Ber and other Jujubes monograph.pdf - Crops for the Future

Fruits for the Future 2 

(Revised edition) 

Ber and other jujubes 

Authors 

S. Azam-Ali 

E. Bonkoungou 

C. Bowe 

C. deKock 

A. Godara 

J.T. Williams 

Editors 

J.T. Williams (chief editor) 

R.W. Smith 

N. Haq 

Z. Dunsiger

First published in 2001 by International Centre for Underutilised Crops, 

University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK 

2006 Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops 

The text in this document may be reproduced free of charge in any format or 

media without requiring specific permission. This is subject to the material not 

being used in a derogatory manner or in a misleading context. The source of 

the material must be acknowledged as [SCUC] copyright and the title of the 

document must be included when being reproduced as part of another 

document or service. 

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 

Ber 

1. tropical fruit trees 

i Williams ii Smith iii Haq iv Dunsiger 

ISBN 085432 8580 

Citation: Azam-Ali, Bonkoungou, Bowe, deKock, Godara, Williams. (2006) 

Ber. International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Southampton, UK. 

DFID/FRP and DISCLAIMERS 

This publication is an output from a research project funded by the United 

Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of 

developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID 

[R7187 Forestry Research Programme]. 

The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors alone and do not 

imply an acceptance or obligation whatsoever on the part of ICUC, SCUC, 

ICRAF or IPGRI.

ICUC 

The International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC) is an autonomous, nonprofit, 

scientific research and training centre. It was established in 1992, based at the 

University of Southampton in the UK, but has since moved to the headquarters of the 

International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka. The Centre was established to 

address ways to increase the use of underutilised crops for food, nutrition, medicinal 

and industrial products. The enhancement of currently underutilised crops is a key to 

food security, to the conservation of biological diversity and to the preservation and 

restoration of fragile and degraded environments throughout the world. 

World Agroforestry Centre 

The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), established in Nairobi in 1977, is an 

autonomous, non-profit research body supported by the Consultative Group on 

International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). ICRAF aims to improve human 

welfare by alleviating poverty, improving food and nutrition security and enhancing 

environmental resistance in the tropics. 

IPGRI 

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an international 

research institute with a mandate to advance the conservation and use of genetic 

diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is also a centre of the 

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. 

Also available in this series of monographs: 

Safou – Dacryodes edulis by J. Kengue (ISBN 0854327649) 

Baobab – Adansonia digitata by M. Sidibe and J. T. Williams (ISBN 0854327762) 

Annona spp. by A. C. de Q. Pinto, M. C. R. Cordeiro, S. R. M. de Andrade, F. R. 

Ferreira, H. A. de C. Filgueiras, R. E. Alves and D. I. Kinpara (ISBN 0854327851) 

Mangosteen – Garcinia mangostana by M. bin Osman and Abd. Rahman Milan 

(ISBN 0854328173) 

Monkey orange – Strychnos cocculoides by C. K. Mwamba (ISBN 0854328416) 

Ndjanssang – Ricinodendron heudelotii by Z. Tchoundjeu (ISBN 0854328424) 

Sapote species – Pouteria sapota, P. campechiana, P. viridis by C. Azurdia 

(ISBN 0854327651) 

Forthcoming in this series: 

Jackfruit – Artocarpus heterophyllus by N. Haq (ISBN 0854328394) 

Tamarind – Tamarindus indica – Revised edition (ISBN 085432 8599)

Contents 

Abbreviations..................................................................................................... ii 

Preface .............................................................................................................. iii 

Chapter 1. Introduction, Taxonomy and History ................................................1 

1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................1 

1.2 The genus Ziziphus ..........................................................................2 

1.3 The species of Ziziphus....................................................................3 

1.4 The major cultivated species ...........................................................4 

1.4.1 Indian jujube...........................................................................4 

1.4.2 Chinese jujube ........................................................................5 

1.5 The minor cultivated species ...........................................................9 

1.5.1 Z. spina-christi (L.) Desf. .......................................................9 

1.5.2 Z. lotus (L.) Lam..................................................................10 

1.6 Wild species...................................................................................11 

1.6.1 Asia.......................................................................................11 

1.6.2 Africa....................................................................................12 

1.6.3 New World ..........................................................................12 

1.7 Vernacular names for jujubes ........................................................12 

1.8 Historical evidence ........................................................................14 

1.8.1 Indian jujube.........................................................................14 

1.8.2 Chinese jujube ......................................................................15 

Chapter 2. Composition....................................................................................18 

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................18 

2.2 Fruit composition...........................................................................18 

2.2.1 Ber ........................................................................................18 


2.3 Ethnopharmaceutical compounds..................................................20 

2.3.1 Ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin and bioflavonoids.........20 

2.3.2 Pectin A ................................................................................21 

2.3.3 Alkaloids ..............................................................................21 

2.3.4 Glycosides ............................................................................21 

2.3.5 Triterpenoic acids .................................................................22 

2.3.6 Lipids....................................................................................23 

2.4 Nutritional and pharmaceutical studies..........................................23 

2.4.1 Sweetness inhibitors .............................................................23 

2.4.2 Permeability enhancement activity.......................................24 

2.4.3 Cytotoxic effect (chemotherapy) ..........................................24 

2.4.4 Neurological properties ........................................................25 

2.4.5 Antifertility/contraception ....................................................26 

2.4.6 Hypotensive and antinephritic effect....................................26 

2.4.7 Cardiovascular activity.........................................................26 

2.4.8 Immunostimulant effects ......................................................26

2.4.9 Antifungal activity................................................................26 

2.4.10 Antidiabetic ..........................................................................27 

2.4.11 Antiallergic...........................................................................27 

2.4.12 Antiulcer activity..................................................................27 

2.4.13 Antiinflammatory effect .......................................................27 

2.4.14 Antispastic effect..................................................................27 

2.4.15 Antibacterial .........................................................................27 

2.4.16 Antioxidant effects ...............................................................27 

2.5 Summary........................................................................................28 

Chapter 3. Uses.................................................................................................29 

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................29 

3.2 Local uses of fruits ........................................................................29 

3.2.1 South, Southeast and East Asia. ...........................................29 

3.2.2 Africa....................................................................................29 

3.2.3 Southwest Asia .....................................................................30 

3.2.4 South America......................................................................30 

3.3 Fodder............................................................................................30 

3.4 Environmental ...............................................................................31 

3.5 Fuelwood .......................................................................................31 

3.6 Lac culture.....................................................................................32 

3.7 Wood .............................................................................................32 

3.8 Bees and silkworms.......................................................................32 

3.9 Medicinal uses ...............................................................................33 

3.9.1 South Asia ............................................................................33 

3.9.2 Chinese medicine..................................................................34 

3.9.3 Other areas............................................................................34 

Chapter 4. Climate and Ecology.......................................................................36 

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................36 

4.2 Temperature...................................................................................36 



4.3 Rainfall ..........................................................................................38 


4.3.2 Chinese jujube .....................................................................38 

4.4 Soils...............................................................................................38 



4.4.3 Stress conditions...................................................................39 

Chapter 5. Propagation .....................................................................................40 

5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................40 

5.2 Seed propagation ...........................................................................40 

5.2.1 Seed characteristics ..............................................................40 

5.2.2 Seed viability........................................................................41

5.2.3 Seed germination..................................................................42 

5.2.4 Seed pretreatments................................................................42 

5.2.5 The nursery...........................................................................44 

5.3 Vegetative propagation..................................................................48 

5.3.1 Rootstocks ............................................................................48 

5.3.2 Budding ................................................................................49 

5.3.3 Micropropagation .................................................................53 

5.3.4 Cuttings for Chinese jujube ..................................................54 

5.3.5 Grafting ................................................................................55 

Chapter 6. Agronomy .......................................................................................56 

6.1 Planting..........................................................................................56 

6.1.1 Training of plants: ber ..........................................................57 


6.2 Water management........................................................................59 

6.2.1 Rainfed areas ........................................................................59 

6.2.2 Irrigated areas: ber................................................................59 


6.2.4 Conservation of moisture......................................................60 

6.3 Weeding.........................................................................................60 

6.4 Manure and fertilisers....................................................................60 

6.4.1 Nutrients recommended........................................................61 

6.4.2 Foliar feeding........................................................................62 

6.4.3 Microbial inoculations..........................................................63 

6.5 Pruning ..........................................................................................63 

6.5.1 Pruning intensity...................................................................63 

6.5.2 Pruning in Chinese jujube.....................................................65 

6.5.3 Pruning time .........................................................................65 

6.6 Pests...............................................................................................66 

6.6.1 Fruitfly..................................................................................66 

6.6.2 Fruit borer.............................................................................67 

6.6.3 Bark eating caterpillar ..........................................................68 

6.6.4 Hairy caterpillars ..................................................................68 

6.6.5 Chafer beetle (ber beetle or leaf chafer) ...............................69 

6.6.6 Lac insect..............................................................................70 

6.6.7 Other insect pests..................................................................70 

6.6.8 Mites.....................................................................................70 

6.7 Diseases .........................................................................................71 

6.7.1 Powdery mildew...................................................................71 

6.7.2 Alternaria leaf spot...............................................................72 

6.7.3 Black leaf spot ......................................................................73 

6.7.4 Cercospora leaf spot.............................................................74 

6.7.5 Cladosporium leaf spot.........................................................74 

6.7.6 Rust.......................................................................................75 

6.7.7 Witches’ broom ....................................................................75 

6.7.8 Fruit rot.................................................................................75

6.7.9 Minor foliar pathogens .........................................................77 

6.8 Cropping systems ..........................................................................77 

Chapter 7. Breeding..........................................................................................79 

7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................79 

7.2 Breeding objectives .......................................................................80 

7.3 Constraints/ bottlenecks in breeding..............................................81 

7.4 Breeding methods..........................................................................81 

7.4.1 Selection ...............................................................................81 

7.4.2 Hybridisation ........................................................................83 

7.4.3 Mutation ...............................................................................84 

7.4.4 Polyploidy ............................................................................86 

7.4.5 Biotechnological methods ....................................................87 

7.4.6 Current situation ...................................................................89 

Chapter 8. Genetic Resources...........................................................................91 

8.1 The Ziziphus genepool...................................................................91 

8.1.1 Chromosome numbers..........................................................91 

8.1.2 Hybridisation ........................................................................92 

8.2 Cultivars ........................................................................................93 

8.2.1 Morphological variability and characterisation ....................93 

8.2.2 Reproductive variability .......................................................95 

8.2.3 Yield .....................................................................................99 

8.2.4 Chemical variability ...........................................................100 

8.2.5 Genetic variability ..............................................................102 

8.2.6 Distribution of important traits ...........................................106 

8.3 Collections ...................................................................................108 

8.3.1 Genetic erosion...................................................................108 

8.3.2 Existing collections ............................................................108 

8.3.4 Conservation methodologies ..............................................111 

Chapter 9. Harvesting, post-harvest handling and processing ........................113 

9.1 Introduction .................................................................................113 

9.2 Ber ...............................................................................................113 

9.2.1 Harvesting ..........................................................................113 

9.2.2 Post harvest handling..........................................................120 

9.2.3 Processing...........................................................................126 

9.3 Other jujubes ...............................................................................139 

9.3.1 Ripening .............................................................................139 

9.3.2 Treatments ..........................................................................140 

9.3.3 Storage................................................................................140 

9.3.4 Processing of Chinese jujube..............................................140 

9.3.5 Other Chinese jujube products ...........................................153 

Chapter 10. Marketing....................................................................................153 

10.1 Introduction .................................................................................154

10.2 Ber ...............................................................................................154 

10.3 Chinese jujube .............................................................................159 

10.4 Market prospects..........................................................................159 

Chapter 11. Current situation and research needs...........................................160 

11.1 Summary of the current situation.................................................160 

11.2 Need for information dissemination ............................................161 

11.3 Research needs ............................................................................162 

11.3.1 Understanding the genetic variation ...................................162 

11.3.2 Genetic improvement .........................................................163 

11.3.3 Propagation.........................................................................165 

11.3.4 Pruning/cropping systems...................................................165 

11.3.5 Post-harvest studies ............................................................166 

11.3.6 Marketing ...........................................................................166 

11.3.7 Other relevant development issues .....................................166 

References ......................................................................................................167 

Appendix I Insect and mite pests of ber (Pareek 2001, updated)....................258 

Appendix II Ziziphus cultivars........................................................................261 

Appendix III Research organisations working on jujubes ..............................268 

Appendix IV List of jujube specialists............................................................273 

Appendix V Seed suppliers directory .............................................................275 

Glossary..........................................................................................................278 

Index...............................................................................................................285

Tables 

Table 1.1 Vernacular names for jujubes 

Table 2.1 Nutritional constituents in fruit pulp of 4 ber cultivars 

Table 4.1 Ecological background of three Ziziphus species 

Table 6.1 Planting distance of ber 

Table 6.2 Nutrient practices in ber orchards in India 

Table 7.1 Ideotypes of ber 

Table 8.1 Classification of germplasm of ber in different clusters 

Table 8.2 Important traits in ber 

Table 8.3 Traits identified in ber cultivars 

Table 8.4 Indian Institutions holding ber germplasm collections 

Table 8.5 Species used for rootstocks for Indian jujube 

Table 8.6 Exploitable attributes of wild species in ber improvement 

Table 9.1 Maturity indices for cultivars of ber 

Table 9.2 The effects of spraying Ethephon on the number of harvests 

of ber fruit 

Table 9.3 Grading criteria for ber 

Table 9.4 Typical changes in quality characteristics of ber fruit during 

storage at ambient temperature 

Table 9.5 Optimum blanching times for ber cultivars. 

Table 10.1 Percent price spread of ber in marketing through different 

channels in Chomu market (India) 

Table 10.2 Components of cost in marketing of ber through different 

channels at Chomu market in India 

13 

19 

36 

56 

61 

79 

106 

106 

107 

109 

110 

111 

114 

117 

121 

123 

127 

156 

157 

Figures 

Figure 1.1 Branch and leaf arrangement in ber showing the unequal 

spines 

Figure 1.2 Flower and fruit of ber showing the pistil, stamens and seed 

Figure 5.1 The budwood 

Figure 5.2 Methods of budding 

Figure 6.1 Training ber - after planting or in situ budding 

Figure 6.2 Training in ber 

7 

8 

50 

52 

57 

58

Plates 

Plate 1. 30 day old rootstock seedling in polytube. 

Plate 2. 100 day old rootstock seedling in polytube ready for 

transplanting or budding 

Plate 3. Scion buds successfully sprouted 

Plate 4. Rootstock prepared for patch or shield budding 

Plate 5. Patch and shield buds inserted on the rootstocks 

Plate 6. Scion buds tied after insertion 

Plate 7. Fruitfly infested ber fruits 

Plate 8. Twigs infested by lac insects 

Plate 9. Powdery mildew infestation on young fruits and leaves 

Plate 10. Alternaria leaf spot 

Plate 11. Isariopsis leaf spot 

Plate 12. Rust on leaves 

Plate 13. Alternaria fruit spot 

Plate 14. Chinese date and peanut intercropping 

Plate 15. Morphological variability of leaves in Z. mauritiana 

Plates 16. & 17. Flowering and fruit set in Z. mauritiana 

Plate 18. cv. Ponda 

Plate 19. cv. Illaoichi 

Plate 20. cv. Umran 

Plate 21. cv. Kaithli 

Plate 22. cv. Banarsi Kadaka 

Plate 23. cv. Seb 

Plate 24. cv. Gola 

Plate 25. cv. Katha Phal 

Plate 26. Morphological variability of fruits in Z. mauritiana 

Plate 27. Morphological variability of stones in Z. mauritiana 

141 

141 

141 

142 

142 

142 

143 

143 

144 

144 

145 

145 

145 

146 

146 

147 

148 

148 

149 

149 

150 

150 

150 

150 

152 

152

Abbreviations 

ABA - 

AMP - 

BA - 

CIAH - 

CAN - 

DFID - 

dSM - 

ESP - 

FAO - 

GA - 

GDH - 

GOT - 

IAA - 

IBA - 

ICRAF - 

ICUC - 

IPGRI - 

IPM - 

IU - 

MPa - 

MS medium - 

NAA - 

NOXA - 

NRCAH - 

RH - 

SALWA - 

SAR - 

TBZ - 

TIBA - 

TMV - 

TSS - 

WHO - 

VAM - 

Abscissic Acid 

Adenosine monophosphate 

Benzyladenine 

Central Institute for Arid Horticulture 

Calcium ammonium nitrate (fertiliser) 

Department for International Development (UK) 

Decisiemen (unit measurement for soil salinity). 

Exchangeable Sodium Percentage 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

Gibberellic Acid 

Glutamine dehydrogenase 

Glutamate Oxalacetate Transaminase 

Indole Acetic Acid 

Indole Butyric Acid 

World Agroforestry Centre (formerly International Centre for 

Research in Agroforestry) 

International Centre for Underutilised Crops 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute 

Integrated Pest Management 

International Unit 

Megapascals (unit of measurement for osmotic potential) 

Murashige and Skoog medium 

Napthylacetic Acid 

Napthoxyacetic Acid 

National Research Centre for Arid Horticulture (India) 

Relative Humidity 

Semi Arid Lowlands of West Africa project of ICRAF 

Sodium Adsorption Ratio 

Thiabendazole 

2,3,5-tri-iodobenzoic acid 

Tobacco Mosaic Virus 

Total Soluble Solids 

World Health Organization 

Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi 

ii

Preface 

Jujubes are considered to be minor fruits and, from a research and development 

point of view, have not received any major emphasis from governments. 

However the fruits are an integral part of the culture and way of life of millions 

of diverse Asian peoples and have also become so for large regions of Africa 

after the major cultivated species were introduced. 

There has been sustained recognition from scientists, particularly those in 

national agricultural programmes, that these fruits can be exploited much more 

widely due to their value in human nutrition and the added benefits to rural 

people of other products from a multipurpose tree. Additionally the trees are 

hardy and can be cultivated in a very wide range of climatic and agroecological 

zones thereby making them of great value in agricultural and human 

development in areas where intensive agriculture is not currently feasible. 

When the International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC) initiated a 

project on Fruits for the Future one of the first monographs to be produced 

focused on Indian jujube or ber (Ziziphus mauritiana). This was authored by Dr 

O.P. Pareek and issued in 2001. ICUC was gratified to note the great demand 

for this monograph (over 1200 copies in 5 years) and also to note that research 

was accelerating in the period since it was issued. Continual requests for more 

information, especially from Africa, led ICUC to decide that a revised 

monograph was needed. This book is the result of that decision; it draws, as 

would be expected, heavily on the initial work of Dr Pareek, to whom ICUC 

again expresses its thanks. 

This is a multiauthored publication and we would like to thank the authors for 

their contribution. The preparation and publication of the original monograph 

and the present one has been funded by the Department for International 

Development (DFID), UK. The goal of the Fruits for the Future Project is to 

provide a useful compendium on a priority underutilised fruit to researchers, 

teachers, students, extensionists, growers, traders and policy makers in the hope 

that it could encourage enhanced production, processing and marketing of 

jujubes. 

ICUC expresses its thanks to DFID and to the numerous national scientists and 

others who have contributed in one way or another to the two monographs. 

Editors 2006 

iii

Chapter 1. Introduction, Taxonomy and 

History 

1.1 Introduction 

J.T. Williams 

Jujubes are species of the genus Ziziphus Tourn. ex L. Ziziphus belongs to the 

family Rhamnaceae named for the genus Rhamnus. Along with genera other 

than Ziziphus, Rhamnus does not include many economic species except for 

some wild species with edible fruits or of interest for medicinal products or 

dyestuffs. The Rhamnaceae have fruits which are drupes or are dry and are 

closely related to another family, Vitaceae, which includes major economic 

species whose fruits are berries. 

The name Ziziphus is related to an Arabic word used along the North African 

coast, zizoufo used for Z. lotus (L.) Desf., but also related to the ancient Persian 

words zizfum or zizafun; and ancient Greeks used the word ziziphon for the 

jujube. 

There are two major domesticated jujubes, Z. mauritiana Lam. the Indian 

jujube or ber, and Z. jujuba Mill. the Chinese or common jujube. These two 

species have been cultivated over vast areas of the Old World and a limited 

number of others have been, and are, cultivated on a more localised scale. 

However all jujubes remain relatively minor crops although demand for 

production remains steady in many parts where they were originally 

domesticated. 

Interest in expanding the use of these underutilised crops has been sporadic 

over the decades particularly in relation to rural development objectives. In 

1980 the National Academy of Sciences noted the two major jujubes (along 

with Z. nummularia (Burm.) Wight & Arn. and Z. spina-christi (L.) Desf.) are 

useful species for firewood in arid and semi-arid zones (NAS, 1980, also see 

Adams et al,. 1978). At about the same time an assessment of species for 

expanded use in the Sahelian regions noted the multipurpose value of jujube 

species including food, honey production, forage and environmental protection 

(von Maydell, 1986, originally in German 1981), although this assessment did 

not accord to these species any value for firewood or charcoal. In the 1990s the 

International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC), following a number of 

consultations with national programmes in Africa and Asia, highlighted Z. 

mauritiana as a priority species for enhanced research attention. 

India had already included Z. mauritiana in its national programme on 

underutilised crops, and ICUC was fortunate in having a scientist associated 

1

with that programme write a specific monograph (Pareek, 2001). Similarly 

other national programmes were recognizing that jujube species were 

underutilised and could be given priority e.g. Chinese jujube in Azerbaijan 

(Tagiev, 1992). In the New World there are some indigenous species of jujube 

but none are considered economic. Chinese jujube has been introduced and 

grown under plantation conditions in California and Florida. The USDA has 

imported germplasm of ber and a small amount is cultivated in Florida. 

In general, fruits of jujubes are used in areas where their products are fresh or 

dried fruits (hence the names Chinese date and Indian date) for later use. A 

range of processed products also exist wherever the species are grown. 

1.2 The genus Ziziphus 

Ziziphus P. Miller, Abbrev. Gard. Dict. 1754 

Erect trees or small to large shrubs or semi-scandent shrubs or climbers; when 

trees usually with a deep radicle, well developed; species may be spiny or not 

but more commonly are so and species may be glabrous or relatively hairy. The 

same species may occasionally be found with specimens which are trees and 

others which are shrubs. 

Leaves are alternate or rarely subopposite; they are simple and coriaceous or 

membranous, acuminate, toothed or not, and 3-5-nerved from the base; the leaf 

base is either asymmetrical, slightly asymmetrical or symmetrical. Leaves are 

petiolated with stipules often spinous and branchlets often zigzag. 

Flowers are 5-merous, actinomorphic and hermaphrodite. Flowers are borne 

sometimes solitary or 2-3 together in axillary cymes or in umbels or racemes 

arranged in terminal panicles or thyrses. Inflorescences may be pedunculate or 

sessile. 

Calyx with triangular acute lobes up to 2 mm long, dentate; calyx valvate, 

keeled on the inside and the tube obconical. Petals also about 2 mm long, 

unguiculate at the base, deflexed with the expanded parts about 1.5 mm wide. 

The petals clasp the stamens or the filaments. Occasionally petals are absent. 

Stamens 5 at least, partly adnate to the petal bases and filaments are inserted 

under the edge of the disk; stamens usually exceed petals. Ovary is superior or 

subinferior and sunk into the disk but not coherent with it and adnate to the 

receptacle, the latter being obconical. The disk has 5 or 10 lobes, is rarely 

entire and its margin is free. The ovary is 2-4 celled with 2-4 styles (usually 2) 

which are distinct but can be somewhat connate. When 2-celled usually only 1 

produces a seed. 

2

Fruits are subglobose, ovoid or oblong, usually drupes. They are 1-4 celled and 

1-4 seeded but drupes mostly contain 1 seed. The flesh of the drupe is usually 

juicy pulp but may rarely be relatively dry. Young fruits may be pilose or not. 

Seeds contain large embryos with endosperm sparse or absent. Fruiting 

branchlets may or may not be deciduous. 

Most earlier divisions of the genus were based on characteristics of the 

inflorescences (e.g. Hooker, 1875; Brandis, 1906; Sussenguth, 1953). Liu and 

Cheng (1995) considered details of inflorescence types unstable and suggested 

that the species are grouped into two Sections, one further divided into two 

Series: 

1. Ziziphus - Occurring in temperate zones. Plants glabrous and with 

deciduous fruiting branchlets. 

2. Perdurans - M. J. Liu and C. Y. Cheng - Occurring in subtropical and 

tropical zones. Plants pilose and without deciduous fruiting branchlets. 

2.1 Series Cymosiflorae - Occurring widely in subtropical and 

tropical zones. Flowers in axillary cymes. Ovary and fruit glabrous 

with thick, hard endocarp. 

2.2 Series Thyrsiflorae - Occurring in South and Southeast Asia. 

Flowers in terminal or axillary thyrses. Ovary and young fruit pilose 

with very thin endocarp. 

The Indian jujube belongs to Section Perdurans Series Cymosiflorae and the 

Chinese jujube belongs to Section Ziziphus. The more minor cultivated species 

can also be classified in Series Cymosiflorae. 

1.3 The species of Ziziphus 

There is a consensus that the genus contains about 86 species (Evreinoff, 1964; 

Johnston, 1972) but others suggest there could be up to 135 (Bhansali, 1975) 

and Liu and Cheng, (1995) suggested there could be up to 170. Much depends 

on the taxonomist’s view of a species; however in the past there have been 271 

names given, many of them reduced to synonymy. 

One problem in understanding a somewhat complex taxonomy has been that 

the same specific name has been used by different authors for different species. 

Sometimes in published papers it is difficult always to be sure which species is 

meant, especially when an authority for the name is not given or when there is 

no voucher specimen to ensure the right identity. The Indian jujube (Z. 

mauritiana Lam.) has had the specific name of jujuba applied as Z. jujuba (L.) 

Lam. and Z. jujuba (L.) Gaertn. and named intraspecific taxa of the latter refer 

to another species Z. abyssinica A. Rich, which in turn had been called Z. 

jujuba Hemsl. There are numerous examples such as this one among the 

synonymy especially with specific names such as rotundifolia or nummularia. 

3

Less serious, but also a constraint, is that accounts and naming of species, 

although they may be based on very wide geographical areas, have not 

included inter-regional comparisons. For instance, Johnston (1972) considered 

possible affinities between Z. lotus of Mauritania and the Sahara, and Z. hamer 

of East Africa and Z. leucodermis (Baki) O. Schwartz of Arabia but concluded 

that a thorough field study is desirable. 

Lastly, in understanding the complexity of the taxonomy of Ziziphus species, 

hybridisation can be a problem. Confusing species boundaries and names have 

been given to some stabilised segregates. This will be discussed in Chapter 8. 

1.4 The major cultivated species 

1.4.1 Indian jujube 

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 

Synonyms 

Z. jujuba (L.) Lam. 

Z. jujuba (L.) Gaertn. (including var. stenocarpa Kuntze and forma 

aequilatrifolia Engl.) 

Z. tomentosa Poir. 

Z. rotundata D.C. 

Z. aucheri Boiss. 

Z. insularis Smith 

Z. sororia Roem. and Schult. 

Z. orthocantha D.C. 

The species has a wide range of morphologies from shrubs to small or mediumsized 

trees which might be erect, semi-erect or spreading. Height can vary from 

3-4 to 10-16 m or more although trees of 20 m are rare. Trees are semideciduous 

and much branched. The bark has deep longitudinal furrows and is 

greyish brown or reddish in colour. Usually the shrub or tree is spinous, but 

occasionally unarmed. 

Branchlets are densely white pubescent, especially when young and tend to be 

zig-zag. Branches erect and spreading, becoming flexuous and dull browngrey. 

Fruiting branches are not deciduous. 

Leaf laminae are elliptic to ovate or nearly orbicular, (1.3-)3-8(-12) cm long 

and (0.4-)1.5-5(-6.5) cm at the widest point. The apex is rounded, obtuse or 

subacute to emarginated, the base rounded, sometimes cuneate, mostly 

symmetrical or nearly so. Margins are minutely serrulate. There are 3 marked 

nerves almost to the apex, the nerves being depressed in the upper, light or dark 

green, glabrous surface. Lower surface is whitish due to persistent dense hairs 

but may be buff coloured. Occasionally the lower surface is glabrous. 

4

Leaves are petiolate 1.1-5.8 mm long and stipules are mostly spines, in each 

pair one hooked and one straight, or both hooked, or more rarely neither 

developed into a spine. 

Flowers have sepals which are dorsally tomentose, a disk about 3 mm in 

diameter and a 2-celled ovary, immersed in the disk. Styles are 2, 1 mm long 

and connate for half their length. Flowers tend to have an acrid smell. 

Flowers are borne in cymes or small axillary clusters. Cymes can be sessile or 

shortly pedunculate, peduncles 1-4 mm tomentose. Pedicels are also tomentose 

and are 2-4 mm at flowering and 3-6 mm at fruiting. 

Fruit is a glabrous globose or oval edible drupe varying greatly in size from 

(1-) 1.5 (-2) cm diameter but some oval varieties can reach 5 x 3 cm. The pulp 

is acidic and sweet, the fruit greenish, yellow or sometimes reddish. 

The species is distributed throughout the warm subtropics and tropics of South 

Asia. In cultivation it has spread south-eastwards through Malesia and 

eastwards through IndoChina and southern China. It is widespread in Africa 

and southern Arabia, where it was probably first cultivated; however in Africa 

it has naturalised and so-called ‘wild’ types are to be found, especially shrubby 

rather than tree forms. It adapts to warm to hot tropical climates with low to 

relatively high rainfall, tolerating poor soils. 

The intraspecific taxa described are not very meaningful in view of this 

tendency to naturalise and produce wild heterogeneous populations. Several 

varietal names have been given to wild morphotypes. One variety, Z. 

mauritiana var. orthocantha (D.C.) A. Cher. is found south of the western 

Sahara and in Mauritania. It produces a dry pulp and is probably valid in view 

of its specific utilisation by local people. 

1.4.2 Chinese jujube 

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. 

Synonyms 

Z. sativa Gaertn. 

Z. vulgaris Lam. 

Z. flexuosa Wall. 

Z. nitida Roxb. 

Z. sinensis Lam. 

Z. zizyphus (L.) Karst. 

Z. mairei Dode 

Z. officinarum Med. 

Z. chinensis D.C. 

Z. chinensis Watt 

5

Shrubs or small trees up to 8-10 m high with rigid spreading boughs and stiff 

branches; an appearance often producing a gnarled shape. Tree forms tend to 

have a small canopy extending 3.5-4.5 m. Trunks may be short or long 

depending on genotype. Branches are armed with paired spikes, one of each 

pair larger than the other and straight, the shorter one recurved. Older parts of 

older trees can lose their spines. Branchlets are flexuous, green and glabrous 

when young. Fruiting branchlets are deciduous. 

Leaves are (2-) 2.5-5 (-5.5) cm long oblong, obtuse, glabrous (rarely tomentose 

beneath), glandular, crenate-serrate, 3-nerved. Petioles are 2.5-7.5 cm long. 

Stipules form the spines. 

Flowers are few in a small axillary cluster or cyme which is larger than its 

peduncle. Flowers have a disk obscurely lobed. Styles are 2, connate for half 

their length. 

Fruit is an ovoid-oblong edible drupe 1.5-2.3 cm long, dark reddish brown to 

black, each being short stalked and may be pendulous. Pulp sour to sweet. 

Chinese jujube is native to temperate Asia, particularly China and neighbouring 

areas of Mongolia and the Central Asian Republics. In cultivation it spread 

westwards to the Mediterranean, throughout the Near East and SW Asia and 

spread eastwards in cultivation to Korea and Japan. Like Z. mauritiana this 

species also naturalises in many Asian countries and ‘wild’ populations are to 

be found which are derivatives from cultivation. It is mostly cultivated in 

China, India, Central Asia and southwest Asia. 

Z. jujuba var. spinosa Hu ex H. F. Chow is typified by possession of small sour 

fruits and is usually a spiny shrub or small tree (Wang and Sun, 1986). Z. 

jujuba var. inermis has unarmed branches and styles not connate (Brandis, 

1874). 

Chinese jujube is adapted to subtropical and warm temperate areas. It prefers a 

relatively dry climate during the growing season but cool during its dormancy. 

It can tolerate lower temperatures than Indian jujube and can survive -10°C. 

There should be no confusion between the Chinese jujube and the description 

of Z. jujuba (L.) Gaertn. var. hysudrica Edgew which relates to reputed hybrids 

of Z. mauritiana and Z. spina-christi. 

6

Figure 1.1 Branch and leaf arrangement in ber showing the unequal spines 

A - Undersurface of leaf. B - Branch/ twig to show leaf arrangement. C- Detail 

of unequal spines. 

7

Figure 1.2 Flower and fruit of ber showing the pistil, stamens and seed 

A - Fruits on the tree. B - Vertical section through a mature fruit. 

C - Mature fruit. D - Stone/seed (from B/C). E - Vertical section through 

mature fruit - alternative variety. F - Mature fruit - alternative variety. G - 

Flower. H - Pistil. I - Pistil with stamens. J - Sepal. K - Petal. 

8

1.5 The minor cultivated species 

There are two species of Ziziphus which are still cultivated on a small scale. 

They are described below. 

1.5.1 Z. spina-christi (L.) Desf. 

Synonyms 

Z. africana Mill. 

Z. amphibia A. Chev. 

Z. nabeca (Forsk.) Lam. 

Z. inermis A. Chev. 

Z. sphaerocarpa Tul. 

Z. spina-christi Willd. (as used by Bailey, 1947 and Polunin and Huxley, 

1965). 

Shrub, often with intertwined branches, or small tree up to 10-15 m tall. Bark 

deeply furrowed and scaly, white-brown to pale grey. Branchlets densely 

pubescent white when young. Fruiting branchlets are not deciduous. Tends to 

produce a very deep tap root. Mostly spinous with paired spines, unequal in 

length, one recurved; rarely unarmed. 

Leaves ovate-lanceolate or ovate-elliptic (

Z. spina-christi is a species of the Middle East through Arabia and West Africa 

to N. E. Africa, Ethiopia and Eastern Africa, especially the drier tropical areas. 

It is wild in the Middle East, especially Iran, Saudi Arabia and also farther west 

in Turkey. Its edible fruits are gathered for food. Almost certainly it was 

introduced to Africa by Arab traders along the Mediterranean coast and also via 

the Horn of Africa. Its links to African homesteads were maintained because of 

its value as a shade tree, its use for fruits and its many other uses (von Maydell, 

1986; von Sengbusch and Dippolo, 1980). It is known to be a minor cultivated 

plant in India and Pakistan and more importantly in Egypt, Syria, the Mahgreb, 

Saharan oases and Zanzibar. This species is of interest because it has probably 

hybridised with Z. mauritiana according to information from Pakistan, 

Dahomey and Nigeria. Also it can survive with half the annual rainfall needed 

by Z. jujuba and for both major cultivated species could be a source of drought 

resistance. The species prefers hot tropical or subtropical climates with low to 

medium rainfall and altitudes usually to 1500 m. 

Z. spina-christi is the species which is thought to have been used to make the 

crown of thorns for Christ. However this is not certain because Paliurus spinachristi 

Mill. (syn. P. aculeatus Lam.) has also been proposed. The latter species 

is very similar to the jujube but has dry fruits with a broad orbicular horizontal 

wing. It is distributed in maquis, roadsides and waste places, similar to places 

where Z. spina-christi is naturalised. It extends from S.E. Europe to the Levant 

eastwards to the Himalayas and China. It too is a shrub, often spreading, or a 

small tree to 8-10 m, spinous in the same way, but the leaves and young twigs 

are glabrous (Polunin and Huxley, 1965). 

1.5.2 Z. lotus (L.) Lam. 

Synonyms 

Z. nummularia Aubrev. 

Z. saharae Blatt. & Trab. 

Z. lotus (L.) Desf. subsp. saharae Maire 

Z. sylvestris Mill. 

Z. parviflora Del. 

This species is a spiny shrub growing up to 1.5 m tall and resembling Z. jujuba. 

However, fruiting branchlets are not deciduous and twigs are grey. Internodes 

on branchlets are less than 1 cm long. Leaves are suborbicular or broadly 

elliptic to ovate, shallowly glandular-crenate, pubescent beneath and less so 

above; size (0.5-)1.2(-1.5) cm long x (0.4-)1(-1.3) cm broad. 

Flowers are solitary or 2(-3) together. 

Fruits are subglobose fleshy drupes about 1 cm diameter and deep yellow. 

10

Z. lotus occurs from Asia Minor, south to Arabia, Egypt and along the North 

African coast and it reaches Cyprus and Greece in Europe. It is also cultivated 

in S. Portugal and Spain, parts of Italy and Sicily and in Provence, France. This 

is the lotus fruit of the Lotus eating people of Tunisia/Libya referred to by 

Homer, Herodotus, Polybius and other ancient writers. 

Z. lotus is of interest in rehabilitating certain degraded areas of N. Africa and 

elsewhere in the eastern range of the species. Also European selections may fill 

niche markets. 

In relation to improvement of Indian jujube, Z. lotus could be used in respect to 

earliness of fruit maturity as well as drought tolerance, if hybridisation was 

initiated, especially between cultivars. Some confusion exists between Z. lotus 

and wild Z. nummularia of India, but they are distinct. The eastern limits of Z. 

lotus need examining in the field. 

1.6 Wild species 

1.6.1 Asia 

There are numerous wild species of Ziziphus in Asia and they tend to cluster in 

two regions: China and the Indian subcontinent. There are 14 species in China. 

Those, like Z. jujuba, belonging to Section Ziziphus of the genus are to be 

found mostly in the central and lower parts of the Huanghe River valley 

although the primary centre of diversity in China for Ziziphus species is south 

Yunnan and the southeast of Guangxi Province. 

Pareek (2001) noted the distribution of wild and naturalised Z. mauritiana 

throughout the greater part of India from the lowlands to 1500 m in the 

Himalayas and also in Sri Lanka. It is associated with dry areas where tree 

types can be found or bushy types in grasslands. Early writings on the botany 

of India recorded the species as wild in the Siwalik forests east of the Ganges 

and in forests of Central India (Brandis, 1906). Z. jujuba, often recorded as Z. 

rugosa, can be found naturalised in the central and eastern sub-Himalayan 

region east to Bangladesh as well as in many other parts of India such as the 

Central Provinces and western side of the Peninsula. Other species cluster in 

the north west desert region of India and only a few in the Himalayas. 

In the drier parts of N. W. India, Z. nummularia (Burm. F.) Wight and Arn. 

(syn. Z. rotundifolia Lam.) was recognised by the Indian National Genetic 

Resources Programme as a species worthy of further research. This was 

identified at an International Workshop on Maintenance and Evaluation of Life 

Support Species in Asia and the Pacific, held in New Dehli in April 1987. It is 

also a useful rootstock. The species is a thorny shrub producing red, edible 

fruits. 

11

Some wild species with wide distributions, such as Z. oenoplia Mill., have 

become weedy in places such as India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar or Malaysia. 

According to the literature, a few additional wild species cluster in Malaysia 

(Ridley, 1922) and also in Indonesia (Martin et al., 1987). However wild 

species from countries such as India, Myanmar and Malaysia or Myanmar 

eastwards through IndoChina have not been studied in a comparative way and 

it is likely there is a degree of synonymy to be clarified. 

Three other species need mention since they are sometimes used as rootstocks. 

Z. xylopyra Willd. (syn. Z. rotundifolia Roth., Z. cuneata Wall.) is an erect, 

small tree frequently unarmed and producing a woody, inedible fruit. It is a 

species of South India and Sri Lanka. Z. rugosa Lam. is a straggly bush tending 

to have solitary spines and edible fruit, found in the Central Hills and eastern 

parts of India. Z. oenoplia Mill. is a scrambling shrub with spines and small 

black fruits often used for tanning and found in S. India, Sri Lanka and 

Myanmar. 

1.6.2 Africa 

The other wild species in the Old World centre on Africa. Those covering very 

wide areas are Z. abyssinica Hochst. ex A. Rich. in scattered tree grassland 

400-2200 m from Senegal to Ethiopia and south to Zimbabwe and 

Mozambique; Z. mucronata Willd. grows in open woodland from 0-200 m 

above sea level from Senegal to Arabia and south to S. Africa and Madagascar; 

and Z. spina-christi in disturbed areas from 0-1300 m and is indigenous in 

semi-desert wadis from 600-1000 m above sea level in the Horn of Africa and 

North Africa. Elsewhere in East Africa it was probably introduced and has 

become naturalised along roadsides in many parts of Africa and through seed 

propagation has often reverted from introduced cultivars to wild types. 

1.6.3 New World 

The few indigenous species are not discussed since they are of minor relevance 

to the species dealt with in this monograph. 

1.7 Vernacular names for jujubes 

Vernacular names frequently refer only to a jujube fruit; in other cases different 

cultigens are identified. Table 1.1 provides names used in different regions, 

countries and languages, with reference to Indian and Chinese jujubes. 

12

Table 1.1 Vernacular names for jujubes 

Region Country Name (language in parentheses) 

Asia Afghanistan Berra (Pashto) 

Bangladesh Bozoi, Kool, Kul 

Cambodia Putrea 

China Hong tsao, Lang tsao, Ta tsao, Tsao tse 

India Bogori (Assamese); Kul (Bengali); Ber, Bor, Bordi, 

Boyed (Gujarati); Ber, Beri (Hindi); Badari, Baer, 

Bogari, Bore, Egasi, Elasi, Ilanji, Ilisi, Jelachi, 

Karkhandhu, Yolachi (Kannada); Ber, Bhor, Baher, 

Bor, Bardi, Bora (Marathi); Badaram, Badari, Kolam, 

Lantu, Elanda, Perintutati (Malayadam); Ber, Beri, 

Unals (Punjabi); Ajapriya, Badari, Balastha, 

Dridhabija, Dviparni, Ghonta, Gudaphala, Kantaki, 

Karkaramadhu, Koli, Kuvali, Madhuraphala, 

Madadebara, Nakhi, Nripabadari, Nripeshta, 

Prithukoli, Phalashayashira, Rajabadari, Rajakoli, 

Rajavallabha, Sukshmaphala, Sukshmapatrika, 

Srigalakoli, Svachha, Sukorapriya, Suphala, Tanubija, 

Ubhayakantaka (Sanskrit); Ber, Jangri (Sindhi); 

Adidarum, Attiram, Ilandai, Iradi, Koli, Kandai, 

Kullari, Kulvali, Padari, Sivagam, Vadari, Vettiram, 

Veyam, Elanda (Tamil); Badaramu, Badari, 

Gangaregu, Gangarenu, Karkhanduvu, Regu, Renu 

(Telugu); Ber (Urdu); Barholi, Bodokoli, Bodori, Koli 

(Uriya) 

Africa 

Indonesia 

Iran 

Iraq 

Japan 

Laos 

Malaysia 

Myanmar 

Nepal 

Pakistan 

Philippines 

Sri Lanka 

Thailand 

Vietnam 

Ethiopia 

Kenya 

Malawi 

Widara, Dara, Bidaru 

Kanar, Kunar, Nabik 

Aunnaberhindi, Nabig, Sidr 

Sanebuto-Natsume 

Than 

Bidaru, Epal siam, jujube 

Zi, Zee-pen, Zizidaw, Ziben 

Baer 

Ber (Urdu); Ber, Berwarter, Kunar (Baluchi) 

Manzanites, Manzanas 

Ilanda, Mahadebara, Masaka (Sinhalese) 

Phutsa, Putsa, Man tan 

Tao, Tao-nhuc 

Abateri, Gaba-artgie, Gewa-ortigi (Tigre) 

Mkunazi (Swahili); Kwkurrah (Borao); Ekalati 

(Turhana); Olongo (Luo); Tolumuro (Pokot) 

Masawo (Chewa); Msondoka (Yao) 

13

Region Country Name (language in parentheses) 

Somalia 

Sudan 

Tanzania 

Uganda 

Zaire 

Zambia 

Others 

Zimbabwe 

West Africa 

and Sahel 

Language 

English 

French 

Greek 

Italian 

Portuguese 

Spanish 

Gob, Bheb, Jujuba 

Sidr nabk, Nabbag elfil, 

Mkunazi (Swalihi) 

Esilang (Karamajong) 

Kankole 

Masau (Nyanja); Musawce (Tonga); Akasongole 

(Bemba) 

Masua, Yanja, Musawu (Central Shona, Tangu); 

Domo, Ntomono, Surgo ntomono, Tomboro, 

Tomonou (Bambara); Batenluongu, Bu sakonhionabu 

Inakpayuani, Nan janlwane (Gourmanche); Magaria 

(Haussa); Magunuga, Mugulga, Mugulanga, 

Muegunga, Mugunuga, Mug-niga (More); Djabe, 

Djabi, Tabi, N’giobi (Peulh); Ngit (Sere); Ajzen 

(Tamachek); Dem, Dim, Sedem (Wolof). 

Name 

Jujube; Indian jujube, Indian plum, Indian cherry, 

Indian date; Chinese jujube; Chinese date; Chinese 

fig; Cottony jujube. 

Jujubier; (Le jujube d’ Afrique tropicale); Datte 

chinoise. 

Tzintzola 

Guiggiolo 

Jujubeira, Maceira 

Azufaifo, Yuyuba 

Sources: FAO, 1988; von Maydell, 1986; Pareek 2001; Sundararaj and 

Balasubramanyam 1959; and editors. 

1.8 Historical evidence 

1.8.1 Indian jujube 

Ber has been recognised as a useful edible fruit since antiquity in India and 

Watt, (1893) referred to this from references in ancient Sanskrit sources. 

Macdonell and Keith (1958) noted mention of ber in Vedic sources such as the 

Yajurved. Pareek (2001) summarised the references to ber and other jujubes in 

scriptural sources and these references covered the period from 1000 BC- 400 

AD. 

Such historical evidence attests to the recognition of the fruit and its uses; it 

does not imply domestication. Numerous writers state that ber has been in use 

for almost 4000 years in India. However, if the original wild species was 

spread from India through Myanmar then early domestication efforts would 

14

postdate that of the staple foods and possibly occurred when populations 

increased with the rise of tribal kingdoms across the Gangetic plains. 

Excavations relating to the early Indus civilisation produced stones of Chinese 

jujube (see below) and later cultural links of people with the Mauryan empire 

would have resulted in cultural appreciation of jujubes, whatever the species. 

Scriptures mention both Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba and even the wild Z. 

nummularia (Majumdar, 1945). 

Ber must have been widely appreciated because excavations at Navdatoli- 

Maheshwar on the Deccan plateau produced ber stones from almost certainly 

gathered wild fruits. They date to 3500-3000 BP predating the Gangetic 

civilisation. This area is one where ber is thought to have been truly wild. 

(Mittre, 1961; Sankalia, 1958; Pareek 2001). 

Once cultivated, ber would have been moved with historical migrations of 

people and their trade. It is thought to have been in Africa for only a few 

centuries and it is likely that introduction to China and Indonesia is also fairly 

recent. Introduction to Australia was to Queensland and the Northern Territory 

late in the nineteenth century (Grice, 1998). 


The area where Z. jujube was domesticated is almost certainly in the Yellow 

River area. The Yellow River – Huaihe River plain is the main area for this 

species today with much of the cultivated production in Henan, Shanxi and 

Shandong provinces. It is thought to have been taken into cultivation about 

2000 BP, probably early Shang dynasty of the Bronze Age. It is mentioned in 

the Book of Songs, a poem of the tenth century BP (Qu, 1983). 

The progenitor wild species has a very wide area of distribution from China to 

Pakistan and wild fruit would have been gathered in many areas. Excavations 

indicate that people of the earliest farming settlements of the Indus valley 

civilization at Mehrgar in Balluchistan collected fruits (excavations dates 

seventh millennium BP). This continued as evidenced by similar finds from 

Pirah, Pakistan from the later unified Indus culture (Zohary and Hopf, 1988). 

Vavilov (1951) considered the primary centre of origin to be wider than China 

and the cultivation must have spread quickly through Central Asia. Impetus 

could have related to its carriage along the old trade routes and the later 

Mongol empires. Kazvini writing in the nineteenth century AD mentioned the 

excellent jujubes in the Province of Jurjan of the Abbasid Caliphs. Jurjan is 

located around the border between N. E. Persia and S. Turkmenistan. He wrote 

that trees fruited twice a year and at 2 – 3 years old (Le Strange, 1930). This 

particular area was linked to the trade routes from China to the Mediterranean 

as well as to the Indus valley. Chinese jujube was thought to have reached SW 

15

Asia by 2000-3000 BP (de Candolle, 1886). It was taken, according to Pliny, 

from the Levantine Coast to Europe in the time of Augustus by the Consul 

Sextus Popinus. It is thought to have been spread along the North African coast 

in the seventh century AD. 

In relation to West Asia a number of excavations have found remains of jujube 

fruits linked to numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age sites (Zohary & Hopf, 

1988); Egypt 4000 BC (Montet cited by Munier, 1973); also from shell 

middens near Muscat, Oman from the fourth millennium BC (Biagi and Nisbet, 

1992). It is most likely these gathered fruits were of Z. spina-christi or Z. lotus. 

Chinese jujube has however developed a secondary centre of diversity in West 

Asia and is naturalised in many areas such as along the Black Sea Coast (Tutin, 

1968). 

Chinese jujuba was first introduced from Europe to USA in 1837 by Robert 

Chisholm and planted in Beaufort, South Carolina and introduced to California 

and neighbouring states from southern France by Rixford in 1876, (Rixford, 

1917). By 1901 jujube had escaped from cultivation in Alabama (Mohr, 1901) 

and is now naturalised along the Gulf Coast from Alabama to Louisiana 

(Bonner and Rudolf, 1971). 

All of the early jujube introductions into the United States were seedlings from 

Europe, and it was not until 1908 that the much superior Chinese cultivars 

began to be introduced (Lyrene, 1979). In that year Frank Meyer, a US 

Department of Agriculture plant explorer, introduced Lang and other Chinese 

cultivars (Lanham, 1926; Meyer, 1911). A second group of cultivars introduced 

in 1914 included Li, which produced the largest fruit he had seen in China 

(Lanham, 1926). In recent years Russian cultivars have been introduced to 

boost an improvement programme at the Alabama ADM University. 

In the twentieth century superior Chinese materials were introduced to Japan, 

and also to North Africa by French scientists. 

The Chinese jujube (Z. jujube) has been introduced into more than 30 countries 

(Liu et al., 2003a) and is becoming increasingly popular for its wide 

adaptations, easy management, early bearing, rich nutrition and multiple uses. 

Z. jujuba (Z. mauritiana) was brought to the non-French West Indies from 

India and Indonesia during the colonial period (Barbeau, 1994). In 1993, 160 

seeds of the leading varieties of tomentose jujube (Z. mauritiana) grown in 

Burma (Myanmar) were introduced to China. Plants were vigorous and 

matured very early. Two promising varieties were selected, the fruits of which 

are crisp, tender, sweet and of very good eating quality (Liub, 1997). 

The introduction of Z. mauritiana to the Negev desert of Israel has been found 

most promising (Nerd et al., 1990). ‘Taiwan Cuizao’ was introduced in 1997 

16

(Xue and Xue, 2001). Six Z. jujuba (Z. sativa) cultivars were introduced into 

Macedonia from USSR (Ristevski et al., 1982) which were found to be 

resistant to low winter and high summer temperatures. Introduction of Z. 

mauritiana was found to grow satisfactorily under the conditions of the Jordan 

Valley, Negev and Arava areas and to produce fruits of commercial value 

(Mizrahi et al. 1991). Fruit trees suitable for introduction to desert areas of 

Israel have been described by Mizrahi et al., (2002). Wushizhong is a 

cultivated variety of Ziziphus mauritiana, introduced from Taiwan. It flowers 

twice a year (in May-July and early September), but spring flowers do not 

result in much fruit setting. The main production is produced by autumn 

flowers. 

17


Chapter 2. Composition 

C. Bowe 

Species of Ziziphus are considered to be multipurpose plants although use of 

the fruits is the major focus of interest. They are of increasing use in 

agroforestry. The composition of the fruits is therefore of importance especially 

since they are produced by a limited number of species which have been 

cultivated for millennia. 

There is a great deal of published data on the potential of the species for 

ethnobotanical uses (Arndt and Kayser, 2001). Pareek (2001) noted that 

although different parts of the plant have medicinal value due to their 

constituents their usage appears to be sporadic and not commonplace. 

This chapter looks in particular at the nutritive composition of fruits and then 

provides a summary of the more important ethnopharmacological compounds 

and their properties, when known. 

2.2 Fruit composition 

2.2.1 Ber 

Much of the data relating to ber fruits are cultivar specific; however the 

information can be summarised to provide a general picture. The pulp of the 

fruits is of most importance in relation to nutrition. Pareek (1983) recorded 

fresh, mature with 81-97 % pulp and Jawanda et al., (1980a,b) considered the 

range 91.6-92.9 %. 

The constituents of the pulp are shown in table 2.1 

18

Table 2.1 Nutritional constituents in fruit pulp of 4 ber cultivars 

Constituents Gola Kaithli Banarsi Umran 

Karaka 

Moisture (%) 81 -- 81 -- 

Starch (%) 0.95 -- 0.86 -- 

TSS ( o Brix) 17-20 16-18 13-17 18-20 

Total sugars (%) 8.3-12.1 4.9-10 5.4-12.4 7.2-7.4 

Reducing sugars (%) 3.3-5.8 1.95-2.7 3.3-3.7 2.6-2.9 

Non-reducing sugars (%) 2.4-8.4 2.2-8.0 3.3-8.4 4.8-4.9 

Acidity (%) 0.37-0.75 0.16-0.51 0.13-0.48 0.19-0.35 

Protein (%) - 1.18 - 1.03 

Total ash (%) - 0.45 - 0.34 

CaO (%) - 0.04 - 0.03 

P 2 O 5 (%) - 0.02 - 0.01 

Fe 2 O 3 (mg/100g) - 0.5 - 1.00 

Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 70 89-133 66-110 73-103 

(Source: Pareek, 1983). 

The richness of the pulp in nutritive compounds has been widely recognised. 

Nonetheless there are no definitive values for pulp composition. However ber 

is richer than apple in protein, phosphorus, calcium, carotene and Vitamin C 

(Bakhshi and Singh, 1974) and oranges in phosphorus, iron, vitamin C and 

carbohydrates and exceeds them in calorific value. Ripe fruits provide 20.9 

Kcalories per 100 g of pulp (Singh et al., 1973a). 

In terms of carbohydrates, pulp contains 12.8 – 13.6 % (Singh et al., 1967); 

(Jawanda et al., 1981) of which 5.6 % is sucrose, 1.5 % glucose, 2.1 % fructose 

and 1 % starch. Total sugars content is markedly different according to cultivar 

(Singh et al., 1983a). 

The amino acids asparagine, aspartic acid, glycine, glutamic acid, serine, á- 

serine and threonine, are found in the pulp (Bal, 1981a) but not many analyses 

or comparisons have been made. 

Major interest has focused on Vitamin C content and ber pulp is considered a 

rich source. Content ranges from 70-165 mg/100 g (Bal and Mann, 1978). The 

FAO and WHO recommendation (FAO, 1974) that the daily intake for an adult 

man should be 30 mg, illustrates the value of ber pulp in the diet. 

Pulp contains about 70 IU Vitamin A /100 g and the ß-carotene content ranges 

from 75 to more than 80 mg/100 g (Bal et al., 1978). 

19


Pareek (2001) gave details of the composition of Chinese jujube pulp from a 

number of sources. They include 9.6 – 33 % sugars, 0.3 – 2.5 % acids 

especially succinic and malic; (Ahmedov and Halmatov, 1969), 2.9 % protein, 

and 136-363 mg/100 g of vitamin C. (Tasmatov, 1963; Baratov et al., 1975; 

Ristevski et al., 1982; Cireasa et al., 1984). Fruits average 28 – 40.3 % dry 

matter (Ristevski et al., 1982). Apart from Vitamin C, Chinese jujube are 

significant sources of minerals such as iron, phosphorus and calcium (Ming and 

Sun, 1986), Vitamin B complex and Vitamin P (Troyan and Kruglyakov, 1972; 

Kuliev and Guseinova, 1974). 

Vitamin C content tends to decline as fruits ripen e.g. in cultivar Hamazhao it 

falls from 1096 to 411 mg/100 g pulp (Bi et al. 1990). It appears that Chinese 

jujube is a richer source of vitamin C than ber depending on the cultivar, which 

is a point of interest to plant breeders. 

Dried fruits of jujube contain volatile substances which help to impart the 

typical flavour. Seventy eight such compounds have been identified in Z. 

jujuba var. inermis among which aliphatic acids and carbonyl compounds 

accounted for 62.97 % and 29.56 % of total volatiles (Wong et al., 1996). The 

major components were as follows. 

2.3 Ethnopharmaceutical compounds 

The bulk of the information relates to Z. jujube and a summary is provided 

below because of its widespread use in Chinese Herbal and Yunani medicine. 

In numerous cases the same constituents are also found in ber. 

2.3.1 Ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin and bioflavonoids 

Ziziphus jujuba fruits are very rich in vitamins C and B1 (thiamine) and B2 

(riboflavin) (Troyan and Kruglyakov, 1972; Kuliev and Guseinova, 1974). 

Compared with ber, one fruit per day would meet the diet requirements for 

Vitamin C and Vitamin B complex of an adult man recommended by 

FAO/WHO. It is also known to have a high Vitamin P (bioflavonoid) content. 

In some fruits Baratov et al., (1975) reported 188 to 544 mg Vitamin C and 354 

to 888 mg Vitamin P per 100 g pulp. Ahmedov and Halmatov (1969) and 

Troyan and Kruglyakov (1972) reported even higher contents of Vitamin C (up 

to 811 mg/100 g) and vitamin P (up to 1230 mg/100 g). Vitamin P 

(bioflavonoids) enhances the action of Vitamin C. Vitamin C and Vitamin P 

also act together to help maintain the thin walls of capillaries. Vitamin P also 

has antibacterial, anti inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and is known to 

stimulate bile production, promote circulation and prevent allergies (GreatVista 

Chemicals, 2004). 

20

2.3.2 Pectin A 

Tomoda et al., (1985) isolated pectin A from Z. jujuba fruit. Pectin A was 

found to contain 2,3,6-tri-o-acetyl D lactose units. Pectin has a number of 

pharmaceutical properties such as binding bile acid, lowering plasma 

cholesterol and anti diarrhoeal properties (PDRHealth, 2004). 

2.3.3 Alkaloids 

Stem bark of Ziziphus species contain alkaloids (Pareek, 2001). A sapogenin, 

zizogenin has been isolated from Z. mauritiana stems (Srivastava and 

Srivastava, 1979). 

The cyclic peptide alkaloids, mauritine-A, mucronine-D, amphibine-H, 

nummularine-A and -B (Tschesche et al., 1976), sativanine-A and sativanine- 

B, frangulanine, nummularine-B and mucronine were isolated from the bark of 

Z. jujuba by Tschesche et al. (1976, 1979) at the Institut für Organische 

Chemie und Biochemie, University of Bonn, Germany. This work was 

continued by Shah and his group (Shah et al., 1984 a; 1984 b; 1985a; 1986) 

who isolated the cyclic peptide alkaloids sativanine-C, sativanine-G, 

sativanine-E, sativanine-H, sativanine-F, sativanine-D and sativanine-K from 

Z. jujuba stem bark. The alkaloids coclaurine, isoboldine, norisoboldine, 

asimilobine, iusiphine and iusirine were isolated from Z. jujuba leaves by 

Ziyaev et al., (1977). Cyclopeptide and peptide alkaloids from Z. jujuba were 

found to show sedative effects (Han and Park, 1986). 

The seeds of Z. jujuba var. spinosa also contain cyclic peptide alkaloids 

sanjoinenine, franguloine and amphibine-D and four peptide alkaloids; 

sanjoinine-B-D-F and -G2 (Han et al., 1990). The seeds are used in Chinese 

medicine as a sedative. 

Chemical studies of Z. mauritiana led to the isolation of the cyclopeptide 

alkaloids, mauritines A and B; C-F, G and H, frangufoline; amphibines D, E, B 

and F; hysodricanin-A, scutianin-F and aralionin-C (Tschesche et al., 1972; 

1974; 1977). The cyclopeptide alkaloid, mauritine J, was isolated from the root 

bark of Z. mauritiana (Jossang et al., 1996). 

2.3.4 Glycosides 

2.3.4.1 Flavonoid glycosides/spinosins 

Woo et al., (1979) gave the structure of spinosin (2”-O- beta – 

glucosylswertisin) extracted from Z. jujuba var. spinosa seed. They later 

identified three acylated flavone-C-glycosides (6’’’-sinapoylspinosin, 6’’’- 

feruloylspinosin and 6’’’-p-coumaroylspinosin). All showed mild sedative 

activity in pharmacological tests. Zeng et al., (1987) discovered a new 

flavonoid, named zivulgarin, compound (4-beta-D-glycopyranosyl swetisin). 

21

2.3.4.2 Glycosides/saponins 

The glycoside saponin is found in the seeds, leaf and stem of Z. jujuba 

(Ogihara et al., 1976). Saponins are part of sugar chains which attach 

themselves to a sterol or triterpene. They are known to bind with cholesterol 

preventing it from being reabsorbed into the system. They are being widely 

researched for cancer prevention and cholesterol control. Ogihara (1976) 

developed a method for successful qualitative and quantitative determination of 

saponins in Z. jujuba seeds using counter current chromatography. 

The saponins isolated from the seeds of Z .jujuba include jujubosides A, B 

(ZengL et al., 1987), A1 B1 and C and acetyljujuboside B (Yoshikawa et al., 

1997) and the protojujubosides A, B and B1 (Matsuda et al., 1999). 

Kurihara et al. (1988) extracted the saponin, ziziphin, from the dried leaves of 

Z. jujuba. It has a structure, 3-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl (1-2)-a-Larabinopyranosyl-20-O- 

(2,3)-di-O-acetyl-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl jujubogenin. 

Ikram et al. (1981) isolated a saponin from Z .jujuba leaves and stem. It was 

assigned the structure 3-O- ((2-O- alpha – D – furopyranosyl – 3-O- beta – D – 

glucopyranosyl) – alpha – L – arabinopyranosyl) jujubogenin. Jujubogenin was 

also found in extract of Z. mauritiana leaves (Sharma and Kumar, 1982). 

Saponins show adjuvant (Oda et al., 2000), haemolytic (Oda et al., 2000), 

sedative (Shou et al., 2002) anxiolytic and sweetness inhibiting properties 

(Kurihara et al., 1988). Jujuboside A (JuA), is also known to be a noncompetitive 

inhibitor of calmodulin (Zhou et al., 1994), which is an ubiquitous, 

calcium-binding protein that can bind to and regulate a multitude of different 

protein targets, thereby affecting many different cellular functions. CaM 

mediates processes such as inflammation, metabolism, muscle contraction, 

short-term and long-term memory, and the immune response (McDowall, 

2003). Jujuboside inhibition of calmodulin is thought to be linked to its 

sedative properties (Zhou et al., 1994). 

2.3.5 Triterpenoic acids 

The following triterpenoic acids have been isolated from the fruits of Z. jujuba: 

colubrinic acid, alphitolic acid, 3-O-cis-p-coumaroylalphitolic acid, 3-O-transp-coumaroylalphitolic 

acid, 3-O-cis-p-coumaroylmaslinic acid, 3-O-trans-pcoumaroylmaslinic 

acid, oleanolic acid, betulonic acid, oleanonic acid, 

zizyberenalic acid and betulinic acid (Lee et al., 2003). Triterpenoic acids have 

shown cytotoxic effects on tumour cell lines (Eiznhamer and Xu, 2004). 

Triterpenoic acids have also been extracted from roots of Z. mauritiana (Kundu 

et al. 1989). 

22

2.3.5.1 Betulinic acid 

Betulinic acid is a naturally occurring pentacyclic triterpenoid which has 

demonstrated selective cytotoxicity against a number of specific tumour types. 

It has been found to selectively kill human melanoma cells while leaving 

healthy cells alive (Pisha et al., 1995; Kim et al., 1998) Betulinic acid has also 

been found to retard the progression of HIV 1 infection, by preventing the 

formation of syncytia (cellular aggregates). In addition, betulinic acid has been 

found to have anti-inflammatory activity (Kim et al., 1998) and antibacterial 

properties and inhibits the growth of both Staphylococcus aureus and 

Eschericheria coli (Eiznhamer and Xu, 2004). 

2.3.5.2 Oleanolic acid 

Oleanolic acid also exhibits known antitumour activity (Hsu et al., 1997; 

Amsar Private Limited, 2004) 

2.3.6 Lipids 

Both the pericarp and the seeds of Z. jujuba contain two main classes of 

phospholipids: phosphatidylcholines and phosphatidylglycerols. Oleic acid is 

present in the fatty oil of the seeds (Goncharova et al., 1990). Bioactivityguided 

fractionation of petroleum ether- EtOAc- and soluble extracts of the 

seeds of Z. jujuba indicated that the triglyceride, 1,3-di-O-[9(Z)-octadecenoyl]- 

2-O-[9(Z),12(Z)-octadecadienoyl] glycerol, and a fatty acid mixture of linoleic, 

oleic and stearic acids, were the major active components of the seed oil. (Su et 

al., 2002). 

2.4 Nutritional and pharmaceutical studies 

2.4.1 Sweetness inhibitors 

Triterpenoid sweetness inhibitors were isolated from Z. jujuba. Extracts from 

the leaves of Z. jujuba have been found to suppress sweet taste sensation in fly 

(Pharma regina), rat and in hamster. Antisweet substances isolated from Z. 

jujuba included jujubasponins II, III, IV, V and VI and from the leaves, 

jujuboside B from the leaves and seeds and ziziphus saponins I-III from dried 

fruit. Ziziphin and jujubosaponins II and III, the only three of the anti-sweet 

saponins from this plant with acyl groups, were up to 4 times more active in 

suppressing the sweet taste of sucrose than the other anti-sweet constituents 

(Suttisri et al. 1995). 

The saponin, ziziphin extracted by Kurihara and Halpern (1988) suppressed the 

sweetness induced by D-glucose, D-fructose, stevioside, glycine, sodium 

saccharin, aspartame and naringin dihydrochalcone. It however showed no 

suppressive effect on the sour taste of hydrochloric acid and the bitter taste of 

quinine indicating that ziziphin is highly specific to sweet taste (Kurihara, 

1992). Ziziphin was found to inhibit the sweet taste receptors in humans (Smith 

23

and Halpern, 1983). The mechanism which ziziphin used was identified as taste 

modification. On comparison with known gymnemic acids, effects suggest that 

net dissociation of ziziphins from taste receptor membranes and/or inactivation 

in the membrane may be much faster than with gymnemic acids. The 

compound is considered useful as a taste modifier resulting in reduced sugar 

intake and thereby reducing obesity in diabetic or overweight people (Suttisri et 

al., 1995). 

2.4.2 Permeability enhancement activity 

Delivery of certain classes of drugs such as peptides creates problems in 

transportation across cell membranes and subsequent diminished 

bioavailability. To overcome this barrier, permeability enhancers can be used to 

aid the passage of drugs across cell membranes. To assess the permeability 

enhancing activity of Z. jujuba, an aqueous extract of seeds was compared to 

two members of a known series of permeability enhancement agents belonging 

to the alkylglycosides. Cell culture systems were observed after transepithelial 

electrical resistance (TEER) recorded the results of application of the three 

agents and changes in cell monolayer resistance. Lowering of resistance across 

a cell monolayer is an indication of either the opening of tight junctions and/or 

the fluidisation of cell membranes. Z. jujuba extract lowered cell resistance 

more rapidly in a given time period than the alkylglycosides and allowed full 

recovery of cells in a relatively short time period. It appears that the extract of 

Z. jujuba may be more efficient as a permeability enhancer than the two 

alkylglycosides. It remains to further analyse the extract to determine the active 

agent or agents (Eley and Hossein, 2002). 

2.4.3 Cytotoxic effect (chemotherapy) 

The in vitro cytotoxicities of the triterpenoic acids extracted from Z. jujuba 

were tested against tumour cell lines . The lupane-type triterpenes showed high 

cytotoxic activities. The cytotoxic activities of 3-O-p- coumaroylalphitolic 

acids were found to be better than those of non-coumaroic triterpenenoids. 

These results suggest that the coumaroyl moiety at the C-3 position of the 

lupane-type triterpene may play an important role in enhancing cytotoxic 

activity (Lee et al., 2003). 

The triterponic acid, betulinic acid, extracted from Z. jujuba and Z. mauritiana, 

showed selective toxicity against cultured human melanoma cells (Kim et al., 

1998). Betulinic acid is currently undergoing preclinical development (Pisha et 

al., 1995). It is thought that betulinic acid may also be effective against other 

types of cancer. Recently, considerable in vitro evidence has demonstrated that 

betulinic acid is effective against small- and non-small-cell lung, ovarian, 

cervical, and head and neck carcinomas. Published data suggest that betulinic 

acid induces apoptosis (Kim et al., 1998; Liu et al., 2004) in sensitive cells in a 

p53- and CD95-independent fashion (Eiznhamer and Xu, 2004). 

24

Oleanolic acid is known to have antitumour effects (Hsu et al., 1997; Amsar 

Private Limited, 2004) as well as the ability to decrease undesirable radiation 

damage to the hematopoietic tissue. after radiotherapy (Hsu et al., 1997). 

Oleanolic acid has been recommended for skin cancer therapy in Japan (Muto 

et al., 1990). Cosmetic preparations for the prevention of tropical skin cancer 

containing oleanolic acid have been patented (Ishida et al., 1990). 

2.4.4 Neurological properties 

2.4.4.1 Hypnotic-sedative and anxiolytic effect 

The seeds and leaves of many Ziziphus species have been found to have 

anxiolytic and hypnotic-sedative effects. They are known to depress activity of 

the central nervous system which reduces anxiety and induces sleep. Saponins 

and flavonoids from Z. jujuba seeds were examined for sedative activity. All 

compounds tested showed sedative and hypnotic effects. Swertisin, the most 

potent compound was tested for type of action. It was found that it produced 

sleep, but was not anticonvulsant or muscle relaxant (Peng et al., 2000). 

The saponin jujuboside A (JuA), the main component of jujubogenin extracted 

from the seed of Z. jujuba is widely used in Chinese traditional medicine for 

the treatment of insomnia and anxiety. A combined research group at the 

College of Life Science and the Department of Biomedical Engineering at 

Zhejiang University, China, used in vivo (Shou et al., 2002) and in vitro (Shou 

et al., 2001; Feng and Zheng, 2002; Shou et al., 2002) methods, to investigate 

the inhibitory effects of Jujuboside A (JuA) on rat hippocampus. 

Peng and his colleagues also demonstrated the anxiolytic effects in mice of a 

polyherbal substance containing seed extract of Z. jujuba (Lin et al., 2003). 

Alkaloids from Z. jujuba were also found to show sedative activity. Both 

sanjoinine A and nuciferine prolonged the sleeping time produced by 

hexobarbital. When sanjoinine was heated it was found to produce an isomer of 

even greater sedative effect (Han and Park, 1986). 

2.4.4.2 Cognitive activities 

Heo et al. (2003) suggests that oleamide, a component of Z. jujuba extract, 

could be a useful chemo-preventative agent against Alzheimer’s disease. They 

found that methanolic Z. jujuba showed 34.1 % activation effect on choline 

acetyltransferase in vitro, an enzyme that controls the production of 

acetylcholine which appears to be depleted in the brains of Alzheimer patients. 

Using sequential fractionation the active ingredient was found to be cis-9- 

octadecenoamide (oleamide) which showed 65% activation effect. 

Administration of oleamide to mice significantly reversed the scopolamineinduced 

memory and/or cognitive impairment in the passive avoidance test and 

25

Y maze test. Mice treated with oleamide before scopolamine injections were 

protected from the effects. 

2.4.5 Antifertility/contraception 

The ethyl acetate extract of Z. jujuba bark was found to effect antisteroidogenic 

activity and hence fertility in adult female mice. It was found to 

arrest the normal oestrus cycle of adult female mice at diestrus stage and 

reduced the wet weight of ovaries significantly. Haematological profiles, 

biochemical estimations of whole blood and serum remained unaltered in 

extract-treated mice. Normal oestrus cycle and ovarian steroidogenisis were 

restored after withdrawal of treatment. Antifertility activities of crude extracts 

were found to be reversible (Gupta et al., 2004). 

2.4.6 Hypotensive and antinephritic effect 

Ziziphus jujuba has been found to stimulate nitric oxide release in vitro, in 

cultured endothelial cells and in vivo, in the kidney tissues of rats (Kim and 

Han, 1996). Kim and Han believed that the stimulatory effects of Z. jujuba on 

nitric oxide release in the kidney may contribute to its hypotensive (reduction 

of blood pressure) and antinephritic (reduction of inflammation of the kidney) 

action, possibly by increasing renal blood flow (Kim and Han, 1996). 

2.4.7 Cardiovascular activity 

A neo-lignan isolated from Z. mauritiana leaves was found to increase the 

release of endogenous prostaglandin I2 (the most potent natural inhibitor of 

platelet aggregation yet discovered and a powerful vasodilator) from the rat 

aorta by up to 25.3 % at 3 micro g/ml (Fukuyama et al., 1986). 

2.4.8 Immunostimulant effects 

The leaf extract of Z. jujuba was found to stimulate chemotactic, phagocytic 

and intracellular killing potency of human neutrophils (infection fighting white 

blood cells) at 5-50 micro g/ml (Ganachari et al., 2004). 

2.4.9 Antifungal activity 

Z. jujuba has been found to show antifungal effects. Ethanol extract from the 

root showed significant inhibitory activity on the fungi Candida albicans, C. 

tropicalis, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger and Malassezia furfur (strains 1374 and 

1765), (Sarfaraz et al., 2002; Mukhtar et al., 2003, 2004). 

26

2.4.10 Antidiabetic 

Extract of Z. mauritiana was found to have anti-diabetic activity in Wistar rats 

(Cisse et al., 2000). 

2.4.11 Antiallergic 

The anti-allergic activity of aqueous extracts of Z. jujuba was studied by 

measuring its inhibitory effect on hyaluronidase (bovine testes) activation in 

vitro. Z. jujuba was shown to have strong anti-allergic activity (Su et al., 2000). 

2.4.12 Antiulcer activity 

The results suggest that Z. mauritiana leaf extracts (ZJE) possesses significant 

and dose-dependent antiulcer activity. The antiulcer activity of ZJE can be 

attributed to its cytoprotective and antisecretory action (Ganachari and Shiv, 

2004). 

2.4.13 Antiinflammatory effect 

The compound prescription Huangqin Tang which contains the fruit of Z. 

jujuba showed marked anti-inflammatory effect (Huang et al., 1990). Z. 

mauritiana leaf extracts were found to possess significant anti-inflammatory 

activity against carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema (Shiv et al., 2004). 

2.4.14 Antispastic effect 

The compound prescription Huangqin Tang which contains the fruit of Z. 

jujuba possessed significant antispastic/antispasmodic effect (Huang et al., 

1990). 

2.4.15 Antibacterial 

An extract of root bark of Z. jujuba exhibited activity against 20 bacteria 

(Elmahi et al., 1997). Leaf extracts of Z. mauritiana were found to show 

antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas 

spp., Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus subtilis when methanol and acetone extract 

solvent was used (Chowdary and Padashetty, 2000). 

2.4.16 Antioxidant effects 

Na et al. (2001) found that Z. jujuba extract showed a relatively strong 

antioxidative activity. 

27

2.5 Summary 

Important nutritional properties of jujube fruits relate particularly to their being 

sources of vitamin C, P and vitamin B complex in the diet. 

Although there is a range of potentially useful medicinal substances in jujubes, 

the research in this area is in its early stages. There is limited interest from 

large pharmaceutical companies because many of the useful constituents can be 

obtained from other botanical sources. The value of such constituents in health 

products and supplements is undisputed and the hardy nature of jujubes and 

their wide geographical range means they can provide a potentially cheap and 

more accessible source of such compounds for traditional medicine. 

28

Chapter 3. Uses 

C. deKock 


The fruits of many Ziziphus species are edible and are prepared for 

consumption in many ways. They are eaten mostly fresh but may be pickled, 

dried and made into confectionery, or drinks can be made from the juice. 

Ziziphus trees are commonly used for live fencing, fodder and planting to 

control soil erosion. The wood also finds a number of local uses. 

Leaves can be used as a feed for silkworms. Flowers can be the source of 

nectar for honey bees, and ber trees are used for rearing lac insects. 

3.2 Local uses of fruits 

3.2.1 South, Southeast and East Asia. 

These have been mentioned in Chapter 2 and are the subject of subsequent 

chapters. In addition, people in Southeast Asia eat unripe fruits with salt 

(Morton, 1987). 

A wild species, Z. nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. (syn. Z. rotundifolia 

Lam.) is harvested in western India. Fruits are dried and powdered with spices 

to prepare a product called ‘churan’ (Pareek, 1983). Standardised products have 

not been developed. 

A wild species Z. oxyphylla Edgew. (syn. Z. rotundifolia DC) is gathered in 

Pakistan and used as a subsistence food (Saqib and Sultan, 1994). 

3.2.2 Africa 

In the Zambezi valley in Zimbabwe, Ziziphus fruits are eaten fresh from June – 

September and after dehydration throughout the year (Funkhouser, 1998). The 

dry powder is used in baking and to prepare jam (Maposa and Chisuro, 1998) 

and a traditional loaf (Kadzere, 1998), and kachaso, a crude spirit (Arndt, 

2001). An alcoholic drink is also made in Malawi (FACT Net). 

In West Africa wild Z. mauritiana fruits are used to produce an alcoholic drink. 

Z. abyssinica Hochst., a widespread wild African species is locally cultivated 

for the fruits in southern Nigeria. Fruits of Z. spina-christi are gathered for use 

in many parts of West Africa (Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1958). 

29

Cakes are made out of dried and fermented pulp in western Sudan (Dalziel, 

1937), and in Zambia (Kalikiti, 1998). The Touareg nomads in Mali make flat 

bread from dry fruit pulp (Chevalier, 1947) using wild species. In Niger ber 

fruits are dried and pounded into flour as a famine food (Williams, 1998). 

In Egypt nomads, especially the Allagi, consume fruits of Z. spina-christi 

(Belal et al., 1998). In North Africa Z. lotus (indigenous) and Z. jujuba 

(introduced) are used for fruits. 

In Namibia, wild Z. mucronata Willd, is used for making a hot liquor, and 

although illegal, provides a source of income for the rural poor (Hailwa, 1998). 

3.2.3 Southwest Asia 

Fruits of Z. spina-christi are gathered and eaten in many parts of Southwest 

Asia e.g. Yemen, Jordan, Oman, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia (Non-Wood News; 

Arndt, 2001). Cultivation is practised in many parts, for example, in Shabwah 

Governate of Yemen, households keep an average of 25-50 trees in and around 

their irrigated fields for bee keeping, fruit production and other uses (KIT, 

2002). 

Sun-dried fruits are powdered and mixed with water to make cakes similar to 

gingerbread. 

3.2.4 South America 

Introduced Z. jujuba fruits are used to make a liqueur called ‘crema de 

ponsigue’ (Morton, 1987). 

Of the 7 species of Ziziphus indigenous to the New World, Z. mistol Grisels 

was found in the Andes of Argentina and Paraguay to be used for making 

‘mistol jam’. On the whole the New World species are not of economic 

potential. 

3.3 Fodder 

Nearly every part of Ziziphus plants can be utilised. The leaves and twigs of 

most species can be used as nutritious fodder for livestock. Due to the high dry 

weight protein content, leaves are an important source of protein for animals 

(Arndt, 2001; Dalziel, 1937; Dastur, 1952; Ngwa et al., 2000). Leaves of Z. 

mauritiana and Z. jujuba are readily eaten by camels, sheep, goats and cattle 

(for goats see Tewatia and Khirwar, 2002). 

30

In the Red Sea area pastoralists with camels that are intended for race 

competitions and that require a special diet utilise the winter range of the Red 

Sea to collect fruits and pods of local Ziziphus species. 

Collected pods are also fed to lactating and pregnant female camels or the 

principal riding camel. The remainder of the herd is allowed to browse for 

several days (Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern 

Africa). 

Species of Ziziphus are also browsed by many wild animals. 

3.4 Environmental 

Ziziphus species can contribute to controlling the rate of desertification. Soil 

erosion in desert areas is largely due to the removal of structureless topsoil by 

wind and rain. This can largely be checked by planting wind breaks, creating 

shelter belts and stabilising sandy tracts and dunes with adapted grasses and 

shrubs like Ziziphus (Khoshoo and Subrahmanyam, 1985). Ziziphus 

nummularia shrubs have been shown to effectively check wind erosion, help in 

deposition of soil, and bring about a change in the microhabitat, causing 

favourable conditions for the appearance of successional species such as 

perennial grasses. In the Sahelian climate, Z. mauritiana plays an important 

part in the conservation of soil because of its abundant and vigorous root 

systems (Depommier 1988, Arndt 2001). Several species of Ziziphus can 

endure extreme stress caused by drought, salinity, and in some cases 

waterlogging. This makes the cultivated jujubes ideal for planting on marginal 

or degraded lands provided the right genotypes are selected for alkali-sodic 

soils (Dagar et al., 2001) and (Hebbara et al., 2002). 

3.5 Fuelwood 

Z. mauritiana is an excellent fuelwood tree and makes a good charcoal, with a 

heat content of 4900 kcal kg -1 (Khoshoo and Subrahmanyam, 1985). In the 

Sahel zone, it is considered good both as firewood and charcoal (Depommier, 

1988). Z. nummularia has been reported to produce high-quality hardwood 

with high calorific value, making it an ideal source of fuel and charcoal (Arndt 

2001) 

A six year old tree of ber produces an above ground biomass of 11.6 kg in the 

arid northwest India (Toky and Bisht, 1993) and 8-10 kg air dried fuelwood 

from annual prunings (Vashishtha, 1997). Reddy (1988) reported that, 

depending upon pruning severity, the weight of air-dry pruned wood was 4-6 

tons per hectare from 8 year old ber trees in Bangalore, India. According to 

Bajwa et al. (1986) the weight of prunings per tree ranged from 19.5 to 37.4 kg 

from a 13 year old tree. Air-dry biomass of 2 kg/plant was produced two years 

31

after planting under rainfed conditions at Dagarkotly in Pakistan (Shah and 

Noor, 1994). The fuelwood yield from pruned wood varies from 1-5 tons per 

hectare depending upon spacing, pruning severity and agroclimatic conditions. 

3.6 Lac culture 

Ber trees are considered amongst the best for rearing lac insects (Hussain and 

Khan, 1962; Anon., 1996). A lac yield of 1.5 kg per tree per year was obtained 

by collection during October-November at Ranchi in India (Anon., 1996). Ber 

is a chief host plant of Kerria lacca and K. sindica (Li and Hu, 1994). By using 

6-8, 2-3 m long shoots of 2-3 cm thickness on a stump for inoculation by lac 

insects, a yield of 3-6 kg raw lac can be obtained in 3 years. When used for 

rearing lac insects, use of the trees for fruits is not viable. 

Recent surveys collected socio-economic data from Jharkhan, West Bengal and 

Orissa on lac production (Jaiswal et al., 2002). 

3.7 Wood 

The wood of Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba is reddish, close-grained, finetextured, 

hard, tough, durable and planes and polishes well. It has been used to 

line wells, to make legs for bedsteads, boat ribs, agricultural implements, home 

poles, tool handles, yokes, gunstocks, saddle trees, sandals, golf clubs, 

household utensils, toys and general craft work. 

In India the wild type of ber is used for many of the above purposes (Pearson 

and Brown, 1932). 

The wood does not have value as a commercial timber. 

3.8 Bees and silkworms 

In the Islamabad area of Pakistan, Z. jujuba flowers attract honey bees which 

can contribute to conservation and the economic stability of the people in the 

local area (Chemas and Gray, 1991; Fatima and Ramanujam, 1989; Muzaffar, 

1998). In India and Queensland, the flowers of Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba are 

rated as a minor source of nectar for honeybees (Dash et al. 1992). The honey 

is light and of fair flavour (Morton, 1987). 

In Assam, Ziziphus leaves have been used as a food for silkworms. Ziziphus 

jujuba has been recorded as a secondary food plant for rearing Indian tasar 

silkworm, Antheraea mylitta Drury, larvae and proved to be better than the 

primary food plant Shorea robusta (Dash et al. 1992). 

32

In China Z. jujuba is a major source of honey. Some is exported as Zao hua 

fengmi or ‘jujube-flower honey’ (Wang et al. 1996). 

3.9 Medicinal uses 

Chapter 2 has already provided information on constituents of various parts of 

Ziziphus species and their applications. However, there are a large number of 

traditional medicinal uses that are not necessarily based on knowledge of the 

constituents. Those that are widespread and used consistently are outlined 

below. 

3.9.1 South Asia 

According to Ayurveda, the root of Z. nummularia is bitter and cooling, and 

cures coughs, biliousness and headache. The bark cures boils and is good for 

the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. The leaves are antipyretic and reduce 

obesity. The fruit is cooling, digestible, tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and 

removes biliousness, burning sensations, thirst, vomiting and is also good in 

treating tuberculosis and blood diseases. The seeds cure eye diseases and are 

also useful in leucorrhoea (Oudhia, 2001-3). 

The traditional workers of Chhattisgarh, India use fresh Z. nummularia fruit to 

treat common fevers. The traditional healers of Bastar region use the dried 

leaves to dress wounds. The fresh leaves are also used for the same purpose. 

The aqueous paste of the leaves is applied externally to relieve a burning 

sensation. In cases of vomiting, the people of Chhattisgarh use the seeds with 

bar sprouts (Ficus benghalensis) and sugar. Roots are used to treat dysentery; 

they are given with cow’s milk until the patient is cured. Senior citizens used to 

use the fresh leaf juice of Z. nummularia with buffalo's milk to reduce the 

intensity of smallpox. Similarly, in the early days, the use of seeds to treat eye 

troubles was common. To treat hoarseness of the throat, traditional healers 

advise patients to keep the fresh roots of Z. nummularia inside their mouth. The 

traditional healers of Mudpar village use the fresh leaves of Z. nummularia 

with cumin to treat urinary infections (Oudhia, 2001-3). 

According to the Unani system of medicine, the roots and bark of Z. 

nummularia are a tonic, whereas the leaves are anthelmintic, and are good for 

stomatitis and gum bleeding. The flowers afford a good collyrium for eye 

diseases, the fruits are sweet and sour, and can cause diarrhoea in large doses. 

The seeds are astringent, are a tonic to the heart and brain and relieve thirst 

(Oudhia, 2001-3). 

33

3.9.2 Chinese medicine 

The Chinese Materia Medica: Chemistry, Pharmacology and Applications 

describes Z. spinosa, the wild spiny Z. jujuba, as having sedative and hypnotic 

effects in many animal species including humans. In traditional uses it helps to 

nourish the heart, calm the nerves and is useful for insomnia and dream 

disturbed sleep (Zhu, 1998). 

The wild plant is called suan-tsao. The Chinese have found that the wild Z. 

jujuba fruit improves the health of the body. In fact, the common belief is that 

if the fruit is taken on a daily basis, it will improve skin colour and tone, both 

signs of physical well being (Plant Botanic). 

Its domestic counterpart, known as pei-tsao in northern China and nan-tsao in 

the south, is considered to be cooling to the body. Like an Asian version of the 

aspirin, the fruits somehow reduce pain and distress. They are strongly 

recommended for cases of sleeplessness caused from mental fatigue, physical 

weakness, or pain. They are used to treat rheumatic symptoms and are said to 

rejuvenate the body, whether it is suffering from stress or age. The plant is used 

to prevent intestinal or respiratory flu and to speed the recovery process along. 

Fresh Z. jujuba is also used to increase strength of the seriously ill and reverse 

the process of disease (Plant Botanic). 

In modern Chinese medicine, Z. jujuba is used to tone the spleen and stomach, 

to treat shortness of breath and severe emotional upset and debility due to 

nerves, and to mask the flavours of unpleasant-tasting herbs (Plant Botanic). 

Z. jujuba pips, when aged for three years, are considered excellent for wounds 

and abdominal pain. The leaves are used to treat children suffering from 

typhoid fever. They induce sweating which is thought to break the fever. They 

are also used for a number of infectious diseases. The heartwood is considered 

a powerful blood tonic. The root is used to promote hair growth and in treating 

fevers in children such as smallpox, measles, and chicken pox. The bark is used 

to make an eye wash for inflamed eyes (Plant Botanic). 

3.9.3 Other areas 

The Arabs use the fruits of Z. jujuba, Z. mauritiana and Z. spina-christi to 

ensure health. The leaves of the plant kill diarrhoea-causing parasites and 

worms in the intestinal tract. The fruits are said to cure coughs, resolve any 

other lung complaints, soothe the internal organs and reduce water retention. 

In Saudi Arabia, fruits of Z. spina-christi when in sufficient strength act as a 

laxative. Stem bark is used to relieve toothache and fevers (Al-Khalifa and 

Sharkas, 1984; Al-Akeely, 1985). Leaves of Z. spina-christi are used in 

traditional medicine in Egypt for the treatment of abscesses, boils and swollen 

34

eyes and its wood ash for the treatment of snakebite (Abdul-Galil and El- 

Jissary, 1991). The root, stem bark and leaves are used in various medicinal 

preparations in tropical Africa, particularly in the Kapisiki country (Dalziel, 

1937; Heyne, 1950; Williamson, 1957; Depommier, 1988). 

In Zimbabwe, Z. mucronata roots are a commonly used part of the plant for 

urinary and gynaecological complaints, but traditional practices vary from 

region to region; bark decoctions have been recorded in South Africa for chest 

diseases (Tree Society of Zimbabwe, 2001). 

In Haiti, fruits, leaves and roots of introduced Z. jujuba are boiled to make a 

decoction and this is used as tea for an antidote to poison (Plant Botanic). 

Z. juazeiro is used in Brazilian herbal medicine. However, this species is not 

discussed in this monograph: for further information see Raintree Nutrition. 

35

Chapter 4. Climate and Ecology 


(Revised by J.T. Williams) 

Most species of Ziziphus can be found in low rainfall areas. The climatic and 

ecological background to the three important cultivated species is shown in 

Table 4.1. 

Table 4.1 Ecological background of three Ziziphus species 

Z. mauritiana Z. jujuba Z. spina-christi 

Latitude 30 o N to 30 o S 30 o S to 51 o N 0 o to 20 o N 

Altitude m < 1500 Up to 2800 < 1000 

Eco-region Warm lowland 

plains 

Cool highlands Mediterranean 

drylands 

Minimum 4 o to 12 o C -10 o to -20 o C -5 to 2 o C 

temperature 

Maximum 39 o to 45 o C 36 o C ±5 o C 

temperature 

Rainfall > 300 mm 200 to 450 mm ca. 100 mm 

Soil type Shallow to deep 

aridisols 

Alluvial plains 

and hills 

Poor soils of arid 

areas 

Soil salinity Neutral to slightly Highly tolerant Medium tolerance 

alkaline (5 dSm -i ) 

Alkalinity < 45 ESP Highly tolerant Some tolerance 

This background explains the extremely wide distribution of wild and 

cultivated forms of the species. Information given below is mostly taken from 

(Pareek, 2001). 

4.2 Temperature 


Ber grows well under varying climatic conditions from sea level up to an 

elevation of 1000 m (Singh et al., 1973 a) although it produces best below 600 

m; it can be grown to altitudes up to 1500 m. Commercial ber plantations are 

found growing in areas having a minimum temperature of 4 to 12 C and 

occasionally reaching as low as -2 C for short periods, although this can injure 

36

young shoots and fruits. Freezing temperatures and frost, however, cause 

damage to young twigs and developing fruits and result in considerable crop 

loss and decline in tree growth. 

Pareek (1983) outlined the temperature dependency for time of growth, 

flowering and fruit maturity. Ber trees can withstand extremely high summer 

temperatures and are found to grow well in regions having maximum 

temperatures of 39 to 42 C, and can tolerate temperatures as high as 49-50 C. 

However, fruit set is adversely affected at temperatures above 35 C. The trees 

shed leaves and enter dormancy during the extremely hot summers in the 

subtropics of northern India. In northern Australia, leaf senescence and leaf fall 

begins in April as the dry season sets in, and the new leaves emerge with the 

onset of rainfall in September and October (Grice, 1998). This appears to be an 

adaptive mechanism to escape damage through desiccation during hot weather. 

Desiccation damage in ber is caused by high cuticular transpiration, which is 

reported to be associated with high levels of fatty acids and low levels of 

aldehydes and alcohols in the wax cuticle rather than with the thickness of the 

cuticle and wax itself (Rao et al., 1981). During the dormancy phase, along 

with leaf fall, growth ceases. Dark tan-coloured hard and pubescent scales 

develop on the buds and the bark and buds lose moisture and show lower 

nitrogen contents (Singh et al., 1974 b). 

In regions with less extreme temperatures, summer dormancy either does not 

occur or is very brief, resulting in almost no check in growth. Thus growth, 

flowering and development all vary depending upon prevailing temperature 

conditions. 


Chinese jujube grows well at average temperatures of 20-28 C in areas having 

a frost-free period of 100-180 days a year and can tolerate winter temperatures 

of -10 to -20 C (Ming and Sun, 1986). Fruits mature 2 weeks earlier in the 

warmer areas of Azerbaijan where summer temperature rises to 36 C (Tagiev, 

1992). In the USA, Chinese jujube has withstood temperatures of -22 C 

without injury (Thomas, 1924) and has tolerated -30 C in Azerbaijan (Troyan 

and Kruglyakov, 1972). 

Tolerance to low temperatures seems to be due to cultivar differences 

(Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1984 b; Sin’ko et al., 1987; Ivanova et al., 1989). Wild 

forms of Chinese jujube are also resistant to low temperatures. 

Cultivars can be evaluated for frost tolerance on the basis of resistance to 

dehydration. Water retaining capacity in shoots of different cultivars varies. 

The cultivars having high water retaining capacity are capable of tolerating 

drying spring winds which retard bud break in Chinese jujube growing in the 

steppe region of Crimea (Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1989). 

37

Chinese jujube remains in the dormant stage from the middle of October 

through the winter until the end of January (Kim et al., 1982 a). During this 

period, the total carbohydrate content (reducing and non reducing sugars) 

decreases steadily but starts increasing again from March. The peak activity of 

-amylase and invertase was observed in November, that of -amylase, acid 

phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase in January and protease activity 

increased from January to April. 

4.3 Rainfall 


Natural groves of ber grow and produce well in subtropical and tropical regions 

receiving over 400 mm annual rainfall. Fruit yields are higher during higher 

rainfall years (Singh et al., 1998). Management of trees in low rainfall areas 

necessitates some irrigation. Conditions of high atmospheric vapour pressure 

deficit result in the production of better quality (sweet and large sized) fruits 

than in humid areas. The incidence of pests and diseases is also lower in drier 

regions. Ber exhibits drought tolerance by osmotic adjustment and the deep tap 

root (Arndt et al., 2000). Species used as rootstocks (see Chapter 5) tend to be 

those occurring in areas receiving low rainfall. Ber can, depending on the 

cultivar, withstand slightly waterlogged conditions. 


Chinese jujube plantations are common in north-west China, including arid 

areas with annual rainfall below 200 mm, semi-arid areas with 200 to 450 mm 

rainfall and sub-humid areas with 450 to 650 mm rainfall (Ming and Sun, 

1986). Chinese jujube is reported to withstand severe drought (Lanham, 1926; 

Locke, 1948; Sin’ko, 1971) because its vertical root system reaches a depth of 

13 m (Ming and Sun, 1986). 

4.4 Soils 


Ber grows on a wide range of soils from gravelly, shallow soils to deep 

aridisols and to some extent on entisols (Pareek, 1983). Even in soils underlain 

with murram (calcic subhorizon) within one metre depth, roots were found to 

penetrate up to 4.5 m (Pareek, 1977). Data from field trials in India and 

Zimbabwe suggest that in Ziziphus rooting depth is critical for the maintenance 

of high rates of assimilation and conductance throughout the day making it 

tolerant to drought conditions (Clifford et al., 1996). 

38


Chinese jujube also grows on a variety of soils. In the Yeongnam region of 

Korea, 42 % of Chinese jujube plantations are on alluvial plains, 23 % on 

mountain foothills, 22 % in valleys and 13 % on hills (Kim et al., 1989). Fruit 

yields are higher on alluvial soils and on gently sloping fans than on the hill 

lands and steeper slopes where the soils are shallow. In Azerbaijan, jujube 

plantations have been established on sandy as well as clay soils (Tagiev, 1992). 

4.4.3 Stress conditions 

Both major cultivated species are tolerant to a degree of salinity; ber up to 6 

dSm -1 and Chinese jujube higher (Oganesjan, 1953; Dhankhar et al., 1980; 

Dahiya et al., 1981; Rao and Khandelwal, 2001). Species used for rootstocks 

for ber are also salt tolerant (Meena et al. 2003). In terms of soil fertility, both 

species require N and P but K has little effect on their growth (Lal et al., 2003). 

Boron inhibits uptake of P and K in Chinese jujube (Lee and Choi, 1992). Ber 

is of great interest for production and reclamation of the alkali soils of India 

(ca. 3.58 million ha) which have high pH, low organic carbon, low fertility, 

excessive exchangeable sodium and indurated CaCO 3 (Dagar et al., 2001). 

Ber is known to survive even in soils having pH as high as 9.2 (Jawanda et al., 

1981). No leaf scorching in trees growing on alkaline soils was observed while 

those of mango and guava were seriously damaged (Samra, 1985). Young ber 

seedlings survived when transplanted in soils up to 66 ESP (Exchangeable 

Sodium Percentage) in a greenhouse (Singh, et al., 1983 b). Increasing ESP 

levels, however, reduced growth, decreased Ca and Mn, but increased Na and 

Fe contents in the leaves. In pot experiments, seed germination and emergence 

was reduced in 40 ESP soil and a further increase in ESP resulted in reduction 

in the amount of P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn and Mn (Patil et al., 1981; Mehta, 1982) 

and increase in the amounts of Na, B and Fe in the plants (Mehta, 1982). 

Kumar et al. (1990) also observed a decrease in leaf micronutrient content with 

an increase in ESP levels from 5 to 45.3. The total chlorophyll, free amino acid 

and proline contents increased with increasing sodicity (Pandey et al., 1991). 

Awasthi et al. (1994) reported that 62.5 % ber seedlings survived at 60.5 ESP 

but none of the grafted plants of Umran and Gola survived. Shoot and root 

growth of Umran ber decreased with increasing ESP (Patil et al., 1981). 

39


Chapter 5. Propagation 

E. Bonkoungou 

Wild populations of Ziziphus regenerate naturally by seed, and frequently 

produce root sprouts. However, collecting and germinating seed is the way by 

which Ziziphus seedlings are raised directly in the field or in nurseries for a 

wide range of purposes. 

Reproduction by seed, however, does not guarantee true-to-type reproduction 

of the desirable traits of the mother tree due to cross pollination and subsequent 

segregation of plant characters in the progeny. Hence commercial and much 

local propagation for orchards of improved cultivars is by vegetative means. 

Outside its native area, uncontrolled propagation of Ziziphus can lead to serious 

weed problems. In Australia, where the species was introduced in the 1800s for 

horticultural and ornamental purposes, it is now declared a noxious weed. 

Initially planted around early settlements, it is said to form dense thickets 

which seriously hamper livestock management and reduce pasture production 

and accessibility in parts of Queensland (Grice, 1996). Thus, although ber, and 

Chinese jujube, are extremely valuable trees in the correct environment, their 

potential to become weeds should not be ignored, particularly in areas where 

trees have naturalised (William and West, 2000) such as Australia or New 

Zealand. 

5.2 Seed propagation 

5.2.1 Seed characteristics 

Ber seeds are enclosed within a hard woody endocarp known as the stone 

which is sometimes wrongly referred to as the seed. Each fruit contains one 

stone embedded in the pulp at the centre of the fruit. The stone (see Fig 1.2) 

can be depulped in many ways: manually by removing the pulp, pounding 

dried fruits in a mortar, or by running the fruits through a macerator with water 

and floating off the pulp. Stones vary in shape from round to subovate to ovate 

with more or less pronounced ridges on the outer surface (ICUC, 2002). 

Cleaned stones are about 1-2 cm in size. 

The stone may contain as many as three seeds embedded in the endocarp of the 

drupe (Pareek, 2001) but the presence of only one and two seeds per stone also 

has been reported. In Australia, Grice (1996) found that the most frequent case 

is a single seed per stone and occasionally two. ICRAF (1992) reports two to 

40

three seeds per stone in Kenya, whereas in Tanzania the most frequent number 

is two seeds in a large stone (Kuffo et al., 2002; Mbuya et al., 1994). In West 

and Central Africa, Diallo (2002) reported one to two seeds per stone in a study 

conducted on Ziziphus mauritiana provenances from Senegal, the Gambia and 

Chad. All the Chad provenances had two seeds per stone. In Senegal, 80 % of 

the stones from fruits collected at Dahra and in Dakar had two seeds each 

(Danthu et al., 1992). 

Ziziphus stones and seeds are relatively light in weight. For Z. mauritiana, 

Roussel (1995) reported 3,500 to 4,000 stones to the kilogram. In Burkina 

Faso, Ouedraogo and Nikiema (1997) also found 3,500 stones to the kilogram. 

Von Maydell (1983) reported a wide range from 3,600 to 7,000 stones to the 

kilogram for the Sahel region and explained that the wide range was due to 

impurities in some of the seedlots. In northern Cameroon, Depommier (1988) 

reports only 350 to 650 stones to the kilogram. If confirmed, this would be a 

case of unusually heavy seeds (ten times heavier than the average weight 

commonly reported for Z. mauritiana throughout the region). For Z. 

mucronata, Roussel (1995) found 2,000 to 2,200 stones to the kilogram. Thus, 

apart from the rather unusual case reported in Cameroon, Z. mucronata seeds 

appear to be heavier than those of Z. mauritiana. 

5.2.2 Seed viability 

Under natural conditions, seeds from fruits that fall and lie on the soil surface 

may remain viable for up to 12 months. Data currently available do not suggest 

that a large proportion of seeds remain dormant in the soil for much longer 

periods. In Australia, Grice (1996) observed that germination rate in Z. 

mauritiana seeds collected from the soil surface declined from a rate of 56 % in 

the control (fresh dehulled seeds) to 31 % after six months, then to 20 % at 12 

months. For seeds that remain buried in the soil (at 2 cm depth) the germination 

rate declines sharply to 7 % after six months. In Tamil Nadu, India, Srimathi et 

al. (2002) found that cv. Umran seeds from fruits collected from the crown 

exhibited higher germination rates than those collected from the ground. 

Storage conditions have an expected significant effect on seed germination. A 

review by Pareek (2001) indicated that storage at reduced temperatures of 4.5 + 

0.5 º C in perforated polythene bags result in retention of viability for longer 

periods. Ber seeds can remain viable for two and half years when kept in a dry 

and cool environment, but storage time is dependent on the condition of the 

seeds and how well they have been dried prior to storage (ICUC, 2002). For 

long-term storage seeds behave in an orthodox manner and can be stored in low 

temperatures when dried properly (see Chapter 8 Genetic Resources). 

A simple and rapid method to test seed viability is to float the stones in salt 

solution. Seeds that float probably have air pockets caused by insect damage or 

dead embryos. Such seeds should be discarded. Seeds that sink are viable. 

41

Srimathi et al. (2002) soaked dried stones of ber cv. Umran in 15, 18 and 20 % 

salt solution and found that only the seeds which sink could be used for 

seedling production in a nursery. The recovery of floaters increased with 

increasing salt concentration and germination was improved by grading the 

stones using 20 % salt solution. 

As indicated by Pareek (2001), the viability of seeds can also be assessed by 

the tetrazolium test. For this test, the indicator used is a colourless solution of 

triphenyl tetrazolium chloride or bromide (Kamra, 1992). In actively respiring 

areas of the seed the colourless solution reacts with hydrogen ions produced by 

the dehydrogenase enzyme and turns into a red, stable and non diffusible 

substance. This makes it possible to distinguish the red coloured living parts of 

seeds from the colourless dead ones. However, this test is time consuming; also 

interpretation of results may be difficult. 

5.2.3 Seed germination 

Seed germination is affected by the initial percentage viability at the time of 

seed collection, and by storage conditions, environmental conditions at sowing 

time, and treatments applied to break dormancy. 

The degree of fruit ripeness has a significant effect on germination of the 

enclosed seed. Ber seed germination in Senegal increased from a mere 2 % for 

seeds from green fruits to 28 % when fruits are more mature and have turned 

yellow and 56 % for seeds from fully ripe fruits that have turned red. The rate 

declines to 46 % for seeds from overripe fruits that have turned brown (Danthu 

et al., 1992). This has practical implications for seed collection as fruit colour 

can be used to determine the most appropriate time to collect seeds. 

Pareek (2001) also noted the importance of seed age for optimum germination 

as ber seeds can germinate only after a period of after-ripening. One or two 

months after extraction, germination increases and one year old seeds 

germinate better than the freshly extracted ones. Sowing freshly extracted seeds 

gave only 33 % germination which increased after two months, reaching 50 % 

after storage for eight months. Seedling vigour was also the highest when the 

seeds were sown after eight months storage. Seed size (small, medium and 

large) also affects germination. Singh et al. (2004) report greatest ber seed 

germination and tallest seedlings from medium sized seeds. 

5.2.4 Seed pretreatments 

Even when they are viable ber seeds do not germinate readily. Suitable 

conditions for germination must be created. Under natural conditions in the 

field, seed dormancy gradually breaks down as the stone weathers naturally on 

the ground. For controlled germination, a common nursery practice is to 

pretreat seeds if samples take more than a week to germinate. Pretreatment falls 

42

into two main categories: mechanical scarification, and non mechanical 

methods. 

Mechanical scarification of ber seeds involves cracking, nicking, or partial 

removal of the stony endocarp. This appears to be the single most efficient 

pretreatment to achieve highest percentage of germination. Less than 10 % of 

fresh ber seeds will germinate without removal of the endocarp (Grice, 1996). 

Cracking the endocarp can achieve 100 % germination in two weeks (Billand 

and Diallo, 1991). A rate of 85 – 90 % germination over a period of 12 days 

with this treatment has been reported by Ouedraogo and Nikiema (1997). 

Murthy et al. (1989) reported a germination rate of 44.58 % for cracked stones 

while the control of intact stones achieved a mere 17.50 %. Mechanical 

scarification of the endocarp not only achieves high percentages of 

germination; it also speeds up germination. Germination of non scarified stones 

is slow and may take up to four weeks, whereas extracted seeds germinate 

within a week and the seedlings are more vigorous (ICUC, 2002). 

Non mechanical pretreatments involve soaking whole stones or dehulled seeds 

in water or in various chemical solutions such as sulphuric acid or a range of 

growth regulators. A review by Pareek (2001) indicated that ABA- like 

substances are present in the testa of the seed and that germination was reduced 

as a result of soaking the seeds in 500 ppm abscissic acid solution. Treatment 

with 5 ppm abscissic acid inhibits germination of Chinese jujube seeds. 

When viable stones are dipped in 500 ppm thiourea for four hours and then 

cracked, the separated seeds will germinate in seven days (Morton, 1987) while 

seeds in uncracked stones require 21 to 28 days. Vashishtha (1998) reported 

that pretreatment of stones in concentrated sulphuric acid and GA improved 

germination, but soaking in water even for 48 hours was not helpful. A 

common pretreatment of ber stones in Burkina Faso is to soak the stones in 

sulphuric acid (97 %) for 30 minutes then in water for 24 hours. Results of 80 – 

100 % germination have been obtained this way (Billand and Diallo, 1991; 

Ouedraogo and Nikiema, 1997). 

Passage of stones through the digestive tract of animals hastens germination. 

The stones can remain in the digestive tract for at least 12 days. A large 

proportion of seeds excreted by cattle contain viable seeds that achieve 88 % 

germination (Grice, 1996). 

Other non mechanical pretreatments include exposing stones or seeds to 

environmental factors such as specific temperature or various growth media. In 

germination tests of seeds under four temperature regimes (25, 30, 35 and 40º 

C) in darkness by Danthu et al. (1992), germination rate after seven days was 

90 – 91 % at 35º C, 85 – 87 % at both 30 and 25º C, and no germination was 

observed at 40º C. Although final rates of germination at 25, 30 and 35º C are 

comparable after seven days, speed of germination is markedly different. 

43

Germination after two days was a mere 0 – 10% at 25º C, but reached 80 % and 

more at both 30 and 35º C. A review by Pareek (2001) reported similar results. 

For Chinese jujube seeds, 25º C proves to be optimum. 

Conditions of the growing medium have considerable effects on germination. 

The available data have been reviewed in detail by Pareek (2001) as follows. 

Salinity in the growing medium delays or inhibits germination of ber seeds. 

Increasing chloride and bicarbonate concentration from 2 to 10 dSm –1 in 

irrigation waters tended to decrease seed germination with significant reduction 

at 4 dSm –1 of chloride waters and 7.5 dSm –1 of bicarbonate waters. 

Germination declined to 50 % at 6 dSm –1 EC compared to that at 1.5 dSm –1 and 

failed completely at 12 dSm –1 . Increasing soil boron levels from 4 to 16 ppm 

has no appreciable effect on final emergence but in combination with salinity 

delays the germination. Alkalinity at ESP 40 in the growing medium also 

delayed seed emergence. 

Seeds of Chinese jujube sown in the open and covered with plastic sheeting 

emerge 20 days earlier than non covered seeds and also gave 22 % higher 

emergence. 

Dehulled seeds do not appear to require major pretreatments. Danthu et al. 

(1992) observed that Z. mauritiana seeds do not require any pretreatment; they 

will germinate readily. Prins and Maghembe (1994) achieved more than 80 % 

germination by simply cleaning and soaking the seeds in water. Dehulled seeds 

soaked in water for 24 hours reached 100 % germination in two weeks (Billand 

and Diallo, 1991). In Chinese jujube, a review by Pareek (2001) showed that 

one group of cultivars gives 85 % seed germination (e.g. Ya-tszao) and the 

other (e.g. Nikitskii 84, 92 and 94) gives 98 % germination. Some Chinese 

jujube seeds take one to three days to germinate while others take seven days. 

5.2.5 The nursery 

5.2.5.1 Seed propagation 

Ber seedlings raised from seeds are not used directly for fruit production in 

commercial plantations because the time taken for such plants to reach bearing 

age is usually longer than for trees propagated using vegetative methods 

(ICUC, 2002). Also the desirable traits of improved cultivars (growth, fruiting 

and fruit quality) are not guaranteed through seed reproduction. 

Nonetheless, propagation of ber and the other major jujubes by seed remains of 

great value for several reasons: 

(i) Propagation by seed is necessary to raise appropriate rootstocks for 

vegetative propagation of improved cultivars. 

(ii) In regions where jujubes are propagated not solely for fruits but also for a 

44

ange of products and services (live hedges, fodder, timber etc.), propagation 

by seed is a much easier and more economical method than vegetative 

propagation. Until the recent introduction of improved cultivars to the Sahel 

region of West Africa, most research and development programmes on Z. 

mauritiana in the region focused on performance in live hedge technology in 

agroforestry systems under rainfed conditions. This requires large scale 

production of seedlings sown directly in the field or raised in private and 

community nurseries in villages throughout the region. In such situations, 

propagation by seed is the safest way to produce seedlings with deep tap roots 

that can survive in the field under extended moisture stress even when the 

surface soil completely dries out. 

(iii) Sexual reproduction by seed offers opportunities for variation and 

evolutionary advancement, which is of immense value to the plant breeder. 

(iv) Conservation of Ziziphus biodiversity and rehabilitation of natural 

vegetation is best served through seed reproduction. 

5.2.5.2 Techniques for raising seedlings 

Seedlings may be raised in nurseries by sowing seeds in seedbeds or in 

containers. Quality seedlings in the nursery are fundamental to quality trees in 

the field. As Jaenicke (1999) pointed out, the best looking seedling in the 

nursery is worthless if it does not survive and grow after planting out (see 

Plates 1.2). 

For ber, seeds should be sown at a depth of 2 cm at 30 x 30 cm spacing in the 

seedbed any time from spring through the monsoon period (Pareek, 2001). For 

transplanting in the field, nursery bed raised seedlings have to be lifted, packed 

and transported to the planting site. Seedlings can be transplanted in the field 

with 20 x 15 cm earth ball; they can also be transplanted bare rooted (without 

ball) when they are not growing actively during the winter in subtropical 

climates (Pareek, 2001). Bed raised seedlings often suffer high mortalities 

during transplanting because of root injuries when seedlings are lifted from the 

bed, or because of insufficient care during packing and transportation to the 

planting site. Hardening of seedlings can be beneficial before transplanting 

(Bhatia et al., 2001). 

From a review by Pareek (2001), it appears that treatment of roots with 250 

ppm IBA improves transplanting success. Shifting the seedlings within the 

nursery one month after sowing and then transplanting them in the field after 7 

months also results in better survival. Nonetheless, overall risks of mortality 

remain quite high when transplanting bed raised seedlings. Thus, the method of 

raising seedlings in nursery beds is not very popular. Seedlings raised that way 

are not considered suitable for planting under rainfed conditions. 

Another way of raising seedlings is through the use of containers. Types of 

45

containers commonly used are pots, polythene tubes or bags. In Burkina Faso, 

baskets woven with leaves of the palm tree Borassus aethiopum are used in 

addition to polythene containers for nursery production of fruit tree seedlings. 

Containers most commonly used in India are 28 x 23 cm pots, 23 x 10 cm 

polythene bags and polythene tubes of 25 x 10 cm size in 300 gauge (Pareek, 

2001). Polythene containers must be protected from direct sun heat to avoid 

rapid disintegration. Protection is done through proper shading in the nursery or 

by keeping the containers buried in sunken beds. 

Several seeds are normally sown per container and then the young seedlings (at 

the four leaf stage) are pricked out into separate pots before finally planting in 

the field. Pareek (2001) reports 8-10 stones sown in a 30 cm pot. In Burkina 

Faso, two dehulled seeds are sown per polythene bag (Billand and Diallo, 

1991). At the time of pricking out, only one seedling is left per container. In 

Burkina Faso seedlings two months old were 12 to 21 cm high, with a collar 

diameter of 2 to 3 mm (Dao, 1993). Seedlings ready for transplanting in the 

field are five-six months old with a height of 36 to 47 cm and a collar diameter 

of 4 to 5 mm (Billand and Diallo, 1991). 

Weeds can cause problems, and have to be removed from the nursery. Weeding 

is usually done manually. Pareek (2001) reports that Cyperus rotundus can also 

be controlled by application of oxyfluorfan at 0.6 kg.ha -1 or oxadiazon at 1.5 

kg.ha -1 without damaging the seedlings. 

A frequent constraint is deformity of roots which can be severe due to the deep 

taproot. Root deformities occur in both seed beds and containers (Jaenicke and 

Wightman, 1999). Root deformities can be caused by poor pricking out. 

Seedlings squeezed into holes that are too short for the root system will 

develop root deformities and any roots which are curled upwards will bend 

back and grow into a ‘knee’ or even a complete loop. In container raised 

seedlings, the smooth plastic bags cause the main root to coil or spiral along the 

walls or at the bottom of the container. This invariably happens when plants are 

left in the nursery too long. However, it can happen even to small Ziziphus 

seedlings because of the deep taproot. Two months old seedlings only 12 – 21 

cm high were found to have taproots that were longer than the plant height, 

reaching 21.5 cm (Dao, 1993). 

As with any other tree seedling, root deformities of Ziziphus seedlings should 

be cut off before planting, as they retard plant growth and can even result in the 

plant’s death. Root deformities do not correct themselves over time and may 

even become more acute as the tree grows. 

Another constraint would relate to seed sowing at depths more than 3 cm. This 

causes poor germination. 

In addition to proper weeding and the application of good nursery practice to 

46

minimise root deformities, good seedling management to produce balanced 

quality plants in the nursery means that regular watering is essential. 

Fertilisation and inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi also have proved 

beneficial. 

Although Ziziphus species are drought resistant, adequate water supply in the 

nursery is essential. Pareek (2001) reported that maintenance of pre-irrigation 

moisture of 80 % in the nursery soil has been helpful in the development of 

over 98 % Chinese jujube seedlings (to be used for budding). In India, a major 

breakthrough was achieved in the early 1990s with the development of a device 

known as ‘jaltripti’. The device, as described by Pareek (2001), comprises two 

earthenware pots of the same height but of different diameters joined at the 

base, keeping the base of the inner pot open and that of the outer pot closed. 

The outer pot can regularly be filled with water. The ber plant is grown in the 

inner pot in a manure/soil mixture. The device results in very good growth of 

the plants and saves 75 % irrigation water. 

Under water stress, inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizae improves ber 

seedling growth, nutrient uptake and water stress tolerance. Mathur and Vyas 

(2000) used six arbuscular mycorrhizal species to inoculate 15 day old Z. 

mauritiana seedlings subjected to increasing water stress from field capacity to 

near wilting point over a period of 16 weeks. The six mycorrhizal species used 

for inoculation were: Gigaspora margarita, Glomus constrictum, Glomus 

fasciculatum, G. mosseae, Sclerocystis rubiformis and Scutellospora calospora 

maintained on Cenchrus ciliaris. Seedling mycorrhizal dependency was high 

for all six fungi, ranging from 111 % to 208 %. Compared to non treated 

seedlings, nutrient uptake in mycorrhizal plants increased significantly, ranging 

115-223 % for nitrogen and 154-400 % for phosphorus, depending on the 

mycorrhizal species. Mycorrhizal plants also showed increased uptake of 

potassium and accumulation of proline, both of which are known to play 

important roles in plant water stress management through stomatal movement 

and osmotic adjustment respectively. Although the magnitude of seedling 

incremental growth varied with VAM species, overall growth of inoculated 

seedlings was significantly better than the non inoculated ones. G. 

fasciculatum, the most efficient species in the experiment, resulted in almost a 

doubling of plant dry weight compared with the non inoculated plants. It also 

enhanced proline content of seedlings by 37 %. Thus, by whatever mechanism 

(increasing N and P uptake, increasing potassium uptake or by higher proline 

accumulation), inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi resulted in efficient 

water stress tolerance in Z. mauritiana seedlings. Thus, G. fasciculatum could 

be of great importance in cultivation of Z. mauritiana in drought prone areas. 

Mycorrhizal inoculation combined with the application of rock phosphate has 

been tested in a series of studies conducted in Burkina Faso to improve Z. 

mauritiana seedling growth and vigour in the nursery (Ba et al., 1998; Guissou, 

1996, 2001; Guissou et al., 1998, 2000). Five mycorrhizal species were tested: 

47

Glomus aggregatum, G. intraradices, G. manihotis, G. mosseae and 

Acaulospora spinosa in various experiments. All five mycorrhizae increased 

seedling height, collar diameter, stem and root dry weight. Acaulospora 

spinosa, the most efficient fungus, increased seedling height by 171 %, stem 

dry weight by 309 % and total biomass by 374 %. Z. mauritiana seedlings 

showed a higher mycorrhizal dependency (78 %) than Tamarindus indica (34 

%) or Parkia biglobosa (24 %). 

Application of rock phosphate to four month old Z. mauritiana seedlings 

significantly increased seedling height and biomass, indicating that non 

inoculated Ziziphus seedlings were able to utilise phosphate from rock 

phosphate. This is important because soils in the region are inherently poor and 

particularly deficient in phosphate, whereas rock phosphate is readily available 

from large deposits in the region. 

Raising Z. rotundifolia seedlings for rootstocks and treatment and handling of 

the seeds is summarised by (Singh et al., 2001). There are similarities in the 

methodology for all Ziziphus species. 

5.3 Vegetative propagation 

Methods of vegetative propagation differ between Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba. 

Traditional methods such as use of cuttings are not successful with the former 

whereas in Chinese jujube use of cuttings is, and furthermore Chinese jujube 

cuttings can be taken from root suckers before emergence. Some success has 

been observed in ber by stooling. Z. spina-christi is propagated by cuttings. 

Budding is the major method for propagating ber and can be successfully 

carried out using several methods. Of the different methods the degree of 

success varies according to climatic conditions, time and method of budding 

and the skills of the operators. 

Both ber and Chinese jujube can be propagated by grafting, using the wedge 

method for ber and the whip or tongue method for Chinese jujube. 

5.3.1 Rootstocks 

For ber, rootstocks are either the same species (wild) or commonly Z. 

nummularia (often referred to by its synonym Z. rotundifolia). No 

incompatibility is seen between scions of the cultivars and rootstock seedlings 

of Z. nummularia, wild Z. mauritiana, Z. oenoplia, Z. rugosa, Z. xylocarpa, Z. 

jujuba or Z. spina-christi (Pareek, 1983). Nonetheless vigour and growth differ 

greatly. Use of Z. nummularia tends to be less favourable for fruit production 

than the use of Z. mauritiana (Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

48

Z. abyssinica rootstocks can also be used for ber and are more successful than 

Z. spina-christi as the latter often produces a bottleneck form (Nerd and 

Mizrahi, 1998). In Africa wild Z. mucronata does not appear useful due to 

delayed incompatibility (Kadzere et al., 1997). 

Rootstock seedling plants of different species, although from variable 

progenies, influence the vigour, growth form and productivity of the scion and 

presumably also its adaptation to adverse climatic and soil conditions (Verma 

et al. 2001). 

The best choice, at present, seems to be to raise rootstocks from seeds collected 

from vigorous trees of cultivated ber (Z. mauritiana) and boradi (Z. mauritiana 

var. rotundifolia) or other suitable wild species such as Z. abyssinica. Use of 

vegetatively propagated or seedling plants from identified genotypes of the 

selected species should in due course lead to the development of standard 

rootstocks. This will ensure the desired effects of adaptability, productivity, 

vigour and form of the scion, and longevity of the scion/rootstock combination 

under different ecological habitats. 

In Chinese jujube, seedlings of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and other wild species are 

used as rootstocks (Ming and Sun, 1986). Grafting over 2 cm thick roots of 

Paliurus spinosa has also given success (Zaktreger and Solov’ev, 1962). 

5.3.2 Budding 

5.3.2.1 The budwood 

Budwood becomes available during the active growth period in the summer. 

The bud sticks, with well swollen and recently matured buds (but still not open) 

are collected (Fig. 5.1). Immature and undeveloped buds from the upper part of 

the new shoots and over mature and inactive buds should not be used. Buds 

collected from flowering shoots give poor success. Buds should be collected 

from juvenile shoots. Such shoots can be induced to grow by severe pruning of 

the mother trees. 

49

Figure 5.1 The budwood 

After collection, the budwood is often stored for a time or has to be transported, 

and considerable loss of viability may take place. Budwood retains good 

viability when kept under ventilated conditions and wrapped in moist jute 

cloth. Kanwar and Singh (1981) found that buds stored in polythene sheeting, 

even for one day at 31-38° C and 67-68% relative humidity, failed in bud-take. 

However, buds kept in moist jute cloth for one day gave bud-take of 68.8% and 

36.2% when kept for five days. Singh (1988) found that budwood wrapped in 

polythene sheeting and moist sphagnum moss gave better results than those 

stored in moist jute cloth. 

5.3.2.2 Time of budding 

The best time for successful budding is during the active growth period. The 

active growth period is indicated by easy and clear separation of the bark from 

the wood in both scion and the rootstock. Kaundal et al. (1984) observed 

maximum bud-take (80-87 %) at ambient temperature between 30 and 34° C, 

irrespective of variations in atmospheric relative humidity (RH) from 45 to 

73.5 %. Bud-take declines below 36 % RH and when temperatures drop to 

18.5-20° C. Such conditions occur during the summer and monsoon period 

(June to September) in the arid and semi-arid subtropics of northwest India 

(Joshi, 1960; Singh et al., 1972 b; Pareek. 1978 a; Singhrot et al., 1980; Anon., 

1981; Kaundal et al., 1984; Mawani and Singh, 1992 a, b). Maximum 

sprouting of 93.2 % has been recorded by budding when the maximum 

temperature was between 33 and 36.5° C and minimum temperature was 

around 26° C (Kaundal et al., 1984). Some success can be obtained even during 

the mild winter months of the tropics (Jyotishi et al., 1967). 

50

5.3.2.3 Transplanting of budded plants 

Budded seedlings prepared in nursery beds are lifted with large earth balls at 

about 9 to 12 months after budding for transplanting to the field. A number of 

these plants may be lost due to damage while lifting, packaging, during 

transport and transplanting (see for instance, Singh et al., 2001). The operations 

are cumbersome and incur high costs due to the large earth balls. Attempts 

have been made to reduce mortality by: 

i) shifting the plants within the nursery 25 days after sprouting (6 leaf stage) to 

harden them before final transplanting at about 8 months after budding 

(Singhrot and Makhija, 1979 a; Bhatia et al., 2001), 

ii) shifting the buddings into polybags of 30 x 20 cm size along with treatment 

of 12 % Waxol (Kundi and Singhrot, 1990), 

iii) transplanting the defoliated buddings without earth ball during the winter in 

the subtropics (Sandhu and Dhillon, 1983; Sandhu et al., 1983; Beniwal et al., 

1992), 

iv) cutting the tap roots along with treatment with 200 ppm IBA (Singh, 1988) 

and wrapping the roots with moist sphagnum moss or jute cloth during 

transport to the field. 

All these methods increase establishment success, but only after irrigation as 

transplanting tends to reduce the drought-hardy character of ber trees owing to 

loss of tap roots. 

Buddings prepared in polytubes become ready for transplanting at about 30 

days after budding. The polytubes with the buddings are removed from the 

nursery and kept in shade for a week. These can then easily be transported and 

transplanted to the field with over 90 % survival (Pareek, 1978 b) since there is 

little stress or root damage during lifting, transport and planting. The roots of 

the plants do not coil and, therefore, retain the drought-hardy character and 

vigour almost similar to plants raised in situ. For long distance transport soil is 

washed from the roots of polytube raised buddings and covered with sphagnum 

moistened with 0.2 g potassium nitrate, 0.8 g calcium nitrate, 0.2 g magnesium 

sulphate, 0.2 g hypophosphate and 1 ml of 0.5 % ferric tartrate with 0.2 % 

Dithane Z-78 (Pareek and Vashishtha, 1980). 

5.3.2.4 Budding method 

Budding can be carried out by different methods such as I or T (shield), or ring 

and patch (Husain, 1973; Moti and Chaturvedi, 1976; Anon., 1981; Mawari 

and Singh, 1992 a, b), chip (Anon., 1953), flute (Mawari and Singh, 1992 a, b) 

and forked (Jyotishi et al., 1967). However, shield (Singh, 1952; Anon., 1953; 

Singh, 1957; Joshi, 1960; Singh, 1964; Jyotishi et al., 1967) and patch budding 

are the most commonly used methods. The ring method needs the scion stick to 

be of equal diameter to the rootstock and this limits its use on a large scale. 

Using patch budding, 75-85 % success has been obtained (Anon, 1981) (see 

Plates 3-6). 

51

Standardisation of the budding methods has been summarised by Nayak and 

Sen (2000). 

Budding should be performed as close to the ground level as practicable to 

minimise the area for emergence of sprouts from the rootstock portion. Over 

93% success has been obtained by budding at the height of 10 cm onto 

seedlings with a stem diameter of 0.53-0.55 cm (Singh et al., 1981 b; 

Chattopadhyay and Dey, 1992). Lopping and topping of the rootstock from 8 

(Kundu 1983; Singhrot and Kajal, 1986) to 15 days (Singh et al., 1984 c) after 

budding in the nursery beds has been found to ensure 90 to 100 % success. 

Topping has also been found to increase growth of buddings (Anon., 1981). 

Pareek et al. (1999) recommend that just before in situ budding in the field, 

rootstock seedlings should be lopped at 30-45 cm height. 

When budding onto seedlings raised in polythene tubes, the rootstocks should 

be prepared by removing all side shoots and leaves from the stem up to a height 

of 15 cm above ground level. The seedlings are then topped just before budding 

using either the shield or patch method (Fig. 5.2). 

2.5 cm patch 

Separation of bud from budwood 

Patch removed on rootstock 

Bud fixed on patch 

Patch budding 

I-cut on rootstock 

Bud inserted into I-cut 

Budling ready for planting 

Shield budding 

Tying inserted bud on roostock 

Figure 5.2. Methods of budding 

52

5.3.3 Micropropagation 

Tissue culture techniques offer possibilities of rapid cloning of desired 

genotypes. Pareek (2001) provided the following summary: 

5.3.3.1 Ber 

Goyal and Arya (1985) induced adventitious root formation within 20 days in 

shoot segments of Gola and Seb cultivars, in half strength MS medium 

supplemented with 0.5 mg per litre of IBA and kinetin. Nearly 60 % of the 

rooted shoots could be successfully transplanted into pots and the total time 

taken from initial culturing to transplantation was 150 days. The protocol 

developed by Rathore et al. (1992) involves culturing nodal explants on MS 

medium containing 7.5 mg benzyladenine plus 0.1 mg IAA/l for shoot 

proliferation, then in White’s liquid medium containing 25 mg IBA/litre to 

induce rooting and then in White’s solid medium without growth regulators 

followed by hardening off before transplanting into pots. 

Kabir et al. (1994) multiplied shoots through axillary bud elongation on MS 

medium containing 0.1 mg/litre NAA or IAA and 2 mg/litre bezyladenine, 

which were rooted by transferring the shoots to MS medium containing 0.5-2 

mg/litre IBA. Large-scale multiplication of shoots can be carried out by 

repeated subculturing of the nodal segments of in vitro grown shoots after 

every 6-8 weeks. 

Mathur et al. (1995) grew stem explants from mature trees on MS medium 

containing 3800 mg/litre potassium nitrate, 2475 mg/litre ammonium nitrate, 

11 mμ-M benzyladenine and 0.5 mμ-M IAA, which produced 15-20 shoots per 

inoculum on successive subculturing. Rooting in the shoots could be induced 

by pre-treatment with 50 mμ-M IAA or NAA for 24 hours followed by their 

transfer to auxin-free White’s medium and then into soil and vermiculite 

mixture. 

Work is proceeding on tissue culture of ber and a recent summary was 

provided by HU et al. (2001). 

5.3.3.2 Chinese jujube 

By culturing stem segments of jujube lines A 17, A 27 and A 80 in MS 

medium containing 1 mg BA per litre, the highest percentage of clustered buds 

(66.7) was differentiated. Maximum root growth (95.9 %) was induced in the 

medium containing 0.4 mg/litre IBA (Yan et al., 1990). Culture medium 

containing 2 mg BA + 0.4 mg BA per litre gave 81.8 % differentiated buds 

which could be excised continuously for multiplication. Kim and Lee (1988) 

obtained the best shoot and root growth from axillary buds of cultivar 

Geumsung after eight weeks when 500 mg/litre activated charcoal was added 

to half strength MS medium with 0.5 mg/litre benzylaminopurine. 1000 

mg/litre activated charcoal was required for cultivar Bokjo. Rooting and callus 

53

growth of Geumsung microshoots increased as IBA concentration was 

increased to 3 mg/litre. Rooting was better when treated with paclobutrazol 

rather than with IBA, NAA or Rooton. 

For producing rooted plants from shoot tips and single bud segments, MS 

medium supplemented with IBA was more effective than with IAA or NAA 

(Cheong et al., 1987). Kinetin and 2iP (0.5 mg/litre) and BA (1mg/litre) 

increased plant height, number of nodes and plant weight. A combination of 1 

mg/litre IBA and 1 mg/litre BA or 0.5-1.0 mg/litre kinetin also increased plant 

height and weight. Addition of adenosine sulphate at 40 mg/litre to the shoot 

tip culture and at 80 mg/litre to bud segment culture in MS medium + 1 

mg/litre IBA + 1mg/litre BA further increased plant height and number of 

nodes. Charcoal, when added to the culture medium decreased root number and 

length. 

5.3.3.3 Callus culture 

Attempts have been made to regenerate plantlets of Ziziphus cultivars via callus 

formation from a range of explants followed by organogenesis and somatic 

embryogenesis (Cheong and Kim, 1984; Kim et al., 1987; Mathur et al., 1993; 

Mitrofanova and Shevelukka, 1995; Mitrofanova et al., 1994. 1997). This may 

not, however, provide a practical technique for multiplication of true-to-type 

plants, and there is a risk of somaclonal variation occurring. More work needs 

to be done. 

5.3.3.4 Other research 

Micrografting has received attention in order to multiply a superior cultivar 

through an in vitro micrografting technique which is a miniaturisation of the 

apex slice involving grafting of scions

et al., 1996) have also been observed to induce early rooting and to increase 

rooting percentage. 

In Chinese jujube, cuttings taken from root suckers before emergence give 

76.8% survival (Dong and Song, 1988). Root sucker differentiation from 

mature trees is 1000 to 15000 per hectare if 15 cm of the soil surface layer is 

removed in the orchard during March-April or September-October. Chinese 

jujube suckers when treated before stooling with 2500 ppm IBA gave 100 % 

rooting in sand, 66.7 % in vermiculture + perlite and 55.6 % in soil medium but 

did not root when stooled without IBA treatment (Kim and Suh, 1989). 

5.3.5 Grafting 

5.3.5.1 Ber 

Wedge grafting has been successful for propagating ber in Israel (Nerd and 

Mizrahi, 1998); budding is on the whole easier to use and more economical. 

5.3.5.2 Chinese jujube 

Chinese jujube is propagated by whip and tongue grafting, and carried out 

during the winter when the plants are dormant. Slanting 3-5 cm long cuts are 

made on both stock and scion shoots of equal diameter. The cut ends of the 

stock and scion are joined and tied. The grafts become ready for transplanting 

after one year. One year old, primary shoots of Chinese jujube gave the best 

results for in situ grafting during spring on seedling rootstocks planted in the 

field (Kim et al., 1982 b). Cutting back the reproductive shoot above the third 

node in the middle of June increased shoot length. Softwood grafting in early 

spring also gave success of 90 % (Ivanova, 1976). 

55

Chapter 6. Agronomy 

(Revised by J.T. Williams) 

Propagation to provide planting stocks has been described in Chapter 5. This 

chapter covers planting and management of orchards or using trees as 

intercrops, and is mostly devoted to ber. 

6.1 Planting 

Spots are marked at each site. In India pits of 60 cm 3 size are dug in April or 

May for planting during the monsoon, or December to January for spring 

planting (Bajwa et al., 1972; Singh et al., 1973 a; Bakhshi and Singh, 1974). In 

arid areas the best time for planting is at the onset of the monsoon (Pareek, 

1983). 

Pits can be treated to control termites and are filled one month before planting 

with a mix of topsoil and 15-20 kg farmyard manure. Planting then takes place. 

In arid areas this is early but in others it can extend over two months. 

Planting distance depends on soil types, cultivar, climatic conditions and 

amount of training to be imposed on the plants. Higher density is possible on 

poor soils if training is rigorous. Where possible, drip irrigation is provided 

after planting (Singh, 1973 a) for the first two months. Distances are shown in 

Table 6.1. 

Table 6.1 Planting distance of ber (after Singh, 1992) 

Distance in m 

6x6 

6x5 

5x5 

6x4 

5x4 

6x3 

4x4 

Plants/ha 

277 

333 

400 

416 

500 

555 

625 

In Vietnam higher densities are grown; the mean number/ha is 625, the 

minimum 555 and the highest 1000 (Le Thi Thu Hong, 1998). Planting layout 

is usually a square pattern. 

56

6.1.1 Training of plants: ber 

Ber has a vine-like downwards growth habit and to develop a strong tree 

training is essential and is carried out usually after the first year. Initially trees 

can be supported by bamboo sticks. Timing of training varies as described 

below. 

In subtropical regions, with cold winters and warm summers, ber trees are 

trained during the first three years after planting. During the first year, after 

planting or in situ budding at the onset of monsoon (June-July in India), the 

plants are allowed to grow until the following spring (March in India). The 

bush is headed back keeping 1-2 basal buds on the scion portion just above the 

graft union to induce development of vigorous new shoots. Only one upright 

vigorous shoot is allowed to grow from the scion bud. The emerging shoot 

forms the tree trunk in due course. The trunk is kept clean up to 30 cm from 

ground level by removing all branches (Pareek, 1978 a). Bajwa and Sarowa 

(1977) and Singh et al. (1973 a), however, recommended that the tree trunk 

should be kept clean up to 75 cm. From the trunk, 3 or 4 well spaced and 

favourably placed branches are allowed to grow. The top of the trunk is headed 

back during summer (May in India) to encourage growth of these branches 

(Fig. 6.1). 

Subtropics 

Year 

June-July 

1 

March 

2 

March 

2 

May 

2 

March 

2 

Tropics 

Year 

June 

1 

December 

2 

December 

2 

February 

2 

Figure 6.1 Training ber - after planting or in situ budding 

July 

2 

Ber has a characteristic growth form producing branches usually starting from 

the sixth or ninth node from the base. Secondary branches form at regular 

intervals of three internodes (Reddy and Chadha, 1993). During spring or 

summer of the following year, shoots emerge from the basal buds of the 

secondaries and grow vigorously but the secondaries themselves either dry out 

57

or remain insignificant. Therefore, during the spring of the second year, the 

secondaries are pruned to retain their basal buds from which vigorous shoots 

emerge. More than one shoot may emerge from the basal bud, but only one of 

these is retained and others are removed. These form the main branches of the 

tree frame. On the main branches, 3-4 or sometimes 4-6 upright growing and 

properly spaced side shoots are retained and then the top of the main branches 

are headed back. During the spring of the third year, these side shoots are 

pruned retaining their basal buds. From these buds, vigorous shoots emerge to 

form the sub-main branches of the tree frame. 

Subtropics 

Year 

March 

3 

March 

4 

March 

4 

July 

5 

Tropics 

Year 

July 

2 

January 

3 

January 

3 

July 

3 

Figure 6.2 Training in ber. A - trunk, B - main branch, C - Secondary (I 

Order sylleptic branch), D - Tertiary (II Order sylleptic branch). 

In tropical regions, ber plants continue to grow during the winter months and 

thus can be trained within the first two years. About 5-6 months after planting, 

the scion portion is cut back retaining only the basal 1-2 buds. From the new 

growth emerging from the scion buds, only one upright growing vigorous shoot 

is retained and the others are removed. This forms the tree trunk. The tree 

trunk, main branches and sub-main branches are similarly developed as in the 

subtropical region except that the intervening growth periods between the 

lopping operations are shorter (about 6 months) compared to about one year in 

the subtropics. 


Generally Chinese jujubes are planted at 3.5 x 4 m up to 6 x 6 m. In China rows 

are often planted in an intercropping pattern. In Azerbaijan they are more often 

orchards (Tagiev and Gadzhier, 1990). 

58

6.2 Water management 

Availability of water is the major determinant for growth and productivity of 

all cultivated jujubes. 

6.2.1 Rainfed areas 

6.2.1.1 Water harvesting 

Many ber orchards are found in dry areas and depend only on annual rainfall 

for water. Productivity of these orchards depends mainly upon the quantity and 

distribution of rainfall and the extent of its subsequent use by the trees. A 

considerable quantity of rain water is lost as runoff and cannot be used by the 

trees unless water harvesting methods are employed. These may be in situ 

where runoff is concentrated into catchments surrounding a tree or group of 

trees, or ex situ where runoff from large rocky areas is diverted directly to 

nearby orchards or after collection in reservoirs or farm ponds. 

For in situ water harvesting land shaping may be used to prepare sloping 

catchments on both sides of the rows of ber trees. In the subtropical sandy 

planes, which receive 360 mm annual rainfall in northwest India, higher runoff 

yield was obtained from catchments having 5 % slope than from the usual land 

slope of 0.5 % (Yadav et al., 1980; Sharma et al., 1982, 1986). In due course, 

the sandy catchments stabilised as a result of compaction and levelling, and 

generated runoff even with rainfall of only 25 mm. 

On natural undulating wastelands, trees can be planted at the lowermost point 

of each microcatchment where runoff accumulates. For this, the area is divided 

into microcatchment plots of 150 to 500 m 2 each. The size of plots depend 

upon the required quantity of runoff supplement which in turn depends upon 

rainfall, catchment slope, antecedent catchment characters (compaction, 

smoothness, etc.) and the runoff coefficient of the soil (Evenari et al., 1971). 

Bhati et al. (1997) used rainwater collected in small farm ponds to irrigate ber 

trees during the fruit development period. 

6.2.2 Irrigated areas: ber 

Irrigation during early growth can be beneficial. Drip irrigation is most 

effective for this (Yaragattikar and Itnal, 2003). Farmers do not generally 

irrigate established ber orchards other than for intercrops (Verma and Gujar, 

1994). However, water deficits decrease the productivity of trees by reducing 

the assimilation rate. In the subtropical semi-arid region of north India, 

irrigation during the fruit development period has been observed to increase 

productivity by decreasing fruit drop (Bakhshi and Singh, 1974). Although 

irrigation during the flowering period causes flower shedding in ber (Singh et 

al., 1973 a), watering may have to be done if there are prolonged breaks in the 

59

monsoon during the growth and flowering period. Irrigation at the time of fruit 

maturity delays and prolongs the maturity period. 


Chinese jujube productivity also increases with irrigation (fruit yield increasing 

by 60 %: Tagier and Gadzhier, 1990). Where irrigation is practised there are 

normally about six irrigations in a season. 

In both major jujubes saline water up to almost 6 dSm -1 can be used; higher 

contents result in a decrease in fruit yield (Jin et al., 1988; Jain and Dass, 

1988). 

6.2.4 Conservation of moisture 

Mulching conserves moisture in the soil and suppresses weed growth. A range 

of organic wastes can be used. Normally a bed is prepared around the trunk 

covering three quarters of the area of the canopy. Black polythene sheeting is 

also useful and the most effective treatment (see Pareek and Nath, 1996 for ber; 

and Byun et al., 1989, 1991 and Ming and Sun, 1986 for Chinese Jujuba). 

A number of chemical sprays have been tested to reduce loss of water through 

transpiration. Other chemicals can be watered in the soil around the trees for 

this purpose. However, they are not yet cost-effective. 

6.3 Weeding 

Weeding is normally carried out through regular hoeings which are shallow 

tillings. Particular attention in all jujube species is paid to removal of root 

suckers in order to maintain the individual tree. 

Annual ploughing of inter-row spaces helps weed control when carried out 

after weed emergence, followed by harrowing later. 

Herbicides can be used e.g. dalapon followed by paraquat, each at the rate of 5 

kg/ha (Bajwa et al., 1990) and glycophosphate at 4 kg/ha (Bajwa et al., 1993). 

6.4 Manure and fertilisers 

Small orchards are seldom manured. In the arid region of northwest India, 

farmers do not apply any manure or fertiliser in ber orchards other than that 

given at planting time (Verma and Gujar, 1994). Regular manuring is, 

however, essential to replenish the nutrient removal by the tree through fruit 

harvests and annual pruning besides losses from the soil. According to Ahlawat 

et al. (1990), as many as 75 % of the orchards in the arid subtropics were 

deficient in organic N and 90 % in P but none in K. Under subtropical and 

60

tropical agroclimates, nitrogen deficiency is widespread and thus it plays a 

major role in determining fruit yields . Deficiencies of N, P and K reduce shoot 

length, leaf number and size, axillary branch number, flowering and fruit set 

and consequently productivity of the tree (Sadhu et al., 1978). 

A ber tree removes from the soil, 142 to 191 g N, 59 to 87 g P and 467 to 684 g 

K on average during a single growing season (Mehrotra et al., 1987). Most is 

due to fruit harvesting. According to Pandey et al., (1990), 43.8 g N, 7.5 g P, 

101.2 g K, 4.5 g Ca and 22.7 g Mg are removed by 100 kg harvest of fruits. 

Judicious manuring and fertilisation are necessary to replace nutrient losses and 

to correct deficiencies due to imbalances in the soil or plant. Nitrogen and 

phosphorus fertilisation in the light soils of the arid and semi-arid subtropics is 

critical and potash may be applied to guard against its possible limitation as a 

result of annual removal over several years. 

6.4.1 Nutrients recommended 

In irrigated ber orchards 20-30 kg FYM or 400-500 g N, 200 g K20 and 200 g 

P205 can be provided annually when planted widely. In rainfed conditions half 

these doses are recommended (Singh, 1992). Actual practices are shown in 

Table 6.2 

Table 6.2 Nutrient practices in ber orchards in India (amounts in kg) 

Manurial Practices Punjab Rajasthan Haryana 

Farm yard manure 

Year 1 10 10 10 

Annual increment 10 10 5 

Year 5 onwards -- 50 30 

Year 10 onwards 100 -- -- 

Calcium ammonium nitrate 

Year 1 0.5 -- 0.5 

Annual increment 0.5 -- 0.5 

Year 5 onwards -- -- 2.0 

Year 10 onwards ca 5 -- 

Superphosphate 

Year 1 -- -- 0.25 

Annual increment -- -- 0.25 

Year 5 onwards -- -- 1.00 

Bone meal 

Year 1 -- 0.25 -- 

Year 2 -- 0.25 -- 

Year 3 -- 0.50 -- 

Source: Singh et al., 1973 a (Punjab); Pareek, 1978 a (Rajasthan); Chundawat and 

Srivastava, 1978 (Haryana). 

61

In the low fertility soils of arid and semi-arid regions, application of organic 

manures is considered essential for sustained nutrient supply. Organic manures 

also enable greater moisture retention for longer periods in these light soils. 

Similarly, fertilisers having lower losses of nutrients, e.g. calcium ammonium 

nitrate rather than urea, are preferred. 

The best results have been obtained in young orchards of cv. Umran by 

application of 400 g N + 100 g P + 200 g K per tree (Dhatt et al., 1993); in 

established orchards of Umran by application of 750 g N per tree (Dahiya et 

al., 1985); in 8 year old orchards of Kaithli by application of 500 g N per tree 

(Yamdagni et al., 1980); and in 6 year old orchards of Gola cultivar by 

application of 1000 g N + 1000 g P + 150 g K per tree (Singh et al., 1986). A 

multi-location trial indicated good results by application of 750 g N per tree in 

deep sandy soils of the north-western subtropics and by 250 g N per tree in the 

shallow sandy loam soils in the southern tropics of India (Pareek and Nath, 

1996). Thus, it appears that ber trees require 500 to 1000 g N, 400 to 800 g P 

and 100 to 200 g K per tree depending upon age of the tree and edaphic and 

climatic conditions of the area. 

The method of placement of fertilisers depends on the root growth pattern. In 

an irrigated orchard, most of the active roots of 10-year old ber trees are 

located 2.35 m from the trunk and up to 0.5 m deep (Khera et al., 1981). Under 

rainfed conditions, however, the roots make more vertical growth down to a 

depth of 4.5 m (Pareek, 1977). 

6.4.2 Foliar feeding 

Under rainfed conditions, foliar feeding is often a practical method of 

supplementing nutrient requirements, particularly of nitrogen and 

micronutrients. Nitrogen fertilisation of ber trees through foliar sprays of urea 

increased fruit set, fruit retention and yield, and improved fruit quality in 

cultivars Banarsi Karaka (Rajput and Singh, 1976; 1977), Umran (Chauhan and 

Gupta, 1985; Singh and Ahlawat, 1995) and Gola (Joon et al., 1984). Dahiya et 

al. (1985) found that application of 375 g N through foliar spray and 375 g N to 

the soil gave a fruit yield of 128-130 kg per tree, higher than by applying all the 

nitrogen either through soil or foliage. The optimum concentration of urea for 

foliar application seems to be 1 to 2 % (Joon et al., 1984; Chauhan and Gupta, 

1985; Dahiya et al., 1985; Singh and Ahlawat, 1995). Two sprays may be 

required at monthly intervals depending upon the nitrogen requirement. The 

best time for spray application seems to be after the fruit has set (Joon et al., 

1984; Chauhan and Gupta, 1985; Dahiya et al., 1985; Singh and Ahlawat, 

1995). 

62

Supplementing micronutrients through foliar sprays of 0.2 to 0.4 % ZnSO 4 or 

FeSO 4 or MnSO 4 and 0.2 % boric acid has been observed to increase TSS and 

ascorbic acid contents (Kamble and Desai, 1996). This resulted in development 

of golden-yellow rather than green-yellow fruit colour in tropical regions. In 

the arid subtropics where zinc deficiency is more common and widespread, 

higher concentrations of ZnSO 4 , i.e. 0.5 % (Singh and Ahlawat, 1995) and 0.8 

% (Joon et al., 1984) have given a better response. 

Combined sprays of micronutrients (0.03 % boric acid and 0.5 % ZnSO 4 ) and 

growth regulator (50 ppm NAA) have been found to improve fruit quality in 

ber by increasing total soluble solids, total sugars and ascorbic acid and 

decreasing acidity (Singh et al., 1989 a, b). 

In Chinese jujube 200 ppm ethephon along with urea sprays accelerated 

movement of nitrogen from leaves to other parts of the tree and increased the 

length of fruit bearing branches, fruit set and fruit weight (Hao and Zeng, 

1991). 

6.4.3 Microbial inoculations 

Microbial inoculations of soil and ber roots with Azospirillum, Azotobacter 

(Rao and Dass, 1989), vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (VAM) (Mathur 

and Vyas, 1995 a,b,c,d; 1996) and other nitrogen fixing actinomycetes (Tuohy 

et al., 1991) can help in effective nutrient management. Soil inoculation with 

cell suspensions of Azospirillum brasilense strains S 14 , S 51 and S 54 or 

Azotobacter chroococcum increased height and weight of young plants of cv. 

Gola (Rao and Dass, 1989). 

6.5 Pruning 

Pruning is essential to maintain vigour in the trees and to maintain fruit 

productivity, quality and size. 

Fruit bearing in ber is on the current season’s shoots (Singh et al., 1970; 

Pareek, 1983) and remains confined to the secondary and tertiary branches 

(Reddy, 1983). Pruning should therefore induce the emergence of a maximum 

number of secondaries and tertiaries on vigorous shoots. This can be done by 

pruning at the right time and with the right intensity depending upon location 

and cultivar. 

6.5.1 Pruning intensity 

The severity of annual pruning is determined by the length of the past season’s 

shoot retained after the pruning operation, e.g. 20 or 25 cm (very severe), 40 or 

50 or 60 cm (severe), 70 or 75 or 90 cm (moderate), 100 or 120 or 125 cm 

(light), 150 cm (very light) (Singh et al., 1978 b; Gupta and Singh, 1979; Lal 

63

and Prasad, 1979; 1980 a, b, c; 1981; Dhaliwal and Sandhu, 1984; Bajwa et al., 

1986, 1987; Syamal and Rajput, 1989; Nanthakumar, 1991). However, the 

severity of pruning varies depending on the vigour of the shoot (total length 

and diameter). An alternative approach has been to base light, moderate and 

severe pruning on removal of one-quarter, half and three-quarters of the length 

of the shoot respectively (Sharma, et al., 1980; Singh and Godara, 1985; Yadav 

and Godara, 1987, 1992). The three severity levels have also been based on 

pruning the shoot at a point where it is 1, 2 or 3 cm in diameter (Bisla et al., 

1988, 1990, 1991). 

With increasing pruning severity, the shoot (length and width) increases (Gupta 

and Singh, 1979; Singh and Godara, 1985; Bisla et al., 1988; Syamal and 

Rajput, 1989) and produces a larger number of secondary and tertiary branches 

(Bisla et al., 1990). Lal and Prasad (1979) and Dhaliwal and Sandhu (1984) 

reported that the growth in terms of number of shoots, shoot length and 

diameter was greatest using moderate pruning. Moderate pruning also induces 

maximum flowering (Lal and Prasad, 1980 a), fruit set and fruit retention (Lal 

and Prasad, 1980 a; Dhaliwal and Sandhu, 1984; Gupta et al., 1990; Yadav and 

Godara, 1992) and severe pruning decreases the number of flowers per cyme 

(Dhaliwal and Sandhu, 1984), fruit set and retention (Syamal and Rajput, 1989; 

Yadav and Godara, 1992) and delayed fruit maturity (Yadav and Godara, 

1992). Light pruning reduces fruit drop (Lal and Prasad, 1980 c) and increases 

fruit set and retention (Bajwa et al., 1986). Pruning has been observed to 

increase leaf area (Singh and Godara, 1985; Bisla et al., 1990; Nanthakumar, 

1991). 

Fruit yield falls as pruning severity increases, and is at its lowest in unpruned 

trees (Dhaliwal and Sandhu, 1984; Bajwa et al., 1986, 1987; Syamal and 

Rajput, 1989; Kundu et al., 1995). Dinesh (2002) has reported on pruning 

intensity especially in semi-arid conditions. The best results have been obtained 

by moderate to light pruning in terms of yield and quality of fruits (Singh et al., 

1978 b; Lal and Prasad, 1979, 1980 b, c, 1981; Sharma et al., 1980; Gupta and 

Godara, 1989; Islam, 1989; Gupta et al., 1990; Bisla et al., 1991). 

Reddy (1983) observed that if the nodes up to the fourth or sixth secondaries 

(17-23 nodes) on the main axis are induced to sprout by pruning, vigorous 

shoots giving maximum fruit yield are produced. Also the new growth from the 

nodes on the main axis is significantly more productive than that from the 

secondaries. The secondaries should therefore be completely removed at the 

time of pruning. Multilocation trials have confirmed these results (Pareek and 

Nath, 1996), and it has been recommended that the main axis should be pruned 

at 15 to 25 nodes depending upon agroclimatic conditions, i.e. at 20-25 nodes 

in arid areas and at 15 nodes in semi-arid or more moderate regions, along with 

complete removal of secondaries. 

64

There are some differences according to cultivar. Mukherjee and Soni (1993) 

obtained best fruit production by pruning to the sixth secondaries (25 nodes) in 

cv. Seo. Kundu et al. (1995) found that pruning up to 15 nodes was best in cv. 

Umran. 

Old, unpruned, jujube species can be rehabilitated by reducing overlapping 

branches and precipitate fruit bearing towards the outer part of the crown. Half 

the number of shoots on a tree are pruned at 15 to 25 nodes depending upon 

cultivar, and the remaining half are pruned severely retaining only the basal 

node (Anon., 1989 b; Kundu et al., 1995). From the basal node of the severely 

pruned shoots, vigorous foundation shoots emerge which during the next year 

are pruned at 15 or 25 nodes while the remaining half are pruned severely. This 

pattern of pruning helps to maintain sustainable production as well as tree 

form. Even 30 year old trees can be brought back to bearing (Bal et al., 2004) 

Kurian (1985) was able to induce early bud break and increase the number of 

vigorous sprouts by a pre-pruning spray of 3% thiourea combined with two 

post-pruning sprays of 100 ppm benzyladenine or 50 ppm TIBA at monthly 

intervals. A pre-pruning spray (before 48 h) with 3% thiourea and then pruning 

half the shoots at 25 nodes and the remaining half to the previous season’s 

growth gave the highest fruit yield of 128 kg/tree. 

6.5.2 Pruning in Chinese jujube 

Tian et al. (1983) described pruning, one year after training, by cutting back 

long branches (over 2 m) and by nipping terminal buds. All secondary branches 

on the main stem are retained to increase the number of bearing spurs. During 

the fourth year, the main stems are ringed or notched and sprayed with 10 ppm 

GA. Plant height is determined by pruning in Chinese jujube. There are 

advantages in keeping trees below 3 m height. 

6.5.3 Pruning time 

Whereas Chinese jujube is pruned in summer the time of pruning in Indian 

jujube varies in different climates. In subtropical regions, the most appropriate 

time is during summer (between May and June in parts of India) when the trees 

shed their leaves and enter dormancy (Nijjar, 1972, 1975; Singh and Sandhu, 

1984; Gupta and Godara, 1989; Gupta et al., 1990; Kundu et al., 1995) and 

before putting forth new growth. Early pruning has been observed to advance 

flowering and fruit maturity (Singh and Sandhu, 1984; Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

In tropical regions with a mild winter and rainfall during December-January 

and early onset of summer rainfall (e.g. Tamil Nadu), pruning can be carried 

out any time from January to April. It is also possible to regulate fruit maturity 

so that bearing occurs at the desired time (Pareek and Nath, 1996). In tropical 

regions without winter rainfall (e.g. Andhra Pradesh), pruning during the first 

65

two weeks of April results in early flowering and therefore early harvest; 

however, the maximum yield of good quality fruits is obtained by pruning in 

the second two weeks of April (Ramadevi, 1989). In Maharashtra, the best time 

for pruning is before the end of April (Pareek and Nath, 1996; Deotate et al., 

1997) as further delay causes reduction in fruit yield. 

6.6 Pests 

There are six major insect pests described below. A few others are listed and a 

comprehensive list is provided in Appendix I. 

6.6.1 Fruitfly 

Carpomyia vesuviana, Dacus correctus and D. dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) 

infest ber fruits (Basha, 1952; Batra, 1953; Saen, 1986). Carpomyia vesuviana 

has been observed to damage as much as 80% of the crop under severe 

infestations (Cherian and Sunderam, 1941). It is the most serious pest of ber. 

(see Plate 7) 

Infestation starts with the onset of fruit setting. The adult female lays eggs 

singly by inserting its ovipositor in the young developing fruit. After 2 to 5 

days, the larvae hatch, start feeding on the pulp and make galleries in it. 

Generally, only one larva is found in one fruit. The excreta of the larva 

accumulate in the galleries, which may sometimes result in rotting of the fruit. 

Infested fruits become deformed and their growth becomes checked. A large 

number of such fruits drop off. The larval stage lasts 9 to 12 days. When full 

grown (6 mm length), the larva finds its way out by making a hole in the fruit 

skin and drops to the ground. The larva bores down into the soil up to a depth 

of 2 to 12 cm where it pupates. The pupal period lasts about 2 weeks after 

which the adult fly (5 to 8 mm long, 3 mm broad) emerges. There may be 2 or 

3 generations of the pest during the active period (Batra, 1953), while the fruit 

matures (from November to April in north India). 

6.6.1.1 Prophylaxis 

To prevent infestation, prophylactic sprays can be carried out with 0.03 % 

oxidematon or dimethoate starting from the stage when 70-80 % fruits attain 

pea size and then repeating the spray at one-month intervals (Pareek and Nath, 

1996). During the maturity of fruits, if necessary, spraying should be done with 

0.5% Malathion + 0.05% sugar solution at weekly intervals. Malathion has 

been observed to dissipate quickly in ber fruits decreasing well below the 

tolerance level of 3 ppm within 2 days after spraying (Popli et al., 1980). 

6.6.1.2 Control 

Cultivation of the orchard soil during spring (Singh et al., 1973 a), summer 

(Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) and rainy season (Bakhshi and Singh, 1974) 

destroys the hibernating pupae by exposing them to bright sunlight and birds 

66

and thus the extent of infestation is considerably reduced. Heating the soil by 

burning grass and irrigation during the summer also kills the pupae. Infested 

fruits having larvae should be collected and buried. 

Infected fruit have to be collected and destroyed. The pest has been effectively 

controlled by insecticidal spray schedules such as, 

i) three applications of 0.1 % fenthion or two sprays of Endosulfan or 

Malathion (Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978; Patel et al., 1989), 

ii) 0.005 % Fenvalerate or 0.0015 % deltamethrin or 0.05 % monocrotophos or 

phosphamidon (Bagle, 1992), 

iii) two applications with 0.1 % Dichlorvos, one at pea stage of fruit and 

another after one month (Raghumoorthi and Arumugam, 1992) and 

Monocrotophos or Phosphamidon + carbaryl treatments (Patel and Patel, 

1979). 

Recent data on the efficiency of insecticides to control fruit fly have been given 

by Gyi et al,.(2003) and Gyi et al., (2003a) . 

6.6.1.3 Resistant cultivars 

Mann and Bindra (1976) reported that cultivars Sanaur-1, Safeda Selected, 

Illaichi, Mirchia, ZG-3 and Umran resisted fruitfly damage. Singh (1984 b) 

observed that the extent of infestation varied between cultivars from 6.7 % in 

Tikadi to 73 % in Gola, Gola Gurgaon-3 and Kaithli (Singh and Vashishtha, 

1984) and that the percentage of larvae hatched also varied indicating varying 

degrees of resistance . 

6.6.1.4 Biological control 

This has not yet been developed. However, Bracon fletcheri, Opius carpomyiae 

and Omphalina sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) have been recorded to 

parasitise fruitfly but could not provide effective control (Saxena and Rawat, 

1968). Biosteres carpomyiae and Opius fletcheri (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) 

are also reported to parasitise fruitfly. 

6.6.2 Fruit borer 

Damage by larvae of the fruit borer moth Meridarchis scyrodes (Lepidoptera: 

Carposinidae) has been observed mainly in southern and western India 

(Sonawane and Dorge, 1971; Pareek and Nath, 1996). The reddish larvae bore 

into the fruit and feed on the pulp. The moths are dark brown. 


Chemical control consists of the following: first spray at pea stage with 

Monocrotophos (0.03 %), second spray after 15 days with Fenthion (0.05 %) 

and a third spray 15 days after the second spray with 0.01 % Carbaryl has been 

recommended (Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

67

Collection and destruction of fallen fruits and digging the orchard soil under 

the tree canopy have also given good control. Microbracon sp. (Hymenoptera: 

Braconidae), and Opius carpomyiae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) have been 

found to parasitise the borer. Resistant cultivars Banarsi Pewandi, Ajmeri, Gola 

Gurgaon and Jhajjar Selection have been found to be resistant to the pest. 

6.6.3 Bark eating caterpillar 

The caterpillars of Indarbela quadrinotata, I. watsoni and I. tetraonis 

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) have been reported to make winding galleries of 

frassy web on the stem near the forks and angles of branches. The caterpillar is 

hidden in the stem in the day-time and becomes active at night, eating the bark. 

Heavy infestation by this pest stunts the trees and adversely affects fruit yield. 

The moth is pale with grey marks on the forewings. It lays eggs with the onset 

of the rainy season in batches of 15 to 25. A single female moth can lay 300 to 

400 eggs. Incubation period lasts 8 to 10 days. After emerging, the caterpillars 

start devouring the bark. The dark brown, full-grown caterpillar is 37 to 50 mm 

long and has a dark head; its body is covered with long, thin hairs. The 

caterpillars pupate during the summer for about four weeks and from the pupae 

adult moths emerge, mate, and lay eggs again. 


Frassy galleries caused by the pest need to be removed and cleaned. Then 

0.05% Monocrotophos is painted on the bark, followed by 0.2 % Trichlophos 

and 0.05 % Chlorofenvinsphos (Verma and Singh, 1975). Application of the 

solution, made up by mixing one litre of kerosene and 100 g soap in 9 litres of 

water, to the holes has been found to effectively control the bark eating 

caterpillar. Alternatively, each hole should be filled with a solution of 2 ml 

Monocrotophos or 20 ml Trichlorphon 50 EC or 30 ml Endosulfan 35 EC in 10 

litres of water and then the holes closed with mud. The Dipteran, Zenillia 

heterusiae (Diptera: Tachinidae) parasitises I. quadrinotata. 

6.6.3.2 Resistant cultivars 

Singh (1984 a) found no cultivars that are resistant. However, pest-tolerant 

cultivars include, Rohtak Gola, Laddu Glory, Chuhara and Desi Alwar. Gola, 

Kaithli, Illaichi are susceptible (Verma and Singh, 1974; Mann and Bindra, 

1977). 

6.6.4 Hairy caterpillars 

Hairy caterpillars (Dasychira mendosa, Euproctis fraterna (Lepidoptera: 

Lamantriidae), Thiacidas postica (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)) feed on the young 

leaves and fruits. The older caterpillars spread in all directions and devour 

leaves and fruits and sometimes even tender shoots. They start eating new 

foliage as it grows after pruning and this is continued by overlapping 

68

generations. The full-grown larva is reddish brown with a dark brown head. 

The larva pupates on the plant in a yellowish, hairy cocoon from which a 

yellowish moth with pale transverse lines on the forewings emerges. It then 

lays flat, circular yellowish eggs in masses on the lower surface of the leaves. 

The females lay 92-241 eggs, which hatch in 9-14 days (Bhatnagar and Lakra, 

1992). The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods last 2, 1 

and 4 days respectively, and the larval, pre-pupal, pupal and adult stages last 

25-56, 2-3, 7-15 and 5-7 days respectively. As many as six generations each of 

44-84 days’ duration have been observed in a year. 


BHC 10 % can be dusted to control caterpillars in the young stages. All the 

instars were controlled by treatment with 0.1 % Carbaryl or Endosulfan or 

Trichlorphon or 0.05 % Methyl parathion (Verma et al., 1972). Bhatnagar and 

Lakra (1992) obtained the most effective control of 3 rd to 6 th instar larvae by 

0.005 % Cypermethrin, 0.0014 % Deltamethrin, 0.0075 % Fluvalinate and 

0.0005 % Fenvalerate. A spray of 0.05 % Monocrotophos and 0.2 % Carbaryl 

(Killex carbaryl 50WP) was found most effective in controlling the pest 

(Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

The hairy caterpillar is parasitised by Apanteles taprobanae (Hymenoptera: 

Braconidae), Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae), Charops obtusus 

and Goryphus sp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Exorista species has 

recently been found to be a parasitoid of the caterpillar in Karnataka (Mani et 

al., 2001). 

6.6.5 Chafer beetle (ber beetle or leaf chafer) 

Chafer beetles (Adoretus decanus, A. kanarensis, A. stoliezkae, A. pallens, A. 

versutus) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) devour ber leaves mainly during the 

night. They become active with the onset of the rainy season when new growth 

starts. Leaves become like sieves and, in severe cases, the whole tree is 

rendered leafless. Eggs are laid in the soil during the early part of the rainy 

season (May to August in north India). Larvae hatch out in one week and feed 

on roots and vegetation. Adults emerge with the onset of rains. There is only 

one generation per year. 


Beetles can be controlled effectively by spraying 0.2 % Carbaryl 50WP and 

0.05 % Monocrotophos (Pareek and Nath, 1996). Adoretus pallens can be 

controlled by spraying 1 % lead arsenate (Trehan, 1956). The beetles can be 

trapped by using any source of light and killed by dropping them into water 

containing kerosene. 

69

6.6.6 Lac insect 

Ber is a host of the lac insects, Kerria lacca and K. sindica (Li and Hu, 1994). 

The small insects become active in summer (April-May). They secrete a thick, 

resinous substance which envelopes their bodies. The secretions form a hard 

crust on the twigs, which is collected to form a commercial resin, lac. Lac 

production is an important business in India. However, the insect devitalises 

the tree and causes great loss in fruit production. It sucks the sap from the 

branches, and ultimately kills the tree. An infestation of 5000 nymphs/100 cm 

twigs caused a loss of 52.5-58.5 % fruit yield (Lakra and Kher, 1990). 

Obviously production of lac and fruits cannot be done simultaneously (see 

Plate 8). 


Infected twigs should be cut off at the time of annual pruning and destroyed. If 

required, this can be repeated after about 3 months. After pruning, the trees 

should be sprayed with 0.1 % Dimethoate or 0.03 % phosphamidon. The lac 

insect is parasitised by several wasp species, two species of moths and 3 

species of lacewing flies. Cultivar Gola was found to be the most susceptible 

cultivar to the attack of lac insect followed by Kaithli and Umran (Lakra and 

Kher, 1990). 

6.6.7 Other insect pests 

The following may also cause damage on ber: 

Leaf Hopper 

Mealy Bug 

Weevil 

Leaf Gall 

Wax Scale 

Zyginida pakistanica 

Droschiella tamarindus 

Xanthochelus supercilosus 

Phyllodiplosis jujubae 

Drepanococcus chiton 

6.6.8 Mites 

Mites produce galls in floral buds preventing fruit production (Yamdagni and 

Gill, 1968). The mite, Eriophes cernuus occurs in India throughout the year 

(Mukherjee et al., 1994). Galled tissues contain higher total carbohydrates and 

reducing sugars and more -amylase activity compared to the normal tissue 

(Tandon and Arya, 1979). Treatment with 0.04 % dicofol gave the best control. 

The fungus, Fusarium demicellulare is found on the galls and this seems to 

check the development and spread of galls during the initial stages (Singh and 

Singh, 1978). 

Incidence of the mite Larvacarus transitans can be high during June. Cultivar 

Sev was the most susceptible (Sharma, 1992). The population of the red mite 

was least on the leaves of cultivar Kaithli (Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

70

6.7 Diseases 

6.7.1 Powdery mildew 

Powdery mildew (Oidium erysiphoides f. sp. ziziphi) causes great losses in ber 

in India, particularly in humid areas, and also in Africa. While most of the 

cultivars were observed to be susceptible at a humid location in southern India, 

31 out of 66 cultivars observed by Lodha et al., (1984), under the arid 

conditions of northwest India, did not show any symptoms of the disease. 

Maximum development of powdery mildew occurs when the maximum 

temperature is between 24-35 o C, minimum temperature between 4-22 o C, 

morning RH 64-91 % and evening RH 24-57 % (Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

Cultivar Umran was studied and similar results obtained (Thind et al. 2004). 

The disease occurs with increased virulence during high rainfall years (Sharma, 

2003), and disease incidence can relate to time of pruning as well as to weather 

(Jamadar and Venkatesh., 2003). 

The symptoms of the disease are noticed on flowers and newly set fruits. The 

disease may appear earlier if conditions are favourable. The developing young 

leaves show a whitish powdery mass, which causes them to shrink and 

defoliate. The disease also appears in the form of white powdery spots on the 

surface of the fruits and later covers the whole fruit surface. The spots turn into 

light brown to dark brown discolouration. The infected area becomes slightly 

raised and rough. Affected fruits either drop off prematurely or become corky, 

cracked, misshapen and remain underdeveloped. Sometimes the whole crop is 

rendered unmarketable (see Plate 9). 

The mycelium remains external on the host with white, single, upright 

conidiophores. The fungus survives in the bud wood of the host or in some 

alternate hosts during the absence of ber flowers and fruits. Mehta (1950) 

reported that the mycelium over-winters and arises annually in the new growth. 

These become primary sources of infection. Air-borne spores act as a 

secondary source of infection. The disease is observed on both cultivated and 

wild forms of ber. 


The disease can be controlled by spraying Dinocap (0.2 % Karathane WP or 

0.1 % Karathane EC), 0.2 % Sulfex (Gupta et al., 1977, 1978; Yadav and 

Singh, 1985; Singh et al., 1995), 0.2 % Carbendazim (Yadav et al., 1980; 

Singh and Sidhu, 1985) or Trideomorph (Singh et al., 1995). According to 

Kapoor et al. (1975) spray of 0.07 % Karathane EC or 0.3 % Sulfex achieved 

satisfactory control. Multi-location trials in India have shown that fungicides 

such as Dinocap (0.1 %), Carbendazim (0.1 %), wettable Sulphur (0.2 %), 

Trideomorph (0.1 %), Sulphur dust (250 g/tree) and Thiophenate Methyl 

(0.1 %) were effective for the control of powdery mildew. Sharma et al. 

71

(2001) evaluated Bayleton and Karathane sprays for control and both are 

effective but the former costs twice the latter. Starting with the initiation of the 

disease, 2 to 4 sprays at 15-20 day intervals should be carried out depending 

upon disease intensity. The time of spray is critical for effective control. Gupta 

et al. (1978) and Singh and Sidhu (1985) suggested that spraying should be 

started as soon as the disease appears on fruits of peanut size and repeated at 3- 

week intervals. In regions with an established record of recurrence of the 

disease, one spray of fungicide should be applied as a prophylactic measure as 

soon as growth appears after pruning (Pareek and Nath, 1996). 

6.7.1.2 Cultivars 

Although some cultivars have been reported to be resistant under field 

conditions (Jeyarajan and Cheema, 1972; Kapoor et al., 1975; Gupta et al., 

1978; Lodha et al., 1984), the reaction of these cultivars to the disease has 

varied at different locations and in different years. The disease affects several 

Ziziphus species and all the ber cultivars. Ber cultivars Illaichi Jhajjar, Gola, 

Seb, Safed Rohtak and Mehrun have shown comparative tolerance to the 

disease in northern India. Five local genotypes (Darakhi-1, Darakhi-2, Guli, 

Villaiti and Seedless) have been reported to be free from the disease. Umran 

Sandhura, Narul, Iuaichia and Kaithli are susceptible. Safeda Rohtak is a recent 

cultivar selected for resistance to powdery mildew (Godhara et al., 2002). Wax 

levels of immature fruits and leaves play a role in degree of susceptibility 

(Pradeep and Jambhale, 2001). 

6.7.2 Alternaria leaf spot 

Several species of Alternaria cause this disease, e.g. Alternaria anomorph of 

Lewia (Pleospora) infectoria (Gupta and Madaan, 1977 a), Alternaria 

anomorph of Pleospora caricola, Pleospora passeriniana (Panwar and Vyas, 

1971), Alternaria sp. (Jeyarajan and Cheema, 1972), Alternaria chartarum 

(Rao, 1971), Alternaria tenuissima (Kanaujia and Kishore, 1977). In Ziziphus 

oenoplia, the disease is caused by Annellophorella (Chary and Ramarao, 1971). 

The disease caused by the Alternaria anomorph of Leiwa (Pleospora) 

infectoria, produces small, irregular brown spots on the upper surface of the 

leaves and dark brown to black spots on the lower surface. The spots coalesce 

forming large blighted patches and the affected leaves drop (see Plate 10). 

The disease develops at temperatures from 20 to 30 o C (Madaan and Chand, 

1985), but high humidity and frequent rainfall appear to be more important. 

Plant debris seems to be a source of primary infection. Secondary infection is 

possibly caused by dissemination of spores under frequent rainfall. 

72


The disease can be controlled by spraying 0.3 % mancozeb or 0.2 % captafol or 

0.3 % copper oxychloride (Pareek and Nath, 1996). Gupta and Madaan, (1978) 

recommended a spray of 0.2 % difolatan or Dithane Z-78. 


Jeyarajan and Cheema (1972) found all 35 ber cultivars tested to be susceptible 

to Alternaria leaf spot disease. Cultivars Govindgarh Special, Gola, Gurgaon, 

Popular Gola, Seo-Bahadirgarhia, ZG-3, Sofed Rohtak and Jhajjar Special were 

reported to be resistant by Gupta and Malaan, (1978, 1980). 

6.7.3 Black leaf spot 

This is caused by Isariopsis indica var. ziziphi and is also known as Isariopsis 

mouldy leaf spot (Gupta and Madaan, 1977 b). The disease has been observed 

under comparatively humid conditions. (see Plate 11) 

The disease is characterised by sooty tuft-like circular to irregular black spots 

on the underside of the leaves. Later, it covers the entire lower surface giving a 

sooty appearance. The leaves show yellowish and brownish discolouration on 

the upper surface and drop prematurely. The fungus survives in plant debris 

and soil, which are the primary sources of infection. Secondary infection is 

initiated from spores present in the air. 


The disease can be controlled by captafol (0.2 %), carbendazim (0.1 %), 

mancozeb (0.2 %) and copper oxychloride (0.2 %). The sprays should be 

applied 2-3 times at 15 day intervals starting with the first sign of symptoms 

(Pareek and Nath, 1996). Rawal and Saxena (1989) obtained good control by 

0.1 % carbendazim and 0.2 % chlorothalonil. Sharma et al. (1983) obtained 

best control by 0.3 % zineb or 0.6 % Blitox. Singh and Andotra (1989) 

controlled the disease by sprays of 0.1 % Bengard and thiophenate methyl. 

Chand et al. (1986) recommended spraying 0.2 % carbendazim or captafol. 

Gupta and Madaan (1979) found a mycoparasite, Hansfordia pulvinata 

growing on the diseased spots which checked further disease growth on the 

host. More investigations are required on use of such biocontrol agents. 


Ber cultivars Seo-Bahadurgarhia, ZG-3, Safed Rohtak and Sanaur-1 have been 

found to resist the disease infection in a multilocation trial in India (Pareek and 

Nath, 1996). Cultivars Mundia, Banarsi Karaka, Banarsi Pewandi and Bagwadi 

also showed resistance to the disease at some locations. 

73

6.7.4 Cercospora leaf spot 

Cercospora ziziphae (Rao, 1962; Yadav, 1963a; Govindu and Thirumalachar, 

1964; Gupta and Madaan, 1975 b) and C. jujubae (Chona et al., 1959; 

Vasudeva, 1960; Agarwal and Sahni, 1964; Golsen and Rubin, 1964) infect 

ber, but the former is the most common and occurs during spring. The disease 

manifests itself in the form of circular to oval spots, measuring up to 4 mm in 

diameter, epiphyllous, yellow at first and turning brown surrounded by a darkbrown 

margin. The spots grow larger and become visible on both sides of the 

leaves. The infected leaves fall off. 

Cercospora leaf spot is also found on Chinese jujube, causing leaf yellowing. 

The fungus produces dark coloured stroma. It survives in debris and soil, the 

primary sources of infection. The spores are disseminated by wind. 


The disease can be controlled by spraying 0.2 % Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M- 

45. Cultivars Safed Rohtak, ZG-3, Seo-Bahadurgarhia, Popular Gola, Rashmi 

and Jhajjar Selection were resistant to Cercospora (Chand et al., 1986). 

6.7.5 Cladosporium leaf spot 

Cladosporium ziziphi (Uppal et al., 1935; Prasad and Verma, 1970; Saini and 

Suppal, 1981) and C. herbarum (Gupta and Madaan, 1975b) cause this disease, 

with attacks occurring in the autumn. 

The symptoms appear in the form of small, light brown to brown irregular 

spots on the lower surface of leaves. The disease starts on leaves closest to the 

soil surface, where the fungus occurs. It is also spread by spores present in the 

air. The fungal spores survive in plant debris and soil, the primary sources of 

infection. 


Two sprays of 0.2 % copper oxychloride or zineb or mancozeb should be 

applied at 2-week intervals (Pareek and Nath, 1996) starting from the 

appearance of the symptoms. 


Cultivars Sandhura Narnaul and Jogia were found to be resistant. Chand et al. 

(1986) observed that cultivars ZG-3, Banarsi, Govindgarh Selection-3, Jhajjar 

Selection and Jogia were also resistant. 

74

6.7.6 Rust 

Although rust can be serious in ber, it is less so in Chinese jujube (see Plate 

12). 

Rust is caused by Phakospora ziziphi-vulgaris (Sydow and Sydow, 1907; 

Yadav, 1963b; Gupta et al., 1984). The disease appears towards the end of 

winter on the leaves in the form of small, irregular, reddish-brown 

uredopustules on the lower surface. Pustules aggregate on the tips and margins 

resulting in large necrotic spots and death of tissues. The infection advances 

over the whole surface and the infected leaves become dry and fall off. 


The disease can be controlled by application of 0.4 % copper oxychloride or 

0.2 % zineb or captafol (Pareek and Nath, 1996). In Chinese jujube, the disease 

severity was reduced by 84.9-97.5 % after application of metalaxyl and 

Bordeaux mixture (Sun et al., 1989). 


Chand et al. (1986) reported cultivars Banarsi, Seo, Katha Gurgaon, Gola 

Gurgaon-2, Dandan, Sanaur-1, Safeda Selected and Sanaur-3 to be resistant. 

Several other foliar pathogens have also been reported to infect ber (Appendix 

I). 

6.7.7 Witches’ broom 

Witches’ broom affects both Indian and Chinese jujubes (Kim, 1965; Zhu et 

al., 1983). 

Pandey et al. (1976) first reported the disease in ber. The affected trees become 

weak and produce small, yellow leaves typical of other phytoplasma diseases. 

The disease is transmitted to healthy seedlings by budding and graftingwith 

diseased scions. 


The disease can be contained by treatment with 500 and 1000 ppm 

oxytetracycline. La et al. (1977) recommended control through transfer of 1000 

ppm tetracycline hydrochloride into the trees from a plastic reservoir through 

plastic tubes. Wang et al. (1980) successfully controlled it by two commercial 

formulations of oxytetracycline. 

6.7.8 Fruit rot 

Fruit rot is caused by Phoma hissarensis (Gupta and Madaan, 1975 a), 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Gupta and Madaan, 1977 c), Trichothecium 

roseum (Gupta and Madaan, 1977 c), Alternaria state of Pleospora infectoria 

75

(Chand et al., 1986), Cladosporium hebarum and a number of minor 

pathogens. Sources of resistance have been looked for by Nallathambi et al. 

(2000). 

6.7.8.1 Phoma fruit rot 

The disease appears on the ripening fruit. The infected fruits remain small and 

develop slightly depressed, dark brown spots near the stem ends. The lesions 

become irregular in shape and measure 15-25 mm in diameter. 

The fungus survives in plant debris, the primary source of infection. The 

disease can be controlled by spraying of 0.2 % Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 

(Chand et al., 1986). 

6.7.8.2 Alternaria fruit rot 

Slightly depressed, brown to dark brown, circular lesions appear on the fruit. 

Sometimes concentric rings are also present on these spots. The smaller spots 

coalesce to form larger spots. The fungus survives in debris and soil. The fruits 

touching the soil become infected and the disease spreads later by 

dissemination of spores through the air. The disease can be controlled by 

spraying of 0.2 % Dithane Z-78 (Chand et al., 1986) (see Plate 13). 

6.7.8.3 Colletotrichum fruit rot 

The disease appears at the start of ripening of the fruit in the form of small, 

slightly depressed, light brown, water-soaked lesions. These spots coalesce and 

enlarge. Under humid conditions, the acervuli are formed in masses on these 

spots. 

Being saprophytic the pathogen survives in soil, along with the debris, for a 

long period. This becomes the primary source of infection. The spores are 

present in the air and act as secondary sources of infection and are 

disseminated by rain splashes. The disease can be controlled by 2-3 sprays of 

0.2 % copper oxychloride at 3-weekly intervals (Chand et al., 1986). 

6.7.8.4 Trichothecium fruit rot 

The disease is observed during the spring in the form of pink spots on the 

fruits. The fungus can survive in the soil for a long time. Fruits touching the 

soil may become infected and develop symptoms. 

6.7.8.5 Cladosporium fruit rot 

The disease appears near the time of fruit ripening. Injured fruits become 

infected. The symptoms of the disease start from the tip of the fruit forming 

light brown to dark brown spots. Later, a greenish fungal growth is also seen on 

these spots. 

76

6.7.8.6 Other fruit rot fungi 

A range of minor fungal pathogens also cause fruit rot. They are listed by 

Chand et al. (1986). 

6.7.9 Minor foliar pathogens 

A range of minor foliar pathogens affect leaves of ber. They are also listed by 

Chand et al. (1986). 

6.8 Cropping systems 

Jujube species provide nutritious fruits at relatively low costs. Fruits are 

produced even under adverse agroclimatic conditions. Except for China, 

Vietnam and the Central Asian Republics jujubes are still produced under less 

intensive cropping systems, although more intensive orchards are increasing in 

India and Bangladesh. 

In many areas, especially with arid zones, there is great interest in using 

Ziziphus species for hedging and enhanced local use at the smallholder level. 

This is being expanded, particularly in Africa, through agroforestry. 

Preliminary results obtained from provenance trials conducted in African 

countries under the Semi Arid Lowlands of West Africa (SALWA) programme 

of the International Centre for Research on Agroforestry (ICRAF), have 

provided encouraging results. They show compatibility of ber within an 

agroforestry system and as a live fence along with other adapted tree species. In 

India, ber is one of the most suitable agroforestry trees in arid and semi-arid 

areas. 

In China intercropping is widespread and this is increasing in India also. 

At maturity, ber trees cover the entire inter-row spaces about five years after 

planting. In the meantime, considerable losses occur from vacant interspaces. 

By growing intercrops, the losses can be minimised and additional income 

generated. Intercrops such as mung bean, moth bean, cowpea, clusterbean and 

sesame can be grown under rainfed conditions during the summer. The yields 

of both ber and the intercrops are higher than in monoculture and no adverse 

effects are observed for up to five years after planting the ber trees (Singh et 

al., 1997, Patel et al., 2003). Under irrigated conditions, horse gram, cumin, 

chillies and other vegetables are more profitable (Pareek, 1983). In the semiarid 

plateau of western India, a ber + clusterbean combination gave the highest 

net returns per hectare followed by ber + cowpea, ber + okra, and ber + brinjal 

combinations (Raturi and Chadha, 1993). Under arid and semi-arid conditions, 

strong competition has been observed by Khan (1993) between ber trees and 

crops like wheat and chickpea. He suggested that the cost of keeping Ziziphus 

77

trees was more than the value foregone by growing these crops. Thus, such 

crops should not be grown as intercrops in ber orchards (see Plate 14). 

Cover cropping with kulthi (Dolichos biflorus) was found to increase waterholding 

capacity of light soils as a result of increased organic carbon content in 

arid regions of the tropics (Pareek and Nath, 1996). The legume Stylosanthes 

hamata is a good cover crop in the semi-arid regions of western India (Raturi 

and Chadha, 1993). 

Ber trees fit very well into agroforestry systems when the companion species 

suited to the same agroclimatic conditions of the location are selected, e.g. the 

leguminous tree, Prosopis cineraria, under the arid climate of northwest India. 

However, appropriate spacing and management systems should be used. Most 

of such systems will be locally developed, although where governments have a 

national institute or programme dedicated to agroforestry research, sharing of 

experiences at diverse local levels can be expected. 

78


Chapter 7. Breeding 

A. Godara 

Plant breeders look for ideal plant types or ideotypes, in addition to selection 

for yield and other screenable characters. The idea is to combine maximum 

desirable traits in a cultivar. Characters that are determined by a few genes with 

clear effect are much simpler and more effective to select than traits determined 

by the additive effects of many genes, each having limited individual effect. 

Table 7.1 shows the desirable forms of some morphological traits as well as 

those for yield attributes in Indian jujube. 

Table 7.1 Ideotypes of ber 

Character Ideotype Character Ideotype 

Root system Deep (> 2 m) Fruit size > 30 g 

Canopy Spreading, low headed and TSS in pulp > 15 o Brix 

thornless 

Leaf area High Acidity in < 0.3% 

pulp 

Internodal Short (< 5 cm) Fruit shape Round to oval 

length 

Leaf colour Dark green (chlorophyll Fruit colour Bright golden 

> 0.04 mg/kg fresh wt.) 

Leaf surface Glossy dorsal and tomentose 

ventral 

Fruit surface Glossy and 

smooth 

Leaf size Large (> 50 cm 2 ) Pulp/stone > 20 

ratio 

(Source: Pareek, 2001) 

The inflorescence consists of male and hermaphrodite flowers. It is highly 

heterozygous because of cross-pollination. The existence of polyploidy and a 

range of self and cross incompatibilities in Ziziphus species has resulted in 

wide hybridisation. Current ber cultivars have evolved through selection of 

superior types from the wide natural variability. Some of the selected 

genotypes received widespread popularity and became established as cultivars 

suitable for orchard planting, although cultivars tend to lack good quality, or 

high productivity and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. There is a need to 

improve the crop for commercial cultivation in different agro-ecological 

environments. 

79

Various techniques of breeding can be grouped into broad headings viz., 

introduction, selection, hybridisation, polyploidy, mutation, breeding, 

biotechnological methods and genetic engineering. Like any other crop they 

have been widely used for improvement of tropical fruit crops. The 

investigations and breeding work required to develop Z. mauritiana and Z. 

jujuba into a commercial crop in Australia have been outlined (Possingham, 

1990). Most of this chapter relates to Indian jujube. 

7.2 Breeding objectives 

The breeding programme must have well defined objectives which are both 

economically and biologically reasonable. Despite wide cultivar diversity of 

the two major jujubes, only a few cultivars are commercially important. It 

appears that productivity along with ability to withstand transport and storage 

are the basic requirements in a cultivar. In addition, it should have high TSS, 

good sugar-acid blend, crisp flesh, and good flavour besides resistance to 

common insect pests and diseases. Earliness is a desirable trait in cultivars 

meant for dry, rainfed regions or to be grown under irrigated conditions. The 

objectives for the breeding of ber have been described by Chadha (1998) and 

Ray (2002). 

So far, yield and fruit quality are the traits that have received the greatest 

emphasis in ber breeding. Precociousness, profuse bearing, attractive fruit 

colour, crispy pulp, firm texture, high soluble solids, good eating quality, 

smaller seed size, long shelf life, resistances to pests, diseases and 

environmental stress have been other major objectives. Time of maturity is also 

an important characteristic to be considered. It is associated primarily with the 

response of genotype to photoperiod and temperature. Selection for time of 

maturity is a major initial step in evaluating genotypes and the extent and 

availability of variation among genotypes to hand greatly influence decision 

making. Limited variation in germplasm imposes restrictions. Setting the 

objectives must also take account that specific traits have different inheritance 

patterns. Variation in inheritance pattern of different traits can complicate the 

process of easy parent selection for crosses to be made. 

Resistance to diseases, particularly powdery mildew (Oidium erysiphoides f. 

ziziphi) and Isariopsis; pests, like fruitfly (Carpomyia vesuviana) and fruit 

borer (Meridarchis scyrodes); salt and low temperature tolerances, giving good 

fruit set under high temperature conditions; and fruits with better eating and 

processing quality are major objectives for Z. mauritiana. Rootstocks suitable 

for high density orchards are also required. In Z. jujuba, resistance to cracking, 

disease resistance particularly JWB, and tolerance to high temperature are 

important. The present and future goals for cultivar improvement in China- 

Taiwan are presented for Z. mauritiana in preparation for World Trade 

Organization standards. The development of consumer orientated, small scale 

local and all year round producing cultivars is needed (Wang et al., 1997 a). 

80

7.3 Constraints/ bottlenecks in breeding 

Ber breeding is hampered by the long juvenile phase, high heterozygosity (and 

cross-pollination), inadequate knowledge of inheritance patterns and well 

established pre-selection criteria of traits such as incompatibility patterns, 

sterility and fruit drop. The small size of flowers and their behaviour at anthesis 

dehiscence pose practical constraints in ber improvement. 

Ber shows ranges of polyploidy and incompatibilities in its cultivars (Pareek, 

1996). Most ber cultivars are tetraploids, showing much segregation. 

Accordingly, many cultivars have been reported to be reciprocally cross 

incompatible (Teaotia and Chauhan, 1963, 1964), while several cultivars 

including Umran are self incompatible (Godara, 1980). Godara (1980) showed 

cross compatibility in Illaichi x Kakrola Gola giving high seed set while the 

crosses Kathaphal x Safeda Selected and Kaithali x Kakrola Gola were 

incompatible. Umran show the best combining ability with other cultivars 

when used as female or male. Fruit set under open pollination ranged from 

3.56% in ZG2 to 18.7% in Illaichi; Illaichi and Umran set fruit when flowers 

were bagged but ZG 2 and Sanaur 2 did not (Mehrotra and Gupta, 1985). 

7.4 Breeding methods 

Plant breeders need a range of germplasm carrying different desirable genes in 

order to combine such genes through recombination breeding. The acquisition 

of diverse and elite germplasm from exotic sources is an important activity in 

germplasm management. 

7.4.1 Selection 

Most of the cultivars of ber grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate 

regions of the world are straightforward historical selections. Major emphasis 

has been put on clonal selection especially of early maturing clones. The local 

cultivars are the result of selection made by local people. 

Selection does not create genetic variability but merely acts on the genetic 

variability already available. Thus the breeder must first create a variable 

population through building up a collection of a large number of genotypes 

from different regions and/or countries. Selection is straightforward in an 

asexually propagated crop since any genotype may be perpetuated intact; 

however, the measure of success is how to test for the most desirable 

genotypes. Obtaining segregating populations, from which superior genotypes 

may be found, is difficult in asexually propagated material. Unfortunately, the 

most desirable selections do not always make the best parents; consequently, 

potential parents are best selected on the basis of progeny performance. 

81

A wide range of variability exists in ber in India for all important characters 

suggesting substantial scope for improvement. An early maturing clone, Early 

Umran (Pareek, 1996) has been identified from normally late maturing Umran. 

Promising cultivars under commercial cultivation are Gola, Seb, Banarsi 

Karaka, Banarsi Peondi, ZG-1, Sanour-1, 2,3,4, Kath, Umran, and Mundia. 

Gomakirti is a clonal selection from Umran which flowered 25 days earlier. A 

recent selection, CIAH Sel-1 developed by CIAH Bikaner, from local material 

collected from Bhusawar area of Rajasthan, is more juicy and sweet and is also 

an early bearer besides being resistant to fruit rot (Shukla et al., 2004). 

A clonal selection for earliness with quality fruits and better storage life with 

consistent productivity from Umran was identified at Central Horticultural 

Experiment Station, Godhara, and Gujarat, India. After evaluation trials, the 

selection was found to be early compared to Umran, flowering three weeks 

earlier, and it matured with the early cultivar Gola. It has been released as 

Goma Kirti (Hiwale, 2005). 

The distribution and vegetative and fruiting characteristics of Z mauritiana 

trees in the Korean Republic were studied between 1968 and 1971. Thirty six 

strains scored high marks on a selection scale for disease resistance, high yield 

and fruit quality and five were selected for general use (Kim et al., 1980). 

Wonye-A-Ol was selected from 254 lines developed from Moodeung and 

Geumsung (Kim et al., 1988). Gaolang 1 is a selection of Z. mauritiana from 

Taiwan (Chen et al., 2000). In Azerbaijan, Tagiev (1976) evaluated 3762 

seedlings. The best 40 were selected, of which 25 were included as elites. The 

eleven best forms were given cultivar names: the major ones being Nasimi, 

Mardakyan, Akhmedi, Khazari and Irada. Two small fruited forms were 

selected for use as rootstocks. 

Several attempts have been made in the recent past to select high yielding, 

better quality Z. mauritiana in China (Yu et al., 1991 and Zhu et al., 1998). 

Some of these selections have been described: Lejin-1 and Lejin-2 (derived 

from Jinsixlao Zao) and Leling Seedless-1 (derived from Wahexiaozao or 

Seedless Xiaozao). All these have larger fruits, better eating quality and higher 

resistance to fruit cracking. Six Chinese cultivars: Sovetskii, Tavrika, 

Tayantszao, Suontszao, Druzhba and Kitaiskii, have been reported to be 

promising in the Ukraine (Sin’ko and Litvinova, 1996). Recently five superior 

Russian cultivars (Yuzhanin, Khurman, Burnim, Kitaiskii-93 and Finik) have 

been registered (Kudenkov and Beloshtskaya, 1998). Cultivar Jinsixiaozao was 

closely related to Wuhexiaozao, Wuhexiaozao might have evolved from 

Jinsixiaozao, and Guangyangzao was closely related to Chuanganzao (Peng et 

al., 1996). 

Yanliang xiaozao is a cultivar selected from Lintong Chizao jujube orchards in 

Yanliang District, Xi’an, China (Li et al., 2004 a). Juzhou Gongzao is derived 

from a chance seedling (Ma et al., 2000). Cangwu 1 and Cangwu 3 are 

82

selections of Z. jujuba cv. seedless (Ji et al., 2001). Jiaxian Youzao was 

selected from Z. jujuba cv. Zhongyang Muzao orchards in Jiaxian country in 

Shaanxi, (Li et al., 2003). Qiyuexian was selected as a highly nutritious clone 

suitable for the production of table fruits in Heyang country, Shaanxi Province, 

(Wang et al., 2003). Two cultivars with good emergence were selected; 

Gissarskii Semennoi-3 (Gissar seed) and Gissarskii Semennoi-7, (Massover 

1976). 

7.4.2 Hybridisation 

Combining characters by sexual crossing is by far the most popular method for 

obtaining plants that have more favourable combinations of desirable traits. 

When the characters are distributed in many cultivars, or the desirable 

characters are associated with many undesirable ones, the procedure requires 

many crosses and many generations. It has two main virtues: one is to increase 

the genetic variation in plants and their progenies and to keep the population 

stable, while the other is to increase plant vigour and thus make the plants or 

cultivar more able to compete with others. Not all hybrid combinations result in 

above average vigour (heterosis) but commercially desirable types can be 

identified by suitable experimentation. 

In perennial fruit trees improvement through hybridisation requires several 

decades. For vegetatively propagated fruit crops the aim is a single desirable 

genotype. This genotype may be of any degree of heterozygosity with no 

problem of genetic maintenance due to asexual propagation. Asexually 

propagated crops are usually cross pollinated and consequently highly 

heterozygous, thus in developing populations from which to select a desirable 

genotype, inbreeding should be avoided. Unrelated plants are usually 

hybridised in order to obtain a vigorous population from which the most 

desirable individuals may be selected. Once a good genetic combination has 

been identified it can be propagated immediately as a new cultivar. 

In order to find superior hybrids with a wide range of fruit traits, as well as 

adaptation to diverse climates, several cultivars have been used in India as 

parents. Extensively used ones are Umran, Banarsi Karaka, Kakrola, Gola, 

Mundia Murhara, Sanori, Illaichi, Safeda Selected, Kaithali, Reshmi, Chhuhara 

and Seb. At Hisar, Umran and Banarsi Karaka were used for high yield, Gola 

for quality and earliness, Illaichi for profuse bearing, BS 7S-3 for drought and 

fruit fly tolerance, Reshmi for fruit quality and Mundia Murhara and Kathaphal 

for attractive colour and fruit quality (softness). At Jodhpur, Katha was crossed 

with Seb and Seb with Tikadi (Pareek, 2001). At the CIAH Bikaner, CIAH 

hybrid 1 (Seb x Katha) was found to be a promising, precocious, prolific 

bearer, and early maturer with good fruit set at high temperature under arid 

conditions (Shukla et al., 2004). For fruit fly resistance BCF1 (Seb x Tikadi F 1 

x Seb) is under evaluation (Anon., 2002). 

83

Fruit setting of four Z. mauritiana cultivars (Umran, Karaka, Popular Gola and 

Chhuhara) after pollination with powdery mildew resistant cultivars Villaiti, 

Darakhi 1, Darakhi 2 and Guli was observed. The best female parents were 

Umran and Gola, both setting fruit with each of the pollinators, whereas, the 

best male parent was Darakhi 2, setting fruit with each of the female cultivars 

(Karale et al., 1992). 

Hybridisation to evolve superior quality, high yielding, early and drought 

tolerant cultivars was taken up at Hisar, and for inducing long shelf life and 

resistance to fruit fly at Jodhpur. Evaluation of hybrids is in progress. 

The cultivar Seb was crossed with a local cultivar, Tikadi, resistant to fruit fly 

(Carpomyia vesuviana) in order to develop a pest resistant cultivar. The F1 was 

90 % resistant, but had poor fruit quality. By backcrossing to Seb, a BCI line 

with 87-90 % resistance and desirable fruit characters was obtained. A mean of 

13 % fruit fly infestation was observed in this line, along with a high level of 

antibiosis. Fruits weighed around 16 g (4.5 g in the F1) and Brix value was 24 0 

(Faroda, 1996). 

By crossing large fruited introduced Z. jujuba cultivars Tayan-tszao, 

Dardomskii, Yubilainyi with a local small fruited form, diverse new material 

was produced in Azerbaizhan. These exhibited large fruit and good flavour, 

high yield and disease resistance, including the variety Khurman (bred using 

Tayan-tszao). This had large fruits weighing 15-17 g, with an acid sweet 

flavour, a thin skin and tender flesh (Akhundova and Agaev, 1989). 

More information is needed on the relationship between Z. jujuba and Z. 

mauritiana, on the possibility of hybridising the two groups, on the chilling 

requirement of Z. jujuba and the frost tolerance of Z. mauritiana. Although 

Meyer (1911) travelled widely in China more than 60 years ago and introduced 

many of the then best cultivars to the USA, there are probably others that 

would be of value in USA. Meyer mentioned a ‘seedless jujube cultivar: Wuhu 

tsao had a kernel so soft that it is almost imperceptible when eaten’. He was 

told that this was the only seedless cultivar in China. Meyer also mentioned 

several flat-fruited jujubes, a white-fruited jujube and the quaint ‘dragon's 

claw’ jujube, which had peculiar gnarled and twisted branches and was 

cultivated as an ornamental (Meyer, 1911). India may also have jujubes that 

would be useful in USA. The US Department of Agriculture initiated a jujube 

breeding programme at Chico, California in 1952 but this was terminated about 

1959 (Ackerman, 1961). 

7.4.3 Mutation 

Changes in individual genes or whole chromosomes introduce new heritable 

characters known as mutations. Mutations provide a valuable source of 

variation in plant material from which the breeder can make selections. In 

84

nature, gene mutation occurs at a very low frequency, but the rate can be 

speeded up and mutation can be induced artificially by ionizing radiation, nonionising 

radiation, and by treating with chemical mutagens such as ethyl 

methane sulphonate, diethyl sulphate, nitroso-compounds (nitrous acid), 

nucleoside analogues and sodium azide. Since a number of useful alterations 

have been accomplished by means of induced mutations, it has been tried 

successfully in many fruit crops. Mutated shoots or other parts can usually be 

propagated readily after recognition of a desired mutation. This makes it 

possible to improve one or a few characters of leading cultivars without 

changing the remaining, unique, genotype. 

The heterozygosity of most vegetatively propagated plants is another cause of 

increasing application of mutation breeding to them. In such plants mutations, 

from dominant to recessive, can be observed in the irradiated material itself, 

especially when easily selectable characters (form, colour, size) are concerned 

(Broertjes, 1968). 

The use of spontaneous mutants with an improved agronomic or horticultural 

value is probably as old as agriculture itself. Most early examples, often 

outlined in extensive reports, refer to so-called bud mutations in vegetatively 

propagated crops such as fruit trees, ornamentals etc. (Darwin, 1868; Shamel 

and Pomeroy, 1936). Somatic mutations of spontaneous origin within 

vegetatively propagated material are commonly referred to as sports. Desirable 

mutations occurring in adapted, asexually propagated plants may result in an 

immediate improvement. Tainung No.1, a bud sport of Kaolung No.1, was 

found in Pintung, Taiwan (Chang et. al., 2001). Thereafter, the Fengshan 

Tropical Horticultural Experiment Station conducted a stability evaluation on 

this new selected mutation cultivar in 1992 and 1993, and confirmed that this 

new cultivar was a hereditary cultivar. Luyuan Xiaozao is a sport of Xiaozao 

discovered in 1990 in Zhangjiapo, Yiyuan country, China (Li et al., 1996). 

Mutations that occur in somatic tissue may be confined to only a sector of 

tissue, resulting in a chimera. Such chimeras, when vegetatively propagated, 

tend to be unstable because buds may be formed from tissue with or without 

the mutation. The selection of desirable sports is an important means of 

improving asexually propagated crops. 

Artificially-induced mutation has been used. The highest induction with 

colchicine treatment (0.15 %/18 h) was 50 % in cv. Linyilizao and 43.3 % in 

Dongzao and Lajiaozao reported by Jiang and Liu (2004). The chromosome 

number of the mutated plants (2n = 4x = 44) and DNA content were both twice 

that of the control. Useful mutants have also been produced by gamma 

irradiation and colchicine treatment in Z. jujuba (Akhundova and Agaev, 

1989). Variation in seedlings of Z. jujuba after treatment with ethyeneimine, 

ethyl methanesulphonate, dimethyl sulphate; and gamma radiation was 

observed and some propagated vegetatively for further trials (Sin’ko and 

85

Chemarin, 1979 b, 1982). Sin’ko and Chemarin (1979 a) reported on seeds of 

Z. jujuba irradiated at 0.1 to 100 Krad some 60-98 % germination obtained 

from seeds treated with low doses (0.5-2.0 Krad). The 30 Krad dose was 

critical. The treatment had no effect on the rate of emergence. Treatment with 

0.5-5 Krad stimulated seedling growth, development of lateral shoots and root 

length and advanced cropping whereas higher doses inhibited these processes. 

Colchicine and ethyl methanesulphonate treatments of Z. mauritiana increased 

crossability and reduced premature fruit drop (Gupta and Minhas, 1991). 

Gamma irradiation resulted in high fruit set. 

Mutants selected following N-methyl-N-nitrosourea treatment (0.02-0.04 % for 

12 h) of pregerminated seeds of Ziziphus mauritiana cultivars included cultivar 

Ma Hong, which maintains the early maturity of its parental cultivars, Gia Loc, 

allowing two harvests per year. Fruits, however, are round rather than oval, 

pink rather than yellow and sweet rather than sour. Also released is Dao Tien, 

which produces round fruits which are larger (25 vs. 20 g) with better flavour 

than those of its parental cultivar, Thien Phien. It also is one month earlier in 

maturity, allowing two harvests/year rather than the one produced by Thien 

Phien (Hoang and Tuynh, 1989). Sin’ko and Chemarin (1979 b) studied the 

seeds of four cultivars treated with various concentrations of ethylene imine, 

ethyl methanesulphonate and dimethyl sulphate. Some morphological changes 

induced in the first year, which included shortened internodes and altered leaf 

shape and size, were retained in subsequent years. Treatment tended to delay 

flowering, especially in Nikitskii-58, but increased precocity, with numerous 

seedlings fruiting in the third year. 

7.4.4 Polyploidy 

Another technique for improvement is exploitation of polyploidy; the condition 

of chromosome duplication giving numbers of chromosomes over and above 

the basic duplicate number. Unless the number of chromosomes is an exact 

multiple of the diploid, the polyploid is unstable and gives rise to gametes with 

irregular numbers of chromosomes. Gametes with irregular numbers may 

combine in a fortuitous manner however, to give rise to a polyploid with even 

chromosome numbers (a multiple of the diploid), and plants from the newly 

formed seeds may then be fully fertile. Any sterility results from the inability of 

chromosomes to pair at meiosis; fertility is restored by doubling the 

chromosome number of the sterile hybrid or by crossing autotetraploids of each 

species. 

Polyploidy may be important in conferring desirable characteristics. Polyploidy 

may be artificially induced by using colchicine at a concentration of 0.05 to 0.3 

per cent. Induced polyploidy makes it possible to overcome sterility associated 

with interspecific hybrids. 

86

Transfer of powdery mildew resistance from diploid genotypes of Ziziphus to 

tetraploid cultivars required doubling of chromosomes in resistant genotypes in 

order to overcome the possible post-fertilisation barrier. Attempts have been 

made to induce polyploidy in some of the resistant diploid genotypes of 

Ziziphus that were confirmed cytologically (Pradeep and Jambhale, 2003). 

The behaviour at meiosis e.g. bivalents and quadrivalents can show some 

cultivars of Z. mauritiana are cytologically alloploid (Pradeep and Jambhab, 

2002). The numbers of stomata and chloroplasts in diploid, tetraploid, 

pentaploid and octaploid Z. mauritiana genotypes indicate significant 

differences in stomatal dimensions, frequency of their occurrence and 

chloroplast number per two stomatal guard cells among the different ploidy 

levels. However, no significant differences were observed between pentaploid 

and octoploid genotypes for these attributes, indicating the deleterious effects 

of high gene dose beyond the pentaploid level (Pradeep and Jambhale, 2000). 

In a triploid Z. jujuba (Z. sativa) cultivar the water saturation deficit, 

transpiration rate and daily maximum transpiration rate were lower than two 

diploid cultivars (Wan, 1994). 

7.4.5 Biotechnological methods 

7.4.5.1 Tissue culture 

Tissue culture is one of the most widely used techniques for rapid asexual in 

vitro propagation. This technique is economical in time and space, affords 

greater output, and provides disease free and elite propagules. It also facilitates 

safer movements of germplasm between nations. 

Protocols have been developed for clonal propagation of Z. nummularia and Z. 

mauritiana (Rathore et al., 1992) and of Z. jujuba (Zhao et al., 2001). Methods 

for rapid in vitro multiplication of ber using stem explants of mature trees have 

been developed (Yan et al., 1990; Mathur et al., 1995). Benzyladenine 

promoted bud differentiation and IBA promoted root growth when added to 

MS medium on which stem segments of Z. jujuba lines A17, A27 and A80 

were cultured (Yan et al., 1990). Gola and Seb cultivars of Z. mauritiana take 

150 days from initial culturing to transplanting (Goyal and Arya, 1985). 

The present taxonomic systems of ber and Chinese jujube are based mainly on 

morphological characters, utilisation or distribution, which cannot accurately 

reflect the genetic relationship and result in serious nomenclature problems. 

This situation has hindered the scientific exploitation, germplasm conservation 

and academic exchange of jujubes. Use of molecular markers can facilitate 

proper identification of genotypes and help to overcome the problem of 

duplicity in genebanks. Raja (2004) looked at the technique to identify 12 ber 

genotypes at Hisar, India for categorisation and identification by molecular 

markers. DNA finger printing is used to identify genes resistant to biotic and 

87

abiotic stresses. Such research deserves the attention of scientists and need to 

be initiated on priority. 

A protocol was developed for RAPD analysis of Z. jujuba Zanhuangdazao; 

Zanxindazao clones and a total of 70 bands were amplified where 19 (27.14 %) 

were polymorphic (Zhao and Liu, 2003). Jiang et al. (2004) standardised tubeshoot 

multiplication in Z. jujuba var. sihongensis. A medium of direct 

regeneration of seedlings from stem fragments of jujube has been reported by 

Chen et al. (2005) and Wu et al. (2004). Z. jujuba buds and stem with side buds 

culturing in media MS + 6 – BA (4 mg litre -1 ) + IBA (0.3-0.4 mg litre -1 ) 

produced 100 % of regeneration of adventitious buds and 4.15-4.19 fold 

proliferation (Wang et al., 2002). 

7.4.5.2 Genetic engineering 

Genetic engineering involves three major steps: identification and isolation of 

suitable genes for transfer; a delivery system to insert desired genes into 

recipient cells; and an expression of new genetic information in recipient cells. 

Transgenic Chinese jujube plants have been obtained using young stems 

precultured for one day and infected with Agrobacterium tumefaciens which 

contained the anti-ACC synthase gene (He, 2004 b). 

7.4.5.3 Molecular markers 

The possibilities of using gene tags or molecular markers for selecting 

agronomic traits have made the job of the breeder easier. It has been possible to 

score the plants for different traits e.g. disease resistance, at the seedling stage 

itself. The uses of RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length polymorphism), RAPD 

(Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA), AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length 

Polymorphism) and isozyme markers in plant breeding are numerous. 

The genetic relationship between 27 cultivar strains, and related species (Z. 

acidojujuba and, Z. mauritiana) of Z. jujuba were studied using random 

amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique by Lui et al. (2003). They 

reported a total of 92 DNA bands were amplified with 15 primers screened 

from 80 arbitrary 10-mer primers, 77 of which (83.7 %) were polymorphic 

beside. RAPD fingerprint of 11 excellent strains of Zanhuangdazao were 

established using five primers. The S154-780 bp band was regarded as a 

molecular marker linked to the stoneless character according to the study of 17 

samples of two closely related groups viz., Jinsixiaozao (with stones) and 

Wuhexiaozao (without stones). 

The DNA based marker systems, namely, random amplified polymorphic DNA 

(RAPD) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) have been used 

in ber. RAPD analysis of germplasm resources on Chinese jujube has also been 

reported by Peng et al. (2000). Genomic DNA was isolated from leaves of Z. 

mauritiana suitable for RAPD analysis without liquid nitrogen, making it 

advantageous over other common protocols (Sharma et al., 2003). Polymerase 

88

chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) can be 

used to determine the relationships among the phytoplasms infecting various 

woody host species. Amplification of the DNA with primers specific to the 16S 

rRNA gene generated a 1.4 kb band in Z. jujuba (Han et al., 1996). Ziziphus 

jujuba has been reported to be infected with phytoplasms in Korea. Isolation 

and PCR amplification of genomic DNA from Ziziphus nummularia has been 

reported by Shukla et al. (2000). 

7.4.5.4 Embryo rescue 

Embryo rescue is another area where plant breeders are able to rescue their 

crosses which would otherwise abort. Culture of excised embryos at suitable 

stages of development can circumvent problems encountered in post zygotic 

incompatibility. This technique is highly significant in intractable and long 

duration horticultural species. 

Most cultivars of Chinese jujube have very serious embryo abortion (Qi and 

Liu, 2004). Liu and Qi (2004) established an optimised system for embryo 

culture in order to get hybrids of four excellent cultivars Dongzao, Jisifeng, 

Wudeng, and Fuzao. Embryo rescue techniques may help developing hybrids 

of suitable combination in Indian ber especially in sterile and incompatible 

cultivars. Plant regeneration by somatic embryogenesis has been attempted 

successfully in Chinese jujube by Mitrofanova et al. (1997). 

7.4.5.5 In vitro screening 

The flower number per fruit branch, pollen number, time of anther dehiscence, 

pollen germination percentage, pollen vigour and storage of pollen collected at 

different stages of flowering in Z. jujuba and var. spinosa, have been studied in 

vitro by Liu et al. (2004b). The two taxa varied in flower number per fruit 

branch, pollen number and pollen germination percentage and these parameters 

were grouped in three grades by probability grading for quantitative characters. 

The time of anther dehiscence in both the species was at the yellow bud stage 

or bud breaking stage. The pollen germination percentage after storage showed 

a drop-rise-drop tendency. 

7.4.6 Current situation 

The enormous variability in Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba and related species has 

been inadequately exploited. Most breeding work has been done in India and 

China. There is tremendous scope for using improved methods. 

Ber has attracted sustained breeding attention owing to its wide adaptability, 

good quality and nutritive fruits. However, problems like poor shelf life, 

powdery mildew disease, fruit fly and fruit borer have hindered the extension 

of the area under this crop. In Chinese jujube the problem of fruit cracking and 

jujube witches broom disease are the major hindrances to be addressed. 

89

Thus the following priorities are identified for: 

 

 

 

 

 

Systematic collection, characterization of germplasm and 

identification of cultivars with desirable traits. 

Study of patterns of inheritance of many qualitative characters. 

Breeding for cultivars to suit different agroclimatic conditions. 

Development of resistance to biotic and abiotic factors including fruit 

cracking. 

Development of quality cultivars with attractive golden yellow colour 

and good keeping quality. 

90

Chapter 8. Genetic Resources 

A. Godara 

8.1 The Ziziphus genepool 

Chapter 1 pointed out that the two major cultivated species are widely 

distributed in suitable climates in Asia and they cover vast regions. Most of 

these distributions comprise wild or naturalised materials superimposed on the 

patterns of distribution in the areas where the species are cultivated. 

The wild populations are heterozygous and extremely variable and it is from 

these that farmers have selected the best trees in terms of production and 

propagated them vegetatively, but are now doing so more and more through 

grafting. Indian jujube is not easily propagated through cuttings but Chinese 

jujube is. A study of wild populations of Chinese jujube has identified 

promising types to use as germplasm (Liu and Wang, 1991). 

As a result of the millennia of local selection many cultivars arose, some of 

which have become widely recognised. 

Nonetheless, virtually nothing is known about the patterns of genetic variation 

in the wild populations of any of the other cultivated species of jujube. Nor has 

there been much research on identifying the traits of the large number of 

Ziziphus species. What little is known will be apparent from the following 

sections of this chapter. 

8.1.1 Chromosome numbers 

A good number of chromosome counts have been made for the two major 

cultivated jujubes. The counts are not always easy to interpret because a range 

of synonyms were used for the taxa investigated and without voucher 

specimens some counts can be interpreted differently. However, it appears that 

Indian jujube is usually polyploidy with counts of n = 12, 20, 24, 30, 36, or 48. 

Khoshoo and Singh (1963) looked at a range of cultivars and found n = 24 in 

most, but in two it was n = 48 and in one it was n = 30. In some wild material. 

Nehra et al. (1983) found n = 48; and also in naturalised ‘wild’ material it was 

the same count. 

Not too many wild species have been counted but from the few that have 

(particularly Z. lotus, Z. nummularia and Z. oenoplia), n = 10, 12, or 36. Z. 

lotus appears to be diploid, Z. oenoplia tetraploid and Z. nummularia shows a 

polyploid series. The possibility exists that the genus is tribasic with x = 10, 12, 

or 13 (Darlington and Wylie, 1955). 

91

It is now generally thought that Indian jujube shows a range of polyploids: 

diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid and octoploid (Mehetre and Dahat, 

2000). Chinese jujube also represents a polyploid series, chromosome counts 

tending to represent 2n = 45, 60, 90. 

The phylogenetic relationship between the two major species (Z. mauritiana 

and Z. jujuba) has not been worked out nor has their cross compatibility been 

investigated. Chinese jujube exhibited high diversity in chromosome 

karyotypes, shape, size and surface sculpture of pollen, leaf length and flower 

diameter, shape, colour, weight of fruit, growth period and soluble solids and 

ascorbic acid of fruits. 

The level of ploidy appears to be important for some cultivars of Indian jujube. 

Tekale (1997) noted that powdery mildew resistant genotypes were diploids 

and a seedless form was octoploid. However, other diploid cultivars were 

susceptible to powdery mildew. 

More focused research is needed to see whether cytology relates to specific 

patterns of adaptation or to other types of variation, especially in wild 

materials. Knowledge of basic cytology is needed to plan introgression from 

wild species or for planning a crossing programme. 

8.1.2 Hybridisation 

The taxonomic literature on Ziziphus refers to reputed hybrids between certain 

wild species. It is highly likely that a number of the taxa generally accepted 

will turn out to be stabilised hybrid segregates. Further insight into this could 

be useful in relation to genetic resources for use in breeding. 

In practice, improvement programmes have not yet successfully used 

hybridisation with wild species, although such interspecific hybridisation 

would be of potential value to expand adaptation of cultivars to wider 

ecological areas and to introduce resistances to pests and diseases. 

In Indian jujube there in a long juvenile period and as with any woody 

perennial this poses constraints. Additionally, in both major cultivated jujubes 

the flowers are very small and the procedures for making crosses are delicate. 

For hybridisation between cultivars, constraints may arise due to some being 

incompatible with others and the presence of polyploidy; again emphasising the 

need for more cytological investigation. 

A number of the constraints can be overcome by the use of tissue culture, 

particularly for rapid propagation and overcoming the need to wait for seasonal 

growth. Use of shoot tips of Indian jujube is now practicable (Sudherson et al., 

2001; Hu et al,. 2001; Mathur et al., 1993). For Chinese jujube see Kim and 

92

Lee, 1988; Metrofonova and Shevelukha 1995; Zhao et al., 2001; Liu and Qi, 

2004). 

8.2 Cultivars 

The majority of cultivars of both Indian and Chinese jujubes are selections 

from heterogeneous populations. Superior genotypes had been protected and 

used over millennia by local people so that location specific cultivars are 

widespread. Those that are used nowadays tend to be propagated clonally and 

some have become very widespread e.g. Umran in Indian jujube; or Sui Men or 

Li in Chinese jujube. 

The cultivated ber has more than 300 varieties but only a few are commercially 

important (Pareek and Nath, 1996). Over 180 named cultivars have been 

mentioned in the literature (Pareek, 2001). Numerous cultivars have been 

selected during a long period. A Chinese work published over 300 years ago 

listed 43 cultivars (Locke, 1948). In China, there are at least 400 cultivars of 

Chinese jujube (Hayes, 1945) but Qu and Wang, (1993) have reported more 

than 700 cultivars. These can be divided into two groups: the sour type mainly 

used as rootstocks, medicines or animal fodder, and the cultivated type 

(Ciminata, 1996). Information on genetic resources of Z. jujuba in Tongyu 

county, Jilin province, China has been given by Wang et al. (1999 b). 

8.2.1 Morphological variability and characterisation 

A wide variation due to cross pollination is exhibited by the jujubes in 

vegetative, leaf, floral, fruit and quality traits. Variation in morphological and 

physicochemical characters of ber cultivated types have been reported by 

Shobha et al. (2001) and many others. Details of the morphological variability 

in ber are provided below in order to illustrate constraints in attempting to 

classify cultivars and to sort out descriptors for characterisation. 

8.2.1.1 Variations in vegetative characters 

The most appropriate vegetative characters for classification are leaf area and 

branching habit, while the most dependable fruit characters are apex type, stalk 

and stylar flesh cavities and shape (Bal, 1992). Ziziphus mauritiana genotypes 

Umran, Illaichi, Desi-1 and Desi-3 plants have a spreading habit, whereas, 

Kathapal and Desi-2 plants exhibit a semi-spreading habit. The cultivars of 

Gola group (Gola Gurgaon No. 3, Bhadurgarhia Gola, Dankan Gola, and 

Kakrola Gola) produce erect plants (Gupta et al., 2003). 

Leaf margins of some cultivated and wild forms of ber variously referred to as 

Z. mauritiana, Z. rotundifolia or Z. nummularia are serrated except in Desi-3 

and Jharber as reported by Gupta et al. (2003). Chitkara and Khera (1973) 

evaluated 15 varieties for leaf area. The product of maximum leaf length x 

breadth had a highly significant positive correlation with planimeter 

93

measurement of leaf area. The varieties may be classified into three groups, 

according to the percentage variation around the planimeter values. A nondestructive 

method of determining leaf area using linear parameter has been 

described (Hiwale and Raturi, 1991). The minimum stomatal density, 

internodal length and plant height were recorded in Gola budded onto Z. 

nummularia and was found to be the most dwarfing combination. Whereas, 

scion combination of Ponda budded onto rootstock Z. mauritiana ecotype- 

Assam-Gauhati was found the most vigorous, and the maximum stomatal 

density, internodal length and plant height were observed. The rootstock Z. 

mauritiana ecotype-291 was found most compatible and moderate in plant 

growth, stomatal density and internodal length thereby giving moderate vigour 

to trees (Verma et al., 2001). 

A range of variability in leaf size, shape, area and colour of 50 cultivars of Z. 

mauritiana can be seen in Plate 15. The list of cultivars is: 

1. Banarsi Karaka; 2. BS-75-1; 3. BS-75-2; 4. BS-75-3; 5. Chhuhara; 6. 

Chonchal; 7. Dandan; 8. Desi; 9. Gola; 10. Gola Gurgaon No. 2; 11. Gola 

Gurgaon No. 3; 12. Golar, 13. Gora; 14. Govindgarh Special; 15. Hsiang Taso; 

16. Hsiang Tsao Chinese; 17. Hybrid G 1; 18. Illaichi; 19. Illaichi Jhajjar; 20. 

Jhajjar Special; 21. Jogia; 22. Jullundhari; 23. Kaithali;, 24. Kakrola Gola; 25. 

Katha Gurgaon; 26. Katha Rajasthan; 27. Kathaphal; 28. Kishmish; 29. Laddu; 

30. Mirchia; 31. Mundia Murhara; 32. Nari Kali; 33. Narma; 34. Noki; 35. 

Pathan; 36. Ponda; 37. Popular Gola; 38. Rashmi; 39. Safeda Rohtak; 40. 

Safeda Selected; 41. Sandhura Narnaul; 42. Sanori No. 1; 43. Sanori No. 3; 44. 

Sanori No. 5; 45. Seo; 46. Seo Bhadurgarhia; 47. Sua; 48. Tasbtaro; 49. 

Thornless; 50. Triloki No. 1. 

Metroglyph and index score analysis showed wide morphological variation in 

80 germplasm accessions of Z. mauritiana and eight distinct groups were 

recognised on the basis of variation in 23 morphological and fruit characters 

(Pradeep and Jambhale, 2002). Paired spines were observed in many cultivars 

of Z. mauritiana like Umran, Kathaphal, Gola Gurgaon No. 3, Bhadurgarhia 

Gola, Dankan Gola and Kakrola Gola (Gupta et al,. 2003). 

8.2.1.2 Variations in growth characters 

Variation in the height (cv. Gola tallest and Akola shortest), spread (cv. Akola 

maximum spread) and branching nature was found in different cultivars at 

Hyderabad, India (Babu and Kumar, 1988). The maximum tree height was 

recorded in Desi Alwar while tree spread was in Sanori No.5 (Saran, 2005). 

Maximum height of a 15 year old tree of Z. mauritiana was recorded in LR-13 

(6.59 m); girth was maximum (3.32 m) in LR 11 (Kundi et al., 1989a). Data on 

growth of different species including Z. mauritiana at the International Centre 

for Research in Agroforestry, Machakos, Kenya (a sub-humid to semi-arid 

climatic zone) have been presented by Jama et al. (1989). 

94

8.2.2 Reproductive variability 

8.2.2.1 Flowering 

The peak period of flowering and fruit set in Z. mauritiana cultivars Banarsi 

Karaka, Ponda, Illaichi, Gola and Tikdi was September-October. Tikadi had the 

shortest duration of flowering (47 days) and fruit set (36 days) but the highest 

number of fruits/branch (239), fruit set (28 %), number of fruits reaching 

maturity/branch (48) and fruit retention (20 %) (Sharma et al., 1990). Whereas, 

Saran (2005) found the longest period of bloom in Katha Rajasthan (78 days) 

ranged from 6 August to 23 October and the minimum period of bloom in the 

Safeda Rohtak (23 days). Flowering occurred from 57 to 75 days, depending on 

cultivar (Dhaliwal and Bal, 1998). Only one flowering season was observed in 

Hyderabad from May to July and its total duration varied from 68-94 days. 

Cultivars Gola, Mundia and Akola flowered early; Umran and Seb in midseason; 

Banarsi and Kaki were late flowering (Babu and Kumar, 1988). The 

number of flowers per branch is quite high. Umran had the highest number of 

hermaphrodite flowers (22.2 %) followed by Gola Gurgaon with 20.1 % 

(Darbara and Jindal, 1982). Cultivars of Z. mauritiana differed in the time of 

flowering (on set and duration and peak) in Maharastra, India (Desai et al., 

1986) (see Plates 16, 17). 

Healthy trees of Chinese jujube tend to produce a prodigious number of flowers 

and set of only a small fraction of these is necessary for a substantial crop 

(Ackerman, 1961). Variation in flower number per fruit branch and pollen 

number in Z. jujuba and Z. spinosa were studied in vitro by Liu et al. (2004 b). 

The pollen of ber varieties has three zonicolporate aperture, psilate exine 

pattern and circular endocolpium. The pollen grains were sub-prolate to prolate 

spheroidal. Pollen germination was more than 50 per cent in most of the ber 

cultivars in 25 per cent sucrose solution whereas Illaichi cultivar was found to 

be sterile. The wild as well as cultivated ber types are tetraploid to octaploid. 

Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) and light microscopic studies were 

carried out on pollen samples of three Ziziphus species and six Z. mauritiana 

varieties. Pollen grains differed in size, shape and exine characteristics. Studies 

showed uniformity in apertural characteristics and presence of tricolporate 

pollen. Size and shape of pollen within cultivars were quite uniform. 

Differences in exine pattern, size and P/E ratios could be used for identification 

of Ziziphus genotypes (Diwakar et al., 1996). 

Size of pollen grains of Z. mauritiana Illaichi, Umran and four wild forms was 

different (Nehra et al., 1984). Pollen diameter in seven cultivars of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana) ranged from 20.05 mμ in Darakhi 1 to 32.04 mμ in 

Seedless. Pollen stain ability ranged from 63.69 % in Seedless to 87.12 % in 

Darakhi 1. In vitro germination was a better indicator of fertility than the stain 

test (Hulwale et al., 1995). Similarly, considerable differences were also 

95

observed for pollen diameter among the different ploidy levels (Pradeep and 

Jambhale, 2000). Phenetic relationships among 32 genotypes of Ziziphus 

mauritiana and one of Z. nummularia were studied using data on 54 characters 

and summarised in the form of dendrograms. Overall, Z. nummularia did not 

show a close similarity to any of the Z. mauritiana genotypes (Diwakar et al., 

1992). 

Studies in India have indicated that in Z. mauritiana, some cultivars have cross 

incompatibility (Teaotia and Chauhan, 1964). Ackerman (1961) showed many 

jujube cultivars fruit poorly without cross pollination. Another problem with 

jujube is that the fruit of some cultivars tends to split during rainy weather. The 

best time for pollen collection in crossbreeding has been discussed by Liu et al. 

(2004 b). 

8.2.2.2 Fruit set 

Umran was compatible as female parent with Sanuar 2, but Sanaur 2 did not set 

fruit after pollination by Umran (Mehrotra and Gupta, 1985). The requirement 

for cross pollination, incompatibility and pollen sterility means that fruit set 

depends on physiological and environmental conditions. The mode and time of 

anthesis was also cultivar specific. Anther dehiscence started about two hours 

after anthesis and continued for two to four hours. Peak receptivity of the 

stigma appeared to be just as the flower opened (Dhaliwal and Bal, 1998). 

Some Chinese jujube clones developed fruits through self fertilization but few 

set appreciable crops by this means and fruits developed from self pollination 

were usually smaller than normal and tended to drop prematurely. Cross 

fertilisation was found necessary for the development of viable seeds and many 

of the aborted seeds apparently were the result of self fertilisation (Ackerman, 

1961). 

Fruit set in Z. mauritiana cultivars took place almost at the same time in 

Tikadi, Gola, Seb, Umran and the hybrid Umran x Seb cultivars, but Gola fruits 

matured earlier than those of all other cultivars in the region. Neeraja et al. 

(1995) reported higher fruit set in hand pollination than open pollination and 60 

% fruit set was observed in Umran X Seb. 

In Chinese jujube, fruit set was uniformly high in Ya and Nikitskii 

Melkoplodnyi (Sin’ko, 1974a). Yakobashvili (1973) in a six year study of fruit 

set, yield and other characters, showed the following were promising varieties: 

Ta Yan Tszao, Seedling 2, Seedling 1 and 3. 

Fruit drop studied in seven Z. mauritiana cultivars indicated the lowest drop 

(24.1 %) in Ponda and highest in Illaichi (68.6 %) (Vashishtha and Pareek, 

1979). Kakrola Gola had considerably higher drop (up to 80.6 %) than Kaithali 

and Umran which did not differ significantly, showing 7.2 and 12.1 % drop, 

respectively (Panwar, 1980). More than 50 % of the drop was of fruit

diameter. As fruit development advanced, less fruit drop occurred. Neeraja et 

al. (1995) recorded the highest in Seb (87.94 %) followed by Umran (83.43 %) 

and Gola (82.14 %). 

The bearing and related characters provide useful information on proper times 

of flower and fruit set and harvesting for the categorisation of ber varieties 

(Singh et al.,1972 b). Fruit maturity in different cultivars of Z. mauritiana was 

reached in 174 to 200 days (Kumar et al., 1986). Gola was the earliest (108 

days) and Umran was the latest (147 days) to ripen under Gurgaon conditions 

(Singh et al., 1983 a). Fruit growth in length and diameter showed three distinct 

phases (double sigmoid curve) in cultivar ZG-2 and Kaithali studied by 

Jawanda and Bal (1980). Bal (1981 b) studied the physical character of ber fruit 

of six year old plants of cultivar Sanur-2. The fruit ripened 180 days after fruit 

set. There was a rapid growth phase up to 75 days, from 90 to 105 days and 

from the 120 th day after fruit set. Maturity of ber (Z. mauritiana) starts from the 

first week of November in South India and continues up to mid April in North 

India. 

Variation in maturity period of ber (Z. mauritiana) in different parts of India 

has been indicated by Vishal et al. (2002). Saran et al. (2005) studied the 

bearing behaviour in 35 cultivars of ber at Hisar, India and classified them into 

three categories based on harvesting time, as early, medium and late. Umran, 

Katha Bombay, Chhuhara, Illaichi, 2g-3, Kathaphal, Jogia, Ponda, BS-2 and 

Desi Alwar are late bearing varieties while Gola, Gola Gurgaon No. 2, Gola 

Gurgaon No.3, Safeda Rohtak, Seo, Katha Rajasthan, Laddu and Akhrota were 

early bearing varieties and Kaithali, Dandan and Mirchia varieties bear during 

the mid-season. Daulta and Chauhan, (1982) also observed that Umran is late 

and has large, oval, golden yellow fruits which turn chocolate brown at 

maturity and transport well. Kathaphal is late ripening while Gola is early and 

Kaithali comes in midseason. Seo, Sanaur No.2 and Umran are recommended 

as early, mid and late cultivars, respectively for commercial cultivation 

(Chadha et al., 1972) in northern India. 

8.2.2.3 Fruit and seed 

High variability was observed for all fruit and seed characters (Bisla and 

Daulta, 1988 b). The variability of fruits of Z mauritiana is shown in Plates 26 

and 27. Considerable variation in fruit length and breadth in different cultivars 

of Z. mauritiana like Banarsi Karaka (5.4 and 3.4 cm), Dandan (5.1 and 3.0 

cm), Jogia (4.9 and 3.8 cm) and Umran (4.8 and 3.8 cm) was reported by 

Ghosh and Mathew (2002). Karaka had the largest fruit (Singh and Singh, 

1973). Fruit size, weight and pulp/stone ratio were highest in Umran (Dhingra 

et al., 1973). Fruit characters of 40 Z. mauritiana cultivars have been described 

by Singh et al. (1972 a) and variations in nine cultivars were described by 

Teaotia et al. (1974). Cultivars Seo Bahadurgarhia, Nari Keli, Desi Alwar and 

Banarsi Karaka produced fruits weighing > 20 g each (Godara, 1980). Umran 

produced the heaviest fruits (39.8 g), Gola Gurgaon showed the highest content 

97

of pulp (97.2%), total soluble solids in Gurgaon, Haryana (Singh and Jindal, 

1980). The fruit weighed 70-90 g and reaches even 150 g in Wugianzhong, a Z. 

mauritiana cultivar (Li et al., 1999) (see Plates 18-25). 

The average fruit weight varied from 8 to 17.68 g in 10 local ber genotypes 

grown in West Bengal (Ghosh and Mitra, 2004). Nine varieties were evaluated 

by Teaotia et al. (1974). Pewandi was considered to be the best variety for 

commercial cultivation, having the largest fruit, a high percentage of edible 

pulp and good skin colour. There were considerable differences in seven ber 

cultivars in fruit weight (29.340 to 9.544 g), fruit size (length 3.27-4.33 cm), 

pulp/seed ratio and fruit quality at Ratta Kulachi, D. I. Khan, Pakistan (Kundi 

et al , 1989b). BS-2 had the highest pulp/stone ratio; and the maximum fruit 

and stone size was recorded in Ponda (Saran, 2005). Cultivars Dabailing, 

Daguazao and Linyi Lizao are large fruited, with fruit sizes of 23-26.1 g, Jinsi 

3 and Jinsi 4 are small fruited varieties (Chen et al., 2003). 

The best Ziziphus jujuba varieties for uniformity of fruit size are Ta-Pai and 

Hsueh-pai (Sin’ko, 1974). 

A lot of variation exists in ber genotypes for pulp/stone ratio. Pulp/stone ratio 

was maximum in Sanur-6 and minimum in Punjab Chhuhara (Bharad et al., 

2002), The pulp/stone ratio was highest in Umran (Dhingra et al., 1973). 

Madalageri et al. (1977) reported the highest pulp/stone ratio in HB-2, a wild 

local strain of Z. mauritiana. 

The list of cultivars as shown in Plates 26 and 27 is: 

1. Kaithali; 2. Umran; 3. Chonchal; 4. Noki; 5. Katha Rajasthan; 6. Laddu; 7. 

Chhuhara; 8. Sandura Narnaul; 9. Illaichi; 10. Dandan; 11. ZG-3; 12. Kantha 

Phal; 13. Akhrota; 14. Bahaduragarhia; 15. Govindgarh Selection; 16. 

Thornless; 17. Gola Gurgaon No. 3; 18. Gola Gurgaon No. 2; 19. Desi Alwar; 

20. Nari Kali; 21. Gora; 22. Narina; 23. Sanori No. 5; 24. Sanori No. 1; 25. Seo 

Bahadurgarh; 26. Illaichi Jhajjar; 27. Sua; 28. Kishmish; 29. Popular Gola; 30. 

Mirchia; 31. Jogia; 32. Mundia Murhara; 33. Ponda; 34. Bawal Selection-2; 35. 

Gola; 36. Banarasi Karaka. 

Significant genotypic differences were found in the seed characters of Z. 

mauritiana varieties (Babu and Kumar, 1986). Saran (2005) observed variation 

in stone size of 35 cultivars of ber and reported that maximum (3.72 cm) was in 

Ponda and the minimum (0.53 cm) in Illaichi. 

Seeds of Ziziphus mauritiana trees taken from 5 districts in Yunnan Province, 

China and Narkum, Myanmar, were tested for their morphological 

characteristics, germination characteristics, and the growth patterns of the 

seedlings and young trees. A close relationship was found between these 

characters and their geographical distribution and climatic condition. This 

98

information will be helpful for choosing better forms of the tree (Wang and 

Wang, 1994). 

In Chinese jujube, one group of cultivars gives 85 % seed germination (e.g. Yatszao) 

and the other gives 98 % germination, e.g. Nikitskii 84, 92 and 94. The 

results on seed germination with and without the endocarp in temperatures 

ranging from 15 to 30 o C are also presented (Sin’ko, 1973). Similarly, some 

Chinese jujube seeds take one to three days to germinate while others take 

seven days (Kim and Kim, 1984a). Seed stones collected from fallen fruits of 

ber often have poor viability and 50 –70 % of the seed stones have non-viable 

seeds. The quickness and extent of germination depends upon viability and 

after-ripening status of the seed, presence of endogenous inhibitors, weathering 

of the stony endocarp and environmental conditions such as the temperature, 

moisture, salinity and alkalinity of the growing medium. The thinnest seed coat 

wall was observed in the case of Godhan (Singh, et al., 1973 a). 

8.2.3 Yield 

Variation in yields of Z. mauritiana cultivars (55.5 to 116.11 kg/tree) have 

been observed by Kumar et al. (1986). In the semi-arid subtropical climate of 

northern India under irrigated conditions, the fruit yield per tree ranges from 80 

to 200 kg depending on the varieties and management practices during the 

prime bearing age of 10 to 20 years (Bakhshi and Singh, 1974). Fruit yield was 

highest in Gola (38.4 kg/tree) and lowest in the local cultivar Sukavani (3.54 

kg/tree) at Sardar Krushinagar in Gujarat (Chovatia et al. 1992). Highest yields 

were obtained from Umran (210 kg/tree) followed by Sanaur No. 2, Dandan 

and ZG 2 (Gupta, 1977). Thornless gave the highest yield/tree (74.4 kg) 

followed by Sanaur 5 (71.3 kg) and Sanaur 4 (Singh and Tomar, 1988) at 

Bhatinda, Punjab, India. Kharki had the highest fruit yield at Hoshangabad, 

Madhya Pradesh (Gupta and Mehta, 2000). 

At Hyderabad, Mundia was the highest yielder (116.1 kg/tree) followed by 

Umran and Gola (s and Babu, 1987) whereas, yield in different cultivars of Z. 

mauritiana in Maharashtra (India) indicated maximum fruit, pulp and stone 

weights in Kadaka when pruned on 25 March (Bharad et al., 2002). Banarasi 

Karaka fruits had the highest nutritive value and yield (99.8 kg fruits/tree) 

(Tiwari and Banafar, 1995). Reddy et al. (1998) carried out an economic 

analysis of cost and returns to determine the most profitable cultivars at 

Dharwad, Karnataka, India. The performance of 11 cultivars showed that 

Dandan, Sanaur-2 and Chhuhara, with mean fruit yields of 6.78, 6.36 and 6.08 

t/ha and benefit: cost ratios of 5.64, 5.32 and 5.09, respectively were the most 

promising. Cultivar Pewandi is considered best for commercial cultivation in 

Uttar Pradesh, India (Teaotia et al., 1974). 

Chinese jujube cultivars yield 50 to 300 kg fruits per year depending upon 

cultivar, location and age of tree (Ciminata, 1996). On the basis of yield, 

99

ipening date, frost resistance and storage quality in 7 ber cultivars Ta-Yantszao, 

Da-bai tszao, Ya-tszao, 93, 58, 107, 52 and 48 are recommended for 

cultivation (Sin’ko, 1977). In the Arava valley of Israel, a fruit yield of 12 tons 

per hectare has been obtained from 3-year old ber trees (Nerd and Mizrahi, 

1998). From the naturally growing, scattered wild trees in Zimbabwe, a yield of 

4-5 tons has been obtained from a 3-4 hectare area (Maposa and Chisuro, 

1998). In China - Taiwan, fruit yields of 158.6 kg per tree in cultivar Kaolang-1 

and 140.8 kg per tree in cultivar Telong have been obtained (Chiv Chu Ying, 

1997). 

8.2.4 Chemical variability 

A wide range of varietal variability for quality traits was detected in 30 

cultivars of ber (Z. mauritiana) at Hisar (Bisla and Daulta, 1986). Ber 

germplasm collection and evaluation at Amer, Bharatpur, Deeg, Tijara and 

Jhunjhunu areas of Rajasthan, India indicated significant variation in 

physicochemical characteristics of 23 genotypes, and ten produced fruits of 

excellent quality (Lal et al., 2003). Variation in 10 local ber genotypes grown 

in West Bengal, were noted for soluble solids, total sugars, acidity and ascorbic 

acid content; ranges of these parameters were 9.53-19.13 %, 4.94-12.30 %, 

0.38-2.60 % and 17.25-51.98 mg/100g respectively (Ghosh and Mitra, 2004). 

The cultivar Umran has 19 % TSS and 1.2 % acidity. In the case of Kathaphal, 

the TSS is 23 % and acidity was 0.77 % while in Gola, the TSS is 17-19 % and 

0.46 - 0.5 % acidity. In Kaithali TSS is 18 % and acidity 0.5 % (Daulta and 

Chauhan, 1982). Godara (1980) evaluated 16 cultivars for quality characters. 

The fruits of Mundia Murhara and Chhuhara had the highest TSS content (22.8 

and 22.4 %, respectively). Banarasi Karaka fruits had the highest nutritive 

value (Tiwari and Banafar, 1995). HB-1 and LB had excellent flavour and HB- 

2, KB1, SB and SB-2 were rated good at Bangalore. Under rainfed conditions 

of Bawal, Haryana cv. Nazuk had the highest total soluble solids (28.9 %) 

followed by Illaichi (Yamdagni et al., 1985 b). 

Kadaka had maximum sugar and minimum acidity content and was considered 

outstanding (Singh and Singh, 1973). Some cultivars show variation in acidity 

(0.228-0.78 %) and ascorbic acid (80.85-178.04 mg/100 g pulp) (Godara, 

1980). Fruit ascorbic acid content of several cultivars ranged 70-165 mg/100g 

of pulp (Jawanda and Bal, 1978). Bisla et al. (1980) observed the highest 

Vitamin-C content (120.15 mg/100g) in cv. Illaichi. The Vitamin-C content 

was highest in Narikelee, followed by Kaithali 165 and 125 mg/100g fruit pulp, 

respectively (Gupta, 1977). Jinsi 3 and Jinsi 4 (both small fruited), had sugar 

content over 35 % (Chen et al., 2003). Godhan was the most nutritive with 

regard to total soluble solids and ascorbic acid content, whereas Kharki was the 

sweetest at Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh, India. The highest acidity (0.49 %) 

was exhibited by Soni while the lowest acidity (0.25 %) was exhibited by 

Kabra and Amrabati. The highest total sugar content (14.48 %) was exhibited 

100

y Bekanta and the lowest (8.5 %) by Karka (Gupta et al., 2004). The highest 

total soluble solids were recorded for Umran and the highest acid content in 

Sanaur 4 at Bhatinda (Tomar and Singh, 1987). 

Singh and Jindal (1980) found the highest contents of pulp (97.2 %) TSS (21.4 

%) and total sugar (10.7 %) in Gola Gurgaon, and Kaithli had the highest 

(113.5 mg/100 g) ascorbic acid content. The TSS content was highest in 

Chonchal and Illaichi and the latter cultivar had the highest ascorbic acid 

content. The highest content of non-reducing and total sugars was found in 

Chhuhara (Dhingra et al., 1973). 

Munier (1973) studied for quality characters. Cultivars grown in China, the 

United States and Pakistan contained, respectively, 500-600, 300-500 and 45.2- 

160.8 mg Vitamin C/100 g. Variations in ascorbic acid content of 10 varieties 

have been reported by Ahmad and Malik (1971). Late ripening varieties 

generally contain more ascorbic acid than early ripening ones. Catechin content 

remains unchanged during the first half of the ripening period but declines 10- 

20 times below the original level during the later period. A close correlation 

was observed between ascorbic acid and catechin content during the ripening 

period (Kuliev and Akhundov, 1975). 

The most promising Ziziphus jujuba cultivars for quality were Nos. 1, 2 and 

16/5. Ascorbic acid content was highest in Nikitskii 17 and Da-bai-tszao (774 

mg) and pectin content in U-sin-khun and Nikitskii 62 (up to 1 %) (Sin’ko, 

1974 b). He also listed the best varieties for conserving, drying and eating fresh 

among 25 cultivars studied for quality. Lomakina (1976) evaluated jujube 

varieties in south-west Turkmenistan. The best cultivars were Ya-tszao and Ta- 

Yan-tszao. 

The soluble protein in fruits and leaves on a fresh weight basis ranged from 

9.37 to 26.90 mg and 25.40 to 56.98 mg per gram respectively in 42 cultivars 

of Z. mauritiana (Sudhir et al., 1999). Umran was noted for high sugar and 

protein contents, followed closely by Kathaphal (Khera and Singh, 1976). Free 

amino acids isolated from fruit pulp of wild taxa and 40 cultivars of Z. 

mauritiana did not show any relationship between the number and types of 

amino acids in wild samples and cultivars (Gill et al., 1997). In wild samples, 

the number of amino acids per sample was in the range 4-8. Of the 17 free 

amino acids represented in wild samples, glutamic acid, amino-butyric acid, 

threonine, proline and alanine were well represented. In cultivars the number of 

amino acids per sample was in the range 3-10. Of the 22 amino acids 

represented in these cultivars, arginine, cysteine, cystine, alanine and proline 

were common. The most widely represented amino acids in cultivars (arginine, 

cysteine and cystine) were absent in wild taxa. The commonly represented 

amino acids in wild samples (glutamic acid, amino-butyric acid and threonine) 

were not common in cultivars. The free amino acid profile of fruit pulp was 

different from that of mature leaves in the same taxa. 

101

8.2.5 Genetic variability 

Information on genetic variability, heritability and correlation coefficients 

derived from data on leaf area, relative water content, stomatal index, stomatal 

frequency and yield in four year old ber plants of 12 popular ber cultivars, 

grown at Raichur, was observed. Genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) and 

phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) were greatest for stomatal frequency. 

GCV and PCV values were lowest for relative water content (RWC). High 

values of heritability and genetic gain were observed for stomatal index. 

Significant and positive correlations were observed between yield per plant and 

stomatal frequency, leaf area and stomatal index (Praveen and Patil, 1998). 

High estimates of GCV, PCV, heritability and genetic advance were recorded 

for stone size, pulp stone ratio, fruit weight and yield indicating the 

effectiveness of improvement through simple selection (Saran, 2005). 

8.2.5.1 Correlation and coefficients of variation 

The correlation coefficient of 12 growth, fruiting and quality characters of 24 

ber cultivars indicated that the stem girth was positively and significantly 

correlated with total soluble solids, leaf area with leaf dry weight, stone weight 

with acidity, fruit set with fruit drop, and negatively correlated with fruit set, 

and stone weight with fruit drop (Rajesh and Misra, 2004). Significant and 

positive correlations were observed for leaf breadth, fruit diameter, fruit weight 

and fruit retention with yield. Selection of these traits may be effective for the 

improvement of ber (Gupta and Mehta, 2000). There were significant positive 

correlations between fruit yield, fruit set, and pulp/stone ratio of ber (cv. 

Umran) whereas yield had significant negative correlations with fruit drop and 

stone weight. The total variation accounted for by all the characters was 86 %. 

Path analysis revealed a positive direct contribution of fruit set and fruit length 

and a negative contribution of fruit drop and stone weight. It is concluded that 

in breeding programmes importance should be given to these four characters in 

developing high yielding ber genotypes (Prajapati et al., 1996). 

In a study of 30 cultivars at Hisar, India, fruit weight, fruit size, seed weight 

and pulp/stone ratio were significantly correlated with yield (Bisla and Daulta, 

1987). Yield was positively correlated with total sugar content and disease 

intensity (Bisla and Daulta, 1988b). Gola, Sanori No.5, Kishmish, Ponda and 

Kaithali were found superior among the genotypes. TSS had positive and high 

correlation with total sugar while yield had negative correlation with quality 

traits except ascorbic acid and non-reducing sugars (Saran, 2005). 

The genetic co-efficient of variation measures the range of genetic variability 

which helps to compare the variability present in different genotypes. The 

genetic coefficient of variation ranged from three (fruit breadth) to 31.01% 

(yield kg/plant). Characters such as TSS, fruit breadth and fruit length showed 

comparatively low genetic coefficient of variation, whereas weight/fruit, 

102

pulp/stone ratio and yield (kg/plant) exhibited high genetic coefficient of 

variation. 

Correlation and path coefficients of eight commercial cultivars (Gola, Seb, 

Umran, Mundia, Illaichi, Tikkadi, Jogia and Bhagwadi) and three local 

selections of Z. rotundifolia were assessed for 13 yield attributes at Jobner, 

Rajasthan, India. Fruit set, fruit length, fruit breadth, fruit weight, stone 

diameter, pulp weight, specific gravity and harvest duration had significant 

positive correlation with fruit yield, whereas the fruit length had the highest 

direct positive effect on yield (Pareek et al., 2003). 

The success of any breeding programme depends on the extent of genetic 

variability in the source population. The assessment of variability is, therefore, 

a basic requirement of breeding programmes. Since most of the plant characters 

of economic importance are governed by a group of genes and are highly 

influenced by environmental variation, it is difficult to judge whether the 

observed variability is heritable or due to environment. This necessitates the 

optimising of phenotypic variation into its heritable and non heritable 

components, and the more known about this, the better the characterisation of 

germplasm collections. 

The fruit weight, yield/plant and pulp/stone ratio in 13 Z. mauritiana cultivars 

showed high genetic coefficients of variation in Gujarat, India (Nanohar et al., 

1986). Bisla and Daulta (1988a) also observed that the coefficient of variation 

was highest for fruit set (16.9) followed by the number of leaves per shoot 

(14.2), yield (12.9), fruit drop percentage, shoot length and tree height. 

Liu (1996) studied nine major quantitative characters of Chinese jujube. There 

was significant difference among characters in level of variation. The 

coefficient of variation was highest in fruit weight (51.95 %) and lowest in 

edible part of the fruit (2.67 %). Saran (2005) studied 10 quantitative characters 

for 35 genotypes. Saran (2005) also observed that high estimates of genetic 

coefficient of variation, phenotypic coefficient of variation, heritability and 

genetic advance were recorded for stone size, pulp stone ratio, fruit weight and 

yield. It indicates the effectiveness of improvement through selection. He 

observed that fruit yield had positive and significant correlation with tree 

spread (0.319) fruit weight (0.515) and stone size (0.353). He also observed 

that fruit size (0.580) and flesh thickness (0.811) were indirectly contributing 

via fruit weight. Fruit weight (0.998) contributed to yield mainly through its 

direct effect followed by the indirect effect of stone size and number of flowers 

per cyme. 

8.2.5.2 Path analysis 

Path analysis showed that fruit weight, seed weight and pulp/stone ratio had a 

positive, direct effect on yield of Z. mauritiana varieties (Bisla and Daulta, 

1987). Both total sugar content and disease intensity contributed directly to 

103

yield, and attention should be given to these while selecting the genotypes for 

improvement in yield (Bisla and Daulta, 1986). 

Correlation and path coefficients of 35 ber genotypes indicated that the traits 

like fruit weight, fruit size and stone size should be given due consideration 

while performing selection for yield in segregating generations of ber. So 

spread, fruit weight, stone size and fruit size were found to be effective 

selection indices. Yield of ber genotypes had significant positive correlation 

with spread, fruit weight and stone size. Fruit size had highly positive 

correlation with fruit weight and stone size. Fruit weight, fruit size and stone 

size were the main contributors towards yield which contribute via fruit weight 

(Saran, 2005). 

8.2.5.3 Inheritance 

Some work has been done to study the inheritance patterns of jujubes. Detailed 

genetic studies are yet to be carried out to unfold the riddles underlying 

heritability of quantitative and qualitative characters. Some attempts have been 

made in the past to understand the genetic correlation between desirable traits. 

The inheritance of the characteristics chosen as breeding objectives will greatly 

influence the strategy employed for cultivar development. Qualitative 

characteristics controlled by one or a few major genes are more readily 

manipulated in a breeding programme than quantitative traits controlled by 

many genes (polygenes). Similarly characteristics whose expression is not 

influenced by the environment are more easily and effectively selected than 

those that are strongly affected by environmental factors. 

8.2.5.4 Heritability 

The estimation of heritability has been helpful to plant breeders, as it enables 

the selection programme to be based on phenotypic performance. Johnson et al. 

(1955) suggested that the heritability estimate in conjunction with genetic 

advance is usually helpful in predicting its resultant effect from selecting the 

best individuals. 

Heritability in 30 ber cultivars ranged from 54.2 % for total soluble solids to 

99.63 % for disease intensity, and the value for acidity was 91.61 % (Bisla and 

Daulta, 1988a). To improve the yield through hybridisation in Z. mauritiana 

individual trees with low fruit acidity and low disease intensity should be 

selected. Twelve cultivars evaluated for ten economic characters showed high 

heritability with high genetic advance for fruit weight and leaf length (Gupta 

and Mehta, 2000). Heritability was high for fruit weight (97.2 %) and size 

(87.9 %), pulp/stone ratio (87.5 %) and seed weight (84.6 %) in Z. mauritiana 

at Hisar (Bisla and Daulta, 1988b). 

The highest heritability values were seen for days from fruit set to ripening 

(99.2 %), fruit set (94.7 %), days from pruning to sprouting (93.6 %), fruit drop 

104

(85.0 %) and shoot length (82.0 %). High heritability coupled with genetic 

advance for yield (kg/plant), pulp/stone ratio indicated that high heritability 

obtained for these characters was probably due to additive gene effect (Panse, 

1957). Expected genetic gain was highest for fruit set (142.8 %) and lowest for 

days from pruning to flower initiation (3.5 %). Selection for higher fruit set and 

lower fruit drop was recommended to improve the yield by Bisla and Daulta 

(1988a). 

Heritability estimates were moderate for fruit breadth (66.67) but low for fruit 

weight (44.03) in addition to fruit length. Heritability ranged from 42.25 % 

(fruit length) to 93.75 % (TSS). High heritability was expressed by yield 

(kg/plant) (91.62) and pulp/stone ratio (91.67) in addition to the TSS (Nanohar 

et al., 1986). 

High genetic advance has been reported in yield and pulp/stone ratio in 

different cultivars (Nanohar et al., 1986). Fruit weight, fruit size and seed 

weight showed high genetic advance (Bisla and Daulta, 1988b). The genetic 

advance expressed as percentage of mean ranged from 12.48% (fruit length) to 

61.16 % (yield/plant). The fruit length, fruit breadth and weight per fruit had 

low heritability along with low genetic advance, indicating that dominance of 

epistatic effect is of considerable value for these characters and hence little 

improvement in these characters is possible through selection. Individual plant 

selection for yield (kg/plant) and pulp/stone ratio would be satisfactorily 

effective in ber as these characters exhibited high heritability as well as high 

genetic advance, whereas for other characters, selection may not be so 

effective. 

Saran (2005) studied 35 ber (Z. mauritiana) genotypes and revealed nine 

genetically divergent clusters (Table 8.1). 

105

Table 8.1 Classification of germplasm of ber in different clusters 

Clusters No. of Name of germplasm 

cultivars 

I 8 Kaithali, Govindgarh selection, Sanori No. 1, 

Noki, Chonchal, Mirchia, Sandhura Narnul and 

Jogia 

II 6 Seo, Laddu, Safeda Rohtak, Dandan, Popular 

Gola and Seo Bhadurgarh 

III 1 Illaichi 

IV 5 Katha Rajasthan, Ponda, Gola, Sanori No. 5 and 

Sua 

V 6 Katha Bombay, Bhadurgadhia, Thornless, 

Umran, Banarsi Karaka and Desi Alwar 

VI 2 Mundia Murhara and Bawal 

Selection-2 

VII 1 Chhuhara 

VIII 4 ZG-3, Akhrota, Gola Gurgaon No. 3 and Gola 

Gurgaon No. 2 

IX 2 Kathaphal and Kishmish 

8.2.6 Distribution of important traits 

The important traits in some ber cultivars have been described by Saran (2005) 

(Table 8.2) and the traits identified by others are shown in Table 8.3. 

Table 8.2 Important traits in ber 

Cultivar 

Umran 

Ponda 

Sanori 5 

Laddu 

Gola 

Chhuhara 

Characters 

Yield, stem girth, fruit size, fruit weight, flesh thickness, flowers 

per cyme and pulp/stone ratio. 

Yield, spread, number of flowers per cyme, fruit weight, fruit size 

and flesh thickness. 

Yield, number of flowers per cyme, fruit weight, size of fruit and 

flesh thickness. 

Yield, spread and number of flowers per cyme 

Spread, fruit weight, flesh thickness and stone weight 

Spread, stem girth 

Important traits have been identified by various workers which can be used by 

breeders; some breeders are listed in Table 8.4. 

106

Table 8.3 Traits identified in ber cultivars 

Traits Cultivars Author 

Fruit maturity Early (Gola, Mundia), mid season 

(Banarsi, Kaithli), late (Umran) 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Sweetness (high 

TSS) 

Reshmi, Umran 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Pulp texture Coconut-like (Umran), Juicy (Gola, 

Aliganj), Melting (Illaichi) 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Fruit size 

Very large (Ponda), large (Umran), 

Medium (Mundia, Banarsi, Gola), 

small (Illaichi) 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Fruit shape 

Fruit colour at 

maturity 

Acidity 

Shelf life of fruits 

Processing uses 

Apple like (Seb), cardamomshaped 

(Illaichi), bell shaped 

(Mundia), Round (Gola), oblong 

(Umran) 

Bright golden (Sanaur), bright 

yellow (Gola), Greenish yellow 

with brown blush (Kathaphal) 

Very low (Umran), low (Gola), 

Moderate acidic (Sanaur), acidic 

(Kathaphal) 

Good (Umran, Maharwali), poor 

(Gola) 

Dehydration (Vikas, Raja, Babu, 

Jeevan, Chinese cultivars, Umran, 

Bagwari, Chhuhara) 

Preserve (Umran, Banarsi Karaka, 

Kaithli) 

Candy (Illaichi, Umran, Kathaphal, 

Kaithli) 

Beverage (Gola, Mundia) 

107 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Vashishtha, 

1983 

Gopani, 1976 b 

Khurdiya, 1980 

Gupta et al. 

1981b 

Gupta et al. 

1981a 

Khurdiya and 

Singh, 1975 

Resistance to fruitfly Tikadi, Meharun, Illaichi Singh and 

Vashishtha, 

1984 

Resistance to fruit 

borer 

Tolerance to powdery 

mildew 

Banarsi Pewandi, Gola Gurgaon, 

Jhajjar Selection 

Illaichi Jhajjar, Sanaur-5, Safed 

Rohtak, Kathaphal, Gola, Seb, 

Meharun 

Dharkhi-1, Dharkhi-2, Guli, 

Field resistance to 

powdery mildew Villaiti, Seedless 

Tolerance to 

Isariopsis 


Safed Rohtak, Sanaur-1, Seo 

Bahadugarhia, Jhajjar Selection, 

Pareek and 

Vashishtha, 

1986 


Nath, 1996 


Nath, 1996 


Nath, 1996

8.3 Collections 

8.3.1 Genetic erosion 

Accelerated selection and wider adoption of clonally-propagated cultivars will 

lead to a degree of genetic erosion. However, whilst wild and naturalised 

populations persist in such large geographic areas in the primary centres of 

diversity, and numerous areas in other parts have become secondary centres, 

(e.g. tropical Africa for Z. mauritiana, Central Asia and South-west Asia and 

parts of Africa for Z. jujuba), there is not a major cause for concern. 

It is fairly common practice to top work wild trees with improved cultivars 

(Singh et al., 1973a; Yadav, 1991), and many rural communities use jujubes for 

fencing, wind-breaks and other purposes. These activities provide a degree of 

protection. 

8.3.2 Existing collections 

Collections of germplasm which are currently maintained are largely geared to 

maintenance of cultivars and other selections, including in some cases mutants, 

which are used to support the national improvement efforts. Sometimes they 

represent introductions which have been or might be tested for adaptation far 

from their places of origin. In effect, the collections are active collections rather 

than field gene-banks since costs of maintenance are related to utility rather 

than maintenance for long term conservation. 

As research progresses on characterisation and genetic affinities, it will be 

possible to develop strategic planning to rationalise existing collections so that 

synonyms of cultivars can be eliminated and the accessions can truly represent 

specific patterns of genetic variability and still be related to improvement 

needs, including ecological and climatic tolerances. Many of the traits 

considered in improvement are polygenic and there will always be the need to 

err on the side of maintaining a larger number of accessions than actual 

utilisation needs require. 

A large number of Institutions particularly in India are holding ber germplasm 

and are working on their evaluation and improvement (Table 8.4). 

108

Table 8.4 Indian Institutions holding ber germplasm collections (number 

of accessions) 

Institutions 

Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, 

Bikaner - 334 006, Rajasthan, India 

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, 

Jodhpur -342 003, Rajasthan, India 

Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, 

Bangalore-560 089, Karnataka, India 

Central Horticultural Research Station, 

Godhra-389 001, Gujarat, India. 

Haryana Agricultural University, 

Hisar-125 004, Harayana, India 

Narendradeo University of Agriculture and 

Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad- 224 

229, U.P, India 

Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, 

Rahuri- 413 722, Maharasthra, India 

Gujarat Agricultural University, 

Sardar Krushinagar- 385 506, Gujarat, 

India 

Fruit Research Station, Punjab Agricultural 

University, Bahadurgarh, Patiala- 147 001, 

Punjab, India 

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, 

New Delhi - 110 012, India 

Dryland Agriculture Research Station, 

Haryana Agricultural University, Bawal- 

123 501, Haryana, India 

(Pareek, 1988; Pareek and Sharma, 1993). 

Ziziphus Ber cultivars 

species 

7 162 

-- 68 

3 32 

-- 22 

-- 74 

-- 32 

-- 87 

-- 75 

-- 42 

4 52 

-- 36 

Chinese jujube is maintained at a number of sites in Hebei, Shanxi, Henan and 

Shantung provinces and the Jujube Institute at the Hebei Agricultural 

University, Baodong, Hebei 071001 can always provide information, as can the 

Chinese Academy of Forestry. 

Other collections of jujubes are to be found at the Apsheron Experimental 

Station for Subtropical Crops, Azerbaijan, where in the 1990s the best 40 

seedlings of ber were selected from 3762 jujube seedlings, and 25 were 

included among the elites. The 11 best forms were given varietal names. 

A collection of subtropical fruits is maintained at the Turkmen Experimental 

Station Turkmenistan and includes several local, foreign and Soviet bred 

109

varieties of jujube. There are 65 forms of Ziziphus jujuba at the Turkmen 

Experimental Station. 

A number of accessions of Z. jujuba are held at the Research Institute of Plant 

Production, Prague, Czechoslovakia. The Fruit-Tree Research Station (FTRS) 

in Japan has a collection of Z. jujuba maintained at the Okitsu Branch 

(Moriguchi et al., 1994). 

The National Germplasm System of the USA also holds significant accession 

numbers of the two major jujubes. European countries bordering the 

Mediterranean have been involved in documenting germplasm of minor fruits, 

including jujubes, through a cooperative European Union Project, and national 

programmes recognised the need to collect materials in the latter part of the 

1990s. Some work is still ongoing. Turkey also, through its national genetic 

resources programmes, maintains a number of accessions of Z. jujuba at 

ARARI, Meneme, Izmir. 

Other countries maintain small collections of jujubes but they are not 

maintained for genetic conservation but for short-term use e.g. Bangladesh 

maintains 35 accessions but only two of these cultivars are under cultivation on 

farms (Saha, 1997). Similar collections are present in Korea, Pakistan and 

Thailand. 

8.3.2.1 The need to consider rootstock resources 

In addition to cultivars more attention needs to be given to wild sources of 

current or potential use as rootstocks and their maintenance in the collections. 

Much of the research on using rootstocks, other than those of cultivars, has 

been hit and miss because very limited genetic material of each wild species 

used has been tested for rootstocks. Table 8.5 shows the situation for ber (Bal 

et al., 1997). 

Table 8.5 Species used for rootstocks for Indian jujube 

Compatibility 

Most successful 

Can be widely used 

Less successful but 

mostly compatible;often 

cultivar specific 

Species 

Z. mauritiana cultivars 

Z. mauritiana var. rotundifolia (wild/naturalised) 

Z. abyssinia 

Z. nummularia 

Z. xylopyrus 

Z. spina-christi 

Z. mucronata 

Z. oenoplia 

Z. jujuba 

Source: comprehensive summary by Pareek (2001). 

110

Chinese jujube rootstocks are most frequently wild materials (especially var. 

spinosa) related to the cultivars, but a number of other wild species have been 

tried in areas of China with more extreme climates (Ming and Sun, 1986). 

8.3.2.2 The need to consider wild species for breeding 

Wild species are sources of diversity for jujube improvement. Pareek (2001) 

noted the attributes of several in the case of ber (Table 8.6). 

Table 8.6 Exploitable attributes of wild species in ber improvement 

Wild Relatives 

Z. nummularia and 

Z. lotus 

Exploitable Attributes 

i) Drought tolerance 

ii) Dwarf tree stature and extensive root system 

iii) Early fruit maturity 

Z. jujuba i) Resistance to low temperature damage 

ii) Excellent dehydration quality of fruits 

iii) High vitamin C and P contents in fruits 

Z. mistol i) Resistance to low temperature damage 

Z. mauritiana var. 

rotundifolia 


8.3.4 Conservation methodologies 

i) Vigorous tree frame 

ii) Wood of marginal timber value 

Not a great deal of attention has been paid to storage of seeds of jujubes for 

long-term conservation because of the heterozygosity present and the loss of a 

particular cultivar if seed is propagated. 

Two other factors are relevant. Firstly seeds of jujubes are not easy to handle as 

seed ‘lots’, and secondly, regeneration of the sample when needed is difficult 

because it means growing out a tree population, waiting for fruiting age and 

then replacing a seed lot in cold storage. 

Nonetheless, seeds of jujube species, both cultivated and wild show an 

orthodox behaviour when dried and stored at low temperatures. The 

Millennium Seed Bank of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK stores 

accessions of Ziziphus, mostly wild species of arid zones of Africa. This 

institution has also looked at the relations between seed moisture contents, 

viability and storability at low temperatures. Further information is available at 

www.icuc-iwmi.org and advice can be given to any national programme 

considering placing jujube seeds into seed genebanks. 

The rationalisation of a number of the existing germplasm collections will 

enable these to be transferred into field genebanks but there are many gaps in 

the collections. Also more systematic evaluation of existing resources is 

essential to utilise the variable genepools. The lack of sufficient information on 

111

performance accessions is due to the enormity of the task, and this has lead to 

their current limited use. Thus, proper characterisation and evaluation of 

germplasm and dissemination of the information to breeders and others is very 

important. 

8.3.4.1 The need for in situ conservation 

At present, much of the conservation is through use of the ranges of cultivars 

on-farm (e.g. Vietnam: see Le, 1998). Any on-farm conservation to be built 

into any national programme has to be based on farmers who are interested and 

willing to do so. Natural genetic resources programmes are still grappling with 

principles, practices and policy issues in this area but those involved with 

jujube production should be part of the dialogues whenever possible. 

Many more practicable opportunities exist for conservation of Ziziphus in situ 

in natural habitats or in the areas where it grows naturally, achieved by 

protecting areas from human interference; such areas include natural parks, 

biosphere reserves or gene sanctuaries. A gene sanctuary is best located within 

the centre of origin of the crop species concerned, preferably covering the 

micro-centre within the centre of origin (Singh, 2004). A gene sanctuary 

conserves the existing genetic diversity present in the population; it also allows 

for new gene combinations which appear with time. But it is difficult to 

establish and very difficult to maintain, especially in countries like India, which 

have an ever increasing population pressure. There is a need to establish gene 

sanctuaries in India for the conservation of Z. mauritiana and in China for Z 

jujuba. In situ conservation has two approaches i) biosphere reserve; (ii) habitat 

approach. The natural biosphere reserve is a useful solution for species that are 

endangered and almost on the point of extinction. Habitat approach refers to 

management of target species in its original habitat, through protected areas, 

managed forests, natural reserves with multiple uses, preservation plots, 

wildlife sanctuaries, habitat or national parks and agro-ecosystems through onsite 

or on farm conservation. 

8.3.4.2 In vitro conservation 

In vitro genebanks can be very useful for clonally propagated material using 

slow growth in tissue culture and long-term cryopreservation of tissues and/or 

embryos. No such facilities exist for jujubes yet but a technique for in vitro 

storage of plants including Z. jujuba was developed in the Nikitsky Botanical 

Gardens, Ukraine (Mitrofanova et al., 2002). The growth of explants was 

retarded using physical (temperature, light and culture conditions), chemical 

(osmoticum application and optimization of culture medium) and plant 

physiological factors (plant age, dormancy and crop growth stage). 

112

Chapter 9. Harvesting, post-harvest 

handling and processing 


S. Azam-Ali 

This chapter is mainly devoted to ber. Other jujube species show similarities in 

harvesting, ripening and grading requirements. After thorough discussion of 

ber, some details are added for Chinese jujube and Z. spina-christi. 

9.2 Ber 

9.2.1 Harvesting 

Ber fruits should be harvested at the correct stage of maturity since they do not 

mature after picking and the organoleptic (taste and texture) and visual 

qualities of fruits decline with increased maturity. Immature fruits lack 

sweetness and have an acrid taste. Over-mature or fully ripe fruits turn from 

yellow or golden-yellow colour to red or dark brown. The texture changes from 

crisp and juicy to soft and slimy. It is essential to harvest ber fruits at the 

optimum stage of maturity. On the same tree, fruits ripen at different rates 

Fruits are ripe when they are a golden yellow colour with a sweet and sour 

taste. 

9.2.1.1 Harvesting season 

The harvesting season varies according to cultivar and location. Some varieties 

ripen as early as October, others ripen from mid-February until mid-March and 

others in March or mid-March until the end of April. In any location, diverse 

cultivars can be harvested over a period of months e.g. in North India from 

February to April, in west India from December to January, but in south India 

in November. In the Assiut Governorate there are two crops a year, the main 

being in early spring and the second in the autumn (www.hort.purdue.edu). In 

India there are two or three pickings which are done by hand ladders. One 

worker is capable of manually harvesting about 50 kg of fruit per day. After 

wrapping in white cloth, the fruits are put into paper-lined burlap bags of 50 kg 

capacity for carriage to markets throughout the country. 

9.2.1.2 Maturity standard 

Maturation time for ber fruits varies with genotype and environment. Some 

mature after 120 days while others may take up to 170 days before they are 

mature. Harvesting the fruits at the appropriate maturity is vital for improving 

the shelf-life and quality of the fruits. Maturity in ber fruits is usually judged by 

113

external colour. Fruits are harvested at the mature green and mature golden 

yellow stages depending on several factors: the cultivar, distance from market 

and expected post-harvest use. 

The various cultivars of ber mature at different rates and hence are harvested at 

different times. The Umran cultivar is best harvested at the mature golden 

yellow stage when fruits have good organoleptic qualities. They also have a 

low respiration rate and can be stored for long periods when harvested at this 

stage (Singh et al., 1981 a). Fruits of the cultivar Kaithli should be harvested at 

the green-yellow stage and the optimum stage for harvesting fruits of the Gola 

cultivar is the green mature, green-yellow or yellow stage (Siddiqui and Gupta, 

1989). Fully ripe fruits (red brown in colour) lose their crisp texture, but are 

suitable for dehydration. 

The total soluble solids (TSS) and the ratio of TSS to acid can be used as 

measures of fruit maturity. The TSS and TSS/acid ratio vary between cultivars. 

The optimum values are presented in Table 9.1. Other indices such as the 

degree day heat unit accumulation and fruit weight and volume have been 

suggested as viable indicators of maturity. However, these measurements are 

either less reliable than the visual colour method or not practical for use in the 

field (Pareek, 2001). 

Table 9.1 Maturity indices for cultivars of ber (Bhatia and Gupta, 1985) 

Cultivar TSS (%) TSS/Acid ratio 

Gola 16.7-17.0 76-84 

Kaithli 16.2-16.5 75-100 

Umran 17.1-17.4 93-100 

The period for fruit development and maturation and subsequently the quality 

and shelf life of the fresh fruits also vary with cultivar. The cultivars are known 

to influence the quality of the fruits by their specific physico-chemical 

properties. For post-harvest use, the cultivar and its nutritional composition 

have to be considered as important traits that determine the most appropriate 

end use, the storage life and the quality of fruit. The cultivars Umran, Kathapal 

and Gola are the most promising varieties of ber in North India (Kudachikar et 

al., 2000). 

The different ber cultivars grown in north India have been studied for their 

physico-chemical attributes and have been grouped according to their physicochemical 

traits, harvesting season, suitability of specific cultivars for short and 

long distance transport and the shelf life of harvested fruits. 

114

9.2.1.3 Attributes of important Indian ber fruits 

Umran 

This cultivar is commercially cultivated on a large scale in Punjab, and 

Haryana states of India. It was developed from germplasm from Rajasthan at 

the Fruit Research Station at Bahadurgarch, Punjab. It fetches the highest 

price. The fruits are large sized, oval in shape and have a roundish apex. They 

weigh on average between 30 and 80 g. They are an attractive golden yellow 

colour which later turns into a chocolate brown at full maturity. The fruit 

matures in the mid-season (February to March) and ripens during mid-March to 

mid- April. The fruit is sweet with 19 % total soluble solids (TSS) and 0.12 % 

acidity. It has a pleasant flavour and excellent dessert quality. Umran fruits 

have a good keeping quality and can withstand long transportation. The main 

reason for its popularity is the long shelf life (15 to 20 days) and excellent 

organoleptic qualities. The fruit is also known locally as Ketha, Ajmeri and 

Chamdi. 

Kathapal 

This is a late ripening cultivar of ber well known in Gujarat that has small to 

medium size fruits. At maturity, the fruits remain green on one side while the 

other side develops a reddish yellow tinge. The average fruit weighs 10 g. They 

have a high TSS (23 %) and an acidity of about 0.77 %. 

Gola 

Gola is an early-maturing cultivar that is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, 

Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. It starts to bear fruit in the first week of 

January. The fruits are very attractive, roundish in shape and golden yellow in 

colour with an average weight of 20 g. The white flesh is very juicy, semi-soft 

and has a delicious taste. The fruit pulp has a TSS of 17 to 19 % and 0.46 to 

0.51 % acidity. The ratio of pulp to stone is 14. 

Kaithali 

This is a mid-season cultivar of ber well known in the Punjab that ripens during 

March. It was developed from the collection from the Kaithali area of 

Karukshestra in Haryana. The fruit is medium in size with an average weight of 

18 g, oval in shape and has a tapering apex. The fruit pulp is quite soft, has a 

TSS of 18 % and 0.5 % acidity. Unlike Umran, this fruit does not withstand 

transportation and has a poor keeping quality. 

Tikadi. 

This ber cultivar is a late maturing type that ripens in Rajasthan during 

February and March. The fruits are small, weighing on average 10 g. The fruits 

become edible, with a creamy soft flesh, when the skin turns to a red colour 

during a short (7 to 10 day) ripening period of the fruits on the trees. The ripe 

fruit has a high TSS (25 %) with a large stone (the pulp to stone ratio of ripe 

fruit is 6.9). 

115

Jogia 

The fruits of this cultivar are also well known in Rajasthan and have a light 

purple tinge when they are unripe, but are still edible at this time. Because of 

this, they have an extended harvest period up to early February. The skin 

surface has coarse ridges and is greenish yellow in colour. The flesh is white, 

soft, juicy and sweet with a TSS of 19 % and a pulp to stone ratio of 14. 

Mundia 

This is an early Rajasthan, high yielding, cultivar that matures during mid- 

January. The fruits are large, juicy and bell shaped with an average weight of 

40 g. They have a yellowish green skin with smooth depressions. The flesh is 

white and soft with a TSS of 20 % and a pulp to stone ratio of 23. 

9.2.1.4 Harvesting method 

The most common method of harvesting ber fruits is by manually shaking or 

beating the tree branches to cause the ripe or mature fruits to fall to the ground. 

Sometimes a cloth is spread on the ground to facilitate collecting the fruits. 

Harvesting can also be carried out by mechanical shaking of the tree. Neither of 

these methods of harvesting is very satisfactory as they cause considerable 

damage to the fruit and the harvest includes a mixture of mature and immature 

fruit. Ber fruits ripen at different times even on a single tree and have a golden 

yellow appearance when they are fully ripe. Other more suitable methods of 

harvest include plucking the fruit using a clipper (an iron hook attached to a 

long bamboo pole) and hand picking the individual fruit. Both these methods 

are more time consuming and more difficult and are therefore not favoured by 

local farmers. 

In well managed fruit orchards, manual picking ensures the harvest of fruits 

with the pedicels 1 attached. Research has shown that fruits with the pedicel 

attached have a longer storage life (Pareek, 2001). Since ber fruits mature at 

different rates and do not ripen simultaneously, four to five or even up to seven 

pickings are needed to complete the harvest, especially for late maturing 

varieties such as Umran. This results in higher labour costs. The cumbersome 

picking operation and the associated costs could be markedly reduced by using 

suitable plant growth regulators. Indian researchers have investigated the 

effects of applying plant growth regulators prior to harvest on the maturity and 

subsequent ripening period of ber fruits. They have also looked at the ability of 

plant growth regulators to reduce spoilage during the pre-harvest and storage 

periods, and to improve the physico-chemical characteristics of the fruit. 

Ripening can be delayed and the number of pickings reduced by spraying with 

pre-harvest ethephon sprays (see Table 9.2). The application of the plant 

growth regulators can help to ensure early market returns or early and uniform 

ripening of fruits. 

1 A small stalk, attached to the fruit 

116

Pre-harvest spraying of ethephon at 400 and 500 ppm to the Umran cultivar can 

accelerate the maturing of fruits. The mature fruits turn a deep golden yellow 

colour and have a high total soluble solids content, ascorbic acid and total 

sugars and a low specific gravity and acidity. Further, these treated fruits 

become more palatable and can be ripened two weeks earlier than untreated 

ones. The benefit of inducing maturity is that early ripened fruits could fetch a 

higher market price. Also, the harvesting period can be stretched from two to 

four weeks which would ease the strain of marketing at peak ripening time. 

Table 9.2 The effects of spraying Ethephon on the number of harvests of 

ber fruit (Pareek and Nath, 1996) 

Ethephon (ppm) 

Cultivar 

Gola 

Sev 

0 5 4 

500 4 3 

750 3 2 

1000 3 3 

9.2.1.5 Fruit growth and maturation 

Ber requires a relatively long period of 150 to 190 days (22 to 27 weeks) after 

fruit set for fruit growth and maturation. Some cultivars grown in the Hissar 

region of the north of India can be harvested at 120 days after fruit set. The 

fruit growth period can be divided into three distinct phases: 

1. the most active fruit growth phase during the first 6 to 7 weeks 

2. slow growth rate for the middle eight weeks 

3. active growth rate for the last 8 to 10 weeks. 

Studies on the developmental physiology of fruit of the Umran cultivar in the 

Punjab illustrate the distinct physical and chemical changes during the growth 

and development of the fruit. Fruits of cultivar Umran attain the ripe stage in 

190 days after fruit set. Fruit growth in terms of length and diameter showed 

three distinct phases. The increase in length was faster than the growth of the 

diameter during the first phase. Conversely, during the third phase, the increase 

in diameter was greater than the increase in length. That is, the fruits grew in 

length at the start of their growing period and ‘filled out’ during the final 

growth phase. 

The major chemical changes that take place during fruit growth and 

development are changes in the content of total soluble solids (TSS). The TSS 

increases from fruit set through to ripening. This increase is very pronounced 

during the latter stages of maturity. There is a corresponding decrease in 

acidity (an increase in pH) of the fruit pulp as the fruit ripens. When the fruit is 

physiologically mature, the fruit colour turns to dark green followed by 

ripening with a change in colour as the ripening process advances. The stalk 

end of the fruit starts to turn yellow and later turns to bright yellow and then 

117

own at the end of ripening. There is a wide variation in the TSS (12.2 to 

19.2° Brix) and acidity (0.23 to 0.52 %) in different cultivars of the ripe fruit 

(Teaotia et al., 1974). Changes in the levels of other chemical components such 

as ascorbic acid, total phenolics and minerals during the maturation of ber 

fruits have been reported (Bal and Singh, 1987). The level of ascorbic acid 

gradually increased during growth and development (from 15 days after fruit 

set until 190 days). The total phenolics content increased initially, reached a 

peak in the developing fruits and later showed a fall as fruit maturity advanced. 

The calcium content showed a gradual downward trend up to 150 days and 

then remained constant until ripening. The phosphorus content showed a steady 

decline with the advancement of maturity. The iron content remained almost 

constant in the beginning and thereafter gradually decreased towards ripening. 

9.2.1.6 Fruit drop and its control 

Fruit drop is a major and serious problem in ber production. Generally the 

number of fruit set is very high, but the extent of fruit retention varies 

according to the cultivar type and on the level of production of endogenous 

plant hormones. Several studies have been made on fruit set, fruit drop and 

level of fruit retention. Sharma et al., (1990) found that early maturing cultivars 

(that were eight years of age) were resistant to fruit drop while the late cultivars 

were the most susceptible to fruit drop. Garwal et al. (1993) observed a similar 

pattern, but also noticed that the fruit drop in later maturing cultivars (var. 

Sendbura and Narnaul) could be controlled by spraying the fruit with 10 ppm 

of NOXA growth regulator. This treatment resulted in the production of large 

size fruits with significantly higher total soluble solids and ascorbic acid 

content and lower acidity, total sugars and reducing sugar content than most 

other treatments. 

9.2.1.7 Time of harvest and fruit yield 

The time of harvest affects the storage life of fruits. For practical reasons, 

harvesting in the morning is generally preferred as the fruits are cool and turgid 

at this time of day and can be sold or further processed the same day. However, 

one study reported that fruits harvested at midday had a better storage life than 

those harvested in the morning or evening. This may be due to greater loss of 

water from the morning or evening harvested fruits (Pareek, 2001). 

Bal et al. (1995) reported that the pre-harvest spray of ethephon at a 

concentration of 300 ppm to ber trees induced uniform ripening of fruits, and 

the fruits harvested at optimum maturity could be stored for up to forty days at 

a temperature of 0 to 3.3° C and relative humidity of 85 to 90 %. 

Ber trees can produce fruit after the first year of planting from budded plants or 

after in situ budding in the field. However, during the first two years in the 

tropics, and three years in the sub-tropics, young plants are trained to develop 

into well balanced trees rather than for fruit production. Fruit production 

therefore starts from the third year in the tropics and the fourth year in the sub- 

118

tropics. Ber trees can become prime fruit bearers at an early age (i.e. from the 

fifth to sixth year under intensive management). 

The fruit yield per tree varies with cultivar, age of the tree, climate and location 

of the tree. Seedling trees bear between 5000–10,000 fruits per year and 

superior grafted trees can bear up to 30,000 fruits. The best cultivar in India 

reportedly bears fruits that give an average of 66 fruits per kg and that yields 77 

kg annually. Both fruit size and number can be increased by simple cultural 

treatment (www.hort.purdue.edu). Yields of 80 to 200 kg per mature (10 to 20 

year old) tree have been reported in India for trees under irrigated conditions. 

Yields as low as 50-75 kg per tree have also been reported. In Israel, yields of 

12 tons per hectare have been obtained from three year old ber trees (Pareek, 

2001). Water availability has a significant impact on yield. In rainfed 

agriculture, the yield can be as low as 80-100 kg per tree in semi-arid areas, 

while in arid areas it can fall to 50 kg per tree (see Pareek, 2001). 

Researchers in India (Kudachikar et al., 2000) have investigated the effect of 

pruning the tree on fruit yield and quality. Pruning is considered to be one of 

the most important horticultural practices for the production and maintenance 

of regular fruit bearing, both in terms of quality and quantity of fruit. Ber fruits 

are borne in the leaf axils on the young growing shoots of the current season. 

Pruning has been discussed in Chapter 6 but details relevant for fruiting are 

provided below. The best time for pruning ber trees is during the hot and dry 

season when the tree sheds its leaves and becomes dormant after the harvesting 

of fruits (Sharma and Kore, 1990). The effects of severity of pruning on 

flowering, fruit setting, fruit yield and quality of ber fruits of different cultivars 

in different agro-climatic growing regions have been investigated by Bajwa et 

al, (1986), Bisla et al. (1991) and Kundu et al, (1994). 

Kundu et al. (1994) looked at pruning of thirteen year old Umran trees. When 

pruning was too severe and the planting distance close, flowering and fruit 

production was decreased. However, when the planting distance was wider, 

even though the pruning was severe, the percentage of fruit set increased. The 

percentage of fruit retention increased with increased planting distance and 

decreased pruning severity. Yadhav and Godara (1992) found that the best 

combination for ber trees was medium pruning combined with a planting 

distance of 7.2 m x 7.2 m or 9.6 m x 9.6 m. 

The fruit yield in un-pruned trees is often on a par with pruned trees, but the 

fruit quality is poor. Pruned trees tend to produce large fruits of good quality 

and with a significantly higher fruit weight. 

As noted in 9.2.1.4 researchers have investigated the effects of applying plant 

growth regulators prior to harvesting on fruit maturity, yield and quality. The 

application of calcium compounds such as calcium chloride and calcium nitrate 

(CCC) at 1.7 g per litre as a pre-harvest spray reduced the fruit weight loss, 

119

delayed colour development and maintained good quality ber fruits during 

storage (Gupta et al., 1987). Bankar and Prasad (1990) investigated the effects 

of pre-harvest spraying of ber fruit with gibberellic acid (GA3) and napthalein 

acetic acid (NAA) at three different rates (10, 20 and 30 ppm) either alone or in 

combination at two different times (at the time of flowering and at 15 days after 

flowering). They found that both growth regulators, at all concentrations and 

applied at both times, alone and in combination, increased the number of fruit 

set and decreased fruit drop (i.e. they increased fruit retention). The fruit 

weight and fruit length were both significantly increased by application of GA3 

or NAA at 30 ppm concentration. The total soluble solids (TSS) content was 

improved by treatment with GA3. Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) reported that 

the pre-harvest application of GA3 (10-20 ppm) and ethephon (400 ppm) to ber 

trees of Umran cultivar improved the physico-chemical characteristics of ber 

fruits. Significant increase in fruit weight, fruit volume, pulp percentage, nonreducing 

sugars and ascorbic acid contents and lower stone percentage were 

obtained with treatments of GA3 alone, while ethephon treatment resulted in 

high TSS content and also improved the fruit colour to golden yellow. Other 

growth regulators have been tested; 2,4-D at 10-15 ppm and CCC at 100 ppm 

but CCC can reduce the size of fruits. 

9.2.2 Post harvest handling 

9.2.2.1 Post harvest ripening 

After harvest at the mature green to mature golden yellow stages, ber fruits 

start to ripen at ambient temperature. Ripening is signified by a change in 

colour from green or golden yellow to red or red brown. It takes place after 4 to 

15 days, depending upon cultivar and storage environment. 

The fruits are considered to have the best organoleptic qualities (taste and 

texture) when they are at the mature green to mature golden yellow stages. 

Therefore, attempts are made to delay the ripening process and prolong the 

keeping quality by modifying the storage environment. 

Plant growth regulators may be applied to ber fruits after harvest to accelerate 

the uniform rate of ripening and to reduce losses through post-harvest decay. 

Ethephon has been found to be the most effective growth regulator that 

accelerates the ripening and improves the quality of ber fruit (Kudachikar et al., 

2000). Siddiqui and Gupta (1995) found that post harvest dipping of ber fruits 

(cultivar Umran) at the colour turning stage in cycocel or chloromequot (500 or 

1000 ppm) for 15 minutes, followed by storage in wooden boxes packed with 

newspaper at 25 ± 5° C significantly reduced the decay loss of fruits and 

retarded the ripening process, thereby extending the shelf-life of fruits. 

9.2.2.2 Grading 

The harvested fruits are usually at different stages of maturity and need to be 

sorted into different groups before they are sold, stored or further processed. 

120

They are sorted and graded according to maturity, size, shape and colour. First 

the fruits are sorted by hand. The under-ripe, over-ripe, damaged and 

misshapen fruits are removed. The under-ripe fruits are set aside and left to 

ripen. Over-ripe fruits are not desirable for fresh sales or processing and should 

be discarded. 

The remaining fruits are graded into two or three groups based on the size and 

colour of fruit. Grading can either be carried out manually or by passing 

through sieves of different mesh sizes. A grading standard for ber fruits is 

included in Table 9.3. 

Table 9.3 Grading criteria for ber (Pareek and Gupta, 1988) 

Grade Standard 

A Shining yellow, large (>35 mm) to medium size (24-35 mm) 

fruits of uniform size with no blemishes. 

B Uneven yellow or yellow red, large (>35 mm) to medium (25-35 

mm) fruits of uniform shape with some blemishes. 

C Red, large (>35 mm) to small (

leach powder per kg of fruit. Diphenyl impregnated paper can also be used for 

packaging to reduce bacterial spoilage (Pareek, 2001). 

The use of chemical preservatives is not always desirable. It is preferable to 

pack ber fruits in non-organic materials, which avoids the need for chemicals. 

Perforated polythene bags (150 gauge), nylon nets or cardboard cartons can be 

used to package small quantities of 1-2 kg. For larger volumes of fruit of 10- 

20kg, gunny bags, cloth packages or wooden boxes with holes or slits are used. 

Baskets made from locally available materials such as bamboo can be used. 

Shredded paper is the best material to use for cushioning and protection during 

transport. 

For transportation, corrugated cardboard cartons of about 10 kg are the most 

suitable packaging material. For short distances, cheaper materials such as 

gunny bags, cloth or old boxes can be used provided that the fruit are 

cushioned and ventilation is provided. The best packages are nylon nets or 

perforated polythene bags for small quantities of about 1 to 3 kg fruit for retail 

sale. 

9.2.2.4 Storage 

Ber fruits are relatively perishable and have a shelf life of only four to five days 

at ambient temperatures. Transportation of ripe fruits to distant places is 

difficult and results in large post-harvest losses. Both pre-harvest and postharvest 

factors have been found to influence the storage life and post-harvest 

quality of ber fruits (Kudachikar et al., 2000). Pre-harvest factors that influence 

the storage life include the following: 

pruning of the tree 

control of fruit drop by exogenous application of plant growth 

regulators 

the stage of maturity 

physico-chemical composition of the fruits at the time of harvest. 

Post-harvest factors that influence storage life and fruit quality include the 

following: 

the use of plant growth regulators 

irradiation 

storage conditions 

Storage experiments in India have demonstrated that slightly under-ripe fruits 

ripen and keep for eight days under wheat straw, seven days under leaves and 

four days in carbide (50 to 60 g) (www.hort.purdue.edu). Other studies in India 

(Kudachikar et al., 2000), demonstrated that the shelf life of ber fruits could be 

significantly extended by coating the fruits in wax, packing them in 

polyethylene bags and storing at 0 to 3.3° C and 0 to 4° C, up to 40 days and 21 

days respectively. This is in comparison to untreated fruits that are stored at 

ambient temperature (30 to 35° C) and only have a maximum shelf life of 

122

seven days. The improved storage life at reduced temperatures gives potential 

for transporting ber over long distances, from the growing areas in North India 

to consumers in southern India, if refrigerated transport lorries are available. 

Storage at room temperature 

After harvest, ber fruits are usually stored at ambient temperature (25-35° C) 

until they are either sold or further processed. The fruit is often stored in heaps 

under shade or in storage rooms, but it is better to store in packages such as 

gunny bags, net bags, polythene bags and boxes. Depending upon cultivar and 

the storage conditions, fruit can be kept for 4 to 15 days without loss of 

organoleptic quality. 

During storage, the fruits lose weight and shrivel, change colour from green 

yellow or golden yellow to reddish brown and lose acidity and ascorbic acid 

(vitamin C), but gain in sweetness. Typical values for quality parameters of ber 

fruits (cultivar Umran) in storage are found in Table 9.4. 

Table 9.4. Typical changes in quality characteristics of ber fruit during 

storage at ambient temperature (from Pareek, 2001) 

Ber fruits (Umran cultivar) 

Quality parameters At harvest After 9 days storage 

at 30-35°C 

Colour Golden yellow Grey orange 

TSS (%) 17.5 19.5 

Total sugars (%) 10.19 16.38 

Acidity (%) 0.21 0.12 

Ascorbic acid 

117.13 93.72 

(mg/100g) 

Total phenolics (%) 0.108 0.039 

Cool storage 

The shelf life of fruits can be extended by storage in cool chambers. Cool 

chambers are simple, double walled structures made from locally available 

materials such as mud or brick. The space between the two walls is filled with 

sand or wood shavings that are kept cool by sprinkling with water. Cooling is 

achieved by evaporation of water from the walls of the chamber. 

With prolonged storage in a cool chamber, a high level of humidity can 

develop within the chamber which is conducive to spoilage in the fruit. Fruits 

have been stored successfully for 6 to 10 days in cool chambers without any 

loss in quality. However, the length of storage within a cool chamber very 

much depends on the cultivar, ambient and internal temperature, humidity 

level, quantity of fruit within the chamber and the maturity of the fruit at 

harvest. 

123

If cold storage is available, fruits can withstand temperatures as low as 10° C 

without any damage. At this temperature, the shelf life can be extended for 28 

to 42 days depending upon cultivar. At temperatures of 13° C, fruits can be 

stored in perforated polythene bags and baskets for up to 3 weeks without any 

loss in quality (Pareek, 2001). At lower storage temperatures (at 0 to 4° C), the 

fruits become an unattractive brown colour. 

Treatments to extend shelf life 

Various treatments are available to extend the shelf life of fruits. Some of these 

are applied to the fruit whilst still on the tree while others are post-harvest 

treatments. The use of the various chemicals to extend the storage life of fruits 

should be carried out with caution, especially if the fruit is being sold as 

organic. Certain chemicals are not permissible for use on fruits that are 

destined for the organic market. National and international regulations should 

be consulted regarding the use of any chemical. All safety regulations 

regarding the dosage and application of spray and the use of the fruit after 

spraying, for example, the number of days that must elapse before the fruit is 

safe for consumption, should be observed. 

Pre-harvest treatments 

The calcium content of fruits influences the shelf life. Therefore, pre-harvest 

applications of calcium compounds can have an effect on the storage life. 

Fruits naturally contain calcium as compounds of pectate, carbonate, oxalate 

and phosphate. One treatment is to spray the fruit 10 days before harvest with a 

solution of calcium chloride at 1.7 g calcium per litre with 1 % Teepol as a 

surfactant. A second treatment is to apply calcium nitrate to the fruit. A 1 % 

solution of calcium nitrate is sprayed on the fruit 10 days before harvest, when 

the fruit is at the colour turning stage. 

Post-harvest treatments 

There are several possible treatments that can be used to extend the shelf life of 

harvested fruits. These include cleaning, dipping in cold water to remove field 

heat, treatment with chemicals such as calcium compounds, anti-oxidants, 

growth regulators and fungicides. 

Dipping the fruits in cold water for two hours or exposing to cold air for four 

hours immediately after harvest to remove field heat has been shown to prolong 

shelf life. 

Dipping the fruits in a solution of calcium chloride (1 to 2 %) containing a 

surfactant can prolong the shelf life of ber fruits by delaying the onset of 

ripening. 

Post-harvest dipping of fruits into a solution of ascorbic acid (150 to 300 ppm 

ascorbic acid) can reduce over-ripening and increase the levels of TSS. 

124

However, this treatment has no effect on the acidity or ascorbic acid content of 

the fruit. 

Dipping the fruits (Gola cultivar) in a solution (1000 ppm) of potassium 

permanganate (KMnO 4 ) at the colour turning stage gave the best result of 

extending the shelf life of fruits to 14 days at room temperature (Ramkrishan 

Godara, 1994). Also, Umran fruits harvested at the golden yellow colour stage 

and dipped in a solution of 10 ppm benzyl adenine for five minutes, then 

packed in polyethylene bags, had a lower weight loss, higher TSS, sugars and 

ascorbic acid and a greater palatability rating after storage for eight days 

(Sandhbhor and Desai, 1991). 

Treatment with a range of different growth regulators has been successful at 

delaying the ripening of harvested fruits and maintaining the high quality of ber 

fruits during storage. The application of cycocel (500 ppm for 15 minutes and 

1000 to 2000 ppm for 10 minutes), maleic hydrazide (200 ppm) and 

benzyladenine (10 ppm and 100 ppm) have all been shown to reduce weight 

loss and improve the quality of stored ber fruits when stored in wooden boxes 

or polythene bags (Pareek, 2001). 

Spraying with a fungicide such as thiobendazole (500 ppm) or zinc sulphate 

(ZnSO 4 ) (0.2 %) also reduces decay of the fruit during storage. Care to follow 

health and safety regulations (see box) should be taken when using fungicides. 

Health and safety when using Thiobendazole and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) 

Handling and storage: 

Store the material in a well ventilated, secure area out of reach of children and 

domestic animals. Do not store food, beverages or tobacco products in the 

storage area. Prevent eating, drinking and tobacco use in areas where there is a 

potential for exposure to the material. Wear protective clothing and avoid 

contact with the skin and eyes .Where eye contact is likely, use chemical splash 

goggles. Wash thoroughly with soap and water after handling. 

Environmental impact: 

Thiobendazole: Very toxic to aquatic organisms 

ZnSO 4 : no ecological problems are expected when the product is handled and 

used with care. 

Wax treatment 

Coating with wax has been shown to be effective at retaining the physical 

appearance of Umran fruits, but had no effect on their organoleptic quality. 

After dipping fruits in Waxol-O-12 for 30 seconds, they remained in good 

125

condition for 30 to 40 days when kept in polythene bags and stored at 0-3.3° C. 

At room temperature, they could only be stored for 12 days. Fruits coated in 

paraffin wax (2 %) and treated with 10 ppm NAA or 100 ppm ascorbic acid 

could be stored for 12 days at room temperature and up to 18 days when the 

temperature was reduced to 10-12° C. 

Wax coated fruits must be washed properly before use. 

Irradiation of fruits 

Radiation preservation of ber fruits is one post-harvest strategy that may help to 

delay post-harvest ripening and senescence and thereby reduce losses and 

extend the shelf life of fruits. Studies carried out on the use of irradiation on ber 

have been found to be encouraging. Ahmed et al. (1972) treated mature hard, 

green ber fruits of cultivar Umran-13 with 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 k rad of 

gamma rays. They found that those fruits treated with 20 to 40 k rad doses were 

relatively firmer and greener than the controls during a subsequent storage 

period of eight days at room temperature (30 ± 2° C). Irradiation had no 

detectable adverse effects on the taste and flavour of ripened fruits, or on the 

chemical composition of the fruit. 

9.2.3 Processing 

In India the ripe ber fruits are mostly consumed raw, but are sometimes stewed. 

In Southeast Asia, the unripe fruits are often eaten with salt. 

Ber fruits are used to make a number of different products. One of the simplest 

forms of processing is dehydration, which is essential for prolonged storage of 

the fruit. The dried ripe fruits are sometimes ground into a powder for 

prolonged storage and out-of-season use. Both dried and fresh ber can be used 

for further processing. Slightly under-ripe fruits are candied by a process of 

pricking, immersing in a salt solution that gradually increases from 2 to 8 %, 

draining, immersing in another solution of 8 % salt and 0.2 % potassium 

metabisulphite, storing for one to three months, rinsing and cooking in sugar 

syrup with citric acid. Acidic types of fruit are used for pickling or chutneys. In 

Africa, the dried and fermented pulp is pressed into cakes that are similar to 

gingerbread. In Venezuela a liqueur is made from the fruits and sold as ‘Crema 

de ponsigue’. 

Traditionally, ber fruits are washed, drained and sun dried. The quality of the 

dried product varies according to the different varieties of ber, the level of 

maturity at harvest and the environmental and physical conditions during 

dehydration. See flow chart 1 for an outline of the ber dehydration process. The 

quality of dried product from different cultivars varies. Fruits of the cultivars 

Katha or Umran, Bagwadi, Chhuhura, Mehrun, Sanaur-2, Sanaur-3, Sanaur-4, 

Illaicji and Karaka all give a good dehydrated product. In general, the quality is 

better from varieties of Umran or Katha and Chhuhura, although some 

126

consumers prefer the more acidic fruits of Sanaur-2, Sanaur-3, Sanaur-4 and 

Mehrun. 

The stage of maturity of the fruit also determines the quality and recovery of 

the dehydrated product. Recovery of the dried product is greater when ripe, but 

firm rather than mature fruits are used. Golden yellow to reddish brown fruits 

give the best quality of dehydrated product. 

Pre-treatments such as blanching (dipping the fruit in boiling water for 2-6 

minutes) and sulphuring before dehydration improve the product quality. 

Blanching induces the development of a uniform yellow colour, stops the 

activity of enzymes and micro-organisms that cause spoilage and softens the 

fruit so that dehydration takes place at a uniform rate. The optimum time for 

blanching varies between cultivars and is dependent upon the size of the fruit 

and softness of the pulp (see Table 9.5). 

Table 9.5 Optimum blanching times for ber cultivars 

Cultivar 

Blanching time 

(minutes) 

Illaichi 2 

Bagwadi 4 

Karaka and Umran 6 

After blanching, the fruits can be sulphured. This process helps to preserve the 

colour of the dried ber and retain some of the ascorbic acid content. Sulphuring 

is an optional step and depends upon the final market for the fruit. Fruits are 

sulphured by exposing them to the fumes of sulphur dioxide, which is 

generated by burning sulphur powder (3.5 to 10 g per kg fruit) in an enclosed 

chamber or sulphur tent. 

The quality of dried ber is also dependent upon the drying methods and 

conditions. Traditionally drying is carried out by spreading the fruits on the 

floor, on mats or on polythene sheets and leaving in the sun for 7 to 10 days. 

The quality of these fruit depends on the local weather and sanitary conditions. 

Usually a fairly good product is obtained by sun drying. The quality of the 

dried product can be improved by using a solar cabinet, which reduces the 

number of days taken to dry the product to about four or five. 

127

Sulphuring 

Sulphur dioxide is sometimes used as an additional form of preservative when 

drying fruits. The addition of sulphur dioxide improves the colour and 

increases the shelf life of the dried ber. There are two main methods of 

applying sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) to fruits: 

 

 

by burning elemental sulphur in a sulphur cabinet or tent 

by soaking fruits in a solution of sodium sulphite, sodium metabisulphite 

or potassium metabisulphite. 

The strength of the sulphite solution or the amount of sulphur used and the 

time of exposure, depend on the commodity, its moisture content and the 

residual levels permitted in the final product, which are set by legal standards 

in each country. Typically a 3 g per litre solution of sulphite or 2 g of sulphur 

for each kg of prepared fruit is used. The sulphuring time varies from 1 to 3 

hours and is dependent upon the size and texture of the fruit being sulphured. 

The permitted levels for use are 0.005 to 0.2 % concentration in dried fruits. If 

too much sulphite is used, it taints the fruit. 

Importers in the European Union and United States of America may specify 

that sulphur dioxide is not used for the products. 

Sulphuring is an optional stage during the drying of ber fruits. Its use really 

depends upon the facilities available for sulphuring and the intended end use 

of the dried fruit. When ber fruits are dried for home preservation, it is not 

usually economically feasible to include sulphuring as part of the process. 

After dehydration, the fruits should be packaged in moisture-proof containers, 

e.g. 400 gauge food grade polythene bags or airtight tins. The dried product can 

be used for a dessert or it can be reconstituted in a 10 % sugar solution and 

consumed as a liquid beverage. 

Sun-drying is the simplest and cheapest form of drying fruits. However, it is 

very weather dependent and does not always produce the highest quality dried 

fruit. There are various driers that could be used to improve the quality of the 

product, but their use very much depends on the intended use of the fruit. High 

value fruits would be dried using mechanical driers. Unless there is a market 

for high quality dried ber fruit, it would not be economically viable to use an 

improved form of drying. 

128

Flow chart 1. The preparation of dehydrated ber 

Process Process notes + quality control 

Graded, ripe Only use ripe, firm fruits without marks or bruising. Golden 

fruits yellow to reddish brown fruits give the best quality. 

Wash and Wash in clean water. Remove any leaves, twigs and other 

sort 

material. 

Blanch fruits Blanch fruits by plunging them in boiling water for 2 to 6 

minutes. 

Sulphur fruits Fruit is either sulphured using SO 2 gas or sulphited by dipping 

(optional) in a solution of sodium metabisulphite: 

1. Create a chamber in which the sulphur powder (3.5 to 10 

g/kg fruit) can be burned. The chamber must be airtight to 

prevent the fumes from escaping. The chamber can be made 

from a large cardboard box or from a polythene tent. Wooden 

sulphur cabinets are available for purchase. Place the fruit in 

single layers on trays inside the chamber. Burn the sulphur at 

the base of the chamber, away from the side of the box. Leave 

the fruit in the chamber for up to 3 hours. 

2. Make a solution of sodium sulphite or sodium 

metabisulphite (3 g sodium per litre water). Dip the fruits into 

the solution for 60 to 90 minutes. 

Place on Place the fruit in a single layer on mesh trays. The fruits 

mesh trays 

Dry 

Package and 

seal 

Label 

(optional) 

Store 

should be as close together as possible, but not touching. 

There are several options for drying, depending on the 

facilities available, the value of the product and the intended 

end use. 

a. Sun drying. Dry under the bright sun for 7 to 10 days until 

dry. Turn the fruits over daily. 

b. Solar drying. Place fruits in a solar drier for 4 to 5 days 

until dried. 

c. Cabinet drier. Place the fruits in a cabinet drier at 60-65° 

C for 20 to 30 hours until dry. 

For all drying methods, the final moisture content of dried 

fruits should be 15 %. The fruits will have a soft rubbery 

texture. With experience, processors will know when dried ber 

have reached the correct moisture level. 

Pack the dried fruits in moisture-proof containers e.g. 400 

gauge polythene or polypropylene pouches and heat seal them. 

Fruits that are being dried for home storage should be 

transferred to storage sacks. 

If fruits are being dried for sale, the packages should be 

labelled. Label with the product name and date of drying. 

Dried fruits should be stored in a dry, cool environment, away 

from pests and animals and away from chemicals which may 

contaminate the product. 

129

9.2.3.1 Ber preserve 

Mature fruits can be used to make a preserve, known locally in India as 

murabba. Fruits of the cultivars Umran, Banarsi, Karaka and Kaithli are the 

best for the preparation of preserve (Pareek, 2001). 

The best preserve is made from fully mature fruits that are at the hard stage. 

Ripe fruits are not suitable since the structure will be too soft. 

After washing and sorting the fruits, the skins need to be pricked so that sugar 

can impregnate the fruit. They are either pricked with a fork or by using a 

pricking board or pricking machine, similar to the one that is used for pricking 

olives. The pricked fruits then need to be softened. One method of softening 

the fruits is to soak them in brine solutions of gradually increasing 

concentration. For example, 2 % brine for the first day, 4 % brine the second 

day, 6 % brine on the third day and then 8 % brine solution for one to three 

months. However, this method proved to be too time consuming and it was 

difficult to remove all traces of salt from the fruit (Pareek, 2001). Therefore 

alternative methods of softening have been used. 

A simpler method of softening the fruit is to blanch the pricked fruits by 

plunging them into boiling water for anything from 2 to 190 minutes depending 

upon the cultivar, stage of maturity and size of fruit. After blanching, the fruits 

are dipped in cold water to stop the process. 

At this stage, the fruit can be peeled if desired, by using a pectinase enzyme 

(fruits are dipped in a solution of 2.5 % pectinase enzyme for 72 hours). This is 

an optional stage. 

130

Flow chart 2. The preparation of ber preserve 

Process 

Graded ripe fruits 

Wash and sort 

Prick 

Blanch 

Rinse 

De-stone (optional) 

Impregnate with sugar 

Remove fruit from the 

syrup and increase the 

strength of sugar syrup 

Increase the strength of 

sugar syrup 

Bottle 

Process notes + quality control 

Only use fully mature fruits at the hard stage. 

Wash fruits in clean water. Discard bruised and 

over-ripe fruits. 

Prick the skin to improve the uptake of sugar. A 

fork can be used or a pricking board. 

Plunge into boiling water for 2 to 10 minutes 

depending upon cultivar, stage of maturity and 

size of fruit. 

Dip in cold water to stop the blanching process. 

Remove the stones from the centre of the fruits 

using a cork borer. 

Submerge overnight in 30° Brix sugar syrup and 

add 0.5 % citric acid. 

Slowly increase the strength of the sugar syrup. 

Add 250 g sugar per kg fruit to the syrup. Boil 

for a few minutes. Cool to room temperature and 

replace the fruits in the syrup. Leave to soak for 

two days. 

Repeat the above step twice more until the final 

sugar content is 65 to 70° Brix. Leave to 

equalise for about two days. 

Pour the fruits and 70° Brix syrup into sterilised 

bottles. Seal and label. 

Fruits can also be de-stoned if desired. This is an optional step and depends on 

the consumer demand and taste. 

The softened fruits are then ready for impregnation with sugar. This is achieved 

by submerging the fruits in a solution of sugar syrup. The concentration of the 

sugar syrup is gradually increased while the fruits soak. On day one, the fruits 

are immersed in a sugar syrup of 30° Brix. Citric acid (0.5 %) is added to the 

syrup to help maintain the colour of the fruit and to reduce the pH of the syrup. 

This gives a slightly acidic taste to the product, and also helps to prevent 

fermentation of the fruit during the soaking period. It is possible to start the 

soaking process with a stronger sugar syrup (say of 50° Brix), but experience 

has shown that the fruits are liable to shrink when a high concentration is used 

from the start as water is drawn out of the fruit too quickly. The principle of 

this method of preservation is that water is drawn out of the fruit by osmosis. It 

is best if this happens at a slow rate. As the water is drawn out of the fruit, the 

sugar content (the total soluble solids content) of the fruit increases. The water 

that is drawn out of the fruit into the surrounding syrup dilutes the sugar syrup, 

131

therefore it is necessary to keep adding more sugar to the syrup to increase the 

concentration of the syrup. Water will continue to be removed from the fruit 

until the total soluble solids content of the fruit reaches about 70° Brix 

measured using a refractometer. 

There are many different methods of preserving ber, and they differ in the 

length of time it takes to reach the end point at 70 % total solids. The following 

method is one that is recommended by Khurdiya and Singh, (1975): 

Day 1. Immerse the fruits in a 30° Brix sugar solution. Add 0.5 % citric acid 

and leave overnight. 

Day 2. Remove the fruits from the syrup, add sugar (about 250 g/kg fruit) to 

the syrup and boil to dissolve the sugar. Allow the syrup to cool and replace the 

fruits into it. Leave for two days. 



fruits into it. Leave for two days 



fruits into it. Leave for two days. 

Day 8. Measure the TSS of the product. It should be between 65 and 70° Brix. 

Bottle the preserved fruit in the 70° Brix syrup. The total soluble solids (TSS) 

content of the fruits becomes equalised at 65 to 70° Brix. 

9.2.3.2 Ber candy 

Mature ber fruits can also be used to make candied ber. Fruits of the cultivar 

Illaichi have the best organoleptic properties for candy making. Kaithli, 

Kathaphal, Umran and Narma are also good cultivars for candy making. Fruits 

should have a high total soluble solids (TSS) content, low acidity and be of 

average size (Pareek, 2001). 

The best candy is made from fully mature fruits that are at the hard stage. Ripe 

fruits are not suitable since they may be too soft. 

132

Flow sheet 3. The preparation of ber candy 

Process 

Graded ripe fruits 

Wash and sort 

Prick 

Blanch 

Rinse 

De-stone (optional) 

Impregnate with sugar 

Remove fruit from the 

syrup and increase the 

strength of sugar syrup 

Increase the strength of 

sugar syrup 

Leave to impregnate 

Drain 

Dry 

Roll in sugar (optional) 

Pack 


Only use fully mature fruits at the hard stage. 

Wash fruits in clean water. Discard bruised and 

over-ripe fruits. 

Prick the skin to improve the uptake of sugar. A 

fork can be used or a pricking board. 

Plunge into boiling water for 2 to 10 minutes 

depending upon cultivar, stage of maturity and 

size of fruit. 

Dip in cold water to stop the blanching process. 

Remove the stones from the centre of the fruits 

using a cork borer. 

Submerge overnight in 30° Brix sugar syrup and 

add 0.5 % citric acid. 

Slowly increase the strength of the sugar syrup. 

Add 250 g sugar per kg fruit to the syrup. Boil for 

a few minutes. Cool to room temperature and 

replace the fruits in the syrup. Leave to soak for 

two days. 

Repeat the above step twice more until the final 

sugar content is 65 to 70° Brix. Leave to equalise 

for about two days. 

Leave the fruits in the 65-70° Brix sugar solution 

for 10 to 25 days. 

Remove the fruits from the syrup and drain on 

wire mesh trays. 

Dry the drained fruits in the sun or in a warm 

room until they reach a final moisture content of 

10-15 %. 

Roll the dried fruits in sugar powder to make 

crystallised fruits. 

Package in moisture-proof containers such as tins, 

jars or polythene pouches. 

The process for making candied ber fruits is essentially the same as for making 

ber preserve outlined above. Ber fruits are submerged in sugar syrups of slowly 

increasing strength until a final concentration of 70° Brix is reached. At this 

point, the fruits are left to soak in the 70° Brix syrup for a further ten to twenty 

five days. After this time, the fruits are taken from the syrup and spread on wire 

fruit trays for the excess syrup to drain off. The drained fruits are dried in the 

sun or in a warm room until they reach a final moisture content of 10-15 per 

cent. 

133

As an option, dried candied fruits can be rolled in powdered sugar to make a 

crystallised product. The dried fruits should be packed in moisture-proof 

packets such as jars, tins or polythene pouches. 

9.2.3.3 Ber pulp 

Ber fruits can be partially processed into a pulp that has a relatively long shelf 

life of up to six months. This pulp can be used to make a range of products 

including squash, jam, fruit beverage, fruit nectar, chutney, pickle and fruit 

leather. The advantage of making fruit pulp is to extend the period of 

availability of ber for processing into further products. Thus, the processing 

season for jams, chutneys etc. can be spread out over a longer period. 

Ber fruits are processed into pulp at times when there is a glut of fruit. Juicy 

varieties of ber are the best type for making pulp, but most varieties can be 

used. 

The fruits are de-stoned and cut into small pieces. These pieces are heated with 

water (2 parts fruit to 1 part water) for a few minutes to soften the flesh and 

then passed though a stainless steel sieve or through a pulping machine to form 

a smooth pulp or puree. Sodium metabisulphite (1.2-1.5 g/kg pulp) is added to 

the pulp as a preservative. The pulp is packaged in sterile sealed containers and 

stored for use at a later date. Treated like this, the pulp will have a shelf life of 

up to 6 months depending on storage conditions and hygiene during the 

preparation. When the pulp is used, it should be heated well to liberate some of 

the sulphur dioxide gas and reduce levels to those which are legally acceptable. 

9.2.3.4 Ber chutney 

Dried ber, fresh fruits or pulp can be used to prepare a spicy fruit chutney (see 

box for ingredients). In the following example from Bangladesh, dried fruit is 

used. After cleaning and sorting, the fruit is soaked overnight in water to 

rehydrate it. Usually this length of time is sufficient to soften the fruit but if any 

remains hard after soaking, the fruit should be heated. The soaked fruit is 

removed from the soaking water, rinsed and placed in a pan with sugar at 700 g 

to 1 kg per kg dried fruit, according to taste. The ber and sugar are stirred to 

dissolve the fruit and then heated for 10 to 15 minutes until the total soluble 

solids content is 55° Brix, measured with a refractometer. Spices such as chilli 

powder, cumin, aniseed, ground cinnamon, ground nutmeg and black pepper 

are dry roasted in a heavy iron pan before use. They are then added, together 

with mustard powder, to the heated ber fruits, stirred well to mix and heated. 

Acetic acid (vinegar) and salt are added, stirred well to mix and heated again. 

Heating is continued until the TSS reaches 60° Brix. The chutney is then ready 

for bottling. A preservative, potassium or sodium metabisulphite (KMS or 

NaMS) can be added as an option at this stage if desired. 

134

Ingredients for ber chutney 

1 kg dried ber 

700 g -1 kg sugar depending upon cultivar and taste 

5 g chilli powder 

10 g mustard powder 

2 g cumin 

2 g aniseed 

2 g cinnamon 

1 g cardamom 

1 g nutmeg 

1 g black pepper 

5 ml acetic acid 

30 g salt 

2 g potassium metabisulphite (KMS) (optional) 

The amount of spices used can be varied according to local taste and preference 

The chemical helps to preserve the chutney and protect against fungal damage. 

However, some consumers prefer to buy a product that is free from 

preservatives. Preservatives are not an essential component of a chutney. When 

a chutney is prepared correctly, the combination of a high sugar content and a 

high level of acidity (from using vinegar) should be sufficient to preserve the 

product. 

Some processors choose to add the preservative as an added measure of 

caution, especially when the products are being made at the small scale and are 

likely to be stored in humid environments. Adding preservative such as KMS 

should never be seen as an alternative to observing good hygienic practice and 

following the correct production method. 

The method for producing ber chutney, together with the quality control steps, 

is included in flow chart 4. 

135

Flow chart 4. The preparation of ber chutney 

Process 

Dried ber fruit 

Soak in clean 

water 

Add sugar 

Heat 

Dry roast spices 

Add spices 

Heat 

Add acetic acid 

and salt 

Heat 

Add preservative 

(optional) 

Bottle 


Select 1 kg dried ber fruit. 

Soak overnight to soften the fruit. If it remains hard after 

about 12 hours soaking, heat gently until all fruit is 

softened. 

700 g-1kg per kg dried fruit depending upon local taste. 

Heat the mixture for about 10 to 15 minutes until the 

mixture thickens and the TSS is 55 Brix. 

Dry roast the spices (chilli powder, cumin, aniseed, ground 

cinnamon, ground nutmeg and black pepper) on a heavy 

iron pan. 

Add the roasted ground spices and the mustard powder to 

the chutney. Mix well. 

Stir well and continue to heat. 

Add acetic acid (vinegar) and salt to the chutney. Mix well. 

Continue heating until the chutney has a TSS of 60 Brix. 

Disperse the KMS in a little hot water. Add to the chutney, 

stir well to mix. 

Pour into clean sterile glass jars. Cap and label. 

9.2.3.5 Ber beverage 

Fresh ripe ber fruits can be used for the preparation of a fruit beverage. The 

juicy varieties of ber make the best juice. The fruits are washed and de-stoned 

then the flesh is cut into small pieces. The fruit pieces are boiled with water (1 

litre of water per kg fruit pieces) for 20 to 30 minutes until the fruits are 

softened. The fruit pulp is passed through a stainless steel sieve or strained 

through a muslin juice bag to produce a clear juice. The juice is sweetened by 

adding sugar (500 g per litre of extracted juice), acidified by adding citric acid 

(10 g per litre juice extract) and diluted with clean water (2.5 litres water per 

litre of juice extract). The ber juice mixture is then boiled for 5 to 10 minutes 

and filtered again through a muslin cloth. The clear juice is hot filled into presterilised 

bottles which are capped using a corking machine. The bottles should 

be filled to within about 5 cm of the top of the bottle to allow for expansion of 

the juice during pasteurisation. The sealed bottles are pasteurised by placing in 

a hot water bath (at 80-95° C) for 10 to 20 minutes depending upon the size of 

the bottle. The pasteurised bottles are cooled to room temperature by 

136

immersing in cool water – do not use cold water as this will crack the bottles. 

After cooling, the bottles are labelled and stored. 

In Zimbabwe, dried and fresh ber fruits have been used to make an alcoholic 

drink with 2 % alcohol. The fruits are crushed and fermented for seven days in 

earthenware containers using yeast and lactic acid bacteria. Kainsa and Gupta 

(1979), investigated the preparation of wine from Umran cultivar of ber 

(Pareek, 2001). They reported that it is preferable to treat the fruit with a 

pectinase enzyme before fermentation as this gives about 9 % higher yield, 

higher alcohol content and a better clear and golden yellow wine colour than 

without pectinase enzyme. 

Flow chart 5. The preparation of ber beverage 

Process 

Fresh ripe fruits 

Wash and de-stone 

Cut fruits 

Boil with water 

Filter 

Add sugar, citric 

acid and water 

Boil 


Select fruits that are juicy and fully ripe, free from 

damage and signs of deterioration. 

Wash fruits in clean water and remove the stones 

manually. 

Cut the flesh into small pieces. 

Add water (1 litre water per kg chopped fruit) to the fruit 

and boil for 20-30 minutes until the fruit is soft and 

pulpy. 

Pass the pulp through a stainless steel sieve or a muslin 

filter bag to produce a clear juice. 

Add sugar (500 g per litre extracted juice), citric acid (10 

g per litre extracted juice) and clean water (2.5 litres per 

litre of extracted juice). Mix well. 

Boil for 10 to 15 minutes to dissolve the sugar. 

Filter 

Filter through a muslin cloth to remove any impurities 

and sediments. 

Pour into bottles Hot-fill into pre-sterilised glass bottles. Leave a space of 

about 5 cm at the top of the bottle. Cap the bottles using a 

crown cork. 

Pasteurise Place capped bottles into a water bath of hot water (80- 

95° C) and leave for 10 to 20 minutes depending upon 

the bottle capacity. 

Cool 

Cool to room temperature by immersing in cool, not cold, 

water. Cool down gradually or the glass bottles will 

crack. 

Label 

Label the bottles and store. 

137

9.2.3.6 Ber jam 

Ripe ber fruits can be used to make jam. Preserved ber pulp can also be used as 

the starting material for ber jam. If the pulp has been preserved with potassium 

metabisulphite, it is important to boil the pulp well to drive off the excess 

sulphur dioxide gas before using for jam. Sulphur dioxide is not usually used as 

a preservative for jam. If the correct production method is followed and the jam 

has a high enough sugar content and has been prepared and bottled 

hygienically, there is no need to add chemical preservatives. Occasionally citric 

acid (or lemon juice) is added. This chemical has two purposes – to reduce the 

pH of the fruit mixture so that the pectin can form a gel and also as an antibacterial 

agent. If a preservative has to be added to the jam, ascorbic acid or 

benzoic acid are the usual chemicals that are used. 

Researchers in India investigated the benefits of adding pectin and ber fruit 

peel to jams prepared from fruits of two cultivars, Umran and Sannaur-6. They 

concluded that the jam with the best texture and taste was prepared from 

Umran fruits, without the peel on and with 1 % added pectin. More 

specifically, they found that the best recipe for ber jam included 750 g sugar 

per kg pulp and with an acidity of 0.75 % (Dawney Thomas and Kulwal, 

2002). 

Ripe or slightly under-ripe fruits are the best type for jam making. Over-ripe 

and damaged fruits should be discarded as they will spoil the jam. The fruits 

are washed in clean water and chopped into small pieces. The stones can be 

removed if desired, although they will be sifted out at a subsequent stage. The 

fruit pieces are boiled with clean water (2 kg fruit per litre of water) for a few 

minutes until they have softened. The soft fruit pulp is passed through a wire 

stainless steel mesh sieve to obtain a smooth pulp, free of skins and stones. 

Water (1 litre per kg of pulp) and sugar (725 g per kg pulp) are added to the 

pulp and mixed well. Citric acid (8 g per kg pulp) is dissolved in a small 

amount of water and added to the pulp. The mixture is heated in a stainless 

steel pan, gently at first to dissolve the sugar and then rapidly to reduce the 

water content and the mixture thickens. The mixture should be stirred to 

prevent it sticking to the base of the pan and burning. As the jam is being 

heated it should be regularly tested with a refractometer to determine when the 

total soluble solids (TSS) are 65° Brix. At this point, the jam should be 

removed from the heat, allowed to cool slightly to about 82-85° C and then hotfilled 

into clean, sterilised jars. The jars are capped and allowed to cool to room 

temperature. 

138

Flow chart 6. Preparation of ber jam 

Process 

Ripe fruit – grade 

and wash 

Chop into small 

pieces and de-stone 

(optional) 

Boil fruit pieces 

Filter 

Pulp 

Add ingredients 

Heat 

Cool 

Cap and label 


Use fully ripe fruits from juicy varieties. Remove any 

over-ripe or damaged fruits. Wash in clean water. 

Chop the fruit into small pieces. Stones can be removed 

at this stage if desired, or they can be sifted out at a 

later stage. 

Add water (2 kg fruit pieces to 1 litre of water) and boil 

for a few minutes to soften the fruit. 

Pass through a stainless steel sieve or mesh to remove 

the skins and stones and to obtain a smooth fruit pulp. 

The process can be started from this point if pre-made 

pulp is used as the starting material. The preserved pulp 

must be heated and boiled thoroughly to eliminate 

traces of sulphur from the KMS used as preservative. 

Add water (1 litre per kg pulp) and sugar (725 g per kg 

pulp) to the pulp and mix well. 

Dissolve citric acid (8 g per kg pulp) in water and add 

to the pulp. Mix well. 

Heat gently at first to dissolve the sugar, then increase 

the heat and boil the mixture to reduce the moisture 

content. Heat until the mixture thickens and reaches a 

TSS of 65° Brix. 

Cool to about 82-85° C then hot-fill into clean, 

sterilised jars. 

Add screw tops to the jars and label. 

9.3 Other jujubes 

9.3.1 Ripening 

Harvesting is either manual or by shaking the trees/shrubs. A mechanical 

shaker is commonly used for Chinese jujube (Anon, 1993). However such 

mechanical methods tend to increase the number of immature fruits harvested. 

This can be a constraint because green fruits of Chinese jujube do not ripen. If 

gathered when white-green they turn brown in two weeks and show a nonclimacteric 

ripening, the optimum temperature being 20-25° C (Kader et al., 

1982). 

Fruits of Z. spina-christi also have climacteric ripening and the physicochemical 

changes have been analysed (Abbas et al., 1988, 1989; Abbas and 

Saggar, 1989; Al-Niami et al., 1992). 

139

9.3.2 Treatments 

Exposure of fruits of Chinese jujube to ethylene (100 ppm at 20°C for four 

hours or dipping in 2000 ppm ethylene solution for two minutes) induces 

uniform rapid ripening (Kader et al., 1982). Fruits of Z. spina-christi ripen 

rapidly by dipping in 5000 ppm ethaphon for one minute (Abbas et al.,1994). 

9.3.3 Storage 

Storage of fruits of other species at ambient temperatures is similar to that of 

ber. Both Chinese jujube and Z. spina-christi can be freeze-dried or frozen 

although vitamin C content tends to decrease (Dzheneeva and Chernogorod, 

1989; Al-Hijiya et al., 1989). 

Fumigation to remove insects is possible for jujubes; use of hydrogen 

phosphide for this purpose has been demonstrated for fruits of Chinese jujube 

intended for herbal medicines (Khalid et al., 1988). 

9.3.4 Processing of Chinese jujube 

Shin et al., (1992) investigated various processing methods for Z. jujuba fruits. 

Based on sensory evaluation and chemical analysis, it was found that dried 

fruits, nectar, jam, fruit extracts and a powdered tea were the most promising 

products. The processing of damaged or defective Z. jujuba fruit was 

investigated by Zhang et al., (2004). This is useful if mechanical harvesters 

increase the percentage of damaged fruits. They looked at the processing 

technology and parameters required for fermenting vinegar. Alcohol 

fermentation of vinegar was carried out using Z. jujuba fruits fermented with 8- 

10 % sugars and Saccharomyces ellipsodieus. Ethane acid fermentation was 

achieved using 5 % Acetobacter rancens. The optimum conditions for 

clarifying the resultant Chinese jujube vinegar involved heating at 95° C for 

two minutes, and filtering with diatomite after cooling. 

9.3.4.1 Jujube cake 

(California Rare Fruit Growers, 1996) 

1 cup sugar 

½ cup butter 

2 cups dried, minced jujube 

cup water 

These are brought to the boil, then set aside to cool 

2 cups wheat flour 

1 teaspoonful soda 

½ teaspoonful salt 

sifted together and then added to the above mixture, the whole baked at 160° C. 

140

141 

Plate 1. 30 day old 

rootstock seedling in 

polytube 

Plate 2. 100 day old rootstock 

seedling in polytube ready for 

transplanting or budding 

Plate 3. Scion buds successfully 

sprouted

Plate 4. Rootstock prepared for patch or shield budding 

Plate 5. Patch and shield buds inserted on the rootstocks 

Plate 6. Scion buds tied after insertion 

142

Plate 7. Fruitfly infested ber fruits 

Plate 8. Twigs infested by lac insects 

143

Plate 9. Powdery mildew infestation on young fruits and leaves 

Plate 10. Alternaria leaf spot 

144

Plate 11. Isariopsis leaf spot 

Plate 12. Rust on leaves 

Plate 13. Alternaria fruit spot 

145

Plate 14. Chinese date and peanut intercropping 

(Photo: IDRC (www.idrc.ca), used with permission.) 

Plate 15. Morphological variability of leaves in Z. mauritiana 

146

Plates 16 & 17. Flowering and fruit set in 

Z. mauritiana 

147

Plate 18. cv. Ponda 

Plate 19. cv. Illaoichi 

148

Plate 20. cv. Umran 

Plate 21. cv. Kaithli 

149

Plate 22. cv. Banarsi Kadaka 

Plate 23. cv. Seb 

150

Plate 24. cv. Gola 

Plate 25. cv. Katha Phal 

151

Plate 26. Morphological variability of fruits in Z. mauritiana 

Plate 27. Morphological variability of stones in Z. mauritiana 

152


Chapter 10. Marketing 

S. Azam-Ali 

The following information on ber is mostly that given by Pareek (2001). In 

India, ber fruits are marketed though a marketing channel that differs according 

to the quality of produce, distance from the market and available storage and 

marketing infrastructure. 

Other producing countries in Asia (e.g. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, 

China) produce fruit largely for the local rural people and local markets. 

Thailand contrasts with these countries because enhanced production has been 

geared to potential exports. 

Chinese jujube is becoming more intensively grown in China, especially in 

standardised agroforestry systems, and its production is increasing in Vietnam 

and Azerbaijan. Government policies provide for production for known local 

demands and China national markets are targets as well as exports. 

However in many cases, practices relate to growth of jujubes on a number of 

marginal lands since trees are considered to be extremely hardy. The major 

cultivated species also produce naturalised populations in many areas of Africa 

and Asia; providing local produce and the fruits are relatively unimproved. 

10.2 Ber 

Verma and Gujar (1994) outlined six main marketing channels which operate 

in Rajasthan in India. These are: 

1. Producer-Retailer 1 -Consumer 

2. Producer-Commission agent 2 -Retailer-Consumer 

3. Producer-Wholesaler 3 -Retailer-Consumer 

1 Retailer purchases fruits in the market from producers or pre-harvest 

contractors through the commission agent, or from a wholesaler, and sells them 

in the local market or outside areas. 

2 Commission agent is a licence holder middleman trader with a permanent 

shop in the market. He sells on a commission basis. This is fixed by the market 

committee on the basis of the value of the produce. 

154

4. Producer-Commission agent-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer 

5. Producer-Pre-harvest contractor 4 -Commission agent-Retailer-Consumer 

6. Producer-Pre-harvest contractor-Commission agent-Wholesaler- 

Retailer-Consumer 

Marketing of ber fruits is also carried out through the following two channels: 

1. Producer-Commission agent-Wholesaler-Outside markets 

2. Producer-Pre-harvest contractor-Commission agent-Wholesaler-Outside 

markets. 

The farmer-seller brings the fruit to the market and pays charges for 

transportation from the farm to the market, including loading and unloading 

costs. The buyer pays overhead charges such as market fee (1.6 % of the value 

of the produce), commission (4 % of the value of the produce) and weighing 

charges. 

In Chomu market in India, the producer, pre-harvest contractor, wholesaler and 

retailer respectively, incurred 1.68-1.70 %, 5.80-6.62 %, 0.84-3.31 % and 0.07- 

6.92 % of the total marketing cost whereas the margins shared by them were 

respectively 29.5-49.92 %, 7.36-8.35 %, 2.86-3.57 % and 41.14-48.31 % 

depending upon the marketing channel adopted (see Table 10.1). This reveals 

that the producer’s share of the consumer’s price is more than 46 % if sold 

directly in the market. But in that case, the producer would incur the cost of 

overseeing the fruit development period and the cost of harvesting, packing, 

transport to market and the work involved in dealing with the market 

functionaries. Thus, the highest share that could be obtained is nearly 33 % 

though pre-harvest contracts, which is rather low. 

3 Wholesaler is a licence holder in the market network who purchases fruits in 

bulk from farmers and other market functionaries and sells them in the market 

at a higher price. 

4 Pre-harvest contractor takes out a contract for the orchard at the maturity 

stage (before harvest), fixing terms and conditions regarding the harvest with 

the farmer. 

155

Table 10.1 Percent price spread of ber in marketing through different 

channels in Chomu market (India) (from Pareek, 2001) 

Particulars 

Marketing channels 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Producers net price 49.92 47.05 46.68 46.55 33.21 29.50 

Cost incurred by: 

Producer 1.70 1.70 1.68 1.68 - - 

Pre-harvest contractor - - - 6.62 5.80 

Wholesaler - - 0.84 3.31 - 2.83 

Retailer 0.07 6.92 4.11 3.98 6.95 3.71 

Total 1.77 8.62 6.63 8.97 13.57 12.34 

Margin of: 

Pre-harvest contractor - - - - 8.35 7.36 

Wholesaler - - 3.57 3.34 - 2.86 

Retailer 48.31 44.33 43.12 41.14 44.87 47.94 

Total 48.31 44.33 46.69 44.48 53.22 58.16 

A study of the marketing of ber in Chomu market in India is presented in table 

10.2. The table provides an analysis of the marketing costs of ber. The data in 

the table reveal that getting the produce into the market involves considerable 

effort and cost for transportation, packing and loading/unloading of the 

produce. In addition, marketing of perishable produce is risk prone to spoilage. 

The harvesting season may coincide with other farm activities and the local 

market infrastructure may be inadequate and lack managerial assistance. The 

producer also has to deal with several market functionaries such as commission 

agents and wholesalers which is a cumbersome process and involves some 

uncertainties in the sale deeds. As a result, the producers often prefer to sell 

their produce by pre-harvest auction to contractors, just before fruit maturity. 

The contracts are fixed either on the basis of a share of the income or on the 

basis of a lump sum to be paid by the contractor in instalments. In the first case, 

the contractor takes care of overseeing the fruit development and picking and 

grading, but the marketing is done jointly with the grower. In the second case, 

which is most common, the contractor picks the fruit according to his 

convenience and sells it in local or distant markets. 

156

Table 10.2 Components of cost (%) in marketing of ber through different channels at Chomu market in India 

(from Pareek, 2001) 

Particulars 1 2 3 4 5 6 

P* R** P R P W*** R P W R C R C W R 

Packing charges - - - - - - - - - - 30.59 - 29.48 - - 

Overseeing the - - - - - - - - - - 5.73 - 5.52 - - 

fruit development 

Transportation 35.87 - 7.36 7.81 9.45 - 12.78 6.99 6.04 9.64 4.64 6.39 4.47 3.13 6.25 

Packing 23.84 - 4.89 7.49 6.28 - 6.78 4.65 - 5.05 3.08 3.75 2.97 - 3.16 

Loading and 36.43 - 7.46 8.18 9.60 - 9.74 7.10 - 7.16 4.71 4.85 4.53 - 4.51 

unloading 

Loss due to - - - 24.33 - - 32.66 - - 22.50 - 15.87 - - 16.15 

damage 

Commission - - - 22.63 - - - - 21.51 - - 14.20 - 13.82 - 

Market fee - - - 9.06 - 11.69 - - 8.60 - - 5.69 - 5.53 - 

Weighing - 3.86 - 0.79 - 1.02 - - 0.76 - - 0.50 - 0.48 - 

Total 96.14 3.86 19.71 80.29 25.33 12.71 61.96 18.74 36.91 44.35 48.75 51.25 46.97 22.96 30.07 

* Producer; ** Retailer; *** Wholesaler; 1-6 See text 

157

In countries of southern Africa where ber trees occur mostly as natural groves, 

small orchards, fences around fields or in homesteads, the fruits are sold after 

harvest either in rural markets or are transported for sale in urban markets. 

There do not appear to be any defined marketing channels and transport is 

considered unreliable. Market studies in Malawi (Kaaria, 1998) in two urban 

markets (in Lilongwe and Limbe) and two rural markets (Salima and Monkey 

Bay) revealed the following: 

 

 

 

 

 

Distance from and access to the market determines who participates in 

the marketing of ber. 

Rural markets are mainly dominated by women while urban markets 

are dominated by male traders, who control the market and set the 

prices. 

Marketing margins were higher in rural markets than in urban 

markets. 

Although the quantities of fruit sold and the prices have shown a 

steady increase, the markets will only grow if the governments initiate 

enabling policies that facilitate the development of rural-based 

marketing information systems and build infrastructures that improve 

the transportation and market facilities. 

There is a need to develop mechanisms to standardise the packaging 

and added value. 

In Zimbabwe, ber fruits are either sold in local markets (e.g. in Chikafa market) 

or in urban markets such as Harare, Mutare and Kadoma. Marketing is mainly 

done by women and youths, but occasionally men are involved (Kadzere, 

1998). Market studies on ber in Zimbabwe have revealed the following: 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit production areas close to the Mozambique border are at 

some distance from the nearest market. 

Transport is unreliable. 

Formal markets do not exist and pricing is poor. 

There is a need for government policy for access to communal 

forestry resources, sale of traditional liquors in towns and levies etc. 

There is a need to develop a standard product for the market. 

Fruits are sold to bulk buyers in 20 litre tins containing between 15 and 20 kg 

of fruit at $5 to 20 per tin (Maposa and Chisuro, 1998). There is a barter system 

in place where fruits are exchanged for food items such as maize meal. This 

system is particularly active during food shortage years. A similar situation 

exists in Zambia (Kalikiti, 1998). 

Ber has remained almost unknown in the export market. The majority of fresh 

fruit is sold in local markets. However, there is a growing demand for the fruit 

outside of its place of growth. During the year 1995 to 1996, 645 MT of fresh 

158

er fruit were exported from India to countries such as South Africa, 

Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and UAR. 

10.3 Chinese jujube 

Chinese jujube is produced mostly in quantity in countries with a centralised 

economy. In such countries, apart from satisfying the national requirements, 

some government attention is given to exports, and China exports to Thailand 

in particular, after satisfying sustained demand in regions such as Hong Kong 

and Taiwan. Both fruits and a powdered tea are promising products. 

Dehydrated fruits ‘Chinese Dates’ are exported from China (Kim et al., 1981); 

Yang and Niu, 1992) and the products are standardised. There is a clear growth 

potential here. 

10.4 Market prospects 

At present the markets for jujube fruits are mostly restricted to producing 

regions. The main reasons for this are: 

 

 

 

 

 

Most demand being for fresh fruits rather than any processed 

products. 

Consumer interest somewhat limited due to a lack of awareness 

regarding the fruit, its nutritive value and its uses. 

Limited availability of fruits of an acceptable quality standard. 

Lack of standards for processed products. 

Lack of market information systems and market infrastructure to meet 

the requirements of different stakeholders in local and export markets 

as well as processors. 

However, the demand for the fruits is growing rapidly in inland markets, but 

only slowly for export. Advertising through various media channels should 

further increase consumer awareness and may lead to higher demands for the 

fruit. Demand for processed products can also be similarly created if the 

standards of the products are improved and the quality maintained. 

159

Chapter 11. Current situation and 

research needs 

J.T. Williams 

11.1 Summary of the current situation 

Both major jujubes are grown for their edible fruits which are high in vitamin 

C; fruits are eaten fresh, dried as dessert fruits, or candied and preserved in 

various ways. The Chinese jujube is a temperate tree growing in relatively dry 

areas and the Indian Jujube (ber) is grown in hot dry areas of the tropics and the 

subtropics. 

Compared to other fruit trees, jujubes provide nutritious fruits at relatively low 

costs but they remain under-utilised despite their multipurpose uses – 

whichever cultivated species is considered and wherever cultivated. In many 

areas fruits are still gathered from wild stands. Especially for Indian jujube 

(ber) and Chinese jujube a great deal of know-how exists on production 

techniques but many of these have not been transferred through extension and 

NGOs to poor farmers. There are vast regions of Asia and Africa where the 

crops have been introduced and where transfer of existing technology would 

repay immediate dividends. 

Research and development studies on ber were limited until the 1960s to 

varietal trials and vegetative propagation studies in the States of Punjab and 

Utter Pradesh in India. Since that time studies have expanded much more 

widely and addressed all aspects of ber cultivation, harvesting, grading, 

packaging and processing. Research in India has been paralleled by some 

research in Pakistan, Bangladesh and a number of countries in Africa. 

In India the past 40 years have witnessed very large increases in Z. mauritiana 

fruit production and much of this increase has been due to making ber 

profitable in ecologically poor, drought prone areas; there is evidence of new 

larger-scale plantations being established in areas where other crops are not 

profitable. 

In China Chinese jujube, Z. jujuba has for the past 600 years traditionally been 

grown in an intercropping system and this accounts for 65 % of total supplies 

throughout China. In Hebei and Shandang provinces research attention has 

been given to the need for higher trunks before branching, crown densities, and 

to plant spacing and orientation to maximise light penetration and duration. As 

a result wind speeds during the hot, dry wind season were greatly reduced to 

the benefit of intercrops (maize, cotton in the open parts and shade tolerant 

160

soybean, mung bean and others nearer the trees) in summer. Wheat was most 

suitable in the winter when jujube trees are bare. 

Ziziphus mauritiana is also cultivated traditionally in Yunnan province of 

China where shifting cultivation was widely practised. In this region research 

attention has been given to more sustainable agrisilvicultural systems and 

especially to insect pests which can become more of a problem when small 

orchards rather than scattered trees of ber are raised. Similar constraints 

relating to pests and diseases are likely to be apparent when an increase in 

jujube cultivation occurs in African countries and attention to them will avoid 

economic losses. 

The major interests related to jujube production in whatever region or agroclimatic 

niche appear to be: 

1. Improving production and utilisation where the trees have long been 

cultivated so that enhanced production can be sustainable and economic. 

2. Improving socio-economic impacts by proving incomes for a range of 

off-farm activities related to marketing and processing. 

3. Developing management practices which are environmentally friendly 

and avoid large chemical inputs. 

4. Incorporating jujubes into land systems aimed at helping 

environmental stability, in particular by incorporating jujubes into agroforestry 

systems, and as live fences. 

These interests will only be addressed by continued basic research to provide 

reliable planting materials of selected superior genotypes (especially with good 

fruit characteristics), protecting from major pests and diseases, and adaptation 

of genotypes to stress conditions. 

A range of applied research is also needed to adapt available agronomic 

techniques to planting systems for particular agroecological and climatic zones, 

to address processing techniques to prepare standard products from fruits, and 

to understand the socio-economic inputs and outputs over time – the results of 

which could justify credit systems to meet any recurrent high-cost farm 

operations. 

11.2 Need for information dissemination 

ICUC issued its monograph on ber (Pareek, 2001) because there was 

widespread need for information prompted by a number of development 

initiatives, including provenance trials conducted in African countries under the 

Semi Arid Lowlands of West Africa programme of ICRAF. This had already 

linked to related activities in other parts of the continent e.g. in Botswana, 

Kenya, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Lesotho. 

161

The monograph summarised important results of R & D in all parts of Asia and 

Africa and much of the information would not have been readily available 

otherwise. This current monograph attempts to update the original compilation 

of information so that it can be applied to any situation where any cultivated 

jujube will be the focus of interest. 

ICUC’s associated manual on ber (2002) was an essential adjunct for these 

development initiatives involved with the transfer of technology. 

The attention of development initiates/organisations is drawn to the continued 

need to disseminate the results of ongoing research from one part of the world 

to another. 

11.3 Research needs 

Whereas all aspects along the production to consumption chain require 

research, the following are most important. 

11.3.1 Understanding the genetic variation 

A modern assessment of the taxonomy of the genus Ziziphus is needed. The 

cultivated jujubes represent polyploid series and not enough is known about the 

distribution of ploidy levels; there are few, if any, voucher specimens with 

chromosome counts carried out and many taxa may be geographical variants or 

stabilised hybrids. Polyploid series exist within species and there appears to be 

a range of self- and cross-incompatibilities in Ziziphus species, and although 

hybridisation has undoubtedly occurred it is hardly understood. 

Knowledge of the taxonomy would be rapidly enhanced by the wider use of 

molecular methods of analysis, not only in clarifying the status of taxa but in 

understanding the patterns of genetic diversity within wild and cultivated taxa. 

A genepool approach needs to be taken rather than one based solely on 

morphological types. Breeders simply do not know enough about those species 

which may have the required productivity, fruit quality or pest and disease 

resistance attributes which can be of great use in improvement programmes. 

Current cultivars are genetically hardly advanced from wild progenitors. 

Coupled with the need to understand the genepool for targeted crop 

improvement is the need to identify taxa and a series of specific genotypes 

which can be of immediate value as rootstocks since jujubes will be more and 

more propagated by grafting to perpetuate selected cultivar genotypes. 

In such research endeavours the limited research carried out to date using 

biochemical and molecular techniques should be expanded. 

162

Understanding the broader taxonomy of Ziziphus and the patterns of genetic 

variation in the cultivated species and their wild forms can only emerge if 

concerted and well-planned research is initiated on an ecogeographical basis in 

parallel with assessment of ecotypic differentiation. 

For crops which are underutilised it cannot be expected that national 

programmes dealing with them – and with minimal funding levels – can readily 

take on such wide-ranging research projects entailing geographical exploration, 

taxonomic and molecular analyses, grow-outs in several environments, testing 

as rootstocks and other related activities. Nor will such research necessarily be 

completed in a short time, e.g. that of a three-year project cycle, because the 

materials may require several years of growth. 

There will be the need for national programmes to seek the cooperation of 

universities to work together through strategic planning and joint research so 

that postgraduate research projects can be integral parts of the overall research 

programme. Additionally the value of networking across regions is clear to 

build a critical mass of researchers and to develop cooperative goals and 

research. ICUC and UTFANET were responsible for recognition being 

accorded to jujubes as underutilised fruits and in the accelerated work on them 

in the past few years. Such networking benefits the national programmes and 

should be continued. 

On specific aspects of jujube variation, almost nothing is known about the 

diversity in the primary centres of variation of the cultivated species and even 

less about any specific patterns of diversity that have emerged in secondary 

centres. 

11.3.2 Genetic improvement 

A large number of selections or cultivars is available for both Indian and 

Chinese jujubes. These are named but there is a great deal of confusion in the 

naming. Better characterisation and perhaps molecular fingerprinting of 

accessions is needed in all existing germplasm collections. Additionally the 

existing collections all appear to be inadequate and need expansion (see 

Chapter 9). Expansion is possible without the research proposed in 11.3.1 

above if related solely to cultivars, but there is little point in adding to the 

collections’ wild representatives of the cultivars until the variation patterns of 

the accessions are more fully understood. The objective has to be justifiable 

and meaningful germplasm collections to best serve improvement needs. 

Specific improvement objectives have been outlined in Chapter 8. However, 

there is the need to carry out research through detailed genetic studies to 

understand the heritability of quantitative and qualitative characters, especially 

those chosen as breeding targets. Selection is currently best served on very 

163

limited characters e.g. yield (kg/plant) or fruit attributes such as pulp/stone 

ratio. 

As jujubes become cultivated more and more in small- or medium-sized 

plantations there is likely to be enhanced need to build into cultivars tolerances 

or resistances to pests and diseases; this requires continued research. The 

possibilities of polyclonal plantations to provide some insurance if there are 

specific attacks is an area of research that has not been explored. 

Also as jujubes become cultivated more in marginal areas and on wastelands 

there will be the need to research satisfactory growth and fruit set under more 

extreme temperatures and to focus concerted breeding efforts to tailor cultivars 

to more diverse agroclimatic conditions. In this respect knowing more about 

the genetic relations between Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba, and the possibilities 

of their crossing, would be helpful. Their climatic adaptations are different and 

their vitamin C production differs but combining some attributes would be of 

interest and value, especially in new environments which currently result in 

poor production. 

Variation within cultivars exists for quality attributes although they have been 

evaluated by multi-location testing so that they can be recommended for 

particular regions and conditions. 

Improvement is needed to incorporate resistances to major pests and diseases, 

adapt some cultivars to particular environmental stresses and to improve the 

quality of fruits. 

When the research in 11.3.1 produces major results it can be used to assess the 

existing germplasm collections to gauge how representative they are in terms 

of covering the range of variation, what gaps exist which could usefully be 

filled in terms of materials readily available for genetic improvement and 

genetic conservations, and then progressively modify the collections. This also 

means that existing collections need further research on characterisation. 

Due to the wide heterozygosity of natural populations it is important that any 

restructuring of germplasm collections does not result in them becoming very 

large and costly to maintain. Linkages can be made with conservation 

organisations to maintain specific wild germplasm in situ when specific 

ecotypes or genotypes have been identified and characterised. 

The results of research on the taxonomy and analysis of patterns of variation 

will depend on exploration and sampling over large geographical regions and 

also on assessing any ecogeographic difference. Strategic planning of the 

research and funding for travel will be essential. 

164

11.3.3 Propagation 

It is likely that most jujubes used for enhanced production will be grafted. 

There is a need to develop rootstocks which can control the overall tree 

morphology and its vigour and to maximise its adaptation to different edaphic 

conditions. There is a need to standardise rootstocks in relation to productivity 

objectives, for use in orchard versus agroforestry systems because particular 

tree forms (and vigour) are required and for use in adaptation to stress 

conditions. As pointed out in 11.3.2 there is a need for basic research on 

rootstock genotypes and the ultimate goal should be to standardise a limited 

number of rootstocks which can be widely applied. Chapters 5 and 6 pointed to 

the value of mycorrhizae, and further work on these should be linked to the 

selection of rootstocks. 

Knowledge derived from 11.3.1 above is basic in selecting the range of 

rootstocks and grafts to be attempted in order to lead to standard forms. 

Further research on rapid propagation using tissue culture and cuttings would 

be beneficial. The development of planting supply systems would benefit from 

accelerated research on cost-effective, replicable techniques of propagation, 

including micropropagation. 

11.3.4 Pruning/cropping systems 

Initial training of plants and subsequent pruning is needed. There is still scope 

to research pruning type and intensity in specific cultivars especially for 

agroforestry situations which require a relatively open canopy. 

Reliable planting material of recommended cultivars needs to be accompanied 

by such information, especially for situations where trees may be grown 

adjacent to houses, as windbreaks or in agroforestry systems all in the same 

area. A range of cultivars might be required to provide economic insurance to 

the growers. This is equally important as researching compatible intercrops. 

Jujubes are cultivated as scattered trees, in rainfed orchards or woodlots, in 

irrigated plantations and in rainfed and irrigated forestry systems. There is a 

need to research the optimal use of water and nutrients for sustained 

productivity of the jujubes and/or the cropping systems. 

Genotypes need to be selected for specific regimes of irrigation, rainfed 

systems and salinity and sodicity. This will require research on growth, 

assimilation rates and productivity and should be combined with land 

management to conserve water on wastelands. 

165

11.3.5 Post-harvest studies 

Work on harvesting, grading and packaging of fruits has been undertaken and a 

number of recommendations exist. However, standard grading related to end 

use has hardly been implemented and more research is needed, not only on the 

economics along the production to consumption chain but on the socioeconomic 

benefits particularly those affecting the well-being of family 

producers. 

Processing methods require standardisation with attention to cost-effectiveness 

and marketability of products from fruits. This requires additional research, 

especially if processing is to be at the community level. Incomes will be 

increased when processing methods to develop standard products acceptable in 

the markets are refined, standardised and downstreamed. 

In some cases suitable genotypes will need to be identified and/or selected for 

specific processing needs. 

11.3.6 Marketing 

As with all underutilised crops attention has to be given to applied research 

such as storage, packaging and transportation of fruits and marketing. Since in 

many cases and many areas there is limited availability of acceptable quality 

fruits and also lack of market information systems, it is essential that 

researchers keep abreast of their development so that any interventions can be 

recommended. 

11.3.7 Other relevant development issues 

Expansion of production, particularly at the local level, bears an initial 

establishment cost which at present is relatively high for clonal materials. 

Credit for such activities is often unavailable, as indeed it is for many aspects 

of rural development. NGOs should take seriously the need to set up 

cooperative credit mechanisms to assist in all aspects of production, processing 

and marketing, as well as to assist where infrastructure is not readily available 

for provision of inputs such as planting materials, chemicals and advice. 

166

References 

Abbas, M. F. and Asker, M. A. (1989) Certain physico-chemical changes in 

jujube fruits (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd.) during ripening, ZANCO, 2(3): 

43-51. 

Abbas, M. F. and Saggar, R. A. M. (1989) Respiration rate, ethylene 

production and certain chemical changes during the ripening of jujube fruits. 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 64(2): 223-225. 

Abbas, M. F., Al-Niami, J. H. and Al-Ani, R. F. (1988) Some physiological 

characteristics of fruits of jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd.) at different 

stages of maturity. Journal of Horticultural Science, 63(2): 337-339. 

Abbas, M. F., Al-Niami, J. H. and Asker, M. A. (1990) The effect of 

temperature on certain chemical constituents and storage behaviour of jujube 

fruits (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd.) cv. Zaytoni. Haryana Journal of 

Horticultural Science, 19(3-4): 263-267. 

Abbas, M. F., Al-Niami, J. H. and Al-Sareh, E. A. (1992) The ripening of 

gamma irradiated fruits of jujube. Journal of Horticultural Science, 67(5): 627- 

629. 

Abbas, M. F., Al-Niami, J. H., and Al-Sareh, E. A. (1994) The effect of 

ethephon on the ripening of fruits of jujube. Journal of Horticultural Science, 

69(3): 465-466. 

Abdul-Galil, F. M. and El-Jissary, M. A. (1991) Cyclopeptide alkaloids from 

Ziziphus spina-christi. Phytochemistry, 30 (4): 1348-1349. 

Abuzarga, M., Sabri, S., Alaboudi, A., Azaz, M. S., Sultana, N. and Allaur 

Rahaman (1995) New cyclopeptide alkaloids from Ziziphus lotus. Journal of 

Natural Products, 58(4): 504-511. 

Ackerman, W. L. (1961) Flowering, pollination, self sterility and seed 

development of Chinese jujube. Proceedings of the American Society of 

Horticultural Science, 77: 265-269. 

Adams, R., Adams, M., Willens, A. and Willerns, G. (1978). Dry Lands, Man 

and Plants. Architectural Press, London, U.K. 

Agarwal, G. P. and Sahni, V. P. (1964) Fungi causing plant diseases at 

Jabalpur. Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata, 22: 245-247. 

167

Aggarwal, P., Bhupindeer, K. and Bal, J. S. (1997) Studies on dehydration of 

different ber cultivars for making ber chhuharas. Journal of Food Science 

Technology (Mysore), 34(6): 534-536. 

Ahlawat, V. P., Sindhu, S. S., Gupta, O. P. and Thareja, R. K. (1990) Nutrient 

element status of soil and leaves of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) trees in 

Haryana. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 19(1-2): 106-111. 

Ahmad, M. and Malik, S. M. (1971) Canning of ber (Zizyphus jujuba). Journal 

of Agricultural Research, Pakistan 9(3): 210-217. 

Ahmad, S. (1945) Higher fungi of the Punjab plains - IV. Lloydia, 8: 238-244. 

Ahmed, M., Sattar, A., Hussain, A., Jamil, M., Farooqi, W. A. and Hussain, 

A.M. (1972). Some physico-chemical changes in irradiated ber (Z. jujube) 

during storage and ripening. Pakistan Journal of Science and Industrial 

Research, 15(3): 163. 

Ahmed, S. R. and Agnihotri, J. P. (1977) Antifungal activity of some plant 

extracts. Indian Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 7(2): 180-181. 

Ahmedov, V. A. and Halmatov, H. H. (1969) Pharmacognostic studies on 

Ziziphus jujuba growing in Uzbekistan [in Russian]. Rastitel'nye Resursy, 5: 

579-81 

Akhundova, N. I. and Agaev, K. K. (1989) Diversity of jujube in lowland 

Karabakh and its utilization [in Russian]. Subtropicheskie Kul'tury, No.6: 105- 

107. 

Alam, M. K. (1986) A critical review on the biology and control of 

Loranthaceae with a particular reference to Bangladesh. Bano Biggan Patrika, 

13(1/2): 7-18. 

Al-Akeely, M. A. (1985) Dictionary of Plants in Jizan Area. Dar Al-Bilad 

Press, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. 

Al-Azerjawy, R. A. (1988) Physiological development of jujube fruit (Ziziphus 

spina-christi (L.) Willd. var. spina-christi) cvs. Bambawi and Mallacy [in 

Arabic]. Bibliographic citation, Basrah, Iraq. p. 118. 

Al-Hijiya, M. N., Ali, S. H. and Al-Delaimy, K. S. (1989) Proximate 

composition and the effect of freezing on ascorbic acid content of Ziziphus 

spina-christi fruit. Iraqi Journal of Science, 30(1): 73-78. 

Al-Khalifa, J. M. and Sharkas, M. S. (1984) Medicinal Plants of Kuwait. 

Kuwait Establishment for Scientific Progress. 

168

Al-Mazrooei, S. and Ramos, P. (2000). In vitro propagation of two Ziziphus 

species: Z. spina-christi and Z. mauritiana. Paper presented San Diego, CA. 

World Congress on In vitro Biology. 

Al-Niami, J. H. and Abbas, M. F. (1988) The effect of temperature on certain 

chemical changes and the storage behaviour of jujube fruits (Ziziphus spinachristi 

(L.) Willd.). Journal of Horticultural Science, 63(4): 723-724. 

Al-Niami, J. H., Saggar, R. A. M. and Abbas, M. F. (1992) The physiology of 

ripening of jujube fruit (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd.). Scientia 

Horticulturae, 51(3-4): 303-308. 

Amsar Private Limited (2004) Oleanolic acid. 

Anderson, E. (1993) Plants of Central Queensland. Department of Primary 

Industries, Brisbane. 

Anonymous (1939) Candying ber (jujube). Punjab Department of Agriculture, 

Leaflet 58. 

Anonymous (1953) Propagation of fruit plants. Agriculture and Animal 

Husbandry Uttar Pradesh, India, 1(3): 19-27. 

Anonymous (1974) Handbook on human nutritional requirements. FAO 

Studies No. 28, FAO, Rome. 

Anonymous (1976) Composition of Ziziphus nummularia leaves (pala) on dry 

weight basis. The Wealth of India, XI: 120. 

Anonymous (1981) Project Report 1976-1980. All India Coordinated Fruit 

Improvement Project, Coordination Cell III, ICAR, India. Technical Document 

No. 1: 6-8, 35. 

FAO (1986) Annual Report. All India Coordinated Fruit Improvement Project, 

Coordination Cell III, ICAR, India. Technical Document No. 19: 88. 

Anonymous (1987) Annual Progress Report. 1986-87. All India Coordinated 

Research Project on Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, Indian 

Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. 

Anonymous (1989 a) Annual Progress Report. 1988-89. All India coordinated 

Research Project on Post-harvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. Indian 

Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. 

Anonymous (1989 b) Proceedings of the Fifth National Workshop on Arid 

Zone Fruit Research, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat, India. - p. 2. 

169

Anonymous (1993) Development of Ume shaker harvester. RNAM Newsletter, 

No. 47: 13. 

Anonymous (1996) Lakh utpadan ke Adhunik Tarike [in Hindi]. Indian Lac 

Research Institute, ICAR, Namkun, Ranchi, India. p.11-12. 

Anuradha, S., Kumar, B. and Siddiqui, S. (1997) Determination of maturity of 

ber cv. Umran. Annals of Biology (Ludhiana), 13(2): 267-269. 

Arndt S. K. (2001) http://chemsrv0.pph.univie.ac.at/ska/ziplant.htm 

Arndt S. K. and Kayser O. (2001) Ziziphus - a medicinal plant genus with 

tradition and future potential [in German]. In Zeitschrift fur Phytotherapie, 

22:91 

Arndt, S. K., Wanek, W., Clifford, S. C. and Popp, M. (2000). Contrasting 

adaptations to drought stress in field-grown Ziziphus mauritiana and Prunus 

persica trees: Water relations, osmotic adjustment and carbon isotope 

composition. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 27: 985-996. 

Awasthi, A. N. and Misra, R. (1969) Effect of pruning on the subsequent 

vegetative growth, fruit set, fruit drop and quality of ber. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 9: 54-60. 

Awasthi, O. P., Pathak, R. K. and Pandey S. D. (1994) Effect of sodicity and 

salinity levels on survival and total chlorophyll content of ber genotypes 

(Ziziphus spp.). Horticultural Journal, 7(1): 51-54. 

Awasthi, O. P., Pathak, R. K. and Pandey, S. D. (1995) Effect of sodicity and 

salinity levels on four scion cultivars budded on Indian jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana). Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, 65(5): 363-367. 

Ba, A. M. Duponnois, R. Dianou, D. Guissou, T. Sanon, K. B. (1998) 

Mobilisation of phosphorus from rock phosphates through soil microorganisms 

associated with Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. and Vigna unguiculata 

(L.) Walp. [French] In: Soil fertility management in West African land use 

systems. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop, University of Hohenheim, 

ICRISAT Sahelian Centre and INRAN, Niamey, Niger, 4-8 March 1997. 

Margraf Verlag, Weikersheim, Germany. 79-84. 

Babu, R. H. and Kumar, P. S. (1986) A note on the seed characters of certain 

cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana). Progressive Horticulture, 18(3-4): 297- 

298. 

170

Babu, R. H. and Kumar, P. S. (1988) Studies on the growth and flowering of 

certain cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) of Hyderabad. Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 17(1-2): 24-27. 

Bagle, B. G. (1992) Incidence and control of fruitfly (Carpomyia vesuviana 

Costa) of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 

20(2): 205-207. 

Bailey, F. M. (1909) Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants. A. J. 

Cumming, Government Printer, William Street, Brisbane, Australia. 

Bailey, L. H. (1947) The Standard Cyclopaedia of Horticulture. Macmillan & 

Co., New York. 

Bailey, L. H. (1949) Manual of Cultivated Plants (Revised Edition). 

MacMillan & Co., New York. 

Bajwa, M. S. and Sarowa, P. S. (1977) Training and pruning of ber. Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 17: 52-53. 

Bajwa, M. S., Singh, P. and Singh, R. (1972) Ber cultivation in Punjab. Indian 

Horticulture, 16(4): 7-12, 32. 

Bajwa, G. S., Sandhu, H. S. and Bal, J. S. (1986) Effect of pruning severity on 

growth and bearing of ber. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 43(3/4): 203-206. 

Bajwa, G. S., Sandhu, H. S. and Bal, J. S. (1987) Effect of different pruning 

intensities on growth, yield and quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Haryana Journal Horticulture Science, 16(3-4): 209-213. 

Bajwa, G. S., Sidhu, M. S. and Shergill, T. S. (1990) A note on the effect of 

various weed control treatments on nutrient and water losses by weeds in ber 

orchards. Haryana Journal Horticulture Science, 15(3-4): 224-227. 

Bajwa, G. S., Bal, J. S., Brar, S. S. and Minhas, P. S. (1993) Chemical weed 

control in ber orchards. In Integrated Weed Management for Sustainable 

Agriculture, Proceedings of the International Symposium Indian Society of 

Weed Science, III: 225-227. 

Bak, W. C. and La, Y. J. (1991) Detection of mycoplasma-like organisms in 

some trees by fluorescence microscopy with berberine sulphate. Journal 

Korean Forestry Society, 80(2): 232-236. 

Bakhshi, J. C. and Dutt, S. (1966) Hisar as a potential fruit-growing district. 

Punjab Horticultural Journal, 6: 131-140. 

171

Bakhshi, J. C. and Singh, P. (1974) The ber - a good choice for semi-arid and 

marginal soils. Indian Horticulture, 19: 27-30. 

Bal, J. S. (1981 a) A note on sugars and amino acids in ripe ber. Progressive 

Horticulture, 13 (3/4): 41-42. 

Bal, J. S. (1981 b) Some aspects of developmental physiology of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Progressive Horticulture, 12(4): 5-12. 

Bal, J. S. (1982) A study on biochemical changes during room and refrigerator 

storage of ber. Progressive Horticulture, 14(2/3): 158-161. 

Bal, J. S. (1992) Identification of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana L.) cultivars through 

vegetative and fruit characters. Acta Horticulturae, 317: 245-253. 

Bal, J. S. and Mann, S. S. (1978) Ascorbic acid content of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana) during growth and maturity. Science and Culture, 44(5): 238-239. 

Bal, J. S. and Josan, J. S. (1980). Changes in chlorophyll content of ber peel 

during growth and maturation. Science and Culture, 46(6): 238-239. 

Bal, J. S. and Singh, P. (1978 a) Developmental physiology of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) var. Umran. 1. Physical changes. Indian Food Packer, 

32(3): 59-61. 

Bal, J. S. and Singh, P. (1978 b) Developmental physiology of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) var. Umran. 2. Major chemical changes with reference to 

total soluble solids, acidity, pH, sugars and starch. Indian Food Packer, 32(3): 

62-65. 

Bal, J. S. and Singh P. (1978 c) Developmental physiology of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) var. Umran. 3. Minor chemical changes with reference to 

total phenolics, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and minerals. Indian Food Packer, 

32(3): 66-69. 

Bal, J. S. and Singh, P. (1987) Developmental physiology of ber (Z. mauritiana 

Lamk.) var Umran. 3. Minor chemical changes with reference to total 

phenolics, ascorbic acid and minerals. Indian Food Packer, 32(3), 66. 

Bal, J. S., Singh, P. and Mann, S. S. (1978) Changes in total yellow pigments, 

protein and total carbohydrates during ripening of ber fruits. Progressive 

Horticulture, 10(1):73-75. 

Bal, J. S., Jawanda, J. S. and Singh, S. N. (1979) Developmental physiology of 

ber var. Umran. 4. Changes in amino-acids and sugars (sucrose, glucose and 

172

fructose) at different stages of fruit ripening. Indian Food Packer, 33, (4): 33- 

35. 

Bal, J. S., Singh, S. N., Randhawa, J. S. and Sharma, S. C. (1982) Effect of 

nephthalene acetic acid and trichlorophenoxyl acetic acid on fruit drop, size 

and quality of ber. Progressive Horticulture, 14(2/3): 148-151. 

Bal, J. S., Singh, S. N., Randhawa, J. S. and Jawanda, J. S. (1984) Effect of 

growth regulators on fruit drop, size and quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 41(3/4): 182-185. 

Bal, J. S., Singh, S. N. and Randhawa J. S. (1986) Response of naphthalene 

acetic acid spray at fruit set and slow growth phase in ber fruits (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 

23(4): 569-572. 

Bal, J. S., Randhawa, J. S. and Singh, S. N. (1988 a) Effect of NAA on fruit 

characters and quality of ber cv. Umran. Haryana Journal Horticultural 

Science, 17(1-2): 20-23. 

Bal, J. S., Singh, S. and Gupta M. R. (1988 b) Variation in the concentration of 

biochemical constituents in different parts of ber fruit. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 28(1-2): 77-80. 

Bal, J. S., Kahlon, P. S., Jawanda, J. S. and Sandhu, S. S. (1992) Effect of preharvest 

spray of growth regulators at turning stage on the maturity of ber fruits 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Acta Horticulturae, 1(321): 318-325. 

Bal, J. S., Bajwa, G. S. and Singh, S. N. (1993) Effect of ethephon application 

at turning stage on ripening and quality of Umran ber. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 33(1/4): 84-87. 

Bal, J. S., Bajwa, G. S. and Singh, P. (1995) Effect of ethephon application at 

turning stage on ripening and quality of Umran ber. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 33(1/4), 84-87. 

Bal, J. S., Singh, M. P. and Sandhu, A. S. (1997) Evaluation of rootstocks for 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Journal of Research, Punjab 

Agricultural University, 34(1): 60-63. 

Bal, J. S., Randhawa, J. S., and Jagjit, S., (2004) Studies on the rejuvenation of 

old ber trees of different varieties. Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural 

University, 41(2): 210-213. 

173

Bandyopadhyay, A. and Sen, S. K. (1995) Studies on the physico-chemical 

changes associated with storage life of ber var. Gola. Indian Agriculturist, 

39(1): 67-70. 

Banik, D., Hore, J. K. and Sen, S. K. (1988) Studies on storage life of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 17(1- 

2): 49-55. 

Bankar, G. J. and Prasad, R. N. (1992) Relationship between stomatal 

distribution and growth of ber rootstocks. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 

49(2): 169-171. 

Bankar, G. J. and Prasad, R. N. (1993) Effect of gibberellic acid and NAA on 

fruit set and quality of fruits in ber cv. Gola. Progressive Horticulture, 22(1-4): 

60-62. 

Banker, G. and Prasad, R. N. (1990) Effect of GA and NAA on fruit set and 

quality of fruits in ber cv. Gola. Progress in Horticulture, 22(1-4), 60-62. 

Baratov, K. B., Shipkova, L. V., Babaev, I. I., Massover, B. L. (1975) The 

contents of vitamin C and P and total sugars in some Ziziphus jujuba forms 

cultivated in Tadznik SSR [in Russian]. In Nauchnye Osnovy Pitaniya 

Zdorovogo i Bol' nogo cheloveka T.1. Alma Ata, Kazakh SSR, Kazakhstan 

158-160, from Referativnyi Zhurnal 4. 55.810. 

Barbeau, G. (1994) Inventory of tropical fruit trees in Central America and the 

West Indies. Fruits Paris 49(5-6): 383-389, 469-474. 

Barboni, L., Gariboldi, P., Terregiani, E. and Verotta, L. (1994) Cyclopeptide 

alkaloids from Ziziphus mucronata. Phytochemistry, 35 (6): 1579-1582. 

Basha, J. M. G. (1952) Experiments on the control of the fruit borers of jujube 

(Ziziphus spp.) - Carpomyia vesuviana Costa and Maridarchis scyrodes 

Meyrick in South India. Indian Journal of Entomology, 14(3): 229-238. 

Baskaran, N., Sivaganesan, N. and Krishnamoorthy, J. (1997) Food habits of 

sloth bear in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, Southern India. 

Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 94 (1): 1-9. 

Batra, H. N. (1953) Biology and control of Dacus diversus Conquillet and 

Carpomyia vesuviana Costa and important notes on other fruit flies in India. 

Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, 23: 87-112. 

Belal, A. E., Leith, B., Solway, J. and Springuel, I. (1998) Environmental 

valuation and management of plants in Wadi Allaqi, Egypt. Final report 

submitted to International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Canada. 

174

Beniwal, L. S., Chauhan, K. S. and Singhrot, R. S. (1992) Effect of various 

transplanting treatments and time of transplanting on bare-rooted buddings of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 21 

(3-4): 152-160. 

Bhalla, K., Srivastava, K. and Srivastava, A. K. (1996) Additions to 

Mycovellosiella from the Indian subcontinent. Sydowia, 48(2): 196-204. 

Bhambhota, J. R. and Singh, A. (1971) A quick method of raising ber 

rootstock. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 11: 251-253. 

Bhandari, C. R. (1969) Vanaushadhi-Chandroday. An encyclopaedia of Indian 

Botany and Herbs. Part 7. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Banaras, India. 

pp. 97-99. 

Bhandari, M. M. (1978) Flora of the Indian Desert. Scientific Publishers, 

Jodhpur, India. 

Bhansali, A. K. (1975) Monographic Study of the family Rhamnaceae of India. 

Ph.D. thesis, University of Jodhpur, India 

Bharad, S. G., Mali, D. V., Ingle, V. G. and Sagane, M. A. (2002) Effect of 

time and severity of pruning on physico-chemical characteristics and yield in 

ber varieties. PKV-Research Journal 26 (1/2): 31-35. 

Bhargava, B. S., Raturi, G. B. and Hiwale, S. S. (1990) Leaf sampling in ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) for nutritional diagnosis. Singapore Journal of 

Primary Industries, 18(2): 85-95. 

Bhati, T. K., Goyal, R. K. and Daulay, H. S. (1997) Development of dryland 

agriculture on watershed basins in hot arid tropics of India: A case study. 

Annals Arid Zone, 36 (2): 115-121. 

Bhatia, S. K. and Gupta, O. P. (1984) Studies on changes in physical attributes 

during development and ripening of ber fruits. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 

24(1/4): 70-74. 

Bhatia, S. K. and Gupta, O. P. (1985) Chemical changes during development 

and ripening of ber fruits. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 25: 62-66. 

Bhatia, S. K, Singh, S., Joon, M. S. and Singhrat, R. S. (2001) Effect of 

hardening as establishing ber orchard under semi-arid conditions. Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 30: 65-69. 

Bhatnagar, P. and Lakra, R. K. (1992) Biology and control of hairy caterpillar, 

Euproctis fraterna Moore (Lepidoptera: Lymontriidae) on jujube (Ziziphus 

175

mauritiana Lamk.). In Bio-ecology and Control of Insects Pests: Proceedings 

of the National Symposium on Growth, Development and Control Technology 

of Insect Pests, pp. 150-155. 

Bi, P., Kang, Z. Y., Lai, F. M. and Lu, X. Y. (1990) Study on the changes in 

vitamin C content of fruits of Chinese date cultivars [in Chinese]. Shanxi 

Guoshu, 4: 24-25. 

Biagi, P. and Nisbet, R. (1992) Environmental history and plant exploration at 

the aceramic sites of RH5 and RH6 near the mangrove swamp of Qurm 

(Muscat, Oman). Bulletin de la Societé Botanique de France-actualités, 139(2- 

4): 571-578. 

Bilgrami, K. S., Jamaluddin and Rizvi, M. A. (1979) The Fungi of India. Part I: 

96. Today’s and Tomorrow’s Publishers, New Delhi, India. 

Billand, A. and Diallo, B.O., (1991) Amélioration des ligneux soudanosahéliens. 

Activités 1990-1991 - Stratégies et perspectives. Ministère des 

Enseignements Secondaire, Supérieur et Technique et de la Recherche, Burkina 

Faso, 200 p 

Bisla, S. S. and Daulta, B. S. (1986) Correlation and path analysis studies of 

some quality attributes, disease and yield in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research 16 (4) : 348-351. 

Bisla, S. S. and Daulta, B. S. (1987) Correlation and path analysis studies on 

fruit and seed characters in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Agricultural 

Science Digest India 7 (3) : 170-172. 

Bisla, S. S. and Daulta, B. S. (1988 a) Variability and heritability of some 

growth characters in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk). Indian Journal of 

Horticulture 45 (1-2) : 29-33. 

Bisla, S. S. and Daulta, B. S. (1988 b) Variability studies for some fruit and 

seed characters in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) Agricultural Science 

Digest Karnal 8 (2): 112-114. 

Bisla, S. S., Chauhan, K. S. and Godara, N. P. (1980) Evaluation of late 

ripening germplasm of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) under semi-arid 

regions. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 9(1/2): 12-16. 

Bisla, S. S., Singhrot, R. S. and Chauhan, K. S. (1984) Effect of growing 

medium and urea application on seed germination and growth of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 13(3/4): 118- 

122. 

176

Bisla, S. S., Dhiman, B. K. and Daulta, B. S. (1988) Studies on pruning and 

spacing in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Effect on vegetative growth. 

Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 17(3-4): 177-182. 

Bisla, S. S., Dhiman, B. K. and Daulta, B. S. (1990) Effect of pruning and 

spacing on vegetative growth of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 19(3-4): 256-262. 

Bisla, S. S., Dhiman, B. K. and Chharia, A. S. (1991) Effect of pruning severity 

and spacing on flowering and fruiting behaviour of ber (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) 

cv. Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 20(1-2), 26-30. 

Blatter, E. and Hallberg, F. (1984) Flora of the Indian Desert (Jodhpur and 

Jaisalmer). Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India, pp. 16-17. Reprinted from 

Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, XXVI: 233-234. 

Bohra, H. C. and Ghosh, P. K. (1981) Nutritive value of pala for ruminants. In 

Bordi (Ziziphus nummularia), a Shrub of the Indian Arid Zone - Its Role in 

Silvipasture, eds. Mann, H. S. and Saxena, S. K. Central Arid Zone Research 

Institute, Jodhpur, India. pp. 42-47. 

Bonner, F. T. and Rudolf, P. O. (1971) Zizyphus Mill-jujube. pp. 862-863 In 

Schopmeyer, C. S. (Technical Coordinator). Seeds of Woody Plants in the 

United States. Agricultural Handbook no. 450. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. 883 p. 

Bowden, W. M. (1945) A list of chromosome number in higher plants. 

American Journal of Botany, 32: 191-201. 

Brandis, D. (1874) The Forest Flora of Northwest and Central India. 

Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Reprinted by Bishen Singh 

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, 1972. 84-90. 

Brandis, D. (1906) Indian Trees. Fifth impression 1971. Bishen Singh 

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. 169-172. 

Broertjes, C. (1968) Mutation breeding in vegetatively propagated crops. In 

Proceedings of a Research Co-ordination Meeting on the use of Induced 

Mutations in Plant Breeding, held in Vienna, 11-15 September, 1967, pp. 59- 

62. 

Byun, J. K., Do, J. H. and Chang, K. H. (1989) The effect of black polythene 

and rice straw mulches on growth of young jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) 

plants [in Korean]. Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 

7(1): 138-139. 

177

Byun, J. K., Do, J. H. and Chang, K. H. (1991) The effect of black 

polyethylene film and rice straw mulches on vegetative growth and mineral 

element content of young jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Miller) trees [in Korean]. 

Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 32(1): 81-86. 

Caldeira, G. C. N. (1967) Modification in the tannin content of some tropical 

fruits during ripening. Rev. Estud. ger. Universitie Mocambique, Ser.II, Cienc. 

biologia agronomia, 4: 335-390. 

California Rare Fruit Growers (1996) http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/jujube.html 

Carr, C. J. (1998) Patterns of vegetation along the Omo River in south-west 

Ethiopia. Plant Ecology, 135(2): 135-163. 

Casini, E. and Salvadori, S. (1975/1976) Observation and Research on the Use 

of Various Growth Regulators in the Germination of Seeds of Fruit Trees [in 

Italian]. La Nuova A.O.P.I., Università di Firenze, Italy. 

Casini, E. and Salvadori, S. (1980) The germination of seeds of jujube 

(Ziziphus sativa). 1. The effect of gibberellic acid on seeds with and without 

endocarp [in Italian]. Rivista di Agricultura Subropicale e Tropicale, 74(1/2): 

39-47. 

Chadha, K. L. (1998) Improvement in tree fruit and plantation crops. Indian J. 

Hort. 55 (4): 265-296. 

Chadha, K. L., Gupta, M. R. and Bajwa, M. S. (1972) Performance of some 

grafted varieties of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in Punjab. Indian Journal 

of Horticulture, 29(2): 137-50. 

Chand, J. N., Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1986) Diseases of guava, ber and 

phalsa in India. Review of Tropical Plant Pathology, 2: 235-261. 

Chandra, S. and Tandon, R. N. (1965) Epicoccum nigrum Link. on stored fruits 

of Ziziphus jujuba. Current Science, 34: 25. 

Chandra, V. (1964) Cultivated varieties of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in 

India. Bulletin of the National Botanical Gardens, Lucknow, India. I. Karaka 

Varanasi, p.95. II. Narma Varanasi, p.98. III Bekata Varanasi, p.101. 

Chang-LuHua, Wang-DerNan, Liou-TsungDao, Chang, L. H., Wang, D. N. 

and Liou, T. D (2001) A bud sport of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.) 

Tainug No. 1. Journal of Agricultural Research of China 50 (1): 28-36. 

Chary, C. M. and Ramarao, P. (1971) A new Annellophorella on Ziziphus. 

Current Science, 40(17): 47-472. 

178

Chatterjee, B. K. and Rao, D. P. (1978) Propagation of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) 

by air layeringIndian Agriculturist, 22 (3): 185-187. 

Chatterjee, D. and Randhawa, G. S. (1952) Standardized names of cultivated 

plants in India. 1. Fruits. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 9(2): 24-36. 

Chattopadhyay, P. K. and Dey, S. S. (1992) Note on standardisation of some 

aspects of ber propagation. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 49(1): 47-49. 

Chaudhary, S. K. and Singh, A. (1993) Effect of N, P and K on growth, yield 

and leaf nutrient status in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Journal 

of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 30(1-4): 117-122. 

Chauhan, K. S. and Gupta, A. K. (1985) Effect of foliar application of urea on 

the fruit drop and physico-chemical composition of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) fruits under arid conditions. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 

14(1/2): 9-11. 

Chavan, S. D. and Patil, V. K. (1979) Standardization of leaf sampling 

technique in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Safarchand. Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 19(3/4): 147-150. 

Chavan, S. D. and Patil, V. K. (1980) Standardization of leaf sampling 

technique in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Mehroon. Comparative 

Physiology and Ecology, 5(2): 110-112. 

Cheema, G. S. (1929) The value of Ziziphus rotundifolia as a rootstock plant. 

Agricultural India, 24: 46-47. 

Cheema, G. S., Bhat, S. S. and Naik, K. C. (1954) Commercial Fruits of India, 

With Special Reference to Western India. Macmillan & Co., Calcutta, India. 

Chemas, A. and Gray, V. R. (1991) Apiculture and Management of associated 

vegetation of the Maya of Taxicacaltuyub, Yucatan, Mexico, Agroforestry Syst. 

13.1 : 13-26. In: Iqbal, I. and Hamayun, M. Studies on the traditional uses of 

plants of Malam Jabba valley, District Swat, Pakistan. 

Chen-ZongLi, Xue-Hao, Yan-ZhiLian, Chen-GuoLiang and Feng-XiaoDong 

(2005 c) A medium of direct regeneration of seedlings from stem fragments of 

jujube. Acta Botanica Boreali Occidentalia Sinica 25 (1): 57-63. 

Cheong, S. T. and Kim, J. S. (1984) Characteristics of the fruit as affected by 

the developmental stage, embryo germination and in vitro propagation of 

seedling Ziziphus jujuba Mill. [in Korean]. Journal of the Korean Society for 

Horticultural Sciences, 25(3): 241-249. 

179

Cheong, S. T., Kim, S. K., Peak, K. Y. and Ahn, H. K. (1987) In vitro rooting 

and branching responses of jujube shoots as affected by growth regulators [in 

Korean]. Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 28(1): 53- 

60. 

Chen-YouZhi, Lin-ZhenHai, Li-MingChun, Wang-ZhiMing and Xie-LinZhong 

(2003) The performance of 10 jujube varieties in Zhaoyuan area, Shandong 

province. China Fruits 6: 26-27. 

Cherian, M. C. and Sunderam, C. V. (1941) Proceedings of the 20th Indian 

Science Congress, III: 191. 

Chevalier, A. (1947) Les jujubier on Ziziphus de l’ancien monde et l’utilisation 

de leurs fruits [in French]. Revue Internationale de botanique appliqué et 

d’agriculture tropicale (Paris), 27 (301/2): 470-483. 

Chevalier, A. (1952) Les jujubiers ou Ziziphus du Sahara [in French]. Revue 

Internationale de botanique appliqué et d’agriculture tropicale (Paris), 32: 

574-577. 

Chiarugi, A. N. (1930) Parthenocarpia in Ziziphus sativa Gaertn. Bot. Ital., 37: 

287-312. 

Chiou, C. Y. and Huang, M. T. (1994) Effects of light enhancement during the 

night on the flowering and fruiting of Indian jujube. In Proceedings of the 

Symposium on Practical Aspects of Some Economically Important Fruit Trees 

in Taiwan, No. 33: 79-86. 

Chiou, C. Y. and Weng, J. (1996) Effects of night interruption on flowering 

and yielding date of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) [in Chinese]. 

Chinese Journal of Agrometeorology, 3(2): 121-124. 

Chirkina, N. N. and Kriventsov, V. I. (1975) The antimicrobial and antiviral 

properties of Feijoa sellowiana and Ziziphus jujuba fruit in relation to the 

biochemical composition [in Russian]. In Fitontsidy Kiev, Ukrainian SSR, 

Nauka i Dumka, 125-126, from Referativnyi Zhurnal (1975): 12.55.889. 

Chitkara, S. D. and Khera, A. P. (1973) A simple method for estimation of leaf 

area in different cultivars of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam). Haryana 

Agricultural University Journal of Research 3 (3): 126-130. 

Chiv Chu Ying (1997) Effects of various lighting sources on the flowering and 

yielding date of Indian jujube. Taichung District Agricultural Improvement 

Station, Special Publication No. 38: 251-256. 

180

Chivero, E. and Mawadza, C. (1998) Traditional processing of Ziziphus 

mauritiana fruits in Zimbabwe. Abstr. International Workshop on Ziziphus 

mauritiana, Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 July, 1998. 

Chona, B. L., Lall, G. and Munjal, R. L. (1959) Some Cercospora species from 

India. Indian Phytopathology, 12: 76-84. 

Choo, G. C., Kim, S. I., Chang, Y. and Lee, S. (1993) A palynotaxonomic 

study of the Korean Rhamnaceae [in Korean]. Korean Journal of Plant 

Taxonomy, 23(3): 175-188. 

Chopra, D. P. and Srivastava, G. (1973) Ber varieties for western Rajasthan. 

Indian Horticulture, 17(4): 6, 7, 30. 

Chovatia, R. S., Patel, D. S. and Patel, G. V. (1993) Performance of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars under arid conditions. Annals Arid Zone, 

32(4): 215-217. 

Chovatia, R. S., Patel, D. S., Patel, A. T. and Patel, G. V. (1992) Growth, yield 

and physico-chemical characters of certain varieties of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) under dryland conditions. Gujarat Agriculture University 

Research Journal, 17(2): 56-60. 

Chowdary N. B. and Padashetty N. S. (2000) In vitro screening of antibacterial 

activity of leaves of Ber. Current Research - University of Agricultural 

Sciences (Bangalore) 29: 78-79 

Chowdhury, S. and Majid, S. (1954) Handbook of Plant Protection. 

Department of Agriculture, Assam, India. 

Chughtai, M. I. D., Khokhar, I. and Tahira, F. (1978) Cyclopeptide alkaloids 

from the leaves of Ziziphus jujuba. Pakistan Journal of Science, 30(1/6): 136- 

144. 

Chundawat, B. S. and Srivastava, H. C. (1978) Haryana Men Ber ki Kheti. 

Directorate of Extension, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India. p. 38. 

[in Hindi] 

Chundawat, B. S. and Srivastava, H. C. (1980) Studies on crossability in ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Annals Arid Zone, 19(3): 365-367. 

Chundawat, B. S., Srivastava, H. C. and Bisla, S. S. (1979) Studies on blossom 

biology of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 36 

(2): 158-163. 

181

Ciminata, P. (1996) The Chinese jujube, Ziziphus jujuba. WANATCA Year 

Book, 20: 34-36. 

Cireasa, V., Rosu, F., Ursache, C. (1984) Ziziphus jujuba Mill., a promising 

new fruit. [in Romanian]. In Lucrari Stiintifice Institutul Agronomic ‘Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad’ Horticultura. 1983-1984. 27/28, p 4 ref. 

Cisse, A., Ndiaye, A., Lopez-Sall, P., Seck, F. and Faye, B. (2000) Antidiabetic 

activity of Ziziphus mauritiana Lam (Rhamnaceae). 105-107. 

Clifford, S. C., Corlett, J. E., Joshi, S. and Jones, H. G. (1996) Photosynthetic 

studies relating to drought response of fruit trees for semi-arid areas. Plant 

Biology Abstracts, SEB Annual Meeting, 47 (supplement), 3:39. 

Clifford, S. C., Kadzere, I., Jones, H. G. and Jackson, J. E. (1997) Field 

comparisons of photosynthesis and leaf conductance in Ziziphus mauritiana 

and other fruit species in Zimbabwe. Trees: Structure and Function, 11(7): 

449-454. 

Clifford, S. C., Arndt, S. K., Corlett, J. E., Joshi, S., Sankhala, N. and Popp, M. 

(1998) The role of solute accumulation, osmotic adjustment and changes in cell 

wall elasticity in drought tolerance in Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Journal of 

Experimental Botany, 49(323): 967-977. 

Cooke, T. (1902) The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Vol. 1, Part II. 

Secretary of State for India in Council, Dehradun, India. 

Corlett, J. E. and Choudhary, R. (1992) Chlorophyll fluorescence for water 

deficit detection in horticultural crops. In International Symposium on 

Irrigation of Horticultural Crops. Acta Horticulturae, 1993, 335: 241-244. 

Cyong, J. C. and Hunabusa, K. (1980) Cyclic adenosine monophosphate in 

fruits of Ziziphus jujuba. Phytochemistry, 19(12): 2747-2748. 

Cyong, J. C. and Takahashi, M. (1982) Identification of guanosine 3:5’- 

monophosphate in the fruit of Ziziphus jujuba. Phytochemistry, 21(8): 1871- 

1874. 

Dagar, J. C., Singh, G. and Singh, N. T. (2001) Evaluating forest and fruit trees 

for rehabilitation of semiarid alkali-sodic soils in India. Arid Land Research 

and Management, 15: 115-133. 

Dahiya, S. S. and Dhankhar, O. P. (1982) Studies on salt tolerance of ber. 

Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 11(1/2): 53-58. 

182

Dahiya, S. S., Ahlawat, V. P. and Khera, A. P. (1985) Soil versus foliar 

nutrition of ber trees with urea. International Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 

3(3): 192-195. 

Dahiya, S. S., Dhankar, O. P. and Khera, A. P. (1981) Studies on the effect of 

soil salinity levels on seed germination of ber (Ziziphus rotundifolia). Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 10: 20-23. 

Dalziel, J. M. (1937) The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Crown 

Agents, London, 2nd reprint, 1955. 

Dang, J. K., Sharma, S. and Singh, D. (1986) A note on efficacy of 

fungitoxicants against leaf spot of ber caused by Phoma eupyrena. Indian 

Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 16(2): 222-223. 

Danthu, P., Gaye, A., Roussel, J. and Sarr, A. (1992) Quelques aspects de la 

germination des semences de Ziziphus mauritiana. Paper presented at the 

IUFRO symposium on tree seeds, 23-27 November 1992, Ouagadougou, 

Burkina Faso. 

Danthu, P., Towe, M. A., Soloviev, P. and Sugna, P. (2004) Vegetative 

propagation of Ziziphus mauritiana var bola by micrografting and its potential 

for dissemination in the Sahelian zone. Agroforestry Systems, 60: 247:253. 

Dao, M. C. E. (1993) Contribution à l’amélioration génétique d’un fruitier 

sauvage à usages multiples: Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Mémoire d’ingénieur, 

Université de Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. 59 p 

Darbara Singh and Jindal, P.C. (1982) Studies on flowering and sex ratio in 

some ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars. Haryana Agricultural 

University Journal of Research 12 (2): 292-294. 

Darlington, C. D. and Wylie, A. P. (1955) Chromosome Atlas of Flowering 

Plants. Allen and Unwin, London. 

Darwin, C. (1868) The variation of animal and plants under domestication, 

Vol. 1, Murray, London, 2nd edn., 473 pp. 

Dash, A. K., Nayak, B. K. and Dash, M. C. (1992) The effect of different food 

plants on cocoon crop performance in the Indian tasar silkworm, Autheraea 

mylitta Drury (Lepidoptera : Saturniidae). Journal of Research on Lepidoptera, 

31(1-2): 127-131. 

Dastur, J. F. (1952) Useful Plants of India and Pakistan. A Popular Handbook 

of Trees and Plants of Industrial, Economic and Commercial Utility. D.B. 

Tarporewala Sons & Co. Ltd., Bombay, India. 

183

Daulta, B. S. and Chauhan, K. S. (1982) Ber – a fruit with rich food value. 

Indian Horticulture 27 (3): 7-9. 

Daulta, B. S. and Sareen, P. K. (1980) Studies on chromosome number and in 

vitro pollen viability and germination in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Haryana Agriculture University Journal of Research, 10: 60-64. 

Dawney, Thomas and Kulwal, L. V. (2002) Preparation of jam from ber fruits 

(Ziziphus mauritiana L.). Indian Food Packer, January-February, 57-59. 

De Candolle, A. (1886) Origin of Cultivated Plants. Bibliotheque Scientifique 

Internationale, 43, Paris. 

Deb, R. B. (1829) Agri-Horticultural Society of India. In: A Dictionary of 

Economic Plants of India. Vol. VII, ed. Watt, G., Calcutta, India. 

Delaney, K. R., Wunderlin, R. P. and Hansen, B. F. (1989) Rediscovery of 

Ziziphus celata (Rhamnaceae). Sida Contributions to Botany, 13(3): 325-330. 

Deotate, A. B., Badar, R. N., Sutar, S. M., Ingle, I. A. and Deshmukh, B. M. 

(1997) Effect of time of pruning on growth and yield of different ber varieties. 

Journal of Soils and Crops, 7(1): 62-72. 

Depommier, D. (1988, Publ. 1990) Ziziphus mauritiana: Cultivation and use in 

Kapsiki country, northern Cameroon. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques No.218, 57- 

62, CTFT-CIRAD, ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. 

Desai, U. T. and Patil, A. V. (1978) Studies on the floral biology of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars, Umran and Illaichi. Udyanika, 2(1/2): 

26-32. 

Desai, U. T., Ranawade, D. B. and Wavhal, K. N. (1986) Floral biology of ber. 

Journal of the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 11(1): 76-78. 

Devi, J. R. and Balon, R. S. H. (1993) Effect of time of pruning on growth of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Punjab Horticulture Journal, 33(1/4): 65-69. 

Devi, S., Pandey, V. B. and Shah, A. H. (1987 a) Chemical studies on the bark 

of Ziziphus sativa. Fitotetrapia, 58(1): 58-59. 

Devi, S., Pandey V. B., Singh, J. P. and Shah, A. H., (1987 b) Peptide alkaloids 

from Ziziphus species. Phytochemistry, 26(12): 3374-3375. 

Dhaliwal, J. S. (1975) Insect pollination in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Current Science, 44 (14): 527. 

184

Dhaliwal, J. S. and Bal, J. S. (1998) Floral and pollen studies in ber (Zizyphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Journal of Research Punjab Agricultural University 35 (1- 

2): 36-40. 

Dhaliwal, G. S. and Sandhu, I. P. S. (1984) Effect of pruning on vegetative 

growth, flowering and fruit set in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. 


Dhankhar, O. P., Makhija M. and Singhrot, R. S. (1980) Effect of salinity 

levels on germination of seeds and growth of transplanted seedlings of ber 

(Ziziphus rotundifolia). In Proceedings of the International Symposium of the 

Arid Zone Research Development, Jodhpur, India, ed. Mann, H. S. pp. 351-356. 

Dhatt, A. S., Grewal, G. P. S. and Dhillon, W. S. (1993) Effect of N, P and K 

treatments on growth and quality of Umran ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Punjab Horticultural Journal, 33(1/4): 70-75. 

Dhawan, S. S. (1980) Studies on the post-harvest technology of ber. Ph.D. 

thesis, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India. 

Dhillon, B. S. and Singh, K. (1968) Effect of some plant regulators on fruit set 

and fruit drop in Ziziphus jujuba Linn. Journal of Research, Punjab 

Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 5: 392-394. 

Dhingra, R. P., Singh, J. P. and Chitkara, S. D. (1973) Varietal variations in 

physico-chemical characters of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 2(3/4): 61-65. 

Diallo, I. (2002) Etude de la biologie de la reproduction génétique chez le 

jujubier (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam). Thèse de Doctorat, Université de Dakar, 

Sénégal. 90 p 

Dinesh, K. (2002) Effect of pruning intensity on vegetative growth and yield of 

Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana) under semi-arid conditions. Indian Journal 

of Agricultural Sciences, 72(11): 659-660 

Diwakar-Hegde, Sharma, V. P. and Hegde, D. (1992) A numerical taxonomic 

study of the ber Zizyphus spp. New Botanist 19 (1-4): 21-26. 

Diwakar-Hegde, Sharma, V. P. and Hedge, D. (1996) Palynological studies in 

ber (Z. spp.). New Botanist 23 (1-4): 145-151. 

Djimde, M. (1997) Ziziphus mauritiana, a live hedge species. Workshop on 

Ziziphus mauritiana, Bamako, Mali, 16-19 June, 1997. 

Don, G. (1831) A General History of Dichlamydeous Plants. London. 

185

Dong, Y. X. and Song, E. T. (1988) Summary of propagation techniques of 

Ziziphus jujuba with its suckers. Shanxi Fruit Trees, No.2, 24-25. 

Dutta, S. (1954) Jujubes of Assam. Indian Journal of Horticulture, XI: 53-56. 

Dwivedi, S. P. D., Pandey, V. B., Shah, A. H. and Eckhardt, G. (1987) 

Cyclopeptide alkaloids from Ziziphus nummularia. Journal of Natural 

Products, 50(2): 235-237. 

Dzheneeva, E. L. and Chernogorod, L. B. (1989) Deep freezing of Ziziphus [in 

Russian]. Sbornik Nauchnykh Trudov - Gosudarstvennyl Nikitskil Botanicheskil 

Sada, No. 109: 119-127. 

Eiznhamer D. and Xu Z. (2004) Betulinic acid: a promising anticancer 

candidate. IDrugs. (4): 359-373. 

El-Demerdash, M. A., Hegazy, A. K. and Zilay, A. M. (1994) Distribution of 

the plant communities in Tihamah coastal plains of Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. 

Vegetatio, 112(2): 141-151. 

El-Demerdash, M. A., Hegazy, A. K. and Zilay, A. M. (1995) Vegetation-soil 

relationships in Tihamah coastal plains of Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Journal 

of Arid Environments, 30(2): 161-174. 

Eley, J. G. and Hossein, D. (2002) Permeability enhancement activity from 

Ziziphus jujuba. Pharmaceutical Biology 40: 149-153. 

El-Ghazeli, G. E. B. and Moore, P. D. (1998) Modern lowland pollen spectra 

and contemporary vegetation in the eastern Sahel Vegetation Zone, Sudan. 

Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 99(3-4): 235-246. 

El-Karemy, Z. A. R. and Zayed, K. M. (1992) Distribution of plant 

communities across Al Abna escarpment, SW Saudi Arabia. Phyton (Horn), 

32(1): 79-101. 

Elmahi, M., Essassi, E. M., Hamamouchi, M. and Hamamouchi, J. (1997) 

Study on the antimicrobial and antibilharzia activity of Ziziphus vulgaris [in 

French]. In Fitoterapia, 68: 34. 

Evenari, M., Shanan, L. and Tadmor, N. (1971) The Negev—The Challenge of 

a Desert, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 

Evreinoff, V. A. (1949) Le jujubier [in French]. Fruits et Prim., 19: 339-341. 

Evreinoff, V. A. (1964) Notes sur le jujubier (Ziziphus jujuba Gaertner) [in 

French]. Journal d’agriculture tropicale et de botanique appliqué, 11: 177-187. 

186

Ewart, A. J. and Davies, O. B. (1917) The Flora of the Northern Territory. 

McCarron, Bird & Co., Melbourne, Australia. 

F.A.O. (1974) Handbook on human nutritional requirements, FAO Rome 

F.A.O. (1988) Traditional Fruit Plants. Food and Nutrition Paper 42, FAO, 

Rome, Italy. 

FACT Net http://v1.winrock.org/forestry/factnet.htm 

Faroda, A. S. (1996) Developed resistance to fruit fly in ber through 

hybridization. ICAR News Science and Technology Newsletter 2(4): 23. 

Fatima, K. and Ramanujam, C. G. K. (1989) Pollen analysis of two multifloral 

honeys from Hyderabad, India. Journal of Phytological Research, 2(2): 167- 

172. 

Feng, Z. Y., Zheng, X. X. (2002) The effect of Jujuboside A on the evoked 

field potentials of granule cells in dentate gyrus. In Journal of Zhejiang 

University (Science). 3:9. 

Florya, V. N. (1984) Trials on Ziziphus jujuba Mill. growing in Maldavia [in 

Russian]. Rastiteln'nye Resursy, 20(1): 81-85. 

Fregoni, M. and Gambi, G. (1964) Fruit growing digest. 7. Characteristics of 

the less widely grown types [in Italian]. Pollination of fruit trees and plants. Inf. 

Ortofruttic, 5:91-103. 

Fukuyama, Y., Mizuta, K., Nakagawa, K., Chin, W. J. and Wa, X. E. (1986) A 

new neo-lignan, a prostaglandin I 2 inducer from the leaves of Ziziphus jujuba. 

Planta Medica, No.6: 501-502. 

Funkhouser, S. (1998) Local natural resources management of musau fruit 

(Ziziphus mauritiana) in the mid- Zambezi valley. Abstr. International 

Workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 July, 1998. 

Gamble, J. S. (1957) Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Vol. 1. Botanical 

Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 

Ganachari, M. S. and Shiv, K. (2004) Anti-ulcer properties of Ziziphus jujuba 

Lam leaves extract in rats. Journal of Natural Remedies 4: 103-108. 

Ganachari, M. S., Shiv, K., and Bhat, K. G. (2004) Effect of Ziziphus jujuba 

leaves extract on phagocytosis by human neutrophils. In Journal of Natural 

Remedies. M/s Natural Remedies Private Ltd, Bangalore, India, 41, 47-51. 

187

Gangwar, A. C. (1982) Economic feasibility of ber cultivation in Haryana. 

Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 12(1): 140-147. 

Gangwar, V. S. (1983) Biology of Phyllodiplosis jujubae Grover infesting 

leaves of Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. (Cecidomyiidae : Diptera). Cacidologia 

Internationale, 4(1/2/3): 57-73. 

Garg, P. K. and Gupta, M. N. (1980) A new host record for Fusarium 

fusarioides - Ziziphus mauritiana. Indian Phytopathology, 32(4): 654. 

Garwal, S. S., Gurmail Singh and Dhillon, W. S. (1993) Effect of growth 

regulators on fruit drop and quality of ber fruit (Z. mauritiana Lamk.). Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 33(1/4)76-83. 

Ghedira, K., Chemli, R., Caron, C., Nuzillard, J. P., Zeaches, M. and Men- 

Olivier, L. L. (1995) Four cyclopeptide alkaloids from Ziziphus lotus. 

Phytochemistry, 38 (3): 767-772. 

Ghosh, A. K., Nagar, P. K. and Sircar, P. K. (1981) Cytokinin in developing 

fruits of Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Scientia Horticulturae, 14(4): 239-333. 

Ghosh, A. K., Nagar, P. K. and Sircar, P. K. (1985) Endogenous gibberellins in 

developing fruits of Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. and Aegle marmelos Correa. 

Journal of Plant Physiology, 120(5): 381-388. 

Ghosh, P. V. and Kale, P. N. (1991) Developmental physiology of ber. Journal 

of the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 16(2): 224-225. 

Ghosh, S. N. and Mathew, B. (2002) Performance of nine ber (Z. mauritiana 

Lamk.) cultivars on top working in the semi arid region of West Bengal. 

Journal of Applied Horticulture, Lucknow 4(1):49-51. 

Ghosh, D. K. and Mitra, S. (2004) Post harvest studies on some local genotypes 

of ber (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) grown in West Bengal. Indian Journal of 

Horticulture 61(3): 211-214. 

Ghosh, S. N. and Sen, S. K. (1988) Effect of seed treatment on germination, 

seedling growth and longevity of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana L.) seeds. South 

Indian Horticulture, 36(5): 260-261. 

Gill, A. S. and Roy, R. D. (1992) Agroforestry research situation in India. 

Agricultural Situation in India, 47(5): 345-354. 

Gill, A. S., Debroy, R. and Singh, A. (2000) On-farm studies on agrihorticulture 

with fruit tree species, Indian Journal of Agronomy, 45: 831-836. 

188

Gill, B.S., Gupta, R. C., Suman, Parminder-Kaur and Kaur, P. (1997) Free 

amino acid analysis in fruit pulp of Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. (Rhamnaceae). 

Advances in Plant Science Research 5-6: 128-137. 

Glombitze, K. W., Mahran, G. H., Mirhom, Y. W., Michel, K. G. and Motawi, 

T. K. (1994) Hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic effects of Ziziphus spinachristi 

in rats. Planta Medica (Germany), V. 60(3): 244-247. 

Godara, N. R. (1980) Studies on floral biology and compatibility behaviour in 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Ph.D. thesis, Haryana Agricultural 

University, Hisar, India. 

Godara, N. R. (1981) Studies on floral biology and compatibility behaviour in 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural 

University, 7(1): 65-66. 

Godara, N. R., Chauhan, K. S. and Bisla, S. S. (1980) Evaluation of mid-season 

ripening ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) germplasm. Haryana Journal of 

Horticultural Science, 9(3/4): 101-105. 

Godge, P. V. and Kale, P. N. (1991) Developmental physiology of ber. Journal 

of the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 16(2): 224-225. 

Godhara, N. R., Gupta, A. K., Bhatia, S. K., Saini, R. S., Gupta, P. C. and 

Madan, R. L. (2002) Safeda Rohtak (Reg. No. INGR 01016) ber. Indian 

Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 62(1): 95. 

Gokhale, V. V. (1944) The cultivation of grafted ber (Ziziphus jujuba). Nagpur 

Agriculture College Magazine, Poona, India. 18: 17-20. 

Golsen, E. W. and Rubin, H. L. (1964) Cercospora jujubae Chowdhury- a new 

report for United States. Plant Disease Reporter, 48: 914. 

Goncharova, N. P., Isamukhamedov, A. S. H and Glushenkova, A. I. (1990) 

Lipids of Ziziphus jujuba. Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 26(1); 16-18. 

Gopani, G. D. (1976 a) Arthik Drishti Se Bor ki Kheti. [in Gujarati] Gujarat 

Agricultural University, Junagadh, India. 

Gopani, G. D. (1976 b) Bor Ki Kheti Pratha. [in Gujarati] Gujarat Agricultural 

University, Junagadh, Gujarat, India. 

Gour, T. B. and Sriramulu, M. (1994) Aubens himalayanus (Curculionidae : 

Coleoptera), ber fruit weevil, a new pest of Ziziphus from India. Indian Journal 

of Plant Protection, 22(2): 228-229. 

189

Govindu, H. C. and Thirumalachar, M. S. (1964) Notes on some Indian 

Cercospora. XI. Sydowia, 18: 18-22. 

Goyal, Y. and Arya, H. C. (1985) Tissue culture of desert trees. II. Clonal 

multiplication of Ziziphus in vitro. Journal of Plant Physiology, 119: 399-404. 

Gravena, S., Yamamoto, P. T., Fernandes, D. D. and Benetoli, I. (1992) Effect 

of ethion and aldicarb against Selenaspidus articulatus (Morgan), Parlatoria 

ziziphus (Lucas) (Hemiptera : Diaspidae) and influence on beneficial fungus [in 

Portuguese]. Anals da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil, 21(2): 101-111. 

GreatVista Chemicals (2004) Bioflavonoids (Vitamin P). In, Grewal, S. S., 

Singh, G. and Dhillon, W. S. (1993) Effect of growth regulators on fruit drop 

and quality of fruit in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 33(1/4): 76-83. 

Grice, A. C. (1996) Seed production, dispersal and germination in Crytostegia 

grandiflora and Ziziphus mauritiana, two invasive shrubs in tropical 

woodlands of northern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology, 21: 324-331. 

Grice, A. C. (1997) Post fire regrowth and survival of the invasive tropical 

shrubs, Crytostegia grandiflora and Ziziphus mauritiana. Australian Journal of 

Ecology, 22: 49-55. 

Grice, A. C. (1998) Ecology in the management of Indian jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana). Weed Science, 46: 467-474. 

Grice, A. C. and Brown, J. R. (1996) The population ecology of the invasive 

tropical shrubs, Cryptostegia grandiflora and Ziziphus mauritiana in relation to 

fire. In Frontiers of Population Ecology, eds. Floyd, R. B., Sheppard, A. W. 

and De Bano, P. J. CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia. 

Guissou, T. (1996) Dépendance mycorhizienne des fruitiers Parkia biglobosa 

(Jacq.) Benth., Tamarindus indica L. et Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. dans un sol 

déficient en posphore assimilable. DEA, Université de Ouagadougou, Burkina 

Faso. 36. 

Guissou, T. (2001) La symbiose mycorhizienne à arbuscules chez des espèces 

ligneuses : diversité des Glomales, dépendance mycorhizienne, utilisation des 

phosophates naturels et tolérance à un stress hydrique. Doctoral Thesis, 

Université de Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. 

Guissou, T., Ba, A. M., Guinko, S., Duponnois, R. and Plenchette, C. (1998) 

Effect of rock phosphate and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae on growth and 

mineral nutrition of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. in an alkaline soil. [French] 

Annales des Sciences Forestieres. 55(8): 925-931. 

190

Guissou, T., Ba, A. M., Guinko, S., Plenchette, C. and Duponnois, R. (2000) 

Response of mycorrhizal plants of jujube (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.) grown in 

soils supplied with Kodjari rock phosphates and acidified with peat. [French] 

Fruits (Paris). 55(3): 187-194. 

Gundidza, M. (1986) Screening of extracts from Zimbabwean higher plants. II. 

antifungal properties. Fitoterapia, 57(2): 111-114. 

Gupta, A. K. and Joshi, D. C. (1985) Mineral content of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) at different developmental stages. Indian Journal of 

Horticulture, 42(1/2): 37-40. 

Gupta, A. K., Panwar, H. S. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1983 a) Studies on physicochemical 

changes during development and maturity in ber fruit cv. Gola. 

Punjab Horticulture Journal, 23(3/4): 186-190. 

Gupta, I. C., Sharma, B. D. and Singh, P. M. (1989 a) Effect of bicarbonate and 

chloride in irrigation water on germination and growth of ber and soil 

properties. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 37: 428-430. 

Gupta, I. C., Singh, P. M., Yadav, N. D. and Sharma, B. D. (1991) Note on 

performance of ber during establishment under conventional and Jaltripti 

irrigation system. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 48(3): 222-223. 

Gupta, J. H., Ram Nath and Srivastava, V. P. (1977) Chemical control of 

powdery mildew of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Progressive 

Horticulture, 9(1): 81-83. 

Gupta, M., Mazumder, U. K., Vamsi, M. L. M., Sivakumar, T., and Kandar, C. 

C. (2004) Anti-steroidogenic activity of the two Indian medicinal plants in 

mice. In Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 90: 29. 

Gupta, M. R. (1977) Physico-chemical characters of some promising ber 

cultivars grown at Bahadurgarh (Patiala). Punjab Horticultural Journal, 

17(3/4): 131-134. 

Gupta, M. R. and Singh, S. (1979) Effect of pruning on the growth, yield and 

fruit quality in ber. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 17(1/2): 54-57. 

Gupta, M. R. and Minhas, P. P. S. (1991) A comparative study of compatibility 

in jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Journal of Research, Punjab 


Gupta, N. K. and Mehta, A. K. (2000) Genetic variability and association of 

component characters for fruit yield in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk). 

Advances in Plant Sciences, 13:75-78. 

191

Gupta, O. P. (1983) Delicious candy from ber fruits. Indian Horticulture, 

April-June, 25-27. 

Gupta, O. P. (1983 b) Report on Post-harvest Technology of Horticultural 

Crops. Department of Horticulture, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, 

India. 

Gupta, O. P. and Mehta, N. (1987) Effect of post-harvest applications of 

fungicides, chemicals and precooling treatments on the shelf life of Gola ber 

fruits. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, 17: 146-152. 

Gupta, O. P. and Mehta, N. (1988) Effect of pre-harvest applications on the 

shelf life of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits cv. Gola. Haryana Journal 

of Horticultural Science, 17 (3-4): 183-189. 

Gupta, O. P., Kainsa, R. L. and Chauhan, K. S. (1979) Post-harvest studies on 

ber fruit (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). I. Preparation of candy. Haryana 

Agricultural University Journal of Research, IX:163-165. 

Gupta, O. P., Kainsa, R. L., Chauhan, K. S. and Dhawan, S. S. (1981 a) Postharvest 

studies in ber fruits (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). IV. Comparison of 

sugar and gur for the preparation of candies. Haryana Agricultural University 

Journal of Research, XI: 369-392. 

Gupta, O. P., Kainsa, R. L. and Dhawan, S. S. (1981 b) Post-harvest studies in 

ber fruits (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). III. Evaluation of cultivars for candy 

making. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, XI: 480-492. 

Gupta, O. P., Singh, J. P. and Chauhan, K. S. (1981) Evaluation of various 

packings on the storage behaviour of ber cv. Umran. Research Reports and 

Project Proposals, First National Workshop on Arid Zone Fruit Research, 

Hisar, India. All India Coordinated Fruit Improvement Project, ICAR, New 

Delhi, India. 

Gupta, O. P., Siddiqui, S. and Chauhan, K. S. (1987) Evaluation of various 

calcium compounds for increasing the shelf life of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) fruit. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 21(2): 65-70. 

Gupta, O. P., Siddiqui, S. and Gupta, A. K. (1989 b) Effect of pre-harvest 

sprays of various chemicals on the storage of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Research and Development Reporter, 6(1): 35-40. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1975 a) Diseases of fruits from Haryana. I. A 

new fruit rot of Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Current Science, 44(24): 908. 

192

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1975 b) Two leaf spot diseases of Ziziphus 

from Haryana. Current Science, 44: 248. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1977 a) A new leaf spot disease of Ziziphus 

mauritiana. Indian Phytopathology, 30: 271-272. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1977 b) Diseases of fruits from Haryana. A 

new leaf spot disease of Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Current Science, 46: 237- 

238. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1977 c) Fruit rot diseases of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) from Haryana. Indian Phytopathology, 30: 554-555. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1978) Occurrence of Alternaria leaf spot 

disease of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) and its control. Abstracts, 

Symposium Advancing Frontiers in Plant Biology, Dept. Botany, BHU, 

Varansi, India. 

Gupta, P .C. and Madaan, R. L. (1979) Hansfordia pulvinata - A mycoparasite 

on Isariopsis indica var. ziziphi. Current Science, 48: 121-122. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1980) Varietal resistance against leaf spot of 

ber. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, 10(1): 75-76. 

Gupta, P. C. and Madaan, R. L. (1985 a) Report on the pathological aspects of 

fruit crops (1975-1985). Department of Horticulture, Harayana Agricultural 

University, Hisar, India. 1-42. 

Gupta, P. C., Madaan, R. L. and Grover, R. K. (1978) Occurrence of powdery 

mildew of ber in Haryana and its control. Indian Phytopathology, 31: 440-443. 

Gupta, P. C., Madaan, R. L. and Chauhan, K. S. (1980) Varietal resistance of 

ber against Isariopsis mouldy leaf spot disease. Indian Phytopathology, 33: 

140-141. 

Gupta, P. C., Madaan, R. L. and Yamdagni, R. (1984) Three rust fungi on fruit 

crops from Haryana. Indian Phytopathology, 37: 406. 

Gupta, R. B. and Godara, N. R. (1989) Effect of time and severity of pruning 

on growth, quality and yield in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. 

Progressive Horticulture, 21(1-2): 15-20. 

Gupta, R. B., Godara, N. R. and Chauhan, K. S. (1990) Effect of time and 

severity of pruning on flowering and fruiting of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) cv. Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 19(1-2): 45-49. 

193

Gupta, R. B., Suneel Sharma, Sharma, J. R. and Sareen, P. K. (2003) 

Cytological studies in some varieties of genus Ziziphus. National Journal of 

Plant Improvement 5 (1): 19-21. 

Gupta, R. B., Suneel, Sharma, Sharma, J. R. and Ramesh-Goyal (2004) Study 

on the physico-chemical characters of fruits of some wild and cultivated 

forms/spp. (Ziziphus spp.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences 33 (3/4): 

167-169. 

Gupta, T. (1983) The economics of tree crops on marginal agricultural lands 

with special reference to the hot arid region in Rajasthan, India. International 

Tree Crops Journal, 2(2): 155-194. 

Gyi, M. M., Dikshit, A. K. and Lal, O. P. (2003) Residue studies and bioefficacy 

of lambda-cyhalothrin and beta-cyfluthrin in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamarck) fruits. Pesticide Research Journal 15(1): 26-27. 

Gyi, M. M., Lal, O. P., Dikshit, A. K and Sharma, V. P. (2003 a) Efficacy of 

insecticides for controlling ber fruit fly. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences 11 

(1): 152-153. 

Hailwa, J. (1998) Non-wood forest products in Namibia. Directorate of 

Forestry, Ministry of environment and Tourism. In: 

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/003/X6694E/ 

X6694E00.HTM 

Hakham, E. and Ritte, U. (1992) Foraging pressure of the Nubian ibex (Capra 

ibex nubiana) and its effect on the indigenous vegetation of the En Gedi Nature 

Reserve, Israel. Biological Conservation, 63(1): 9-21. 

Han, B. H., and Park, M. H. (1986) Studies on the sedative alkaloids from 

Ziziphus spinosasemen (seed). Saengyak Hakhoechi 16(4): 233-238. 

Han, B. H., Park, M. H. and Wah, S. T. (1987) Structure of daechualkaloid-A, 

a new pyrrolidine alkaloid of novel skeleton from Ziziphus jujuba var. inermis. 

Tetrahedron Letters, 28(34): 3957-3958. 

Han, B. H., Park, M. H. and Han, Y. N. (1990) Cyclic peptide and peptide 

alkaloids from seeds of Ziziphus vulgaris. Phytochemistry, 29(10): 3315- 3319. 

Han, MuSeok, Noh, EunWoon, Lee, JaeSoon, Chung, Hoosup, Youn Yang, 

Yun JeongKoo, Han, M.S., Noh, E. W., Lee, J. S., Chung, H. S., Youn, Y. and 

Yun, J. K. (1996) Differentiation of phytoplasma by PCR-RFLP technique in 

woody plants. Research Report of the Forest Genetics Research Institute, 

Suwon No. 32, 72-79. 

194

Hanabusa, K., Cyong, J. C. and Takahashi, M. (1981) High level of cyclic 

AMP in the jujube plum. Planta Medica, 42(4): 380-384. 

Hao, Z. N. and Zeng, X. (1991) Effects of foliar sprays of urea and ethephon in 

autumn on nitrogen storage and neutralization in jujube trees. Acta 

Horticulturae Sinica, 18(2): 102-208. 

Hatta, M., Beyl, C. A., Garton, S. and Diner, A. M. (1996) Induction of roots 

on jujube softwood cuttings using Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Journal of 

Horticultural Science, 71(6): 881-886. 

Hayes, W. B. (1945) Fruit Growing in India. Kitabistan, Allahabad, India. 

He-YeHua, Xiong-XinHua, Lin-ShunQuan, Wu-HuiTao, Lin-LiangBin, He- 

Gang and Chen-JianHua (2004 b) Transformation of Zizyphus jujuba Hetau 

with antisense ACC synthase gene. Journal of Hunan Agricultural University 

30(1): 33-36. 

Hebbara, M., Manjunatha, M. V., Patil, S. G. and Patil, D. R. (2002) 

Performance of fruit species in saline-waterlogged soils. Karnataka Journal of 

Agricultural Sciences, 15: 94-98. 

Heo, HoJin, Park, YoungJune, Suh, YoungMin, Choi, SooJung, Kim, MiJeong, 

Cho, HongYon, Chang Y., Hong B., Kim H., Kim E., Kim C., Kim B., Shin D. 

(2003) Effects of oleamide on choline acetyltransferase and cognitive activities. 

In. Bioscience Biotechnology & Biochemistry. 67: 23. 

Heyne, K. (1950) De Nuttige Planten van Indonesie [in Dutch]. S-Gravenhage. 

3rd edition. 

Hiwale, S. S. (2005) Goma kriti – selection of Umran (Early maturing 3 

weeks). Indian Hort. 50(1): 24. 

Hiwale, S. S. and Raturi, G. B. (1991) Determination of leaf area in jujube 

(Ziziphus mauritiana) using linear parameters. Indian Journal of Agricultural 

Sciences 61 (5): 335-366. 

Hiwale, S. S. and Raturi, G. B. (1999) Goma Kirti - a clonal selection in ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Proceedings of the National Seminar on 

Sustainable Horticultural Production in Tribal Regions, Central Horticulture 

Experiment Station, Ranchi, India, 25-26 July, 1999. 

Hoang, V. T. and Tuynh, N. V. (1989) New cultivars of jujube induced by 

mutation. Mutation Breeding Newsletter, No. 34: 13. 

195

Hooda, P. S., Sindhu, S. S., Mehta, P. K. and Ahlawat, V. P. (1990) Growth, 

yield and quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) as affected by soil 

salinity. Journal of Horticultural Science, 65(5): 589-593. 

Hooker, J. D. (1875) Flora of British India. Part I. L. Reeve and Co., London. 

Hore, J. K. and Sen, S. K. (1994) Role of pre-sowing seed treatment on 

germination, seedling growth and longevity of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) 

seeds. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(4): 285-289. 

Hsieh, H. J. and Tsai, Y. P. (1980) Grey mould disease on two fruit trees of 

Taiwan. Plant Protection Bulletin, 20(2): 177-179. 

Hsu, H. Y., Yang, J. J. and Lin C. C. (1997) Effects of oleanolic acid and 

ursolic acid on inhibiting tumour growth and enhancing the recovery of 

hematopoietic system postirradiation in mice. Cancer Lett. 111: 7-13. 

Hu, G. B., Zheng, Q. F., and Liu, C. M. (2001) Tissue culture and plantlet 

regenerating in Ziziphus mauritiana. Plant Physiology Communications, 36: 

435. 

Huan, J. L., Cheng, X. M. and Zhou, C. B. (1987) Infestation pattern of 

Carposina niponensis in plantations of Ziziphus jujuba and its control. Plant 

Protection, 13(1): 8-20. 

Huang, L. Y. W., Cai, B., Li, D., Liu, J., Liu, M. (1990) A preliminary study on 

the pharmacology of the compound prescription huangqin tang and its 

component drugs. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 15: 115-117, 128. 

Huang, P. L., Qiu, T. D. and Jiao, S. F. (1993) Regularity of occurrence of 

Epitrimerus ziziphus Kiefer (Tegolophus ziziphus) and its control in jujube 

(Ziziphus sativa) trees. China Fruits, No. 4, 13-14, 17. 

Hulwale, T. D., Desai, U. T., Karale, A. R., Kaulgud, S. N. and Keskar, B. G. 

(1996) Variation in pollen characteristics of ber cultivars. Journal of the 

Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 20(3): 470. 

Hulwale, T. D., Karale, A. R., Desai, U. T., Kaulgud, S. N. and Keskar, B. G. 

(1995) Pollen studies in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars. Annals Arid 

Zone, 34(1): 47-50. 

Husain, A. (1973) Propagation of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) by patch budding. 

Bangladesh Horticulture, 1(1): 48-50. 

Hussain, A. K. M. and Khan, T.A. (1962) Lac cultivation in East Pakistan. The 

Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 12(3): 220-22. 

196

Hussain, F., Ahmed, M., Durani, M. J. and Shaheen, G. (1993) Phytosociology 

of the vanishing tropical dry deciduous forests in district Swabi, Pakistan. I. A 

community analysis. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 25(1): 51-66. 

Hussain, F., Ahmed, M., Shaheen, G. and Durani, M. J. (1994 a) 

Phytosociology of the vanishing tropical deciduous forest in district Swabi, 

Pakistan. II. Ordination. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 26(1): 149-160. 

Hussain, F., Shah, Z., Sher, Z. and Saljoqui, A. R. (1994 b) Air-borne 

particulates and their effect on some roadside wild trees of Peshawar city. 

Biological Abstracts, 97. Iss. 12, Ref. 176991. 

Hutchinson, J. and Dalziel, J. M. (1958) Flora of West Tropical Africa. Crown 

Agents, London. 

ICRAF (1992) A Selection of Useful Trees and Shrubs for Kenya: Notes on 

Their Identification, Propagation and Management for Use by Agricultural and 

Pastoral Communities. Nairobi: ICRAF. 

ICUC (2002) Ber, Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Field manual for extension 

workers, International Centre for Underutilisd Crops, Southampton. 30 p. 

Ikram, M. and Tomlinson, H. (1976) Chemical constituents of Ziziphus spinachristi. 

Planta Medica, 29(3): 289-290. 

Ikram, M., Ogihara, Y. and Yamasaki, K. (1981) Structure of new saponin 

from Zizyphus vulgaris. Journal of Natural Products, 44(1): 91-93. 

Ishida, M., Okubo, T., Koshimizu, K., Daito, H., Tokuda, H., Kin, T., 

Yamamoto, T., Yamazaki, N. (1990) Topical preparations containing ursolic 

acid and/or oleanolic acid for prevention of skin cancer. Chemical 

Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 113: 12173y. 

Islam, Q. A. K. M. M. (1989) Effect of pruning on the yield and quality of 

baroi (Ziziphus mauritiana) in Bangladesh. Proceedings of the 14th Annual 

Bangladesh Science Conference, Section 1. Dhaka (Bangladesh). 83. 

Ivanova, A. S. (1982) Comparative characteristics of the quality composition of 

some stone fruits and subtropical fruit crops [in Russian]. Bulleten 

Gosudarstvenngo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, 47: 93-98. 

Ivanova, A. S., Kucherova, T. P and Sin’ko, L. T. (1989) The growth and frost 

hardiness of Ziziphus on skeletal soils of the Crimea [in Russian]. Sbornik 

Nauchnykh Trudov Gosudarstvennyi Nikitskii Botanicheskii Sada No. 108: 47- 

54. 

197

Ivanova, R. B. (1976) Raising planting material of large-fruited jujube cultivars 

[in Russian]. Trudy N II Sadovodstva Vinogradavstva i Vinodeliya R.R. 

Sherdera No. 37, 107-116. 

Jaenicke, H. (1999) Potting substrates: what do seedlings need to grow well? 

Agroforestry Today. 11: 1/2, 31-33. 

Jaenicke, H. and Wightman, K. (1999) The roots of nursery plants - a hidden 

life-support system. Agroforestry Today. 11(3/4): 23-25. 

Jain, B. L. and Dass, H. C. (1988) Effect of saline water on performance of 

saplings of jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana), Indian cherry (Cordia dichotoma var. 

wallichii) and pomegranate (Punica granatum) at nursery stage. Indian Journal 

of Agricultural Science, 58(5): 420-421. 

Jain, B. L., Goyal, R. S. and Pareek, O. P. (1988) Effect of saline irrigation 

water on soil and performance of ber. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 45(3-4): 

203-207. 

Jain, R. K. and Chitkara, S. D. (1980) Effect of different packings in 

transportation on quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruit. Annals of 

the Arid Zone, 19(3): 289-291. 

Jain, R. K., Chitkara, S. D. and Singh, K. (1979) Effect of various post-harvest 

treatments on storage of Umran cultivar of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 


Jain, R. K., Chitkara, S. D. and Chauhan, K. S. (1981) Studies on physicochemical 

characters of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits cv. Umran in 

cold storage. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 10(3/4): 141-146. 

Jain, S. K., Saxena, A. and Saksena, S. B. (1983) A new leaf spot disease of 

Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. (Botryodiplodia theobramae on Z. jujuba). National 

Academy of Scientific Letters, 5(7): 22. 

Jaiswal, A. K., Sharma, K. K., and Bhattacharya, A. (2002) Household survey 

for assessing utilization of conventional lac host trees for lac cultivation. New 

Agriculturist, 13: 13-17. 

Jama, B., Nair, P. K. R. and Kurira, P. W. (1989) Comparative growth 

performance of some multipurpose trees and shrubs grown at Machakos, 

Kenya. Agroforestry Systems 9 (1): 17-27. 

Jamadar, M. M. and H. Venkatesh (2003) Role of pruning and weather 

variables on powdery mildew incidence on ber in northern dry zone of 

Karnataka. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 16(4): 612-616. 

198

Jauhari, O. S. (1960) Some observations on vegetative propagation of Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk. (ber) from gootees and cuttings with the aid of growth 

regulators. Current Science, 29: 30-31. 

Jauhari, O. S. and Mathew, I. P. (1962) Rooting in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) with the aid of hormones. Allahabad Farmer, 39-43. 

Jawanda, J. S. and Bal, J. S. (1978) The ber - highly paying and rich in food 

value. Indian Horticulture, 23(3): 19-21. 

Jawanda, J. S. and Bal, J. S. (1980) A comparative study on growth and 

development of ZG-2 and Kaithli cultivars of ber. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 20, 1/2: 41-46. 

Jawanda, J. S., Bal, J. S., Josan, J. S. and Mann, S. S. (1980 a) Studies on the 

storage of ber fruits. II. Cold temperature. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 

20(3/4): 171-178. 

Jawanda, J. S., Bal, J. S., Josan, J. S. and Mann, S. S. (1980 b) Studies on the 

storage of ber fruits. I. Room temperature. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 

20(1/2): 56-61. 

Jawanda, J. S., Bal, J. S., Josan, J. S. and Mann, S. S. (1981) Ber cultivation in 

Punjab. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 21: 17-22. 

Jeyarajan, R. and Cheema, S. S. (1972) Screening of ber varieties for resistance 

to leaf spot and powdery mildew diseases. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 29 

(3-4): 353. 

Jiang-ZePing, Liang-ZhenHai, Liu-GenLin and Li-YuQiao (2004) The 

technique of the tissue cuture of Zizyphus jujuba Mill. var. sihongensis. Journal 

of Nanjing Forestry University Natural Sciences Edition 28(4): 97-100. 

Ji-qingChen, Zhang-XioMei, Ren-ShuPing, Hu-FuXiang, Du-YiXia, Yan- 

JiFeng, Ji, Q. C., Zhang, X. M., Ren, S. P., Hu, F. X., Du, Y. X. and Yan, J. F. 

(2001) New jujube varieties Cangwu 1 and Cangwu 3. China Fruits 6: 2-4. 

Johnston, M. C. (1963) The species of Ziziphus indigenous to the United States 

and Mexico. American Journal of Botany, 50: 1020-1027. 

Johnston, M. C. (1972) Rhamnaceae. In Flora of Tropical East Africa, eds. 

Milne-Redhead, E. and Polhill, R. M. Crown Agents, London. 

Jones, H. G. (1992) Plants and Microclimate: A Quantitative Approach to 

Environmental Plant Physiology (2nd edn.). Cambridge University Press. 

199

Joon, M. S., Singh, R. R. and Daulta, B. S. (1984) Effect of foliar sprays of 

zinc and urea on yield and physico-chemical composition of ber fruits cv. Gola. 


Josan, J. S., Jawanda, J. S., Bal, J. S., and Singh, R. (1980) Studies on the floral 

biology of ber. I. Flowering habit, flower bud development time and duration 

of flowering, floral morphology, time of anthesis and dehiscence. Punjab 


Josan, J. S., Jawanda, J. S., Bal, J. S. and Singh, R. (1981) Studies on the floral 

biology of ber. II. Pollen studies, receptivity of stigma and mode of pollination. 

Punjab Horticultural Journal, 21(1/2): 61-64. 

Joseph, M. and Shanmugavelu, K. G. (1987) Studies on the growth and 

development of certain cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) and Z. 

rotundifolia Lamk. I. Physical changes during growth and development of ber 

fruits. South Indian Horticulture, 35(4): 268-273. 

Joshi, A. L. (1973) Valmiki Ramayana men Ayurved. [in Hindi]. Purnima 

Prakashan, Jodhpur, India. pp. 75. 

Joshi, N. J. (1960) Ber graftingin Banaskantha division. Indian Forester, 86: 

169-171. 

Jossang, A., Zahir, A., Diakite, D. (1996) Mauritine J, a cyclopeptide alkaloid 

from Ziziphus mauritiana. Phytochemistry 42: 565-567. 

Jyotishi, R. P., Kashyap, R. and Maurya, K. N. (1967) Budding of ber, Ziziphus 

jujuba for top working can be done throughout the year. JNKVV Research 

Journal, 1: 91-92. 

Kaaria, S. (1998) The market potential of Ziziphus mauritiana in Malawi. In 

International Workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 

July, 1998. 

Kabir, A., Islam, R., Haque, A., Khalekuzzaman, M. and Joarder, O. I. (1994) 

Micro-propagation of Ziziphus mauritiana from nodal segments of mature 

trees. Bulletin of Sericultural Research (Bangladesh), 5: 5-8. 

Kader, A. A., Li, Y., and Chordas, A. (1982) Post-harvest respiration, ethylene 

production, and compositional changes of Chinese jujube fruits. Hortscience, 

17(4): 678-679. 

Kader, A. A., Chordas, A. and Yu, L. (1984) Harvest and post-harvest handling 

of Chinese date. California Agriculture, 38(1/2): 8-9. 

200

Kadzere, I. (1998) Role of Ziziphus mauritiana in the livelihood of some 

communities in Zimbabwe. In International Workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, 

Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 July, 1998. 

Kadzere, I. and Jackson, J. E. (1997) Indigenous fruit trees and fruits in 

Zimbabwe: Some preliminary results from a survey 1993-94. In Small holder 

Horticulture in Zimbabwe, eds. Jackson, J. E., Turner, A. D. and Matanda, M. 

L., University of Zimbabwe Publications, Harare, Zimbabwe. 

Kadzere, I., Nyamutowa, E. and Jackson, J. E. (1997) Ziziphus mauritiana: 

Production and improvement in Zimbabwe. Workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, 

Bamako, Mali, 16-17 June, 1997. 

Kainsa, R. L. and Gupta, O. P. (1979) Post-harvest studies on ber fruits. II. 

Preparation of wine. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, 

9(3): 260-61. 

Kainsa, R. L., Singh, J. P. and Gupta, O. P. (1978) Surface microflora of 

freshly harvested ber (jujube) (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) and their role in 

spoilage of fruits. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, 8(2): 

86-89. 

Kajal, R. S. (1983) Studies on the effect of sowing depth, seed and budding 

treatments on germination and budding growth in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India. 9: 176. 

Kajal, R. S. and Singhrot, R. S. (1986) Vegetative propagation of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). IX. Studies on the effect of sowing depths and dates on 

seed germination and seedling growth. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 15(3/4): 156-161. 

Kalikiti, F. (1998) Ziziphus mauritiana in Siavonga district, Zambia. In 


July, 1998. 

Kamble, A. B. and Desai, U. T. (1996) Effects of micronutrients on fruit 

quality of ber. Journal of the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 20(3): 

471-472. 

Kamra, S. K. (1992) Determination of quality of forest seeds by rapid tests. 

Paper presented at IUFRO symposium on tree seeds, 23-27 November 1992, 

Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. 

Kanaujia, R. S. and Kishore, R. (1977) A new fungal disease of Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk. in India. Fertilizer Technology, 14(3): 286. 

201

Kant, U. and Arya, H. C. (1969) Growth of Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. gall and 

normal stem tissue culture. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 7: 37-39. 

Kanwar, J. S. and Singh, S. N. (1981) A note on the longevity of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) budwood as affected by the wrapping material. Science and 

Culture, 47(6): 220-221. 

Kanwar, J. S., Singh, S. N. and Gill, R. P. S. (1980) Effect of different stages 

on transplanting rootstocks on survival, rooting pattern, budding success and 

field survival of ber plants. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 20: 167-170. 

Kapoor, S. P., Cheema, S. S. and Singh, M. P. (1975) Occurrence and control 

of powdery mildew of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in Punjab. Journal of 

Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 12 (1): 26-29. 

Karale, A. R., Keskar, B. G., Dhawale, B. C. and Kale, P. N. (1992) Fruit set in 

intervarietal hybridization in ber. Journal of Maharasthra Agricultural 

University 17 (1): 140-141. 

Katyayana, G. S. O. P. (1961) Food and Drinks in Ancient India. Ph.D. Thesis, 

Delhi University, Delhi. 

Kaundal, G. S., Grewal, S. S. and Bal, J. S. (1984) Influence of meteorological 

factors on bud take efficiency of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. 

Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 21(3): 372-374. 

Kaushik, K. D. and Chitkara, S. D. (1986) A note on weed control in ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) nursery. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 15(3-4): 224-227. 

Kavai, K. I., Akiyama, T., Ogihara, Y. and Shibata, S. (1974) A new sapogenin 

in the saponins of Ziziphus jujuba, Hovenia dulcis and Bacopa monniera, 

Phytochemistry, 13(12): 2829-2832. 

Kavitha, Z. and Savithri, P. (2001) Seasonal abundance of leafhopper, Qadria 

pakistanika Ahmed and lacebug, Monosteria sp. on ber. Journal of Applied 

Zoological Researches, 12(2/3): 99-102. 

Kavitha, Z. and Savithri, P. (2001 a) Biology and morphometrics of white hairy 

caterpillar, Thiacidas postica Walker (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) on ber. 

Journal of Applied Zoological Researches, 12(2/3): 111-115. 

Ke, L. S. and Wang, W. (1996) Effects of the plant physiological activator on 

growth and quality of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruit. Bulletin 

of National Pingtung Polytechnic Institute, 5(3): 1-6. 

202

Khalid, Q., Sultana, L., Basit, N., Mahmood, I., Siddiqui, M. A. and Beg, M. A. 

A. (1988) Studies on the preservation of herbal medicines by treatment with 

hydrogen phosphide. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 

31(12): 837-841. 

Khan, F. S. (1993) Bioeconomic interaction of single scattered trees on 

farmlands. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 43(3): 173-180. 

Khan, M. A, Nizami, S. S., Khan, S. A. (1994) The chemical studies of 

Ziziphus jujube. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 37: 448. 

Khangura, J. S. and Sandhu, G. S. (1976) Efficacy of dilute and concentrate 

sprays of insecticides in the control of ber leaf-hopper, Zyginidia pakistanica 

(Ahmed) in Punjab. Pesticides, 10(12): 47-49. 

Khera, A. P. and Singh, J. P. (1976) Chemical composition of some ber 

cultivars (Ziziphus mauritiana L.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 

5(1/2): 21-24. 

Khera, A. P., Bisla, S. S., Chauhan, K. S. and Daulta, B. S. (1981) Studies in 

root activity in ber cv. Umran (Z. mauritiana Lamk) trees by radioactivity 

using P 32 . Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 10(3/4): 171-173. 

Khokhar, I. (1978) Isoquinoline alkaloids from the fruits of Ziziphus sativa. 

Pakistan Journal of Scientific Research, Lahore, Pakistan, 30: 81-86. 

Khoshoo, T. N. and Singh, N. (1963) Cytology of northwest Indian trees. 

Ziziphus jujuba and Z. rotundifolia. Silvae Genetica, 12 Heft. 141-180. 

Khoshoo T. N. and Subrahmanyam G. V. (1985) Ecodevelopment of arid lands 

in India with non-agricultural economic plants – a holistic approach. In: 

Wickens GE, Goodin JR, Field DV (eds) Plants for arid lands. Unwin Hyman, 

London 

Khurdiya, D. S. (1980) Studies on dehydration of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) fruits. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 17: 127-130. 

Khurdiya, D. S. and Roy, S. K. (1986) Solar drying of fruits and vegetables. 

Indian Food Packer, 40(4): 28-39. 

Khurdiya, D. S. and Singh, R. M. (1975) Ber and its products. Indian 

Horticulture, 20: 5, 25. 

Kim, C. J. (1965) Witches broom of jujube tree (Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. 

inermis Rehd.). IX. Effect of low temperature in winter upon the appearance of 

symptoms [in Korean]. Korean Journal of Plant Protection, 4: 7-10. 

203

Kim, D. S. and Lee, S. P. (1988) Study on practical micropropagationof jujube 

cultivars through axillary bud culture [in Korean]. Journal of the Korean 

Forestry Society, 77(4): 445-452. 

Kim, D. S. H. L., Pezzuto, J. M., Pisha, E. (1998) Synthesis of betulinic acid 

derivatives with activity against human melanoma. Bioorganic & Medicinal 

Chemistry Letters 8: 1707-1712. 

Kim, H. Y. and Han, S. W. (1996) Ziziphus jujuba and Codonopsis pilosula 

stimulate nitric oxide release in cultured endothelial cells and kidney tissues. In 

Asia Pacific Journal of Pharmacology, 11: 26. 

Kim, J. K., Jung, V. T., Son, I. S. and Yun, E. S. (1989) The cultivation status 

and characteristics of jujube grown on soils of the chief producing area of 

Yeongnam. Research Reports of the Rural Development Administration, Soils 

and Fertilizers, 31(1): 29-36. 

Kim, J. Y., Koo, H-M., Kim, D. S. H. L. (2001) Development of C-20 modified 

betulinic acid derivatives as antitumour agents. Bioorganic & Medicinal 

Chemistry Letters 11: 2405-2408. 

Kim, S. K., Hwang, J. K., Paek, K. Y., Han, B. H. and Hwang, J. H. (1987) In 

vitro callus formation and shoot formation responses of jujube as affected by 

growth regulators and level of inorganic nutrients [in Korean]. Journal of the 

Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 28(2): 131-136. 

Kim, W. S., Kim, Y. S., Lee, U. G. and Yang, W. M. (1982 a) Studies on 

dormancy, seasonal fluctuation of carbohydrate contents and activity of 

hydrolytic enzymes in Ziziphus jujuba Miller [in Korean]. Journal of the 

Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 23(3): 221-229. 

Kim, W. S. and Kim, Y. S. (1984 a) Changes in carbohydrates, proteins, RNA 

and hydrolytic enzyme activity of jujube seeds during germination [in Korean]. 

Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 25(2): 109-115. 

Kim, Y. K. and Suh, C. K. (1989) The effect of indole butyric acid (IBA) 

treatment on rooting of suckers of Ziziphus jujuba Miller in different soils [in 

Korean]. Korean Society of Horticultural Science, 7(1): 136-137. 

Kim, Y. S. and Kim, W. S. (1983 a) Factors influencing seed germination of 

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. [in Korean]. Research Reports, Office of Rural 

Development, South Korea Horticulture, 25(10): 125-130. 

Kim, Y. S. and Kim, W. S. (1983 b) Studies on germination of Ziziphus jujuba 

Mill. seeds at different stages of growth and development [in Korean]. 

204

Research Reports, Office of Rural Development, South Korea, Horticulture, 

25(10): 47-53. 

Kim, Y. S. and Kim, W. S. (1984 b) Studies on the physiological 

characteristics of flowering in Chinese jujube [in Korean]. Journal of the 

Korean Society Horticultural Sciences, 25(1): 28-36. 

Kim, Y. S., Hong, K. H. and Kim, W. S. (1980) A survey of the distribution 

and characteristics of local strains of Ziziphus jujuba in Korea. Research 

Reports of the Office of Rural Development, Horticulture and Sericulture, 

Suwon, 22: 45-55. 

Kim, Y. S., Hong, K. H. and Kim, W. S. (1981) Studies on the drying methods 

of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) [in Korean]. The Research Reports of the 

Office of Rural Development, Horticulture and Sericulture (Korea R.), 23: 34- 

38. 

Kim, Y. S., Kim, W. S. and Hong, K. Y. (1982 b) Studies on the graftingof 

Ziziphus jujuba Miller [in Korean]. Research Reports, Office of Rural 

Development, South Korea Horticulture, 24(12): 117-122. 

Kim, Y. S., Yum, M. S, Yiem, M. S, Hong, K. H and Kim, W. S. (1988) A new 

jujube cultivar Wolchul for fresh and dry fruit [in Korean]. Research Report of 

the Rural Development Administration, 30(1 Hortic.): 89-92. 

Kindt, R., Salim, A. S., Muasya, S., Kimotho, J., Waruhiu, A. and Mutua, A. 

(2001) Tree Seed Suppliers Directory, sources of seeds and microsymbionts. 

http://www.icraf.cgiar.org/treessd/treessd.htm 

Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D. (1975) Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol.1. Bishen 

Singh Mahendrapal Singh, Dehra Dun,.588-596. 

Kislev, M. E. (1992) Vegetal food of Bar Kokhba rebels at Abi’or Cave near 

Jericho. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 73 (1-4): 153-160. 

KIT (2002) Economic opportunities in Shabwah, improving people’s 

livelihoods by sustainable economic development; SBDP, Ataq in Poverty, 

Livelihoods risks and coping strategies in spate irrigation systems. 

Kohda, H., Kozai, K., Nadgasaka, N., Miyako, Y., Suginaka, H., Hidaka, K. 

and Yamasaki, K. (1986) Prevention of dental caries by oriental folk medicines 

- active principles of Ziziphi Fructus for inhibition of insoluble glucan 

formation by cariogenic bacterium, Streptococcus mutans. Planta Medica, 

No.2: 119-120. 

205

Kossuth, S. V., Biggs, R. H., Webb, P. G. and Portier, K. M. (1982) Rapid 

propagation techniques for fruit crops. Proceedings of the Florida State 

Horticultural Society, 94: 323-228. 

Kostirko, D. R. and Kravchenko, N. M. (1974) Studies on Ziziphus jujuba 

Donbass. [in Ukranian] In Introduktsiya ta Eksperim. Ekol. Roslin, 3. Kiev, 

Ukrainian SSR, Nauka i Dumka 72-73, From Refereativnyi Zhurnal (1975) 

4.55.809. 

Krishnan, B. M. and Kulasekaran, M. (1984) Studies on seed germination in 

wild ber (Ziziphus rotundifolia). South Indian Horticulture, 32(3): 153-154. 

Kriventsov, V. I., Karakhanova, S. V. and Savina, G. G. (1969) Dynamics of 

rutin and ascorbic acid accumulation in jujube leaves [in Russian]. Byulleten 

Gosudars tovennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, 3(10): 57-59. 

Kriventsov, V. I., Karakhanova, S. V. and Savina, G. G. (1970) Distribution of 

vitamin C in fruits of Ziziphus jujuba [in Russian]. Byulleten Gosudars 

tovennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, 2 (13): 57-59. 

Kriventsov, V. I. and Karakhanova, S. V. (1970) The rutin content of jujube 

fruits [in Russian]. Byulleten Gosudars tovennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo 

Sada, 3(14): 57-69. 

Kucherova, T. P. (1987) Physiology of resistance to abiotic environmental 

factors in subtropical fruit crops. Byulleten Gosudarst vennogo Nikitskogo 

Botanicheskogo Sada, 62: 94-98. 

Kucherova, T. P and Sin’ko, L. T. (1984 a) Frost resistance in Ziziphus on the 

south coast of the Crimea. Byulleten Gosudarst vennogo Nikitskogo 

Botanicheskogo Sada, 53: 82-85. 

Kucherova, T. P. and Sin’ko, L. T. (1984 b) Frost resistance of Ziziphus in the 

Crimean South Coast region. Subtropicheskie Kul'tury, 5: 102-108. 

Kucherova, T. P. and Sin’ko, L. T. (1989) The resistance of jujube to drying 

out in spring in relation to water regime characteristics. Subtropicheskie 

Kul'tury, 1: 90-97. 

Kudachikar, V. B., Ramana, K. V. R. and Eiperson, W. E. (2000) Pre- and 

post-harvest factors influencing the shelf life of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) – a review. Indian Food Packer, January to February, 81-90. 

Kuk, H. S., Hee, Y. K. and Won, S. W. (1982) Determination of flavonoids in 

seeds of Ziziphus vulgaris var. spinosus by high performance liquid 

chromatography. Planta Medica, 44(2): 94-96. 

206

Kuliev, A. A. and Akhundov, R. M. (1975) Changes in ascorbic acid and 

catechin contents of Ziziphus jujuba fruit during ripening. Uchenye Zap. Azreb. 

Un. t. Ser. Biol. Nauk., 3/4 :54-58. 

Kuliev, A. A. and Guseinova, N. K. (1974) The content o,f vitamin C, B1, B2 

and E in some fruits. Referativnyi Zhurnal, 2: 69-73. 

Kulkarni, A. R., Bhat, N. R., Supe, V. S. and Kale, P. N. (1992) Influence of 

storage conditions and pre-sowing treatments on germination and seedling 

growth in ber. Journal of the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 17(1): 

132-133. 

Kulshrestha, M. J. and Rastogi, R. P. (1972) Chemical constituents of Ziziphus 

rugosa. Indian Journal of Chemistry, 10(2): 152-154. 

Kumar, N., Abha, T. and Mehta, P. K. (1990) Effect of different ESP levels on 

micronutrient status of the leaves of ber. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 19(1-2): 89-95. 

Kumar, P. S. and Babu, R. H. (1987) Physico-chemical characters of some ber 

(Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars grown at Hyderabad. Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 27(1-2): 17-21. 

Kumar, S. S., Babu, R. S. and Reddy, Y. N. (1986) Duration of fruit maturity 

seasons and yield of certain cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) at 

Hyderabad. Journal of Research APAU, 14(1): 88-89. 

Kumar, S., Ojha, C. M., Bhagwan, D., Awasthi, O. P. and Nainwal, N. C. 

(1992) Potentiality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars for candy 

making. Progressive Horticulture, 24(1-2): 74-78. 

Kumawat, S. R. and Swaminathan, R. (1990) Relative preference of jujube 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars by bark eating caterpillar (Indarbela 

quadrinotata Walker). Indian Journal of Entomology, 52(2): 336-338. 

Kundi, A. H. K., Wazir, F. K., Abdul, G. and Wazir, Z. D. K. (1989 a) Physicochemical 

characteristics and organoleptic evaluation of different ber (Ziziphus 

jujuba Mill.) cultivars. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture; 5(2): 149-155. 

Kundi, A. H. K., Wazir, F. K., Abdul G. and Wazir; Z. D. K. (1989 b) 

Morphological characteristics, yield and yield components of different cultivars 

of ber (Ziziphus jujuba Mill). Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 5(1): 53-57. 

Kundi, S. and Singhrot, R. S. (1990) Propagation studies in ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). X. Effect of Waxol dipping on the transplanting success of 

budlings. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 19(3-4): 225-231. 

207

Kundu, A. D., Barik, B. R., Mandal, D. N., Dey, A. K. and Banerji, A. (1989) 

Zizybernalic acid, a penta cyclic triterpenoid of Ziziphus jujuba. 

Phytochemistry, 28 (11): 3155-3158. 

Kundu, S. S. (1983) Studies on Effect of Different Rootstocks on Seed 

Germination, Seedling Growth and Budding Success in Ber. M.Sc. thesis, 

Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. 

Kundu, S. S., Pareek, O. P. and Gupta, A. K. (1995) Effect of time and severity 

of pruning on physico-chemical characteristics and yield of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 

24(1): 23-30. 

Kundu, S.S., Pareek, O.P. and Gupta, A.K. (1994) Effect of time and severity 

of pruning on growth, flowering and fruiting in ber (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) cv. 

Umran. Annals of Arid Zone, 33(1), 49-52. 

Kurian, R. M. (1985) Studies on Sylleptic Branches in Ziziphus spp. with 

Special Reference to Productivity in Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. 

Umran. M.Sc. (Hort.) thesis, University of Agricultural Science, Bangalore, 

India. 

Kurihara, Y. (1992) Characteristics of antisweet substances, sweet proteins and 

sweetness inducing proteins. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 

32(3): 231-252. 

Kurihara, Y. Oohubo, K., Tasaki, H., Kodama, H., Akiyama Y., Yagi, A. and 

Halperm, B. (1988) Studies on taste modifiers. I. Purification and structure in 

leaves of Ziziphus jujuba. Tetrahedron, 44 (1): 61-66. 

Kurz, S. (1877) Forest Flora of British Burma. Government Printers, Calcutta, 

India. 1: 265-267, 548. 

La, Y. J., Brown Jr., W. M., and Moon, D. S. (1977) Control of witches broom 

disease of jujube with oxytetracycline injection [in Korean]. Korean Journal of 

Plant Protection, 15(3): 107-110. 

La, Y. J., Park, W. C., Park, W. M. and Lee, Y. S. (1984) Electrophoresis of 

proteins in the tissues from witches broom infected jujube tree [in Korean]. 

Journal of the Korean Forestry Society, 66: 79-84. 

Lakra, R. K. and Kher, S. (1990) Effect of incidence of lac insect, Kerria lacca 

(Kerr) on bearing and quality of jujube fruits in Haryana. Indian Journal of 

Plant Protection, 18(1): 125-127. 

208

Lal, G., Jat, R.G., Dhaka, R.S., Sen, N.L. and Agarwal, V.K. (2003) 

Evaluation of ber germplasm in semi arid regions of Rajasthan. Journal of 

Ecophysiology 6 (3/4):145-148. 

Lal, H. and Prasad, A. (1979) Pruning in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). I. 

Effect on vegetative growth. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 19(3/4): 142-146. 

Lal, H. and Prasad, A. (1980 a) Effect of pruning on rate of fruit growth, extent 

of fruit drop and maturity of ber cv. Pewandi. Progressive Horticulture, 12(1): 

33-41. 

Lal, H. and Prasad, A. (1980 b) Pruning of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). II. 

Effect on flowering, fruit set and fruit retention. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 

20(1/2): 52-55. 

Lal, H. and Prasad, A. (1980 c) Pruning in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

III. Effect on yield and fruit quality. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 20(3/4): 

162-166. 

Lal, H. and Prasad, A., (1981) Effect of pruning on physico-chemical 

characters in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. Science and Culture, 

47(4): 142-143. 

Lang, X., Li, M., Jia, B., Wu, S., Li, L. and Zhao, S. (1988) Effects of the seeds 

of Ziziphus spinosa Mu on the immune function of mice. Bulletin of Chinese 

Materia Medica, 13(11): 43-45. 

Lanham, W. B. (1926) Jujubes in Texas. Texas Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Texas, USA. Circular No. 41, p. 28. 

Le Strange, G. (1930) The lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, 

Persia and Central Asia from the Moslem conquest to the time of Timur, 

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 

Le Thi Thu Hong (1998) Some aspects of fruit production and genetic 

conservation in Vietnam. In Report of the Second Meeting of MESFIN on Plant 

Genetic Resources, INIA, Portugal: 287-299. 

Lebling, R. W. (1998-2002) Handbook of Arabian Medicinal Herbs 

http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Troy/4040/HERBALME.htm 

Lee, S., Min, B., Lee, C., Kim, K., Kho, Y. (2003) Cytotoxic triterpenoids from 

the fruits of Zizyphus jujuba. In Planta Medica, 69 

209

Lee, J. S. and Choi, M. J. (1992) A study on boron toxicity of Chinese jujube 

(Ziziphus jujuba Miller). Journal of the Korean Society of Horticultural 

Sciences, 33(3): 273-282. 

Li-DengKai, Sun-BaoYu, Liu-XueBin, Bi-XiouMin, Zhang-XiaoPo, Li, D. K., 

Sun, B. Y., Liu, X. B., Bi, X. M. and Zhang, X. P. (1996) New Chinese jujube 

variety Luyuan Xiaozao. China Fruits 2: 11-12. 

Li, J. and Hu, X. (1994) Rejuvenation and utilization of wild Ziziphus 

mauritiana. Forest Research, 7(2): 224-226. 

Li-Xin-gang, Huang-Jian, Gao-WenHai, Zhang-KangZhan and Tong-JinXia 

(2004 a) Yanliang Xiangzao – A new drying variety with anti-crack of Ziziphus 

jujuba Mill. Acta Horticulturae Sinica 31(3): 418. 

Li-XinGang, Tong-JinXia, Zhang-TongQing, Li, X. G., Tong, J. X. and Zhang, 

T. Q. (2003) Jiaxian Youzao – A new drying variety of Zizyphus jujuba Mill. 

Acta Horticulturae Sinica 30(3): 373. 

Lin, YingChih Hsieh, MingTsuen Chen, ChungFung Cheng, HaoYuan Peng, 

WenHuang (2003) Anxiolytic effect of Ting-Chih-Wan in mouse behavior 

models of anxiety. American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 31: 27. 

Liu, W-K., Ho, J. C. K., Cheung, F. W. K., Liu, B. P. L., Ye, W-C., Che, C-T. 

(2004) Apoptotic activity of betulinic acid derivatives on murine melanoma 

B16 cell line. European Journal of Pharmacology 498: 71-78. 

Liu, M. (1996) Studies on the variation and probability grading of major 

quantitative characters of Chinese jujube. Acta Horticulture Sinica 23(2):105- 

109. 

Liu, M. J. and Cheng, C. Y. (1995) A taxonomic study of the genus Ziziphus. 

Acta Horticulturae, 390: 161-165. 

Liu, M. J., and Qi, Y. F. (2004) Embryo rescue of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus 

jujuba Mill.). Acta Horticulturae 663 (1): 479-482. 

Liu, M. J. and Wang, Y. H. (1991) Promising varieties and forms of Chinese 

wild jujube. China Fruits, 4: 23-35. 

Liu-MengJun, Liu, M. J., Forsline, P. L. (ed.), Fideghelli, C. (ed.), Richards, K. 

(ed.), Meerow, A. (ed.), Nienhus, J. (ed.), Williams, D. (ed.), Thorn, E. (ed.), 

Tombolato, A. F. C. (ed.), Knupffer, H. (ed.) and Stoner, A. (2003 a) Genetic 

diversity of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). Acta Horticulturae 623: 

351-355. 

210

Liu-Ping, Xue-HuiZhi, Zhou-XiangYang, Liu-MengJun, Mao-YongMin and 

Zhou-JunYi (2004 b) Study on the biological basis of pollination in Chinese 

jujube (Zizyphus jujuba) and wild jujube (Z. spinosa). Journal of Fruit Science 

21 (3): 224-228. 

Li-XueZhu, Chen-HuaiShen, Li, X. Z. and Chen, H. S. (1999) ‘Wugianzhong’ 

a promising new jujube variety. South China Fruits 23(3): 48. 

Liub-ChengMing, Hu-GuiBing, Chen-DaCheng, Liub, C. M., Hu, G. B. and 

Chen, D. C. (1997) Preliminary report on the breeding of tomentose jujube. 

South China Fruits 26(6): 48. 

Locke, L. F. (1948) The Chinese jujube: A promising fruit tree for the 

southwest. Bulletin of the Oklahoma Agricultural Experimental Station, B. 319: 

78-81. 

Lodha, S. (1984) Wilt of jujube caused by Fusarium equiseti. FAO Plant 

Protection Bulletin, 31 (2): 95. 

Lodha, S., Gupta, G. K. and Pareek, O. P. (1984) Preliminary studies on the 

resistance of ber varieties against powdery mildew in western Rajasthan. 

Indian Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 13(1): 77-78. 

Lodha, S., Singh, S. and Singh, M. P. (1983) Alternaria blight of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) and its control. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 1: 54- 

56. 

Lomakina, M. I. (1976) Chemical composition of the fruit of subtropical and 

pome fruits in south-west. Turdy po Prikladnoi Botanike Genetike-i-Selektsii 

57(1): 150-154. 

Lu, G. H., Li, C. J. and Lu, Z. S. (1993) Wound induced respiration in thin 

slices of Chinese jujube fruits. Journal of Plant Physiology, 141(1): 115-119. 

Lui-MengJun, Zhao-Jin, Lui, M. J., Zhao, J. and Janick, J. (2003) RAPD 

analysis on the cultivars, strains and related species of Chinese jujube. Acta 

Horticulturae 622: 477-484. 

Lyrene, P. M. (1979) The jujube tree (Ziziphus jujuba Lamk.). Fruit Varieties 

Journal, 33(3): 100-104. 

Lyrene, P. M. (1983) Flowering and fruiting of Chinese jujubes in Florida. 

Hortscience, 18(2): 208-209. 

211

Ma, W. L., Shi, Y. Q. and Wan, J. J. (1985) A preliminary study of 

Quadraspidiotus perniciosus on jujube. Plant Protection (Zhiwu Baohu), 

11(1): 9-10. 

Ma-YuanKao, Want-ShiYou, An-BaiGuo, Sun-JiaJing, Yao-FengJuan, Ma, Y. 

K., Wang, S. Y., An, B. G., Sun, J. J. and Yao, F. J. (2000) Juzhou Gongzao a 

promising late jujube variety. China-Fruits 22(1): 38. 

Macdonell, A. A. and Keith, A. B. (1958) A Vedic Index of names and 

Subjects, Part II. Motilal Banarasidas & Co., Varanasi, India. 

Madaan, R. L. and Chand, J. N. (1984) Factors affecting disease development 

on ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) caused by Alternaria state of Pleospora 

infectoria. Indian Phytopathology, 37(2): 406. 

Madaan, R. L. and Chand, J. N. (1985) Epidemiological studies on Alternaria 

leaf spot and fruit rot disease of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Mycology 

and Plant Pathology. 26-27. 

Madaan, R. L. and Gupta, P. C. (1976) Diseases of fruits from Haryana. II. 

Two new leaf spot diseases of Ziziphus mauritiana. Indian Phytopathology, 29: 

328. 

Madalageri, B. B., Reddy, P. N. and Basawaraj, B. (1977) Ber cultivars HB2, 

KB1 and HB1 have commercial possibilities. Current Research, 6(7): 113-114. 

Maheshwari, P. and Singh, U. (1964) Dictionary of Economic Plants in India. 

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. 

Majumdar, G. P. (1945) Vedic Plants in BC. Law Commemoration, Vol. 1, 

Calcutta, India. 

Makkar, H. P. S. and Becker, K. (1998) Do tannins in leaves of trees and 

shrubs from African and Himalayan regions differ in level and activity? 

Agroforestry Systems, 40(1): 59-68. 

Maliro, M. F. A. (1998) The potential use of tissue culture technique in 

propagation of Ziziphus mauritiana. Abstr. International Workshop on Ziziphus 

mauritiana, Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 July, 1998. 

Mang, K. C., Lee, T. B., Wang, X. F. and Tsai, T. M. (1974) Paper 

chromatographic determination of free amino acids and amides in jujube leaves 

infected by jujube witches broom virus [in Chinese]. Acta Microbiologica 

Sinica, 14(2): 224-229. 

212

Mani, M., Gopalakrishnan, C. and Krishnamoorthy, A. (2001) Natural enemies 

of ber hairy caterpillar Thiacidas postica Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in 

Karnataka. Entomon. 26(3/4): 313-315 

Mani, M. and Krishnamoorthy, A. (1997) Effects of different pesticides upon 

the wax scale parasitoid. International Journal of Pest Management, 43(2): 

123-126. 

Mankar, S. W., Dod, V. N. and Bharad, S. G. (1997) Effect of different 

methods of seed germination in ber. Crop Research (Hisar), 14(3): 437-439. 

Mann, G. S. and Bindra, O. S. (1976) Evaluation of different jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana) cultivars for resistance to the ber fruitfly. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 16(1/2): 64-67. 

Mann, G. S. and Bindra, O. S. (1977) Field screening of different jujube 

cultivars against the bark-eating caterpillar. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 

34(3): 313-315. 

Maposa, M. and Chisuro, D. (1998) Importance of Ziziphus mauritiana 

(masau) in the Mukumbura area of Zimbabwe - From a farmer's and 

extensionist's point of view. In International Workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, 

Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 July, 1998. 

Martin, F. W. Campbell, C. W. and Ruberte, R. M. (1987) Perennial edible 

fruits of the tropics: an inventory. Agriculture Handbook, USDA. 642, 247 

Masalkar, S. D. and Wavhal, K. N. (1991) Effect of various growth regulators 

on physico-chemical properties of ber cv. Umran. Maharashtra Journal of 


Massover, B. L. (1976) Reproducing Zizyphus. Temat.-sb.-tr.-Tadzh,-NIIzemledeliya. 

8: 42-56. 

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (1995 a) Changes in isozyme patterns of peroxidase 

and polyphenol oxidase by VAM in roots of Ziziphus species. Journal of Plant 

Physiology, 145(4): 498-500. 

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (1995 b) Changes in enzymes of nitrogen metabolism 

by VA mycorrhizae in Ziziphus nummularia. Journal of Plant Physiology, 

147(3-4): 331-333. 

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (1995 c) Changes in nitrate reductase and glutamine 

synthetase activities in Ziziphus mauritiana by different VAM fungi. Current 

Science, 68(11): 1144-1146. 

213

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (1995 d) Influence of VA mycorrhizae on net 

photosynthesis and transpiration of Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Journal of 

Plant Physiology, 147(3-4): 328-330. 

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (1995 e) In vitro production of Glomus deserticola in 

association with Ziziphus nummularia. Plant Cell Reports, 14(11): 735-737. 

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (1996) Physiological changes in Ziziphus mauritiana 

by different VAM fungi. Indian Forester, 122(6): 501-506. 

Mathur, N. and Vyas, A. (2000) Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizae on 

biomass production, nutrient uptake as physiological changes in Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk. under water stress. Journal of Arid Environments, 45: 191- 

195. 

Mathur, N., Ramawat, K. G. and Nandwani, D. (1995) Rapid in vitro 

multiplication of jujube through mature stem explants. Plant Cell Tissue and 

Organ Culture, 43(1): 75-77. 

Mathur, N., Ramawat, K. G. and Sonie, K. C. (1993) Plantlet regeneration from 

seedling explants of Ziziphus and silver nitrate and nutrient requirement for 

callus and morphogenesis. Gartenbavwissenschaft, 58(6): 255-260. 

Matsuda H., Murakami T., Ikebata A., Yamahara J. and Yoshikawa M. (1999) 

Bioactive saponins and glycosides. XIV. Structure elucidation and 

immunological adjuvant activity of novel protojujubogenin type triterpene 

bisdesmosides, protojujubosides A, B, and B1, from the seeds of Zizyphus 

jujuba var. spinosa (Zizyphi spinosi semen). Chemical & Pharmaceutical 

Bulletin, 47:12. 

Mawani, P. B. and Singh, S. P. (1992 a) Effect of method and time of budding 

success in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) cv. Gola. Part II. Horticulture Journal, 

5(2): 79-83. 

Mawani, P. B. and Singh, S. P. (1992 b) Effect of method and time of budding 

success in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) cv. Gola. Part I. Horticulture Journal, 

5(1): 31-35. 

Mbuya, L. P. Msanga, H. P. Ruffo, C. K. Birnie, A. Tengnas, B. (1994) Useful 

trees and shrubs for Tanzania: identification, propagation and management for 

agricultural and pastoral communities. Technical Handbook - Regional Soil 

Conservation Unit (Nairobi). Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Swedish 

International Development Authority,Nairobi, Kenya. 

McDowall J (2003) Calmodulin. In InterPro Protein Archive, 

http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2003_3/Page_1.htm 

214

Meel, O. P., Chharia, A. S., Kumar, R. and Joon, M. S. (1991) Physicochemical 

changes in the fruit of Sandhura Natural ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) during growth and development. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 20(1-2): 65-72. 

Meena, S. K., Gupta, N. K., Gupta, S., Khandelwal, S. K. and Sustry, E. V. D. 

(2003) Effect of sodium chloride on the growth and gas exchange of young 

Ziziphus seedling rootstocks. Journal of Horticultural Science and Technology, 

78: 454-457. 

Mehetre, S. S. and Dahat, D. V. (2000) Cytogenetics of some important fruit 

crops: A review of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 25: 139-168. 

Mehra, K. L. (1967) History of the use of jujube (Ziziphus species) in ancient 

India. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 24(1&2): 33-37. 

Mehrotra, N. K. and Gupta, M. R. (1985) Pollination and fruit set studies in ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural 

University (India), 22(4): 671-674. 

Mehrotra, N. K., Singh, R. and Singh, S. N. (1987) Studies on removal of N, P 

and K in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 27(3-4): 200-202. 

Mehta, N., Gupta, O. P., Kachroo, A. and Yamdagni, R. (1985) Evaluation of 

various surfactants on the uptake of calcium in ber fruits. Progressive 


Mehta, P. K. (1982) Studies on the effect of soil sodicity and boron on seed 

germination, growth and mineral composition of young ber (Ziziphus spp.) 

Plants. Thesis Abstracts, 8(1): 47-48. 

Mehta, P. R. (1950) Some new diseases of plants of economic importance in 

Uttar Pradesh. Plant Protection Bulletin, New Delhi, India. 2: 50-51. 

Meyer, F. N. (1911) Agricultural explorations in the fruit and nut orchards of 

China-jujubes. U.S.D.A. Bull. No. 204. 62 p. 

Miana, G. A. and Shah, A. H. (1985) Isolation of jubanine A, B and mauritine- 

C from the root bark of Ziziphus nummularia. Fitoterapia, 56(6): 363-364. 

Minamide, T., Goto, M. and Iwata, T. (1986) Forms of calcium compounds and 

their changes after harvest in fruits and vegetables [in Japanese]. Journal of the 

Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 54(4): 507-513. 

215

Ming, W. and Sun, Y. (1986) Fruit trees and vegetables for arid and semi-arid 

areas in northwest China. Journal of the Arid Environments, 11: 3-16. 

Mishra, R. P. and Khare, M. N. (1970) A sclerotial leaf and stem rot of mesta. 

Indian Phytopathology, 23: 706-708. 

Misra, A. K. and Jauhari, O. S. (1970) Root induction in layers and stem 

cuttings of Morus alba L. and Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. with special 

reference to plant growth regulators. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 27(3/4): 

141-146. 

Mitra, J. N. (1974) An Introduction to Systematic Botany and Ecology. S. 

Bhattacharjee for the World Press, Calcutta, India. 

Mitrofanova, I. V. and Shevelukha, V. S. (1995) Somatic embryogenesis in 

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. [in Russian]. Izvestiya Timiryazevskojsel'skokhozyajstvenooj-academii 

(Russian Federation). No.1: 120-127. 

Mitrofanova, I. V., Cheboter, A. A. and Mitrofanova, O. V. (1994) Capacity for 

in vitro morphogenesis in vegetative buds and embryos of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. 

as affected by material genotype and culture conditions. Russian Journal of 

Plant Physiology, 41(6): 826-831. 

Mitrofanova, I. V., Mitrofanova, D. V. and Pandei, D. K. (1997) Somatic 

embryogenesis and plant regeneration in Ziziphus jujuba Mill. in vitro. Russian 

Journal of Plant Physiology. 44(1): 94-99. 

Mitrofanova, I. V., Movcha, O. P., Shishkin, V. A. and Mitrofanov, V. I. 

(2002) Gene-pool collection in vitro in Nikitsky Botanical Gardens – National 

Scientific Center. Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada 85: 30-33. 

Mitter, J. N. and Tandon, R. N. (1930) The fungus flora of Allahabad. Journal 

of the Indian Botanical Society, 9: 197. 

Mitter, J. N. and Tandon, R. N. (1937) Fungi of Allahabad India. Part III. 

Proceedings of the Indian Academy, Sc. Sec., B. 6: 194-201. 

Mittre, V. (1961) Plant Economy in Ancient Navdatoli-Maheshwar. Deccan 

College Monograph Series, India. 

Mizrahi, Y., Cohen, H. and Gur, D. (1991) Introduction and development of 

new subtropical fruits. Israel Journal of Botany. 40(3): 261-262. 

Mizrahi, Y., Nerd, A. and Sitrit, Y. (2002) New fruits for arid climates. Trends 

in new crops and new uses. Proceedings of the Fifth National Symposium, 

216

Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 10-13 November, 2001. ASHS Press, Alexandria, 

USA: 378-384. 

Mohr, C. (1901) Plant Life in Alahama. U. S. Govmt. Printing Office, 

Washington. 921 p. 

Monier-Williams, M. (1899) Sanskrit-English Dictionary. First Indian Edition, 

1976. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, India. 

Monthira S. (1982) Effect of Low Temperature and Packaging Material on 

Storage Life of ‘Bombay’ jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Bangkok, 

Thailand. 

Moriguchi, T., Teramoto, S. and Sanada, T. (1994) Conservation system of 

fruit tree genetic resources and recently released cultivars from Fruit Tree 

Research Station in Japan. Fruit Varieties Journal 48(2): 73-80. 

Morinaga, T., Fukushima, E., Kano, T. and Yamasaki, Y. (1929) Chromosome 

number of cultivated plants II. Botanical Magazine, Tokyo, 43: 589-594. 

Morton, J. (1987) Indian Jujube. 272-275. 

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/indian_jujube.html 

Moti Dhar, L. and Chaturvedi, O. P. (1976) Propagating some subtropical and 

tropical fruits by budding. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 16: 33-38. 

Mukherjee, I. N., Singh, P. K. and Singh, J. (1994) Incidence and control of 

jujube gall mite (Eriophyes cernus) at Varanasi. Indian Journal of Agricultural 

Sciences, 64(5): 343-345. 

Mukherjee, S. and Soni, A. K. (1993) Growth and yield of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Seo under different pruning severities. Annals of the 

Arid Zone, 32(3): 165-166. 

Mukherjee, S. K. (1967) Horticulture research in the USSR. Indian Journal of 

Horticulture, 24: 1-11. 

Mukhtar, H. M., Ansari, S. H., Ali, M. and Naved, T. (2004) New compounds 

from Ziziphus vulgaris. Pharmaceutical Biology. Taylor & Francis, Lisse, 

Netherlands 42: 508-511. 

Mukhtar, H. M., Ansari, S.H., Ali, M., Tanveer, N. (2003) Antifungal activity 

of Ziziphus vulgaris roots. In Indian Journal of Natural Products. 19:8. 

Munier, P. (1973) Le jujubier et sa culture [in French]. Fruits, 28(5): 377-388. 

217

Munshi, K. M. and Aiyar, N. C. (1953) Badrinath. Bharti Vidya Bhavan, 

Bombay, India. 

Murthy, B. N. S. and Reddy, Y. N. (1989 a) Effect of different methods on 

seed germination in ber. Journal of the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 

14(3): 296-298. 

Murthy, B. N. S. and Reddy, Y. N. (1989 b) Improvement of seed germination 

in jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) with growth regulators and nitrogenous 

compounds. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, 59(4): 269-270. 

Murthy, B. N. S. and Reddy, Y. N. (1990 a) Evaluation of Umran and local 

type of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) for raising rootstocks. Indian Journal 

of Horticulture, 47(4): 389-391. 

Murthy, B. N. S. and Reddy, Y. N. (1990 b) Temperature dependence of seed 

germination and seedlings growth in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) and their 

modification by pre-sowing treatments. Seed Science and Technology, 18(3): 

621-627. 

Murthy, B. N. S., Murti, G. S. R. and Reddy, Y. N. (1989) Effect of abscisic 

acid on seed germination and its endogenous levels in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) seeds. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 32(3): 275-277. 

Muto, Y., Ninomiya, M., Fujiki, H. (1990) Present status research on cancer 

chemoprevention in Japan. Japanese J. of Clinical Oncology 20: 219-224. 

Muzaffar, N. (1998) Beekeeping in Islamabad Area. Islamabad Horticultural 

Society 16 th Annual Spring flowers, fruit and vegetable show. P.44. In Iqbal, L. 

and Hamayun, M. Studies on the traditional uses of plants of Malam Jabba 

valley, District Swat, Pakistan. 

Mwabumba, L. (1998) The role of Ziziphus mauritiana in the Malawian 

farming system and its potential contribution to food security. Abstr. 


July, 1998. 

Na, M., An, R., Lee, S., Hong, N., Yoo, J., Lee, C., Kim, J., Bae, K. (2001) 

Screening of crude drugs for antioxidative activity. [in Korean]. Korean 

Journal of Pharmacognosy. Korean Society of Pharmacognosy, Kwangju, 

Korea Republic, 32: 108-115 

Naik, K. R. and Rokhade, A. K. (1996) Effect of polyethylene packaging on 

the storage of different ber cultivars. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural 

Sciences, 9(1): 85-88. 

218

Nair, S. S., Sharma, H. C. and Verma, S. S. (1985) Economic oriented simple 

technique of preparing fruit beverages and dry fruits from hardy fruits. Fifth 

Indian Convention Food Scientists Technologists, 3-5 April, 1985, New Delhi. 

Nakamura, S., Saito, T. and Gohara, S. (1977) Mycoplasma-like organisms 

detected in the sieve tubes of witches broom of jujube from China. Journal of 

Agricultural Science, Japan, 21(3/4): 222-225. 

Nallathambi, P., Ummamaheswari, C., Vashishtha, B. B. and Nath, V. (2000) 

Fruit rot (A. alternata) and sources of resistance in ber germplasm under arid 

conditions. Annals of Arid Zone, 39(4): 477-478 

Nanthakumar, S. (1991) Studies on the effect of pruning on number of leaves 

and leaf area of certain ber cultivars (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) and Ziziphus 

rotundifolia Lamk. South Indian Horticulture, 39(4): 229-231. 

Nanohar, M. S., Sen, N. L. and Yadvendra, J. P. (1986) Phenotypic variation 

and its heritable components in some biometric characters in ber (Zizyphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture 43(1-2): 42-45. 

Narashimham, M. J., Wani, D. D. and Thirumalachar, M. J. (1969) Studies on 

Elsinoe and Sphacelama disease of plants in Maharashtra (India) III. Sydowia, 

23: 247-251. 

Nasri-Ayachi, M. B. and Nabli, M. A. (1995) Pollen wall ultrastructure and 

ontogeny in Ziziphus lotus L. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 85(1- 

2): 85-98. 

National Academy of Sciences (NAS) (1980) Firewood Crops. Shrubs and 

Trees for Energy Production. Washington DC. 

Nayak, G. and Sen, S. K. (2000) Standardisation of budding methods of ber 

(Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.). Environment and Ecology, 18: 241-242. 

Nayar, K. K., Ananthakrishnan, T. N. and David, B. V. (1989) General and 

Applied Entomology. Tata/McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India. 

Neeraja, G., Reddy, S. A. and Babu, R. S. H. (1995) Fruit set, fruit drop and 

fruiting behaviour in certain ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars. Journal 

of Research, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, 23(3/4): 17-21. 

Nehra, N. S., Chitkara, S. D. and Singh, K. (1984) Studies of morphological 

characters of some wild forms and cultivated varieties of ber. Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 24 (1/4): 49-59. 

219

Nehra, N. S., Sareen, P. K. and Chitkara, S. D. (1983) Cytological studies in 

genus Ziziphus. Cytologia, 48: 103-107. 

Nerd, A. and Mizrahi, Y. (1998) Ber experience in Israel. Abstr. International 

Workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, Harare, Zimbabwe, 13-16 July, 1998. 

Nerd, A. Aronson, J. A. and Mizrahi, Y. (1990) Introduction and domestication 

of rare and wild fruit and nut trees for desert areas. Advances in new crops. 

Proceedings of the first national symposium ‘New crops: research, 

development, economics’, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, 23-26 October 1988.. 

Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, USA: 355-363. 

Neya, B. A. (1988) Prospection de l’aire naturelle de Acacia raddiana Savi., 

Bauhinia [in French]. Etudes pour l’obtention du diplome d’Ingenieur de Faux 

et Forêts, Université de Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. 

Ngwa, A. T., Pane, D. K. and Mafeni, J. M. (2000) Feed selection and dietary 

preferences of forage by small ruminants grazing natural pastures in the 

Sahelian zone of Cameroon. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 88: 253- 

266. 

Nijjar, G. S. (1972) Pruning of fruit trees. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 12: 

134-143. 

Nijjar, G. S. (1975) Ber cultivation. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 15(1-2): 3-8. 

Nijjar, G. S. and Kumar, S. (1979) Foliar sampling technique in ber. Punjab 


Nikaido, T., Ohmoto, T., Kuze, T. and Ikeda, K. (1990) Studies on Chinese 

herbal medicinal prescriptions with enzyme-inhibiting activity. II. Studies 

of Kanbaku-taiso-to with adenosine 3’,5’ - cyclic monophosphate 

phosphodiesterase. Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan, 110 (7): 

498-503. 

Non-Wood News No.1 – Country Compass. 

http://www.geocities.com/ellatifi/NWFP.htm 

Nour, A. A. A. M., Ali, A. O. and Ahmed, A. H. R. (1987) A chemical study of 

Ziziphus spina-christi (Nabag) fruits grown in Sudan. Tropical Science, 27(4): 

271-273. 

Oda, K., Matsuda, H., Murakami, T., Katayama, S., Ohgitani, T., Yoshikawa, 

M. (2000) Adjuvant and haemolytic activities of 47 saponins derived from 

medicinal and food plants. Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler., 381:44. 

220

Oganesjan, A. P. (1953) Salt tolerance of some fruit crops. [in Russian] 

Botanicheskii Zurnal, 38:744-751. 

Ogihara, Y., Inoue, O., Otsuka, H., Kawai, K. I., Tanimura, T. and Shibata, S. 

(1976) Droplet counter current chromatography for the separation of plant 

products. Journal of Chromatography, 128(1): 218-223. 

Oh, S. D., Choi, D. G., Kim, J. H. and Kim, Y. S. (1988) Study on the isozyme 

analysis for classification of Korean native jujube strains (Ziziphus jujuba 

Mill.) [in Korean]. Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 

29(4): 304-311. 

Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa. 

http://www.ossrea.net/dhp/dhp04-04.htm 

Otsuka, H., Akiyama, T., Kawai, K. I., Shibata, S., Onoue, O. and Ogihara, Y. 

(1978) The structure of jujubosides A and B, the saponins isolated from the 

seeds of Ziziphus jujuba. Phytochemistry, 17(8): 1349-1352. 

Otsuka, H., Ogihara, V. and Shibata, S. (1974) Isolation of coclaurine from 

Ziziphus jujuba by droplet counters current chromatography. Phytochemistry, 

13(9): 2016. 

Oudhia, P. (2001-2003) Research Note on Medicinal herb of Chhattisgarh, 

India having less known traditional uses, IX. Boir (Ziziphus nummularia, 

family : Rhamnaceae). 

Ouédraogo, M. and Nikièma, A. (1997) Domestication de Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lam. Etude de l’aire de distribution au Burkina Faso et mise au point de 

quelques techniques de propagation. Paper presented at the Pan-African 

workshop on Ziziphus mauritiana, 16 – 20 June 1997, Bamako, Mali. 

Outlaw, W. H., Jr. Zhang, S. Q., Riddle, K. A., Womble, A. K., Anderson, L. 

C., Outlaw, W. M., Outlaw, N. N., Outlaw, E. C., Thistle, A. B. (2002) The 

jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.), a multipurpose plant. Economic Botany. New 

York Botanical Garden, Bronx, USA. 56:2, 198-206. 

Padule, D. N., Kesker, B. G. and Shinde, P. A. (1988) Varietal resistance of ber 

to powdery mildew. Journal of the Maharashtra Agricultural University, 

13(1): 121-122. 

Pandey, P. K., Singh, A. B., Nimbalkar, M. R. and Marathe, J. S. (1976) A 

witches’ broom disease of jujube from India. Plant Disease Reporter, 60(4): 

301-303. 

221

Pandey, R. C., Pathak, R. A. and Pathak, R. K. (1990) Physico-chemical 

changes associated with growth and development of fruits in ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 47(3): 286-270. 

Pandey, S. D., Pathak, R. K. and Dwivedi, R. (1991) Effect of sodicity and 

salinity levels on chlorophyll, free proline and amino acid contents in ber 

leaves. Horticulture Journal, 4(1): 33-36. 

Pandey, S. D., Pathak, R. K. and Awasthi, O. P. (1993) Note on effect of 

salinity levels on nutrient status in ber. Indian Journal of Horticulture 50(1): 

46-48. 

Pandey, V. B. and Devi, S. (1990) Biologically active cyclopeptide alkaloids 

from Rhamnaceae plants. Planta Medica, 56(6): 644-650. 

Pandey, V. B., Singh, J. P. and Shah, A. H. (1982) Chemical constituents of the 

bark of Ziziphus trinervia. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 44 (2): 

34-35. 

Pandey, V. B., Devi, S. and Singh, J. P. (1986 a) Cyclopeptide alkaloids from 

Ziziphus xylopyra. Journal of Natural Products, 49(5): 939-940. 

Pandey, V. B., Dwivedi, S. P. D., Shah, A. H. and Eckhardt, G. (1986 b) 

Nummularine-O, a cyclopeptide alkaloid from Ziziphus nummularia. 


Pandey, V. B., Tripathi, Y. C., Devi, S., Singh, J. P. and Shah, A. H. (1988) A 

cyclopeptide alkaloid from the bark of Ziziphus rugosa. Phytochemistry, 27(6): 

1915-1918. 

Pandotra, V. R. and Ganguli, D. (1964) Fungi of medicinal and aromatic plants 

in the northwest Himalayas. I. Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata, 22: 59- 

68. and III. Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata, 22: 106-116. 

Panse, V. G. (1957) Genetics of quantitative characters in relation to plant 

breeding. Indian J. Genet. Pl. Breed. 17: 318-28. 

Panwar, J. S. (1980) Pattern of fruit drop in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in 

the arid conditions of Haryana. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of 

Research, 10(1): 57-59. 

Panwar, J. S. (1981) Post harvest physiology and storage behaviour of ber fruit 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in relation to temperature and various treatments 

(cv. Umran and Kaithli). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University, 

Hisar, 7(1): 64-65. 

222

Panwar, K. S. and Vyas, N. L. (1971) Pleospora passeriniana Berk., a new 

ascomycetes from India, causing leaf spot disease of Citrus aurantifolia 

Swingle. Science and Culture, 37: 392-393. 

Panwar, K. S. and Vyas, N. L. (1974) Cladosporium oxysporum causing fruit 

rots of Punica granatum, Ziziphus jujuba and Capsicum annum. Indian 

Phytopathology, 27(1): 121-122. 

Pareek, O. P. (1977) Arid horticulture. In Desertification and its Control, ed. 

Jaiswal, P.L., Indian Council of Agriculture Research, New Delhi, India. 256- 

262. 

Pareek, O. P. (1978 a) Grow ber for higher income in arid regions. CAZRI, 

Jodhpur, India, Leaflet No. 1, p. 4. 

Pareek, O. P. (1978 b) Quicker way to raise ber orchards. Indian Horticulture, 

23, (1): 5-6. 

Pareek, O. P. (1983) The Ber. ICAR, New Delhi, India. 

Pareek, O. P. (1988) Present status and future needs for genetic resources 

activities in arid zone fruits. In Plant Genetic Resources - Indian Perspective, 

eds. Paroda, R. S., Arora, R. K. and Chandel, K. P. S. National Bureau of Plant 

Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India. 320-334. 

Pareek, O. P. (1996) Indian jujube and pomegranate. In 50 years of Crop 

Science Research in India, eds. Paroda, R. S. and Chadha, K. L., ICAR, New 

Delhi, India. 557-573. 

Pareek, O. P. (1998) Arid zone fruit research in India. Indian Journal of 

Agricultural Science, 68 (8, special issue): 508-514. 

Pareek, O. P. (2001) Fruits for the Future 2: Ber. International Centre for 

Underutilised Crops, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK. 

Pareek, O. P. and Gupta, O. P. (1988) Packaging of ber, date palm and phalsa. 

In Packaging of Fruits and Vegetables in India, eds. Venkatratnam, L., Anwer, 

M. M., Satyanaryana, G., Chelvan, R. C. and Rameshwar, A. Agri- 

Horticultural Society, Hyderabad, India. 91-103. 

Pareek, O. P. and Sharma, S. (1993) Genetic resources of under-exploited 

fruits. In Advances in Horticulture, Vol. I - Fruit Crops. Part 1, eds. Chadha, 

K. L. and Pareek, O. P. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, India.189-225. 

Pareek, O. P. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1980) Soilless ber budlings for safe 

transport. Indian Horticulture, 25: 11-12. 

223

Pareek, O. P. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1983) Delicious ber varieties of Rajasthan. 

Indian Horticulture, 28(2): 13-15. 

Pareek, O. P. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1986) Vegetative and fruit characteristics 

of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars of Rajasthan grown in the Thar 

desert. Annals of the Arid Zone, 25(3): 214-221. 

Pareek, O. P. and Nath, V. (1996) Ber. In Coordinated Fruit Research in 

Indian Arid Zone - A two decades profile (1976-1995). National Research 

Centre for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, India: 9-30. 

Pareek, O. P., Nath, V. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1999) In situ technique to 

establish ber orchards in arid region. Extension Bulletin 8. National Research 

Centre for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, India. 

Pareek, S., Fagera, M. S. and Dhaka, R. S. (2003) Genetic variability and 

association analysis for fruitfly (Carpomyia vesuviana Costa) infestation in ber. 

Indian Journal of Plant Protection 31(2): 89-90. 

Parham, J. W. (1972) Plants of the Fiji Islands. Published by the Authority of 

the Government Printers, Suva. 

Park, E. S. and Yu, Y. S. (1989) Study of pollen germination in Chinese jujube 

(Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) [in Korean]. Korean Society of Horticultural Science, 

7(1): 134-135. 

Patel, B. and Patel, V. J. (1979) Impact of chemicals on ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Pesticides, 13(3): 28-30. 

Patel, B. H., Upadhyay, V. R., Murlidharan, C. M. and Judal, G. S. (1989) 

Comparative efficacy of different insecticides against ber fruitfly, Carpomyia 

vesuviana Costa. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 17(1): 39-45. 

Patel, B. M., Patel, S. I., Patel, S. K. and Patel, S. B. (2003) Intercropping 

studies in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Agricultural Science Digest 23(2): 

113-115. 

Patel, M. K., Kamat, M. N. and Bhide, V. P. (1949) Fungi of Bombay, 

Supplement I. Indian Phytopathology, 2: 142-155. 

Patil, P. K., Patil, V. K. and More, R. M. (1981) Influence of various levels of 

soil ESP on the growth and nutritional status of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.), variety Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 10(3/4): 

166-170. 

224

PDRhealth (2004) Pectin. In, Peng, W., Hsieh, M., Lee, Y., Lin, Y. and Liao J. 

(2000) Anxiolytic effect of seed of Ziziphus jujuba in mouse models of anxiety. 

In Journal of Ethnopharmacolog.y. 72:20. 

Pearson, R. S. and Brown, H. P. (1932) Commercial Timbers of India. 

Government of India, Calcutta. 

Peng-JianYing, Peng-ShiQi, Want-YoungHui, Yang-YunZhen, Peng, J. Y., 

Peng, S. Q., Wang, Y. H. and Yang, Y. Z. (1996) Studies on the relationship 

and evolution of 4 cultivars in Chinese jujube. Journal of Hebei Agricultural 

University 19(4): 33-37. 

Peng-JianYing, Shu-HaaiRui, Sun-ZhongXu, Peng-ShiQi, Peng, J. Y., Shu, H. 

R., Sun, Z. X. and Peng, S. Q. (2000) RAPD analysis of germplasm resources 

on Chinese date. Acta Horticulturae Sinica 27(3): 171-176. 

Peng WenHuang, Hsieh MingTsuen, Lee YiShung, Lin YiChin and Liao Jen 

(2000) Anxiolytic effect of seed of Ziziphus jujuba in mouse models of anxiety. 

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72(3): 435-441. 

Pisha, E., Chai, H., Lee, I., Chagwedera, T., Farnsworth, N., Cordell, G., 

Beecher, C., Fong, H., Kinghorn, A. and Brown, D. (1995) Discovery of 

betulinic acid as a selective inhibitor of human melanoma that functions by 

induction of apoptosis. Nat Med 10: 1046-1051. 

Plant Botanic. Searching for the truth about herbal medicine. 

http://www.planetbotanic.ca/fact_sheets/jujube_fs.htm. 

Polunin, O. and Huxley, A. 1965. The Flowers of the Mediterranean, Corwell, 

Ipswich, UK. 

Popli, S., Kathpal, T. S. and Lakra, R. K. (1980) Note on dissipation of 

malathion residues from jujube fruits and leaves. Indian Journal of 

Agricultural Science, 50(2): 191-192. 

Popp, M., Mensen, R., Richter, A., Buschmann, H. and Von Willert, D. J. 

(1995) Solutes and succulence in southern African mistletoes. Trees Structure 

& Function, 9(6): 303-310. 

Possingham, J. V. (1990) Under-exploited wild species that have potential for 

horticulture. Advances in Horticultural Science 4 (1): 49-55. 

Pradeep, T. and Jambhale, N. D. (2000) Ploidy level variations for stomata, 

chloroplast number, pollen size and sterility in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana 

Lamk.). Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 60(4): 519-525. 

225

Pradeep, T. and Jambhale, N. D. (2001) Possible role of waxes in powdery 

mildew resistance in Ziziphus. Indian Phytopathology 54(1): 29-31 

Pradeep, T. and Jambhale, N. D. (2002) Cytomorphological studies in relation 

to powdery mildew resistance in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian 

Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 62 (1): 46-51. 

Pradeep, T. and Jambhale, J. D. (2003) An attempt in induce polyploidy in 

genotypes of ber (Zizhyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian J. Genet. 63(3): 285- 

266. 

Prajapati, B. H., Gauswami, D. G. and Prajapati, M. R. (1996) Cause and effect 

analysis for fruit yield in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana, Lamk.). Gujarat 

Agricultural University Research Journal 21(2): 76-79. 

Prakash, O. (1961) Food and Drinks in Ancient India. Ph.D. Thesis, Delhi 

University, India. 

Prasad, A. (1962) Studies on artificial germination of pollen grains of Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk. Madras Agricultural Journal, 49: 351. 

Prasad, A. (1964) Studies on floral biology of jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.). Agra University Journal of Research (Science), 13(2): 41-48. 

Prasad, A. and Mehrotra, N. (1963) Effect of gibberellic acid and sucrose on 

germination and pollen tube growth in Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.). Science and Culture, 29: 245-246. 

Prasad, A. and Shukla, J. P. (1978) Studies on ripening and storage of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Plant Science, 10: 191-192. 

Prasad, G. and Babu, R. S. (1988) Maturity and growth pattern of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) fruits cv. Umran. South Indian Horticulture, 36(5): 262- 

263. 

Prasad, N., Tyagi, R. N. S. and Angihotri J. P. (1962) Notes on some fungi 

from Rajasthan. I. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 55: 117- 

119. 

Prasad, S. S. and Verma, A. P. (1970) A new genus of Moniliales from India. 

Indian Phytopathology, 23: 111-113. 

Praveen, J. and Patil, P. B. (1998) Variability, heritability and correlation 

studies of some physiological characters in ber cultivars. Karnataka Journal of 

Agricultural Sciences 11(2): 450-452. 

226

Prins, H. and Maghembe, J. A. (1994) Germination studies on seed of fruit 

trees indigenous to Malawi. Forest Ecology and Management. 64(2/3): 111- 

125. 

Qi-YeFeng and Liu-MengJun (2004) Embryo abortion and young embryo 

culture of Chinese jujube. Acta Horticulturae Sinica 31 (1): 78-80. 

Qu, Z. Z. 1983 Jujubes in ancient China. [in Chinese]. Paper from the Jujube 

Institute, Heberi Agricultural University. 

Qu, Z. Z. and Wang, Y. H. (1993) Chinese fruit trees record Chinese jujube. 

The Forestry Publishing House of China, Beijing. 

Ragumoorthi, K. N. and Arumugam, R. (1992) Chemical control of ber fruitfly 

(Carpomyia vesuviana Costa). Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 20(1): 32- 

36. 

Rai, R. N., Arya, A. and Lal, B. (1982) Pestalotiopis rot of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana). Indian Phytopathology, 35: 709-710. 

Raintree Nutrition, Tropical Plant Database. 

http://www.rain-tree.com/juazeiro.htm. 

Raja, S. (2004) Morphological and molecular characterization of ber 

germplasm. M.Sc. thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India. 

Rajesh, S. and Misra, KK. (2004) Correlation studies in ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk) Scientific Horticulture, 9: 37-40. 

Rajput, C. B. S. and Singh, C. N. (1982) Effect of growth regulants on 

vegetative growth and fruiting of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana). Bangladesh 


Rajput, C. B. S. and Singh, J. (1976) Effect of urea sprays on the growth and 

fruiting of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.). Journal of Horticultural Science, 

51(1): 173-176. 

Rajput, C. B. S. and Singh, J. (1977) Effects of urea sprays on the chemical 

composition of ber fruits (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Journal of 

Horticultural Science, 52(2): 371-372. 

Ram, A. (1940) Ber crop. Punjab Fruit Journal, 5: 447. 

Ramadevi, E. (1989) Studies on the effect of time of pruning on Ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) under Hyderabad conditions. M.Sc. (Hort.) thesis, Andhra 

Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, India. 

227

Ramkrishan Godara, N. R. (1994) Physical and chemical parameters as 

affected by post-harvest treatment of different chemicals on the shelf life of 

Gola ber (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. Haryana Agricultural University 

Journal of Research, 24(2/3), 111-114. 

Randhawa, G. S. and Biswas, G. S. (1966) Studies on morphology and 

chemical composition of some jujube varieties. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 

23: 101-107. 

Randhawa, G. S. and Kohli, R. R. (1976) Ber cultivation in South India. Indian 


Rao, A. V. and Dass, H. C. (1989) Growth of fruit plants as influenced by 

nitrogen fixing bacteria. Annals of the Arid Zone, 28(1-2): 143-147. 

Rao, G. G. and Khandelwal, M. K. (2001) Performance of ber (Zizyphus 

mauritiana) and pomegranate (Punica granatum) on sandy loam saline and 

saline black soils. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 29: 59-64. 

Rao, J. V. S., Reddy, K. R. and Das, V. S. R. (1981) Physiological studies of 

some semi arid scrub species. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 19(3): 

256-260. 

Rao, P. N. (1962) Some Cercospora species from Hyderabad (India). Indian 

Phytopathology, 15: 112-140. 

Rao, V. G. (1964) Some new market and storage diseases of fruits and 

vegetables in Bombay (Maharashtra). Mycopathologia et Mycologia 

Applicata., 23: 297-310. 

Rao, V. G. (1971) An account of the fungus genus Alternaria Nees from India. 

Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata., 43: 361-374. 

Rao, Y. B., Singh, J. P. and Pandey, V. B. (1983) Anti-inflammatory and anticholinergic 

activities of Ziziphus oenoplia. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical 

Sciences, 45(3): 116-117. 

Rathore, D. S. (1986) Physico-chemical evaluation of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus 

sativa) fruits. Progressive Horticulture, 18(1/2): 65-67. 

Rathore, T. S., Singh, R. P., Deora, N. S. and Shekhawat, N. S. (1992) Clonal 

propagation of Ziziphus species through tissue culture. Scientia Horticulturae, 

51(1-2): 165-168. 

228

Raturi, G. B. and Chadha, K. L. (1993) Horti-silvae-pastoral system. In 

Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 2 Fruit Crops: Part 2, eds. Chadha, K. L. and 

Pareek, O. P. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, India. 

Rawal, R. D. and Saxena, A. K. (1989) Evaluation of different fungicides 

against black leaf spot of ber. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 46(3): 413-414. 

Ray, P. K. (2002) Jujube in Breeding Tropical and subtropical fruits, Narosa 

Publishing House, New Delhi, pp. 276-290. 

Reddy, B. G. M., Patil, D. R., Channabasappa, K. S., Hulamani, N. C. and 

Patil, S. G. (1995) Performance of some cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) 

under arid zones of Karnataka. South Indian Horticulture, 43(5/6): 146-48. 

Reddy, B. G. M., Patil, D. R., Kulkarni, N. G. and Patil, S. G. (1998) Economic 

performance of selected ber varieties. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural 

Sciences 11(2): 538-539. 

Reddy, M. T., Ismail, S. and Reddy, Y. N. (2000) Performance of radish 

(Raphanus sativus L.) in relation to tree alley orientation in ber-based agrihorticultural 

system. Crop Research (Hisar), 19: 59-62. 

Reddy, M. T., Syed, I. and Reddy, Y. N. (2001) Reference of radish (Raphanus 

sativus L.) under graded levels of nitrogen in ber-boned intercropping. Journal 

of Research ANGRAM, 28: 19-24. 

Reddy, Y. N. (1983) A rational approach to determine the pruning level in ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) var. Umran. In Research Papers and Reports, 

Second National Workshop on Arid Zone Fruit Research, Udaipur, India. 242- 

243. 

Reddy, Y. N. (1988) Potential of dryland fruit crops to make social forestry 

programme more productive. National Seminar, Dryland Horticulture, 

Hyderabad, India. Abstr. 37. 

Reddy, Y. N. and Chadha, K. L. (1993) Pruning in ber and phalsa. In Advances 

in Horticulture, Vol. II- Fruit Crops: Part 2. eds. Chadha, K. L. and Pareek, O. 

P., Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, India. 707-715. 

Reddy, Y. N. and Murthy, B. N. S. (1990) Studies on germinability and 

seedling vigour at different intervals of seed storage in ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 47(3): 314-317. 

Rendle, A. B. (1959) The Classification of Flowering Plants. Vol. I. Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, UK. 

229

Rendle, A. B. (1971) The Classification of Flowering Plants. Vol. II. 

Dicotyledons. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 

Ridley, H. N. (1922) The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. I. Polypetalae. L. 

Reeve & Co., London, UK. 

Ristevski, B., Sivakov, L. and Georgiev, D. (1982) Introduction of jujube 

(Ziziphus jujuba) into Macedonia [in Serbo-Croatian]. Jugoslovensko 

Vocarstvo, 16(61-62): 71-76. 

Rivera-Garcia, E. (1988) Diurnal activity of Taeniopoda aques Burmeister 

(Orthoptera, Acridodea, Romaleidae) in the Bolsen de Mapimi, Durango, 

Mexico [in Spanish]. Folia Entomologica Mexicana, 0(75): 5-16. 

Rixford, G. P. (1917) Ziziphus spp. In The Standard Cyclopaedia of 

Horticulture. ed. Bailey, L. H., The MacMillan Co. NY., USA. 

Rizk, A. M. (1986) The Phytochemistry of the Flora of Qatar. The Scientific 

and Applied Research Centre, University of Qatar, Qatar. 

Romanova, G. S., Sin’ko, L. T. and Litvinova, T. A. (1985) Pollen 

characteristics of various Ziziphus varieties [in Russian]. Byulleten 

Gosudarstvennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, No. 58: 54-60. 

Roussel, J. (1995) Forest nurseries and forest plantations in dry tropical Africa. 

[French] Pépinières et plantations forestières en Afrique tropicale sèche. 

Institut Senegalais de Recherches Agricoles, Dakar, Sénégal. 435. 

Roy, T. C. (1948) Fungi of Bengal. Bulletin of the Botanical Society of Bengal, 

2: 134-177. 

Ruffo C. K., Birme A. and Tengnäs B. (2002) Edible wild plants of Tanzania. 

RELMA Technical Handbook Series 27. Nairobi, Kenya. 766. 

Sachan, J. N. (1984) Varietal susceptibility of ber fruits to the damage of 

fruitfly (Carpomyia vesuviana Costa). Bulletin of Entomology, 25(2): 198-199. 

Sadhu, M. K., Ghosh, S. K. and Bose, T. K. (1978) Mineral nutrition of fruit 

plants. II. Effect of different levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on 

growth, flowering, fruit set and tissue composition of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba 

Lamk.). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 12(1): 101-105. 

Saen, T. (1986) Host plants of the fruitflies in Thailand. King-Mongkut's 

Agricultural Journal, 4(1): 1-15. 

230

Saha, J. C. (1945) Studies on rots of Indian fruits. I. Occurrence of latent and 

superficial infections. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 15: 332-338. 

Saha, N. N. (1997) Conservation and utilization of fruit plant genetic 

resources: Bangladesh perspective. M. G. Hossain, R. K. Aurora and P. N. 

Mathur (eds.) Dhaka, Bangladesh : BARC-IPGRI. 

Saini, S. S. and Suppal, H. S. (1981) Nitrogen nutrition of Cladosporium 

ziziphi, the causal agent of leaf spot disease of ber. Indian Journal of Mycology 

and Plant Pathology, 11(2): 263-265. 

Samra, J. S. (1985) Comparative sodium accumulation and its toxicity in 

mango, guava and ber. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 42(3/4): 178-183. 

Sandhbhor, D. R. and Desai, U. T. (1991) Influence of post-harvest treatments 

on the shelf life of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Maharashtra 

Journal of Horticulture, 5(2): 24-28. 

Sandhbhor, D. R., Desai, U. T. and Kale, P. N. (1992) Effect of gibberellin, 

cytokinin and polyethylene packing on market qualities of ber fruits. Journal of 

the Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 17(1): 148-149. 

Sandhu, A. S. and Dhillon, B. S. (1983) Success in bare-rooted transplanting of 

ber at grower’s fields. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 23(1/2): 57-58. 

Sandhu, A. S., Dhillon, B. S. and Singh, Z. (1983) Studies on bare-rooted 

transplanting of ber budlings. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 23(1/2): 53-56. 

Sandhu, S. S. and Thind, S. S. (1988) Effect of NAA sprayed on [at] fruit set 

on general appearance and quality of Umran ber. Indian Journal of 

Horticulture, 45(3-4): 274-282. 

Sandhu, S. S., Thind, S. S. and Bal, J. S. (1989) Effect of pre-harvest spray of 

ethephon on size, quality and ripening of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. 

Umran. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 46(1): 23-27. 

Sankalia, H. D. (1958) The Excavations at Navdaloli - Maheshwar. Technical 

Reports on Archaeological Objects. Deccan College Research Institute, M.S. 

University, India, Publication No.1. 

Sankhala, N., Sankhala, D., Upadhyay, A. and Davis, T. D. (1989) 

Amelioration of drought and high temperature injury in fruits of ber by 

paclobutrazol. Acta Horticulturae, 239: 197-202. 

231

Saqib, Z. and Sultan, A. (1994) Ethnobotany of Palas Valley, Pakistan. 

Department of Biological Sciences Quaid-I-Zam University, Islamabad and 

National Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad. 

Saran, P. L. (2005) Studies on genetic divergence in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) germplasm. Ph.D. thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, 

India. 

Sareen, M. L., Gill, A. and Biswas, S. (1989) Biotic and rhythmic activity of 

economically important syrphid flies (Syrphidae: Diptera). Geobios (Jodhpur), 

16(2-3): 93-96. 

Sarfaraz, A., Ansari, S. H., Porchezhian, E. (2002) Antifungal activity of 

alcoholic extracts of Ziziphus vulgaris and Acacia concinna. Hamdard 

Medicus. Bait al-Hikmah, Karachi, Pakistan. 14-15: 42-45. 

Saxena, D. K. and Rawat, R. R. (1968) A study on the incidence, varietal 

performance and biology of the ber fruitfly in Madhya Pradesh. Madras 

Agricultural Journal, 55: 328-333. 

Sebastian, M. K. and Bhandari, M. M. (1990) Edible wild plants of the forest 

areas of Rajasthan (India). Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 14(3): 

689-694. 

Semenov, G. M. (1987) Yield of standard jujube transplants at different soil 

moisture contents [in Russian]. Sadovodstvo, No.1: 29-33. 

Shah, A. H., Aqueel, A. M., Tariq, M., Mossa, J. S. and Al-Yahya, M. A. (1986 

a) Chemical constituents of the stem bark of Ziziphus spina-christi. Fitoterapia, 

57(6): 452-454. 

Shah, A. H., Miana, G. A., Devi, S. and Pandey, V. B. (1986 b) Sativanine-H: a 

new alkaloid from the bark of Ziziphus sativa. Planta Medica, No. 6: 500-501. 

Shah, A. H., Pandey, V. B., Eckhardt, G. and Tschesche, R. (1985 a) A 13- 

membraned cyclopeptide alkaloid from Ziziphus sativa. Phytochemistry, 

24(11): 2765-2767. 

Shah, A. H. Pandey, V. B., Eckhardt, G. and Tschesche, R. (1985 b) An N- 

formyl cyclopeptide alkaloid from the bark of Ziziphus sativa. Phytochemistry, 

24(11): 2768-2770. 

Shah, A. H., Pandey, V. B., Eckhardt, G. and Tschesche, R. (1985 c) 

Sativanine-E, a new 13- membered cyclopeptide alkaloid containing a short 

side chain, from Ziziphus sativa. Journal of Natural Products, 48(4): 555-558. 

232

Shah, A. H., Pandey, V. B., Eckhardt, G. and Tschesche, R. (1984 a) 

Sativanine-C: a cyclopeptide alkaloid from the bark of Ziziphus sativa. 


Shah, A. H., Pandey, V. B., Singh, J. P., Singh, K. N. and Eckhardt, G. (1984 

b) Sativanine-G, a cyclopeptide alkaloid from Ziziphus sativa. Phytochemistry, 

23(9): 2120-2121. 

Shah, A. H., Tariq, M. and Al-Yahya, M. A. (1990) Studies on the alkaloidal 

fraction from the stem bark of Ziziphus nummularia. Fitoterapia, 61(5): 469. 

Shah, A. N., Al-Yahya, M. A., Devi, S. and Pandey, V. B. (1987) Sativanine- 

K: an additional N-formyl cyclopeptide alkaloid from Ziziphus sativa. 


Shah, B. H. and Noor, M. (1994) Evaluation of multipurpose tree species under 

Barani conditions at Dagarkotli. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 44(2): 62-65. 

Shaltout, K. H. and Mady, M. A. (1993) Current situation of the raudha’s 

woody plant populations in Central Saudi Arabia. Feddes Repertorium, 104 (7- 

8): 503-509. 

Shamel, A. D. and Pomeroy, C. S. (1936) Bud mutations in horticultural plants. 

J. Hered. 27: 487-497. 

Shanker, G. and Rangnath, A. S. (1974) A quick test for aonla, ber and guava 

seed viability. Current Research, 3(2): 18-19. 

Shanmugavelu, K. G. (1966) Studies on the effect of plant growth regulators on 

the seedlings of some tree plant species. South Indian Horticulture, 14: 24-35. 

Shanmugavelu, K. G. (1970) Effect of gibberellic acid on seed germination and 

development of seedlings of some tree plant species. Madras Agricultural 

Journal, 55: 311-314. 

Shappira, Z., Terkel, J., Epozi, J., Nyska, A. and Friedman, J. (1990) Reduction 

of rodent fertility by plant consumption, with particular reference to Ziziphus 

spina-christi. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 16(6): 2019-2026. 

Sharma, A. (1992) Seasonal incidence of Larvacarus transitans on Ziziphus in 

Rajasthan. Annals of the Arid Zone, 3(3): 231-232. 

Sharma, B. D., Cheema, S. S. and Sandhu, A. S. (1983) Evaluation of different 

fungicides for the control of mouldy leaf spot of ber. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 23(1/2): 51-52. 

233

Sharma, K. D., Pareek, O. P. and Singh, H. P. (1982) Effect of runoff 

concentration on growth and yield of jujube. Agricultural Water Management, 

(Netherlands), 5(1): 73-84. 

Sharma, K. D., Pareek, O. P. and Singh, H. P. (1986) Micro-catchment water 

harvesting for raising jujube orchards in an arid climate. Transactions 

American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 29(1): 112-118. 

Sharma, K. K., Jawanda, J. S., Singh, M. P. and Bajwa, M. S. (1980) Effect of 

different spacings and pruning intensities on the growth and fruit yield of 

Umran ber. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 20(1/2): 47-51. 

Sharma, N. K. (1990) Ethnobotany of Mukundaras: Weather indicating plants. 

Journal of Phytological Research, 3(1-2): 65-70. 

Sharma, R. B., Roy, A. N. and Ahluwalia, P. S. (1978) Some new post-harvest 

diseases of Ziziphus jujuba. Indian Journal of Mycolology and Plant 

Pathology, 11(1): 116. 

Sharma, R., Mahla, H. R., Mohapatra, T., Bhargava, S. C. and Sharma, M. M. 

(2003) Isolating plant genomic DNA without liquid nitrogen. Plant Molecular 

Biology Reporter 21(1): 43-50. 

Sharma, S. (2003) Relationship of rainfall with powdery mildew (Oidium 

erysiphoides f sp ziziphi) of jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana). Indian Journal of 

Agricultural Sciences 73(11): 636-638. 

Sharma, S. C. and Kumar, R. (1982) Constituents from leaves of Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk. Pharmazie, 37(11): 809-810. 

Sharma, S. C. and Kumar, R. (1983) Zizynummin, a dammarans saponin from 

Ziziphus nummularia. Phytochemistry, 22(6): 1469-1471. 

Sharma, S. K., Dang, J. K. and Datta, R. (2001) Chemical control of powdery 

mildew of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana L.). Annals of Biology 17(2): 203-206. 

Sharma, V. P., Raja, P. V. and Kore, V. N. (1990) Flowering, fruit set and fruit 

drop in some ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) varieties. Annals of Agriculture 

Research Institute, 11(1), 14-20. New Delhi, India. 

Sharma, V. P. and Kore, V. N. (1990) Ber. In: Fruits – tropical and subtropical. 

Mitra, T.K. (ed). Naya Prakash, 206 Bidhan Sarani, Calcutta, India, 

562. 

234

Shastri, S. D. P. Sri Aryabhishak [in Marathi], translated in Gujarati with 

modifications by Kanabar, P. D., Bhikshu Akhandanand, Sastu Sahitya 

Vardhak Karyalaya, Ahmedabad. 

Shaukat, S. S. (1994) A multivariate analysis of the niches and guild structure 

of plant populations in a desert landscape. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 26(2): 

451-465. 

Shaumarov, Kh. B. (1976) The effect of substrate heating and cutting type on 

the rooting of softwood cuttings of Ziziphus jujuba [in Russian]. Doklady 

Mosk. S-Kh. Akad im.K.A. Timiryazeva No. 216: 83 -89. From Referativnyi 

Zhurnal (1976), 10.55.853. 

Shcherbakova, L. T. and Kulikov, G. V. (1972) Vegetative propagation of 

jujube under mist [in Russian]. Subtropicheskie Kul'tury, No.1: 94-98. 

Shen, X. D., Gao, F. G., Chen, B. X. and Wang, Y. (1992) An experiment of 

propagation of Ziziphus jujuba by green wood cuttings [in Chinese]. Ningxia 

Journal of Agroforestry Science and Technology, No. 2: 32-34. 

Shibata, S., Nagai, Y., Tanaka, O. and Doi, O. (1970) A sapogenin of seeds of 

Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosus. Phytochemistry, 9: 677. 

Shin, Y. Y., Yun, M. S., Kim, T. C., Kim, Y. S. and Lee, K. K. (1992) A study 

on the processing suitability of pear and Chinese jujube cultivars. Research 

Reports of the Rural Development Administration, Farm Management, 

Agricultural Engineering, Sericulture & Farm Products Utilization, 34(1): 58- 

65. 

Shiv, K., Ganachari, M. S., and Banappa Nagoor, V. S. (2004) Antiinflammatory 

activity of Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. leaves extract in rats. Journal 

of Natural Remedies 4: 183-185. 

Shobha, D., Pushpa Bharati, Naik, R. K., Patil, S. S. and Bharati, P. (2001) 

Morphological and physico-chemical characters of ber varieties. Karnataka 

Journal of Agricultural Sciences 14 (2): 541-544. 

Shou, C., Wang, J., Zheng, X., Guo, D. (2001) Inhibitory effect of jujuboside A 

on penicillin sodium induced hyperactivity in rat hippocampal CA1 area in 

vitro. In. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 22: 16. 

Shou, C., Feng, Z., Wang, J., Zheng, X. (2002) The inhibitory effects of 

jujuboside A on rat hippocampus in vivo and in vitro. Planta Medica. 68:18. 

Shukla, A. K., Dhandar, D. G., Vashishtha, B. B. and Umamaheswari, C. 

(2004) New promising ber varieties. Indian Horticulture 49(3): 36. 

235

Shukla-Lakshmi, Singh, N. K. and Rao, P. B. (2000) Isolation and PCR 

amplification of genomic DNA from Ziziphus nummularia Miller. Physiology 

and Molecular Biology of Plants 6(1): 75-80. 

Siddiqui, S. and Gupta, O. P. (1988) Effect of post-harvest application of 

calcium chloride and diphenyl package on the storage behaviour of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. Haryana Agricultural University Journal 

of Research, 18(4): 337-340. 

Siddiqui, S. and Gupta, O. P. (1989) Determination of maturity standards of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. Haryana Agricultural University Journal 

of Research, 19(3): 260-262. 

Siddiqui, S. and Gupta, O. P. (1990) Evaluation of zero energy chamber for 

storage of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. Haryana Agricultural 

University Journal of Research, 20(3): 221-224. 

Siddiqui, S. and Gupta, O. P. (1995) Effect of post-harvest application of some 

chemicals on the shelf life of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 24(1): 19-23. 

Siddiqui, S., Gupta, O. P. and Chauhan, K. S. (1985) Effect of cytokinin and 

Waxol on the storage behaviour of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits. In 

Proceedings of the National Seminar on Plant Physiology, Manipur University, 

India, 39-43. 

Siddiqui, S., Gupta, O. P. and Yamdagni, R. (1989) Effect of pre-harvest sprays 

of chemicals on the shelf life of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) fruits cv. 

Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 18(3-4): 177-183. 

Siddiqui, S., Kumar, J., Singh, K. and Sharma, R. K. (1993) Comparison of 

modified wire bound boxes over traditional wooden boxes for transportation of 

fruits. Progressive Horticulture, 22(1-4): 154-155. 

Sidhu, J. S. and Singh, G. (1979) Leaf spot disease on Ziziphus mauritiana 

caused by Phoma macrostoma in India. Plant Disease Reporter, 63(8): 678- 

681. 

Singh, A. K., Singh, B. P. and Ram, R. B. (1982 a) Effect of gibberellic acid on 

physical and chemical characters of ber fruit (Ziziphus mauritiana). 

Bangladesh Horticulture, 10(1): 47-49. 

Singh, A. R., Shukla, P. K. and Singh, K. (1989 a) Effect of boron, zinc and 

NAA on the chemical composition and metabolites of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) fruit. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 18(1-2): 23-28. 

236

Singh, A. R., Shukla, P. K., Singh, K. and Singh, A. (1989 b) A note on the 

chemical composition and metabolites of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) as 

influenced by boron, zinc and NAA. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 

18 (3-4): 235-236. 

Singh, B. P., Singh, S. P. and Chauhan, K. S. (1981 a) Certain chemical 

changes and rate of respiration in different cultivars of ber during ripening. 

Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, 11(1): 60-64. 

Singh, B. P., Yamdagni, R. and Singh, S. P. (1984 a) Relation between growth 

pattern and endogenous metabolites in the developing fruits of jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research, 

14(3): 374-379. 

Singh, D. and Andotra, P. S. (1989) Fungicidal control of leaf-spot disease of 

ber caused by Isariopsis indica var. ziziphae under field conditions. Indian 

Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 19(1): 105-106. 

Singh, D. and Jindal, P. C. (1980) Physico-chemical characters of some 

promising ber cultivars grown at Gurgaon (Haryana). Haryana Journal of 


Singh, D., Bakhshi, J. C. and Singh, K. (1970) Flowering and fruiting 

behaviour of ber, variety Banarsi Karaka (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Punjab 


Singh, D. K. and Barun Singh Sen, S. K. (2004) Role of pre-sowing seed 

treatment with different chemicals and seed sizes on the germination behavior 

and seedling growth of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.). Environment and 

Ecology. MKK Publication, Calcutta, India: 22(2): 439-442. 

Singh, H. P. and Sindhu, S. S. (1985) Control of ber powdery mildew. Indian 

Horticulture, 29(4): 27. 

Singh, J. P. and Gupta, O. P. (1983) Evaluation of various packings of ber fruit 

in relation to decay loss caused by various microbes. Haryana Agricultural 

University Journal of Research, 13(4): 593-595. 

Singh, J. P. and Singh, I. S. (1973) Some promising varieties of ber. Indian 

Horticulture, 18(2): 3-4, 28. 

Singh, K. (1979) Vegetative Propagation of Ber. M.Sc. thesis, Haryana 

Agricultural University, Hisar, India. 

237

Singh, K., Singhrot, R. S. and Chauhan, K. S. (1981 b) Effect of budding 

height and diameter of rootstock on budding success and budding growth of 

ber. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 10(1/2): 69-71. 

Singh, K., Singhrot, R. S. and Chauhan, K. S. (1982 b) Vegetative propagation 

of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.). VI. Effect of various transplanting 

treatments on the growth of ber seedlings and success of budding. Haryana 

Journal of Horticultural Science, 11: 5-12. 

Singh, K., Singhrot, R. S. and Chauhan, K. S. (1984 b) Vegetative propagation 

of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). VII. Effect of time of transplanting of 

budding on the success and growth in polythene bags and nursery beds. 

Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 13: 26-29. 

Singh, K. K. (1957) The Ber in India. Farm Bulletin No. 18. Indian Council of 

Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. 

Singh, K. K. (1964) The Ber in India. Farm Bulletin, Indian Council of 

Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India: 17-31. 

Singh, K. K., Chadha, K. L. and Gupta, M. R. (1973 a) Ber cultivation in 

Punjab. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. 

.Singh, L. (1988) Propagational Studies in Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Ph. D. thesis, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India. 

Singh, L. and Godara, N. R. (1985) Effect of planting distances and severity of 

pruning on vegetative growth of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. 

Progressive Horticulture, 17(1): 21-24. 

Singh, L. B. (1952) Preliminary trial on top-working of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 9 (1): 16- 

19. 

Singh, L. B. (1961) Raising of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) and aonla 

(Phyllanthus emblica L.) seedlings for budding in pot. Annual Report Fruit 

Research Station, Saharanpur, India, 1954-56. 34-36. 

Singh, L., Lal, G. and Singh, S. (1944) Candying of bers (Ziziphus jujuba) and 

orange peel. Punjab Fruit Journal, 8: 29-30. 

Singh, M. P. (1984 a) Field screening of some jujube cultivars against the 

attack of bark eating caterpillar, Indarbela quadrinotata (Walker). Madras 

Agricultural Journal, 71(6): 416-417. 

238

Singh, M. P. (1984 b) Studies on the field resistance of different jujube 

cultivars to the fruitfly Carpomyia vesuviana Costa. Madras Agricultural 

Journal, 71(6): 413-415. 

Singh, M. P. (1984 c) Studies on the activity of some insect pollinators of 

jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Entomon, 9(3): 177-180. 

Singh, M. P. and Bal, J. S. (1986) Performance of Umran ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) on different rootstocks. Horticultural Science, 21: 797. 

Singh, M. P. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1984) Field screening of some ber 

cultivars for resistance to ber fruitfly, Carpomyia vesuviana Costa. Indian 

Journal of Plant Protection, 12(1): 55-56. 

Singh, M. P. and Vashishtha, B. B. (1993) Studies on fruitfly (Carpomyia 

vesuviana) resistance in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana). Abstr., Golden Jubilee 

Symposium, Horticultural Research-Challenging Scenario, Bangalore, India: 

39-40. 

Singh, M. P., Bal, J. S. and Sandhu, A. S. (1988) Effect of different rootstocks 

on vigour, yield and fruit quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. 

Umran. National Symposium Dryland Horticulture, Hyderabad, India, Abstr. 

3. 

Singh, M. P., Sharma, K. K., Bajwa, M. S. and Dhillon, R. S. (1978 a) 

Performance of Umran ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) on different 

rootstocks. Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 25: 259-265. 

Singh, P. D. and Misra, D. P. (1979) Studies on pollen morphology, viability 

and germination in Ziziphus. Plant Science, 11: 88-89. 

Singh, P., Bajwa, M. S. and Singh, R. (1973 b) Propagation of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). I. Effect of ringing and IBA on the stooling. Plant Science, 

5: 137-139. 

Singh, P., Bakhshi, J. C. and Bajaj, K. L. (1974 a) Endogenous growth 

inhibitors or growth promoters and their relationship with dormancy in jujube. 

Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, 44(6): 383-388. 

Singh, P., Bakhshi, J. C. and Jaiswal, S. P. (1974 b) Physico-chemical changes 

in relation to the dormancy in jujube. Indian Journal Agricultural Science, 

44(10): 639-644. 

Singh, P., Bakhshi, J. C. and Singh, R. (1971) Identification of ber cultivars 

through vegetative characters. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 11(3/4): 176-187. 

239

Singh, P., Bakhshi, J. C. and Singh, R. (1972 a) Identification of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars through fruit characters. Punjab Horticultural 

Journal, 12(2/3): 120-133. 

Singh, R. (1969) Fruits. National Book Trust, New Delhi, India. 

Singh, R. and Gupta, O. P. (1987) Evaluation of various packages for ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) under various storage conditions. National 

Symposium on Role of Food Technology in Rural Development, Haryana 

Agricultural University, Hisar, India. 

Singh, R. and Khanna, R. C. (1968) Some north Indian cultivars of ber. Indian 


Singh, R. and Tomar, N. S. (1988) Performance of some jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana) cultivars in semi-arid zone of Punjab. Indian Journal of 

Agricultural Science, 58(5): 382-383. 

Singh, R. R., Chauhan, K. S. and Singh, H. K. (1986) Effect of various doses of 

N, P and K on physico-chemical composition of ber fruit cultivar Gola. 

Progressive Horticulture, 18(1/2): 35-38. 

Singh, R. R., Jain, R. K. and Chauhan, K. S. (1983 a) Flowering and fruiting 

behaviour of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) under Gurgaon conditions. 


Singh, R. S. (1997) Note on the effect of intercropping on growth and yield of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in semi-arid regions. Current Agriculture, 

21(1/2): 117-118. 

Singh, R. S., Vashishtha, B. B. and Prasad, R. N. (1998) Micrometeorology of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) orchard grown under rainfed arid conditions. 

Indian Journal of Horticulture, 55(2): 97-107. 

Singh, R., Singh, P. and Bajwa, M. S. (1972 b) Effect of time of budding on its 

success in ber. Science and Culture, 38(4): 214-215. 

Singh, S. P. Fruit crops for wasteland. (1992) Fruit crops for wasteland. 

Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India: 227. 

Singh, S. and Ahlawat, V. P. (1995) Physico-chemical attributes and mineral 

composition of ber leaves as affected by foliar application of urea and zinc 

sulphate. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 24(2): 94-97. 

240

Singh, S. B., Chhabra, R. and Abrol, I. P. (1983 b) Effect of exchangeable 

sodium on the growth and mineral composition of jujube and guava. Indian 

Journal of Agricultural Science, 53(6): 446-450. 

Singh, S. B., Maheshwar, S. K. and Singh, P. N. (1995) Field evaluation of 

fungitoxicants against powdery mildew of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Annals Plant Protection Sciences, 3(2): 168-169. 

Singh, S. P., Singh, I. B. and Singh, V. N. (1987 a) A note on effect of 

gibberellic acid on fruit setting, fruit retention and quality of jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Banarasi Karaka. Progressive Horticulture, 19(1-2): 61- 

64. 

Singh, S., Krishnamurthy, S. and Katyal, SL. (1967) Fruit Culture in India. 

ICAR, New Delhi, India. 

Singh, S., Singhrof, R. S. and Bhatia, S. K (2001) Effect of seed treatment on 

germination, growth, and budding success in ber root stock (Ziziphus 

rotundifolia) shown in nursery beds and polythene tubes. Haryana Journal of 

Horticultural Sciences, 30: 156-158. 

Singh, S., Singhrof, R.S. and Bhatia, S.K. (2001 a) Effect of transplanting 

treatment on success of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamb). budding. Hayara 

Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 30: 159-160. 

Singh, U. P. and Singh, H. B. (1978) Occurrence of Fusarium demicellulare on 

living galls of Ziziphus mauritiana in India. Mycologia, 70(5): 1126-1129. 

Singh, U. R. and Singh, N. (1976) Effect of plant regulators on fruit drop, size 

and quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) var. Banarsi. Haryana Journal 

of Horticultural Science, 5: 1-8. 

Singh, U. R., Pandey, I. C., Tripathi, B. M. and Upadhyay, N. P. (1978 b) 

Effect of pruning on growth, yield and quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) cv. Karaka. Progressive Horticulture, 9(4): 12-16. 

Singh, U. R., Singh, D. V. and Singh, A. P. (1973 c) Study of some budded 

cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Progressive Horticulture, 5(2): 

61-66. 

Singh, Z. and Sandhu, A. S. (1984) Effect of pruning time on productivity and 

physico-chemical characters of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. 

Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 21(4): 521-524. 

241

Singh, Z. and Sandhu, A. S. (1987) Effect of Atonik on physico-chemical 

characters of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Journal of Research, 

Punjab Agricultural University, 24(2): 240-242. 

Singh, Z., Sandhu, A. S. and Dhillon, B. S. (1984 c) Studies on lopping and 

topping in propagation of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 24(1): 60-62. 

Singh, Z., Dhillon, B. S. and Sandhu, A. S. (1987 b) Chemical deblossoming 

and crop regulation in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Punjab 

Horticultural Journal, 27(1-2): 22-27. 

Singh, Z., Dhillon, B. S. and Sandhu, A. S. (1991) Relationship of embryo 

degeneration with fruit drop and its pattern in different cultivars of ber. Indian 

Journal of Horticulture, 48(4): 247-251. 

Singhrot, R. S. and Kajal, R. S. (1986) Studies on the vegetative propagation of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). I. Effect of after budding treatments on the 

budding success and budding growth. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 15(3/4): 162-169. 

Singhrot, R. S. and Makhija, M. (1979 a) Vegetative propagation of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). II. The transplanting success of grafted ber plants 

at various stages of scion shoot growth. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 8(1/2): 4-8. 

Singhrot, R. S. and Makhija, M. (1979 b) Vegetative propagation of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). III. Effect of time of sowing and acid treatment 

of ber seed germination and seedling performance. Haryana Journal of 


Singhrot, R. S., Bakhshi, J. C. and Singh, K. (1970) Vegetative propagation of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). I. Relative performance of seedlings raised in 

field and in alkathene bags. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 10 (3/4): 181-186. 

Singhrot, R. S., Makhija, M. and Chauhan, K. S. (1980) Vegetative propagation 

of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). IV. A note on the effect of different times 

of budding on budding performance. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 9(1/2): 40-42. 

Sinha, M. M. and Singh, S. N. (1967) Testing viability of pollen grains of ber 

(Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in artificial media with the aid of growth 

substances. Madras Agricultural Journal, 54: 258-260. 

242

Sin’ko, L. T. (1971) Jujube, one of the most valuable subtropical fruit crops in 

the south of the Soviet Union [in Russian]. Trudy Gosudarstvennogo 

Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, 52: 31-53. 

Sin’ko, L. T. (1973) The characteristics of Ziziphus jujuba seed propagation [in 

Russian]. Subtropicheskie Kul'tury, No. 2: 103-106. 

Sin’ko, L.T. (1974) Economic and technological evaluation of Zizyphus fruits. 

Byulleten'-Gosudarstvennogo-Nikitskogo-Botanicheskogo-Sada 2: 28-31. 

Sin'ko, L. T. (1976) Ziziphus jujuba, a promising medicinal plant [in Russian]. 

Rastitel'nye Resursy, 12(2): 303-307. 

Sin’ko, L. T. (1977) Agrobiological characteristics of Chinese jujube in the 

Crimea [in Russian]. Trudy Gosudarstvennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo 

Sada, 73: 98-125. 

Sin’ko, L. T. and Chemarin, N. G. (1979 a) Effect of irradiation of Zizyphus 

jujuba with gamma rays on the growth and development of seedlings [in 

Russian]. Subtropicheskie Kul'tury, 3: 26-28. 

Sin’ko, L. T. and Chemarin, N. G. (1979 b) Variation in seedlings of Ziziphus 

after treatment with chemical mutagens. Byulleten-Gosudarstvennogo- 

Nikitskogo-Botanicheskogo-Sada. 3: 49-53. 

Sin’ko, L. T. and Chemarin, N. G. (1982) Use of gamma radiation in breeding 

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Subtropicheskie-Kul'tury 1: 87-91. 

Sin’ko, L. T. and Litvinova, T. V. (1996) Ziziphus - a promising crop [in 

Russian]. Sadovodstvo i vinogradarstvo, 3: 18-19. 

Sin’ko, L. T., Kucherova, T. P. and Vil’de E. I. (1987) Resistance of Ziziphus 

to unfavourable environmental factors in the eastern Crimea [in Russian]. 

Sbornik Nauchnykh Trudov, Gosudarstvennyl Nikitskil Protanicheskil Sada, 

102: 56-64. 

Sivakov, L., Georgiev, D., Ristevski, B. and Mitereski, Z. (1988) Pomological 

and technological characteristics of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) in 

Macedonia [in Russian]. Jugoslovensko vocarstvo, 22(4): 387-392. 

Smith, V. V., Halpern, B. P. (1983) Selective suppression of judged sweetness 

by ziziphins. Physiol Behav 30(6): 867-874. 

Sonawane, B. R. and Dorge, S. K. (1971) On the biology and control of fruit 

borer on ber. Poona Agriculture College Magazine, 61 (1/2): 1-4. 

243

Spichiger, R. and Ramella, L. (1991) Notulae ad Floram paraguaiensem, 26-27 

[in French]. Candollea, 46(1): 163-174. 

Srimathi, P. Sasthri, G. Venkatasalam, E. P. Malarkodi, K. (2002) Efficacy of 

density grading in ber stones of cv. Umran (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Progressive Horticulture. Horticultural Experiments and Training Centre, 

Chaubattia, India 34(2): 179-182. 

Srinivasa, M. V. (1960) Folidol dust is an effective insecticide against many 

pests of horticultural crops. The Lal Bagh Journal, 5(4): 17-19. 

Srinivasachar, D. (1940) Embryological studies of some members of 

Rhamnaceae. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Science, 2: 107-116. 

Srinivasan, V. K. (1952) Chromosome numbers in the genus Ziziphus. Current 

Science, 21: 224-225. 

Srivastava, H. C., Chundawat, B. S. and Bisla, S. S. (1978) Studies on crossing 

technique and crossability of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). International 

Symposium Arid Zone Research and Development, Jodhpur, India, February 

14-18. 

Srivastava, M. P. (1967) A new fruit rot of Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. Indian 

Phytopathology, 20: 389-390. 

Srivastava, N. and Srivastava, A. K. (1995) New hyphopodiate hyphomycetes 

from north-eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Mycological Research, 99(4): 395- 

396. 

Srivastava, S. K. and Chauhan J. S. (1977) Chemical examination of whole 

plant of Ziziphus nummularia. Planta Medica, 32(4) 384-387. 

Srivastava, S. K. (1984) Nummularogenin, a new spirostane from Ziziphus 

mauritiana. Journal of Natural Products, 47(5): 781-783. 

Srivastava, S. K. and Srivastava, S. D. (1979) Structure of Zizogenin, a new 

sapogenin from Ziziphus mauritiana. Phytochemistry, 18(10): 1758-1759. 

Su, B. N. C. M., Farnsworth, N. R., Fong, H. H., Pezzuto, J. M., Kinghorn, A. 

D. (2002) Activity-guided fractionation of the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba using a 

cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory assay. Planta Med. 68: 1125-1128. 

Su, X., Chen, Z., Jiao, B., Huang, Q., Li, W. (2000) Studies on anti-allergic 

activity of common foodstuffs in China and their constituents. [Chinese]. In, 

Vol 21. Journal of Southwest Agricultural University, 15. 

244

Su, H. J. and Len, S. C. (1983) Sonate leaf spot of Indian jujube caused by 

Cristulariella manicola. Plant Diseases, 67(8): 915-916. 

Sudherson, C., AboEl-Nil, M. and Hussain, J. (2001) In vitro propagation of 

Ziziphus mauritiana cultivar Umran by shoot tip and nodal multiplication. 

Current Science, 80: 290-292. 

Sudhir-Kumar, Sharma, V. P. and Kumar, S. (1999) Biochemical study of ber 

cultivars in relation to protein. Annals of Agricultural Research 20(3): 266-269. 

Sumbali, G. and Mehrotra, R. S. (1983) Post-harvest fungal disease of ber from 

Haryana. National Academy of Science Letters, 5(1): 37-38. 

Sun, J. Z., Qian, Z. G., Liu, F. L., Song, H. W., Wen, T. H., Ma, P. Y., Wang, 

Y. C. and Li, Y.L. (1989) Study on the techniques for integrated control of the 

major diseases and insects of Ziziphus jujuba. Forest Science and Technology, 

4, 1-4. 

Sundararaj, D. and Balasubramanyam, G. (1959) A Guide to the Economic 

Places of South India. Amudha Nilayam Pute, Madras. 

Sussenguth, K. (1953) Rhamnaceae [in German]. In Die Naturlichen 

Pflanzenfamilien. (eds.) Engler, A. and Prantle, K., Duncker & Humblot, 

Berlin, Germany: 121-132. 

Suttisri, R., Lee, I. S. and Kinghorn, A. D. (1995) Plant-derived triterpenoid 

sweetness inhibitors. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 47(1): 9-26. 

Syamal, M. M. and Rajput, C. B. S. (1989) Effect of pruning on growth, 

fruiting and fruit quality of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of 


Sydow, H. and Sydow, P. (1907) Fungi Indiae Orientalis Pars. II. Annals of 

Mycology, 5: 485-515. 

Sydow, H. and Sydow, P. (1912) Fungi Indiae Orientalis Pars. IV. Annals of 

Mycology, 10: 243-280. 

Sydow, H., Sydow, P. and Butler, E. J. (1911) Fungi Indiae Orientalis. Part. III. 

Annals of Mycology, 9: 372-421. 

Tagiev, T. M. (1976) Ziziphus jujuba in Azerbaijan [in Russian]. Sadovodstvo 

No. 12, 31-33. 

Tagiev, T. M. (1992) Promising areas for cultivating jujube in Azerbaijan [in 

Russian]. Sadovodstvo i Vinogradstvo, No. 1: 19-20. 

245

Tagiev, T. M. and Gadzhiev, T.Yu. (1990) The water regime of Chinese jujube 

in Apsheron [in Russian]. Sadovodstvo i Vinogradastvo, No.7: 17-18. 

Tanaka, Y. and Sanada, S. (1991) Studies on the constituents of Ziziphus jujuba 

Miller [in Japanese]. Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 45 (2): 148-152. 

Tandon, P. and Arya, H. C. (1979) Effect of growth regulators on carbohydrate 

metabolism of Ziziphus jujuba gall and normal stem tissue in culture. 

Biochemic and Physiologic der Pflanzen, 174(9): 772-779. 

Tandon, P., Vyas, G. S. and Arya, H. C. (1976) Mechanism of in vitro gall 

induction in Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. Experientia, 32(5): 563-564. 

Tandon, R. N. (1935) A note on the genus Mitteriella. Current Science, 3: 613- 

614. 

Tandon, R. N. and Verma, A. (1964) Some new storage diseases of fruits and 

vegetables. Current Science, 33: 625-627. 

Tarasenko, M. T. and Shaumarov, Kh. B. (1977) Raising of Ziziphus jujuba 

transplants by means of softwood cuttings [in Russian]. Izvestiya 

Timiryazevskoi Sel'skokhozyaistvennoi Akademiya, 3: 150-163. 

Tasmatov, L. T. (1963) Ziziphus jujuba in industry [in Russian]. Sadovodstvo, 

6: 30-31. 

Taylor, J. S. and Guthery, F. S. (1994) Components of northern bobwhite brood 

habitat in southern Texas. Southwestern Naturalist, 39(1): 73-77. 

Teaotia, S. S. and Chauhan, R. S. (1963) Flowering, pollination, fruit set and 

fruit drop studies in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). I. Floral biology. Punjab 


Teaotia, S. S. and Chauhan, R. S. (1964) Flowering, pollination, fruit set and 

fruit drop studies in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). II. Pollination, fruit set, 

fruit development and fruit drop. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 2: 40-45. 

Teaotia, S. S., Dube, P. S., Awasthi, R. K. and Upadhyay, N. P. (1974) Studies 

on physico-chemical characteristics of some important ber varieties (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.). Progressive Horticulture, 5(4): 81-88. 

Tendulkar, J. S. (1970) Contribution to Indian Myriangiaceae II. Sydowia, 24: 

290-293. 

246

Tewatia, B. S. and Khirwar, S. S. (2002) Utilization of ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) leaves, hay and silage in goats. Indian Journal Animal 

Nutrition, 19: 329-333. 

Thind, S. K., Nirmaljit, K. and Arora, J. K. (2004) Periodicity and 

epidemiology of ber powdery mildew in Punjab. Progressive Horticulture, 

36(1): 164-166 

Thomas, C. C. (1924) The Chinese Jujube. USDA. Bulletin No. 1215, USA. 

Tian, S. H., Yang, F. N. and Guo, C. Y. (1983) A preliminary report of a trial 

on close planting of dwarf Ziziphus jujuba plants for high yield. Forest Science 

and Technology, 2: 12-13. 

Tilak, S. T. (1965) Contribution to our knowledge of Ascomycetes of India. II. 

Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata, 27: 60-62. 

Tiwari, R. J. and Banafar, R. N. S. (1995) Studies on the nutritive constituents, 

yield and yield attributing characters in some ber (Zizyphus jujuba) genotypes. 

Indian Journal of Plant Physiology 38(1): 88-89. 

Toky, O. P. and Bisht, R. P. (1993) Above ground and below ground biomass 

allocation in important fuelwood trees from arid northwestern India. Journal of 

Arid Environments, 25(3): 315-320. 

Tomar, N. S. (1986) A note on appraisal of powdery mildew disease resistance 

in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars. Haryana Journal of Horticultural 

Science, 15 (3-4): 231-232. 

Tomar, N. S. and Singh, R. (1987) Performance of six promising ber (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars grown at Bhatinda. Haryana Journal of 

Agricultural Science, 16(1-2): 52-58. 

Tomoda, M. Shimuju, N., Gonda, R. (1985) Pectic substances. II. The location 

of O- acetyl groups and the Smith degradation of Ziziphus Pectin A. Chemical 

and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 33(9) 4017-4020. 

Tree Society of Zimbabwe. Newsletter No. 25, January 2001. 

Trehan, K. N. (1956) Brief notes on crop pests and their control in the Punjab 

(India). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 54(3): 581-626. 

Trimen, H. (1893) A Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Part I. Ranunculaceae - 

Anacardiaceae. Dulau & Co., London, UK. 

247

Tripathi, Y. C., Devi, S., Pandey, V. B. and Shah, A. H. (1988) Phytochemical 

study in Ziziphus rugosa. Fitoterapia, 59(2): 158. 

Tripathi, Y. C., Maurya, S. K., Singh, V. P. and Pandey, V. B. (1989) 

Cyclopeptide alkaloids from Ziziphus rugosa bark. Phytochemistry, 28 (5): 

1563-1565. 

Troup, R. S. (1921) The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol. 1. Clarendon Press, 

Oxford, UK. 

Troyan, A. V. and Kruglyakov, G. N. (1972) Produce with high vitamin 

content. Sadovodstvo, No. 12: 30. 

Tschesche, R., Kaussmann, E. U., Fehlhaber, H. W. (1972) Alkaloids from 

Rhamnaceae. 13. Amphibine-B, -C, -D, and -E, four peptide alkaloids from 

Ziziphus amphibia A. Cheval. Chemische Berichte 105: 3094-3105. 

Tschesche, R., Wilhelm, H., Fehlhaber, H-W. (1972) Alkaloide aus 

rhamnaceen, XIV Mauritin-A und Mauritin-B, zwei Peptidalkaloide aus 

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Tetrahedron Letters, 13(26): 2609-2612. 

Tschesche, R., Wilhelm, H., Kaussmann, E. U., and Eckhardt, G. (1974) 

Alkaloids from rhamnaceae, XVII. Mauritines C, D, E, and F; new peptide 

alkaloids from Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Justus Liebigs Ann.Chem. No. 10: 

1694-1701. 

Tschesche, R., Elgamal, M., Miana, G. A. and Eckhardt, G. (1975) Alkaloids 

from Rhamnaceae. XXVI. Nummularine-D, -E and -F, new cyclopeptide 

alkaloids from Ziziphus nummularia. Tetrahedron, 31(23): 2944-2947. 

Tschesche, R., Khokhar, I., Wilhelm, H. and Eckhardt, G. (1976) Jubanin A 

and jubanin-B, new cyclopeptide alkaloids from Ziziphus jujuba. 


Tschesche, R., Hillebrand, D., Wilhelm, H., Ammermann, E., Eckhardt, G. 

(1977) Hysodricanin-A, Mauritin-H, Scutianin-F und Aralionin-C, vier weitere 

cyclopeptidalkaloide aus Ziziphus, Scutia und Araliorhamnus. Phytochemistry 

16: 1025-1028 

Tschesche, R., Shah, A. H., Eckhardt, G. (1979) Sativanine-A and sativanine- 

B, two new cyclopeptide alkaloids from the bark of Ziziphus sativa. In, Vol 18. 

Phytochemistry, p 9 ref. 

Tsvetkovik, J. (1987) A comparative of chemical characteristics of some 

introduced Chinese dates (Ziziphus jujuba L.) in SR Macedonia. 

Sotsijalistichko - zemjodelstvo, 39(1-12): 83-88. 

248

Tuohy, J. M., Prior, J. A. B. and Stewart, G. R. (1991) Photosynthesis in 

relation to leaf nitrogen and phosphorus content in Zimbabwean trees. 

Oecologia (Heidelberg), 88(3): 378-382. 

Tutin, F. G. (1968) Ziziphus. Flora Europea Vol. 2 eds. Tutin, T.G., Heywood, 

V. H., Borges, N. A., Moore, D. M., Valentino, D. H., Walter, S. M. and Webb, 

D. A. Cambridge: 243. 

Ughreja, P. P., Chauhan, K. S. (1983) Effect of plant growth regulators on 

rooting in air layers of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Journal of 


Unwin, A. H. (1920) West African Forests and Forestry. London, UK. 

Uppal, B. N., Patel, M. K. and Kamat, M. N. (1935) The Fungi of Bombay, B, 

1-56. 

Usher, G. (1984) A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man. CBS. Publishers and 

Distributors, Delhi, India. 

Vashishtha, B. B. (1983) Biosystematics of Ber Cultivars. Ph.D. thesis, 

University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, India. 

Vashishtha, B. B. (1987) Horticultural qualities. In 

nummularia), eds. Mann, H.S. and Saxena, S.K.: 31-33. 

Bordi (Ziziphus 

Vashishtha, B. B. (1997) Ziziphus for drylands - a perennial crop solving 

perennial problems. Agroforestry Today, July-September, 1997: 10-12. 

Vashishtha, B. B. and Pareek, O. P. (1979) Flower morphology, fruit set and 

fruit drop in some ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars. Annals of the 

Arid Zone, 18(3): 165-169. 

Vashishtha, B. B. and Pareek, O. P. (1983) Preliminary studies on the 

intervarietal crossability in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Annals of the Arid 

Zone, 22(1): 43-45. 

Vashishtha, B. B. and Pareek, O. P. (1989) Identification key for the cultivars 

of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 

46: 183-188. 

Vashishtha, B. B., Pareek, O. P., Chandrasekharan, I. and Ghamin, A. (1989 a) 

Chemical races identified by chemotaxonomy in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana L.). 

Annals of the Arid Zone, 28(1-2): 133-135. 

249

Vashishtha, B. B., Pareek, O. P., Chandrasekharan, I. and Ghamin, A. (1989 b) 

Chemotaxonomic relationship among jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) 

cultivars and some related species. Annals of the Arid Zone, 28(1-2): 123-132. 

Vashishtha, B. B., Singh, M. P., Singh, G. K. and Pareek, R. A. (1999) 

Breeding in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) for the resistance to fruitfly. 

Abstr. Fourth Agricultural Science Congress - Sustainable Agricultural Export, 

Jaipur, India. 

Vasudeva, R. S. (1960) Report of the Division of Mycology and Plant 

Pathology. Scientific Report, Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi (1957- 

58). 111-130. 

Vavilov, N. I. (1951) The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of 

Cultivated Plants. Chronica Botanica, NY, USA. 

Verinumbe, I. (1991) Agroforestry development in north-eastern Nigeria. 

Forest Ecology and Management, 45(1): 309-317. 

Verinumbe, I. (1993) Soil and Leucaena leucocephala L., growth variability 

under Faidharbia albida Del. and Ziziphus spina-christi L. Desf. Agroforestry 

Systems, 21 (3): 287-292. 

Verma, A. N. and Singh, R. (1974) Note on the screening of jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars for incidence of Indarbela quadrinotata Walker. 

Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 3(1-2): 62-64. 

Verma, A. N. and Singh, R. (1975) Chemical control of bark eating caterpillar, 

Indarbela quardinotata (Walker) by painting the bark with insecticides. 


Verma, A. N., Singh, R. and Khurana, A. D. (1972) Chemical control of hairy 

caterpillar. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, 42(10): 928-931. 

Verma, K. S. and Cheema, S. S. (1983) Tandonella leaf spot- a new disease of 

ber in Punjab. Current Science, 52: 437. 

Verma, K. S. and Cheema, S. S. (1984) Reaction of ber cultivars against 

Tandonella leaf spot under natural conditions. Journal of Research, Punjab 


Verma, M. K., Sharma, V. P., Saxena, S. K. and Jindal, P. C. (2001) Stomatal 

density as influenced by stionic combinations of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamb). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 58: 350-353. 

250

Verma, R. C. and Gujar, K. D. (1994) Production and Marketing of 

Horticultural Crops in Rajasthan - Final Report to ICAR, New Delhi, College 

of Agriculture, Rajasthan Agricultural University, India. 

Verma, S. K. (1993) Biology of Tonica zizyphi Stainton on jujube (Ziziphus 

mauritiana Lamk.) Annals of the Arid Zone, 32(3): 179-181. 

Vinning, G. and Moody, A. (1997) A market compendium of tropical fruit. 

RIRDC Research Report No. 97/74. Rural Industries Research and 

Development Corporation, Canberra, Australia: 122-130. 

Vishal-Nath, Bhargava, R. and Nath, V. (2002) Variation in maturity period of 

ber – as included by temperature difference and morning relative humidity 

under arid ecosystem. Progressive Horticulture 34(2):153-160. 

Vivien, J. (1990) Wild fruit trees of Cameroon. Fruits (Paris), 45 (3): 291-307. 

Von Maydell, H-J. (1986) Trees and Shrubs of the Sahel - their characteristics 

and uses. GT2, Eschborn, Germany. 

Von Sengbusch, V. and Dippolo, M. F. (1980) Das Entwicklungs potential 

afrikanischer Heilpflanzen – Kamerun, Tschod, Gagun. Möckmuhl: IFB, 

Germany. 

Von-Willert, D. J. and Popp, M. (1995) Gas exchange and water relations of 

two mistletoes, Tapinanthus oleifolius and Viscum rotundifolium, on the same 

host, Acacia mebrownii, in South-eastern Namibia. South African Journal of 

Botany, 61(5): 264-273. 

Vora, R. S. (1989) Seed germination characteristics of selected native plants of 

the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas (USA). Journal of Range Management, 

42(1): 36-40. 

Vyas, N. L. and Panwar, K. S. (1974) A new fruit rot of Ziziphus jujuba Lamk. 

Current Science, 43(19): 630. 

Vyas, N. L. and Panwar, K. S. (1976) Some new post-harvest diseases of fruits. 

Indian Phytopathology, 29: 94. 

Wadia, K. D. R. and Manoharachary, C. (1980) Three post-harvest diseases of 

Ziziphus mauritiana from India. Plant Disease, 64(3): 323-324. 

Waisel, Y., Liphschitz, N. and Kuller, Z. (1972) Patterns of water movement in 

trees and shrubs. Ecology, 53(3): 520-523. 

251

Wan, Z. Z. (1994) Jujube variety Sihong Dazao [in Chinese]. China Fruits. 1: 

46-47. 

Wang, Chang Zhu, Gao Jing CaO, Liu ZhenZhong; Gao, Hua, Wang, C.Z., 

Gao, J.C., Liu, Z.Z., Gao, H. (2003) An early maturity jujube cultivar 

‘Oiyuexian’. Acta Horticulture, Sinica 30(4):499. 

Wang, H. L. (1974) A preliminary study of the development anatomy of 

Chinese jujube fruit. Acta Botanica Sinica, 16(2): 161-169. 

Wang, M. and Sun, Y. W. (1986) Fruit trees and vegetables for arid and 

semiarid areas in northern China. Journal of Arid Environments, 11 (1): 3-16. 

Wang, S. Y., Tian, C. Y., Ye, Y. Z., Yang, Q. S., Wang, Y. Z., Zhang, Q. L. 

and Fan, L. M. (1992) The wild fruit germplasm resources of Henan Province. 

Journal of Fruit Science, 19(4): 239-242. 

Wang, Y. X. (1981) Foliar spray of hormones and fertilizers on fruit trees. 

Shanxi Agricultural Science No. 10. 

Wang-Yun and Wang, Y. (1994) A preliminary study on the geographical 

provenance of Zizyphus mauritiana. Forest Research 7(3): 334-335. 

Wang, Z., Yu, B. W., Toug, D. O., Kou, F. H., Zhou, P. Z., Jiang, X. Y., Shen, 

J. Y. and Gong, Z. X. (1980) Preliminary therapeutic against jujube witches’ 

broom disease with antibiotics. Scientia Agriculture Sinica, 4: 65-69. 

Wang, Z. S., Xu, J. Y. and Yun, S. L. (1996) Guide to Honey Production [in 

Chinese]. China Agricultural Science and Technology Publishing Company, 

Beijing. 

Wang-Zhi, Meng-QingGuo, Du-ZengLiang, Ji-BaoYing, Sun-CuiHuan, Zhu- 

WanQin, Fang-Xin, Wang, Z., Meng, Q. G., Du, Z. L., Ji, B. Y., Sun, C. H., 

Zhu, W. Q. and Fang, X. (2002) Tissue culture and rapid propagation of 

coreless jujube. Acta Agriculturae Shanghai 18(2): 15-18. 

Wanida, S., Naiyana, T. and Viboon, S. (1985) The efficacy of controlling 

Eublemma. Royal Forestry Dept., Forest Product Research Div., Report on 

Minor Forest Products Research, 16-23. 

Wasylikowa, K. (1993) Polish archaeobotanical studies in north Africa: Nabta 

Playa (Egypt) [in Polish]. Wiadomosci Botaniczne, 37, (3-4): 183-184. 

Watt, G. (1893) A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Vol. VI, Part 

IV, Second Reprint 1972, Cosmos Publications, Delhi, India. 

252

Weinges, K. and Schick, H. (1995) Dodecaacetylprodelphinidin B3 from dried 

leaves of Ziziphus spina-christi. Phytochemistry, 38(2): 505-507. 

Williams, T. O. (1998) Multiple uses of common pool resources in semi-arid 

West Africa: A survey of existing practices and options for sustainable 

resource management. http://www.odi.org.uk/nrp/38.html 

Williamson, J. (1957) Useful Plants of Malawi. ed. Greenway, PJ. The 

Government Printer, Zomba, Malawi. 

Wong, K. C., Chee, S. G. and Tan, C. H. (1996) Volatile constituents of the 

fruit of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. inermis. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 

8(3): 323-326. 

Woo, W. S., Kang, S. S., Shim, S. H., Wagner, H., Chari, V. M., Seligmann, 

O., Obermeier, G. (1979) The structure of spinosin (2”-0-betaglucosyiswertisin) 

from Ziziphus vulgaris var. spinosus (seeds). 


Woo, W. S., Kang, S. S., Wagner, H., Seilgmann, O. and Chari, V. M. (1980) 

Acylated flavone-C-glycosides from the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba. 


Wu, S., Zhang, J. B., Jhao, S., Li, M. and Lan, M. (1989) Effects of Ziziphus 

spinosa Hu on serum lipoprotein and experimental atherosclerosis [in Chinese]. 

Chinese Journal Chinese Materia Medica, 14(7): 50-57, 64. 

Wu, S., Zhang, J., Xu, T., Li, L., Zhao, S. and Lan, M. (1993) Effects of seeds, 

leaves and fruits of Ziziphus spinosa and jujuboside A on central nervous 

system function [in Chinese]. Chinese Journal Chinese Materia Medica, 

18(11): 685-687. 

Wu, Z. X. and Qi, S. T. (1985) Effect of salt content and some physical 

properties of soil on growth and development of golden small-fruited jujube 

trees. Journal of Soil Science, 16(6): 264-266. 

Xue-WeiDong and Xue, W. D. (2001) Introduction of Taiwan Cuizao jujube 

and its cultural techniques. South China Fruits 30 (2): 34. 

Yadav, A. S. (1963 a) Additions to the microfungi II. Indian Phytopathology, 

16: 167-170. 

Yadav, A. S. (1963 b) Contribution to the knowledge of Uredinate from Bihar 

III. Indian Phytopathology, 16: 138-142. 

253

Yadav, G. R. and Singh, R.Y. (1985) Effect of different time intervals and 

fungicides for control of powdery mildew of ber. Indian Journal of Mycology 

and Plant Pathology, 15(3): 261-264. 

Yadav, G. R., Nirman, R. S. and Prasad, B. (1980) Powdery mildew of ber in 

U.P. and its control. Progressive Horticulture, 12(1): 27-32. 

Yadav, I. J., Sharma, R. K., Siddiqui, S. and Godara, R. K. (2003) Effect of 

preharvest sprays of calcium on fruit physical characteristics, quality and peel 

pigmentation of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Haryana Journal 

of Horticultural Sciences, Horticultural Society of Haryana,Hisar, India: 32: 

1/2, 75-76. 

Yadav, L. S. (1991) Top-working in wild jujube. Indian Horticulture, 35(4): 7. 

Yadav, L. S. and Godara, N. R. (1987) Effect of planting distance and severity 

of pruning on physico-chemical characters of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) 

cv. Umran. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science, 16(1-2): 45-51. 

Yadav, L. S. and Godara, N. R. (1992) Effect of planting distance and severity 

of pruning on flowering, fruit set and fruit retention in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana 

Lamk.) cv. Umran. Progressive Horticulture, 21(3-4): 325-328. 

Yadav, R. C., Sharma, K. D., Singh, H. P. and Pareek, O. P (1980) Some 

hydro-horticultural relations in a ber orchard (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). 

Annals of the Arid Zone, 19(3): 297-300. 

Yakobashvili, V. K. (1973) Some varieties and promising seedlings of jujube. 

Subtrop.-kul'tury 3 : 78-81 

Yamdagni, R. and Gill, A. S. (1968) Gall formation in floral buds of ber - a 

new threat to ber industry. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 8: 259. 

Yamdagni, R., Ahlawat, V. P. and Chauhan, V. S. (1985 a) Nutrient status of 

ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) orchards in Mahendragarh district of Haryana. 


Yamdagni, R., Bajpai, P. N. and Misra, R. S. (1968) Pollination, fruit set and 

fruit development studies in ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.). Labdev. Journal 

of Scientific Technology, 6-b(1): 101-103. 

Yamdagni, R., Gupta, A. K. and Ahlawat, V. P. (1985 b) Performance of 

different cultivars of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana L.) under rainfed conditions. 

Annals of the Arid Zone, 24(2): 175-177. 

254

Yamdagni, R., Kumar, R. and Jindal, P. C. (1980) Effect of graded doses of 

nitrogen on fruit set, fruit drop and yield of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) 

cv. Kaithali. Progressive Horticulture, 12(2): 5-7. 

Yan, R. L., Liu G. R., Zhang, L., Wang, Z. X. and Yang, E. Q. (1990) Effect of 

exogenous plant hormones on rapid multiplication of Ziziphus jujuba test tube 

plants. Journal of Plant Science, 7(4): 231-233. 

Yang, C. Y., Bi, J. and Yang, X. D. (1994) Experiments in pollen storage for 

twelve fruit crops. Journal of Fruit Science, 11(2): 103-104. 

Yang, L. Q. and Niu, Z. Y. (1992) Experimental research on drying 

characteristics of jujube. In Agricultural Engineering and Rural Development. 

Proceedings of Conference held in Beijing, China, October 12-14, 1992, Vol. I. 

International Academic Publishers, North Western Agricultural University, 

Yangling, China. 

Yong, S. K., Kyung, H. H., Wol, S. K. (1981) The selection of local jujube 

cultivars (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). Research Reports, Office of Rural 

Development, South Korea, Horticulture and Sericulture, 23: 24-33. 

Yoshikawa, M., Murakami, T., Ikebata, A., Wakao, S., Murakami, N., and 

Matsuda, H. J. Y. (1997) Bioactive saponins and glycosides. X. On the 

constituents of Zizyphi spinosi semen, the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. 

spinosa Hu (1): structures and histamine release-inhibitory effect of jujubosides 

A1 and C and acetyljujuboside B. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 45: 1186-1192. 

Yoshikawa, K., Shimono, N. and Arihara, S. (1991) Antisweet substances 

jujuboasaponins I-III from Ziziphus jujuba - revised structure of ziziphin. 

Tetrahedron Letters, 32:7059. 

Yu, J. Z., Duan, L. H. and Wang, L. C. (1991) Jujube varieties for eating fresh 

in Shanxi province. Crop Genetic Resources, 2: 43-44. 

Yun, M. S., Kim, Y. S. and Ahn, C. S. (1989) Studies on the pollen physiology 

of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). Research Reports of the Rural 

Development Administration Horticulture, 31(2): 47-53. 

Yun, M. S., Kim, Y. S. and Ahn, C. S. (1994) Possible causes of poor pollen 

germination in the pistil of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) [in Korean]. Journal 

of the Korean Society for Horticultural Sciences, 35(5): 466-470. 

Yun, M. S., Kim, Y. S. and Ahn, C. S. (1995) The method of controlled 

pollination to facilitate seed set and development of embryo in the Chinese 

jujube, Ziziphus jujuba Mill. [in Korean]. Journal of the Korean Society for 

Horticultural Sciences, 36(3): 377-383. 

255

Yaragattikar, A. T. and Itnal, C. J. (2003) Studies on water requirement during 

early growth stages of ber through drip irrigation. Karnataka Journal of 

Agricultural Sciences, 16(1): 17-21. 

Zaktreger, N. I. and Solov’ev, A. K. (1962) Concerning the grafting of jujube 

on Paliurus spina [in Russian]. Tr. Turkm. Opyt. Stan. VIR, 3:104-107. 

Zeng, L., Zhang, R. Y., and Wang, X. (1987) Studies on the constituents of 

Ziziphus spinosus Hu. Acta Pharm Sin 22: 114-120. 

Zeng X. G. (1997) Varietal characteristics and cultural techniques for jujube 

cultivar Dongzao. Journal of Fruit Science, 14(3): 209-210. 

Zhang, B., J. Chen, and D. Li, (2004) Technology of vinegar production with 

damaged or defective Chinese jujube through fermentation. [Chinese], In 

Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering. Chinese 

Society of Agricultural Engineering: Beijing, China. 20(2): 213-216. 

Zhao-Jin and Liu-MengJun (2003) RAPD analysis on the outstanding clones of 

Zanhuangdazao and Zanxindazao. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 39 (3): 153-156. 

Zhao-Jin, Liu-MengJun, Zhao, J. and Liu, M. J. (2001) Optimization on RAPD 

analysis system of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.). Journal of Fruit 

Science 18 (6): 329-332. 

Zhou, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Ou, Y. and Zhou, L. (1994) 1H NMR and spin 

labelled EPR studies interaction of calmodulin with jujuboside A. Biochemical 

& Biological Research Communication, 202: 148-154. 

Zhu, B. M., Chen, Z. Y., Zheng, D. X., Wang, S., Yu, B. W., Zhou, P. Z. and 

Jiang, X. Y. (1983) Preliminary studies on the pathogen of Chinese jujube 

mosaic disease. Nature, 5: 77-78. 

Zhu, W. Y., Du, X. M., Guo, H. P., Zhao, Y. and He, X. H. (1996) Virus 

elimination and tissue culture of Jun Jujube. Acta Horticulturae Sinica, 23(2): 

197-198. 

Zhu, Y. P. (1998) Chinese Materia Medica: Chemistry, Pharmacology and 

Applications. Harwood Academic Publishers. 518: 520. 

Zhu-ZiShou, Chen-XiaoBao, Wu-XianoPing, Wu-GenLin, Chen-TianBao, 

Zhang-KeDi, Bao-ZhenYang, Zhu, Z. H., Chen, X. B., Wu, X. P., Wu, G. L., 

Chen, T. B., Zhang, K. D. and Bao, Z. Y. (1998) Studies on selection for fine 

clones of Zizyphus jujuba (Z. sativa) Mill. Journal of Zhejiang Forestry 

Science and Technology 18(3): 23-28 

256

Zietsman, P. C. (1990) Pollination of Ziziphus mucronata ssp. mucronata 

(Rhamnaceae). South African Journal of Botany, 56(3): 350-355. 

Zietsman, P. C. and Botha, F. C. (1992) Flowering of Ziziphus mucronata ssp. 

mucronata (Rhamnaceae): Anthesis, pollination and protein synthesis [in 

Russian]. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica (Taipei), 33(1): 33-42. 

Ziyaev, R., Irgashev, T., Israilov, I. A., Abdullaev, N. D., Yunusov, M. S., 

Yunusov, S. Y. (1977) Alkaloids of Ziziphus jujuba. Structure of iusiphine and 

iusirine. [in Russian].. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii. 2:239-243. 

Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. (1988) Domestication of plants in the Old World. The 

origin and spread of cultivated plants in West Asia, Europe and the Nile 

Valley. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. ix + 249. 

257

Appendix I Insect and mite pests of ber 

(Pareek 2001, updated). 

Order Scientific name Common 

name 

Author 

Diptera Carpomyia Fruitfly Basha, 1952; 

vesuviana 

Batra, 1953 

Dacus 

correctus, 

D. dorsalis 

Phyllodiplosis 

jujubae 

Lepidoptera Meridarchis 

scyrodes 

Meridarchis 

scyrodes 

Carposina 

niponensis 

Indarbela 

quadrinotata, 

I. watsoni, 

I. tetraonis 

Dasychira 

mendosa, 

Thiacidas 

postica 

Synclera 

univocalis 

Ancylis 

lutescens, 

Archips sp. 

Porthmolga 

paracina 

Tarucus 

balkanica, 

T. theophrastus 

Pingasa 

dispensata 

Fruitfly Basha, 1952; 

Batra, 1953 

Occurrence 

India 

(Punjab, 

Aruppukottai, 

Jobner, 

Rahuri, 

S.K.Nagar) 

India 

(Jobner) 

Galls Gangwar, 1983 India 

(Allahabad) 

Fruit borer Sonawane and India 

Dorge, 1971 (Anantapur, 

Rahuri) 

Fruit borer Basha, 1952 India 

(Coimbatore) 

-- Huan et al. 1987 China 

Bark eating 

caterpillar 

Hairy 

caterpillar 

Leaf roller 

Leaf roller 

Leaf roller 

Ber 

butterfly 

Semi 

looper 

Verma and 

Singh, 1974; 

Mann and 

Bindra, 1977 

Verma et al., 

1972; Bhatnagar 

and Lakra, 1992, 

Kavitha and 

Sovothri, 2001a 

Nayar et al., 

1989 


Nath, 1996 

Chowdhury and 

Majid, 1954 

Nayar et al., 

1989 


Nath, 1996 

(Shanxi) 

India (Jobner, 

Rahuri, & 

S.K.Nagar) 


Rahuri) 


Rahuri) 

India 

(Rahuri) 

India 

India 

(Rahuri) 

India 

(Rahuri) 

258


name 

Psorosticha Leaf 

(Tonica) zizyphi webber 

Coleoptera Holotrichia Cockchafer 

consanguinea beetle 

Aubeus sp. 

Grey 

weevil 

Author 

Verma, 1993 

Verma et al., 

1972; Bhatnagar 

and Lakra, 1992 


Nath, 1996 

Occurrence 

India 

(Jodhpur) 

India 

(Jobner) 

India 

(Rahuri, 

Jobner) 

Myllocerus sp. 

Aubeus 

himalayanus 

Xanthochelus 

superciliosus 

Adoretus sp. 

Holotrichia 

serrata, 

Schizonycha sp., 

Adoretus 

deccanus, 

A. kanarensis, 

A. stoliczkae 

Grey 

weevil 

Stone 

weevil 

Black 

weevil 

Cockchafer 

beetle 

Cockchafer 

beetle 

Wadhi and 

Batra, 1964 


Nath, 1996; 

Gour and 

Sriramulu, 1994 


Nath, 1996 

Trehan, 1956 


Nath, 1996 

Hemiptera Kerria lacca Lac insect Lakra and Kher, 

1990 

Parlatoria Scale insect Pareek and 

zizyphus 

Nath, 1996 

Parlatoria Scale Gravena et al., 

zizyphus 

1992 

Quadraspidiotus San Jose Ma et al., 1985 

perniciosus scale 

Drepanococus 

chiton 

Selenaspis 

articulatus 

Zyginida 

pakistanica 

Wax scale 

Scale 

Leaf 

hopper 

Mani and 

Krishnamoorthy, 

1997 

Gravena et al., 

1992 

Khangura and 

Sandhu, 1976, 

Kavitha and 

Sovothri, 2001 

India 


Rahuri, 

Hyderabad) 

India 

(Rahuri) 


Rahuri) 

India 

India 

India 

(Jobner) 

Brazil 

China 

(Akesu, 

Xinjiang) 

India 

Brazil 

India 

(Punjab) 

India Anhdra 

Pradesh) 

259


name 

Drosicha sp., Mealy bug 

Ferrisia 

consobrina, 

Nipaecoccus 

viridis 

Machaerota Spittle bug 

spangbergii, 

M. planitae 

Author 


Nath, 1996 


Nath, 1996; 

Nayar et al., 

1989 

Nayar et al., 

1989 

Nayar et al., 

1989 


Nath, 1996 

Eurybrachys sp. Leaf 

hopper 

Agonoscelis Pantatomid 

nubila 

bugs 

Cadra calutella Pyralid 

moth 

Thysanoptera Thrips Yamdagni and 

Gill, 1968 

Scirtothrips sp., Thrips Pareek and 

Haplothrips sp. 

Nath, 1996 

Dolichothrips Leaf thrips Nayar et al., 

indicus 

1989 

Scirtothrips Flower Nayar et al., 

dorsalis thrips 1989 

Isoptera Odontotermes Termite Pareek and 

sp. 

Nath, 1996 

Orthoptera Taeniopoda 

Rivera-Garcia, 

eques 

1988 

Acariformes Eutetranychus Tetranychid 

orientalis mite 

Larvacarus 

transitans, 

Eriophyes 

cernus 

Gall mite 

Eriophid 

mite 

Kant and Arya, 

1969; Tandon et 

al., 1976, Yadav 

et al. 2003 

Sharma, 1992 

Mukherjee et 

al., 1994 

Occurrence 

India 

(Rahuri) 

India 

India 


Pusa-Bihar) 

India 

(Rahuri) 

India 

India 

(Jobner) 

India 

India 

India 

(Jobner) 

Mexico 

India 

(Jobner) 

India 

India 

260

Appendix II Ziziphus cultivars 

II.ia Ziziphus mauritiana cultivars in India (from Pareek, 2001) 

Ajmeri (Umran) (Gopani, 1976 a) 

Akhrota (Akrota) (Verma and Singh, 1974) 

Akola 

Aliganj (Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) 

Babu (Gopani, 1976 a) 

Bachcha (Singh, 1969) 

Badami (Singh, 1969) 

Badshah Pasand (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Bagwadi (Pareek and Vashishtha, 1983, 1986) 

Bahadurgarhia (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Banarsi (Banarasi) (Singh, 1969; Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Banarsi Gola (Singh et al., 1973a) 

Banarsi Kadaka, (Banarsi Karaka, Karaka Varanasi, Kadaka, Karaka) (Singh et 

al., 1971, 1972a; Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) 

Banarsi Pebandi (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Banarsi Pewandi 

Banarsi Prolific (Singh and Singh, 1973; Singh, 1964) 

Baruipur (Singh, 1964) 

Batasa 

Bawal Selection -2 

Bekata Varanasi (Chandra, 1964) 

Betawadi 

Betawadi Hathed 

Bhavnagari 

BS- 1 

BS- 75-1 

BS- 75-2 

BS- 75-3 

Cantonment (Kundi et al., 1989 a) 

CAZRI Gola 

Chameli (Umran) 

Chandani Supari 

Chencho (Vashishtha and Pareek, 1989) 

Chhuhara (Singh et al., 1972a) 

Chhuhara Bawal 

Chonchal (Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) 

Dandan (Randhawa and Biswas, 1966) 

Dao Tien (Hoang and Tuynh, 1989) 

Darakhi-1 

Darakhi-2 

Deedwana (Vashishtha and Pareek, 1989) 

Desi Alwar (Alwar Desi) (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

261

Dodhia (Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) 

Foliso Alwari 

Ghughudanga (Singh, 1964) 

Gia Loc (Hoang and Tuynh, 1989) 

Glory (Glori) (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Gobindgarh Selection 

Gobindgarh Special (Verma and Singh, 1974) 

Godhan (Singh et al., 1973a) 

Gol (Singh, 1969) 

Gola Agra (Teaotia et al., 1974) 

Gola (Delhi Gola) (Singh and Khanna, 1968; Singh et al., 1973a) 

Gola Gurgaon-1 (a selection from Gola Gurgaon) (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Gola Gurgaon-2 (a selection from Gola Gurgaon) (Verma and Singh, 1974) 

Gola Gurgaon-3 (a selection from Gola Gurgaon) 

Golan (Kundi et al., 1989 a) 

Golar (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Goli (Randhawa and Biswas, 1968) 

Golia 

Goma Kirti (Hiwale and Raturi, 1999) 

Gorifa 

Gorva (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Gularbasi (Singh and Khanna, 1968) 

Guli 

Harial 

Haq Nawaz (Kundi et al., 1989 a) 

Hoshiarpur 

Husain Riso Chinese 

Illaichi (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Illaichi Jhajjar (a selection of Illaichi) 

Jalandhari (Jullundhri) (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Jeevan (Gopani, 1976 a) 

Jhajjar Selection 

Jhajjar Special 

Jogia (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

JS II (Srivastava and Srivastava, 1978) 

Kabra (Singh et al., 1973a) 

Kadoda 

Kaithli (Kaithali) (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Kaki 

Kakrola Gola (Godara, 1981) 

Kala Gola (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Kali (Pareek and Vashishtha, 1983, 1986) 

Kalianwali 

Kaolang-1 (Chiou and Weng, 1996) 

Katha (Umran) (Pareek and Vashishtha, 1983, 1986) 

Katha (Umran) Bombay (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

262

Katha (Umran) Gurgaon (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a) 

Katha (Umran) Rajasthan 

Kathaphal (Katha Phul) (Singh et al., 1971, 1972a; Chundawat and Srivastava, 

1978) 

Kharak, Kharki-2 

Kharki-1 

Khatti (Bisla et al., 1980) 

Kheera (Singh and Khanna, 1968) 

Khirni 

Kismish 

Laddu (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Lakhan 

Lal Wali (Kundi et al., 1989 a) 

Lam (Vashishtha and Pareek, 1989) 

LR-9 (Kundi et al., 1989 a) 



Lucknow Karaka (Teaotia et al., 1974) 

Madhuri 

Maharwali (Vashishtha and Pareek, 1989) 

Ma Hong (Hoang and Tuynh, 1989) 

Manukhi 

Meharun 

Mirchia (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

MPKV 

Mundia (Mundia Murhera, Muria Mahrara) (Chundawat & Srivastava, 1978) 

Nagpuri (Singh, 1964) 

Nalagarhi 

Narikelee (Singh, 1964) 

Narikeli (Kasir-Bogri Kool Daccai Kool) (Dutta, 1954) 

Narma (Singh, 1969) 

Narma (Narma Varanasi) 

Nazuk 

Nehru Mandal 

Nimaj 

Noki (Godara et al., 1980) 

Pameli 

Pathani 

Pewandi (Teaotia et al., 1974) 

Ponda 

Popular Gola 

Raja (Gopani, 1976 a) 

Randeri 

Reshmi (Godara et al., 1980) 

Rewa Selection (Godara et al., 1980) 

Rohtaki Gola 

263

Safarchandi (Padule et al., 1988) 

Safarchandi (Hathed) 

Safeda (Sufeda) (Chadha et al., 1972) 

Safeda Rothak (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Safeda-1 (a selection of Safeda) 

Sakhari (Hathed) 

Sanaur-1 (Singh et al., 1973 a) 

Sanaur-2 (Singh et al., 1973 a) 

Sanaur-3 

Sanaur-4 (Tomar, 1986) 

Sanaur-5 (Khera and Singh, 1976) 

Sanaur-6 (Tomer, 1986) 

Sandhura Narnaul (Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) 

Sandhura No-1 

Sasni Gola 

Seb 

Seedless 

Safeda Selected (Chundawat and Srivastava, 1978) 

Seo (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Seo Bahadurgarhia (Godara et al., 1980) 

Shamber 

Shanba (Hathed) 

Singhan 

Sua (Khra and Singh, 1976) 

Sua Mandi 

Sukawani 

Supari 

Surati, Surti 

Surti Katha 

Talod Seedless 

Telong (Chiou and Weng, 1996) 

Tasbataso 

Thian Phien (Hoang and Tuynh, 1989) 

Thornless (Singh, 1964) 

Tikadi 

Triloki (Tiloki) (Singh, 1969) 

Umran (Katha) (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

Vikas (Chovatia et al., 1993) 

Vikas -2 (a selection of Vikas) 

Villaiti 

Wilayti (Walaiti) (Dhingra et al., 1973) 

ZG-1 

ZG-2 (Tomar, 1986) 

ZG-3 (Singh and Singh, 1973) 

Cultivar names in brackets are regional forms of the same cultivar. 

264

Appendix II.ib Ziziphus mauritiana cultivars widespread in Assam 

Bali 

Deccaikool 

Kasir 

Kool 

Narkelle (Umran) 

Tenga Mitha 

Umran 

Appendix II.ic Ziziphus mauritiana cultivars popular in Pakistan 

Chamcal 

Dandan 

Desi 

Karela 

Karnal 

Khathi Mithi 

Rohtak 

Saidork 

Sofeda Am 

Umran 

Appendix II.iia Ziziphus jujuba cultivars (from Pareek, 2001) 

Akhedi (Tagiev, 1976) 

Akhmedi (Tagiev, 1992) 

Arzu (Tagiev, 1976) 

Arzu (Tagiev, 1992) 

Bokjo (Park and Yu, 1989) 

Buluosa (Yu et al., 1991) 

Da-bai-tsao or Da-baj-czao (Sin’ko, 1977; Sivakov et al., 1988) 

Da-bal-tszao (Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1984a) 

Dongzao (Zeng, 1997) 

Druzhba (Sin’ko and Livinova, 1996) 

Gansu (Lu et al., 1993) 

Geumsung or Jh-12 (Yong et al., 1981) 

Hamazhao (Bi et al., 1990) 

Honey Jujube (Ming and Sun, 1986) 

Irada (Tagiev, 1976) 

Ja-2 (Kim and Kim, 1984 b) 

Ja-czao or Ya-tsao (Sivakov et al., 1988; Sin’ko, 1977) 

Jb- 21 (Kim and Kim, 1984 b) 

Jc-31 (Kim and Kim, 1984 b) 

265

Je-8 (Yong et al., 1981) 

Je-10 (Yong et al., 1981) 

Jg-10 (Kim and Kim, 1984 b) 

Ji-3 (Yong et al., 1981) 

Jianzhao (Bi et al., 1990) 

Jin Jujube (Ming and Sun, 1986) 

Jishen Hama Zao (Yu et al., 1991) 

Jixin Mi Jao (Yu et al., 1991) 

Jj-3 (Kim and Kim, 1984 b) 

Jk-4 (Kim and Kim, 1984 b) 

Khazari (Tagiev, 1976) 

Khurman (Akhundova and Agaev, 1989) 

Kitaiskii 60 (Sin’ko and Litvinova, 1996) 

Kitalskil 50 (Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1984 a) 

Kitalskil 52 (Romanova et al., 1985) 

Kitalskil 58 (Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1984 a) 

Kitalskil 86 (Romanova et al., 1985) 

Laohuyan (Liu and Wang, 1991) 

Lang (Lanham, 1926) 

Li (Lanham, 1926) 

Li Zao (Yu et al., 1991) 

Lingding Zao (Yu et al., 1991) 

Linze Small Jujube (Ming and Sun, 1986) 

Mardakyan (Tagiev, 1976) 

Mardakyanskil 6 (Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1984 a) 

Ming Shan Large Jujube (Ming and Sun, 1986) 

Moodeung or Ja-5 (Yong et al., 1981) 

Mu Shing Hong (Lanham, 1926) 

Nasimi (Tagiev, 1976) 

No. 1, 2, and 16/5 (Baratov et al., 1975) 

Ordubadi (Tagiev, 1992) 

Sanjo 

Sihong Dazao (Wan, 1994) 

Sovetskij (Sin’ko and Litvinova, 1996) 

Suantszao (Sin’ko and Litvinova, 1996) 

Sui-Men (Lanham, 1926) 

Taiso (Nikaido et al., 1990) 

Ta-jan-czao or Ta-yan-tsao or Ta-yan-tszao (Sivakov et al., 1988) 

Tan-yan-tszao (Rathore, 1986; Goncharova et al., 1990) 

Tavrika (Sin’ko and Litvinova, 1996) 

Tyantszao (Sin’ko and Litvinova, 1996) 

Ulduz (Tagiev, 1992) 

Vakhsh (Sin’ko et al., 1987) 

Vakhshskil 30/16 (Kucherova and Sin’ko, 1984 a) 


Vakhshskil 41-19 (Romanova et al., 1985) 

266


Wolchul Daechu (Kim et al., 1988) 

Ya-tszav (Romanova et al., 1985) 

Yan-jhao (Rathore, 1986) 

Yan-yan-tsao (Sin’ko, 1977) 

Yougji Hama Zao (Yu et al., 1991) 

Yubilenyl (Romanova et al., 1985) 

Ziangfen Hulu Zao (Yu et al., 1991) 

Appendix II.iib Ziziphus jujuba cultivars in the USA 

(from http://doityourself.com/fruits/givejujubeatry.htm and Outlaw, 2002) 

GA 866 

Li (Swoboda, Geant, Leen Burk) 

Lang 

Sherwood 

Silverhill (Tiger Tooth) 

So 

Sui Men (Shui Men) 

Sherwood is a columnar tree; So is a dwarf bush; others are mostly small trees. 

267

Appendix III Research organisations 

working on jujubes 

Ziziphus mauritiana (ber) 

India: Organisations involved in ber research are as follows: 

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated research on ber 

as a multi-location project in 1976 and later in 1978 as an All India Coordinated 

Research Project at the following ten centres: 

Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, 

Hisar - 124 004, India (N.R. Godara, S. Siddiqui, C. Gupta, R. K. Lakra, 

A. K. Gupta, P. K. Mehta, S. S. Dahiya). 

Dryland Agriculture Research Station, CCS Haryana Agricultural 

University, Bawal, Haryana, India (R.A. Kaushik). 

Department of Horticulture, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, 

Rajasthan Agricultural University, Udaipur - 313 001, India. 

Department of Horticulture, SKN College of Agriculture, Rajasthan 

Agricultural University, Jobner - 303 329, India (N. L. Sen). 

Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, 

Rahuri, Ahmednagar - 413 722, India (S. N. Kaulgud, K. N. Wavhal, D. P. 

Waskar). 

Dryland Agriculture Research Station, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural 

University, Anantapur, India (K. S. Reddy). 

Division of Fruit Crops, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, 

Hessarghatta Lake, Bangalore - 560 089, India (S. H. Jalikop, R. D. 

Rawal). 

Dryland Agricultural Research Station, Tamilnadu Agricultural 

University, Aruppukottai, India (M. Selvarajan). 

Dryland Agricultural Research Station, Gujarat Agricultural 

University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506, India (M. M. Patel). 

Department of Horticulture, Narendra Deo University of Agriculture 

and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad - 224 001, India (H. K. Singh). 

The following research institutes of the ICAR also conduct research 

programmes on ber: 

Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner - 334 006, India (B. B. 

Vashishtha). 

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur - 342 003, India (R. N. 

Prasad, S. K. Lodha, K. D. Sharma, M. P. Singh). 

Central Horticulture Research Station, Indian Institute of Horticultural 

Research, Godhra - 389 001, Gujarat, India (S. S. Hiwale, B. G. Bagle). 

268

Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, Indian Agricultural 

Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 012 (V. P. Sharma, D. S. Khurdiya). 

Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad - 500 

059, India. 

Ber research was also initiated at several other Indian centres some of which 

are as follows: 

Regional Horticultural Research Station, Punjab Agricultural 

University, Bahadurgarh, Patiala, Punjab, India (H. Singh). 

Department of Horticulture, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 

- 141 004, Punjab, India (J. S. Bal, A. S. Dhatt, G. S. Bajwa, G. S. Mann). 

College of Agriculture, Gujarat Agricultural University, Junagadh, 

Gujarat, India (S. P. Singh). 

College of Agriculture, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand - 388 

001, Gujarat, India. 

Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamilnadu Agricultural 

University, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India. 

University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur-342001, India (M. M. Bhandari, N. 

Mathur, A. Vyas). 

Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani - 431401, India (V. K. 

Patil, S. D. Chavan). 

Department of Horticulture, CS Azad University of Agriculture and 

Technology, Kanpur, India (A. Prasad, J. P. Shukla, U. R. Singh). 

Department of Horticulture, University of Agriculture and 

Technology, Pantnagar, UP, India. 

Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Banaras Hindu 

University, Varanasi, India (C. B. Singh, S. P. Singh). 

Other countries: Organisations involved in ber research in several other 

countries are as follows: 

Pakistan Forest Research Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan (F. S. Khan). 

Dept. of Botany, University of Peshawar, Pakistan (F. Hussain). 

The Horticultural Research Institute, Department of Research & 

Specialist Services, PO Box 810, Marondera, Zimbabwe (N. Nenguwo). 

Department of Research & Specialist Services, Agronomy Institute, 

PO Box Cy 550, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe (I. Kadzere). 

Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre, PO Box 

6640, Harare, Zimbabwe (C. Mawadza, E. Chivero). 

Forestry Commission, PO Box 595, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe (D. 

Rukuni). 

African Distillers, Box 2346, Harare, Zimbabwe (C. Guyo). 

International Centre for Research on Agroforestry, Bp 320, Samanko, 

Mali (M. Djimde). 

269

Institut D’Economie Rurale, BP 258, Bamako, Mali (M. Sidibe). 

ISRA/CIRAD- Foret Senegal, BP 2312, Dakar, Senegal (P. Danthu). 

Chercheur ISRA - Productions Forestieres Senegal, BP 2312, Dakar, 

Senegal (I. Diallo). 

Thusano Lefatsheng, P/Bag 00251, Gaborone, Botswana (T. 

Matlhare). 

Centre National de Semences Forestieres, 01 BP 2682 Ouagadougou, 

Burkina Faso (M. Ouedraogo). 

Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Social Forestry Programme, PO 

Box 0412, Nairobi, Kenya (B. Owuor Odit). 

Detache du CTFT-CIRAD Aupres de l’ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya (D. 

Depommier). 

Forestry Research Institute of Malawi, Kufa Road, PO Box 270, 

Zomba, Malawi (L. Mwabumba). 

SADCC/ICRAF Agroforestry Project, PO BOX 134, Zomba, Malawi 

(H. Prins, J. A. Maghembe). 

Bunda College, University of Malawi, PO Box 219, Lilongwe, 

Malawi (M. Maliro). 

Agricultural Research Division, PO Box 829, Maseru 100, Lesotho 

(M. Mabusa). 

Ben Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer Sheva 

841051, Israel (A. Nerd, Y. Mizrahi). 

Tel Aviv University, Israel (Y. Waisel). 

Ziziphus jujuba (Chinese jujube) 

Research Centre of Chinese jujube, Hebei Agricultural University 

Baoding, Hebei 071001, China (M. J. Liu). 

Pharmaceutical Faculty, Beijing Medical University, Beijing 100083, 

China (C.Y. Cheng). 

Hebei Provincial Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 

050021, China (S. Wu, J. Zhang). 

Institute of Forest Science, Xingiang Vygur Autonomous Region, 

China (W. L. Ma). 

Station of Plant Protection and Quarantine, Jingyang County, Shanxi, 

China (J. L. Huan). 

Shanxi Agricultural University, Shanxi, China (K. Z. Li, Z. S. Gao). 

Department of Agriculture, Southeast Prefecture, Shanxi Province, 

China (Y. X. Wang). 

Institute of Forestry, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 

Zhenzhou, China (J. Z. Sun). 

Shangtung Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China (Z. Wang). 

Institute of Microbiology, Academia Sinicia, Peking, China (K. C. 

Mang). 

270

Research Institute of Economic Insects, CAF, Kunming 650 216, 

China (J. Li, X. Hu). 

Forestry Research Institute, Seoul 130 012, Republic of Korea (W. C. 

Bak). 

Department of Horticulture, Yeungnam University, Gyongsan 713- 

748, Republic of Korea (J. K. Byun, J. H. Do, K. H. Cheng). 

Naju Pear Research Institute, Fruit Tree Research Institute, R.D.A., 

Naju 523-820, Republic of Korea (M. S. Yun, Y. S. Kim, C. S. Ahn). 

Department of Forestry, Kon-Kuk University, Seoul 133-701, 

Republic of Korea (G. C. Choo). 

Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan (S. Nakayama). 

Apsheronskaya Opythaya, Stantsiva Subtropicheskikh Kul’tur, Baku, 

Azerbaijan (T. M. Tagiev). 

Samarkandskil Filial NPO 703000 Samarkand, Uzbekistan (G. M. 

Semenov). 

Other Ziziphus species 

Laboratoire de Botanique Fundamental et Appliqué, Faculté des 

Sciences, Campus Universitaire, 1060 Tunis, Tunisia (M. B. Nasri- 

Ayachi). 

Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Egypt 

(M. A. El-Demardesh). 

Botany Department, Faculty of Science, University of Cairo, Giza, 

Egypt (M. A. El-Demardesh). 

Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, Assiut, 

Egypt (Z. A. R. El-Karemy). 

Institut Nationale de la Recherche Agronomique, BP 589, Seltat, 

Morocco (A. Tanji, F. Nassif). 

King Faisal University, Biology Department, Box 1759, Al-Hofuf 

31982, Saudi Arabia (K. H. Shaltout). 

Laboratorios de Botanica Lorenzo R. Parodi, Facultad de Agronomia 

de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, Avda. San Martin 4453. RA-1417, 

Buenos Aires, Argentina (G. M. Tourn). 

Institut fur Spezielle Botanik des Museums fur Naturkunde der 

Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin, Spathstrasse 80/81, Berlin 1195, 

Germany (C. Schirarend). 

Institut Angewandte Botanik, University Muenster, Hindenburgplatz 

55, D-48143, Muenster, Germany (M. Popp, D. J. Von-Willert). 

Université Aix-Marseille III, URA CNRS 1152, Case 461, Saint 

Jerome, F-1 3397 Marseille/Cedex 20, France (P. Quezel). 

University Research International, Efford, Lymington SO41 0LZ, UK 

(S. C. Clifford). 

Horticulture Research International, Wellesbourne, Warwick, CV35 

9EF, UK (H. G. Jones). 

271

Institute of Plant Physiology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria 

(K. Stefan). 

TAES, Research and Extension Centre, 17360 Coit Road, Dallas, TX 

78252-6582, USA (N. Sankhala). 

Fruit Crops Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 

32611, USA (P. M. Lyrene). 

California University, Davis, California, USA (A. A. Kader, A. 

Chordas). 

College of Agriculture, Basrah University, Basra, Iraq (M. F. Abbas, 

J. H. Al-Niami). 

272

Appendix IV List of jujube specialists 

1. Dr. Bal, J. S. 

Department of Horticulture 

Punjab Agricultural University 

Ludhiana - 141004, India. 

2. Dr. Batra, R. C. 


Punjab Agricultural University 

Ludhiana - 141004, India. 

3. Dr. Bhargava, B. S. 

Division of Soil Science 

Indian Institute of Horticulture 

Hassarghatta Lake 

Bangalore - 560 089, India 

4. Dr. Gupta, O.P. 

H.No. R25, Raghunagar, Pankha Road 

PALAM, New Delhi -110 058, India 

5. Dr. Gupta, O. P. 

Department of Plant Pathology 

CCS Haryana Agricultural University 

Hisar -125 004, India 

6. Dr. Khurdiya, D. S. 

Division of Fruits & Horticulture Technology 

Indian Agriculture Research Institute 

New Delhi -110 012, India. 

7. Dr. Lakra, R. K. 

Department of Entomology 

CCS Haryana Agricultural University 

Hisar -125 004, India. 

8. Dr. Pareek, O. P. 

Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, 

Bikaner -334006, India. 

(Res.- A-239, Karninagar Lalgarh, Bikaner - 334001) 

9. Dr. Raturi, G. B. 


Bikaner -334 006, India 

273

10. Dr. Rawal, R. D. 

Division of Plant Pathology 

Indian Institute of Horticultural Research 

Hesarghatta Lake, Bangalore - 560 089, India. 

11. Dr. Reddy, Y. N. 

College of Agriculture 

N.G. Ranga Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University 

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500030, India. 

12. Dr. Singh, I. S. 


N.D. University of Agricultural & Technology, 

Kumarganj, Faizabad - 224 001, India. 

13. Dr. Vashishtha, B. B. 


Bikaner - 334 006, India 

274

Appendix V Seed suppliers directory 

AUSTRALIA 

Harvest Seeds 

325 Mc Carrs Creek Road 

NSW 2084 

Australia 

Tel: (61-2) 94502699 

Fax: (61-2) 94502750 

Email: harvest@ozemail.com.au 

M.L. Farrar Pty. Limited 

PO Box 1046 

Bomaderry, NSW 2541 

Australia 

Tel: (61-44) 217966 

Fax: (61-44) 210051 

Telex: AA171133 FLAMY 

BURKINA FASO 

Centre National De Semences 

Forestieres C.N.S.F 

01 BP 2682 

Ouagadougou 01 

Burkina Faso 

Tel: (226) 35 80 13, 35 61 11 

Fax: (226) 35 61 10 

Email: cnsf@fasonet.bf 

Website: 

http://members.spree.com/business/ 

cnsf_bf/ 

FRANCE 

CIRAD-Forêt 

Laboratoire de graines, 

Campus International de 

Baillarguet, BP 5035, 

34032 Montpellier Cedex 01 

France 

Tel: (33-4) 67593751 

Fax: (33-4) 67593733 

Email: labograine@cirad.fr 

UNITED KINGDOM 

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 

Seed Conservation Dept., 

Wakehurst Place, 

Ardingly, West Sussex. RH17 

6TN. 

United Kingdom 

Tel: 01444 894123 

Fax: 01444 894069 

Email: Seedbank@rbgkew.org.uk 

Website: 

rbgkew.org.uk/seedbank/msb.html 

The Henry Doubleday Research 

Association 

Ryton on Dunsmore 

Coventry, CV8 3LG 

United Kingdom 

Tel: (44-1203) 308215 

Fax: (44-1203) 639229 

Email: 

eroycrof@hdra.demon.co.uk 

INDIA 

Bisht Enterprises 

19, 1st Floor, Devki Complex 

Moti Bazar, 

Dehra Dun-248001 (UP) 

India 

Tel: (91-135) 773014 (Res) 

Fax: (91-135) 773331 

Gautam Global 

34 Old Connought Place 

Dehra Dun-248001, UP 

India 

275

Tel: (91/135) 656222 

Fax: (91/135) 651108, 650944, 

652766 

Email: npsonudd@nde.vsnl.net.in 

Website: 

www.garhwalhimalayas.com/gauta 

mglobal 

Kumar International 

Ajitmal 206121 

Etawah (UP) 

India 

Tel: 05683 - 54221 

Fax: 091 - 5688 - 51036 

Cable: Kumar International 

Neelkantheshwar Agro-Seeds and 

Plantations 

Commercial complex, ‘C’ Block - 

C-29/X3, Dilshad Garden, 

DELHI-110 095 

India 

Tel: 2274277, 2119790, 2119744 

Fax: (0091-11) 2112974 

Shivalik Seeds Corporation 

47 - Panditwari, P.O. Prem Nagar 

Dehra Dun - 248007, U.P. 

India 

Tel: 91-135 - 773348 

Fax: 91-135 - 773776 

Email: hilander@vsnl.com 

Tosha Trading Company 

161, Indira Nagar Colony, 

PO - New Forest, 

Dehra Dun, 248006 , U.P., 

India 

Tel: (91-135) 620984 

Fax: (91-135) 620196 

Tropical Nursery & Seeds 

Panditwari, Lane No. 9 

P.O. Prem Nagar Hehra Dun-248 

007 (U.P) 

India 

Tel: 0135 - 77 37 22 

Fax: 91 - 135 - 77 37 22 

Viyaj Seed Stores 

PO Ranjhawawala (Raipur) 

Dehra Dun-248008 (U.P.) 

India 

Fax: (91-135) 629944 

KENYA 

Floral Products Agencies 

Mbale Township, Makutano; 

Mbale-Magada Rd, 

PO Box 1402 Maragoli 

Kenya 

Tel: (254-0331) 51454, 51308 

Fax: (254-0331) 51217 

Email: 

fpagencies@kakamega.africaonlin 

e.com. 

Kenya Forestry Seed Centre 

PO Box 20412 

Nairobi 

Kenya 

Tel: (254-154) 32484, 32893 

Fax: (254-154) 32844 

MALAWI 

Forestry Research Institute of 

Malawi 

PO Box 270 

Zomba 

Malawi 

Tel: (265) 522866, 522548 

Fax: (265) 522782 

NIGER 

Centre des Semences Forestieres 

BP 578 

Niamey 

Niger 

Tel: (227) 723182, 733339 

276

Fax: (227) 732784 

NETHERLANDS 

Setropa Ltd. 

PO Box 203 

1400 AE Bussum 

Netherlands 

Tel: (31-35) 5258754 

Fax: (31-35) 5265424 

Cable: SETROPA BUSSUM 

SENEGAL 

Project National de Semences 

Forestieres (PRONASEF) 

BP 3818 

Dakar 

Senegal 

Tel: 836/14/11 

Fax: 836/14/09 

Email: pronasef@ns.arc.sn 

SINGAPORE 

The Inland & Foreign Trading Co 

(Pte) Ltd. 

Block 79A Indus Road #04-418 

Singapore 169589 

Singapore 

Tel: (65) 2722711 (3 lines) 

Fax: (65) 2716118 

Email: iftco@pacific.net.sg 

TANZANIA 

National Tree Seed Programme 

PO Box 373 

Morogoro 

Tanzania 

Tel: (255-56) 3192, 3903 

Fax: (255-56) 3275 

Email: ntsp@twiga.com 

Website: 

http://www.twiga.com/ntsp 

USA 

F. W. Schumacher Co., Inc. 

36 Spring Hill Rd. Sandwich. 

MA 02563-1023 

United States of America 

Tel: (1-508) 8880659 

Fax: (1-508) 8330322 

Lawyer Nursery Inc. 

950 Highway 

200 West Plains, Montana 59859 

United States of America 

Tel: (1-406) 8263881 

Fax: (1-406) 8265700 

Telex: 406-31-9547 

Email: lawyrnsy@montana.com 

Source: Kindt et al. (2001) 

277

Glossary 

actinomorphic - having radially symmetric shape, usually refers to the petals of 

a flower. 

acuminate - the shape of a tip or base of a leaf or perianth segment where 

the part tapers gradually and usually in a concave manner. 

adnate - joined to or attached to. 

albumen - Starchy and other nutritive material in a seed, stored as 

endosperm inside the embryo sac, or as perisperm in the 

surrounding nucellar cells; any deposit of nutritive material 

accompanying the embryo. 

anatropous - bent over through 180 degrees to lie alongside the stalk. 

androecium - all the male reproductive organs of a flower; the stamens. cf. 

gynoecium. 

angiosperm - a plant producing seed enclosed in an ovary. A flowering 

plant. 

annual - a plant that completes its life cycle from germination to death 

within one year. 

anterior - front; on the front side; away from the axis. 

anther - the pollen-bearing (terminal) part of the male organs (stamen), 

borne at the top of a stalk (filament). 

anthesis - flower bud opening; strictly, the time of expansion of a flower 

when pollination takes place, but often used to designate the 

flowering period; the act of flower bud opening. 

antrorse - turning upward and forward. 

apex - the tip of an organ, the growing point. 

apical - pertaining to the apex. 

apiculate - having a short point at the tip. 

arcuate - bow-shaped. 

aril (arillus) - a fleshy or sometimes hairy appendage or outer covering of a 

seed. 

arillate - provided with an aril. 

auricle (adj. auriculate) - small ear-like projections at the base of a leaf or leafblade 

or bract. 

axil - the upper angle formed by the union of a leaf with the stem. 

axillary - pertaining to the organs in the axil, e.g. buds, flowers or 

inflorescence. 

axis - the main or central stem of a herbaceous plant or of an 

inflorescence. 

basal - borne on or near the base. 

bifarous - in two rows; two-fold; pointing in two directions. 

bifid - forked; having a deep fissure near the centre. 

bilabiate - two-lipped. 

bipinnate - (of leaves) a pinnate leaf with primary leaflets themselves 

divided in a pinnate manner; cf pinnate. 

278

iseriate - in two rows. 

bisexual - having both sexes present and functional in one flower. 

blade - the flattened part of a leaf; the lamina. 

bract - a much-reduced leaf, particularly the small or scale-like leaves 

in a flower cluster or associated with the flowers; 

morphologically a foliar organ. 

bracteole - a secondary bract; a bractlet. 

caducous - falling off early, or prematurely, as the sepals in some plants. 

calyx - the outer whorl of floral envelopes, composed of the sepals. 

carinate - keeled; provided with a projecting central longitudinal line or 

ridge on the under surface. 

carpel - one of the flowers’ female reproductive organs, comprising an 

ovary and a stigma, and containing one or more ovules. 

clone - a group of plants that have arisen by vegetative reproduction 

from a single parent, and which therefore all have identical 

genetic material. 

colpus (colpi pl.) - aperture within the pollen grain wall. 

concave - the interior of a curved surface. 

confluent - merging or blending together. 

connate - united or joined; in particular, said of like or similar structures 

joined as one body or organ. 

convex - arched outward. 

cordate - heart-shaped, often restricted to the basal portion rather than to 

the outline of the entire organ. 

coriaceous - of leathery texture. 

cotyledon - seed leaf; the primary leaf or leaves in the embryo. 

crenate - shallowly round-toothed, scalloped. 

crenulate - finely crenate. 

cross pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anther of the flower of one 

plant to the flowers of a different plant. 

crustaceous - of hard and brittle texture. 

cucullate - hooded; hood-shaped. 

cultivar - a race or variety of a plant that has been created or selected 

intentionally and maintained through cultivation. 

cuneate - wedge-shaped; triangular with the narrow end at point of 

attachment, as in the bases of leaves or petals. 

cuspidate - with an apex abruptly and sharply constricted into an 

elongated, sharp-pointed tip. 

cyme - a broad, more or less flat-topped, determinate flower cluster, 

with central flowers opening first. 

cymose - inflorescence showing the cyme arrangement. 

deciduous - falling at the end of one season of growth or life, as the leaves 

of non-evergreen trees. 

decoction - herbal preparation made by boiling a plant part in water. 

deflexed - bent abruptly downward; deflected. 

279

degree-day - a unit that represents one degree of difference from a given 

point (as 65°) in the mean daily outdoor temperature and that 

is used especially to measure heat requirements. 

dehiscence - the method or process of opening a seed pod or anther. 

dentate - with sharp, spreading, course indentations or teeth, 

perpendicular to the margin. 

denticulate - minutely or finely dentate. 

derived - originating from an earlier form or group. 

dichotomous - forked, in one or two pairs. 

dicotyledon - a flowering plant with two cotyledons. 

dioecious - having male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers on 

different plants. 

diploid - having two sets of chromosomes. 

dipterous - having two wings. 

distichous - two-ranked, with leaves, leaflets or flowers on opposite sides 

of a stem and in the same plane. 

divaricate - spreading very far apart; extremely divergent. 

downy - covered with short and weak soft hairs. 

drupacious - a fruit showing the characteristics of a drupe. 

drupe - a fleshy one-seeded indehiscent fruit with seed enclosed in a 

stony endocarp; stone fruit. 

elliptic - oval in outline. 

emarginate - having a shallow notch at the extremity. 

endocarp - the inner layer of the pericarp or fruit wall. 

endosperm - the starch and oil-containing tissue of many seeds. 

entomophilous - insect pollinated. 

epigynous - 

borne on or arising from the ovary; used of floral parts when 

the ovary is inferior and flower not perigynous. 

exalbuminous - without albumen. 

exine - the outer coat of a pollen grain. 

exocarp - the outer layer of the pericarp or fruit wall. 

falcate - scythe-shaped; curved and flat, tapering gradually. 

fasicle - a condensed or close cluster. 

faveolate - honey-combed. 

ferrugineous - pertaining to or coloured like iron rust. 

filament - thread; particularly the stalk of the stamen, terminated by the 

anther. 

filiform - thread-shaped, long, slender and terete. 

flexuose - zig-zag; bending from side to side; wavy. 

fulvous - dull, brownish-yellow. 

fuscous - dusky, greyish-brown. 

genus - a group of related species, the taxonomic category ranking 

above a species and below a family. 

genotype - the genetic constitution of an organism, acquired from its 

parents and available for transmission to its offspring. 

glabrous - not hairy. 

280

glaucous - bluish white; covered or whitened with a very fine, powdery 

substance. 

globose - globe-shaped. 

glabrescent - becoming glabrous with age. 

glomeruliform - showing a compactly, clustered form. 

gynoecium - all the female parts of a flower. 

hoary (pubescent) - greyish white with a fine, close pubescence. 

homonym - a scientific name given two or more times to plants of the 

same taxonomic rank but which are quite distinct from each 

other. 

hymenopterous - having four membranous wings. 

hypocotyl - the axis of an embryo below the cotyledons which on seed 

germination develops into the radicle. 

indehiscent - not regularly opening, as a seed pod or anther. 

indigenous - native and original to the region. 

inflorescence - the flowering part of a plant and especially the mode of its 

arrangement. 

integuments - an outer covering or coat. 

IU (international unit) - a unit used to measure the mass of certain vitamins and 

drugs based on their expected effects. For each substance to 

which this unit applies, there is an international agreement 

specifying the biological effect expected with a dose of 1 IU. 

Other quantities of the substance are then expressed as 

multiples of this standard. Examples: 1 IU represents 45.5 

micrograms of a standard preparation of insulin or 0.6 

microgram of a standard preparation of penicillin. Consumers 

most often see IUs on the labels of vitamin packages: the 

equivalent of 1 IU is 0.3 microgram (0.0003 mg) for vitamin 

A, 50 micrograms (0.05 mg) for vitamin C, 25 nanograms 

(0.000 025 mg) for vitamin D, and milligram for vitamin E. 

lateral - side shoot, bud etc. 

lamellae - a thin, flat plate or laterally flattened ridge. 

lanceolate - shaped like a lance head, several times longer than wide, 

broadest above the base and narrowed toward the apex. 

lenticellate - having a body of cells as a pore, formed on the periderm of a 

stem, and appearing on the surface of the plant as a lensshaped 

spot. 

liane - various high-climbing woody plants, usually found in the 

tropics. 

locular - having a cavity or chamber inside the ovary, anther or fruit. 

membranous - thin in texture, soft and pliable. 

mesocarp - the fleshy middle portion of the wall of a succulent fruit 

between the skin and the stony layer. 

monophyletic - descended from a single ancestral line, see also: polyphyletic. 

mucronate - terminated abruptly by a distinct and obvious spur or spiny tip. 

281

naturalised - to cause a plant to become established and grow undisturbed 

as if native. 

nectar - sweet secretion of glands in many kinds of flower. 

necrotic - Death of cells or tissues through injury or disease. 

nectiferous - producing nectar. 

nervules - small/minute nerves or veins. 

nodose - knobbly, knotty. 

obconical - inversely conical, having the attachment at the apex. 

oblique - slanting, unequal sided. 

obovate - inverted ovate; egg-shaped, with the broadest part above. 

obtuse - blunt or rounded at the end. 

octaploid - having eight times the basic number of chromosomes. 

orbicular - circular. 

osseous - bony. 

ovary inferior - with the flower-parts growing from above the ovary. 

ovary superior - with the flower-parts growing from below the ovary. 

ovate - egg-shaped, with the broader end at the base. 

ovule - the body which after fertilisation becomes the seed. 

panicle - a loose irregularly compound inflorescence with pedicellate 

flowers. 

paniculate - borne in a panicle. 

papillose - bearing minute, nipple-shaped projections. 

paripinnate - a pinnate (compound) leaf with all leaflets in pairs. 

pedicel - a tiny stalk; the support of a single flower. 

pendulous - more or less hanging or declined. 

perianth - the floral envelope consisting of the calyx and corolla. 

pericycle - the tissue of the stele lying just inside the endodermis. 

perigynous - adnate to the perianth, and therefore around the ovary and not 

at its base. 

petal - a division of the corolla; one of a circle of modified leaves 

immediately outside the reproductive organs, usually brightly 

coloured. 

petiole - the stalk of a leaf that attaches it to the stem. 

phenotype - the morphological, physiological, behavioural, and other 

outwardly recognisable forms of an organism that develop 

through the interaction of genes and environment. 

pilose - hairy, especially with soft hairs. 

pilosulous - minutely pilose. 

pinnate - a compound leaf consisting of several leaflets arranged on 

each side of a common petiole. 

polygamous - bearing male and female flowers on the same plant. 

polyphyletic - having members that originated, independently, from more 

than one evolutionary line. 

polyploidy - having more than two sets of chromosomes. 

polyporate - pollen grain with many apertures. 

282

porate (see tricolporate, polycolporate) - describes a pollen grain which has 

rounded apertures only. 

prolate - having flattened sides due to lengthwise elongation. 

propagate - to produce new plants, either by vegetative means involving 

the rooting or grafting of pieces of a plant, or sexually by 

sowing seeds. 

protandrous - refers to a flower, when the shedding of the pollen occurs 

before the stigma is receptive. 

protogynous - referring to a flower where the shedding of the pollen occurs 

after the stigma has ceased to be receptive. 

psilate - referring to a pollen grain having a smooth surface. 

pubescent - covered with hairs, especially short, soft and down-like. 

pulvinus - a swelling at the base of a leaf or leaflet. 

putamen - the shell of a nut, the bony part of a stone fruit. 

pyriform - pear-shaped. 

raceme - a simple inflorescence of pediceled flowers upon a common 

more or less elongated axis. 

rachis - the main stalk of a flower cluster or the main leafstalk of a 

compound leaf. 

radicle - the portion of the embryo below the cotyledons that will form 

the roots. 

ramification - branching 

reticulate - in the form of a network, net veined. 

retuse - with a shallow notch at a rounded apex. 

rootstock - the root system and lower portion of a woody plant to which a 

graft of a more desirable plant is attached. 

rotundate - nearly circular; orbicular to oblong. 

rufous - reddish-brown. 

rugose - wrinkled. 

rugulose - covered with minute wrinkles. 

scandent - climbing but not self-supporting. 

scarify - to scar or nick the seed coat to enhance germination. 

sclerenchymatous - tissue composed of cells with thickened and hardened walls. 

scurfy - covered with tiny, broad scales. 

self pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma 

of the same flower, or different flowers on the same plant. 

sepal - a division of a calyx; one of the outermost circle of modified 

leaves surrounding the reproductive organs of the flower. 

sericeous - bearing fine, usually straight, appressed hairs. 

serrate - having sharp teeth pointing forward. 

serrulate - finely serrate. 

sessile - without a stalk. 

sheath - a tubular envelop. 

spathulate - gradually narrowing downward to a summit; spoon shaped. 

spinescent - 1. having spines, 2. terminating in a spine, 3. modified to form 

a spine. 

283

stamen - 

staminode - 

stigma - 

stipule - 

strigose - 

style - 

subulate - 

sulcate - 

tetraploid - 

testa - 

thyrse - 

tomentose - 

tomentulose - 

tomentum - 

trabecular - 

transverse - 

tricolporate - 

trifid - 

tropism - 

truncate - 

tuberculate - 

unguiculate - 

valvate - 

virgate - 

zygomorphic - 

one of the male pollen-bearing organs of the flower. 

a sterile stamen, or any structure without anther corresponding 

to a stamen. 

that part of a pistil through which fertilisation by the pollen is 

effected. 

an appendage at the base of a petiole, often appearing in pairs, 

one on each side, as in roses. 

beset with appressed, sharp and stiff hairs. 

the usually attenuated portion of the pistil connecting the 

stigma and ovary. 

awl-shaped. 

grooved or furrowed. 

having four sets of chromosomes (twice the normal number of 

chromosomes). 

the outer seed coat. 

a contracted, cylindrical or ovoid and usually compact panicle. 

covered with a thick felt of radicles; densely pubescent with 

matted wool. 

rather tomentose. 

closely matted, woolly hairs. 

a transverse partition, complete or incomplete. 

cross-wise in position. 

having three apertures in the pollen grain wall. 

deeply divided or left in three parts. 

the movement of an organism in response to an external 

source of stimulus, usually toward or away from it. 

ending abruptly, as if cut off transversely. 

bearing tubercles, covered with warty lumps. 

narrowed, clawed. 

open by valves. 

wand-shaped; slender, straight and erect. 

capable of division by only one plane of symmetry. 

284

Index 

agroforestry, 18, 45, 77, 78, 154, 

161, 165 

cover crop, 78 

intercropping, 10, 58, 77, 146, 

160, 229 

agronomy 

in situ budding, 52, 118 

irrigation, 38, 44, 47, 51, 56, 59, 

60, 67, 165, 191, 198, 206, 

256 

mulching, 60 

nursery, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 51, 

52, 198, 203, 238, 241 

pruning, 31, 60, 63, 64, 65, 68, 

70, 72, 170, 171, 177, 184, 

185, 192, 194, 198, 208, 209, 

218, 219, 228, 229, 234, 238, 

241, 242, 245, 254 

rootstock, 10, 11, 48, 49, 50, 51, 

52, 94, 110, 165, 283 

spacing, 32, 45, 78, 160, 177 

transplanting, 10, 45, 46, 51, 53, 

55, 87, 175, 202, 208, 231, 

238, 241, 242 

air layering, 179 

altitudes, 10, 36 

amino acids, 19, 101, 172, 189 

Australia, 15, 37, 40, 41, 80, 171, 

187, 190, 251, 275 

Bahrain, 30, 159 

Bangladesh, 11, 13, 77, 110, 134, 

154, 159, 160, 168, 197, 198, 

201, 228, 231, 237 

biological control, 67 

breeding, 7, 80, 81, 84, 85, 88, 89, 

92, 102, 103, 104, 111, 163, 164, 

177, 211, 223, 243, 250 

budding, 48, 49, 51, 52, 201 

Burkina Faso, 41, 43, 46, 47, 176, 

183, 190, 191, 202, 220, 221, 

270, 275 

Cameroon, 41, 184, 220, 251 

carbohydrate, 19, 38, 70 

chemical control, 67, 191, 227, 

235, 250 

China, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 25, 

33, 34, 38, 58, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 

89, 93, 98, 100, 101, 111, 112, 

154, 159, 160, 161, 179, 180, 

196, 200, 210, 211, 212, 216, 

219, 227, 245, 252, 253, 255, 

256, 258, 259, 270, 271 

chromosome number, 85, 86, 177, 

184 

climate, 6, 31, 78, 99, 119, 234 

clonal selection, 196 

conservation, 3, 31, 32, 87, 108, 

110, 111, 112, 164, 210 

cost, 60, 99, 155, 156, 157, 161, 

165, 166 

cultivars, 8, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 

37, 40, 44, 45, 48, 53, 54, 62, 67, 

68, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79, 80, 81, 

82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 

92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 

100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 

106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 

112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 119, 

126, 127, 130, 132, 138, 162, 

163, 164, 165, 168, 170, 171, 

172, 176, 181, 183, 184, 188, 

191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 

200, 203, 204, 207, 208, 212, 

213, 217, 219, 220, 224, 225, 

227, 229, 235, 237, 239, 240, 

242, 245, 247, 249, 250, 251, 

255, 261, 265, 267 

cultivation, 5, 6, 15, 16, 47, 79, 82, 

97, 98, 99, 100, 110, 160, 161, 

171, 188, 189, 197, 199, 204, 

220, 228, 238, 279 

cuttings, 48, 54, 55, 91, 165, 195, 

199, 235, 246 

diseases 

285

Alternaria, 10, 72, 73, 75, 76, 

144, 145, 193, 211, 212, 229 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, 

75 

fruit rot, 75, 193, 219 

leaf spot, 72, 73, 74, 183, 193, 

199, 212, 223, 229, 231, 234, 

245, 250, 251 

mildew, 71, 191, 193, 199, 202, 

211, 222, 238, 241, 247, 254 

Oidium erysiphoides, 71, 80, 234 

Phoma hissarensis, 75 

Pleospora infectoria, 75, 212 

powdery mildew, 10, 71, 144 

rust, 10, 75, 145 

stem rot, 216 

Trichothecium roseum, 75 

witches’ broom, 6, 75 

diversity, 3, 11, 16, 80, 92, 108, 

111, 112, 162, 163, 211 

drinks, 29, 226 

drought tolerance, 11, 38, 182 

ecology, 190 

Ethiopia, 9, 10, 12, 13, 178 

evaluation, 82, 83, 85, 100, 108, 

111, 140, 208, 229, 241, 243 

flower 

anthesis, 81, 96, 200, 278 

pollination, 167, 185, 200, 246, 

256, 257, 278, 279, 283 

fodder, 29, 30, 45, 93 

fruit 

development, 37, 97, 114, 155, 

156, 157 

drop, 59, 64, 66, 71, 72, 73, 81, 

86, 97, 102, 103, 104, 105, 

118, 120, 122, 170, 173, 179, 

185, 188, 190, 209, 220, 223, 

235, 241, 242, 246, 249, 255 

quality, 38, 44, 62, 63, 66, 80, 

82, 83, 84, 98, 119, 122, 162, 

170, 171, 173, 174, 185, 190, 

192, 194, 196, 198, 202, 203, 

209, 232, 239, 241, 245 

ripening, 76, 167, 169, 172, 173, 

175, 176, 178, 189, 207, 226, 

232, 237 

set, 10, 37, 61, 62, 63, 64, 71, 

80, 83, 86, 95, 96, 97, 102, 

103, 104, 105, 117, 118, 119, 

120, 164, 170, 173, 174, 185, 

209, 215, 220, 231, 232, 235, 

246, 249, 254, 255, 256, 282 

yield, 32, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 

68, 70, 77, 99, 100, 102, 103, 

119, 171, 179, 181, 184, 192, 

194, 196, 198, 200, 207, 208, 

209, 218, 234, 239, 241, 247, 

255 

development, 37, 57, 59, 63, 70, 

71, 167, 168, 175, 191, 199, 200, 

205, 212, 215, 222, 234, 243, 

246, 250, 252, 253, 254, 256 

fungi, 26, 47, 63, 77, 121, 168, 

176, 194, 214, 227 

genetic resources, 92, 93, 110, 112, 

217, 223, 231 

germination, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 86, 

89, 95, 98, 99, 183, 205, 237, 

241 

germplasm collections, 9, 100, 103, 

109, 111, 163, 164 

grafting, 48, 49, 54, 55, 75, 91, 

162, 200, 205, 256, 283 

growth regulators, 43, 53, 63, 116, 

119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 173, 

178, 180, 188, 190, 199, 204, 

213, 216, 218, 233, 246, 249 

harvesting, 59, 61, 97, 113, 114, 

116, 117, 118, 119, 155, 156, 

160, 166 

ideotypes, 79 

improvement, 8, 9, 11, 16, 80, 81, 

82, 83, 85, 86, 92, 102, 103, 104, 

105, 108, 111, 162, 163, 164, 

201 

India, 1, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 

29, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 41, 46, 

47, 50, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 

66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 78, 

286

82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 94, 95, 96, 97, 

99, 100, 102, 103, 108, 109, 112, 

113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 122, 

126, 130, 138, 154, 155, 156, 

157, 159, 160, 169, 170, 174, 

175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 

182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188, 

189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, 

196, 200, 201, 202, 204, 208, 

209, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 

218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 

224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 

230, 232, 235, 236, 237, 238, 

239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 247, 

248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 

254, 258, 259, 260, 261, 268, 

269, 273, 274, 275, 276 

Kenya, 9, 13, 41, 94, 161, 184, 197, 

199, 215, 231, 270, 276 

lac insect, 70, 259 

Lesotho, 161, 270 

Malawi, 13, 29, 158, 161, 201, 227, 

253, 270, 276 

manure, 47, 56 

marketing, 117, 154, 155, 156, 157, 

158, 161, 166 

medicinal, 35, 221, 223, 243 

medicines, 93, 140, 203, 206 

micropropagation, 165, 204 

minerals, 20, 118 

nutrition, 16, 18, 183, 191, 231 

nutritional composition, 114 

origin, 15, 85, 108, 112, 250, 257 

patch budding, 51, 197 

pests 

Adoretus decanus, 69 

A. kanarensis, 69, 259 

A. pallens, 69 

A. stoliezkae, 69 

A. versutus, 69 

bark eating caterpillar, 6, 68, 258 

Carpomyia vesuviana, 66, 80, 

84, 171, 174, 224, 225, 227, 

231, 239, 258 

chafer beetle, 69 

Dacus correctus, 66, 258 

D. dorsalis, 66, 258 

Dasychira mendosa, 68, 258 

Drepanococcus chiton, 70 

Droschiella tamarindus, 70 

Euproctis fraterna, 68, 176 

fruit borer, 67, 258 

fruitfly, 10, 66, 143, 258 

hairy caterpillars, 6, 68 

Indarbela quadrinotata, 68, 208, 

239, 250, 258 

I. tetraonis, 68, 258 

I. watsoni, 68, 258 

Kerria lacca, 32, 70, 209, 259 

leaf gall, 70 

leaf hopper, 70 

mealy bug, 70 

Meridarchis scyrodes, 67, 80, 

258 

mites, 70 

Phakospora ziziphi-vulgaris, 75 

Phyllodiplosis jujubae, 70, 188, 

258 

Scirtothrips dorsalis, 260 

Thiacidas postica, 68, 203, 213, 

258 

wax scale, 70 

weevil, 70 

Xanthochelus supercilosus, 70 

Zyginida pakistanica, 70, 259 

planting, 29, 31, 32, 45, 46, 51, 56, 

57, 58, 60, 77, 79, 118, 119, 161, 

165, 166, 198, 238, 247, 254 

pollination, 40, 79, 81, 84, 93, 96, 

211 

post harvest 

packaging, 51, 121, 122, 158, 

160, 166, 217, 219 

ripening, 42, 76, 97, 99, 100, 

101, 104, 113, 115, 116, 117, 

118, 120, 124, 125, 126, 139, 

140, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173, 

175, 176, 178, 189, 207, 226, 

232, 237 

shelf life, 80, 84, 89, 114, 115, 

121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 

287

134, 192, 193, 207, 228, 231, 

236 

spoilage, 116, 121, 122, 123, 

127, 156, 201 

storage, 9, 41, 42, 80, 82, 89, 

100, 111, 112, 114, 116, 118, 

120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 

126, 129, 134, 154, 166, 167, 

168, 169, 172, 174, 192, 193, 

195, 198, 199, 207, 217, 219, 

223, 226, 229, 230, 236, 240, 

246, 255 

processing, 181, 235 

dehydrated, 126, 127, 129 

drying, 37, 101, 127, 128, 129, 

204, 205, 207, 210, 255 

preserve, 107, 127, 130, 131, 

133, 135 

preserved, 132, 138, 139, 160 

pulp, 3, 5, 18, 19, 20, 30, 40, 66, 

67, 79, 80, 97, 98, 99, 100, 

101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 

115, 116, 117, 120, 126, 127, 

134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 153, 

164, 189 

wine, 137, 201 

production, iii, 1, 15, 17, 20, 25, 

30, 32, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 

48, 65, 70, 83, 91, 112, 118, 119, 

135, 138, 154, 158, 160, 161, 

162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 190, 

201, 210, 214, 256 

cost, 77 

income, 77, 223 

properties, 4, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 

28, 114, 132, 180, 188, 191, 213, 

253 

protein, 19, 20, 22, 30, 101 

pruning, 31, 49, 60, 63, 64, 65, 68, 

70, 71, 72, 104, 119, 122, 165, 

170, 171, 175, 177, 184, 185, 

192, 194, 198, 199, 208, 209, 

218, 219, 228, 229, 234, 238, 

241, 242, 245, 254 

rainfall, 5, 10, 36, 37, 38, 59, 65, 

71, 72, 234 

returns, 77, 99, 116 

Saudi Arabia, 10, 30, 34, 159, 168, 

186, 233, 271 

seed 

dispersal, 190 

germination, 39, 177, 178, 180, 

183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191, 

196, 201, 202, 205, 206, 207, 

208, 213, 216, 218, 224, 226, 

234, 239, 242, 251, 255, 278, 

281, 283 

seed propagation 

germination, 39, 177, 178, 180, 

183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191, 

196, 201, 202, 205, 206, 207, 

208, 213, 216, 218, 224, 226, 

234, 239, 242, 251, 255, 278, 

281, 283 

growth regulators, 173, 178, 180, 

190, 199, 204, 213, 216, 218, 

233, 246, 249 

rootstock seedlings, 48, 52 

selection, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 91, 

102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 

165, 195, 196, 220, 255, 257, 

262, 264 

South Africa, 35, 159 

stem cuttings, 216 

stooling, 48, 55, 239 

sugars, 19, 20, 38, 63, 70, 100, 101, 

102, 117, 118, 120, 123, 125, 

140 

taxonomy, 3, 4, 162, 163, 164 

temperature, 36, 37, 43, 50, 54, 71, 

80, 83, 99, 111, 112, 118, 120, 

122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 131, 

133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 167, 

169, 199, 204, 223, 232, 251, 

280 

timber, 32, 45, 111 

top working, 188, 201 

training, 56, 57, 65, 165 

USA, 37, 210, 251, 272 

Uzbekistan, 168 

vernacular names, 12, 13 

viability, 41, 42, 50, 99, 111 

288

vitamins, 20, 281 

water management 

water harvesting, 59, 234 

weed control, 60, 171, 203 

wood, 29, 32, 50, 123, 194 

yield, 32, 60, 62, 64, 66, 79, 80, 82, 

83, 84, 96, 99, 102, 103, 104, 

105, 118, 119, 137, 164, 175, 

176, 185, 192, 208, 226, 240, 

247 

fruit, 32, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 70, 

77, 171, 179, 181, 184, 192, 

194, 196, 198, 200, 207, 208, 

209, 218, 234, 239, 241, 247 

Ziziphus jujuba, 36, 199 

Z. lotus, 4, 10 

Z. nummularia, 1, 10, 11, 15, 29, 

31, 33, 48, 87, 91, 93, 96, 110, 

111 

Z. oenoplia, 72 

Z. spina-christi, 4, 1, 6, 9, 10, 12, 

16, 29, 30, 34, 36, 48, 49, 54, 

110, 113, 139, 140, 169 

Z. xylopyra, 12 

Zambia, 14, 30, 158, 161, 202 

Zimbabwe, 12, 14, 29, 35, 38, 100, 

137, 158, 161, 181, 182, 187, 

201, 202, 213, 219, 220, 247, 

269 

289

Ber and other Jujubes monograph.pdf - Crops for the Future

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?