Ecological, Social and Commercial Role of Lichens in India with ...

Acdemia Arena 2010, Supplement 0201 

http://www.sciencepub.net 

Ecological, Social and Commercial Role of 

Lichens in India with Special Reference to 

Garhwal Himalayas 

Balwant Kumar 

Young Scientist (DST) 

Department of Botany D. S. B. Campus Kumaun University, Nainital (India)-263001 

drbalwantkumararya@gmail.com [Balwant Kumar. Ecological, Social and Commercial Role of Lichens in 

India with Special Reference to Garhwal Himalayas. Academia Arena 2010;Supplement 0201:1-118]. (ISSN 1553- 

992X). http://www.sciencepub.net. 

0



CONTENTS 

Preface.............................................................................................................................3-4 

Background…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....5-12 

Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………..13-19 

Chapter 2: Review of Liturature…………………………………………………………………………...20-26 

Chapter 3: Phytosociological Analysis Brown Oak Dominated Forest of Garhwal 

Himalaya, India……………………………………………………………………………….…....27-33 

Chapter 4: Assessment of Lichen Species in a Temperate Region of Garhwal 

Himalaya, India……………………………………………..………………………………….....34- 55 

Chapter 5: Macrolichens Cover and Their Distribution Pattern on Two Common 

Phorophytes (Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhodondron arboretum) in a 

Temperate Forest of Rudraprayag District Garhwal (Uttarakhand), 

India…………………………………………………………….…………....................................56-62 

Chapter 6: Estimation of Dry Mass of Epiphytic Lichens in a Temperate Forest Of 

Garhwal Himalaya, India………………………….………………………………................63-69 

Chapter 7: Seasonal Pattern of Lichen Fall from Trees in an Evergreen Quercus 

semecarpifolia forest of Garhwal Himalaya, 

India……………………………………………………………………………………………………........70-78 

Chapter 8: An Account of Lichens on Fallen Twigs of Three Quercus Species in 

Chopta Forest of Garhwal Himalaya, India…………………………..…….........79-88 

Chapter 9: Quantitative Analysis of Lichen Vegetation in Eleven Forest Sites of a 

Quercus semecarpifolia Forest of Garhwal Himalaya, 

India……………………………………………………………………………………….……..……........89-95 

Chapter 10: Lichen Resource Use Pattern and Its Socioeconomic Status in 

Temperate Region of Garhwal Himalaya, India………………………….........96-105 

Chapter 11: Lichen-Moss Harvesting Practicies and Their Marketing Strategy in 

Uttarakhand, India…………………………………………………………………................106-118 

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Acknowledgement 

I have great pleasure in placing of record to Prof. S. P. Singh, Prof. D. P. Vashishtha, H. N. 

B. Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) and Prof. Uma Palni, Prof. Sudhir Chandra, Dr. Lalit 

M. Tewari, Dr. Dhani Arya, Dr. Kapil Khulbe, Mr. Pratap Dhaila, Mr. Dinesh Giri and Mr. Vardan 

Singh, Kumaun University, Nainital for their cooperation during different phases of the study. 

It is also my great opportunity for pride and pleasure to express my deep sense to gratitude 

and heartiest veneration to Dr. D.K. Upreti, Scientist and Head, Lichenology Laboratory, Plant 

Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Division, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 

(U.P) for his inspiring guidance, untiring supervision, valuable suggestions, identification of the 

lichen specimens and constant encouragement, throughout the course of present investigation. 

I would like special thanks to Mr. Aseesh Pandey, Plant Tissue Culture Lab, D. S. B. 

Campus, Nainital for editing and formatting of this book. 

I would like gratefully acknowledge to Department of Science and Technology (DST), New 

Delhi and India-Canada Environemental Facility (ICEF), New Delhi for their financial support. 

My sincere thanks are due to team of Appropriate Technology India, Center for Ecological 

Studies, Guptkashi (Rudraprayag), for providing facilities to placing lichen herbarium. 

I express my warm thanks to Marsland Press Richmond Hill, New York, USA for publishing 

this work. 

Last but not least, I feel paucity of words to express adequately my gratitude to my loving wife 

Mrs. Manuhar Arya, Assistant Professor (History) for constant encouragement. 

Dr. Balwant Kumar 

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Preface 

The Himalayas has been a perennial source of attraction, curiosity and challenge to human intellect 

throughout the ages. Amongst several assets the investigation provides and everlasting and 

interesting field of investigation. The diversity copiousness as well as uniqueness of the plant 

components in various habitats retained sound and aesthetic environment of the study area. 

However in the recent past a couple of decades excessive exploitation of vegetation, unplanned 

land use, natural disasters and several developmental processes, accelerated deterioration of 

biodiversity and harmonious ecosystem of the Himalaya. 

Forest resources of the Himalayas are shrinking in size due to over-exploitation and there is 

increased interest to protect, manage and make them more protective. This requires essentially the 

knowledge of their population status, production behaviour and rate of utilization on unit area basis. 

The human influences on lichen diversity and other biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have 

largely taken form of rapid, large and frequent changes in land and resource use, increased 

frequency of biotic invasion, reduction of species number, creation of stresses and potential for 

changes in climate system. 

This book is primarily based on the publication of various research papers and collection 

made by my previous work and references may be found in available literature. The specimens 

described in this volume were mostly collected during various excursions to Garhwal Himalaya. 

This book is complied into eleven chapters. Chapter first (1) introduction deals with need of 

inventorying and monitoring of lichens of Garhwal Himalaya, historical background of lichens and 

detailed description about the Garhwal Himalayas. The chapter ends with the description of 

vegetation (forest) type of the Garhwal Himalayas. Chapter second (2) a review of literature work 

done at regional Himalayan and national level pertaining to various aspects of the present 

information. Chapter third (3) deals with the phytosociological analysis of trees, shrubs, herbs and 

grasses in the temperate belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Assessment of lichen species in the temperate 

region of of Garhwal has been discussed in the fourth chapter. 

Description of macro-lichens cover and their distribution pattern on common phorophytes 

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of the area has been provided in chapter fifth. Chapter sixth throws light on estimation of dry mass 

of epiphytic lichens of the area. 

[ 

Similarly chpater 7 th , 8 th and 9 th have provided the detailed information about fallen lichen 

species. Tenth chapter discuss the lichen resource use pattern and its socioeconomic status in the 

temperate region of Garhwal Himalaya. The last chapter provides the information on lichen-moss 

harvesting practices and their marketing strategy in the state Uttarakhand. 

Dr. Balwant Kumar 

1 st March, 2009 

Kumaun University, Nainital (India) 

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Background 

Uttarakhand, one of the newly formed states of India, is endowed with a wide base of natural 

resources. The state has a total land area of 53,524 Km². with 64 percent forest cover and a 

population of 84,79,562 with a 72 percent literacy rate (2001 census report). Around 67 percent of 

the population is dependent on farming and 80 percent of the workforce in agriculture is woman 

(DSTO office, 2001). Tough terrain, high inaccessibility, limited market avenues, low 

industrialization, low employment opportunities for many years have led to a low standard of living 

of the people living in this hill state. Although majority of population is dependent on agriculture, 

only about 12% of the total geographic area of the state is under cultivation. Agriculture is mostly 

at subsistence level owing to factors such as land inaccessibility, environmental heterogeneity and 

ecological fragility. 

The natural resources form the major livelihood base for the downtrodden communities in 

the remote villages of this hill state. Forests are the most important natural resource in Uttarakhand 

providing firewood, fodder, biomass and other major and minor forest produce. Ringal (dwarf 

bamboo) and natural fibre, medicinal & aromatic plants and lichens & moss are one among the 

potential resources available in different villages and adjoining forests in this state. A number of 

communities are involved in bamboo and natural fibre crafts work for their survival. 

In the state Chamoli and Rudraprayag district of Garhwal has found rich in natural 

resources. The region covered by the district Chamoli forms part of the district of Pauri Garhwal of 

the Kumaun till 1960. It occupies the north-eastern corner of the Garhwal track and lies in the 

central or mid Himalayas in the very heart of the snowy range described in the ancient books as 

Bahirgiri, one of the three divisions of the Himalayan Mountains. Chamoli covered as a separate 

revenue district in 1960 out of the erstwhile Garhwal district, lies in the central Himalaya and 

constitutes a part of the celebrated “Kedar Kashetra”. The district Chamoli is surrounded by 

Uttarakashi in North-West, Pithoragarh in South-West, Almora in South-East, and Rudraprayag in 

South-West and Tehri Garhwal in West. The geographical area of the district is around 7520 Km². 

Geology 

The geology of the region shows that the Himalayas are the young mountains in the world. 

During early Mesozoic times, or the secondary geological period, the land mass now covered by 

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them was occupied by the great geosynclinals Tethys Sea. The probable date of the commencement 

of the elevation of the Himalayas is about the close of the Mesozoic period, but the unveiling of the 

story of their structure has only just their begin, and in many cases no dating of the rocks is yet 

possible, though they include ancient and relatively recent crystalline intrusive, rocks and 

sediments allied to the peninsular part of the India. The section of the range in the district is deeply 

cut into by the headwaters of the Alaknanda River, this trunk stream seeming to have reached a 

latter stage of development than its tributaries. This much, however is known that there has been 

intense metamorphosis. In some part uplift has been considerable since the mid Pleistocene period, 

in others there are great stretchers of high but subdued topography and elsewhere there are the 

deepest gorges. The direction of folding in these mountain masses is generally North-South. The 

geological features of the district from two major divisions which lies North and South of an 

imaginary line extending East-South-East between the villages of Helang in Joshimath and 

Loharkhet in the Adjoining district in Pithoragarh. The Northern division, which is occupied by 

higher range and snow covered peaks consist entirely of medium to high grade metamorphic rocks 

and is intruded by later volcanic rocks. The division of the South, occupied by ranges of lower 

altitude, consists essentially of sedimentary and low grade metamorphic rock also intruded by later 

volcanic rocks. Geologically very little is known of the first division which consists of rocks such 

as quartzite’s, marbles and various types of micaceous schist’s and gneisses which a few sporadic 

occurrences of garnet, graphite, iron, knit mica and vein quartz. The division of the South of the 

imaginary line is better known geologically and consists of rocks such as gneisses, limestone, 

phyllites, quartzite, Seri cite biotic chests and slates. 

Soils in the region are the coarse soils, well drained and acidic with pH levels varying 

between 4 to 5.5 (Sundriyal 1992). 

Climate 

As the elevation of the district ranges from 800mts to 8000 mts above sea level the climate 

of the region very largely depend on altitude. The winter season is from about mid November to 

March. As most of the region is situated on the Southern slopes of the outer Himalayas, monsoon 

currents can enter through the valley, the rainfall being heaviest in the monsoon form June to 

September. 

Rainfall 

Most of the rainfall occurs during the period June to September when 70 to 80 percent of 

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the annual precipitation is accounted for in the Southern half of the district and 55 to 65 present in 

the northern half of rains is, among others, related to low temperature which means less 

evapotranspiration and forest or vegetation cover. However, the effectiveness is neither uniform nor 

even positive in areas where either the vegetation cover is poor or/ has steep slope or the soils have 

been so denuded that their moisture absorption capacity has become marginal. 

Rain gauging stations put up at seven locations by meteorological department of Govt. of 

India, represent the settled land mass of district Chamoli Garhwal. 

Temperature 

The detailed of temperature recorded at the meteorological observation in the region show 

that the highest temperature was 34ºC and lowest 0ºC. January is the coldest month after which the 

temperature begins to rise till June-July. Temperatures vary with elevation. During the winter cold 

waves in the wake of western disturbances may cause temperature to fall appreciably. Snow 

accumulation in valleys is considerable. 

Humidity 

The related humidity is high during monsoon season, generally exceeding 70% on the 

average. The driest part of the year is the pre monsoon period when the humidity may drop to 35 

during the afternoon, during the winter months humidity increases towards the afternoon at certain 

high stations. 

District Rudraprayag, the newly created district of Garhwal was part of three districts 

Chamoli, Pauri and Tehri. On 16th September 1997 Rudraprayag district was carved out from 

whole of Augustmini & Ukhimath block and part of Pokhri & Karnprayag block from Chamoli, 

Part of Jakholi and Kirtinagar block from Tehri district, part of Khirsu block from Pauri. 

Rudraprayag, carved as a separate revenue district in 1997. The geographical area of the district is 

around 2,328 Km². 

Vegetation (forest) type 

Based on the physiogamy (general appearance) the following categories of vegetation 

can be identified with in Garhwal Himalaya viz. a) Forest, b) Scrub vegetation, c) Temperate 

grasslands and forest banks, and d) Alpine meadows 

The categories can be further divided into following ten distinct categories (equivalents to 

Champion and Seth’s classes, 1968). 

i. Temperate Chir-Pine forest: Dominated by Chir-Pine (Pinus roxburghii) 

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mostly on steeper south facing exposed slopes up to 2000m altitude. 

ii. Temperate broad leaf (evergreen) forest: The forest consists of zones of oaks viz. white oak 

(Quercus leucotrichophora), green oak (Q. floribunda) and brown oak (Q. semecarpifolia) 

representing low altitude (1500-2200m), mid altitude (2200-2800m) and high altitude (2800- 

3500m) respectively constitute this category. 

iii. Temperate broad leaf (moist deciduous) forest: This includes broad leaved forest communities 

such as Aesculus-Acer-Juglans, Acer-Carpinus and Alder (Alnus) patches along the drainage. 

iv. Temperate broad leaf conifer (mixed) forest: This comprises extensive forest of Fir-Wild 

sandal (Abies pindrow - Buxus wallichiana) and brown oak- Fir, rich in forest floor. 

v. Sub alpine forest: The sub alpine zone between altitudes of 3000-3500m is characterized by 

high altitude Raga/ Rai- Brich (Pecia smithiana-Rhododendron arboreum) communities. 

vi. Temperate secondary scrub: The anthropogenic categories such as Ban oak scrub, dwarf 

bamboo (Ringal) under this category which is found close to human inhabitations within the eco 

development zone. 

vii. Alpine scrub: The stunted forest for the moist alpine scrub adjacent to tree line is characterized 

by these vegetation types largely dominated by Brich (Rhododendron), deciduous scrub and 

reverine willow scrub. 

viii. Temperate grasslands and thatches: Extensive grassy slopes on the south facing slopes at the 

result of frequent fires and exposure give rise to this vegetation types. The dominant fodder 

grasses on these slopes are species of Themeda, Chrysopogon and Heteropogon. 

ix. Alpine meadows: The herbaceous meadows and grassy slopes above the alpine scrub zone and 

below high altitude steep slopes and barren rocks near tree line are rich in attractive herbs many 

of them are medicinally important. A large number of plant associations and special life forms 

have been reported from the alpine meadows. Alpine meadows have a high diversity of 

herbaceous species, many of which have medicinal or aromatic properties and are of great 

commercial value. Grasslands are also found below the tree line, and it is not clear whether they 

have been created and maintained by human activities such as pastoralism, specially the 

grasslands surrounded by natural forest. In general, the KWLS has very high floral diversity. 

Fauna 

The Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) in Rudraparayag and Nanda Devi Biosphere 

Reserve in district Chamoli are the protected areas for wildlife. The Palaearctic to the north and 

8



oriental to the south. These two areas harbour a rich and unique biodiversity. It supports several 

endangered mammals and pheasants such as Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Himalayan Thar 

(Hemitragus jemlanhicus), Serow, Asiatic Brown Bear (Ursus thebetanus), Himalayan Black Bear 

(Ursus arctus) and Monal (Lopophorsus imperjanus). 

9



Fig: Photographs of some forests sites 

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People and forest management 

The primary occupation of the peoples is agriculture, but owing to the subsistence nature 

of hill agriculture, they are partially dependent on surrounding forest resources for their livelihood. 

Local people are dependent on the resources of different forests and alpine pastures mainly for 

grazing of sheep and goats and collection of timber and non-timber forest produces (Ringal, herbs, 

fungi, lichens and medicinal & aromatic plants). A substantial number of residents and migratory 

sheep and goat depend on the grazing resources of forest. The local people have been using these 

forests for generations and continue to exercise number of rights in the area. 

Human population 

Until recently, ten of big villages with between 80 and 150 families had the right of 

habitation in the KWLS, according to the rights of Makku Van Panchayat (Makku village) has been 

permanent rights but the other nine villages remain in habitat no permanent rights throughout the 

year. The area, villagers practice small-scale cultivation, herd livestock, and have other rights, 

including the right to various forest products. 

Human population pressures 

The grazing of sheep and goats in the protected areas and in high-altitude thatches 

(meadows), collection of medicinal, aromatic, edible herbs and plants for locally used, collection of 

fuel wood is degrading the habitat, extraction of timber is deforesting the area, disturbing the 

animals, and threatening many species with local extinction. 

Livestock is one of the most important economic resources of the local people. Every 

household invariably keeps a few cows and many more sheep and goats. These animals are usually 

kept for wool, meat and manure. Sheep’s wool is used by the villager for making blankets, 

sweaters, and shawls, while goat hair is used for making blankets only. The dung of these animals 

is of course, good manure for the fields. 

Local people, as well as people from neighbouring areas, graze their livestock in the 

protected area like KWLS. Migrant grazing is seasonal from May- November. During those 

months, goats and sheep are herded to high-altitude pastures or thatches. Grazing of sheep and 

goats in what is now KWLS has been taking place for generations. For many local people it is more 

a way of life than an economic activity. 

Flock size is variable, generally is varies from 300 to 500 animals each flock. The number of 

the grazers accompanying a 400-500 animals is generally five to six grazers. Each flock contains 

11



sheep and goats belonging to several families from one or more villages. Grazers coming from 

beyond adjacent areas often pick up sheep and goats from the villages they pass through on their 

way to the KWLS. Such grazers often stay in local farmers fields. Their flock can manure the fields 

while the grazers are given food and shelter in exchange. The grazers also are paid by the villagers, 

often in kinds rather than cash, for taking their sheep and goats into the KWLS. 

The impact of grazing on the KWLS areas is not fully known. However livestock’s are known 

to transmit diseases to wild animals, encourage weeds growth, and prevent regeneration of trees in 

low-altitude patches. Studies of the impact of grazing on forests have shown that the grazing of 

livestock not only hinders regeneration of naturally dominant tree species, but it can also lead to 

significant changes in the structure and composition of different plant species on the forest floor. 

Lichen exploitation 

The lichens are collected exhaustively throughout Himalaya and are frequently used as 

ingredient of spices, Aurvedic medicines and other purposes. Every year about 10,000 tons of 

lichen is collected from the Central Himalayan region of India. But in the protected areas like 

KWLS, lichen exploitation is totally band. Commercially the lichens are sold in the name of 

“Charrila” or “Jhoola”. 

References 

Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Type of India. 

Govvernment of India Publication India, Delhi. Sundriyal, R.C. (1992). Structure 

productivity and energy flow in alpine grassland in the Garhwal Himalaya J. Veg. Sci. 3: 

15-20. 

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INTRODUCTION 

Chapter-1 

History 

The history of Lichenology dates us back to Theophrastus (370- 285 BC), who accredited as father 

of botany, used the term ‘lichen’, a word of Greek origin to denote the superficial growth on the 

bark of olive trees. Linnaeus grouped all lichen species under the genus Lichen and gives it to one 

of his last student Erik Acharis for further study. Erik Acharius (Acharius 1803, 1810 and 1814) a 

Swedish botanist and was born in the Swedish town of Gävle in 1757. At the age of 17 he came to 

Uppsala where he studied botany as one of Linnaeus’ last students. Acharis, referred to as father of 

lichenology, coined several terms for the structures peculiar to lichens and described many new 

genera and numerous new species on the basis of external morphology in his monumental works 

Methodica Lichenum, Lichenographia Universalis, and Synopsis Methodica Lichenum. 

What are lichens? 

Lichens are fungi that live in intimate symbiotic association with green algae or 

cyanobacteria. Lichens comprise a unique group of plant that consists of two unrelated organism, a 

fungus and an alga, growing together in a close symbiotic association. The study of lichen remains 

quite neglected throughout the world, through they together with mosses form dominant organism 

in ecosystem covering over 10% of the earth terrestrial habitats, particularly at higher elevations 

(Nash and Egan 1988). Lichens with cynobacterial blue green symbionts, contribute significantly 

for forest nitrogen fixation (Slack 1988). Besides many other uses, lichens are also used as 

pollution monitors. They are the plants which occur in most adverse conditions of climate and 

substrate. Thus the importance of this group in an ecosystem is very high in its own way. Lichens 

are just like little sponges that take up everything that comes their way, including air pollution 

(Fleishner 1994). 

Lichens form easily distinguishable coloured patches on tree barks, rocks and soil. They are 

universally distributed organisms occurring in varied climatic conditions ranging from the poles to 

the tropics in earth. They may look like crust, spreading rapidly over the surface (crustose lichens) 

or leafy and loosely attached to the surface (foliose lichens) and branched and shrubby, hanging 

from tree twigs or branches, with a single attachment (fruticose lichens). 

13



Lichens have ability to resist extremes of climatic conditions ranging from low tide sea 

shores to the tops of the mountains and from arctic to tropical regions, dominating as much as 8% 

of the earth’s surface (Ahmadjian 1993; 1995) and are amongst the most significant indicators of 

air pollution and ecosystem health (Richardson 1992) and, besides having many economic 

medicinal applications. They are very sensitive to microclimatic changes. Therefore any natural 

manmade disturbances are bound to affect lichen populations. Requisite moisture and light, 

unpolluted air and undisturbed substratum often favour optimum growth and abundance of lichens. 

Lichens arbitrarily classified into three to seven growth forms that do not reflect how the lichens 

are related to each other. Different species within a genus may have different growth forms viz 1. 

Crustose, 2. Foliose, 3. Fruticose and 4. Squamulose. Crustose lichens form crusts that are so 

tightly attached to the rocks, trees, side walls or soils they grow on that they cannot remove without 

damaging the substrate. Cracked crusts like the species of Acarospora that are separated into 

segments (areoles) are called areolate. Crustose lichens, that grows immersed in rocks only their 

fruiting bodies above the surface are called endolithic, and those that grow immersed in plant 

tissues are called endophloidic or endophlodal. Loose, powdery lichen crusts without a layered 

structure called leprose lichens. Foliose lichens are somewhat leaf-like, composed of lobes. They 

are relatively loosely attached to their substrates, usually by means rhizines. Their lobes have upper 

and lower sides and usually grow more or less parallel to the substrate viz. Lobaria. Fruticose 

lichens are usually round in cross section and most are branched. They can like little shrubs 

growing upward, or they can hang down in long strands viz. Usnea longissima. 

Lichens in Indian Languages 

In Indian context, the Sanskrit synonyms of lichens are ‘Shailaya’ and ‘Shila Pushp’ meaning 

Shila=rock Pushp=flower. Lichen species are commonly known ‘Stone flower’ in English, ‘Pathar 

Ka Phul’ in Hindi, ‘Dagad Phul’ in Marathi, ‘Kalahu’ in Kanada, ‘Kalpasi’ in Tamil, and 

‘Rihamkarmani’ in Urdu. Locally in Garhwal it is known as ‘Mukku’, ‘Shewal’, ‘Jhoola’; 

‘Chaarila’ in Kumaun; ‘Chaai’ and ‘Mendi’ in Himanchal. In Hindi the lichens are also known as 

‘Shaik’ (meaning Shai= Shewal and K= Kawak). 

India ranks amongst one of the twelve-mega-biodiversity countries of the world. The 

innumerable life forms from unicellular to multicellular and microscopic to gigantic harboured in 

the forests, deserts, mountains, other land forms and air and water. They are source of food, fuel, 

clothing and various others our daily needs and raw material for industries. 

14



Mountains and hill hold a rich variety of ecological systems. Because of their vertical 

dimension, mountains create gradient of temperature, precipitation, and insulation. In Uttarakhand 

nine of the thirteen districts comprise the expansion of lesser Himalayas. But with the rapid 

modernization and increasing anthropogenic pressure coupled with natural disasters on vegetation 

in general and on the forests in particular, the Himalayan vegetation is rapidly deteriorating in its 

richness as well as diversity. However, in recent past there has been a deep concern and a 

realization for the conservation of the fragile Himalayan ecosystem. 

Garhwal Himalaya exhibits sub-mountain to alpine climate with distinct physiography, 

altitudes, and aspects that harbours a variety of forest types. Owing to the varied topography and 

altitudes, diverse forest and alpine pasture communities may occur within a distance of 300-500 km 

(Singh, 1992). The distribution of different forest types is primarily governed by the altitude and 

secondarily by the factors such as geology, soils, orientation of the valleys and other biotic and 

abiotic stresses (Champion and Seth 1968). Forest account is nearly 45% of the total geographical 

area of the Garhwal Himalaya. A wide variety of forest types are found in this region of 

Uttarakhand hills. The vegetation is dominated by Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj oak), Q. 

floribunda (Tilonj oak) and Q. semecarpifolia (Kharsu oak) in altitudinal gradient. Some other 

main species found in the region are Abies pindrow, Rhododendron spp, Lyonia ovalifolia, Acer 

spp, Asculus indica and Ilex. 

Vegetation within a forest type is greatly affected by differences in the microclimate and 

altitude (Pande et al 1996). The selection pressure, originating due to the difference in microclimate 

and interspecific competition, influence the vegetation of different tree species and also open the 

door for the invasion and acclimatization of new species in the forest ecosystem. The interactive 

influence of the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment affects the survival and growth of 

seedlings and sprouts (Sorenson and Forrel 1979 and Muller-Dombios et al 1980). 

Topography and other mountain slopes, in combination with perennial streams and dark 

shady localities of the area have created micro-climatic conditions to provide diverse environmental 

conditions, encouraging luxuriant growth of several moisture loving lichens, orchids, herbs, shrubs 

and climbers, which have immense ecological as well as economical value. 

Altitudinally defined climatic and soil factors are deemed to be primary determinants of 

change in species composition and community structure in undisturbed mountains (Whittaker and 

Marks, 1975). Economic change and population increase is threatening the ecology of the 

15



Himalayas. In Garhwal Himalaya substantial increase in human and bovine population has taken 

place during last decades (Negi et al 1997 a & b). Simultaneously natural resources are depleting at 

an alarming rate (Negi 1991, Singh & Singh 1992, Chauhan et al 1999). The repercussion of these 

factors can be observed in lichen diversity of the area. Decline in crop yield and out migration of 

the rural people in search of livelihood has definite linkages to this situation. 

Hence the protection, improvement and rehabilitation of mountain have a critical importance 

in achieving the developmental goal. In recent years the deforestation in the foothills and the 

Middle Himalaya and, overgrazing on the high pastures have led to soil erosion and other 

environmental problems. Deforestation is a particular concern in the western Himalaya, where 

increased demand for firewood, extensive tree trimming to feed livestock, and construction of roads 

in the border regions have increased the destruction rate of forests and the number of landslides. 

Forest resources of the Himalaya are shrinking in size due to over-exploitation and there is 

increased interest to protect, manage and make them more protective. 

Competition, both within and among species, is one of the major forces determining the 

distribution and abundance of plant species and the biodiversity of plant communities (Tilman, 

2000). Although most plants compete for the same resources (light, water and nutrients) and large 

number of species coexist in many plant communities (Silvertown and Charlesworth 2001). 

Intuitively, spatial heterogeneity of resources used by plants is probably one of the most powerful 

promoters of niche separation and coexistence between plants. 

The area is quite rich in lichen diversity and needs to be explored and inventoried critically. 

Thus, the present book is an attempt to inventories and study the lichens mass on standing trees as 

well as lichen fall estimation, lichen cover on host tree species and its vertical distribution pattern 

in the Garhwal Himalayas. Some part of the study like vertical distribution and cover of the lichen 

species, lichen dry mass estimation on host tree and lichen fall estimation methods are first time 

developed and followed by the author. 

There are three reasons why ecologists are interested in ecological diversity and its 

management. First, the well documented patterns of spatial and temporal variation in diversity 

which intrigued the early investigators of the natural world (Clements 1916; and Thoreau 1960) 

continue to stimulate the minds of ecologists today (Currie and Paquin 1987; May 1986). Second, 

measures of diversity are frequently seen as indicators of well being of ecological systems. Thirdly, 

considerable debate surrounds the measurement of diversity. Biodiversity indicators (popularly 

16



known as bio-indicators) are useful for defining and presenting the data those decision-makers 

requires. Bio-indicators can be used in ecological evolution, especially for communities indicating 

areas of conservation interest. 

Need of inventorying and monitoring lichens of Garhwal Himalayas 

Formulating proper methodology for documenting floristic diversity with ecological correlates is a 

prerequisite for inventorying periodical monitoring and conservation of bio resource. The study 

will attempt toi. 

The pattern of relative abundance of lichens 

ii. Document season of maximum lichen fall 

iii. List of tree species and their part harbouring maximum lichen in a lichen rich area 

iv. This information will be the first attempt to answer these basic queries and help in periodical 

monitoring, conservation and management of lichens 

v. Inventorying and monitoring the lichen diversity will be provide fundamental and essential 

biological information used by basic scientific disciplines (viz. ecology, population biology, 

behaviours and other fields of comparative biology) 

vi. Available information will provide a basis for the scientific research necessary to understanding 

the habitat in which rich lichen dry mass (from tree as well as fallen lichen mass) found (either 

on open or closed canopied site of the Q. semecarpifolia forest) 

vii. Define the current and future option available for alternate livelihood from the lichens. It will 

be help to guide immediate and long term management, policy and decision making strategies 

viii. Provide information necessary for sustainable management of natural resources (lichens). Help 

in identifying economically or commercially valuable lichens 

ix. Define the impact of human activities on lichen diversity so as to reduce undesirable effect in 

the environment 

x. Helps to understand the potential effects and impact of climate change and other forms of 

natural environment change 

References 

Acharius, A. (1810). ‘Lichenographia Universalis’ Dauekwert, Gottingen. 

Ahmadjian, V. (1995). Lichens Annu Rev Microbiol 19 1-20. 

17



Ahmadjian, V. (1993). The Lichen Synopsis, Wiley, 1993. 

Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Type of India. 

Govvernment of India Publication India, Delhi. 

Chauhan, D.S., Bhatt, B.P., Negi, A.K. and Todaria, N.P. (1999). Forest and Forestry Status 

Constrants & Scop. In: Garhwal Himalaya nature, Culture & Society (O P Kandari & O P 

Gusain, eds) 93-124. 

Clements, F. E. (1916). Plant Succession: An analyisis of the development of vegetation. Corneg 

Instit Wash Publ 242, 1-512. 

Currie, D.J. and Paquin, V. (1987). Large scale biogeographical patterns of species richness of the 

trees. Nature 7 326-29. 

Fleishner, T.L. (1994). Ecological costs of livestock grazing in Western North America: 

Conservation Biology 8(3) 633. 

May, R.M. (1986). The search for patterns in the balance of nature: Advances and retreats. Ecology 

67 1115-26. 

Muller- Dombios, D.J., Jucobi, D., Corry, R.G., and Balakrishan, N. (1980). Ohio rain forest study: 

Ecological investigation of the Ohio dieback problem in Hawaii. Miscellaneous pup. 183, 

Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resoure, Honoulu HI. 

Nash, T.H. and Egan, R.S. (1988). The biodiversity of lichens and bryophytes. In: Lichen, 

Bryophytes and air quality. (Eds. Thomas Nash III & Vilkmar Wirth). Bibl. Lichenol. 30: 

11-22 J. Carmer in der Gebr. Borntra. Verlag. Berlin, Stuttgart. 

Negi, A.K. (1991). Studies on impact of local folk on forest of Tehri Garhwal- A case study Ph D 

Thesis submitted, H N B Garhwal University Srinagar Garhwal 262. 

Negi, A.K., Bhatt, B.P. and Todaria, N.P. (1997b). Local population impact on forest of Garhwal 

Himalaya, The Environmentalist 17 (in press) 

Negi, A.K., Bhatt, B.P., Todaria, N.P. and Sakalani, A. (1997a). The effect of coilonialism on 

forest and the local people in Garhwal Himalaya, India, Mountain Research and 

Development, 17(2) 159-168. 

Pande, P.K., Negi, J.D.S. and Sharma, S.C. (1996). Species diversity, turn over and resource 

apportionment among various plant species in Western-Himalayan forests. Abstract. First 

Indian Ecological Congress, New Delhi. 27-31. 

Richardson, D.H.S. (1992). Pollution monitoring with Lichens England, Richmond Publishing. 

18



Singh, J.S. (1992). Man and forest intractions in Central Himalaya. 57-79 in Singh J.S. and Singh, 

S.P. (Eds.) Himalayan Environment and Development: Problems and Prespectives. 

Gyonodaya Prakashan, Nainital (India). 

Singh, J.S. and Singh, S.P. (1992). Forest of Himalaya: Structure, Functioning and impact of 

Man. Gyonodaya Prakashan, Nainital (India). 

Silvertown, J. Charlesworth, D. (2001). Plant Population Biology, 4 th edn. Blackwell Oxford. Slack, 

N.G. (1988). The Ecological Importance of lichen and Bryophyte. Bib. Lichenol. 30: 23-53. 

Sorenson, F.C. and Forrel, W.K. (1979). Photosynthesis and growth of Douglas fir seedlings when 

grown in different environments. Can. J. Bot. 51: 1689-98. 

Tilman, D. (2000). Causes, cosequences and ethics of biodiversity. Nature, 405:208-11. 

Thoreau, H.D. (1960). The succession of forest trees. In Excursions 1863. Haughton and 

Mifflin, Boston. 

Whittaker, R.H. and Marks, P.L. (1975). Methods of assessing terrestrial productivity, In: Primary 

Productivity of Biosphere. (eds.) Lieth and Whittaker 55-119. Springer Verlag, New York. 

19



REVIEW OF LITERATURE 

Chapter-2 

Lichenology in India 

India has a rich diversity of lichens represented by more than 2,000 species (Awasthi 2000), 

which is about 10% of the total 20,000 species known from the world. The lichens are common to 

abundant in temperate and alpine regions of the Himalayas and hilly regions of the peninsular 

India. Through the maximum diversity of lichens in the country is recorded for South Indian 

regions and Eastern Himalayan region, but they are relatively common in occurrence in Western 

Himalaya (Awasthi 2000). The present number of lichens in the country appears a lower estimate 

as many more areas especially mountains and the forest canopies are yet to be explored (Negi and 

Gadgil 1996; Negi 1999; Negi and Upreti 2000). 

The lichen studies were initiated little late in India as compared to the rest of the world. It was 

Quraishi (1928) and Kashyap whose collection was published by Smith (1931). Chopra (1934) 

published a comprehensive account of lichens of Himalayas. Dr. D. D. Awasthi in the late forties of 

the last century established a school of lichenology in India and a number of lichenological 

investigations related with monographic, revisionary and floristic studies were initiated in the 

country. 

The first record of lichen community studies from India was provided by Dudgeon (1923) who 

studied succession of epiphytic lichens on Quercus leucotrichophora tree in Western Himalayas. 

Biswas and Awasthi (1948) provided an account of the distribution of Indian lichens; Bhatia (1957) 

made observation on the lichen communities of the western Himalayas. 

The more extensive and intensive studied on the community ecology of Indian lichens have 

initiated recently when Upreti (1995) explained loss of diversity in Indian lichen flora; Upreti 

(1996) provided an enumeration of the lichens growing on Shorea robusta trees in Jharsuguda 

district, Orissa; Negi and Gadgil (1996) studied in the pattern of distribution of macrolichens in 

western part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve; Upreti (1997) provided an account of diversity of 

Himalayan lichens; Upreti (1998) extensively discussed in detail the account of lichens occurring 

in tropical, temperate and alpine region of India and also categorized lichens according to forest 

type with six different vegetation zones of tropical lichens and detail description of endemic lichens 

and affinities of Indian lichen flora vis-à-vis world. 

20



Community studies can be carried out at various spatial scales. Most of the investigations on 

lichen diversity have been descriptive and have concentrated on regional and global scales 

(Groombridge 1992; Heywood 1995; Gaston 1996; Galloway 1996). The current focus such studies 

is shifting from these higher scales to locally manageable landscapes as land use decisions and 

management policies are most often implemented at these latter scales (Ricklefs and Schluter 1993; 

Nagendra and Gadgil 1999; Negi 1999). Moreover, floristic inventories particularly of lower plants 

suffer from lack of uniform field methods. This has partly hindered progress on long term 

monitoring of biological diversity and its conservation (Negi and Gadgil 1997; Negi 1999). 

Formulating proper methodology for documenting floristic diversity with ecological correlates 

should therefore be a prerequisite for inventorying, periodical monitoring and conservation of bio 

resources. 

Number of specie and any other higher ranks of taxonomic organization in a site (species 

richness or alpha diversity) and their compositional change across different habitat types (species 

turnover or beta diversity) within a landscape are important parameters of biodiversity that have 

wide applications such as environmental monitoring and conservation evaluation (Magurran 1988; 

Pressey et al 1994; Negi 1999). 

Singh and Bujarbarua (2002) presented note on the lichen diversity of Assam; Singh et al. 

(2004) provided a comprehensive account on the endemic lichens of India. Balaji and Hariharan 

(2004) studied the lichen diversity and its distribution pattern in tropical dry evergreen forest of 

Guindy National Park (GNP), Chennai. The quantitative ecological data shows the occurrence of 

31 species of lichens of fewer than 26 genera of 19 families and 9 fungal orders. These quantitative 

ecological data were recorded from 219 individuals of phorophytes in a total 264 samples, out of 

which 235 samples were taken from trees, 27 from shrubs and 2 from lianas of ≥3 cm gbh. 

Strongest correlation emerged between tree density and host tree diversity of lichen distribution. 

Species like Arthopyrenia alboatra, Parmotrema saccatilobum, Strigula elegans, Tapellaria sp. and, 

Verrucaria species were found to be narrowly distributed in the park and specific to a single host. 

Satya et al. (2005) reported that Shorea robusta tree is a suitable phorophyte for the luxuriant 

growth and development of crustose lichens. Out of the 64 lichen species recorded from Shorea 

robusta trees in various forest sites of India, 42 species fall under the crustose lichens. 

Air pollution and climate changes are threats to maintaining ecological health of protected 

areas. Lichens provide a relevant, sensitive and measurable indicator of long term monitoring. The 

21



International treaty, Agenda 21 emphasize regular monitoring through sampling and other 

techniques, the components of biodiversity especially paying particular attention to those requiring 

urgent conservation measures. Thus, biological diversity is now increasingly recognized as a vital 

parameter to asses global and local environmental changes and sustainability of developmental 

activities. The development of information on the lichen ecology is widely scattered often in many 

inaccessible literature sources. Seaward (1977) complied the knowledge on lichens in relation to 

physical and biological component of their environment. 

Upreti and Chaterjee (1999a) studied the distribution of epiphytic lichens on Quercus and 

Pinus trees in Pithoragarh and Almora districts of Kumaun Himalayas. Quercus semecarpifolia 

exhibits the dominance of lichen species represented by 25 species while Quercus leucotrichophora 

and Quercus floribunda have 20 and 12 species respectively. All tree species have dominance of 

Parmelioid species. The cultivated tree of Pinus roxburghii show occurrence of 19 species of 

lichens. Upreti and Chaterjee (1999b) also studied the epiphytic lichen flora of Quercus and Pinus 

trees in three forest sites of Pithoragarh district, Quercus leucotrichophora at altitude between 

2700-3000m has 24 species while Quercus dilatata at the same elevation has only 15 species of 

lichen. Both the tree species have dominance of Usenea and Ramalina species. Quercus 

leucotrichophora at lower elevation between 1600-1800m has 14 species of lichens. Pinus 

roxburghii between altitudes of 15001600m has 21 epiphytic species in the area. Both Quercus and 

Pinus trees at lower elevation exhibit dominance of Parmelioid lichens. 

Nayaka and Upreti (2002) studied the lichen communities of Sharavati River Basin, 

Karnataka, while Srivastava (2006) studied the Great Himalaya National Park, Himanchal Pradesh. 

Divakar and Upreti (2005) and Kumar (2008) proposed the Chopta-Tunganath, Saryu River 

Valley in Pindari Glacier (Bageshwar district), Nain Singh top en route Milam Glacier, Chaubatia 

to Ranikhet (Almora district) and Mussoorie Hills (Dehra Dun district) of Uttarakhand areas as the 

“Lichen Sanctuary” owing of their rich, unique and some endemic lichen taxa. 

Negi (2000) studied total 3211 colonies of microlichens from twelve 50m X 1m plots 

distributed across four microhabitat (vegetation) types between 1500-3700m in Chopta-Tunganath 

landscape of Garhwal Himalaya. This study revealed occurrence of 85 species, 15 genera falling 

under 13 families. Lobaria retigera stood as a broad niche generalist species with moderate levels 

of abundance in all the three major microhabitats, viz. rock, soil and wood across 83% of all the 

plots sampled, whereas Umblicaria indica occurring on rock substrates. Heterodermia incana and 

22



Leptogium javanicum appeared to be rare members of the community as they were encountered 

only once during the field survey. The macrohabitats, in middle altitude (2500-2800m) with 

Quercus forest was richest in species and genera followed by higher altitude (2900-3200m) of 

Rhododendron forest, higher altitude grasslands (3200-3700m) and the lower elevation (1500m) 

Quercus forest. Negi and Gadgil (1999b) suggested that taxonomic rank such as genera may be 

used as surrogates for species because it is cost and time effective method for periodic monitoring 

of the biodiversity. 

Negi (2000a) analyzed spatial patterns of diversity, conservation problems and their 

prospects; worked on the community ecology on lichens and mosses of Nanda Devi Biosphere 

Reserve, Uttarakhand. 

Negi and Gadgil (2002) carried out biodiversity survey in 13, 10m X 50 sq. meter plots 

located between 1400-3700m above mean sea level in a range of habitats in temperate mixed oak 

and coniferous forest through sub alpine to alpine grass lands in Chamoli district of Uttaranchal 

(now called Uttarakhand) state in the Garhwal Himalaya. Cross taxon congruence in biodiversity 

(α-diversity and β-diversity) across macrohabitats, mosses, liverworts, woody plants (shrubs and 

trees) and ants was investigated, so as to examine the extent to which those groups of organisms 

can function as surrogates for each other. Although woody plants provided a major substrate for 

macrolichens and mosses, there was no species specific association between them. Woody plant 

species richness was highly positively correlated with mosses (r²=0.63, P



References 

Awasthi, D.D. (2000). A Hand Book of Lichens: Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A, New 

Connaught Place Dehradun, India: 19-24. Biswas, K. and Awasthi, D.D. (1948). 

Distribution of Indian lichens. Proc. 35 th Indian Sci. Congress. 3: 216 

Balaji, P. and Hariharan, G.N. (2004). Lichen diversity and its distribution pattern in tropical dry 

evergreen forest of Guindy National Park (GNP), Chennai. Indian Forester 130(10): 1155- 

68. 

Bhatia, K.K. (1957). Corticolous lichens of riparian deciduous trees in the central Front range 

of Colarado. Bryologist. 78: 44-56. 

Chopra, G.L. (1934). Lichens of the Himalayas. Punjab University, Lahore. 

Divakar, P.K. and Upreti, D.K. (2005). Parmeliod Lichens in India (a reviosionary study) 12-29. 

Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A, New Connaught Place Dehra Dun248001 (India). 

Dudgeon, W. (1923). Succession of epiphytes in the Quercus incana forest at Landour, Western 

Himalayas, Journal of Indian Botanical Society 3:159-272. 

Galloway, D.J. (1996). Lichen Biogeography. In: Lichen Biology. (ed.) Thomas H. Nash 

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 199-216. 

Gaston, A.J. (ed.) (1996). Biodiversity: Biology of numbers and difference (Oxford: Blackwell). 

Groombridge, B. (ed.) (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of earth’s living resources. Chapman and 

Hall. 

Heywood, V.H. (ed.) (1995). Global Biodiversity Assessment. (Cambridge: Cambridge University 

Press). 

Kumar, B. (2008). Lichen species distribution, cover and fall in a Quercus semecarpifolia (J E 

Smith) forest in Garhwal Himalaya (Ph. D. Thesis, submitted to HNB Garhwal University 

Srinagar (Garhwal). 

Magurran, A.E. (1988). Ecological diversity and its measurements (Princeton: Princeton University 

Press). 

Nagendra, H. and Gadgil, M. (1999). Biodiversity assessment at multiple scales: linking remotely 

sensed data with field information; Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 96: 9154-58. 

Nayaka, S. and Upreti, D.K. (2002). Lichen flora of Sharvati River Basin, Shimoga district, 

Karnataka, India. Center for Ecological Sciences. Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore 

(Technical Report). 

24



Negi, A.K., Bhatt, B.P. and Todaria, N.P. (1997b). Local population impact on forest of Garhwal 

Himalaya, The Environmentalist 17 (in press) 

Negi, A.K., Bhatt, B.P., Todaria, N.P. and Sakalani, A. (1997a). The effect of coilonialism on 

forest and the local people in Garhwal Himalaya, India, Mountain Research and 

Development, 17(2) 159-168. 

Negi, H.R. (2000a). Spatial pattern of Biodiversity of Lichens. J. Indian inst. Sci. Nov-Dec. 80: 

571-89. 

Negi, H.R. and Gadgil, M. (2002). Cross-taxon surrogace of biodiversity in the Indian Garhwal 

Himayala. Biodiversity conservation.105: 143-55. 

Negi, H.R. and Gadgil, M. (1996). Patterns of Distribution of Macrolichens in Western parts of 

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Curr. Scin. 71 (7): 568-75. 

Negi, H.R. and Gadgil, M. (1997). Species diversity and community ecology of mosses: a case 

study from Garhwal region of Western Himalayas: Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 23 : 445-462. 

Negi, H.R. and Upreti, D.K. (2000). Species Diversity and relative abundance of lichens in 

Rumbek catchments area of Hemis National Park in Ladakh. Current Science 78: 1105-12. 

Pressey, R.L.; Johanson, I.R. & Wilson, P.D. (1994). Shades of irreplaceability; towards a measure 

of the contribution of sites to a reservation goal. Biodiversity Conservation 

3: 242-62. 

Quraishi, A. (1928). Lichens of Weatrn Himalayas. Proc. Indian Sci. Congress 3: 216. 

Ricklefs, R.E. and Schluter, D. (1993). Species diversity: regional and historical influences; in 

species diversity in ecological communities: In Historical and geographical perspectives 

(eds) R. E. Ricklefs and D. Schluter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). 350-63. 

Satya, Upreti, D.K. and Nayaka, S. (2005). Shorea robusta, an excellent host tree for lichen growth. 

Curr. Sci. 89(4): 594-95. 

Seaward, M.R.D. (1977). Lichen Ecology. Academic Press, London. 

Singh, K.P. and Bujarbarua, P. (2002). A note on Lichen diversity of Assam, India. Proc. U.G.C. 

Sponsored State level Seminar on Biodiversity of Assam & its Conservation (Eds. M.K. 

Bhattacharya; M. Duttachoudhary and P.B. Majumdar) Karimganj College, Assam. 253- 

57. 

Singh, K.P.; Sinha, G.P. and Bujarbarua, P. (2004). Endemic lichens of India. Geophytology. 33 

(1&2): 1-16. 

25



Smith, A.L. (1931). Lichens from Northern India. Trans. Bot. Mycol. Soc. 11: 189-96. 

Srivastava, R. (2006). Distribution, diversity, pollution status of lichens in Great Himalayan 

National Park, Kullu district, Himanchal Pradesh. Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad. 

Ph. D. Thesis. 

Upreti, D.K. (1995). Loss of diversity in Indian lichens flora: Environ. Conser. 22: 362-63. 

Upreti, D.K. (1996). Studies in Indian Ethnolichenoloy: An over view. In S.K. Jain, Ed. 

Ethnobiology in Human Welfare: 384-87 Deep publications, New Delhi, India. 

Upreti, D.K. (1997). Diversity of Himalayan lichens. In Himalayan Microbial Diversity (Part 2). 

Recent Researches in Ecology, Environment and Pollution (Eds. S.C. Sati, J. Saxena and 

R.C. Dubey). Today and Tomarrow Printer and Publishers, New Delhi. 339-47. 

Upreti, D.K. (1998). Diversity of lichens in India. In Perspectives in Environment (Eds. S.K. 

Aggarwal, J.P. Kaushik, K.K. Kaul and A.K. Jain). A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New 

Delhi. 71-79. 

Upreti, D.K. and Chatergee, S. (1999a). Distribution of lichens on Quercus and Pinus trees in 

Almora district Kumaun Himalayas, India. Geophytology 28 (1&2): 41-49. 

Upreti, D.K. and Chatergee, S. (1999b). Epiphytic of lichens on Quercus and Pinus trees in the 

three forest stands in Pithoragarh district Kumaun Himalayas, India. Tropical Ecology 40 

(1): 41-49. 

Upreti, D.K.; Chatterjee, S. and Divakar, P.K. (2004). Lichen flora of Gangotri and Gomukh areas 

of Uttaranchal, India. Geophytology 34 (1&2): 15-21. 

26



Chapter-3 

PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS IN BROWN OAK 

DOMINATED FOREST OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA 

BALWANT KUMAR, DINESH GIRI & DILIP KUMAR UPRETI* 

Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital (India) *National Botanical 

Research Institute, Lucknow (India) 

ABSTRACT: The present study was carried out in eight forest sites dominated by Quercus 

semecarpifolia (brown oak) to asses variations in floral biodiversity and community with changes 

in microclimatic conditions between 2500-3500m elevation in Chopta (Garhwal). Anthropogenic 

disturbances are changing the species richness and diversity, which influence the soil and 

environmental conditions. Thus, the conservation and management of these forests will be 

important for the sustainability of human and land in the region. A total of 14 species of trees, 8 

species of shrubs and 20 species of herbs & grasses were encountered across the study area. 

Key words: Tree species, study sites, Garhwal Himalaya 

INTRODUCTION 

India is among the important mega-biodiversity centres of the world, with a lot of 

contribution from the Himalayan ecosystem. Biodiversity is used variously for fodder, fuel wood, 

timber, and leaf litter for manuring crop fields, construction, industrial raw material and several 

non-timber forest produce. Biodiversity is the totality of genes, species, and ecosystem in a region. 

Vegetation in a mountain area is affected by several factors of which altitude, aspect, slope, soil, 

canopy cover and microclimate are predominant at the modify regimes of moisture and exposure to 

sun. Forest diversity is the main source of livelihood of the people living in Uttarakhand, Central 

Himalaya. Species composition of major forest types of central Himalaya have been described by 

Ralhan et al (1982), Saxena and Singh (1984), Singh and Singh (1987), Singh and Singh (1992) 

have summarized the information on the structure and function of the Himalayan forest ecosystem. 

The present study was conducted in eight forest sites of Quercus semecarpifolia (brown oak) 

located between 2500-3500m elevations in Chopta forest of Garhwal to asses the phytosociological 

27



analysis of the vegetation. The impact of local people on vegetation, variation in floral biodiversity 

and community with changes in microclimatic conditions, and regeneration status were recorded 

during 2006. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Chopta forest is located at 79º-79º30´E longitude and 30º30´-30º42´N latitude between 

1500-4000m elevation in the Garhwal Himalaya. Altitudinally Chopta is located in temperate zone. 

For the detailed study of plant biodiversity and other vegetational parameters, the area was divided 

into eight forest sites. All the sites are located approximately within the same elevation range 

(2500-3500m). 

The Chopta is characterized by its typical climate from temperate to alpine. About 60% of 

the area falls under alpine zone, which remains under snow during winter months. Broadly, three 

seasons can be recognized for the Chopta area, viz. summer (April-June), rainy (July-September) 

and winter (October-March). Winter experiences serve cold the main precipitations are received in 

the form of snow. Maximum snow depth occurs in the subalpine and alpine areas during February- 

March. With the rise the temperature in the month of April snow start malting in the lower altitudes 

by April it remains in scattered isolated patches below 2800m especially in shady localities. Snow 

melts only in April-May in the alpine zone. The main annual rain fall of the Central Himalaya is 

2000mm (Singh and Singh, 1992). Rains are mostly confined to rainy season and heavy down 

pours in rainy season causes landslides and soil erosion. 

Total 15 (10mX10m) for trees, saplings and seedlings, 40 (2mX2m) for shrubs, and 40 

(50X50cm) quadrats for herbs in each site were placed randomly and studied. Regeneration in the 

forests was sampled at four levels namely mature tree, sapling and seedling. Mature tree comprised 

of plants with >31.5 cm (gbh) over the bark at breast height (1.37m), sapling included all 

individuals >10.5 cm and



RESULTS: Quantitative analysis of trees, saplings, seedlings, shrubs and herbs at different study 

sites are given in Table 1-3. A total of 14 species of trees, 8 species of shrubs and 20 species of 

herbs & grasses were recorded from the study area. Except three sites (site 4 th , 5 th 

and 8 th ) broadly 

Rhododendron arboreum have similar major tree species. Quercus semecarpifolia and/or 

Rhododendron arboreum are the major tree species in all the eight sites. Only five sites are well 

canopied having 50-58% canopy cover. Tree layer: Among the different sites, the maximum total 

tree density 2488 ind ha⎯¹ recorded in the site 4 th . However the minimum total tree density 379 ind 

ha⎯¹ was recorded at site 8 th . The maximum density was of Quercus semecarpifolia (546 ind ha⎯¹) 

followed by (390 ind ha⎯¹). Acer sp, Taxus baccata, Lyonia ovalifolia, and Sourbus cuspdata 

showed the minimum tree density 6 ind ha⎯¹ (Table 1). Sapling layer: The total sapling density was 

recorded between 6-645 ind ha⎯¹ at different sites. The Quercus semecarpifolia was found in 

sapling stages at only four sites except site 1 st , 2 nd , 5 th , and 8 th and its density ranged from 6-133 ind 

ha⎯¹ (Table 1). Seedling layer: The seedling density of Quercus semecarpifolia was recorded to 

maximum 406 ind ha⎯¹ at site 7 th and minimum (6 ind ha⎯¹) at site 2 nd and site 8 th respectively. 

Among the species maximum seedling density was recorded 692 ind ha⎯¹ for site 7 th 

and the 

minimum density also recorded 32 ind ha⎯¹ at site 2 nd (Table 1). Shrub layer: The shrub density was 

recorded to be maximum 29675 ind ha⎯¹ at site 1 st and minimum 425 ind ha⎯¹ at site 5 th . Among the 

species maximum density was recorded for 33100 ind ha⎯¹ was recorded for site 1 st 

and the 

minimum density also recorded 2875 ind ha⎯¹ at site 5 th 

(Table 2). Green layer: The herbaceous 

(ground vegetation) density was recorded to be maximum 526000 ind ha⎯¹ at site 6 th and minimum 

density was 425 ind ha⎯¹ at site 5 th . Among the species maximum density was recorded 1699600 ind 

ha⎯¹ at site 4 th and the minimum density also recorded 422025 ind ha⎯¹ at site 5 th . 

Distribution pattern: There was no regular distribution pattern of the different strata was observed 

in the study area as maximum species (88.01%) displayed their random distribution pattern at 

different sites and 11.98% species displayed contagious distribution pattern at different site of the 

study area (Kumar, 2008). 

29



Table 1: Density (ind ha⎯¹) for trees, saplings and seedlings 

Site Species Tree Sapling Seedling 

1 Quercus semecarpifolia 193 - 210 

Rhododendron arboreum 213 53 - 

Abies pindrow 106 - - 

Taxus baccata 20 - 26 

Ilex dipyrena 40 - - 

Acer sp 6 - - 

578 53 236 


Rhododendron arboreum 80 - 13 

Ilex dipyrena 33 - 13 

Acer sp 13 - - 


Taxus baccata 6 - - 

517 0 32 

3 Quercus semecarpifolia 153 6 53 


Ilex dipyrena 40 - - 


Lyonia ovalifolia 6 - 26 

Machilus gamblei 33 - - 

Quercus floribunda 13 - - 

323 6 139 

4 Quercus semecarpifolia 546 6 - 


Acer sp 220 20 - 

Aesculus indica 666 - - 

Taxus baccata 666 - - 

2488 46 0 


Rhododendron arboreum 380 73 16 


Taxus baccata 13 6 6 


712 79 95 


Rhododendron arboreum 120 40 40 

Acer sp 113 40 - 

Taxus baccata 26 - 6 

Sourbus cuspdata 6 - - 

Syzgium cumini 13 - - 


511 90 86 


30




Rhododendron anthopogon 160 426 286 

Taxus baccata 80 40 - 


Syzgium cumini 33 - - 

799 645 692 




Rhododendron arboretum 20 - - 

Picea simithiana 180 - - 

379 0 66 

Table 2: Density (ind ha⎯¹) for shrubs 

Species Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6 Site 7 Site 

8 

Daphne cannabina 29675 14000 5625 - 3425 - - 

Vibrunum cylindricum 1675 4675 800 2125 425 2875 675 6875 

Berbaris petiolaris 1750 2000 925 3250 - - 1550 

Daphne papyracea - 600 - - - - - - 

Thamnoclamus jonsarensis 

39100 

- - - 

(Ringal) 

- - - - 

Cotonneaster microphyllus - - - - 3425 - - 1800 

Skimmia anquetilia - - - - - - 22675 2425 

Cotoneaster acuminatus - - - - - - 4050 - 

Rosa sericea - - - - - - 1925 - 

Table 3: Density (ind ha⎯¹) for herbs 

Species Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6 Site 7 Site 8 

Lycopodium sp 42800 - - - - - - 190400 

Fragaria Sp 388800 418800 484000 366800 42800 - 118000 - 

Heteropogon contortus 232800 - 232000 - 202000 - 40800 - 

Impatins thomsonii 28000 - - - - - - - 

Gentiana peldicellata 38000 340800 266000 - 84000 104000 - 238800 

Ocimum americanum 184000 68000 - 10000 32000 52000 - - 

Pusiyaghass* 104800 - - 416000 - 526000 28800 230800 

Dryopteris sp 40000 254000 - 112800 - 44000 46800 96000 

Bistorata macrophylla - 106000 252000 104800 30000 168000 122000 - 

Daphniphyllum himalense - 58000 - 160800 - 38800 - - 

31



Potentilla fulgens - 92000 54000 - 425 - - 114000 

Sellaginella sp - - 172800 - - - - - 

Lentanasp - - 100800 - - - 100800 18400 

Saxifraga andersonii - - - 16800 30800 - - - 

Potentilla fulgens - - - 32800 - - - - 

Valeriana jatamansi - - - 100800 - - 16000 44800 

Impatins thomsonii - - - 378000 - 68800 - - 

Pteris cretica - - - - - - 104000 60000 

Gaultheria nummylariodes - - - - - - - 290800 

Nardostachys jatamansi - - - - - - - 74800 

• Locally identified 

DISCUSSION 

The present study area is located in the altitudinal range of 2500-3500m and divisible of 8 

different study sites on the basis of various disturbances such as grazing, browsing, litter removal 

and lopping. Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboreum are the dominant tree species in 

all study sites. Giri, et al (2008) reported, the total tree density ranged from 320 to 1560 ind ha⎯¹ in 

Quercus leucotrichophora forest and 320 to 1960 ind ha⎯¹ in Quercus floribunda forest, but it was 

not recorded in Quercus semecarpifolia forest. The total tree density ranged from 323-2488 ind 

ha⎯¹, total sapling density from 0-645 ind ha⎯¹ and seedling density from 0-692 ind ha⎯¹ were 

recorded in present study sites. The tree density was comparatively high than the value of other oak 

reported by Giri, et al (2008). Anthropogenic disturbances change the vegetation structure and 

regeneration status of a particular forest. The anthropogenic pressure on Quercus semecarpifolia 

forest for firewood, fodder and timber, play an important role in declination of forest together with 

lichen moss collection. Various levels of disturbances cause the increase in community species 

richness. This is because disturbances prevents dominance by a few competitive species and allows 

opportunistic species to invade. 

In the present years the awareness regarding to conservation of flora and fauna among the 

local community and in people residing in the forest has helped in a large extend in protecting the 

forest in this area. The tendency of the people have changed as they are earning their livelihood 

regularly from forest by some alternative (selling milk, firewood by utilizing the forest foliage) 

instead of destroying trees. 

32



Appropriate Technology India (ATI) is non-profit organization registered under the India 

societies act 1860, was established in August 1994 and developed as centre for ecological studies, 

which provides short term training and conduct program regarding conservation of nature and flora 

in school and college together with local peoples. 

REFERENCES 

Chaturvedi, S.N. and Singh, K.P. Plant Biodiversity, Microbial Intraction and Environmental 

Biology (2005),145. 

Crutis, J.T. and Mc Intosh, R.P.. The interrelations of certain analytic and synthetic 

phytosociological characters, Ecology (1950), 31: 434-455. 

Giri, D. Tewari, L.M. and Tamta, S. Quantitative analysis of tree species in oak dominant forest of 

Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. Indian Journal of Botanical Research (2008), 4(2): 

313-318. 

Kumar, B. Lichen species distribution, cover and fall in a Quercus semecarpifolia (J E Smith) 

forest of Garhwal Himalaya, Ph. D. Thesis (2008), HNB Garhwal University, 

Srinagar (Garhwal), India. 

Ralhan, P.K., Saxena, A.K. and Singh, J.S. Analysis of forest vegetation at and around Nainital in 

Kumaun Himalaya Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad. (1982), 48B:122-138. 

Singh, J.S. and Singh, S.P. Forest vegetation of Himalaya. The Botanical Review (1987), 53: 80- 

193. 

Singh, J.S. and Singh, S.P. Forest of Himalaya; structure and functioning and impact of man. 

Gyanodaya Prakashan (1992), Nainital, India. 

Saxena, A.K. and Singh, J.S. 1984. Tree population structure of certain Himalayan forest 

associations and implications concerning future composition. Vegetatio, 58: 61-69. 

Whittaker, 

R.H. 1972. Evolution and measurement of species diversity, Taxon 21:213-251. 

33



Chapter-4 

ASSESSMENT OF LICHEN SPECIES IN A TEMPERATE 

REGION OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA 

ABSTRACT: An enumeration of 106 lichen species belonging to 47 genera and 28 families from 

Baniyakund-Chopta areas of Garhwal is provided. The area is dominated by macrolichens (foliose 

to fruticose form). The area exhibit the luxuriant growth of corticolous lichens represented by the 

occurrence of 64% of corticolous (bark inhabiting) lichens followed by 30% of saxicolous (rock 

inhabiting) and 4% of terricolous (soil inhabiting) lichens. A single species growing on leaves 

(foliicolous) is also recorded from the area. If we compare the lichen diversity of the study area visà-vis 

other regions, it is about 30% of the Garhwal Himalayas, 20% of the Uttarakhand and 10% of 

the Himalayas and less than 0.5% of Indian lichen diversity. 

Key words: Lichen diversity, phorophytes, substratum, growth forms 

INTRODUCTION 

Lichens comprise a unique group of plant that consists of two unrelated organism, a fungus 

and an alga, growing together in a close symbiotic association. The study of lichen remains quite 

neglected throughout the world, through they together with mosses form dominant organisms in 

ecosystem covering over 10% of the earth terrestrial habitats, particularly at higher elevations 

(Nash and Egan 1988). Lichens with cynobacterial blue green symbionts, contribute significantly 

for forest nitrogen fixation (Slack 1988). Besides many other uses, lichens are also used as 

pollution monitors. They are the plants that occur in most adverse conditions of climate and 

substrate. Thus the importance of this group in an ecosystem is very heigh in its own way. Lichens 

are just like little sponges that take up everything that comes their way, including air pollution 

(Fleishner 1994). 

Lichens are universally distributed organisms occurring in varied climatic conditions 

ranging from the poles to the tropics in earth. They may look like crust, spreading rapidly over the 

surface (crustose lichens) or leafy and loosely attached to the surface (foliose lichens) and branched 

34



and shrubby, hanging from tree twigs or branches, with a single attachment (fruticose lichens). The 

collections were made along the way from Dalkuri to Bhujgali (Chopta) via Chpota and at different 

localities of the region. Negi (2000) recorded the occurrence of 85 macrolichens in the area. The 

micro lichens from the area were not listed so far. 


Site Description 

The study site Baniyakund-Chopta is situated between 2500m to 3500m (asl) in the 

Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand along with Akashkamini valley at 79 0 -79 0 30’E and 30 0 30’ – 

30 0 42’ N. The local human population settled in the low land fringe areas comprises semi 

pastoralists with livestock grazing and agriculture as their dominant land use activities. While low 

elevation woodlands such as Quercus forests are open for fodder and fuel wood collection 

throughout the year, grazing in the higher elevation forests and grasslands starts in early June, 

reaching a maximum in July, August and stop in early October. The maximum monthly 

temperature in the area varies from around 19ºC to 37ºC from the higher altitude grasslands to the 

lower elevation Quercus forests respectively during the snow free months of May to October, while 

the minimum temperature drops as low as -15ºC in the alpine grasslands during the months of 

December to February. 

In general the climate of the Chopta region is less severe summer, more or less higher 

precipitation and colder or more prolonged winter. The climatic factors i.e. precipitation, 

temperature, relative humidity and wind, in association with elevation (valley or mountain ranges 

from foot hills to mountain zones), proximity to Great Himalaya, slope aspect and vegetation type 

etc, cause variation in climates at local or even micro levels (Gaur 1999). Major output of 

precipitation is in the form of rainfall besides occasional occurrence of due hailstorms, fog, frost, 

snow fall etc. The south east monsoon commences towards the end of June and bursts until the mid 

of September. 

Methodology 

The lichen specimens were collected with the help of Chisel and Hammer along with their 

ecological notes. The type of forest vegetation, host tree type, location of the lichens thallus (on 

trunk, branch, twigs or leaves, soil and rock substratum); together with altitudes and other 

ecological notes were recorded. The collected specimens were investigated morphologically, 

anatomically and chemically at Lichenology laboratory of the National Botanical Research 

35



Institute, Lucknow. The collected samples were packed on hard card sheets inside a lichen 

herbarium packet (17cmX10mm) with details of the locality and are preserved at museum Center 

for Ecological Studies, Appropriate Technology India Ukhimath (Rudraprayag), Uttarakhand and 

also preserved at Botany Department, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University Sirinagar 

(Garhwal) Uttarakhand. A voucher specimen of each species was also preserved at Herbarium of 

National Botanical Research Institue, Lucknow (LWG). 

Identification of lichen species 

The external morphology was studied under dissecting binocular microscope. The anatomy 

of the thallus and apothecia were studied under compound microscope. The external morphology 

was examined generally in dry condition but dark brown to bluish specimens of Leptogium were 

studied in wet condition. The anatomical structures were studied after cutting the section of dry 

material by microtome and with the help of safety razor blade. The thin dry sections of the thallus 

and ascocarp were immersed in 90% ethyl alcohol to drive off the intercellular or inter-hyphal air 

bubbles and the sections were mounted in water or in cotton blue in lactophenol. The colour of 

medulla, epithecium, hypohtecium, and ascus were recorded. The shape and size of the asci, 

ascospores and conidia were measured in the sections mounted in water. The measurements of the 

thallus, medulla, epithecium, and hymenium were generally taken in the sections mounted in cotton 

blue. The thallus size was measured in centimeter, lobe size and ascocarps in millimeter and thallus 

medulla, epithecium, hymenium thickness, asci and ascospores size in milimicron. Chemistry of the 

specimens was included colour spot tests and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). 

Colour Tests: Colour test has been preferred by chemical reagents by applying it on thallus and 

medulla resulting change in color. A positive change is denoted by a positive (+) symbol, followed 

by the colour produced and no change in colour is denoted by negative (-) symbol. The chemical 

reagents used are as follows: 

a) K test: 10-25% aqueous solution of potassium hydro oxide, applied to cortex, medulla and part 

of apothecium. 

b) C test: A freshly prepared aqueous solution of calcium hypochlorite or bleaching powder or 

modern commercial bleaching fluid containing active chlorine. It is prepared by dissolvingcalcium 

hypochlorite in the distilled water in 2% ratio. 

c) KC test: At a particular spot of thallus, K is applied first and immediately followed by C. 

36



d) PD test: Solution of paraphenylenediamine is prepared in ethanol or alcohol in a smallquantity 

for the use of a day. It is unstable and can not be used for the next day. A more stable solution 

called Steiner’s PD is prepared by dissolving 1.0gm of paraphenylenediamine and 10gm of sodium 

sulphite in 100ml of distilled water with 1.0ml of a liquid detergent.This reagent keeps well for 

about a month. 

e) I test: 2-5gm of iodine is dissolved in water with 0.5gm of potassium iodide. The reagent keeps 

well for several days and is to be renewed when fade colour. 

Other colour tests: A dilute aqueous solution of nitric acid and aqueous solution of ferric chloride 

are sometime used for identification of Buellia species. The spot tests can be done on any part of 

the thallus but younger parts give better results. Colour test is done to a small fragment of the 

desired lichen thallus part or thallus or ascocarp. A definite colour comes showing the presence of 

any lichenic acid. 

Micro-crystallography: Micro crystallography was introduced by Asahina (1936). The method 

does not need elaborate equipment. A small fragment of lichen to be investigated is placed on the 

middle part of a microscopic glass slide and one-two drops of acetone or any other organic solvent 

are dripped on to the fragment by means of dropper or pipette. Lichen substances if present gets 

dissolved in the solvent and extracted on the slide as residue in a ring form around the fragment as 

soon as the solvent evaporates. The thallus fragment is blown off. A micro-cover glass is placed 

over the residue and a drop of one of the crystallized fluids (detailed below) is placed at the edge of 

the cover glass. The fluid gradually seeps in. The slide is then heated gently over a sprit lamp. The 

residue dissolved in the fluid and lichen substances gradually crystallize into their characteristic of 

shapes on cooling. These crystals are observed under low power microscope and identified by 

comparison with the photographs or line diagram published by Asahina (1950, 1952), Hale (1967), 

Thomson (1967), Krog (1951) and others. Identification of depsides, depsidones and dibenzofurans 

is usually confirmed by this method. The crystallizing fluids used are as: 

a) G.E.- Glycerol: acetic acid, 1:3 

b) G.A.W.- Glycerol: ethanol: water 1:1:1 

c) G.A. Ot- Glycerol: ethanol: ortho-toludine 2:2:1 

d) G.A. An- Glycerol: ethanol: aniline 2:2:1 

e) G.A.Q. - Glycerol: ethanol: quinoline 2:2:1 

Chromatography: Earlier in chromatography, paper was used for spotting the lichen substances. 

37



Use of paper has been substituted by thin layer chromatographic plates. Glass sheets are either used 

in the laboratory by coating with silica gel or precoated Aluminum plates are prepared in the 

laboratory by taking ordinary smooth glass plates of 20cm square size. They are thoroughly cleaned 

by keeping them in glass tank, dried in a low temperature in (ca. 30-35ºc) oven. About 30gm of 

Merck or silica gel ‘G’ is made into a plate in 80ml of distilled water in a conical flask and stirred 

vigorously. This amount is sufficient for coating 10 plates. About 9-10ml of the silica gel paste is 

spread over glass plates are dried at 35ºc and can be left at that temperature till they are needed for 

chromatographic purposes. Generally Parmelinella wallichiana is used as a control for atranorin 

and salazinic acid (Rf class 2) and Usnea baileyi or Pyxine phillipina for norstictic acid (Rf class 4) 

have been used when the silica gel plate fully spotted with the desired number of extracts. It is 

placed in a jar, internally lined by filter paper and containing a specific solvent, level of which is 

about 1.0cm below the spotting places of the lichen extracts. The solvent gradually rises up in the 

silica gel coating and is allowed to rise up to 14cm mark. The plate is taken out dried in air and 

observed under ultra violet lamp; any fluorescence observed is marked or noted. For spotting the 

different fatty acids, distilled water is sprayed on the plates and spots are marked with pencil. A 

10% aqueous solution of Sulphuric acid is finally sprayed over the coated surface of the plate 

which is then placed in an oven at a temperature of 110ºc for about 5-15 minutes or until the 

differently coloured spots at different levels become clear. The plate is then taken out, allowed to 

cool. The colour of the spots their position for each extract are noted, and again observed under 

ultra violet light and finally Rf value are calculated. Identification is made of lichen substances on 

the basis of the position and color of the spots by comparison with the charts published by 

Culberson (1972), Walker and James (1980) and White & James (1985). 

Distance traveled by lichen substance (indicated by spot) 

Rf Value= 

Distance traveled by solvent (Solvent front) 

The following three solvent systems usually used for the chromatography are- 

Solvent A or BDA- Benzene: 1, 4 dioxane: acetic acid: 90ml: 25ml: 4ml. 

Solvent B or HEF- Hexane: di-ethyl-ether: Formic acid: 130ml: 100ml: 20ml. 

Solvent C or TA- Toluene: acetic acid: 85ml: 15ml. 

The most common solvent system used for chromatography is- 

38



T.O.A- Toluene 180ml, dioxane 60ml: 8- acetic acid. 

Three dimensional TLC has also been used to find out and determine lichen substances 

which are not detected by one directional T L C. Further sophistication has been achieved by the 

use of high performance chromatography (HPLC) and spectrometry. These techniques are much 

expensive and usually beyond the reach of an average lichenologist and therefore not detailed here. 

Key to the lichen genera of Chopta 

1 Thallus leprose-crustose………………………………………… Group I 

1a Thallus otherwise……………………………………………… 2 

2 Thallus foliose…………………………………………………… GroupII 

2a 

Thallus fruticose or dimorphic………………………………....... Group III 

Group I 

1a Thallus leprose………………………………………………… 2 

1b Thrallus crustose………………………………………………… 3 

2a 

Thallus byssaceous or crustose leprose, yellow to yellowish 

green………………………………………………… 

Chrysothrix 

2b Thallus leprose, bluish-white…………………………………… Lepraria 

3a Thallus K + purple…………………………………………….. 4 

3b Thallus K -…………………………………………………….. 5 

4a Thallus orange above, brown black below……………………… Ioplaca 

4b Thallus yellow to orange to red above, not brown black below… Caloplaca 

5a Ascocarps perithecioid………………………………………….. 6 

5b Ascocarps apothecioid………………………………………… 7 

6a Spores simple, paraphyses gelatinized………………………… Verrucaria 

6b 

Spores transversely septate, paraphyses simple…………………. Pyrenula 

7a 

Apothecia periphecioid, disc opening by pore, apothecia 

immeresed in thalline verrucae………………………………... 

Pertusaria 

7b Apothecial disc wide open apotheciod to elongate lirellate…… 8 

39



8a 

Ascocarps resembling apothecia but ascolocular in nature, round 

to lirellate……………………………………………………… 

Opegrapha 

8b Ascocarp true apothecia………………………………………... 9 

9a Apothecia elongated - lirellate………………………………….. Graphis 

9b Apothecia disc shaped………………………………………….. 10 

10a 

Asci multi (64-100 or more) - spored, spores hyaline, small, 

thallus saxicolous……………………………………………… 

Acarospora 

10b Asci 1-8 spored (rarely 12, 16, 32-spored)…………………… 11 

11a Spores brown, typically 1 septate, thick celled……………… Buellia 

11b Spores hyaline, simple………………………………………… 12 

12a 

Spores large & distinctly thick celled, apothecia adnate sessile… Ochrolechia 

12b Spore small, thin or thick celled………………………………... 13 

13a Apothecia lecanorine…………………………………………… 14 

13b Apothecia lecideine…………………………………………… 15 

14a Apothecia initially innate, later plane emergent………………. Aspicilia 

14b Apothecia emergent & sessile from the beginning……………. Lecanora 

15a Thallus corticate, paraphyses branched & anotomosing……… Porpidia 

15b Thallus ecorticate, paraphyses simple to purcate……………… Lecidea 

Group II 

1a Perithecia immersed within the thallus………………………….. Dermatocarpon 

1b Apothecia ± superficial, laminal or marginal…………………. Umbilicaria 

Group III 

1a Thallus paronelioid or physcioid……………………………… 7 

1b Thallus…………………………………………………………… 2 

2a Photobiont blue green…………………………………………. 3 

2b Photobiont green………………………………………………… 6 

3a Photobiont not strtified, thallus homoiomerous………………… Leptogium 

40



3b Photobiont stratified, thallus eteromerous……………………… 4 

4a Thallus corticated on both surfaces……………………………… 5 

4b Thallus corticated in upper surfaces only……………………….. 6 

5a Thallus cyphellate, cyphellae in lower surface………………... Sticta 

5b Thallus lacking cephellae……………………………………… Lobaria 

6a 

Apothecia marginal to submarginal, lower surface with veins & 

pascicalate rhizines…………………………………………….. 

Peltigera 

6b Apothecia laminal, lower surface lacking veins………………… Parmelinella 

7a Apothecia nephromoid on lobe ends, thallus cetrarioid…………. 8 

7b 

Apothecia laminal or marginal, not nephromoid, thallus 

parmelioid or physcioid………………………………………… 11 

8a Upper cortex containing usnic acid……………………………… 9 

8b Upper cortex lacking usnic acid………………………………… 10 

9a Apothecia mainly laminal, conidia bacillariform……………… Cetrariopsis 

9b Apothecia mainly marginal & submarginal, conidia filiform….. Allocetraria 

10a 

10b 

Thallus erect, fruticose or sub fruticose, lobes canaliculate, 

lower surface without rhizomes, terricolous, conidia oblong 

citriform… 

Thallus adnate, foliose, lobes not canaliculate, lower surface 

normally with rhizomes, corticolous, lobe margins ciliate……… 

Cetrelia 

Cetrelia 

11a Thallus parmelioid……………………………………………… 12 

11b Thallus physioid………………………………………………… 22 

12a Thallus pseudocyphellate……………………………………… 13 

12b Thallus lacking pseudocyphellate……………………………… 14 

13a 

13b 

Thallus enaculate, pseudocyphellae punctiform, rhizines on 

lower surface reaching up to edge of lobes, medulla K+ red…… 

Thallus enaculate, pseudocyphellae punctiform, rhizines on 

lower surface not reaching up to edge of lobes, medulla K-…… 

Parmelia 

Punctelia 

14a Thallus ciliate………………………………………………….. 15 

14b Thallus lacking cilia…………………………………………… 21 

41



15a Thallus with bulbate cilia along margins……………………… Bulbothrix 

15b Thallus with simple cilia along margin………………………….. 16 

16a Rhizines dichotomously branched……………………………… Hypotrachyna 

16b Rhizines simple or squarrosely branched……………………… 17 

17a Rhizines restricted in the central part of lower surface………… 18 

17b Rhizines present throughout the lower surface………………… 19 

18a 

18b 

19a 

Upper surface emaculate, or if maculate, maculae neither 

forming effigurate nor forming reticulate cracks……………… 

Upper surface white maculate, maculae forming reticulate 

cracks………………………………………………………….. 

Thallus lobes narrow, linearly elongate, canaliculate, 

dichotomous.................................................................................. 

Parmotrema 

Rimelia 

Everniastrum 

19b Thallus lobes otherwise………………………………………… 20 

20a 

20b 

21a 

Upper surface with effigurate maculae, cilia robust, Markedly 

tapered, commonly furcate, conidia pliform…………………… 

Upper surface emaculate or with spotted maculae, cilia slender, 

not markedly tapered, simple, conidial cylindrical or bifusiform 

Rhizomes simple to squarrosely branched, leaving a narrow bare 

marginal zone less than 2mm wide……………………………. 

Canomachlina 

Myelochora 

Canoparmelia 

21b Rhizomes dichotomously branched up to margin……………… Hypotrachyna 

22a 

Upper cortex composed of longitudinally disposed compact 

hyphae, as seen in VLS of thallus……………………………… 

Heterodermia 

22b 

Upper cortex vertically disposed, conglutinate hyphae, cellular 

(paraplectinchymatous) in cross section in any direction……… 23 

23a Hypothecium brown to dark brown…………………………… Pyxine 

23b Hypothecium hyaline to yellow………………………………… 24 

24a Thallus grey brown, K- (atranorin absent)……………………… Phaeophyscia 

24b 

Thallus glaucous grey to grey, K+ Yyellow (atranorin 

present)… 

Group IV 

Physcia 

42



1a Thallus podetiate or pseudopodiate…………………………… 2 

1b 

Thallus not podetiate, inflated…………………………………… Ramalina 

2a Thallus podotia, pseudopotidia solid…………………………… 3 

2b 

Thallus podetia or pseudopodia hollow, lacking central 

chondroid axis, poditia with squamules…………...…………… 

Cladonia 

3a Thallus with a central chondroid axis within medulla………… Usnea 

3b Thallus lacking central chondroid axis……………….………… 4 

4a Thallus on rock, non-acidic soil or decaying debris…………… 5 

4b 

Thallus on rock or wood, rarely on non-acidic soils, with sucate 

pseudocyphellae…………………………………………………. Sulcaria 

5a 

5b 

Thallus sterile, with distichous dendroid branches 

(pseudopodetia) and granular phyllocladia, cephalodia absent… 

Thallus fertile, pseudopodetia with brown to black terminal or 

lateral apothecia, cephalodia usually present…………………… 

Leprocaulon 

Stereocaulon 

Key to lichen species of Chopta 

1 Thallus yellow, greenish yellow, yellow orange………………… 2 

1a Thallus whitish or greenish grey, thin with calycin……………… Chryothrix sp 

2 

2a 

Thallus thin yellow without slight orange or greenish tinge or 

greenish yellow, granules minute 0.01-0.1 (0.2) mm diam, thallus 

K-, KC- or KC orange red P- or P+ orange……………………….. 

Thallus thick, vivid primary yellow, granules 0.1-0.2 mm diam, 

forming pulverulent mass, thallus K- or K+ fainting orange, C-, 

KC-, or KC+ red.............................................................................. 

C. candelaris 

C. chlorine 

3 Scypni centrally proliferated……………………………………… Cladonia sp 

3a Podetia with interior of scyphi open, axils olso open……………. C. squamosa 

4 

P+ red, primary squamules, 3X1.5 mm, persistent, podetia1oX70 

(-130) mm tall, 1-2 mm in diam dichotomously or irregularly 

branched, cupless, apically attenuated, squamulles on podetia…… 

C. furcata 

4a Podetia taller 20mm and above…………………………………… 5 

5 Podetia 30-45mm tall, P+red, apices Subcorymbose……………... C. corymbescens 

43



6 

Thallus with tomentum of multicellular hyphal hairs, spore 

muriform…………………………………………………………... 7 

7 Thallus isidiate……………………………………………………. 8 

7a Thallus lacking isidia……………………………………………… 9 

8 

Thallus surafe distinctly wrinkled, bluish, lobes 3-9mm wide, 

isidia globular to clavate apothecia usually absent ………………. 

Leptogium 

papillosum 

9 Whitish stiff trichomes present on thalline exciple………………. 10 

9a Trichomes absent on thalline exciple…………………………… 11 

10 

11 

11a 

12 

Apothecia sessile to constricted at base, upto 2mm diam trichomes 

robust and dense on exciple, thallus grey-brown to brown-black, 

lobes 8-12mm wide, spores 20-35X10-13µm……………………. 

Apothecia sessile to substipitate, up to 5 mm diam exciple thick, 

wrinkled with short trichomes, thick dark-brown to grey-black, 

lobes 3-20mm wide spores 25-34X8-12µm………………………. 

Apothecia stalk short, constricted, not lobular disc upto 4.5mm 

diam, thallus bluish-rgey to dark grey lobes 5-10 (-20) mm wide, 

smooth, spores 28-37X12-17µ……………………………………. 

Exciple complete (closed), variable in colour, totally black, lobia 

of exciple 4-12 sulcate at upper edge, sulcai black, nacked, not 

covered by hyphal tissue, lirellae emergent to dichotomously 

branched, spores 8-10 celled, 24-45X6-8µm……………………… 

L. trichophorum 

L. askotense 

L. pedicelatum 

Graphis 

sikkimensis 

12a Exciple domidiate (deficient at base), black………………………. 13 

13 Spores 8-16 celled, 25-50X4-9µm………………………………... G. scripta 

14 Thallus leprose, granular, apothecia absent………......................... 15 

14a Thallus leprose, granular, apothecia always present.. Lecanora sp1 

15 Thallus K-, C-, PD………………………………………………… 16 

16 

16a 

Thallus having zeorin, greenish, granular without projecting 

hyphae …………………………………………………………... 

Thallus lacking zeorin, but having lecanoric like spot, which grey, 

with dense projecting hyphae…………………………………….. 

Lecanora sp2 

17 Epihymenium of chlarotera type, zeorin absent………………….. 18 

18 

Thallus containing 2-0-methyl perlatoric acid apothecial disc pale 

44 

L. achroa



orange brown, epihymenium yellowish brown…………………… 

19 Lower surface black to brown, lobes sinuate……………………... 20 

19a 

Apothecia numerous, 3-10mm in diam, atranorin and salazinic 

acid present……………………………………………………….. 

Bulbothrix 

meizospora 

20 Apothecia rare, adnate, 2-3mm in diam, atranorin only………… B. bulbochaeta 

21 Spores 1-3 septate or sorediate……………………………………. 

Opegrapha 

leptoterodes 

22 Thallus isidiate or sorediate………………………………………. 23 

22a Thallus lacking isidia and soredia………………………………… 24 

23 

24 

25 

Thallus isidiate, isidia coralloid, soredia absent, lobes up to 15mm 

wide, upper surface grayish-white to brownish-tan, lower surface 

brown-black, medulla c-, KC+ pink or red alectoronic acid and 

alpha collatolic acid present………………………………………. 

Medulla C+ pink or red (olivetoric acid present) lobes up to 

15mm wide, upper surface grey, grey-white to light- brown, 

smooth to cracked, pseudocyphellae distinct……………………... 

Medulla C-, KC+ pinkish or KC-, lobes up to 15mm wide, tan or 

pale, lower surface jet black……………………………………… 

Cetrelia 

braunsiana 

C. 

pseudolivetorum 

C. cetrarioides 

26 Lower surface of thallus erhizinate or rhizinies only near margins. 

Everniastrum 

cirrhatum 

26a 

Lower surface with uniform rhizines, and marginal cilia of 

varying length, once or twice furcated …………………………… 

E. nepalense 

27 Thallus lacking isidea, barbatic acid present or absent…………… 28 

28 Medulla K+yellow, atranorin and norstictic acid present………… 

Hypotrachyna 

crenata 

29 

29a 

30 

Thallus closely to loosely adnate to the substratum, 4-10 across, 

lobes sublinear, subimbricate, 2-4mm wide……………………… 

Thallus adnate to the substratum, 5-10cm across lobes sublinear to 

subirregular, imbricate, 2-5mm wide, 100-115 µm thick………… 

Thallus isidiate, pycnidia absent, lobes subdichotomously to 

irregularly branched and sinuate………………………………… 

Myelochora 

irrugans 

M. aurulenta 

Parmelinella 

wallichiana 

31 Thallus lobe margin lacking cilia…………………………………. 

Parmotrema 

mesotropum 

45



31a Thallus KC+red…………………………………………………… P. nilgherrense 

32 

Spores, straight to curved, transversely 5-9 septate 34-96X3.5- 

5µm……………………………………………………………….. 

Peltigera 

polydactyla 

32a Spores acircular, transversely 5-7 septate, 47-75X3-6µm…… P. rufescens 

33 Thallus sorediate…………………………………………………... 34 

34 Apothecia unknown & thallus corticolous………………………... 

Pertusaria 

leucosorodes 

35 

Thallus K+yellow, P+orange, norstictic stitic and constictic acid 

present……………………………………………………………. 

P. quassiae 

36 Spores transversely septate………………………………………. 

Buellia 

leptochina 

36a 

Thallus saxicolous, continuous to cracked, areolate, hypothallus 

present, apothecia 0.2-0.6 (0.8) mm wide, spore 9-15X4-7µm...... 

B. stigmea 

37 

Thallus ribbon like or rosulate, attached to substratum by basal or 

central part, lower cortex absent………………………………… 38 

38 

38a 

Thallus ribbon licke, with black rhizinae along margin, lower 

surface K+yellow-red, PD+yellow-orange, salazinic acid present... 

Thallus rosulate, lobes suberect, lower surface (medulla) 

K+yellow-red, PD- or PD+ pale yellow, salazinic acid absent…… 

Heterodermia 

leucomela 

H. incana 

39 

Thallus lacking lower cortex, rhizinae absent on lower surface, 

but presence along with the margin, spore with or without 

polyblastidia………………………………………………………. 40 

40 

Lower surface of laciniae white, lacking pigment, black to purpleblack 

in other parts………………………………………………... 

H. japonica 

41 Thallus isidiate and/or sorediate…………………………………... 42 

42 

43 

Medulla K+yellow turning reddish, PD+ deep yellow (norstictic 

and salazinic acid present), apothecia up to 8mm diam spores 26- 

32X12-18µm……………………………………………………… 

Soralia capitate on short lateral branches, lacunae up to 1.5mm 

wide, apothecia up to 3mm diam, marginally sorediate, spores 26- 

32X12-18µm……........................................................................... 

H. speciosa 

H. 

psuedospaciosa 

43a Medulla white……………………………………………………. 44 

44 Medulla K-, PD-, thallus often large, much variable, laciniae 2- 

2.5mm wide, with or without lateral lobes, apothecia up to 7mm 

46 

H. diademata



diam, margin crenulate to lacinulate, spores 23-35X10-15µm…… 

45 Thallus sorediate, medulla, non-pigmented……………………….. 

Pheophyscia 

hispidula 

46 Thallus UV+yellow………………………………………………. 47 

47 Medulla yellow, deep yellow, hypothecium K+red-violet……….. 

Pyxine berteriana 

var himalayensis 

48 

Thallus pseudocephallate, ascocarps always more than 0.5mm in 

diam, immersed, ostiole indistinct or umblicate…………………. 

Pyrenula immerse 

49 Thallus sorediate, dichotomous to irregularly divide…………….. Ramalina roesleri 

49a Thallus lacking soredia……………………………………………. 50 

50 Thallus canaliculate, ribbon-like………………………………….. 

Ramalina 

canduplicans 

50a Thallus not canaliculated………………………………………….. 51 

51 

51a 

52a 

Thallus palmately lobed or dissected, pseudocyphellae alternating 

with corticated ridges...................................................................... 

Thallus strap- shaped to irregular with more than 1mm wide, 

pseudocyphellae raised on tubercles, prominent white………….. 

A central axis solid, cortex of filamentose branches partially 

cracked to areolate and sometimes evanescent, thallus up to 30 cm 

long, main branch 0.5mm in diam, lateral branchlets dense, stictic 

acid complex present…………………………………………….. 

Ramalina sinensis 

Ramalina sp 

Usnea pectinata 

52b Central axis brown or brownish…………………………………… 53 

53 

53a 

53b 

Lateral branchlets sparse, rigid, filamentous branches with annular 

to irregular cracks, pseudocyphellae on palillae , cortex semiprosoplectenchymatous, 

stictic acid complex present ……………. 

Cortex evanescent through the filamentose branches. Lateral 

branchlets variable in length usually quite along, sometimes 

verrucose, isidiate, spore 8 X 6 µm….. ………………………… 

Cortex present on filamentose branches or sometimes cortex 

evanescent ………………………………………………………. 

Usnea indica 

Usnea longissima 


54 Thallus lacking pseuedocephellai………………………………… 55 

55 

Thallus lacking isidia and soredia, apothecia present, cortex single 

layred, thallus surface papillate, normal branches present……… 

Usnea orientalis 

47



55a Thallus isidiate lacking soredia………………………………….. 56 

56 

56a 

57 

Thallus decumbent to pendulous, upto 3cm long, branches 

convergent, lateral branchlets absent stictic acid complex persent 

Thallus erect, 6(-8) cm tall, branches divergent, lateral branches 

sparse to dense, stictic acid complex present…………………… 

Young branches initially sorediate, soredia later isidiate, thallus 3- 

9cm tall, branches divergent, strains of norstitic, salazinic, 

squamatic and thamnolic acid present…………………………….. 

Usnea aciculifera 

Usnea 

eumitrioides 

Usnea 

subfloridana 

58 Lower surface rhizinate, thallus up to 12cm diam………………... 

Dermatocarpon 

vellereum 

59 Thallus with lichen substance……………………………………... 60 

60 

Thallus with norstictic, stictic and constictic acid, with fragile 

margin sometimes with distinct lobes…………………………….. 

Lepraria 

lobificans 

RESULTS 

A total of 106 species of lichen specimens from the study area Chopta forest (a purely Q. 

semecarpifolia forest) between 2500m to 3500m altitudes were recorded (Table 1). The specimens 

were collected in the month of May to October 2006. 

Table 1: List of 28 families with 47 genera and 106 species of lichens recorded on different 

substrates in the Baniyakund-Chopta. 

S. 

No. 

Lichen Taxa Family Growth 

Form 

Substratum 

1 Acarospora chlorophana (Wahlenb, in Ach.) 

Massal. 

Acarosporaceae Crustose On rock 

2 Acarospora saxicola Fink ex Hedrick Acarosporaceae Crustose On rock 

3 Allocetraria stracheyi (Bab.) Kurok. & Lai Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock 

4 Aspicilia dwaliensis Rasanen Hymeneliaceae Crustose On rock 

5 Buellia leptocline(Flotow) Massal. Physciaceae Crustose On bark 

6 Buellia stigmea Tuck. Physciaceae Crustose On rock 

7 Bulbothrix bulbochaeta (Hale.) Hale. Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

48



8 Bulbothrix meizospora (Nyl.) Hale. Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

9 Caloplaca pelodella (Nyl.) Hasse Teloschistaceae Crustose On bark 

10 Caloplaca sp1 Teloschistaceae Crustose On rock 

11 Caloplaca sp2 Teloschistaceae Crustose On rock 

12 Canoparmelia aptata (Krempedh) Elix & 

Hale 

Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

13 Cetrariopsis wallichiana (Taylor) Kurokawa Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

14 Cetrelia braunsiana (Muell. Arg.) Culb & C. 

Club 


15 Cetrelia cerarioides (Delise ex Duby) Culb & 

C. Culb 


16 Cetrelia pseudolivetorum (Asah) Club & C. 

Club 

17 Cetrelia sanguinea (Schaerer) Club & C. 

Club 

18 Cetrelia sanguinea (Schaerer) Club. & C. 

Club. 




19 Chrysothrix candelaris (L.) Laundon Chrysothricacea 

e 

20 Chrysothrix chlorina (Ach.) Laundon Chrysothricacea 

e 

Crustose On bark/rock 

Crustose On bark 

21 Cladonia corymbescens Nyl. Cladoniaceae Squamule 

s 

On soil 

22 Cladonia furcata (Huds) Schrader Cladoniaceae Squamule 

s 

On bark/rock with 

moss 

23 Cladonia sp. Cladoniaceae Squamule 

s 

24 Cladonia squamosa (Scop) Hoffm Cladoniaceae Squamule 

s 

25 Dermatocarpon vellereum Zschacke Dermatocarpace Foliose 

ae 

On rock 

On bark 

On rock 

49


26 Everniastrum cirrhatum (E Fries) Hale ex 

Sipman 

27 Everniastrum nepalense (Taylor) Hale ex 

Sipman 




28 Graphis aicatricosa Nyl. Graphidiaceae Crustose On bark 

29 Graphis chlorotica Graphidiaceae Crustose On bark 

30 Graphis proserpens Vainio Graphidiaceae Crustose On bark 

31 Graphis scripta (L.) Ach. Graphidiaceae Crustose On bark 

32 Graphis sikkimensis (Nagarkar & Patw.) Graphidiaceae Crustose On bark 

33 Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) D. Awasthi Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark 

34 Heterodermia hypocaesia (Yasuda) Awasthi Phyasciaceae Foliose On rock 

35 Heterodermia incana (Stirton) D. Awasthi Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark 

36 Heterodermia isidiophora (Vainio) Awasthi Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark 

37 Heterodermia japonica (Sato.) Swinsc. & 

Krog. 

Phyasciaceae Foliose On soil with moss 

38 Heterodermia leucomela (L.) Poelt Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark 

39 Heterodermia pseudospeciosa (Kurokawa) 

Culb 

Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark with moss 

40 Heterodermia speciosa (Wulfen) Trevisan Phyasciaceae Foliose On rock 

41 Hymenelia sp. Hymeneliaceae Foliose On bark 

42 Hypotrachyna awasthiHale & Patw. Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock with moss 

43 Hypotrachyna crenata (Kurok) Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock 

44 Hypotrachyna exsecta (Taylor) Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

45 Hypotrachyna scytophylla (Kurok.) Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock 

46 Ioplaca pindarensis (Rasanen) Poelt & 

Hintergger 

Teloschistaceae Crustose On rock 

47 Lecanora achroa (Nyl.) Crombie Lecanoraceae Crustose On bark 

50



48 Lecanora sp Lecnoraceae Crustose On rock 

49 Lecidea sp. Lecideaceae Crustose On bark 

50 Lepraria lobificans Nyl. Lichen 

imperfecti 

51 Lepraria sp1 Lichen 

imperfecti 

52 Lepraria sp2 Lichen 

imperfecti 




53 Leprocaulon pseudoarbuscula (Asah.) Lamb 

& Ward 

Lichen 

imperfecti 

Crustose On rock 

54 Leptogium askotense D. Awasthi Collemataceae Foliose On bark 

55 Leptogium papillosum B. de Lesd Dodge Collemataceae Foliose On bark 

56 Leptogium pedicelatum M. P. Jorg Collemataceae Foliose On bark 

57 Leptogium trichophorum (Muell.) Arg. Collemataceae Foliose On bark 

58 Lobaria retigera(Bory) Trevisan Lobariaceae Foliose On bark 

59 Lobaria sp Lobariaceae Foliose On bark 

60 Myelochora aurulenta (Tuck) Elix & Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

61 Myelochora irrugans (Nyl.) Exil & Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

62 Myelochora xantholepsis (Mont & Bosch) 

Elix & Hale 


63 Ochrolechia rosella (Muell. Arg.) Vers. Pertusariaceae Crustose On bark 

64 Opegrapha sp. Opegraphaceae Crustose On Leaf 

65 Parmelia squarrosaHale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

66 Parmelinella wallichiana (Taylor) Elix & 

Hale 

Parmeliaceae Foliose On soil with moss 

67 Parmotrema mesotropum (Muell. Arg.) Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

68 Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl.) Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

69 Parmotrema saccatilobum(Taylor) Hale Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

51



70 Peltigera polydactyla (Neck) Hoffm Peltigeraceae Foliose On bark/Soil with 

moss 

71 Peltigera rufescens (Weiss) Humb Peltigeraceae Foliose On soil with moss 

72 Pertusaria aqussiae Fe Pertusariaceae Crustose On bark 

73 Pertusaria leucosorodes Nyl. Pertusariaceae Crustose On bark 

74 Phaeophyscia hispidula (Ach.) Moberg Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark 

75 Phyllopsora albicans Muell. Arg. Lecideaceae Crustose On bark 

76 Physcia dimidiata (Ach.) Nyl. Physciaceae Foliose On bark 

77 Porpidia albocoerulescens (Wulfen) Hertel & 

Knoph in Hertel 

Porpidiaceae 


78 Porpidia crustulata(Ach.) Hertel & Knoph in 

Hertel 

Porpidiaceae 


79 Porpidia macrocarpa(DC) Hertel & Knoph in 

Hertel 

Porpidiaceae 


80 Punctelia borreri (Sm) Krog. Parmeliaceae Foliose On bark 

81 Punctelia neutralis (Hale) Korg. Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock 

82 Punctelia subrudecta (Nyl.) Krog. Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock 

83 Pyrenula immersa Muell. Arg. Pyrenulaceae Crustose On bark 

84 Pyrenula immissa (Stirton) Zahlbr Pyrenulaceae Crustose On bark 

85 Pyxine berteriana var himalaica D. Awasthi Phyasciaceae Foliose On bark 

86 Pyxine subcinereaStirton Physciaceae Foliose On bark 

87 Ramalina conduplicans Vainio Ramalinaceae Fruticose On bark 

88 Ramalina himalensisRasanen Ramalinaceae Fruticose On rock 

89 Ramalina roesleri (Hochst) Hue Ramalinaceae Fruticose On bark 

90 Ramalina sinensis Jatta Ramalinaceae Fruticose On bark 

91 Rimelia reticulata (Taylor) Hale & Fletcher Parmeliaceae Foliose On rock 

92 Stereocaulon foliolosum Nyl. Stereocaulaceae Foliose On rock 

52



93 Stereocaulon pomiferum Duvign. Stereocaulaceae Foliose On rock 

94 Sticta nylanderianaZahlbr. Stictaceae Foliose On bark 

95 Sulcaria sulcata (Lev) Bystr. Ex Brodo & D. 

Hawkow 

Alectoriaceae Foliose On bark 

96 Umbilicaria badia Frey Umbilicariaceae Foliose On rock 

97 Umbilicaria indica Frey Umbilicariaceae Foliose On rock 

98 Umbilicaria virginis Schaerer Umbilicariaceae Foliose On rock 

99 Usnea aciculiferaVainio Usneaceae Fruticose On bark 

100 Usnea eumitrioides Mot. Usneaceae Fruticose On bark 

101 Usnea indica Mot. Usneaceae Fruticose On rock 

102 Usnea longissima Ach. Usneaceae Fruticose On bark 

103 Usnea orientalis Mot. Usneaceae Fruticose On bark 

104 Usnea pectinata (Taylor) Usneaceae Fruticose On bark 

105 Usnea subfloridana (Stirton) Usneaceae Fruticose On bark 

106 Verrucaria acrotella Ach. Verrucariaceae Crustose On rock 

DISCUSSION 

The most common lichen species growing on different phorophytes belongs to the genera 

Chrysothrix, Parmelioid, Usnioid and Graphidiaceous lichens while Acarospora, Aspicilia, 

Umblicaria, Dermatocarpon, Porpidia, Buellia and Caloplaca mostly prefers to grow on rocks. 

Species of lichen genera Peltigera, Lobaria and Sticta prefers soil for their growth. The lichen flora 

in the study area exhibits greatest abundance in variety and luxuriance of growth. The lichens in the 

study area seem to prefer the bark of trees or rock as their substratum. Lichens also occur on soil, 

decaying wood, mosses and humus. The corticolous lichens are greatly influenced by the physical 

characters of the bark. Corticolous lichens may be epiphloedal or endophoedal based on their 

growth above or within the substratum. In epiphloedal lichens or the lichen tissue (especially the 

algal layer) develops above the outermost corky layer of bark, although few layers of cork are 

incorporated into the lower portion of the thallus. In endophloedal lichens the thallus crust lies 

entirely below the cork of periderm. Section of endophloedal crustose lichens together with their 

53



bark substrate generally show that the lichen thallus remains to the corky outer periderm by one or 

many layers of suberised impermeable cork cells. The nature of bark (smooth or rough) and 

moisture retaining capacity of bark also plays vital role in determining the type of lichen species. 

Quercus, Rhododendron, Acer spp. and many other trees, as well as species of shrub and ringal act 

as favorable substrate for the luxuriant growth of lichens. Together with trees some shrubs of 

Berberis and Cotoneaster also provide a suitable substrate for growth of many lichen taxa. 

The growth of lichens on rock is based on the physical and chemical characters of the rocks. 

The hard, permanent, and moist rock preferred by most of the lichen than the rocks which weather 

soon and allowing less time to the lichen to produce reproductive organs. Proximity of water to 

substratum also exerts great influence in determination of the type of lichen growth. 

The lichen on the rock depends upon whether the rocks are acidic or basic. The exposure 

and moisture relationship strongly influence the lichen cover on rocks. The boulders along the 

stream and in open fields and fell fields are suitable habitats for lichens. In the open boulder fields 

the foliose lichen Heterodermia and Phaeophyscia occupies the exposed rocks and boulders while 

humus and soil containing pebbles at the base of boulders in moist places provide a habitat for 

lichen species Cladonia and Peltigera. The exposed dry boulders received sunrays throughout the 

day remains more or less dry and hot and only few dark black Buellia and Acarospora species able 

to grow. 

The common epiphytic foliose and fruticose genera are Everniastrum, Parmoterma, 

Heterodermia, Bulbothix, Hypotrachyna, Leptogium, Parmelia, Parmellinella, Lobaria, Ramalina, 

Rimelia, and Usnea. These genera colonize on trunk, branches, minor branches and twigs. 

The moist shady location in the study area provide suitable habitat for growth of terricolous 

(soil inhabiting) and muscicolous (moss inhabiting) lichen species of Peltigera and Cladonia. 

Vertical face of roads covered with moss and small herbaceous plant provide a moist shady habitat 

for growth of terricolous and muscicolous lichens. Among different lichen forms the foliose forms 

dominated the area by 57 species followed by crustose 34 and 11 fruticose and 4 squamules 

species. Among the different lichen families, the Parmeliaceae exhibit its dominance in the area 

represented by 15 genera (31.9%) out of the 74 genera of lichens known from the area. 

REFERENCES 

Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock grazing in Western North America: conservation 

54



Biology 8(3) 633 pp. 

Gaur, R.D. (1999). Flora of district Garhwal Himaya (with ethnobotanical notes) 3-4. 

Kumar, B. 2008. Lichen species distribution, cover and fall in a Quercus semecarpifolia (J E 

Smith) forest of Garhwal Himalaya (Ph. D. Thesis), HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 

(Garhwal), India. 

Nash, T.H. and Egan, R.S. 1988. The biodiversity of lichens and bryophytes. In: Lichen, 

Bryophytes and air quality. (Eds. Thomas Nash III & Vilkmar Wirth). Bibl. Lichenol. 

30: 11-22 J. Carmer in der Gebr. Borntra. Verlag. Berlin, Stuttgart. 

Negi, H. R. 2000. On the pattern of abundance and diversity of macrolichens of Chopta-Tunganath 

in the Garhwal Himalaya, 375-77 pp. Slack, N.G. 1988. The Ecological Importance of 

lichen and Bryophyte. Bib. Lichenol. 30: 23-53 pp. 

55



Chapter‐5 

MACRO-LICHENS COVER AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION PATTERN ON TWO 

COMMON PHOROPHYTES (QUERCUS SEMECARPIFOLIA AND RHODODENDRON 

ARBOREUM) IN A TEMPERATE FOREST OF RUDRAPRAYAG DISTRICT GARHWAL 

(UTTRARKHAND), INDIA 

ABSTRACT 

Macro-lichens cover and their distribution pattern on two common Quercus semecarpifolia 

and Rhododendron arboreum trees from the moist temperate forest (Chopta) of Garhwal Himalaya. 

Out of three d. b. h. classes trees (diameter at breast height), d. b. h. between 0.1-0.30m, has found 

maximum cover of macro-lichens at southeast aspect. 

Key Words- Lichen cover, Macrlichens, Garhwal Himalaya 

INTRODUCTION 

Lichens are most successful symbiotic organisms in nature, dominating 8% or more of the 

earth’s terrestrial area (Ahmadjian 1995) and are amongst the most significant indicators of air 

pollution and ecosystem health (Richardson 1992, Wolseley et al 1995, Upreti 1995). They are very 

sensitive to microclimatic changes. Therefore any natural manmade disturbances are bound to 

affect lichen populations (Negi, 1996). Lichens are able to grow in diverse climatic conditions and 

on equally diverse substrata. They are widely distributed in almost all the phytogeographical 

regions of the world. Requisite moisture and light, unpolluted air and undisturbed substratum often 

favor optimum growth and abundance of lichens (Awasthi, 2000). 

To assess the micro-lichen distribution pattern and cover on different tree species, the host tree 

species were identified through a survey and presence or absence of occurrence of macro-lichens 

on different tree species in an open canopied forest (ocf) and a closed canopied forest (ccf) were 

recorded. A total of eight tree species viz. Rhododendron arboreum, R. anthopogon, Quercus 

semecarpifolia, Taxus baccata, Ilex dipyrena, Abies pindrow, Asculus indica, and Acer sp were 

identified in both the forest between 2500m to 3500m altitudes. Due to variation of the aspects and 

vegetation type on the southeast aspect (ocf site) only two species viz. Quercus semecarpifolia and 

56



Rhododendron arboreum were present there. Rhododendron arboreum was less dominant than the 

Quercus semecarpifolia. Thus comparison of macro-lichen species distribution and cover on 

different parts viz. trunk, branch and twigs of these two tree species were performed. 

The present paper, enumerates the cover of some macro-lichens of the Chopta area of the 

Garhwal Himalaya viz. Usnea, Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Cetrariopsis and Ramalina. Because 

these five lichen taxa are commercially exploiting in some high altitude area of Uttarakhand state. 

METERIALS AND METHODS 

Site 

Chopta forest is situated between 2500m to 3500m altitudes along with Akashkamini 

valley of district Rudraprayag (Garhwal) India. A stratified random sampling method was 

employed. For the assessment of the macro-lichen species distribution pattern and cover on tree 

parts, the selected host tree species viz. Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboreum were 

stratified into different parts or locations of tree parts, due to suitability of the work, on northwest 

aspect and south east aspect of the forest. The studied parts of the host tree are as trunk, branch, and 

twigs. 

Sampling of host trees 

The trees were categorized into three d. b. h. (diameter at breast height) classes viz. 0.1-0.30m, 

0.31-0.60m and 0.61-0.90m. Five trees of each species on both the site of the forest of each d .b. h. 

class were selected randomly between 2500m to 3500m altitudes, and laid five quadrats (10cm²) 

randomly on each selected tree trunk and in each quadrat, number of individuals of small, medium 

and large macro-lichens were counted in each sample quadrat and noted properly. The d. b. h of the 

trunk was also recorded. Similarly three branches of each selected tree species randomly selected 

and placed randomly five quadrats (5cm²) on each branch and count and noted the number of 

individuals of small, medium and thallus in each quadrat sample. 

The summing of individuals of each small, medium and large macro-lichen taxa in total 

number of quadrats studied on total sample trees trunk (five trunks) and multiplied by calculated 

mean size of small, medium and large size of each selected macro-lichen and the calculated value is 

divided by total number of quadrats studied. The calculated mean cover represented by square 

centimeter size of the lichen on the tree part. Formula (Kumar, 2008)- 

57



C= T x A / N 

Where ‘C’ is the size wise cover (cm²) of a macro-lichen. 

‘T’ is the total number of individuals of each small, medium & large size macro-lichen taxa in all 

quadrats studied on total number of sample trunk for each dbh class. 

‘A’ is the calculated size of macro-lichen taxa. 

‘N’ is the total number of quadrats studied on total sampled trunk of each dbh class. 

Similarly for branch the lichen species cover (size wise) were calculated by the following 

formula (Kumar, 2008)- 

C= B x A / N 

Where ‘C’ is the size wise cover (cm²) of macro-lichen taxa. 

‘B’ is the total number of individuals of each small, medium & large size macro-lichen taxa in all 

quadrats studied on total number of branches for each dbh class tree. 

‘A’ is the calculated mean size of that lichen taxa. 

‘N’ is the total number of quadrats studied on total sampled branches of each d. b. h. class tree. 

To estimate the lichen cover on twigs, a scale with ten centimeter marking at 1cm distance 

was used on five randomly selected twigs of each d. b. h. class tree, and the sum of total lichen 

cover on all sampled twigs of each d. b. h. class trees, was divided by total number of twigs 

sampled on that d. b. h. class trees (Table 1). 

Table 1: Calculated mean size (cm²) of each major lichen taxa 

Major lichen 

species 

Calculated mean size of major macrolichen 

thallus (cm²) 

Small Medium Large 

Everniastrum 1.7 3.12 6.48 

Parmotrema 1.74 3.08 5.0 

Usnea 1.9 3.74 6.0 

58



Ramalina 1.56 3.02 4.88 

Cetrariopsis 1.74 3.1 5.94 

RESULTS 

The macro-lichen cover analysis on the tree parts at two different study sites are given in table 

2, 3, and 4. In both the aspects young saplings of Quercus semecarpifolia (dbh between 0.01- 

0.30m) provides maximum lichen cover, and Rhododendron arboreum recorded minimum cover 

of macro-lichens. 

Table 2: Lichen cover (cm²) on trunk of two phorophytes at southeast aspect (ocf) 

Phorophyte 

(Trunk) 

Trunk dbh 

(m) 

Available mean surface area 

(m²) for covering/growth of 

lichens 

Lichen 

cover 

(cm²/10cm²) 

Q. semecarpifolia 0.1-0.30 0.33 7.46 

0.31-0.60 0.9 4.13 

0.61-0.90 8.4 3.2 

R. arboreum 0.1-0.30 0.17 4.24 

0.31-0.60 1.31 2.31 

0.61-0.90 5.42 1.39 

Table 3: Lichen cover (cm²) on trunk of two phorophytes at northwest aspect (ccf). 

Phorophyte 

(Trunk) 

Trunk dbh 

(m) 

Available mean surface area 

(m²) for covering/growth of 

lichens 

Lichen 

cover 

(cm²/10cm²) 

Q. semecarpifolia 0.1-0.30 0.35 9.46 

0.31-0.60 0.95 1.43 

0.61-0.90 8.02 2.37 

R. arboreum 0.1-0.30 0.12 0.61 

0.31-0.60 0.96 0.53 

0.61-0.90 4.36 0.85 

59



Table 4: Lichen cover (cm²) on branch of the phorophytes 

Forest Branch 

Lichen taxa 

Lichen 

cover 

(cm²/5cm²) 

Available mean 

surface area of the 

branch for growth 

of lichen taxa (m²) 

OCF Q. semecarpifolia Everniastrum 2.21 

Parmotrema 0.69 

Usnea 1.62 

Ramalina 0.17 

Cetrariopsis 0.24 

Total cover 4.93 0.08 

R. arboreum Everniastrum 0.92 


Usnea 0.42 


CCF Q. semecarpifolia Everniastrum 3.28 


Usnea 0.62 

Ramalina 0.16 

Cetrariopsis 0.07 


R. arboreum Everniastrum 0.08 



DISCUSSION 

The lichen cover indicates the tree growth function and also attributes for health and 

ecosystem function of the area. The corticolous lichens growth on tree bark is a useful indicator of 

60



young trees. The lichen cover on different parts of phorophytes at south east aspect (open canopied 

site) of the forest as young Quercus semecarpifolia tree diameter (dbh) between 0.1-0.30m, the 

lichen cover was 7.46cm²/10cm² and the available mean surface area of the trunk was recorded 

0.33m². The trunk diameter between 0.31-0.60m exhibit lichen cover 4.13cm²/10cm², when the 

available surface area of the trunk was recorded 0.901m². Similarly the trunk diameter between 

0.61-0.90m when the available surface area of the trunk was 8.40 m² and 3.20cm²/10cm² lichen 

cover was recorded. 

In the northwest aspect (ccf) of the same forest, the Q. semecarpifolia young tree diameter 

(dbh) between 0.1-0.30m has 9.46cm²/10cm² lichen cover out of 0.35m² available surface area of 

the trunk. The trunk diameter (dbh) 0.31-0.60m has 1.43cm²/10cm² of lichen cover in 0.95m² 

surface area of the trunk. Similarly the trunk diameter 0.61-0.91m has lichen cover of 

2.37cm²/10cm² out of 8.02m² surface area of the trunk. Both the foliose lichen genera Everniastrum 

and Parmotrema covered about 1cm²/10cm² area of the Q. semecarpifolia while other lichen genera 

Usnea, Ramalina and Cetrariopsis exhibit lower lichen cover. 

Lichen cover on branch of Quercus semecarpifolia was recorded as 4.93cm²/5cm² out of the 

available surface area of 0.08m² at southeast aspect (ocf). In the north west aspect (ccf) it was 

recorded 4.46cm²/5cm² out of available area of 0.08m². In both the aspect the Everniastrum play a 

significant role providing as it constitutes the highest lichen cover (3cm²/5cm²). The other lichen 

taxa provide a poor representation (



available surface area of the trunk. It is interesting to note that the lichen cover was decreasing with 

increasing diameter of the R. arboreum trunk (Table 2 and 3). 

Rhododendron arboreum branches in the open canopied forest has 0.92cm²/5cm cover of 

Everniastrum which is quite low in the closed canopied forest (0.08cm²/5cm), while the 

Parmotrema cover in both closed and open canopied forest was more or less similar. The fruticose 

lichen Usnea was not recorded only closed canopied Rhododendron forest (Fig. 4.12 and 4.13). The 

twigs and trunk of Rhododendron arboreum in northwest aspect bear 16% of lichen taxa than the 

southeast aspect, which has only 5% of lichens. 

The size of lichen cover may be affected by a number of climatic variations in the study area. 

The aspect variation, type of vegetation, darkness and disturbances, presence or absence of light, 

moisture and other climatic conditions play important role in growth and colonization of lichens. It 

also depends on the age and bark condition of the tree. The bark of the trees in closed canopied 

forest; provide excellent conditions for growth of other epiphytes viz. mosses, bryophytes, ferns, 

orchids, and angiosperms. Thus there remains little space for lichens to colonize. 

REFERENCES 

Ahmadjian, V. Lichens Annu Rev Microbiol (1965) 19 1-220. 

Awasthi, D.D. A Hand Book of Lichens (2000). Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A, New 

Connaught Place Dehradun, India 19-24. 


forest of Garhwal Himalaya. Ph. D. Thesis (2008), H. N. B. Garhwal University Srinagar 

(Garhwal). 

Negi, H.R. Usnea longissima - the winter staple food of Musk deer: a case study from Musk Deer 

Breeding Center. Kanchulakharak in Garhwal Himalaya (1996): Tiger Paper (23) 30-32. 

Richardson, D.H.S. Pollution monitoring with Lichens England, Richmond Publishing (1992). 

Upreti, D.K. Loss of diversity in Indian lichens flora: Environ. Conser. (1995) 22: 362-63. 

Wolseley, P.A. A global perspective on the status of lichens and their conservation: Mitt. 

Eidgenoss. Forsch. Anst. Wald Schnee Landsch (1995) (70) 11-27. 

62



Chapter-6 

ESTIMATION OF DRY MASS OF EPIPHYTIC LICHENS IN A 

TEMPERATE FOREST OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA 

ABSTRACT 

The dry mass of epiphytic lichens of two common Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhododendron 

arboreum trees from the moist temperate forest of Chopta-Tunganath region of Garhwal Himalaya 

District Rudraprayag has been discussed. Out of three d. b. h. classes’ trees (diameter at breast 

height), d. b. h. 1-30cm and 30-60cm has found maximum mass of epiphytic lichens. 

INTRODUCTION 

According to the concept of Esseen & Renhorn (1998), high biomass of epiphytic lichens is a 

characteristic feature of many old- growth forest ecosystems in temperate and boreal areas. Various 

workers like Pike (1978), Boucher & Nash (1990), Knops et al. (1991, 1996) and Esseen et al. 

(1996) epiphytic lichens are abundant, they may play an important role in the nutrient cycling in 

forest ecosystem. In the temperate regions of the Garhwal Himalaya lichen collection is a common 

practice among the villagers and the trivial to collect the lichens together with tree twigs, as oak 

trees especially Quercus semecarpifolia (Kharsu oak). The precipitation peculiar to the high 

altitudes raise the atmospheric humidity; the frequency of clouds in summer as well as the snow 

amount in winter are water reservoirs favouring the development of lichen flora. As a result, this 

superior band of wood vegetation includes the great number of lichen species. The great richness of 

Usnea and fewer Ramalina genera represented by aerophile species. 

The present paper, enumerates the dry mass of major epiphytic lichens was only for five major 

lichen taxa of the Chopta area of the Garhwal Himalaya viz. Usnea, Everniastrum, Parmotrema, 

Cetrariopsis and Ramalina. Because these five lichen taxa are commercially exploiting in some 

high altitude area of Uttarakhand state. In order to collect lichens from the trees it is not allowed 

because of the lichens are very slow grower plants, these are pioneer plants in all the epiphytes, if 

the lichens are extracted from any plant species, the other epiphytes like orchids, mosses and 

63



angiosperms can be effected and unable to re-sprout. Kumar (2008) study showed only the ground 

or fallen lichen collection should be possible. 

In order to improve the socio-economic standard of the people of Uttarahkand, it may also be 

necessary to increase and improve the botanical resources of the area. Depletion of lichen 

population is a matter of concern from conservation standpoint because of several reasons; being 

unique symbiotic organisms they contribute to biodiversity; they are ecologically important as 

food, shelter and nesting materials for a variety of wild animals (Mc Cune and Geiser 1997). 


The Chopta region lies between and 30° 30'-30° 42' N latitude and 79°-79° 30' E longitude in 

the Garhwal Himalaya is dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia trees associated with 

Rhododendron spp, Taxus baccata, Abies pindrow, Aser spp. and Cotoneaster shrub. The dry mass 

estimation of major lichens from the area on Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboreum 

trees made between 2500m - 3500m above mean sea level. We have identified two purely Q. 

semecarpifolia forest at southeast aspect (open canopied forest) and northwest aspect (closed 

canopied forest) of the study area. At presents lichen exploitation has band in the study area due to 

the area comes under the Kedarnath Wild Life Sanctuary area (KWLS). The study has been carried 

out during June to September 2006. To assessing the mass of major epiphytic lichens vegetation on 

three dbh classes trees, we have developed a appropriate methodology. Before collecting the 

epiphytic lichen mass, we have provided a reconnaissance survey to collecting the information on 

traditional method of lichen harvesting from some high altitude villages of district Chamoli. 

A. Traditional Method of Lichen Harvesting 

The method has been traditionally followed by lichen collectors of Deval and Tharali block of 

Chamoli district of Uttrakhand. In these areas lichens collected by the villagers or lichen collectors 

of Ratgawn, Bursol, Dungari, Man, Kolpuri, Mundoli, Vaan, Kuling, Baak and Ghes village. This 

area comes under the Badrinath forest division. These areas falls within the Garhwal Himalaya 

region and the forests are dominated with Quercus semecarpifolia (brown oak) and these areas lies 

between 2000m to 3000m altitudes in west Pinder range of Tharali Tehsil. Brown oak trees of the 

area harbors luxuriant growth of epiphytic lichens. The collectors collects these plants from the 

64



forests and sold it in the local market at Tharali, Deval and Narayanbagar. Some villagers also sold 

it at Kerabagar and Vaan village of the area. 

Villagers of Ratgawn region, approximately 250 collectors collects these plants from the 

forests in every day in its peak season of collection especially for fallen lichen collection from 

March to May; there is a major cause of lichen fall due to heavy snow fall in the high altitude areas 

of the forest. The traditional method of lichen collection is locally called ‘Makku Tipan’. Lichen 

extracts from standing trees through climbing on tree parts (as trunk, branch and twigs) and lichen 

removed from bark through hands, and for large tree or long branches, a traditional method has 

followed and used a iron knife tied on a log and then applied it for lichens extraction from the trees. 

If this kind of technique has not possible, then they cuts the tree parts and after fall down the branch 

or twigs and extract lichens. Some time the Nepalese are also collects lichens from the forest, they 

stay there for a month and they harm the trees during the lichen extraction and they also cuts the 

branches of the trees and extract lichens for sale and wood for fuel or cooking. 

B. Sampling of Epiphytic Lichen Thallus 

To assessing dry mass of epiphytic lichens, we have collected fifteen (15) individuals of each 

major lichen taxa from the forest and calculated their dry mass (sun dry mass) for each selected 

lichen taxa. 

C. Sampling of Phorophytes 

On the basis of availability of tree species (phorophytes) in both the aspect of the forest, lichen 

rich habitat and to convenience of the study (as easy to climbing for lichen species counting on tree 

parts) at both the forest (open canopied as well as closed canopied forests), the trees of Q. 

semecarpifolia and R. arboreum categorized into three dbh classes as 1-30cm, 31-60cm and 61- 

90cm. Three replicates of each dbh class of each phorophyte have randomly selected in both the 

forests. 

D. Counting of Major Epiphytic Lichens on Selected Phorophytes and Estimation of their 

Dry Mass 

We have just counts the number of individuals of each major epiphytic lichen taxa on tree 

trunk, three randomly selected branches (including lichens on the sub branches and on twigs) of 

selected trees of each dbh class. The lichen dry mass calculated with the help of following formula- 

65



i. Lichen dry mass on trunk = Total number of individuals of each major epiphytic lichen on 

trunk X estimated dry mass of each major lichen taxa. 

ii. Lichen dry mass on a branch = Sum of individuals of each lichen taxa on all randomly 

selected branches of the tree X estimated dry mass of each lichen taxa / total number of 

randomly selected branches. 

iii. Lichen dry mass on the total branches of the tree = lichen dry mass on a branch X total 

number of branches of the selected tree. 

iv. Total dry mass of lichens on the tree (phorophyte) = lichen dry mass on tree trunk + lichen 

dry mass on all branches of the phorophyte. 

RESULTS 

The maximum dry mass of epiphytic lichen of Usnea species represented by 11mg followed 

of 6mg Ramalina species and 5mg of Parmotrema species. Two species of lichens i.e. 

Everniastrum and Cetrariopsis have found equal dry mass. The youngest Q. semecarpifolia trees 

dbh 1-30cm provided 329.16(±112.2) g. lichen d.w/tree, at south east aspect, and it was greater 

about 588.46(±454.93) g. lichen d. w. /tree Q. semecarpifolia at north west aspect of the forest The 

Q. semecarpifolia tree dbh 31-60cm recorded 598.56(±317.31) g. lichens d. w. /tree (south east) 

and 496.86(±349.87) g. lichen d. w. /tree (north west). Similarly for tree dbh 61-90 cm, the lichen 

dry mass was found on the phorophyte as 753.7(±53.51) g. lichen d. w. /tree at south east and only 

189.13(±83.62) g. lichen d. w. at north west aspect of the forest. 

Lichen mass on the second phorophye Rhododendron arboreum was found very poor as 

campared to Q. semecarpifolia, due to type of bark, shape and size of the tree. In case of R. 

arboreum the highest dry mass of lichens was recorded on trees dbh 61-90cm dbh was 

72.76(±35.67) g. lichen d. w. /tree at north west aspect and it was lesser 21.4 (±13.21) g. lichen d. 

w. /tree at south east aspect of the forest. 

DISCUSSIONS 

The lichen mass was situated in the Chopta area on Quercus semecarpifolia and 

Rhododendron arboreum, species trees at southeast and northwest aspect. The major lichen taxa 

exhibited on individual pattern of vertical distribution. The lichen mass depends on tree cover, size 

66



& shape of tree, age of tree, and climate of the region. The Quercus semecarpifolia is an excellent 

phorophyte to providing much lichen mass due to dome shaped canopy. 

In both the cases the phorophytes Q. semecarpifolia and R. arboreum, more than 70% mass of 

major epiphytic lichens was contributed by the canopy twigs and remaining 30% lichen mass 

contributed by tree branches and trunk or bole at both the aspect of the forest. 

The youngest trees of Q. semecarpifolia have found as good lichen mass due to the age 

trees and smoothness in the trunk bark and absence of growth of other epiphytes, and in case of 

sapling (dbh1-30cm), all the parts of the saplings (including trunk, branches and twigs) were 

contributed for lichen mass. In case of increasing diameter (dbh>31cm), the twigs also provided 

good lichen mass as compared to tree branch and trunk or bole. 

The Usneaceae family is represented in about more than 60% at southeast aspect and 58.26% 

lichen dry mass at northwest aspect of the forest. The Parmeliaceae family also represents 26.19% 

and 25.54% lichen dry mass at southeast and North West aspect. In both the forests Ramaliniaceae 

family is represents as very poor contribution about 2% in open and 3% in closed canopied forest. 

In open canopied forest (southeast aspect) and closed canopied forest (northwest forest) the 

fruticose lichens provided 46.4% and 26.84% dry mass of lichens, this contribution is grater than 

dry mass of foliose lichens as 27.94% and 27.36% dry mass of lichens. 

According to Degelius (1978) the lichens began to colonize oak twigs in Europe at about five 

years. Stone (1989) reported that branches of Quercus garryna upto twenty year old show growth 

of many foliose and fruticose lichens. Similar to the studies it was observed that on mature Quercus 

semecarpifolia, Q. floribunda, and Q. leucotrichophora trees in and around the study area 

attainment of the climax stage was exhibited by dominance of foliose and fruticose lichens 

represented by Ramalina and Usnea species. Dudgeon (1923) mentioned six stages of succession 

on epiphytic lichens of Quercus leucotrichophora. The crustose lichen stage, begining with 

numerous little patches of crusts as pioneers on the bark of branches that were 3-4 year old, of 

which two species frequency wise represent about 75% of the total vegetation. Foliose and 

fruticose lichens appear simultaneously but become somewhat conspicuous, 3-4 years old Usnea 

barbata (=Usnea complanata: Mull. Arg.Mot.) was a prominent member. This stage under 

favorable condition takes about 9-12 years to achieve its full development. The later stage of 

67



succession is taken over by mosses, fern and flowering plant. By this time the twig become thick 

branches. In the present investigation it was observed that on young tree trunk and twigs of 

Quercus semecarpifolia, Q. floribunda, Q. leucotrichophora and Rhododendron arboreum, there is 

dominance of crustose lichens while mature tree twigs bear luxuriant growth of foliose and 

fruticose lichens. Du Rietz (1945) attempted to correlate certain tree species with dominance of 

epiphytic lichens and termed them as Lichen Rich-Bark species and Lichen Poor-Bark species. 

Quercus semecarpifolia is Lichen Rich-Bark trees while a Rhododendron arboreum tree is 

Lichen Poor-Bark species. 

REFERENCES 

Boucher V L. and Nash T H III. The role of the fruticose lichen Ramalina menziesii in the annual 

turnover of biomass and macronutrients in a Blue Oak woodland. Botany Gazette (1990); 

114-118 (151). 

Degelius G. Further Studies on the epiphytic vegetation of twigs. Acta. Universitatis 

Gothoburgensis Botanic (1978); 1-58 (7). 

Dudgeon, W. Succession of epiphytes in the Quercus incana forest at Landour, Western 

Himalayas. Journal of Indian Botanical Society (1923); 159-272 (3). 

Du Rietz G E. Om fattigbark- och Rikbarksamhallen. Svenks Botanisk Tidsskrift (1945); 147-50 

(39). 

Esseen P A and Renhorn K E. Mass loss of epiphytic lichen litter in a boreal forest. Ann. Bot. 

Fennici (1998); 211-217 (35). 

Esseen P A and Renhorn K E and Pettersson R B. Epiphytic lichen biomass in managed and old 

growth forests: effect of branch quality. Ecol. Appl. (1996); 228-238 (6) 

Gunnar D. Further studies on the epiphytic vegetation of twigs. Acta. Universitatis Gothoburgensis 

Botanik (1978); 1-58 (7). 

Knops J M H, Nash T H III, Boucher V L Boucher, Schlesinger W H. Mineral cycling and 

epiphytic lichens: implications at the ecosystem level. Lichenologist (1991); 309-321 (23). 

Knops J M H, Nash T H III, Boucher V L, Schlesinger W H Schlesinger. The influence of 

epiphytic lichens on the nutrient cycling of an oak woodland. Ecol. Monogr (1996); 159- 

179 (66). 

68



Kumar B. Lichen species distribution, cover and fall in a Quercus semecarpifolia (J E Smith) forest 

of Garhwal Himalaya. Ph. D. Thesis (2008). 

Mc Cune B M, Geiser L. Macrolichens of Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press 

Corvallis (1997); U S A. 

Pike L H. The importance of epiphytic lichens in mineral cycling. Bryologist (1978); 247-257 981). 

Stone D F. Epiphyte Succession on Quercus garryana Branches in the Willamette Valley of 

Western Oregon. The Bryologist (1989); 81-94 (1). 

69

[[ 



Chapter-7 

SEASONAL PATTERN OF LICHEN FALL FROM TREES IN AN EVERGREEN 

QUERCUS SEMECARPIFOLIA FOREST OF GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA 

(BALWANT KUMAR*, DILIP K. UPRETI**, S. P. SINGH***, ASHISH TIWARI****) 

*Department of Botany, D. S. B. Campus Kumaun University, Nainital (Uttarakhand) 263001. 

**National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) - India. 

***Advisor, Sri Guru Ram Rai Education Mission, Institute of Technology & Science, Patel Nagar, 

Dehradun (India) 

****Department of Forestry, D. S. B. Campus Kumaun University, Nainital (Uttarakhand) 263001. 

ABSTRACT 

The Himalaya is one of the richest sources with respect to the occurrence of lichen on oak species. 

These unique symbiotic organisms that contribute to biodiversity and are important as food and 

shelter for various wild animals are being lost because of unsystematic harvesting. We purpose that 

collection of fallen lichens would reduce lichen diversity loss. In the paper we have documented the 

seasonal pattern of lichen and twig fall, and frequency of fall of common genera in closed and open 

canopied forests of Quercus semecarpifolia (the brown oak) in a moist temperate forest of Garhwal 

Himalaya. The annual fall of marketable material was 6.4 kg/ha/yr in the open canopied forest. The 

lichen fall was maximum in the early summer seasons (April-May) at both sites. Lichen collection 

from the oak forests (Quercus species) is carried out without any consideration for sustainability. 

The branches are chopped and the bark scraped off using sickles and axes. 

Key Words: Lichen fall, Quercus semecarpifolia, Garhwal Himalaya. 

INTRODUCTION 

According to the concept of basic adaptational strategy of plants (Grime 1977), lichens are 

stress-tolerant organisms. Such organisms are not expected to survive deficiency in resources 

(stress), as well as destruction of biomass (disturbance). In Uttarakhand and much of the other 

Himalayan regions people harvest lichens from forests, particularly from oak (Quercus) trees 

70



without any consideration for sustainability. The lichen collectors damage trees by chopping 

branches for collecting lichens and firewood from trees for cooking food while camping in/around 

forest sites. Poverty is so acute in some sections of the society that incomes of Rs.10, 000-35,000 

per annum are enough economic incentives for them. 

Depletion of lichen populations is a matter of concern from conservation standpoint because 

of several reasons; being unique symbiotic organisms they contribute to biodiversity; they are 

ecologically important as food, shelter and nesting material for a variety of wild animals and birds 

(Mc Cune and Geiser 1997). Among the animals which use lichens as food include the rare species, 

Himalayan musk deer, and others such as goats, sheep, pikas, mice and bats. Some birds use 

lichens as nesting material (Banfield 1974, Conner 1983). Studies of the Northwest Pacific forests 

indicate that lichens are important component of food chain, and they play a significant role in 

forest nutrient cycling (Pike 1978; Maser et al. 1985). 

In this article we describe the seasonal pattern of lichen fall from trees in a brown oak forest 

(Quercus semecarpifolia). No data are available on lichen fall in this part of world. We understand 

that collection of fallen lichens would reduce the depletion of lichen diversity and forest 

degradation. In order to collect lichens from the ground it is important to know the period of year 

when lichen falls are high. Quercus semecarpifolia is possibly; the most widely distributed species 

in high altitude areas (above 2400m) of the Himalaya, and is in a serious problem because of poor 

regeneration and aging population. 


One plot each of 0.22ha. (110m X20m) was identified both within open canopied stand 

(located on a sun facing slope, having lower moisture and tree diversity) and closed canopied stand 

(slope having more in moisture, more forest cover, and more tree diversity of Kharsu oak) between 

2750-2850m altitudes. 30 permanent plots of 1m² were placed within each the plot. The tree density 

in the area was estimated by placing 10, 10X10m² random quadrats (Saxena and Singh, 1982). 

Canopy cover was estimated using a densiometer. 

The fallen lichen taxa from each permanent plot were collected at fortnightly interval 

(represented on monthly basis). Fallen twigs on ground, bearing lichens were collected carefully 

and were placed in poly bags for further identification. The lichens were scratched of the twigs 

71



using a sharp knife. Fresh weight of the collected material (lichens & twigs) taken using an 

electronic balance which was oven dried at 60ºc for 48 hours till constant weight. Seasonally 

collected fallen lichen and twig samples were weighted separately and packed carefully in hard 

card board notes bearing proper information viz. date of collection, name of collector, plot number, 

forest site, condition of fallen lichen samples (as lichen found with or without twigs) which have 

been presented at the Centre for Ecological Studies, A.T. India, Ukhimath (Uttarakhand) India. 

Fortnightly information on climatic conditions of the area was documented through 

interaction with local persons who live there for approximately seven or eight months every year 

from May to December. On and around collection dates records were made about the visit of troop 

of langurs (Prestbytis entellus), events of heavy snowfall, heavy rainfall, strong wind blowing, 

hails, human activities (such as harvesting of fodder, lopping of branches for fuel wood, timber and 

agriculture implements). 

RESULTS 

The tree density varied between 406 trees/ha at open canopied forest (OCF) and 712 

trees/ha at closed canopied forest (CCF) and the forest cover between 42% and 58% (Table 1). The 

annual lichen fall from trees was 110.5 (±23) mg dry mass (DM)/m² and 158.5 (±28.6) mg DM/m² 

in OCF and CCF. CCF also had more twig fall than OCF 484.5(±136.5) mg vs. 378 (±129) mg 

DM/m² (Table 2 and 3). 

Among the lichens Everniastrum was the largest major contributor to the mass of fallen 

lichen both in open and closed canopied sites. Usnea and Parmotrema are other regularly falling 

lichen species of the area. A total of ten fallen lichen taxa were recorded in the open canopied site 

of the study area, but in case of closed site it was nine. Sulcaria species of fallen lichens was not 

found in closed canopied site of the forest. Parmelia, Leptogium and Sticta rarely fall in the CCF, 

and in case of OCF fall of Sticta and Sulcaria species are rare, the frequency of these fallen lichens 

was below 1%. 

The lichen fall peaked in April, and this month accounted for about 30% annual lichen fall. 

This was followed by May and July. Collecting lichens from ground in April and May is quit 

convenient because herbaceous cover was at the lowest point almost negligible. 

72



Table 1: Representation of density and forest cover in OCF and CCF 

Forest site Forest strata Species Density (plants ha⎯¹) Forest cover (%) 

OCF Tree Quercus semecarpifolia 280 42 

Rhododendron arboreum 100 

Acer sp 26 

Total 406 

CCF Tree Quercus semecarpifolia 293 58 

Rhododendron arboreum 380 

Abies pindrow 13 

Taxus baccata 13 

Acer sp 13 

Total 712 

Table 2: Seasonal pattern of lichen fall and twigs dry mass estimation in open canopied forest 

(OCF) 

Dry mass of fallen material (mg/m²) 

Year 2006-2007 Lichens Twigs No. of fallen lichen genera 

May 14.5 (±2.0) 36.5 (±11.0) 8 

June 10 (±1.5) 20 (±5.0) 7 

July 14 (±4.0) 43.5 (±19.0) 6 

August 6.5 (±1.5) 43 (±16.0) 6 

September 13 (±4.0) 64 (±25.0) 6 

October 5.5 (±2.0) 25 (±11.0) 9 

November 6 (±1.0) 26 (±12.0) 7 

December 4 (±1.0) 10 (±4.5) 8 

January 4.5 (±1.0) 11 (±4.5) 8 

73



February * * * 

March * * * 

April 32.5 (±5.0) 99(±23.0) 9 

Total 110.5 (±23.0) 378 (±129.0) 

Table 3: Seasonal pattern of lichen fall and twigs dry mass estimation in closed canopied 

forest (CCF) 

Dry mass of fallen material (mg/m²) 

Year 2006-2007 Lichens Twigs No. of fallen lichen genera 

May 32.5 (±7.5) 77 (±30.0) 9 

June 7.5 (±1.0) 24.5 (±6.5) 6 

July 21.5 (±5.5) 54 (±17.0) 6 

August 10.5 (±2.0) 38.5 (±12.0) 6 

September 10.5 (±2.5) 38.5 (±14.0) 6 

October 1.5 (±o.1) 16.5 (±9.0) 4 

November 6.5 (±2.0) 20.5 (±7.5) 6 

December 4.5 (±1.0) 15 (±5.0) 5 

January 8.5 (±1.5) 22.5 (±4.0) 7 

February * * * 

March * * * 

April 55 (±5.5) 177.5 (±33.0) 7 

Total 158.5 (±29.0) 484.5 (±137.0) 

*The lichen fall could not be counted during February and March because of the inaccessibility of 

sites due to heavy accumulation of snowfall. 

74



Table 4: Frequency list of commonly fallen lichen genera in descending order in the study 

area 

S. No. Fallen lichen genera 

DISCUSSION 

OCF 

could be competing for light, branch surface space, and water. Fruticose lichens (Usnea spp) and 

75 

CCF 

1. Everniastrum Everniastrum 

2. Parmotrema Usnea 

3. Usnea Parmotrema 

4. Cetrariopsis Heterodermia 

5. Heterodermia Ramalina 

6. Ramalina Cetrariopsis 

7. Leptogium Leptogium 

8. Parmelia Parmelia 

9. Sulcaria Sticta 

10. Sticta Sulcaria 

Seasonal pattern of lichen fall 

The higher tree density and canopy cover contributed to larger total lichen fall mass in the 

CCF. The twig fall consisted of both twigs with attached lichens and twigs without lichens. The 

similarity in lichen fall patterns between the two study sites indicates that lichen fall has a definite 

seasonal pattern, the knowledge of which can help collectors to decide on strategy to collect them. 

Storms and movement of monkeys seem to hasten twig fall, as following such events lichens could 

be seen all over the place. Seasonal pattern of twig fall was similar to that of lichen fall, indicating 

that lichen growth would hasten twig fall. The lichen cover might hasten twig senescence, or 

lichens grow well on senescing twigs. The abscission of wood is promoted by higher temperatures 

in the annual cycle (summer and rainy seasons) although abscission continues, though irregularly, 

through out the year as a mechanism of canopy clearing by self-pruning (Singh and Singh, 1992). 

According to the concept of Stone (1989) allogenic factors caused by outward growth of oak 

canopy, including changes in microclimate and thickening and sloughing of bark, appear to be far 

more important to most species than changes brought on by the epiphytic species. 

On the basis of hypothesis of Larson (1984), Lawrey (1981), and Topham (1977) epiphytes



foliose lichens (Everniastrum spp) were found dominant on twigs, competition in Usnea species 

appeared to be mainly intrageneric and therefore Usnea species should not be affected by clearing 

other species from around them. The primary succession on oak branches is mostly influenced by 

the allogenic factors of microclimate change brought by outward canopy growth. However, within 

the framework of allogenic factors, autogenic factors of competition and facilitation are similar to 

those, which cause secondary succession (Stone, 1989). Stone (1989) reported that foliose and 

fruticose lichens developed fully in 9-12 years. The ten most frequent genera were the same in two 

forest sites, but differed in their order of importance (Table 4). 

Doignon (1954) reported that lichens begin to colonize oak twigs in Europe at about five years 

of tree age. Foliose lichens began to colonize on oak at Fontainebleau, France at about 15-20years. 

Generally, lichens found on leaves of very long durability are not obligate folicolous but also 

belong to the corticolous flora, indicating that the obligately folicolous lichens are perhaps 

restricted to their habitats because they are relatively poor competitors in other habitats. Slightly 

higher moss coverage on the south side of trunks, (Rincon, 1993) suggested that the combination of 

abundant moisture and more sunlight may result in greater photosynthetic production which in 

bryophytes translates into greater volume and biomass growth. 

Some experimental studies of Graham (1971), on corticolous lichen (bark inhabiting), showed 

that the lichen thallus is partly responsible for the modification of its own environment, by 

increasing its own water holding capacity, it would be possible to grow lichens over a period of 

years and determine their increase in size and dry weight. A concept given by Denison (1973), he 

studied on air quality monitoring with lichens in Willamette valley (Oregon), there are major 

differences in amounts of light and moisture on different sites of a tree trunk. Moisture varies 

because rainwater flows down channels in the bark of the trunk, living intervening areas well up in 

the tree receive similar amounts of light and moisture whether they are on the north or the south site 

of the tree. By examining the lichens on branches we can limit differences caused by variation in 

light and moisture. 

Light affects growth by affecting the rate of photosynthesis and ultimately the amount of 

assimilate available to the fungus. Most lichens are as matter of fact photophils, and any light 

reduction would probably come about by gradual closing of the forest canopy over many years. 

Hakulinen (1966) reported reduction in lichen growth caused by less light might conceivably be 

offset by an increase in moisture in a shaded habitat. 

76



The market lichens are sold along with twigs, therefore we need to consider both lichens and 

twigs to which they are attached. Thus the annual fall of marketable material is 6.4 kg/ha/yr in the 

CCF and 4.9kg/ha/yr in OCF. These lichens are sold at rates of approximately half a dollar/kg in 

the local markets (Upreti et al 2005). The price however doubles when these lichens reach the 

central market areas. A trained collector can easily collect 6-8kg of lichens with twigs from the 

ground (collecting lichens from attached twigs slow down the collection as the entire branches are 

cut or the lichens are scraped off along with the bark and portion of sapwood). A collector for the 

major part of the year can earn a reasonable income by collecting the fallen lichens without being 

destructive with some knowledge of the fall and seasonal pattern. 

REFERENCES 

Conner, D.A. Life in a rock pile. Natural History (1983) 6:51-57. 

Denison, W.C. A guide to Air Quality Monitoring with Lichens. Lichen Technology, Inc. Corvallis 

(1973) 6, Oregon. 

Doignon, P. Le complex muscino-technique deshauts trones et houppiers dous le massifde fountain 

bleu. Reuce Bryologique et Lichenologique (1954) 23: 134-152. 

Grime, J.P. Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to 

ecological and evolutionary theory. Amer. Natur. (1977) 111:1161-1194. 

Graham, P.H The ecology of corticolous lichens III. A simulation model of productivity as a 

function of light intensity and water availability. Botany Department, Imperial College 

Landon (1971): 19-40. 

Hakulinen, R. Uber die Wachstumgeschwindigheit einiger Laubflechten. Ann. Bot. Fenn. (1966) 3: 

167-79. 

Larson, D.W. Habitat overlap/niche segregation in two umblicaria lichens: a possible mechanism. 

Oecologia (1984) 62:118-125. 

Lawrey, J.D. Evidence for competitive release in simplified saxicolous lichen communities. 

American Journal of Botany (1981) 68: 1066-1073. 

Maser, Z., Maser, C. and Trappe, J.M. Food habits of the northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys 

sabrinus) in Oregon. Canadian Journal of Zoology (1985) 63: 1085-88. 

Mc Cune, B.M. & Geiser, L. Macrolichens of Pacific Northwest. Oregon State 

University Press (1997), Corvallis, U.S.A. 

77



Pike, L.H. The importance of epiphytic lichens in mineral cycling. The Bryologist (1978) 81(2): 

247-57. 

Rincon, E. Growth responses of six bryophyte species to different light intensities. Canadian 

Journal of Botany (1993) 71:661-665. 

Saxena, A. K. & Singh, J. S. A Phytosociological Analysis of woody species in forest communities 

of a part of Kumaun Himalaya. Vegetatio (1982) 50: 3-22. 

Singh, J.S. & Chaturvedi, O. P. Photosynthetic pigments on plant bearing surfaces in the Himalaya. 

Photosynthetica (1982) 16(1): 101-114. 

Singh, J.S. & Singh, S.P. Forests of Himalaya; Structure, Funcining and Impact of Man, 

Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital (1992): 119 pp. 

Stone, D.F. Epiphyte Succession on Quercus garryana Branches in the Willamette Valley of 

Western Oregon. The Bryologist (1989) 92(1): 81-94. 

Topham, P.B. Colonization, growth, succession and competitionIn. M.R.D. Seaward (ed.) Lichen 

Ecology (1977), Landon: 31-68. 

Upreti, D. K, P. K. Divakar, and S. Nayaka. Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India. 

Economic Botany (2005) 59(3):269 – 273. 

78



Chapter-8 

AN ACCOUNT OF LICHENS ON FALLEN TWIGS OF THREE 

QUERCUS SPECIES IN CHOPTA FOREST OF GARHWAL 

HIMALAYAS, INDIA 

BALWANT KUMAR* AND DALIP K. UPRETI** 

*Center for Ecological Studies, Appropriate Technology India, Ukhimath (Garhwal) 

Uttarakhand, India 

**National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow-226001, Uttar Pradesh, India 

ABSTRACT 

The association of epiphytic lichens on the fallen twig of three common Quercus species 

viz. Quercus semecarpifolia, Q. floribunda and Quercus leucotrichophora from the moist 

temperate forest of Chopta region, Rudraprayag district of Garhwal Himalayas has been discussed. 

Q. semecarpifolia exhibits the maximum growth of lichens on its twigs represented by 29 species 

followed by Q. floribunda and Q. leucotrichophora with 16 and 12 species respectively. The twigs 

of diameter classes more than 4.1 cm in Q. semecarpifolia and Q. floribunda bears the maximum 

individuals of lichens represented by 148 and 71, while Q. leucotrichophora the twigs 3.1-4.0 

diameter class exhibit maximum 82 individuals. All the three oak species exhibit luxuriant growth 

of Parmelioid lichens on their twigs. 

Key words Lichens, fallen twigs, Quercus spp., Chopta, Uttarakhand. 

Introduction 

Lichens in India are collected from the temperature regions of Himalayas and used 

indigenously for preparation of perfumes, dyes, and condiments. Approximately 750 metric tones 

(MT) of lichens are collected from Uttarakhand hills, 800 MT are imported from other regions of 

India, including Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Assam and out of which about 50-80 MT are 

exported (Shah, 1997). In Nepal and adjoining areas of India, 320 MT of lichens are utilized 

annually for different purposes (Moxham, 1986). The lichens are picked up by hand from the 

79



lower branches, trunk and fallen twigs of trees or sometimes scrapers are also used. Upreti et al. 

(2005) listed 38 species of lichens belonging to 23 genera from the commercial samples of lichens 

collected from seven states of India. 

The lichens grow at a rate ranging from 1.0mm or less per year in case of crustose forms up 

to a few centimeters a year for most rapidly growing leafy (foliose) or shrubby (fruticose or 

pendant) lichens. The larger lichens in the last two categories grow on an average about 5.0mm per 

year in length or rapidly are more conspicuous and exploited for collection. In the recent year there 

has been a great concern about the loss of lichen diversity in India (Upreti, 1996) and there is a 

need to know the patterns and processes that regulate species occurrence and behavior in natural 

forests. An account of the lichens associated with fallen twigs will provide an idea about the lichen 

species which play important role in the formation of lichen material utilized for their commercial 

use. 

Quercus trees in temperate Himalayas form major vegetation and are the excellent host for 

colonization of a large number of lichen taxa together with epiphytic ferns and orchids. Out of the 

five species of Quercus, Q. semecarpifolia bears the maximum member of lichens species on its 

trunk, branches and twigs (Upreti and Chatterjee, 1999). 

This paper is based on sampling designed to provide estimates of twig lichen of three 

Quercus species in temperate Himalayas, and to determine the contribution of twigs of Oak tree 

which are colonized by lichen and collected for commercial exploitation. The estimated lichen 

species individuals on more than 100 sampled twigs of three common Quercus species of different 

diameter classes have been provided in table 1, 2, and 3. The diameter classes of the sampled twigs 

have been categorized on the basis of availability of fallen twigs. 

Materials and Methods 

Study Area: Chopta is situated 35 km from Ukhimath block in Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand, 

in Akashkamini valley between 1,500 m -3,500 m at 79 0 -79 0 30’E and 30 0 30’ – 30 0 42’ N. The 

mountain landscape has steep to moderate slopes, spreads over an area of 500 Km 2 . The Maximum 

monthly temperature varies from 19 0 C to 37 0 C from the higher altitude grasslands to the lower 

elevation, during May to October, while the minimum temperate drops as low as – 15 0 C in the 

alpine grasslands during December to February. 

80



More than 100 twig samples of each species of Oak were randomly collected from three 

altitudinal gradient during months of October-November 2006. The altitude between 1500-2000m 

exhibit growth of Quercus leucotrichophora (White Oak), followed by 2000-2500m of Q. 

floribunda (Green Oak) and above 2,500m of Quercus semecarpifolia (Brown Oak) respectively. 

The collected twigs were categorized in five diameter size classes of 0-1cm, 1.1-2.0cm, 2.1-3.0cm, 

3.1-4.0cm and more than 4.1cm. 

The diameters of 20 twig samples of each class were measured. Individuals of macrolichen 

species growing on each twig were counted. 

Results and Discussion 

All the three oak trees exhibit luxuriant growth of Parmelioid lichens and members of lichen 

family Physciaceae together with fruticose lichen of genera Ramalina and Usnea (Table 1-3). 

a) Lichens associated with twigs of Q. leucotrichophora (altitude between 1,500-2,000 m): 

The twigs of Q. leucotrichophora bear only 12 species of lichens (Table 1). The twigs of 

diameter 3.1-4.0cm and more than 4.1cm bear 82 and 27 individuals of lichens. 

Parmotrema wallichiana exhibits occurrence on twigs of all five diameter classes twigs but 

the diameter class 3.1-4.0 cm bears the maximum individuals P. wallichiana followed by 

twig classes 0-1.0 cm, 1.1-2.0cm, 2.1-3.0 and more than 4.1cm. Parmelioid lichens 

dominate the Q. leucotrichophora twigs than Usneoid lichens. 

b) Lichens associated with twigs of Q. floribunda (altitude between 2,000 m-2,500 m): The 

twigs of Q. floribunda bear 16 species of lichens (Table 2). The twigs of diameter more than 

4.1cm exhibit occurrence 71 individuals. E. nepalense, dominates on all the five diameter 

class of twigs. But the diameter class 3.1-4.0cm and 1.1-2.0 cm bear similar number of 

individuals. The fruticose lichens exhibit higher association with Q. floribunda twigs than 

the foliose form. 

c) Lichens associated with twigs of Q. semecarpifolia (altitude above 2,500 m): Q. 

semecarpifolia twigs bear 29 species of lichens (Table 3). The twigs of diameter class more 

than 4.1cm bear 148 individuals of lichens. E. nepalense exhibits its occurrence all the five 

diameter classes of twigs. The twig class 3.1-4.0cm bears the maximum individuals 

followed by twigs of 2.1-3.0cm and 1.1-2.0cm. The diameter class of 0-1.0cm towards the 

81



tip of the twigs shows less number of individuals. There is a great decrease in lichen 

abundance with decreasing twig diameter. 

The Parmelioid genera Everniastrum cirrhatum, E. nepalense and parmotrema nilgherrense 

with 18, 9 and 10 individuals respectively, dominate the twigs towards the tips while individual of 

other lichen exhibit their poor presence there. 

The luxuriance of lichen growth on Quercus twigs may possibly be attributed to the 

retention of moisture because of their hanging position. The flow of rain water and that of the 

melting snow along the hanging twigs perhaps provide greater exposure to moisture. However, 

according to Pike et al. (1975), twigs being at the edge of the trees canopy receive higher levels of 

light than most of the remaining surfaces of the tree. Rainfall strikes foliage and twigs directly and 

these receive additional water which drips from higher branch system. Because of the exposure, 

and the low water holding capacity of the bark, twigs dry out quickly after rainfall. Twigs can 

however hold a considerable load of snow during and after wet snow fall. 

Wolseley and Pryor (1999) studied the lichen communities on twigs of Quercus petrarea in 

Welsh woodland site and concluded that there is a correlation between environmental condition and 

lichen communities of twigs. Roughness, bark pH and chemistry of twigs, amount of moisture as 

rain tracks or humidity, degree of illumination, aspect and illumination of the surface, acidification 

of the atmosphere are the specific characteristics of the substratum influence the growth of lichens 

on twigs. The environmental conditions were more or less similar in all the stands of the study area 

except the aspects of the illumination at few sites. Both Parmelioid and fruticose lichens were 

evident on the twigs than elsewhere. The crustose lichens were abundant on apical areas of the 

young twigs and covered a substantial area. According to Essen et al (1996), the fruticose 

pendulous species (Alectoria and Bryoria) are highly sensitive to forest practices and are strongly 

related to age of branches while type of forest has no significant effect on foliose lichens. Similarly 

all the three Oaks in the study area share growth of common foliose and fruticose lichens. 

McCune (1993) while studying the epiphyte biomass in three Pseudotsuga-Tsuga forest in 

western Oregon and Washington, recorded greater epiphyte biomass in old-growth stands than the 

younger stands. Similarly in the present study Q. semecarpifolia comprised of mostly the oldgrowth 

forest stands exhibited greater number of individuals. Based on the ecological roles rather 

than taxonomy the epiphytic lichens of the Oak trees can be grouped into Parmelioid 

82



(Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Cetrariopsis and Sticta), Cyanolichens (Leptogium), Usnioid (Usnea, 

Ramalina) and Physcioid (Heterodermia) lichens. 

The Physcioid genera having larger thallus (Heterodermia diademata) prefer to grow on the 

thicker twigs while members having smaller sized thallus (H. hypocasia, H. incana, H. leucomela) 

grow on thin twigs in association with crustose lichens towards the apex. Q. semecarpifolia stands 

of diameter class of more than 4.0 cm exhibit only the presence of Cyanolichens. 

Most of the Parmelioid genera colonize on all the five diameter classes of twigs and number 

of species increases as the thickness of the twigs increases, except E. cirrhatum which grows on 

thinner branches also. Some species of Usnioid lichens prefer thin barks towards the distal region 

of twigs. 

Q. semecarpifolia bears the maximum individuals in different diameter classes followed by 

Q. floribunda and Q. leucotrichophora. The probable reason for dominance of lichens on Q. 

semecarpifolia may be the higher altitude as mentioned by Pirentoses et al. (1995), the crucial 

factor determining the spatial heterogeneity of epiphytes lichens of Fagus sylvatica is the altitude 

and not the height on the trunk at which lichen community is established. 

Q. floribunda and Q. leucotricophora exhibit the representation of only Parmelioid and 

Usnioid lichen communities. Q. leucotrichophora has 3 genera belonging to 3 species of 

Parmelioid and 7 species of Usnioid lichens while Q. floribunda has 3 species of Parmelioid and 

12 species of Usnioid lichens. 

Out of the 38 commercially used lichen species from different states of India, enumerated 

by Upreti et al. (2005), 24 species of 15 genera belong to Parmelioid lichens with maximum 

representation of Everniastrum and Parmotrema species followed by Usnioid (8 species of 2 

genera) lichens. Lichen genera Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Rimelia, Parmelaria, Usnea, Lobaria, 

and Ramalina are exploited exhaustively for their commercial use. Q. semecarpifolia forests are the 

best collection sites for these lichens. Shah (1997) and Upreti et al. (2005) have documented the 

need for protection and conservation of lichens in India because of their intensive exploitation, but 

conservation has not received the desired attention. The less lichen biomass in India forest as 

compared to other European countries further advocate that the trade of endangered lichen species 

such as Parmotrema nilgherrense, Everniastrum cirrhatum, and E. nepalense should be banned in 

83



Himalayas and these should be included in the CITES (Convention of International Trade in wild 

species of Endangered Fauna and Flora) list. 

Table 1- Different diameter class twigs of Q. leucotrichophora with individual numbers of 

lichen species 

S. 

No 

. 

Lichen Taxa 

Total number of individuals of 

lichen species on twenty twigs of 

each diameter(cm) class 

0-1 1.1-2 2.1-3 3.1-4 >4.1 

1 Everniastrum nepalense (Taylor) Hale ex Sipman 2 3 6 12 6 

2 Everniastrum cirrhatum (Nyl) Hale 1 2 2 3 0 

3 Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl) Hale 7 5 9 22 8 

4 Parmotrema wallichiana (Taylor) Elix & Hale 6 10 4 30 7 

5 Parmotrema mesotropom (Müll. Arg.) Hale 5 5 0 10 0 

6 Usnea pectinata Taylor 0 0 0 1 2 

7 Usnea Indica Mot 0 0 1 0 0 

8 Usnea longissima Ach. 0 0 1 0 0 

9 Usnea orientalis Mot. 0 0 0 2 2 

10 Usnea aciculifera Vinio 0 0 1 0 0 

11 Usnea eumitriodies Mot. 0 0 0 2 1 

12 Usnea subfloridana Stirton 0 0 1 0 1 

Total individuals of lichens found on twenty twigs of 

each diameter class 

21 25 25 82 27 

Table 2- Different diameter class twigs of Quercus floribunda with individual numbers of 


S. 

No 

. 

Lichen Taxa 

Total number of individuals of 



84



0-1 1.1-2 2.1-3 3.1-4 >4.1 




4 Usnea Indica Mot 0 8 4 1 5 






10 Cetrariopsis wallichiana (Taylor) Kurokawa 0 0 1 0 0 

11 Ramalina sinensis Jatta 2 2 0 0 3 

12 Ramalina conduplicans Vainio 2 2 0 0 3 

13 Ramalina Himalayensis Ras. 1 0 2 0 0 

14 Ramalina rosleri (Hochst. ex Schaerer) Hue 3 0 2 0 0 

15 Rimelia reticulata (Taylor) Hale & Fletcher 1 0 1 0 0 

16 Sticta nylanderiana Zahlbr. 0 0 0 0 1 



47 54 37 53 71 

Table 3- Different diameter class twigs of Quercus semecarpifolia with individual numbers of 


S. Total number of individuals of 

85



No 

. 

Lichen Taxa 



0-1 1.1-2 2.1-3 3.1-4 >4.1 



3 Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl) Hale 10 10 8 3 16 

4 Parmotrema wallichiana (Taylor) Elix & Hale 6 2 11 10 20 

5 Parmotrema mesotropom (Müll. Arg.) Hale 2 2 0 2 6 


7 Usnea sp. 1 0 0 0 0 






13 Cetrariopsis wallichiana (Taylor) Kurokawa 1 0 3 2 4 

14 Ramalina sinensis Jatta 1 0 0 0 0 

15 Ramalina conduplicans Vainio 2 1 0 0 0 

16 Ramalina Himalayensis Ras. 1 0 0 0 0 

17 Ramalina rosleri (Hochst. ex Schaerer) Hue 1 0 0 0 0 

18 Rimelia reticulata (Taylor) Hale & Fletcher 3 0 0 0 1 

19 Heterodermia isidiophora (Vainio) Awas. 0 1 2 1 8 

20 Heterodermia hypocaesia (Yasuda) Awas. 0 1 0 0 0 

21 Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) D. Awasthi 1 0 0 0 8 

22 Heterodermia incana (Stirton) D. Awasthi 0 0 2 0 0 

23 Heterodermia leucomela (L) Poetl 0 0 1 0 0 

86



24 Heterodermia psuedodpeciosa (Kurokawa) Culb. 1 0 1 0 0 

25 Leptogium pedicelatum M.P. Jorg. 0 0 1 0 0 

26 Leptogium trichophorum Müll, Arg. 0 0 1 0 1 

27 Leptogium askotense D. Awasthi 0 0 0 0 2 

28 Leptogium papillosum (B. de Lesd.) Dodge 0 0 0 0 1 

29 Sticta nylanderiana Zahlbr. 0 0 0 0 3 



68 81 92 80 148 

References 

Essen, P.A. Renhorn, K. E. ad Petterson, R. B. 1996. Epiphytic lichen biomass in managed and old 

growth boreal forest: Effect of branch quality. Ecological Applications, 6 (1): 228-238. 

Pike, L. H., William, C., Denison, C., Tracy, O.M., Sherwood, M.A. and Rhoades, F. R. 1975. 

Floristic survey of epiphytic lichens and bryophytes growing on old-growth conifers an Western 

Oregon. Bryologist, 78 (4):389-402. 

McCune, B. 1993. Gradients in Epiphyte biomass in three Pseudotsuga – Tsuga forests of different 

ages in western Oregon and Washington. Bryologist, 96 (3): 405-411. 

Moxham, T.H. 1986. The commercial exploitation of lichens for the perfume industry. Pages 491- 

503 in E.J. Brunke, ed., Progress in essential oil research. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. 

Pirentoses, S.A., Diamantopoulos, J. and Stamou, G.P. 1995. Analysis of the distribution of 

epiphytic lichens within homogenous Fagus sylvatica stands along an altitudinal gradient (Mount 

Olympos, Greece). Plant Ecology, 16 (1): 33-40. 

Shah, N.C. 1997. Lichens of economic importance from the hills of Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal 

of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 5: 69-76. 

Upreti, D.K. 1996. Loss of diversity in Indian Lichen flora. Environmental Conservation, 22 (4): 

361-363. 

87



Upreti, D.K., Divakar, P.K. and Nayaka, S. 2005. Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India. 

Economic Botany, 59 (3) 269-273. 

Upreti, D.K., and Chatterjee, S. 1999. Epiphytic lichens on Quercus and Pinus tree in three forest 

stands in Pithoragarh district, Kumaon Himalayas, India. Tropical Ecology, 40 (1) : 41-49. 

Wolseley, P.A. and Pryor, K.V. 1999. The lichens of epiphytic twig communities on Quercus 

petrarea in a Welsh Woodland site (Tycanal) for evaluating environmental changes. Lichenologist, 

31 (1): 41-61. 

Chapter-9 

88



Quantitative analysis of fallen lichen vegetation in eleven forest sites 

of a Quercus semecarpifolia forest of Garhwal Himalaya, India 

ABSTRACT: The present study was carried out on eleven forest sites dominated by Quercus 

semecarpifolia forest to assess fallen lichen (fall from trees) diversity between 2500m to 3500m 

elevation in Garhwal Himalaya. A total of ten fallen lichens were recorded from the study area. 

Keywords: Fallen lichens, study sites, distribution pattern, Garhwal Himalaya 

Introduction 

The Himalayan Mountain (27´38 º N latitude and 72´98 º E longitude) is the youngest, largest, 

highest and most complex mountain system in the world covering east to west (Gupta, 1963). On the 

basis of altitudinal variation the Himalayan ranges are divided into sub-tropical, temperate and alpine 

zone representing a variety of forest types. 

Garhwal Himalaya is extremely rich in lichen diversity, it is about 69% of the Uttarakhand and 

35% of the Himalayas and more than 16% of Indian lichen diversity (Kumar, 2008), and its climate 

factors, temperature variations, rainfall pattern, soil support, strong fauna and flora. Kumar (2008) 

reported 106 species of lichens from the area and also reported ten regularly fallen lichen species. 

Studies of the Northwest Pacific forests indicate that lichens are important component of food chain, 

and they play a significant role in forest nutrient cycling (Pike 1978; Maser et al. 1985). 

In this article author describe the diversity of fallen lichen genera and their distribution pattern in 

different forest sites of a brown oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) forest. 


Study area Chopta was located at altitude between 2500-3500m elevations of Garhwal Himalayas 

India. Altitudinally Chopta is located in temperate zone. For the detailed study of fallen lichen (fall 

from trees) diversity, the area was divided into eleven different sites. All the sites broadly have similar 

major tree species. Quercus semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboretum trees was the major tree 

species present in all the eleven investigated sites. In all the sites the forest cover were recorded 

between 32-58% (Kumar, 2008). 

89



The phytosociological analysis of the fallen lichen vegetation was done by sampling of 40, 2M² 

ground quadrats on each site. All the individuals of fallen lichen genera were recorded carefully in 

each sampled quadrat. The collected lichen samples were identified in the Lichen Laboratory, IBRI 

Lucknow. The data on fallen lichen vegetation were quantitatively analyzed for abundance, density, 

and frequency and A/F ratio by the following formulas given by Curtis and Mc Intosh (1950). 

Total number of individuals 

Abundance = 

Number of quadrat occurrence 

Total number of individuals 

Density = 

Total number of quadrats studied 

Number of quadrats occurrence X 100 

Frequency (%) = 

Total number of quadrats studied 

Distribution of population: The ratio of abundance to frequency is a relative measure to present 

the distribution of fallen lichen vegetation in a community. Curtis and Cottam (1956) suggested the 

following for regular (less than 0.025), contagious (0.025-.05) and random (more than 0.05) 

distribution of the population. 

RESULTS 

Quantitative analysis of fallen lichen vegetation at different study sites are given in Table 1. A 

total of 10 fallen lichen genera were recorded from the study area. The density of fallen lichen 

genera was recorded to be maximum 13175 individuals of Everniasteru ha¹ at site 1 st and 3 rd and 

the minimum density 125 individuals of Everniastrum ha¹ was recorded at site 9 th . Among the 

lichen vegetation maximum density was recorded for 26900 individuals of lichen ha¹ was recorded 

for site 1 st , and the minimum density also recorded 6350 individuals of lichen ha¹ at site 6th (Table 

90



1). Everniastrum was the most dominantly fallen lichen in all the eleven investigated sites followed 

by species of Usnea. The other common fallen lichen genera of the study area were Parmotrema 

spp, Cetrariopsis spp, Heterodermia spp, Ramalina spp, Leptogium spp, Parmelia spp, Lobaria spp 

and Cladonia spp. 

There was 6.06% fallen lichens displayed regular distribution pattern in the study area as 

maximum lichens genera (56.06%) displayed their random distribution pattern at different sites and 

37.87% genera of fallen lichens contagious distribution pattern at different sites of the study area. 

Table 1: Vegetational parameters for fallen lichens at different forest sites 

Forest 

sites 

Fallen lichen 

taxa Frequency (%) Density (Ind ha⎯¹) Abundance (Ind ha⎯¹) A/F 

1 Usnea 85 575 2.7 0.031 

Everniastrum 92.5 13175 5.7 0.061 

Parmotrema 62.5 5675 3.64 0.058 

Cetrariopsis 42.5 1375 1.29 0.03 

Heterodermia 32.5 925 1.15 0.035 

2 Usnea 42.5 3300 3.11 0.073 

Everniastrum 67.5 6500 3.85 0.057 

Parmotrema 57.5 2875 2 0.034 

Heterodermia 17.5 675 1.57 0.089 

Cetrariopsis 15 425 1.16 0.077 

3 Usnea 55 4300 3.13 0.056 

Everniastrum 87.5 13175 6.02 0.068 

Parmotrema 72.5 5000 2.28 0.031 

Heterodermia 0.35 1175 1.35 3.857 

Cetrariopsis 0.35 1050 1.21 3.457 

4 Usnea 70 4000 2.28 0.032 

91



Everniastrum 90 8300 3.69 0.041 

Parmotrema 47.5 2050 1.73 0.036 

Cetrariopsis 37.5 1175 1.26 0.033 

Heterodermia 27.5 750 1.09 0.039 

Ramalina 25 675 1.1 0.044 

5 Usnea 40 1425 1.43 0.035 

Everniastrum 72.5 6125 3.37 0.046 

Parmotrema 67.5 3125 1.85 0.027 

Ramalina 17.5 425 1 0.057 

Heterodermia 10 650 1 0.1 

Cetrariopsis 12.5 300 1 0.08 

Leptogium 12.5 375 1.2 0.096 

Parmelia 10 2500 1 0.1 

6 Usnea 22.5 1500 2.66 0.118 

Everniastrum 32.5 2750 3.38 0.104 

Parmotrema 22.5 925 1.66 0.073 

Ramalina 12.5 425 1.4 0.112 

Cetrariopsis 7.5 375 2 0.266 

Heterodermia 12.5 375 1.2 0.096 

7 Usnea 50 5925 4.75 0.095 


Parmotrema 32.5 1625 2 0.061 

Everniastrum 70 7000 4 0.057 

Heterodermia 32.5 1050 1.3 0.04 

Cetrariopsis 22.5 1300 2.33 0.103 

8 Usnea 50 5625 4.5 0.09 

92



Everniastrum 85 11750 5.52 0.064 

Parmotrema 35 4050 4.64 0.132 


Cetrariopsis 10 500 2 0.2 

9 Usnea 42.5 2125 2 0.047 

Everniastrum 52.5 5925 4.52 0.086 

Parmotrema 40 2000 2 0.05 

Heterodermia 10 500 2 0.2 

Cetrariopsis 5 125 1 0.2 


10 Usnea 67.5 3050 1.81 0.026 

Everniastrum 82.5 8300 4.03 0.048 

Parmotrema 82.5 4500 2.18 0.026 

Heterodermia 17.5 625 1.42 0.081 

Cetrariopsis 22.5 675 1.22 0.054 


Lobaria 10 300 1.25 0.125 

Leptogium 15 625 1.66 0.11 

11 Usnea 47.5 2925 2.47 0.052 

Everniastrum 65 5875 3.61 0.055 

Parmotrema 70 5425 3.1 0.044 

Heterodermia 32.5 1175 1.46 0.044 

Cladonia 7.5 250 1.33 0.177 


93



DISCUSSION 

Lichen fall is a relatively more continuous process in the temperate oak forest of the Garhwal 

Himalaya. In the Central Himalayan forests, water stress and extremes of temperature are probably 

not the dominant causal factors of wood fall. The abscission of wood is promoted by higher 

temperatures in the annual cycle (summer and rainy seasons) although abscission continues, though 

irregularly, through out the year as a mechanism of canopy-clearing by self-pruning (Singh and 

Singh, 1992). According to the concept of Stone (1989) allogenic factors caused by outward growth 

of oak canopy, including changes in microclimate and thickening and sloughing of bark, appear to 

be far more important to most species than changes brought on by the epiphytic species. However, 

within the framework of the allogenic tree canopy factors, the same sorts of interspecific 

interactions take place as more found in autogenic type of succession. 

The fallen density depends on the forest cover and tree density, site 5 th & 10 th represented by 8 

fallen lichen genera followed of 6 at site 4 th , 6 th , 7 th , 9 th & 11 th , and 5 genera at 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd & 8 th . 

Lichen genera Parmelia, Leptogium and Stcta of the study area were found rare. 

According to Kumar (2008) the lichen fall in a particular area may be affected by a number 

of climatic factors and activities of the inhabitants of the area. The common factors responsible for 

lichen fall in the study area were type of fauna (jumping of Languor’s from one tree to other), birds, 

heavy snow fall, hails, heavy rainfall, human activities and wind condition, direction. 

REFERENCES 

Curtis, J.T. and Mc Intosh, R.P. The interrelation of certain analytic and synthetic 

phytosociological characters. Ecology (1950), 434-455. 

Curtis, J.T. and Cottam, G. The use of distance measure in phytosociological sampling. Ecology 

(1956), 37:151-160. 

Gupta, A.C., 1963. Annual precipitation and the vegrtion of the dry temperate coniferous region of 

North-West Himalaya. Jour. Inl. Bot. Soc. (1963), 42 (2). 

Kumar, B. Lichen diversity of Baniyakund-Chopta region of region of Garhwal Himalaya, India. A 

national seminar on globalwarming (2008), SMJN College Haridwar. p 46. 

94




forest of Garhwal Himalaya, Ph. D. Thesis (2008), HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 


Maser, Z., Maser, C. and Trappe, J.M. Food habits of the northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys 

sabrinus) in Oregon. Canadian Journal of Zoology (1985) 63: 1085-88. 

Pike, L.H. The importance of epiphytic lichens in mineral cycling. The Bryologist (1978) 81(2): 

247-57. 

Singh, J.S. and Singh, S.P. Forest of Himalaya: Structure, Functioning and impact of Man. 

Gyonodaya Prakashan, Nainital (India) (1992). 

Stone, D.F. 1989. Epiphytic succession on Quercus garryana branches in Willamette valley of 

western Qregon. Bryologist (1989) 92: 81-94. 

95

[ 



Chapter-10 

LICHEN RESOURCE USE PATTERN AND ITS SOCIO- 

ECONOMIC STATUS IN TEMPERATE REGION OF GARHWAL 

HIMALAYA, INDIA 

ABSTRACT: The resource use pattern of some macrolichens and their socioeconomic status in 

temperate region of Garhwal Himalayas has been discussed. Out of five blocks, stakeholders of 

Narayanbagar and Dewal block are found highly dependent on lichen (macrolichens) based activity 

to conduct their livelihood. 

Key Words- Macrolichen biomass, Quercus semecarpifolia, Garhwal Himalaya 

INTRODUCTION 

According to the concept of Upreti et al (2005) the lichens have been household items of 

Indians since ancient times. In India, lichens collected from the temperate regions of the Himalayas 

are used indigenously and are explored. The Uttarakhand hills and Himanchal Pradesh are the main 

areas of the lichen collection in India. The lichens are very slow growing plants. Because of their 

unique thallus composition, which is made of fungus and alga, they can not be cultivated in large 

scale like other plants. Thus, lichens growing in nature provide a basic raw material required for 

various uses of lichens. The lichens weigh very little when dry, thus a vast bulk of these plants is 

required. 

Mountain and hillside areas hold a rich variety of ecological systems. Because of their vertical 

dimension, mountain creates gradient of temperature, precipitation, and insulation. In Uttarakhand 

nine of the thirteen districts comprise the expansion of lesser Himalaya. But with the pace of rapid 

modernization and increasing anthropogenic pressure on vegetation in general and on forest in 

particular coupled with natural disasters, the Himalayan vegetation is rapidly deteriorating in its 

richness as well as diversity. However, in recent past there has been a deep concern and realization 

for the conservation of the fragile Himalayan ecosystem. 

96



Lichen exploitation is a common practice among the villagers and the rivals in moist 

temperate regions of the Garhwal Himalaya to collect the lichens together with tree twigs as oak 

and other trees bears luxuriant growth of lichens. Kumar (2008) reported Parmelioid lichens 

belonging to family Parmeliaceae are commercially trading lichens from Garhwal Himalaya i.e. 

Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Cetrariopsis, Bulbothrix, Hypotrachyna and Rimelia collected by 

rivals together with two fruticose genera, Ramalina and Usne. 

Lichens in India are collected from the temperature regions of Himalayas and used 

indigenously for preparation of perfumes, dyes, and condiments (Kumar and Upreti, 2008). 

Approximately 750 metric tons of lichens are collected from Uttarakhand hills, 800 metric tons are 

imported from other regions of India, including Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Assam and out of 

which about 50-80 tons are exported (Shah, 1997). 

Upreti (1995) assessed the different factors responsible for loss of lichen diversity in India. 

Important factors include the change in the ecological conditions, forest cover, and loss of habitat 

and increase of the urban and industrial areas. The various activities of man in hilly regions of 

India such as ‘Jhoom’ cultivation, agriculture, mineral extraction, tourism, hydroelectric and road 

building projects are other factors leading to the rapid deterioration of lichen rich habitats. 

Overexploitation and selective removal of economically important lichens by local people have 

now become the major threat to the lichen flora of India. 

Lichens are sold at rates of approximately half a dollar/kg in the local markets (Upreti et al 

2005). The price however doubles when these lichens reach the central market areas. A trained 

collector can easily collect 6-8kg of lichens with twigs from the ground (collecting lichens from 

attached twigs slow down the collection as the entire branches are cut or the lichens are scraped off 

along with the bark and portion of sapwood). A collector for the major part of the year can earn a 

reasonable income by collecting the fallen lichens without being destructive with some knowledge 

of the fall and seasonal pattern. 

A number of lichen patches in the forests ‘hot spots’ were identified together with the study viz. 

Bramtal, Jhaltal, Suptal, Bhekaltal, Didina forest, Kuling forest, Ghesh-Balan, Badeni forest, and 

Gairsain forest patches are in Chamoli district. Similarly Chopta-Tunganath, Khod-Bakseer, 

Badhanital, Devariyatal, Madhmaheshwar peak, and Tirjuginarayan forest patches were the major 

hot spots in Rudraprayag district. These all identified forest patches are similar in lichen diversity 

97



as well as for lichen biomass resource availability. These all forest patches (lichen hot spots) are 

purely dominated by the Quercus semecarpifolia (brown oak) trees and some time associated with 

Rhododendron arboreum (Burans) trees and associated shrubs Barberis spp and Cotoneaster spp 

occurs in these regions. 


District Rudraprayag and Chamoli Garhwal of Uttarakhand state are the remotest areas in 

terms of lifestyle and also rich in botanical resources like lichen resource. A total of five blocks has 

been covered in two districts Rudraprayag and Chamoli. Ukhimath and Jakholi blocks in 

Rudraprayag and Dewal, Tharali and Narayanbagar in Chamoli district have been studied. From 

each selected block of Chamoli district, selected three village randomly villages on the basis of the 

temperate region, availability of lichen resource, lichen exploitation by local collectors and the 

areas were open for lichen collection. But the district Rudraprayag was totally band for lichen 

collection since ten years; from this district only two blocks (Ukhimath and Jakholi) were selected. 

The three selected blocks of district Chamoli were similar in lichen diversity and resource use 

pattern, but different in its collection and trading system. 

A. Reconnaissance Survey: The reconnaissance survey was conducted for knowing the traditional 

method of lichen collection and involvement of lichen stakeholders of different rivals of the area. 

The traditional method of lichen collection is locally called ‘Makku Tipan’. The method has been 

traditionally followed by lichen collectors of some lichen exploiting areas of Deval and Tharali 

block of Chamoli district of Uttrakhand state. In Chamoli district, lichens collected by the villagers 

or lichen collectors of Ratgawn, Bursol, Dungari, Man, Kolpuri, Mundoli, Vaan, Kuling and Ghes 

villages of the Tharali and Deval block. These areas come under the Badrinath forest division. 

These areas falls within the Garhwal Himalaya region and the forests are dominated with Quercus 

semecarpifolia (brown oak) and these areas lies between 2000m to 3000m altitudes in west Pinder 

range of Tharali Tehsil. Brown oak trees of the area harbors luxuriant growth of epiphytic lichens. 

The traditional collectors of the villages are collects these plants and sale in local market at 

Tharali, Deval and Narayanbagar. Some small villagers sold it at Kerabagar and Vaan village of the 

area. 

98



During the field visit author have interviewed with some lichen collectors and local 

contractors to asses the information on traditional method of lichen collection, extraction, resource 

use pattern and socioeconomic status of lichens (macrolichens) in the area. 

B. Questionnaire Design: An ideal questionnaire was prepared after complete search of available 

literature on the lichen ecology and its economic role in our vital needs. The questionnaire was 

designed with keeping in mind of some tasks related to socio-economic and ecological impacts of 

lichens, which are always ignored by various workers. 

C. Questionnaire Sampling and Selection of the Respondent: The survey was carried out during 

May-June 2007. The questionnaire was used to gather information on resource use pattern and 

assessment of earn money from lichen sector at different level of stakeholders. The respondents 

from the area were selected randomly on the basis of their involvement in the lichen sector as 

traditional collector, store keepers, packers loaders, horse trackers (transpiring lichens from forest 

to collection point/store house), local traders etc. were the respondents of the ideal questionnaire. 

D. Process Questionnaire Filling: All questionnaires were filled throughout a long discussion 

along with the respondent. 

E. Data Analysis: The data has been analyzed by using the SPSS software. 

RESULTS 

Households of Narayanbagar block depends highly on macrolichen based activity to conduct 

their livelihood represented by 93.65% followed of 63.32% households of Dewal and 18.38% of 

Tharali block of Chamoli district. Households of Rudraprayag district (Ukhimath & Jakholi block) 

was found less dependent on lichen sector (Table 1). In both the districts lichen sector found 

highest contribution to generate income as compare to other sources (Table 2). In both the districts 

lichen transporters and traders get maximum benefit from lichen sector as compared to other 

sources like agriculture, labor and shop etc. (Table 3). Earned money of the stakeholders from 

lichens sector was mostly used to provide foods like rice, wheat, pulses and vegetables etc. and it 

was less used in other daily needs (Table 4). The lichens collected/extracted from different 

substratum by the collectors maximum (51.53%) from tree bark followed by 43% and 4% from 

ground (fallen lichens) and rock substratum and only 1.37% extracted from soil (Table 5). 

99



In the district Chamoli a lichen collector was collected average 254.5 kg lichens per year and 

its estimated income was Rupees 7668.08 per year @ 30.13 Rs. /kilogram. Similarly, it was in 

district Rudraprayag the average annual lichen collection was 78 kg and its estimated annual 

income was only Rupees 2393.82 @ Rupees 30.69/kilogram. Table 5 showed in Chamoli district, 

April-May (summer season) provided the maximum lichen material (313.4-267.15 

kg/month/collector) followed of lowest (12.8kg/month/collector) in rainy season. In the district 

Rudraprayag, winter season (November to February) showed the maximum collection of lichens 

and throughout the year it was provided 414 kilogram /collector and provided Rupees 12705.66/ 

collector/year (Table 6). 

Table1. Percentage of households engaged in lichen activity 

District 

Block 

Number of households engaged 

in lichen activity (% of the total 

households) 

Chamoli Deval 62.32 

Tharali 18.38 

Narayanbagar 93.65 

Rudraprayag Jakholi 3.4375 

Ukhimath 14.375 

Table 2. Contribution of lichens in income generation of lichen stakeholders 

Contribution of lichens in income 

generation (%) 

Sources of income Chamoli Rudraprayag 

Service 1.08 0.90 

Agriculture 33.82 31.59 

Agriculture labor 1.56 1.30 

Other labor 5.93 11.66 

Lichen collection 56.31 53.02 

Shopkeeping 1.29 1.53 

100



Table 3. Shearing benefit from lichen sector at different level of stakeholders 

Shearing benefit from lichens 

(%) 

Different level of Stockholders of 

lichens Chamoli Rudraprayag 

Collector 29.14 30.96 

Tracker 15.36 0.00 

Transporter & Traders 46.13 58.59 

Storekeeper at village 0.00 0.03 

Grader & shorter at village 0.84 2.17 

Loader (Nepalis at local market) 8.54 8.16 

Packer 0.00 0.09 

Table 4. Percentage wise use of earned money (from lichens) in different basic requirements of the 

stakeholder 

Percentage wise (%) use of earned money from 

Basic requirements of the 

lichens 

stakeholders Chamoli Rudraprayag 

Food 44.00 75.29 

Medicines 10.93 6.47 

House construction 6.86 4.71 

Schooling of children’s 1.00 1.18 

Agriculture 1.40 0.00 

Clothing 18.72 7.06 

Assets creation 8.37 5.29 

Marriage celebrations 7.21 0.00 

Purchasing grams (feed) for 

horse 1.51 0.00 

101



Table 5. Percentage wise extraction or collection of lichens from different substratum 

Substratum 

Lichen extraction or collection 

(%) 

From trees 51.53 

From rock 4 

Fallen lichen 

collection 43 

From soil 1.37 

Table 6. Month wise collection of lichens by collectors in Chamoli and Rudraprayag districts 

Months 

Collection of lichen material 

kg/month/collector 

Chamoli 

Rudraprayag 

Jan 190.4 97 

Feb 78.36 51 

March 62.53 34 

April 313.4 23 

May 267.15 0 

June 74.41 8 

July 15.82 0 

Aug 12.8 5 

Sep 33.54 24 

Oct 66.96 52 

Nov 75.6 74 

Dec 42.1 47 

Total 1233.07 414 

102



Lobaria pulbonaria 

Everniastrum nepalense 

Usnea longissima 

Dermatocarpon vellereum 

Ramalina sinensis 

Parmotrema nilgherrense 


Heterodermia leucomela 

Fig. Photographs of some potential lichen species of Garhwal Himalaya 

103



DISCUSSION 

Well resource use pattern of lichens was situated in diatrict Chamoli Garhwal and the 

collectors were mostly depends on lichen sector. It was the interesting feature of the study, the 

involvement of outsiders like Nepali’s labours are completely restricted in lichen harvesting 

activity, which were involved only in few cases as loading of lichens and some time grading and 

sorting of the lichen species. But through the economic point of view, the outsiders are interfering 

in the income of lichen stockholders at the time of sorting and grading, loading-unloading and 

transporting from forest to collection point. The lichen traders (local traders) were the highest 

beneficiaries in lichen sector because they were well aware about this sector. 

Lichens are house hold items of some local users and used for Garam Masala for providing 

flavoring taste through lichens etc. The earned money through lichens about 44% has been used in 

food by the stakeholders of district Chamoli, and in past the earned money of about 75.29% was 

used in food by the stakeholders of district Rudraprayag, therefore, at presently the activity is 

directly effects on food requirements of the stakeholders of district Rudraprayag due to the lichen 

harvesting activity was totally banned by the forest department. Some other needs like clothing, 

schooling of children’s, medicinal treatments, house constructions, and assets creation of lichen 

stakeholders were directly effected by the process of opening and closing rules of forest 

department for lichen harvesting from the forests. 

Kumar (2008) hypothesis showed only fallen lichen (fall from trees) collection can be 

allowed to provide livelihood for some stakeholders of high altitude or temperate regions of 

Uttarakhand, it can be possible about five kilograms per hectare per year from a pure Kharsu Oak 

forest. 

If the grading and sorting process of the lichens would be conducted at villages so it can be 

increased the income of the collector (primary collector). The lichen sector in the state Uttarakhand 

has required a proper channel of its tender, collection and trading/marketing system from its 

collectors to traders (Village to Mandi). 

If the lichen based livelihood activity would be started so the migration of some peoples of the 

area to the plains can be reduced, because they can get the job opportunity in lichens sector. 

104



REFERENCES 

Kumar, B. and Upreti, D. K. An account of lichens on fallen twigs of three Quercus species in 

Chopta forest of Garhwal Himalayas, India. Annals of Forestry (2008), 15 (1):92-98. 


forest of Garhwal Himalaya. Ph. D. Thesis (2008) HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 


Shah, N.C. Lichens of economic importance from the hills of Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of 

Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants (1997), 5: 69-76. 

Upreti, D. K. Loss of Biodiversity in Indian Lichen Flora. Environmental Conservation (1995) 22: 

362-365. 

Upreti, D. K., P. K. Divakar, and Nayaka, S. Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in 167-India. 


105 

Chapter-11



LICHEN-MOSS HARVESTING PRACTICES AND THEIR 

MARKETING STRATIGY IN UTTARAKHAND, INDIA 

ABSTRACT: The present article is based on the concept of socioeconomic status of lichens 

(Kumar, 2009) and a compiled report of Appropriate Technology India, Ukhimath (Garhwal). Out 

of three auction sites of the State Ramnagar auction/ mandi (market) is the biggest market of lichen 

& moss followed by Tanakpur and Rishikesh. Traders of the mandi level are getting maximum 

profit from lichen & moss sector. 

Key Words: Lichen, Marketing, Uttarakhand State. 

INTRODUCTION 

Lichens are the unique group of plants that consists of two unrelated organism, a fungus and 

an alga, growing together in a close symbiotic association. The study of lichen remains quite 

neglected throughout the world, through they together with mosses from dominant organism in 

ecosystem covering 10% of the earth terrestrial habitats, particularly higher elevations (Nash & 

Egan, 1988). Kumar & Upreti (2008) and Kumar (2009) lichen exploitation is a common practice 

among the villagers and the rivals in moist temperate regions of the Western Himalaya to collect 

the lichens together with tree twigs as oak and other trees bears luxuriant growth of lichens. Upreti 

et al (2005) mentioned the members of the families Parmeliaceae and Physciaceae are the ones 

most exploited commercially and are recommended by inclusion in the CITES list. However, 

Kumar (2008) reported Parmelioid lichens are commercially trading lichens from Garhwal 

Himalaya i.e. Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Cetrariopsis, Bulbothrix, Hypotrachyna and Rimelia 

collected by rivals together with two fruticose genera, Ramalina and Usne. Within Uttarakhand 

State of India where the present study was carried out 75 species of Parmelioid lichens reported, of 

which 27% each are known in Mussooorie hills and Saryu river valley near Pindari Glacier area, 

17.5% are in Chaubatia-Ranikhet followed by 12.1% and 10.8% in Nain Singh top en route to 

Milam Glacier and Chopta-Tunganath peak (Divakar & Upreti, 2005). 

106



Approximately 750 metric tons of lichens are collected from Uttarakhand hills, 800 metric 

tons are imported from other regions of India, including Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Assam and 

out of which about 50-80 tons are exported (Shah, 1997). 

Total three bigger markets of lichen-moss of the State viz. Ramnagar, Tanakpur and Rishikesh 

were visited during 2005. Accept Rishikesh, other two markets are approximately similar in trade 

and turnover system of lichen and moss. In subsistence and rural economies, the role of 

contribution of lichen-moss is as crucial as source of food, fodder and nesting material etc. it helps 

to generate additional employment and income. Since lichens and mosses grow in the hilly areas, it 

is important source of livelihood for the people living in the area. Local people extract lichen-moss 

and sell it to the middlemen (local contractors) as they do not have the resources to reach the 

market or the auction sites, where they can fetch remunerative prices for their produce. Lichens are 

sold at rates of approximately half a dollar/kg (Upreti et al 2005, Kumar, 2009) and mosses are 0.11 

dollar/kg in the local markets. The price however becomes triple for lichens and double for mosses 

when these materials reach in the auction sites. A trained collector can easily collect 6-8 kg of 

lichens with twigs (Kumar, 2009). 

Description of the government and semi government corporation involved in the marketing of 

lichen and moss in the State: 

Zila Bhesajh Sangh Sahkari Samiti (ZBSSS): It is a registered public institution central society 

under corporative samiti Act 1965. ZBSSS is in operation since 1983 in almost all the district of the 

Uttarakhand state. President who is the head of the samiti is selected in every five years. There are 

many societies formed in the villages by ZBSSS. The directors among themselves elect the 

president. Secretary of the ZBSSS is supposed to be the government employee. The main 

objectives of the ZBSSS are to provide training on extraction of medicinal plants in the hilly area 

through scientific method, employment to the cooperative society members, and establishment of 

ZBSSS based small enterprises, improve the economic condition of the farmers by providing 

training on cultivation of those plant species which are becoming extinct. ZBSSS is also helps in 

preventing the exploitation of local village collectors from different middlemen and contractors and 

making them available remunerative price for their produce. The percentage of profit of the ZBSSS 

earned through commission is sheared among its members. About 10% of the profit is sheared. 

Van Vikas Nigam (VVN): VVN is semi Government Corporation with divisional sales manager 

(DSM) directly from corporation, regional manger equivalent to conservator of forest from forest 

107



department. Previously the forest department (FD) used to directly give tenders to the contractors 

for the extraction of timber as well as other forest produces, as a result of which was massive 

exploitation of forest produce by local contractors. In order to regulate the trade of minor forest 

produce, FD involved VVN. Initially this Nigam was established with their prime objective of 

storage, production and trade of timber. Since 2004 VVN diversified its activity and earned into the 

field of ecotourism and medicinal plants also from the time was declared as an herbal state, the 

government asked the FD to take active role in the production, sustainable harvesting, conservation 

and marketing of forest produce. The FD with the help of VVN has also started commercial 

activities regarding medicinal and aromatic plants. Apart from these two agencies, Kumaun Mandal 

Vikas Nigam (KMVN) and Garhwal Mandal Vikas Nigam (GMVN) are performing the similar 

role as of ZBSSS. 


Study area: Uttarakhand, the 27 th State of the Republic of India, was formed on 9 th Nov. 2000 and, 

carved in out of the hilly tracts of Uttara Pradesh. It lies between 28º53’24” East and 31º27’50” 

North latitude and between 77º34’27” and 81º02’22” longitude. It has international boundaries with 

Tibet in the North and Nepal in the East. Himanchal Pradesh and Hariyana lie to its west and Uttar 

Pradesh to its south. The state with predominance of mountains and hills is spread over 13 districts 

with an area of 51,082 sq. kms or about 5.5% of such terrain of India (NRIF, 2004). It has a forest 

cover of 64.80%. The major forest types found in the state are sub-tropical, temperate and alpine 

forests. The total agriculture land in the state is 14% of its geographical area. Vast topographical, 

climate and seasonal variation makes the state rich in floral as well as faunal diversity. 

Climate changes from subtropical in the southern foothill with average temperatures of about 

30ºC and winter temperature of about 18ºC. Warm temperate conditions in the middle Himalayan 

valleys, with average summer temperature of 25ºC and cool winters. A cold alpine climate is 

observed at higher elevation where summers are cool and winters are severe. At elevation about 

4880m the climate is very cold with freezing temperatures and the area is permanently snow 

covered. There are rains in July-September due to south west monsoon and occasional snow fall in 

winter months (November-February), due to western disturbances at higher elevations. 

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A survey was conducted in different district of Uttarakhand during year 2005. Market 

surveys were conducted to identify the marketing channels, price spread, and prospective markets 

in the important places. A detailed study of lichen & moss conducted by rural population of 

necessary for establishing the trade and ensuring proper margin to the collectors. The major auction 

markets (called mandis) and traders in these areas were interviewed in order to know the quantum 

of trade of lichen & moss in Uttarakhand. 

Sampling frame: Information was collected from collectors, contractors (middlemen), small and big 

traders, commission agents from three trading centers (Ramnagar, Tanakpur and Rishikesh). 

Method of sampling: 

Criteria for selection of forest division: Badrinath and Kedarnath forest divisions were selected for 

the study in Garhwal region where the lichen & moss takes place in large scale. In BFD blocks 

selected for the study were Narayanbagar, Tharali and Dewal. These three blocks were studied as 

the primary collectors from the adjoining villages sell their produce to the local contractors from 

this division. The major villages of BFD involved in the extraction of lichens are Vaan, Dungari, 

Man, Kolpuri, Kuling Ghes-Balan, Himni, Mundoli, Ratgawn, Bursol etc. 

Selection of auction sites: Before October, 2004 there was no regulation in the trade of lichen & 

moss. Entire trade was done privately without involvement of any Government agencies. Only the 

local contractors had to be approach the ZBSSS, from there they used to get approval for the forest 

department for “Ravanna” and then they could sell there produce anywhere in India in the open 

market. But after October, 2004 in order to provide remunerative price to the primary collectors, 

Govt. took steps involving semi government corporation, VVN in this trade. In Uttarakhand, three 

auction sites are involved in the auctioning of lichen and moss viz. Ramnagar, Tankpur and 

Rishikesh. These auction sites were studied in order to estimate the quantum of lichen and moss 

from Uttarakhand. 

Selection of contractors at block level: about four contractors from Tharali, five from Narayanbagar 

and two from Dewal block of district Chamoli Garhwal were interviewed in order to estimate the 

quantum of lichen & moss collected and priced received by the primary collectors for their 

produce. 

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Technique for data collection: Both primary and secondary data was collected for the study. 

Secondary data was collected in order to obtain the information and gets the idea regarding the 

availability of lichen & moss quantity trade from each of the auction sites, information sources for 

getting the relevant information regarding the study were as follows: Forest department (KFD & 

BFD), VVN, Bhesajh Sangh etc. Similarly, the primary data was collected from the local 

contractors, traders and commission agents. These techniques involved in the collection of data 

were personal interviewed and discussion through semi-structure interview. To explore the exiting 

value addition process, interviews with the people at each level were conducted at primary 

collectors level, traders level and on site visit. 

RESULTS 

The lichen and moss collection season is of six months in a year and one trader collects the 

produce from about 15-20 primary collectors. Table 1 shows on an average quantity of lichen is 

about 301 qtl per trader per season and the total quantity of lichen loaded from three blocks comes 

out to be 4515 qtl per season. Tharali block has found maximum contribution about 1750 qtl 

followed by Narayanbagar 1715 qtl and Dewal 1050 qtl lichen per season. 

Seasonal availability of lichen-moss (L & M): The extraction of L & M takes place mainly from 

October to March. After 31 st of March extraction of produce is completely banned as fire season 

commence. From July to September the produce can not be extracted because of monsoon season. 

The availability of lichen depends on monsoon as it is supposed to be the most effective season for 

its growth. 

Market information at primary collector level: Primary collectors of BFD extract the lichen and 

moss from the allotted range and sell them to the contractors at Tharali, Narayanbagar and Dewal. 

They sell the produce to the contractors at these places after drying. All produce collected are sold 

and they do not keep it for personal use. The primary collector collects about 4-5 kg of lichen 

material per day but Kumar (2009) reported 3.39 kg lichen/day/collector in its collection period 

during October to March. The laborer collects lichen material 15-20 kg per day. The lichen is 

collected directly from the trees as well as from the ground that is fallen lichen. 

The laborer collect the maximum amount of lichens about 5 quintals per month as they are 

hired especially for this job, but the villagers (primary collectors) collect it as a part time job apart 

from their agricultural and other household activities. 

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Different mode of marketing of L & M: In order to study the marketing channel for L & M, it is 

important to know the past and the present mode of marketing of this produce as well as the role of 

different institutions and organizations involves in the promotion of the trade. Prior to the year 

2005-06, the L & M and other medicinal plants were not regulated. It was on the basis of contractor 

system. The only registered society that helped in the promotion of trade was Zila Bhesagh Sangh 

Sahkari Samiti (ZBSSS), which was responsible for regulating the trade only at extraction level. It 

had nothing to do with marketing of the produce. 

After October 2004, Forest Department (FD) took active role by involving two semi 

government corporations namely Van Vikas Nigam (VVN) and Kumaun Mandal Vikas Nigam 

(KMVN) for Kumaun and Garhwal Mandal Vikas Nigam (GMVN) for Garhwal region. VVN now 

plays important role in auction of L & M. 

Marketing channels for L & M: Out of three prevailing marketing channels for L & M, first two are 

more in practice. The main purpose of involving the ZBSSS and VVN in this trade is to regulate 

the extraction of the produce so that it is not overexploited and to provide remunerative price to the 

primary collectors (villagers) prevent their exploitation from contractors and middlemen. 

Channel first: In this channel the forest department gives contract to two agencies for collection of 

L & M namely ZBSSS and VVN. Forest department is also involving KMVN for Kumaun and 

GMVN for Garhwal. The local traders whosoever is interested in the extraction of lichen and moss 

approach the ZBSSS for their area for contract. These contractors deposit a sum of Rs. 10,000.00 as 

registration fee in the form of security. This fee is refundable after 31 st March when extraction of 

produce from the allotted ranges (areas) gets over. The FD opens only few ranges for the extraction 

of the produce. This goes on the rotational basis i.e. if range 1 was opened last year, the range 2 

will be opened this year and range 3 the consequent year. 

The local traders collect lichen and moss from two sources viz. primary collectors and 

laborers appointed by them. The permit is provided to the villagers for the collection of L & M. The 

villagers collect the produce on daily basis and after drying sell the produce to the local contractors. 

These contractors have retail shops in the village itself. When sufficient quantity of L & M is 

collected by the local traders, they tabulate the quantity of L & M in terms of sack bags, number of 

trucks in the sack bags are loaded and other information about quantity etc. in the form of ‘Talika’ 

(tabular form) to the ZBSSS. The ZBSSS cross checks the information and forwards it to the forest 

department. The DFO forwards it to the range office, where they charge their royalty (Rs. 

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210.00/qtl., which was previously Rs. 160.00/qtl), which includes sale tax and income tax. After all 

these formalities of the FD issues transit pass locally called as ‘Ravanna’ to local traders. Ravanna 

tells the route to be followed by the contractor to the auction places (mandi). This Ravanna is valid 

till seven days from date of issue. The produce then reaches the VVN depot. VVN is responsible 

for the auctioning of the produce. This is a public auction and any person involved in buying for the 

produce can participate in this. After auction, the produces is loaded in truck and transported to its 

destination places for example Kannauj (a town of Uttar Pradesh). The commission charged of 

different commission agents from the trades given in table 2 and estimated expenses & profit per 

truck is given in table 3. 

Second channel: It is also know as Van Panchayat Channel. In this method, the villagers with the 

permission from the Panchayat can extract the L & M from the Van Panchayat/ (called community) 

forest. The VP has to seek permission from the ZBSSS but the FD does not charge royalty. This fee 

is issued by the Panchayat for village development works. ZBSSS only takes the commission of 

selling price of the lot. After this the ZBSSS transports the produce of VVN deport for auction. The 

process is similar as in channel first. 

Third channel: This channel is known as ‘Bandhak’ in local language or pledge. This is rarely 

practiced. According to this method, 75% of the amount of the goods sale is given to the traders 

and rest 25% is retained by the ZBSSS after deduction of its commission of 10% returns the rest 

15% to the traders after completion of sale of the entire produce. 

Auction process at the VVN depots: In Uttarakhand, auction of L & M takes place at three places, 

namely Ramnagar, Tankpur and Rishikesh. The auction is conducted at the VVN depots at these 

places. The date of auction is fixed and is different for each of these places. This is a public auction 

and any person can participate in it and can buy the produce by calling the price. Table 4 shows the 

produce from different places comes to these depots for auction. 

Fixing of price at auction: The rates of lichen and moss are fixed on per kilogram basis. The 

standard rate is fixed by local traders and is approved by VVN officials. This standard rate is fixed 

keeping in view the entire expenses on transportation, cost price and profit. After this standard 

price is fixed, the private traders participate in auction process and call their price. The highest 

bigger gets the produce and within seven days, the price is paid to the local contractors. 

Quantity analysis of lichen and moss traded at different auction sites: Table 5 shows the quantity of 

the lichen and moss at VVN depots in an auction. It is depicted that majority of the produce traded 

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is lichen. It is evident that, out of all the three auction depots Ramnagar is the biggest mandi 

(market) and the number of participants is very high (Table 5). 

Two auctions are held in each month, and it can be estimated that if in Ramnagar, in the last 

auction 500qtl of lichen and 76 qtl of moss was traded so in the a month total trade in approximate 

terms was of 1000 qtl of the lichen and 150 qtl of moss. The number of months auction takes place 

in one season is 8 (i.e., total number of an auctions in a year are 16). Approximate trade in terms of 

quantity in one season from Ramnagar mandi is around 8000 qtl lichen and 1200qtl for moss. The 

auction system in Ramnagar mandi was initiated from October 2004. 

In Tanakpur, auction system was initiated from January 2005. The sales in the auction 

were not regular, if in one auction three was sale the other one showed nil sales. Total quantity of 

lichen traded from January to April was about 600 quintals and moss traded from the time of 

initiation of auction is about 7 quintals. 

In Rishikesh, auction began from December 2004, and the total trade in terms of quantity in 

lichen up to April was 939 quintals and moss was 18 quintals. 

Price analysis at primary collector level: The villagers (primary collectors) sell the produce weekly 

or twice in a week at the retail shops of the local contractors in the villages. They get about Rs. 25- 

35 per kg for lichens and Rs. 5-6 per kg for moss being extracted. The price of the produce 

fluctuates depending upon its quality and as well as availability. About three different qualities or 

grades of lichens are about Rs. 35-40 per kg for primary collectors. 

Grade 1 st supposed to be the best quality and is known as Phoolmaal in local language 

(Everniastrum species of lichen). It does not have any bark or moss attached to it. Their price is 

about Rs. 35-40 per kg for the primary collectors. 

Grade 2 nd contains the mixed percentage of grade 1 st , mosses and bark of trees. The price of 

this grade is about Rs. 20-35 per kg for the primary collectors. 

Similarly, Grade 3 rd is known as ‘Patthar Chura’ growing over the rock surface (saxicolous 

lichens). The price fetched by the primary collectors for this grade is about Rs. 25 per kg. 

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Table 1: Quantum of lichen material traded at contractor level from BFD in one season (October to 

Local market of 

district Chamoli 

Garhwal 

No. of 

traders 

March) 

Qty./ Trader (in Qtls.) 

(Number of trucks X quantity 

per truck) 

114 

Total quantity (in Qtls.) 

(Number of traders X quantity 

per trader) 

Narayanbagar 07 7X35= 245 07X245= 1715 

Tharali 05 10X35=350 05X350=1750 

Dewal 03 10X35=350 03X350=1050 

Total 4517 

Table 2: Percentage of commission 

Name of organization 

Commission charges 

Van Vikas Nigam (VVN) 

1% of selling price 

Bhesajh Sangh 

10% of selling price 

Table 3: Calculation of profit to the traders 

Capacity of Price of one Expenses/ Royalty/ Selling Price @ Net Profit 

a truck truck lichen Commission 

Rs. 7500/Qtl (Selling cost- 

(@ Rs 

Total 

3500.00/Qtl 

expenses) - 

purchase cost 

1 2 3 4 5 

40 Qtl Rs. 140000.00 FD= Rs. 210X40Qtl=Rs. Rs. 300000.00 300000.00- 

8400.00 

45400.00 

VVN= 1% of column 4= Rs. 

= Rs. 

3000.00 

BS= 10% of column 4= Rs. 

30000.00 

Net commission= 41400.00 

254600.00- 

Rs. 

140000.00= 

Rs. 

Transpotation cost= Rs. 

114600.00 

4000.00 

Total Expenses (Total 

commission + 

Transportation Cost) = Rs. 

41400.00+4000.00 

= Rs. 45400.00 

Table 4: The produce from different places comes to the depots for auction 

VVN 

Depots 

Ramnagar 

Tanakpur 

Rishikesh 

Sources of produce to the depots 

Nainital, Badrinath (Chamoli), Bageshwar and 

Almora 

Pithoragarh and Champawat 

Kedarnath forest division (Rudraprayag)



Table 5: Status of lichen & moss traded at different auction sites of the state on weekly basis 

Auction Number of Forest Quantity Price Average Total cost 

sites participants produces (Qtls.) Rs/Kg price of the 

Rs./Qtl. produce 

(Rs.) 

Ramnagar 35 Lichen 502.8 50-83 6650.00 3343620.00 

Moss 76.57 24.10- 2705.00 207121.85 

30 

Tanakpur 18 Lichen 228.00 42- 5630.00 1621440.00 

70.60 

Moss 1.6 18- 1975.00 3160.00 

21.50 

Rishikesh 15 Lichen 70.00 60 6000.00 420000.00 

Moss No moss - - - 

DISCUSSION 

Atkinson (1982) mentioned that the lichens from the Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand) hills are 

traded in the plains of the country for medicinal uses as tonics, febrifuges and antipyretics. The big 

trading centers are located in Ramnagar, Tanakpur and Rishikesh. The Badrinath Forest Division 

(BFD) of the Uttarakhand state is situated extensively as majority of the trade outflow to the 

mandis or auction sites. The primary occupation of the peoples is agriculture, but owing to the 

subsistence nature of hill agriculture, they are partially dependent on surrounding forest resources 

for their livelihood. The primary collectors are ignorant of the market price and due to less income, 

are not able to participate in the auction. In the last two months quantity of lichen traded from 

Rishikesh was decreasing and traders are more and more participating in Ramnagar and Tanakpur 

depots. At the trader’s level, the value addition is done by the grading of lichens. The process of 

grading involves separating the different qualities of lichens and marketing them by giving 

different graders. The traders with manufacturers are also involved in the production of end 

products. 

In the two auctions moss was not traded from Tanakpur and Rishikesh depots. In Ramnagar 

auction the traders from Kannauj also participated but they were not allowed to purchase the 

produce to local traders bid very high price. It was done so that the manufactures from Kannauj or 

other places brought the produce from the local traders of Ramnagar so that they could get their 

own share profit. In Ramnagar auction, traders from Nainital, Bhimtal, Nandprayag, Chamoli 

participated in auction. The other produce like Tejpatta, Coriander, Baelgiri contributes very little 

115



from Tanakpur and Rishkesh mandi. The major role of the VVN was the collection of lichen & 

moss and conducting a public auction. 

Conservation Strategy: Kumar (2009) suggested a collector for the major part of the year can earn a 

reasonable income by collecting the fallen lichens without being destructive with some knowledge 

of the lichen fall and seasonal pattern. In case of lichen and moss sector, the ZBSSS provides 

training to the collectors on scientific harvesting technique. The bark of the respective trees should 

not be pulled out while its extraction. Upreti (1995) mentioned the ethnobotanical, commercial 

utilization of lichens and decline of forest cover as the leading factors to loss of lichen diversity in 

India. Singh and Sinha (1997) mentioned agriculture, urbanization, construction of road, building 

on hills, mineral extraction, hydroelectrical projects, shifting cultivation are responsible for 

depletion of many lichen rich habitats. 

In this article the author have to describe the status of harvesting, collection and marketing 

strategy of lichens in the state. The excessive field information has been collected from several 

lichen collectors of Chamoli district Garhwal. A perusal of available literature (see references) has 

indicated that a study on lichen harvesting and marketing is not available. Therefore present article 

will certainly help to asses the demand of lichen and moss at different levels, so that major bottlenecks 

faced by the villagers in trading of lichen and moss can be removed. 

This information will be the first attempt to answer these basic queries and help in collection, 

grading, trading, conservation and management of lichens. Define the current and future option 

available for alternate livelihood from the lichens. It will be help to guide immediate and long term 

management, policy and decision making strategies 

REFERENCES 

Atkinson, E.T. The Himalayan Districts of Northwest Provinces of India. Cosmo Publication 

(1982). New Delhi 1: 720. 

Kumar, B. and Upreti, D. K. An account of lichens on fallen twigs of three Quercus species in 

Chopta forest of Garhwal Himalayas, India. Annals of Forestry (2008), 15 (1):92-98. 

Kumar, B. Lichen resource use pattern and its socioeconomic status in temperate region of Garhwal 

Himalaya, India. Nature and Science (2009), 7(2):101-106. 

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Nash, T.H. and Egan, R.S. The biodiversity of lichens and bryophytes. In: Lichen, Bryophytes and 

air quality. (Eds. Thomas Nash III & Vilkmar Wirth). Bibl. Lichenol (1988), 30: 11-22 J. 

Carmer in der Gebr. Borntra. Verlag. Berlin, Stuttgart. 

NRIF (Report). Pilot study on Mechannism for sustainable development & promotion of herbal & 

medicinal plants (H & MP) in the state of Uttaranchal, India. Ser division, Planning 

Commission, Govt. Of India final report (2004), New Delhi. 1. 

Shah, N.C. Lichens of economic importance from the hills of Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of 

Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants (1997), 5: 69-76. 

Singh, K.P. & Sinha, G.P. Lichen diversity of the eastern Himalayas and its conservation. 

Environment and Pollution (1997). 11:349359. 

Divakar, P.K. & Upreti, D.K. Parmelioid Lichens in India (a reversionary study) (2005). Bishen 

Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun (India), 27. 

Upreti, D. K, P. K. Divakar, and S. Nayaka. Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India. 


Upreti, D.K. Loss of diversity in Indian lichen flora. Environmental Conservation (2005) 22 (4): 

362-363. 

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