mtwara reconnaissance project - Coastal Forests of Kenya and ...

MTWARA RECONNAISSANCE PROJECT 

A Reconnaissance to Prioritise Biological Knowledge 

for Community Conservation Initiatives 

2005 

Giulia Wegner 

Kim M. Howell, Neil Burgess, Paul Rubio & Eibleis Fanning 

(Eds.)

Frontier-Tanzania 

Forest Environmental Research Programme 

Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 

A Reconnaissance to Prioritise Biological Knowledge for 

Community Conservation Initiatives 

2005 

Wegner, G. 

Howell, K. M., Burgess N., Fanning, E. & Rubio, P. (Eds.) 

Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 

Frontier-Tanzania 

University of Dar es Salaam 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

Dar es Salaam 

2005

Frontier-Tanzania Mtwara Reconnaissance Project – FT MRP 

Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund – CEPF 

THE CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM PARTNERSHIP FUND (CEPF) 

The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund is a joint initiative of Conservation International, the Global 

Environmental Facility, the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank. 

The CEPF is designed to safeguard the world’s threatened biodiversity hotspots in developing 

countries by providing funding and technical support to civil society. 

THE UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM (UDSM) 

The University of Dar es Salaam was established in July 1970 as a centre for learning and research in 

the arts and the physical, natural, earth, marine, medical and human sciences. The University is 

surveying and mapping the flora and fauna of Tanzania, and is conducting research into the 

maintenance and improvement of the environment and the sustainable exploitation of Tanzania’s 

natural resources. 

THE SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION (SEE) 

The Society for Environmental Exploration was formed in 1989 and is a non-profit making company 

limited by guarantee. The Society’s objectives are to advance field research into environmental 

issues, and implement practical projects contributing to the conservation of natural resources. 

Projects organised by the Society are joint initiatives developed in collaboration with national 

research agencies in co-operating countries. 

FRONTIER-TANZANIA FOREST RESEARCH PROGRAMME (FT FRP) 

The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam have been 

conducting collaborative research into environmental issues since July 1989 under the title of 

Frontier-Tanzania, one component of which is the Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme 

(FT FRP). Biological field surveys were conducted in the Coastal Forests of Tanzania from 1989 to 

1994, in the East Usambara Mountains in collaboration with EUCAMP, Tanga, from 1995 to 2002, 

in the Udzungwa Mountains in collaboration with MEMA, Iringa, from 1999 to 2001, in the 

Mahenge Mountains in 2003, in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve in collaboration with WWF- 

TPO, Dar es Salaam, in 2003, and in the Uluguru Mountains in collaboration with CARE-Tanzania, 

Dar es Salaam, in 2004. The Mtwara Reconnaissance Project is the most recent study, completed in 

September 2005 and funded by CEPF, Washington, USA. 

Department of Zoology & Wildlife Conservation 

University of Dar es Salaam 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255 (0)22 2410462 

E-mail: zoology@udsm.ac.tz 

Frontier Tanzania 

P.O. Box 9473, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255 (0)22 2780063 

E-mail: frontier@africaonline.co.tz 


50-52 Rivington Street, London, UK 

Tel: +44 (0)20 76 13 24 22 

Fax: +44 (0)20 76 13 29 92 

E-mail: research2@frontier.ac.uk 

Critical Ecosystem Partnership 

1919 M Street, Washington, DC 20036, USA 

www.cepf.net 

ii



Published by: the Society for Environmental Exploration 

Copyright: © Frontier-Tanzania 2005. 

All rights reserved. All material appearing in this publication is copyrighted and may be 

reproduced with permission. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must credit 

the Society for Environmental Exploration as the copyright owner. 

Front cover photograph: granite kopjes protruding from the plain in Ndechela Forest 

Reserve, Tanzania. Credit: all photographs in this report were taken by Frontier-Tanzania 

field research team. 

Report citation: 

Frontier-Tanzania (2005). Wegner, G., Howell, K. M., Burgess, N., Rubio, P. & Fanning, E. 

(Eds.). Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 2005. The Society for Environmental Exploration 

and the University of Dar es Salaam; the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund. 

Section citation: 

Wegner, G. (2005). Executive summary. In: Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 2005. The 

Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam; the Critical 

Ecosystems Partnership Fund. 

Wegner, G. and Cutts, M. J. (2005). Introduction. In: Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 2005. 

The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam; the Critical 


Cutts, M. J. (2005). Study site. In: Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 2005. The Society for 

Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam; the Critical Ecosystems 

Partnership Fund. 

Wegner, G. and Salter, R. (2005). Methods. In: Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 2005. The 

Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam; the Critical 


Sangu, G. and Wegner, G. (2005). Results and discussion of Flora for all forest reserves. In: 

Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 2005. The Society for Environmental Exploration and the 

University of Dar es Salaam; the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund. 

Wegner, G. and Salter, R. (2005). Results and discussion of Fauna for all forest reserves. In: 



Sweeney, O. (2005). Results and discussion of disturbance for all forest reserves. In: Mtwara 

Reconnaissance Project 2005. The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University 

of Dar es Salaam; the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund. 

Wegner, G. and Sweeney, O. (2005). Discussion and comparison for all forest reserves. In: 



iii



Wegner, G. (2005). Conclusions and prioritisations. In: Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 

2005. The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam; the 

Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund. 

Salter, R. and Sweeney, O. (2005). Conservation Recommendations. In: Mtwara 

Reconnaissance Project 2005. The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University 

of Dar es Salaam; the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund. 

Editorial Comments: Mr. Michael Cutts, Mr. Paul Rubio, Miss Giulia Wegner, Miss Sarah 

Woodcock, SEE; 

Prof. Kim H. Howell, UDSM; Dr. Neil Burgess, WWF-USA. 

iv



1. TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................v 

2. LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................... viii 

3. LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................xi 

4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. xii 

5. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .........................................................................................13 

6. REPORT STRUCTURE....................................................................................................................14 

7. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...............................................................................................................15 

Overview of the study............................................................................................................................15 

Biodiversity value of the study area......................................................................................................16 

Human resources use and disturbance...................................................................................................19 

Conservation prioritisation ....................................................................................................................20 

Conservation recommendations ............................................................................................................21 

Summary of findings .............................................................................................................................22 

8. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................26 

Background to the biodiversity survey..................................................................................................26 

The biodiversity hotspot concept ..........................................................................................................26 

The Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of Tanzania and Kenya (EACF) hotspot ................26 

The Coastal Forest Mosaic ....................................................................................................................27 

The Coastal Forest vegetation types......................................................................................................29 

Conservation initiatives in the EACF hotspot.......................................................................................31 

The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund’s investment in the EACF hotspot.....................................32 

Aims and objectives of the FT MRP biodiversity survey.....................................................................32 

Objective linkages to Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme................................................33 

9. STUDY SITE.....................................................................................................................................35 

Location .................................................................................................................................................35 

Topography............................................................................................................................................35 

Geology and soil ....................................................................................................................................35 

Climate...................................................................................................................................................37 

Socio-economic characteristics .............................................................................................................37 

Conservation status of forest reserves in the Mtwara Region ..............................................................37 

10. SURVEY EFFORT ...........................................................................................................................39 

11. METHODS ........................................................................................................................................41 

Flora .......................................................................................................................................................41 

Data collection ...................................................................................................................................41 

Specimen collection and curation procedures...................................................................................42 

Species identification and repository ................................................................................................42 

Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................42 

Fauna......................................................................................................................................................44 


Specimen collection and curation procedures...................................................................................48 

Species identification and repository ................................................................................................48 

Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................48 

Human resource-use and disturbance....................................................................................................49 


Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................50 

Community days....................................................................................................................................51 

Structured interviews and open discussions......................................................................................51 

Definition of key categories ..................................................................................................................52 

Mammals............................................................................................................................................52 

Growth habit – flora...........................................................................................................................52 

Forest dependency – flora and fauna.................................................................................................52 

Distribution – flora ............................................................................................................................53 

Endemism – flora and fauna..............................................................................................................53 

Extinction threat – flora and fauna....................................................................................................54 

Important Bird Areas (IBAs).............................................................................................................55 

Poles, timbers and large timbers........................................................................................................55 

12. KAMBONA FOREST RESERVE....................................................................................................56 

Methods..................................................................................................................................................57 

v



Results....................................................................................................................................................57 

Flora ...................................................................................................................................................58 

Fauna..................................................................................................................................................61 

Human Resource-Use and Local Management.................................................................................63 

Discussion ..............................................................................................................................................67 

Flora ...................................................................................................................................................67 

Fauna..................................................................................................................................................67 


13. MAKONDE SCARP I PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE..............................................................71 

Methods..................................................................................................................................................72 

Results....................................................................................................................................................72 

Flora ...................................................................................................................................................73 

Fauna..................................................................................................................................................76 


Discussion ..............................................................................................................................................81 

Flora ...................................................................................................................................................81 

Fauna..................................................................................................................................................81 


14. MAKONDE SCARP II PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE ............................................................85 

Methods..................................................................................................................................................86 

Results....................................................................................................................................................86 

Flora ...................................................................................................................................................87 

Fauna..................................................................................................................................................91 


Discussion ..............................................................................................................................................96 

Flora ...................................................................................................................................................96 

Fauna..................................................................................................................................................97 


15. MKUNYA RIVER PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE .................................................................100 

Methods................................................................................................................................................101 

Results..................................................................................................................................................101 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................102 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................106 

Human Resource-Use and Local Management...............................................................................108 

Discussion ............................................................................................................................................112 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................112 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................112 


16. MTINIKO PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE ...............................................................................116 

Methods................................................................................................................................................117 

Results..................................................................................................................................................117 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................118 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................121 


Discussion ............................................................................................................................................126 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................126 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................127 


17. MTULI HINJU PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE .......................................................................130 

Methods................................................................................................................................................130 

Results..................................................................................................................................................131 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................132 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................135 


Discussion ............................................................................................................................................139 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................139 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................139 


18. MAKONDE SCARP III PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE .........................................................142 

Methods................................................................................................................................................143 

vi



Results..................................................................................................................................................143 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................144 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................147 


Discussion ............................................................................................................................................151 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................151 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................152 


19. NDECHELA FOREST RESERVE.................................................................................................155 

Methods................................................................................................................................................156 

Results..................................................................................................................................................156 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................157 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................160 


Discussion ............................................................................................................................................165 

Flora .................................................................................................................................................165 

Fauna................................................................................................................................................166 


20. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES .....................................170 

Flora .....................................................................................................................................................170 

Vegetation types ..............................................................................................................................170 

Species richness and diversity.........................................................................................................172 

Endemism ........................................................................................................................................174 

Extinction threat...............................................................................................................................174 

Fauna....................................................................................................................................................177 

Species richness ...............................................................................................................................177 

Forest dependence ...........................................................................................................................180 

Endemism ........................................................................................................................................183 

Extinction threat...............................................................................................................................185 

Important Bird Areas (IBA) ............................................................................................................188 

Range extensions and new records..................................................................................................189 

Human Resource-use and Local Management....................................................................................190 

21. CONCLUSION AND PRIORITISATION.....................................................................................196 

Priority sites for the conservation of biodiversity...............................................................................197 

Priority sites for the protection of environmental services.................................................................200 

22. CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................202 

23. BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................205 

APPENDICES .........................................................................................................................................212 

Appendix 1 - List of taxonomists ........................................................................................................212 

Appendix 2 - GPS co-ordinates of base camps for all forest reserves ...............................................215 

Appendix 3 - GPS coordinates of vegetation plots for all forest reserves .........................................216 

Appendix 4 - Description of vegetation plots for all forest reserves..................................................220 

Appendix 5 - Description of regeneration plots for all forest reserves ..............................................229 

Appendix 6 - GPS co-ordinates and description of zoological trap sites for all forest reserves........233 

Appendix 7 - GPS coordinates and site description of transects for all forest reserves.....................234 

Appendix 8 - List of pitsawing sites that were recorded with GPS....................................................236 

Appendix 9 - List of plant species for all forest reserves ...................................................................237 

Appendix 10 - List of endemic & threatened plant species found in the Swahilian regional centre of 

endemism sensu latu for all forest reserves ........................................................................................266 

Appendix 11 - Medicinal plant species, their growth habit, the ailments they are used to cure, the part 

of the plant that is utilised and the study area in which they were found to be used .........................269 

Appendix 12 - List of faunal species reported to be hunted in the forest reserves ............................271 

Appendix 13 - Mammal species list for all forest reserves.................................................................273 

Appendix 14 - Bird species list for all forest reserves........................................................................277 

Appendix 15 - Reptile species list for all forest reserves ...................................................................287 

Appendix 16 - Amphibian species list for all forest reserves.............................................................289 

Appendix 17 - Butterfly species list for all forest reserves.................................................................291 

Appendix 18 - Number of captures and recaptures and specimen record numbers of small mammals, 

amphibians and reptiles for all forest reserves....................................................................................296 

Appendix 19 - Structured interview sheet...........................................................................................301 

vii



2. LIST OF TABLES 

Table 7-a Total number and number of strictly endemic and threatened species for the flora and fauna 

of all forest reserves...........................................................................................................................17 

Table 8-a Frontier-Tanzania projects in the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot..........34 

Table 9-a Protection status and size of forest reserves studied.................................................................38 

Table 10-a Summary of survey effort .......................................................................................................40 

Table 12-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Kambona FR .........................................................58 

Table 12-b Species number of individuals, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the 

top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Brachystegia forest in Kambona FR..........59 

Table 12-c Species number of individuals, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the 

top five most abundant species of the sub canopy layer in Brachystegia forest in Kambona FR...59 

Table 12-d Species number of individuals, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the 

top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Riverine forest in Kambona FR.................60 

Table 12-e Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Kambona FR ...................................61 

Table 12-f Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Kambona FR ......................62 

Table 12-g Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Kambona FR .....................................64 

Table 12-h Plant pecies utilised in Kambona FR as identified by field observations, structured 

interviews and open discussions. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 9.........65 

Table 13-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR .............................73 

Table 13-b Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative abundance 

and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in 

Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR .....................................................................74 

Table 13-c Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative abundance 

and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the sub canopy layer in 

Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR .....................................................................74 

Table 13-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR.......76 

Table 13-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Makonde Scarp I proposed 

FR.......................................................................................................................................................77 

Table 13-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR ..........79 

Table 13-g Plant species utilised in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR as identified by field observations, 

structured interviews and open discussions. Local names, where known, are presented in 

Appendix 9.........................................................................................................................................79 

Table 14-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR............................87 



Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR....................................................................88 



Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR....................................................................88 

Table 14-d Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative abundance 

and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Mixed 

scrub forest in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR ................................................................................89 

Table 14-e Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative abundance 

and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species in Thicket in Makonde Scarp II 

proposed FR.......................................................................................................................................89 

Table 14-f Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR ......91 

Table 14-g Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Makonde Scarp II proposed 

FR.......................................................................................................................................................92 

Table 14-h Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR........94 

Table 14-i Plant species utilised in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR as identified by field observations, 


Appendix 9.........................................................................................................................................95 

Table 15-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Mkunya River proposed FR................................102 



Brachystegia forest in Mkunya River proposed FR .......................................................................103 

viii



Table 15-c Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, relative abundance, % 

relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the sub 

canopy layer in Brachystegia forest in Mkunya River proposed FR .............................................103 

Table 15-d Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, relative abundance, % 

relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the 

canopy layer in Riverine forest in Mkunya River proposed FR.....................................................104 

Table 15-e Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Mkunya River proposed FR .........105 

Table 15-f Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Mkunya River proposed FR 

..........................................................................................................................................................107 

Table 15-g Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Mkunya River proposed FR............109 

Table 15-h Plant species utilised in Mkunya River proposed FR as identified by field observations, 


Appendix 9.......................................................................................................................................110 

Table 16-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Mtiniko proposed FR ..........................................118 


and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Mixed 

dry forest in Mtiniko proposed FR..................................................................................................119 



Mixed dry forest in Mtiniko proposed FR ......................................................................................119 

Table 16-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Mtiniko proposed FR....................121 

Table 16-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Mtiniko proposed FR.......122 

Table 16-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Mtiniko proposed FR.......................124 

Table 16-g Plant species utilised in Mtiniko proposed FR as identified by field observations, structured 

interviews and open discussion. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 9........125 

Table 17-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Mtuli Hinju Proposed FR....................................131 


and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Legumedominated 

dry forest in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR..........................................................................132 



Legume-dominated dry forest in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR...........................................................133 

Table 17-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR .............134 

Table 17-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR.135 

Table 17-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR.................137 

Table 17-g Plant species utilised in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR as identified by field observations, 

structured interviews and open discussion. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 

9........................................................................................................................................................138 

Table 18-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Makonde Scarp III Proposed FR ........................144 



Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR ................................................................145 



Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR ................................................................145 

Table 18-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR ..147 

Table 18-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Makonde Scarp III proposed 

FR.....................................................................................................................................................148 

Table 18-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR .....150 

Table 18-g Plant species utilised in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR as identified by field observations 

only. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 9...................................................151 

Table 19-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Ndechela FR........................................................157 


and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Legumedominated 

dry forest in Ndechela FR .............................................................................................158 



Legume-dominated dry forest in Ndechela FR...............................................................................158 

Table 19-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Ndechela FR .................................160 

Table 19-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Ndechela FR ....................161 

ix



Table 19-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Ndechela FR.....................................163 

Table 19-g List of plant species utilised in Ndechela FR as identified by field observations, structured 

interviews and open discussions. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 9......164 

Table 20-a Forest types, total number of floral species, diversity index, and number of endemic and 

threatened floral species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed ............................................172 

Table 20-b Endemic and threatened floral species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed ...........175 

Table 20-c Total number of faunal species found in each forest reserve for all studied taxa and, in 

brackets, their percentage contribution to the number of species recorded as a whole in each forest 

reserve ..............................................................................................................................................177 

Table 20-d Forest dependent faunal species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed .....................182 

Table 20-e Endemic faunal species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed...................................185 

Table 20-f Threatened faunal species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed................................187 

Table 20-g Species found to occur outside their documented range. See Appendix 2 for the GPS coordinates 

of the base camps in each reserve....................................................................................190 

Table 20-h Percentage of different types of disturbance found in the eight forest reserves surveyed, 

recorded as occurring in 50m sections along transect lines............................................................190 

x



3. LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1 Map of the study region showing the forest reserves studied, major towns, roads and base 

camps .................................................................................................................................................36 

Figure 2 Percentage floral species endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and those that are 

widespread in Kambona FR ..............................................................................................................61 

Figure 3 Number of 50m sections (from a total of 22) affected by different forms of human disturbance 

along transects in Kambona FR.........................................................................................................64 


widespread in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR ..................................................................................75 


along transects in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR ............................................................................78 


widespread in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR.................................................................................91 


along transects in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR ...........................................................................94 


widespread in Mkunya River proposed FR.....................................................................................105 

Figure 9 Number of 50m sections (from a total of 133) affected by different forms of human 

disturbance along transects in Mkunya River proposed FR ...........................................................109 


widespread in Mtiniko proposed FR ...............................................................................................120 

Figure 11 Percentage of strictly endemic and widespread faunal species in Mtiniko proposed FR .....123 


disturbance along transects in Mtiniko proposed FR......................................................................124 


widespread in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR.........................................................................................134 


disturbance along transects in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR ...............................................................137 


widespread in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR..............................................................................146 


disturbance along transects in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR ....................................................149 


widespread in Ndechela FR.............................................................................................................159 

Figure 18 Percentage of strictly endemic and widespread faunal species in Ndechela FR ...................162 


disturbance along transects in Ndechela FR ...................................................................................163 

Figure 20 Graph showing the relationship between floral species richness and levels of disturbance .173 

Figure 21 Percentage of endemic (to the Swahilian Region sensu lato) and widespread floral species for 

the whole study site .........................................................................................................................174 

Figure 22 Percentage of endemic (to the Swahilian Region sensu lato) and threatened floral species for 

each forest reserve ...........................................................................................................................176 

Figure 23 Graph showing the relationship between faunal species richness and forest reserve size ....178 

Figure 24 Graph showing the relationship between faunal species richness and levels of disturbance178 

Figure 25 Percentage of strictly endemic and widespread faunal species for the whole study site ......183 

Figure 26 The East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi) photographed in Mtiniko proposed FR..........187 

Figure 27 Number of strictly endemic and threatened faunal species for each forest reserve ..............188 

Figure 28 Cultivation on steep slopes in Makonde Scarp III Proposed FR ...........................................191 

Figure 29 Pit sawing site in Mtiniko proposed FR .................................................................................192 

Figure 30 Baboons killed by local farmers because raiding crops adjacent to Ndechela FR ................194 

xi



4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This report is the culmination of the co-operation, hard work, advice and expertise of many 

people. In particular we would like to acknowledge and thank the following: 

MTWARA NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE 

Regional Natural Resource Advisor: Mr. Mshana 

TANDAHIMBA NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE 

Natural Resource Officer: Mr. R. H. Hamza 

Forest Officer: Mr. Mkumbi 

NEWALA NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE 

Acting District Natural Resources Officer: Mr. John Njogopa 

District Wildlife Officer: Mr. Liwanda 

NEWALA DISTRICT COUNCIL 

District Executive Director: Mr. Ndungwi 

MASASI NATURAL RESOURCES OFFICE 

Senior Forest Officer: Mr. Barnabas T. Mdenye 

Assistant Forest Officer: Mr. Mlelwa 

TRAFFIC - EAST/SOUTHERN AFRICA 

Deputy Director: Mr. Simon Milledge 

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION 

Managing Director: 

Ms. Eibleis Fanning 

Programme Manager (Development): 

Mr. Paul Rubio 

Programme Manager (Operations): 

Ms. Patricia Davis 

Programme Officer (Research and Development): Ms. Sarah Woodcock 

Programme Officer (Research and Development): Ms. Jenny Birch 

UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM 

FT Co-ordinators: Dr. Masoud Muruke and Prof. Kim M. Howell 

FRONTIER TANZANIA 

Country Co-ordinator: 

Project Co-ordinator: 

Principal Investigator: 

Research Officers: 

Botanist (independent) 

Ornithologist (independent): 

Field Assistants: 

Miss Freya St. John (2003-05) and 

Mr. Mark Gillies (2005-06) 

Miss Giulia Wegner 

Miss Rosalind Salter 

Mr. Michael Cutts and Mr. Oisín Sweeney 

Mr. George Sangu 

Mr. Jacob Kiure 

Mr. Ramathan Rajabu, Mr. Hassani Abedi and 

Mr. Mohammed Ali 

We are extremely grateful to all of the taxonomists listed in Appendix 1 for providing us with 

the identifications of the botanical and zoological specimens, to Mr. Matthew J. Grainger for 

compiling the ArcView map for this report, and to many people from the villages and towns 

of Masasi, Newala, Chidya, Chiwata, Chiwambo Juu, Nambunga, Chihanga, Chinunjila, 

Mpilipili and Chikwedu for all their help and assistance. 

xii



5. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 

CMEAMF 

CEPF 

CI 

CITES 

DANIDA 

EACF 

EUBS 

FINNIDA 

FR 

FT FRP 

FTEA database 

GEF 

GJ 

GPS 

ICBP 

IUCN 

JICA 

LEAP 

m asl 

MAF 

MNRT 

FT-MRP 

PDF 

SEE 

SHCP 

TFCG 

TSD 

Tsh 

UCBS 

UNDP 

WB 

WCS 

WCST 

WWF-EARPO 

Conservation & Management of the Eastern Arc Mountain Forests 

Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 

Conservation International 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 

Fauna and Flora 

Danish International Development Agency 

Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests 

East Usambara Biodiversity Surveys 

Finnish International Development Agency 

Forest Reserve 

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme 

Flora of Tropical East Africa database 

Global Environment Facility 

Government of Japan 

Global Positioning System 

International Council for Bird Preservation (now BirdLife 

International) 

The World Conservation Union 

Japan Official Development Assistance 

List of East African Plants 

Metres above sea level 

MacArthur Foundation 

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism 

Frontier Tanzania Mtwara Reconnaissance Project 

Project Development Fund 


Southern Highlands Conservation Project 

Tanzania Forest Conservation Group 

Terra Surveys Limited 

Tanzanian Shillings 

Uluguru Component Biodiversity Surveys 

United Nations Development Programme 

World Bank 

Wildlife Conservation Society 

Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania 

World Wide Fund for Nature - Eastern Africa Regional 

Programme Office 

13



6. REPORT STRUCTURE 

The report begins with an executive summary, which gives an outline of the overall findings 

of the Mtwara Reconnaissance Project. The introduction contains background information on 

various aspects of the study, including an overview of the ‘Hotspot’ concept and a description 

of the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests (EACF) hotspot. The various forest types 

that form the Coastal Forest Mosaic are described with their characteristic floral species 

composition. Also addressed in this section is the history of conservation initiatives in the 

EACF hotspot from 1978 to the present day, as well as the role that the Critical Ecosystem 

Partnership Fund (CEPF), as a funding programme for biodiversity hotspots managed through 

Conservation International, plays in its conservation. Finally, the aims and objectives of the 

Mtwara Reconnaissance Project (FT-MRP) are outlined with reference to their contribution to 

overall conservation aims in the EACF hotspot, and to previous work conducted by Frontier- 

Tanzania’s Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) in the region. 

The next section includes information on the study site itself. The location of the study in 

relation to the districts that comprise the Mtwara Region is given and information on 

topography, geology, soils, climate and socio-economics is presented. The conservation status 

of the forests found in the region and more specifically of the reserves surveyed by this study 

is discussed, and the reasons behind the creation of the forest reserves are given. A map 

details the location of the forest reserves, major towns, roads and research camps. 

The methods used by the FT-MRP project when carrying out the research are described in the 

following section, including information on the length of time spent and a summary of the 

survey effort and sampling intensity carried out in each reserve. This section contains 

definitions of key terms and categories used in the study and describes the field methods and 

analysis techniques utilised. 

The paper then moves on to describe each forest reserve separately (Kambona, Makonde 

Scarp I, Makonde Scarp II, Mkunya River, Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju, Makonde Scarp III, and 

Ndechela). For each, geographical information, historical background and land-use are listed. 

Results and discussions are presented separately for Flora, Fauna, Human Resource-Use and 

Local Management. 

A separate section is devoted to summarise and further discuss results for all flora, fauna and 

human resources-use from the eight forest reserves surveyed, and to compare their biological 

importance by assessing values of species richness, diversity, forest dependency, endemism 

and extinction threat. Important Bird Areas, species range extensions and new records from 

this study are also discussed here. 

In the final sections conclusions are made and conservation action for the reserves is 

prioritised, accompanied by a set of conservation recommendations applicable to all forest 

reserves studied. 

14



7. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

G. Wegner 

The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) is a joint initiative of Conservation 

International (CI), the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), the Government of Japan (GJ), 

the MacArthur Foundation (MAF) and the World Bank (WB). The CEPF is designed to 

safeguard the world’s biologically richest and most threatened hotspots, by providing funding 

and technical support to civil society. The Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of 

Kenya and Tanzania (EACF) region was approved for grant funding in July 2003 and active 

grant making started in January 2004. 

The Forgotten Coastal Forests of Mtwara: A Reconnaissance to Prioritise Biological 

Knowledge for Community Conservation Initiatives project (abbreviated as the Frontier 

Tanzania Mtwara Reconnaissance Project – FTFT-MRP) is a CEPF funded initiative 

implemented by Frontier-Tanzania, a collaboration between the Society of Environmental 

Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam, to perform biological research in the least 

studied of 160 eligible Key Biodiversity Sites of the EACF hotspot (strategic funding 

direction 3.2). This aim was pursued through pioneering baseline biodiversity surveys and 

the compilation of indigenous knowledge (strategic funding direction 3.5) in eight relatively 

unexplored and understudied Coastal Forests of the Mtwara Region (south-eastern Tanzania). 

These Coastal Forests partially comprise the CI-numbered Key Biodiversity Sites 81, 95 and 

102. Research was conducted from April to August of 2005. 

OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 

The study sites are located in five districts of the Mtwara Region: Mtwara Rural (Mtiniko FR 

and Mtuli Hinju FR), Masasi (Makonde Scarp I FR, Kambona FR and Ndechela FR), Newala 

(Makonde Scarp II FR) and Tandahimba (Makonde Scarp III FR), within 10º 35' 25.9'' and 

11º 06' 35.6'' latitude and 038º 09' 43.1'' and 039º 56' 14.7'' longitude. These areas were 

proposed between 1955 and 1977 as sites of protected forest reserve by the government, in 

recognition of their importance to the local villages and towns as water catchments, for 

prevention of soil erosion, and for provision of timber and non-timber forest resources. At 

present, two of the sites are gazetted as Forest Reserves (Kambona and Ndechela) and six are 

proposed Forest Reserves (Makonde Scarp I, Makonde Scarp II, Makonde Scarp III, Mtiniko, 

Mtuli Hinju and Mkunya River). The study sites have an elevation range between 120 and 

720m asl and cover a total area of 17,812.2ha. Ndechela and Mkunya River are the largest of 

the study sites, covering 6,216ha and 4,797.3ha each, followed by Mtiniko (1,736ha), 

Makonde Scarp I (1,748.3ha), II (1,554ha) and III (1,434.7ha), Mtuli Hinju (296.0ha) and 

Kambona (29.9ha). 

Frontier-Tanzania conducted a baseline biological survey in the eight gazetted and proposed 

forest reserves between the 2 nd April and the 17 th July 2005. Data were collected through a 

variety of field methods. Floral surveys were conducted through vegetation plots and 

opportunistic observation. For the fauna bucket pitfall traps and timed searches were utilised 

to capture amphibians and reptiles, and sherman traps to capture small mammals, along with 

opportunistic observation. Birds were surveyed using a combination of mist netting, timed 

searches and opportunistic observation, and butterflies were captured using canopy traps and 

through sweep netting. Large mammal signs were recorded along 1km transects and through 

opportunistic observation. Forest disturbance was assessed through the use of 1km transects, 

along which the level of pole, timber and large timber cutting was recorded together with any 

other sign of disturbance. 

15



When identification in the field was not possible botanical specimens were collected for 

identification and repository at the Herbarium of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 

and at Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA. Faunal specimens that could not be identified in the 

field were collected for identification and repository at the Department of Zoology and 

Wildlife Conservation of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Butterfly specimens 

were sent for identification and repository to the Southern Highlands Conservation 

Programme (SHCP) of the Wildlife Conservation Society, Tanzania. Faunal specimens were 

sent on loan for further identification to: the British Natural History Museum, UK; the 

California Academy of Sciences, USA; the Chicago Field Museum, USA; the Zimbabwe 

Natural History Museum, Zimbabwe; the Copenhagen Zoological Museum, Denmark. 

Data from this study are contributed to the Biodiversity Database of the University of Dar es 

Salaam, Tanzania, the CEPF Conservation Outcomes Database, USA, and the TROPICOS 

database of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA. This report is made available through the 

CEPF web-site (www.cepf.net) and the Frontier web-site (www.frontier.ac.uk). The Coastal 

Forests of Mtwara: a Kiswahili layman’s report (Frontier-Tanzania, 2005) was also produced 

during the FT MRP for distribution to district natural resources offices, community groups 

and schools in close proximity to the forest reserves, to act as a tool for environmental 

education and awareness promotion. 

BIODIVERSITY VALUE OF THE STUDY AREA 

Findings from this study of the Coastal Forests of the Masasi, Mtwara Rural, Newala and 

Tandahimba districts, Mtwara Region, show that the eight forest reserves studied are of 

important environmental value to the surrounding human population, providing it with 

precious water, abundant forest resources and protection from soil erosion. However, high 

population growth rate, accompanied by severe poverty and lack of environmental awareness, 

have resulted in the extensive conversion of these Coastal Forests into farmland, the 

unsustainable exploitation of their natural resources, and the conspicuous decrease of their 

biodiversity and endemism. 

As a consequence of the high degree of habitat destruction taking place in the area, only small 

patches of closed-canopy coastal forest remain in the study area. Various types of eastern 

African closed-canopy coastal forest were identified: Brachystegia forest, Legume-dominated 

dry forest, Mixed dry forest, Mixed scrub forest and Riverine forest. Brachystegia forest was 

the most dominant forest type, occurring extensively on the Makonde escarpment and in the 

adjacent Mkunya River proposed FR and Kambona FR. Legume-dominated dry forest, the 

most vulnerable plant community of the Coastal Forests, was found to be rarer, occurring in 

Mtuli Hinju proposed FR and Ndechela FR. A relatively extensive area of Mixed nonlegume-dominated 

dry forest was found in Mtiniko proposed FR, while in Makonde Scarp II 

proposed FR Mixed scrub forest constituted a seral stage that resulted from clearance of 

climax forest and the practice of shifting cultivation. Finally, small patches of Riverine forest 

were recorded in Kambona FR and Mkunya River proposed FR. 

Overall, 265 floral species were detected. Of the 229 species identified to species level, 26 

(12%) were endemic to the Swahilian regional centre of endemism sensu lato, and 30 (13%) 

were listed as threatened or potentially threatened (Table 7-a). These figures are not 

negligible, especially when considering that most Coastal Forest endemics are also likely to 

face a degree of threat, and this highlights the importance of the Coastal Forests studied as a 

habitat for the endemic plants found here. 

Plant species endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato were Barleria holstii, Ozoroa 

obovata, Monodora grandidieri, Cussonia zimmermannii, Bombax rhodognaphalon, 

Commiphora zanzibarica, Tetracera boiviniana, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Cynometra 

16



gillmanii, Scorodophloeus fischeri, Entada stuhlmannii, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca 

tettensis, Gardenia transvenulosa, Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus, Rytigynia decussata, 

Mimusops schliebenii, Cola clavata, Sterculia appendiculata, Grewia forbesii, Grewia 

lepidopetala, Vitex mossambicensis, Vitex zanzibarensis, Rinorea elliptica and Aframomum 

orientale. 

Five of the species found are listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List (2004), including 

Cynometra gillmanii (Endemic and Critically Endangered), Gardenia transvenulosa and Vitex 

zanzibarensis (Endemic and Vulnerable), Khaya anthotheca and Mesogyne insignis 

(Vulnerable). Another 22 plants are recognised to be potentially threatened by Gereau and 

Luke (2006), including Cussonia zimmermannii, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Commiphora 

zanzibarica, Maytenus mossambicensis, Tetracera boiviniana, Drypetes natalensis, Cassia 

abbreviata, Scorodophloeus fischeri, Acacia nilotica, Entada stuhlmannii, Baphia punctulata, 

Craibia brevicaudata, Erythrina schliebenii, Millettia impressa, Xylotheca tettensis, Syzygium 

cordatum, Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus, Lasianthus kilimandscharicus, Rytigynia 

decussata, Cola clavata, Vitex mossambicensis, Rinorea angustifolia, Rinorea elliptica and 

Aframomum orientale. 

Table 7-a Total number and number of strictly endemic and threatened species for the flora and 

fauna of all forest reserves 

Taxa 

Total no. 

of species 

No. of strictly 

endemic species a 

No. of threatened 

species listed by 

IUCN b and/or 

CITES I c 

No. of potentially 

threatened species 

(flora only) d 

Flora 265 26 5 25 

Mammals 59 0 4 - 

Birds 159 1 2 - 

Reptiles 30 1 0 - 

Amphibians 21 1 1 - 

Butterflies 71 1 0 - 

Total 605 30 12 23 

a - Floral endemism refers to the Swahilian region sensu lato (Clarke and Robertson, 2000), whereas faunal 

endemism refers to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, sometimes including other habitats in a few 

adjacent locations (e.g. Masasi District in S Tanzania, N Mozambique etc) (Burgess and Clarke, 2000) 

b - Species listed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List 

(IUCN, 2004) 

c - Species listed in CITES Appendix I as threatened with extinction and excluded from international trade 

(CITES, 2005) 

d - Plant species included in the list of Potentially Threatened Plants in the EACF Hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania 

(Gereau and Luke, 2006) 

In terms of fauna, the study yielded 340 species. Birds were the largest contributor to this 

figure with 159 species detected, followed by butterflies (71), mammals (59) and reptiles (30), 

while amphibians contributed the lowest number (21) (Table 7-a). 

The loss of suitable forest habitat explains the low proportion of forest dependent and 

endemic faunal species in the study. In total, only four (less than 2%) of the animal species 

recorded are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. The 

proportion of Red List and CITES threatened faunal species was also low, with seven species 

constituting 2% of all fauna recorded. Therefore, within the context of the EACF hotspot and 

on a global level these forests are of modest faunal biological importance. 

17



The largest proportion of forest dependent species found were butterflies (9): the Banded 

evening brown (Gnophodes betsimena diversa), the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti 

lasti), the Flame bordered charaxes (C. protoclea azota), Cymothoe herminia, the Gold 

banded forester (Euphaedra neophron littoralis), the Forest queen (Euxanthe wakefieldi), a 

Glider species (Harma theobene blassi), Bematistes epaea epitellus and the Common sailor 

(Neptis alta). Five mammals and seven birds complete the list, including the Moloney’s 

monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis sub sp.), the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliates), 

the Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), the 

Suni (Neotragus moschatus), the African crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), the 

African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the Yellow streaked greenbul (Phyllastrephus 

flavostriatus), the Fischer’s greenbul (P. fischeri), the East coast akalat (Sheppardia 

gunningi), the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the 

Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi). 

The endemic species found were one bird, one reptile, one amphibian and one butterfly. The 

Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi) is strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests, representing 

the only example of such strict endemism for this study. The Spotted flat lizard (Platysaurus 

maculatus) is only found in areas of suitable habitat in northern Mozambique and the Masasi 

district in south-eastern Tanzania. The ‘true’ toad Mertensophryne micranotis is 

geographically restricted to the Eastern Arc lowland and the Coastal Forest Mosaic of southeastern 

Kenya and eastern Tanzania. The Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti) is 

restricted in its habitat to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal 

Forests of Kenya and Tanzania. None of the mammal species recorded by this study are 

strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. However, it is likely 

that shrews (Crocidura sp.) collected from this survey will yield interesting results once 

taxonomic verification is accomplished. Two of the mammals and one of the birds found, the 

Small-eared bushbaby (Otolemur garnetti - CITES II), the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei 

- near threatened) and the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable) are not strictly 

endemic, but are rare species with restricted distribution in the Coastal Forests and a few other 

habitats in coastal and south-eastern Africa. Despite the relatively high richness of the 

butterfly communities observed, none of the studied sites were found to be characterised by 

the unique butterfly fauna found in other Coastal Forests of Tanzania. 

Threatened faunal species included four large mammals, two birds and one amphibian. The 

Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable) and the Dwarf squeaker 

(Arthroleptis xenodactyloides - Vulnerable) were the most frequently recorded. The Elephant 

(Loxodonta africana - Vulnerable and CITES I) was only recorded from an old footprint and 

the extent of its occurrence in the studied area needs further clarification. The Leopard 

(Panthera pardus), a species listed on CITES Appendix I (2005) as threatened with extinction 

and therefore excluded from international trade, was reported to inhabit sheltered areas of the 

Makonde Scarp. The East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable) was only recorded 

in Mtiniko proposed FR. The Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus - CITES I), a species 

threatened with extinction if trade is not subject to strict regulation, was observed on the cliffs 

of Makonde Scarp II proposed FR and in Mtiniko proposed FR. Species Red listed with a 

lower degree of threat were also recorded in various reserves. These included one near 

threatened mammal species - the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei); seven conservation 

dependent mammal species - the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the Buffalo (Syncerus 

caffer), the Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), the Natal duiker (Cephalophus 

natalensis), the Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), the Suni (Neotragus moschatus) and the 

Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus); and three near threatened bird species - the Southern 

Banded snake eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus), a Lovebird (Agapornis lilianae), and the Greycrested 

helmet shrike (Prionops poliolophus). 

18



Our findings seem to confirm the designations of five of the forest reserves studied (Mtiniko, 

Mkunya River, and Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs) as Important Bird Areas of 

Tanzania (IBA TZ052 and IBA TZ053). Moreover, if the Reichenow’s batis (Batis 

reichenowi - Coastal Forests Endemic) recorded in Mtiniko proposed FR was to be confirmed 

as a separate species from the Forest batis (B. mixta), then the IBA TZ052 would be entitled 

to become part of a Secondary or Full Endemic Bird Area (EBA). 

The study also revealed some interesting range extensions, including the Lesser bushbaby 

(Galago moholi – CITES II), the Grey-crested helmet shrike (Prionops poliolophus - near 

threatened), the Red-headed bluebill (Spermophaga ruficapilla) and one sub-species of the 

Savanna vine snake (Thelotornis capensis oatesi). Finally, some of the widespread and 

common bird species observed are likely to constitute first records for the studied area, among 

which the Verreaux’s eagle (Aquila verreauxii - CITES II), the White-naped raven (Corvus 

albicollis), the White-browed sparrow-weaver (Plocepasser mahali), the Black saw-wing 

(Psalidoprocne holomelas), the Lesser seedcracker (Pyrenestes minor), the African wood owl 

(Strix woodfordii - CITES II) and the Red-faced crombec (Sylvietta whytii). 

HUMAN RESOURCES USE AND DISTURBANCE 

The major threats to the Mtwara Coastal Forests are high population growth rate, severe 

poverty, and lack of environmental awareness. These factors result in the extensive 

conversion of the forest into farmland and the unsustainable exploitation of its resources. 

Signs of disturbance included agricultural encroachment, timber extraction, fire damage, 

hunting, bark ringing and paths. However, different types of disturbance affect the forest 

reserves with varying degrees. Conversion to agriculture was the most destructive form of 

disturbance recorded. The reserves most affected by agricultural encroachment are Makonde 

Scarp I (29%), II (42%) and III (43%) proposed FRs. Encroachment into reserves occurs more 

extensively where the forest boundaries are not clearly demarcated. 

Levels of pole cutting were found to be high in comparison to elsewhere in the EACF hotspot. 

Kambona and Mkunya River FRs are the most severely affected by pole and timber cutting 

(>90% of 50m sections), followed by Makonde Scarp I, II and III (78-87% of sections). In all 

studied sites, poles and timber extraction is selective and therefore ecologically destructive. In 

addition, pit sawing was found to be widespread, with five of the eight study areas containing 

at least one recently active and several old pit sawing sites. The degree of pole and timber 

cutting was observed to be linked to the high population growth rate of the Mtwara Region, 

implying that levels of extraction tend to increase. 

Most of the firewood collected from the eight forest reserves was said to be obtained from 

dead trees and branches. Four of the eight reserves were found to contain ringed 1 and hence 

dead trees, with Kambona having the highest intensity of bark ringing (9% of sections). 

However, as population grows the demand for fuelwood and bark may exceed the trees 

regeneration capacity. Further research to determine the sustainable levels of timber, firewood 

and bark extraction in the studied area would be needed. 

Burning was another particularly destructive form of disturbance observed. The forest 

reserves most affected are Ndechela FR and Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs (≥70% of 

sections). 

1 Bark ringing is the removal of a circular section of the bark from a tree, either for medicinal use or to kill the tree 

and make it available as fire wood. This practice causes the disruption of the phloem and/or the xylem vessels 

contained in the outer tissues of the trunk, resulting in the blockage of photosynthates and/or water translocation 

and the death of the tree (Bailey, 1999). 

19



Hunting takes place in most of the studied areas to different degrees. Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju 

proposed FRs had the highest density of traps recorded (in 5% and 3% of 50m sections 

respectively). Hunting in Kambona, Makonde Scarp I and Ndechela involves the Chequered 

elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon cirnei), a species listed as Vulnerable, and the Natal duiker 

(Cephalophus natalensis) and the Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), two species listed as 

conservation dependent in the IUCN Red List (2004). 

The study found that all areas suffer from the lack of a clearly demarcated boundary. 

Similarly, local management initiatives range from absent to ineffective among the forest 

reserves. Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is the only reserve that currently has an Environmental 

Committee to patrol the reserve boundaries. In those reserves where management has been 

interrupted or has not been initiated yet the reasons appeared to be twofold: lack of will and/or 

lack of funds. The lack of enforcement of national forest legislation in the study site and 

absence of local by-laws constitute another problem that hampers the management of most of 

the reserves. 

CONSERVATION PRIORITISATION 

Among the studied reserves, the most important in terms of biological value are Mtiniko 

Proposed FR and Ndechela FR. 

Mtiniko proposed FR is covered by Mixed dry forest, a forest type unique to the Coastal 

Forest Mosaic. It is one of the least disturbed and richest with floral species, and contains 

among the highest numbers of forest dependent, endemic and threatened faunal species for 

this study. Mtiniko proposed FR is certainly the most important reserve in terms of avifauna, 

and it has been previously classified as an Important Bird Area (TZ052 - category A1). It 

hosts the Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi - Coastal Forests Endemic) the East coast 

akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable), and the Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus - 

CITES I), as well as the highest number of forest dependent bird species, including the 

African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the Yellow streaked greenbul (Phyllastrephus 

flavostriatus), the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the 

Fischer’s greenbul (Phyllastrephus fischeri). Mtiniko proposed FR should be immediately 

gazetted in order to protect the Mixed dry forest and the endemic and threatened species it 

hosts. 

Ndechela FR is comprised of Legume-dominated dry forest, which is the most vulnerable 

plant community of the Coastal Forest Mosaic, and contains various important plant species 

such as Gardenia transvenulosa (Endemic and Vulnerable). Ndechela FR is also singular for 

the presence of granite kopjes dramatically protruding from the plain and reaching up to 

800m, which contribute to the scenic beauty of this site and create a variety of rocky 

microhabitats for a rich reptile community. The Spotted flat lizard (Platysaurus maculatus) 

found here is endemic to northern Mozambique and the Masasi district in south-eastern 

Tanzania. Due to its close proximity to the Lukwika-Lumesule Game Reserve, this reserve 

contains the highest number of large mammal species recorded, as well as the larger 

proportion of threatened mammal species. These include the Elephant (Loxodonta africana - 

Vulnerable), the Lion (Panthera leo – Vulnerable) and the Chequered elephant shrews 

(Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable), as well as two species (Loxodonta africana and Panthera 

pardus) listed on CITES Appendix I (2005). It would be highly beneficial to designate this 

area as a National Park incorporating Ndechela FR, the Lukwika-Lumesule Game Reserve 

and possibly a reserve across the river in Mozambique. 

The topographic variation of the Makonde escarpment creates an array of habitats and nesting 

sites that promote a rich bird community. Together with Mkunya River proposed FR, these 

reserves have been classified as an Important Bird Area (TZ053 - category A1). The Leopard 

20



(Panthera pardus) and the Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), species listed on CITES 

Appendix I (2005), were observed to occur on the Makonde scarp in sheltered areas near the 

cliff face. Other important species found here are the ‘true’ toad Mertensophryne micranotis 

and the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), which are both strictly endemic to the 

lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania. Highly 

threatened plant species are also present here, such as Cynometra gillmanii (Endemic and 

Critically Endangered), Gardenia transvenulosa and Vitex zanzibarensis (Endemic and 

Vulnerable). It would be advisable for the whole of the Makonde Scarp to be protected as one 

large reserve, including Mkunya River, Makonde scarp I, II and III, the management of the 

whole area as a continuous conservation site being potentially more effective. 

The importance of Mtuli Hinju resides in its Legume-dominated forest and wetland. In this 

reserve encroachment is among the lowest and a species rich and stable plant community has 

therefore developed, with important species such as Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable), 

Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca tettensis, Rytigynia decussata and 

Cola clavata (Endemic and Potentially Threatened). Nevertheless, the small size of this 

reserve constitutes a threat to the continuity of its vulnerable forest type should disturbance 

ensue. 

Kambona FR is threatened by its small size and severe timber extraction that has noticeably 

reduced the floral species richness. Nevertheless, this reserve harbours some important plant 

and animal species, such as Khaya anthotheca (Vulnerable), Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina 

schliebenii and Rytigynia decussata (Endemic and Potentially Threatened), and the 

Chequered Elephant Shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable). 

Beyond their biological value, all of the forest reserves surveyed are important because they 

provide the local communities with water sources, protection from soil erosion and natural 

resources. Priority sites for the conservation of water sources include Mkunya River, 

Makonde Scarp III and Mtuli Hinju proposed FRs and Kambona FR. Soil erosion and the 

landslides and floods it can cause at the foot of the Makonde Scarp are a significant threat to 

the livelihoods of thousands of people. The protection of the forests located along the 

escarpment (Mkunya River, Makonde Scarp I, II and III) is therefore a priority. 

CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS 

The conservation approach used should concentrate on developing an effective management 

plan for the safeguard of the reserves and sustainable use of resources, and on promoting 

awareness of the values of the forests studied, including their provision of natural resources, 

their protection of water sources and soil, and their unique biodiversity. Various suggestions 

to improve conservation practice in the studied reserves are given: gazettement, boundary 

demarcation, management capacity building, compensation to people who have been 

relocated outside the reserves, establishment of environmental committees, patrols, 

enforcement of fines for illegal practices, environmental awareness promotion, tree planting 

inside and in the vicinity of the reserves, encouragement of sustainable resources extraction, 

investment in rural development and development of affordable alternative sources of energy. 

The Coastal Forests are part of a mosaic system and rely on the stability of the whole system 

for the continuity of their floral and faunal communities. Adequate conservation measures 

need therefore to be taken in as many of the Coastal Forests as possible, and efforts should be 

made to restore and increase connectivity among fragmented forest patches. 

However, no conservation plan can be successful if a holistic approach aiming at reducing 

poverty and limiting population growth in the Mtwara Region is not developed. Only by 

complementing major efforts to improve the life standards of the local communities can 

21



national law enforcement and environmental awareness promotion succeed in preserving the 

highly threatened Coastal Forests of the Mtwara Region for the present and future 

generations. Considering that the majority of the people in the Mtwara Region heavily depend 

on natural resources from the forest for their livelihoods, improved forest management and 

sustainable utilisation of natural resources constitute two fundamental elements of any 

strategy aiming at the mitigation of poverty. 

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 

What follows is a brief summary of the findings for each forest reserve separately, including 

the vegetation types that cover them, the most important plant and animal species found, the 

main threats that affect them and their conservation priorities. 

FOREST RESERVE: KAMBONA FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation types: Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest and Riverine forest 

Important plant species: Barleria holstii, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Mimusops schliebenii 

and Grewia lepidopetala are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato; Khaya anthotheca is 

threatened; Drypetes natalensis, Baphia punctulata, Craibia brevicaudata and Syzygium 

cordatum are potentially threatened; Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii and 

Rytigynia decussata are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and potentially 

threatened. 

Important animal species: Otolemur garnetti has a restricted distribution in the Coastal 

Forests and a few other habitats in coastal eastern Africa; Beamys hindei has a restricted 

distribution in a few forest types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc Mountains 

and Coastal Forests; Rhynchocyon cirnei and Arthroleptis xenodactyloides are threatened. 

Main threats: Commercial timber extraction, pole cutting and hunting. The small size 

(29.9ha) of the reserve and the large surrounding population utilising it. 

Conservation priorities: 

• Protection of water source 

• Protection of Brachystegia forest 

• Protection of Khaya anthotheca 

• Protection of Rhynchocyon cirnei and Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 

FOREST RESERVE: MAKONDE SCARP I PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest 

Important plant species: Ozoroa obovata, Mimusops schliebenii and Sterculia 

appendiculata are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato; Drypetes natalensis and 

Millettia impressa are potentially threatened; Vitex zanzibarensis is endemic and threatened; 

Commiphora zanzibarica, Erythrina schliebenii, Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus, Rytigynia 

decussata and Vitex mossambicensis are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and 

potentially threatened. 

Important animal species: Otolemur garnetti has a restricted distribution in the Coastal 

Forests and a few other habitats in coastal eastern Africa; Beamys hindei has a restricted 

distribution in a few forest types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc Mountains 

and Coastal Forests; Arthroleptis xenodactyloides is threatened; the record of Galago moholi 

represents a range extension for this species. 

Main threats: Encroachment of cultivated land, pole cutting and hunting. 


• Prevention of soil erosion 


• Protection of Vitex zanzibarensis and Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 

• Protection as an Important Bird Area 

22



FOREST RESERVE: MAKONDE SCARP II PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest, Mixed scrub forest and 

Thicket. 

Important plant species: Monodora grandidieri and Grewia lepidopetala are endemic to the 

Swahilian region sensu lato; Monanthotaxis trichocarpa, Cassia abbreviata, Craibia 

brevicaudata and Millettia impressa are potentially threatened; Gardenia transvenulosa and 

Vitex zanzibarensis are endemic and threatened; Monanthotaxis fornicata, Tetracera 

boiviniana and Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu 

lato and potentially threatened. 

Important animal species: Mertensophryne micranotis is endemic to the Eastern Arc 

lowland and the Coastal Forest Mosaic of south-eastern Kenya and eastern Tanzania; 

Panthera pardus and Falco peregrinus are listed in CITES Appendix 1; the record of 

Thelotornis capensis oatesi represents a range extension for this species. 

Main threats: Encroachment of cultivated land, pole cutting, bark ringing for beehives, and 

hunting. 




• Protection of Gardenia transvenulosa and Vitex zanzibarensis 

• Protection of Panthera pardus, Falco peregrinus and Mertensophryne micranotis 


FOREST RESERVE: MKUNYA RIVER PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest and Riverine forest 

Important plant species: Cleistanthus schlechteri, Mimusops schliebenii, Sterculia 

appendiculata and Grewia forbesii are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato; Mesogyne 

insignis is threatened; Drypetes natalensis and Millettia impressa are potentially threatened; 

Cynometra gillmanii is endemic and threatened; Commiphora zanzibarica, Scorodophloeus 

fischeri, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca tettensis, Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus and 

Rytigynia decussata are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and potentially 

threatened. 

Important animal species: Charaxes lasti lasti is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland 

forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania; Beamys hindei has a 

restricted distribution in a few forest types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc 

Mountains and Coastal Forests; Rhynchocyon cirnei and Arthroleptis xenodactyloides are 

threatened; the record of Prionops poliolophus and Spermophaga ruficapilla represents a 

range extension for these species. 

Main threats: Encroachment of cultivated land, pole cutting, pit sawing, hunting and 

agriculture. 





• Protection of Cynometra gillmanii and Mesogyne insignis 

• Protection of Rhynchocyon cirnei and Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 


23



FOREST RESERVE: MTINIKO PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Mixed dry forest 

Important plant species: Monodora grandidieri, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Grewia 

lepidopetala and Rinorea elliptica are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato; Mesogyne 

insignis is threatened; Drypetes natalensis, Craibia brevicaudata and Rinorea angustifolia are 

potentially threatened; Bombax rhodognaphalon, Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii, 

Rytigynia decussata, Cola clavata and Vitex mossambicensis are endemic to the Swahilian 

region sensu lato and potentially threatened. 

Important animal species: Batis reichenowi is endemic to the Coastal Forests; Charaxes 

lasti lasti is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal 

Forests of Kenya and Tanzania; Beamys hindei has a restricted distribution in a few forest 

types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests; 

Rhynchocyon cirnei is threatened; Sheppardia gunningi is threatened and restricted in 

distribution to the Coastal Forests and a few other forest types in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, 

and coastal Mozambique; Falco peregrinus is listed in CITES Appendix 1; the record of 

Galago moholi represents a range extension for this species. 

Main threats: Timber and pole cutting, pit-sawing and hunting. 


• Protection of important remnants of Mixed dry forest 

• Protection of Mesogyne insignis 

• Protection of Rhynchocyon cirnei, Sheppardia gunningi, Batis reichenowi and 

Falco peregrinus 


FOREST RESERVE: MTULI HINJU PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Legume-dominated dry forest 

Important plant species: Cleistanthus schlechteri and Grewia lepidopetala are endemic to 

the Swahilian region sensu lato; Mesogyne insignis is threatened; Maytenus mossambicensis, 

Cassia abbreviata, Acacia nilotica, Craibia brevicaudata and Lasianthus kilimandscharicus 

are potentially threatened; Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca tettensis, 

Rytigynia decussata and Cola clavata are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and 

potentially threatened. 


forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania; Rhynchocyon cirnei is 

threatened; the record of Galago moholi represents a range extension for this species. 

Main threats: Pole cutting and pit sawing; the small size (296ha) of the reserve and the large 

surrounding population utilising it. 



• Protection of Legume-dominated dry forest 

• Protection of Mesogyne insignis 

• Protection of Rhynchocyon cirnei and Charaxes lasti lasti 

• Protection as an important wetland for birds and amphibians 

24



FOREST RESERVE: MAKONDE SCARP III PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest and Thicket. 

Important plant species: Sterculia appendiculata and Grewia lepidopetala are endemic to 

the Swahilian region sensu lato; Khaya anthotheca and Mesogyne insignis are threatened; 

Drypetes natalensis, Cassia abbreviata and Lasianthus kilimandscharicus are potentially 

threatened; Cussonia zimmermannii, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Tetracera boiviniana, 

Scorodophloeus fischeri, Xylotheca tettensis and Aframomum orientale are endemic to the 

Swahilian region sensu lato and potentially threatened. 


forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania; Beamys hindei has a 

restricted distribution in a few forest types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc 

Mountains and Coastal Forests; Arthroleptis xenodactyloides is threatened. 

Main threats: Encroachment of cultivated land, cattle movement, timber and pole cutting and 

hunting. 





• Protection of Khaya anthotheca and Mesogyne insignis 

• Protection of Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 


FOREST RESERVE: NDECHELA FOREST RESERVE 

Vegetation type: Eastern African coastal Legume-dominated dry forest. 

Important plant species: Sterculia appendiculata and Grewia lepidopetala are endemic to 

the Swahilian region sensu lato; Gardenia transvenulosa is endemic and threatened; Cassia 

abbreviata and Millettia impressa are potentially threatened; Cussonia zimmermannii, 

Commiphora zanzibarica, Tetracera boiviniana, Scorodophloeus fischeri, Entada stuhlmannii 

and Vitex mossambicensis are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and potentially 

threatened. 

Important animal species: Platysaurus maculatus is endemic to northern Mozambique and 

the Masasi district in south-eastern Tanzania; Rhynchocyon cirnei and Loxodonta Africana 

are threatened; Panthera pardus and L. Africana are listed by CITES Appendix I; the record 

of Prionops poliolophus represents a range extension for this species. 

Main threats: Fire damage, pit sawing and hunting. 


• Protection of water source and large timbers 

• Protection of Legume-dominated dry forest 

• Protection of Gardenia transvenulosa 

• Protection of Rhynchocyon cirnei, Panthera leo, P. pardus, Loxodonta africana and 

Platysaurus maculatus 

25



8. INTRODUCTION 

G. WEGNER AND M. J. CUTTS 

BACKGROUND TO THE BIODIVERSITY SURVEY 

The Forgotten Coastal Forests of Mtwara: A Reconnaissance to Prioritise Biological 

Knowledge for Community Conservation Initiatives project (abbreviated as the Frontier 

Tanzania Mtwara Reconnaissance Project – FTFT-MRP) is a CEPF funded initiative 

implemented by Frontier-Tanzania, a collaboration between the Society of Environmental 

Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam, to perform biological research in the least 

studied of 160 eligible Key Biodiversity Sites of the EACF hotspot (strategic funding 

direction 3.2). This aim was pursued through pioneering baseline biodiversity surveys and 

the compilation of indigenous knowledge (strategic funding direction 3.5) in eight relatively 

unexplored and understudied Coastal Forests of the Mtwara Region (south-eastern Tanzania). 

These Coastal Forests partially comprise the CI-numbered Key Biodiversity Sites 81, 95 and 

102. Research was conducted from April to August of 2005. 

THE BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT CONCEPT 

The loss of biodiversity is one of the foremost environmental issues of the modern age. In 

response to this predicament, in 1988 Norman Myers developed the biodiversity hotspot 

concept and Conservation International (CI) and the MacArthur Foundation (MAF) adopted it 

the following year as their central conservation strategy. Central to the notion is that a small 

number of ecoregions occupying a small portion of the world’s landmass hold an 

exceptionally large share of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity and have high concentrations 

of endemism (Myers et al., 2000). 

A four-year study started in 1996 by CI identified 25 hotspots significant to long-term 

conservation. These hotspots were found to cover 1.4% of the Earth’s land surface and yet 

harbour 44% of the global total of endemic plant species, 35% of the global total of endemic 

vertebrate species, and 60% of all known plant and vertebrate species. The majority of these 

hotspots is in tropical developing countries and is subject to human activities and population 

growth threatening their existence (Myers et al., 2000). 

THE EASTERN ARC MOUNTAINS AND COASTAL FORESTS OF TANZANIA 

AND KENYA (EACF) HOTSPOT 

The Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of Tanzania and Kenya hotspot (hereafter 

referred to as the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot – EACF) runs along the 

coast of eastern Africa from the southern border of Somalia down to the northern border of 

Mozambique. This covers the whole Tanzanian and Kenyan coasts, including the Indian 

Ocean islands of Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar, and comprises the intervening habitats between 

forest patches. The majority of the hotspot is in the east of Tanzania, moving inland to 

include the Eastern Arc Mountains and incorporating the water catchment system of the Rufiji 

River 2 . 

2 In 2005 a hotspots reappraisal conducted by Conservation International separated the EACF hotspot into two 

separate entities – the Eastern Afromontane Hotspot and the Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Hotspot. The 

partition was based on the two regions being characterised by separate plant phytocoria differentiated by altitude 

and climatic regimes and each containing a significant number of strict endemics. However, this report follows 

CEPF’s current definition of the EACF hotspot as a single entity (CEPF, 2005). 

26



The biological importance of the EACF hotspot resides in the high density of its endemic 

species: because of the small area of the hotspot, the densities of its endemic species are 

among the highest in the world. Consequently, this hotspot is likely to suffer high plant and 

vertebrate extinction for a given loss of habitat. Moreover, the fragmentation, variation and 

small size of forest patches (e.g. no Tanzanian Coastal Forests are larger than 40 km 2 ) make 

the sites susceptible to invasion by generalists and vulnerable to habitat loss (CEPF 2005; 

Clarke and Robertson, 2000). Because of the high degree of threat present in the area, the 

CFEA hotspot has been classified as one of 11 ‘hyperhot’ priorities for conservation 

investment (Brooks et al., 2002). 

THE COASTAL FOREST MOSAIC 

The Coastal Forests element of the EACF hotspot is referred to as the “Coastal Forest 

Mosaic”, highlighting the highly variable occurring vegetation, which includes closed-canopy 

forest as well as other vegetation types (CEPF, 2005). The closed-canopy forest of this 

mosaic is referred to as the Coastal Forests. This complex mosaic of vegetation types is a 

consequence of a heterogeneous set of abiotic (climate, geology, topography etc.), biotic 

(anthropogenic disturbance, termites etc.) and historical (glaciations etc.) factors which may 

not be repeated at different sites (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). Much of the mosaic has been 

converted into agricultural land and human settlements, including Mombasa in Kenya and 

Dar es Salaam in Tanzania (CEPF, 2005). 

The Coastal Forest Mosaic has been recognised to constitute a distinct phytocorion 3 occurring 

along the coastal strip of eastern tropical Africa (CEPF 2005; Clarke, 2000). Defining the 

exact extent of this phyto-region is a difficult task as insufficient data area available, 

especially from Somalia and Mozambique. Clarke (2000a), treats the Coastal Forest Mosaic 

as corresponding to the “Zanzibar-Inhambane regional phytocorion” identified by White 

(1983a), which was later renamed as the “Swahilian regional centre of endemism” with an 

adjacent “Swahilian/Maputaland regional transition zone” to the south, abbreviated as the 

“Swahilian region sensu lato” (Clarke, 1998). According to this classification, the eastern 

African Coastal Forest Mosaic extends between the equator in southern Somalia and the 

estuary of Limpopo River in Mozambique (Clarke, 2000a, pp. 10-17). The CEPF ecosystem 

profile (2005, p. 10), on the other hand, defines the Coastal Forest Mosaic as corresponding to 

the “Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane Coastal Forest Mosaic” identified by WWF (2003), 

excluding Somalia and Mozambique. In this report, we use Clarke’s definition of the Coastal 

Forest Mosaic as broadly corresponding to the “Swahilian region sensu lato”. 

Within the Coastal Forest Mosaic, the closed-canopy Coastal Forests extend to 3,172km 2 , 

making up just 1% of the whole Swahilian region sensu lato (Clarke et al., 2000). 

Nevertheless, the patches of closed-canopy Coastal Forests are characterised by the highest 

concentration of biodiversity and endemism. In terms of flora, 70% of all endemic species are 

also present in the closed-canopy Coastal Forests, and of all the species recorded from the 

Swahilian region sensu lato (more than 1356) at least 554 species (42%) are restricted to the 

closed-canopy Coastal Forests (Clarke et al., 2000). 

In the closed-canopy Coastal Forests of Tanzania, 33% of vascular plant species were found 

to be endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato (Clarke, 2000). Rates of faunal endemism in 

the Coastal Forest Mosaic vary from 7% (31 species) for mammals to 10% (24 species) for 

birds, 57% (47 species) for reptiles, 36% (5 species) for amphibians and 19% (75 species) for 

3 A phytocorion is an area of plant endemism (encompassing various vegetation types) restricted to a particular 

geographical area and defined on the basis of its vegetation physiognomy and the richness of its endemic flora (i.e. 

>1000), whereby a large fraction of the total number of species of higher plants is restricted in distribution to such 

geographical area (White, 1983a). 

27



butterflies, with 786 known species in eight taxonomic groups being strictly endemic to the 

closed-canopy Coastal Forests (CEPF, 2005; Burgess and Clarke, 2000). 

Closed-canopy Coastal Forests comprise various forest types: dry forest, Brachystegia forest, 

scrub forest, riverine forest, groundwater forest, swamp forest, and coastal-afromontane 

transition forest. Many assemblages of heterogeneous vegetation make up the rest of the 

Coastal Forest Mosaic, including woodland, savanna woodland, bushland, thicket and 

grassland interspersed with farmland under cultivation or fallow, altogether containing more 

than 500 endemic plant species (CEPF, 2005; Clarke, 2000). 

Areas of these closed-canopy Coastal Forests, and especially Caesalpinoidae-dominated dry 

forest, may be remnants of the original pre-Miocene pan-African lowland forest, which once 

comprised the now separated blocks of West African Guineo-Congolian Forest and East 

African Swahilian Coastal Forest. This is demonstrated by the fact that many species that 

occur in, and often dominate, these forests (such as Cynometra, Scorodophloeus and 

Brachystegia) are endemic to both the Guineo-Congolian Forests and the Swahilian Coastal 

Forests (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). It is possible that prior to human intervention 

Caesalpinoidae-dominated dry forest covered much of the eastern African coastal strip, 

constituting the climatic vegetation climax for this ecoregion (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

In terms of species richness, the closed-canopy Eastern African Coastal Forest ranks between 

the Guineo-Congolian Forest and the Eastern Arc Mountain Forest, containing at least 1050 

plant genera and more than 4500 plant species (CEPF 2005; Clarke et al., 2000). The plant 

communities occurring in the closed-canopy Coastal Forests are highly variable in their 

assemblage combinations and dominance patterns. In general, however, monospecific canopy 

dominance is common in these forests, with up to 80% of the entire canopy being composed 

of only five species (Clarke et al., 2000). 

Endemic species in the Coastal Forest Mosaic are often disjunct in their distribution pattern: 

only a few of the strictly endemic species are distributed throughout the whole range of the 

Coastal Forests (e.g. Bombax rhodognaphalon), but many have disjunct ranges (e.g. 

Sheppardia gunningi) and single site endemism is common. There is also a high turnover of 

local species between adjacent forest patches, with forests that are only 100km apart differing 

in up to 70% of their millipedes and 80% of their plants. These distribution patterns indicate 

that much of the habitat heterogeneity and fragmentation, and the associated degree of 

biological endemism, are primarily natural and relictual rather than of recent anthropogenic 

origin. However, habitat fragmentation has also been incremented by widespread forest 

clearance by humans in the past hundred years (Burgess, 2000). Single site endemism, 

disjunct distribution and a high degree of species turnover make the prioritisation of the 

forests in terms of their biodiversity a difficult task (CEPF, 2005) 

Severe disturbance is known to reduce the level of endemism in the Coastal Forests. More 

endemic species were probably present in the forests of coastal eastern Africa and are now 

extinct following the introduction of repeated fires and widespread forest clearance. The 

threat of further extinction is unfortunately a serious one for the endemic species of these 

forests, since in many of them fragmentation and habitat loss may have caused populations of 

long-lived endemic species (e.g. trees) to become genetically unviable (Clarke et al., 2000; 

Cronk, 1997). 

28



THE COASTAL FOREST VEGETATION TYPES 

The following description for the closed-canopy forest types of the Coastal Forest Mosaic is 

taken from Clarke and Robertson (2000). 

• Eastern African coastal dry forest 

This is the predominant Coastal Forests type. Prior to human intervention it probably covered 

much of the eastern African coastal strip, constituting the climatic vegetation climax for this 

ecoregion, with other vegetation types being subtypes, variants and transitions to dry forest. 

There are two broad varieties of coastal dry forest: Legume-dominated and Mixed. Legumedominated 

dry forest comprises the bulk of this forest type. It grows on well drained soils but 

appears not to be limited by edaphic conditions. It is dominated by trees of the family 

Leguminosae, and one or two species of this family often dominate (between 50-95%) a 

rather simple vegetation structure that lacks the tree strata typical of other tropical forest 

types. The subfamily Caesalpinioideae is particularly well represented, especially the genera 

Scorodophloeus, Cynometra, Julbernardia, Hymenaea, Berlinia, Guibourtia, Erythrophleum, 

Paramacrolobium and Dialium. Legumes belonging to the genera Baphia, Craibia and 

Millettia (subfamily Papilionoideae) and Newtonia (subfamily Mimosoideae) are frequently 

associated with members of the Caesalpinioideae. Shrubs are generally frequent and mainly 

comprise saplings of the canopy species, indicating a climax community, whilst herbs and 

lianas are usually rare to scarce. The seeds of the Caesalpinoidae are heavy and not dispersed 

by wind or animal. In southern Tanzania the Scorodophloeus fischeri association is frequently 

found. Mixed non-legume-dominated dry forest is more difficult to classify owing to the 

absence of a single recurring vegetation community node, instead many associations occur 

that are sometimes unique to a particular forest area. In the literature 152 trees have been 

given as dominant or common species in at least one forest area. Lianas and shrubs are also 

common. This floristic complexity is also matched by structural complexity, with sub canopy 

tree layers becoming more distinct with increasing moisture availability. Seeds from the 

species typical of this forest type are wind or animal dispersed, indicating that Mixed dry 

forest may occur as a regeneration climax in the absence of competition from slower 

dispersed legume seeds typical of Legume-dominated dry forest. 

• Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest 

This forest type is dominated by B. spiciformis or B. microphylla, with Hymenaea verrucosa 

and Julbernardia magnistipulata occurring as co-dominants and 19 more tree species 

recorded as dominant or frequent. This forest type is a variant of the Legume-dominated dry 

forest and occurs on well-drained, nutrient poor, heavily leached and/or eroded soils, which 

are archetypal of the Makonde escarpment. It is thought to be a non-fire generated climax 

community over soils that have become too degraded to support eastern African coastal dry 

forest. The cause of the soil erosion may be anthropic (clearance and shift-cultivation) or the 

natural and rapid erosion of the sandstone plateaux and hills of the Makonde Scarp (Burgess 

and Clarke, 2000) (see Geology and Soil sections). In this forest type Brachystegia trees form 

a closed-canopy over a scarce to dense shrub layer, while grasses are sparsely present to 

absent. Although the wide tree crowns rarely overlap, this vegetation type satisfies all other 

physiognomic criteria for classification as a forest. It is this physiognomy, as well as its fireexcluded 

character and the dominance of Swahilian endemic species, that distinguish this 

vegetation type from the Brachystegia or ‘miombo’ woodland that constitutes the firegenerated 

climax of the Zambezian regional centre of endemism 4 (Clarke and Robertson, 

2000). 

4 The Brachystegia or ‘miombo’ woodland formations of the Zambezian regional centre of endemism are also 

dominated by Brachystegia sp. (B. microphylla or B. spiciformis), but they differ from the coastal Brachystegia 

forest of the Swahilian regional centre of endemism in both ecological and physiognomic terms. They are firegenerated 

climax vegetations characterised by an open canopy and a dense grass layer, and composed of tree and 

shrub species restricted in distribution to the Zambezian regional centre of endemism (Clarke, 2000). 

29



• Eastern African coastal scrub forest 

Scrub forest is a common feature of the Coastal Forest Mosaic belt. Most of it constitutes a 

seral or sub-climax regeneration phase, resulting from and prevented from succession to 

forest by heavy disturbance, such as seasonal burning or shifting cultivation. The two broad 

categories are Mixed scrub forest and Maritime scrub forest. Mixed scrub forest has up to 

141 species recorded as dominant or common, and the most frequent include Afzelia 

quanzensis, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Brachylaena huillensis, Caloncoba welwitschii, 

Combretum schumannii, Grewia sp., Hymenocardia ulmoides, Manilkara sulcata, Oldfieldia 

somalensis, Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Suregada zanzibarensis and Zanthoxylum holtzianum. This 

vegetation type is typical of the Makonde plateau, where it can become virtually 

impenetrable. Maritime scrub forest has species with typically thick coriaceous leaves to 

prevent desiccation from the strong salt-laden sea breezes, and it can be found at intervals 

along the coast of eastern Africa. Dominance by one or two species is again rare. 

• Eastern African coastal riverine/groundwater/swamp forest 

These forests are the result of an additional groundwater moisture supply. In strict terms they 

do not constitute an element of the Swahilian phytocorion, as they are dominated by tree 

species which are widespread throughout tropical Africa, even though some of the lianas, 

shrubs and herbs are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu latu (White, 1983a). They tend to 

be similar in species composition; however some species do characterize the separate types. 

Among dominant species occurring in both riverine and ground water forest the most frequent 

are Antidesma venosum, Barringtonia racemosa, Bridelia micrantha, Burttdavya nyasica, 

Celtis phillippensis, Cordia goetzei, Diospyros mespiliformis, Ficus scassellatii, Ficus 

sycomorus, Garcinia livingstonei, Khaya anthotheca, Kigelia africana, Milicia excelsa, 

Mimusops obtusifolia, Parkia filicoidea, Sorindeia madagascariensis, Sterculia 

appendiculata, Syzygium guineense, Terminalia sambesiaca and Trichilia emetica. Coastal 

riverine forest develops along permanent or semi-permanent watercourses and it has a diverse 

mix of species in the canopy with typically large scattered trees. Coastal groundwater forest 

is found in areas with a dissected topography where seasonal and permanent drainage courses 

form from the accumulation of surface and groundwater. It is characterised by large emergent 

trees of a deciduous type and species from the Moraceae family (e.g. Antiaris, Ficus, Milicia 

and Trilepsium) are prominent, accompanied by frequent shrubs and lianas. Swamp forest is 

dominated by distinctive monocotyledon species. 

• Eastern African coastal-afromontane transitional forest 

Found in higher locations with high rainfall (1500mm and above), and typically at the base of 

the Eastern Arc Mountains, this forest type is the closest in physiognomy to lowland 

rainforest. Multiple tree strata are characteristic, with a denser shrub layer and a greater 

number of epiphytes and lianas than in other coastal forest types. 

• Woodland and grassland 

The woodland and grassland formations present in the eastern African coastal strip are not 

climax communities (Holdridge et al., 1971). Instead they are a consequence of widespread 

and frequent burning and clearance for cultivation that have been repeatedly practiced for 

many generations. These practices can cause the local extinction of many Swahilian endemic 

plant species that are unable to regenerate where burning regularly occurs, and have 

encouraged the incursion of plant species characteristic of the Zambezian regional centre of 

endemism. In some areas this process has resulted in the Swahilian Coastal Forests being 

converted into floristically impoverished woodland of Zambezian affinity or further degraded 

into grassland (Clarke, 2000). Many Swahilian endemic plant species are nonetheless able to 

tolerate some fire and can be found in these woodland and grassland formations (White, 

1993). 

30



CONSERVATION INITIATIVES IN THE EACF HOTSPOT 

Interest in the biological value of the EACF hotspot has been relatively recent, with 

publications, workshops and conferences on the biodiversity and conservation of this area 

mostly organised by the United Nations Development Programme/Global Environment 

Facility (UNDP/GEF), the WWF Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office (WWF- 

EARPO), BirdLife International and the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). 

The Fourth East African Wildlife Symposium at Arusha in 1978 started a new interest in the 

biodiversity value of the region. This was followed by a report to the Government of 

Tanzania, drawing its attention to the biological importance of and threats to the Eastern Arc 

Mountains. In 1983 the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group (TFCG) was founded to address 

the issues discussed in the report. 

In the same year, a team from the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP, now 

BirdLife International) surveyed the avifauna of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest on the northern coast 

of Kenya and drew attention to its globally threatened bird species and the state of eastern 

African Coastal Forests there. More comprehensive surveys followed, drawing attention to 

different aspects of the coastal belt (for a complete summary refer to Burgess and Clarke, 

2000). In 1993 a workshop on the eastern African Coastal Forests was held in Dar es Salaam. 

This raised the profile of these forests and promoted more definitive conservation action. 

In December 1997 there was an international conference on the Eastern Arc Mountains at 

Morogoro, Tanzania, that addressed the status of the remaining forest and their biodiversity, 

as well as socio-economic and management issues pertinent to the area. A UNDP/DANIDA 

project was started at this time, which led to a GEF Project Development Fund (PDF Block 

A) to specify and address conservation issues in the Eastern Arc Mountains in more detail. 

From the accrued knowledge a three-way matrix was constructed showing levels of 

biodiversity, endemism and threat and assessing the effectiveness of previous interventions. 

This revealed exceptional diversity in the East Usambara, Udzungwa and Uluguru mountains. 

A PDF Block B proposal supported by UNDP and the World Bank was developed to focus on 

the Ulugurus. 

In February 2002 a workshop on the Eastern Africa Coastal Forest Programme covering 

Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique was developed by WWF-EARPO to develop a regional 

synthesis on Coastal Forests conservation issues (WWF-EARPO, 2002). On 12 March 2003, 

a CEPF workshop was held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to define and build upon all previous 

effort. Participants included 48 people from government departments, NGOs, scientific and 

research institutions, field projects and donor organizations, all of whom worked in or had 

knowledge of the hotspot. The outputs from the workshop were subsequently incorporated 

into a consultation process that helped to define the investment priorities for CEPF and avoid 

duplication of efforts in the hotspot. Along with other research initiatives in the hotspot, the 

FT-MRP was approved for grant funding in 2004. The eight forest reserves surveyed by the 

FT-MRP had been included within the eligible Key Biodiversity Sites 81, 95 and 102 by CI in 

1996, but these reserves had not been systematically researched before. 

More recently (30 May to 1 June 2005) a BirdLife workshop on Biodiversity Monitoring in 

the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests Hotspot was held in Dar es Salaam. This 

sought to bring key stakeholders together to review, standardise and plan coordinated longterm 

monitoring in the hotspot. 

31



THE CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM PARTNERSHIP FUND’S INVESTMENT IN THE 

EACF HOTSPOT 

The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) is a joint initiative of Conservation 

International (CI), the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), the Government of Japan (GJ), 

the MacArthur Foundation (MAF) and the World Bank (WB). The CEPF is designed to 

safeguard the world’s threatened biodiversity hotspots in developing countries by providing 

funding and technical support to civil society. The EACF region was approved for grant 

funding in July 2003 and active grant making started in January 2004, focusing on conserving 

the EACF hotspot’s 333 globally threatened species. 

The total allocation is $7 million to: 

• Increase the ability of local populations to benefit from and contribute to 

biodiversity conservation, especially in and around the lower Tana River Forests, 

East Usambaras/Tanga, Udzungwas and Jozani in Zanzibar, 

• Restore and increase connectivity among fragmented forest patches in the hotspot, 

• Improve biological knowledge in all 160 eligible sites in the hotspot, 

• Establish a small grants programme in the hotspot that focuses on critically 

endangered species, and small-scale initiatives to increase connectivity of 

biologically important habitat patches, 

• Develop and support efforts for further fundraising for the hotspot. 

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE FT MRP BIODIVERSITY SURVEY 

The conservation value of the eight forest reserves surveyed by the Frontier-Tanzania Mtwara 

Reconnaissance Project is highlighted by their inclusion within the eligible 160 Key 

Biodiversity Sites (81, 95 and 102) by CI in 1996. However, these Key Biodiversity Sites 

were not systematically researched and represent some of the least studied sites of the EACF 

hotspot. The specific aim of the FT-MRP was therefore to perform biological research in 

these sites through preliminary baseline biodiversity surveys and the compilation of 

indigenous knowledge. 

The long-term goal of this project is to contribute to the conservation of the biodiversity of 

the Mtwara Coastal Forests without compromising current livelihoods. This was done by 

conducting preliminary baseline biodiversity and disturbance surveys. Results from these 

surveys can be used to promote increased environmental awareness, alternative income 

generating initiatives and observation of the regulations pertaining to the forest reserves 

among communities who are in close proximity to the reserves studied. 

More specifically, through baseline biodiversity surveys conducted in eight forest reserves in 

the Mtwara Region the FT MRP aims to contribute to the following conservation outcomes: 

• Improved protection and management of the forest reserves studied 

• Decrease in illegal and unsustainable activities within the forest reserves (e.g. 

logging, poaching and encroachment beyond forest reserve boundaries) 

• Endemic and threatened species monitored and protected 

• Range extensions identified 

• Data contributed to the IUCN Red List process 

32



The specific short-term objectives of the FT MRP were: 

1. To conduct a preliminary biodiversity survey and compile indigenous knowledge in 

eight forest reserves, in order to produce baseline information on the following: 

- Flora: species richness, diversity, dominance, relative abundance, 

composition, endemism, conservation status and range extensions 

- Fauna (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and butterflies): species 

richness, composition, endemism, conservation status and range extensions 

- Human disturbance and levels of resource extraction 

2. To assist in the identification of priority sites most suitable for biodiversity 

conservation and the provision of environmental services within the studied area; 

3. To provide management recommendations for the establishment of sustainable 

conservation programmes for the studied sites; 

4. To provide baseline biological data against which future monitoring may be based, 

in order to detect changes in the biodiversity status of the studied sites; 

5. To raise local awareness of the importance of forest conservation, biodiversity 

promotion, water sources protection, soil erosion prevention, sustainable use of 

resources and the interaction of these issues through a layman’s report in Kiswahili 

for use by district natural resources offices, community groups and schools in close 

proximity to the studied sites; 

6. To raise awareness of the biological values of the lesser known Coastal Forests 

nationally and internationally, by contributing data to the CEPF Conservation 

Outcomes Database, the TROPICOS database of Missouri Botanical Gardens and 

the Biodiversity Database of the University of Dar es Salaam, and through the 

distribution of this report to national and international government departments and 

NGOs; 

7. To contribute to global biodiversity monitoring and conservation efforts through 

collaboration with specialists in national and international institutions. 

OBJECTIVE LINKAGES TO FRONTIER-TANZANIA FOREST RESEARCH 

PROGRAMME 

FT FRP has been conducting baseline biodiversity surveys within the EACF hotspot since 

1989. The aim of FT FRP is to undertake systematic baseline biological surveys and to record 

local knowledge in targeted areas of the EACF hotspot, in order to describe the flora and 

fauna present by assessing the following: 

1. Species richness, diversity and composition of vascular flora, 

2. Population density of key floral indicator species, 

3. Species richness, diversity and composition of vertebrate fauna, 

4. Presence/absence of endemic and globally threatened Eastern Arc Mountains and 

Coastal Forests species. 

5. Levels of human disturbance and resource extraction. 

FT FRP has developed a comprehensive methodology (Frontier-Tanzania, 1997) for the 

effective implementation of systematic baseline biological surveys. 

Projects undertaken by Frontier-Tanzania in the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests 

hotspot since 1989 are listed in Table 8-a. 

33



Project Name Location Key Biodiversity 

Sites 

Coastal Forests 

Biological Surveys 

East Usambara 

Biodiversity Surveys 

(EUBS) 

Mahenge Mountains 


Udzungwa 

Mountains 


Uluguru Component 


(UCBS) 

Coast Region, Lindi Region, Tanga 

Region, and Chumbe Island- 

Zanzibar Archipelago, Tanzania 

(Various Coastal Forests) 

East Usambara Mountains, Tanga 

Region, Tanzania 

(Amani NR, Bamba Ridge FR, 

Bombo East I and II FR, Kambai 

FR, Kwamarimba FR, Kwamgumi 

FR, Longuza FR, Magoroto Forest, 

Manga FR, Mgambo FR, Mlinga 

FR, Mlungui Proposed FR, Mpanga 

Village FR, Mtai FR, Nilo FR, 

Segoma FR, Semdoe FR) 

Mahenge Mountains, Morogoro 


(Nawenge FR) 

Udzungwa Mountains, Iringa 


(New Dabaga/Ulangambi FR, West 

Kilombero Scarp) 

Uluguru Mountains, Morogoro 


(Uluguru North and South FRs) 

65 - Lindi District 

37 - Tanga 

Morogoro 

Time 

frame 

139 - Tanga 

Pangani 

N/A Jun 1995 - 

Jun 2002 

75 - Mahenge 

Scarp Forest 

Reserve 

44 - Udzungwa 

Mountains 

149 - Uluguru 

Mountains 

Donor 

1989-1994 SEE 

Jan 1999 - 

Apr 2001 

Jan 1999 - 

Apr 2001 

Sep 2004 - 

Apr 2005 

FINNIDA, 

JICA 

SEE 

DANIDA 

UNDP- 

GEF 

Mtwara 

Reconnaissance 

Project 

Lesser Known 

Eastern Arc 

Mountains 


Mtwara Coastal Forests, Mtwara 


(Makonde Scarp I, II, and III, 

Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju and Mkunya 

River Proposed FRs; Kambona and 

Ndechela FRs) 

Mahenge, Nguru, Rubeho and 

Ukaguru Mountains, Morogoro 


(Sali, Mselezi, Kanga, Nguru South, 

Maboto/Ikwamba, Mamiwa Kisara 

North and South, and Pala Ulanga 

FRs) 

80 - Masasi 

District 

94 - Mtwara 

District 

101 - Newala 

District 

70 - Mahenge 

74 - Mahenge 

Sali 

103 - Nguru Mt 

120 - Rubeho Mt 

Sep 2004 – 

Apr 2005 

Oct 2005 – 

Nov 2007 

CEPF 

CEPF 

146 - Ukaguru Mt 

Table 8-a Frontier-Tanzania projects in the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot 

Technical reports from work in the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot have 

been published and are available on Frontier’s Publications List (www.frontier.ac.uk) and the 

website of the Eastern Arc Mountains Conservation Endowment Fund (EAMCEF - 

www.easternarc.or.tz). 

34



9. STUDY SITE 

M. J. CUTTS 

LOCATION 

The Mtwara Region is located in south-eastern Tanzania and constitutes 1.9% of the 

Tanzanian mainland, making it the second smallest region after Kilimanjaro. The Region was 

created by the separation of Lindi and Mtwara into two separate identities in 1971 and it 

covers an area of 16,720 km 2 . It is bordered in the north by the Lindi Region, in the east by 

the Indian Ocean, in the south by Mozambique and the Ruvuma River and in the west by the 

Ruvuma Region. 

The Region has five districts: Mtwara/Mikindani Urban, Mtwara Rural, Masasi, Newala and 

Tandahimba. The Makonde escarpment, which runs along the base of the Mtwara Region 

through the Mtwara Rural, Newala, Tandahimba and Masasi districts, covers an area of 

73,055ha (Maganga, 2004) and its plateau lies between 700m and 900m asl. Mtwara Rural 

district is low-lying with much agriculturally modified coastal woodland and forest rising to 

only 300 metres. Here the Rivers of Maombi and Mbuo drain most of the plateau south into 

the Ruvuma River. Newala district covers most of the Makonde plateau and the raised area 

inland of the Mtwara/Mikindani district and south of the Rondo plateau. Here the Kitame, 

Mkundi and Mutumnudi Rivers flowing off the Makonde plateau, either eastwards to the 

ocean or southwards into the Ruvuma River, create deep valleys. Tandahimba district is 

between the districts of Mtwara in the east and Newala in the west (Figure 1). 

Of the five districts the areas of study are in Mtwara Rural (Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju), Masasi 

(Makonde Scarp I, Kambona and Ndechela), Newala (Makonde Scarp II) and Tandahimba 

(Makonde Scarp III) (Figure 1). 

TOPOGRAPHY 

With regards to topography there are two distinct regions: the coastal plain with its 

complexity of landforms and the basement plain dominated by the Makonde plateau. The 

coastal plain is generally low-lying with isolated rocky hills and steep river sides. The western 

half of this plain lies beyond the Makonde plateau with its runoff draining to the south 

through the tributaries of the Ruvuma River. The basement plain is dominated by the 

Makonde plateau at 300m to 400m asl. The Maombi and Mbuo Rivers drain most of the 

Makonde plateau (www.lindi-mtwara-region.com/eng). 

GEOLOGY AND SOIL 

The Region has two geological zones and hence two geologically determined soil types. The 

first zone is the coastal sedimentary formation extending 125km from the Indian Ocean to the 

edge of the Makonde plateau. In this zone sandstone bedrock produces deep, well drained 

sandy soils of low fertility and low moisture holding capacity. Some areas give rise to marine 

heavy clay soils or vertisols. Further inland, coastal limestones produce red, well drained and 

heavy textured soils. The second geological zone extends west of the coastal sediments. It is a 

zone of pre-Cambrian basement rocks consisting of gneisses and granulites. Soils from this 

basement are variable, comprising deep, well drained, red clays to the north of Masasi town, 

course grained sandy soils to the south of Masasi town, and well drained, nutrient poor and 

heavily leached soils on the Makonde escarpment. The red clays are the most fertile soils in 

the region that best suit the upland crops of the area (www.lindi-mtwara-region.com/eng, 

2005). 

35



Figure 1 Map of the study region showing the forest reserves studied, major towns, roads and 

base camps 

36



CLIMATE 

Prevailing winds from the Indian Ocean are critical in determining the climate for this region. 

During the period November/December to April/May the dominant winds come from northeast 

bringing a hot and humid rainy season. This season has its wettest part in January, but it 

can reach into February or March. The rest of the year the region is kept drier and cooler by 

the south-easterly winds. The amount of total annual precipitation varies with altitude. In the 

Mtwara Region rains vary from 116mm to 935mm on the hills and the plateau, 893mm at 

Masasi and 1001mm at Newala. Temperatures in coastal Mtwara vary from 27 0 C as the 

highest monthly mean temperature in December to 23 0 C in July. Relative humidity in coastal 

Mtwara ranges from 87% in March to 79% in October. Temperatures and humidity are lower 

inland (www.lindi-mtwara-region.com/eng, 2005). 

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS 

The population of Mtwara Region was reported to be around 857,977 people in 2000 and it 

has an average annual growth rate of 4% (Milledge and Kaale, 2005). As most of the south of 

the country, the Mtwara Region is characterised by one of the highest levels of poverty in 

Tanzania. The transport and communication infrastructures are scarce and unreliable in 

relation to the rest of the country. Within the context of a poorly developed local economy 

and in absence of alternative sources of livelihood, 92% of the people are engaged in 

agricultural production of food crops and depend heavily upon free forest products and 

services. Food crops include cassava, millet, sorghum, maize and cow and pigeon peas. The 

major cash crop is cashew nuts, of which the Mtwara Region is the first national producer, 

contributing about 50% of the national production (Milledge and Kaale, 2005). 

CONSERVATION STATUS OF FOREST RESERVES IN THE MTWARA REGION 

About 8.33% of the Mtwara Region is covered by forest, amounting to about 139,295ha 

(Milledge and Kaale, 2005). Nineteen government gazetted and proposed protective and 

productive forest reserves (FR) 5 are found within the Mtwara Region. These forest reserves 

5 A national forest reserve may be, as stated in the Forest Act 2002 [Acts Supplement No. 14 of June 2002]: 

(a) an area of land covered by forest, reserved or used principally for purposes of sustainable production of 

timber and other forest produce, known as ‘production forest reserve’; 

(b) an area of land covered by forest, reserved or used principally for the purposes of protection of water 

sheds, soil conservation and the protection of wild plants, known as ‘protection forest reserve’; 

(c) an area of land covered by forest, reserved principally to protect nature and scenic areas of national or 

international significance and to maintain and enhance biodiversity and genetic resources in an 

undisturbed, dynamic and evolutionary state, known as ‘nature forest reserve’. 

An area of land is proposed to become a national forest reserve by the Minister of Natural Resources and Tourism 

(MNRT) responsible for forests. Upon production of a proposal, separate reports are produced by the Director of 

Forestry, collecting any objections received, the National Forestry Advisory Committee, containing 

recommendations, and an Investigator appointed by the Minister, investigating any claim arising out of customary 

or written laws. The Minister then produces a written declaration for the land area within 90 days of receipt of the 

reports, determining the rights to land and forest produce exercisable within that national reserve. As s soon as 

practicable after the publication of the declaration, the Director shall cause the boundaries of the forest to be 

visibly demarcated on the ground and a map or plan to be prepared. On and after the coming into force of a 

declaration of a national forest reserve, the following acts are forbidden within its boundaries: removal, damage or 

destruction of any produce that is naturally found in the forest; residing on or usage of any of the land for any 

activity (cultivation, grazing, hunting, fishing, honey collection, mining, construction of roads and other structures, 

research, for which a permit is required, etc.). The function of managing a national forest reserve is determined by 

the Director in consultation with the Minister, and may be undertaken by: a Forestry Division, the Executive 

Agency, a local authority, a village council, a community group, an organization in the private sector, a Non- 

Governmental Organization or a person holding a concession (Forest Acts Supplement No. 14, 2002). 

On all Tanzanian territory, with the exception of private land, village land forest reserves and community forest 

reserves, a license is required for hunting and harvesting natural forest produces (Forest Acts Supplement No. 14, 

2002). These licenses are conferred by the District Wildlife Division and District Natural Resources and Land and 

Development Office respectively (Mlowe, 2005). 

37



cover a designated area of 17,812ha and comprise vegetation types typical of the Coastal 

Forests. However, the proportion of closed-canopy forest and other vegetation types within 

these reserves remains unknown (CEPF, 2005). Another 65,450ha is designated as game 

reserves, but tourism development has been limited by insufficient infrastructure (Milledge 

and Kaale, 2005). The CEPF Ecosystem Profile (2005) lists six threatened species from these 

forest reserves, though many more are believed to inhabit the area. 

Eight forest reserves occurring along and nearby the Makonde escarpment were researched in 

this study. These areas were designated as sites of protected forest reserve by the government 

in recognition of their importance to local villages and towns as water catchments, for 

prevention of soil erosion and for provision of resources such as timber, fuel wood, food and 

medicine (Adkins, 2005). Of these, two reserves are gazetted (Kambona and Ndechela) and 

six are proposed (Makonde Scarp I, Makonde Scarp II, Makonde Scarp III, Mtiniko, Mtuli 

Hinju Mkunya River). Kambona was gazetted in 1955 to protect the water source near St. 

Joseph’s College (now Chidya Secondary School) in Chidya. Ndechela was gazetted in 1958 

to protect timber resources and biodiversity. The area covered by Makonde Scarp I and II and 

Mkunya River was proposed, mapped and demarcated in 1977 to prevent soil erosion on the 

plateau and scarp and to protect water sources and catchment, but they have not yet been 

gazetted as full reserves. In 1980 and 1981 a survey was conducted to estimate the cost of 

compensating people for their relocation from within the forest boundaries, as it is required in 

fully gazetted reserves, concluding that Tsh 40 million was needed for compensation. 

Compensation of TSh 1.7 million was made available to Masasi district in 1983-84 but no 

subsidies were made available to Newala and Tandahimba districts. Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju 

were proposed to be forest reserves in 1976 to protect timber and water resources and 

biodiversity, but they have not yet been fully gazetted. All FRs surveyed are managed by the 

central government (Table 9-a) (Masasi District Natural Resources Office, 2005). 

Table 9-a Protection status and size of forest reserves studied 

Forest Reserve District Management Body Protection Status Size (ha) 

Makonde Scarp I Masasi Central Government Proposed 1,748.3 

Kambona Masasi Central Government Gazetted 29.9 

Ndechela Masasi Central Government Gazetted 6,216 

Mtuli Hinju Mtwara Rural Central Government Proposed 296.0 

Mtiniko Mtwara Rural Central Government Proposed 1,736 

Makonde Scarp II Newala Central Government Proposed 1,554 

Mkunya River Newala Central Government Proposed 4,797.3 

Makonde Scarp III Tandahimba Central Government Proposed 1,434.7 

Total area 17,812.2 

38



10. SURVEY EFFORT 

G. WEGNER AND R. SALTER 

For the Mtwara Reconnaissance Project (FT-MRP), fieldwork was conducted from 2 nd April 

to 17 th July 2005. A total of 82 days were spent in eight forest reserves conducting field 

research and community days. The remaining days were spent in nearby towns sorting data, 

collecting field supplies and liaising with local officials. Each reserve was surveyed for five, 

seven or fourteen nights depending on the size of the reserve (4000ha = 14 days). 

Survey work concentrated on investigations of flora, fauna and human disturbance. 

Quantitative, standardised and repeatable methods were employed to record and analyse data 

on species richness, diversity, dominance, relative abundance and composition of flora, 

species richness and composition of specific faunal taxonomic groups (mammals, birds, 

reptiles, amphibians and butterflies), presence/absence of Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc 

Mountains endemic and globally threatened species, and levels of disturbance and resources 

extraction. 

In total 93 vegetation plots, 93 regeneration plots, 1840 sherman trapping nights, 460 bucket 

pitfall trapping nights, 52.5 man/hours of timed herpetofauna searches; 200.45 bat net/hours, 

134 man/hours of bird mist netting, 100 man/hours of timed bird searches, 138 butterfly 

canopy trapping days, 37.5 sweep net/hours and 32 disturbance/large mammal transect lines 

(totalling 31km) were undertaken throughout the eight forest reserves. Opportunistic 

observations of all taxa and human disturbance were conducted throughout the study. 

Structured interviews, lasting for up to one hour, were carried out with local groups (including 

forestry officers and community committees and representatives) in the villages which were 

in close proximity to the forest reserves. Table 10-a gives a break down of the survey effort 

employed for each survey technique for each forest reserve (for work site descriptions see 

Appendices 2-7). 

39

Frontier-Tanzania Mtwara Reconnaissance Project – FT MRP Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund – CEPF 

Table 10-a Summary of survey effort 

SAMPLING INTENSITY 

FLORA 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

(93) 

TOTAL 

Reserve size (ha) 29.9 1,748.3 1,554 4,797.3 1,736 296.0 1,434.7 6,216 1,7812.2 

Days 5 7 7 14 7 5 7 14 66 

Sampling intensity (% of each FR) 0.5 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.01 

Vegetation plot (VP) 

Trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses (4 plots) (9 plots) (5 plots) (21 plots) (12 plots) (5 plots) (9 plots) (21 plots) 

20m x 20m x no. of plots 

1600m 2 3600m 2 4800m 2 8400m 2 4800m 2 2000m 2 3600m 2 8400m 2 37200m 2 

(93) 

Regeneration plot (RP) Trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses (4 plots) (9 plots) (5 plots) (21 plots) (12 plots) (5 plots) (9 plots) (21 plots) 

2m x 2m x no. of plots 

16m 2 36m 2 48m 2 84m 2 48m 2 20m 2 36m 2 84m 2 372m 2 

Opportunistic obs./collection Trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses - - - - - - - - - 

FAUNA Sherman traps 

Small mammals 120 200 200 400 200 120 200 400 1840 

40 traps x no. trapping nights 

Bucket pitfall traps 

Reptiles, amphibians, rodents 30 50 50 100 50 30 50 100 460 

10 buckets x no. trapping nights 

Bat netting (net-hours) ** Bats 20.25 2.7 6 39 31.5 15 - 86 200.45 

Bird netting (man-hours) ** Birds -* 20.5 -* 38.5 37.5 24.5 -* 13 134 

Timed bird searches (man-hours) Birds 15 6 8 16 14 7 18 16 100 

Canopy traps 

Canopy dwelling butterflies 9 15 15 30 15 9 15 30 138 

3 traps x no. trapping days 

Butterfly sweep netting Lower storey dwelling butterflies 2 4.5 6 10.5 6 2 4.5 4 37.5 

(sweep-net hours) 

Timed herpetofauna searches Reptiles, Amphibians 4 4.5 4.5 17.5 6 4 4.5 7 52.5 

(man-hours) 

Animal signs transects (m²) Larger mammals 

1x500m & (3) (4) (7) (4) 1x1000m (3) (7) (31) 

1000m x 2m either side 

1x600m 12000m² 16000 m² 28000 m² 16000 m² & 1x900m 12000 m² 28000 m² 124000m² 

4400m² 

7600 m² 

Opportunistic/collection All animal taxa - - - - - - - - - 

HUMAN Transects (m²) 

Human disturbance (1.1) (3) (4) (7) (4) (1.9) (3) (7) (31) 

DISTURBANCE 1000m x 5m either side 

11000m² 30000m² 40000m² 70000m² 40000m² 19000m² 30000m² 70000m² 310000m² 

Opportunistic observation Human disturbance - - - - - - - - - 

*Mist netting was not conducted in these reserves as the camp was located at a distance from the reserves and in order to avoid theft nets could not be left unattended; 

**Varying sizes of bird and bat mist-nets were used each time 

Survey technique (and sampling unit) 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

40



11. METHODS 

G. WEGNER AND R. SALTER 

Survey methods were based on those employed by the Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research 

Programme (FT FRP) and described in full details in the Technical report No 34: 

methodology report (Frontier-Tanzania, 1997). 

FLORA 


on richness, diversity, composition, dominance and relative abundance of floral species, and 

presence/absence of Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains endemic and globally 

threatened floral species. 

Vegetation data are presented in the form of species lists (Appendices 9-11). Here the family, 

genus and species are presented along with the author, altitude range, distribution, growth 

habit, endemic and conservation status and local name where known. Data collected through 

this study are comparable with data collected by other forest surveys undertaken by FT FRP. 

Data collection 

Three methods were used to collect data on flora: 

- Vegetation plots 

- Regeneration plots 

- Opportunistic collection and observation 

• Vegetation plots (VPs) 

Three plots (20m x 20m) were sampled at 0m, 500m and 1000m intervals along each 1000m 

disturbance transect line (see section on Human Resource-Use for a description of disturbance 

transects). The location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects was recorded using the 

Global Positioning System (GPS). Inside the vegetation plot, all trees with diameter at breast 

height (dbh) ≥10cm, from both the canopy and sub canopy layers, were marked, recorded, 

counted and identified. Diameter was measured at a standard height of 1.3m above ground 

level, on the uphill side of the stem. Multi-stem trees with individual stems of dbh ≤10cm 

were recorded if the cumulative dbh was ≥10cm (only stems arising from the central stem at 

or below 1.3m were considered). If the tree had a buttress, the dbh was measured 1.3m above 

the top of the buttress. Fallen trees that were still alive were processed as above. Dead trees 

were not counted. Habitat notes were taken for each vegetation plot. The percentage cover for 

canopy, sub canopy, shrub and ground layers was estimated (Appendix 4). The sampling unit 

was the vegetation plot. The sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

Area of vegetation plot (20m x 20m) x no. vegetation plots per reserve = total 

area per forest reserve 

• Regeneration plots (RPs) 

One (2m x 2m) regeneration plot was laid out at the centre of each 20m x 20m vegetation 

plot. Species from the shrub and ground layers were recorded, counted and identified, 

including tree saplings with dbh



estimated (Appendix 5). The sampling unit was the regeneration plot. The sampling intensity 

was calculated as follows: 

Area of regeneration plot (2m x 2m) x no. regeneration plots per reserve = total 

area per forest reserve 

• Opportunistic collection and observation 

Opportunistic collection and observation of tree, shrub and ground flora were made 

throughout field work and were accompanied by habitat notes. Opportunistic collections were 

made to supplement the data collected through the vegetation and regeneration plots and to 

collect extra plant specimens in order to aid the taxonomic identification of species. The 

amount of time allocated for such sampling was relative to the size of the forest, its vegetation 

diversity and the requirements of other field activities. 

Specimen collection and curation procedures 

When identification in the field was not possible two duplicate specimens of leaves and, when 

possible, flowers and fruits were retained. Specimen collection procedures followed those of 

the Missouri Botanical Gardens (Frontier-Tanzania, 1997). All specimens were pressed and 

dried in the field and then mounted at the Herbarium of the University of Dar es Salaam, 

Tanzania. 

Species identification and repository 

George Sangu (Appendix 1) provided the field identification of plant species. When 

identification in the field was not possible, floral specimens were collected for identification 

and storage at the Herbarium of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and at Missouri 

Botanical Gardens, USA. 

Data analysis 

Vegetation data were analysed using various statistical techniques. Data collected through 

systematic methods were used to determine species richness, dominance and relative 

abundance in the canopy and sub canopy layers, and species composition for all layers. Data 

collected through opportunistic methods were used in addition to systematic data to determine 

species richness in the canopy and sub canopy layers, as well as species composition for all 

layers. Endemism and conservation status were also determined for all floral species. 

No statistical analysis was conducted to compare data among reserves because in this study 

the sampling intensity was chosen to be roughly proportional to the size of each forest 

reserve, and therefore dissimilar sampling intensities were applied to each reserve (Table 

10-a). Values of species richness and diversity recorded in separate reserves were instead 

compared through graphs and by taking in consideration a combination of factors, including 

the size of the reserve, the type of plant communities present, the level of habitat 

fragmentation and the degree of disturbance. 

• Species richness 

The species richness was calculated for each forest reserve. It was determined by counting the 

number of species found in all vegetation plots assessed as well as through opportunistic 

observation. The richness index is given by the following formula: 

Species richness = ∑ (no. of species in the whole forest reserve) 

42



• Species diversity 

The species diversity was calculated for each forest reserve using a Shannon diversity index 

(Shannon, 1948). This diversity index takes into account the species richness as well as their 

proportional abundance, which is obtained by dividing the number of individuals for a 

specific species by the total number of individuals of all species in the area sampled. 

Sampling was carried out with an effort to represent all species in each FR. Samples were 

obtained randomly. The diversity index is given by the following formula: 

Η¹ = -∑(P i ln P i ) 

Where: 

H¹ is the Shannon diversity index 

P i is the relative abundance of n species 

ln is the natural log 

H¹ = 0 when there is no diversity. Values of H¹ typically fall between 1.5 and 3.5. The greater the 

number the greater the diversity (Magurran, 1988). 

• Species relative frequency (RF) or dominance 

The species relative frequency or dominance was calculated for the canopy and sub canopy 

layers of each homogeneous (i.e. floristically uniform) vegetation assemblage/stand identified 

within each forest reserve. It was calculated using data collected systematically from the 

canopy and sub canopy layers and treating the two layers separately. It was calculated only 

for the five top ranking canopy and sub canopy species. This was because in lowland forests 

of tropical Africa usually up to five species account for 80% of all canopy trees in any 1ha 

block of forest (Clarke et al., 2000). The species relative frequency or dominance takes into 

account the number of plots within which a species occurs relative to the total number of plots 

sampled, and it is used to classify a vegetation type. It is determined by dividing the number 

of plots within which a species occurs by the total number of plots sampled, and it is given as 

a percentage, where the relative frequency is multiplied by one hundred. 

RF = (p/P) x 100 

Where: 

RF is the relative frequency of a species 

p is the number of plots in which the species occurs. 

P is the total number of plots 

Plant species were ranked according to their relative frequency. All species with a relative 

frequency 40% ≤ 60% and 60% ≤ 100% were chosen to represent frequent and dominant 

species respectively (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974), and were used to classify the 

vegetation type in which they occurred. 

• Species relative abundance (RA) 

The relative abundance of a species was calculated for the canopy and sub canopy layers of 

each homogeneous vegetation stand identified within each forest reserve. It was calculated 

using data collected systematically from the canopy and sub canopy layers and treating the 

two layers separately. It was calculated only for the five top ranking canopy and sub canopy 

species. This was because in lowland forests of tropical Africa usually up to five species 

account for 80% of all canopy trees in any 1ha block of forest (Clarke et al., 2000). The 

relative abundance of a species takes into account the number of individuals of a species 

relative to the total number of individuals of all species and is used to classify a vegetation 

type. It is determined by dividing the number of individuals of a particular species by the total 

43



number of individuals of all species, and it is given as a percentage, where the relative 

abundance is multiplied by one hundred. The relative abundance is given by the formula: 

% RA = (ni/N) x 100 

Where: 

RA is the relative abundance of a species 

ni/N is the proportional abundance of a species 

ni is the number of individuals of a species 

N is the total number of individuals of all species 

The species were ranked according to their relative abundance. All species with a percentage 

relative abundance >4% were chosen to represent high abundance species, and to classify the 

vegetation type in which they occurred. 

The comparative relative abundance of individuals in the canopy and sub canopy layers were 

also calculated and compared in order to help in the identification of the vegetation types. The 

comparative relative abundance of individuals in the canopy and sub canopy layers is 

determined by dividing the overall number of individuals of all species occurring in each 

layer separately by the total number of individuals of all species occurring in the two layers 

combined, and is given as a percentage, where the relative abundance is multiplied by one 

hundred. 

• Species composition and vegetation type 

The species composition was analysed by looking at data from homogeneous vegetation 

assemblages/stands separately. The species composition for the canopy and sub canopy layers 

was determined by looking at both dominant and frequent species and high abundance 

species. For the shrub and ground layers the species composition was determined through 

data recorded in the regeneration plots. Homogeneous vegetation stands within each forest 

reserve were then classified by comparing their species composition with that of the 

vegetation types classified in Burgess and Clarke (2000) 6 . 

• Endemism and conservation status 

Endemism and conservation status were determined for all floral species recorded through 

systematic and opportunistic methods, structured interviews and open discussions in each 

forest reserve. The endemism of a species was determined by looking at its geographical 

distribution and the conservation status by using the IUCN Red List (2004) and Gereau and 

Luke’s List of Potentially Threatened plants (2006). 

FAUNA 


on species richness and composition within specific faunal taxonomic groups, and 

presence/absence of Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains endemic and globally 

threatened faunal species. Taxa chosen for this study were mammals, birds, reptiles, 

amphibians and butterflies. These taxonomic groups were chosen according to the 

practicalities of capture methods, identification techniques utilised and potential information 

that could be extracted from the data. 

6 Species dominance could not be used as a parameter to determine the species composition and vegetation types 

of Kambona FR due to the small size of the reserve and consequently low number of vegetation plots (4) sampled 

there. 

44



Data on fauna were collected at zoological trap sites (abbreviated as zoosites), each of which 

was located within 500m from a base camp. Zoosites were chosen to cover the largest range 

of habitats possible, and one zoosite was placed randomly within each habitat, e.g. one in 

Riverine forest, one in Open woodland, and one in Grassland. The size of the zoosite was 

determined by the length of the bucket pitfall line (20m) and the area used to place sherman 

traps around this line (see following section on sherman trapping for details). 

Data on fauna are presented in the form of species lists (Appendices 13-18). Here the order, 

family, genus and species are presented along with the ecological type, endemic and 

conservation status. Number of captures and recaptures and specimen record numbers for 

small mammals, reptiles and amphibians are provided in Appendix 18. 


Combinations of methods were used to collect data on fauna, including: 

- Bucket pitfall traps 

- Sherman traps 

- Timed herpetofauna searches 

- Bird mist netting 

- Timed bird searches 

- Butterfly canopy trapping 

- Butterfly sweep netting 

- Bat mist netting 

- Mammal track and sign transects 


• Bucket pitfall trapping 

Bucket Pitfall Traps were used to record and sample small rodent and insectivorous 

mammals, reptiles and amphibians (diurnal, crepuscular and nocturnal) whose habitat is the 

forest floor. One 50m linear transect was placed randomly within each trap site and ten 1ltr 

plastic buckets were positioned at 5m intervals. Buckets were sunk into the ground with their 

rims flush to ground level. Buckets had small holes in the base to allow rainwater to drain 

from them. A 20m single sheet of plastic (approximately 0.5m high, and no less than 0.2m) 

was erected as a “drift fence” that ran perpendicular to the ground and crossed the centre of 

each bucket. A 10-15cm lip of plastic sheeting was left flat on the ground onto which soil and 

leaf litter was placed to prevent any gap in the drift fence at ground level. Animals moving 

into the area from either side are channelled along the plastic sheet towards the bucket traps. 

Buckets were checked twice a day, early in the morning (07:00hr) and in the evening 

(16:00hr). Data on the taxonomy, sex, breeding status and biometrics of each animal captured, 

as well as habitat notes and associated vegetation types, were recorded on standardised data 

sheets. Small mammals that were to be released were identified, measured, described and 

finally marked by trimming a small patch of fur in order to avoid duplicity of results. Reptiles 

and amphibians were not marked because sophisticated equipment that was not in the remit of 

this study would have been required, e.g. Passive Integrated Transponder (Sutherland, 2001). 

Specimens were retained when the species level could not be ascertained and subsequently 

sent to in-country and international taxonomic experts (Appendix 1). The sampling unit was 

the trapping night. The sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

No. of buckets (10) x no. of trapping nights in each zoosite (3, 5 or 10) x no. of 

zoosites in each reserve = total bucket trapping nights per forest reserve 

45



• Sherman trapping 

Sherman traps were used to record and sample small rodent and insectivorous mammals 

(diurnal, crepuscular, and nocturnal) whose habitat is the forest floor or that are adapted to 

climbing (scansorial). In each zoosite, traps were placed around each bucket pitfall line, 

approximately 5m apart. Traps were placed in situations in which small mammals are likely 

to occur, including: the base of large trees; on/under/near rotting logs; on branches; in dense 

understory; around rocks; and attached to the lower branches of trees (up to 1.3m above 

ground). Large open spaces with no ground cover were avoided as these are unlikely habitats 

for the target species. Traps were baited with standard sized toasted coconut and peanut butter 

baits every evening (around 16:00hr) and checked early the following morning (around 

07:00hr). Data on the identification, sex, breeding status and biometrics of each animal 

captured, as well as habitat notes and associated vegetation types, were recorded on 

standardised data sheets. Small mammals that were to be released were identified, measured, 

described, and finally marked by trimming a small patch of fur in order to avoid duplicity of 

results. Specimens were retained when species level could not be ascertained and 

subsequently sent to in-country and international taxonomic experts (Appendix 1). The 

sampling unit was the trapping night. The sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

No. of traps (40) x no. of trapping nights in each zoosite (3, 5 or 10) x no. of 

zoosites in each reserve = total sherman trapping nights per forest reserve 

• Timed herpetofauna searches 

Timed searches were used to record and sample reptile and amphibian species. Various 

habitats were searched, including dead wood, leaf litter, leaves surface, tree holes, rocks, 

streams banks, puddles etc. Searches of various lengths were conducted during both the day 

and the night where possible (for many sites, searches after dark were not permitted by hired 

game guards due to the presence of large mammals). Approximately thirty minutes were spent 

conducting timed searches within each habitat. Data on the survey effort, taxonomy, sex, 

breeding status, and biometrics, as well as habitat notes and associated vegetation types, were 

recorded on standardised data sheets. If not taken as specimens, captures were released 

unmarked. Sound recordings using a Dictaphone were also taken. Sampling was carried out 

within a standardised effort. The sampling unit was the man/hour. Sampling intensity was 

calculated as follows: 

No. of man/hours = total man/hours per forest reserve 

• Bird mist netting 

Bird mist netting was used to record and sample birds within the zoosites. Mist netting 

targeted understory and lower canopy bird species. Where possible, the nets were set so that a 

funnel effect could be obtained using the vegetation. The nets were erected and checked every 

15 minutes in the early morning (06:00-09:00hr), and towards dusk (after 16:00hr). Bird mistnets 

of varying sizes were utilised each time. Data on the taxonomy and sex, as well as habitat 

notes and associated vegetation types, were recorded on standardised data sheets. When 

possible blood and/or tissue samples were taken. Birds that were to be released were 

identified, described and marked by trimming a small amount off the tail feather to avoid 

duplicity of results. The sampling unit was the man/hour. Sampling intensity was calculated 

as follows: 


46



• Timed bird searches 

Various habitats and vegetation types were searched. Searches of various lengths were 

conducted in the early morning (06:00-09:00hr), and towards dusk (after 16:00hr). Data on 

the survey effort, taxonomy and sex, as well as habitat notes and associated vegetation types, 

were recorded on standardised data sheets. The sampling unit was the man/hour. Sampling 

intensity was calculated as follows: 


• Butterfly canopy trapping 

This method sampled fruit-feeding canopy-dwelling butterflies. Blendon style canopy traps 

(38cm round base x 69cm high) were located in the upper-, mid- and lower-canopy within 

each zoosite. An attempt was made to sample in a range of different habitats. The traps were 

baited with standard sized fermented banana baits early in the morning (07:00hr) and checked 

in the late afternoon (16:00hr). Data on the taxonomy and sex (when possible), as well as 

habitat notes, associated vegetation types and altitude were recorded on standardised data 

sheets. If not taken as specimens, captures were released unmarked. The sampling unit was 

the canopy trapping day. The sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

No. of trapping days x no. of traps in each zoosite (3) x no. of zoosites in each 

reserve = total canopy trapping days per forest reserve 

• Butterfly timed sweep netting 

This method sampled butterflies in the forest under storey/scrub/thicket and around ground 

herbs and grasses. Timed sweep netting was conducted within each vegetation plot. Data on 

the taxonomy and sex (when possible), as well as habitat notes, associated vegetation types 

and altitude were recorded on standardised data sheets. If not taken as specimens, captures 

were released unmarked. The sampling unit was the sweep net/hour. The sampling intensity 

was calculated as follows: 

no. of sweep netting hours x no. of sweep nets x no. of vegetation plots in each 

reserve = total sweep net/hours per forest reserve. 

• Bat mist netting 

Bat mist netting was used to record and sample bat species (nocturnal and crepuscular) within 

the zoosites. Nets were located close to likely bat roost sites and flyways within the forest 

(e.g. across streams and pools of still water, and across paths and passes between valleys). 

Where possible, the nets were set so that a funnel effect could be obtained using the 

vegetation. The net was erected at dusk and constantly attended or checked every 15 minutes. 

Bat mist-nets of varying sizes were utilised each time (2.5m x 6m, 2.5m x 9m, 2.5m x 10m). 

Data on the identification, sex, breeding status, and biometrics, as well as habitat notes and 

associated vegetation types, were recorded on standardised data sheets. The sampling unit was 

the man/hour. Sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

no. of man/hours x meters of net erected in each reserve = total bat mist 

net/hours per forest reserve. 

• Mammal track and sign transects (indirect observation) 

One kilometre animal sign transects were carried out to record data on large mammal species 

in each forest reserve. Dung was recorded within a 4m strip (2m either side of the transect). 

Presence of all other signs (footprints, burrows, scratchings, nests and ground resting sites) 

47



were recorded within a 10m strip (5m either side) of the transect. The transect was subdivided 

into 50m sections and records were taken separately for each section. Information was 

gathered on associated habitats and vegetation types along the transect, and ease of visibility 

for large mammal signs was estimated. Expertise from two professional field assistants was 

utilised in conjunction with Walker’s field guide (1996) for identification of dung and signs. 

The sampling unit was the mammal transect. Sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

Σ (no. of 1km transects in each forest reserve) = total no. of mammal transects 

per forest reserve 

• Opportunistic collection and observation 

Opportunistic collection and observation of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles, and 

vocalisation recording of amphibians and bush babies were conducted to determine the 

presence of species otherwise omitted by the systematic survey techniques and to aid the 

taxonomic identification of species. 

• Climatic data 

A weather station provided with rain gauge and minimum/maximum thermometer was set up 

at each study site to collect climatic data that can influence analysis and results. 

Specimen collection and curation procedures 

Specimens for all taxa, with the exception of large mammals and IUCN and CITES listed 

species, were retained when identification in the field was not possible. For collection and 

curation procedures see Technical report No 34: methodology report (Frontier-Tanzania, 

1997). 

Species identification and repository 

Frontier-Tanzania field team provided the field identification of mammals, herpetofauna, 

butterflies and animal tracks and signs. Jacob Kiure (Appendix 1) provided the field 

identification of bird species. When identification in the field was not possible, faunal 

specimens were collected for identification and repository at the Department of Zoology and 

Wildlife Conservation of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Butterfly specimens 

were sent for identification and repository to the Southern Highlands Conservation 

Programme (SHCP) of the Wildlife Conservation Society, Tanzania. 

When necessary, faunal specimens were sent on loan for further identification to: the British 

Natural History Museum, UK; the California Academy of Sciences, USA; the Chicago Field 

Museum, USA; the Zimbabwe Natural History Museum, Zimbabwe; the Copenhagen 

Zoological Museum, Denmark. These specimens were incorporated into the collections of the 

receiving institutions. Once specimens were identified species lists were sent back to the 

University of Dar es Salaam and frontier-Tanzania. 

Data analysis 

Faunal data collected through systematic and opportunistic methods were used to determine 

species richness and species composition. Forest dependence, endemism and conservation 

status were also determined for all faunal species. 

No statistical analysis was conducted to compare data among reserves because in this study 

the sampling intensity was chosen to be proportional to the size of each forest reserve, and 

therefore dissimilar sampling intensities were applied to each reserve (Table 10-a). Values of 

species richness recorded in separate reserves were instead compared through graphs and by 

taking in consideration a combination of factors, including the size of the reserve, the 

48



structure of the plant communities present, the level of habitat fragmentation and the degree 

of disturbance. 

• Species richness 

The species richness was calculated for each taxon and for each reserve separately. It was 

determined by counting the number of species recorded through systematic and opportunistic 

methods in all zoological trap sites. The richness index is given by the following formula: 

Species richness = ∑ (no. of species in the whole forest reserve) 

Species richness values were defined as low, intermediate or high in relation to the sampling 

intensity of the study and the size of the forest reserves. 

A species diversity index of fauna was not calculated for this study. As this study was 

designed as a preliminary biodiversity assessment, data collected were not sufficient to allow 

the calculation of a relative abundance index, which is used in the calculation of the species 

diversity index. 

• Forest dependence, endemism and conservation status 

Forest dependence, endemism and conservation status were determined for all faunal species 

recorded in each forest reserve through systematic and opportunistic methods, structured 

interviews and open discussions. The endemism of a species was determined by looking at its 

geographical distribution, and the conservation status by using the IUCN Red List (2004) and 

CITES Appendices I and II (2005). 

HUMAN RESOURCE-USE AND DISTURBANCE 


on human resources-use and disturbance. 


Two methods were used to collect data on human resources-use and disturbance: 

- Disturbance transects 


GPS coordinates and description of disturbance transect sites and pit-sawing sites for all 

forest reserves are given in Appendices 7 and 8. 

• Disturbance transects 

Disturbance transects were used to record the incidence of disturbance caused by various 

human activities, i.e. clearance for cultivation, pole/timber extraction, bark ringing, burning, 

hunting and paths. One kilometre disturbance transects were placed randomly at 1km 

intervals within each forest reserve. The size of the reserve meant that this was not always 

possible, e.g., Kambona FR is less than 1km at its widest point and shorter transects making 

up 1km were used instead. The number of transects used varied according to the size of the 

forest reserves. Transects were subdivided into 50m sections and records were taken 

separately for each section. Every self-standing tree and sapling (not lianas or creepers) with 

dbh ≥5cm within 5m either side of the transect line was measured and classified as pole, 

timber and large timber, and each plant was recorded as live, naturally dead, old cut or new 

cut (see section on Definition of Key Categories). Pit sawing sites were also recorded. 

Whether these sites had been recently active at the time of study was determined by the 

49



presence of freshly cut timber. Information was gathered on altitude and GPS coordinates, as 

well as associated habitats (Appendices 7 and 8). The sampling unit was the disturbance 

transect. Sampling intensity was calculated as follows: 

Σ (no. of 1km transects in each forest reserve) = total no. of disturbance 

transects per forest reserve 

• Opportunistic observation 

Observations of human disturbance were made in each vegetation plot, zoological trap site 

and throughout each forest reserve to record data on the extent of human activities and 

complement data collected through systematic disturbance transects. 

Data analysis 

Data collected through systematic methods were used to determine the relative level of 

disturbance occurring in an area, and the relative abundance and average no. of individuals 

per hectare of live, naturally dead and cut poles/timbers/large timbers. Data collected through 

opportunistic methods were used in addition to systematic data to determine the forms of 

disturbance occurring in an area. 

• Relative level of disturbance (RLD) 

The level of disturbance was analysed in each forest reserve by calculating the percentage of 

50m sections containing various forms of disturbance. The relative level of disturbance takes 

into account the number of 50m sections containing a form of disturbance relative to the total 

number of 50m sections recorded along a transect. It is determined by dividing the number of 

50m sections containing a form of disturbance by the total number of 50m sections recorded 

along a transect, and it is given as a percentage, where the relative level of disturbance is 

multiplied by one hundred. The relative level of disturbance is given by the formula: 

% RLD = (ni/N) x 100 

Where: 

RLD is the relative level of a form of disturbance 

ni/N is the proportional abundance of 50m sections containing a form of disturbance 

ni is the number of 50m sections containing a form of disturbance 

N is the total number of 50m sections along a transect 

Although this analysis does not show the intensity of a given form of disturbance within each 

50m section, it gives an overall picture of the disturbance occurring within an area. 

• Relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut poles/timbers/large timbers (RA) 

The relative abundance was calculated for live, naturally dead and cut poles/timbers/large 

timbers by using data from the disturbance transects. The relative abundance takes into 

account the number of individuals of one category (live, naturally dead or cut) relative to the 

total number of individuals from all categories recorded in an area. It is determined by 

dividing the number of individuals of a particular category by the total number of individuals 

recorded in an area, and it is given as a percentage, where the relative abundance is multiplied 

by one hundred. The relative abundance is given by the formula: 

% RA = (ni/N) x 100 

50



Where: 

RA is the relative abundance of a category 

ni/N is the proportional abundance of n category 

ni is the number of individuals of a category 

N is the total number of individuals of all categories 

• Average no. of individual poles/timbers/large timbers per hectare 

The average no. of individuals per hectare was calculated for live, naturally dead, and cut 

poles/timbers/large timbers. It is determined by dividing the total number of individuals of 

one category (live, naturally dead or cut) by the number of hectares covered by the 

disturbance transects. The average no. of individuals per hectare is given by the formula: 

Average no. of individuals per ha = total no. of individuals of one 

category/total no. of ha covered by the disturbance transects 

COMMUNITY DAYS 

Structured interviews and open discussions 

Frontier “community days” were held as a means of communicating with inhabitants of the 

villages within the vicinity of and adjacent to the forest reserves in question. For the FT FRP, 

community days took the form of structured interviews and open discussions with community 

groups, forest officers and key informants. The aim of the community days was to collate 

local and indigenous knowledge about the forest resources, to gain an overview of natural 

resource use in the reserves, and to obtain information on the attitude of local inhabitants 

towards the reserves. The following topics were addressed: 

- Flora and fauna species occurrence 

- Species degree of extraction and utilisation 

- Management practices (from the district offices and from community groups) 

- Perceived value of and attitudes toward the forest reserves 

On average, a minimum of three village elders from each village were asked to participate and 

interviews lasted for up to one hour in total (Appendix 19). Forest Officers from Mtwara, 

Masasi, Tandahimba and Newala district natural resources offices contributed to the 

information collected during this project. Community days took place on the following dates: 

- Kambona FR (Chidya and Chiwata villages): 10th April 2005 

- Makonde Scarp I proposed FR (Chidya village): 18th April 2005 

- Makonde Scarp II proposed FR (Chiwambo juu and Nambunga villages): 1st May 

2005 

- Mkunya River proposed FR (Chiunjila, Chihanga, Chikwedu and Mpilipili 

villages): 19th May 2005 

- Mtiniko forest proposed FR (Mtiniko village): 14th June 2005 

- Mtuli Hinju proposed FR (Mtuli Hinju village): 18th June 2005 

- Makonde Scarp III proposed FR (Lidumbe village): 28th June 2005 

- Ndechela FR (Ndechela village): 18 th July 2005 

The information obtained through the community days has contributed to the compilation of 

The Coastal Forests of Mtwara: a Kiswahili layman’s report (Frontier-Tanzania, 2005), 

which is being distributed to district natural resources offices, community groups and schools 

in close proximity to the studied sites. 

51



DEFINITION OF KEY CATEGORIES 

Various criteria were used to evaluate the uniqueness of the biodiversity of the reserves 

studied and its vulnerability to disturbance, including species’ growth habit (for plants only), 

forest dependency (for animals only), distribution, endemism, conservation status and 

presence of Important Bird Areas, as well as presence of live, naturally dead and cut poles, 

timbers and large timbers. 

Information on and definition of these categories were taken from various sources. 

Information on growth habit, habitat and distribution of flora was taken from Iverson (1991b), 

Bailey (1999), the Flora of Tropical East Africa (FTEA) (all published families), and the List 

of East African Plants (LEAP) (Knox, 2000). The forest dependency and endemic status of 

fauna were gleaned from the Coastal forests of Eastern Africa (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). 

The conservation status of flora and fauna was obtained from the IUCN Red List of 

Threatened Species (IUCN, 2004), the List of Potentially Threatened Plants in the EACF 

hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania (Gereau and Luke, 2006) and CITES (2005). Other 

information, including taxonomy and nomenclature, was sourced from the following 

references: 

All taxa: Burgess & Clarke (2000) 

Mammals: Kingdon (2003, 1989 and 1974) 

Birds: 

Sinclair & Ryan (2003), Stevenson & Fanshawe (2002) and 

Zimmerman et al. (1996) 

Reptiles: Spawls et al (2002), Howell (1993) 

Amphibians: Channing (2001), Schiotz (1999) and Passmore & Carruthers (1995) 

Butterflies: Davenport (2001), Larsen (1996) and Kielland (1990) 

Plants: 

FTEA (all published families), LEAP (Knox, 2000), Gereau & Luke 

(2006) 

Mammals 

For the purpose of this study mammals have been categorised as follows: 

- Small mammal: mammals captured by using sherman and bucket pitfall traps, 

including mice, rats and shrews (not including elephant shrews) 

- Large mammal: any other mammal recorded (including elephant shrews) 

Growth habit – flora (based on Bailey, 1999) 

- S – shrub 

- T – tree 

- C – climber 

- H – herb 

- B – bamboo 

Forest dependency – flora and fauna (based on Iverson, 1991b, and Mlingwa et al., 2000) 

• F – ‘Forest dependent’ or ‘specialist’ species: species recorded as restricted to primary or 

closed-canopy forest only and typical of the forest interior, e.g. wet evergreen forest, dry 

evergreen forest and Riverine forest; does not include forest edge or secondary forest species; 

likely to disappear if the forest is modified to any great extent. 

• f – ‘Forest dwelling’ or ‘generalist’ species: species that may occur in undisturbed primary 

or closed-canopy forest, but are able to exist in clearings, fragmented and secondary forest, 

woodland and at the forest edge; these species may still depend upon the forest for some of 

52



their resources, such as nesting sites, thus they may also be adversely affected by forest 

destruction. 

• O – ‘Non-forest’ or ‘forest visitor’ species: species that may occur in primary or secondary 

forest or at the forest edge but are usually recorded in open habitats and are not dependent 

upon the forest (e.g. species that have been recorded in bushland, heathland, thicket, 

secondary scrub, grassland, rocky outcrops, swamps, wasteland and cultivation). 

Distribution – flora (based on the FTEA index of collecting localities - Polhill, 1988) 

- T1 – Kagera, Mwanza, and Mara regions 

- T2 – Arusha and Manyara regions 

- T3 – Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions 

- T4 – Kigoma and Rukwa regions 

- T5 – Dodoma and Singida regions 

- T6 – Dar es Salaam, Coastal and Morogoro regions 

- T7 – Mbeya and Iringa regions 

- T8 – Lindi, Mtwara and Ruvuma regions 

- K7 – Kenya Coastal regions 

- R – Rare: plant species present in less than two out of the eight FTEA vegetation 

regions of Tanzania (based on the LEAP - Knox, 2000) 

Endemism – flora and fauna 

- Strict endemic – species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone or in the 

Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests, sometimes including other habitats in a 

few adjacent locations (e.g. Masasi District in south-eastern Tanzania, northern 

Mozambique etc). 

- Broad endemic – species with limited ranges in a large region that includes part or 

all of the Coastal Forest Mosaic (e.g. south-eastern Tanzania, coastal eastern 

Africa, south-eastern Africa etc). 

Endemic status flora (based on Clarke and Robertson, 2000) 

- E – Endemic: species with limited ranges in the Swahilian region of endemism 

sensu lato 7 

Endemic status fauna (adapted from Burgess et al., 2000a): 

- CF – Species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests 

- EACF – Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests hotspot 

- SE Tanzania – Species with limited ranges in south-eastern Tanzania 

- E Africa – Species with limited ranges in eastern Africa 

- SE Africa – Species with limited ranges in south-eastern Africa 

7 

This is a phytocorion consisting of a “Swahilian regional centre of endemism” with an adjacent 

“Swahilian/Maputaland regional transition zone”, together referred to as the “Swahilian region sensu lato”. It 

extends between the Limpopo River in Somalia and the equator in Mozambique (Clarke, 1998) and represents the 

new nomenclature for the “Zanzibar-Inhambane regional phytocorion” identified by White (1983a). Clarke defines 

the Coastal Forest Mosaic as corresponding to this phytocorion (Clarke, 2000a, pp 10-17). 

53



Extinction threat – flora and fauna 

- Threatened species = Species listed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered 

(EN) or Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List (2004), or in CITES Appendix I 

(2005), or as Potentially Threatened (PT) by Gereau and Luke (2006). 

Conservation status – IUCN (2004). Versions 3.1 (2001) and 2.3 (1994) 

- CR = Critically Endangered; extremely high risk of extinction in the wild (ver 3.1, 

2001) 

- EN = Endangered; very high risk of extinction in the wild (ver 3.1, 2001) 

- VU = Vulnerable; high risk of extinction in the wild (ver 3.1, 2001) 

- NT = Near Threatened; taxa that do not qualify as Critically Endangered, 

Endangered or Vulnerable now, but are close or are likely to qualify for a 

threatened category in the near future (ver 3.1, 2001) 

- LC = Least Concerned; taxa that do not qualify for conservation dependent or near 

threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category (ver 3.1, 

2001) 

- DD = Data Deficient; lack of adequate information to make a direct or indirect 

assessment of a taxon’s risk of extinction based on distribution and/or population 

status (ver 3.1, 2001) 

- NE = Not Evaluated; not yet assessed against the criteria (ver 3.1, 2001) 

- LR nt = Lower Risk, near threatened; taxa that do not qualify as Critically 

Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but are close or are likely to qualify 

for a threatened category in the near future (ver 2.3, 1994) 

- LR cd = Lower Risk, conservation dependent; taxa which are the focus of taxa 

specific or habitat specific conservation programmes targeted towards the taxon in 

question, the cessation of which would result in the taxa qualifying for one of the 

threatened categories over the next 5 years (ver 2.3, 1994) 

- LR/lc = Lower Risk, least concerned; taxa that do not qualify for conservation 

dependent or near threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this 

category (ver 2.3, 1994) 

Conservation status – CITES (2005) 

- CITES Appendix I = species threatened with extinction which are or may be 

further endangered by trade and are therefore excluded from international trade. 

- CITES Appendix II = species which although not necessarily yet threatened with 

extinction may become so unless trade is subject to strict regulation, thus export 

permits are required. 

- CITES Appendix III = species identified as needing and/or subject to regulation 

for the purpose of preventing or restricting exploitation 

Conservation status – Gereau and Luke (2006) 

- PT = Plants included in the List of Potentially Threatened Plants in the EACF 

hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania 

54



Important Bird Areas (IBAs) (based on BirdLife International, 2005) 

A site qualifies as an IBA if it fulfils one of the following criteria’s: 

A1. Globally threatened species = the site is known, estimated or thought to hold a 

population of a species categorized by the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered, 

Endangered or Vulnerable. In general, the regular presence of a Critically Endangered or 

Endangered species, irrespective of population size, at a site may be sufficient for a site to 

qualify as an IBA. For Vulnerable species, the presence of more than threshold numbers at a 

site is necessary to trigger selection. The site may also qualify under this category if it holds 

more than threshold numbers of other species of global conservation concern in the Near 

Threatened, Data Deficient and, formerly, in the no-longer recognised Conservation 

Dependent categories. Thresholds are set regionally, often on a species by species basis. 

A2. Restricted-range species = the site forms one of a set selected to ensure that, as far as 

possible, all restricted-range species of an EBA or SA are present in significant numbers in at 

least one site and, preferably, more. The term 'significant component' is intended to avoid 

selecting sites solely on the presence of one or more restricted range species that are common 

and adaptable within the EBA and, therefore, occur at other chosen sites. Sites may, however, 

be chosen for one or a few species that would be otherwise under-represented, e.g. because of 

particular habitat requirements. 

A3. Biome-restricted species = the site forms one of a set selected to ensure, as far as 

possible, adequate representation of all species restricted to a given biome, both across the 

biome as a whole and, as necessary, for all of its species in each range state. The 'significant 

component' term in the category definition is intended to avoid selecting sites solely on the 

presence of one or a few biome-restricted species that are common, widespread and adaptable 

within the biome and, therefore, occur at other chosen sites. Additional sites may, however, 

be chosen for the presence of one or a few species that would be otherwise under-represented, 

e.g. for reasons of particular habitat requirements. 

A4. Congregations = this applies to: 

- 'Waterbird' species as defined by Delaney and Scott (2002). The site is modelled on 

criterion 6 of the Ramsar Convention for identifying wetlands of international 

importance. 

- Seabird species not covered by Delaney and Scott (2002). Quantitative data are 

taken from a variety of published and unpublished sources. The site is modelled on 

criterion 5 of the Ramsar Convention for identifying wetlands of international 

importance. Where quantitative data are good enough to permit the application of 

A4i and A4ii, the use of this criterion is discouraged. The site is known or thought 

to exceed thresholds set for migratory species at bottleneck sites. Thresholds are set 

regionally or inter-regionally, as appropriate. 

Poles, timbers and large timbers 

- Poles – 5≥15cm dbh and ≥2m relatively straight trunk 

- Timbers – 15≥50cm dbh and ≥3m relatively straight trunk 

- Large timbers – dbh ≥50cm and ≥3m relatively straight trunk 

- Live – Every self-standing tree and sapling (not lianas or creepers) with dbh ≥5cm 

- Naturally dead – Death not caused by human disturbance 

- Freshly cut stems (approximately within the past 3 months) – New cut stems 

recognised by a cream coloured slash. However the colour of the slash may depend 

on the species cut 

- Old cut stems (approximately more than 3 months old) – Old cut stems recognised 

by a black coloured slash 

55



12. KAMBONA FOREST RESERVE 

Status 

Management Body 

Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 

Vegetation type 

Land Use 

History and Status 

Gazetted Forest Reserve 

Central Government 

Masasi district. The reserve is located 10 kilometres outside of 

Masasi town (where the District Forestry Office is located) and 23 

kilometres up a dirt road to the Chidya village and school. It is 

situated between the villages of Chiwata and Chidya and next to 

Chidya Secondary School. Next to the school is a maize mill factory 

and directly next to this is where the boundary of the reserve starts. 

29.9ha 

670-700m asl 

Lowland plain 

Min: 19 o C, Max: 30 o C (recorded 9-11 April, start of dry season) 

Average 0mm (recorded 9-11 April, start of dry season) 

Sandy-loam 

Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest and Riverine forest 

The forest reserve protects a water source used by the local villages 

and schools in the area. Chidya Secondary School has an electric 

pump system taking water from the source to the school site, but this 

is currently not in use. Timber is extracted on a commercial basis. 

Pole cutting, bark removal and root digging take place on a 

subsistence level. Hunting is widespread. 

Kambona FR was surveyed, mapped and demarcated in 1955 to 

protect the spring located near St. Joseph’s College (now Chidya 

Secondary School) in the village of Chidya. At this time the reserve 

covered 134.8ha, however this has been reduced by encroachment to 

29.9ha in 1963. 

56



Maps Topographical map: Ndanda South sheet 306/1, East Africa 1:50 000, 

1968. From the Institute of Mapping, Dar es Salaam (from Series 

Y742, Edition 1-TSD). 

Land use and cover map: Masasi sheet SC-37-10/11, 1996. From the 

Institute of Resource Planning, UDSM. 

METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over five days (7-11 April 2005). Four vegetation plots (1600m 2 ), 

four regeneration plots (16m 2 ), and one zoosite were carried out, incorporating 120 sherman 

trapping nights, 30 bucket trapping nights, four man/hours of timed herpetofauna searches, 

20.25 bat mist net/hours, 15 man/hours of timed bird searches, nine canopy trapping days, 

two butterfly sweep net/hours, two animal sign transects of 600m and 500m respectively 

(totalling 4,400m 2 ), two disturbance transects of 600m and 500m respectively (totalling 

11,000m 2 ), and opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 to 8 for GPS coordinates and 

work site descriptions). Ornithological work was conducted on separate days (12-14 July 

2005). Bird mist netting was not conducted in this reserve as the camp had to be located at a 

distance from the forest (as requested by the inhabitants of Chidya village) and nets could not 

be left unattended due to threat of theft. Full 1000m transects could not be completed due to 

the small size of the reserve. Habitat notes were taken for vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 

5) and zoological trap sites (Appendix 6). Structured interviews and open discussions were 

conducted with the environmental committee of the two villages of Chidya and Chiwata. 

Twenty-two people attended the meeting. For a detailed break down of survey effort see 

Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Kambona FR 79 plant species belonging to 36 families were recorded. Nine percent of the 

total number of floral species are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and 10% are 

listed as threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006) (Table 

12-a; Appendices 9 and 10). 

One hundred and seven faunal species were found representing 54 families. Of these species 

5% are forest dependent, none are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc 

Mountains and 2% are listed as threatened by IUCN (2004) and/or CITES (2005) (Table 12-a; 


57



Table 12-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Kambona FR 

Taxa No. of 

families 

No. of 

species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


endemic 

species: 

e and f 


threatened 

species: 

g and h 

Mammals 16 22 2 22 0* 1 - 

Birds a 25 57 1 57 0 0 - 

Reptiles 4 4 0 4 0 0 - 

Amphibians 4 5 0 5 0 1 - 

Butterflies 5 19 2 19 0 0 - 

Total for 54 107 5 107 0 2 - 

animals 

Flora b 36 79 0 72 7 1 7 

No. of PT 

species i 

Combined 

Total 

90 186 5 179 7 3 7 

a - Includes birds seen on the forest boundary edge 

b - All trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and ferns 

c - Includes information collected from all systematic survey work, opportunistic observations, structured 

interviews and open discussions 

d - Species dependent on and associated with primary or closed-canopy forest, not forest edge or secondary forest 

e - Faunal species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone or the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal 

Forests (Burgess et al., 2000a), sometimes being found also in other habitats in a few adjacent locations (e.g. 

Masasi District in S Tanzania, N Mozambique etc.) 

f - Floral species restricted to the Swahilian region sensu lato (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) 

g - Species listed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List 

(IUCN, 2004) 

h - Species listed in CITES Appendix I as threatened with extinction and excluded from international trade 

(CITES, 2005) 

i - Potentially Threatened plants in the EACF hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania (Gereau and Luke, 2006) 

*The identification of Crocidura sp. may increase this number. We await verification 

FLORA 

In Kambona FR two homogeneous vegetation stands were observed: Brachystegia forest and 

Riverine forest. 

• Species richness and diversity 

During the survey 79 floral species were recorded. Out of these, 37 species were recorded 

from four vegetation plots, 22 species from four regeneration plots and 20 species through 

opportunistic collection. More specifically, 35 trees, 20 shrubs, 18 herbs and six grasses were 

recorded (Appendix 9). A value of 3.37 was calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 

• Species relative abundance 

In the canopy layer Pteleopsis myrtifolia contributed 7% of all the vegetation sampled, and 

Brachystegia spiciformis, Brachystegia longifolia and Terminalia sambesiaca contributed 5% 

each (Table 12-b). 

58



Table 12-b Species number of individuals, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance 

for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Brachystegia forest in Kambona FR 

Family Genus Species No. of indv. %RA Rank RA 

in all plots 

COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis myrtifolia 3 7 1 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia spiciformis 2 5 2 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia longifolia 2 5 2 

COMBRETACEAE Terminalia sambesiaca 2 5 3 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus angolensis 1 2 3 

Total 1 3 4 5 10 24 

Total 2 12 19 24 40 100 

%RA = Percentage relative abundance 

Total 1 = Total for top five species; Total 2 = Total for all canopy layer species in the reserve 

In the sub canopy layer Bauhinia petersiana contributed 20%, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon 

12% and Bauhinia tomentosa 5% of all individuals sampled (Table 12-c). 

Table 12-c Species number of individuals, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance for 

the top five most abundant species of the sub canopy layer in Brachystegia forest in Kambona FR 

Family Genus Species No. of indv. %RA Rank RA 

in all plots 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia petersiana 8 20 2 

APOCYNACEAE Diplorhynchus condylocarpon 5 12 2 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia tomentosa 2 5 3 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus capassa 1 2 4 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia acuminata 1 2 3 

Total 1 4 4 5 17 41 

Total 2 12 19 24 40 100 


Total 1 = Total for top five species; Total 2 = Total for all species in sub canopy layer in the reserve 

When looking at the overall number of trees recorded in both the canopy and sub canopy 

layers, the sub canopy layer contributed a higher number of individuals (63%) than the 

canopy layer (37%) to the overall number of adult trees in this reserve. 

The structure of the Riverine forest does not include a sub canopy layer. Here, Syzygium 

cordatum and Bridelia cathartica covered about 18% and 12% respectively and Bridelia 

micrantha and Milicia excelsa about 7% each of all the vegetation sampled in this vegetation 

type (Table 12-d). 

59



Table 12-d Species number of individuals, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance 

for the top five most abundant species of the canopy layer in Riverine forest in Kambona FR 

Family. Genus Species No. of indv. % RA Rank RA 

in all plots 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum 5 18 1 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia cathartica 3 12 2 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia micrantha 2 7 3 

MORACEAE Milicia excelsa 2 7 3 

MORACEAE Ficus natalensis 1 3 4 

Total 1 3 4 5 13 47 

Total 2 12 17 20 31 100 



• Species composition and vegetation types 

Two homogeneous vegetation stands were observed, whose species composition and relative 

abundance confirmed to be eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest and eastern 

African coastal Riverine forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

In the Brachystegia forest the canopy layer was dominated by Pteleopsis myrtifolia, 

Brachystegia sp. (B. spiciformis and longifolia) and Terminalia sambesiaca, together making 

22% of all individuals recorded in this layer. In the sub canopy layer Bauhinia petersiana, 

Diplorhynchus condylocarpon and Bauhinia tomentosa were the most abundant, together 

constituting 37% of all individuals. Other species recorded included Pterocarpus angolensis, 

Julbernardia globiflora, Albizia gummifera, Albizia versicolor in the canopy layer and 

Lonchocarpus capassa, Markhamia acuminata, Swartzia madagascariensis, Markhamia 

obtusifolia and Kigelia africana in the sub canopy layer. The shrub layer was comprised of 

species from the genus Combretum and species such as Salacia madagascariensis, Ochna 

holstii, Strychnos cocculoides, Strychnos madagascariensis, Flacourtia indica, 

Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia and Croton pseudopulchellus, which were found 

extensively together with saplings of the canopy species mentioned above. The herbaceous 

layer was constituted by grasses such as Sporobolus sp. and Themeda triandra, together with 

herbs such as Dicoma tomentosa, Crotalaria sp., Maerua sp., Tephrosia sp. and Jasminum sp. 

The Riverine forest occurs along the water source situated at the centre of the reserve and 

extending further south. Within this vegetation type the dominant species in the canopy layer 

included Syzygium cordatum, Bridelia cathartica, Bridelia micrantha and Milicia excelsa, 

which together constituted 44% of the individuals sampled. Other canopy species recorded in 

Riverine forest included Ficus natalensis, Apodytes dimidiata, Albizia gummifera and 

Syzygium cumini, which were recorded through opportunistic sampling. The shrub layer was 

observed to be characterised by Antidesma venosum, Grewia lepidopetala, Barringtonia 

racemosa and Lasianthus sp. In the herbaceous layer sedges from the family Cyperaceae, 

such as Cyperus sp., were recorded together with Bidens pilosa and species from the genus 

Vernonia and Conyza. 


Seven of the species recorded were found to be endemic to the Swahilian region sensu latu, 

including Barleria holstii, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Mimusops schliebenii, Grewia 

lepidopetala, Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii and Rytigynia decussata (Clarke 

and Robertson, 2000) (Appendix 10), amounting to 9% of the total number of species 

recorded (Figure 2). 

60



9% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

91% 


widespread in Kambona FR 

Eight among the species recorded are recognised to be threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially 

threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006) (Table 12-e), amounting to 10% of the total number of 

species recorded. 

Table 12-e Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Kambona FR 

Family Species name Conservation status Habit 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana PT S/T 

EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes natalensis PT T 

FABACEAE (PAP) Baphia punctulata PT T 

FABACEAE (PAP) Craibia brevicaudata PT T 

FABACEAE (PAP) Erythrina schliebenii PT T 

MELIACEAE Khaya anthotheca VU T 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum PT T 

RUBIACEAE Rytigynia decussata PT S 

PT = Potentially Threatened plants in the EACF hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania (Gereau and Luke, 2006) 

CR= Critically Endangered; EN= Endangered; VU= Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004) 

T= Tree, S= Shrub, B= Bamboo, C= Climber, H= Herb 

FAUNA 

Although the identification of about 90% of the species recorded is certain, the identification 

of a few specimens remains tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verification. 

Mammals 

• Species richness and composition 

A total of 22 mammals representing 16 families were recorded (Appendix 13). 

For the small mammals eight species were recorded in total from 13 captures (excluding three 

recaptures) that took place during 120 sherman trapping nights and 30 bucket pitfall trapping 

nights. The Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei) was the most commonly found species, 

accounting for 58% of captures. There was only one capture of the Multimammate rat 

(Mastomys natalensis), the Strict-footed woodland mouse (Grammomys dolichurus), and the 

Pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides). Two species of the White-toothed shrew (Crocidura sp.) 

were recorded out of three captures (Appendix 18). 

No bats were recorded during 20.25 bat mist net/hours. 

61



For the larger mammals, 14 species representing 14 families were recorded during sign 

transects totalling 1.1km, through opportunistic observations and from local knowledge 

(Appendix 13). No one species was recorded on more than two separate occasions during the 

survey. All of the larger mammals were recorded by indirect observation, such as 

vocalisations and dung, with exception of the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus 

palliatus). Species found included the Small-eared bushbaby (Otolemur garnetti), the Suni 

(Neotragus moschatus), the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei) and the Redbellied 

coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus). From interviews it was learnt that the Leopard 

(Panthera pardus), Lion (Panthera leo), Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and Jackal (Canis 

adustus) occasionally move through the forest. Panthera pardus and P. leo were sighted by 

local residents in 2004 and Crocuta crocuta in 2005. 


Two species were found to be forest dependent, although many of the species recorded often 

frequent and some favour a forest habitat. None of the species found are strictly endemic to 

the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, yet two are rare species with a restricted 

distribution in eastern Africa. Only one of the species recorded is listed as threatened (Table 

12-f). 

Table 12-f Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Kambona FR 

Species Common name Forest Endemic 

Threatened 

dependent 

Otolemur garnetti Small-eared galago - CF, a few other - 

habitats in coastal E 

Africa 

Rhynchocyon cirnei Chequered Elephant - - VU 

shrew 

Paraxerus palliatus Red bellied coastal F - - 

squirrel 

Beamys hindei Lesser pouched rat - EACF, a few other - 

forest types in Kenya 

and Tanzania 

Neotragus moschatus Suni F - - 

F= Forest dependent or specialist (Burgess et al., 2000a) 

CF= species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone; EACF= species with limited ranges in the Eastern 

Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests (Burgess et al., 2000a) 


Birds 


Fifty-seven bird species representing 25 families were observed in Kambona FR during 15 

man/hours of timed bird searches. Species included the Southern banded snake eagle 

(Circaetus fasciolatus) and the Pale batis (Batis soror) (Appendix 14). 


One species, the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas), is forest 

dependent. No strictly endemic or threatened species were observed in this reserve. 

Reptiles 


Four species of reptiles representing four families were recorded from four captures that took 

place during 30 bucket pitfall trapping nights and four man/hours of herpetological searches 

(Appendices 15 and 18). Tracks of the Southern rock python (Python natalensis), the White- 

62



throated savannah monitor (Varanus albigularis) and the Leopard tortoise (Geochelone 

pardalis) were observed, and the Tropical plated lizard (Cordylus tropidosternum) was also 

recorded. 


No species were found to be forest dependent, strictly endemic or threatened. 

Amphibians 


Five species of amphibian representing four families were recorded from 23 captures that 

took place during 30 bucket pitfall trapping nights and during four man/hours of 

herpetological searches, and through opportunistic observations. Species included 

Arthroleptis stenodactylus, Arthroleptis xenodactyloides, Hyperolius punticulatus, Bufo sp. 

and Xenopus muelleri (Appendices 16 and 18). 


No species were found to be forest dependent or strictly endemic. Arthroleptis stenodactylus 

and A. xenodactyloides are known to favour forest habitats, while Bufo sp., Hyperolius 

punticulatus and Xenopus muelleri are regarded as non-forest dwelling species (Howell, 

1993). A. xenodactyloides is listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004). 

Butterflies 


Nineteen species of butterfly representing five families were recorded from 24 captures that 

took place during nine canopy trapping days and two sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). 


Two Nymphaloidea species, Bematistes epaea epitellus and the Flame bordered charaxes 

(Charaxes protoclea azota), are forest dependent. No species were found to be strictly 

endemic or threatened. 

Fauna’s strict endemism 

None of the faunal species recorded in Kambona FR are endemic to the Coastal Forests 

and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 

HUMAN RESOURCE-USE AND LOCAL MANAGEMENT 

Twenty-two 50m long and 10m wide sections were sampled along two disturbance transects 

of 600m and 500m respectively (totalling 11,000m 2 ), to record levels of pole/timber cutting, 

fire, bark ringing and path densities. Out of twenty-two 50m sections, 21 (95%) were subject 

to some form of disturbance, 21 (95%) showed signs of pole/timber cutting, six (27%) were 

bisected by one or more paths, two (9%) showed signs of fire damage and a further two (9%) 

were subject to bark ringing (Figure 3). No traps were sighted in any section. Information on 

resource use is summarised in Table 12-h. 

63



Number of 50m sections affected 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Ringing 

Disturbance category 


disturbance along transects in Kambona FR 

Agricultural encroachment 

Disturbance transects did not reveal any cultivation in the forest reserve. On the eastern, 

northern and southern sides of the reserve the boundary is not clearly demarcated. On the 

southern part of the reserve there are new farms (established within the last five years) where 

vegetables are grown for sale in Masasi town. Mango (Mangifera indica) and cashew nut 

(Anacardium occidentale) trees were observed within the boundaries. 

Poles and timbers 

Discussions and field observations identified 16 species used for timber in Kambona FR. 

Field observations detected four main species harvested for timber: Afzelia quanzensis, 

Milicia excelsa, Pterocarpus angolensis and P. rotundifolius. Discussions identified a further 

14 that are commonly used for timber. Nine species are commonly cut for poles as determined 

from disturbance transects (Table 12-h). No currently active or old pit sawing sites were 

recorded. 

• Relative abundance and average no. of live, dead and cut individuals per ha 

The study indicates that 30% of poles and 7% of timbers are cut within Kambona FR (Table 

12-g). 

Table 12-g Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Kambona FR 

Total 

transect 

length 

in m 

Total no. 

of indiv. 

sampled 

Total no. 

(and % 

RA) of 

live indiv. 

Average 

live indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) of dead 

indiv. 

Average 

dead 

indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) 

of cut indiv. 

Poles 1,100 735 503 (68) 457 15 (2) 14 217 (30) 197 

Timbers 1,100 277 249 (90) 226 8 (3) 7 20 (7) 18 

Large 

timbers 

1,100 39 37 (95) 34 2 (5) 1.8 0 (0) 0 

Average 

cut indiv. 

per ha 

Fuel wood 

Residents mentioned 21 different tree species that are used for fuel wood in Kambona FR 

(Table 12-h). The residents stated that fuel wood is mainly collected from dead trees. 

64



Tools and utensils 

Species used to make items such as handles for hoes, wooden spoons and ropes are listed in 

Table 12-h. Bark ringing (to extract bark for rope making) was observed on two separate 

occasions. 

Edible non-timber forest products 

From discussion, 13 species were identified that supply food to the local inhabitants (Table 

12-h). The roots of Dioscorea hirtiflora were found to be an important source of carbohydrate 

exploited for sale on local markets. 

Medicinal plants 

Discussions with the local elders revealed 12 species that are used as medicinal plants (Table 

12-h). 

Table 12-h Plant pecies utilised in Kambona FR as identified by field observations, structured 

interviews and open discussions. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 9 

FAMILY Species Poles Timber Fuel 

wood 

Tools Rope Food Medici 

ne 

ANACARDIACEAE Sclerocarya birrea X X X 

ANNONACEAE Annona 

X X X X 

senegalensis 

APOCYNACEAE Landolphia 

X 

buchananii 

BOMBACACEAE Ceiba pentandra X 

CAOMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis 

X 

myrtifolia 

CHRYSOBALANAC Parinari 

X 

X 

EAE 

curatellifolia 

DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea 

X 

hirtiflora 

EBENACEAE Diospyros kirkii X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Afzelia quanzensis X X X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia 

tomentosa 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia 

X X 

longifolia 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia X X X X 

microphylla 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia 

X X 

spiciformis 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia petersiana X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Hymenaea 

X 

verrucosa 

FABACEAE (CAES) Julbernardia 

X X X X 

globiflora 

FABACEAE (CAES) Piliostigma 

X X X 

thonningii 

FABACEAE (CAES) Scorodophloeus 

X 

fischeri 

FABACEAE (CAES) Swartzia 

X X 

madagascariensis 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia amara X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia gummifera X X X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia versicolor X X X X 

65



FAMILY Species Poles Timber Fuel 

wood 

Tools Rope Food Medici 

ne 

FABACEAE (PAP) Dalbergia 

X X X 

melanoxylon 

FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia 

X 

stuhlmannii 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus X X X X 

bussei 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus 

X X X 

capassa 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus 

X X X X 

angolensis 


X 

rotundifolius 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica X X X 

HYMENOCARDIAC Hymenocardia 

X X X X 

EAE 

ulmoides 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos 

X X X X X 

cocculoides 

MELIACEAE Khaya anthotheca X X 

MORACEAE Ficus sur X X 

MORACEAE Milicia excelsa X X X 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum X X 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cumini X 

RUBIACEAE Vangueria infausta X 

RUTACEAE 

Zanthoxylum 

chalybeum 

SAPOTACEAE Bequaertiodendron X X X 

natalense 

STERCULIACEAE Cola greenwayi X 

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia 

X 

appendiculata 

VERBANACEAE Vitex doniana X X X 

Hunting 

A diverse range of species from a variety of families are hunted in and around Kambona FR, 

including toads, civets, bush babies, elephant shrews and pythons (Appendix 12). All hunted 

species were said by residents to have declined over the last 10 years. Twenty years ago 

Buffalo and Eland were present and hunted, and are now absent from Kambona FR. Among 

the species hunted the Chequered elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon cirnei) is listed as 

Vulnerable and the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) is listed as conservation dependant 

in the IUCN Red List (2004) (Appendix 12). 

Local management 

No management takes place in Kambona FR. Although it has been gazetted (since 1963) no 

patrols of the reserve take place and there is no enforcement of laws concerning illegal 

hunting and extraction of timber. 

66



DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Kambona FR is comprised of Brachystegia forest and Riverine forest. 

In the Brachystegia forest the canopy layer is dominated by Pteleopsis myrtifolia, 

Brachystegia sp. (B. spiciformis and B. longifolia) and Terminalia sambesiaca. However, 

disturbance has resulted in clearance of many canopy trees, such as Brachystegia spiciformis, 

Julbernardia globiflora, Albizia gummifera and A. versicolor, these being the species most 

affected by bark ringing (Gauslaa, 1989; Lind and Morrison, 1974). Sub canopy trees have 

taken over to cover the gap left by the removal of canopy trees and now dominate in terms of 

relative abundance, a phenomenon that has been previously observed during a study in Pugu 

Forest Reserve, Coast Region (Ndangalasi, 1997.) Even though disturbance from timber 

extraction and bark ringing has changed the physiognomy of the canopy layer into a more 

open configuration, the presence of Swahilian endemic species and the sparse character of the 

grass layer still distinguish this vegetation type from the ‘miombo’ Brachystegia woodland of 

the Zambezian regional centre of endemism (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). The understory 

vegetation in this reserve is sparse; further study would be necessary to determine whether the 

sparcity of the shrub layer is a natural incidence of the Brachystegia forest here, as described 

by Clarke and Robertson (2000), or a consequence of disturbance. 

A small pocket of forest located around a natural spring at the centre of the reserve is 

comprised of species that are characteristic of coastal Riverine Forest, such as Syzygium 

cordatum, Bridelia cathartica, Bridelia micrantha, Milicia excelsa and Ficus natalensis. Here 

sub canopy trees have taken over to cover the gap left by the removal of canopy trees. 

The species richness in this forest reserve is relatively low (79), being caused by the intense 

level of selective timber and bark extraction taking place. However, the Shannon diversity 

index (H¹=3.37) is high. This reflects a community in succession (Magurran, 1988), where a 

relatively high number of species (particularly understory species) can colonise the area and 

reach high rates of population growth following the removal of more competitive canopy 

trees (Ndangalasi, 1997). If this forest could be allowed to fully regenerate, and canopy and 

sub canopy species to achieve their potential population size, then the species diversity would 

be expected to decline. 

Despite its small size, Kambona FR harbours some important plant species, among which 

various species endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato (Barleria holstii, Cleistanthus 

schlechteri, Mimusops schliebenii, Grewia lepidopetala, Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina 

schliebenii and Rytigynia decussata). One species occurring here, the African mahogany 

(Khaya anthotheca), yields a very valuable termite resistant timber that is marketed for 

joinery and cabinet work (Schulman et. al, 1998), and is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN 

(2004). If the extraction of timber from Kambona FR is not regulated this and other species 

may become locally rare. 

FAUNA 

Despite its small size, a comparatively high number of faunal species (107) were recorded in 

Kambona FR, and this may reflect the relatively low level of encroachment affecting this 

reserve (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996) (See Human Resource-Use and Local Management 

section). 

67



Small mammals 

For the small mammals the overall number of species (6) and individuals (13) captured was 

low. The most commonly captured species was the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei - near 

threatened) accounting for 58% of all captures. Beamys hindei is endemic to a few forest 

types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the coastal and mountain forests of the EACF 

hotspot. Until recently it was regarded as one of the rarest rodents in Africa (Groombridge, 

1994) but it is now known to be more widespread. Our survey in Kambona FR seems to 

support this evidence, since this reserve holds a relatively large population of this species (see 

Results section and Appendix 18). Two species of White-toothed shrew (Crocidura sp.) were 

recorded. The shrews of the Coastal Forests of Tanzania are poorly known and already there 

are five unidentified species that have been collected from these forests, each from a separate 

site (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). It is likely that shrews collected from this study will yield 

interesting results once taxonomic verification is accomplished. 

Bats 

No bats were recorded in this reserve, which may be a result of the low number of netting 

hours carried out and the small size of the reserve. 

Large mammals 

For the large mammals a moderate number of species (14) were recorded and no one species 

was recorded more than twice. This suggests that the populations of all species are suppressed 

due to the small size of the reserve and disturbance from timber extraction, fire and hunting, 

whereby species ecological requirements (e.g. shelter, prey) may not be sufficient to support 

larger populations. In this reserve only the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus) 

and the Suni (Neotragus moschatus - conservation dependent) were found to be forest 

dependent, while the Small-eared bushbaby (Otolemur garnetti - CITES II) is a forest 

dwelling species endemic to the Coastal Forests and a few other habitats in coastal eastern 

Africa (Burgess et al., 2000). These species are likely to be under local threat from further 

degradation of the forest reserve. Most of the other large mammals recorded only occasionally 

frequent the forest and therefore will be less affected by encroachment. Nonetheless, these 

species may need the reserve as a corridor between suitable patches of habitat or for 

alternative sources of food or shelter. Predators such as the Lion (Panthera leo – Vulnerable, 

CITES II) and the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta - conservation dependent) were reported to 

occur in this forest by inhabitants of adjacent villages and farms. These species are able to 

utilise different habitats and to adapt well to changes in their environment, and so are likely to 

be less threatened by further forest degradation. Nevertheless, any reduction in habitat will 

reduce the visits of these animals as shelter and populations of predated animals are likely to 

decrease. Further research would need to be conducted to assess the extent of reliance of large 

mammals and predators on Kambona FR. Panthera pardus was reported to occur here and in 

the adjacent Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs. This species is listed on CITES Appendix 

I (2005) as a species threatened with extinction and therefore excluded from international 

trade, and if its presence in these reserves will be confirmed then its protection will be 

necessary. The finding of the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei), a species 

listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004), confirms the Coastal Forests to be a globally important 

area for this genus, closely followed by the Eastern Arc Mountains (Burgess et al., 2000a). 

Rhynchocyon species are forest-dwellers that rely on dense vegetation cover to produce the 

thick leaf litter they require for foraging and nest construction (Rathbun, 2005). R. cirnei may 

therefore become locally threatened should further habitat destruction ensue. 

68



Birds 

In Kambona FR the low number of bird species recorded (57), especially forest dependent 

species (1), may be a consequence of the small size of this reserve (29.9ha), the short period 

of time spent studying it (Table 10-a), and the sparse understory of the Brachystegia forest 

occurring in this reserve (Mlingwa et al., 2000). This reserve was found to contain the 

Southern banded snake-eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus). This is a near threatened bird species 

(IUCN, 2004) whose presence in the adjacent Makonde Scarp and Mkunya River forests 

demarcated them as the Newala District Coastal Forests IBA (TZ053 - category A1) (BirdLife 

International, 2005). If more than a threshold population of C. fasciolatus was found to be 

present in Kambona FR than this reserve could be classified as a component of the Newala 

District Coastal Forests IBA. Further research would be required to confirm this. 

Reptiles 

Despite the presence of a water source in Kambona FR, the number of reptile species (4) and 

individuals (4) captured was low. Low numbers may reflect the low sampling intensity 

applied to this reserve (Table 10-a) but also continuous disturbance by people collecting water 

from the spring. Apart from one species found in Brachystegia forest all records came from a 

small patch of Riverine forest around the water source, but none of the species recorded are 

forest dependent. None of the species found are endemic or threatened either. The Tropical 

girdled lizard (Cordylus tropidosternum) is an arboreal species that shelters and forage in 

holes and under the bark of trees, and consequently this species may become locally 

threatened by further loss of well-wooded habitats. Conducting further research in the wet 

season may however reveal more comprehensive results. 

Amphibians 

For the amphibians a low number of species (5) were recorded from a relatively high number 

of captures (23). Again, low numbers may reflect the low sampling intensity in this reserve 

(Table 10-a) and continuous disturbance by people collecting water from the spring. The high 

capture rate was due to an intensive search around the spring, where dense vegetation and 

moist humus soil create an ideal breeding ground for these species (Howell, 1993). The 

Squeakers (Arthroleptis stenodactylus and A. xenodactyloides) are forest dwelling species that 

were commonly captured in Brachystegia forest. These species favour a forested habitat as 

they rely on the presence of damp soil and loose leaf mould protected from shrub and canopy 

cover to lay their eggs (Howell, 1993). Consequently, the Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis 

xenodactyloides) is listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004) and both species may become locally 

threatened by further loss of forest habitat. No other species recorded are forest dwelling or 

forest dependent. The intrusion into Brachystegia and Riverine forest by species that normally 

inhabit transient open situations is known to be a recurrent characteristic encouraged by the 

heterogeneous pattern of the Coastal Forest Mosaic, whereby such species breed in their open 

habitat but enter the enclosed habitat for refuge, especially during dry periods (Poynton, 

2000). Many species recorded here are water dependent, and therefore the quality of the water 

source and the forest cover protecting it are vital to their continued presence. 

Butterflies 

For the butterflies there was a moderate number of species (19) and individuals (24) captured. 

An important butterfly community was found in a small pocket of Riverine forest surrounding 

the water source, which contained a large proportion of all the species recorded and two forest 

dependent species from the order Nymphaloidae, Bematistes epaea epitellus and the Flame 

bordered charaxes (Charaxes protoclea azota). This indicates the importance of the Riverine 

forest for butterflies and the vulnerability of forest dependent species. Butterfly species 

recorded in the remaining Brachystegia forest are non-forest dwellers, reflecting the absence 

in this reserve of a dense shrub layer (see Flora section). 

69




Timber extraction is the only commercial activity that takes place in Kambona FR. Other 

activities, such as pole cutting, bark removal and root digging take place on a subsistence 

basis. Pole cutting was the largest form of disturbance. Both pole cutting and timber 

extraction are selective, focusing on species that produce high quality timber primarily used 

for making furniture, such as the Gum copal (Hymenaea verrucosa), the African teak 

(Pterocarpus angolensis), the Snake bean tree (Swartzia madagascariensis) and the Pod 

mahogany (Afzelia quanzensis). This is destructive for the ecology of this forest reserve and 

for the threatened species harvested here (e.g. Scorodophloeus fischeri). 

At present encroachment is low. It is likely that the mango (Mangifera indica) and cashew nut 

(Anacardium occidentale) trees detected in the reserve were planted before Kambona was 

gazetted and so overall encroachment levels were low at the time of the study. The residents 

proved to be aware that the forest should be conserved to protect the spring, which they rely 

on as a water source, and to preserve it from the threats of soil erosion. Thus the boundaries of 

the forest reserve, although not well marked, are largely respected by the inhabitants. 

However, the fast growing business of vegetable sales (predominately tomatoes) encourages 

farmers to expand their cultivated land so as to increase production and, with the lack of a 

clear boundary on the eastern, northern and southern sides of the reserve, it is possible that 

farms will encroach into the reserve. Moreover, non-timber resources within the forest are 

said to have been significantly depleted despite the knowledge that it is illegal to harvest 

within the forest boundaries. 

Hunting in Kambona is widespread with a large number of species being targeted. All hunted 

species are said by residents to have declined over the last 10 years as pressure on the forest’s 

resources increased. Among the species hunted the Chequered elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon 

cirnei) is listed as Vulnerable and the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) is listed as 

conservation dependant in the IUCN Red List (2004), while the Small-eared bushbaby 

(Otolemur garnetti - CITES II) is a rare species with restricted distribution in coastal eastern 

Africa. Measures must be taken to try to protect these globally important species from being 

overexploited. Possible solutions are discussed in the Conservation Recommendations 

section. 

70



13. MAKONDE SCARP I PROPOSED FOREST 

RESERVE 

Status 


Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 




Proposed Forest Reserve 


Masasi district. The proposed area starts south east of Chidya village 

and about an hour and a half walk along a distinct path from Chidya 

Secondary school. The proposed site then continues across to below 

Mjembe village. 

1,748.3ha 

600-640m asl 

Lowland plain and gentle lower slope 

Min: 19 o C, Max: 37 o C (recorded 17-21 April, start of dry season) 

Average 0.4mm (recorded 17-21 April, start of dry season) 


Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest 

The reserve was proposed to preserve the soil on the plateau and 

scarp and to protect a water source and catchment. Land is used for 

agriculture (shifting cultivation is common practice) and timber is 

extracted on a commercial basis. Hunting occurs. 

Signs of destruction on the escarpment were noticed and documented 

in the 1940’s (Maganga, 2004). Makonde Scarp I was agreed to be a 

proposed forest reserve in 1976, the same year as funding for 

boundary beacons was made available. In 1977 some residents were 

moved from the escarpment and relocated. In 1980-81 complaints by 

people who had been moved off their original properties were 

acknowledged, concluding that Tsh 40 million was needed for 

compensation. Compensation of TSh 1.7 million was made available 

to Masasi district in 1983 and 1984 but no subsidies were made 

71



available to Newala and Tandahimba districts. Presently the site is 

not yet fully gazetted and there are no boundary markers. There is no 

staff, effective capacity or resources to enforce protected area 

legislation and regulations. 






METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over seven days (15-21 April 2005). Nine vegetation plots 

(3600m 2 ), nine regeneration plots (36m 2 ), and one zoosite were carried out, incorporating 200 

sherman trapping nights, 50 bucket trapping nights, .5 man/hours of timed herpetofauna 

searches, 2.7 bat mist net/hours, 20.5 man/hours of bird mist netting, six man/hours of timed 

bird searches, 15 canopy trapping days, 4.5 butterfly sweep net/hours, 4three animal sign 

transects (totalling 12,000m 2 ), three disturbance transects (totalling 30,000m 2 ), and 

opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 to 8 for GPS coordinates and work site 

descriptions). Ornithological work was conducted on separate days (16-18 July 2005). Habitat 

notes were taken for vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and zoological trap sites 

(Appendix 6). Structured interviews and open discussions were conducted with the 

environmental committee of the two villages of Chidya and Chiwata. Twenty-two people 

attended the meeting. An interview was also conducted with Mr Swalele, a hunter from 

Chidya village who had been involved with boundary demarcation in 1982. For a detailed 

break down of survey effort see Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 73 plant species were recorded from 19 families. Twelve 

percent of the total number of floral species are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato 

and 11% are listed as threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened (Gereau and Luke, 

2006) (Table 13-a; Appendices 9 and 10). 

One hundred and thirty eight faunal species were found representing 66 families. Of these 

species 6% are forest dependent, none are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or 

Eastern Arc Mountains and less than 1% are listed as threatened (IUCN, 2004) and/or CITES 

(2005) (Table 13-a; Appendices 13-17). 

72



Table 13-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


endemic 

species: 



threatene 

d species: 


Mammals 19 26 3 23 0* 0 - 

Birds a 32 78 2 76 0 0 - 

Reptiles 6 9 0 9 0 0 - 


Butterflies 5 20 3 17 0 0 - 

Total for 66 138 8 130 0 1 - 

animals 

Flora b 16 73 0 66 9 1 7 

Combined 82 211 8 196 5 2 7 

Total 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 




PT 

species i 

FLORA 

In Makonde Scarp I FR one single homogeneous vegetation stand was observed, which was 

identified as Brachystegia forest regenerating following past disturbance and extensively 

interrupted by cultivated and fallow farmland in all parts of the reserve. 


A total of 73 species were recorded. Out of these, 37 species were found in nine vegetation 

plots and 15 species in nine regeneration plots. The other 15 species were recorded from 

opportunistic collections made within the reserve. More specifically, 29 trees, 19 shrubs, 13 

herbs, and six grasses were recorded (Appendix 9). A value of 2.95 was calculated for the 

Shannon species diversity index. 

• Species dominance 

Within the Brachystegia forest species from the genus Brachystegia (B. spiciformis and B. 

microphylla) dominated at the canopy level, both occurring in 67% of the plots and therefore 

ranking as the most dominant species. Other frequent species were Pterocarpus angolensis 

(56%), Pteleopsis myrtifolia (44%) and Brachystegia longifolia (22%) (Table 13-b). 

73



Table 13-b Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative 

abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the canopy 

layer in Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 

Family Genus Species F % RF Rank 

(Dominance) dominance 

No. indv. % 

in all plots RA 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia spiciformis 6 67 1 46 22 1 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia microphylla 6 67 1 13 6 3 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus angolensis 5 56 2 12 5 4 

COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis myrtifolia 4 44 3 16 7 2 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia longifolia 2 22 4 6 2 5 

Total 1 3 3 5 93 42 

Total 2 16 27 36 201 100 

F= Frequency; %RF= Relative frequency; %RA= Percentage relative abundance 


Rank 

RA 

The sub canopy layer is dominated by Combretum paniculatum, which occurs in 67% of the 

plots. Combretum zeyheri was also frequent, being present in 44% of the plots (Table 13-c). 

Table 13-c Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative 

abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species of the sub canopy 

layer in Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 

Family Genus Species F % RF 

(Dominance) 

Rank 

dominance 


indv. in 

all plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum paniculatum 4 67 1 10 6 2 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum zeyheri 3 44 2 15 4 3 

APOCYNACEAE Diplorhynchus condylocarpon 6 33 3 14 7 1 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia petersiana 2 22 4 6 2 4 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum molle 2 22 4 4 1 5 

Total 1 3 3 5 49 20 

Total 2 16 27 36 201 100 




In the canopy layer 30% of the trees recorded were individuals from the genus Brachystegia 

(B. spiciformis, B. microphylla and B. longifolia). Pterocarpus angolensis and Pteleopsis 

myrtifolia constitute about 5% and 7% each. In the sub canopy layer Combretum zeyheri, 

Diplorhynchus condylocarpon and Combretum paniculatum were the top three species, 

together making up 17%. 


layers, the canopy contributed a higher number of individuals (68%) than the sub canopy 

layer (32%) to the overall number of adult trees in this reserve. 


In Makonde Scarp I proposed FR one single homogeneous vegetation stand was observed, 

which from the species composition and trees’ dbh was recognised to be degraded eastern 

African coastal Brachystegia forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000; Lowe and Clarke, 2000). 

74



The species composition of the forest was characterised by Brachystegia spiciformis and 

Brachystegia microphylla from the canopy layer and Combretum paniculatum from the sub 

canopy layer as both dominant and most abundant species, contributing 28% and 6% of the 

total number of individuals in their respective layers. Other species occurring in the canopy 

layer included Pterocarpus angolensis and Pteleopsis myrtifolia, which ranked as frequent, 

and Brachystegia longifolia, Julbernardia globiflora, Millettia stuhlmannii, Pterocarpus 

rotundifolius and Acacia nigrescens. In the sub canopy layer we also found Diplorhynchus 

condylocarpon, Combretum zeyheri, C. molle, Bauhinia petersiana, Cussonia arborea, 

Craibia brevicaudata and Lonchocarpus bussei. The shrub layer was observed to be 

comprised of saplings of the dominant species from the canopy and sub canopy layers, and 

shrub species such as Salacia madagascariensis, Strychnos usambarensis, Strychnos 

madagascariensis, Ochna holstii, Catunaregam spinosa, Vangueria infausta, Vangueriopsis 

sp. and various species from the genus Combretum. The herbaceous layer was observed to be 

comprised of grasses, particularly Sporobolus sp., Themeda triandra, Digitaris sp. and 

Panicum maximum. Herbs found in association with these grasses were Dicoma tomentosa, 

Hypoestes sp., Jasminum sp., Jussiaea repens, Vernonia sp. and species from the genus 

Bidens. These herbs were recorded as dominant on the edge of cultivated land and open areas 

where grasses had been removed by fire or cultivation. 

Most of the tree species recorded range from small to medium size class, the average dbh 

recorded being 15cm and only three plots having trees with a single stem measuring >30 cm 

dbh. 


Nine of the species recorded were found to be endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato, 

including Ozoroa obovata, Mimusops schliebenii, Sterculia appendiculata, Vitex 

zanzibarensis, Commiphora zanzibarica, Erythrina schliebenii, Lamprothamnus 

zanguebaricus, Rytigynia decussata and Vitex mossambicensis (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) 

(Appendix 10) and this amounts to 12% of the total number of species recorded (Figure 4). 

12% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

88% 


widespread in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 

Eight of the species recorded are recognised to be threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially 

threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006), amounting to 11% of the total number of species 

recorded (Table 13-d). 

75



Table 13-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 



FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata PT T 


FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia impressa PT C 

RUBIACEAE Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus PT S/T 

RUBIACEAE Rytigynia decussate PT S 

VERBENACEAE Vitex mossambicensis PT S/T 

VERBENACEAE Vitex zanzibarensis VU S 




FAUNA 



Mammals 



For the small mammals six species representing five families were recorded in total from six 

captures (not counting eight recaptures) that took place during 200 sherman trapping nights 

and 50 bucket pitfall trapping nights. Species found were the Multimammate rat (Mastomys 

natalensis), the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei) and one species of the White-toothed 

shrew (Crocidura sp.), which were captured in equal numbers of individuals (2) (Appendix 

18). 

One species of bat, the Slit-faced bat (Nycteris grandis), was recorded from one capture 

during 2.7 bat mist net/hours. 


transects totaling 3km, and through opportunistic observations and structured interviews. No 

one species was recorded on more than two separate occasions during the survey. With the 

exception of the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus), which was sighted in two 

occasions, all large mammals were recorded by indirect observation, such as vocalizations 

and dung. Species found included the Small-eared bushbaby (Otolemur garnetti), the 

Southern Africa bushbaby (Galago moholi) 8 , the Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and 

the Suni (Neotragus moschatus). From interviews it was learnt that the Leopard (Panthera 

pardus), Lion (Panthera leo), Spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) and Jackal (Canis adustus) 

occasionally pass through the forest. Panthera pardus and P. leo were last sighted by local 

inhabitants in 2004 and Crocuta crocuta in 2005. 


Three of the species found are forest dependent, although many species often frequent and 

some favour this habitat (Table 13-e). None of the species found are strictly endemic to the 

Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, yet two are rare species with a restricted 

distribution in eastern Africa. No threatened species were recorded. 

8 The field identification of Galago moholi was undertaken by Frontier-Tanzania research team. 

76



Table 13-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Makonde Scarp I 

proposed FR 

Species Common name Forest dependent Endemic Threatened 

Otolemur garnetti Small-eared galago - CF, a few other - 

habitats in coastal E 

Africa 




Cephalophus monticola Blue duiker F - - 

Cephalophus natalensis Natal duiker F - - 

Neotragus moschatus Suni F - - 





Birds 


Seventy-eight species from 32 families were recorded in total during 25.5 man/hours of mist 

netting and six man/hours of timed bird searches. Ten species were detected through mist 

netting from a total of 13 captures and 68 species through timed searches. Species recorded 

included the African crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), the African broadbill 

(Smithornis capensis), the Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei) and the Pale 

batis (Batis soror) (Appendix 14). 


Two forest dependent species, the African crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus) and the 

African broadbill (Smithornis capensis) were observed. No strictly endemic or threatened 

species were recorded in Makonde Scarp I. 

Reptiles 


Nine species of reptile representing six families were recorded from eight captures that took 

place during 50 bucket pitfall trapping nights and 4.5 man/hours of herpetological searches 

(Appendices 15 and 18). Most reptiles were found around the base camp where the land was 

disturbed by clearance for cultivation. 


All reptiles were recorded in cultivated land within the forest reserve. None of the species 

recorded are forests dependent, and only the Rufus egg-eater (Dasypeltis medici) is known to 

favour the forest habitat. No species were found to be strictly endemic or threatened. 

Amphibians 


Five species of amphibian representing four families were recorded from 42 captures that 

took place during 50 bucket pitfall trapping nights and 4.5 man/hours of herpetological 

searches. Species included Arthroleptis stenodactylus, A. xenodactyloides and Breviceps 

mossambicus (Appendices 16 and 18). Arthroleptis sp. made up 95% of captures. 


No species were found to be forest dependent or strictly endemic. Arthroleptis stenodactylus 

and A. xenodactyloides are known to favour forest habitat, while Breviceps mossambicus is 

77



regarded as a non-forest dwelling species (Howell, 1993). Arthroleptis xenodactyloides is 

listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004). 

Butterflies 


Twenty species of butterfly representing five families were recorded from 30 captures that 

took place during 15 canopy trapping days and 4.5 sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). 


One species from the family Nymphalidae, the Forest queen (Euxanthe wakefieldi), is forest 

dependent. No species were found to be strictly endemic or threatened. 


None of the faunal species recorded in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR are endemic to the 

Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 


Through disturbance transects levels of pole cutting, fire damage, path densities and other 

forms of disturbance were recorded. Out of sixty 50m sections eight (13%) were found to be 

free of any form of disturbance. Pole or timber cutting were evident in 47 (78%) sections, 42 

(70%) showed signs of fire disturbance, 21 (29%) had been cultivated, five (8%) contained 

one or more paths cutting through and one (2%) was subject to bark ringing (Figure 5). No 

traps were detected in any section. Forest resource use is summarised in Table 13-g. 


50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Ringing Cultivation 



disturbance along transects in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 


During the survey crops were encountered in all parts of the reserve. Encroachment is so 

extensive that one cannot walk far within the reserve without crossing cultivated land. 


Through disturbance transects it was observed that the four main species harvested for timber 

are Afzelia quanzensis, Milicia excelsa, Pterocarpus angolensis and P. rotundifolius. 

Discussions with local communities identified another 12 species that are used for timber and 

eight species that are used to supply poles (Table 13-g). Evidence of old and recent pit sawing 

was observed inside the proposed reserve, targeting commercially valuable species (Afzelia 

quanzensis, Pterocarpus angolensis and P. rotundifolius). 

78




The survey indicates that 21% of all poles, 8% of all timbers and 9% of all large timbers are 

cut. All cut timber and poles were old apart from one fresh timber cut (Table 13-f). 

Table 13-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 

Total 

transect 

length 

in m 

Total no. 


sampled 

Total no. 


RA) 

of live 

indiv. 

Average 

live indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) 

of dead 

indiv. 

Averag 

e dead 

indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) 

of cut 

indiv. 

Average 

cut indiv. 

per ha 

Poles 3,000 2182 1688 (77) 563 36 (2) 12 458 (21) 257 

Timbers 3,000 447 297 (66) 99 14 (3) 5 36 (8) 12 

Large 

timbers 

3,000 11 10 (91) 3 0 (0) 0 1 (9) 0.03 

Fuel wood 

Residents indicated that collected fuel wood comes from 18 tree species (Table 13-g) and 

mostly from dead trees or branches. 


Through discussion it was determined that various species were used in Makonde Scarp II to 

make items such as cooking utensils, tool handles and ropes (Table 13-g). 


A total of nine plant species were said by the inhabitants of the area to provide food. The 

roots of Dioscorea hirtiflora were found to be an important source of carbohydrate exploited 

for sale on local markets (Table 13-g). 


Twenty-one species were recorded to be used for medicinal purposes (Table 13-g, Appendix 

11). 

Table 13-g Plant species utilised in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR as identified by field 

observations, structured interviews and open discussions. Local names, where known, are 

presented in Appendix 9 

Family Species Poles Timber Fuel Tools Ropes Food Medicine 

wood 

ANACARDIACEA Sclerocarya birrea X X 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis X X X 


X 

buchananii 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia 

X 

zimmemanii 

BOMBACACEAE Ceiba pentandra X X 

CHRYSOBALANACE Parinari 

X 

AE 

curatellifolia 

COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis myrtifolia X X 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana X 

DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea hirtiflora X 

EBENACEAE Diospyros kirkii X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Afzelia quanzensis X X X X 

79




wood 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia petersiana X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia tomentosa X X 


spiciformis 

FABACEAE (CAES) Hymenaea verrucosa X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Julbernardia X X X 

globiflora 


magnistipulata 


X 

X 

thonningii 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nigrescens X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia amara X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia gummifera X X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia versicolor X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus bussei X 


X X X 

capassa 


X X X X 

angolensis 


X X 

rotundifolius 

FABACEAE (PAP) Dalbergia X X X X 

melanoxylon 

FABACEAE (PAP) Scorodophloeus X 

fischeri 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica X 


X X X 

cocculoides 


X 


MORACEAE Milicia excelsa X X X X 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum X X X 


OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii X 

POLYGALACEAE Securidaca 

X 

longipedunculata 


RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum 

X 

chalybeum 

SAPOTACEAE Bequaertiodendron 

X 

natelense 


X X X 

appendiculata 

VERBANACEAE Vitex doniana X 

VERBENACEAE Vitex zanzibarensis X 

80



Hunting 

The populations of Chidya and Chiwata hunt within Makonde Scarp I. It transpired from 

interviews and discussions that hunting is largely indiscriminate with a wide variety of 

animals taken. These include the Chequered elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon cirnei), a species 

listed as Vulnerable, and the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), a species listed as 

conservation dependent (IUCN, 2004) (Appendix 12). 


Makonde Scarp I FR is only proposed, therefore at present no management plan is in place, 

no patrolling of the FR boundaries is conducted and no laws are enforced to protect the area. 

DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Makonde Scarp I proposed FR falls under the degraded eastern African coastal Brachystegia 

forest category. Much of this proposed reserve has been converted to farmland, with the little 

forest remaining consisting of secondary forest that is regenerating following past 

disturbance, as demonstrated by the small to medium size of most trees. Even though 

disturbance from timber extraction has changed the physiognomy of the canopy layer into a 

more open configuration, the presence of a dense shrub layer dominated by Swahilian 

endemic species and the sparse character of the grass layer still distinguish this vegetation 

type from the ‘miombo’ Brachystegia woodland of the Zambezian regional centre of 

endemism (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). The presence of saplings of the dominant canopy 

and sub canopy species in the shrub layer indicates that the forest has approached a climax 

stage, where no species different from the dominant ones are colonising and replacing them 

(Schmidt, 1991). 

In Makonde Scarp I proposed FR the high degree of encroachment and timber extraction 

accounts for the low number of species found (73). However, the Shannon diversity index for 

this forest reserve (H¹=2.95) is moderately high, reflecting a community in succession 

(Magurran, 1988), where a relatively high number of species, and particularly understory 

species, can colonise the area and reach high rates of population growth following the 

removal of more competitive canopy trees (Ndangalasi, 1997). If this forest could be allowed 

to fully regenerate, and canopy and sub canopy species to achieve their potential population 

size, then the species diversity would be expected to decline. However, human activities 

(particularly cultivation) have continued to interrupt the regeneration of this forest from 

degraded to fully developed Eastern Africa coastal Brachystegia forest. These activities also 

threaten some important plant species present here, such as Vitex zanzibarensis (Endemic and 

Vulnerable), Commiphora zanzibarica, Erythrina schliebenii, Lamprothamnus 

zanguebaricus, Rytigynia decussata and Vitex mossambicensis (Endemic and Potentially 

Threatened). 

FAUNA 

In Makonde Scarp I proposed FR the species composition within most taxa reflects the high 

level of clearance for agriculture, timber extraction and burning and the consequent dryness of 

the environment in this reserve (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). Research carried out in 

small patches of Brachystegia forest yielded a relatively high number of species (138), some 

of which are forest dependent. However, large sections of the proposed reserve have already 

been converted into farmland or cut for timbers and poles, and if resource extraction is not 

regulated the species richness may gradually decline (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). 

81



Small mammals 


low, reflecting the high incidence of deforestation for timber and agriculture in this reserve 

(see Human Resource-Use and Local Management section) and the open and dry habitat 

resulting from it (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). The Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei - 

near threatened) found here is a relic species endemic to a few forest types in Kenya and 

Tanzania, including the coastal and mountain forests of the EACF hotspot. Until recently it 

was regarded as one of the rarest rodents in Africa (Groombridge, 1994) but it is now known 

to be more widespread. In Makonde Scarp I this species was found in small pockets of 

regenerating Brachystegia forest on the edge of cultivated land, and this emphasises its 

vulnerability to further habitat degradation (Kingdon 1993). Mastomys natalensis is known to 

frequent a variety of habitats and in southern Tanzania is a prolific and recurrent member of 

the rodent community (Kingdon, 1993), as recorded by this study. One species of Whitetoothed 

shrew (Crocidura sp.) was recorded. The shrews of the Coastal Forests of Tanzania 

are poorly known and already there are five unidentified species that have been collected from 

these forests, each from a separate site (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). It is likely that shrews 

collected from this survey will yield interesting results once taxonomic verification is 

accomplished. None of the species recorded are forest dependent or threatened, the lack of 

forest dependent species reflecting the disturbed and open habitat found here. 

Bats 

Only one species of bat, the Slit-faced bat (Nycteris grandis), was recorded from a single 

capture. This is a forest dwelling species commonly found in forest and forest relics across 

tropical Africa (Kingdon, 1974). Therefore, as the forest is degraded here this species is 

locally vulnerable. 

Large mammals 

Although the overall number of large mammal species recorded (19) was relatively high, the 

number of individuals for each species was low, no one species being recorded more than 

twice. This suggests that the populations of all species are suppressed due to a significant 

degree of disturbance in this reserve (see Human-Resources Use and Local Management 

section), a factor that has decreased the extent of suitable habitat and ecological requirements 

(e.g. prey, shelter) available to support larger populations. The Suni (Neotragus moschatusconservation 

dependent), the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis - conservation 

dependent), the Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola - CITES II) and the Red-bellied coastal 

squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus) are forest dependent and therefore vulnerable to further 

encroachment and degradation of the forest reserve. It is possible that Paraxerus palliatus 

recorded here has hybridized with the Smith’s bush squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi) (Kingdon, 

2003). Further research needs to be conducted on the hybrids of Paraxerus in this region of 

Tanzania as very little is known. Most other large mammals recorded only occasionally 

frequent the forest and therefore will be less affected by encroachment. Nevertheless, these 

species may need this reserve as a corridor between suitable patches of habitat or for 

alternative sources of food and shelter. Predators such as the Lion (Panthera leo - Vulnerable, 

CITES II) and the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta - conservation dependant) were reported to 


utilize different habitats and to adapt well to changes in their environment, and so are likely to 



decrease. Further research needs to be conducted to assess the extent of reliance of large 

mammals and predators on Makonde Scarp I proposed FR. Panthera pardus was reported to 

occur here and in the adjacent Makonde Scarp II proposed FR and Kambona FR. This species 

is listed on CITES Appendix I (2005) as a species threatened with extinction and therefore 

excluded from international trade, and if its presence in these sites will be confirmed then its 

82



protection will be necessary. No large mammal species were found to be strictly endemic to 

the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, but the Small-eared bushbaby (Otolemur 

garnetti - CITES II) has a restricted distribution in the Coastal Forests and a few other 

habitats in coastal eastern Africa (Burgess et al., 2000). The South African bushbaby (Galago 

moholi - CITES II) is an arboreal species usually found in the semiarid scrub woodlands and 

savanna grasslands of central southern Africa (Alvarado, 2000). The finding of this species in 

the Coastal Forest Mosaic of southern Tanzania therefore represents a range extension. 

Birds 

Even though only two forest dependent species, the African crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus 

coronatus - CITES II) and the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), were detected here, a 

high number of species (78) were recorded. This probably reflects the proximity of this 

reserve to the ridges of the Makonde Scarp, where the topographic variation of the 

escarpment creates a variety of habitats and nesting sites for birds. High species richness is 

also favoured by the dense understory of the Brachystegia forest remaining in this reserve 

(Mlingwa et al., 2000) (see Flora section). None of the species recorded here are endemic to 

the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains and none are listed as threatened by the 

IUCN Red List (2004). However, Makonde Scarp I proposed FR constitutes part of the 

Newala District Coastal Forests IBA (TZ053 - category A1) (BirdLife International, 2005) 

because of the presence of more than a threshold population of the Southern banded snake 

eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus), a species categorized by the IUCN Red List as near threatened. 

Even though C. fasciolatus was not recorded in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR during this 

study, this species was recorded in adjacent Kambona FR and Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 

and is therefore likely to occur also in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR. Unfortunately, much of 

the forest has been converted to farmland, so drastically reducing the habitat for birds. 

Reptiles 

Local knowledge suggested that snakes and reptiles in general should be abundant in this 

reserve. The low numbers of species (8) and individuals (8) captured may therefore be a 

consequence of the rapid nature of this study, which did not permit comprehensive collection 

of data during the wet season and the study of fossorial species (Broadley and Howell, 2000). 

However, low numbers may also reflect the largely open and dry environment that has 

resulted from high levels of encroachment, timber extraction and burning in this reserve 

(Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996) (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management 

section). In fact, of all the species recorded only the Rufus egg-eater (Dasypeltis medici) is 

known to favour a forested habitat, and none of the species recorded are forest dependent 

(Spawls et al., 2002). 

Amphibians 

The number of amphibian species captured (5) was low and reflects the open and dry nature 

of large part of the reserve (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). Apart from Arthroleptis 

species, all species are non-forest dwellers and non-forest dependent, and were captured in 

high numbers (42) in cultivated land as well as in small patches of regenerating Brachystegia 

forest. The intrusion into forested areas by species that normally inhabit transient open 

situations is known to be a recurrent characteristic encouraged by the heterogeneous pattern 

of the Coastal Forest Mosaic, whereby such species breed in their open habitat but enter the 

enclosed habitat for refuge, especially during dry periods (Poynton, 2000). Arthroleptis 

stenodactylus and A. xenodactyloides favour a forested habitat as they rely on the presence of 

damp soil and loose leaf mould protected from shrub and canopy cover to lay their eggs 

(Howell, 1993. Consequently, the Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides) is listed as 

Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004) and both species may become locally threatened by further loss of 

forest habitat. 

83



Butterflies 

For the butterflies there was a moderate number of species (20) and individuals (30) recorded. 

This reserve contains small patches of regenerating Brachystegia forest with a dense 

understory (see Flora section) where re-colonisation by forest dependent species such as the 

Forest queen (Euxanthe wakefieldi) is taking place. However, most of this reserve has been 

converted to farmland and consequently most butterfly species recorded are non-forest 

dwellers. 


Population growth in the areas adjacent to Makonde Scarp I proposed FR has accelerated and 

the demand on land for cultivation and wood for building has resulted in severe degradation 

of the forest reserve. Most of the farmers that were moved out when the area was proposed to 

be a reserve are now going back to their shambas (cultivated land), in part because of the 

failure of the government to fully compensate their relocation in new houses and farms 

(Baldus et al., 2004). 

Natural resource use in Makonde Scarp I proposed FR is widespread with various species 

being exploited for timber, poles, fuel wood, food, medicines and other products. The most 

urgent problem is the clearing of new land for agriculture. This problem is exacerbated by the 

practice of shifting cultivation, where people clear new land after exhausting the fertility of 

the previously cultivated land. Hunting also appears to be largely indiscriminate with a wide 

variety of animals taken. These include the Chequered elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon cirnei), 

a species listed as Vulnerable, and the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), a species listed 

as conservation dependent (IUCN, 2004) (Appendix 12). 

84



14. MAKONDE SCARP II PROPOSED FOREST 

RESERVE 

Status 


Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 

Vegetation Type 





Newala district. The proposed site starts north east of Lulindi and 

continues south easterly along the escarpment, ending just before 

Newala town. 

1,554ha 

550-780m asl 


Min: 19 o C, Max: 30 o C (recorded 28 April - 2 May, dry season) 

Average 0.3mm (recorded 28 April - 2 May, dry season) 


Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest, Mixed scrub forest 

and Thicket 

The reserve was proposed to preserve the soil on the plateau and 

scarp and to protect a water source and catchment. Areas are used for 

agriculture, especially cashew, rice and maize plantations (shifting 

cultivation is common practice). Brick making occurs, along with 

timber and pole cutting and hunting. 

Signs of habitat destruction on the escarpment were noticed and 

documented in the 1940’s (Maganga, 2004). Makonde Scarp II was 

agreed to be a proposed forest reserve in 1976, the same year as 

funding for boundary beacons was made available. In 1977 some 

residents were moved from the escarpment and relocated. In 1980-81 

complaints by people who had been moved off their original 

properties were acknowledged, concluding that Tsh 40 million was 

needed for compensation. Compensation of TSh 1.7 million was 

made available to Masasi District in 1983 and 1984 but no subsidies 

85



were made available to Newala and Tandahimba districts. Presently 

the site is not yet fully gazetted and there are no boundary markers. 

There is no staff, effective capacity or resources to enforce protected 

area legislation and regulations. 

Maps Topographical map: Lulindi sheet 306/3 and Newala sheet 306/4, 

East Africa 1:50 000, 1968. From the Institute of Mapping, Dar es 

Salaam (from Series Y742, Edition 1-TSD). 

METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over seven days (27 April - 2 May 2005). Five vegetation plots 

(4800m 2 ), five regeneration plots (48m 2 ), and one zoosite were carried out, incorporating 200 

sherman trapping nights, 50 bucket trapping nights, 4.5 man/hours of timed herpetofauna 

searches, four bat mist net/hours, eight man/hours of timed bird searches, 15 canopy trapping 

days, six butterfly sweep net/hours, four animal sign transects (totalling 16,000m 2 ), four 

disturbance transects (totalling 40,000m 2 ), and opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 

to 8 for GPS coordinates and work site descriptions). Ornithological work was conducted on 

separate days (1-2 July 2005). Bird mist netting was not conducted in this reserve as the camp 

was located some distance from the escarpment and in order to avoid theft nets could not be 

left unattended. Habitat notes were taken for the vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and 

zoological trap sites (Appendix 6). Structured interviews and open discussions were 

conducted with four elders from the villages of Chiwambo juu and Nyambunga. For a 

detailed break down of survey effort see Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 76 plant species were recorded from 22 families. Eight 




The forest reserve has 99 faunal species found within 54 families. Of these species 2% are 

forest dependent, 1% are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc 



86



Table 14-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


endemic 

species: 



threatened 

species: 


Mammals 15 18 1 17 0 1 - 

Birds a 30 64 0 64 0 1 - 

Reptiles 4 7 0 7 0 0 - 


Butterflies 3 8 1 7 0 0 - 

Total for 54 99 2 97 1 2 - 

animals 

Flora b 22 76 0 70 6 3 7 


PT 

species i 

Combined 

Total 

76 175 2 167 7 5 6 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 



FLORA 

In Makonde Scarp II proposed FR three homogeneous vegetation stands were observed, 

which were identified as Brachystegia forest, Mixed scrub forest and Thicket, interrupted by 

cultivated and fallow farmland. 


A total of 76 species were recorded. Out of these, 42 species were found in 12 vegetation 

plots and 17 in 12 regeneration plots. The remaining 17 species were recorded from 

opportunistic collection. More specifically, 32 trees, 36 shrubs and eight grasses were 

recorded (Appendix 9). A value of 3.01 was calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 


In the eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest Brachystegia spiciformis was the most 

frequent species in the canopy layer (29% of the plots), accompanied by Albizia gummifera, 

Pterocarpus rotundifolius, Pterocarpus angolensis and Albizia versicolor (14% of the plots 

respectively) (Table 14-b). No species were found to occur in more than 40% of the plots to 

be ranked as frequent or dominant (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). 

87





layer in Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 


(Domina dominance 

nce) 


indv. in 

all plots 


FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia gummifera 1 14 2 3 4 2 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus rotundifolius 1 14 2 3 4 2 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia versicolor 1 14 2 2 3 3 


Total 1 3 3 5 14 19 

Total 2 18 23 30 78 100 



% 

RA 

Rank 

RA 

In the sub canopy layer Cassia didymobotrya and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon were the 

most dominant, each one occurring in 29% of the plots, while Cussonia arborea, Schefflera 

barteri and Sclerocarya birrea occurred in 14% of the plots respectively (Table 14-c). None 

of the species were found to occur in more than 40% of the plots to be ranked as frequent or 

dominant (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). 



layer in Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 


(Dominan 

ce) 

Rank 

dominance 


indv. in 

all plots 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia didymobotrya 2 29 2 8 10 1 


ARALIACEAE Cussonia arborea 1 14 3 2 3 3 

ARALIACEAE Schefflera barteri 1 14 3 1 1 4 

ANACARDIACEAE Sclerocarya birrea 1 14 3 1 1 4 

Total 1 4 5 5 18 23 

Total 2 18 23 30 78 100 



% 

RA 

Rank 

RA 

Mixed scrub forest was dominated by Parinari curatellifolia, occurring in 57% of the plots 

and ranking as the most dominant species (Table 14-d). Other species found in the canopy 

layer were Cassia didymobotrya and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, both occurring in 29% of 

the plots, and Hymenocardia ulmoides and Pteleopsis myrtifolia, each occurring in 14% of the 

plots. 

88



Table 14-d Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative 


layer in Mixed scrub forest in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 


(Dominan 

ce) 

Rank 

dominance 


indv. in 

all plots 

CHRYSOBALANACEAE Parinari curatellifolia 4 57 1 16 20 1 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia didymobotrya 2 29 2 8 10 2 


HYMENOCARDIACEAE Hymenocardia ulmoides 1 14 3 3 4 4 


Total 1 5 5 5 35 45 

Total 2 18 23 30 78 100 



% 

RA 

Rank 

RA 

In the Thicket Strychnos madagascariensis and Ochna kirkii were the most frequent species, 

both occurring in 29% of the plots sampled, while Flacourtia indica, Securidaca 

longipedunculata and Ochna holstii occurred in 14% of the plots respectively (Table 14-e). 

None of the species were found to occur in more than 40% of the plots to be ranked as 

frequent or dominant (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). 

Table 14-e Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, % relative 

abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant species in Thicket in 

Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 


(Domina 

nce) 

Rank 

dominance 


indv. in 

all 

plots 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos madagascariensis 2 29 1 4 5 1 

OCHNACEAE Ochna kirkii 2 29 1 2 3 2 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica 1 14 2 4 5 1 

POLYGALACEAE Securidaca longipedunculata 1 14 2 4 5 1 

OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii 1 14 2 2 3 2 

Total 1 4 4 4 16 21 

Total 2 18 23 30 78 100 



% 

RA 

Rank 

RA 


In eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest the most abundant species in the canopy layer 

were Brachystegia spiciformis, Albizia gummifera and Pterocarpus rotundifolius, together 

contributed only 13% of all the species sampled in this layer (Table 14-b). In the sub canopy 

layer Cassia didymobotrya and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon made up 10% and 8% each of 

all the individuals sampled (Table 14-c). 

In Mixed scrub forest Parinari curatellifolia was the most abundant species in the canopy 

layer, making up 20% of the trees recorded, while Cassia didymobotrya, Diplorhynchus 

condylocarpon and Hymenocardia ulmoides made 10%, 8% and 4% respectively (Table 14- 

d). 

89



In the Thicket Strychnos madagascariensis, Flacourtia indica and Securidaca 

longipedunculata contributed 5% each of all individuals in this vegetation type (Table 14-e). 


layers, the canopy layer (71%) contributed a higher number of individuals than the sub 



In Makonde Scarp II proposed FR three homogeneous vegetation stands were observed. On 

the western side of the escarpment, near to Chiwambo Chini village, eastern African coastal 

Brachystegia forest was found. On the plateau the vegetation was mainly comprised of 

Mixed scrub forest, while down the escarpment to the south, east and north of Chiwambo 

juu village, the vegetation graded into Thicket (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

In the eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest, the canopy layer was characterised by 

species such as Brachystegia spiciformis, Albizia gummifera, and Pterocarpus rotundifolius, 

and the sub canopy layer by Cassia didymobotrya and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon. Other 

species occurring in the canopy layer included Albizia versicolor, Pterocarpus angolensis, 

Julbernardia globiflora, Millettia stuhlmannii, Pericopsis angolensis and Terminalia brownii. 

In the sub canopy layer we observed Cussonia arborea, Schefflera barteri, Sclerocarya 

birrea, Lonchocarpus capassa, Maerua sp., Craibia brevicaudata and Lonchocarpus bussei. 

The shrub layer was observed to be comprised of saplings of the dominant species from the 

canopy and sub canopy layers, and shrub species such as Salacia madagascariensis, 

Strychnos usambarensis, Strychnos madagascariensis, Ochna holstii, Catunaregam spinosa, 

Vangueria infausta, Vangueriopsis sp. and various species from the genus Combretum. The 

herbaceous layer was comprised of grasses, particularly Sporobolus sp., Themeda triandra, 

Digitaris sp., and Panicum maximum. Herbs found in association with these grasses were 

Dicoma tomentosa, Hypoestes sp. and Jasminum sp. These herbs were recorded as dominant 

on the edge of cultivated land and open areas where grasses have been removed by fire or 

cultivation. 

Mixed scrub forest was recognised by the presence of Parinari curatellifolia in the canopy, an 

interspersed emergent typical of this forest type, as well as species such as Hymenocardia 

ulmoides and Pteleopsis myrtifolia. In the shrub layer the presence of Strychnos 

madagascariensis and Strychnos cocculoides confirmed the classification of this forest type 

as Mixed scrub forest. Herbs here were missing, leaving only grasses such as Heteropogon 

contortus, Themeda triandra and Digitaris sp. to characterise the herbaceous layer. 

Thickets were typically characterised by the absence of canopy and sub canopy layers, and 

were comprised mainly of shrub species such as Strychnos madagascariensis, Ochna kirkii, 

Flacourtia indica, Securidaca longipedunculata and Ochna holstii. Other shrub species 

recorded included Vangueria infausta, Strychnos spinosa and Bequaertiodendron natalense. 

No herbs or grasses were recorded underneath the thicket. 


Seven of the species recorded were found to be endemic to Swahilian region sensu lato, 

including Monodora grandidieri, Monanthotaxis fornicata, Tetracera boiviniana, Gardenia 

transvenulosa, Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus, Grewia lepidopetala and Vitex zanzibarensis, 

(Clarke and Robertson, 2000) (Appendix 10). This amounted to 8% of the total number of 

species recorded (Figure 6). 

90



8% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

92% 


widespread in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 

Ten among the species recorded are recognised to be threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially 


recorded (Table 14-f). 

Table 14-f Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Makonde Scarp II proposed 

FR 


ANNONACEAE Monanthotaxis trichocarpa PT C/S 

ANNONACEAE Monanthotaxis fornicata PT S 






RUBIACEAE Gardenia transvenulosa VU S/T 






FAUNA 



Mammals 



For the small mammals seven species representing five families were recorded from seven 

captures (not counting three recaptures) that took place during 200 sherman trapping and 50 

bucket pitfall trapping nights (Table 10-a). Common species found were the Multimammate 

rats (Mastomys natalensis) and the Spiny mouse (Acomys spinosissimus) making up 55% of 

all captures. Other species included the Mouse (Mus minutoides) and a species of the Whitetoothed 

shrew (Crocidura sp.) (Appendix 18). 

91



No bats were recorded during six bat mist net/hours. 


transects totalling 4km, through opportunistic observations and from local knowledge 

(Appendix 13). Species found included the Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus) and the 

Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis). Signs from each species were not observed more than 

twice. The discovery of a foot print of a Leopard (Panthera pardus) confirms records of its 

presence from local knowledge. From interviews with local communities it was also learnt 

that the Lion (Panthera leo), Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and Jackal (Canis adustus) 

occasionally pass through the proposed forest reserve. 


One species, the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), was found to be forest dependent, 

although many other often frequent and some favour a forested habitat. None of the species 

recorded are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, and only 

one species is listed as threatened (Table 14-g). 

Table 14-g Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Makonde Scarp II 

proposed FR 


Panthera pardus Leopard - - CITES 1 



CF= species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone; EACF= species with limited ranges in the in the 

Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests (Burgess et al., 2000a) 


CITES I = Threatened with extinction and excluded from international trade; 

Birds 


Sixty-four species from 30 families were detected during eight man/hours of timed bird 

searches. Species included the Brown-breasted barbet (Lybius melanopterus), the Pale batis 

(Batis soror) and the Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei) (Appendix 14). 


The Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is listed on CITES Appendix I (2005) as threatened 

with extinction and therefore excluded from international trade. No forest dependent or 

strictly endemic species were found in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR. 

Reptiles 


Seven species of reptiles representing four families were recorded from seven captures that 


searches. Species included the Burrowing asp (Mehelya nyassae juv.), the White-lipped snake 

(Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia), the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus), the Savanna vine snake 

(Thelotornis capensis oatesi) 9 , a apecies of skink (Trachylepis sp.) 10 and the Mozambique 

agama (Agama mossambica) (Appendices 15 and 18). 

9 The identification of Thelotornis capensis oatesi was carried out by Michele Menegon (Appendix 1). We are 

awaiting taxonomic confirmation. 

10 The Afro-magalasian mabuyas have been recognised to constitute a separate genus and have been renamed 

Trachylepis sp. For the partitioning of the genus Mabuya see Mausfeld et al. (2002); for the taxonomy and 

nomenclature of Traxhyletis sp. see Honda et al. (2003) and Whiting et al. (2003). 

92





Amphibians 


Two species of amphibians representing two families were recorded from two captures that 


searches. Species included Arthroleptis stenodactylus and Mertensophryne micranotis 

(Appendices 16 and 18). 


Mertensophryne micranotis is endemic to the Eastern Arc lowland and the Coastal Forest 

Mosaic of south-eastern Kenya and eastern Tanzania. No species were found to be forest 

dependent. Arthroleptis stenodactylus favours forest habitats but is not forest dependent 

(Howell, 1993). No threatened species were recorded. 

Butterflies 


Eight species of butterfly representing three families were recorded from 11 captures that took 

place during 15 canopy trapping days and 4.5 sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). The Large blue 

charaxes (Charaxes bohemani) accounted for 36% of all captures. 




None of the faunal species recorded in Makonde Scarp II are endemic to the Coastal Forests 

and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 


Through disturbance transects, levels of pole cutting, fire damage, path densities and other 

forms of disturbance were recorded. Out of seventy-nine 50m sections, only three (4%) were 

found to be free from disturbance. Sixty-nine (87%) were subject to pole/timber cutting, 58 

(73%) showed signs of fire disturbance and 33 (41%) had been cultivated. Fifteen (19%) were 

bisected by one or more paths, two (3%) were subject to bark ringing and one (1%) contained 

a trap (Figure 7). Forest resource use is summarised in Table 14-i. 

93




80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Ringing Cultivation Traps 



disturbance along transects in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 


The wooded grassland on top of the scarp was found to have been reduced to a very narrow 

strip at the edge of the scarp. The presence of a brick factory was recorded. Some areas on the 

side of the escarpment still support woodland with some large individual trees, but most of it 

has been cleared and converted to farmland or has regenerated into Thicket. Rice, maize and 

groundnuts were observed growing on the slopes of the escarpment. The foot of the scarp 

hosted very few undisturbed areas, most having been converted for agriculture. 


According to the inhabitants of the area, timber in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR is derived 

from 15 tree species (Table 14-i). Disturbance transects and information from the residents 

showed the extensive exploitation of four preferred species (Afzelia quanzensis, Milicia 

excelsa, Pterocarpus angolensis and P. rotundifolius). Disturbance transects revealed that 10 

species in total are exploited to obtain poles for building materials. No currently active or old 

pit sawing sites were recorded. 


From disturbance transects the level of pole and timber cutting within the proposed area was 

determined to be 27% and 19% respectively, with no evidence of large cut timbers. No fresh 

cut poles or timbers were recorded (Table 14-h). 

Table 14-h Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 

Total 

transect 

length 

in m 

Total no. 


sampled 

Total no. 

(and % RA) 

of live indiv. 

Average 

live indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


of dead indiv. 

Average 

dead 

indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


of cut indiv. 

Average 

cut 

indiv. 

per ha 

Poles 3,950 2669 919 (34) 258 52 (2) 13 727 (27) 184 

Timbers 3,950 310 225 (73) 57 27 (9) 7 58 (19) 15 

Large 

timbers 

3,950 0 0 (0) 0 0 (0) 0 0 (0) 0 

Fuel wood 

Residents indicated a total of 18 species (Table 14-i) that are utilised as fuel wood. 

94




Various species were found to be used in Makonde Scarp II to make items such as cooking 

utensils, tool handles and ropes (Table 14-i). Two 50m sections were found to contain one 

ringed tree each, the trees being dead. Species targeted to make beehives included 

Brachystegia longifolia, Brachystegia spiciformis, Piliostigma thonningii and Vitex doniana. 


Residents identified five species used for food in Makonde Scarp II. The roots of Dioscorea 

hirtiflora were found to be an important source of carbohydrate exploited for sale on local 

markets (Table 14-i). Honey is produced and sold locally. 


Twenty-two species were found to be used for medicine (Table 14-i, Appendix 11). 

Table 14-i Plant species utilised in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR as identified by field 



Family Species Poles Timber Fuel Tools Ropes Hives Food Medicine 

wood 

ANACARDIACEAE Sclerocarya birrea 

X 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis X X X X 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia acuminata X 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia obtusifolia X X X 



FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia petersiana X X X 


FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia longifolia 

X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia spiciformis X X X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata 

X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Hymenaea verrucosa X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Julbernardia globiflora X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Julbernardia 

X X X 


FABACEAE (CAES) Piliostigma thonningii X X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia brevispica 

X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nigrescens 

X 



FABACEAE (PAP) Dalbergia melanoxylon X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus bussei X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus capassa X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Milletia stuhlmannii X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus angolensis X X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus rotundifolius X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Scorodophloeus fischeri X 

CHRYSOBALANAC Parinari curatellifolia X X 

EAE 

COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis myrtifolia X X 


DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea hirtiflora 

X 


FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica 

X 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos cocculoides X X X X 

95




wood 


X 

X 





OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii X 


X 



RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum chalybeum X 


X 

natalense 

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia appendiculata X X X 

VERBENACEAE Vitex doniana X X X X 


Hunting 

Upon being questioned about hunting practices in the area residents responded that hunting 

does not take place. However, this statement was contradicted by the observation of traps 

along disturbance transects. In one small area used for cultivation no fewer than eight 

different traps for small antelopes were observed. 

Management 

Makonde Scarp II FR is only proposed, therefore no management plan is in place, no 

patrolling of the FR boundaries is conducted and no laws are enforced to protect the area. 

DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Makonde Scarp II proposed FR has been transformed by major human disturbance, 

particularly clearance for agriculture and timber harvesting, into three main vegetation types 

largely interspersed by cultivated and fallow farmland. 

Small patches of eastern African Brachystegia forest were found to still be present on the 

western side of the escarpment, near to Chiwambo Chini village. The low frequency (≤60%) 

and abundance of the Brachystegia sp. recorded in this forest reserve, and the absence of 

Brachystegia as a single dominant genus characteristic of this vegetation type may be 

attributed to the high level of timber extraction observed in this forest reserve (see Human 

Resources-Use and Local Management section), but further study would be needed to 

ascertain this. Even though disturbance from timber extraction has changed the physiognomy 

of the canopy layer into a more open configuration, the presence of a dense shrub layer 

dominated by Swahilian endemic species and the sparse character of the grass layer still 

distinguish this vegetation type from the ‘miombo’ Brachystegia woodland of the Zambezian 

regional centre of endemism (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

Deforestation on the plateau has degraded the climax forest into Thicket and Mixed scrub 

forest. Both these vegetation types are seral stages that resulted from the historical practice of 

shifting cultivation on the Makonde Plateau, whereby farmland is left fallow for at least seven 

years, allowing grassland first, then Thicket and finally Mixed scrub forest to regenerate. If 

96



the clearing cycle was not perpetrated this vegetation type could complete its succession to 

climax forest (Gillman, 1954). 

Makonde Scarp II has one of the lowest plant species richness recorded (76 species), which 

may be caused by the high proportion of cultivated land comprising this reserves and the 

intense degree of timber extraction taking place. The Shannon diversity index for this forest 

reserve (H¹=3.01) is relatively high, reflecting a community in succession (Magurran, 1988), 

where a relatively high number of species, and particularly understory species, can colonise 

the area and reach high rates of population growth following the removal of more competitive 

canopy trees (Ndangalasi, 1997). If this forest could be allowed to fully regenerate, and 

canopy and sub canopy species to achieve their potential population size, then the species 

diversity would be expected to decline. Important species, such as Khaya anthotheca 

(Vulnerable), Gardenia transvenulosa and Vitex zanzibarensis (Endemic and Vulnerable), 

would also be preserved. The African mahogany (Khaya anthotheca), yields a very valuable 

termite resistant timber that is marketed for joinery and cabinet work (Schulman et. al, 1998), 

and is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN (2004). If the extraction of timber from Makonde Scarp 

II proposed FR is not regulated this and other species may become locally rare. 

FAUNA 

Overall a low number of faunal species (99) were recorded, reflecting the fact that large 

sections of the reserve have been converted into farmland and are disturbed by timber 

extraction, fires and hunting, factors that have decreased the extent of suitable habitat and 

ecological requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) available to animal species (Zullini, 2003; Begon 

et al., 1996). 

Small mammals 


low, reflecting the high incidence of deforestation in this reserve (see Human Resource-Use 

and Local Management section) and the open and dry habitat resulting from it (Zullini, 2003; 

Begon et al., 1996). The dominance of the Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) and the 

Spiny mouse (Acomys spinosissimus), together making up more than half of the total capture, 

and the recording of the Pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides) also reflect the type of habitat 

present, i.e. open canopy forest, scrub and thicket. One species of the White-toothed shrew 

(Crocidura sp.) was found. Shrews found in the Coastal Forests of Tanzania are poorly 

known and already there are five unidentified species that have been collected from the 

Coastal Forests of Tanzania, each from a separate forest (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). It is 

possible that the shrews collected from this survey will yield interesting results once 

taxonomic verification is accomplished. 

Large mammals 

For the larger mammals a moderate number of species (11) were recorded and no one species 

was recorded more than twice. The low number of individuals recorded for all species was 

probably caused by a significant degree of disturbance in this reserve (see Human Resource- 

Use and Local Management section), a factor that has decreased the extent of suitable habitat 

and ecological requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) necessary to support larger populations. In this 

reserve the forest dependent Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis - conservation dependent) 

was found, together with several species such as the Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus 

- CITES II) which, although not forest dependent, often favour a forest environment. Due to 

their habitat requirements these species are likely to be locally threatened from further 

encroachment and degradation of the reserve. Otolemur crassicaudatus was found to frequent 

cultivated land, where it feeds on fruit, indicating a possible adaptation to the change in 

habitat. Predators such as the Lion (Panthera leo – Vulnerable, CITES II) and the Spotted 

hyena (Crocuta crocuta - conservation dependent) are able to utilise different habitats and to 

97



adapt well to changes in their environment, and so are likely to be less threatened by further 

forest degradation. Nevertheless, any reduction in habitat will reduce the visits of these 

animals as shelter and populations of predated animals are likely to decrease. Further research 

needs to be conducted to assess the extent of reliance of large mammals and predators on 

Makonde Scarp II proposed FR. Signs from the Leopard (Panthera pardus) were recorded, 

and the species was reported by local inhabitants to inhabit sheltered areas near the cliff face 

of the scarp and to be a permanent resident of this reserve. P. pardus is listed on CITES 

Appendix I (2005) as a species threatened with extinction and therefore excluded from 

international trade, and if its presence in this site will be confirmed then its protection will be 

necessary. 

Birds 

Despite the removal of the forest cover in large portions of the reserve a moderate number of 

species (64) was recorded. This is a consequence of the proximity of this reserve to the ridges 

of the Makonde Scarp, where the topographic variation of the escarpment creates a variety of 

habitats and nesting sites for birds. However, the extensive removal of forest cover may be 

responsible for the low record of forest dependent species. Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 

constitutes part of the Newala District Coastal Forests IBA (TZ053 - category A1) (BirdLife 

International, 2005) because of the presence of more than a threshold population of the 

Southern banded snake eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus), a species categorized by the IUCN Red 

List (2004) as near threatened. C. fasciolatus was recorded in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 

during this study together with the Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), a species listed on 

CITES Appendix I (2005), confirming the classification of this reserve as part of the TZ053 

IBA. 

Reptiles 

The low number of species (7) and individuals (7) captured may be a consequence of the 

rapid nature of this study, which did not permit comprehensive collection of data during the 

wet season and the study of fossorial species (Broadley and Howell, 2000). Conducting 

further research in the wet season may reveal more comprehensive results. However, low 

numbers may also reflect the largely open and dry environment that has resulted from high 

levels of encroachment, timber extraction and burning in this reserve (Zullini, 2003; Begon et 

al., 1996) (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management section). A sub-species of the 

Savanna vine snake, characterised by high ventral counts and a black and pink Y-shape on the 

head, was recognised to be Thelotornis capensis oatesi 11 . This species has been previously 

recorded to occur across the Tanzanian border at Mbala, Zambia (Spawls et al., 2002). If the 

identification is confirmed then this record represents the first one for Tanzania and a range 

extension for this species. A species of skink sighted in this reserve was recognised to 

resemble either the Rainbow Skink (Trachylepis margaritifer) or the Five-lined skink 

(Trachylepis quinquetaeniata). T. margaritifer is known to occur in central and south-eastern 

Tanzania (Spawls et al., 2002). T. quinquetaeniata has not been recorded south of the border 

with Kenya, apart from a record in Kwa Mtoro (north of Dodoma) (Spawls et al., 2002), and 

its record in the Mtwara Region would therefore represent a range extension. Further research 

is necessary to ascertain this. 

Amphibians 

The number of species (2) and individuals (4) captured was low, reflecting the open and dry 

nature of most of the reserve (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). Conducting further research 

in the wet season may however reveal more comprehensive results. The ‘true’ toad 

Mertensophryne micranotis is a strictly endemic species restricted to the Eastern Arc lowland 

11 The identification of Thelotornis capensis oatesi was carried out by Michele Menegon (Appendix 1). We are 

awaiting taxonomic confirmation. 

98



and the Coastal Forest Mosaic of south-eastern Kenya and eastern Tanzania, occurring mainly 

in closed-canopy forest, but also in thicket and miombo woodland within the mosaic 

(Conservation International, 2005; IUCN et al., 2004). This bufonidae species was found in 

an area of regenerating Brachystegia forest, demonstrating that it can also survive in modified 

secondary habitats, as long as there is good cover necessary to provide moisture rich crevices 

where eggs are laid and larvae develop (Howell et al., 2000). Arthroleptis stenodactylus was 

recorded in one of the small patches of undisturbed Brachystegia forest remaining. This 

species favours a forested habitat as it relies on the presence of damp soil and loose leaf 

mould protected from shrub and canopy cover to lay its eggs (Howell, 1993), so it may 

become locally threatened by further loss of forest habitat. 

Butterflies 

For the butterflies there was a low number of species (8) and individuals captured (11), none 

of which are forest dependent. This may be a consequence of the disturbed, open and dry 

nature of the vegetation covering most of this reserve (Kielland and Cordeiro, 2000) (see 

Flora section). 


The encroachment of agriculture within the reserve boundaries was the most severe form of 

disturbance recorded; it is not possible to walk far in the proposed reserve without crossing 

cultivated land. Most of the farmers that were moved out when the area was proposed to be a 

reserve are now going back to their shambas (cultivated land), in part because of the failure of 

the government to fully compensate their relocation in new houses and farms (Baldus et al., 

2004). The top of the escarpment has been largely transformed from Brachystegia forest into 

cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) plantations, while rice and maize are grown on the 

slopes and the plain at the foot of the escarpment. Large areas of the slopes are also covered 

by Thicket, indicating that shifting agriculture is common practice and that undisturbed areas 

are likely to become threatened in the future. 

Notable about the disturbance patterns in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR was the high 

number of cut timbers (almost 20% of all recorded timbers). The extensive exploitation of 

four preferred species (Afzelia quanzensis, Milicia excelsa, Pterocarpus angolensis and P. 

rotundifolius) has resulted in the complete absence of large individuals of these species from 

the proposed reserve. The level of pole cutting was also high (almost 30%), which may 

indicate a high level of building activity in the area. 

Bee farming was common here. When material for the construction of beehives is obtained in 

a sustainable way, apiculture has been found to be ecologically preferable to harvesting of 

wild honey, as the latter often results in the cutting of the tree to access the hive (Wegner, 

2003). However, bee farming in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR may also result in tree death, 

as bark is here used for the construction of beehives and is extracted by ringing and often 

killing the trees. Since the most desirable piece of bark is a complete circle and as larger 

pieces of bark result in larger hives, large trees are targeted (suggestions to mitigate this 

impact are discussed in the Conservation Recommendations section). Brick making (which 

uses large volumes of wood to produce heat) was also found to be a common practice, while 

hunting was signalled by the presence of several small traps for birds and small mammals in 

the reserve area. 

Residents were found to be unconcerned about the reduction in the size of the forest and the 

potential that this has for increasing erosion rates and the risk of landslides. 

99



15. MKUNYA RIVER PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Status 


Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature: 

Rainfall: 

Soil type 






Newala district. The forest starts at the Mkunya River spring below 

Mkunya Village and runs east parallel to the border alongside the 

Ruvuma River. It comprises of the base and part of the escarpment 

of the Makonde Scarp. There are several villages nearby including 

Chiunjila to the west of the water source and Chikwedu, Mapili, 

Nanguruwe and Magunchila along the base of the escarpment. 

4,797.3ha 

88-250m asl 


Min: 21 o C, Max: 39 o C (recorded 7-11 May and 16-20 May, dry 

season) 

0mm (recorded 7-11 May) and 5.1mm (recorded 16-20 May) 


Eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest and Riverine forest 

The reserve was proposed for protection of the water spring and 

prevention of soil erosion on the escarpment. Encroachment of 

cultivated land (especially cashew plantations), pole cutting and 

hunting occur. 

The area was first planned to be a forest reserve in 1976 but has not 

yet been gazetted as a full reserve. Local elders from adjacent 

villages fine people who make illegitimate use of the land, but there 

is no effective capacity nor sufficient resources to enforce legislation 

and regulations. 

100



Maps Topographical map: Newala sheet 306/4 and Mnavira sheet 318/2, 

East Africa 1:50 000, 1968. From the Institute of Mapping, Dar es 

Salaam (from Series Y742, Edition 1-TSD). 

METHODS 

Survey work was conducted in two study sites over two periods of seven days each (5-11 and 

14-20 May 2005). Twenty-one vegetation plots (8400m 2 ), 21 regeneration plots (84m 2 ), and 

two zoosites were carried out, incorporating 400 sherman trapping nights, 100 bucket trapping 

nights, 17.5 man/hours of timed herpetofauna searches, 39 bat mist net/hours, 38.5 man/hours 

of bird mist netting, 16 man/hours of timed bird searches, 30 canopy trapping days, 10.5 

butterfly sweep net/hours, seven animal sign transects (totalling 28,000m 2 ), seven disturbance 

transects (totalling 70,000m 2 ), and opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 to 8 for GPS 

coordinates and work site descriptions). Ornithological work was conducted on separate days 

(22-27 June 2005). Habitat notes were taken for vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and 

zoological trap sites (Appendix 6). Structured interviews and open discussions were 

conducted with four elders from the villages of Chihange and Chinunjila. For a detailed break 

down of survey effort see Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In the Mkunya River proposed FR 102 plant species were recorded from 22 families. Eleven 




One-hundred and seventy-six faunal species were found within 69 families. Of these species 

5% are forest dependent, less than 1% are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or 

Eastern Arc Mountains and 1% are listed as threatened by IUCN (2004) and/or CITES (2005) 

(Table 15-a; Appendices 13-17). 

101



Table 15-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Mkunya River proposed FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


endemic 

species: 



threatened 

species: 


Mammals 18 29 3 26 0* 1 - 

Birds a 36 103 2 101 0 0 - 

Reptiles 6 12 0 12 0 0 - 


Butterflies 4 24 4 20 1 0 - 

Total for 69 176 9 167 1 2 - 

animals 

Flora b 22 102 0 93 11 3 9 


PT 

species i 

Combined 

Total 

91 278 9 260 12 5 9 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 



FLORA 

In Mkunya River proposed FR two homogeneous vegetation stands were observed and 

identified as Brachystegia forest and Riverine forest intercepted by cultivated and fallow 

farmland. 



plots and 19 species were recorded in 17 regeneration plots. The remaining 39 species were 

recorded from opportunistic collection and observation. More specifically, 42 trees, 46 

shrubs, eight herbs, and six grasses were recorded (Appendix 9). A value of 2.80 was 

calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 


Within the Brachystegia forest two genera (Brachystegia and Scorodophloeus) from the 

Caesalpinioideae family dominated the canopy level. Brachystegia spiciformis occurred in 

59% of the plots and ranked as the most dominant species (Table 15-b). 

102





layer in Brachystegia forest in Mkunya River proposed FR 

Family Genus Species F % RF Rank No. 

(Domina dominance indv. 

nce) 

in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 


FABACEAE (CAES) Scolodophloeus fischeri 5 29 2 8 4 2 


BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon 1 6 4 1 1 5 


Total 1 2 3 5 51 27 

Total 2 18 27 39 191 100 



In the sub canopy layer, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon was the most dominant species 

occurring in 77% of the plots (Table 15-c). 

Table 15-c Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, relative 

abundance, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant 

species of the sub canopy layer in Brachystegia forest in Mkunya River proposed FR 


(Dominan dominance 

ce) 


indv. 

in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 


COMBRETACEAE Combretum paniculatum 5 30 2 8 4 2 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum hereroense 3 18 3 7 4 3 

ANACARDIACEAE Sclerocarya birrea 3 18 3 4 2 4 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus bussei 1 6 4 2 1 5 

Total 1 4 4 5 76 40 

Total 2 18 27 39 191 100 



Within the Riverine forest relatively few tree species were recorded. These were Barringtonia 

racemosa, Bridelia micrantha and Hyphaene compressa, each occurring in only 6% of the 

plots sampled (Table 15-d). 

103



Table 15-d Species frequency, dominance, rank dominance, no. of individuals, relative 

abundance, % relative abundance and rank relative abundance for the top five most abundant 

species of the canopy layer in Riverine forest in Mkunya River proposed FR 


(Domina 

nce) 

Rank 

dominance 


indv. in 

all plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 

LECYTHIDACEAE Barringtonia racemosa 1 6 1 2 50 1 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia micrantha 1 6 1 1 25 2 

PALMAE Hyphaene compressa 1 6 1 1 25 2 

Total 1 3 3 3 4 100 

Total 2 18 27 39 191 100 




In the canopy layer 22% of the trees recorded were individuals from the genus Brachystegia 

(B. spiciformis, B. microphylla and B. longifolia). Scorodophloeus fischeri constituted about 

4% (Table 15-b). In the sub canopy layer Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (29%), Combretum 

paniculatum (4%) and Combretum hereroense (4%) were the most abundant species (Table 

15-c). 

In the Riverine forest Barringtonia racemosa (50%), Hyphaene compressa (25%) and 

Bridelia micrantha (25%) were the most abundant species found in the canopy layer. 


layers of both forest types, the sub canopy layer contributed a slightly higher number of 

individuals (57%) than the canopy layer (43%) to the overall number of adult trees in the 

reserve. 


In Mkunya River proposed FR two homogeneous vegetation stands were observed, whose 

species composition and relative abundance confirmed to be eastern African coastal 

Brachystegia forest and eastern African coastal Riverine forest (Clarke and Robertson, 

2000). 

The species composition of the Brachystegia forest was characterised by Brachystegia 

spiciformis as the dominant and most abundant species in the canopy layer, contributing 16% 

of all individuals, accompanied by Scorodophloeus fischeri, Brachystegia longifolia, Bombax 

rhodognaphalon and Brachystegia microphylla. In the sub canopy layer Diplorhynchus 

condylocarpon was the dominant and most abundant species, contributing 29% of all 

individuals, accompanied by Combretum paniculatum, Combretum hereroense, Sclerocarya 

birrea and Lonchocarpus bussei. Other species occurring in the canopy layer included 

Millettia stuhlmannii, Tamarindus indica, Brachystegia utilis, Sterculia appendiculata, 

Pericopsis angolensis and Pterocarpus angolensis, and in the sub canopy layer we also found 

Afzelia quanzensis, Swartzia madagascariensis and Albizia versicolor. The shrub layer was 

observed to be comprised of saplings of the dominant species from the canopy and sub 

canopy layers, and shrub species such as Salacia madagascariensis, Strychnos usambarensis, 

Strychnos madagascariensis, Ochna holstii, Catunaregam spinosa, Vangueria infausta and 

various species from the genus Combretum. The herbaceous layer was observed to be 

comprised of grasses, particularly Sporobolus sp., Themeda triandra, Digitaris sp., and 

Panicum maximum. Herbs found in association with these grasses were Dicoma tomentosa, 

Hypoestes sp., Jasminum sp., Vernonia sp. and species from the genus Bidens. These herbs 

104



were recorded as dominant on the edge of cultivated land and open areas where grasses have 

been removed by fire or cultivation. 

The species composition of the Riverine forest included Barringtonia racemosa, Hyphaene 

compressa and Bridelia micrantha as the most abundant species in the canopy layer. Other 

species recorded were Sorindeia madagascariensis in the canopy layer, Vepris lanceolata and 

Nuxia congesta in the shrub layer, and the liana Paullinia pinnata in the ground layer. 


Eleven of the species recorded were found to be endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato, 

including Commiphora zanzibarica, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Cynometra gillmanii, 

Scorodophloeus fischeri, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca tettensis, Lamprothamnus 

zanguebaricus, Rytigynia decussata, Mimusops schliebenii, Sterculia appendiculata and 

Grewia forbesii (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) (Appendix 10) accounting for 11% of all 

species recorded (Figure 8). 

11% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

89% 


widespread in Mkunya River proposed FR 

Twelve among the species recorded are threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened 

(Gereau and Luke, 2006), amounting to 12% of the total number of species recorded (Table 

15-e). 

Table 15-e Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Mkunya River proposed FR 

Family Species name Conservation Habit 

status 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora zanzibarica PT T 

EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes natalensis PT T 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cynometra gillmanii CR T 

FABACEAE (CAES) Scorodophloeus fischeri PT T 


FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia impressa PT T 

FLACOURTIACEAE Xylotheca tettensis PT S 

MORACEAE Mesogyne insignis VU S/T 



RUBIACEAE Rytigynia decussate PT S 





105



FAUNA 



Mammals 



For the small mammals 10 species representing five families were recorded in total from 12 

captures (not counting one recapture) that took place during 400 sherman trapping nights and 

100 bucket pitfall trapping nights. Common species found were the Multimammate rat 

(Mastomys natalensis) and the Spiny mouse (Acomys spinosissimus), which made up 58% of 

all captures. Other species included the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei), the Narrowfooted 

woodland mouse (Grammomys dolichurus) and two species of the White-toothed 

shrew (Crocidura sp.) (Appendix 18). All species were recorded within Riverine forest with 

the exception of Acomys spinosissimus and Mastomys natalensis, which were recorded in 

Legume-dominated dry forest. 

Two species of bat, the Evening bat (Scotoecus hirundo) and Wahlberg’s fruit bat 

(Epomophorus wahlbergi), were recorded from nine captures that took place during 39 bat 

mist net/hours carried out in a patch of Riverine forest along the Mkunya River. Eight of these 

captures were individuals of Scotoecus hirundo. 


transects totalling 7km, through opportunistic observations and from local knowledge. 

Species recorded included the Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus), the Natal duiker 

(Cephalophus natalensis), the Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus), the Chequered elephant 

shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei), and the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus). Signs 

of digging from the Bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) were commonly recorded. None of 

the other species were observed more than twice during the survey. The Moloney’s monkey 

(Cercopithecus mitis sub sp.) was observed in two valleys where Legume-dominated forest is 

dense and relatively undisturbed, with up to five individuals being sighted on two separate 

occasions in one valley. The discovery of footprints of the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) 

confirms local knowledge of the presence of this species. From structured interviews it was 

also learnt that the Leopard (Panthera pardus), Lion (Panthera leo) and Jackal (Canis 

adustus) occasionally pass through the proposed forest reserve. 


Three species were found to be forest dependent, although many species often frequent and 

some favour a forested habitat. None of the species recorded are strictly endemic to the 

Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, yet one species has a restricted distribution in 

eastern Africa. Two species are listed as threatened (Table 15-f). 

106



Table 15-f Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Mkunya River 

proposed FR 


Cercopithecus mitis (sub Moloney’s monkey F - - 

sp.) 

Rhynchocyion cirnei Chequered - - VU 

elephant shrew 

Paraxerus palliatus Red bellied coastal F - - 

squirrel 

Beamys hindei Lesser pouched rat - EACF, a few other VU 

forest types in 

Kenya and 

Tanzania 






Birds 


A combination of mist netting (38.5 hours) and timed bird searches (16 hours) detected 103 

species from 36 families, making this reserve the most bird species rich one surveyed during 

this study. Mist netting yielded 16 species from a total of 41 captures. Species included the 

African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the Pale batis (Batis soror), the Grey-crested helmet 

shrike (Prionops poliolophus), the Red-headed bluebill (Spermophaga ruficapilla) 12 , the 

Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei), the African barred owlet (Glaucidium 

capense) and the Yellow weaver (Ploceus subaureus) (Appendix 14). Mist netting in Riverine 

forest yielded a high number of understory species (14), while mist netting in the 

Brachystegia forest of the slopes yielded only 2 species. 


Two forest dependent species, the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis) and the Bluemantled 

crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas), were found. No strictly endemic or 

threatened species were found. 

Reptiles 


Twelve species of reptiles representing six families were recorded from 12 captures that took 

place during 100 bucket pitfall trapping nights and 17.5 man/hours of herpetological searches. 

Species included the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus), the Snouted night adder (Causus 

defilippii), the Speckled green snake (Philothamnus semivariegatus), the Striped skink 

(Trachylepis varia) 13 and the Mozambique Agama (Agama mossambica) (Appendices 15 and 

18). 

12 The field identification of Prionops poliolophus and Spermophaga ruficapilla was undertaken by Jacob Kiure 

(Appendix 1). 




107




No species were found to be forest dependent, although several species often frequent and 

some favour a forested habitat. No strictly endemic or threatened species were recorded. 

Amphibians 


Eight species of amphibians representing five families were recorded from 28 captures that 


searches. Species included Arthroleptis stenodactylus, A. xenodactyloides, Hemisus 

marmoratus, Afrixalus fornasinii, Leptopelis flavomaculatus, Xenopus muelleri, Ptychadena 

anchietae and Phrynobatrachus sp. (Appendices 16 and 18). 


No species were found to be forest dependent or strictly endemic. Arthroleptis 

xenodactyloides is listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004). 

Butterflies 


Twenty-four species of butterfly representing four families were recorded from 86 captures 

that took place during 30 canopy trap trapping days and 10.5 sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). 

The Blue spotted charaxes (Charaxes citherion kennethi) accounted for 17% and the Silver 

striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti) for 10% of all captures. 


Three species from the family Nymphalidae are forest dependent: the Silver striped charaxes 

(Charaxes lasti lasti), the Flame bordered charaxes (C. protoclea azota) and the Gold banded 

forester (Euphaedra neophron littoralis). One species, Charaxes lasti lasti, is restricted to the 

closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of Kenya and 

Tanzania. No butterfly species were found to be threatened. 


None of the faunal species recorded in Mkunya River proposed FR is endemic to the Coastal 

Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 


Through disturbance transects, levels of pole cutting, fire damage, path densities and other 

forms of disturbance were recorded. Out of one-hundred and forty 50m sections, seven (5%) 

were disturbance free. One-hundred and thirty-one (94%) were subject to pole/timber cutting, 

57 (41%) showed signs of fire disturbance, three (2%) had been cultivated and 11 (8%) had 

one or more paths cutting through. No traps were located (Figure 9). Information on resource 

use is summarised in Table 15-h. 

108




140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Cultivation 



disturbance along transects in Mkunya River proposed FR 


All valleys that run into the escarpment have been planted with cashew trees (Anacardium 

occidentale) and some are inhabited, while the slopes are free of cultivation. 


Open discussions with residents and disturbance transects determined that 15 species are 

harvested for timber (Table 15-h). Thirteen species were observed to be cut to supply poles. 

Five pit sawing sites were observed in the proposed reserve, three of which had been recently 

active. 


The survey indicated that 20% of all poles and 2% of all timbers were cut. No new cut poles, 

timbers or large timbers were found and no large timbers were found to have been cut (Table 

15-g). 

Table 15-g Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Mkunya River proposed FR 

Total 

transect 

length in 

m 

Total no. 


sampled 

Total no. 


RA) 


indiv. 

Average 

live indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 



indiv. 

Average 

dead indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) 


indiv. 

Poles 7,000 4774 3640(76) 520 164 (3) 23 970 (20) 139 

Timbers 7,000 1027 919 (90) 131 83 (8) 12 25 (2) 4 

Large 

timbers 

7,000 20 20 (100) 3 0 (0) 0 0 (0) 0 

Average 

cut indiv. 

per ha 

Fuel wood 

Residents listed 18 species used for fuel wood (Table 15-h). Cashew nut (Anacardium 

occidentale) trees have been planted to provide fuel wood and fuel wood collection was said 

to mainly occur in small wooded patches outside the FR. 


Sixteen species were identified by the inhabitants as important sources of materials to make 

such products as cooking utensils, tool handles and ropes (Table 15-h). 

109




Eleven species were said to be used for food (Table 15-h). The roots of Dioscorea hirtiflora 

were found to be an important source of carbohydrate exploited for sale on local markets. 


During the survey 23 species were said by residents to provide medicine (Table 15-h 

Appendix 11). 

Table 15-h Plant species utilised in Mkunya River proposed FR as identified by field 




wood 



X X X X 

senegalensis 


X 

buchananii 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia arborea X 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia X 

acuminata 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia X X X 

obtusifolia 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax 

X 

rhodognaphalon 


COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis 

X X 

myrtifolia 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera 

X 

boiviniana 

DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea hirtiflora X 

EBENACEAE Diospyros kirkii X X 


FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia 

X X X 

petersiana 



spiciformis 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cynometra 

X 

X 

gillmanii 


X 

verrucosa 


globiflora 




X 

X 

thonningii 

FABACEAE (CAES) Swartizia 

X 


FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia brevispica X 



110




wood 


X 

bussei 


X X X 

capassa 

FABACEAE (PAP) Milletia 

X 

stuhlmannii 


X X X 

angolensis 


X X 

rotundifolius 

FABACEAE (PAP) Scorodophloeus X 

fischeri 



X X X X X 

cocculoides 


X X X 



X 

X 

usambarensis 


MORACEAE Mesogyne insignis X X X 



RUBIACEAE Crossopteryx 

X 

febrifuga 


RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum 

X 

chalybeum 


X 

natalense 


X X X 

appendiculata 

VERBENACEAE Vitex doniana X X X 


Hunting 

The populations of Chihanga, Mpilipili and Chikwedu villages stated that they do not practice 

hunting. 

Management 

Mkunya River proposed FR is only proposed, therefore no official management plan is in 

place and no policing of the reserve boundaries is conducted. Village committees were found 

to spend time educating the local inhabitants about the importance of the water source for the 

supply of fresh water to the nearby town of Newala and to surrounding villages. Anyone 

found to be encroaching on the reserve boundary or harvesting poles or timbers was said to be 

fined by the village committee. 

111



DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Much of Mkunya River proposed FR has been converted to farmland. As a consequence, the 

reserve is comprised of a narrow strip of closed-canopy forest on the steep sides of the scarp 

on the northern edge of the reserve, interrupted by cashew (Anacardium occidentale) 

plantations in the valleys. The little forest remaining is mainly comprised of Brachystegia 

forest at varying levels of degradation and regeneration. The understory of this vegetation is 

sparse, probably as a consequence of the steepness of the scarp slope. 

In some parts of the reserve the canopy trees have been removed, giving chance to sub canopy 

species such as Diplorhynchus condylocarpon to dominate. The presence of saplings of the 

dominant canopy and sub canopy species among shrub species in the shrub layer indicates 

that the forest is approaching a climax stage, where no species different from the dominant 

ones are colonising and replacing them (Schmidt, 1991). 

A small pocket of Riverine forest occurs along the Mkunya River. Here most of the big 

canopy trees have been removed by people who were previously residing within the forest, as 

shown by the presence of mango trees (Mangifera indica) and remains of buildings a few 

meters from the river. As a result, species characteristic of Riverine forest are missing and 

what can be seen is a regenerating form of this vegetation type. 

The species richness recorded in this forest reserve was relatively high (102 species) and can 

be attributed to high variations in topography (see Appendices 4 and 5) that allow species 

with differing micro-habitat requirements to colonise (George Sangu’s personal comms, 

2005). The Shannon diversity index (H¹=2.80) was also high, reflecting a community in 

succession (Magurran, 1988), where a relatively high number of species, and particularly 

understory species, can colonise the area and reach high rates of population growth following 

the removal of more competitive canopy trees (Ndangalasi, 1997). If this forest could be 

allowed to fully regenerate, and canopy and sub canopy species to achieve their potential 

population size, then the species diversity would be expected to decline. However, the 

succession process of the forest toward a climax stage is being regularly interrupted by 

cultivation (see Human-Resources Use and Local Management section). 

The high number of endemic and threatened plant species recorded, such as Cynometra 

gillmanii (Endemic and Critically Endangered) Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable) and Vitex 

zanzibarensis (Endemic and Vulnerable), shows that this reserve is of significant conservation 

value. These species are among the ones used by local inhabitants for construction and for 

making various tool handles. If human disturbance is not controlled the remaining patches of 

Brachystegia coastal forest and the threatened species they host risk to disappear. 

FAUNA 

In Mkunya River proposed FR the species composition within most taxa reflects extensive 

clearing for agriculture and the consequent dryness of the environment (Zullini, 2003; Begon 

et al., 1996). Yet, research carried out in small patches of Brachystegia forest on the slopes of 

the escarpment and in small pockets of Riverine forest yielded a relatively high number of 

species (176), including various forest dependent and endemic species. 

Small mammals 

The high sampling intensity applied to this reserve (400 trapping nights) revealed a species 

poor rodent community (6 captured species), reflecting the high incidence of deforestation 

for timber and agriculture in this reserve (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management 

section) and the open and dry habitat resulting from it (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). 

112



The majority of these species (five) were found in a patch of Riverine forest, where a larger 

number of ecological niches are available. The most commonly captured species was the 

Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis), which is a recurrent member of the rodent 

community in southern Tanzania (Kingdon, 1974). The Spiny mouse (Acomys spinosissimus) 

is known to favour dry areas (Kingdon, 2003) and was recorded in open Brachystegia forest. 

The Narrow-footed woodland mouse (Grammomys dolichurus) is known to primarily inhabit 

tall grasses and secondary growth (Kingdon, 1974), and its presence here reflects the fact that 

a large section of the reserve has been modified by agriculture and timber extraction. The 

Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei - near threatened) is a relic species endemic to a few forest 

types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the coastal and mountain forests of the EACF 

hotspot. Until very recently it was regarded as one of the rarest rodents in Africa 

(Groombridge, 1994) but it is now known to be more widespread (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). 

Two species of White-toothed shrew (Crocidura sp.) were also recorded. The shrews of the 

Coastal Forests of Tanzania are poorly known and already there are five unidentified species 

that have been collected from the Coastal Forests of Tanzania, each from a separate forest 

(Burgess and Clarke, 2000). It is likely that shrews collected from this survey will yield 

interesting results once taxonomic verification is accomplished. 

Bats 

Most captures were individuals of the Evening bat (Scotoecus hirundo), which may suggest 

that the trap site was in close proximity to a roosting site for this species. The Wahlberg’s 

fruit bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi) was instead found only in a very small patch of Riverine 

forest, which is its preferred habitat, and therefore it may be locally threatened. Both species 

are known to be forest dwellers (Cockle at al, 1998). 

Large mammals 

Although the overall number of large mammal species recorded (17) was relatively high, the 

overall number of individuals was low and no one species was recorded more than twice. This 

suggests that the populations of all species are suppressed due to a significant degree of 

disturbance in this reserve (see Human-Resources Use and Local Management section), a 

factor that has decreased the extent of suitable habitat and ecological requirements (e.g. prey, 

shelter) necessary to support larger populations. The reserve is very long and thin and in most 

places it is not wider than one kilometre, making any animal here vulnerable. The Moloney’s 

monkey (Cercopithecus mitis sub sp. - CITES II), the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus 

palliatus) and the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis - conservation dependent) are forest 

dependent species (Kingdon, 2003). In this reserve patches of forest are small and affected by 

varying levels of degradation, and therefore these specialists are locally threatened. Other 

species such as the Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus - CITES II) although not forest 

dependent often favour a forest environment, and are also likely to be locally threatened. The 

elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon sp.) observed in this reserve is characterised by dark grey and 

rufous fur with very indistinct chequers, and is likely to represent a sub-species of the 

Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei macrurus) rather than a range extension for 

the similar looking Black and rufous elephant shrew (R. petersi) (Rathbun, 2005; Corbet, 

1970). 14 The finding of R. cirnei, a species listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004), confirms the 

Coastal Forests to be a globally important area for this genus, closely followed by the Eastern 

Arc Mountains (Burgess et al., 2000a). Rhynchocyon species are forest-dwellers that rely on 

dense vegetation cover to produce the thick leaf litter they require for foraging and nest 

construction (Rathbun, 2005). R. cirnei may therefore become locally threatened should 

further habitat destruction ensue. Predators such as the Lion (Panthera leo - Vulnerable, 

CITES II) and the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta - conservation dependent) were reported to 

14 At present R. petersei has been recorded to occur only in the Eastern Arc Mountains and in the Coastal Forests 

as far as the Rufiji River. South of the Rufiji River and further down into Mozambique, R. cirnei has been recorded 

instead (Rathbun and Butinski, 2005; Corbet, 1970). 

113




utilise various habitats and to adapt well to changes in their environment, and so are likely to 



decrease. Further research needs to be conducted to assess the extent of reliance of large 

mammals and predators on Mkunya River proposed FR. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) was 

reported to occur here. This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (2005) as a species 

threatened with extinction and therefore excluded from international trade. If its presence in 

this site will be confirmed then its protection will be necessary. 

Birds 

Much of Mkunya River proposed FR has been deforested by timber extraction and 

encroachment of agricultural land (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management 

section). However, this reserve was the most bird species rich in this study, with 103 species 

being recorded. This high species richness is probably linked to the large size of this reserve 

(4,797 ha), which may compensate for the degree of habitat fragmentation occurring here, and 

its proximity to the ridges of the Makonde Scarp, where the topographic variation of the 

escarpment creates a variety of habitats and nesting sites for birds. The long period of time 

spent surveying this reserve may have also contributed to the figure recorded. Mist netting in 

Riverine forest yielded a high number of understory species in comparison to the 

Brachystegia forest of the slopes (see Results section). This may be due to the presence of 

denser understory in Riverine forest (Mlingwa et al., 2000) (see Flora section). The only 

forest dependent species recorded, the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis) and the Bluemantled 

crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas), were also found in the dense 

understory of Riverine forest. Other bird species where found to occur in both forest types. 

The Grey-crested helmet shrike (Prionops poliolophus - near threatened) has been previously 

recorded to inhabit open woodland and wooded grassland, including Acacia/Tarchonanthus 

vegetation (1,200-2,200m), in a restricted area encompassing south-western Kenya and 

northern Tanzania (BirdLife International, 2005). The Red-headed bluebill (Spermophaga 

ruficapilla) has been formerly reported to be a fairly common resident of primary forest and 

secondary growth in western Kenya and a scarcer one in north-eastern Tanzania. Records of 

these birds in Mkunya River proposed FR therefore indicate a range extension for these 

species. Mkunya River proposed FR constitutes part of the Newala District Coastal Forests 

IBA (TZ053 - category A1) (BirdLife International, 2005) because of the previously recorded 

presence of more than a threshold population of the Southern banded snake eagle (Circaetus 

fasciolatus), a species categorized by the IUCN Red List (2004) as near threatened. Even 

thugh C. fasciolatus was not recorded here during this study, the importance of Mkunya River 

proposed FR for birds is highlighted by its high bird species richness. 

Reptiles 

Species were mainly found in a small pocket of Riverine forest along the Mkunya River. The 

species richness recorded here (11 captured species) was the highest for this study and is 

probably linked to the presence of a water body as well as the high sampling intensity applied 

to this reserve (see Table 10-a). However, none of the species recorded are forest dependent 

or endemic. A species of skink sighted in this reserve was recognised to resemble either the 

Rainbow Skink (Trachylepis margaritifer) or the Five-lined skink (Trachylepis 

quinquetaeniata). T. margaritifer is known to occur in central and south-eastern Tanzania 

(Spawls et al., 2002). T. quinquetaeniata has not been recorded south of the border with 

Kenya, apart from a record in Kwa Mtoro (north of Dodoma) (Spawls et al., 2002), and its 

record in the Mtwara Region would therefore represent a range extension. Further research is 

needed to ascertain this. 

114



Amphibians 

For the amphibians, species were mainly captured within a small patch of Riverine forest 

along the Mkunya River. The high capture rate (eight species) was due to an intensive search 

around the spring, where dense vegetation and moist humus soil create an ideal breeding 

ground (Howell, 1993). Some of these species are water dependent and therefore likely to be 

affected by further reduction of the forest habitat along the river. The Yellow-spotted tree frog 

(Leptopelis flavomaculatus) and the Squeakers (Arthroleptis stenodactylus and A. 

xenodactyloides) were found in small remnant patches of Brachystegia forest and are forest 

dwelling species (Channing, 2001). These squeakers favour a forested habitat as they rely on 

the presence of damp soil and loose leaf mould protected from shrub and canopy cover to lay 

their eggs (Howell, 1993). Consequently, the Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides) 

is listed as Vulnevable (IUCN, 2004) and both species may become locally threatened by 

further loss of forest habitat. 

Butterflies 

An important butterfly community composed of 24 different species was found in a small 

pocket of Riverine forest along the Mkunya River, which contained a large proportion of the 

species recorded in this reserve and three forest dependent species from the Nymphalidae 

family: the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), the Flame bordered charaxes (C. 

protoclea azota) and the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron littoralis). Charaxes 

lasti lasti is particularly important as it is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the 

Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania (Congdon and Bampton, 2005). This 

indicates the importance of the Riverine forest for butterflies and the vulnerability of forest 

dependent species if habitat degradation is not halted. Butterfly species recorded in the 

remaining patches of Brachystegia forest on the steep sides of the scarp are non-forest 

dwellers, reflecting the sparse understory found in this vegetation type (see Flora section). 


Although disturbance transects on the slopes of the escarpment indicated a low level of 

disturbance, in fact the valleys cutting through the escarpment have been largely transformed 

into cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) plantations. The steep aspect of the scarp slopes, 

and hence its unsuitability for agriculture, may be the reason behind the persistence of the 

forest on them. 

Village committees were found to spend time educating the local inhabitants about the 

importance of the water source for the supply of fresh water to the nearby town of Newala 

and the surrounding villages, so promoting the conservation of the reserve. However, high 

levels of pole cutting and the presence of active and old pit sawing sites on the slope of the 

escarpment suggest that this is ineffective. 

115



16. MTINIKO PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Status 

Management body 

Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 






Mtwara Rural district. The proposed reserve lies directly southwest 

of Mtimiko village and just before Newata village, alongside the 

main road from Mtwara to Newala, and is known to local people as 

‘Shamba ya Bibi’. It is bordered along its northern edge by the valley 

of the Mutumnudi River. 

1,736ha 

170-210m asl 


Min: 17 o C, Max: 34 o C (recorded 11-15 June, dry season) 

Average 0mm (recorded 11-15 June, dry season) 


Eastern African coastal Mixed dry forest 

The reserve was proposed to protect timber resources and 

biodiversity. Fuel wood and pole harvesting occur on a subsistence 

level. Timber is extracted on a commercial basis. Parts of the reserve 

boundaries have been used for agriculture and hunting takes place. 

The area was first proposed to be a forest reserve in 1976 but has not 

yet been fully gazetted. There is no effective capacity, resources or 

field staff to enforce protected areas legislation and regulations. 

116



Maps Topographical map: Nanyamba sheet 307/2, East Africa 1:50 000, 



METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over seven days (9-15 June 2005). Twelve vegetation plots 

(4800m 2 ), 12 regeneration plots (48m 2 ), and one zoosites were carried out, incorporating 200 

sherman trapping nights, 50 bucket trapping nights, six man/hours of timed herpetofauna 

searches, 31.5 bat mist net/hours, 37.5 man/hours of bird mist-netting, 14 man/hours of timed 

bird searches, 15 canopy trapping days, six butterfly sweep net/hours, four animal sign 

transects (totalling 16,000m 2 ), four disturbance transects (totalling 40,000m 2 ), and 

opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 to 8 for GPS coordinates and work site 

descriptions). Habitat notes were taken for vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and 

zoological trap sites (Appendix 6). Structured interviews and open discussion were conducted 

with seven elders from the villages of Mtiniko and Mivata. For a detailed break down of 

survey effort see Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Mtiniko proposed FR 111 plant species were recorded from 27 families. Nine percent of 

the total number of floral species are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and 9% are 

listed as threatened (IUCN) or potentially threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006) (Table 16-a; 

Appendices 9 and 10). 

Eighty-eight faunal species representing 44 families were recorded. Of these species 16% are 




117



Table 16-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Mtiniko proposed FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


strictly 

endemic 

species: 



threatened 

species: 


Mammals 9 12 2 10 0 1 - 

Birds a 28 56 6 50 1 2 - 

Reptiles 2 2 0 2 0 0 - 


Butterflies 4 17 6 11 1 0 - 

Total for 44 88 14 74 2 3 - 

animals 

Flora b 27 111 0 101 10 1 9 

No. of PT 

species i 

Combined 

Total 

71 194 14 175 12 4 9 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 



FLORA 

In Mtiniko proposed FR one single homogeneous vegetation stand was observed, which was 

recognised to be coastal Mixed dry forest at various levels of degradation. 


A total of 111 species were recorded; of these 54 species were found in 12 vegetation plots 

and 18 species were recorded in 12 regeneration plots. Thirty-nine other species were 

recorded from opportunistic collection/observation made within the reserve. More specifically 

47 trees, 48 shrubs, five herbs, five lianas and six grasses were recorded (Appendix 9). A 

value of 2.78 was calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 


Within the canopy layer Hymenocardia ulmoides was dominant, occurring in 83% of the plots 

and therefore ranking as the most dominant species. Other species frequent in the canopy 

layer included Pteleopsis myrtifolia (50%) and Hymenaea verrucosa (42%) (Table 16-b). 

118





layer in Mixed dry forest in Mtiniko proposed FR 


(Domina 

nce) 

Rank No. 

dominance indv. 

in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 

HYMENOCARDIACEAE Hymenocardia ulmoides 10 83 1 24 10 1 


FABACEAE (CAES) Hymenaea verrucosa 5 42 3 11 5 3 



Total 1 3 4 5 52 22 

Total 2 23 35 41 241 100 



The sub canopy layer was dominated by Grewia mollis, which occurred in 100% of the plots, 

and Markhamia obtusifolia and Cola greenwayi, both occurring in 60% of the plots. 

Tetracera boiviniana was a frequent species, occurring in 50% of the plots (Table 16-c). 



layer in Mixed dry forest in Mtiniko proposed FR 


(Dominan 

ce) 

Rank No. 

dominance indv. in 

all plots 

TILIACEAE Grewia mollis 12 100 1 63 26 1 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia obtusifolia 7 60 2 12 5 4 

STERCULIACEAE Cola greenwayi 7 60 2 16 7 3 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana 6 50 3 33 14 2 

FABACEAE (CAES) Afzelia quanzensis 4 33 4 4 2 5 

Total 1 5 5 5 128 54 

Total 2 2 35 41 241 100 



%R.A Rank 

abundance 


In the canopy layer about 20% of the trees recorded were individuals from Hymenocardia 

ulmoides, Pteleopsis myrtifolia and Hymenaea verrucosa. In the sub canopy layer Grewia 

mollis, Tetracera boiviniana, Cola greenwayi and Markhamia obtusifolia were the most 

abundant species, together making up 52%. 


layers, the sub canopy layer contributed a higher number of individuals (71%) than the 


119




Mtiniko proposed FR is comprised of one single homogeneous vegetation stand, whose 

species composition and relative abundance confirmed to be eastern African coastal Mixed 

dry forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000; Lowe and Clarke, 2000). 

The species composition of the canopy layer was characterised by Hymenocardia ulmoides as 

the dominant and most abundant species, contributing 10% of all species recorded in this 

layer, followed by Pteleopsis myrtifolia and Hymenaea verrucosa as frequent species. Other 

species occurring in the canopy layer included Brachystegia spiciformis, Albizia gummifera, 

and Bombax rhodognaphalon. 

In the sub canopy layer Grewia mollis, Markhamia obtusifolia and Cola greenwayi were the 

most dominant species, while Grewia mollis, Tetracera boiviniana and Cola greenwayi were 

the most abundant, constituting up to 47% of all individuals. Other species found in this layer 

included Afzelia quanzensis, Diospyros kirkii, Lonchocarpus bussei, Sclerocarya birrea and 

Commiphora africana. 

The shrub layer was dense with shrub and liana species forming an impenetrable tangle. 

Shrubs species from various genera were observed, the most common being Cleistanthus 

schlechteri, Drypetes usambarica, Cola clavata, Octolobus spectabilis, Mesogyne insignis, 

Suregada zanzibarensis, Rinorea sp., Antidesma venosum, Antidesma membranaceum, 

Drypetes gerrardii, Memecylon sp., Rytigynia sp., Salacia madagascariensis, Ochna holstii, 

Strychnos madagascariensis, Strychnos usambarensis, Flacourtia indica, and Croton 

pseudopulchellus. Lianas were well represented with species such as Dalbergia armata, 

Grewia sp., Acacia brevispica, Dioscorea hirtiflora and an unidentified species of Dioscorea, 

Albizia amara and Harrisonia abyssinica. 

Herbs were few to absent with only Asparagus africanus, Dicoma tomentosa and occasionally 

Hypoestes sp. being recorded. In more open areas grasses such as Sporobolus sp., Panicum 

maximum, Digitaria sp., Themeda triandra and Heteropogon contortus were present. 


Ten of the species found are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato, including Monodora 

grandidieri, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Tetracera boiviniana, Cleistanthus schlechteri, 

Erythrina schliebenii, Rytigynia decussata, Cola clavata, Grewia lepidopetala, Rinorea 

elliptica and Vitex mossambicensis (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) (Appendix 10). This 

amounts to 9% of the total number of species recorded (Figure 10). 

9% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

91% 


widespread in Mtiniko proposed FR 

120



Ten among the species recorded are threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened 

(Gereau and Luke, 2006), amounting to 9% of the total number of species recorded (Table 16- 

d). 

Table 16-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Mtiniko proposed FR 


status 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon PT T 


EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes natalensis PT S/T 






STERCULIACEAE Cola clavata PT S/T 

VIOLACEAE Rinorea angustifolia PT S/T 




FAUNA 



Mammals 


A total of 12 mammals representing nine families were recorded (Appendix 13). 

For the small mammals five species representing three families were recorded from five 

captures that took place during 200 sherman trapping nights and 50 bucket pitfall trapping 

nights. The Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei) was the sole species captured (Appendix 18). 

No bats were recorded during 31.5 bat mist net/hours. 

For the larger mammals, seven species representing six families were recorded during sign 

transects totalling 4km, through one sherman trap capture (Paraxerus palliatus) and 

opportunistic observations, and from local knowledge. Species included the Chequered 

elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei), the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus), 

the Moloney’s monkey (Cercopithecus mitis sub sp.) and the South African galago (Galago 

moholi) 15 . Apart from Rhynchocyon cirnei, which was recorded at least twice every day for 

the duration of the survey, all other mammals were recorded only on one or two occasions. 

From structured interviews with local communities it was also learnt that Lion (Panthera leo) 

frequently passes through the forest. Lion vocalisations were also heard by the game guard 

one evening during the survey. 


121




Two species were found to be forest dependent. None of the species recorded are strictly 

endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, yet one species has a restricted 

distribution in eastern Africa. One species is listed as threatened (Table 16-e, Appendix 13). 

Table 16-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Mtiniko proposed FR 

Species Common name Forest Endemic 

Threatened 

dependent 

Cercopithecus mitis (sub sp.) Moloney’s monkey F - - 

Rhynchocyon cirnei 

Chequered - - VU 

elephant shrew 

Paraxerus palliatus 

Red bellied coastal F - - 

squirrel 








Birds 


This study detected 56 species from 28 different families. Mist netting (37.5 hours) yielded 15 

species from a total of 34 captures and the remaining 41 species were recorded from timed 

searches (14 hours). Among the species recorded were the African broadbill (Smithornis 

capensis), the Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei), the Reichenow’s batis 

(Batis reichenowi), the Yellow streaked greenbul (Phyllastrephus flavostriatus), the Fischer’s 

greenbul (P. fischeri) and the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi) (Appendix 14). A 

relatively large population of S. gunningi was found (five individuals). 


In this reserve five forest dependent species were found, including the Reichenow’s batis 

(Batis reichenowi), the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi), the Yellow streaked greenbul 

(Phyllastrephus flavostriatus), the Fischer’s greenbul (P. fischeri), the Blue-mantled crested 

flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis). 

Among the bird species recorded only Batis reichenowi is strictly endemic to the Coastal 

Forests, while Sheppardia gunningi has a restricted distribution in the Coastal Forests and a 

few other forest types in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, and Coastal Mozambique. S. gunningi 

also appears as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (2004). The Peregrine falcon (Falco 

peregrinus) is listed on CITES Appendix I (2005) as threatened with extinction and therefore 

excluded from international trade. 

Reptiles 


Two species of reptiles representing two families were recorded from 2 captures that took 

place during 50 bucket pitfall trapping nights and six man/hours of herpetological searches. 

Species were identified as the Mozambique agama (Agama mossambica) and the Specklelipped 

skink (Trachylepis maculilabris) 16 (Appendices 15 and 18). 




122





Amphibians 


One species of amphibian, the Grey tree frog (Chiromantis xerampelina), was recorded from 

a single capture that took place during 50 bucket pitfall trapping nights and six man/hours of 

herpetological searches (Appendices 16 and 18). 



Butterflies 


Seventeen species of butterflies representing four families were recorded from 183 captures 

that took place during 15 canopy trapping days and six sweep net/hours. The Golden piper 

(Eurytela dryope angulata) accounted for a substantial percentage of the captures (62%) 

(Appendix 17). 


Three species from the family Nymphalidae are forest dependent: the Silver striped charaxes 

(Charaxes lasti lasti), the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron littoralis) and a Glider 

species (Harma theobene blassi). One species, Charaxes lasti lasti, is endemic to the closedcanopy 

lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania. No 

butterfly species were found to be threatened. 


Of the total number of species recorded in Mtiniko Proposed FR 99% are widespread and 1% 

are endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains (Figure 11). 

1% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

99% 

Figure 11 Percentage of strictly endemic and widespread faunal species in Mtiniko proposed FR 


Disturbance transects were used to record the level of disturbance from encroachment, pole 

cutting, bark ringing, fire damage and paths. Of the eighty 50m sections that comprised the 

disturbance transects, 32 (40%) were found to be unaffected by disturbance. Thirty-one (39%) 

sections contained evidence of pole cutting, 12 (15%) contained one or more bisecting paths, 

six (8%) had been affected by fire, and snare ‘duiker’ traps were found in four (5%) sections. 

No evidence of bark ringing or cultivation was found (Figure 12). Information on resource 

use is summarised in Table 16-g. 

123




35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Traps 



disturbance along transects in Mtiniko proposed FR 


On the eastern, western and northern sides of the reserve the boundary was not demarcated. 

The residents stated that the size of the proposed reserve has increased since the boundary 

was demarcated. Our field observations did not support this view. Farms appeared to have 

been extended inside the proposed reserve. 


Residents stated that timber obtained from Albizia gummifera, Bombax rhodognaphalon, and 

Hymenaea verrucosa is used for house building. Two species, Afzelia quanzensis and Bombax 

rhodognaphalon were also said to be harvested for commercial use. Disturbance transects 

showed that poles are obtained from a range of different species (Table 16-g). Four separate 

pit sawing sites, at least one of which had been recently active (Appendix 8), were observed. 

In addition, three youths were encountered sawing timber for payment. 


The survey found that 2% of all poles and 1% of all timbers are cut. Eleven (12%) cut poles 

were fresh, and one (25%) fresh cut timber was observed. No cut large timbers were detected 

(Table 16-f). 

Table 16-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Mtiniko proposed FR 

Total Total no. Total no. Average Total no. Average Total no. Average 

transect of indiv. (and % RA) live indiv. (and % RA) dead indiv. (and % RA) cut 

length 

in m 

sampled of live indiv. per ha of dead indiv. per ha of cut indiv. indiv. 

per ha 

Poles 4,000 5015 4362 (87) 1091 561 (11) 187 92 (2) 23 

Timbers 4,000 534 490 (92) 122 40 (8) 10 4 (1) 1 

Large 

timbers 

4,000 6 5 (83) 1 1 (17) 0.25 0 (0) 0 

Fuel wood 

Residents stated that fuel wood comes from dead trees. Species are listed in Table 16-g. 

124




Observations and discussions revealed that tree cutting takes place to make cooking utensils 

and tool handles. Bark from several tree species was said to be used to make ropes, although 

no actual evidence of bark ringing was observed (Figure 12) (Table 16-g). 


Through discussions six species were found to be commonly used as food sources by the local 

community (Table 16-g). Digging for the roots of Dioscorea hirtiflora was extensive in 

Mtiniko as observed along disturbance transects. 


Ten plant species were said to be of medicinal value (Table 16-g, Appendix 11). 

Table 16-g Plant species utilised in Mtiniko proposed FR as identified by field observations, 

structured interviews and open discussion. Local names, where known, are presented in 

Appendix 9 


wood 

ANACARDIACEAE Sclerocarya birrea X 


X X X X 

senegalensis 


X 

buchananii 


obtusifolia 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax 

X 

rhodognaphalon 


X 

myrtifolia 


X 

boiviniana 


X 

hirtiflora 



FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia X X X 

spiciformis 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata X 


X 

verrucosa 


FABACEAE (PAP) Dalbergia 

X 

melanoxylon 


X X X 

capassa 

FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia dura X 

FLACOURTIACEA Flacourtia indica 

X 

E 

HYMENOCARDIAC Hymenocardia X X X X 

EAE 

ulmoides 


X 

X 

cocculoides 



X 

125




wood 


X 

usambarensis 

MORACEAE Milicia excelsa X X 



X 


RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum sp. X X 


X 

natalense 

STERCULIACEAE Cola greenwayi X X X 

VERBENACEAE Vitex doniana X 

Hunting 

Residents stated that no hunting takes place in the proposed reserve, yet traps for small 

mammal were detected in four (5%) of all transect sections (Figure 12). 

Management 

The present environmental committee does not have the capacity to be effective. Funds are 

not available for patrols and law enforcement. Forest officers from the District of Natural 

Resources were said to visit very infrequently. 

DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Mtiniko proposed FR is mainly covered by Mixed dry forest and experiences a relatively low 

degree of encroachment. The Mixed dry forest is characterised by a dense understory with the 

highest number of shrub and lianas species and individuals of all forest surveyed. Valuable 

species such as Bombax rhodognaphalon (Potentially Threatened), Antiaris toxicaria and 

Milicia excelsa (near threatened) commonly present in the canopy layer have been cut for 

timber and were represented by less than 25% individuals. Removal of canopy species has 

given way to sub canopy species to dominate in terms of relative abundance, the sub canopy 

layer contributing a higher number of individuals (71%) than the canopy layer (29%) to the 

overall number of adult trees in this reserve. 

Mtiniko proposed FR was found to have one of the highest plant species richness (111 

species). This reflects the relatively low degree of encroachment observed here and the 

natural character of Mixed dry forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). The Shannon diversity 

index for this forest reserve (H¹=2.78) was moderately high reflecting a community in 

succession (Magurran, 1988), where a relatively high number of species, and particularly 

understory species, can colonise the area and access enough resources for growth following 

the removal of more competitive canopy trees (Ndangalasi, 1997). If this forest could be 

allowed to fully regenerate, and canopy and sub canopy species to achieve their potential 

population size, then the species diversity would be expected to decline. However, human 

activities (particularly timber cutting) have continued to interrupt the regeneration of this 

forest from degraded to fully developed Mixed dry forest (Welch, 1960). These activities also 

threaten some important plant species present here, such as Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable). 

The hard and heavy wood of this tree is often selected and used by local inhabitants for 

building poles and tool handles (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management section). If 

the extraction of timber from Mtiniko proposed FR is not regulated this and other species may 

become locally rare. 

126



FAUNA 

Mtiniko proposed FR supports an important animal community characteristic of a relatively 

stable forest habitat, with twelve species between birds, mammals and butterflies being forest 

dependent. This reserve also has relatively high numbers of endemic and threatened species. 

Despite this the overall number of species recorded was low (88) when related to the size of 

the reserve and the sampling intensity. This suggests that the level of disturbance occurring in 

this reserve may be higher than recorded, as reported by local people during interviews and 

discussions. 

Small mammals 

Of the small mammals the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei - near threatened) appeared to 

be dominant, being the only species recorded. This is a relic species endemic to a few forest 

types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the coastal and montane forests of the EACF hotspot. 

Until very recently it was regarded as one of the rarest rodents in Africa (Groombridge, 1994) 

but it is now known to be more widespread. Findings from Mtiniko proposed FR seem to 

support this evidence, since this reserve holds a relatively large population of this species (see 

Results section and Appendix 18). Although not found during our survey it is likely that other 

species known to live along with Beamys in most habitats, such as the Multimammate rat 

(Mastomys natalensis) (Kingdon, 1974), are also present. 

Large mammals 

The low number of species (7) and individuals recorded in this reserve may be a consequence 

of a higher degree of disturbance than actually recorded (see Human-Resources Use and 

Local Management), a factor that may have decreased the extent of suitable habitat and 

ecological requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) necessary to support larger populations. The 

elephant shrew species (Rhynchocyon sp.) observed in this reserve is characterised by dark 

grey and rufous fur with very indistinct chequers, and is likely to represent a sub-species of 

the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei macrurus) rather than a range extension 

for the similar looking Black and rufous elephant shrew (R. petersi) (Rathbun, 2005; Corbet, 

1970). 17 The finding of R. cirnei, a species listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004), confirms the 

Coastal Forests to be a globally important area for this genus, closely followed by the Eastern 

Arc Mountains (Burgess et al., 2000a). Rhynchocyon species are forest-dwellers that rely on 

dense vegetation cover to produce the thick leaf litter they require for foraging and nest 

construction (Rathbun, 2005). R. cirnei may therefore become locally threatened should 

further habitat destruction ensue. According to Kingdon (1974), the forest dependent Redbellied 

coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus) observed here is likely to be the result of 

hybridization with the Smith’s bush squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi). More research would be 

needed to ascertain the levels of hybridization of these species. The Lesser bushbaby (Galago 


savanna grasslands of central southern Africa (Alvarado, 2000). The finding of this species in 

the Coastal Forest Mosaic of southern Tanzania therefore represents a range extension. 

Birds 

Mtiniko proposed FR is unique among the reserves studied because of the presence of 

avifauna of ecological and conservation importance. This is the only reserve where forest 

dependent species were recorded in large numbers, including the Reichenow’s batis (Batis 

reichenowi - Coastal Forests Endemic), the Yellow streaked greenbul (Phyllastrephus 

flavostriatus), the Fischer’s greenbul (Phyllastrephus fischeri), the African broadbill 

(Smithornis capensis), the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) and 

the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable). The dense understory of Mixed dry 



instead (Rathbun and Butinski, 2005; Corbet, 1970). 

127



forest, characterised by numerous lianas and shrubs, and the absence of severe disturbance 

from fire explain the presence of these forest dependent species and of a large number of 

understory species in general (15) (Sinclair and Ryan, 2003). Sheppardia gunningi has a 

restricted distribution in the Coastal Forests and a few other forest types in Tanzania, Kenya, 

Malawi, and Coastal Mozambique. This species also appears as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red 

List (2004), and the relatively high number of individuals captured indicates that Mtiniko 

proposed FR is an important area for this threatened species. Batis reichenowi also highlights 

the importance of Mtiniko proposed FR for birds, being the only Coastal Forests endemic bird 

species recorded in this study. B. reichenowi has been recognised as a separate species from 

the Forest batis (Batis mixta) by Mlingwa et al. (2000) and Baker and Baker (2002). 

However, IUCN (2004) and BirdLife International (2005) classify both species as B. mixta, 

and under this classification this bird is considered to be more widespread than if it was a 

separate species, and therefore of less interest. Mtiniko proposed FR constitutes the Mtwara 

District Coastal Forests IBA (TZ052 - category A1) (BirdLife International, 2005) because of 

the previously recorded presence of more than a threshold population of the Southern banded 

snake eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus), a species categorized as near threatened by the IUCN Red 

List (2004). Circaetus fasciolatus was recorded in Mtiniko proposed FR during this study, 

along with another IUCN threatened species (S. gunningi - Vulnerable) and a species listed by 

in CITES Appendix I (Falco peregrinus), confirming the classification of this reserve. If Batis 

reichenowi was to be confirmed as a separate species from B. mixta, then this IBA would 

become part of a Secondary or Full Endemic Bird Area (EBA) (Baker and Baker, 2002). 

Reptiles 

Despite the relatively extensive and dense Mixed dry forest found in Mtiniko proposed FR 

(see Flora section), the reptile species richness was very low (2 captured species). This figure 

may be a consequence of the rapid nature of this study, which did not permit comprehensive 

collection of data during the wet season and the study of fossorial species (Broadley and 

Howell, 2000). Further studies during the wet season would be likely to yield a higher number 

of species. The species captured were the Mozambique agama (Agama mossambica) and the 

Speckle-lipped skink (Trachylepis maculilabris), which are known to be widespread in southeastern 

Tanzania and adapted to various types of habitat (Spawls et al., 2002). 

Amphibians 

For the amphibians only one individual of the Grey tree frog (Chiromantis xerampelina) was 

collected, which is typical of wooded grassland (Channing 2001). Again, the low number of 

species recorded may reflect the hot and dry climate at the time of this study, and a survey 

during the wet season would probably yield more results. 

Butterflies 

For the butterflies the number of species recorded (17) was moderate when compared to the 

high number of individuals captured (183). This is a consequence of the fact that two thirds of 

the total number of individuals captured was represented by the Golden piper (Eurytela 

dryope angulata). This species is particularly attracted to banana bait used by this study 

(Larsen, 1996) so the number of captures may misrepresent its dominance within the butterfly 

community. The Mixed dry forest found in this reserve is characterised by a dense understory 

(see section on Flora), so constituting a good habitat for forest dependent species (Kielland 

and Cordeiro, 2000). Three forest dependent species were consequently observed: the Silver 

striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron 

littoralis) and a Glider species (Harma theobene blassi). Charaxes lasti lasti is particularly 

important as it is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal 

Forests of Kenya and Tanzania (Congdon and Bampton, 2005). 

128




Results suggest that disturbance in Mtiniko proposed FR is negligible, with one of the lowest 

levels of encroachment found among the reserves surveyed and only 2% of poles and 1% of 

timbers being cut. However, residents stated that boundary demarcation has not taken place in 

the past 20 years and therefore it is difficult to determine the real extent of encroachment into 

the reserve. Moreover, several recently active and old pit sawing sites were witnessed 

(Appendix 8) and 12% of the cut poles were freshly cut, suggesting that illegal off-take of 

timber may be ongoing and higher than the study indicates. Local people were also found to 

be paid to cut timber inside the proposed reserve, suggesting that timber extraction is an 

organised business. Further studies would be required to ascertain the level of timber cutting 

and the market destination of the timber. The most common species used for timber in the 

study area (Swartzia madagascariensis, Afzelia quanzensis, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Milicia 

excelsa) are either uncommon in this reserve or too small in size to yield timber. Thus 

different species, such as the potentially threatened Bombax rhodognaphalon, are currently 

exploited. 

From meetings with village representatives it transpired that the local attitude towards the 

protection of the forest is largely negative. This stems from the fact that no information has 

been forthcoming about why the government is protecting this forest — no water source is 

present here and the inhabitants feel that its size should be halved to increase the amount of 

farmland available to them. The high levels of pit sawing and a lack of value attached to the 

forest indicates that action to protect this reserve is more urgently needed than the low level of 

disturbance detected by this study suggests. 

129



17. MTULI HINJU PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

Status 


Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 






Mtwara Rural District. Between the villages of Mtuli Mjengua and 

Hinju, on the main road between Newala and Mtwara. 

296ha 

215-260m asl 



Average 0mm (recorded 17-19 June, dry season) 


Eastern African coastal Legume-dominated dry forest 

The area was proposed as a reserve to preserve a water source and to 

protect timber resources. Encroachment of cultivated land, pole 

extraction and hunting take place. 

The area was first planned to be a forest reserve in 1976 and is still 

yet to be fully gazetted. There is no effective capacity, in terms of 

staff or resources available, to enforce protected area legislation and 

regulations 




METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over five days (17-19 June 2005). Five vegetation plots 

(2000m 2 ), five regeneration plots (20m 2 ), and one zoosite were carried out, incorporating 120 

130



sherman trapping nights, 30 bucket trapping nights, four man/hours of timed herpetofauna 

searches, 15 bat mist net/hours, 24.5 man/hours of bird mist netting, seven man/hours of 

timed bird searches, nine canopy trapping days, two butterfly sweep net/hours, two animal 

sign transects of 1km and 900m respectively (totalling 7600m 2 ), two disturbance transects of 

1km and 900m respectively (totalling 19,000m 2 ), and opportunistic observations (see 

Appendices 2 to 8 for GPS coordinates and work site descriptions). Habitat notes were taken 

for vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and zoological trap sites (Appendix 6). Structured 

interviews and open discussions were conducted with three elders from the village of Hinju. 

For a detailed break down of survey effort see Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 122 plant species were recorded from 12 families. Six percent of 

the total number of floral species are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and 8% are 

listed as threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006) (Table 

17-a; Appendices 9 and 10). 

Eighty-five faunal species were found representing 49 families. Of these species 6% are forest 

dependent, 1% are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains and 

1% are listed as threatened by IUCN (2004) and/or CITES (2005) (Table 17-a; Appendices 

13-17). 

Table 17-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Mtuli Hinju Proposed FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


endemic 

species: 



threatened 

species: 


Mammals 8 11 1 10 0 1 - 

Birds a 32 56 2 54 0 0 - 

Reptiles 1 1 0 1 0 0 - 


Butterflies 5 11 2 11 1 0 - 

Total for 49 85 5 82 1 1 - 

animals 

Flora b 12 122 0 115 7 1 9 


PT 

species i 

Combined 61 207 5 197 8 2 9 

Total 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 



131



FLORA 

In Mtuli Hinju proposed FR one single homogeneous vegetation stand was observed, which 

was identified as Legume-dominated dry forest interspersed by cultivated and fallow 



A total of 122 species were recorded. Of these, 47 species were found in five vegetation plots 

and 18 species were recorded in five regeneration plots. The other 57 species were recorded 

from opportunistic collection made within the reserve. More specifically, 53 trees, 45 shrubs, 

ten herbs, seven lianas and seven grasses and sedges were recorded (Appendix 9). A value of 

2.21 was calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 


Pterocarpus angolensis and Albizia gummifera were dominant in the canopy layer, occurring 

in 100% and 75% of the plots respectively and ranking as the most dominant species. 

Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia was frequent, occurring in 50% of the plots (Table 17-b). 



layer in Legume-dominated dry forest in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 


(Domina 

nce) 

Rank No. 


in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 


FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia versicolor 3 75 2 5 11 2 

EUPHORBIACEAE Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia 2 50 3 4 9 3 


FABACEAE (PAP) Pericopsis angolensis 1 25 4 1 2 4 

Total 1 4 5 5 23 51 

Total 2 8 13 13 44 100 



The sub canopy layer was dominated by Combretum molle occurring in 75% of the plots. 

Other frequent species were Cassia petersiana and Crossopteryx febrifuga, both occurring in 

50% of the plots (Table 17-c). 

132





layer in Legume-dominated dry forest in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 



nce) 

in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum molle 3 75 1 7 16 1 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia petersiana 2 50 2 5 11 2 

RUBIACEAE Crossopteryx febrifuga 2 50 2 2 5 3 

FABACEAE (CAES) Swartzia madagascariensis 1 25 3 1 2 4 


Total 1 4 5 5 16 36 

Total 2 8 13 13 44 100 




In the canopy layer about 27% of the trees recorded were individuals from Pterocarpus 

angolensis, while Albizia versicolor contributed up to 11% and Pseudolachnostylis 

maprouneifolia about 9% (Table 17-b). In the sub canopy layer, Combretum molle, Cassia 

petersiana and Crossopteryx febrifuga were the top three species, together making up 32% 

(Table 17-c). 


layers, the canopy layer (59%) contributes a slightly higher number of individuals than the 

sub canopy layer (41%) to the overall number of adult trees in this reserve. 


Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is comprised of one single homogeneous vegetation stand; the 

species composition and relative abundance indicated this to be eastern African coastal 

legume-dominated dry forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

The species composition was dominated in the canopy layer by species from the Legume 

family, such as Pterocarpus angolensis (subfamily Papilionideae) and Albizia versicolor, 

(subfamily Mimosoideae). Other species occurring in the canopy layer included 

Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, which ranked as frequent, Pteleopsis myrtifolia, 

Pericopsis angolensis, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Hymenaea verrucosa and Hymenocardia 

ulmoides. The sub canopy layer was characterised by the presence of legume species such as 

Cassia petersiana, which ranked as frequent, and other species such as Swartzia 

madagascariensis, Lonchocarpus bussei, Sclerocarya birrea, Afzelia quanzensis and 

Combretum molle, a species often associated with legume species. 

In the shrub layer the most frequently encountered species were Mesogyne insignis, Suregada 

zanzibarensis, Rinorea elliptica, Antidesma venosum, Antidesma membranaceum, Memecylon 

sp. and Grewia lepidopetala. In more open areas species from the genus Combretum, and 

species such as Salacia madagascariensis, Ochna kirkii, Strychnos spinosa, S. 

madascariensis, S. mosambicensis, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Markhamia obtusifolia, 

Tetracera boiviniana, Flacourtia indica and Croton pseudopulchellus were observed. Lianas 

from various species were recorded, and the most common climbers encountered included 

Dalbergia armata, Grewia sp., Acacia brevispica, Capparis tomentosa, Dioscorea hirtiflora 

and a species of Dioscorea for which we are awaiting identification. 

133



The herbaceous layer was formed by grasses such as Sporobolus sp. and Themeda triandra, 

together with herbs such as Dicoma tomentosa, Jussiaea repens, Hypoestes sp., Asparagus 

africanus, Asparagus sp., Hibiscus sp., Vernonia sp., Commelina sp. and Jasminum sp. 


Seven of the species recorded were found to be endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato, 

including Tetracera boiviniana, Cleistanthus schlechteri, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca 

tettensis, Rytigynia decussata, Cola clavata and Grewia lepidopetala (Clarke and Robertson, 

2000) (Appendix 10) and this accounts for 6% of all species recorded (Figure 13). 

6% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

94% 


widespread in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 

Ten among the species recorded are threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened 


17-d). 

Table 17-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 


status 

CELASTRACEAE Maytenus mossambicensis PT S/T 


FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nilotica PT T 





RUBIACEAE Lasianthus kilimandscharicus PT S/T 


STERCULIACEAE Cola clavata PT S/T 




134



FAUNA 



Mammals 


A total of 11 mammals representing eight families were recorded (Appendix 13). 

For the small mammals five species representing three families were recorded from nine 

captures (excluding four recaptures) that took place during 120 sherman trapping nights and 

30 bucket pitfall trapping nights (Appendix 18). Species included the Spiny mouse (Acomys 

spinosissimus) and the Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis). Acomys spinosissimus 

made up 77% of all captures. 

No bats were recorded during 15 bat mist net/hours. 

For the larger mammals, six species representing six families were recorded during sign 

transects totalling 1.9km, opportunistic observations and from local knowledge. Species 

found included the Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the Chequered elephant shrews 

(Rhynchocyon cirnei). The South African galago (Galago moholi) 18 was found in patches of 

close-canopy forest in the valleys. No one species was recorded on more than two separate 

occasions. From interviews with local communities it was also learnt that the Lion (Panthera 

leo) occasionally passes through the forest. 


One species was found to be forest dependent and one is listed as threatened by the IUCN 

Red List (2004) (Table 17-e). No species were found to be strictly endemic to the Coastal 

Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. One species is listed as threatened. 

Table 17-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Mtuli Hinju proposed 

FR 

Species Common name Forest Endemic Threatened 

dependent 

Rhynchocyon cirnei Chequered elephant shrew - - VU 






Birds 


Fifty-six species from 32 families were recorded from 24.5 hours of mist netting and seven 

hours of timed bird searches. Mist netting yielded seven species from a total of 15 captures 

and opportunistic observations yielded 49 species. The White-faced whistling-duck 

(Dendrocygna viduata), the African pygmy-goose (Nettapus auritus), the African jacana 

(Actophilornis africanus) and the Black crake (Amaurornis flavirostris) were recorded on a 

large body of water. Other species found were the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis) and 

the Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei) (Appendix 14). 


135





crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas), were found. None of the species 

found are strictly endemic or threatened. 

Reptiles 


One species of reptile was recorded from one sighting that took place during 30 bucket pitfall 

trapping nights and six man/hours of herpetological searches. The sole species recorded was 

the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus) (Appendices 15 and 18). 



Amphibians 


Six species of amphibian representing three families were recorded from 10 captures that took 

place during 30 bucket pitfall trapping nights and six man/hours of herpetological searches. 

Species recorded included the Spotted reed frog (Hyperolius punticulatus), Fornasini’s spiny 

reed frog (Afrixalus fornasinii), the Yellow-spotted tree frog (Leptopelis flavomaculatus) and 

the Mozambique ridged frog (Ptychadena mossambica) (Appendices 16 and 18). 



Butterflies 


Eleven species of butterfly representing five families were recorded from 52 captures that 

took place during nine canopy trapping days and two sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). The 

Golden piper (Eurytela dryope angulata) accounted for 38% and the Common bush brown 

(Bicyclus safitza safitza) for 17% of these captures. 


Two species from the family Nymphalidae, the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti) 

and the Common sailor (Neptis alta), are forest dependent. One species, C. lasti lasti, is 

restricted to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of 

Kenya and Tanzania. 


None of the faunal species recorded in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is endemic to the Coastal 

Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 


Disturbance transects were used to record the level of disturbance from encroachment, pole 

cutting, bark ringing, fire damage and paths. Of forty 50m sections that were conducted, 17 

(43%) were free of disturbance. This was the highest percentage of undisturbed sections of 

any reserve. Seventeen (43%) contained evidence of pole cutting, six (15%) showed signs of 

fire, three (8%) contained one or more paths, two (5%) contained cultivated crops 

(predominantly maize) and one (3%) contained a trap (Figure 14). Resource use is 

summarised in Table 17-g. 

136




18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Cultivation Traps 



disturbance along transects in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 


Only two 50m sections were found to contain signs of cultivation (Figure 14). 


Disturbance transects revealed that three main species (Afzelia quanzensis, Milicia excelsa 

and Pterocarpus angolensis) are harvested for timber. Four other species are also used as 

identified by both disturbance transects and structured interviews. Transects indicated that 

poles are commonly obtained from 11 different species (Table 17-g). One example of recently 

active pit sawing was detected which targeted a large side branch from Afzelia quanzensis, 

therefore not causing the death of the tree (Appendix 8). Previously, Pterocarpus angolensis 

was harvested for sale but the village elders say that this practice has been discontinued. 


Approximately 6% of poles and 4% of timbers were found to have been cut, while no cut 

large timbers were detected. One fresh cut pole was detected (Table 17-f). 

Table 17-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 


transect of indiv. (and % live indiv. (and % RA) dead (and % cut indiv. 

length sampled RA) of per ha of dead indiv. per RA) of cut per ha 

in m 

live indiv. 

indiv. ha indiv. 

Poles 1,900 1176 1007 (86) 530 98 (8) 5 71 (6) 37 

Timbers 1,900 292 238 (81) 125 43 (15) 23 11 (4) 6 

Large 

timbers 

1,900 6 6 (100) 3 0 (0) 0 0 (0) 0 

Fuel wood 

Interviews revealed that fuel wood is usually collected from dead trees and cashew nut 

(Anacardium occidentale) trees. From transects there appeared to be much potential fuel 

wood in the area (15% of all timbers were found to be dead) (Table 17-g). 


Through discussion, several species were identified to be used for tool handles and ropes 

(Table 17-g). We did not observe any evidence of bark ringing throughout the reserve. 

137




Interviewees reported nine species as sources of food for the local communities (Table 17-g). 


Thirteen plant species were identified by the residents as commonly utilised for medicinal 

purposes (Table 17-g, Appendix 11). 

Table 17-g Plant species utilised in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR as identified by field observations, 

structured interviews and open discussion. Local names, where known, are presented in 

Appendix 9 


wood 


ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis X X X X 

APOCYNACEAE Landolphia buchananii X 

COMBRETACEAE Pteleopsis myrtifolia 

X 


DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea hirtiflora 

X 


FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia microphylla X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia petersiana X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Swartzia madagascariensis X X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia gummifera X X X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia versicolor X X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Dalbergia melanoxylon X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus bussei X X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus angolensis X X X X 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica X X X X 

HYMENOCARDIA Hymenocardia ulmoides X X X X 

CEAE 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos cocculoides X X X X X 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos madagascariensis X 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos usambarensis X 

MORACEAE Ficus sur X X 




RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum chalybeum X 

SAPOTACEAE Bequaertiodendron natalense X X X 

STERCULIACEAE Cola greenwayi 

X 

VERBENACEAE Vitex doniana X X X 

Hunting 

The people interviewed stated that no hunting takes place in the area. Our study located only 

one trap in the proposed reserve suggesting that hunting pressure is low. 

Management 

The local inhabitants of the area have an environmental committee that patrol the forest. A 

Forestry Officer visits the reserve once a month. It was not clear from structured interviews 

and open discussions why Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is regularly visited by a Forestry Officer 

while other studied reserves are not. 

138



DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is mainly comprised of eastern African coastal Legume-dominated 

dry forest and affected from a relatively low degree of encroachment and timber extraction. 

The canopy layer is dominated by species from the Legume family such as Pterocarpus 

angolensis (subfamily Papilionideae) and Albizia versicolor, (subfamily Mimosoideae). A 

variation can be observed within this vegetation type according to the topography and edaphic 

conditions occurring within the reserve. In the valley, where moisture content is relatively 

high and deeper soils have developed, the forest looks comparatively denser, with a high 

number of shrubs and large trees from the Fabaceae family. On the slopes of the ridge, where 

soils are thinner, the forest is less dense and species from the Papilionaceae family appear, 

particularly Pterocarpus angolensis. 

Mtuli Hinju proposed FR was found to have the highest floral species richness (122 species) 

encountered in this study, with important species such as Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable), 

Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca tettensis, Rytigynia decussata and 

Cola clavata (Endemic and Potentially Threatened), which is remarkable when considering 

the small size of this reserve (296ha). This species rich plant community probably reflects the 

relatively low levels of encroachment and timber extraction occurring in this reserve. The 

Shannon diversity index for this forest reserve (H¹=2.21) is relatively low in relation to the 

total number of species recorded. This reflects a stable community where the more 

competitive and productive species, particularly from the canopy and sub canopy layer, have 

reached high rates of population growth and have come to dominate (Magurran, 1988; Begon 

et al., 1996). 

Even though human disturbance was low when compared to other reserves studied, some 

degree of timber extraction and agricultural encroachment was observed. The small size of 

this reserve (296ha) and the low regeneration capacity of Legume-dominated forest mean that 

the continuity of this forest is particularly threatened by human disturbance (Ndangalasi, 

1997). The seeds of the Fabaceae trees are heavy and not dispersed by wind or animal. 

Moreover, these seeds do not remain viable in the seed bank for long, do not tolerate 

desiccation, require a forest microclimate (shade and high-humidity) to germinate and are 

pyrophobic (Clarke, 2000). Therefore, the complete clearance of this forest type drastically 

lowers the chances of its regeneration on the same sites, which then can become dominated by 

more easily dispersed pioneer tree species characteristic of mixed dry forest and mixed scrub 

forest (Clarke, 2000). It is therefore important to protect this vulnerable and unique plant 

community. 

FAUNA 

The major importance of Mtuli Hinju proposed FR lies in its wetland. This is a year-round 

source of water for many people in the surrounding area and hosts a number of bird, 

amphibian and reptile species. The overall low number of species (85) recorded was 

unexpected when considering that disturbance was amongst the lowest here, but may be 

reflective of the small size of this reserve (296ha) and low sampling intensity applied to it 

(Table 10-a). 

Small mammals 

For the small mammals the overall number of species captured was low (2), reflecting the 

small size of the reserve and the low sampling intensity applied to this reserve. The Spiny 

mouse (Acomys spinosissimus), a species that inhabits open and dry areas (Kingdon, 2006), 

was found to be dominant in areas of open grassland and at the edges of cultivated land in and 

139



around the reserve. Mastomys natalensis is known to frequent a variety of habitats and in 

Southern Tanzania is a recurrent member of the rodent community (Kingdon, 1974). 

Large mammals 

The small size of this reserve may limit its ability to support viable large mammal 

populations, and explains the low number of large mammal species (6) and individuals 

recorded (no one species was recorded on more than two separate occasions). The finding of 

the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei), a species listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 

2004), confirms the Coastal Forests to be a globally important area for this genus, closely 

followed by the Eastern Arc Mountains (Burgess et al., 2000a). Rhynchocyon species are 

forest-dwellers that rely on dense vegetation cover to produce the thick leaf litter they require 

for foraging and nest construction (Rathbun, 2005). R. cirnei may therefore become locally 

threatened should further habitat destruction ensue. The South African bushbaby (Galago 


savanna grasslands of central southern Africa (Alvarado, 2000). In Mtuli Hinju G. moholi was 

found in patches of closed-canopy forest, especially in the valleys, therefore indicating a 

range extension of this species in the Coastal Forests of southern Tanzania. The Striped bush 

squirrel (Paraxerus flavovittis) and the Mutable sun squirrel (Heliosciurus mutabilis) were 

found in their preferred habitat, i.e. in areas of open grassland and at the edges of cultivated 

land in and around the reserve. The Lion (Panthera leo - Vulnerable, CITES II) occasionally 

pass through the forest but its presence has allegedly reduced in recent years. This may be due 

to an increase in human population and disturbance in the area. Populations of the Blue 

Duiker (Cephalophus monticola - CITES II) will be the most adversely affected if further 

human disturbance ensues, given the dependency of this species on a closed-canopy forest 

habitat. 

Birds 

The number of species recorded was relatively low (56), and only two forest dependent 

species, the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis) and the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher 

(Trochocercus cyanomelas), were found. These findings may reflect the small size of this 

reserve (296ha) as well as the low sampling intensity of the study in this reserve (Table 10-a). 

However, the importance of Mtuli Hinju proposed FR for birds lies in its large wetland, on 

which four species were detected that were not found elsewhere during this study: the Whitefaced 

whistling-duck (Dendrocygna viduata), the African pygmy-goose (Nettapus auritus), 

the African jacana (Actophilornis africanus) and the Black crake (Amaurornis flavirostris). 

Reptiles 

Mtuli Hinju proposed FR hosts a water body, is largely covered by forest and is relatively free 

from disturbance; consequently, it would be expected to host a significant number of species 

and individuals. Instead, only the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus - CITES II) was recorded, 

which is a common species known to frequent any suitable water source (Spawls et al., 2002). 

The very low species richness recorded may be reflective of the low sampling intensity 

applied to this reserve (Table 10-a), as well as a consequence of the continuous disturbance by 

people collecting water from the spring. 

Amphibians 

For the amphibians the number of species (6) and individuals (10) captured was low. All 

species, with the exception of Leptopelis flavomaculatus, occurred around the water source, 

where dense vegetation and moist humus soil create an ideal breeding ground (Howell, 1993). 

Apart from the Yellow-spotted tree frog (Leptopelis flavomaculatus) and the Spotted reed 

frog (Hyperolius punticulatus), the majority of the species captured are non-forest dwelling 

(e.g. Afrixalus fornasinii and Ptychadena mossambica) (Schiotz, 1999; Channing, 2001). The 

intrusion into forested areas by species that normally inhabit transient open habitats is known 

140



to be a recurrent characteristic encouraged by the heterogeneous pattern of the Coastal Forest 

Mosaic, whereby such species continue breeding in their open habitat but enter the enclosed 

habitat for refuge, especially during dry periods (Poynton, 2000). Many species recorded are 

water dependent, therefore the quality of the water source and the forest cover protecting it 

are vital to their continued presence. 

Butterflies 

For the butterflies there was a low number of species (11) recorded from an average number 

of individuals (52) captured. The low species richness observed cannot be linked to the 

structure of the plant community found here, since the Legume-dominated dry forest 

dominant in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is characterised by a relatively dense understory, 

especially in the valleys, and affected by a relatively low degree of deforestation (see Flora 

section). The low species richness observed is therefore probably a consequence of the small 

size of this reserve and short period of time spent studying it (Kielland and Cordeiro, 2000) 

(Table 10-a). These factors may also explain why only two forest dependent species were 

recorded the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti) and the Common sailor (Neptis 

alta). Over 50% of the total numbers of individuals were represented by the Golden piper 

(Eurytela dryope angulata). This species is particularly attracted to banana bait used by this 

study (Larsen, 1996) so the number caught may actually misrepresent its dominance within 

the butterfly community found here. Charaxes lasti lasti is particularly worth of notice as it is 

endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya 

and Tanzania (Congdon and Bampton, 2005). 


Overall, human disturbance was relatively low in Mtuli Hinju with respect to encroachment, 

timber extraction and hunting, and this reserve was one of the few where efforts were made 

by local inhabitants to manage it in a sustainable way. The inhabitants of the areas viewed the 

protection of the forest positively as its presence is vital for the persistence of the water 

supply, relied upon by a large number of villagers. However, some degree of timber 

extraction and agricultural encroachment was observed in areas in and around the reserve. 

The small size of this reserve (296ha) and the low regeneration capacity of its Legumedominated 

forest mean that this forest and its water source are particularly vulnerable to 

human disturbance. Therefore, conservation efforts to protect them need to be sustained and 

supported. 

141



18. MAKONDE SCARP III PROPOSED FOREST 

RESERVE 

Status 


Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 






Tandahimba district. West of Lidumbe and Mcholi villages. 

1,434.7ha 

340-435m asl 



Average 1.6mm (recorded 25-29 June, dry season) 


Eastern African Brachystegia coastal forest and Thicket 

The reserve was proposed to prevent soil erosion on the plateau and 

scarp and to protect the water source and catchment. Crops are grown 

in the reserve, fuel wood and poles are extracted on a subsistence 

level and hunting occurs. 

Signs of destruction on the escarpment were noticed and documented 

in the 1940’s (Maganga, 2004). Makonde Scarp III was agreed to be 

a proposed forest reserve in 1976, the same year as funding for 

boundary beacons was made available. In 1977 some residents were 

moved from the escarpment and relocated. In 1980 complaints by 

people who had been moved off their original properties were 

acknowledged, concluding that Tsh 40 million was needed for 

compensation. Compensation of Tsh 1.7 million was made available 

to Masasi District in 1983 and 1984 but no subsidies were made 

available to Newala and Tandahimba districts. Presently the site is 

not yet fully gazetted and there are no boundary markers. There is no 

142



staff, effective capacity or resources to enforce protected area 

legislation and regulations. 

Maps Topographical map: Newala sheet 306/4, East Africa 1:50 000, 1968. 

From the Institute of Mapping, Dar es Salaam (from Series Y742, 

Edition 1-TSD). 

METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over seven days (23-29 June 2005). Nine vegetation plots 

(3600m 2 ), nine regeneration plots (36m 2 ), and one zoosite were carried out, incorporating 200 

sherman trapping nights, 50 bucket trapping nights, 4.5 man/hours of timed herpetofauna 

searches, 18 man/hours of timed bird searches, 15 canopy trapping days, 4.5 butterfly sweep 

net/hours, three animal sign transects (totalling 12,000m 2 ), three disturbance transects 

(totalling 30,000m 2 ), and opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 to 8 for GPS 

coordinates and work site descriptions). Ornithological work was conducted on separate days 

(28-30 June 2005). Bird mist netting was not conducted in this reserve as the camp was 

located some distance from the escarpment and in order to avoid theft nets could not be left 

unattended. No bat mist netting was conducted due to the alleged presence of large predators. 

Habitat notes were taken for vegetation plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and zoological trap sites 

(Appendix 6). Structured interviews and open discussions were arranged with three elders 

from Lidumbe village but they failed to attend. For a detailed break down of survey effort see 

Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 90 plant species were recorded from 17 families. Nine 




Ninety-three faunal species belonging to 46 families were recorded. Of these species 10% are 


Mountains and none are listed as threatened by IUCN (2004) and/or CITES (2005) (Table 18- 

a; Appendices 13-17). 

143



Table 18-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Makonde Scarp III Proposed FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


endemic 

species: 



threatened 

species: 


Mammals 10 13 1 12 0* 0 - 

Birds a 27 49 2 47 0 0 - 

Reptiles 3 5 0 5 0 0 - 


Butterflies 4 23 6 17 1 0 - 

Total for 46 93 9 84 1 0 - 

animals 

Flora b 17 90 0 72 8 2 9 


PT 

species i 

Combined 

Total 

63 183 9 156 9 2 9 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 



FLORA 

In Makonde scarp III proposed FR two homogeneous vegetation stands were observed, which 

were recognised as Brachystegia forest and Thicket and interspersed by cultivated and fallow 



A total of 90 species were recorded. Out of these, 23 species were found in nine vegetation 

plots and 28 species were recorded in nine regeneration plots. The other 39 species were 

recorded from opportunistic collection made within the reserve. More specifically, 35 trees, 

36 shrubs, 12 herbs and seven grasses were recorded (Appendix 9). A value of 2.75 was 

calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 


Within the eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest Brachystegia microphylla was the 

dominant species at the canopy level, occurring in 57% of the plots. Other frequent species 

included Julbernardia globiflora, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia and Pteleopsis 

myrtifolia, all occurring in about 43% of the plots (Table 18-b). 

144





layer in Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 


(Domina 

nce) 

Rank No. 


in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 


FABACEAE (CAES) Julbernardia globiflora 3 43 2 5 7 2 



FABACEAE (CAES) Hymenaea verrucosa 2 29 3 4 6 3 

Total 1 3 5 5 32 46 

Total 2 5 8 11 39 100 



The sub canopy layer was dominated by Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, occurring in 57% of 

the plots (Table 18-c). 



layer in Brachystegia forest in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 



nce) 

In all 

plots 

%R.A Rank 

RA 


ANACARDIACEAE Sorindeia madagascariensis 2 29 2 4 19 2 

RUBIACEAE Crossopteryx febrifuga 2 29 2 2 9 3 

FABACEAE (CAES) Afzelia quanzensis 1 14 3 1 5 4 

BIGNONIACEAE Markhamia obtusifolia 1 14 3 1 5 4 

Total 1 5 5 5 14 67 

Total 2 13 19 21 21 100 



Dominance was not analysed for Thicket, as thickets do not comprise canopy and sub-canopy 

layers. 


In the canopy layer 21% of the trees recorded were individuals from Brachystegia 

microphylla, 7% were individuals from Julbernardia globiflora, while Pseudolachnostylis 

maprouneifolia, Pteleopsis myrtifolia and Hymenaea verrucosa made 6% each (Table 18-b). 

In the sub canopy layer Diplorhynchus condylocarpon contributed 29% of all individuals, 

Sorindeia madagascariensis 19%, Crossopteryx febrifuga 9%, and Afzelia quanzensis and 

Markhamia obtusifolia about 5% each (Table 18-c). 

145




layers, the canopy layer contributed a slightly higher number of individuals (54%) than the 



Makonde scarp III is comprised of two homogeneous vegetation stands, whose species 

composition and relative abundance confirmed to be eastern African coastal Brachystegia 

forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) and Thicket. 

The species composition of the coastal Brachystegia forest was characterised by Brachystegia 

microphylla from the canopy layer and Diplorhynchus condylocarpon from the sub canopy 

layer as dominant species, making 15% and 29% of their respective layers. Other species 

occurring in the canopy layer included Julbernardia globiflora, Pseudolachnostylis 

maprouneifolia and Pteleopsis myrtifolia, which ranked as frequent, and Albizia amara, 

Sterculia appendiculata, Milicia excelsa, Pterocarpus angolensis and Hymenaea verrucosa. 

The sub canopy layer also included Sorindeia madagascariensis, Crossopteryx febrifuga, 

Afzelia quanzensis, Markhamia obtusifolia, Vangueria infausta, Markhamia acuminata, 

Commiphora africana, Sclerocarya birrea and Bauhinia petersiana. 

The shrub layer was observed to be comprised of shrub species such as Combretum 

hereroense, Combretum zeyheri, Securidaca longipedunculata, Salacia madagascariensis, 

Antiaris toxicaria, Monotes africanus, Monodora junodii, Antidesma venosum, Grewia 

lepidopetala, Ochna holstii, Strychnos madagascariensis, Flacourtia indica and Croton 

pseudopulchellus. 

The herbaceous layer was comprised of grasses, particularly Sporobolus sp., Themeda 

triandra, together with herbs such as Dicoma tomentosa, Jussiaea repens, Crotalaria sp., 

Maerua sp., Tephrosia sp., Hypoestes sp. and Jasminum sp. 

In Thicket shrubs such as Securidaca longipedunculata, Antiaris toxicaria and Monotes 

africanus were recorded. 


Eight of the species found were endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato, including 

Cussonia zimmermannii, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Tetracera boiviniana, Scorodophloeus 

fischeri, Xylotheca tettensis, Sterculia appendiculata, Grewia lepidopetala and Aframomum 

orientale (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) (Appendix 10) and this amounted to 9% of the total 

number of species recorded (Figure 15). 

9% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

91% 


widespread in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 

146



Eleven among the species recorded are threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened 


18-d). 

Table 18-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Makonde Scarp III proposed 

FR 


status 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia zimmermannii PT T 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon PT T 


EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes natalensis PT S/T 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata PT S 





RUBIACEAE Lasianthus kilimandscharicus PT S/T 

ZINGIBERACEAE Aframomum orientale PT H 




FAUNA 



Mammals 



For the small mammals five species representing three families were recorded from 24 

captures (not counting three recaptures) that took place during 200 sherman trapping nights 

and 50 bucket pitfall trapping nights. Species commonly found were the Spiny mouse 

(Acomys spinosissimus), making up 67% of the total capture, the Multimammate rat 

(Mastomys natalensis) and the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei). Beamys hindei was 

recorded in traps located in relatively undisturbed forest. Two species of the White-toothed 

shrew (Crocidura sp.) were also recorded (Appendix 18). 

No bat mist netting was conducted in this proposed reserve as the game guard was unwilling 

to work at night due to the alleged presence of the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and the 

Leopard (Panthera pardus). 

For the larger mammals, eight species representing seven families were recorded during sign 

transects totalling 3km, through opportunistic observations and local knowledge. Species 

included the Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus) and the Moloney’s monkey 

(Cercopithecus mitis sub sp.). Vocalisations and signs of the Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) 

were recorded every day during the survey. 

147




One species was found to be forest dependent, although many others often frequent and some 

favour a forested habitat. None of the species recorded are strictly endemic to the Coastal 

Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, yet one species has a restricted distribution in eastern 

Africa. None of the species found is listed as threatened (Table 18-e). 

Table 18-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Makonde Scarp III 

proposed FR 

Species 

Common Forest dependent Endemic Threatened 

name 

Cercopithecus mitis Moloney’s F - - 

(sub sp.) 

Beamys hindei 

monkey 

Lesser pouched 

rat 

- EACF, a few other 

forest types in 

Kenya and Tanzania 





- 

Birds 


All 49 species, representing 27 families, were recorded from 18 man/hours of bird searches. 

Mist netting was not conducted in this reserve as the camp had to be located at a distance 

from the reserve and in order to avoid theft nets could be left unattended. Among the species 

found were the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the Livingstone’s flycatcher 

(Erythrocercus livingstonei) and the Pale batis (Batis soror) (Appendix 14). 



crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) were recorded. No strictly endemic or 

threatened species were found. 

Reptiles 


Five species of reptiles representing three families were recorded from six captures that took 


Species recorded included the Mozambique vine snake (Thelotornis mossambicanus), two 

species of Sand snake (Psammophis orientalis and P. mossambicus) and the Mozambique 

agama (Agama mossambica) (Appendices 15 and 18). 



Amphibians 


Three species of amphibians representing two families were recorded from 20 captures that 


searches. Species were identified as Arthroleptis xenodactyloides (accounting for 80% of the 

capture), Arthroleptis stenodactylus and Bufo maculatus (Appendices 16 and 18). 

148




Even though Arthroleptis sp. favour forest habitats, no forest dependent species were 

observed. None of the species recorded are strictly endemic. Arthroleptis xenodactyloides is 

listed as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004). 

Butterflies 


Twenty-three species of butterfly representing four families were recorded from 27 captures 

that took place during 30 canopy trapping days and 4.5 sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). The 

Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti) was the most common species accounting for 

15% of all captures. 


Eight species from the family Nymphalidae are forest dependent: the Silver striped charaxes 

(Charaxes lasti lasti), the Flame bordered charaxes (C. protoclea azota), Cymothoe herminia, 

the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron littoralis), the Forest queen (Euxanthe 

wakefieldi), a Glider species (Harma theobene blassi), the Common sailor (Neptis alta) and 

the Banded evening brown (Gnophodes betsimena diversa). One species, Charaxes lasti lasti, 

is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of 

Kenya and Tanzania. No butterfly species were found to be threatened. 


None of the faunal species recorded in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR is endemic to the 

Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 


Through disturbance transects the levels of pole cutting, fire damage, path densities and other 

forms of disturbance were recorded. Of the sixty 50m sections carried out none were found to 

be free of disturbance. Fifty-two (87%) showed evidence of pole cutting, 13 (22%) contained 

paths, 18 (30%) showed signs of fire damage and 26 (43%) contained cultivated land. No 

traps were located (Figure 16). In Makonde Scarp III it was not possible to meet with village 

elders and therefore no conclusive evidence on medicinal or food plants was obtained, nor on 

what species are used for fuel wood or for making utensils. Our field data allowed us to infer 

which species are used for timber extraction and rope making (Table 18-g). 


60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Cultivation 



disturbance along transects in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 

149




A large number of 50m sections (43%) contained cultivated land (Figure 16). Cattle and goats 

were seen to be grazing within the reserve on a number of occasions and some inhabitants 

were observed in the process of felling trees to create arable land. 


Disturbance transects revealed that 16 species are used for poles and timbers in Makonde 

Scarp III (Table 18-g). No currently active or old pit sawing sites were recorded. 


The level of pole cutting (37%) is the highest of any reserve surveyed in this study. 

Approximately 15% of both timbers and large timbers recorded were cut. Furthermore, the 

study detected the largest number of fresh cut poles of any study site (6% of all cuts). No 

fresh cut timbers or large timbers were detected (Table 18-f). 

Table 18-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 

Total 

transect 

length 

in m 

Total no. 


sampled 

Total no. 


RA) 


indiv. 

Average 

live indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) 


indiv. 

Average 

dead 

indiv. 

per ha 

Total no. 


RA) 


indiv. 

Poles 3,000 1245 679 (55) 226 104 (8) 5 462 (37) 12 

Timbers 3,000 396 261 (66) 87 77 (19) 26 58 (15) 3 

Large 

timbers 

3,000 7 6 (86) 2 0 (0) 0 1 (14) 0.3 

Average 

cut indiv. 

per ha 

Fuel wood 

Due to the lack of a meeting with village representatives, definitive information on which 

species are used for fuel wood is not available. It is likely that the patterns of use here are 

similar to those of other sites in this study. 


Due to the lack of a meeting with village representatives, definitive information on which 

species are used for making utensils is not available. It is likely that the patterns of use here 

are similar to those of other sites in this study. Although no ringed trees were detected along 

the transects some were observed through opportunistic observations, showing that ropes are 

made from several different tree species (Table 18-g). 


See Fuel wood. 


Again, the lack of a meeting with the village elders means that information on the use of 

species for medicinal purposes is not available. It is likely that the species used here are 

similar to those in other sites in this study (Appendix 11). 

150



Table 18-g Plant species utilised in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR as identified by field 

observations only. Local names, where known, are presented in Appendix 9 


wood 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Afzelia quanzensis X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia X 

microphylla 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia petersiana X 


X 

verrucosa 


FABACEAE (MIM) Albizia versicolor X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) 


Dalbergia 

melanoxylon 

Lonchocarpus bussei X 


angolensis 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica 

HYMENOCARDIACE Hymenocardia 

AE 

ulmoides 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos cocculoidesX 



MORACEAE Milicia excelsa X 


SAPOTACEAE 

Bequaertiodendron 

natalense 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hunting 

No traps were detected in the disturbance transects, but three traps for small birds were 

observed on an opportunistic basis, although it is unclear as to which species they were being 

targeted. 

Management 

Makonde Scarp III proposed FR is only proposed therefore no official management plan is in 

place and no policing of the reserve boundaries is conducted. 

DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

In Makonde Scarp III proposed FR a large proportion of the land has been converted into 

cultivated and fallow farmland or has turned into Thicket. Only small pockets of relatively 

undisturbed eastern African coastal Brachystegia forest are left. These are characterised by a 

closed-canopy and relatively dense understory; one of these pockets of forest (approx. 50 x 

50m) is concentrated around a spring in the interior of the reserve, and the others are nestled 

in small valleys. Thicket has resulted from the practice of shifting cultivation, where farmland 

151



is left fallow for at least seven years and gets covered by woody Thicket that is then cleared 

again (Gillman, 1954). 

In Makonde Scarp III proposed FR the high proportion of cultivated land comprising the 

reserve and the high degree of timber extraction account for the relatively low number of 

species found (90). The Shannon diversity index for this forest reserve is moderate (H¹=2.75), 

reflecting a community in succession (Magurran, 1988) where a relatively high number of 

species, and particularly understory species, can colonise the area and reach high rates of 

population growth following the removal of more competitive canopy trees (Ndangalasi, 

1997). If this forest could be allowed to fully regenerate, and canopy and sub canopy species 

to achieve their potential population size, then the species diversity would be expected to 

decline. 

However, human activities, such as the cultivation of maize and the cutting of poles, have 

continued to interrupt the regeneration of this forest from degraded to fully developed Eastern 

African coastal Brachystegia forest. These activities also threaten some important plant 

species present here, such as Khaya anthotheca and Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable). 

FAUNA 

Overall low numbers of faunal species (93), including forest dependent and endemic species, 

were recorded, reflecting the fact that large sections of the reserve have been converted into 

farmland and are disturbed by timber extraction and fire, factors that have decreased the 

extent of suitable habitat and ecological requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) available to animal 

species (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996) (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management 

section). 

Small mammals 

For the small mammals the overall number of species captured was low (5), reflecting the 

high incidence of deforestation for timber and agriculture in this reserve (see Human 

Resource-Use and Local Management section) and the open and dry habitat resulting from it 

(Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). The dominance of the Spiny mouse (Acomys 

spinosissimus), which made up over two-thirds of the captures, reflects this open and dry 

habitat. The Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei - near threatened) captured here is a relic 

species endemic to a few forest types in Kenya and Tanzania, including the coastal and 

montane forests of the EACF hotspot. Until very recently it was regarded as one of the rarest 

rodents in Africa (Groombridge, 1994) but it is now known to be more widespread (Burgess 

& Clark 2000). In Makonde Scarp III this species was found only in small pockets of 

Brachystegia forest, and this emphasises its vulnerability to further habitat degradation 

(Kingdon 1993). Two species of the White-toothed shrew (Crocidura sp.) were found. The 

shrews of the Coastal Forests of Tanzania are poorly known and already there are five 

unidentified species that have been collected from the Coastal Forests of Tanzania, each from 

a separate forest (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). It is likely that shrews collected from this survey 

will yield interesting results once taxonomic verification is accomplished. 

Large mammals 

For the large mammals a low number of species (8) was recorded and no one species was 

recorded more than twice. The low number of individuals for all species recorded is probably 

caused by a significant degree of disturbance in this reserve (see Human Resource-Use and 

Local Management), a factor that has decreased the extent of suitable habitat and ecological 

requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) necessary to support larger populations. The Moloney’s 

monkey (Cercopithecus mitis sub sp. - CITES II) is forest dependent, and given the small size 

of suitable habitat remaining in this reserve this primate may be locally threatened. The 

152



Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus - CITES II) was found to frequent cultivated land; 

however, this species generally favours denser vegetation, so populations of this species may 

also be affected by encroachment and degradation. The Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta - 

conservation dependent) appeared to frequent the steep rocky parts of the escarpment close to 

cultivated land. Being an opportunist, this species was observed to have adapted well to 

changes in its environment, e.g. by preying on goats from nearby villages. Nevertheless, any 

further reduction in habitat will reduce the presence of this species in this reserve, as 

populations of predated wild animals decrease and conflict with man increases. 

Birds 

Makonde Scarp III proposed FR constitutes part of the Newala District Coastal Forests IBA 

(TZ053 - category A1) (BirdLife International, 2005) because of the previously recorded 

presence of more than a threshold population of the Southern banded snake eagle (Circaetus 

fasciolatus), a species categorized by the IUCN Red List (2004) as near threatened. C. 

fasciolatus was not recorded in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR during this study, nor were 

other IUCN threatened species. However, C. fasciolatus was recorded in adjacent Makonde 

Scarp II proposed FR and is therefore likely to occur in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR. This 

reserve has been extensively transformed by timber extraction and encroachment from 

agricultural land (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management section), which may be 

responsible for the lowest number of bird species recorded in all forest reserves (49), while 

the sparse understory in the small patches of Brachystegia forest remaining (see Flora section) 

is responsible for the low number of forest dependent species found (Mlingwa et al., 2000). 

Only the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis) and the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher 

(Trochocercus cyanomelas) were found to be forest dependant. 

Reptiles 

The low numbers of species (5) and individuals (6) captured may be a consequence of the 

rapid nature of this study, which did not permit comprehensive collection of data during the 

wet season and on fossorial species (Broadley and Howell, 2000). Conducting further 

research in the wet season may reveal more comprehensive results. However, low numbers 

may also reflect the largely open and dry environment that has resulted from high levels of 

encroachment, timber extraction and burning in this reserve (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 

1996) (See Human Resource-Use and Local Management section). All snakes were recorded 

along the banks of dry river beds throughout the reserve. A species of skink sighted in this 

reserve was recognised to resemble either the Rainbow Skink (Trachylepis margaritifer) or 

the Five-lined skink (Trachylepis quinquetaeniata). T. margaritifer is known to occur in 

central and south-eastern Tanzania (Spawls et al., 2002). T. quinquetaeniata has not been 

recorded south of the border with Kenya, apart from a record in Kwa Mtoro (north of 

Dodoma) (Spawls et al., 2002), and its record in the Mtwara Region would therefore 

represent a range extension. Further research is needed to ascertain this. 

Amphibians 

For the amphibians a high number of individuals (20) representing three species were 

captured near to a spring where dense vegetation and moist humus soil create an ideal 

breeding ground (Howell, 1993). However, areas such as these are small and infrequent, 

which makes the species inhabiting them vulnerable to forest degradation. The Squeakers 

(Arthroleptis stenodactylus and A. xenodactyloides) accounted for over 80% of the captures. 

These species favour a forested habitat as they rely on the presence of damp soil and loose 

leaf mould protected from shrub and canopy cover to lay their eggs (Howell, 1993). 

Consequently, the Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides) is listed as Vulnevable 

(IUCN, 2004) and both species may become locally threatened by further loss of forest 

habitat. 

153



Butterflies 

There was a high number of butterfly species (23) relative to the number of individuals 

captured (27). Most butterfly species recorded are non-forest dwellers and this reflects the 

high degree of disturbance that has converted many parts of the forest into farmland and 

Thicket. However, a number of forest dependent butterflies were recorded in the small 

patches of Brachystegia forest remaining, including the Banded evening brown (Gnophodes 

betsimena diversa), the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), the Flame bordered 

charaxes (C. protoclea azota), Cymothoe herminia, the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra 

neophron littoralis), the Forest queen (Euxanthe wakefieldi), a Glider species (Harma 

theobene blassi) and the Common sailor (Neptis alta). Charaxes lasti lasti is particularly 

important as it is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal 

Forests of Kenya and Tanzania (Congdon and Bampton, 2005). The dependence of these 

species on fragmented patches of forest makes them particularly vulnerable to the high level 

of disturbance occurring here. 


Makonde Scarp III was the most disturbed area surveyed during this study. 

The encroachment of agriculture within the reserve boundaries was the most severe form of 

disturbance recorded; it is not possible to walk far in the proposed reserve without crossing 

cultivated land. Most of the farmers that were moved out when the area was proposed to be a 

reserve are now going back to their shambas (cultivated land), in part because of the failure of 

the government to fully compensate their relocation in new houses and farms (Baldus et al., 

2004). The top of the escarpment has been largely transformed from Brachystegia forest into 

cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) plantations, while rice and maize are grown on the 

slopes and the plain at the foot of the escarpment. Large areas of the slopes are also covered 

by Thicket, indicating that shifting agriculture is common practice and that undisturbed areas 

are likely to become threatened in the future. 

Notable about the disturbance patterns in Makonde Scarp III proposed FR was the high level 

of pole and timber cutting (37% and 15% of sections respectively). The extensive exploitation 

of certain preferred species, such as the African teak (Pterocarpus angolensis), the Snake 

bean tree (Swartzia madagascariensis), the Pod mahogany (Afzelia quanzensis) and Milicia 

excelsa (near threatened) has resulted in the complete absence of large individuals of these 

species from the proposed reserve. 

Residents were found to be unconcerned about the reduction in the size of the forest and the 

potential that this has for increasing erosion rates and the risk of landslides. 

154



19. NDECHELA FOREST RESERVE 

Status 


Location 

Area 

Altitude 

Topography 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

Soil type 




Gazetted Forest Reserve 


Masasi district. Directly above the Lukwika-Lumesale Game 

Reserve, south of Nakopi (where the Natural Resources Office is 

situated) and east of Nihale. The Lukwimba River borders the west 

side of the reserve. Ndechela town is situated in a large recess in the 

reserve, next to Lukwimba River. 

6,216ha 

250-340m asl 


Min: 15.5 o C, Max: 39 o C (recorded 7-11 and 13-17 July, dry season) 

0mm (recorded 7-11 and 13-17 July, dry season) 


Eastern African coastal Legume-dominated dry forest 

The reserve was gazetted to protect timber resources and 

biodiversity. Pit sawing and hunting take place. 

The forest was given protected status in 1958. Presently there are no 

effective methods for controlling illegal resources use. An 

Environmental committee was set up in 1991 but no longer functions; 

a part-time forest officer was employed from 1993 to 1997 as a 

replacement to patrol for illegal fires. Future plans include a possible 

link with the Lukwika-Lumesale Game Reserve. 

155








METHODS 

Survey work was conducted over 14 days (5-11 and 11-17 July 2005) incorporating two study 

sites of equal duration. Twenty-one vegetation plots (8400m 2 ), 21 regeneration plots (84m 2 ), 

and two zoosites were carried out, incorporating 400 sherman trapping nights, 100 bucket 

trapping nights, seven man/hours of timed herpetofauna searches, 86 bat mist net/hours, 13 

man/hours of bird mist netting, 16 man/hours of timed bird searches, 30 canopy trapping 

days, four butterfly sweep net/hours, seven animal sign transects (totalling 28,000m 2 ), seven 

disturbance transects (totalling 70,000m 2 ), and opportunistic observations (see Appendices 2 

to 8 for GPS coordinates and work site descriptions). Habitat notes were taken for vegetation 

plots (Appendices 4 and 5) and zoological trap sites (Appendix 6). Structured interviews and 

open discussions were conducted with five elders from the village of Ndechela. For a detailed 

break down of survey effort see Table 10-a. 

RESULTS 

In Ndechela FR 78 plant species were recorded from 21 families. Thirteen percent of the total 

number of floral species are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato and 12% are listed as 

threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006) (Table 19-a; 

Appendices 9 and 10). 

One-hundred and seventy-four faunal species were found representing 81 families. Of these 

species 4% are forest dependent, less than 1% are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests 

and/or Eastern Arc Mountains and 2% are listed as threatened by IUCN (2004) and/or CITES 

(2005) (Table 19-a; Appendices 13-17). 

156



Table 19-a Summary of fauna and flora recorded in Ndechela FR 


families 


species c 


forest 

dependent 

species d 


widespread 

species 


strictly 

endemic 

species: 



threatened 

species: 


Mammals 24 38 2 36 0* 3 - 

Birds a 41 97 0 97 0 0 - 

Reptiles 8 10 0 10 1 0 - 


Butterflies 4 21 4 17 0 0 - 

Total for 81 174 6 168 1 3 - 

animals 

Flora b 21 78 0 68 10 1 8 


PT 

species i 

Combined 

Total 

102 252 6 236 11 4 8 











(IUCN, 2004) 


(CITES, 2005) 



FLORA 

In Ndechela FR one homogeneous vegetation stand was identified as dry Legume-dominated 

forest. 



plots and 21 species were recorded in 21 regeneration plots. The other 16 species were 

recorded from opportunistic collection and observation made within the reserve. More 

specifically, 48 trees, 21 shrubs, five herbs, and four grasses were recorded (Appendix 9). A 

value of 3.46 was calculated for the Shannon diversity index. 


Within the Legume-dominated dry forest Brachystegia spiciformis and Millettia stuhlmannii 

are the most frequent in the canopy layer, occurring in 45% and 40% of the plots respectively 

(Table 19-b). 

157





layer in Legume-dominated dry forest in Ndechela FR 


(Domin 

ance) 

Rank No. 


in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 


FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia stuhlmannii 8 40 2 22 27 2 



STERCULIACEAE Sterculia appendiculata 1 5 5 2 2 5 

Total 1 3 5 5 77 94 

Total 2 17 19 23 81 100 



In the sub canopy layer no species were found to be either dominant or frequent, all occurring 

in no more than 30% of the plots (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974) (Table 19-c). 



layer in Legume-dominated dry forest in Ndechela FR 


(Domina 

nce) 

Rank No. 


in all 

plots 

%RA Rank 

RA 


FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia petersiana 6 30 2 10 6 3 


COMBRETACEAE Terminalia sambesiaca 5 25 3 10 6 3 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora sp. 4 20 4 19 12 2 

Total 1 5 5 5 67 41 

Total 2 13 21 25 157 100 




In the canopy layer 92% of the trees recorded were individuals from Brachystegia spiciformis 

(31%), Millettia stuhlmannii (27%), Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia (22%) and 

Brachystegia longifolia (12%) (Table 19-b). In the sub canopy layer 41% of the trees 

recorded were individuals from Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (13%), Commiphora sp. 

(12%), Bauhinia petersianaa (6%), Terminalia sambesiaca (6%), and Lonchocarpus bussei 

(4%) (Table 19-c). 


layers, the canopy layer (53%) contributed a slightly higher number of individuals than the 


158




Ndechela FR is comprised of one homogeneous vegetation stand, whose species composition 

and relative abundance confirmed to be eastern African Legume-dominated coastal dry 

forest (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

The species composition of this forest type is characterised by Brachystegia spiciformis, B. 

longifolia and Millettia stuhlmannii from the family Fabaceae as the most frequent and 

abundant species in the canopy layer, together contributing up to about 70% of all trees 

recorded. Other species occurring in the canopy layer included Pseudolachnostylis 

maprouneifolia, Bombax rhodognaphalon, Brachystegia longifolia, Sterculia appendiculata, 

Millettia impressa and Acacia xanthophloea. The sub canopy layer was characterised by the 

absence of dominant or frequent species. Species recorded in this layer included 

Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Bauhinia petersiana, Lonchocarpus bussei, Terminalia 

sambesiaca, Commiphora sp., Afzelia quanensis, Schrebera trichoclada, Markhamia 

obtusifolia, Terminalia brownii, Tamarindus indica and Cussonia zimmermannii. 

The shrub layer was observed to be comprised of saplings of the dominant species from the 

canopy and sub canopy layer, and shrub species such as Combretum hereroense, Flacourtia 

indica, Croton pseudopulchellus, Salacia madagascariensis, Strychnos usambarensis, 

Strychnos madagascariensis, Ochna holstii, Catunaregam spinosa and Vangueria infausta. 

The herbaceous layer was composed of grasses, particularly Olyra sp. and Themeda triandra, 

together with herbs such as Dicoma tomentosa, Hypoestes sp., Crotalaria sp., Tephrosia sp. 

and Jasminum sp. 


Ten of the species found are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu latu, including Cussonia 

zimmermannii, Commiphora zanzibarica, Tetracera boiviniana, Scorodophloeus fischeri, 

Entada stuhlmannii, Gardenia transvenulosa, Sterculia appendiculata, Grewia lepidopetala 

and Vitex mossambicensis (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) (Appendix 10), and amounting to 

12% of the total number of species recorded (Figure 17). 

12% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

88% 


widespread in Ndechela FR 

Nine among the species recorded are recognised to be threatened (IUCN, 2004) or potentially 


recorded (Table 19-d). 

159



Table 19-d Threatened and potentially threatened plant species in Ndechela FR 


status 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia zimmermannii PT T 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora zanzibarica PT T 




FABACEAE (MIM) Entada stuhlmannii PT C 



VERBENACEAE Vitex mossambicensis PT S 



Habit T= Tree, S= Shrub, B= Bamboo, C= Climber, H= Herb 

FAUNA 



Mammals 



Eight species of small mammal representing four families were recorded in total from 16 

captures (not counting two recaptures) that took place during 400 sherman trapping nights and 

100 bucket pitfall trapping nights (Appendix 18). The most common species was the 

Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) making up 50% of all captures. Other species 

recorded included the Spiny mouse (Acomys spinosissimus), the Narrow-footed woodland 

mouse (Grammomys dolichurus), the Tatera gerbil (Tatera robusta), the Black rat (Rattus 

rattus alexandrinus) and one species of White-toothed shrew (Crocidura sp.). 

Two species of bat, the Slit faced bat (Nycteris hispida) and the Horse-shoe bat (Rhinolophus 

hildebrandti), were recorded from four captures during 86 bat mist net/hours. 


transects totalling 7km, through opportunistic observations and from local knowledge. Few 

signs of the Leopard (Panthera pardus), Lion (Panthera leo), Moloney’s monkeys 

(Cercopithecus mitis sub sp.), Elephant (Loxodonta aficana), Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Zebra 

(Equus quagga) and Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) were found. These signs were often 

more than one month old. Other species recorded included the Blue duiker (Cephalophus 

monticola), the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei) and the Greater galago 

(Otolemur crassicaudatus). Local knowledge also suggested the presence of the Klipspringer 

(Oreotragus oreotragus), the Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) and the Hippopotamus 

(Hippopotamus amphibius). The occurrence of many large species within the FR is seasonal. 


Two of the species recorded are forest dependent, although many often frequent and some 

favour a forested habitat. Four species are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List (2004) 

and/or CITES Appnedix I (2005) (Table 19-e). No species were recorded to be strictly 

endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains. 

160



Table 19-e Forest dependent, endemic and threatened mammal species in Ndechela FR 

Species Common name Forest Endemic Threatened 

dependent 

Cercopithecus mitis (sub sp.) Moloney’s monkey F - - 

Rhynchocyon cirnei Chequered elephant shrew - - VU 

Panthera leo Lion - - VU 

Panthera pardus Leopard - - CITES I 

Loxodonta africana African Elephant - - VU 






CITES I = Threatened with extinction and excluded from international trade; 

Birds 


Ninety-seven species from 41 families were observed. Thirteen hours of mist netting and 16 

hours of timed bird searches were carried out. Mist netting yielded three species (Dicrurus 

adsimilis, Tchagra australis and Terpsiphone viridis) from a total of three captures, and timed 

bird searches the remaining 94. Species found included the Grey-crested helmet shrike 

(Prionops poliolophus) 19 , the Livingstone’s flycatcher (Erythrocercus livingstonei) and the 

Pale batis (Batis soror) (Appendix 14). Many species were observed along a seasonal river 

bed. 


No forest dependent, strictly endemic or threatened bird species were recorded in Ndechela 

FR. 

Reptiles 


Ten species of reptiles representing eight families were recorded from nine captures that took 


Species included the Spotted flat lizard (Platysaurus maculatus), which was found in 

abundance on rock outcrops, and a species of skink (Trachylepis sp.) 20 that has not been 

identified yet and that was also frequent on rock outcrops. The Striped skink (Trachylepis 

striata), the Snouted night adder (Causus defilippii) and the Mozambique agama (Agama 

mossambica) were each only sighted on one occasion. Shells of a Leopard tortoise 

(Geochelone pardalis) and the Helmeted terrapin (Pelomedusa subrufa) were recorded 

(Appendices 15 and 18). 


One of the species recorded, the Spotted flat-lizard (Platysaurus maculatus), is strictly 

endemic to northern Mozambique and the Masasi district in south-eastern Tanzania. No 

species were found to be forest dependent or threatened. 

19 The field identification of Prionops poliolophus was undertaken by Jacob Kiure (Appendix 1). 




161



Amphibians 


Eight species of amphibians representing four families were recorded from 10 captures that 


searches. Species recorded included a squeaker (Arthroleptis stenodactylus), Kassina sp., the 

Grey tree frog (Chiromantis xerampelina), two species of Ptychadena and two species of 

Phrynobatrachus (Appendices 16 and 18). 


None of the species found are forest dependent, even though Arthroleptis stenodactylus is 

known to favour a forested habitat (Howell, 1993). No strictly endemic or threatened species 

were recorded. 

Butterflies 


Twenty-one species of butterfly representing four families were recorded from 48 captures 

that took place during 30 canopy trapping days and four sweep net/hours (Appendix 17). The 

Jordan’s Sailor (Neptis jordani) accounted for 23% and the Common joker (Byblia anvatara 

acheloia) for 19% of all captures. 


One species from the family Nymphalidae, the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron 

littoralis), is forest dependent. No species were found to be strictly endemic or threatened. 


Of the total number of faunal species recorded in Ndechela FR 99% are widespread and 1% 

are endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains (Figure 18). 

1% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

99% 

Figure 18 Percentage of strictly endemic and widespread faunal species in Ndechela FR 


Disturbance transects were used to record the level of disturbance from pole cutting, fire 

damage, paths and other forms of disturbance within the reserve. Of one-hundred and forty 

50m transects, 36 (26%) were free of disturbance. Fire was the most common form of 

disturbance in Ndechela, with 101 (72%) sections showing fire damage. Pole cutting was 

detected in 21 (18%) sections, 13 (9%) sections had one or more paths bisecting them and one 

(1%) section contained a drift fence to trap large ungulates (Figure 19). Information on 

resource use is summarised in Table 19-g below. 

162




120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Cutting Fire Paths Traps 



disturbance along transects in Ndechela FR 


Disturbance transects did not reveal any encroachment in Ndechela. Some local farmers grow 

tomatoes in the dry riverbed that marks the boundary of the reserve, but they may be unable to 

extend this water-demanding crop into the drier soil of the reserve. 


Disturbance transects showed that six main species (Afzelia quanzensis, Milicia excelsa, 

Millettia dura, M. impressa, M. stuhlmannii and Pterocarpus angolensis) are harvested to 

provide timber and a wide variety of species are harvested to obtain poles (Table 19-g). Pit 

sawing was found to be common, with three recently active sites detected. 


One percent of both poles and timbers were cut, but no cut large timbers were detected. Two 

fresh cut poles and one fresh cut timber were observed (Table 19-f). 

Table 19-f Summary of pole, timber and large timber cutting in Ndechela FR 


transect of indiv. (and % RA) live indiv. (and % RA) dead indiv. (and % RA) cut indiv. 

length sampled of live per ha of dead indiv. per ha of cut indiv. per ha 

in m 

indiv. 

Poles 7,000 3009 2599 (86) 371 394 (13) 56 16 (1) 2 

Timbers 7,000 1129 1024 (91) 146 95 (8) 14 10 (1) 1 

Large 

timbers 

7,000 33 31 (94) 5 2 (6) 0.3 0 (0) 0 

Fuel wood 

Most fuel wood was said by the local residents to be extracted from wooded vegetation 

outside the FR. 


Besides ropes and tool handles beehives are commonly constructed, with Brachystegia 

longifolia and Brachystegia spiciformis being the species most commonly targeted for this 

production, as it resulted from structured interviews (Table 19-g). 

163




A wide range of species was found to provide food to the local inhabitants (Table 19-g). 

Honey is produced and sold locally. 


Sixteen different species were said to be used for medicinal purposes within the reserve 

(Table 19-g, Appendix 11). 

Table 19-g List of plant species utilised in Ndechela FR as identified by field observations, 


Appendix 9 


wood 

Aloeaceae Aloe macrosiphon X 

ALOEACEAE Aloe secundiflora X 


ANNONACEAE 

Annona 

senegalensis 

X X X X 


X 

buchananii 


obtusifolia 


X 

myrtifolia 


X 

boiviniana 


X 

hirtiflora 


FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia X X X 

longifolia 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia X X X X X 

spiciformis 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia singueana X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nigrescens X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia 

xanthophloea 

FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia impressa X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia 

X 

X 

stuhlmannii 

FABACEAE (CAES) Swartzia X X X X 



HYMENOCARDIACEAE Hymenocardia 

ulmoides 




usambarensis 

X X X X 

X 

X 

X 

164



Hunting 

Many (>10) traps for small birds were found in the riverbed. A drift fence designed to trap 

large ungulates was also observed, but the trap was not in use at the time of this study. Two 

dead baboons (Papio cynocephalus) were observed in the riverbed that had been killed 

because they had raided crops. Among the species hunted the Sable antelope (Hippotragus 

niger) is listed as conservation dependant in the IUCN Red List (2004). 

Management 

Minimal management takes place in Ndechela FR. The last management action was boundary 

clearance in 1997, but the boundary is no longer evident. A ‘fire committee’ was set up in 

1997 to control fires but is no longer effective. Regular patrols of the reserve are conducted 

by game officers from Lukwika-Lumesule game reserve. 

DISCUSSION 

FLORA 

Ndechela FR is comprised of Legume-dominated coastal dry forest largely affected by 

frequent fires. No species appeared to be dominant in the canopy and sub canopy layers; 

instead an assemblage of various species from the family Fabaceae comprised this vegetation 

type, including Brachystegia spiciformis, B. longifolia and Millettia stuhlmannii in the canopy 

layer, and Bauhinia petersiana and Lonchocarpus bussei in the sub canopy layer. Legumedominated 

dry forest is usually characterised by the dominance of one or few species, 

therefore the lack of any dominant species in Ndechela FR is quite unusual; further research 

would be required to determine the factors responsible for the observed species composition. 

The shrub layer was mainly comprised of saplings of the canopy species, indicating a climax 

community, while herbs and lianas were scarce. 

The species richness recorded in this reserve is relatively low (78 species) and may be 

attributed to the high level of fire disturbance recorded, which can prevent the regeneration of 

fire tolerant species (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). Nevertheless, the Shannon diversity index 

for this forest reserve (H¹=3.46) is the highest recorded during this study. This is associated 

with the high number of individual mature trees (314 in total) recorded in the reserve, which 

is linked to a relatively low level of timber and pole extraction, and the lack of one or few 

dominant species, whereby the total number of individual trees is evenly distributed between 

a number of species (Magurran, 1988). 

Ndechela FR represents the least disturbed forest surveyed in this study in terms of timber and 

pole extraction, as demonstrated by the relatively high number of large and old trees recorded 

here. However, throughout the survey extensive and frequent burning was recorded to have 

removed an otherwise conspicuous understory, constituting a threat to the continuity of this 

particularly vulnerable forest type. The seeds of the Fabaceae trees are heavy and not 

dispersed by wind or animal. Moreover, these seeds do not remain viable in the seed bank for 

long, do not tolerate desiccation, require a forest microclimate (shade and high-humidity) to 

germinate and are pyrophobic (Clarke, 2000). Therefore, the complete clearance of this forest 

type drastically lowers the chances of its regeneration on the same sites, which then can 

become dominated by more easily dispersed pioneer tree species characteristic of mixed dry 

forest and mixed scrub forest (Clarke, 2000). The vulnerability of this forest is highlighted 

also by the presence of various endemic and threatened plants, such as Gardenia 

transvenulosa (Endemic and Vulnerable), Cussonia zimmermannii, Commiphora zanzibarica, 

Tetracera boiviniana, Scorodophloeus fischeri, Entada stuhlmannii and Vitex mossambicensis 

(Endemic and Potentially Threatened), and it is therefore important to protect its threatened 

and unique plant community. 

165



Ndechela FR is also singular for the presence of granite kopjes dramatically protruding from 

the plain and reaching up to 800m, which contribute to the scenic beauty of this site, and for 

having a relatively small human population living around its boundaries. As a result, much 

forest that lies outside the borders of the reserve is not appreciably different from that inside 

the reserve. This represents an excellent opportunity to extend the boundaries of the reserve to 

create and protect more habitats for plants and animals. 

FAUNA 

In Ndechela FR a high number of species were recorded (172), including various endemic and 

threatened species. However, the species composition within most taxa is characteristic of an 

open and dry understory habitat that has been created by the removal of this layer by frequent 

burning. 

Small mammals 

A species poor rodent community (8 captured species) reflects the high incidence of fire 

damage (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management section) and the sparse and dry 

understory resulting from it (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996). The most common species 

recorded, the Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) and the Spiny mouse (Acomys 

spinosissimus), are in fact known to prefer dry areas (Kingdon, 2003). The Narrow-footed 

woodland mouse (Grammomys dolichurus) and the Tatera gerbil (Tatera robusta) are known 

to inhabit tall grasses and secondary growth (Kingdon, 1974), and were recorded in areas 

where grasses dominated as a result of frequent fire disturbance. The Black rat (Rattus rattus 

alexandrinus) was found scavenging amongst food supplies at the base camp. This species is 

thought to have originated in the Middle-east and to have been introduced into Tanzania 

through the shipping of goods, and now appears to have returned to a predominantly feral 

state (Kingdon, 2003). More research is needed to assess the level of invasion by Rattus rattus 

alexandrinus and its implications on the ecology of this region. 

Bats 

The Slit-faced bat (Nycteris hispida) and the Horse-shoe bat (Rhinolophus hildebrandti) were 

caught in open woodland areas at the edge of the forest. Both species are non-forest dwellers 

(Kingdon, 1974) commonly found in the Coastal Forests of eastern Africa (Cockle et al., 

1998). 

Large mammals 

Of the larger mammals a high number of species (26) were recorded, but no one species was 

recorded more than twice. This suggests that large mammal populations are suppressed by 

extensive fires and hunting occurring in this reserve (see Human-Resources Use and Local 

Management), factors that have decreased the extent of suitable habitat and ecological 

requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) necessary to support larger populations. Species recorded 

included the Buffalo (Syncerus caffer - conservation dependent), the Zebra (Equus quagga) 

and the Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus). Forest dependent species found here were the 

Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola - CITES II) and the Moloney’s monkey (Cercopithecus 

mitis sub sp. - CITES II), together with species such as the Greater galago (Otolemur 

crassicaudatus - CITES II) which, although not forest dependent, often favours a forest 

environment. The Yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) is regarded as a pest here and is 

being killed by villagers. The elephant shrew species (Rhynchocyon sp.) observed in this 

reserve is characterised by dark grey and rufous fur with very indistinct chequers, and is likely 

to represent a sub-species of the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei macrurus) 

rather than a range extension for the similar looking Black and rufous elephant shrew (R. 

166



petersi) (Rathbun, 2005; Corbet, 1970) 21 . The finding of R. cirnei, a species listed as 

Vulnerable (IUCN, 2004), confirms the Coastal Forests to be a globally important area for 

this genus, closely followed by the Eastern Arc Mountains (Burgess et al., 2000a). 

Rhynchocyon species are forest-dwellers that rely on dense vegetation cover to produce the 

thick leaf litter they require for foraging and nest construction (Rathbun, 2005). R. cirnei may 

therefore become locally threatened should further habitat destruction ensue. Ndechela FR is 

contiguous with Lukwika-Lumesale Game Reserve and was consequently found to contain 

the highest number of large mammal species of conservation status (10), among which the 

Leopard (Panthera pardus - CITES I), the Lion (Panthera leo - Vulnerable, CITES II) and 

the Elephant (Loxodonta africana - Vulnerable, CITES I). The presence of many species of 

conservation status makes Ndechela FR an important conservation site, and the Masasi 

District Natural Resources Office mentioned future plans to link this reserve with the 

Lukwika-Lumesale Game Reserve. 

Birds 

In Ndechela FR a high number of species were recorded (97). This figure may be linked to the 

large size of the reserve (6,216ha) and the long period of time spent surveying it (Table 10-a), 

which compensated for the evident absence of a dense shrub layer following extensive fire 

disturbance. Nevertheless, the removal of undergrowth vegetation is responsible for the 

absence of forest dependent species and the low number of captures in the mist nets. Many 

species were observed along a seasonal river bed where fruiting trees from the genus Ficus 

provide a substantial food source. The Grey-crested helmet shrike (Prionops poliolophus - 

near threatened) has been previously recorded to inhabit open woodland and wooded 

grassland, including Acacia/Tarchonanthus vegetation (1,200-2,200m), in a restricted area 

encompassing south-western Kenya and northern Tanzania (BirdLife International, 2005). 

Records of this bird in Ndechela FR therefore indicate a range extension for this species. 

Reptiles 

For the reptiles the number of species (9) and individuals (9) captured was moderate. Yet, the 

rocky nature of Ndechela creates microhabitats for more reptiles than it was possible to 

capture, and individuals were frequently observed basking in the sun on rock outcrops. 

Conversely, the extensive and frequent fires occurring in this reserve are probably responsible 

for the lack of forest dependent species. The Spotted flat-lizard (Platysaurus maculatus) 

found here is strictly endemic to northern Mozambique and the Masasi district in southeastern 

Tanzania. This species has a specific habitat requirement: it only inhabits rock 

outcrops of granite, gneiss and sandstone that weather to produce thin fissures where it seeks 

refuge (Spawls et al., 2002). In Ndechela FR this lizard was found in abundance due to the 

large quantity of rocky microhabitats present. The Helmeted terrapin (Pelomedusa subrufa) 

has been previously thought to occur in this south-eastern region of Tanzania, but its presence 

was yet to be confirmed (Spawls et al. 2002). During this study the only record of this species 

was a shell in a dried up rock pool. This species is adapted to arid environments, emerging 

from underground during the wet season, and therefore more comprehensive results could be 

unleashed by conducting research during the wet season. A species of skink sighted in this 

reserve was recognised to resemble either the Rainbow Skink (Trachylepis margaritifer) or 

the Five-lined skink (Trachylepis quinquetaeniata). T. margaritifer is known to occur in 

central and south-eastern Tanzania (Spawls et al., 2002). T. quinquetaeniata has not been 

recorded south of the border with Kenya, apart from a record in Kwa Mtoro (north of 

Dodoma) (Spawls et al., 2002), and its record in the Mtwara Region would therefore 

represent a range extension. Further research is needed to ascertain this. 



to occur (Rathbun and Butinski, 2005; Corbet, 1970). 

167



Amphibians 

For the amphibians a low number of individuals (10) representing seven species were 

captured along seasonal river beds where a few stagnant pools surrounded by dense 

vegetation and moist humus soil create an ideal breeding ground (Howell, 1993). Large 

breeding populations of Phrynobatrachus sp. and Ptychadena sp. were recorded around these 

pools. All species recorded are non-forest dwellers, including the Grey tree frog (Chiromantis 

xerampelina), which is typical of dry wooded grassland, and Kassina sp. 22 (Channing, 2001). 

The intrusion into forested areas by species that normally inhabit transient open situations is 

known to be a recurrent characteristic encouraged by the mosaic pattern of the Coastal Forest 

Mosaic, whereby such species continue breeding in their open habitat but enter the enclosed 

habitat for refuge, especially during dry periods (Poynton, 2000). 

Butterflies 

Only one of the 21 species recorded, the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron 

littoralis), is strictly forest dependent, while the Jordan’s Sailor (Neptis jordani), which was 

the most frequently captured species (23%), has been previously found in the drier and hotter 

zones of Africa (Condamin, 1966). This is indicative of the extensive fire disturbance 

occurring in this reserve and of the sparse and dry understory that has resulted (Kielland and 

Cordeiro, 2000). 


The lighting of fires was the largest form of disturbance in Ndechela FR. Fires are probably 

started deliberately to corner animals for hunting (Burgess et al., 2000b). Conversely, levels 

of other forms of disturbance were among the lowest in this study, and a possible reason may 

be the low human population density of the area surrounding the reserve. It also transpired 

from structured interviews and open discussion that the villagers obtains forest resources from 

nearby wooded areas that function as a buffer zone to the reserve, and that regular patrols by 

game officers from Lukwika-Lumesule game reserve keep the reserve under a certain degree 

of protection. 

However, some recently active and old pit sawing sites were observed, together with several 

traps for small birds and a drift fence to trap large ungulates. Two dead baboons (Papio 

cynocephalus) were found in the river bed, killed by a farmer for raiding his crops, and the 

Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), a species listed as conservation dependant in the IUCN 

Red List (2004), was reported to be hunted. These findings emphasised the local people’s 

largely negative attitudes towards the reserve, as it transpired from structured interviews: 

inhabitants see no reason for the presence of this reserve since they feel that they do not 

benefit from it. 

Bee farming was common here. When material for the construction of beehives is obtained in 

a sustainable way, apiculture has been found to be ecologically preferable to harvesting of 

wild honey, as the latter often results in the cutting of the tree to access the hive (Wegner, 

2003). However, bee farming in Ndechela FR may also result in tree death, as bark is here 

used for the construction of beehives and is extracted by ringing and often killing the trees. 

Since the most desirable piece of bark is a complete circle and as larger pieces of bark result 

in larger hives, large trees are targeted. 

Enquiries at the Department of Natural Resources revealed that minimal management takes 

place in Ndechela FR. The last management action was boundary clearance in 1997, but 

village representatives stated that the boundary is no longer evident. The office would like to 

22 The identification of the Kassina to species level was undertaken by Frontier-Tanzania field staff and is yet to be 

verified. This frog was found in a state of aestivation, sedentary and with closed eyes. When disturbed the 

individual shed a layer of skin and slowly became active. 

168



make an estimate of the volume of timber contained in Ndechela, but little money is available 

for any management. A ‘village fire committee’ had been set up in 1997 to control fires set 

deliberately within the forest, but this is no longer effective. While there are no by-laws 

enacted by the villages, regular patrols of the reserve by game officers from Lukwika- 

Lumesule game reserve provide some level of protection, and future plans include a possible 

link with the Lukwika-Lumesale Game Reserve. 

169



20. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON FOR ALL 

FOREST RESERVES 

G. WEGNER AND O. SWEENEY 

This section serves to summarise and further discuss results for all flora, fauna and human 

resources-use from the eight forest reserves surveyed, and to compare their biological 

importance by assessing values of species richness, diversity, forest dependency, endemism 

and extinction threat. These comparisons will aid in establishing priorities for future 

conservation initiatives in the reserves studied. 

FLORA 

VEGETATION TYPES 

The vegetation found in the study area is distinctive of the Coastal Forest Mosaic, being 

comprised of an assemblage of closed-forest types unique to the Swahilian region sensu lato, 

as well as savanna woodland, thicket, grassland and farmland under cultivation or fallow. 

This mosaic pattern of vegetation types is a consequence of both the heterogeneous set of 

abiotic factors (climate, geology, topography, soils etc.) characterising different sites within 

the study area (see Study Site section), and the various levels of anthropogenic disturbance 

and management occurring within the reserves (Robertson and Clark, 2000) (see Human 

Resource-Use and Local Management sections). 

Various types of eastern African closed-canopy Coastal Forests were identified in the study 

area: Brachystegia forest, Legume-dominated dry forest, Mixed dry forest, Mixed scrub forest 

and Riverine forest (Table 20-a). 

Brachystegia forest was the most dominant vegetation type, occurring extensively on the 

well-drained, nutrient poor and heavily leached soils typical of the Makonde escarpment, a 

landform that encompasses Kambona FR and Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs, and 

the northern edge of Mkunya River proposed FR. Here Brachystegia forest appears to 

constitute a non-fire generated climax community, occurring over soils that have become too 

degraded to support the coastal dry forest vegetation climax original to the eastern African 

coastal strip (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). The cause of this soil erosion is both 

anthropogenic (clearance and shifting cultivation) and natural (the rapid erosion of the 

sandstone plateaux and hills). In the study area Brachystegia trees generally form a closedcanopy 

over a dense to sparse shrub layer, while grasses are thinly distributed or absent. In 

some of the reserves (Kambona FR, Makonde Scarp I and II, Mkunya River and Mtiniko 

proposed FRs), the removal of canopy trees for timber has changed the physiognomy of the 

canopy layer into a more open configuration, and in some cases (Kambona FR, and Mkunya 

River and Mtiniko proposed FRs) has given way to sub canopy species to dominate in terms 

of relative abundance. However, the presence of Swahilian endemic species and the sparse 

character of the grass layer still distinguish this vegetation type from the Brachystegia or 

‘miombo’ woodland that constitutes the fire-generated climax of the Zambezian regional 

centre of endemism 23 (Clarke, 2000). The shrub layer that characterises Brachystegia forest in 

the study area varies from sparse (Kambona FR, and Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp III 

proposed FRs) to dense (Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs). On the slopes of the 

23 The Brachystegia or ‘miombo’ woodland formations of the Zambezian regional centre of endemism are also 

dominated by Brachystegia sp. (B. microphylla or B. spiciformis), but they differ from the coastal Brachystegia 

forest of the Swahilian regional centre of endemism in both ecological and physiognomic terms. They are fireclimax 

vegetations characterised by an open canopy and a dense grass layer, and composed of tree and shrub 

species restricted in distribution to the Zambezian regional centre of endemism (Clarke, 2000). 

170



Makonde escarpment in Mkunya River proposed FR thin understory vegetation is probably 

caused by the steepness of the ground, whereby deep soils fail to develop and support dense 

vegetation. In the other reserves further study will be needed to determine whether the 

sparcity of the shrub layer is a natural incidence (Robertson and Clarke, 2000) or a 

consequence of disturbance. 

Legume-dominated dry forest was found to still occur in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR and 

Ndechela FR. This forest type grows on well-drained soils but appears not to be limited by 

other edaphic conditions (Robertson and Clarke, 2000). In Mtuli Hinju proposed FR it grows 

on deep, well drained sandy soils of low fertility and moisture holding capacity that have 

developed from the coastal sandstone sediments of the eastern African coastal strip. In 

Ndechela it occurs on coarse grained sandy soils that have developed from the pre-Cambrian 

gneisses and granulites extending west of the coastal sediments and south of Masasi. While in 

Mtuli Hinju the canopy layer is typically dominated by few species from the Fabaceae family, 

i.e. Pterocarpus angolensis (subfamily Papilionideae) and Albizia versicolor (subfamily 

Mimosoideae), in Ndechela no particular Fabaceae species appear to dominate the canopy and 

sub canopy layers. Legume-dominated dry forest probably represents a relict of the pre- 

Miocene pan-African lowland forest that once comprised the now separated blocks of West 

African Guineo-Congolian Forest and East African Swahilian Coastal Forest. As such, it is 

possible that prior to human intervention Legume-dominated dry forest covered much of the 

eastern African coastal strip, constituting the climatic vegetation climax for this ecoregion 

(Robertson and Clarke, 2000). This plant community is very vulnerable. The seeds of the 

Fabaceae trees are heavy and not dispersed by wind or animal. Moreover, these seeds do not 

remain viable in the seed bank for long, do not tolerate desiccation, require a forest 

microclimate (shade and high-humidity) to germinate and are pyrophobic (Clarke, 2000). 

Therefore, the complete clearance of this forest type drastically lowers the chances of its 

regeneration on the same sites. These sites can then become dominated by more easily 

dispersed pioneer tree species characteristic of mixed dry forest and mixed scrub forest, at the 

expense of endemic species and plant associations that may be relicts of the ancient Pan- 

African lowland forest (Clarke, 2000). In both Mtuli Hinju proposed FR and Ndechela FR 

human disturbance constitutes a threat to the continuity of Legume-dominated dry forest, and 

it is therefore important to implement conservation measures to protect this vulnerable plant 

community. 

Mixed non-legume-dominated dry forest was found on deep, well-drained sandy soils of low 

fertility and moisture holding capacity that developed from the coastal sandstone sediments in 

Mtiniko proposed FR. Here this community may constitute a regeneration climax that has 

developed in the absence of slower dispersing legume seeds (Clarke and Robertson, 2000). 

Mixed dry forest is generally characterised by a relatively high degree of species richness and 

a dense understory, as found in Mtiniko proposed FR. 

In Makonde Scarp II proposed FR, Mixed scrub forest constitutes a seral stage that resulted 

from the clearance of climax forest and the practice of shifting cultivation, whereby farmland 

is left fallow for at least seven years, allowing grassland first, then Thicket and finally Mixed 

scrub forest to regenerate. If the clearing cycle was not perpetuated this vegetation type could 

complete its succession to climax forest (Gillman, 1954). 

Finally, small patches of Riverine forest were recorded in Kambona FR and Mkunya River 

proposed FR. In both cases big canopy trees characteristic of Riverine forest have been 

removed for use as timber and sub canopy trees have taken over to cover the gaps; what is left 

is a regenerating stage of this vegetation type. 

Thicket, cultivated and fallow farmland were found in all reserves to varying degrees. 

171



Table 20-a Forest types, total number of floral species, diversity index, and number of endemic 

and threatened floral species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed 

Forest 

Reserve 

Vegetation classification 

Kambona Eastern African coastal 

Brachystegia forest and 

Riverine forest 

Makonde Eastern African coastal 

Scarp I 

Makonde 

Scarp II 

Brachystegia forest 

Eastern African coastal 

Brachystegia forest, Mixed 

scrub forest and Thicket 

Mkunya River Eastern African coastal 

Brachystegia forest and 

Riverine forest 

Mtiniko Eastern African coastal 

mixed dry forest 

Mtuli Hinju Eastern African coastal 

Legume-dominated dry forest 

Makonde Eastern African coastal 

Scarp III Brachystegia forest and 

Total 

no. of 

species 

Shannon 

diversity 

index 

No. of species 

endemic to 

the Swahilian 

region sensu 

lato 

79 3.37 7 1 VU 

7 PT 


threatened 

species 

73 2.95 9 1 VU 

7 PT 

76 3.01 7 3 VU 

7 PT 

102 2.80 11 1 CR 

3 VU 

8 PT 

111 2.78 10 1 VU 

9 PT 

122 2.21 7 1 VU 

9 PT 

90 2.75 8 2 VU 

9 PT 

Thicket 

Ndechela Eastern African coastal 78 3.46 10 1 VU 

Legume-dominated dry forest 

8 PT 



SPECIES RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY 

The floral species richness and diversity observed in the studied sites were assessed by taking 

in consideration a combination of factors, including the size of the reserve, the types of plant 

communities present, the level of habitat fragmentation and the degree of disturbance. In this 

study the sampling intensity was chosen to be proportional to the size of each reserve, and 

therefore dissimilar sampling intensities were also responsible for the variations recorded 

(Table 10-a). 

In total 265 plant species were recorded by this study. Mtuli Hinju and Mtiniko proposed FRs 

were found to have the highest floral species richness (122 and 111 species respectively) 

while Makonde Scarp I and II had the lowest number of species recorded (73 and 76 species 

respectively) (Table 20-a). Mixed dry forest is generally characterised by a high number of 

species (Robertson and Clarke, 2000), which may explain the findings from Mtiniko proposed 

FR. The divergence in species richness between the Legume-dominated forests of Mtuli Hinju 

proposed FR (122) and Ndechela FR (78) may be attributed to the high level of fire 

disturbance affecting Ndechela FR, which may be preventing the regeneration of fire 

intolerant species (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). In Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs the 

high proportion of cultivated land comprising the reserves and the conspicuous extraction of 

timber taking place accounted for the low number of species found. 

The highest Shannon diversity index (H¹=3.46) was recorded in Ndechela FR. This is 

associated with the high number of individual trees found here (314 in total) and the lack of a 

single or few dominant species, whereby individual trees are evenly distributed among a 

172

#REF! 



number of species (Magurran, 1988; Begon et al., 1996). The high number of trees in 

Ndechela FR is a consequence of the relatively low level of timber extraction affecting this 

reserve. Shannon diversity indexes for other forest reserves ranged from 2.75 in Mtiniko 

proposed FR to 3.37 in Kambona FR (Table 20-a). These relatively high values reflected plant 

communities in succession (Magurran, 1988), where a comparatively high number of species, 

particularly understory species, can colonise the area and achieve high population densities 

following the removal of more competitive canopy trees (Ndangalasi, 1997). If these forests 

were allowed to fully regenerate, and canopy and sub canopy species to achieve their 

potential population size, then the species diversity would be expected to decline. In Mtuli 

Hinju proposed FR the Shannon diversity index was relatively low (H¹=2.21) in relation to 

the total number of species recorded (116), and this reflected a stable community where 

competitive and productive species have achieved high population densities and have come to 

dominate (Magurran, 1988; Begon et al., 1996). This forest reserve may have reached a 

climatic stage because of the low level of human disturbance occurring with respect to 

encroachment and timber extraction (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management 

sections). 

All forest reserves were subject to some degree of disturbance and this has had a significant 

impact on the vegetation found. In general, there seems to be a relationship between the 

degree of disturbance and the species richness occurring in an area (Figure 20). Mtuli Hinju 

proposed FR was the reserve affected by one of the lowest degrees of disturbance and the one 

with the highest number of species recorded (122). Encroachment and clearance for 

cultivation were most severe in Mkunya River, Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs, 

where they have noticeably reduced the area covered by forest and consequently the number 

of species present (Table 20-a, Figure 20). Where timber extraction was most severe 

(Kambona FR and Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs) the selective removal of canopy 

and sub canopy trees has noticeably reduced the species richness: only 73 species were 

recorded in Makonde Scarp I, 76 in Makonde Scarp II, 79 in Kambona and 90 in Makonde 

Scarp III (Figure 20, Table 20-a). In Mtiniko proposed FR the illegal off take of timber may 

be higher than the study shows, but the intrinsic species richness characteristic of its Mixed 

dry forest may be compensating for this degree of disturbance and may explain the high 

number of species recorded (111). In Ndechela FR levels of encroachment, timber extraction 

and hunting were among the lowest recorded in this study, however, extensive and frequent 

fires may be responsible for the low species richness observed (78 species), since fire inhibits 

the regeneration of fire intolerant species. 

Percentage of 50m sections affected 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Kambona 

Makonde Scarp I 

Makonde Scarp II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde Scarp III 

Ndechela 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Floral species richness 

Cutting 

Fire 

Encroachment 

Species richness 

Figure 20 Graph showing the relationship between floral species richness and levels of 

disturbance 

173



ENDEMISM 

In the whole study area 26 of the species found are endemic to the Swahilian region sensu 

lato, being geographically restricted to the coastal strip of eastern tropical Africa, between the 

equator in Somalia and the Limpopo River in Mozambique (Clarke, 2000) (Table 20-b). 

These endemic species constitute 6% to 12% of the floral species recorded in each forest 

reserve and make up 12% of the total number of species recorded throughout the study (265) 

(Figure 21; Appendix 10). These figures constitute a third of the overall degree of endemism 

recorded by previous studies in other Coastal Forests of Tanzania, where 33% of vascular 

plant species were found to be endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato (Clarke, 2000). The 

relatively low level of endemism found in the surveyed Coastal Forests of the Mtwara Region 

is likely to be a consequence of the high degree of habitat destruction taking place in the area. 

12% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

88% 

Figure 21 Percentage of endemic (to the Swahilian Region sensu lato) and widespread floral 

species for the whole study site 

EXTINCTION THREAT 

Five of the species found are listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List (2004), and another 

25 are recognised to be potentially threatened (Gereau and Luke, 2006), together constituting 

13% of all species recorded (Table 20-b). 

Most of the species listed as threatened by IUCN (2004) and recorded during this study are 

timber trees used by the local communities for a variety of purposes. Cynometra gillmanii 

(Endemic and Critically Endangered) is characterised by a hard wood that is used in 

construction and for making various tool handles. The wood of Mesogyne insignis 

(Vulnerable) is hard and heavy, and is used for building poles and tool handles and for 

firewood. The African mahogany (Khaya anthotheca - Vulnerable) yields a very valuable, 

termite resistant timber that resembles that of the South American true Mahogany (Swietenia 

macrophylla), and is demanded on global markets for joinery and cabinet work and for 

making veneer (Schulman et. al, 1998). 

None of the plant species recorded by this study are classified as Rare by Knox (2000), i.e. 

none of them are present in less than two out of the eight FTEA vegetation regions of 

Tanzania (Polhill, 1988). Such apparent widespread distribution within the Swahilian region 

sensu lato may seem to imply that none of the endemic species recorded are particularly 

threatened by extinction. However, considering the relatively small area of the Coastal Forest 

Mosaic, the high degree of habitat loss and fragmentation it suffers (Brooks et al., 2002), and 

the current criteria for inclusion in the Red List (IUCN, 2004), most endemic species can 

actually be regarded as ‘threatened species’ (CEPF, 2005). In fact, 17 (65%) of the endemic 

plant species occurring in the surveyed reserves are already listed as threatened or potentially 

threatened (Table 20-b). This highlights the importance of the Coastal Forests studied as 

habitats for the endemic plants still found here, and emphasises the urgent need for 

174



conservation measures to protect them. Unfortunately, even if the remaining forest patches 

were to be left intact, their endemic species richness may already not be sustainable in the 

long-term: fragmentation and habitat loss may have caused populations of long-lived endemic 

species (e.g. trees) to become genetically unviable (Cronk, 1997; Clarke et al., 2000). 

Table 20-b Endemic and threatened floral species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed 

Family Species Endemic Threat Reserve 

status status 

ACANTHACEAE Barleria holstii E Kambona, Mtiniko 

ANACARDIACEAE Ozoroa obovata E Makonde Scarp I 

ANNONACEAE Monodora grandidieri E Makonde II, Mtiniko 

ANNONACEAE Monanthotaxis fornicata E PT Makonde II 

ANNONACEAE 

Monanthotaxis 

PT Makonde II 

trichocarpa 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia zimmermannii E PT Makonde III, Ndechela 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon E PT Mtiniko, Makonde III 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora zanzibarica E PT Makonde I, Mkunya River, 

Ndechela 

CELASTRACEAE Maytenus mossambicensis PT Mtuli Hinju 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana E PT Kambona, Makonde II and 

III, Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju, 

Ndechela 

EUPHORBIACEAE Cleistanthus schlechteri E Kambona, Mkunya River, 

Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju 

EUPHORBIACEAE Drypetes natalensis PT Kambona, Makonde I and 

III, Mkunya River, Mtiniko 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata PT Makonde II and III, Mtuli 

Hinju, Ndechela 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cynometra gillmanii E CR Mkunya River 

FABACEAE (CAES) Scorodophloeus fischeri E PT Mkunya River, Makonde 

III, Ndechela 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nilotica PT Mtuli Hinju 

FABACEAE (MIM) Entada stuhlmannii E PT Ndechela 

FABACEAE (PAP) Baphia punctulata PT Kambona 

FABACEAE (PAP) Craibia brevicaudata PT Kambona, Makonde II, 

Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju 

FABACEAE (PAP) Erythrina schliebenii E PT Kambona, Makonde I, 

Mkunya River, Mtiniko, 

Mtuli Hinju 

FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia impressa PT Makonde I and II, Mkunya 

River, Ndechela 

FLACOURTIACEAE Xylotheca tettensis E PT Mkunya River, Mtuli Hinju, 

Makonde III 

MELIACEAE Khaya anthotheca VU Kambona, Makonde II and 

III 

MORACEAE Mesogyne insignis VU Mkunya River, Mtiniko, 

Mtuli Hinju, Makonde III 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum PT Kambona 

RUBIACEAE Gardenia transvenulosa E VU Makonde II, Ndechela 

RUBIACEAE Lamprothamnus 

E PT Makonde I and II, Mkunya 

RUBIACEAE 

zanguebaricus 

Lasianthus 

kilimandscharicus 

PT 

River 

Mtuli Hinju, Makonde III 

175



Family Species Endemic Threat Reserve 

status status 

RUBIACEAE Rytigynia decussata E PT Kambona, Makonde I, 

Mkunya River, Mtiniko, 

Mtuli Hinju 

SAPOTACEAE Mimusops schliebenii E Kambona, Makonde I, 

Mkunya River 

STERCULIACEAE Cola clavata E PT Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju 

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia appendiculata E Makonde I and III, Mkunya 

River, Ndechela 

TILIACEAE Grewia forbesii E Mkunya River 

TILIACEAE Grewia lepidopetala E Kambona, Makonde II and 

III, Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju, 

Ndechela 

VERBENACEAE Vitex mossambicensis E PT Makonde I, Mtiniko, 

Ndechela 

VERBENACEAE Vitex zanzibarensis E VU Makonde I and II, Mkunya 

River 

VIOLACEAE Rinorea angustifolia PT Mtiniko 

VIOLACEAE Rinorea elliptica E Mtiniko 

ZINGIBERACEAE Aframomum orientale E PT Makonde III 

E = Species endemic to the Swahilian region sensu lato (Clarke and Robertson, 2000) 


PT = Potentially Threatened plants in the EACF Hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania (Gereau and Luke, 2006) 

When comparing the forest reserves in terms of percentage endemic and threatened species, 

Makonde Scarp I and III proposed FRs and Ndechela FR contain the highest ratio of endemic 

species (12%), while Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is characterised by the lowest ratio (6%). The 

percentage of threatened species in all reserves ranges between 8-12%. However, no pattern 

could be identified when relating the relative proportion of threatened and endemic species 

recorded in each forest reserve to either the vegetation type where the species occur or the 

degree of disturbance affecting the reserves (Figure 22). 

12 

10 

Percentage 

of total 

8 

6 

4 

2 

% Endemic 

% Threatened 

0 

Kambona Makonde 

I 

Makonde 

II 

Mkunya 

River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli 

Hinju 

Makonde 

III 

Ndechela 

Figure 22 Percentage of endemic (to the Swahilian Region sensu lato) and threatened floral 

species for each forest reserve 

176



FAUNA 

SPECIES RICHNESS 

The faunal species richness observed in the studied sites was determined by taking in 

consideration a combination of factors, including the size of the reserve (Figure 23), the 

structure of the plant communities present, the level of habitat fragmentation and the degree 

of disturbance (Figure 24). In this study the sampling intensity was chosen to be proportional 

to the size of each reserve, and therefore dissimilar sampling intensities were also responsible 

for the variations recorded (Table 10-a). 

Table 20-c Total number of faunal species found in each forest reserve for all studied taxa and, in 

brackets, their percentage contribution to the number of species recorded as a whole in each 

forest reserve 

Taxa 

Large 

mammals 

Kambona 

14 

(13) 

Makonde I 

19 

(14) 

Makonde II 

11 

(11) 

Mkunya River 

17 

(10) 

Mtiniko 

7 

(8) 

Mtuli Hinju 

6 

(7) 

Makonde III 

8 

(9) 

Ndechela 

28 

(16) 

Total 

number 

of species 

for all 

reserves 

38 

Small 

mammals 

8 

(7) 

6 

(4) 

7 

(7) 

10 

(6) 

5 

(6) 

5 

(6) 

5 

(5) 

8 

(5) 

16 

Bats 0 1 

(1) 

0 2 

(1) 

0 0 0 2 

(1) 

5 

Birds 57 

(53) 

78 

(57) 

64 

(65) 

103 

(59) 

56 

(64) 

56 

(66) 

49 

(53) 

97 

(56) 

159 

Reptiles 4 

(4) 

9 

(7) 

7 

(8) 

12 

(7) 

2 

(2) 

1 

(1) 

5 

(5) 

10 

(6) 

30 

Amphibians 5 

(5) 

5 

(4) 

2 

(2) 

8 

(5) 

1 

(1) 

6 

(7) 

3 

(3) 

8 

(5) 

21 

Butterflies 19 

(17) 

20 

(14) 

8 

(8) 

24 

(14) 

17 

(19) 

11 

(13) 

23 

(25) 

21 

(12) 

71 

TOTAL 107 138 99 176 88 85 93 174 340 

The highest numbers of species were recorded in Mkunya River proposed FR and Ndechela 

FR (176 and 174 respectively); while Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju and Makonde Scarp III proposed 

FRs had the lowest number of species (88, 85 and 93 respectively). The high numbers 

recorded for Mkunya River and Ndechela reflect the fact that they were the largest reserves 

surveyed, that they were among the least disturbed by agricultural encroachment, and that a 

high sampling intensity had been applied to them (Table 10-a, Figure 23 and Figure 24). The 

low number of species recorded in Mtiniko and Makonde Scarp III proposed FRs is mainly a 

consequence of the high level of human disturbance that affects both (Figure 24). In Mtiniko 

FR, results from structured interviews suggested that encroachment and illegal off take of 

timber may be higher than the study shows (see Results and Discussion sections). The low 

177



species richness recorded in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR is likely to mainly reflect its small size, 

as the level of disturbance was relatively low in this reserve (Figure 23 and Figure 24). 

7000 

200 

Reserve size (ha.) 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

1000 

0 

Kambona FR 

Mtuli Hinju FR 

Makonde Scarp III FR 

Makonde Scarp II FR 

Mtiniko FR 

Makonde Scarp I FR 

Mkunya River FR 

Ndechela FR 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

No. species recorded 

Size of forest 

reserve (ha.) 

No. species 

Figure 23 Graph showing the relationship between faunal species richness and forest reserve size 

100 

90 

Percentage of 50m sections affected 

80 

70 

60 

Cutting 

Fire 

Encroachment 

Hunting 

Faunal species 

richness 

200 

180 

160 

140 

Faunal species richness 

120 

50 

100 

40 

80 

30 

60 

20 

40 

10 

20 

0 

Kambona 

Makonde 

scarp I 

Makonde 

scarp II 

Mkunya 

River 

Mtiniko Mtuli Hinju Makonde 

scarp III 

Ndechela 

0 

Figure 24 Graph showing the relationship between faunal species richness and levels of 

disturbance 

Birds 

For all forest reserves, birds accounted for the highest proportion of species recorded, ranging 

from 53% to 66% of all records (Table 20-c). This study confirms the direct link between bird 

species richness and the size of the study site observed by Mlingwa et al (2000): the highest 

numbers of birds were recorded in Mkunya River proposed FR (103) and Ndechela FR (97), 

which were the largest reserves in the study area (Table 9-a). Accordingly, Kambona FR and 

178



Mtuli Hinju proposed FR were the smallest reserves surveyed and had low numbers of bird 

species recorded (57 and 56 respectively). It has been considered that vegetation structure is 

more important than habitat continuity in determining the composition of bird communities 

(Waiyaki, 1995 in Mlingwa et al., 2000): a relatively closed-canopy with a shaded and dense 

understory tends to host a higher number of species than a more open canopy with a sparse 

understory. This may explain why in some of the forest reserves that have disjunct patches of 

dense understory forest (Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs), the number of bird species 

recorded was relatively high (78 and 64 respectively). Where the vegetation was instead 

characterised by a sparse shrub layer (Kambona FR and Makonde Scarp III proposed FR), a 

lower number of species seemed to occur (57 and 49 respectively). In Mtiniko proposed FR 

the number of species recorded (56) was surprisingly low considering the dense understory of 

the Mixed dry forest found here (see Flora section). However, this figure may not be 

indicative of the real level of species richness and instead it may reflect the fact that a 

particularly closed-canopy and dense understory made sightings more difficult than in other 

reserves. In Ndechela FR the large size of the reserve (6,216ha) appeared to compensate for 

the evident absence of a dense shrub layer following extensive fire disturbance, and may 

therefore explain the high number of bird species found (97). Another factor responsible for 

variations in bird species richness among the reserves is their proximity to the ridges of the 

Makonde Scarp, where the topographic variation of the escarpment creates an array of 

habitats and nesting sites for birds. Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs 

are all located along the ridges of the Makonde scarp and have high levels of species richness 

(103, 78 and 64 respectively). 

Butterflies 

Butterflies contributed the second highest number of species within almost all of the reserves 

surveyed, ranging from 8-24% of all records (Table 20-c). Butterfly species richness seemed 

to be mainly determined by the size of the reserve and the presence of dense and moisture rich 

vegetation (Kielland, 2000). Mkunya River proposed FR, which was one of the largest 

reserves (Table 9-a), had the highest numbers of butterfly species recorded (24). Accordingly, 

Mtuli Hinju proposed FR was one of the smallest reserves in this study and had one of the 

lowest numbers recorded (11). Where a dense understory was present in at least some patches 

of forest (Makonde scarp I and III, Mtiniko, Mkunya River and Kambona FRs), a high 

number of species was recorded, ranging between 17 and 27. For the same reason, the low 

species richness found in Makonde Scarp II (8 species) may be a consequence of the open and 

dry nature of the vegetation covering most of this reserve (see Flora section). A high 

proportion of species were recorded in small pockets of Riverine forest in Kambona FR and 

Mkunya River proposed FR, confirming a preference for a shaded and moisture rich 

environment by many species. In Ndechela FR extensive fire disturbance has created a sparse 

and dry understory, and the relatively high number of species recorded (21) can therefore be 

attributed to the size of the reserve more than to the structure of the vegetation. 

Large mammals 

Large mammals contributed the third highest number of species within each reserve, ranging 

from 8% to 16% of all records. Most large mammals have extensive home ranges, so the size 

of suitable habitat available is the main factor affecting both the number of species present 

and the size of the populations that can be supported (Begon et al., 1996). Ndechela FR was 

found to contain the highest number of large mammal species (28), a consequence of both the 

continuity of suitable habitat sites within this reserve and its contiguity to the Lukwika- 

Lumesale Game Reserve. On the contrary, Makonde Scarp III and Mtuli Hinju proposed FRs 

had the lowest species richness (8 and 6 species respectively), reflecting their high level of 

fragmentation and the small size of forest habitat remaining. Considering that Mtuli Hinju 

was the least disturbed and fragmented of all the reserves surveyed, the number of large 

mammals recorded was unexpectedly low, though it may be reflective of the small size of the 

179



reserve and the low sampling intensity applied to it (Table 10-a). The number of individuals 

detected for each species was low in most of the reserves. This suggests that the populations 

of most species are suppressed due to a significant degree of disturbance recorded in most of 

the reserves (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management sections), a factor that has 

decreased the extent of suitable habitat and ecological requirements (e.g. prey, shelter) 

necessary to support larger populations. 

Bats 

Bats were recorded only in three reserves (Makonde Scarp I, Mkunya River and Ndechela), 

and only five species in total were recorded. However, the sampling intensity applied to this 

study was not sufficient to effectively assess the much wider cross section of species known 

to inhabit the Coastal Forests (up to 58 species) (Burgess et al., 2000a). 

Small mammals 

Small mammal species richness ranged from five to eight species in all reserves. These 

figures are particularly low, considering that a minimum of 12 and a maximum of 36 species 

have been previously recorded in individual forests of the Coastal Forest Mosaic (Burgess et 

al., 2000a). Such a poor small mammal community in the study sites probably reflects the 

generally open and dry habitat (Zullini, 2003; Begon et al., 1996) that has resulted from the 

various degrees of agricultural encroachment, timber extraction and fire occurring in the 

reserves (see Human Resource-Use and Local Management sections). 

Reptiles and amphibians 

Reptiles and amphibians made up the lowest proportion of all species captured, ranging 

between 1–8% and 1–7 % of all records respectively (Table 20-c). The number of species 

recorded from these taxa was generally low in all survey sites. This is in part a consequence 

of the rapid nature of this study, which did not permit comprehensive collection of data during 

the wet season and the study of fossorial species (Broadley and Howell, 2000). Higher 

numbers of individuals were generally found in small patches of vegetation surrounding a 

water body (in Kambona and Ndechela FRs, and in Mkunya River and Mtuli Hinju proposed 

FRs), where dense vegetation and moist humus soil create an ideal breeding ground for these 

species (Howell, 1993). Of the reserves containing a water body, the highest species richness 

was recorded along the Mkunya River (12 for reptiles and 8 for amphibians), reflecting the 

high sampling intensity applied to this reserve. In Kambona FR and Mtuli Hinju proposed FR 

the overall number of species was lower than expected (4 reptiles and 5 for amphibians in 

Kambona FR; 1 for reptiles and 6 for amphibians in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR) and may 

reflect the low sampling intensity chosen (Table 10-a). Lower numbers were recorded in those 

reserves not endowed with a sufficiently large water source and where severe levels of 

encroachment, timber extraction and burning have created a largely open and dry 

environment (Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs) (Table 20-c) (Zullini, 2003; Begon 

et al., 1996). In Ndechela FR the reptile species composition and species richness (10 species) 

were typically determined by the presence of numerous rocky microhabitats, which may have 

compensated for the absence of moisture rich habitats. However, the amphibian community in 

this reserve remains characterised by a low number of species (8) mainly captured from a few 

stagnant pools along seasonal river beds. 

FOREST DEPENDENCE 

The number of forest dependent faunal species found in any given reserve was generally low, 

indicating that large portions of the study sites have been converted into a more open and dry 

habitat, leaving only a few, and often small, patches of suitable forest habitat. 

Forest dependent species were mainly recorded in the dense understory of Brachystegia forest 

(in Makonde scarp I and III proposed FR), Mixed dry forest (in Mtiniko) and Riverine forest 

180



(in Mkunya River and Kambona). The highest number of forest dependent species (14) and 

individuals were recorded in Mtiniko proposed FR, reflecting the extensive area of 

undisturbed forest occurring in this reserve. A high number of forest dependent species was 

expected in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR, as relatively dense and undisturbed Legume-dominated 

dry forest covers most of this reserve. However, only five forest dependent species were 

recorded here (Table 20-d), which may be explained by the small size of this reserve (296ha) 

and/or the low sampling intensity applied to it (Table 10-a). 

In general, in most of the reserves studied forest dependent species rely on fragmented 

patches of remaining forest and are therefore locally threatened by further degradation of their 

habitat. 

Mammals 

When compared to the West African Guineo-Congolian forests, the proportion of forest 

dependent mammals in the East African Swahilian Coastal Forests is low: on average, only 

20% of mammal species are forest dependent (compared to 70% in the Guineo-Congolean 

Forest), 42% are forest dwelling and 37% are habitat generalists or not known (Burgess et al., 

2000a). The dominance of non-forest species may be due to the fact that the Coastal Forests 

are naturally fragmented, surrounded by open habitats and dry for part of the year. In the 

Mtwara Region these characteristics are further accentuated by high levels of encroachment 

and disturbance, and this explains the even lower proportion of mammal forest dependent 

species recorded here. None of the small mammal species recorded are forest dependent, one 

bat species (Epomophorus wahlbergi) is forest dwelling but not forest dependent, and only 

five of the large mammals are forest dependent, constituting 13% of all large mammal species 

recorded and including the Moloney’s monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis sub sp.), the Red-bellied 

coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliates), the Blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), the Natal 

duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) and the Suni (Neotragus moschatus) (Table 20-d). Many of 

these forest dependent species were recorded in small pockets of forest amidst large areas of 

disturbed habitat and are therefore locally threatened by the limited size of suitable forest 

habitat available and the scarcity of ecological requirements (e.g. food, shelter) necessary to 

support viable populations. 

Most other large mammals recorded only occasionally frequent the forest and are therefore 

less affected by degradation of the forest habitat. Nonetheless, these species may need the 

forest reserves as a corridor between suitable patches of habitat or for alternative sources of 

food and shelter. Predators such as the Lion (Panthera leo - Vulnerable, CITES II) and the 

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta - conservation dependent) are able to utilise different habitats 

and to adapt well to changes in their environment, and so are likely to be less threatened by 

further forest degradation. Nevertheless, any reduction in habitat will reduce the visits of 

these animals as shelter and populations of predated animals are likely to decrease. Further 

research needs to be conducted to assess the extent of reliance of large mammals and 

predators on the eight forest reserves studied. 

Birds 

Forest dependent bird species rely on a canopy-shaded and dense understory (Mlingwa et al., 

2000). This explains why forest dependent species were observed to occur only among the 

dense lianas and shrubs of the Mixed dry forest in Mtiniko proposed FR and in small but 

dense patches of Brachystegia, Legume-dominated and/or Riverine forest in Mkunya River, 

Mtuli Hinju, and Makonde Scarp I and III proposed FRs. These species include the African 

crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the 

Yellow streaked greenbul (Phyllastrephus flavostriatus), the Fischer’s greenbul (P. fischeri), 

the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi), the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher 

(Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi) (Table 20-d). The 

181



total number of forest dependent species (7) is surprisingly low when considering that 33 bird 

species in total have been recognised as forest dependent by previous studies in the Coastal 

Forests (Mlingwa, 2000). This low number of forest dependent species is a consequence of 

the largely disturbed nature of the forests in the study area, whereby the few patches of 

suitable forest habitat remaining are often too small to sustain viable populations of forest 

bird species. 

Reptiles 

For the reptiles, of all the species recorded only the Tropical plated lizard (Cordylus 

tropidosternum) and the Rufus egg-eater (Dasypeltis medici) are known to favour a forested 

habitat, and even these species were only found in one forest reserve each (Makonde Scarp I 

and Kambona respectively). This paucity of forest dwelling and forest dependent reptile 

species in the studied sites is striking when considering that 50% of reptile species recorded 

by previous studies in the Coastal Forests are forest dependent (Broadley and Howell, 2000). 

Amphibians 

For the amphibians, only the Yellow-spotted tree frog (Leptopelis flavomaculatus), the 

Spotted reed frog (Hyperolius punticulatus) and the Squeakers (Arthroleptis sp.) are known to 

favour a forested habitat (Schiotz, 1999; Channing, 2001). The paucity of forest dwelling and 

forest dependent amphibian species is a recurrent characteristic of the Coastal Forests, as the 

majority of species recorded by previous studies are open-site breeders rather than strictly 

forest-limited species. The intrusion into forested areas by species that normally inhabit 

transient open situations is known to be a recurrent characteristic encouraged by the 

heterogeneous pattern of the Coastal Forest Mosaic, whereby such species breed in their open 

habitat but enter the enclosed habitat for refuge, especially during dry periods (Poynton, 

2000). The Squeakers recorded by this study (Arthroleptis stenodactylus and A. 

xenodactyloides) are common species that were found in all reserves studied. However, these 

species favour a forested habitat as they rely on the presence of damp soil and loose leaf 

mould protected from shrub and canopy cover to lay their eggs (Howell, 1993), so they may 

become locally threatened by further loss of forest habitat. 

Butterflies 

For the butterflies, nine species are thought to be forest dependent (Larsen, 1996), and were 

mainly recorded in the dense understory of Brachystegia forest (in Makonde scarp I and III 

proposed FR), Mixed dry forest (in Mtiniko) and Riverine forest (in Mkunya River and 

Kambona) (Table 20-d). 

Table 20-d Forest dependent faunal species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed 

Taxon Species Common name Forest Reserve found 

Mammals Cercopithecus mitis (sub sp.) Moloney’s monkey Mkunya River, Mtiniko, 

Makonde Scarp III, Ndechela 

Paraxerus palliatus Red bellied coastal squirrel Kambona, Mkunya River, 

Mtiniko 

Cephalophus monticola Blue duiker Makonde Scarp I, Mtuli Hinju, 

Ndechela 

Cephalophus natalensis Natal duiker Makonde Scarp II, 

Mkunya River 

Neotragus moschatus Suni Kambona, Makonde Scarp I 

Birds Stephanoaetus coronatus African crowned eagle Makonde Scarp I 

Smithornis capensis African broadbill Makonde Scarp I and III, 

Mkunya River, Mtiniko and 

Mtuli Hinju 

Phyllastrephus flavostriatus Yellow streaked greenbul Mtiniko 

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Taxon Species Common name Forest Reserve found 

Phyllastrephus fischeri Fischer’s greenbul Mtiniko 

Sheppardia gunningi East coast akalat Mtiniko 

Butterflies 

Trochocercus cyanomelas 

Blue-mantled crested 

flycatcher 

Kambona, Mkunya River, 

Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju and 


Batis reichenowi Reichenow’s batis Mtiniko 

Gnophodes betsimena diversa Banded evening brown Makonde Scarp III 

Bematistes epaea epitellus - Kambona 

Charaxes lasti lasti Silver striped charaxes Mkunya River, Mtiniko, Mtuli 

Hinju, Makonde Scarp III 

Charaxes protoclea azota Flame bordered charaxes Kambona, Mkunya River and 


Cymothoe herminia - Makonde Scarp III 

Euphaedra neophron littoralis Gold banded forester Mkunya River, Mtiniko, 

Makonde Scarp III, Ndechela 

Euxanthe wakefieldi Forest queen Makonde Scarp I and III 

Harma theobene blassi Glider Mtiniko, Makonde Scarp III 

Neptis alta Common sailor Mtuli Hinju and Makonde 

Scarp III 

ENDEMISM 

A total of four species recorded, including one bird (Batis reichenowi), one reptile 

(Platysaurus maculatus), one amphibian (Mertensophryne micranotis) and one butterfly 

(Charaxes lasti lasti) are recognised to be strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests alone or the 

Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests (Table 20-e). These species constitute only 1-2% 

of all species recorded in each forest reserve, no reserve containing more than two strictly 

endemic species, and make up less than 2% of the total number of species recorded (340) 

(Figure 25, Table 20-e). This values are low when compared to those recorded by previous 

studies in the Swahilian region sensu lato, according to which up to 7% of the mammals, 10% 

of the birds, 57% of the reptiles, 36% of the amphibians and 19% of the butterflies are Eastern 

Arc Mountains and/or Coastal Forests endemics (Burgess and Clarke, 2000; CEPF, 2005). 

This discrepancy between our and previous findings in the Coastal Forests reflects the small 

size of forest habitat remaining within the reserves studied, which is a consequence of the 

high degree of agricultural encroachment and human disturbance occurring here. 

2% 

% widespread 

% endemic 

98 

Figure 25 Percentage of strictly endemic and widespread faunal species for the whole study site 

No major differences can be observed when comparing the forest reserves in terms of their 

faunal endemism, all reserves being characterised by a low proportion of such species. The 

highest number of endemic species was found in Mtiniko proposed FR (2) (Table 20-e) 

(Figure 27). 

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Birds 

The Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi) was recorded only in Mtiniko proposed FR. This 

species has been recognised as a separate species from the Forest batis (Batis mixta) by 

Mlingwa et al. (2000) and Baker and Baker (2002). According to this classification, B. 

reichenowi is strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests, representing the only example of such 

strict endemism for this study. On the contrary, IUCN (2004) and BirdLife International 

(2005) have classified both species of batis as B. mixta, and under this classification this bird 

is considered to be more widespread than if it was a separate species, and therefore of less 

interest. The East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable) is not a strictly endemic 

species, but it has a restricted distribution in the Coastal Forests and a few other forest types 

in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, and Coastal Mozambique. Another eight of the birds recorded 

are broadly endemic, being restricted to eastern Africa (Lybius melanopterus), or southeastern 

Africa (Erythrocercus livingstonei, Batis soror, Ploceus subareus, Nicator gularis and 

Phyllastrephus flavostriatus). 

Reptiles 

The Spotted flat-lizard (Platysaurus maculatus) is strictly endemic to northern Mozambique 

and the Masasi district in south-eastern Tanzania. This species has a specific habitat 

requirement: it only inhabits rock outcrops of granite, gneiss and sandstone that weather to 

produce thin fissures where it seeks refuge (Spawls et al., 2002). During this study, this lizard 

was only recorded in Ndechela FR, but here it was found to be abundant due to the presence 

of granite kopjes protruding from the plain up to 800m and creating a large quantity of rocky 

microhabitats. 

Amphibians 

The ‘true’ toad Mertensophryne micranotis is a strictly endemic species restricted in its 

habitat range to the Eastern Arc lowland and the Coastal Forest Mosaic of south-eastern 

Kenya and eastern Tanzania, occurring mainly in closed-canopy forest, but also in thicket and 

miombo woodland within the mosaic (Conservation International, 2005; IUCN et al., 2004). 

This bufonidae species was found in an area of regenerating Brachystegia forest, 

demonstrating that this species can also survive in modified secondary habitats, as long as 

there is good cover necessary to provide moisture rich crevices where eggs are laid and larvae 

develop (Howell et al., 2000). 

Mammals 

None of the mammal species recorded by this study are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests 

alone or the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests. However, it is likely that shrews 

(Crocidura sp.) collected from this survey will yield interesting results once taxonomic 

verification is accomplished. The shrews of the Coastal Forests of Tanzania are poorly known 

and already there are five unidentified species that have been collected from these forests, 

each from a separate site (Burgess and Clarke, 2000). Two of the mammals found, the Smalleared 

bushbaby (Otolemur garnetti - CITES II) and the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei - 

near threatened) are not strictly endemic species, but are rare species with restricted 

distribution in eastern Africa. Otolemur garnetti is a forest dwelling species endemic to the 

Coastal Forests and a few other habitats in coastal eastern Africa (Burgess et al., 2000). This 

galagonidae species was only recorded in small pockets of riverine forest in Kambona FR and 

Makonde Scarp I proposed FR, suggesting that the local persistence of this species may be 

threatened. Beamys hindei is a relic species endemic to a few forest types in Kenya and 

Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests. Until recently it was 

regarded as one of the rarest rodents in Africa (Groombridge, 1994) but it is now known to be 

more widespread (Burgess et al., 2000). Our survey in the Mtwara Region seems to support 

this evidence, with most of the surveyed reserves holding relatively abundant populations. 

The highest abundance for Beamys was however found in Kambona FR and Mtiniko 

184



proposed FR, where the quality of the forest was better than in most other reserves (see 

Results sections). 

Butterflies 

Only one endemic species was found, the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), which 

is restricted to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of 

Kenya and Tanzania (Congdon and Bampton, 2005) (Appendix 17). Consequently, even 

though the relatively high species richness of the butterfly communities observed accounts for 

the biological importance of the studied sites, these sites are not characterised by the unique 

butterfly fauna found in other Coastal Forests of Tanzania (Kielland and Cordeiro, 2000). 

Table 20-e Endemic faunal species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed 

Taxon 

Species and their region of Common name Forest Reserve found 

endemism 

Small mammals Beamys hindei 

(EACF and a few other forest 

types in Kenya and Tanzania) 

Lesser pouched rat Kambona, Makonde 

Scarp I and III, 

Mkunya River, 

Large mammals 

Otolemur garnetti 

(CF and a few other habitats in 

coastal E Africa) 

Small-eared galago 

Birds Batis reichenowi (CF) Reichenow’s batis Mtiniko 

Sheppardia gunningi 

(CF and a few other forest types 

in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, 

and coastal Mozambique) 

East coast akalat Mtiniko 

Reptiles 

Amphibians 

Butterflies 

Platysaurus maculatus 

(N Mozambique and Masasi 

district in SE Tanzania) 

Mertensophryne micranotis 

(EAC lowland) 

Charaxes lasti lasti 

(EAC lowland) 

Spotted flat lizard 

Mtiniko 

Kambona, Makonde 

Scarp I 

Ndechela 

Mkunya River, 

Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju, 




E Africa = eastern Africa; SE Tanzania = south-eastern Tanzania 

EXTINCTION THREAT 

The proportion of threatened faunal species (i.e. listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered 

or Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List and/or in CITES Appendix I) recorded by this study was 

low. Only seven threatened species were found, including four large mammals (Rhynchocyon 

cirnei, Loxodonta africana, Panthera leo and Panthera pardus), two birds (Sheppardia 

gunningi and Falco peregrinus), and one amphibian (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides) which 

together constitute 2% of all fauna recorded by this study (Figure 25). However, according to 

IUCN’s current (2004) criteria for classification of threatened species, the small area of the 

Coastal Forest Mosaic and the high degree of threat it faces imply that the few endemic 

species recorded (Batis reichenowi, Platysaurus maculatus, Mertensophryne micranotis and 

Charaxes lasti lasti) can also be considered ‘threatened species’ (CEPF Portfolio, 2005). 

No major differences can be observed when comparing the forest reserves in terms of their 

richness of threatened species, all reserves being characterised by a generally low proportion 

of such species. The largest number of threatened species was found in Mtiniko proposed FR 

185



(3) and Ndechela FR (3) (Table 20-f). When including species with a lower degree of threat 

(i.e. near threatened and conservation dependent) in the comparative analysis, Ndechela still 

scores as the reserve hosting the highest number of species of conservation status (four 

mammals and two birds), followed by Mkunya River (three mammals and one bird) and 

Kambona (two mammals and one bird). 

Mammals 

Among the threatened mammals recorded, the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon 

cirnei - Vulnerable) was the most frequently recorded, being sighted in Kambona and 

Ndechela FRs and Mkunya River, Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju proposed FRs. The elephant 

shrews (Rhynchocyon sp.) observed in this study range in colour from light grey with white 

marks to dark grey and rufous with very indistinct chequers, with intermediate variations 

between these. These colour variations match those described for several subspecies of the 

Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei). The particularly dark elephant shrew 

observed in Mkunya River and Mtiniko proposed FRs is likely to represent a sub-species of 

the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei macrurus) rather than a range extension 

for the similar looking Black and rufous elephant shrew (R. petersi) (Rathbun, 2005; Corbet, 

1970). 24 The finding of Rhynchocyon cirnei in these reserves confirms the Coastal Forests to 

be a globally important area for the elephant shrews, closely followed by the Eastern Arc 

Mountains (Rathbun, 2005; Burgess et al., 2000a). Rhynchocyon species are forest-dwellers 

that rely on dense vegetation cover to produce the thick leaf litter they require for foraging 

and nest construction (Rathbun, 2005). R. cirnei may therefore become locally threatened 

should further habitat destruction ensue. 

The Elephant (Loxodonta Africana - Vulnerable, CITES I) was only recorded in Ndechela 

from an old footprint and the extent of its occurrence in the studied area needs further 

clarification. 

The Leopard (Panthera pardus) was found to inhabit sheltered areas near the cliff face in 

Makonde Scarp II proposed FR and was reported by local residents to occur in the adjacent 

Makonde Scarp I proposed Fr and Kambona FR. This species is listed on CITES Appendix I 

(2005) as threatened with extinction and therefore excluded from international trade. If its 

presence in these sites will be confirmed then its protection will be necessary. 

Mammal species Red listed with a lower degree of threat were also recorded in various 

reserves. These included one near threatened mammal species - the Lesser pouched rat 

(Beamys hindei), and seven conservation dependent mammal species - the Spotted hyena 

(Crocuta crocuta), the Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), the Greater kudu (Tragelaphus 

strepsiceros), the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), the Sable antelope (Hippotragus 

niger), the Suni (Neotragus moschatus) and the Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus). 

Birds 

The East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable) was only recorded in Mtiniko 

proposed FR (Figure 26). S. gunningi has a restricted distribution in the Coastal Forests and a 

few other forest types in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, and Coastal Mozambique, and therefore 

the relatively high number of individuals captured (five during 37.5 hours of mist netting) 

indicates that Mtiniko proposed FR is an important area for this threatened species. The 

presence of more than a threshold population of this bird would also confirm the designation 

of Mtiniko proposed FR as a Bird Important Area (Baker and Baker, 2002). 



to occur (Rathbun and Butinski, 2005; Corbet, 1970). 

186



Figure 26 The East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi) photographed in Mtiniko proposed FR 

The Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) was observed on cliffs in Makonde Scarp II 

proposed FR and in Mtiniko proposed FR. This bird is listed on CITES Appendix I (2005) as 

a species threatened with extinction and further endangered by international trade, from which 

is therefore excluded. Three near threatened bird species were also recorded in various 

reserves: the Southern Banded snake eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus), a Lovebird (Agapornis 

lilianae), and the Grey-crested helmet shrike (Prionops poliolophus). 

Amphibians 

The Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides) is a forest dwelling species that was 

commonly captured in Brachystegia forest in Kambona FR, Mkunya River proposed FR, and 

Makonde Scarp I and II proposed FRs. This species favours a forested habitat as it relies on 

the presence of damp soil and loose leaf mould protected from shrub and canopy cover to lay 

their eggs (Howell, 1993), and it is consequently threatened by further loss of forest habitat. 

Table 20-f Threatened faunal species found in the eight forest reserves surveyed 

Taxon Species Common name IUCN Forest Reserve found 

Large 

mammals 

Rhynchocyon cirnei Chequered 

Elephant shrew 

VU Kambona, Mkunya River, 

Mtiniko, Mtuli Hinju, Ndechela 

Loxodonta Africana African elephant VU Ndechela 

Panthera leo Lion VU Ndechela 

Panthera pardus Leopard CITES I Makonde II, Ndechela 

Birds Sheppardia East coast akalat VU Mtiniko 

gunningi 

Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon CITES I Makonde Scarp II, Mtiniko 

Amphibians Arthroleptis 

xenodactyloides 

Dwarf squeaker VU Kambona, Makonde Scarp I and 

III, Mkunya River 


CITES I = Threatened with extinction and excluded from international trade; CITES II = Not yet threatened with 

extinction, but may be so if trade is not regulated, thus export permits are required (CITES, 2005) 

187



3 

2.5 

Species 

number 

2 

1.5 

1 

Endemic 

Threatened 

0.5 

0 

Kambona Makonde 

I 

Makonde 

II 

Mkunya 

River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli 

Hinju 

Makonde 

III 

Ndechela 

Figure 27 Number of strictly endemic and threatened faunal species for each forest reserve 

IMPORTANT BIRD AREAS (IBA) 

Five of the forests reserves studied (Mtiniko, Mkunya River, and Makonde Scarp I, II and III 

proposed FRs) have been designated as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) of Tanzania (BirdLife 

International, 2005; Baker and Baker, 2002). Our findings for the avifauna of these reserves 

seem to confirm their designations. 

Mtiniko proposed FR has been selected to constitute the Mtwara District Coastal Forests IBA 

(TZ052 - category A1) (BirdLife International, 2005) because of the presence of more than a 

threshold population of the Southern banded snake eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus), a species 

categorized by the IUCN Red List (2004) as near threatened. Currently, Mtiniko proposed FR 

is recognised as the only forest comprising the TZ052 IBA. Circaetus fasciolatus was 

recorded in Mtiniko proposed FR during this study, along with another IUCN threatened 

species (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable), confirming the classification of this reserve as an 

IBA. Mtiniko proposed FR is also where the highest number of forest dependent bird species 

(6) was recorded during this study, reflecting the extensive area of undisturbed forest 

occurring in this reserve. Moreover, if the Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi - Coastal 

Forests Endemic) found here was to be confirmed as a separate species from the Forest batis 

(B. mixta), then this IBA would become part of a Secondary or Full Endemic Bird Area 

(EBA) (Baker and Baker, 2002). 

Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs constitute the Newala District 

Coastal Forests IBA (TZ053 - category A1) (BirdLife International, 2005). They were also 

selected because of the presence of more than a threshold population of C. fasciolatus, and 

findings of this bird in Makonde Scarp II seem to confirm this designation. C. fasciolatus was 

not recorded in Mkunya River proposed FR during this study, nor were other IUCN 

threatened species. Nevertheless, the importance of Mkunya River proposed FR for birds is 

highlighted by the fact that it contains the highest species richness recorded during this study 

(103 species). 

Circaetus fasciolatus was also recorded in Kambona FR, which is adjacent to the Makonde 

escarpment. If more than a threshold population of this species was found to be present in 

188



Kambona FR than this reserve could be designated as a component of the Newala District 

Coastal Forests IBA. Further research is required to confirm this. 

RANGE EXTENSIONS AND NEW RECORDS 

The study revealed some interesting range extensions (Table 20-g), i.e. species found to occur 

outside their previously documented habitat and/or geographical range (see Methods section). 

These include the Lesser bushbaby (Galago moholi), the Grey-crested helmet shrike 

(Prionops poliolophus - near threatened), the Red-headed bluebill (Spermophaga ruficapilla) 

and one sub-species of the Savanna vine snake (Thelotornis capensis oatesi). 

The Lesser bushbaby (Galago moholi - CITES II) 25 is an arboreal species usually found in the 

semiarid scrub woodlands and savanna grasslands of central southern Africa (Alvarado, 

2000). The finding of this species in the closed-canopy Coastal Forests of southern Tanzania 

(in Makonde Scarp I, Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju proposed FRs) therefore represents an 

extension of both the habitat range and the geographical range documented for this species. 

The Grey-crested helmet shrike (Prionops poliolophus - near threatened) 26 has been 

previously recorded to inhabit open woodland and wooded grassland, including 

Acacia/Tarchonanthus vegetation (1,200-2,200m), in a restricted area of south-western Kenya 

and adjacent areas of northern Tanzania (BirdLife International, 2005). The Red-headed 

bluebill (Spermophaga ruficapilla) has been formerly reported to be a fairly common resident 

of primary forest and secondary growth in western Kenya and a scarcer one in north-eastern 

Tanzania. Records of these species in the Coastal Forests of southern Tanzania (in Mkunya 

River proposed FR and Ndechela FR) therefore indicate a range extension. 

A species of Vine snake (Thelotornis sp.) characterised by high ventral counts and a black and 

pink Y-shape on the head was recorded in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR and was recognised 

to be a sub-species of the Savanna vine snake (Thelotornis capensis oatesi) 27 . This species has 

been previously recorded to occur across the Tanzanian border at Mbala, Zambia (Spawls et 

al., 2002). If the identification is confirmed then this record represents a range extension of 

this specie into Tanzania. 

A species of skink sighted in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR and Ndechela FR was 

recognised to resemble either the Rainbow Skink (Trachylepis margaritifer) or the Five-lined 

skink (Trachylepis quinquetaeniata). T. margaritifer is already known to occur in central and 

south-eastern Tanzania. T. quinquetaeniata, on the contrary, has not been recorded to occur 

south of the border with Kenya, apart from a record in Kwa Mtoro (north of Dodoma) 

(Spawls et al., 2002), and its record in the Mtwara Region would therefore represent a range 

extension. Further research is needed to ascertain this. 

Finally, some of the widespread and common bird species observed during this study are 

likely to constitute new records in the studied area, among which the Verreaux’s eagle 

(Aquila verreauxii - CITES II), the White-naped raven (Corvus albicollis), the White-browed 

sparrow-weaver (Plocepasser mahali), the Black saw-wing (Psalidoprocne holomelas), the 

Lesser seedcracker (Pyrenestes minor), the African wood owl (Strix woodfordii - CITES II) 

and the Red-faced crombec (Sylvietta whytii) (Jacob Kiure’s personal comms, 2005). 

Some of the butterflies were also recorded in the Mtwara Region for the first time. Such 

species include the Constantine’s swallowtail (Papilio constantinus constantinus), the 


26 The field identification of Prionops poliolophus was undertaken by Jacob Kiure (Appendix 1). 

27 The field identification of Thelotornis capensis oatesi was undertaken by Michele Menegon (Appendix 1). We 

are awaiting taxonomic confirmation. 

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Cambridge vagrant (Nepheronia thalassina), the Coastal hairstreak (Hypolycaena pachalica), 

a Novice species (Amauris ochlea ochlea), Coenyropsis carcassoni, the Savannah charaxes 

(Charaxes etesipe), the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), Cymothoe herminia, the 

Gold banded forester (Euphaedra neophron littoralis), the Golden piper (Eurytela dryope 

angulata), Neptidopsis fulgurata platyptera, the Lilac tree nymph (Sallya amulia rosa) and 

the Black tipped acraea (Acraea equatorialis anaemia) (Davenport, 2001; Larsen, 1996; 

Kielland, 1990). 

Table 20-g Species found to occur outside their documented range. See Appendix 2 for the GPS 

co-ordinates of the base camps in each reserve 

Taxon Genus Species 

Mammals Galago moholi 0 0 0 

Bird 

Kambona 

Prionops Poliolophus s s 

Spermophaga ruficapilla X 

Makonde I 

Reptiles Thelotornis capensis oatesi X 

X = Confirmed by specimen, s = sight records, 0 = calls or signs 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 


The level of disturbance was found to be high throughout the eight forest reserves surveyed. 

Table 20-h displays and compares the percentage of 50m sections that were subject to 

disturbance and, more specifically, the incidence of different forms of disturbance. In four 

forest reserves over 90% of sections showed some sign of disturbance (Makonde Scarp III - 

100%, Makonde Scarp II - 96%, Mkunya River and Kambona - 95%). Lower percentages 

were recorded for Mtuli Hinju (57%) and Mtiniko (60%). However, different types of 

disturbance affect the forest reserves with varying degrees. 

Table 20-h Percentage of different types of disturbance found in the eight forest reserves 

surveyed, recorded as occurring in 50m sections along transect lines 

% 

disturbance 

% of 

cultivation 


cutting 


fire 


paths 


bark 

ringing 

Kambona 95 0 95 9 27 9 0 

Makonde Scarp I 87 29 78 70 8 2 0 

Makonde Scarp II 96 41 87 73 19 3 1 

Mkunya River 95 2 94 41 8 0 0 

Mtiniko 60 0 39 8 15 0 5 

Mtuli Hinju 57 5 43 15 8 0 3 

Makonde Scarp III 100 43 87 30 22 0 0 

Ndechela 74 0 18 72 9 0 1 


traps 

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Burgess et al. (2000b) cite conversion to agriculture as the most destructive use of the Coastal 

Forests of eastern Africa, since it involves the complete removal of the native flora and the 

fauna it hosts, and their replacement with a monoculture. This problem is exacerbated by the 

common practice of shifting cultivation, where people clear new land after exhausting the 

fertility of the previously cultivated land. This is a traditional cultivation practice that has 

become unsustainable due to population growth and an increase of demand on land that 

exceeds the regeneration capacity of the forest. 

The reserves most affected by agricultural encroachment are Makonde Scarp I (29%), II 

(42%) and III (43%) proposed FRs. Here even the cultivation of slopes that are unsuitable for 

agriculture was attempted (Figure 28). In fact, 

the soils of the escarpment are infertile and 

vulnerable to erosion by heavy seasonal rains 

characteristic of this part of Tanzania (Clarke, 

2000). Although our study indicated a low 

level of encroachment in Mkunya River 

proposed FR (2% of sections), in fact the 

valleys cutting through the escarpment have 

been largely transformed into cashew nut 

(Anacardium occidentale) plantations. On the 

contrary, in Kambona, Mtiniko and Ndechela 

FRs encroachment was negligible or absent, 

but it occurs right up to the reserve 

boundaries. It was observed that encroachment 

into reserves occurs more extensively where 

the forest boundaries are not clearly 

demarcated, and farmers seem to be more 

reluctant to encroach into an area if it is 

clearly marked as being a reserve. 

Figure 28 Cultivation on steep slopes in 

Makonde Scarp III Proposed FR 

Pole and timber extraction 

Timber extraction was calculated by Burgess and Mbwana (2000) by looking at logging 

volumes and commercial value. This type of analysis was not in the scope of this study, 

therefore stringent comparisons with our findings cannot be carried out and further study will 

be needed to monitor levels of extraction in the future. 

Five of the eight reserves had overall levels of pole cutting above the 7% average value 

reported by Burgess et al. (2000b) from previous studies of Coastal Forests. Furthermore, 

pole cutting in all of these five reserves was above the upper limit of 16% found by Burgess et 

al. (2000b). This suggests that levels of pole cutting in the Coastal Forests of the Mtwara 

Region are high relative to other Coastal Forest regions. Kambona and Mkunya River FRs 

were found to be severely affected by pole and timber cutting (>90% of sections), followed 

by Makonde Scarp I, II and III (78-87%), whereas Ndechela, Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju FRs 

were relatively less affected (18, 39 and 43% respectively). 

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In all studied sites, pole cutting and timber harvesting were selective. As this study and 

previous evidence illustrate, the most desirable species are utilised first until supplies for 

commercial use are exhausted, at which point a different species is targeted (Milledge and 

Kaale, 2005; Burgess and Mbwana, 2000). Findings from this study seem to match those 

obtained by TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa in the regions south of the Rufiji River in 2001- 

2, with the Gum copal (Hymenaea verrucosa), the African teak (Pterocarpus angolensis), the 

Snake bean tree (Swartzia madagascariensis) and the Pod mahogany (Afzelia quanzensis) 

being reported by local inhabitants as popular hard wood timber species, followed by Millettia 

stuhlmannii, Milicia excelsa (near threatened) and Dalbergia melanoxylon (near threatened). 

Selective pole and timber harvesting is ecologically destructive as it alters the plant species 

composition of an area (Mremi, 1998), which can in turn affect the faunal species utilising 

that area (Vallan et al., 2004). Selective timber extraction has been shown to affect such 

diverse taxa as amphibians (Vallan et al., 2004) and birds (Robinson and Robinson, 1999). 

Furthermore, because tree species differ greatly in their dispersal abilities (Russo 2003; 

Cordeiro et al. 2004; McEuan and Curran, 2004; White et al., 2004) the ability of species to 

recolonise an area after local extinction is far from certain. 

The degree of pole and timber cutting was observed to be linked to the density of the 

population living nearby the reserves. The high population growth rate of the Mtwara Region 

(Luanda, 1998), especially around Kambona FR and the Makonde Scarp as a whole, 

combined with the fact that approximately 300 poles are required per house (Burgess et al., 

2000b), implies that levels of pole cutting will increase in the future. This harvesting is 

destructive and mitigation measures need to be put in place (see Conservation 

Recommendations section). 

In addition to timber and pole cutting, pit sawing was found to be widespread, with five of the 

eight studied reserves containing at least one recently active or old pit-sawing site (Figure 29). 

Burgess and Mbwana (2000) state that pit sawing is usually carried out by individuals from 

outside the area where it occurs, with the result that local inhabitants do not benefit from the 

activity. Hence, they lose their natural resources with no gain. Milledge and Elibariki (2005) 

also highlighted the discrepancy in levels of income earned by local people and those who 

export the timber – the price is 100 

times lower at the village level. 

Their study also illustrates that 

districts in the Mtwara Region 

accounted for a low proportion of 

those timber licences that were 

issued in 2001-2002. This implies 

that either commercial timber 

harvesting is lower here than in 

other regions (Rufiji district 

accounts for the majority of 

licenses) or it is taking place 

illegally. 

Figure 29 Pit sawing site in Mtiniko proposed FR 

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Fuelwood 

Most of the fuelwood collected from the eight forest reserves surveyed was said to be 

obtained from dead trees and branches, including those from cashew nut (Anacardium 

occidentale) plantations. This supports findings from previous studies on fuel use in the 

Coastal Forests (Burgess et al., 2000b). Consequently, at present fuelwood collection is not 

the major threat to the forests of the Mtwara Region. However, as population grows (Milledge 

and Kaale, 2005; Luanda, 1998) the demand for fuelwood is set to increase and natural death 

of trees may become insufficient to satisfy an additional demand. Milledge and Kaale (2005) 

have estimated that 2.1 million m 3 of wood is burnt every year in seven districts of the Coast 

Region, Lindi Region and Mtwara Region, Tanzania. Further studies aimed at determining 

sustainable levels of firewood extraction in the Mtwara Region will be needed. 


Results from this study add to the list of species used for the construction of tool handles and 

cooking utensils presented in Burgess et al. (2000b). Four of the eight studied forests were 

found to contain ringed trees, but anecdotal evidence from interviews and discussions 

suggested that bark ringing also takes place in the other forest reserves. Kambona had the 

highest intensity of bark ringing, with 9% of 50m sections being affected. Discussion with 

local people indicated that bark ringing occurs in order to remove bark, which is then used for 

ropes, beehives and medicine. Many of the species that were said to be used for firewood 

overlap with those used for bark removal, indicating that trees die from the removal of bark 

and are then used for firewood. However, people who carry out the exploitation appeared to 

be unaware of the lethal impact that this activity has upon trees. As population in the Mtwara 

Region grows (Milledge and Kaale, 2005; Luanda, 1998), the demand for bark and wood is 

set to increase and may exceed the trees regeneration capacity. Further research to determine 

the sustainable level of bark and wood extraction in the studied area is needed. 


The extraction of fruits (such as those from Sclerocarya birrea and Strychnos sp.) was found 

to occur within all forest reserves on a small scale. Harvesting of fruit in the study area was 

not observed to result in the death of trees and is therefore likely to have minimal impact on 

the species utilised. It is uncertain whether the commercial exploitation of Dioscorea 

hirtiflora has a negative impact on the species. Although not witnessed in this study, food 

harvesting has been previously shown to cause damage to plant species (Wegner, 2003). 

Damage can result from felling high trees to access fruits, or from harvesting fruit before it 

has fully ripened, thus decreasing the reproductive success of the individual. Similarly, root 

harvesting can cause the death of individuals should removal be too extensive. A follow-on 

study to determine the impact of food harvesting would be necessary in the studied area. 

Apiculture 

Honey was found to be produced and sold locally in Makonde Scarp II proposed FR and 

Ndechela FR. When material for the construction of beehives is obtained in a sustainable way, 

apiculture has been found to be ecologically preferable to harvesting of wild honey, as the 

latter often results in the cutting of the tree to access the hive (Wegner, 2003). However, 

results from this study show that bee farming in the Mtwara Region may also result in tree 

death, as bark is used for the construction of beehives and is extracted by ringing and often 

killing the trees. Since the most desirable piece of bark is a complete circle and as larger 

pieces of bark result in larger hives, large trees are targeted. 


Extraction of medicinal plants takes place in all forest reserves but at a level that does not 

appear to have a significant impact on their ecology. Nevertheless, it is a possibility that trees 

are ringed to obtain bark for the production of medicinal compounds. Roots are also used to 

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extract medicinal compounds, and extensive root removal can have a negative impact on 

individual trees. Moreover, interviews and open discussions illustrate that the extraction of 

bark and roots for medicines is selective and therefore has potential to damage populations of 

particular species should it not occur in a sustainable manner. 

Hunting 

Hunting takes place in most of the studied areas to different degrees. Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju 

proposed FRs had the highest density of traps recorded (in 5% and 3% of 50m sections 

respectively). In most cases the traps recorded were snares targeting ungulate species and 

traps placed in the riverbed to catch small birds, while a drift fence was detected in Ndechela. 

It is possible that fire is also employed as a hunting tool in this reserve, as it has been 

observed in other Coastal Forests (Burgess et al., 2000b). This study did not reveal that meat 

from animals is sold on the market, as it has been found to be the case in other Coastal Forests 

(Burgess et al. 2000a). Observation of baboons (Papio cynocephalus) being killed due to crop 

raiding supports other findings in the 

Coastal Forests (Burgess et al., 2000b) 

(Figure 30). Hunting in Kambona, 

Makonde Scarp I and Ndechela involves the 

Chequered elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon 

cirnei), a species listed as Vulnerable, and 

the Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) 

and the Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), 

two species listed as conservation 

dependent in the IUCN Red List (2004). 

Figure 30 Baboons killed by local farmers 

because raiding crops adjacent to Ndechela FR 

Fires 

Another particularly destructive form of disturbance is extensive and recurring burning, since 

it destroys the soil top layer and the micro-fauna that lives within it, therefore reducing the 

availability of nutrients for plants and other animals in the food-web. Moreover, severe fires 

can destroy the forest’s understorey, which constitutes the main habitat for many forest 

dwelling and forest dependent species. The forest reserves most affected by burning were 

Ndechela and Makonde Scarp I and II (≥70% of sections), whereas in Mtiniko and Kambona 

FRs only 8 and 9% of sections respectively were subject to this form of disturbance. 

Paths 

The density of paths observed in all reserves emphasises the high level of human presence in 

these areas. No one forest reserve had less than 8% of sections bisected by paths, and the 

largest number was observed in Kambona FR (27%) and Makonde Scarp II (19%) and III 

(22%) proposed FRs. 


Local management was defined as action taken by local residents (i.e. inhabitants of adjacent 

and nearby villages) to regulate resource use and exploitation in their area. Management 

ranged from absent to ineffective among forest reserves. An attempt at local management is in 

place in Mtuli Hinju proposed FR, where an Environmental Committee has been formed to 

patrol the boundaries. In Mkunya River proposed FR village committees were observed to 

spend time educating the local inhabitants about the importance of the water source, and 

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anyone found to be encroaching on the reserve boundary or harvesting poles or timbers was 

said to be fined by the village committee. In those reserves where management has been 

discontinued or has not been initiated yet the reasons appeared to be twofold: lack of will or 

lack of funds. The inhabitants of some areas (e.g. Makonde Scarp II, Mtiniko and Ndechela) 

do not view their reserve positively because they see no benefits coming from them. This 

translates into lack of an incentive to protect them. In areas where the reserves are instead 

viewed positively, for example Mkunya River proposed FR and Kambona FR because of their 

water supplies, no money is currently available to enforce any local bylaw that may be in 

place or to conduct patrols of the boundaries. The lack of enforcement of national forest 

legislation in the study site and absence of local by-laws constitute another problem that 

hampers the management of most of the reserves. 

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21. CONCLUSION AND PRIORITISATION 

G. WEGNER 

Findings from this study of the Coastal Forests of the Masasi, Mtwara Rural, Newala and 

Tandahimba districts, Mtwara Region, show that the eight forest reserves studied are of 

important environmental value to the surrounding human population, providing it with 

precious water, abundant forest resources and protection from soil erosion. However, the very 

presence of conditions that make the area favourable for human settlement may have 

indirectly contributed, by encouraging human population growth, to the severe curtailment of 

its biological value. High population growth rate, accompanied by severe poverty and lack of 

environmental awareness, have resulted in the extensive conversion of these Coastal Forests 

into farmland, the unsustainable exploitation of their natural resources, and the conspicuous 

decrease of their biodiversity and endemism. 

The Coastal Forests are a naturally vulnerable ecosystem. Much of their habitat heterogeneity 

and fragmentation, and the biological endemism resulting from these characteristics, are 

primarily natural and relictual, being the result of a highly heterogeneous set of abiotic factors 

(climate, geology, topography, soils etc.). The level of encroachment and natural resources 

extraction recorded in the Coastal Forests of the Mtwara Region has contributed to further 

accentuate their small size and fragmented character, reducing their capability to sustain 

viable populations of forest dependent and endemic plants and animals. 

As a consequence of the high degree of habitat destruction taking place in the area, only small 

patches of closed-canopy Coastal Forests remain in the study area. Brachystegia forest was 

the most dominant forest type, while the more vulnerable Legume-dominated dry forest was 

found to be rarer, the clearance of this forest drastically lowering its chances of regeneration 

on the same sites. 

The loss of suitable forest habitat explains the low proportion of forest dependent and 

endemic faunal species in the study. On average, less than 2% of the animal species recorded 

are strictly endemic to the Coastal Forests and/or Eastern Arc Mountains, against 26% of 

animal species from the same taxa being found to be endemic in other Coastal Forests. The 

proportion of Red List threatened faunal species is also low, constituting about 2% of all 

fauna recorded. Therefore, within the context of the EACF hotspot and on a global level these 

forests are of modest faunal biological importance. 

For the flora, the discrepancy of endemism between the surveyed forests and other Coastal 

Forests is less accentuated, with up to 12% of the plant species recorded being endemic to the 

Swahilian region sensu lato against 33% recorded by other studies. This figure is not 

negligible, especially if considering that most Coastal Forests endemics are likely to face a 

degree of threat: given the relatively small area of the Coastal Forest Mosaic and the high 

degree of habitat loss and fragmentation it suffers, endemic species here are often regarded as 

‘threatened species’. This highlights the importance of the Coastal Forests studied as habitats 

for the endemic and threatened plants still found here, and emphasises the urgent need for 

conservation measures to protect them. Unfortunately, even if the remaining forest patches 

were to be left intact, their endemic species richness may already not be sustainable in the 

long-term: fragmentation and habitat loss may have caused populations of long-lived endemic 

species (e.g. trees) to become genetically unviable. 

Beyond their biological value, the Coastal Forests of the Masasi, Mtwara Rural, Newala and 

Tandahimba districts are of vital environmental importance to the local populations. Their 

196



future capability to provide precious water, natural resources and protection from soil erosion 

and landslides will depend on effective and sustained conservation action. The development 

and implementation of a management plan for the safeguard of the reserves and sustainable 

use of their resources is therefore crucial. 

It is important that the conservation of the Coastal Forests is not considered only on a reserveby-reserve 

basis. The Coastal Forests are part of a mosaic system and rely on the stability of 

the whole system for the continuity of their floral and faunal communities. Adequate 

conservation measures need therefore to be taken in as many of the Coastal Forests as 

possible, and efforts should be made to restore and increase connectivity among fragmented 

forest patches. 

However, no conservation plan can be successful if a holistic approach aiming at reducing 

poverty and limiting population growth in the Mtwara Region is not developed. Within the 

context of a poorly developed national and regional economy, local inhabitants have limited 

access to viable sources of revenue and therefore often rely on the land and natural resources 

of the forest for their livelihoods, posing unsustainable demands on it and overcoming its 

regeneration capacity. Only by complementing major efforts to improve the life standards of 

the local communities can national law enforcement and environmental awareness promotion 

succeed in preserving the highly threatened Coastal Forests of the Mtwara Region for present 

and future generations. Considering that the majority of the people in the Mtwara Region 

heavily depend on natural resources from the forest for their livelihoods, improved forest 

management and sustainable utilisation of natural resources constitute two fundamental 

elements of any strategy aiming at the mitigation of poverty. 

PRIORITY SITES FOR THE CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY 

All the forest reserves studied are worth of conservation for various reasons. Conservation 

efforts should concentrate on those sites that contain the highest concentration of Coastal 

Forests endemic and endangered species and communities, but also aim at preserving the 

capacity of the forests to provide local inhabitants with environmental services and natural 

resources. What follows is a prioritisation of the sites studied on the basis of their biodiversity 

value. 

1. Mtiniko Proposed Forest Reserve: 

This reserve is covered by Mixed dry forest and affected by a low degree of 

encroachment (Figure 12). As a consequence, this reserve is one of the richest with 

floral species (Table 20-a; Figure 24) and contains among the highest numbers of 

forest dependent, endemic and threatened faunal species for this study (Table 20-d, 

Table 20-e and Table 20-f; Figure 27). For the plants, Mesogyne insignis 

(Vulnerable), Bombax rhodognaphalon, Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii, 

Rytigynia decussata, Cola clavata and Vitex mossambicensis (Endemic and 

Potentially Threatened) are among the most important. Mtiniko proposed FR is 

certainly the most important reserve in terms of avifauna, and it has been classified by 

BirdLife International (2005) as an Important Bird Area (TZ052 - category A1). It 

hosts the Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi - Coastal Forests Endemic), the East 

coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi - Vulnerable) and the Peregrine falcon (Falco 

peregrinus), which are the only Coastal Forests endemic and threatened birds 

recorded by this study. The highest number of forest dependent bird species (6) was 

also recorded here, including the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the 

Reichenow’s batis (Batis reichenowi), the East coast akalat (Sheppardia gunningi), 

the Yellow streaked greenbul (Phyllastrephus flavostriatus), the Blue-mantled crested 

flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the Fischer’s greenbul (Phyllastrephus 

fischeri). Mtiniko also contains large populations of forest dependent butterfly 

197



species, including the Silver striped charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti), the Flame 

bordered charaxes (C. protoclea azota) and the Gold banded forester (Euphaedra 

neophron littoralis), and one butterfly (Charaxes lasti lasti) that is strictly endemic to 

the Eastern Arc lowland and Coastal Forests. Few threatened and forest dependent 

mammal species were also found to occur here, including the Chequered elephant 

shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable), the Moloney’s monkey (Cercopithecus 

mitis - forest dependent) and the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus - 

forest dependent). Mtiniko proposed FR should be immediately gazetted in order to 

protect the Mixed dry forest unique to the EACF hotspot and the endemic and 

threatened species it hosts. Conservation measures can follow those listed in the 

Conservation Recommendations section below. 

2. Ndechela Forest Reserve: 

The flora of Ndechela FR is particularly worth of notice. This reserve is comprised of 

Legume-dominated dry forest, which is the most vulnerable plant community of the 

Coastal Forests. Even thought encroachment is among the lowest in this reserve 

(Table 20-h; Figure 19 and Figure 24), extensive and frequent fires constitute a threat 

to the continuity of this forest type, and it is therefore important to implement 

conservation measures to protect it. Among the most important plants found here are 

Gardenia transvenulosa (Endemic and Vulnerable), Bombax rhodognaphalon, 

Commiphora zanzibarica, Entada stuhlmannii, and Scorodophloeus fischeri 

(Endemic and Potentially Threatened). Ndechela FR is also singular for the presence 

of granite kopjes dramatically protruding from the plain and reaching up to 800m, 

which contribute to the scenic beauty of this site and create a variety of rocky 

microhabitats for a rich reptile community. Among the reptiles found here, the 

Spotted flat lizard (Platysaurus maculatus) is the only example of strictly endemic 

reptile recorded during this study, being found only in northern Mozambique and the 

Masasi district in south-eastern Tanzania. Due to the close proximity of this reserve 

to the Lukwika-Lumesule Game Reserve the highest number of large mammal 

species was also found here (26) (Table 20-c), as well as the larger number of 

threatened mammal species (4). These include the Elephant (Loxodonta africana - 

Vulnerable, CITES I), the Lion (Panthera leo - Vulnerable, CITES II) and the 

Chequered elephant shrews (Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable), as well as two 

species (Loxodonta africana and Panthera pardus) listed on CITES Appendix I 

(2005) as threatened with extinction and therefore excluded from international trade. 

Few forest dependent species were also recorded here, including the Moloney’s 

monkey (Cercopithecus mitis - CITES II) and the Blue duiker (Cephalophus 

monticola - CITES II). Ndechela FR is unique among the eight studied reserves for 

having a relatively small human population living around its boundaries. As a result, 

much forest that lies outside the borders is not appreciably different from that inside 

the reserve. This represents an excellent opportunity to extend the boundaries of the 

reserve to create and protect more habitat for the plants and animals. It would be 

highly beneficial to designate this area as a National Park incorporating Ndechela FR, 

the Lukwika-Lumesule Game Reserve and possibly a reserve across the river in 

Mozambique. Conservation measures can follow those listed in the Conservation 

Recommendations section below. 

198



3. Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp I, II and III Proposed Forest Reserves 

Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs are the most affected by 

agricultural encroachment and the practice of shifting cultivation (Table 20-h; Figure 

5, Figure 7, Figure 9 and Figure 16), which have conspicuously reduced the area 

covered by forest and consequently the number of faunal species present (table 20-c; 

Figure 24). In Makonde Scarp I, II and III proposed FRs timber extraction was also 

most severe (Table 13-f, Table 14-h, Table 18-f and Table 20-h; Figure 24), and the 

selective removal of canopy and sub canopy trees has noticeably reduced the floral 

species richness of the Brachystegia forest found here (Table 20-a). Nevertheless, 

several endemic and a highly threatened plant species were recorded to still occur, 

including Cynometra gillmanii (Endemic and Critically Endangered), Gardenia 

transvenulosa and Vitex zanzibarensis (Endemic and Vulnerable), Khaya anthotheca 

and Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable). Even thought these reserves are highly 

fragmented, yet the small patches of Brachystegia and Riverine forest remaining are 

characterised by a dense understory capable hosting several bird species, including 

forest dependent species such as the African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the 

Blue-mantled crested flycatcher (Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the African crowned 

eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus - CITES II). Moreover, the topographic variation of 

the Makonde escarpment creates an array of habitats and nesting sites that further 

promote a rich bird community. As a result, these four reserves have been classified 

by BirdLife International (2005) as an Important Bird Area (TZ053 - category A1). 

Mkunya River proposed FR is also important because of the presence of the Mkunya 

River, which creates a moist habitat most suitable for butterflies and herpetofauna, 

which are both represented here by a relatively high number of species (Table 20-c). 

Important amphibian species found here are the ‘true’ toad Mertensophryne 

micranotis, a species strictly endemic to the Eastern Arc lowland and the Coastal 

Forest Mosaic, and the Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis xenodactyloides), a species 

listed as Vulnerable by IUCN (2004). Among the butterflies, the Silver striped 

charaxes (Charaxes lasti lasti) is endemic to the closed-canopy lowland forest of the 

Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Kenya and Tanzania. On the contrary, the level of 

fragmentation and the small size of forest habitat remaining mean that these reserves 

may not be capable of sustaining high numbers and viable populations of mammal 

species. Forest dependent species such as the Moloney’s monkey (Cercopithecus 

mitis - CITES II), the Suni (Neotragus moschatus - conservation dependent), the 

Natal duiker (Cephalophus natalensis - conservation dependent), the Blue duiker 

(Cephalophus monticola - CITES II) and the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus 

palliatus) are still found in very small patches of forest and are therefore locally 

threatened. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) and the Peregrine falcon (Falco 

peregrinus), species listed on CITES Appendix I (2005), were observed to occur on 

the Makonde scarp in sheltered areas near the cliff face. It would be advisable for the 

whole of the Makonde Scarp to be protected as one large reserve in order to connect 

highly fragmented and narrow patches of forest habitat that otherwise may not have 

the capacity to give refuge to viable populations of mammals. Conservation measures 

can follow those listed in the Conservation Recommendations section below. 

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4. Mtuli Hinju 

The importance of this reserve resides in its Legume-dominated dry forest and its 

wetland. Legume-dominated dry forest is the most vulnerable plant community of the 

Coastal Forests. In this reserve encroachment is among the lowest (Table 20-h; Figure 

14 and Figure 20) and a species rich and stable plant community has therefore 

developed, with important species such as Mesogyne insignis (Vulnerable), Tetracera 

boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii, Xylotheca tettensis, Rytigynia decussata and Cola 

clavata (Endemic and Potentially Threatened). Nevertheless, the small size of this 

reserve constitutes a threat to the continuity of this forest type should disturbance 

ensue. Even thought the total number of faunal species, including endemic and 

threatened species, was among the lowest recorded in this study (Table 20-c, Table 

20-e and Table 20-f; Figure 23 and Figure 27), the wetland harbours important 

species of birds and amphibians, including some forest dependent birds such as the 

African broadbill (Smithornis capensis), the Blue-mantled crested flycatcher 

(Trochocercus cyanomelas) and the African crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus 

- CITES II). Few threatened and forest dependent mammals were also found to occur 

here, including the Chequered elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable) and 

the Suni (Neotragus moschatus - forest dependent). Conservation measures can 

follow those listed in the Conservation Recommendations section below. 

5. Kambona 

Kambona FR is a small reserve affected by severe timber extraction (Table 20-h; 

Figure 3) that has noticeably reduced the floral species richness (Table 20-a; Figure 

20). Nevertheless, this reserve harbours some important plant species, among which 

Khaya anthotheca (Vulnerable), Tetracera boiviniana, Erythrina schliebenii and 

Rytigynia decussata (Endemic and Potentially Threatened). Moreover, a water source 

hosts relatively large populations of reptiles and amphibians. Few threatened and 

forest dependent mammals were also observed, including the Chequered elephant 

shrew (Rhynchocyon cirnei - Vulnerable), the Dwarf squeaker (Arthroleptis 

xenodactyloides - Vulnerable), the Suni (Neotragus moschatus - forest dependent) 

and the Red-bellied coastal squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus - forest dependent). 

Conservation measures can follow those listed in the Conservation Recommendations 

section below. 

PRIORITY SITES FOR THE PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES 

All of the forest reserves surveyed are important because they provide local communities with 

clean water, natural resources and protection from soil erosion. Some forest reserves are 

however more important in terms of the level of environmental services that they provide. 

CONSERVATION OF WATER SOURCES 

Priority sites for the conservation of water sources include: 

- Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp III Proposed Forest Reserves 

The rivers found in Mkunya River and Makonde Scarp III proposed FRs provide a 

vital water supply to two large towns: Newala and Mahuta respectively. The 

continued presence of undisturbed forest around these rivers is imperative if they are 

to supply water to these large settlements for many years to come. Conservation 

measures can follow those listed in the Conservation Recommendations section 

below. 

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- Kambona Forest Reserve 

The small spring found here is the sole water supply for the villages of Chidya and 

Chiwata. The dependence of these communities on this supply highlights the need 

for conservation action to be carried out as soon as possible. Conservation measures 


- Mtuli Hinju 

The pond found here is the sole water supply for the villages of Mtuli Hinju and 

Njengwa. Another six villages (Chiwindi, Majengo, Migombani, Mtalala, 

Nang'awanga and Najenga) rely on it seasonally when alternative ponds and wells dry 

up. The dependence of these communities on this water source highlights the need 

for conservation action to be carried out as soon as possible. Conservation measures 


PROTECTION FROM SOIL EROSION 

Soil erosion is a significant threat to the livelihoods of thousands of people because it both 

affects the fertility of farmland and encourages landslides and floods. The threat of soil 

erosion is particularly evident on and at the foot of the Makonde Scarp. The forest along the 

escarpment protects the land from soil erosion and the people living there from catastrophic 

landslides. All forest reserves located along the escarpment are therefore a priority. These 

include: 

- Makonde Scarp I proposed FR 

- Makonde Scarp II proposed FR 

- Makonde Scarp III proposed FR 

- Mkunya River proposed FR 

Makonde Scarp II and III have been subject to extensive cultivation of land on the steep sides 

of the escarpment and therefore conservation efforts should be directed here primarily. 

Conservation measures can follow those listed in the Conservation Recommendations section 

below. 

201



22. CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS 

R. SALTER AND O. SWEENEY 

The level of disturbance observed throughout the eight forest reserves surveyed poses a 

severe threat to the continued presence of plant and animal species and to the environmental 

functions of the forests. Effective and sustained conservation action is needed to promote the 

conservation of biodiversity in these areas and to make sure that essential environmental 

services are maintained. 

The major threat to the Mtwara Coastal Forests is the combination of a high population 

growth rate registered in the region, severe poverty affecting this population, and its heavy 

dependence on natural resources from the forest. Unfortunately, in many cases local 

inhabitants were found to be uninformed about issues of sustainability, and in some instances 

they were unaware of their reliance on the forest cover for the protection of water sources and 

the soil. Also apparent was the lack of information about the reasons behind the potential or 

actual designation of the reserves, and about the biodiversity value of the forests. In fact, 

where the importance of a reserve to the local communities is not made evident by the 

presence of a water source, a negative or apathetic view of the forests has often developed 

(e.g. in Makonde Scarp II and Mtiniko proposed FRs and in Ndechela FR): inhabitants see no 

direct benefit in the preservation of the forests but rather a limit to the free use of land and 

resources. 

The conservation approach used should concentrate on developing an effective management 

plan for the safeguard of the reserves and the sustainable use of resources, and on promoting 

awareness of the values of the forests studied, including their provision of natural resources, 

their protection of water sources and soil, and their unique biodiversity. 

The Coastal Forests of Mtwara: a Kiswahili layman’s report (Frontier-Tanzania, 2005) was 

produced during the FT MRP for distribution to district natural resources offices, community 

groups and schools in close proximity to the forest reserves, to act as a tool for environmental 

education and awareness promotion. While this is the first step, further measures will need to 

be taken if these areas are to be protected effectively. A list of Conservation 

Recommendations based on the findings of the Mtwara Reconnaissance Project and 

applicable to all forest reserves is given below. 

1. Full gazettement of proposed forest reserves (Makonde I, II and III, Mkunya River, 

Mtiniko and Mtuli Hinju proposed FRs) is imperative to regain the respect of 

residents for boundaries and regulations. Inhabitants perceive the lack of gazettement, 

management and regulations as a lack of interest on behalf of the government, and 

therefore they no longer appreciate the value of these sites. 

2. Boundary reassessment and demarcation are required to remove ambiguity over 

where the boundary lies and reduce encroachment. No boundaries have been 

demarcated properly for many years and at present the boundaries as perceived by 

local forest officers and residents are very different to those defined on land cover and 

land use maps (Institute of Resource Planning, UDSM). 

3. Capacity building needs to be intensified by the central government through the 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD), and through the development of 

management plans and the allocation of adequate budgets for both gazetted and 

proposed forest reserves. 

202



4. Compensation needs to be paid to people who were moved out of the reserve when 

the boundaries were first cleared. Because this was never done people have continued 

to cultivate within the reserves. This is particularly relevant for Makonde I, II and III 

proposed FRs. 

5. Environmental committees need to be formed in all villages in close proximity to 

the forest reserves to address and act on important conservation issues. Bylaws will 

need to be introduced and the committees empowered financially and organisationally 

to combat illegal and unsustainable exploitation of resources. In some areas (for 

example Ndechela) it may be possible to permit a sustainable level of timber and nontimber 

resources harvesting. 

6. Patrols need to be carried out on a regular basis to control and assess levels of 

disturbance. In the knowledge that a reserve is being patrolled illegal pole and timber 

cutting and hunting are expected to decrease. Patrols need to be conducted by Forest 

Officers in collaboration with village committees. 

7. Fines need to be levied and enforced by Forest Officers and/or local committees to 

make practices such as pit sawing and hunting unprofitable. 

8. Awareness promotion is necessary among local communities on the importance of 

the forests for the protection of water sources and the soil, as well as on the 

biodiversity value of the reserves and the uniqueness of the species found within 

them. It should be the responsibility of local environmental committees to carry this 

out, but external financial and technical support will also be needed. The Kiswahili 

layman’s report (Frontier-Tanzania, 2005) produced during the Mtwara 

Reconnaissance Project 2005 can act as an educational tool. 

9. Tree planting is required to replace cultivated and fallow land with native trees 

inside the reserves. A particular effort will have to be made to plant tree species that 

were formerly present, especially endemic species and plant associations, and to 

discourage encroachment by more easily dispersed pioneer species characteristic of 

mixed dry and mixed scrub forest. Particular attention should be paid to steep slopes 

where the risk of soil erosion is high. Tree planting outside of the reserve is also 

important, since trees can act as a buffer zone to the reserves and provide residents 

with an alternative supply of resources (see below). Such initiatives should be 

coordinated by governmental and non-governmental bodies in collaboration with 

local environmental committees. 

10. Investment in rural development is necessary to establish essential services and 

infrastructures (e.g. roads, access to credit etc.), and to help local inhabitants to make 

production and marketing of agricultural products more effective, in order to help 

alleviate the need to cultivate within forest reserves. 

11. Development of affordable alternative sources of energy needs to be prioritised at 

the national level and introduced at the regional level in order to reverse the current 

deforestation trends. 

12. Encouragement of sustainable resource use is of paramount importance. It may not 

be realistic or appropriate to put an outright ban on subsistence harvesting within 

forest reserves, but sustainable practices need to be promoted in order to limit the 

potential damage of high demand for resources. The following measures should be 

encouraged: 

• Poles, timber and firewood 

- Regulation of timber harvesting through licenses issued by local 

environmental committees is crucial. This would require clear guidelines 

on sustainable harvesting levels, for which further research will be 

necessary. 

- Removal of large peripheral branches rather than killing of whole trees 

from the most commercially desirable species (Hymenaea verrucosa, 

203



Pterocarpus angolensis, P. rotundifolius, Swartzia madagascariensis, 

Afzelia quanzensis, Dalbergia melanoxylon and Milicia excelsa) should 

be encouraged. However, it is unlikely that there are enough individuals 

for this practice to satisfy the demand for commercial timber. 

- Pole cutting should be spread among a number of different trees to lower 

the impact on one particular individual or species; cutting single stemmed 

individuals should also be avoided. 

- Extensive tree planting in buffer zones is important. Rodgers and Burgess 

(2000b) suggest planting quick growing species (such as Eucalyptus, 

Casuarina and Cassia) on the borders of protected areas to meet the 

demands of the local populations for timber and firewood. However, the 

introduction of alien species can also cause ecological problems if not 

carefully evaluated first (e.g. Acacia mearnsii in South Africa) (Van 

Wyk, 1997) 

• Edible and medicinal plants 

- Fruit harvesting should take place when fruit is ripe so that the plant has a 

chance to reproduce; hooks and sticks should be used to access high 

branches rather than felling trees (Wegner, 2003). 

- When root digging, only peripheral roots should be removed to ensure 

that the individual is able to regenerate lost roots and survive (Wegner, 

2003). 

- Planting species commonly used for food and medicine (e.g. Dioscorea 

hirtiflora and Strychnos sp.) in a buffer zone around the reserve may help 

to decrease reliance on the reserve itself. 

• Tools and utensils 

- Removal of bark should take place on peripheral branches and be spread 

between a number of different trees in order to decrease pressure on one 

particular individual or species. 

- The use of materials other than bark for the construction of tools, utensils 

and beehives should be explored. 

• Hunting 

- Government bodies should set either limits or an outright ban on hunting 

depending on the size of animal populations. Hunting of endemic and 

endangered species should be severely forbidden and monitored. 

- Where hunting is allowed, an educational programme should promote its 

sustainability by discouraging the killing a species in large numbers, as 

well as the killing of the young, the females and those animals that are 

not used as food. 

- Destructive hunting practices, such as fire and drift fences that capture a 

large number of animals at once, should be discouraged and less invasive 

methods suggested. 

- Shooting of animals such as baboons (Papio cynocephalus) to defend 

crops from raiding should be discouraged and alternative methods 

introduced: fences could be erected or a rotation system put in place for 

inhabitants to guard crops. 

- Population levels of endemic and threatened species that are hunted (e.g. 

Rhynchocyon cirnei) need to be accurately assessed. 

204



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211



APPENDICES 

APPENDIX 1 - LIST OF TAXONOMISTS 

BOTANY 

Mr. G. Sangu Independent consultant Tanzania 

+255 (0)741 862582 

Mr F. Mbago University of Dar es Salaam Department of Botany 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, 

Tanzania 

mbago@udsm.ac.tz 

Mr R. Gereau Missouri Botanical Garden P. O. Box 299, St. Louis, 

MO 63166-0299 USA 

roy.gereau@mobot.org 

ZOOLOGY 

Mammals: 

Prof. K. M. Howell University of Dar es Salaam Department of Zoology and Wildlife 

Conservation 


Tanzania 

kmhowell@udsm.ac.tz 

Dr. B. Stanley Chicago Field Museum Mammal Section, Field Museum, 

1400 S Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 

Illinois 60605, USA 

stanley@fieldmuseum.org 

Birds: 

Mr. J. Kiure Independent consultant Tanzania 

k_kiure@yahoo.com 

Reptiles: 


Conservation 


Tanzania 


Dr. D. G. Broadley Zimbabwe Natural P.O. Box 240, Bulawayo, 

History Museum 

Zimbabwe 

broadley@gatorzw.co.uk 

Dr. R. C. Drewes California Academy of Department of Herpetology, 

Sciences 

Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, 

California 94118, USA 

bdrewes@calacademy.org 

Mr. M. Menegon Museo Tridentino Di Scienze Trento, Italy 

Naturali 

menegon@mtsn.tn.it 

212



Amphibians: 


Conservation 


Tanzania 


Prof. J. Poynton British Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, North Kensington, 

London, UK 

Mr. M. Menegon Museo Tridentino Di Scienze Trento, Italy 

Naturali 

menegon@mtsn.tn.it 

Butterflies: 

Dr. T. Davenport Southern Highlands Mbeya, Tanzania 

Conservation Programme tdavenport@wcs.org 

213


APPENDIX 2 - GPS CO-ORDINATES OF BASE CAMPS FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

FR code 

Site 

no. 

Waypoint Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) Altitude 

(m) 

Kambona 1 BC-KAM 10º 37' 25.5'' 039º 01' 07.0'' 0502036 8825715 700 

Makonde Scarp I 2 BC-MS1 10º 38' 35.2'' 039º 02' 36.3'' 0504748 8823586 600 

Makonde Scarp II 3 BC-MS2 10º 50' 12.3'' 039º 10' 55.0'' 0519887 8802175 720 

Mkunya River site 1 4 BC-MR1 11º 00' 37.5'' 039º 23' 47.0'' 0543303 8782951 110 

Mkunya River site 2 5 BC-MR2 10º 59' 03.0'' 039º 26' 48.3'' 0548809 8785844 80 

Mtiniko 6 BC-MT 10º 35' 28.9'' 039º 56' 14.7'' 0602551 8829156 195 

Mtuli Hinju 7 BC-MH 10º 35' 25.9'' 039º 47' 06.7'' 0585899 8829294 215 

Makonde Scarp III 8 BC-MS3 10º 53' 11.4'' 039º 24' 13.6'' 0544128 8796650 500 

Ndechela site 1 9 BC-ND1 11º 06' 35.6'' 038º 09' 59.6'' 0408980 8771852 250 

Ndechela site 2 10 BC-ND2 11º 04' 21.1'' 038º 12' 33.0'' 0413623 8775997 280 

215


APPENDIX 3 - GPS COORDINATES OF VEGETATION PLOTS FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

Forest Reserve Veg plot id. Waypoint Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) Altitude (m) 

Kambona 1 T1-KAM 10º 37' 11.1'' 039º 01' 09.7'' 502117 8826170 680 

2 V2-KAM 10º 37' 11.1'' 039º 01' 26.1'' 502617 8826170 680 

3 T2-KAM 10º 37' 04.6'' 039º 01' 07.0'' 502035 8826370 680 

4 V4-KAM 10º 37' 04.6'' 039º 01' 18.5'' 502385 8826370 680 

Makonde I 1 V1-MK1 10º 39' 06.4'' 039º 02' 41.4'' 504903 8822629 600 

2 V2-MK1 10º 39' 14.5'' 039º 02' 49.6'' 505153 8822379 600 

3 T1E-MS1 10º 39' 24.4'' 039º 02' 15.3'' 504110 8822076 600 

4 T2-MS1 10º 39' 31.3'' 039º 02' 37.3'' 504778 8821866 600 

5 VS-MS1 10º 39' 46.6'' 039º 02' 39.2'' 504836 8821395 600 

6 V6-MS1 10º 40' 02.9'' 039º 02' 39.2'' 504836 8820895 600 

7 T3-MS1 10º 38' 15.5'' 039º 02' 51.0'' 502591 8822829 600 

8 V8-MS1 10º 38' 14.8'' 039º 03' 06.6'' 505670 8824214 600 

9 V9-MS1 10º 38' 14.2'' 039º 03' 22.7'' 506158 8824232 600 

Makonde II 1 T1-MS2 10º 50' 41.0'' 039º 10' 53.8'' 519850 8801291 550 

2 V2-MS2 10º 50' 24.8'' 039º 10' 53.7'' 519848 8801790 650 

3 BC-MS2 10º 50' 12.3'' 039º 10' 55.0'' 519887 8802175 720 

4 T2-MS2 10º 52' 55.2'' 039º 14' 01.8'' 525555 8797168 780 

5 V5-MS2 10º 52' 57.5'' 039º 13' 46.5'' 525091 8797098 765 

6 V6-MS2 10º 52' 58.6'' 039º 13' 31.1'' 524623 8797062 750 

7 T3-MS2 10º 49' 58.2'' 039º 10' 08.9'' 518487 8802607 730 

8 V8-MS2 10º 49' 58.9'' 039º 09' 52.9'' 518003 8802586 750 

9 V9-MS2 10º 50' 01.1'' 039º 09' 40.3'' 517620 8802518 590 

10 T4-MS2 10º 50' 31.5'' 039º 11' 58.4 '' 521813 8801582 750 

11 V11-MS2 10º 50' 35.7'' 039º 11' 43.8'' 521370 8801453 670 

12 V12-MS2 10º 50' 38.3'' 039º 11' 28.9'' 520916 8801375 615 

Mkunya River 1 1 T1-MR1 11º 01' 00.6'' 039º 22' 57.2'' 541791 8782242 250 

2 V2-MR1 11º 00' 50.9'' 039º 23' 09.4'' 542162 8782541 180 

3 V3-MR1 11º 00' 44.9'' 039º 23' 23.5'' 542590 878273 150 

216



4 T2-MR1 11º 00' 46.9'' 039º 23' 40.6'' 543107 8782661 120 

5 V5-MR1 11º 00' 33.0'' 039º 23' 45.7'' 543263 8783088 130 

6 V6-MR1 10º 52' 58.6'' 039º 13' 31.3'' 543404 8783536 150 

7 T3-MR1 11º 00' 18.5'' 039º 24' 10.0'' 544001 8783534 130 

8 V8-MR1 11º 00' 10.4'' 039º 24' 23.9'' 545423 8783781 140 

9 V9-MR1 11º 00' 06.1'' 039º 24' 38.2'' 544858 8783913 195 

Mkunya River 2 1 T1-MR2 10º 58' 46.6'' 039º 26.5' 9.8'' 549158 8786347 110 

2 V2-MR2 10º 58' 31.3'' 039º 26' 56.5'' 549060 8786818 125 

3 V3-MR2 10º 58' 14.9'' 039º 26' 56.5'' 549060 8787320 130 

4 T2-MR2 10º 59' 34.8'' 039º 25' 35.9'' 546610 8784871 125 

5 V5-MR2 10º 59' 23.9'' 039º 25' 47.3'' 546957 8785207 130 

6 V6-MR2 10º 59' 13.5'' 039º 25' 59.5'' 547327 8785524 135 

7 T3-MR3 10º 58' 52.5'' 039º 26' 36.9'' 548462 8786168 100 

8 V8-MR2 10º 58' 46.8'' 039º 26' 22.3'' 548022 8786343 130 

9 V9-MR2 10º 58' 41.0'' 039º 26' 07.5'' 547571 8786522 130 

10 ND-BDR 10º 58' 36.1'' 039º 27' 52.7'' 550763 8786666 88 

11 V11-MR2 10º 58' 34.0'' 039º 27' 36.0'' 550259 8786734 120 

12 V12-MR2 10º 58' 30.5'' 039º 27' 22.0'' 549832 8786843 130 

Mtiniko 1 Z-MT 10º 35' 26.7'' 039º 56' 06.6'' 602306 8829222 195 

2 V2-MT 10º 35' 12.1'' 039º 56' 01.6'' 602155 8829222 195 

3 V3-MT 10º 34' 57.7'' 039º 55' 58.3'' 602056 8830116 185 

4 T2-MT 10º 34' 56.9'' 039º 56' 11.2'' 602449 8830138 195 

5 V5-MT 10º 34' 41.7'' 039º 56' 09.4'' 602395 8830604 155 

6 V6-MT 10º 34' 26.6'' 039º 56' 04.8'' 602257 8831069 170 

7 T3-MT 10º 35' 30.8'' 039º 55' 05.8'' 600459 8829103 210 

8 V8-MT 10º 35' 15.0'' 039º 55' 05.8'' 600459 8829103 210 

9 V9-MT 10º 35' 00.0'' 039º 55' 04.8'' 600431 8830050 185 

10 T4-MT 10º 34' 03.7'' 039º 56' 46.1'' 603514 8831768 200 

11 V11-MT 10º 34' 05.7'' 039º 56' 30.4'' 603037 8831709 200 

12 V12-MT 10º 34' 07.0'' 039º 56' 14.4'' 602550 8831671 180 

217



Mtuli Hinju 1 T1-MH 10º 35' 29.5'' 039º 47' 17.5'' 586226 8829181 230 

2 V2-MH 10º 35' 27.0'' 039º 47' 32.6'' 586685 8829181 230 

3 V3-MH 10º 35' 29.4'' 039º 47' 03.4'' 585796 8829181 235 

4 T2-MH 10º 35' 32.2'' 039º 46' 49.1'' 585435 8829102 260 

5 V5-MH 10º 35' 16.2'' 039º 46' 48.0'' 585405 585405 260 

Makonde III 1 Z-MS3 10º 53' 34.6'' 039º 24' 24.2'' 544450 8795938 400 

2 V2-MS3 10º 53' 49.9'' 039º 24' 26.8'' 544526 8795468 370 

3 V3-MS3 10º 54 ' 05.2'' 039º 24' 30.1'' 544628 8794997 340 

4 T2-MS3 10º 53' 43.6'' 039º 24' 57.6'' 545463 8795658 455 

5 V5-MS3 10º 53' 59.5'' 039º 24' 58.8'' 545498 8795177 415 

6 V6-MS3 10º 54' 14.8'' 039º 25' 00.2'' 545540 8794701 375 

7 T3-MS3 10º 53' 33.1'' 039º 24' 06.4'' 543910 8795983 430 

8 V8-MS3 10º 53' 53.1'' 039º 24' 06.6'' 543913 8795370 440 

9 V9-MS3 10º 54' 01.0'' 039º 24' 07.9'' 543953 8795127 435 

Ndechela 1 1 T1-ND1 11º 06' 15.1'' 038º 09' 40.5'' 408401 8772482 250 

2 V2-ND1 11º 05' 59.9'' 038º 09' 45.8'' 408560 8772948 270 

3 V3-ND1 11º 05' 44.7'' 038º 09' 52.5'' 408760 8773417 250 

4 T2-ND1 11º 05' 23.9'' 038º 08' 57.5'' 407091 8774049 260 

5 V5-ND1 11º 05' 09.3'' 038º 08' 57.6'' 407091 8774500 280 

6 V6-ND1 11º 04' 55.1'' 038º 08' 46.1'' 406742 8773945 290 

7 T3-ND1 11º 04' 38.3'' 038º 0.8' 24.8'' 406094 8775549 260 

8 V8-ND1 11º 04' 21.8'' 038º 0.8' 24.4'' 406080 8775956 275 

9 V9-ND1 11º 04' 05.9'' 038º 08' 25.6'' 406117 8776445 275 

10 T4-ND1 11º 05' 38.1'' 038º 10' 58.1'' 410751 8773624 330 

11 V11-ND1 11º 05' 23.7'' 038º 10' 55.7'' 410677 8774066 315 

12 V12-ND1 11º 05' 07.9'' 038º 10' 53.6'' 410610 8774551 310 

Ndechela 2 1 T5-ND2 11º 03' 39.5'' 038º 12' 50.0'' 414135 8777275 330 

2 V14-N2 11º 03' 42.1'' 038º 12' 34.0'' 413649 8777196 310 

3 V15-N2 11º 03' 44.6'' 038º 12' 17.8'' 413159 8777115 290 

4 T6-ND2 11º 05' 53.3'' 038º 14' 08.8'' 416536 8773173 280 

218


Forest Reserve 

Veg plot id. Waypoint Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) Altitude (m) 

5 V17-N2 11º 05' 56.8'' 038º 13' 53.2'' 416063 8773064 290 

6 V18-N2 11º 06' 00.4'' 038º 13' 37.1'' 415575 8772953 295 

7 T7-ND2 11º 05' 09.4'' 038º 13' 39.4'' 415641 8774520 340 

8 V20-N2 11º 05' 05.8'' 038º 13' 56.4'' 416157 8774631 350 

9 V21-N2 11º 05' 03.6'' 038º 14' 11.9'' 416628 8774701 320 

219


APPENDIX 4 - DESCRIPTION OF VEGETATION PLOTS FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

Forest 

Reserve 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Plot ID 

Topography 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Dominant species 

1 lowland plan 690 0 0 open 

woodland 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10 -20 cutting roads/ 

tracks 

16 5 Bauhinia petersiana and 

Diplorhynchus 

condylocarpon 

2 lowland plan 650 0 0 open 50 >50 10 -20 cutting none 20 12 Combretum zeyheri 

4 gentle lower 670 0 0 open 10-50 10-50 10-50 10 -20 cutting none 18 14 Brachystegia spiciformis 

slope 


and Bauhinia petersiana 

1 gentle upper 600 0 0 secondary 10-50 10-50 10-50 10 -20 cutting none 18 3 Brachystegia microphylla 

slope 


2 lowland plan 600 0 0 secondary 10-50 10-50


Forest 

Reserve 

Makonde II 

Plot ID 

Topography 

7 gentle midslope 


9 gentle upper 

slope 

1 gentle lower 

slope 

2 steep upper 

slope 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

640 0 0 open 


610 0 0 open 


Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 

50 10 -50


Forest 

Reserve 

Mkunya 

River 

Plot ID 

Topography 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 


7 top of the scarp 750 0 0 cultivation < 10 < 10 < 10 n/a fire cultivation 0 0 No tree recorded 

8 top of the scarp 730 0 0 wooded 

grassland 

9 scarp slope 590 0 0 open 


Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 

10 top of the scarp 750 0 0 cultivation < 10 50 < 10 < 10 < 10 cultivation rocky 15 26 Diplorhynchus 

, fire outcrops 

condylocarpon and 

Pteleopsis myrtifolia 

No. Indivs 

No. Species 

none 1 1 Brachystegia spiciformis, 

Brachystegia longifolia 

and Brachystegia utilis 

11 scarp slope 670 0 0 cultivation


Forest 

Reserve 

Plot ID 

Topography 



slope 


slope 


slope 


slope 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

150 20- 

25 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 

Feature of 

interest 

S woodland 10-50 50 10-20 cutting rocky 

outcrops 

130 0 0 open 


50 10-50 10-20 cutting rocky 

outcrops 

140 0 0 woodland >50 10-50 10-50 10-20 cutting, rocky 

fire outcrops 

195 0 0 open 


110 0 0 open 



125 0 0 open 


12 valley floor 130 0 0 scrub/ 

thicket/ 

bush 

13 valley floor 125 0 0 open 


14 gentle mid- 130 0 0 open 

slope 



slope 

135 0 0 open 


10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 none rocky 

outcrops 

No. Indivs 

No. Species 


13 24 Diplorhynchus 


Brachystegia spiciformis 


condylocarpon 


condylocarpon 

7 12 Pterocarpus angolensis 

and Strychnos 


10-50 >50 10-50 10-20 cutting none 3 11 Brachystegia spiciformis, 

Diplorhynchus 


Combretum paniculatum 


Forest 

Reserve 

Mtiniko 

Plot ID 

Topography 


slope 


Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

100 15 W open 


130 15 W open 


Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 


interest 

10-50 >50 10-50 10-20 none rocky 

outcrops 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 cutting rocky 

outcrops 

No. Indivs 

No. Species 



condylocarpon 

7 12 Pterocarpus angolensis 

and Strychnos 


18 lowland plan 130 0 0 cultivation 50 10-20 cutting none 0 0 No tree recorded 

slope 

1 lowland plan 195 0 0 dry lowland 

forest 

10-50 >50 >50 10-20 traps roads/ 

tracks 

11 19 Tetracera boiviniana and 

Grewia mollis 


forest 

50 10-20 cutting none 8 17 Hymanaea verrucosa 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 cutting none 9 32 Grewia mollis and 

Tetracera boiviniana 

224


Forest 

Reserve 

Mtuli Hinju 

Plot ID 

Topography 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 


forest 

8 valley floor 160 0 0 dry lowland 

forest 


185 0 0 dry lowland 

forest 


forest 


forest 


forest 


slope 



slope 


230 0 0 open 


240 0 0 scrub/ 

thicket/ 

bush 

230 0 0 open 


260 0 0 open 


Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 cutting, 

fire 

>50 >50 >50 10-20 cutting, 

fire 


interest 

roads/ 

tracks 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 cutting roads/ 

tracks 

No. Indivs 

No. Species 


10 28 Hymanaea verrucosa and 

Grewia mollis 

none 7 16 Pteleopsis myrtifolia and 

Tetracera boiviniana 

8 14 Hymanaea verrucosa and 

Brachystegia microphylla 


Forest 

Reserve 

Makonde III 

Plot ID 

Topography 


slope 


slope 


slope 

3 steep lower 

slope 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

235 0 0 open 


400 0 S scrub/ 

thicket/ 

bush 

Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 


Forest 

Reserve 

Ndechela 

Plot ID 

Topography 


slope 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 

250 0 0 open 


Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 


interest 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 cutting rocky 

outcrops 

No. Indivs 

No. Species 


5 19 Terminalia brownii and 

Combretum molle 


slope 

270 0 0 woodland >50 >50 10-50 10-20 fire rocky 

outcrops 



4 gentle lower 260 0 0 open 

slope 



slope 



slope 

260 0 0 open 



slope 







slope 


slope 

315 0 0 open 


310 0 0 open 


10 26 Milletia stuhlmannii 

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 fire none 10 23 Milletia stuhlmannii 

>50 >50 10-50 10-20 none none 0 0 No tree recorded 


Forest 

Reserve 

Plot ID 

Topography 

Altitude 

(masl) 

Slope (deg) 

Aspect 

Vegetation 

type 












slope 




20 ridge/hill 350 0 0 scrub/ 

top/peak 

thicket/ 

bush 



Tree canopy 

(% cov.) 

Ground layer 

(% cov.) 

Shrub layer 

(% cov.) 

Canopy 

height (m) 

Disturbance 

category 


interest 


10-50 10-50 10-50 10-20 fire none 6 19 Diplorhynchus 


Pteleopsis myrtifolia 

10-50 10-50


APPENDIX 5 - DESCRIPTION OF REGENERATION PLOTS FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

Cover (%) Dominance (%) 

Forest 

Reserve 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Herbs 

Bare soil 

Litter 

Rocks 

Grasses 

Forbs 

Mosses/lichens 

Regen. 

Plot ID 

Soil 

texture Soil colour 

No. 

Indiv. 

No. 

Species 

1 10 40 20 0 10 0 0 0 sandy-loam black 17 7 




1 15 5 5 5 70 0 0 0 sandy-loam light grey 12 5 





6 15 20 15 0 30 0 0 0 sandy-loam dark grey 9 4 

7 20 25 10 0 30 0 0 0 sandy-loam red brown 17 6 











9 20 15 10 5 40 0 0 0 loam red brown 7 31 

Ferns 

229



Forest 

Reserve 

Mkunya 

Herbs 

Bare soil 

Litter 

Rocks 

Grasses 

Forbs 


Regen. 

Plot ID 

Soil 


No. 

Indiv. 

No. 

Species 




1 10 0 30 20 40 0 0 0 rocky light grey 6 34 




5 20 0 60 0 2 0 0 0 loam black 9 19 





10 10 5 0 0 85 0 0 0 sandy light grey 3 8 


12 20 0 30 0 20 0 0 0 sandy-loam dark brown 5 19 


14 5 0 0 30 60 0 0 0 sandy light grey 5 30 








Ferns 

230



Forest 

Reserve 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Herbs 

Bare soil 

Litter 

Rocks 

Grasses 

Forbs 


Regen. 

Plot ID 

Soil 


No. 

Indiv. 

No. 

Species 

























Ferns 

231


Forest 

Reserve 

Ndechela 

Herbs 


Bare soil 

Litter 

Rocks 

Grasses 

Forbs 


Regen. 

Plot ID 

Soil 


No. 

Indiv. 

No. 

Species 

8 10 30 20 10 20 0 0 0 sandy-clay light grey 6 18 





4 5 0 5 30 50 0 0 0 rocky dark brown 4 22 


6 10 0 80 0 5 0 0 0 loam dark brown 0 0 






12


APPENDIX 6 - GPS CO-ORDINATES AND DESCRIPTION OF ZOOLOGICAL TRAP SITES FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

Forest Reserve Waypoint Description of location and habitat notes Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) Altitude (m) 

Kambona 

Z-KAMB 200m from the forest boundary near Chidya Secondary 10º 37' 09.4'' 039º 01' 14.8'' 502271 8826223 670 

School, in open woodland 

Makonde I Z-MS1 On edge of regenerating woodland 10º 38' 56.3'' 039º 02' 45.3'' 505023 8822940 600 

Makonde II Z1-MS2 At the base of the escarpment in a pocket of regenerating 10º 50' 25.3'' 039º 10' 46.2'' 519619 8801776 650 


Makonde II Z2-MS2 On edge of escarpment in open woodland/grassland 10º 50' 19.9'' 039º 10' 51.0'' 519768 8801939 720 

Mkunya River site 1 Z-MR1 300m from water pumping station. One bucket line in 10º 50' 27.5'' 039º 23' 54.1'' 543518 8783258 130 

riverine forest, one in open woodland 

Mkunya River site 2 Z-MR2 Half way up the escarpment, 500m east of base camp, in 10º 58' 44.4'' 039º 26' 58.4'' 549115 8786416 120 

open woodland 

Mtiniko Z-MT 200m from the forest boundary/base camp, in coastal 10º 35' 26.7'' 039º 56' 06.6'' 602306 8829222 195 

forest/thicket 

Mtuli Hinju Z-MH 300m from base camp. One bucket line in open 

10º 35' 27.6'' 039º 47' 11.2'' 586035 8829241 215 

woodland/grassland, one in coastal forest/thicket 

Makonde III Z-MS3 At the base of the escarpment. One near the water source in 10º 53' 34.6'' 039º 24' 24.2'' 544450 8795938 400 

thicket, one in regenerating cultivated land. 

Ndechela site 1 Z-ND1 By dry river bed in open woodland/grassland. Fire damage 11º 06' 16.8'' 038º 09' 43.1'' 408477 8772428 250 

evident. 

Ndechela site 2 Z-ND2 300m from base camp in open woodland/grassland. Fire 

damage evident. 

11º 04' 27.0'' 038º 12' 32.0'' 413593 8775816 280 

233


APPENDIX 7 - GPS COORDINATES AND SITE DESCRIPTION OF TRANSECTS FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

FR code 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Site 

no. 

Transect 

number 

Waypoint Description of 

location 

Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) Altitude 

(m) 

1 1 T1-KAM FR edge 10º 37' 11.1'' 039º 01' 09.7'' 502117 8826170 700 

1 2 T2-KAM FR edge 10º 37' 04.6'' 039º 01' 18.5'' 502385 8826370 700 

2 1 V1-MS1 FR edge 10º 39' 06.4'' 039º 02' 41.4'' 504903 8822629 600 

2 2 T2-MS1 FR edge 10º 39' 31.3'' 039º 02' 37.3'' 504778 8821866 600 

2 3 T3-MS1 Edge of cultivated 10º 38' 15.5'' 039º 02' 51.0'' 505196 8824192 610 

land 

3 1 T1-MS2 FR edge 10º 50' 41.0'' 039º 10' 53.8'' 519850 8801291 550 

3 2 T2-MS2 FR edge 10º 52' 55.2'' 039º 14' 01.8 525555 8797168 780 

3 3 T3-MS2 FR edge 10º 49' 58.2'' 039º 10' 08.9'' 518487 8802607 730 

3 4 T4-MS2 FR edge 10º 50' 31.5'' 039º 11' 58.4 '' 521813 8801582 750 

4 1 V3-MR1 FR edge 11º 00' 44.9'' 039º 23' 23.5'' 542590 878273 150 

4 2 T2-MR1 FR edge 11º 00' 46.9'' 039º 23' 40.6'' 543107 8782661 120 

4 3 T3-MR1 FR edge 11º 00' 18.5'' 039º 24' 10.0'' 544001 8783534 130 

5 1 T1-MR2 FR edge 10º 58' 46.6'' 039º 26.5' 9.8'' 549158 8786347 110 

5 2 T2-MR2 FR edge 10º 59' 34.8'' 039º 25' 35.9'' 546610 8784871 125 

5 3 T3-MR3 FR edge 10º 58' 52.5'' 039º 26' 36.9'' 548462 8786168 100 

5 4 ND-BDR FR edge 10º 58' 36.1'' 039º 27' 52.7'' 550763 8786666 88 

6 1 Z-MT Near zoo site 10º 35' 26.7'' 039º 56' 06.6'' 602306 8829222 195 

6 2 T2-MT FR edge 10º 34' 56.9'' 039º 56' 11.2'' 602449 8830138 195 

6 3 T3-MT FR edge 10º 35' 30.8'' 039º 55' 05.8'' 600459 8829103 210 

6 4 T4-MT FR edge 10º 34' 03.7'' 039º 56' 46.1'' 603514 8831768 200 

234


FR code 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Site 

no. 

Transect 

number 

Waypoint Description of 

location 

Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) Altitude 

(m) 

7 1 T1-MH Near Zoo site 10º 35' 29.5'' 039º 47' 17.5'' 586226 8829181 230 

7 2 T2-MH FR edge 10º 35' 32.2'' 039º 46' 49.1'' 585435 8829102 260 

8 1 Z-MS3 Near zoo site 10º 53' 34.6'' 039º 24' 24.2'' 544450 8795938 400 

8 2 T2-MS3 FR edge 10º 53' 43.6'' 039º 24' 57.6'' 545463 8795658 455 

8 3 T3-MS3 Thicket in valley 10º 53' 33.1'' 039º 24' 06.4'' 543910 8795983 430 

9 1 T1-ND1 FR edge 11º 06' 15.1'' 038º 09' 40.5'' 408401 8772482 250 

9 2 T2-ND1 FR edge 11º 05' 23.9'' 038º 08' 57.5'' 407091 8774049 260 

9 3 T3-ND1 FR edge 11º 04' 38.3'' 038º 08' 24.8'' 406094 8775549 260 

9 4 T4-ND1 By old road 11º 05' 38.1'' 038º 10' 58.1'' 410751 8773624 330 

10 1 T5-ND2 Near road to Nakopi 11º 03' 39.5'' 038º 12' 50.0'' 414135 8777275 330 

10 2 T6-ND2 FR edge 11º 05' 53.3'' 038º 14' 08.8'' 416536 8773173 280 

10 3 T7-ND2 Near road to Nakopi 11º 05' 09.4'' 038º 13' 39.4'' 415641 8774520 340 

235


APPENDIX 8 - LIST OF PITSAWING SITES THAT WERE RECORDED WITH GPS 

Reserve Waypoint Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Grid ref (E) Grid ref (N) 

Makonde Scarp I PS-MS1 10º 39' 18.7" 039º 02' 39.3" 504838 8822254 

Makonde Scarp I P2-MS1 10º 38' 34.1" 039º 03' 05.6" 505641 8823621 

Mkunya River P1-MK 10º 58' 36.1" 039º 27' 52.7" 350763 8786666 

Mtiniko PS-MT 10º 35' 07.8" 039º 56' 03.9" 602225 8829803 

Mtiniko P2-MT 10º 35' 24.6" 039º 55' 04.8" 600428 8829293 

Mtiniko P3-MT 10º 34' 45.0" 039º 56' 47.1" 603542 8830502 

Mtiniko P4-MT 10º 35' 02.1" 039º 56' 50.7" 603650 8829974 

Mtuli Hinju PS-MH 10º 35' 27.3" 039º 46' 48.6" 585346 8829252 

236


APPENDIX 9 - LIST OF PLANT SPECIES FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES. TAXONOMY BASED ON THE FLORA OF TROPICAL EAST 

AFRICA (PUBLISHED FAMILIES) AND THE LEAP DATABASE 

a) List of plant species recorded in vegetation plots 

Family Genus species 

Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

ANACARDIACEAE 

ANNONACEAE 

APOCYNACEAE 

Rhus natalensis Krauss 1- 

3000 

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) 100- 

Hochst 1600 

Sorindeia madagascariensis DC., Prodr. 1- 

1830 

Annona senegalensis Pers. 0- 

1800 

K1-7; T1-8,Z,P; 

Som 

S Not 

listed 

K1-4,6,7;T1-4,6 T Not 

listed 

K4,7; T2,3,5- 

8,P,Z; Moz 

K5,7; T1- 

4,6,8,Z,P; 

T Not 

listed 

S/T Not 

listed 

Mng’ongo X X 

Mtopetope X X X X X X 

Monodora grandidieri Baill. 0-900 K7; T3,6, Z; S/T E Not 

X X 

Som; Moz 

listed 

Monodora junodii Engl. & 1- T3,5,6,8; Moz S Not 

X 

Diels 1590 

listed 

Uvariodendron sp. - - - - - - X 

Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. 

Rich. 

Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Müell. 

Arg.) Pichon 

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.- 

Ham.) G. 

Don 

800- 

1200 

500- 

1400 

0- 

1250 

T1,3,6,8; Moz S/T Not 

listed 

X 

T1,3-8; Moz S/T Not 

X X X X X X 

listed 

K7; T1,3-8; Moz S/T LC X 

X 

X 

237



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

ARALIACEAE 

Cussonia arborea A. Rich 300- K2-5; T1,2,4-8 T Not 

X X X 

2470 

listed 

Cussonia zimmermannii Harms 0-400 K7; T3,6,8; Moz T E PT X X 

Schefflera barteri Harms 900- 

2000 

T2,3,6,8 S/T Not 

listed 

ASTERACEAE Brachylaena sp. T Not 

listed 

BALANITACEAE Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile 1200- 

2500 

BIGNONIACEAE 

Markhamia acuminata (Klotzsch) 

K.Schum. 

Markhamia obtusifolia (Baker) 

Sprague 

K1-7 T3,5-8; T Not 

listed 

70 T3,6,7; Moz T Not 

listed 

Mtandavwala X 

X X 

X X X 

400 T1,3,5,6,7; Moz T Not Mtandavwala X X X X 

listed 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon K. Schum. 20- K7; T3,6,8,P; T E PT Msufipori X X 

700 Moz 

BORAGINACEAE Ehretia sp. - - - S/T - - X 

BURSERACEAE 

Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) 

Engl. 

5- 

1780 

K1,3,4,6,7; 

T2,3,6-8,Z,P; 

Som; Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

Mng’orola X X X 

Commiphora ugogensis Engl. 800- 

1400 

T1,2,4,5,7 T Not 

listed 

Mng’orola X X 

Commiphora zanzibarica (Baill.) 2-510 K7; T6,8,Z; Moz T E PT Mng’orola X 

Engl. 

CAPPARIDACEAE Maerua angolensis DC. 0- K1,4-7; T1-8; T Not 

X 

1500 Som 

listed 

CELASTRACEAE Hippocratea sp. - - - - - - X 

Salacia madagascariensis (Lam.) DC. 600- 

1300 

K7; T3,6-8,Z,P; 

Som; Moz 

C/S Not 

listed 

X X X X X X 

X 

238



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

CHRYSOBALANACE 

AE 

Parinari curatellifolia Benth. 1700 K5; T1,4-7,Z,P; 

Moz 

T Not 

listed 

CLUSIACEAE Garcinia livingstonei T. Anderson 0- 

1650 

K4-7; T1-8,Z ; 

Som 

S Not 

listed 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum hereroense Schinz K3,4,7; T3,6,8; S Not 

Moz 

listed 

Combretum molle G. Don 30- K1-7; T1-8 T Not 

2300 

listed 

Combretum paniculatum Vent. 10- 

2000 

Combretum zeyheri Sond. 10- 

1600 

Pteleopsis myrtifolia (M. A. 0- 

Lawson) 1600 

Engl. & Di 

Terminalia sambesiaca Engl. & 70- 

Diels 830 

Terminalia sericea DC. 450- 

1300 

DICHAPETALACEAE Dichapetalum stuhlmannii Engl. 50- 

1600 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana Baill. 50- 

350 

EBENACEAE Diospyros Kirkii Hiern. 450- 

1350 

K3-5,7; T1-8,Z; 

Moz 

C Not 

listed 

K4; T1-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

K; T2,3,6,8; Moz T Not 

listed 

K7; T2,3,6-8; 

Moz 

T Not 

listed 

T1-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

Mbula X X X 

X X X 

Chinama X X X X X 

Chinama X X X X X X X X 

Chinama X X X X X X 

Chinama X X 

Mmala X X X X X X X X 

X X 

X X 

T4,6,8; Moz S/T Not 

X 

listed 

K7; T3,6,8; Moz S/T E PT Namachili X X X X 

T1,4,6-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

X 

239



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

FABACEAE (CAES) 

Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. 0- 

2000 

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst) 50- 

Baill. 2300 

Croton pseudopulchellus Pax 0- 

1800 

Drypetes gerrardii Hutch. 1150- 

2300 

Drypetes natalensis (Harv.) 125- 

Hutch 1500 

Jatropha curcas L. see 

level- 

1700 

Maprounea africana Muell. Arg. 5- 

1130 

Pseudolachnosty maprouneifolia Pax 340- 

lis 

1600 

Spirostachys africana Sond. 15- 

900 

Suregada zanzibarensis Baill. 0- 

1600 

Afzelia quanzensis Welw. 0- 

1350 

Bauhinia petersiana Bolle 150- 

1830 

Bauhinia tomentosa L. 0- 

1520 

Brachystegia longifolia Benth. 275- 

2000 

K7; T1-8,Z,P; 

Som 

S Not 

listed 

K1-7; T1-8,Z,P S/T Not 

listed 

K1,6,7; T3,6,Z; 

Som; Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

X X X X X 

X X X X X X X 

Mnyao X 

K1,4-7; T1-4,7 S/T Not Mnyumbu X X X 

listed 

K4; T2-6,8; Moz S/T PT Mnyumbu X X X 

K4,5,7; T1,3-8,Z S/T Not 

listed 

T4-8,Z S/T Not 

listed 

T1,2,4-8; Moz S/T Not 

listed 

K7; T2,3,6,8 S/T Not 

listed 

K7; T3,6,8,Z,P; S Not 

Som; Moz 

listed 

K7; T1-8,Z,P; T Not 

Som, Moz 

listed 

T4-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

K1,3,4,7; 

T2,3,6,8 

T Not 

listed 

T4,6-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

Mhogopori X X 

X 

X X X X X 

X X 

Mbambakofi X X X 

X X 

X X X 

Mchinji X X X X X 

X 

240



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Brachystegia microphylla Harms 300- T1-8; Moz T Not Mchenga X X X X X X 

2200 

listed 

Brachystegia sp. - - - T - - X 

Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. 2350 K7; T1-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

Brachystegia utilis Burtt. Davy 300- T4,5,7,8; Moz T Not 

& Hutch. 1830 

listed 

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) 880- K4,5; T1-3,6,7 S Not 

Alston 2130 

listed 

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. 220- 

1520 

Cassia didymobotrya Fresen. 900- 

2440 

Mchenga X X X X X X X X 

Mchengavwala X 

X X 

T1,4,5,7,8; Moz T PT Mjohoro X 

K3-7; T1-8; Moz S Not 

listed 

Cassia petersiana Bolle 12- 

2130 

K3-5; T1,4,6-8,Z S Not 

listed 

Cassia singueana Delile 0- K1,3-5,7; T1-8 T Not 

2130 

listed 

Cordyla africana Lour. 10- K7,T2,3,6,8,Z, T Not 

900 Moz 

listed 

Cynometra gillmanii J. Léon T8 T E CR 

B1+2a 

bcde,c 

2b 

Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertner Not 

listed 

Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) 490- T1,3-8; Moz T Not 

Troupin 1830 

listed 

Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach) 

Milne-Redh 

0- 

1830 

K2-7; T1-8,P T Not 

listed 

Mjohoro X 

Mjohoromaji X X X 

Mjohoro X 

Mwembepori X X 

Mtondo X X X 

Mchinji X X X X 

X 

X 

241



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

FABACEAE (MIM) 


Swartzia madagascariensis Desv. 450- 

1260 

T1,4-8; Moz S Not 

listed 

Acacia polycantha Willd. 0- K2,4-7; T1-8 T Not 

1830 

listed 

Acacia xanthophloea Benth. 600- K1,3,4,6,7; T2- T Not 

1980 5,7; Moz 

listed 

Albizia amara (Roxb.) 820 K1; T8 T Not 

Boivin 

listed 

Albizia gummifera (J.F. Gmel.) 0- K3-7; T2-8,Z T Not 

C.A. Sm. 2440 

listed 

Albizia petersiana (Bolle) Oliv. 380- K6,7; T1-8; Moz T Not 

1700 

listed 

Albizia versicolor Welw. ex 0- K7; T1,3-8 T Not 

Oliv. 

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight 

& Arn. 

Entada stuhlmannii (Taub.) 

Harms 

Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) 

Dunn 

1680 

300- 

1625 

Dalbergia armata E. Mey. 240- 

660 

Dalbergia nitidula Baker 350- 

1650 

Dalbergia obovata E. Mey. 0- 

1050 

Lonchocarpus bussei Harms 0- 

1350 

listed 

K4; T1,4-8 S Not 

listed 

Msekeseke X X X 

Mtalala X 

Mtangambuzi X 

Mtangadume X X X X X X 

Mtanga X X 

Mtanga X X X 

15- T6,8; Moz C E PT X 

1600 

1500 T4,7,8 T PT X 

T8; Moz S Not 

listed 


listed 

T3,5,6; Moz T Not 

listed 

K1,7; T3,5-8; 

Moz 

T Not 

listed 

Mpingo kamba X 

Mpingo X X X 

X X 

Mlungulungu X X X X X X 

X 

X 

X 

242



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

FLACOURTIACEAE 

Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe 150- 

1650 

Millettia impressa Harms 10- 

200 

Millettia stuhlmannii Taub. 10- 

900 

Pericopsis angolensis (Baker) 

Meeuwen 

900- 

1650 

Pterocarpus angolensis DC 300- 

1650 

Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Sond.) 

Druce 

300- 

900 

T1,4-8 T Not Mlungulungu X X X 

listed 

T6,8; Moz C PT Mpangapanga X X X 

T6,8; Moz T Not 

listed 


listed 

T1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 

S.Afr, Ang, Zai 

T Not 

listed 


listed 

Mpangapanga X X X 

Muwanga X 

Mtumbati X X X X X X X 

Mtumbatimaji X X X X 

Tephrosia sp. - - - S - - X 

Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) 

Mendonça 

& E.C.Sousa 

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) 

Merr 

Xylotheca tettensis (Klotzsch) 

Gilg 

100- 

1650 

0- 

2400 

200- 

600 

GUTTIFERAE Psorospermum febrifugum Spac 50- 

1950 

HYMENOCARDIACE 

AE 

LOGANIACEAE 

Hymenocardia ulmoides Oliv. 50- 

1550 

Strychnos cocculoides Baker 400- 

2000 

Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. 900- 

1500 

K7; T1-8 T Not 

listed 

K2-5,7; T1-8,Z S Not 

listed 

X X 

Mkung’u X X X 

T6-8; Moz S E PT X 

K5; T1,4,6-8 S Not 

listed 

T3,5,6,8 T Not 

listed 

T1,4-8 S Not 

listed 

T4-6,9; Moz S Not 

listed 

X X 

Mhindi X X X 

X 

X X X X X 

243



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Strychnos spinosa Lam. 400- 

2200 

Strychnos usambarensis Gilg 75- 

2000 

MELIACEAE Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) 120- 

1525 

MORACEAE 

Ficus natalensis Hochst. 10- 

2200 

Ficus sur Forssk. 0- 

2300 

Milicia excelsa (Welw.) 0- 

1350 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum Krauss. 900- 

2400 

OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii Engl. 900- 

2350 

OLEACEAE Schrebera trichoclada Welw. 810- 

1350 

PITTOSPORACEAE Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims 900- 

1200 

POACEAE Arundinaria alpina K. Schum. 2400- 

3000 

POLYGALACEAE Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen. 1500- 

2000 

RHIZOPHORACEAE Cassipourea malosana (Baker) 1100- 

Alston 2600 

RUBIACEAE Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb) 

Tirvengadu 

m 

70- 

290 

K2,4; T1,3-8 S Not 

listed 

K4,6; T3,5; Moz T Not 

listed 

T3-8; Moz T VU 

A1cd 

K1,4-7; T1-3,5- S/T Not 

8,Z,P 

listed 

K1,3-7; T1-8,Z,P T Not 

listed 

X X X X 

X 

X X 

Mkuyu X X 

Mkuyudume X X 

K4,5,7; T1-4,6- T LR/nt Mvule X X X X 

8,Z,P; Moz 

K3-5; T1,4,6-8; T/S PT Mzambarau X 

K1,3-7; T2-8; 

Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

Mnyale X X X X X 

T1,4-6 S/T X 

T3,8; Som S/T Not 

listed 

K1,3-6; T2,4,6,7 B Not 

listed 

K3,4,6; T4,5,7,8; T Not 

Moz 

listed 

K1,3-6; T2,3,7; T Not 

Som 

listed 

K7; T6,7; Moz S/T Not 

listed 

X X 

Mianzi X 

Chiguruka X X 

X 

X X 

244



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Crossopteryx febrifuga (G.Don) 

Benth 

Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) 

Bridson 

0- 

1350 

90- 

2450 

K7; T1-8 S/T Not 

listed 

K2/3,3-5,7; T1- 

8,Z 

C/S Not 

listed 

X X X 

X X X 

Pentas longiflora Oliv. 1050- K2-6,7; T2-4,7 H Not 

X X 

2450 

listed 

Rothmannia urcelliformis (Hiern) 850- K3/5,4-6; T1- S/T Not 

X X 

Robyns 2400 4,6,7; Moz 

listed 

Rytigynia decussata (K. Schum.) 75- K7; T3,6,8; Moz S E PT X X X 

Robyns 1000 

Rytigynia sp. - - - S - - X 

Vangueria infausta Burchell 500- 

2500 

Vangueria madagascariensis Gmelin 0- 

2130 

T4-7; Moz S/T Not 

listed 

U1-4; K1,3,4,6; 

T1-8; Z; P; Gha; 

Nig; Cam; Zai; C 

Afr; Sud; Eth; 

Mal; S Afr 

S/T Not 

listed 

RUTACEAE 

Vepris lanceolata (Lam.) 

G.Don 

0-30 K7; T3,6; Moz S Not 

listed 

Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. 5- K1-5; T1-8; Som S/T Not 

1550 

listed 

SAPINDACEAE Allophylus africanus P. Beauv. 30- K3-6; T1-8; T Not 

2400 

listed 

SAPOTACEAE Bequaertiodendr natalense 

S.Moore) 900- K5 S Not 

on 

Heine & 1700 

listed 

J.H.Hemsl. 

STERCULIACEAE Cola greenwayi Brenan 1000- 

2000 

K7; T3,4; Moz T Not 

listed 

X 

X X 

Namavwele X 

X 

X 

X X 

X 

245



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Dombeya kirkii Mast. 1500 K1-5,7; T2,3 T Not 

listed 

Octolobus spectabilis Not in LEAP T Not 

listed 

Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum ex 450 K7; T7,8,Z T E Not 

Engl. 

listed 

Sterculia sp. T Not 

listed 

X X 

X X 

Mparatanyani X X X 

Mparatanyani X 

TILIACEAE Grewia mollis Juss. 700- K5,6; T1,2,4; S/T Not Mbobo X X 

1550 Som 

listed 

VELLOZIACEAE Xerophyta sp. - - - S - X 

VERBENACEAE Vitex mombassae Vatke 20- K7; T1-8; Moz S/T Not 

X 

1580 

listed 

X = presence/absence 

T1 = Kagera, Mwanza, and Mara regions, T2 = Arusha and Manyara regions, T3 = Tanga and Kilimanjaro regions, T4 = Kigoma and Rukwa regions, T5 = Dodoma and Singida regions, T6 

= Dar es Salaam, Coastal and Morogoro regions, T7 = Mbeya and Iringa regions, T8 = Lindi, Mtwara and Ruvuma regions, K7 = Kenya Coastal regions (Polhill, 1988); R = Rare species: 

plants present in less than two out of the eight FTEA vegetation regions of Tanzania (Knox, 2000) 

T = Tree, S = Shrub, B = Bamboo, C = Climber, H = Herb/Grass/Sedge 

E = Endemic – plant species with limited ranges in the Swahilian regional centre of endemism sensu lato (based on Clarke and Robertson, 2000) 

PT= Potentially Threatened plants in the EACF Hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania (Gereau and Luke, 2006) 

CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; LR cd = Lower risk, conservation dependent; LR nt = Lower risk, near threatened; LR lc = Lower risk, least concerned; 

DD = Data Deficient (IUCN, 2004) 

246


b) List of plant species recorded in regeneration plots 


Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

ACANTHACEAE Hypoestes sp. H Not 

listed 

ALOEACEAE 

Aloe macrosiphon Bak. 1125- K5,6; T1,4 H Not 

1585 

listed 

Aloe secundiflora Engl. 750- K1,3-7; T1- H Not 

1980 3,5 

listed 

ANNONACEAE 

Annona senegalensis Pers. 0- K5,7; T1- S/T Not 

1800 4,6,8,Z,P; 

listed 

X X 

Mtopetope X 

Monodora grandidieri Baill. 0-900 K7; T3,6, Z; S/T E Not 

X 

Som; Moz 

listed 

Monodora junodii Engl. & 1- T3,5,6,8; Moz S Not 

X 

Diels 1590 

listed 

Uvaria sp.1 - - - - - - X 

Uvaria sp.2 - - - - - - X 

Uvaria sp.3 - - - - - X 

APOCYNACEAE Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) 450- K1,3-7;T1- C Not Msofu X X 

Stapf 2400 5,7; Som; 

listed 

Moz 

ASTERACEAE 

Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Wild 45- K1-7; T1-8; H/S Not 

X 

2300 Som 

listed 

Vernonia chloropappa Baker Not 

X X 

listed 

Vernonia glabra (Steetz) 

K5; T1-8,Z H Not 

X X 

Vatke 

listed 

Vernonia sp. - - - H/S - - X X 

X 

X 

247



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

BIGNONIACEAE 


K.Schum. 

Markhamia obtusifolia (Baker) 

Sprague 

70 T3,6,7; Moz T Not 

listed 

Mtandavwala X X X 

400 T1,3,5,6,7; T Not Mtandavwala X 

Moz 

listed 

BORAGINACEAE Ehretia sp. - - - S - - Namapande X 

CELASTRACEAE Salacia madagascariensis (Lam.) DC. 600- 

1300 

CHRYSOBALANACEAE Parinari curatellifolia Blenth. 0- 

2070 

CLUSIACEAE Garcinia livingstonei T. Anderson 0- 

1650 

COMBRETACEAE 

K7; T3,6- 

8,Z,P; Som; 

Moz 

K5; T1,4- 

7,Z,P 

K4-7; T1- 

8,Z ; Som 

C/S Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

Combretum hereroense Schinz K3,4,7; 

T3,6,8; Moz 

S Not 

listed 

Combretum molle G. Don 30- K1-7; T1-8 T Not 

2300 

listed 

Pteleopsis myrtifolia (M. A. 

Lawson) 

Engl. & Di 

0- 

1600 

Terminalia brownii Fresen. 730- 

2000 

CONVOLVULACEAE Bonamia mossambicensis (Klotzsch) 

Hall. f. 

120- 

450 

K ; T2,3,6,8 ; 

Moz 

K1-7; T2,5,6; 

Som 

T Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

T6,8; Moz C Not 

listed 

Mbula X 

X X 

X X X 

Chinama X 

Chinama X X 

Mmalala X 

X 

X X 

248



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Ipomoea crassipes Hook. 750- 

1230 


1600 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana Baill. 50- 

350 

DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth. 770- 

1200 

DIPTEROCARPACEAE 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Monotes elagans Gilg. 810- 

1740 

Monotes africanus A. DC. 350- 

1800 

Antidesma membranaceum Müell. Arg. 10- 

1530 

Antidesma venosum E. Mey. ex 

Tul. 

0- 

1830 

K4-6; 

T1,2,4,6-8; 

Moz 

H Not 

listed 


listed 

X 

X X 

K7; T3,6,8; 

Moz 

S/T E PT Namachili X X X 

T4 C Not 

X X 

listed 

T1,4-6 T Not 

listed 

T4-8 ; Moz T Not 

listed 

K4-7; T Not 

T1,3,4,6- 

listed 

8,Z,P; Moz 

K4,5,7; T1- 

8,Z,P 

Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. 0- 

2000 

K7; T1-8,Z,P; 

Som 

Cleistanthus schlechteri (Pax) Hutch. 0-50 K7; T3,6,8; 

Moz 


1800 

K1,6,7; 

T3,6,Z; Som; 

Moz 

T Not 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

S/T E Not 

listed 

S/T Not 

listed 

X X 

X 

X X X X 

X X X X 

X X 

X X X 

Mnyao X X 

249



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 



Drypetes gerrardii Hutch. 1150- 

2300 

K1,4-7; T1- 

4,7 

S/T Not 

listed 

Drypetes sp. T Not 

listed 

Drypetes natalensis (Harv.) 

Hutch 

125- 

1500 

K4; T2-6,8; 

Moz 

Spirostachys africana Sond. 15- 

900 


1600 

Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. 2350 K7; T1-8; 

Moz 

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) 880- K4,5; T1- 

Alston 2130 3,6,7 

Mnyumbu X X X 

Mnyumbumawe X 

S/T PT Mnyumbu X X 

K7; T2,3,6,8 S/T Not 

listed 

K7; 

S Not 

T3,6,8,Z,P; 

listed 

Som; Moz 

T Not 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

Mchenga X 

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. 220- T1,4,5,7,8; T PT Mjohoro X X 

1520 Moz 

Cassia alata L. 0-460 T3,6,Z,P S Not 

X X 

listed 

Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. 

Léon 

200- 

1350 

T4-8; Moz T E PT X X 

Tamarindus indica L. 0- 

1520 

Acacia brevispica Harms 170- 

1830 

Albizia gummifera (J.F. Gmel.) 0- 

C.A. Sm. 

FABACEAE (PAP) Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) 

Dunn 

K1,2,-7; T1- 

8,Z 

K1-7; T1-6; 

Som ; Moz 

T Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

X 

Mkwaju X 

X X X 

K3-7; T2-8,Z T Not Mtangadume X X 

2440 

listed 

1500 T4,7,8 T PT X X X 

X 

X 

250



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Crotalaria sp. - - - S - - X X X 

Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & 

Perr. 

0- 

1350 

Dalbergia nitidula Baker 350- 

1650 

Dalbergia obovata E. Mey 0- 

1050 

K4-7; T1-6,8 S LR/nt Mpingo X X X 


listed 

T3,5,6; Moz T Not 

listed 

Mpingo X X 

Mpingokamba X X 

Indigofera sp. - - - S - - X 


Indigofera vohemarensis Baill. 0- 

1800 

Lonchocarpus bussei Harms 0- 

1350 

Millettia impressa Harms 10- 

200 

Pterocarpus angolensis DC. 300- 

1650 

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) 0- 

Merr 2400 

Xylotheca tettensis (Klotzsch) 

Gilg 

200- 

600 

K1-7; T1- 

8,Z,P; Moz 

H Not 

listed 

X X 

K1,7; T3,5-8; T Not Mlungulungu X X 

Moz 

listed 

T6,8; Moz C PT Mpangapanga X X X 

T1-8 T Not 

listed 

K2-5,7; T1- S Not 

8,Z 

listed 

Mtumbati X 

Mkung’u X 

T6-8; Moz S E PT X X 

HYMENOCARDIACEAE Hymenocardia ulmoides Oliv. 50- 

1550 

LOGANIACEAE 


1500 

Strychnos spinosa Lam. 400- 

2200 

T3,5,6,8 T Not 

listed 


listed 

K2,4; T1,3-8 S Not 

listed 

Mhindi X X 

Mkulung’uru X 

Mkulung’uru X X 

251



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Strychnos usambarensis Gilg 75- K4,6; T3,5; T Not 

X 

2000 Moz 

listed 

MALPIGHIACEAE Acridocarpus sp. - - - S - - LC? X 

MALVACEAE Sida acuta Burm. f. 1500- K2-4,6,7; T1- H Not 

X 

2100 6,8 

listed 

MELASTOMATACEAE Memecylon sp. - - - S - - X 

MORACEAE 

Ficus sur Forssk. 0- 

2300 

K1,3-7; T1- 

8,Z,P 

T Not 

listed 

Mkuyumweupe X X 

Mesogyne insignis Engl. 500- T3,6 S/T VUb1 

X X X X 

1300 

+2b 

OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii Engl. 900- 

2350 

K1,3-7; T2-8; 

Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

Mnyale X X X X 

POACEAE 

Arundinaria alpina K. Schum. 2400- 

3000 

Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. 0- 

& Schult. 2100 

RHAMNACEAE Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Sea 

level 

to 

2000 

RUBIACEAE 

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb) 70- 

Tirvengadu 290 

m 

Gardenia transvenulosa Verdc. 10- 

700m 

K1,3-6; 

T2,4,6,7 

B Not 

listed 

K1-7; T1- H Not 

8,Z,P 

listed 

K1-7; T1-7 S/T Not 

listed 

K7; T6,7; 

Moz 

K7;T3,6,8 not 

elsewhere 

S/T Not 

listed 

S/T E VUb1 

+2b 

Mwanzi/mianzi X 

X 

X 

X X 

X X 

252



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern 0-300 K1,7; T3,6,8; 

Som 

Pentas lanceolata (Forssk) 

Deflers 

1440- 

3000 

S/T E PT X X 

K1-4,6; T2 H Not 

listed 

X X 

Rothmannia engleriana (K. Schum) 

Keay 

200- 

1850 

T1,2,4-8; Moz T Not 

listed 

X X X X X 

Rothmannia urcelliformis (Hiern) 

Robyns 

Rytigynia decussata (K. Schum.) 

Robyns 

850- 

2400 

75- 

1000 

K3/5,4-6; T1- 

4,6,7; Moz 

K7; T3,6,8; 

Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

X X X 

S E PT X X 

Rytigynia sp.1 - - - S - - X 


Tricalysia sp.1 - - - S - - X 

Tricalysia sp.2 - - - S - - X 


2500 

Virectaria major (K. Schum.) 

Verdc. 

1100- 

2350 

RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. 5- 

1550 

SAPINDACEAE 

Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) 

Radlk. 

650- 

2550 

Allophylus africanus P. Beauv 30- 

2400 

SAPOTACEAE Mimusops schliebenii Mildbr. & 150- 

G.M. 300 

Schulze 


listed 

T1,4,7 H Not 

listed 

K1-5; T1-8; S/T Not 

Som 

listed 

K1,3-5; 

T2,3,6,7; Moz 

T/S Not 

listed 

K3-6; T1-8 T Not 

listed 

K7; T3,8 T E Not 

listed 

X 

Namavwele X X X X 

X 

X X 

X 

X 

253



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

SIMAROUBACEAE Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. 0- 

1550 

K1-7; T1-8,Z, 

P; Som; Moz 

T/S Not 

listed 

STERCULIACEAE Cola clavata Mast. 500 K5,6; T3,6,8 S/T E DD; 

PT 

Cola greenwayi Brenan 1000- K7; T3,4; T Not 

2000 Moz 

listed 

TILIACEAE 

UMBELLIFERAE 

Grewia bicolor Juss. 650- 

1650 

Grewia forbesii Mast. 0- 

1250 

Grewia lepidopetala Garcke 50- 

700 

Grewia mollis Juss. 700- 

1550 

Grewia similis K. Schum 600- 

2250 

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 0- 

2750 

Heteromorpha trifoliata (Wendl.) 

Eckl. & 

Zeyh. 

455- 

2730 

Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. 150- 

2200 

T1,2,4,5,7 S/T Not 

listed 

K4, 6,7; S/T E Not 

T2,3,6,8,Z,P; 

listed 

Moz 

T3,6-8; Moz S/T E Not 

K5,6; T1,2,4; 

Som 

K1-6,7; T1- 

3,5-7 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

S/T Not 

listed 

K1-7; T1-8,Z H Not 

listed 

K1-6; T1-8 

H/S/ 

T 

Not 

listed 

K1-7; T1-8 T Not 

listed 

X X X 

X X 

X 

Mbobomweupe X X 

X 

Mbobo X 

Mbobo X X X X 

Mbobo X X X 

X 

X X 

X 

254



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 


Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

VERBENACEAE 

VIOLACEAE 

Vitex doniana Sweet 0- 

1950 

Vitex mombassae Vatke 20- 

1580 

Vitex mossambicensis Gürke 400- 

800 

Rinorea angustifolia (Thouars) 100- 

Baill. 2200 

Rinorea elliptica (Oliv.) 

Kuntze 

50- 

600 

K2,3-7; T1- 

8,Z,P; Moz 

T Not 

listed 

K7; T1-8; S/T Not 

X X X X 

Moz 

listed 

T8; Moz S/T E PT X X X 

K7; T6-8; 

Moz 

K7; T2,3,6,8; 

Moz 

S/T PT X 

S/T E Not 

listed 










X 

X 

255


c) List of species recorded opportunistically 


Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

ACANTHACEAE 

ANACARDIACEAE 

ANNONACEAE 

Barleria holstii Lindau 900 T6 H E Not 

X X 

listed 

Blepharis ciliaris (L.) B. L. 1000- T3,6,7,8; H Not 

X X 

Burtt. 1500 Som, Arab, 

Eth 

listed 

Hypoestes sp. H Not 

listed 

X 

Ruellia sp. - - - H - - X 

Ozoroa sp. S Not 

X X X X 

listed 

Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) 1-330 K7; T3,6,8,Z; S/T E Not 

X 

Moz 

listed 

Rhus sp. S Not 

X X 

Rhus natalensis Krauss 1- 

3000 

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) 

Hochst 

100- 

1600 

Sorindeia madagascariensis DC., Prodr. 1- 

1830 

Monanthotaxis buchananii (Engl.) 

Verdc. 

Monanthotaxis fornicata (Baill.) 

Verdc. 

Monanthotaxis trichocarpa (Engl. & 

Diels) Verds. 

K1-7; T1- 

8,Z,P; Som 

K1-4,6,7; T1- 

4,6 

K4,7; T2,3,5- 

8,P,Z; Moz 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

100- 

1290 

K5,7; 

T1,3,6,8; Moz 

C/S/ 

T 

Not 

listed 

0-450 K7; T3,6; Z S E Not 

listed 

30- 

1000 

K7; T3,6,Z; 

Moz 

X X 

Mng’ongo X 

C/S PT X 

X 

X X X X 

Uvariodendron sp. - - - S - - X 

X 

256



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

APOCYNACEAE 

Tabernaemonta 

na 

sp. T Not 

listed 

ARALIACEAE 

Cussonia arborea A. Rich. 300- 

2470 

Schefflera barteri Harms 900- 

2000 

ASPARAGACEAE Asparagus africanus Lam. 450- 

2120 

ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium nidus L. 40- 

1200 

ASTERACEAE 

Bidens pilosa L. 0-60; 

750- 

2500 

BIGNONIACEAE 

BURSERACEAE 

K2-5; T1,2,4- 

8 

T Not 

listed 

T2,3,6,8 S/T Not 

listed 

K1-3,5,6; H Not 

T7,8 

listed 

T3,6,Z,P Not 

listed 

K1-6; H Not 

T1-8,Z,P 

listed 

Lukangalang’ope 

X 

X X 

X X 

X X X X 

Dicoma sp. H Not 

X 

listed 

Dicoma tomentosa Cass. 100- 

2250 

K1-4,6,7; T1- 

3;5-7 

H Not 

listed 

X X X X 

Vernonia sp. - - - H/S - - X 

Kigelia africana (Lam.) 1000- K1-3,5-7; T4- T Not 

X X 

Benth. 2600 8 

listed 


K. Schum. 

Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) 

Engl. 

70 T3,6,7; Moz T Not 

listed 

5- 

1780 

K1,3,4,6,7; 

T2,3,6-8,Z,P; 

Som ; Moz 

Commiphora ugogensis Engl. 800- 

1400 

Commiphora zanzibarica (Baill.) Engl. 2-510 K7; T6,8,Z; 

Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

Mtandavwala 

X X 

Mng’orola X X X 

T1,2,4,5,7 T Not Mng’orola X X 

listed 

T E PT Mng’orola X X 

X 

X 

257



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

CAPPARIDACEAE 

CELASTRACEAE 

Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. 0- 

1850 

Capparis tomentosa Lam. 0- 

2500 

Maytenus mossambicensis (Klotzsch) 640- 

Blakelock 2900 

Maytenus undata (Thunb.) 

Blakelock 

0- 

3150 

K1,3,4,6,7; 

T1-5; Som 

T Not 

listed 

X X 

K1-7; T1-8 S/T Not 

X 

listed 

K7; T2,3,6-8; S/T PT X 

Moz 

K1-4,3/5,6,7; 

T1-4,6,Z; Som 

S/T Not 

listed 

X X 

CHRYSOBALANACEAE Parinari curatellifolia Benth. 1700 K5; T1,4- T Not Mbula X 

7,Z,P; Moz 

listed 

COMBRETACEAE Combretum hereroense Schinz K3,4,7; 

T3,6,8; Moz 

S Not 

listed 

Chinama X X 

Combretum paniculatum Vent. 10- K3-5,7; T1- C Not Chinama X 

2000 8,Z; Moz 

listed 

COMMELINACEAE Commelina benghalensis Wall. 100- K1-7; T1-3,5- H Not 

X 

2600 8 

listed 

CUCURBITACEAE Momordica sp. - - - C/H - - X 

CYPERACEAE 

Cyperus sp. - - - H - - X 

Papyrus sp. - - - H - - X 

Papyrus sp. - - - H - - X 


1600 

DILLENIACEAE 

Tetracera boiviniana Baill. 50- 

350 

Monotes africanus A. DC. 350- 

1800 


listed 

K7; T3,6,8; 

Moz 

S/T E PT Namachili X 

T4-8; Moz T Not Mnyatile X 

listed 

X 

258



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

DIPTEROCARPACEAE Monotes elagans Gilg. 810- 

1740 

EUPHORBIACEAE 



1800 

T1,4-6 T Not 

listed 

K1,6,7; 

T3,6,Z; Som; 

Moz 

S/T Not 

listed 

Euphorbia sp. T Not 

listed 

Cleistanthus schlechteri (Pax) Hutch. 0-50 K7; T3,6,8; S E Not 

Moz 

listed 

Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) 

Webster 

850- 

1220 


1600 

Afzelia quanzensis Welw. 0- 

1350 

Bauhinia tomentosa L. 0- 

1520 

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. 220- 

1520 

Cassia didymobotrya Fresen. 900- 

2440 

Cassia singueana Delile 0- 

2130 

Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) 490- 

Troupin 1830 

Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. 200- 

Léon 1350 

T1 S/T Not 

listed 

K7; 

T3,6,8,Z,P; 

Som; Moz 

K7; T1-8,Z,P; 

Som, Moz 

K1,3,4,7; 

T2,3,6,8 

T1,4,5,7,8; 

Moz 

S Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

X X 

Mnyao X X X 

X X X 

X X 

X X 

Mbambako X X X 

fi 

Mnyekechi X 

T PT Mjohoro X X X 

K3-7; T1-8; 

Moz 

S Not 

listed 

Mjohoro X 

K1,3-5,7; T1- T Not Mjohoro X 

8 

listed 

T1,3-8; Moz T Not Mchinji X 

listed 

T4-8; Moz T E PT X X X 

X 

259



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 



Swartzia madagascariensis Desv. 450- 

1260 

Acacia brevispica Harms 170- 

1830 

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. 

ex Delile 

Albizia gummifera (J.F. Gmel.) 

C.A. Sm. 

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & 

Arn. 

0- 

2440 

300- 

1625 

T1,4-8; Moz S Not 

listed 

Msekeseke X X X 

K1-7; T1-6; T Not 

Som; Moz 

listed 

T4,6,8; Moz T PT X 

K3-7; T2-8,Z T Not 

listed 

K4; T1,4-8 S Not 

listed 

Mtangadu 

me 

Baphia punctulata Harms 250 T8; Moz T PT X 

Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) 1500 T4,7,8 T PT X 

Dunn 

Crotalaria retusa L. 0-150 K7; T3,6,8,Z; S Not 

X X 

Som, Moz 

listed 

Dalbergia armata E. Mey. 240- T8; Moz S Not 

X 

660 

listed 

Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & 0- K4-7; T1-6,8 S LR/nt Mpingo X 

Perr. 1350 

Dalbergia obovata E. Mey. 0- T3,5,6; Moz T Not Mpingoka X X X X 

1050 

listed mba 

Erythrina abyssinica DC. 200- K3-7; T1-8; T Not 

X X X X X 

2100 Moz 

listed 

Erythrina schliebenii Harms 240 T8 T E PT X X X X X 

X 

X 

X 

Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe 150- 

1650 

Pericopsis angolensis (Baker) 900- 

Meeuwen 1650 

T1,4-8 T Not 

listed 


listed 

Mlungulun 

gu 

X X 

Muwanga X 

260



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 


Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Sond.) 

Druce 

300- 

900 

Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) 100- 

Mendonça & 1650 

E.C.Sousa 

Dovyalis zenkeri Gilg 1500- 

1675 

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) 0- 

Merr 2400 


listed 

K7; T1-8 T Not 

listed 

Not in LEAP S Not 

listed 

K2-5,7; T1- S Not 

8,Z 

listed 

Mtumbatim 

aji 

X X X 

X X 

X X 

Mkung’u X X X X 

Oncoba spinosa Forssk. 1800 K1-5,7; S Not Mdudung’ 

X 

T1,2,4-7,Z 

listed orora 

ICACINACEAE Apodytes dimidiata Arn. 1000- K3-5; T1,2,4- S/T Not 

X 

2500 8 

listed 

LAMIACEAE Plectranthus sp. - - H - - X 

LECYTHIDACEAE Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. 0-450 K7; 

T3,6,8,Z,P; 

Som; Moz 

T Not 

listed 

X 

LOGANIACEAE 

Nuxia congesta Fresen. 1800- 

2700 

Strychnos cocculoides Baker 400- 

2000 

K1,3,4,6; T2- 

4,6,7 

T Not 

listed 

T1,4-8 S Not 

listed 


1500 


listed 

Strychnos sp. S Not 

listed 

Strychnos spinosa Lam. 400- K2,4; T1,3-8 S Not 

2200 

listed 

Strychnos usambarensis Gilg 75- 

2000 

K4,6; T3,5; 

Moz 

T Not 

listed 

Mkulung’u 

ru 

Mkulung’u 

ru 

X 

X X X X X 

X 

X X X X 

X X 

X X X 

261



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

MALVACEAE 

Hibiscus sp. - - - H - - X X 

MELASTOMATACEAE 

MELIACEAE 

MORACEAE 

Hibiscus surattensis L. 0- 

1450 

K3,7; 

T1,3,4,6,8; 

Moz 

H Not 

listed 

Memecylon sp.1 - - - S - - X 

Memecylon sp.2 - - - S - - X 

Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) 120- T3-8; Moz T VU 

X 

1525 

A1cd 

Turraea floribunda Hochst. 100- K3,5-7; S/T Not 

X X 

2150 T2,3,6-8; Moz 

listed 

Antiaris toxicaria (sub?) Lschen. S Not 

X 

listed 

Ficus natalensis Hochst. 10- K1,4-7; T1- S/T Not Mkuyudum X X X X 

2200 3,5-8,Z,P 

listed e 

Ficus sur Forssk. 0- K1,3-7; T1- T Not Mkuyu 

2300 8,Z,P 

listed 

Trilepsium madagascariense DC. 1800 K3-5,7; T1- 

3,6-8,Z 

OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii Engl. 900- K1,3-7; T2-8; 

2350 Moz 

ONAGRACEAE Jussiaea repens L. 10- 

1830 

PALMAE Hyphaene compressa H. Wendl. 0- 

1400 

K3,4,7; T1- 

8,P 

K1,2,4,7; 

T2,3,6,8; 

Som; Moz 

T Not 

listed 

S/T Not 

listed 

H Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

Mnyale X 

X 

X X 

POACEAE Cenchrus sp. X 

X 

X 

262



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. 

& Schult. 

0- 

2100 

K1-7; T1- 

8,Z,P 

H Not 

listed 

Olyra latifolia L. 300- K4,7; S Not 

1300 T1,3,4,6,7,Z,P 

listed 

Panicum trichocladum K. Schum 0- K1,4-7; T1- H Not 

2300 4,6-8,Z,P; 

listed 

Moz 

Phragmites mauritianus Kunth 0- K4-7; T1-7,Z H Not 

1500 

listed 

Themeda triandra Forsk. 3200 K1,3-7; T1- H Not 

8,Z 

listed 

POLYGALACEAE Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen. 1500- K3,4,6; T Not 

2000 T4,5,7,8; Moz 

listed 

ROSACEAE Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) 

J.F. Gmel. 

RUBIACEAE 

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb) 

Tirvengadu 

m 

Crossopteryx febrifuga (G.Don) 

Benth 

2400- 

3600 

70- 

290 

0- 

1350 

K3-5; T2,3,7 T Not 

listed 

K7; T6,7; S/T Not 

Moz 

listed 

K7; T1-8 S/T Not 

listed 

Chiguruka X X X 

X 

X X 

Mchengele X 

Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern 0-300 K1,7; T3,6,8; S/T E PT X 

Som 

Lasianthus kilimandscharicus K. Schum. 1710- K1,3-5,7; S/T PT X X 

2400 T2,3,5-7; Moz 

Lasianthus sp. - - - S - - X 

Leptactina sp. S Not 

X 

Leptactina platyphylla (Hiern) 

Wernham 

45- 

1650 

K5,7; 

T3,4,6,7 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

263



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Pentas bussei K. Krause 0- 

1800 

Pentas longiflora Oliv. 1050- 

2450 

K2,4,7; T1- 

8,Z; Som 

K2-6,7; T2- 

4,7 

H/S Not 

listed 

H Not 

listed 

X X 

X X 

Psychotria sp.1 - - - S - - X 





Tricalysia sp. - - - S - - X 


2500 

RUTACEAE Vepris lanceolata (Lam.) 

G.Don 

SAPINDACEAE 

Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) 

Radlk. 

0-30 K7; T3,6; 

Moz 

650- 

2550 

K3-7; T1-4,6- 

8,Z,P 

S Not 

listed 


listed 

Paullinia pinnata L. 0- 

1600 

SAPOTACEAE Mimusops schliebenii Mildbr. & 150- 

G.M. 300 

Schulze 

SIMAROUBACEAE Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. 0- 

1550 

STERCULIACEAE Cola greenwayi Brenan 1000- 

2000 


listed 

K1,3-5; 

T2,3,6,7; Moz 

S Not 

listed 

T/S Not 

listed 

K1-7; T1-8,Z, 

P; Som; Moz 

K7; T3,4; 

Moz 

T/S Not 

listed 

T Not 

listed 

Mkolong’ 

ombe 

X X 

X X 

X X X X 

X 

X X 

X 

X 

264



Author 

Altitudinal 

range (m) 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara 

Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

TILIACEAE 

VERBENACEAE 

Dombeya kirkii Mast. 1500 K1-5,7; T2,3 T Not 

listed 

Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum ex 

Engl. 

Grewia bicolor Juss. 650- 

1650 


700 

Grewia mollis Juss. 780- 

2700 

Grewia similis K. Schum 600- 

2250 

Vitex mombassae Vatke 20- 

1580 

Vitex zanzibarensis Vatke 0-10 

& 

360- 

600 

ZINGIBERACEAE Aframomum orientale Lock 100- 

400 

450 K7; T7,8,Z T E Not 

listed 

T1,2,4,5,7; S/T Not 

listed 

T3,6-8; Moz S/T E Not 

listed 

T1,2,4 S Not 

Zai,Bur,Rwa 

listed 

K1-6,7; T1- 

3,5-7 

T1,2,3,4,5,6,7 

,8; 

Zai,Bur,Moz, 

Zim, Ang 

K7; T3,6,8; 

Moz 

K7; T6; not 

known 

elsewhere 

S/T Not 

listed 

S Not 

listed 

S E VU 

B1+2c 

Mparatanya 

ni 

X X X X 

Mbobo 

X 

mweupe 

Mbobo X X X X X X 

Mbobo X 

Mbobo X 

X X X 

X X X 

H E PT X 






E = Endemic – plant species with limited ranges in the Swahilian regional centre of endemism sensu lato (based on Clarke and Robertson, 2000); PT= Potentially Threatened plants in the 

EACF Hotspot of Kenya and Tanzania (Gereau and Luke, 2006); CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; LR cd = Lower risk, conservation dependent; LR nt = 

Lower risk, near threatened; LR lc = Lower risk, least concerned; DD = Data Deficient (IUCN, 2004) 

X 

265


APPENDIX 10 - LIST OF ENDEMIC & THREATENED PLANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE SWAHILIAN REGIONAL CENTRE OF 

ENDEMISM SENSU LATU FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

Author 

Altitudinal 

range 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 


ACANTHACEAE Barleria holstii Lindau 900 T6 H E Not 

X X 

listed 

ANACARDIACEAE Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) 1-330 K7; T3,6,8,Z; S/T E Not 

X 

Moz 

listed 

ANNONACEAE Monodora grandidieri Baill. 0-900 K7; T3,6, Z; S/T E Not 

X X 

Som; Moz 

listed 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia zimmermannii Harms 0-400 K7; T3,6,8; T E PT X X 

Moz 

BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon K. Schum. 20- K7; T3,6,8,P; T E PT Msufipori X X 

700 Moz 

BURSERACEAE Commiphora zanzibarica (Baill.) Engl. 2-510 K7; T6,8,Z; T E PT Mng’orola X X X 

Moz 

CELASTRACEAE Maytenus mossambicensis (Klotzsch) 640- K7; T2,3,6-8; S/T PT X 

Blakelock 2900 Moz 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana Baill. 50- K7; T3,6,8; S/T E PT Namachili X X X X X X 

350 Moz 

EUPHORBIACEAE Cleistanthus schlechteri (Pax) Hutch. 0-50 K7 ; T3,6,8; S E Not 

X X X X 

Moz 

listed 

Drypetes natalensis (Harv.) Hutch 125- K4; T2-6,8; S/T PT Mnyumbu X X X X X 

1500 Moz 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata Oliv. 220- T1,4,5,7,8; T PT Mjohoro X X X X 

1520 Moz 

Cynometra gillmanii J. Léon T8 T E CR 

X 

B1+2a 

bcde,c 

2b 

266


Author 

Altitudinal 

range 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 


Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. 200- T4-8; Moz T E PT X X X 

Léon 1350 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex 

T4,6,8; Moz T PT X 

Delile 

Entada stuhlmannii (Taub.) 15- T6,8; Moz C E PT X 

Harms 1600 

FABACEAE (PAP) Baphia punctulata Harms 250 T8; Moz T PT X 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Cleistanthus schlechteri (Pax) Hutch. 0-50 K7 ; T3,6,8; S E Not 

X X X 

Moz 

listed 

Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn 1500 T4,7,8 T PT X X X X 

Erythrina schliebenii Harms 240 T8 T E PT X X X X X 

Millettia impressa Harms 10- T6,8 ; Moz C PT Mpangapan X X X X 

200 

ga 

FLACOURTIACEAE Xylotheca tettensis (Klotzsch) 

Gilg 

200- 

600 

MYRTACEAE Syzygium cordatum Krauss. 900- 

2400 

RUBIACEAE 

T6-8; Moz S E PT X X X 

K3-5; T1,4,6- 

8; 

Gardenia transvenulosa Verdc. 10- 

700m 

K7;T3,6,8 not 

elsewhere 

Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern 0-300 K1,7; T3,6,8; 

Som 

Lasianthus kilimandscharicus K. Schum. 1710- K1,3-5,7; 

2400 T2,3,5-7; Moz 

Rytigynia decussata (K. Schum.) 75- K7; T3,6,8; 

Robyns 1000 Moz 

150- 

300 

SAPOTACEAE Mimusops schliebenii Mildbr. & 

G.M. Schulze 

T/S PT Mzambarau X 

S/T E VUb1 

+2b 

X X 

S/T E PT X X X 

S/T PT X X 

S E PT X X X X X 


listed 

X X X 

267


Author 

Altitudinal 

range 

Dist. (FTEA) 

within the 

Swahilian 

region 


STERCULIACEAE Cola clavata Mast. 500 K5,6; T3,6,8 S/T E DD; 

PT 

Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum ex 450 K7; T7,8,Z T E Not 

Engl. 

listed 

TILIACEAE 

Grewia forbesii Mast. 0- K4, 6,7; S/T E Not 

1250 T2,3,6,8,Z,P; 

listed 


700 

VERBENACEAE Vitex mossambicensis Gürke 400- 

800 

Vitex zanzibarensis Vatke 0-10 

& 

360- 

600 

VIOLACEAE 

Rinorea angustifolia (Thouars) 100- 

Baill. 2200 

Rinorea elliptica (Oliv.) 50- 

Kuntze 600 

ZINGIBERACEAE Aframomum orientale Lock 100- 

400 

Habit 

Endemic 

Status 

Conservation 

Status 

Local names 

used in the 

Mtwara Region 

Mparatanya 

ni 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

X X 

X X X X 

Moz 

T3,6-8; Moz S/T E Not Mbobo X X X X X X 

listed 

T8; Moz S/T E PT X X X 

K7; T3,6,8; 

Moz 

K7; T6-8; 

Moz 

K7; T2,3,6,8; 

Moz 

K7; T6; not 

known 

elsewhere 

S E VU 

B1+2c 

X 

X X X 

S/T PT X 

S/T E Not 

X 

listed 

H E PT X 










268


APPENDIX 11 - MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES, THEIR GROWTH HABIT, THE AILMENTS THEY ARE USED TO CURE, THE PART 

OF THE PLANT THAT IS UTILISED AND THE STUDY AREA IN WHICH THEY WERE FOUND TO BE USED 

Family Species name Habit Ailments and part of the plant used 

ALOACEAE Aloe macrosiphon H Stomach, diarrhoea (sap from leaves) X 

ALOACEAE Aloe secundiflora H Stomach, & chicken diseases (leaves) X 

ANACARDIACEAE Sclerocarya birrea T Anti inflammatory (roots) X X X X X X 

ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis S/T Stomach, (bark, roots) X X X X 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia arborea T Urinary infection, headache (roots, leaves) X 

ARALIACEAE Cussonia zimmermannii T Urinary infection, headache (roots, leaves) X X 

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera boiviniana S Stomach, headache (roots) X X X X X X X 

EBENACEAE Diospyros kirkii T Fever, headache (roots) X X X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Afzelia quanzensis S/T Coughing, stomach headache (root, bark) X X X X X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia petersiana T Coughing, stomach, (leaves & seedpods) X X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Bauhinia tomentosa T Stomach, headache (leaves, bark, pods) X X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Brachystegia spiciformis T Stomach (roots and bark) X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia abbreviata S Urinary infection, headache (roots, leaves) X X X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia petersiana T Stomach, Fever (root, bark) X 

FABACEAE (CAES) Cassia singueana T Urinary infection, headache (roots, leaves) X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia brevispica T Stomach, headache (bark, roots) X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia nigrescens T Fever, diarrhoea, stomach (roots, bark) X X X X 

FABACEAE (MIM) Acacia xanthophloea T Fever, urinary infection (roots, bark) X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Dalbergia melanoxylon T Fever (roots) X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus bussei T Stomach, headache (roots and leaves) X X X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Lonchocarpus capassa T Stomach, headache (roots & bark) X X X X X X 

FABACEAE (PAP) Millettia stuhlmannii C ? X 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

269


Family Species name Habit Ailments and part of the plant used 

FABACEAE (PAP) Pterocarpus angolensis T Teeth, ringworm (sap from the bark) X X X X X X 

FLACOURTIACEAE Flacourtia indica T Stomach, fever (leaves, roots) X X X X X 

HYMENOCARDIACEAE Hymenocardia ulmoides T Stomach (roots and bark) X X X 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos cocculoides T Stomach, diarrhoea (roots, leaves) X X X X X X 

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos madagascariensis S Eyes problems, fever (leaves and roots) X X X X 

MORACEAE Milicia excelsa T Stomach, headache (bark, roots) X X X X 

OCHNACEAE Ochna holstii S Stomach (roots and bark) X X X X 

POLYGALACEAE Securidaca longipedunculata T Stomach, headache (roots) X X X 

RUBIACEAE Crossopteryx febrifuga S/T ? X 

RUBIACEAE Vangueria infausta S Stomach (roots and bark) X X X X 

RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum chalybeum T Urinary infection, stomach, headache (roots) X X X X X X X 

SAPOTACEAE Bequaertiodendron natalense T Stomach, diarrhoea (roots) X X X X X X 

VERBENACEAE Vitex doniana T Stomach (roots) X X 


Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

270


APPENDIX 12 - LIST OF FAUNAL SPECIES REPORTED TO BE HUNTED IN THE FOREST RESERVES 

Order Family Genus species Ecol. 

Type 

End. Status 

Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN + 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

GALLIFORMES NUMIDIDAE – 

Guttera pucherani F W LC X X 

Guineafowl 

PASSERIFORMES PLOCEIDAE – Weavers Quelea erythrops O W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

STRIGIFORMES TYTONIDAE – Barn owls Tyto alba O W LC; X X 

CITES II 

PRIMATES – GALAGONIDAE – Otolemur garnetti f CF and a few LR/lc; X X 

Primates 

Bushbabies or galagos 

other habitats CITES II 

in coastal E 

Africa 

INSECTIVORA – SORICIDAE – Shrews Crocidura sp. O - - X X 

Insectivores 

MACROSCELIDEA 

– Elephant-shrews or 

Sengi 

MACROSCELIDIDAE 

Rhynchocyoninae 

Rhynchocyon cirnei f W VU 

B1+2c 

RODENTIA – SCIURIDAE – Squirrels Paraxerus flavovittis O W DD X X 

Rodents THRYONOMYIDAE – Thryonomys swinderianus O W LC X X 

Cane-rats 

CARNIVORA – VIVERRIDAE – Genets & Civettictis civetta f W LR/lc X X 

Carnivores 

Civets Genetta genetta O W LR/lc X X 

X X 

X 

HYRACOIDEA – 

Hyraxes 

ARTIODACTYLA – 

Even-toed ungulates 

PROCAVIDAE Dendrohyrax sp. - - - X 

SUIDAE – Pigs Potamochoerus larvatus f W LR/lc X X X X 

271



Type 

End. Status 

Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN + 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

BOVIDAE 

Antilopinae – Antilopes, 

Goats & sheep 

Cephalophus monticola F W LR/lc; X X 

CITES II 

Cephalophus natalensis F W LR/cd X X 

Hippotragus niger O W LR/cd X 

TESTUDINES - 

Chelonians 

SAURIA - Lizards 

TESTUDINIDAE – Land Geochelone pardalis O W CITES II X X 

tortoises 

VARANIDAE – Plated 

Lizards 

Varanus albigularis O W CITES II X X 

LACERTIDAE – Lacertid Latastia sp. - - - X X 

lizards or Typical lizards 

BOIDAE – Boas & pythons Python natalensis O W CITES II X X 

SERPENTES - 

Snakes 

X = reported to be hunted 

F = Forest dependent or specialist; f = Forest dwelling or generalist; O = Non-forest or forest visitor (Iverson, 1991b; Mlingwa et al., 2000) 

CF = species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone; EACF = species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests and Eastern Arc Mountains (Burgess et al., 2000a); SE Tanzania = 

species with limited ranges in SE Tanzania; SE Africa = species with limited ranges in SE Africa; E Africa = species with limited ranges in E Africa 

CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; LR cd = Lower risk, conservation dependent; LR nt = Lower risk, near threatened; LR lc = Lower risk, least concerned 

(IUCN, 2004) 

CITES I = Threatened with extinction and excluded from international trade; CITES II = Not yet threatened with extinction, but may be so if trade is not regulated, thus export permits are 

required (CITES, 2005) 

272


APPENDIX 13 - MAMMAL SPECIES LIST FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES. TAXONOMY BASED ON KINGDON (2003) 


Type 

PRIMATES 

CHIROPTERA 

CERCOPITHECIDAE 

Papioninae – Baboons 

Cercopithecinae – Guenons 

& allies 

GALAGONIDAE – 

Bushbabies 

End. Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN + 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Papio cynocephalus O W LR/lc * s s 

Cercopithecus mitis (sub sp.) F W LR/lc; 

CITES II 

s s s s 

Cercopithecus pygerythrus f W Not listed * * s s s s s 

rufovidris 

Otolemur crassicaudatus f W LR/lc; * 0 s 0 0 

CITES II 

Otolemur garnetti f CF and a few LR/lc; 0 0 

other habitats in CITES II 

coastal E Africa 

Galago moholi f Central S 

Africa (first 

record for the 

Coastal Forests 

of Tanzania) 

LR/lc; 

CITES II 

0 0 0 

PTEROPODIDAE – Fruit Epomophorus wahlbergi f W Not listed X 

bats 

NYCTERIDAE – Slitfaced 

Nycteris grandis O W LC X 

bats 

RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus hildebrandti O W LC X 

Rhinolophinae – Horseshoe 

bats 

VESPERTILIONIDAE – Scotoecus hirundo O W DD X 

Vesper bats Nycteris hispida O W LC X 

273



Type 

INSECTIVORA 

MACROSCELIDEA 

LAGOMORPHA 

RODENTIA 

SORICIDAE – Shrews 

MACROSCELIDIDAE 

Rhynchocyoninae – 

Elephant-shrews or Sengi 

LEPORIDAE – Hares 

SCIURIDAE – Squirrels 

HYSTRICIDAE – 

Porcupines 

MUROIDEA 

Gerbillinae – Gerbils 

Cricetomyinae – Pouched 

rats & mice 

MURIDAE – Murid rats & 

Mice 

THRYONOMYIDAE – 

Cane-rats 

End. Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN + 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Crocidura sp.1 - - - X X X X 

Crocidura sp.2 - - - X X X X X 0 

Rhynchocyon cirnei f W VU 

B1+2c 

s * s s s s 

Lepus saxatilis O W LR/lc 0 * 0 s 0 0 0 

Pronolagus rupestris O W LR/lc 0 

Heliosciurus mutabilis f W LC * s s 

Paraxerus flavovittis O W DD s s 

Paraxerus palliatus F W LC s * s s 

Hystrix cristata O W LC; * * 0 0 0 

CITES III 

GH 

Tatera robusta f O LC; 

X 

Not listed 

Beamys hindei f EACF and a NT X X X X X 

few other forest 

types in Kenya 


Acomys spinosissimus O W LC X X X X X 

Grammomys dolichurus f W LC X X X 

Mastomys natalensis O W LC X X X X X X X 

Mus minutoides O W LC X 

Mus sp. - - - X 

Praomys sp. - - - X 

Rattus alexandrinus O W Not listed X 

Thryonomys swinderianus O W LC 0 * 0 

274



Type 

CARNIVORA 

End. Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN + 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

CANIDAE – Wild dogs, Canis adustus O W LC * * * * 

Foxes & Jackals 

MUSTELIDAE 

Aonyx capensis O W LC; 

0 0 

Latrinae – Otters 

CITES II 

HERPESTIDAE – Atilax paludinosus O W LR/lc 0 0 0 

Mongooses 

Helogale parvula O W LR/lc 0 

Herpestes sanguinea O W Not listed 0 

Mungos mungo O W LR/lc s 

HYAENIDAE – Hyaenas Crocuta crocuta O W LR/cd * * 0 0 0 0 

VIVERRIDAE – Genets & 

Civets 

Civettictis civetta f W LR/lc; 

CITES III 

BW 

* * 0 0 0 0 

FELIDAE – Cats 

Genetta genetta O W LR/lc * * 0 

Felis caracal O W CITES II 0 

Panthera leo O W VU A2 

abcd 

CITES II 

* * * * * * 0 

Panthera pardus ssp. O W LC; * * 0 * 0 

panthera 

CITES I 

PHOLIDOTA MANIDAE – Pangolins Smutsia temminckii O W Not listed * * 

TUBULIDENTATA ORYCTEROPODIDAE – Orycteropus afer O W LC s 

Aardvark 

HYRACOIDEA PROCAVIDAE – Hyraxes Heterohyrax sp. - - - * * 0 

PROBOSICIDEA ELEPHANTIDAE – Loxodonta africana O W VU A2a, 

0 

Elephants 

CITES I 

PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE – Horses Equus quagga O W Not listed 0 

275



Type 

ARTIODACTYLA 

HIPPOPOTAMIDAE – 

Hippopotamuses 

End. Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN + 

CITES) 

Hippopotamus amphibius O W LR/lc; 

CITES II 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

* 

SUIDAE – Pigs 

Phacochoerus africanus O W LR/lc 0 

Potamochoerus larvatus f W LR/lc * * * 0 0 0 0 

BOVIDAE 

Syncerus caffer O W LR/cd 0 

Bovinae – Bovines Tragelaphus scriptus O W LR/lc * 

Tragelaphus strepsiceros f W LR/cd s 

Antilopinae – Antilopes, Cephalophus monticola F W LR/lc; 0 * 0 0 

Goats & sheep 

CITES II 

Cephalophus natalensis F W LR/cd * 0 0 

Hippotragus niger O W LR/cd * 

Madoqua kirkii f W LR/lc 0 0 

Neotragus moschatus F W LR/cd 0 0 

Oreotragus oreotragus O W LR/cd 0 * 

X = Confirmed by specimen (awaiting verification of some), s = sight records, 0 = calls or signs, * = reports of local people, 








276


APPENDIX 14 - BIRD SPECIES LIST FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES. TAXONOMY BASED ON SINCLAIR & RYAN (2003), 

STEVENSON AND FANSHAWE (2002) AND ZIMMERMAN ET AL. (1996) 


Type 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

CICONIIFORMES SCOPIDAE – Hamerkop Scopus umbretta O W LC X X X 

ANSERIFORMES ANATIDAE – Ducks & Geese Dendrocygna viduata O W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

X 

FALCONIFORMES 

ACCIPITRIDAE – Eagles, 

Vultures, Kites, Hawks, 

Buzzards & Osprey 

Nettapus auritus O W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

Accipiter tachiro f W LC; X X 

CITES II 

Aquila verreauxii O W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

Aviceda cuculoides f W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

Circaetus cinereus O W LC; 

X X 

CITES II 

Circaetus fasciolatus f W NT; X X X 

CITES II 

Circaetus pectoralis O W CITES II X X X X X X X X 

Elanus caeruleus O W LC; 

X X 

CITES II 

Gypohierax angolensis f W LC; 

CITES II 

X X 

Hieraaetus spilogaster O W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

X 

277



Type 

GALLIFORMES 

GRUIFORMES 

CHARADRIIFORM 

ES 

COLUMBIFORMES 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Kaupifalco monogrammicus O W LC; X X X X X X X X 

CITES II 

Lophaetus occipitalis f W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

Macheiramphus alcinus f W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

Polyboroides typus f W LC; X X X X 

CITES II 

Stephanoaetus coronatus F W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

Terathopius ecaudatus O W LC; X X X X X X X X 

CITES II 

FALCONIDAE – Falcons Falco dickinsoni O W LC; 

CITES II 

X 

Falco peregrinus O W LC; 

X X 

CITES I 

PHASIANIDAE – Francolins 

(spurfowl) & Quail 

Pternistes 

(or Francolinus) 

afer O W LC X 

Pternistes 

(or Francolinus) 

hildebrandti f W LC X X X X 

NUMIDIDAE – Guineafowl Numida meleagris O W LC X X X 

RALLIDAE – Rails, Coots & Amaurornis flavirostris O W LC X 

Gallinules 

JACANIDAE – Jacanas Actophilornis africanus O W LC X 

COLUMBIDAE – Doves & 

Pigeons 

Streptopelia capicola O W LC X X X X X X X X 

278



Type 

PSITTACIFORMES 

MUSOPHAGI 

FORMES 

CUCULIFORMES 

STRIGIFORMES 

PSITTACIDAE – Parrots & 

Lovebirds 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Streptopelia semitorquata f W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

Streptopelia senegalensis O W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

Treron calva f W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

Turtur chalcospilos f W LC; Not 

listed 

Turtur tympanistria f W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

Agapornis lilianae O W NT; 

CITES II 

Poicephalus cryptoxanthus f SE Africa LC; 

CITES II 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

X X X X X X X X 

X 

X X X X 


X X X X X 

X 

X X X X X 

MUSOPHAGIDAE – Turacos Tauraco porphyreolophus f W LC X 

CUCULIDAE – Cuckoos & 

Coucals 

STRIGIDAE – Owls 

Centropus burchelii f W Not listed X X X X X X X X 

Ceuthmochares australis f W Not listed X X 

Chrysococcyx cupreus f W LC X X 

Chrysococcyx klass f W LC X X 

Bubo africanus O W LC; 

X X X 

CITES II 

Glaucidium capense f W LC; 

X 

CITES II 

279



Type 

CAPRIMULGI 

FORMES 

APODIFORMES 

CAPRIMULGIDAE – 

Nightjars 

APODIDAE – Swifts & 

Spinetails 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Strix woodfordii f W LC; 

X X X X X 

CITES II 

Caprimulgus pectoralis f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Apus affinis O W LC X X 

Apus caffer O W LC X X X 

Cypiurus parvus f W Not listed X 

Neafrapus boehmi f W LC X X 

TROGONIORMES TROGONIDAE – Trogons Apaloderma narina f W LC X X X 

CORACIIFORMES ALCEDINIDAE – Kingfishers Halcyon albiventris f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Halcyon chelicuti O W LC X X X X 

Ispidina picta f W Not listed X X X X 

Megaceryle maxima O W LC X 

MEROPIDAE – Bee-eaters Merops boehmi f W LC X X X 

Merops pusillus O W LC X X X X X X X X 

CORACIIDAE – Rollers Coracias caudata O W LC X 

Coracias spatulata O W LC X 

Phoeniculus purpureus f W LC X X X X 

PHOENICULIDAE – Woodhoopoes 

& Scimitarbills 

BUCEROTIDAE – Hornbills 

Rhinopomastus cyanomelas O W LC X X X 

Bucorvus leadbeateri O W Not listed X X X X 

Bycanistes bucinator f W LC X 

Tockus alboterminatus f W LC X X X X X 

Tockus nasutus O W LC X 

280



Type 

PICIFORMES 

PASSERIFORMES 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

CAPITONIDAE – Barbets & Lybius melanopterus f E Africa LC X X 

Tinkerbirds Pogoniulus bilineatus f W LC X X X X X X X X 

INDICATORIDAE – Indicator indicator O W LC X X X 

Honeyguides 

PICIDAE – Wrynecks & Campethera abingoni f W LC X X X 

Woodpeckers 

Dendropicos fuscescens f W LC X X X 

Dendropicos namaquus f W Not listed X X 

EURYLAIMIDAE – 

Smithornis capensis F W LC X X X X X 

Broadbills 

MOTACILLIDAE – 

Anthus cinnamomeus O W Not listed X 

Wagtails, Longclaws & Pipits Motacilla aguimp O W LC X 

HIRUNDINIDAE – Swallows Hirundo abyssinica O W LC X X X 

& Martins 

Hirundo smithii O W LC X X X X 

Psalidoprocne holomelas f W Not listed X X X X X 

PYCNONOTIDAE – Nicators 

& Greenbuls 

TIMALIIDAE – Babblers, 

Chatterers & Illadopses 

TURDIDAE – Thrushes, 

Robins, Chats & relatives 

Psalidoprocne orientalis O W Not listed X 

Andropadus importunus f W LC X X X X X X 

Chlorocichla flaviventris f W LC X X X X X X X 

Nicator gularis f SE Africa LC X X X X X X X 

Phyllastrephus flavostriatus F SE Africa LC X 

Phyllastrephus fischeri F W LC X 

Pycnonotus barbatus O W LC X X X X X X X X 

Turdoides jardinei O W LC X X 

Cercomela familiaris O W LC X 

Cercotrichas quadrivirgata f W Not listed X X X X X X X X 

Cossypha heuglini O W LC X X X X 

281



Type 

MUSCICAPIDAE – 

Flycatchers 

SYLVIIDAE – Warblers 

ZOSTEROPIDAE – Whiteeyes 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Cossypha natalensis f W LC X X 

Myrmecocichla cinnamomeiventris O W LC X X 

Sheppardia gunningi F CF and a few 

other forest types 

in Tanzania, 

Kenya, Malawi 

and Coastal 

Mozambique 

VU B2ab 

(i,ii,iii,v) 

X 

Turdus libonyanus O W LC X X 

Bias musicus f W LC X 

Erythrocercus livingstonei f SE Africa Not listed X X X X X X X 

Muscicapa caerulescens f W LC X X X X X 

Muscicapa striata O W LC X 

Terpsiphone viridis f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Trochocercus cyanomelas F W LC X X X X X 

Apalis flavida f W LC X X X X X 

Camaroptera brachyura f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Cisticola erythrops O W LC X X 

Heliolais erythroptera O W LC X 

Prinia subflava O W LC X X X X X X X X 

Sylvietta whytii f W LC X X X 

Zosterops senegalensis f W LC X X 

282



Type 

PLATYSTEIRIDAE – Batises 

& Wattle-eyes 

PRIONOPIDAE – Helmetshrikes 

MALACONOTIDAE – Bushshrikes 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Batis reichenowi F CF Not listed X 

Batis soror f SE Africa LC X X X X X X 

Platysteira peltata f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Prionops poliolophus O Previously NT X X 

restricted to SW 

Kenya and N 

Tanzania (first 

record for S 

Tanzania) 

Prionops retzii f W LC X X X X X 

Dryoscopus cubla f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Laniarius aethiopicus f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Malaconotus blanchoti f W LC X X 

Malaconotus quadricolor f W Not listed X X X 

Malaconotus sulfureopectus f W LC X X X X X 

Tchagra australis f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Tchagra senegala O W LC X X X X 

CAMPEPHAGIDAE – Campephaga flava f W LC X X X X X 

Cuckoo-shrikes Coracina pectoralis O W Not listed X X X 

DICRURIDAE – Drongos Dicrurus adsimilis O W LC X X X X X X X X 

Dicrurus ludwigii f W LC X X X X 

ORIOLIDAE – Orioles Oriolus auratus f W LC X X X X X 

Oriolus larvatus f W LC X X X X X 

283



Type 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

CORVIDAE – Crows, Ravens Corvus albicollis O W LC X X 

& Piapiac Corvus albus O W LC X X X X X X X X 

STURNIDAE – Starlings & Cinnyricinclus leucogaster O W LC X 

Oxpeckers 

Lamprotornis elisabeth f W LC X X 

Onychognathus morio O W LC X X 

NECTARINIIDAE – Sunbirds Chalcomitra amethystina f W Not listed X X X 

Chalcomitra senegalensis O W Not listed X 

Cinnyris talatala f W Not listed X X 

Cyanomitra olivacea f W Not listed X X X X X X X X 

Hedydipna collaris f W Not listed X X X X X X X X 

PASSERIDAE – Sparrows & Petronia superciliaris O W LC X X X 

Petronias Plocepasser mahali O W LC X 

PLOCEIDAE – Weavers Amblyospiza albifrons f W LC; 

X 

CITES III 

GH 

Anaplectes rubriceps O W LC; 

X X 

CITES III 

GH 

Euplectes afer O W LC; 

X 

CITES III 

GH 

Euplectes hordeaceus O W LC; 

X X 

CITES III 

GH 

Euplectes orix O W LC X 

Ploceus bicolor f W LC X X X X X 

284



Type 

ESTRILDIDAE 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Ploceus cucullatus O W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Ploceus intermedius O W LC X X 

Ploceus ocularis f W LC X X 

Ploceus subaureus O SE Africa LC X 

Quelea erythrops O W LC; 

X 

CITES III 

GH 

Estrilda astrild O W LC X X 

Hypargos niveoguttatus f W LC X X X X X X X X 

Lagonosticta rubricata O W LC X X X X X X X X 

Mandingoa nitidula f W LC X X X X 

Pyrenestes minor f W LC X 

Pytilia afra O W LC X X X 

Pytilia melba O W LC X X X X X X X X 

Spermestes bicolor O W Not listed X X X X 

Spermestes cucullata O W Not listed X X X X 

Spermophaga ruficapilla f Previously LC X 

restricted to W 

Kenya and N 

Tanzania (first 

record for S 

Tanzania) 

Uraeginthus angolensis O W LC X X X X 

Vidua chalybeata O W LC X 

X 

285



Type 

FRINGILLIDAE – Canaries 

& Seedeaters 

EMBERIZIDAE – Old-world 

buntings, Waxbills, Whydahs 

& Indigobirds 


Conserv. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Vidua obtusa O W LC X X X 

Serinus mozambicus O W LC; 

CITES III 

GH 


Serinus reichardi f W LC X X 

Emberiza cabanisi O W LC X X 

Emberiza tahapisi O W LC X X X X 

X = species identified by sight 


CF = species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone; EACF = species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests and Eastern Arc Mountains Africa (Burgess et al., 2000a); SE 

Tanzania = species with limited ranges in SE Tanzania; SE Africa = species with limited ranges in SE Africa; E Africa = species with limited ranges in E 





286


APPENDIX 15 - REPTILE SPECIES LIST FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES. TAXONOMY BASED ON SPAWLS ET AL. (2002) 

Order/ suborder 

TESTUDINES 

- Chelonians 

SAURIA – 

Lizards 

Family Genus species Ecol 

Type 

TESTUDINIDAE – Land 

tortoises 

PELOMEDUSIDAE – African 

side-necked terrapins 

Endemic 

Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Geochelone pardalis O W CITES II 0 0 

? 

Pelomedusa subrufa O W CITES III 

GH 

GEKKONIDAE – Geckoes Hemidactylus mabouia O W Not listed X 

AGAMIDAE – Agamas Agama agama O W Not listed X 

Agama mossambica O W Not listed X X X X X 

VARANIDAE – Monitor Varanus albigularis O W CITES II 0 * 

lizards Varanus niloticus O W CITES II s s 

SCINCIDAE – Skinks Panaspis sp. - - Not listed X 

Trachylepis maculilabris O W Not listed X 

Trachylepis megalura O W Not listed X X 

Trachylepis sp. 1 - - Not listed s s s s 

Trachylepis striata O W Not listed X 

Trachylepis varia O W Not listed X 

LACERTIDAE – Lacertid Ichnotropis squamulosa O W Not listed X 

Lizards 

GERRHOSAURIDAE Gerrhosaurus nigrolineatus O W Not listed X X 

CORDYLIDAE – Girdled Cordylus tropidosternum f W CITES II X 

lizards & relatives Platysaurus maculatus O N 

Not listed X 

Mozambique 

and Masasi 

district in SE 

Tanzania 

X 

287


Order/ suborder 

SERPENTES – 

Snakes 

Family Genus species Ecol 

Type 

Endemic 

Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

BOIDAE – Boas & Pythons Python natalensis O W CITES II 0 * 

COLUBRIDAE – Typical Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia O W Not listed X 

snakes 

Dasypeltis medici f W Not listed X 

Lamprophis capensis O W Not listed X X 

Lycophidion capense O W X 

Mehelya nyassae (juv.) O W Not listed X 

Philothamnus semivariegatus O W Not listed X 

Psammophis mossambicus O W Not listed s 

Psammophis orientalis O W Not listed X X s 

Thelotornis capensis oatesi O W (first record 

for Tanzania; 

awaiting ID 

confirmation) 

Not listed X 

Thelotornis mossambicanus O W Not listed X X s 

VIPERIDAE – Vipers 

Bitis arietans O W Not listed X 

Causus defilippii O W Not listed X X 

X = Confirmed by specimen (awaiting verification of some), s = sight records, 0 = calls or signs, * = reports of local people, 








288


APPENDIX 16 - AMPHIBIAN SPECIES LIST FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES. TAXONOMY BASED ON CHANNING (2001) AND 

PASSMORE & CARRUTHERS (1995) 


Type 

ANURA – 

Amphibians 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE – 

Squeakers 

BUFONIDAE – 'True' Toads 

End. 

Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

Arthroleptis stenodactylus f W LC X X X X X X 

Arthroleptis xenodactyloides f W VU X X X X 

B1ab(iii) 

Bufo maculatus O W Not listed X 

HEMISOTIDAE – Shovelnosed 

frogs or Snoutburrowers 

HYPEROLIIDAE – Tree, 

Leaf-folding, Reed, Lily, and 

Rattling Frogs & Kassinas 

MICROHYLIDAE – 

Rain frogs & Rubber frogs 

Bufo sp. - - - X 

Mertensophryne micranotis f EAC LC X 

lowland 

Hemisus marmoratus O W LC X 

Afrixalus fornasinii O W LC X X X 

Afrixalus sp. - - - X 

Hyperolius punticulatus f EA DD X X 

Hyperolius sp. - - - X 

Kassina sp. - - - X 

Leptopelis flavomaculatus (juv) f W LC X X 

Breviceps mossambicus O W LC X 

289



Type 

End. 

Status 

Cons. 

Status 

(IUCN & 

CITES) 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

PIPIDAE – Platannas Xenopus muelleri O W LC X X X 

RHACOPHORIDAE – Chiromantis xerampelina O W LC X X 

Foam-nest frogs 

RANIDAE – Common or 

‘True’ frogs 

Ptychadena anchietae O W LC X 

Ptychadena mossambica O W LC X X 

Ptychadena oxyrhynchus O W Not listed X 

Phrynobatrachus mababiensis O W LC X 

Phrynobatrachus natalensis O W LC X X 

Phrynobatrachus sp. - - - X 

X = Confirmed by specimen (awaiting verification of some) 



species with limited ranges in SE Tanzania; SE Africa = species with limited ranges in SE Africa; E Africa= species with limited ranges in E Africa 





290


APPENDIX 17 - BUTTERFLY SPECIES LIST FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES. TAXONOMY BASED ON DAVENPORT (2001), 

LARSEN (1996) AND KIELLAND (1990) 


Type 

PAPILIONOIDEA 

PAPILIONIDAE – 

Swallowtails 

PIERIDAE – 

Yellows & Whites 

End. Status 

IUCN 

Papilio constantinus f W - first Not listed X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Papilio demodocus O W Not listed s 

Papilio ophidicephalus O W Not listed s s 

Belenois thysa thysa f W Not listed X X 

Catopsilia florella O W Not listed X 

Colotis amata calais O W Not listed X 

Colotis euippe omphale O W Not listed X X X X X 

Colotis ione O W Not listed X 

Eurema desjardinsi marshalli O W Not listed X X 

Eurema hapale O W Not listed X 

Eurema hecabe solifera O W Not listed X X X 

Eurema regularis O W Not listed X 

Leptosia alcesta inalcesta f W Not listed X X X X 

Nepheronia thalassina f W - first Not listed X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Alaena sp. - - - X 

Anthene lunulata O W Not listed X X 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

291



Type 

NYMPHALOIDEA 

DANAIDAE – 

Milkweed butterflies 

SATYRIDAE – 

Browns & Ringlets 

NYMPHALIDAE – 

Brush-footed 

butterflies 

End. Status 

IUCN 

Baliochila lipara O W Not listed X 

Euchrysops malathana O W Not listed X 

Hypolycaena pachalica O W - first Not listed X X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Pentila pauli nyassana f W Not listed X X 

Zizeeria knysna O W Not listed X 

Amauris ochlea ochlea O W - first Not listed X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Bicyclus safitza O W Not listed X X X X X X 

Coenyropsis carcassoni O W - first Not listed X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Gnophodes betsimena diversa F W Not listed X 

Melanitis leda f W Not listed X X 

Ypthima asterope O W Not listed X 

Byblia anvatara acheloia O W Not listed X X X 

Chacaxes 

achaemenes 

O W Not listed X 

achaemenes 

Charaxes bohemani f W Not listed X 

Charaxes brutus alcyone f W Not listed X 

Charaxes castor flavifasciatus f W Not listed X 

Charaxes citherion kennethi f W Not listed X X X X X X X 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

292



Type 

End. Status 

Charaxes etesipe f W - first Not listed X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Charaxes ethalion O W Not listed X 

Charaxes guderiana f W Not listed X X X X 

Charaxes howarthi f W Not listed X X X X X 

Charaxes jasius saturnus O W Not listed X 

Charaxes lasti lasti F EACF - first Not listed X X X X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Charaxes macclounii O W Not listed X X 

Charaxes protoclea azota F W Not listed X X X 

Charaxes sp.1 - - - X X X X 

Charaxes sp.2 - - - X X 

Charaxes sp.3 - - - X X 

Charaxes sp.4 - - - X 

Charaxes varanes vologeses O W Not listed X X X X X 

Cymothoe herminia F W - first Not listed s 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Danaus chrysippus chrysippus O W Not listed X 

IUCN 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

293



Type 

End. Status 

Euphaedra neophron littoralis F W - first Not listed s s s s 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Eurytela dryope angulata f W - first Not listed X X X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Euxanthe wakefieldi F W Not listed X X 

Hamanumida daedalus O W Not listed s s s s s s 

Harma theobene blassi F W Not listed X X 

Junonia hierta cebrene O W Not listed X 

Junonia natalica f W Not listed X 

Junonia oenone oenone O W Not listed X X 

Junonia 

orithya 

O W Not listed X 


Junonia terea elgiva f W Not listed X X 

Neptidopsis fulgurata platyptera f W - first Not listed X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Neptis alta F W Not listed X X 

Neptis jordani O W Not listed X X X 

Precis antilope O W Not listed X 

Salamis parhassus f W Not listed s 

IUCN 

Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

294



Type 

HESPEROIDEA HESPERIIDAE – 

Skippers 

End. Status 

IUCN 

Sallya amulia rosa f W - first Not listed X X X 

record for 

Mtwara 

Region 

Acraea anacreon bomba f W Not listed X 

Kedestes sp. - - - X 

X = Confirmed by specimen, s = sight records, 0 = calls or signs, * = reports of local people, 


CF = species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests alone; EACF = species with limited ranges in the Coastal Forests and Eastern Arc Mountains; SE Tanzania = species with limited 

ranges in SE Tanzania; SE Africa= species with limited ranges in SE Africa; E Africa= species with limited ranges in E Africa (Burgess et al., 2000a) 





Kambona 

Makonde I 

Makonde II 

Mkunya River 

Mtiniko 

Mtuli Hinju 

Makonde III 

Ndechela 

295


APPENDIX 18 - NUMBER OF CAPTURES AND RECAPTURES AND SPECIMEN RECORD NUMBERS OF SMALL MAMMALS, 

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FOR ALL FOREST RESERVES 

Forest Reserve Location Order Family Genus Species 

Sherman 

traps 

(bucket 

pitfalls) 

No. 

recaptured 

Record no. 

(KMH) 

Kambona Zoo site 1 INSECTIVORA SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. 1(2) 0 26662 (26663) 

RODENTIA 

CRICETOMYINAE Beamys hindei 7(1) 3 26793 (26792) 

MURIDAE Grammomys dolichurus 1 0 26794 

MURIDAE Mastomys natalensis 1 0 26796 

MURIDAE Mus minutoides (1) 0 (26797) 

ANURA 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis stenodactylus (13) 0 26856, 26855 

BUFONIDAE Bufo sp. (6) 0 26858 

Makonde I Zoo site 2 

INSECTIVORA SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. 2 0 26664 

RODENTIA 

CRICETOMYINAE Beamys hindei 2 4 

MURIDAE Mastomys natalensis 2 4 

SAURIA LACERTIDAE Ichnotropis squamulosa (1) 0 26737 

ANURA 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis xenodactyloides (36) 0 26868 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis stenodactylus (4) 0 26869, 26870 

MICROHYLIDAE Breviceps mossambicus (2) 0 26867 

296


Forest Reserve Location Taxon Family Genus Species 

Sherman 

traps 

(bucket 

pitfalls) 

No. 

recaptured 

Record no. 

(KMH) 

Makonde II Zoo site 3/1 INSECTIVORA SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. (1) 0 26668 

Zoo site 3/2 RODENTIA 


MURIDAE Acomys spinosissimus 2 0 26799 

MURIDAE Mus sp. (1) 0 26798 

Mkunya River Zoo site 4 

SORICADAE Crocidura sp. 2(1) 0 26665, 26666, 

26667 

INSECTIVORA SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. (2) 0 26669, 26670 

RODENTIA 

CRICETOMYINAE Beamys hindei 1 (1) 0 26801 



SERPENTES VIPERIDAE Causus defilippii (1) 0 26742 

ANURA 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis stenodactylus (5) 0 26875 

Mkunya River 

Zoo site 5 INSECTIVORA 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis xenodactyloides (1) 0 26880 

HEMISOTIDAE Hemisus marmoratus (3) 26873 

SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. 1(1) 0 26671, 26672 

MURIDAE Acomys spinosissimus 3 0 26804 


297


Sherman 

traps 


(bucket 

pitfalls) 

No. 

recaptured 

Mtiniko Zoo site 6 RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Paraxerus palliatus 1 (0) 0 

Record no. 

(KMH) 

CRICETOMYINAE Beamys hindei 5 (0) 4 

SAURIA SCINCIDAE Trachylepis maculilabris 0 (1) 0 26745 

Mtuli Hinju Zoo site 7 

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Paraxerus flavovittis 1 (0) 0 

RODENTIA 

MURIDAE Acomys spinosissimus 7(0) 4 26805 

MURIDAE Mastomys natalensis 1 (0) 0 26806 

Makonde III Zoo site 8 

INSECTIVORA SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. 2(3) 0 26673, 26674, 

26675 

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys spinosissimus 16 10 26807 


CRICETOMYINAE Beamys hindei 3 0 

ANURA 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis stenodactylus (3) 0 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE Arthroleptis xenodactyloides (16) 0 

Ndechela Zoo site 9 

INSECTIVORA SORICIDAE Crocidura sp. 1 0 26676 

MUROIDEA GERBILLINAE Tatera robusta 1 0 26811 

RODENTIA 

MURIDAE Acomys spinosissimus 1 2 


MURIDAE Mastomys natalensis 8 1 26810, 26809 

298


Sherman 

traps 


(bucket 

pitfalls) 

No. 

recaptured 

SAURIA SCINCIDAE Trachylepis megalura 1 0 

Record no. 

(KMH) 

Ndechela Zoo site 10 

MUROIDEA GERBILLINAE Tatera robusta 1 0 26815 

RODENTIA 

MURIDAE Acomys spinosissimus 1 1 


SAURIA SCINCIDAE Trachylepis varia (1) 0 

299



APPENDIX 19 - STRUCTURED INTERVIEW SHEET 

DATE 

NAME OF INTERVIEWEE 

VILLAGE & STUDY SITE 

TRIBE 

RELIGION 

SOURCE OF INCOME 

WATER SUPPLY 

FUEL SOURCE 

BUILDING POLES / FURNITURE 

SOURCE/SPECIES/QUANTITY 


VILLAGE WOOD LOT / PLANTATION 

MEDICINAL PLANTS 

FOREST PRODUCTS EXPORTED 



- BY WHOM 

- WHEN 

- WHERE SOLD 

OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS 

(MUSHROOMS/GUM/HONEY etc.) 

- GATHERING METHODS 

ANIMALS HUNTED 

- HUNTING METHOD 

ATTITUDE TO FOREST 

HISTORICAL EXTENT OF FOREST 

LARGE FOREST MAMMALS FOUND 

OTHER NOTES 

RELIABILITY OF ANSWERS 

COMPLETED BY 

Frontier-Tanzania 301

mtwara reconnaissance project - Coastal Forests of Kenya and ...

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