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edible and poisonous 

mushrooms of Canada 

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1^ Agriculture 

Canada

edible 

and 

poisonous 

mushrooms 

of Canada

COVER : The Morchella esculenta (left) and Amanita muscaria (right) are detail 

from drawings by Henry Jackson. They are part of a collection of the 

National Gallery of Canada arid were donated to the Gallery by Dr. Naomi 

.Jackson Groves.

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in 2011 with funding from 

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada - Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada 

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I

edible 

and 

poisonous 

mushrooms 

of Canada 

J. WALTON GROVES 

Addendum by S. A. Redhead 

Biosystematics Research Institute 

Ottawa, Ontario 

Research Branch 

Agriculture Canada 

Publication 1112 

1979

©Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1979 

Available in Canada through 

Authorized Bookstore Agents 

and other bookstores 

or by mail from 

Canadian Government Publishing Centre 

Supply and Services Canada 

Hull, Quebec, Canada Kl A 0S9 

Catalogue No. A43-1 1 12/1979 Canada: $12.95 

ISBN 0-660-10136-X Other countries: $15.50 

Price subject to change without notice 

Ottawa, 1962 

Reprinted 1972 

Revised 1975, 1979 

Reprinted 1981 

I

CONTENTS 

Page 

Acknowledgments x 

Introduction 1 

Parts of a mushroom 3 

Collecting mushrooms 10 

Food value of mushrooms 11 

Mushroom poisoning 11 

Identification 14 

Nomenclature 19 

Classification 21 

Basidiomycetes 22 

Fungi 23 

Key to the genera of mushrooms 29 

Cantharellus 32 

Lactarius ; 37 

Russula 60 

Amanita 77 

Amanitopsis 88 

Limacella 93 

Lepiota , 94 

Cystoderma 1 00 

Armillaria 100 

Pleurotus 102 

Clitocybe 107 

Leucopaxillus 1 22 

Tricholoma 1 24 

Melanoleuca 1 30 

Hygrophorus 131 

Laccaria 145 

Xeromphalina 146 

Mycena 147 

Collybia 149 

Marasmius 158 

Lentinus 1 60 

Panus 161 

Schizophyllum 1 64 

Trogia 1 64 

Pluteus 1 65 

Volvariella 167 

Entoloma 1 69 

Leptonia 171 

Nolanea 1 72 

Clitopilus 177 

1 79 

Phyllotopsis 

Cortinarius 179 

Inocybe 183 

Pholiota 

184 

Vll

Page 

Phaeolepiota 190 

Flammula 1 90 

Hebeloma 191 

Conocybe 192 

Naucoria 197 

Tubaria 197 

Crepidotus 198 

Paxillus 199 

Agaricus 200 

Stropharia 204 

Naematoloma 206 

Psathyrella 208 

Coprinus 209 

Panaeolus 217 

Pseudocoprinus 218 

Gomphidius 219 

Boletaceae 220 

Boletinellus 223 

Boletinus 223 

Boletus 224 

Gyroporus 225 

Leccinum 226 

Strobilomyces 228 

Suillus 228 

Tylopilus 230 

Xerocomus 231 

Polyporaceae 237 

Ganoderma 238 

Polyporus 238 

Hydnaceae 240 

Hydnum 24 

Clavariaceae 242 

Clavaria 242 

Thelephoraceae 244 

Craterellus 244 

Tremellales 245 

Pseudohydnum 245 

Phlogiotis 246 

Auricularia 246 

Dacrymyces 246 

Gasteromycetes 247 

Mutinus 248 

Dictyophora 248 

Phallus 249 

Cyathus 249 

Geastrum 250 

Calvatia 250 

Bovista 25 

Lycoperdon 252 

Vlll 

1

Page 

Ascomycetes 257 

Morchella 258 

Verpa 258 

Gyromitra 259 

Hehella 260 

Peziza 261 

Sarcoscypha 261 

Urnula 261 

Hypomyces 262 

Technical key to the genera of mushrooms 263 

General bibliography 270 

References for selected groups 271 

Abbreviations of names of authors 308 

Glossary 309 

Index 312 

Addendum 321 

Nomenclatural and taxonomic update 323 

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Many people have been generous with their co-operation and assistance in 

the preparation of this book. I would especially like to thank Dr. A. H. Smith 

of the University of Michigan who has read much of the manuscript, supplied 

some of the photographs, and made many helpful suggestions. Mrs. Sheila C. 

Thomson, who was formerly employed in this section, gave invaluable assist- 

ance during the early stages of preparation by aiding with identifications and 

preparation of descriptions. Parts of the manuscript were read by colleagues 

Dr. Mildred Nobles and Dr. Ruth Macrae. My wife. Dr. Naomi Groves, 

read the entire manuscript and offered many valuable suggestions. Mr. Henry 

A. C. Jackson kindly gave permission to use his painting of Amanita caesarea 

as a frontispiece. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to use 

their photographs. 

Dr. A. H. Smith — Figures 52, 56, 64, 79, 145, 155, 160, 198, 255, 266, 

274, 302, 340, 351, 361, 388, 395. 

Mr. K. A. Harrison, Kentville, N.S. — Figures 124, 156, 180, 182, 196, 

262,291, 332, 335, 353. 

Dr. and Mrs. B. T. Denis, Quebec City — Figures 105, 107, 110, 112, 

342, 343, 344, 347, 348, 349. 

Dr. Maria Pantidou, Ottawa — Figures 317, 319, 324. 

National Museum of Canada — Figures 90, 91, 92, 126, 127, 128, 303, 

304, 327, 328, 329, 384, 386, 387, 400. 

Bio-Graphic Unit, Canada Department of Agriculture — Figures 174, 

175, 396,397.

INTRODUCTION 

Mushrooms appeal to different people in different ways. The biologist is 

attracted by the variety of species, their place in the economy of nature and 

their interrelations with other plants and animals; the artist or photographer 

delights in their infinite variety of form and color; the medical research worker 

may look to them hopefully as a possible source of new drugs; but to most 

people the quality that first arouses interest in them is their use as food. In 

Roman times edible mushrooms were renowned as a delicacy and today in 

some parts of the world they constitute an important part of the food supply 

of the people. 

One of the questions often asked a mycologist is "How do you tell an 

edible mushroom from a poisonous one?" It would seem that the questioner 

expects some simple test or rule of thumb by which an instantaneous diagnosis 

can be made. It is curious that this attitude toward mushrooms should exist 

because it is not manifested toward other plants. People rarely ask how to tell 

an edible berry from a poisonous one nor do they expect to be given a simple 

test to distinguish between edible and poisonous leaves. 

Although several reasons for this attitude might be suggested, perhaps 

one may be connected with the comparatively late development of precise 

knowledge of the structure and life history of mushrooms and other fungi. For 

a long time even botanists did not look upon the fungi as plants in themselves 

but regarded them as a sort of excrescence on decaying vegetable matter. Their 

apparently sudden appearance and disappearance often late in the season 

without visible seeds or means of reproduction, their frequent association with 

decaying organic matter, their vivid colors, fantastic shapes, and in some in- 

stances their poisonous properties, caused them to be regarded as objects of 

mystery and sometimes even to be associated with the supernatural. 

One common superstition concerned the fairy rings, those dark green 

circles in the grass where mushrooms appear. We now know that these are 

caused by the circular growth outward of the fungus in the soil, but they were 

once believed to mark the spot where the fairies held their midnight revels. 

Another well-known example of magical power attributed to a fungus 

occurs in Alice in Wonderland where a bite of one side of a certain mushroom 

would make you grow taller and a bite of the other side would make you grow 

shorter, so that by a httle judicious nibbhng it was possible to adjust oneself to 

any desired dimension. 

Mycologists take a more reahstic and less fanciful view of the mushrooms 

but to most people these are still a very unfamiliar and somewhat mysterious 

group of organisms, and perhaps it is because of this background of mystery 

that some magical test is expected to distinguish good mushrooms from bad. 

Actually there is only one test to find out whether a mushroom or any 

other plant is poisonous and that is to eat it. If it makes you sick or kills you it 

is poisonous, and it is mainly through such human experience that we have 

built up our knowledge of which plants are edible and which poisonous. 

1

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA 

Throughout man's process of becoming civiUzed he has probably at some time 

or another tried eating everything that looked edible. From the records of 

experience of other people in trying fungi we know that certain species are 

poisonous and that certain other species are edible and desirable, just in the 

same way that we know that certain berries are poisonous and others are 

edible. The edible qualities of a good many species of mushrooms are still 

unknown and reports about some species are conflicting. 

Conflicting reports may arise from a variety of reasons. Sometimes illness 

arising from some other cause is wrongfully attributed to mushrooms. It is a 

common practice to fry mushrooms in butter but the use of too much butter 

may cause illness and the mushrooms be blamed, or some other dish eaten at 

the same meal as the mushrooms may be the real cause of the illness. Some- 

times misidentification of mushrooms may occur and the wrong species be 

blamed for causing illness. Apparently allergy may also be involved and some 

species may sicken certain individuals but not others. It is possible, too, that 

certain geographic races of mushrooms may produce poisons and other races 

may not. Possibly a species may be edible when it is young and fresh and may 

become poisonous when it is overmature and has started to decay. On the 

other hand, the method of preparation or cooking may destroy a poisonous 

substance that is present in the uncooked specimen. 

Any one of these reasons may result in reports at one time that a mushroom 

is edible and at another time that it is poisonous, but until there is clear- 

cut and convincing evidence that a species is edible, it should be regarded with 

suspicion. 

Thus any rules about eating mushrooms resolve themselves into one bit of 

common sense — eat only the species you know and avoid all the others. Just 

as one can easily learn to identify a wild raspberry or blueberry and avoid 

unknown berries, he can learn to identify several common species of mushrooms 

such as the meadow mushroom Agaricus campestris, the chantarelle 

Cantharellus cibarius, the shaggy mane Coprinus comatus, the 'delicious 

lactarius' Lactarius deliciosus, the parasol mushroom Lepiota procera, the 

morel Morchella esculenta, and the giant puflfball Calvatia gigantea, to mention 

only a few. 

Unrecognized species should not be eaten, and because of the very great 

danger from the deadly species of Amanita, the characters of this genus should 

be learned and its species avoided. However, by collecting and studying 

different species the number that can be identified and eaten will gradually 

increase. Some people will be satisfied to know a very few species; others will 

want to try different ones. Obviously one should proceed cautiously when 

trying any species for the first time because of the possibility of allergic reac- 

tions, but by making certain that amanitas are avoided and by using only 

species that have been identified and are known to be edible, one may enjoy 

many tasty mushroom dishes in safety. 

Although much of the interest in mushrooms arises from their use as 

food, other aspects also attract the collector. The wide variety they exhibit in

INTRODUCTION 

form and color, the great number of species that occur, and their interesting 

relationships with other plants and types of habitat are all features that invite 

further study. 

One of the things that adds to the interest of mushroom collecting is the 

fact that one may visit the same locahty time after time and continue to find 

different species. Some of the common ones will be found repeatedly of course, 

but something different is likely to be found at any time under varying weather 

conditions. Some species seem to produce fruiting bodies only rarely, perhaps 

only once in several years, so that there is always the possibility of coming 

upon a rare and unusual species, even on famihar ground. 

Mushrooms are also interesting from the standpoint of their place in the 

economy of nature. One of their chief functions is to aid in the breakdown of 

dead organic material and to return the essential elements to the soil. When 

this function is appreciated, their frequent association with decay is understood 

and any feeling of repulsion toward them disappears. Some of the species are 

found only with certain trees where they form associations with the tree roots 

that are termed 'mycorrhiza.' Some trees cannot thrive without the presence of 

their fungus associate. Attention has also been directed in recent years to the 

mushrooms as a possible source of antibiotic substances that might prove 

useful in medicine. Investigations are being carried out to see if the hallucino- 

genic mushrooms of Mexico might prove to be a source of a non-habit- 

forming tranquilizing drug that would be valuable in neuropsychiatric re- 

search. Investigation of the mushrooms from these and similar angles is only 

beginning. 

It should be realized that in our mushroom flora we have many more 

species that must be omitted from a book of this nature than can be included. 

Consequently, caution must be exercised in making identifications. If the 

characters of a particular specimen under examination do not agree in all 

respects with the description, there is a good chance that the mushroom may 

be a species not in the book, hence for safety's sake it should not be eaten. 

PARTS OF A MUSHROOM 

Most people have a general idea of what a mushroom is, but the term has 

never been precisely defined and has diffêrent meanings to different people. 

Perhaps the most generally accepted usage is to apply the term mushroom to a 

fungus fruiting body with a more or less evident stalk, bearing an expanded 

cap at the apex, with a series of thin, radiating, gill-like or blade-Hke structures 

on the lower surface of the cap. Some would consider that only one or two 

species such as the meadow mushroom and cultivated mushroom are true 

mushrooms, whereas others would call almost any large fleshy fungus a mushroom. 

From a scientific standpoint it is probably best to use the term mushroom 

to apply to the whole group of gill-bearing fungi and it is used in that sense in 

this book.


In classifying fungi or other plants, botanists try to group together those 

forms that are thought to be closely related, and in general it is beUeved that 

the fungi bearing gills, or more properly lamellae, are more closely related /to 

each other than to those not bearing lamellae. The species bearing lamellae are 

grouped by mycologists in a family, the Agaricaceae, and therefore the use of 

the term mushroom for these fungi gives it a popular meaning roughly equiva- 

lent to the family Agaricaceae. 

'Toadstool' is another popular term that is frequently used and it too 

means different things to different people. To some it means any fungus except 

the field mushroom or cultivated mushroom, to others it is any inedible or 

poisonous fungus. Scientifically the term has no meaning at all since species 

related closely in a botanical sense may be either edible or poisonous. We can 

avoid confusion by dropping the term 'toadstool' altogether and speaking only 

of edible and poisonous mushrooms. 

The structure that we call a mushroom is in reality only the fruiting body 

of the fungus. The vegetative part of the plant consists of a system of branching 

threads and cord-like strands that ramify through the soil, manure, or other 

material on which the fungus may be growing. This vegetative part is called 

Pileus 

Lamellae 

Partial Ve 

becom 

Stipe 

Volva 

Figure 1 . Diagram of a section of an amanita illustrating the principal parts of a mushroom. 

Young plant on left, mature plant on right.


the mycelium ; it is used by commercial mushroom growers to plant their beds 

and is commonly called mushroom spawn. After a period of growth and 

accumulation of food reserves and under favorable conditions of temperature 

and moisture, the mycelium will produce the fruiting structure that we call the 

mushroom. 

The principal parts of a mushroom are illustrated by a diagram represent- 

ing a section through an amanita (Figure 1). The fruiting body consists of a 

stem-like part called the stipe, which supports an expanded, umbrella-shaped 

cap or pileus. On the under side of the pileus are the gills or lamellae. In some 

mushrooms, particularly those occurring on wood, the stipe may be lacking 

and the pileus is then said to be sessile (Figure 10, p. 5). The pileus is usually 

8 

10 

11 12 13 

14 15 16 

Figures 2-9. Diagrams illustrating various terms used to describe the shape of the pileus: 2, 

conical; 3, convex; 4, campanulate; 5, umbonate; 6, plane; 7, umbilicate; 8, depressed; 

9, infundibuliform. 

Figure 10. Diagram illustrating a sessile fruiting body; the stipe is lacking. In this instance the 

fruiting body is represented as growing on a tree trunk. 

Figures 11-16. Diagrams illustrating various terms used to describe the attachment of the 

lamellae: 11, free; 12, adnexed; 13, adnate; 14, sinuate; 15, decurrent; 16, seceding.


circular but may vary from being somewhat irregular to fan-shaped or ear- 

shaped, or sometimes shelf-like. The lamellae radiate from the stipe to the 

margin of the pileus and may vary from their typical form as one or more 

series of knife-blade-like structures to scarcely more than slight folds on the 

under surface of the pileus. 

In some mushrooms the young plant is at first completely enclosed in a 

sheath of tissue called the universal veil or volva. As growth proceeds, the 

volva is torn open and the young mushroom emerges, leaving remnants of the 

volva as a sheath surrounding the base of the stipe. This universal veil or volva 

is not present in all mushrooms but is an important character to look for in 

recognizing the dangerous genus Amanita. Two types of volva are found in 

Amanita. In one type, such as is found in A. virosa, the volva tears across the 

top and remains as a loose, cup-like sheath around the base of the stipe. In the 

other type, as in A. muscaria, the sheath is not loose but more or less grows 

together with the rest of the tissue of the fruit body. As the fruit body grows, 

the volva tears around the margin of the pileus rather than across the top. 

Part is left adhering to the surface of the pileus where it becomes torn into 

patches as the pileus expands, and part remains attached to the base of the 

stipe where it may form a series of rings or patches on the stipe or form a 

boot-hke cup closely adhering to the base. This second type of volva is more 

difficult to recognize in the field and careful examination should be made to 

determine whether or not it is present. 

In some kinds of mushrooms the lamellae in the young stage are enclosed 

by a layer of tissue that extends from the margin of the pileus to the stipe. This 

tissue is known as the partial veil and it usually tears around the margin of the 

pileus as the latter expands, and remains attached to the stipe where it forms a 

ring or annulus. It may sometimes tear at the stipe and remain attached to the 

margin of the pileus, which would then be described as appendiculate. Some 

genera such as Amanita have both a universal veil and a partial veil, others such 

as Agaricus may have only the partial veil, and in yet others such as Clitocybe 

both the universal veil and partial veil may be absent. 

The presence of a partial veil is frequently used as a character to distinguish 

genera and its presence is usually indicated by the occurrence of the annulus 

in the mature fruit body. Care must be taken in determining this character 

because in some species the annulus is very delicate and may soon disappear. 

It is advisable to examine young specimens to determine whether or not an 

annulus is present. 

The pileus, lamellae, stipe, volva, and annulus constitute the principal 

parts of a mushroom that can be seen with the naked eye. Their variations in 

form, color, texture, surface covering and so on are all important in the recog- 

nition of species. Other characters can be observed only with the microscope, 

and the research taxonomist is coming to place more and more reliance on 

these microscopic characters both as a means of distinguishing between similar 

species and also of providing characters that indicate relationships between 

species or groups of species.


For the purpose of this book relatively little emphasis is being placed on 

microscopic characters but some mention of them must be made in order to 

understand the function of the mushroom fruiting body. A mushroom repro- 

duces by means of spores and the fruiting bodies are organs developed to 

promote the dissemination of the spores. 

Spores of very varied forms are produced by fungi in general but in the 

mushrooms they usually consist of a single, minute cell, rarely more than 1 /50 

milhmeter or 0.0008 inch in length and usually much smaller. They are too 

small to be seen singly by the naked eye but in mass appear as a white or 

colored powder. Their size, shape, and surface markings, if any, are important 

in identifying species but these features can be seen only with the microscope. 

The measurements of spores are usually expressed in /x (microns). One m 

(micron) equals one one-thousandth of a milhmeter. Thus when we say a spore 

is 10m in length we mean 10/1000 or 1 /lOO of a milhmeter in length and since a 

milhmeter is about 1 /25 of an inch, it would take 2500 such spores to equal 

one inch. 

Minute objects such as these are measured by placing a glass disk marked 

with a scale in the eyepiece of the microscope. The scale can be carefully cali- 

brated with a special slide that is ruled very accurately in tenths and hun- 

dredths of a milhmeter. It is then easy to calculate what each division on the 

eyepiece scale measures and the spores can be measured directly in ordinary 

shde mounts. 

20 ^ 21 ^22 "23 ' 

24 

^? 

25 26 27 2829 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 

Figures 17-24. Semidiagrammatic drawings illustrating some types of cystidia: 17, fusiformlanceolate; 

18, flask-shaped; 19, capitate-encrusted; 20, horned; 21, ventricose-fusiform 

22, clavate with projections at the apex; 23, cylindric, obtuse with mucronate tip; 24, ninepin-shaped 

(lecythiform). 

Figures 25-36. Semidiagrammatic drawings illustrating various types of spores: 25, globose; 

26, ovoid; 27, ellipsoid; 28, ellipsoid-fusiform; 29, cylindric; 30, allantoid; 31, ellipsoid with 

truncate apex; 32, longitudinally striate; 33, angular; 34, tuberculate; 35, reticulate; 36, 

echinulate. 

;


When a spore germinates it puts forth a slender thread called a hypha. 

This thread grows rapidly, develops cross walls or septa and becomes many- 

celled, then branches repeatedly, producing a mat of hyphae termed the 

mycelium. This is the vegetative part of the fungus from which the fruiting 

body or mushroom arises. The mushroom is composed of hyphae consisting 

of interwoven, branched, septate threads, although in some groups such as 

Lactarius and Russula there are also globular cells termed sphaerocysts in the 

tissue. 

The structure of the lamellae is of special interest because it is here that 

the spores are produced. If a section of a lamella is examined it is seen to be 

roughly wedge-shaped or triangular. The spores are produced on the outer 

surface in a definite layer called the hymenium whereas the central part is 

composed of more or less interwoven hyphae and is called the trama (Figure 

42, p. 9). The hymenium consists of basidia, paraphyses, and sometimes 

cystidia. The basidia are the cells on which the spores are produced; each one 

has four little stalks at its apex and a spore develops on the tip of each stalk. 

Between the basidia there are cells somewhat similar in shape but lacking the 

stalks and never producing spores. These are the paraphyses. Their function is 

apparently to hold the basidia far enough apart that their slightly sticky spores 

will not become entangled and prevented from shooting forth. In some mushrooms 

there are also specialized cells of varying shape and size that project 

from the hymenium and are called cystidia. They may be rounded, pointed, 

thick- or thin-walled, sometimes encrusted, and variously shaped, but they are 

usually constant for each species. Cystidia may also occur on the surface of the 

pileus or on the stipe. Their exact function is still uncertain but when present 

they can be of great assistance in the identification of the species.

Figures 37-40. Semidiagrammatic drawings illustrating various types of basidia: 37, basidium 

of Agaricaceae (a spore, b sterigma, c basidium); 38, basidium of Tremellaceae with longitudinal 

septa; 39, deeply forked basidium of Dacrymycetaceae ; 40, basidium of Auriculariaceae 

with transverse septa. 

Figure 41. Semidiagrammatic drawing of: a ascus containing ascospores, b paraphysis. 

Figure 42. Diagram illustrating a small section of the lamella of a mushroom: a cystidium, 

b paraphyses, c basidium, d trama. 

Figure 43. Diagram of a transverse section of an apothecium: a hymenium composed of asci 

and paraphyses, b hypothecium, c stipe. 

Figure 44. Diagram of a transverse section of a perithecium: a ostiole, b perithecial wall, c asci 

and paraphyses.


COLLECTING MUSHROOMS 

The equipment required for collecting mushrooms is relatively simple. A 

basket, preferably a wide and fairly deep one, a sharp knife, and a supply of 

paper or plastic bags and waxed paper are about all the essentials. A good 

hand lens with a magnification of 10 to 14 diameters is desirable, and also a 

pencil and notebook if one wishes to take notes in the field. Details of location, 

habitat, whether or not associated with particular trees and so on are best 

noted down on the spot, and it is well to note such characters as color, taste, 

odor, etc., in the field. If the specimens are collected carefully and examined 

promptly, detailed notes can be made after returning from the collecting trip, 

but it is important that accurate data about the specimens be obtained as soon 

as possible. 

The method of collecting will vary slightly depending on the purpose for 

which the specimens are collected. Those intended for study and identification 

should be gathered very carefully. It is important to collect the whole fruiting 

body including the base of the stipe, and in order to obtain this it may be neces- 

sary to dig the mushroom. The fruit bodies may be placed separately in paper 

bags, preferably first wrapped in waxed paper. This is best done by laying the 

specimen on a sheet of waxed paper, rolling the paper into a cylinder, and 

twisting the ends. The cylinders can then be stacked in the basket or placed in 

a large paper bag without danger of the specimens being damaged or the 

collections mixed. 

If the specimens are to be photographed great care must be taken to avoid 

damaging them and it is advisable to keep them standing upright in the col- 

lecting basket. 

Collections of different species should be kept separate. Specimens that 

look the same and are growing in clusters or very closely associated may be 

assumed to be the same species, but this is not a safe assumption for specimens 

growing singly and scattered over an area of several square yards. This is 

especially true in genera such as Russula, Cortinarius, and Inocybe where 

specimens that look very similar may have quite different microscopic 

characters. It is bad practice to put different mushrooms in the same basket 

unwrapped. One fruit body may shed spores on to the lamellae of another 

fruit body of a different species and so create much confusion. 

Whenever possible, a number of fruit bodies of the same species, including 

very young stages, should be collected. Overmature specimens or those badly 

infested with insect larvae are best discarded. Such specimens should certainly 

be discarded if the collection is intended to be used for food. 

Perhaps the most satisfactory way of working is to collect in the morning 

and examine the specimens in the afternoon. However, if this is not possible, 

most of the larger fleshy forms can be kept satisfactorily overnight, especially 

if stored in a cool place, but delicate forms such as species of Coprinus will not 

keep overnight and must be examined at once. 

When the collector is certain that he knows an edible species and can 

10

MUSHROOM POISONING 

recognize it in the field he may then proceed to collect it for food. For this 

purpose it is advisable to cut off the stem well above ground level to avoid 

getting dirt in the specimens, but one should always be certain that the specimen 

is not an Amanita and that there is no volva buried in the ground. Young, 

sound specimens should be chosen and overmature ones discarded. Cut the 

fruit bodies in two and if the flesh shows tunnel-like pinholes indicating in- 

festation with insect larvae these specimens should be discarded also. 

When mushrooms are being collected for food keep the species separate. 

Species diff'er in texture and some may require longer cooking than others. 

Those of similar texture can be cooked together satisfactorily but if one makes 

a practice of keeping each species separate when collecting, he is more likely to 

examine each fruit body more carefully and is less likely to collect a poisonous 

one by mistake. 

FOOD VALUE OF MUSHROOMS 

Mushrooms have long been esteemed for their pleasant flavor but the 

question has often been raised as to whether or not they possess any nutritive 

value as well, and contradictory statements as to their food value have ap- 

peared from time to time. Several chemical analyses of the composition of 

mushrooms have been published and these provide good evidence that mushrooms 

are indeed a valuable source of food. 

Figures vary to some extent with diff'erent species and diffêrent analyses 

but in general the water content is about 89 per cent, protein 3 per cent, fat 

0.4 per cent, carbohydrates 6 per cent, and minerals about 1 per cent. Although 

mushrooms do not compare with meat as a source of protein and, some of 

the protein appears to occur in an indigestible form, they are good sources of 

such minerals as iron and copper. 

Mushrooms have been found to be high in vitamin C, ascorbic acid, 

niacin and pantothenic acid. These vitamins are well retained during cooking 

and in canned or dried mushrooms. 

In contrast, the calorie value of mushrooms is low, roughly 30 calories 

per 100 grams or about one-quarter pound, but the calorie value will, of course, 

be increased if they are cooked in excess fat. 

In general it seems safe to say that in addition to their value as flavor, 

mushrooms compare favorably with most vegetables as to nutritive value and 

vitamin content. 


The fear of mushroom poisoning is so great among many people that it 

arouses a feeling of dread of all mushrooms. This attitude is justified to a con- 

siderable extent because of the high percentage of fatalities among cases of 

poisoning by amanitas, and unless a person can recognize the genus Amanita 

he is well advised to avoid unknown mushrooms. No case of mushroom 

11


poisoning should ever be regarded lightly and medical assistance should be 

sought at once. 

The following summary of mushroom poisoning is mainly taken from 

the account by Pilat (1954) who considered that there are at least seven dif- 

ferent types of mushroom poisoning. 

Unquestionably the most dangerous type of poisoning is caused by mushrooms 

in the Amanita phalloides group. A. phalloides itself is a greenish oUve 

species with radiating blackish fibrils on the pileus. It apparently does not 

occur in Canada, but our white A. virosa is equally deadly. Ramsbottom (1953) 

estimated that 90 per cent of the recorded deaths from fungus poisoning have 

been caused by species of this group. The folly of the superstition that a mushroom 

that peels is safe is well illustrated here because these Amanita species 

peel readily. The mushrooms of the A. phalloides group are so deadly that 

even small amounts may prove fatal. The danger is increased by the fact that 

there is apparently no unpleasant taste and no symptoms are manifested until 

8 to 12 hours, or sometimes even longer, after the mushrooms are eaten. By 

this time the poison has been absorbed into the blood stream and the usual 

procedures such as pumping out the stomach are of no avail. 

The general symptoms of this type of poisoning are severe abdominal 

pains, vomiting, cold sweats, diarrhea and excessive thirst. After persisting for 

some time the symptoms usually subside for a while and then recur more 

intensely; the liver is affected as well as the nervous system. There may be 

delirium, deep coma, and finally death. The patient suffers great pain. 

Early investigations on the nature of the poison showed that there were at 

least two poisonous substances in A. phalloides. One of these was destroyed by 

heat but the other was not, and this latter was responsible for most of the 

poisoning cases. It was called amanita toxin and later study has shown that 

this is a complex of three substances, a;-amanitine, /?-amanitine, and phalloi- 

dine. All of these are very poisonous. 

Although in cases of poisoning by this group of mushrooms the percent- 

age of fatahties is very high, three methods of treatment have been used with 

some apparent success. 

A serum has been produced at the Institut Pasteur in Paris by immunizing 

horses and it is said to give good results if injected hypodermically or intra- 

venously and used early. However because of the rare and sporadic occurrence 

of this type of poisoning, supplies of fresh serum are not readily available. 

The second method is to give injections of glucose in normal saline. This 

treatment is based on the fact that in Amanita poisoning there is a pronounced 

lowering of blood sugar with consequent damage to the liver and kidneys and 

the injections may help to restore the amount of sugar and modify the effects 

of the poison. Normal saline alone has also been used. It is better to give these 

hypodermically than by mouth because vomiting is usually associated with 

this type of poisoning. 

The third method sounds fantastic but some success has been claimed for 

it. It is based on the idea that the gastric juices of a rabbit will neutralize the 

12


poison of the Amanita. It is recommended that the stomachs of three rabbits 

and the brains of seven be chopped up finely and made into a paste or pellets 

and eaten raw by the patient. Sugar or jam can be added to make it more 

palatable, and the sugar itself may be beneficial. This method has received 

some pubhcity in the press but it is difficult to know whether or not it is really 

effective. 

The second type of poisoning is caused by species such as Amanita muscaria 

and A. pantherina and is believed to be due to a substance called mycoatropine. 

The symptoms usually appear soon after eating the mushrooms, 

within one-half to four hours. The most characteristic symptoms are nervous 

excitement, hallucinations and behavior suggesting alcohohc intoxication. 

This may be followed by coma and sometimes death, although the percentage 

of recovery from this type of poisoning is much greater than with the A. phal- 

loides type. A. pantherina is considered to be more dangerous than A. muscaria. 

Treatment consists in the administration of emetics and purgatives to 

clean out the digestive tract and then in treating the delirium with chloral 

hydrate or potassium bromide and providing a heart stimulant. 

The third type of poisoning is due to the substance called muscarine and is 

caused by some Inocybe species and Clitocybe dealbata. Amanita muscaria also 

contains muscarine but its main effects are now befieved to be due to mycoa- 

tropine. The symptoms of muscarine poisoning are profuse sweating, vomiting, 

diarrhea, pains in the stomach, distortion of vision and slowing down of the 

heart. Death rarely occurs in this type of poisoning and if it does it is due to the 

effect on the heart. Atropine is an antidote for muscarine poisoning. 

A fourth type of poisoning may be caused by Entoloma lividum and a few 

other species. It is a violent gastrointestinal disturbance usually occurring 

within one to two hours after the mushrooms have been eaten. The symptoms 

include vomiting, diarrhea, acute pain and profuse perspiration. The symptoms 

may persist for a long time and make the patient very weak. Not much 

appears to be known about the poison involved. 

The fifth type of poisoning is caused by some of the acrid species of 

Russula and Lactarius. It has the effect of a very violent purgative and causes 

vomiting and stomach pains. It is claimed that the poisonous substances can be 

removed from these mushrooms by boiling them in several changes of water, 

but these species are not recommended as food. 

The sixth type is the poisoning caused by some Discomycetes and beheved 

to be due to helvellic acid. The most important fungus in this group is Gyro- 

mitra esculenta and reports about this fungus are very contradictory. There 

seems to be no doubt that many people eat this species frequently, apparently 

without any harm. On the other hand there are well-authenticated cases of 

poisoning and even of deaths caused by it. It would appear that the danger is 

greatest with overmature or sHghtly decomposed specimens, but danger cer- 

tainly exists and on no account can this fungus be recommended as food. 

Finally there is a peculiar type of poisoning that has been said to be 

associated with Coprinus species eaten at the same time that alcohol has been 

13


consumed. It is apparently not dangerous, but in about twenty minutes to two 

hours the face may become very red and then violaceous and the color may 

spread to the neck and body. The tip of the nose and the ear lobes remain pale. 

There is a sensation of heat and the pulse beat becomes very rapid. The symptoms 

disappear in a short time and apparently there are no ill effects. 

There has been some controversy about this type of poisoning. Child 

(1952) described experiments in which Coprini were fed to a person with and 

without alcohol and no effects were observed, but when Panaeolus campanulatus 

was eaten by itself the type of symptoms described above appeared. He 

suggested that the reports of poisoning caused by a combination of Coprinus 

and alcohol might be due rather to accidental inclusion of Panaeolus with the 

Coprinus. However his experiments were rather limited in scope and European 

mycologists still insist that these symptoms have appeared in well-authenti- 

cated cases where there was no possibility of a misidentification of Panaeolus. 

The question may be regarded as still open but it would probably be advisable 

to avoid eating Coprinus and consuming alcohol at the same time. 

In any case of mushroom poisoning, medical assistance should be summoned 

immediately. As a first-aid measure the stomach and intestines should 

be emptied by inducing vomiting or administering purgatives or an enema. 

Parts of mushrooms vomited up, or the remains of the dish eaten should be 

preserved so that the species responsible for the poisoning can be identified. If 

any fresh mushrooms of the original gathering remain they would be still more 

useful for this purpose. 

IDENTIFICATION 

At first, mushrooms may all look rather similar but as we observe them 

more closely and become more interested in them, differences and similarities 

are perceived and more and more species are recognized. Some people will be 

content with learning to identify a few common species, others will want to 

know more and may even want to make a special study of some groups or 

genera. 

Correct identification, then, becomes a matter of observing carefully the 

characters possessed by the fungus, comparing them with descriptions and 

illustrations or with other specimens, and assessing the value of differences and 

similarities observed. There is no rigid concept or set of rules by which one can 

say whether or not an observed difference represents a real difference between 

species or simply variation among individuals of the same species. Size of the 

pileus and length of the stipe, for example, are characters that are usually 

fairly constant within limits for any particular species, but some individuals 

may be found in which these or other characters may far exceed the ordinary 

limits. Colors may fade, heavy rains may wash scales off the pileus, a delicate 

annulus may disappear very early, and so on. On the other hand, spore color 

is a very constant character as are many of the microscopic characters. 

No single book contains descriptions of all the known species of mush- 

14


rooms and no one person can, with certainty, identify every mushroom he 

finds. Much remains to be learned about the species comprising our mushroom 

flora, and for the amateur the identification of mushrooms offers a chal- 

lenge and an interest that he can pursue as far as he wishes. 

Probably the most usual way for a beginner to start learning to identify 

mushrooms is by association with some more experienced collector who can 

point out the common species and the characters by which they are recognized. 

This is a good way for the beginner to start and it often results in arousing his 

interest and curiosity to the point where he will want to be able to identify 

other species for himself. 

At this point the necessity for consulting books on mushrooms will 

become apparent and these books usually contain keys, descriptions and 

illustrations to aid in identification. A key is a guide to identification that is 

constructed by presenting a choice between two characters or groups of 

characters. The student decides which of the characters is possessed by the 

fungus under study, and by ehminating the species not possessing the charac- 

ters, he eventually narrows the choice to one species. Difficulties may arise 

because the characters are not clear-cut, or the specimen is inadequate to show 

all the characters, or the species under investigation is not found in the key 

being used. It is sometimes impossible to decide with certainty which choice 

should be made and both will have to be followed up until a definite ehmina- 

tion can be made. 

Some keys are designed to show relationships so that related forms key 

out close to each other but, since relationships are indicated by similarities, and 

ehminations are usually made by noting differences, keys of this type are often 

difficult to use in making identifications. The keys in this book are intended 

primarily to aid in identification and are not designed to indicate relationships. 

When a specimen keys out it should then be compared with the detailed 

description of the species and, if possible, with good illustrations. It is not 

recommended that identification of mushrooms be attempted by simply comparing 

the specimens with illustrations . Undoubtedly many correct identifica- 

tions of mushrooms have been made in this way but there are so many species 

of mushrooms that are superficially similar in appearance that this method is 

likely to lead to serious errors. 

In making an identification of a species, the first thing that must be 

determined is the color of the spores. This can best be seen in a spore deposit 

or spore print (Figure 45). To obtain a spore print cut off the stipe close to the 

pileus, lay the pileus on a piece of white paper with the lamellae downward and 

leave it for several hours. Better results will be obtained if it is covered with a 

glass or dish of some sort to protect it from air currents. Some people have 

used black paper in order to better show up white spore deposits, but pale 

cream, pale pink, or Hlac spores may appear to be white if deposited on black 

paper, and since white spores can always be seen on white paper if viewed at an 

angle, only white paper should be used. Satisfactory spore prints of some of 

the firmer species can be obtained in the field by cutting off the stipe, laying the 

15


pileus on a piece of white paper with the lamellae down, wrapping it carefully 

in waxed paper, and laying it flat on the bottom of the basket. A good spore 

deposit may be obtained by the time one returns from the collecting trip. 

If the spore deposit is white to yellow, the amyloid reaction of the spores 

should be determined. This reaction is determined by placing some of the 

spores on a glass slide and adding a drop of a solution (Meizer's Reagent) 

made up of 1.5 grams potassium iodide, 0.5 grams iodine, 20 grams distilled 

water and 20 grams chloral hydrate. If the spores turn gray-blue to blackish 

blue they are amyloid and if there is no reaction they are nonamyloid. The 

reaction can be observed with the microscope if one is available, or, if not, it 

can be seen by simply holding the sHde over white paper. The reaction should 

be noted within a few minutes of making the test and it is more reliable if 

tested on spores that have first been dried. A few species, particularly in 

Lepiota, will give a falsely amyloid or pseudoamyloid reaction and the color 

will be reddish brown. 

This reaction is of considerable importance in taxonomic work. For 

example, the genus Leucopaxillus contains some species that were formerly in 

Clitocybe and some that were in Tricholoma. These are beheved to form a 

natural group and can be recognized by the amyloid reaction of the spores. In 

16 

'0$m!îii 

Figure 45. Spore print of a mushroom.


this instance the reaction is used to dehmit a genus. Sometimes it is not con- 

sidered to indicate a difference of generic rank but is useful in distinguishing 

species. For example Amanita flavoconia and A. frostiana have been confused 

at times but they can readily be separated by this reaction since the spores of 

A. flavoconia are amyloid and those of A. frostiana are not. 

Notes should then be taken on the color and size of the fruit bodies, 

whether or not the surface is smooth, hairy, scaly, etc., and whether or not it is 

dry, viscid, or hygrophanous. This latter term describes a condition in which 

the flesh absorbs moisture and becomes darker, taking on a watery appear- 

ance, and then fades considerably on drying. It is often a useful field character 

when one has become famihar with the characteristic appearance. The odor 

and taste should be noted, although amanitas should not be tasted. If a juice 

or latex is present it should be tasted, and the color and any changes in color 

noted. It is especially important in Cortinarius to record the color of the young 

lamellae before the spores have matured. Features of the stipe that should be 

noted are the size, color, and consistency, whether or not there is an annulus or 

volva present, whether or not the surface is smooth, fibrillose, scaly, etc., or if 

it is viscid or dry. 

In short, the collection should be studied carefully and all the characters 

noted while the material is still fresh. Notes that are made in the form of a 

concise description are hkely to be better than those made by following a form 

or chart. Probably most people will make their final identifications from fresh 

material but if good notes are made on fresh specimens that are then carefully 

dried, it is often possible and even in some instances preferable, to make 

identifications from dried specimens. 

In preparing dried specimens it is important to dry them as quickly as 

possible without scorching or cooking them. A good free circulation of air is 

essential. Probably the best method is to spread the mushrooms on a screen or 

series of screens that can be suspended or placed in a frame over the source 

of heat. 

In this book relatively httle emphasis has been placed on the use of 

microscopic characters in the identification of species. However, for those who 

have a microscope, the size and shape of the spores have been given through- 

out, and in some cases also the cystidia are described. 

After the specimens have been studied and their characters noted one can 

then attempt to identify them by using the key. The key should be used as a 

guide only, and when a species keys out it should be checked carefully with the 

description and illustrations. Mushrooms are hving organisms and show 

variations between individuals and between collections that have grown under 

different environmental conditions. The descriptions in this book are based as 

far as possible on normal and typical specimens and they attempt to describe 

the range of variation ordinarily encountered. It should be kept in mind also 

that the descriptions of a great many species have, of necessity, been omitted 

and hence a specimen that keys out to a certain species but does not agree with 

the description of that species should not be so identified. The chances are good 

that it is a species not described in this book. 

17


Suppose we have a specimen to be identified. The first choice in the key 

(p. 29) is based on the character of the lamellae and in this specimen they are 

thin, well developed and crowded, so we go to choice 2. We check the spore 

deposit and find it is colored, so we go to choice 25. Here there are five choices 

and we find our specimen has a pink spore deposit, so we go to choice 26. It 

has a central stipe, which takes us to choice 27, and the lamellae are free from 

the stipe, which carries us to 28. There is no trace of an annulus or volva, so 

we come to Pluteus and turn to the key to the species of this genus (p. 

1 65). 

The pileus is brown and the lamellae do not have a black edge so we arrive at 

Pluteus cervinus, and on comparing our specimen with the description we find 

it matches and we can conclude that we have identified the species. 

If the specimen had had a yellow pileus and stipe we would similarly 

have checked Pluteus admirabilis but a specimen with a yellow pileus and white 

stipe would have caused diflftculty. Another reference book might show that 

there is a species of Pluteus with a yellow cap and white stipe, P. leoninus, that 

is not described in this book. But it would have been wrong to assume that we 

had found P. admirabilis because it keyed out here, when the description of 

P. admirabilis called for a yellow stipe and our specimen had a white one. 

A key thus has its limitations but if used critically and with caution it 

should be of great assistance in identifying the specimens collected. 

If other methods of identification fail it is sometimes possible to send 

specimens to specialists and have them identified. In the Canada Department 

of Agriculture we do not have the staff or the time available to undertake 

identifications on a large scale. However, for the beginner who may wish to 

check on the identification of some common species of which he is uncertain, 

or for the more advanced student who thinks he may have found some rare or 

unusual species of special interest, we try to provide all the assistance possible. 

Fresh specimens may be sent in by mail and if they are not too long in 

transit and are not overmature, worm-eaten, or decayed, they often arrive in 

good condition. Specimens wrapped in tissue paper or newspaper which will 

absorb excess moisture arrive in better condition than those wrapped in 

waxed paper or packed in tin cans. Under these latter conditions moisture 

accumulates and bacterial decay sets in. Species of Coprinus do not travel well 

by mail and usually arrive as an inky mess. 

Specimens of mushrooms should never be preserved in fluid or sent in for 

identification in fluid. They are almost impossible to identify when preserved 

in this way. 

It is much preferable when sending material in for identification to take 

careful notes on the fresh condition, then dry the specimens and send them in 

the dried condition. If properly dried they will keep indefinitely and with good 

notes they can be identified just about as readily as in the fresh condition. 

Furthermore, there is the advantage to us that if they prove to be an interesting 

species the dried specimens can be placed in the herbarium and become part of 

the permanent scientific record. 

18

NOMENCLATURE 

NOMENCLATURE 

Undoubtedly one of the things that discourage the amateur from taking 

up the study of fungi is the difficulty of mastering the names. Relatively few 

species have common or vernacular names and attempts to create common 

names for them by translating the Latin names have not been very successful. 

In reahty the Latin names are not so difficult as wôuld first appear and after a 

little experience in associating them with actual specimens they become as 

famihar as do the Latin names of common flowers to enthusiastic gardeners. 

Obviously we must apply names to fungi and other plants in order to 

refer to them and, since fungi do not recognize national boundaries, some 

system of naming must be followed that can be used by scientists of all coun- 

tries. The system that has been adopted was devised by the Swedish botanist 

Carl Linnaeus in the eighteenth century and is called the binomial system of 

nomenclature. In this system individual plants that are considered to be of 

the same kind are grouped together to form a species, related species are 

placed in a genus, related genera in a family, related famihes in an order, 

related orders in a class, and related classes in a division. The whole hierarchy 

constitutes the plant kingdom. 

The name of any individual plant consists of two words, the name of the 

genus and the name of the species, the latter usually a descriptive adjective. 

When we name a plant in this way we are at the same time classifying it in 

relation to other plants. Our knowledge of the relationships of plants to each 

other is continually increasing so that our ideas about the classification of 

plants change accordingly and this leads inevitably to changes of the names. 

Ideally, of course, one species should have one correct name, but as long 

as our system of classification is imperfect and the relationships of plants not 

fully understood, botanists will diffêr in their ideas about the classification and 

relationships and so will diff*er in their choice of names. Furthermore, many 

niistakes can and do occur with resultant confusion concerning names. Some 

common errors of this type arise from diff'erent botanists describing the same 

plant under diff'erent names or describing diff'erent plants under the same 

name, or applying a name to a diff'erent plant from that intended by the 

original author. In order to settle disputes and clear up confusion of this sort, 

it is necessary for botanists to agree on a set of rules determining the choice of 

a name. 

From time to time botanists hold an international congress and the 

authority of this body is generally recognized in the drawing up of a set of 

rules of nomenclature and in making revisions deemed necessary. The official 

title of the set of rules is now the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. 

The Code has nothing to do with classification. Each botanist is free to 

study a plant and come to a decision himself regarding its relationships with 

other plants, but when he has reached such a decision the Code determines the 

correct name to use for the plant. It is impossible to discuss the Code in any 

detail here, but some of the more important rules might be noted. 

19


In the first place it is necessary to have a starting point for our nomencla- 

ture and although for the higher plants this is Linnaeus' Species Plantarum, 

1753, for most of the fungi it has been decided to start with the Systerna 

Mycologicum published in 1821 by the Swedish mycologist E. M. Fries. 

In order to have any claim to recognition, a name must be validly and 

effectively published. It is not sufficient to put a name on a specimen in a 

herbarium or botanic garden, or to mention it at a public meeting or refer to it 

in a thesis. It must be made available to botanists everywhere. Names published 

before the official starting point are regarded as not validly published. A 

name must be accompanied by a description and since 1935 a name is not 

considered to be validly published unless it is accompanied by a Latin diagnosis. 

Sometimes more than one name may be vaHdly pubhshed for the same 

plant and in that case the earliest name is considered to be the correct one. 

These are, perhaps, the most important rules but there are others which, 

if they are not complied with, render a name illegitimate. If a name is found 

to be illegitimate it cannot be used and the earliest legitimate name must be 

chosen for the plant. If none exists, the plant must be given a new name. 

It is usual when writing the scientific name of a plant to give also the 

name of the author who proposed the name. If the species is later transferred 

to another genus, the name of the original author is placed in parentheses 

followed by the name of the author who made the transfer. This practice has 

sometimes been criticized as a form of self-advertisement on the part of the 

authors, but that is not the purpose. It is rather to supply a reference to the 

source of the name, thus enabling taxonomists to check on the validity and 

legitimacy of the names and determine exactly to what plants they apply, and 

in this way these author references are invaluable to the research taxonomist. 

A primary aim of the Code is, of course, to bring about stabihty of names 

and one of the most important means of achieving this is the use of the type 

concept. When an author describes a new species he is expected to designate 

some particular specimen as the type of that species. If he does not do so, 

some specimen must subsequently be chosen as the type. The name is then per- 

manently fixed to that specimen and when we apply the name to any other 

specimen we are, in effect, saying that it belongs to the same species as the 

type. If, as sometimes happens, it is found that a name has been applied to 

plants belonging to more than one species, the name must be retained for those 

that match the type and the others must be given another name. Sometimes an 

author may make an error in describing a species or misinterpret structures he 

has observed ; the concept of the species is then determined by the type specimen 

and not by what the author said about it. 

Similarly when a genus is established, one species is taken as the type of 

the genus and the application of the name is determined by that species. For 

example, if it is considered that unrelated species may have been placed in the 

same genus and it is necessary to divide the old genus into two or more genera, 

the original name must be retained for the type species and others that may be 

considered congeneric with it. A good example of this is seen in the mush- 

20

CLASSIFICATION 

rooms. In his Systema Mycologicum, Fries placed nearly all the mushrooms in 

the genus Agaricus but he divided the genus into a number of sections such as 

Lepiota, Tricholoma, Pholiota, Psalliota, etc. Later authors raised these sec- 

tions to the rank of genera, but the old name Agaricus had to be retained for 

one of these sections, depending on what was considered to be the type species 

of Agaricus. Since the common meadow mushroom, Agaricus campestris, is 

taken as the type, the name Agaricus must be used for it and its close relatives. 

The name Psalliota, which was used by Fries for this section and by some later 

authors as a generic name, then becomes a synonym of Agaricus and is no 

longer a legitimate name. 

In this book a number of species may be found under unfamiliar names. 

Some of the changes are the result of advances in our knowledge and of con- 

sequent improvements in the classification. For example, it is beheved that it is 

a better expression of relationships to remove the species with granulose caps 

from Lepiota to Cystoderma, and the species with viscid caps from Lepiota to 

Limacella. Other changes are necessitated in order to comply with the rules 

rather than because of changes in our ideas of classification. Examples of these 

changes are the use of Agaricus rather than Psalliota, Volvariella rather than 

Volvaria, and Lepiota molybdites rather than L. morgani for the green-spored 

Lepiota. Such changes are regretted but only by careful adherence to the rules 

and the acceptance of changes necessitated thereby, will we eventually attain a 

stable nomenclature. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Fungi, the class of plants to which mushrooms belong, may be defined in 

a general way as plants lacking true leaves, stems, and roots, lacking chlorophyll, 

and reproducing by spores. They are usually divided into four main 

subclasses. 

The first of these is called the Phycomycetes. The fungi referred to this 

group are characterized in general by the absence of cross walls or septa in the 

hyphae composing the mycehum and by the production of spores within a 

sac, usually a more or less swollen cell, termed a sporangium. The Phycomy- 

cetes include forms such as the common bread mold, the potato-bhght fungus, 

the downy mildews, many aquatic fungi and many minute, one-celled forms. 

None of the Phycomycetes will be discussed in this book. 

The second subclass is called the Ascomycetes. In this group the hyphae 

have cross walls and the spores are produced in a speciahzed cell called an 

ascus (Figure 41, p. 9). The production of spores in the ascus is regarded as a 

sexual process. In the young ascus two nuclei fuse and then typically divide 

three times, forming eight spores which are forcibly discharged when they are 

mature. The asci may be produced directly on the mycehum or developed 

within more or less speciahzed fruiting bodies. Those Ascomycetes in which 

the fruiting bodies bearing the asci are structures that are closed, or that open 

by a narrow pore or beak, are known as Pyrenomycetes (Figure 44, p. 9); 

21


whereas those in which the asci are arranged in a layer exposed to the air are 

known as Discomycetes (Figure 43, p. 9). The Ascomycetes as a whole com- 

prise many thousands of species including yeasts, molds, powdery mildews, 

ergots, numerous leaf-spotting and wood-staining fungi and many others. In 

this book only a very few of the larger fleshy Discomycetes, and one Pyreno- 

mycete, are discussed'. 

The third subclass is called the Basidiomycetes. In this group the hyphae 

also have cross walls and the spores are produced on a speciahzed cell known 

as the basidium (Figure 37, p. 9). In the basidium two nuclei fuse and then 

typically divide twice, giving rise to four nuclei, but in contrast to the Ascomycetes 

where the spores mature within the ascus and are discharged when 

mature, in the Basidiomycetes the nuclei migrate to the tips of little stalks and 

the spores develop outside the basidium itself and are forcibly shot off" the 

stalks when they are mature. Most of the fungi described in this book belong 

in the Basidiomycetes. 

The fourth subclass is known as the Fungi Imperfecti. This group is not 

strictly comparable to the other three since it comprises those forms in which a 

perfect or sexual state is unknown or lacking and reproduction takes place by 

vegetative means, usually by some form of asexual spore. These asexual 

spores are often called conidia and many forms that used to be grouped with 

the Fungi Imperfecti are now known to be conidial states of Ascomycetes, 

Phycomycetes, or Basidiomycetes. However there are still a great many whose 

perfect or sexual state is unknown and it is possible that some of these forms 

reproduce so efficiently with conidia alone that they have lost the ability to 

develop the sexual state. Hence it is necessary to retain this subclass, although 

it does not represent a natural grouping. None of the Fungi Imperfecti are 

discussed in this book. 

BASIDIOMYCETES 

The mushrooms and most of the larger fungi that will be found by the 

amateur collector belong in the subclass Basidiomycetes and it is necessary to 

consider the classification of this group in a little more detail. As has been 

noted, the fundamental character of the group is that the spores are produced 

outside the mother cell rather than within it. The typical basidium is a more or 

less club-shaped single cell with four Httle stalks or sterigmata arising at the 

apex and the spores develop on the tips of these stalks (Figure 37, p. 9). 

When mature, the spores are forcibly discharged from the sterigmata by the 

pressure of surface tension of a drop of water that is excreted from the tip of 

the sterigma below the spore. This is the type of basidium found in most of the 

larger fleshy fungi such as the agarics, boletes, hydnums, clavarias, and 

polypores. 

The basidia are arranged in a definite layer in the fruiting body in such a 

way that the spores can be discharged into the open air. This layer is called the 

hymenium and these fungi are further divided into families based on the shape 

22

FUNGI 

of the hymenium. In the Agaricaceae, or mushrooms, the hymenium covers 

the surface of thin blades or gill-Hke structures termed lamellae which are 

more or less radially arranged on the under surface of the pileus. In the Hyd- 

naceae it covers the surface of tooth-like structures. In the Boletaceae the 

hymenium lines the inner surface of tubes and the fruiting body is soft, fleshy, 

and mushroom-like whereas in the Polyporaceae it also hnes the surface of 

tubes but the fruiting body is tough, corky to leathery, or woody. In the 

Clavariaceae it is smooth and covers the entire fruiting body; whereas in the 

Thelephoraceae it is also smooth but the fruiting body is more or less dif- 

ferentiated into an upper, sterile surface, and a lower, fertile surface. 

The above brief account is an outline of the traditional basis for dis- 

tingiiishing these famihes of Basidiomycetes but as a result of recent studies of 

microscopic structure, chemical reactions, cultural characters and so on, 

modern taxonomists are pretty generally agreed that it is not a satisfactory 

classification from a scientific standpoint. For example, Lenzites has lamellae 

but is obviously much more closely related to the polypores than to the other 

mushrooms, and Gomphidius has lamellae but is apparently more closely 

related to the boletes than to the mushrooms. Many other examples could be 

given. However, for the purpose of this book the traditional classification is 

quite satisfactory. 

In the Gasteromycetes or puffballs, the basidia are produced in a closed 

fruiting body and not arranged in a hymenium. The spores are not forcibly 

discharged into the air but are disseminated by wind, rain, and insects. 

Other groups of Basidiomycetes may exhibit variations in the form and 

structure of the basidium itself. In the Auriculariaceae the basidium becomes 

transversely septate, the cross walls forming four cells from each of which a 

sterigma arises (Figure 40, p. 9). In the Tremellaceae the basidium becomes 

longitudinally septate and the walls are at right angles ; consequently four cells 

are formed, from each of which a sterigma arises (Figure 38, p. 9). In the 

Dacrymycetaceae the basidium becomes deeply divided or forked with sterigmata 

at the apices of the forks (Figure 39, p. 9). 

One large group of Basidiomycetes is not discussed in this book. This 

group consists of the rusts and smuts, which live as parasites on other plants 

and in which the basidium has cross walls and is produced directly on germina- 

tion of a speciahzed, thick-walled resting spore rather than in a fruit body. 

The above classification may be presented briefly as follows 

FUNGI 

Phycomycetes — hyphae lacking cross walls; spores borne in sporangia 

Ascomycetes — hyphae with cross walls; spores produced in asci 

Plectomycetes — asci produced directly on the mycehum 

Pyrenomycetes — asci produced in a closed fruiting body or perithecium 

Discomycetes — asci produced in an apothecium, a fruiting body with 

an exposed fruiting surface 

: 

23


Basidiomycetes — hyphae with cross walls; spores produced on a basidium 

Hemibasidiomycetes — basidia produced directly on germination of a 

resting spore (the rusts and smuts) 

Eubasidiomycetes — basidia usually produced in a fruiting body, not 

on germination of a resting spore 

Tremellales — basidia septate or deeply forked ; fruiting bodies 

usually more or less gelatinous 

Auriculariaceae — basidia transversely septate 

Tremellaceae — basidia longitudinally septate 

Dacrymycetaceae — basidia deeply divided, forked 

Hymenomycetales — basidia one-celled, arranged in a hymenium; 

fruiting bodies fleshy to membranous to 

leathery or woody 

Agaricaceae — hymenium covering lamellae 

Hydnaceae — hymenium covering teeth 

Boletaceae — hymenium lining tubes ; fruit body soft and 

fleshy 

Polyporaceae — hymenium lining tubes ; fruit body tough, 

corky, leathery, or woody 

Clavariaceae — hymenium smooth, covering entire fruiting 

body 

Thelephoraceae — hymenium smooth ; fruiting body differenti- 

ated into sterile and fertile surfaces 

Gasteromycetales — basidia one-celled, borne in a closed fruiting 

body, not arranged in a hymenium 

Phallaceae — spore mass slimy, evil smeUing, at maturity 

raised on a stalk-like receptacle 

Lycoperdaceae — spore mass powdery, remaining enclosed by 

the peridium 

Nidulariaceae — fructification a cup-shaped or vase-shaped 

structure containing several peridioles (hard, 

egg-like bodies) within which the spores are 

produced 

Fungi Imperfecti — fungi lacking sporangiospores, ascospores, or basidio- 

24 

46. Cantharellus cibarius. 

48. C. clavatus. 

50. C tubaeformis. 

52. C. multiplex. 

54. L. affinis. 

spores; no sexual organs present, reproduction by vegeta- 

tive spores 

Figures 46-55 

47. C. cinnabarinus. 

49. C. floccosus. 

51. C umbonatus. 

53. Lactarius camphoratus. 

55. L. affinis.

26 

.1" 

"^ 

57. Lac tar ills deliciosus. 

59. L. controversHS. 

61. L. helvus. 

63. L. lignyotus. 

65. L. indigo. 

I 

A •• 

^ . 

^s,^B»^ 

Figures 57-66 

< 

58. L. deliciosus. 

60. L. g rise us. 

62. L. hygrophoroides. 

64. L. trivialis 

66. L. indigo. 

3 

&« 

tl^

28 

Figure 67. Lactarius deceptiviis. 

Figure 68. Russula delica.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS 

GENERA OF MUSHROOMS 

1. Lamellae fold-like, thick on edge, forked Cantharellus 

1. Lamellae well developed, crowded to distant but not fold-like 2 

2. Spore deposit white 3 

2. Spore deposit colored 25 

3. Lamellae free from stipe 4 

3. Lamellae attached to stipe 6 

4. Volva and annulus present Amanita 

4. Volva present; annulus absent Amanitopsis 

4. Volva absent; annulus present 5 

5. Pileus viscid Limacella 

5. Pileus not viscid Lepiota 

6. Annulus present 7 

6. Annulus not present 8 

7. Cuticle of cap granulose to warty Cystoderma 

7. Cuticle smooth or scaly but not granulose Armillaria 

8. Fruit body soft and fleshy, not reviving when moistened 9 

8. Fruit body tough, corky to leathery, more or less reviving 

when moistened 21 

9. Stipe excentric, lateral, or absent Pleurotus 

9. Stipe central 10 

10. Lamellae of waxy consistency 11 

10. Lamellae not waxy 12 

11. Spores smooth Hygrophorus 

11. Spores echinulate Laccaria 

12. Trama of fruit body composed of both filamentous and globular 

cells; texture brittle; lamellae stiff and easily broken; spores 

amyloid 13 

12. Trama of filamentous cells only; lacking above combination 

of characters '. 

14 

13. Milky juice present Lactarius 

13. Milky juice absent Russula 

14. Stipe cartilaginous in texture, different from the pileus 15 

14. Stipe fleshy or fibrous, somewhat similar to the pileus in 

consistency or tougher 17 

15. Stipe somewhat horny in consistency; lamellae decurrent Xeromphalina 

15. Stipe not horny; lamellae adnate to adnexed 16 

16. Margin of pileus incurved; pileus becoming expanded Collybia 

16. Margin of pileus straight; pileus usually somewhat bell-shaped Mycena 

17. Lamellae decurrent 18 

17. Lamellae not decurrent 19 

18. Spores amyloid Leucopaxillus 

18. Spores not amyloid Clitocybe 

19. Spores not amyloid Tricholoma 

19. Spores amyloid 20 

29


20. Pileus hygrophanus; lamellae with harpoonlike cystidia Melanoleuca 

20. Pileus rarely hygrophanous, usually dull colored, large and fleshy; 

lamellae without harpoonlike cystidia Leucopaxillus 

21. Lamellae split along edge Schizophyllum 

21. Lamellae not split along edge 22 

22. Lamellae serrate-torn on edge Lentinus 

22. Lamellae not serrate-torn on edge 23 

23. Lamellae crisped, thick Trogia 

23. Lamellae entire 24 

24. Stipe central; pileus membranous to somewhat fleshy, reviving Marasmius 

24. Stipe excentric, lateral, or wanting; pileus tough, fleshy-leathery 

to corky Panus 

25. Spore deposit greenish see Lepiota molybdites 

25. Spore deposit lilac to grayish lilac Pleurotus 

(see Laccaria ochropurpurea) 

25. Spore deposit pinkish 26 

25. Spore deposit yellowish to rusty or brown 33 

25. Spore deposit purplish to purple-brown or blackish 45 

26. Stipe lateral or lacking Phyllotopsis 


27. Lamellae free from the stipe 28 

27. Lamellae attached to the stipe 29 

28. Volva present; annulus lacking Volvariella 

28. Both annulus and volva lacking Pluteus 

29. Lamellae decurrent CUtopilus 

29. Lamellae adnate to adnexed 30 

30. Lamellae sinuate 31 

30. Lamellae not sinuate 32 

31. Spores angular Entoloma 

31. Spores not angular, slightly rough Tricholoma 

32. Margin at first incurved; pileus convex Leptonia 

32. Margin at first straight; pileus usually more or less conical to 

campanulate Nolanea 

33. Stipe excentric, lateral or wanting Crepidotus 


34. Veil composed of cobweb-like filaments; spore deposit dark brown Cortinarius 

34. Veil membranous or lacking 35 


35. Annulus lacking 37 

36. Pileus with a mealy-granulose surface Phaeolepiota 

36. Surface of pileus smooth or scaly, not mealy-granulose Pholiota 

37. Lamellae separating readily from the pileus trama Paxillus 

37. Lamellae not separating readily from the pileus trama 38 

38. Trama of pileus composed of filamentous and globose cells; spores amyloid 39 

38. Trama of pileus filamentous; spores not amyloid 40 

30

GENERA OF MUSHROOMS 

39. Milky juice present Lactarius 

39. Milky juice lacking Russula 

40. Stipe fleshy to fibrous 41 

40. Stipe cartilaginous 43 

41. Growing on wood; lamellae usually bright colored, 

yellow to rusty Flammiila 

41. Growing on the ground; lamellae dull brownish to pallid 42 

42. Pileus viscid, smooth Hebeloma 

42. Pileus more or less fibrillose to silky or scaly, or splitting Inocybe 

43. Lamellae decurrent Tubaria 


44. Pileus convex to plane; margin at first incurved Naucoria 

44. Pileus more or less conical; margin straight; 

cuticle composed of vesiculose cells Conocybe 

44. Fruiting bodies fairly large, white, staining brown; 

spores pale yellow see Collybia maculata 

45. Lamellae waxy, decurrent Gomphidiiis 


46. Lamellae deliquescing Coprinus 

46. Lamellae not deliquescing 47 



48. Lamellae free from the stipe Agaricus 

48. Lamellae attached to the stipe 49 

49. Lamellae mottled Panaeolus 

49. Lamellae not mottled Stropharia 

50. Cuticle of pileus filamentous Naematoloma 

50. Cuticle of pileus composed of vesiculose cells 51 

51. Pileus plicate-striate and paraphyses coprinoid Pseudocoprinus 

51. Not with above combination of characters 52 

52. Lamellae mottled Panaeolus 

52. Lamellae not mottled Psathyrella 

31


CANTHARELLUS 

Cantharellus is an important genus for the mycophagist because many of 

the species are large and conspicuous, and fairly easily recognized without 

much danger of being confused with poisonous species. The chanterelle, 

C. cibarius, is one of the species frequently used and highly recommended for 

food and should be on the Hst of every amateur collector. 

The genus is characterized by the thick, fold-like lamellae which are 

decurrent, usually distant and more or less forked. The stipe is continuous 

with the pileus and there is no veil. In some species the lamellae are poorly 

developed and little more than wrinkles. The genus then approaches Craterellus 

of the Thelephoraceae in which the hymenium is smooth. Cantharellus clava- 

tus, in which the lamellae are mere wrinkles, has been placed in Craterellus by 

some authors. On the other hand, in species in which the lamellae are better 

developed and less fold-like, the genus approaches Clitocybe. Cantharellus 

umbonatus with well-formed lamellae is hkely to be sought in Clitocybe, and 

Clitocybe aurantiaca has been called Cantharellus aurantiacus by many authors. 

For those who are interested in the problems of relationships, it may be 

noted that modern taxonomists tend to the view that Cantharellus, as here 

constituted, does not comprise a natural group of species. For example, 

C. multiplex, with its pecuhar warted spores, has been made the type of a new 

genus, Polyozellus; and C. umbonatus, with amyloid spores, has been made the 

type of a new genus, Cantharellula. Although it is evident from modern taxonomic 

studies that these and other species are not closely related to C. cibarius, 

which is the type species of Cantharellus, it seems preferable to retain Can- 

tharellus in the more traditional sense for the purpose of this book. If Can- 

tharellus were to be used in the strict sense for only those species closely 

related to C. cibarius, it might be considered to be more closely related to the 

Clavariaceae than to the Agaricaceae. 

Key 

1. Fruiting bodies entirely red C. cinnabarinus 

1. Fruiting bodies not entirely red 2 

2. Fruiting bodies more or less yellow to brown 3 

2. Fruiting bodies not yellow 5 

3. Fruiting bodies large, vase-shaped, yellowish, with reddish 

or reddish orange scales C. floccosus 

3. Fruiting bodies not as above 4 

4. Fruiting bodies bright chrome-yellow to egg-yellow, firm, fleshy C cibarius 

4. Fruiting bodies brownish yellow to ochraceous brown, thin, pliant; 

lamellae drying grayish C. tubaeformis 

5. Fruiting bodies gray, usually with a small umbo; lamellae well developed, 

white; flesh reddening when wounded C umbonatus 

5. Fruiting bodies purplish flesh color to blackish 6 

6. Growing in dense cespitose masses; spores nearly globose, warty C. multiplex 

6. Usually separate to gregarious or sometimes slightly cespitose; 

32 

spores narrow-ellipsoid, wrinkled C. clavatus

CANTHARELLUS 

CANTHARELLUS CIBARIUS Fr. Edible 

Figure 46, page 25; Figure 411, page 295 

Chanterelle 

piLEUS 1-4 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex or sometimes top-shaped, 

becoming expanded and then depressed in the center, often irregularly wavy 

or lobed, chrome-yellow to egg-yellow, fading in age, slightly fibrillose to 

glabrous, not striate, dry. flesh firm, whitish to yellowish, taste mild to somewhat 

peppery, odor fruity or sometimes lacking, lamellae decurrent, distant, 

forked, thick, blunt on the edge, narrow, yellow, stipe 2-3 in. long, I/2-I in. 

thick, narrower toward the base, solid, glabrous, concolorous with the pileus 

or paler, spores elhptical, smooth, tinged yellowish in mass, 8-1 1 X 4-6 /x. 

Scattered or in groups, or sometimes in small clusters, on the ground in 

open woods, either coniferous or deciduous. July-Sept. 

Not many mushrooms are sufficiently well known to possess a common 

name but this species, which is highly prized as food, especially in Europe, has 

many names in diff'erent languages of which the best known is the chanterelle. 

The European plants are said to have a fruity odor resembling apricots and, 

although this appears to be sometimes lacking in North American chanterelles, 

they are none the less desirable for the table. Because of its firm texture this 

species may require longer cooking than some of the more tender ones. 

It is an important mushroom, for it occurs fairly commonly, is widely 

distributed, and is sufficiently distinctive in appearance that it is not likely to 

be confused with any other species. It is one that the beginner may easily learn 

to recognize and collect with confidence. Care should be taken to distinguish 

between this species and the poisonous Clitocybe illudens, which is somewhat 

similar in color but has thin, close to crowded lamellae, and usually grows in 

large clusters. Clitocybe aurantiaca is another species of doubtful reputation 

that might be confused with it, but it is more orange in color and also has 

thin, close lamellae. 

Cantharellus subalbidus Smith & Morse is a western species that is similar 

in stature and appearance to C. cibarius but it is whitish in color and the 

spores are white rather than yellowish. 

CANTHARELLUS CINNABARINUS Schw. Edible 

Figure 47, page 25 

PILEUS Yz-lVi 

becoming expanded-depressed, often irregular, cinnabar-red, fading when old 

in. broad, rarely larger, fleshy, firm, convex, obtuse 

or on drying, glabrous, margin often wavy or lobed. flesh ;thin, whitish, red- 

dish at the surface, odor and taste mild, lamellae long-decurrent, distant, 

forked, thick, blunt on the edge, narrow, varying from red to yellowish or 

in. thick, equal or tapering downward, 

pinkish, stipe %-] 1/2 in. long, Y^-Va 

sometimes compressed at the apex, tough, fleshy, solid or sometimes stuff'ed, 

33


smooth, concolorous with the pileus or paler, spores white or faintly pink in 

mass, oblong-elliptical, smooth, (7) 8-10 (11) X 3.5-5 /n. 

July-Oct. 

Scattered or in groups in open deciduous woods or along roadsides. 

This is the only Cantharellus that is entirely red, and, although it fades 

considerably on exposure to wind and sun, it is not hkely to be confused with 

any other species. It is said to be common in some locaHties but has only 

rarely been collected in the Ottawa district. 

CANTHARELLUS CLAVATUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 1-4 in. broad, occasionally larger, fleshy, firm, top-shaped, obconic, 

or becoming depressed and cup-shaped with a flaring margin, usually irregular 

and lobed, purplish flesh color to greenish yellow, surface cottony to slightly 

scaly. FLESH firm, rather tough, thick, whitish, odor and taste mild, lamellae 

long-decurrent, rather distant, narrow and ridge-form, forking, flesh color to 

pale purplish umber, stipe Yi-^ in. long, )4-% in. thick, gradually expanding 

into the pileus, usually tapering downward, solid, purpHsh flesh color to pallid, 

white-floccose below, spores pale ochraceous in mass, narrow-elliptical to 

cylindrical, wrinkled, 10-14 X 4-6 m- 

In groups or clusters on the ground in coniferous woods. July-Sept. 

The shape and color of this species are highly distinctive although when 

growing luxuriantly it might be confused with C. multiplex. The size and shape 

of the spores provide a certain and easy way to distinguish these two. 

The lamellae are sometimes very narrow and poorly developed and for 

this reason some authors have placed this fungus in Craterellus of the Thelephoraceae, 

but usually they are suflRciently well developed that it would seem 

to be better placed in Cantharellus. 

C. pseudoclavatus Smith is a western species that is very similar to C. cla- 

vatus but has smooth spores. C brevipes Peck is also close to C. clavatus but 

has larger spores, 13-16 X 5-6 ix. 

CANTHARELLUS FLOCCOSUS Schw. Edible for most people 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, sometimes broader, deeply funnel-shaped, vaseshaped 

or trumpet-shaped, 3-6 in. high, firm, yellowish at first, becoming 

reddish or orange, floccose-scaly, the scales more or less reddish to reddish 

orange, margin sometimes wavy, flesh white or whitish, odor and taste mild. 

LAMELLAE long-dccurrcnt, close to subdistant, narrow and ridge-form, blunt 

on the edge, forked, ochraceous or reddish yellow, stipe short, expanding into 

the pileus, J/2-I in. thick, glabrous, pale ochraceous, whitish at base, at first 

solid, becoming hollow, the base sometimes abruptly narrowed and often deep 

34

CANTHARELLUS 

in the ground, spores ochraceous in mass, elliptical, smooth, 11-15 (21) X (6) 

6.5-7.5 (8) fjL. 

In groups on the ground in coniferous woods. July-Oct. 

This mushroom with its large, brightly colored, vase-shaped fruiting 

bodies is one of the most striking fungi to be found in the woods. It is not 

hkely to be confused with any other species, although there is a western 

species, C. kauffmannii Smith, that is somewhat similar in stature and also has 

scales on the pileus. The scales on C. kauffmannii, however, are brownish and 

never yellow or orange. 

This fungus should not be eaten in quantity unless small amounts are 

first tested. Although it is usually considered edible and very good, there is 

some evidence that it may cause illness in certain individuals. 

CANTHARELLUS MULTIPLEX Underw. 


PILEUS Yx-^Vi in. broad, fleshy-pHant, somewhat fan-shaped to funnel- 

shaped, purphsh to black, drying black, surface uneven, rough, margin irregu- 

lar, lobed or contorted, more or less inroUed, paler to vinaceous brown. 

FLESH brittle, purplish, taste mild, odor aromatic, lamellae long-decurrent, 

distant, narrow and ridge-form, often connected by cross veins and somewhat 

net-hke, ashy gray, stipe J/2-I Vi in. long, Vs-Vi in. thick, central or excentric, 

more or less fused irregularly toward the base, equal or tapering downward, 

solid, concolorous with pileus, black at the base, glabrous, often somewhat 

grooved above, spores white, irregularly warted, subglobose, 4-6 X 3.5-5 ju- 

Densely clustered, arising from a compact, blackish base and growing in 

masses on the ground in coniferous woods. July-Oct. 

Judging from the pubhshed reports, this rare and striking fungus has 

seldom been collected in North America. In the herbarium at Ottawa there are 

several collections including a part of the original or type collection. There are 

also two specimens from Japan. Those who are interested in looking for rare 

species should keep a special watch for this one. 

In many respects, notably the warted spores, it differs from all other 

species of Cantharellus, and Murrill has erected a new genus, Polyozellus, for it. 

However, for our purpose it seems preferable to leave it in Cantharellus. 

It might be confused with luxuriant forms of C. clavatus but the spores 

will distinguish it at once. 

We have no information concerning its edibility. 

CANTHARELLUS TUBAEFORMIS Fr. Doubtful 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, at first convex and obtuse, becoming depressed, 

sometimes nearly infundibuliform, usually not perforated at the center but 

may become so in age, brownish yellow to yellowish ochraceous, minutely 

35


silky-hairy, margin irregular and wavy, flesh thin, whitish ochraceous, odor 

and taste none, lamellae decurrent, distant, narrow, ridge-form, blunt on the 

edge, forked, at first yellowish ochraceous, becoming grayish at maturity. 

STIPE 1-2)^ in. long, V8~!4 ^^- thick, equal, glabrous, brownish yellow to 

ochraceous, whitish at the base, soHd or stuffed, sometimes hollow in age. 

SPORES creamy white in mass, ovoid to subglobose or broadly elliptical, smooth, 

7-10.5 X 6-8 (9) fx. 

In groups on the ground in swampy places, usually among sphagnum. 

July-Sept. 

Kauffman thought that the specific name tubaeformis was misleading 

because the stipe in this species is sohd and not tube-hke. However, the name 

is derived from tuba, a trumpet, and refers to the shape of the pileus rather 

than to the stipe. It is not so deeply trumpet-shaped as C. floccosus and is a 

thinner, more pHant, and less brightly colored plant. 

Considerable uncertainty exists concerning the taxonomy and nomen- 

clature of this and related species. There appear to be four similar but probably 

distinct fungi which have been called respectively, C. tubaeformis Fr., C. in- 

fundibuliformis Fr., C. lutescens Fr., and Craterellus lutescens Pers. ex Fr. 

The Craterellus is a rather bright yellow species with a smooth or slightly 

wrinkled hymenium, and when it dries the pileus becomes gray to blackish and 

the hymenium pale yellow. The spores are 9-12 X 7-8.5 /x. Cantharellus 

lutescens is yellowish orange to brownish ochre. The lamellae are relatively 

well formed, orange-buff in young specimens, more grayish in older ones, and 

becoming gray when dried. The spores are (9) 10-12 (13) X 6-8.5 (10) /x. 

C. tubaeformis and C. infundibuliformis are not so brightly colored and 

have slightly smaller, more subglobose spores. The spores of C. infundibuli- 

formis are said to be tinged yellowish to salmon in mass whereas those of 

C. tubaeformis are whitish to cream. This seems to be the principal difference 

between the two species, although the stipe of C. tubaeformis is said to be solid 

at first, becoming hollow in age, whereas the stipe of C. infundibuliformis is 

hollow from the first. These fungi need further study to determine whether or 

not the differences are constant and sufficiently great to warrant regarding 

them as distinct species. If they should prove to be variations of the same 

fungus, C. tubaeformis would be the correct name of the species. 

Apparently there is a fungus occurring in the western United States that 

has a yellow spore deposit and grows on wood. This may be the true C. in- 

fundibuliformis or may perhaps be an undescribed species. If this proves to be 

C. infundibuliformis probably all the material of the eastern form occurring in 

swamps is C tubaeformis. 

CANTHARELLUS UMBONATUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 54-1 1/2 ill- broad, pliant, at first convex or topshaped, becoming 

plane to depressed, usually with a small umbo, bluish gray, gray-brown, or 

36

LACTARIUS 

blackish gray, smooth or sHghtly flocculose, margin even or wavy, flesh thin, 

white, often changing to reddish when wounded or in age, taste and odor mild. 

LAMELLAE slightly dccurrcnt, forked, close, narrow, blunt on edge but not 

ridge-form, white or stained reddish, stipe 1-3 in. long, Ys-Ya in. thick, equal 

or sHghtly tapering upward, whitish or pale gray, usually slightly silky, stuffed 

or sohd. SPORES white, smooth, fusiform to fusiform-elliptical, narrow, (8) 10- 

12 (14) X 3-4 (5) M. 

In groups among moss, usually Polytrichum. July-Oct. 

On account of the relatively thin, close lamellae, this species is rather 

difficult to place at first, and the beginner is inclined to look for it in Clitocybe. 

Once it is recognized as a Cantharellus, however, it is easy to identify and will 

not be confused with any other species in this genus. The grayish, umbonate 

pileus, the reddening of the flesh and lamellae, and the habitat among mosses 

are all distinctive characters. It is said to be edible but because of its small size 

is not Hkely to tempt many. 

Singer has considered the amyloid spores and well-formed lamellae of 

this species to be sufficiently distinct to separate it from Cantharellus and he 

has made it the type of a new genus Cantharellula. Other species that Singer 

has included in Cantharellula are Clitocybe ectypoides Peck and C. cyathiformis 

(Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer. 

LACTARIUS 

The principal distinguishing character of Lactarius is the presence of a 

latex or milky juice. This latex can best be demonstrated by cutting or breaking 

the lamellae or flesh of young specimens. It is sometimes difficult to demon- 

strate in old specimens or under very dry conditions, but the apex of the stipe 

where it meets the lamellae is a good place to try. A few other mushrooms do 

have a latex but they do not resemble Lactarius in stature. Lactarius species 

have a characteristic, rather stiff stature and brittle texture that results from 

the tissue of the fruit body being composed of many large, round cells termed 

sphaerocysts, as well as the usual filamentous hyphae found in other mushrooms. 

The spores are invariably ornamented with more or less prominent 

warts and spines or with a raised network. This ornamentation is strongly 

amyloid, and the pattern of the ornamentation as observed under very high 

magnification is important in critical identification of species. The spores 

should be measured in side view since those seen in end view will appear to 

be globose. 

These characteristic spores and the presence of sphaerocysts in the tissues 

are features that distinguish the genera Lactarius and Russula from all other 

mushrooms and these two genera are sometimes placed in a separate family, 

37

. 


the Russulaceae. Lactarius is, of course, distinguished from Russula by the 

presence of the latex. 

Lactarius is an important and interesting genus for the amateur collector. 

There are many species and they may be found over a long period throughout 

the summer and fall. Many of the species are large and attractive and a great 

many can be identified with reasonable certainty from macroscopic characters. 

In collecting Lactarii it is important to note the color of the latex and any 

color changes that occur when the latex is exposed to the air, and whether or 

not these changes occur slowly or rapidly. The taste of the latex is also an 

important character, and this may be ascertained simply by touching the latex 

with the tip of the tongue. It may be mild or acrid and burning or sometimes 

astringent. Sometimes the burning sensation develops slowly. The color of the 

pileus and stipe, and whether or not these are viscid, should be noted. 

Although Lactarius is usually classified among the white-spored genera, 

many of the species have colored spores and it is advisable to obtain a spore 

print in making identifications. The color of the spore deposit is considered to 

be a constant character and valuable in determination of species. 

Some of the species such as L. deliciosus are well known to be of excellent 

quality for eating, but others are doubtful. It is probably better to avoid all 

those with an acrid taste even though some are said to be harmless after cook- 

ing. L. rufus has been reported to be poisonous and since there are a number of 

reddish forms that might be confused with it, these should be tried very 

cautiously, and all acrid, reddish fruit bodies should be discarded. Species in 

which the latex turns lilac should also be avoided. In Lactarius, as in other 

mushrooms, the species should be determined before any are used as food. 

Key 

1. Latex colored from the first 2 

1 Latex white at first, unchanging or becoming colored on exposure to the air 4 

2. Latex blue L. indigo 

2. Latex not blue 3 

3. Latex orange-red or carrot-colored L. deliciosus 

3. Latex dark crimson-red L. subpurpureus 

4. Latex white at first, changing color on exposure to the air, 

at least on the bruised flesh 5 

4. Latex white, unchanging 13 

5. Latex changing to lilac or violet 6 

5. Latex not changing to lilac or violet 7 

6. Pileus glabrous, brownish gray L. uvidus 

6. Pileus tomentose, especially on margin, dull yellow L. representaneus 

7. Latex changing to yellow 8 

7. Latex not changing to yellow 10 

8. Pileus glabrous, grayish to tawny reddish L. chrysorheus 

8. Pileus tomentose, especially toward margin 9 

38

LACTARIUS 

9. Pileus yellow; stipe scrobiculate spotted L. scrobiculatus 

9. Pileus white; stipe not scrobiculate L. resimus 

10. Latex drying greenish or gray-green on the bruised flesh 11 

10. Latex not drying greenish 12 

11. Spore deposit yellowish L. trivialis 

11. Spore deposit white L. mucidus 

12. Latex slowly becoming pinkish on the bruised flesh; 

pileus dark brown, velvety L. lignyotus 

12. Latex causing gray to nearly black stains on the lamellae; 

pileus olive-umber L. necator 

13. Pileus viscid 14 

13. Pileus not viscid 15 

14. Pileus glabrous, yellowish L. affinis 

14. Pileus tomentose, pinkish L. torminosus 

15. Fruiting body with strong, aromatic odor, especially noticeable on drying 16 

15. No aromatic odor when fresh or on drying 17 

16. Pileus dark brownish red; latex white L. camphoratus 

16. Pileus tawny gray to pale tan; latex watery or whey-like L. helvus 

17. Taste mild 18 

17. Taste acrid 19 

18. Pileus glabrous L. subdulcis 

18. Pileus pruinose-velvety; gills distant L. hygrophoroides 

19. Taste mild at first, sometimes slowly becoming acrid or slightly bitter L. subdulcis 

19. Taste definitely acrid 20 

20. Pileus glabrous 21 

20. Pileus not glabrous 22 

21. Pileus ashy gray, darker in center L. cinereus 

21. Pileus reddish L. rufus 

22. Pileus gray, usually less than XVi inches broad L. griseus 

22. Pileus not gray, larger 23 

23. Pileus reddish, minutely silky at first, soon glabrous L. rufus 

23. Pileus white or whitish 24 

24. Pileus with a cottony roll on the margin L. deceptivus 

lA. Pileus without a cottony roll on the margin 25 

25. Lamellae crowded, becoming pinkish; taste slowly acrid L. controversus 

25. Lamellae subdistant, becoming creamy yellowish; taste very acrid L. vellereus 

LACTARIUS AFFINIS Peck Not recommended 

Figures 54, 55, page 25 

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex-umbilicate, then becom- 

ing expanded and depressed in the center, yellowish or ochraceous yellow, 

39


sometimes slightly flesh-tinted, glabrous, viscid, not zoned, margin at first 

inrolled, becoming arched, flesh white, firm, fairly thick, latex white, un- 

changing, acrid, lamellae adnate to decurrent, close to subdistant, rather 

broad, forked near the base, whitish to creamy yellowish, stipe 1-3 )/2 in. long, 

!^-% ^^- thick, equal, glabrous, viscid, concolorous with pileus or slightly 

paler, sometimes spotted, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid 

to subglobose, whitish, 7.5-10 X 6.5-8.5 m» ornamented with warts joined by 

bands or heavy lines to form a fairly complete reticulum. 

On the ground in mixed woods, usually sohtary, sometimes in groups. 

July-Oct. 

The pileus, lamellae and stipe are all more or less the same color and this, 

together with the broad subdistant lamellae and acrid latex, characterizes the 

species. L. insulsus (Fr.) Fr. is more orange in color and the pileus is dis- 

tinctly zoned. 

LACTARIUS CAMPHORATUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. Edible 


pileus 1/^-1 14 in. broad, convex, often umbonate, becoming expanded 

and at length depressed, fulvous to dark brownish red, dry, glabrous, not 

zoned, sometimes slightly wrinkled and uneven, margin at first inrolled, 

becoming arched, flesh thin, firm, fragile, tinged the color of the pileus or 

paler, odor fragrant and aromatic, especially on drying, latex white, mild, in 

dry weather often scant, lamellae adnate to slightly decurrent, close, rather 

narrow, whitish to flesh colored, becoming reddish brown, stipe 1/2-2 in. 

long, 1/8-% ii^- thick, equal, glabrous to pruinose, spongy-stuffed, colored like 

the pileus or paler, spores subglobose, white, mostly 6.5-8.5 X 5.5-7.5 /it, 

ornamented with fairly coarse warts, separate or more or less confluent form- 

ing short ridges, or some joined by lines, sometimes partly reticulate. 

Sept. 

It grows on the ground or on very rotten wood in mixed woods. July- 

L. camphoratus is a fairly common species and is reported by Kauffman 

to be edible. The characteristic odor of this species is not of camphor as the 

name might suggest. It is similar to the odor of L. helvus. It is sometimes very 

faint in fresh specimens and becomes more pronounced on drying. L. rufus is 

similar in color but is larger, has acrid latex, and lacks the odor. L. camphora- 

tus might also be confused with L. subdulcis but the latter is usually paler 

colored and also lacks the odor. 

LACTARIUS CHRYSORHEUS Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex, usually umbonate but varying 

to umbilicate, then becoming plane to depressed, grayish flesh colored to 

40

LACTARIUS 

tawny reddish or fulvous, glabrous, viscid when moist, somewhat or not at all 

zoned, margin inrolled at first, then spreading, flesh fairly thick, white, stain- 

ing yellow from the latex, odor strong and pungent, latex at first white, 

changing to sulphur yellow, slowly acrid, sometimes bitter at first, lamellae 

adnate to slightly decurrent, close, rather narrow, whitish to yellowish, becom- 

ing reddish brown in age or when bruised, some forked near the stipe, stipe 

1-3 in. long, ^4-1/4 in. thick, equal, glabrous to shghtly hairy at base, con- 

colorous with pileus or paler, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellip- 

soid to subglobose, 6-9 X 5-7 /z, ornamented with fairly high spines and warts 

which may be separate, or form short ridges, or be joined by bands or lines to 

form a partial reticulum. 

It grows on the ground, usually in coniferous woods. July-Oct. 

This reddish species with bitter to acrid, white latex that very quickly 

changes to bright yellow is fairly common. There has been some doubt as to 

whether it should be referred to L. chrysorheus or L. theiogalus Fr. According 

to recent illustrations by Wakefield and Dennis (1950) and Neuhoff (1956) 

L. theiogalus is a smaller and more reddish brown fungus. 

LACTARIUS CINEREUS Peck Not recommended 


PILEUS %-2i/2 in. broad, at first convex, umbiHcate, becoming expanded 

and depressed to infundibuliform, ashy gray, darker in the center, glabrous, 

viscid, not zoned or occasionally slightly so, margin at first inrolled, then 

spreading, flesh thin, white, latex white, unchanging, acrid, lamellae 

adnate, close, narrow, white, some forking near the stipe, not becoming 

spotted from bruising, stipe 1-2 in. long, V^-V?, in. thick, equal or tapering 

upward, glabrous, tomentose at base, concolorous with the pileus, spongy, 

becoming hollow, spores white, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 6-8 X 5-6 /x, 

ornamented with separate or more or less confluent warts, and a few lines but 

scarcely reticulate. 

In groups on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

There are several grayish species with acrid latex that are not easy to 

separate. In L. cinereus the lamellae do not become spotted or stained from 

bruising, and the spore deposit is white. L. trivialis (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. has a 

yellowish spore deposit, and the lamellae become stained grayish green to 

brownish. The lamellae also become stained in L. varius Peck, L. mucidus 

Burl., and L. parvus Peck. The latter is a small species with spores about the 

size of those in L. cinereus, but the pileus is soon dry. L. varius and L. mucidus 

have large spores, about 8-10 /x long, but diffêr from each other in the structure 

of the cuticle of the pileus. In L. mucidus the cuticle is composed of elongated, 

very gelatinous hyphae and is very viscid, whereas in L. varius the cuticle is 

composed of interwoven, subgelatinous hyphae and is soon dry. These species 

are not recommended as food. 

41


LACTARIUS CONTROVERSUS (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. Not recommended 


PILEUS 3-8 in. broad, umbilicate, becoming depressed and then infundi- 

buliform, whitish or flesh colored, stained with brownish or flesh- colored 

spots, indistinctly zoned toward the margin, viscid, slightly tomentose, margin 

at first inrolled, then elevated, flesh firm, white or slightly flesh colored. 

LATEX white, unchanging, slowly acrid, lamellae shghtly decurrent, crowded, 

narrow, whitish to pink flesh colored, stipe l-U/^ in. long, J4-1 in. thick, 

equal or tapering slightly toward the base, shghtly floccose-pubescent, white 

or slightly stained, soHd, sometimes excentric. spores nearly white or shghtly 

flesh tinted, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 5-7.5 X 4-5.5 m, ornamented 

with a few heavy bands forming a partial reticulum, and some separate warts. 

In groups in moist woods, associated with aspens. Aug.-Oct. 

This is a very large species with flesh colored lamellae and brownish to 

pinkish stains on the pileus. The spots on the pileus are sometimes not very 

conspicuous, but the pink lamellae are a distinctive feature. The edible quali- 

ties of this fungus are not known but it is not recommended because of the 

acrid latex. 

LACTARIUS DECEPTIVUS Peck Doubtful 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, firm, at first convex-umbilicate and becoming 

expanded-depressed to subinfundibuliform, white or with rusty stains, dry, 

not zoned, glabrous except the margin which is covered by a cottony roll of 

tomentum and more or less inrolled, finally more or less elevated, flesh white, 

rather thick, firm, latex white, unchanging, acrid, lamellae adnate to shghtly 

decurrent, close to subdistant, rather broad, some forked, white or creamy 

yellow. STIPE 1-3 in. long, %-l Yz in. thick, stout, equal, pubescent to tomentose, 

white, sohd. spores white, broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 9-12 (14) X 

7-9 (10) M, ornamented with low to medium, separate, scattered warts. 

It grows singly or in groups on the ground in woods, usually at the edges 

of bogs and on boggy ground. July-Sept. 

The most striking feature of this mushroom is the cottony roll on the 

margin. This will distinguish it from L. vellereus, which it closely resembles. 

Mature specimens in which the cottony roll on the margin has largely dis- 

appeared are easily confused with L. vellereus. The larger spores of L. decep- 

tivus will distinguish them. Specimens in which the latex is scanty or not 

evident might be confused with Russula delica. 

It is said that the acrid taste disappears on cooking and that it is edible, 

but there is danger of confusing mature specimens with L. vellereus, which 

has been reported poisonous. 

42

LACTARIUS 

LACTARIUS DELICIOSUS (L. ex Fr.) Gray Edible 

Figures 57, 58, page 27; Figure 412, page 295 

Delicious Lactarius 

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex-umbilicate, then expanded 

and depressed in the center, reddish orange, often with brighter, con- 

centric zones, fading to grayish or gray-green, glabrous, viscid when moist, 

margin at first inrolled, then arched and spreading, flesh whitish, stained 

orange when broken and then becoming greenish, latex orange, reddish 

orange, or carrot colored, mild, lamellae adnate-decurrent, close, rather 

narrow, bright orange, becoming greenish when bruised, stipe 1 J/2-4 in. long, 

1/2-% in. thick, equal or narrowed at the base, pruinose to glabrous, colored 

like the pileus or paler, often with orange spots, stuff*ed, becoming hollow. 

SPORES faintly yellowish, subglobose, 8-10.5 X 7-8.5 /x, ornamented with lines 

and ridges forming a more or less complete reticulum, a few separate warts. 

It grows scattered or in groups on the ground under conifers in moist 

woods or boggy places. July-Oct. 

The 'dehcious lactarius' is one of the more important edible mushrooms. 

It is easily recognized by the orange latex and the color. The greenish stains 

that develop on the broken flesh are somewhat unattractive in appearance but 

do not aff'ect the edible quahties. It is of good flavor and can often be found in 

abundance. 

In the past this species has been confused with a very similar one recently 

recognized by Dr. A. H. Smith, L. thyinos, which can be distinguished by its 

viscid stipe, and more strongly decurrent and more distant lamellae. The two 

species can be recognized in the field with a little experience but since both are 

edible, critical determination is of no importance to those collecting them for 

food. The western species, L. sanguifluus Fr., might also be mistaken for 

L. deliciosus but can be distinguished by its dark blood-red to purplish red 

latex. L. sanguifluus is also edible. 

LACTARIUS GRISEUS Peck Not edible 


PILEUS 1/2-1 Vi in. broad, rather flaccid, at first convex, becoming deeply 

depressed to infundibuliform, smoky gray, usually darker at center, not zoned, 

dry, tomentose, the hairs forming small, erect points, margin incurved at first, 

then arched, flesh white, thin, latex white, unchanging, slowly acrid, lamellae 

adnate to decurrent, close to subdistant, rather broad, white, then cream 

to yellowish, stipe 1/2-2 in. long, 1 /16-3/16 in. thick, equal, glabrous, whitish 

or grayish, paler than the pileus, stuff'ed then hollow, spores ellipsoid to 

subglobose, white, 6-8.5 X 5-6. 5)u, ornamented with a nearly complete reticulum 

of heavy bands and occasional separate warts. 

Usually in groups on very rotten wood or on the ground. July-Sept. 

Because of its small size and acrid taste it is of no value as food, but it is a 

43


rather common species and will often be found by the collector. The gray 

color, small size, and tomentose pileus distinguish it. 

LACTARIUS HELVUS (Fr.) Fr. 


PILEUS 1-4 in. broad, rather fragile, convex at first, becoming plane to 

depressed, sometimes slightly umbonate, tawny gray, fading to pale tan, dry, 

minutely floccose-fibrillose, not zoned, margin at first inrolled, then spreading. 

FLESH watery whitish, odor strong, fragrant and aromatic, especially noticeable 

and persistent on drying, latex watery to whitish, unchanging, mild or very 

sHghtly acrid, lamellae sHghtly decurrent, close, narrow, whitish, then 

yellowish flesh color, stipe 1 1/2-3 in. long, or sometimes longer, Y^-Yz in. thick, 

equal, pruinose above to finely hairy at base, concolorous with the pileus, 

stuffed, then hollow, spores broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 6-8.5 X 5-6 )u, 

ornamented with a broken reticulum of bands and ridges or fine fines, a few 

separate warts. 

On the ground or in sphagnum, usually in swampy woods. Aug.-Sept. 

This is a rather common species. It is remarkable for the strong odor, 

which is very pronounced in dried specimens and persists for a long time. Its 

edible qualities are not known. 

LACTARIUS HYGROPHOROIDES B. & C. Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, rather firm and brittle, at first convex to plane, 

slightly depressed in the center, then becoming deeply depressed to somewhat 

funnel-shaped, tawny reddish to yellowish, surface dry, pruinose-velvety, 

smooth to more or less rugose, margin inrolled, then spreading, flesh rather 

thin, whitish, odor and taste mild, latex white, unchanging, mild, copious. 

LAMELLAE adnatc to sHghtly decurrent, distant, broad, whitish to cream colored. 

STIPE %-2 in. long, Y4-Y2 ^^- thick, equal, rather short, minutely velvety to 

glabrous, more or less concolorous with the pileus, solid, spores white, 

broadly ellipsoid, 8-10 X 6-7.5 ju, ornamented with low warts and ridges, 

some separate but mostly joined by fine lines. 

Scattered or in groups, usually in deciduous woods. July-Aug. 

The bright reddish-brown color and distant lamellae are the principal 

distinguishing characters of this species. L. volemus is similar in color but the 

lamellae are close. 

44 

Figures 69-78 

69. Lactarius necator. 70. L. necator. 

71. L. representaneus. 72. L. representaneus. 

73. L. resimus. 74. L. scrobiculatus. 

75. L. rufus. 76. L. rufus. 

77. L. subpurpureus. 78. L. subpurpureus.

F gures 80-89 

80. Lac tar ins suhdulcis. 81. L. chrysorheus. 

82. L. torminosus. 83. L. inucidus 

84. L. uvidiis. 85. L. vellereus. 

86. Russula alutacea. 87. R. alutacea. 

88. R. aurantiolutea. 89. R. aurantiolutea 

O 

a 

 

Cifl

90 V 92 

Figures 90-92, Amanita caesarea. 90, mature plant, note loose membranous volva; 

91, section of young plant before volva has ruptured showing outline of young 

fruiting body within the volva; 92, young plants showing ruptured volva with 

young fruiting body emerging. 

48 

93. Russula densifolia. 

95. R. emetica. 

97. R.jallax. 

99. R. joetens. 

101. R. lutea. 

Figures 93-102 

94. R. densifolia. 

96. R. emetica. 

98. R.flava. 

100. R.fragilis. 

102. R. nigricans. 

I 

I

Figures 103-104. Amanita muscaria. 103, mature plant, note volva adhering to 

base of stipe in irregular rings and patches; 104, series of specimens illustrating 

the tearing of the volva to leave patches on the pileus and base of the stipe, and 

the tearing of the partial veil to form the annulus. 

105. Russula abietina. 

107. R. chamaeleontina. 

109. R. Integra. 

111. R. xerampelina. 

113. Tricholoma pessundatum. 

50 


106. R. aeruginea. 

108. R. decolorans. 

110. R. mariae. 

112. Pleurotus serotinus. 

114. Marasmius siccus. 

104 

I

Figure 115. Amanita virosa: one young fruiting body emerging from the volva and 

two mature plants. Note pure white color, membranous volva forming a sheath 

around the base of the stipe, and annulus hanging loosely around the stipe. 

52

LACTARIUS 

LACTARIUS INDIGO (Schw.) Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, at first convex, slightly umbilicate, becoming plane, 

depressed in the center, finally infundibuhform, indigo blue, fading and 

becoming paler with a silvery-gray appearance, zoned with concentric darker 

blue rings, glabrous, sHghtly viscid, margin at first inrolled, becoming arched 

and elevated, flesh blue, becoming greenish in age. latex dark blue, mild. 

LAMELLAE adnatc-dccurrcnt, close, moderately broad, blue, becoming greenish 

in age. stipe 1-2 in. long, y8-% in. thick, equal, glabrous, concolorous with 

pileus or paler, sometimes bluish, spotted, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores 

yellowish, broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 7.5-9.5 X 6-7.5 )u, ornamented 

with a nearly complete reticulum of light to heavy bands, and occasional 

separate warts. 

Grows on the ground in woods. July-Sept. 

This species is not common but when found cannot be mistaken for 

anything else. No other species has dark-blue latex. 

LACTARIUS LIGNYOTUS (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex to plane, sometimes centrally depressed, 

usually umbonate, dark chocolate brown or sooty brown, evenly colored, dry, 

azonate, pruinose-velvety, the margin even to wavy and sometimes plicate. 

FLESH white, slowly becoming pinkish when wounded, latex white, slowly 

turning reddish, mild to shghtly acrid, lamellae adnate to decurrent, sub- 

distant, broad, white then creamy to yellowish buff, the edges sometimes 

brown, stipe 1J4-3J/2 in. long, Ys-Ys in. thick, equal, pHcate at the apex, 

pruinose-velvety, concolorous with pileus, stuffed, spores yellowish in mass, 

subglobose, 8-10 X 7.5-9 ju, ornamented with high, heavy bands and ridges 

forming a nearly complete reticulum. 

It grows on the ground, usually in conifer woods, especially in bogs. 

July-Oct. 

Reports concerning the edibility of this species have varied. Some people 

have said it is very good, others that it is poisonous. It should be tried cau- 

tiously if at all, and is probably best avoided. 

The dark brown, velvety pileus of this fungus is very striking in appear- 

ance. The reddish stains develop slowly and are not conspicuous. It might be 

confused with L. fuliginosus Fr., which is paler, has a shorter stipe not pHcate 

at the apex, and slightly smaller spores. L. gerardii Peck looks similar from 

the upper surface but can readily be recognized by its very distant lamellae. 

53


LACTARIUS MUCIDUS Burl. Not recommended 


piLEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first convex, umbilicate, becoming expanded and 

depressed to infundibuliform, grayish, putty-colored at margin to brownish in 

center, viscid, glabrous, not zoned, margin inrolled at first, then spreading. 

FLESH white, not firm, thin, latex white, drying greenish gray to bluish gray, 

acrid, lamellae adnate, close to subdistant, rather narrow, some forked, 

white, staining greenish gray, sometimes with a tinge of bluish when wounded. 

STIPE %-2 in. long, 14-^8 Jî. thick, equal or tapering upward, slightly viscid, 

glabrous or somewhat rivulose-wrinkled, colored like the pileus or paler, 

stuffed becoming hollow, spores white, ellipsoid to subglobose, 7.5-10 X 6-8 m, 

ornamented with a coarse reticulum of lines and bands and a few separate 

warts. 

On the ground, usually in conifer woods. July-Oct. 

This is close to L. trivialis but is somewhat darker in color and the spores 

are smaller. The color change of the latex is slow and must be checked care- 

fully or the fungus might be confused with L. cinereus. The spores of the latter 

are a little smaller. L. varius Pk. is scarcely viscid. It can be distinguished 

microscopically by the structure of the cuticle of the pileus. In L. mucidus the 

cuticle is composed of elongated, gelatinized hyphae, whereas in L. varius it is 

composed of much interwoven, very slightly gelatinized hyphae. 

The edible qualities are not known but it is not recommended because of 

the acrid latex. 

LACTARIUS NEGATOR (Pers. ex Fr.) Lundell Not recommended 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, firm, at first convex, umbilicate, becoming expanded 

and depressed in the center, olive brown to umber, darker on disk, not zoned, 

glabrous or with agglutinated fibrils, viscid when moist, margin at first yellowvillose. 

FLESH firm, thick, whitish, latex white, unchanging, acrid, lamellae 

slightly decurrent, narrow, crowded, pale yellow, becoming black when 

bruised, gray on drying, stipe 1-214 in- long. Vi-^ in. thick, equal, glabrous, 

viscid when moist, colored like the pileus or paler, often with darker spots, 

stuffed or hollow, spores yellowish to cream colored, ellipsoid to subglobose, 

7-9 X 5.5-7 M, ornamented with a nearly complete reticulum of fairly heavy 

lines and occasional separate warts. 

It grows on the ground, singly or in groups, in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

This is an extremely unattractive mushroom, although it is said to be 

eaten in Europe. The acrid latex and repellent colors will probably deter most 

people from eating it. It was formerly known as L. turpis (Weinm.) Fr. but 

this name is illegitimate under the present rules of nomenclature. 

It might be confused with L. atroviridis Peck which has more green in the 

color of the pileus and has a rough, scabrous surface. 

54

LACTARIUS 

LACTARIUS REPRESENTANEUS Britz. Not recommended 


PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, convex becoming plane, dull yellow, viscid, tomen- 

tose, not zoned, margin at first inrolled and strongly tomentose. flesh firm, 

whitish, becoming HIac. latex very abundant, at first white, then watery, 

finally becoming lilac, slightly acrid, lamellae adnate, sHghtly decurrent, 

close, moderately broad, dull yellowish, staining lilac when bruised, stipe 

2-2 Vi in. long. %-l )4 

in. thick, equal, glabrous, pruinose at the apex, tomen- 

tose at the base, yellowish with brighter spots, hollow, spores white, broadly 

eUiptic to subglobose, 9-11 X 7.5-9 /x, ornamented with a broken reticulum 

of fairly heavy bands and a few separate warts or short ridges. 

On the ground in moist woods, singly or in groups. Aug.-Sept. 

This species is not common but it is a very striking fungus with the 

yellow, hairy, viscid pileus and the abundant latex which becomes hlac-colored. 

The spotted stipe is also a striking character. L. speciosus Burl, is similar but 

has a zoned pileus and appears to be a more southern plant. The edible qualities 

of L. representaneus are not known but it is not recommended because of the 

acrid taste and also because other species in which the latex turns hlac such as 

L. uvidus are reported to be poisonous. 

LACTARIUS RESIMUS Fr. Not edible 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, deeply depressed to infundibuliform, white becoming 

tinged with yellow, not zonate or faintly so near the margin, viscid when moist, 

glabrous in the center, margin inrolled, then spreading, whitish tomentose. 

FLESH firm, white, strong odor when fresh, latex white at first, changing to 

sulphur-yellow, acrid, lamellae whitish to pale cream, close, decurrent, some 

forked near the stipe, stipe 1-1 )/2 in. long, Y%-Y^ 

in. thick, whitish with 

yellowish stains or spots, equal, glabrous or pruinose above, stuff'ed becoming 

hollow. SPORES broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white, 5.5-8 X 4.5-6 ju? 

ornamented with a broken reticulum of rather heavy bands and lines and 

occasionally a few separate warts. 

On the ground associated with aspens. July-Sept. 

This is a rather large white species with a hairy margin and acrid latex that 

turns yellow very quickly. No information regarding its edibihty is available 

but it is not recommended because of the acrid latex. 

LACTARIUS RUFUS (Scop, ex Fr.) Fr. 


Poisonous 

PILEUS 1 )/^-4 in. broad, convex becoming depressed to infundibuhform, 

umbonate, bay-red to rufous, not fading, dry, not zoned, at first minutely 

55


flocculose-silky, soon glabrous, margin at first inrolled. flesh thin, rather soft, 

whitish, tinged pink, odor none, latex white, unchanging, very acrid, lamel- 

lae sHghtly decurrent, close, narrow, ochraceous, becoming rufous, sometimes 

forked, stipe 2-3 V2 ^^' long» Va-Vi 

^^- thick, equal, dry, glabrous to pruinose 

or hairy at the base, colored like the pileus or paler, stuffed, then hollow. 

SPORES broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white 7-9 X 5-7 n, ornamented with 

fairly heavy bands forming a nearly complete reticulum, some separate warts 

and short ridges. 

On the ground in conifer woods, especially in spruce bogs. July-Sept. 

Reported to be poisonous. It can be confused with L. subdulcis but is 

usually larger and more strongly acrid. 

LACTARIUS SCROBICULATUS (Scop, ex Fr.) Fr. Poisonous 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, at first convex, becoming depressed to infundibuli- 

form, pale yellow to ochraceous yellow, sometimes reddish yellow, varying 

from azonate to conspicuously zonate, viscid, more or less tomentose espe- 

cially toward the margin, becoming glabrous or nearly so in old specimens, 

margin at first inrolled, then spreading, flesh firm, white becoming yellow 

when wounded, latex white, changing quickly to sulphur-yellow, acrid. 

lamellae adnate to shghtly decurrent, crowded, rather narrow, sometimes 

forking near the stipe, whitish or yellowish, stipe 1-3 in. long, J^-1 in. thick, 

equal, glabrous, colored like the pileus or paler, with brighter colored, depressed 

spots, hollow. SPORES white, broadly elHpsoid to subglobose, 7-9 X 

6-7.5 ju, ornamented with a few heavy bands forming a wide, broken reticulum 

with separate warts or short ridges in the spaces. 

In groups on the ground in moist woods, usually in coniferous woods. 

Aug.-Sept. 

The most distinctive characters of this species are the hairy margin and 

the prominent depressed spots on the stipe. It is not common but is a striking 

species when found. 

LACTARIUS SUBDULCIS (Bull, ex Fr.) Gray Edible 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, at first convex, becoming depressed to infundi- 

buliform, often papillate, brownish red to pale tan or reddish fulvous, not 

fading, dry, glabrous, not zoned, margin at first inrolled, then spreading. 

FLESH firm, whitish or tinged fulvous, odor none, latex white, unchanging, 

mild or slowly becoming acrid to bitterish, lamellae adnate to decurrent, 

sometimes forked, close, rather narrow, whitish to yellowish flesh color or 

stained fulvous, stipe 1-2% in. long, Vg-/^ in. thick, equal or sHghtly tapering 

upward, glabrous or pubescent toward the base, colored like the pileus or 

56

LACTARIUS 

paler, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white, 

7-10 X 6-8 )u, ornamented with fine to medium, separate warts, verrucose. 

In groups on the ground in woods, swamps, or wet places. June-Oct. 

There are a number of small reddish species that are easily confused and 

the exact identity of L. subdulcis is not clear. Among the collections so labeled 

in the herbarium at Ottawa there are two distinct species, one with spores 

about 7-10 X 6-8 /u that are ornamented with warts and spines not forming 

a network, and the other with spores 5.5-8 X 5-6 /x and ornamented with a 

network of bands and ridges. Apparently the former is the true L. subdulcis. 

It is reported to be edible but there is considerable danger of confusing 

it with the poisonous L. rufus. The latter is usually larger but small specimens 

might easily be taken for L. subdulcis. L. rufus is strongly acrid. 

LACTARIUS SUBPURPUREUS Peck Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex-umbilicate, then expanded, depressed 

to nearly infundibuliform, colors mixed and variable, dark red to hydrangea- 

pink, zoned with pink and spotted with green, with a grayish luster, fading, 

glabrous, slightly viscid when moist, margin at first inrolled, then arched, 

pruinose. flesh whitish to pinkish, staining red, especially near the lamellae. 

LATEX dark crimson, mild, lamellae slightly decurrent, subdistant, mod- 

erately broad, dark red, fading, becoming greenish in age. stipe 1-2)4 in. 

long, 14- V2 in. thick, equal, glabrous, hairy at the base, colored like the pileus, 

spotted with dark red, stuffed, then hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid to sub- 

globose, yellowish, 8-11 X 7-9 m, ornamented with heavy bands forming a 

nearly complete reticulum, a few separate warts and ridges. 

It grows in moist woods, apparently associated with hemlock. July-Sept. 

This is not a common species but it is a very striking one because of the 

dark red latex and the variegated colors of the pileus. The latex of L. deliciosus 

is more orange-red. 

LACTARIUS TORMINOSUS (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Gray Poisonous 


PILEUS IV2-4 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex, depressed in the 

center, becoming expanded to nearly infundibuliform, pale yellowish buff to 

rosy flesh color, often with more deeply colored zones, viscid, glabrous at the 

center, the margin inrolled and persistently covered with long whitish tomen- 

tum. FLESH firm, white to pale flesh colored, latex white, unchanging, very 

acrid, lamellae decurrent, close, narrow, whitish to yellowish or at length 

tinged faintly pinkish, some forked near the stipe, stipe l-lVi in. long, Vi-Va 

in. thick, equal or slightly tapering downward, glabrous or pruinose, paler than 

57


the pileus, sometimes faintly yellowish spotted, stufTed, becoming hollow. 

SPORES white, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 7-10 X 5.5-8 n, ornamented 

with heavy bands forming a fairly complete reticulum, a few separate warts or 

short ridges. 

It grows on the ground in woods. July-Sept. 

This species may be confused with L. cilicioides Fr. which is also reported 

to be poisonous. The latter is often more white but may be as deeply colored as 

L. torminosus. They can be distinguished with certainty by the spores which 

are smaller in L. cilicioides. 

LACTARIUS TRIVIALIS (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex, becoming plane or somewhat 

depressed, the margin decurved, then becoming arched, color variable, livid 

gray to smoky gray, usually tinted lilac or purplish, fading to pallid, sometimes 

pinkish brown on the disk, viscid, not zoned, flesh pallid, rigid-fragile, thick. 

LATEX white, acrid, slowly staining the flesh and lamellae dingy grayish green. 

LAMELLAE adnate to short decurrent, close, narrow to moderately broad, some 

forked, creamy yellowish, staining grayish green or brownish when bruised or 

in age. stipe 1 Vi-A in. long, Vj-Va in. thick, equal, surface even or somewhat 

wavy, concolorous with the pileus or paler, especially at the apex, hollow. 

SPORES yellowish, broadly ellipsoid, 9-12 X 8-10 ji, ornamented with fairly 

high warts joined by lines and ridges to form a partial reticulum. 

In groups or scattered on the ground in coniferous or deciduous woods. 

Aug.-Oct. 

This species can be distinguished from the other species of the L. cinereus 

group by the yellowish spore deposit. 

LACTARIUS UVIDUS (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. Poisonous 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, convex becoming plane, depressed at the 

center, sometimes with a slight umbo, brownish gray, tinged with lilac, viscid, 

glabrous, usually not zonate but sometimes faintly spotted or zoned, margin 

inrolled at first, finally spreading, flesh white, becoming lilac when wounded. 

LATEX white, changing quickly to lilac or violet, acrid and bitterish, lamellae 

adnate to slightly decurrent, close, rather narrow, whitish to yellowish, quickly 

becoming lilac when bruised, stiff 1 '/2-3 in. long, '4-J/2 ^^- thick, equal or 

nearly so, glabrous or tomentose at the base, viscid, whitish to yellowish, 

stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white, 

rather variable in size, 7-12 X 6-8.5 n, ornamented with rather high spines and 

warts, separate or more or less joined by lines and ridges forming a partial 

reticulum. 

58

LACTARIUS 

On the ground usually in low wet places, often among moss. July-Sept. 

The species most likely to be confused with this is L. maculatus Peck 

which is usually larger, and has a zonate pileus and spotted stipe. 

LACTARIUS VELLEREUS (Fr.) Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, convex, umbihcate, becoming expanded and deeply 

depressed to subinfundibuhform, white or whitish, tinged yellowish in places, 

dry, velvety to the touch, minutely tomentose under a lens, not zoned, margin 

at first inrolled, becoming elevated, flesh white, firm, thick, latex white, 

unchanging or becoming creamy yellowish, finally staining the lamellae and 

flesh brownish, very acrid, lamellae adnate to shghtly decurrent, subdistant 

to distant, fairly broad, some forked, whitish becoming cream colored to 

yellowish, staining brownish when bruised, stipe Yi-l in. long, Yi-^Va in. 

thick, equal or tapering downward, somewhat pruinose-velvety, white or 

whitish, solid, spores elHpsoid, white, 7.5-9.5 X 5-6.5 m, ornamented with 

very fine, low, separate warts, nearly smooth. 

On the ground in mixed woods, usually in groups and sometimes abun- 

dant. July-Sept. 

It is most hkely to be confused with mature specimens of L. deceptivus in 

which the cottony roll on the margin has more or less disappeared. It can be 

distinguished from L. deceptivus with certainty by the spores, which in the 

latter are larger and have more prominent markings on the walls. 

A similar large white species, L. piperatus (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray, has very 

narrow, densely crowded, forked lamellae, and the pileus is not tomentose. 

It is very acrid. This species is reported as common in some parts of the 

United States but there are no Canadian specimens in the herbarium at 

Ottawa. L. pergamenus (Sw.) Fr. which is regarded by some as simply a 

variety of L. piperatus has very narrow, close lamellae. 

L. subvellereus Peck is a less common species with a more southern dis- 

tribution. The lamellae are closer than in L. vellereus and remain narrow. 

59


RUSSULA 

Russula is similar to Lactarius in having sphaerocysts present in the tissue 

of th« fruiting body and in the broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, rough-walled, 

amyloid spores, but differs in the absence of a latex. The rather stiff stature and 

brittle texture that characterize these two genera are difficult to describe in 

words but are soon easily recognized in the field. 

Russula is one of the largest and most important genera of the mushrooms. 

It is also one of the most difficult genera in which to make accurate identifica- 

tions of species although it has been studied intensively by many mycologists. 

One reason for this is that there appear to be a great many species that are very 

similar and differ only in small characters so that many misidentifications 

have occurred and different authors will be found applying the same name to 

different fungi. Another reason is that Russula species frequently occur only 

singly and sporadically and it is difficult to study the range of variation of a 

species; consequently there is considerable difference of opinion as to the 

species limits in the genus. 

Although Russula is usually classified among the white-spored genera, 

the color of the spore deposit varies in different species from pure white to 

cream, pale yellow, pale ochre or bright ochre. The exact color of the spore 

deposit is very important in the identification of species of Russula and a good 

deposit should be obtained from every collection. The spores, as in Lactarius, 

are typically broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, strongly amyloid, and ornamented 

with warts, spines, or a network of ridges, and the pattern of ornamentation is 

important in critical determination of the species. The attachment of the 

lamellae varies from adnexed to adnate or sHghtly decurrent and one section of 

the genus is characterized by having the lamellae alternately long and short. 

The pileus is often brightly colored in shades of red, yellow, purple, green, 

or bluish, although there are some species with dull colors of white or brown. 

They may be dry or viscid, glabrous or pruinose to tomentose, and the margin 

may be more or less tuberculate-striate. The taste varies in different species 

from mild to acrid, bitter, nauseous, etc., and this should be noted in fresh 

specimens since it is an important character to aid in distinguishing species. 

Some authors claim that all russulas are edible and that the acrid taste 

disappears on cooking. However, we do not recommend eating the acrid 

species and they should be tried very cautiously if at all. One species, R. vesi- 

catoria Burl., described from Florida and also known on the west coast, is 

reported to cause blistering of the lips and tongue when tasted. Also species 

like R. foetens, which have a very unpleasant odor and taste, should certainly 

be avoided. 

Only a few of the commoner species are described here. The collector will 

find many others that he will be unable to identify with this book. 

60

^ 

Key 

RUSSULA 

1. Lamellae alternating long and short 2 

1. Lamellae equal 5 

2. Flesh becoming black in age or when wounded 3 

2. Flesh unchanging, fruit body white R. delica 

3. Flesh first reddening, then blackening 4 

3. Flesh blackening without any intermediate reddening R. sordida 

4. Lamellae broad, subdistant R. nigricans 

4. Lamellae narrow, very crowded R. densifolia 

5. Spore deposit white or cream 6 

5. Spore deposit yellow 13 


6. Taste acrid 9 

7. Pileus green or greenish to brownish on disk R. aeruginea 

I. Pileus red or brownish red 8 

8. Pileus dark crimson to maroon, sometimes paler to yellowish, dry; 

stipe usually red R. mariae 

8. Pileus dull brownish red, drying greenish toward margin; 

stipe white staining yellowish to brownish at base R. vesca 

9. Lamellae forked throughout; pileus pinkish to purplish becoming 

olivaceous or greenish R. variata 

9. Lamellae equal, or forked rarely or only near the base 10 

10. Pileus yellowish to brownish yellow; odor fetid R. foetens 

10. Pileus more or less red, no odor 11 

II. Pileus uniformly red or fading to whitish 12 

11. Pileus red on margin, olivaceous to purplish in center, small R. fallax 

12. Pileus mostly l-2Vi in. broad; flesh white under the pellicle R. fragilis 

12. Pileus mostly 2-5 in. broad; flesh red under the pellicle R. emetica 

13. Taste acrid 'T.Z.. 14 


14. Pileus yellow to orange R. aurantiolutea 

14. Pileus red 15 

15. Spores deep ochraceous; margin of pileus striate; 

stipe often tinged red R. tenuiceps 

15. Spores pale yellow, margin even or very slightly striate 16 

16. Pileus large, bright, shining, red to purplish red or orange-red, fragile; 

taste slightly acrid; stipe often tinged reddish R. paludosa 

16. Pileus medium size, rosy red, rather firm; taste very acrid; 

stipe never red R- veternosa 

17. Pileus yellow 18 

17. Pileus not yellow 19 

18. Lamellae becoming gray on drying R- flava 

18. Lamellae unchanging R- lutea 

61


19. Lamellae becoming gray on drying 20 

19. Lamellae unchanging 21 

20. Pileus orange-red to red, no odor R. decolorans 

20. Pileus purplish red to olivaceous; fishy odor on drying R. xerampelina 

21. Spores ochraceous yellow 22 

21. Spores pale yellow 24 

22. Pileus mostly more than 2 in, broad R. alutacea 

22. Pileus mostly less than 2 in. broad 23 

23. Pileus purplish to greenish, disk darker R. abietina 

23. Pileus reddish to purplish, disk paler R. chamaeleontina 

24. Pileus mostly more than 2 in. broad R. Integra 

lA. Pileus mostly less than 2 in. broad R. puellaris 

RUSSULA ABIETINA Peck Edible 


PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, fleshy, thin, fragile, convex, becoming plane or 

slightly depressed, color variable, dull purple, greenish purple, or olive-green, 

the center always darker, sometimes nearly black, the margin paler to grayish, 

viscid, glabrous, with a separable pellicle, margin tuberculate-striate. flesh 

white, rather fragile, mild, lamellae whitish becoming pale yellow, narrowed 

toward the stipe, somewhat rounded behind and nearly free, subdistant, equal. 

STIPE 1-2J/2 in. long, )4-!/2 in. thick, equal or shghtly tapering upward, gla- 

brous, white, stuffed or hollow, spores bright yellowish ochraceous, subglo- 

bose, about (7) 8-10 (11) X (6) 7-9 (9.5) m, ornamented with warts that are 

mostly separate, or some confluent forming short ridges, a few joined by 

fine Hnes. 

Gregarious under balsam fir. Aug.-Oct. 

R. abietina is a small species with ochraceous spores, mild taste, and 

variable colors, usually more or less mixed purplish and greenish. R. chamae- 

leontina Fr. is similar but usually more reddish, tending to fade to yellowish in 

the center and has slightly smaller spores. Other somewhat similar species are 

R. gracilis Burl., which has yellow spores but is acrid, R.fallax sensu Kauff^m., 

which has white spores and is also acrid, and R. puellaris Fr., which is mild but 

has pale yellow spores. 

RUSSULA AERUGINEA Lindbl. Edible 


PILEUS 1 J/2-3 in. broad, at first moderately firm, becoming fragile, convex 

becoming expanded and slightly depressed in the center, dull green, dark 

green, or smoky green, darker in the center and sometimes tinged brownish, 

paler on the margin, viscid when wet, slightly pruinose to pruinose-velvety 

when dry, the peUicle separable only on the margin, margin even or becoming 

62

RUSSULA 

slightly tuberculate-striate in age. flesh thick on the disk, becoming thin at the 

margin, white or greenish, ashy under the pellicle, mild, lamellae narrowly 

adnate to nearly free, close to subdistant, narrow, equal or with a few short 

ones, white, becoming cream colored, stipe 1 )/2-2 in. long, i4-J/2 in. thick, 

nearly equal or slightly tapering downward, glabrous, white, firm to spongy- 

stuffed. SPORES creamy white, subglobose, 7-9 X 5.5-7 m, ornamented with 

rather low, mostly separate warts and a few fine lines. 

Gregarious or solitary on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods. 

July-Sept. 

The green color, mild taste and creamy white spore deposit are the 

important field characters of this species. It is somewhat viscid when wet but is 

soon dry and more or less pruinose to minutely velvety. R. virescens Fr. is a 

green species with white spores and mild taste and the cuticle tending to 

become cracked on the margin. R. olivascens Fr. has yellow spores. 

RUSSULA ALUTACEA (Pers. ex Schw.) Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, firm, convex, becoming depressed, dull red or dark 

reddish purple, sometimes fading to greenish, glabrous, viscid when wet, 

pellicle somewhat separable, margin even at first, becoming tuberculate- 

striate. FLESH firm, white, mild, lamellae rounded behind, adnexed, nearly 

free, subdistant, fairly broad, ochraceous to tan colored, equal, stipe 2-4 in. 

long, Yi-l )4 in. thick, equal or nearly so, glabrous, white or tinged reddish, 

solid. SPORES ochraceous yellow, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose (7) 8-10 

(11) X (6) 7-9 M, ornamented with rather prominent separate warts and spines. 

Usually sohtary on the ground in frondose or mixed woods. Aug.-Sept. 

This is one of the species about which authors do not agree concerning 

its identity. The name is used here for a medium to large, dull-reddish or 

purphsh species usually with more or less red on the stipe, a mild taste, and 

ochraceous spore deposit. 

RUSSULA AURANTIOLUTEA Kauffm. Doubtful 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, thin, fragile, at first convex, becoming plane to 

slightly depressed, yellowish in the center to more orange on the margin, 

glabrous, viscid, peUicle separable to the disk, margin even, becoming slightly 

tuberculate-striate. flesh white, yellowish under the pellicle, acrid, lamellae 

narrowly adnate, close to subdistant, broad in front becoming narrower 

toward the stipe, yellow, often forked near the base, stipe 1 )/2-4 in. long, 

Va-Va 

in. thick, equal or nearly so, glabrous, white, spongy-stuffed, spores 

ochraceous yellow, subglobose, (6) 7-8 (9) X 5.5-7.5 /x, ornamented with 

warts joined by heavy bands. 

63


Solitary or scattered in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

This is a yellow to orange species with ochraceous spores and acrid taste 

in which the lamellae and stipe do not turn gray on drying. Its edible quahties 

are not known but it is not recommended because of the acrid taste. 

RUSSULA CHAMAELEONTINA Fr. sensu Kauffm. Edible 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, thin, fragile, plane or depressed, variable in color, 

red to purpHsh or hlac, fading to yellowish, especially on the disk, glabrous, 

viscid, pellicle separable, margin even, becoming somewhat tuberculate- 

striate. flesh thin, fragile, white, mild, lamellae adnexed to almost free, close 

to crowded, rather narrow, equal or a few forked, ochraceous yellow, stipe 

%-2 in, long, i4-!4 in. thick, equal or sHghtly tapering upward, glabrous or 

sHghtly marked with lines, white, spongy-stuffed becoming hollow, spores 

ochraceous, subglobose, 7-9 (10) X 5.5-7.5 /x, ornamented with rather promi- 

nent warts and spines, mostly separate or occasionally confluent or joined by 

fine hnes. 

Sohtary or gregarious on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods. 

Aug.-Sept. 

Considerable confusion exists in the Hterature concerning this species and 

it may be a collective species including several recognizable forms. In general, 

a small Russula with ochraceous spore deposit, mild taste, and variable colors 

with some tendency to fade to yellowish, would probably be referred here. 

RUSSULA DECOLORANS Fr. Edible 


piLEUS 2-5 in. broad, firm, at first globose, becoming plane to shghtly 

depressed, orange-red, Hght red, or salmon colored, the disk usually ochre, 

glabrous, shghtly viscid, the pellicle partly separable, margin even, becoming 

shghtly striate when old. flesh at first firm, becoming fragile in age, white, 

becoming ashy in age or when wounded, mild, lamellae adnexed, close, 

moderately broad, at first white, becoming pale yellowish, ochraceous, becom- 

ing ashy gray on drying, some forked at the base, equal or with a few short 

ones. STIPE 2-4 )/2 in. long, J/2-I 

ii^- thick, equal or nearly so, smooth or some- 

what wrinkled with fine hnes, white, becoming ashy in age or when bruised, 

sohd or spongy, spores subglobose, pale ochraceous yellow, 10-13 X 8-10 m> 

ornamented with high, separate warts and spines, some joined by fine fines. 

Sept. 

Sohtary or scattered on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods. July- 

This is a large orange-red species particularly characterized by the lamellae 

and stipe changing to ashy gray when dried or in age. 

64

RUSSULA 

RUSSULA DELICA Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex and umbilicate, becoming 

deeply depressed to infundibuliform, dull white or with rusty-brown stains, 

glabrous or very finely hairy, dry, margin at first involute, becoming arched, 

not striate, flesh compact, firm, white or whitish, not changing color when 

bruised, mild to slowly and slightly acrid, lamellae adnate-decurrent, sub- 

distant, alternating long and short, few forked, white or whitish, sometimes 

greenish on edge, stipe %-2 in. long, j/^-% in. thick, short, stout, equal or 

tapering downward, white, not turning blackish when bruised, usually with a 

pale green zone at the apex, glabrous to subtomentose. spores subglobose, 

white in mass, rough 8.5-11 X 7-9 n, ornamented with rather coarse warts, 

mostly joined by fine lines or forming short ridges, partly reticulate. 

Gregarious on the ground in conifer or frondose woods. July-Oct. 

At first sight this species suggests a Lactarius, but it has no latex. It is 

fairly common and is often found pushing up earth or old leaves and partly 

concealed by them. The greenish zone at the apex of the stipe, though often 

inconspicuous, can be observed by turning the fruit body in the fight and it 

makes a good field character. Collectors on the west coast should beware of a 

species resembling R. delica but smaller and with the lamellae equal, not 

alternating long and short. This is R. vesicatoria Burl, and it is excruciatingly 

acrid and may cause blistering of the lips and tongue if tasted. 

Another characteristic Russula of the west coast is R. crassotunicata 

Singer which is found growing under devil's-club and is a white species that 

stains brown. It is slightly acrid and its edible quafities appear to be unknown. 

RUSSULA DENSIFOLIA (Seer.) Gill. Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, convex-umbificate becoming depressed to subin- 

fundibuliform, firm and rigid, dull whitish at first, becoming smoky brown, 

slightly viscid, glabrous, margin even, flesh thick, firm, white, slowly turning 

reddish then black when cut or bruised, mild to slowly and shghtly acrid. 

LAMELLAE adnatc to shghtly decurrent, close to crowded, rather narrow, 

whitish or grayish, when bruised becoming reddish then black, stipe 1%lyi 

in. long, 1/^-1 in. thick, equal or tapering below, glabrous, whitish, becom- 

ing reddish then black when bruised, soHd. spores broadly ellipsoid, white, 

7-9 (10) X 5.5-8.5 /z, ornamented with fine warts which are joined by a network 

of fine fines. 

Usually sofitary or gregarious on ground in woods from July-Sept. 

This species is distinguished from R. nigricans principally by the close to 

crowded lamellae and from R. sordida by the appearance of red color in the 

wounded flesh before it becomes black. The color change is sometimes slow 

and the red color is transitory so it must be watched for carefully. 

It is said to be edible but is unattractive in appearance. 

65


RUSSULA EMETICA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Pers. ex S. F. Gray Suspected 


piLEUS 2-4 in. broad, fleshy, firm at first, soon becoming fragile, convex, 

becoming plane or slightly depressed, rosy red to blood-red, sometimes fading 

to white, viscid when wet, glabrous, shining, pelhcle separable, margin strongly 

tuberculate-striate. flesh white, red under the pellicle, very acrid, lamellae 

slightly adnexed to free, close to subdistant, rather broad, narrowed behind, 

white, stipe 1 )/2-3 in. long, )/2-% in. thick, nearly equal, smooth, white or 

tinged red, spongy-stuff'ed. spores white, subglobose, (7) 8-10 X (6) 7-8.5 

(9) 

ju, ornamented with fairly high warts and spines, more or less joined by 

fine lines to form a partial reticulum. 

Scattered to gregarious on the ground or on very rotten wood. July-Oct. 

This species is very close to R.fragilis and some authors consider these to 

be varieties or subspecies. R. emetica is usually a little larger, the flesh is red 

under the cuticle rather than white, and the spores seem to be slightly larger 

with slightly higher ornamentation. 

The taste is very acrid and although some have claimed that this taste 

disappears on cooking and that the species is edible, it is not recommended. 

RUSSULA FALLAX sensu Kauffm. Suspected 


PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, thin, fragile, plane or sHghtly depressed, usually 

rose or flesh colored on the margin, with an ohvaceous zone surrounding the 

disk which is usually much darker and purplish, viscid, glabrous, pellicle 

separable, the margin striate, flesh white, or tinged like the peUicle under the 

surface, acrid, lamellae adnexed, subdistant, narrow, white, stipe 1-2 in. 

long, )4-/4 ir^- thick, equal, cylindrical or somewhat compressed and with 

minute longitudinal wrinkles, white, spongy-stuff'ed to hollow, spores white, 

subglobose, 6-8 X (4.5) 5-7 m» ornamented with warts that are more or less 

joined by lines and ridges to form a nearly complete reticulum. 

Solitary or gregarious on mossy ground in the woods, or among sphag- 

num. July-Sept. 

This little species with its characteristically colored pileus, white spores, 

and very acrid taste is fairly common. It is related to the fragilis-emetica com- 

plex. It is probably not the true R. fallax Cke. but is the species Kauff'man 

described under that name. 

It is not recommended for eating because of the acrid taste. 

RUSSULA FLAVA Rom. Edible 


PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, rather fragile, at first convex, becoming plane or 

slightly depressed, dull yellow or golden yellow, sometimes becoming ashy in 

age, viscid when moist, glabrous, pellicle separable, margin even or slightly 

66

RUSSULA 

Striate when old. flesh white, becoming ashy gray when old, mild, lamellae 

adnexed, close, moderately broad, narrowed behind, at first white, becoming 

pale yellow and finally ashy gray in age or in drying, stipe 2-3 in. long, 1/2- 

% in. thick, equal or nearly so, smooth or with a fine network of lines, at first 

white, becoming ashy gray in age, spongy-stuffed, spores pale yellow, subglobose, 

8-10(11) X 7.5-9 M, ornamented with rather fine warts that are more 

or less joined by fine lines forming a partial reticulum. 

SoHtary or scattered on the ground in conifer or mixed woods. July-Sept. 

The most characteristic feature of this species is the change to ashy gray 

of the flesh and lamellae in age or on drying. The bright yellow color, mild 

taste and pale yellow spore deposit are also distinguishing characters. It is 

probably the same as R. claroflava W.B. Grove, and, if so, this would be the 

correct name since it was published earher. 

RUSSULA FOETENS Pers. ex Fr. Not edible 


pileus 21/2-5 in. broad, at first firm, becoming fragile, at first nearly 

globose, expanding and becoming plane to slightly depressed, yellowish or 

dingy ochraceous, glabrous, viscid, peUicle separable part way to the disk, 

margin widely and coarsely tuberculate-striate. flesh thin, rather fragile, 

dingy white, yellowish under the pelHcle, taste acrid, odor strong, resembhng 

bitter almonds, then fetid, lamellae adnexed, rather close, broad, at first 

whitish, becoming yellowish with age and dingy when bruised, exuding drops 

of water when young, some forked, stipe 1-3 in. long, I/2-I in. thick, equal or 

nearly so, smooth, white or dingy brown in age or when bruised, stuffed, 

becoming hollow, spores white, subglobose, 8.5-10 X 8-9 m, ornamented 

with coarse, separate spines. 

Gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

The dingy colors and unpleasant odor make this an extremely unattractive 

fungus. It is not recommended as an edible species, but is not hkely to be 

eaten anyway, because of its unpleasant taste. 

There is a group of species somewhat similar to R. foetens. R. foetentula 

Peck has pale yellow spores and red stains on the stipe. R. pectinata Fr. has 

different spore ornamentation. R. granulata Peck is smaller, lacks the odor 

and has granules on the pileus, and R. pectinatoides Peck lacks the granules, is 

mild or sHghtly acrid and has whitish spores. R. ventricosipes Peck has pronounced 

red stains on the stipe and grows in sand. In this species the taste is 

slowly acrid and the spores are pale ochraceous. 

RUSSULA FRAGILIS (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, thin, fragile, at first convex, becoming plane or 

shghtly depressed, rosy red to pale red, fading to whitish, glabrous, viscid, 

67


pellicle separable, margin tuberculate-striate. flesh white, not red under the 

pellicle, thin, fragile, very acrid, lamellae adnexed, close to crowded, ventri- 

cose, white, stipe 1-2 in. long, Ya-Yz in. thick, equal, smooth, white, spongystuffed 

to hollow, fragile, spores white, subglobose, 7-9 X 6-8 m, ornamented 

with moderately high warts, more or less joined by lines and ridges to form a 

partial reticulum. 

Scattered on the ground in woods. July-Sept. Common. 

See the notes on R. emetica for a comparison with this species. 

RUSSULA INTEGRA (L. ex Vitt.) Fr. Edible 


pileus 2-5 in. broad, at first firm, soon becoming fragile, convex becoming 

plane or sHghtly depressed, color variable, rather dingy or sordid, from buff 

to reddish brown to dark, dull red, fading, glabrous, viscid when wet, pellicle 

separable, margin becoming coarsely tuberculate-striate. flesh white, mild. 

lamellae adnexed, nearly free, distant, broad, white becoming pale yellow. 

stipe 1V2-2J4 ill- long, Vz-^ 

^^- thick, tapering upward to nearly equal, 

sometimes ventricose, smooth, white, spongy-stuffed, fragile, spores pale 

yellow, subglobose, 7-9 X 5.5-7 /x, ornamented with low to medium separate 

warts, some more or less confluent or joined by fine lines. 

Gregarious on the ground in woods. Aug.-Sept. 

The exact identity of R. Integra appears to be somewhat in doubt but this 

is believed to be the same fungus that was described by Kauffman under this 

name. It is a medium-sized, dull red species and has a pale yellow spore 

deposit and mild taste. The stipe is never red. 

RUSSULA LUTEA (Huds. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible 


PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, thin, fragile, plane or shghtly depressed, bright 

yellow to golden yellow, glabrous, viscid, pellicle separable, margin even, 

becoming slightly striate when old. flesh white, thin, fragile, mild, lamellae 

free, subdistant, rather narrow, broader at the front, bright ochraceous. 

STIPE 1-2 in. long, about 14-/4 in. thick, equal or slightly tapering upward, 

smooth, white, spongy-stuffed becoming hollow, spores ochraceous, globose, 

8.5-10 X 7.5-9 /x, ornamented with moderately coarse warts, mostly separate 

or some confluent forming short ridges. 

Usually solitary on the ground in mixed woods. Aug.-Sept. 

This species is fairly easily recognized with its bright yellow pileus and 

deep ochraceous lamellae and spores. 

68 


116. Russula paludosa. 117. R. paludosa. 

118. R.variata. 119. R.variata. 

120. R. vesca. 121. R. vesca. 

122. R. tenuiceps. 123. Amanita ftavoconia. 

124. A. bruntiescens. 125. A. citrina.

Figures 126-128. Lepiota americana. 126, mature fruiting body; 127, young fruiting 

body; 128, section of young fruiting body. 

129. Amanita frostiana. 

131. A. gemmata. 

133. A. muscaria. 

135. A. porphyria. 

137. A. rubescens. 

70 


130. A. frostiana. 

132. A. gemmata. 

134. A. muscaria. 

136. A. porphyria. 

138. A. rubescens.

RUSSULA 

RUSSULA MARIAE Peck Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, convex, becoming plane or slightly depressed, 

dark reddish purple, dark crimson or maroon colored, sometimes paler to 

slate violet or yellowish when shaded, dry, pruinOse-velvety, margin usually 

even, sometimes becoming striate when old. flesh white or reddish under the 

peUicle, becoming sticky when cut or handled, mild or very slightly acrid. 

LAMELLAE adnatc, close to subdistant, rather narrow, somewhat broader in 

front, white, becoming yellowish in age. stipe 1 )/2-3 in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick, 

equal or tapering downward, pruinose, usually white at each end and rosy red 

to purphsh red in the middle, occasionally entirely white, spongy-stuffed. 

SPORES whitish to faintly yellowish, subglobose, 7-9 (10) X (5.5) 6-7.5 (8.5) ju, 

ornamented with a more or less complete network of bands and ridges, and a 

few separate warts. 

Gregarious on the ground in woods. July-Oct. 

This is a beautiful species with purplish red pilei and stipes, cream-colored 

spore deposit, and mild taste. The pileus is dry and minutely velvety. 

RUSSULA NIGRICANS (Bull.) Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, firm, at first convex and umbilicate, becoming 

expanded and infundibuliform, whitish, becoming smoky umber to blackish, 

glabrous, slightly viscid when moist, margin incurved at first, not striate. 

FLESH firm, whitish, changing to reddish and then black when wounded, mild to 

slowly acrid, lamellae adnexed, rounded or narrowed behind, subdistant to 

distant, broad, alternating long and short, whitish, changing to reddish then 

black when bruised, stipe %-2]/^ in. long, J^-l in. thick, stout, equal, glabrous, 

whitish at first, becoming smoky brown with age, changing to reddish then 

black when bruised, solid, spores white, subglobose 7-9 X 6-8 ju, ornamented 

with a network of fine fines joining low warts. 

Gregarious or solitary on the ground in conifer or frondose woods. July- 

Sept. 

The pronounced blackening of the flesh and lamellae of this species make 

it rather unattractive but it is said to be edible. The reddening of the flesh when 

wounded must be watched for carefully. It is distinguished from R. densifolia 

by the broad, subdistant lamellae. 

RUSSULA PALUDOSA Britz. 


PILEUS 3-5 in. broad or sometimes larger, convex, becoming expanded and 

depressed in the center, deep blood-red to red-purple or red-orange sometimes 

73

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS'OF CANADA 

fading to yellowish, somewhat shining, glabrous, viscid, margin slightly 

striate-tuberculate. flesh white, rather fragile, acrid, lamellae white to 

creamy yellow, broad, subdistant, nearly free, stipe 3-4 in. long, y2-\ in. thick, 

nearly equal or slightly narrowed above, white or washed with pinkish, spongy. 

SPORES pale yellow, subglobose, 9-12 X 8-10 /u, ornamented with prominent 

warts and spines, a few joined by fine lines, not reticulate. 

Singly or gregarious in wet places or among sphagnum. July-Sept. 

A large and showy species differing from R. emetica in the pale yellow 

spore deposit and less acrid taste. Some authors say the taste is mild and there 

is some doubt as to whether the forms with mild taste might be considered a 

distinct species, R. rubrotincta (Pk.) Burl. Specimens labeled as having a mild 

taste seem to be identical microscopically with the acrid forms. The edges of 

the lamellae are said to be sometimes red near the margin. Its edible qualities 

are not known. 

RUSSULA PUELLARIS Fr. 

PILEUS l-lj/^ in. broad, thin, fragile, convex, becoming plane or slightly 

depressed, variable in color, bluish black, purplish, or yellowish, usually 

darker or brownish in the center, viscid, glabrous, pelHcle separable, margin 

tuberculate-striate. flesh white or becoming watery translucent, tinged like 

the surface under the pellicle, fragile, mild, lamellae narrowly adnate to 

adnexed, close, narrowed toward the stipe, white, becoming pale yellow, stipe 

1-2 in. long, J4-!/2 ^^- thick, equal or tapering upward, glabrous, white, usually 

with yellowish stains toward the base especially when old, stuffed or hollow, 

soft and fragile, spores pale yellow, subglobose, rough, (7) 8-10 (11) X (6) 

7.5-9 M, ornamented with medium to high warts and spines, some joined by 

fine Hnes or confluent forming short ridges, partly reticulate. 

Gregarious on the ground in moist woods. Aug.-Oct. 

This species is distinguished from R. abietina and R. chamaeleontina by 

the pale yellow spore deposit. The yellowish stains that develop in the stipe are 

also a distinguishing character. It is probably edible but is a small, fragile 

species not likely to be gathered for food. 

RUSSULA SORDIDA Peck Edible 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, firm, convex, depressed in the center, whitish becom- 

ing smoky with age, dry, glabrous, margin at first incurved, not striate, flesh 

firm, whitish, when bruised quickly becoming blackish without first turning 

reddish, mild to slightly and slowly acrid, lamellae adnate to sHghtly decur- 

rent, close, rather narrow, alternating long and short, white becoming blackish 

in age or on drying, stipe 1-2 in. long, J^-l in. thick, equal, white becoming 

black when bruised, soHd. spores white, oblong-ellipsoid, (7) 8-10 (1 1) X 5.5- 

7.5 M, ornamented with fine, low, separate warts, nearly smooth. 

74

RUSSULA 

Solitary or gregarious on the ground. Said to be associated with hemlocks. 

July-Aug. 

Because of the pronounced blackening of the flesh this is an unattractive 

species but it is reported to be edible. It is distinguished from R. densifolia and 

R. nigricans by the direct change of the wounded flesh to black without any 

reddening. 

R. sordida appears to be very close to R. albonigra (Krombh.) Fr. of 

Europe and may be the same species. 

RUSSULA TENUICEPS Kauff'm. Not edible 


PILEUS 2 1/2-4 J/2 in. broad, fragile, convex, becoming plane to sHghtly 

depressed, rosy red to blood-red, sometimes uniformly colored, usually whitish 

spotted or with orange blotches, viscid, glabrous, sometimes with minute 

wrinkles, pellicle separable, margin striate, flesh white, red under the pellicle, 

very fragile in mature plants, acrid, sometimes slowly, lamellae adnexed to 

free, close to crowded, narrow, white, becoming yellow-ochraceous. stipe 

2-3 1/2 in. long, %-l in. thick, nearly equal or ventricose, smooth or marked 

with fine Hnes, white or rosy tinged, spongy-stuff'ed. spores yellow-ochraceous, 

subglobose, rough (6) 6.5-8.5 (9) X 5.5-8 /x, ornamented with medium high 

to low warts usually separate or sometimes confluent into short ridges or with 

a few fine lines, very slightly reticulate. 

Gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

This is a red species with ochraceous spores and acrid taste. There does 

not appear to be any information concerning its edibihty but it is considered 

doubtful because of the acrid taste. 

RUSSULA VARIATA Banning Edible 


PILEUS l-SYi in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex, expanding and becom- 

ing depressed to nearly infundibuliform, reddish purple or brownish purple, 

often mixed with olive or green, or sometimes entirely greenish, viscid, gla- 

brous, pelhcle separable on the margin, margin not striate, sometimes with the 

peUicle cracking, flesh white or grayish under the pellicle, mild to slowly acrid. 

LAMELLAE adnate to slightly decurrent, close to crowded, narrow, forking two 

or three times, white, stipe 1 1/4-3 in. long, I/2-I in. thick, equal or nearly so, 

smooth, white, solid, spores white, subglobose, (7) 8-10 (1 1) X (6) 7-8.5 (9) /x, 

ornamented with low, separate warts and a few fine lines. 

Gregarious on the ground in woods. July-Sept. 

This species is close to R. cyanoxantha Fr. and is sometimes regarded as a 

variety of it. It diff'ers in the forked lamellae and slightly acrid taste. 

75


RUSSULA VESCA Fr. 


piLEUS 1 %-4 in. broad, convex-umbilicate becoming rather deeply de- 

pressed, sometimes plane, rather firm, brownish red with a tinge of purphsh, 

drying to dull olive-green toward margin and brownish red in center, viscid, 

glabrous or slightly pruinose, margin slightly striate-tuberculate. flesh firm, 

whitish or tinged brownish or violet under cuticle, mild, lamellae white to 

cream, close to crowded, rather narrow to moderately broad, some forked, 

adnate. stipe 1 )/^-3 in. long, 1/2-1 )4 

in. thick, nearly equal, glabrous, slightly 

wrinkled, white, staining yellowish to brownish at the base, solid, spores 

oblong, white, 6-8 (9) X 5-6 (7) )u, ornamented with low, fine, separate warts 

and some fine lines. 

On the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

This is a rather dull reddish brown species sometimes drying greenish, 

with lamellae close to crowded, mild taste and white spore deposit. R. brun- 

neola Burl, is probably the same species. The mild taste would suggest that it is 

probably edible but definite information about it appears to be lacking. 

RUSSULA VETERNOSA Fr. sensu Kaufifm. Not edible 

PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex, becoming plane or sHghtly depressed, 

rosy red or flesh colored, fading to whitish or yellow on the disk, viscid when 

wet, glabrous, pellicle separable only on the margin, margin even or slightly 

striate, flesh white, reddish under the pellicle, very acrid, lamellae adnate, 

close, narrow, some short ones present, at first white becoming straw colored. 

stipe 2-3 in. long, )/i-% in. thick, equal, smooth, white, fragile, stuff'ed or 

hollow. SPORES pale yellowish, subglobose, 7-9 (10) X 6-8 Mj ornamented with 

moderately high warts and spines, separate or more or less joined by Hnes and 

ridges but scarcely reticulate. 

Scattered or gregarious on the ground in frondose woods. Aug.-Sept. 

Different authors seem to have different ideas about this species and there 

is considerable doubt as to what R. veternosa really is. This is beHeved to be the 

same fungus as that described by Kauflfman under this name. 

It is a species with the pileus red, paler on the disk, acrid taste and pale 

yellow spore deposit. The stipe is never red. Definite information concerning 

its edibility appears to be lacking but it is not recommended because of the 

acrid taste. 

RUSSULA XERAMPELINA (Schaeff*. ex Seer.) Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, firm, convex, becoming plane or shghtly depressed, 

colors variable, more or less reddish purple on the margin to olive green in the 

center, or colors mixed with brownish purple or olivaceous, dry, glabrous to 

76

AMANITA 

pruinose, pellicle scarcely separable, margin even, flesh white, pinkish under 

the peUicle, taste mild, odor disagreeable, somewhat fishy in age or on drying. 

LAMELLAE adncxcd, close to subdistant, narrowed behind, some forked, whitish 

to cream colored, stipe 1 1/2-3 in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick, equal or nearly so, 

smooth or slightly wrinkled, white or reddish becoming dingy olivaceous 

yellow when handled or in age, solid or somewhat spongy, spores pale yellow, 

subglobose, (7) 8-10 (1 1) X (5.5) 6-8.5 (9) m, ornamented with rather promi- 

nent, separate warts and spines. 

Scattered on the ground in woods. Aug.-Oct. 

The principal distinguishing characters of this species are the unpleasant 

fishy odor and the pronounced graying of the lamellae on drying. The odor 

may not be detected in fresh specimens until they have begun to dry. The 

colors of the pileus are variable and the species is easier to identify from dried 

material than fresh because of the characteristic graying of the lamellae. 

R. squalida Peck has a similar odor and the spores are very similar. The 

lamellae also become gray on drying but the pileus dries to an olivaceous or 

greenish color rather than the vinaceous red of R. xerampelina. R. serissima 

Peck seems to be very similar to R. squalida, mainly differing in having larger 

spores. 

AMANITA 

For anyone interested in eating mushrooms, Amanita is the most impor- 

tant of all the genera because it is here that the deadly poisonous species belong. 

It is absolutely essential for the beginner to learn the diagnostic characters of 

this genus and avoid it. It is true that some Amanita species are edible, but until 

these species are known beyond any possibility of doubt, no Amanita should be 

eaten. 

Amanita is characterized by the combination of three principal characters: 

white spore deposit and presence of both annulus and volva. The lamellae are 

typically free from the stipe but in a few species they may be narrowly attached 

or attached by a line. The stipe separates readily from the pileus. 

The annulus is formed from a layer of tissue extending from the stipe to 

the margin of the pileus and enclosing the lamellae during the button stage. 

As the pileus expands, this layer of tissue tears apart around the margin of the 

pileus and remains adhering to the stipe as a more or less definite ring. If this 

layer of tissue is delicate, the ring may be poorly formed and easily rubbed off 

or evanescent, hence great care should be taken before deciding that an annulus 

is absent. 

The volva is, perhaps, the most important character and it is also the one 

most easily missed by careless collecting. It is a layer of tissue completely enclosing 

the young button, which at this stage may resemble a puffball. How- 

ever, if it is cut open the outline of the young mushroom can be seen (Figure 

77


91, p. 48). The true puffballs are homogeneous within. As the pileus expands, 

the volva becomes torn. This may occur in different ways. In some species it 

tears across the top and the mushroom emerges leaving the volva as a loose 

membranous sheath enclosing the base of the stipe (Figure 90, p. 48). In other 

species it may tear around the margin of the pileus and part of it remains on the 

surface of the pileus as warts or patches whereas the remainder more or less 

tightly encloses the base of the stipe, sometimes forming a series of irregular 

rings and patches or sometimes appearing as a more or less evident collar 

(Figure 103, p. 50). In some species the volva is friable and powdery and tends 

to disappear. The volva is often buried in the ground and in order to identify 

them correctly it is necessary to collect Amanita species very carefully, making 

certain to get the base of the stipe. 

In spite of the interest of many students in this genus, the identity of a 

number of the species is still in doubt. It is thus advisable to avoid all species 

of the genus when collecting for the table. 

Key 


1. Pileus not predominantly white 4 

2. Volva forming ragged scales and rings on the stipe; 

spores nonamyloid white form of A. muscaria 

2. Volva not as above; spores amyloid 3 

3. Fruiting body entirely pure white; volva forming a loose sac-like 

sheath enclosing the bulb A. virosa 

3. Pileus tinged greenish yellow; volva usually adnate to the bulb 

but separable at the margin A. citrina 

4. Pileus brown, reddish brown, or yellow-brown 5 

4. Pileus not predominantly brown 10 

5. Wounds in flesh and stipe staining brown or reddish 6 

5. Wounds not conspicuously staining 8 

6. Bulb abrupt, expanded cup-shaped, depressed-marginate, firm, 

often splitting vertically; spores globose A. brunnescens 

6. BulS clavate or ovoid, not as above, spores ellipsoid 7 

7. Yellow tones present in pileus, warts, or annulus A. flavorubescens 

7. No yellow tones present; entire fruit body reddening A. rubescens 

8. Annulus gray; bulb not collared; spores amyloid A. porphyria 

8. Annulus white; bulb with a collar; spores nonamyloid 9 

9. Pileus with creamy margin, brownish disk, very large A. velatipes 

9. Pileus yellowish to dark brown with white warts, usually rather small A. pantherina 

10. Pileus orange or red, at least on the disk 11 

10. Pileus yellow or paler, lacking orange or red tones 14 

11. Lamellae clear yellow; volva loose, sac-like A. caesarea 

11. Lamellae white or cream; volva not sac-like 12 

78

AMANITA 

12. Volva powdery; pileus nonstriate; spores amyloid A. flavoconia 

12. Volva not powdery; pileus striate; spores nonamyloid 13 

13. Pileus large; volva ragged, in rings and scales on the stipe A. muscaria 

13. Pileus usually small; volva a small white boot with a slight collar A. frostiana 

14. Pileus not striate at margin 15 

14. Pileus conspicuously striate at the margin 16 

15. Pileus pale greenish yellow; bulb abruptly globose A. citrina 

15. Pileus deeper yellow to yellow-brown; bulb clavate or 

tapering down A. ftavorubescens 

16. Lamellae clear yellow; volva loose, sac-like A. caesarea 

16, Lamellae white or cream; volva not loose and sac-like 17 

17. Volva forming ragged rings and scales on the stipe; 

pileus color lacking brown tones A. russuloides 

17. Volva closely enclosing bulb and with a more or less free, collared margin 18 

18. Pileus creamy yellowish or buff, lacking brown tones, usually small ... A. gemmata 

18. Pileus with brown tones 19 

19. Pileus with creamy margin, brownish disk, very large, fragile A. velatipes 

19. Pileus yellowish to dark brown with white warts, 

usually rather small A. pantherina 

AMANITA BRUNNESCENS Atk. Poisonous 


PILEUS 1 54-4 (5) in. broad, convex, becoming expanded, often with a 

broad obtuse umbo, dark brown, smoky brown, or olive-brown, paler on the 

margin, usually somewhat streaked with innate fibrils, viscid, decorated with 

whitish or pallid brownish, floccose warts or patches which may disappear, 

sometimes faintly striate on the margin, flesh thin except on the margin, 

white, tending to stain reddish brown, odor faint, lamellae free or almost so, 

creamy white, close, rather broad, narrowing toward the stipe, with many 

short lamellulae interspersed, stipe 3-6 in. long, i/4-% in. thick, with an 

abrupt, hard, marginate bulb whose margin splits longitudinally in a very 

characteristic manner, equal or tapering upward above the bulb, stuffed with 

a pith, subglabrous or minutely scurfy, white, staining reddish brown from 

the base upward, annulus large, membranous, collapsing against the stipe, 

white or pallid, staining reddish brown, volva dingy white to pallid brownish, 

breaking up into membranous-floccose fragments, some of which may cling to 

the pileus or bulb margin, usually leaving no trace on the bulb, spores amyloid, 

smooth, white, globose, 7-9 (10) /x- 

In groups or scattered, on the ground in woods. July-Sept. 

Bruises and wounds of the pileus and stipe stain reddish brown. The mar- 

ginate bulb and globose spores distinguish this species from A. rubescens. 

However, it is very easy to confuse these two species, and, as one is poisonous 

and the other edible, a mistake might be serious. A. brunnescens var. pallida 

Krieger is a whitish form which Singer has called Amanita aestivalis. 

79


AMANITA CAESAREA (Scop, ex Fr.) Pers. ex Schw. Edible 

Frontispiece; Figures 90, 91, 92, page 48 

piLEUS 2-4 in. broad or larger, fleshy, hemispherical, bell-shaped, or con- 

vex, expanding to nearly plane, sometimes obtusely umbonate, deep reddish 

orange on the disk, shading to bright yellow on the margin, or entirely clear 

yellow with disk slightly deeper in color, smooth, viscid, glabrous, prominently 

striate on the margin, flesh thin, white or tinged yellowish, odor faint, lamel- 

lae free or attached by a line, close to crowded, moderately broad, yellow. 

STIPE 3-8 in. long, J4-/4 in. thick, scarcely bulbous, subequal or tapering 

toward the apex, hollow, glabrous or slightly floccose-scaly below the annulus, 

yellow. ANNULUS soft, membranous, yellow to orange, hanging down loosely 

around the stipe, volva thick, white, membranous, at first encasing the entire 

fruit body to form a structure the size and shape of a hen's egg, spHtting open 

at the apex as the stipe elongates and the pileus pushes up through, and finally 

encasing the base of the stipe as a loose, free-margined sac. spores nonamyloid, 

smooth, white, oval, 8-9.5 (11.5) X 6-7.5 (8) fi. 

Oct. 

Solitary or in groups or large fairy rings on the ground in woods. July- 

This mushroom is southern in distribution and seems to be rare as far 

north as Canada. There are specimens in the herbarium at Ottawa from Elgin 

County in Ontario and from Kentville, Nova Scotia. It is also said to occur in 

abundance around Quebec City. 

A. caesarea is said to be a fine edible mushroom, but anyone collecting it 

for food should first be very certain of its correct identification. The poisonous, 

A. muscaria has similar colors on the pileus but can readily be distinguished if 

a careful examination is made of the volva and other characters such as the 

color of the lamellae, stipe, and annulus. 

AMANITA CITRINA (Schaeff.) S. F. Gray Suspected 


PILEUS 1.5-3.5 in. broad, convex becoming expanded, pale lemon-yellow 

or almost white, viscid when moist, decorated with appressed, friable, whitish 

or dingy buff, volval patches which may disappear, nonstriate on the margin. 

FLESH rather thin, white, lamellae free or sHghtly attached, close, moderately 

broad, creamy white, floccose on the edges, stipe 3-5 in. long, Va-Vi 

in. thick, 

equal or tapering slightly toward the apex, whitish, entirely glabrous or slightly 

scurfy at the base, stuffed or hollow, with a rather soft, globose bulb, annulus 

creamy yellow or whitish, fragile, membranous, collapsing against the stipe. 

VOLVA whitish to dingy buff, membranous, more or less adnate to the soft bulb 

but usually separable at the margin, occasionally exceeding the bulb margin 

slightly. SPORES amyloid, smooth, white, globose, 7-9 m- 

Solitary or scattered on the ground in woods. Aug. -Oct. Fairly common, 

at least in Eastern Canada. 

80

AMANITA 

This mushroom has been known in North America as A. mappa, but the 

correct name is A. citrina. Bruises on the pileus, lamellae, and stipe tend to stain 

reddish brown. It has been reported as nonpoisonous but is better avoided. 

AMANITA FLAVOCONIA Atk. Possibly poisonous 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex, expanding to almost plane, sometimes 

broadly umbonate, brilliant orange to bright yellow, the entire pileus more or 

less unicolorous, usually paling slightly toward the margin, smooth, viscid, 

with scattered, very friable, floccose or granular-powdery patches of the bright 

yellow volva, soon becoming glabrous, nonstriate on the margin, occasionally 

becoming faintly short-striate in places in age. flesh thin except on the disk, 

white or tinged yellow next to the pellicle, odor not distinctive, lamellae free 

or almost so, white or creamy, often yellow on the edges, close, moderately 

broad, stipe 2-5 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, equal or tapering upward from the 

oval to clavate-bulbous base, stuffed, then hollow, white or pale yellow, 

pruinose above the annulus, minutely scurfy below, usually with a few friable, 

yellow, volval fragments clinging to it. annulus membranous, creamy to 

yellow. VOLVA entirely bright yellow, very friable, floccose to granular-powdery 

present on the pileus in scattered friable warts, a few fragments usually clinging 

to the stipe but most remaining in the soil when the fruit body is collected. 

spores smooth, white, ovoid, amyloid, 7-9 (10) X (4.5) 5-6 (7) m- 

Fairly common at least in Eastern Canada, scattered or in groups on the 

ground in woods. June-Sept. 

The two orange-yellow species most hkely to be confused with this one, 

A. muscaria and A. frostiana, are both conspicuously striate, and both have 

nonamyloid spores. A. flavoconia has much more brilhant coloring than 

A.flavorubescens and the base of the stipe does not stain reddish. 

AMANITA FLAVORUBESCENS Atk. Suspected 


PILEUS fleshy, 1 1/^-4 in. broad, convex to campanulate or broadly gibbous, 

expanding, hght yellow to deep, dull yellow, or tinged olive-yellow, often dingy 

yellow-brown to umber on the disk, bruising brown to reddish brown, smooth, 

slightly viscid, decorated with small, very floccose warts which vary in color 

from brilhant ochre-yellow to dingy buff", nonstriate, or in places faintly striate 

on the margin, flesh thin except on the disk, white or tinged yellow, bruising 

reddish, lamellae moderately broad to rather narrow, free or attached by a 

line, close, creamy white, stipe 2-55/2 in. long, y^-\ in. thick, equal or tapering 

upward, sHghtly swollen at the base to form an oval-clavate bulb, occasionally 

tapering below the bulb, stuffed or hollow, white or tinged yellow above, 

staining reddish toward the base, pruinose or minutely floccose, sometimes 

bearing a few bright yellow volval fragments, annulus membranous, fragile, 

81


yellowish on the lower surface, creamy white with a yellow margin on the upper 

surface, striate, volva on the bulb thick, membranous, sordid buff, staining 

reddish, usually forming a neat appressed boot so tightly appressed as to be 

inconspicuous and overlooked, occasionally leaving rings of dingy tissue on 

the stipe above the bulb, present on the pileus in dingy buff, floccose warts, or 

(especially in young buttons) in bright yellow, floccose fragments, a few of 

which may cling to the stipe or annulus but which seem to be lacking from the 

bulb except perhaps around its margin, spores smooth, white, amyloid, ellip- 

soid, 7.5-9 (10) X 5.5-6.5 ^l. 

Solitary or in groups on the ground in woods. June-Sept. 

This seems to be a rather rare Amanita^ although it may not be uncommon 

in certain localities. The combination of reddening stipe base, lack of any 

orange-red coloring in the pileus, and amyloid, ellipsoid spores will distinguish 

it from other yellowish species. The warts frequently disappear from the pileus, 

leaving it glabrous. The thick white flesh of the bulb may pull apart into slight 

scales or rings as the mushroom grows. 

AMANITA FROSTIANA Peck Not edible 


PILEUS X-lYi in. broad, convex, expanding to plane, deep orange or 

reddish orange on the disk, often changing to clear yellow on the margin, 

conspicuously striate, viscid, bearing scattered, friable-floccose warts which 

are usually yellow or more rarely whitish with a few bright yellow fragments 

clinging to them, flesh thin, white, tinged yellow beneath the cuticle, odor not 

distinctive, lamellae free, moderately broad, close, white or tinged creamy 

yellow, at times yellow-marginate. stipe 2-4 J/2 in. long, about i/i in. thick, 

subequal or tapering upward above the small, oval or subglobose bulb, stuffed, 

becoming hollow, white or pale yellow, subglabrous. annulus fragile, mem- 

branous, often yellow, volva on the bulb forming a Httle white boot with a 

free collar at the margin, usually with few to many bright yellow friable frag- 

ments clinging to the bulb and stipe base, on the pileus either entirely yellow 

and friable, or at times white-floccose with a few bright yellow friable frag- 

ments adhering, spores nonamyloid, smooth, white, subglobose to globose, 

apiculate, 7.5-9.5 X 7-9 /x- 

rare. 

Solitary or in groups on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. Rather 

This species is easily confused with both A. muscaria and A. flavoconia, 

although it differs from both in its globose spores and the collared white boot 

on the bulb. From A. muscaria it also differs in its small stature and the yellow 

friable warts on the pileus. The nonamyloid spores and the prominent stria- 

tions on the pileus margin are further characters that separate it from A.flavo- 

conia. 

It is said to be nonpoisonous but the danger of confusing it with A. mus- 

caria is too great and it should be avoided at all times. 

82

AMANITA 

AMANITA GEMMATA (Fr.) Gill. Doubtful 


PILEUS %-2J4 

in. broad, at first ovoid to convex, expanding to plane, 

slightly depressed in center, occasionally subumbonate, smooth, viscid, gla- 

brous or with floccose-membranous, whitish warts on the disk, pale creamy 

yellow on the margin, more dingy yellowish to buff on the disk, margin con- 

spicuously striate, flesh soft, fragile, thin, white or tinged creamy yellow, odor 

not distinctive, lamellae free, close, broad in comparison to the flesh, creamy 

white, edge minutely flocculose. stipe 2-4 in. long, Ys-Vs in. thick, nearly 

equal or tapering upward shghtly, with a small, round to oval bulb about 

*/4-% in. diam. at the base, whitish, finely pruinose at the apex, subglabrous 

to appressed-floccose or appressed-fibrillose below, stuffed becoming hollow. 

annulus white, membranous, fragile, evanescent or sometimes remaining 

attached to the margin of the pileus. volva adnate to the bulb, at first with a 

slight free margin forming a collar at the top of the bulb, this later disappearing 

and leaving a slightly torn bulb margin, spores white, subglobose to globose, 

nonamyloid, 7-10 (11) X 7-9.5 m- 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. June-Sept. 

This is a rather small, creamy yellowish to buff colored Amanita. The 

annulus is very fragile and may disappear very soon so that one would be 

inclined to look for the species in Amanitopsis. It might be confused with 

A. russuloides. 

Konrad and Maublanc assert that they have eaten this species and that it 

is edible; however it cannot be recommended. 

AMANITA MUSCARIA Fr. Deadly poisonous 

Figures 103, 104, page 50; 133, 134, page 71 

Fly Agaric 

PILEUS 3-8 in. broad, hemispherical, becoming convex, then expanded, 

viscid when fresh, striate on the margin, blood-red to scarlet, orange, or yellow, 

or sometimes white, darkest on the disk, adorned with thick floccose to pyra- 

midal warts which are whitish or tinged buff or straw-yellow, flesh white or 

creamy, moderately thick on the disk, thinning to a line at the margin, tinged 

yellow under the cuticle, odor not distinctive, lamellae free but reaching the 

stipe, close to crowded, rather broad, white or creamy, often minutely floccose 

on the edges, stipe 4-8 in. long, V2-% in. thick, equal or tapering upward 

above the clavate bulb, stuffed, whitish or tinged yellow, subglabrous above, 

lacerate-scaly toward the base from the remains of the torn volva. annulus 

large, membranous, white to yellowish, volva whitish or tinged buff or straw 

color, broken up into rings of shaggy scaliness on bulb and base of stipe, in 

thick warts on the pileus. spores nonamyloid, smooth, white, ellipsoid, 8-1 1 X 

6-8 M. 

On the ground in scattered groups or large colonies, sometimes in fairy 

rings, along roadsides and in open woods. July-Oct. 

83


This poisonous Amanita is fairly common and widely distributed. The 

ragged volval scales on the stipe are very characteristic but the scales on the 

pileus may become washed off by rains. On the west coast of North America 

the form with reddish pileus seems to be the common one; while in the East the 

pileus tends to be yellow to orange. A white form is sometimes found. For a 

comparison with A.frostiana and A.flavoconia, see the notes on those species. 

See also the notes on A. velatipes. 

AMANITA PANTHERINA (DC. ex Fr.) Seer. Deadly poisonous 

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, convex at first, becoming expanded to nearly plane, 

viscid, surface covered with whitish, pyramidal warts which later may fall off 

or be washed off, typically smoky brown in color but varying to yellowish 

brown or olive-brown, sometimes quite yellowish, margin striate, flesh 

whitish, thick in center to thin at margin, odor not distinctive, lamellae 

white, free or attached by a line at first, close to crowded, with 1-2 tiers of 

lamellulae. stipe 2^/2-4 in. long, %-% in. thick, swollen at the base, white, 

silky above the annulus, fibrillose below, stuffed, annulus median or superior, 

floccose-membranous, fibrillose below, margin yellowish to grayish brown. 

VOLVA closely adhering to the bulb as a sheath with a free collar, sometimes 

leaving a few concentric rings of volval tissue on the stipe, forming whitish 

warts on the pileus. spores white, smooth, nonamyloid, broadly ellipsoid to 

ovoid, (8) 9-11 (12) X 6.5-8 }x. 

Under conifers apparently only along the west coast. May-Nov. 

This is a very poisonous mushroom and according to Smith (1949) 

it has caused more deaths in Europe than A. muscaria, which usually receives 

more publicity. All of the records in our herbarium are from British Columbia 

except one, which is from the Yukon. A. pantherina may not occur in eastern 

North America but it has been included because of its very poisonous properties. 

It is reported to be variable in color, typically brown but sometimes 

varying to yellow. Yellow forms may be confused with A. muscaria but the 

collar-like margin of the volva should distinguish it. A. velatipes is paler, 

larger, and more fragile. 

AMANITA PORPHYRIA (A. & S. ex Fr.) Seer. Suspected 


PILEUS 1-2 )/2 ir^- broad, convex, becoming expanded, sometimes broadly 

subumbonate, brown to gray-brown or muddy brown, smooth, viscid, usually 

bearing a few remnants of the friable, gray volva, nonstriate, tending to remain 

for a long time decurved on the margin, flesh thin, white, odor not distinctive. 

LAMELLAE free, close, moderately broad, creamy white, stipe 2-41/2 in. long, 

Va-Vi 

bulb, often patterned with innate gray flecking on a white background. 

ANNULUS thin, membranous, ashy gray, collapsing against the stipe. Volva 

84 

in. thick, equal or tapering upward above the rather soft, subglobose

AMANITA 

pallid or grayish on the bulb, usually separable at the margin, often leaving a 

few friable, gray patches on the pileus, and around the stipe base, spores 

amyloid, smooth, white, globose, 7-9 /z. 

Sohtary or in groups of several on the ground in woods. Aug.-Oct. 

Infrequent. 

The brown pileus, ashy gray annulus and soft, globose bulb are the dis- 

tinguishing marks of this species. A. tomentella Krombh. is said to differ in the 

densely powdery, gray coating of the pileus and stipe. A form answering to 

the description of A. tomentella is occasionally collected and seems distinct 

from the usually glabrous A. porphyria. Whether or not this is a variation of 

A. porphyria is a question. A. porphyria often bears a few fragments of gray 

pulverulence on the pileus and occasionally it has a rather large powdery 

volval patch. A. spreta Peck is another brown to umber species in which the 

stipe is equal throughout and not bulbous at the base. 

AMANITA RUBESCENS (Pers. ex Fr.) Gray Edible 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, at first ovoid, expanding to convex or with a broad 

obtuse umbo, variable in color, usually dingy reddish or dull reddish brown, 

often with muddy brown or olive-umber shades present, shghtly viscid, 

adorned with numerous, floccose, grayish or dirty pinkish scales which are 

readily washed off, nonstriate or the extreme margin indistinctly striate. 

FLESH thin, soft, white, staining reddish, odor not distinctive, lamellae free or 

scarcely attached, close to crowded, moderately broad, narrowing toward the 

stipe, dingy white, staining reddish, stipe stout, sometimes slightly excentric, 

3-8 in. long, )4-% in. thick, swollen at the base, subequal or tapering up- 

ward, stuffed, subglabrous to minutely fibrillose, staining dingy pink to 

reddish, annulus large, membranous, fragile, collapsing against the stipe, 

dingy white or pale greenish yellow, staining pinkish, volva fragile, gray, 

tinged sordid reddish, breaking up into scales on the pileus, usually lacking 

or almost so on the stipe base as most of the fragments remain in the soil. 

spores amyloid, smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-9 (10) X 5-7 }i. 

Sohtary or scattered, on the ground in woods. July-Sept. 

This is one of the edible species of Amanita, but the danger of confusing 

it with the poisonous A. brunnescens is great. Wounds and bruises in A. rubescens 

stain a sordid reddish color, while in A. brunnescens the stains are more 

reddish brown. A. brunnescens has a marginate bulb and globose spores. 

A. flavorubescens also stains reddish, but the dull yellow coloring, especially 

in the pileus margin, should distinguish it. 

AMANITA RUSSULOIDES Peck 


Poisonous 

PILEUS 1-2 1/2 in. broad, convex, expanding to plane, prominently striate 

on the margin, smooth, viscid, pale straw-yellow to yellowish buff, paler on 

85


the margin, occasionally bearing a few whitish volval fragments, flesh thin, 

white. LAMELLAE free or almost so, close to crowded, not broad, white or 

creamy, stipe 2-4 (5) in. long, Y^-Va in. thick, tapering upward slightly above 

the clavate bulb, white or pallid, annulus membranous, collapsed against the 

stipe, sometimes disappearing, volva white or pallid, in ragged rings and 

fragments up the stipe, resembling the volva of A. muscaria. spores smooth, 

white, nonamyloid, ellipsoid, 8-10.5 (11.5) X 5.5-7.5 /x. 

Scattered, on the ground in open places. July-Sept. Infrequent to rare. 

This Peck species, which is infrequently collected, has been relegated by 

most authors to the long list of synonymy with A. junquillea and A. gemmata. 

However, it does not belong in that group. As Peck himself says, "The bulb is 

ovate and the volva fragile and easily broken into fragments. Its nearest 

relationship is with A. [Agaricus] muscarius. . . . ''A. russuloides can be distin- 

guished by its small stature, its straw colored, striate pileus, its muscaria-type 

volva, and its nonamyloid, ellipsoid spores. 

A. russuloides may be confused with A. gemmata but the latter is more 

creamy yellow in color and it has globose spores, an evanescent annulus and 

an inconspicuous volva that is often marked only by a slight torn hne around 

the margin of the bulb. It lacks the ragged volval fragments on the stipe that 

are characteristic of A. russuloides. 

Definite information regarding its edibility appears to be lacking but it 

should be avoided. 

AMANITA VELATIPES Atk. Doubtful 


PILEUS large, 3-5 Yi in. broad, fleshy, ovoid in the button stage, later con- 

vex and finally broadly expanded, striate on the margin, in age grooved-striate 

or somewhat tuberculate-striate, smooth on the disk, viscid, creamy yellow, 

usually darkening to brownish or umber on the disk and paUng to cream on 

the margin (or, according to Atkinson, at times entirely hair-brown), deco- 

rated with thick, dingy white, floccose warts, flesh moderately thick on the 

disk, thinning to a line at the margin, white, tinged yellowish beneath the 

cuticle, odor faint, lamellae free, broad, elliptical, crowded, creamy white, 

slightly floccose on the edges, with many shorter, truncate lamellulae of varying 

lengths present, stipe stout, 5-8 in. long, Y^-\ in. thick, subequal or tapering 

upward slightly, clavate-bulbous, stuff'ed with a pith or becoming hollow 

within, dry, creamy white, minutely pruinose at the apex, annulus large, 

membranous, creamy white, median, collapsed against the stipe, volva thick, 

membranous, dingy white, tightly booting the clavate bulb but with a more or 

less free, thick margin, sometimes leaving one or two rings of tissue on the 

stipe above the bulb, scattered in thick, dingy white, floccose warts on the 

pileus. spores nonamyloid, smooth, white, ellipsoid, 8-10 X 6-7 m- 

Scattered or in groups on the ground in open woods, or in grassy places 

at the edge of woods. July-Sept. 

86

AMANITA 

This large Amanita, with its pale yellowish color, has been mistaken at 

first glance for a faded A. muscaria by more than one collector. Plate 6 in 

Giissow and Odell labeled A. muscaria is undoubtedly A. velatipes. However, 

the complete lack of any orange-red coloring, even in buttons, and the neat 

volval boot on the stipe will distinguish it. The booted stipe has caused some 

people to call this mushroom A. cothurnata Atk., and certainly these two are 

very closely related. The type specimens of both these Atkinson species have 

been examined. A. cothurnata is a small slender mushroom, pure white or with 

a very faint tinge of color on the disk, and with shghtly broader spores which 

are thus more broadly ovoid than ellipsoid in shape. 

Amanita glabriceps Peck, which has elliosoid and not globose spores as 

stated by Peck, is a later synonym. 

There is no information concerning the edibihty of this species but it 

should be left alone. 

AMANITA VI ROSA Lam. ex Seer. Deadly poisonous 

Figures 115, page 52; 291, page 193 

Destroying Angel 

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, at first ovoid, becoming convex and finally ex- 

panded, nonstriate, pure white, at times becoming faintly discolored on the 

disk, viscid, glabrous, rarely bearing a patch of volval membrane, flesh soft, 

white, thin except on the disk, developing a disagreeably sweet odor, lamel- 

lae free or reaching the stipe by a line, close to crowded, fairly broad, white, 

often minutely flocculose on the edges, stipe 3-8 in. long, |4-% ii^- thick, 

swollen at the base to a clavate or oval bulb, equal above or tapering upward, 

smooth or appressed-fibrillose, sometime floccose, white, stuffed within. 

ANNULUS large, white, membranous, hanging skirt-like near the apex of the 

stipe or clinging in shreds to the pileus margin, volva white, membranous, 

sac-like, loosely encasing the bulb and stipe base, usually extending up the 

stipe well beyond the bulb, spores amyloid, smooth, white, subglobose varying 

to ovoid or elHpsoid, (8) 9-10.5 (12) X (7) 8-9.5 (10) /z. 

Solitary or scattered on the ground in woods, sometimes on lawns beneath 

trees. July-Oct. Frequent. 

This is the most deadly poisonous of our wild mushrooms. Everyone 

collecting mushrooms should learn to recognize it. The distinguishing marks 

are the pure white color of all parts, the presence of annulus and sac-like volva, 

the free lamellae and the white spore print. The volva may be left in the ground 

and overlooked if the mushroom is pulled carelessly. The danger of mistaking 

A. virosa for the edible Lepiota naucina is great, and a mistake could be fatal. 

The folly of applying simple popular 'tests' to determine the edibility of a 

mushroom is well illustrated here. The pileus o^ A. virosa peels readily, and yet 

many people use this peehng test as a proof of edibility. 

A. verna (Lam. ex Fr.) Pers. ex Vitt. is said to differ in having truly ellip- 

87


soid spores. In the collections of A. virosa in the herbarium at Ottawa, spores 

vary from globose to ellipsoid. Most specimens have at least some eUipsoid 

spores and a few have a considerable number of truly ellipsoid spores, but 

always mixed with globose ones. It does not seem possible in our collections to 

separate two species on the basis of spore shape or other characters. Since 

globose spores predominate, it seems best to use the name A. virosa for our 

species. 

A. bisporigera Atk. seems to be identical with A. virosa except for the 

2-spored basidia. Size is not a distinguishing feature as A. bisporigera can vary 

from very large to very small. 

A. virosa has been mistakenly called A. phalloides in North America. The 

true A. phalloides, however, is a greenish species native to Europe, which has 

not yet been found in Canada but may possibly occur in Cahfornia. 

Amanita aestivalis Singer is not a synonym of A. virosa but of A, brun- 

nescens var. pallida Krieger. It would key to this place in the above key but it 

has a marginate bulb which bruises reddish brown, and its volva is not loose 

and sac-like. 

AMANITOPSIS 

Species of Amanitopsis are white-spored. They have the lamellae free from 

the stipe, and possess a volva but no annulus. They are very similar to species 

of Amanita in appearance and stature, differing only in the absence of an 

annulus, and some authors do not regard them as generically distinct from 

Amanita. The name Amanitopsis has been officially conserved against the 

earlier name Vaginata. 

It is not a large genus and, except for the varieties of Amanitopsis vaginata, 

the species are not commonly collected. None are known to be poisonous but 

because of their great similarity to Amanita and the danger of mistaking an 

Amanita that may have lost its annulus for an Amanitopsis, the amateur 

should avoid using these species as food until he is thoroughly familiar with 

them. 

88 


140. Amanita russuloides. 141. A. russuloides. 

142. A. flavorubescens. 143. A. velatipes. 

144. Amanitopsis vaginata. 145. Armillaria imperialis. 

146. A.mellea. 147. Limacella glischra. 

148. L. illinita. 149. Lepiota acutaesquamosa.

Figure 150, Lepiota naucina. Note that the base of the stipe is somewhat bulbous 

but no volva is present, also note the rather stiff annulus which stands out from 

the stipe. 

151. Lepiota brunnea. 

153. L. cristata. 

155. Pleurotus applicatus. 

157. P. subpalmatus. 

159. C clavipes. 

90 


152. L. clypeolaria. 

154. Cystoderma cinnabarinum. 

156. P. porrigens. 

158. Clitocybe aurantiaca. 

1 60. C. decora.

Figures 161-163. Lepiota procera. 161, two immature fruiting bodies; 162, mature 

fruiting body; 163, young fruiting body after the partial veil has torn and formed 

92 

the annulus. Note the furfuraceous stipe.

LIMACELLA 

AMANITOPSIS VAGINATA Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, soft and fleshy, at first ovate, becoming campanulate 

or convex, then plane, umbonate, occurring in three color forms — white, 

(var. alba Sacc), tawny, (var. fulva Sacc.), or grayish, (var. livida Pk.), surface 

glabrous or occasionally bearing fragments of the volva, margin grooved- 

striate. flesh white, lamellae free, not close, moderately broad, whitish. 

STIPE 3-7 in. long, about )4 in. thick, tapering slightly towards the apex, base 

not bulbous, extending some distance into the ground, stuffed, becoming 

hollow, surface glabrous or somewhat mealy, whitish, annulus lacking. 

VOLVA ample, white, membranous, mostly underground, encasing the base of 

the stipe and usually collapsed against it. spores smooth, white, globose, 

8-10 M. 

Solitary or scattered, on the ground in woods. June-Sept. Fairly common. 

Edible but not to be confused with specimens of Amanita from which the 

annulus has disappeared, especially the poisonous Amanita spreta Pk. whose 

stipe also lacks a bulb. 

It seems probable that the three color varieties mentioned above are good 

autonomous species. They seem to be entirely distinct without intermediate 

forms. Amanitopsis inaurata (Seer.) Fayod has a gray volva and large spores. 

LIMACELLA 

Limacella is a small genus and most of the species are rather rare. They 

were formerly placed in Lepiota, but constitute a fairly well-marked, related 

group that seems worthy of generic rank. The fundamental character separat- 

ing them from Lepiota is the microscopic structure of the trama of the lamellae, 

but they can usually be recognized in the field by the viscid pileus; the stipe, 

too, is often viscid. The lamellae are free or in one species shghtly attached 

and an annulus is present. The North American species have been studied by 

Helen V. Smith (1945) and she recognized twelve species. Two species may be 

found fairly often in the Ottawa district. 

There does not appear to be much information on the edibihty of Lima- 

cella species, but since the genus is generally considered to be closely related to 

Amanita, they are probably best avoided or tried very cautiously. 

LIMACELLA GLISCHRA (Morg.) Murr. 


PILEUS %-2^/2 in. broad, convex or subumbonate, slimy-viscid, yellowbrown 

to reddish brown, flesh white, thick, soft, lamellae free, close to 

crowded, white, broad, stipe 2-3 in. long, V8-!4 in. thick, equal or nearly so, 

93


glutinous, colored like the pileus, cottony at the base, solid, annulus slight, 

evanescent, glutinous-fibrillose. spores white, subglobose, 4-6 X 4-5 î. 

Usually singly or scattered on ground in woods. Aug. -Oct. 

The rather bright colored, thick gluten covering both pileus and stipe, 

together with the white spores and free lamellae characterize this species. 

L. glioderma (Fr.) Earle is also brown but is darker and the stipe is not viscid. 

LIMACELLA ILLINITA (Fr.) Earle 


PILEUS 1 %-2)/2 in. broad, at first ovoid becoming campanulate to plane or 

subumbonate, glutinous, viscid, glabrous, white, sometimes yellowish on the 

disk. FLESH white, thin, soft, no taste, lamellae free, close, moderately broad, 

white. STIPE 2-31/2 in. long, V^-V^ in. thick, equal or tapering upward slightly, 

white, glutinous below annulus, silky above, stuffed to hollow, annulus 

fibrillose, evanescent, spores white, subglobose to broadly elHpsoid, smooth, 

5-6 X 4-5.5 11. 

Singly to gregarious on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct. 

The very glutinous white pileus and stipe, and the free lamellae distin- 

guish this species. Sometimes the gluten is so copious that it drips from the 

pileus. A form is sometimes found in which the gluten on the stipe becomes 

pinkish or red and this has been described as L. illinita var. rubescens H. V. 

Smith. 

LEPIOTA 

The genus Lepiota contains a great many species including some of the 

largest and most important edible species. It has white spores and lamellae 

free from the stipe. An annulus is present, but the volva is lacking. The stipe is 

a different texture from the flesh of the pileus and separates readily from it. An 

exception to the spores being white is found in Lepiota molybdites where they 

are greenish. 

It is an important genus for those who are interested in mushrooms as 

food. L. procera is one of the finest edible species we have and L. brunnea and 

L. americana are also very good. However, the occurrence of the poisonous 

L. molybdites, which might be mistaken for either L. procera or L. brunnea if 

spore prints are not taken, makes it important that the characters of the 

species be examined closely. 

Careful identification is particularly important in the case of L. naucina. 

This beautiful white species, which occurs commonly in lawns and meadows, 

is edible itself but has probably been indirectly responsible for many deaths 

from mushroom poisoning because of people mistaking the deadly poisonous 

94

LEPIOTA 

Amanita virosa for it. For this reason no one should eat L. naucina or any pure 

white mushroom until he is absolutely certain he knows and can recognize 

A. virosa. 

As with most of the older genera of agarics, modern investigators tend to 

spHt Lepiota into a number of smaller genera composed of groups of closely 

related species. Two of these segregated genera have been recognized here, 

Limacella including the viscid species formerly placed in Lepiota, and Cystoderma 

including the species with granulose covering of the pilei and with the 

lamellae attached to the stipe. 

Key 

1. Spore print green L. molybdites 

1. Spore print white 2 

2. Pileus glabrous, white; lamellae faintly pinkish in age L. naucina 

2. Pileus more or less scaly 3 

3. Annulus movable, fruiting bodies very large 4 

3. Annulus not movable, fruiting bodies small to medium 5 

4. Stipe glabrous, striate, turning reddish when wounded; 

fruiting body about as broad or broader than tall L. brunnea 

4. Stipe furfuraceous, not reddening when wounded; fruiting body 

much taller than broad L. procera 

5. Stipe glabrous 6 

5. Stipe clothed with a floccose or filamentous sheath, sometimes scaly 7 

6. Stipe equal, mostly less than Va, in. thick L. cristata 

6. Stipe bulbous or ventricose, mostly Va in. or more thick; 

whole fruiting body staining reddish when bruised or in age L. americana 

7. Scales of pileus erect, wart-like; spores 7-9 ju long L. acutaesquamosa 

7. Scales of pileus more or less appressed, patch-like; 

spores 10-6 ^ long L. clypeolaria 

LEPIOTA ACUTAESQUAMOSA (Weinm.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, convex expanding to almost plane, obtuse or 

broadly umbonate, bright tawny, tomentose, covered with erect, beaked or 

squarrose, tawny brown scales which gradually fall off and leave tawny, fibril- 

lose, scar-hke patches with paler flesh showing between, flesh not very thick, 

soft, white. LAMELLAE free, very crowded, unforked, moderately broad, white, 

pruinose on the edge, minutely saw-toothed, stipe 2-4 in. long, about )4 ii^- 

thick, bulbous at base, equal or tapering slightly to the apex, dingy white, 

covered with a dense cottony-fibrillose sheath, stuffed or hollow, annulus 

white, with brownish scales on the lower surface, membranous, hanging loosely 

around the stipe, sometimes disappearing, spores smooth, white, long-ellip- 

soid, 7-9 X 2.5-3 /z. 

95


In groups, on the ground or on decayed wood in woods, gardens, green- 

houses. Aug.-Sept. 

It can be recognized by its bright tawny color and spiny scales. L. friesii 

Lasch is similar but with forking lamellae. 

LEPIOTA AMERICANA Peck Edible 

Figures 126, 127, 128, page 70 

PILEUS 1-4 in. or more broad, at first subglobose or ovoid, becoming 

conic-expanded, convex, or broadly expanded, with more or less striate 

margin, dull reddish brown, breaking up into large scales except on the umbo 

and exposing the whitish flesh beneath, flesh thin, white, reddening where 

bruised, gradually turning pinkish brown with age, taste mild, lamellae free, 

close, moderately broad, narrowing toward the stipe, white, turning red where 

bruised, in dried specimens a smoky cocoa-brown color, stipe central, sepa- 

rable, 2-5 in. long, often with a decided swelHng at the base or just above the 

base, varying above from moderately stout to very slender, stuffed, glabrous, 

white, bruising reddish, annulus fairly ample, sometimes disappearing. 

spores smooth, white, broadly oval, 7-9 (11) X 5.5-6 (7) m, many shghtly 

inequilateral. 

SoHtary or in clusters, on the ground in grassy places. Rare. Aug.-Oct. 

The tendency of the entire fruiting body to redden where handled or in 

age is characteristic. In dried specimens the entire fruiting body is a smoky 

cocoa-brown color. Another distinctive character is that the stipe is usually 

broader above the base and tapers both up and down. 

LEPIOTA BRUNNEA Farlow & Burt Edible 


PILEUS 3-7 in. or more broad, thick, soft, ovoid, expanding to convex, 

then plane, brown to smoky brown, cracking (except on disk) into concentric 

rings of large, coarse, persistent scales whose outer edges become reflexed. 

FLESH beneath cuticle whitish, darkening to smoky color or reddish on expo- 

sure to air. LAMELLAE free but not remote from the stipe, broad, crowded, dull 

whitish, darkening on drying, stipe stout, central, 2-6 in. or more long, up to 

1 in. thick, with a large underground bulb at the base, silky-striate to fibrillose- 

striate, smoky brown, paler above the annulus, becoming reddish where 

wounded, hollow, easily separable from pileus. annulus large, thick, flaring, 

persistent, smoky brown on the lower surface, whitish on the upper surface, 

fixed becoming free and movable, spores smooth, white, variable in size and 

shape, eUipsoid to subglobose, inequilateral, obhquely apiculate, often trun- 

cate, (7.5) 9.5-11 X (4.5) 5.5-7 /z. 

Sohtary or in small clusters on the ground in open grassy places, laneways, 

etc. Sept.-Oct. 

96

LEPIOTA 

L. brunnea is distinguished from L. procera by its stout stature, dingy 

coloring, striate stipe, and thick recurving scales as well as by the spores. 

The poisonous L. molybdites is very similar in size and stature. If L. brun- 

nea is being collected for food, a spore print should be obtained to make certain 

the spores are white. The spores of L. molybdites are green. 

L. brunnea is very close to L. rachodes (Vitt.) Quel, (sometimes spelled 

rhacodes or racodes by different authors). The characters by which L. brunnea 

is said to differ are the darker brown color, striate stipe, and less remote 

lamellae. The most important of these characters would seem to be the striate 

stipe, and most European illustrations of L. rachodes do not show a striate 

stipe, although there is a suggestion of it in Cooke's Plate 22 in Illustrations of 

British Fungi. There are two European specimens labeled L. rachodes from 

England and Norway in the herbarium at Ottawa and in these the stipes 

appear to be identical with those of dried specimens of L. brunnea from 

Canada in which the stipe was known to be striate when fresh. On the other 

hand, A. H. Smith's photograph in Mushrooms in their Natural Habitats, 

Reel 21, No. 142, shows specimens with smooth nonstriate stipes. Since the 

species commonly collected around Ottawa does have a striate stipe we are 

referring it to L. brunnea until more information is available. From the standpoint 

of edibihty the problem is of no significance because both L. brunnea and 

L. rachodes are edible but it is very important to distinguish the poisonous 

L. molybdites. 

LEPIOTA CLYPEOLARIA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Suspected 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, at first ovate or acorn-shaped, coated with a thin 

layer of yellowish-buff or brownish tissue, expanding to campanulate-convex, 

the outer tissue being drawn apart into scales which range in color from 

creamy white to ochraceous or brown and which vary from appressed or 

floccose patches to somewhat squarrose, brown-tipped scales, the exposed flesh 

between the scales creamy white, fibrillose, the disk umbonate or obtuse, 

smooth, brownish, in age the pileus becoming nearly plane, the scaliness 

partly or almost entirely disappearing, margin often ragged with fragments of 

veil, sometimes striate, flesh thin, soft, white, lamellae free, close, moderately 

broad, white, edges somewhat floccose. stipe 1 ]/^-4 in. long, about Y^ in. 

thick, tapering slightly upward, hollow, whitish, silky-fibrillose, sheathed with 

white or creamy yellow, cottony fibrils which may partly disappear, annulus 

white, floccose, disappearing, spores smooth, white, variable in size and shape, 

subfusiform to ellipsoid, often slightly beaked or curved at one end, 10-16 

(18) X 4-6 /x. 

In groups, on the ground in open woods or fields. Aug.-Oct. 

Suspected of being poisonous. 

L. cristata may be somewhat similar in size and coloring but it has a 

glabrous stipe and quite different spores. 

97


LEPIOTA CRISTATA (A. & S. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1/4-2 in. broad, at first ovate, becoming campanulate-convex, then 

expanded, umbonate, cuticle reddish tan, intact on the umbo, elsewhere 

broken up into scales which become finer toward the margin and tend to 

disappear, leaving exposed the white surface beneath, margin sometimes 

striate, flesh thin, fleshy, white, odor rather unpleasant, taste mild, lamellae 

free, close to crowded, rather narrow, white, edges finely crenulate. stipe 

slender, equal, 1-2 in. long, about J/g in. thick, glabrous or slightly fibrillose, 

sometimes striate, stuff'ed or hollow, whitish or tinged lilac or pinkish brown. 

annulus soft, white, tending to disappear, spores white, irregular and variable, 

elliptical, wedge-shaped, or angular, 5.5-7 (8) X 3-4 /x. 

On the ground, usually in groups, in open grassy places. June-Oct. 

The glabrous stipe and the small wedge-shaped spores easily separate this 

species from L. clypeolaria. The odor of L. cristata was described as 'fishy' 

by Krieger (1936). Apparently the odor varies from strong to weak or absent 

under diff'erent conditions. 

LEPIOTA MOLYBDITES (G. Meyer ex Fr.) Sacc. Poisonous 


PILEUS 3-1 1 in. broad, sometimes even larger, at first subglobose, expanding 

to convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, buff colored, soon breaking up 

(except on disk) to form irregular patchy scales which tend to disappear, whitish 

between the scales, flesh thick, firm, white, lamellae free, remote from the 

stipe, close, broad, at first white, becoming dull green, stipe 4-8 in. or more 

long, up to 1 1/2 

in. thick at the swollen base, tapering somewhat toward the 

apex, fibrous-stuff'ed, stout and firm, glabrous, grayish white or tinged with 

brown, annulus large, thick, firm, somewhat floccose, movable, spores 

smooth, subelhptical, bright to dull green in mass, 9-12 X 6-8 m- 

In large colonies, sometimes in fairy rings. On the ground in grassy places 

and open woods. Aug.-Sept. 

L. molybdites is poisonous, at least to some people, and should be avoided 

as food. The danger of mistaking it for L. brunnea or L. rachodes is great. A 

spore print should be obtained first, if either of the latter two species is to be 

eaten. The green spore print of L. molybdites will distinguish it. The flesh of 

L. molybdites is said to redden sHghtly on bruising. This species tends to be 

southerly in distribution but has been collected near Ottawa. It has been 

generally known under the name of L. morgani Peck. Some authors place it in 

a separate genus, Chlorophyllum. 

LEPIOTA NAUCINA (Fr.) Kummer Edible: Use caution 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, soft, fleshy, at first subglobose, becoming hemi- 

spherical, then expanded-convex, white or somewhat smoky, in age darkening 

98

LEPIOTA 

to buff or leather color, smooth, dry, glabrous, or occasionally with the cuticle 

cracking into scales, flesh soft, white, thick, thinning toward the margin, 

odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae free, close, rather broad, often 

rounded behind, white, gradually taking on a pinkish tinge with age, finally 

darkening to pinkish brown, stipe stout, 2-4 in. long, up to J/2 in. in diameter, 

subequal or tapering upward from the swollen base, smooth, glabrous, pruinose 

above the ring, white, stuffed to hollow, easily separable, annulus 

median to superior, thick, white, rolling back upon itself to form a stiff, collar- 

hke ring on the stipe, persistent, becoming movable in age. spores smooth, 

white, oval to ellipsoid, shghtly inequilateral, 7-9 X 5-6 m- 

In scattered colonies on the ground in grassy places, common. Aug. -Oct. 

This species is edible, but is not recommended for food because of the 

danger of confusing it with the deadly Amanita virosa. In A. virosa the annulus 

is pendent and skirt-like. In Lepiota naucina the annulus is rolled and collar- 

Hke. If Amanita virosa is carelessly collected, the volva may be left behind and 

its presence overlooked, thus increasing the danger of mistaking it for a 

Lepiota. The two species can be distinguished with certainty by the spores. 

LEPIOTA PROCERA (Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible 

Figures 161, 162, 163, page 92 

Parasol Mushroom 

pileus 3-9 in. broad, or sometimes larger, at first subglobose or egg- 

shaped, becoming campanulate, then plane, umbonate, cuticle reddish tan 

except on the disk, soon breaking up into more or less concentric rings of 

scales which are larger and more scattered toward the margin and tend to 

disappear, exposing the finely fibrillose, white surface beneath, flesh soft, 

white, thick, thinning toward the margin, lamellae free, remote from the 

stipe, close to crowded, broad, ventricose, white, floccose on the edge, stipe 

tall and slender, 6-12 in. or more long, tapering upward from a bulbous base, 

Va-Vi 

iri- thick at the apex, white, silky-fibrillose, covered with fine, brown, 

floccose or fibrillose scales, sometimes with several brown rings of scaliness 

near the annulus, hollow, easily separable from the pileus. annulus large and 

flaring, thick, soft, movable, spores smooth, white, oval, 14-18 X 9-12 /x. 

Sohtary or in groups, on the ground in grassy places and open woods. 

July-Sept. 

L. procera is taller and more slender in stature than either L. brunnea or 

L. molybdites. Its nonstriate, floccose stipe will separate it from L. brunnea and 

its white spore print from L. molybdites. 

L. procera is one of the largest of our mushrooms and is frequently called 

the Parasol Mushroom. As long as care is taken to distinguish it from the 

green-spored L. molybdites, it is not likely to be confused with any other 

poisonous species and it is one of the most desirable mushrooms for the 

table. 

99


CYSTODERMA 

Cystoderma is characterized by having white spores, lamellae attached to 

the Stipe, a more or less distinct annulus, and a granulose covering of the 

pileus. Cystoderma species suggest Lepiota in general appearance and were 

formerly placed in that genus but are now separated from it because the lamel- 

lae are not free. Cystoderma is distinct from Armillaria in the granulose cov- 

ering of the pileus and it forms a natural group that is easily recognized in the 

field. 

They are mostly small species unlikely to interest the mycophagist but 

they are usually attractive in appearance. As far as we know, none are poison- 

ous. The species are distinguished to a large extent by microscopic characters. 

Smith & Singer (1945) have published a good monograph on the genus in 

which they recognized fourteen species and a few more have been added since. 

CYSTODERMA CINNABARINUM (Alb. & Schw. ex Seer.) Fayod Edible 


PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, at first ovoid, then expanded-convex to plane, 

finely granular-scaly with bright cinnamon to brownish orange or rusty brown 

particles, pallid between the scales, darkest on the disk, margin incurved at 

first, sometimes with fragments of the annulus clinging to it. flesh thin, 

whitish or stained rusty near the surface, lamellae at first adnate to the stipe 

but later separating from it, white or creamy, close to crowded, not broad. 

STIPE short and stout, 1-2 in. long, about )4-in. thick, equal or slightly thickened 

at the base, coated up to the annulus with mealy-granular, cinnamon 

particles, above the annulus paler and glabrous, annulus shght, disappearing. 

SPORES minute, eUipsoid, smooth, white, nonamyloid, 3.5-5 X 2.5-3 ju. CY- 

STiDiA with spear-shaped tips. 

Singly or in small groups on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct. 

This is one of the largest species of the genus and is a very attractive and 

beautiful mushroom. It is reported to be edible. C. granulosum (Batsch ex Fr.) 

Fayod and C. amianthinum (Scop, ex Fr.) Fayod are also fairly common 

species that are somewhat similar in appearance and a microscope is required 

to identify them with certainty. C. amianthinum has amyloid spores and C 

granulosum lacks cystidia on the lamellae. 

ARMILLARIA 

Armillaria is generally used to include the species that have an annulus, 

white spores, and lamellae attached to the stipe. No volva is present. It is 

generally agreed among taxonomists that the genus as so understood includes 

several groups of unrelated species but there is not agreement as to the most 

suitable way of splitting the genus in order to bring out the relationships. It 

therefore seems preferable to use it in the broad sense at present. 

100

ARMILLARIA IMPERIALIS (Fries in Lund) Quel. 


ARMILLARIA 

PILEUS 3-8 in. broad, very large and firm, at first convex, becoming 

expanded, whitish to smoky gray with innate darker fibrils near margin, 

glabrous, slightly viscid, sometimes becoming cracked on the disk, margin 

decurved, strongly inrolled at first, flesh white, thick, no odor, strong taste. 

LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, white to yellowish white, drying brownish, close, rather 

narrow, stipe 2-4 in. long, Yi-l in. thick, equal, concolorous with pileus or 

more yellowish, floccose to scaly, sohd. annulus double, the outer ring mem- 

branous, concolorous with pileus, the inner ring more filamentous, whitish, 

somewhat evanescent, spores hyahne, smooth, oblong-ellipsoid, 11-15 X 

5-6 (7) M. 

On ground under conifers, single or gregarious. Aug.-Sept. 

This is a large, massive mushroom whose fruit bodies develop slowly and 

persist for a long time. It is rather rare but is a very striking fungus when found. 

A. ventricosa (Peck) Peck is another large species with a double annulus. 

It is perhaps a httle smaller than A. imperialis, whiter in color, and has smaller 

spores 9-12 (15) X 4.0-5.5 m- 

There does not seem to be any information regarding the edibihty of these 

species but a somewhat similar large species is said to be used extensively for 

food by the Japanese on the west coast of the United States. This is Armillaria 

ponderosa (Peck) Sacc. and is as large as A. imperialis but paler in color, with 

smaller spores, and only a single annulus. This species is also known to occur 

in the East but is less common than A. imperialis. 

The species with oblong-ellipsoid spores, double veil, and decurrent 

lamellae have been placed by some authors in a separate genus, Catathelasma. 

ARMILLARIA MELLEA (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


Honey Mushroom 

pileus 1 1/4-4 in. broad, at first acorn-shaped to hemispherical with in- 

rolled margin, then convex or expanded, sometimes subumbonate, yellow- 

brown, yellow-buff or rusty tinged, minutely scaly, especially on the disk, with 

buff to brown or blackish tufts of fibrils, becoming striate on the margin. 

flesh thin except on the disk, white to rusty tinged, odor mild to slightly un- 

pleasant, taste mild or slightly acrid and unpleasant, lamellae adnate or 

subdecurrent, fairly close to subdistant, moderately broad, white or creamy, 

staining rusty brown, stipe 2-6 in. long, !4-% iri- thick, subequal or broaden- 

ing below into a clavate base, stuffed, then hollow, finely fibrillose to fibrillosescaly, 

paler than the pileus, becoming rusty stained, paler at apex, annulus 

white or tinged brown, fibrillose-membranous, subpersistent or evanescent. 

SPORES smooth, white, broadly oval, obliquely apiculate, 7.5-9.5 X 5-6.5 ^l. 

101


July-Oct. 

In dense clusters around the base of living trees and old stumps, common. 

This is perhaps the only really common species of Armillaria. It is widely 

distributed and often occurs in considerable abundance. It is rather variable 

and may confuse the amateur at first, but it has a characteristic appearance that 

is difficult to describe though soon recognized. The colors may vary consid- 

erably and the annulus may be somewhat evanescent. 

Another feature of this fungus is the presence of tough, black strands of 

mycelium which may be found under the bark of the tree or stump from which 

it is growing. These strands, sometimes called 'shoe strings' are more properly 

termed rhizomorphs. 

The unpleasant taste of this fungus when raw disappears on cooking and 

the species is widely used as food. Smith recommends it as being very good but 

suggests that younger stages should be selected. 

PLEUROTUS 

The genus Pleurotus has been used to include those species with excentric 

or lateral stipes, or lacking stipes altogether, and having a white spore deposit. 

However, in P. sapidus the spore deposit is lilac tinged and in P. subpalmatus 

it is pinkish. The genus corresponds to Claudopus in the pink-spored group 

and Crepidotus in the brown-spored group. 

Most of the species occur on decaying wood and they vary in size from 

very minute to very large. Some species might be mistaken for Clitocybe but 

the most closely related forms are to be found in Panus and Lentinus. It is now 

generally recognized that Pleurotus, Panus, and Lentinus are all artificial genera, 

and modern authors tend to redistribute the species of all three among a num- 

ber of other genera. Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kummer, which may be 

the same as P. sapidus Kalchbr., is regarded as the type species of Pleurotus. 

No poisonous species are known in Pleurotus. 

Key 

1. Pileus with excentric to central stipe 2 

1. Pileus sessile or with lateral stipe 3 

2. Pileus at first whitish, becoming tan, smooth P. ulmarius 

2. Pileus reddish tan to pinkish, veined P. subpalmatus 

3. Pileus tiny, usually much less than 1 inch across 4 

3. Pileus larger, usually more than 1 inch across 5 

4. Pileus pure white P. candidissimus 

4. Pileus gray to blackish P. applicatus 

5. Pileus olivaceous to yellow-brown P. serotinus 


102

PLEUROTUS 

6. Pileus thin, fragile, sessile P. porrigens 

6. Pileus thick, fleshy; lamellae decurrent on the lateral stipe P. sapidus 

PLEUROTUS APPLICATUS (Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS less than 54 

in. broad, sand-color to pinkish gray, darkening to 

nearly black, growing from the underside of logs, etc., sessile, resupinate, at 

first almost cyhndrical, expanding to deep cup-shaped, then saucer-shaped, 

somewhat irregular in outline because of the excentric to lateral attachment, 

coarsely pruinose, margin inrolled. flesh thin, gelatinous, lamellae radiating 

from a central point, subdistant, rounded behind, moderately broad, thick, 

with bluntly rounded edges, sand-color to dark gray, densely pruinose, alter- 

nate lamellae short, stipe lacking, or sometimes with the thickened flesh at the 

point of attachment prolonged into a stubby, stipe-Hke base, densely pruinose 

to white-mycehoid at the base, spores smooth, white, subglobose, 4-5 n in 

diameter. 

In groups on decaying wood. Aug.-Oct. 

This tiny mushroom is not common and will often be overlooked because 

of its small size and its occurrence on the underside of logs and planks. When 

dry it tends to fold up and appears as a small blackish spot on the wood, which 

at first glance, would not be taken for a mushroom. However, when moistened 

and expanded, the numerous fruiting bodies with their radiating lamellae form 

rather a pretty sight. It is obviously not closely related to other species that 

have been placed in Pleurotus and is not hkely to be confused with any of them. 

Trogia crispa Fr. may also be found on the underside of branches, growing 

resupinate at times, but it is larger and the upper surface is reddish tan to 

yellowish in color. 

PLEUROTUS CANDIDISSIMUS B. & C. 


PILEUS pure white, thin, soft, V8-% ^^- broad, laterally attached, sessile or 

almost so but never resupinate, white-mycelioid at the point of attachment, 

semicircular to shell-shaped or fan-shaped in outline, at first convex with 

inrolled margin, expanding to nearly plane, with a soft powdery appearance to 

the surface, somewhat radiately wrinkled in dried specimens, flesh thin, white, 

membranous, stipe absent or insignificant, lateral, minutely tomentose, whit- 

ish. LAMELLAE reaching the point of attachment or (if stipe is present) subdecurrent, 

distant or subdistant, broad, narrowing toward each end, creamy 

white, with edges fimbriate, spores white, smooth, globose, 4-6 /x in diameter. 

In scattered colonies on decaying wood. July-Sept. 

Several small white species of Pleurotus have been described, of which 

this one appears to be the most common. It has a somewhat chalky appearance 

and is very delicate, soon becoming shriveled. 

103


PLEUROTUS PORRIGENS (Fr.) Kummer 

Figure 156,'page 91 

piLEUS sessile, laterally attached, elongated, ^/2-3 in. long, up to 2 in. 

broad, at first resupinate with inrolled margin, expanding to almost plane, or 

depressed toward the base, narrowing toward the base, variable in shape, 

mostly fan-shaped to ear-shaped, white, watery and sUghtly striate on the 

margin when moist, varying from almost glabrous at the margin to densely 

tomentose at the base, sometimes lobed on the margin, flesh thin, white, 

fragile, odor and taste mild, lamellae mostly reaching the point of attach- 

ment, close, rather narrow, Hnear, white or cream, in some specimens showing 

a certain amount of forking near the base, stipe lacking, base somewhat white- 

mycelioid. spores smooth, white, subglobose to broadly ovoid, 5-7.5 X 5-6 /z. 

In overlapping, shelving clusters, on decaying wood of conifers. Sept.- 

Nov. 

A number of whitish species of Pleurotus that may key out here are 

known. From our herbarium records, P. porrigens appears to be the most common, 

but the others are often difficult to distinguish and some can be determined 

only by microscopic characters. 

The fruiting bodies of one group of species, including P. porrigens, are 

resupinate when very young but soon become reflexed, whereas those of 

another group are never resupinate. Among the resupinate forms, P. albo- 

lanatus Pk. in Kauffm. differs in having a gelatinous layer of tissue in the 

pileus, and is more hairy. P. porrigens appear slightly hairy when dry, especially 

toward the base, but P. albolanatus is decidedly hairy alL over and is a larger, 

firmer plant. Among the nonresupinate forms, P. petaloides Fr. is a brownish' 

mushroom with sHghtly smaller spores and also has cystidia on the lamellae. 

P. porrigens lacks cystidia. P. spathulatus (Fr.) Peck has ovoid-eUipsoid spores. 

Panus angustatus Berk, is another species that might be confused with this 

group. It is tougher in consistency, has cystidia on the lamellae, and has a 

gelatinous layer of tissue in the pileus. 

PLEUROTUS SAPIDUS Kalchbr. 


Oyster Mushroom 

Edible 

PILEUS firm to pliant, fleshy, white to ashy or brownish, 2-8 in. broad or 

sometimes larger, fan-shaped to shell-shaped or elongated, usually marginate 

behind, sometimes more or less circular and nearly centrally stipitate, convex, 

sometimes depressed toward the stipe, smooth, moist, glabrous or minutely 

tomentose toward the stipe, margin thin, inrolled, faintly striate when moist, 

sometimes lobed and wavy, flesh thick, white, soft when young, becoming 

tougher with age, odor and taste agreeable, lamellae broad, white or whitish, 

close to subdistant, decurrent, extending down the stipe in vein-like lines with 

varying amounts of converging and branching at the base, stipe very short, 

104

PLEUROTUS 

usually lateral or almost lacking, occasionally excentric to nearly central, 

stout, firm and solid, sometimes hairy at the base, spores smooth, tinged lilac 

in heavy deposits, oblong, 7-10 (12) X 3-4 jjl. 

Usually growing in overlapping shelving clusters on wood of deciduous 

trees. May-Oct. Common. 

The name 'oyster mushroom' has been applied to this species because of 

the shape of the pileus, which often suggests a shell. It is edible, but authors 

disagree as to its quahty. The manner of cooking is important if this species is 

to be fully appreciated. It is recommended that this mushroom be cut in pieces, 

which are then dipped in seasoned beaten egg, rolled in bread or cracker 

crumbs and fried in hot fat. 

Many authors have tried to distinguish Pleurotus sapidus from P. ostreatus 

(Fr.) Kummer on the basis of the color of the spore deposit. The spore print of 

P. sapidus was said to be hlac-tinted and that of P. ostreatus white. However, 

we have been unable to find any specimen in which the lilac color did not show 

up in a good spore deposit. This has also been the experience of other collectors 

in North America and, although it is possible that a similar white-spored spe- 

cies occurs in Europe, it is either absent or very rare in North America. P. 

subareolatus Peck is somewhat similar in appearance and has a white spore 

deposit but larger spores. If it should prove to be universally true that all the 

forms with small spores have a Hlac-tinted spore deposit, P. sapidus will 

become a synonym of P. ostreatus, which is the older name. 

The amount of development of the stipe is variable and might lead to 

possible confusion with some forms of Pleurotus ulmarius, but the decurrent 

lamellae and cylindric spores will distinguish it readily. 

It has been claimed that successive crops of fruit bodies may be obtained 

by watering a log on which they are known to occur. 

PLEUROTUS SEROTINUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible 

Figure 1 1 2, page 5 1 ; Figure 413, page 296 

PILEUS compact, 1-3 in. broad, typically more or less semicircular in out- 

line, varying to kidney-shaped, convex with inrolled margin, expanding somewhat, 

varying from densely tomentose to almost glabrous, shmy-viscid when 

moist, muddy olivaceous or yellow-green to dull shades of yellow-brown or 

reddish, flesh thick, white, firm, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae 

narrowly adnate, often showing a sharp fine of demarcation between the end of 

the lamellae and beginning of tomentum on stipe, thin, close, narrowing in 

front and behind, whitish to yellowish tan. stipe soHd, stubby, i/i-% in. long, 

up to % in. thick, laterally attached, continuous with peUicle of the pileus on 

the upper surface, densely tomentose below or partially dotted with minute, 

dark brown scales, yellowish, spores smooth, white, narrowly oblong, some 

slightly curved, 4-6 X 1-1.5 /*• cystidia up to 28/x long, about 12 /x broad at 

widest point, narrowing slightly toward the apex and considerably toward the 

base, sac-Hke. 

105


Solitary, or more often in overlapping clusters, on wood of deciduous 

trees. Aug.-Nov. Fairly common. 

It is most likely to be confused with Phyllotopsis nidulans, but the greenish 

or olive tints in the pileus distinguish it. In addition, the spore print of P. sero- 

tinus is white whereas in P. nidulans it is pinkish. It is sometimes found late in 

the fall. It is said to be edible but seems rather tough. 

PLEUROTUS SUBPALMATUS (Fr.) Gill. 


PILEUS 1-2% in. broad, fleshy, convex to plane, flesh-colored to brick-red, 

glabrous, the cuticle gelatinous and forming coarse reticulations on the surface. 

FLESH reddish, fairly thick, lamellae adnate, close, rather broad, sometimes 

forked, pinkish, stipe J^-IJ^ in. long, V^-Y^ in. thick, excentric, usually 

curved, equal, fibrillose, reddish, spores pinkish in mass, subglobose, echinu- 

late, 5-7 X 4.5-6.5 /x. 

Usually on fallen logs, occasionally on standing trees, singly or gregarious, 

rare. June-Sept. 

There is no information concerning the edible qualities of this mushroom 

but it is so rare that it is not of any importance as an edible species in any case. 

It is not a good Pleurotus. The pinkish, spiny spores and the peculiar, gelati- 

nous, reticulated cuticle separate it sharply from other species of this genus. It 

has been made the type of a new genus, Rhodotus by Maire. 

PLEUROTUS ULMARIUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


pileus firm, compact, 2-6 in. broad, convex with inrolled margin, expand- 

ing to nearly plane, varying from fairly regular in shape with near-central 

stipe to irregular with strongly excentric stipe, white to dull buff" becoming 

darker with age, sometimes tinged with yellow or reddish brown shades, moist, 

glabrous, flesh thick, white, odor and taste mild, lamellae sinuate-adnexed 

becoming rounded or notched at the stipe, close to subdistant, broad, white or 

whitish, stipe firm, stout, solid, 1-3 in. long, up to % in. thick, sometimes 

swollen at the base, often curving to bring the pileus into upright position, 

whitish, varying from glabrous to densely tomentose. spores white, smooth, 

broadly ovoid to subglobose, 5.5-8 X 4.5-6 /x. 

Solitary or in clusters on wood of deciduous trees, especially elm. Sept.- 

Nov. 

According to Kauff'man, the pileus may at times be somewhat tomentose. 

In robust specimens the surface sometimes cracks to form a network pattern. 

This is the large white mushroom commonly seen in late fall, often high up 

in a tree, arising from a wound or branch stub. The fruiting bodies do not decay 

very quickly and sometimes persist until after snowfall. P. ulmarius is edible 

but inclined to be tough, especially in older specimens, and requires careful 

106

CLITOCYBE 

cooking. According to Singer (1951) the European P. ulmarius is a different 

fungus and the North American species is really P. tessulatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Gill. 

Considerable variation may occur in the size and position of the stipe: 

from central to decidedly excentric or almost lateral. Plants of the latter type 

might be confused with P. ostreatus, but the attachment of the lamellae will 

distinguish them and, if a microscope is available, the size and shape of the 

spores will provide a sure diagnostic character. Another species was described 

by Peck as Pleurotus elongatipes, which differs from P. ulmarius chiefly in hav- 

ing a stuffed to hollow stipe and sHghtly smaller spores. It seems to be rare but 

has probably been confused with P. ulmarius. This makes no difference from 

the standpoint of edibihty. 

CLITOCYBE 

Species of Clitocybe are mostly white-spored, with decurrent lamellae, and 

lack a volva and annulus. In some species the spores are pinkish buff or pale 

yellowish in a good deposit, but these species would not likely be looked for in 

the yellow-spored group. The stipe is fibrous, more or less similar to the pileus 

in texture and not separating readily from it. In this respect as well as in the 

attachment of the lamellae they differ from Collybia, in which the stipe is more 

cartilaginous in texture than the pileus and separates readily. 

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between Clitocybe and Tricholoma 

and the attachment of the lamellae is the principal distinguishing character. In 

Clitocybe the lamellae are typically decurrent to adnate whereas in Tricholoma 

they are more or less sinuate to emarginate or adnexed, but since the attachment 

may vary to some extent at different stages of maturity and in individual 

fruiting bodies, a clear-cut distinction is not always easy. 

Other genera that might be confused with Clitocybe are Cantharellus, 

Laccaria, Leucopaxillus and Omphalina. Cantharellus differs in having blunt- 

edged, more or less fold-like, forking lamellae, although species Hke Cantha- 

rellus umbonatus and Clitocybe aurantiaca make sharp separation difficult. 

Laccaria has globose, spiny spores and lamellae of waxy consistency. Some 

species of Leucopaxillus have the form and stature of a Clitocybe but differ in 

having rough-walled, amyloid spores. Omphalina includes a group of small, 

umbiUcate species with decurrent lamellae and cartilaginous stipes. The size of 

the fruiting body and the texture of the stipe seem to be the principal characters 

distinguishing them from Clitocybe but it seems almost impossible to make a 

clear-cut separation. No species of Omphalina are described here. 

Clitocybe is a fairly large genus and many of the species, especially the 

small whitish forms are difficult to identify. Only a few of the commoner and 

more striking species are described here. Most of the species appear to be 

edible but information is lacking concerning several species and at least two, 

C. illudens and C. dealbata, are known to be poisonous. 

107


Key 

1. Fruiting bodies with strong anise odor; 

pileus greenish, bluish, or white C odora 

1. Fruiting bodies not with odor of anise 2 

2. Pileus and lamellae yellow or yellowish 3 

2. Pileus and lamellae not yellow 6 

3. Pileus glabrous, growing in dense clusters C. illudens 

3. Pileus not glabrous 4 

4. Pileus deeply depressed to infundibuliform; 

lamellae subdistant C. ectypoides 

4. Pileus convex to slightly depressed; lamellae crowded 5 

5. Pileus minutely scaly; lamellae yellow C. decora 

5. Pileus fibrillose to subtomentose; lamellae orange C. aurantiaca 

6, Fruiting bodies white or whitish 7 

6. Fruiting bodies not white 9 

7. Fruiting bodies in notable cespitose clusters C. multiceps 

7. Fruiting bodies occurring singly or gregarious, small 8 

8. Fruiting bodies convex, or slightly depressed, grayish white C. dealbata 

8. Fruiting bodies deeply depressed to 

infundibuliform, buff-white C. adirondackensis 

9. Pileus and lamellae gray C. cyathiforme 

9. Pileus and lamellae not gray 10 

10. Pileus obtuse, grayish brown; stipe clavate C. clavipes 

10. Pileus deeply depressed to infundibuliform 11 

11. Pileus buff-white, usually less than 2 in. broad C adirondackensis 

11. Pileus reddish tan fading to dingy white, 

108 

usually more than 2 in. broad C. infundibulijormis 


164. Clitocybe illudens. 165. C. illudens. 

166. C. ectypoides. 167. C. infundibulijormis. 

168. C. odora. 169. Tricholoma aurantium. 

170. Leucopaxillus giganteus. 171. L. giganteus. 

111. L. laterarius. 173. L. laterarius.

109

Figure 174. Pleurotus candidissimus. Figure 175. Panus operculatus. 

176. Tricholoma flavovirens. 

178. T. irinum. 

1 80. T. resplendens. 

182. T. saponaceum. 

184. T. vaccinum. 

110 


177. T. flavovirens. 

179. T. personatum. 

181. T. rutilans. 

183, T. sejimctum. 

185. T. terreum.

Ill

Figure 186. Pleiirotiis sapidiis. Figure 187. Pleurotus ulmariiis. 

188. Melanoleuca alboflavida. 

190. Hygrophoriis borealis. 

192. H. chrysodon. 

194. H. conicus. 

196. H. marginatus. 

112 


189. M. melaleuca. 

191. H. cantharellus. 

193. H. chrysodon 

195. H. flavescens. 

197. //. miniatus.

113


199. Hygrophorus nitidus. 200. H. nitidus. 

201. H. olivaceoalbus. 202. H. oHvaceoalbus 

203. H. pratensis. 204. H. psittacinus. 

205. H. pudorinus. 206. H. speciosus. 

207. H. puniceus. 208. H. puniceus. 

114 

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CLITOCYBE ADIRONDACKENSIS (Pk.) Sacc. 


CLITOCYBE 

PiLEUS 1-2 in. broad, thin, pliant, somewhat funnel-shaped with depressed 

disk and elevated, decurved margin, dull whitish at first, then tinged buff, some- 

times darkening to a dingy buff-brown, glabrous, not hygrophanous, slippery- 

smooth when moist, margin even, flesh thin, white, lamellae decurrent, close 

to crowded, very narrow and tapering toward each end, whitish, stipe 1-1 % in. 

long, about J/g in. thick, straight, equal or shghtly swollen at the base, pruinose, 

concolorous with the pileus or paler, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores smooth, 

white, oval, apiculate, 4-6 X 2.5-3.5 n. 

Scattered, on the ground among debris. Aug.-Oct. 

The paUid color, rubbery-pliant consistency, and shppery, smooth pileus 

are characteristic. It is a small species, not hkely to be collected for food, and 

its edible qualities are not known. 

CLITOCYBE AURANTIACA (Fr.) Studer Doubtful 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, pliant, convex to plane, becoming depressed 

in age, orange-yellow to brownish orange, fibrillose to subtomentose, some- 

times nearly smooth, margin at first involute, then elevated and somewhat 

wavy. FLESH soft, thick in the center, thin on the margin, yellowish, odor and 

taste mild, lamellae decurrent, crowded, forked, thin, narrow, bright orange 

to salmon-tinged, stipe 1-2 in. long, ^4-^2 iî- thick, tapering upward, min- 

utely tomentose, pale orange, varying to brownish or pale yellowish, spongy 

within, sometimes hollow.' spores white, elliptical, smooth, 5-7 X 3-4 /jl. 

Gregarious on the ground or rotten wood, in both coniferous and fron- 

dose woods. July-Oct. 

This species has long been known as Cantharellus aurantiacus. The forked 

lamellae suggest Cantharellus but in other respects it is not closely related to 

other Cantharellus species. Some authors consider it better placed in Clitocybe 

although Singer (1951) considers it to be more closely related to Paxillus and 

treats it and one other southern species in the genus Hygrophoropsis. 

It varies considerably in color from pale yellow to dark brown, but the 

crowded, forked, orange lamellae are distinctive. 

There have been conflicting reports in the hterature concerning its edi- 

bility, some maintaining that it is poisonous and others that they have eaten it 

quite safely. In view of this doubt it is not recommended or should be tried 

only with caution, although Singer (1951) states that its edibility has been 

established. 

117


CLITOCYBE CLAVIPES (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 

Figure 159, page 91 ; Figure 414, page 296 

PILEUS %-2% in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded, often obtusely 

umbonate, sometimes centrally depressed, drab grayish brown, smooth 

and glabrous, extreme margin tending to remain incurved for some time. 

FLESH white, thick at the disk, odor and taste mild, lamellae decurrent, sub- 

distant, white or yellowish, broadest in the center, narrowing toward the ends. 

STIPE stout, %-2i/2 in. long, 14-% in. thick at the apex, broadening downward 

into a clavate-bulbous base i/4-l in. thick, concolorous with the pileus, white 

and somewhat spongy within, spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 6-8 X 3.5-5 /x. 

In groups or occasionally in clusters of two or three on the ground in 

woods, often under conifers. July-Oct. Fairly common. 

The broadly clavate, gray-brown stipe and the subdistant lamellae are the 

distinguishing marks of this Clitocybe. 

Clitocybe nebularis (Fr.) Kummer is a large cloudy-gray species with 

crowded lamellae. It is apparently more common on the west coast than in the 

East and collectors in the West are hkely to find it. It may reach 6 inches in 

diameter. Kauffman reported it to be edible although he noted that some 

European authors had considered it dangerous. There are no collections of 

this species from Eastern Canada in the herbarium. 

CLITOCYBE CYATHIFORMIS (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer 

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, at first convex, soon umbilicate-depressed to in- 

fundibuliform, smoky brown when moist becoming more grayish when dry, 

hygrophanous, glabrous or innately fibrillose, margin even, inrolled. flesh 

thin, grayish, rather watery, taste mild, lamellae decurrent, narrow, close to 

subdistant, grayish brown, stipe 1-2 in. long, V8-!4 in. thick, equal or tapering 

upward, brownish or grayish, fibrillose, tomentose at base, spongy-stuff'ed. 

SPORES smooth, white, eUiptical-ovate, 7.5-10.5 X 5.0-6.5 ju- 

Singly or gregarious on rotten wood. Aug.-Sept. 

The gray lamellae are the most striking character of this species, and a 

spore print is required to make certain of the color of the spores. Clitopilus 

noveboracensis Pk. is somewhat similar in appearance but has pink spores, a 

farinaceous odor, and a bitter taste. The spores of C. cyathiformis are amyloid 

and Singer has on this account removed it from Clitocybe and placed it in the 

genus Cantharellula along with Cantharellus umbonatus and Clitocybe ec- 

typoides. 

CLITOCYBE DEALBATA (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer Poisonous 


PILEUS Yx-X Yi 

in. broad, rarely larger, thin, hygrophanous, convex, ob- 

tuse, expanding to plane, sometimes depressed, pallid, whitish when dry, pale 

118

CLITOCYBE 

grayish brown when moist, smooth, glabrous, margin tending to remain in- 

curved. FLESH thin, whitish, odor none, taste mild or slightly astringent. 

LAMELLAE aduate-decurrent, fairly close, narrow, broadest in the center, 

narrowing to each end, whitish to pallid, stipe short, %-l 14 in. long, about 

Vg in. thick, sometimes excentric, equal or nearly so, straight or curved, tough, 

subfibrillose, pruinose, concolorous with pileus, solid, spores smooth, white, 

elUpsoid, 4-5 X 2.5-3 /x. 

Solitary or scattered in grass on lawns, etc. Aug.-Oct. 

This poisonous little mushroom is dangerous because of its habit of 

growing in or near rings of Marasmius oreades, which is often collected for 

food. The color of the pileus is somewhat similar in the two species although 

the Clitocybe is whiter, but a glance at the lamellae will quickly distinguish 

the two. 

Clitocybe morbifera Pk. and C. sudorifica Pk. appear to be synonyms of 

C. dealbata. C. rivulosa (Ft.) Kummer is a closely related species more pinkish 

in color and it is also said to be poisonous. 

CLITOCYBE DECORA (Fr.) Gillet Edible 


PILEUS 1-21/2 in. across, convex becoming expanded, finally plane or 

depressed at disk, surface moist, yellow to ochre or brownish ochre, sometimes 

with a slight olive cast, covered with very minute gray to dark brown fibrillose 

scales which are dense on the disk and more scattered toward the margin, 

margin thin, incurved, tomentose. flesh rather thin, firm, yellow, odor and 

taste mild, lamellae mostly decurrent with a narrow tooth, sometimes merely 

adnate or adnexed, seceding readily, close, moderately broad except for decur- 

rent portion on stipe, yellow, often with alternate lamellae short, stipe 1 1/2- 

2 1/2 in. long, Ys-Ys in. thick, subequal, yellow, subglabrous to slightly fibrillose- 

scaly, becoming hollow, spores smooth, white, broadly oval, 6-7.5 X 4-5 m. 

Single, in small clusters of several, or in groups, on decaying coniferous 

wood. June-Oct. 

The attachment of the lamellae is not typical for the genus Clitocybe, and 

the color of the lamellae might lead one to look for it in Flammula. A spore 

print should be obtained. 

This species is considered to be closely related to Tricholoma rutilans (Fr.) 

Kummer, and has been called Tricholoma decorum by Quelet. Singer places 

both these species in a new genus, Tricholomopsis. 

CLITOCYBE ECTYPOIDES Pk. 


pileus %-2 in. broad, rather thin, broadly umbilicate, approaching 

funnel-form, watery, gray-buff to yellow-buff, virgate with brown or dark 

119


brown fibrils, usually slightly punctate with minute dark scales, margin even. 

FLESH rather thin, tinged the color of the pileus. lamellae decurrent, occasion- 

ally forking, subdistant, narrow, tapering at each end, yellowish, stipe %-2 in. 

long, about J/g in. thick, equal or tapering slightly upward or downward, con- 

colorous with pileus or paler, densely tomentose at base, less tomentose to 

subglabrous upward, solid when young, often becoming hollowed by grubs. 

SPORES smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-9 X 4-5 ii. 

In groups or small clusters on decaying logs. July-Sept. 

The subdistant, forking lamellae in this species might lead one to look for 

it in Cantharellus. The spores are amyloid, and Singer has placed this species 

in the genus Cantharellula along with Cantharellus umbonatus. The minute, 

dark scales in the center of the pileus are a valuable diagnostic character. 

CLITOCYBE ILLUDENS Schw. Poisonous 


Jack-o'-lantern 

pileus 2-41/2 in. broad (large specimens reaching 8 inches), sometimes 

irregularly lobed especially in crowded situations, at first shallow-convex with 

umbonate disk and inrolled margin, becoming expanded-convex with de- 

pressed disk, the umbo sometimes persisting within the depression, bright 

orange-yellow, smooth, at first moist, becoming dry, more or less innately 

fibrous-streaked, pellicle rather tough, separable, margin at length elevated 

and wavy but with the extreme edge remaining incurved, flesh very thin 

except on the disk, fibrous-pithy, tinged orange, drying whitish, continuous 

with the context of the stipe, odor strong, sweetish, pleasant, lamellae un- 

equally long-decurrent, close, rather narrow for so large a mushroom, narrow- 

ing at each end, occasionally forking, brittle, orange-yellow, either brighter or 

paler than the pileus, phosphorescent in the dark, stipe stout, tough, 3-8 in. 

long, y8-% in. thick, tapering at the base, often twisted and contorted, central 

or sHghtly excentric, soHd, surface finely white-pruinose at first, smooth and 

dry, fibrillose, tinged pinkish orange, spores creamy white, smooth, globose, 

4-5 M- 

In dense clusters at base of old stumps, sometimes from buried wood. 

July-Sept. 

This mushroom is remarkable for its phosphorescent properties. Although 

apparently not common in Canada, its bright colors and its habit of growing in 

large clusters make it very conspicuous when it is present. Over 100 fruiting 

bodies may grow in a single cluster. The odor apparently varies, as it is reported 

as unpleasant by some authors. 

It is sometimes mistaken for Armillaria mellea or Cantharellus cibarius. 

The much brighter colors and lack of an annulus should distinguish it easily 

from A. mellea and the crowded narrow lamellae and the habit of growing in 

120

CLITOCYBE 

dense clusters separate it from C. cibarius. Neither A. mellea nor C. cibarius is 

phosphorescent, but old or dried-out specimens of Clitocybe illudens will not 

show this character either, so that it cannot be rehed on by itself as a certain 

means of identifying C. illudens. 

It is not considered to be a deadly poisonous mushroom but will certainly 

cause more or less severe illness in most people if it is eaten. The flavor is said 

to be good so that this is no guide to its poisonous properties. 

CLITOCYBE INFUNDIBULIFORMIS (Schaeff. ex. Fr.) Quel. Edible 


PILEUS l%-2% in. broad, at first convex with subumbonate disk, later 

becoming depressed on the disk and finally funnel-shaped, reddish tan, becom- 

ing faded, finely silky, margin thin, flesh white, thin on the margin, thicker on 

the disk, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae decurrent, close, not very 

broad, tapering to each end, thin, whitish, stipe 1 )/2-3 in. long, J4-)4 in. thick, 

often slightly larger at the base, elsewhere subequal, white-mycelioid at the 

base, glabrous upward, concolorous with pileus or pallid, spores smooth, 

white, ovoid to ellipsoid or subpyriform, obliquely apiculate, 5-8 X 3-4 //, 

with many smaller immature spores present. 

Solitary or in groups on the ground in woods. July-Oct. Fairy common. 

This is the type species of Clitocybe^ and illustrates well the characteristics 

of the genus. It is a fairly common species occurring throughout a long period 

of the growing season. The color may fade to nearly white. C. gibba (Fr.) 

Kummer is probably the correct name for this species. 

CLITOCYBE MULTICEPS Pk. Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad or larger, convex, sometimes irregular in outline 

when growing in a crowded cluster, whitish, often tinged with gray or buff, 

moist, glabrous, margin thin, flesh white, thick on disk, lamellae adnate to 

short-decurrent, or slightly sinuate, close, moderately broad in center, narrow- 

ing to each end, whitish, stipe 2-5 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, stout, subequal or 

tapering upward slightly, pruinose at apex, elsewhere subglabrous to fibrillose- 

scaly, whitish, soHd within, central or slightly excentric in crowded clusters. 

SPORES smooth, white, globose, 5-7 ju broad. 

In clusters, often densely crowded, on the ground in grassy places or open 

woods. July-Oct. 

Kauffman reports this mushroom to be edible but does not recommend it 

very highly. GUssow and Odell also describe it as rather insipid. 

Clitocybe cartilaginea Bres. is somewhat similar in habit but is darker in 

color, gray to brown, and has a cartilaginous cuticle. 

121


CLITOCYBE ODORA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex with margin incurved at first, becoming 

expanded, varying in color from bluish green or grayish green to whitish, 

tinged green or entirely lacking the green tints, smooth and glabrous, flesh 

white, thin toward the margin, odor sweet, fragrant, sometimes faint, lamel- 

lae broadly adnate to subdecurrent or short-decurrent, close, moderately 

broad, white to creamy yellowish or tinged green, stipe 1-3 in. long, V8-!4 in. 

thick, equal or sHghtly thickened at the base, whitish to pallid, concolorous, 

pruinose above, white-mycelioid at base, becoming hollow, spores smooth, 

white, oval, 6-8 X 4-5 /x. 

Solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3, on the ground in woods, often attached to 

leaves and debris. July-Oct. 

The greenish colors and the fragrant odor of anise are the distinguishing 

marks of this species, but the greenish color is sometimes entirely lacking and 

the fruiting bodies may then be white. A smaller and thinner species C. fra- 

grans (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer has a similar odor. 

LEUCOPAXILLUS 

Leucopaxillus is rather difficult to define in such a way that the amateur 

collector can readily recognize the genus by the gross appearance, but it is 

fairly easy to determine by microscopic characters. It includes Clitocybe-like or 

Tricholoma-WkQ species with rough-walled spores that turn blue in iodine. 

These species are mostly whitish or dull colored, with fairly large to large pilei 

and fleshy stipes. The attachment of the lamellae varies from decurrent to 

sinuate. Unless a microscope is available the beginner will have some difficulty 

at first in recognizing a Leucopaxillus and will be inclined to look in Clitocybe 

or Tricholoma. 

Singer & Smith (1943) published a monograph on the genus and recog- 

nized twelve species. Some of the species they included in Leucopaxillus were 

formerly known as Clitocybe gigantea (Fr.) Quel., Tricholoma laterarium 

(Pk.) Sacc, T. tricolor Peck, Clitocybe albissima (Peck) Sacc, and as varieties 

of the latter, C. piceina Peck, C. subhirta Peck, and Tricholoma lentum (Post in 

Romell) Sacc. 

LEUCOPAXILLUS ALBISSIMUS (Pk?) Sing. 

var. PICEINUS (Peck) Singer & Smith Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex becoming plane or nearly 

so, dry, glabrous to slightly fibrillose, especially toward the margin, whitish to 

122

LEUCOPAXILLUS 

cream, or pale tan on the disk, margin inrolled at first, sometimes irregular and 

ribbed, flesh white, firm, rather thick, taste bitter and disagreeable, odor 

unpleasant, lamellae short-decurrent with anastomosing lines at apex of 

stipe, narrow, close to subdistant, whitish to yellowish in age, separating readily 

from the context, stipe 1 1/4-3 Vi in. long. J4-1 in. thick, at first bulbous and 

tapering upward, then elongating and becoming nearly equal, white or tinged 

buff, glabrous or fibrillose to strigose toward the base, solid, spores white, 

elHpsoid, rough, amyloid, 5.5-8 X 4.5-5 ju- 

Usually gregarious to single on beds of needles in conifer woods. Aug.- 

Oct. 

The bitter taste, anastomosing ridges at the apex of the stipe and the 

development of yellowish colors distinguish this variety. L. albissimus var. 

albissimus is pure white. The fruit bodies persist a long time without decaying. 

It has been reported edible in spite of the bitter taste. 

LEUCOPAXILLUS GIGANTEUS (Fr.) Sing. * 


Edible 

PILEUS 4-12 in. or more broad, at first convex to plane, then becoming 

depressed and finally infundibuHform, dry or sHghtly moist, glabrous to 

slightly pubescent at the margin, whitish to buff or tan, margin at first inrolled, 

then spreading and becoming ribbed, sometimes splitting, flesh white or 

whitish, thick, firm becoming softer, taste mild, lamellae slightly decurrent, 

crowded, at first whitish, darkening with age, narrow to moderately broad, 

separable from the context, stipe 1 %-3 in. long, %-2 in. thick, short, stout, 

swollen at the base, glabrous, white or colored Hke the pileus, solid, spores 

white, ellipsoid, nearly smooth, slightly amyloid, 5.5-8 X 3-5.5 m. 

Singly or in small groups on the ground in woods or open places. Aug.- 

Oct. 

This species is remarkable because of the large size it sometimes reaches 

but smaller specimens may be recognized by the color, crowded lamellae and 

short stipe. 

L, tricolor (Pk.) Kiihner is another species that reaches considerable size, 

sometimes exceeding 12 inches in diameter. It is yellowish to pale tan, dry and 

unpohshed, sometimes appearing matted-fibrillose, and usually more or less 

ribbed or grooved on the margin. The lamellae are close to crowded and 

separate readily from the pileus. They are whitish to yellowish when fresh but 

on drying change to vinaceous or purplish. Kauffman called this fungus 

Clitocybe maxima. Its edible quahties appear to be unknown. 

LEUCOPAXILLUS LATERARIUS (Peck) Singer & Smith Not edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, convex to plane, sometimes 

umbonate, dry, shghtly fibrillose to scurfy, white to faintly pinkish, sometimes 

123


yellowish on the disk, margin inrolled, slightly ridged, flesh white, thick, firm, 

taste very bitter, odor farinaceous to disagreeable, lamellae adnate to sinuate, 

decurrent by lines, narrow, crowded, white to pale cream, stipe 1 )/2-4 in. long, 

14-% ill- thick, nearly equal or enlarged at the base, white, at first pruinose to 

finely tomentose, becoming fibrillose, solid, spores white, subglobose to 

globose, slightly rough, amyloid, 3.5-5.5 X 3.5-4.5 m- 

Gregarious to subcespitose on the ground in frondose woods. June-Oct. 

The bitter taste, non-anastomosing, close, narrow lamellae, and ridged or 

ribbed margin are characteristic of this species. It is fairly common, and will 

attract the collector because of its size, but it has a very unpleasant taste. 

TRICHOLOMA 

Tricholoma is a large genus and the species are often difficult to identify. 

Usually they are fairly large forms growing on the ground and often appearing 

late in the season. The genus is characterized by the white spores, fleshy stipes, 

lamellae adnexed to sinuate and frequently notched at the stipe, and the lack 

of a volva or annulus. The type species of the genus is T. flavovirens (Fr.) 

Lundell. Some of the species included here, such as T. personatum and T. 

irinum, have a creamy to dirty pinkish spore deposit and most authors now put 

these in the genus Lepista. 

Only some of the more common and easily recognized species are included 

here. Many of the species are edible and highly prized, but some are disagree- 

able in flavor and a few are known to be poisonous. Therefore, only those 

species that can be definitely identified and are known to be edible should 

be used. 

Key 



2. Fruiting body white J. resplendens 

2. Fruiting body not white 3 

3. Pileus yellow or yellowish 4 

3. Pileus without yellow in the coloration 5 

4. Lamellae yellow; pileus yellowish, usually reddish on disk T. flavovirens 

4. Lamellae white; pileus yellowish with innate black fibrils T. sejunctum 

5. Stipe peronate with reddish orange scales T. aurantium 

5. Stipe smooth to minutely fibrillose T. pessundatum 

6. Lamellae yellow; pileus tomentose-scaly, purple-red T. rutilans 

6. Lamellae white or becoming reddish stained 7 

7. Lamellae stained with reddish spots; pileus 

fibrillose-scaly, dark reddish brown T. vaccinum 

7. Lamellae not reddish spotted 8 

124

TRICHOLOMA 

8. Pileus with prominent, acute umbo, gray T, subacutum 

8. Pileus not umbonate 9 

9. Pileus fibrillose to scaly, gray T. terreum 


10. Spore deposit white; pileus pale gray usually tinged olive; 

flesh turning pinkish; taste disagreeable, soapy T. saponaceum 

10. Spore deposit creamy to dirty pinkish 11 

11. Pileus and lamellae more or less tinged with blue or lavender T. personatum 

11. Pileus whitish to buff, no blue or lavender shades T. irinum 

TRICHOLOMA AURANTIA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Ricken 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex, becoming expanded, slightly umbonate, 

reddish ochraceous to orange-red, rather bright colored, viscid, soon becoming 

appressed-scaly, margin floccose, glutinous, inrolled at first, flesh white, 

thick on disk, thin on margin, odor farinaceous, lamellae adnexed, close, 

white, becoming spotted with rusty brown, a few forked, stipe lYi-'^Vi in. 

long, y^-Yi in. thick, equal or narrowed at the base, more or less covered with 

rings of scales the same color as the pileus up to an obscure annular zone, 

white at apex and between the scales, soHd. spores white, broadly ellipsoid to 

ovoid, 4.5-6 X 3-4 m- 

Usually gregarious on the ground. Aug.-Oct. 

Because of the suggestion of an annulus in this species one might be 

incHned to look for it in Armiliaria and some authors have placed it in this 

genus. However, the structure of the trama of the lamellae indicates that it is 

more closely related to Tricholoma than to Armillaria. It is a rather bright 

colored species and can be recognized by the characteristic scahness on the 

stipe, the viscid pileus and the lamellae staining brownish. Its edible quahties 

are not known. 

TRICHOLOMA FLAVOVIRENS (Fr.) Lundell Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, compact, fleshy, convex, expanding, sometimes 

obtuse on the disk, pale to bright yellow, usually stained brownish or reddish 

on the disk, viscid, glabrous or faintly scaly on the disk, incurved on the margin 

at first. FLESH white or tinged yellow, odor not distinctive, taste shghtly un- 

pleasant. LAMELLAE free or almost so, rounded behind, rather broad, close to 

crowded, sulphur-yellow, stipe stout, 1-2 1^ in. long, I4-/4 ^^- thick, equal or 

shghtly thickened at the base, pale yellow or white, solid, smooth or slightly 

scaly. SPORES smooth, white, eUipsoid, 6-7 X 4-4.5 /x. 

In groups, on the ground in conifer woods. Sept.-Oct. 

This species has been well known by the name Tricholoma equestre (Fr.) 

Kummer, but under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, T.


flavovirens is the correct name. It is a striking species with its bright yellow 

pileus and lamellae. It might be confused with T. sejunctum but the latter has 

usually dark radiating lines on the pileus whereas T. flavovirens tends to 

become stained reddish or brownish on the disk and is usually a more robust 

species. The lamellae of T. sejunctum are usually white or whitish but may 

show some yellow. T. sulphureum (Fr.) Kummer, another yellow species, is not 

viscid and is characterized by a disagreeable odor resembling coal tar. 

TRICHOLOMA IRINUM (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-6 in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded-plane, gla- 

brous, not viscid, pale alutaceous, tinged flesh color to nearly white, margin at 

first inrolled, then spreading, flesh thick, firm, whitish, taste mild, lamellae 

sinuate to adnexed, crowded, whitish or nearly the same color as the pileus. 

STIPE %-2 in. long, )4-% in. thick, equal or bulbous at the base, fibrillose- 

striate, whitish, solid, spores ellipsoid, smooth or some minutely rough, pale 

cream in mass, 7-9 X 3.5-4.5 /x. 

Usually gregarious in troops on the ground in woods or open places. 

Sept.-Oct. 

This species has the appearance and stature of T. personatum but entirely 

lacks the violet or lilac colors. According to Singer the true T. irinum has 

smooth white spores but the species described above is evidently the fungus 

described and illustrated by Lange and other European authors as T. irinum. 

The spores appear smooth under ordinary magnifications but under oil im- 

mersion a few seem to be minutely roughened. 

T. irinum may be found growing in large fairy rings in the woods. I have 

seen such rings 1 8, 24 feet, and one even 50 feet in diameter, forming almost 

perfect circles and containing hundreds of fruiting bodies. When a tree is in the 

way the mycelium appears to grow around each side of the tree and join up 

again on the other side. 

TRICHOLOMA PERSONATUM (Fr. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, sometimes larger, at first broadly convex, becoming 

plane or sHghtly umbonate, glabrous, moist, becoming subviscid and water- 

soaked in wet weather, grayish to brownish, tinged more or less with lilac, 

fading to buff or whitish, margin at first inrolled, pruinose, then spreading and 

often wavy and irregular, flesh whitish, tinged lavender, becoming water- 

soaked in wet weather, taste mild, lamellae sinuate to adnexed, close to 

crowded, rather broad, at first blue, becoming buff-lilac to grayish buff, 

usually with tinge of lilac, with two or three tiers of shorter ones interspersed. 

STIPE 1-3 in. long, J^-1 in. thick, equal or often somewhat bulbous at base, 

solid, pale lilac or bluish, fading to paUid whitish, fibrillose-pruinose, becoming 

126

TRICHOLOMA 

glabrous, sometimes striate, spores elliptical, minutely rough, pale dirty flesh 

color, 7-8 X 4-5 m- 

Singly, in groups, or in clusters of several, on the ground, often under old 

leaves, in the woods or on decaying vegetable matter. Sept. -Oct. 

This species is rather common and is one of the better edible species, 

although it may have a disagreeable flavor if the pilei are old and water-soaked. 

It varies considerably in color but there is always some lilac. 

According to European accounts, T. personatum exhibits the blue color 

only in the stipe, and specimens with blue pilei and lamellae are referred to 

T. nudum (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer. We have referred a smaller species with 

much deeper color and slightly diff'erently colored spore print to T. nudum. 

The exact identity of these species is somewhat in doubt but they are all edible. 

This group of species in which the spore print is not pure white and at least 

some of the spores are minutely roughened has been separated from Tricholoma 

as the genus Lepista. 

TRICHOLOMA PESSUN DATUM (Fr.) Quelet Edible 


piLEUS 2-4 in. broad, at first convex becoming expanded, reddish bay to 

reddish brown or rufous tan, paler toward the margin to a whitish flesh color, 

viscid, glabrous, margin inrolled at first, flesh white, tinged reddish, firm, 

odor and taste farinaceous, lamellae sinuate to adnate or decurrent by a 

tooth, crowded, white staining reddish, stipe 1 }4-3 in. long, y^-\ in. thick, 

equal to shghtly bulbous and narrowed below the bulb, glabrous or with a few 

fibrils, whitish or becoming stained reddish brown, solid, spores white, ovoid- 

ellipsoid, 4.5-6 X 2.5-4 M. 

Gregarious, in troops under conifers. Sept.-Oct. 

This species is included as the representative of a group of somewhat 

similar species occurring with conifers, especially pines, and with reddish 

brown pilei and the lamellae staining reddish. From our herbarium records 

this appears to be the commonest species. 

T. flavobrunneum (Fr.) Kummer also has a farinaceous odor but the stipe 

is sulphur-yellow within and the lamellae are pale sulphur-yellow. T. albo- 

brunneum (Fr.) Kummer has a faint farinaceous odor, the pileus is minutely 

striate with innate fibrils, and the stipe is somewhat squamulose above. 

T. transmutans Peck has a farinaceous odor but the taste of the surface of the 

pileus is bitter. T. ustale (Fr.) Kummer lacks the farinaceous odor and the 

pileus is glabrous and viscid, whereas T. imbricatum (Fr.) Kummer, which 

also lacks the farinaceous odor, is dry and the surface of the pileus breaks up 

into rather coarse, more or less imbricate scales. 

TRICHOLOMA RESPLENDENS (Fr.) Quel. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/^-3 in. broad, convex to plane, white, viscid, glabrous, flesh 

white, rather soft, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnexed, emarginate, close, 

127


white, fairly broad, stipe 1 J/2-3 (5) in. long, 14-% ^^- thick, equal or tapering 

downward, glabrous, dry, white, solid or becoming hollow, spores white, 

elliptical, smooth 5-7 X 3.5-5 /i. 

Oct. 

Singly or gregarious on the ground, usually in hardwood forests. Aug.- 

This species is similar in stature to T. sejunctum but is pure white. 

TRICHOLOMA RUTILANS (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


1 

piLEUS 1 )/2-3 in. broad, campanulate-convex, expanding to nearly plane, 

sometimes broadly umbonate, dry, covered with a dense brick-red to wine- 

colored tomentum which separates into tomentose scales exposing yellowish 

flesh between, incurved on the margin at first, flesh yellow, thin at the margin, 

thick at the disk, taste mild, lamellae adnate, becoming rounded at the stipe, 

crowded, rather narrow to moderately broad, clear yellow, floccose on the 

edges, stipe 2-4 in. long, Y^-Vi in. thick, equal or nearly so, stuffed in the 

center, becoming hollow, often curved, yellow, dotted with minute wine- 

colored tomentose scales which may partly or almost entirely disappear, 

yellow within, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 6-7 X 3.5-5 ii. 

Solitary or sHghtly clustered, on conifer wood, sometimes apparently on 

the ground. June-Sept, 

It can be easily distinguished by its purple-red scales, yellow flesh and 

lamellae, and by its habitat on wood. It is not a typical Tricholoma in many 

ways and has been made the type of a new genus Tricholomopsis by Singer. 

It might be confused with Clitocybe decora (Fr.) Gill, also growing on 

wood and having yellow lamellae, but the scales of the latter are blackish and 

the attachment of the lamellae is different. C. decora has also been placed in 

Tricholomopsis and these two species are undoubtedly closely related. 

TRICHOLOMA SAPONACEUM (Fr.) Kummer Not edible 


piLEUS %-3 in. broad, convex becoming expanded, variable in color, pale 

gray or pale brown, usually more or less tinged olive or greenish, darker on 

disk, glabrous or becoming cracked, not viscid, margin incurved, flesh white 

becoming pinkish, thick, firm, odor and taste rather soapy, disagreeable. 

LAMELLAE adnate, emarginate, with a decurrent tooth, subdistant, rather broad, 

whitish. STIPE 1 ]/2-3 in. long, ^4-% in. thick, equal to ventricose, white, becoming 

pinkish within, glabrous to minutely floccose, solid, spores white, 

elHptical to ovoid, 5.5-7 X 3.5-5 /x- 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. Aug.-Oct. 

The gray-green pilei, the flesh staining pink, and the very disagreeable 

odor and taste are the distinguishing characters of this species. Sometimes the 

odor is not very pronounced. 

128

TRICHOLOMA 

TRICHOLOMA SEJUNCTUM (Sow. ex Fr.) Quel. Edible 


PILEUS 1 14-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded, umbonate, 

often somewhat irregular in outline, smooth, slightly viscid, white to yellowish, 

streaked with minute, radiating, innate, blackish fibrils, in dark specimens with 

the entire disk umber-brown to blackish, flesh white or tinged yellow, taste 

bitter to nauseous, lamellae broad, white, adnate, becoming notched at the 

stipe, close to moderately distant, stipe stout, 2-4 in. long, 54-/4 ^^' thick, 

more or less equal, often curved, usually solid, smooth, white to straw-colored. 

SPORES smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 6-7 X 4-5.5 m- 

In groups, on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct. 

T. sejunctum diff'ers from T. flavovirens in its fibrous-streaked pileus and 

white lamellae. Specimens with a more or less yellow tinge in the lamellae 

have been found and these might be T. intermedium Peck but they were growing 

along with typical forms of T. sejunctum and it seems more likely that this 

yellow color in the lamellae represents a variation rather than a distinct species. 

TRICHOLOMA SUBACUTUM Pk. Doubtful 


PILEUS 1 1/4-3 in. broad, at first conic-campanulate with incurved margin, 

expanding to broadly convex with a conspicuous acute umbo, varying in color 

from slate-gray or pale gray to ashy or grayish brown, sometimes blackish on 

the umbo, fading toward the margin, streaked with minute, radiating, dark 

fibrils, dry, glabrous or slightly fibrillose-scaly. flesh thin except at the umbo, 

white, odor not distinctive, taste somewhat acrid, lamellae adnexed, close, 

broad, white, stipe 2-4 in. long, y^-Vi in. thick, equal, smooth or slightly 

fibrillose-scaly, solid, white, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 6-7.5 X 

4.5-5 M. 

In groups, on the ground in conifer woods. Sept.-Oct. 

Apparently there are several closely related forms similar to T. subacutum. 

There is some disagreement as to their edibility but none are known to be 

dangerously poisonous. The gray color and prominent, acute umbo are the 

most distinctive characters. T. virgatum (Fr.) Kummer is probably the same 

fungus and, if so, this would be the correct name for it. 

TRICHOLOMA TERREUM (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


pileus 1-21/2 in. broad, convex to expanded, subumbonate, gray or 

mouse-colored, dry, fibrillose, becoming fibrillose-scaly to slightly floccose, 

with the scales concolorous or dark gray to sooty, flesh thin, fragile, white, 

grayish beneath the cuticle, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnexed, close, 

moderately broad, white to dingy, stipe short, 1-2 in. long, I/8-I/4 in. thick, 

"^ 

129


equal, solid or stuffed, white or grayish, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 

6-7.5 X 3.5-5.5 m- 

In groups, or clusters of several, on the ground, in open woods. July-Oct. 

There are a number of closely related forms in the T. terreum group that 

are puzzling to distinguish from one another. Just how many species or forms 

are involved in this complex is uncertain. The species described above is fairly 

common and is characterized by the gray color and fibrillose to scaly pilei. 

T. myomyces (Pers.) Lange is similar in appearance but has a farinaceous odor 

and taste and slightly smaller spores. 

TRICHOLOMA VACCINUM (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer Suspected 


piLEUS 1 1/2-3 in. broad, convex to campanulate, sometimes subumbonate, 

becoming expanded, dry, covered with cinnamon-brown to dark reddish 

brown, appressed scales, margin tomentose, incurved at first, flesh thin 

except at the disk, white, staining faintly reddish, taste sHghtly disagreeable. 

LAMELLAE adncxcd or almost adnate, becoming sinuate, close, moderately 

broad, dingy white, staining reddish brown, stipe 2-3 in. long, V^-Yi in. thick, 

subequal, hollow, pale reddish brown, fading to whitish at the apex, fibrillose- 

scaly with reddish brown scales, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid to 

subglobose, 5.5-6 X 4 m- 

In groups or sHghtly clustered on the ground under conifers. Sept.-Oct. 

T. vaccinum is a fairly common species, well characterized by the reddish, 

scaly pileus, hollow stipe, and by the lamellae staining reddish brown. Other 

species in which the lamellae also stain reddish brown are T. imbricatum (Fr.) 

Kummer, which has a less scaly pileus and solid stipe, and T. transmutans 

Peck, which is viscid with the surface tasting bitter. Both the latter species are 

reported edible but there seems to be some doubt regarding T. vaccinum. 

MELANOLEUCA 

This genus includes a group of species formerly placed in Tricholoma. 

The characters used to separate it from Tricholoma are mainly microscopic, 

being the rough-walled, amyloid spores and the harpoon-shaped cystidia on 

the edges of the lamellae. However, we can usually recognize a Melanoleuca in 

the field by its stiff stature and the texture of the stipe, which is almost carti- 

laginous as in Collybia. 

The type of the genus, M. melaleuca (Pers. ex Fr.) Murr., is a fairly 

common and widely distributed species. As far as is known, all the species are 

edible but, as with all mushrooms, they should be tried cautiously at first. 

130

HYGROPHORUS 

MELANOLEUCA ALBOFLAVIDA (Pk.) Murr. Edible 


piLEUS 2-41/2 in. broad, at first somewhat campanulate, expanding to 

almost plane with disk often sHghtly obtuse or shghtly depressed and margin 

tending to remain decurved for a long time, smooth, moist, glabrous, dingy 

yellowish brown at first, becoming dingy yellowish buff to whitish, darkest on 

disk. FLESH white, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae thin and crowded, 

moderately narrow, sinuate-adnexed, white to dingy, stipe rather tall and 

straight, giving the plant a stiff, rigid appearance, 3-7 in. long, J4-!/2 in. thick, 

equal, subbulbous, solid within, with a cartilaginous rind, glabrous, fibrillose- 

striate, whitish or tinged the color of the pileus. spores ovoid, thick-walled, 

minutely punctate, strongly amyloid, white, 7-10 X 4.5-5.5 /x. cystidia lanceo- 

late, often encrusted at the apex into a harpoon-like tip. 

Solitary or in small groups on the ground in woods. June-Sept. Fairly 

common. 

The general appearance and stature of this species and especially the subcartilaginous 

stipe would lead one to look for it in the genus Collybia. It was 

placed in Collybia by Kauffman, although it was described by Peck as a 

Tricholoma, and its closest relatives appear to be in the T. melaleucum group. 

Since this group is now separated from Tricholoma as a distinct genus, Mela- 

noleUca, this seems to be the proper place for this species. It is larger than 

M. melaleuca and paler in color. 

MELANOLEUCA MELALEUCA (Pers. ex Fr.) Murr. Probably edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex, subumbonate, expanding to almost plane, 

moist, hygrophanous, smoky brown, drying much paler, smooth and glabrous, 

sometimes wavy on the margin, flesh thin, whitish, lamellae adnexed, 

notched at the stipe, close, moderately broad, white or whitish, stipe 1-3 in. 

long, 1/8-54 in. thick, equal or slightly swollen at the base, whitish, marked 

with darker fibrils, centrally stuffed, spores white, ellipsoid, rough-walled, 

strongly amyloid, 6-8 X 4-5 /x- cystidia lanceolate, encrusted at apex forming 

a harpoon-like tip. 

Solitary or scattered, on the ground, in woods and open places. Sept.-Oct. 

This species is distinguished by its rather stiff stature and rigid stipe, the 

strongly hygrophanous, fading pileus, and the rough-walled amyloid spores. 

M. brevipes (Bull, ex Fr.) Pat. is very similar but has a short stipe, less than 

the diameter of the pileus in height. 

HYGROPHORUS 

Hygrophorus is a large and important genus that includes some of our 

most beautiful mushrooms and several fine edible species. The spore deposit is 

131


white and the chief distinguishing character of the genus is the texture of the 

lamellae. This texture is difficult to describe but is usually termed waxy, and is 

fairly readily recognizable with a little field experience. The lamellae are as a 

rule rather thick, more or less triangular in shape, and usually subdistant to 

distant. The attachment to the stipe varies considerably in different species 

from adnexed to decurrent. 

Some of the species are brilliantly colored, scarlet to orange, yellow, or in 

one species bright green. Others are duller colored, brown, gray, dull viola- 

ceous, or white. They may be moist or dry, or both the pileus and stipe may be 

viscid, or only the pileus viscid. 

The genus Hygrophorus is divided into three sections based on the struc- 

ture of the trama of the lamellae. This is a character that can be determined 

only by making thin transverse sections of the lamellae and examining them 

under the microscope. In this treatment not much emphasis is laid on the 

structure of the trama but from a scientific standpoint it is such a valuable 

character in making identifications when a microscope is available that it has 

been included in the descriptions. However, the key and descriptions are so 

arranged that it should be possible to identify the species described here 

without knowing the structure of the trama. 

Three types of structure may be found. In the first the trama is said to be 

'divergent' and in this type the hyphae form a more or less definite core in the 

center of the lamella and from it they curve out obliquely and rather loosely to 

the hymenium. The other two types are said to be 'parallel' or 'interwoven' 

and sometimes difficulty may be encountered in deciding whether a particular 

specimen has parallel trama or interwoven trama. 

In general there is a correlation between the structure of the trama and 

the diameter of the hyphae. If the tramal hyphae are consistently more than 

7/x broad the species will usually be classified in the group with parallel hyphae, 

and if they are consistently less than 7 /x broad, it will be found in the group 

with interwoven hyphae. Those species with divergent trama are placed in the 

subgenus Limacium, those with interwoven trama in Camarophyllus, and those 

with parallel trama in Hygrocybe. 

Although some of the species are small, many of them are among our best 

edible mushrooms. Only H. conicus is considered to be dangerous and it is 

easily recognized by its conical shape and blackening flesh. 

Laccaria laccata is likely to be mistaken for a Hygrophorus but it has 

spiny spores. 


212. Hygrophorus russula. 213. Mycenapura. 

214. Laccaria laccata. 215. L. ochropurpurea. 

216. Xeromphalina campanella. 217. X.campanella. 

218. Mycena leaiana. 219. M. leaiana. 

220. Collybia acervata. 221. C. acervata. 

132

133


223. Collybia confluens. 224. C. maculata. 

225. C. dryophila. 226. C. dryophila 

134 

227. C. platyphylla. 228. C. tuberosa. 

229. C. velutipes. 230. C. velutipes. 

231. Marasmius oreades. 232. M. oreades. 

3 

H 

\ 

135

136 

Figure 233. Tricholoma subacutum.

Key 

HYGROPHORUS 




2. Pileus not white 5 

3. Pileus with yellow granules, at least at 

the margin and at the apex of the stipe H. chrysodon 

3. Pileus not with yellow granules 4 

4. Pileus glutinous H. eburneus 

4. Pileus moist, occasionally subviscid H. borealis 

5. Fruiting body bright green, fading to orange, yellow, 

or pinkish, very viscid H. psittacinus 

5. Fruiting body not green 6 

6. Fruiting body gray-brown with tinge of olive; 

stipe more or less floccose-scaly H. olivaceoalbus 

6. Not as above 7 

7. Blackening when handled; pileus conical H. conicus 

7. Flesh of pileus and stipe not blackening 8 

8. Lamellae becoming reddish spotted, close; 

pileus rosy red, somewhat variegated H. russula 

8. Lamellae not reddish spotted 9 

9. Pileus pale tan or pale flesh colored, often 

flushed with pink H. pudorinus 

9. Pileus yellow to orange or red 10 

10. Stipe viscid 11 

10. Stipe not viscid 12 

11. Pileus Vs-lVi in. broad, wax-yellow, fading, 

becoming deeply umbilicate H. nitidus 

11. Pileus 1-3 in. broad, bright reddish orange, fading to yellowish 

at margin, plane or slightly umbonate H. speciosus 

12. Pileus scarlet to bright red H. puniceus 

12. Pileus yellow to orange, never red H. flavescens 

13. Fruiting body white H. borealis 


14. Pileus becoming squamulose 15 

14. Pileus remaining glabrous or may be somewhat cracked in age 16 

15. Lamellae decurrent H. cantharellus 

15. Lamellae adnexed H. miniatus 

16. Pileus bright orange, fading to yellowish or whitish; the lamellae 

also orange and not fading, brighter than the pileus in age H. marginatus 

16. Pileus reddish brown when young, fading to tawny or buff, 

often turbinate in shape H. pratensis 

137


HYGROPHORUS BOREALIS Pk. Edible 


PILEUS yg-l ^2 

in. broad, slightly fleshy, convex to obtusely subumbonate, 

at length slightly depressed on the disk, surface smooth, glabrous, moist, 

occasionally slightly subviscid, watery white to white, margin decurved, 

finally expanded, striatulate when moist, flesh thickish on the disk, white to 

watery, odor and taste mild, lamellae not very broad, arcuate, decurrent, 

subdistant to distant, white, trama of interwoven hyphae. stipe 1-21/2 iii- 

long, approximately Vs ^^- thick, equal or tapering downward, white, smooth, 

glabrous, stuffed, spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-10 X 5-6.5 \i. 

In groups, on the ground in woods. Aug.-Oct. 

Hygrophorus niveus Fr. is said to differ from H. borealis in its thin submembranous 

pileus, which is decidedly viscid. H. eburneus Fr. is usually 

larger and is also viscid, and has the trama of the lamellae of divergent hyphae. 

HYGROPHORUS CANTHARELLUS Schw. Edible 


PILEUS y^-\ 54 in. broad, convex, with disk at first plane or shghtly 

depressed, usually becoming decidedly depressed to umbilicate as pileus 

expands, dry, glabrous at first but soon becoming minutely scurfy to squamu- 

lose, bright scarlet, fading to orange or yellowish, margin often regularly 

crisped, flesh thin, concolorous with or paler than the surface, odor and 

taste not distinctive, lamellae decurrent to long-decurrent, subdistant, broad, 

yellowish or tinged orange, paler than the pileus, trama of parallel hyphae. 

STIPE 1 )4-3 Vi in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal or almost so, stuffed at first, 

becoming hollow, glabrous, more or less concolorous with pileus, paler at the 

base. SPORES smooth, white, broadly oval, apiculate, 8-10 X 4-6 ju- 

In groups on the ground in moist woods or bogs. June-Oct. Fairly 

common. 

Some authors consider this to be a variety of H. miniatus and the two 

species are very close but H. cantharellus has a longer, more slender stipe, 

decidedly decurrent lamellae, and is usually not as broad. It is a very attractive 

little mushroom and is reported to be edible. 

HYGROPHORUS CHRYSODON Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first convex with margin incurved, becoming 

expanded, disk sometimes remaining obtusely subumbonate, white, viscid 

when fresh, sprinkled with minute, golden yellow granules, flesh soft, white, 

thick at the disk, odor and taste mild, lamellae decurrent, broad, subdistant 

to distant, white, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe lJ/2-4 in. long, V^-Vi in. 

138

HYGROPHORUS 

thick, equal or tapering downward, stuffed, viscid when fresh, white, sprinkled 

with minute, golden yellow granules, especially toward the apex where they 

sometimes form a yellowish annular zone, spores smooth, white, elHpsoid, 

apiculate, 7-10 X 4-5 /x- 

In groups on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct. 

The yellow granules on the pileus and at the apex of the stipe provide an 

easy means of recognizing this species. It is apparently more common on the 

west coast than in the east. It is reported to be edible although Smith and 

Hesler (1939) report unfavorably on the flavor. 

HYGROPHORUS CONICUS Fr. Suspected 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, acutely conic to obtusely conic, remaining unex- 

panded, orange-red, orange-yellow, or yellowish, often tinged with ohve to 

blackish streaks, blackening when bruised or in age, glabrous, sometimes 

obscurely fibrous-streaked, viscid when wet, becoming dry, margin often 

splitting as the pileus expands, sometimes lobed. flesh thin, tinged orange, 

odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae almost free, fairly close, moderately 

broad, broadest in center, pallid yellowish, trama of parallel hyphae. stipe 

1 54-35/2 ii^- long, 5/8-54 in. thick, equal, yellowish or orange-tinged, blackening 

where bruised, moist or dry, becotning hollow, readily splitting longitudinally, 

fibrillose-striate, the striations sometimes twisting around the stipe, spores 

smooth, white, ovoid to slightly irregular 9-13 X (4.5) 5.5-6.5 (7.5) m- 

In groups or singly on the ground in woods. Fairly common. June-Oct. 

The entire fruit body blackens with age or on handling or drying but 

traces of blackening can be found on nearly any plant, especially at the base of 

the stipe or on the disk. The bright colors, conical shape, and twisted stipe are 

characteristic features. H. cuspidatus Peck is somewhat similar in color and 

shape but does not blacken. 

HYGROPHORUS EBURNEUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, pure white, glutinous, convex or obtusely subum- 

bonate, becoming expanded, margin at first slightly floccose and incurved, 

becoming expanded, in age somewhat elevated, flesh white, rather thick on 

the disk, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae subdecurrent, becoming 

decurrent, subdistant to distant, moderately broad, narrowing toward the 

margin, pure white, becoming dingy with age, trama of divergent hyphae. 

STIPE 2-6 in. long, 5/3-% in. thick, subequal or tapering downward, stuff'ed 

then hollow, glutinous, pure white becoming dingy, apex dotted with minute 

white squamules. spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 6-8 X 4-5.5 /x. 

In groups on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct. 

This is a fairly common species, distinguished by the very glutinous cov- 

139


ering of both pileus and stipe. It is somewhat shiny when dry. It is usually 

larger than H. borealis Pk. and H. niveus Fr. 

HYGROPHORUS FLAVESCENS (Kauffman) Smith & Hesler Edible 


PILEUS brittle-fragile, %-2'4 in. broad, convex to expanded-convex with 

decurved margin, often shghtly irregular in outhne, striate on the margin when 

moist, smooth, glabrous, viscid, shining when dry, at first bright orange, fading 

in streaks to bright yellow, then paler yellow, flesh thin, pale yellowish, odor 

and taste not distinctive, lamellae unevenly attached, mostly adnexed, varying 

from broad to moderately narrow, close to subdistant, thick and waxy, deep 

yellow to pale lemon-yellow, many shorter lamellulae present, trama of 

parallel hyphae. stipe 1 J4-3 in. long, Y^-Yi in. thick, subequal or tapering 

downward, often compressed or grooved, hollow, waxy to the touch but not 

viscid, orange to yellow, usually paler than the pileus, whitish at the base. 

SPORES smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-8 X 3.5-4.5 /x. 

In groups or scattered, on the ground in woods, fairly common. June- 

Sept. 

Kauffman described this fungus as a variety of H. puniceus but it is evi- 

dently a distinct species. H. chlorophanus Fr. is similar but has a viscid stipe. 

The stipe of H. flavescens may feel sHppery or subviscid on handling but it is 

not truly viscid. H. chlorophanus is apparently rare but H. flavescens is common 

and probably most specimens identified as H. chlorophanus are, in reality, 

H. flavescens. 

HYGROPHORUS MARGINATUS Pk. Not recommended 


PILEUS 1/2-2 in. broad, at first obtusely conic with incurved margin, 

becoming more or less convex to broadly expanded, disk often tending to 

remain obtuse, smooth, glabrous, moist, hygrophanous, bright orange, fading 

gradually to pale yellowish, flesh thin, fragile, concolorous with pileus, odor 

and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnexed, broad, ventricose, subdistant, 

intervenose, bright orange, retaining this deep color, especially on the edges, 

after the rest of the plant has faded, trama of subparallel to interwoven hyphae. 

STIPE 1-3 in. long, up to 54 in. thick, subequal, often slightly compressed, 

hollow, smooth, glabrous, moist, concolorous with pileus or paler, spores 

smooth, white, oval, apiculate, 7-9 X 4-6 /x. 

In groups on ground in woods. Not common. July-Sept. 

The most striking character of this species is the manner in which the 

lamellae retain their colors after the pileus has faded. Sometimes the edges of 

the lamellae are brighter colored but not always. Kauffman reported this 

species as suspected and we have no further information about it, hence it is 

not recommended for food. 

140

HYGROPHORUS 

HYGROPHORUS MINIATUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS %-l )/2 in. broad, slightly convex to expanded, with disk plane or 

depressed, glabrous when fresh and moist but very soon becoming minutely 

scurfy as pileus loses its moisture, scarlet at first, fading to orange or yellow, 

margin at first incurved, flesh more or less concolorous with the pileus, thin, 

odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae broad, subdistant, adnate to adnexed, 

paler than the pileus, fading to yellowish, trama of parallel hyphae. stipe 

1-2 in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal, glabrous or almost so, concolorous with 

the pileus, fading gradually to orange, then yellowish, stuffed at first, becoming 

hollow, spores smooth, white, oval, apiculate, 7-9 X 4-5 /x. 

In groups on the ground or on much-decayed logs in woods, fairly 

common. June-Sept. 

This species is rather variable in appearance and different authors have 

described several -varieties. The surface is not viscid and appears glabrous at 

first, soon becoming fibrous or scurfy to squamulose. The color is brilHant 

scarlet at first, soon fading to orange or yellow. The attachment of the lamellae 

is another variable character in this species. 

HYGROPHORUS NITIDUS B. & C. 


PILEUS %-! Vi in. broad, flattened-hemispherical to convex, with disk 

becoming depressed then deeply umbiHcate, smooth, glabrous, viscid when 

moist, clear bright yellow, fading to cream or whitish, margin striate when 

moist, incurved, gradually becoming elevated but with the extreme margin 

tending to remain decurved. flesh thin and fragile, yellowish, fading, odor and 

taste not distinctive, lamellae arcuate-decurrent, becoming long-decurrent, 

moderately broad, rather distant, with a soft, waxy appearance, yellow, usually 

retaining the yellow color after the pileus and stipe have faded to whitish, 

trama of parallel hyphae. stipe 1-3 in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal, hollow 

within, glabrous, viscid, concolorous with the pileus, fading, spores smooth, 

white, broadly oval, apiculate, 7-8 X 4-5 ju. 

In groups on the ground in moist woods, fairly common. July-Sept. 

This is a fairly common species but is too small and fragile to be of any 

interest as food. The most distinctive character is the pileus, which fades from 

bright yellow to whitish while the lamellae retain their yellow color. H. cera- 

ceus Fr. is similar in color but does not fade and the pileus is not umbiHcate. 

HYGROPHORUS OLIVACEOALBUS Fr. 


Edible 

pileus 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex to campanulate with incurved 

margin, becoming expanded but disk sometimes remaining obtuse or broadly 

141


subumbonate, smooth, viscid, dark gray-brown on the disk, paler toward the 

margin, streaked with blackish fibrils beneath the viscid layer, flesh white, 

thickest on the disk, odor and taste mild, lamellae broad, white, close to sub- 

distant, broadly adnate to subdecurrent, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe 

1 Yi-^Vi in. long, i4-!/2 

in. thick, soHd, equal or tapering toward the base or 

apex, streaked up to an annular zone with dark gray fibrils under a viscid 

coating, white above this zone, occasionally with the fibrils on the lower part 

of the stipe arranged in a series of rings or bands, spores smooth, white, oval, 

apiculate, 9-12 X 5-7 fi. 

In groups on the ground beneath conifers. Sept.-Oct. 

The stipe in this species has a double sheath, an outer glutinous layer and 

an inner fuscous-fibrillose layer which breaks up into irregular bands as the 

stipe elongates. H. paludosus Peck is very similar but does not have the fuscous 

inner sheath on the stipe, and in wet weather it develops greenish spots and 

stains on the lamellae and upper part of the stipe. H . fuligineus Frost is darker 

colored and has smaller spores. H. tephroleucus Fr. is a smaller gray species 

with whitish fibrils on the stipe, which soon become gray. 

HYGROPHORUS PRATENSIS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS %-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex or with a broad obtuse umbo, often 

turbinate, smooth, dry, sometimes cracking around the disk, light reddish 

brown fading to pinkish tan or pale tan, margin at first incurved, gradually 

becoming expanded, in age the margin becoming elevated and the disk somewhat 

depressed, flesh thick on the disk, tinged the color of the pileus, odor 

and taste mild, lamellae thick, decurrent, distant, intervenose, rather broad, 

narrowing toward the margin, flesh colored, trama of interwoven hyphae. 

stipe 1 1/2-3 in. long, 14-I/2 in. thick, equal or tapering upward or downward, 

stuff'ed, dry, pallid or tinged the color of the pileus. spores smooth, white, 

ellipsoid, 6-8 X 4-5 m- 

Oct. 

In groups on the ground in woods and open places, fairly common. July- 

The stipe is usually short and the pileus more or less top-shaped. It often 

grows in more open and exposed places and sometimes fades to whitish. 

HYGROPHORUS PSITTACINUS Fr. Not edible 


pileus yg-iyg in. broad, conic-campanulate becoming convex or ex- 

panded, sometimes persistently umbonate, at first deep ohve-green to parrot- 

green, quickly fading on drying out to salmon color, flesh color, pinkish 

orange or yellowish, smooth, glabrous, sHmy-viscid and very shppery when 

moist, margin striate when moist, flesh thin, fragile, brittle, more or less con- 

colorous with the pileus. lamellae adnate, moderately broad, subdistant, 

142

HYGROPHORUS 

thick especially next to the flesh, somewhat intervenose, greenish at first, soon 

fading to flesh color, orange, or yellowish, trama of parallel hyphae. stipe 

1/4-2/4 iri- long, about i/g in. thick, equal, glabrous, sHppery-viscid, at first 

green, drying to flesh color or yellowish, the apex retaining the green color 

longest, hollow, spores smooth, white, oval, obHquely apiculate, 6-9 X 4-5 fi. 

In groups on the ground in grassy places and woods. July-Oct. 

The bright green color is unusual in mushrooms and this is an attractive 

fungus for collectors, but is too small and sHmy to be of any interest as food. 

The color fades rather rapidly but traces of it can usually be found around the 

margin of the pileus and at the apex of the stipe. Faded specimens might be 

confused with H. laetus Fr., which is very variable in color and may be of 

mixed colors, but it is not bright green and the lamellae are decurrent. 

HYGROPHORUS PUDORINUS Fr. Edible 


The Blushing Hygrophorus 

pileus 1 J4-4 in. broad, fleshy, convex to somewhat campanulate with 

incurved margin, becoming expanded but disk tending to remain obtuse, 

smooth, glabrous, viscid, pale pinkish tan. flesh rather thick, firm, white or 

pinkish, odor and taste mild, lamellae not very broad, adnate to subdecur- 

rent, thick, subdistant, intervenose and tending to fork, whitish to cream or 

flesh colored, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe stout, 1 )/^-3 Yi in. long, J4- 

% in. thick, equal or tapering downward, solid or stuff'ed, dry, whitish or 

tinged the color of the pileus, somewhat fibrillose below, apex dotted with 

minute white flecks which become reddish as the plant dries, spores smooth, 

white, ellipsoid, apiculate, 7-9 X 4-5.5 /x. 

In groups or slightly clustered on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct. 

According to Smith and Hesler (1939) there is some doubt as to whether or 

not this is the true H. pudorinus and there is a western species, H. fragrans 

Murr., which diff'ers in having the base of the stipe ochraceous and tends to 

stain yellow when bruised, and which in some respects seems closer to the 

original description of H. pudorinus. 

HYGROPHORUS PUNICEUS Fr. Edible 


pileus 1-2 J4 in. broad, at first bluntly conic with incurved margin, 

expanding to convex or nearly plane, disk often remaining obtusely umbonate, 

smooth, glabrous, viscid, deep blood-red when fresh, soon becoming streaked 

with orange, finally fading entirely to orange, flesh thin, watery, reddish 

orange to yellowish, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnate to 

adnexed, broad, subdistant, reddish orange to yellowish, trama of parallel 

hyphae. stipe lJ/2-314 in. long, I4-/4 in. thick, subequal or tapering at the 

base, stuffed then hollow, at first reddish above, fading to orange, then yellow, 

143


base paler, yellow to white, spores smooth, white, eUipsoid, apiculate, (7) 8- 

10 X 4.5-6 fjL. 

In groups on the ground in woods. July-Nov. 

Young, fresh specimens of this species are among the most brilhantly 

colored of our mushrooms. The white base of the stipe and the broad, deeply 

colored lamellae are also distinctive. H. coccineus Fr. is said to be similar but 

not viscid and is apparently very rare in North America. 

HYGROPHORUS RUSSULA (Fr.) Quel. Edible 


piLEUS 2-4 1/2 in. broad, firm, fleshy, convex or with a broad obtuse umbo, 

viscid when fresh, rosy red to wine color on the disk, paling toward the margin 

to flesh-pink or whitish, sometimes flecked with wine-colored spots, becoming 

very minutely areolate, especially on the disk, margin at first incurved and 

slightly floccose, becoming expanded and finally elevated, flesh thick, firm, 

white to pinkish, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnate to decurrent, 

moderately narrow, close to crowded, white then pinkish, finally spotted with 

purplish red stains, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe stout, 1 ^4-3 in. long, 

%-l in. thick, equal or tapering downward, dry, white then pinkish, solid. 

SPORES smooth, white, eUipsoid, 6-8 X 3.5-5 /x- 

Scattered or in groups on the ground in hardwoods. Sept.-Oct. 

This species is rather unusual in the genus because of the close to crowded 

lamellae and some authors have placed it in Tricholoma. However, it now 

seems to be generally agreed that it properly belongs in Hygrophorus. It some- 

times occurs late in the autumn under fallen leaves. This is considered to be 

one of the best edible species. 

H. purpurascens Schw. can be distinguished by the presence of an evanes- 

cent, fibrillose annulus. 

HYGROPHORUS SPECIOSUS Peck Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first subconic to campanulate, then expanded, 

often umbonate, scarlet to orange-red, fading to yellowish near the margin 

but remaining red on the disk, viscid, glabrous, margin incurved at first, then 

spreading, flesh white, tinged orange under the pellicle, soft, odor and taste 

mild. LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, distant, rather broad, thick, white to yellowish, 

trama of divergent hyphae. stipe 1)4-4 in. long, )4-)4 in. thick, equal or 

sHghtly compressed, floccose-fibrillose up to an evanescent annular zone, 

subglabrous above, viscid, soHd. spores broadly ellipsoid, white, smooth, 

8-10 X 5-6 M- 

, Usually gregarious in larch swamps. Sept.-Oct. 

This species is not common but is a very showy and beautiful fungus and 

will certainly attract notice when it is found. It is said to be edible. 

144

LACCARIA 

LACCARIA 

Species of Laccaria have white or pale lilac spores, usually strongly 

echinulate and not amyloid. They have rather thick, somewhat waxy-looking 

lamellae that are usually purpHsh to flesh colored, and lack annulus and volva. 

They have been placed in Clitocybe but they are not closely related to this 

genus. They are most likely to be confused with Hygrophorus because of the 

waxy appearance of the lamellae but the echinulate spores will distinguish 

them. They might even be mistaken for the fruiting bodies of a Lactarius in 

which the latex had dried up, but the iodine reaction of the spores is a sure 

way of separating them. The spores of all Lactarius species turn blue in iodine. 

Laccaria species are edible but are not reputed to be of good flavor. 

LACCARIA LACCATA (Fr.) Berk. & Br. Edible 


piLEUS %-2 (3) in. broad, convex becoming plane, sometimes slightly 

umbilicate, glabrous at first, then scurfy to somewhat scaly, hygrophanous, 

variable in color, reddish brown to reddish flesh colored, fading to ochraceous 

or paHid, margin even or wavy to notched, flesh thin, moist, taste mild. 

LAMELLAE emarginate to short decurrent, broad, distant to subdistant, thick, 

tinged flesh color, stipe 1-4 in. long, j/g-W (%) in^- thick, equal, tough, fibrous, 

glabrous to scurfy, sometimes striate, sohd to stuff*ed or becoming hollow, 

colored Hke the pileus. spores globose, echinulate, white, 8-10 ju diam. 

Common in woods or open places. May-Nov. 

This is one of our commonest fungi and one of the most puzzHng to the 

beginner. It is very variable and is likely to be collected many times before it is 

recognized with certainty. The broad, distant, flesh-colored lamellae are, 

perhaps, the best field mark and if a microscope is available the spiny, non- 

amyloid spores are characteristic. 

L. amethystina (Bolt, ex Fr.) B. & Br. is similar in stature but the whole 

fruiting body is a beautiful deep violet. 

LACCARIA OCHROPURPUREA (Berk.) Peck Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly plane and 

depressed in the center, hygrophanous, minutely downy-tomentose at first, 

becoming glabrous, or sometimes cracking into scale-like areas, purplish 

brown at first, becoming tawny yellow to grayish leather colored, margin 

even or wavy, flesh tough, taste unpleasant, lamellae adnate to shghtly 

decurrent, broad, thick, distant, purple, stipe 1 Yi-^ in. long, Yi-l in. thick, 

variable in shape, equal or tapering either upward or downward, sometimes 

145


curved or twisted, tough and hard, solid, colored like the pileus or paler. 

SPORES globose, echinulate, pale lilac in mass, 8-10 m in diameter. 

Scattered to subcespitose in woods, open grassy places or bare soil. 

Aug.-Oct. 

The purple lamellae are characteristic and might suggest a Cortinarius 

but there is no veil and the spores are pale lilac. It is not as common as L. 

laccata. 

XEROMPHALINA 

The genus Xeromphalina includes a small group of species, most of which 

were formerly put in Omphalia. However, the name Omphalia is illegitimate 

under the International Code of Nomenclature and, furthermore, the species 

formerly placed there are not regarded as a taxonomic unit by modern taxono- 

mists. They have been divided among several genera of which Xeromphalina is 

one. There is some disagreement as to the exact limits of this genus but the 

type species is X. campanella (Fr.) Kiihner & Maire. 

The species of this genus have white, amyloid spores. The lamellae are 

adnate to decurrent and the stipes dark brown to blackish, horny in con- 

sistency, and with a bright-colored tomentum at the base. There is no annulus 

or volva. The amyloid spores provide the best character for separating Xerom- 

phalina from Marasmius. The species are mostly small and of no value as food. 

XEROMPHALINA CAMPANELLA (Fr.) Kuhner & Maire Edible 


PILEUS 1/4-% ii^- broad, fragile, convex, expanding, umbiHcate, rusty 

orange-yellow, orange-brown, or reddish-tinged, glabrous or almost so, hygro- 

phanous, fading on drying, margin slightly incurved, tending to remain so, 

becoming striate, flesh membranous, yellowish, odor and taste not distinctive. 

LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, close to subdistant, rather narrow, connected by veins, 

yellowish, stipe slender, i/^-l I/2 in. long, ^6-^8 ii^- thick, smooth, cartilaginous, 

even, straight or curved, hollow, dark reddish brown, yellowish at apex, 

pruinose, with a hairy, orange, root-hke tuft at the base, spores smooth, 

white, eUipsoid to long-elHpsoid, amyloid, 6-7.5 X 2.5-3.5 ju. 

In clusters, often densely crowded, on decaying logs and stumps of conifers, 

common. May-Oct. 

This species has been reported as edible but is too small to be of much 

interest as food although it sometimes occurs in very large clusters. Its abun- 

dance, bright colors, and rather graceful stature make it a very attractive Httle 

mushroom and it may be found throughout the growing season. 

146

XEROMPHALINA TENUIPES (Schw.) Smith 


MYCENA 

PILEUS i/^-l 1/4 (2I/2) in. broad, convex, becoming plane or broadly umbo- 

nate, rather variable in color, orange-brown, tinged olive or ochraceous, dry, 

velvety to sHghtly granulose when old, margin even or becoming slightly 

striate in age. flesh watery brown, pHant, no odor, lamellae adnate or decur- 

rent by a line, whitish soon becoming pale yellow, close, moderately broad. 

STIPE 1-3 in. long, Vs-Vi ii^- thick, equal or shghtly enlarged toward base, concolorous 

with pileus, drying more yellowish, velvety-tomentose. spores white, 

eUipsoid, smooth, amyloid, 7-9 X 4-5 /x. 

Singly or in clusters on hardwood. June-July. 

This species appears early in the season and is the largest species in the 

genus. It somewhat resembles Collybia velutipes but differs in the dry, velvety 

pileus and amyloid spores. There is no information concerning its edibihty but 

its texture seems rather tough. 

MYCENA 

Mycena is a very large genus of which the species are small and difficult to 

identify. Smith (1947) pubhshed a monograph of the genus in North America 

and recognized 232 species. With rare exceptions the species can be identified 

only from microscopic characters and the group is not one for the beginner. 

The species are all too small to be of any interest as food. 

As interpreted by Smith the genus includes white-spored species with 

cartilaginous, hollow stipes, and usually conical or convex pilei with the 

margin straight and appressed to the stipe when young, although some forms 

with incurved margins and decurrent lamellae are included. The fruit bodies 

are fragile, fleshy or membranous. In dehmiting the genus. Smith also placed 

considerable emphasis on microscopic characters. 

Some of the species are rather attractive and brightly colored but many 

are small, brownish or grayish forms, all looking rather similar. Only a few of 

the more distinctive ones are included here. 

MYCENA ALCALINA (Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS y^-\ in. broad, occasionally larger, fragile but pHant, ovoid in the 

button stage, then obtusely conic, expanding to conic-campanulate with the 

disk usually remaining obtusely umbonate, becoming long-striate on the mar- 

gin as the pileus expands, moist, when young dark grayish brown with a 

pruinose bloom, soon glabrous, drab grayish brown at maturity, paUid on the 

147


margin, flesh thin except on the disk, white to pallid, odor alkaline, lamel- 

lae ascending-adnate, moderately broad, uncrowded, white or tinged grayish, 

with shorter lamellae interspersed, stipe 2-3)/^ in. long, up to J/g in. thick, 

equal, hollow, brittle, subconcolorous with the pileus, at first with a pruinose 

bloom, soon glabrous, usually somewhat white-mycelioid at the base, spores 

smooth, white, amyloid, ovoid, 7.5-10 X 4.5-6/x. cystidia fusoid-ventricose 

on the sides of the lamellae, up to 60 /x long, rare to abundant; those on the 

edges of the lamellae varying from ventricose to clavate, sometimes with one to 

several fingerlike projections at the apex. 

In groups or in clusters of several on decaying conifers, common. May- 

Sept. 

This is one of the commonest species of the genus and is a fairly typical 

Mycena. It may sometimes be found early in the spring. The characteristic 

alkaline odor is the most distinctive single character of the species, but it may 

vary from being quite strong to only detectable when the flesh is crushed or 

even occasionally apparently absent. 

MYCENA GALERICULATA (Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible 

Figure 277, page 176 ^ 

PILEUS %-l )/2 in. broad, at first conic, becoming campanulate to ex- 

panded-umbonate, the umbo sometimes disappearing, buff'-brown on the 

margin, darker to umber on disk, fading, glabrous, somewhat sHppery, not 

viscid, margin striate, flesh grayish white to pallid, cartilaginous, odor and 

taste slightly farinaceous, lamellae adnexed to adnate or sinuate, close to 

subdistant, moderately broad, whitish becoming tinged with pale pink, edges 

even, stipe XVi-'^Vi in. long, sometimes longer, He^Vs 

^^- thick, equal, gla- 

brous, cartilaginous, smooth or twisted-striate, grayish white, darker below to 

brownish at base, hollow, rooting, spores white, smooth, ellipsoid, amyloid, 

8-10 X 5-7 M. 

Usually in clusters or sometimes scattered, on rotten wood. May-Pet. 

Although this is a small fragile species it sometimes occurs in such large 

clusters that it may be of interest as food. Another common species that 

occurs in clusters on wood is M. inclinata (Fr.) Quel. It is more grayish in 

color, the margin is more or less scalloped, and the stipe has a white fibrillose 

coating when young that usually leaveslftecks or fibrils on the stipe as the 

fruiting body matures. 

MYCENA LEAIANA (Berk.) Sacc. 


PILEUS 54-1 !4 in. broad, tough, pliant, convex, becoming expanded- 

convex, with a slight depression on the disk, translucent-striate on the margin, 

smooth and very viscid, bright flaming orange, fading to yellowish orange and 

148

COLLYBIA 

finally pale yellow, flesh very thin, yellowish, odor and taste not distinctive. 

LAMELLAE adnate, ventricose, moderately broad, close to subdistant, yellowish 

to pinkish-tinged with the edges bright orange, stipe %-2 in. long, about Xq in. 

thick, gradually tapering downward, hollow, glabrous, viscid, orange, not 

fading as readily as the pileus. spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-9 X 5-6 /x- 

In clusters of few to many individuals on old logs and stumps. June-Oct. 

The bright orange edges of the lamellae are a distinctive field mark of this 

species since they retain their color after the pileus has faded to yellow. The 

brilliant colors of this species are certain to attract attention. 

MYCENA PURA (Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS 1/2-1 Vi ill- broad, convex to expanded, usually obtusely umbonate, 

smooth, glabrous, moist, hygrophanous, translucent-striate on the margin, 

varying in color from rosy red to violet or shades of grayish violet, sometimes 

nearly white, flesh moderately thick on the disk, thin on the margin, tinged the 

color of the pileus or whitish, odor and taste of radish, lamellae adnate to 

sinuate at the stipe, broad, subdistant to moderately close, interveined, vari- 

able in color, white or more often tinged the color of the pileus. stipe 1 1/2-3 in. 

long or longer, i/g-i/i in. thick, equal, hollow, glabrous or pruinose, con- 

colorous with the pileus or paler to whitish, sometimes twisted, fibrillose- 

striate. spores smooth, white, long-ellipsoid, 6-8 X 3.5-4 f^. 

SoHtary or in groups on the ground in woods. June-Oct. Common. 

This is a common and widely distributed species and is attractive because 

of its beautiful colors. It is one of the larger species of the genus but is too 

small to be of value as food. 

COLLYBIA 

The genus Collybia has usually been defined as comprising those species 

with white spores, cartilaginous stipes, the lamellae adnate to adnexed, the 

margin of the pileus incurved to inrolled at first, and lacking both annulus and 

volva. However, modern taxonomists seem to be generally agreed that this 

concept is too broad and brings together many unrelated species. The tend- 

ency now is to spht the genus into several genera with Collybia dryophila as 

the type of Collybia in a more restricted sense. Since some of the divisions are 

based principally on microscopic characters and there is not yet general agreement 

as to precise generic limits, for the purpose of this book Collybia is 

retained in the older and broader sense. 

It is sometimes difficult to draw a distinction between Collybia and 

Marasmius on the one hand and Collybia and Mycena on the other. The prin- 

cipal diff'erence between Collybia and Marasmius is in the ability of Maras- 

149


mius species to revive after drying but sometimes this distinction is not very 

clear-cut and Collybia confluens, for example, might equally well be placed in 

Marasmius. Mycena is usually distinguished by the small, more or less conic to 

campanulate pilei which do not become expanded, and also by the margin of 

the pileus which in the young stage lies straight along the stipe rather than 

being incurved or inrolled as in Collybia. 

No poisonous species of Collybia are known and some of the larger ones 

are considered to be very good but many of the species are too small to be of 

any value as food. 

Key 

1. Fruiting bodies densely cespitose, reddish brown or vinaceous brown; 

the stipes glabrous above, tomentose below and 

more or less bound together C. acervata 

1. Fruiting bodies single, gregarious, or subcespitose 2 

2. Stipe deeply rooting C. radicata 

2. Stipe not deeply rooting 3 


3. Stipe velvety or tomentose to pruinose 6 

4. Fruiting body white becoming spotted or stained rusty brown C. maculata 


5. Lamellae very broad; fruiting body gray C. platyphylla 

5. Lamellae narrow; fruiting body reddish tan 

to yellowish fawn C dryophila 

6. Fruiting body small, usually less than Vi in. broad; stipes arising 

from a small sclerotium C. tuberosa 

6. Fruiting bodies more than V2 in, broad; stipes not arising from sclerotia 7 

7. Stipe velvety, dark brown to black; pileus viscid; on wood C. velutipes 

1 . Stipe densely whitish pubescent; pileus not viscid; 

usually among fallen leaves on the ground C. confluens 

COLLYBIA ACERVATA (Fr.) Kummer Probably edible 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, glabrous, somewhat hygrophanous, 

reddish brown to vinaceous brown, the margin becoming paler and 

finally fading over all to nearly whitish, margin slightly striate when moist, 

sometimes wavy and irregular and becoming upturned in age. flesh thin, 

pallid, taste mild, lamellae free to adnexed, crowded, narrow, whitish or 

tinged reddish, stipe 2-4 in. or sometimes more in length, V8~!4 in. thick, 

equal, hollow, glabrous above, whitish tomentose below, densely cespitose 

and often bound together with the white mycelium, reddish brown or vina- 

ceous brown, often darker than the pileus. spores smooth, white, nonamyloid, 

narrowly oblong to ellipsoid, with a prominent apiculus, 5-7 X 2-3 /x. 

150 

Densely cespitose on the ground or rotten wood. Aug.-Oct. 

It is reported to be edible although Smith (1949) describes the taste as

COLLYBIA 

bitter. The dense clusters with reddish brown stipes more or less bound to- 

gether toward the base are a characteristic feature of this fungus. When dried 

the stipes retain the reddish brown color and are darker than the pilei. 

Collybia familia (Pk.) Sacc. and C. abundans (Pk.) Sacc. are two other 

densely cespitose species which have amyloid spores and are differently colored, 

whitish or buff to pale brown, more gray than C. acervata, and with whitish to 

brownish stipes. In C. abundans the pileus is depressed in the center and in 

C. familia it is not. Both of these species are edible. 

COLLYBIA CONFLUENS (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, reddish brown to buffbrown 

when moist, becoming grayish to pinkish buff or whitish when dry, 

glabrous to pruinose, sometimes minutely subsquamulose on the disk, obtuse 

to subumbonate, even or striatulate on the margin when moist, flesh thin, 

white, rather tough, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, narrow, crowded, 

whitish, stipe 2-4 in. long, 3^6-% in. thick, equal- or nearly so, often com- 

pressed, tough, cartilaginous, reddish brown under a dense white pubescence, 

hollow, spores hyahne, narrow-fusoid, 6-9 X 2.5-4 /x. 

Cespitose or gregarious, usually among fallen leaves on the ground. July- 

Oct. Common. 

This species tends to revive when moistened, and in this way forms a 

connecting link between Collybia and Marasmius. It occurs rather commonly 

and is sometimes abundant. The densely whitish pubescent stipe is a good dis- 

tinguishing character. C. hariolorum Fr. is somewhat similar but is reddish on 

the disk, the stipe is usually shorter and it does not revive so well, tending to 

become soft when moistened. 

COLLYBIA DRYOPHILA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, rather thin and pliant, convex becoming expanded 

with margin finally elevated and irregularly wavy, disk remaining slightly 

obtuse or becoming depressed, surface smooth, glabrous, moist when fresh, 

color variable, ranging from deep reddish tan to yellowish fawn, fading with 

age. FLESH thin, whitish, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnate to 

adnexed, narrow, crowded, white or palHd. stipe 1 V^-lYi in. long, ^'bout J/g in. 

thick, cartilaginous, equal or tapering upward, often compressed, central or 

shghtly excentric, hollow within, surface smooth, glabrous, more or less con- 

colorous with pileus, often tufted with white mycehum at the base, spores 

smooth, white, ellipsoid, 5-7 X 3-3.5 ju- 

In groups or small clusters, on the ground in woods, common. June-Sept. 

There are several species such as C. butyracea (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer, C. 

lentinoides Peck, and C. aquosa (Fr.) Kummer that are closely related to C. 

151


dryophila and sometimes difficult to distinguish. However, these are all edible 

species as well. C. dryophila may be found throughout the growing season and 

is sometimes abundant. 

COLLYBIA MACULATA (A. & S. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


piLEUS 2-6 in. broad, rather firm, convex becoming expanded, disk tending 

to remain obtuse, margin at first inrolled, then decurved, becoming somewhat 

wavy when fully expanded, surface smooth, glabrous, white, spotted with 

rusty brown stains, in age the entire plant becoming rusty-stained, flesh 

white, compact, lamellae adnexed to almost free, narrow, crowded, white. 

stipe white, IVi-^Vi in. long, up to Yi 

in. thick, equal or sHghtly ventricose, 

the tapering base extending down some distance into the soil, cartilaginous, 

becoming hollow, fibrous-striate to sHghtly grooved, spores broadly oval to 

subglobose, smooth, yellowish, 5-7 X 4-5 ii. 

In groups or in clusters of 2 or 3, on the ground in woods. June-Sept. 

This is a fairly large white species which can be recognized by the rusty 

stains that develop as it matures. The spores are not pure white but have a 

yellowish tinge. It is reported to be edible but not of particularly good flavor. 

COLLYBIA PLATYPHYLLA (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS averaging 21^-5 in. broad, occasionally up to 8 in. broad, convex 

to subcampanulate at first, becoming expanded, disk often remaining obtusely 

umbonate or sometimes becoming sHghtly depressed, margin at first incurved, 

becoming expanded or recurved, in age splitting raggedly, color drab grayish 

brown to brownish drab, streaked with darker innate fibrils, paling toward the 

margin to grayish white, surface dry or moist, smooth or slightly scurfy. 

FLESH thin, white, taste unpleasant, odor mild to unpleasant, lamellae white 

or whitish, very broad, subdistant, adnexed, becoming sinuate at the stipe. 

STIPE stout, 3-5 in. long or sometimes longer, %-% in. thick, equal or tapering 

upward slightly, white or whitish, fibrous-striate, cuticle sHghtly cartilaginous, 

center stuff'ed, becoming hollow, spores smooth, white, broadly oval, 7-10 X 

5-7 Mj immature spores smaller. 

Single or in groups of several, on decaying stumps and logs or in rich soil. 

June-Oct. 

C. platyphylla is edible but is often infested with insect larvae and the 

flavor is said to be strong. The gray color and very broad lamellae are dis- 

tinguishing characters. 


234. Marasmius rotula. 235. M. rotula. 

236. M. scorodonius. 1?)1. Schizophyllum commune. 

238. Partus rudis. 239. P. rudis. 

240. Trogia crispa. 241. Pluteus admirabilis. 

242. P. atromarginatus. 243. P. atromarginatus. 

152

245. Pluteus cervinus. 

247. Volvariella bombycina. 

249. Entoloma rhodopolium. 

251. Leptonia asprella. 

253 Clitopilus abortivus. 

154 

. 


246. P. cervinus. 

248. V. bombycina. 

250. E. salmoneum 

252. L. formosa. 

254. C. abortivus. 

£^5 

3

155

156 

to 

5 

o 

3

COLLYBIA 

COLLYBIA RADICATA (Fr.) Quel. Edible 


PILEUS 1 J4-4 in. broad, convex, becoming expanded, often slightly umbonate, 

surface viscid when wet, glabrous, smooth or wrinkled around the umbo, 

color varying from grayish brown to grayish fawn or paUid. flesh thin except 

on disk, whitish, odor shght or lacking, taste mild, lamellae adnexed, often 

with fine decurrent hnes on the stipe, broad, subdistant, pure white, several 

tiers of shorter lamellulae not reaching the stipe, stipe tall, 2-8 in. above 

ground, with a long tapering root-Hke underground extension, i/^-^/z in. thick 

at the ground, tapering upward sHghtly, cartilaginous, stuffed, becoming 

hollow, surface varying from even to twisted-striate or sulcate, glabrous to 

densely pruinose, white at the apex, elsewhere brownish to mouse colored. 

spores smooth, white, broadly oval, obliquely apiculate, 14-17 X 9-11 /x. 

On the ground in woods, solitary or in small groups, common. June-Sept. 

The 'rooting' stipe and the pure white, subdistant lamellae are the field 

marks of this species. C longipes (Fr.) Kummer also has a long rooting stipe 

but is smaller with a dry, velvety pileus and brownish tomentose stipe. C. 

radicata exhibits a great range of variation in size and color and several vari- 

eties have been described. It is a very common species and sometimes may be 

found when other mushrooms are scarce. 

COLLYBIA TUBEROSA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS tiny, y%-Y% in. broad, convex to expanded, sometimes slightly um- 

bonate, white to creamy or tinged tan, surface glabrous, unpoHshed or almost 

chalky in appearance, flesh thin, white, lamellae adnate, or with a slight, 

decurrent line, distant or subdistant, rather narrow, whitish, many short ones 

not reaching the stipe, stipe %-% in. long, slender, fihform, surface minutely 

scurfy or powdery especially toward the base, glabrous at the apex, white or 

tinged reddish brown, hollow, attached at the base to a small reddish brown or 

blackish sclerotium. sclerotium 3^6~!4 in. in diameter, varying in shape from 

elongated to pip-shaped, spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 4-5.5 X 2-3 /x. 

Oct. 

In groups on decayed mushrooms or occasionally on the ground. July- 

This tiny Httle species is of no interest as food, but it is fairly common and 

will be encountered by any collector. It can be recognized by the small brownish 

sclerotia from which the fruit bodies arise. It is usually found on much- 

decayed mushrooms. 

C. cirrhata (Schum. ex Fr.) Quel, is a similar small species but does not 

have sclerotia; C. cookei (Bres.) Arnold has sclerotia that are yellowish and 

more rounded than those of C. tuberosa. C. albipilata Peck is another small 

species growing on pine cones. 

157


COLLYBIA VELUTIPES (Curt, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


piLEUS %-2 in. broad, convex-expanded, often slightly excentric and 

irregular, surface glabrous, viscid, pellicle separable, color yellowish to reddish 

yellow or reddish brown, usually darkest on disk, flesh moderately thick, 

white or tinged yellow or reddish, taste mild, lamellae sinuate-adnexed, 

rather broad, subdistant, creamy to yellowish, edges minutely fimbriate. 

STIPE %-2j/2 in. long, Ys-Ya in. thick, tough, subequal or tapering slightly to 

base or apex, stuffed to hollow, surface densely velvety-tomentose, bright 

cinnamon, usually yellowish toward the apex and dark brown to blackish 

toward the base, spores smooth, white, long-eUiptic, obhquely apiculate, 

7-9 X 3-4 M. 

In small clusters or singly on decaying logs and stumps, and on bark of 

living trees, chiefly in late autumn but found also in early spring or in summer. 

C velutipes seems to be hardy in cold weather. Fruiting bodies are sometimes 

found during mild spells in January and February. The reddish brown to 

yellowish, viscid pilei and dark velvety stipes are distinctive characters for this 

species. 

Kauffman says the peUicle should be removed from the pileus before 

cooking. 

MARASMIUS 

Marasmius is a large genus of white-spored mushrooms, mostly small in 

size, and characterized by the abiUty to shrivel up during dry periods and 

revive again when moistened. This character is not very clear-cut and some 

species may readily be mistaken for Collybia or Mycena. There is no veil and 

the stipe is of a different texture from the pileus. 

Many of the species are small and membranous and with the exception of 

M. oreades are of little interest as food. Some are, however, attractive little 

mushrooms and a few of the commoner species are included. 

Key 


1. Stipe not glabrous; pileus buff or tan colored; 

growing in rings in grassy places M. oreades 

2. Odor of garlic M. scorodonius 

2. Odor not of garlic 3 

3. Pileus ochraceous red, sulcate M. siccus 

3. Pileus whitish with dark umbilicus; lamellae attached 

158 

to a free collar M. rotula

MARASMIUS 

MARASMIUS OREADES Fr. Edible 


Fairy Ring 

piLEUS %-2 in. broad, rather fleshy for this genus, pliant, at first bell- 

shaped with slightly incurved margin, expanding to convex with or without a 

broad obtuse umbo, finally broadly expanded with margin elevated and disk 

plane or shghtly umbonate, varying from dull reddish to Hght brown or tan, 

fading to yellowish buff" when dry, smooth to somewhat uneven or lumpy, 

glabrous, margin more or less striate when moist, flesh thin at the margin, 

thicker on the disk, palHd and watery when moist, whitish when dry, odor faint, 

taste not distinctive, lamellae almost free, subdistant, somewhat interveined, 

rather broad, rounded behind, very thick next to the pileus, paUid whitish buff. 

STIPE tough, 1-2J4 in. long, about y^ in. thick, equal or tapering downward, 

sometimes compressed at the apex, concolorous with the pileus or paler, 

smooth to minutely scurfy, stuff*ed to hollow, spores smooth, white, somewhat 

irregular in shape, mostly slightly subfusiform, prominently apiculate, 

7-9 X 4-5.5 M. 

On the ground in lawns and grassy places, often in rings or arcs, common. 

May-Oct. 

This is a good edible species and can be dried for winter use. However, the 

collector should be careful to avoid getting fruiting bodies of the poisonous 

Clitocybe dealbata (Figures 210, 21 1, p. 116) mixed in with his collection. The 

two species are likely to be found growing together, and are sufficiently similar 

in size and coloring to be accidentally included in the same collection. They 

can be distinguished readily by the lamellae, which are broad and subdistant in 

the Marasmius, and narrow and close to crowded in the Clitocybe. The Clito- 

cybe is much whiter in color as a rule but it might be mistaken for faded specimens 

of the Marasmius if color alone were relied upon. 

M. oreades is commonly known as the fairy ring mushroom from its habit 

of growing in circles on lawns or grassy places. The circles tend to increase in 

size from year to year and the grass at the periphery of the circle is usually a 

richer, darker green than the surrounding grass. 

MARASMIUS ROTULA (Fr.) Kummer 


pileus 1/^-1/4 in. broad, thin, tough and pliant, hemispheric to convex, 

unexpanded, umbilicate, radiately grooved from disk to margin in an umbrella- 

hke fashion, dry, unpolished, white or whitish, darker in the depression of the 

disk. FLESH whitish, membranous, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae 

distant or subdistant, broad, attached not to the stipe but to a free collar at 

the apex of the stipe, concolorous with the pileus. stipe 1/2-2 in. long, fihform, 

159


tough, shining blackish, pallid at the apex, spores smooth, white, pip-shaped, 

6-9 X 3-4 M- 

In dense groups on decaying wood and debris, common in eastern 

Canada. June-Oct. 

This attractive little species often occurs in great abundance in the woods. 

The whitish pileus with dark umbilicus and the attachment of the lamellae to a 

free collar are the distinctive field characters. 

MARASMIUS SCORODONIUS (Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS 54-% ii^- broad, phant, convex, expanding to plane, unpoHshed, 

smooth or slightly wrinkled, at first tinged reddish or tan, finally whitish. 

flesh thin, odor of gariic when crushed, lamellae adnate, not broad, mod- 

erately close, pallid, stipe 1-2 in. long, about J/fg in. thick, subequal or tapering 

downward, smooth, dark reddish brown to blackish at the base, paUid at the 

apex. SPORES smooth, white, ellipsoid, tapering to the apiculate end, 6-8 X 

3-4 M. 

In groups on twigs and debris, fairly common. June-Sept. 

The striking feature of this little species is its strong odor of gadic and it is 

sometimes used as a seasoning for roasts and gravies. 

MARASMIUS SICCUS (Schw.) Fr. 


PILEUS 1/2-1 in. broad, at first conical, becoming campanulate, often 

depressed in the center, dry, glabrous, pinkish red to ochraceous red to rusty 

red, striate-sulcate to the disk, flesh membranous, mild, lamellae free to 

adnexed, distant, white or tinged like the pileus. stipe about 1 )^-3 in. long, 

very slender and thread-Hke, horny, glabrous, blackish brown, paler at apex, 

tubular, mycelioid at base, spores elongated, narrowed toward one end, white, 

smooth, 13-18 X 3-4.5 m- 

Gregarious in the woods on leaves, twigs and forest debris. July-Sept. 

Common. 

Although of small size this little mushroom will attract notice because of 

its bright color and abundance. The color, deeply furrowed pilei and distant 

lamellae are good field characters. 

LENTINUS 

Lentinus includes a rather small group of white-spored species growing on 

wood and characterized by their hard, tough consistency and the serrate-torn 

edge of the lamellae. The stipe may be present or excentric, or lacking. 

160

^ 

PANUS 

LENTINUS LEPIDEUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, tough to leathery, at first hemispherical or convex 

with margin incurved, expanding to plane or nearly so, dry, whitish to dingy 

yellowish or drab brownish buff, decorated, especially on the disk, with brown 

appressed spot-like or triangular scales arranged more or less concentrically, 

the entire surface usually at length becoming areolate or subscaly. flesh 

white, firm to tough, becoming hard when old and dry, very thick on the disk. 

LAMELLAE variable in attachment, usually sinuate at the stipe and decurrent 

by narrow fines, broad, close to subdistant, white to dingy yellowish, edges 

saw-toothed, stipe stout, 1 1/2-4 in. long, )4-l in. thick, tapering toward the 

base, often more or less excentric and curved, especially if growing from the 

sides of stumps, etc., dry, sofid, very hard and tough, white, browning in age, 

surface varying from nearly smooth to conspicuously scaly, sometimes with 

brown patches similar to those on the pileus. veil membranous, covering 

the lamellae in young stages, leaving an annular ridge on the apex of the stipe 

or often disappearing entirely in age. spores smooth, white, long-ellipsoid, 

many sfightly irregular in shape, 9-12 X 4-5.5 /x- 

Sofitary or in clusters of 2 or 3, on timbers, railway ties, fence posts, 

stumps, etc., usually on conifer wood, common. May-Sept. 

Although this species is reported to be edible when young, it soon be- 

comes so tough and woody that it is of no value. It is often found growing in 

dry situations such as on railway ties or old timbers and it sometimes causes 

serious rotting of the wood. 

Several other species are fairly common. L. tigrinus Fr. is a large, scaly, 

deeply umbificate species that is sometimes much deformed. L. cochleatus Fr. 

usually grows in clusters with the stipes confluent and deeply furrowed. L. vul- 

pinus Fr. grows in shelving clusters without stipes, and is remarkable for the 

very rough, coarsely hairy surface of the pileus. L. haematopus Berk, is a small 

species with a short blood-red stipe. 

PANUS 

The species of Panus occur on wood and have white spores, and the stipes 

are excentric or lateral or sometimes lacking. They differ from Pleurotus in 

being of tough consistency, more or less reviving when moistened, but some 

species might readily be mistaken for a Pleurotus. The consistency is similar to 

Lentinus but in Panus the edges of the lamellae are entire and even, whereas in 

Lentinus they are serrate-torn. Panus species are too tough to be of much value 

as food although some have been used to flavor soups and gravies. 

161


Key 

1. Stipe lateral or lacking 2 

1. Stipe excentric 3 

2. Pileus cupulate; lamellae covered by a veil when young P. operculatus 

2. Lamellae not covered by a veil; taste astringent P. stipticus 

3. Pileus densely hairy P. rudis 

3. Pileus glabrous or delicately tomentose to slightly scaly P. torulosus 

PANUS OPERCULATUS B. & C. Not edible 


PILEUS 54-/4 ii^- broad, leathery, more or less pendent to convex, narrowed 

behind or above to a short stipelike base, brown or grayish brown, at first 

minutely flocculose-tomentose, becoming glabrous, margin strongly incurved, 

even, flesh whitish, thin, lamellae radiating from an excentric point, close, 

narrow, pale brown, veil a membranous tissue, covering the lamellae and 

sphtting, leaving fragments on the margin, stipe lateral or dorsal, very short or 

almost wanting, about Jê-Vs ii^- ^^ diameter, concolorous with pileus. spores 

white, allantoid, smooth 4-5 X 1-1.5 /x. 

In groups on twigs of deciduous trees. Sept.-Nov. 

Panus salicinus Peck is very similar in appearance but lacks the veil. These 

two species have been discussed by Overholts (1938). They are not closely 

related to other species placed in Panus, but would be better placed in the 

genus Tectella, of which T. patellaris (Fr.) Murr. is the type. Some authors 

regard Panus operculatus as a synonym of Tectella patellaris, but Overholts 

questioned this since Fries did not describe or illustrate a veil for T. patellaris. 

The species is of no importance from the standpoint of edibility, but it is 

an interesting and puzzUng form that is not very common. 

PANUS RUDIS Fr. Edible; tough 


PILEUS %-2% in. broad, depressed toward the stipe, varying in shape from 

vase-like with central stipe to ear-shaped with almost lateral stipe, leather color 

to tawny or reddish, surface with a rather coarse, velvet-hke, hairy coating, 

sometimes shghtly tufted, margin at first inrolled, sometimes irregularly lobed. 

FLESH tough, somewhat corky when dry, taste slightly bitter, odor not distinc- 

tive. LAMELLAE dccurrcnt on stipe, crowded, narrow, paler than the pileus. 

STIPE short and stout, sometimes almost lacking, equal or tapering downward, 

slightly excentric to almost lateral (never truly lateral), tomentose, concolorous 

with or paler than the pileus. spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 5-6 X 

2-3 M. 

162 

Clustered on logs and stumps, common. June-Sept. 

This is a very common species occurring on old stumps or logs. Its tough

PANUS 

consistency and velvety, hairy pilei are distinctive. It is said to be edible but it is 

not recommended because of its tough consistency. 

PANUS STIPTICUS Fr. Poisonous 

Figures 278, 279, 280, 281, page 176 

piLEUS i^-l 14 iri- broad, tough and leathery, reviving when moistened, 

variable in shape, mostly kidney-shaped to shell-shaped, convex, with a sHght 

depression toward the lateral stipe, pale cinnamon-buff, fading, surface very 

minutely scurfy, margin entire or irregularly lobed. flesh leathery, taste very 

astringent, disagreeable, lamellae cinnamon color, moderately broad, close to 

crowded, interveined, becoming tough when dry, ending in an even Hne at the 

stipe. STIPE a lateral continuation of the pileus, somewhat flattened, short and 

stubby, scarcely visible from above but distinct from below, paler than the 

pileus, soHd, tough, surface somewhat mealy, spores minute, smooth, white, 

oblong, 4-5 X 2 /i. 

July-Oct. 

In crowded, overlapping, shelving clusters, on stumps and logs, common. 

Panus stipticus has a very unpleasant taste and is reported to be poisonous. 

In addition it is remarkable for its phosphorescent properties. When fresh and 

moist the fruiting bodies and myceHum glow in the dark, sometimes producing 

a ghostly eff'ect in the woods. 

PANUS TORULOSUS Fr. Edible; tough 


PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, occasionally larger, tough and leathery, plane to 

depressed or infundibuliform, pale tan to brownish, tinged violet or reddish 

when moist, glabrous, or deHcately tomentose when young, sometimes slightly 

scaly near the center, margin inrolled, even, lamellae decurrent, close, narrow, 

some forked, pale tan, often tinged violet when moist, stipe y^-\ in. long, 

14-% in. thick, short and stout, excentric to lateral or sometimes nearly 

central, with a fine violaceous to gray tomentum, solid, tough, spores white, 

eUiptical, 5.5-7 X 3-3.5 /x- 

Clustered or occasionally sohtary, on old stumps and logs. June-Aug. 

Various authors diff'er as to whether or not P. torulosus and P. conchatus 

Fr. are distinct. Lange (1935-40) attempts to separate them on the basis of the 

habit of growth. He would place the forms with regular pilei and more or less 

central stipes in P. torulosus, and the clustered forms with lateral stipes in 

P. conchatus. It will probably require cultural studies to determine whether or 

not these forms are diff'erent species. 

This fungus might be mistaken for a Clitocybe if collected when young and 

moist. It is said to be edible, but is too tough to be of much interest from that 

standpoint. 

- 

163


SCHIZOPHYLLUM 

The name Schizophyllum means 'split leaf and refers to the characteristic 

lamellae, which appear to be split along the edge and to fold back during dry 

weather. 

Only one species is known in Canada but it is rather common. It suggests 

a Pleurotus in habit but is very different in texture. It is tough and leathery and 

inedible, although according to Singer the islanders in the Dutch East Indies 

and Madagascar chew the fruit bodies. The species of Schizophyllum may be of 

some importance as wood destroyers. 

SCHIZOPHYLLUM COMMUNE Fr. Not edible 


PILEUS i/i-l in. broad, thin, leathery-tough, densely matted-tomentose, 

pale grayish buff to grayish white, whitish when dry, sessile, fan-shaped to 

shell-shaped when laterally attached, vase-shaped expanding to saucer-shaped 

when attachment is central or excentric, margin incurved and lobed. lamellae 

radiating from the point of attachment, uncrowded, thick and tough, 

grayish white or with a faint pinkish cast, densely hairy under a lens, appearing 

double on the edges because of a groove running the length of the edge of each 

lamella, spores smooth, creamy to deep yellowish, cyhndric, about 3.5-5.5 X 

1-1.5 M- 

On dead wood, often with bases confluent when growing in crowded 

clusters, common throughout the growing season. 

This httle species is of no interest as food because of its small size and 

tough, leathery consistency, but it frequently attracts attention because of its 

abundance. It is interesting because of the adaptations to withstand dry 

conditions that it exhibits. If the fungus is examined when moist it will be seen 

that each of the lamellae is spHt along the edge, and as the fruit body dries out, 

the edges curl back and roll outward, protecting the sides of the lamellae from 

loss of moisture, while at the same time the margin of the pileus also rolls 

inward and in this condition the fungus can survive considerable periods of 

drying. When re-moistened the margin of the pileus spreads out, the lamellae 

unroll and the fruit body commences to shed spores again. 

TROGIA 

Only a single species of this genus occurs in Canada. It is a small, white- 

spored, rather tough, wood-inhabiting fungus, that tends to fold up in dry 

weather and to revive again when moistened. It has no stipe. The most char- 

acteristic feature is the lamellae which are thick, blunt on the edge, and very 

much crisped and irregular. 

164

PLUTEUS 

TROGIA CRISPA Fr. Not edible 


PILEUS 1/4-% in. broad, sessile, sometimes resupinate, shell-shaped, or 

shelf-Hke, sometimes overlapping, incurved when dry, reviving and spreading 

out when moist, reddish yellow to tan colored, covered with whitish hairs 

when young, lamellae whitish to bluish gray, vein-like, very narrow, irregular, 

crisped, edges blunt, spores white, cylindric to allantoid, 3-4 X 1-1.5 fi. 

Crowded to scattered on dead branches of frondose trees, fairly common. 

May-Nov. 

This tiny mushroom is of no interest as food and is not very conspicuous 

when it is dry, but when it is moist the large clusters and beautifully crisped 

lamellae are sure to attract attention. 

PLUTEUS 

Pluteus includes species with a pink spore deposit, lamellae free from the 

stipe, and lacking both annulus and volva. The stipe is central and easily 

separable from the pileus. Pluteus species usually occur on old logs and stumps 

or on some form of decayed wood. Except for the common P. cervinus most of 

them are too small to be of much value as food. They are typically soft in 

consistency and decay rapidly. 

Key 

1. Pileus and stipe yellow and glabrous P. admirabilis 

1. Pileus brown 2 

2. Lamellae black on the edge P. atromarginatus 

2. Lamellae not differently colored on edge P. cervinus 

PLUTEUS ADMIRABILIS (Pk.) Pk. 


PILEUS Yz-lYz 

in. broad, fleshy-pliant, campanulate when very young, 

becoming expanded-campanulate to expanded-convex, at first subumbonate, 

at length slightly depressed on the disk, moist, hygrophanous, glabrous, un- 

polished, somewhat wrinkled especially on the disk, deep yellow, at times 

tinged ohve-yellow, dusky yellow around wrinkles of the disk, margin striate 

when moist, flesh very thin, white or whitish, dry and pithy, odor and taste 

not distinctive, lamellae free, close, broad, broadest next to the stipe, soft and 

fragile, at first very pale yellowish, becoming sordid pinkish, stipe 1-2 in. long, 

165


about J/g in. thick, equal, hollow within, fragile, spHtting readily, glabrous, 

moist, clear yellow, paler than the pileus. spores smooth, subglobose, 5.5- 

6.5 X 5-6 M, pinkish in deposits, cystidia slightly ventricose, with an elon- 

gated neck, obtuse at the apex, not horned. 

In groups or scattered, on badly decayed logs and stumps, fairly common. 

June-Sept. 

This is one of the more common of the smaller species and is an attractive 

little mushroom. One of the most distinctive field characters is the yellow 

stipe. P. flavofuligineus Atk. is another small yellow species with a pinkish 

stipe, and P. leoninus (Fr.) Kummer has a white stipe and the pileus is not 

wrinkled. These species are all too small to be of value as food. 

PLUTEUS ATROMARGINATUS (Sing.) Kuhner Edible 


PILEUS \-2y2 in. broad, convex to expanded-convex, sometimes broadly 

umbonate or subumbonate, dark brown, moist, somewhat uneven, more or 

less fibrillose-streaked, the disk squarrose-scaly with minute upright tufts of 

fibrils, margin not striate, flesh moderately thick on the disk, very thin on the 

margin, white, odor and taste mild, lamellae free and not quite reaching the 

stipe, close to crowded, moderately broad, whitish, then dingy flesh color with 

smoky brown edges, many shorter lamellae of various lengths interspersed. 

stipe 1-3 in. long, V8-!4 ii^- thick, subequal or sHghtly enlarged at the apex or 

base, whitish or tinged the color of the pileus, solid within, glabrous at the 

apex, fibrillose with smoky brown fibrils below, spores smooth, broadly ovoid, 

5.5-7 X 4.5-5.5 /x» dingy flesh color in spore print, cystidia fusoid-ventricose, 

horned at the apex. 

Solitary or scattered on decaying logs and stumps, not common. July- 

Oct. 

The dark edges of the lamellae which provide a good field character for 

this species, are caused by the dark contents of the cystidia. This species is 

usually smaller and darker colored than P. cervinus and has been called P. 

umbrosus (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer, but the latter has cystidia of a diff'erent type. 

PLUTEUS CERVINUS (Schaeff*. ex Seer.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/^-4 in. broad, fleshy, soft, at first convex to broadly campanu- 

late, expanding to almost plane, the broad umbo either persisting or disap- 

pearing, smooth and glabrous to somewhat fibrillose, moist to dry, drab, 

varying from dull dark brown to pale dingy fawn (white in var. albus), darkest 

on the disk, paler toward the margin, sometimes streaked with darker innate 

fibrils, fading with age, margin even, flesh very thin on the margin, thicker 

166

VOLVARIELLA 

toward the disk, white, odor and taste mild to somewhat disagreeable, lamel- 

lae close, free, broad, rounded next to the stipe, soft, in youth whitish, then 

flesh-pink to flesh-tan. stipe 2-6 in. long, X^-Ys in. thick, shghtly enlarged 

downward, solid, smooth, whitish or tinged dingy yellow or brown, often 

bearing scattered appressed fibrils, apex at first pruinose. spores flesh-pink, 

smooth, broadly eUipsoid to ovoid, bluntly rounded or somewhat flattened on 

the ends, 5-8 X 4-6 ju, variable in size and shape, cystidia abundant, fusoid 

with long necks, about 60 X 14 m, bearing 2-4 short horns at the apex. 

Sohtary or in groups of several, on decaying stumps and logs or associated 

with buried wood, common, especially in hardwoods. May-Oct. 

This is the commonest species of the genus and is well known as a good 

edible mushroom. It varies considerably in size and color. P. salicinus Fr. is 

another brown species but usually smaller, with bluish or greenish tints 

toward the base of the stipe, and an unpleasant taste. P. tomentosulus Pk. may 

be as large as P. cervinus but is white and the pileus is floccose-tomentose. It 

can be distinguished microscopically by the cystidia which are not horned. 

P. aurantiorugosus (Trog) Sacc. is another fairly large but rare species. It is 

brilhantly colored, orange to reddish orange and is also known under the 

names P. coccineus Mass., P. aurantiacus Murr. and P. caloceps Atk. 

Singer (1956) discusses a large species, P. magnus McClatchie, described 

from Cahfornia but which he has also found in the eastern United States. This 

species would Hkely be mistaken for a pale P. cervinus unless examined micro- 

scopically. It diff'ers in the cystidia which, instead of being horned as in P. 

cervinus, are fusoid with a long conical point, sometimes with a few small 

spines along the side. So far as is known there are no Canadian records of this 

species but it is one that might be found in this country. 

VOLVARIELLA 

Volvariella includes species with a pink spore deposit, lamellae free from 

the stipe, and a volva, but no annulus. Thus it is comparable to Amanitopsis in 

the white-spored group. The stipe is readily separable from the pileus and the 

flesh is usually rather soft. These species may be found either on wood or on 

the ground. They were formerly placed in Volvaria but this name cannot be 

maintained under the International Code of Nomenclature. 

It is a relatively small genus and the species are not very frequently col- 

lected. In the Hterature there are conflicting reports as to their edibility. It 

seems to be established that V. bombycina is edible, but other species of the 

genus are best avoided. 

167


VOLVARIELLA BOMBYCINA (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing. Edible 


PILEUS 2-8 in. broad, at first ovate, becoming subcampanulate or convex- 

expanded, white and silky when young, becoming dingy or yellowish-stained, 

especially on the disk, at length finely fibrillose-scaly all over, cuticle separable 

to the disk, margin floccose, exceeding the lamellae and tending to split slightly 

at the edge, flesh pure white, thick on the disk, thinning toward the margin, 

at the extreme margin almost lacking, odor and taste not distinctive, lamel- 

lae free, not reaching the stipe, very crowded, very broad, whitish with a faint 

pink cast, becoming dingy flesh color, then brownish pink, edges somewhat 

uneven, stipe 3-8 in. long, %-% in. thick, sometimes thicker at the base, 

tapering upward, often curved, white, silky-shining, smooth and glabrous, 

soHd, no annulus. volva large, thick, membranous, sac-like, cUnging loosely 

around the base of the stipe, spores deep flesh color to brownish pink, smooth, 

ovoid, 6-8 X 5-5.5 fi. 

Singly or several together on trunks of living trees or on dead wood, 

uncommon. July-Sept. 

This is a very striking, although not common species. It sometimes reaches 

considerable size and the silky-tomentose pileus and large membranous volva 

are distinctive characters. 

VOLVARIELLA SPECIOSA (Fr.) Sing. Not edible 

Figures 327, 328, 329, page 216 

PILEUS 1 1/^-4 in. broad, at first globose to ovate, becoming expanded to 

plane, sHghtly umbonate, white to grayish, viscid, glabrous, margin even. 

FLESH thin, soft, odor disagreeable, lamellae free, crowded, broad, narrowed 

toward ends, rosy flesh color, stipe 2-6 in. long, |/2-54 in. thick, equal or 

shghtly enlarged at base, at first minutely hairy, becoming glabrous, tomentose 

at base, white, soHd. volva large, white, somewhat lobed. spores pink, ellip- 

soid, smooth, 14-20 X 9-12 m- 

SoHtary or in groups on manure or rich soil, sometimes in grass or field. 

June-July. 

There is a diff'erence of opinion among authors as to whether or not this 

species is poisonous. It might be confused with Lepiota naucina or Agaricus 

campestris but both these species have an annulus and no volva. V. gloiocephala 

is very similar but the margin is striate and the spores slightly smaller. Some 

authors consider it to be a variety. This species has been reported as poisonous 

and'could very easily be confused with V. speciosa. These species should not 

be eaten. 

168

ENTOLOMA 

ENTOLOMA 

Entoloma includes the pink-spored species roughly comparable to Tri- 

choloma of the white-spored group. The stipe is fibrous to fleshy, sometimes 

splitting longitudinally very easily and there is no volva or annulus. The 

lamellae are sinuate-adnate to adnexed, sometimes seceding. The spores are 

more or less angular (Figure 33), varying from eUiptical to spherical in general 

outline and sometimes almost square. 

There is no very clear-cut distinction between the genera Entoloma, 

Leptonia, Nolanea, Eccilia, and the section of Clitopilus including species with 

angular spores. Many authors believe that they should be combined into one 

genus but this raises some difficult nomenclatural problems. Some authors 

have placed these species in the genus Rhodophyllus but this name is illegitimate 

because it was pubhshed after some of the other generic names mentioned 

above, and it is also of questionable validity because of its similarity to the 

name of the algal genus Rhodophyllis. Of the names listed above, Entoloma 

is the earliest, but there is also the older generic name Acurtis to be taken into 

account. This name was based on the so-called 'abortive' fruit bodies of Clito- 

pilus abortivus and for a long time was disregarded because it was considered 

to be based on an abnormality. However, it has recently been shown that these 

fruit bodies produce normal basidia and spores and there is good reason to 

consider them to be a normal structure in the life cycle of the fungus. If this is 

so, then Acurtis will be the correct name for this group of species, but so far 

this name has not been taken up by mycologists and to use either Acurtis or 

Entoloma would require the creation of a good many new combinations. Thus, 

until either Acurtis is accepted or Entoloma officially conserved, it is thought 

preferable to use the other generic names rather than make new combinations 

in a book of this type. 

None of these genera is of any importance as food. In fact some of the 

species of Entoloma are known to be poisonous and this whole group should be 

avoided. This genus provides a good illustration of the danger of attempting 

to lay down general rules regarding edibihty. It has often been said that any 

mushroom that is pink underneath is good to eat, but Entoloma and its rela- 

tives provide a whole group of species with pink lamellae, and some of these 

species are definitely known to be poisonous, and others are suspected. 

ENTOLOMA GRISEUM Pk. 

PILEUS 114-3 in. broad, at first firm, becoming fragile, campanulate- 

convex to nearly plane, grayish brown, more umber when moist, shghtly 

hygrophanous, glabrous, with a delicate separable peUicle, margin even, 

decurved, wavy, flesh thin, easily splitting, odor and taste farinaceous, lamel- 

lae adnexed, close to subdistant, moderately broad, at first grayish white, 

slowly becoming flesh colored, stipe 1-3 in. long, X^-Vs 

in. thick, equal or 

169


nearly so, silky-fibrillose, whitish or grayish, stuffed to hollow, spores pink, 

angular, 7-9 X 6.5-8 /x- 

SoHtary or in groups on the ground in the woods. July-Oct. 

E. sericeum is close to this species but is smaller, and has a dark brown 

pileus with an umbo. 

ENTOLOMA RHODOPOLIUM (Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, campanulate, becoming expanded to nearly 

plane, hygrophanous, umber brown or smoky brown when moist, fading to 

pale brownish gray, silky-shining when dry, glabrous, not viscid but the sur- 

face slightly slippery, margin even, wavy, flesh whitish, spHtting easily, taste 

mild, lamellae adnate, becoming emarginate, subdistant, broad, whitish at 

first, becoming deep rose, stipe 11/^-4 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, equal or 

tapering up or down, sometimes curved, white, glabrous, somewhat floccose 

at apex, stuffed then hollow, easily spHtting longitudinally, spores rosy pink, 

angular, 8-10.5 X 7-9 m- 

SoHtary, in groups, or in clusters of two or three, on the ground in mixed 

or deciduous woods. July-Oct. 

The pileus of this species is almost cartilaginous in texture and this charac- 

ter together with the white stipe and rosy spores and lamellae form its dis- 

tinguishing characters. In E. griseum the stipe is more grayish and the spore 

color is not so bright. 

ENTOLOMA SALMON EUM Peck 


PILEUS 1/4-1 1/2 (2) in. broad, fragile, conical to campanulate, with a sHght 

umbo or papilla, rosy salmon to orange-salmon, becoming more brownish in 

age, glabrous at first, the older ones appearing sHghtly fibrillose-tomentose, 

margin straight, even, becoming upturned in age. flesh very thin, lamellae 

adnexed, subdistant, broad, narrowed at ends, yellowish salmon to pinkish 

salmon, stipe 2-3 in. long, j/fe-^ i^- thick, equal, glabrous, pruinose at the 

apex, concolorous, hollow, spores pink, 4-angled, nearly square, 11-13 ^ 

measured diagonally. 

In groups, usually among mosses in damp woods. July-Sept. 

This is a beautiful and deHcate species. It can easily be confused with 

Hygrophorus amoenus (Lasch) Quel, which is similar in coloring and stature 

but has smooth, white spores. E. cuspidatum Peck is somewhat similar in 

stature but is yellow and has a prominent papilla in the center of the pileus. 

170

LEPTONIA 

LEPTONIA 

This genus includes a group of rather small, pink-spored species closely 

related to Entoloma. The genus is distinguished from Entoloma principally on 

the character of the stipe, which is cartilaginous in texture rather than fleshy- 

fibrous, but the distinction here is not very clear-cut. The spores are angular, 

as in Entoloma. The margin of the pileus is incurved when young so that at 

maturity it is usually expanded rather than conical or campanulate. The pileus 

is usually umbilicate or centrally depressed. The lamellae are adnate to adnexed 

often seceding. The genus is distinguished from Nolanea principally by the 

margin being inrolled when young, and from Eccilia by the attachment of the 

lamellae. 

The species are mostly small and not well known. They are of no value as 

food but some of them are attractively colored. Usually they grow on the 

ground, occasionally on rotten wood or among sphagnum. 

LEPTONIA ASPRELLA (Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS 1/2-1 Va in. broad, fleshy, convex, becoming expanded, umbiHcate, 

gray-brown to umber, hygrophanous, somewhat scaly in the umbilicus, then 

fibrillose to glabrous, silky-shining when dry, margin striate, often splitting. 

FLESH whitish, thin, fragile, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate to adnexed 

or with a decurrent line, whitish or grayish white, then becoming pink, sub- 

distant, He-H i^- broad, stipe 1^-3 in. long, H6~V8 i^^- thick, cyhndric to 

somewhat compressed, sometimes twisted, glabrous, smoky brown with a 

bluish cast, white mycehoid at base, hollow, spores pink, angular, more or 

less elongated, 9-13 X 6-8 m- 

Singly or in groups on the ground in woods. June-Sept. 

The bluish stipe and the brown pileus which is striate and hygrophanous 

are the most distinctive characters of this species. L. serrulata (Fr.) Quel, is 

distinguished by the black serrulate margin of the lamellae. L. placida (Fr.) 

Quel, is a dark bluish species usually occurring on rotten wood, with a scaly 

pileus and dark squamules on the stipe. L. lampropoda (Fr.) Quel, occurs on 

the ground and has a bluish black pileus and smooth bluish stipe. 

LEPTONIA FORMOSA (Fr.) Quel. 


PILEUS Ys-lYz 

waxy-yellowish to grayish yellow, covered with small blackish scales especially 

in. broad, fleshy, convex-umbilicate, becoming plane, 

in umbihcus, margin striate, becoming somewhat phcate in older specimens, 

FLESH thin, grayish or faintly yellowish, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, 

sometimes with a shght decurrent tooth, broad, subdistant, tinged yellow, 

171


nearly white at first, becoming flesh-colored, stipe 1 )/2-2!/2 in- long ^6"!^ in. 

thick, equal, smooth, somewhat striate, yellow, white-mycelioid at base, hollow, 

central, spores pink, angular, 10-12 X 6-7 fi. 

Singly or in groups in swampy woods. Aug.-Sept. 

A rather distinctive species in which the whole plant is more or less 

yellowish and the pileus is scaly. 

NOLANEA 

Nolanea includes a group of species with angular pink spores, closely 

related to Leptonia. In the young fruiting bodies the margin of the pileus is 

straight on the stipe rather than inrolled and the mature pileus is usually more 

or less conical to campanulate. This is the principal distinction from Leptonia 

although in Nolanea the pileus is usually umbonate or papillate whereas in 

Leptonia it is umbilicate or depressed. The lamellae are adnate to adnexed, 

often seceding. The cartilaginous stipe distinguishes it from Entoloma. 

The species are not well known and are small and of no value as food. 

The one described here is fairly common. 

NOLANEA MAMMOSA (Fr.) Quel. 

pileus J/^-1 1/2 in. broad, conic to campanulate, umbonate, slightly hygro- 

phanous, umber when moist, becoming grayish brown to fuscous, innately 

fibrillose and shining when dry, margin decurved. flesh thin, brownish to 

whitish, odor and taste of rancid meal, lamellae adnate, seceding, subdistant, 

broad, at first pale gray, then becoming pinkish, edges often uneven, stipe 

2-31/2 in. long, Jf6~% in- thick, equal, sometimes compressed, glabrous, 

pruinose at the apex, brownish gray, hollow, spores pink, angular, 9-11 X 

6-7 M- 

In groups on the ground in woods or grassy places. July-Sept. 

N. fuscogrisella Peck is somewhat similar but is usually smaller; it has 

smaller spores, and the lamellae are at first white rather than gray. N. papillata 

Bres. is also very close to A^. mammosa and is separated principally on the 

basis of smaller size and closer lamellae. 

Ill 


256. Clitopilus orcellus. 257. Cortinarius collinitus. 

258. Phyllotopsis nidulans. 259. P. nidulans. 

260. Cortinarius armillatus. 261. C semisanguineus. 

262. Inocybe fastigiata. 263. Cortinarius violaceus. 

264. Inocybe geophylla. 265. f^holiota acericola.

173

267. Pholiota aurivella. 

269. F. caperata. 

271. P- marginata. 

273. P- fiammans. 

275. P- squarrosoides. 

174 

268. P. aurivella. 

270. F. caperata. 

272. F. marginata. 

21 A. P. spectabilis. 

276. Flammula spumosa. 

I

175

176 

^ 

yj/s^^^ 

119 

Figure 277. Mycena galericulata. 

Figures 278-281. Panus stipticus.

CLITOPILUS 

CLITOPILUS 

Clitopilus, as used here, corresponds roughly in the pink-spored group to 

Clitocybe in the white-spored group. The forms included have pink spores, the 

lamellae are broadly adnate to decurrent, and a volva and annulus are lacking. 

The stems are fleshy-fibrous, more or less similar in texture to the pileus and 

not separating from it readily. 

The species included in the genus are probably not all closely related. The 

type species is Clitopilus prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer in which the spores 

are marked with longitudinal ridges (Figure 32). Some students consider that 

only those species with longitudinally ridged spores are true Clitopilus species. 

The species with angular spores are probably more closely related to Entoloma. 

Kauff'man recognized eleven species in Michigan. 

Key 

1. Spores longitudinally ridged C orcellus 

1. Spores angular or nearly smooth 2 

2. Pileus usually more than 2 in. broad, gray, usually accompanied 

by whitish abortive fruit bodies C abortivus 

2. Pileus usually less than 2 in. broad 3 

3. Spores strongly angular, taste and odor farinaceous; 

pileus not marked with concentric lines C. albogriseus 

3. Spores smooth or very slightly angular, taste bitter; pileus with 

more or less concentric brownish lines C. noveboracensis 

CLITOPILUS ABORTIVUS Berk. & Curt. Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, at first convex, becoming plane to depressed, gray to 

grayish brown, dry, at first delicately silky, becoming glabrous, margin at first 

inrolled, becoming wavy to lobed. flesh white, rather fragile, odor and taste 

farinaceous, lamellae decurrent, close, rather narrow, at first grayish then 

becoming pink, stipe 1-3 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, nearly equal, minutely 

floccose, grayish, paler than the pileus to whitish, solid, fibrous, spores pink, 

elongated, angular 8-10 X 5-7 m- 

In groups or sometimes in clusters, around stumps, or on rotten or buried 

wood. Sept.-Oct. 

This fungus is remarkable in that some of the fruiting bodies frequently do 

not develop normally but form malformed whitish structures that at first sight 

would be taken for puffballs. These abortive fruiting bodies may be globoid or 

depressed or very irregular in shape. The abortive fruit bodies may be found 

alone or associated with normal fruit bodies. Both the abortive and normal 

forms are said to be edible. 

177


CLITOPILUS ALBOGRISEUS Peck Edible 

piLEUS )/2-l in. broad, convex at first, becoming plane and depressed to 

umbilicate, pale gray, glabrous to slightly tomentose at the center, margin 

inrolled, odor and taste farinaceous, lamellae adnate to decurrent, close, 

rather broad, at first grayish, becoming pinkish, stipe Y2-I in. long, He-^ i^- 

thick, equal, glabrous, pale gray, whitish at base, solid, spores pink, elongated, 

angular, 9.5-12 X 6-8 m- 

On the ground in mixed woods, in groups or solitary. July-Sept. 

This small species is fairly common. It is reported to be edible but is too 

small to be of any importance from that standpoint. C subplanus Peck is very 

close but is said to lack the farinaceous odor. C. micropus Peck is supposed to 

have slightly smaller spores, shorter stipe, and a more silky pileus. Some of our 

specimens have rather short stipes, and pilei that are not entirely glabrous, but 

they have the larger spores of C. albogriseus. 

CLITOPILUS NOVEBORACENSIS Peck Doubtful 


pileus %-2 in. broad, at first convex, becoming plane or slightly depressed, 

ashy gray to whitish, somewhat zoned toward the margin, concentrically 

rivulose, glabrous, margin inrolled. flesh thin, white, taste bitter, odor farina- 

ceous. LAMELLAE dccurrent, crowded, narrow, ashy gray to pinkish flesh 

colored, stipe 1-2 in. long, H6~!4 in. thick, nearly equal, pruinose to minutely 

tomentose, white-tomentose at base, colored hke the pileus or paler, stuff'ed, 

becoming hollow, spores pink, ovoid, very shghtly angular, nearly smooth, 

4-6 X 3.5-4.5 /i. 

Usually in groups on the ground in woods. July-Oct. 

This species might be mistaken for Clitocybe cyathiformis (Bull, ex Fr.) 

Kummer, which is similar in coloring and stature. The pink spores and con- 

centrically rivulose pileus distinguish the Clitopilus, which appears to be the 

more common of the two. 

CLITOPILUS ORCELLUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex at first, becoming plane to 

depressed, grayish white to buff" or faintly yellowish, slightly viscid, silky, 

margin inrolled, undulate or lobed. flesh white, rather thick, odor and taste 

farinaceous, lamellae decurrent, close, narrow, white, becoming pinkish. 

STIPE 1-2 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, nearly equal or sometimes slightly swollen 

in the middle, somewhat floccose-fibrillose, white, solid, sometimes excentric. 

SPORES pinkish, fusiform, longitudinally striate or ridged, 9-1 1 X 5-6 m- 

Solitary or in groups on the ground in open woods. July-Oct. 

This fungus may not be distinct from C. prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer. 

The latter is not viscid, and has subdistant lamellae, but the viscidity of C 

orcellus is not very pronounced. Both species have longitudinally ridged spores. 

178

PHYLLOTOPSIS 

CORTINARIUS 

The genus Phyllotopsis is based on the fungus that has been commonly 

known as Claudopus nidulans (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst. However, this species is 

obviously not closely related to the type species of Claudopus, C. byssisedus 

(Pers. ex Fr.) Gill., and should not be placed in the same genus. It seems to be 

more closely related to Pleurotus, especially P. serotinus (Fr.) Kummer, but the 

spores are colored. It has also been placed in Partus because of the tough con- 

sistency but the spore color excludes it here also. Sometimes the spore color 

has been interpreted as ochre and it has been placed in Crepidotus but the 

color seems to be more pink than ochre. 

The tomentose pileus, lack of stipe, tough consistency, colored lamellae, and 

small, cyHndric-allantoid pinkish spores are the chief characters of the genus. 

One other species, P. subnidulans (Overholts) Singer, has been described 

and is said to differ in having globose spores. 

PHYLLOTOPSIS NIDULANS (Pers. ex Fr.) Singer Not edible 


PILEUS 1/^-3 in. broad, rather tough, sessile, attached laterally or some- 

times narrowed behind to a stem-like base, nearly circular to reniform or 

fan-shaped, sometimes laterally confluent forming a shelf up to 6 in. long, 

convex, bright yellow, fading to buff, densely tomentose-hairy, margin 

strongly inrolled, odor pungent, disagreeable when fresh or sometimes lacking. 

LAMELLAE adnatc, close, rather narrow, bright orange-yellow, stipe lacking, 

but there may be a tomentose base next to the lamellae, spores flesh pink in 

mass, allantoid, smooth, 6-8 X 3-4 /i. 

In groups or clusters on decaying logs of both deciduous and coniferous 

trees. June-Oct. 

The pecuhar, pungent odor of this species is a good means of recognizing 

it when it is present, but sometimes it appears to be very faint or lacking. 

CORTINARIUS 

Cortinarius is a very large and difficult genus containing several hundred 

species. The spores are dark brown or rusty brown. The principal distinguish- 

ing character of the genus is the cortina or veil which covers the lamellae in the 

young stages. It is composed of loose silky hyphae that suggest a cobweb. If 

copious, the veil may remain as a ring or annular zone on the stipe, or it may 

disappear quite early. The typical rough spores and rusty brown spore deposit 

are diagnostic when the cortina has disappeared. An outer, universal veil may 

also be present and may leave a sheath or several annular zones on the stipe. 

In one section of the genus the cortina is glutinous. 

179


In mature fruit bodies the lamellae are usually dark brown, but in young 

ones they may be of different colors such as white, yellow, olivaceous, or lilac, 

and the color of the young lamellae is very important in the identification of 

species. In a great many Cortinarii it is necessary to have a series of stages from 

young buttons to mature plants before the species can be identified. Micro- 

scopic characters, especially the size and shape of the spores, are also important 

in distinguishing species. 

Kauffman (1932) has given the most complete account of the North 

American species. He recognized seven sections of the genus as follows 

1 

. 

Myxacium, in which both the pileus and the stipe are viscid 

2. Bulbopodium, in which only the pileus is viscid and the stipe is furnished 

with a marginate bulb; 

3. Phlegmacium, in which the pileus is viscid and if the stipe is bulbous the 

bulb is not marginate; 

4. Inoloma, in which the pileus is neither viscid nor hygrophanous but is 

usually fibrillose or scaly, and the stipe rather stout and usually clavate- 

bulbous; 

5. Dermocybe^ in which the pileus is neither viscid nor hygrophanous, but is 

usually silky, and the stipe rather slender; 

6. Telamonia, in which the pileus is hygrophanous and a universal veil is 

present 

; 

7. Hydrocybe, in which the pileus is hygrophanous and a universal veil is 

lacking. 

Cortinarius is a genus which, in general, should be avoided by the amateur 

who is collecting for the table. Some of the species are known to be deadly and 

some are unpleasant to the taste. In addition, the difficulty of determining the 

species accurately is so great that they are best left alone. 

Only a very few of the commoner and more striking species that are not 

likely to be confused with others are described here. 

CORTINARIUS ALBOVIOLACEUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1-2 ]/2 in. broad, fleshy, at first campanulate, then convex and 

broadly umbonate, at first pale violaceous, soon becoming silvery-white and 

shining, usually slightly violaceous tinged, surface dry, appressed-silky, margin 

decurved. flesh tinged violet, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate to emargi- 

nate or slightly decurrent, close, rather broad, at first pale violet, finally 

becoming cinnamon-brown, stipe n/2-3 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick near the 

apex, becoming thicker below and somewhat clavate, usually sheathed by a 

thin, whitish, universal veil, violaceous in the upper part and beneath the veil, 

spongy-stuffed, spores brown, elliptical, slightly rough, 6.5-10 X 4.5-6.0 ju. 

180 

In groups on the ground in mixed woods. Aug.-Oct. 

; 

:

CORTINARIUS 

This species is fairly common and can be recognized by the silvery-shining 

appearance with the slight violet tinge, which is especially noticeable in the 

stipe and young lamellae. 

CORTINARIUS ARMILLATUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


piLEUS 2-5 in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded to plane, tawny 

reddish to brick-red, moist, innately fibrillose, margin decurved, becoming flat 

in age. flesh rather thin, paUid, somewhat spongy, odor shghtly of radish, 

taste mild, lamellae adnate, sometimes sinuate, broad, distant, at first pale 

cinnamon, then dark rusty brown, stipe about IVi-^Vi 

in. long, %-% in. 

thick at the apex, up to 1 Yi in. thick below, clavate, brownish or reddish 

brown, with several orange-red or cinnabar-red bands from the universal veil, 

soHd. SPORES brown, eUipsoid, rough, 10-13 X 7-8 m- 

Solitary or in groups on the ground in coniferous woods. Usually Aug.- 

Sept. 

The distinguishing character of this species is the series of red bands on 

the stipe, and it is not Hkely to be confused with any other species. C. haematochelis 

(Bull.) Fr. has a single red band on the stipe instead of several, but some 

authors regard this as only a form of C. armillatus. 

CORTINARIUS COLLIN ITUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/4-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex to plane, variable in color, usually 

yellowish to orange-yellow, sometimes whitish when young and sometimes 

with lilac tints near the margin, very viscid when moist, the margin at first 

incurved, finally becoming upturned, flesh whitish to pale yellowish buff*; 

odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate with a tooth, close, fairly broad, at first 

pale violet or paUid, when mature becoming dull reddish brown, stipe about 

21/2-41/2 in. long, %-l i/i in. thick, equal or tapering shghtly at the base, 

spongy-stuff'ed, covered with the pale violaceous or whitish, viscid, universal 

veil which cracks transversely leaving thick, irregular bands or patches, at first 

whitish then becoming stained rusty or yellowish especially toward the base, 

with the cortina forming a collapsed ring above, and the apex of the stipe 

white and silky, spores rusty brown, almond-shaped, rough, 11-15 X 7-8.5 /u. 

Usually in groups on the ground in either coniferous or deciduous 

woods. Aug.-Oct. 

This species was described by Kauff*man under the name Cortinarius 

mucifluus Fr. but, according to the International Rules of Nomenclature, 

C. collinitus is the correct name. It is a fairly easy species to recognize because 

of the very viscid pileus and stipe, the pale-yellowish colors, and the whitish 

patches on the stipe. It shows considerable variation in the amount of lilac 

181


color present on the stipe, young lamellae, and pileus, and several varieties and 

forms have been recognized on this basis. The collections in the herbarium of 

the Plant Research Institute can be placed in two groups depending on spore 

size. In one group the spores are as noted above, and Smith (1944) considers 

this to be the typical form. In the other group the spores are smaller, 10-13 X 

6-7.5 M, and Smith would call these C. collinitus v. trivialis (Lange) Smith. 

CORTINARIUS SEMISANGUINEUS (Fr.) Gillet Probably edible 


PILEUS %-2i/2 in. broad, fleshy, campanulate-convex, subumbonate, in 

age becoming expanded, tawny yellow to cinnamon-yellow, silky to delicately 

fibrillose-scaly, margin even, sometimes sphtting in age. flesh yellowish white, 

odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate to sHghtly decurrent, close to crowded, 

narrow, blood-red. stipe l-lYi in. long, Vg-W ii^- thick, equal, yellow, tawnyfibrillose, 

soHd. spores brown, elliptical, nearly smooth, shghtly rough under 

high magnification, 5-8 X 3.5-5.0 m- 

In groups in moist swamps or sphagnum. Aug.-Oct. 

This is a typical member of the section Dermocybe, and is recognized by 

the combination of blood-red lamellae and yellowish pileus and stipe. In 

C cinnabarinus Fr. the pileus and stipe as well as the lamellae are blood-red. 

C. croceofolius Peck has bright orange lamellae and C. cinnamomeus Fr. has 

yellow lamellae. C. semisanguineus appears to be the commonest species of 

the group in the Ottawa district at least. Members of this group are probably 

all edible but there does not seem to be much definite information about them 

available. 

CORTINARIUS VIOLACEUS (L.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, fleshy, convex, obtuse, finally becoming plane or 

sHghtly umbonate, dark violet, sometimes metallic shining, covered with small 

erect tufts or scales, margin fibrillose or fringed, flesh thick, firm, violet-gray 

to dark violet, not turning purple when bruised, odor and taste mild, lamel- 

lae adnate, becoming adnexed, broad, subdistant, dark violet, stipe 21/2-5 in. 

long, %-l in. thick above, wider below, clavate to bulbous, fibrillose, dark 

violet, violaceous within, spores rusty cinnamon, broadly eUipsoid, rough, 

12-17 X 7-10 M. 

Singly or scattered on the ground in coniferous forests. Aug.-Oct. 

This species is not very common but has been included because it is one of 

the most strikingly beautiful of the mushrooms. The dark violet colors and 

erect scales are very characteristic. It is considered to be the type species of the 

genus Cortinarius 

182 

.

INOCYBE 

INOCYBE 

The genus Inocybe is a large one but it is not of much interest to the 

amateur collector. Most of the species are small and can be identified only by 

the use of microscopic characters. Only a few species become large enough to 

attract the attention of the mycophagist, and these are best left alone. Some of 

the species are known to be poisonous and the amateur collector is well advised 

to avoid the entire genus. 

The spores are ochre-brown in mass and may be rough or smooth or more 

or less angular or tuberculate (Figure 34). Many species have cystidia on the 

lamellae and the characters of the cystidia and spores are important in the 

determination of species. The pileus is usually conic to campanulate and more 

or less fibrillose or scaly, sometimes silky and often splitting radially. The 

colors are usually rather dull, mostly shades of grown, gray, or ochre, although 

there are a few species more distinctively colored. 

INOCYBE FASTIGIATA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Quel. 


PILEUS %-2i4 in. broad, at first conic-campanulate, then more or less 

expanded, umbonate, splitting readily on the margin, varying in color from 

tawny to ochraceous or dull yellowish, innately fibrillose-streaked, soon becoming 

conspicuously long-rimose with streaks of paler color showing as the 

cuticle becomes rimose. flesh white, rather thin except at the umbo, lamellae 

adnexed, moderately broad, close, pallid, then grayish oHve, finally brown- 

ish. STIPE 1-21/4 in. long, Vg-i/i in. thick, equal, fibrillose, white or tinged the 

color of the pileus. spores ellipsoid to somewhat bean-shaped, smooth, dull 

ochre-brown, 9-12 X 5-6 (7) Mj cystidia lacking. 

In groups on the ground in woods and on lawns beneath trees. June-Oct. 

This species has been included because it is one of the more common 

species of Inocybe and will Hkely be found by anyone collecting mushrooms. 

The ochraceous colors, radiating fibrils, prominent umbo, and spHtting of the 

pileus are distinctive features. 

INOCYBE GEOPHYLLA (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS 1/2-1 1/2 in. broad, at first subconic to campanulate, with incurved 

margin, then expanded-campanulate to nearly plane with a small umbo per- 

sisting, white, dry, radiately fibrillose-silky, splitting readily on the margin. 

FLESH white, thin except on the umbo, lamellae adnate to adnexed, mod- 

erately broad, close, whitish to grayish, finally pale clay-colored, stipe %-1 Yi 

in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal, soHd, silky-fibrillose, concolorous with the 

pileus. spores smooth, pale brown, ellipsoid, sHghtly inequilateral, 7-9.5 X 

4.5-5.5 M- cystidia ventricose, fusoid, about 40-55 X 10-20 m- 

183


In groups on the ground in woods, occasionally on lawns beneath trees, 

fairly common. July-Oct. 

This is an interesting little species that is entirely white but has brown 

spores. The lamellae become pale clay-colored in age. It is a common species 

and can be recognized easily. 

Inocybe lilacina (Boud.) Kauffm. is very similar except for its color, and 

some authors regard it as merely a variety of /. geophylla. Its pileus and stipe 

are lilac colored at first but soon fade. It is frequently found associated with 

/. geophylla. 

PHOLIOTA 

Pholiota is an important genus for the mycophagist because it includes a 

number of good edible species that are fairly large and often occur in large 

clusters providing abundant material for food. However, as in other genera, 

some care must be taken to identify the species correctly because at least one 

is known to be poisonous. Some of the species are important as wood des- 

troyers. 

The genus includes those species that have rusty brown or ochre-brown 

spores, lamellae attached to the stipe, and a membranous annulus but no 

volva. They may be found either on wood or on the ground. Some of the 

species are markedly scaly but others are smooth. 

The North American species have been pretty well known since the excel- 

lent monograph by Overholts (1927). He recognized 56 species and a few have 

been added since then. However, recent authors tend to divide Pholiota into 

several genera, with P. squarrosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer as the type of Pholiota 

in the narrower sense. 

Many of the characters used in distinguishing these genera are based on 

microscopic structures not readily determined by the amateur collector, hence 

for the purposes of this book it is considered preferable to use the genus in the 

wider, more traditional sense. 

Key 

1. Occurring on the ground 2 

1. Occurring on wood or sawdust 3 

2. Pileus whitish to cream, glabrous; spores smooth with 

truncate apex P. vermiflua 

2. Pileus ochraceous buff to cinnamon-buff, unevenly wrinkled, at 

first with fine whitish fibrils or with a hoary bloom; 

spores large, rough-walled P. caperata 

3. Pileus glabrous at all stages 4 

3. Pileus scaly or becoming so 5 

184

PHOLIOTA 

4. Pileus cinnamon-brown, fading; spores rough, ellipsoid P. marginata 

4. Pileus yellowish buff or paler; spores smooth with a 

truncate apex (Figure 31, page 7) P. acericola 



6. Edge of lamellae white-crenulate; spores 11-14 jli long P. albocrenulata 

6. Edge of lamellae even, not white; spores 7-9 fx long P. aurivella 

7. Stipe fibrillose; taste bitter; spores rough, 7-9 ju long P. spectabilis 

7. Stipe squarrose-scaly; taste not bitter; spores smooth, less than 6 jli long 8 

8. Pileus bright golden yellow to orange; scales 

soft and floccose P. flammans 

8. Pileus dull colored, cinnamon-buff to tawny; scales stiff P. squarrosoides 

PHOLIOTA ACERICOLA Peck 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex with an inrolled margin, 

becoming expanded, at times broadly subumbonate, nonstriate, smooth, glabrous, 

slightly hygrophanous, pale watery brownish to yellow-buff* when 

moist, unpolished and paler when dry. flesh white, rather thin except on the 

disk. LAMELLAE adnatc, sinuate to slightly subdecurrent on the stipe, moderately 

broad, close, paUid, sometimes with a purpHsh tint, then dull brown 

from the spores, stipe 2-4 in. long, V^-Yi in. thick, equal or enlarged at the 

base, stuff'ed within, glabrous to fibrillose-striate, paUid, usually with strings 

of whitish mycelium at the base, annulus persistent, ample, membranous, 

white or pallid, tending to be remote from the apex, spores dull brown, 

smooth, ovoid with a truncate apex, 8.5-10.5 X 5-6.5 /x. cystidia flask-shaped 

to ventricose, occasionally divided at the tip to form two or three blunt 

projections. 

Single or in groups on decaying stumps and logs, occasionally on the 

ground, rather common. June-Sept. 

This species is most likely to be confused with P. praecox. The latter 

usually grows on the ground in open grassy places and P. acericola usually is 

on rotten wood but is sometimes found on the ground in woods. The white 

mycehal strands at the base of the stipe of P. acericola are a helpful distin- 

guishing character. The slightly purpHsh cast of the lamellae is another field 

character to watch for. 

The edible qualities of this species are not known but it might be confused 

with the poisonous P. autumnalis. If a microscope is available they can easily 

be distinguished by the spores. P. acericola is usually a taller, more slender 

plant, paler and more yellowish in color. 

185


PHOLIOTA ALBOCRENULATA Peck 


PILEUS 1-4 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex or campanulate, becoming 

expanded, nonstriate, margin often appendiculate with veil fragments, very 

viscid, ochre-brown to tawny or chestnut, decorated with darker appressed 

scales which on drying become faded and subsquarrose. flesh moderately 

thick, whitish, odor not distinctive, taste unpleasant, lamellae sinuate-adnate 

to subdecurrent, broad, close to subdistant, at first grayish, becoming rusty 

brown, white-crenulate on the edge, stipe 2-5 in. long, Ys-Yz in. thick, equal or 

sHghtly enlarged at the base, often curved, pallid or tinged yellow or brown 

below, white-floccose at the apex, sparsely to densely scaly up to the annulus 

with squarrose or fibrillose scales, annulus slight, ragged, disappearing, often 

clinging in fragments to the pileus margin and failing to form a ring on the 

stipe. SPORES smooth, brown, inequilateral, subfusiform, 11-14 X 6-7 /x. 

Solitary or in groups of several, on stumps and logs, and on trunks of 

living trees, especially maple. June-Sept. 

The white-crenulate edge of the lamellae is the most striking single 

character of this species. The fruiting bodies are darker colored than those of 

P. aurivella and usually are not in clusters. The scales on the pileus are rather 

easily rubbed off or washed off. The large spores will also distinguish it readily 

from similar species. Its edible quahties are not known. 

PHOLIOTA AURIVELLA (Batsch ex Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, fleshy-pliant, hemispheric to 

convex with inrolled margin at first, becorriing expanded, smooth, viscid when 

moist, yellow to tawny, darkest on the disk, concentrically spotted with darker 

squamules which in age become appressed and sometimes wash off in wet 

weather, margin even, somewhat appendiculate. lamellae adnate or sinuate 

at the stipe, broad, close, paUid yellowish, then rusty brown, stipe stout, cen- 

tral or excentric, 1 1/^-4 in. long, Y^-Yi in. thick, subequal, ôlid or stuffed, 

viscid in wet weather, more or less concolorous with the pileus, somewhat 

squamulose-scaly below the annulus, often curved, annulus slight, yellowish, 

disappearing, spores smooth, eUipsoid, rusty brown, 7-9 X 4-5 y.. 

Solitary or in clusters on stumps and logs of deciduous trees, fairly common. 

Aug.-Oct. 

This species is well known in North American literature under the name 

of Pholiota adiposa (Fr.) Kummer, but it now appears that the true P. adiposa 

is a European species with smaller spores than those of our fungus. P. aurivella 

is fairly common and can be recognized by the rather bright colored, scaly, 

viscid pileus. The viscid layer should be peeled before cooking. 

Collectors on the west coast are likely to confuse this species with P. squar- 

roso-adiposa Lange. This latter species occurs in large clusters, often on alder, 

186

PHOLIOTA 

and has pale yellow, viscid caps with darker scales, and a dry, very scaly stipe. 

It has smaller spores than P. aurivella and can be distinguished from P. adiposa 

by the dry stipe. 

PHOLIOTA CAPERATA (Fr.) Kummer Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, fleshy, convex then expanded, sometimes subumbo- 

nate, glabrous or at first with fine whitish fibrils and thin patches of whitish 

bloom, usually more or less uneven to wrinkled, cinnamon-buff" to ochraceous 

buff", paler on the margin or evenly colored, flesh thick, white, lamellae 

adnate to adnexed, broad, close, often transversely marked with Hght and dark 

bands, at. first palHd, then brown from the spores, stipe 2J/2-5 in. long, 54"!^ 

in. thick, equal, soHd, pallid, glabrous to subfibrillose, at times somewhat 

scurfy with minute white floccules at the apex, annulus large, membranous, 

remote from the apex, volva usually not evident, sometimes leaving a few 

traces at the base of the stipe, spores rusty brown, rough, broadly ovoid, in- 

equilateral in one view, tapering to one end, 11-16 X 7-10 ju. or varying larger. 

Solitary to scattered, on the ground in woods, fairly common. July-Oct. 

This species is fairly common and is an easy one to recognize. The color, 

the uneven surface and somewhat hoary appearance of the pileus, and the 

large membranous annulus are quite distinctive. The spores are more Hke those 

of Cortinarius than Pholiota and the presence of a rudimentary volva is also a 

character distinguishing it from other species of Pholiota. Most modern au- 

thors separate this species from Pholiota and put it in the genus Rozites. 

PHOLIOTA FLAMMANS (Batsch ex Fr.) Kummer 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad or occasionally larger, campanulate or convex with 

inrolled margin at first, becoming expanded, bright golden yellow or tinged 

orange, covered when young with a dense coating of dry, lemon-yellow floc- 

cules, even on the margin, appendiculate. flesh rather thin, yellow, lamellae 

adnate or with a shght decurrent tooth, close, not broad, yellow at first, then 

somewhat rusty from the spores, stipe 1-3 in. long, Vg-^ ^^- thick, subequal, 

stuffed or hollow, yellow, densely coated up to the annular zone with lemon- 

yellow floccules or squarrose scales, annulus yellow, ragged, disappearing. 

spores minute, elHpsoid, smooth, 3-6 X 2-3 /x- 

SoHtary or in clusters of several, on stumps and logs, rare. Aug.-Sept. 

This species is rare but is included because of its striking appearance. The 

bright colors and scaly pileus and stipe make it attractive. The very small 

spores are also a distinctive character. There is no information regarding its 

edibihty. 

P. kaujfmaniana Smith is a species occurring on the Pacific Coast that is 

similar in appearance to P.flammans but has viscid pilei. 

187


PHOLIOTA MARGINATA (Batsch ex Fr.) Quel. Dangerous 


PILEUS %-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex to plane or slightly depressed, some- 

times slightly umbilicate, dark cinnamon-brown, hygrophanous, fading to 

yellowish buff or ochraceous orange, glabrous, margin even or slightly striatu- 

late, extending somewhat beyond the lamellae, flesh thin, concolorous with 

the pileus, odor and taste none (Overholts says farinaceous), lamellae adnate 

to slightly decurrent, subdistant, moderately broad, Ys-Va in., at first yellowish 

brown, becoming darker and concolorous with the pileus. stipe %-2 in. long, 

Vs-Vs 

the annulus, hollow, concolorous with pileus or paler, annulus somewhat 

fibrillose and sometimes disappearing, spores brown, elHpsoid, at first smooth 

ill- thick, equal or shghtly enlarged near apex, fibrillose, pruinose above 

finally slightly rough, 7-10 X 4.5-6 /z. 

On rotten wood. May-Oct. 

There are several small species with smooth pilei that resemble P. margi- 

nata. This group of species probably belongs in Galerina rather than Pholiotay 

and while P. marginata itself may be edible, the group as a whole is dangerous 

because it contains species known to be poisonous. P. autumnalis Peck is hke 

P. marginata but is viscid and thi^ species is definitely known to be poisonous. 

P. marginella Peck {Kuehneromyces vernalis (Pk.) Sing. & Sm.) is similar to 

P. marginata in gross appearance but has smaller, smooth spores and lacks 

cystidia on the lamellae. P. unicolor is said to differ in having a more persistent 

annulus and a thinner stipe, and in drying a brighter color. There is a species 

occurring on lawns on the Pacific Coast that belongs in this complex and is also 

definitely known to be poisonous. This species has been described as Galerina 

venenata Smith. It is said to be up to 1 J4 

iii- broad, glabrous, moist, hygro- 

phanous, cinnamon-brown, fading to dingy yellowish white, with a farinaceous 

odor and taste but the taste slowly becomes bitter and disagreeable. The stipe 

is brownish and has a thin apical annulus. Its occurrence on lawns makes this 

a very dangerous species. All of these small species with smooth pilei should be 

avoided as food. 

PHOLIOTA SPECTABILIS (Fr.) Gill. Not edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex becoming expanded to nearly plane, rather 

bright colored, buff-yellow to tawny orange, dry, glabrous at first, becoming 

fibrillose to fibrillose-scaly, margin even, sometimes wavy, incurved at first. 

FLESH yellowish, thick, taste bitter, lamellae adnate to adnexed with a decur- 

rent tooth, crowded, narrow to moderately broad, yellow becoming rusty 

reddish, stipe 1 1/^-6 in. long, 54-1 in. thick, nearly equal to ventricose or en- 

larged at base, concolorous or darker below the annulus, more yellow above, 

fibrillose below the annulus, pruinose to floccose above, solid, sometimes very 

hard, annulus superior, membranous, persistent, yellowish, spores rusty 

brown, elHpsoid, rough-walled, 7-9 X 4.5-6 î. 

188

PHOLIOTA 

Singly to cespitose on stumps or trunks or sometimes from buried wood. 

June-Oct. 

Because of the bitter taste this species is not recommended as an edible 

fungus although it is not known to be poisonous. However, it is likely to 

attract attention because of its size and bright colors. It is similar in color to 

Phaeolepiota aurea but lacks the granulose covering of the pileus of the latter. 

PHOLIOTA SQUARROSOIDES (Pk.) Saccardo Edible 


PILEUS 1--3 in. broad, at first subglobose with inrolled margin, becoming 

expanded-convex or broadly subumbonate, even on the margin, often appendi- 

culate, densely squarrose-scaly with dry, coarse, tawny scales, between the 

scales whitish to cinnamon-buff and viscid, flesh whitish, moderately thick on 

the disk, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae sinuate-adnate, moderately 

broad, close, palHd, then brown from the spores, stipe stout, 1 1/^-4 in. long or 

longer, about J4 iii- thick, equal, stuffed, pallid, brownish toward the base, 

scaly up to the annulus with recurved tawny squamules, white at the apex. 

ANNULUS paUid, fibrillose-torn, often disappearing, spores smooth, brown, 

ellipsoid 4-6 X 3-4 ju. 

In dense clusters on deciduous wood. Aug.-Sept. 

P. squarrosoides is fairly common and frequently occurs in large clusters 

providing plenty of material for a meal. It is not Hkely to be confused with any 

poisonous species. 

Pholiota squarrosa, a similar species, is a yellower fungus, with a dry 

pileus and slightly larger spores. It is also edible but may have an unpleasant 

taste when old. 

PHOLIOTA VERMIFLUA Peck Edible 


PILEUS Y^-lVi in. broad, occasionally larger, firm, fleshy, subhemispher- 

ical, becoming expanded, even on the margin, at times appendiculate with veil 

fragments, creamy whitish or tinged yellowish, smooth, glabrous, moist to sub- 

viscid, almost shining when dry, becoming areolate-cracked on the disk, flesh 

white, moderately thick on the disk, thin toward the margin, odor mild, taste 

mild to slightly unpleasant, lamellae adnexed to sinuate-adnate or with a 

sHght decurrent tooth, seceding, rather broad, close, pallid at first, then pale 

grayish brown, finally dark brown with edges white, alternate lamellae short. 

STIPE 1 14-4 in. long, usually swollen at the apex up to 54- ^/^ in. thick, tapering 

downward, sometimes subequal, solid or with a narrow tubule, at the apex 

whitish and minutely scurfy, below the annulus glabrous and concolorous with 

the pileus. annulus disappearing or persistent, small, membranous, white, 

staining brown from spore deposit, spores smooth, ovoid, thick-walled, sHghtly 

189


inequilateral, truncate at one end, dark brown, 10-14 X 6-8 m- cystidia pear- 

shaped or subglobose, scattered or scarce. 

In groups in lawns, cultivated fields, and grassy places in open woods. 

May-Aug. 

This species often appears early in the season in May or June on lawns or 

in gardens. It is most likely to be confused with P. praecox (Pers.) Fr. which 

can be separated with certainty by the spores, which are mostly less than 10 /* 

long. Both species are edible. 

PHAEOLEPIOTA 

This genus has been separated from Pholiota on the basis of the mealy- 

granulose covering of the pileus. It is best characterized as a brown-spored 

Cystoderma and only the one species is known. 

PHAEOLEPIOTA AUREA (Mattuschka ex Fr.) Maire ex Suspect 

Konr. & Maubl. 


PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, convex to plane, slightly umbonate, dry, with a 

granulose, powdery covering that is easily rubbed off, ochraceous yellow to 

golden yellow, or ochraceous tawny, margin incurved at first, somewhat ap- 

pendiculate. flesh thick, yellowish, odor none, taste mild, lamellae adnexed, 

rounded behind, close, broad, light buff to ochraceous buff or cinnamon. 

STIPE 1 1/2-5 in. long, !/2-% ii^- thick, enlarged at the base, concolorous or 

Hghter than the pileus, granular-scurfy below the annulus, glabrous above, 

stuffed, sometimes becoming hollow, annulus large, pendulous, membranous, 

dark buff below, lemon color above, disappearing in old plants, spores pale 

ochraceous buff, ovoid to elongate-ovoid, smooth or sometimes sHghtly rough 

in age, 9-12 X 4-6 m- 

Singly or gregarious on the ground. Sept. 

This is a rare but very striking fungus. It appears to be western in its dis- 

tribution. It has the appearance of a large Cystoderma with brown spores. 

FLAMMULA 

The genus Flammula includes species with ochre spores, fleshy to fibrous, 

central stipes, lamellae usually rather bright colored, and an annulus usually 

lacking although sometimes a trace of one may be found. Most of the species 

occur on wood although there are a few exceptions. 

They are distinguished from Pholiota by the lack of an annulus, from 

Hebeloma by the brighter lamellae and spores and from Naucoria by the 

fibrous stipe. 

190

HEBELOMA 

The Species are not very well known and are difficult to identify. Many of 

them have a bitter or unpleasant taste and the genus is not one to attract 

amateur collectors. They are not recommended for eating although there is no 

evidence that they are poisonous. Only the one species, F. spumosa (Fr.) 

Kummer, which is one of the commonest of the genus, is described here. 

FLAMMULA SPUMOSA (Fr.) Kummer 


piLEus %-2 in. broad, convex then expanded, smooth, glabrous, viscid 

when moist, pale sulphur-yellow except on the disk which is fulvous-tinged, 

margin even, flesh thin, tinged yellowish, lamellae adnate to shghtly sinuate 

or decurrent by a tooth, moderately broad, close, pallid yellowish, then ochre- 

brown. STIPE 1-21/2 in. long, V8-!4 in. thick, equal, stuffed or becoming hollow, 

fibrillose, yellowish above, stained brownish toward the base, veil fibrillose, 

yellowish, disappearing, spores smooth, ellipsoid, ochre-brown (6) 7-8 (9) X 

4-4.5 (5) M- CYSTiDiA numerous, fusoid-ventricose. 

In groups on decaying wood or on the ground in woods, fairly common. 

July-Oct. 

This is one of the commonest species of the genus and is principally 

characterized by the sulphur-yellow to greenish yellow margin of the pileus 

and the fulvous to tawny disk. 

HEBELOMA 

Hebeloma includes a group of rather poorly known brown-spored species. 

They have viscid pilei, adnexed or emarginate lamellae, and a volva and annu- 

lus are lacking but some species have a fibrillose veil. The spores are dull 

colored in mass, alutaceous or dull brown, never bright rust-colored as in 

Inocybe or Cortinarius, and the colors of the pileus are usually somewhat dull 

also. 

The species are not well known and are difficult to identify. Some of the 

species are known to be poisonous and none are recommended as food. It is a 

genus to be avoided by the amateur. Only one species is described here. 

HEBELOMA SINAPIZANS (Fr.) Gillet Not edible 


PILEUS 21/2-4J/2 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex, obtuse, margin even, 

inrolled at first, becoming expanded, glabrous, viscid, pinkish buff" to cinnamon. 

FLESH thick, compact, odor and taste of radish or mustard, lamellae 

adnexed, broad, close, pallid then pale brownish from the spores, stipe white, 

'^Vi-^Vi in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick, subequal, stuff'ed then hollow, white-floccosescaly, 

especially toward the apex, spores large, rough, almond-shaped, inequi- 

lateral, brown, 11-13 (13.5) X 7-8 (8.5) m- 

191


Scattered or in groups on the ground in woods, uncommon. Sept.-Oct. 

This is one of the largest of the hebelomas and has been included as a 

representative of the genus. The floccose-scaly stipe and broad lamellae 

together with the large size are the distinguishing characters. Definite information 

as to its edibihty is lacking but it is not recommended since other members 

of the genus are known to be poisonous. 

CONOCYBE 

Conocybe includes a group of small, fragile, Mycena-\\kt mushrooms with 

rusty brown spores. They were formerly included in the genus Galera but this 

name cannot be used under the International Code of Nomenclature because 

the name had been given earlier to a genus of flowering plants. The old genus 

Galera has been divided into two genera based on the structure of the cuticle. 

In Conocybe the cuticle is cellular and in Galerina it is filamentous. The species 

are unimportant as food because they are so small and fragile and they are 

difficult to identify. One species is included here because it is commonly found 

on lawns and is fairly easily recognized. 

CONOCYBE CRISPA (Longyear) Singer 


PILEUS Yi-l Va in. broad, conic to campanulate, sometimes slightly umbonate, 

striate to rugulose, glabrous, atomate, whitish buff", more brownish on 

disk when moist, flesh thin, membranous, lamellae adnexed, close to sub- 

distant, narrow, crisped and interveined, ferruginous brown, stipe 1 y^-2> in. 

long, about i/fg in. thick, white, or tinged ochraceous, equal, shghtly bulbous at 

base, hollow, spores ellipsoid to ovoid, rather variable, smooth, rusty brown, 

11-16(18) X 8-12 M- 

Gregarious on lawns and grassy places. June-July (Sept.). 

The distinctive character of this species is the crisped lamellae. A similar 

species in which the lamellae are not crisped is also common on lawns. It has 

been generally known as Galera tenera Fr., but according to Smith (1949) the 

true G. tenera is rare and the common species that has been called G. tenera is, 

in reality, Conocybe lactea (Lange) Metrod. Although this species is, perhaps, 

more common than G. crispa it was thought desirable to choose the latter as a 

representative of this group because it could be identified with more certainty. 

All the species of this group are too small and fragile to be of any value as food. 


282. Naucoria semiorbicularis. 283, Paxillus involutus. 

284. P. atrotomentosus. 285. P. atrotomentosus. 

286. Agaricus campestris. 287. A.haemorrhoidarius. 

288. A. diminutivus. 289. A. diminutivus. 

290. A. silvicola. 291. A. silvicola and Amanita virosa. 

192

193

293. Crepidotus fulvotomentosus. 

295. S. hornemannii. 

297. 5". semiglobata, 

299. Psathyrella candolleana. 

301. Coprinus comatus. 

194 

Figure 292. Colly bia radicata. 


294. Stropharia coronilla. 

296. S. hornemannii. 

298. Naematoloma capnoides. 

300. P. candolleana. 

302. C. quadrifidus.

^ ,^^3^ 

195

196 

Figures 303-304. Lentinus lepideus. 

303 

1304

NAUCORIA 

TUBARIA 

Naucoria includes a group of small, brown-spored species that are not 

well known. The spores are ochre-brown to rusty brown. The stipe is subcartilaginous 

and there is no annulus. They grow either on the ground or on wood, 

occasionally on dung. Because of their small size they are of no value as edible 

mushrooms and not much is known about their edibihty. Only one rather common 

species is described here. 

NAUCORIA SEMIORBICULARIS (Bull.) Fr. Edible 


piLEUS 54-1 in. broad, hemispherical to convex, smooth, glabrous, viscid 

when moist, dull yellowish varying to tan or tinged reddish brown, unicolorous 

or darker on the disk, margin even, flesh thin, paUid. lamellae adnate, 

broad, close, paUid, then dull brown from the spores, edges paUid. stipe 1-21/2 

in. long, up to i/g in. thick, subequal or slightly thickened at the base, stuffed, 

glabrous to minutely fibrillose, concolorous or paler than the pileus. spores 

smooth, thick-walled, ovoid, inequilateral in one view, dull brown (10.5) 

11-13.5 (15) X 7.5-8 {9) IX. 

In groups on the ground in grassy places, common. May-Sept. 

This species is common on lawns and grassy places, appearing after rains 

throughout most of the season. The small size, yellowish tan color, brown 

spores and lack of an annulus are its distinguishing characters. 

TUBARIA 

Tubaria is a small genus of poorly known species. They are small brownspored 

forms with decurrent lamellae and fragile, cartilaginous stipes. The 

species are mostly rather rare, and are of no interest to those collecting mushrooms 

for food. 

One species is included here because it is one of the earliest mushrooms to 

appear in the spring and for that reason may attract attention. 

TUBARIA FURFURACEA (Pers. ex Fr.) Gill. 

pileus %-! in. broad, occasionally larger, fleshy, convex to plane or 

slightly depressed, cinnamon-brown, hygrophanous, fading to buff or pinkish 

buff, long-striate on the margin when moist, sometimes with whitish patches 

from the veil, appressed-fibrillose to glabrous on the disk, flesh thin, watery 

brownish, no odor, taste mild, lamellae close to subdistant, broad, adnate to 

197


slightly decurrent, concolorous with pileus. stipe about %-l y^ 

ii^- long, and 

about '/g in. thick, equal or slightly enlarged at the base, fibrillose, concolorous 

with pileus or slightly paler, hollow, spores ellipsoid, flattened shghtly on one 

side, pale ochraceous in mass, smooth, 7-9 X 4-5.5 \i. 

Growing singly or in groups on sticks and debris in the woods. May-Oct. 

This is a rather common little brown mushroom with broad lamellae and 

a fibrillose pileus, often found early in the spring. T. pellucida (Bull, ex Fr.) 

Gill, is similar but has smaller spores, 5.5-7 X 4-5 ju. 

CREPIDOTUS 

Crepidotus corresponds to Pleurotus of the white-spored group and in- 

cludes those species with ochre-brown to rusty spore deposit and in which the 

stipe is excentric, lateral, or lacking. The lamellae may be whitish in young 

fruiting bodies but become brown as the spores mature. Most of the species 

occur on decayed wood and they are mostly rather small and of no importance 

as food. 

CREPIDOTUS FULVOTOMENTOSUS Peck Edible 


PILEUS V^-21/2 in. broad, convex becoming expanded, sessile, laterally 

attached, often semicircular or kidney-shaped in outline, margin incurved at 

first, striatulate when moist, surface coated when young with a dense tawny 

tomentum, which, as the pileus expands, becomes separated into tawny, fibril- 

lose scales, exposing the paler ground color beneath, flesh thin, pliant, paUid 

or tinged yellowish, lamellae radiating from the lateral point of attachment, 

moderately broad, close, pallid then dull ochre-brown, edges white, stipe 

lacking, the pileus attached to the substrate at a lateral point, spores ovoid, 

slightly inequilateral in one profile, dull ochre-brown, 7.5-9 (10) X 5-6 m- 

In groups on decaying hardwood, common. May-Oct. 

This is one of the larger species of the genus and can be recognized by the 

tawny scales on the pileus. C. calolepis (Fr.) Karst. also has a brown tomentum 

but has smaller spores. C. dorsalis Peck is reddish yellow and has globose 

spores. C. versutus Peck has a white tomentum. C. mollis Peck is glabrous and 

somewhat gelatinous, and C. haerens Peck is viscid. C. malachius B. & C. has 

globose spores and broad lamellae, and C applanatus (Fr.) Kummer has glo- 

bose spores and narrow lamellae. These five species are all white or whitish. 

C. cinnabarinus Peck is bright scarlet and more common in the West. 

The genus is not important as far as food is concerned but several of the 

species are fairly common and will be encountered by the collector. 

198

PAXILLUS 

PAXILLUS 

Paxillus includes species with ochre-yellow spores, the stipe more or less 

excentric, and the lamellae easily separable from the flesh of the pileus. The 

lamellae are usually more or less decurrent and anastomose on the stipe, some- 

times becoming poroid. In this respect they show relationship with the Boleta- 

ceae and some authors consider that they should be placed in this family. It is a 

relatively small genus and we have two fairly common species, neither of which 

is recommended as food. 

PAXILLUS ATROTOMENTOSUS (Batsch ex Fr.) Fr. Not recommended 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, occasionally larger, tough, convex at first, becoming 

plane to depressed, rusty brown to blackish brown, appressed-tomentose, dry, 

margin inrolled. flesh white, firm, rather thick, odor and taste mild, lamel- 

lae adnate-decurrent, easily separable from the pileus, close, rather narrow, 

forked and anastomosing on the stipe, yellowish tawny, stipe excentric to 

lateral, 1-3 in. or more long, )/2-l 54 in. thick, stout, straight or curved, en- 

larged toward base, rooting, covered with a dense, blackish brown, velvety 

tomentum, soHd. spores yellow, oval, smooth, 5-7 X 3-4 y.. 

Singly or clustered on old logs or stumps or from buried wood. July-Sept. 

The blackish tomentose stipe is a very distinctive character of this species. 

It is reported to be edible but tough and of poor flavor. 

PAXILLUS INVOLUTUS (Batsch ex Fr.) Fr. Not recommended 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, at first convex, becoming expanded, then depressed, 

yellowish brown to reddish brown or olive-brown, with darker spots, downytomentose, 

becoming smooth, margin persistently inrolled and often somewhat 

ridged, flesh pale yellowish, becoming brownish when bruised, thick. 

LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, easily separable from the pileus, crowded, broad, forked 

and anastomosing on the stipe, olive-yellow, becoming brown when bruised. 

stipe 1 1/^-3 in. long, j/^-l )4 in. thick, equal or tapering slightly downward, 

sometimes enlarged at the base, glabrous, colored like the pileus or paler, 

often streaked or spotted with darker brown, solid, central or excentric. 

spores yellowish brown, elliptical, smooth, 7-9 X 4-5.5 /z. 

July-Oct. 

Sohtary or in groups on the ground in woods or at the base of stumps. 

This is an unattractive plant because of the rather dingy colors and the 

brown stains that develop. Some authors maintain that it is edible but as there 

are reports that it has caused poisoning in Europe, it is not recommended. It is 

fairly common and easily recognized by the inrolled margin and the close, 

decurrent, yellowish lamellae that separate readily from the pileus. 

199


AGARICUS 

Agaricus is one of the most important genera for those who are interested 

in mushrooms as food. It includes both the common cultivated mushroom and 

the meadow mushroom, which is probably the wild mushroom most frequently 

eaten, at least in English-speaking countries. 

The genus is characterized by the purple-brown spores, presence of an 

annulus, and free lamellae. The stipe is a different texture from the pileus and 

separates readily from it. The genus is relatively clear-cut and it is compara- 

tively easy to recognize an Agaricus but many of the characters used to dis- 

tinguish species seem to intergrade and some of the species are difficult to 

identify. 

Agaricus is usually regarded as one of the safest genera to use as food, and 

critical identification of the species is not very important from this standpoint. 

However, A. xanthodermus Genev. has been reported to cause illness in some 

people, and Smith reported that a form of A. arvensis Fr. found growing in a 

swamp in Michigan caused illness. A. placomyces Pk. and A. hondensis Murr. 

have also been reported to cause illness on occasion. Hence, with Agaricus 

species as with any other mushroom, unfamiliar species should be tried cauti- 

ously at first. 

The name Psalliota has frequently been used for this genus but under the 

International Code of Nomenclature Agaricus is the correct name. 

According to Smith (1949) there are about 70 species o{ Agaricus in North 

America. There have been two recent studies of the European species by 

Moller (1950, 1952) and Pilat (1951) but they do not include all the North 

American species. 

Key 

1. Pileus small, less than Wi in. broad A. diminutivus 

1. Pileus mostly 2 in. or more broad 2 

2. Flesh quickly turning red when broken A. haemorrhoidarius 

2. Flesh not reddening when broken 3 

3. Growing in fields, pastures, open places or lawns 4 

3. Growing in the woods 5 

4. Annulus double, lamellae narrow A. edulis 

4. Annulus single A. campestris 

5. Pileus scaly with brown to black fibrils A. placomyces 

5. Pileus smooth, white, disk turning yellowish when bruised A. silvicola 

AGARICUS CAMPESTRIS Fr. Edible 


Meadow Mushroom 

PILEUS 1 1/2-3 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex, somewhat flattened, becom- 

ing nearly plane, white, sometimes tinged brownish when old, at first silky, 

becoming dehcately fibrillose-scaly or glabrous, the margin extending beyond 

200

AGARICUS 

the lamellae and usually fringed with veil remnants, flesh white, thick, firm, 

not changing color when bruised, odor and taste pleasant, lamellae free, 

crowded, rather narrow, at first pink, becoming gradually purple-brown and 

finally black, stipe 1-2 in. long, Ys-Ys in. thick, equal or sometimes narrowed 

below, white, silky above the annulus, becoming brownish below, slightly 

fibrillose to glabrous, stuffed, annulus thin, single, sometimes evanescent or 

remaining attached to the margin of the pileus. spores dark chocolate-brown, 

elHpsoid, smooth, 5.5-7.5 X 3.5-4.5 fx; basidia four-spored. 

It grows singly or in groups in grassy places, lawns, pastures, fields, etc. 

It is usually found in the fall but sometimes occurs in the spring. 

The meadow mushroom is probably the best known of all the wild species 

and for some people it is the only true mushroom, all other species being 

regarded as unsafe to eat. About the only danger in connection with this 

mushroom is that the button stage may be collected carelessly and a young 

Amanita virosa gathered by mistake. In most cases the habitat is suflftciently 

different to prevent such errors, since the Agaricus is usually found in open 

fields and the Amanita in the woods. Nevertheless the danger is sufficiently 

great that button stages should not be used unless the collector is certain that 

he can distinguish between Agaricus and Amanita at this stage and that no 

universal veil is present. 

The cultivated mushroom was for a long time considered to be a form or 

variety of the meadow mushroom but it is now recognized as a distinct species, 

Agaricus hortensis Cke. The spores, basidia, and cystidia are different in the 

two species, and A. campestris grows in grassland and will not grow under the 

same conditions as A. hortensis. However, the two species are so similar in 

appearance that an acquaintance with the cultivated species will enable one to 

recognize A. campestris in the field. 

A. arvensis Fr., the field mushroom or horse mushroom, is a larger, 

more robust species with a flatter pileus. The spores are larger also. Larger 

specimens of A. campestris might be confused with it but this is unimportant 

since both are edible, although Smith reported that specimens of what he 

considered to be a variety of this species growing in a swamp and to which he 

gave the name A. arvensis var. palustris, caused illness. 

AGARICUS DIMINUTIVUS Peck Edible 


pileus %-1 1/4 in. broad, fragile, convex becoming plane, whitish or gray- 

ish, more brownish on disk, silky-fibrillose, the fibrils more or less reddish or 

pinkish to reddish brown, flesh thin, whitish, odor and taste mild, lamellae 

free, close to crowded, moderately broad, at first whitish, finally dark purplish 

brown, stipe 1-2 in. long, ^6"% in. broad, equal or sHghtly bulbous at base, 

whitish, glabrous or somewhat fibrillose, stuffed, then hollow, annulus dehcate, 

whitish, persistent, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, smooth, about 5-6 X 

3-3.5 M. 

201


Usually single, occasionally in groups, among grass or moss. One collec- 

tion in our herbarium is on wood. Aug.-Sept. 

This is an attractive but rather delicate species, usually too small to be of 

any interest as food but said to be edible. Several other small species have been 

recognized but they are not well known. A. auricolor Krieger is yellow with 

yellow floccose patches on the stipe below the annulus, A. micromegethus Peck 

is merely white fibrillose below the annulus, and the stipe of A. comptuliformis 

Murr. is glabrous below the annulus. 

AGARICUS EDULIS (Vitt.) Moeller & J. Schaeffer Edible 


PILEUS 1 )^-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, firm, fleshy, at first broadly 

convex to hemispherical, somewhat depressed on the disk, expanding and becoming 

plane, white or whitish to slightly yellowish when old, glabrous to 

slightly silky, the margin at first incurved and exceeding the lamellae, flesh 

thick, firm, white, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, narrow, at 

first pink, then purple-brown to blackish brown, stipe l-P/^ (2) in. long, 

J/2-1 in. thick, short, stout, equal, glabrous or somewhat scurfy above the 

annulus, white, solid, annulus double, usually about midway up the stipe. 

SPORES purplish brown to chocolate-brown, broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 

smooth, 5-6 X 4-5 ju- 

Singly or in groups, usually in cities along pavements or on lawns or some- 

times in barren areas where the soil is packed hard. June-Oct. 

This species has been better known in North America as A. rodmani Peck 

but A. edulis seems to be the correct name for it. The rather squatty stature, 

double annulus, and firm flesh are the principal characters of this species. It is 

a fine edible mushroom and usually appears in towns and cities where it is 

probably collected by mistake for Agaricus campestris. 

AGARICUS HAEMORRHOIDARIUS Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, fleshy, at first subglobose to ovoid, expanding and 

becoming campanulate-convex or finally plane, fibrillose-scaly, vinaceous 

brown to grayish brown, flesh white, quickly turning to blood-red when cut or 

bruised, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, moderately broad, at 

first whitish, then pinkish, finally purple-brown, stipe 2-5 in. long, V^-Vi in. 

thick, equal or bulbous at the base, somewhat fibrillose to glabrous, whitish 

becoming brownish, stuff'ed, then hollow, annulus large, conspicuous, white, 

persistent, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, smooth, 5-7 X 3-4 /x- 

In groups or scattered, sometimes in small clusters, on the ground in 

mixed woods. July-Oct. 

The outstanding character of this species is the almost instantaneous 

change to blood-red in the color of the flesh when fresh specimens are broken 

or bruised. Other species also exhibit this color change but it is usually slower. 

202

AGARICUS 

AGARICUS PLACOMYCES Peck Probably edible for most people 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, rather fragile, at first broadly ovate, becoming con- 

vex and finally plane, whitish beneath the blackish brown, fibrillose scales, the 

disk blackish brown from the unbroken fibrillose covering, flesh white or 

sHghtly yellowish under the cuticle, sometimes becoming pinkish, thin, odor 

sHght to somewhat disagreeable, taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, rather 

narrow to moderately broad, at first white to grayish, becoming pink and then 

purple-brown, stipe 2 1/2-5 in. long, !4-!/^ in. thick, tapering upward, more or 

less bulbous at the base, glabrous, whitish, sometimes staining yellow, stuffed 

becoming hollow, annulus large, conspicuous, double, whitish above, the 

lower layer cracking into brownish patches, spores chocolate-brown, ellipsoid, 

smooth, 5-6 X 3.5-4 jjl. 

Solitary or in groups or sometimes in clusters in mixed woods. June-Sept. 

The scaly pileus, large annulus, and tapering, somewhat bulbous stipe are 

the chief distinguishing characters of this species. There have been occasional 

reports of it causing illness so that it should be tried with caution at first. 

AGARICUS SILVICOLA (Vitt.) Sacc. Edible for most people 


PILEUS 2)/2-6 in. broad, moderately firm, at first convex, expanding and 

becoming plane, white or creamy white, staining yellow on the disk when 

bruised, somewhat silky-fibrillose. flesh moderately thick, brittle, white, 

becoming yellow when bruised, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, 

narrow to moderately broad, at first whitish, then pink and finally blackish, 

brown, stipe 3-6 in. long, J4-% in. thick, equal or tapering upward sHghtly, 

with an abrupt bulb at the base, or bulb lacking and base flattened, somewhat 

silky to glabrous, creamy white, staining yellow when bruised, stuff'ed then 

hollow, annulus large, double, smooth above with the lower layer cracking 

and forming yellowish patches which may disappear, spores purpHsh brown 

to chocolate-brown, elhpsoid, smooth, 5-6.5 X 3-4.5 m- 

SoHtary or in groups, occasionally in clusters of two or three, usually 

growing in the woods. July-Sept. 

This species is edible although it should be tried with caution as occa- 

sional cases of illness in individuals have been reported. The remarks relative 

to the dangers of using button stages in A. campestris apply with much greater 

force to A. silvicola because it grows in much the same habitat as Amanita 

virosa. 

A. silvicola is rather variable in size from a slender plant to a very robust 

form easily confused with A. arvensis. Usually the slender forms have an 

abrupt, flattened bulb at the base of the stipe but this character may vary also. 

The annulus is large and conspicuous. Agaricus abruptibulbus Peck is con- 

sidered to be a synonym. 

203


STROPHARIA 

Stropharia includes the species that have purple-brown spores, an annulus, 

and the lamellae attached to the stipe. Usually the pileus is viscid. It differs 

from Naematoloma in possessing an annulus and might be confused with that 

genus if the annulus has disappeared. 

It is not a large genus. About 35 species are known from North America 

but only a few are common, and the species are sometimes difficult to identify. 

Some are suspected of causing poisoning and the genus should be avoided by 

amateurs. 

Key 

1. Pileus bright green, fading to yellow S. aeruginosa 

1. Pileus never green 2 

2. Growing on dung; pileus yellow, hemispherical S. semiglobata 

2. Not on dung 3 

3. Pileus mostly more than 2 in. broad, brownish or smoky purplish; 

stipe squarrose-scaly S. hornemannii 

3. Pileus less than 2 in. broad, yellowish; stipe smooth or 

slightly fibrillose S. coronilla 

STROPHARIA AERUGINOSA (Curt, ex Fr.) Quel. Reported poisonous 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, fleshy, campanulate-convex, becoming plane, 

slightly umbonate, viscid, at first bright green from the thick gluten, fading 

slowly to yellowish, sometimes with white scales near the margin, becoming 

glabrous, flesh whitish to bluish, soft, lamellae adnate, close, broad, at first 

whitish, then grayish, finally chocolate-brown, slightly purplish, the edges 

white and minutely flocculose. stipe 1 54-3 in. long, J/g-yg in. thick, equal, 

viscid, scaly to fibrillose below the annulus, bluish green, hollow, annulus 

evanescent, spores dark brown, sHghtly purplish, eUipsoid, smooth, 7-9.5 X 

4-5 M. 

It occurs in the woods or sometimes in gardens. Sept.-Oct. 

This is a striking and beautiful species when it is young and fresh but the 

bright green color fades with age. It is said to be common in Europe but has 

only been collected occasionally in the Ottawa district. 

STROPHARIA CORONILLA (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Suspected 


pileus %-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, pale yellow to whitish or 

buff to pale ochre-yellow, glabrous, moist to slightly sticky, flesh white, soft, 

fairly thick, odor shghtly unpleasant, lamellae adnate, rounded behind, Hlac- 

204

STROPHARIA 

flesh color becoming purplish black, close, moderately broad, edge white- 

fimbriate. stipe short, 3/^-1 V2 in. long, Ys-Vi in. thick, equal, white, dry, floc- 

culose above the annulus, fibrillose below, becoming smooth, stuffed to 

hollow. ANNULUS membrauous, distant from apex, persistent, striate on upper 

side. SPORES purple-brown, elHpsoid, smooth, 7-9 X 4.5-5 /x. 

Gregarious to scattered on lawns or grassy places. Aug.-Oct. 

This small species is not common but because of its occurrence on lawns 

and the fact that it is suspected of being poisonous it has been included. It 

might be mistaken for an Agaricus but the lamellae are not free from the stipe. 

STROPHARIA HORNEMANNII (Fr.) Lund. & Nannf. Not recommended 


piLEUS 1-5 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex to plane, sometimes sHghtly 

umbonate, viscid, glabrous or with some white floccose scales at the margin at 

first, brownish or smoky reddish brown, to purplish brown, becoming ohve- 

brown near the margin and more yellowish brown on the disk, margin inrolled 

when young, then decurved and sometimes elevated, flesh whitish to watery 

buff" or yellowish, thick, thin on margin, odor sHght, taste somewhat disagree- 

able. LAMELLAE adnatc with a decurrent tooth, close, broad, pale grayish then 

becoming dull purple-brown, some shorter, stipe 2-5 in. long, i4-% in. thick, 

equal or nearly so, whitish to yellowish, stuff'ed becoming hollow, covered 

with white, fibrillose or floccose scales below the annulus, glabrous and silky 

above, annulus at first erect, then pendant, white to brownish, spores elHp- 

soid, smooth, purple-brown in mass, 11-13 X 5.5-7 ju- 

It usually is soHtary or in groups in mixed woods. Sept. and Oct. 

This species can be recognized by the large size, scaly stipe, and dull- 

brown color, often with a smoky purpHsh tinge. It has been known under the 

name Stropharia depilata (Pers. ex Fr.) Quel. It is one of the largest and most 

conspicuous species of the genus. Although there does not seem to be any 

definite information regarding its edibility, it is not recommended because 

some of the Stropharia species are under suspicion as causing poisoning. 

STROPHARIA SEMIGLOBATA (Fr.) Quel. Not recommended 


PILEUS I/2-I Yi in. broad, fleshy, hemispherical, finally convex to nearly 

plane, bright fight yellow, fading to dull yellow, sometimes with an oHve tinge, 

glabrous, very viscid, margin even, flesh thick on disk to thin on margin, pale 

watery yellowish, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, close to subdistant, 

broad, at first ohve-gray, becoming purplish brown, stipe 2-4)/^ in. long, 

V%-H% 

in. thick, equal or sHghtly enlarged at the base, stuff'ed becoming hollow, 

viscid below the annulus, slightly fibrillose above, whitish to pale yellowish. 

205


ANNULUS delicate, whitish, often evanescent, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, 

smooth, 15-20 X 8.5-11 m- 

It occurs singly or in groups on the dung of cattle and horses. June-Sept. 

The veil in this species is very delicate and frequently tears in such a way 

that no annulus is formed, or the annulus may be very evanescent. The most 

striking characters are the yellow color, viscid pileus and stipe, hemispherical 

pileus, and the habitat on dung. KautTman attempted to separate the forms 

that become convex to plane as S. stercoraria Fr. but they seem to be too close 

to be recognized as distinct species. It has been reported edible but, in general, 

Stropharia species should be avoided. 

NAEMATOLOMA 

The best-known species of this genus were formerly placed in the genus 

Hypholoma but Smith (1951) has pointed out that the old genus Hypholoma 

was composed of diverse elements and under the International Code of No- 

menclature Naematoloma should be the correct name for the group of species 

typified by A^. sublateritium (Fr.) Karst. 

Naematoloma thus includes a rather small group of species with purplebrown 

to dull cinnamon-brown spores. The pileus is usually rather bright 

colored and may or may not be viscid. The lamellae vary from adnexed to 

adnate or subdecurrent and the color of the young lamellae is sometimes im- 

portant in distinguishing species. The stipe may be thick and fleshy to fibrous- 

tough, or slender and cartilaginous. 

Naematoloma is distinguished from Stropharia by the presence of an 

annulus in the latter. However, the distinction is not clear-cut because a veil is 

sometimes present in Naematoloma but usually remains attached to the margin 

of the pileus; in some of the dung-inhabiting species o{ Stropharia the annulus 

is evanescent. 

Naematoloma is also very close to Psilocybe and can only be separated 

with certainty from this genus by microscopic characters. A characteristic type 

of cystidium called a gloeocystidium is present in the lamellae of Naematoloma 

but absent in Psilocybe (see Addendum). 

Only two of the larger species of Naematoloma are described here and 

both are considered to be edible. Many of the other species are quite small and 

of no value as food, and N.fasciculare (Fr.) Karst., which has been reported to 

be poisonous, is not likely to be eaten because of its very bitter taste. 

NAEMATOLOMA CAPNOIDES (Fr.) Karst. Edible 


pileus Y2-2 in. broad, firm, convex, expanding to plane, sometimes 

slightly umbonate, brightly colored, orange-reddish or yellowish brown on the 

206

NAEMATOLOMA 

disk, paler and more yellowish on the margin, glabrous or at first slightly 

fibrillose, the margin inrolled at first and appendiculate with fibrils of the veil. 

FLESH whitish, fairly thick, firm, taste mild, lamellae adnate-seceding, close, 

rather narrow to moderately broad, at first whitish to grayish, becoming 

purple-brown, stipe 2-3 in. long, sometimes longer, Y^-Ys in. thick, equal or 

sHghtly enlarged at the base, sHghtly fibrillose up to the faint annular zone, 

yellowish above, rusty brown below, hollow, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, 

smooth 6-7.5 X 3.5-4.5 /x. 

In clusters on wood of conifers. August to November and occasionally in 

May. 

This species is usually a little smaller and more orange to tawny than 

A'^. sublateritium. It might be confused with N. fasciculare (Fr.) Karst. but in 

the latter the lamellae are at first pale yellow and become greenish to olive- 

green. A'^. fasciculare also has an intensely bitter taste and has been reported to 

be poisonous. 

NAEMATOLOMA SUBLATERITIUM (Fr.) Karst. Edible 


Brick-top 

piLEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, fleshy, convex-expanded, sometimes with a 

slight obtuse umbo, brick-red on the disk, paler on the margin to whitish, 

glabrous on disk to more or less whitish to yellowish-fibrillose on the decurved 

margin, flesh thick, firm, whitish or becoming yellowish in age or when 

bruised, no odor, taste mild to slightly bitter, lamellae adnate, close to 

crowded, narrow, at first whitish or in some collections yellow, then becoming 

gray or olive-gray and finally purple-brown, stipe 2-4 in. long, V^-Yi in. thick, 

equal, whitish above to reddish brown below, the veil leaving a fibrillose 

annular zone and the surface more or less fibrillose below this, soHd. spores 

purple-brown, eUipsoid, smooth, 6-7.5 X 3-4 ju- 

It grows in dense clusters or occasionally in groups on hardwood logs, 

stumps, or roots, common. Aug.-Nov. 

This species is commonly known as the brick-top mushroom because of 

the brick-red color of the pileus. It is common and rather variable. One form 

with bright yellow lamellae in the young mushrooms has been called Hypho- 

loma perplexum (Pk.) Sacc. but it is now generally regarded as merely a form of 

the brick-top. Partly to nearly completely sterile fruiting bodies may be found. 

In European hterature it has been reported poisonous but North Ameri- 

can mycophagists seem to be unanimous in claiming it to be edible. 

207


PSATHYRELLA 

Psathyrella is now used to include a large group of species formerly dis- 

tributed throughout other genera such as Hypholoma, Psilocybe, Psathyra, 

and Stropharia. The spore color is typically purple-brown but may vary from 

pinkish to brick-red, dark brown, or blackish. They are mostly small, fragile 

species that can be identified only by microscopic characters and, in general, 

they are of no value as food. 

Of the other dark-spored genera, Coprinus differs from Psathyrella by its 

deliquescing lamellae, Panaeolus by its mottled lamellae, and Pseudocoprinus 

by its plicate-striate pileus and the presence of paraphyses of the. type found 

in Coprinus. The remaining genera, Agaricus, Stropharia, Naematoloma, and 

Psilocybe are all distinguished from Psathyrella by the structure of the cuticle 

which in them is composed of filamentous hyphae but in Psathyrella is com- 

posed of pear-shaped to vesiculose cells arranged in a palisade layer. 

PSATHYRELLA CANDOLLEANA (Fr.) Smith Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, sometimes larger, fragile, at first oval, then conic to 

convex, finally more or less umbonate with the margin upturned, buff or honey 

colored, fading to whitish or creamy, hygrophanous, at first with some whitish 

flocci, then glabrous and atomate, margin thin, often splitting, sometimes a 

dirty violet color, often appendiculate with white fragments of the veil, flesh 

thin, white, fragile, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, crowded, narrow, 

at first whitish to grayish, then purplish, finally purple-brown, stipe 2-4 in. 

long, V8~!4 ill- thick, equal, smooth, somewhat mealy at the apex, white, 

hollow, rigid and easily splitting lengthwise, annulus membranous, some- 

times remaining attached to the margin of the pileus, usually evanescent. 

spores purple-brown, eUipsoid, smooth, 7-8.5 X 4-5 m- 

Common in lawns, fields and occasionally in woods. June-Sept. 

This is a common species on lawns and grassy places, sometimes occurring 

in considerable abundance after rains. It may be found throughout the growing 

season. The pilei are rather thin and fragile but they are of good flavor and 

anyone interested in mushrooms as food should become acquainted with this 

species. 

P. candolleana was formerly in the genus Hypholoma and H. appendicula- 

tum Fr. and H. incertum Peck are synonyms. The buff color, appendiculate 

margin, rather cartilaginous, hollow stipe, and the series of color changes of the 

lamellae as the spores mature are its distinguishing characters. Sometimes the 

pileus ghstens as if small particles of mica were scattered on the surface. 

PSATHYRELLA HYDROPHILA (Fr.) Smith Suspected 


Pileus %-2i/2 in. broad, fragile, campanulate-convex, becoming nearly 

plane with a sHght umbo, watery cinnamon-brown to chestnut-brown, fading 

208

COPRINUS 

to ochraceous buff, hygrophanous, glabrous, or with silky white fibrils espe- 

cially at the margin, margin somewhat striate when moist, flesh thin, fragile, 

brownish, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate-seceding, crowded, narrow, 

at first grayish brown, then purpHsh brown to dark brown, stipe 1-2^2 in. long, 

in. thick, equal, white, glabrous or somewhat fibrillose, somewhat 

Vs-Va 

pruinose at the apex, hollow, spHtting easily, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, 

smooth, 4-6 X 2.5-3.5 )u. 

Cespitose to densely gregarious on very rotten wood. July-Sept. 

This is a fairly common species and usually occurs in large clusters on 

rotten wood. It is typical of a number of small, fragile, reddish brown species 

placed in this genus. They are difficult to identify accurately and must be 

studied microscopically. Kauffman hsted this species as suspected and, with the 

exception of P. candolleana above, this whole group is best avoided as food. 

PSATHYRELLA VELUTINA (Fr.) Sing. Edible 


piLEUS 1 1/4-3 in. broad, convex to convex-campanulate, then plane and 

obtusely umbonate, tawny brown or yellowish brown, darker in center, hygro- 

phanous, fading to buff-brown, appressed-fibrillose, becoming fibrillose-scaly, 

margin not striate but often fringed or appendiculate from the veil, and spHt- 

ting. FLESH watery brownish, thick, odor and taste earthy, lamellae adnate, 

close to crowded, broad, at first yellowish, then dark purple-brown, the edges 

white-flocculose and beaded with drops of moisture in wet weather, stipe 1-3 

in. long, y%-Y^ in. thick, equal, fibrillose or somewhat floccose-scaly up to the 

annulus, whitish above, brownish below, hollow, annulus evanescent, fibril- 

lose, whitish at first, becoming blackish from the spores, spores dark purple- 

brown, ovoid-eUipsoid, rough, 9-12 X 7-8 ju- 

In clusters, scattered, or solitary, along roadsides or in the woods. July- 

Sept. 

The tendency for the lamellae to become beaded with drops of moisture is 

one of the noteworthy characters of this species which has also been known as 

Hypholoma lachrymabundum (Fr.) Quel. The rough spores are also a distin- 

guishing character. 

COPRINUS 

Species of the genus Coprinus are commonly known as 'inky caps' because 

the lamellae and often the flesh of the pileus dissolve into an inky fluid at 

maturity. This characteristic and the black color of the spore deposit are 

the principal distinguishing features of the genus. 

209


According to Smith (1949) there are about 75 species of Coprinus known 

in North America. Many of these are small delicate fungi that are httle known 

and difficult to identify. The four species described here are the best known and 

are fairly common and frequently used for food. The stipes are tough and 

cartilaginous and should be discarded. 

When Coprinus species are gathered for food, it is important to pick 

young specimens and use them immediately because of this characteristic of 

the lamellae and flesh dissolving at maturity. Specimens kept for any length of 

time will Hkely be found to be a revolting inky mess. The appearance of these 

fungi in various stages of decomposition is, at first sight, likely to create a feel- 

ing of disgust and revulsion. To the imaginative they may suggest scenes of 

horror and it is undoubtedly a Coprinus species that inspired the following hnes 

by the poet Shelley 

: 

"Their moss rotted off* them flake by flake 

Till the thick stalk stuck hke a murderer's stake 

Where rags of loose flesh yet tremble on high, 

Infecting the winds that wander by." 

However, when the process is understood it is found to be a remarkable 

and fascinating adaptation for spore dissemination. In most mushrooms, the 

lamellae are more or less wedge-shaped, the broad edge of the wedge being 

attached to the pileus. The spores mature evenly over the entire surface of the 

lamellae from where they fall down and are carried away by air currents. In 

Coprinus, however, the lamellae are not wedge-shaped, but are parallel-sided 

and are frequently very crowded. Consequently, if spores were matured and 

discharged in the usual way, they would be shot onto the surface of the neigh- 

boring lamella and their passage into the air would be interfered with. In 

Coprinus the spores do not mature simultaneously over the surface of the 

lamellae but in a relatively narrow zone beginning first at the outer edge of the 

pileus and progressing gradually back toward the stipe. As the spores mature, 

a process of autodigestion sets in by which the lamellae and flesh are trans- 

formed to fluid and the edge of the pileus curls back, spreading the lamellae 

apart (Figure 392, p. 287), thus enabling the mature spores to be discharged 

into the air. The spores are disseminated by air currents as in other mush- 

rooms, and not by the drops of fluid, although if the fluid is examined under 

the microscope it will be found to contain many spores that have been acci- 

dentally trapped there. 

From time to time reports have appeared in the literature suggesting that 

mild poisoning may result from eating Coprinus in conjunction with alcohol 

consumption. Recent experiments conducted by Child (1952) have given no 

support to this contention. It seems probable that such reports have been 

based upon misidentifications of Panaeolus sphinctrinus or perhaps other 

Panaeolus species eaten by mistake for a Coprinus. However, other mycologists 

claim that there are well-authenticated cases of poisoning by Coprinus where 

there has been no possibility of misidentification. 

210

COPRINUS 

COPRINUS ATRAMENTARIUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. Edible 


Inky Cap 

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, occasionally larger, at first ovoid, then expanding to 

conic or campanulate, gray to brownish on disk, often lobed and folded, some- 

what silky-fibrous, smooth or sometimes squamulose, becoming tattered on 

the margin in age. flesh thin, lamellae free, crowded, broad, at first white, 

becoming black and then dissolving into an inky fluid, stipe 2-8 in. long, 

Ya-Ya 

annulus, white and silky above, hollow, annulus usually toward the base of 

in. thick, equal or narrowed at the base, somewhat fibrillose below the 

the stipe, very evanescent, spores black, eUiptical, smooth, 8-11 X 5-6.5 /x- 

Usually in clusters on the ground or in sawdust, apparently associated 

with buried wood. July-Sept. 

This species is common and often appears in dense clusters. It is consid- 

ered a very desirable edible species for the young pilei are firm and meaty. 

Usually the gray pilei are smooth but, especially under dry conditions, may 

become more or less scaly from the splitting of the cuticle. Coprinus insignis 

Peck is somewhat similar in appearance, but has rough spores. 

COPRINUS COMATUS (Mull, ex Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible 

Figure 301, page 195; Figures 392, 393, page 287 

Shaggy Mane 

PILEUS cyHndrical or barrel-shaped, 2-6 in. long and 1-2 in. thick, grad- 

ually expanding and becoming somewhat conical to bell-shaped, at first cov- 

ered with a brownish or ochraceous brown cuticle which becomes torn into 

shaggy scales except on the disk, exposing the white to pinkish flesh, margin 

becoming split and recurved, flesh thin, soft and fragile, lamellae nearly free, 

very crowded, broad, at first white, becoming pinkish and then black, gradually 

dissolving into an inky fluid starting at the margin of the pileus. stipe 2-6 in. 

long, J4-% in. thick, equal or tapering upward, shghtly bulbous at the base, 

smooth, hollow, annulus movable, usually basal, spores black, elliptical, 

smooth, 13-18 X 7-8 m- 

Common along roadsides, in city dumps, fields, or on lawns. It may be 

found at any time during the growing season, but is more common in the fall. 

The shaggy mane is one of the most easily recognized mushrooms and 

probably one of those most frequently used for food. It might be confused with 

Coprinus ovatus Fr. or C. sterquilinus Fr. The former is more ovate than 

cyHndrical in shape and has smaller spores, whereas the latter is usually 

smaller, becomes more expanded than C. comatus, and has larger spores. 

Since both of these species are also edible a misidentification is of no con- 

sequence. 

211


COPRINUS MICACEUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. Edible 


Glistening Inky Cap 

PILEUS 1/2-2 in. broad, at first ovate to elliptical, becoming conic to cam- 

panulate, ochraceous tan to ochraceous brown, sometimes fading to whitish, 

usually darker on the disk, at first covered with minute, ghstening particles 

which may either persist or disappear in older specimens, strongly striate to 

sulcate, the striae of unequal lengths, smooth on the disk, more or less lobed 

and uneven on the margin, lamellae adnate-seceding, crowded, moderately 

broad, at first white, then purpHsh to black and dissolving into an inky fluid. 

STIPE 1-3 in. long, Vg-W in. thick, equal, silky, 

brown to black, eUipsoid to ovoid, 7-9 X 4-5 n. 

white, hollow, spores dark 

Usually in dense clusters on the ground or around old stumps. Very 

common and may be found throughout the growing season. 

This species is rather small and dehcate, but usually appears in consider- 

able abundance. Many householders regard it as a nuisance because they 

consider the masses of fruiting bodies appearing on the lawn to be unsightly. 

It is associated with buried wood and may continue to appear for several 

years in places where a tree has been removed and old roots remain in the soil. 

Successive crops of fruit bodies may develop throughout the growing season 

following wet periods. 

COPRINUS QUADRIFIDUS Peck Edible 

Figure 302, Page 195 

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first oval, becoming campanulate to somewhat 

expanded, gray to grayish brown, at first covered with a tomentose-floccose 

veil which breaks up into flakes or scales and may disappear, margin long- 

striate, often wavy, becoming rolled back, lamellae free, crowded, broad, at 

first whitish, then dark purple-brown to black, stipe 1 J4-4 in. long, Ys-Vs in- 

thick, equal or tapering upward, white, somewhat floccose, with an evanescent 

basal annulus. spores black, smooth, elHpsoid, 7.5-10 X 4-5 /x. 

Gregarious or cespitose on rotten wood. June-Aug. 

This is a good edible species often appearing early in the season and 

occurring on rotten wood. It diff'ers from C. atramentarius in having floccose 

veil patches on the pileus and in its occurrence on rotten wood. The fruit bodies 

arise from well-developed, root-like strings of mycehum termed rhizomorphs. 


305. Coprinus micaceus. 306. Gomphidius glutinosus. 

307. Panaeolus semiovatus. 308. P. sphinctrinus. 

309. Boletinellus merulioides. 310. Boletinus spectabilis. 

311. B.cavipes. 312. B.cavipes. 

212 

313. B.pictus. 314. B.pictus.

213

214 

317. Gyroporus cyanescens. 

319. Boletus edulis. 

321. B. subvelutipes. 

323. Leccinum aurantiacum. 

325. L. chromapes. 


318. 

320. 

322. 

324. 

326. 

G. castaneus. 

B. edulis. 

B. subvelutipes. 

L. subglabripes. 

L. chromapes. 

so 

CO 

CO 

St 

"a 

o 

to 

C Q 

ft. 

vd 

00

215

Figures 327-329. Volvariella speciosa. 'Ml , mature fruiting body; 328, young fruiting 

body; 329, immature fruiting body emerging from volva. 

216

PANAEOLUS 

PANAEOLUS 

Panaeolus includes a small group of black-spored species. The lamellae 

have a characteristic mottled or dotted appearance as a result of the spores 

maturing unevenly. The lamellae do not deliquesce as in Coprinus. A veil is 

present in some species but is usually evanescent. 

Species of Panaeolus should not be eaten. Some are known to be poisonous 

and to cause a form of intoxication. It is considered probable that reports of 

poisoning by Coprinus species when taken with alcohol are sometimes based on 

the use of Panaeolus species that have been mistaken for Coprini. 

PANAEOLUS FOENISECII (Fr.) Kiihner Edible, not recommended 


piLEUS 1/2-1 ^^' broad, convex or campanulate-convex, sometimes plane, 

fleshy, hygrophanous, variable in color, dark grayish brown or smoky brown 

to reddish brown, fading to dingy tan or buff, glabrous, the surface sometimes 

cracking into patches or scales, margin even, sometimes striate when moist. 

FLESH thin, watery brown, fading, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, then 

seceding, close to subdistant, broad, variegated chocolate-brown to purphsh 

black, stipe 1 J^-3 in. long, ^6"% ii^- thick, equal, glabrous, pruinose at the 

apex, pale brownish, hollow, spores somewhat almond-shaped, dark purphsh 

brown, rough, 12-20 X 8-10 /x- 

In groups or scattered on lawns and grassy places. June-Sept. 

This is one of the commonest of the small mushrooms occurring on lawns. 

It may be puzzhng at first because of the great changes in color that occur as it 

dries out, but one soon becomes acquainted with its range of variation. Micro- 

scopically the large rough spores are very distinctive. It is reported to be edible, 

but all species of Panaeolus are best avoided. 

PANAEOLUS SEMIOVATUS (Fr.) Lundell Not recommended 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, occasionally larger, conic to ovoid to campanulate, 

not expanded, whitish to pale clay-colored, viscid, smooth, or becoming 

cracked in age. flesh fairly thick, soft, fragile, whitish, odor and taste not 

distinctive, lamellae adnate, separating from the stipe, ventricose, close, 

broad, grayish or brown, mottled black, stipe 3-8 in. long, J4-J4 iî- thick, 

equal or enlarged at the base, white to palhd buff, smooth or somewhat striate, 

hollow. ANNULus whitish becoming black from the spores, may be striate, 

membranous, attached near the middle of the stipe or slightly above, spores 

black, elhpsoid, smooth, 16-20 X 8-11 /x- 

Sohtary or in small groups on horse dung, throughout the growing season. 

Because of the membranous annulus some authors have placed this fungus 

217


in Stropharia and it has also been placed in a distinct genus Anellaria where it 

has been known as Anellaria separata (Fr.) Karst. However, it seems closely 

related to other Panaeolus species and many of them also have a partial veil 

which usually remains attached to the margin of the pileus rather than forming 

an annulus. Thus in this instance the presence of an annulus does not seem to 

be a character worthy of generic rank. 

Panaeolus species are generally regarded as dangerous and this species is 

not recommended. 

PANAEOLUS SPHINCTRINUS (Fr.) Quel. Poisonous 


PILEUS %-2 in. broad, fragile, at first bluntly conic or nearly ovoid, 

becoming conic-campanulate, brownish gray or oHvaceous gray, glabrous, 

moist or somewhat slippery when wet, sometimes more or less areolate when 

dry, the margin shghtly incurved and appendiculate from fragments of the 

veil. FLESH thin, colored hke the surface, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae 

ascending-adnate, seceding, subdistant, broad, at first grayish, becoming 

mottled blackish, edges white-flocculose, shorter lamellae present, stipe 2J4- 

5 in. long, ^6"!^ ^^- thick, equal, reddish brown with a grayish-pruinose cov- 

ering, hollow, striate at the apex, spores black, more or less lemon-shaped, 

smooth, 13-19 X 9-12 m- 

It grows singly or in groups, usually on cow or horse dung in pastures. 

May-Sept. 

This species is fairly common and is known to be poisonous. It produces 

symptoms of intoxication. It might be gathered by mistake for Coprinus 

atramentarius and should be carefully distinguished from that species. It was 

called P. campanulatus Fr. by Kauffman. 

P. rctiruîs Fr. (Figure 424, page 302) is similar to P. sphinctrinus but has 

a more wrinkled or reticulate pileus. It is also believed to be poisonous. 

PSEUDOCOPRINUS 

Pseudocoprinus includes a small group of thin, fragile species with plicate- 

striate pilei and black spores. They are similar to delicate Coprinus species but 

the lamellae do not dissolve. Because of their small size and deHcate texture, 

they are of no value as food, but one species is included here because it some- 

times appears in such abundance as to attract attention. 

218

GOMPHIDIUS 

PSEUDOCOPRINUS DISSEMINATUS (Pers. ex Fr.) Kuhner Edible 


piLEUS 14-/4 ini- broad, membranous, obtusely conic to oval or campanu- 

late, umbonate, whitish to grayish or gray-brown with the umbo buff, scurfy, 

becoming glabrous, margin strongly pHcate-sulcate to the umbo, flesh thin, 

membranous, fragile, odor none, taste mild, lamellae adnate, subdistant, 

broad, ventricose, at first white, becoming gray to finally black, stipe %-1 I/2 in. 

long, very slender, scarcely }/(^ in. in diameter, at first minutely hairy, becoming 

glabrous, white, hollow, spores black or purple-black, eUipsoid, smooth, 7-10 

X 4-5 fi. 

It is common throughout the summer and fall, usually arising in clusters 

of numerous fruit bodies on old stumps or associated with buried wood, 

often appearing in abundance on lawns. 

It might be taken for a Coprinus but the lamellae do not deliquesce. It can 

be recognized by the small size, furrowed pileus and buff umbo, and by its 

occurrence in extensive clusters. It is edible but so thin and fragile as to be of 

Httle value. 

GOMPHIDIUS 

Gomphidius includes a group of species characterized by their black or 

blackish spores and decurrent, waxy, usually subdistant to distant lamellae. 

They are usually more or less slimy-viscid, sometimes with a viscid veil that 

may leave traces of an annulus and cause the lower part of the stipe to be 

viscid also. Because of the waxy lamellae they were formerly considered to be 

close to Hygrophorus but they are now considered to be more closely related to 

the boletes. 

At least in eastern Canada, they are generally rather rare and not much is 

known about their edibility. They are not attractive as food because of the 

shmy coating and rather watery flesh but they will certainly draw the attention 

of the collector by their striking and unusual appearance. 

Singer (1949) made a study of Gomphidius in North America and recog- 

nized thirteen species. Only one is described here. 

GOMPHIDIUS GLUTINOSUS (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Fr. 


PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, convex to plane or slightly depressed, not umbonate 

or rarely subumbonate, glabrous, viscid to glutinous, livid purplish brown. 

FLESH white, unchanging when bruised, sometimes sordid or pinkish in age, 

219


taste mild to slightly acid, lamellae at first whitish, then smoky gray to black- 

ish, decurrent, forked, subdistant to distant, waxy in consistency, stipe 1 )4- 

3|/^ in. long, yg-/^ ir^- thick, nearly equal or tapered at the base, glabrous to 

slightly fibrillose, white to pale brownish, yellow at the base, sheathed by a 

viscid veil that leaves an annular Hne near the apex, spores smoky gray, 

cyhndric-fusoid, smooth, (15) 17-20 (22) X 5-7.5 /z. 

Singly or gregarious in conifer woods, usually associated with spruce. 

Aug.-Sept. 

The dark, decurrent lamellae, the brownish, slimy pileus, and the yellow 

base of the stipe are the principal field characters of this species. It is not known 

whether or not it is edible. 

G. maculatus (Scop, ex Fr.) Fr. is another brownish to reddish brown 

species with a yellow base to the stipe but it lacks the slimy veil and grows in 

association with larch. G. vinicolor Peck is a reddish brown to vinaceous red 

species found with two-needle pines. Collectors on the west coast may find 

G. tomentosus Murr., an ochraceous or ochraceous orange species with a fibril- 

lose to somewhat scaly pileus that is not viscid. 

BOLETACEAE 

The Boletaceae comprise a group of species that have the stature and 

shape of a mushroom and are soft and fleshy in consistency but in which the 

spores are produced on the sides of pores or tubes rather than on lamellae. 

They were formerly classified with the Polyporaceae but modern systematists 

are generally convinced that they are more closely related to the mushrooms 

than to the polypores. Such genera as Gomphidius and Paxillus in the mushrooms 

show definite relationships with the boletes. 

The demarcation of genera within the family Boletaceae is a matter of 

some uncertainty at present. Traditionally three genera have been recognized 

in North America, Boletus, Boletinus, and Strobilomyces, but modern investi- 

gators have concluded that these genera are too broad and, especially in the 

genus Boletus, there are groups of related species sufficiently distinct to merit 

the rank of genera. It is considered that the splitting of the old genus Boletus 

into several other genera represents a distinct advance in our knowledge of the 

classification and relationships of this group, but since some of the characters 

that form the principal bases for the genera are microscopic they are not readily 

used in a popular work intended for those who may not have a microscope 

available. 

In addition, the distinctions between some of the genera are not based on 

clear-cut characters but rather on combinations of characters that may be 

difficult for the amateur. It is therefore proposed to present two keys. The first 

220

BOLETACEAE 

of these is a more technical key to the genera of boletes in which the species 

described here would fall according to the system proposed by SHpp and Snell 

(1944) The second is a key to the species themselves, based only on macro- 

scopic characters. It makes no attempt to indicate relationships but is intended 

only as a guide to the identification of the species. 

Coker and Beers (1943) and Smith (1949) consider the boletes to be one of 

the safest groups for the amateur to try as food. To be sure, some of the species 

with red pore mouths are poisonous and all of these should be avoided, but 

they are relatively rare. Smith also advises against using species in which the 

flesh turns blue when cut or broken although Gyroporus cyanescens which 

shows this reaction to an extreme degree is reported to be edible. 

One of the difficulties about using the boletes for food is that it is hard to 

find them free from insect larvae. They seem to become infested very early and 

they need to be collected carefully, the button stages being especially desirable. 

It is recommended that the tubes be removed and discarded before the pilei are 

cooked as they are of a different consistency and tend to become sHmy. 

Key to the genera 

1. Spores globose, reticulate Strobilomyces 

1. Spores smooth 2 

2. Spores small, oblong to short-elliptical 3 

2. Spores long-elliptical or subfusiform, colored 4 

3. Spores hyaline Gyroporus 

3. Spores colored Boletinellus 

4. Tubes more or less radially arranged, not easily separable from 

the pileus or from each other Boletinus 

4. Tubes not radially arranged, easily separable from 

the pileus and from each other 5 

5. Pileus viscid and spores ellipsoid Suillus 

5. Pileus not viscid, or if viscid spores subfusiform 6 

6. Tubes and spores flesh-colored Tylopilus 

6. Tubes and pores not flesh-colored 7 

7. Stipe scabrous, rather slender, tapering upward Leccinum 

7. Stipe not scabrous 8 

8. Stipe often more or less bulbous when young, may be reticulate, 

tubes sometimes stuffed when young with red mouths Boletus 

8. Stipe never subbulbous, tubes not stuffed nor with red mouths Xerocomus 

Key to the species 

1. Tubes easily separable from the pileus and from each other 6 

1. Tubes not easily separable from the pileus or from each other 2 

2. Tubes arranged more or less in radial rows 

with veins between 3 

2. Tubes not arranged in radial rows, pileus with prominent, 

erect scales, becoming blackish Strobilomyces floccopus 

221


3. Stipe hollow Boletinus cavipes 

3. Stipe solid 4 


4. Stipe excentric to lateral; pileus brownish; 

tubes greenish yellow Boletinellus merulioides 

5. Pileus with red scales on a yellow background; 

spores ochraceous brown in mass Boletinus pictus 

5. Pileus with gray scales on a red background; 

spores purple-brown in mass Boletinus spectabilis 

6. Parasitic on Scleroderma Xerocomus parasiticus 

6. Not parasitic on Scleroderma 7 

7. Tube mouths not differently colored from the rest of the tubes 8 

7. Tube mouths red; colored tomentum at base of stipe Boletus subvelutipes 





10. Stipe dotted with glandules Suillus subluteus 

10. Stipe not dotted Suillus grevillei 


11. Pileus subtomentose, viscid when wet; tubes turning 

blue when broken Xerocomus badius 

12. Stipe dotted with glandules 13 

12. Stipe not dotted; fruiting bodies small, 

reddish brown; taste peppery Suillus piperatus 

13. Pileus bright yellow, often streaked or spotted with red; 

stipe slender, 14 inch or less in diameter Suillus americanus 

13. Pileus reddish brown, to grayish yellow or tawny; stipe stouter, 

usually more than Vx inch in diameter Suillus granulatus 

14. Stipe soon hollow 15 

14. Stipe solid 16 

15. Flesh and tubes instantly turning blue when cut Gyroporus cyanescens 

15. Flesh not becoming blue when cut Gyroporus castaneus 

16. Stipe stout, more or less reticulate 17 

16. Stipe slender, not reticulate 18 

17. Tubes white becoming pinkish, taste bitter Tylopilus felleus 

17. Tubes soon yellow, taste pleasant Boletus edulis 

18. Tubes yellow or greenish yellow 19 

18. Tubes whitish 20 

19. Pileus glabrous Leccinum subglabripes 

19. Pileus subtomentose, cracking Xerocomus chrysenteron 

20. Pileus orange or red 21 

20. Pileus brown to blackish Leccinum scabrum 

111

BOLETACEAE 

21. Pileus pinkish red; stipe bright yellow at base Leccinum chromapes 

21. Pileus orange-red to brownish orange; stipe not 

yellow at base Leccinum aurantiacum 

BOLETINELLUS MERULIOIDES (Schw.) Murr. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-5 in. broad, circular to reniform, depressed towards one side, 

olive-brown to yellowish brown or reddish brown, finely tomentose to gla- 

brous, dry, margin usually indented and inrolled, finally spreading, even. 

FLESH soft but rather tough, yellowish to pinkish near the surface, sometimes 

turning bluish green when cut, taste mild, odor none or of raw potatoes. 

TUBES decurrent, strongly radiating, partly lamellate, short and wide, yellow 

with a greenish tinge, becoming more ochraceous in age. stipe excentric or 

lateral, 1/2-2 in. long, i/^-% in. thick, nearly equal or slightly swollen at the 

base, expanding into the pileus above, reticulate and yellowish above, reddish 

brown or olivaceous brown to blackish and short-tomentose below, solid. 

spores yellowish to brownish-ochraceous, eUipsoid, smooth, 7.5-10.5 X 5.5- 

7.5 M. 

On damp ground in woods or open places, usually gregarious and gen- 

erally associated with ash. July-Sept. 

This species is not likely to be confused with any other. It has been widely 

known also under the name Boletinus porosus (Berk.) Pk. It resembles Paxillus 

involutus in color and shape and shows relationships with the genus Paxillus. 

It is said to be edible but it is not a very attractive fungus. 

BOLETINUS CAVIPES (Opat.) Kalchbr. Edible 


PILEUS 1-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, broadly convex, subumbonate, 

tawny brown to yellowish brown, sometimes tinged reddish or purphsh, fibril- 

lose-squamulose. flesh yellowish, taste farinaceous to bitter, tubes decurrent, 

radiating, at first sulphur-yellow becoming dingy ochraceous in age. stipe 1-3 

in. long, 54-1/2 in. thick, enlarged below up to 1 1/2 in., usually more or less 

reticulate above the annulus, yellow above the annulus, concolorous with the 

pileus below, at first stuffed, soon hollow, annulus white to ochraceous, 

dehcate, evanescent, sometimes partly adhering to the margin of the pileus. 

spores olivaceous-ochraceous in a fresh deposit, changing to yellowish-ochra- 

ceous, one-celled, elHpsoid, smooth, (7) 8-10 X 3-4 m- 

Singly or gregarious in damp woods or swamps, associated with larch or 

pine. Sept. and Oct. 

This species is usually a rich tawny brown but one collection was a bright 

golden yellow. It seemed to be the same in every other respect and was growing 

along with typical specimens. The hollow stipe is the chief diagnostic character. 

223


BOLETINUS PICTUS Peck Edible 


Painted Boletc 

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex, at first dark red, fibrillose, soon becoming 

squamulose, the fibrils separating into reddish scales and revealing the yellow- 

ish flesh beneath, dry to moist or subviscid, margin somewhat appendiculate 

from the veil, flesh yellow, slowly becoming reddish when bruised, tubes 

adnate to decurrent, at first yellowish, becoming dingy ochraceous, drying 

brown, more or less radiately arranged, stipe 114-3 in. long, )4-!/2 (%) Jri- 

thick, equal or swollen at the base, colored Hke the pileus, yellow at the apex, 

reddish-scaly below, annulus whitish to grayish, fairly persistent, spores och- 

raceous brown, eUipsoid, smooth, (7.5) 8-10 (11) X 3.0-4.0 fi. 

July-Oct. 

Singly or gregarious in woods or swamps, perhaps associated with pine. 

This species is sometimes called the painted boletus and is one of the more 

beautiful of our fungi. It is sometimes confused with B. spectabilis but the 

latter has gray scales on a red background in contrast to the red scales on a 

yellowish background of B. pictus. The spore size will separate them with 

certainty. 

BOLETINUS SPECTABILIS (Peck) Murr. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-3 in. or more broad, convex, bright red, at first covered with a 

red tomentum, then becoming scaly, the scales viscid, fading to grayish red, 

brownish, or yellowish, margin more or less appendiculate. flesh whitish to 

pale yellow, becoming brighter yellow when wounded, taste and odor un- 

pleasant. TUBES adnate to slightly decurrent, yellowish to ochraceous, drying 

dark brown, more or less radiately arranged, stipe 11/2-3 in. long, V^-Vi in. 

thick, swollen at the base or nearly equal, yellow above the annulus, red or 

yellowish red below, solid, annulus reddish to yellowish, double, more or less 

persistent, spores purpHsh brown, ellipsoid, smooth, 11-14 X 4.5-6 /x- 

Singly or gregarious, associated with larch in bogs. Aug.-Sept. 

The radiating arrangement of the tubes is less marked in this species than 

in other Boletinus species. It is a very showy and beautiful species. The grayish 

scales and larger spores separate it from B. pictus. B. paluster Peck is somewhat 

similarly colored but is smaller and has strongly radiating, decurrent pores, 

and smaller spores. 

BOLETUS EDULIS Bull, ex Fr. Edible 


Edible Boletus (Cepe, Steinpilz) 

PiLEUS 21/2-6 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly plane, variable 

in color, yellowish brown or tawny brown to fight buff or grayish red, margin 

224

BOLETACEAE 

often paler, glabrous, dry to subviscid when wet. flesh white or yellowish, 

sometimes pinkish, unchanging, taste sweet and nutty, tubes adnexed to 

nearly free, depressed around the stipe, at first white and stuffed, becoming 

greenish yellow, stipe 2)/2-6 in. long, J^-1 1/4 in. thick, equal or swollen at the 

base up to 2j4 in., reticulate, sometimes for the entire length, sometimes only 

at the apex, whitish to yellowish or brownish, soHd. spores oHvaceous brown 

to ochraceous brown, ellipsoid-fusiform, smooth, 13-18 (21) X 4-6 ju. 

Solitary or gregarious on the ground in woods and open places. June-Oct. 

B. edulis is one of the best edible fungi but it is difficult to find it free from 

insect larvae in eastern Canada. In Europe it is a very well-known species and 

has a good many common names such as cepe and Steinpilz. In some parts of 

central Europe special trains used to and may still run from the cities in the 

right season for people to go to the country and collect this bolete. It can be 

shced and dried and retains its rich, nutty flavor when used in gravies or stews. 

BOLETUS SUBVELUTIPES Peck Dangerous 


piLEUS 1 54-5 in. broad, convex, yellowish brown to reddish or dark 

brown, sometimes paler or olivaceous toward the margin, at first somewhat 

velvety-tomentose, becoming glabrous, flesh yellow, changing to blue when 

wounded, taste mild, tubes adnexed, depressed around the stipe, red at the 

mouths, elsewhere yellow, becoming blue when wounded, stipe 2-4% in. long, 

V2-1 54 in. thick, equal or tapering upward, sometimes bulbous at the base, 

more or less furfuraceous to nearly glabrous, with a red or yellow, coarsely 

hairy tomentum at the base, reddish brown above, yellow at the apex, solid. 

SPORES yellowish, elHpsoid-fusiform, smooth, 12-17 X 4.5-6 /x. 

Usually sohtary or gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. 

In several species the mouths of the tubes are red and some of these are 

known to be poisonous. The species in this group are rather difficult to identify 

and no species with red tube mouths should be eaten. This species, with the 

furfuraceous, nearly equal stipe and colored tomentum at the base appears to 

be the commonest one. 

GYROPORUS CASTANEUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Edible 


PILEUS 1-2% in. broad, convex to nearly plane, chestnut-brown to reddish 

brown, sometimes paler to cinnamon, dry, minutely velvety-tomentose, margin 

becoming upturned, flesh white, unchanging or sometimes brownish, mild. 

TUBES depressed around the stipe, at first white, becoming cream to yellow, 

and becoming brownish when bruised, stipe 1-2 in. long, 54-% in. thick, 

tapering upward or nearly equal, concolorous, velvety-tomentose, hollow. 

SPORES yellow, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, (7) 8.5-11 (13) X (4) 5-6 (7) ji. 

225


Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods or open places. July-Sept. 

This species is easily recognized by the chestnut-brown, tomentose pileus 

and stipe, the eUipsoid spores, whitish to yellowish tubes, and hollow stipe. 

GYROPORUS CYANESCENS (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, pale yellowish to buff or 

tan, coarsely floccose-tomentose, dry, margin incurved, flesh whitish, in- 

stantly turning blue when wounded and darkening to nearly black, mild. 

TUBES free, depressed around stipe, whitish, becoming yellowish, instantly 

turning blue when wounded, stipe 2-3 in. long, Y^-l in. thick, tapering up, 

ventricose or irregularly swollen, tomentose, concolorous with pileus, in- 

stantly turning blue when wounded, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores yellow, 

oblong-ellipsoid, smooth, 8-10 (11) X 4.5-6 ju. 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods and open places. July-Sept. 

This species is easily recognized by the pale, tomentose pileus and the im- 

mediate change to blue of all parts of the fruit body when wounded. In spite of 

the unattractive appearance from this reaction it is reported to be edible and of 

good flavor. 

LECCINUM AURANTIACUM (Bull.) S. F. Gray Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-6 in. broad, convex, reddish orange to orange-yellow or 

reddish brown, dry, minutely tomentose to fibrillose-squamulose, rarely gla- 

brous, margin appendiculate. flesh white or whitish to pinkish, at times turning 

shghtly blue when cut, finally becoming grayish to blackish, firm, taste mild, 

TUBES adnate to adnexed, becoming free, dirty white to gray, stipe 2-6 in. long, 

1/^-2 in. thick, tapering upward to nearly equal, more or less scabrous to 

squamulose, the projections at first whitish, then reddish brown, finally 

blackish, solid, sometimes changing to blue-green at base when cut. spores 

brown, ellipsoid-fusiform, smooth, 11-17 X 3.5-5 fi. 

Solitary or gregarious on the ground, usually associated with birch or 

poplar. June-Oct. 

The scabrous stipe, orange pileus, and appendiculate margin are the dis- 

tinguishing characters. It is often very firm and hard, especially when young. 

It is one of our commonest boletes. 

LECCINUM CHROMAPES (Frost) Sing. Edible 


PILEUS 1 J/2-4 (5) in. broad, convex to nearly plane, pinkish red, sometimes 

brownish or buff in older specimens, dry, slightly tomentose, margin thick. 

flesh white or faintly pink, unchanging, mild, tubes depressed at the stipe, 

226

BOLETACEAE 

nearly free, whitish to flesh colored, somewhat brownish in age. stipe 2-4 in. 

long, y8-% iri- thick, equal or tapering upward, sometimes narrowed at the 

base, whitish, more or less washed with rose, bright chrome-yellow at the 

base, scabrous-dotted, spores pinkish brown, oblong-ellipsoid, smooth, 10-14 

(16) X 3.5-5.5 /x. 

Usually singly on the ground in woods. June-Sept. 

This species is not common but is one of our most beautiful boletes and is 

easily recognized by the rosy pileus and the bright yellow base of the stipe. 

LECCINUM SCABRUM (Bull, ex Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible 


PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, convex to plane, minutely velvety to glabrous, 

slightly viscid when wet, color variable, usually some shade of brown, from 

paUid to tawny brown, grayish brown, or blackish brown, flesh whitish, un- 

changing or occasionally becoming shghtly pinkish to grayish, not blackening, 

taste mild, tubes depressed at the stipe and free or nearly so, whitish becoming 

hght brownish, darkening when bruised, stipe 3-5 in. long, ^2-% ii^- thick, 

tapering upward to nearly equal, whitish or grayish, with blackish, scabrous 

dots, soHd, sometimes turning blue at the base when cut. spores brown, ellip- 

soid-fusiform, smooth, (14) 15-19 (21) X 5-7 /u. 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods or open places. July-Oct. 

This is probably our commonest bolete although Singer has recently 

shown that two species have been confused under this name. He has described 

the second species as Leccinum oxydabile (Sing.) Sing. The two are very similar 

in appearance and can be separated with certainty only by microscopic 

characters. If a form is collected in which the flesh turns red when cut it is 

probably L. oxydabile. The latter has slightly larger spores and the structure of 

the cuticle of the pileus is diff'erent. In L. scabrum the cuticle is composed of 

slender, filamentous hyphae but in L. oxydabile there are some much broader 

hyphae and chains of short cells. 

A whitish form is sometimes found that Singer calls L. scabrum ssp. 

niveum (Figure 331, p. 233) but which others have regarded as a good species. 

It has smaller spores than the typical form and sometimes has greenish tints 

in the pileus. It can be distinguished from the whitish L. albellum (Pk.) Sing, by 

the structure of the cuticle which in the latter also has chains of short cells. 

Duller-colored specimens of L. aurantiacum may also be mistaken for 

L. scabrum, but can be distinguished by their smaller spores and the appendicu- 

late margin of their pilei. 

LECCINUM SUBGLABRIPES (Peck) Sing. Edible 


pileus 1 14-3 J/2 in. broad, convex to plane, yellowish brown to reddish 

brown or chestnut, glabrous, dry, with a shghtly projecting, sterile margin. 

227


FLESH pale yellowish, unchanging, mild to sHghtly acid, tubes adnate, becoming 

depressed around the stipe, bright yellow becoming greenish yellow to olive. 

STIPE 1 Yz-^Yz 

in. long, !4-% in. thick, equal or shghtly tapering upward, nar- 

rowed at the base, yellowish with reddish stains, somewhat yellowish furfuraceous, 

solid, spores oHve-brown, eUipsoid-fusiform, smooth, (11) 12-14(16) X 

(3) 3.5-4.5 (6) M. 

Sept. 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in frondose or mixed woods. June- 

This is a fairly common species and differs from the other Leccinums in 

having yellow tubes. However, the slender, furfuraceous stipe, and other 

characters seem to indicate that it is more closely related to Leccinum than to 

Boletus. 

STROBILOMYCES FLOCCOPUS (Vahl ex Fr.) Karst. Edible 


pileus 2-5 in. broad, hemispherical to convex, dry, covered with large, 

thick, erect, floccose, blackish brown scales, margin thick and irregular, appen- 

diculate with scales and veil fragments, flesh whitish, soon reddening and 

becoming black when wounded, mild, tubes at first whitish, changing color 

like the flesh, adnate, depressed at the stipe, mouths rather large, angular. 

STIPE 2-5 in. long, i4-% in. thick, nearly equal or somewhat enlarged at base, 

colored like the pileus, floccose-tomentose from the remains of the veil, solid. 

SPORES black in mass, globose, reticulate, 9-12 X 9-10 /x. 

Usually occurring singly on the ground or attached to rotten wood in 

frondose or mixed woods. July-Sept. 

This species has been known under the name Strobilomyces strobilaceus 

(Scop, ex Fr.) Berk., but S.floccopus is the correct name for it. It is sometimes 

called the cone-like boletus or pine cone fungus, perhaps because of the 

shaggy appearance caused by the large scale. It is a striking fungus but rather 

unattractive in appearance. It is said to be edible but of indifferent quality. 

SUILLUS AMERICANUS (Peck) Snell Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex to subconic or sometimes slightly umbonate, 

bright yellow, more or less streaked or spotted irregularly with red to reddish 

brown, viscid, glabrous, margin sHghtly tomentose-appendiculate when young. 

FLESH yellow, turning reddish when wounded, mild, tubes adnate to decurrent, 

yellow to brownish yellow, drying ochraceous brown, glandular-dotted, stipe 

1-2 1/2 in. long, Vg-W 

in. thick, sometimes thicker, rather slender, equal or 

nearly so, thickly glandular-dotted, yellow between the brownish dots, blackish 

when dried, solid, annulus lacking or very rarely present, then yellowish, floc- 

228

BOLETACEAE 

cose, evanescent, spores cinnamon-brown, ellipsoid, smooth, (8) 9-10 (11) X 

3-4 (5) M 

Gregarious on the ground in woods or open places, probably associated 

with pine. July-Sept. 

This species is easily confused with S. subaureus (Pk.) Snell. The latter has 

a thicker stipe, less heavily glandular-dotted, and a thicker pileus. The spores of 

S. subaureus are slightly smaller, mostly 7-9 m long and only rarely reaching 

10 M> whereas spores of S. americanus are mostly 9-10 ju and some reach 1 1 /x. 

It is usually described as lacking an annulus but one collection was found 

which agreed with S. americanus in every respect but had a clearly marked 

annulus present. 

It is said to be edible but lacking flavor. 

SUILLUS GRANULATUS (L. ex Fr.) Kuntze Edible 


PILEUS %-3 54 in. broad, convex to plane, usually reddish brown but vari- 

able to grayish pink, grayish yellow, tawny, or brown, viscid, glabrous, flesh 

pale yellowish to whitish, mild, tubes adnate, yellowish, the mouths glandular- 

dotted, stipe %-2% in. long, Ya-Vi in. thick, equal or nearly so, white to 

brownish, yellow near apex, glandular-dotted at apex to about half way down, 

soHd. spores yellowish brown, elHpsoid, smooth, (6) 7-9 (10) X 2.5-3.5 m- 

Usually gregarious in woods or open places, probably associated with 

pine. June-Oct. 

This is one of our commonest boletes. It is most Hkely to be confused with 

S. brevipes (Peck) Kuntze which is also associated with pines but usually 

appears late in the year and has a short stipe that lacks glandular dots. Both 

species are good to eat. 

SUILLUS GREVILLEI (Kl.) Sing. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/^-4 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly plane, chest- 

nut-brown to yellow on margin, or reddish yellow to golden yellow, glabrous, 

viscid, margin sometimes more or less appendiculate. flesh yellow, mild. 

TUBES adnate to decurrent, bright golden yellow, becoming brown or purplish 

brown when wounded, stipe 1-4 in. long, 54-% in. thick, equal or sHghtly 

tapering upward, usually finely reticulate above the annulus, not glandular- 

dotted, variable below the annulus, more or less fibrillose to glabrous, reddish 

or reddish brown to yellow, bright yellow above the annulus, soHd. annulus 

whitish to yellowish to reddish brown, usually prominent and persistent. 

spores golden brown to ochraceous brown, smooth, ellipsoid, 7-1 1 X 3-4 m- 

Gregarious on the ground, associated with larch. Aug.-Oct. 

Sometimes this species is very richly colored and striking in appearance. 

229


It has also been known under the names Boletus clintonianus Peck and B. ele- 

gans Fr. The shmy cuticle should be removed before cooking. 

SUILLUS PIPERATUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Kuntze Not edible 


piLEUS %-2i4 in. broad, convex, yellowish brown, cinnamon-brown or 

reddish brown, glabrous or subtomentose toward the margin when young, 

slightly viscid when moist, flesh whitish or yellowish, sometimes tinged red- 

dish, sometimes turning blue near the tubes when wounded, the blue quickly 

fading again, taste very acrid and peppery, tubes adnate to shghtly decurrent, 

deep reddish brown, irregular, slightly radially arranged near the stipe, stipe 

1-3 in. long, J/g-^/i ii^- thick, equal or nearly so, straight or curved, paler than 

the pileus, bright yellow at the base, soHd. spores rusty brown, elUpsoid, 

smooth, 8-11 X 3-4 /z. 

On the ground in woods and open places. July-Oct. 

The most distinctive character of this small brownish species is the very 

peppery taste. S. rubinellus (Peck) Sing, is another small species but brighter 

colored, with tubes entirely red and mild taste. 

SUILLUS SUBLUTEUS (Peck) Snell Edible 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, yellowish brown to reddish 

brown, sometimes with an olive tinge, viscid, glabrous or somewhat virgate- 

fibrillose to indistinctly squamulose. flesh yellow or yellowish, unchanging, 

mild or sHghtly acid, tubes adnate, yellow at first, becoming more olivaceous 

in age, glandular-dotted, stipe lYz-^Vi in. long, |4-!^ in. thick, equal above 

and below the annulus, yellow above, more pallid toward the base, solid. 

ANNULUS forming an apical to median, grayish band, not sheathing the stipe, 

viscid. SPORES brownish-ochraceous, ellipsoid, smooth, (7.5) 8-10 (11) X 2.5- 

3.5 fjL. 

Usually solitary to gregarious on the ground, associated with five-needle 

pines. July-Sept. 

It is likely to be confused with S. luteus (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray which is 

generally a stouter plant with a stipe usually more than Yi in. thick, and the 

annulus forming a sheath rather than a band on the stipe. S. luteus is more 

likely to be found associated with two-needle pines. 

TYLOPILUS FELLEUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Karst. Not edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-8 1/2 in. broad, convex, becoming nearly plane, grayish brown, 

yellowish brown, to reddish brown, dry, glabrous, flesh white, sometimes 

230

BOLETACEAE 

more or less pinkish when wounded, taste very bitter, tubes adnate, depressed 

around the stipe, at first white, becoming rosy flesh colored, becoming brown- 

ish when bruised, stuffed when young, stipe 1 J/i-4% in. long, J/2-2 

in. thick, 

equal or tapering upward, sometimes bulbous at the base, more or less reticu- 

late, concolorous with the pileus or nearly so. spores ellipsoid-fusiform, 

smooth, rose colored (9) 10-14 (17) X 3-4.5 /x- 

Solitary or gregarious in woods and open places. June-Oct. 

The rose colored tubes, reticulate stipe, and bitter taste are the distin- 

guishing characters of this species. Occasionally the bitter taste may be lacking. 

It is one of the more common species and sometimes reaches a very large size. 

T. plumbeoviolaceus (Snell) Snell has been confused with it or regarded as a 

variety, but it seems to be a distinct species with violaceous colors and very 

firm consistency, and matures rather slowly. 

XEROCOMUS BADIUS (Fr.) Klihner ex Gilbert Edible 


PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, bay-brown to chestnut- 

brown, sometimes tinged olivaceous, viscid, minutely tomentose. flesh yellow- 

ish, turning blue when wounded, especially near the tubes, then the blue fading, 

mild. TUBES adnate or depressed around the stipe, pale greenish yellow, becom- 

ing blue when wounded, stipe 2-3)/^ in. long, Vi-% 

^^- thick, nearly equal, 

colored Hke the pileus, sometimes yellow at the apex, white mycehoid at base, 

more or less streaked with darker hnes, sohd. spores olive-brown, elHpsoid- 

fusiform, smooth, 10-15 X 3.5-5.0 jx. 

Singly or gregarious on the ground, usually associated with pine. June- 

Sept. 

The deep brown pileus and stipe and the greenish yellow pores that turn 

blue when wounded are the chief distinguishing characters of this species. It is 

not very common. 

XEROCOMUS CHRYSENTERON (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Doubtful 


PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, olive-brown to reddish 

brown, dry, felty-tomentose, becoming cracked and showing reddish in the 

cracks, flesh yellowish, slightly acid, tubes adnate to depressed, greenish 

yellow, changing to blue when wounded, rather large, stipe 1-1 1/2 in. long, %yg 

in. thick, equal or nearly so, striate, reddish or yellowish, soHd, rather tough 

and rigid, spores yellow-brown, ellipsoid-fusiform, smooth, 10-14 X (3) 4- 

5.5 M. 

Usually soHtary on the ground or on rotten wood. June-Oct. 

This species is common and variable. The felty pileus with cracks showing 

red, the large greenish pores that change to blue, and the slender, tough stipe 

231


usually showing some red coloration are the distinguishing features. X. subto- 

mentosus (L. ex Fr.) Quel, might be confused with it but in this species the 

cracks on the pileus show yellow, the flesh and tubes do not turn blue or per- 

haps the mouths very shghtly so, the tubes are more yellow, and the stipe is 

slightly reticulate at the apex and has no red in its coloration. 

There are conflicting reports in the Hterature regarding the edibility of 

X. chrysenteron. Its rather tough texture does not recommend it and it is 

probably better avoided, although it is likely not actually poisonous. 

XEROCOMUS PARASITICUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. 


PILEUS 1 1/2-2 in. broad, convex, yellowish brown to grayish to oHvaceous, 

dry, velvety-tomentose, becoming glabrous, sometimes cracking, flesh white, 

becoming yellowish when cut. tubes decurrent, somewhat lamellate near the 

stipe, yellow to ohvaceous. stipe 1-2 in. long, Y^-Yi in. thick, equal or nearly 

so, yellow, with a velvety tomentose covering that becomes torn into flecks and 

patches leaving the stipe more or less dotted, spores dark oHve-brown, elhp- 

soid-fusiform, smooth, 12-17 X 5-6.5 /x 

Parasitic on species of Scleroderma. Aug.-Sept. 

This is a rare species, remarkable for its unusual habit of parasitizing a 

puff'ball. It is not likely to be confused with anything else because of its unusual 

place of growth. 


330. Leccinum scabrum. 331. L. scabrum ssp. niveum. 

332. Suillus americanus. 333. S. granulatus. 

334. S. grevillei. 335. S. piperatus. 

232 

336. S. subluteus. 337. Tylopilus felleus. 

338. Xerocomus badius. 339. X. badius.

233

234 


341. Cortinarius alboviolaceus. 342. 

343. Agaricus edulis. 344. 

345. Xerocomus chrysenteron. 346. 

347. X. parasiticus. 348. 

349. Clavaria stricta. 350. 

Naematoloma sublateritium. 

A. placomyces. 

X. chrysenteron. 

Strobilomyces floccopus. 

Hypomyces lactifluorum. 

•2 

5 

o 

s: 

'S. 

o 

3 

00

235

236 

«3 

O 

ft. 

«0

POLYPORACEAE 

POLYPORACEAE 

The Polyporaceae include a group of fungi in which the spores are borne 

in the interior of tubes as in the Boletaceae but the fruiting bodies are not fleshy 

as in the Boletaceae but usually hard and tough, leathery, corky, cheesy, or 

woody in consistency. They are nearly always found on wood and are a very 

important group of fungi economically because of the damage they cause by 

rotting the wood. However, because of their tough consistency they are of 

Httle interest as food. Only a very few species are edible. 

They will doubtless attract the attention of the collector because of their 

abundance and prominence in the fungus flora of the woods. Typically the} 

appear as bracket-hke or shelf-like fruiting bodies sometimes referred to as 

conks on trees or logs ; some are inconspicuous, lying flat against the substrate, 

and some are more or less stalked and mushroom-Hke in shape. It might be 

thought that the latter type would be confused with boletes but in practice 

there is little difficulty in distinguishing between the boletes and polypores 

because the consistency is so different. 

Some of the fruiting bodies of the polypores are perennial, persisting for 

several years and developing a new layer of tubes each season. Some of these 

fruiting bodies may reach considerable size. One species that occurs on the 

Pacific Coast, Oxyporus nobilissimus W. B. Cooke has been known to reach a 

size of 56 X 37 inches and a weight of 300 pounds. 

Only seven species have been included here: one, Ganoderma tsugae, 

because its distinctive and beautiful appearance will certainly attract attention, 

and the others because they are fairly common and have been reported to be 

edible when young. The Beefsteak Fungus, Fistulina hepatica (Huds.) Fr., long 

celebrated as an excellent edible fungus, belongs in the Polyporaceae but it 

appears to be so rare in Canada as to be scarcely worth including. It is a fleshy 

tongue-shaped fungus, said to resemble a beefsteak in color, and with the pores 

separate from each other. It may be found in southern Ontario. 

Key to the species described 

1. Pileus and stipe appearing as if varnished Ganoderma tsugae 

1. Pileus and stipe not varnished 2 

2. Pileus yellowish, scaly; pores large Polyporus squamosus 

2. Pileus not scaly 3 

3. Pileus with strongly projecting, thick sterile margin, 

growing on birch Polyporus betulinus 

3. Pileus without a projecting sterile margin 4 

4. Pileus stipitate 5 

4. Pileus not stipitate 6 

5. Fruiting bodies occurring singly or gregarious, 

whitish to yellowish 

5. Fruiting bodies densely cespitose; stipes numerous, 

branching, arising from a fleshy mass 

Polyporus ovinus 

Polyporus frondosus 

237


6. Pileus bright sulphur-yellow to 

pinkish or orange Polyporus sulphureus 

6. Pileus dark brown, velvety, watery-fleshy Polyporus resinosus 

GANODERMA TSUGAE Murr. Not edible 

FigLiic 396, page 289 

PILEUS 2-12 in. in diameter, more or less fan-shaped to bean-shaped, 

stipitate or sessile by a narrowed base, variable in color, reddish, reddish 

brown, mahogany colored, brownish orange to nearly black, with a white to 

yellow or orange margin, glabrous, with a varnished appearance, flesh white 

or nearly so, except brownish near the tubes, thick, tough, corky, tubes whitish 

becoming brown when bruised, stipe when present usually lateral or excentric, 

colored like the pileus, 1 y^-6 in. long, Yi-X Vi 

in. thick, spores brown, ovoid, 

sHghtly rough, 9-1 1 X 6-8 //• 

On and about stumps and logs of coniferous trees, especially hemlock. 

July-Nov., sometimes persisting through the winter. 

This is a beautiful fungus. The bright colors and varnished appearance 

will certainly attract attention, but it is not edible. There has been some differ- 

ence of opinion as to whether or not G. lucidum (Leyss ex Fr.) Karst. is the 

same fungus but it seems best to regard this form, which occurs on hardwoods, 

as a distinct species. 

POLYPORUS BETULINUS Bull, ex Fr. Edible when young 


pileus 1 1/4-10 in. long, 1 14-6 in. broad, more or less elongated to circular, 

convex, or attached by a lateral, stem-like umbo, usually sessile, whitish to 

brownish, glabrous or somewhat scurfy, with a thick, sterile, inroUed margin 

projecting down below the tube surface, flesh white, rather thick, rather 

cheesy to corky in age. tubes white, small, usually smooth but sometimes 

becoming somewhat toothed, spores cylindric to allantoid, smooth, 3.5-5 X 

1-2 M. 

On living or dead birch trees. May-Nov. 

The characteristic, thick, projecting margin and the occurrence on birch 

only, are the chief distinguishing marks of this species. It is an easy one to 

recognize. It has been reported to be edible when young but is usually too 

tough to be of any value. 

POLYPORUS FRONDOSUS (Dicks.) Fr. Edible 


Hen of the Woods 

fructification 6-12 in. or more in diameter, consisting of a fleshy mass of 

crowded, much-branched stipes which expand above into imbricated pilei )^- 

238

POLYPORACEAE 

2 in. broad, somewhat fan-shaped, whitish to gray, smooth, margin often split 

or lobed, taste sHghtly peppery, tubes white, decurrent, very short, spores 

white, smooth, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid, 5-7 X 3.5-5 /x. 

Arising from a buried sclerotium, usually around hardwood stumps. Not 

common. Sept. 

This species is sometimes called the hen of the woods because the mass of 

imbricated gray pilei suggests a hen on a nest. It is said to be of good flavor. 

P. umbellatus (Pers.) Fr. has a more definite, central, stem-hke mass from 

which the stipes arise, the pilei are more circular and centrally depressed, and 

the spores are cylindric. It is also said to be edible. 

POLYPORUS OVINUS (Schaeff.) Fr. Edible 


pileus 1 Yi-S 

in. broad, white or whitish, becoming yellowish in age, con- 

vex to expanded or sometimes depressed, smooth or surface becoming cracked. 

FLESH white, becoming yellowish, rather tough, taste and odor mild and pleas- 

ant, tubes whitish to yellowish, short, decurrent. stipe 1-3 in. long, )4-% iii- 

thick, central to excentric, white, somewhat bulbous, spores white, smooth, 

broadly elhpsoid to subglobose, 3.5-4 X 2.5-3.5 /x- 

On the ground in coniferous woods, not common. July-Oct. 

This is reported to be a good edible species but is not found often. P. con- 

Huens (Alb. & Schw.) Fr. differs in becoming reddish when old or on drying. It 

is also said to be edible. P. griseus Peck is a whitish to smoky gray species 

with shghtly larger, rough spores. 

POLYPORUS RESINOSUS Schrad. ex Fr. Edible when young 


PILEUS 2^4-10 in. long, 1J4-6 in. broad, sessile or effused-reflexed, shelf- 

like or bracket-Hke, dark brown to blackish brown, at first velvety-tomentose, 

becoming nearly glabrous, sometimes radiately furrowed, the margin thick, 

exuding drops of water when young, flesh thick, straw-colored, watery when 

young, becoming tough and corky when mature, tubes whitish, becoming 

brown when bruised, small, stipe lacking, spores allantoid, smooth, 4-7 X 

1.5-2 M. 

On old logs and stumps of hardwoods or conifers. Aug.-Nov. 

The form on conifers is regarded by some as a distinct species, P. benzoi- 

nus (Wahl.) Fr., but it is at least very close to P. resinosus. This species has also 

been reported as edible when young but soon becomes tough. The velvety 

brown fruiting bodies are attractive in appearance. 

239


POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS Micheli ex Fr. Edible when young 


piLEUS 2y2-\2 in. broad, or sometimes larger, nearly circular to elongated 

or reniform, convex to plane and centrally depressed, whitish to yellowish or 

brownish, dry, scaly, tough-fleshy, tubes decurrent, large, angular, white or 

yellowish, stipe lateral or excentric, %-2 in. long, y^-l |^ in. thick, sometimes 

nearly lacking, reticulate above, black below, spores elongate-cylindric, 

smooth, 10-15 (18) X 4-6 m- 

Singly or in clusters, usually from wounds on deciduous trees, occasionally 

on stumps or logs. May-July. 

The large pores and scaly pileus are the chief distinguishing characters of 

this species. It is said to be edible when young but mostly is too tough to be of 

any value as food. 

POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS (Bull.) Fr. Edible 


FRUITING BODY consisting of a massive cluster of overlapping, more or less 

horizontal shelves, up to 12 in. or more across, variable in form, bright sulphur- 

yellow to yellow-orange or pink, sessile or on a stipe-like base, upper surface 

glabrous, uneven, lower surface bearing short yellow pores, margin at first 

thick and blunt, becoming narrower with age, at first soft and fleshy, becoming 

tougher with age, taste mild or sometimes unpleasant in age. spores smooth, 

one-celled, ovoid to subglobose 5-7 X 4-5 m- 

In clusters on dead or living trees or around stumps. Aug. -Oct. 

The large, brilliantly colored fruiting bodies are very distinctive and un- 

likely to be confused with anything else. This species is edible and has been 

highly recommended when young specimens are used. Older specimens are 

likely to be tough and of poor flavor. 

HYDNACEAE 

The family Hydnaceae includes a large group of fungi in which the spores 

are borne over the surface of teeth or spines developing from the underside of 

the fruiting body. The fruiting body may vary considerably in structure from a 

simple layer of fungus tissue on a piece of wood to a large shelf-like or bracket- 

like form, to an intricately branched structure, or to a mushroom-like fruiting 

body with pileus and stipe. Many Hydnaceae grow on wood but some are 

found on the ground. Most of the species are tough and fibrous to woody and 

not edible but a few are quite good and none are known to be poisonous. 

240

HYDNACEAE 

HYDNUM CORALLOIDES Fr. Edible 


FRUCTIFICATION Consisting of an intricate system of branches, white to 

buffy, soft and fleshy, up to 10 inches across, with white cyhndric spines about 

14- 1/2 in. long distributed along the under side of the branches more or less in 

tufts. SPORES spherical, smooth, hyahne, 5.5-7 11. 

On dead hardwood trunks or logs, frequently on beech. July-Nov. 

This is a striking and beautiful species. There are several other rather 

similar species and it is uncertain whether or not some of these are just ecologi- 

cal forms, H. caput-ursi Fr., the bear's head fungus, has longer spines but it 

seems possible to build up a graded series from one type to the other through 

examination of many collections. H. laciniatum Fr. is more branched and has 

shorter spines and there also appears to be a difference in the spores which are 

smaller and ellipsoid. H. erinaceum Fr. is a more massive fructification with 

very long spines up to 1 Yi in. in length. All of these are edible. 

In modern classifications this group of species is placed in the genus 

Hericium. 

HYDNUM RERAN DUM Fr. Edible 


PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex to plane or depressed, uneven and often 

irregular, whitish to buff'or pinkish cinnamon, dry, minutely velvety to smooth. 

FLESH white, soft, fairly thick, teeth slightly decurrent, fleshy, soft, fragile, 

round to slightly flattened, whitish to cream colored, stipe 1/2-2 1/2 in. long, 

14-I in. thick, sometimes excentric, smooth, colored like the pileus, soHd. 

spores white, smooth, ovoid to subglobose, 7-9 X 6.5-7.5 mu- 

Oct. 

singly or gregarious on the ground in frondose and mixed woods. July- 

This species is now usually placed in the genus Dentinum. It is mushroom- 

like in form but is readily recognized by the teeth on the under side of the 

pileus, the color and the soft, fleshy consistency. Most of the other stipitate 

Hydnaceae are tough and fibrous or corky to woody in consistency. 

HYDNUM SEPTENTRIONALE Fr. Not edible 


fructification consisting of many horizontal, overlapping sessile pilei 

united at the base and forming a massive cluster, single pilei 1-6 in. wide and 

about the same in length, sometimes much larger, at first whitish, becoming 

buff" or yellowish, finely hairy, dry, margin slightly incurved, tough and 

fibrous in consistency, teeth white to yellowish, round, pointed, about |4- 

% in. long, stipe lacking, spores white, ellipsoid, smooth, 4-6 X 2.5-3.5 m- 

On hving trunks of hardwoods, especially maple and beech. Aug.-Sept. 

241


This species is too tough to be of value as food but the massive fructifica- 

tions of overlapping pilei are Hkely to attract attention. It will appear in suc- 

cessive years on the same tree. In modern classifications this fungus is placed 

in the genus Steccherinum. 

CLAVARIACEAE 

The Clavariaceae, sometimes called coral fungi, include forms with erect, 

simple or branched, fleshy or tough fructifications, the fruiting surface smooth, 

not diffêrentiated into spines, pores, or lamellae. The important character in 

distinguishing this family from the Thelephoraceae is that there is no differen- 

tiation of the fruiting body into an upper sterile surface and a lower fertile 

surface. The entire surface of the fruiting body is fertile in the Clavariaceae. 

The species are difficult to identify and only a few are described here. 

Most of the clavarias are edible but some are bitter and unpleasant to the 

taste or are very tough, and in Europe one species has been reported to be 

poisonous. This is Clavaria formosa Pers., which is also widely distributed in 

North America. It is a medium to large, much-branched form, white at the 

base, flesh color or pinkish above, but with the tips of the branches yellow. In 

age it fades to tan or ochraceous tan. This species should be avoided. 

Key 

1. Fruiting body simple, unbranched 2 

1. Fruiting body much branched 3 

2. Growing in clusters, bright yellow C. fusiformis 

2. Growing singly or gregarious, ochraceous yellow 

to brownish, club-shaped C. pistillaris 

3. Tips of branches pink or rosy C. botrytis 

3. Tips of branches not pink 4 

4. Taste bitter, fruiting body light tan to tawny C. striata 


5. Fraiting body smoky gray C. cinerea 

5. Fruiting body pale yellowish C. flava 

CLAVARIA BOTRYTIS Fr. Edible 


FRUCTIFICATION 2-4 in. high, much branched, stipitate, the stipe white, 

%-l in. thick, slightly tapering downward, bulbous at base, the branches 

whitish to cream with pink to rosy tips, or sometimes lavender in age, erect, 

parallel or curving and with a somewhat cauliflower-hke appearance, taste and 

242

CLAVARIACEAE 

odor mild, spores cylindric-ellipsoid to oblong-ellipsoid, longitudinally striate, 

12-15 X 3.5-5.5 )u. 

On the ground in woods. July-Oct. 

The rosy tips of the branches provide a striking character by which this 

species can be recognized. 

CLAVARIA CINEREA Fr. Edible 


FRUCTIFICATION 1-4 in. high, much branched, stipitate, the stipe smoky 

gray, Ys-Va in. thick, nearly equal, smooth, branches smoky gray to bluish 

gray, surface finely powdery, erect, parallel or irregular, often wrinkled, some- 

times toothed at apex, taste and odor not distinctive, spores white, smooth, 

broadly ellipsoid to ovoid, 7-10 X 5.5-7.5 /x. 

Cespitose or gregarious on the ground in woods. July-Sept. 

CLAVARIA FLAVA Fr. Edible 


FRUCTIFICATION 2-6 in. high, much branched, the main branches arising 

from a thick, short, whitish, stem-like base, erect, cyhndric, tapering toward 

the apex, pale yellow, becoming brownish when bruised, whitish, sometimes 

brownish, sometimes toothed, taste mild, pleasant, spores yellow, ellipsoid, 

minutely rough, 7.5-10 X 3-4 /x. 

On the ground in moist woods. June-Oct. 

C. aurea (Schaeff.) Fr. is said to be very similar, but more robust, deeper 

yellow, and not turning brown when bruised. 

CLAVARIA FUSIFORMIS (Sow.) Fr. Edible 


FRUCTIFICATION 2-4 in. high, cylindrical or compressed, not branched, 

pointed at the top, bright yellow, hollow, taste mild or bitter, spores nearly 

spherical 4.5-6.5 m in diameter. 

Singly or in clusters on the ground in woods. Aug.-Sept. 

This is a distinctive species with bright yellow, unbranched but clustered 

fruiting bodies. 

CLAVARIA PISTILLARIS (L.) Fr. Edible 


FRUCTIFICATION 4-6 in. high, 1-2 in. thick, club-shaped, unbranched, top 

rounded or sometimes depressed, yellowish or ochraceous to brownish, 

smooth or sometimes longitudinally grooved or wrinkled, soft and fleshy, 

243


cream colored within, finally hollow, taste mild, spores oblong-ellipsoid, 

smooth, 11-13.5 X 5-7 m- 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in moist woods. Aug.-Oct. 

The large, rather bright colored, club-shaped fruiting bodies of this 

fungus are very striking and distinctive. Occasionally the tip of the club will 

be somewhat depressed and sterile, thus proving the exception to the rule that 

the clavarias are fertile all over. 

CLAVARIA STRICTA Fr. Edible, not recommended 


FRUCTIFICATION 1 J/2-3 in. high, much branched, the main branches arising 

from a thick irregular whitish base, erect, cylindric or flattened toward the base, 

tapering upwards, terminating in several small yellowish teeth, light tan to 

tawny, consistency rather tough, not brittle, taste bitter, spores cinnamon- 

buff", elHpsoid, minutely rough 7.5-9 X 3.5-4.5 /i- 

Forming dense tufts on rotten wood. July-Oct. 

The tough consistency and bitter taste are the distinguishing characters of 

this species and render it of poor quality as an edible species although it is not 

poisonous. 

THELEPHORACEAE 

The Thelephoraceae include a large group of fungi in which the spores are 

borne on a smooth surface and not on spines, pores, or lamellae. Most of them 

consist simply of a layer of fungus tissue growing on wood or bark, frequently 

on the under side of logs or sticks, and producing spores over the surface. 

Some of this group develop a definite pileus which may be more or less 

bracket-like, growing on wood, or upright and growing on the ground. The 

latter are distinguished from the Clavariaceae, which also have a smooth 

hymenium, by the fact that the hymenium does not cover the entire surface of 

the fruiting body, but there is always some differentiation into an upper sterile 

surface and a lower fertile surface. Only a single species is described here. 

CRATERELLUS CORNUCOPIOIDES Fr. Edible 


Horn of Plenty 

FRUCTIFICATION about 1-3 in. high, %-2J4 in. across the top, funnelshaped 

or trumpet-shaped with a flaring margin, the margin even to wavy or 

lobed, sometimes becoming torn, thin, rather tough or brittle, interior or 

upper surface dry, rough to scaly, dark grayish brown, lower surface or hymenium 

ashy to blackish, smooth or somewhat wrinkled, stipe very short or 

absent, spores ellipsoid, smooth, one-celled, 11-15 X 7-9 /x- 

244

TREMELLALES 

Gregarious on the ground in open woods. July-Oct. 

Although rather unattractive in appearance because of its dark colors, 

this is reported to be quite good as an edible fungus and it is unhkely to be 

confused with anything else. It has several common names such as horn of 

plenty, trumpet of death, and fairy's loving cup, indicating that it is a species 

that attracts attention. The name trumpet of death has no reference to its 

edible quaHties but only to its sombre appearance. 

TREMELLALES 

The Tremellales or jelly fungi can be recognized in the field by their more 

or less gelatinous or jelly-Hke consistency. They shrink greatly on drying and in 

dry weather are inconspicuous, but when moistened they swell up and are 

sometimes striking in appearance. 

The group is separated from the other basidiomycetes on a character that 

is considered to be more fundamental than their jelly-hke consistency, namely, 

the structure of the basidium. A typical basidium is one-celled with a septum 

at the base, but in the Tremellales the basidium itself becomes septate or 

deeply forked. The Tremellales are divided into three famihes, the Tremel- 

laceae in which the basidium is longitudinally or obhquely septate, the Auri- 

culariaceae in which it is transversely septate, and the Dacrymycetaceae in 

which it is forked and deeply divided. These characters can be determined 

only by microscopic examination so that for the amateur the consistency is the 

best field character, although there are some instances in which this character 

alone is misleading. 

Only four species are described here, two of the Tremellaceae, one of the 

Auriculariaceae, and one of the Dacrymycetaceae. 

PSEUDOHYDNUM GELATINOSUM (Fr.) Karst. 


FRUITING BODY 1-2 {4 in. broad, gelatinous, translucent, whitish becoming 

brownish, rather thick, upper surface papillose, lower surface bearing whitish, 

gelatinous, tooth-like spines about J/g in. long, short stipitate or sessile, spores 

white, subglobose, 5-7 î. 

On rotten wood. Aug.-Sept. 

At first sight this might be taken for one of the Hydnaceae because of the 

teeth on the under side of the pileus, but the gelatinous consistency distin- 

guishes it and if examined microscopically the basidia are found to be divided 

longitudinally. It is not of interest as food but is a pretty and unusual fungus. 

It is likely to be found only in wet weather as it shrinks greatly and becomes 

very inconspicuous when dry. 

245


PHLOGIOTIS HELVELLOIDES (Fr.) Martin 


FRUITING BODIES 2-4 in. high, U/2-2i4 in. in diameter, gelatinous but 

rather firm, drying horny, more or less funnel-shaped, usually split on one 

side, pinkish white to deep rose, substipitate, spores oblong. 10-12 X 4-6 m- 

On the ground under conifers or on rotten coniferous wood. Aug.-Oct. 

This is not regarded as an edible species but is an attractive and striking 

fungus. It has been known under the name Gyrocephalus rufus (Jacq.) Bref. 

AURICULARIA AURICULA (Hook.) Underw. Edible 


FRUITING BODY about %-3i/2 in. broad, sessile, somewhat cupulate or ear- 

shaped, irregular, smooth or wrinkled, tough-gelatinous, yellow-brown to 

cinnamon-brown, drying horny and nearly black, attached centrally or lat- 

erally, spores white in mass, allantoid, 12-16 X 4-6 /x- 

Gregarious or cespitose on dead wood or sometimes exposed wood of 

living trees. July-Oct. 

As the name indicates, this fungus is somewhat suggestive of a human ear. 

It has become involved in an ancient legend to the effect that Judas Iscariot 

hanged himself on an elder tree and the elder was thereupon condemned to 

bear this excrescence, which was known as Judas' ear and later corrupted to 

Jew's ear. Apparently the fungus occurs rather commonly on the elder in 

Europe but no doubt it did so for many centuries before the time of Judas 

Iscariot. It is not clear why Judas' ear should have been singled out to com- 

memorate his evil deed but there may be some confusion here with the ear of 

the servant of the high priest, which was cut off by Peter at the time of the 

betrayal. 

DACRYMYCES PALMATUS (Schw.) Bres. 


FRUITING BODIES bright Orange to orange-red, tough-gelatinous, becoming 

softer in age, forming irregular clusters, often wrinkled and convoluted, some- 

times up to 2 in. across, usually smaller, sometimes with a whitish, stipe-hke 

base, spores orange, cyhndrical, curved, becoming seven-septate, 17-25 X 

6—8 11. 

On coniferous wood. May-Nov. 

The bright orange fructifications are very conspicuous when moist but 

on drying they shrivel to an inconspicuous, reddish orange, horny mass. This 

is probably one of the fungi that have been called 'witches' butter' or *fairy 

butter.' It is not regarded as an edible fungus. 

246

GASTEROMYCETES 


The G asteromycetes include the fungi commonly known as puflfballs and 

closely related forms. In this group the spores are produced on basidia but are 

not forcibly discharged as in the mushrooms, boletes and other Basidiomy- 

cetes. The basidia break down and the spores are typically left as a powdery 

mass within the fruiting body and are dispersed through a pore or by the 

wearing away of the outer layers of the fruit body. 

Representatives of three main groups of Gasteromycetes are discussed 

here. In the Lycoperdaceae, which include the puffballs proper, the spores are 

produced and dispersed as described above. In the Phallaceae or stinkhorns, 

the spores are produced in shme and elevated on the end of a stalk-Hke struc- 

ture that emerges from an enclosing volva. They usually produce an offensive 

odor that is beheved to attract insects which aid in the dispersal of the spores. 

In the Nidulariaceae or bird's-nest fungi, the spores are produced within 

structures called peridioles which are borne in a cup-Hke fructification from 

which they are dispersed by driving rain drops, and the spores are then freed 

by the decay of the peridiole wall. 

The effect of rain in dispersing spores of the true puffballs may easily be 

demonstrated by placing a mature puffball at some distance under a burette 

and permitting drops of water to fall on it. As each drop strikes the puffball a 

puff of spores is emitted. 

This is a large and extremely varied group of fungi with many quaHties 

that attract the attention and interest of naturaHsts from the immense size 

attained by some specimens of Calvatia gigantea to the repulsive odors of the 

stinkhorns, fantastic shapes of some of the other groups, and fascinating 

methods of spore dispersal found among them. 

The puffballs proper are generally regarded as one of the safest groups of 

fungi to use as food and one of the few groups in which it is possible to give a 

sort of rule of thumb for determining an edible species. It seems safe to say that 

any puffball that is white and homogeneous inside is good to eat. However, in 

this group as with all other fungi it is wise to proceed cautiously with any 

species not previously tried because of the possibihty of personal sensitivity 

to a particular species. It is important to make certain that the fruiting body is 

homogeneous within since it is possible that young specimens of the deadly 

poisonous Amanita virosa might be mistaken for a puffball before the volva is 

ruptured. Cutting the fruit body across will reveal the outhne of the young 

mushroom if it is an Amanita (Figure 91). The eggs of the phalloids can also be 

distinguished from the puffballs in this way and in spite of the fact that these 

are edible, according to some authors, they are not recommended as food. 

The Nidulariaceae are, of course, too small and tough to be of any value as 

food. 

247


Key 

1. Fruiting body a stalked structure with a differentiated apical portion 

where the spores are borne; odor offensive 2 

1. Fruiting body not as above 4 

2. Apical spore-bearing portion forming a distinct pileus, 

separate from the stalk : 3 

2. Apical spore-bearing portion a continuation of the stalk, 

not separate; fruiting body pinkish, odor slight Mutinus caninus 

3. Plant with a lacy veil extending below the pileus Dictyophora duplicata 

3. Veil membranous, inconspicuous, scarcely extending below the pileus; 

surface of pileus granular, greenish Phallus ravenelii 

4. Fruiting body a small cup-like structure striate within, containing 

several tiny spore cases, suggesting a nest containing eggs Cyathus striatus 

4. Fruiting body not as above 5 

5. Outer layers of fruit body splitting into several segments or rays 

to form a star-shaped body Geastrum triplex 

5. Outer layers of fruit body not splitting into rays 6 

6. Fruiting body very large; spores dispersed by wearing away 

of the outer layers Calvatia gigantea 

6. Fruiting body not over 3 in. in diameter; spores dispersed 

through an apical pore 7 

7. Inner coat rather papery; fruiting bodies easily becoming detached 

and blown about by the wind Bovista pila 

7. Inner coat not papery; fruiting bodies remaining attached 8 

8. Outer coat of cone-shaped spines that fall off leaving 

distinct spots; typically growing on the ground Lycoperdon perla turn 

8. Outer coat more or less persistent, rough, not of conical spines; 

typically growing in clusters on rotten wood Lycoperdon pyriforme 

MUTINUS CANINUS (Pers.) Fr. Not edible 


EGG white, ovoid, about Yx-Ya X Vi-V^ in., attached by a rhizomorph. 

FRUITING BODY 2-4 in. tall, 14-% in. thick, cylindric, equal, narrowed at the 

apex and usually perforated, pinkish to whitish, olivaceous brown at the tip 

where the spores are borne, sheathed at the base by a volva. odor unpleasant 

but relatively sHght. spores 4-5 X 1.5- Iji. 

Singly or gregarious on soil or rotten wood in open woods, sometimes in 

gardens. July-Sept. 

The small size and pinkish colors are distinctive for this species. Usually 

the odor is relatively weak. 

DICTYOPHORA DUPLICATA (Bosc) E. Fisch. Not edible 


EGG 1 1^-2% in. in diameter, subglobose to somewhat flattened or ovate, 

whitish, sometimes wrinkled at the base, attached by a thick white rhizomorph. 

248


FRUITING BODY 5-8 in. high, l-2)/2 in. thick at the base, tapering upward 

sHghtly, odor fetid and very disagreeable, stipe cyhndrical, spongy or honeycombed, 

hollow, white, sheathed at base by remains of egg forming a whitish 

to brownish volva. pileus more or less conical, attached to the apex of the 

stipe, perforated, reticulate, greenish black, veil lacy and net-hke, whitish to 

pinkish, attached to apex of stipe beneath the pileus and projecting below it. 

SPORES 3.5M X 1.5-2.0 M- 

Singly or gregarious in the woods or in gardens, usually around dead 

trees or stumps. July-Oct. 

The large size and lacy veil are the distinguishing characters of this 

species. 

PHALLUS RAVENELII Berk. & Curt. Not edible 


EGG 1-2 in. in diameter, more or less egg-shaped to subglobose, whitish to 

pinkish, or tinged lilac, tough, wrinkled at the base, attached by a pinkish 

lilac rhizomorph. fruiting body 4-6 in. high and y2-\ 54 in. thick, odor fetid 

and very disagreeable, stipe whitish to yellowish, somewhat spongy or honeycombed, 

hollow, equal or tapering upward, encircled by a white, membranous 

band from the veil, the base enclosed by the remains of the egg, forming a 

volva. PILEUS more or less conical, attached around a raised, white, perforated 

disk at the apex, granular, shiny, greenish to olive-gray, spores 3-3.5 X 1.5 /x- 

Usually gregarious on sawdust or very rotten wood. June-Oct. 

The eggs might be mistaken for a puffball but if they are cut open the out- 

line of the young fruiting body can be seen surrounded by a layer of a jelly- 

Hke substance. A closely related species, P. impudicus Pers., has a deeply 

reticulated pileus. 

CYATHUS STRIATUS Pers. Not edible 


FRUITING BODY V^-Y^ in. tall, V^-Vi in. broad at the mouth, tapering to the 

base, somewhat vase-shaped, attached by a pad of brown mycelium, exterior 

dark cinnamon-brown, coarsely fibrillose, inner surface pallid to blackish or 

tinged purplish, striate, mouth at first closed by a thin fibrillose epiphragm 

which ruptures and disappears at maturity, peridioles more or less flattened or 

disk-shaped, nearly black, attached to the cup by an elastic cord, spores hya- 

line, thick-walled, 14-20 X 8-1 2/i. 

Oct. 

Gregarious to cespitose on old sticks and various vegetable debris. July- 

This species is distinguished by the striations on the inner surface of the 

cup. C. stercoreus (Schw.) de Toni is another common species growing on the 

249


ground and with the inside of the cup smooth. C. olla Pers. has a smooth cup 

but has smaller spores than C. stercoreus. 

Crucibulum levis (DC) Kambly & Lee is another species belonging in 

this group. It has whitish peridioles and the wall of the fructification consists of 

only one layer rather than three as in Cyathus. It is usually found on old wood 

also. 

It has been demonstrated that these fruiting bodies of the bird's-nest 

fungi are adapted to dispersal of the spores by rain. The force of rain drops 

splashing against the inside of the cup is sufficient to drive the peridioles out 

for some considerable distance and the spores are freed by the gradual decay 

and wearing away of the wall of the peridiole. This is referred to as the splash- 

cup method of spore dispersal. 

GEASTRUM TRIPLEX Jungh. Edible 


Earth Star 

FRUITING BODY 1-2 in. in diameter at the widest part, more or less bulb- 

shaped, acute at the apex, not stalked, brown or reddish brown, the outer coat 

splitting at the apex into 4-6 rather uniform segments or rays, spreading back 

to form a star shape and often splitting into two layers of which the inner 

remains as a sort of cup around the spore case, spore case sessile, thin and 

papery, opening by a conical pore which is different in texture from the rest of 

the spore case, smooth but somewhat fringed, usually seated in a shght depres- 

sion. SPORES brown, globose, warted, 3.5-4.5 m* 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in open woods. July-Nov. 

There are several species of Geastrum commonly known as 'earth stars' 

but this is one of the larger and more common species. It is reported to be 

edible when young but seems to be pretty hard and tough. 

CALVATIA GIGANTEA Pers. Edible 


Giant Puffball 

FRUITING BODY morc or less globose, 8-20 in. or more in diameter, 

attached to the ground by a short, cord-Hke rhizomorph, surface smooth, 

soft-leathery, white to creamy yellow or finally brownish, white within when 

young, firm, fleshy, slowly becoming yellowish to oHvaceous, finally rusty 

ochraceous and powdery, spores globose, minutely spiny, 3.5-4.5 m- 

Singly to gregarious in woods, pastures or fields. Aug.-Sept. 

The giant puffball is one of the best-known and most widely used edible 

fungi. The large size, white color, and chamois-Hke outer skin are distinguish- 

ing features. Specimens intended for food should be cut open to make sure that 

they are white and homogeneous inside and not infested by worms. 

250


Some people have the idea that these large puffballs appear very suddenly, 

but actually they grow and increase in size over a period of nearly two weeks 

before they reach maturity. Observations published by Peck (1912) indicate 

that their period of development is about 12-14 days and that the daily in- 

crease in circumference is about 3-4 inches. 

Nearly every year reports are published concerning the finding of large 

puffballs with competing claims as to record size. Most of these, however, are 

far short of any real record. Giissow and Odell (1927) report a specimen 5 feet 

1 54 inches in circumference and weighing 18J^ pounds but this is dwarfed by a 

report from New York State in 1877 mentioned by Ramsbottom (1953) of a 

specimen 5 feet 4 inches long, 4 feet 6 inches wide and 9)/2 inches high. It was 

said to have been mistaken for a sheep at a distance. The largest specimen ever 

collected by the author was 4 feet in circumference and weighed 1 1 pounds. 

BuUer calculated that a fruit body 16 X 12 X 10 inches would produce 

7 trillion spores and Ramsbottom noted that if each of these produced one 

puffball of similar size and if their spores were equally successful, the resulting 

mass would be 800 times the weight of the earth. It is an amazing example of 

the reproductive potential of a Hving organism and it is obvious that under 

natural conditions the chances of a puffball spore for survival must be ex- 

tremely shght indeed. 

Two other species of Cahatia that are fairly common but do not attain 

the size of C. gigantea are C cyathiformis (Bosc) Morgan and C. craniiformis 

(Schw.) Fr. Both of these have a rather thick, stout basal part that is somewhat 

pear-shaped to top-shaped and may sometimes be found persisting after 

all the spores have been dispersed. C cyathiformis can be distinguished by the 

purplish spore mass whereas in C. craniiformis it is olivaceous brown to dark 

brown. All of these species are edible when young. 

BOVISTA PILA Berk. & Curt. Edible 

Figures 401, 402, 403, page 291 

FRUITING BODY 1 1/2-2 Yi in. in diameter, usually globose or nearly so, 

attached by a small rhizomorph which breaks easily, at first white with a thin 

furfuraceous outer coat that soon wears off, exposing the smooth, somewhat 

papery, gray-brown to bronze, inner coat, which often has a somewhat metaUic 

luster, at first white within, then becoming purplish brown and powdery. 

SPORES dark brown, globose, smooth, sometimes with a short pedicel 3.5-4.5 /x. 

Solitary or gregarious in woods or pastures. Aug.-Oct. 

The fruiting bodies frequently come loose from their attachment. They 

often persist through the winter and are found the following spring full of 

spores. 

B. plumbea Pers. is a somewhat smaller species, attached to the ground by 

a mass of fibers rather than a rhizomorph, and with a more blue-gray inner 

coat. The spores are larger, more ovoid, and have very long pedicels. 

251


LYCOPERDON PERLATUM Pers. Edible 

Figure 375, page 281 ; Figures 406, 407, page 292 

FRUITING BODY 1-2 1/2 in. high, Vi-IVa 

in. thick at the widest part, typically 

top-shaped to pear-shaped, or irregular in shape from crowding with a tapering 

or nearly cylindric, stem-like base, sometimes wrinkled or folded toward the 

base, white at first, becoming buff or brownish, surface covered with many 

cone-shaped, whitish spines, some longer, some shorter, which disappear as 

the plant matures, leaving net-like markings on the surface, entirely white 

within when young, spores produced only in the upper part which becomes 

yellowish to olive-brown and powdery, basal part remaining sterile, the tissue 

containing small chambers, spores olive-brown, globose, minutely spiny, 

3.5-4.5 ju in diameter. 

Singly, gregarious, or cespitose on rich soil, or sometimes on rotten wood. 

June-Nov. 

This is one of our commonest puffballs. The shape and the cone-shaped 

spines that leave a network of scars when they fall off are the chief distinguish- 

ing characters. It has long been known as Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch but 

L. perlatum is the correct name. 

LYCOPERDON PYRIFORME Pers. Edible 


FRUITING BODY %-2 in. high, %-l Yi in. thick at the widest part, typically 

somewhat pear-shaped to subglobose, narrowed below and attached by white 

rhizomorphs, pale brownish to tawny brown or rusty brown, sometimes 

yellowish, surface furfuraceous, scaly or with short spines, sometimes areolate, 

the outer coat eventually wearing away and exposing the smooth inner coat, 

white within at first, becoming olivaceous to olive-brown and powdery as the 

spores mature, basal part sterile, tissue containing small chambers, spores 

olive-brown, globose, smooth, 3-4 /x- 

Usually cespitose to gregarious around old logs, stumps, sawdust piles. 

June-Nov. 

This is a very common and widely distributed puffball. It is not very large 

but is usually found in considerable abundance. The old fruit bodies often 

persist through the winter and may be found the following spring but, of 

course, they are only edible when young and white within. The color, shape, 

and occurrence on rotten wood are distinguishing characters. 

252 


352. Polyporus betulinus. 353. P. ovinus. 

354. P. resinosus. 355. P. sulphureiis. 

356. P. squamosus. "iSl . P. squamosus. 

358. Hydnum coralloides. 359. H. repandum. 

360. H. septentrionale. 361. Clavaria botrytis.

253

254 

^;"'"l*'' 

363, C lavaria fusiformis 

365. Craterellus cornucopioides. 

367. Phlogiotis helvelloides. 

369. Dacrymyces palmatus. 

371. Phallus ravenelii. 


364. C. pistilla r is. 

366. Pseudohydnum gelatinosum. 

368. Auricularia auricula. 

370. Mutinus caninus. 

312. Cyathus striatus. 

«3 

o 

a, 

3

255

256 

ASCOMYCETES 

ASCOMYCETES 

The Ascomycetes comprise a vast number of species of fungi that differ 

fundamentally from the Basidiomycetes in the manner in which the spores are 

formed. In the Basidiomycetes the spores are formed outside the mother cell or 

basidium, usually developing on Httle stalks that arise from it, whereas in the 

Ascomycetes the spores are produced within the mother cell or ascus and are 

not discharged until they are mature. 

The great majority of the Ascomycetes are minute fungi requiring a 

microscope for determination of their characters but some are large enough to 

attract the attention of the amateur collector and a few are known to be among 

our best edible fungi. Although a microscope is needed to actually see the 

difference between an ascus and a basidium, in practice it is not difficult to 

recognize an ascomycete in the field. 

All of the species described here, with one exception, belong in the section 

Discomycetes in which the asci are borne in an exposed fruiting layer or 

hymenium and not within a closed fruiting body. Relatively few species are 

described here and anyone interested in the group should consult special 

works deahng with them. The single pyrenomycete described, Hypomyces 

lactifluorum (Schw.) TuL, is not included in the key. 

Key 

1. Fruiting body with a distinct stipe and differentiated pileus 2 

1. Fruiting body more or less cup-shaped, without a differentiated 

pileus but sometimes stipitate 8 

2. Pileus pitted or honeycombed 3 

2. Pileus convoluted, wrinkled, or smooth, not pitted 5 

3. Base of pileus attached to stipe 4 

3. Base of pileus free from the stipe Verpa bohemica 

4. Pileus subglobose to ovoid; pits irregular with edges 

the same color or paler Morchella esculenta 

4. Pileus conical; pits more or less longitudinally 

arranged with edges darker Morchella angusticeps 

5. Pileus irregular, reddish brown, surface convoluted; 

growing on the ground in spring Gyromitra esculenta 

5. Pileus slightly wrinkled or smooth, usually more 

or less saddle-shaped 6 

6. Stipe deeply longitudinally fluted Helvella crispa 

6. Stipe smooth or slightly furrowed at base 7 

7. Pileus smoky gray to smoky yellowish or nearly black Helvella elastica 

7. Pileus tan to reddish brown Gyromitra infula 

8. Cups bright scarlet, whitish-hairy externally; 

growing on sticks in the spring Sarcoscypha coccinea 

8. Cups not scarlet 9 

9. Cups black, stipitate, tough Urnula craterium 

9. Cup brownish, sessile to substipitate, soft, fleshy, 

spreading out widely; growing on wood Peziza repanda 

257


MORCHELLA ESCULENTA Fr. Edible 

I igiiic 376, page 281 ; f iguic 427, page 304 

Common Morel 

PILEUS 2-5 in. long and %-l ^2 in. thick at the widest point, sometimes 

much larger, usually more or less ovoid to somewhat conical or sometimes 

subglobose, the surface covered with rounded to irregular or somewhat 

elongated pits, irregularly arranged or often more or less in rows, gray-brown 

to yellowish brown, the edges of the pits colored Hke the interior or paler, and 

finally becoming thin and somewhat torn, stipe 1-4 in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick, 

white to cream color or yellowish, at first cyHndric, becoming more or less 

compressed and furrowed, sometimes much thickened at the base, glabrous to 

sHghtly floccose, mealy, hollow, asci cyHndric, eight-spored 225-325 X (15) 

18-22 (27) fjL. ASCOSPORES slightly yellowish in deposits, ellipsoid, smooth, one- 

celled, (12) 16-22 (26) X (7.5) 11-13 (14) /x. 

Singly or gregarious in open woods, orchards, or grassy places. May or 

early June. 

This is the common morel and is highly regarded as one of the best of the 

edible fungi. The pitted, sponge-Uke pilei are very characteristic and unhkely to 

be mistaken for anything else. However, care must be taken to distinguish 

Gyromitra esculenta, or false morel, which occurs at the same time of year and 

has a wrinkled and convoluted, rather than pitted, pileus. 

MORCHELLA ANGUSTICEPS Peck Edible 


Narrow-capped Morel 

PILEUS %-2i/2 in. long, Vx-'^Va in. broad at the base, more or less elon- 

gated to narrowly conic, the surface covered with somewhat elongated pits 

arranged more or less in vertical rows, yellowish or yellowish brown within, 

the edges smoky brown to black, stipe %-21/2 in. long, i/^-l in. thick, white to 

yellowish, cylindric or enlarged at the base, often furrowed toward the base, 

floccose-mealy, hollow, asci cyHndric, eight-spored, 200-300 X 16-22 (26) ju- 

ASCOSPORES yellowish in a deposit, eUipsoid, smooth, one-celled, 1 8-25 (29) X 

11-15 M. 

June. 

Singly or gregarious in open woods or at the edges of woods. May or early 

This morel is distinguished from the common morel by its more conical 

pileus, scurfy stipe, and elongated pits with dark edge. It is fully as good to eat 

as the common morel. M. conica Fr. is probably the same species. 

VERPA BOHEMICA (Krombh.) Schrot. Edible 


PILEUS about V2-I V2 ill- loi^g ^^^ V^-^ Va ii^- ii^ diameter, somewhat bellshaped, 

attached to the apex of the stalk and hanging down around it with the 

258

ASCOMYCETES 

margin free, yellowish brown to reddish brown, the surface usually promi- 

nently ridged and reticulated, stipe 1-5 in. long, %-l in. thick, whitish to 

yellowish, glabrous to somewhat floccose, especially toward the base, stuffed 

becoming hollow, cyhndric or somewhat compressed, asci cyhndric, two- 

spored, 200-325 X 18-24 (27) 

ju- ascospores yellowish in deposits, ellipsoid, 

one-celled, smooth, (45) 50-75 (84) X 15-22 m- 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in open woods. May. 

This fungus might be mistaken for a morel and it has been called Mor- 

chella bispora Sor. but the attachment of the pileus to the upper end of the 

stipe and the free margin distinguish it. Morchella semilibera (DC.) Fr. is 

attached part way up the stipe and has the margin free but is a smaller plant. 

The two-spored asci with very large spores are characteristic of this species. 

Another species of Verpa, V. conica (Miill.) Swartz, is a smaller plant 

with a smooth, oHve-tinged pileus, and eight-spored asci with much smaller 

spores. It is found at the same time of the year in about the same type of 

habitat, 

GYROMITRA ESCULENTA Fr. Can be poisonous 


False Morel 

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, variable and irregular in shape, usually more or less 

lobed and the surface irregularly wrinkled, folded, or convoluted, but not 

pitted, reddish brown to dark brown, stipe 54-2 in. long, )^-l in. thick, 

whitish, fragile, usually somewhat compressed and grooved, hollow, glabrous 

to shghtly floccose. asci cyhndric, eight-spored, 225-325 X 15-18 ^l. asco- 

spores eUipsoid, one-celled, smooth, (17) 20-28 X 11-16 (17) ju. 

On the ground in woods, associated with conifers. May-June. 

This fungus has been the subject of much controversy, both concerning its 

identity and its edible qualities. Seaver (1928, 1942) claimed that G. esculenta 

and G. infula are both forms of the same species but this has been disputed by 

Kanouse (1948) on what appears to be convincing evidence that is also borne 

out by my personal observation. They are, therefore, regarded as distinct 

species here. G. esculenta occurs on the ground in the spring, associated with 

conifers, is larger and more irregular in shape and has larger spores. G. infula 

occurs in the fall on rotten wood, probably always hardwood, is smaller than 

G. esculenta, has a more regularly saddle-shaped pileus, is less wrinkled and 

convoluted and has smaller spores. 

Undoubtedly many people eat this species with no ill eff'ects. I have seen 

it on sale in grocery stores in Finland and have eaten it myself when it was 

served by friends there and the flavor is excellent. However, reports of poisoning 

occur every once in a while and it has beenknown to cause death. Whether 

or not this is the result of personal idiosyncrasy, the occurrence of certain 

poisonous races of the fungus, or the development of the poisonous principle 

by the fungus under certain conditions is not yet certain. One significant case 

259


was reported by Dearness (191 1) in which a family ate part of a collection of 

Gyromitra at one meal with no ill effects, but when they ate the rest of the 

collection the next day severe poisoning developed and one member of the 

family died. This suggests that the poison may have been produced on 

ageing or partial decay of the fungus. Nevertheless any fungus known to have 

such deadly potentialities cannot be recommended as food. 

G. gigas (Krombh.) Cke. is another species that occurs in the spring. It 

may occur on the ground or on rotten wood and has been collected on a 

birch stump. It is brighter yellow than G. esculenta and tends to grow in 

clusters with the stipes irregularly fused and grown together. It can easily be 

distinguished microscopically by the spores, which have a small apiculus on 

each end. 

GYROMITRA INFULA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Quel. Dangerous 


PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, usually more or less saddle-shaped but sometimes 

irregular, surface usually smooth to sHghtly wrinkled and convoluted, usually 

some shade of tan to brownish cinnamon, the margin partly free, stipe %- 

2]4 in. long, |4-% ii^- thick, whitish or tinged the color of the pileus, finely 

floccose, cylindric to compressed or with irregular furrows, hollow, asci 

cylindric, eight-spored, 225-300 X 10-14 }x. ascospores ellipsoid, one-celled, 

smooth, 16-18 (21) X 7-9 /x- 

Oct. 

Singly or gregarious on or in close association with rotten wood. Sept.- 

For a discussion of this species see Gyromitra esculenta. Its edible quali- 

ties appear to be uncertain but it is regarded as dangerous and is not recom- 

mended. 

HELVELLA CRISPA (Scop.) Fr. Edible 


PILEUS about Yi-l in. broad, saddle-shaped to irregularly lobed, reflexed, 

margin free from the stipe, whitish or cream colored to buff or yellowish, 

smooth to sHghtly convoluted, stipe %-2j^ in. long, y^-\ in. thick, white or 

colored Hke the pileus, very uneven and deeply fluted with longitudinal fur- 

rows. ASCI cyHndric, eight-spored, 225-300 X 14-18 /x. ascospores one-celled, 

ellipsoid, smooth, (16) 18-20 (22.5) X 10-13 /z. 

Usually gregarious on the ground in damp woods. Aug.-Oct. 

The pale colors and deeply fluted stipe are the chief distinguishing charac- 

ters of this species. H. lacunosa Afz. ex Fr. is similar in shape and stature but 

the pileus is smoky gray to nearly black. The stipe is also deeply fluted and 

usually paler than the pileus but becoming smoky gray. 

260

HELVELLA ELASTICA Bull, ex Fr. 

f igurc 410, page 294 

piLEUS %-l )4 

ASCOMYCETES 

in. in diameter, usually more or less saddled-shaped or 

irregularly two- to three-lobed, margin free from the stipe, smoky gray to 

yellowish brown or nearly black, smooth or slightly convoluted, stipe 1 14-4 in. 

long, Ys-Ys 

in. thick, rather slender, even, not fluted, whitish to yellowish, 

cylindrical or slightly compressed, usually tapering upward, hollow, asci cy- 

lindric, eight-spored, 200-270 X 15-18 /x- ascospores ellipsoid, smooth, one- 

celled, 18-20 X 10-12 M. 

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods. June-Oct. 

This species is recognized by its dark color and smooth stipe. 

PEZIZA REPANDA Pers. ex Fr. 


APOTHECiA about 2-4 in. in diameter, at first cup-shaped, expanding and 

becoming nearly flat, or sometimes convex, pale brown, externally whitish, 

smooth, margin even or somewhat wavy, fleshy in consistency, rather brittle, 

sessile or short-stipitate. asci cyHndric, eight-spored, 175-250 X 12-15 ji. 

ASCOSPORES ellipsoid, one-celled, smooth, 14-16 (18) X 8.5-10.5 /x- 

On rotten logs or occasionally on the ground in woods. May-Oct. 

There are a number of species of cup fungi but this is one of the largest and 

most common. Most of this group require microscopic study for their identi- 

fication. 

SARCOSCYPHA COCCINEA (Jacq.) Pers. Not edible 


APOTHECIA %-l )/2 in. in diameter, deep cup-shaped, bright scarlet within, 

externally whitish and densely covered with fine, long hairs, margin usually 

incurved and more or less fringed or torn, tough and rather leathery in consistency, 

more or less stipitate, the stipe Vg in. or sHghtly more in thickness and 

variable in length, asci cyhndric, eight-spored, 350-450 X 14-18 n. asco- 

spores ellipsoid, one-celled, smooth, 28-35 X 12-15 m- 

On buried or partly buried twigs and branches. April-June. 

This is one of the earliest fungi to appear in the spring. It is too tough to 

be of any value as food but the briUiant scarlet color of the disk is very 

striking. 

URNULA CRATERIUM (Schw.) Fr. 


Not edible 

APOTHECIA 1-1 V2 in. in diameter, at first closed, becoming somewhat 

goblet-shaped, entirely black or brownish black, externally covered with a 

261


dense tomentum and sometimes becoming somewhat scaly, margin notched 

and lacerated, irregular, tough and leathery in consistency, stipitate. asci 

cylindric, eight-spored, very long 400-600 X 16-18 /x- ascospores ellipsoid, 

one-celled, smooth, 25-40 X 1 1-14 /x. 

On buried or partly buried wood, probably always hardwood. April-May. 

This species is too tough to be edible but the black fruit bodies are hkely 

to attract attention. 

HYPOMYCES LACTIFLUORUM (Schw.) Tul. 


Fungus growing on mushrooms, producing a stroma, which may entirely 

cover the lamellae and stipe and obHterate the lamellae, which may appear only 

as slight ridges, scarlet to bright orange-red or finally purple-red; perithecia 

thickly scattered, immersed in the stroma and appearing as small pimples; 

asci very long and narrow, cylindrical; ascospores, fusiform, slightly curved, 

with an apiculus at each end, rough-walled, 35-40 X 7-8 /x- 

On species of Lactarius. August and September. 

This one representative of the Pyrenomycetes has been included because 

the malformed mushrooms that have been attacked by it are fairly common 

and always attract the attention of collectors by reason of their brilHant colors. 

The parasitized mushrooms have been reported to be edible, but since it 

is usually not possible to identify the species of mushroom attacked and there 

is the possibility of a poisonous species being parasitized by the Hypomyces, 

they are not recommended as food. 

262

TECHNICAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS 


The amateur collector who is simply interested in mushrooms as food 

need pay no attention to this key, but for the benefit of those who might be 

more interested in the classification of the mushrooms it was thought desirable 

to include one that is more technical. The following is based largely on an un- 

pubHshed manuscript of Dr. A. H. Smith, University of Michigan, and the 

keys of Singer (1951). These authors treat the mushrooms as an order, the 

Agaricales, and group the genera into famihes within the order. However, 

since there is still lack of agreement on the bases to be used for the erection of 

famihes in the Agaricales, this category has not been recognized here. 

This key is intended to show better the scientific bases for the separation 

of genera and more emphasis is placed on microscopic characters than in the 

previous key (p. 00). A great many more genera are recognized than have been 

used elsewhere in this book. Cantharellus and related forms that are not 

regarded as true agarics are not included. It was thought desirable to indicate 

the type species of each genus, and where the genus is relatively unfamihar, the 

older genus where the type species has been placed or would likely be sought, 

is indicated in brackets. This does not mean that all of the species included in 

the new genus were originally all in the same old genus. For example, the type 

of Leucopaxillus is L. tricolor which was formerly in Tricholoma but some 

other species now considered to belong in Leucopaxillus were formerly in 

Clitocybe. However, to those famihar with the species under the old names, 

this does give some idea of the concept of the newer genus. 

This is by no means a complete survey of the modern genera of Agari- 

cales; Singer (1951), for example, recognizes 145 genera excluding the Boleta- 

ceae. It does, however, include most of the genera that are Hkely to be found 

in Canada. 

1. Trama of pileus and stipe composed of both sphaerocysts and filamentous 

hyphae; spores amyloid, more or less ornamented 2 


2. Latex present Lactarius 

L. deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

2. Latex absent Russula 

R. lutea (Huds. ex Fr.) Fr. 

3. Parasitic on other agarics and flesh of pileus breaking down into 

a mass of chlamydospores 

A. (Nye talis) lycoperdoides (Bull.) Ditmar ex S. F. Gray 

3. Not parasitic on other agarics or if occasionally so then flesh of 

Asterophora 

pileus not breaking up to form chlamydospores 4 

4. Lamellae waxy in consistency, usually more or less decurrent 5 


5. Spores amyloid Neohygrophorus 

N. (Hygrophorus) angelesianus (Smith & Hesler) Singer 

5, Spores not amyloid 6 

263


6. Spores echinulate (smooth in L. trullisata) Laccaria 

L. laccata (Scop, ex Fr.) B. & Br. 

6. Spores smooth Hygrophorus 

H. eburneus (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. 

7. Trama of lamellae divergent; lamellae free or nearly so; spores white; 

either a partial or universal veil or both present 8 


8. Volva absent (glutinous universal veil may be present) Limacella 

L. (Lepiota) delicata (Fr.) Earle ex H. V. Smith 

8. Volva present 9 

9. Annulus absent Amanitopsis 

A. vaginata Fr. 

9. Annulus present Amanita 

A. phalloides (Vaill. ex Fr.) Seer. 

10. Spore deposit greenish 11 

10. Spore deposit white to creamy or pale dingy vinaceous 12 

10. Spore deposit more deeply colored 49 

11. Surface of the pileus composed of interwoven hyphae Chlorophyllum 

C. (Lepiota) molybdites (Meyer ex Fr.) Sacc. 

11. Surface of the pileus composed of sphaerocysts; spore deposit 

becoming purplish on drying Melanophyllum 

M. (Agaricus) echinatus (Roth ex Fr.) Sing. 

12. Pileus readily separable from stipe; annulus usually present 13 

12. Pileus and stipe confluent or stipe lacking 15 

13. Spores with lens-shaped apical pore 14 

13. Spores not as above Lepiota 

L. colubrina (Pers.) ex Gray 

14. Clamp connections present; pileus fleshy, not 

plicate-striate on margin Macrolepiota 

M. (Lepiota) procera (Scop, ex Fr.) Sing. 

14. Clamp connections absent; pileus thin, margin plicate-striate Leucocoprinus 

L. (Lepiota) flavipes Pat. 

15. Lamellae splitting longitudinally Schizophyllum 

S. commune Fr. 

15. Lamellae not splitting longitudinally 16 

16. Spores amyloid 17 

16. Spores nonamyloid or pseudoamyloid 28 

17. Trama of lamellae bilateral in young sporophores; lamellae decurrent; 

veil distinctly double; fruiting bodies usually very large Catathelasma 

C. (Armillaria) evanescens Lovej. 


18. Stipe excentric to lateral; habit pleurotoid 19 


19. Margin of lamellae serrulate Lentinellus 

L. (Lentinus) cochleatus (Fr.) Karst. 

19, Margin of lamellae even Panellus 

264 

P. (Panus) stipticus (Bull, ex Fr.) Karst.


20. Veil present 21 

20. Veil absent 23 

21. Veil composed of thick-walled elements; hymenophore 

venose to sublamellate Delicatula 

D. (Omphalia) integrella (Pers. ex Fr.) Pat. 

21. Veil not as above 22 

22. Pileus covered with sphaerocysts Cystoderma 

C. (Lepiota) amianthinum (Scop, ex Fr.) Fayod 

22. Pileus with a cuticle of appressed hyphae Armillariella 

A. ( Armillaria) mellea (Vahl ex Fr.) Karst 

23. Spores rough with a smooth spot at the hilum; cystidia usually present on edges 

of the lamellae and typically with a harpoon-like incrustation at apex; clamp 

connections absent Melanoleuca 

M. (Tricholoma) melaleuca (Pers. ex Fr.) Murr. 


24. Spores without a smooth spot at the hilum; clamp connections present; 

fruiting bodies fleshy Leucopaxillus 

L. (Tricholoma) tricolor (Peck) Kuhner 


25. Fruiting bodies thin pliant, marasmioid; stipe cartilaginous to tough, 

with bright colored mycelium surrounding the base Xeromphalina 

X. (Omphalia) campanella (Batsch ex Fr.) Kuhner & Maire 


26. Lamellae decurrent and margin of pileus inrolled Cantharellula 

C. (Cantharellus) umbonata (Gmelin ex Fr.) Singer 

26. Lamellae variously attached but if decurrent then margin 

of pileus straight at first 27 

27. Fruiting bodies typically small, fragile, more or less conical; 

trama amyloid Mycena 

M. galericulata (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer 

27. Fruiting bodies coUybioid, omphalioid or clitocyboid in habit; 

trama not amyloid Fayodia 

F. (Omphalia) bisphaerigera (Lange) Kuhner 

27. Fruiting bodies larger, more fleshy; lamellae more or less sinuate Tricholoma 

T. flavovirens (Pers. ex Fr.) Lundell 

28. Stipe excentric to lateral; habit pleurotoid 29 


29. Pileus and trama of lamellae gelatinous or with well-defined gelatinous 

layers present in the pileus, especially the cuticle 30 

29. No gelatinous layers present 31 

30. Spores white, smooth Resupinatus 

R. (Pleurotus) applicatus (Batsch ex Fr. sensu Kaufi'm.) S. F. Gray 

30. Spores rough, creamy pink Rhodotus 

R. (Pleurotus) palmatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Maire 

31. Veil at first covering the hymenium; resupinate or laterally 

attached, not stipitate Tectella 

T. (Partus) patellaris (Fr.) Murr. 

31. Veil lacking, or if present carpophore stipitate 32 

265


32. Hyphae of the pileus and gill trama predominantly thin-walled Pleurotus 

P. ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kummer 

32. Hyphae of trama mostly thick-walled 33 

33. Trama of lamellae intricately interwoven and subhymenium 

inconspicuous to absent Partus 

P. conchatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. 

33. Trama not intricately interwoven or if so then subhymenium 

very distinct 34 

34. Lamellae thick on edge; consistency dry and almost leathery Plicatura 

(= Trogia as used here) P. alni Peck 

34. Lamellae thin on edge 35 

35. Fruiting body tough; edge of lamellae serrate Lentinus 

L. lepideus Fr. 

35. Fruiting body fleshy; edge of lamellae even Pleurotus 

P. ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kummer 


36. Annulus lacking or veil leaving a fibrillose zone on upper 

part of stipe 38 

37. Cuticle of pileus composed of sphaerocysts Cystoderma 

C. amianthina (Scop, ex Fr.) Fayod 

37. Cuticle of pileus filamentous (see Lentinus also) Armillaria 

A. luteovirens (A. & S. ex Fr.) Gill. 

38. Lamellae waxy, typically flesh colored; spores echinulate 

(smooth in L. trullisata) Laccaria 

L. laccata (Scop, ex Fr.) B. & Br. 


39. Cuticle of pileus a turf of gelatinous, narrow, branched hyphae; 

stipe velvety-pubescent and fulvous to dark brown below 

from colored tomentum Flammulina 

F. (Collybia) velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing. 


40. Typically lignicolous in habit; cheilocystidia present, large; 

clamp connections present; cystidia on pileus when present decumbent 

as somewhat differentiated end cells of hyphae; 

rhizomorphs usually present at base Tricholomopsis 

T. (Tricholoma) rutilans (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Sing. 


41. Fruiting body, especially the lamellae, staining gray, bluish, or black, 

or if not staining then the lamellae gray and the cuticle of the 

pileus filamentous; color white to black, seldom brightly colored in 

any part; if lamellae white at first then basidia with 

carminophilous granulation Lyophyllum 

L. (Collybia) leucopheatum Karst. 


42. Stipe slender and cartilaginous to tough, or if thick, then with 

a clearly distinct, cartilaginous cortex 43 

42. Stipe typically fleshy in consistency, if thin then it is pliant 47 

266


43. Reviving when moistened 44 

43. Not reviving when moistened 45 

44. Hairs of pileus dark rusty brown in Melzer's solution Crinipellis 

C. ( Colly bia) stipitaria (Fr.) Pat. 

44. Without hairs as above Marasmius 

M. rotula (L. ex Fr.) Fr. 

45. Lamellae decurrent and margin of pileus incurved when young Omphalina 

O. (Omphalia) umbellifera (L. ex Fr.) Quel. 

45. Lamellae adnate to decurrent; margin of pileus straight or 

incurved but not in above combination 46 

46. Pileus typically convex to obtuse; margin incurved when young; 

hypoderm not differentiated; lamellae mostly adnate to subdecurrent Colly bia 

C. dryophila (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer 

46. Pileus conic to obtuse; margin typically straight or bent in slightly; 

hypodermal region often of enlarged cells; lamellae adnate to decurrent .... Mycena 

M. galericulata (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer 

47. Spores slightly rough, creamy to vinaceous; lamellae 

variously attached Lepista 

L. (Tricholoma) subaequalis (Britz.) Sing. 

47. Spores smooth, white to pale cream 48 

48. Lamellae typically decurrent to broadly adnate Clitocybe 

C. infundibuliformis (Schaeff, ex Fr.) Quel. 

48. Lamellae typically sinuate to adnexed at maturity Tricholoma 

T. flavovirens (Pers. ex Fr.) Lundell 

49. Spores pink to vinaceous cinnamon in mass 50 

49. Spores not as above 57 

50. Stipe lateral or lacking 51 


51. Spores angular Rhodophyllus 

(species formerly in Claudopus) 

51. Spores not angular Phyllotopsis 

P. (Claudopus) nidulans (Fers. ex Fr.) Sing. 

52. Spores angular or longitudinally striate 53 

52. Spores smooth or slightly echinulate 54 

53. Spores longitudinally striate Clitopilus 

C. prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer 

53. Spores angular Rhodophyllus 

R. (Entoloma) lividus (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. 

(includes Entoloma, Leptonia, Nolanea, Eccilia and some species 

formerly placed in Clitopilus) 

54. Volva present Volvariella 

V. argentina Speg. 

54. Volva absent 55 

55. Annulus present Chamaeota 

Agaricus xanthogrammus Cesati 


267


56. Lamellae free; spores smooth Pluteus 

P. cervinus (Schaeff. ex Seer.) Fr. 

56. Lamellae variously attached; spores slightly echinulate Lepista 

L. subaequalis (Britz. ) Sing. 

57. Spore deposit yellow-brown to purple-brown; spores truncate at apex, 

dull yellow-brown in KOH; cuticle of pileus not cellular 58 


58. Spores typically purple-brown in deposit; if dull rusty brown 

then annulus well developed; usually with a special type of cystidia 

with an amorphous internal body that stains golden yellow when 

mounted in ammonia (chrysocystidia); 

if lignicolous, chrysocystidia present Stropharia 

S. aeruginosa (Curt, ex Fr.) Quel. 


59, Chrysocystidia absent; stipe typically fleshy; spores rusty brown in mass; 

annulus usually present; habitat typically lignicolous Kuehneromyces 

K. (Pholiota) mutabilis (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Sing. & Smith 


60. Chrysocystidia present Naematoloma 

N. (Hypholoma) sublateritium (Fr.) Karst. 

60. Chrysocystidia absent Psiiocybe 

P. semilanceata (Fr.) ex Kummer 

6L Spore deposit typically bright rusty brown to earth-brown, spores truncate; 

cuticle of pileus cellular in structure 62 

6L Spore deposit typically cocoa-brown to chocolate, or if rusty 

brown to yellow then spores have not a truncate apex 64 

62. Pileus viscid and soft, often subdeliquescent; margin of pileus 

plicate-striate Bolbitius 

B. fragilis (L. ex Fr.) Fr. 


63. Stipe typically fleshy and spore deposit typically dull clay color 

to earth-brown (sec Psat/iyrella nho) Agrocybe 

A. (Pholiota) praecox (Pers. ex Fr.) Fayod 

63. Stipe typically cartilaginous; spore deposit bright rusty brown Conocybe 

C. (Galera) tenera (Schaeff. ex Fr. ) Fayod 

64, Spores smooth, lamellae readily separable from pileus Paxillus 

P. involutus (Batsch ex Fr.) Fr. 


65. Spore deposit yellow to dark rusty brown 66 

65. Spores cocoa-brown to chocolate or black 82 

66. Stipe excentric or lacking Crepidotus 

C. mollis (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer 

66. Stipe typically central 67 

67. Spores thin-walled (many collapsed spores usually visible in mounts); 

spore deposit typically pale yellow to ochraceous and spores very 

pale under the microscope Tubaria 

T. furfuracea (Pers. ex Fr.) Gill. 

67. Spores well pigmented and with appreciably thickened walls 68 

268


68. Spores smooth (use oil immersion) 69 

68. Spores roughened or angular 73 

69. Subhymenial zone typically well developed and gelatinous; 

typically lignicolous; often with an annulus, and stipe fibrillose 

to scaly below annulus or annular zone Pholiota 

P. squarrosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer 

69. Not as above, typically terrestrial (lignicolous in Gymnopilus) 70 

70. Stipe fleshy 71 

70. Stipe brittle, typically thin 72 

71. Pileus viscid; cystidia when present neither thick-walled 

nor encrusted Hebeloma 

H. fastibile (Fr.) Kummer 

71. Pileus dry or moist; if subviscid then encrusted cystidia 

present on sides of lamellae Inocybe 

I. trechispora (Berk.) Karst. 

72. Spores somewhat almond-shaped; margin of pileus appressed 

when young Galerina 

G. (Galera) rubiginosa (Pers. ex Fr.) KUhner 

72. Spores somewhat reniform in side view or elliptic; margin of 

pileus inrolled or incurved at first Naucoria 

N. centuncula (Fr.) Kummer 

73. Spores angular to nodulose or with prominent spines or 

compound nodules Inocybe 

I. trechispora (Berk.) Karst. 


74. Spores with a smooth area around the hilum Galerina 

G. rubiginosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer 


75. Membranous annulus present; volva rudimentary Rozites 

R. (Pholiota) caperata (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst. 


76. Typically lignicolous and spore deposit very bright rusty 

fulvous to orange-fulvous Gymnopilus^ 

G. (Flammula) liquiritiae (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst. 


77. Veil lacking and stipe long-radicating Phaeocollybia 

P. (Naucoria) festiva (Fr.) Heim. ex Sing. 


78. Lamellae separable from pileus Ripartites 

R. (Inocybe) tricholoma (A. & S. ex Fr.) Karst. 


79. Stipe thin and fragile; clamp connections absent Galerina 

G. rubiginosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer 

79. Stipe thick, or if thin then clamp connections present 80 

80. Typically associated with alder, and pileus showing some differentiation 

of the cuticle other than a gelatinous pellicle, or cystidia present 

on the pileus; stipe cartilaginous-brittle 

A. (Naucoria) submelinoides KUhner 

Alnicola 


269

EDIIiLH AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA 

81. Spore deposit rusty brown; cheilocystidia if present mostly clavate; 

pilcLis dry, to moist or viscid; partial veil cortinate Cortinarius 

C. violaccus ( L. ex Fr. ) Fr. 

81. Spore deposit clay color or dull brown; cheilocystidia typically elongate 

to filamentose-capitate; pileus viscid; partial veil more or less 

cortinate to membranous or lacking Heheloma 

H. jiistihile (Fr. ) Kummer 

82. Cuticle of pileus cellular or lamellae deliquescing or both 83 


83. Lamellae deliquescing at maturity Coprinus 

C. conuitiis (Miiller ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

83. Lamellae not deliquescing 84 

84. Sides of lamellae mottled by maturing spores; (see Pscithyrella 

also if pileus is fibrillose) Panaeolus 

P. canipaniilatus (L. ex Fr.) Quel. 


85. Pileus plicate-striate and pseudoparaphyses present Pseudocoprinus 

P. (Psathyrella) disseminatus (Pers. ex Fr.) Kijhner 

85. Never with both a plicate-striate pileus and pseudoparaphyses 86 

86. Spore deposit at first greenish, becoming purplish on drying Meldnophylliim 

M. (Agaricus) ccliinatiis (Roth ex Fr. ) Sing. 

86. Spore deposit never greenish Psathyrella 

P. gracilis (Fr.) Quel. 

87. Lamellae free or nearly so; stipe separating readiU from pileus Agaricus 

A. campestris L. ex Fr. 

87. Lamellae decurrent, somewhat waxy; stipe not separating 

readily from pileus Gomphidms 

G. glutinosus (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Fr. 

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Atkinson, G. F. 1911. Studies of American fungi, mushrooms, edible, poisonous, etc. 3rd 

ed. Holt and Co.. New York. 

Bandoni, R. J., and Szczawinski, A. F. 1976. Guide to common mushrooms of British 

Columbia. Revised ed. B.C. Prov. Mus., Handbook 24. Victoria. 

Child, G. P. 1952. The ability of coprini to sensitize man to ethvl alcohol. Mvcologia 

44:2()()-2()2. 

Christi NSFiN, C. M. 1943. Common edible mushrooms. Univ. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 

Minn. 

CooKF, M. C. 1881-1891. Illustrations of British fungi. Williams & Norgatc, London. 8 

vols. 

Di-.ARNFSS, J. 1911. The personal factor in mushroom poisoning. Mycologia 3:75-78. 

Fari.ow, W. Ci.. and Burt, F. A. 1929. Icones Farlowianae. Farlow Herbarium of Harvard 

Univ.. Cambridge. Mass. 120 pp.. 103 pi. 

Graham, V. O. 1970. Mushrooms of the Great Lakes Region. Dover Publ.. New York. 

(First published in 1944.) 

GiJssow, H. T.. and Odit i . W. S. 1927. Mushrooms and toadstools. Can. Dep. Agric, 

Ottawa. 

Hard, \t. 

Ohio. 

F. 1908. Mushiooms. edible and otherwise. Mushroom Publ. Co., Columbus, 

Hf.im, R. 1969. Champignons d'Furopc. Fditions N. Boubee. Paris. 

270

REFERENCES FOR SELECTED GROUPS 

Kauffman, C. H. 1971. The gilled mushrooms of Michigan and the Great Lakes Region. 

Dover Publ.. New York. (First published in 1918.) 

KoNRAD, P.. and Maublanc. A. 1924-1937. Iconcs Selectae Fungorum. Lechevalier. Paris. 

6 vols. 

Krieger, L. C. 1967. The mushroom handbook. Dover Publ.. New York. (First published 

in 1936.) 

KiJUNER, R., and Romagnesi. H. 1953. Flore analytique des champignons superieurs. 

Masson &. Cie.. Paris. 

Lange. J. E. 1935-1940. Flora Agaricina Danica. Soc. Adv. Mycol. Denmark & Danish 

Bot. Soc. Copenhagen. 5 vols. 

Lange, M., and Hora, F. B. 1963. Mushrooms and toadstools. E.P. Dutton, New York. 

McIlvaine, C, and Macadam, R. K. 1973. One thousand American fungi. Dover Publ.. 

New York. (First printed in 1902.) 

Michael, E., and Hennig. B. 1964-1971. Handbuch fiir Pilzfreunde. Quelle and Meyer. 

Heidelberg. 5 vols. 

Miller, O. K, 1972. Mushrooms of North America. E.P. Dutton, New York. 

MosER, H. 1978. Die Rohrlinge und Bliitterpilze (Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Russulales). 

/// H. Gams, Kleine Kryptogamenflora, Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart. 

Overholts, L. O. 1938. Mycological notes for 1934-35. Mycologia 30:269-279. 

PiLAT. A., and U§ak, O. 1958. Mushrooms. Spring Books, London. 

1961. Mushrooms and other fungi. Peter Nevill. London. 

Pomerleau, R. 1951. Mushrooms of Eastern Canada and the United States. Editions 

Chantecler, Montreal. 

Ramsrottom, J. 1953. Mushrooms and toadstools. Collins, London. 

Rea. C. 1922. British Basidiomycetae. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. 

ROLFE, R. T., and Rolfe, R. W. 1928. The romance of the fungus world. Lippincott, 

Philadelphia. 

Romagnesi, H. 1956-1967. Nouvel atlas des champignons. Bordas, Paris. 4 vols. 

1962. Petit atlas des champignons de France. Bordas, Paris. 3 vols. 

Shaffer, R. L. 1968. Keys to the genera of higher fungi. Univ. Michigan Biol. Stn.. Ann 

Arbor. 

Singer, R. 195 1 . The Agaricales (mushrooms) in modern taxonomy. Lilloa 22: 1-832. 

1961. Mushrooms and truffles. Interscience Publishers, New York. 

1962. The Agaricales in modern taxonomy. 2nd ed. J. Cramer, Weinheim. 

Singer, R. 1975. The Agaricales in modern taxonomy. 3rd ed. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 

Smith, A. H. 1938. Common edible and poisonous mushrooms of Southeastern Michigan. 

Cranbrook Inst. Sci.. Bull. 14, 71 pp. 

1949. Mushrooms in their natural habitats. Sawyers Inc., Portland, Ore. Vol. 1, 

626 pp.; Vol. 2, 33 Viewmaster reels. stereo-Kodachromes. Vol. 1 reprinted by Hafner 

Press, New York. 1973. 

1963. The mushroom hunter's field guide. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

Revised. 

Smith, A. H. 1975. A field guide to western mushrooms. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

Smith, H. V., and Smith. A. H. 1973. How to know the non-gilled fleshy fungi. Wm. Brown 

Co., Dubuque. 

Thomas, W. S. 1948. Field book of common mushrooms. Putnam and Sons, New York. 

Wakefield, E. M.. and Dennis. R. W. G. 1950. Common British fungi. P. R. Gawthorn. 

London. 


AGARICUS 

EssETTE, H. 1964. Les psalliotes. Lechevalier, Paris. 

Hotson, J. W.. and Stuntz, D. E. 1938. The genus Ai>aricii.s in western Washington. 

Mycologia 30:204-234. 

Moller. F. H. 1950-1952. Danish P.sY////>;m species: I & II. Friesia 4: 1-60. 135-242. 

PiLAT, A. 1951. The Bohemian species of the genus Ai>ariciis. Acta Mus. Nat. Pragae 7. B. 

1-142. 

27J


AMANITA 

Bas, C. 1969. Morphology and subdivision of Amanita and a monograph of its section 

Lepidella. Persoonia 5:285-579. 

CoKER, W. C. 1917. The Amanitas of the Eastern United States. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 

33:1-88. 

Gilbert, E. J. 1940-1941. Amanitaceae (Supplement to honoi'iaphia Mycoloîca of 

Bresadola). Comitato Onoranze Bresadoliane, Milan. 

Heinemann, p. 1964. Les Amanitees. Naturalistes belg. 45: 1-15. 

HoTSON, J. W, 1936. The Amanitae of Washington. Mycologia 28:63-76. 

Jenkins, D. T. 1977. A taxonomic and nomenclatural study of the genus Amanita Section 

Amanita for North America. Biblotheca Mycologica 57. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 

JOLY, P. 1967. Cles des principales amanites de la flore frangaise. Rev. Mycol. 32 (suppl. 

2):162-175. 

PoMERLEAU. R. 1966. Les amanites du Quebec. Nat. Can. (Que.) 93:861-887. 

See references under Amanita. 

AMANITOPSIS 

ARMILLARIA 

HoTSON, H. H. 1940. The genus Armillaria in western Washington. Mycologia 32:776-790. 

Kauffman, C. H. 1923. The genus Armillaria in the United States and its relationships. 

Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts & Lett. 2:53-67. 

MiTCHEL, D. H., and Smith, A. H. 1976. Notes on Colorado fungi. 11. Species of Armillaria 

(Fr.) Kummer (Agaricales). Mycotaxon 4:513-533. 

RoMAGNESi, H. 1970-1973. Observations sur les Armillariella. I and IL Bull. Soc. Mycol. 

France 86:257-265; 89: 195-206. 

See also Singer ( 1951 ) under general bibliography (as Armillariella). 

ASCOMYCETES 

Dennis, R. W. G. 1977. British Ascomycetes. 3rd ed. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 

Shaver, F. J. 1961. The North American cup fungi (Operculates and Inoperculates). 

Hafner, New York. 2 vols. (First printed in 1928.) 

Weber, N. S. 1972. The genus Helvella in Michigan. Mich. Bot. 11:1 47-20 1 

See also Smith and Smith ( 1973 ) under general bibliography. 

BOLETACEAE 

CoKER, W. C, and Beers, A. H. 1974. The Boletaceae of North Carolina. Dover Publ.. 

New York. (First printed in 1943.) 

Grund, D. W., and Harrison, K. A. 1976. Nova Scotian Boletes. Biblotheca Mycologica 47. 

J. Cramer, Vaduz. 

Singer, R. 1945-1947. The Boletineae of Florida with notes on extralimital species: I-IV. 

Farlowia 2:97-141, 223-303, 527-567; Am. Midi. Nat. 37: 1-135. 

Slipp, a. W., and Snell, W. H. 1944. Taxonomic-ecologic studies of the Boletaceae in 

northern Idaho and adjacent Washington. Lloydia 7: 1-66. 

Smith, A. H., and Thiers, H. D. 1964. A contribution toward a monograph of North 

American species of Suillus. Publ. by the authors, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

1971. The Boletes of Michigan. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

Smith, A. H., Thiers, H. D., and Watling, R. 1966-1967. A preliminary account of the 

North American species of Lecciniim. NlTch. Bot. 5:131-179 (section Leccinitm): 

6 : 1 07- 1 54 ( sections Luteoscabra and Scabra ) 

Snell, W. H., 1936. Tentative keys to the Boletaceae of the United States and Canada. 

Rhode Island Bot. Club Publ. 1 . 25 pp. 

Snell, W. H., and Dick, E. A. 1970. The Boleti of Northeastern North America. J. 

Cramer, Lehre. 

Thiers, H. D. 1963. The bolete flora of the gulf coastal plain: I. The Strobilomycetaceae. 

J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 79:32-41. 

1965. The genus Xerocomiis Quelet in Northern California. Madrono 17:237-249. 

1965. California boletes: I. Mycologia 57:524-534. 

1966. California boletes: II. Mycologia 58:815-826. 

272 

1967. California boletes: III. Madrono 19: 148-160. 

1971. California boletes: IV. The genus Lecciniim. Mycologia 63:161-276. 

. 

.


Thiers, H. D. 1975. California mushrooms. A field guide to the Boletes. Hafner Press, New 

York. 


CANTHARELLUS 

BiGELOW, H.E.I 978. The cantharelloid fungi of New England and adjacent areas. Mycologia 

70:707-756. 

Corner. E. J. H. 1966. A monograph of the Cantharelloid fungi. Oxford Univ. Press, 

London. 

Smith, A. H. 1968. The Cantharellaceae of Michigan. Mich. Bot. 7: 143-183. 

Smith, A. H.. and Morse, E. 1947. The genus Cantharellus in the western United States. 



CLAVARIACEAE 

CoKER, W. C, and Couch, J. N. 1923. The Clavarias of the United States and Canada. 

Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 

Corner, E. J. H. 1950. A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera. Ann. Bot. Mem. 1. 

740 pp. 

1970. Supplement to "A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera." Nova 

Hedwigia 33: 1-299. 

Doty, M. S. 1944. Clavaria, the species known from Oregon and the Pacific Northwest. 

Ore. State College Press, Corvallis. 

Leathers, C. R. 1955. The genus Clavaria Fries in Michigan. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. Michigan. 

Unpubl. (Available from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.) 

Marr, C. D., and Stuntz, D. E. 1973. Ranuiria of Western Washington. Bibliotheca 

Mycologia, Vol. 38. 

Perreau, J. 1969. Les clavaires. Rev. Mycol. 33 (suppl. 5) : 396-41 5. 

Petersen, R. H. 1968. The genus Claviilinopsis in North America. Mycologia Mem. 2. 

1971. The genera Gompluis and Glococautharellus in North America. J. Cramer, 

Lehre. 

Wells, V. L., and Kempton, P. E. 1968. A preliminary study of Clavariadclphiis in North 

Ariierica. Mich. Bot. 7:35-57. 

See also Smith and Smith ( 1 973 ) under general bibliography. 

CLITOCYBE 

BiGELOW, H. E. 1965. The genus Clitocxhe in North America: \. Section Clitocxbe. Lloydia 

28:139-180. 

1968. The genus Clitocxhe in North America: IL Section Infundihuliformes. 

Lloydia 31:43-62. 

BiGELOW, H. E., Miller, O. K., and Thiers, H. D. 1976. A new species of Omphalotus. 

Mycotaxon 3:363-372. 

BiGELOW, H. E., and Smith, A. H. 1969. The status of Lepista - a new section of Clitocyhc. 

Brittonia 21: 144-177. 

Harmaja, H. 1969. The genus Clitocybe (Agaricales) in Fennoscandia. Karstenia 10:5- 

168. 

Kauffman, C. H. 1927. The genus Clitocyhe in the United States, with a critical study of 

all the north temperate species. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts & Lett. 8: 153-214. 

Metrod, G. 1946, 1951. Revision des Clitocybes. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 62:42-49; 

67:387-403. 

CLITOPILUS 

See Hesler (1967) under E///o/t>/;j« and Singer (1951) under the general bibliography. 

COLLYBIA 

BiGELOW, H. E. 1973. The genus Clitocybula. Mycologia 65:1101-1116. 

Metrod, G. 1952. LesCollybies. Rev. Mycol. 17 (suppl. 1 ): 60-93. 

CONOCYBE 

Kits van Waveren, E. 1970. The genus Conocyhe subgenus Pholiolina: 1. Persoonia 

6:119-165. 

273


KuHNrR, R. 1935. I c genre Cdlcra. l.echevalier. Paris. 

Wafiinc;, R. \91 \ .The genus Conocy/w subgenus Pliolioiiiui: II. F^Msoonia 6; 3 I 3-.V39. 

COPRINUS 

Kits van Wavfrf.n, E. 

5:131-176. 

1968. The '^stcnorctrius group" of the genus Copriiitis. Persoonia 

Langi , M. 1952. Species concept in the genus Copr'uut.s. Dansk Bot. Ark. 14: 1-164. 

Langf. M., and Smith, A. H. 1953. The Coprinus cphenicrns group. Mvcologia 45:747- 

780. 

Pll AT, A., and Svrcfk. M. 1967. Revision specierum sectionis Hcrhicolac generia Coprinus. 

Ceska Mycol. 21 : 1 36-145. 

Van of Bogart, F. 1976. The genus Coprinus in 

Coprinus. Mycotaxon 4:233-275. 

western North America, Part 1 : Section 

CORTINARIUS 

Ammirati. J. F. 1972. The section Dcrniocybc of Coriinanus in North America. Ph.D. 

Diss., Univ. Michigan. Unpuhl. (Available from Universitv Microfilms. Ann Arbor. 

Mich.) 

Bertaux, a. 1966. Les Cortinaires. Lechevalier, Paris. 

Henry. R. 1958. Suite a I'etude des Cortinaires. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 74:249-422. 

1967-1969. Etude provisoire du genre Hydrocybe: Hydrocybes a pied attenue a la 

base. Bull.Soc. Mycol. France 83:989-1046:84:396-421:85:385-449. 

Kauffman, C. H. 1932. Cortinarius. North Am. Flora 10:282-348. 

MosER, M. 1960. Die Gattung P/ilci>nuuiuni. Pilze Mitteleuropas IV. Kiinkhardt. Bad 

Heilbrunn. 

1969-1970. Cortinarius Fr. Untcrgattung Leprocvbe subgen. nov.. Die Rauhkopfe. 

Zeitschr. Pilzk. 35:213-248; 36:37-57. 

Smith, A. H. 1942. New and unusual Cortinarii from Michigan, with a key to the North 

American species of subgenus Bulbopodium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 69:44-64. 

1944. New and interesting Cortinarii from North America. Lloydia 7: 163-235. 

CREPIDOTUS 

Hesler. L. R.. and Smith. A. H. 1965. North American species of Crepidotus. Hafner. 

New York. 

Pii AT. A. 1948. Monographic des especes europeennes du genre Crepidotus Fr. Atlas de 

Champignons de L'Europe 6. Prague. 

CYSTODERMA 

Smith, A. H.. and Singer. R. 1945. A monograph on the genus Cystodemui. Pap. Mich. 

Acad.Sci.. Arts & Lett. 30:125-147. 

Sec also Hotson ( 1940) imder Armillaria. 

ENTOLOMA 

Hesiêr. L. R. 1967. Entolonui ( Rhodophyllus) in Southeastern North America. Nova 

Hedw. Beih. 23. 

Peck. C. H. 1909. New York species of Entolotna. Bull. N.Y. State Mus. 13:47-58. 

FLAMMULA 

Hesler. L. R. 1969. North American species of Gymnopilus. Mycologia Mem. 3. 

Kauffman. C. H. 1926. The genera Flaniniula and Paxil Ius and the status of the American 

species. Am. J. Bot. 13: 1 1-32. 

See also Smith and Hesler ( 1968) under Pholiota for a treatment of some of the species. 

GASTROMYCETES 

Brodie, H. J. 1975. The bird's nest fungi. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont. 

CoKER. W. C. and Couch. J. N. 1968. The Gastromycetes of the Eastern United States 

and Canada. J. Cramer, Lehre. (First printed in 1928 by Univ. North Carolina Press. 

Chapel Hill.) 

Dissing, H., and Lange, M. 1961-1962. The genus Geastrum in Denmark. Bot. Tidsskr. 

57: 1-27; 58:64-67. 

274


EcKBLAD. F. E. 1955. The gastromycetes of Norway. Nytt Mag. Bot. 4: 19-86. 

Kreisel, H. 1967. Taxonomisch-pflanzengeographische Monographic der Gattung Bovisui. 

Nova Hedw. Beih. 25. 

Singer. R. 1963. Notes on secotiaceous fungi: Galeropsis and Brauniella. Proc. Kon. Ned. 

Akad. Wetensch., Ser. C, 66: 106-1 17. 

Singer, R.. and Smith, A. H. 1958-1960. Studies on secotiaceous fungi: I. Tha.\tero}>aster. 

Brittonia 10:201-216, 1958. II. Etidoptychiim. ibid 10:216-221, 1958. III. Weraroa. 

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 85:324-334, 1959. IV. Gastroboleius, Truncocolumella, 

Chamonixia. Brittonia 11:205-223. 1959. V. hJivatogastrium. ibid 11:224-228, 1959. 

VI. Setchelliogaster. Madrofio 15:73-79, 1960. VII. Secotium and Neosecotium. ibid 

15:152-158, 1960. VIII. Brauniella. Mycologia 50:927-938, 

ceous series. Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 21:1-1 12, 1960. 

1958. IX. Astrogastra- 

Smith, A. H. 1951. Puffballs and their allies in Michigan. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann 

Arbor. 

Smith, A. H., and Zeller, S. M. 1966. A preliminary account of the 

species oi Rhizopogon. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 14(2) : 1-177. 

North American 

Soehner, E. 1962. Monographic der Gattung Hymenogaster. Nova Hedw. Beih. 2. 

Zeller, S. M. 1949. Keys to the orders, families, and genera of the gastromycetes. 

Mycologia 41 : 36-58. 

Zeller, S. M., and Smith, A. H. 1964. The genus Calvatia in North America. Lloydia 

27:148-186. 

.S>e fl/.vr> Shaffer (1968) and Smith and Smith (1973) under general bibliography. 

GOMPHIDIUS 

Miller, O. K. 1964. Monograph of CliroogoiupJius (Gomphidiaceae). Mycologia 56:526- 

549. 

— 1971. The genus Gomphidiiis with a revised description of the Gomphidiaceae and 

a key to the genera. Mycologia 63: 1 129-1 163. 

Singer. R. 1949. The genus Gomphidiiis Fries in North America. Mycologia 41 :462-489. 

HEBELOMA 

Bruchlt, G. 1970. Contribution a Tetude du genre Hebclonia (Fr.) Kummer; partie 

speciale. Bull. Soc. Linn. Lyon 39 (suppl. 6) : 

1-1 32. 

MosER. M. 1970. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Hebclonia. Zeitschr. Pilzk. 36:61-75. 

Peck, C. H. 1910. New York species of //^/)W(>/?;rt. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 139:67-77. 

Romagnesi. H. 1965. Etudes sur le genre Hebclonia. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 81 :321-344. 

HYDNACEAE 

CoKLR, W. C, and Beers, A. H. 1951. The stipitate hydnums of the Eastern United States. 

Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 

Hall, D., and Stuntz, D. E. 1971. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area. I. Whitespored 

genera: Aitriscalpiuni, Hcriciiini, Dentinuni and Phcllodon. Mycologia 

63:1099-1128. 

1972. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area. II. Brown-spored genera: Hydniim. 

Mycologia 64:15-37, 

1972. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area. III. Brown-spored genus: Hydnclliini. 


Harrison, K. A. 1961. The stipitate hydnums of Nova Scotia. Can. Dep. Agric. Publ. 1099. 

1968. Studies on the hydnums of Michigan: I. Genera Phellodon, Bankera. Hydnelliim. 

Mich. Bot. 7:212-264. 

1973. The genus Hericiiini in North America. Mich. Bot. 12: 177-194. 

Maas Geesteranus, R. A. 1956-1959. The stipitate hydnums of the Netherlands: I-IV. 

Fungus 26:44-60; 27:50-71 ; 28:48-61. Persoonia 1 : 1 15-147. 

See also Smith and Smith ( 1973) under general bibliography. 

HYGROPHORUS 

HiSLER, L. R.. and Smith. A. H. 1963. North American species of Hygrophonts. Univ. 

Tennessee Press. Knoxville. 

Smith, A. H., and Hesier, L. R. 1938, 1942. Studies in North American species of 

Hygrophonts: I & II. Lloydia 2: 1-62; 5: 1-94. 

275

HDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA 

INOCYBH 

Grund, D. W., and Stuntz, D. F. I96S. 1970. Nova Scotian Inocybes: I & II. Mycologia 

60:406-425; 62:925-939. 

Grund, D. W., and Stuntz, D. E. 1975. Nova Scotian Inocybes. III. Mycologia 67:19-31. 

IV. Mycologia 69:392-408. 

Heim, R. 1931. Le Genre Inocyhc. Lechevalier. Paris. 

Kauffman, C. H. 1924. Inocyhc. North Am. Flora 10:227-260. 

KiJHNi R, R., and Boursifr, J. 1928, 1932. 1933. Les Inocybes goniospores. Bull. Soc. 

Mycol. France 44:l70-189;48:Ii8-161;49: 81-121. 

MtTROD, G. 1956. Les Inocybes leiospores a cystides courtes. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 

72:122-131. 

Peck, C.H. 1910. New York species of //;'cv/>t'. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 139:48-67. 

Stuntz, D. F. 1947. Studies in the genus Inocyhc. I. New and noteworthy species from 

Washington. Mycologia 39:21-55. 

LACCARIA 

SiNCjhK. R. 1967. Notes sur le genre Laccr/r/rt. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 83 : 

LACTARIUS 

104-123. 

Coker, W. C. 1918. The Lactarias of North Carolina. .1. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 34:1-61. 

BuRLiNGHAM, G. 1910. Loctaria. North Am. Flora 9: 172-200. 

Heinemann, p. 1960. Les Lactaires. Nat. Belg. 41 : 133-156. 

Hfsler, L. R., and Smith, A. H. 1960. Studies on Lactariiis: I. The North American 

species of section Lactariiis. Brittonia 12:119-139. II. The North American species of 

section Scrobiciilus, Crocei, Theioâli, and Velliis. ihid 12:306-350. 

Hesler, L. R., and Smith, A. H. (in press). The North American species of the genus Lactariiis 

(Russulaceae). Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

Neuhoff, W. 1956. Die Milchlinge. Klinkhardt Verlag, Bad Heilbrunn. 

Smith, A. H., and Hesler, L. R. 1962. Studies on Lactariiis: III. The North American 

species of section P/m///f>>^!,'rt//. Brittonia 14:369-440. 

LFNTINUS 

Miller, O. K., and Stewart, L. 1971. The genus Lcntincllus. Mycologia 63:333-369. 

PiiXr. A. 1946. Monographic des especes europeennes du genre Lcniinns Fr. Atlas des 

Champignons de TEurope 5, Prague. 

See also Singer ( 1951 ) in the general bibliography. 

LEPIOTA 

Kauffman, C. H. 1924. The genus Lepiota in the United States. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci.. 

Arts& Lett. 4:311-344. 

KiJHNER. R. 1936. Recherches sur le genre Lepiota. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 52: 177-238. 

Smith, H. V. 1954. A revision of the Michigan species of Lepiota. Lloydia 17:307-328. 

LEPTONIA 

Largent, D. L. 1977. The genus Leptonia on the Pacific coast of the United States— Including 

a study of the North American types. Biblotheca Mycologia 55. J. Cramer, Vaduz. 

Largent. D. L.. and Benedict. R. G. 1970. Studies in the rhodophylloid fungi: 11. 

Alholeptonia, a new genus. Mycologia 62:437-452. 

See also Hesler ( 1967) under Entoloma. 

LEUCOPAXILLUS 

Singer, R.. and Smith, A. H. 1943. A monograph of the genus Leiuopaxillns. Pap. Mich. 

Acad. Sci.. Arts & Lett. 28:85-132. 

LIMACELLA 

Smith, H. V. 1945. The genus Liniacella in North America. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci.. Arts & 

Lett. 30:125-147. 

MARASMIUS 

Gilliam, M. S. 1975, Marasniiiis section Chordales in the Northeastern United States and 

adjacent Canada. Contrib. Univ, Mich, Herb. ll(2):25-40, 

276 

1976, The genus Marasmiiis in the Northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. 

Mycotaxon 4:1-144.

MELANOLEUCA 


GiLLMAN, L. S., and Miller, O. K. 1977. A study of the Boreal, Alpine, and Arctic species of 

Mclanolcuca. Mycologia 69:927-951. 

Metrod, G. 1948. Essai siir le genre Melanoleiica Patouillard emen. Bull. Soc. Mycol. 

France 64:141-165. 

MYCENA 

KiJHNER, R. 1938. Le genre Mycena. Lechevalier, Paris. 

Smith, A. H. 1947. North American species of Mjce/io. Univ. Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. 

NAEMATOLOMA 

Smith. A. H. 1951. North American species of A^f/£'/»a/o/o///rt. Mycologia 43 :467-52 1 

NAUCORIA 

RoMAGNESi, H. 1962. Les Naucoria du group centunculus {Raniicola Velen.). Bull. Soc. 

Mycol. France 78:337-358. 

5£'£' rtAvo Kijhner and Romagnesi (1953) under general bibliography. 

NOLANEA 

Mazzer, S. J. 1976. A monographic study of the genus Pouzarclla. Biblotheca Mycologica 

46, J, Cramer, Vaduz, 

See also Hesler ( 1967) under Entolonia. 

PANAEOLUS 

Ola'h, G. M. 1970. V.Q gQnxQ Panaeoliis. Rev, Mycol. Mem. 10. 

PANUS 

Mil LER. O. K. 1970. The genus Panellus in North America. Mich Bot. 9: 17-30. 

PAXILLUS 

See Kauftman ( 1926) under Flamnuda and Singer ( 1951 ) under general bibliography. 

PHAEOLEPIOTA 

Only one species known. 

Overholts, L. O. 

PHOLIOTA 

1927. A monograph of the genus PhoHota in the United States. Ann. 

Mo. Bot.Gard. 14:87-210. 

Smith, A. H., and Hesler. L. 

Publ.Co., New York. 

Only one species known. 

R. 1968. The North American species of PlwUotu. Hafner 

PHYLLOTOPSIS 

PLEUROTUS 

Coker, W. C. 1944. The smaller species of Pleurotus in North Carolina. J. Elisha Mitchell 

Sci. Soc. 60:71-95. 

Miller, O. K., and Manning, D. L. 1976. Distribution of the Lignicolous Tricholomataceae 

in the Southern Appalachians, Pages 307-344 //; B. C. Parker and M. K. Roane, eds. The 

distributional history of the Biota of the Southern Appalachians, IV., Univ. Press of 

Virginia, Charlottesville. 

PiLAT, A. 1935. Pleurotus. Atlas des champignons de I'Europe 2. Prague. 

See also Singer (1951) under general bibliography. 

PLUTEUS 

HoMOLA, R. L. 1972. Section Celluloderma of the genus Pluteus in North America. 

Mycologia 64: 121 1-1247. 

Singer, R. 1956. Contributions toward a monograph of the genus Pluteus. Trans. Brit. 

Mycol. Soc. 39:145-232. 

POLYPORACEAE 

BoNDARTSEV, A. S. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the European USSR and Caucasia. Acad. 

Sci. USSR, Leningrad. (English translation published by U.S. Dept. Agric. 1971.) 

DoMANSKi. S. 1972. Fungi (Polyporaceae I). Nat. Center Sci., Tech. & Econ. Inf., Warsaw. 

DoMANSKi. S., Ortos, H., and Skirgietto, A. 1973. Fungi (Polyporaceae II). Nat. Center 

Sci., Tech. & Econ. Inf,, Warsaw. 

. 

277


Fergus, C. L. 1960. Illustrated genera of wood decay fungi. Burgess Publ. Co.. Minneapolis. 

Minn. 

Lowe, J. L. 1957. Polyporaceae of North America. The genus Foiues. Tech. Publ. N.Y. 

State Coll. For. 80. 

1966. The genus Foria. Tech. Publ. N.Y. State Coll. For. 90. 

Lowe, J. L. 1975. Polyporaceae of North America: The genus Tyromyccs. Mycotaxon 2:1-82. 

Lowe, J. L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1961. Synopsis of the Polyporaceae of the western 

United States and Canada. Mycologia 53:474-51 1. 

OvERHOLTS, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska and Canada. Univ. 

Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 

Ryvarden, L. 1976-1978. The Polyporaceae of North Europe. I and IL Fungiflora. Oslo. 

See also Smith and Smith ( 1973) under general bibliography. 

PSATHYRELLA 

Smith, A. H. 1972. The North American species of Psathyrella. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Card.. 

Hafner Press, N.Y. 

PSEUDOCOPRINUS 

See Lange and Smith (1953) under Coprinus. 

RUSSULA 

Beardsi.ee. H. C. 1918. The Russulas of North Carolina. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 

33:147-197. 

Blum, J. 1962. Les Russules: flore monographique des Russules de France et des pays 

voisins. Lechevalier, Paris. 

BuRLiNGHAM, G. 1915. Riissula. North Am. Flora 9:201-236. 

Crawshay, R. 1930. The spore ornamentation of the Russulas. Bailliere. Tindall and Co.x. 

London. 

Heinemann, p. 1962. Les Russules. Nat. Belg. 43 : 

1-32. 

Rayner, R. W. 1968-1970. Keys to the British species of Rtissnia. Bull. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 

2:76-108; 3:59; 3:89-120; 4: 19-46. 

Romagnesi, H. 1967. Les Russules d'Europe et d'Afrique du Nord. Bordas. Paris. 

ScHAEFFER, J. 1952. Russiila-Monographie. Klinkhardt Verlag, Bad Heilbrunn. 

Shaffer, R. L. 1964. The subsection Lactarioideae of Russula. Mycologia 56:202-231. 

1970. Notes on subsection Crassotunicatinae and other species of Russula. Lloydia 

33:49-96. 

1972. North American Russulas of the subsection Foetentinae. Mycologia 64: 

1008-1053. 

Shaffer, R. L. 1975. Some common North American species of Russula subsection Emeticinae. 

Beih. Nova Hedw. 51:207-237; pis. 49-54. 

SCHIZOPHYLLUM 

Cooke, W. B. 1961. The genus Schizopliyllum. Mycologia 53 :575-599. 

Linder, D. H. 1933. The genus Schizophvilum: \. The species of the western hemisphere. 

Am. J. Bot. 20:552-564. 

STROPHARIA 

See Kiihner and Romagnesi (1953) under general bibliography. 

THELEPHORACEAE 

Corner. E. J. H. 1968. A monograph of Thelephora (Basidiomycetes). Nova Hedw. Beih. 

27. 

The genus Craterellus is treated in the Cantharellaceae by most authors. 

TREMELLALES 

Martin, G. W. 1952. Revision of the North Central Tremellales. State Univ. Iowa Stud. 

Nat. Hist. 19(3). 

See also Smith and Smith (1973 ) under general bibliography. 

TRICHOLOMA 

BoN, M. 1967-1970. Revision des Tricholomes. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 83:324-335; 

85:475-492:86:755-763. 

278

Malloch, D. 1974. Tricholonia juhiiiu. Fungi Can. 31. (Includes a key to Tricholonia 

species with brown, viscid caps and farinaceous flesh.) 

Metrod. G. 1942. Les Tricholomes. Rev. Mycol. 7 (suppl. 2) :22-50. 

Smith. A. H. 1960. Tricholomopsis (Agaricales) in the western hemisphere. Brittonia 

12:41-70. 

See also Bigelow and Smith ( 1969) under Clitocyhe. 

TROGIA 

No other species can be confused with T. crispa. It is now usually placed in the genus 

Plicati/rn. 

TUBARIA 

See KUhner and Romagnesi ( 1953) under general bibliography. 

VOLVARIELLA 

Shaffer, R. L. 1957. Volvariella in North America. Mycologia 49:545-579. 

XEROMPHALINA 

Miller. O. K. 1968. A revision of the genus A'^/v;/?//?/^///?^. Mycologia 60: 156-188. 

279


374. Geastrum triplex. 375. Lycoperdon perlatum. 

376. Morchella esculenta. 371. M. angusticeps. 

378. Verpa bohemica. 379. Gyromitra esculenta. 

380. G.infula. 381. Peziza repanda 

382. Sarcoscypha coccinea. 383. Urnula craterium. 

280

281

282 

Figure 384. Hebeloma sinapizans.

Figure 385. Conocybe crispa. 

Figures 386-387. Stropharia aeruginosa. 

283

284 

00 

90 

3

285 

V. 

ft. 

ON 

00 

3

286 

Figures 390-391. Coprinus atramentarius.

Figures 392-393. Coprinus comatus. 

287

288 

Figure 394. Panaeolus foenisecii. 

Figure 395. Pseudocoprinus disseminatus.

Figure 396. Ganoderma tsugae. 

Figure 397. Polyporus frondosus. 

396 

397 

289

290 

4 *• 

Figure 398. Clavaria cinerea. 

Figure 399. Clavaria fiava. 

399;

Figure 400. Dictyophora duplicata. 

Figures 401-403. Bovista pila. 

291

292 

Figures 404-405. Calvatia gigantea. 404, whole specimen; 405, section. 

Figures 406-407. Lycoperdon perla turn. 406, whole specimen; 407, section.

293

294 

,' 

Figure 409. Helvetia crispa. 

Figure 410. Helvella elastica. 

I 

409 

410

Figure 411. Cantharellus cibarius. 

Figure 412. Lactarius deliciosus. 

295

296 

Figure 413. Pleurotus serotinus. 

Figure 414. Clitocybe clavipes.

Figure 415. Xeromphalina campanella. 

Figure 416. CoUybia platyphylla. 

297

298 

00 

.ex 

-5 

a 

3 

00 

3

Figure 419. Trogia crispa. 

419 

299

300 

Figure 420. CUtopilus abortivus. 

Figure 421. Phyllotopsis nidulans.

Figure 422. Pholiota caperata. 

Figure 423. Naematoloma sublateritium. 

301

302 

I 

Figure 424. Panaeolus retirugis. 

Figure 425. Strobilomyces floccopus. 

'Â 

424 

425

303 

60

304

Figure 429. Gyromitra esculenta. 

305

306 

Figure 430. Gyromitra infula.

Figure 431. Psilocybe semilanceata. 

307

ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF AUTHORS 

A. — J. B. von Albertini 

Alb. — J. B. von Albertini 

Afz. — A. Afzelius 

Atk. — G. F. Atkinson 

B. — M. J. Berkeley 

Berk. — M. J. Berkeley 

Bolt. — J. Bolton 

Boud. — E. Boudier 

Br. — C. E. Broome 

Bref. — O. Brefeld 

Bres. — G. Bresadola 

Britz. — M. Britzelmayr 

Bull. — J. B. F. BuUiard 

Burl. — Gertrude S. Burlingham 

C. — M. A. Curtis 

Cke. — M. C. Cooke 

Curt. — M. A. Curtis 

DC. — A. P. De CandoUe 

Dicks. — J. Dickson 

Fr. — E. M. Fries 

Genev. — G. Genevier 

Gill. — C. C. Gillet 

Hook. — W. J. Hooker 

Huds. — W. Hudson 

Jacq. -— N, J. von Jacquin 

Jungh. — F. F. W. Junghuhn 

Kalchb. — K. Kalchbrenner 

Karst. — P. A. Karsten 

Kauffm. — C. H. Kauffman 

Kl. — J. F. Klotzch . 

Konr. — P. Konrad 

Krombh. — J. V. von Krombholz 

L. — C. Linnaeus 

Lam. — J. B. A. P. M. de Lamarck 

Lindbl. — M. A. Lindblad 

Lovej. — Ruth H. Lovejoy 

Lund. — S. Lundell 

Mass. — G. Massee 

Maubl. — A. Maublanc 

Morg. — A. P. Morgan 

MUU. — O. F. Muller 

Murr. — W. A. Murrill 

Nannf. — J. A. Nannfeldt 

Opat. — W. Opatovi'ski 

Pat. — N. T. Patouillard 

Pk. — C. H. Peck 

Pers. — C. H. Persoon 

Quel. — L. Quelet 

Rom. — L. Romell 

S. — L. D. von Schweinitz 

Sacc. — P. A. Saccardo 

Schaeff. — J. C. Schaeffer 

Schrad. — H. A. Schrader 

Schrot. — J. Schroter 

Schw. — L. D. von Schvi'einitz 

Sebum. — H. D. F. Schumacher 

Scop. — J. A. Scopoli 

Seer. — L. Secretan 

Sing. — R. Singer 

Sm. — A. H. Smith 

Sor. — N. V. Sorokin 

Sow. — J. Sowerby 

Speg. — C. L. Spegazzini 

Sw. — O. P. Swartz 

TuL — E. L. R. Tulasne and C. Tulasne 

Underw. — L. M. Underwood 

Vaill. — S. Vaillant 

Vitt. — C. Vittadini 

Wahl. — G. Wahlenberg 

Weinm. — J. A. Weinmann 

309

a:- prefix signifying without or absence of. 

acrid: a biting or peppery taste. 

adnate: (of lamellae) broadly joined to the 

stipe; (of cuticle or volva) not peeling 

off or pulling off readily. 

adnexed: (of lamellae) narrowly joined to 

the stipe. 

allantoid: sausage-shaped. 

alutaceous: light leather-colored, pale tan, 

pale brown. 

amygdaline: (of taste) like that of peach or 

cherry stones. 

amyloid: turning blue when treated with a 

solution of iodine in chloral hydrate and 

water. 

anastomose, anastomosing: (of lamellae) 

joined crosswise forming angular areas 

or a network. 

annulus: ring of tissue left on the stipe from 

the torn partial veil. 

apical: (of stipe) the part near the attachment 

of the lamellae or where it joins 

the flesh of the pileus, the upper part. 

apiculate: provided with an apiculus. 

apiculus: (of spores) a short, sometimes 

sharp papilla or projection by which the 

spore was attached to the sterigma. 

apothecium: the usually cup-shaped or 

saucer-shaped to saddle-shaped fruiting 

body of Discomycetes in which a layer 

of asci is exposed to the air. 

appendiculate: (of the margin of the pileus) 

hung with fragments of the veil or 

pellicle. 

appressed: closely flattened down. 

arcuate: arched or curved like a bow. 

areolate: (of the surface of the pileus, or 

stipe) marked out in little areas by 

cracks or crevices. 

ascus (pi. asci): the cell in which the spores 

of the Ascomycetes are produced. Typically 

there is a fusion of nuclei in the 

young ascus followed by three nuclear 

divisions resulting in eight ascospores. 

atomate: covered with minute shining particles, 

glistening like mica. 

azonate: not zoned. 

basidium (pi. basidia): the cell on which the 

spores of the Basidiomycetes are produced. 

Typically there is a fusion of 

nuclei in the young basidium followed 

by two nuclear divisions resulting in 

four spores that develop outside the cell 

on small stalks. 

310 

GLOSSARY 

booted: (of base of stipe), closely sheathed 

by the volva. 

campanulate: bell-shaped. 

cespitose: growing in dense tufts or clusters. 

chlamydospore: an asexual spore formed 

by the cells of the hyphae becoming 

rounded, thick-walled, and separated 

from one another. 

cinereous: ashy gray. 

clavate: club-shaped. 

concolor, concolorous: (of lamellae or 

stipe), same color as the pileus. 

conidium (pi. conidia): spore produced 

asexually. 

cortina: the cobwebby veil found in some 

mushrooms. 

crenate: scalloped, round-toothed. 

crenulate: finely crenate. 

crisped: finely curled or crinkled. 

cupulate: cup-like in form. 

cystidium (pi. cystidia): a large, sterile, 

more or less differentiated cell occurring 

among the basidia and usually projecting 

beyond them. 

cyathiform: cup-shaped with a flaring mar- 

gin. 

decumbent: resting on the substratum with 

the end turned up. 

decurrent: (of lamellae or tubes), running 

down the stipe. 

decurved: bent down. 

deliquescing: dissolving into fluid. 

echinulate: covered with small pointed 

spines. 

eflfused-reflexed: spread out over the substratum 

and turned back at the margin 

to form a pileus. 

ellipsoid: (of spores), rounded at both ends 

and with sides curved. 

emarginate: (of lamellae), notched near the 

stipe. 

epiphragm: the thin membrane covering the 

mouth of the young peridium in the 

Nidulariaceae. 

evanescent: soon disappearing. 

excentric: (of the stipe), not attached to the 

center of the pileus, off-center. 

farinaceous: (of odor and taste) resembling 

fresh meal. 

ferruginous: rust colored. 

fetid: stinking. 

fibrillose: (of pileus or stipe), with thin 

thread-like filaments or fibrils, usually 

somewhat scattered.

filiform: very slender, thread-like. 

fimbriate: with the edge or margin finely 

fringed or torn. 

floccose: loose cottony to woolly. 

floccule: small cottony tuft. 

frondose: descriptive of a wood or forest of 

broad-leaved trees. 

fulvous: reddish cinnamon-brown. 

furfuraceous: covered with bran-like par- 

ticles, scurfy. 

fuscous: a dark smoky brown. 

fusiform: spindle-shaped, tapering to both 

ends. 

generic: of the rank of a genus or pertain- 

ing to a genus. 

genus (pi. genera): a category used in 

classification; the first major grouping 

above the rank of species, considered to 

include related species. 

gibbous: (of the pileus), having an unsymmetrical 

convexity or umbo, irregularly 

rounded. 

glabrous: smooth, lacking scales, hairs, etc. 

globose: spherical. 

gloeocystidium: a special form of cystidium 

of gelatinous or horny consistency and 

with oily, resinous, granular contents. 

glutinous: very sticky. 

granulose: covered with granules. 

hilum: (of spores), the scar marking the 

point of attachment. 

hygrophanous: (of the pileus), with a watery 

appearance when moist and changing 

markedly in color as it dries out. 

hyaline: colorless, transparent. 

hymenium: the fruiting surface in fruit 

bodies of Ascomycetes and Basidiomy- 

cetes. 

hypha (pi. hyphae): a single thread or filament 

of the vegetative structure of a 

fungus. 

hypoderm: (of pileus), a region of differen- 

tiated hyphae just below the pellicle. 

imbricate: overlapping like shingles. 

infundibuliform: funnel-shaped. 

intervenose: with veins between the lamel- 

lae. 

involute: inroUed. 

lacerate: appearing as if torn. 

lamella (pi. lamellae): the blade-like or gill- 

like structure on the under side of the 

pileus of a mushroom. 

lamellula (pi. lamellulae): small lamellae 

which do not reach the stipe. 

lanceolate: lance-shaped, longer than broad 

and tapering. 

latex: milky juice found in some mushrooms. 

livid: blue-black, colored like a bruise. 

GLOSSARY 

marginate: (of lamellae), with the edge dif- 

ferently colored than the sides; (of the 

bulb of the stipe), having a circular 

ridge on the upper, exterior angle where 

the universal veil was attached. 

membranous: thin and pliant like a membrane. 

mycelioid: resembling mycelium, often applied 

to a mold-like growth at base of 

stipe. 

mycelium: the vegetative part of a fungus, 

a collective term for the hyphae. 

mycophagist: one who eats mushrooms. 

obconic: inversely conic. 

-old: a suffix meaning like or similar to. 

ovoid: egg shaped. 

pallid: of an indefinite pale or whitish appearance. 

papillate: having small nipple-shaped eleva- 

tions on the surface. 

papillose: same as papillate. 

paraphyses: unspecialized sterile cells in the 

hymenium between the basidia. 

pedicel: a slender stalk. 

pellicle: a skin-like covering of the pileus 

which often peels off easily. 

peridiole: the seed-like or egg-like struc- 

tures in the bird's-nest fungi consisting 

of an inner peridium enclosing the 

spores. 

peridium: the outer enveloping wall or coat 

of the puffball fruit body. 

peronate: (of the stipe), sheathed by the 

universal veil. 

pileus: the cap-like structure that bears the 

hymenium. 

plicate: folded like a fan. 

poroid: (of lamellae) becoming joined by 

cross veins so as to resemble pores. 

pruinose: appearing as if finely powdered. 

pubescent: provided with a covering of 

short, soft, downy hairs. 

pulverulent: powdery. 

punctate: marked with small point-like 

spots, scales, glandules, etc. 

pyriform: pear-shaped. 

reniform: kidney-shaped. 

resupinate: (of fruit bodies), lying flat on 

the substratum with the hymenium 

facing outwards. 

reticulate: marked with lines or ridges that 

form a network. 

rhizomorph: a cord-like strand of mycelium. 

rimose: cracked. 

rivulose: marked with lines suggesting a 

river system on a map. 

rugose: coarsely wrinkled. 

rugulose: finely wrinkled. 

31


scabrous: rough with short, rigid projec- 

tions. 

sclerotium: a resting body, usually very 

hard in consistency, composed of thickwalled 

hyphae, and sometimes with a 

definite rind. 

scrobiculate: with shallow depressions or 

pits. 

septum: a cross wall in a hypha or spore. 

sensu: in the sense of. 

serrate: (of lamellae), notched or toothed 

on the edge like the blade of a saw. 

sessile: (of the pileus), lacking a stipe. 

sinuate: (of lamellae), wavy or notched 

near the stipe. 

species: a population of individuals with 

certain inherited characters in common. 

There are no fixed rules or standard 

for determining a species. The species 

concept is largely a matter of judgment 

and agreement among taxonomists. The 

species is designated by a Latin binomial 

consisting of the name of the genus (a 

noun) followed by the specific epithet 

(an adjective). 

sphaerocyst: more or less globular cells 

found in the flesh of Russula, Lactarius 

and some other basidiomycetes. 

sporangium: sac-like cell within which 

spores are produced. 

spore: the reproductive body of a fungus 

or other cryptogams. 

squamulose: covered with small scales. 

squarrose: covered with erect, recurved 

scales. 

sterigma (pi. sterigmata): the small stalk 

on a basidium on which the basidiospore 

is borne and from which it is 

forcibly discharged. 

stipe: the stalk or stem-like part of a 

mushroom, bolete, etc. 

stipitate: possessing a stipe. 

striate: marked with minute lines or furrows. 

striatulate: finely striate. 

312 

strigose: with coarse, rather long, stiff 

hairs. 

stuffed: (of the stipe), having the central 

part composed of a differentiated pith 

that may disappear leaving the stipe 

hollow. 

sub-: prefix meaning nearly, almost, somewhat, 

or under. 

substrate, substratum: substance on or in 

which the fungus grows. 

sulcate: grooved or furrowed, intermediate 

between striate and plicate. 

taxonomy: the science of classification. 

tomentose: densely matted with a covering 

of soft hairs. 

tomentum: a covering composed of long, 

soft, hairy filaments or fibrils, usually 

more or less interlaced and matted. 

trama: (of the lamellae), the tissue between 

the two hymenia; (of the pileus) the 

fleshy part. 

truncate: ending abruptly as though the 

end were cut off. 

tuberculate: covered with wart-like or 

knob-like projections. 

turbinate: top-shaped. 

umbilicate: (of the pileus), having a central 

navel-like depression. 

umbo: a raised conical to convex swelling 

like the boss at the center of a shield. 

umbonate: (of the pileus), having an umbo. 

undulate: wavy. 

ventricose: swollen or enlarged in the 

central part. 

verrucose: warty. 

vesiculose: (of cells), enlarged and swollen 

to globose or nearly so. 

virgate: streaked, usually with fibrils of a 

different color. 

viscid: sticky to the touch. 

volva: the universal veil found in certain 

genera such as Amanita. 

zonate: (of pileus), marked with concentric 

bands of different color than the 

remainder of the pileus.

abietina, Russula 62, 74 

abortivus, Clitopilus 169, 177 

abruptibulbus, Agaricus 203 

abundans, Collybia 151 

acericola, Pholiota 185 

acervata, Collybia 150 

Acurtis 169 

acutesquamosa, Lepiota 95 

adiposa, Pholiota 186, 187 

adirondackensis, Clitocybe 117 

admirabilis, Pluteus 18, 165 

aeruginea, Russula 62 

aeruginosa, Stropharia 204, 268 

aestivalis, Amanita 79, 88 

affinis, Lactarius 39 

Agaricaceae 4, 23, 24, 32 

Agaricales 263 

Agaricus 6, 21, 200, 205, 208, 264, 270 

Agrocybe 268 

albellum, Leccinum 227 

albipilata, Collybia 157 

albissima, Clitocybe 122 

albissimus var. albissimus, Leucopaxillus 

123 

albissimus var. piceinus, Leucopaxillus 

122 

albobrunneum, Tricholoma 127 

albocrenulata, Pholiota 186 

alboflavida, Melanoleuca 131 

albogriseus, Clitopilus 178 

albolanatus, Pleurotus 104 

albonigra, Russula 75 

alboviolaceus, Cortinarius 180 

alcalina, Mycena 147 

alni, Plicatura 266 

Alnicola 269 

alutacea, Russula 63 

Amanita 2, 6, 11, 12, 13, 77, 88, 93, 201, 

264 

amanitine 12 

Amanitopsis 83, 88, 167, 264 

americana, Lepiota 94, 96 

americanus, Suillus 228 

amethystina, Laccaria 145 

amianthinum, Cystoderma 100, 265, 266 

amoenus, Hygrophorus 1 70 

Anellaria 218 

angelesianus, Neohygrophorus 263 

angustatus, Panus 104 

angusticeps, Morchella 258 

appendiculatum, Hypholoma 208 

applanatus, Crepidotus 198 

applicatus, Pleurotus 103 

applicatus, Resupinatus 265 

aquosa, Collybia 151 

argentina, Volvariella 267 

INDEX 

Armillaria 100, 125, 264, 265, 266 

Armillariella 265 

armillatus, Cortinarius 181 

arvensis, Agaricus 200, 201, 203 

arvensis var. palustris, Agaricus 201 

Ascomycetes 21, 22, 23, 257 

ascus 21 

asprella, Leptonia 171 

Asterophora 263 

atramentarius, Coprinus 211, 212, 218 

atromarginatus, Pluteus 166 

atropine 13 

atrotomentosus, Paxillus 199 

atroviridis, Lactarius 54 

aurantia, Tricholoma 125 

aurantiaca, Clitocybe 32, 33, 107, 117 

aurantiacum, -Leccinum 226, 227 

aurantiacus, Cantharellus 32, 117 

aurantiacus, Pluteus 167 

aurantiolutea, Russula 63 

aurantiorugosus, Pluteus 167 

aurea, Clavaria 243 

aurea, Phaeolepiota 189, 190 

auricolor, Agaricus 202 

auricula, Auricularia 246 

Auricularia 246 

Auriculariaceae 23, 24, 245 

aurivella, Pholiota 186 

autumnalis, Pholiota 185, 188 

badius, Xerocomus 231 

Basidiomycetes 22, 23, 24, 257 

basidium 22 

bear's head fungus 241 

beefsteak fungus 237 

benzoinus, Polyporus 239 

betulinus, Polyporus 238 

bird's nest fungi 247, 250 

bisphaerigera, Fayodia 265 

bispora, Morchella 259 

bisporigera, Amanita 88 

blushing hygrophorus 143 

bohemica, Verpa 258 

Bolbitius 268 

Boletaceae 23, 24, 199, 220, 237, 263 

Boletinellus 223 

Boletinus 220, 223 

Boletus 220, 224, 228 

bombycina, Volvariella 167, 168 

borealis, Hygrophorus 138, 140 

botrytis, Clavaria 242 

Bovista 251 

bread mold 21 

brevipes, Cantharellus 34 

brevipes, Melanoleuca 131 

brevipes, Suillus 229 

313


brick-top mushroom 207 

brunnea, Lepiota 94, 96, 97, 98, 99 

briinnescens, Amanita 79, 85 

brunnescens var. pallida, Amanita 79, 88 

brunneola, Russula 76 

Bulbopodium 180 

buiyracea, Collybia 151 

byssisedus, Claudopus 179 

caesarea, Amanita 80 

caloceps, Pluteus 167 

calolepis, Crepidotus 198 

Calvatia 250 

Camarophyllus 132 

campanella, Xeromphalina 146, 265 

campanulatus, Panaeolus 14, 218, 270 

campestris, Agaricus 2, 21, 168, 200, 202, 

203, 270 

camphoratus, Lactarius 40 

candidissimus, Pleurotus 103 

candolleana, Psathyrella 208, 209 

caninus, Mutinus 248 

Cantharellula 32, 37, 118, 120, 265 

Cantharellus 32, 107, 117, 120, 263, 265 

cantharellus, Hygrophorus 138 

caperata, Pholiota 187 

caperata, Rozites 269 

capnoides, Naematoloma 206 

caput-ursi, Hydnum 241 

cartilaginea, Clitocybe 121 

castaneus, Gyroporus 225 

Catathelasma 101, 264 

cavipes, Boletinus 223 

centuncula, Naucoria 269 

cepe 224 

ceraceus, Hygrophorus 141 

cervinus, Pluteus 18, 165, 166, 268 

chamaeleontina, Russula 62, 64, 74 

Chamaeota 267 

chantarelle 2, 32, 33 

chlorophanus, Hygrophorus 140 

Chlorophyllum 98, 264 

chromapes, Leccinum 226 

chrysenteron, Xerocomus 231 

chrysodon, Hygrophorus 138 

chrysorheus, Lactarius 40 

cibarius, Cantharellus 2, 32, 33, 120, 121 

cilicioides, Lactarius 58 

cinerea, Clavaria 243 

cinereus, Lactarius 41, 54, 58 

cinnabarinum, Cystoderma 100 

cinnabarinus, Cantharellus 33 

cinnabarinus, Cortinarius 182 

cinnabarinus, Crepidotus 198 

cinnamomeus, Cortinarius 182 

cirrhata, Collybia 157 

citrina, Amanita 80, 81 

claroflava, Russula 67 

Claudopus 102, 179, 267 

314 

Clavaria 242 

Clavariaceae 23, 24, 32, 242, 244 

clavalus, Cantharellus 32, 34, 35 

clavipes, Clitocybe 118 

clintonianus. Boletus 230 

Clitocybe 6, 16, 32, 37, 102, 107, 122, 

145, 163, 177, 263, 267 

Clitopilus 169, 177, 267 

clypeolaria, Lepiota 97, 98 

coccinea, Sarcoscypha 261 

coccineus, Hygrophorus 144 

coccineus, Pluteus 167 

cochleatus, Lentinellus 264 

cochleatus, Lentinus 161 

collinitus, Cortinarius 181 

collinitus var. trivialis, Cortinarius 182 

Collybia 107, 130, 131, 149, 158, 266, 267 

colubrina, Lepiota 264 

comatus, Coprinus 2, 211, 270 

commune, Schizophyllum 164, 264 

comptuliformis, Agaricus 202 

conchatus, Panus 163, 266 

cone-like boletus 228 

confluens, Collybia 150, 151 

confluens, Polyporus 239 

conica, Morchella 258 

conica, Verpa 259 

conicus, Hygrophorus 132, 139 

Conocybe 192, 268 

controversus, Lactarius 42 

cookei, Collybia 157 

Coprinus 10, 13, 14, 18, 208, 209, 217, 

218, 219, 270 

coralloides, Hydnum 241 

cornucopioides, Craterellus 244 

coronilla, Stropharia 204 

Cortinarius 10, 17, 146, 179, 187, 191, 270 

cothurnata, Amanita 87 

craniiformis, Calvatia 251 

crassotunicata, Russula 65 

Craterellus 32, 34, 244 

craterium, Urnula 261 

Crepidotus 102, 179, 198, 268 

Crinipellis 267 

crispa, Conocybe 192 

crispa, Helvella 260 

crispa, Trogia 103, 165 

cristata, Lepiota 97, 98 

croceofolius, Cortinarius 182 

cuspidatum, Entoloma 170 

cuspidatus, Hygrophorus 139 

cyanescens, Gyroporus 221, 226 

cyanoxantha, Russula 75 

cyathiformis, Calvatia 251 

cyathiformis, Clitocybe 37, 118, 178 

Cyathus 249 

Cystoderma 21, 95, 100, 190, 265, 266 

Dacrymyces 246

Dacrymycetaceae 23, 24, 245 

dealbata, Clitocybe 13, 107, 118, 159 

deceptivus, Lactarius 42, 59 

decolorans, Russula 64 

decora, Clitocybe 119, 128 

decorum, Tricholoma 119 

delica, Russula 42, 65 

delicata, Limacella 264 

Delicatula 265 

deliciosus, Lactarius 2, 38, 43, 57, 263 

delicious lactarius 2, 43 

densifolia, Russula 65, 73, 75 

Dentinum 241 

depilata, Stropharia 205 

Dermocybe 180, 182 

destroying angel 87 

Dictyophora 248 

diminutivus, Agaricus 201 

Discomycetes 22, 23, 257 

disseminatus, Pseudocoprinus 219, 270 

dorsalis, Crepidotus 198 

downy mildews 21 

dryophila, Collybia 149, 151, 267 

duplicata, Dictyophora 248 

earth star 250 

eburneus, Hygrophorus 138, 139, 264 

Eccilia 169, 171, 267 

echinatum, Melanophyllum 264, 270 

ectypoides, Clitocybe 37, 118, 119 

edible boletus 224 

edulis, Agaricus 202 

edulis. Boletus 224 

elastica, Helvella 261 

elegans. Boletus 230 

elongatipes, Pleurotus 107 

emetica, Russula 66, 68, 74 

Entoloma 169, 171, 172, 177, 267 

equestre, Tricholoma 125 

ergot 22 

erinaceum, Hydnum 241 

esculenta, Gyromitra 13, 258, 259, 260 

esculenta, Morchella 2, 258 

Eubasidiomycetes 24 

evanescens, Catathelasma 264 

fairy butter 246 

fairy ring 1, 159 

fairy's loving cup 245 

fallax, Russula 62, 66 

familia, Collybia 151 

fasciculare, Naematoloma 206, 207 

fastibile, Hebeloma 269, 270 

fastigiata, Inocybe 183 

Fayodia 265 

felleus, Tylopilus 230 

festiva, Phaeocollybia 269 

field mushroom 201 

flammans, Pholiota 187 

Flammula 119, 190, 269 

Flammulina 266 

flava, Clavaria 243 

flava, Russula 66 

flavescens, Hygrophorus 140 

flavipes, Leucocoprinus 264 

flavobrunneum, Tricholoma 127 

flavoconia, Amanita 17, 81, 82, 84 

flavofuligineus, Pluteus 166 

flavorubescens, Amanita 81, 85 

INDEX 

flavovirens, Tricholoma 124, 125, 126, 129, 

265, 267 

floccopus, Strobilomyces 228 

floccosus, Cantharellus 34, 156 

fly agaric 83 

foenisecii, Panaeolus 217 

foetens, Russula 60, 67 

foetentula, Russula 67 

formosa, Clavaria 242 

formosa, Leptonia 171 

fragilis, Bolbitius 268 

fragilis, Russula 66, 67 

fragrans, Clitocybe 122 

fragrans, Hygrophorus 143 

friesii, Lepiota 96 

frondosus, Polyporus 238 

frostiana, Amanita 17, 81, 82, 84 

fuligineus, Hygrophorus 142 

fuliginosus, Lactarius 53 

fulvotomentosus, Crepidotus 198 

Fungi Imperfecti 22, 24 

furfuracea, Tubaria 197, 268 

fuscogrisella, Nolanea 172 

fusiformis, Clavaria 243 

Galera 192, 268, 269 

galericulata, Mycena 148, 265, 267 

Galerina 188, 192, 269 

Ganoderma 238 

Gasteromycetales 24 

Gasteromycetes 23, 247 

Geastrum 250 

gelatinosum, Pseudohydnum 245 

gemmata, Amanita 83, 86 

gemmatum, Lycoperdon 252 

geophylla, Inocybe 183 

gerardii, Lactarius 53 

giant puffball 2, 250 

gibba, Clitocybe 121 

gigantea, Calvatia 2, 247, 250 

gigantea, Clitocybe 122 

giganteus, Leucopaxillus 123 

gigas, Gyromitra 260 

glabriceps, Amanita 87 

glioderma, Limacella 94 

glischra, Limacella 93 

glistening inky cap 212 

gloiocephala, Volvariella 168 

glutinosus, Gomphidius 219, 270 

315


Gomphidius 23, 219, 220, 270 

gracilis, Psathyrella 270 

gracilis, Russula 62 

granulata, Russula 67 

granulatus, Suillus 229 

granulosum, Cystoderma 100 

grevillei, Suillus 229 

griseum, Entoloma 169, 170 

griseus, Lactarius 43 

griseus, Polyporus 239 

Gymnopilus 269 

Gyromitra 259 

Gyroporus 225 

haematochelis, Cortinarius 181 

haematopus, Lentinus 161 

haemorrhoidarius, Agaricus 202 

haerens, Crepidotus 198 

hariolorum, Collybia 151 

Hebeloma 190, 191, 269, 270 

Helvella 260 

helvellic acid 13 

helvelloides, Phlogiotis 246 

helvus, Lactarius 40, 44 

Hemibasidiomycetes 24 

hepatica, Fistulina 237 

hen of the woods 238 

Hericium 241 

hondensis, Agaricus 200 

honey mushroom 101 

hornemannii, Stropharia 205 

horn of plenty 244 

horse mushroom 201 

hortensis, Agaricus 201 

Hydnaceae 23, 24, 240, 245 

Hydnum 241 

Hydrocybe 180 

hydrophila, Psathyrella 208 

Hygrocybe 132 

hygrophoroides, Lactarius 44 

Hygrophoropsis 117 

Hygrophorus 131, 145, 219, 264 

Hymenomycetales 24 

Hypholoma 206, 208, 268 

Hypomyces 262 

illinita, Limacella 94 

illinita var. rubescens, Limacella 94 

illudens, Clitocybe 33, 107, 120, 121 

imbricatum, Tricholoma 127, 130 

imperialis, Armillaria 101 

impudicus. Phallus 249 

inaurata, Amanitopsis 83 

incertum, Hypholoma 208 

inclinata, Mycena 148 

indigo, Lactarius 53 

infula, Gyromitra 259, 260 

infundibuliformis, Cantharellus 36 

infundibuliformis, Clitocybe 121, 267 

316 

inky cap 211 

Inocybe 10, 13, 183, 191, 269 

Inoloma 180 

insignis, Coprinus 211 

insulsus, Lactarius 40 

integra, Russula 68 

integrella, Delicatula 265 

intermedium, Tricholoma 129 

involutus, Paxillus 199, 233, 268 

irinum, Tricholoma 124, 126 

jack-o'-lantem 120 

Jew's ear 246 

junquillea, Amanita 86 

kauffmaniana, Pholiota 187 

kaufmannii, Cantharellus 35 

key, use of 17 

Kuehneromyces 268 

Laccaria 107, 145, 264, 266 

laccata, Laccaria 132, 145, 146, 264, 266 

lachrymabundum, Hypholoma 209 

laciniatum, Hydnum 241 

Lactarius 8, 13, 37, 60, 65, 145, 262, 263 

lactea, Conocybe 192 

lactifluorum, Hypomyces 257, 262 

lacunosa, Helvella 260 

laetus, Hygrophorus 143 

lampropoda, Leptonia 171 

laterarium, Tricholoma 122 

laterarius, Leucopaxillus 123 

leaf-spotting fungi 22 

leaiana, Mycena 148 

Leccinum 226 

Lentinellus 264 

lentinoides, Collybia 151 

Lentinus 102, 160, 161, 264, 266 

lentum, Tricholoma 122 

Lenzites 23 

leoninus, Pluteus 18, 166 

lepideus, Lentinus 161, 266 

Lepiota 16, 21, 93, 94, 100, 264, 265 

Lepista 124, 127, 267, 268 

Leptonia 169, 171, 172, 267 

Leucocoprinus 264 

Leucopaxillus 16, 107, 122, 263, 265 

leucophaeatum, Lyophyllum 266 

levis, Crucibulum 250 

lignyolus, Lactarius 53 

lilacina, Inocybe 183 

Limacella, 21, 93, 95, 264 

Limacium 132 

liquiritiae, Gymnopilus 269 

lividum, Entoloma 13 

lividus, Rhodophyllus 267 

longipes, Collybia 157 

lucidum, Ganoderma 238 

lutea, Russula 68, 263 

I

luteovirens, Armillaria 266 

lutescens, Cantharellus 36 

lutescens, Craterellus 36 

luteus, Suillus 230 

Lycoperdaceae 24, 247 

lycoperdoides, Asterophora 263 

Lycoperdon 252 

Lyophyllum 266 

Macrolepiota 264 

maculata, Collybia 152 

maculatus, Gomphidius 220 

maculatus, Lactarius 59 

magnus, Pluteus 167 

malachius, Crepidotus 198 

mammosa, Nolanea 172 

mappa, Amanita 81 

Marasmius 146, 149, 150, 151, 158, 267 

marginata, Pholiota 188 

marginatus, Hygrophorus 140 

marginella, Pholiota 188 

mariae, Russula 73 

maxima, Clitocybe 123 

meadow mushroom 2, 200 

melaleuca, Melanoleuca 130, 131, 265 

Melanoleuca 130, 265 

Melanophyllum 264, 270 

mellea, Armillaria 101, 120, 121 

mellea, Armillariella 265 

Melzer's reagent 16 

merulioides, Boletinellus 223 

micaceus, Coprinus 212 

micromegethus, Agaricus 202 

micropus, Clitopilus 178 

miniatus, Hygrophorus 138, 141 

mollis, Crepidotus 198, 268 

molybdites, Chlorophyllum 264 

molybdites, Lepiota 21, 94, 97, 98, 99 

morbifera, Clitocybe 119 

Morchella 259 

morel 2, 258 

morel, common 258 

morel, false 259 

morel, narrow capped 258 

morgani, Lepiota 21, 98 

mucidus, Lactarius 41, 54 

mucifluus, Cortinarius 181 

multiceps, Clitocybe 121 

multiplex, Cantharellus 32, 34, 35 

muscaria, Amanita 6, 13, 80, 81, 82, 83, 

84, 86, 87 

muscarine 13 

mutabilis, Kuehneromyces 268 

Mutinus 248 

Mycena 147, 149, 150, 158, 192, 265, 267 

mycoatropine 1 

myomyces, Tricholoma 130 

Myxacium 180 

3 

INDEX 

Naematoloma 204, 205, 208, 268 

naucina, Lepiota 87, 94, 95, 98, 99, 168 

Naucoria 190, 197, 269 

nebularis, Clitocybe 118 

necator, Lactarius 54 

Neohygrophorus 263 

nidulans, Claudopus 179 

nidulans, Phyllotopsis 106, 179, 267 

Nidulariaceae 24, 247 

nigricans, Russula 65, 73, 75 

nitidus, Hygrophorus 141 

niveus, Hygrophorus 138, 140 

nobilissimus, Oxyporus 237 

Nolanea 169, 171, 172, 267 

noveboracensis, Clitopilus 118, 178 

nudum, Tricholoma 127 

Nyctalis 263 

ochropurpurea, Laccaria 145 

odora, Clitocybe 122 

olivaceoalbus, Hygrophorus 141 

olivascens, Russula 63 

olla, Cyathus 250 

Omphaha 146, 265, 267 

Omphalina 107, 267 

operculatus, Panus 162 

orcellus, Clitopilus 178 

oreades, Marasmius 119, 158, 159 

ostreatus, Pleurotus 102, 105, 107, 266 

ovatus, Coprinus 211 

ovinus, Polyporus 239 

oxydabile, Leccinum 227 

oyster mushroom 104 

painted bolete 224 

palmatus, Dacrymyces 246 

palmatus, Rhodotus 265 

paludosa, Russula 73 

paludosus, Hygrophorus 142 

paluster, Boletinus 224 

Panaeolus 14, 208, 210, 217, 270 

Panellus 264 

pantherina, Amanita 13, 84 

Panus 102, 161, 179, 264, 265, 266 

papillata, Nolanea 172 

parasiticus, Xerocomus 232 

parasol mushroom 2, 99 

parvus, Lactarius 41 

patellaris, Tectella 162, 265 

Paxillus 117, 199, 220, 223, 268 

pectinata, Russula 67 

pectinatoides, Russula 67 

pellucida, Tubaria 198 

pergamenus, Lactarius 59 

perlatum, Lycoperdon 252 

perplexum, Hypholoma 207 

personatum, Tricholoma 124, 126, 127 

pessundatum, Tricholoma 127 

petaloides, Pleurotus 104 

317


Peziza 261 

Phaeocollybia 269 

Phaeolepiota 190 

Phallaceae 24, 247 

phalloides, Amanita 12, 13, 88, 264 

phalloidine 12 

Phallus 249 

Phlegmacium 180 

Phlogiotis 246 

Pholiota 21, 184, 190, 268, 269 

Phycomycetes 21, 22, 23 

Phyllotopsis 179, 267 

piceina, Clitocybe 122 

pictus, Boletinus 224 

pine cone fungus 228 

pila, Bovista 251 

piperatus, Lactarius 59 

piperatus, Suillus 230 

pistillaris, Clavaria 243 

placida, Leptonia 171 

placomyces, Agaricus 200, 203 

platyphylla, Collybia 152 

Plectomycetes 23 

Pleurotus 102, 161, 164, 179, 265, 266 

Plicatura 266 

plumbea, Bovista 251 

plumbeoviolaceus, Tylopilus 231 

Pluteus 18, 165, 268 

Polyozellus 32, 35 

Polyporaceae 23, 24, 220, 237 

Polyporus 238 

ponderosa, Armillaria 101 

porosus, Boletinus 223 

porphyria, Amanita 84, 85 

porrigens, Pleurotus 104 

potato blight fungus 21 

powdery mildews 22 

praecox, Agrocybe 268 

praecox, Pholiota 185, 190 

pratensis, Hygrophorus 142 

procera, Lepiota 2, 94, 97, 99 

procera, Macrolepiota 264 

prunulus, Clitopilus 177, 178, 267 

Psalliota 21, 200 

Psathyra 208 

Psathyrella 208, 268, 270 

pseudoclavatus, CantHarellus 34 

Pseudocoprinus 208, 218, 270 

Pseudohydnum 246 

Psilocybe 206, 208, 268 

psittacinus, Hygrophorus 142 

pudorinus, Hygrophorus 143 

puellaris, Russula 62, 74 

puffballs 23, 247 

puniceus, Hygrophorus 140, 143 

pura, Mycena 149 

purpurascens, Hygrophorus 144 

Pyrenomycetes 21, 22, 23, 262 

pyriforme, Lycoperdon 252 

318 

quadrifidus, Coprinus 212 

rabbits, antidote for Amanita poisoning 

12 

rachodes, Lepiota 97, 98 

radicata, Collybia 157 

ravenelii. Phallus 249 

repanda, Peziza 261 

repandum, Hydnum 241 

representaneus, Lactarius 55 

resimus, Lactarius 55 

resinosus, Polyporus 239 

resplendens, Tricholoma 127 

Resupinatus 265 

retirugis, Panaeolus 218 

Rhodophyllis 169 

Rhodophyllus 169, 267 

rhodopolium, Entoloma 170 

Rhodotus 106, 265 

Ripartites 269 

rivulosa, Clitocybe 119 

rodmani, Agaricus 202 

rotula, Marasmius 159, 267 

Rozites 187, 269 

rubescens, Amanita 79, 85 

rubinellus, Suillus 230 

rubiginosa, Galerina 269 

rubrotincta, Russula 74 

rudis, Panus 162 

rufus, Gyrocephalus 246 

rufus, Lactarius 38, 40, 55, 57 

Russula 8, 10, 13, 37, 38, 60, 263 

russula, Hygrophorus 144 

Russulaceae 38 

russuloides, Amanita 83, 85, 86 

rusts 23, 24 

rutilans, Tricholoma 119, 128 

rutilans, Tricholomopsis 266 

salicinus, Panus 162 

salicinus, Pluteus 167 

salmoneum, Entoloma 170 

sanguifluus, Lactarius 43 

saponaceum, Tricholoma 128 

sapidus, Pleurotus 102, 104, 105 

Sarcoscypha 261 

scabrum, Leccinum 227 

scabrum ssp. niveum, Leccinum 227 

Schizophyllum, 164, 264 

Scleroderma 232 

scorodonius, Marasmius 160 

scrobiculatus, Lactarius 56 

sejunctum, Tricholoma 126, 128, 129 

semiglobata, Stropharia 205 

semilanceata, Psilocybe 268 

semilibera, Morchella 259 

semiorbicularis, Naucoria 197 

semiovatus, Panaeolus 217 

semisanguineus, Cortinarius 182 

separata, Anellaria 218

septenlrionale, Hydnum 241 

sericeum, Entoloma 170 

serissima, Russula 77 

serotinus, Pleurotus 105, 106, 179 

serrulata, Leptonia 171 

shaggy mane 2, 211 

siccus, Marasmius 160 

silvicola, Agaricus 203 

sinapizans, Hebeloma 191 

smuts 23, 24 

sordida, Russula 65, 74, 75 

spathulatus, Pleurotus 104 

spawn, mushroom 5 

speciosa, Volvariella 168 

speciosus, Hygrophorus 144 

speciosus, Lactarius 55 

spectabilis, Boletinus 224 

spectabilis, Pholiota 188 

sphinctrinus, Panaeolus 210, 218 

sporangium 21 

spreta, Amanita 85, 93 

spumosa, Flammula 191 

squalida, Russula 77 

squamosus, Polyporus 240 

squarrosa, Pholiota 184, 189, 269 

squarroso-adiposa, Pholiota 186 

squarrosoides, Pholiota 189 

Steccherinum 242 

Steinpilz 224 

stercoraria, Stropharia 206 

stercoreus, Cyathus 249 

sterquilinus, Coprinus 211 

stipitaria, Crinipellis 267 

stipticus, Panellus 264 

stipticus, Panus 163 

striatus, Cyathus 249 

stricta, Clavaria 244 

strobilaceus, Strobilomyces 228 

Strobilomyces 220, 228 

Stropharia 204, 206, 208, 218, 268 

subacutum, Tricholoma 129 

subaequalis, Lepista 267, 268 

subalbidus, Cantharellus 33 

subareolatus, Pleurotus 105 

subaureus, Suillus 229 

subdulcis, Lactarius 40, 56, 57 

subglabripes, Leccinum 227 

subhirta, Clitocybe 122 

sublateritium, Naematoloma 206, 207, 268 

subluteus, Suillus 230 

submelinoides, Alnicola 269 

subnidulans, Phyllotopsis 179 

subpalmatus, Pleurotus 102, 106 

subplanus, Clitopilus 178 

subpurpureus, Lactarius 57 

subtomentosus, Xerocomus 232 

subvellereus, Lactarius 59 

subvelutipes. Boletus 225 

sudorifica, Clitocybe 119 

Suillus 228 

sulphureum, Tricholoma 126 

sulphureus, Polyporus 240 

INDEX 

Tectella 162, 265 

Telamonia 180 

tenera, Conocybe 268 

tenera, Galera 192 

tenuiceps, Russula 75 

tenuipes, Xeromphalina 147 

tephroleucus, Hygrophorus 142 

terreum, Tricholoma 129 

tessulatus, Pleurotus 107 

theiogalus, Lactarius 41 

Thelephoraceae 23, 24, 32, 34, 242, 244 

thyinos, Lactarius 43 

tigrinus, Lentinus 161 

toadstool 4 

tomentella, Amanita 85 

tomentosulus, Pluteus 167 

tomentosus, Gomphidius 220 

torminosus, Lactarius 57, 58 

torulosus, Panus 163 

transmutans, Tricholoma 127, 130 

trechispora, Inocybe 269 

Tremellaceae 23, 24, 245 

Tremellales 24, 245 

Tricholoma 16, 21, 107, 122, 124, 130, 

131, 144, 169, 263, 265, 266, 267 

tricholoma, Ripartites 269 

Tricholomopsis 119, 128, 266 

tricolor, Leucopaxillus 123, 263, 265 

tricolor, Tricholoma 122 

triplex, Geastrum 250 

trivialis, Lactarius 41, 54, 58 

Trogia 164, 266 

trullisata, Laccaria 264, 266 

trumpet of death 245 

tsugae, Ganoderma 237, 238 

tubaeformis, Cantharellus 35 

Tubaria 197, 268 

tuberosa, Collybia 157 

turpis, Lactarius 54 

Tylopilus 230 

ulmarius, Pleurotus 105, 106, 107 

umbellatus, Polyporus 239 

umbellifera, Omphalina 267 

umbonata, Cantharellula 265 

umbonatus, Cantharellus 32, 36, 107, 118, 

120 

umbrosus, Pluteus 166 

unicolor, Pholiota 188 

Urnula 261 

ustale, Tricholoma 127 

uvidus, Lactarius 55, 58 

vaccinum, Tricholoma 130 

vaginata, Amanitopsis 93, 264 

319


vaginata var. alba, Amanitopsis 93 

vaginata var. fulva, Amanitopsis 93 

vaginata var. livida, Amanitopsis 93 

variata, Russula 75 

varius, Lactarius 41, 54 

velatipes, Amanita 84, 86, 87 

vellereus, Lactarius 42, 59 

velutina, Psathyrella 209 

velutipes, Collybia 147, 158 

velutipes, Flammulina 266 

venenata, Galerina 188 

ventricosa, Armillaria 101 

ventricosipes, Russula 67 

vermiflua, Pholiota 189 

verna, Amanita 87 

vernalis, Kuehneromyces 188 

Verpa 258 

versutus, Crepidotus 198 

vesca, Russula 76 

vesicatoria, Russula 60, 65 

veternosa, Russula 76 

320 

vinicolor, Gomphidius 220 

violaceus, Cortinarius 182, 270 

virescens, Russula 63 

virgatum, Tricholoma 129 

virosa, Amanita 6, 12, 87, 88, 95, 99, 201, 

203, 247 

volemus, Lactarius 44 

Volvaria 21, 167 

Volvarielia 21, 167, 267 

vulpinus, Lentinus 161 

witches' butter 246 

wood-staining fungi 22 

xanthodermus, Agaricus 200 

xanthogrammus, Agaricus 267 

xerampelina, Russula 76, 77 

Xerocomus 231 

Xeromphaiina 146, 265 

yeasts 22

ADDENDUM 

S. A. Redhead 

Biosystematics Research Institute 

Research Branch 

Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada was first published in 1962. At 

that time there were many generic names that were new or had recently been 

restricted by using microscopic features. Their acceptance by mycologists in 

general was not guaranteed. For these reasons Dr. Groves chose well-established 

generic names and used them in broad, traditional ways. However, many 

of the new or restricted genera mentioned in the 1962 edition have since gained 

worldwide acceptance and a few additional names have been proposed. Now 

that some of these genera are being used in popular guides, an update of the 

names is appropriate. Unavoidably many genera are defined by using micro- 

scopic features, and this makes their recognition difficult for amateurs. 

Only the species whose names have been changed are listed and these are 

in alphabetical order as they appear in the index. The updated name follows 

the former name as do any qualifying statements about the changes. These 

changes are not the last for the species treated here. Many of the genera are not 

universally recognized and the limits of some of them are still uncertain. How- 

ever, all the names used are currently being applied in the National Mycologi- 

cal Herbarium, Ottawa. For the most part, Singer's (1975) The Agaricales in 

Modern Taxonomy, 3rd. ed., has been used as a standard. 

The current edition of Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada also 

contains additional references, which have been published since 1975 when Dr. 

David Malloch enlarged the bibliography. Some of the theses mentioned in the 

enlarged bibliography have been replaced by their published counterparts. 

Since 1974 possession of Canadian or foreign mushrooms containing the 

restricted drugs psilocin and psilocybin has been illegal in Canada. A number 

of species known from Canada in the genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, and 

Conocybe contain these hallucinogens. Some of these species are poorly char- 

acterized and their distribution is not well known. In all cases the species are 

small, usually inconspicuous fungi not normally collected by persons interested 

in edible mushrooms. The most commonly encountered species is described 

below. 

PSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATA (Fr.) ex Kummer Poisonous 

Figure 431, page 307 . 

PiLEUS 1/2-214 in. broad, at first obtusely conical to conico-campanulate, 

often becoming acutely umbonate with age, dark greenish to vinaceous brown, 

hygrophanous, fading to ocherous over the center and beige elsewhere, striate 

and viscid when moist, often slightly incurved and more conspicuously striate 

on the margins from heavy spore deposits between the lamellae, flesh thin, 

321


membranous, concolorous with the pileus, with no distinctive odor, lamellae 

ascending adnalc, moderately spaced, moderately broad, narrowly ventricose, 

vinaceous buff when young, brown vinaceous with age, with whitish margins. 

STIPE I'^s-2^,s in. long, l^j-, or less in. thick, equal, slender, often wavy, dry, 

dull or subpolished, white to beige apically, ocherous to cinnamon basally, 

often partially covered with whitish scattered fibrils, darkening with age, 

usually developing blue to bluish green stains on the whitish silky parts when 

handled, spores 12-14.5 X 6.3-8.2 û, smooth, purple brown, ellipsoid, slightly 

thick-walled, slightly truncated from a well-developed germ pore. 

Singly or gregarious in pastures or other grassy areas in the eastern and 

western maritime regions. Sept.-Nov. 

Psilocybe silvatica (Pk.) Singer & Smith and P. pelUcuIosa (Smith) Singer 

& Smith are similar but occur in forested areas and have smaller spores. A 

number of other species containing hallucinogens and having a collybioid 

aspect and sometimes with a prominent annulus also occur in Canada. Among 

the nonhallucinogenic species, P. montana (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer is common 

on beds of Polytrichum (haircap mosses) and P. atrohrwmea (Lasch) Gillet is 

infrequently found on Sphagnum (peat moss) in bogs. 

322

NOMENCLATURAL AND TAXONOMIC UPDATE 

FORMER NAME 

abortivus, Clitopilus 

abundans, Collybia 

acericola, Pholiota 

albipilata, Collybia 

albogriseus, Clitopilus 

albolanatus, Pleurotus 

americana, Lepiota 

amoenus, Hygrophorus 

angustatus, Panus 

angusticeps, Morchella 

applicatus, Pleurotus 

aurantiaca, Clitocybe 

aurea, Clavaria 

auricolor, Agaricus 

autumnalis, Pholiota 

benzoinus, Polyporus 

betulinus, Polyporus 

borealis, Hygrophorus 

botrytis, Clavaria 

brevipes, Cantharellus 

brunnea, Lepiota 

candidissimus, Pleurotus 

cantharellus, Hygrophorus 

caperata, Pholiota 

capnoides, Naematoloma 

cartilaginea, Clitocybe 

ceraceus, Hygrophorus 

chlorophanus, Hygrophorus 

cinerea, Clavaria 

clavatus, Cantharellus 

coccineus, Hygrophorus 

cochleatus, Lentinus 

confluens, Polyporus 

conica, Morchella 

conicus, Hygrophorus 

coralloides, Hydnum 

cothurnata, Amanita 

crispa, Conocybe 

crispa, Trogia 

cuspidatum, Entoloma 

cuspidatus, Hygrophorus 

cyathiformis, Clitocybe 

decora, Clitocybe 

delica, Russula 

UPDATED NAME 

Entoloma abort ivum (B, & C.) Donk 

Clitocyhula abundans (Pk.) Sing. 

Agiocybc acericola (Pk.) Sing. 

Strobilurus albipilatits (Pk.) Wells & Kempton 

Entoloma albogrisca (Pk.) Redhead comb, nov.^ 

Notlwpanus porrigens (B. & C.) Sing. 

Leucocoprinus americana (Pk.) Redhead comb, nov.' 

Hygrocybe calyptaeformis (Berk.) Fayod 

Hohenbuehelia angusta (Berk.) Sing. 

Morchella elata Fr. 

Resupinatus applicatus (Batsch ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca (Wulf. ex Fr.) Maire 

Ramaria aurea (Fr.) Quel. 

This is most likely Agaricus semotus Fr. 

Galerina autumnalis (Pk.) Smith & Sing. 

Ischnoclerma benzoinum (Wahl. ex Fr.) Karst. 

Piptoporus betulinus (Fr.) Karst. 

Camarophyllus borealis (Pk.) Murr. 

Ramaria botrytis (Pers. ex. Fr.) Ricken 

Gomphus clavatus (Pers. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Macrolepiota rachodes (Vitt.) Sing. 

Cheimonophyllum candidissimus (B. & C.) Sing. 

Hygrocybe cantharellus (Schw.) Murr. 

Rozites caperata (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst. 

Hypholoma capnoides (Fr. ex Fr.) Kummer 

In the sense of Bresadola this is Lyophyllum loricatum 

(Fr.) Kiihner. 

Hygrocybe ceracea (Fr.) Kummer 

Hygrocybe chlorophana (Fr.) Wiinsche 

Clavulina cinerea (Fr.) Schroet. 

Gomphus clavatus (Pers. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Hygrocybe coccinea (Fr.) Kummer 

Lcntinellus cochleatus (Fr.) Karst. 

Albatrellus confluens (Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz. 

Morchella elata Fr. 

Hygrocybe conica (Fr.) Kummer 

Hericium coralloides (Scop, ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Amanita pantherina var. multisquamosa (Pk.) Jenkins 

Conocybe lactea (Lange) Metrod 

Plicatura crispa ((Pers.) ex Fr.) Rea 

Nolanea murrayi (B. & C.) Dennis 

Hygrocybe cuspidata (Pk.) Murr. 

Pscudoclitocybe cyathiformis (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Tricholomopsis decora (Fr.) Sing. 

Ii^ Grove's sense this is Russula brevipes Peck. 

'Basionym: Agaricus albogriseus Peck, Annu. Rep. N.Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 31 :33 (1879). 

^Basionym: Agaricus americanus Peck, Annu. Rep. N.Y. State Cabinet Nat. Hist. 23:71 (1872). 

323


(iiminutivus, Agaricus 

disseminatus, Pseudocoprinus 

duplicata, Dictyophora 

cctypoides, Clitocybe 

edulis, Agaricus 

clonâtipes, Plcurotus 

fallax, Russiila 

familia, Collybia 

fasciculare, Naematoloma 

flava, Clavaria 

flavescens, Hygrophorus 

flavobrunncum, Tricholoma 

floccosus, Cantharellus 

foenisecii, Panaeolus 

foetens, Russula 

foetentula, Russula 

fragrans, Hygrophorus 

frondosus, Polyporus 

fuscogrisella, Nolanea 

fusiformis, Clavaria 

gemmata, Amanita 

gigantea, Calvatia 

glabriceps, Amanita 

griseus, Polyporus 

haematopus, Lentinus 

hariolorum, Collybia 

helvelloides, Phlogiotis 

helvus, Lactarius 

hortensis, Agaricus 

illudens, Clitocybe 

imperialis, Armillaria 

inaurata, Amanitopsis 

infundibuliformis, Cantharellus 

irinum, Tricholoma 

kauifmannii, Cantharellus 

lachrymabundum, Hypholoma 

laetus, Hygrophorus 

longipes, Collybia 

marginata, Pholiota 

marginatus, Hygrophorus 

marginella, Pholiota 

meliea, Armillaria 

merulioides, Boletinellus 

micromegethus, Agaricus 

micropus, Clitopilus 

miniatus, Hygrophorus 

molybdites, Lepiota 

multiceps, Clitocybe 

multiplex, Cantharellus 

naucina, Lepiota 

324 

. The 

In Grove's sense this is Agaricus scnwtiis Fr. 

Coprinus (/isscniinatus (Pcrs. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Phallus duplicata Bosc 

Pseudoarniiilariella cctypoides (Pk.) Sing. 

Agaricus hitorquis (Oucl.) Sacc. 

Hypsizygus clongatipcs (Pk.) Bigelow 

In Grove's sense this is Russula fragilis (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. 

Clitocyhula familia (Pk.) Sing. 

Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds. ex Fr.) Kummer 

Ramaria flava (Fr.) Quel. 

Hygrocybe flavescens (KaufF.) Sing. 

Tricholoma fulvum (Bull, ex Fr.) Sacc. 

Gomphus floccosus (Schw.) Sing. 

Panaeolina foenisecii (Pers. ex Fr.) Maire 

In Grove's sense this is Russula fragrantissima 

Romagnesi; the true Russula foetens is not definitely 

known from North America. 

Russula suhfoetens W. G. Smith 

Hygrophorus pudorinus var. fragrans (Murr.) Hesler & 

Smith 

Grifola frondosa (Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Leptonia fuscogrisella (Pk.) Largent 

Clavulinopsis fusiformis (Fr.) Corner 

Amanita gemmata (Fr.) Bertillon 

Langermannia gigantea (Batsch ex Pers.) Rostkov. 

Amanita pantherina var. multisquamosa (Pk.) Jenkins 

Boletopsis subsquamosa (L. ex Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz. 

Panus suavissimus (Fr.) Sing. 

Collybia confluens (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer 

Tremiscus helvelloides (DC. ex Pers.) Donk 

In Grove's sense this is Lactarius aquifluus Peck. 

Agaricus brunnescens Peck. 

Omphalotus olearius (DC. ex Fr.) Sing. 

Catathelasma imperiale (Fr. apud Lund) Sing. 

Amanita strangulata (Fr.) Roze apud Karst. 

Cantharellus tubaeformis Fr. 

Lepista irina (Fr.) Bigelow 

Gomphus kauffmannii (Smith) Petersen 

Psathyrella lacrymabunda (Fr.) Moser 

Hygrocybe laeta (Fr.) Kummer 

Oudemansiella longipes (Bull, ex St.-Amans) Maire 

Galerina marginata (Batsch ex Fr.) Kiihner 

Humidicutis marginata (Pk.) Sing. 

position is not certain; possibly it should be placed 

in Kuehneromyces or Galerina according to Singer. 

Armillariella meliea (Fr.) Karst. 

Gyrodon merulioides (Schw.) Sing. 

This is probably Agaricus semotus Fr. 

Entoloma micropus (Pk.) Hesler 

Hygrocybe miniata (Fr.) Kummer 

Chlorophyllum molybdites (Meyer ex Fr.) Mass. 

Lyophyllum de castes (Fr. ex Fr.) Sing. 

Polyozellus nu/ltiplex (Underw.) Murr. 

Leucoagaricus naucinus (Fr.) Sing.

nigricans, Russula 

nitidus, Hygrophorus 

niveus, Hygrophorus 

noveboracensis, Clitopilus 

nudum, Tricholoma 

operculatus, Panus 

orcellus, Clitopilus 

ovinus, Polyporus 

personatum, Tricholoma 

petaloides, Pleurotus 

pictus, Boletinus 

piperatus, Suillus 

pistillaris, Clavaria 

platyphylla, Collybia 

ponderosa, Armillaria 

porrigens, Pleurotus 

praecox, Pholiota 

praetensis, Hygrophorus 

procera, Lepiota 

pseudoclavatus, Cantharellus 

psittacinus, Hygrophorus 

punlceus, Hygrophorus 

rachodes, Lepiota 

radicata, Collybia 

repandum, Hydnum 

resinosus, Polyporus 

rodmani, Agaricus 

rubinellus, Suillus 

russuioides, Amanita 

rutilans, Tricholoma 

salicinus, Panus 

salmoneum, Entoloma 

semilibera, Morchella 

semiorbicularis, Naucoria 

semiovatus, Panaeolus 

separata, Anellaria 

septentrionale, Hydnum 

serotinus, Pleurotus 

sordida, Russula 

spathulatus, Pleurotus 

spectabilis, Boletinus 

spectabilis, Pholiota 

spumosa, Flammula 

squarroso-adiposa, Pholiota 

stipticus, Panus 

stricta, Clavaria 

subacutum, Tricholoma 

In Grove's sense this is probably Russula dissimulans 

Shaffer, however, Russula nigricans does occur on the 

west coast. 

Hygrocyhc nitida (B. & C.) Murr. 

Hygrocyhc nivca (Scop, ex Fr.) Murr. 

Rhociocyhc munciula (Lasch) Sing. 

Lcpista nucla (Bull, ex Fr.) Cooke 

Tcctclla patcllaris (Fr.) Murr. 

Clitopilus prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer 

Albafrcllus ovinus (Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz. 

Lcpista persona ta (Fr. ex Fr.) Cooke 

Hohenbuehelia petaloides (Bull ex Fr.) 

Schulz. apud Schulz., Kanitz & Knapp 

Suillus pictus (Pk.) Smith & Thiers 

Chalciporus piperatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Clavariadelphus pistillaris (Fr.) Donk 

Tricholomopsis platyphylla (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing. 

Tricholoma ponderosum (Pk.) Sing. 

Nothopanus porrigens (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing. 

Agrocybe praecox (Pers. ex Fr.) Fayod 

Camarophyllus pratensis (Fr.) Kummer 

Macrolepiota procera (Scop, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Gomphus pseudoclavatus (Smith) Corner 

Hygrocybe psittacina (Fr.) Kummer 

Hygrocybe punicea (Fr.) Kummer 

Macrolepiota rachodes (Vitt.) Sing. 

Oudemansiella radicata (Relh. ex Fr.) Sing. 

Dentinum repandum (Fr.) S. F. Gray 

Ischnoderma resinosum (Fr.) Karst. 

Agaricus bitorquis (Quel.) Sacc. 

Chalciporus rubinellus (Pk.) Sing. 

Amanita gemmata (Fr.) Bertillon 

Tricholomopsis rutilans (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Sing. 

Panellus ringens (Fr.) Romagnesi 

Nolanea quadrata B. & C. 

Mitrophora semilibera (DC. ex Fr.) Lev. 

Agrocybe semiorbicularis (Bull, ex St.-Amans) Fayod 

In Grove's sense this is Agrocybe pediades (Pers. ex Fr.) 

Fayod. 

Anellaria semiovata (Sow. ex Fr.) Pearson & Dennis 

Anellaria semiovata (Sow. ex Fr.) Pearson & Dennis 

Steccherinum septentrionale (Fr.) Banker 

Panellus serotinus (Fr.) Kiihner 

Russula albonigra (Krombh.) Fr. 

Hohenbuehelia petaloides (Bull, ex Fr.) Schulz. apud 

Schulz., Kanitz & Knapp 

Suillus spectabilis (Pk.) O. Kuntze 

Gymnopilus spectabilis (Fr.) Sing. 

Pholiota spumosa (Fr.) Sing. 

Pholiota limonella (Pk.) Sacc. 

Panellus stipticus (Bull, ex Fr.) Karst. 

Ramario stricta (Fr.) Quel. 

Tricholoma virgatum (Fr.) Kummer 

325

IDIBLH AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA 

subdulcis, Lactarius 

subglabripes, Lecciniim 

sublateritium, Naematoloma 

subnidulans, Phyllotopsis 

subpalmatus, Pleurotus 

subplanus, Clitopilus 

sulphureus, Polyporus 

tenera, Galera 

tessulatus, Pleurotus 

tigrinus, Lentinus 

tomentella, Amanita 

tomentosus, Gomphidius 

torulosus, Panus 

transmutans, Tricholoma 

ulmarius, Pleurotus 

umbonatus, Cantharellus 

unicolor, Pholiota 

vaginata, Amanitopsis 

velatipes, Amanita 

velutipes, Collybia 

ventricosa, Armillaria 

vermiflua, Pholiota 

vinicolor, Gomphidius 

virosa, Amanita 

vulpinus, Lentinus 

326 

In Grove's sense this represents a complex of species 

such as Lactarius carhonicola Smith in Hesler & Smith 

and Lactarius thcjogalus Fr. ; the true Lactarius subdulcis 

is not definitely known from North America. 

Boletus suh^labripes Peck 

Hypholoma sublateritium (Fr.) Quel. 

Crepiclotus subnidulans (Overh.) Hesler & Smith 

Rhodotus palmatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Maire 

Entoloma subplanum (Pk.) Hesler 

Laetiporus sulphureus (Fr.) Murr. 

Conocybe tencra (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Fayod 

Hypsizygus tessulatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Panus tigrinus (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Amanita porphyria (A. & S. ex Fr.) Seer. 

Chroogomphus tomentosus (Murr.) Miller 

Panus concha tus (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. 

Tricholoma fulvuin (Bull, ex Fr.) Sacc. 

Lyophyllum ulmarium (Bull, ex Fr.) Kiihner 

However, in Grove's sense it is Hypsizygus tessulatus 

(Bull, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Cantharellula umbonata (Fr.) Sing. 

Galerina unicolor (Fr.) Sing. 

Amanita vaginata (Bull, ex Fr.) Vitt. 

Amanita pantherina var. velatipes (Atk.) Jenkins 

Flammidina velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Catathelasma ventricosum (Pk.) Sing. 

Agrocybe dura (Bolt, ex Fr.) Sing. 

Chroogomphus vinicolor (Pk.) Miller 

Amanita virosa (Lam. ex Fr.) Gillet 

Lentinellus vulpinus (Fr.) Kiihner & Maire

CAL'BCA OTTAWA K1A 0C5 

>073 00185105 6

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