1. THE TAMARIND TREE - Crops for the Future

1. THE TAMARIND TREE 

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is an economically important tree, found in many countries of Asia, 

Africa and South America. The tree can grow to a maximum height of 25m and a crown diameter of 

12m. It is ideal for drier-arid regions, especially in areas prone to prolonged drought. Tamarind can 

tolerate 5-6 months of drought conditions, but does not like fire, frost or waterlogging. 

There are different varieties of tamarind, e.g. cultivars ‘Sithong’, ‘Piyai’ and ‘Jaehom’. The varieties can 

be divided into ‘sweet’ and ‘sour’ types. Most countries grow unselected local ‘sour’ types, when 

standard ‘sweet’ varieties are not available. In some ‘sour’ tamarind trees, isolated branches can be 

found that bear ‘sweet’ fruit (bud spots), these branches can be used for vegetative propagation to 

obtain sweet tamarind plants. 

Tamarind is a multi-use tree (see Appendix 1). It is a source of timber, fruit, seeds, fodder, medicinal 

extracts and potential industrial components, so in terms of the rural farmer the tree can provide 

seasonal income in periods of potential hardship. Tamarind trees are able to compensate farmers in 

seasons after subsistence crops have generally been harvested (pods are harvested in the dry season), 

thereby giving a potential economic return in local markets when food is scarce. 

Tamarind is a tree that is easy to cultivate and requires minimum care. It is generally free of serious 

pests and diseases, has a life span of 80-200 years and can yield 150-500kg of pods per healthy 

tree/year at 20 years of age. The potential of the tamarind tree within rural farming communities has 

been well recognised, although unimproved wild trees are continuously being exploited to meet growing 

domestic and international demand. 

Figure 1.1. Tamarind tree with pods 

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2. WHY GROW TAMARIND 

2.0.1. Nutrition 

Tamarind produces a nutritious fruit, high in vitamins B1 (Thiamin), B2 (Riboflavin) and B3 (Niacin). 

These vitamins work together to help the body convert food into energy. They also help to provide a 

healthy immune system to fight off disease and help the body to be strong. Tamarind is a fair source of 

vitamin C, which, like the B vitamins, helps to provide a healthy immune system. Vitamin C also helps 

to provide strong bones, teeth and skin. Tamarind is rich in the minerals, potassium, phosphorus, 

calcium and magnesium, which help to keep the body in balance. Calcium, magnesium and potassium 

help to protect the bones and teeth, and all have a role in providing strong muscles and general health. 

Tamarind can also provide smaller amounts of iron and vitamin A. Iron is present in the blood, and 

helps the movement of oxygen through the body, to the organs which require it. Vitamin A is necessary 

for good eye sight. Some cases of blindness have been attributed to lack of vitamin A in the diet, 

predominantly in developing countries. Tamarind also contains a high level of protein, with many 

essential amino acids, which help to build strong and efficient muscles. Tamarind is also high in 

carbohydrate, which provides energy. 

2.0.2. Income generation 

Farmers can use the tamarind tree by incorporating it within their agricultural system to enhance 

household incomes. Tamarind products are popular in many countries, but there is little organised 

marketing of pods or pulp, so market returns can vary considerably. In full production, a tree yields on 

average 80-100kg of pulp per year and the tree should remain productive for at least 60 years. If unused 

land is available, tamarind trees can be considered for additional income. However, the local 

market and market price for tamarind must first be established to ensure production would be 

profitable. 

2.0.3. Fodder 

Both the seeds and leaves of the tamarind tree can be used to feed domestic animals. Leaves are more 

popular as they require less preparation. The leaves are very high in crude protein and are relished by 

wild animals. Leaves, however, are rarely used for this purpose on homesteads, as harvesting the 

leaves can reduce fruit production. 

Seeds can also be used as animal feed, however, the seed coat is very hard and must first be removed, 

which can be eased by boiling. The seeds must then be ground. The seeds are also very high in protein. 

2.0.4. Timber 

Tamarind wood is made up of heartwood and sapwood. The heartwood is dark reddish in colour and 

is very hard, durable and resistant. It is often used for making furniture, as it gives a good polish, but it 

can be difficult to work. The sapwood is yellow in colour and is far less durable than the heartwood; it 

is also liable to insect attack. Although tamarind wood is used widely, it is of little commercial 

importance. 

2.0.5. Medicines 

Tamarind is used in traditional medicine throughout Africa and Asia. Modern medical science has also 

confirmed the laxative and diuretic properties of the tree. All parts of the plant are used, from the fruit 

pulp and seed to the leaves, bark and flowers. Ailments such as diarrhoea, jaundice, ulcers, eye 

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infections and digestive problems can be treated with infusions, pastes and powders. Herbal practices 

are still widely used. 

2.0.6. Industrial 

In addition to the industrial processing of tamarind fruit into a range of products such as pulp, juice, 

paste and candy, tamarind seed can also be processed to produce oil, jellose (a jelling agent) and 

tamarind kernel powder (TKP). 

2.0.7. Environmental Impact 

Tamarind trees have positive environmental benefits as they provide perennial cover protecting the soil. 

Grown especially in arid climates, tamarind can provide, store and recycle plant nutrients, and give 

stability to the soil. Tamarind trees also act as effective windbreaks. 

3. WHERE TO GROW TAMARIND 

Tamarind can be grown on a homestead, plantation, wasteland or as a forest tree. The tree is suitable 

for marginal lands, where rainfall and poor soil may limit other crop production. An average yearly 

rainfall of 500-1500mm is required for healthy tree growth. Where rainfall exceeds 4000mm, the trees 

may grow but flowers will not develop and the tree will not yield a crop. Regardless of total annual 

rainfall, tamarind produces more fruit when subjected to a fairly long annual dry period. The tree can be 

grown in warm regions, but temperatures should not exceed 33-37 o C (maximum) or go below 9.5 o C 

(minimum). The trees cannot withstand frost and should therefore not be planted where frosts occur. 

Tamarind is able to flourish in a wide range of soils e.g. rocky, sandy, or rich soils, but all soils need to 

be free draining. The tree grows well in open areas and does not thrive when shaded. The branches are 

wind resistant, and the deep tap root and extensive root system aid stability, which means it can 

withstand violent typhoons and cyclones. Tamarind can grow up to 2000m above sea level. 

Once established in the field, tamarind trees do not usually require irrigation and can be inter-cropped 

with a number of food crops, such as cowpeas and beans, until 4 years old. Homestead trees can 

provide shade and act as a windbreak in areas of strong prevailing winds. 

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4. GROWING TAMARIND TREES 

There are two methods of propagating tamarind trees:- seed propagation and vegetative propagation. 

• Seed propagation involves the collection, preparation and direct planting of the seed into 

soil/compost. This method is very simple, however the quality of the new offspring cannot be 

guaranteed (not true-to-type) and the time taken for the tree to reach bearing age is usually longer 

than for trees propagated using vegetative methods. 

• Vegetative propagation may be carried out using a number of different methods, these are 

described in section 4.3 of the manual. Vegetative propagation involves the growth of the new tree 

from a shoot, bud or cutting of a mature, 'good quality' or 'plus' tree. This guarantees the quality of 

the new tree. Selection of planting material for both seed and vegetative propagation is described 

below. 

The best time to begin propagation depends on the local climate, water availability and method of 

propagation. Seed propagation is limited by the fruiting time of the mature, healthy trees from which 

seed is to be collected. Vegetative propagation, on the other hand, does not have the same limitation. 

Scions (shoot/buds) can be obtained throughout the year, however collection is dependent on the stage 

of tree growth of the mother plant. Regardless of which propagation method is used, it is essential to 

select a tree with good qualities, referred to above as 'plus' tree, from which to collect either seeds or 

vegetative material. 

4.0.1 Selection of planting materials 

When selecting a good 'plus' tree the following points should be considered: 

• the tree should have a good crown and strong trunk; 

• the tree should be disease-free, undamaged and have no signs of pest attack; 

• pods and scions should be selected from a tree that is older than 15 years and is known to produce 

a good harvest of fruit; 

• for consistent pods and pulp yields, it is essential that the tree produces pods every year. Some 

trees produce pods every two years. 

Once the 'plus' tree has been selected, it is necessary to prepare an area for propagation. A nursery will 

provide protection to the plants when very small, and a greater chance of full establishment later on. 

The following pages provide details of nursery establishment. 

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4.1. NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT 

The size of a nursery is dependent on the number of trees required. Seeds may not have 100 % viability 

(in tamarind most seed lots give 72 - 82 % germination from healthy seed), so 20-30 % extra seed will 

need to be sown than required in terms of number of trees. Not all grafted or stem propagated trees 

will root, so it is better to prepare a slightly larger area than for the exact number of trees required. 

Land suitable for a small tree nursery could be on a homestead, in a fenced enclosure, and if possible, 

situated close to a water source. Young trees do require more water than mature trees and they are 

more prone to damage by animals, such as goats and cattle, so an enclosure around the chosen nursery 

area may be required. 

a. Seed bed on the ground. 

b. Pots or bags on benches. 

c. Pots or bags on the ground. 

Figure 4.1. Tamarind tree nurseries 

The above diagrams show three types of tree nurseries with overhead shade. The benches (Fig. 4.1b) 

can be made from locally available materials such as bamboo canes, and palm fronds or grass can be 

used for the roof. A tree nursery does not always require benches, as pots can be placed directly on 

the ground (Fig. 4.1c), or a seedbed/rooting bed can be used for bare-rooted transplants (Fig. 4.1a). 

All seedlings or cuttings require a roof structure to shade the plants and prevent leaf scorch. Care must 

be taken in the design of the nursery in terms of the height of the shade attachment and also the quality 

of the palm leaves or grasses used. Older palm leaves should be avoided for such structures as they 

can harbour fungi, such as mildew, which can be transmitted to the young plants below. Therefore, only 

new fronds or grasses should be used and, if possible, a fence to prevent foraging animals should be 

built. The nursery shade should allow some sunlight through the roof and sides; the aim is to allow about 

30 % sunlight to reach the top of the young plants and 60 % to reach the sides. 

The nursery should not be situated on waterlogged land or land prone to waterlogging. It should be 

sufficiently far from paths to prevent human and animal damage, and far enough from shade trees if a 

roof is being used. Prior to building the nursery structure, the ground must be cleared of all weeds and 

pests. A plastic ground cover can be used to prevent weed re-growth. Otherwise, the ground should 

be lightly hoed and top dressed with clean sand and gravel or small stones. 

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4.1.1. Pots and potting mixture 

Pots can be made from any available material, such as plastic bags, clay, tin cans (punctured) or natural 

vegetation, e.g. banana leaves or woven baskets (Fig. 4.2). 

NOTE: Natural pots may last for less time and be more sensitive to uplift or storm damage. 

Tamarind usually produces a long tap root, which, in the case of plastic bags and natural pots, may 

grow into the soil. Moving the pots with the plants is therefore a delicate operation. Placing the pots on 

a raised bench (perforated or latticed) reduces this problem, as the roots will be air pruned with no 

damage to their growing points. 

Tin pot Plastic bag pot Banana leaf pot Clay pot Basket pot 

Figure 4.2. Pot sources 

The best media for seed germination is soil, mixed with sand and cow or chicken dung. Normal potting 

mixtures usually contain 3 parts topsoil, 1 part sand and 1 part compost. 

NOTE: Sand should not be used directly from beach sources, as it may contain too much salt 

for the young trees. Sand from high up the beach or inland is better for potting mixtures. 

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4.2. SEED PROPAGATION 

4.2.1. Seed extraction from the pulp 

Fully formed, ripe pods, showing no damage or disease, should be selected. The ripe pods are dried in 

the sun for 5 to 7 days, turning occasionally. When the fruit is dry, the pods should be cracked to 

separate the pulp from the pod shell and the seed extracted by hand kneading or washing in water. The 

seeds should be washed to remove any pulp and dried in the shade for 2 days. The seed can be stored 

in a cool, shady place in sealed, clay jars, away from rats, mice or insects. Storage time can depend on 

the condition of the seed, and how well it was cleaned and dried. 

IMPORTANT: Fresh pods bought in the market can be used as a source of tamarind seed, 

though seed may originate from poor or diseased trees. Such seeds may have a delayed 

germination time, lack of viability or produce inferior trees. 

4.2.2. Seed pre-treatments 

Healthy seeds of tamarind have approximately 72 % germination. The percentage of germination can 

be increased by treating the seed before planting, which also reduces the germination time. 

Tamarind seed can be treated as follows: 

• Soaking in clean water for 24 hours (can improve germination to 80 %) (Fig. 4.3a) 

• Cutting (scarifying) the seed coat (can improve germination to 85 %) (Fig. 4.3b) 

• Both scarifying and soaking in water for 24 hours (can improve germination to 92 %) 

Cut through the 

seed coat 

Cut edge, encourages 

germination 

a. Seeds soaking in clean water. b. Cutting (scarifying) seeds. 

Figure 4.3. Seed preparation 

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4.2.3. Planting and germination 

Tamarind seeds should be sown in well-prepared seed beds, boxes or pots, at 2-3cm distances apart. 

One seed should be placed in each hole at a depth of 1-2cm, covered with compost (sandy loam) and 

watered. If the seed is planted too deep in the soil, germination might not occur and the seeds will rot 

(Fig. 4.4). 

The compost should be kept moist. Seed germination should begin after approximately 5-10 days with 

viable seed, but may take up to one month before shoots can be seen above the soil. Tamarind has a 

hard seed coat, so delayed or poor germination may occur. 

Soil level 

1-2 cm 

The seed is placed at the bottom of a small 

hole, 1-2cm deep. 

The seed is then be covered with soil and watered. 

Figure 4.4. Planting of Tamarind seeds 

Once the seedling tree has emerged, it should remain in the nursery and be watered regularly until it is at 

least 30-40cm tall. After this time, the seedling can be established in the field. 

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4.3. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION 

Vegetative propagation can be practiced throughout the year, but it is less successful in the hot season. 

This method requires shade and water resources, and higher losses may be experienced than with seed 

planting. Chemical rooting hormones will improve the efficiency of this method. 

Tamarind can be propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings (softwood, semi-hardwood and hardwood), 

grafting and ground or air layering. With all methods, it is important to choose shoots and branches that 

are free from disease, pests and damage. Stems or branches displaying leaf colours other than green 

should also be avoided. 

4.3.1. Stem cuttings 

The easiest and cheapest method of propagating tamarind vegetatively is by stem cutting. There are 

three types of stem cuttings: softwood (new shoots, flexible and green), semi-hardwood (young shoots 

under a year old with wood evident) and hardwood (older shoots, all wood). Hardwood cuttings, 

however, will not root for tamarind and should not be attempted. 

All cuttings should be collected early in the morning. Softwood cuttings should be approximately 15cm 

in length, whereas semi-hardwood cuttings should be 18-20cm in length with 3 nodes (leaf 

attachments). Leaves are removed from the bottom nodes in all cuttings and a clean cut should be 

applied to the base of this node, at a 45 degree-angle (Fig. 4.5). 

Softwood cuttings have better rooting success than semi-hardwood cuttings, especially when they are 

from terminal shoots with new flushes of leaves. Terminal cuttings have an advantage over mid stem 

cuttings because there is only one cut end, which reduces the possibility of infection. 

18-20cm 

15cm 

Semi-hardwood 

Figure 4.5. Tamarind cuttings 

Softwood 

Soft or semi-soft mid stem cuttings must be wrapped in moist cloth after removal from the tree to 

prevent loss of moisture. Rooting hormone is essential when using this method. The cuttings should be 

dipped in rooting hormone (IBA at 1000ppm) and then placed on a sand bed in a mist propagator (75- 

80 % humidity). 

NOTE: If the cuttings have to be transported for a long time they should be wrapped in moist 

cloth or paper to prevent loss of moisture. 

4.3.2. Propagation areas and shoot treatments 

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Before the cuttings are collected, it is necessary to have a soil bed prepared within which rooting will 

take place. The soil bed provides shade and protection to the young cuttings. Wooden poles can be 

used for the uprights and grasses or palm fronds can be used for the roof (see nursery construction, 

section 4.1). A soil bed can be constructed on or near the homestead, but care must be taken to keep 

animals away from the rooting area. 

Figure 4.6. Rooting bed and shade for propagation 

Softwood cuttings should be pushed straight into the soil to a depth of 2.5cm, the top of the shoot 

should be no more than 20cm from the soil surface. The shoot top can be removed, this may encourage 

root growth rather than further shoot growth, however, this method is not recommended for semihardwood 

cuttings. 

If available, rooting hormone should be applied to the cuttings, this can improve rooting success and 

reduce the time taken for root development (10-15 days instead of 40-50 days). The cut end of the 

cutting should be moistened and dipped for 10 seconds in the powder, before inserting into normal 

nursery soil mixture. The cuttings should be watered regularly but not excessively and once well 

established can be transplanted into the field. 

NOTE: The local extension officer should have information about the availability, cost and 

use of rooting hormone. 

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4.3.3. Grafting 

Grafting involves removal of a shoot or bud from a tree and joining it to a rootstock. Once the union 

has healed and fresh growth occurs on the newly attached portion, it is said to be successfully grafted. 

It is mostly done by removing a shoot or bud from a 'superior' or 'plus' tree to a compatible seedling 

rootstock. Grafting of tamarind trees can enhance pod production, reduce length of time to bearing and 

may increase resistance to disease. 

Equipment required for grafting includes a clean and sharp budding knife, polyethylene tape, 1.5-2cm 

wide, approx. 30-40cm long, which can be cut from ordinary clear plastic bags if budding tape is not 

available. 

There are two main types of grafting, bud grafting (also known as patch budding) and shoot grafting. 

4.3.3.1. Bud grafting 

A small piece of budded bark (scion) is taken from a good quality 'plus' tree and fixed onto a rootstock 

in place of an equal sized piece of bark that has been removed. The bud is tied firmly with polyethylene 

or specially prepared budding tape to keep it in position. Budding should be carried out when the 

seedling rootstocks are 6-9 months old. A good indicator that the budding is likely to take, is when the 

budwood is in active growth and the bark is easy to peel off. 

Bud grafting results in a stronger bud union than shoot grafting and can be used for large-scale 

multiplication of tamarind. 

2 

1 

3 4 

Figure 4.7. Patch budding in Tamarind 

1. Patch of bark removed from 'plus' tree, 2. Patch of bark with a bud from a desirable scion, 3. Bud 

inserted into the rootstock plant, 4. Bud is wrapped firmly with tape. 

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4.3.3.2. Shoot grafting 

There are two methods of shoot grafting, 'approach' grafting and 'cleft' grafting. The most reliable 

method (95 % success) for tamarind is the approach method. 

Approach grafting 

This method requires two self sustaining plants, one is the rootstock plant, which must be vigorous and 

sturdy to provide excellent anchorage for the new plant and the other is the 'superior' or 'plus' plant, 

which has the desirable characteristics required by the grower. A small section of bark (approx. 5-6cm 

in length and 1-2cm in width, depending on the size of the stem) should be removed from both the 

rootstock plant and the superior tree, at the same level, using the budding knife. The area of bark 

removed should be just deep enough to expose the inner tissue of the stem and allow close contact of 

this tissue between the two plants. The union of the two plants should then be bound firmly using 

grafting tape and waxed. The wax will prevent water entering the wound, as this may cause rotting. The 

wax will also increase the temperature and humidity around the union which will help in the healing 

process of the graft. The healing process in shoot grafting is usually longer than in bud grafting, and may 

take up to one month. Once the union is complete, the rootstock plant should be severed above the 

graft and the base of the 'superior' plant is removed below the graft. The grafted tree will now obtain 

nutrients from the soil using the root system of the rootstock plant. 

CUT 

a 

1. Slice of bark and wood removed from 

both plants, a rootstock, b scion. 

Cleft Grafting 

b 

CUT 

a b a b 

2. Cut surfaces are bound 

together with tape and waxed. 

Figure 4.8. Approach grafting of Tamarind 

Tamarind can be propagated using cleft grafting. This method also requires two self-sustaining plants, 

the rootstock and the 'superior' plant. The vegetative (top) section of the rootstock plant should be 

removed with the budding knife, using a horizontal cut at 20-30cm above the level of the soil. A 4-5cm 

vertical cut should then be made into the cross section of the stem. A scion should be removed from a 

'superior' plant. A young branch should be used, with a similar diameter to that of the rootstock plant 

(approx. 1-2cm). The base of the scion should be cut into a wedge-shaped point at approx. 45 

degrees, to a depth of 4-5cm, similar to the vertical cut in the rootstock plant. The wedge-shaped 

scion should be inserted into the vertical cut of the stem of the rootstock plant. The aim is to provide a 

good point of contact for the rootstock plant and 'superior' scion to encourage grafting. The graft 

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3. a. The rootstock plant is cut above the 

union and b. the scion is cut below the 

union to separate the new plant.

should be firmly bound with grafting tape and waxed as with the approach grafting method. If the 

grafting process is successful, the scion will form new shoots in about 3-4 weeks. 

Figure 4.9. Cleft grafting of Tamarind 

1-2cm 

4-5cm 

1. Preparation of scion - base of scion is 

cut into a wedge shape. 

45 o 

4-5cm 

3. Base of scion inserted into vertical cut on 

rootstock plant, then taped and waxed. 

2. Preparation of rootstock plant - top of 

rootstock plant removed and vertical cut 

applied to remaining stem. 

Softwood grafting is most successful in tamarind 

4.3.4. Layering 

Layering involves the growth of roots on a stem, while the stem is still attached to the mother plant. 

There are 2 methods of layering used for tamarind, air (marcotting) and ground layering. 

4.3.4.1. Air layering 

Air layering is the most commonly used method of layering for tamarind propagation. A young branch 

should be selected and the bark removed from an area of about 2-3cm or a small cut can be made, this 

reduces sap circulation and encourages rooting. The area or cut should be covered with soil mixture or 

root promoting material, such as coir fibre dust, watered and kept in position by wrapping with clear 

polythene film (plastic bag). The plastic should be tied firmly at both ends to retain moisture and 

encourage rooting. The rooting area must be kept moist. After about 2-3 months the growing roots 

should be observed through the polythene film. At this stage the branch can be severed about 5cm 

below the rooting area and potted for later field establishment. It is best to leave the new plant in a pot 

for 6-12 months to allow the roots to become well established before replanting in the field. 

Rooting hormone (IBA at 1000ppm) can be applied to the initial cut to encourage shoot rooting, this 

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can reduce the time required for rooting from 12 to 6-8 weeks. 

2. The cut area is covered with soil mixture, 

wrapped in plastic and tied firmly with tape. 

3. The branch is severed when root development 

can be observed through the plastic. 

4.3.4.2. Ground layering 

Figure 4.10. Air layering of Tamarind 

This method is very similar to air layering, the only difference is that rooting is encouraged below 

ground and not in the air. A flexible branch from a 'superior' tree should be bent to the ground and 

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pegged. A small cut is made onto the lower side of the stem where it touches the ground. This section 

of branch is then covered with soil. The top of the stem can be supported by a stick to encourage 

upright growth. After 10-12 weeks, roots begin to develop at the point of the cut. Once the roots are 

established the new plant can be obtained by severing the branch from the mother tree, above ground 

level. This method is less common that air layering as it can be difficult to select a flexible enough 

branch unless the tree is very young. 

1. The branch is cut to encourage rooting. 2. The cut can be held open using a small piece of 

wood. 

3. The branch is bent to the ground and the cut 

portion covered with soil. 

4. The cutting is pegged at ground level and staked 

to keep it erect. 

Figure 4.11. Ground layering of Tamarind 

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4.4. FIELD ESTABLISHMENT 

Tamarind trees prefer full sun and open areas are most suitable for planting out. They should not be 

planted under heavy shade, in boggy patches, within the leaf litter of other trees, near refuse areas, 

animal enclosures or in areas where the trees are likely to be damaged. The tree should not be planted 

in highly saline soil or in areas of contamination with heavy metals, e.g. petrol spills. The land should be 

free draining and not subject to flooding. 

Tamarind can be planted on roadside corridors, homesteads, agricultural land or as a tree in open 

grasslands. Tree protection may be required, in the form of a stick/cane as a tree support and a thorn 

or wire enclosure, to prevent damage by children or animals. 

4.4.1. Land preparation 

Weeding is required on all tamarind planting sites, up to 1m in diameter around the planting hole. A 

larger area of 3-4m squared must be cleared when local vegetation such as ‘creeper’ weeds and vines 

are invasive, as these can choke the young trees. If planted on grassland, the grass also needs to be 

removed to 1 m in diameter around the planting site. 

If a site is over-run with woody growth and shrubs, some clearance will be necessary. The cutting of a 

small area for each tree is not sufficient, as cutting stimulates growth and the cleared shrubs will 

continue to grow through their root stumps, unless removed. 

When preparing the soil for seed planting, it should be lightly turned to allow aeration. 

Weeds, including grass are removed 

from the tree planting area. 

The soil is lightly turned to allow 

aeration. 

Figure 4.12. Land preparation 

If a number of trees are to be planted in an area of grassland grazed by animals, it might be necessary 

to consider fencing structures. Alternatively, tree guards can be made and placed around the base of 

each tree to a height of 120cm. These guards can be made from local branches or thorny scrub to 

prevent animal damage. 

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Lattice-work structure Fence Thorn branches 

4.4.2. Direct seeding 

Figure 4.13. Tree guards 

Seeds can be sown directly in the field. This method can be used on homestead farms and in areas 

where all surface vegetation has been removed. Small holes should be dibbed in the soil and seeds 2-3 

placed at a depth of about 1-2cm (the strongest can be selected later on). The seeds should be planted 

at a spacing of 5x5m and thinned to a spacing of about 13x13m, or line sown, with seeds dibbed 5cm 

apart in lines and 4-5m apart, and then thinned later to the recommended spacing of 13x13m (seed 

requirement is in general 20kg per hectare). 

In home gardens, tamarind seeds should be sown in cleared patches, spaced at 4-5m apart. 

When creating a tamarind firebreak, the spacing adopted should be 2.5x2.5m or 3x3m. 

4.4.3. Transplanting 

Tamarind seedlings (from seed and vegetative propagation) should be field planted at 12-14 months of 

age or when they are greater than 30cm in height. All field planted seedlings need to be planted with 

sticks for support, but within a year they can support themselves. 

If the growth is poor, the seedlings should be retained in the nursery for another year. The taproot of 

these seedlings may grow into the soil and root pruning should be practiced, when required. Overgrown 

seedlings can be more effectively transplanted when the stem and tap root are pruned to lengths 

of about 5cm and 20-25cm, respectively. 

4.4.4. Planting techniques for transplants 

4.4.4.1. Pit planting 

Pit planting is one of the commonest methods for planting tamarind trees and is essential for trees over 

90cm tall. It is a time consuming method, especially in rocky soils, and may require a lot of effort to 

make a decent sized pit, but tree establishment has a greater rate of success with this method. The pit 

should be about 30cm deep and 20cm wide. The soil should be loosened on the sides of the pit walls 

and base as this will help the roots to grow and develop later. The tree should be held in the centre of 

the hole, checking that the soil mark at the root collar of the transplanted tree is at ground level and that 

the tree is straight. The pit and roots should be covered to ground level with the soil that was removed 

(all stones should be removed before replacing around the tree); if there is insufficient soil after digging 

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the pit, topsoil should be used to fill the pit. It is important to flatten the soil around the base of the tree 

up to ground level. The tree should be watered daily if the rains have not occurred. 

20cm 

30cm 

1. Planting hole is prepared 30cm 

deep and 20cm in diameter. 

2. The tree is placed in the hole. 3. The roots of the tree are covered 

with soil and flattened. 

Figure 4.14. Pit planting of Tamarind 

4.4.4.2. Notch planting 

Notch planting is practised with bare rooted tamarind trees. This method is not possible in rocky soils 

and should not be used in heavy clay soils as the soil notch may reopen in dry weather. 

An ‘L’ or ‘T’ shaped notch should be cut into the ground to a depth of at least 20cm (depending on the 

size of the roots) using a spade or similar tool. The soil should be lifted to create a hole. The tree should 

be inserted bringing the root collar level with the soil surface. The spade should then be removed to 

allow the surface of the soil to fall back in place. The soil should be flattened around the stem to firm 

the roots. 

1. A notch is cut 

into the ground. 

2. The soil is lifted and the 

tree placed in the hole. 

3. The soil is replaced 

around the tree. 

4. The soil is 

then flattened. 

Figure 4.15. Notch planting of Tamarind 

4.4.5. Time of planting 

The best time for field planting is at the beginning of the rainy season, particularly in seasonally dry 

regions. If water is constantly available planting may be done throughout the year. The best time of day 

is late afternoon to early evening. 

18

5. MANAGING TAMARIND TREES 

5.0.1 Training and pruning 

Tamarind requires minimal care except in the early stages of growth. Initial growth is slow and after the 

main stem and some branches have developed, young trees should be pruned to allow 3 to 5 well 

spaced branches to develop into the main structure of the tree. 

The lower branches should be pruned to allow easier access for management, such as fertiliser 

application and inter-cropping. Pruning dwarfs the tree, which facilitates harvesting. Bearing trees 

require very little pruning, except for removal of weak, dead and diseased branches, this can prevent 

the spread of disease and infection. 

5.0.2. Fertilisers 

Figure 5.1. Pruning to remove dead branches 

Tamarind trees grow and produce good crops with or without fertiliser, due to their deep and extensive 

root system. Farmyard manure can be applied at the time of planting or yearly as a top dressing and 

will improve yield. 

Inorganic fertilisers are often applied in sweet tamarind orchards to increase the yield. Ammonium 

sulphate can be applied at the rate of 100-200g per tree, a month after planting and twice a year at the 

end of the rains. When the tree begins to bear fruit, 500g of complete fertiliser (NPK) can be applied 

twice a year, at the end of the rains. A mature, bearing tree can be given 2-3kg of complete fertiliser a 

year. 

5.0.3. Water supply 

Mature tamarind trees require no irrigation. Young trees do require water in the nursery and during 

establishment. The amount of water required varies (depending on local climate), but in general, about 

1-2 litres of water every 2 weeks should be applied to each young tree, preferably in late afternoon or 

early evening. 

5.0.4. Weeding 

19

Removal of weeds from around the plant is necessary during the early stages (first 4 years) of growth. 

In commercial orchards, weeding may not be required if cover crops (inter-crops) are grown inbetween 

the trees to control weeds and conserve moisture. 

5.0.5. Intercropping 

Inter-cropping can be practised during the first 4 years of growth. It is a good practice and can provide 

an income in the early stages of tree establishment, before the trees bear fruit. The best inter-crops for 

tamarind are groundnuts, vegetables, field beans, mung beans, cowpeas and short season cereals. 

NOTE: Climbing varieties of inter-crops are not recommended in tamarind orchards because 

they creep up the trees and reduce available light. 

5.0.6. Pests and diseases 

Tamarind trees do not suffer badly from insect pests or diseases. There are however a number of pests 

(categorised as major and minor), along with possible methods of control (natural and chemical), which 

are mentioned in Appendices 2 and 3. 

In serious outbreaks, chemical methods may be the only feasible means of control. Chemical sprays 

should not be used if the tree is bearing fruits (it is better to spray after harvesting), if the tree is near a 

water source or if there is a strong prevailing wind. 

Serious pest or disease problems should be reported to the local Extension or Agricultural Officer, who 

will give advice for control methods and / or chemical application rates and availability. Appendices 2 

and 3 can be used as a guide. 

Pests - The most common pests are the leaf feeding caterpillars, bag worms, mealy bugs and scale 

insects. Sap suckers, such as white flies, thrips and coccid aphids, affect tender shoots and fresh 

foliage, and defoliators, such as caterpillars and chafer beetles, can also cause considerable damage. 

They can all be controlled with chemical sprays or physical removal of the infected parts. Some pests 

are also known to attack flower buds, developing fruit and also fruits during storage (See Appendix 2 

for pest classification lists and control methods). 

Diseases - There are no major diseases of tamarind. The most common minor disease affects nursery 

seedlings and is a downy mildew caused by the fungus Oidium spp. Other diseases, such as powdery 

mildew, collar rot, stem rot, stem canker, trunk rot and root rot, are also caused by fungi. Spraying 

fungicides at the recommended rates can effectively control the occurrence of fungal diseases (See 

Appendix 3 for a disease classification list and recommended chemical application rates). 

20

5.1. HARVESTING 

5.1.1. Time to first harvest 

The time for a tamarind tree to reach its first harvest will vary, depending on the method of propagation. 

A tree propagated by bud-grafting will come into bearing in 3 to 4 years, whereas trees propagated by 

seed may take up to 12 years. Practical management and local conditions will also affect the time for 

trees to bear. A well tended tree, grown from seed, in an open area will come into bearing in about 7 

years. Regardless of the method of propagation, pod yield should stabilise after 15 years. The tree has 

a pod bearing capacity of 50-60 years, but may yield fruit for over 200 years. 

5.1.2. Fruit ripeness and yield 

Pod skin colour does not change rapidly with maturity and individual fruits mature at different times, so 

harvesting should be carried out selectively. Mature fruits should have a brown shell, while immature 

pods have a green skin. At maturity, the fruits are filled with a sticky brown to reddish-brown pulp and 

the seeds become hard and glossy. The pod skin becomes brittle as the pulp shrinks and the shell can 

be broken easily by hand. The ripe pod produces a hollow sound when tapped with the finger. 

The yield of a tamarind tree varies considerably from country to country, and is dependent on genetic 

and environmental factors. Pod yield can also be cyclic, with bumper yields in every third year. A 

young tree may yield 20-30kg of fruit per tree in a year and a full-grown adult tree can yield about 

150-200kg of fruit per tree in a year. An average tamarind tree may yield 100kg of fruit per tree in a 

year. Pod yield can decline after 50 years. Once the pod yield is no longer profitable, the tree may be 

harvested for charcoal or fuelwood. 

5.1.3. Harvesting techniques 

Tamarind fruit can be harvested by hand picking, clipping with a hook mounted on a stick or by 

shaking the branches. Hand picking is used for sweet tamarind to avoid pod damage, as the fruit is sold 

whole, this however, requires climbing the trees and can be very time consuming. When the trees are 

shaken or clipped using a stick, a sheet is usually placed beneath the tree to collect the fallen fruits, this 

provides some protection against the hard earth and may prevent damage of the shell. The sheet also 

allows easy collection of the fruits. Fruit left on the tree will eventually fall off naturally. 

Using a ladder. Using a sheet. Using a long stick with a 

hook, and a basket. 

Figure 5.2. Harvesting of Tamarind pods 

21

6. PROCESSING AND STORAGE 

6.0.1. Processing 

In most rural households the pods are dried in the sun for 5-7 days. Small-scale dehydrators can also 

be used to dry the fresh fruit, if available. Once dried, the shells are hand-cracked and separated from 

the pulp. The fibres, seeds and shell pieces are removed from the pulp by hand. The pulp is then dried 

for 3-4 days before being compressed, ready for storage. The pulp can be mixed with salt or sugar 

according to preference, prior to storage. Seeds can be used in industrial processing and should be 

dried for about 2 days. 

Juice 

Tamarind balls 

(pulp mixed with sugar and 

rolled into balls) 

Paste 

Pulp 

(mixed with salt or sugar and 

stored, or used in cooking) 

Figure 6.1. Processed products of Tamarind 

6.0.2. Storage 

In rural areas the compressed pulp can be stored in plastic bags, jute bags or closed clay pots. The 

pulp is usually stored with the seeds, however, when produced commercially, the seeds are removed. 

The freshly prepared, dried pulp is light brown in colour, but darkens with time in storage. Under cool, 

dry conditions the pulp remains good for about one year when stored with salt in a clay jar or in 

polythene, after which it becomes almost black, soft and sticky in texture. 

Various methods can be used to prolong the storage life of the whole fruit and the pulp: 

• Drying is the best and easiest way to store small amounts of tamarind pulp. 

• Freshly harvested fruits can be stored for 2-5 days in a cool, dark area, or a refrigerator. 

• Freshly harvested pulp can be stored for 4-6 months by packing in high density polyethylene and 

storing below 10 degrees in a dry place. 

6.0.3. Marketing 

Tamarind is marketed locally, regionally and internationally. Market value varies depending on location, 

variety, quality, processing and demand. Products sold in local markets are usually in the form of fresh 

fruits, pulp, juice, sauce and paste. Products in international markets include pulp, juice, paste and TKP 

(Tamarind Kernel Powder). India is the world's largest exporter of Tamarind and in 1993, exported 

11,145 tonnes. Thailand exported 7,006 tonnes in 1999 and Sri Lanka exported 6903 tonnes in 1997. 

Other countries also export tamarind, including Indonesia, the Philippines, Nicaragua, Venezuela and 

other Asian and South/Central American countries. 

22

APPENDIX 1. MULTI-PURPOSE USES OF TAMARIND 

Wood • Purplish brown hardwood used for furniture, well construction, tent pegs, canoes, 

side planks, boats, cart shafts and axles, naves for wheels, toys, hubs, oil, sugar presses 

and tool handles. 

• Fuel with high calorific value (4850 k cal/kg) used for brick making; excellent 

charcoal. 

Fruit and pulp • Product of economic value, sold in local markets in fresh or processed form with 

high export value. 

• Fruits of sweet varieties are eaten fresh and sour fruits are used to prepare juice, 

jams, jellies and candy. 

• The juice is sold commercially in polypacks and can also be used as a vinegar to 

preserve food. 

• Acidic pulp used in curries, chutneys, sauces, ice cream, sherbets and toffees. 

• The pulp can also be mixed with common salt to clean brass, copper and silver. 

• Fruit pulp improves appetite and is a gentle laxative (medicinal). 

Seed • Eaten roasted or boiled and used in jams, jellies, confectionery and condiments. In 

some countries seeds are eaten alone or mixed with cereal powders, made into flour for 

bread and cake making. 

• Seeds are a good substitute for fruit proteins. 

• Used to manufacture tamarind kernel powder (TKP), an adhesive used in textile 

and paper sizing, and in the food industry to thicken and stabilise. 

• TKP is also used as a filler for adhesives in the plywood industry, where seeds, 

when ground, boiled and mixed with gum, produce a strong wood cement. 

• Oil extracted from the seed can be used for making varnishes, paints and lighting 

oil. 

• Seed is also a source of pectin which can be used in the food industry. 

• Seed meal is a good livestock feed. 

• Powdered seed is used to treat chronic diarrhoea, jaundice and dysentery 

(medicinal). 

Leaf • Edible, used to make curries, soups, salads and stews. Young leaves are used as a 

seasoning vegetable. Fodder relished by cattle and goats, also preferred by wild 

animals. 

• Leaves contain tannin and can be used as an ink and in fixing dyes. 

• Used in cardiac and blood sugar reducing medicines (medicinal). 

• Ground with salt to prevent throat infections, coughs, fever, intestinal worms and 

liver ailments (medicinal). 

• Applied to boils/abscesses to reduce inflammation (medicinal). 

Flowers and immature 

pods 

• Edible and can be used in salads and stews. 

• Used internally as a remedy to cure jaundice and externally to cure eye diseases 

and skin ulcers (medicinal). 

Twigs and bark • Used in the tanning industry for tanning hides. 

• The bark can be burnt to make ink. 

• Twigs and bark can be used to make dyes. 

• Twigs are used as chewsticks. 

• Bark is used as an astringent for the treatment of diarrhoea, as a cure for asthma 

and acts as a digestive aid (medicinal). 

Root • Component in medicines for leprosy and dysentery (medicinal). 

23

APPENDIX 2a. MAJOR PESTS OF TAMARIND 

COMMON 

NAME 

Scale insect 

Mealy bugs 

Thrips 

Coccids 

Soft scale 

insects 

Aphids 

Semilooper 

caterpillar 

SCIENTIFIC NAME 

Aonidiella orientalis, 

Aspidiotus destructor, 

Saissetia oleae 

Planococcus lilacinus, 

Nipaecoccu viridis 

Scirtothrips dorsalis, 

Halothrips ceylonicus, 

Eublemma ungulifera 

Aspidiotus tamarindi, 

Cardiococu castilleac, 

Hemiberlesia lataniae, 

Howasdia biclavis, 

Pinnaspia temporaria, 

Unaspis articolor, 

Saissetia oleae 

Toxoptera aurantii, 

Acaudaleyrodes 

rachipora 

Achaea janata 

NATURE OF 

ATTACK 

Sucks the sap of 

tender shoots. 

Sucks the sap of 

leaflets, mature and 

tender shoots and leaf 

petiole bases. 

Leaves become 

chlorotic and defoliate. 

Immature fruit fall. 

Attacks flowers, bores 

into flower buds 

causing bud death and 

can web flowers 

together. 

Sucks the sap of semihard 

and tender shoots. 

Sucks cell sap of 

tender leaves and 

stems. Leaflets are 

distorted and covered 

with moulds. 

Infests flowers and 

causes a lot of 

damage. 

BIO- 

CONTROL 

Remove affected 

parts in initial 

stages. 


parts. 

No known biocontrol. 


twigs. 


twigs and leaves. 

Remove 

caterpillars by 

hand and crush. 

* CHEMICAL 

CONTROL 

For serious 

infestations, spray with 

diazinon or carbosulfan 

at 0.1% solution. 

Spray with diazinon or 

carbosulfan at 0.1% 

solution. 

Spray with dimethioate 

at 20-40 ml/10 litres of 

water or Fenthion at 

10-15 ml/10 litres of 

water. 

Spray carbonsulphan at 

0.1% solution or 

dimethioate at 3% 

solution (20-40 ml/ 10 

liters of water). 

Spray endosulphan at 

10 ml/10 litres of water 

or spray dimethioate at 

20-40 ml per 10 litres 

of water. 

Repeat every 2 weeks 

until pest disappears. 

Spray permethrin at 

0.5% solution (5 ml per 

10 liters of water). 

* Chemical control regulations may change after publication of this manual. Please check with local 

Extension or Agricultural Office before application. 

24

APPENDIX 2b. MINOR PESTS OF TAMARIND 

COMMON 

NAME 

SCIENTIFIC NAME NATURE OF 

ATTACK 

BIO- 

CONTROL 

- Thalassodes quadraria Feeds on plant foliage. No known biocontrols. 

Bag worms 

Lobster crab 

caterpillar 

Beetles 

Butterfly 

larvae 

Chaloides vitrea, 

Perteroma plagiophles 

Feeds on plant foliage. 

No known biocontrols. 

Stauropus alternus Feeds on plant foliage. Remove pest by 

hand and crush. 

- Cryptocrameri spp., 

Euproctis scintillans 

Myllocerus blandus, 

Myllocerus spp. 

Charaxes fabius, 

Taragama siva 

Defoliates plant. 



Beetle larvae Lockmaecles spp., Damages branches. 

Attacks ripe pods. 

Caterpillar 

Grubs 

Beetles 

Aphomia gularis, 

Paralipsa gularis, 

Corcyra caphalonia, 

Assara albicostalis 

Alphitobius laevigatus, 

Echocerus maxillosus, 

Uloma spp. 

Lasioderma serricorne, 

Calandra linearis, 

Tribolium castaneum, 

Dichocrosis 

punctiferalis, 

Phycita orthoclina, 

Cryptophalebia illepida 

Attacks ripe pods and 

stored fruits. Bores 

inside the fruits and 

eats the pulp and 

sometimes bores into 

seeds. 

Attacks the fruit. 

Bores into the fruit. 



Remove by hand 

and crush. 


Remove by hand 

and crush. 

No known biocontols. 


* CHEMICAL 

CONTROL 

Spray permethrin at 0.5% 

solution (5 ml / 10 litres of 

water). 



water). 



water). 



water). 



water). 



water). 



water). 

Pirimiphos-methyl dust at 

2%. Fumigation with 

ethylene bromide, carbon 

tetrachloride, acrynitrile or 

phospine. Mix with neem 

oil at 5-10 ml per 1 kg 

seed in seed infestations in 

storage. 

Pirimiphos-methyl at 2% 

dust. Fumigation with 

ethylene bromide, carbon 





storage. 

Pirimiphos-methyl at 2% 

dust. Fumigation with 

ethylene bromide carbon 





storage. 



25

APPENDIX 3. DISEASES OF TAMARIND 

COMMON NAME CAUSAL AGENT BIO-CONTROL 

Leaf spot 

Bartalinia robillardoides, 

Exosporium tamarindi, 

Hendersonia tamarindi, 

Pestalotia poonensis, 

Phyllosticta tamarindicola, 

Prathigada tamarindi, 

Sphaceloma spp., Stigmina 

tamarindi 

* CHEMICAL CONTROL 

No known bio-controls. Spray maneb 80 wp at 200/100 

litres of water. 

Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni, 

Oidium spp. 

No known bio-controls. Spray benomyl 50 wp at 10 

g/20 litres of water. 

Collar rot Phytophthora spp. No known bio-controls. Spray benomyl 50 wp at 10 

g/20 litres of water 

Stem rot 

Stem canker 

Pholiota gollani, 

Hypoxlon nectriodes 

No known bio-controls. Spray captan 80% wp at 200 


Trunk and root Rot Stereum nitidulum No known bio-controls. Spray captan 80% wp at 200 

g/ 100 litres of water. 

Root and wood Rot Ganoderma lucidum No known bio-controls. Spray captan 80% wp at 200 


Stony fruit Pestalotia macrotricha No known bio-controls. Spray captan 80%wp at 200 




26

GLOSSARY 

Abscise - 

Air layering - 

Bole - 

Frond - 

Grafting - 

Ground layering - 

Hormone - 

Loam - 

Node - 

Nursery - 

Pinched - 

Plus tree - 

Propagation - 

Rootstock - 

Scarify - 

Scion - 

Seed propagation - 

Soil bed - 

Unpinched - 

Vegetative propagation - 

when a leaf, flower or fruit falls off the plant naturally. 

a method of propagation where a cut is made in a woody stem and 

surrounded by damp soil or peat moss and held in place with a wrap 

(plastic). When roots from the plant can be seen the stem can be cut 

and the plant transplanted. 

the trunk of a tree below the first major branch. 

leaf of a plant with many divisions, in this case referring to a 

palm leaf. 

method of propagation, by inserting a section of one plant, usually a 

shoot into another so that they grow together into a single plant. 

similar to air layering except a flexible branch is bent to the ground and 

buried in the moist soil and pegged. When roots form, the stem can be 

cut form the mother plant. 

a biochemical product of a cell or tissue that can cause a change of 

activity in a cell or tissue elsewhere in the plant (organism). Rooting 

hormone is an artificial chemical which causes rooting in the tissue it is 

applied to. 

a generally fertile and well-drained soil, containing clay, sand and a 

significant amount of decomposed organic matter. 

point on a stem where one or more leaves are attached. 

an area or structure set aside for growth and protection of young 

plants. 

the terminal leaves may be removed using a finger nail or sharp knife, 

this may encourage growth in the roots. 

Superior or high quality tree from which cuttings and seeds can be 

collected. 

to produce a new plant, either by vegetative means involving the 

rooting or grafting of pieces of plant or by sowing seeds. 

the root system and lower portion of a woody plant to which a graft of 

a more desirable plant is attached. 

to scar, nick or cut the seed coat, to enhance germination. 

a cutting from the upper portion of a plant, which is then grafted onto 

the rootstock of another plant. 

to produce a new plant from sowing seeds. 

an area where soil is laid down for seeding. 

opposite to pinched, terminal leaves are not removed. 

to produce a new plant by vegetative means involving the rooting or 

grafting of pieces of plant. 

27

FIELD NOTES 

29

FIELD NOTES 

30

1. THE TAMARIND TREE - Crops for the Future

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