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Roderick W Rogers

Lichens of Subtropical Queensland R.W.Rogers 

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Lichens of Subtropical Queensland 

Roderick W. Rogers 

December 2005 

© Roderick Westgarth Rogers 

queenslandlichens@westnet.com.au 

Draft at 30/12/05 

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Preface 

This set of notes and keys is written to assist identification of lichens from subtropical Queensland. 

Subtropical Queensland has a rich and diverse lichen flora covering the range from rainforest 

through eucalypt woodlands to arid grasslands. Each environment has its characteristic suite of 

lichens, offering the naturalist great opportunity for study. 

The keys benefit from information in the Flora of Australia series, but are not extracts from the 

Flora. The keys include species not reported in the Flora and some keys are to genera not yet 

covered in the flora project. 

The task of completing the survey of lichens in subtropical Queensland is far from complete. 

We need many more collections from almost all areas. There will be many new records to be 

discovered, new species to describe and existing species names to move into synonymy as we 

understand variation within species better. 

These keys are preliminary, and comments would be welcome. I would like to know what has 

worked, what has been difficult and what is simply defective. 

You are welcome to copy these keys for your personal use, and to give copies to others, but my 

copyright is always maintained. 

Rod Rogers 

December 2005 

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Lichens of Subtropical Queensland 

Table of Contents 

Lichens 

What is a lichen? 4 

History 4 

Parts of a lichen 5 

Lichen chemicals 6 

Lichen identification 9 

Performing colour tests 9 

The colour of lichens 10 

Ecology 10 

Keys 

Fruticose & Foliose Lichens 

Key to genera 12 

Key to species in genera 18 

Squamulose Lichens 45 

Glossary 49 

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Lichens 

What is a Lichen? 

A lichen is complex community having a fungus and a photobiont as its main components. 

The photobiont (a green alga or a cyanobacterium) provides the energy source for the 

lichen and the fungus the structured habitat with its the absorptive and protective 

structures. Some cyanobacteria also provide the nitrogen for the lichen. Some lichens have 

both green algae and cyanobacteria in the one thallus, in this case the cyanobacteria are 

usually in structures called cephalodia. 

Lichens are capable of inhabiting extreme environments, and it may be true that a lichen 

can only survive in an environment that would support neither of the separate components. 

The close mutuality of the lichen thallus may confer great stress tolerance on a lichen, but 

the delicate balance between the components makes lichens very susceptible to damage. 

Lichens are generally intolerant of all but the most chemically infertile environments, and 

are therefore destroyed by air pollution. 

This delicate balance maintained by adversity means that lichens are usually extremely 

slow growing and very long lived. It is easy to destroy a decade of growth by carelessly 

walking on a lichen or collecting it. It may take several years for a new thallus to reach the 

size of a pinhead. 

Lichens come in many shapes, sizes colours. The larger lichens, the shrubby and leafy 

lichens, are visually striking in many parts of subtropical Queensland. They occur on tree 

trunks and branches, on rocks and on soil. They occur in rainforests, in eucalypt 

woodlands and out into the driest parts of the state. Lichens are sensitive indicators of 

microclimate and of air quality. 

History 

The lichens of subtropical Queensland have been the subject of study for over one hundred 

years. John Shirley (an Inspector of Schools) published the first taxonomic account of the 

lichens of Queensland in 1888-89. Little more published information about Queensland 

lichens then appeared for about 80 years, when work on lichen biology was taken up in the 

University of Queensland. This was coincident with a burst of activity around the country. 

In the last thirty years Australian lichens have attracted attention within Australia and 

around the world. As a result we have seen the production of four lichen volumes in the 

Flora of Australia series, with several more yet to come. Because of this history, it is now 

possible to produce an account of the larger lichens in subtropical Queensland. 

The larger lichens, those that are shrubby (fruticose) and leafy (foliose) are the most 

obvious and the easiest to determine to species. The crustose lichens are still relatively 

poorly understood in Queensland, and their identification requires great patience, 

considerable skill and a good microscope. Identifying the shrubby and leafy lichens does 

require patience too, especially as the set of new terms that must be understood in 

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identification is learned. Like all fields of studies, lichenology has its own language that, 

once learned, makes the task easier. 

Parts of a Lichen 

The Lichen Body 

The lichen body is termed a thallus. The thallus contains two main components, a fungus 

and a photosynthetic organism, the photobiont. Green algal photobionts are usually 

present as single, bright green cells in a layer just below the cortex. Cyanobacterial 

photobionts are usually present as clumps of blue-black cells immediately below the 

cortex. 

The name of a lichen applies only to its fungal component. The photobiont has its own 

name. Almost all lichens have a fungal component from the class Ascomycota. 

The thallus of a leafy (foliose) or shrubby (fruticose) lichen usually has three distinct 

tissues. The outer layer is a cortex composed of tightly packed fungal cells that forms a 

protective layer around the thallus. In leafy lichens the upper and lower cortex are usually 

sharply differentiated. In shrubby lichens there is usually no such differentiation. Inside 

the cortex (upper only) is found a layer of less dense fungal tissue (the medulla) with the 

photobionts incorporated into it (see illustrations below) 

The colour of the lower cortex varies from white to jet-black: colour variation is 

taxonomically significant in some genera. Colour of the upper surface is also 

taxonomically significant because of the link between colour and chemical constituents. 

Peculiar Lichen Structures 

Lichens have some distinctive asexual reproductive structures known as soredia and isidia. 

These are easily detached from the lichen, especially by raindrops, and when scattered may 

grow into a new thallus. 

Soredia are made up of groups of algal (photobiont) cells loosely entangled with fungal 

hyphae. Soredia are gathered into restricted areas known as soralia. Soralia can be pin 

points, small globular structures, or linear structures along the edge of lobes. 

Isidia are more complex structures that have a well-developed outer wall that encloses a 

central core of algae and fungi. Isidia are often finger-like, and a about 1mm tall, but they 

do vary considerably. Isidia have an abscission zone at their base, making their detachment 

from the thallus easy. In some case the isidia are hollow and swollen at the tip, and may 

even burst and become pustulate. 

Rhizines are commonly present on the lower surface of foliose lichens. Rhizines may take 

a variety of forms (see below) that are taxonomically significant. In some cases the lower 

surface is quite naked, in others it is covered by a dense carpet-like tomentum, and in yet 

others by a light tomentum of hypha-like hairs. The distribution of rhizines on the lower 

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surface can be significant - always note whether they come right to the lobe margins or 

leave a distinct bare zone around the edge. 

Cyphellae and pseudocyphellae are pores occur in both upper and lower surfaces, more 

commonly on the lower surface. When these pores have a well-developed margin with a 

concave pore behind the lower cortex the structures are cyphellae. If the pore is formed 

simply by a thinning of the lower cortex or by the development of deep fissures through 

the upper cortex while the lobe is young these are called pseudocyphellae. When 

pseudocyphellae occur in the lower cortex they are usually plugged with hyphae from the 

medulla, although they may not be the same colour as medullary hyphae. Take care not to 

confuse either the cracking that comes with age in the upper cortex or the fine, regular, 

reticulate cracking present in the upper cortex of some species with pseudocyphellae. 

Cilia are hair like structures that occur on the margin of lobes and also sometimes on 

apothecia, arsing from the line where the upper and lower cortex meet. Care must be taken 

not to confuse cilia with rhizines that protrude from the lower surface. In a few genera cilia 

have a distinct swollen bulb at their base: these are bulbate cilia. 

Dactyls are finger like structures that may be simple or branched, they my resemble isidia 

but that do not detach easily from the thallus. Dactyls may become sorediate. 

Lichen chemicals 

Most shrubby and leafy lichens produce large quantities of chemicals that are deposited 

around the hyphae. In most cases these chemicals are not water-soluble. The role of the 

compounds varies. Some are apparently to do with management of the light regime, some 

have anti-biotic properties, and some may be anti-herbivore compounds. The metabolic 

pathways that produce these chemicals are genetically based, which makes the chemicals 

themselves taxonomically useful. 

The chemicals are deposited specifically in some tissues. A few chemicals are found only 

in the cortex, and these may influence the colour of the upper surface. Most chemicals are 

found in the medulla, and a few of these do colour the medulla. Melanin derived pigments 

are found mostly in the lower cortex, but do occur in the upper cortex of some genera. 

Apothecial tissues may also accumulate specific chemicals. 

Fortunately, it has been discovered that some of the chemicals show colour reactions with 

a variety of reagents. This makes chemical tests easy, and, since clear-cut taxonomic 

characters are few on a lichen, chemical tests are very useful indeed. How to carry out 

these tests is discussed below. 

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Lichen Identification 

Identification of lichens has the reputation of being very difficult. True, getting started can 

be a challenge! 

Lichen identification works on both visible (morphological and anatomical) characters and 

on invisible chemical characters. Lichens are small and many of the visible characters are 

barely visible to the naked eye. This makes lichen identification rather different from 

flowering plant identification. 

The materials you will need 

1. A dissecting microscope to view details of lichen structure (you could scrape by 

with a hand lens) 

2. A scalpel or razor blade to cut lichen thalli. 

3. A bottle of Potassium Hydroxide solution (10%) for the K test. (This is caustic, so 

take care). 

4. Some domestic bleach as a source of Calcium hypochlorite for the C test. (this 

bleaches clothes and burns skin so take care). 

5. Access to paraphenylinediamine that can be dissolved in alcohol for the P test. The 

colouring used for men's beards is a useful substitute, but lacks the delicacy of the 

real thing. (Beware! Paraphenylinediamine stains everything it touches a permanent 

deep brown). This solution or gel must only be used while fresh and light coloured. 

6. Glass dotting rods to add the test chemicals to the lichen. Straightened paper clips 

work too. 

7. A compound microscope may be necessary at times to look at spores. If you ever 

plan to identify crustose lichens such a microscope is essential. 

Performing colour tests 

Lichens produce a wide range of chemicals that are taxonomically significant. In this 

respect lichens are similar to the fungi that produce antibiotics. The chemical variation is 

usually associated with visible variations, even if these are sometimes subtle. These 

chemicals are best detected by such techniques as Thin Layer Chromatography or Nuclear 

Magnetic Resonance. These techniques are beyond all but a few of us. Fortunately a 

range of chemical colour tests provide a lot of the information needed. 

Using colour tests is simple and safe if care is taken. 

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Tests are performed on either the upper surface (upper cortex) of the lichen, or on the 

medulla, a cottony layer beneath the cortex. The medulla is usually white, but is sometimes 

buff or even red. 

To carry out a test use a dropping rod or straightened paper clip to put a small drop of 

liquid on the cortex, and watch for colour changes. If you need to test the medulla, the 

most common test, then cut away a small area of cortex to expose the medulla, then place a 

drop of fluid (or gel if using beard colour for P tests) and watch for colour change. A 

colour change may take 20 seconds or so - and the colour may first be one colour (eg 

yellow) and then turn another (eg red). Sometimes the colour appears then vanishes after 

short time. Watch for changes! 

For a KC test first add a drop of K solution then a drop of C solution. 

Some lichen chemicals are fluorescent under ultra-violet light. UV reactions are rarely 

mentioned in these keys, but are taxonomically significant in a number of genera. 

The Colour of Lichens 

Lichens commonly have quite distinctive colours when they are air dry. All colour 

references in this account are for air-dry thalli. 

The common colours of lichens can be attributed to the accumulation of complex organic 

chemicals in the upper and lower cortex. The colour of most lichens is therefore much the 

same whether living or dead. Some however, have no chemicals in their cortex or have 

radically different chemicals that may change with time after death of the lichen. 

Some common chemicals in the cortex of lichens and the resultant colours and tests: 

Lichen Ecology 

Thallus colour Chemical Test 

Grey Atranorin K+ yellow 

Grey Lichexanthone UV+ gold 

Yellow-green Usnic acid K-, KC+ yellow 

Gold Parietin K+ wine-red 

Olive-brown Melanins 

Lichens are very widespread organisms. They occur in the darkest rainforests and on rocks 

in full sun. Lichens grow on rainforest leaves, on tree trunks and twigs, on rocks in creeks 

and on the beach rock of Heron Island. Lichens are common on the soil on roadsides and 

inside eucalypt forests as well as on undisturbed soil in arid lands. 

Lichens have some peculiar sensitivities. By and large, lichens are sensitive to nutrient 

levels. City air is often too dirty for them, and lichens on tree trunks are killed by the 

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nutrients that flow down tree trunks in inner city areas and near main roads. By contrast, 

lichens that grow on rainforest leaves benefit from the extra nutrients in the dust near 

footpaths. 

Lichens are resistant to prolonged drought and very high temperatures when dry. 

However, many lichens are very sensitive to heat when they are wet. Lichens can use the 

water deposited in dew to restart their photosynthesis and respiration. Some lichens grow 

only in such locations that liquid water does not touch them, but they absorb all their water 

from mists and the air. 

Some lichens have a cyanobacterial photobiont that can fix nitrogen. This means that the 

photobiont provides not only the carbohydrate for the lichen, but nitrogenous compounds 

too. In some genera species with a predominantly green algal photobiont also have special 

structures that house a cyanobacterium as well. 

The conditions that permit the formation of a new lichen thallus from spores and algal cells 

appear to be highly specific, and not often met. Survival of young thalli to the stage where 

identifiable tissues start to develop is probably low. Growth rates are slow. Reproduction 

by soredia and isidia seems easier, but many species do not have such clonal structures. 

When collecting always remember the years of struggle that have passed before a thallus is 

big enough to collect. 

When collecting lichens collect as 

little as is necessary 

Less than this is a waste 

More than this is destructive 

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A. Key to Genera of Shrubby and Leafy Lichens 

1. Lichen shrubby, not appressed to the substrate, branches usually 

radially symmetrical, often attached by a holdfast (fruticose) 2 

Lichen leaf-like, usually appressed to the substrate, with distinct upper 

and lower surfaces, usually attached by rhizines or a tomentum, 

occasionally with a holdfast (foliose) 12 

Shrubby or Fruticose Lichens 

2(1) Thallus hollow 3 

Thallus solid 5 

3(2) Thallus regularly perforate to the central cavity, often in a lattice-like 

pattern Cladia 

Thallus not perforate or perforate only in axils of branches or 

irregularly fissured 6 

4(3) Apothecium black, disc of loosely packed hyphae and spores 

Bunadophoron 

Apothecium buff or red 5 

5(4) Apothecial disc buff-coloured with a well defined thalline margin 

Ramalina 

Apothecial disc red to brown or black, without an apparent margin 

Cladonia 

6(2) Thallus coloured gold to orange Teloschistes 

Thallus coloured grey, yellow-green or red 7 

7(6) Thallus cylindrical with a central cartilaginous cord Usnea 

Thallus cylindrical or flattened, without a central cord 8 

8(7) Apothecia pink Dibaes 

Apothecia buff to brown or black 9 

9(8) Thallus white or pale grey 10 

Thallus brown to yellow-green 12 

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10(9) Thallus with long rhizoidal extensions into the soil Siphula 

Thallus attached by a holdfast, without rhizoids 11 

11(10) Branches with numerous minute leafy appendages on the branches 

Stereocaulon 

Branches without leafy appendages Bunadophoron 

11(9) Apothecial disc black, on soil Ramalea 

Apothecial disc buff, on bark, wood or rock Ramalina 

Leafy or Foliose Lichens 

12(1) The lower surface with discrete rhizines that may be simple or branched but 

not felted, without vein-like markings, woolly tomentum or pores. 

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Lower surface naked or with a felted or carpet-like tomentum (with or 

without rhizines), or with vein-like markings (from which rhizines may 

develop) or with pores that may be either cup-like or filled with hyphal 

masses. 43 

Foliose lichens always and only with discrete rhizines on the lower surface 

13(12) Cilia growing from the margin of the lobes at least sparsely 14 

Cilia not present on the margins of the lobes 27 

14(13) Cilia broadening into a bulb at the base 15 

Cilia without a basal bulb, but may be thickened 16 

15(14) Lobes grey Bulbothrix 

Lobes green Relicina 

16(14) Upper cortex brown Phaeophyscia 

Upper cortex grey or green 17 

17(16) Rhizines dichotomously branched 18 

Rhizines simple or bushy at the tips 19 

18(17) Upper cortex of longitudinal hyphae, often without a lower cortex, 

upper surface sometimes ciliate, ascospores brown, two-celled 

Heterodermia 

Upper cortex of vertical hyphae, lower cortex always present, 

upper surface never ciliate, ascospores hyaline, one celled 

Hypotrachyna 

19(17) Ascospores 2-celled, brown, lobes usually 2mm broad 21 

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20(19) Thallus grey, K+ yellow Physcia 

Thallus brown, K- Phaeophysica 

21(19) Lobes broadly rotund, with a broad zone bare of rhizines near the tips 

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Lobes truncate at the tips, with rhizines to the margins 25 

22(21) Upper surface with neither distinctive white spotting not a pattern of 

reticulate cracks on young lobes 23 

Upper surface with either a pattern of distinctive white spots or reticulate 

cracks on young lobes 24 

23(22) Cilia less than 5mm long and restricted to lobe axils 

Parmelinella 

Cilia more than 5mm long, or less than 5mm long but not restricted to axils 

Parmotrema 

24(22) Upper surface reticulately cracked Rimelia 

Upper surface with a pattern of coarse white markings and 

cracks Canomaculina 

25(21) Cilia evenly spread on lobe margins Parmelinopsis 

Cilia mostly in axils 26 

26(25) Medulla K+ yellow turning red Parmelinella 

Medulla K- Parmelina 

27(13) Upper surface of thallus uniformly bright yellow Candelaria 

Upper surface of thallus white, grey, brown or green 28 

28(27) Apothecia on lower surface of lobes Nephroma 

Apothecia on upper surface of lobes 29 

29(28) Upper surface brown 30 

Upper surface white, grey or green 32 

30(29) Ascospores simple, hyaline Xanthoparmelia 

Ascospores two-celled, brown 31 

31(30) Lobes 1-2mm wide Phaeophyscia 

Lobes < 0.5mm wide Hyperphyscia 

32(29) Thallus yellow-green and on rocks or soil Xanthoparmelia 

Thallus white or grey, or, if yellow green, not on rocks or soil 33 

33(32) Upper cortex pseudocyphellate 34 

Upper surface without pseudocyphellae 35 

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34(33) Lower surface black Parmelia 

Lower surface white or tan Punctelia 

35(33) Rhizines dichotomously branched, prominent 36 

Rhizines simple or bushy at the tip 37 

36(35) Spores simple, lobes always corticate below Hypotrachyna 

Spores two-celled, often ecorticate below Heterodermia 

37(35) Rhizines absent from a marginal zone 38 

Rhizines to lobe tips 39 

38(37) Rhizines absent from a broad band on lobe tips Parmotrema 

Rhizines absent from a narrow (1mm wide) marginal zone Canoparmelia 

39(37) Spores 2-celled, brown 40 

Spores simple, hyaline 41 

40(39) Apothecia with a thalline margin when mature Physcia 

Apothecia with a proper margin when mature Pyxine 

41(39) Upper surface green Flavoparmelia 

Upper surface grey 42 

42(41) Lobes truncate , only on rock or soil Xanthoparmelia 

Lobes rotund, on wood, bark or rock Canoparmelia 

Foliose lichens with lower surfaces having features other than discrete rhizines. 

43(12) Lower surface with cup-like pores or with pores showing white or yellow 

hyphae, or veins that give rise to rhizines 44 

Lower surface without pores or veins 47 

44(43) Veins on lower surface, apothecia on terminal finger-like 

projections Peltigera 

Lower surface not veined, apothecia disc-like 45 

45(44) Pores filled with white or yellow hyphae Pseudocyphellaria 

Pores cup-like in the lower surface 46 

46(45) Pores in the indumentum, not the lower cortex Heterodea 

Pores in the lower cortex Sticta 

47(44) Apothecia on the lower side of the lobe tips Nephroma 

Apothecia on the upper side of the lobes 48 

48(47) Thallus with a few well-developed rhizines restricted to margins or 

constrictions of the thallus 49 

Thallus devoid of rhizines, but may have a tomentum 50 

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49(48) Rhizines in constrictions between tomentose pads Pannoparmelia 

Rhizines on margins of lobes with a decorticate lower surface 

Heterodermia 

50(49) Thallus with an indumentum on the lower surface 51 

Thallus naked below 57 

51(50) Thallus > 10 cm long, very loosely adnate to the substratum Lobaria 

Thallus < 10 cm diameter, adnate to substratum 52 

52(51) Upper cortex one cell thick, thallus gelatinous when wet, paper-like when 

dry Leptogium 

Upper cortex many cells thick, thallus not gelatinous when wet, 

cartilaginous when dry 53 

53(52) Ascospores thick-walled Physma 

Ascospores thin walled 54 

54(53) Apothecia with a thalline exciple Pannaria 

Apothecia without a thalline exciple 55 

55(54) Lobes with very fine longitudinal scratch-like lines Coccocarpia 

Lobes without fine longitudinal scratch-like lines 56 

56(55) Upper surface cobwebby Leioderma 

Upper surface smooth Fuscoderma 

57(50) Photobiont green 58 

Photobiont cyanobacterial 63 

58(57) Lobes fat and hollow or sparsely filled by hyphae 59 

Lobes flattened, solid 60 

59(58) Holes in outer wall opening to a central cavity Mennegazzia 

No holes in outer wall Hypogymnia 

60(58) Thallus free from substratum Xanthoparmelia 

Thallus attached to substratum 61 

61(60) Thallus olive or brown Hyperphyscia 

Thallus green to grey 62 

62(61) Thallus green Xanthoparmelia 

Thallus grey Dirinaria 

63(57) Upper surface of thallus with a long indumentum Dictyonema 

Upper surface smooth or rough, but not hairy 64 

64(63) Thallus gelatinous when wet 65 

Thallus not gelatinous when wet Pannaria 

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65(64) Spores with a thick wall Physma 

Spores thin walled 66 

66(65) Cortex of closely packed angular cells Leptogium 

True cortex absent, outer layer of swollen hyphae Collema 

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B. Keys to Species in Genera 

Bulbothrix 

Bulbothrix is a genus primarily of coastal lowlands. Thalli foliose, grey, lobes < 2mm broad, grey, 

margins with bulbate cilia. 

1. Medulla K+ yellow turning red 2 

Medulla K- 4 

2(1) Lower surface brown (K+y-r, C-, P+or) B. isidiza (Nyl.) Hale 

Lower surface black 3 

3(2) Lobes < 0. mm wide (K+y-r, C-, P+or) B. microscopica Elix 

Lobes >0.5mm wide(K+ y to r C-,P+or) B. tabacina (Zenker)Hale 

4(1) Medulla C+ rose or red (K-, C+p, KC+r, P-) B. goebelii (Mont. & Bosch) Hale 

Medulla C- 5 

5(4) Medulla KC+ rose (K-, C-,KC+ p P-) B. apophysata (Hale & Kurok.) Hale 

Medulla KC-(K-, C-,K- P-) B. queenslandica (Elix & G.N.Stevens) Eix 

Bunadophoron (Sphaerophorus) 

Bunadophoron is restricted to rainforests and montane habitats. 

Grey, erect grey fruticose thalli with black powdery apothecia on one surface of the flattened lobes. 

1. Medulla hollow B. diplotypum (Ohlsson) Wedin 

Medulla solid 2 

2(1) Medulla faintly K+ yellow, spores grey B. formosanum(Zahlbr.) Wedin 

Medulla K-, spores red-brown 3 

3(2) Spores >10um diameter B. murrayi (Ohlsson) Wedin 

spores < 10 u diameter B. coomerense (Ohlsson) Wedin 

Candelaria 

A genus of small yellow minutely foliose thalli on bark or dry rocks. 

Lobes to 0.4 mm wide, soralia marginal, spreading onto the upper surface 

C. concolor (Dickson) B.Stein in Cohn 

Lobes to 2mm broad, soralia marginal and spreading onto the lower surface 

C. crawfordi (Müll. Arg) P.M.Jörg. & D.J.Galloway 

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Canomaculina 

A parmelioid genus of dry woodlands. Thallus foliose, lobes irregularly cracked, lower surface with 

dimorphic simple and squarrose rhizines. 

Lobes with marginal soralia, without isidia (K+ y-r, C-,P+ or) C. subsumpta (Nyl.) Elix 

Lobes with isidia, without soredia (K + y-r, C-,P+ or) C. subtinctoria (Zahlbr.) Elix 

Canoparmelia 

A parmelioid genus living on bark and wood mostly in open woodlands, including mangroves. 

Thallus foliose, grey, without cilia, lower surface with a narrow marginal zone without rhizines. 

The four species treated here are sorediate with a mostly black lower surface. 

1. Medulla K+ 2 

Medulla K- 3 

2 Medulla K+ yellow, lobes 3-6mm wide (C-,KC- P-) C. crozalsiana (de Lesd.) Elix & Hale 

Medulla K+ yellow turning red, lobes 2-3mm wide (KC-,C-, P+or) 

C. norsticta (G.N.Stevens) Elix & Hale 

3 Medulla KC+ rose (K-,C-, P-) C. aptata (Kremp.) Elix & Hale 

Medulla KC- (K-,C-, P-) C. texana (Tuck.) Elix & Hale 

Cladia 

A genus usually living on soil of coastal woodlands and ranges, especially at altitude. 

Thallus of erect fruticose pseudopodetia that are often much branched, always with openings 

through the cortex to the medulla or internal cavity, up to 5cm tall. 

1. Thallus quite hollow 2 

Thallus with cortical strands or mass in the centre 3 

2(1) Thallus much branched and forming a cushion, not sorediose, usually >20mm tall 

Cladia aggregata (Sw.) Nyl. 

Thallus little branched sorediose, not forming a cushion


3(2) Soredia floury (K-, KC-, P+ r ) C. ochrochlora Flörke 

Soredia granular 4 

4(5) Thallus


Coccocarpia 

A genus of rocks bark and wood in moist and usually shady habitats. Thallus foliose, grey with a 

finely striated surface, photobiont cyanobacterial. 

1. Thallus without isidia C. erythroxyli (Sprengel) Swinscow & Krog 

Thallus isidiate 2 

2. Isidia strongly flattened C. pellita (Ach.) Müll. Arg. 

Isidia cylindrical C. palmicola (Sprengel) Arv. & D.Galloway 

Collema 

A genus usually found on rocks and trees in moist habitats, but one species is on arid soils. Thallus 

foliose, photobiont Nostoc, producing a thallus that is black and gelatinous when wet. 

1. Thallus 15 mm diameter 3 

2(1) Lobes thick, isidiate, spores 2 celled C. coccophorus Tuck. 

Lobes membranous. Spores 3-4 celled C. pustulatum Ach. 

3(1) Lobes isidiate 4 

Lobes without isidia 7 

4(3) Apothecial margin isidiate C. rugosum Kremp. 

Apothecial margin not isidiate 5 

5(4) Isidia irregularly lumpy, margins lobulate C. leptaleum Tuck. 

Isidia globose to cylindrical 6 

6(5) Isidia dense C. subflaccidum 

Isidia sparse C. japonicum (Müll. Arg.) Hue 

7(3) Spores with 10 or more cells C. fasciculare (L.) Wigg. 

Spores with 6 cells or less 8 

8(7) Spores 4 celled C. leptaleum Tuck 

Spores 6 celled 9 

11(10) Thallus pustulate, spores muriform C. implicatum Nyl. 

Thallus ridged, spores not muriform C. japonicum (Müll. Arg.) Hue 

Dibeis 

Rsetricted to soil, especially in and near rainforests. Thallus crustose with pink apothecia that may 

be sessile or stalked. 

1. Thallus without soredia D. absoluta (Tuck.) Kalb & Gierl 

Thallus sorediate 2 

2. Apothecia stalked, convex D. arcuata (Stirt.) Kalb & Gierl 

Apothecia sessile, flat D. sorediata Kalb & Gierl 

24


Dictyonema 

A Basidiolichen genus of rainforest fringes, having the appearance of a rather untidy, somewhat 

iridescent carpet. 

Dirinaria 

Dictyonema irpicinum Mont. 

A weedy genus especially in eucalypt woodlands, mangroves and urban habitats. Thallus foliose, up 

to 5cm diameter, lobes grey, up to 2mm diameter, devoid of rhizines. 

1 Thallus sorediate 2 

Thallus without soredia 7 

2(1) Apothecial disc red-purple pruinose D. melanoclina (C.Knight) D.D.Awasthi 

Apothecial disc white pruinose or black if present 3 

3(2) Sorediate dactyls 4 

Soralia sessile 5 

4(3) Medulla K+ slowly pink D. consimilis (Stirt.) D.D.Awasthi 

Medulla K- D. aegialita (Ach.) B.Moore 

5(3) Lobes convex, medulla K+ slowly pink D. consimilis (Stirt.) D.D.Awsthi 

Lobes plane, medulla K- 6 

6(5) Medulla C+ orange D. flava (Müll. Arg.) C.W.Dodge 

Medulla C- D. applanata (Fée) D.D.Awasthi 

7(1) Lobes markedly confluent almost to their tip D. confluens (Fr.)D.D.Awasthi 

Lobes discrete for almost all their length 8 

8(7) Apothecial disc purple-red pruinose D. purpurascens (Vain.) B.Moore 

Apothecial disc white pruinose or black D. picta (Sw.)Schaer ex Clem. 

Flavoparmelia 

A parmelioid genus occurring on bark, mostly in open woodlands. Thallus foliose, green, lobes up 

to 8mm diameter, without cilia. 

1. With neither dactyls nor soredia (K-, C-, KC-, P+or) 

F. rutidota (Hook.f. & Tayl.)Hale 

With dactyls or soredia 2 

2(1) With dactyls that may produce soredia (K-, C-, KC-, P+ or) 

F. haysomi (C.W.Dodge) Hale 

Without dactyls, with laminal soralia 3 

3(2) Medulla white throughout 4 

Medulla yellow in part 5 

25


4(3) Soralia pustulate (K-, C-, KC-, P+ r) F. kantvilasii Elix 

Soralia capitate (K- /K+ dingy y, C-, KC-, P+ or) F. springtonensis (Elix) Hale 

5(3) Thallus thin, with succinprotocetraric acid(K-, C-, KC-, P+r) 

F. succinprotocetrarica Elix & J.Johnst 

Thallus leathery, with protocetraric acid (K-, C-, KC-, P+r) 

F. euplecta (Stirt.) Hale 

Heterodermia 

A genus of rock and bark in open woodlands and wetter habitats. Thallus foliose, grey, lobes often 

have a waxy appearance, many have long rhizines and cilia. 

1. Lobes corticate below 2 

Lobes ecorticate below 4 

2(1) Thallus sorediate H. speciosa (Wulfen) Trevis 

Thallus not sorediate 3 

3(2) Thallus isidiate H. antillarum (Vain.) Swinscow & Krog 

Thallus without isidia H. diademata (Taylor) D.D.Awasthi 

4(1) Thallus without soredia 5 

Thallus sorediate 6 

5(4) Thallus isidiate/lobulate H. appendiculata (Kurok.) Swinscow & Krog 

Neither isidia nor lobules present H. angustiloba (Műll. Arg.) D.D.Awasthi 

6(4) Medulla with yellow-orange pigments 7 

Medulla without yellow-orange pigments 9 

7(6) Lobes broad, short, with cilia on upper surface 

H. comosa (Eschw.) Follman & Rédon 

Lobes long and narrow, without cilia on the upper surface 8 

8(7) Pigment K+ purple, medulla K- H. obscurata (Nyl.) Trevis 

Pigment K-, medulla K+ yellow turning red H. casarettiana 

9(6 Lobes elongate, closely adnate or ascending, with long cilia 

H. japonica (Sato) Swinscow & Krog 

Lobes short, closely adnate, cilia absent H. japonica (Sato) Swinscow & Krog 

Hyperphyscia 

A genus of urban habitats and semi-arid woodlands. Thallus foliose, small (


3. Soralia marginal H. pruinosa Moberg 

Soralia laminal H. adglutinata (Flörke) H. Mayrhofer 

Hypogymnia 

Restricted to highlands in the extreme south. Thalli foliose, usually swollen, grey with a black 

margin, without rhizines. 

Thallus sorediate, hollow H. subphysodes (Kremp.) Filson 

Thallus sorediate, solid or almost so H. tubularis (Taylor) Elix 

Hypotrachyna 

A parmelioid genus of woodlands and mangroves. Thallus foliose, grey, margin ciliate, rhizines 

dichotomous, long. 

Thallus isidiate (UV-, K-,C-,KC+ y or, P-) H. imbricatula (Zahlbr.) Hale 

Thallus sorediate (UV+, K-,C-,KC+ r, P-) H. osseoalba (Vain.) Y.S.Park & Hale 

Leptogium 

A genus of moister habitats in woodlands and mangroves. Foliose, photobiont Nostoc resulting in a 

thallus that is black and gelatinous when wet. 

1. Thallus isidiate 2 

Thallus without isidia but may have secondary lobules 9 

2(1) Isidia cylindrical or granular 3 

Isidia scale-like 7 

3(2) Lobes smooth L. cyanescens (Rabenh.) Körber 

Lobes wrinkled 4 

4(3) Isidia granular L. asiaticum P.M.Jørg. 

Isidia cylindrical 5 

5(4) Thallus cushion-like L. faciifictum Verdon 

Thallus foliose 6 

6(5) Isidia coralloid L. coralloideum (Meyen & Flotow) Vain. 

Isidia simple L. austroamericanum (Malme) C.W.Dodge 

7(2) Margin of apothecium isidiate L. marginellum (Sw.) Gray 

Lobes isidiate 8 

8(7) Lobes smooth L.poliophaeum Verdon 

Lobes wrinkled L. granulans Vain. 

27


10(9) Lobes crumpled on the edge L. wilsoni Zahlbr. 

Lobes gently wavy or straight 11 

11(10) Lobes shiny L. corticola (Taylor) Tuck. 

Lobes matt 12 

12(11) Lower surface with holdfasts on wrinkles L. phyllocarpum (Pers.) Nyl. 

Lower surface naked or with minute rhizines L. biloculare F.Wilson 

Lobaria 

A genus mostly restricted to rainforests and their fringes. Thalli foliose, large to very large, usually 

tomentose (at least in part) below. 

1 Thallus reticulately ridged with deep depressions between ridges 

Lobaria isidiophora Yoshimura 

Thallus more or less smooth 2 

2 Lobe margins with small rounded lobules L. hartmannii (MüLL.Arg.) Zahlbr. 

Lobes margins without lobules 3 

3 Spores 3-7 septate L. rhaphispora (C.Knight) Zahlbr. 

Spores 12-15 septate L. plurimseptata (C.Knight) Zahlbr. 

Menegazzia 

Restricted to the extreme southern highlands. Foliose, lobes grey, perforate to a hollow central 

cavity, lower surface black, without rhizines. 

Metus 

Menegazzia fissicarpa P.James 

Restricted to the extreme southern highlands. Thallus fruticose. 

Myelochroa 

M. conglomeratus (F.Wilson) D.J.Galloway 

A parmelioid genus of southern woodlands. Thallus foliose, lobes ciliate, medulla yellow. 

Nephroma 

(K-, C-, KC-,P-) M. aurulenta (Hale) Elix & Hale 

Mostly restricted to rainforests and their fringes. Thallus foliose, apothecia on lower surface of 

lobes that may be recurved so that apothecia appear to be on the upper surface. 

28


Pannaria 

1. Medulla yellow N. laevigatum Ach. 

Medulla white 2 

2. Lower surface glabrous N. rufum (C.Bab.) P.James 

Lower surface pubescent to tomentose N. helveticum Ach. 

Widespread in moist habitats, including mangroves. Foliose, lobes narrow, tomentose below, 

apothecia with a thalline margin. 

1. Lobes isidiate or lobulate 2 

Lobes without isidia or lobules 9 

2(1) Isidia sorediate 3 

Isidia not sorediate 5 

3(2) Soralia on the lower margin of the lobes P. fulvescens (Mont.) Nyl 

No soredia beneath the margins 4 

4(3) Lobes with longitudinal ridges P. elatior Stirt. in Bailey 

Lobes smooth P. elixii P.M.Jørg. & D.J.Galloway 

5(2) Lobes with fringed lobules P. fimbriata P.M.Jørg. 

Margins without lobules or lobules not fimbriate 6 

6(5) Lobes white marbled P. dissecta P.M.Jørg. 

Lobes more or less uniformly coloured 7 

7(6) Lobes with coralloid isidia P. mangroviana P.M.Jørg 

Lobes with marginal lobules 8 

8(7) Lobules globular P. globigera Hue 

Lobules minute, flat P. ramosii Vain. 

9(1) Lobes sorediate P. leproloma (Nyl.) P.M.Jørg. 

Lobes without soredia 10 

10(9) Thallus lobed 11 

Thallus squamulose to subcrustose 14 

11(10) Thallus a rosette up to 2cm diameter P. aenea Müll. Arg 

Thallus up to 10cm diameter 12 

12(11) Lobe margin upturned (not a sorediate species!) P. sorediata C.Knight in Bailey 

Lobe margin flat 13 

13(12) Lobes wrinkled when dry P. lurida (Mont.) Nyl. 

Lobes smooth when dry P. tjbodensis 

14(11) Thallus more or less crustose P. subcrustacea (Räsänen) P.M.Jørg 

Thallus squamulose 15 

15(14) Disc of apothecium with circular or spiral markings P. immixta Nyl. 

Disc of apothecium smooth P. subimmixta 

29


Pannoparmelia 

A parmelioid genus restricted to cool moist forests. Thallus foliose, bead-like, tomentose below 

Parmelia 

P. wilsoni (Räsänen) D.J.Galloway 

A parmelioid genus restricted to cool moist woodlands. Thallus foliose, upper surface 

peudocyphellate. 

1. Lobes sorediate-isidiate (K+ y-r, C-, P+ r-o) P. erumpens Kurok. 

Lobes without soredia or isidia 2 

2. Growing on bark (K+ y-r, C-, P+ r-o) P. queenslandensis Hale 

Growing on rock (K+ y-r, C-, P+ r-o) P. signifera Nyl. 

Parmeliella 

A genus of cool moist habitats. Lobes narrow, tomentose below, apothecia proper. 

1 Lobes isidiate or lobulate 2 

Lobes neither isidiate nor lobulate P. mariana (Fr.) P.M.Jørg 

2 Isidia finger-like P. brisbanensis (C.Knight) P.M.Jørg 

Isidia papillate or warty P. aggregata P.M.Jørg & D.J.Galloway 

Parmelina 

A parmelioid genus of woodlands. Thallus foliose, grey, with marginal cilia. 

Thallus isidiate (K-,C+ r, KC+ r - o, P-) P. conlabrosa (Hale) Elix & J.Johnst. 

Thallus with neither isidia nor soredia (K-,C+ r, KC+ r, P-) 

P. pseudorelicina (Jatta) Kantvilas & Elix 

Parmelinella 

A parmelioid genus with a foliose thallus, cilia in lobe axils, rhizines simple to the edge of the lobe 

margins. 

Parmelinopsis 

(K+ y-r, C-, P+ r-o) P. wallichiana (Taylor) Elix & Hale 

A parmelioid genus of moist open forests & woodlands. Thallus foliose, lobes ciliate, rhizines 

furcate to dichotomous.. 

30


1. Lobes with neither isidia, pustules nor soredia (K-, C+ pale pink, KC+ red, P-) 

P. neodamazaniana Elix & J. Johnst.) Elix & Hale 

Lobes with isidia, soredia or pustules 2 

2(1) Lobes pustulate 3 

Lobes with soredia or isidia, but not pustules 4 

3(2) Medulla C+, lobes with pustulate isidia that may produce soredia (K-,C +p, P-) 

P. spumosa (Asahina) Elix & Hale 

Medulla C-, with pustulate soralia (K-,C+ p, P-) P. subfatiscens (Kurok.) Elix & Hale 

4(3) Sorediate, without isidia (K-,C+ p, KC+ r, P-) 

P. afrorevoluta (Krog & Swinscow) Elix & Hale 

Isidiate, without soredia 5 

5(4) Medulla C- (K-, KC+ p, P-) P. horrescens (Taylor) Elix & Hale 

Medulla C+ (K-, KC+ r, P-) P. minarum (Vain.) Elix & Hale 

Parmotrema 

A parmelioid genus of usually large species common in rainforest canopies and open eucalypt 

forests on trees and rocks. Foliose, lobes up to 20mm broad, cilia present or absent, with a broad 

naked zone on the lower surface around the rotund lobe tips, rhizines simple. 

1 Thallus with soredia, or isidia 2 

Thallus with neither soredia or isidia 14 

2(1) Thallus sorediate or with sorediate isidia 3 

Thallus isidiate, but without soredia 12 

3(2) Medulla K+ yellow or yellow turning red 17 

Medulla K- 6 

6(4) Medulla C- 7 

Medulla C+ 15 

7(6) Medulla KC+(K-,C-,KC+ r, P-) P. rimulosum (C.W.Dodge) Hale 

Medulla KC- 8 

8(7) Medulla P- (K-,C-,KC-, P-) P. grayanum (Hue) Hale 

Medulla P+ 10 

10(8) Lobes ciliate (K+ dingy y, C+ p, P+ o-r) P. robustum (Degel.) Hale 

Lobes not ciliate 11 

11(10) Lobes 4-10mm broad (K-, C-,KC+ pale y -brown, P+ or-r) P. judithae Elix & J.Johnst. 

Lobes >10mm broad (K+ y-br, C-, KC-, P+ or-r) P. gardneri (C.W.Dodge) Serus. 

12(2) Medulla K+ yellow (C-,KC +r, P-) P. crinitum (Ach.) M.Choisy 

Medulla K- or K+ pale brown 13 

13(12) Medulla C+ red (K-,C+ r, KC+ r, P-) P. tinctorum (Despr. Ex Nyl.) Hale 

Medulla C- (K-/K+ purple,C-, KC-, P-) P. sulphuratum (Nees & Flot.) Hale 

14(1) Medulla K+ yellow or yellow turning red (C-r, P+ o) P. eciliatum (Nyl.) Hale 

Medulla K- or K+ dingy brown (C- KC+ r, P-) P. subrugatum (Kremp.) Hale 

31


15(6) Medulla pigmented(K-, C+ p, KC+ r, P-) P. permutatum (Stirt.) Hale 


16(15) Margin ciliate (K-,C+ r, KC+ r, P-) P. cooperi (J.Steiner & Zahlbr.) Serus. 

Margin without cilia (K-, C+ r, KC+ r, P-) P. austrosinense (Zahlbr.) Hale 

17(3) Medulla K+ yellow turning red ( C-, P+ y to or) 

P. parahypotropum (W.L.Culb.) Hale 

Medulla K+ yellow (C-, P+ or-r) P. chinense (Osbeck) Hale & Ahti 

Peltigera 

Restricted to soil in rainforests and their margins. Thallus foliose, apothecia on finger-like marginal 

lobes. 

Veins on lower surface pink, apothecial discs pink P. dolichorrhiza (Nyl.) Nyl. 

Veins on lower surface brown, apothecial discs brown P. polydactyla (Neck.) Hoffm. 

Phaeophyscia 

Dry woodlands and forests. Thallus foliose, brown, lobes


8(7) Soralia capitate P. tribacoides Nyl. 

Soralia linear 9 

9(8) Lobes up to 2mm broad P. undulata Moberg 

Lobes



7(6) Lower surface totally tomentose P. granulata (C.Bab.) Malme 

Lower surface with a bare marginal zone or without tomentum 8 

8(7) Upper surface smooth P. intricata (Delise) Vain. 

Upper surface foveolate or punctately depressed 9 

9(8) Upper surface foveolate P. dozyana (Mont. & Bosch) D.J.Galloway 

Upper surface punctately depressed P. haywardiorum* D.J.Galloway 

10(6) Lobes phyllidiate 11 

Lobes without phyllidia 12 

11(10) Photobiont green P. multifida (Nyl.) D.J.Galloway & P.James 


12(11) Photobiont green P. sulphurea (Schaer.) D.J.Galloway 


13(2) Lobes isidiate P. desfontainii* (Delise) Vain. 


14(12) Lobes sorediate P. crocata (L.)Vain. 


15(14) Lobes without phyllidia P. gilva (Ach.) Malme 

Lobes phyllidiate 16 

16(15) Lower surface totally tomentose P. crocatioides D.J. Galloway 

Lower surface with a bare marginal zone or without tomentum 

P. neglecta (Műll.Arg.) H.Magn. 

17(1) Lobes with sorediate isidia P. pickeringi (Tuck.) D.J.Galloway 


18(17) Lobes without soredia P. rubrina (Stirt.) D.J.Galloway 

Lobes sorediate 19 

19(18) Upper surface pseudocyphellate P. aurata (Ach.) Vain. 

Upper surface without pseudocyphellae P. crocata (L.) Vain. 

20(12) Lower pseudocyphellae punctiform P. rigida (Müll.Arg.) D.J.Galloway 

Lower pseudocyphellae conical P. beccarii (Kremp.) D.J.Galloway 

Pyxine 

A genus mostly of the coastal strip and ranges, but one species semi-arid. Thallus foliose, lobes 


3 (2) Soredia originating from marginal pseudocyphellae; medulla yellow 

P. sorediata (Ach.) Mont. 

Soredia laminal, more or less orbicular; medulla white P. schmidtii Vain. 

4(1) Thallus with dactyls and/or soredia 5 

Thallus without vegetative propagules 6 

5(4) Medulla yellow, K- P. subcinerea Stirt. 

Medulla ochraceous, K+ violet P. albovirens (Meyer) Aptroot 

6(4) Medulla white or cream 7 

Medulla yellow or orange 8 

7 (6) Lobes very narrow (


Lobes flat or +cylindrical 12 

12(11) Lobes +cylindrical 13 

Lobes flat 15 

13(12) On maritime rocks R. litorea G.N.Stevens 

On bark or wood 14 

14(13) Lobes tufted near the tips, usually on mangroves R. filicaulis G.N.Stevens 

Lobes not tufted, in rainforest R. australiensis Nyl. 

15(14) Lobes about 1mm wide, apothecia spurred R. exiguella Stirt. 

Lobes 2-4mm broad 16 

16(15) Apothecia aligned on both margins 

R. celastri var. celastri (Spreng.) Krog & Swinscow 

Apothecia laminal 17 

17(16) With cryptochlorophaic acid R. subfraxinea var. confirmata (Nyl.) Elix 

With boninic acid R. subfraxinea var. leiodea. G.N.Stevens 

Relicina 

A parmelioid genus of moist forests and woodlands. Thallus foliose, green, lobes


Sticta 

A genus of rainforests and their fringes. Thallus foliose, lobes up to 5cm diameter, lower surface 

cyphellate, variably tomentose. 

1 Thallus with a well defined hold-fast 2 

Thallus broadly attached by rhizines 11 

2(1) Thallus with phyllidia 3 

Thallus without phyllidia 4 

3(2) Cyphellae pinpricks S. filix (Sw.) Nyl. 

Cyphellae with a developed margin and deep cavity 

S. myrioloba (Müll. Arg.) D.J.Galloway 



5(4) Lobes with stalked marginal lobules S. marginifera Mont. 

Lobes without lobules 6 

6(5) Tips of lobes down-rolled, lobes 5-10mm broad S. brevipes (Műll. Arg.) Zahlbr. 

Tips of lobes straight, lobes 2-4mm wide S. cyphellulata (Műll. Arg.) Hue 

7(4) Lobes with stalked marginal lobules S. marginifera Mont. 

Lobes without lobules 8 

8(7) Lower surface smooth S. sayeri Műll. Arg. 

Lower surface tomentose at least in part 9 

9(8) Undersurface smooth at the margin S. camarae Műll. Arg. 

Undersurface totally tomentose 10 

10(9) Tomentum black S. subtomentella (C.Knight ex Shirley) Zahlbr. 

Tomentum brown S. latifrons A.Rich. 



12(11) Medulla K+ yellow S. diversa (Stirt.) Zahlbr. 

Medulla K- 13 

13(12) Lower surface black S. fuliginosa (Hoffm.) Ach. 

Lower surface pale S. weigelii (Ach.) Vain. 

14(11) Lobes without phyllidia S caperata (Nyl.) Nyl. 

Lobes with phyllidia 15 

15(14) Medulla K+ yellow S. rutilans (Stirt.) Zahlbr. 

Medulla K- 16 

16(15) Lower surface smooth S. variabilis Ach. 

Lower surface tomentose at least in part 17 

37


17(16) Thallus on plants, lobes usually >10mm wide S. baileyi D.J.Galloway 

Thallus on soil or rock, lobes usually


9(8) Branches with annular rings of isidiate pseudocyphellae (K+ y) 

U. effusa G.N. Stevens 

Branches with annular cracks near the tips, and with raised punctiform pseudocyphellae 

that appear as white spots U. alboverrucata G.N. Stevens 

10(4) Medulla pigmented yellow to brown (K+ y) U. himantodes Stirt. 

Medulla mostly white (K+ y) U. hossei v. hossei Vain. 

11(3) Thallus shrubby (K+ y to r) U. scabrida ssp. elegans G.N.Stevens 

Thallus pendulous 12 

12(10) Medulla pigmented (K+ y) U. himantodes Stirt. 

Medulla white (K+ y) U. hossei var hossei Vain. 

13(2) Branches sorediate 14 

Branches without soredia 16 

14(13) Lobes isidiate U. subeciliata (Motyka) Swinscow & Krog 


15(14) Rings of white calcium oxalate encircling punctate soralia (K- or K+ y) 

U. pycnoclada Vain. 

Soralia large, on terminal branches, without oxalate (K+ y to r) U. perplexans Stirt. 

16(13) Branches isidiate 17 

Branches without isidia 24 

17(16) Medulla pigmented 18 


18(17) Axis solid (K+ y to r) U. bicolorata Motyka 

Axis tubular (K+ y to r) U. baileyi Stirt. 

19(17) Thallus pendulous (K+ y to r) U. nidifica Taylor 

Thallus shrubby or sub-pendulous (to 15cm long) 20 

20(19) Thallus branched from the holdfast (K + y or K + y to r) U. bismolliuscula Zahlbr. 

Thallus with a well defined trunk at the base 21 

21(20) Trunk red (K+ y to r) U. rubicunda var. spilota (Stirt.) G.N.Stevens 

Trunk dark or pale, not red 22 

22(21) Pseudocyphellae punctiform with white calcium oxalate deposits (K- or K+ y/ y to r/ b) 

U. alboverrucata G.N.Stevens 

Pseudocyphellae not appearing as white spots 23 

23(22) Branches without papillae(K + y to o-r) U. undulata Stirt. 

Branches papillate (K + y to r) U. confusa Asahina 

24(16) Thallus pendulous 25 

Thallus shrubby or sub-pendulous 26 

25(24) Branches 5-sided (K+ y to o or r) U. angulata Ach. 

Branches cylindrical (K + y to r) U. hossei var squarrosa G.N.Stevens 

26(24) Trunk and or part of the thallus coloured red 27 

Thallus without red colouration 28 

39


27(26) Apothecia common, terminal on branches (K + y to r) 

U. sanguinea Swinscow & Krog 

Apothecia not common, on lateral branchlets (K+ y to r) 

U. rubicunda var spilota (Stirt.) G.N.Stevens 

28(26) Secondary branches articulated at the base (K + y to r) U. confusa Asahina 

Secondary branches continuous with the main axis 29 

29(28) In mangroves (K + y to r) U. ramulosissima G.N.Stevens & R.W.Rogers 

In woodlands other than mangroves (K + y to r) 

U. mollisucula ssp queenslandica (Motyka) G.N.Stevens 

30(1) Thallus sorediate 31 


31(30) Thallus without isidia (K-) U. pycnoclada Vain. 

Thallus isidiate 32 

32(31) Cortex pigmented red in part (K-) U. roseola Vain. 

Cortex without red pigmentation (K+ y to o or K-) 

U. subeciliata (Motyka) Swinscow & Krog 

33(30) Thallus isidiate 34 

Thallus without isidia 41 

34(33) Medulla pigmented 35 


35(34) Thallus pendulous, axis solid (K-) U. mekista (Stirt.) D.D.Awasthi 

Thallus shrubby to sub-pendulous, axis hollow 36 

36(35) Medulla pink (K-) U. elata Motyka 

Medulla dark brown (K-) U. eizanensis Asahina 

37(34) Thallus shrubby 38 

Thallus pendulous or sub-pendulous (K+ y to r or K-) U. nidifica Taylor 

38(37) Thallus with patchy red pigmentation (K-) U. maculata Stirt. 

Thallus not pigmented red 39 

39(38) Pseudocyphellae punctiform with white calcium oxalate deposits (K-) 

U. alboverrucata G.N.Stevens 

Thallus without white spots 40 

40(39) Apices simple, tapering (K-) U. inermis Motyka 

Apices commonly bifurcate (K-) U. punctulata G.N.Stevens 

41(33) Axes not papillate (K- or K+ y to o) U. trichodeoides Motyka 

Axes papillate (K-) U. elixii G.N.Stevens 

Xanthoparmelia 

A very large parmelioid genus restricted to rocks and soils mostly in dry, sunny habitats. Thallus foliose, 

upper cortex green, grey or brown, lobes truncate, lower surface rhizinate to margins. 

40


Key to sections 

1. Upper surface grey, K+ yellow Section 1 

Upper surface brown or yellow-green to green, K- 2 

2. Upper surface brown Section 4 

Upper surface yellow-green to green 3 

3 Thallus isidiate Section 2 

Thallus without isidia Section 3 

Section 1 

Upper cortex grey (Paraparmelia) 

1. Lobes isidiate 2 


2(1) Lower surface mostly jet black 3 

Lower surface entirely brown 7 

3(2) Medulla K+ yellow turning red 4 

Medulla K- or K+ pale yellow to brown(K+ pale y-b, C-, P+ r) 

X. fumarprotocetrarica (Elix & J. Johnst.) Elix 

4(3) Lobes up to 1mm wide (K+ y-r, C-, P+ r / or) X. subtropica (Elix & J. Johnst.) Elix 

Lobes 1-3mm wide 5 

5(4) Medulla K+ blood red (K+ y, C-, P+ y) X. murina (Kurok.) Elix 

Medulla K+ pale red-orange (K+ y-r, C-, P-) X. numinbahensis (Elix & J. Johnst.) Elix 

7(2) Medulla K+ yellow turning blood red (K+ y-r, C-, P+ y-or) 

X. scotophylla (Kurok.) Elix 

Medulla K+ yellow turning orange- red (K+ y-r, C-, P-) X. neoquintaria (Hale) Elix 

8(1) Lower surface mostly black 9 

Lower surface brown 13 

9(8) Medulla K+ yellow turning red 10 

Medulla K- or K+ pale yellow-brown 11 

10(13) Lower surface brown at the margin (K+ y-r, C-, P+ y-or) X. lithophila (Kurok.) Elix 

Lower surface black at the margin (K-r, C-, P+ o) 

X. subspodochroa (Elix & J. Johnst.) Elix 

11(9) Lobes


Section 2 

X. subspodochroa (Elix & J. Johnst.) Elix 

11(9) Lobes 2mm broad (K+ y-r, C-, KC+ r, P+ o) X. australasica D.J.Galloway 

Lobes 1-2mm broad 6 

6(5) Isidia simple (K+ y-r, C-, P+ o) X. isidiigera (Műll. Arg.) Elix 

Isidia branched (K+ y-r, C-, KC+ r, P+ o) X. isidiosa Elix & J. Johnst. 

7(4) Lobes 2mm broad (K+ y-r, C-, KC-, P+ y) X. neotinctina (Elix) Elix & J. Johnst. 

8(1) Medulla K- or K+ pale yellow turning brown 9 

Medulla K+ yellow turning red 25 

9(8) Isidia inflated to erumpent 10 

Isidia cylindrical, never erumpent 20 

10(9) Lobes


Section 3 

X. globulifera (Kurok. & Filson) Hale 

16(10) Medulla KC+ rose (K-, C-, P-) X. scabrosa (Taylor) Hale 

Medulla KC- 17 

17(16) Thallus loosely adnate (K-, C-, KC-, P-) X. exuviata (Kurok.) Hale 

Thallus closely adnate 18 

18(17) Lobes


3(2) Medulla K+ yellow 4 


4(3) Lobes


Section 4 

20(19) Lobes 0. 3– 1.5mm broad, tapering uniformly (K-, C-, P-) 

X. furcata (Műll. Arg.) Hale 

Lobes 1.5 – 3.0mm broad, of irregular width (K-, C-, P-) 

X. flavescentireagens (Gyeln.) D.J.Galloway 

21(13) Thallus closely adnate X. ustulata 

Thallus loosely adnate 22 

22(21) On rock (K-, C-, P-) X. spargenosa Elix & J. Johnst. 

On soil 25 

23(22) Upper and lower surface green, concolorous, lobes often tangled (Kfaint y, C-, KC-, 

P+y - o) X. willisii (Kurok. & Filson) Elix & J.Johnst. 

Lower surface pale brown, with secondary lobes at the centre (K-, C-, P-) 

X. condaminensis Elix & J.Johnst. 

24(12) Medulla K+ yellow 25 


25(24) Thallus closely adnate, on rock (K+ pale y - b, C-, KC-,P+ o-r) 

X. pertinax (Kurok. & Filson) Elix & J.Johnst. 

Thallus loosely adnate, on soil (K+ pale y - b, C-, KC-, P+ y) 

X. reptans (Elix) Elix & Johnst. 

26(24) Thallus very closely adnate 27 

Thallus loosely adnate 28 

27(26) Thallus subcrustose at the centre (K+ y to r, C-, KC-, P+ y - o) 

X. neorimalis (Elix & P.Armstr.) Elix & T.H.Nash 

Thallus foliose at the centre (K+ y to r, C-, KC-, P+ y) X. lineola (E.C.Bery) Hale 

28(26) On soil, with secondary lobes at the centre (K+ y to r, C-, KC+ r, P+ o) 

X. taractica (Kremp.) Hale 

On rock, without secondary lobes 29 

29 (28) Rhizines dichotomously branched (K+ y to r, C-, P+ o) X. substrigosa (Hale) Hale 

Rhizines simple (K+ y to r, C-, P+ y) X. arapilensis (Elix & P.Armstr.) Filson 

Upper cortex brown (Neofuscelia) 

1. Medulla K+ yellow turning red (K+ y to o, C-, KC-, P+ o-r) X. parviloba (Essl.) O.Blanco, A. 

Crespo, Elix, D.Hawksw. & Lumbsch 

Medulla K- 2 

2(1) Lobes dark brown beneath (K+- or k+ b, C+ y or p, KC+ o, P-) X. delisii (Duby) O.Blanco, 

A. Crespo, Elix, D.Hawksw. & Lumbsch 

Lobes black beneath 3 

3(2) Medulla C+ rose (K- , C- or C+ p, KC+p , P-, UV+) X. glabrans (Nyl.) O.Blanco, A. Crespo, 

Elix, D.Hawksw. & Lumbsch 

Medulla C- 4 

4(3) Medulla KC- (K- , C- , KC-, P-, UV-) X. pulla O.Blanco, A. Crespo, Elix, D.Hawksw. & 

Lumbsch 

Medulla KC+ (K- , C-, KC+p , P-, UV+) X. verisidiosa O.Blanco, A. Crespo, Elix, D.Hawksw. 

& Lumbsch 

45


C. Squamulose lichens in Subtropical Queensland 

Key to Genera 

1. Photobiont a cyanobacterium 2 

Photobiont green 4 

2(1) Asci with 16 or more spores Peltula 

Asci with 8 spores 3 

3(2) Spores simple Heppia 

Spores septate Placynthium 

4(1) Ascocarps perithecia 5 

Ascocarps not perithecia 6 

5(4) Thick rhizines present below, spores muriform Endocarpon 

Fine rhizoids present below, spores simple Placidium 

6(5) Spores septate 7 

Spores simple 8 

7(6) Spores brown Buellia 

Spores hyaline Toninia 

8(7) Apothecia erumpent Trapelia 

Apothecia sessile or adnate 9 

9(8) On bark in moist forests 10 

On soil bark or wood 12 

10(9) Squamules fringed or finely lacerate, often imbricate, usually dark coloured Phyllopsora 

Squamules more or less entire, grey to green 11 

11(10) Squamules orbicular to auriculate, pale grey, scattered, never fertile, always K-, C, P- 

Normandina 

Squamules elongate, grey to green, bearing pseudopodetia at maturity, often K+ or C+ or P+ 

Cladonia 

12(9) Squamules elongate, free at the tip, apothecia on pseudopodetia Cladonia 

Squamules more or less umbilicate, orbicular, apothecia sessile 13 

13(12) Squamules green, apothecia with a thalline margin Ramalinora 

Squamules pink-brown or grey, apothecia with a proper margin or none Psora 

46


Key to Species 

Buellia 

A mostly crustose genus with one squamulose species on soil in Queensland. 

Squamules white, often convex Buellia subcoronata (Müll.Arg.) Malme 

Cladonia 

A genus in which squamules from an initial growth and later produce podetia bearing apothecia. 

Identification of sterile squamules is not currently practicable. 

See key to fruticose species. 

Endocarpon 

A genus of squamulose lichens mostly on soil, with immersed perithecia, grey to dark brown thalli and well 

developed rhizines below. 

1. Squamules with black margins 2 

Margins of squamules concolorous 3 

2. Asci with one spore E. simplicatum var simplicatum (Nyl.) Nyl. 

Asci with two spores E. simplicatum var bispora P.M.McCarthy 

3. Squamules pale below 4 

Squamules dark below 5 

4. Squamules pruinose when young, stellate lobate E. rogersii P.M.McCarthy 

Squamules epruinose, entire to lobed E. pallidum Ach. 

5. Squamules 3-12mm broad, spores 1 per ascus E. aridum P.M.McCarthy 

Squamules 1-3mm broad, spores 2 per ascus E. pusillum Hedw. 

Heppia 

A genus of to sub-foliose lichens mostly from arid soils, with immersed apothecia one or several per squamule. 

Normandina 

Heppia lutosa (Ach.) Nyl 

A genus of sterile light grey orbicular squamules found on bark in damp environments. 

Normandina pulchella (Borrer) Nyl. 

47


Peltula 

Thallus of variable squamules, usually olive in colour but one yellow, on soil and rocks in arid locations. 

Phyllopsora 

1. Thallus growing on soil 2 

Thallus growing on rock 3 

2. Thallus yellow P. radicata 

Thallus olive P. patellata 

3. Thallus sorediate P. euploca 


4. Thallus more or less erect, club-shaped P. clavata 

Thallus squamulose or areolate 5 

5. Thallus more or less crustose P. placodizans 

Thallus squamulose to peltate 6 

6. Thallus peltate, distinctly stalked P. omphaliza 

Thallus squamulose to subfruticose, not stalked P. obscurans 

Small finely divided squamules bearing inconspicuous apothecia. Species from Queensland are poorly 

understood. 

Placynthium 

A genus of inconspicuous rock and soil surface lichens with septate spores 

Psora 

Placynthium nigrum (Huds.) Gray 

A genus of squamulose lichens with sessile to adnate apothecia. 

Ramalinora 

Thallus pink-brown, apothecia marginal,upper surface smooth or irregularly cracked, with fine 

rhizoids below P. crenata (Taylor) Reinke 

Thallus grey, apothecia laminal, upper surface regularly crystalline, with thick rhizines below 

P. crystallifera (Taylor) Müll. Arg. 

Endemic to Queensland and found on exposed red earths in moist areas. 

Ramalinora glaucescens (Müll. Arg.) Lumbsch, Rambold & Elix 

48


Toninia 

Thallus of small bullate squamules, often blue-grey pruinose and reticulate. On arid soils. 

Trapelia 

Spores 3 septate T. aromatica (Sm.) A.Massal. 

Spores 1 septate T. sedifolia (Scop.) Timdal 

A genus of small squamulose lichens on arid soils, with erumpent apothecia. 

Trapelia coarctata (Sm.) M.Choisy in Wern. 

49


Glossary 

Apothecium Reproductive body having an open disc with a layer of asci and sterile structures. 

The disc of the apothecium may have a distinct margin that is said to be thalline 

(or lecanorine) if it has algae in its tissue and proper (or lecideine) if it does not. 

Axil The angle made where one branch gives rise to another 

Axis A major elongate strand of a fruticose lichen. 

b Brown (of chemical reactions) 

Bulbate Cilia Cilia with an onion shaped bulb at the base where they arise from the margin of a 

lobe. 

C Medullary reaction to an aqueous solution of calcium hypopchlorite 

Capitate A sub-globular head-like shape. 

Cartilagenous Having the structure of cartilage; tough. 

Cephalodia structures housing cyanobacteria within a lichen that otherwise has a green algal 

photobiont. Cephalodia may be on the thallus surface or embedded within it. 

Cilia A coarse hair-like structure growing on the margin or upper surface of lobes or on 

apothecia. 

Cortex A developed layer of compact fungal tissue enclosing other lichen tissues. 

Crustose A thallus with the lower surface without a developed cortex, and the lower surface 

inseparable from the substratum. 

Cyanobacteria Blue-green algae: photosynthetic bacteria. 

Cyphellae Pores in the lower surface of lichens that are cup-shaped and have a distinct, well 

developed margin. (cf pseudocyphellae) 

Dactyls Finger-like protrusions on the upper cortex of a lichen that may burst or become 

sorediate. Dactyls do not have an abscission layer at their base (cf isidia) 

Erumpent Bursting at the tip, especially of dactyls and isidia. 

Foliose Leafy; a thallus that is flat and thin with pronounced differences between the 

upper and lower surface, usually more-or-less attached to the substrate along the 

length of the lobes. (cf fruticose, crustose) 

Fruticose Shrubby; a thallus that has little or no dorsiventral differentiation, lobes or axes 

with radial symmetry; usually attached only by a holdfast. (cf foliose, crustose) 

Holdfast A tough structure attaching a lichen thallus to its substrate at a single point. 

Hyphae Fine strands of fungus 

Inflated Swollen, with loosely packed internal hyphae or hollow. 

Isidia Tiny cylindrical, coral-like or globular structures on thalli that have a developed 

cortex-like outer layer; serve as reproductive bodies. Isidia have an abscission 

layer at their base. (cf dactyls) 

50


K Medullary Reaction to potassium hydroxide (of chemical reactions) 

KC Medullary Reaction to potassium hydroxide followed by calcium hypochlorite 

Medullary Reaction to potassium hydroxide (of chemical reactions) 

Lobes Major individual portions of the thallus. 

Lobules Small lobe-like structures that may grow on the margin or upper surface of a lobe. 

Marginal On the edge of the thallus where upper cortex meets the lower cortex. 

Medulla A cottony tissue within a lichen, devoid of algae. 

Muriform Of spores - having longitudinal and transverse septa. 

o Orange Medullary Reaction to potassium hydroxide (of chemical reactions) 

P Medullary reaction to a fresh alcoholic solution of paraphenylene diamine (of 

chemical reactions) 

p Pink (of chemical reactions) 

Papilla A small pimple-like swelling on a lobe or axis. 

Pendulous Hanging. 

Photobiont The photosynthetic organism that provides energy for the lichen. These are either 

green algae (often Trebouxia or a close relative) or cyanobacteria (commonly 

Nostoc). 

Phyllidia Small lobule-like structures that occur on the lobe margin or upper cortex of some 

lichens. 

Pseudocyphellae Openings through the upper or lower cortex of a lichen, the pores not having a 

developed margin (cf cyphellae). Pseudocyphellae may be pinprick size, small 

irregular pores or elongate crack-like structures that penetrate the upper or lower 

cortex. They are evident on young lobes and should not be confused with cracks 

that come with age or fine reticulate cracks that sometimes occur as a function of 

cortical structures. 

Pustulate Bursting open, sometimes to produce soredia. 

Pustules Small eruption in a surface. 

r red (of chemical reactions) 

Rhizines Well-developed organs of attachment on the lower surface of a foliose lichen. 

These may be simple (unbranched), irregularly branched, dichotomously branched 

or terminate in a bushy branching system. 

Rotund With a broadly rounded end (cf truncate). 

Secondary lobes Small lobes that grow from the centre of an older thallus. 

Septate Of spores - having dividing walls. 

Soralia Aggregates of soredia to form powdery masses. 

Soredia Small clusters of algal cells entangled in fungal hyphae to from granules. 

51


Squamule A scale-like structure. 

Squamulose Made of scale-like structures. 

Striate Having fine lines, rather like fine scratches. 

Thallus A term used loosely here to indicate the main photosynthetic body of the lichen, 

including podetia (in Cladonia) and pseudopodetia (in Cladia) 

Tomentum A layer of hair-like structures other than discrete rhizines. 

Truncate The ends (usually of lobes) squared, having the appearance of having been cut of 

at right angles to the lobe axis (cf rotund). 

UV Response of cortex to UV light 

y Yellow (of chemical reactions) 

52

Roderick W Rogers - members.westnet.com.au - Westnet

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