Cordyceps - Aloha Medicinals Inc.

Published in "Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements" Nov. 2005: Dekker Encyclopedias, Taylor and Francis Publishing 

Cordyceps 

John Holliday 

Matt Cleaver 

Aloha Medicinals Inc., Santa Cruz, California, U.S.A. 

Solomon P. Wasser 

Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, Israel 

INTRODUCTION 

Cordyceps (sometimes spelled ‘‘cordiceps’’) is a rare 

and exotic medicinal fungus, and it has been a highly 

regarded cornerstone of Chinese medicine for centuries; 

one that reportedly has a number of far-reaching 

medicinal effects. 

Most people in the West have only come to know of 

Cordyceps within the last 20 years, during which time, 

modern scientific methods have been increasingly 

applied to the investigation of its seemingly copious 

range of medicinal applications, in an attempt to validate 

what Chinese practitioners have noted for centuries. 

NAME AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION 

A medicinal fungus of a long and illustrious history, 

Cordyceps sinensis is an Ascomycetes fungus. 

Although it is not actually a mushroom in the taxonomic 

sense, it has been regarded as a medicinal mushroom 

throughout history. 

The name Cordyceps comes from the Latin words 

‘‘cord’’ and ‘‘ceps,’’ meaning, ‘‘club’’ and ‘‘head,’’ 

respectively. The Latin word-conjunction accurately 

describes the appearance of this club fungus, whose 

stoma and fruit body extend from the mummified carcasses 

of insect larvae, usually that of the Himalayan 

Bat Moth, Hepialis armoricanus. 

In historical and general usage, the term ‘‘Cordyceps’’ 

normally refers specifically to the species C. sinensis. 

Also pertinent to the general term ‘‘Cordyceps’’ are 

a number of closely related species, found throughout 

the world. While C. sinensis may be the most well 

known variety, there are many other species in the 

genus Cordyceps, in which modern science may have 

uncovered potentially valuable medicinal properties. 

C. sinensis has been appreciated for many centuries 

in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). In nature, it is 

found only at high altitudes on the Himalayan Plateau 

and is thus difficult to harvest. Because of such 

difficulties, Cordyceps has always been one of the most 

expensive medicinal ‘‘herbs.’’ Its high price had 

relegated its availability almost exclusively to members 

of the Emperor’s court and others among the Chinese 

nobility and historically beyond the reach of the 

average Chinese subject. Despite its cost and rarity, 

the unprecedented litany of medicinal possibilities for 

Cordyceps has made it a highly valued staple of the 

Chinese medical tradition. 

The medicinal value of this fungus has been recognized 

for more than 2000 years in China and the Orient. 

But knowledge of this reached Western scientific 

audiences only in 1726, when it was introduced at a 

scientific meeting in Paris. The first specimens were carried 

back to France by a Jesuit priest, who chronicled 

his experiences with the Cordyceps mushroom during 

his stay at the Chinese Emperor’s court. [1] While 

always a rarity in nature, modern technological 

advances in cultivation have made the prospect of 

affordable Cordyceps a reality, and its potential medicinal 

uses continue to augment conventional therapy 

and gain recognition as clinical trials proceed to probe 

the claimed efficacy of the Cordyceps mushroom. 

Mycological Data 

Place and System, Description, and Habitat 

Kingdom Fungi 

Phylum Ascomycota 

Class Ascomycetes 

Order Hypocreales 

Family Clavicipataceae 

Genus Cordyceps 

Species C. sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. 

Basionym: Sphaeria sinensis Berk. 

Anomorphs: Cephalosporium donqchongxiacao, C. sinensis, 

Chrysosporium sinense, Hirsutella sinensis, Mortierella hepiali, 

Paecilomyces hepiali, Scytalidium sp., Scytalidium hepiali, Tolypocladium 

sinensis, and others 

English names: Cordyceps mushroom, caterpillar fungus 

Japanese names: Totsu kasu, tochukasu 

Chinese names: Hia tsao tong tchong, dongchongxiacao [chongcao], 

literal translation: ‘‘winter worm,’’ ‘‘summer plant’’ old Chinese: 

modern Chinese 

Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements DOI: 10.1081/E-EDS-120024882 

Copyright # 2005 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. 1 

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2 Cordyceps 

Description 

The ascocarp or fruitbody of the C. sinensis mushroom 

originates at its base, on an insect larval host [usually 

the larva of the Himalayan bat moth, Thitarodes 

(Hepialis) armoricanus, although occasionally other 

insect hosts are encountered] and ends at the club-like 

cap, including the stipe and stoma. The fruitbody is 

dark brown to black; and the ‘‘root’’ of the organism, 

the larval body pervaded by mycelium, appears yellowish 

to brown. 

Habitat 

Cordyceps is a fungus with an annual appearance. The 

normal harvesting period is between the months of 

April and August. Fruiting off of moth larvae, Cordyceps 

thrives only at altitudes above 3800 m above sea 

level, in cold, grassy, alpine meadows on the mountainous 

Himalayan Plateau of modern day Tibet, Nepal, 

and Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Hubei, 

Zhejiang, Shanxi, Guizhon, Qinghai, and Yunnan. 

Edibility 

While not usually considered edible, because of its 

small size and rarity as well as its tough texture, Cordyceps 

has, however, been consumed traditionally as a 

medicine with a variety of meats in the form of a 

medicinal soup, with the type of meat used dependent 

upon the target medical condition. [12] 

HISTORY AND TRADITIONAL USES 

Both resilient and rare, Chinese legends and myths of 

this revered healing mushroom and its chameleonic 

characteristics span the course of millennia. The first 

written record of the Cordyceps mushroom comes 

from China, in the year A.D. 620, at the time of the 

Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618–A.D. 907), bringing substance 

to the once intangible allegorical narrative, which 

spoke of a creature, whose annual existence alluded 

to a transformation from animal to plant in summer, 

and then again from plant to animal in winter. Tibetan 

scholars wrote of the healing animal=plant through the 

fifteenth to eighteenth centuries, and, in 1757, the 

earliest objective and scientifically reliable depiction 

of the Cordyceps mushroom was written by Wu-Yiluo 

in Ben Cao Congxin (‘‘New Compilation of Materia 

Medica’’), during the Qing Dynasty. 

A member of the largest subdivision of true fungi, 

Ascomycotina, Cordyceps finds itself among other 

well-known fungi such as Penicillium, from which the 

antibiotic penicillin is derived, the most potent 

hallucinogen, L.S.D., derived from the plant-parasitic 

ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea), and the most 

highly prized and rare fungal delicacies (truffles and 

morels). To date, hundreds of species of Cordyceps 

have been identified on six continents, in a variety of 

habitats, and with equally varied food sources. 

The Cordyceps organism was discovered by yak 

herders in the Himalayas of ancient Tibet and Nepal 

who, recognizing the ardent behavior of their animals 

after grazing on Cordyceps at high altitudes in the 

spring, sought the causal agent. The cap-less mushroom 

they eventually found has been used in traditional 

Chinese medicine ever since to treat kidney, 

lung, and heart ailments, male and female sexual dysfunction, 

fatigue, cancer, hiccups, and serious injury, 

to relieve pain, and the symptoms of tuberculosis and 

hemorrhoids, to restore general health and appetite, 

and to promote longevity. More potent than Ginseng 

and worth four times its weight in silver in ancient 

times, Cordyceps has held, and continues to hold, a 

highly esteemed position in the vast ranks of Chinese 

pharmacopeia, which the West has only recently begun 

to incorporate into medical practices. Although it was 

once a rather exclusive medicine, modern cultivation 

techniques have made the mycelium of this caterpillarborne 

fungus more readily available, lowering its cost 

on the world market, and allowing for more indepth 

research into its healing potential. 

RELATED SPECIES AND ARTIFICIAL 

CULTIVATION 

There are currently more than 680 documented species 

of Cordyceps, found on all six inhabited continents 

and in many climatic zones and habitats, and feeding 

off a range of hosts, including plants, insects, 

arachnids, and even other fungi, such as truffles. These 

figures are subject to rapid change, as what we know of 

this genus, and the life cycles of its constituents 

expand. As studies of related species continue, it has 

become increasingly apparent that the potential medicinal 

benefits of C. sinensis are, in fact, not related to 

only one species. Of the many different varieties of 

Cordyceps, those presently being cultivated for medicinal 

purposes and use in health supplements include 

C. sinensis, C. militaris, C. sobolifera, C. subsessilus, 

C. ophioglossoides, and others. 

Because of the rarity and high prices of the wild 

collected variety, attempts have long been made to 

cultivate Cordyceps. By the mid-1980s, the majority 

of Cordyceps available in the world’s marketplace 

were artificially cultivated. [2] Because of the development 

of modern biotechnology-based cultivation 

methods, the availability of this previously rare health 

supplement has greatly increased in the last 20 years.

Cordyceps 3 

The demand for Cordyceps has also compounded 

exponentially, in this same time frame, partly because 

of the opening of China to trade with the West in the 

1970s, exposing many more people around the world 

to the concepts and practices of TCM. As Cordyceps 

has always been highly revered in TCM, it is reasonable 

that, with increased exposure to TCM, the 

demand for this herb has also increased. Such an 

increase has lead to overharvesting of the wild stocks 

and a subsequent shortage of wild collected varieties 

of Cordyceps. [2–4] 

Many companies now produce artificially cultivated 

Cordyceps products, both from the mycelium and 

from the fruit body. The increase in supply has given 

rise to variations in purity and quality, creating a situation 

in which there are a large number of counterfeit 

and adulterated products being sold. [4] Recently, new 

methods for assaying the quality of Cordyceps 

products have been introduced. [2] 

Another issue has been raised regarding the quality 

of Cordyceps: lead contamination. Incidents of lead 

poisoning from consumption of Cordyceps by people 

in China and Taiwan have been reported. [5] A practice 

of adulteration, long practiced by the collectors of 

natural Cordyceps, introduces excessive lead into the 

organism. As found in its natural state, Cordyceps is 

attached to the mummified body of the caterpillar, 

from which it arises. It is harvested whole in this form, 

dried, and supplied into the market. Because Cordyceps 

is sold by weight, the collectors have historically 

inserted a small bit of twig into many of the caterpillars, 

resulting in an increase in weight. [2] Better quality 

Fig. 1 Wire and twigs inserted into Cordyceps to increase 

weight. 

Cordyceps traditionally had fewer inserted sticks; however, 

the practice has been so widespread for so long 

that it is virtually impossible to find wild collected Cordyceps 

without these fillers inserted (Figs. 1 and 2). 

This is probably a harmless practice, as long as the 

object inserted is derived from a nontoxic source. 

Fig. 2 Inserted twigs and telltale holes. 

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But modern collectors have found that more weight 

can be gained if a bit of wire is inserted into the caterpillar, 

rather than the traditional twig. As long as the 

wire is steel, such a practice, as is the case with the 

aforementioned wood insertion, is probably not too 

harmful. Unfortunately, the wire of choice is now lead 

solder. A careful examination of the ends of the caterpillars 

will often reveal the holes where the sticks or 

wire have been inserted (Fig. 2), and anyone who 

chooses to use the wild collected Cordyceps, rather 

than the cultivated variety, would be well advised to 

break each one of the caterpillars in half before use, 

so that any bits of foreign matter can be readily 

discerned and removed. 

Cultivated cordyceps appears to offer far less risk of 

lead contamination than the wild type. The presence 

of lead or other substances in the growth medium 

certainly could be absorbed by any growing organism. 

We have conducted chemical analysis on many thousands 

of Cordyceps samples over the years and observed 

that Cordyceps does not have any more tendency to 

accumulate lead or other heavy metals than do any other 

fungi. 

GENERAL NUTRITIONAL COMPONENTS 

OF CORDYCEPS 

Chemical Constituents 

Cordyceps contains a broad range of compounds, which 

are considered nutritional. [1,2] It contains all of the essential 

amino acids, vitamins E and K, and the water-soluble 

vitamins B1, B2, and B12. In addition, it contains many 

sugars, including mono-, di-, and oligiosaccharides, and 

many complex polysaccharides, proteins, sterols, nucleosides, 

and trace elements (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, 

Zn, Pi, Se, Al, Si, Ni, Sr, Ti, Cr, Ga, V, and Zr). 

Potentially bioactive constituents 

Cordycepin [3 0 -deoxyadenosine] and cordycepic acid 

[D-mannitol] were the initial bioactive compounds first 

isolated from C. militaris. Chen and Chu [6] announced 

the characterization of cordycepin and 2 0 -deoxyadenosine, 

using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and 

infrared spectroscopy (IR) in an extract of C. sinensis. 

Other components found included various saccharides 

and polysaccharides, including cyclofurans, which are 

cyclic rings of five-carbon sugars, whose function is 

yet unknown, beta-glucans, beta-mannans, crosslinked 

beta-mannan polymers, and complex polysaccharides 

consisting of both five- and six-carbon sugars joined 

together in branching chains, employing both alphaand 

beta-bonds. Many other nucleosides have been 

found in Cordyceps, including uridine, several distinct 

structures of deoxyuridines, adenosine, 2 0 3 0 -dideoxyadenosine, 

hydroxyethyladenosine, cordycepin [3 0 - 

deoxyadenosine], cordycepin triphosphate, guanidine, 

deoxyguanidine, and altered and deoxygenated nucleosides, 

which were not found anywhere else in nature 

(Fig. 3). Of particular note are various immunosuppressive 

compounds found in Cordyceps, including 

cyclosporin, a constituent of the species C. subsessilis 

[anamorph: Tolypocladium infalatum]. [29] Other immunosuppressant 

compounds have also been found in 

Isaria sinclairii, a species closely related to Cordyceps. [7] 

Polysaccharides 

In the fungal kingdom, and particularly in Cordyceps, 

polysaccharides are perhaps the best known and 

understood of the medicinally active compounds. [8,9] 

A number of polysaccharides and other sugar derivatives, 

such as cordycepic acid [D-mannitol], have been 

identified. Research has shown that these polysaccharides 

are effective in regulating blood sugar, [10] and 

have antimetastatic and antitumor effects. [11] 

Proteins and nitrogenous compounds 

Cordyceps contains proteins, peptides, polyamines, 

and all essential amino acids. In addition, Cordyceps 

contains some uncommon cyclic dipeptides, including 

cyclo-[Gly-Pro], cyclo-[Leu-Pro], cyclo-[Val-Pro], 

cyclo-[Ala-Leu], cyclo-[Ala-Val], and cyclo-[Thr-Leu]. 

Small amounts of polyamines, such as 1,3-diamino 

propane, cadaverine, spermidine, spermine, and putrescine, 

have also been identified. 

Sterols 

A number of sterol type compounds have been found 

in Cordyceps: ergosterol, Delta-3 ergosterol, ergosterol 

peroxide, 3-sitosterol, daucosterol, and campeasterol, 

to name a few. [12] 

Other constituents 

Twenty-eight saturated and unsaturated fatty acids 

and their derivatives have been isolated from C. sinensis. 

Polar compounds of Cordyceps extracts include 

many compounds of alcohols and aldehydes. [12] Particularly 

interesting are the range of polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons produced by C. sinensis as secondary 

metabolites. These PAH compounds react with the 

polypropylene used in common mushroom culture 

bags, resulting in the production of byproducts toxic 

to Cordyceps that stunt its growth as time progresses. 

Eventually, these polypropylene=PAH byproducts will 

kill the organism. For extended periods of growth,


Fig. 3 Some of the unique nucleosides found in Cordyceps. 

C. sinensis must be grown in glass or metal containers. [2] 

The PAH compounds are present in the living culture, 

but are volatile compounds and are lost upon drying. 

THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS, INDICATIONS, 

AND USAGE 

The range of therapeutic uses claimed for Cordyceps 

species is far reaching; and most of them have yet to 

be sufficiently investigated. In TCM, Cordyceps has 

been used to treat conditions including respiration 

and pulmonary diseases, renal, liver, and cardiovascular 

diseases, hypo sexuality, and hyperlipidemia. It is 

also used in the treatment of immune disorders and 

as an adjunct to modern cancer therapies (chemotherapy, 

radiation treatment, etc.). [12] Cordyceps is believed 

by many, particularly in and around Tibet, which is 

its place of origin, to be a remedy for weakness and 

fatigue, and it is often used as an overall rejuvenator 

for increased energy while recovering from a serious illness. 

Many also believe it to be a medicine for the 

treatment for impotence, acting as an aphrodisiac in 

both men and women. Cordyceps is often prescribed 

for the elderly to ease general aches and pains. Practitioners 

of TCM also recommend the regular use of 

Cordyceps to strengthen the body’s resistance to infections, 

such as colds and flus, and to generally improve 

the homeostasis of the patient. Cordyceps is traditionally 

most often used in the treatment of health issues 

related to or stemming from the kidneys and the lungs. 

For example, it is used to ease a range of respiratory 

ailments: cough and phlegm, shortness of breath, 

bronchial discomfort, chronic obstructive pulmonary 

disease (COPD), and asthma. Modern science is 

attempting to confirm the efficacy of Cordyceps for 

most of its traditional uses; however, most medical 

studies regarding its efficacy remain incomplete. 

Today in the West, Cordyceps is most widely used 

by two groups of people: athletes and the elderly. 

The use of Cordyceps by athletes stems from the publicity 

surrounding the performance exhibited by the 

Chinese women’s track and field team at the Chinese 

National Games in 1993. In this competition, nine 

world records were broken by substantial margins. 

At first, governing sports authorities suspected that a 

performance-enhancing drug had been used, but the 

team’s coach attributed their success to Cordyceps. [50] 

An increase in cellular ATP [13,46] results in an 

increase in useful energy, in contrast to the perceived 

increase in energy, which occurs from the use of CNS 

stimulants, such as caffeine, ephedrine, and amphetamines, 

ultimately resulting in an energy deficiency. 

However, it should be noted that in a recent study with 

highly trained professional athletes, C. sinensis was 

shown to have no appreciable effect in enhancing the 

performance in this group of people. [15] We are not 

aware of any test that has been conducted showing a 

difference in the energy increase potential between 

highly trained athletes and normal healthy adults using 

Cordyceps. 

FATIGUE 

Inhabitants in the high mountains of Tibet and Nepal 

consume Cordyceps, claiming that it gives them energy 

and offsets the symptoms of altitude sickness. The 

proposed reason for the alleged increase in energy is 

an increase in cellular ATP, as previously mentioned; 

likewise, increased oxygen availability has been posited 

as the primary agent in combating the effects of 

altitude sickness. 

In a placebo-controlled clinical study of elderly 

patients with chronic fatigue, results indicated that 

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most of the subjects treated with C. sinensis reported a 

significant clinical improvement in the areas of fatigue, 

cold intolerance, dizziness, frequent nocturia, tinnitus, 

hypo sexuality, and amnesia, while no improvement 

was reported in the placebo group. [1,7,16–18] Another 

study involving healthy elderly volunteers, with an average 

age of 65, tested the output performance and oxygen 

capacity of subjects while exercising on stationary 

bicycles. A portion of the volunteers consumed C. 

sinensis for six weeks, while others consumed a placebo. 

The results demonstrated that the group that consumed 

Cordyceps had a significant increase in energy output 

and oxygen capacity over the other group after six 

weeks. [47] 

Among the simplest and most reliable tests used to 

determine a compound’s ability to increase the energy 

output of a subject or decrease fatigue is the mouse 

swim test. In this test, two groups of mice (or other 

animals) are used. One group receives a standard diet, 

while the other receives the same diet with the addition 

of the test compound. In this case, the test compound 

is Cordyceps. After a period of time, the two groups 

are put into a steep-sided container filled with water, 

from which escape is not possible. In this way, the 

animals are forced to swim. The time-to-exhaustion is 

measured for each group, which was compared and 

contrasted with that of the other. If the group receiving 

the test compound swims longer than the group on the 

standard diet without the test compound, then it has 

been determined that they had increased energy output=decreased 

fatigue when compared with the control 

group. Trials of this nature have been conducted using 

Cordyceps as the test compound and have invariably 

shown that the use of Cordyceps significantly increases 

the time-to-exhaustion in laboratory animals when 

compared with the control groups. [7] 

PRECLINICAL AND CLINICAL DATA 

Therapeutic applications of Cordyceps and its extracts 

are hypothesized to be centered primarily on the key 

effects of increased oxygen utilization, increased ATP 

production, and the stabilization of blood sugar metabolism. 

[12] The presence of Adenosine, Cordycepin, 

and Cordycepic acid [D-Mannitol] (Chen and Chu [6] ), 

polysaccharides, vitamins, and trace elements may be, 

at least partially, the cause for such effects. Because 

of the historically high cost of the fungus and the only 

recently developed methods for artificial cultivation, 

preclinical and clinical trials of Cordyceps and its 

extracts are still relatively new endeavors. Earlier trials, 

although few in number, have set the precedent from 

which modern trials are building, expanding, and 

cementing our understanding of Cordyceps. 

CANCER 

A possibly valuable therapeutic application of Cordyceps 

is in the treatment for cancer, as an adjunct to 

chemotherapy, radiation, and other conventional and 

traditional cancer treatments. 

Animal Studies 

The survival time of mice inoculated with murine B16 

melanoma cells and treated with a combination of 

water extracts from C. sinensis and the conventional 

agent, methotrexate, has been shown to be significantly 

longer than that of either the untreated control group 

or those treated with methotrexate alone, indicating 

that some water extracts of C. sinensis may be beneficial 

in the prevention of tumor metastasis. [19] 

Antitumor and immuno-stimulating activities were 

observed in the treatment of mice inoculated with 

Sarcoma 180 tumor cells, when treated with an ethanol 

extract of C. sinensis [20] (the reference refers to Paecilomyces 

japonica, which is believed to be an anamorph 

of C. sinensis), while a study using murine 

models verified that oral administration of a hot water 

extract of C. sinensis consequently resulted in the activation 

of macrophages, thereby increasing the production 

of GM-CSF and IL-6, which act on the systemic 

immune system. [21] In a study of mice subcutaneously 

implanted with lymphoma cells, oral administration 

of an extract of C. sinensis led to a decrease in tumor 

size and a prolonged survival time. [30] Furthermore, 

mice treated with cyclophosphamide, which suppresses 

immune function, also treated with the same hot water 

extract saw their immune function return to normal, 

as measured by the IgM and IgG response and macrophage 

activity. [30] Further evidence of the immunoenhancing 

action of C. sinensis was provided by 

another study treating mice inoculated with Erhlich 

ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells with a warm water 

extract of Cordyceps. The median survival time of the 

treated mice compared to untreated controls was over 

300%, and the lack of activity of the extract against 

EAC cells grown in vitro indicated that the antitumor 

effect in the mice may be mediated through immunoenhancing 

activity, rather than directly. [31] 

Oral administration of polysaccharide fractions 

CI-P and CI-A, derived from C. sinensis, in doses of 

1–10 mg=kg=day, demonstrated antitumor activities 

in mice inoculated with Sarcoma 180. Similar results 

were observed with an alkali soluble polysaccharide 

(CI-6P), derived from the species C. sobolifera, when 

administered in doses of 10 mg=kg=day. [7] In a related 

study, B-(1-3)-D-glucan, fraction CO-1 and the galactosaminoglycan 

fraction CO-N, derived from C. ophioglossoides, 

inhibited the growth of ascitic Sarcoma 180.


Increased immune function was noted as well, quantified 

by an increase in carbon clearance activity. [22,23] 

It is well established that numerous fungal derived 

simple- and protein-bound polysaccharides exert a 

significant potentiation of immune function. [9] This is 

thought to be one of the major mechanisms of antitumor 

activity in Cordyceps. Among the multiple polysaccharides 

produced by C. sinensis, beta-d-glucans are 

one class of polymers that have been shown to increase 

both innate and cell-mediated immune response. These 

polysaccharides increase the production of such cytokines 

as TNF-a, interleukins, interferons, NO, and antibodies 

by the activated immune cells. This activation of 

immune response may be triggered by polysaccharide 

binding to specific receptors on the surface of the 

immune systems cells, called the CR3 receptor. [24] 

They are also thought to be involved in cell-to-cell communications, 

perhaps acting as messenger molecules. 

There is evidence of another mechanism at play in the 

antitumor response of Cordyceps, as well, pertaining to 

the structure of at least one, and possibly more, of the 

altered nucleosides found in some species of Cordyceps 

and exemplified by the compound cordycepin [3 0 - 

deoxyadenosine] (Fig. 1). These deoxynucleosides interfere 

with DNA replication in tumor cells. Such interference 

is reduced in normal healthy cells by the operation of a 

DNA repair mechanism, which is absent in tumor cells, 

and by the fact that tumor cells generally multiply at a 

rate well in excess of that of normal cells. 

Clinical Trials 

Clinical studies have been conducted in China and 

Japan involving cancer patients, [25] yielding positive 

results. In one study of 50 patients with lung cancer 

who were administered C. sinensis at 6 g=day in conjunction 

with chemotherapy, tumors were reduced in 

size in 23 patients. A trial involving cancer patients 

with several different types of tumors found that 

C. sinensis, taken over a two-month period at 6 g=day, 

day, improved subjective symptoms in the majority of 

patients. White blood cell counts were kept at 

3000=mm 3 or higher; even with radiation or chemotherapy, 

other immunological parameters showed no 

significant change, while tumor size was significantly 

reduced in approximately half of the patients observed, 

indicating an improved tolerance for radiation and=or 

chemotherapy. [12] 

A serious side effect of the use of conventional 

cancer chemotherapy and radiation therapy is the 

suppression of the patient’s immune system. The use 

of C. sinensis in combination with conventional chemotherapy 

appears to have an immuno-stimulatory 

effect, which enhances the effectiveness of conventional 

chemotherapy by balancing its side effects. 

The belief in the efficacy of C. sinensis against 

cancer is widespread in the Orient, and many cancer 

patients in Japan, Korea, and China are taking 

Cordyceps or some other mushroom-derived immunomodulator 

(such as PSK, PSP, Lentinan, AHCC, and 

Arabinoxylane [MGN3 TM ]) while undergoing conventional 

treatment. [12,25,26] 

Immunomodulating Effects 

Immuno-enhancing effects of C. sinensis have already 

been described. It is of interest to note that the fungus 

which produces the immuno-suppressive drug, cyclosporin, 

Tolypocladium inflatum, was discovered in 

1996 to be the asexual stage of yet another Cordyceps 

species, C. subsessilus. [29] Thus, the same genus of fungus, 

having been used for centuries to provide immune 

stimulation, was now known to provide an immune 

suppressant valuable in organ transplantation surgery. 

Other such experiments demonstrating both inhibiting 

and potentiating effects of Cordyceps are controversial; 

and the effects observed are possibly the 

result of differing experimental conditions and variables. 

However, with such evidence of a possibly 

bidirectional immunomodulating effect, [28] 

further 

research is in order. 

While the drug cyclosporin has allowed some 

advances in medicine, facilitating the transplant of 

organs, there has been a drawback to its use. The high 

toxicity of cyclosporin has caused many patients 

suffer from serious kidney damage, related to the use 

of the drug. In 1995, a study was undertaken in China 

in which 69 kidney-transplant patients were given 

either cyclosporin alone or in conjunction with C. 

sinensis,at3g=day. After 15 days it was clearly evident 

that the group receiving C. sinensis in addition to 

cyclosporin had a much lower incidence of kidney 

damage than the group receiving only cyclosporin, as 

measured by the levels of urinary NAG, serum 

creatinine, and blood urea nitrate. [27] 

KIDNEY AILMENTS 

Traditional views of the Cordyceps mushroom held 

that its consumption strengthened the kidneys. Studies 

have shown that much of Cordyceps’ kidneyenhancing 

potential stems from its ability to increase 

17-hydroxy-corticosteroid and 17-ketosteroid levels in 

the body. [12] 

Chronic renal failure is a serious disease, one often 

affecting the elderly. In a study among 51 patients 

suffering from chronic renal failure, it was found that 

the administration of 3–5 g=day of C. sinensis significantly 

improved both the kidney function and overall 

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immune function of treated patients, compared to the 

untreated control group. [32] 

Patients with chronic renal failure or reduced 

kidney function often suffer from hypertension, proteinuria, 

and anemia. In a study with such patients, it 

was found that after one month on C. sinensis, a 

15% reduction in blood pressure was observed. Urinary 

protein was also reduced. Additionally, increases 

in superoxide dismutase (SOD) were seen. The increase 

in SOD, coupled with an observed decrease in serum 

lipoperoxide, suggests an increase in the oxygen free 

radical scavenging capacity, resulting in reduced oxidative 

cellular damage. [33] 

In another human clinical study, 57 patients with 

gentamicin-induced kidney damage were either treated 

with 4.5 g of Cordyceps per day or by other, more conventional 

methods. After six days, the group that 

received Cordyceps had recovered 89% of their normal 

kidney function, while the control group had recovered 

only 45% of normal kidney function. The time-torecovery 

was also significantly shorter in the Cordyceps 

group when compared with that of the control group. [12] 

HYPOGLYCEMIC EFFECT 

Another area of particular interest is the effect of 

Cordyceps on the blood glucose metabolism system. 

Cordyceps has been tested on animals and humans 

to investigate its potential as an agent in blood sugar 

regulation. In one randomized trial, 95% of patients 

treated with 3 g=day of C. sinensis saw improvement 

in their blood sugar profiles, while the control group 

showed only 54% improving with treatment by other 

methods. [34] 

In animal studies, isolated polysaccharides have 

been shown to improve blood glucose metabolism 

and increase insulin sensitivity in normal animals, [35] 

to lower blood sugar levels in genetically diabetic animals, 

[36] and to positively affect blood sugar metabolism 

in animals with chemically induced diabetes. [37] 

The common thread throughout all these trials is the 

increase in insulin sensitivity and hepatic glucoseregulating 

enzymes, glucokinase and hexokinase. 

In one unpublished trial conducted by us on nondiabetic 

patients treated with 3 g=day of Cordyceps, it was 

found that blood sugar levels vary throughout the day; 

the increase in blood glucose levels after eating and the 

dropping of glucose levels between meals were significantly 

dampened in the Cordyceps group. This indicates 

an increase in the efficiency of the blood sugar 

regulation mechanism. Furthermore, it was found that 

the subjects who happened to be alcoholic tended to 

lose their desire for alcohol within 48 hr after the 

commencement of this study. Subsequent unpublished 

and ongoing studies by us have confirmed this effect of 

reduction in alcohol craving. Further research into this 

area is clearly needed. 

LUNG AILMENTS 

Chinese medicine has characterized C. sinensis as a 

guardian of respiratory health for more than a 

thousand years. There have been trials on humans, 

using Cordyceps to treat many respiratory illnesses, 

including asthma, COPD, and bronchitis, either alone 

or as an adjunct to standard antibiotic therapy, and 

in many studies that have been conducted, it appears 

to be useful for all of these conditions. [14,48,49,51–55] 

Much of its reputation for protecting the lungs, 

again, is believed to stem from its ability to promote 

enhanced oxygen utilization efficacy. In environments 

lacking sufficient oxygen, mice treated with Cordyceps 

were able to survive up to three times longer than those 

left untreated, demonstrating a more efficient utilization 

of the available oxygen. This provides support 

for Cordyceps’ long history of use in preventing and 

treating altitude sickness. [14] Such efficacy alludes to 

the use of Cordyceps as an effective treatment for 

bronchitis, asthma, and COPD. Extracts of C. sinensis 

have been shown to inhibit tracheal contractions, 

especially important in asthma patients, as it allows 

for increased airflow to the lungs. In addition, its 

anti-inflammatory properties may prove to bring 

further relief to asthma patients, whose airways 

become obstructed, because of an allergic reaction 

resulting in the swelling of the bronchial pathways. 

[1,12,38] In an unpublished clinical trial conducted 

at the Beijing Medical University involving 50 asthma 

patients, symptoms among the group treated with Cordyceps 

were reduced by 81.3%, within an average of 

five days; while among those treated with conventional 

antihistamines, the symptom reduction averaged only 

61.1%, and took an average of nine days for symptoms 

to subside. [48,38] 

HEART AILMENTS 

Cordyceps is also a medication used in stabilizing the 

heartbeat and correcting heart arrhythmias in China. 

While the exact mechanism responsible for Cordyceps’ 

reputation with regard to controlling arrhythmias is 

not completely understood, it is thought to be at least 

partially because of the presence of adenosine, [39] of 

which Cordyceps often has a significant quantity, 

along with deoxyadenosine, related adenosine-type 

nucleotides, and nucleosides. It has been shown that 

these compounds have an effect on coronary and cerebral 

circulation. [40,41] While no single drug or herb is 

equally effective in all patients, it appears rare for a


patient’s arrhythmia to remain unaffected by the addition 

of Cordyceps to the treatment regimen. Cordyceps 

has been used traditionally to treat patients with heart 

disease and those recovering from stroke. [1] 

In studies of patients suffering from chronic heart 

failure, the long-term administration of Cordyceps, in 

conjunction with conventional treatments—digoxin, 

hydrochlorothiaside, dopamine, and dobutamine— 

promoted an increase in the overall quality of life. This 

included general physical condition, mental health, 

sexual drive, and cardiac function, compared to the 

control group. [18] 

LIVER AILMENTS 

Another area of considerable research interest is the 

relation of Cordyceps and liver function. Cordyceps 

has been shown in nearly all such studies to enhance 

the efficient functioning of the liver. For example, in 

the Orient today, Cordyceps is commonly used as an 

adjunct in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B and 

C. In one study, Cordyceps extract was used in combination 

with several other medicinal mushroom extracts 

as an adjunct to lamivudine for the treatment of hepatitis 

B. Lamivudine is a common antiviral drug used in 

the treatment of hepatitis. In this study, the group 

receiving Cordyceps along with other medicinal 

mushroom extracts had much better results in a shorter 

period of time than the control group who received 

only lamivudine. [42] 

In another study using 22 patients who were diagnosed 

with posthepatic cirrhosis, [43] after three months 

of consuming 6–9 g of Cordyceps per day, each patient 

showed improvement in liver function tests. 

HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA 

While hypercholesterolemia is not typically considered 

a disease, it is a clear indicator of metabolism dysfunction 

and an indicator of increased cardiovascular risk. 

In both human and animal studies, administration of 

Cordyceps has been associated with cholesterol and triglyceride 

reduction and an increase in the ratio of 

HDL to LDL cholesterol. [1,12,13] Whether the causative 

mechanism for this lipid-balancing effect is through 

blood sugar stabilization, from enhancing liver function, 

or because of some other as yet unknown cause 

remains to be seen. 

USES AGAINST MALE/FEMALE SEXUAL 

DYSFUNCTION 

Cordyceps has been used for centuries in traditional 

Chinese medicine to treat male and female sexual 

dysfunction, such as hypolibidinism and impotence. 

Preclinical data on the effects of C. sinensis on mice 

showed sex-steroid-like effects. [1,7] Human clinical 

trials have demonstrated similarly the effectiveness of 

Cordyceps in combating decreased sex-drive and 

virility. [14,44] 

OTHER USES 

Many species of Cordyceps and other entomopathogenic 

fungi have been mentioned in scientific discourse 

in relation to their potential as biological control 

agents. [57] 

DOSAGE 

Because clinical data on Cordyceps is relatively new, 

and even more so in Western countries, recommended 

dosage requirements may vary, depending on the 

source. In general, clinical trials have been conducted 

using 3–4.5 g of C. sinensis per day, except in cases 

of severe liver disease, where the dosage has usually 

been higher, in the range of 6–9 g=day. [1,7] There are 

some practitioners known to us, who keep their cancer 

patients on 30–50 g of Cordyceps per day. While this 

may seem excessive, the clinical results seen with this 

treatment regimen are promising, and Cordycepsrelated 

toxicity has never been reported. 

It has been traditionally taken in tea or eaten as 

whole, either by itself or cooked with a variety of 

meats. Today, in addition to the established traditional 

means of consumption, powdered mycelium and 

mycelial extracts are also available in capsulated 

and noncapsulated forms. At present, there are no reliable 

standards by which to compare different brands, 

but in general, the quality of Cordyceps is improving, 

as methods of more efficient cultivation are investigated; 

and as more clinical trials are conducted, a 

clearer picture of recommended dosages for a particular 

condition will become more standardized. Considering 

the quality of cultivated Cordyceps on the 

market today and the risk of lead exposure as well as 

the cost of the wild Cordyceps, use of natural Cordyceps 

over the artificially cultivated variety is not recommended. 

Obtaining Cordyceps from a reliable source, 

with complete analytical data provided, is the safest 

way to purchase Cordyceps. 

Safety Profile 

Contraindications: none known. 

C


Drug Interactions 

We have observational evidence that the alteration of 

the body’s blood glucose metabolism, in patients 

consuming Cordyceps, often results in the reduction 

of oral or injected antidiabetic medications. It is also 

posited that the naturally occurring antiretroviral 

compounds found in Cordyceps (2 0 3 0 -dideoxyadenosine 

for example, which is found in C. sinensis, and 

which is marketed as a major anti-HIV drug under 

the name Videx TM and Didanosine TM , as well as 3 0 - 

deoxyadenosine which has the same or at least similar 

activity) could increase the effectiveness or decrease the 

dosage requirements for patients undergoing concurrent 

therapy with other antiretroviral drugs. Caution 

should be exercised in these patients, especially considering 

the newer, more potent hybrid strains of Cordyceps 

being developed, and the targeted medicinal 

compounds being selectively cultivated. Many antiretroviral 

drugs currently on the market have quite 

considerable toxicity, and it is hoped that the incorporation 

of Cordyceps into the treatment regimen of 

those patients undergoing such therapy might result 

in a reduction of the toxic effects of some of these more 

toxic synthetic drugs, while sacrificing none of their 

efficacy. While no detrimental drug interactions have 

yet been noted in the scientific literature, caution is 

advised, as both the fields of pharmaceutical discovery 

and Cordyceps cultivation are rapidly expanding. 

As with any substance of considerable bioactivity, 

some drug interaction is always a possibility. 

SIDE EFFECTS 

Very few toxic side effects have been demonstrated 

with Cordyceps use, although a very small number of 

people may experience dry mouth, nausea, or diarrhea. 

[12] One study reported that a patient had developed 

a systemic allergic reaction after taking Cs-4; [56] 

however this type of reaction is not common. There 

are little published data on the use of Cordyceps in 

pregnant or lactating women, or in very young children, 

but appropriate precautions should be taken with 

these types of patients. 

TOXICITY 

Cordyceps has proven to be a nontoxic fungal substance 

with wide-ranging physical and chemical effects 

on the body. No human toxicity has been reported, 

and animal models failed to find an LD50 (median 

lethal dose) injected i.p. in mice at up to 80 g=kg per 

day, with no fatalities after seven days (Wang and 

Zhao, unpublished report; Xu, unpublished report). 

Given by mouth to rabbits for three months, at 10 g=kg 

per day (n ¼ 6) no abnormalities were seen from 

blood tests or in kidney or liver function. [45] 

REGULATORY STATUS 

Still relatively new to the scrutiny of modern science, 

Cordyceps remains, in many nations throughout the 

world, an unrecognized substance. Other than 

import=export taxes and restrictions, which vary from 

country to country (many of which ban the import of 

any such substance), most governments do not require 

a prescription to purchase or use Cordyceps. There 

are a few countries that do require a doctor’s prescription: 

Portugal, Romania, and Austria, to name a few. 

Many governments require that vendors obtain a special 

license to distribute any product relating to human 

health. 

In the U.S.A., Cordyceps is marketed privately and 

considered by the FDA as a dietary supplement. 

Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) applications 

referring to Cordyceps’ status as a food additive are 

unavailable; however, a premarket notification to the 

FDA regarding Cordyceps, containing in-depth information 

relating to preclinical trials and toxicology 

studies has been available to the public on the FDA 

website, since 1999 at http:==www.fda.gov=ohrms= 

dockets=dockets=95s0316=rpt0039.pdf. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Cordyceps is a medicinal substance of long history and 

promising potential. Once so rare that only the 

emperor of China could afford to use it, modern biotechnology 

techniques have brought it within the reach 

of the common man. Western medicine is finally starting 

to realize some of the value of the Eastern system 

of medicine. This Oriental medicine, so perfectly typified 

by TCM, is really the result of thousands of years 

of human observation. And people are good observers. 

They are especially good observers about important 

issues such as health. Generations untold have been 

observing what happens when you eat this or that 

herb, and passing that information along from one 

generation to the next. Today, we have become so 

jaded that we think observations are not valid unless 

someone ‘‘proves’’ it in a lab. And in the last few years, 

our potential to prove has become incredible. We have 

developed ways to prove statistically if, how and why 

medicines work. Cordyceps is one of those ancient 

observational wonders that have passed the litmus test 

of long periods of observation and is now gaining 

scientific proof. It is clear from our studies, that we 

know only a little of the wonders of these strange


Cordyceps creatures. Cordyceps yet has many secrets 

in store for us. 

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