (1979a; 1979b) have contributed extensively to the botany of Tanzania.<br />
Getahun (1974) produced a major work on the ethnobotany of Ethiopia, identi<br />
fying numerous edible wild plants (Appendix 4).<br />
The botany of Southern Africa has been especially well described. The classic<br />
work of Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) provides accounts of several thousand<br />
medicinal and toxic species (many consumed regularly as food), while Wilde et al.<br />
(1967) has identified the principal plants common throughout the Zambesi basin,<br />
a botanical zone extending through northern Botswana and South Africa, Zambia,<br />
Zimbabwe, and Malawi.<br />
Botanical monographs, with notes on edible food, have been produced by<br />
1972)<br />
Williamson (19551/and Binns (1976) for Malawi (Nyasaland) and for Zimbabwe<br />
(Rhodesia) by Orpen (1951) and Wilde (1952). The landlocked states of Lesotho<br />
(Basutoland) and Swaziland have been described, respectively, by Phillips (1918)<br />
and Compton (1966).<br />
Turning specifically to Botswana (Bechuanaland) the Kalahari and eastern<br />
thorn-bush grasslands have been research localities for numerous botanists and<br />
notes or monographs on economic plant use have been published by Miller (1952),<br />
Norton (1923), van Rensburg (1971; 1971b), Weare (1971), and Weare and Yalala<br />
(1971). A checklist of common Botswana plants (many edible) was compiled by<br />
an individual known only by his initials (REHA, 1966); this list was consulted<br />
by the present Triter when conducting field work in Botswana, 1973-1975, and<br />
is available through the Btswana National Archives.<br />
10.
The Republic of South Africa is also well represented by national and<br />
regional botanical publications. General works that include notes an wild<br />
plant use include those by Chippindall (n.d.) on wild grasses; de Winter et<br />
al. (1966) and Stapleton (1937) on trees of the Transvaal; and the work of<br />
Phillips (1938) on common weeds of South Africa (many with edible portions).<br />
Overviews of South African botanical regions may be obLained from Hutchinson<br />
(1946) while Zulu terminology for edible and non-edible species has been<br />
collected by Gerstner (1939). Other botanists have especially focused on<br />
1941),<br />
plant toxicology, for example Smith (1895) and Steyn (1934;/ who investi<br />
gated the toxic effects of many plants commonly consumed as dietary components<br />
by citizens of South Africa.
TABLES 1 - 7 FOLLOW<br />
TEXT RESUMES ON PAGE 20<br />
lla.
TABLE 1. Library Research Organizational Plan<br />
LITERATURE SOURCES<br />
TOPIC<br />
(Dietary Use of Wild Plants)<br />
STUDY REGIONS<br />
1) Central America, South America, Caribbean<br />
2) Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
3) South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania<br />
TIME CONSTRAINT: THREE WEEKS PER EACH REGION FOR LIBRARY RESEARCH<br />
PERSONNEL ASSIGNMENTS<br />
Research Assistant 1: works concerning anthropology and geography<br />
by study region<br />
Research Assistant 2: works concerning botany by study region<br />
Research Assistant 3: wor.ks of medical-nutritional content by<br />
study region<br />
Research Assistant 4: works of a regional nature that contain<br />
botanical, cultural, or mEdical-nutritional<br />
information<br />
1. General journals (multi-disciplinary)<br />
2. General books (multi-disciplinary)<br />
3. Specific journals (by discipline, study region, and country)<br />
4. Specific books (by discipline, study region, and country)<br />
5. Bibliographies (by discipline, study region, and country)<br />
6. Dissertations/Theses (by discipline, study region, and country)<br />
7. Abstract services (by discipline): Anthropology Abstracts; Food Science<br />
Abstracts; Geographical Abstracts; Nutrition Abstracts; World<br />
Agriculture, Economics, and Sociology Abstracts<br />
8. Current Contents (natural sciences. and social sciences)<br />
9. Science Citation Index (examination by key word; key word selected by<br />
topic, sub-theme, region, and country)<br />
10. Index Medicus (examination by key word; key word selected by topic, sub<br />
theme, region, and country)<br />
12.
TABLE 2. Classification of African Cultivated Plants by Type and Origin<br />
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE<br />
TYPE W. Africa Ethiopia SW Asia SE Asia Americas<br />
Cereal grains Fonio Eleusine Barley Rice Maize<br />
Pearl millet<br />
Sorghum<br />
Legumes Cow pea Broad bean Gram bean Haricot<br />
Chick pea Hyacinth beau<br />
Lentil bean Lima bean<br />
Pea Pigeon pea<br />
Sword bean<br />
Tubers and Coleus Ensete Beet Taro Malanga<br />
root crops Earth pea Chufa Yam Manioc<br />
Geocarpa Onion Peanut<br />
bean Radish Sweet potato<br />
Guinea yam<br />
Leaf and stalk Okra Cress Cabbage Jew's<br />
vegetables Lettuce mallow<br />
Vine and ground Fluted Grape Cucumber Pineapple<br />
fruits pumpkin Melon Eggplant Pumpkin<br />
Gourd Squash<br />
Watermelon Tomato<br />
Tree fruits Akee Date palm BanaLa Avocado<br />
Tamarind Fig Coconut Papaya<br />
Pomegranate palm<br />
Mango<br />
Condiments and Kola Coffee Coriander Ginger Cacao<br />
indulgents Roselle Fenugreek Garlid Hemp Red pepper<br />
Kat Opium Sugarcane Tobacco<br />
Textile plants Ambary Flax Cotton<br />
Oil plants Oil palm Castor oil Olive<br />
Sesame Remtil Rape<br />
SOURCE: Murdock (1959, p. 23)<br />
13.
TABLE 3. Wild Edible Foods of /Gwi and //Gana Bushmen<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
Citrullus lanatus<br />
Citrullus naudinanus<br />
Cucumis anguria<br />
Cucumis kalahariensis<br />
Coccinia rehmannii<br />
Raphionacme burkei<br />
Bauhinia macrantha<br />
Ochna pulchra<br />
Scilia spp.<br />
Aloe zebrina<br />
Grewia flava<br />
Grewia retinervis<br />
Terfezia spp.<br />
Grewia avellana<br />
Ximenia caffra<br />
Bauhinia esculenta<br />
Strophanthus spp.<br />
Brachystelma spp.<br />
Strychnos cocculoides<br />
Talinum crispatulum<br />
Talinum tenuissimum<br />
Oxygonum latum<br />
Vigna longiloba<br />
Kedrostis foetidiosima<br />
Corallocarpus bainesii<br />
Caralluma krobelii<br />
Vigna parviflora<br />
SOURCE: Tanaka (1969, pp. 6-7)
TABLE 4. Plants Used by Bushmen in Obtaining Food and Water<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
Acacia detinens Lannea edulis var glabrescens<br />
Acacia dulcis Mariscus congestus<br />
Acacia fleckii Momordica balsamina<br />
Acacia giraffae Ochna pulchra<br />
Acacia heteracantha Ophioglossum sarcophyllum<br />
Acacia unci-ata Pentarrhinum insipidum<br />
Adansonia digitata Pollichia campestris<br />
Aloe rubrolutea Raphionacme burkei<br />
Aloe zebrina Rhigozum brevispinosum<br />
Bauhinia esculenta Rhus commiphoroides<br />
Bauhinia macrantha Ricinodendron rautanenii<br />
Boscia albitrunca Royena sericea<br />
Burkea africana Sansevieria scabrifolia<br />
Cavalluma knobelii Sarcostemma viminale<br />
Catophractes alexandri Scilla cf. lancifolia<br />
Ceropegia tentaculata Sclerocarya caffra<br />
Ceropegia cf. leucotaenia Stapelia kwebensis<br />
Ceropegia cf. lugardae Strychnos cocculoides<br />
Ceropegia cf. mozambicensis Strychnos pungens<br />
Citrullus naudinianus Talinum arnotii<br />
Citrullus vulgaris Terfezia spp.<br />
Coccinia rehmanii Terminalia sericea<br />
Coccinia sessilifolia Typha capensis<br />
Combretum apiculatum Vigna dinteri<br />
Combretum coriaceum Vigna triloba<br />
Combretum imberbe Walleria nutans<br />
Commiphora pyracanthoides Ximenia americana var. microphylla<br />
Corallocarpus sphaerocarpus Ximenia caffra<br />
Corallocarpus welwitschii Ziziphus mucronata<br />
Cucumis hookeri<br />
Cucumis metuliferus<br />
Dichapetalum cymosum<br />
Dipcadi spp.<br />
Duvalia polita<br />
Ehretia rigida<br />
Eulophia cf. pillansii<br />
Eulophia spp.<br />
Fockea spp.<br />
Grewia avellana<br />
Grewia flava<br />
Grewia flavescens<br />
Grewia retinervis<br />
Grewia cf. bicolor<br />
Hydnora spp.<br />
Hyphaene ventricosa<br />
Ipomoea verbascoidea<br />
SOURCE: Story (1958, pp. 114-115)<br />
15.
TABLE 5. Nutrient Composition of Some Edible Wild Fruits; Transvaal, Republic<br />
of South Africa<br />
Species 100 gms mg. edible portion<br />
Protein Ca Fe Thiamin Riboflavin N. acid+ Vit. C<br />
Bequaertiodendron 0.9 20.0 0.69 0.07 0.03 1.64 14.1<br />
magalismontanum<br />
Sclerocarya caffra 0.5 6.2 0.10 0.03 0.05 0.25 67.9<br />
Landolphia capensis 1.0 11.1 0.34 0.03 0.53 1.89 60.1<br />
Strychnos pungens 1.6 45.5 0.91 2.74 1.85 1.78 21.9<br />
Carissa macrocarpa 0.5 22.6 0.56 0.08 0.08 0.31 74.1<br />
Adansonia digitata 3.0 387.0 2.20 0.57 0.16 1.78 213.0<br />
Ximenia caffra 3.1 5.9 0.20 0.04 0.04 0.81 22.5<br />
Dovyalis caffra 0.4 4.8 0.14 0.01 0.05 0.30 17-<br />
Coccinia sessilifolia 2.1 17.9 0.20 0.19 0.13 538.0<br />
SOURCE: Wehmeyer (1966, p. 1103)<br />
16.
TABLE 6. Staple Wild Plants and Famine Foods of the Sandawe<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used Seasonality<br />
STAPLE WILD SPECIES<br />
Adansoila digitata Pulp; seeds Year round<br />
Berchemia discolor Fruit March-May<br />
Boscia mossambicensis Fruit November-December<br />
Brachystegia spiciformis Seeds January-April<br />
Bussea massaiensis Seeds August-November<br />
Canthirum burtii Fruit April-May<br />
Cissus trothae Fruit February-March<br />
Cordia ovalis Fruit February-March<br />
Cordia rothii Fruit February-March<br />
Cyphostemma knittelli Fruit January<br />
Delonix elata Seeds June-October<br />
Erythrococca antrovirens Seeds February-April<br />
Ficus fischeri Fruit April-May<br />
Ficus hochstetteri Fruit April-May<br />
Ficus sycmorus Fruit June-August<br />
Grewia bicolor Fruit April-May<br />
Grewia holstii Fruit April-November<br />
Grewia mollis Fruit March<br />
Grewia platyclada Fruit June-July<br />
Grewia similis Fruit March-April<br />
Haplocoelum foliolosum Fruit March-April<br />
Hydnora johannis Pulp December-May<br />
Kedrostis hirtella Fruit January-April<br />
Lannea floccosa Fruit March-May<br />
Lannea stuhlmanni Fruit March-May<br />
Maerua edulis Fruit January-April<br />
Momordica rostrata Fruit Year round<br />
Neorantenenia pseudo-pachyriza Pods March<br />
Opilia campestris Fruit February-March<br />
Peponium boqelii Fruit January-October<br />
Pouzolzia parasitica Leaves December-January<br />
Sclerocarya birrea Nuts April-May<br />
Strychnos innocua Fruit November-January<br />
Tapiphyllum floribundum Fruit April-May<br />
Vagueria acutiloba Fruit Year round<br />
Vangueria tomentosa Fruit Year round<br />
Ximenia americana Fruit Year round<br />
Ximenia caffra Fruit November-February<br />
Ziziphus mucronata Fruit November-December<br />
17.
Latin Terminology<br />
FAMINE FOODS<br />
Ceropegia spp.<br />
Coccinia trilobata<br />
Commiphora caerulea<br />
Dactyloctenium giganteum<br />
Panicum heterostachyum<br />
Rynchosia comosa<br />
Thylachium africanum<br />
Vigna sp.<br />
SOURCE: Newman (195, pp. 36, 38).<br />
TABLE 6 (CONTINUED)<br />
Portion Used<br />
Roots<br />
Leaves<br />
Roots<br />
Seeds<br />
Roots<br />
Roots<br />
Roots<br />
Roots<br />
Seasonality<br />
During drought<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
18.
TABLE 7. Edible Wild Plants of Zanzibar and Pemba<br />
Latin Terminology Traditional Name Portion Used<br />
Dolichos spp. Bonavist Bean Seed<br />
Tacca spp. African Arrowroot Tuber<br />
Typhonodorum spp. Mgombakofi Tuber<br />
Adansonia digitata Baobab Leaves, shoots,<br />
fruits<br />
Amaranthus spp. Mchicha Leaf<br />
Cassia tora Kunde nyika Leaf<br />
Celosia spp. Mfungu Leaf<br />
Cleome strigosa Mwaangu Leaf<br />
Commelina spp. Kongwa Leaf<br />
Gynandropsis gynandra Mchicha Leaf<br />
Ipomoea reptans Mriba wa ziwa Leaf<br />
Jacquemontia tamnifolia Kikopwe Leaf<br />
Lobelia spp. Kisambare Leaf<br />
Moringa spp. Mronge Seeds, leaves<br />
Sesuvium spp. Mboga wa pwani Shoots<br />
Stachytarpheta Vervain Leaves<br />
Afromomum spp. Wild cardamom Seeds<br />
Cordia spp. Mkamasi Fruit<br />
Moringa spp. Mronge Root<br />
Bauhinia thonningii Mkuungo Pods<br />
Borassus spp. Mvumo Fruit<br />
Brexia madagascariensis Mfukufuku Fruit<br />
Eugenia cumini Java plum Fruit<br />
Landolphia spp. Mbungo Fruit<br />
Parinarium Mbura Fruit, kernels<br />
Zizyphus spp. Mkunazi Fruit<br />
Argemone spp. Mexican poppy Seeds<br />
Cassia occidentalis Wild coffee Seeds<br />
SOURCE: Williams (1949, pp. 39-44).<br />
19.
West Africa: General<br />
General accounts of agricultural. practices, food, diet, and nutrition for<br />
West Africa are numerous. Among the more important monographs on ethnobotany<br />
is that by Dalziel (1937), identifying more than one hundred wild edible plants<br />
with extensive data on the non-nutritional economic uses for thousands of West<br />
African plants (Appendix 2). The text by Johnston (1958) on food economies of<br />
West Africa is essential to understanding the agricultural-dietary-economic<br />
practices of the region, while more recent agro-economic resources by Tindall<br />
and Sai (1965) and Sai (1969) identify more than one hundred of the most common<br />
food resources encountered in West Africa. Regional accounts of diet and nut<br />
rition have been prepared for the nations of West Africa by May (1965; 1968)<br />
and May and McLellan (1970).<br />
The most siginificant references on edible wild plants common to West Africa<br />
stem from Irvine (1948a; 1948b) who identified more than one hundred species,<br />
providing important cultural and nutritional data on each. Irvine (1952a; 1952b)<br />
expanded this important earlier work to document famine foods regularly consum<br />
ed during periods of drought that possessed nutritionally sustaining properties<br />
(Table 8). Irvine (1956) continued his intensive research on edible wild plants<br />
of West Africa and produced amother monograph identifying more than 150 leafy<br />
plants serving regularly as food (Table 9).<br />
Specific accounts of wild foods include those by Hepper (1963) on dietary<br />
use of wild Kerstingiella spp. (Kersting's groundnut) and wild Voandzeia spp.<br />
(Bambara groundnut) long used throughout West Africa as a dietary component.<br />
Nzekwu (1961) presented a general botanical overview of the kola nut, while<br />
Adam (1969) identified the baobab fruit as high in ascorbic acid. An early<br />
account by Walker (1931) identified the edible mushrooms of Gabon.<br />
20.
West Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State<br />
Senegal<br />
Gamble (1957, p. 38), writing on the Wolof of Senegal, noted that<br />
children consume many wild fruits but did not identify the species. Toury<br />
(1961) provided minimal nutrient data on the composition of regional plant<br />
foods, while de Garine (1962), writing on the Wolor and Serer, commented<br />
briefly on the dietary role of wild plants but provided no identifications.<br />
Mali<br />
An important contribution by Diarra (1977) identified numerous<br />
species of edible plants common to the region near Bamako (Table 10).<br />
Ghana<br />
The dietary role of edible wild plants in Ghana was discussed by<br />
Chipp (1913) who identified nineteen edible species with no comment. Irvine<br />
(1961), however, identified more than seven hundred commonly used wild plants<br />
from Ghana and provided the nutritional composition for more than eighty (for<br />
an example of his work see Appendix 3). Adansi (1970, pp. 207-210) provided<br />
botanical/chemical data on three wild plants with unusual taste properties;<br />
Synsepalum dulcificum (magic berry) that makes sweet foods taste sour and sour<br />
foods sweet, while Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii and Thaumatococcus danielli are<br />
800-1500 times more sweet than sucrose. Watson (1971), writing on the nutri<br />
tional composition of selected foods from Ghana, reports protein and mineral<br />
values for exceptional wild species (Table 11).<br />
Information on the cultural-food data in Ghana stems from the work<br />
of Fortes and Fortes (1936) on the food practices of the Tallensi, with special<br />
reference to four widely consumed wild plants: Butyrospermum parkii, Parkia<br />
filicordea, Adansonia digitata, and Celtis integrifolia.<br />
21.
Byers (1961), working on leaf protein concentrate in Ghana, re<br />
states the commonly accepted view that LPC can contribute to resolving the<br />
world food crisis in societies where edible leaves already play important<br />
dietary roles.<br />
Nigeria<br />
Major researcl. on the dietary role played by wild plants in Nigeria<br />
has been summarized by Okiy (1960) who has identified the principal species<br />
consumed (Table 12). Johnson and Johnson (1976) also examined the economic<br />
uses of both wild and domesticated plants identified in rural markets at<br />
Benin City (Table 13).<br />
Despite the important works cited above there is relatively little<br />
cultural data on edible wild plants by ethnic group. Forde (1951, p. 6),<br />
writing on the Yoruba, notes domesticated foods are supplemented by limited<br />
quantities of wild green vegetables and fruits. Bradbury (1957, p. 25)<br />
worked among the Edo of Benin noting that they collect wild bush plants daily<br />
but provides no specifics. Netting (1968, p. 101) states that the Kofyar<br />
farmers of the Jos plateau use wild plants in sauces or as relishes poured<br />
over porridge. Forde and Scott (1946) report use of wild plants by the<br />
Hausa and note important contributions by the shea butternut tree and various<br />
locust trees, with additional contributions from baobab and the leaves of<br />
wild ebony. While Forde and Scott mention that 13% of the foods used by the<br />
Hausa are from wild resources, they provide no additional details. Vermeer<br />
(1979), commenting on the Tiv, identified an experimental agricultural system<br />
whereby wild foods are planted and tended along with domesticated plants in<br />
household gardens, specifically Amaranthus tricolor, Gynandropsis gynandra,<br />
22.
and Solanum indicum. The most important food-dietary reports from Nigeria,<br />
however, were produced by Bascom (1951a; 1951b) but while mentioning use of<br />
edible wild plants, he provides only vernacular terms.<br />
Cameroons<br />
An account by Malzy (1954) identified the basic botanical resources<br />
of Cameroons, while de Garine (1980), working among the Massa and Mussey<br />
peoples, provides dietary information -- but only passing reference to dietary<br />
utilization of wild plants as food.<br />
Zaire (Congo)<br />
Baxter and Bush (1953, p. 44), working among the Azande, identified<br />
dietary use of wild grasses, fruits, leafy vegetables, and roots and edible<br />
mushrooms, especially during the period immediately preceeding harvest. Bokoam<br />
and Droogers (1975) provide a basic ethnobotanical listing of more than 100<br />
plants used by the Wagenia for housing, food, fishing, medicine, and ritual.<br />
Reports by Thoen et al. (1973) and Parent and Thoen (1977) identify more than<br />
twenty species of edible mushrooms, noting that more than 20 tons of these<br />
products are consumed annually within Zaire (Table 14).<br />
23.
TABLES 8 - 14 FOLLOW<br />
TEXT RESUMES ON PAGE 35<br />
23a.
TABLE 8. Supplementary and Emergency Wild Food Plants of West Africa<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
RHIZOMES, ROOTS AND AERIAL TUBERS<br />
Dioscorea macroura<br />
Dioscorea preussii<br />
Dioscorea smilacifolia<br />
Dioscorea dumetorum<br />
Dioscorea hirtiflora<br />
Dioscorea minutiflora<br />
Dioscorea bulbifera<br />
Dioscorea bulbifera anthropophagorum<br />
Nymphaea lotus<br />
Boscia salicifolia<br />
Eriosema cordifolium<br />
Psophocarpus palustris<br />
Vigna vexillata<br />
Asclepias lineolata<br />
Raphionacme brownii<br />
Cryptolepis nigritana<br />
Ceropegia spp.<br />
Brachystelma bngeri<br />
Adansonia digitata<br />
Tacca involucrata<br />
Canna bidentata<br />
Trochomeria dalzielii<br />
Gladiolus quartinianus<br />
Gladiolus unguiculatus<br />
Gladiolus klattianus<br />
Solenostemon ocymoides<br />
Coleus dysentericus<br />
Ipomoea aquatica<br />
Dissotis grandiflora<br />
Icacina senegalensis<br />
Smilax kraussiana<br />
Orchis spp.<br />
Eulophia spp.<br />
Stylochiton warneckei<br />
Anchomanes difformis<br />
Amorphophallus dracontioides<br />
Amorphophallus aphyllus<br />
Cyperus esculentus<br />
Kyllinga erecta<br />
Mariscus umbellatus<br />
Thonningia spp.<br />
Carissa edulis<br />
Combretum spp.<br />
Dissotis spp.<br />
Hippocratea spp.<br />
24.
LATIN TERMINOLOGY<br />
TABLE 8 (CONTINUED)<br />
RHIZOMES, ROOTS AND AERIAL TUBERS (CONTINUED)<br />
BARK<br />
PITH<br />
BUDS<br />
Zygotritonia crocea<br />
Typha australis<br />
Craterispermum cerinanthum<br />
Bridelia ferruginea<br />
Bridelia micrantha<br />
Napoleona leonesis<br />
Boscia angustifolia<br />
Cadaba farinosa<br />
Ficus ovata<br />
Anogeissus schimperi<br />
Grewia mollis<br />
Adansonia digitata<br />
Acacia spp.<br />
Aristida stapoides<br />
Typha australis<br />
Borassus spp.<br />
Calamus deeratus<br />
Elaeis guineensis<br />
Cocos nucifera<br />
Hyphaene thebaica<br />
Phoenix reclinata<br />
Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum<br />
GUMS OR RESINS<br />
Acacia senegal<br />
Anogeissus schimperi<br />
Balanites spp.<br />
Sterculia setigera<br />
Sterculia cinera<br />
Lannea acida<br />
Acacia macrostachya<br />
SAP OR LATEX<br />
Calotropis procera<br />
Tetracera potatoria<br />
Sterculia setigera<br />
Gymnema sylvestre<br />
25.
STEMS<br />
TABLE 8 (CONTINUED)<br />
Euphorbia balsamifera<br />
Hymenocardia acida<br />
Borassus spp.<br />
Carica papaya<br />
Ehinochloa stagnina<br />
Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum<br />
Pergularia tomentosa<br />
Asparagus pauli-guilelmi<br />
Veronia amygdalina<br />
LEAVES (ore than 150 species regularly used as food; 25 semi-cultivated, 100 wild)<br />
FLOWERS<br />
Sesuvium portulacastrum<br />
Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum<br />
Stylochiton warneckei<br />
Momordica balsamina<br />
Tribulus terrestris<br />
Cassia tora<br />
Urera mannii<br />
Fleurya spp.<br />
Adansonia digitata<br />
Lippia adoensis<br />
Hyptis suaveolens<br />
Napoleona spp.<br />
Salvadora persica<br />
Grewia mollis<br />
Balanites spp.<br />
Parkia spp.<br />
Crotalaria glauca<br />
Tamarindus spp.<br />
Acacia spp.<br />
Sesbania aegyptiaca<br />
Sesbania grandiflora<br />
Sphenostylis schweinfurthi<br />
Bombax buonopozense<br />
Hibiscus sabdariffa<br />
Nymphaea lotus<br />
Leptadenia lancifolia<br />
Aloe barteri<br />
Taccazea barteri<br />
Taccazea nigritana<br />
Taccazea spiculata var. benedicta<br />
Cocculus pendulus<br />
Glossonema nubicum<br />
Tylostemon mannii<br />
26.
FLOWERS (CONTINUED)<br />
FRUITS<br />
SEEDS<br />
Anona senegalensis<br />
Lecaniodiscus cupanioides<br />
Typha australis<br />
Spilanthes acmella<br />
TABLE 8 (CONTINUED)<br />
Ochrocarpus africanus<br />
Hyphaene thebaica<br />
Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnus lotus)<br />
Zizyphus spina-christi<br />
Sorindeia juglandifolia<br />
Uapaca esculenta<br />
Antrocaryon micraster<br />
Spondias monbin<br />
Cordyla africana<br />
Sarcocephalus esculentus<br />
Carissa edulis<br />
Anona senegalensis<br />
Cucumis anguria<br />
Lagenaria vulgaris<br />
Luffa acutangula<br />
Luffa cylindrica<br />
Momordica charantia<br />
Anacardium occidentale<br />
Lepidium sativum<br />
Anacardium occidentale<br />
Capsicum frutescens<br />
Capsicum annuum<br />
Lepidium sativum silvestre<br />
Trapa bispinosa<br />
Sesamum alatum<br />
Ceratotheca sesamoides<br />
CucumiL melo var. agrestis<br />
Parkia spp.<br />
Balanites aegyptiaca<br />
Cassia occidentalis<br />
Cassia tora<br />
Zizyphus mucronata<br />
Feretia apodanthera<br />
Tricalysia coffeoides<br />
Parkia biglobosa<br />
Abutilon spp.<br />
Entada gigas<br />
Boscia senegalensis<br />
Coffea maclaudii<br />
Coffea excelsa<br />
Coffea brevipes<br />
27.
SEEDS (CONTINUED)<br />
FUNGI<br />
FERNS<br />
Oryza barthii<br />
Oryza stapfii<br />
Panicum turgidum<br />
Panicum laetum<br />
Saccolepis africana<br />
Volvaria volvacea<br />
Volvaria esculenta<br />
Puccinia caricis<br />
Pteris aquilina<br />
SOURCE: Irvine (1952, pp. 23-40)<br />
TABLE 8 (CONTINUED)<br />
28.
TABLE 9. Edible Semi-Cultivated Leaves of West Africa<br />
Latir Terminology<br />
Lactuca taraxacifolia<br />
Justicia insularis<br />
Talinum triangulare<br />
Solenostemon ocymoides<br />
Sesamum radiatum<br />
Solanum nodiflorum<br />
Justicia insularis<br />
Justicia melampyrum<br />
Hibiscus abelmoschus<br />
Hibiscus cannabinus<br />
Gynura cernua<br />
Gynandropsis gynandra<br />
Cleome spp.<br />
Balanites aegyptiaca<br />
Corchorus acutangulus<br />
Ceratotheca sesamoides<br />
Celosia argentea<br />
Celosia laxa<br />
Celosia trigyna<br />
Amaranthus blitum<br />
Amaranthus graecizans<br />
Amaranthus viridus<br />
Vitex doniana<br />
Peperomia pellucida<br />
Amaranthus hybridus cruentus<br />
Corchorus acutangulus<br />
Solanum macrocarpum<br />
Gynura cernua<br />
Lactuca taraxacifolia<br />
Parkia oliveri<br />
Aframomum granum-paradisi<br />
Senecio biafrae<br />
Ceratotheca sesamoides<br />
Veronia amygdaliana<br />
Vernonia colorata<br />
SOURCE: Irvine (1956, pp. 35-41)<br />
Use<br />
Salad<br />
Salad<br />
Salad; pot-herb<br />
Tuber; pot-herb<br />
Leaves; seed<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Salad; pot-herb<br />
Vegetable<br />
Leaves; shoots; soup plant<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Soup; sauce<br />
Salad; pot-herb<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf; nut<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Leaves; soup<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Soup; sauce<br />
Soup; sauce<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Leaf; fruit<br />
Vegetable<br />
Leaf<br />
Pot-herb<br />
Leaves; fruits<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
29.
TABLE 10. Edible Wild Plants from Bamako, Mali<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
Adansonia digitata<br />
Aframomum melegueta<br />
Amaranthus cruentus<br />
Amaranthus viridis<br />
Andropogon canaliculatus<br />
Andropogon gayanus<br />
Andropogon pinginpes<br />
Andropogon pseudapricus<br />
Andropogon tectorum<br />
Boerhaavia diffusa<br />
Boerhaavia erecta<br />
Borassus aethiopium<br />
Burkea africana<br />
Canavalia virosa<br />
Canthium acutiflorum<br />
Cola nitida<br />
Camellia thea var. bokea<br />
Commiphora pedunculata<br />
Cymbopogon citratus<br />
Cymbopogon giganteus<br />
Cyperus articulatus<br />
Cyperus esculentus<br />
Digitaria exilis<br />
Dioscorea cayennensis<br />
Fagara xanthoxyloides<br />
Hibiscus esculentus<br />
Hibiscus sabdariffa<br />
Hyphaene thebaica<br />
Lippia chevalieri<br />
Loeseneriella africana<br />
Mentha spp.<br />
Oryza glaberrima<br />
Parkia biglobosa<br />
Pennisetum gambiense<br />
Phoenix dactylifera<br />
Portulaca oleracea<br />
Solanum aethiopicum<br />
Solanum lycopersicum<br />
Solanum melongena<br />
Solanum tuberosum<br />
Xylopia aethiopica<br />
Ziziphus mauritiana<br />
SOURCE: Diarra (1977, pp. 42-49).<br />
30.
TABLE 11. Nutritive Value of Some Ghanaian Edible Wild Plants<br />
LATIN PROTEIN Ca Fe<br />
TERMINOLOGY<br />
Voandzeia subterranea 19.7 108 195 9.7<br />
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 31.2 210 410 15.0<br />
Coleus dysentericus 1.9 80 '90 2.0<br />
Cyperus esculentus 3.0 9 195 5.5<br />
Adansonia digitata 11.5 300 350 10.5<br />
Ceratotheca sesamoides 14.8 776 415 32.0<br />
Hibiscus cannabinus 17.6 280 550 18.0<br />
Cola acuminata 3.6 35 68 3.0<br />
Elaeis guineensis 6.5 71 195 6.0<br />
Butyrospermum parkii 6.0 10 124 3.8<br />
Ceiba spp. 20.4 310 640 10.0<br />
Amaranthus spp. 4.4 230 55 5.0<br />
Adasonia digitata (leaf) 11.5 2210 235 15.0<br />
Solanum spp. 1.1 8 30 1.0<br />
Portulaca oleracea 1.4 52 15 0.5<br />
Hibiscus sabdariffa (flower) 3.6 1176 160 14.2<br />
Bombax buonopoense (flower) 8.0 1670 152 7.0<br />
Monodora myrisitica 12.8 43 300 6.3<br />
SOURCE: Watson (1971, pp. 98-109)<br />
31.
TABLE 12. Indigenous Wild Edible Plants of Nigeria<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
Dioscorea praehensilis<br />
Dioscorea smilacifolia<br />
Dioscorea hirtiflora<br />
Dioscorea preussii<br />
Colocasia esculenta<br />
Amorphophallus dracontioides<br />
Treculia africana<br />
Musanga cercopioides<br />
Raphia vinifera<br />
Telfairia occidentalis<br />
Digitaria debilis<br />
Digitaria exilis<br />
Paspalum scrobiculatum<br />
Cenchrus biflorus<br />
Eleusine indica<br />
Oryza glaberrima<br />
Panicum spp.<br />
Eragrostis cilianensis<br />
Pennistum purpureum<br />
Elaeis guineensis<br />
Pentaclethra macrophylla<br />
Sphenostylis stenocarpa<br />
Voundzeia subterranea<br />
Mucuna urens<br />
Chrysophyllum africanum<br />
Irvingia gabonensis<br />
Pachylobus edulis<br />
Dennettia tripetala<br />
Uapaca guineensis<br />
Spondias monbin<br />
Landophia owarriensis<br />
Cyperus esculentus<br />
Tetracarpidium conorphorum<br />
Telfaria occidentalis<br />
Talinum trianrilare<br />
Amaranthus caudatus<br />
Celosia argentea<br />
Hibiscus esculentus<br />
Solanum torvum<br />
SOURCE: Okiy (1960, pp. 118-121)<br />
32.
TABLE 13. Edible Wild Plants, Benin, Nigeria<br />
Latin Terminology English Bini Terminology<br />
Aframomum melegueta Alligator pepper ehie ado<br />
Buchholzia coriacea owi<br />
Chrysophyllum africanum Apo otien<br />
Cola nitida Kola evbe<br />
Cucumeropsis edulis Egusi ogi<br />
Dacryodes (Pachylobus)<br />
edulis Native pear orumu<br />
Desplatzia subericarpa oghia wogha<br />
Dissotis rotundifolia ebafo<br />
Elaeis guineensis Oil palm udi<br />
Hibiscus esculentus Okora ikhievbo<br />
Irvingia gabonensis African Mango ogwi<br />
Plentaclethra Oil bean okpagha<br />
Piper guineense Benin pepper akboko<br />
Telfairia occidentalis Oyster nut umwenkhen<br />
Tetracarpidum conophorum African walnut okhue<br />
Thaumatococcus danielli abieba<br />
Uvaria chamae Yellow fever root agio<br />
Vernonia amygdalina Bitter leaf oriwo<br />
Xylopia ethiopica Guinea pepper unien<br />
Indigenous leaves:<br />
Amaranthus hybridus<br />
Talinum triangulare<br />
SOURCE: Johnson and Johnson (1976, pp. 376-377, 379).<br />
33.
TABLE 14. Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms, Upper-Shaba, Zaire<br />
Latin Terminology Protein Caloric Ca P Fe<br />
Value<br />
Amanita aff. aurea 16.0 295 180 630 450<br />
Amanita loosii 30.6 319 570 650 980<br />
Amanita cf. robusta 19.0 315 160 1325 500<br />
Cantharellus cibarius var.<br />
latifolius 14.5 300 148 707 1368<br />
Cantharellus congolensis 2.2 321 110 1050 8250<br />
Cantharellus luteopunctatus 21.4 313 475 700 990<br />
Cantharellus platyphyllus 22.6 319 127 713 978<br />
Cautharellus cf. ruber 25.5 256 424 711 1050<br />
Cantharellus sp. 10.8 305 210 800 1800<br />
Russula sp. 28.8 314 293 620 3140<br />
Lactarius latifolius 8.4 328 310 430 1000<br />
Lactarius cf. latifolius 3,.0 300 157 1044 1334<br />
Lactarius cf. inversus 11.9 325 800 350 2400<br />
Lactarius sp. 34.0 303 532 880 380<br />
Schizophyllum commune 17.0 315 90 646 280<br />
Termitomyces letestui 45.0 277 900 1130 390<br />
Termitomyces microcarp. 33.4 261 200 940 730<br />
Termitomyces sp. 41.0 279 517 460 650<br />
Termitomyces schiw;eri 37.3 285 400 870 266<br />
Termitomyces striatus f.<br />
urantiacus 4.0 290 165 1100 5600<br />
SOURCE: Parent and Thoen (1977, p. 443)<br />
34.
East Africa: General<br />
General introduction to nutrition and traditional agriculture in East<br />
Africa may be obtained from Culwick and Culwick (1941). One primary nutri<br />
tional topic associated with edible wild plants is the protein concentration<br />
of wild seeds and leaves as reported by Fowden and Wolfe (1957). More recent<br />
work on protein from wild plant resources has been conducted by Imbamba (1973)<br />
who noted values for 19 species, with special attention to the leaf protein<br />
contentration (LPC) for Crotolaria brevidens, Gynandropsis gynandra, and<br />
Solanum tuberosm -- all with values exceeding 30%. Olatumbosum (1976) also<br />
working on leaf protein content of wild greens, identified high values for<br />
Amaranthus caudatus, Celosia argentia, Solanum incanumi and Solanum modiflorum,<br />
noting that LPC from these species could easily be incorporated into field<br />
trials to improve diet where green leaves already were widely accepted as<br />
human food.<br />
East Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State<br />
Chad-Sudan-Ethiopia-Somaliland<br />
The transition zone between the arid Sahara and arid East Africa<br />
and the lush vegetation zones of "sub-Saharan Africa" are not a focal effort<br />
of this report. Nevertheless, a number of significant accounts deal with<br />
human utilization of edible wild plants that provide important data to the<br />
central question of this report. Tubiana and Tubiana (1977, pp. 13-29) re<br />
port an extensive list of edible wild plants used by the Zaghawa inhabiting<br />
the zone between Chad and the Republic of the Sudan (Table 15). Lewis (1969,<br />
pp. 74, 169), describing nomadic populations of Somalia, Afar, and Saho,<br />
briefly comments on the role wild edible fruits play in the dietary of no<br />
madic pastoralists. Huntingford (1953, pp. 61, 108) noted use of wild plants<br />
35.
y the Mondari Baronga, near Tali, northwest of Juba in the Sudan, while<br />
Corkill (1948) may be cited as an important early reference that wild plant<br />
use is not without danger, as seen in his report on Dioscorea dumetorum, a<br />
traditional famine food common to the Sudan.<br />
It is Ethiopia, however, that has attracted the most botanical and nutri<br />
tional attention. The Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National<br />
Defense (ICNND, 1959) completed the initial nutritional survey of E.hiopia<br />
while Schaefer (1961) and Selinus (1968-1971, pp. 3-12) have identified the<br />
common dietary elements throughout Ethiopia. Such data, augmented by publi<br />
cation of extensive food composition tables for use in Ethiopia by Agren (1969),<br />
havepermitted research to continue on numerous important topics, for example<br />
the work by Selinus (1970) on preparation of home-made weaning foods prepared<br />
from both domesticated and wild food resources available locally. But perhaps<br />
the most intriguing report on nutrition to emerge from Ethiopia is the classic<br />
report by Knutsson and Selinus (1970) outlining cultural and historical problems<br />
of maintaining adequate nutritional quality under severe conditions of fasting<br />
as required by Ethiopian Coptic ritual.<br />
Huntingford (1969, p. 28), writing on the Galla, mentions widespread use<br />
of edible wild plants and provides documentation tor three; Rhamnus prinoides,<br />
Rhamnus tsaddo, and Vernonia amygdalina. Kloos (1976) completed a detailed<br />
examination of medicinal and dietary plants present in the rural markets of<br />
central Ethiopia, while Simoons (1965) reported cultivation of the wild plant<br />
Rhamnus prinoides (gesho) used in the preparation of Ethiopian fermented<br />
beverages. Lemordant (1971) reported comm consumption of four wild plants<br />
in Ethiopia .Balanites aegyptiaca, Carissa edulis, Rhamnus prinoides, and<br />
Rhamnus staddo), while Getahum (1974) identified more than one hundred widely<br />
36.
consumed wild plants (Appendix 4) noting general utilization increases with<br />
onset of the dry season between February and May. Getahum also comments on<br />
what he sees as a critical problem emerging in Ethiopia, loss of plant know<br />
ledge by the young. Miege and Marie-Noelle (1978) present data on Cordeauxia<br />
edulis, an arid zone species widely consumed in Ethiopia, whose seeds have<br />
a very favorable amino acid balance. They note that extinction of this plant<br />
would be an irreplaceable loss for the food supply of some East African peoples.<br />
Examination and review of the recent droughts experienced by Ethiopia<br />
is not within the scope of this report. Nevertheless, it is important to note<br />
that Ethiopian societies had generally been able to cope with the stress of<br />
drought by utilization of edible wild plants. Turton (1977) worked among the<br />
Mursi of southwestern Ethiopia and examined their response to drought. He<br />
found that prior to 1973 the Mursi had always been able to fall back upon wild<br />
bush foods as dietary staples when their domesticated field crops failed during<br />
drought. He reports that the increased severity of the drought in 1973, coupled<br />
with loss of knowledge relative to which plants were suitable for consumption, led<br />
to deprivation, malnutrition, and famine in a society that formerly had been able<br />
to cope well under drought conditions.<br />
Uganda<br />
Agricultural and food production systems for Uganda have been reported<br />
by Amann et al. (1972), building on research conducted by agronomists, physicians,<br />
and social scientists of preceeding decades. Relatively little work has been<br />
produced on the nutritional composition of Ugandan foodstuffs, although Jameson<br />
(1958) has produced tables of protein content of subsistence foods (primarily<br />
domesticated). Two reports, however, are central co understanding the dietary<br />
utilization of edible wild plants in Uganda. The first by Bennet et al. (1965)<br />
37.
is an overview of dietary practices of traditional Bantu Ganda, noting that<br />
eighteen unidentified "wild leaves" are common along with seven species of<br />
mushrooms. The second, by Tallantire and Goode (1975), is a recent monograph<br />
examining wild plants (many utilized as food) of West Nile and Madi districts,<br />
especially species whose leaves and fruits are used to supplement domesticated<br />
staples (Table 16). Tallantire and Goode comment severely on the loss of<br />
knowledge relative to edible wild plants in recent times and they note with<br />
concern that more and more of the important dietary supplements will be elimin<br />
ated from diet by traditional Ugandans who will no longer be able to identify<br />
such potential foods.<br />
Kenya<br />
Gerlach (1961; 1964; 1965) has presented a series of excellent publi<br />
cations on diet, food habits, and nutritional characteristics of Bantu peoples<br />
occupying the coastal regions of north-central Kenya but the classic work on<br />
food and nutrition in Kenya must stem from Boyd-Orr and Gilks (1913) in their<br />
important examination of diet and health comparing the Masai (a regimen based<br />
on flesh foods) and the Kukuyu (diet based on vegetable foods). Important re<br />
cent work on nutrition and wild plants has been completed by Taylor (1970)<br />
who investigated diet of the Kikuyu, noting important roles for Chenopodium<br />
opulifolium and Maranta arundinacea as the principal wild plants used. Taylor<br />
(p. 343) noted with concern that the development and expansion of agriculture<br />
has led to a significant decline in the dietary utilization of indigenous wild<br />
plants, with resulting decreased nutritional values in humans for vitamins A,<br />
B-complex, C, and the minerals calcium, iron, and phosphorus.<br />
Huntingford (1969, p. 59), writing on the Dorobo of the Kenya Highlands,<br />
states that wild foods include Rubus rigidus, Ximenia americana, wild forms of<br />
38.
Musa enset, with widespread consumption of miscellaneous resions and leaves<br />
that are gathered regularly for food. He also notes (p. 23) that the Nandi<br />
of the Uasin-Gisho Plateau, west of the Rift valley, regularly use wild<br />
vegetable leaf relishes, specifically Kigelia aethiopica, and that they fer<br />
ment the juice of the wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata). Huntingford (1969,<br />
p. 43) also wr..res on the Kipsigis of the Mau forest and Kisii Highlands, stat<br />
ing that wild vegetables and leaves are used, but he does not identify them by<br />
species.<br />
Glover et al. (1966), building on the work of Boyd-Orr and Gilks cited<br />
earlier, has presented a recent view of Masai diet in comparison with patterns<br />
exh 4 .bited by the related Kipsigis, noting extensive utilization of wild plants<br />
as food (Table 17). McMaster (1969, pp. 204-263), writing on the pastoral<br />
Turkana, noted utilization of Amaranthus spp. used regularly as dietary re<br />
lishes. Wagner (1970, pp. 59-60), working with the Logoli and Vugusu of<br />
Kavirondo district, noted that they rely on wild plants in the manufacture<br />
of local salts for human consumption and that wild fruits and mushrooms (not<br />
identified by species) are frequently collected. Gulliver and Gulliver (1968,<br />
pp. 34-35), worked among the Jie and identified wild greens as an important<br />
dietary element during the lean food months just before harvest. Weiss (1979)<br />
presents a general review of ed-ible wild plants utilized by coastal fishermen<br />
throughout Kenya (Table 18).<br />
Tanzania (Tanganyika; Zanzibar)<br />
Early research on nutrition and diet in Tanzania (Tanganyika, Zanzibar<br />
or both) stems from Smith and Smith (1935) and Culwick and Culwick (1939) with<br />
important contributions by Latham and Stare (1967), and the re<br />
cent investigations by Kreysler and Mndeme (1975). Such work, coupled with re<br />
39.
gional informaton on the nutritional composition of foods by Raymond (1941),<br />
provides background to important work completed on ethnic studies and the<br />
role of wild plants in maintaining quality nutrition.<br />
Glegg (1945), writing on the Sukuma, identified forty-six species<br />
with important dietary use (Table 19), yet Abrahams (1967, p. 33) made only<br />
brief comment that Sukuma females gather mushrooms and leaves from numerous<br />
wild plants. -ukui (1969), working. with the agro-pastoral Iraqw, identified<br />
five wild plants with important dietary roles, specifically Acalypha grantii,<br />
Coieus oguatics, Erucastrum arabicum, Ranunculus multifidus, and Solanum<br />
nigrum. Fleuret (1979a; 1979b), reporting on edible wild plants in Shamba<br />
diet in the vicinity of Lushoto, noted extensive, important roles for wild<br />
plants providing for high intakes of plant protein, carotene, calcium, and<br />
iron. Of equal important was her finding that Shamba women were able to<br />
sell wild plants, thus providing cash income to the sophisticated, energetic<br />
gatherer (Table 20).<br />
Wilson (1978), working on wild kenaf species (Hibiscus spp.) as commonly<br />
encountered in Kenya and Tanzania, documented dietery use of Hibiscus sabdariffa<br />
leaves and flowers.<br />
40.
TABLES 15 - 20 FOLLOW<br />
TEXT RESUMES ON PAGE 51<br />
40a.
TABLE 15. Edible Wild Plants of the Zaghawa, Sudan and Chad<br />
Latin Terminology Zaghawa Terminology<br />
Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum Absabe; bou; kreb<br />
Eragrostis pilosa Am-hoy; kwoinkwoin<br />
Pennisetum tiphoideum Bonu; bolu; bini<br />
Oryza breviligulata Am-belele; tomso<br />
Cenchrus biflorus Askanit; nogo<br />
Tribulus terrestris Drese; tara<br />
Grewia villosa Tomur el abid; korfu<br />
Grewia populifolia Giddem; nari<br />
Grewia flavescens Kabayna; gugur<br />
??? Baxshem; sono<br />
Ziziphus mauritiana Korno; kie<br />
Ziziphus spina-christi Nabak; kabara<br />
Balanites aegyptiaca Hejlij; gie<br />
Sclerocarya birroea Himed; gene<br />
Boscia senegalensis Moxet; madi<br />
Capparis decidua Tumtum; tundub; namar<br />
Maerua crassifolia Kurmut; nur<br />
Cordia rothii Andarab; turu<br />
Commiphora africana Gafal; togoria<br />
Cyperus rotundus tuberosus Siget; nogu<br />
Salvadora persica Shao; ui<br />
Colocynthis citrullus Battikh; oru<br />
Colocynthis vulgaris ???<br />
Coccinia grandis Tudu<br />
Hibiscus sabdariffa Karkan; anara; kerkere<br />
SOURCE: Tubiana and Tubiana (1977, pp. 14-25)<br />
41.
TABLE 16. Indigenous Edible Wild Plants, West Nile and Madi Districts, Uganda<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used<br />
Nymphaea lotus root<br />
Cleome monophylla leaf<br />
Gyandropsis gynandra leaf<br />
Portulaca oleracea leaf<br />
Portulaca quadrifida leaf<br />
Amaranthus dubiu., leaf<br />
Amaranthus graecizans leaf<br />
Amaranthus hybridus hybridus leaf; seed<br />
La-enaria siceraria leaf; fruit<br />
Corchorus ol!torius leaf<br />
Corchorus tridLns leaf<br />
Corchorus trilocularis leaf<br />
Hibiscus surattenis leaf<br />
Sida alba leaf<br />
Acalypha bipart.ta leaf<br />
Acalypha ciliara leaf<br />
Acalypha racemasa leaf<br />
Micrococca mercurialis leaf<br />
Cassia obtusfolia leaf<br />
Tamarindus indica leaf; fruit<br />
Crotalaria brevidens var.<br />
intermeiia leaf<br />
Crotalar.a ochroleuca leaf<br />
Vigna urguiculata dekindtiana leaf<br />
Cyphosti:mma spp. leaf<br />
Leptaderia hastata leaf<br />
Aspilia pluriseta fruit<br />
Bidens piiisa leaf<br />
Crassocephaiim crepidioides leaf<br />
Crassocephalum rubens leaf<br />
Guizotia scabra fruit<br />
Capiscum frutescens leaf; fruit<br />
Solanum nigrum leaf<br />
Ipomoea eriocarpa leaf<br />
Sesamum angustifolium leaf<br />
Asystasia gangetica leaf<br />
Asystasia schimperi leaf<br />
Commelina benghalensis leaf<br />
Oxytenanthera abyssinica root<br />
Annona senegalensis fruit<br />
Syzygium guineense fruit<br />
Grewia mollis fruit<br />
Parinari curatellifolia fruit<br />
42.
TABLE 16 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used<br />
Afzelia africana fruit<br />
Tamarindus indica fruit<br />
Cordyla richardii fruit<br />
Ficus capensis fruit<br />
Ximenia americana fruit<br />
Ziziphus abyssinica fruit<br />
Ampelocissus africana fruit<br />
Balanites aegyptiaca fruit<br />
Rhus natalensis fruit<br />
Rhus vulgaris fruit<br />
Diospyros mespiliformis fruit<br />
Butyrospermum paradoxum nut<br />
Strychnos innocua fruit<br />
Carissa edulis fruit<br />
Gardenia ternifolia fruit<br />
Physalis micrantha fruit<br />
Lantana trifolia fruit<br />
Vitex doniana fruit<br />
Vitex madiensis fruit<br />
Hoslundia opposita fruit<br />
Aframomum spp. tuber<br />
Borassus aethiopum fruit<br />
Phoenix reclinata fruit<br />
SOURCE: Tallantire and Goode (1975, pp. 237-242)<br />
43.
TABLE 17. Edible Wild Plants of the Masai and Kipsigis, Kenya<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used<br />
Aerva lanata leaf<br />
Amaranthus graecizans graecizans leaf<br />
Amaranthus hybridus hybridus leaf<br />
Amaranthus hypochondriacus var.<br />
chlorostachys leaf<br />
Amaranthus spinosus leaf<br />
Heeria reticulata fruit; bark; young twigs<br />
Lannea stuhlmanii bark<br />
Pistacia aethiopica bark; root<br />
Rhus natalensis fruit; bark<br />
Rhus vulgaris fruit<br />
Sclerocarya birrea fruit<br />
Carissa edulis root; fruit<br />
Landolphia ugandensis fruit<br />
Ilex mitis bark; root<br />
Caralluma dummeri shoots<br />
Cynanchum tertapterum shoots<br />
Periploca linearifolia root<br />
Sarcostemma viminale root<br />
Stathmostelma pedunculatum root<br />
Basella alba leaf<br />
Berberis holstii fruit<br />
Cordia rothii fruit<br />
Commiphora africana root<br />
Commiphora trothae root<br />
Rhipsalis baccifera stem<br />
Tamarindus indica fruit<br />
Warburgia ugandensis fruit<br />
Capparis fascicularis fruit<br />
Gyandropsis gynandra leaf<br />
Maerua edulis fruit; root<br />
Pollichia campestris fruit<br />
Maytenus senegalensis root<br />
Chenopodium opulifolium leaf<br />
Spilanthes mauritiana leaf<br />
Ipomoea longituba root<br />
Ipomoea oenotherae root<br />
Crambe abyssinica leaf<br />
Erucastrum arabicum leaf<br />
Cucumella engleri fruit<br />
Peponium vogelii fruit<br />
Clutia pedicellaris root<br />
Dovyalis macrocalyx fruit<br />
Rawsonia lucida fruit<br />
Scolopia zeyheri fruit<br />
44.
TABLE 17 (CONTINUED)<br />
Garcinia livingstonei fruit<br />
Hypericum peplidifolium fruit<br />
Ocimum americanum leaf; root<br />
Ocimum kilimandscharicum leaf<br />
Hibiscus cannabinus bark<br />
Acacia drepanolobium pods<br />
Acacia gerrardii gerrardii bark<br />
Acacia hockii bark<br />
Acacia kirkii kirkii var.<br />
intermedia bark<br />
Acacia seyal var. fistula bark<br />
Acacia seyal var. seyal bark<br />
Ficus capensis fruit<br />
Ficus sycomorus fruit<br />
Ficus vallis-choudae fruit<br />
Embelia schimperi fruit<br />
Syzygium cordatum fruit<br />
Syzygium guineense fruit; root; bark<br />
Ximenia americana root; fruit<br />
Jasminum abyssicum root<br />
Oxalis corniculata leaf<br />
Oxalis obliquifolia leaf<br />
Astragulus abyssinicus root<br />
Erythrina abyssinica root<br />
Parochetus communis leaf<br />
Polygonum salicifolium leaf<br />
Polygonum senegalense leaf<br />
Polygonum setosulum leaf<br />
Rumex abyssinicus leaf<br />
Rumex bequaertii leaf<br />
Protea gaguedi bark<br />
Parinari curatellifolia<br />
curatellifolia fruit<br />
Rubus apetalus fruit<br />
Rubus steudneri aberensis fruit<br />
Rubus volkensii fruit<br />
Canthium lactescens fruit<br />
Vangueria apiculata fruit<br />
Osyris compressa root; bark; leaf<br />
Mimusops bagshawei fruit; bark<br />
Mimusops kummel fruit<br />
Physalis peruviana fruit<br />
Solanum nigrum leaf<br />
Grewia trichocarpa fruit<br />
Grewia similis fruit<br />
Urtica massaica leaf<br />
Lantana rhodesiensis fruit<br />
Lantana trifolia fruit<br />
45.
TABLE 17 (CONTINUED)<br />
Cissus rotundifolia root<br />
Cyphostemma orondo fruit<br />
Rhoicissus revoilli tuber<br />
Hypoxis urceolata tuber<br />
Chlorophytum blepharophyllum tuber<br />
Chlorophytum cf. marcophyllum tuber<br />
Ornithogalum graclllmum bulb<br />
Phoenix reclinata fruit<br />
Kigelia aethiopum bark; fruit<br />
Aloe graminicola root<br />
Aloe secundiflora bark<br />
SOURCE: Glover et al. (1966, pp. 192-194)<br />
46.
TABLE 18. Indigenous Plants Used as Food by East African Coastal Fishermen<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used<br />
Amaranthus blitum leaf<br />
Amaranthus caudatus leaf<br />
Amaranthus patulus leaf<br />
.'%maranthus spinosus leaf<br />
Celosia cristata stem; leaf<br />
Celosia argentea stem; leaf<br />
Anacardium occidentale fruit; nut<br />
Lannea stuhlmanni fruit<br />
Annona chrysophylla fruit<br />
Kigelia aethiopum fruit<br />
Adansonia digitata fruit; shoot; leaf; seed<br />
Tamarindus indicus pod<br />
Cleome strigosa leaf<br />
Thylachium africanum root<br />
Lagenaria vulgaris fruit<br />
Luffa cylindrica fruit<br />
Momordica cf. charantia fruit<br />
Cycas thuarsii pith<br />
Dioscorea dumetorum tuber<br />
Dioscorea sansibarensis tuber<br />
Securinega virosa fruit<br />
Harungana madagascariensis fruit<br />
Lobelia fervens leaf; stem; flower<br />
Thespesia danis fruit<br />
Moringa oleifera root; seed; leaf<br />
Nymphaea capensis root<br />
Borassus aethiopium sap; seedling; fruit<br />
Eriosema spp. root<br />
Parinari curatellifolia fruit; kernel<br />
Tarenna graveolens fruit<br />
Fagara chalybea leaf<br />
Toddalia asiatica fruit<br />
Manilkara sulcata fruit<br />
Datura metel leaf (to make beer wore potent)<br />
Grewia villosa fruit<br />
Premna chrysoclada fruit<br />
Afromomum angustifolium fruit<br />
Antidesma venosum seed<br />
Carpolobia goetzei fruit<br />
Deinbollia borbonica fruit<br />
Enterospermum littorale fruit<br />
Flacourtia indica fruit<br />
Garcina livingstonei fruit<br />
Hirtella zanzibarica fruit<br />
Ochna mossambicensis fruit<br />
Piliostigma thonningii fruit<br />
47.
TABLE 18 (CONTINUED)<br />
Premna holstii fruit<br />
Salacia floribunda fruit<br />
Sclerocarya caffra fruit; kernel<br />
Vitex mombassae fruit<br />
Ximenia americana fruit<br />
Ziziphus mauritiana fruit<br />
Asytasia gangetica leaf<br />
Cleome strigosa leaf<br />
Corchorus spp. leaf<br />
Ethulia conzoides leaf<br />
Ipomoea pes-caprae leaf<br />
Jacquemontia cpitata leaf<br />
Sesuvium portulacastrum leaf<br />
Sonchus oleraceus leaf<br />
Talinum cunifolium leaf<br />
Triumfetta annua leaf<br />
Vernonia cinerea leaf<br />
SOURCE: Weiss (1979, pp. 35-51)<br />
48.
TABLE 19. Edible Wild Plants, Shinyanga District, Sukumaland, Tanzania<br />
Latin Termonology Seasonality Palatability<br />
Achyranthes aspera December - August Low<br />
Adansonia digitata<br />
Agaricus campestris<br />
Amaranthus blitum<br />
Aneilema spp.<br />
Anthericum subpetiolatum<br />
Boerhaavia plumbaginea<br />
Ceratothea sesamoides<br />
Chenopodium album<br />
Cleome hirta<br />
Commelina benghalensis<br />
Commelina forskalaei<br />
Corchorus olitorius<br />
Corchorus trilocularis<br />
Crotalaria microcarpa<br />
Cucumis dipsaceus<br />
Cucumis ficifolius<br />
Cyanotis nodiflora<br />
Gisekia pharmaceoldes<br />
Gynandropsis pentaphylla<br />
Hibiscus intermedius<br />
Hygrophila spinosa<br />
Ipomoea eriocarpa<br />
June - October<br />
February - March<br />
January - July<br />
Throughout year<br />
November - December<br />
November - July<br />
December - July<br />
December - July<br />
December - July<br />
December - June<br />
November - July<br />
November - July<br />
December - July<br />
February - July<br />
Throughout year<br />
Throughout year<br />
November - July<br />
December - May<br />
January - July<br />
Throughout year<br />
December - August<br />
November - December<br />
Justica matammensis November - December Low<br />
Oxygonum atriplicifolium<br />
Portulaca oleracea<br />
Sesamum angustifolium<br />
Sesamum radiatum<br />
Sonchus bipontini<br />
Tamarindus indica<br />
Trianthema pentandra<br />
Tribulus terrestris<br />
Trichodisma zeylanicum<br />
Vigna triloba<br />
Voandzeia subterranea<br />
SOURCE: Glegg (1945, pp. 37-38)<br />
December - August<br />
December - July<br />
November - June<br />
November - July<br />
December - August<br />
August - October<br />
August - October<br />
December - July<br />
Throughout year<br />
November - July<br />
April<br />
High<br />
High<br />
High<br />
Low<br />
Low<br />
Low<br />
High<br />
High<br />
Average<br />
Low<br />
Average<br />
High<br />
High<br />
High<br />
Low<br />
High<br />
Average<br />
Low<br />
High<br />
Average<br />
Low<br />
Low<br />
Low<br />
Low<br />
Average<br />
Average<br />
Low<br />
High<br />
High<br />
High<br />
Low<br />
Average<br />
High<br />
49.
TABLE 20. Edible Wild Plants, Lushoto District, Tanzania<br />
Latin Terminology Shambaa Terminology<br />
LEAFY RELISHES<br />
FRUITS<br />
Amaranthus sp. Bwache<br />
Amaranthus sp. Mchicha<br />
Basella alba Ndelerna<br />
Bidens pilosa Mbwembwe<br />
Chenopodium opulifolium Shekazeu<br />
Chenopodium sp. Mshughukumba<br />
Chenopodium sp. Mshumbuu<br />
Colocasia esculentum Maeze<br />
????? (Compositae) Komba<br />
Oalinsoga parviflora Mngeeza; Kinyok<br />
Justitia heterocarpa Ungobo; Ungoto<br />
Momordica foetida' Ushwe<br />
Nasturtium officinale Sawade<br />
Sonchus luxurians Msunga<br />
Sonchus oleraceus Kwake; Pwake<br />
Solanum nigrum Mnavu<br />
Solanum sp. Zinge<br />
Xanthosoma sagittifolium Maeze<br />
????? (Fungi) Uyoga<br />
????? Mchwe<br />
????? Mangoti<br />
Adansonia digitata Mbuyu<br />
Ficus sp. Kuyu<br />
Landolphia sp. Mhungo<br />
Myrianthus arboreus Konde<br />
Phoenix reclinata Kindu<br />
Physalis peruviana Supu<br />
Rubus apetatus Mashawa<br />
Strychnos spinosa Tonga<br />
Syzygium jambolanum Zambarau<br />
Tamarindus indica Kwaju<br />
Terminalia catappa Kungu<br />
Ximenia caffra Pingipingi<br />
Zizyphus jujube Kunezi<br />
SOURCE: Fleuret (1979a, pp. 249-269; 1979b, pp. 87-93)<br />
50.
South Africa: General<br />
If there is a sweep of grandeur to the countries of South Africa, there is<br />
nevertheless a pervasive political pall that clouds all issues of contemporary<br />
life throughout the region, whether they be cultural, health, or medical. May<br />
and McLellan (1971) demonstrate that the primary nutritional problems of South<br />
Africa are caloric, not protein, and the ecology of malnutrition is directly<br />
associated with the interrelationships between cultivation of domesticated crops<br />
and dietary use of available wild plants.<br />
South Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State<br />
Swaziland-Lesotho-Malawi-Mozambique<br />
Two important works on Swazi nutrition have appeared during the past<br />
fifty years. Beemer (1939) presented basic information on the composition and<br />
quality of Swazi diet, providing extensive identification of edible wild plants<br />
(Table 21). Jones (1963) presents a more recent view of Swazi nutrition, identi<br />
fying different dietary patterns in three ecological zones of the country and<br />
noting continued use of wild plants (berries, fruits, leaves).<br />
Ashton (1939, p. 159), in her classic work on Sotho diet, mentions<br />
that relatively few wild plants are used as food, but then identifies nineteen<br />
of the most important (Table 22).<br />
Williamson (1972) completed the most important work on ethnobotany<br />
to emerge from Malawi (Nyasaland) and provided brief descriptions of both wild<br />
and cultivated food plants, with more than 200 wild foods commonly utilized<br />
(Table 23).<br />
Santos Oliveira and Fidalgo de Carvalho (1975) published a major<br />
account of the nutritional values of edible leaves commonly collected in<br />
Mozambique, noting extensive use of Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus gracilis,<br />
51.
Amaranthus graeciaans, Amaranthus spinosus, Corchorus trilocularis, Corchorus<br />
tridens, Momordica balsamina, Colocasia antiquorum, and Bidens pilosa. They<br />
note that dietary quality can easily be maintained for protein values with a<br />
balance between consumption of maize and complementary utilization of such<br />
green leaves.<br />
Zimbabwi (Southern Rhodesia) and Zambia (Northern Rhodesia)<br />
These two nations, despite intense political controversy on each<br />
side, share an important botanical, ethnographical, and nutritional history.<br />
Richards (1939) conducted the first systematic field work on cultural nutrition<br />
among the Bemba of modern Zambia, then Northern Rhodesia. Her research, the<br />
foundation block of contemporary cultural nutrition, identified the important<br />
nutritional and non-nutritional roles played by food, especially wild plants<br />
(pp. 75-76, 103, 156, 232). Richards and Widdowson (1936), prior to publi<br />
cation of Richards classic text, identified more than thirty wild foods com<br />
monly consumed by the Bemba, two of the most important being Parinarium monola<br />
and Uapaca kirkiana. More recently, Fanshawe and Mutimushi (1965) have pub<br />
lished on Bemba ethnobotany but did not stress edible wild foods.<br />
Smith and Dale (1920, Vol. 2, pp. 135-153) worked among the Ila<br />
speaking peoples of northern Zambia and noted vernacular terms for forty-six<br />
edible wild plants; two cereals, ten edible leaves or stalks, ten bulbs, roots,<br />
or tubers, and twenty-four with edible berries, fruits, nuts, or seeds. Doke<br />
(1931, pp. 99-109), writing on the Lamba of northern Zambia, also identified<br />
local terms for eighty-four edible wild plants.<br />
Several Tonga societies of Zambia/Zimbabwi have been subjects of<br />
intensive cultural-botanical investigation. Colson (1959) identified the<br />
basic elements of Plateau Tonga diet, including references to wild relishes<br />
52.
while Scudder (1962) provided important insight on the dietary role of wild<br />
foods of the Gwembe Tonga, noting more than 139 species regularly used as<br />
human food. Subsequently, Scudder (1971) produced a monograph on the Gwembe,<br />
specifically on the role of gathering in a so-called agricultural society,<br />
and identified famine foods that are sustaining during periods of drought<br />
(Table 24). Scudder also provided data on the problems facing agricultural<br />
gathering peoples when forced to migrate to new ecological zones where the<br />
botanical spectrum is different -- and many of the plants are toxic. He ex<br />
amined the previous report by Gadd et al. (1962) on human poisoning among the<br />
Gwembe forced to migrate from their lowland Zambese homes in advance of the<br />
rising waters behind the Kariba Dam, and believed the probability of plant<br />
poisoning through incautious gathering was the cause.<br />
Gelfand (1971) has provided an important work on diet of the Shona of<br />
Zimbabwi, a text paralleling Richard's early work on the Bemba. He identi<br />
fies, briefly, vernacular terms for edible wild plants regularly used (see<br />
also Gelfand, 1973).<br />
Complementing these abundant data on edible wild plants by ethnic group<br />
are studies of a strict nutritional nature by Clarke (1944) and Thompson (1954)<br />
identifying problems faced by the shift from subsistence farming to urban food<br />
production/occupational tasks. Whitby (1972) produced an excellent overview of<br />
Zambian cooking techniques, noting dietary use of ifimamba and nkungushi (un<br />
identified wild legumes), and nearly a dozen cultivated leafy vegetables com<br />
plemented with thirty wild greens, especially Amaranthus spp. and Gyandropsis<br />
gynandra, and use of edible wild flowers. Her publication is especially im<br />
portant since it provides detailed methods for cooking and cross-cultural<br />
53.
nutrition information and food terms in six Zambian languages (Bemba, Kaonde,<br />
Lovale, Lozi, and Tonga).<br />
Basic nutrient composition data for domesticated and wild plants<br />
found regionally have been produced by the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa<br />
land (n.d.) and Carr (1961). Specific studies on nutrient values for edible<br />
wild plants have been published by Carr (1956) who reported high calcium and<br />
phosphorus values for Adenia gummiferia, Amaranthus thunbergii, Bidens pilosa,<br />
Corchorus tridens, and Gyandropsis gynandra. Elsewhere, Carr (1955; 1957; 1958)<br />
identified baobab fruit (Adansonia digitata) as exceptionally high in ascorbic<br />
acid; among the highest ascorbic acid values reported for any piant in Africa.<br />
The focus on human use of wild plants as food attracted Pardy (1951a;<br />
1951b; 1951c; 1951d; 1951e) who provided basic notes on indigenous trees and<br />
shrubs of Zimbabwi, noting dietary utilization of fruits from Adansonia digitata,<br />
Parinaria mobola, Thespesia garckeana, and Uapaca kirkiana, as well as edible<br />
resins from Acacia karroo.<br />
The danger of dietary utilization of wild food resources lies in in<br />
cautious collection and consumption of toxic plants. Crossley and Gelfand (1959)<br />
document poisoning by Scilla cooperi while McCarter (1959) presented data on<br />
human poisoning by Lepiota morganii -- consumed by inexperienced gatherers.<br />
Republidof..South Africa<br />
Numerous accounts outline the role wild and domesticated foods play<br />
in the nutrition of traditional societies within the Republic of South Africa.<br />
Bryant (1907) was among the first to describe local foods and their preparation,<br />
a theme subsequently developed in the classic work of Richards (1932) that<br />
identified the theoretical framework for understanding food related activities<br />
in any world society.<br />
54.
Fox and Weintraub (1937) in their work on native dietaries identified<br />
wild leaves as high in calcium, and vitamins A and C, noting that in many<br />
instances the leaves were higher in ascorbic acid than citrus. Fox and<br />
Weintraub documented a basic decline in utilization of wild plant foods due<br />
to "European" influences; traditional peoples wishing to immitate South<br />
African "White" dietary practices, with resulting decline in the nutritional<br />
quality of traditional diet! Osborn and Noriskin (1937) provided additional<br />
information on the role wild leaves play, noting that they are seldom consum<br />
ed by Transkei (Xhosa) males, but are instead a major Xhosa female food. They<br />
noLe that wild foods have a major role to play in maintaining the quality of<br />
diet of the baSotho of Lesotho (Basutoland), the baTswana of Botswana (Bechuana<br />
land), and among Portuguese immigrants to South Africa. Fox (1939) provides<br />
recipes from the eastern Cape Province, including information on relishes of<br />
wild foods used by Xhosa and Pondo peoples.<br />
Other studies have focused specifically on the dietary practices of specific<br />
ethnic groups. The Xhosa have been surveyed by Rose (1972) and Rose and Guil<br />
larmond (1974) who report extensive use of wild foods on a daily basis with<br />
importance attached to nine genera and species; Amaranthus spp., Bidens pilosa,<br />
Chenopodium alba, Sonchus spp., Taraxacum spp., Urtica burchelli, Urtica dioica,<br />
Urtica urens, and Solanum nigrum (Table 25). In addition, they report potential<br />
nutritional problems from consuming certain species that are capable of concen<br />
trating nitrates, but note that such species are drought resistant and possibly<br />
could be genetically improved through a research program.<br />
The Pedi were the focus of a major food habit, nutritional investigation<br />
by Quin (1959; 1964) who provided information on each type of domesticated and<br />
wild food used (Table 26). His work is also important because the text pro<br />
55.
vides extensive nutritional composition data, as well as cross-references to<br />
wild food use by societies throughout southern Africa. Leary (1969) noted<br />
that 13% of Pedi adults utilized wild edible green leaves (merogo) regularly,<br />
but that a serious decline in such use was seen among Pedi children who con<br />
sidered such food items "primitive".<br />
The Tlhaping, a Tswana society of northwestern South Africa, was studied<br />
by Ferreira (1927) who identified six important wild plants regularly serving<br />
as food; root of Boscia albitrunca, and the fruits from Ehretia hottentotica,<br />
Grewia cana, Rhus incana, Rhus tridactyla, and Zizyphus mucronata.<br />
The dietary/nutritional problems faced by traditional South African peoples<br />
upon immigration to congested urban areas has been a long concern. Hellmann<br />
(1936; 1939) clearly identified how urban settings alter protective, traditional<br />
food patterns by reducing dietary variability and access to fresh domesticated<br />
and wild foods. This theme, continued by Walker (1962), identifies loss of food<br />
diversity as a central element of poor nutrition in peri-urban, sub-standard<br />
housing localities without access to horticultural or wild plant products.<br />
Keyter (n.d.) has summarized how South African urban Blacks should be fed to<br />
maintain quality nutrition.<br />
Turning to botanical studies on edible wild plants, several have regional<br />
importance beginning with the publication by Juritz (1914) on indigeneous foods.<br />
Verdoorn (1937; 1938) focused on the edible wild fruits of the Transvaal, notplant<br />
ing that 23 families out of 146 found in this northern state have edible products<br />
that are widely utilized. Stapleton (1937), in his work on common Transvaal<br />
trees, provides data on edible species, while Hennessey and Lewis (1971) give<br />
similar information for edible wild plants of Natal.<br />
56.
In addition to general overviews on edible wild plants within the Republic<br />
of South Africa, research has focused, too, on specific beverage plants and<br />
their potential for economic development. Cheney and Scholtz (1963) identify<br />
ten species, three most important in the manufacture of "Rooibos Tea"; Aspalathus<br />
contaminatus, Aspalanthus tenuifolia, and Cyclopedia genistoides. Such plants<br />
have very high values for ascorbic acid and are low in tannins. Whelan and<br />
Whitaker (1952) report on Helichrysum nudifolium guinquenerve as a traditional<br />
beverage plant.<br />
Dietary use of wild plants also poses potential toxic problems. Steyn<br />
(1941) provides the basic introduction to toxic plants in South Africa, noting<br />
that within the Transki, among the Xhosa, species of Senecio are commonly used<br />
as food and medicine, often with adverse toxic effects (see also Rose, 1972).<br />
Basic information on the nutritional composition of wild and domesticated<br />
plants common to the Republic of South Africa are included in Fox and Goldberg<br />
(1944) and Fox (1966), with important information on how to prepare edible wild<br />
fruit and leaf samples for analysis as documented by Strydom and Wehmeyer (1969).<br />
Most research has been directed towards understanding the protein content of<br />
edible wild leaves. A major monograph by Claassens and Potgieter (1971) in<br />
cluded important contributions to understanding the nutritional value of leaf<br />
protein concentrate, work that may be traced to Leavy et al. (1936). Lewis et<br />
al. (1971) identified four species for potential research and determined that<br />
two (Amaranthus hybridus hybridus and Asystasia schimperi) were excellent amino<br />
acid complements to maize. Shanley and Lewis (1969) examined protein balance<br />
of wild plants set against braditional maize diets consumed by Zulus, noting<br />
that twelve species of wild plants -- if mixed with maize at the same meal -<br />
could improve significantly the biological quality of Zulu diet (Table 27).<br />
57.
Other research has been directed towards measurement of calcium avail<br />
ability in edible wild plants. Walker et al. (1975) noted that calcium, while<br />
high in some wild species, may not be easily available upon digestion, but<br />
that where dairy products are not incorporated into diet, calcium from edible<br />
green leaves may play a very significant role in diet. Hennessy and Lewis<br />
(1971), writing on the anti-pellagragenic properties of wild plants used by<br />
the Zulu, noted that many of the leaves were high in nicotinic acid and could<br />
be used to control the nutritional disease, pellagra. They identified twelve<br />
promising wild plants that if eaten in combination with a maize diet, would<br />
reduce or nearly eliminate pellagra (Table 28). Fox and Stone (1938), writing<br />
on the anti-scorbutic properties of traditional fermented beers, identified<br />
one prepared from marula fruit (Sclerocarya caffra) as being able to control<br />
or eliminate scurvy.<br />
Additional contributions to understanding the nutritional properties of<br />
edible wild foods have been produced by Wehmeyer (1966; 1971) reflecting his<br />
sustained research on the edible wild fruits of South Africa. Fatty acid<br />
composition of edible species of Parinari capense and Parinari curatelli<br />
folia have been reported by du Plessis and Vladar (1974)<br />
Republic of Botswana<br />
Before the last decades of the 19th century, only fragmentate data<br />
on Tswana food and diet had been published. Those data that were published<br />
stem from accounts of early travelers in Southern Africa who worked or lived<br />
among several distinct Tswana societies in the region of what is now South<br />
Africa and Botswana. Lichtenstein (1970, p. 80) visited the Tswana Tlhaping<br />
in 1803 and 1805, reporting that poorer individuals subsisted mainly on plants<br />
and wild berries. On a subsequent visit Lichtenstein (1812, Vol. 2, pp. 410<br />
58.
411) reported that the Tlhaping satisfied their thirst using juice from wild<br />
fruits and cucurbits. Campbell (1822, Vol. 1, pp. 149, 205, Vol. 2, pp. 103,<br />
215-216) also visited the Tlhaping and noted a dietary staple called "wild<br />
potato", a probable reference to undomesticated tubers gathered in the region<br />
of Litakoo, the Tlhaping capital. Mackenzie (1887, Vol. 2, pp. 28-29) worked<br />
among the Tswana Ngiato during the middle decades of the 19th century and<br />
commented on their ability to survive well during drought by use of edible<br />
wild fruits. He wrote that it was possible that the wild food resources avail<br />
able to the Ngwato during periods of drought were superior to domesticated<br />
Tswana food resources.<br />
Complementing the historical accounts of Tswana wild plant use as food<br />
are numerous nutritional/dietary studies. Nutrition work in Botswana (Bechuana<br />
land) begins with the report by Macrae (1920) on food ard health in relation<br />
ship to tropical disease. Subsequently, Gerber (1937) presented detailed<br />
information on nutritional quality of diet and use of indigenous food resources.<br />
Systematic research on Tswana nutrition, however, stems from Bernard Squires<br />
who examined seasonal and ecological distribution of nutritional disease in<br />
1939a;<br />
Botswana (Bechuanaland) (1938a;/1939b; 1943; 1956) and the protective, anti<br />
scorbutic properties of Tswana wild and domesticated food resources (1938b;<br />
1938c; 1952). Squires and Deverall (1949) identified thirteen wild plants<br />
commonly utilized as food by both Tswana Kwena and Ngwaketse peoples.<br />
Except for the work of Squires, little research and field investigations<br />
on Tswana food, diet, and nutrition were conducted until the drought of the<br />
mid 1960's. The most important research to emerge from the nutrition/drought<br />
studies, however, was the report by Burgess (1972) on three Tswana villages<br />
documenting that nutritional problems were relatively minor, when contrasted<br />
59.
with other agro-pastoral societies of the west central Sahel.<br />
Considering edible wild plants in Botswana, some of the available data<br />
already have been summarized in pages 6 - 8 of this report when discussing<br />
Bushman wild foods. Other researchers, however, have turned their attention<br />
to other species used specifically for water or energy, or as famine foods.<br />
Maccrone (1937) presented the first account of the dietary role played by<br />
the wild tsama melon (Citrullus lanatus) and its use among Bushmen bands as<br />
a reliable dietary and water source. More recent work by Renew (1968) detail<br />
ed an additional twelve wild cucumber/gourds used throughout the Kalahari as<br />
important food resources (Table 29).<br />
The present author identified an important correspondence in the Botswana<br />
National Archives dated 1949-1954 outlining the potential dietary role of<br />
papyrus (Cyperuz papyrus) and its use among Okavango delta peoples as a dietary<br />
element during periods of famine. It may also be noted that consumption of<br />
papyrus root has a long documented archaeological history in Egypt (Darby et<br />
al. 1978, Vol. 2, pp. 644-649) and probably throughout much of eastern Africa.<br />
Between 1973-1975 the present author conducted dietary field work among<br />
the Moshaweng Tlokwa, a Tswana agro-pastoral people of eastern Botswana. In<br />
itial mimeographed reports on Tlokwa edible wild plants were produced for the<br />
Botswana Ministry of Health (Grivetti, 1974; 1975) and a major report on diet<br />
ary wild species was issued as part of fieldwork responsibilities (Grivetti and<br />
Mogome, 1974). These accounts explored the broad relationbhips between culture,<br />
diet, and environmental setting, specifically, the Tlokwa quest for food dur<br />
ing years of adequate vs. poor rainfall. Survey instruments were developed to<br />
identify edible wild plants, portions used, and maintenance or decline of<br />
knowledge associated with their use.<br />
60.
Among the Tlokwa hunting is primarily a male activity while collection of<br />
edible leaves, roots, tubers, berries, and fruits is mainly practiced by young<br />
girls and women. Most gathering of edible plants takes place within cattle<br />
grazing areas or near cultivated fields; edible species that sprout within<br />
Tlokwa settlements are generally rejected as food because of concern over<br />
contamination by animal or human waste. .xceptions, however, include rl1nts<br />
that sprout within family household compounds and fruits/berries above the<br />
browse-line of goats and other Tlokwa livestock.<br />
The Tlokwa -- classified as an "agricultural-pastoral" society -- regularly<br />
utilize 121 wild plants as food; a number that is certainly underestimated<br />
(Table 30). Such wild plants play important dietary roles both throughout the<br />
calandar year and just before harvest. Edible wild greens are available through<br />
out the year in either fresh or preserved form; fresh between October-January,<br />
afterwhich the leaves are cooked, shaped into compact cakes, sun-dried, and stor<br />
ed (stored sometimes for three or four years), then rehydrated and sered as<br />
food. Bulbs, roots, and tubers are used primarly between October and January.<br />
Bushlands surrounding Tlokwa settlements contain fruits, nuts, and seeds mainly<br />
between November-March; most are eaten fresh although three may be sun-dried<br />
and preserved for winter use (Euclea schimperi, Grewia flava, and Sclerocarya<br />
caffra). Plants used to prepare beverages are seasonal in nature. During<br />
Spring (October-November) small tender leaves from Combretum transvaalense,<br />
Grewia flava, latropha zeyheri, and L6ppia scaherima are sought for brewing.<br />
In Summer (December-February) berries =nr! f uits, and a few bulbs, are sought<br />
to make fermented or fresh beverages, especially Boscia foetida rehmanniana,<br />
Grewia spp., Papea capensis, Rhus spp., Vangueria infausta, and Ximenia caffra.<br />
61.
In Winter (June-July) roots of Boscia albitrunca or Grewia flava are ground,<br />
roasted, boiled, and prepared as coffee substitutes. Miscellaneous wild<br />
plants include mushrooms (collected usually in February) and vegetable fibers<br />
chewed to alleviate thirst (generally from Acacia grandicornuta, A. karroo, or<br />
A. tortilis), while resins are obtained from more than twenty species and<br />
used as snacks by all Tlokwa. Dietary use of flowers is primarily restricted<br />
to Tlokwa children who use blooms from Aloe zebrina (Grivetti, 1976; 1978; 1979).<br />
When one compares lists of edible wild plants used by the Tlokwa with<br />
lists presented earlier on wild plants as food for Bushman or other hunter<br />
gatherer societies (Tables 3 and 6) one is struck with a basic paradox; the<br />
Tlokwa, so-called agro-pastoralists, regularly utilize many more wild foods<br />
than hunter-gatherers (Table 31). Close inspection of anthropological and<br />
botanical data from southern Africa, however, reveals that the Tlokwa are not<br />
an anomaly, but are typical of other agro-pastoral societies; peoples who<br />
maintain a strong basic agricultural/animal economic base, but who also pract<br />
!Le hunting-collecting. Furthermore, the Tlokwa are not unique among the<br />
Tswana agro-pastoralists since Scroggie (1946) working among the Tswana<br />
Ngwaketse, also identified a strong theme of hunting and collecting of wild<br />
plants as food.<br />
The present author (Grivetti, 1979, p. 252) reported that dietary diversi<br />
fication is important to maintain nutritional quality of diet. Societies with<br />
diversification will be more successful during periods of climatic-environmental<br />
stress (drought) than societies with limited food procurement strategies. Indeed,<br />
it is this writer's view that the principal factor contributing to Tswana nutri<br />
tional success reported by Burgess (1972) at the peak of drought in the Kalahari,<br />
62.
is a diversified food base, including a strong focus on edible wild bush plants.<br />
If this view is supportable, it logically follows that drought is not the cause<br />
of famine; famine is the result from inability to perceive or utilize potential<br />
wild foods available in surrounding bushlands. Is the Sahel disaster a problem<br />
born of cultural inability to recognize, procure, and utilize available wild<br />
food resources -- resources that irmerly were sustaining and characteristic<br />
of so many sub-Saharan agro-pastoral societies? Perhaps the lessons taught by<br />
Tlokwa nutritional success can be useful in interpreting the origins and develop<br />
ment of fam,ne elsewhere within the tropics.<br />
63.
TABLES 21 - 31 FOLLOW<br />
TEXT RESUMES ON PAGE 82<br />
63a.
TABLE 21. Swazi Edible Wild Plants<br />
Latin Terminology Swazi Terminology<br />
Solanum nigrum Umsobo<br />
Colocasia antiquorum Emadumbe<br />
Portulaca oleracea Silele<br />
Amaranthus paniculetus Imbuya<br />
Amaranthus thunbergii Isheke<br />
Unidentified vegetables (40)<br />
Unidentified fruits (19)<br />
Sclerocarya caffra Marula<br />
SOURCE: Beemer (1939, pp. 204-205, 221)<br />
64.
TABLE 22. Edible Wild Plants of the baSotho<br />
Latin Terminilogy seSotho Terminology<br />
Oxalis convexula Bolila<br />
Oxalis semiloba Bolila<br />
Oxalis smithii Bolila<br />
Plantago major Bolila ba lipoli<br />
Rhynchosia totta Seoeliloetla<br />
Asclepias gibba Mantsokoane<br />
Myrica conifera Monnamotsu<br />
Cyperus usitatus Monakalali<br />
Lepidium capense Sebista<br />
Lepidium schinzii Sebista<br />
Xysmalobium lapathifolium Leshokhoa<br />
Lepidium myriocarpum Lerotho<br />
????? Moetse oa pere<br />
Chenopodium album Serue<br />
Nasturtium fluviatile Papasane<br />
Cynanchum virens Mololo<br />
Thalictrum minus Lefokotsane<br />
Amaranthus paniculatus Thepe<br />
Solanum nigrum Seshoabohloko<br />
Sisymbrium capense Tlhako ea khomo<br />
SOURCE: Ashton (1939, p.-159)<br />
65.
TABLE 23. Edible Wild Plants of Malawi<br />
Latin Terminology Chinyanja Terminology<br />
FRUITS<br />
Adansonia digitata Mlambe<br />
Anisophyllea sp. Macilicti<br />
Annona chrysophylla Mpoza<br />
Antidesma venosum Mpungulira<br />
Bauhinia fassoglensis Mpandwapansi<br />
Borassus aethiopum Mvumo<br />
Bridelia micrantha Mpasa<br />
Canthium crassum Mvilo<br />
Carissa edulis Mpabulu<br />
Cissus buchanuni Namwalicece<br />
Cissus cornifolia Mbulunbunji<br />
Cissus jatrophoides Mwinimunda<br />
Coccinia palmata Fwifwi<br />
Coccinia quinqueloba Cinkaka<br />
Cordia abyssinica Mbwabwa<br />
Cordyla africana Mtondo<br />
Cussonia kirkii Mbwabwa<br />
Cussonia spicata Camdimbo<br />
Diospyros mespiliformis Msumwa<br />
Ekebergia arborea Mabere ya ng'ombe<br />
Fadogia odorata Mkumbakumba<br />
Ficus mallatocarpa Mtundu<br />
Ficus spp. Nkhuyu<br />
Flacourtia indica Mtawa<br />
Garcinia spp. Mpimbi<br />
Gardenia manganjae Mzondo<br />
Grewia woodiana Tensa<br />
Hirtella sp. Mphungumutu<br />
Hyphaene sp. Mgwalangwa<br />
Landolphia kirkii Mpira<br />
Landolphia parvifolia Kapwati<br />
Landolphl.a sp. Makombe<br />
Lannea discolor Sidyatungu<br />
Lannea fulva Kitongomilo<br />
Lannea stuhlmannii Cirusa<br />
Lantana salviifolia Nakasonde<br />
Mimusops sp. Njolokwa<br />
Myrianthus arboreus Ciwele<br />
Olea crysophylla Nakatimba<br />
Pachystela brevipes Mpimbi<br />
Parinari spp. Muula<br />
Parkia filicoidea Mkundi<br />
Popowia obovata Mfulafula<br />
66.
TABLE 23 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Chinyanja Terminology<br />
FRUITS ( CONTINUED )<br />
Pseudolachnostylis sp. Msolo<br />
Pyrenocantha sp. Mcende<br />
Rhoicissus erythrodes Mpeza<br />
Rhus natalensis Mapirankukute<br />
Rubus spp. Mpandankhuku<br />
Sclerocarya caffra Mfula<br />
Solanum spp. (various names)<br />
Sorindeia obtusifolia Sasola<br />
Strychnos sp. Mateme<br />
Syzygium cordatum Nyowe<br />
Syzygium quineense Ntepera<br />
Syzygium owariense Mafuwa<br />
Tamarindus indica Bwemba<br />
Temnocalyx obovatus Maso a ng'ombe<br />
Terminalia catappa Mkungu<br />
Turraea nilotica Msindila<br />
Uapaca spp. Msuku<br />
Uvaria sp. Ukonde<br />
Vangueria spp. Mzilu<br />
Vitex spp. Mpindimbi<br />
Xymalos monospora Nakaswaga<br />
Zanha golungensis Mkwidio<br />
Ziziphus spp. Kankhande<br />
LEVES<br />
Acacia macrothyrsa Mnkhumbu<br />
Adansonia digitata Mlambe<br />
Adenia cisampeloides Mlozi<br />
Aerva lanata Cidyonko<br />
Afzelia quanzensis Msambamfumu<br />
Alternanthera sessilis Kandudwa<br />
Amaranthus spp. Bonongwe<br />
Anthericum sp. Kaluwatete<br />
Argemone mexicana Mkumajalaga<br />
Arthrosolen sp. Kazinda<br />
Astragalus sp. Nacilare<br />
Basella alba Mndele<br />
Bidens pilosa Cinomba<br />
Bidens schimperi Masanjala<br />
Boscia sp. Mpetu<br />
Canthium sp. Cisunkunthu<br />
CardLospermum sp. Msendecere<br />
Cassia singueana Mpatsacokolo<br />
67.
TABLE 23 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Chinyanja Terminology<br />
LEAVES ( CONTINUED )<br />
Celosia argentea Ndangale<br />
Celosia trigyna Kaphika ulesi<br />
Ceropegia papillata Fwafwalingo<br />
Ceropegia sp. Cang'ombe<br />
Cleome monophylla Njerenjedza<br />
Coccina quinqueloba Cinkaka<br />
Commelina sp. Khovani<br />
Corchorus olitorius Cilenzi<br />
Corchorus trilocularis Denje<br />
Crassocephalum rubens Cinusi<br />
Cryptolepis oblongifolia Bwazi<br />
Cucumis hirsutus Mkuwikuwi<br />
Cucuris metuliferous Kangakhwani<br />
Cynanchum schistoglossum Mpuludwa<br />
Dorstenia sp. Mbwangululu<br />
Emilia coccina Cinguwo<br />
Fagara nitens Mlunguculu<br />
Glycine javanica Yembe<br />
Grumilea ungoniensis Cisunkunthu<br />
Gynandropsis gynandra Luni<br />
Indigofera sp. Denje<br />
Lightfootia sp. Cisiso<br />
Melochia corchorifolia Cipondavu<br />
Momordica foetida Tungwi<br />
Moringa oleifera Camwamba<br />
Nesaea sp. Kwete<br />
Nidorella microcephala Sungubuwa<br />
Oxalis sp. Katakula<br />
Oxygonum atriplicifolium Xalaseweni<br />
Pentarrhinum sp. Cindewe; Kafungo<br />
Pentanisia schweinfurthii Mgulungundi<br />
Portulaca oleracea Matakoatsanu<br />
Ranunculus multifidus Khobedi<br />
Rumex nepalensis Qakazea<br />
Secamone sp. Bwazi<br />
Securidaca sp. Bwazi<br />
Sesamum angolense Citowe thengo<br />
Smithia elliottii Kadzulo<br />
Solanum nigrum Mnadzi<br />
Souchus oleraceus Cinguwo<br />
Sphaerosicyos sp. Cipuzi<br />
Sterculia appendiculata Njale<br />
Talinum caffrum Mlelamvula<br />
Thunbergia spp. Mlombwe<br />
68.
TABLE 23 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Chinyanja Terminology<br />
LEAVES ( CONTINUED )<br />
Trichodesma zeylanicum Dungumwamba<br />
Triumfetta annua Khatambuzi<br />
Tulbaghia cameroni Katsopi<br />
Vernonia sp. Dambwe<br />
Viola abyssinica Katongolola<br />
Wormskioldia sp. Katambala<br />
Zornia sp. Kanduwa<br />
LEGUMES, NUTS, SEEDS<br />
Cassia petersiana B wemba nyani<br />
Cassia singuena Mpatsacokolo<br />
Dolichos lablab Nkhusa<br />
Mucuna pruriens Citedze<br />
Parkia filicoidea Mkhundi<br />
Sphenostylis erecta Nkhunga<br />
Vigna phaseoloides Mtambe thengo<br />
Adansonia digitata Baobab<br />
Telfaria pedata Oyster nut<br />
Terminalia catappa Mkungu<br />
Treculia africana African Bread Fruit<br />
Trichelia roka Msikitsi<br />
ROOTS AND TUBERS<br />
Anthericum sp. Shawawa<br />
Coccinia quinqueloba Cinkaka<br />
Disa sp. Cinaka<br />
Euphorbia sp. Cikhawo<br />
Habenaria sp. Cinaka<br />
Lotus sp. Mpeta<br />
Margaretta whytei Ncence<br />
Nymphaea calliantha Cikolwa<br />
Satyrium sp. Cinaka<br />
Sphenostylis stenocarpa Cinkhoma<br />
Tacca involucrata Dinde<br />
Vigna fischeri Mukho<br />
Ranunculus multifidus Khobedi<br />
SOURCE: Williamson (1960, pp. 156-160)<br />
69.
TABLE 24. Gwembe Tonga Edible Wild Plants, Zambia<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used Seasonality<br />
VEGETABLE RELISHES<br />
Adansonia digitata Leaf October - December<br />
Aerva lanata Leaf December<br />
Albizzia anthelmintica Young leaves September - October<br />
Aloe zebrina Bud ???<br />
Alternanthera nodiflora Leaf November; June - Jul,<br />
Amaranthus angustifolius Leaf December - January;<br />
March<br />
Amaranthus spinosus Leaf August - September<br />
Amaranthus thunbergii Leaf December - May<br />
Amaranthus dubius Flower December - March<br />
Amaranthus hybridus Flower December - March<br />
Ammocharis tinneana Flower; leaf December<br />
Argemone mexicana Leaf ???<br />
Bauhinia tomentosa Young leaves November - December<br />
Cassia obtusifolia Leaf ???<br />
Celosia trigyna Leaf January - March<br />
Ceratotheca sesamoides Leaf All Year<br />
Chlorophytum kymatodes Leaf; flower November - December<br />
Chrozophora plicata ??? ???<br />
Cissampelos mucronata ??? ???<br />
Cissus integrifolia Leaf November - December<br />
Cleome gynandra Leaf; stem December - April<br />
Cleome monophylla Shoot; flower; leaf January<br />
Cocculus hirsutus Leaf June - July<br />
Commelina diffusa Leaf November - December;<br />
May .!ptember<br />
Corchorus olitorius Leaf November - July<br />
Corchorus tridens Leaf ???<br />
Corchorus trilocularis Leaf December<br />
Corchorus sp. Leaf December - April<br />
Corrigiola litoralis Leaf June - August<br />
Cucumis anguria Leaf ???<br />
Cucumis metuliferus Leaf ???<br />
Cucumis ficifolius Leaf ???<br />
Dicliptera verticillata ??? ???<br />
Dip'cadi magnum Leaf ???<br />
Erythrococca menyharthii Leaf December<br />
Glinus oppositifolius Leaf ???<br />
Haemanthus multiflorus Leaf ???<br />
Heliotrophium ovalifolium Leaf ???<br />
Hibiscus sp. Pods February - March<br />
Hibiscus mechowi Leaf ???<br />
Hibiscus meeusei Leaf ???<br />
Hyphaene ventricosa Heart/pith January<br />
70.
TABLE 24 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used Seasonality<br />
VEGETABLE RELISHES ( CONTINUED )<br />
Loranthus menyhartii Leaf ???<br />
Luffa cylindrica Young fruit ???<br />
Moringa oleifera Leaf; flower ???<br />
Momordica foetida Young leaves ???<br />
Pollichia campestris All portions except root ???<br />
Polygonum plebeium Leaf ???<br />
Polygonum senagalense Leaf May - August<br />
Portulaca oleracea Leaf; stem June - September<br />
Pterocarpus antunesi Leaf; buds November - December<br />
Sesbania sesban Leaf; flower: August - November<br />
Sida alba Leaf June - August<br />
Solanum nigrum Leaf ???<br />
Sonchus oleraceus Leaf ???<br />
Sphaeranthus humilis Leaf ???<br />
Sphaeranthus incisus Leaf ???<br />
Talinum crispatulum Leaf ???<br />
Talinum portulacifolium Leaf ???<br />
Tetratelia tenuifolis Leaf; stem; flower December - February<br />
Trichodesma xeylanicum Leaf ???<br />
Triplochiton zambesiacus Leaf May - November<br />
Turbina holubi Leaf ???<br />
Vellozia equisetoides Flower November<br />
Ziziphus abyssinica Leaf ???<br />
FRUITS AND NUTS<br />
Acacia albida Seeds Famine food; August -<br />
October<br />
Adansonia digitata Fruit April - November<br />
Antidesma venosum Fruit April<br />
Artabotrys cf. brachypetalus Fruit March<br />
Azanza garckeana Fruit April - July<br />
Baphia massaiensis Fruit ???<br />
Bauhinia petersiana Seeds July<br />
Berchemia discolor Fruit March<br />
Bridelia cathartica Fruit ???<br />
Capparis rosea Fruit ???<br />
Cleistochlamys kirkii Fruit ???<br />
Coccinia adoensis Fruit March<br />
Combretum mossambicense Fruit ???<br />
Cordia ovalis Fruit; Juice May<br />
Cordyla africana Fruit November - December<br />
Croton gratissimus Fruit ???<br />
71.
TABLE 24 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Portion Used Seasonality<br />
FRUITS AND NUTS ( CONTINUED )<br />
Cucumis anguria Fruit ???<br />
Cucumis metuliferus Fruit ???<br />
Dipspyros kirki Fruit August - September<br />
Diospyros mespiliformis Fruit July - September<br />
Feretia aeruginescens Fruit ???<br />
Ficus capensis Fruit September - October<br />
Ficus sycomorus Fruit September - October<br />
Flacourtia indica Fruit ???<br />
Garcinia livingstonei Fruit ???<br />
Grewia bicolor Fruit April<br />
Grewia flave-cens Fruit; juice ???<br />
Grewia herbacea Fruit; juice ???<br />
Grewia pachycalyx Fruit ???<br />
Hyphaene ventricosa Fruit June<br />
Lannea discolor Nut ???<br />
Lannea stuhlmannii Fruit; nut November - December<br />
Lecaniodiscus flaxinifolius Fruit ???<br />
Lonchocarpus capassa Seeds Famine food; August<br />
October<br />
rlua glauca Fruit; seed Famine Food; August<br />
October<br />
Manilkara mochisia Fruit ???<br />
Olax dissitiflora Fruit November<br />
Parinari cf. curatellifolia Fruit August - September<br />
Piliostigma thonningii Seed pods ???<br />
Popowia obovata Fruit ???<br />
Pseudocadia zambesiaca Fruit June<br />
Rhus sp. Fruit ???<br />
Sclerocarya caffra Fruit; kernels October - November<br />
Strychnos innocua Fruit November - December<br />
Tamarindus indica Fruit; seeds August - January;<br />
also a famine food<br />
Trichilia emetica Fruit December - January<br />
Vangueria infausta Fruit March - April<br />
Vangueriopsis lanciflora Fruit ???<br />
Xeroderris stuhlmannii Seeds Famine food; August<br />
October<br />
Ximenia americana Fruit; kernels October - March<br />
Ximenia spp. Fruit; seeds December<br />
Ziziphus abyssinica Fruit May - June<br />
Ziziphus mauritiana Fruit ???<br />
72.
TABLE 24 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology Portioi Used Seasonality<br />
EDIBLE GRASSES<br />
Brachiaria deflexa Grain February<br />
Craspedorhachis uniflora Grain February<br />
Dactyloctenium giganteum Grain February<br />
Echinochloa colonum Grain February<br />
Panicum maximum Grain February<br />
Panicum novemnerve Grain February<br />
Rottboellia exaltata Grain February<br />
Sorghum halepense Grain February<br />
Urochloa mossambicensis Grain February<br />
TUBERS AND ROOTS<br />
Amorphophallus abyssinicus Tuber; leaf; stalk Famine food<br />
Boscia albitrunca Root Famine food<br />
Ceropegia tentaculata Tuber All year<br />
Coccinia adoensis Tuber Famine food<br />
Commiphora cf. africana Tuber All year<br />
Commiphora pyracanthoides Tuber All year<br />
Crinum harmsi Tuber Famine food<br />
Crinum pedicellatum Tuber Famine food<br />
Cyperus fulgens Bulb October - December<br />
Ipomoea shirambensis Tuber Famine food; November<br />
- December<br />
Neorautanenia cf. mitis Root Famine food<br />
Nymphaea caerulea Root; buds; seeds March<br />
Plectranthus esculentus Tuber All year<br />
Pteleopsis myrtifolia Juice ???<br />
Scilla sp. Bulb November<br />
bonga Bulb ???<br />
bumpububu Root Famine food<br />
kabombwe Root Famine food<br />
kanagwelebe Root January<br />
bowa (mushrooms) Cap; stalk November - January<br />
SOURCE: Scudder (1971, pp. 39-45).<br />
73.
TABLE 25. Xhosa Edible Wild Plants, Transkei, Republic of South Africa<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
Solanum nigrum<br />
Amaranthus sp.<br />
Sonchus spp.<br />
Urtica urens<br />
Fleurya mitis<br />
Urtica dioica<br />
Urtica burchelli<br />
Taraxacum spp.<br />
Bidens pilosa<br />
Chenopodium alba<br />
Galinosoga parviflora<br />
Erigeron canadense<br />
Raphanus raphinastrum<br />
Susymbrium spp.<br />
Physalis peruviana<br />
Pachycarpus concolor<br />
Leonotis leonurus<br />
Leucas martinicensis<br />
SOURCE: Rose (1972, p. 1358)<br />
74.
TABLE 26. Pedi Edible Wild Plants, Republic of South Africa<br />
Latin Terminology Pedi Terminology<br />
Amaranthus thunbergii Theepe<br />
Amaranthus spinosus Serepelele<br />
Pentarrhinum insipidum Lefotosane<br />
Pergularia extensa Mothuhu<br />
Gynandropsis pentaphylla Lerotho<br />
Cleome monophylla Sekalerothane<br />
Chenopodium murale Serua<br />
Bidens bipinnata Monyane<br />
Sonchus oleraceus Lesheshe<br />
Vernonia fastigiata Lehianye<br />
Ipomoea lugardi Maswi a pudi<br />
Cucumis africanus Monyaku<br />
Cucumis melo Thagaraga<br />
Citrullus vulgaris var. lanatus Mokiti<br />
Coccinia rehmannii Kaukau<br />
Momordica balsamina Masegasegane<br />
Solanum nigrum Moshwe<br />
Tribulus terrestris Tshehlo<br />
Ximenia caffra Ditshidi<br />
Chrysophyllum magaliesmontanum Mohlatswa<br />
Strychnos pungens Morotlue<br />
Strychnos innocua Morotlue<br />
Vitex pooara Mburo<br />
Vangueria infausta Mmilo<br />
Dovyalis caffra Mohlono<br />
Sclerocarya caffra Morula<br />
Opuntia megacantha Torofeie<br />
SOURCE: Quin (1959, pp. 60-92)<br />
75.
TABLE 27. Nutritional Value of Selected Edible Wild Plants, Natal, Republic<br />
of South Africa<br />
Latin Terminology Protein Cystine Methionine Lysine Tryptophan<br />
Content Content Content Content Content<br />
N x 6.25 mg/g N mg/g N mg/g N mg/g N<br />
Asystasia schimperi 4.9 87 104 415 130<br />
Amaranthus hybridus 4.7 94 118 371 103<br />
Amaranthus spinosus 5.9 132 120 422 74<br />
Amaranthus viridis/<br />
tricolor 4.8 86 125 408 89<br />
Chenopodium albuw 3.0 133 ill 376 92<br />
Colocasia antiquorum 3.6 88 134 371 92<br />
Cucurbita pepo 4.6 67 107 455 83<br />
Ophioglossum<br />
engelmannii 3.6 114 127 355 78<br />
Bidens pilosa 2.3 70 115 401 81<br />
Ipomoea batatas 5.6 74 135 356 54<br />
Sonchus oleraceus 2.0 83 127 472 57<br />
SOURCE: Shanley and Lewis (1969, p. 257)<br />
76.
TABLE 28. Anti-Pellagragenic Properties of Selected Edible Wild Plants,<br />
Natal, Republic of South Africa<br />
Latin Terminology Zulu Terminology Nicotinic Acid Content<br />
Fresh Dry<br />
mg/1Og mg/1Og<br />
Asystasia schimperi (leaf) Imbobela 1.87 10.7<br />
Amaranthus viridis/tricolor Imbuya ugobolo 1.67 10.3<br />
Ophioglossum engelmannii Isinkuntshane 1.30 8.5<br />
Amaranthus hybridus var.<br />
hybridus Imbuya 1.26 8.4<br />
Cucurbita pepo Usolozi 1.13 8.3<br />
Amaranthus spinosus Imbuyabathwa 1.72 6.9<br />
Ipomoea batatas Amakhasi ubatata 1.28 6.6<br />
Colocasia antiquorum Umthebe idumbe 0.88 6.1<br />
Chenopodium album Imbilikicane 1.17 6.0<br />
Bidens pilosa Ucucuza 0.80 5.0<br />
Sonchus oleraceus Iklabeklabe 0.46 4.6<br />
Vigna vexillata (tuber) Umcwasibe 1.17 3.6<br />
SOURCE: Hennessy and Lewis (1971, p. 76)<br />
77.
TABLE 29. Edible Wild Cucumbers (Cucurbitaceae) of Botswana and Selected<br />
Kalahari Edible Species<br />
Latin Terminology<br />
Citrullus lanatus<br />
Citrullus naudianus<br />
Coccina sessilifolia<br />
Coccina rehmannii var. rehemannii<br />
Cucumis hirsutus<br />
Cucumis metuliferus<br />
Cucumis kalahariensis<br />
Cucumis africanus<br />
Corallocarpus welwitshii<br />
Corallocarpus bainesii<br />
Momordica clematidea<br />
Momordica balsamina<br />
Caralluma knobelii<br />
Stapelia marientalensis<br />
Acanthosicyos naudiniana<br />
Tylosema esculentum<br />
SOURCE: Renew (1968, pp. 5-14) and Keith and Renew (1975, pp. 9-11)<br />
78.
TABLE 30: Edible Wild Plants Used by the Moshaweng Tlokwa, Botswana<br />
Latin Terminology seTswana Terminology Portion Used<br />
Acacia erubescens Moloto Resin<br />
Acacia fleckii Mofafu Resin<br />
Acacia grandicornuta Moshaoka Bark<br />
Acacia karroo<br />
Mooka<br />
Bark; resin<br />
Acacia mellifera<br />
Mongana<br />
Ash; leaf; resin<br />
Acacia robusta Moga Resin<br />
Acacia tortilis<br />
Mosu<br />
Bark; leaf; resin<br />
Acacia uncinata<br />
Mookwane<br />
Seeds<br />
Acacia sp. Mokwekwele Seeds<br />
Acacia sp. More we lentswe Leaf<br />
Aloe zebrina Kgophane Flower; leaf<br />
Amanita edulis<br />
Mabowa tlou<br />
Cap<br />
Amanita spp.<br />
Mabowa mogana<br />
Cap; stem<br />
Amaranthus thunbergii<br />
Thepe<br />
Leaf<br />
Amaranthus spp. Thepe kgaitsadi Leaf<br />
Amaranthus spp. Thepe leshweshwane Leaf<br />
Amaranthus spp. Thepe malome Leaf<br />
Azanza garckeana Morojwa Fruit<br />
Babiana hypogenea Tshuge Root<br />
Boscia albitrunca<br />
Motlopi<br />
Fruit; root<br />
Boscia foetida rehmanniana Mopipi<br />
Fruit<br />
Bulbine tortilifolia Kgomo ya buru Root<br />
Burkea africana Monato Resin<br />
Coccina rehmannii<br />
Magapa<br />
Fruit<br />
Combretum apiculatum<br />
Mohudiri<br />
Resin<br />
Combretum erythrophyllum Moduba Resin<br />
Combretum imberbe Motswere Leaf; resin<br />
Combretum transvaalense Mokabi Leaf<br />
Commiphora spp. Moroka Resin<br />
Croton gratissimus Moologa Leaf<br />
Cucumis metuliferous Magabala Fruit<br />
Cucumis myriocarp, Mokapana Fruit<br />
Cucumis spp. Monyaku Leaf<br />
Cucumis spp. Monyaku njwa Leaf<br />
Cucumis spp. Phare Fruit; leaf<br />
Dichrostachys cinera Moselesele Resin<br />
Diospyros lycioides Letlhajwa Fruit<br />
Ehretia regida Morobe Fruit<br />
Euclea schimperi Motlhakolane Fruit<br />
Ficus soldanela Mfawa Fruit<br />
Grewia bicolor Mogwana Fruit<br />
Grewia flava<br />
Moretlwa<br />
Fruit; leaf; resin<br />
Grewia flavescens<br />
Mokgomphatha<br />
Fruit<br />
Grewia occidentalis Motsotsojane Fruit<br />
79.
TABLE 30 (CONTINUED)<br />
Latin Terminology seTswana Terminology<br />
Gyandropsis gynandra Rothwe<br />
Hibiscus cannabinus Maku<br />
Iatropha zeyheri Seswagadi<br />
Ipomoea spp. Kgane<br />
Lantana viburnoides Selaole<br />
Lippia scaberima Mosukudu<br />
Maeura schinzii Moomane<br />
Mentha spp. Kgomodimetsing<br />
Mimusops zeyheri Mmopudu<br />
Opuntia spp. Toroko<br />
Pappea capensis Mopennengwe; Mothatha<br />
Peltophorum africanum Mosetlha<br />
Pergularia extensa Leshwe<br />
Pergularia spp. Leshweshwane<br />
Portulaca oleracea Serepe<br />
Portulaca spp. Segwete sa khadi<br />
Psalliota (?) spp. Ramolangwana<br />
Rhus gueinzii Motshotlho<br />
Rhus iancea Mosilabele<br />
Rhus pyroides Mogodiri<br />
Sansevieria aethiooica Mosokelatsebeng<br />
Sclerocarya caffra Morula<br />
Solanum incanum Morolwana<br />
Solanum spp. Thola e tona<br />
Spirostachys africana Morekhuri<br />
Strychnos coculeoides Mogwaragwarane<br />
Tylosema esculenta Morama<br />
Uriginea sanguinea Rabasa; Sekaname<br />
Vangueria infausta Mmilo<br />
Vangueria spp. Mmilorotsane<br />
Vangueria spp. Mokhu<br />
Ximenia caffra Moretologa kgomo<br />
Ximenia spp. Moretologa nku<br />
Ximenia spp. Moretologa podi<br />
Ziziphus mucronata Mokgalo<br />
Ziziphus spp. Mokgalo fatshe<br />
PLUS: 41 vernacular names for<br />
other edible wild plants<br />
SOURCE: Grivetti (1979, pp. 248-250)<br />
Portion Used<br />
80.<br />
Leaf<br />
Sap<br />
Leaf<br />
Root<br />
Fruit<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit; leaf<br />
Ash; leaf; resin<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Root<br />
Cap; stem<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit<br />
Root<br />
Fruit; nut; resin<br />
Leaf<br />
Leaf<br />
Resin<br />
Fruit<br />
Seed<br />
Leaf<br />
Fruit; leaf<br />
Fruit<br />
Sap<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit<br />
Fruit; resin<br />
Fruit
TABLE 31. Comparative Utilization of Edible Wild Plants: Agro-Pastoral<br />
Moshaweng Tlokwa and !Kung, /Gwi, =/Kade San, and !Xo Bushman<br />
Societies<br />
FOOD CATEGORY Tlokwa !Kung /Gwi =/Kade San !Xo<br />
Leaves and Stalks 22 4 6 14 3<br />
Bulbs, Roots, Tubers 31 31 8 34 8<br />
Berries, Fruits, Nuts, Seeds 47 34 20 20 5<br />
Barks, Flowers, Resins 23 16 ? 9 ?<br />
Mushrooms 3 ? ? 1 1<br />
TOTALS 126 85 34 78 17<br />
SOURCE: GRIVETTI (1979, p. 251)<br />
81.
DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS<br />
Returning to questions posed at the outset of this report, should agri<br />
cultural development within the tropical zone of sub-Saharan Africa consider<br />
edible wild plants as a viable research and development focus? Four types<br />
of data presented in this report document an unqualified support for such<br />
research.<br />
1. While there is abundant information already available identify<br />
ing important dietary uses of wild plants by agro-pastoral peoples<br />
within the study region, these data have not been systematicany col<br />
lected. No region within sub-Saharan Africa has been examined<br />
thoroughly for the potential presence of highly nutritious wild<br />
plants. Data presented in this report reveal a high number of wild<br />
species utilized by agro-pastoral societies within the study area;<br />
the reports presented represent an eclectic, unsystematic attempt<br />
to identify potentially useful edible wild plants.<br />
2. It is clear that many agro-pastoral societies focus on domesti<br />
cated field crops to the near exclusion of wild species. It is<br />
also clear that other societies rely heavily on wild plants to pro<br />
vide important energy and nutrients under three types of conditions:<br />
A) Minimal but important use throughout the year, P) Major important<br />
use at specific periods of the year, especially in the months pre<br />
ceding harvest of domesticated field crops, and C) Major importance<br />
during periods of drought. Wild plants in each region of sub-Saharan<br />
Africa are climatically adapted to variable conditions, whereas most<br />
domesticated field crops are not. Thus, during drought wild plants<br />
may become the most important determinant whether individuals, families,<br />
even villages maintain their nutritional quality.<br />
82.
3. The nutritional role played by wild plants includes basic<br />
components of energy (calories) from protein, carbohydrates, and<br />
fats, as well as vitamins and minerals. Despite the publication<br />
on nutritional composition by Leung (1968), few data are avail<br />
able on the nutritional composition of most edible wild plants.<br />
With such data important decisions could be made for agricultural<br />
development of outstanding wild plants with high potential for<br />
nutritional return.<br />
4. The nutritional aspect of wild plant research is but one of<br />
several potential agricultural and economic focal areas. In<br />
addition to wild plants serving as food resources, wild species<br />
offer high potential for economic fiber, oil, dye, drugs/medicine,<br />
and a host of other economic possibilities.<br />
Thus, considering agricultural development in its broadest sense, one may<br />
make a sound claim that an exciting research area with direct application for<br />
agricultural development and economic improvement exists within the theme of<br />
wild plant use. A number of recent reports build upon this theme of economic<br />
development of wild plants, especially those by Goodspeed (1953), Jackson (1954),<br />
Hodge (1958), Terra (1966), Mondonedo (1969), Bates and Hentges (1976), Wilkes<br />
(1977), and Vietmeyer (1978; 1979) who suggest that tropical plants have not<br />
been investigated adequately.<br />
Approaching the question of further research from a complementary per<br />
spective is the view of the present author (Grivetti, 1976; 1978; 1979) that<br />
holds agricultural development should not be at the expense of nutritional<br />
83.
quality of human diet and that nutritional quality is built on the association<br />
common to many agricultural societies of food hhbits'using both domesticated<br />
and wild species. Parallel views have been stated by Korte (1969; 1973): Dema<br />
(1971), Dewey (1979; 1980), and Doughty (1979a; 1979b) who suggest that agri<br />
cultural development may not lead to nutritional improvement unless ecological<br />
and public health data are used by planners; indeed, nutritional quality of<br />
diet may decline with agricultural development (see also Vahlquist, 1972).<br />
Still another parallel view is that of Calloway et al. (1974) who have<br />
documented clearly that wild plants not only augment human diet in a positive<br />
manner, but that the nutritional content of some wild species may be superior<br />
in vitamin and mineral content to widely raised domesticated field crops. Such<br />
views support the work of Clarke (1976) and others that agricultural develop<br />
ment is important, but should also consider relationships between agriculture,<br />
human ecology, and forest-bushland-field crops.<br />
A different argument for suggesting research on edible wild plants shouhi<br />
be within the realm of agricultural development is presented by Leroy (1967),<br />
Gade (1972), Prance and Elias (1976), Thomas (1976), and Schultes (1979), that<br />
"extinction is forever". These writers suggest that indiscriminate attempts<br />
to push back forest margins to bring vast regions under cultivation may result<br />
in the extinction of hundreds of plants, not heretofore examined for their<br />
potential as economic products of high value. Most ecologists are realists;<br />
willing to sacrifice certain species if provided only with the choice of feed<br />
ing human infants or preserving a plant. But most ecologists -- and most<br />
human nutritionists -- would not be willing to expand crop acreage at the ex<br />
pense of "useless jungle/bushlands" -- without first examining the lands for<br />
underexploited wild plants with potential for dietary development or other<br />
84.
economic uses. Such an approach is short sighted; with perhaps initial food<br />
gains but at an unacceptable price. Without the knowledge on which to base<br />
decisions such agricultvzal planning would exist only in a vacuum.<br />
Within the tropical regions of sub-iriharan Africa the theme of "hungry<br />
months", or period of food insufficiency that occurs when dietary resources<br />
from stored field crops are exhausted and the anticipated harvest from growing<br />
crops has not been achieved, is another compelling argument for developmental<br />
research on edible wild plants. This dietary problem has been documented by<br />
Dubourg (1957) for the Mossi of Upper Volta, by Hunter (1967) for several<br />
societies in Ghana, by Brooke (1967) for Tanzania. In West Africa Annegers<br />
(1973) and Ogubu (1973) clearly show the important role played by indigenous<br />
wild food resources in the months just before harvest of domesticated field<br />
crops. Their work reveals the need for careful planning when considering<br />
expanding agricultural farm size at the expense of vital, nutritionally im<br />
portant wild plants that supplement human diet at critical periods of the<br />
agricultural cycle (see also Miracle, 1961; Seasonal Hunger, 1968).<br />
85.
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
Accordingly, the following four recommendations are made and follow from<br />
data developed in this report:<br />
1. Underutilized/exploited wild plants should be considered a research<br />
priority within agricultural development programs sponsored by the<br />
Agency for International Development.<br />
2. Local USAID officials should be provided with limited discretionary<br />
funding in the range of U.S. $20-30,000 to sponsor systematic economic<br />
surveys in target regions whereby wild plants with potential dietary<br />
and non-dietary uses could be identified and evaluated for further<br />
study.<br />
3. Teams of qualified Anthropologists/Geographers, Botanists, and Nutri<br />
tionists should be encouraged to apply for such funding to systemati<br />
cally examine and review the potential for further development of wild<br />
plants within sub-Saharan Africa.<br />
4. A systematic effort should be launched to develop a nutritional data<br />
base on the energy, vitamin, and mineral composition of important<br />
edible wild plants. Field collections could be returned to Federal<br />
or American university laboratories for analysis at relatively little<br />
cost -- but with enormous nutritional and economic potential.<br />
86.
APPENDICES<br />
87.
APPENDIX 1.<br />
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA SEARCH REQUEST<br />
Data Set Country Crossed by<br />
1 Africa A. Indigenous Plants<br />
2 Angola B. Wild Plants<br />
3 Benin C. Gathering<br />
4 Botswana D. Medicinal<br />
5 Burundi<br />
6 Bechuana Land<br />
7 Cameroons<br />
8 Cameroun<br />
9 Cape Verde<br />
10 Congo<br />
11 Dahomey<br />
12 Gabon<br />
13 Gambia<br />
14 Ghana<br />
15 Ivory Coast<br />
16 Kenya<br />
17 Liberia<br />
18 Malawi<br />
19 Madagascar<br />
20 Malagasy Republic<br />
21 Mocambique<br />
22 Mozambique<br />
23 Namibia<br />
24 Nyasaland<br />
25 Rhodesia<br />
26 Rwanda<br />
27 Sahel<br />
28 Senegal<br />
29 Sierra Leone<br />
30 Swaziland<br />
31 Tanganyika<br />
32 Tanzania<br />
33 Togo<br />
34 Upper Volta<br />
35 Zaire<br />
36 Zambia<br />
88.
APPENDIX 2. The Useful Plants of r,,at Tropical Africa. Being an Appendix<br />
to the Flora of West .ropical Africa by J. Hutchinson and J.<br />
M. Dalziel: Sample Page and Sample Index<br />
THE USEFUL PLANTS<br />
OF<br />
WEST TROPICAL AFRICA<br />
BY<br />
J. M. DALZIEL, M.D., B.Sc., F.L.S.,<br />
LATZ OF TUN WST AFRICAN MEDICALBZLVICS,<br />
BEING<br />
An APPENDIX to the FLORA OF WEST<br />
TROPICAL AFRICA<br />
BY<br />
J. HUTCHINSON and J. M. DALZIEL.<br />
Published t behalf of the FederMl Goverti .e .r Nigeri. ,.nd<br />
thr GCOaerilaflll of(the Gold . Sirm Loasvir tmil 1hr Ga.mbia.<br />
by the<br />
Crown Agents for Oversea Governments<br />
and Administration.s<br />
4. Millbnk. ilh.do. S.W.i<br />
Price 25s.<br />
89.
PIPERACEAE 17<br />
wild plant. The dried black berries and even the fresh red fruita are sold in all<br />
markets as a spice--" Bush Pepper "-much used in flavouring soup, rice, etc.,<br />
and medicinally as a stomachic and carminative, especially for griping conditions<br />
and as an adjuvant to many other medicines, for syphilis, rheumatio joints, etc.<br />
It is used also externally as a counter-irritant or stimulating ointment, sometimes<br />
in mixture with the seeds of UvariaChamae and other aromat cs.<br />
The leaves taken with food are supposed to improve the chances of conception.<br />
The grains may be useful as an insecticide whm pulverised and placed amongst<br />
clothing.<br />
Although one of the early spice grains brought from the Grain Coast (Liberia)<br />
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, it does not appear to have at any time<br />
been accepted in Europe as a substitute for ordiary pepper (P. nigrum)which is<br />
more aromatic. In common with other peppers itcontains an essential oil which<br />
contributes to the flavour, chiefly depending on the principles chavici-e and<br />
piverins. The distilled oil, which is yellowish or nearly oolourless, may be<br />
suitable for perfumery, soap-making, etc. Amongst the Ekoi in S. Nigeria the<br />
plant is symbolic, and sacred to ghosts (Talbot).<br />
P. umbellatum Linn.-Holl. 4 : 558.<br />
FT. Gain. : FuL gouloafa (Jacquea.F61ix In R.B.A. 1935 :198, but see also under Ampelo.<br />
eiu#u. Grantii); Su,'i labasab. S. Leone: Me. poponda ; TL kofusam ; Sueu labalaba. Gold<br />
Coast: Twi amma/a, mumuaha. B. Nlgeria: Benin lbe.axhi ; Ibo, Ow. njam nja (Car.<br />
penter).<br />
The leaves in some parts of West Africa are eaten as a vegetable. The basal<br />
part of the stem with rather thick and sometimes corky bark is slightly aromatic,<br />
and is sometimes used by the Timnes as a condiment with rice, or as an ingredient<br />
in the common sauce made of dried fish and palm oil. In French Guinea the<br />
plant is regarded as a remedy lor tapeworm. Jacques-F6lix (l.c.) gives reasons<br />
to doubt this, but it may perhaps act as a simple vermifuge. In other countries<br />
the reputation of the plant has been as an antiscorbutic and diuretic. The leaves,<br />
boiled with the ingredients of a palm oil stew, act as a laxative used in pregnancy<br />
(Gold Coast). Irvine mentions also (I.c. below) that the leaves on the inflorescence<br />
are prepared with peppel in an enema used in the treatment of a women's<br />
complaint.<br />
The roots alone, or mixed with other herbs, are also used medicinally, an<br />
infus'on of the root macerated in palm wine, etc., being drunk for rheumatism.<br />
Locally a poultice of the leaves potuded with palm kernels is applied to a whitlow<br />
to bring it to a head.<br />
In Gold Coast the plant is said to attract fish, and the leaves along with<br />
plantain or other food form a bait used in traps and nets.<br />
Rtef.-Afzelius, Rermed. Guin. 39-41 (under Piper grandifolium). Irvine, PI.O.C. 342.<br />
A. Chevalier, R.B.A. 1931 : 646.<br />
PAPAVERACEAE<br />
ARGEMONE Linn. (1 : 80)<br />
A. mexicana Linn.-Holl. 1 : 53. Mexican or Prickly Poppy.<br />
Senegal and Fr. Gain. : Wol. Aomhom bu djiguen or hAompay bu djiquen (Sdbire); Falor<br />
bidjor (S6bire): Mal. ba (A. Chev.), guame.rnon (Brosaart).<br />
Gold Coast<br />
Gambia<br />
(Irvine)<br />
:<br />
: Twi<br />
Mand.<br />
aune<br />
lombong<br />
mmenyan<br />
aa.<br />
; Ash. akuairibie,<br />
duru<br />
also kokosekyietu.duru(Nkoranza,<br />
- " medicine "). N. Nigeria : Hausea kwarko (Kano), kwarkoro (Kano<br />
(Kate.,<br />
villages),<br />
but see<br />
kwarakko<br />
also Datura Meld), karanko or kwmranko (Kats), and ? va7iri (Kano); 1a.k'i.ruwa,.Allah (i.c., " refusing<br />
also<br />
the water of Gud," because it throws off the raindrops<br />
from the glaucous and spiny leaves and tends to droop in rain and to dower in the dry w.ather),<br />
hakorin kada (equivalent to the F-l. name) other<br />
k'ank'ora<br />
epithets are<br />
(Kate.),<br />
(fide Bargery)<br />
kank'a aarka<br />
: kamuk'amu.<br />
la bi ka ('may your evil wish recoil on yourself "-see<br />
Bargery under k'ask'ama, c.f. also Barteri'a nigrilana and Indigofera airagulina), k'urer<br />
fak FuL vt'egilanqeru ( " crocodile's teeth "), also boginahi<br />
A'hinoj<br />
(Sok.,<br />
).<br />
but<br />
S. Nigeria<br />
sea also<br />
: Yar. lkdn-lkiln leopard's paw," a loose term), also 19in-arigbo<br />
(J. D. Clarke).<br />
Of tropical American origin the plant is now widespread<br />
subtopics.<br />
in the tropics<br />
In Gold<br />
and<br />
Coast it is said to occur wherever cattle have been pastured.<br />
The use of the oil from the seeds, and perhaps also of the yellow juice of the<br />
is<br />
plant,<br />
fairly widespread amongst pagan tribes in Nigeria as a preventive of white<br />
ants.<br />
90.
APPENDIX 3. Woody Plants of Ghana. With Special Reference to Their Use,<br />
by r. R. Irvine: Sample Pages<br />
WOODY PLANTS<br />
OF GHANA<br />
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO<br />
THEIR USES<br />
BY<br />
F. R. IRVINE<br />
LONDON<br />
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
1961<br />
91.
KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS<br />
I. FOOD PLA.rS<br />
1. Roots and Underground Stems<br />
2. Stems<br />
xvii-xxii<br />
xvii<br />
xvii<br />
(a) Bark<br />
(b) Sap<br />
(c)Stems<br />
(d) Pith<br />
(e) Gum<br />
(f) Young shoots<br />
3. Leaves<br />
4. Flowers<br />
5. Fruits<br />
-ii<br />
xvii<br />
xvii<br />
xvii<br />
Xvii<br />
xviu<br />
xvii-xviii<br />
xviii-xix<br />
xix-Msi<br />
6. Seeds<br />
IT. CoNDM. ENTS, SPICEs, o FrLAVOURING AGENTS<br />
xxi-xxii<br />
xxii-xxiii<br />
III. BEVERAGES<br />
1. Non-alcoholic<br />
xxiii<br />
(a) Water substitutes<br />
(b) Water purifier<br />
(c)Sweet beverages<br />
(d) Milk substitutes<br />
(e) Tea substitutes<br />
(f)Coffee (Coffea spp.) and coffee substitutes<br />
(y) Cocoa<br />
2. Alcoholic Beverages, with 'bitters', stimulants, &e.<br />
xiii<br />
xxiii<br />
xxjii<br />
xxiii<br />
xxiii<br />
xxiv<br />
xxiv<br />
xxiv<br />
IV. FODDER PLANTS<br />
V. BEE PLANTS<br />
VI. SILKWOR-", PLANTS (including host plants of edible<br />
xxiv-=vi<br />
xxVi<br />
caterpillars)<br />
VII. FATS, OILS, AND WAXES<br />
VIII. PLANTS WITH MEDICINAL AND VETERINARY USES<br />
xxvi<br />
xxvii<br />
xxvii-xxxiv<br />
IX. PoIsoNs AND ANTIDOTES Xxxiv-xxvxvWi<br />
I. Human xxxiv-xxxvi<br />
2. Plants poisonous to domestic animals, game<br />
animals, crocodiles, rodents, and snails xxxvi<br />
3. Fish Poisons xxxvi-xxxvii<br />
4.Insecticides and Insectifuges xxxvii<br />
5. Vermifuges and Antholmintics xxxvii-xxxviii<br />
X. SA-PONIN-PRODUCING PLANTS MXxix<br />
XI. TANNIN-PRODUCING PLANTS xxxix-xl<br />
XII. LATEX-PRODUCING PLANTS (including rubber plants,<br />
rubber adulterants and coagulnts, and bird-lime) xl-xli<br />
XIII. GCuMS, REsINS, AND WAXS xili-xii<br />
XIV. DyEs, STANS AND INKs-for Mordants, see XVIII,<br />
'Vegetable Salts' xlii-xliv<br />
92.
xvi<br />
KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS<br />
XV. COSM1ETICS AND POMADES xliv-xlv<br />
XVI. PERFUMERY<br />
XVII. 31tCaLAGE PLANTS<br />
XVII. VEGITA3LE SALTS<br />
XIX. FIBRES<br />
1. Basketry<br />
2. Bark-cloth<br />
3. Br-,.;hes, brooms, &c.<br />
4. Mats, hammocks and fish-nets<br />
5. Chewsticks, teeth-cleaners, chewing and cleaning<br />
sponges<br />
6. Bast fibres, binding material, ropes and cordage, &c.<br />
xlv<br />
xlv<br />
xlv-xlvi<br />
xlviixlvii<br />
xlvii<br />
xlvii<br />
xlvii<br />
xlviii<br />
xlix-I<br />
7. Stuffing materials<br />
8. Paper pulp, packing paper and wrappings<br />
9. Flos fcr pillows, etc.<br />
I<br />
1<br />
XX. DECORATIVE PLANrS (including trees, shrubs, and<br />
climbers, shade and avenue trees, and hedge plants)<br />
2MI. FENCING AND BOUNDsRIES<br />
(a) Living poles and fences<br />
(b) Fence-poles (palings)<br />
(c) Boundary trees<br />
li-liii<br />
liii-liv<br />
liii-liv<br />
liv<br />
liv<br />
XXII. HUT POLES, RAFTERS, WALLS, AND YA.M POLES liv-lv<br />
XIII. TIMBER (including heavy construction, carpentry, joinery,<br />
windows and doors, plywood and vcneers)-key given<br />
XXIV. FUMITITUj, CABINET-WORK, AND TuRNERy<br />
Iv-lx<br />
lx-lxi<br />
XXV. DOESTIC USES<br />
1. Field implements (e.g. in farming and forestry)<br />
2. Hunting implements (bows and arrows, traps,<br />
lxi-lxx<br />
lxi-lxii<br />
spear-shafts, and gun-stocks)<br />
3. Household implements (bowls, spoons, plates,<br />
weaving looms and shuttles, and carpenters'<br />
lxiii<br />
tools)<br />
4. Mortars, pestles, mallets, barrels, and water-pipes<br />
5. Personal (walking-sticks, combs, snuff and snuffboxes,<br />
sandals, beads, and vegetable ivory<br />
lxiii-lxiv<br />
lxiv-lxv<br />
(buttons))<br />
6. Boats, tackle, and fishing-gear, fishing-lines and<br />
lxv-lxvi<br />
nets<br />
7. Shingles and thatches<br />
8. Leaves used as wrappers for foods, &c.<br />
9. Musical instruments and drums<br />
10. Carved objects, carved stools, images, masks<br />
lxvi-lxvii<br />
lxvii-lxviii<br />
lxviii<br />
lxviii-Xix<br />
and thorns, &c.<br />
11. Plants used in games<br />
lxix<br />
lxix<br />
12. Abrasives<br />
13. Pipe-stems<br />
14. Plants used in trapping and as fish-bait<br />
lxix<br />
lxix<br />
lxix-lxx<br />
15. Beehives, &c. lxx<br />
16. Pottery<br />
lxx<br />
17. Lightning conductors hxX<br />
XXVI. CHARCOAL lxX-lxxi<br />
93.
KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS xvii<br />
X.XVII. FmEVooD lxxi-lxxii<br />
XXVIII. TinDER, TORCHES, AND LIGIITING lxxii<br />
XXIX. LAND RECLAMATION, SANDBINDERS, AND NURSE-PLANTS Ixxii<br />
XXX. M\.A-NnE )lxxiii<br />
XXXI. W TrnS Nxiii<br />
XXXII. WEATHER SIGNS lxxiii<br />
X.XNXIII. PrLANTS USED FOR SMOKING FISH, ETC. lxxiii<br />
XXXIV'. PLA',TS OF BOTANICAL INTEREST (ant-plants, &-c.) lxxiii-lxxiv<br />
XXXV. SACRED PLANTS Lxxiv-lxxv<br />
I. FOOD PLANTS<br />
1. Roots and Underground Stems (d) Pith<br />
Borassus aethiopum (young root-bark) Carica papaya<br />
Boscia salicifolia (e)Gum<br />
Cochlospermum planchonii Acacia campylacantha<br />
Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii Acacia dudgeoni<br />
Ectadiopsis oblongifolia (t:abers) Acacia farnesiana<br />
Ficus capensis (aerial roots) Acacia hockii<br />
Hibiscus tiliaceus (famine food) Acacia macrostachya<br />
Icacina senegalensis (famine food- Acacia scorpioides<br />
considered unwholesome) Acacia sieberiana<br />
Jateorhiza macrantha Balanites aegvptiaca (to suck)<br />
Jatropha multifida Bauhinia purpurea<br />
Manihot esculenta Combretuin dalzielii<br />
.1anihot glaziovii (famine food) Combreturn elliotii<br />
Moringa oleifera Lannea acida<br />
Pachvcarpus lineolatus r.annea microcarpa<br />
Pzidium guajava Mangifera indica<br />
Smilax kraussiana (famine food) Sesbania grandiflora (gum as substitute<br />
? Sphenocentrum jollyanum (chewed) for gum arabic)<br />
Vernonia pumila (bittur, eaten raw or boiled Sterculia rhinopetala<br />
with cereal foods) Sterculia setigera<br />
2. Stems Sterculia tragaoantha<br />
(a) Bark (f)Young shoots<br />
Antrocaryon micraster Adansonia digitata (seedlings)<br />
Boscia angnistifolia Ancistrophyllum -ecundiflorum (bud and<br />
Boscia salicifolia young shoots)<br />
Craterispermum ccrinantlham Bambusa vulgaris<br />
Craterispermum laurinum Calamus deeratus ('palm cabbage' (bud))<br />
Ficus capensis (chewed with cola) Corchorus tridenm<br />
Ficus gnaphalocut-pa (chewed with cola) Dendrocalamus strictus<br />
Ficus ovata Elaeis guineensis ('palm cabbage' (bud))<br />
Grewia mollis Euphorbia halsamifera<br />
Hlexalobus erikpiflorus (chewed with cola) Ficus capeznsis<br />
Ilibiscus tiiaccus (Farnino food) Hymenocardia acida (young shoots)<br />
Maesobotryn edulis Hyphaene thebaica ('palm cabbage'(bud))<br />
(6) Sap Oxytenanthera abyssi ica<br />
Calotropis s-rinea (sucked by childrcn) I 1hytolacca dodecandra<br />
Landolphia comoronsis Quisqualis indica<br />
Telfairea occidentalis<br />
(c) Stemns<br />
Cadaba farinosa 3. Leaves (C = cooked; R - raw)<br />
Carica papaya (young) Acrocephalus lilacinus<br />
Ficus Vabis-choudao, Adansonia digitata (C)<br />
B 667 b<br />
94.
xviii<br />
KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS<br />
Afzelia africana Lannea acida<br />
Albizia chevalieri Liumea microcarpa<br />
Alb.zia zygia (C) Leucaena glauca<br />
Anacardium occidentale (R and C) Lippia inultiflora (with food-C)<br />
Annona scnogalen-sis (dried) M.rua angolensis (C)<br />
Antidesma venosurn (C) Macrua crassifolia<br />
Azadiraclita indica (C) Manihot esculenta<br />
Balanites negyptiaca (C) Manihot glaziovii (C)<br />
Dal. aiocitrus paniCUIlata (C) Microdesnius zenkcri<br />
Bnrleria opaca (C) Mikania cordata (C)<br />
Bauhinia purpurea (C) Moringa oleifera<br />
Bombax bievicuspo Myrianthus arboreus<br />
flombax buonopozonse (C) 'Myrianthus libericus<br />
]3oscia salicifolia (C) Neuropeltis acuminata<br />
Cadaba farinosa (C) Ouratea affinis<br />
Capporis corymbosa (C) Ouratea calophylla<br />
Carica papaya (C-young) Ouratea myrioneura<br />
Cassia nigricans (C) Parkia clappcrtoniana<br />
Cassia nodosa (C) Pavctta crnssipes (C)<br />
Cassia tore (C) Phyllanthus muellerianus (C)<br />
Castanola paradoxa (C) ? Phytolacca dodecandra<br />
Ceiba pentandra Pileostigma reticulatum (C)<br />
Celtis integrifolia (C and R) ? Pileostigma thonningii (C)<br />
Chlorophora excelsa (y9ung leaves) Piper umbellatum<br />
Christiana africana (C) Pseuderanthemum tunicatum<br />
Cleistopholis patens (with cola) Quisqualis indica<br />
Combretum paniculatum (C) Rungia grandis<br />
Combretum platypterum (C) Sesbania grandiflora<br />
Corchorus acutangulus (C) Sesbania punctata<br />
Corchorus olitorius (C) Sterculia tragacantha (C)<br />
Corchorus tridens (C) Strychnos spinosa (leaves said to be eaten)<br />
Crataeva religios, (C) Tamarindus indica (C)<br />
C.otalaria ochrolcuca Telfairea occidentalis (C)<br />
Daniellia oliveri (C) (famine food) Tetracarpidium conophorum (leaves and<br />
Dendrocalamus strictus young shoots)<br />
Dinophora spenneroides ('edible' (leaf in- Tetracera alnifolia<br />
fusion)) Totracera potatoria (young leaves)<br />
Dracaena mannii Thespesia populnoa<br />
Enneastemon foliosus Trema guineensis<br />
Eriosema glomeraturn (a 'vegetable') Triumfetta cordifolia (C)<br />
Er-thrococca africana (used for 'softening' Triumfetta rhomboidea (C)<br />
meat in cooking) Urera mannii (C)<br />
Euadenia trifoliolata (C) Urera nr. mannii (C)<br />
Fadogia cienkowskii Urera oblongifolia (C)<br />
Ficus glumosa (C) Urera obovata (C)<br />
Ficus gnaphalocarpa (C) Vernonia amygdalina<br />
Ficus mucuso Vernonia colorata<br />
Ficus vallis.choudae (C) Vitex doniana<br />
Globimotula braunii<br />
Grewia carpinifolia 4. Flowers<br />
Gymnema sylvestre (leaves destroy sense Annona senegalonsis (sepals)<br />
of taste for sweetness) Azadirachta indica<br />
Heinsia crinita (C) Beilschmiedia mannii<br />
Hibiscus lunarifolius Bombax buonopozonse (calyx)<br />
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (C) Carica papaya<br />
Hibiscus rostellatus Cassia siamea<br />
Hibiscus tiliaceus (C) Cocculus pendulus (flowers added to food)<br />
Isonema smeathmannii (C) Combretum comosun (sucked)<br />
Jatropha curcas (C-young leaves) Combretum grandiflorum (sucked)<br />
Justicia extensa Combretum paniculaturn (sucked)<br />
95.
Cordia, myxa<br />
Crotalaria ochrolcuca<br />
Gliricidia sepium<br />
GlThnea brovis<br />
;rewia mollis<br />
'Iorina oleifera<br />
S.ibana -andilora<br />
S,:sbania sesban<br />
Tacazzea apiculata<br />
Tamarindus indica<br />
Terminalia glaucescens (honey)<br />
5. Fruits<br />
Acacia albida<br />
Acacia scorpioides<br />
Adansonia digitata<br />
Afrosersalisia afzelii<br />
Allophylus ."canus<br />
Alsodeiopsis staudtii<br />
Amaralia bignoniiflora<br />
Amaralia calycina<br />
Ampelocissus gracilipes<br />
Anacardium occidentale<br />
Ancylobothrys scandens<br />
Antngeria robusta<br />
Annona arenaria<br />
Annona cherimola<br />
Annona glabra<br />
.Annona muricata<br />
Annona reticulata (occasionally<br />
cultivation)<br />
Annona senegalensis<br />
.A.nnonm squamosa<br />
Anonidium mamnii<br />
Antidesma venosum<br />
Antrocaryon micraster<br />
Aphania sonegalensis<br />
FOOD PLANTS xix<br />
seen in<br />
Artocarpus communis<br />
Atroxima afzeliana<br />
Azadirachta indica<br />
Balanites aogyptiaca<br />
Bauhinia rufi.sccns<br />
Beilsclimiedia mannii<br />
Bequacrtiodendron megalismontanum<br />
Mequaurtiodendron oblanceolutum<br />
Drombax buonopozense (young fruits)<br />
Borassus aethiopttm<br />
oicia anguatifolia<br />
Boicia senegalensis<br />
Bosquiea angolonsis<br />
Bridelia nierantha<br />
Iridelia sclcroneura<br />
Buchhohzia coriacea<br />
Butyroeprmitm parkii<br />
Caloncoba gilgiana<br />
Caloneolm glauca<br />
Calophyllui 1 1 inophvllum<br />
Callariumn schweinfurthii<br />
Capprik cor'mbosa<br />
Cappar erytirocarpos<br />
Capparis polymorpha<br />
Carapa procera (oil eaten)<br />
Carica papaya<br />
Carissa edulis<br />
Carpodns hirsutus<br />
Carpodinus near landolphioides<br />
Carpodinus ,!ilcis<br />
Carpodinus macrophylla<br />
Carpolobia alba<br />
Carpolobia lutea<br />
Cassia kirkii<br />
Cathormion altissimum<br />
Ceiba pentandra (young fruits)<br />
Celtis integrifolia<br />
Chlorophora regia<br />
Chrysobalanus ellipticus<br />
Chrysobalanus orbicularis<br />
Chrysophylhwn af'icanum<br />
Chrysophyllum albidum<br />
Chrysophyllum cainito<br />
Chrysophyllum perpulchrum<br />
Chrysophyllurn pruniforme<br />
Cissus aralioides<br />
Cissus arguta<br />
Cissus cornifolia<br />
Cissus doeringii<br />
Cissus populnea'<br />
Citrus aurantiifolia<br />
Citrus aurantiurn<br />
Citrus decurnana<br />
Citrus medica<br />
Citrus medica var. limnonum<br />
Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa<br />
Citrus sinensis<br />
Clitandra :.irrhosa<br />
Cola caricaefolia<br />
Cola chlaznydantha<br />
Cola gigantea<br />
Cola heterophylla<br />
Cola latoritia<br />
Cola nitida<br />
Commiphora pedumculata<br />
Cordia abysshuea<br />
Cordia myxa<br />
Cordia rothii<br />
Cratnova religiosa<br />
Dacryodcs klaineann<br />
Deinbollia grandifolia<br />
Deinbollia pinnata<br />
Desplatzia chrysochlamvs<br />
Desplatzia dowovrei<br />
De.platzia subericarpa<br />
Detarium microcarpus<br />
Detarium senogalcnse (famine)<br />
Dialium guineense<br />
Dichapetalum flexuosum<br />
Dielapetalhin pillidum (:)<br />
Dichapetalum toxicarium<br />
Dichrostaehys glomerata<br />
Dinophora spenneroides<br />
96.
xx KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS<br />
Dioscoreophyllurn cummizuji Heisteria parviflora<br />
Diospyros barteri flexalobus crispillorus<br />
Diospyros canaliculata Hexalobus monopetalus<br />
Diospyros elliotii Hoslundia opposita<br />
Diospyros heudolotii Hunteria clliotii<br />
Diospyros kamerunensis Hymenocardia acida (young frulth)<br />
Diospyros kekemi ilcphuene thebaica<br />
Diospyros mespiliformis Icacina senegalensis<br />
Diospyros tricolor Irvingia gabonensis<br />
Drrpanuoctrpus hinatus Ixora brachypoda<br />
Drypctes floribunda Jasminurn dichotoinum<br />
Drypetes gilgiana Landolphia spp.<br />
Dr'petes ivorensis Landolphia umoona<br />
Ectadiopsis oblongifolia Landolphia calabarica<br />
Ehretia thonningiana Landolphia comorensis-<br />
Elacis guineensis Landolphia owariensis<br />
Enneastemon foliosus Lannea acida<br />
Enneastemon vogelii Lannea microcarpa<br />
Euadenia eminens Lannea velutina<br />
Euclinia longiflora Lannea welwitschii<br />
Eugenia jambos Lantana mearnsii<br />
Eugenia uniflora Lecaniodiscus cupanioides<br />
Fadoga cienkowskii Leea guineensis<br />
Ficus barteri Leucaena glauca<br />
Ficus capensis Macaranga heterophylla<br />
Ficus capraefolia Macrua crassifolia<br />
Ficus congensis Maesobotrya barteri<br />
Ficus elegans Maesopsis eminii<br />
Ficus eriobotryoides Malacantha alnifolia<br />
Ficus glumosa Malpighia glabra<br />
Ficus gnaphalocarpa Maxrnmea africana,<br />
Ficus ingens Mangifera indica<br />
Ficus iteophylla Manilkara lacera<br />
Ficus plat rphylla Maytenus senegalensis<br />
Ficus polita blicrodesmis puberula<br />
Ficus umbellata Microdesmis zenkeri<br />
Ficus urceolaris Monodora tenuifolia<br />
Ficus vallis-choudae Morelia senegalensis<br />
Ficus vogeliana Moringa oleifera<br />
Ficus vogelii Morus mesozygia<br />
Flacourtia flavescens Musanga cecropioides<br />
Garcinia kola Mussaenda elegans<br />
*Garcinia mangostana M1yrianthus arboreus<br />
Garcinia mannii Myrianthus libericus<br />
Gareinia polvantlia Myrianthus serratus<br />
Gardenia aqualla Napoleona lconensis<br />
Gardenia erubescens Napolcona vogelii<br />
Gardenia nitida (said to be eaten when Nauclea diderrichii<br />
ripe) Nauclea latifolia<br />
Gardenia ternifolia Ochna afzelii<br />
Grewia barteri Olax subscorpioidea<br />
Grewia bicolor Omphalocarpum procerum<br />
Grewia carpinifolia (C and R) Oncoba spinosa<br />
Grewia mollis Ongokea gore<br />
Grewia pubescens Opuntia sp.<br />
Grewia villosa Ouratea flava<br />
Haematostaphis barteri Oxyanthus tubiflorus<br />
Hannoa undulata Pachystola brevipes<br />
Harongana madagascariensis Pandnus app.<br />
Heinsia crinita Parinari congensis<br />
97.
FOOD PLANTS xxi<br />
Parinari curntelfirolia Strychnos sp. rnr. volkensii<br />
Parinari excels& Synsepalurn dulcificum<br />
Parinari glabra Syzygium cuinini<br />
Parinari macrophylla Syzygium guincense<br />
Parinari polvandra (scarcely edible) Syzygium littorale<br />
Parinari tennifolium Syzygiurn owariensn<br />
Parkia bicolor Tamnarindus indica<br />
Parkia biglobosa Teclea afzelii<br />
Parkia clappertoniana Terminalia catappa<br />
Paullinia pinnata Tetracarpidium conophorum<br />
Pauridiantha hirtella Tetrorchidiun did vmostemon<br />
Pausinystalia lane.poolei Theobroma cacao (young fruits)<br />
Peddiea fischeri Thevetia peruviana<br />
PeNes americana Tiliacora dielsiana<br />
Phoenix dactylifera Trema guineensis<br />
Phoenix reclinata Trichilia rolca<br />
Phyflanlxus discoideus Trichoscypha arborea<br />
Ph-llanthus muellerianus Trichoscypha ferruginea<br />
Phyllanthts reticulatus (famine) Trichoscypha oba<br />
PhIlanthus wildemannii Tristernma hirtumn (fruits)<br />
Pileostigma reticulaturn (pods eaten) Tristemrna incompletum<br />
Pileosti.ina ratioldatium (pods eaten) Uapaca esculenta<br />
Pileostigma thonningii (pods eaten) Uapaca guineensis<br />
Paeudospondias microcarpa Uapaca heudolotii<br />
Psidiunm cattleyanurn Uvaria afzelii<br />
Psidiuni guajava Uvaria chamnae<br />
Punica granatum Uvaria doeringii<br />
Raphia hookcri (bitter flavouring and an Uvaria globosa<br />
occasional food). Also Raphia sp. Uvaria ovate<br />
Rhoicissus revoilii Vitex doniana<br />
Rhu4 zpp. Vitex fosteri<br />
Rutidea glabra Vitex grandifolia<br />
Saba senegalertiis Vitex micrantha<br />
Sabicea africans Vitex rivularis<br />
Sabicea vogelii Vitex simplicifolia<br />
Sacoglottis gabonensis Vitis vinifera<br />
Salacia caiUei Ximenia americana<br />
Salacia erecta Xylia ovansii (or seeds ?)<br />
Salacia lornensis Zanha golungcnsis<br />
Salacia nitida Zizyphus abysainica<br />
Salacia senegalensis Zizyphus mauritiana<br />
Salacia togoica Zizyphus mucronata<br />
Santaloides afzelii Zizyphus spina-christi<br />
Santiria trimera<br />
Scaphopetalun aMoenum 6. Seeds<br />
Sclerocanra birrea Abrus precatorius<br />
Scytopetalum tieglicinii Abutilon guincenso<br />
Securinega virosa Acacia albida<br />
Sesbania grandiflora (young fruits) Adansonia digitata<br />
Sesbanin sesban (young fruits) Adenantherapavonina<br />
Smeathnannia pubescens Afzelia africana (aril or seed ?)<br />
Solanum torvuni (R or C) Afzelia bolls (aril)<br />
Sorindeia jiiglandifolia AIlanblackia floribimcla<br />
Sorindeia warncckei Anncardian occidontals<br />
Sphenocentrum jollyanurn Annona arenaria (aril)<br />
Spondias monbin Antrocaryon micraster<br />
Str'chnos nix-vomica Artocarpus cominunis<br />
Strychnoq spinosa Avicennia africana (germinating seeds)<br />
Strychnos tricliioides (edible in small Balanites aegyptiaca<br />
quantities) Balanites wilsoniana<br />
98.
xxi[ KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS<br />
Balsamocritnrs paniculata Klainedoxa gabonensis<br />
Bambusa vulgaris Lannea kerstingii<br />
Bcilschmiedia mannii Leucaena glauca<br />
Blighin,sapida, Lophira alata<br />
Blighia unijugatus Mummea africana<br />
flombax sesili, Mnnigifera indica<br />
Borassus acthiopum (hypocotyl and young Manniophyton fulvum<br />
seeds) Moringa pterygosperma<br />
I3oscia angustifolia, Mucuna sloanei<br />
Bosqucia ancolemis Myrianthus arborcus<br />
Cajanus cajan Myrianthus serratus<br />
Calpocalyx brevibracteatus Octolobus angustatus<br />
Canarium schweinfurthii (sometimescooked Ongokea gore<br />
with food) Oxytenanthera abyssinica<br />
Cassia tora Panda oleosa<br />
Cathormion altissimum Parinari curatellifolin<br />
Ceiba pcntandra Parinari excelsa<br />
Ch.tranthus atroviolaceus Parkia bicolor<br />
Cocos nucifera Parkia biglobosa<br />
Cola acuminata Parkia clappertoniana<br />
Cola caricaefolia Pentaclethra macrophylla<br />
Cola gigantea Pentadesma butyrncea<br />
Cola hcterophylla Pileostigma reticulatum<br />
Cola millonii Pileostigma. thonningii<br />
Cola nitida Prosopis africana<br />
Cola verticillate Pseudospondias microcarpa<br />
Cordia, nyxa Pterocarpus santalinoides<br />
Coula edulis Quisqualis indica<br />
Crataeva religiosa Raphia hookeri (roasted)<br />
Crossostemma laurifolium Raphiostylis beninensis<br />
Deinbollia grandifolia Ricinodendron africanum<br />
Dendrocalamus strictus Santiria trimera<br />
Detarium senegalense Sclerocarya birrea<br />
Dichopetalun pallidum (?) Spathodea campanulata<br />
Dichrostachys glomerata Spondias monbin<br />
Dodonaea viscosa Sterculia foetida<br />
Elacis guineensis Sterculia oblongs<br />
Entada pursaethm Sterculia setigora<br />
Eriocoelum racemoswn (aril edible) Strephonema pseudocola<br />
Euadenia eminens Tamarindus indica<br />
Garcinia kola Tarrietia utilis<br />
Garcinia mannii Telfairea occidentalis<br />
Garcinia polyantha Telfairea pedata<br />
Gossypium arboreum Terminalia catappa<br />
Haematostaphis barteri Totracarpidium conopliorum<br />
Harungana madagascariensis Theobroma cacao<br />
Heisteria parvifolia Treculia africana<br />
Hibiscus lunarifolius Trichilia roka<br />
Hildegardia barteri Trichilia priouriana<br />
Hyphaeno thebaica Urena lobata<br />
Icacina senegalensis (famine) Ximenia americana (?)<br />
Irvingia gabonensis Zizyphus mauritianum<br />
II. CONDIMENTS, SPICES, OR FLAVOURING AGENTS<br />
o. - Condiment; sp. - Spice; fl. = Flavouring agent<br />
Abrus precatorius (sweeten cereal pap) Acacia campylacantha (ashes--salt sub.<br />
Abrus pulchellus (sugar substitute) stitute)<br />
99.
CONDIMENTS, SPICES, OR FLAVOURING AGENTS xxiii<br />
Acacia scorpioides Microglossa afzelii (sauce (leaves))<br />
Adansonia digitata Mlimosa pigra<br />
.Anacarcllum occidentalo (young leaves as Monodora brovipes (seeds) (sp.)<br />
flavouring) Moziodora myristica (seeds) (sp., c.)<br />
Antidesma laciniatum vnr.membranaceous Monodora tenuifolia (seeds) (ap.)<br />
(seaoninc) Morinda lucida (fl..)<br />
Beilschimiedia mannii Moringa pterygosperma (sp.)<br />
Blichia welwiitschii (leaves flavour soup) Musanga cacropioides<br />
Buchholzia coriacea (seeds spicy) Panda oleosa (c.)<br />
Bussea occidentalis Parkia biglobosa<br />
Calpoealvx brevibracteatus Parkia clappertoniana<br />
Carissa edulis (roots as flavouring) Pentaclethra macrophylla<br />
Ceiba pentandra Pileostigma reticulate<br />
Cinnamomnum zeylanicum (sp.) Pileostigrna thonningii<br />
Cleistopholis patens Piper guineense (fl.) (soup)<br />
Cochlopermum spp. (roots as flavouring) Piper umbellatum (c.) (stem and bark)<br />
Combreturn racemosun Pterocarpus sartalinoides<br />
Cordyline fruticosa (leaves as flavour. Raphia hookeri (pericarp as bitter flavour.<br />
ing) ing)<br />
Fagara xanthoxyloides (leaves as flavour. Ricinodendron africanurn<br />
ing, seeds as pepper) Solanum indicum<br />
Ficus mucuso Sterculia rhinopetala<br />
Gymnosporia senegalensis Sterculia tragacantha<br />
Irvincia gabonensis Tephrosia linearis (ft.)<br />
Isoberlinia dalzielii Tephrosia purpurea.<br />
Klainedoxa gabonensis Tetrapleura totraptera (ft.)<br />
Lantana mearnsii (aromatic leaves added Voacanga obtuse (c.)<br />
to food and milk) Xylopia aethiopica (sp.)<br />
Macaranga heterophylla Xylopia parviflora (sp.)<br />
III. BEVERAGES<br />
I. Non-alcoholic Citrus medics var. limonum<br />
(a) Water substitutes Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa<br />
Ampelocissus gracilipes Citrus sinensis<br />
Byttneria catalpifolia (sap) Cola nitida (coca-cola)<br />
Cissus populnea Combretum gliasalense (root)<br />
Cleistopholis pate,. Dialium guineense<br />
Cnestis ferruginca (sap) Entada pursaotha (stem)<br />
Entada phascoloides Gardenia erubescens<br />
-Musainacecropioides (sap) Myrianthus arborous<br />
Phyllanthus muellorianus Opuntia sp. (prickly pear)<br />
Sterculia setigcra Parkia biglobosa<br />
Tetracera absiifolia<br />
Tetracera<br />
Parkia<br />
potatoria<br />
clappertoniana<br />
Pileostigma<br />
Uvaria scabrida<br />
reticulaium<br />
(water<br />
(boiled<br />
liano)<br />
in water)<br />
Pileostigma thonningii (boiled in water)<br />
(b) Water purifier Sclorocnrya birrea (fruit juice)<br />
Xylopia<br />
(c) Swethbeverages<br />
a<br />
aethioptica Spondias monbin<br />
Syzygium<br />
(c) Sweet<br />
littoralo<br />
beverages<br />
Adansonia<br />
Treculia<br />
dizitata<br />
africana (seeds)<br />
Vitex doniana<br />
Anacardium occidentalo Zizypims mauritiana<br />
Annona muricata<br />
Balnnitei aeevptinca (d) Milk substitutes<br />
Bombax buonopozenso (fruits) Annofl muricata<br />
L'orn. tx5 aetlio)um<br />
Cocos nucifera (coco.nut milk)<br />
Caloncoloa echintta Vernonia nigritana (milk coagulant)<br />
Citrus aurantitolia<br />
Citruq<br />
(a) Tea<br />
nurantiu<br />
substitutes<br />
n Erythroxylum coca<br />
Citrus decuinnna Jasminum sambao (flowers flavour tea)<br />
100.
xxiv KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS<br />
Lippia adoensis<br />
Garcinia polyantlia<br />
Lippia nmultiflora<br />
(seeds added to alco.<br />
holic drinks)<br />
() Coffee (Coffea spp.) and coffee sub- ITyphnene thebaica<br />
stitutes<br />
Khayaanthotheca (bark added to alcoholic<br />
Bosein scnegalensis drink)<br />
I. Non-aleoholic<br />
1. No-alcoholic<br />
Kigelia acthiopica (flavouring)<br />
Cassia occidentalis<br />
Landolphia ownriensis (fermented drink)<br />
Ca-~;ia<br />
Lannea<br />
toiii<br />
acida (fruits-al.olnlic drink)<br />
Laxuieaznierocarpn<br />
Coffen arabica 3 (fru its-lcoholic drink)<br />
ezoncurum bentliamianurn (stimulamt)<br />
Coffee liberica<br />
Morinda<br />
Coffea<br />
confusa<br />
liginstrifolia<br />
(leaves for strengthening<br />
Coffea<br />
palm-wino)<br />
macrochla ys Morinda<br />
Coffea<br />
morindioides<br />
peustrs<br />
(roots used as bitters)<br />
Coffea rupestris Musanga cecropioides<br />
strengthen<br />
(bark added<br />
sugar-cane<br />
to<br />
Coffea spathicalyx<br />
wine)<br />
Oligostemon<br />
Coffea<br />
pictus<br />
stenophylla<br />
(stimulant)<br />
Ongokea gore<br />
Coffea subcordata<br />
Entada<br />
Opuntia<br />
pursnetha<br />
sp.<br />
Parinari<br />
Parkia<br />
excelsa<br />
biglobosa<br />
(fruits fermented, bark<br />
used<br />
Pavetta<br />
to increase<br />
corymbosa<br />
efferct of palm-wino)<br />
Parkia biglobosa<br />
Psilanthus (dried<br />
mannii<br />
fruit pulp used in<br />
Tricalysin preparation<br />
clevalieri<br />
of fermented liquor)<br />
Phoenix dactylifera<br />
Zizyphus<br />
(fruits used<br />
mucronata<br />
to sweeten<br />
(fruits) fermented beverages)<br />
(g) Cocoa<br />
Theobroma cacao<br />
Phoenix recliata<br />
Phyllanthusmuellerianus (stimulant)(bark)<br />
2. Alcoholic Beverages, with 'bitters' Pleiocarpa<br />
Pseudospondias micrantha<br />
microcarpa<br />
(roots as stimulunt)<br />
(for strong.<br />
Anacardium occidentls<br />
thening fermented drink)<br />
Annona muricata Antocr~n mcaserwino (cider-like)<br />
Pycnocoma ma<br />
Antrocaryon<br />
to discourage~theftn) g theft)<br />
iicrasterd<br />
plm<br />
Azadirachta indielL<br />
Raphin,<br />
(Sop<br />
hookeri<br />
fermented)<br />
and R. sudanica<br />
Rhigiocarya racemifera<br />
Balanites negyptiaca<br />
(roots added to<br />
Berlinia grandiflora Raphia<br />
(wood<br />
palm-wine)<br />
as receptacles Rotbmannia whitfieldii (charred fruits<br />
for sugar-cane<br />
as<br />
wine fermentation)<br />
Bertiera racomosa<br />
stimulant)<br />
(bitters in gin) SacooIntisgabonensis<br />
Borassus (bark<br />
aothiopwn<br />
as 'bitters')<br />
(palm.wine) Sclerocarya<br />
Cocculus<br />
birrea<br />
pendulus (fruits added to intoxi. Strcleos<br />
cating drinka)<br />
pinosa<br />
Synseialum dulcificwu<br />
Cocos<br />
(fruits<br />
nuciferah<br />
for sweeten.<br />
Corynanthe pachyceras<br />
ing palm-wine)<br />
(bark used for<br />
strengthening<br />
Tetrapleura<br />
palm-wine)<br />
tetraptera (stimulant)<br />
Triclisia patens (stems<br />
Cremaspora<br />
used to strengthen<br />
triflora (bark used for strongthening<br />
palm-wino)<br />
palm-wine)<br />
Treculia africana<br />
Datura<br />
(seeds<br />
innozia<br />
as flavouring<br />
(dliriant in<br />
(seeds))<br />
Datura<br />
alcoholic<br />
motel<br />
drinks)<br />
(deliriant) Vitex grandiflora (fruits)<br />
Diospyros Elacis gu ineensis mespiliformis<br />
Xinienia<br />
Ficus<br />
i e a americana<br />
gnphalocarpa<br />
a m r c n<br />
Ficsnakohace Xylopiaaethiopica<br />
a<br />
(flavouringtopnlmwino)<br />
Garcinia<br />
h<br />
kola,<br />
Zizyphus<br />
(onliances<br />
mauritiana<br />
flavouzrof (fruits<br />
alcoholic<br />
fermented<br />
drink and<br />
drink)<br />
bark is stimulant)<br />
Garcinia mannii (seeds added to alcoholic Industrial<br />
drinks)<br />
alcohol<br />
Corchorus olitorius<br />
IV. FODDER PLANTS<br />
Acaciaalbida (all stock) Acacia gourmaensis (camels, sheep,<br />
Acacia dudgeoni (all stock)<br />
Acacia farnesiana (sheep)<br />
goats)<br />
and<br />
101.
APPENDIX 4. The Role of Wild Plants in the Native Diet in Ethiopia, by<br />
Amare Getahun: Table II, Wild Edible Plants of Ethiopia<br />
Abbreviation of languages<br />
A - Amarinya<br />
T - Tigrinia<br />
G - Galinya<br />
GAr - Galinya, Arassie<br />
GB - Galinya, Bale<br />
GH - Galinya, Harar<br />
GK - Galinya, Kaffa<br />
GS - Galinya, Sidamo<br />
Som - Somali<br />
K - Kaffa<br />
Wol - Wollamo<br />
Eng - English<br />
Glossary to some terms used in the text<br />
Enjera - Leavened bread usually made from the native cereal, tef (Eragrostis tefl<br />
Tela - A local beer, Tela is not processed under government regulation, hence the<br />
alcohol content varies, but is usually less than 4%<br />
Areke - A local drink made from cereals through industrial distillation; of high alcohol<br />
content<br />
Wat - A spicy sauce made from onions and other spices with addition of eitner meat<br />
(meat wat), chicken (doro wat), or lentils (shirro wat). Wat is traditionally<br />
served with enjera<br />
TABLE II<br />
Wild edible plants of Ethiopia<br />
Leafy vegetables (including stems and young shoots)<br />
Botanical name<br />
Acanthus polystach ius Delile<br />
Acanthus pubescens Oliv.<br />
Amaranthus angustifolius Lam.<br />
Amaranthus gracilis (Desf.) Viii.<br />
Amaranthus hybridus L.<br />
Subsp. hybrid us<br />
Amaranthus sylh'stris Vill.<br />
Digera alternifolia (L.) Asch.<br />
Caralluma ango (Rich.) N.E.Br.<br />
Dregea abyssinica Hochst.<br />
Edithcolea sordida N F "-.<br />
Gymnema syh'estrt I R.Br.<br />
Huernia macrocarb i. Rich.)<br />
Sprenger<br />
Vernaculai name(s)<br />
Kishe (Sid)<br />
Koshoshella (A)<br />
Korn (G)<br />
sodorn (G)<br />
aluma (A)<br />
alume (A)<br />
birmaheo (T)<br />
Kogata (K)<br />
ango, alem (T)<br />
amachero (A)<br />
Shanqok (T)<br />
hamaccun (Som)<br />
Shanqok (T)<br />
ango (T)<br />
Family<br />
Acanthaceae<br />
Acanthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Amaranthaceae<br />
Aschepiadaceae<br />
Aschepiadaceae<br />
Aschepiadaceae<br />
49<br />
102.
50<br />
TABLE II (continued)<br />
Balanitesaegyptiaca (L.) Del. ghossa, shifaraoul Balanitaceae<br />
Balanities gillettiiCuf.<br />
(A), bedena (G),<br />
hangalta (K)<br />
badena (G) Balanitaceae<br />
Adansonia digitata L.<br />
Gynandropsisgynandra L.<br />
kulan (Sor)<br />
demo- dima (T)<br />
bokh eha (T)<br />
Bombacaceae<br />
Capparidaceae<br />
aija (Som)<br />
maschill (T)<br />
gomen (A), hamli (T)<br />
shimpa (G)<br />
Commelinaceae<br />
Cruciferae<br />
Cruciferae<br />
Commelina pyrrhoblepharis Hassk.<br />
Brassica carinata A. Br.<br />
Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. &<br />
C.A. Meyer<br />
Moringa oleifera Lam.<br />
Moringa stenopetala Baker<br />
Embelia schimperi Vatke<br />
Oxalis anthelrnintica Rich.<br />
Oxalis semiloba Sond.<br />
Adenia ellenbeckii Engl. ex<br />
Harms.<br />
Securidaca longipedunculata<br />
Fresen.<br />
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.<br />
Rumex neruosus Vahl<br />
Portulacaoleracea L.<br />
.PortulacaquadrifidaL.<br />
Talinum triangulare(Jacq.)<br />
Willd.<br />
Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.)<br />
Fisch. & Mey."<br />
Corchorus olitorius L.<br />
Corchorus tridens L.<br />
Ferula communis L.<br />
Pimpinella hirtella Rich.<br />
Edible fruits and seeds<br />
mrongo (Som)<br />
Shifara, shalchada (K)<br />
inkoko (A), hanku (G)<br />
michamicho (A)<br />
micha-micho (A,T)<br />
Kaguta (K)<br />
Moringaceae<br />
Moringaceae<br />
Myrsinaceae<br />
Oxalidaceae<br />
Oxalidaceae<br />
Passifloraceae<br />
Saggat (Arabic) Polygalaceae<br />
mak'mak'o (A)<br />
dangago (G)<br />
Polygonaceae<br />
Polygonaceae<br />
Ahrohot (T)<br />
embacho (A)<br />
aiyo (Som) Portulacaceae<br />
melhena (T)<br />
marare (G) Portulacaceae<br />
Portulacaceae<br />
rench't (G)<br />
merrerat (T)<br />
meloukie (Arabic)<br />
dog (A)<br />
maciogo (A)<br />
Resedaceae<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Umbelliferae<br />
Umbelliferae<br />
Botanical name Vernacular name(s) Family<br />
Amaranthus caudalus L. dimesitu or eyase (G) Amaranthaceae<br />
yetef fre, chifogot,<br />
ealish (A) zelol<br />
Lannea malifolia (Chiov.) bad.<br />
Lanneaschimperi (Hochst. ex<br />
Rich.) Engl.<br />
ennomarium (T), rasu-<br />
veinok (Som)<br />
degnein, guahauri (Som)<br />
dareku (G)<br />
handaraka (G)<br />
dugdugna (T)<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
103.
-ABLE 1I (continued)<br />
Vhus abyssinica R. Br.<br />
?hus natalensis Bernh.<br />
hus vulgaris Meikle<br />
;clerocaryabirrea (A. Rich.)<br />
-iochst.<br />
Innona reticulata L.<br />
Ikocantheraschimperi (DC) Oliv.<br />
(=Carissaschimperi DC)<br />
Landolphia buchananji (Hall.f.)<br />
3tapf.<br />
Landolphiakirkei This. - Dyer<br />
*Sabacomorensis (Boj. ex DC)<br />
?ichan.<br />
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.<br />
3alanites scillin 2.iov.<br />
Thespesia danis Cliver<br />
Cordia africana Law.<br />
(- C. abyssinica R. Br.)<br />
Cardia ghara (Forsk.)<br />
Aschers.<br />
Cordia mya L.<br />
Cordia ovalis R. Br.<br />
Ehretiacymosa Thonn.<br />
Ehretiacymosa Thonn. var.<br />
abyssinica(R.Br. ex Fres.)<br />
Brenan<br />
Commiphora oncisLrophora Chiov.<br />
Commiphora boiviniana Engl.<br />
Commiphora crassispina Sprague<br />
Opuntia ficus-indica L.<br />
Cordyla africana Lour.<br />
Tainarindusindica L.<br />
Tylosema fassogensis(Schwf.)<br />
Tor & Hilic.<br />
Boscia octandra (Hochst. ex Hamta)<br />
Schwfth ex Radik.<br />
Capparisdecidua (Forsk.)<br />
Edgew.<br />
Capparistomentosa La..-.<br />
Ritchiea albersii Gilg.<br />
Cassine aethiopica Thunb. var.<br />
pubescens (Oliver) Cuf.<br />
t'at essa (G)<br />
eshkamo, ye-evenya<br />
killo (A)<br />
Ex. Krauss tatesa (G)<br />
kamo (A)<br />
kumal, gameles (A)<br />
abengul (T)<br />
ye-bere-bib (A)<br />
mopte (T)<br />
yetebenja-inchet (A)<br />
yebo, hope (Sid)<br />
dugi (G)<br />
arnole (Som)<br />
ghossa, shifaraoul<br />
(A), bedena (G),<br />
hangalta (K)<br />
Kabahan (Som), danis (T)<br />
Wanza (A)<br />
Wadessa (G)<br />
maderra (G), koha,<br />
mahrari (Som)<br />
marad, madad (C)<br />
madero (G) koha,<br />
mahrari (Som),<br />
yo-kolla wanza (A),<br />
mederra (T)<br />
urgesa (A)<br />
ulaga (A,G)<br />
garmi (GH)<br />
Kioruakh (T)<br />
gwaye, gwayeta (T)<br />
Kulqual (A)<br />
beless (T)<br />
tini (G)<br />
antorro, ontro (Som)<br />
roka (0), hamar (Som),<br />
tammar (A, T)<br />
sake (G)<br />
zahet (T)<br />
malusa (G)<br />
kontar, gumero (A)<br />
batarikitcho (Sid)<br />
hadessa (G)<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
Annonacece<br />
Apocynaceae<br />
Apocynaceae<br />
Apocynaceae<br />
Apocynacea<br />
Balanitaceae<br />
Balanitaceae<br />
Bombacaceae<br />
Boraginaceae<br />
Boraginaceae<br />
Boraginaceae<br />
Boraginaceae<br />
Boraginaceae<br />
Boraginaceae<br />
Burseraceae<br />
Burseraceae<br />
Burseraceae<br />
Cactaceae<br />
Caesalpiniaceae<br />
Caesalpiniaccae<br />
Caesalpin;aceae<br />
Capparidaceae<br />
Capparidaceae<br />
Capparidaceac<br />
Capparidaccae<br />
Celastraceae<br />
51<br />
104.
52<br />
TABLE 11 (continued)<br />
Maytenus arbutifolius (Hochst. kombolcha (A,G) Celastraceae<br />
ex A. Rich.) Wilczek.<br />
Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. atat (A) Celastraceae<br />
& Zcyh.) N. Robson<br />
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt raho (G), mogad (Arabic) Cucurbitaceae<br />
Citrulluslunatus (Thunb.) Kare (Sam) Cucurbitaceae<br />
Mansf.<br />
Lagenariasiceraria(Molina) bur (Sam), kil (A) Cucurbitaceac<br />
Standl.<br />
Momordica balsimina L.<br />
Peponium vogeiii (Hook.1.)<br />
sar-khudu (Sam)<br />
sorupa (Sid)<br />
Cucurbitaceae<br />
Cucurbitaceae<br />
Engl. tojo (K)<br />
Sicyos polyacanthus Cogn. kepe, herase (Sid)<br />
humbawo (G)<br />
Cucurbitaceae<br />
Diospyros kaki L. f.<br />
Euclea keniensis Fries<br />
ayeh (T) Ebenaceae<br />
Eucleaschimperi (DC) Dandy<br />
Euclea leniensis Fries<br />
Ebenaceae<br />
Ebenaceae<br />
Euclea schimperi DC Dandy<br />
Antidesnia venosum E. Mey ex.<br />
Tul.<br />
mitanber ,.)<br />
huda (AR)<br />
Ebenaceae<br />
Euphorbiaceac<br />
Bridelia micrantha Hochst. yenebir tifir (A) Euphorbiaceae<br />
Baill.<br />
Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex<br />
Wild.) Pax. ex. Hoffm.<br />
aregraba (G)<br />
kach-achalo (G)<br />
haramaso (T)<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
Dovyalis abyssinica A. Rich. koshem (A), koshumo (G)<br />
ankakute (W,G)<br />
aihada (T)<br />
Flacourtiaceae<br />
Flacourtiaindica (Burm. f.<br />
Merr.<br />
menderm (A)<br />
hada, hudaferda (G)<br />
Flacourtiaceae<br />
Oncoba spinosa Forsk. var. akaku, iilbo (G) Flacourtiaceae<br />
routledgei(Sprague) Sleumer<br />
Oxytenantheraabyssinica<br />
angora (Adere)<br />
arkai (T), Shimel (A) Graminae(Poaceae)<br />
(Rich.) Munro.<br />
OxytenantheraBorzl; Mattei arki (T) Graminae (Poaceae)<br />
Hydnorajohannis Beccari likeh, tuka (Sam, G) Hydnoraceae<br />
Hydnora ruspoliiChiov. . / Hydnoraceae<br />
Salvia nilotica Juss. ex. Jacq.<br />
Slrychnos innocua Del.<br />
spp. innocua var innocua<br />
shokoksa (G)<br />
unguata (T)<br />
Labiatae<br />
Loganiaceae<br />
Strychnos spinosa Lam.<br />
Strychnos spinosa Lam.<br />
spp. lokua (Rich.) Bruce<br />
angora (H,G)<br />
lokuc, gura (T)<br />
Loganiaceae<br />
Loganiaceae<br />
Abelomoschus esculentus (L.)<br />
N!oench<br />
Malvaceae<br />
Azanza garkeana(F. Hoffm.)<br />
Exill & Hilla.<br />
aureta (K) Maluaceae<br />
Ekebergiacapensis S,,arrm. limich (A),<br />
ulmaye (G)<br />
Meliaceae<br />
Ficus brachypoda Hutch. kiltu (G) Moraceae<br />
Ficus capreaefoliaDel.<br />
Ficusdharo Del.<br />
beles (T) Moraceae<br />
Moraceae<br />
105.
ABLE II (continued)<br />
icus gnaphalocarpa A. Rich<br />
!cus mallotocarpa Warb.<br />
icus palmata Forsk.<br />
"icu. sycomorus L.<br />
"cus stir Forsk.<br />
F. vasta)<br />
torus inesozygia Stapf<br />
loringa olcifera Lam.<br />
lyzygium guineense (Willd.) DC<br />
Syzygium owariense Benth.<br />
Yimenia americanaL.<br />
Ximenia caffra Sond. var.<br />
caffra<br />
Borassus aethiopum Mart.<br />
Canavaliauirosa (Roxb.)<br />
Weight and J. Am.<br />
ColuteaistriaMill. var.<br />
sericea(Rich.) Gut.<br />
Mucuriapruriens (L.) DC<br />
var. utils (Wall.) Bak. ex<br />
Buruck.<br />
Psophocarpustetragonolobus(L.)<br />
DC<br />
Phyllogeitondiscolor(Koltz.)<br />
Herzog<br />
Ziziphus nauritaniaLam.<br />
(= Z. jujuba Lam.)<br />
Ziziphus spina-christi<br />
(L,) Willd.<br />
CydoniajaponicaLoisl.<br />
Rosa abyssinica R. Br.<br />
Rubus apetalus Poir.<br />
Rubus pinnatus Willd.<br />
Canthium schimperianum Rich,<br />
Canthiumsetiflorumn Hicrn<br />
Canthiurnschimperianum Rich.<br />
Gardeniajovis-tnnantis<br />
(Welw.) Hiern.<br />
Gardenialutca Fresen.<br />
eyna tetraphylla (Schw.<br />
ex Hiern.) Robyns<br />
Nauclea latifolia Smith.<br />
Vangueria linearisepala<br />
K. Schum.<br />
oda (G)<br />
harbu (G)<br />
luga (G)<br />
worka (A), arbu (G)<br />
sholla<br />
shamareza (A)<br />
shanto, satcho (G)<br />
mrongo (Som.)<br />
dokma (A), badessa (G)<br />
duwancho (Sid)<br />
gossu (G)<br />
huda-orome,<br />
baa-orome (G),<br />
enkoye (A)<br />
hude, jalod (G)<br />
gwaye (T)<br />
gob, bheb, jujuba<br />
(Som), Kurkura (GH)<br />
kurkura (G)<br />
gabba (A)<br />
kook (G)<br />
kega (A), gora, gora<br />
(G)<br />
enjori (A), gorra (G)<br />
enjori (A), gora (G)<br />
galo (a), zadak<br />
dadano, satana k'abadu<br />
(G), natanna (Som)<br />
galo (G), zadak (T)<br />
gambella (G)<br />
leldcho (Sid)<br />
hadessa (G)<br />
sina (A), buro (Som)<br />
cabu (Shankila)<br />
Moraceae<br />
Moraceae<br />
Moraceae<br />
Iforaceae<br />
Moraceae<br />
Moraceae<br />
Mforingaceae<br />
Myrtaceae<br />
1Mvrtaceae<br />
Olacaceae<br />
Olacaceae<br />
Palmae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Rhamnaceae<br />
Rhamnaceae<br />
Rhamnaceae<br />
Rosaceae •<br />
Rosaceae<br />
Rosaceae<br />
Rosaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
Rubiaceae<br />
53<br />
106.
54<br />
TABLE II (continued)<br />
DiphasiadainelliiPich-Serm.<br />
Teclea nobilis Del.<br />
lelcho (S), hadessa<br />
hirk'amo (GA)<br />
leldcho (Sid)<br />
hadessa (G), sina (A),<br />
Rutaceae<br />
Rulaceae<br />
Toddalia asiatica(L.) Lam.<br />
Doberaglafbra (Forsk.)<br />
Juss. ex Poir.<br />
Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst.<br />
ex Rich.) Engl.<br />
Aphania enegalensis (Juss. ex<br />
Poir.) Radlk.<br />
Pappeacapensis (Eckl. & Zeyh.)<br />
var. radlkoferi Schinz.<br />
Aningeriaadolfi-friderici<br />
(Engl.) Rob. & Gilb.<br />
Mimusops kummel Bruce ex DC<br />
Physalis perut'iana L.<br />
Solanum alatum Moench<br />
Solanum nigrum L.<br />
buro (Som)<br />
Gao (Sid)<br />
adey (G)<br />
tatessa (G)<br />
lofai (Soni)<br />
sombo (A)<br />
bika (A), bika (G)<br />
adadak (Som)<br />
kararo (G)<br />
gudubo (Sid)<br />
kumel (T), sheye (A)<br />
aut (A,G)<br />
aut (A)<br />
jamule habesha (G)<br />
Rutaceae<br />
Salvadoracea<br />
Sapindaceae<br />
Sapindaceae<br />
Sapindaceae<br />
Sapotaceae<br />
Sapotaceae<br />
Solanaceae<br />
Solanaceae<br />
Solanaceae<br />
Solanum uillosum Miller<br />
Grewia betulifalia Juss.<br />
Grewia bicolor Juss.<br />
tekur-awitt, aut (A)<br />
tunaye (G, Sid)<br />
eka d'alla (G)<br />
haroressa (G)<br />
Solanaceae<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Grewia cerasifera Chiov.<br />
Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori<br />
obha (T)<br />
ammudi (Som)<br />
eka-kovemma (G)<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Tiliaccae<br />
Grewia uillosa Willd.<br />
Duranta repens L.<br />
Lantana camara L.<br />
Lantanatrifolia L.<br />
PremnaresinosaSchauer<br />
Premnasomalensis Baker<br />
ogobedi (G)<br />
kombolcha (A,G)<br />
ye-wofe K'Ollo (A)<br />
hamaressa, K'at'ek'<br />
at'e (G)<br />
hamaressa (A,G)<br />
wurgecha (G)<br />
aurgessa ady (G)<br />
addis-ado (A)<br />
Tiliaceae<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Verbenaceae<br />
Ampelocissus abyssinica H.ec.( Vitaceae<br />
(Rich.) N.E. Brown<br />
Starchy roots and tubers<br />
Botanical name Vernacular name(s) Family<br />
Ampelociss,'s a<br />
Rich.) Pianch.<br />
Arisaema spp.<br />
Sauromatum nubicam Schott.<br />
(S. uenosam (Ait.) Kunth.)<br />
Brachystclma lineare Rich.<br />
ycinica (H.ex bagane (K)<br />
chiche (A)<br />
ambatcha (T)<br />
schido (K)<br />
kolchoma, kude (S)<br />
ambaschia (T)<br />
Araceae<br />
Araceae<br />
Araceae<br />
Asclepiadaceae<br />
107.
,pegia aristolochioides<br />
ae Subsp. aristolochioides<br />
':ulariadaemia (Forsk.)<br />
.Iv.<br />
,inostelma angustaturn<br />
hst. ex. K. Schum.<br />
npanulaedulis Forsk.<br />
.)ha glanduliferaHochst. ex Rich.<br />
mmelina benghalensis L.<br />
.nmelina pyrrhoblepharis Hassk.<br />
inotis barbata Don.<br />
.ohanus sinus L.<br />
.rulluscolocynthis (L.)<br />
hrad.<br />
,ccinia abyssinica W&A<br />
.-perus esculentus L.<br />
ioscorea abyssinica Kunth.<br />
'ioscoreaquartiniana Rich.<br />
lioscoreaschimperianaHoclhst.<br />
"accaleonatopetaloidesL.<br />
ole us edulis Vatke<br />
?oleus lanuginosus Hochst. ex.<br />
3enth.<br />
isparagusabyssinicusHochst.<br />
Oxalis anthelmintica Rich.<br />
Oxalis senuiloba Sond.<br />
Eriosema cordifoliurn Hochst.<br />
ex A. Rich<br />
Vigna uexillata(L) A. Rich<br />
Sphenostylis stanocarpa(Hochst.<br />
ex Rich.) Harms.<br />
Cissus adcnocaulis Steud. ex Rich.<br />
mororo (Som)<br />
schamigge (T)<br />
korroda (K), tennab<br />
(T), dhraoha (Arabic),<br />
corongoiai (Som)<br />
engascelica (A)<br />
yebeglat (A),<br />
mensen (T)<br />
tikur-alem (A)<br />
schanoqot (T).<br />
gara-gumbi (Som)<br />
maschill (T)<br />
birco (T)<br />
gomen zer (A)<br />
ye-mdir-umboye (A)<br />
anchote (G)<br />
ye-ch'aka Boyena<br />
(A, Sid)<br />
zada (T)<br />
ancorumba (G)<br />
aboata<br />
Kaffir potato (Eng.)<br />
andef dif, zommar (T)<br />
michamicho (A)<br />
micha-micho (A,T)<br />
seniko (G)<br />
besheko (T)<br />
selinga (Sid)<br />
bido (Wol)<br />
Asclepiadaceae<br />
Asclepiadaceae<br />
Asclepiadaceae<br />
Asclepiadaceae<br />
Campanulaceae<br />
Canpanulaceae<br />
Commelinaceae<br />
Commelinaceae<br />
Commelinaceae<br />
Cruciferae<br />
Cucurbitaceae<br />
Cucurbitaceae<br />
Cyperaceae<br />
Dioscoreaceae<br />
Dioscoreaceae<br />
Dioscoreaceae<br />
Taccaceae<br />
Labiatae<br />
Labiatae<br />
Liliacead<br />
Oxalidaceae<br />
Oxalidaceae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Papilionaceae<br />
Vitaceae<br />
55<br />
108.
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