A Pictorial Guide for the Identification of Mold ... - OAR@ICRISAT

A Pictorial Guide for the Identification 

of Mold Fungi on Sorghum Grain 

S S Navi, R Bandyopadhyay, A J Hall, and Paula J Bramel-Cox 

International Crops Research Institute 

for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

Information Bulletin no. 59 

Natural Resources Institute

Citation: Navi, S.S., Bandyopadhyay, R., Hall, A.J., and Bramel-Cox, P.J. 1999. A pictorial guide for the identification 

of mold fungi on sorghum grain. Information Bulletin no. 59 (In En. Summaries in En, Fr). Patancheru 502 324, 

Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 118 pp. ISBN 92-9066-416-9. 

Order code IBE 059. 

Abstract 

Sorghum is one of the main staple food crops of the world's poorest and most food-insecure people. Approximately 

90% of the world's sorghum areas are located in Africa and Asia. During 1992-94, 42% of the total sorghum 

produced worldwide was utilized for food, and 48% for animal feed. A preliminary study was conducted to 

understand the various storage conditions of sorghum grain, and the potential occurrence of mold fungi under such 

conditions. A total of 67 sorghum grain samples were collected from two surveys, 15 samples from the 1996 rainy 

season harvest, and 11 from the 1996/97 postrainy season harvest collected in June 1997, and 19 samples from 

the 1996/97 postrainy season and 22 from 1997 rainy season harvest collected in October 1997. Approximately 

1 kg grain from each of the grain lots stored under various conditions (gunny bags, mud-lined baskets, metallic 

containers, polypropylene bags, and grains piled in a corner of a room) by farmers in rural India was collected. 

Each grain sample (200 grains treatment 1 ) was examined to identify fungi up to the species level. Grains with and 

without surface sterilization were transferred separately to pre-sterilized petri dish humid chambers under aseptic 

conditions. The petri dishes were incubated for 5 days at 28±1 °C in an incubator with a 12-h light cycle. Under each 

treatment, 200 grains (25 grains dish -1 ) were examined for 49 mold fungi, including the species of Aspergillus and 

Penicillium. The major fungi observed on the grains included species of Alternaria, Curvularia, Drechslera, 

Fusarium, and Rhizopus. The frequency of occurrence of the various fungi on each grain sample under the various 

treatments was analyzed. This bulletin reports some new mold fungi on sorghum grain in India: Alternaria longipes, 

Bipolaris zeicola, Curvularia affinis, C. clavata, C. fallax, C. geniculata, C. harveyi, C. ovoidea, C. pallescens, 

C. tuberculata, Drechslera halodes, Gonatobotrys simplex, Nigrospora oryzae, Periconia macrospinosa, Spadicoides 

obovata, Torula graminis, and Trichothecium roseum. 

Abstrait 

Cover Micrograph of Aspergillus flavus. (Note: The sample was critical point dried and observed under JSM35 

CF Scanning Electron Microscope at 10kV.) 

Front Spore head containing spiny conidia on rough conidiophore of 15 μm width. 

Back Conidiophores (15 μrn width) bearing spore heads with spiny conidia.

A Pictorial Guide for the Identification 

of Mold Fungi on Sorghum Grain 

S S Navi, R Bandyopadhyay, A J Hall, and Paula J Bramel-Cox 

Information Bulletin no. 59 

ICRISAT 

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India 

Natural Resources Institute 

Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK 

1999

ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India 

Authors 

S S Navi, Scientific Officer (Pathology), Genetic Resources and Enhancement Program (GREP) 

R Bandyopadhyay, Senior Scientist (Pathology), GREP 

Paula J Bramel-Cox, Principal Scientist, GREP 

Natural Resources Institute, UK 

A J Hall, Principal Scientist 

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the 

expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of ICRISAT concerning the legal status of any country, 

territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. 

Where trade names are used this does not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any 

product by the Institute. 

Copyright® 1999 by the International Crops Research Insitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). 

All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no 

part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by 

any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission 

from ICRISAT. The Institute does not require payment for the noncommercial use of its published works, 

and hopes that this Copyright declaration will not diminish the bonafide use of its research findings in 

agricultural research and development. 

Photography 

Figures 1a & b: L Vidyasagar, Partnerships and Information Management Division 

Photomicrography 

Figures 2-19a, 20-27, 29-33, 35-70, 73-88a, and 89-95: S S Navi 

Figures 19b, 28, 34, 71-72, and 88b: K M Ahmed and Ravinder Reddy, GREP 

Cover: AK Murthy, Electron Microscope Unit, GREP 

Acknowledgement 

This publication is an output from two research projects funded by the United Kingdom Department for 

International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not 

necessarily those of DFID [R6767, R7506, the Crop Protection Programme, and the Crop Post-Harvest 

Programme].

Contents 

Foreword 1 

Introduction 2 

Collection of s o r g h u m samples and storage conditions 3 

Detection technique 4 

Identification and photomicrography of fungi 6 

S y m p t o m s and morphology 7 

Acladium conspersum 8 

Acremonium strictum 10 

Alternaria alternata 12 

Alternaria brassicicola 14 

Alternaria longipes 16 

Alternaria longissima 18 

Alternaria tenuissima 20 

Aspergillus candidus 22 

Aspergillus flavus 24 

Aspergillus niger 26 

Bipolaris australiensis 28 

Bipolaris halodes 30 

Bipolaris maydis 32 

Bipolaris sacchari 34 

Bipolaris spicifera 36 

Bipolaris zeicola 38 

Botrytis cinerea 40 

Chaetomium oryzae 42 

Cladosporium oxysporum 44 

Cladosporium sphaerospermum 46 

Colletotrichum graminicola 48 

Curvularia affinis 50 

Curvularia clavata 52 

Curvularia eragrostidis 54

Curvularia fallax 56 

Curvularia geniculata 58 

Curvularia harveyi 60 

Curvularia lunata 62 

Curvularia lunata var aeria 64 

Curvularia ovoidea 66 

Curvularia pallescens 68 

Curvularia trifolii 70 

Curvularia tuberculata 72 

Epicoccum nigrum 74 

Exserohilum rostratum 76 

Exserohilum turcicum 78 

Fusarium moniliforme 80 

Fusarium semitectum 82 

Gloecercospora sorghi 84 

Gonatobotrys simplex 86 

Nigrospora oryzae 88 

Penicillium citrinum 90 

Penicillium griseofulvum 92 

Periconia macrospinosa 93 

Phoma sorghina 96 

Rhizopus stolonifer 98 

Spadicoides obovata 100 

Torula graminis 102 

Trichothecium roseum 104 

References 106 

Appendix 1 112 

Glossary 114

Foreword 

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aims 

to help the poor by increasing the productivity of resources committed to its mandate 

crops while protecting the environment, through agricultural research and in concert 

with national agricultural research systems. 

Germplasm improvement continues to be ICRISAT's main line of work, responding to 

a predicted increase in demand for advanced germplasm products and for source 

populations containing special traits. For this reason ICRISAT also serves as a world 

storage and trust facility for the genetic resources of sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, 

pigeonpea, chickpea, and groundnut. 

By recognizing and reducing the enormous crop losses that occur between harvesting 

and final utilization a significant contribution can be made to improving the supply of 

agricultural products above and beyond what may be achieved by increased primary 

production. Historically, the study of postharvest crop losses has largely been 

associated with protection of food stocks, particularly emergency grain supplies, 

during wartime and especially where more developed temperate countries have been 

involved. 

The main objective of this bulletin was to compile and collate information of practical 

value which plant pathologists, plant quarantine experts, and seed technologists could 

use in handling such seed stocks both in the field and in the laboratory. This publication 

is the result of a fruitful cooperation between ICRISAT, India, and the Food Security 

Department, Natural Resources Institute (NRI), UK. 

The study conducted by the authors at ICRISAT was to understand the various storage 

conditions of sorghum grain and the potential occurrence of mold fungi under such 

conditions, and the importance of individual fungi including production of mycotoxins. 

The information in this bulletin is based on observations of the sorghum grain samples 

collected from grain lots stored by farmers in gunny bags, polypropylene bags, 

mud-lined baskets, a corner of a room, and metallic containers in rural India. This 

bulletin is a ready reference for researchers working on sorghum grain mold. 

Director General 

International Crops Research Institute 

for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

Director 

Genetic Resources and 

Enhancement Program 

1

Introduction 

People need food, and a crop is not food until it is eaten. A program to reduce storage losses 

probably could result in an increase of available food in some developing countries, and might 

also assure that whatever increases in production occur in future would be used for the 

nourishment of people, not for feeding pests. Overall postharvest losses of cereals, oilseeds, 

and pulses have been estimated at 20% of the harvested crop in Africa, Asia, and Latin 

America. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has estimated 

losses of these commodities at 10% on a worldwide basis (FAO/ICRISAT 1996). In individual 

cases losses may be much greater and it is suggested that losses at the farm-level of 35-50% 

followed by 10-12% in traders' stores and further 5% in centralized stores may not be 

uncommon (Booth and Burden 1983). 

There is little doubt that grain mold in its broadest sense constitutes one of the most important 

biotic constraints to sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) improvement and production. The 

real and potential importance of grain mold has been emphasized for Africa, the Americas, and 

India (Forbes et al. 1992). Grain mold fungi have repeatedly been associated with losses in 

seed mass, grain density, and germination and other damage relating to storage quality, food 

and feed processing quality, and market value of the grain. More specifically, the effects of 

fungi in quality loss in stored grains are: (1) decrease in germinability; (2) discoloration of part 

or all of the seed or kernel; (3) heating and mustiness; (4) various biochemical changes; and 

(5) production of toxins that if consumed may be injurious to humans and to domestic animals. 

Grain mold continues to receive much attention because of the growing concern for deleterious 

nature of subacute dosages of mycotoxins on animals. Mycotoxin content of grains 

contaminated during pre-harvest increases when the grains are stored. There are species of 

32 dematiaceous hyphomycetes which produce mycotoxins and other metabolites. More 

species in the genera Alternaria, Bipolaris, Curvularia, Drechslera, Exserohilum, and Fusarium 

have been investigated for mycotoxins than those in the other fungal genera (Sivanesan 

1991). In addition, species of Aspergillus can produce aflatoxins (Pitt 1991). 

Seeds carry mycoflora which vary with the host species. This is especially true for the more 

deeply seated mycoflora, whilst on the surface many "accidental guests" may be carried as 

well. The seedborne mycoflora can be identified through the use of seed health tests. The tests 

are used for several purposes: 

• To assess the incidence of a seedborne pathogen that may affect seed quality. 

• To detect organisms of quarantine concern. 

• To determine seed quality in terms of germinability and or vigor. 

• To determine if pesticide treatment of the seed is necessary. 

In this study, efforts were made to compile information on symptoms of 49 grain mold fungi, to 

detail their morphology, provide quick clues for identification, and describe their importance in 

terms of diseases, and mycotoxin and metabolite production. 

2

Collection of Sorghum Samples and 

Storage Conditions 

A total of 67 sorghum grain samples, representing hybrids, varieties, and local cultivars were 

collected in two surveys in rural areas of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and 

Maharashtra in India. The grain samples were collected from lots stored by farmers for food 

purpose in five types of storage conditions: gunny bags, mud-lined baskets, metallic 

containers, polypropylene bags, and piled in a corner of a room. During the first survey in June 

1997, 15 samples were collected from grain lots stored after harvest in the 1996 rainy season 

and 11 from the 1996/97 postrainy season harvest. During the second survey in October 

1997, 19 samples were obtained from 1996/97 postrainy season harvest and 22 samples 

from the 1997 rainy season harvest. Approximately 1 kg grain samples were collected from 

each lot using compartment probe (80 cm long x 2.5 cm diameter) where there was open 

access to the grain bulk (mud-lined basket and loose grain piles) and where access was more 

difficult (stacks of gunny bags and polypropylene bags), a short probe (27 cm long x 1.5 cm 

diameter) was used. Farmers were paid for their grain at the market rate. Care was taken not 

to mention to farmers that a further sample would be taken at a later stage. This was done to 

ensure that their subsequent behavior would not be influenced by the opportunity to sell grain. 

3

Detection Technique 

Eight hundred grains from each sample were examined to identify fungi up to the species 

level. Each grain sample was subjected to four treatments (200 grains treatment 1 ): 

1. Grains were surface sterilized in 1 % sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) [prepared from Clorox® 

(Clorox Company, Oakland, CA 94612, USA) containing 5.25% NaOCI] without fungicide 

treatment. 

2. Grains were sterilized in NaOCI, and treated with benomyl (0.05%) [Benefit ® 50 WP 

(benomyl 50% WP), EID Parry (India)]. 

3. Grains were sterilized in NaOCI and treated with benomyl. 

4. Grains were not sterilized and no benomyl treatment. 

The grains were transferred to pre-sterilized petri dish humid chambers @ 25 grains dish 1 

(Fig. 1 a, b) under aseptic conditions, and were incubated for 5 days at 28±1 °C in an incubator 

(Percival®) with a 12-h light cycle for observation. The fungi mentioned in this bulletin were 

encountered across the treatments, storage conditions, seasons, and cultivars. The effects of 

all these factors on mean frequency of occurrence of individual fungi are published separately. 

4

Figure 1a. Before incubation. 

Figure 1b. After incubation. 

5

Identification and Photomicrography of Fungi 

Each of the grains in the four treatments were examined under a stereoscopic microscope 

(Olympus C01) for grain colonization and a compound microscope (Olympus BH2) for 

proper identification of fungi using the scotch-tape method (Appendix 1). This method was 

mainly to preserve attachment of conidia to conidiophores. It was particularly useful for 

those fungi in which the conidia readily dislodge from conidiophores under normal 

procedures for slide preparation. Photomicrographs were made of the colonization of 

grains either by an individual fungus, or by a group of fungi using the stereoscopic 

microscope and for fungal structures using the compound microscope. The proper 

identification of fungi was confirmed by comparison with the details available in the 

literature, and the knowledge acquired by the senior author in the international course on 

identification of fungi of agricultural and environmental significance at the International 

Mycological Institute, Egham, Surrey, UK in 1996. In addition, most descriptions of each 

fungus included in this bulletin are from Standen (1945), Nelson (1959), Whitehead and 

Calvert (1959), Simmons (1967), Barron (1968), Ellis (1971, 1976), Barnett and Hunter 

(1972), Raper and Fennel (1973), Sutton (1980), Zillinsky (1983), Sivanesan (1987), Pitt 

(1988), Hanlin (1990), Champ et al. (1991), and Hawksworth et al. (1995). 

6

Symptoms and Morphology

Acladium conspersum Link ex Pers. 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, often very large, cottony and pale at first, later 

becoming velvety and fulvous or snuff-colored (Fig. 2). 

Morphology. Mycelium is mostly superficial. Conidiophores and hyphae have same 

thickness (6-9 μm), up to 350 μm long but usually shorter, and are subhyaline; cylindrical 

denticles are numerous especially on the upper part. Conidia are ellipsoidal, papillate at the 

base, smooth, individually subhyaline or straw-colored, fulvous in mass, 15-20 (average 17) 

μm x 9-14 (average 12) μm (Fig. 3). 

Quick clue. Lemon-shaped conidia are present on the conidiophore. 

Importance. Acladium conspersum is very common on dead wood and bark of many different 

trees and shrubs in Canada, Europe including Great Britain, and USA. Occurrence of this 

fungus and also the method to kill the fungus adhering to the grains for its safe consumption 

has been reported on sorghum by Navi et al. (1997). 

Figure 2 x67 

8

Acladium conspersum 

Figure 3 x956 

9

Acremonium strictum W. Gams 

Teleomorph. Cephalosporium acremonium Corda 

Cephalosporium madurae Padhye, Sukapure, & Thirumalachar 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on grain is compact, slow-growing, white to pale and becomes 

slate gray or black with age (Fig. 4). Hyphae are hyaline, septate, simple or branched, and are 

often grouped together forming threads and along the sides of the threads numerous solitary 

conidiophores are formed, each with a globule of spores. Infected grain may show white 

streaks on the grain surface. 

Morphology. Conidiophores, arising directly and singly at right angles from the vegetative 

hyphae, are hyaline, short, tapered towards the tip, and measure 30-60 μm in length and 

1.5 μm in width at the base (Fig. 5). 

Quick clue. The characteristic of Acremonium is the ball of spores produced at the apex of 

solitary, tapering conidiophores, usually borne at right angles to the hyphae. 

(Note: The genus can be readily confused with other genera such as Gliomastix, Verticillium, 

and microconidial Fusarium or Cylindrocarpon. Nevertheless, it is perhaps one of the easiest 

fungi to identify at the genus level and one of the most difficult in which to make species 

determinations.) 

Importance. Acremonium strictum is distributed worldwide, but is more frequent in the tropics. 

It causes acremonium wilt of sorghum (Bandyopadhyay et al. 1987) and black bundle disease 

of maize (Zea mays L). The latter is a late season disease which is common in USA 

and other countries. 

10

Acremonium strictum 

Figure 4 x12 

Figure 5 x 5085 

11

Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler 

Symptoms on grain. The fungus produces woolly or powdery chains of dark brown conidia 

of variable lengths and shapes. The color of the colony is usually extremely variable between 

olive green to dark brown (Fig. 6a, b). 

Morphology. The mycelium may be either sparse or abundant and variable in color, usually 

light olive green to brown. Hyphae are dark brown, thick, septate, and branched. 

Conidiophores are simple, erect, 40-50 μm long, 2-6 μm thick, and often clustered. 

Conidiophores produce dark pigmented conidia in an acropetal succession of simple or 

branched chains. These chains normally branch at the beak of a spore, or sometimes from 

the short lateral projection of the beak. Conidia have transverse and oblique septa, measure 

10-18 x 20-65 μm, and are ovoid to obovoid, obclavate, obpyriform, ellipsoidal, uniform, 

with an elongated terminal cell (Fig. 7). Conidia often have a short conical or cylindrical beak 

which is about one third the length of the conidium, and measure 2-5 x 10-20 μm. Surface 

walls are either smooth or verrucose and pale to mid-golden brown. 

Quick clue. Chains of conidia are produced at the beak of a spore, or sometimes from the 

short lateral projection of the beak. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide and is usually seedborne. It causes leaf 

spot on several hosts and blight of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.), chickpea (Cicer 

arietinum L), and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L ) . Several metabolites and toxins have 

been isolated from A. alternata: tentoxin (Templeton 1972), AF-toxins I and II (Maekawa et al. 

1984), alkaloids (Rizk et al. 1985), alternariol (Logrieco et al. 1990), and mannitol 

(Combe et al. 1970). 

12

Alternaria alternata 

Figure 6a x17 Figure 6b x42 

Figure 7 X 1 8 

13

Alternaria brassicicola (Schwein.) Wiltshire 

Helminthosporium brassicicola Schweinitz 

Macrosporium cheiranthi Fr. var circinans Berk. & Curt. 

Alternaria circinans (Berk. & Curt.) Bolle. 

Alternaria oleracea Milbraith. 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are amphigenous, effuse, dark olivaceous brown to dark 

blackish brown, and velvety. Dark brown to almost black, circular (1-10 mm diameter), zonate 

spots are formed (Fig. 8). 

Morphology. The mycelium is immersed; hyphae are branched, septate, hyaline at first, later 

turn brown or olivaceous brown, inter- and intracellular, smooth, and 1.5-7.5 μm thick. The 

conidiophores arise singly or in groups of 2-12 or more, and emerge through the stomata. They 

are usually simple, erect or ascending, straight or curved, occasionally geniculate, more or less 

cylindrical but often slightly swollen at the base, septate, pale to mid-olivaceous brown, smooth, 

70 μm long, and 5-8 μm thick. The conidia are usually produced in chains of 20 or more, 

sometimes branched, acropleurogenous, and arise through small pores in the conidiophore wall. 

They are straight, nearly cylindrical, usually tapering, slightly towards the apex or obclavate, with 

the basal cell rounded, the beak usually almost non-existent, the apical cell being more or less 

rectangular or resembling a truncated cone, occasionally better developed but then always short 

and thick, with 1-11, mostly less than 6 transverse septa and usually few but up to 6 longitudinal 

septa, often slightly constricted at the septa, pale to dark olivaceous brown, smooth or becoming 

slightly warted with age, 18-130 μm long, 8-20 μm thick in the broadest part, with the beak 1/6 

the length of the conidium and 6-8 μm thick (Fig. 9). 

Quick clue. Conidia are nearly cylindrical, usually tapering, the beak usually almost nonexistent. 

Importance. "Brassicicolon A" metabolite was isolated from Alternaria brassicicola (Ciegler and 

Lindenfelser 1969). The fungus causes leaf spot of crucifers. 

14

Figure 8 

Alternaria brassicicola 


x17 

15

Alternaria longipes (Ellis & Everh.) Mason 

Figure 10 x56 

16 

Macrosporium longipes Ellis & Everh. 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are amphigenous. The spots which appear first are orbicular, 

brown, and frequently zonate (Fig. 10). The entire grain eventually becomes brown and the 

spots then appear a shade paler than the surrounding areas (Fig. 10). 

Morphology. Conidiophores arise singly or in groups, erect or ascending, simple or loosely 

branched, straight or flexuous, cylindrical, septate, rather pale olivaceous brown, 80 μm long, 

3-5 μm thick, with 1 or several conidial scars. Conidia are sometimes solitary but usually in 

chains, obclavate, rostrate, pale to mid-pale brown, smooth or verruculose, overall length 

35-110 (average 69) μm, body of conidium 11-21 (average 14) μm thick in the broadest part, 

tapering gradually into the pale brown beak which is usually 1/3 to 1/2 the total length, 2-5 μm 

thick and often slightly swollen at the tip; there are 3-7, usually 5-6 transverse septa and 1 to 

several longitudinal or oblique septa (Fig. 11). 

Quick clue. Refer Figure 11. 

Importance. On tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L), A. longipes causes brown spot. But this is 

the first report of its occurrence on sorghum in India.

Alternaria longipes 

Figure 11 x686 

17

Alternaria longissima Deighton & MacGarvie 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on grain is brown to blackish brown (Fig. 12). 

Morphology. Mycelium is partly superficial and partly immersed. Conidiophores are erect or 

ascending, simple or occasionally branched, straight or slightly flexuous, sometimes geniculate, 

somewhat swollen at the apex, septate, pale to mid-pale brown, smooth below, verruculose at 

and sometimes below the apex, 150 μm long, 3-5 μm thick, with one to several conidial scars. 

Conidia are solitary or catenulate, extremely variable in shape and size, pale straw colored to 

brown. They are usually very long (up to 500 μm), Cercospora-like, obclavate or with a basal 

sub-cylindric portion of few to several cells and a very long, narrow septate beak (Fig. 13). They 

have 5-40 transverse septa. Conidia are 4-17 μm thick in the broadest part and about 2.5 μm 

thick at the apex. Shorter conidia, variable in shape and often with a few longitudinal or oblique 

septa, are also formed. Conidia are thin-walled, smooth except around the base where they are 

often verruculose. Dark brown, multicellular, muriform chlamydospores 16-42 x 16-34 μm 

sometimes occur, both on natural substrata and in culture. 

Quick clue. Very long, Cercospora-like conidium is a distinct feature of A. longissima. 

Importance. The fungus was previously reported on sorghum along with method(s) to kill the 

fungus adhering to the grains for safe use of grains for consumption (Navi et al. 1997). 

Metabolites isolated from A. longissima include tenuazonic acid, cellulase, and 

polygalacturonase (von Ramm and Lucas 1963; Mikami et al. 1971). 

Figure 12 

18 

x13

Alternaria longissima 


19

Alternaria tenuissima (Kunze ex Pers.) Wiltshire 

Figure 14 x51 

20 

Helminthosporium tenuissimum Kunze in C.G. & T.F.L. Nees 

Macrosporium tenuissimum Fr. 

Symptoms on grain. Golden brown to black growth on the seed surface (Fig. 14). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are solitary or in groups, simple or branched, straight or 

flexuous, more or less cylindrical, septate, pale or mid-pale brown, smooth, with one or several 

conidial scars, up to 115 μrn long, and 4 μm thick. Conidia are solitary or in short chains, 

straight or curved, obclavate or ellipsoidal tapering gradually to the beak which is up to half the 

length of the conidium, usually shorter, sometimes tapered to a point but more frequently 

swollen at the apex where there may be several scars; pale to clear mid-golden brown, usually 

smooth, sometimes minutely verruculose generally with 4-7 transverse and several 

longitudinal or oblique septa, and slightly or not constricted at the septa; overall length 22-95 

(average 54) μm, 8-19 (average 13.8) μm thick in the broadest part, beak 2-4 μm thick, and 

swollen apex 4-5 μm wide (Fig. 15). 

Quick clue. Refer Figure 15. 

Importance. Alternaria tenuissima is extremely common and recorded on a wide range of 

plant species, usually as a secondary invader rather than a primary parasite. It produces 

tenuazonic acid (Davies et al. 1977). It has been reported to cause leaf spot of pigeonpea. It 

produces the same toxins as A. alternata.

Figure 15 

Alternaria tenuissima 

x2046 

21

Aspergillus candidus Link 

Symptoms on grain. Conidial heads are persistently white or become yellowish cream with 

age (Fig. 16a); typically globose when young, often splitting with age, or approaching columnar 

in small heads (Fig. 16b). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are smooth, colorless or slightly yellow in terminal areas. 

Vesicles are typically globose to subglobose and fertile over the entire surface. Sterigmata 

typically in two series, with primary series often much enlarged, sometimes varying greatly in 

size within the same head (Fig. 17). Conidia are globose or subglobose and smooth. 

Quick clue. Absence of pigmentation and smooth conidia. White conidial heads are present. 

Importance. Aspergillus candidus is widely distributed in nature. It is encountered most 

commonly on stored cereal grains and on grain products. It has been revealed frequently in 

necropsies of birds and mammals at the Paris Zoological Gardens. It is a thermo-tolerant 

fungus, capable of growing at 40-50°C, and is xerophilic (Raper and Fennel 1973). 


22

Aspergillus candidus 


23

Aspergillus flavus Link 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is usually spreading and very light yellow-green, deep 

yellow-green, olive brown, or brown (Fig. 18a). Conidiophores are swollen apically and bear 

numerous conidia-bearing cells (phialides) with conidia in long, dry chains. Conidial heads are 

typically spherical, splitting into several poorly defined columns, rarely exceeding 500-600 μm 

diameter, but mostly 300-400 μm (Fig. 18b). 

(Note: Severely infected sorghum grains are discolored and shrivelled.) 

Morphology. Conidiophores are heavy walled, hyaline, coarsely roughened, and usually 

Aspergillus flavus 


Figure 19a x502 Figure 19b X1130 

25

Aspergillus niger van Tieghem 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed grows slowly, consisting of a compact to fairly loose 

white to faintly yellow basal mycelium, which bears abundant erect and usually crowded 

conidial structures, typically carbon black but sometimes deep brown-black, covering the entire 

colony except for a narrow growing margin (Fig. 20). Conidial heads are typically large and 

black, compact at first, spherical, or split into two or more loose to reasonably well-defined 

columns, and commonly reach 700-800 μm in diameter. 

(Note: Severely infected sorghum grains are discolored and shrivelled.) 

Morphology. Conidiophores are smooth, hyaline or faintly brownish near the apex and up to 3 

μm in length and 15-20 μrn in diameter. Apices are spherical or nearly so, up to 75 μm in 

diameter but often quite small. Two series of conidia-bearing cells (supporting cells and 

phialides) are produced, but in some heads only phialides are present. Supporting cells are of 

varying lengths and sometimes septate, but when mature usually 20-30 μrn long. Phialides 

are more uniform in length, usually 7-10 x 2-3 μm. Conidia are typically spherical at maturity, 

often very rough or spiny, mostly 4—5 μm diameter, and very dark in color or with conspicuous 

longitudinal striations (Fig. 21). 

Quick clue. Aspergillus niger is recognized by the production of compact, greenish black, 

brownish black, purplish black, or carbon black, spherical or columnar spore heads. 

Importance. Seed infection can reduce germination. Production of large numbers of airdisseminated 

spores can cause respiratory diseases in man and animals. Aspergillus niger is 

worldwide in distribution and occurs in and upon the greatest variety of substrata including 

grains, forage products, spoiled fruits and vegetables, exposed cotton textiles and fabrics, 

leather, dairy products, and other protein-rich substrata (Raper and Fnnel 1973). 

26

Aspergillus niger 

Figure 20 x14 


27

Bipolaris australiensis (M.B. Ellis) Tsuda & Ueyama 

(Bipolaris species "with" Cochliobolus teleomorph) 

Drechslera australiensis M.B. Ellis 

Helminthosporium australiense Bugnicourt 

Teleomorph. Cochliobolus australiensis (Tsuda & Ueyama) Alcorn 

Symptoms on grain. Conidial colonies are effuse, gray to blackish brown, and velvety. 

Hyphae are pale to dark brown, smooth, and septate. Stromata are erect, straight, cylindrical, 

and black (Fig. 22). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are single, flexuous, geniculate, septate, smooth, cylindrical, 

reddish brown, up to 150 μm long and 3-7 μm thick, having verruculose, conidiogenous nodes. 

Conidia are straight, ellipsoidal or oblong, rounded at the ends, pale brown to mid-reddish 

brown, usually 3-, rarely 4-5 distoseptate, 14—40 x 6-11 μm (Fig. 23). 

The species is heterothallic and the teleomorph is obtained by pairing opposite compatible 

monoconidial isolates in Sach's agar media with sterilized rice straw. Ascomata on rice straw 

are globose to subglobose, black, superficial on columnar to flat stromata, 375-940 μm in 

diameter with a long cylindrical ostiolar beak 250-1250 x 90-125 μm. Pseudoparaphyses are 

filamentous, hyaline, septate, and branched. Asci are cylindrical to long, 100-182 x 

8.5-15 μm clavate, vestigial bitunicate, short pedicellate, with 1-8 spores. Ascospores are 

parallel to partly or closely coiled in a helix in the ascus, filiform, somewhat tapering towards the 

ends, flagelliform at the ends, hyaline to very pale brown, 3-13 septate, 81-206 x 

2.5-5.6 μm. 

Quick clue. Verruculose conidiogenous nodes are present. 

Importance. Production of mycotoxin by the fungus is unknown. Cochliobolus australiensis 

causes leaf spot of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) (Chand and Singh 1966) and 

leaf blight of citronella grass (Cymbopogan winterianus Jowitt.) (Ramaiah and Chandrashekar 

1981) in India. 

28

Bipolaris australiensis 

Figure 22 x49 


29

Bipolaris halodes (Drechsler) Shoem. 

(Bipolaris species "without" Cochliobolus teleomorph) 

Drechslera halodes (Drechsler) Subram. & Jain 

Bipolaris rostrata (Drechsler) Shoem. 

Drechslera rostrata (Drechsler) Richardson & Fraser 

Exserohilum halodes (Drechsler) Leonard & Suggs 

Exserohilum rostratum (Drechsler) Leonard & Suggs Imp. 

Helminthosporium appatternae K.S. Deshpande & K.S. Deshpande 

Helminthosporium halodes Drechsler 

Helminthosporium rostratum Drechsler 

Helminthosporium halodes Drechsler var tritici Mitra 

Helminthosporium halodes Drechsler var elaeidicola Kovachich. 

Luttrellia rostrata (Drechsler) Gonorstai 

Symptoms on grain. Stromata are formed on seeds and are erect, simple or branched, 

cylindrical, dark, blackish brown to start, up to 2 x 1 μm (Fig. 24). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are up to 200 μm long, 5-8 μm thick, septate, cylindrical, 

olivaceous brown, paler towards the apex, simple, and geniculate. Conidia are straight to 

slightly curved, ellipsoidal to narrowly obclavate or rostrate, brown or olivaceous, thick-walled, 

except in a small subhyaline region at the apex and a similar region surrounding the hilum 

which protrudes as a darkened cylinder or truncate cone from the end of the basal cell, basal 

septum darker and thicker than the other septa, up to 18-distoseptate, 15-200 x 7-29 μm 

(Fig. 25). Germination occurs from the subhyaline region of the end cells and germ tubes 

grow semiaxially. 

(Note: Teleomorph is absent.) 

Quick clue. A small subhyaline region is present at the apex of the conidium. 

Importance. It is a seedborne fungus and is widely distributed. Mycotoxin production by this 

fungus is unknown. It commonly occurs on grasses, and many other plant species, soil, and 

textiles (Sivanesan 1987). 

30

Bipolaris halodes 

Figure 24 x26 


31

Bipolaris maydis (Nisikado & Miyake) Shoem. 


Helminthosporium maydis Nisikado & Miyake 

Drechslera maydis (Nisikado & Miyakae) Subram. & Jain 

Teleomorph. Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Drechsler) Drechsler 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is pale to mid-dark golden brown with some white aerial 

mycelium, and moderate in density (Fig. 26). A black matted mold may cover the affected grain 

and can reduce germination. 

Morphology. Conidiophores are mid- to dark brown, medium to long, commonly long, 

slender, straight or curved, single or in groups of 2 or 3, pale near the apex, smooth, up to 700 

μm long, and 5-10 μm thick, and bear conidia at wide intervals. Conidia are distinctly curved, 

broad in the middle, sharply tapering towards rounded ends, pale to mid-dark golden brown, 

smooth, 5-11 septate, mostly 70-160 μm long, 15-20 μm thick in the broadest part; and point 

of attachment is dark, often flat, and 3-5 μm wide (Fig. 27). 

Pseudothecia contain asci with four slender, thread-like, 5-9 septate ascospores (6-7 x 

130-340 μm) arranged in parallel coils. Pseudothecia rarely occur under natural conditions. 

Quick clue. Conidia are light brown, slender, typically curved, and tapering sharply towards 

both ends. The curvature is more pronounced than in any other related species. Conidiophores 

are usually long, slender, alternately bent, and bearing conidia at wide intervals. 

Importance. Bipolaris maydis is distributed worldwide but predominantly in the tropics and 

subtropics. There are quarantine restrictions in many countries including Malaysia. Maize 

germplasm with male sterile T cytoplasm also has quarantine restrictions. Bipolaris maydis 

produces four host-specific toxins of race T and C. heterostrophus produces ophiobolin B, 

ophiobolin C, ophiobolin F, anhydroophiobolin A, 6-epiophiobolin A, and geranylnerolidol 

(Ishibashi 1962; Nozoe et al. 1965, 1966; Canonica et al. 1966; Tsuda et al. 1967; Cordell 

1974; Karr et al. 1974, 1975; Payne and Yoder 1978; Sugawera et al. 1987). 

32

Figure 26 

Bipolaris maydis 


x22 

33

Bipolaris sacchari (E. Butler) Shoem. 

(Bipolaris species "without" Cochliobolus teleomorph) 

Helminthosporium sacchari E. Butler 

Drechslera sacchari (E. Butler) Subram. & Jain 

Symptoms on grain. Stromata are formed on seeds and are erect, simple or branched, 

cylindrical, dark, blackish brown to start, up to 2 x 1 mm (Fig. 28). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are single or in small groups, often from groups of dark cells 

which form a loose stroma, straight to flexuous, mid- to dark brown or olivaceous brown, paler 

towards the apex, septate, smooth, cylindrical, up to 200 μm long, 5-8 μm thick; in culture up to 

700 μm long and 10 μm thick. Conidiogenous nodes are smooth to slightly verruculose. 

Conidia are slightly curved, rarely straight, cylindrical or narrowly ellipsoidal, mid-pale to midyellow 

golden brown, 5-9 (commonly 8) distoseptate, 35-96 x 9-17 μm, hilum 2-3 μm wide 

(Fig. 29). 


Quick clue. Groups of dark cells and slightly curved distoseptate conidia are formed. 

Importance. Bipolaris sacchari produces helminthosporoside (Beier et al. 1982) and three 

isomeric host-specific toxins (Macko et al. 1983). It causes eye spot and seedling blight of 

sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) and leaf spots of grasses. 

Fiqure 28 x521 

34

Bipolaris sacchari 


35

Bipolaris spicifera (Bainier) Subram. 


Helminthosporium spiciferum (Bainier) Nicot 

Helminthosporium tetramera McKinney 

Curvularia spicifera (Bainier) Boedijn 

Teleomorph. Cochliobolus spicifer Nelson 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is brown, gray or black, hairy, cottony or cushion-like 

and spreads loosely with abundant brownish conidiophores, single or in clusters of 2-3 

(Fig. 30). Many small conidia are produced at very short intervals, giving rise to a bottle-brush 

appearance. Colonies strongly resemble those of Curvularia spp. 

Morphology. Conidiophores are brown and curved, with obvious and numerous scars 

resulting in an irregular zigzag appearance. Conidia are short, typically 3-septate, light to dark 

brown, oval, curved to straight with rounded ends, and measure 20-40 μm x 9-14 μm. Conidia 

are lighter in color towards the terminal cells. 

Ascomata are black, spherical to oval, curved, 460-710 x 350-650 μm, with an inverted cone- 

shaped neck and pore. Asci are cylindrical to club-shaped, straight to slightly curved, with 1-8 

spores and 130-160 x 12-20 μm. Ascospores are parallel to closely coiled in the ascus, thread- 

like, somewhat tapered at the ends, 6-16 septate, hyaline, and 135-240 x 3-7 μm 

(Fig. 31). 

Quick clue. Under the dissecting microscope, conidia appear to be clustered for some length 

on the conidiophores, giving the appearance of a bottle-brush. Conidia are very small and 

typically 3-septate, almost cylindrical, more or less uniform in size, and the end cells have 

subhyaline areas towards their terminal ends. 

Importance. Bipolaris spicifera is distributed worldwide and is very common in tropical and 

subtropical areas. The mycotoxins isolated from B. spicifera are spiciferone A and cynodontin 

metabolites and those from C. spicifera are curvularin and D-mannitol (Combe et al. 1968; 

Nakajima et al. 1989). The main diseases caused by B. spicifera are foot rot (or common root 

rot) of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and mycotic keratitis in humans. A subcutaneous 

mycosis in cat and horses is also induced by C. spicifer. 

36

Figure 30 

Bipolaris spicifera 


x10 

37

Bipolaris zeicola (Stout) Shoem. 


Helminthosporium carbonum Ullstrup 

Helminthosporium zeicola Stout 

Drechslera carbonum (Ullstrup) Sivan 

Drechslera zeicola (Stout) Subram. & Jain 

Teleomorph. Cochliobolus carbonum Nelson 

Symptoms on grain. Grains are covered by very dark brown to black mycelium which gives a 

characteristic charcoal appearance. Conidia are also visible (Fig. 32). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are single or in small groups, straight to flexuous, mid- to dark 

brown or olivaceous brown, up to 250 μm long, 5-8 μm thick, smooth, septate, and cylindrical. 

Conidiogenous nodes are verruculose with the surface wall below them granulose. Conidia are 

curved or sometimes straight, occasionally almost cylindrical but usually broad in the middle 

and tapering towards the rounded ends, 6-12 (commonly 7-8) distoseptate, 30-100 x 12-18 

μm, often finally becoming dark or very dark brown or olivaceous brown, with the end cells 

sometimes remaining tapered than the middle cells (Fig. 33). The surface is often granulose 

and hilum is not very conspicuous. 

The species is heterothallic and the teleomorph is obtained by pairing opposite mating single 

conidial isolates in Sach's agar media holding sterilized maize leaf segments or barley 

(Hordeum vulgare L.) grains at 24°C (Nelson 1959). Ascomata are black, globose to 

ellipsoidal, 355-550 x 320-420 μm, with setae over the upper half of the wall mixed with 

conidiophores, and with a well-defined sub-conical to paraboloid ostiolar beak 60-200 μm 

long. Pseudoparaphyses are filiform, hyaline, septate, and branched. Asci are cylindrical to 

clavate, short-stalked, straight to slightly curved, 1-8 spored, vestigial bitunicate, 160-257 x 

18.0-27.5 (am. Ascospores are filiform or flagelliform, somewhat tapering towards the ends, 

hyaline, 5-9 septate, 180-307 x 6-10 μm, often surrounded by a thin hyaline mucilaginous 

sheath. 

Quick clue. Distoseptate dark to dark brown conidia are present. 

Importance. Bipolaris zeicola is distributed worldwide. There are quarantine restrictions for 

Indonesia, Egypt, and Chile. Bipolaris zeicola produces HC-toxins I, II, III, IV, and CHS 

polypeptide (Ramussen and Scheffer 1988), and C carbonum produces carbtoxinine and 

victoxinine (Nishimura et al. 1966; Pringle and Scheffer 1967). Cochliobolus carbonum is 

reported on maize from many countries including India. This is the first report on sorghum in 

India. 

38 

r

Figure 33 

Bipolaris zeicola 

Figure 32 x53 

x1320 

39

Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Pers. 

Teleomorph. Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is white or gray or grayish-brown, and spreading for a 

short distance around the affected seed (Fig. 34). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are brown, tall, upright or nearly so, septate and branched, up to 

30 μm wide and 2 μm long. The branches are constricted at their point of origin and quickly 

collapse when removed from a moist atmosphere. Conidia occur in clusters at the swollen 

rounded apices and at intervals along with conidiophores on short blunt teeth. Conidia are oval 

or egg-shaped, often with a slightly projecting point of attachment, colorless to pale brown, and 

measure 6-18 x 4 - 1 μm (Fig. 35). 

Fairly large, black, irregular sclerotia can be produced, but not normally within the period of a 

seed health test. They are rather flat in appearance and measure 5 x 2 x 2 μm. 

Quick clue. The funugs is characterized by stout, brown, branched conidiophores supporting 

glistening gray heads of pale conidia, which can be observed under low magnification of a 

binocular microscope. 

Importance. The fungus is a common gray mold, frequently parasitic, and produces abscisic 

acid, botrydial, botrylacton, citric acid, and thermostable toxins (Fehlhaber et al. 1974; Kamoen 

and Jamart 1974; Lyon 1977; Welmer et al. 1979; Morooko et al. 1986). However, it is not 

noted as a toxigenic species. 


40

Botrytis cinerea 


41

Chaetomium oryzae 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is white with the density of mycelium varying from light 

to dense. The perithecia are found on the seed surface beneath the aerial white mycelium (Fig. 

36). 

Morphology. Perithecia are spherical or elongate, with a pore opening, and a dark, 

membranous, cellular wall which is covered with conspicuous hairs of various types (Fig. 37). 

Asci are hyaline, usually club-shaped but in a few cases cylindrical, and contain eight 

ascospores. Ascospores are one-celled and in most cases lemon-shaped. They are extruded 

through the pore opening either as a mass amongst the hairs or as a column depending on 

conditions. 

Quick clue. Colonies of Chaetomium species can be readily recognized by the presence of 

perithecia with many stiff dark terminal hairs with ornamentation. 

Importance. Chaetomium is distributed worldwide. It has no significance in crop production. 

However, it is a common saprophyte and secondary invader. Seeds of low germinating capacity 

are sometimes found to be heavily contaminated with Chaetomium (Skolko and Groves 1953). 

Figure 36 

42 

x23

Chaetomium oryzae 


43

Cladosporium oxysporum Berk. & Curt. 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, pale gray or grayish brown, thinly hairy on natural 

substrata (Fig. 38); cottony or loosely felted in culture. 

Morphology. Conidiophores are macronematous, straight or slightly flexuous, distinctly 

nodose, pale or mid-pale brown, smooth, up to 500 μm long or sometimes even longer in 

culture, 3-5 μm thick, with terminal and intercalary swellings of 6-8 μm diameter. Conidia 

arise from terminal swellings, which later become intercalary, in simple or branched chains. 

Conidia are cylindrical, rounded at the ends, ellipsoidal, limoniform or subspherical, subhyaline 

or pale olivaceous brown, smooth, 5-30 x 3-6 μm (Fig. 39). 

Quick clue. Cladosporium is characterized by erect, pigmented conidiophores with chains of 

conidia in tree-like heads. This genus can frequently be identified by the distinctive lemon- 

shaped conidia, which have well marked, dark attachment scars and show considerable 

variation in size and septation within and between species. 

Importance. Heavily infected sorghum grains may have dark green to black blotches, or 

streaks that extend from the grain tips. The fungus is common, widely distributed in the tropics 

on dead leaves and stems of herbaceous and woody plants. Many saprophytic species are 

commonly encountered on seeds. Cladosporium is usually associated with frost damage and 

wet weather. Black head molds are caused by saprophytic or weakly parasitic species and are 

usually associated with insect infestations, lodging, nutrient deficiencies, and/or wet weather at 

maturation and harvest. 

Figure 38 

44 

x52

Cladosporium oxysporum 


45

Cladosporium sphaerospermum Penz. 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed spreads loosely or occasionally small, point-like, 

cushion-like, cotton-like groups or with tufts, or hairy (Fig. 40a). It is often olive green but also 

sometimes gray, light brownish yellow, brown or dark blackish brown (Fig. 40b). Colonies are 

relatively slow growing and produce little aerial mycelium but normally sporulate freely. 

Conidiophores are produced in dense stands from the seed. 

(Note: Heavily infected sorghum grains may have dark green to black blotches, or streaks that 

extend from the grain tips.) 

Morphology. Mycelium is hyaline, becoming dark, septate, smooth or finely rough, 3-4 μm 

wide. Conidiophores arise laterally from the mycelium or are formed terminally on the hyphae, 

brown, smooth or finely roughened, septate, variable in length, up to about 160 μm long, 3-4 

μm wide. Conidial heads are composed of branched chains of spores, a large proportion of 

which are globose. Conidia are brown, echinulate (echinulation not readily seen at x600), the 

majority globose or subglobose or rather ellipsoidal, continuous, 4-6 μm in diameter; a smaller 

number of larger spores are more irregular in shape, globose, ovoid, ellipsoidal with both ends 

pointed or pointed at one end and with two or more pretensions at the other, sometimes 

septate, 6-14 x 4-6 μm (Fig. 41). 

Quick clue. Cladosporium sphaerospermum is characterized by erect, pigmented 

conidiophores with chains of conidia in tree-like heads. The genus can frequently be identified 

by the distinctive lemon-shaped conidia, which have well marked, dark attachment scars and 

show considerable variation in size and septation within and between species. Tree-like heads 

of conidiophores can be readily observed by using the scotch-tape method (see Appendix 1) 

under the microscope at low power (x100). 

Importance. The fungus is a very common cosmopolitan species. It occurs as secondary 

invader on many plant species and has been isolated from air, soil, foodstuff, paint, textiles, 

and occasionally from man and animals. 

46

Figure 40a 

Cladosporium sphaerospermum 

X 1 5 Figure 40b 


x46 

47

Colletotrichum graminicola (Cesati) W i l s o n 

Colletotrichum sublineolum Henn. Kab & Bubak 

Teleomorph. Glomerella graminicola Politis 

Symptoms on grain. Visible symptoms are dark brown to black acervuli scattered on grain 

surface (Fig. 42). These acervuli are irregular in shape and consist of dark setae. Sometimes 

acervuli are also formed on the glumes. 

Morphology. Acervuli are rounded or elongate, separate or confluent, superficial, erumpent, 

with conspicuous multicellular, darkly pigmented setae, and 70-300 μm in diameter. The 

acervuli consist of a gelatinous or mucoid, salmon orange colored conidial mass. 

Conidiophores are hyaline, single-celled, falcate, fusiform, spindle shaped, with acute apices, 

and measure 19-28.9 x 3.3-4.8 μm. Setae are brown with a dark swollen base and a pale 

rounded tip (Sutton 1980) (Fig. 43). 

Quick clue. Conidia are sickle-shaped and single celled. 

Importance. Colletotrichum graminicola is widespread. It causes anthracnose of sorghum 

and many other plant species. 

Figure 42 x37 

48

Figure 43 

Colletotrichum graminicola 

x396 

49

Curvularia affinis Boedijn 

(Curvularia species "without" Cochliobolus teleomorph) 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, gray, brown or blackish brown, hairy, cottony or 

cushion-like and spread loosely (Fig. 44). Stromata are cylindrical, black, and unbranched. 

Morphology. Conidiophores arise singly or in groups, terminally and laterally on the hyphae, 

also on stromata when these are present. On natural substrata, conidiophores are erect, 

simple, straight or flexuous, sometimes geniculate, septate, brown, paler near the apex, 

smooth, up to 200 μm long, often swollen at the base (9-11 μm), 6-8 μm thick just above the 

basal swelling, and 3-4 μm at the apex; in culture simple or loosely branched, flexuous, often 

geniculate, septate, pale brown to brown, smooth, up to 400 μm long, 2-3 μm thick at the base 

broadening to 4-5 μm near the apex. Conidia are straight or curved, broadly fusiform to 

ellipsoidal, usually 4-, occasionally 5-distoseptate, cell at each end pale brown, intermediate 

cells brown, middle cell sometimes darker, 27-49 (average 32) μm long, 8-13 (average 10) 

μm thick in the broadest part (Fig. 45). 


Quick clue. Conidia are often curved but seldom geniculate, 32 x 10 μm. 

Importance. Curvularia affinis is isolated from rice (Oryza sativa L), maize, and some 

dicotyledon hosts, and soil. This probably is a new report on sorghum grain from India. 

Figure 44 

50 

x16

Curvularia affinis 


51

Curvularia clavata Jain 


Symptoms on grain. Colonies are grayish brown or brown and cottony (Fig. 46). 

Morphology. Conidiophores arise terminally and laterally on the hyphae, simple, straight or 

flexuous, sometimes geniculate, septate, pale brown to brown, smooth, up to 150 μm long, 

2-6 μm thick, narrower at the base, and thicker towards the apex. Conidia are straight or 

occasionally slightly curved, usually clavate, sometimes truncate at the base, 3-distoseptate, 

smooth, 17-29 (average 23) μm long, 7-13 (average 9.6) μm thick in the broadest part 

(Fig. 47). The hilum is not or very slightly protuberant, basal cell is pale brown and other cells 

are brown or dark brown. 


Quick clue. Conidia are straight or almost straight, symmetrical, and clavate. 

Importance. Curvularia clavata is distributed worldwide especially in the tropics and is 

frequently encountered as a pathogen or saprophyte. It causes serious losses in tropical 

regions, but is a minor pathogen in temperate regions. An unidentified toxin produced by C. 

clavata has been reported (Olufolaji1986). 

Figure 46 x29 

52

Curvularia clavata 


53

Curvularia eragrostidis (Henn.) 

(Curvularia species "with" Cochliobolus teleomorph) 

Teleomorph. Cochliobolus eragrostidis (Tsuda & Ueyama) Sivanesan comb. nov. 

Pseudocochliobolus eragrostidis Tsuda & Ueyama 

Brachysporium eragrostidis P. Hennings 

Spondylocladium maculans Bancroft 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is brown, gray, or black, hairy, cottony or cushion-like 

and spreads loosely (Fig. 48). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are solitary or in groups, simple or rarely branched, straight or 

curved, sometimes geniculate near the apex, multiseptate, brown to light brown, variable in 

length up to 5 μm diameter. Conidia are 3-distoseptate, ellipsoidal or barrel-shaped, the middle 

septum almost median appearing as a black band, with brown to dark brown central cells and 

paler end cells, rather smooth, 18-37x 11-20 μm (Fig. 49). Stromata are formed on rice straw 

or other substrata. 

The species is heterothallic and the teleomorph is obtained by pairing compatible conidial 

isolates in Sach's agar media containing sterilized rice straw (Tsuda and Ueyama 1985). 

Ascomata are superficial, globose, black, 375-750 x 375-750 μm, with protruding ostiolar 

beaks, developing from columnar or flat stromata firmly adhering to the substrate at the base; 

ostiolar beak 250-1125 x 85-190 μm, with a hyaline apex. Asci are vestigial bitunicate, almost 

cylindrical with a short stalk, 1-8 spored, 150-240 x 12.5-22 μm, among filamentous 

pseudoparaphyses. Ascospores are hyaline, filiform or flagelliform, 175-240 x 3.8-6.3 μm, 

12-22 septate, parallel to loosely coiled in the ascus or rarely coiled in a helix. 

Quick clue. Conidia are symmetrical, and middle septum is usually truly median appearing as 

a black band. 

Importance. The fungus was also isolated by Adiver and Anahosur (1994) from sorghum 

grain samples. Mycotoxin production of this fungus is unknown. This fungus is widely 

distributed on cereals, dicotyledons, and other substrata. 

54

Figure 48 

Figure 49 

Curvularia eragrostidis 

x28 

x1419 

55

Curvularia fallax Boedijn 


Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, blackish brown, velvety or cottony. Stromata are up 

to 7 mm long, often branched, black, formed frequently on potato-dextrose agar and always on 

grains. 


also on stromata, simple or loosely branched, straight or flexuous, sometimes geniculate, 

reddish brown, often paler near the apex, smooth, septate; on natural substrata up to 250 μm 

long and swollen at the base (11-16 μm diameter), and in culture up to 1 mm long and 4-6 μm 

thick. Conidia are straight or slightly curved, broadly fusiform or ellipsoidal, almost always 

4-distoseptate, smooth; cell at each end is subhyaline or very pale brown, and intermediate 

cells are mid-pale brown to brown. On natural substrata conidia are 24-26 (average 30) μm 

long, 10-16 (average 12.2) μm thick in the broadest part, in culture 24-38 (average 30.6) μm x 

9-15 (average12.3) μm ( Fig. 50). 


Quick clue. Conidia are often curved but seldom geniculate, 30 x 12.2 μm. Stromata are 

branched. 

Importance. The fungus has a wide host range (species of Oryza, Panicum, Sorghum, and a 

variety of dicotyledonous hosts). It is also isolated from air, house dust, soil, and wood. 

Probably this is a new report of the occurrence of C. fallax on sorghum grain in India. However, 

C. fallax has been reported on rice in India. 

56

Figure 50 

Curvularia fallax 

x1980 

57

Curvularia geniculata (Tracy & Earle) Boedijn 

(Curvulaha species "with" Cochliobolus teleomorph) 

Teleomorph. Cochliobolus geniculatus Nelson 



Morphology. Conidiophores are up to 600 μm long. Conidia are usually curved, geniculate, 

fusiform, 3-4 distoseptate but almost always 4-distoseptate, rarely 5-distoseptate, smooth, 

26-48 x 8-13 μm on natural substrata and 18-37 x 8-14 μm in culture (Fig. 52). The end cells 

are subhyaline or very pale brown, intermediate cells brown to dark brown, and the central cell 

usually dark brown and swollen. 

The species is heterothallic and the teleomorph is obtained by pairing compatible conidial 

isolates in Sach's agar media containing sterilized barley grains at 24°C under constant 

artificial light (Nelson 1964). Ascomata are free or frequently develop on a columnar stroma, 

up to 830 μm broad. Asci are 1-8 spored, cylindrical, vestigial bitunicate, and 170-290 x 

15-20 μm among filamentous pseudoparaphyses. Ascospores are somewhat tapered at the 

ends, filiform, 6-16 septate, 160-270 x 4-7 μm, coiled in a helix inside the ascus. 

Quick clue. Conidia are often distinctly geniculate, curved, and tapering gradually towards 

each end. 

Importance. Curvularia geniculata and its teleomorph is known to produce 1,4,5,8tetrahydroxy-2,6-dimethylanthraquinone 

metabolite (Combe et al. 1968). This is a new report 

of its occurrence on sorghum grain in India. However, the frequency of occurrence was less 

(only 24 grains were colonized out of 20,800 grains). 

58

Figure 51 

Figure 52 

Curvularia geniculata 

x48 

x1680 

59

Curvularia harveyi Shipton 


Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, grayish brown, cottony to velvety (Fig. 53). 


simple or occasionally branched, straight or flexuous, sometimes geniculate, septate, pale 

brown to brown, smooth, up to 250 μm long, 3-7 μm thick. Conidia are straight or slightly 

curved, cylindrical to ellipsoidal, with a markedly protuberant hilum at the base, rounded at the 

apex, and almost always 3-distoseptate, but rarely 1-4 distoseptate (Fig. 54). 


Quick clue. Conidia are cylindrical to ellipsoidal with protuberant hilum at the base. 

Importance. Occurrence of C. harveyi has been reported only on Triticum sp from Australia. 

This is a new report of its occurrence on sorghum grain in India. 

Figure 53 

60 

x11

Curvularia harveyi 


61

Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn 


Teleomorph. Cochliobolus lunatus Nelson & Haasis 

Pseudocochliobolus pallescens Tsuda & Ueyama 

Curvularia leonensis M.B. Ellis 



Morphology. Conidiophores arise singly or in groups, simple or rarely branched, straight or 

sometimes geniculate near the apex, brown to dark brown, multiseptate, variable in length, up 

to 5-6 μm diameter. Conidia are mostly 3-distoseptate, ellipsoidal to fusiform, or often 

disproportionately enlarged in the third cell and markedly geniculate or hook-shaped, pale to 

somewhat colored, almost concolorous, 17-32 x 7-12.5 μm, and smooth (Fig. 56). Conidia are 

sparse in culture, and variable in shape and size among isolates. 

Teleomorph is produced when compatible conidial isolates are paired in Sach's agar media 

(Tsuda and Ueyama 1983). Ascomata are superficial, globose to subglobose, black, 250-750 

x 250-750 μm, with protruding ostiolar beaks, developing from columnar or flat stromata, firmly 

adhering to the substrate at the base; ostiolar beak 190-690 x 60-160 μm, with a hyaline apex. 

Asci are vestigial bitunicate, almost cylindrical with a short stalk, 140-215 x 12.5-19.0 μm, 

produced among the filamentous pseudoparaphyses, arising from the base of the locule. 

Ascospores are flagelliform or filiform, hyaline, tapering towards either end, 125-215 x 

2.5-6.3 μm, 6-13 septate, parallel or coiled in a certain portion of the ascus. 

Quick clue. Stromata are very rarely formed; conidia are 18-32 x 8-16 μm, always curved at 

the third cell. 

Importance. Curvularia lunata is distributed worldwide especially in the tropics and is 

frequently encountered as a pathogen or saprophyte. It causes serious losses in the tropical 

regions but is a minor pathogen in temperate regions. Curvularia lunata and C. lunatus are 

known to produce the metabolites brefeldin A, D-mannitol, anthraquinone, cytochalasin B, 

cynadontin, and radicinol (Bohlmann et al. 1961; Combe et al. 1968; Nukina and Marumo 

1976; van Eijk and Roeymans 1977; Wells et al. 1981). 

62

Figure 55 

Figure 56 

Curvularia lunata 

x23 

x1815 

63

Curvularia lunata var aeria (Bat., Lima, & Vasconcelos) M.B. Ellis 


Malustela aeria Bat., Lima, & Vasconcelos 

Curvularia caricae-papayae Srivastava & Bilgrami 

Curvularia lycopersici Tandon & Kakkar 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are floccose, brown, dark brown to black, often zonate, 

showing reverse alternating bands of red, yellow, or gray. Stromata are large, black, cylindrical, 

simple or branched, formed abundantly on grains (Fig. 57). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are terminal and lateral on hyphae and stromata, simple or 

branched, straight or flexuous, often geniculate, septate, pale brown to brown, smooth, up to 

800 μm thick. Conidia are straight to curved, ellipsoidal, obovoid or clavate, often truncate at 

the scar, almost always 3-distoseptate, rarely 4-distoseptate, with one or more septa 

sometimes thicker and darker than the others, smooth, with walls often rather thicker, 18-32 x 

8-16 μm (Fig. 58). The third cell from base is frequently larger and darker than the others, end 

cells are usually pale brown, and intermediate cells are brown or dark brown. 


Quick clue. Stromata are large, black, cylindrical, simple or branched, formed abundantly on 

grains. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide especially in the tropics and is frequently 

encountered as a pathogen or saprophyte. It causes serious losses in tropical regions but is a 

minor pathogen in temperate regions. It produces a thermostable toxin (Bisen 1983). 

Figure 57 

64 

x45

Curvularia lunata var aeria 


65

Curvularia ovoidea (Hiroe & Watan) Muntanola 


Brachysporium ovoideum Hiroe & Watan 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are circular to irregular, pale brown to dark brown, and velvety. 

Stromata are not seen (Fig. 59a, b). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are straight to flexuous, multiseptate, cylindrical, smooth, pale 

brown, geniculate above, up to 400 μm long, 4-9 μm thick. Conidia are ovoid, 1-3 

distoseptate, straight or curved, 16-29 x 10-17 μm, commonly 20-25 x 13-16 μm, brown with 

paler end cells (Fig. 60). 

(Note: Teleomorph is absent. Tsuda et al. (1985) treated this species as a synonym of C. 

lunata.) 

Quick clue. Stromata are absent and often symmetrical conidia are produced. 

Importance. Occurrence of Curvularia ovoidea on species of Capsicum, Pennisetum, and 

Zea has been reported from Egypt, India, and Japan. This is a new report of C. ovoidea on 

sorghum grain from India. 


66

Figure 60 

Curvularia ovoidea 

x2277 

67

Curvularia pallescens Boedijn 


Teleomorph. Cochliobolus pallescens (Tsuda & Ueyama) Sivan. 



Morphology. Conidiophores arise singly or in groups, simple, rarely branched, straight or 

sometimes geniculate near the apex, brown to dark brown, multiseptate, variable in length, up 

to 5-6 μm. Conidia are mostly 3-distoseptate, ellipsoidal to fusiform, or often disproportionately 

enlarged in the third cell, markedly geniculate or hook-shaped, pale to somewhat colored, 

almost concolorous, 17-32 x 7-12.5 μm, smooth (Fig. 62). Conidia are sparse in culture, and 

variable in shape and size among isolates. 

Ascomata are superficial, globose to subglobose, black, 250-750 x 250-750 μm, with 

protruding ostiolar beaks, developing from columnar or flat stromata, firmly adhering to the 

substrate at the base; ostiolar beak 190-690 x 60-160 μm, with a hyaline apex. Asci are 

vestigial bitunicate, almost cylindrical with a short stalk, 140-215 x 12.5-19.0 μm, among the 

pseudoparaphyses, arising from the base of the locule. Ascospores are flagelliform or filiform, 

hyaline, tapering towards either end, 125-215 x 2.5-6.3 μm, 6-13 septate, parallel or coiled in 

certain portion of the ascus. 

Quick clue. Conidia are usually straight or only slightly curved, hook-shaped; all conidial cells 

are usually pale or very pale brown. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide especially in the tropics and is frequently 

encountered as a pathogen or saprophyte. It causes serious losses in tropical regions, but is a 

minor pathogen in temperate regions. The production of an unidentified toxin by this fungus 

has been reported (Olufolaji 1986). 

68

Figure 61 x53 

Figure 62 

Curvularia pallescens 

x2079 

69

Curvularia trifolii (Kauffm.) Boedijn 


Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, brown or grayish brown, hairy or dark blackish 

brown, cottony, sometimes floccose (Fig. 63). Stromata are cylindrical, black, sometimes 

formed in old cultures. 


simple or branched, straight or flexuous, sometimes geniculate, septate; on natural substrata 

rather pale brown, seldom up to 150 μm long, with a swollen base of 8-13 u.m, 5-17 μm thick 

just above the basal swelling, 3-5 μm at the apex; in culture pale brown to brown, smooth or 

verrucose, up to 400 μm long, 3-8 μm thick. Conidia are 3-distoseptate, smooth, almost 

always curved at the third cell from the base which is usually larger than the others. The hilum 

is protuberant, cell at each end is subhyaline or pale brown, intermediate cells are brown or 

dark brown, and the third cell from the base is often the darkest. On natural substrata conidia 

are 28-38 (average 33.3) μm long, 12-16 (average 14) μm thick in the broadest part 

whereas in culture they are 20-34 (average 27.7) μm x 8-14 (average 11.5) μm (Fig. 64). 


Quick clue. Conidia are 3-distoseptate,

Figure 64 

Curvularia trifolii 

x1980 

71

Curvularia tuberculata Jain 


Teleomorph. Cochliobolus tuberculatus Sivan. 



Morphology. Conidiophores arise singly or in groups, terminal or lateral on hyphae, stromata, 

and ascomata, simple or branched, straight or flexuous, smooth, pale to mid-brown, septate, 

up to 300 μm long, 2-7 μm thick. Conidia are straight, ovoid, obclavate or ellipsoidal, 3-5 

(sometimes 8, but mostly 3) septate, intermediate cells brown to dark brown, end cells 

subhyaline to pale or dark brown, mature conidia tuberculate, 23-52 x 13-20 μm (Fig. 66). 

Young conidia are smooth and subhyaline. First septum in the conidium is usually median, 

second septum often delimiting the basal cell but variations in septal formation may occur. 

Germination is both by bipolar and lateral germ tubes. 

The species is heterothallic and the teleomorph is obtained by pairing monoconidial 

compatible isolates (Sivanesan 1985). Ascomata are black, globose, often borne on a 

columnar basal stroma or a flattened crust, 500-720 μm high, 400-490 μm wide, with a conical 

truncate beak up to 300 μm high, 115-140 μm wide at the base, often hairy in the globose part 

with simple, brown, septate hyphae. Conidiophores arise from the globose part of the ascoma 

but are not formed abundantly. Pseudoparaphyses are hyaline, filiform, and branched above. 

Asci are cylindrical, short-stalked, with 2-8 spored, vestigial bitunicate, 170-340 x 13.5 μm. 

The stalk is cylindrical with or without a bifurcate base, with a wall that does not stain in 

lactophenol cotton blue. Ascospores are filiform, hyaline, helically coiled in the ascus and often 

straight at one or both ends, commonly tapering at both ends but more so at the base, 

sometimes with a truncate apex, with hyaline mucilaginous sheath up to 4 μm thick (only visible 

in water mounts), not constricted, 13-23 distoseptate, 160-460 x 3-4.5 μm. 

Quick clue. Conidia are straight, 3-septate, tuberculate (having tubercles) or rough-walled 

unlike other Curvularia species. 

Importance. Curvularia tuberculata is distributed worldwide especially in the tropics and is 

frequently encountered as a pathogen or saprophyte. It causes serious losses in tropical 

regions but is a minor pathogen in temperate regions. The production of an unidentified toxin 

by this fungus has been reported (Olufolaji 1986). This is a new report of C. tuberculata on 

sorghum grain in India. 

72

Figure 65 

Figure 66 

Curvularia tuberculata 

x48 

x1650 

73

Epicoccum nigrum Link 

Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb. 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed grows rapidly, often producing a yellow, amber to 

orange, or red/black pigmentation within but particularly surrounding the white, compact 

mycelium (Fig. 67). Due to these features, the fungus is occasionally confused with Fusarium 

spp and frequently mistaken as Ustilaginales. 

(Note: Infected sorghum grains may become red.) 

Morphology. Epicoccum nigrum is a mitosporic fungus. Conidiophores are compact or 

occasionally branched, loose, dark, smooth, short, occurring in tight clusters from the hyphae 

and produce a single, terminal conidium. Mature conidia are dark brown to black, mostly 

spherical but also pear-shaped, irregularly septate, and may appear to be very coarsely 

marked like a net. The septa are often hidden by the thick, rough spore wall, which appears to 

be covered by short, blunt projections. Conidia measure 15-25 μm in diameter and often occur 

in dark, cushion shaped spore masses of variable size within and on the surface of the 

mycelium (Fig. 68). 

Quick clue. Dark spore masses look like black spots scattered over the mycelium. Individual 

spores resemble dark, rough soccer balls, and may be confused with spores of smuts and 

bunts. 

Importance. Occurrence of E. nigrum on sorghum grains has been reported along with 

method(s) to kill the fungus adhering to the grains for safe use of grains for consumption (Navi 

et al. 1997). The fungus is distributed worldwide. It is a common saprophyte and secondary 

invader. Its quarantine importance is not known. Unidentified toxins have been isolated from 

this fungus (Schol-Schwarz 1959). 

74

Figure 67 x21 

Figure 68 

Epicoccum nigrum 

x1452 

75

Exserohilum rostratum (Drechsler) Leonard & Suggs 

Helminthosporium rostratum Drechsler 

Drechslera rostrata (Drechsler) Richardson & Fraser 

Bipolaris rostrata (Drechsler) Shoemaker 

Teleomorph. Setosphaeria rostrata Leonard 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed appears mid- to dark brown or golden brown with very 

little white, aerial mycelium. Conidiophores are formed together in a dense mat covering the 

seed. Infected sorghum grains show pink discoloration or are charcoal black when severely 

colonized (Fig. 69). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are solitary or in groups, straight or bending, mid- to dark brown 

or olive brown, up to 200 μm long and 8 μm thick. Conidia are straight or slightly curved, 

tapering at both ends with one end typically wider, and the narrow end terminating in a 

pronounced beak. Conidia have golden brown intermediate cells, 6-16 transverse septa, 

hyaline or pale end cells with a thick dark septum, and measure 40-180 x 14-22 μm (Fig. 70). 

Ascocarps are spherical, black, 340-600 x 330-580 μm, with pore opening and upper part 

surrounded with dark brown, blunt spine-like projections. Asci have a slimy sheath and are 

short-stalked, club-shaped to cylindrical, 1-8 spored, and measure 105-260 x 26-42 μm. 

Ascospores are hyaline to pale brown, straight to curved, 2-5 septate, narrowed at septa, 

29-85 x 9-21 μm. 

Quick clue. Conidia have a distinctive shape and are straight or slightly curved, with a 

pronounced beak, and visible, dark, end septa. 

Importance. Infected sorghum grains show pink discoloration or are charcoal black when 

severely colonized. Exserohilum rostratum causes leaf blight of sorghum and produces 

glyceollin toxin (Kumar et al. 1984) and cynodontin toxin (van Eijk and Roeymans 1977). 

76

Figure 69 

Figure 70 

Exserohilum rostratum 

x48 

x729 

77

Exserohilum turcicum (Pass.) Leonard & Suggs 

Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. 

Drechslera turcica (Pass.) Subram. & Jain 

Helminthosporium inconspicuum Cooke & Ellis 

Teleomorph. Setosphaeria turcica (Luttrell) Leonard & Suggs 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is pale to mid-dark brown with very little white, aerial 

mycelium (Fig. 71a, b). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are single or in groups of 2-6, straight or bent, light to dark olive 

brown, medium to long, sometimes very long, and measure 150-300 x 7-11 μm. Conidia are 

straight or slightly curved, club-shaped or widest near the middle, tapering towards the ends, 

with a rounded apex, and basal cell swollen at the point of attachment. Conidia are pale to midstraw 

colored or yellowish brown or olive gray in color, 4-9 septate, and 50-144 x 18-33 μm 

(Fig. 72). 

(Note: Perithecia rarely occur in nature.) 

Quick clue. Conidia arise from long conidiophores and are large, yellowish brown, straight, or 

slightly curved, narrowing towards both ends (almost cigar shaped), with the basal cell bulging 

at the point of attachment. ' 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide but predominantly in subtropical to 

temperate climates. There are quarantine restrictions for some countries. Mycotoxins 

produced by this fungus are monocerin, ophiobolin A (Ishibashi 1961; Nozoe et al. 1965; 

Canonica et al. 1966; Robeson and Strobel 1982), and ravenelin (Raistrick et al. 1936). 

78

Exserohilum turcicum 


Figure 72 

x2706 

79

Fusarium moniliforme J. Sheld. Lisea fujikuroi Sawada 

Fusarium verticilloides (Sacc.) Nirenberg 

Teleomorph. Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) Ito 

Gibberella moniliforme Wineland 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on grain grows rapidly with white aerial mycelium often 

becoming tinged with purple, particularly on the blotting paper in the petri dish. Mycelium has a 

powdery appearance due to the presence of chains of microconidia. Tan to orange spore 

masses of irregular shape and size are occasionally present (Fig. 73). 

Morphology. Abundant microconidia are formed. They are hyaline, usually one-celled but 

occasionally two-celled, 5-12 x 1-3 μm, oval to club-shaped, and slightly flattened at each end 

(Fig. 74). Macroconidia are formed infrequently. They are hyaline, delicate with thin walls, 

curved to almost straight, 3-7 septate, 25-60 x 2-4 μm, and have a foot-shaped basal cell 

(Fig. 74). Chlamydospores are never present in the mycelium or conidia. 

Perithecia, which occur rarely, are spherical, blue-black, and 250-350 x 220-300 μm. Asci are 

oval to club-shaped with 4-8 ascospores. Ascospores are hyaline, straight, mostly one- 

septate, and measure 4-7 x 12-17 μm. 

Quick clue. Abundant uniform microconidia are formed in long chains that can readily be 

observed using the scotch-tape method (see Appendix 1) under the microscope at low 

power (X100). Chlamydospores are never formed. 

Importance. The fungus produces the mycotoxin fumonisin which is toxic to humans and 

livestock when heavily infected grain is consumed. It is widespread in both humid and subhumid, 

temperate zones and subtropical and tropical zones. There are quarantine restrictions 

for this fungus in Egypt. 

80

Figure 73 x12 

Figure 74 

Fusarium moniliforme 

x594 

81

Fusarium semitectum Berk. & Rav. [W&R, G,B,J] 

Fusarium roseum LK. emend. Snyd. & Hans. Pro Parte [S&H] 

Fusarium roseum LK. emend. Snyd. & Hans. var arthrosponioides (Sherb) Messiaen 

& Cassini Pro Parte [M&C] 

Teleomorph. Not known. 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on grain is pink or orange in color and often turns white (Fig. 75). 

Morphology. Microconidia are rarely produced. However, two types of macroconidia are 

produced. Some are borne on mycelium and are spindle-shaped, straight to slightly curved. 

The other type are sickle-shaped and are borne in sporodochia. These are slightly curved, with 

a foot-shaped basal cell. Conidiophores are unbranched and monophialides and polyphialides 

are branched (Fig. 76). 

Quick clue. Polyphialides are present in the aerial mycelium and spindle-shaped 

macroconidia are produced in the aerial mycelium. 

Importance. Fusarium semitectum has been reported to be toxigenic (Nelson et al. 1983). 

Figure 75 

82 

x25

Fusarium semitectum 


83

Gloecercospora sorghi Bain & Edgerton ex Deighton 

Symptoms on grain. Black, shiny, spindle or irregular shaped sclerotia, about 0.1-0.2 mm 

diameter are seen on infected grains. The sclerotia are embedded in the pericarp, and often 

become errumpent by rupturing it (Fig. 77). 

Morphology. The fungus produces dark brown to charcoal black sclerotia, and pink to reddish 

orange sporodochia. Sometimes only sclerotia are produced. Mycelium is scanty or abundant, 

white to dull white, thin, and branched. Sporodochia are pink to salmon pink and are visible to 

the naked eye. Each sporodochium consists of numerous hyaline conidiophores and conidia 

that can be seen under a compound microscope. Conidiophores are hyaline, branched or 

unbranched, septate, short, 5-10 μm long, with a somewhat swollen apex. Conidia are borne 

in a pinkish, slimy matrix, and are hyaline, elongate to filiform, 1.4-3.2 x 20-195 μm, and 

septate (Fig. 78). 

Quick clue. Dark brown to charcoal black sclerotia, and pink to reddish orange sporodochia 

are seen on the grain. Hyaline, elongate to filiform conidia are produced in a slimy matrix. 

Importance. The fungus is widely distributed. It causes grain discoloration and also zonate 

leaf spot of sorghum. 

Figure 77 x27 

84

Figure 78 

Gloecercospora sorghi 

x1452 

85

Gonatobotrys simplex Corda 

Gonatobotrys zeae Futrell & Bain (nomen nudum) 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is white and usually on the surface of other fungal 

species, e.g., Alternaria, Cladosporium, Curvularia, and Fusarium (Fig. 79a,). Mycelium 

appears as a mass of strings with clusters of "flower-like" bunches of conidia (Fig. 79b). 

Morphology. Conidiophores are erect, sometimes tall, septate, simple or occasionally 

branched, with inflated cells covered with a series of blunt teeth bearing conidia, inserted at 

intervals and terminally on the hyphae. Conidia are borne singly on the blunt teeth. They are 

1-celled, hyaline, oval to subspherical, and measure 10-22 x 6-12 μm (Fig. 80). 

Quick clue. Gonatobotrys simplex is distinguished by the cluster of large, hyaline, conidia 

arising from "nodes" along the length of the conidiophores, and appearing like a "string of beads". 

Importance. Gonatobotrys simplex has worldwide distribution. Its quarantine significance is 

not known. It is a parasite on Alternaria spp and Cladosporium spp (Whaley and Barnett 1963). 

Figure 79a x45 

86

Gonatobotrys simplex 

Figure 79b x58 


87

Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Br.) Petch 

Teleomorph. Khuskia oryzae Hudson 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed is initially white and the shiny, black conidia standing 

out in sharp contrast give the colonies a striking appearance under the binocular dissecting 

microscope (Fig. 81). In older cultures the hyphae darken and the colonies appear black, with 

profuse conidial production. 

(Note: Infected seeds have white streaks with black spore masses near the tips.) 

Morphology. Conidiophores are short, pale brown, inflated and borne at right angles to 

hyphae, bearing conidia singly and terminally. Conidia are smoky brown or jet black, spherical 

or egg-shaped, 10-16 x 10-13 μm, and commonly measure 12-14 μm in diameter (Fig. 82). 

Perithecia are formed in clusters of 1-7 in series or irregular rows, up to 2 μm long. They are 

spherical or oval and up to 250 μm in diameter with protruding pore openings. Asci are shortstalked, 

club-shaped, and measure 55-75 x 8-12 μm, with 8 ascospores. Ascospores are 

hyaline, granular, curved, 16-21 x 5-7 μm, and tapering to the base with rounded ends. They 

are initially one-celled but after discharge from the ascus may develop a single transverse 

septum dividing the spore unequally into two cells. 

Quick clue. Very dark conidia, slightly longer in the horizontal axis are borne on very short, 

pale brown conidiophores with a characteristic bulge. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide. It occurs commonly on Oryza spp and 

maize but there are reports of isolation from air and soil (Hudson 1983). It is a new report on 

sorghum grain from India. Nigrospora oryzae produces aphidicolin metabolite (Startratt and 

Loschiavo 1974). 

88

Figure 81 x46 

Figure 82 

Nigrospora oryzae 

x1485 

89

Penicillium citrinum Thorn. 

Symptoms on grain. The fungus is readily recognized by its penicilli, which consist of 3-5 

divergent and usually vesiculate metulae, bearing long, well-defined columns of conidia. 

Colonies are often dominated by copious, clear to yellow or brown exudate at the centers 

(Fig. 83). On malt extract agar, the growth is slower and usually dense, with heavy conidial 

production. 

[Note: Lactofuchsin stain was used for microscopical observations (Carmichael 1955) (see 

Appendex 1).] 

Morphology. Conidiophores are borne from subsurface or surface hyphae, with stipes 

100-300 μm long, smooth walled, characteristically terminating in well defined verticils of 3-5 

divergent metulae, less commonly with a divergent ramus, or subterminal or intercalary 

metulae. Metulae are usually of uniform length, 12-15 μm long, commonly spathulate or 

terminally vesiculate, up to 5 μm diameter; phialides are ampulliform, 7-8 (sometimes 12) μm 

long. Conidia are spherical to subspheroidal, 2.2-3.0 μm with walls smooth or very finely 

roughened, typically borne in long, well defined columns, one per metula, arranged in a 

characteristic whorl on each conidiophore (Fig. 84). 

Quick clue. Penicillium citrinum is an isolated species. Occasionally isolates show a few 

characteristics suggesting a relationship to P. corylophilum Dierckx, i.e., faster growth on malt 

extract agar and metulae of unequal length. 

Importance. Like several other Penicillium metabolites, citrinin produced by P. citrinum is 

known to be a potentially hazardous mycotoxin. Citrinin causes watery diarrhoea, increased 

food consumption, and reduced weight gain due to kidney degeneration in chickens, 

ducklings, and turkeys. The effect of citrinin on humans is not documented. However, kidney 

damage appears to be a likely result of prolonged ingestion. Penicillium citrinum may well be 

one of the most common eukaryotic life forms of earth. It is ubiquitous in soil, decaying 

vegetation, and the air. It is also a powerful biodeteriogen, commonly causing decay and 

losses in foods, textiles, paints, and plastics (Pitt 1991). 

90

Figure 83 

Figure 84 

Penicillium citrinum 

x20 

x1683 

91

Penicillium griseofulvum Dierckx 

Penicillium palulem Bainier 

Penicillium urticae Bainier 

Penicillium griseofulvum 

Symptoms on grain. The fungus produces very short phialides and it bears them on highly 

branched conidiophores. Colonies on Czapek yeast extract agar and malt extract agar are gray 

with only weak greenish overtones; and surface texture is fasciculate to minutely coremial. 

Morphology. Conidiophores are borne in fascicles, with stipes of indeterminate length, often 

sinuous, smooth walled, brownish, terminating in distinctive penicilli, sometimes terverticillate, 

more commonly a quaterverticillate, and not infrequently with 5 or even more branch points 

between stipe and phialide; rami are 15-25 (sometimes 30) μm long and ramuli are 10-15 μm 

long. Metulae are 7-10 μm long, sometimes apically inflated; phialides are ampulliform, closely 

packed, exceptionally short, 4.5-6.0 μm, abruptly tapering to short collula. Conidia are 

ellipsoidal, 3.0-3.5 μm long, smooth walled, borne in closely packed, disordered chains. 

[Note: Lactofuchsin stain was used for microscopical observations (Carmichael 1955) 

(see Appendix 1).] 

Quick clue. The fungus is a stable species, with little isolate to isolate variation. Penicillium 

griseofulvum has several features which set it apart from the other species, especially the 

highly branched conidiophores, brown walled stipes, and very short phialides. It may provide a 

link with the genus Nomuraea. 

Importance. Penicillium griseofulvum is a very commonly occurring species, with worldwide 

distribution. It plays a major role in the decay of vegetation, and of seeds (cereals), food, and 

feed. The fungus produces the antibiotic griseofulvin (Pitt 1991) and the mycotoxins patulin, 

cyclopiazonic acid, and roquefortine C. 

(Note: Figures could not be reproduced due to technical reasons.) 

92

Periconia macrospinosa Lefebvre & A.G. Johnson 

Periconia macrospinosa 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, gray, brown, and hairy. The mycelium is mostly 

immersed but sometimes partly superficial (Fig. 85). 

Figure 85 

x53 

93

Morphology. Conidiophores are very dark brown, up to 420 μm long, 7-12 μm thick at the 

base, and 6-10 μm immediately below the head (Fig. 86a). Conidia are 18-35 μm in diameter, 

coarsely echinulate; the spines are 2-7 μm long and sometimes adhere closely to one another 

in groups (Fig. 86b). 

Quick clue. Conidia are echinulated. 

Importance. Periconia macrospinosa has been isolated from species of Chenopodium, 

Prunus, Trifolium, and Triticum and soil in Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, India, Iraq, 

and USA (Ellis 1971). However, this is a new report of its occurrence on sorghum grain in India. 

Figure 86a 

94 

x3531

Figure 86b 

Periconia macrospinosa 

x3531 

95

Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerema, Dorenbosch, & van Kesteren 

Phoma insidiosa Tassi 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed has very little white or gray mycelium but produces 

large numbers of dark brown or black pycnidia on seed surface or on the blotting paper in the 

petri dish. Grains with large number of pycnidia appear shrivelled (Fig. 87). 

Morphology. Pycnidia are almost spherical, dark brown, thin-walled, and variable in size 

(100-300 μm diameter), with one conspicuous protruding pore opening. Conidia are released 

from the pycnidia in the form of a creamy colored curved tendril (Fig. 88a). Conidia are 

unicellular, oblong to oval, hyaline, and measure 5-8 x 2-4 μm (Fig. 88b). 

Quick clue. Spherical, dark brown pycnidia release unicellular, hyaline conidia through a 

pronounced pore opening in the form of a curved tendril. The pycnidia of Phoma species often 

develop in compact colonies and produce spores profusely. Unicellular conidia distinguish 

Phoma species from the pycnidial fungi of the Septoria complex. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide. It occurs as a pathogen after prolonged 

periods of humid weather. It is frequently observed as a secondary invader. It produces 

tenuaronic acid. 

Figure 87 

96 

x58

Figure 88a 

Figure 88b 

Phoma sorghina 

x 118 

x4972 

97

Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenb: Fr.) Lindner 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on the seed spreads rapidly by means of stolons with abundant, 

loose, gray mycelium (Fig. 89). Stolons produce numerous, brown sporangiophores and 

rhizoids. 

(Note; The fungus is so common on maize seeds, that tests for other pathogens often employ 

precautionary measures to avoid growth of Rhizopus, e.g., by surface sterilization of seeds 

with NaOCI.) 

Morphology. Stolons are hyaline becoming brown towards nodes, near which a septum may 

occur. Rhizoids are short, brown and sometimes absent. Sporangiophores arise singly or in 

small groups from nodes on the stolons. They are brown, smooth or finely roughened, nonseptate, 

1000-3500 μm long and up to 34 μm wide. Sporangia are spherical, initially white but 

later black, and 100-350 μm in diameter with numerous spores (Fig. 90). Columellae are light 

brown, subspherical, 63-224 x 70-140 μm, and umbrella-shaped when dehisced. Sporangiospores 

are yellow to dilute brown, spherical or oval, longitudinally striped, and measure 5-8 x 

20-26 μm. 

Quick clue. Dark, spherical sporangia can readily be seen under a dissecting microscope, 

enabling identification of Rhizopus (without removal of the lid of the petri dish). The fungus is 

often referred to as pin mold as the sporangia resemble black pinheads and are widely 

interspersed in cotton wool-like mycelium. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide. It is a common saprobe and facultative 

parasite of mature fruits and vegetables. It is important in storage rot complex under high 

moisture and temperature conditions. 

Figure 89 

98 

x15

Figure 90 

Rhizopus stolonifer 

x1980 

99

Spadicoides obovata (Cooke & Ellis) Hughes 

Symptoms on grain. Colonies are effuse, dark olivaceous brown, blackish brown or black. 

Stroma, setae, and hyphopodia are absent (Fig. 91). 

Morphology. Mycelium is partly superficial and partly immersed. Conidiophores are 

macronematous, mononematous, generally unbranched, straight or flexuous, pale to very 

dark brown or olivaceous brown, and smooth. Conidiogenous cells are polytretic, integrated, 

terminal and intercalary, determinate, and cylindrical. Conidia are solitary, dry, 

acropleurogenous, developing through minute channels in the thick wall of the conidiogenous 

cell, simple, ellipsoidal, oblong, rounded at one end or obovoid and hooked at the other end, 

mid-pale to dark brown or reddish brown, smooth, 0-3 septate, sometimes with thick, black or 

dark brown bands at the septa (Fig. 92). 

Quick clue. Hook-like structure of conidia is diagnostic. 

Importance. Spadicoides obovata is reported on dead wood of magnolia (Magnolia 

grandiflora L) in USA. This is a new report of occurrence on sorghum grain in India. 

Figure 91 

100 

x20

Spadicoides obovata 


101

Torula graminis Desm. 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed forms small, compact, olive green mounds which may 

coalesce and when older tend to become brown. Colonies are round or oval up to 1.5 x 0.5 μm. 

Morphology. Conidiophores are short including conidiogenous cells, 2-5 μm thick, or lacking, 

and not readily distinguished, with conidia arising more or less directly from the vegetative 

hyphae. Conidia develop in long chains, which break into segments from one to many cells 

when mature, brown, minutely verruculose, 4-5 x 4-6 μm; cells or zero septate conidia are 

almost spherical but often slightly broader than long. Conidia are barrel shaped, with the end 

cells rounded, smooth to moderately rough surface, and dark brown to black (Fig. 93). 

Quick clue. Torula graminis is characterized by simple or branched chains of dark conidia 

which break up readily and which arise more or less directly from the vegetative hyphae. 

Importance. The fungus is distributed worldwide. It is a common saprophyte and secondary 

invader. It is predominant in wet harvests. It causes sooty head mold of wheat. Occurrence of 

T. graminis on grasses in Europe has been reported. However, this is a new report of 

occurrence on sorghum grain from India. 

102

Torula graminis 


103

Trichothecium roseum Link 

Symptoms on grain. Colony on seed usually appears as a salmon pink crust with the 

production of numerous conidia (Fig. 94). Colonies can be cushion-like or powdery. 

Morphology. Conidiophores are erect or suberect, produced singly or in groups, simple or 

sparingly branched, long, slender, hyaline, and septate. Conidia are produced in short, fragile 

chains. Conidia are large (12-18 x 8-10 μm), smooth, two-celled (slightly narrowed at the 

septum), hyaline, more or less egg-shaped, with well marked attachment point and upper cell 

somewhat larger than the lower one (Fig. 95). 

Quick clue. Colony on seed superficially resembles the spore masses of Fusarium or 

Gliocladium species. The short chains of two-celled conidia at the apex of a hyaline, simple 

conidiophore are diagnostic. 

Importance. The fungus is widespread. It is a common saprophyte and secondary invader. Its 

quarantine significance is not known. It causes pink rot of apple (Malus pumila Miller). It 

produces trichothecene mycotoxins, e.g., trichothecin and trichothecolon. 

Figure 94 

104 

x66

Figure 95 

Trichothecium roseum 

x3102 

105

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111

Appendix 1 

Identification procedures: scotch-tape method 

The scotch-tape method is used to assist identification of different fungi by preserving the 

attachment of conidia to conidiophores. It is particularly useful for those fungi in which the 

conidia readily detach themselves from the conidiophore (e.g., Cladosporium spp) or those in 

which chains of conidia readily break up (e.g., Fusarium moniliforme) under normal 

procedures for slide preparation. The procedure is as follows: 

1. Cut a small section of cello-tape (sticky transparent tape; scotch-tape) approximately 

4 cm long. 

2. Gently hold the tape at each end between the thumb and forefinger with the sticky side 

pointing downwards in a U shape and the least amount of tape in contact with the fingers 

as possible. 

3. Gently place the bottom of the U onto the surface of a colony culture so that the sticky 

side picks up some mycelium and conidia from the colony. Contact with the colony 

should be very light so as to only pick up a very small amount of fungal material. 

4. Place the piece of tape on top of a drop of water on a slide without touching the middle 

section of the tape. 

5. Place a coverslip on top of the cello-tape. 

6. Observe the slide under the microscope. 

Microscopical observations of Penicillium spp 

Preparation of wet mounts. Use an inoculating needle, or a nichrome or platinum wire cut to 

a chisel point, or a steel sewing needle, to cut out a small portion of the colony including sporing 

structures. With freely sporing isolates, cut a piece of colony near the margin, where penicilli are 

just maturing, and conidial numbers are not excessive. If sporulation is tardy, examination with 

the stereomicroscope can be useful. Cleistothecia should be taken from near colony centers, 

where the chance of obtaining mature ascospores is highest. Float the cut colony sample from 

the needle on to a slide with the aid of a drop of 70% alcohol. It may be necessary to tease out 

the mycelium with the needle and the corner of a cover slip (square coverslips are best). 

Penicillium conidia and penicilli are highly hydrophobic; the alcohol helps to set the preparation, 

minimizing the amount of entrapped air. When most of the alcohol has evaporated, add a drop 

of lactic acid (for phase or interference contrast optics) or lactofuchsin stain for bright field. 

Place a coverslip; if necessary, remove excess liquid from the preparation by gently blotting with 

facial tissue or similar absorbent paper. The preparation is now ready for examination. 

Staining. A wide variety of stains are used for mycological work. However, most are time 

consuming to prepare, or to use, or are mild, because walls and spores of some fungi are highly 

resistant to stains. By far the most effective stain for preparations of Penicillia is lactofuchsin 

112

(Carmichael 1955), which suffers from none of these faults. It consists of 0.1% acid fuchsin 

dissolved in lactic acid of 85% or higher purity. Young actively growing structures are 

preferentially stained bright pink; hence penicilli, cleistothecial initials, developing asci, and 

mature ascospores can be readily distinguished against a background of old mycelium. 

Observation. Commence observation under a low power objective, x10 or X 1 6 , to locate the 

preparation on the slide, and an area of the preparation where fruiting structures are most 

readily observable. Then use a x40 objective to study the morphology of the fruiting structures. 

Measurement of lengths of fruiting structure elements and examination of conidia require the 

use of a x 100 oil immersion objective. 

113

Glossary 

Acervulus (pl = acervuli) Saucer-shaped conidioma in which the hymenium of conidiogenous 

cells develops on the floor of the cavity from 

a pseudoparenchymatous stroma beneath on the 

integument of the host tissue which ruptures at maturity. 

Acropleurogenous Borne at the tip and along the sides. 

Amphigenous Growth all round or on two sides. 

Ampulliform Flask-like in form. 

Ascoma (pl = ascomata) An ascus-containing structure (also called ascocarp). 

Ascospore A meiospore borne in an ascus. 

Ascus (pl = asci) A sac-like cell generally containing a definite number of 

ascospores formed by free cell formation usually after 

karyogamy and meiosis; characteristic of the class 

Ascomycetes. 

Bitunicate An ascus in which the inner wall is elastic and expands 

greatly beyond the outer wall at the time of spore liberation. 

Cantenulate In chains or end-to-end series. 

Chlamydospore An asexual 1 -celled spore (primarily for perennation and not 

dissemination) originating endogenously and singly within 

part of a pre- existing cell, by the contraction of the protoplast 

and possessing an inner secondary and often thickened 

hyaline or brown wall, usually impregnated with hydrophobic 

material. 

Clavate Club-shaped, thickened towards the apex. 

Columella A sterile central axis within a mature fruit-body which may be 

Concolors Of one color. 

unicellular or multicellular, unbranched or branched, of 

fungal or host origin. 

Confluent Coming together; running into one another. 

Conidiogenous cell Any cell from or within which a conidium is directly produced. 

114

Conidiophore 

Conidium (pl = conidia) 

Determinate 

Distoseptate 

Echinulate 

Ellipsoid 

Erumpent 

Fasciculate 

Filiform 

Flexuous 

Fusiform 

Geniculate 

Globose 

Hyphopodium 

Hilum 

Hypha 

Indeterminate 

Heterothallic 

Limoniform 

Macroconidium 

Macronematous 

A single or branched hypha (fertile) bearing or consisting of 

conidiogenous cells from which conidia are produced. 

Any asexual spore which when mature is liberated from a 

conidiophore or conidiogenous cell. 

Growth ceasing with the production of terminal conidia. 

Having individual cells each surrounded by a sac-like wall 

distinct from the outerwall. 

Having sharply pointed spines; spinose. 

A conidium having an outline of an ellipse. 

Bursting through the surface of the substratum. 

Hyphae having growth in fascicles. 

Thread-like. 

Bent alternately in opposite directions. 

Spindle-like; narrowing towards the ends. 

Bent like a knee. 

Nearly spherical. 

A short branch of one or two cells on epiphytic mycelium of 

Meliolales. 

A mark or scar especially that on a spore at the point of 

attachment to a conidiogenous cell or sterigma. 

A fungus thread or filament. 

Continuing growth indefinitely. 

Two different thalli being required for sexual reproduction. 

Lemon-like in form. 

The larger and generally more diagnostic conidium of a 

fungus which also has microconidia (and sometimes also 

mesoconidia); (infrequent) a large conidium. 

Conidiophores morphologically different from vegetative 

hyphae. 

115

Metula 

Microconidium 

Mononematous 

Monophialide 

Mucilaginous 

Muriform 

Mycelium 

Obclavate 

Obovoid 

Obpyriform 

Ovoid 

Papilla 

Papillate 

Pedicel 

Pedicellate 

Perithecium 

Phialide 

Phialidic 

Polyphialide 

116 

A conidiophore branch having phialides, eg., of Penicillium 

and Aspergillus. 

The smaller conidium of a fungus which also has macro- 

conidia. 

Conidiophores, solitary or in tufts or loose fascicles. 

Conidiogenous cell having one locus through which conidia 

are produced. 

Sticky when wet; slimy. 

Being dividied by intersecting septa in more than one plane. 

A mass or group of hyphae making up the thallus of a fungus. 

The shape of a club upside down, thickened towards the 

base. 

The shape of an egg upside down with the narrow end at the 

base. 

The shape of a pear upside down with the broad end at the 

base. 

Egg-shaped, with one end narrower than the other. 

A minute rounded projection. 

Having a papilla. 

A small stalk. 

Having a pedicel. 

A closed ascocarp with a pore at the top, a true ostiole, and a 

wall of its own. 

A discrete or integrated, phialidic conidiogenous cell. 

Enteroblastic and producing conidia, usually in large numbers 

in basipetal succession through one opening or several 

openings which are often provided with collarettes, and 

with neither the outer nor inner wall contributing towards the 

formation of the conidium wall. 

Conidiogenous cell having more than one conidiogenous 

locus at which conidia are produced.

Pseudoparaphyses A little or strongly, modified terminal hypha in the hymenium 

of Hymenomycetes (paraphyses, pseudoparaphysis, 

paraphysoid, dikaryoparaphysis, and pseudophysis are 

synonyms or near synonyms). 

Pseudoperithecium An uniloculate ascostroma. 

Pseudothecium Contrition of pseudoperithecium. 

Pycnidium (pl = pycnidia) A frequently flask-shaped conidioma of fungal tissue with a 

circular or longitudinal ostiole, the inner surface of which is 

lined entirely or partially by conidiogenous cells. 

Pyriform Pear-shaped with the broad end uppermost. 

Quaterverticillate Hairy branching at four levels. 

Rhizoid A root-like structure consisting of anucleate, filamentous, 

branched, extension of chytrid thallus acting as 

a feeding organ. 

Rostrate Beaked or strongly attenuated at the apex. 

Sclerotium (pl = sclerotia) A firm, frequently rounded, mass of hyphae, with or without 

the addition of host tissue or soil, normally having no spores in 

or on it. 

Seta (pl = setae) A stiff hair, generally thick-walled and dark in color. 

Solitary Arising singly at one point. 

Spinulose Covered with little spines. 

Sporangiophore Thallus element (usually morphologically differentiated) 

subtending one or more sporangia. 

Sporangium An organ enclosing endogenously generated spore(s), the 

walls of the spore(s) not being derived from the supporting or 

containing structure. 

Sporodochium A pulvinate stroma with closely packed, relatively short 

conidiophore covering its upper surface. 

Sterigma (pl = sterigmata) An extension of the metabasidium composed of a basal 

filamentous or inflated part and an apical spore-bearing 

projection. 

Stolon A runner as in Rhizopus. 

117

Stroma An often cushion-like mass of fungal cells or closely inter- 

woven hyphae. 

Teleomorph Sexual stage. 

Terverticillate Having branching at three levels, i.e., having rami bearing 

metulae and phialides. 

Tretic The sort of conidiogenesis in which each conidium 

(tretoconidium, tretic conidium, poroconidium, porospore) 

is delimited by an extension of the inner wall of the 

conidiogenous cell. 

Truncated Ending abruptly, as though with the end cut off horizontally. 

Verrucose Warted. 

Verruculose Finely warted. 

Vesicle A bladder-like sac; swollen apex of the conidiophore. 

118

Notes

Notes

About ICRISAT 

The semi-arid tropics (SAT) encompasses parts of 48 developing countries including most of India, parts 

of southeast Asia, a swathe across sub-Saharan Africa, much of southern and eastern Africa, and parts 

of Latin America. Many of these countries are among the poorest in the world. Approximately one-sixth of 

the world's population lives in the SAT, which is typified by unpredictable weather, limited and erratic 

rainfall, and nutrient-poor soils. 

ICRISAT's mandate crops are sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut; 

these six crops are vital to life for the ever-increasing populations of the SAT. ICRISAT's mission is to conduct 

research which can lead to enhanced sustainable production of these crops and to improved management 

of the limited natural resources of the SAT. ICRISAT communicates information on technologies as they are 

developed through workshops, networks, training, library services, and publishing. 

ICRISAT was established in 1972. It is one of 16 nonprofit, research and training centers funded through 

the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is an informal 

association of approximately 50 public and private sector donors; it is co-sponsored by the Food and 

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 

the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Bank.

A Pictorial Guide for the Identification of Mold ... - OAR@ICRISAT

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