Baobab Monograph.pdf - Crops for the Future

BAOBAB 

Adansonia digitata L. 

Authors: 

M. Sidibe and J. T. Williams 

Editors: 

A. Hughes 

N. Haq 

R. W. Smith 

i

First published in 2002 by 

International Centre for Underutilised Crops 

University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK 

© 2002 International Centre for Underutilised Crops 

Printed at RPM Reprographics, Chichester, England. 

ISBN 0854327762 

The text in this document may be reproduced free of charge in any format or 

media without requiring specific permission. This is subject to the material 

not being used in a derogatory manner or in a misleading context. The 

source of the material must be acknowledged as [ICUC] copyright and the 

title of the document must be included when being reproduced as part of 

another publication or service. 

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 

Baobab 

1. tropical fruit trees 

i Hughes ii Haq iii Smith 

ISBN 0854327762 

Citation: Sidibe, M. and Williams, J. T. (2002) Baobab. Adansonia digitata. 

International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Southampton, UK. 

Cover photographs: Baobab fruit and baobab tree, courtesy of Dr. M. Sidibe. 

Baobab fruit products, courtesy of Ms. Angela Hughes, ICUC, UK. 

ii

DFID/FRP and DISCLAIMERS 

This publication is an output from a research project funded by the United 

Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit 

of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of 

DFID [R7187 Forestry Research Programme]. The opinions expressed in 

this book are those of the authors alone and do not imply an acceptance or 

obligation whatsoever on the part of ICUC, ICRAF or IPGRI. 

MEMBERS OF THE EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 

R. K. Arora 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Office for South 

Asia, New Delhi, India. 

S. Azam-Ali 

Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), UK. 

C. R. Clement 

National Research Institute of Amazonia (INPA), Manaus, Brazil. 

N. Haq 

International Centre of Underutilised Crops (ICUC), University of 

Southampton, Southampton, UK. 

A. Hughes 

International Centre of Underutilised Crops (ICUC), University of 

Southampton, Southampton, UK 

J. Sarker 

Sight Savers International, Bangladesh 

K. Schreckenberg 

Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London, UK. 

A. J. Simons 

International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya. 

R. W. Smith 

International Centre of Underutilised Crops (ICUC), UK. 

iii

ICUC 

The International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC) is an autonomous, 

non-profit, scientific research and training centre. It was established in 1988 

and is at present based at the University of Southampton in the UK. The 

centre was established to address ways to increase the use of under-utilised 

crops for food, nutrition, medicinal and industrial products. The 

enhancement of currently under-utilised crops is a key to food security, to 

the conservation of biological diversity and to the preservation and 

restoration of fragile and degraded environments throughout the world. 

ICRAF 

The International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), established 

in Nairobi in 1977, is an autonomous, non-profit research body supported by 

the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. ICRAF aims 

to improve human welfare by alleviating poverty, improving food and 

nutritional security, and enhancing environmental resistance in the tropics. 

IPGRI 

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an 

international research institute with a mandate to advance the conservation 

and use of genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future 

generations. It is a centre of the Consultative Group on International 

Agricultural Research (CGIAR). 

Also available in this series: 

Tamarind - Tamarindus indica By H. P. M. Gunasena and A. Hughes 

(ISBN 0854327274) 

Ber - Ziziphus mauritiana By O. P. Pareek 

(ISBN 0854327525) 

Safou - Dacryodes edulis By J. Kengue 

(ISBN 0845327649) 

Forthcoming in this series: 

Important Species of Annona By A. C. de Q. Pinto, M. C. R. Cordeiro, S. R. 

M. de Andrade, F. R. Ferreira, H. A. de C. Filgueiras and R. E. Alves. 

iv

ABBREVIATIONS 

FAO - 

ICRAF - 

ICUC - 

KOH - 

MSW - 

NGO - 

NORAD - 

RE - 

RI - 

SAFIRE - 

DG - 

SIDA - 

WHO - 

Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Naitons 

International Centre for Research in Agroforestry 

International Centre for Underutilised Crops 

Potassium Hydroxide 

Malawi Society for Wildlife 

Non-Governmental Organisation 

Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation 

Retinol Equivalent 

Refractive Index 

Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources 

Specific Gravity 

Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency 

World Health Organisation 

v

CONTENTS 

CONTENTS..................................................................................................1 

LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................4 

LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................4 

LIST OF PLATES........................................................................................5 

PREFACE .....................................................................................................6 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................7 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND TAXONOMY ............................8 

1.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................8 

1.2 NOMENCLATURE OF BAOBAB................................................................8 

1.3 VERNACULAR NAMES OF BAOBAB......................................................11 

1.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF BAOBAB ............................................................12 

CHAPTER 2. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.........................................14 

2.1 BOTANICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION...............................14 

2.1.1 The genus Adansonia .................................................................14 

2.1.2 Adansonia digitata.......................................................................15 

2.2 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY ...................................................................16 

2.2.1 Phenology of Adansonia digitata ...............................................16 

2.2.2 Pollination ..................................................................................21 

2.2.3 Seed dispersal and tree regeneration...........................................22 

2.3 CULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS OF BAOBAB ...............................................23 

CHAPTER 3. DISTRIBUTION ...............................................................24 

3.1 BAOBAB IN AFRICA ............................................................................24 

3.2 REGIONAL DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION ..........................................26 

3.2.1 West and Central Africa .............................................................26 

3.2.2 Northeastern Africa ....................................................................26 

3.2.3 Eastern Africa.............................................................................26 

3.2.4 Southern Africa ..........................................................................27 

3.3 INTRODUCTIONS OUTSIDE AFRICA......................................................27 

3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF RELATED SPECIES ...................................................27 

CHAPTER 4. PROPERTIES ...................................................................37 

4.1 LEAVES...............................................................................................37 

4.2 FRUIT PULP .........................................................................................39 

4.3 SEEDS .................................................................................................42 

4.4 OTHER CONSTITUENTS........................................................................45 

4.4.1 Mucilage.....................................................................................45 

4.4.2 Pectin..........................................................................................45 

4.4.3 Anti-nutritional factors ...............................................................45 

4.4.4 Medicinal compounds.................................................................46 

CHAPTER 5. UTILISATION..................................................................47 

5.1 DOMESTIC FOOD USES AND LOCAL PROCESSING .................................47 

5.1.1 Leaves.........................................................................................47 

5.1.2 Fruit pulp ....................................................................................48 

5.1.3 Seeds...........................................................................................48 

1

5.2 DOMESTIC NON-FOOD USES, OTHER THAN MEDICINAL........................49 

5.2.1 Fibre............................................................................................49 

5.2.2 Dye .............................................................................................49 

5.2.3 Seed shell....................................................................................49 

5.2.4 Fuel.............................................................................................49 

5.2.5 Animal browse and feed.............................................................49 

5.3 MEDICINAL USES ................................................................................50 

5.3.1 Traditional use............................................................................50 

5.3.2 Antidote to poison ......................................................................50 

5.3.3 Use in Indian medicine...............................................................50 

5.3.4 Use in cosmetic treatments .........................................................51 

5.4 POTENTIAL FOR ENHANCED LOCAL USE..............................................51 

5.4.1 Processing...................................................................................51 

5.4.2 Marketing ...................................................................................60 

5.5 USE OF THE OTHER ADANSONIA SPECIES..............................................60 

CHAPTER 6. GENETIC RESOURCES, VARIATION AND 

SELECTION............................................................................................61 

6.1 TAXONOMIC VARIATION.....................................................................61 

6.2 FOLK CLASSIFICATION/SELECTION......................................................61 

6.3 GERMPLASM COLLECTIONS ................................................................61 

6.4 CHROMOSOME NUMBERS....................................................................62 

6.5 CHALLENGES TO SELECTION...............................................................62 

CHAPTER 7. AGROECOLOGY ............................................................64 

7.1 ECO-CLIMATIC ZONES.........................................................................64 

7.2 ELEVATION.........................................................................................66 

7.3 SOILS ..................................................................................................66 

7.4 ADAPTATION TO DROUGHT AND FIRE..................................................66 

7.5 MYCORRHIZAE ...................................................................................66 

CHAPTER 8. AGRONOMY....................................................................67 

8.1 SEED PROPAGATION............................................................................67 

8.1.1 Collecting seeds..........................................................................67 

8.1.2 Seed sowing and germination.....................................................67 

8.1.3 Planting and spacing...................................................................68 

8.2 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION................................................................68 

8.2.1 Stem cuttings ..............................................................................68 

8.2.2 Grafting ......................................................................................68 

8.3 GROWTH AND PRODUCTION................................................................69 

8.4 HUSBANDRY.......................................................................................69 

8.5 PESTS AND DISEASES ..........................................................................70 

8.5.1 Physiological ‘disease’ ...............................................................71 

8.6 HARVESTING ......................................................................................71 

CHAPTER 9. PLANTING MATERIAL AND RESEARCH 

CONTACTS.............................................................................................73 

9.1 CURRENT SEED SUPPLIERS..................................................................73 

9.2 RESEARCH AND EXTENSION CONTACTS ..............................................74 

9.2.1 Regional/International organisations ..........................................74 

2

9.2.2 Nationally-based organisations...................................................74 

CHAPTER 10. RESEARCH AND EXTENSION GAPS.......................78 

10.1 EXPLOITING VARIATION ...................................................................78 

10.2 PROMOTING EXTENSION ...................................................................79 

10.3 FURTHER INFORMATION GATHERING ................................................79 

REFERENCES ...........................................................................................80 

GLOSSARY................................................................................................89 

INDEX.........................................................................................................94 

3

LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE 1.1. NOMENCLATURE OF ADANSONIA SPECIES..................................10 

TABLE 1.2. COMMON NAMES FOR AFRICAN BAOBAB. ..................................11 

TABLE 2.1. PHENOLOGY OF ADANSONIA SPECIES.........................................20 

TABLE 3.1. COUNTRIES OF AFRICA WITH DISTRIBUTION OF A. DIGITATA. .....24 

TABLE 4.1. AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF BAOBAB LEAVES.........................37 

TABLE 4.2. MINERAL CONTENTS OF BAOBAB LEAVES ..................................38 

TABLE 4.3. VITAMIN A CONTENTS OF BAOBAB LEAVES ...............................39 

TABLE 4.4. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BAOBAB FRUIT PULP......................40 

TABLE 4.5. AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF BAOBAB FRUIT PULP...................40 

TABLE 4.6. MINERAL CONTENTS OF BAOBAB PULP.......................................41 

TABLE 4.7. AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF BAOBAB SEEDS...........................42 

TABLE 4.8. MINERAL CONTENTS OF BAOBAB SEEDS.....................................43 

TABLE 4.9. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEED OIL OF BAOBAB COMPARED WITH 

PALM KERNEL OIL AND REFINED CORN OIL. ...........................................43 

TABLE 4.10. CYCLIC FATTY ACID CONTENT SEEDS OF ADANSONIA SPECIES ..46 

TABLE 6.1. COVERAGE OF NUTRITIONAL NEEDS IN MALI.............................63 

TABLE 7.1. BAOBAB IN RELATION TO CLIMATIC ZONES OF AFRICA ..............64 

LIST OF FIGURES 

FIGURE 2.1. PALMATE LEAF AND STEM DETAIL OF BAOBAB SHOWING THE 

CLUMPED HAIRS. ...................................................................................17 

FIGURE 2.2. FLOWER OF BAOBAB SHOWING THE FLOWER BUD AND CALYX, 

AND THE FRUIT SHOWING THE MEALY PULP INSIDE THE HARD OUTER 

SHELL....................................................................................................18 

FIGURE 3.1. DISTRIBUTION OF ADANSONIA DIGITATA IN AFRICA AND 

NEIGHBOURING AREAS ..........................................................................25 

FIGURE 7.1. CLIMATOGRAMS FROM A RANGE OF LOCATIONS AT WHICH 

ADANSONIA DIGITATA HAS BEEN MAPPED BY WICKENS ..........................65 

4

LIST OF PLATES 

PLATE 1. LARGE, SHOWY, WHITE FLOWER OF THE BAOBAB TREE..................28 

PLATE 2. OPEN FRUIT WITH IMMATURE SEEDS ..............................................28 

PLATE 3. PENDULOUS BAOBAB FRUITS WITH A VELVET-LIKE COATING.........29 

PLATE 4. FRUITS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF MATURITY .................................29 

PLATE 5. A TREE RETAINING ITS LEAVES DURING FRUITING..........................30 

PLATE 6. A TREE WITHOUT ITS LEAVES DURING FRUITING ............................30 

PLATE 7. TWO BAOBAB TREE VARIETIES PLANTED SIDE BY SIDE, ONE FRUITING 

WITH LEAVES AND ONE FRUITING WITHOUT LEAVES .............................31 

PLATE 8. FRUITS STORED ON THE ROOF OF THE SHELTER AFTER HARVESTING 

FOR FUTURE USE....................................................................................31 

PLATES 9 AND 10. HOLES IN TREES VARY IN SIZE AND ARE USED BY SMALL 

ANIMALS AND HUMANS FOR SHELTER AND STORAGE ............................32 

PLATE 11. EVIDENCE CAN BE SEEN OF FIBER EXTRACTION............................33 

PLATE 12. BARK USED FOR FIBRE..................................................................33 

PLATE 13. COSMETICS CONTAINING BAOBAB................................................34 

PLATE 14. CRAFT PRODUCTS MADE FROM THE FRUIT SHELL .........................34 

PLATE 15. BAOBAB DRINK PRODUCTS...........................................................34 

PLATE 16. A WOMEN CLIMBING THE TREE TO PICK LEAVES...........................35 

PLATE 17. FRESH LEAVES FOR SALE IN A RURAL MARKET.............................35 

PLATE 18. SELLING BAOBAB DRIED LEAVES..................................................52 

PLATE 19. KATI LIVESTOCK MARKET ............................................................52 

PLATE 20. MORPHOTYPE ‘SIRAFING’ IN LOCAL LANGUAGE, NAMED BECAUSE 

OF THE BLACK BARK..............................................................................53 

PLATE 21. MORPHOTYPE ‘SIRABLE’ IN LOCAL LANGUAGE, NAMED BECAUSE OF 

THE RED BARK.......................................................................................53 

PLATE 22. MORPHOTYPE ‘SIRADIE’ IN LOCAL LANGUAGE, NAMED BECAUSE OF 

THE WHITE BARK...................................................................................54 

PLATE 23. HYBRID MORPHOTYPE BETWEEN ‘SIRABLE’ AND ‘SIRADIE’...........54 

PLATES 24 AND 25. MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION IN BAOBAB TREES...........55 

PLATES 26 AND 27. MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATION IN BAOBAB TREES...........56 

PLATES 28 AND 29. BAOBAB ASSOCIATED WITH TAMARINDUS INDICA ...........56 

PLATE 30. BAOBAB IS ASSOCIATED WITH MANY SPECIES GROWING IN 

PARKLAND.............................................................................................57 

PLATE 31. GROWING ON A ROCKY AREA .......................................................57 

PLATE 32. BAOBAB TREES INTERCROPPED WITH PEARL MILLET....................58 

PLATE 33. MORPHOTYPE ‘SIRABLE’ GROWING IN AN IRRIGATED AREA 

ASSOCIATED WITH RICE.........................................................................58 

PLATE 34. BAOBAB TRANSPLANT AT CINZANAN RESEARCH STATION ..........59 

PLATE 35. A GRAFTED BAOBAB TREE WITH SHORT STATURE, ALLOWING 

EASIER ACCESS FOR HARVESTING..........................................................59 

5

PREFACE 

Tropical fruit trees are important crops which supplement and improve the 

quality of diets. Many of the species have multi-purpose uses, with non-food 

products such as fuel, timber, fodder, medicines and industrial products. 

Harvesting from these trees enables rural people to provide nutrition for a 

balanced diet and generate income thus helping to alleviate poverty. The 

potential of indigenous tropical fruits has not been fully realised. 

Fruit trees play a vital role in crop diversification programmes and 

agroforestry systems. Their inclusion in production systems reduces the risks 

which are inherent in the monoculture of staple food crops. In many 

countries farmer income from indigenous fruits is much higher than that 

from traditional agriculture. 

The purpose of this book is to assemble information on production, 

processing, marketing and utilisation of baobab (Adansonia), in order to 

identify research constraints and highlight the importance of the species for 

nutrition and poverty alleviation. This information will be disseminated to a 

wide audience in both developed and developing countries. An extension 

manual is in preparation for dissemination to farmers, field workers and 

policy makers. 

The preparation and publication of this book has been funded by the 

Department for International Development (DFID), UK, as part of a project 

called "Fruits for the Future". Other partner organisations involved in the 

project are the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) 

and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). Baobab is 

the fourth in a series of 5 monographs and extension manuals. 

We hope the information presented in this monograph will be a useful tool 

for teachers, students, extensionists, policy makers, fruit tree growers and 

traders. We also hope that this work may encourage further production, 

processing and marketing of baobab particularly at the village level, and 

researchers and scientists to further explore the benefits of indigenous 

tropical fruit trees. For further information on the series, please visit our 

website at: http://www.civil.soton.ac.uk/icuc 

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr. M. Sidibe and Prof. J. T. 

Williams who have produced the manuscript for this publication, also to Mr. 

David Jackson for reviewing the manuscript, Ms. Rosemary Wise for the 

illustrations, the Editorial Committee whose comments and suggestions were 

extremely helpful during the editing and to all the collaborators who 

provided information and current research papers for analysis and citation. 

Editors, August 2002 

6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

My sincere thanks to Dr Nazmul Haq, Director of the International Centre 

for Underutilised Crops, University of Southampton, UK, for offering this 

prestigious assignment to write a book on Adansonia digitata, considered as 

the most valued tree by the rural populations in the semi-arid lowlands of 

West Africa. I am greatly indebted to John Sheuring, Foundation Syngenta 

and to Dr. Amadou Niang, Co-ordinator of the ICRAF Sahel program for the 

provision of data on baobab. My special thanks to Mauro Ottaviani and all of 

his collaborators from the Baobab Fruit Company for their assistance in 

supplying photographs and references. Thanks are also due to Dr. Minamba 

Bagayogo who closely worked with me in preparing the first chapters. I am 

grateful to Dr. Mamadou Doumbia, Head of the Soil, Water and Plant 

Laboratory of IER, Bakary S. Coulibaly, Agricultural Economist, and many 

other scientists for fruitful comments, advice and help in the translation. My 

sincere thanks to Daouda Sidibé, researcher on the Forestry Resources 

Program in IER, who helped me in the data collection and translation 

processes; I would like to thank Dr Aboubacar Touré, sorghum breeder in 

IER who helped me with the genetics section. 

Dr. M. Sidibe 

2002 

7

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND 

TAXONOMY 

1.1 Introduction 

The African baobab and its related species belong to the family 

Bombacaceae and the genus Adansonia. Adansonia is a member of the tribe 

Adansonieae, or Bombaceae, depending on the taxonomic treatment, and 

however natural or not these groupings are, almost certainly the genus is 

monophyletic. The tribe, which is pantropical, includes Bombax and Ceiba 

with species producing fruit fibres used as kapok. Ceiba pentandra (L.) 

Gaetrn. is cultivated in West Africa and Asia. The family includes about 30 

genera, six tribes and about 250 species. A number of these species are used 

locally for wood, fruits, seeds or gum but few are economically important. 

The family does include economically-important species, such as the durian 

fruit, Durio zibethinus Murr. of tropical Asia; and balsa wood, species of 

Ochroma, of South and Central America; as well as the African baobab. 

The distribution of the individual genera of Adansonieae includes those 

mainly found in tropical America, one Asian e.g. Bombax, and some like 

Adansonia that are essentially African but with representation in Australia. 

The species of the tribe are usually trees, often having swollen trunks, and 

producing a staminal tube or androphore in the flower as well as having 

stipulate, usually palmately compound leaves. The genera of the family 

show a truncate calyx – except for Adansonia, which is typified by the calyx 

totally enclosing the buds. Adansonia also possesses a unique fruit type with 

a woody pericarp surrounding a spongy pulp with reniform seeds. 

1.2 Nomenclature of baobab 

The history of known references to African baobab is well documented in 

Baum (1995). The binomial Adansonia digitata was given by Linnaeus, the 

generic name honouring Michel Adanson who had been to Senegal in the 

eighteenth century and described Baobab (Adanson, 1771). 

African baobab is a very long-lived tree with multipurpose uses. It is thought 

that some trees are over 1000 years old. Since it is not grown agronomically 

nor properly domesticated, there are no known varieties; earlier attempts to 

describe some on the basis of fruit differences are not now accepted 

(Chevalier, 1906; Baum, 1995). It has been introduced to areas outside 

Africa and grown successfully. 

8

Adansonia digitata L. is related to 7 other species that have not been well 

known except for descriptions in floras. Most scientific references to these 

species date from the 1960s (Keraudren, 1963; Miège, et al., 1968, 1973; 

Miège, 1974, 1975; Armstrong, 1977, 1977a,1983; and the recent work of 

David A. Baum in the 1990s). They are listed here (table 1.1) to provide a 

comprehensive picture, although there appears little potential to utilise these 

other species more widely and certainly research emphasis will be on 

selection and suitable agronomy of A. digitata for the foreseeable future. 

9

Table 1.1. Nomenclature of Adansonia species (after Baum, 1995) 

10 

Genus Species Synonyms Reference Area 

Section 

Adansonia A. digitata L. A. baobab L. (1763), A. baobab Syst. Nat. ed. 10, Widespread in Africa 

Gaertn. (1791), A. sphaerocarpa 2:1144 (1759) 

A.Chev. (1901), A. sulcata A. 

Chev. (1906), A. digitata var. 

congolensis A. Chev. (1906) 

Brevitubae A. grandidieri Baill. Hist. Nat. Pl. (1893) Restricted to Madagascar 

Hochreutiner 

A. suarezansis H. 

Notul. Syst. 14 (1952) Restricted ro Madagascar 

Perrier 

Longitubae A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) A. gregori Mueller (1857), A. 

Restricted to NW Australia 

Hochreutiner Guymer ex D. Baum rupestris W. Saville-Kent (1897), 

A. stanburyana Hochreutiner 

(1908) 

A. rubrostipa Jum. & A. fony Baill. ex H. Perrier (1952) Mat. Grass (1909) Restricted to Madagascar 

H. Perrier 

A. madagascarensis A. bernieri Baill. ex Poisson Adansonia (1876) Restricted to Madagascar 

Baill. 

(1912) 

A. za Baill. A. bozy Jum. & H. Perrier, A. 

alba Jum & H. Perrier 

Mem. Soc. Linn. Paris 

(1890) 

Restricted to Madagascar 

A. perrieri Capuron Notul. Syst. Paris 

(1960) 

10 

Restricted to Madagascar

1.3 Vernacular names of Baobab 

The African baobab is known by a very large number of local names. A 

selection of important ones is shown in table 1.2. 

Table 1.2. Common names for African baobab. 

Language Country Name 

English 

Baobab, Monkey bread tree, Ethiopian sour 

gourd, Cream of tartar tree, Senegal calabash 

(fruit), Upside-down tree. 

French 

Baobab, pain de singe (fruit), arbre aux 

calebasses, arbre de mille ans, calebassier du 

Senégal. 

Portuguese 

Cabaçevre 

Arabic 

Buhibab, hamao-hamaraya, gangoleis (fruit) 

Egypt Habhab 

Chad Hamar, hamaraya 

Mauratania Teidoûm 

Sudan Tebeldi, humr, homeira 

Dinka Sudan Dungwol 

More B. Faso Trega, twega, toayga 

Senufo B. Faso, Ngigne 

Mali, Cote 

d’Ivoire 

Dogon Mali Oro 

Sonrai Mali Konian, ko 

Dierma 

Konian 

Bambara Mali Sira 

Peulh Mali Babbe, boki, olohi 

Mandinke Mali Sira, sito 

Baule Cote Fromdo 

d’Ivoire 

Hausa Nigeria, Kouka, kuka 

Niger 

Wolof Senegal Goui, gouis, goui, lalo, boui 

Serer Senegal Bak 

Dirla fogny Senegal Boubakakou 

Fulani Nigeria Boki, bokki 

Amhara Ethiopia Bamba 

Tigre Ethiopia Hemmer, dumma 

Yao Malawi Mlonje 

Chichewa Malawi Mnambe, Mlambe 

Nkonde Malawi Mbuye 

11

Language Country Name 

Yao Malawi Mlonje 

Somali Somalia Yag 

Kamba Kenya Mwambo 

Swahili Somalia to Mbuyu, majoni ya mbuyu (Tanzania) 

Mozambique 

Masai Kenya, Olimisera, ol-unisera 

Tanzania 

Meru Kenya Muramba 

Ndebele Zimbabwe Umkhomo 

Afrikaans 

and others 

S. Africa Kremetart, kremetartboom; mubuyu, muyu, 

mbuyu, mkulukumba, mlambe 

Zulu S. Africa Isimuhu, umshimulu 

Creole W. Indies Mapou zombi 

Hindi India Gorakh-imli, hathi-khatiyan 

Tamil India Papparappuli, anaipuliya-marum 

Gujarati India Sumpura 

Telegu India Brahma-mlinka, seemasinta 

Other local names can be found in Burkill, 1985 and von Maydell, 1986. 

1.4 The importance of baobab 

Although A. digitata is mostly regarded as a fruit-bearing forest tree, it is a 

multipurpose, widely-used species with medicinal properties, numerous food 

uses of various plant parts, and bark fibres that used for a variety of 

purposes. Centuries ago the products were traded: it was well known in 

Cairo markets in the sixteenth century. 

More recently the Forestry Department of the Food and Agriculture 

Organisation of the UN (FAO) has issued information on the species (e.g. 

FAO, 1988), and the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry 

(ICRAF) continues to promote its use as a multipurpose species. A number 

of bilateral agencies promoted the species in the past e.g. Norway (NORAD) 

in Kenya, and Sweden (SIDA) in Tanzania. Regional consultations 

organised by the International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC) have 

accorded high priority to enhanced research and development of baobab. 

Additionally national research efforts, especially in Nigeria and Mali, have 

provided relatively recent data on food values and agronomy. Other 

research, especially in India, has accelerated knowledge of compounds 

valuable in medicine, and work in Saudi Arabia has also tested certain folkmedicine 

concepts. 

Trials in the dry tropical regions of Africa for plantation development have 

included the baobab (Delwaulle, 1977; von Maydell, 1981). This publication 

12

summarises the most up-to-date knowledge on African baobab. Whatever its 

future exploitation, it is likely to remain one of the wonders of nature with 

its huge, swollen trunk (oddly distorted, and thus incongruous) shape, and its 

close linkages to numerous human cultures with a concomitant wealth of 

ethnobotanical knowledge. It is to be hoped that exploitation will indeed 

benefit local people in terms of food and well-being. Interestingly, baobab 

has affected modern human culture. In Barbados two trees introduced from 

Guinea are considered one of the seven wonders of Barbados; in South 

Africa, bonsai baobabs are much sought after; in India, baobab long ago 

entered the Pharmacopoeia. 

13

CHAPTER 2. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES 

2.1 Botanical and morphological description 

2.1.1 The genus Adansonia (Baum, 1995) 

The genus comprises deciduous trees, some massive and up to 30m tall, 

others such as A. gibbosa less than 10m, and two species, A. rubrostipa and 

A. madagascarensis 5-20m. Crowns are usually compact and trunks taper 

from top to bottom or are large and cylindrical or bottle-shaped. Diameter of 

trunk can vary 2-10m. Bark is coloured red to grey and the inner bark 

possesses longitudinal fibres. Wood is soft and arranged in sheets with 

mucilaginous gum produced when damaged. 

Leaves are compound, palmate in shape, spiral and deciduous. Stipules are 

up to 2mm and caducous (up to 15mm and persistent in A. perrieri), Leaflets 

5-11, lateral smaller than medial, margins entire or toothed, sessile or 

petiolate. Apex acute to apiculate, rarely obtuse. Lamina glabrous to 

tomentose; hairs simple or clumped (figure 2.1). 

Flowers single, axillary, up to 5 per branch apex. Peduncle and pedical 

distinct, pedical with 3 caducous bracteoles. Buds are subglobose or ovoid or 

cylindrical. Calyx of 5 lobes joined and enclosing the flower at least 6 h 

before anthesis. Petal 5, free, inserted on the staminal tube, white, yellow or 

red. Ovary superior with hairs. Fruit a dry many-seeded berry, hard and 

woody, usually indehiscent. Seeds in a white or creamy, dry or spongy pulp. 

A simple key to the species is as follows (modified from Baum, 1995): 

Flower buds twice as long as broad, ovoid to oblong. Trees with flat crowns. 

Leaflets usually 9-11, blue green, tomentose. Outer surface of calyx red 

brown……………………………………...………………..A. grandidieri 

Leaflets 6-9, yellow green, subglabrous to scabrous. Outer surface of 

calyx green…………………………………………………A. suarezensis 

Flower buds elongated (at least 5 times as long as broad or globose). Tree 

with rounded crown. 

Flowers and fruit on long pendulous stalks, petals as broad as 

long………………………………….…………………..……..A. digitata 

Flowers and fruit on short erect or horizontal stalk, petals 5 times as long 

as broad. 

Flower buds 10-15cm, petals white or cream……...……....A. gibbosa 

Flower buds 15-28cm, petals yellow or red. 

Leaflets with serrate margins, medial less than 2 cm wide, stamen 

filaments fused into a bundle above top of staminal 

tube…………………………………………………..A. rubrostipa 

14

Leaflets with entire margins, medial more than 2 cm wide, stamen 

filaments free above top of staminal tube. 

Leaflets obovate to obovate-elliptic, stipules persistent, fruit 

peduncle not swollen..…………..…………………..A. perrieri 

Leaflets lanceolate or elliptic, stipules caducous, fruit 

peduncle swollen. 

Style persistent, fruit usually longer than wide.………A. za 

Style caducous, fruit usually wider that long 

…A. madagascarensis 

2.1.2 Adansonia digitata (Wild 1961; Robyns, 1963; Villiers, 1975, 

Palgrave, 1977; Wickens, 1982; Baum, 1995) 

The African baobab tree is characterised by its massive size, reaching to a 

height of 18-25m and producing a rounded crown and showing a stiff 

branching habit. The trunk is swollen and stout, up to 10m in diameter, 

usually tapering or cylindrical and abruptly bottle-shaped; often buttressed. 

Giant individuals can reach a girth of up to 28m. Branches are distributed 

irregularly and large; primary branches may be well distributed along the 

trunk or limited to the apex; young branches are somewhat tomentose but 

rarely glabrous. The bark is smooth, reddish brown to grey, soft and fibrous. 

The bark of leaf-bearing branches is normally ashy on the last node. There is 

a green layer below the outer layer of the bark presumed to photosynthesise 

when the tree has shed its leaves. 

The tree produces an extensive lateral root system and the roots end in 

tubers. Seedlings produce a strong prominent taproot but this is soon 

replaced by laterals. Roots of mature trees rarely extend beyond 2m and are 

relatively shallow: one reason explaining why trees are often toppled in old 

age. 

Leaves are 2-3-foliate at the start of the season and they are early deciduous, 

more mature ones are 5-7(-9)-foliate. Leaves are alternate at the ends of 

branches or occur on short spurs on the trunk. Leaves of young trees are 

often simple. Leaflets are sessile to shortly petiolulate, with great variation 

in size. Overall mature leaf size may reach a diameter of 20cm and the 

medial leaflet can be 5-15 x 2-7cm, leaflet elliptic to obovate-elliptic with 

acuminate apex and decurrent base. Margins are entire and leaves are 

stellate-pubescent beneath when young becoming glabrescent or glabrous. 

Stipules are early caducous, subulate or narrowly triangular, 2-5mm long, 

glabrous except for ciliate margins. 

Flowers are pendulous, solitary or paired in leaf axils, large and showy and 

produced during both wet and dry seasons (plate 1). Pedicels usually vary 

greatly in length, 15-90cm, with 2 small, caducous bracteoles near the apex 

of the pedical. Flower bud is globose, sometimes somewhat ovoid with an 

apex conical to apiculate. Calyx (3-)5 lobed, 5-9 x 3-5(-7)cm fused into a 

15

disc below but divided to half or more above, lobes triangular or oblongtriangular 

with apex acute or subacute; green and tomentose outside and 

cream and villous within; lobes reflexed. Corolla 5 partite, white; petals 

overlapping, obovate about as long as wide (4-)5-9(-10) x (3-)4-8(-12)cm, 

apex rounded, base shortly clawed, sparsely hairy or glabrous (except for the 

inside of the claw which is densely hairy). 

The androecium is made up of a very large number of stamens, 720-1600 

forming a lower staminal tube (1.5-)3-5(-6)cm long, tube cylindrical or 

tapering; upper filaments of stamens free for about the same length as the 

tube and reflexed to form a ring. Anthers are reniform and ca 2mm in length. 

The ovary is usually 5-10 locular, with deeply intruded placentae; conical to 

globose, silky tomentose with upward-pointing hairs. Style is exserted about 

15mm beyond the anthers, reflexed or erect, villous below and glabrous 

above and persists after floral abscission. Stigma white with 5-10 irregular 

fimbriate-papillose lobes. 

Fruits are very variable, usually globose to ovoid but sometimes oblongcylindrical, 

often irregular in shape, 7.5-54cm long x 7.5-20cm wide, apex 

pointed or obtuse, covered by velvety yellowish hairs (sometimes greenish) 

(plate 3). Pericarp 8-10mm thick, woody, enclosing a dry mealy pulp. Seeds 

are reniform and embedded in the pulp, dark brown to reddish black with 

smooth testa and 10-13 x 8-10 x 4-5mm due to lateral flattening (plate 2). 

Seed weight: 2000-3000/kg (von Maydell, 1986). Germination is 

phanerocotylar and seedlings have flattened hypocotyl ca 5 x 4cm and 

shorter epicotyl. Variation in seedling types has been reported (Srivastava, 

1959). 

As the key in 2.1.1 shows, A. digitata has a number of clear diagnostic 

characters separating it from the other species of the genus. These include 

the pendulous flower, the globose buds and broad petals. Additionally the 

rounded crown and irregularly distributed branching are useful diagnostic 

characters. 

2.2 Reproductive biology 

2.2.1 Phenology of Adansonia digitata 

The flowering time varies greatly; in general flowering can occur anytime 

except during the height of the dry season and whether leaves are present or 

not. Timing of flowering appears to differ between geographically isolated 

populations but this could be due to regional climatic differences. 

Flowers open in the late afternoon and this continues through the night and 

the number per tree varies from 1 or 2 to 10-50 (Baum, 1995 a) per day and 

16

Figure 2.1. Palmate leaf and stem detail of baobab showing clumped 

hairs 

17

Figure 2.2. Flower of baobab showing the flower bud and calyx, and the 

fruit showing the mealy pulp inside the hard outer shell 

18

extends for up to 6 weeks. However, there are no data sets confirming this 

sequence for the wide range of baobab. 

Essentially, flowering fits the particular climatic season; ranging from 

October-December in Southern Africa; November-December in 

Madagascar; sporadically through the year except January-March (dry 

season) in Sudan; to May-June in Western Africa. 

Once flowers have opened the calyx and corolla lobes curl back to expose 

the stamens. The morning after flower opening, the calyx and corolla 

straighten and re-cover the stamens. Flowers progressively wilt until the late 

afternoon when the corolla is withered and falls off but the calyx persists. It 

is thought that pollination occurs over a 16-20 h period (Wickens, 1982); 

however anthesis may only last for less than 1 h (Baum, 1995 a). 

Fruits develop 5-6 months after flowering. There are few data on age of trees 

when first flowering begins. Wickens (1982) notes 16-17 years in South 

Africa and 22-23 years in Zimbabwe. In part, lack of data is understandable 

for long-lived perennial trees and noting the difficulties in estimating ages of 

baobabs using simple girth measurements. Fruits tend to fall during the late 

rainy season onwards. 

2.2.1.1 Phenology of related species 

The other species, compared to A. digitata, were examined by Baum in 

Madagascar where they are endemic and to A. gibbosa in northern Western 

Australia where it is endemic. Phenological comparisons are shown in table 

2.1. Broad similarities can be noted. 

19

Table 2.1. Phenology of Adansonia species (Baum, 1995 a) 

20 

Sect. 

Adansonia 

Sect. 

Longitubae 

Sect. 

Brevitubae 

Species Location Flowering 

season 

Flowering 

when in leaf 

Peak no. of 

flowers/night 

Timing of 

Anthesis (h) 

A. digitata Madagascar Nov-Dec Usually 10-50 19.30-20.00 1 

A. gibbosa Australia Nov-Jan Usually 10-40 19.30-21.30 2-4 

Flower 

duration 

(days) 

A. rubrostipa Madagascar Feb-Mar Yes 10-20 19.15-21.15 1.5-3 

A. madagascarensis Madagascar Mar-Apr Yes 20-30 17.30-19.00 3-4 

A. za Madagascar Nov-Jan Yes 20-30 18.30-19.45 1 

A. perriera Madagascar Nov-Dec Young 

leaves 

10-20 17.30-19.00 2-3 

A. grandieri Madagascar Jun-Aug No 40-80 17.50-18.20 2.5-4 

A. suarezensis Madagascar May-Jun No 30-50 16.30-17.45 0.5-3 

20

2.2.2 Pollination 

Pollination of African baobab by bats was proposed by Porsch (1935) 

working in Bogor, Indonesia; this was confirmed by Pijl (1936) at the same 

location. In 1945 a fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) was recorded pollinating 

baobab in West Africa (Jaeger, 1945, 1954; see also Harris and Baker, 

1959). Other evidence for bat pollination came from East Africa (Start, 

1972). The species were all fruit bats: E. helvum, Epomorphorus gambiensis 

and Rousettus aegyptiacus. 

The flowers emit a scent that attracts the bats. The scent is described as 

resembling carrion (i.e. a sour smell). Bats swoop down on the flowers to 

seek the nectar secreted on the inner basal part of the sepals from secretory 

hairs. Visits are for seconds only and bat claws cling to and damage both 

corolla and staminal tube of the flowers. Bats have also been thought to eat 

some pollen (Wickens, 1982). 

Suggestions that wind pollination could occur (Jaeger, 1945; Wickens, 1982) 

or that ant pollination is possible (Humphries, 1982) are discounted by Baum 

(1995 a), although the suggestion that bush babies (Otolemur crussicaudatus 

and Galago senegalensis), known to feed on the flowers, play a pollinating 

role (Coe and Isaac, 1965) is not discounted; nevertheless they probably only 

play a minor role. 

The sour scent of the flowers also attracts certain flies and nocturnal moths 

as well as several species of bollworms that might effect some pollination. 

However, the pendulatory nature of the flowers and phenology favours the 

action of fruit bats. 

The pollination mechanisms of other Adansonia species has recently been 

elucidated by Baum (1995 a). Two systems are apparent: 1. Pollination by 

fruit bats and lemurs in the two species of Section Brevitubae both endemic 

to Madagascar; 2. Pollination by long-tongued hawkmoths in the species of 

section Longitubae. These include species in Australia (A. gibbosa) and 3 in 

Madagascar (observations not yet being confirmed for the fourth species, A. 

madagascarensis). The two diverse systems correlate with the diversity in 

floral morphology, phenology and nectar scent of the species. All species 

pollinated by bats or mammals have a sour scent; all pollinated by insects 

have a sweet scent. 

In all species of Adansonia, a number of animals, other than the major 

pollinators, visit the flowers to exploit nectar and/or pollen. 

21

2.2.3 Seed dispersal and tree regeneration 

When fruits fall in the field, the woody outside fractures and termites enter 

to eat the sweet pulp, thus freeing the seeds. A range of animals carry seeds 

away from the trees: Wickens (1982) records monkeys, squirrels and rats; 

and fruits are widely eaten by humans and a number of large animals such as 

elephants and elands as well as birds. 

Fruits can also be dispersed by water systems and this is important when 

considering the disjunct distribution of the genus and the distribution 

patterns of A. digitata (see Chapter 3). 

African baobab is characteristic of thorn woodlands of the savannahs and 

fears have been expressed that severe droughts of recent years have affected 

regeneration. Equally significant was a tendency to eliminate baobab when 

near cotton and cocoa production areas in West Africa because baobab is 

known to be an alternative host for pests affecting these crops and there was 

also a fear of certain cocoa viruses in the 1950s. In Eastern Africa, reduction 

in populations of baobab have been considered a result of increased elephant 

browsing in national parks. 

Surprisingly little is known about natural regeneration rates, but to a large 

degree this could be because seedlings are not readily recognised since they 

lack the obvious palmately digitate leaves and swollen trunks. Additionally 

the association of baobab with the farmed parklands or savannah (plate 30) 

is a deliberate association with the agricultural environment because of the 

tree uses, and regeneration may well depend on trees being deliberately 

planted near settlements. A study in Burkina Faso clearly points in this 

direction (Gijsbers et al., 1994). This probably marks a change from the past, 

when rural settlements could well have been made in areas where baobabs 

were naturally frequent, as postulated by Wickens. Artificial planting is also 

noted by Giffard (1974) in Senegal and by Sidibé et al. (1996) in Mali (plate 

32). 

For the above reasons, many populations are near to villages or exist as 

relicts from old human habitation patterns. Young trees respond well to 

transplanting. In the past some ethnic groups in Mali such as the Dogon, 

Kagolo and Bambara used to take cuttings from the wild and transplant them 

around their villages. The Dogon people used to transplant them next to their 

toilets where they could use wastewater to enable better growth of baobab. 

This practice originated from the shortage of water at certain times of the 

year and also a scarcity of wild seedlings: the germination rate of the hard 

seeds is usually less than 20% (Danthu et al., 1995). In addition, the 

regenerated plants must be protected from wandering animals during the dry 

season. Using rigid stakes or fences ensures this protection. Efforts are 

22

underway to improve establishment rates from seed and as a result of 

research in Mali orchards of baobab are possible. 

2.3 Cultural associations of baobab 

The food, medicinal and other uses of baobab are described in Chapter 5. 

Here the importance of the tree to other cultural aspects of African life will 

be summarised. 

The species has been accepted as the representative tree for the Republic of 

the Congo and has been used on stamps of several African countries. Maybe 

its oldest link to people and their culture is that nomads in dry areas used the 

hollowed trunks to make into water reservoirs. These have been recorded as 

holding at least 200 gallons of fresh water and up to 4000 gallons and the 

water remains sweet for years if kept well closed. Reservoirs can be 

hollowed out in a few days. 

In East Africa, the trunks are hollowed out to provide a variety of shelters 

and storage spaces (plates 9 and 10). In West Africa, especially in Senegal, 

and in Zimbabwe, such spaces have been used as tombs – in fact the baobab 

is one of the only trees in Africa preserved as repositories for the ancestors 

and hence has spiritual power over the community’s welfare. For instance, in 

Nigeria certain baobabs are centres of worship involving fertility spirits. The 

Yoruba of South Nigeria often include the name for baobab (Ose) in their 

village name. In some regions more than one tribal group may venerate a 

particular tree – especially in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe and the mythical 

origins of some tribes can be related to ancestor–baobabs. A book on the 

spiritual significance of baobab is in preparation by David Scannell (see 

www.mg.co.za/mg/africa) and references to the folklore associated with 

baobab can be found in Owen (1970) and Armstrong (1983). 

23

CHAPTER 3. DISTRIBUTION 

3.1 Baobab in Africa 

African baobab occurs naturally in most countries south of the Sahara with 

notable absence in Liberia, Uganda, Djibouti and Burundi. In some of these 

countries its distribution is limited, e.g. in Chad, where it is not found in the 

east, and South Africa where it is mostly limited to the Transvaal. 

Essentially, baobab is associated with the savannah, especially the drier 

parts. However, there are extensions of the distribution into forest areas, 

probably associated with human habitation. It appears to be introduced into 

more equatorial areas, such as Gabon, Democratic Congo and Zaire, and to 

countries with a marked dry season such as São Tomé, Madagascar and 

Comoros. 

Central African Republic represents a natural gap in the distribution, 

although some introduction has occurred. It has been introduced into Egypt 

(and Yemen). 

Distribution was inadequately known until the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 

UK initiated a mapping project (Lucas, 1971). This permitted Wickens 

(1982) to publish a map (reproduced as figure 3.1). To save the need for 

numerous boundaries on figure 3.1 a list of countries is shown in table 3.1. It 

should be noted that there are still gaps in the knowledge about distribution. 

Table 3.1. Countries of Africa with distribution of A. digitata. 

Type 

Countries 

1. Considered indigenous Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, 

Cameroon Cape Verde, Chad, Congo, Côte 

d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Gambia, Ghana, 

Guinea, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, 

Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, 

Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, 

Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. 

2. Considered introduced Central African Republic, Comoros, 

Democratic Congo, Egypt, Gabon, 

Madagascar, São Tomé, Zaire 

24

Figure 3.1. Distribution of Adansonia digitata in Africa and 

neighbouring areas. 1. Distribution based on Herbarium and flora records. 

2. Specimens known to be cultivated or introduced. 3. Distribution based on 

published and unpublished photographs. 4. Distribution based on the Kew 

‘Baobab Survey’ information. 5. Records obtained from travel literature, 

maps etc. 

Source: Reporduced from Wickens, 1982 (courtesy of Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) 

25

3.2 Regional diversity and distribution 

As would be expected with such a wide distribution, botanists have recorded 

certain plant characteristics that appear to represent morphological types. For 

instance, Oliver (1868) noted that Mozambiquan trees had narrower leaves 

than other types and Worsfold (1899) and Chevalier (1906) noted diverse 

fruit types in West Africa and North Mozambique, respectively. Much more 

scientifically-based work is needed to consider patterns of genetic diversity 

in relation to distribution. 

It appears that the extant distribution is probably determined by minimum 

requirement for a certain annual precipitation - hence its occurrence, at 

times, in upland areas coupled with the need for a dry season. Its relatively 

wide ecological tolerance (see Chapter 7), and its amenity to artificial 

propagation (see Chapter 8) suggests that some wider provenance testing 

should repay dividends. Trials initiated in the 1970s used exceedingly 

narrow variation. 

3.2.1 West and Central Africa 

Baobab is typically a scattered tree in the savannah, and also along tracks 

and associated with habitation. Its frequent association with similar habitats 

of Tamarindus indica (tamarind) (plates 28 and 29), Butyrospermum 

paradoxum (shea), Parkia spp. (locust bean), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert 

date) or Acacia albida (Wickens, 1982) places it into a category of incipient 

domesticate and a likely tolerance beyond its natural home into ecotones. 

It is also found on coastal areas e.g. estuarine areas of Senegal, coastal plains 

of Ghana, Benin and Togo, also coastal regions of Zaire, suggesting 

secondary colonisation after introduction. 

3.2.2 Northeastern Africa 

A northern limit is in semi-desert scrub and it becomes more common as 

annual rainfall increases. In Eritrea and Somalia it is typically lowland, but 

in Sudan it thrives in the Nuba mountains. 

3.2.3 Eastern Africa 

In Kenya, southwards to Mozambique, populations are coastal as well as 

scattered in lowland bush and scrub, although in Tanzania it is a relict on 

upland plateaux cleared for cultivation. 

26

3.2.4 Southern Africa 

In Angola and Namibia it occurs in mature woodland and throughout 

Angola, Zimbabwe and northern South Africa as a savannah component. In 

Angola there are also coastal lowland populations. 

3.3 Introductions outside Africa 

Part of the distribution in Africa can be understood when it is postulated that 

Arab traders moved baobab. This would explain its occurrence in Yemen 

and Oman, also on the island of Zanzibar and the introduction to 

Madagascar (Burton-Page, 1969). 

Baobab was widely introduced into India and Sri Lanka and probably 

resulted from Moslem traders, and Moslem control of large areas, centuries 

ago. Wickens (1982) records that baobab cannot be identified in any ancient 

Sanskrit writings. 

In a number of areas of introduction, baobab can naturalise e.g. in Mauritius 

in the past. This is also true of some of the African coastal areas of 

introduction. 

The Portuguese and French traders, as well as Moslem traders, also 

introduced baobab to other areas. Hence it is found also in Réunion, 

Malaysia, Indonesia (Java), China-Taiwan, Philippines, Guyana, New 

Caledonia, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Martinique, USA (Hawaii, 

Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and Florida), Jamaica, Montserrat, Netherlands 

Antilles, Dominica, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the 

Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados. 

The basis for many of these introductions was the oddity of the plant shape 

and its use as an ornamental. 

3.4 Distribution of related species 

Six of the Adansonia species, enumerated in table 1.1 are endemic to 

Madagascar. They are distributed particularly on the western slopes from the 

north to the south of the island but they are more numerous in the west and 

south-west (Baum, 1996). They can be the dominant species in so-called 

baobab forests. They are, in general, lowland species of dry, deciduous (or 

semi-deciduous) forest. Baum (1995) considers A. perrieri to be a threatened 

species and A. suarezensis and A. grandidieri are facing threats. One 

species, A. gibbosa is distributed in the Kimberley region of Western 

27

Plate 1. Large, showy, white flower of the baobab tree 

Plate 2. Open fruit with immature seeds 

28

Plate 3. Pendulous baobab fruits with a velvet-like coating 

Plate 4. Fruits at different stages of maturity (Cinzana area, Mali) 

29

Plate 5. A tree retaining its leaves during fruiting (Cinzana area, Mali) 

Plate 6. A tree without its leaves during fruiting 

30

Plate 7. Two baobab tree varieties planted side by side, one fruiting with 

leaves and one fruiting without leaves 

Plate 8. Fruits stored on the roof of the shelter after harvesting for future use 

31

Plates 9 and 10. Holes in trees vary in size and are used by small animals 

and humans for shelter and storage (Cinzana area, Mali) 

32

Plate 11. Evidence can be seen of fiber extraction 

Plate 12. Bark used for fibre 

33

Plate 13. Cosmetics containing baobab (courtesy of the Baobab Fruit 

Company) 

Plate 14. Craft products made from the fruit shell (Courtesy of the Baobab 

Fruit Company) 

Plate 15. Baobab drink products 

34

Plate 16. A women climbing the tree to pick leaves (top left) (Niono area, 

Mali) 

Plate 17. Fresh leaves for sale in a rural market 

35

Australia and the Victoria River area of Northern Territory. It occurs near 

habitation, along seasonal creeks and river plains and persists in open areas 

subject to burning. 

Every species shows use of the trunks for emergency water supplies and 

fruits being eaten by humans. 

Until Wickens (1982) discussed the disjunct distribution it had been 

explained as a very ancient relic of the flora of Gondwanaland, the Mesozoic 

southern continent which later split to form Africa, Australia, Antarctica and 

South America (Armstrong, 1977). Wickens, however, stressed the 

possibility of water dispersal of fruits and transoceanic dispersal became a 

possibility. In a study of the phylogeny of the genus using morphology, 

molecular analyses of Adansonia species and comparisons between 

Adansonia and closely related genera, the evidence produced ruled out 

Gondwanan disjunction but points to transoceanic dispersal (Baum et al., 

1998). 

36

CHAPTER 4. PROPERTIES 

Throughout its range, baobab is used for food. The pulp of the fruit, the 

seeds and leaves are all used and are essentially wild-gathered foods. Such 

foods play a significant role in preparation of traditional dishes and as 

sources of food during times of scarcity and famine (Sai, 1969). 

Understanding the dietary contribution of such food resources requires data 

on nutrient composition of both raw and prepared food (Nordeide et al., 

1994; Nordeide, 1995). For baobab, the data are widely scattered and 

relevant research is somewhat fragmentary. 

4.1 Leaves 

Young leaves are widely used, cooked as spinach, and frequently dried, 

often powdered and used for sauces over porridges, thick gruels of grains, or 

boiled rice. Available data (Becker, 1983; Yazzie et al., 1994 and Nordeide 

et al., 1996) show that leaves contain (dry weight): 13-15% protein, 60-70% 

carbohydrate, 4-10% fat and around 11% fibre and 16% ash. Energy value 

varies from 1180-1900kJ/100g of which 80% is metabolisable energy. 

In terms of protein content and WHO standards, leaves of baobab can be 

rated ‘good’ in that they score well for 5 of the 8 essential amino acids (table 

4.1). 

Table 4.1. Amino acid composition of baobab leaves (mg/g dry weight) 

Amino acid A B SD for A 

37 

% of total protein 

A B 

WHO 

ideal 

Aspartic acid 10.3 12.9 2.5 

Glutamic acid 13.4 11.4 3.8 

Serine 4.7 4.6 1.1 

Glycine 6.0 5.6 1.0 

Histidine 2.1 2.2 0.5 

Arginine 8.5 7.1 2.9 

Threonine 4.1 3.6 0.7 4.0 3.7 3.5 

Proline 5.6 6.8 1.0 

Tyrosine 4.5 4.1 0.7 

Valine 6.3 6.5 0.8 5.0 6.2 6.4 

Methionine 2.4 1.0 0.4 

Isoleucine 6.7 5.5 1.1 4.0 5.2 5.3

Amino acid A B SD for A % of total protein 

WHO A B 

ideal 

Leucine 8.7 8.7 1.4 7.0 9.5 8.5 

Phenylalanine 5.7 6.0 1.0 

Cysteic acid 2.7 2.1 1.3 

Lysine 6.1 6.1 0.9 5.5 5.8 5.9 

Tryptophan 1.6 2.0 0.5 4.0 3.1 2.0 

Alanine 6.7 

Phenylalanine 

6.0 9.7 9.9 

& tyrosine 

Methionine & 

3.5 4.9 3.0 

Cystine 

Data from Glew et al., (1997) and Yazzie et al., (1994) 

A = material from Jos markets, Nigeria; 

B = field collected material from South Burkina Faso. 

SD = Standard deviation 

WHO ideal (WHO, 1973) 

It should be noted that the leaf amino acids, such as tryptophan are increased 

to acceptable levels when consumed with other staples such as coarse grains. 

Nordeide et al. (1996), who had analysed leaves from Southern Mali, 

showed lysine appeared to be a limiting amino acid relevant to the FAO 

reference protein for children 2-5 yrs old (FAO, 1985), but threonine and 

tryptophan exceeded the standard. 

Leaves are also known to be significant sources of minerals, especially 

magnesium as manganese. Basic data are available in Smith et al., (1996) in 

material from Burkina Faso and Niger and table 4.2 shows data from 

Burkina Faso according to Glew et al. (1997) and from Nigeria according to 

Yazzie et al. (1994). 

Table 4.2 Mineral contents of baobab leaves (µg/100g dry weight) 

Minerals A B C D 

Aluminium - 1230 228 2870 

Barium - 187 182 454 

Calcium 20000 26400 3070 3150 

Copper 11.6 1 - - 

Magnesium 5490 3120 4360 5350 

Manganese 31 43.8 79.5 89.3 

Molybdenum - 9.1 19.8 17.6 

Phosphorus 3020 1480 2880 1200 

Potassium - 10800 5400 3210 

Sodium 1630 - - - 

A = Data from Glew et al. (1997) B-D = Yazzie et.al. (1994) 

38

Glew et al., (1997) point out that baobab leaves have a high content of iron 

compared to numerous other wild-gathered foods, and are a rich source of 

calcium. Comparisons between published data for the minerals iron, 

calcium, zinc and phosphorus show wide variations in content. Iron is of 

especial importance because of the prevalence of iron-deficiency anaemia in 

savannah areas. 

Glew et al. (1997) recorded the total lipid content of baobab leaves at 55 

mg/g of dry weight and that they were not a significant source of linoleic 

acid. Nordeide et al., (1996) recorded that the level of vitamin A was about 

one-third the content in Amaranthus dried leaves. Becker (1983) noted the 

absence of vitamin C but a significant content of vitamin B2. 

Scheuring (1999) published the analysis of dried leaf samples carried out by 

Hoffman-La Roche, Switzerland, for vitamin A (table 4.3). 

Table 4.3 Vitamin A contents of baobab leaves 

Leaves Sun dried Shade dried 

1 2 3 1 2 3 

Young trees, 5.7 74.5 12.9 12.9 156.5 27.2 

small leaves 

Young trees, 6.7 54.0 9.3 5.1 130.0 22.0 

large leaves 

Old trees, 9.9 87.0 15.3 19.4 147.5 26.2 

small leaves 

Old trees, 4.1 69.0 11.5 7.1 107.0 18.5 

large leaves 

1 = µ/g α carotene; 2 = µ/g β carotene; 3 = RE µ/g 

4.2 Fruit pulp 

The fruit pulp is probably the most important foodstuff. It is dry and mealy 

and it is used in cool and hot drinks. Pulp can be dissolved in water or milk 

and the liquid is used as a drink, as a sauce for food, as a fermenting agent in 

local brewing or as a substitute for cream of tartar in baking. The energy 

value of pulp is similar to that of baobab leaves (Becker, 1983). 

Analysis of ripe fruit points to an average of 8.7% moisture with 2.7% 

protein, 0.2% fat, 73.7% carbohydrate, 8.9% fibres and 5.8% ash (Arnold et 

al., 1985). A typical analysis of pulp is shown in table 4.4 and the amino 

acid composition in table 4.5. 

39

Table 4.4 Chemical composition of baobab fruit pulp 

Constituent Mean % SD 

Total soluble solids 79.3 1.2 

Alcohol soluble solids 57.3 2.4 

Total sugars 23.2 0.2 

Reducing sugars 18.9 0.5 

Total pectin 56.2 0.9 

Total starch 0 

Proteins (%Nx6.25) 2.6 0.3 

Fat 0.2 0.01 

Fibre 5.7 0.2 

Ash 5.3 0.02 

Material from Khartoum market, Sudan. Data from Nour et al. (1980) 

Table 4.5. Amino acid composition of baobab fruit pulp (mg/g dry 

weight) 

Amino acid Composition (mg/g dry weight) 

Aspartic acid 2.96 

Glutamic acid 3.94 

Serine 1.18 

Glycine 1.21 

Histidine 0.42 

Arginine 2.28 

Threonine 0.65 

Proline 2.35 

Tyrosine 1.06 

Valine 1.62 

Methionine 0.14 

Isoleucine 1.37 

Phenylalanine 2.06 

Cysteic acid 1.09 

Lysine 1.63 

Tryptophan 0.18 

Alanine 2.21 

Material from Burkina Faso. Data from Glew et al. (1997) 

The Baobab Fruit Company (2002) also lists amino acids and shows 

significant levels of leucine, not recorded in table 4.5, as well as threonine, 

valine and isoleucine with good values for nutrition. 

For fatty acids, Glew et al., (1997) recorded total lipid content of 155 mg/g 

dry weight, and stated that significant linoleic acid is present. Mineral 

40

contents are shown in table 4.6 (Glew et al., 1997). Becker (1983) and 

Odetokun (1996) recorded high potassium levels, not present in the assay in 

table 4.6, as well as a trace of copper. Mineral analysis of fruits in Malawi 

also showed high contents of calcium, magnesium and traces of manganese 

and copper (Saka et al., 1994). More recent analyses collated by the Baobab 

Fruit Company (2002) show diverse data for minerals: in particular calcium 

content is ca. 295-300µg/100g, phosphorus varies 96-210mg/100g; iron 

content was 7mg/100g, magnesium 0.10 mg/100g, zinc 0.064mg/100g and 

manganese 2.07 mg/100g. 

Table 4.6 Mineral contents of baobab pulp 

Mineral 

µg/100g dry weight 

Iron 17 

Calcium 3410 

Magnesium 2090 

Zinc 10.4 

Sodium 54.6 

Phosphorus 733 

Special attention has been given to measuring vitamin C in baobab fruit pulp 

due to occasional reports of high content. Ighodalo et al., (1991) recorded 

337 mg ascorbic acid/100g pulp for fruits in Nigeria, the Baobab Fruit 

Company (2002) recorded 34-200mg/100g; and Palmer and Pitman (1972) 

stated levels were higher than in orange. Joint efforts between the Malian 

Agronomic Research Institute and the Novartis Foundation for Sustainable 

Development reveal a range from 1505-4991 mg/kg (Sidibé et al., 1996). 

However, contents remained similar in the same plant source from year to 

year. Results from bulked samples provided consistent results of about 2200 

mg/kg but fruits bulked only from individual trees kept the range of values. 

However, full statistical analysis did not show consistent differences in 

vitamin C between regions or between types of trees. The types of trees were 

selected accordingly to a folk classification of black bark, red bark and grey 

bark. 

Pulp sweetness is provided by fructose, saccharose and glucose contents. 

Fruit pulp is also acidic and this is due to the presence of organic acids 

including citric, tartaric, malic, succinic as well as ascorbic acid (Airan and 

Desai, 1954). This accounts for the tree often being called the Cream of 

Tartar tree. There are reports of pulp possessing significant amounts of 

thiamine (Toury et al., 1957), and the Baobab Fruit Company (2002) records 

content at 0.038 mg/100g (also riboflavine at 0.06mg/100g, vitamin B6 

2.13µg/100g, niacin 2.16mg/100g and total carotene at 200mcg/100g). 

41

4.3 Seeds 

Seed kernels are widely used, despite the need to remove the relatively thick 

shell. They are eaten fresh, dry or ground and used in cooking. Kernels have 

an energy value of 1803 kJ/100g (Arnold et al., 1985) approximately 50% 

higher than leaves. Arnold et al. (1985) also provided data on chemical 

composition: moisture 8.1%, protein 33.7%, fat 30.6%, carbohydrates 4.8%, 

fibre 16.9% and ash 5.9%. However, higher levels of carbohydrates have 

been recorded (Palmer and Pitman, 1972). 

Glew et al., (1997) reported that lipid content was 155 mg/g of dry weight 

with 1-2 mg/g linoleic acid. Amino acids and mineral contents are shown in 

tables 4.7 and 4.8. 

Table 4.7 Amino acid composition of baobab seeds 

Amino acid Mg/g 

% of total protein 

dry weight WHO ideal Baobab seed 

A 

A 

B 

Aspartic acid 21.1 

Glutamic acid 48.9 

Serine 11.4 

Glycine 10.4 

Histidine 5.05 

Arginine 2.21 

Threonine 6.98 4.0 3.6 4.1 

Proline 9.55 

Tyrosine 5.59 

Valine 11.6 5.0 5.9 6.0 

Methionine 2.29 

Isoleucine 8.27 4.0 4.2 3.7 

Leucine 14.0 7.0 7.1 7.6 

Phenylalanine 10.3 

Cysteic acid 3.60 

Lysine 11.2 5.5 5.7 6.6 

Tryptophan 2.81 4.0 1.4 1.4 

Alanine 10.6 

Phenylalanine + 

16.0 8.1 1.4 

Tyrosine 

Methionine + 

3.5 3.0 1.8 

Cystine 

A = data from Glew et al. (1997) 

B = data from Addy and Eteshola (1984) 

42

The essential amino acids showed similarities between samples from 

Burkina Faso and from Maiduguri, Nigeria. The content of the sulphurcontaining 

amino acids was 57-86% of the ideal. 

Table 4.8 Mineral contents of baobab seeds (µg/g dry weight) 

Mineral 

µg/g dry weight 

Iron 18.3 

Calcium 3950 

Magnesium 3520 

Manganese 10.6 

Zinc 25.7 

Sodium 19.6 

Phosphorus 6140 

Significant potassium and measurable copper were recorded by 

Arnold et al. (1985) and potassium by Odetokun (1996). 

In view of the shortfall in vegetable oils, especially in the Sahel, studies on 

seeds of lesser known species have received attention in recent times. 

Baobab is no exception. β-carotene, a fat-soluble vitamin, was usually 

studied as well as the oils. Essien and Fetuga (1989) provided overall 

physical and chemical characteristics of the seed oil (table 4.9). 

Table 4.9. Characteristics of the seed oil of baobab compared with palm 

kernel oil and refined corn oil. 

Characteristic Baobab Palm Corn oil 

kernel 

Refractive index (n D 40 o C) 1.468 1.454 1.457 

Volatile matter % 1.65 1.56 1.61 

Moisture % 2.08 3.93 0.83 

Iodine value 85.2 16.3 71.1 

Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 157.1 204.7 161.9 

Unsaponifiable matter % 0.82 1.80 1.03 

Peroxide value 1.86 11.63 21.38 

Free fatty acid % 15.53 8.44 0.51 

The mean iodine value showed a similar degree of unsaturation when 

compared with corn oil. The low peroxide value points to a higher level of 

unsaturated fatty acids. This study, in Nigeria, also showed that β-carotene 

content was 43.36µg/100g, twice that of palm kernel oil and 7 times that of 

corn oil. 

43

The Baobab Fruit Company (2002) has collated data from a series of 

publications and provides the most comprehensive overview of seed oil 

properties and constituents (tabel 4.10). 

The vitamin C content of seeds has not been researched extensively but they 

are known to contain thiamine (Abbiw, 1990). 

Table 4.10 Properties and constituents of the seed oil of baobab 

Composition 

Quantity 

Specific Gravity (SG) 

25/25 o C 0.937 

Refractive index (RI) 

25 o C 

40 o C 1.4596-1.4633 

Iodine value 55-96 

Saponifiable Value 133-195 

Unsaponifiable matter % 2.8-3.8 

Fatty acid Composition (%) 

12:0 0-0.3 

14:0 0.3-1.5 

16:0 25-46 

16:1 0.3-1.7 

18:0 0.4 

18:1 21-59 

18:2 12-29 

18:3 0-8 

20:0 0.5-1.0 

20:1 0-3.6 

Others 

Malvalic 1-7 

Sterculic 1-8 

Dihydrosterculic 2-5 

Sterol Compostion (%) 

Cholesterol 2 

Camperterol 6 

Stigmasterol 1-2 

β-Sitosterol 75 

!5-Avenasterol 0.5 

!7-Stigmasterol 0.6 

!7-Avenasterol 12 

44

4.4 Other constituents 

4.4.1 Mucilage 

Numerous foodstuffs, particularly in West Africa, are mucilaginous: this 

provides a desired slimy consistency to local soups and stews. Woolfe et al., 

(1977) in Ghana conducted a detailed study of the mucilage produced from 

baobab leaves. 

The most interesting feature is the high protein and mineral content both in 

crude and purified mucilage. The mucilage contains a very small amount of 

neutral sugars: rhamnose and galactose. Uronic acid is present as a mixture 

of galacturonic and glucuronic acids. The relatively high proportion of 

uronic acids classifies the mucilage as a galacturonorhamnan polysaccharide 

which is acidic. 

Viscosity depends on the mix of carbohydrates, proteins and minerals in the 

mucilage and is lowered with cooking at high temperatures. Nonetheless, 

baobab mucilage has great potential as a thickening agent. 

4.4.2 Pectin 

Fruit pulp is rich in pectin, most of it being water soluble with a low content 

of protopectin. It was found to have a low degree of esterificaton. Intrinsic 

viscosity values of the water soluble pectin are about one fifth of those of 

commercial apple pectin and hence does not give a good jelly of high solids 

content because it tends to precipitate rapidly in acid media to form irregular 

gels (Nour et al., 1980). 

4.4.3 Anti-nutritional factors 

Upon cooking or frying, polyunsaturated fatty acids of seed oil undergo 

transformations such as oxidation, polymerisation and cyclisation. Some of 

the cyclic components may be toxic. The species of Adansonia contain 

cyclopropene and cyclopropane fatty acids. Whereas cyclopropane fatty 

acids appear to have no adverse effect on normal fatty acid metabolism, 

cyclopropene fatty acids or sterculic acid can have adverse effects. This 

summary is abstracted from Sebedio and Grandgirard (1989) who provided 

the data in table 4.11 based on earlier analysis by others. 

45

Table 4.11. Cyclic fatty acid content seeds of Adansonia species 

Species % oil Malvalic Sterculic Dihydrosterculic 

A. digitata 8.4 3.1 1.2 5.1 

13.2 5.1 1.6 1.5 

A. grandideri 37.0 6.2 8.1 No data 

30.7 6.3 7.6 4.4 

36.4 6.9 7.4 1.8 

A. za 10.9 6.7 2.9 4.6 

11.4 4.9 2.1 4.5 

A. madagascarensis 13.8 5.9 2.2 4.0 

A. suarezensis 46.2 7.7 4.3 1.7 

A. rubrostipa 10.5 5.1 1.6 2.6 

The cyclic fatty acids are many times the contents found in cotton seed oil 

where values for the three compounds in table 4.11 would all be less than 

1.0. 

Seeds are also known to contain tannin, a trypsin inhibitor and an alkaloid, 

adansonine. Normal processing in cooking renders most levels acceptable 

and there are potential methods for reduction if oil is processed (Addy et al., 

1995). However, amylase inhibitor is seen in seeds but is considerably 

reduced when dehulled (Igboeli et al., 1997). 

4.4.4 Medicinal compounds 

In many medicinal uses, stem bark is used. When prepared it is made into a 

decoction for internal use and functions due to its soluble and insoluble 

tannin, and gummy and albuminious constituents. β-sitosterol has been 

studied and this occurs in the bark and also the seed oil (for reference see 

Asolkar et al., 1992). The mucilage of leaves has been discussed by Gaiwe 

et al. (1989). Adansonin, with formula C 48 H 36 O 33 , in the bark is thought to 

be the active principle for treatment of malaria and other fevers. 

Root bark is also used in India in traditional medicine. This contains β- 

sitosterol and two glycosides (Ramesh et al., 1992). Other analyses have 

shown that leaves, as well as bark, contain lupeol acetate as well as β- 

sitosterol, scopoletin, friedelin and baueronol. Bark additionally contains 

betulinic acid (Dan and Dan, 1986) 

Bark has, in the past, been exported to Europe, for use as a fever treatment. 

It was traded as cortex cael cedra. 

46

CHAPTER 5. UTILISATION 

Baobab provides food, emergency water, fibres and medicines. This chapter 

summarises the major uses of baobabs. 

5.1 Domestic food uses and local processing 

5.1.1 Leaves 

Young fresh leaves are cut into pieces and cooked in a sauce. Sometimes 

they are dried and powdered and used for cooking. The powder is called lalo 

in Mali and is sold in many village markets in Western Africa. There is a 

marked seasonality in use of leaves. Nordeide et al., (1996) surveyed two 

villages and a town neighbourhood to compare rural and urban use of wild 

foods in southern Mali. Out of over 100 rural households, 26% used baobab 

leaves in the rainy season, and 56% in the dry season; and out of over 150 

urban households, 6% used baobab leaves in the rainy season and 13% in the 

dry season. Use of fruits was much lower and ranged from 0.5-6% of 

households, with roughly a two-fold increased use in the dry season. 

In Mali, use of the leaves in sauce is usually in association with seeds of 

Parkia biglobosa, onion, okra, pepper, ginger, sometimes meat, but more 

often fish. The sauce is used with a thick porridge made from millet, 

sorghum or maize, but also for couscous and rice (Nordeide et al., 1996). In 

other areas leaves are used for soup e.g. miyan kuka of the Hausa in northern 

Nigeria and ground leaves are boiled in salt water (Yazzie et al., 1994). 

Leaves are used throughout the African distribution of baobab e.g. in 

Malawi they are boiled with potash (Williamson, 1975). In Zimbabwe, they 

provide fresh vegetables that are substituted for the commercially grown 

leafy vegetables such as cabbages ans lettuce (Dovie et al., in press), but 

they do not appear to be used in Madagascar, and not used for food purposes 

in India. 

There are no major reports on storability and quality of powdered leaves. 

Moreover since leaves are an important source of iron and other minerals, 

the bioavailability of the minerals requires further study. The high content of 

tannin may be acceptable in terms of normal usage of the leaves due to an 

emollient present. 

47

5.1.2 Fruit pulp 

The dry pulp is either eaten fresh or used to add to gruels on cooling after 

cooking – a good way of preserving the vitamin contents. It can also be 

ground to make a refreshing drink with a pleasing wine-gum flavour. In 

Tanzania, it is added to aid fermentation of sugar cane for beer making 

(Fleuret, 1980). 

When the fruit is ripe, the pulp is removed from the fibres and seeds by 

kneading in cold water: the resulting emulsion is seived. This is then added 

to thick grain preparations to make thinner gruels. The cattle-owning Fulani 

and the Hausa of northern Nigeria use the fruit pulp emulsion to mix with 

milk as a drink. 

Pulp can be stored for fairly long periods for use in soft drink production but 

it needs airtight containers. Storage is improved by the use of sodium 

metabisulphite (Ibiyemi et al., 1988). It can also be frozen if ground to a 

powder (Obizoba and Amaechi, 1993). Baobab powder mixtures are 

commonly available in many public markets but quality can be poor and 

some can be fraudulent. 

Fruit pulp is usually sundried, but occasionally fermented, for use in 

cooking. 

5.1.3 Seeds 

In general, seeds are used as a thickening agent in soups, but they can be 

fermented and used as a flavouring agent, or roasted and eaten as snacks 

(Palmer and Pitman, 1972; Addy and Eteshola, 1984). When roasted, they 

are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. In some cases, seeds are dehulled 

by boiling, rubbing by hand, then sundrying the kernels before 

grinding. 

Seeds are also a source of cooking oil but this is not widespread, although 

there has been interest in expanding such use due to deficits of vegetable 

oils. Oil is extracted by pounding the seeds. 

Fermentation of powdered de-hulled seeds is known to increase protein 

digestibility. It also reduces the trypson inhibition activity sixfold, but 

increases tannin content (Addy et al., 1995). 

Frequently, baobab seeds are ground with peanuts and water and sugar 

added to make a sauce used with porridge (Pele and Berre, 1967). 

48

Seed pulp is sometimes known as monkey bread is eaten and traded in the 

region (Dovie et al., 2001). 

5.2 Domestic non-food uses, other than medicinal 

5.2.1 Fibre 

Fibre from the inner bark is strong and widely used for making rope, basket 

nets, snares, fishing lines and is even used for weaving. Fibres are also 

available from disintegrated wood and have been used for packing. Other 

fibres used for rope are obtained from root bark. 

5.2.2 Dye 

In East Africa roots are used to make a soluble red dye. The green bark is 

also used as a dye and for decoration (Dovie et al., in press). 

5.2.3 Seed shell 

The hard fruit shells are used in the manufacture of pots for food and drink 

(Dovie et al., 2001). 

5.2.4 Fuel 

The wood is a poor source of fuel; however, fruit shells are used as fuel in 

Tanzania and they are used as water dippers (Nkana and Iddi, 1991). 

5.2.5 Animal browse and feed 

Leaves of baobab are routinely browsed especially in the agrosylvipastoral 

systems in the Sahel. The high tannin content of the leaves has a significant 

effect on in vivo dry matter digestibility. Optimal dry matter degradation in 

sheep feed was at a level less than 30% of the browse, and browse 

digestibility of the leaves was 47% (Touré et al., 1998). Since the tannin 

level is more than twice the critical level, the amount of baobab leaf in the 

browse has to be kept to a reasonable level; however, an emollient is present 

in the leaves which may cause acceleration in the ruminant digestive tract. 

Shells from the fruits and the seedcake, left after pounding to extract seed 

oil, are usually fed to animal stock. 

49

5.3 Medicinal uses 

5.3.1 Traditional use 

Baobab is used in folk medicine as an antipyretic or febrifuge to overcome 

fevers. Both leaves and fruit pulp are used for this purpose. Fruit pulp and 

powdered seeds are used in cases of dysentery and to promote perspiration 

(i.e. a diaphoretic). 

Powdered leaves can be used as an anti-asthmatic and they are known to 

have antihistamine and antitension properties. They are variously used to 

treat fatigue, as a tonic and for insect bites, guinea worm and internal pains, 

and to treat dysentery. 

Leaves are used for many other conditions: diseases of the urinary tract, 

opthalmia and otitis. Seeds are also used in cases of diarrhoea, and hiccough. 

Oil extracted from seeds is used for inflamed gums and to ease diseased 

teeth. 

Maybe the widest use in folk medicine is the use of the bark as a substitute 

for quinine in cases of fever or as a prophylactic. Decoction of the bark 

decomposes rapidly due to the mucilaginous substances present. This can be 

prevented by adding alcohol or a small quantity of sulphuric acid (Kings, 

2002). Recently a summary of the traditional medicinal uses was provided 

by Dweck (1997). 

5.3.2 Antidote to poison 

Bark, fruit pulp and seeds appear to contain an antidote to poisoning by 

Strophanthus species. The juice of these species has been used widely as an 

arrow poison especially in East Africa. In Malawi, a baobab extract is 

poured onto the wound of an animal killed in this way to neutralise the 

poison before the meat is eaten (Wickens, 1982). 

5.3.3 Use in Indian medicine 

- In Indian medicine, baobab bark is used internally as a refrigerant, 

antipyretic and antiperiodic. It is used as a decoction, 30g/l of water, 

boiled down to two thirds. Powdered leaves are similarly used to check 

excessive perspiration. Pulp is used internally with buttermilk in cases 

of diarrhoea and dysentry. 

50

- Externally, use is made of young leaves, crushed into a poultice, for 

painful swellings. 

- Jayaweera (1981) records similar uses in Sri Lanka. 

5.3.4 Use in cosmetic treatments 

An infusion of roots is used in Zimbabwe to bathe babies to promote smooth 

skin (Wickens, 1982). Since seed oil is used to treat skin complaints, to a 

degree it is used cosmetically. 

5.4 Potential for enhanced local use 

Enhanced nutrition through promotion of baobab requires attention being 

paid to local processing e.g. of leaf powders mixed with local alkaline rock 

salts (Addy et al., 1995), or careful storage of dry fruit pulp. There are many 

NGOs involved with women and nutrition that can take on this role. 

Much of the enhanced use of baobab is low level knowledge transfer. For 

instance, to retain vitamin C in soft drinks it is important not to boil the pulp 

but to add the powder to previously boiled water. To retain high levels of 

pro-vitamin A in dried leaves it is important to dry the leaves in the shade 

and not in full sun. Also for storage it is recommended to store dried whole 

leaves rather than leaf powder. 

In relation to medicinal properties, attention needs to be paid to standardised 

preparations – already seen in India and Sri Lanka. Colleges in Africa need 

to promote this, as, for instance, was the case of the Nigerian College of 

Arts, Science and Technology in 1959 (vide Oliver, 1960). There are now 

adequate pharmacological results on which to base such preparations e.g. 

anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects (Ramadan et al., 1996). 

5.4.1 Processing 

The Baobab Fruit Company, located in Stallavena, Verona, Italy, promotes 

the fruit as a healthy food. It has been obtaining supplies from Gambia, Mali 

and Senegal in collaboration with the Universitites of Pisa and Bologna and 

African contacts through the Internaitonal Centre for Underutilised Crops 

(ICUC). This collaboration has led to developing a machine to separate the 

fruit pulp from the rest of the fruit. This technique could be applied more 

widely. 

51

Plate 18. Selling baobab dried leaves (Kati livestock market) 

Plate 19. Kati livestock market (Mali) 

52

Plate 20. Morphotype ‘Sirafing’ in local language (Bamanan), named 

because of the black bark (Cinzana area, Mali) 

Plate 21. Morphotype ‘Sirable’ in local language (Bamanan), named because 

of the red bark (Mali) 

53

Plate 22. Morphotype ‘Siradie’ in local language (Bamanan), named because 

of the white bark (Cinzana area, Mali) 

Plate 23. Hybrid morphotype between ‘Sirable’ and ‘Siradie’ 

54

Plates 24 and 25. Morphological variation in Baobab trees 

55

Plates 26 and 27. Morphological variation in Baobab trees 

Plates 28 and 29. Baobab associated with Tamarindus indica (Cinzana area, 

Mali) 

56

Plate 30. Baobab is associated with many species growing in parkland 

Plate 31. Growing on a rocky area (Bandiagara) (Dogon Village, Mali) 

57

Plate 32. Baobab trees intercropped with pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) 

Plate 33. Morphotype ‘Sirable’ growing in an irrigated area associated with 

rice (Niger) 

58

Plate 34. Baobab transplant at Cinzanan Research Station (Mali) 

Plate 35. A grafted baobab tree with short stature, allowing easier access for 

harvesting 

59

The Southern African Natural Products Trade Association aims at promoting 

eco-trade (http://www.sanprota.com/products/baobab.htm). Members of this 

trade association are actively promoting baobab oil production and fruit 

beverages produced using standardised processing. The Southern Alliance 

for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), in Zimbabwe, is commercially 

marketing oil and the Malawi Society for Wildlife (WSM) has been 

producing fruit juice commercially. The Association is currently studying 

longer-term marketing and production. 

5.4.2 Marketing 

Baobab products on the whole, are sold in local, informal markets. The 

products commonly sold are leaves (fresh and dried) (plate 17 and 18), 

fruits, craft products and bark (fibre) products. Intermediaries also operate 

and trade in the larger urban markets. The market chains and infrastructure, 

however, are poorly developed and inconsistent and as such it is difficult to 

assess the demand and supply factors which underlie the market. 

Harvesting and marketing of baobab products is not the primary activity for 

most people (Dovie et al., in press). These activities reach their peak in the 

dry season when other field crop production is low. Marketing of baobab 

products is a secondary means of income generation for most people and can 

provide a much needed buffer in times of drought and famine. 

An overview of the market activities for bark fibre products in Zimbabwe is 

reported by Dovie et al. (in press). 

There is a small export industry, particularly for cosmetics (plate 13). Some 

larger companies are becoming more interested in the ‘ethnic’ and ‘exotic’ 

products which raise a good price in the international market. The export 

trade for baobab is still very small, however a few products are now 

available in Europe and the USA. 

5.5 Use of the other Adansonia species 

In Madagascar, at a local level, A. grandidieri and A. za are used for water 

cisterns. Both species are also used for food (fruit pulp) and A. grandidieri 

seeds are eaten. A summary of sources and recent observations is provided 

by Baum (1996). 

A. gibbosa, in Australia, is used locally as a water resource, the bark is used 

to make rope, and fruit is eaten as food (Armstrong, 1983). There are a 

number of more minor uses. 

60

CHAPTER 6. GENETIC RESOURCES, 

VARIATION AND SELECTION 

Despite its wide distribution very little is known about the genetic variability 

of baobab. 

6.1 Taxonomic variation 

It has been suggested that fruit type and geographical distribution can be 

reflected by distinct forms of baobab, but this is not generally accepted. 

6.2 Folk classification/selection 

In Mali, rural populations differentiate different types of baobab with the 

colour of bark (Sidibé et al., 1996). Those with black bark (sirafing) (plate 

20) are said to have mild tasting fruits; those with red bark (sirablé) (plate 

21) have the most delicious fruits; and those with grey/white bark (siradiè) 

(plate 22) are used for fibre production rather than having the best fruits. 

People look for particular traits including fruit taste, leaf taste, leaf 

availability and height of the tree. Green leaf availability is less important in 

the humid areas, because of the availability of other products to serve similar 

purposes. It is not possible at this time to characterise zones where taste of 

leaves and taste of fruit can be easily determined in any pattern. 

The major types of phenotypic variation relate to: size and colour of leaves; 

size, form and colour of fruits, seed colour, fruit pulp colour; taste of fruits, 

and colour of bark. It is important to record characteristics of mature trees. 

For instance, trees in Mali with a dark shining bark (siramoloni) may be 

juvenile types, although they are valued for leaf production. 

6.3 Germplasm collections 

A limited number of forest seed centres hold samples e.g. national centre in 

Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal. None of these contain more than a few 

samples. 

Characterisation is not routinely carried out because the highly heritable 

characters and patterns of genetic variation have not been adequately 

61

studied. Some initial work is underway in Mali to see whether the broad 

types classified on bark colour are genetically based. 

Germplasm can be stored as seeds. They are orthodox in behaviour and can 

be stored at reduced temperatures after drying, thus permitting storage for 

nursery use and ex situ conservation (Some et al., 1990). 

6.4 Chromosome numbers 

Chromosomes are very small and numerous in Bombacaceae and there are 

frequently heterochromatin blocks. This has led to a range of chromosome 

counts in baobab of 2n = 96-144. Baum et al., (1994) reviewed these counts 

and carried out new ones, finding that 2n = 160. A. digitata is now 

recognised as an autotetraploid that has undergone aneuploid reduction from 

4x = 176. 

The 6 species of Adansonia from Madagascar all show 2n = 88 and the 

single Australian species also shows 2n = 88 (Baum et al., 1994). 

The recent counts of chromosomes of A. digitata were made on materials 

from Burkina Faso, Senegal and East Africa. 

6.5 Challenges to selection 

In general, trees are selected based on leaves. For this reason wild trees are 

chosen with a desired quality and seedlings (wildlings), occasionally 

cuttings, are transplanted to fields near homes where they can receive 

‘protection’. 

Leaf production is a major challenge due to its seasonality. Production from 

protected trees does not meet local needs, hence collecting from the wild. 

Irrigation can extend the leaf production and in Mali the local black bark 

type responds well to this. 

Selection for seed production and use of seeds due to their advantages in 

nutrition has not been a traditional practice. Also selection of types with fruit 

pulp with higher vitamin C content is now underway in Mali, but it remains 

to be seen how this can be transferred through extension. 

Traditionally leaf production can be increased through pollarding. It could 

be that genotypes may be selected to increase leaf production in trees in 

more remote areas. Also height of tree presents constraints in gathering fruits 

62

and accidents are not at all uncommon. Grafting presents an opportunity to 

reduce this risk. 

Constraints are likely to be overcome by due attention to: 

1. identification of well-characterised multi-purpose genotypes 

2. distribution of such genotypes, with extension packages, including 

methods to ensure quality preparation of leaves, fruit pulp and seeds 

3. vegetative propagation/grafting of desired types 

Furthermore, it is possible to produce plant material geared for specific leaf, 

fruit or fibre production, but extension would require major change in 

traditional practices. 

In the first instance, the major imperative is to improve the human diet, 

especially in dry areas. This is vividly shown by available data (table 6.1). 

Table 6.1. Coverage of nutritional needs in Mali 

Calories and 

nutrients 

Rural area 

coverage rate 

Urban area 

coverage rate 

Calories 93.0 % 93.3 % 

Proteins 19.5 % 4.6 % 

Calcium 6.1 % 85.3 % 

Phosphorous - - 

Iron 92.7 % 263.8 % 

Vitamin A 9.4 % 89.5 % 

Vitamin C 92.7 % 4.0 % 

Source: Mali DNSI, 1988-89 

These data point to major lack of protein, calcium and vitamin C in rural 

areas, and lack of proteins and vitamin C in urban areas. 

Selection of baobab would be important in filling these gaps. 

63

CHAPTER 7. AGROECOLOGY 

7.1 Eco-climatic zones 

FAO has characterised the eco-climatic zones in Africa and these fall into 

bimodal climates of East Africa and monomodal climates of West Africa. 

The subdivisions relate to total annual rainfall amount and duration of the 

rainy season. The distribution of baobabs in relation to climatic zones can be 

seen in table 7.1 (and figure 7.1). 

Baobab 

growth 

1. Baobab 

growth very 

marginal 


growth 

typical 


growth 

occasional 

Table 7.1. Baobab in relation to climatic zones of Africa 

Climate 

type 

Typical 90+ 

Annual 

rainfall mm 

64 

Rainy 

season 

(months) 

E. Africa 

Very arid 100-400 1-3 1-3 

Typical 300-800 

Arid 200-400 2-3 2-3 

Semi-arid 400-600 4-5 3-5 

Dry subhumid 

600-800 5-6 4-5 

Typical 800-1000 

Sub-humid 800-1200 6-7 5-7 

Source: FAO, 1981; FAO, 1988 

Rainy 

season 

(months) 

W. Africa 

Those areas included in row 2 in table 7.1 comprise, in West Africa, the 

Sahelian, Sudano-Sahelian, northern Sudanian and Southern Miombo 

ecological zones. In East Africa they include the Acacia-Commiphora and 

Combretum-Acacia woodland ecological zones (FAO, 1981) as well as 

semi-desert grassland. 

In terms of temperature baobab can tolerate very high temperature (mean 

maximum 40-42 o C in West Africa) and for minimum temperatures, can 

survive as long as there is no frost (Simpson, 1995). Typically mean annual 

temperature is 20-30 o C.

Figure 7.1. Climatograms from a range of locations at which Adansonia 

digitata has been mapped by Wickens (data from FAO) 

65

7.2 Elevation 

The most common altitudes appear to be 450-600m, but various authors 

have pointed out baobab distribution from 1-1500m including 1500m in 

Ethiopia (Wickens, 1982; Wilson, 1988; von Carlowitz, 1991). 

7.3 Soils 

Baobab can grow on a wide variety of soils. It often occurs on stony, non 

agricultural soil (plate 31); Thompson (1910) indicated that the baobabs are 

usually found on rocky and lateritic soils. The baobab tree has been recorded 

from clays (Harrison and Jackson 1958), sands (Rosevear, 1937; Jenik and 

Hall, 1976), alluvial silts (Astle et al., 1969) and loams of various kinds 

(Bogdan, 1958). It is found on quite poorly drained soils in Zimbabwe and 

on the poorly drained plains of the Zambezi delta (Wickens, 1982) and is 

also reported on sandy soils overlying compacted silt, liable to flooding in 

heavy rain, in Nigeria (Keay, 1949) 

7.4 Adaptation to drought and fire 

Adansonia digitata has an outstanding ability to withstand severe drought 

and fire, two of the major hazards to plant life in dry areas of Africa (Owen, 

1974). Early shedding of the leaves, a water-conserving device of many 

plant species in areas of low rainfall is seen in baobab. It is also observed 

that the trunk of the tree contracts when the environment becomes dry and it 

expands in the wet season. Owen (1974) reported a marked increase in the 

circumference of a baobab after heavy rainfall, which followed a long 

drought in South Africa. He also reported that the trunk of baobab is covered 

by a thick fire resistant bark with regenerative powers. The regeneration 

results in a thickened uneven integument, which gives the baobab its 

distorted appearance resembling elephant skin. 

7.5 Mycorrhizae 

An experiment was carried out to test the dependency of a number of 

multipurpose fruit trees on arbuscular mycorrhizae (Bâ et al., 2000). Baobab 

showed that roots could be colonised by Glomus sp., but there was low 

dependency and no increase in biomass as a result. 

66

CHAPTER 8. AGRONOMY 

8.1 Seed propagation 

Baobab has traditionally been propagated by transplanting naturally 

regenerated seedlings. However, seedlings are rare due to intensive browsing 

by livestock. In the field, seedlings do not emerge immediately after seeds 

are released from fruits due to a dormancy imposed by the hard seed coats 

which appear to be non-permeable. 

8.1.1 Collecting seeds 

According to Arum (1989), several methods can be employed in collecting 

baobab seed. The simplest is collecting dropped fruits from the ground, but 

this has disadvantages since some immature fruits may have fallen from the 

tree. The fruits may also have stayed on the ground for a long time, thereby 

causing the seeds to lose viability or become infected. 

Fruits from short trees can be harvested from the ground or by climbing up a 

ladder. The most common method of harvesting fruits from tall trees is by 

climbing the trunk and plucking from the crown. As a result of this practice, 

many trees are found pitted along the trunk where sticks were stuck in to aid 

climbing the tree. 

Poles and sticks can also be thrown into the canopy to dislodge fruits. The 

collected seeds are air-dried, then stored in clean, dry, sealed and labelled 

containers in cool dry places to protect them from moisture, insects, fungal 

infection, or attack by rats and mice. 

8.1.2 Seed sowing and germination 

Seeds require pretreatment, and the normal method is to scarify with 

concentrated suphuric acid for 6-12h. This leads to germination of more than 

90% (Danthu et al., 1995). Alternatively concentrated sulphuric acid or 

nitric acid for only 15min gave germinations of 98 and 86% respectively 

(Esenowo, 1991). In Mali, the Forest Research Institute uses sulphuric acid 

for 90min followed by water rinsing for 24h, giving germination of 92% or 

more. 

Seeds are sown in nursery potting mixture (3 parts topsoil, 1 part sand and 1 

part compost); they can be sown in beds, pots or polybags. After 

67

pretreatment, emergence is 4-6 days after sowing, and all those that will 

germinate will have emerged by 18 days. 

In rural areas the acid pretreatment can be replaced by manual scarification 

(chipping). In some cases seeds are boiled in water for 15 min, but this is a 

more risky procedure. 

When seedlings emerge it is best to shade them for 8 days, provide half 

shade for 4-7 days and then expose to full light at 12-15 days after 

emergence. Seedlings require watering morning and evening (but not 

excessively otherwise there is a danger of stem rot) and also protection from 

rodents such as rats and mice by using a small mesh wire netting. 

Early transplanting is not possible. Normally seedlings need to be at least 3- 

4 months old, when they have reached a height of 40-50cm, for 

transplanting. Nursery seedlings can be fertilised using bi- or tricalcic 

phosphorus and urea with 46%N. 

8.1.3 Planting and spacing 

Direct seeding into the field has not been very successful; hence seedlings 

are mainly raised and transplanted into the field at 10x10m spacing. The 

hole size is 60x60x60cm, but smaller may be suitable (40cm 3 ) and organic 

matter is added during planting. Planting is done when the rainy season has 

started. Protection has to be provided against animal grazing and fire. 

8.2 Vegetative propagation 

The advantage of vegetative propagation is that identified, superior, mother 

trees can be grown, thus avoiding a great deal of heterogeneity which results 

from seed propagation. 

8.2.1 Stem cuttings 

Since pruned branches frequently sprout young leaves when minimal 

conditions are present, stem cuttings may be taken, rooted in the nursery and 

transplanted to the field. 

8.2.2 Grafting 

The Forestry Department of Mali has shown that it is easy to graft baobab. A 

68

veneer graft is used with a plastic film to control transpiration. Rootstocks 

used are 3 month old nursery seedlings. 

Scions were collected in Ségou and Koutiala region from high vitamin C 

content fruit trees. A success rate of 46% was found with scions kept for 8 

days. However the best rate of success (92%) was found with 1 to 2 day old 

scions. The use of a cap to control transpiration is required in the case where 

scions are conserved for some time (Sidibé, 1992). 

Use of grafting resulted in trees of a lower height than those developed from 

seeds (plate 35). This facilitates the access for harvesting leaves and fruits. 

First flowering after grafting was at 3 years. This is extremely significant 

because grafting noticeably shortens the time to first flowering (8-23 years 

in plants raised from seed) (Wickens, 1982). 

8.3 Growth and production 

Data on growth rates relate to seed-propagated trees. On average, a height of 

2m is reached in 2 years and about 12m by 15 years (von Maydell, 1986). 

Young trees add 30cm per year in diameter. Sidibé et al., (1996) reported 

that transplanted individuals of 0.5m height grew to 2m in the first year after 

transplanting. 

There are few data on production. Arum (1989) estimated that, allowing for 

variation in site conditions, genotypes, and amount of leaf harvesting 

incurred, an average mature fruiting baobab produces 200kg of fruit per 

season. However, it has been noted that wild trees may go several years not 

fruiting and this is probably due to ecological factors (Swanapoel, 1993). 

Harvesting of leaves is constant during the vegetative period, but there are 

no data relating to production or production related to harvesting frequency 

and intensity. 

There are no data relating to fibre production. 

8.4 Husbandry 

Baobab trees near habitation are ‘protected’ and therefore nurtured. They 

tend to receive more water than those trees scattered in the savannah. It has 

already been mentioned that the Dogon people of Mali used to transplant 

wild seedlings to areas arranged for showering so that adequate wet 

conditions were provided until trees were large enough to transplant to other 

protected sites. 

69

The Forestry Department of Mali is experimenting to grow baobab in 

irrigated conditions as a market garden plant for leaf production. This means 

that relatively small trees can be used for intensive leaf production. 

8.5 Pests and diseases 

Numerous authors have stated that there are no serious pests and diseases of 

baobab. However, some fungal and viral diseases have been recorded and 

several insects attack the wood, fruit and young shoots (von Maydell, 1986). 

The following details are taken from Wickens (1982). 

The most investigated common pests are: 

- the cotton bollworms Heliothis armigera, Diparopsis castanea and 

Earias biplaga; 

- cotton-stainer bugs such as Dysdercus fasciatus, D. intermeius, D. 

nigrofasciatus, D. suberstitiosus, Odontopus exsanguinis, O. 

sexpunctatus; 

- Oxycarenus albipennis as well as flea beetles, Padagrica spp. 

The baobab is also a host for members of the Pseudococcoidae, the 

mealybugs, which can be vectors for virus diseases of cocoa, also the cocoa 

capsid, Distantiella theobroma. 

In Ghana, an unidentified black beetle can damage and eventually destroy 

branches by girdling. Also, from West Africa, there is a report of a longhorn 

beetle, Aneleptes trifascicata, which will attack and kill young trees by 

girdling. 

In the Transvaal of South Africa a caterpillar, Gonimbrasia herlina can feed 

on the leaves. 

The baobab is also a minor host of the mango mealy bug (Rastrococcus 

iceryoides) and the nematode Rotylenchulus reniformis. This nematode, in 

addition to the Meloidogune sp. nematode, has implications for Baobab as an 

inoculum source for newly developed agricultural enterprises in semi-arid 

areas of Africa (Taylor et al., 1978). 

There are few observations relating to fungi. The only macrofungi recorded 

are Daldinia concentrica (Bolt.) Ces. & Br.) and Trametes socrotana Cooke. 

There are only two records for fungal diseases; a leafspot in Sudan 

(Phyllosticta spp.) and a powdery mildew in Tanzania (Leveillula taunica 

(Lev.)) Arnaud. 

70

In West Africa, the presence on the baobab of cocoa viruses has been 

thoroughly investigated. The conclusion was that the distributional data 

concerning the original outbreaks of virus infection in the cocoa crops 

indicate that the infection must have been transmitted by mealybugs from 

forest species of Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae or Malvaceae rather than from 

naturally infected Adansonia digitata in the savannah. 

Although not serious, mistletoe, Loranthus mechouvii Engl. has been 

recorded as a parasite on the baobab in Angola, and parasitic figs have also 

been seen. 

8.5.1 Physiological ‘disease’ 

In Zimbabwe, trees have been reported to be dying and which exhibit a 

blackened appearance (‘sooty’ baobab). There are sooty moulds present 

along with Homopteran insect exudates. It appears that the condition is a 

secondary manifestation of a physiological disorder which is episodic and 

related to lengthy periods of below average rainfall aggravated by 

increasingly intensive land use in arid areas (Piearce et al., 1994). It is likely 

that such trees can recover if turgidity returns to normal. 

8.6 Harvesting 

The age of trees when leaves can be harvested for processing into leaf 

powder is variable and depends essentially on site conditions. Trees can be 

harvested from any age. In general, leaf exploitation could start before the 

sixth year when site conditions are favourable. Women traditionally start 

harvesting when leaves start to develop and the period varies according to 

agroecological zones (April to May) (plate 16). In South Sudanian zone, 

young leaves are available in March. In more humid zones (Bouaké zone in 

Ivory Coast) leaves are available all the year. 

Mass leaf harvesting is done in September and October. When the main 

work in the fields has ended, the men will climb up in the trees to do the 

large harvest to keep leaves for use in the dry season. Trees with goodtasting 

leaves are cut regularly to prevent the development of branches and 

fruits, and to improve the food quality of leaves. 

The tools used in harvesting leaves are sickle (96%), dolé (81%) and hand 

(18%). Some farmers estimate that dolé is better because it can only cut unlignified 

shoots and small branches and resprouting is therefore fast. Some 

others indicate that the sickle is the best because it gives a clean cut without 

the damage which the dolé tends to cause. In fact each tool is well adapted to 

their respective season of use; the dolé is used when the petiole is fresh and 

71

easy to cut while the sickle is used towards the end of the harvesting season 

when the petiole is lignified. Harvesting by hand picking is done less since it 

is difficult to climb a baobab tree. 

It is not easy to note the end of the adolescence period of baobab in 

Sudanian zone because of intensive pruning of trees for leaf production. In 

West Africa, baobabs flower and fruit from 8-10 years. 

Elsewhere, there are diverse ages reported. In South Africa, baobabs started 

to flower at 16-17 years, while in Zimbabwe, first flowering has been 

suggested at 22-23 years. This high diversity could be due to climatic 

differences. 

In general, fruits can be produced from 8-23 years onward. The first fruits 

are ripe in December and harvesting goes on until April. Baobabs fruit twice 

a year in Bouaké region in Ivory Coast. 

Young men use a dolé tool commonly for fruit harvesting but sometimes 

fruits are harvested using sticks and are also picked by hand. 

72

CHAPTER 9. PLANTING MATERIAL AND 

RESEARCH CONTACTS 

There is a great need to increase the availability of planting material of 

baobab. This requires collection of seed. However, determination of ideal 

sampling strategy is limited by lack of knowledge of genetic variability. 

Inevitably a species occurring as single, widely spaced trees, with no large 

forest stands, requires individual collections to be maintained and 

documented as such. 

At present, lack of provenance investigations means that seed available as 

planting stock relates only to the species and this is likely to include seed of 

poor quality and/or unsuitable provenances. Until seed is more widely 

collected and made available, selection of suitable planting material can be 

based on no more than informed guesses. 

Since numerous problems can arise from attempts to develop a regular 

planting schedule based on imported seed, the clear solution is to develop 

and expand local seed production areas. 

9.1 Current seed suppliers 

The following can supply baobab seed: 

Baobab Farm Ltd. 

PO Box 81995 

Mombasa, KENYA 

Kenniex Ltd. 

PO Box 50982 

Nairobi, KENYA 

Institute Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles 

76 Rue Mousse Diop 

BP 320 

Dakar, SENEGAL 

All have data on collecting site locality. 

Additionally a number of national forestry programmes listed in 9.2 can 

supply limited amounts of seed. 

73

9.2 Research and extension contacts 

At present the amount of effort expended on baobab is relatively limited. 

Nonetheless, the following are useful contacts. 

9.2.1 Regional/International organisations 

- CILSS, Ressources Génétiques, Oudgadougou, Burkina Faso 

- ICUC, International Centre for Underutilised Crops, University of 

Southampton, UK 

- ICRAF, (International Centre for Research in Agroforestry), P O Box 

30677, Nairobi, Kenya 

- WECARDA (West and Central African Council for Research and 

Development), 7, Ave Bourguika, BP 8237, Dakar, Senegal 

9.2.2 Nationally-based organisations 

BURKINA FASO 

- Institut National de l’Environnement et de la Recherche Agricole 

(INERA) 

- Université de Ouagadougou, 03 BP 7021 Ouagadougou 03; Tel: (226) 

307159 / 381114; Fax: (226) 307242 

- Centre National des Semences Forestières, Route de Kaya, 01 BP 

2682, Ouagadougou; Tel: (226) 30 12 33; Fax: (226) 30 12 32 

- Programme Amélioration Génétique des Ligneux, INERA/CNRST : 03 

BP 7047; Tel: (226) 33 40 98; Fax: (226) 31 49 38 / 31 50 03 

CAMEROON 

- Centre de Recherches Agronomiques d’Ekona, Bureau d’Edea; BP 223 

Edea; Tel: (237) 464 629 / 461 419 

- Département de Foresterie; Tel (237) 45 14 36; Fax: 237 45 12 02, or 

Yaoundé (ECOFAC Cameroun); Tel (237) 21 42 73; Fax: 237 20 94 72 

- Université de Dschang; PO Box 96, Tel: (237) 451 092 / 45 17 90; Fax: 

(237) 451 202 

CAPE VERDE 

- Ministerio de Agricultura AGASP; c / o FAO: Fax: +238 615 654 

74

CHAD 

- Direction des Forêts, BP 447, N’Djaména; Tel: (235) 523 128; Fax: 

(235) 523 839 

CÔTE D’IVOIRE 

- IDEFOR, Station de Khorogho, 08 BP 31, Abidjan; Tel: (225) 44 28 

58/59; Fax (225) 44 21 08 

GHANA 

- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, 

Legon 

GUINEA 

- Direction Nationale des Forêts et Faune, BP 624, Conakry; Tel: (224) 

463 248; Fax: (244) 465 637 

KENYA 

- Kenya Forestry Seed Centre, PO Box 20412, Nairobi; Tel: (254) 154- 

32891; Fax: (254) 154 32844 

MADAGASCAR 

- Silo National des Graines Forestières, BP 5091, Ambatobe 

Antananarivo.; Tel: (261-2) 41230; Fax: (261-2) 35118 

MALI 

- Institut d’Economie Rurale, Programme Ressources Forestières, BP 

258 Bamako; Tel: (223) 222606/231905; Fax: (223) 223775/225575 

- Institut d’Economie Rurale, Programme Ressources Forestières, BP 

178, Sikasso; Tel: (223) 620 073; Fax: (223) 620 247 

MAURITANIA 

- Service Protection de la Nature, Direction de l’Environnement et de 

l’Aménagement Rural, Mauritanie, c / o FAO; Fax: (222) 253 467, 

Tel: (222) 253 157 / 251 172 / 258 314 

75

NIGER 

- Centre de Semences Forestières, Direction de l’Environnement, BP : 

578, Niamey; Tel: (227) 72 3189; Fax: (227) 73 5591 or 723 189 

- Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger, Département 

de Recherches Forestières, BP 578 ; Tel: +227 610 115 ; Fax : +227 

735 591 

NIGERIA 

- Department of Forest Research Management, University of Ibadan, 

Ibadan. 

- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, 

University of Maiduguri, PMB 1069, Maiduguri. 

- Department of Home Science and Nutrition, University of Nigeria, 

Nsukha. 

SENEGAL 

- Direction des Eaux, Forêts, Chasses et de la Conservation des Sols, 

Division Reboisement et Conservation des Sols, BP 1831, Dakar; Tel: 

(221) 832 0828; Fax: (221) 832 3880 

- ISRA Productions Forestières, BP 2312, Dakar; Tel: (221) 8321 638 / 

8323 219; Fax: (221) 8329 617 

- Projet National de semences forestières, GCP/SEN/039/NET, km 20, 

Route de Rufisque, BP 3818, Dakar 

- Baobab Fruit Company, 55, Ave Albert Sarrant X, Immeuble 

Allumette, Place de Independence, Dakar 

SOUTH AFRICA 

- National Nutrition Research Institute, Council for Scientific and 

Industrial Research, PO Box 395 Pretoria 

- FORESTEX-CSIR, PO Box 395, Pretoria; Tel: (27 12) 841 3669; Fax: 

(27 12) 861 2689 / 841 2681/ 2 

76

TANZANIA 

- Natural Tree Seed Project, PO Box 4012, Morogoro; Tel: (255-56) 

3903 / 3192; Fax: (255-56) 3275 

- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry, PO Box 3009, 

Chuo, Kikun, Morogoro 

ZIMBABWE 

- Forestry Research Centre, Forestry Commissions, PO Box HG 595, 

Harare 

77

CHAPTER 10. RESEARCH AND EXTENSION 

GAPS 

Almost every aspect of baobab production and processing requires further 

research. The following are listed as priorities: 

1. Seed collecting and provenance testing (see Chapter 9) 

2. Patterns of genetic variation (see Chapter 6) 

3. Selection and clonal propagation of specific genotypes for different 

production objectives (see Chapter 6). 

Extension gaps relate to use of products as food and their correct processing 

in terms of nutrient contents; and promotion of local micro-industries for 

such products; and more use of intensive production (see Chapter 8) 

10.1 Exploiting variation 

Rather than choosing ‘superior mother trees’, what is essentially needed is a 

scientifically-based programme of evaluation which should identify 

desirable genotypes. This is because, on present knowledge, the characters 

of interest are likely to be quantitative and controlled by many genes. 

Identification of desirable genotypes will only be possible when the effects 

of the environment can be separated from genetic differences and this 

requires a long-term research commitment. An evaluation trial using a 

completely randomised design would be based on the premise that, like oil 

palm or rubber, the outstanding genotypes have been identified, not in the 

wild, but in well designed and managed evaluation trials of material 

collected from areas of diversity. Given that nursery techniques are known, 

initial layout of a trial could be by use of seedlings which later become 

vegetatively propagated (i.e. each genotype from a seed can be replicated 5 

times as a clonal replicate). Each ‘population’ in the trial can be represented 

by a number of natural progenies, related as half-siblings, thereby permitting 

estimates of heritability. Evaluation for leaf characteristics and production 

would, of course, precede the wait for food production. 

Almost certainly, in baobab, the widely spaced trees and their longevity 

would lead to them being treated as populations and genetic variation is 

likely to be as high within the progeny as between diverse trees. Selection of 

trees for a trial would rely on sampling environmental heterogenerity. 

78

10.2 Promoting extension 

There are many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) involved with 

rural development, local nutrition and tree planting. Suitable manuals need 

to be developed for their use. 

Under the Fruits for the Future project, ICUC is publishing extension 

manuals to complement the monograph series, of which this book is a part. 

Information is more focused on the practical aspects of production, 

propagation, harvesting, processing and utilisation, and methods are 

illustrated to ease understanding. Such manuals are targeted towards NGOs, 

extension organisations and agricultural departments of local government. 

These are a tool with which extension officers can learn and demonstrate the 

practicalities of tree production. Extension materials should be produced in 

partnership with NGOs, drawing on their field experience and contact with 

local comunities. Likewise, distribution of information should make use of 

the networks and relationships adopted by local based organisations. 

10.3 Further information gathering 

It is important that data on market values of products and supply and 

demand estimates are gathered. Additionally data are needed on the 

production / collecting to consumption chain to see the income derived by 

the various players and how better processing can lead to value-added 

products. Such data are essential for any promotion of microindustries. Data 

could be held by ICRAF and data gathering could be part of the partnerships 

to be developed with NGOs (see 10.2 above). 

79

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Abbiw, D. K. (1990) Useful plants of Ghana - West African Use of Wild and 

Cultivated Plants. Intermediate Technology Publications, London. 

Adanson, M. (1771) Description d’un arbre nouveau genre appelé Baobab, 

observé au Sénégal [in French]. Hist. Acad. Roy. Sci. (Paris), 1791: 

218-243. 

Addy, E. O. and Eteshola, E. (1984) Nutritive value of a mixture of tigernut 

tubers (Cyperus esculentus L.) and baobab seeds (Adansonia digitata 

L.). Journal of Science, Food and Agriculture, 35: 437-440. 

Addy, E. O. H., Salmi, L. I., Igboeli, L. C. and Remawa, H. S. (1995) Effect 

of processing on nutrient composition and anti-nutritive substances of 

African locust bean (Parkia filicoidea) and baobab seed (Adansonia 

digitata). Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 48: 113-117. 

Airan, T. W. and Desai, R. M. (1954) Sugars and organic acids in Adansonia 

digitata L. Journal of the University of Bombay, 22: 23-27. 

Armstrong, P. (1977) The boab tree. Australia Pl. 9: 226-229. 

Armstrong, P. (1977a) Baobabs – Remnant of Gonwanaland? New Scientist, 

73: 212-213. 

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GLOSSARY 

abscission - the normal shedding of leaves, flowers or fruits from a 

plant at a special separation layer, the abscission zone. 

acuminate - the shape of a tip or base of a leaf or perianth segment 

where the part tapers gradually and usually in a concave 

manner. 

acute - terminating with a sharp or well-defined angle. 

androecium - all the male reproductive organs of a flower; the stamens. 

cf. gynoecium. 

androphore - a stalk bearing the androecium. 

aneuploid - refers to the presence of an irregular number of 

chromosomes, higher or lower than multiples of the 

haploid number. 

annual - a plant that completes its life cycle from germination to 

death within one year. 

anterior - front; on the front side; away from the axis. 

anther - the pollen-bearing (terminal) part of the male organs 

(stamen), borne at the top of a stalk (filament). 

anthesis - flower bud opening; strictly, the time of expansion of a 

flower when pollination takes place, but often used to 

designate the flowering period; the act of flower bud 

opening. 

apex - the tip of an organ, the growing point. 

apical - pertaining to the apex. 

apiculate - having an short point at the tip. 

auricle (adj. auriculate) - small ear-like projections at the base of a leaf or 

leaf-blade or bract. 

autotetraploid - relating to a plant or cell with four copies of a haploid set. 

axil - 

the upper angle formed by the union of a leaf with the 

stem. 

axillary - pertaining to the organs in the axil, e.g. buds flowers or 

inflorescence. 

axis - 

the main or central stem of a herbaceous plant or of an 

inflorescence. 

basal - borne on or near the base. 

bisexual - having both sexes present and functional in one flower. 

blade - the flattened part of a leaf; the lamina. 

bract - a much-reduced leaf, particularly the small or scale-like 

leaves in a flower cluster or associated with the flowers; 

morphologically a foliar organ. 

bracteole - a secondary bract; a bractlet. 

buttress - a flange of tissue protruding from the trunk of a tree 

tapering outwards towards the base. 

caducous - falling off early, or prematurely, as the sepals in some 

plants. 

89

calyx - the outer whorl of floral envelopes, composed of the 

sepals. 

carpel - one of the flowers' female reproductive organs, comprising 

an ovary and a stigma, and containing one or more ovules. 

ciliate - marginally fringed with hairs (cilia). 

connate - united or joined; in particular, said of like or similar 

structures joined as one body or organ. 

cordate - heart-shaped, often restricted to the basal portion rather to 

the outline of the entire organ. 

corolla - the petals of a flower, it is normally coloured. 

cotyledon - seed leaf; the primary leaf or leaves in the embryo. 

crenate - shallowly round-toothed, scalloped. 

crenulate - finely crenate. 

cross pollination -the transfer of pollen from the anther of the flower of one 

plant to the flowers of a different plant. 

deciduous - falling at the end of one season of growth or life, as the 

leaves of non-evergreen trees. 

decoction - herbal preparation made by boiling a plant part in water. 

decurrent - describes a leaf that extends down the stem below the 

insertion. 

deflexed - bent abruptly downward; deflected. 

dehiscence - the method or process of opening a seed pod or anther. 

dichotomous - forked, in 1 or 2 pairs. 

dicotyledon - a flowering plant with two cotyledons. 

diploid - having two sets of chromosomes. 

ecotone - a transition area between tow adjacent ecological 

communities containing characteristics species of each and 

sometimes species unique to the area. 

elliptic - oval in outline. 

endemic - confined to small area, limited in geographic distribution. 

endocarp - the inner layer of the pericarp or fruit wall. 

endosperm - the starch and oil-containing tissue of many seeds. 

epicotyl - the stem of a seedling between the cotyledons and the first 

true leaves. 

exocarp - the outer layer of the pericarp or fruit wall. 

exserted - protruding. 

falcate - scythe-shaped; curved and flat, tapering gradually. 

fasicle - a condensed or close cluster. 

filament - thread; particularly the stalk of the stamen, terminated by 

the anther. 

fimbriate - fringed, usually with hairs. 

foliate - bearing leaves. 

genus - a group of related species, the taxonomic category ranking 

above a species and below a family. 

genotype - the genetic constitution of an organism, acquired from its 

parents and available for transmission to its offspring. 

90

glabrous - not hairy. 

glaucous - bluish white; covered or whitened with a very fine, 

powdery substance. 

globose - globe-shaped. 

glabrescent - becoming glabrous with age. 

grafting - a method of propagation for trees and shrubs by inserting a 

section of one plant, usually a shoot, into another so that 

they grow together into a single plant. 

gynoecium - all the female parts of a flower. 

haploid - half the full set of genetic material. 

hypocotyl - the axis of an embryo below the cotyledons which on seed 

germination develops into the radicle. 

indehiscent - not regularly opening , as a seed pod or anther. 

indigenous - native and original to the region. 

inflorescence - the flowering part of a plant and especially the mode of its 

arrangement. 

lamina - a blade, the leafy portion of a frond. 

lateral - side shoot, bud etc. 

lanceolate - shaped like a lance head, several times longer than wide, 

broadest above the base and narrowed toward the apex. 

leaflet - a single division of a compound leaf. 

leaves alternate - leaves that are not opposite to each other on the axis but 

arranged at slightly different heights. 

locular - havinga cavity or chamber inside the ovary, anther or 

fruit. 

mealy - covered with a coarse flour-like powder. 

medial - attached near or at the middle, especiallly midway between 

costa and margin. 

membranous - thin in texture, soft and pliable. 

mesocarp - the fleshy middle portion of the wall of a succulent fruit 

between the skin and the stony layer. 

monophyletic - descended from a single ancestral line, see also: 

polyphyletic. 

mucilage (adj. mucilaginous) – a viscous, slimy material secreted by some 

plants. 

naturalised - to cause a plant to become established and grow 

undisturbed as if native. 

nectar - sweet secretion of glands in many kinds of flower. 

nectiferous - producing nectar. 

node - the place on a stem which normally bears the leaf or whorl 

of leaves. 

obovate - inverted ovate; egg-shaped, with the broadest part above. 

obtuse - blunt or rounded at the end. 

orthodox seeds - seeds that can be dried to moisture levels between 4 and 6 

percent and stored without spoilng. 

ovary inferior - with the flower-parts growing from above the ovary. 

91

ovary superior - with the flower-parts growing from below the ovary. 

ovate - egg-shaped, with the broader end at the base. 

ovoid - a solid with an oval outline. 

ovule - the body which after fertilisation becomes the seed. 

palmately compound - having veins or leaflets arranged like fingers on a 

hand. 

pantropical - spanning tropical regions around the world. 

papillose - bearing minute, pimple-like projections. 

-partite - suffix meaning 'deeply divided to the base or almost so, eg 

bipartite, tripartite, 5-partite etc. 

pedicel - a tiny stalk; the support of a single flower. 

pendulous - more or less hanging or declined. 

peduncle - a primary flower stalk, supporting either a single or cluster 

of flowers. 

pendulous - drooping to hanging downwards. 

pericarp (syn. fruit wall) - the wall of the matured ovary. 

persistent - lasting beyond maturity without being shed. 

petal - a division of the corolla; one of a circle of modified leaves 

immediately outside the reproductive organs, usually 

brightly coloured. 

petiole - the stalk of a leaf that attaches it to the stem. 

petiolate - having a petiole. 

petiolule - the stalk of a leaflet. 

petiolulate - having a petiolule. 

phenology - the study of flowering or fruiting periodicity of plants. 

phenotype - the morphological, physiological, behavioural, and other 

outwardly recognisable forms of an organism that develop 

through the interaction of genes and environment. 

photosynthesise - 

pinnate - a compound leaf consisting of several leaflets arranged on 

each side of a common petiole. 

placenta - 

pollarding - 

polygamous - 

polyphyletic - 

polyploidy - 

propagate - 

protandrous - 

protogynous - 

a region within the ovary to which the ovules are attached. 

a process where tree tops are severely cut back each year 

to the same spots on the branches, this forms the growth of 

large, knobly stubs, from which young shoots can grow. 

bearing male and female flowers on the same plant. 

having members that originated, independently, from more 

than one evolutionary line. 

having more than two sets of chromosomes. 

to produce new plants, either by vegetative means 

involving the rooting or grafting of pieces of a plant, or 

sexually by sowing seeds. 

refers to a flower, when the shedding of the pollen occurs 

before the stigma is receptive. 

referring to a flower where the shedding of the pollen 

occurs after the stigma has ceased to be receptive. 

92

pubescent - 

rachis - 

radicle - 

reflexed - 

reniform - 

reticulate - 

rootstock - 

scarify - 

scion - 

covered with hairs, especially short, soft and down-like. 

the main stalk of a flower cluster or the main leafstalk of a 

compound leaf. 

the portion of the embryo below the cotyledons that will 

form the roots. 

abruptly bent or turned downward. 

kidney-shaped. 

in the form of a network, netveined. 

the root system and lower portion of a woody plant to 

which a graft of a more desirable plant is attached. 

to scar or nick the seed coat to enhance germination 

walls, or to break down the seed coat using chemicals. 

a cutting from the upper portion of a plant that is grafted 

onto the rootstock of another plant, usually a related 

species. 

self pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the 

stigma of the same flower, or different flowers on the same 

plant. 

sepal - 

sessile - 

stamen - 

stellate - 

stigma - 

stipule - 

stipulate - 

style - 

sub - 

subulate - 

sulcate - 

tetraploid - 

testa - 

tomentose - 

tomentulose - 

tomentum - 

truncate - 

villous - 

a division of a calyx; one of the outermost circle of 

modified leaves surrounding the reproductive organs of the 

flower. 

without a stalk. 

one of the male pollen-bearing organs of the flower. 

star-shaped. 

that part of a pistil through which fertilisation by the 

pollen is effected. 

an appendage at the base of a petiole, often appearing in 

pairs, one on each side, as in roses. 

having stipules. 

the usually attenuated portion of the pistil connecting the 

stigma and ovary. 

prefix meaning ‘not quite’, ‘almost’, ‘slightly’ or 

‘somewhat’. 

awl-shaped. 

grooved or furrowed. 

having 4 sets of chromosomes (twice the normal number 

of chromosomes). 

the outer seed coat. 

covered with a thick felt of radicles; densely pubescent 

with matted wool. 

rather tomentose. 

closely matted, woolly hairs. 

ending abruptly, as if cut off transversly. 

bearing long, soft hairs. 

93

INDEX 

A. alba, 10 

A. baobab, 10 

A. bernieri, 10 

A. bozy, 10 

A. digitata var. congolensis, 10 

A. fony, 10 

A. gibbosa, 10, 14, 19, 20, 21, 27, 

60 

A. grandidieri, 10, 14, 27, 60 

A. gregori, 10 

A. madagascarensis, 10, 14, 15, 

20, 21, 46 

A. perrieri, 10, 14, 15, 27 

A. rubrostipa, 10, 14, 20, 46 

A. rupestris, 10 

A. sphaerocarpa, 10 

A. stanburyana, 10 

A. suarezansis, 10 

A. sulcata, 10 

A. za, 10, 15, 20, 46, 60 

agronomy 

growth rate, 69 

irrigation, 58, 70 

nutrition, 68 

pruning, 72 

spacing, 68 

transplanting, 22, 59, 62, 67, 

68, 69 

Angola, 24, 27, 71 

arbuscular mycorrhizae, 66 

Barbados, 13, 27 

bark fibre, 37, 39, 40, 42 

Benin, 24, 26 

Bombax, 8 

Botswana, 24 

Burkina Faso, 22, 24, 38, 40, 43, 

61, 62, 74 

Cameroon, 24, 74 

Cape Verde, 24, 74 

Ceiba, 8 

Ceiba pentandra, 8 

Central African Republic, 24 

Chad, 11, 24, 75 

China-Taiwan, 27 

chromosome number, 62 

climate, 65-66 

rainfall, 26, 64, 66, 71 

resistance to fire, 66 

temperature, 64 

Comoros, 24 

conservation, 62 

Côte d’Ivoire, 11, 24, 75 

Cuba, 27 

direct seeding See agronomy 

diseases 

cocoa virus, 22, 71 

Daldinia concentrica, 70 

fungi, 70 

Leveillula taunica, 70 

Loranthus mechouvii, 71 

mistletoe, 71 

powdery mildew, 70 

sooty mould, 71 

Trametes socrotana, 70 

drought tolerance See climate 

Dominica, 27 

Dominican Republic, 27 

Durio zibethinus, 8 

Egypt, 11, 24 

elevation See climate 

Eritrea, 24, 26 

Ethiopia, 11, 24, 66 

fire resistance See climate 

flower 

description, 15, 16 

flowering time, 19 

pollination, 19, 21 

fruit 

description, 16 

fruit development, 19 

properties, 39-41 

Gabon, 24 

Gambia, 24, 51 

genetic variation, 61, 78 

geographical distribution, 8, 22, 

24-27, 36, 47, 61, 63, 64, 66 

94

Eastern Africa, 22, 26 

Northeastern Africa, 26 

related species, 27 

Southern Africa, 19, 27, 60 

West and Central Africa, 26, 

74 

Ghana, 24, 26, 45, 70, 75 

grafting See vegetative 

propagation 

growth rate See agronomy 

Guinea, 13, 24, 75 

Guyana, 27 

Haiti, 27 

harvesting, 31, 59, 67, 69, 71, 72, 

79 

age, 71, 72 

time, 69, 71, 72 

Indonesia, 21, 27 

irrigation See agronomy 

Jamaica, 27 

Kenya, 12, 24, 26, 73, 74, 75 

leaf 

description, 14, 15 


Madagascar, 10, 19, 20, 21, 24, 

27, 47, 60, 62, 75 

Malawi, 11, 12, 24, 41, 47, 50, 60 

Malaysia, 27 

Mali, 11, 12, 22, 24, 29, 30, 32, 

35, 38, 47, 51-57, 59, 61, 62, 

63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75 

marketing, 60 

Martinique, 27 

Mauritania, 24, 75 

Mauritius, 27 

medicinal compounds, 46 

Montserrat, 27 

Mozambique, 12, 24, 26 

mucilage, 45 

Namibia, 24, 27 

Netherlands Antilles, 27 

New Caledonia, 27 

Niger, 11, 24, 38, 58, 76 

Nigeria, 11, 12, 23, 24, 38, 41, 

43, 47, 48, 66, 76 

nutritional value 

amino acids, 37-40, 42-46 

carbohydrate, 37, 39-42, 45, 48 

energy value, 39, 42 

fats, 37, 39, 40, 42-46 

fibre, 37, 39, 40, 42 

minerals, 38-343, 45, 47, 63 

protein, 37-40, 42, 45, 48, 63 

sugar, 40, 41, 45, 48 

vitamins, 39, 41, 43, 44, 48, 

51, 62, 63, 69 

Ochroma, 8 

Oman, 27 

pectin, 40, 45 

pests 

Aneleptes trifascicata, 70 

cotton bollworms, 70 

Diparopsis castanea, 70 

Distantiella theobroma, 70 

Dysdercus fasciatus, 70 

flea beetle, 70 

Heliothis armigera, 70 

longhorn beetle, 70 

mango mealy bug, 70 

nematode, 70 

Padagrica spp., 70 

Rastrococcus iceryoides, 70 

Rotylenchulus reniformis, 70 

phenology, 16, 19-21 

phenotypic variation, 61 

Philippines, 27 

processing, 46, 47, 51, 60, 71, 78, 

79 

pruning See agronomy 

rainfall See climate 

temperature See climate 

transplanting See agronomy 

São Tomé, 24 

seed 

behaviour, 62 

dispersal, 22, 23, 36 

germination, 16, 22, 67-68 

oil, 43-46, 49, 51 


sowing, 67-68 

seed propagation, 67-69 

selection, 9, 61-62, 73 

95

Senegal, 8, 11, 22, 23, 24, 26, 51, 

61, 62, 73, 74, 76 

Sierra Leone, 24 

soil requirements, 66 

Somalia, 12, 24, 26 

South Africa, 13, 19, 24, 27, 66, 

70, 72, 76 

sowing See seed 

Sudan, 11, 19, 24, 26, 40, 70 

Tanzania, 12, 24, 26, 48, 49, 70, 

77 

taxonomy 

description of the genus, 14 

key to the species, 14 

taxonomic variation, 61 

Togo, 24, 26 

tree regeneration, 22-23, 66 

Trinidad and Tobago, 27 

USA, 27, 60 

uses 

fibre, 49 

fruit pulp, 39, 41, 45, 48, 50 

hollow trunk, 68 

leaves, 47 

medicinal uses, 46, 50-51 

seed shell, 49 

vegetative propagation, 63, 68- 

69, 78 

grafting, 63, 69 

stem cuttings, 68 

vernacular names, 11 

Yemen, 24, 27 

Zaire, 24, 26 

Zambia, 24 

Zanzibar, 27 

Zimbabwe, 12, 19, 23, 24, 27, 47, 

51, 60, 66, 71, 72, 77 

96

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