BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

1. uONTROL NUMBER 2. SUBJECT CLASSIF! CT:ON (695T 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET PN-AAJ-689 AE30-0000-00o0 

3. TITLE AND SUBTITLE (240) 

Agricultural development present and potential role of edible wild plants, Part II: 

Sub--Saharan Africa 

4. PERSONAL AUTHORS f100) 

Grivetti, L. E. 

5. CORPORATE AUTHORS (. 1) 

Calif. Univ., Davis. 

6. DOCUMENT DATE (110) 

1980 

9. REFERENCE ORGANIZA. iV (130) 

Calif. --Day 

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES (500) 

7.NUMER 

l47p. 

(Part I, Central ard South America and the Caribbean 

East Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania : PN-AAJ-690) 

11. ABSTRACT (950) 

OF PAGES (120) 8. ARC NUMBER (1I0 

631.54.G872 

: PN-AAJ--688; Part III, India, 

12. DESCRIPTORS (920) 13. PROJL'T NUMBER (150) 

Africa South of Sahara 

Agricui.tural deve.opment 

Plants 

Food supply 

AID 590-7 (10-79) 

Diets 

Wild plants .. 14. CONTRACT NO.(]1) 

AIDi'OTR-147-80--87 

16. TYPE OF DOCUMENT (160? 

1. CONTRACT 

TYPE (140)

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND POTENTIAL 

ROLE OF EDIBLE WILD PLANTS 

PART II 

SUB-SAHAIRAN AFRICA 

November 1980

REPORT TO THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 

AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND POTENTIAL 

ROLE OF EDIBLE WILD PLANTS 

PART 2 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

by 

Louis Evan Grivetti 

Departments of Nutrition and Geography 

University of California 

Davis, California 95616 

With the Research Assistance of: 

Christina J. Frentzel 

Karen E. Ginsberg 

Kristine L. Howell 

Britta M. Ogle 

1980

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION ------ 1. i------------- 

M[ETHODS ------ 2. 

WILD PLANTS AS HUMAN FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Introduction to the Region and Theme --------- 3. 

Introduction to Botanical Resources for Sub-Saharan Africa ---------- 9. 

West Africa: General ---- --------- - --- ---- 20. 

West Afriza: Botanical/Dietary Data by State 

Page 

Senegal 21. 

Mali 21. 

Ghana 21. 

Nigeria 22. 

Cameroons 23. 

Zaire (Congo) ------- 23. 

East Africa: General --------------------- 35. 

East Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State 

Chad-Sudan-Ethiopia-Somaliland 35. 

Uganda ---------- ----------- 37. 

Kenya 38. 

Tanzania (Tanganyika; Zanzibar) 39. 

South Africa: General 51. 

South Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State 

Swaziland-Lesotho-Malawi-Mozambique 51. 

Zimbabwi (Southern Rhodesia) and Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) --- 52. 

Republic of South Africa 54.

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED) 

WILD PLANTS AS HUMAN FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (CONTINUED) 

South Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State (Continued) 

Page 

Republic of Botswana 58. 

DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS ------------------------- 82. 

RECOMMENDATIONS --------------- ------------------ -- 86. 

APPENDICES 

1. Sub-Saharan Africa Search Request ---------------- 88. 

2. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Being an Appendix 

to the Flora of West Tropical Africa by J. Hutchinson and J. 

M. Dalziel: Sample Page and Sample Index 89. 

3. Woody Plants of Ghana. With Special Reference to Their Use, by 

F. R. Irvine: Sample F3ges ------------------------ 91. 

4. The Role of Wild Plants in the Native Diet in Ethiopia, by Amare 

Getahun: Table II, Wild Edible Plants of Ethiopia ---------- 102. 

REFERENCES CITED --------- ---- ------------ ------ 109.

TABLES 

1. Library Research Organizational Plan ----- 12 

2. Classification of African Cultivated Plants by Type and Origin -------- 13 

3. Wild Edible Foods of /Gwi and //Gana Bushmen ------------- 14 

4. Plants Used by Bushmen in Obtaining Food and Water --------------- 15 

5. Nutrient Composition of Some Edible Wild Fruits; Transvaal, 

Republic of South Africa ----------- 16 

6. Staple Wild Plants and Famine Foods of the Sandawe------ 17 

7. Edible Wild Plants of Zanzibar and Pemba --------------- 19 

8. Supplementary and Emergency Wild Food Plants of West Africa ----------- 24 

9. Edible Semi-Cultivated Leaves of West Africa --------------- 29 

10. Edible Wild Plants from Bamako, Mali ------------------ 30 

11. Nutritive Value of Some Ghanaian Edible Wild Plants --------------- 31 

12. Indigenous Wild Edible Plants of Nigeria ----------------- ---- 32 

13. Edible Wild Plants, Benin, Nigeria ------------ 33 

14. Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms, Upper-Shaba, Zaire ---- 34 

15. Edible Wild Plants of the Zaghawa, Sudan and Chad ----------- 41 

16. Indigenous Edible Wild Plants, West Nile and Madi Districts, Uganda --- 42 

17. Edible Wild Plants of the Masai and Kipsigis, Kenya --------- 44 

18. Indigenous Plants Used as Food by East African Coastal Fishermen ------ 47 

19. Edible Wild Plants, Shinyanga District, Sukumaland, Tanzania --- 49 

20. Edible Wild Plants, Lushoto District, Tanzania ---- 50 

21. Swazi Edible Wild Plants ------------------- 64 

22. Edible Wild Plants of the baSotho --------------------- 65 

23. Edible Wild Plants of Malawi ---------------- 66 

24. Gwembe Tonga Edible Wild Plants, Zambia -------- 70 

Page

TABLES (CONTINUED) 

25. Xhosa Edible Wild Plants, Transkei, Republic of South Africa ---------- 74 

26. Pedi Edible Wild Plants, Republic of South Africa ----- 75 

27. Nutritional Value of Selected Edible Wild Plants, Natal, Republic 

of South Africa ------------------------------------------------ 76 

28. Anti-Pellagragenic Properties of Selected Edible Wild Plants, Natal, 

Republic of South Africa ------------------------ 77 

29. Edible Wild Cucumbers (Cucurbitaceae) of Botswana and Selected 

iv. 

Page 

Kalahari Edible Species 78 

30. Edible Wild Plants Used by the Moshaweng Tlokwa, Botswana ------ 79 

31. Comparative Utilization of Edible Wild Plants: Agro-Pastoral 

Moshaweng Tlokwa and !Kung, /Gwi, =/Kade San, and !Xo 

Bushman Societies ------------------ -------- 81

INTRODUCTION 

Before domestication of plants and animals all humans lived as hunter 

gatherers. The agricultural revolution, first in China and Southeast Asia at 

least 20,000 years ago, radically altered human economic systems and food pat 

terns, permitting the development of agricultural, pastoral, and ultimately 

urban societies. While domesticated plants allowed expansion of human activi 

ties, with associated social and technological developments, domestication 

also initiated a basic human nutritional paradox. As reliance upon domesti 

cated foods increases, dietary diversity and food selection diminishes -- as 

food selection diminishes, the probability that all essential nutrients can be 

obtained from the diet also diminishes. 

While principle efforts in agricultural development, heretofore, have been 

directed toward improving productivity -- not the diversification of domesticat 

ed plants and animals -- a major question may be posed: can nutritionally im 

portant wild plants offer a legitimate focus for development research? Recent 

reports by Doughty (1979a;1979b), National Research Council/National Academy of 

Sciences (1975; 1979), Nietschmann (1971), Pirie (1962; 1969a; 1969b), Robson 

(1976), von Reis (1973), and Wilkes (1977) suggest that substantial economic and 

nutritional gains can be achieved by increasing dietary utilization of wild 

plants. 

Such suggestions form the objective of this report, to explore the role 

wild plants already play in human diet in Sub-Saharan Africa. To accomplish 

this objective three goals are established: 1) document dietary uses for wild 

plants, using published accounts of the past 150 years, 2) identify the relative 

dietary-nutritional importance of selected species, and 3) examine the research

potential for such species within the context of agricultural development as 

part of existing USAID themes of improving agriculture and nutrition in Third 

World nations. 

Basic study questions associated with these objectives may be identified. 

In regions or societies where wild plants are used as human food, are the plants 

central or peripheral to maintaining dietary quality? Is their use seasonally 

important, or is utilization common throughout the agricultural year? Do wild 

species complement or duplicate energy and nutrients obtained from domesticated 

field crops? What role do wild plants have in maintaining nutritional quality 

of diet during drought and periods of associated social unrest? Should research 

on dietary wild plants be sponsored directly by USAID within the context of 

agricultural development, or be assigned a low USAID priority? 

METHODS 

This contract, awarded September 1980, was designed for library research 

only; no field surveys or correspondence with appropriate governmental agencies 

were initiated due to time and financial constraints. Four assistants trained 

in library research-retrieval methods were employed to assist the principal 

investigator. One computer literature-retrieval search was coordinated using 

DIALOG/AIRS systems available through the Peter J. Shields library, University 

of California, Davis. This system, drawing from a publication data base exceed 

ing 12 million articles is a cross-tabulation process whereby key words associat 

ed with wild plant use in diet were matched with respective countries of Sub- 

Saharan Africa (Appendix 1). The literature search using the DIALOG/AIRS system 

was disappointing, yielding less than twenty suitable references. Accordingly, 

a standard literature search on dietary wild plants was initiated using a method 

ology outlined in Table 1. Basic anthropological, botanical, geographical, 

2.

medical, nutritional, and sociological journals appropriate to each country 

were scanned for the years 1975-1980. Any journal containing one article 

appropriate to the topic of human utilization of wild plants as food during 

the most recent five years was scanned chronologically to volume 1; if no* 

suitable article appeared within the survey period, the journal was not 

further inspected. 

Each article identified was read, reference cards prepared, and coded 

for region, country, ethnic group, and specific plants utilized. Information 

was summarized on index cards to permit rapid assembly of data. Data 

presented in subsequent sections of this report are arranged by general region 

then by specific reports on pla-Lt use within each country. The accounts 

are quite diverse and time of publication is not the criterion of quality; stme 

accounts are merely passing reference to human dietary use of wild plants while 

others provide detailed botanical documentation by Latin terminology. Still 

others give nutritional information on the vitamins and minerals by plant species. 

Following the presentation of information on wild plant use as human food 

in Sub-Saharan Africa will be a summary and recommendations. 

WILD PLANTS AS HUMAN FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

Introduction to the Region and Theme 

The question of food production within the tropics and the interrelation 

ships between domesticated and wild species has long attracted botanists and 

social scientists (Anderson, 1952). At first inspection it appears easy to 

distinguish wild from domesticated species; cultivated from uncultivated; diet 

ary from non-dietary species. On close examinatiun, however, these semantical 

boundaries become blurred. Numerous wild plants are carefully cultivated; 

former domesticated species may dot long abandoned humah settlements; and many 

3.

medicinal plants are ingested, providing important nutritional returns. Thus, 

any approach to understanding the interrelationships between dietary roles of 

wild or domesticated species must be carefully documented, especially given the 

long historical-archaeological history of plant use exhibited in Sub-Saharan 

Africa. 

The relationships between cultivated field crops, forest-bush destruction, 

and dietary use of domesticated and wild food resources are considered in depth 

by several writers on African agrarian, agricultural systems, among them Allan 

(1965), de Schlippe (1956), Gourou (1955), and McLoughlin (1970). All consider 

patterns of variation within shifting cultivation systems and address the question 

whether technological change automatically improves food sufficiency. Theynote 

that under tropical conditions shifting cultivation -- a mixed blessing -- has 

generally provided substantial quantities of food and permitted maintainence of 

quality human nutrition. 

Other writers have examined African food production systems throughout the 

tropical regions of the continent. Some, like Schnell (1957), Murdock (1960), 

Jones (1961), and Joy (1966), have described dietary patterns and food resources 

whereas others, among them Githens and Wood (1943), Baker (1949), Lagercrantz 

(1950), and Jardin (1967), have focused on regional patterns of food intake. 

It is the view of this writer, however, that any examination of African 

food systems must consider the processes associated with plant and animal do 

mestication as well as the shift from hunting-gathering to agriculture. Current 

evidence advanced by Chang (1973; 1977), Solheim (1971), and Gorman (1969) sug 

gests domestication of plants first evolved in east China, subsequently in the 

Middle East and Africa. Whatever the dates, direction, or impetus for domesti 

cation, two regions of Africa must be considered early centers of agricultural 

activity; the Egyptian Nile valley and highland Ethiopia. Murdock (1959, pp. 

4.

64-77) advanced a third region in West Africa, among the ancestors of the 

Nuclear Mande peoples. 

Archaeological data documenting early human use of wild plants as food 

and the subsequent shift to cultivation in Africa have been summarized by 

Clark (1959; 1960; 1962; 1968) and Seddon (1968, pp. 489-494). Murdock (1959, 

pp. 17-24) presents a synthesis of African food patterns based on domesticat 

ed plants that reached Africa from four geographical sources: Southwest Asia, 

Southeast Asia, Europe, and the New World (Table 2). Other authors, specifical 

ly Greenway (1944a; 1944b), Goodwin (1939), and Mc1aster (1963), have reviewed 

the geographical origins and dispersals of non-African foods and their result 

ing nutritional role in Eastern and Southern Africa. 

The most important archaeological record of food in Africa has been reveal 

ed along the Nile Valley where recent suggestions by Wendorf et aL (1970) and 

Wendorf et al. (1979) show wild cereals used as human food at least by 19,000 

B.C. in the vicinity of southern Egypt/northern Sudan. There, human use of wild 

barley, teff, and other cereals with associated tool technologies, suggests a 

shift from gathering to insipient agriculture. Such early archaeological data 

become soundly based with research on wild and domesticated plant foods utiliz 

ed by the pre-dynastic ancient Egyptians (before 3200 B.C.) and subsequent mono 

graphs outlining dietary use of wild and domesticated plants throughout the 

historical periods of Egyptian civilization. Of specific importance in assembl 

ing the ancient data on wild and domesticated plant use are monographs by 

Daressy (1922) on wild rice; Keimer (1924) on Egyptian garden plants; Lauer et 

al. (1951) on early cereals associated with the site of Saqqara; Loret (1886; 

1892; 1893) on the plant foods used by the ancient Egyptians; Ruffer 

(1919) on the diet and nutritional status of the Egyptians; Schweinfurth (1873; 

5.

1883) on diet and plants in ancient Egypt; and research by Unger (1860) and 

b6nig(1886) on the plants known, named, and used by the ancient Egyptians 

(see also Darby et al., 1977, Vols. 1 and 2). 

The aridity of the Nile valley protected t-b archaeological remains of 

ancient plant foods and the dry zones of West Africa also provide a wealth 

of information on Medieval African diet and the use of wild plants. Lewicki 

(1963; 1974) identified early travel accounts by Arab geographers and physicians 

noting use throughout much of West Africa wild grasses as human food, namely 

Panicum turgidum, Sorghum virgatum, Poa abyssinica, Eragrostis spp., Cenchrus 

echinatus, and Pennisetum distichum. Lewicki also notes Medieval use of se 

veral West African wild fruits, specifically Blighia sapida, Adansonia digitata, 

Balanites aegyptica, Hyphaene thebaica, Ziziphus jujuba, Ziziphus mauritiana, 

Ziziphus spina-Christi, Ziziphus mauritiana, Ampelocissus bakeri, wild forms of 

Phoenix dactylifera, and numerous unidentified "truffles". Parallel data on 

the use of domesticated and wild plants as food for the Egyptian Nile valley 

have been gathered by Schweinfurth (1888; 1912). 

Existing in the 20th century and forming a bridge between the archaeological 

data on wild plants and any understanding of the shift from gathering to plant 

domestication are numerous African societies still living as hunter-gatherers. 

Hunter-gatherer ethnobotanical/dietary utilization of wild plants has attracted 

botanists, physicians, and social scientists for nearly one hundred years, es 

pecially on the Bushman societies of southern Africa. Early research on wild 

dietary plants use by Bushmen was conducted by Stow (1910, pp. 44-45, 54-61) 

and Theal (1910, pp. 36-38), with subsequent notes by Dornan (1925, pp. 114 

123), Fourie (1928, pp. 98-103), Schapera (1930, pp. 91-102, 127-147), and 

Dunn (1931, pp. 28-31). These early works, however, focused on nutritional 

6.

odditities of Bushman diet and must be considered ethnocentric in organization 

when evaluating the dietary role of wild plants. 

Systematic examination of the dietary ecological relationships between 

wild plants, seasonality, and Bushman nutritional status stem from the report 

of Tobias (1956) alerting social scientists to field research opportunities 

on these Kalahari peoples. Subsequently, teams of social scientists and phy 

sicians have spent nearly twenty-five years conducting work on Bushman food 

habits, the quest for food, and nutritional status. Many of these reports are 

classic and deserve mention in any assessment of cultural nutrition, especial 

ly accou-its by Thomas (1959, pp. 102-113), Marshall (1960; 1961), and Lee (1965; 

1968; 1969), who worked among !Kung Bushman populations describing food procure 

ment strategies during wet and dry years, social division of scarce plant food 

resources, and ultimately examining the associations between sound Bushman diet 

and good health.(see also J. Tanaka, 1976). 

Other important research on wild plants used by Bushman societies of the 

Kalahari has been conducted by Heinz and Maguire (1974) and Heinz (1975) on the 

!Xo Bushman and that by Silberbauer (1965) and Tanaka (1969) on the /Gwi and 

//Gana Bushmen of the central Kalahari (Table 3). 

Medical-nutritional research on Bushman societies of southern Africa has 

also focused on the dietary role played by wild plant foods in maintaining 

adequate nutrition during periods of drought and environmental stress. Early 

research blending botany-medicine-nutrition was conducted by Maingard (1937), 

Brock and Bronte-Stewart (1960), Bronte-Stewart and Brock (1960), Truswell and 

Hansen (1968), Truswell et al. (1969), Truswell (1977), and Wilmsen (1978). 

Central to these works is the theme of sound Bushman diet and a Bushman economy 

based on wild plant consumption. Perhaps the most important of the nutritional 

7.

eports, however, is that by Metz et al. (1971) documenting clearly that rapid 

acculturation may lead to serious deterioration of health and nutritional 

status and suggesting that dietary deficiencies may have resulted initially 

(historically) after the shift from hunting-gathering to agrarian food pro 

duction. 

Complementing these cultural and medical-nutritional accounts of Bushman 

hunter-gatherers are reports providing nutritional data on the composition of 

wild plants used by these Kalahari peoples. Story (1958) presents information 

on more than seventy species (Table 4) while subsequent work by Wehmeyer (1966; 

1971) and Wehmeyer et al. (1969) includes information on six important wild 

foods and suggests that they be examined closely for potential economic/nutritional 

reward: Sclerocarya caffra (high in ascorbic acid and protein), Ricinodendron 

rautanenii (high in ascorbic acid and protein), Adansonia digita:.ta (high in 

ascorbic acid and protein), Bauhinia esculenta (high in protein), Carissa 

marcocarpa (high in ascorbic acid), and Vigna dinteri (high in calories) (Table 

5). Augmenting these reports is the important paper by Lee (1973) on mongongo 

(Ricinodendron rautanenii) and its dietary role in !Kung Bushman diet -- a role 

that casts serious doubt on the validity of the theme "Man the Hunter" and ele 

vates t'e important roles played by "Woman the Gatherer". 

Elsewhere in East Africa researchers have investigated the dietary role 

of wild plants in ot' hunter-gatherer societies. Newman (1970; 1975) con 

ducted basic research on the wild plants used by Sandawe hunters (Table 6), a 

topic also reviewed by Porter (1979, p. 70). In addition to identifying the 

basic wild staples of Sandawe, Newman noted important "famine" foods, plants 

consumed on: ing drought or periods of social distress that provide impor 

8.

tant nutrients and calories to diet, specifically Ceropegia spp., Coccinia 

trilobata, Commiphora caerulea, Dactyloctenium giganteum, Panicum hetero 

stachyum , Rynchosia comosa, and Thylachium africanum. 

Woodburn (1962-1963) provided vernacular terms for the edible wild plants 

used by Tindiga hunters while Tomita (1966) and Woodburn (1968; 1970; 1972) 

focused on the ecological-dietary relationships between wild plants and diet 

of Hadza (Hadzapi) bands, noting snecific use of Cordia gharaf, Cordia oralis, 

Grewia bicolor, Grewia villosa, Momordica spp., 0pilia spp., and Salradora 

persiea. 

Introduction to Botanical Resources for Sub-Saharan Africa 

Information on African botany is extensive. Most accounts provide not 

only taxonomic data, but include information on cultural uses, even dietary 

data. Many botanical texts, especially those by Hendrick (1919), Upton (1968), 

U3her (1974), and Tanaka (1976), consider the African continent, providing data 

on nearly 15,000 plants utilized by humans! Other resources, however, are more 

regional or thematic in orientation. 

The botany of West and Central Africa is especially well documented. Im 

portant contributions to West Africa as a region have been made by Irvine (1952a), 

Dalziel (1937), Hutchinson and Dalziel (1954; 1963; 1968), Lawson (1966), van 

Eijnatten (1968), Pille (1962), and Busson (1965) and Busson and Lunven (1963) 

(see Appendix 2). Specific country/national accounts providing detailed notes 

on edible wild plants have been produced by Berhaut (1954; 1967) for Senegal; 

Boughey (1955) on eastern Nigeria (Biafra) and by Holland (1922) on Nigeria; 

Chipp (1913) on the Ashanti territory of northern Ghana (Gold Coast) and Irvine 

(1960) on Ghana (see Appendix 3); Deighton (1957) on Sierra Leone; Percival 

(1968) on Gambia; Savonnet (1973) on Upper Volta; Williams'(1969) on Dahomey; 

and Sillans (1953) and Thomaq (19,1) on the Central African Republic, 

9.

Turning to East Africa, important botanical monographs may be noted for 

Kenya by Greenway (1937) and Dale and Greenway (1961). Eggeling and Dale (1951) 

have written on the botany of Uganda, while Williams (1949) (Table 7) and 

Fleuret (1979a; 1979b) have contributed extensively to the botany of Tanzania. 

Getahun (1974) produced a major work on the ethnobotany of Ethiopia, identi 

fying numerous edible wild plants (Appendix 4). 

The botany of Southern Africa has been especially well described. The classic 

work of Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) provides accounts of several thousand 

medicinal and toxic species (many consumed regularly as food), while Wilde et al. 

(1967) has identified the principal plants common throughout the Zambesi basin, 

a botanical zone extending through northern Botswana and South Africa, Zambia, 

Zimbabwe, and Malawi. 

Botanical monographs, with notes on edible food, have been produced by 

1972) 

Williamson (19551/and Binns (1976) for Malawi (Nyasaland) and for Zimbabwe 

(Rhodesia) by Orpen (1951) and Wilde (1952). The landlocked states of Lesotho 

(Basutoland) and Swaziland have been described, respectively, by Phillips (1918) 

and Compton (1966). 

Turning specifically to Botswana (Bechuanaland) the Kalahari and eastern 

thorn-bush grasslands have been research localities for numerous botanists and 

notes or monographs on economic plant use have been published by Miller (1952), 

Norton (1923), van Rensburg (1971; 1971b), Weare (1971), and Weare and Yalala 

(1971). A checklist of common Botswana plants (many edible) was compiled by 

an individual known only by his initials (REHA, 1966); this list was consulted 

by the present Triter when conducting field work in Botswana, 1973-1975, and 

is available through the Btswana National Archives. 

10.

The Republic of South Africa is also well represented by national and 

regional botanical publications. General works that include notes an wild 

plant use include those by Chippindall (n.d.) on wild grasses; de Winter et 

al. (1966) and Stapleton (1937) on trees of the Transvaal; and the work of 

Phillips (1938) on common weeds of South Africa (many with edible portions). 

Overviews of South African botanical regions may be obLained from Hutchinson 

(1946) while Zulu terminology for edible and non-edible species has been 

collected by Gerstner (1939). Other botanists have especially focused on 

1941), 

plant toxicology, for example Smith (1895) and Steyn (1934;/ who investi 

gated the toxic effects of many plants commonly consumed as dietary components 

by citizens of South Africa.

TABLES 1 - 7 FOLLOW 

TEXT RESUMES ON PAGE 20 

lla.

TABLE 1. Library Research Organizational Plan 

LITERATURE SOURCES 

TOPIC 

(Dietary Use of Wild Plants) 

STUDY REGIONS 

1) Central America, South America, Caribbean 

2) Sub-Saharan Africa 

3) South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania 

TIME CONSTRAINT: THREE WEEKS PER EACH REGION FOR LIBRARY RESEARCH 

PERSONNEL ASSIGNMENTS 

Research Assistant 1: works concerning anthropology and geography 

by study region 

Research Assistant 2: works concerning botany by study region 

Research Assistant 3: wor.ks of medical-nutritional content by 

study region 

Research Assistant 4: works of a regional nature that contain 

botanical, cultural, or mEdical-nutritional 

information 

1. General journals (multi-disciplinary) 

2. General books (multi-disciplinary) 

3. Specific journals (by discipline, study region, and country) 

4. Specific books (by discipline, study region, and country) 

5. Bibliographies (by discipline, study region, and country) 

6. Dissertations/Theses (by discipline, study region, and country) 

7. Abstract services (by discipline): Anthropology Abstracts; Food Science 

Abstracts; Geographical Abstracts; Nutrition Abstracts; World 

Agriculture, Economics, and Sociology Abstracts 

8. Current Contents (natural sciences. and social sciences) 

9. Science Citation Index (examination by key word; key word selected by 

topic, sub-theme, region, and country) 

10. Index Medicus (examination by key word; key word selected by topic, sub 

theme, region, and country) 

12.

TABLE 2. Classification of African Cultivated Plants by Type and Origin 

GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE 

TYPE W. Africa Ethiopia SW Asia SE Asia Americas 

Cereal grains Fonio Eleusine Barley Rice Maize 

Pearl millet 

Sorghum 

Legumes Cow pea Broad bean Gram bean Haricot 

Chick pea Hyacinth beau 

Lentil bean Lima bean 

Pea Pigeon pea 

Sword bean 

Tubers and Coleus Ensete Beet Taro Malanga 

root crops Earth pea Chufa Yam Manioc 

Geocarpa Onion Peanut 

bean Radish Sweet potato 

Guinea yam 

Leaf and stalk Okra Cress Cabbage Jew's 

vegetables Lettuce mallow 

Vine and ground Fluted Grape Cucumber Pineapple 

fruits pumpkin Melon Eggplant Pumpkin 

Gourd Squash 

Watermelon Tomato 

Tree fruits Akee Date palm BanaLa Avocado 

Tamarind Fig Coconut Papaya 

Pomegranate palm 

Mango 

Condiments and Kola Coffee Coriander Ginger Cacao 

indulgents Roselle Fenugreek Garlid Hemp Red pepper 

Kat Opium Sugarcane Tobacco 

Textile plants Ambary Flax Cotton 

Oil plants Oil palm Castor oil Olive 

Sesame Remtil Rape 

SOURCE: Murdock (1959, p. 23) 

13.

TABLE 3. Wild Edible Foods of /Gwi and //Gana Bushmen 

Latin Terminology 

Citrullus lanatus 

Citrullus naudinanus 

Cucumis anguria 

Cucumis kalahariensis 

Coccinia rehmannii 

Raphionacme burkei 

Bauhinia macrantha 

Ochna pulchra 

Scilia spp. 

Aloe zebrina 

Grewia flava 

Grewia retinervis 

Terfezia spp. 

Grewia avellana 

Ximenia caffra 

Bauhinia esculenta 

Strophanthus spp. 

Brachystelma spp. 

Strychnos cocculoides 

Talinum crispatulum 

Talinum tenuissimum 

Oxygonum latum 

Vigna longiloba 

Kedrostis foetidiosima 

Corallocarpus bainesii 

Caralluma krobelii 

Vigna parviflora 

SOURCE: Tanaka (1969, pp. 6-7)

TABLE 4. Plants Used by Bushmen in Obtaining Food and Water 


Acacia detinens Lannea edulis var glabrescens 

Acacia dulcis Mariscus congestus 

Acacia fleckii Momordica balsamina 

Acacia giraffae Ochna pulchra 

Acacia heteracantha Ophioglossum sarcophyllum 

Acacia unci-ata Pentarrhinum insipidum 

Adansonia digitata Pollichia campestris 

Aloe rubrolutea Raphionacme burkei 

Aloe zebrina Rhigozum brevispinosum 

Bauhinia esculenta Rhus commiphoroides 

Bauhinia macrantha Ricinodendron rautanenii 

Boscia albitrunca Royena sericea 

Burkea africana Sansevieria scabrifolia 

Cavalluma knobelii Sarcostemma viminale 

Catophractes alexandri Scilla cf. lancifolia 

Ceropegia tentaculata Sclerocarya caffra 

Ceropegia cf. leucotaenia Stapelia kwebensis 

Ceropegia cf. lugardae Strychnos cocculoides 

Ceropegia cf. mozambicensis Strychnos pungens 

Citrullus naudinianus Talinum arnotii 

Citrullus vulgaris Terfezia spp. 

Coccinia rehmanii Terminalia sericea 

Coccinia sessilifolia Typha capensis 

Combretum apiculatum Vigna dinteri 

Combretum coriaceum Vigna triloba 

Combretum imberbe Walleria nutans 

Commiphora pyracanthoides Ximenia americana var. microphylla 

Corallocarpus sphaerocarpus Ximenia caffra 

Corallocarpus welwitschii Ziziphus mucronata 

Cucumis hookeri 

Cucumis metuliferus 

Dichapetalum cymosum 

Dipcadi spp. 

Duvalia polita 

Ehretia rigida 

Eulophia cf. pillansii 

Eulophia spp. 

Fockea spp. 

Grewia avellana 

Grewia flava 

Grewia flavescens 

Grewia retinervis 

Grewia cf. bicolor 

Hydnora spp. 

Hyphaene ventricosa 

Ipomoea verbascoidea 

SOURCE: Story (1958, pp. 114-115) 

15.

TABLE 5. Nutrient Composition of Some Edible Wild Fruits; Transvaal, Republic 

of South Africa 

Species 100 gms mg. edible portion 

Protein Ca Fe Thiamin Riboflavin N. acid+ Vit. C 

Bequaertiodendron 0.9 20.0 0.69 0.07 0.03 1.64 14.1 

magalismontanum 

Sclerocarya caffra 0.5 6.2 0.10 0.03 0.05 0.25 67.9 

Landolphia capensis 1.0 11.1 0.34 0.03 0.53 1.89 60.1 

Strychnos pungens 1.6 45.5 0.91 2.74 1.85 1.78 21.9 

Carissa macrocarpa 0.5 22.6 0.56 0.08 0.08 0.31 74.1 

Adansonia digitata 3.0 387.0 2.20 0.57 0.16 1.78 213.0 

Ximenia caffra 3.1 5.9 0.20 0.04 0.04 0.81 22.5 

Dovyalis caffra 0.4 4.8 0.14 0.01 0.05 0.30 17- 

Coccinia sessilifolia 2.1 17.9 0.20 0.19 0.13 538.0 

SOURCE: Wehmeyer (1966, p. 1103) 

16.

TABLE 6. Staple Wild Plants and Famine Foods of the Sandawe 

Latin Terminology Portion Used Seasonality 

STAPLE WILD SPECIES 

Adansoila digitata Pulp; seeds Year round 

Berchemia discolor Fruit March-May 

Boscia mossambicensis Fruit November-December 

Brachystegia spiciformis Seeds January-April 

Bussea massaiensis Seeds August-November 

Canthirum burtii Fruit April-May 

Cissus trothae Fruit February-March 

Cordia ovalis Fruit February-March 

Cordia rothii Fruit February-March 

Cyphostemma knittelli Fruit January 

Delonix elata Seeds June-October 

Erythrococca antrovirens Seeds February-April 

Ficus fischeri Fruit April-May 

Ficus hochstetteri Fruit April-May 

Ficus sycmorus Fruit June-August 

Grewia bicolor Fruit April-May 

Grewia holstii Fruit April-November 

Grewia mollis Fruit March 

Grewia platyclada Fruit June-July 

Grewia similis Fruit March-April 

Haplocoelum foliolosum Fruit March-April 

Hydnora johannis Pulp December-May 

Kedrostis hirtella Fruit January-April 

Lannea floccosa Fruit March-May 

Lannea stuhlmanni Fruit March-May 

Maerua edulis Fruit January-April 

Momordica rostrata Fruit Year round 

Neorantenenia pseudo-pachyriza Pods March 

Opilia campestris Fruit February-March 

Peponium boqelii Fruit January-October 

Pouzolzia parasitica Leaves December-January 

Sclerocarya birrea Nuts April-May 

Strychnos innocua Fruit November-January 

Tapiphyllum floribundum Fruit April-May 

Vagueria acutiloba Fruit Year round 

Vangueria tomentosa Fruit Year round 

Ximenia americana Fruit Year round 

Ximenia caffra Fruit November-February 

Ziziphus mucronata Fruit November-December 

17.


FAMINE FOODS 

Ceropegia spp. 

Coccinia trilobata 

Commiphora caerulea 

Dactyloctenium giganteum 

Panicum heterostachyum 

Rynchosia comosa 

Thylachium africanum 

Vigna sp. 

SOURCE: Newman (195, pp. 36, 38). 

TABLE 6 (CONTINUED) 

Portion Used 

Roots 

Leaves 

Roots 

Seeds 

Roots 

Roots 

Roots 

Roots 

Seasonality 

During drought 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

18.

TABLE 7. Edible Wild Plants of Zanzibar and Pemba 

Latin Terminology Traditional Name Portion Used 

Dolichos spp. Bonavist Bean Seed 

Tacca spp. African Arrowroot Tuber 

Typhonodorum spp. Mgombakofi Tuber 

Adansonia digitata Baobab Leaves, shoots, 

fruits 

Amaranthus spp. Mchicha Leaf 

Cassia tora Kunde nyika Leaf 

Celosia spp. Mfungu Leaf 

Cleome strigosa Mwaangu Leaf 

Commelina spp. Kongwa Leaf 

Gynandropsis gynandra Mchicha Leaf 

Ipomoea reptans Mriba wa ziwa Leaf 

Jacquemontia tamnifolia Kikopwe Leaf 

Lobelia spp. Kisambare Leaf 

Moringa spp. Mronge Seeds, leaves 

Sesuvium spp. Mboga wa pwani Shoots 

Stachytarpheta Vervain Leaves 

Afromomum spp. Wild cardamom Seeds 

Cordia spp. Mkamasi Fruit 

Moringa spp. Mronge Root 

Bauhinia thonningii Mkuungo Pods 

Borassus spp. Mvumo Fruit 

Brexia madagascariensis Mfukufuku Fruit 

Eugenia cumini Java plum Fruit 

Landolphia spp. Mbungo Fruit 

Parinarium Mbura Fruit, kernels 

Zizyphus spp. Mkunazi Fruit 

Argemone spp. Mexican poppy Seeds 

Cassia occidentalis Wild coffee Seeds 

SOURCE: Williams (1949, pp. 39-44). 

19.

West Africa: General 

General accounts of agricultural. practices, food, diet, and nutrition for 

West Africa are numerous. Among the more important monographs on ethnobotany 

is that by Dalziel (1937), identifying more than one hundred wild edible plants 

with extensive data on the non-nutritional economic uses for thousands of West 

African plants (Appendix 2). The text by Johnston (1958) on food economies of 

West Africa is essential to understanding the agricultural-dietary-economic 

practices of the region, while more recent agro-economic resources by Tindall 

and Sai (1965) and Sai (1969) identify more than one hundred of the most common 

food resources encountered in West Africa. Regional accounts of diet and nut 

rition have been prepared for the nations of West Africa by May (1965; 1968) 

and May and McLellan (1970). 

The most siginificant references on edible wild plants common to West Africa 

stem from Irvine (1948a; 1948b) who identified more than one hundred species, 

providing important cultural and nutritional data on each. Irvine (1952a; 1952b) 

expanded this important earlier work to document famine foods regularly consum 

ed during periods of drought that possessed nutritionally sustaining properties 

(Table 8). Irvine (1956) continued his intensive research on edible wild plants 

of West Africa and produced amother monograph identifying more than 150 leafy 

plants serving regularly as food (Table 9). 

Specific accounts of wild foods include those by Hepper (1963) on dietary 

use of wild Kerstingiella spp. (Kersting's groundnut) and wild Voandzeia spp. 

(Bambara groundnut) long used throughout West Africa as a dietary component. 

Nzekwu (1961) presented a general botanical overview of the kola nut, while 

Adam (1969) identified the baobab fruit as high in ascorbic acid. An early 

account by Walker (1931) identified the edible mushrooms of Gabon. 

20.

West Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State 

Senegal 

Gamble (1957, p. 38), writing on the Wolof of Senegal, noted that 

children consume many wild fruits but did not identify the species. Toury 

(1961) provided minimal nutrient data on the composition of regional plant 

foods, while de Garine (1962), writing on the Wolor and Serer, commented 

briefly on the dietary role of wild plants but provided no identifications. 

Mali 

An important contribution by Diarra (1977) identified numerous 

species of edible plants common to the region near Bamako (Table 10). 

Ghana 

The dietary role of edible wild plants in Ghana was discussed by 

Chipp (1913) who identified nineteen edible species with no comment. Irvine 

(1961), however, identified more than seven hundred commonly used wild plants 

from Ghana and provided the nutritional composition for more than eighty (for 

an example of his work see Appendix 3). Adansi (1970, pp. 207-210) provided 

botanical/chemical data on three wild plants with unusual taste properties; 

Synsepalum dulcificum (magic berry) that makes sweet foods taste sour and sour 

foods sweet, while Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii and Thaumatococcus danielli are 

800-1500 times more sweet than sucrose. Watson (1971), writing on the nutri 

tional composition of selected foods from Ghana, reports protein and mineral 

values for exceptional wild species (Table 11). 

Information on the cultural-food data in Ghana stems from the work 

of Fortes and Fortes (1936) on the food practices of the Tallensi, with special 

reference to four widely consumed wild plants: Butyrospermum parkii, Parkia 

filicordea, Adansonia digitata, and Celtis integrifolia. 

21.

Byers (1961), working on leaf protein concentrate in Ghana, re 

states the commonly accepted view that LPC can contribute to resolving the 

world food crisis in societies where edible leaves already play important 

dietary roles. 

Nigeria 

Major researcl. on the dietary role played by wild plants in Nigeria 

has been summarized by Okiy (1960) who has identified the principal species 

consumed (Table 12). Johnson and Johnson (1976) also examined the economic 

uses of both wild and domesticated plants identified in rural markets at 

Benin City (Table 13). 

Despite the important works cited above there is relatively little 

cultural data on edible wild plants by ethnic group. Forde (1951, p. 6), 

writing on the Yoruba, notes domesticated foods are supplemented by limited 

quantities of wild green vegetables and fruits. Bradbury (1957, p. 25) 

worked among the Edo of Benin noting that they collect wild bush plants daily 

but provides no specifics. Netting (1968, p. 101) states that the Kofyar 

farmers of the Jos plateau use wild plants in sauces or as relishes poured 

over porridge. Forde and Scott (1946) report use of wild plants by the 

Hausa and note important contributions by the shea butternut tree and various 

locust trees, with additional contributions from baobab and the leaves of 

wild ebony. While Forde and Scott mention that 13% of the foods used by the 

Hausa are from wild resources, they provide no additional details. Vermeer 

(1979), commenting on the Tiv, identified an experimental agricultural system 

whereby wild foods are planted and tended along with domesticated plants in 

household gardens, specifically Amaranthus tricolor, Gynandropsis gynandra, 

22.

and Solanum indicum. The most important food-dietary reports from Nigeria, 

however, were produced by Bascom (1951a; 1951b) but while mentioning use of 

edible wild plants, he provides only vernacular terms. 

Cameroons 

An account by Malzy (1954) identified the basic botanical resources 

of Cameroons, while de Garine (1980), working among the Massa and Mussey 

peoples, provides dietary information -- but only passing reference to dietary 

utilization of wild plants as food. 

Zaire (Congo) 

Baxter and Bush (1953, p. 44), working among the Azande, identified 

dietary use of wild grasses, fruits, leafy vegetables, and roots and edible 

mushrooms, especially during the period immediately preceeding harvest. Bokoam 

and Droogers (1975) provide a basic ethnobotanical listing of more than 100 

plants used by the Wagenia for housing, food, fishing, medicine, and ritual. 

Reports by Thoen et al. (1973) and Parent and Thoen (1977) identify more than 

twenty species of edible mushrooms, noting that more than 20 tons of these 

products are consumed annually within Zaire (Table 14). 

23.



23a.

TABLE 8. Supplementary and Emergency Wild Food Plants of West Africa 


RHIZOMES, ROOTS AND AERIAL TUBERS 

Dioscorea macroura 

Dioscorea preussii 

Dioscorea smilacifolia 

Dioscorea dumetorum 

Dioscorea hirtiflora 

Dioscorea minutiflora 

Dioscorea bulbifera 

Dioscorea bulbifera anthropophagorum 

Nymphaea lotus 

Boscia salicifolia 

Eriosema cordifolium 

Psophocarpus palustris 

Vigna vexillata 

Asclepias lineolata 

Raphionacme brownii 

Cryptolepis nigritana 

Ceropegia spp. 

Brachystelma bngeri 

Adansonia digitata 

Tacca involucrata 

Canna bidentata 

Trochomeria dalzielii 

Gladiolus quartinianus 

Gladiolus unguiculatus 

Gladiolus klattianus 

Solenostemon ocymoides 

Coleus dysentericus 

Ipomoea aquatica 

Dissotis grandiflora 

Icacina senegalensis 

Smilax kraussiana 

Orchis spp. 

Eulophia spp. 

Stylochiton warneckei 

Anchomanes difformis 

Amorphophallus dracontioides 

Amorphophallus aphyllus 

Cyperus esculentus 

Kyllinga erecta 

Mariscus umbellatus 

Thonningia spp. 

Carissa edulis 

Combretum spp. 

Dissotis spp. 

Hippocratea spp. 

24.

LATIN TERMINOLOGY 


RHIZOMES, ROOTS AND AERIAL TUBERS (CONTINUED) 

BARK 

PITH 

BUDS 

Zygotritonia crocea 

Typha australis 

Craterispermum cerinanthum 

Bridelia ferruginea 

Bridelia micrantha 

Napoleona leonesis 

Boscia angustifolia 

Cadaba farinosa 

Ficus ovata 

Anogeissus schimperi 

Grewia mollis 


Acacia spp. 

Aristida stapoides 


Borassus spp. 

Calamus deeratus 

Elaeis guineensis 

Cocos nucifera 

Hyphaene thebaica 

Phoenix reclinata 

Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum 

GUMS OR RESINS 

Acacia senegal 

Anogeissus schimperi 

Balanites spp. 

Sterculia setigera 

Sterculia cinera 

Lannea acida 

Acacia macrostachya 

SAP OR LATEX 

Calotropis procera 

Tetracera potatoria 

Sterculia setigera 

Gymnema sylvestre 

25.

STEMS 


Euphorbia balsamifera 

Hymenocardia acida 

Borassus spp. 

Carica papaya 

Ehinochloa stagnina 


Pergularia tomentosa 

Asparagus pauli-guilelmi 

Veronia amygdalina 

LEAVES (ore than 150 species regularly used as food; 25 semi-cultivated, 100 wild) 

FLOWERS 

Sesuvium portulacastrum 


Stylochiton warneckei 

Momordica balsamina 

Tribulus terrestris 

Cassia tora 

Urera mannii 

Fleurya spp. 


Lippia adoensis 

Hyptis suaveolens 

Napoleona spp. 

Salvadora persica 

Grewia mollis 

Balanites spp. 

Parkia spp. 

Crotalaria glauca 

Tamarindus spp. 

Acacia spp. 

Sesbania aegyptiaca 

Sesbania grandiflora 

Sphenostylis schweinfurthi 

Bombax buonopozense 

Hibiscus sabdariffa 

Nymphaea lotus 

Leptadenia lancifolia 

Aloe barteri 

Taccazea barteri 

Taccazea nigritana 

Taccazea spiculata var. benedicta 

Cocculus pendulus 

Glossonema nubicum 

Tylostemon mannii 

26.

FLOWERS (CONTINUED) 

FRUITS 

SEEDS 

Anona senegalensis 

Lecaniodiscus cupanioides 


Spilanthes acmella 


Ochrocarpus africanus 


Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnus lotus) 

Zizyphus spina-christi 

Sorindeia juglandifolia 

Uapaca esculenta 

Antrocaryon micraster 

Spondias monbin 

Cordyla africana 

Sarcocephalus esculentus 


Anona senegalensis 

Cucumis anguria 

Lagenaria vulgaris 

Luffa acutangula 

Luffa cylindrica 

Momordica charantia 

Anacardium occidentale 

Lepidium sativum 


Capsicum frutescens 

Capsicum annuum 

Lepidium sativum silvestre 

Trapa bispinosa 

Sesamum alatum 

Ceratotheca sesamoides 

CucumiL melo var. agrestis 

Parkia spp. 

Balanites aegyptiaca 

Cassia occidentalis 

Cassia tora 

Zizyphus mucronata 

Feretia apodanthera 

Tricalysia coffeoides 

Parkia biglobosa 

Abutilon spp. 

Entada gigas 

Boscia senegalensis 

Coffea maclaudii 

Coffea excelsa 

Coffea brevipes 

27.

SEEDS (CONTINUED) 

FUNGI 

FERNS 

Oryza barthii 

Oryza stapfii 

Panicum turgidum 

Panicum laetum 

Saccolepis africana 

Volvaria volvacea 

Volvaria esculenta 

Puccinia caricis 

Pteris aquilina 

SOURCE: Irvine (1952, pp. 23-40) 


28.

TABLE 9. Edible Semi-Cultivated Leaves of West Africa 

Latir Terminology 

Lactuca taraxacifolia 

Justicia insularis 

Talinum triangulare 

Solenostemon ocymoides 

Sesamum radiatum 

Solanum nodiflorum 

Justicia insularis 

Justicia melampyrum 

Hibiscus abelmoschus 

Hibiscus cannabinus 

Gynura cernua 

Gynandropsis gynandra 

Cleome spp. 

Balanites aegyptiaca 

Corchorus acutangulus 


Celosia argentea 

Celosia laxa 

Celosia trigyna 

Amaranthus blitum 

Amaranthus graecizans 

Amaranthus viridus 

Vitex doniana 

Peperomia pellucida 

Amaranthus hybridus cruentus 

Corchorus acutangulus 

Solanum macrocarpum 

Gynura cernua 

Lactuca taraxacifolia 

Parkia oliveri 

Aframomum granum-paradisi 

Senecio biafrae 


Veronia amygdaliana 

Vernonia colorata 

SOURCE: Irvine (1956, pp. 35-41) 

Use 

Salad 

Salad 

Salad; pot-herb 

Tuber; pot-herb 

Leaves; seed 

Pot-herb 


Vegetable 

Leaves; shoots; soup plant 

Pot-herb 

Soup; sauce 


Leaf 

Leaf; nut 

Pot-herb 

Leaves; soup 

Pot-herb 

Soup; sauce 

Soup; sauce 

Pot-herb 

Pot-herb 

Pot-herb 

Leaf; fruit 

Vegetable 

Leaf 

Pot-herb 

Leaves; fruits 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

29.

TABLE 10. Edible Wild Plants from Bamako, Mali 



Aframomum melegueta 

Amaranthus cruentus 

Amaranthus viridis 

Andropogon canaliculatus 

Andropogon gayanus 

Andropogon pinginpes 

Andropogon pseudapricus 

Andropogon tectorum 

Boerhaavia diffusa 

Boerhaavia erecta 

Borassus aethiopium 

Burkea africana 

Canavalia virosa 

Canthium acutiflorum 

Cola nitida 

Camellia thea var. bokea 

Commiphora pedunculata 

Cymbopogon citratus 

Cymbopogon giganteus 

Cyperus articulatus 


Digitaria exilis 

Dioscorea cayennensis 

Fagara xanthoxyloides 

Hibiscus esculentus 

Hibiscus sabdariffa 


Lippia chevalieri 

Loeseneriella africana 

Mentha spp. 

Oryza glaberrima 


Pennisetum gambiense 

Phoenix dactylifera 

Portulaca oleracea 

Solanum aethiopicum 

Solanum lycopersicum 

Solanum melongena 

Solanum tuberosum 

Xylopia aethiopica 

Ziziphus mauritiana 

SOURCE: Diarra (1977, pp. 42-49). 

30.

TABLE 11. Nutritive Value of Some Ghanaian Edible Wild Plants 

LATIN PROTEIN Ca Fe 

TERMINOLOGY 

Voandzeia subterranea 19.7 108 195 9.7 

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 31.2 210 410 15.0 

Coleus dysentericus 1.9 80 '90 2.0 

Cyperus esculentus 3.0 9 195 5.5 

Adansonia digitata 11.5 300 350 10.5 

Ceratotheca sesamoides 14.8 776 415 32.0 

Hibiscus cannabinus 17.6 280 550 18.0 

Cola acuminata 3.6 35 68 3.0 

Elaeis guineensis 6.5 71 195 6.0 

Butyrospermum parkii 6.0 10 124 3.8 

Ceiba spp. 20.4 310 640 10.0 

Amaranthus spp. 4.4 230 55 5.0 

Adasonia digitata (leaf) 11.5 2210 235 15.0 

Solanum spp. 1.1 8 30 1.0 

Portulaca oleracea 1.4 52 15 0.5 

Hibiscus sabdariffa (flower) 3.6 1176 160 14.2 

Bombax buonopoense (flower) 8.0 1670 152 7.0 

Monodora myrisitica 12.8 43 300 6.3 

SOURCE: Watson (1971, pp. 98-109) 

31.

TABLE 12. Indigenous Wild Edible Plants of Nigeria 


Dioscorea praehensilis 

Dioscorea smilacifolia 

Dioscorea hirtiflora 

Dioscorea preussii 

Colocasia esculenta 

Amorphophallus dracontioides 

Treculia africana 

Musanga cercopioides 

Raphia vinifera 

Telfairia occidentalis 

Digitaria debilis 

Digitaria exilis 

Paspalum scrobiculatum 

Cenchrus biflorus 

Eleusine indica 

Oryza glaberrima 

Panicum spp. 

Eragrostis cilianensis 

Pennistum purpureum 

Elaeis guineensis 

Pentaclethra macrophylla 

Sphenostylis stenocarpa 

Voundzeia subterranea 

Mucuna urens 

Chrysophyllum africanum 

Irvingia gabonensis 

Pachylobus edulis 

Dennettia tripetala 

Uapaca guineensis 

Spondias monbin 

Landophia owarriensis 


Tetracarpidium conorphorum 

Telfaria occidentalis 

Talinum trianrilare 

Amaranthus caudatus 

Celosia argentea 

Hibiscus esculentus 

Solanum torvum 

SOURCE: Okiy (1960, pp. 118-121) 

32.

TABLE 13. Edible Wild Plants, Benin, Nigeria 

Latin Terminology English Bini Terminology 

Aframomum melegueta Alligator pepper ehie ado 

Buchholzia coriacea owi 

Chrysophyllum africanum Apo otien 

Cola nitida Kola evbe 

Cucumeropsis edulis Egusi ogi 

Dacryodes (Pachylobus) 

edulis Native pear orumu 

Desplatzia subericarpa oghia wogha 

Dissotis rotundifolia ebafo 

Elaeis guineensis Oil palm udi 

Hibiscus esculentus Okora ikhievbo 

Irvingia gabonensis African Mango ogwi 

Plentaclethra Oil bean okpagha 

Piper guineense Benin pepper akboko 

Telfairia occidentalis Oyster nut umwenkhen 

Tetracarpidum conophorum African walnut okhue 

Thaumatococcus danielli abieba 

Uvaria chamae Yellow fever root agio 

Vernonia amygdalina Bitter leaf oriwo 

Xylopia ethiopica Guinea pepper unien 

Indigenous leaves: 

Amaranthus hybridus 

Talinum triangulare 

SOURCE: Johnson and Johnson (1976, pp. 376-377, 379). 

33.

TABLE 14. Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms, Upper-Shaba, Zaire 

Latin Terminology Protein Caloric Ca P Fe 

Value 

Amanita aff. aurea 16.0 295 180 630 450 

Amanita loosii 30.6 319 570 650 980 

Amanita cf. robusta 19.0 315 160 1325 500 

Cantharellus cibarius var. 

latifolius 14.5 300 148 707 1368 

Cantharellus congolensis 2.2 321 110 1050 8250 

Cantharellus luteopunctatus 21.4 313 475 700 990 

Cantharellus platyphyllus 22.6 319 127 713 978 

Cautharellus cf. ruber 25.5 256 424 711 1050 

Cantharellus sp. 10.8 305 210 800 1800 

Russula sp. 28.8 314 293 620 3140 

Lactarius latifolius 8.4 328 310 430 1000 

Lactarius cf. latifolius 3,.0 300 157 1044 1334 

Lactarius cf. inversus 11.9 325 800 350 2400 

Lactarius sp. 34.0 303 532 880 380 

Schizophyllum commune 17.0 315 90 646 280 

Termitomyces letestui 45.0 277 900 1130 390 

Termitomyces microcarp. 33.4 261 200 940 730 

Termitomyces sp. 41.0 279 517 460 650 

Termitomyces schiw;eri 37.3 285 400 870 266 

Termitomyces striatus f. 

urantiacus 4.0 290 165 1100 5600 

SOURCE: Parent and Thoen (1977, p. 443) 

34.

East Africa: General 

General introduction to nutrition and traditional agriculture in East 

Africa may be obtained from Culwick and Culwick (1941). One primary nutri 

tional topic associated with edible wild plants is the protein concentration 

of wild seeds and leaves as reported by Fowden and Wolfe (1957). More recent 

work on protein from wild plant resources has been conducted by Imbamba (1973) 

who noted values for 19 species, with special attention to the leaf protein 

contentration (LPC) for Crotolaria brevidens, Gynandropsis gynandra, and 

Solanum tuberosm -- all with values exceeding 30%. Olatumbosum (1976) also 

working on leaf protein content of wild greens, identified high values for 

Amaranthus caudatus, Celosia argentia, Solanum incanumi and Solanum modiflorum, 

noting that LPC from these species could easily be incorporated into field 

trials to improve diet where green leaves already were widely accepted as 

human food. 

East Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State 

Chad-Sudan-Ethiopia-Somaliland 

The transition zone between the arid Sahara and arid East Africa 

and the lush vegetation zones of "sub-Saharan Africa" are not a focal effort 

of this report. Nevertheless, a number of significant accounts deal with 

human utilization of edible wild plants that provide important data to the 

central question of this report. Tubiana and Tubiana (1977, pp. 13-29) re 

port an extensive list of edible wild plants used by the Zaghawa inhabiting 

the zone between Chad and the Republic of the Sudan (Table 15). Lewis (1969, 

pp. 74, 169), describing nomadic populations of Somalia, Afar, and Saho, 

briefly comments on the role wild edible fruits play in the dietary of no 

madic pastoralists. Huntingford (1953, pp. 61, 108) noted use of wild plants 

35.

y the Mondari Baronga, near Tali, northwest of Juba in the Sudan, while 

Corkill (1948) may be cited as an important early reference that wild plant 

use is not without danger, as seen in his report on Dioscorea dumetorum, a 

traditional famine food common to the Sudan. 

It is Ethiopia, however, that has attracted the most botanical and nutri 

tional attention. The Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National 

Defense (ICNND, 1959) completed the initial nutritional survey of E.hiopia 

while Schaefer (1961) and Selinus (1968-1971, pp. 3-12) have identified the 

common dietary elements throughout Ethiopia. Such data, augmented by publi 

cation of extensive food composition tables for use in Ethiopia by Agren (1969), 

havepermitted research to continue on numerous important topics, for example 

the work by Selinus (1970) on preparation of home-made weaning foods prepared 

from both domesticated and wild food resources available locally. But perhaps 

the most intriguing report on nutrition to emerge from Ethiopia is the classic 

report by Knutsson and Selinus (1970) outlining cultural and historical problems 

of maintaining adequate nutritional quality under severe conditions of fasting 

as required by Ethiopian Coptic ritual. 

Huntingford (1969, p. 28), writing on the Galla, mentions widespread use 

of edible wild plants and provides documentation tor three; Rhamnus prinoides, 

Rhamnus tsaddo, and Vernonia amygdalina. Kloos (1976) completed a detailed 

examination of medicinal and dietary plants present in the rural markets of 

central Ethiopia, while Simoons (1965) reported cultivation of the wild plant 

Rhamnus prinoides (gesho) used in the preparation of Ethiopian fermented 

beverages. Lemordant (1971) reported comm consumption of four wild plants 

in Ethiopia .Balanites aegyptiaca, Carissa edulis, Rhamnus prinoides, and 

Rhamnus staddo), while Getahum (1974) identified more than one hundred widely 

36.

consumed wild plants (Appendix 4) noting general utilization increases with 

onset of the dry season between February and May. Getahum also comments on 

what he sees as a critical problem emerging in Ethiopia, loss of plant know 

ledge by the young. Miege and Marie-Noelle (1978) present data on Cordeauxia 

edulis, an arid zone species widely consumed in Ethiopia, whose seeds have 

a very favorable amino acid balance. They note that extinction of this plant 

would be an irreplaceable loss for the food supply of some East African peoples. 

Examination and review of the recent droughts experienced by Ethiopia 

is not within the scope of this report. Nevertheless, it is important to note 

that Ethiopian societies had generally been able to cope with the stress of 

drought by utilization of edible wild plants. Turton (1977) worked among the 

Mursi of southwestern Ethiopia and examined their response to drought. He 

found that prior to 1973 the Mursi had always been able to fall back upon wild 

bush foods as dietary staples when their domesticated field crops failed during 

drought. He reports that the increased severity of the drought in 1973, coupled 

with loss of knowledge relative to which plants were suitable for consumption, led 

to deprivation, malnutrition, and famine in a society that formerly had been able 

to cope well under drought conditions. 

Uganda 

Agricultural and food production systems for Uganda have been reported 

by Amann et al. (1972), building on research conducted by agronomists, physicians, 

and social scientists of preceeding decades. Relatively little work has been 

produced on the nutritional composition of Ugandan foodstuffs, although Jameson 

(1958) has produced tables of protein content of subsistence foods (primarily 

domesticated). Two reports, however, are central co understanding the dietary 

utilization of edible wild plants in Uganda. The first by Bennet et al. (1965) 

37.

is an overview of dietary practices of traditional Bantu Ganda, noting that 

eighteen unidentified "wild leaves" are common along with seven species of 

mushrooms. The second, by Tallantire and Goode (1975), is a recent monograph 

examining wild plants (many utilized as food) of West Nile and Madi districts, 

especially species whose leaves and fruits are used to supplement domesticated 

staples (Table 16). Tallantire and Goode comment severely on the loss of 

knowledge relative to edible wild plants in recent times and they note with 

concern that more and more of the important dietary supplements will be elimin 

ated from diet by traditional Ugandans who will no longer be able to identify 

such potential foods. 

Kenya 

Gerlach (1961; 1964; 1965) has presented a series of excellent publi 

cations on diet, food habits, and nutritional characteristics of Bantu peoples 

occupying the coastal regions of north-central Kenya but the classic work on 

food and nutrition in Kenya must stem from Boyd-Orr and Gilks (1913) in their 

important examination of diet and health comparing the Masai (a regimen based 

on flesh foods) and the Kukuyu (diet based on vegetable foods). Important re 

cent work on nutrition and wild plants has been completed by Taylor (1970) 

who investigated diet of the Kikuyu, noting important roles for Chenopodium 

opulifolium and Maranta arundinacea as the principal wild plants used. Taylor 

(p. 343) noted with concern that the development and expansion of agriculture 

has led to a significant decline in the dietary utilization of indigenous wild 

plants, with resulting decreased nutritional values in humans for vitamins A, 

B-complex, C, and the minerals calcium, iron, and phosphorus. 

Huntingford (1969, p. 59), writing on the Dorobo of the Kenya Highlands, 

states that wild foods include Rubus rigidus, Ximenia americana, wild forms of 

38.

Musa enset, with widespread consumption of miscellaneous resions and leaves 

that are gathered regularly for food. He also notes (p. 23) that the Nandi 

of the Uasin-Gisho Plateau, west of the Rift valley, regularly use wild 

vegetable leaf relishes, specifically Kigelia aethiopica, and that they fer 

ment the juice of the wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata). Huntingford (1969, 

p. 43) also wr..res on the Kipsigis of the Mau forest and Kisii Highlands, stat 

ing that wild vegetables and leaves are used, but he does not identify them by 

species. 

Glover et al. (1966), building on the work of Boyd-Orr and Gilks cited 

earlier, has presented a recent view of Masai diet in comparison with patterns 

exh 4 .bited by the related Kipsigis, noting extensive utilization of wild plants 

as food (Table 17). McMaster (1969, pp. 204-263), writing on the pastoral 

Turkana, noted utilization of Amaranthus spp. used regularly as dietary re 

lishes. Wagner (1970, pp. 59-60), working with the Logoli and Vugusu of 

Kavirondo district, noted that they rely on wild plants in the manufacture 

of local salts for human consumption and that wild fruits and mushrooms (not 

identified by species) are frequently collected. Gulliver and Gulliver (1968, 

pp. 34-35), worked among the Jie and identified wild greens as an important 

dietary element during the lean food months just before harvest. Weiss (1979) 

presents a general review of ed-ible wild plants utilized by coastal fishermen 

throughout Kenya (Table 18). 

Tanzania (Tanganyika; Zanzibar) 

Early research on nutrition and diet in Tanzania (Tanganyika, Zanzibar 

or both) stems from Smith and Smith (1935) and Culwick and Culwick (1939) with 

important contributions by Latham and Stare (1967), and the re 

cent investigations by Kreysler and Mndeme (1975). Such work, coupled with re 

39.

gional informaton on the nutritional composition of foods by Raymond (1941), 

provides background to important work completed on ethnic studies and the 

role of wild plants in maintaining quality nutrition. 

Glegg (1945), writing on the Sukuma, identified forty-six species 

with important dietary use (Table 19), yet Abrahams (1967, p. 33) made only 

brief comment that Sukuma females gather mushrooms and leaves from numerous 

wild plants. -ukui (1969), working. with the agro-pastoral Iraqw, identified 

five wild plants with important dietary roles, specifically Acalypha grantii, 

Coieus oguatics, Erucastrum arabicum, Ranunculus multifidus, and Solanum 

nigrum. Fleuret (1979a; 1979b), reporting on edible wild plants in Shamba 

diet in the vicinity of Lushoto, noted extensive, important roles for wild 

plants providing for high intakes of plant protein, carotene, calcium, and 

iron. Of equal important was her finding that Shamba women were able to 

sell wild plants, thus providing cash income to the sophisticated, energetic 

gatherer (Table 20). 

Wilson (1978), working on wild kenaf species (Hibiscus spp.) as commonly 

encountered in Kenya and Tanzania, documented dietery use of Hibiscus sabdariffa 

leaves and flowers. 

40.



40a.

TABLE 15. Edible Wild Plants of the Zaghawa, Sudan and Chad 

Latin Terminology Zaghawa Terminology 

Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum Absabe; bou; kreb 

Eragrostis pilosa Am-hoy; kwoinkwoin 

Pennisetum tiphoideum Bonu; bolu; bini 

Oryza breviligulata Am-belele; tomso 

Cenchrus biflorus Askanit; nogo 

Tribulus terrestris Drese; tara 

Grewia villosa Tomur el abid; korfu 

Grewia populifolia Giddem; nari 

Grewia flavescens Kabayna; gugur 

??? Baxshem; sono 

Ziziphus mauritiana Korno; kie 

Ziziphus spina-christi Nabak; kabara 

Balanites aegyptiaca Hejlij; gie 

Sclerocarya birroea Himed; gene 

Boscia senegalensis Moxet; madi 

Capparis decidua Tumtum; tundub; namar 

Maerua crassifolia Kurmut; nur 

Cordia rothii Andarab; turu 

Commiphora africana Gafal; togoria 

Cyperus rotundus tuberosus Siget; nogu 

Salvadora persica Shao; ui 

Colocynthis citrullus Battikh; oru 

Colocynthis vulgaris ??? 

Coccinia grandis Tudu 

Hibiscus sabdariffa Karkan; anara; kerkere 

SOURCE: Tubiana and Tubiana (1977, pp. 14-25) 

41.

TABLE 16. Indigenous Edible Wild Plants, West Nile and Madi Districts, Uganda 

Latin Terminology Portion Used 

Nymphaea lotus root 

Cleome monophylla leaf 

Gyandropsis gynandra leaf 

Portulaca oleracea leaf 

Portulaca quadrifida leaf 

Amaranthus dubiu., leaf 

Amaranthus graecizans leaf 

Amaranthus hybridus hybridus leaf; seed 

La-enaria siceraria leaf; fruit 

Corchorus ol!torius leaf 

Corchorus tridLns leaf 

Corchorus trilocularis leaf 

Hibiscus surattenis leaf 

Sida alba leaf 

Acalypha bipart.ta leaf 

Acalypha ciliara leaf 

Acalypha racemasa leaf 

Micrococca mercurialis leaf 

Cassia obtusfolia leaf 

Tamarindus indica leaf; fruit 

Crotalaria brevidens var. 

intermeiia leaf 

Crotalar.a ochroleuca leaf 

Vigna urguiculata dekindtiana leaf 

Cyphosti:mma spp. leaf 

Leptaderia hastata leaf 

Aspilia pluriseta fruit 

Bidens piiisa leaf 

Crassocephaiim crepidioides leaf 

Crassocephalum rubens leaf 

Guizotia scabra fruit 

Capiscum frutescens leaf; fruit 

Solanum nigrum leaf 

Ipomoea eriocarpa leaf 

Sesamum angustifolium leaf 

Asystasia gangetica leaf 

Asystasia schimperi leaf 

Commelina benghalensis leaf 

Oxytenanthera abyssinica root 

Annona senegalensis fruit 

Syzygium guineense fruit 

Grewia mollis fruit 

Parinari curatellifolia fruit 

42.



Afzelia africana fruit 

Tamarindus indica fruit 

Cordyla richardii fruit 

Ficus capensis fruit 

Ximenia americana fruit 

Ziziphus abyssinica fruit 

Ampelocissus africana fruit 

Balanites aegyptiaca fruit 

Rhus natalensis fruit 

Rhus vulgaris fruit 

Diospyros mespiliformis fruit 

Butyrospermum paradoxum nut 

Strychnos innocua fruit 

Carissa edulis fruit 

Gardenia ternifolia fruit 

Physalis micrantha fruit 

Lantana trifolia fruit 

Vitex doniana fruit 

Vitex madiensis fruit 

Hoslundia opposita fruit 

Aframomum spp. tuber 

Borassus aethiopum fruit 

Phoenix reclinata fruit 

SOURCE: Tallantire and Goode (1975, pp. 237-242) 

43.

TABLE 17. Edible Wild Plants of the Masai and Kipsigis, Kenya 


Aerva lanata leaf 

Amaranthus graecizans graecizans leaf 

Amaranthus hybridus hybridus leaf 

Amaranthus hypochondriacus var. 

chlorostachys leaf 

Amaranthus spinosus leaf 

Heeria reticulata fruit; bark; young twigs 

Lannea stuhlmanii bark 

Pistacia aethiopica bark; root 

Rhus natalensis fruit; bark 

Rhus vulgaris fruit 

Sclerocarya birrea fruit 

Carissa edulis root; fruit 

Landolphia ugandensis fruit 

Ilex mitis bark; root 

Caralluma dummeri shoots 

Cynanchum tertapterum shoots 

Periploca linearifolia root 

Sarcostemma viminale root 

Stathmostelma pedunculatum root 

Basella alba leaf 

Berberis holstii fruit 

Cordia rothii fruit 

Commiphora africana root 

Commiphora trothae root 

Rhipsalis baccifera stem 

Tamarindus indica fruit 

Warburgia ugandensis fruit 

Capparis fascicularis fruit 

Gyandropsis gynandra leaf 

Maerua edulis fruit; root 

Pollichia campestris fruit 

Maytenus senegalensis root 

Chenopodium opulifolium leaf 

Spilanthes mauritiana leaf 

Ipomoea longituba root 

Ipomoea oenotherae root 

Crambe abyssinica leaf 

Erucastrum arabicum leaf 

Cucumella engleri fruit 

Peponium vogelii fruit 

Clutia pedicellaris root 

Dovyalis macrocalyx fruit 

Rawsonia lucida fruit 

Scolopia zeyheri fruit 

44.


Garcinia livingstonei fruit 

Hypericum peplidifolium fruit 

Ocimum americanum leaf; root 

Ocimum kilimandscharicum leaf 

Hibiscus cannabinus bark 

Acacia drepanolobium pods 

Acacia gerrardii gerrardii bark 

Acacia hockii bark 

Acacia kirkii kirkii var. 

intermedia bark 

Acacia seyal var. fistula bark 

Acacia seyal var. seyal bark 

Ficus capensis fruit 

Ficus sycomorus fruit 

Ficus vallis-choudae fruit 

Embelia schimperi fruit 

Syzygium cordatum fruit 

Syzygium guineense fruit; root; bark 

Ximenia americana root; fruit 

Jasminum abyssicum root 

Oxalis corniculata leaf 

Oxalis obliquifolia leaf 

Astragulus abyssinicus root 

Erythrina abyssinica root 

Parochetus communis leaf 

Polygonum salicifolium leaf 

Polygonum senegalense leaf 

Polygonum setosulum leaf 

Rumex abyssinicus leaf 

Rumex bequaertii leaf 

Protea gaguedi bark 

Parinari curatellifolia 

curatellifolia fruit 

Rubus apetalus fruit 

Rubus steudneri aberensis fruit 

Rubus volkensii fruit 

Canthium lactescens fruit 

Vangueria apiculata fruit 

Osyris compressa root; bark; leaf 

Mimusops bagshawei fruit; bark 

Mimusops kummel fruit 

Physalis peruviana fruit 

Solanum nigrum leaf 

Grewia trichocarpa fruit 

Grewia similis fruit 

Urtica massaica leaf 

Lantana rhodesiensis fruit 

Lantana trifolia fruit 

45.


Cissus rotundifolia root 

Cyphostemma orondo fruit 

Rhoicissus revoilli tuber 

Hypoxis urceolata tuber 

Chlorophytum blepharophyllum tuber 

Chlorophytum cf. marcophyllum tuber 

Ornithogalum graclllmum bulb 

Phoenix reclinata fruit 

Kigelia aethiopum bark; fruit 

Aloe graminicola root 

Aloe secundiflora bark 

SOURCE: Glover et al. (1966, pp. 192-194) 

46.

TABLE 18. Indigenous Plants Used as Food by East African Coastal Fishermen 


Amaranthus blitum leaf 

Amaranthus caudatus leaf 

Amaranthus patulus leaf 

.'%maranthus spinosus leaf 

Celosia cristata stem; leaf 

Celosia argentea stem; leaf 

Anacardium occidentale fruit; nut 

Lannea stuhlmanni fruit 

Annona chrysophylla fruit 

Kigelia aethiopum fruit 

Adansonia digitata fruit; shoot; leaf; seed 

Tamarindus indicus pod 

Cleome strigosa leaf 

Thylachium africanum root 

Lagenaria vulgaris fruit 

Luffa cylindrica fruit 

Momordica cf. charantia fruit 

Cycas thuarsii pith 

Dioscorea dumetorum tuber 

Dioscorea sansibarensis tuber 

Securinega virosa fruit 

Harungana madagascariensis fruit 

Lobelia fervens leaf; stem; flower 

Thespesia danis fruit 

Moringa oleifera root; seed; leaf 

Nymphaea capensis root 

Borassus aethiopium sap; seedling; fruit 

Eriosema spp. root 

Parinari curatellifolia fruit; kernel 

Tarenna graveolens fruit 

Fagara chalybea leaf 

Toddalia asiatica fruit 

Manilkara sulcata fruit 

Datura metel leaf (to make beer wore potent) 

Grewia villosa fruit 

Premna chrysoclada fruit 

Afromomum angustifolium fruit 

Antidesma venosum seed 

Carpolobia goetzei fruit 

Deinbollia borbonica fruit 

Enterospermum littorale fruit 

Flacourtia indica fruit 

Garcina livingstonei fruit 

Hirtella zanzibarica fruit 

Ochna mossambicensis fruit 

Piliostigma thonningii fruit 

47.


Premna holstii fruit 

Salacia floribunda fruit 

Sclerocarya caffra fruit; kernel 

Vitex mombassae fruit 

Ximenia americana fruit 

Ziziphus mauritiana fruit 

Asytasia gangetica leaf 

Cleome strigosa leaf 

Corchorus spp. leaf 

Ethulia conzoides leaf 

Ipomoea pes-caprae leaf 

Jacquemontia cpitata leaf 

Sesuvium portulacastrum leaf 

Sonchus oleraceus leaf 

Talinum cunifolium leaf 

Triumfetta annua leaf 

Vernonia cinerea leaf 

SOURCE: Weiss (1979, pp. 35-51) 

48.

TABLE 19. Edible Wild Plants, Shinyanga District, Sukumaland, Tanzania 

Latin Termonology Seasonality Palatability 

Achyranthes aspera December - August Low 


Agaricus campestris 

Amaranthus blitum 

Aneilema spp. 

Anthericum subpetiolatum 

Boerhaavia plumbaginea 

Ceratothea sesamoides 

Chenopodium album 

Cleome hirta 

Commelina benghalensis 

Commelina forskalaei 

Corchorus olitorius 

Corchorus trilocularis 

Crotalaria microcarpa 

Cucumis dipsaceus 

Cucumis ficifolius 

Cyanotis nodiflora 

Gisekia pharmaceoldes 

Gynandropsis pentaphylla 

Hibiscus intermedius 

Hygrophila spinosa 

Ipomoea eriocarpa 

June - October 

February - March 

January - July 

Throughout year 

November - December 

November - July 

December - July 



December - June 




February - July 




December - May 

January - July 


December - August 

November - December 

Justica matammensis November - December Low 

Oxygonum atriplicifolium 

Portulaca oleracea 

Sesamum angustifolium 

Sesamum radiatum 

Sonchus bipontini 

Tamarindus indica 

Trianthema pentandra 

Tribulus terrestris 

Trichodisma zeylanicum 

Vigna triloba 

Voandzeia subterranea 

SOURCE: Glegg (1945, pp. 37-38) 



November - June 



August - October 

August - October 




April 

High 

High 

High 

Low 

Low 

Low 

High 

High 

Average 

Low 

Average 

High 

High 

High 

Low 

High 

Average 

Low 

High 

Average 

Low 

Low 

Low 

Low 

Average 

Average 

Low 

High 

High 

High 

Low 

Average 

High 

49.

TABLE 20. Edible Wild Plants, Lushoto District, Tanzania 

Latin Terminology Shambaa Terminology 

LEAFY RELISHES 

FRUITS 

Amaranthus sp. Bwache 

Amaranthus sp. Mchicha 

Basella alba Ndelerna 

Bidens pilosa Mbwembwe 

Chenopodium opulifolium Shekazeu 

Chenopodium sp. Mshughukumba 

Chenopodium sp. Mshumbuu 

Colocasia esculentum Maeze 

????? (Compositae) Komba 

Oalinsoga parviflora Mngeeza; Kinyok 

Justitia heterocarpa Ungobo; Ungoto 

Momordica foetida' Ushwe 

Nasturtium officinale Sawade 

Sonchus luxurians Msunga 

Sonchus oleraceus Kwake; Pwake 

Solanum nigrum Mnavu 

Solanum sp. Zinge 

Xanthosoma sagittifolium Maeze 

????? (Fungi) Uyoga 

????? Mchwe 

????? Mangoti 

Adansonia digitata Mbuyu 

Ficus sp. Kuyu 

Landolphia sp. Mhungo 

Myrianthus arboreus Konde 

Phoenix reclinata Kindu 

Physalis peruviana Supu 

Rubus apetatus Mashawa 

Strychnos spinosa Tonga 

Syzygium jambolanum Zambarau 

Tamarindus indica Kwaju 

Terminalia catappa Kungu 

Ximenia caffra Pingipingi 

Zizyphus jujube Kunezi 

SOURCE: Fleuret (1979a, pp. 249-269; 1979b, pp. 87-93) 

50.

South Africa: General 

If there is a sweep of grandeur to the countries of South Africa, there is 

nevertheless a pervasive political pall that clouds all issues of contemporary 

life throughout the region, whether they be cultural, health, or medical. May 

and McLellan (1971) demonstrate that the primary nutritional problems of South 

Africa are caloric, not protein, and the ecology of malnutrition is directly 

associated with the interrelationships between cultivation of domesticated crops 

and dietary use of available wild plants. 

South Africa: Botanical/Dietary Data by State 

Swaziland-Lesotho-Malawi-Mozambique 

Two important works on Swazi nutrition have appeared during the past 

fifty years. Beemer (1939) presented basic information on the composition and 

quality of Swazi diet, providing extensive identification of edible wild plants 

(Table 21). Jones (1963) presents a more recent view of Swazi nutrition, identi 

fying different dietary patterns in three ecological zones of the country and 

noting continued use of wild plants (berries, fruits, leaves). 

Ashton (1939, p. 159), in her classic work on Sotho diet, mentions 

that relatively few wild plants are used as food, but then identifies nineteen 

of the most important (Table 22). 

Williamson (1972) completed the most important work on ethnobotany 

to emerge from Malawi (Nyasaland) and provided brief descriptions of both wild 

and cultivated food plants, with more than 200 wild foods commonly utilized 

(Table 23). 

Santos Oliveira and Fidalgo de Carvalho (1975) published a major 

account of the nutritional values of edible leaves commonly collected in 

Mozambique, noting extensive use of Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus gracilis, 

51.

Amaranthus graeciaans, Amaranthus spinosus, Corchorus trilocularis, Corchorus 

tridens, Momordica balsamina, Colocasia antiquorum, and Bidens pilosa. They 

note that dietary quality can easily be maintained for protein values with a 

balance between consumption of maize and complementary utilization of such 

green leaves. 

Zimbabwi (Southern Rhodesia) and Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) 

These two nations, despite intense political controversy on each 

side, share an important botanical, ethnographical, and nutritional history. 

Richards (1939) conducted the first systematic field work on cultural nutrition 

among the Bemba of modern Zambia, then Northern Rhodesia. Her research, the 

foundation block of contemporary cultural nutrition, identified the important 

nutritional and non-nutritional roles played by food, especially wild plants 

(pp. 75-76, 103, 156, 232). Richards and Widdowson (1936), prior to publi 

cation of Richards classic text, identified more than thirty wild foods com 

monly consumed by the Bemba, two of the most important being Parinarium monola 

and Uapaca kirkiana. More recently, Fanshawe and Mutimushi (1965) have pub 

lished on Bemba ethnobotany but did not stress edible wild foods. 

Smith and Dale (1920, Vol. 2, pp. 135-153) worked among the Ila 

speaking peoples of northern Zambia and noted vernacular terms for forty-six 

edible wild plants; two cereals, ten edible leaves or stalks, ten bulbs, roots, 

or tubers, and twenty-four with edible berries, fruits, nuts, or seeds. Doke 

(1931, pp. 99-109), writing on the Lamba of northern Zambia, also identified 

local terms for eighty-four edible wild plants. 

Several Tonga societies of Zambia/Zimbabwi have been subjects of 

intensive cultural-botanical investigation. Colson (1959) identified the 

basic elements of Plateau Tonga diet, including references to wild relishes 

52.

while Scudder (1962) provided important insight on the dietary role of wild 

foods of the Gwembe Tonga, noting more than 139 species regularly used as 

human food. Subsequently, Scudder (1971) produced a monograph on the Gwembe, 

specifically on the role of gathering in a so-called agricultural society, 

and identified famine foods that are sustaining during periods of drought 

(Table 24). Scudder also provided data on the problems facing agricultural 

gathering peoples when forced to migrate to new ecological zones where the 

botanical spectrum is different -- and many of the plants are toxic. He ex 

amined the previous report by Gadd et al. (1962) on human poisoning among the 

Gwembe forced to migrate from their lowland Zambese homes in advance of the 

rising waters behind the Kariba Dam, and believed the probability of plant 

poisoning through incautious gathering was the cause. 

Gelfand (1971) has provided an important work on diet of the Shona of 

Zimbabwi, a text paralleling Richard's early work on the Bemba. He identi 

fies, briefly, vernacular terms for edible wild plants regularly used (see 

also Gelfand, 1973). 

Complementing these abundant data on edible wild plants by ethnic group 

are studies of a strict nutritional nature by Clarke (1944) and Thompson (1954) 

identifying problems faced by the shift from subsistence farming to urban food 

production/occupational tasks. Whitby (1972) produced an excellent overview of 

Zambian cooking techniques, noting dietary use of ifimamba and nkungushi (un 

identified wild legumes), and nearly a dozen cultivated leafy vegetables com 

plemented with thirty wild greens, especially Amaranthus spp. and Gyandropsis 

gynandra, and use of edible wild flowers. Her publication is especially im 

portant since it provides detailed methods for cooking and cross-cultural 

53.

nutrition information and food terms in six Zambian languages (Bemba, Kaonde, 

Lovale, Lozi, and Tonga). 

Basic nutrient composition data for domesticated and wild plants 

found regionally have been produced by the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa 

land (n.d.) and Carr (1961). Specific studies on nutrient values for edible 

wild plants have been published by Carr (1956) who reported high calcium and 

phosphorus values for Adenia gummiferia, Amaranthus thunbergii, Bidens pilosa, 

Corchorus tridens, and Gyandropsis gynandra. Elsewhere, Carr (1955; 1957; 1958) 

identified baobab fruit (Adansonia digitata) as exceptionally high in ascorbic 

acid; among the highest ascorbic acid values reported for any piant in Africa. 

The focus on human use of wild plants as food attracted Pardy (1951a; 

1951b; 1951c; 1951d; 1951e) who provided basic notes on indigenous trees and 

shrubs of Zimbabwi, noting dietary utilization of fruits from Adansonia digitata, 

Parinaria mobola, Thespesia garckeana, and Uapaca kirkiana, as well as edible 

resins from Acacia karroo. 

The danger of dietary utilization of wild food resources lies in in 

cautious collection and consumption of toxic plants. Crossley and Gelfand (1959) 

document poisoning by Scilla cooperi while McCarter (1959) presented data on 

human poisoning by Lepiota morganii -- consumed by inexperienced gatherers. 

Republidof..South Africa 

Numerous accounts outline the role wild and domesticated foods play 

in the nutrition of traditional societies within the Republic of South Africa. 

Bryant (1907) was among the first to describe local foods and their preparation, 

a theme subsequently developed in the classic work of Richards (1932) that 

identified the theoretical framework for understanding food related activities 

in any world society. 

54.

Fox and Weintraub (1937) in their work on native dietaries identified 

wild leaves as high in calcium, and vitamins A and C, noting that in many 

instances the leaves were higher in ascorbic acid than citrus. Fox and 

Weintraub documented a basic decline in utilization of wild plant foods due 

to "European" influences; traditional peoples wishing to immitate South 

African "White" dietary practices, with resulting decline in the nutritional 

quality of traditional diet! Osborn and Noriskin (1937) provided additional 

information on the role wild leaves play, noting that they are seldom consum 

ed by Transkei (Xhosa) males, but are instead a major Xhosa female food. They 

noLe that wild foods have a major role to play in maintaining the quality of 

diet of the baSotho of Lesotho (Basutoland), the baTswana of Botswana (Bechuana 

land), and among Portuguese immigrants to South Africa. Fox (1939) provides 

recipes from the eastern Cape Province, including information on relishes of 

wild foods used by Xhosa and Pondo peoples. 

Other studies have focused specifically on the dietary practices of specific 

ethnic groups. The Xhosa have been surveyed by Rose (1972) and Rose and Guil 

larmond (1974) who report extensive use of wild foods on a daily basis with 

importance attached to nine genera and species; Amaranthus spp., Bidens pilosa, 

Chenopodium alba, Sonchus spp., Taraxacum spp., Urtica burchelli, Urtica dioica, 

Urtica urens, and Solanum nigrum (Table 25). In addition, they report potential 

nutritional problems from consuming certain species that are capable of concen 

trating nitrates, but note that such species are drought resistant and possibly 

could be genetically improved through a research program. 

The Pedi were the focus of a major food habit, nutritional investigation 

by Quin (1959; 1964) who provided information on each type of domesticated and 

wild food used (Table 26). His work is also important because the text pro 

55.

vides extensive nutritional composition data, as well as cross-references to 

wild food use by societies throughout southern Africa. Leary (1969) noted 

that 13% of Pedi adults utilized wild edible green leaves (merogo) regularly, 

but that a serious decline in such use was seen among Pedi children who con 

sidered such food items "primitive". 

The Tlhaping, a Tswana society of northwestern South Africa, was studied 

by Ferreira (1927) who identified six important wild plants regularly serving 

as food; root of Boscia albitrunca, and the fruits from Ehretia hottentotica, 

Grewia cana, Rhus incana, Rhus tridactyla, and Zizyphus mucronata. 

The dietary/nutritional problems faced by traditional South African peoples 

upon immigration to congested urban areas has been a long concern. Hellmann 

(1936; 1939) clearly identified how urban settings alter protective, traditional 

food patterns by reducing dietary variability and access to fresh domesticated 

and wild foods. This theme, continued by Walker (1962), identifies loss of food 

diversity as a central element of poor nutrition in peri-urban, sub-standard 

housing localities without access to horticultural or wild plant products. 

Keyter (n.d.) has summarized how South African urban Blacks should be fed to 

maintain quality nutrition. 

Turning to botanical studies on edible wild plants, several have regional 

importance beginning with the publication by Juritz (1914) on indigeneous foods. 

Verdoorn (1937; 1938) focused on the edible wild fruits of the Transvaal, notplant 

ing that 23 families out of 146 found in this northern state have edible products 

that are widely utilized. Stapleton (1937), in his work on common Transvaal 

trees, provides data on edible species, while Hennessey and Lewis (1971) give 

similar information for edible wild plants of Natal. 

56.

In addition to general overviews on edible wild plants within the Republic 

of South Africa, research has focused, too, on specific beverage plants and 

their potential for economic development. Cheney and Scholtz (1963) identify 

ten species, three most important in the manufacture of "Rooibos Tea"; Aspalathus 

contaminatus, Aspalanthus tenuifolia, and Cyclopedia genistoides. Such plants 

have very high values for ascorbic acid and are low in tannins. Whelan and 

Whitaker (1952) report on Helichrysum nudifolium guinquenerve as a traditional 

beverage plant. 

Dietary use of wild plants also poses potential toxic problems. Steyn 

(1941) provides the basic introduction to toxic plants in South Africa, noting 

that within the Transki, among the Xhosa, species of Senecio are commonly used 

as food and medicine, often with adverse toxic effects (see also Rose, 1972). 

Basic information on the nutritional composition of wild and domesticated 

plants common to the Republic of South Africa are included in Fox and Goldberg 

(1944) and Fox (1966), with important information on how to prepare edible wild 

fruit and leaf samples for analysis as documented by Strydom and Wehmeyer (1969). 

Most research has been directed towards understanding the protein content of 

edible wild leaves. A major monograph by Claassens and Potgieter (1971) in 

cluded important contributions to understanding the nutritional value of leaf 

protein concentrate, work that may be traced to Leavy et al. (1936). Lewis et 

al. (1971) identified four species for potential research and determined that 

two (Amaranthus hybridus hybridus and Asystasia schimperi) were excellent amino 

acid complements to maize. Shanley and Lewis (1969) examined protein balance 

of wild plants set against braditional maize diets consumed by Zulus, noting 

that twelve species of wild plants -- if mixed with maize at the same meal - 

could improve significantly the biological quality of Zulu diet (Table 27). 

57.

Other research has been directed towards measurement of calcium avail 

ability in edible wild plants. Walker et al. (1975) noted that calcium, while 

high in some wild species, may not be easily available upon digestion, but 

that where dairy products are not incorporated into diet, calcium from edible 

green leaves may play a very significant role in diet. Hennessy and Lewis 

(1971), writing on the anti-pellagragenic properties of wild plants used by 

the Zulu, noted that many of the leaves were high in nicotinic acid and could 

be used to control the nutritional disease, pellagra. They identified twelve 

promising wild plants that if eaten in combination with a maize diet, would 

reduce or nearly eliminate pellagra (Table 28). Fox and Stone (1938), writing 

on the anti-scorbutic properties of traditional fermented beers, identified 

one prepared from marula fruit (Sclerocarya caffra) as being able to control 

or eliminate scurvy. 

Additional contributions to understanding the nutritional properties of 

edible wild foods have been produced by Wehmeyer (1966; 1971) reflecting his 

sustained research on the edible wild fruits of South Africa. Fatty acid 

composition of edible species of Parinari capense and Parinari curatelli 

folia have been reported by du Plessis and Vladar (1974) 

Republic of Botswana 

Before the last decades of the 19th century, only fragmentate data 

on Tswana food and diet had been published. Those data that were published 

stem from accounts of early travelers in Southern Africa who worked or lived 

among several distinct Tswana societies in the region of what is now South 

Africa and Botswana. Lichtenstein (1970, p. 80) visited the Tswana Tlhaping 

in 1803 and 1805, reporting that poorer individuals subsisted mainly on plants 

and wild berries. On a subsequent visit Lichtenstein (1812, Vol. 2, pp. 410 

58.

411) reported that the Tlhaping satisfied their thirst using juice from wild 

fruits and cucurbits. Campbell (1822, Vol. 1, pp. 149, 205, Vol. 2, pp. 103, 

215-216) also visited the Tlhaping and noted a dietary staple called "wild 

potato", a probable reference to undomesticated tubers gathered in the region 

of Litakoo, the Tlhaping capital. Mackenzie (1887, Vol. 2, pp. 28-29) worked 

among the Tswana Ngiato during the middle decades of the 19th century and 

commented on their ability to survive well during drought by use of edible 

wild fruits. He wrote that it was possible that the wild food resources avail 

able to the Ngwato during periods of drought were superior to domesticated 

Tswana food resources. 

Complementing the historical accounts of Tswana wild plant use as food 

are numerous nutritional/dietary studies. Nutrition work in Botswana (Bechuana 

land) begins with the report by Macrae (1920) on food ard health in relation 

ship to tropical disease. Subsequently, Gerber (1937) presented detailed 

information on nutritional quality of diet and use of indigenous food resources. 

Systematic research on Tswana nutrition, however, stems from Bernard Squires 

who examined seasonal and ecological distribution of nutritional disease in 

1939a; 

Botswana (Bechuanaland) (1938a;/1939b; 1943; 1956) and the protective, anti 

scorbutic properties of Tswana wild and domesticated food resources (1938b; 

1938c; 1952). Squires and Deverall (1949) identified thirteen wild plants 

commonly utilized as food by both Tswana Kwena and Ngwaketse peoples. 

Except for the work of Squires, little research and field investigations 

on Tswana food, diet, and nutrition were conducted until the drought of the 

mid 1960's. The most important research to emerge from the nutrition/drought 

studies, however, was the report by Burgess (1972) on three Tswana villages 

documenting that nutritional problems were relatively minor, when contrasted 

59.

with other agro-pastoral societies of the west central Sahel. 

Considering edible wild plants in Botswana, some of the available data 

already have been summarized in pages 6 - 8 of this report when discussing 

Bushman wild foods. Other researchers, however, have turned their attention 

to other species used specifically for water or energy, or as famine foods. 

Maccrone (1937) presented the first account of the dietary role played by 

the wild tsama melon (Citrullus lanatus) and its use among Bushmen bands as 

a reliable dietary and water source. More recent work by Renew (1968) detail 

ed an additional twelve wild cucumber/gourds used throughout the Kalahari as 

important food resources (Table 29). 

The present author identified an important correspondence in the Botswana 

National Archives dated 1949-1954 outlining the potential dietary role of 

papyrus (Cyperuz papyrus) and its use among Okavango delta peoples as a dietary 

element during periods of famine. It may also be noted that consumption of 

papyrus root has a long documented archaeological history in Egypt (Darby et 

al. 1978, Vol. 2, pp. 644-649) and probably throughout much of eastern Africa. 

Between 1973-1975 the present author conducted dietary field work among 

the Moshaweng Tlokwa, a Tswana agro-pastoral people of eastern Botswana. In 

itial mimeographed reports on Tlokwa edible wild plants were produced for the 

Botswana Ministry of Health (Grivetti, 1974; 1975) and a major report on diet 

ary wild species was issued as part of fieldwork responsibilities (Grivetti and 

Mogome, 1974). These accounts explored the broad relationbhips between culture, 

diet, and environmental setting, specifically, the Tlokwa quest for food dur 

ing years of adequate vs. poor rainfall. Survey instruments were developed to 

identify edible wild plants, portions used, and maintenance or decline of 

knowledge associated with their use. 

60.

Among the Tlokwa hunting is primarily a male activity while collection of 

edible leaves, roots, tubers, berries, and fruits is mainly practiced by young 

girls and women. Most gathering of edible plants takes place within cattle 

grazing areas or near cultivated fields; edible species that sprout within 

Tlokwa settlements are generally rejected as food because of concern over 

contamination by animal or human waste. .xceptions, however, include rl1nts 

that sprout within family household compounds and fruits/berries above the 

browse-line of goats and other Tlokwa livestock. 

The Tlokwa -- classified as an "agricultural-pastoral" society -- regularly 

utilize 121 wild plants as food; a number that is certainly underestimated 

(Table 30). Such wild plants play important dietary roles both throughout the 

calandar year and just before harvest. Edible wild greens are available through 

out the year in either fresh or preserved form; fresh between October-January, 

afterwhich the leaves are cooked, shaped into compact cakes, sun-dried, and stor 

ed (stored sometimes for three or four years), then rehydrated and sered as 

food. Bulbs, roots, and tubers are used primarly between October and January. 

Bushlands surrounding Tlokwa settlements contain fruits, nuts, and seeds mainly 

between November-March; most are eaten fresh although three may be sun-dried 

and preserved for winter use (Euclea schimperi, Grewia flava, and Sclerocarya 

caffra). Plants used to prepare beverages are seasonal in nature. During 

Spring (October-November) small tender leaves from Combretum transvaalense, 

Grewia flava, latropha zeyheri, and L6ppia scaherima are sought for brewing. 

In Summer (December-February) berries =nr! f uits, and a few bulbs, are sought 

to make fermented or fresh beverages, especially Boscia foetida rehmanniana, 

Grewia spp., Papea capensis, Rhus spp., Vangueria infausta, and Ximenia caffra. 

61.

In Winter (June-July) roots of Boscia albitrunca or Grewia flava are ground, 

roasted, boiled, and prepared as coffee substitutes. Miscellaneous wild 

plants include mushrooms (collected usually in February) and vegetable fibers 

chewed to alleviate thirst (generally from Acacia grandicornuta, A. karroo, or 

A. tortilis), while resins are obtained from more than twenty species and 

used as snacks by all Tlokwa. Dietary use of flowers is primarily restricted 

to Tlokwa children who use blooms from Aloe zebrina (Grivetti, 1976; 1978; 1979). 

When one compares lists of edible wild plants used by the Tlokwa with 

lists presented earlier on wild plants as food for Bushman or other hunter 

gatherer societies (Tables 3 and 6) one is struck with a basic paradox; the 

Tlokwa, so-called agro-pastoralists, regularly utilize many more wild foods 

than hunter-gatherers (Table 31). Close inspection of anthropological and 

botanical data from southern Africa, however, reveals that the Tlokwa are not 

an anomaly, but are typical of other agro-pastoral societies; peoples who 

maintain a strong basic agricultural/animal economic base, but who also pract 

!Le hunting-collecting. Furthermore, the Tlokwa are not unique among the 

Tswana agro-pastoralists since Scroggie (1946) working among the Tswana 

Ngwaketse, also identified a strong theme of hunting and collecting of wild 

plants as food. 

The present author (Grivetti, 1979, p. 252) reported that dietary diversi 

fication is important to maintain nutritional quality of diet. Societies with 

diversification will be more successful during periods of climatic-environmental 

stress (drought) than societies with limited food procurement strategies. Indeed, 

it is this writer's view that the principal factor contributing to Tswana nutri 

tional success reported by Burgess (1972) at the peak of drought in the Kalahari, 

62.

is a diversified food base, including a strong focus on edible wild bush plants. 

If this view is supportable, it logically follows that drought is not the cause 

of famine; famine is the result from inability to perceive or utilize potential 

wild foods available in surrounding bushlands. Is the Sahel disaster a problem 

born of cultural inability to recognize, procure, and utilize available wild 

food resources -- resources that irmerly were sustaining and characteristic 

of so many sub-Saharan agro-pastoral societies? Perhaps the lessons taught by 

Tlokwa nutritional success can be useful in interpreting the origins and develop 

ment of fam,ne elsewhere within the tropics. 

63.



63a.

TABLE 21. Swazi Edible Wild Plants 

Latin Terminology Swazi Terminology 

Solanum nigrum Umsobo 

Colocasia antiquorum Emadumbe 

Portulaca oleracea Silele 

Amaranthus paniculetus Imbuya 

Amaranthus thunbergii Isheke 

Unidentified vegetables (40) 

Unidentified fruits (19) 

Sclerocarya caffra Marula 

SOURCE: Beemer (1939, pp. 204-205, 221) 

64.

TABLE 22. Edible Wild Plants of the baSotho 

Latin Terminilogy seSotho Terminology 

Oxalis convexula Bolila 

Oxalis semiloba Bolila 

Oxalis smithii Bolila 

Plantago major Bolila ba lipoli 

Rhynchosia totta Seoeliloetla 

Asclepias gibba Mantsokoane 

Myrica conifera Monnamotsu 

Cyperus usitatus Monakalali 

Lepidium capense Sebista 

Lepidium schinzii Sebista 

Xysmalobium lapathifolium Leshokhoa 

Lepidium myriocarpum Lerotho 

????? Moetse oa pere 

Chenopodium album Serue 

Nasturtium fluviatile Papasane 

Cynanchum virens Mololo 

Thalictrum minus Lefokotsane 

Amaranthus paniculatus Thepe 

Solanum nigrum Seshoabohloko 

Sisymbrium capense Tlhako ea khomo 

SOURCE: Ashton (1939, p.-159) 

65.

TABLE 23. Edible Wild Plants of Malawi 

Latin Terminology Chinyanja Terminology 

FRUITS 

Adansonia digitata Mlambe 

Anisophyllea sp. Macilicti 

Annona chrysophylla Mpoza 

Antidesma venosum Mpungulira 

Bauhinia fassoglensis Mpandwapansi 

Borassus aethiopum Mvumo 

Bridelia micrantha Mpasa 

Canthium crassum Mvilo 

Carissa edulis Mpabulu 

Cissus buchanuni Namwalicece 

Cissus cornifolia Mbulunbunji 

Cissus jatrophoides Mwinimunda 

Coccinia palmata Fwifwi 

Coccinia quinqueloba Cinkaka 

Cordia abyssinica Mbwabwa 

Cordyla africana Mtondo 

Cussonia kirkii Mbwabwa 

Cussonia spicata Camdimbo 

Diospyros mespiliformis Msumwa 

Ekebergia arborea Mabere ya ng'ombe 

Fadogia odorata Mkumbakumba 

Ficus mallatocarpa Mtundu 

Ficus spp. Nkhuyu 

Flacourtia indica Mtawa 

Garcinia spp. Mpimbi 

Gardenia manganjae Mzondo 

Grewia woodiana Tensa 

Hirtella sp. Mphungumutu 

Hyphaene sp. Mgwalangwa 

Landolphia kirkii Mpira 

Landolphia parvifolia Kapwati 

Landolphl.a sp. Makombe 

Lannea discolor Sidyatungu 

Lannea fulva Kitongomilo 

Lannea stuhlmannii Cirusa 

Lantana salviifolia Nakasonde 

Mimusops sp. Njolokwa 

Myrianthus arboreus Ciwele 

Olea crysophylla Nakatimba 

Pachystela brevipes Mpimbi 

Parinari spp. Muula 

Parkia filicoidea Mkundi 

Popowia obovata Mfulafula 

66.



FRUITS ( CONTINUED ) 

Pseudolachnostylis sp. Msolo 

Pyrenocantha sp. Mcende 

Rhoicissus erythrodes Mpeza 

Rhus natalensis Mapirankukute 

Rubus spp. Mpandankhuku 

Sclerocarya caffra Mfula 

Solanum spp. (various names) 

Sorindeia obtusifolia Sasola 

Strychnos sp. Mateme 

Syzygium cordatum Nyowe 

Syzygium quineense Ntepera 

Syzygium owariense Mafuwa 

Tamarindus indica Bwemba 

Temnocalyx obovatus Maso a ng'ombe 

Terminalia catappa Mkungu 

Turraea nilotica Msindila 

Uapaca spp. Msuku 

Uvaria sp. Ukonde 

Vangueria spp. Mzilu 

Vitex spp. Mpindimbi 

Xymalos monospora Nakaswaga 

Zanha golungensis Mkwidio 

Ziziphus spp. Kankhande 

LEVES 

Acacia macrothyrsa Mnkhumbu 

Adansonia digitata Mlambe 

Adenia cisampeloides Mlozi 

Aerva lanata Cidyonko 

Afzelia quanzensis Msambamfumu 

Alternanthera sessilis Kandudwa 

Amaranthus spp. Bonongwe 

Anthericum sp. Kaluwatete 

Argemone mexicana Mkumajalaga 

Arthrosolen sp. Kazinda 

Astragalus sp. Nacilare 

Basella alba Mndele 

Bidens pilosa Cinomba 

Bidens schimperi Masanjala 

Boscia sp. Mpetu 

Canthium sp. Cisunkunthu 

CardLospermum sp. Msendecere 

Cassia singueana Mpatsacokolo 

67.



LEAVES ( CONTINUED ) 

Celosia argentea Ndangale 

Celosia trigyna Kaphika ulesi 

Ceropegia papillata Fwafwalingo 

Ceropegia sp. Cang'ombe 

Cleome monophylla Njerenjedza 

Coccina quinqueloba Cinkaka 

Commelina sp. Khovani 

Corchorus olitorius Cilenzi 

Corchorus trilocularis Denje 

Crassocephalum rubens Cinusi 

Cryptolepis oblongifolia Bwazi 

Cucumis hirsutus Mkuwikuwi 

Cucuris metuliferous Kangakhwani 

Cynanchum schistoglossum Mpuludwa 

Dorstenia sp. Mbwangululu 

Emilia coccina Cinguwo 

Fagara nitens Mlunguculu 

Glycine javanica Yembe 

Grumilea ungoniensis Cisunkunthu 

Gynandropsis gynandra Luni 

Indigofera sp. Denje 

Lightfootia sp. Cisiso 

Melochia corchorifolia Cipondavu 

Momordica foetida Tungwi 

Moringa oleifera Camwamba 

Nesaea sp. Kwete 

Nidorella microcephala Sungubuwa 

Oxalis sp. Katakula 

Oxygonum atriplicifolium Xalaseweni 

Pentarrhinum sp. Cindewe; Kafungo 

Pentanisia schweinfurthii Mgulungundi 

Portulaca oleracea Matakoatsanu 

Ranunculus multifidus Khobedi 

Rumex nepalensis Qakazea 

Secamone sp. Bwazi 

Securidaca sp. Bwazi 

Sesamum angolense Citowe thengo 

Smithia elliottii Kadzulo 

Solanum nigrum Mnadzi 

Souchus oleraceus Cinguwo 

Sphaerosicyos sp. Cipuzi 

Sterculia appendiculata Njale 

Talinum caffrum Mlelamvula 

Thunbergia spp. Mlombwe 

68.



LEAVES ( CONTINUED ) 

Trichodesma zeylanicum Dungumwamba 

Triumfetta annua Khatambuzi 

Tulbaghia cameroni Katsopi 

Vernonia sp. Dambwe 

Viola abyssinica Katongolola 

Wormskioldia sp. Katambala 

Zornia sp. Kanduwa 

LEGUMES, NUTS, SEEDS 

Cassia petersiana B wemba nyani 

Cassia singuena Mpatsacokolo 

Dolichos lablab Nkhusa 

Mucuna pruriens Citedze 

Parkia filicoidea Mkhundi 

Sphenostylis erecta Nkhunga 

Vigna phaseoloides Mtambe thengo 

Adansonia digitata Baobab 

Telfaria pedata Oyster nut 

Terminalia catappa Mkungu 

Treculia africana African Bread Fruit 

Trichelia roka Msikitsi 

ROOTS AND TUBERS 

Anthericum sp. Shawawa 

Coccinia quinqueloba Cinkaka 

Disa sp. Cinaka 

Euphorbia sp. Cikhawo 

Habenaria sp. Cinaka 

Lotus sp. Mpeta 

Margaretta whytei Ncence 

Nymphaea calliantha Cikolwa 

Satyrium sp. Cinaka 

Sphenostylis stenocarpa Cinkhoma 

Tacca involucrata Dinde 

Vigna fischeri Mukho 

Ranunculus multifidus Khobedi 

SOURCE: Williamson (1960, pp. 156-160) 

69.

TABLE 24. Gwembe Tonga Edible Wild Plants, Zambia 


VEGETABLE RELISHES 

Adansonia digitata Leaf October - December 

Aerva lanata Leaf December 

Albizzia anthelmintica Young leaves September - October 

Aloe zebrina Bud ??? 

Alternanthera nodiflora Leaf November; June - Jul, 

Amaranthus angustifolius Leaf December - January; 

March 

Amaranthus spinosus Leaf August - September 

Amaranthus thunbergii Leaf December - May 

Amaranthus dubius Flower December - March 

Amaranthus hybridus Flower December - March 

Ammocharis tinneana Flower; leaf December 

Argemone mexicana Leaf ??? 

Bauhinia tomentosa Young leaves November - December 

Cassia obtusifolia Leaf ??? 

Celosia trigyna Leaf January - March 

Ceratotheca sesamoides Leaf All Year 

Chlorophytum kymatodes Leaf; flower November - December 

Chrozophora plicata ??? ??? 

Cissampelos mucronata ??? ??? 

Cissus integrifolia Leaf November - December 

Cleome gynandra Leaf; stem December - April 

Cleome monophylla Shoot; flower; leaf January 

Cocculus hirsutus Leaf June - July 

Commelina diffusa Leaf November - December; 

May .!ptember 

Corchorus olitorius Leaf November - July 

Corchorus tridens Leaf ??? 

Corchorus trilocularis Leaf December 

Corchorus sp. Leaf December - April 

Corrigiola litoralis Leaf June - August 

Cucumis anguria Leaf ??? 

Cucumis metuliferus Leaf ??? 

Cucumis ficifolius Leaf ??? 

Dicliptera verticillata ??? ??? 

Dip'cadi magnum Leaf ??? 

Erythrococca menyharthii Leaf December 

Glinus oppositifolius Leaf ??? 

Haemanthus multiflorus Leaf ??? 

Heliotrophium ovalifolium Leaf ??? 

Hibiscus sp. Pods February - March 

Hibiscus mechowi Leaf ??? 

Hibiscus meeusei Leaf ??? 

Hyphaene ventricosa Heart/pith January 

70.



VEGETABLE RELISHES ( CONTINUED ) 

Loranthus menyhartii Leaf ??? 

Luffa cylindrica Young fruit ??? 

Moringa oleifera Leaf; flower ??? 

Momordica foetida Young leaves ??? 

Pollichia campestris All portions except root ??? 

Polygonum plebeium Leaf ??? 

Polygonum senagalense Leaf May - August 

Portulaca oleracea Leaf; stem June - September 

Pterocarpus antunesi Leaf; buds November - December 

Sesbania sesban Leaf; flower: August - November 

Sida alba Leaf June - August 

Solanum nigrum Leaf ??? 

Sonchus oleraceus Leaf ??? 

Sphaeranthus humilis Leaf ??? 

Sphaeranthus incisus Leaf ??? 

Talinum crispatulum Leaf ??? 

Talinum portulacifolium Leaf ??? 

Tetratelia tenuifolis Leaf; stem; flower December - February 

Trichodesma xeylanicum Leaf ??? 

Triplochiton zambesiacus Leaf May - November 

Turbina holubi Leaf ??? 

Vellozia equisetoides Flower November 

Ziziphus abyssinica Leaf ??? 

FRUITS AND NUTS 

Acacia albida Seeds Famine food; August - 

October 

Adansonia digitata Fruit April - November 

Antidesma venosum Fruit April 

Artabotrys cf. brachypetalus Fruit March 

Azanza garckeana Fruit April - July 

Baphia massaiensis Fruit ??? 

Bauhinia petersiana Seeds July 

Berchemia discolor Fruit March 

Bridelia cathartica Fruit ??? 

Capparis rosea Fruit ??? 

Cleistochlamys kirkii Fruit ??? 

Coccinia adoensis Fruit March 

Combretum mossambicense Fruit ??? 

Cordia ovalis Fruit; Juice May 

Cordyla africana Fruit November - December 

Croton gratissimus Fruit ??? 

71.



FRUITS AND NUTS ( CONTINUED ) 

Cucumis anguria Fruit ??? 

Cucumis metuliferus Fruit ??? 

Dipspyros kirki Fruit August - September 

Diospyros mespiliformis Fruit July - September 

Feretia aeruginescens Fruit ??? 

Ficus capensis Fruit September - October 

Ficus sycomorus Fruit September - October 

Flacourtia indica Fruit ??? 

Garcinia livingstonei Fruit ??? 

Grewia bicolor Fruit April 

Grewia flave-cens Fruit; juice ??? 

Grewia herbacea Fruit; juice ??? 

Grewia pachycalyx Fruit ??? 

Hyphaene ventricosa Fruit June 

Lannea discolor Nut ??? 

Lannea stuhlmannii Fruit; nut November - December 

Lecaniodiscus flaxinifolius Fruit ??? 

Lonchocarpus capassa Seeds Famine food; August 

October 

rlua glauca Fruit; seed Famine Food; August 

October 

Manilkara mochisia Fruit ??? 

Olax dissitiflora Fruit November 

Parinari cf. curatellifolia Fruit August - September 

Piliostigma thonningii Seed pods ??? 

Popowia obovata Fruit ??? 

Pseudocadia zambesiaca Fruit June 

Rhus sp. Fruit ??? 

Sclerocarya caffra Fruit; kernels October - November 

Strychnos innocua Fruit November - December 

Tamarindus indica Fruit; seeds August - January; 

also a famine food 

Trichilia emetica Fruit December - January 

Vangueria infausta Fruit March - April 

Vangueriopsis lanciflora Fruit ??? 

Xeroderris stuhlmannii Seeds Famine food; August 

October 

Ximenia americana Fruit; kernels October - March 

Ximenia spp. Fruit; seeds December 

Ziziphus abyssinica Fruit May - June 

Ziziphus mauritiana Fruit ??? 

72.


Latin Terminology Portioi Used Seasonality 

EDIBLE GRASSES 

Brachiaria deflexa Grain February 

Craspedorhachis uniflora Grain February 

Dactyloctenium giganteum Grain February 

Echinochloa colonum Grain February 

Panicum maximum Grain February 

Panicum novemnerve Grain February 

Rottboellia exaltata Grain February 

Sorghum halepense Grain February 

Urochloa mossambicensis Grain February 

TUBERS AND ROOTS 

Amorphophallus abyssinicus Tuber; leaf; stalk Famine food 

Boscia albitrunca Root Famine food 

Ceropegia tentaculata Tuber All year 

Coccinia adoensis Tuber Famine food 

Commiphora cf. africana Tuber All year 

Commiphora pyracanthoides Tuber All year 

Crinum harmsi Tuber Famine food 

Crinum pedicellatum Tuber Famine food 

Cyperus fulgens Bulb October - December 

Ipomoea shirambensis Tuber Famine food; November 

- December 

Neorautanenia cf. mitis Root Famine food 

Nymphaea caerulea Root; buds; seeds March 

Plectranthus esculentus Tuber All year 

Pteleopsis myrtifolia Juice ??? 

Scilla sp. Bulb November 

bonga Bulb ??? 

bumpububu Root Famine food 

kabombwe Root Famine food 

kanagwelebe Root January 

bowa (mushrooms) Cap; stalk November - January 

SOURCE: Scudder (1971, pp. 39-45). 

73.

TABLE 25. Xhosa Edible Wild Plants, Transkei, Republic of South Africa 


Solanum nigrum 

Amaranthus sp. 

Sonchus spp. 

Urtica urens 

Fleurya mitis 

Urtica dioica 

Urtica burchelli 

Taraxacum spp. 

Bidens pilosa 

Chenopodium alba 

Galinosoga parviflora 

Erigeron canadense 

Raphanus raphinastrum 

Susymbrium spp. 

Physalis peruviana 

Pachycarpus concolor 

Leonotis leonurus 

Leucas martinicensis 

SOURCE: Rose (1972, p. 1358) 

74.

TABLE 26. Pedi Edible Wild Plants, Republic of South Africa 

Latin Terminology Pedi Terminology 

Amaranthus thunbergii Theepe 

Amaranthus spinosus Serepelele 

Pentarrhinum insipidum Lefotosane 

Pergularia extensa Mothuhu 

Gynandropsis pentaphylla Lerotho 

Cleome monophylla Sekalerothane 

Chenopodium murale Serua 

Bidens bipinnata Monyane 

Sonchus oleraceus Lesheshe 

Vernonia fastigiata Lehianye 

Ipomoea lugardi Maswi a pudi 

Cucumis africanus Monyaku 

Cucumis melo Thagaraga 

Citrullus vulgaris var. lanatus Mokiti 

Coccinia rehmannii Kaukau 

Momordica balsamina Masegasegane 

Solanum nigrum Moshwe 

Tribulus terrestris Tshehlo 

Ximenia caffra Ditshidi 

Chrysophyllum magaliesmontanum Mohlatswa 

Strychnos pungens Morotlue 

Strychnos innocua Morotlue 

Vitex pooara Mburo 

Vangueria infausta Mmilo 

Dovyalis caffra Mohlono 

Sclerocarya caffra Morula 

Opuntia megacantha Torofeie 

SOURCE: Quin (1959, pp. 60-92) 

75.

TABLE 27. Nutritional Value of Selected Edible Wild Plants, Natal, Republic 

of South Africa 

Latin Terminology Protein Cystine Methionine Lysine Tryptophan 

Content Content Content Content Content 

N x 6.25 mg/g N mg/g N mg/g N mg/g N 

Asystasia schimperi 4.9 87 104 415 130 

Amaranthus hybridus 4.7 94 118 371 103 

Amaranthus spinosus 5.9 132 120 422 74 

Amaranthus viridis/ 

tricolor 4.8 86 125 408 89 

Chenopodium albuw 3.0 133 ill 376 92 

Colocasia antiquorum 3.6 88 134 371 92 

Cucurbita pepo 4.6 67 107 455 83 

Ophioglossum 

engelmannii 3.6 114 127 355 78 

Bidens pilosa 2.3 70 115 401 81 

Ipomoea batatas 5.6 74 135 356 54 

Sonchus oleraceus 2.0 83 127 472 57 

SOURCE: Shanley and Lewis (1969, p. 257) 

76.

TABLE 28. Anti-Pellagragenic Properties of Selected Edible Wild Plants, 

Natal, Republic of South Africa 

Latin Terminology Zulu Terminology Nicotinic Acid Content 

Fresh Dry 

mg/1Og mg/1Og 

Asystasia schimperi (leaf) Imbobela 1.87 10.7 

Amaranthus viridis/tricolor Imbuya ugobolo 1.67 10.3 

Ophioglossum engelmannii Isinkuntshane 1.30 8.5 

Amaranthus hybridus var. 

hybridus Imbuya 1.26 8.4 

Cucurbita pepo Usolozi 1.13 8.3 

Amaranthus spinosus Imbuyabathwa 1.72 6.9 

Ipomoea batatas Amakhasi ubatata 1.28 6.6 

Colocasia antiquorum Umthebe idumbe 0.88 6.1 

Chenopodium album Imbilikicane 1.17 6.0 

Bidens pilosa Ucucuza 0.80 5.0 

Sonchus oleraceus Iklabeklabe 0.46 4.6 

Vigna vexillata (tuber) Umcwasibe 1.17 3.6 

SOURCE: Hennessy and Lewis (1971, p. 76) 

77.

TABLE 29. Edible Wild Cucumbers (Cucurbitaceae) of Botswana and Selected 

Kalahari Edible Species 


Citrullus lanatus 

Citrullus naudianus 

Coccina sessilifolia 

Coccina rehmannii var. rehemannii 

Cucumis hirsutus 

Cucumis metuliferus 

Cucumis kalahariensis 

Cucumis africanus 

Corallocarpus welwitshii 

Corallocarpus bainesii 

Momordica clematidea 

Momordica balsamina 

Caralluma knobelii 

Stapelia marientalensis 

Acanthosicyos naudiniana 

Tylosema esculentum 

SOURCE: Renew (1968, pp. 5-14) and Keith and Renew (1975, pp. 9-11) 

78.

TABLE 30: Edible Wild Plants Used by the Moshaweng Tlokwa, Botswana 

Latin Terminology seTswana Terminology Portion Used 

Acacia erubescens Moloto Resin 

Acacia fleckii Mofafu Resin 

Acacia grandicornuta Moshaoka Bark 

Acacia karroo 

Mooka 

Bark; resin 

Acacia mellifera 

Mongana 

Ash; leaf; resin 

Acacia robusta Moga Resin 

Acacia tortilis 

Mosu 

Bark; leaf; resin 

Acacia uncinata 

Mookwane 

Seeds 

Acacia sp. Mokwekwele Seeds 

Acacia sp. More we lentswe Leaf 

Aloe zebrina Kgophane Flower; leaf 

Amanita edulis 

Mabowa tlou 

Cap 

Amanita spp. 

Mabowa mogana 

Cap; stem 

Amaranthus thunbergii 

Thepe 

Leaf 

Amaranthus spp. Thepe kgaitsadi Leaf 

Amaranthus spp. Thepe leshweshwane Leaf 

Amaranthus spp. Thepe malome Leaf 

Azanza garckeana Morojwa Fruit 

Babiana hypogenea Tshuge Root 

Boscia albitrunca 

Motlopi 

Fruit; root 

Boscia foetida rehmanniana Mopipi 

Fruit 

Bulbine tortilifolia Kgomo ya buru Root 

Burkea africana Monato Resin 

Coccina rehmannii 

Magapa 

Fruit 

Combretum apiculatum 

Mohudiri 

Resin 

Combretum erythrophyllum Moduba Resin 

Combretum imberbe Motswere Leaf; resin 

Combretum transvaalense Mokabi Leaf 

Commiphora spp. Moroka Resin 

Croton gratissimus Moologa Leaf 

Cucumis metuliferous Magabala Fruit 

Cucumis myriocarp, Mokapana Fruit 

Cucumis spp. Monyaku Leaf 

Cucumis spp. Monyaku njwa Leaf 

Cucumis spp. Phare Fruit; leaf 

Dichrostachys cinera Moselesele Resin 

Diospyros lycioides Letlhajwa Fruit 

Ehretia regida Morobe Fruit 

Euclea schimperi Motlhakolane Fruit 

Ficus soldanela Mfawa Fruit 

Grewia bicolor Mogwana Fruit 

Grewia flava 

Moretlwa 

Fruit; leaf; resin 

Grewia flavescens 

Mokgomphatha 

Fruit 

Grewia occidentalis Motsotsojane Fruit 

79.


Latin Terminology seTswana Terminology 

Gyandropsis gynandra Rothwe 

Hibiscus cannabinus Maku 

Iatropha zeyheri Seswagadi 

Ipomoea spp. Kgane 

Lantana viburnoides Selaole 

Lippia scaberima Mosukudu 

Maeura schinzii Moomane 

Mentha spp. Kgomodimetsing 

Mimusops zeyheri Mmopudu 

Opuntia spp. Toroko 

Pappea capensis Mopennengwe; Mothatha 

Peltophorum africanum Mosetlha 

Pergularia extensa Leshwe 

Pergularia spp. Leshweshwane 

Portulaca oleracea Serepe 

Portulaca spp. Segwete sa khadi 

Psalliota (?) spp. Ramolangwana 

Rhus gueinzii Motshotlho 

Rhus iancea Mosilabele 

Rhus pyroides Mogodiri 

Sansevieria aethiooica Mosokelatsebeng 

Sclerocarya caffra Morula 

Solanum incanum Morolwana 

Solanum spp. Thola e tona 

Spirostachys africana Morekhuri 

Strychnos coculeoides Mogwaragwarane 

Tylosema esculenta Morama 

Uriginea sanguinea Rabasa; Sekaname 

Vangueria infausta Mmilo 

Vangueria spp. Mmilorotsane 

Vangueria spp. Mokhu 

Ximenia caffra Moretologa kgomo 

Ximenia spp. Moretologa nku 

Ximenia spp. Moretologa podi 

Ziziphus mucronata Mokgalo 

Ziziphus spp. Mokgalo fatshe 

PLUS: 41 vernacular names for 

other edible wild plants 

SOURCE: Grivetti (1979, pp. 248-250) 

Portion Used 

80. 

Leaf 

Sap 

Leaf 

Root 

Fruit 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Fruit 

Fruit 

Fruit; leaf 

Ash; leaf; resin 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Root 

Cap; stem 

Fruit 

Fruit 

Fruit 

Root 

Fruit; nut; resin 

Leaf 

Leaf 

Resin 

Fruit 

Seed 

Leaf 

Fruit; leaf 

Fruit 

Sap 

Fruit 

Fruit 

Fruit 

Fruit; resin 

Fruit

TABLE 31. Comparative Utilization of Edible Wild Plants: Agro-Pastoral 

Moshaweng Tlokwa and !Kung, /Gwi, =/Kade San, and !Xo Bushman 

Societies 

FOOD CATEGORY Tlokwa !Kung /Gwi =/Kade San !Xo 

Leaves and Stalks 22 4 6 14 3 

Bulbs, Roots, Tubers 31 31 8 34 8 

Berries, Fruits, Nuts, Seeds 47 34 20 20 5 

Barks, Flowers, Resins 23 16 ? 9 ? 

Mushrooms 3 ? ? 1 1 

TOTALS 126 85 34 78 17 

SOURCE: GRIVETTI (1979, p. 251) 

81.

DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS 

Returning to questions posed at the outset of this report, should agri 

cultural development within the tropical zone of sub-Saharan Africa consider 

edible wild plants as a viable research and development focus? Four types 

of data presented in this report document an unqualified support for such 

research. 

1. While there is abundant information already available identify 

ing important dietary uses of wild plants by agro-pastoral peoples 

within the study region, these data have not been systematicany col 

lected. No region within sub-Saharan Africa has been examined 

thoroughly for the potential presence of highly nutritious wild 

plants. Data presented in this report reveal a high number of wild 

species utilized by agro-pastoral societies within the study area; 

the reports presented represent an eclectic, unsystematic attempt 

to identify potentially useful edible wild plants. 

2. It is clear that many agro-pastoral societies focus on domesti 

cated field crops to the near exclusion of wild species. It is 

also clear that other societies rely heavily on wild plants to pro 

vide important energy and nutrients under three types of conditions: 

A) Minimal but important use throughout the year, P) Major important 

use at specific periods of the year, especially in the months pre 

ceding harvest of domesticated field crops, and C) Major importance 

during periods of drought. Wild plants in each region of sub-Saharan 

Africa are climatically adapted to variable conditions, whereas most 

domesticated field crops are not. Thus, during drought wild plants 

may become the most important determinant whether individuals, families, 

even villages maintain their nutritional quality. 

82.

3. The nutritional role played by wild plants includes basic 

components of energy (calories) from protein, carbohydrates, and 

fats, as well as vitamins and minerals. Despite the publication 

on nutritional composition by Leung (1968), few data are avail 

able on the nutritional composition of most edible wild plants. 

With such data important decisions could be made for agricultural 

development of outstanding wild plants with high potential for 

nutritional return. 

4. The nutritional aspect of wild plant research is but one of 

several potential agricultural and economic focal areas. In 

addition to wild plants serving as food resources, wild species 

offer high potential for economic fiber, oil, dye, drugs/medicine, 

and a host of other economic possibilities. 

Thus, considering agricultural development in its broadest sense, one may 

make a sound claim that an exciting research area with direct application for 

agricultural development and economic improvement exists within the theme of 

wild plant use. A number of recent reports build upon this theme of economic 

development of wild plants, especially those by Goodspeed (1953), Jackson (1954), 

Hodge (1958), Terra (1966), Mondonedo (1969), Bates and Hentges (1976), Wilkes 

(1977), and Vietmeyer (1978; 1979) who suggest that tropical plants have not 

been investigated adequately. 

Approaching the question of further research from a complementary per 

spective is the view of the present author (Grivetti, 1976; 1978; 1979) that 

holds agricultural development should not be at the expense of nutritional 

83.

quality of human diet and that nutritional quality is built on the association 

common to many agricultural societies of food hhbits'using both domesticated 

and wild species. Parallel views have been stated by Korte (1969; 1973): Dema 

(1971), Dewey (1979; 1980), and Doughty (1979a; 1979b) who suggest that agri 

cultural development may not lead to nutritional improvement unless ecological 

and public health data are used by planners; indeed, nutritional quality of 

diet may decline with agricultural development (see also Vahlquist, 1972). 

Still another parallel view is that of Calloway et al. (1974) who have 

documented clearly that wild plants not only augment human diet in a positive 

manner, but that the nutritional content of some wild species may be superior 

in vitamin and mineral content to widely raised domesticated field crops. Such 

views support the work of Clarke (1976) and others that agricultural develop 

ment is important, but should also consider relationships between agriculture, 

human ecology, and forest-bushland-field crops. 

A different argument for suggesting research on edible wild plants shouhi 

be within the realm of agricultural development is presented by Leroy (1967), 

Gade (1972), Prance and Elias (1976), Thomas (1976), and Schultes (1979), that 

"extinction is forever". These writers suggest that indiscriminate attempts 

to push back forest margins to bring vast regions under cultivation may result 

in the extinction of hundreds of plants, not heretofore examined for their 

potential as economic products of high value. Most ecologists are realists; 

willing to sacrifice certain species if provided only with the choice of feed 

ing human infants or preserving a plant. But most ecologists -- and most 

human nutritionists -- would not be willing to expand crop acreage at the ex 

pense of "useless jungle/bushlands" -- without first examining the lands for 

underexploited wild plants with potential for dietary development or other 

84.

economic uses. Such an approach is short sighted; with perhaps initial food 

gains but at an unacceptable price. Without the knowledge on which to base 

decisions such agricultvzal planning would exist only in a vacuum. 

Within the tropical regions of sub-iriharan Africa the theme of "hungry 

months", or period of food insufficiency that occurs when dietary resources 

from stored field crops are exhausted and the anticipated harvest from growing 

crops has not been achieved, is another compelling argument for developmental 

research on edible wild plants. This dietary problem has been documented by 

Dubourg (1957) for the Mossi of Upper Volta, by Hunter (1967) for several 

societies in Ghana, by Brooke (1967) for Tanzania. In West Africa Annegers 

(1973) and Ogubu (1973) clearly show the important role played by indigenous 

wild food resources in the months just before harvest of domesticated field 

crops. Their work reveals the need for careful planning when considering 

expanding agricultural farm size at the expense of vital, nutritionally im 

portant wild plants that supplement human diet at critical periods of the 

agricultural cycle (see also Miracle, 1961; Seasonal Hunger, 1968). 

85.

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Accordingly, the following four recommendations are made and follow from 

data developed in this report: 

1. Underutilized/exploited wild plants should be considered a research 

priority within agricultural development programs sponsored by the 

Agency for International Development. 

2. Local USAID officials should be provided with limited discretionary 

funding in the range of U.S. $20-30,000 to sponsor systematic economic 

surveys in target regions whereby wild plants with potential dietary 

and non-dietary uses could be identified and evaluated for further 

study. 

3. Teams of qualified Anthropologists/Geographers, Botanists, and Nutri 

tionists should be encouraged to apply for such funding to systemati 

cally examine and review the potential for further development of wild 

plants within sub-Saharan Africa. 

4. A systematic effort should be launched to develop a nutritional data 

base on the energy, vitamin, and mineral composition of important 

edible wild plants. Field collections could be returned to Federal 

or American university laboratories for analysis at relatively little 

cost -- but with enormous nutritional and economic potential. 

86.

APPENDICES 

87.

APPENDIX 1. 

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA SEARCH REQUEST 

Data Set Country Crossed by 

1 Africa A. Indigenous Plants 

2 Angola B. Wild Plants 

3 Benin C. Gathering 

4 Botswana D. Medicinal 

5 Burundi 

6 Bechuana Land 

7 Cameroons 

8 Cameroun 

9 Cape Verde 

10 Congo 

11 Dahomey 

12 Gabon 

13 Gambia 

14 Ghana 

15 Ivory Coast 

16 Kenya 

17 Liberia 

18 Malawi 

19 Madagascar 

20 Malagasy Republic 

21 Mocambique 

22 Mozambique 

23 Namibia 

24 Nyasaland 

25 Rhodesia 

26 Rwanda 

27 Sahel 

28 Senegal 

29 Sierra Leone 

30 Swaziland 

31 Tanganyika 

32 Tanzania 

33 Togo 

34 Upper Volta 

35 Zaire 

36 Zambia 

88.

APPENDIX 2. The Useful Plants of r,,at Tropical Africa. Being an Appendix 

to the Flora of West .ropical Africa by J. Hutchinson and J. 

M. Dalziel: Sample Page and Sample Index 

THE USEFUL PLANTS 

OF 

WEST TROPICAL AFRICA 

BY 

J. M. DALZIEL, M.D., B.Sc., F.L.S., 

LATZ OF TUN WST AFRICAN MEDICALBZLVICS, 

BEING 

An APPENDIX to the FLORA OF WEST 

TROPICAL AFRICA 

BY 

J. HUTCHINSON and J. M. DALZIEL. 

Published t behalf of the FederMl Goverti .e .r Nigeri. ,.nd 

thr GCOaerilaflll of(the Gold . Sirm Loasvir tmil 1hr Ga.mbia. 

by the 

Crown Agents for Oversea Governments 

and Administration.s 

4. Millbnk. ilh.do. S.W.i 

Price 25s. 

89.

PIPERACEAE 17 

wild plant. The dried black berries and even the fresh red fruita are sold in all 

markets as a spice--" Bush Pepper "-much used in flavouring soup, rice, etc., 

and medicinally as a stomachic and carminative, especially for griping conditions 

and as an adjuvant to many other medicines, for syphilis, rheumatio joints, etc. 

It is used also externally as a counter-irritant or stimulating ointment, sometimes 

in mixture with the seeds of UvariaChamae and other aromat cs. 

The leaves taken with food are supposed to improve the chances of conception. 

The grains may be useful as an insecticide whm pulverised and placed amongst 

clothing. 

Although one of the early spice grains brought from the Grain Coast (Liberia) 

in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, it does not appear to have at any time 

been accepted in Europe as a substitute for ordiary pepper (P. nigrum)which is 

more aromatic. In common with other peppers itcontains an essential oil which 

contributes to the flavour, chiefly depending on the principles chavici-e and 

piverins. The distilled oil, which is yellowish or nearly oolourless, may be 

suitable for perfumery, soap-making, etc. Amongst the Ekoi in S. Nigeria the 

plant is symbolic, and sacred to ghosts (Talbot). 

P. umbellatum Linn.-Holl. 4 : 558. 

FT. Gain. : FuL gouloafa (Jacquea.F61ix In R.B.A. 1935 :198, but see also under Ampelo. 

eiu#u. Grantii); Su,'i labasab. S. Leone: Me. poponda ; TL kofusam ; Sueu labalaba. Gold 

Coast: Twi amma/a, mumuaha. B. Nlgeria: Benin lbe.axhi ; Ibo, Ow. njam nja (Car. 

penter). 

The leaves in some parts of West Africa are eaten as a vegetable. The basal 

part of the stem with rather thick and sometimes corky bark is slightly aromatic, 

and is sometimes used by the Timnes as a condiment with rice, or as an ingredient 

in the common sauce made of dried fish and palm oil. In French Guinea the 

plant is regarded as a remedy lor tapeworm. Jacques-F6lix (l.c.) gives reasons 

to doubt this, but it may perhaps act as a simple vermifuge. In other countries 

the reputation of the plant has been as an antiscorbutic and diuretic. The leaves, 

boiled with the ingredients of a palm oil stew, act as a laxative used in pregnancy 

(Gold Coast). Irvine mentions also (I.c. below) that the leaves on the inflorescence 

are prepared with peppel in an enema used in the treatment of a women's 

complaint. 

The roots alone, or mixed with other herbs, are also used medicinally, an 

infus'on of the root macerated in palm wine, etc., being drunk for rheumatism. 

Locally a poultice of the leaves potuded with palm kernels is applied to a whitlow 

to bring it to a head. 

In Gold Coast the plant is said to attract fish, and the leaves along with 

plantain or other food form a bait used in traps and nets. 

Rtef.-Afzelius, Rermed. Guin. 39-41 (under Piper grandifolium). Irvine, PI.O.C. 342. 

A. Chevalier, R.B.A. 1931 : 646. 

PAPAVERACEAE 

ARGEMONE Linn. (1 : 80) 

A. mexicana Linn.-Holl. 1 : 53. Mexican or Prickly Poppy. 

Senegal and Fr. Gain. : Wol. Aomhom bu djiguen or hAompay bu djiquen (Sdbire); Falor 

bidjor (S6bire): Mal. ba (A. Chev.), guame.rnon (Brosaart). 

Gold Coast 

Gambia 

(Irvine) 

: 

: Twi 

Mand. 

aune 

lombong 

mmenyan 

aa. 

; Ash. akuairibie, 

duru 

also kokosekyietu.duru(Nkoranza, 

- " medicine "). N. Nigeria : Hausea kwarko (Kano), kwarkoro (Kano 

(Kate., 

villages), 

but see 

kwarakko 

also Datura Meld), karanko or kwmranko (Kats), and ? va7iri (Kano); 1a.k'i.ruwa,.Allah (i.c., " refusing 

also 

the water of Gud," because it throws off the raindrops 

from the glaucous and spiny leaves and tends to droop in rain and to dower in the dry w.ather), 

hakorin kada (equivalent to the F-l. name) other 

k'ank'ora 

epithets are 

(Kate.), 

(fide Bargery) 

kank'a aarka 

: kamuk'amu. 

la bi ka ('may your evil wish recoil on yourself "-see 

Bargery under k'ask'ama, c.f. also Barteri'a nigrilana and Indigofera airagulina), k'urer 

fak FuL vt'egilanqeru ( " crocodile's teeth "), also boginahi 

A'hinoj 

(Sok., 

). 

but 

S. Nigeria 

sea also 

: Yar. lkdn-lkiln leopard's paw," a loose term), also 19in-arigbo 

(J. D. Clarke). 

Of tropical American origin the plant is now widespread 

subtopics. 

in the tropics 

In Gold 

and 

Coast it is said to occur wherever cattle have been pastured. 

The use of the oil from the seeds, and perhaps also of the yellow juice of the 

is 

plant, 

fairly widespread amongst pagan tribes in Nigeria as a preventive of white 

ants. 

90.

APPENDIX 3. Woody Plants of Ghana. With Special Reference to Their Use, 

by r. R. Irvine: Sample Pages 

WOODY PLANTS 

OF GHANA 

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 

THEIR USES 

BY 

F. R. IRVINE 

LONDON 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 

1961 

91.

KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS 

I. FOOD PLA.rS 

1. Roots and Underground Stems 

2. Stems 

xvii-xxii 

xvii 

xvii 

(a) Bark 

(b) Sap 

(c)Stems 

(d) Pith 

(e) Gum 

(f) Young shoots 

3. Leaves 

4. Flowers 

5. Fruits 

-ii 

xvii 

xvii 

xvii 

Xvii 

xviu 

xvii-xviii 

xviii-xix 

xix-Msi 

6. Seeds 

IT. CoNDM. ENTS, SPICEs, o FrLAVOURING AGENTS 

xxi-xxii 

xxii-xxiii 

III. BEVERAGES 

1. Non-alcoholic 

xxiii 

(a) Water substitutes 

(b) Water purifier 

(c)Sweet beverages 

(d) Milk substitutes 

(e) Tea substitutes 

(f)Coffee (Coffea spp.) and coffee substitutes 

(y) Cocoa 

2. Alcoholic Beverages, with 'bitters', stimulants, &e. 

xiii 

xxiii 

xxjii 

xxiii 

xxiii 

xxiv 

xxiv 

xxiv 

IV. FODDER PLANTS 

V. BEE PLANTS 

VI. SILKWOR-", PLANTS (including host plants of edible 

xxiv-=vi 

xxVi 

caterpillars) 

VII. FATS, OILS, AND WAXES 

VIII. PLANTS WITH MEDICINAL AND VETERINARY USES 

xxvi 

xxvii 

xxvii-xxxiv 

IX. PoIsoNs AND ANTIDOTES Xxxiv-xxvxvWi 

I. Human xxxiv-xxxvi 

2. Plants poisonous to domestic animals, game 

animals, crocodiles, rodents, and snails xxxvi 

3. Fish Poisons xxxvi-xxxvii 

4.Insecticides and Insectifuges xxxvii 

5. Vermifuges and Antholmintics xxxvii-xxxviii 

X. SA-PONIN-PRODUCING PLANTS MXxix 

XI. TANNIN-PRODUCING PLANTS xxxix-xl 

XII. LATEX-PRODUCING PLANTS (including rubber plants, 

rubber adulterants and coagulnts, and bird-lime) xl-xli 

XIII. GCuMS, REsINS, AND WAXS xili-xii 

XIV. DyEs, STANS AND INKs-for Mordants, see XVIII, 

'Vegetable Salts' xlii-xliv 

92.

xvi 


XV. COSM1ETICS AND POMADES xliv-xlv 

XVI. PERFUMERY 

XVII. 31tCaLAGE PLANTS 

XVII. VEGITA3LE SALTS 

XIX. FIBRES 

1. Basketry 

2. Bark-cloth 

3. Br-,.;hes, brooms, &c. 

4. Mats, hammocks and fish-nets 

5. Chewsticks, teeth-cleaners, chewing and cleaning 

sponges 

6. Bast fibres, binding material, ropes and cordage, &c. 

xlv 

xlv 

xlv-xlvi 

xlviixlvii 

xlvii 

xlvii 

xlvii 

xlviii 

xlix-I 

7. Stuffing materials 

8. Paper pulp, packing paper and wrappings 

9. Flos fcr pillows, etc. 

I 

1 

XX. DECORATIVE PLANrS (including trees, shrubs, and 

climbers, shade and avenue trees, and hedge plants) 

2MI. FENCING AND BOUNDsRIES 

(a) Living poles and fences 

(b) Fence-poles (palings) 

(c) Boundary trees 

li-liii 

liii-liv 

liii-liv 

liv 

liv 

XXII. HUT POLES, RAFTERS, WALLS, AND YA.M POLES liv-lv 

XIII. TIMBER (including heavy construction, carpentry, joinery, 

windows and doors, plywood and vcneers)-key given 

XXIV. FUMITITUj, CABINET-WORK, AND TuRNERy 

Iv-lx 

lx-lxi 

XXV. DOESTIC USES 

1. Field implements (e.g. in farming and forestry) 

2. Hunting implements (bows and arrows, traps, 

lxi-lxx 

lxi-lxii 

spear-shafts, and gun-stocks) 

3. Household implements (bowls, spoons, plates, 

weaving looms and shuttles, and carpenters' 

lxiii 

tools) 

4. Mortars, pestles, mallets, barrels, and water-pipes 

5. Personal (walking-sticks, combs, snuff and snuffboxes, 

sandals, beads, and vegetable ivory 

lxiii-lxiv 

lxiv-lxv 

(buttons)) 

6. Boats, tackle, and fishing-gear, fishing-lines and 

lxv-lxvi 

nets 

7. Shingles and thatches 

8. Leaves used as wrappers for foods, &c. 

9. Musical instruments and drums 

10. Carved objects, carved stools, images, masks 

lxvi-lxvii 

lxvii-lxviii 

lxviii 

lxviii-Xix 

and thorns, &c. 

11. Plants used in games 

lxix 

lxix 

12. Abrasives 

13. Pipe-stems 

14. Plants used in trapping and as fish-bait 

lxix 

lxix 

lxix-lxx 

15. Beehives, &c. lxx 

16. Pottery 

lxx 

17. Lightning conductors hxX 

XXVI. CHARCOAL lxX-lxxi 

93.

KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS xvii 

X.XVII. FmEVooD lxxi-lxxii 

XXVIII. TinDER, TORCHES, AND LIGIITING lxxii 

XXIX. LAND RECLAMATION, SANDBINDERS, AND NURSE-PLANTS Ixxii 

XXX. M\.A-NnE )lxxiii 

XXXI. W TrnS Nxiii 

XXXII. WEATHER SIGNS lxxiii 

X.XNXIII. PrLANTS USED FOR SMOKING FISH, ETC. lxxiii 

XXXIV'. PLA',TS OF BOTANICAL INTEREST (ant-plants, &-c.) lxxiii-lxxiv 

XXXV. SACRED PLANTS Lxxiv-lxxv 

I. FOOD PLANTS 

1. Roots and Underground Stems (d) Pith 

Borassus aethiopum (young root-bark) Carica papaya 

Boscia salicifolia (e)Gum 

Cochlospermum planchonii Acacia campylacantha 

Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii Acacia dudgeoni 

Ectadiopsis oblongifolia (t:abers) Acacia farnesiana 

Ficus capensis (aerial roots) Acacia hockii 

Hibiscus tiliaceus (famine food) Acacia macrostachya 

Icacina senegalensis (famine food- Acacia scorpioides 

considered unwholesome) Acacia sieberiana 

Jateorhiza macrantha Balanites aegvptiaca (to suck) 

Jatropha multifida Bauhinia purpurea 

Manihot esculenta Combretuin dalzielii 

.1anihot glaziovii (famine food) Combreturn elliotii 

Moringa oleifera Lannea acida 

Pachvcarpus lineolatus r.annea microcarpa 

Pzidium guajava Mangifera indica 

Smilax kraussiana (famine food) Sesbania grandiflora (gum as substitute 

? Sphenocentrum jollyanum (chewed) for gum arabic) 

Vernonia pumila (bittur, eaten raw or boiled Sterculia rhinopetala 

with cereal foods) Sterculia setigera 

2. Stems Sterculia tragaoantha 

(a) Bark (f)Young shoots 

Antrocaryon micraster Adansonia digitata (seedlings) 

Boscia angnistifolia Ancistrophyllum -ecundiflorum (bud and 

Boscia salicifolia young shoots) 

Craterispermum ccrinantlham Bambusa vulgaris 

Craterispermum laurinum Calamus deeratus ('palm cabbage' (bud)) 

Ficus capensis (chewed with cola) Corchorus tridenm 

Ficus gnaphalocut-pa (chewed with cola) Dendrocalamus strictus 

Ficus ovata Elaeis guineensis ('palm cabbage' (bud)) 

Grewia mollis Euphorbia halsamifera 

Hlexalobus erikpiflorus (chewed with cola) Ficus capeznsis 

Ilibiscus tiiaccus (Farnino food) Hymenocardia acida (young shoots) 

Maesobotryn edulis Hyphaene thebaica ('palm cabbage'(bud)) 

(6) Sap Oxytenanthera abyssi ica 

Calotropis s-rinea (sucked by childrcn) I 1hytolacca dodecandra 

Landolphia comoronsis Quisqualis indica 

Telfairea occidentalis 

(c) Stemns 

Cadaba farinosa 3. Leaves (C = cooked; R - raw) 

Carica papaya (young) Acrocephalus lilacinus 

Ficus Vabis-choudao, Adansonia digitata (C) 

B 667 b 

94.

xviii 


Afzelia africana Lannea acida 

Albizia chevalieri Liumea microcarpa 

Alb.zia zygia (C) Leucaena glauca 

Anacardium occidentale (R and C) Lippia inultiflora (with food-C) 

Annona scnogalen-sis (dried) M.rua angolensis (C) 

Antidesma venosurn (C) Macrua crassifolia 

Azadiraclita indica (C) Manihot esculenta 

Balanites negyptiaca (C) Manihot glaziovii (C) 

Dal. aiocitrus paniCUIlata (C) Microdesnius zenkcri 

Bnrleria opaca (C) Mikania cordata (C) 

Bauhinia purpurea (C) Moringa oleifera 

Bombax bievicuspo Myrianthus arboreus 

flombax buonopozonse (C) 'Myrianthus libericus 

]3oscia salicifolia (C) Neuropeltis acuminata 

Cadaba farinosa (C) Ouratea affinis 

Capporis corymbosa (C) Ouratea calophylla 

Carica papaya (C-young) Ouratea myrioneura 

Cassia nigricans (C) Parkia clappcrtoniana 

Cassia nodosa (C) Pavctta crnssipes (C) 

Cassia tore (C) Phyllanthus muellerianus (C) 

Castanola paradoxa (C) ? Phytolacca dodecandra 

Ceiba pentandra Pileostigma reticulatum (C) 

Celtis integrifolia (C and R) ? Pileostigma thonningii (C) 

Chlorophora excelsa (y9ung leaves) Piper umbellatum 

Christiana africana (C) Pseuderanthemum tunicatum 

Cleistopholis patens (with cola) Quisqualis indica 

Combretum paniculatum (C) Rungia grandis 

Combretum platypterum (C) Sesbania grandiflora 

Corchorus acutangulus (C) Sesbania punctata 

Corchorus olitorius (C) Sterculia tragacantha (C) 

Corchorus tridens (C) Strychnos spinosa (leaves said to be eaten) 

Crataeva religios, (C) Tamarindus indica (C) 

C.otalaria ochrolcuca Telfairea occidentalis (C) 

Daniellia oliveri (C) (famine food) Tetracarpidium conophorum (leaves and 

Dendrocalamus strictus young shoots) 

Dinophora spenneroides ('edible' (leaf in- Tetracera alnifolia 

fusion)) Totracera potatoria (young leaves) 

Dracaena mannii Thespesia populnoa 

Enneastemon foliosus Trema guineensis 

Eriosema glomeraturn (a 'vegetable') Triumfetta cordifolia (C) 

Er-thrococca africana (used for 'softening' Triumfetta rhomboidea (C) 

meat in cooking) Urera mannii (C) 

Euadenia trifoliolata (C) Urera nr. mannii (C) 

Fadogia cienkowskii Urera oblongifolia (C) 

Ficus glumosa (C) Urera obovata (C) 

Ficus gnaphalocarpa (C) Vernonia amygdalina 

Ficus mucuso Vernonia colorata 

Ficus vallis.choudae (C) Vitex doniana 

Globimotula braunii 

Grewia carpinifolia 4. Flowers 

Gymnema sylvestre (leaves destroy sense Annona senegalonsis (sepals) 

of taste for sweetness) Azadirachta indica 

Heinsia crinita (C) Beilschmiedia mannii 

Hibiscus lunarifolius Bombax buonopozonse (calyx) 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (C) Carica papaya 

Hibiscus rostellatus Cassia siamea 

Hibiscus tiliaceus (C) Cocculus pendulus (flowers added to food) 

Isonema smeathmannii (C) Combretum comosun (sucked) 

Jatropha curcas (C-young leaves) Combretum grandiflorum (sucked) 

Justicia extensa Combretum paniculaturn (sucked) 

95.

Cordia, myxa 

Crotalaria ochrolcuca 

Gliricidia sepium 

GlThnea brovis 

;rewia mollis 

'Iorina oleifera 

S.ibana -andilora 

S,:sbania sesban 

Tacazzea apiculata 

Tamarindus indica 

Terminalia glaucescens (honey) 

5. Fruits 

Acacia albida 

Acacia scorpioides 


Afrosersalisia afzelii 

Allophylus ."canus 

Alsodeiopsis staudtii 

Amaralia bignoniiflora 

Amaralia calycina 

Ampelocissus gracilipes 


Ancylobothrys scandens 

Antngeria robusta 

Annona arenaria 

Annona cherimola 

Annona glabra 

.Annona muricata 

Annona reticulata (occasionally 

cultivation) 

Annona senegalensis 

.A.nnonm squamosa 

Anonidium mamnii 

Antidesma venosum 

Antrocaryon micraster 

Aphania sonegalensis 

FOOD PLANTS xix 

seen in 

Artocarpus communis 

Atroxima afzeliana 

Azadirachta indica 

Balanites aogyptiaca 

Bauhinia rufi.sccns 

Beilsclimiedia mannii 

Bequacrtiodendron megalismontanum 

Mequaurtiodendron oblanceolutum 

Drombax buonopozense (young fruits) 

Borassus aethiopttm 

oicia anguatifolia 

Boicia senegalensis 

Bosquiea angolonsis 

Bridelia nierantha 

Iridelia sclcroneura 

Buchhohzia coriacea 

Butyroeprmitm parkii 

Caloncoba gilgiana 

Caloneolm glauca 

Calophyllui 1 1 inophvllum 

Callariumn schweinfurthii 

Capprik cor'mbosa 

Cappar erytirocarpos 

Capparis polymorpha 

Carapa procera (oil eaten) 

Carica papaya 


Carpodns hirsutus 

Carpodinus near landolphioides 

Carpodinus ,!ilcis 

Carpodinus macrophylla 

Carpolobia alba 

Carpolobia lutea 

Cassia kirkii 

Cathormion altissimum 

Ceiba pentandra (young fruits) 

Celtis integrifolia 

Chlorophora regia 

Chrysobalanus ellipticus 

Chrysobalanus orbicularis 

Chrysophylhwn af'icanum 

Chrysophyllum albidum 

Chrysophyllum cainito 

Chrysophyllum perpulchrum 

Chrysophyllurn pruniforme 

Cissus aralioides 

Cissus arguta 

Cissus cornifolia 

Cissus doeringii 

Cissus populnea' 

Citrus aurantiifolia 

Citrus aurantiurn 

Citrus decurnana 

Citrus medica 

Citrus medica var. limnonum 

Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa 

Citrus sinensis 

Clitandra :.irrhosa 

Cola caricaefolia 

Cola chlaznydantha 

Cola gigantea 

Cola heterophylla 

Cola latoritia 

Cola nitida 

Commiphora pedumculata 

Cordia abysshuea 

Cordia myxa 

Cordia rothii 

Cratnova religiosa 

Dacryodcs klaineann 

Deinbollia grandifolia 

Deinbollia pinnata 

Desplatzia chrysochlamvs 

Desplatzia dowovrei 

De.platzia subericarpa 

Detarium microcarpus 

Detarium senogalcnse (famine) 

Dialium guineense 

Dichapetalum flexuosum 

Dielapetalhin pillidum (:) 

Dichapetalum toxicarium 

Dichrostaehys glomerata 

Dinophora spenneroides 

96.

xx KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS 

Dioscoreophyllurn cummizuji Heisteria parviflora 

Diospyros barteri flexalobus crispillorus 

Diospyros canaliculata Hexalobus monopetalus 

Diospyros elliotii Hoslundia opposita 

Diospyros heudolotii Hunteria clliotii 

Diospyros kamerunensis Hymenocardia acida (young frulth) 

Diospyros kekemi ilcphuene thebaica 

Diospyros mespiliformis Icacina senegalensis 

Diospyros tricolor Irvingia gabonensis 

Drrpanuoctrpus hinatus Ixora brachypoda 

Drypctes floribunda Jasminurn dichotoinum 

Drypetes gilgiana Landolphia spp. 

Dr'petes ivorensis Landolphia umoona 

Ectadiopsis oblongifolia Landolphia calabarica 

Ehretia thonningiana Landolphia comorensis- 

Elacis guineensis Landolphia owariensis 

Enneastemon foliosus Lannea acida 

Enneastemon vogelii Lannea microcarpa 

Euadenia eminens Lannea velutina 

Euclinia longiflora Lannea welwitschii 

Eugenia jambos Lantana mearnsii 

Eugenia uniflora Lecaniodiscus cupanioides 

Fadoga cienkowskii Leea guineensis 

Ficus barteri Leucaena glauca 

Ficus capensis Macaranga heterophylla 

Ficus capraefolia Macrua crassifolia 

Ficus congensis Maesobotrya barteri 

Ficus elegans Maesopsis eminii 

Ficus eriobotryoides Malacantha alnifolia 

Ficus glumosa Malpighia glabra 

Ficus gnaphalocarpa Maxrnmea africana, 

Ficus ingens Mangifera indica 

Ficus iteophylla Manilkara lacera 

Ficus plat rphylla Maytenus senegalensis 

Ficus polita blicrodesmis puberula 

Ficus umbellata Microdesmis zenkeri 

Ficus urceolaris Monodora tenuifolia 

Ficus vallis-choudae Morelia senegalensis 

Ficus vogeliana Moringa oleifera 

Ficus vogelii Morus mesozygia 

Flacourtia flavescens Musanga cecropioides 

Garcinia kola Mussaenda elegans 

*Garcinia mangostana M1yrianthus arboreus 

Garcinia mannii Myrianthus libericus 

Gareinia polvantlia Myrianthus serratus 

Gardenia aqualla Napoleona lconensis 

Gardenia erubescens Napolcona vogelii 

Gardenia nitida (said to be eaten when Nauclea diderrichii 

ripe) Nauclea latifolia 

Gardenia ternifolia Ochna afzelii 

Grewia barteri Olax subscorpioidea 

Grewia bicolor Omphalocarpum procerum 

Grewia carpinifolia (C and R) Oncoba spinosa 

Grewia mollis Ongokea gore 

Grewia pubescens Opuntia sp. 

Grewia villosa Ouratea flava 

Haematostaphis barteri Oxyanthus tubiflorus 

Hannoa undulata Pachystola brevipes 

Harongana madagascariensis Pandnus app. 

Heinsia crinita Parinari congensis 

97.

FOOD PLANTS xxi 

Parinari curntelfirolia Strychnos sp. rnr. volkensii 

Parinari excels& Synsepalurn dulcificum 

Parinari glabra Syzygium cuinini 

Parinari macrophylla Syzygium guincense 

Parinari polvandra (scarcely edible) Syzygium littorale 

Parinari tennifolium Syzygiurn owariensn 

Parkia bicolor Tamnarindus indica 

Parkia biglobosa Teclea afzelii 

Parkia clappertoniana Terminalia catappa 

Paullinia pinnata Tetracarpidium conophorum 

Pauridiantha hirtella Tetrorchidiun did vmostemon 

Pausinystalia lane.poolei Theobroma cacao (young fruits) 

Peddiea fischeri Thevetia peruviana 

PeNes americana Tiliacora dielsiana 

Phoenix dactylifera Trema guineensis 

Phoenix reclinata Trichilia rolca 

Phyflanlxus discoideus Trichoscypha arborea 

Ph-llanthus muellerianus Trichoscypha ferruginea 

Phyllanthts reticulatus (famine) Trichoscypha oba 

PhIlanthus wildemannii Tristernma hirtumn (fruits) 

Pileostigma reticulaturn (pods eaten) Tristemrna incompletum 

Pileosti.ina ratioldatium (pods eaten) Uapaca esculenta 

Pileostigma thonningii (pods eaten) Uapaca guineensis 

Paeudospondias microcarpa Uapaca heudolotii 

Psidiunm cattleyanurn Uvaria afzelii 

Psidiuni guajava Uvaria chamnae 

Punica granatum Uvaria doeringii 

Raphia hookcri (bitter flavouring and an Uvaria globosa 

occasional food). Also Raphia sp. Uvaria ovate 

Rhoicissus revoilii Vitex doniana 

Rhu4 zpp. Vitex fosteri 

Rutidea glabra Vitex grandifolia 

Saba senegalertiis Vitex micrantha 

Sabicea africans Vitex rivularis 

Sabicea vogelii Vitex simplicifolia 

Sacoglottis gabonensis Vitis vinifera 

Salacia caiUei Ximenia americana 

Salacia erecta Xylia ovansii (or seeds ?) 

Salacia lornensis Zanha golungcnsis 

Salacia nitida Zizyphus abysainica 

Salacia senegalensis Zizyphus mauritiana 

Salacia togoica Zizyphus mucronata 

Santaloides afzelii Zizyphus spina-christi 

Santiria trimera 

Scaphopetalun aMoenum 6. Seeds 

Sclerocanra birrea Abrus precatorius 

Scytopetalum tieglicinii Abutilon guincenso 

Securinega virosa Acacia albida 

Sesbania grandiflora (young fruits) Adansonia digitata 

Sesbanin sesban (young fruits) Adenantherapavonina 

Smeathnannia pubescens Afzelia africana (aril or seed ?) 

Solanum torvuni (R or C) Afzelia bolls (aril) 

Sorindeia jiiglandifolia AIlanblackia floribimcla 

Sorindeia warncckei Anncardian occidontals 

Sphenocentrum jollyanurn Annona arenaria (aril) 

Spondias monbin Antrocaryon micraster 

Str'chnos nix-vomica Artocarpus cominunis 

Strychnoq spinosa Avicennia africana (germinating seeds) 

Strychnos tricliioides (edible in small Balanites aegyptiaca 

quantities) Balanites wilsoniana 

98.

xxi[ KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS 

Balsamocritnrs paniculata Klainedoxa gabonensis 

Bambusa vulgaris Lannea kerstingii 

Bcilschmiedia mannii Leucaena glauca 

Blighin,sapida, Lophira alata 

Blighia unijugatus Mummea africana 

flombax sesili, Mnnigifera indica 

Borassus acthiopum (hypocotyl and young Manniophyton fulvum 

seeds) Moringa pterygosperma 

I3oscia angustifolia, Mucuna sloanei 

Bosqucia ancolemis Myrianthus arborcus 

Cajanus cajan Myrianthus serratus 

Calpocalyx brevibracteatus Octolobus angustatus 

Canarium schweinfurthii (sometimescooked Ongokea gore 

with food) Oxytenanthera abyssinica 

Cassia tora Panda oleosa 

Cathormion altissimum Parinari curatellifolin 

Ceiba pcntandra Parinari excelsa 

Ch.tranthus atroviolaceus Parkia bicolor 

Cocos nucifera Parkia biglobosa 

Cola acuminata Parkia clappertoniana 

Cola caricaefolia Pentaclethra macrophylla 

Cola gigantea Pentadesma butyrncea 

Cola hcterophylla Pileostigma reticulatum 

Cola millonii Pileostigma. thonningii 

Cola nitida Prosopis africana 

Cola verticillate Pseudospondias microcarpa 

Cordia, nyxa Pterocarpus santalinoides 

Coula edulis Quisqualis indica 

Crataeva religiosa Raphia hookeri (roasted) 

Crossostemma laurifolium Raphiostylis beninensis 

Deinbollia grandifolia Ricinodendron africanum 

Dendrocalamus strictus Santiria trimera 

Detarium senegalense Sclerocarya birrea 

Dichopetalun pallidum (?) Spathodea campanulata 

Dichrostachys glomerata Spondias monbin 

Dodonaea viscosa Sterculia foetida 

Elacis guineensis Sterculia oblongs 

Entada pursaethm Sterculia setigora 

Eriocoelum racemoswn (aril edible) Strephonema pseudocola 

Euadenia eminens Tamarindus indica 

Garcinia kola Tarrietia utilis 

Garcinia mannii Telfairea occidentalis 

Garcinia polyantha Telfairea pedata 

Gossypium arboreum Terminalia catappa 

Haematostaphis barteri Totracarpidium conopliorum 

Harungana madagascariensis Theobroma cacao 

Heisteria parvifolia Treculia africana 

Hibiscus lunarifolius Trichilia roka 

Hildegardia barteri Trichilia priouriana 

Hyphaeno thebaica Urena lobata 

Icacina senegalensis (famine) Ximenia americana (?) 

Irvingia gabonensis Zizyphus mauritianum 

II. CONDIMENTS, SPICES, OR FLAVOURING AGENTS 

o. - Condiment; sp. - Spice; fl. = Flavouring agent 

Abrus precatorius (sweeten cereal pap) Acacia campylacantha (ashes--salt sub. 

Abrus pulchellus (sugar substitute) stitute) 

99.

CONDIMENTS, SPICES, OR FLAVOURING AGENTS xxiii 

Acacia scorpioides Microglossa afzelii (sauce (leaves)) 

Adansonia digitata Mlimosa pigra 

.Anacarcllum occidentalo (young leaves as Monodora brovipes (seeds) (sp.) 

flavouring) Moziodora myristica (seeds) (sp., c.) 

Antidesma laciniatum vnr.membranaceous Monodora tenuifolia (seeds) (ap.) 

(seaoninc) Morinda lucida (fl..) 

Beilschimiedia mannii Moringa pterygosperma (sp.) 

Blichia welwiitschii (leaves flavour soup) Musanga cacropioides 

Buchholzia coriacea (seeds spicy) Panda oleosa (c.) 

Bussea occidentalis Parkia biglobosa 

Calpoealvx brevibracteatus Parkia clappertoniana 

Carissa edulis (roots as flavouring) Pentaclethra macrophylla 

Ceiba pentandra Pileostigma reticulate 

Cinnamomnum zeylanicum (sp.) Pileostigrna thonningii 

Cleistopholis patens Piper guineense (fl.) (soup) 

Cochlopermum spp. (roots as flavouring) Piper umbellatum (c.) (stem and bark) 

Combreturn racemosun Pterocarpus sartalinoides 

Cordyline fruticosa (leaves as flavour. Raphia hookeri (pericarp as bitter flavour. 

ing) ing) 

Fagara xanthoxyloides (leaves as flavour. Ricinodendron africanurn 

ing, seeds as pepper) Solanum indicum 

Ficus mucuso Sterculia rhinopetala 

Gymnosporia senegalensis Sterculia tragacantha 

Irvincia gabonensis Tephrosia linearis (ft.) 

Isoberlinia dalzielii Tephrosia purpurea. 

Klainedoxa gabonensis Tetrapleura totraptera (ft.) 

Lantana mearnsii (aromatic leaves added Voacanga obtuse (c.) 

to food and milk) Xylopia aethiopica (sp.) 

Macaranga heterophylla Xylopia parviflora (sp.) 

III. BEVERAGES 

I. Non-alcoholic Citrus medics var. limonum 

(a) Water substitutes Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa 

Ampelocissus gracilipes Citrus sinensis 

Byttneria catalpifolia (sap) Cola nitida (coca-cola) 

Cissus populnea Combretum gliasalense (root) 

Cleistopholis pate,. Dialium guineense 

Cnestis ferruginca (sap) Entada pursaotha (stem) 

Entada phascoloides Gardenia erubescens 

-Musainacecropioides (sap) Myrianthus arborous 

Phyllanthus muellorianus Opuntia sp. (prickly pear) 

Sterculia setigcra Parkia biglobosa 

Tetracera absiifolia 

Tetracera 

Parkia 

potatoria 

clappertoniana 

Pileostigma 

Uvaria scabrida 

reticulaium 

(water 

(boiled 

liano) 

in water) 

Pileostigma thonningii (boiled in water) 

(b) Water purifier Sclorocnrya birrea (fruit juice) 

Xylopia 

(c) Swethbeverages 

a 

aethioptica Spondias monbin 

Syzygium 

(c) Sweet 

littoralo 

beverages 

Adansonia 

Treculia 

dizitata 

africana (seeds) 

Vitex doniana 

Anacardium occidentalo Zizypims mauritiana 

Annona muricata 

Balnnitei aeevptinca (d) Milk substitutes 

Bombax buonopozenso (fruits) Annofl muricata 

L'orn. tx5 aetlio)um 

Cocos nucifera (coco.nut milk) 

Caloncoloa echintta Vernonia nigritana (milk coagulant) 

Citrus aurantitolia 

Citruq 

(a) Tea 

nurantiu 

substitutes 

n Erythroxylum coca 

Citrus decuinnna Jasminum sambao (flowers flavour tea) 

100.

xxiv KEY TO USEFUL PLANTS 

Lippia adoensis 

Garcinia polyantlia 

Lippia nmultiflora 

(seeds added to alco. 

holic drinks) 

() Coffee (Coffea spp.) and coffee sub- ITyphnene thebaica 

stitutes 

Khayaanthotheca (bark added to alcoholic 

Bosein scnegalensis drink) 

I. Non-aleoholic 

1. No-alcoholic 

Kigelia acthiopica (flavouring) 

Cassia occidentalis 

Landolphia ownriensis (fermented drink) 

Ca-~;ia 

Lannea 

toiii 

acida (fruits-al.olnlic drink) 

Laxuieaznierocarpn 

Coffen arabica 3 (fru its-lcoholic drink) 

ezoncurum bentliamianurn (stimulamt) 

Coffee liberica 

Morinda 

Coffea 

confusa 

liginstrifolia 

(leaves for strengthening 

Coffea 

palm-wino) 

macrochla ys Morinda 

Coffea 

morindioides 

peustrs 

(roots used as bitters) 

Coffea rupestris Musanga cecropioides 

strengthen 

(bark added 

sugar-cane 

to 

Coffea spathicalyx 

wine) 

Oligostemon 

Coffea 

pictus 

stenophylla 

(stimulant) 

Ongokea gore 

Coffea subcordata 

Entada 

Opuntia 

pursnetha 

sp. 

Parinari 

Parkia 

excelsa 

biglobosa 

(fruits fermented, bark 

used 

Pavetta 

to increase 

corymbosa 

efferct of palm-wino) 


Psilanthus (dried 

mannii 

fruit pulp used in 

Tricalysin preparation 

clevalieri 

of fermented liquor) 

Phoenix dactylifera 

Zizyphus 

(fruits used 

mucronata 

to sweeten 

(fruits) fermented beverages) 

(g) Cocoa 

Theobroma cacao 

Phoenix recliata 

Phyllanthusmuellerianus (stimulant)(bark) 

2. Alcoholic Beverages, with 'bitters' Pleiocarpa 

Pseudospondias micrantha 

microcarpa 

(roots as stimulunt) 

(for strong. 

Anacardium occidentls 

thening fermented drink) 

Annona muricata Antocr~n mcaserwino (cider-like) 

Pycnocoma ma 

Antrocaryon 

to discourage~theftn) g theft) 

iicrasterd 

plm 

Azadirachta indielL 

Raphin, 

(Sop 

hookeri 

fermented) 

and R. sudanica 

Rhigiocarya racemifera 

Balanites negyptiaca 

(roots added to 

Berlinia grandiflora Raphia 

(wood 

palm-wine) 

as receptacles Rotbmannia whitfieldii (charred fruits 

for sugar-cane 

as 

wine fermentation) 

Bertiera racomosa 

stimulant) 

(bitters in gin) SacooIntisgabonensis 

Borassus (bark 

aothiopwn 

as 'bitters') 

(palm.wine) Sclerocarya 

Cocculus 

birrea 

pendulus (fruits added to intoxi. Strcleos 

cating drinka) 

pinosa 

Synseialum dulcificwu 

Cocos 

(fruits 

nuciferah 

for sweeten. 

Corynanthe pachyceras 

ing palm-wine) 

(bark used for 

strengthening 

Tetrapleura 

palm-wine) 

tetraptera (stimulant) 

Triclisia patens (stems 

Cremaspora 

used to strengthen 

triflora (bark used for strongthening 

palm-wino) 

palm-wine) 

Treculia africana 

Datura 

(seeds 

innozia 

as flavouring 

(dliriant in 

(seeds)) 

Datura 

alcoholic 

motel 

drinks) 

(deliriant) Vitex grandiflora (fruits) 

Diospyros Elacis gu ineensis mespiliformis 

Xinienia 

Ficus 

i e a americana 

gnphalocarpa 

a m r c n 

Ficsnakohace Xylopiaaethiopica 

a 

(flavouringtopnlmwino) 

Garcinia 

h 

kola, 

Zizyphus 

(onliances 

mauritiana 

flavouzrof (fruits 

alcoholic 

fermented 

drink and 

drink) 

bark is stimulant) 

Garcinia mannii (seeds added to alcoholic Industrial 

drinks) 

alcohol 

Corchorus olitorius 

IV. FODDER PLANTS 

Acaciaalbida (all stock) Acacia gourmaensis (camels, sheep, 

Acacia dudgeoni (all stock) 

Acacia farnesiana (sheep) 

goats) 

and 

101.

APPENDIX 4. The Role of Wild Plants in the Native Diet in Ethiopia, by 

Amare Getahun: Table II, Wild Edible Plants of Ethiopia 

Abbreviation of languages 

A - Amarinya 

T - Tigrinia 

G - Galinya 

GAr - Galinya, Arassie 

GB - Galinya, Bale 

GH - Galinya, Harar 

GK - Galinya, Kaffa 

GS - Galinya, Sidamo 

Som - Somali 

K - Kaffa 

Wol - Wollamo 

Eng - English 

Glossary to some terms used in the text 

Enjera - Leavened bread usually made from the native cereal, tef (Eragrostis tefl 

Tela - A local beer, Tela is not processed under government regulation, hence the 

alcohol content varies, but is usually less than 4% 

Areke - A local drink made from cereals through industrial distillation; of high alcohol 

content 

Wat - A spicy sauce made from onions and other spices with addition of eitner meat 

(meat wat), chicken (doro wat), or lentils (shirro wat). Wat is traditionally 

served with enjera 

TABLE II 

Wild edible plants of Ethiopia 

Leafy vegetables (including stems and young shoots) 

Botanical name 

Acanthus polystach ius Delile 

Acanthus pubescens Oliv. 

Amaranthus angustifolius Lam. 

Amaranthus gracilis (Desf.) Viii. 

Amaranthus hybridus L. 

Subsp. hybrid us 

Amaranthus sylh'stris Vill. 

Digera alternifolia (L.) Asch. 

Caralluma ango (Rich.) N.E.Br. 

Dregea abyssinica Hochst. 

Edithcolea sordida N F "-. 

Gymnema syh'estrt I R.Br. 

Huernia macrocarb i. Rich.) 

Sprenger 

Vernaculai name(s) 

Kishe (Sid) 

Koshoshella (A) 

Korn (G) 

sodorn (G) 

aluma (A) 

alume (A) 

birmaheo (T) 

Kogata (K) 

ango, alem (T) 

amachero (A) 

Shanqok (T) 

hamaccun (Som) 

Shanqok (T) 

ango (T) 

Family 

Acanthaceae 

Acanthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Amaranthaceae 

Aschepiadaceae 



49 

102.

50 

TABLE II (continued) 

Balanitesaegyptiaca (L.) Del. ghossa, shifaraoul Balanitaceae 

Balanities gillettiiCuf. 

(A), bedena (G), 

hangalta (K) 

badena (G) Balanitaceae 

Adansonia digitata L. 

Gynandropsisgynandra L. 

kulan (Sor) 

demo- dima (T) 

bokh eha (T) 

Bombacaceae 

Capparidaceae 

aija (Som) 

maschill (T) 

gomen (A), hamli (T) 

shimpa (G) 

Commelinaceae 

Cruciferae 

Cruciferae 

Commelina pyrrhoblepharis Hassk. 

Brassica carinata A. Br. 

Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & 

C.A. Meyer 

Moringa oleifera Lam. 

Moringa stenopetala Baker 

Embelia schimperi Vatke 

Oxalis anthelrnintica Rich. 

Oxalis semiloba Sond. 

Adenia ellenbeckii Engl. ex 

Harms. 

Securidaca longipedunculata 

Fresen. 

Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. 

Rumex neruosus Vahl 

Portulacaoleracea L. 

.PortulacaquadrifidaL. 

Talinum triangulare(Jacq.) 

Willd. 

Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.) 

Fisch. & Mey." 

Corchorus olitorius L. 

Corchorus tridens L. 

Ferula communis L. 

Pimpinella hirtella Rich. 

Edible fruits and seeds 

mrongo (Som) 

Shifara, shalchada (K) 

inkoko (A), hanku (G) 

michamicho (A) 

micha-micho (A,T) 

Kaguta (K) 

Moringaceae 

Moringaceae 

Myrsinaceae 

Oxalidaceae 

Oxalidaceae 

Passifloraceae 

Saggat (Arabic) Polygalaceae 

mak'mak'o (A) 

dangago (G) 

Polygonaceae 

Polygonaceae 

Ahrohot (T) 

embacho (A) 

aiyo (Som) Portulacaceae 

melhena (T) 

marare (G) Portulacaceae 

Portulacaceae 

rench't (G) 

merrerat (T) 

meloukie (Arabic) 

dog (A) 

maciogo (A) 

Resedaceae 

Tiliaceae 

Tiliaceae 

Umbelliferae 

Umbelliferae 

Botanical name Vernacular name(s) Family 

Amaranthus caudalus L. dimesitu or eyase (G) Amaranthaceae 

yetef fre, chifogot, 

ealish (A) zelol 

Lannea malifolia (Chiov.) bad. 

Lanneaschimperi (Hochst. ex 

Rich.) Engl. 

ennomarium (T), rasu- 

veinok (Som) 

degnein, guahauri (Som) 

dareku (G) 

handaraka (G) 

dugdugna (T) 

Anacardiaceae 

Anacardiaceae 

103.

-ABLE 1I (continued) 

Vhus abyssinica R. Br. 

?hus natalensis Bernh. 

hus vulgaris Meikle 

;clerocaryabirrea (A. Rich.) 

-iochst. 

Innona reticulata L. 

Ikocantheraschimperi (DC) Oliv. 

(=Carissaschimperi DC) 

Landolphia buchananji (Hall.f.) 

3tapf. 

Landolphiakirkei This. - Dyer 

*Sabacomorensis (Boj. ex DC) 

?ichan. 

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. 

3alanites scillin 2.iov. 

Thespesia danis Cliver 

Cordia africana Law. 

(- C. abyssinica R. Br.) 

Cardia ghara (Forsk.) 

Aschers. 

Cordia mya L. 

Cordia ovalis R. Br. 

Ehretiacymosa Thonn. 

Ehretiacymosa Thonn. var. 

abyssinica(R.Br. ex Fres.) 

Brenan 

Commiphora oncisLrophora Chiov. 

Commiphora boiviniana Engl. 

Commiphora crassispina Sprague 

Opuntia ficus-indica L. 

Cordyla africana Lour. 

Tainarindusindica L. 

Tylosema fassogensis(Schwf.) 

Tor & Hilic. 

Boscia octandra (Hochst. ex Hamta) 

Schwfth ex Radik. 

Capparisdecidua (Forsk.) 

Edgew. 

Capparistomentosa La..-. 

Ritchiea albersii Gilg. 

Cassine aethiopica Thunb. var. 

pubescens (Oliver) Cuf. 

t'at essa (G) 

eshkamo, ye-evenya 

killo (A) 

Ex. Krauss tatesa (G) 

kamo (A) 

kumal, gameles (A) 

abengul (T) 

ye-bere-bib (A) 

mopte (T) 

yetebenja-inchet (A) 

yebo, hope (Sid) 

dugi (G) 

arnole (Som) 

ghossa, shifaraoul 

(A), bedena (G), 

hangalta (K) 

Kabahan (Som), danis (T) 

Wanza (A) 

Wadessa (G) 

maderra (G), koha, 

mahrari (Som) 

marad, madad (C) 

madero (G) koha, 

mahrari (Som), 

yo-kolla wanza (A), 

mederra (T) 

urgesa (A) 

ulaga (A,G) 

garmi (GH) 

Kioruakh (T) 

gwaye, gwayeta (T) 

Kulqual (A) 

beless (T) 

tini (G) 

antorro, ontro (Som) 

roka (0), hamar (Som), 

tammar (A, T) 

sake (G) 

zahet (T) 

malusa (G) 

kontar, gumero (A) 

batarikitcho (Sid) 

hadessa (G) 

Anacardiaceae 

Anacardiaceae 

Anacardiaceae 

Annonacece 

Apocynaceae 

Apocynaceae 

Apocynaceae 

Apocynacea 

Balanitaceae 

Balanitaceae 

Bombacaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Boraginaceae 

Burseraceae 

Burseraceae 

Burseraceae 

Cactaceae 

Caesalpiniaceae 

Caesalpiniaccae 

Caesalpin;aceae 

Capparidaceae 

Capparidaceae 

Capparidaceac 

Capparidaccae 

Celastraceae 

51 

104.

52 

TABLE 11 (continued) 

Maytenus arbutifolius (Hochst. kombolcha (A,G) Celastraceae 

ex A. Rich.) Wilczek. 

Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. atat (A) Celastraceae 

& Zcyh.) N. Robson 

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt raho (G), mogad (Arabic) Cucurbitaceae 

Citrulluslunatus (Thunb.) Kare (Sam) Cucurbitaceae 

Mansf. 

Lagenariasiceraria(Molina) bur (Sam), kil (A) Cucurbitaceac 

Standl. 

Momordica balsimina L. 

Peponium vogeiii (Hook.1.) 

sar-khudu (Sam) 

sorupa (Sid) 

Cucurbitaceae 

Cucurbitaceae 

Engl. tojo (K) 

Sicyos polyacanthus Cogn. kepe, herase (Sid) 

humbawo (G) 

Cucurbitaceae 

Diospyros kaki L. f. 

Euclea keniensis Fries 

ayeh (T) Ebenaceae 

Eucleaschimperi (DC) Dandy 

Euclea leniensis Fries 

Ebenaceae 

Ebenaceae 

Euclea schimperi DC Dandy 

Antidesnia venosum E. Mey ex. 

Tul. 

mitanber ,.) 

huda (AR) 

Ebenaceae 

Euphorbiaceac 

Bridelia micrantha Hochst. yenebir tifir (A) Euphorbiaceae 

Baill. 

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex 

Wild.) Pax. ex. Hoffm. 

aregraba (G) 

kach-achalo (G) 

haramaso (T) 

Euphorbiaceae 

Dovyalis abyssinica A. Rich. koshem (A), koshumo (G) 

ankakute (W,G) 

aihada (T) 

Flacourtiaceae 

Flacourtiaindica (Burm. f. 

Merr. 

menderm (A) 

hada, hudaferda (G) 

Flacourtiaceae 

Oncoba spinosa Forsk. var. akaku, iilbo (G) Flacourtiaceae 

routledgei(Sprague) Sleumer 

Oxytenantheraabyssinica 

angora (Adere) 

arkai (T), Shimel (A) Graminae(Poaceae) 

(Rich.) Munro. 

OxytenantheraBorzl; Mattei arki (T) Graminae (Poaceae) 

Hydnorajohannis Beccari likeh, tuka (Sam, G) Hydnoraceae 

Hydnora ruspoliiChiov. . / Hydnoraceae 

Salvia nilotica Juss. ex. Jacq. 

Slrychnos innocua Del. 

spp. innocua var innocua 

shokoksa (G) 

unguata (T) 

Labiatae 

Loganiaceae 

Strychnos spinosa Lam. 

Strychnos spinosa Lam. 

spp. lokua (Rich.) Bruce 

angora (H,G) 

lokuc, gura (T) 

Loganiaceae 

Loganiaceae 

Abelomoschus esculentus (L.) 

N!oench 

Malvaceae 

Azanza garkeana(F. Hoffm.) 

Exill & Hilla. 

aureta (K) Maluaceae 

Ekebergiacapensis S,,arrm. limich (A), 

ulmaye (G) 

Meliaceae 

Ficus brachypoda Hutch. kiltu (G) Moraceae 

Ficus capreaefoliaDel. 

Ficusdharo Del. 

beles (T) Moraceae 

Moraceae 

105.

ABLE II (continued) 

icus gnaphalocarpa A. Rich 

!cus mallotocarpa Warb. 

icus palmata Forsk. 

"icu. sycomorus L. 

"cus stir Forsk. 

F. vasta) 

torus inesozygia Stapf 

loringa olcifera Lam. 

lyzygium guineense (Willd.) DC 

Syzygium owariense Benth. 

Yimenia americanaL. 

Ximenia caffra Sond. var. 

caffra 

Borassus aethiopum Mart. 

Canavaliauirosa (Roxb.) 

Weight and J. Am. 

ColuteaistriaMill. var. 

sericea(Rich.) Gut. 

Mucuriapruriens (L.) DC 

var. utils (Wall.) Bak. ex 

Buruck. 

Psophocarpustetragonolobus(L.) 

DC 

Phyllogeitondiscolor(Koltz.) 

Herzog 

Ziziphus nauritaniaLam. 

(= Z. jujuba Lam.) 

Ziziphus spina-christi 

(L,) Willd. 

CydoniajaponicaLoisl. 

Rosa abyssinica R. Br. 

Rubus apetalus Poir. 

Rubus pinnatus Willd. 

Canthium schimperianum Rich, 

Canthiumsetiflorumn Hicrn 

Canthiurnschimperianum Rich. 

Gardeniajovis-tnnantis 

(Welw.) Hiern. 

Gardenialutca Fresen. 

eyna tetraphylla (Schw. 

ex Hiern.) Robyns 

Nauclea latifolia Smith. 

Vangueria linearisepala 

K. Schum. 

oda (G) 

harbu (G) 

luga (G) 

worka (A), arbu (G) 

sholla 

shamareza (A) 

shanto, satcho (G) 

mrongo (Som.) 

dokma (A), badessa (G) 

duwancho (Sid) 

gossu (G) 

huda-orome, 

baa-orome (G), 

enkoye (A) 

hude, jalod (G) 

gwaye (T) 

gob, bheb, jujuba 

(Som), Kurkura (GH) 

kurkura (G) 

gabba (A) 

kook (G) 

kega (A), gora, gora 

(G) 

enjori (A), gorra (G) 

enjori (A), gora (G) 

galo (a), zadak 

dadano, satana k'abadu 

(G), natanna (Som) 

galo (G), zadak (T) 

gambella (G) 

leldcho (Sid) 

hadessa (G) 

sina (A), buro (Som) 

cabu (Shankila) 

Moraceae 

Moraceae 

Moraceae 

Iforaceae 

Moraceae 

Moraceae 

Mforingaceae 

Myrtaceae 

1Mvrtaceae 

Olacaceae 

Olacaceae 

Palmae 

Papilionaceae 

Papilionaceae 

Papilionaceae 

Papilionaceae 

Rhamnaceae 

Rhamnaceae 

Rhamnaceae 

Rosaceae • 

Rosaceae 

Rosaceae 

Rosaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

Rubiaceae 

53 

106.

54 

TABLE II (continued) 

DiphasiadainelliiPich-Serm. 

Teclea nobilis Del. 

lelcho (S), hadessa 

hirk'amo (GA) 

leldcho (Sid) 

hadessa (G), sina (A), 

Rutaceae 

Rulaceae 

Toddalia asiatica(L.) Lam. 

Doberaglafbra (Forsk.) 

Juss. ex Poir. 

Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. 

ex Rich.) Engl. 

Aphania enegalensis (Juss. ex 

Poir.) Radlk. 

Pappeacapensis (Eckl. & Zeyh.) 

var. radlkoferi Schinz. 

Aningeriaadolfi-friderici 

(Engl.) Rob. & Gilb. 

Mimusops kummel Bruce ex DC 

Physalis perut'iana L. 

Solanum alatum Moench 

Solanum nigrum L. 

buro (Som) 

Gao (Sid) 

adey (G) 

tatessa (G) 

lofai (Soni) 

sombo (A) 

bika (A), bika (G) 

adadak (Som) 

kararo (G) 

gudubo (Sid) 

kumel (T), sheye (A) 

aut (A,G) 

aut (A) 

jamule habesha (G) 

Rutaceae 

Salvadoracea 

Sapindaceae 

Sapindaceae 

Sapindaceae 

Sapotaceae 

Sapotaceae 

Solanaceae 

Solanaceae 

Solanaceae 

Solanum uillosum Miller 

Grewia betulifalia Juss. 

Grewia bicolor Juss. 

tekur-awitt, aut (A) 

tunaye (G, Sid) 

eka d'alla (G) 

haroressa (G) 

Solanaceae 

Tiliaceae 

Tiliaceae 

Grewia cerasifera Chiov. 

Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori 

obha (T) 

ammudi (Som) 

eka-kovemma (G) 

Tiliaceae 

Tiliaccae 

Grewia uillosa Willd. 

Duranta repens L. 

Lantana camara L. 

Lantanatrifolia L. 

PremnaresinosaSchauer 

Premnasomalensis Baker 

ogobedi (G) 

kombolcha (A,G) 

ye-wofe K'Ollo (A) 

hamaressa, K'at'ek' 

at'e (G) 

hamaressa (A,G) 

wurgecha (G) 

aurgessa ady (G) 

addis-ado (A) 

Tiliaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Verbenaceae 

Ampelocissus abyssinica H.ec.( Vitaceae 

(Rich.) N.E. Brown 

Starchy roots and tubers 

Botanical name Vernacular name(s) Family 

Ampelociss,'s a 

Rich.) Pianch. 

Arisaema spp. 

Sauromatum nubicam Schott. 

(S. uenosam (Ait.) Kunth.) 

Brachystclma lineare Rich. 

ycinica (H.ex bagane (K) 

chiche (A) 

ambatcha (T) 

schido (K) 

kolchoma, kude (S) 

ambaschia (T) 

Araceae 

Araceae 

Araceae 

Asclepiadaceae 

107.

,pegia aristolochioides 

ae Subsp. aristolochioides 

':ulariadaemia (Forsk.) 

.Iv. 

,inostelma angustaturn 

hst. ex. K. Schum. 

npanulaedulis Forsk. 

.)ha glanduliferaHochst. ex Rich. 

mmelina benghalensis L. 

.nmelina pyrrhoblepharis Hassk. 

inotis barbata Don. 

.ohanus sinus L. 

.rulluscolocynthis (L.) 

hrad. 

,ccinia abyssinica W&A 

.-perus esculentus L. 

ioscorea abyssinica Kunth. 

'ioscoreaquartiniana Rich. 

lioscoreaschimperianaHoclhst. 

"accaleonatopetaloidesL. 

ole us edulis Vatke 

?oleus lanuginosus Hochst. ex. 

3enth. 

isparagusabyssinicusHochst. 

Oxalis anthelmintica Rich. 

Oxalis senuiloba Sond. 

Eriosema cordifoliurn Hochst. 

ex A. Rich 

Vigna uexillata(L) A. Rich 

Sphenostylis stanocarpa(Hochst. 

ex Rich.) Harms. 

Cissus adcnocaulis Steud. ex Rich. 

mororo (Som) 

schamigge (T) 

korroda (K), tennab 

(T), dhraoha (Arabic), 

corongoiai (Som) 

engascelica (A) 

yebeglat (A), 

mensen (T) 

tikur-alem (A) 

schanoqot (T). 

gara-gumbi (Som) 

maschill (T) 

birco (T) 

gomen zer (A) 

ye-mdir-umboye (A) 

anchote (G) 

ye-ch'aka Boyena 

(A, Sid) 

zada (T) 

ancorumba (G) 

aboata 

Kaffir potato (Eng.) 

andef dif, zommar (T) 

michamicho (A) 

micha-micho (A,T) 

seniko (G) 

besheko (T) 

selinga (Sid) 

bido (Wol) 





Campanulaceae 

Canpanulaceae 

Commelinaceae 

Commelinaceae 

Commelinaceae 

Cruciferae 

Cucurbitaceae 

Cucurbitaceae 

Cyperaceae 

Dioscoreaceae 

Dioscoreaceae 

Dioscoreaceae 

Taccaceae 

Labiatae 

Labiatae 

Liliacead 

Oxalidaceae 

Oxalidaceae 

Papilionaceae 

Papilionaceae 

Papilionaceae 

Vitaceae 

55 

108.

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