Plant Protection 3 : Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables

PLANT 

PROTECTION 3 

Selected Ornamentals, 

Fruit and Vegetables 

Ruth M. Kerruish 

drawings by 

Adrienne L. Walkington

PLANT PROTECTION SERIES 

PLANT PROTECTION 1 

Pests, Diseases and Weeds. 

Pests and Diseases 

• Insects and allied pests 

• Snails and slugs 

• Vertebrate pests 

• Nematode diseases 

• Virus and virus-like diseases 

• Bacterial diseases 

• Fungal diseases 

• Parasitic flowering plants 

• Non-parasitic problems 

Weeds 


Methods of control. 

Cultural methods 

Sanitation 

Biological control 

Resistant varieties 

Plant quarantine 

Disease-tested planting material 

Physical and mechanical methods 

Pesticides 

Plant Management 

IPM (Integrated Pest Management) 

Organic standards, 

• BMP (Best Management Practice) 


Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables. 

Annual and herbaceous perennials 

Bromeliads 

Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers 

Cacti, ferns 

Fruit and nuts 

Orchids, palms, roses 

Trees, shrubs and climbers 

Turf grasses 

Vegetables 

• Also Australian native plants, Bonsai, Compost, Containers, Garden centres, Greenhouses, Herbs, House 

plants, Hydroponic systems, Interior landscapes, Manure, Mulches, Nurseries, Plant tissue culture, Postharvest, 

Potting mixes, Seedlings, Seeds, Soil, Urban bushland, Urban landscapes, Water, Water plants, Xeriscapes. 


How to Diagnose Plant Problems. 

• Step 1. The client’s enquiry 

• Step 2. Identify affected plant 

• Step 3. Examine plant parts for signs and symptoms 

• Step 4. Visit site, history, questions 

• Step 5. Consult references 

• Step 6. Seek expert help 

• Step 7. Report the diagnosis

PLANT 

PROTECTION 3 

Selected Ornamentals, 

Fruit and Vegetables 

Ruth M. Kerruish 

with original line drawings by 

Adrienne L. Walkington 

ROOTROT PRESS 

i

Copyright 

Copyright for material in this book is held by the authors, illustrators and third parties who have 

made photographs, drawings and product labels available for educational purposes only. Trademarks 

used in this book to describe firms or their products are trademarks of those firms or the registered 

proprietor of the trademark and are therefore also protected by copyright. Other material in this book 

is available for personal use. 

Copyright1997 Ruth M. Kerruish 

Copyright1997 Adrienne L. Walkington 

CopyrightCanberra Institute of Technology 

CopyrightNSW Department of Industry and Investment 

CopyrightState of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment 

CopyrightForestry Tasmania 

CopyrightMin of Agriculture New Zealand 

CopyrightAmpol Rural 

CopyrightWestern Australian Agriculture Authority 2009 

CopyrightCSIRO Australia 

SECOND EDITION, 1997, reprinted 1998, 2000, 2003, 2007 

First Edition 1984 

DISTRIBUTED BY 

Qld Textbook Warehouse 

PO Box 3220, Brackenridge, Qld, Australia 4017 

07 3261 1300 Fax 07 3261 1966 

email: info@qtw.com.au 

web: www.qtw.com.au/ 

PUBLISHED BY 

RootRot Press - ACT 

22 Lynch Street, Hughes, Canberra, ACT, Australia 2605 

(02) 6281 3650 

ISBN 1 875907 00 9 (print) 

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data. 

Kerruish, Ruth M (Ruth MacNeill), 1936- . 

Plant Protection 3 : Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables. 

Includes bibliographies and index. 

1. Agricultural pests - Control - Australia. 2. Weeds - 

Control - Australia. 3. Horticulture - Australia. 

4. Plants, Protection of - Australia. 5. Plant diseases - 

Australia. 6. Plant parasites - Control - Australia. 

I. Walkington, Adrienne L. II. Title. 

632.90994 

ISBN 978-1-875907 06 9 (online) 

By the same author: 

PLANT PROTECTION 1 : Pests, Diseases and Weeds (with Phillip Unger) 

PLANT PROTECTION 2 : Methods of Control 

PLANT PROTECTION 4 : How to Diagnose Plant Problems 

Front cover : Codling moth damage to apple, wood rot fruiting body on a tree trunk. 

ii

Disclaimer 

This book is a guide only. While the information is believed to be accurate at the 

time of publication, the author and publisher make no warranties, expressed or 

implied, as to the accuracy, adequacy or currency of the information presented in this 

book. The material contained in this book is not intended to provide specific advice. 

No reader should act on the basis of anything contained in this book without taking 

appropriate advice on their own particular circumstances. 

It should be recognized that there are differences in soils, climates and seasonal 

conditions, and that pests, diseases and weeds do not occur uniformly across Australia 

and may spread to new regions within Australia. New pests, diseases and weeds may 

enter Australia. Advisors and growers will need to adapt information to suit their 

particular conditions, regions and situations. 

Reference to a product or a particular brand of product in this publication (whether the 

reference appears in an illustration, photograph or in any other form) does not imply 

the author’s or publisher’s approval or endorsement of the product or the brand. 

Similarly, by the omission of certain trade names and some formulated products, either 

unintentionally or from lack of space, the author or the publisher is not inferring that 

these products or brands are not approved. 

By allowing the use of their product labels and other material, companies do not imply 

that they are endorsing the contents of the publication. Although efforts are made to 

have up-to-date material, labels change, and with time the labels in this publication 

may not be the current version. 

The authors and publisher do not guarantee the current status of registered uses of any 

of the pesticides or other products mentioned as these are constantly changing. Users 

must comply with current pesticide legislation and follow instructions on currently 

registered labels attached to the container. If information in this book conflicts with 

that on a current label, follow label instructions. 

Websites referred to, or activated in this book, are not under the control of the author 

or publisher who accept no responsibility or liability in relation to their content. 

AS 6000—2009. Organic and Biodynamic 

Products (Standards Australia) outlines 

minimum requirements to be met by growers and 

manufacturers wishing to label their products 

‘organic’ or ‘biodynamic’ within Australia. 

Organic Federation of Australia (OFA) is the 

peak body for the organic industry in Australia 

www.ofa.org.au 

and follow the links to obtain the domestic and 

export organic standards and certifiers. 

Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA) 

www.bfa.com.au 

NASAA Certified Organic 

www.nasaa.com.au 

Organic Growers of Australia (OGA) 

www.organicgrowers.org.au/ 

Registration of pesticides in Australia is the 

responsibility of the Australian Pesticides and 

Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA). 

APVMA assesses and registers these chemicals 

to ensure that they perform as claimed and are 

safe for people, animals and the land. APVMA 

also issues permits for off-label uses. Check on 

the APVMA database that the chemicals you use 

are registered for use: 

www.apvma.gov.au 

and follow the links to PUBCRIS (the Public 

Chemical Registration Information System). 

Many registered products 

are not available for use by 

home gardeners 

Some industry organizations 

make recommendations for 

specific crops. 

iii

Acknowledgements 

The author would like to express her appreciation of the many 

people, organizations and companies, whose contributions have 

made this book possible: 

Advice, encouragement 

Computing assistance 

Editing assistance 

Library assistance 

Australian plants 

Bromeliads 

Bulbs 

Cacti 

Fungal diseases 

Nurseries 

Palms 

Soil, potting mix, water, 

tissue culture, hydroponics 

Turfgrasses 

Bill Kerruish 

Phillip Unger, Canberra Institute of Technology, ACT 

Douglas Kerruish, Horticulturist, Canberra, ACT 

Douglas Jones, Canberra Institute of Technology, ACT 

John Kerruish, Sydney 

Kay Dixon, Hughes, ACT 

Chris McKenna, Turner, ACT 

Horticulture Library, Canberra Institute of Technology, ACT 

National Library, ACT 

John Nightingale, Australian National Botanic Gardens, ACT 

The Bromeliad Society of Australia, Brisbane 

Tesselaar's Padua Bulb Farm, Silvan, Victoria 

Frank Grossbechler, Narrabundah, ACT 

John Duff, Dept. of Primary Industries, Darwin 

Ian Pascoe, Dept. of Agriculture, Melbourne 

John Walker, NSW Agriculture and Fisheries, Sydney 

Keith Bodman, Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, Qld 

John Duff, Dept. of Primary Industries, Darwin 

Paul Weiss, Canberra Institute of Technology, ACT 

John Clark, ACT Parks and Conservation, ACT 

Bruce Davies, Canberra Institute of Technology, ACT 

Drawings, diagrams, 

charts, photographs and 

labels reproduced for 

educational purposes 

A detailed list of the individuals, organizations and 

companies who have given permission to reproduce 

the material for educational purposes only is on the 

following pages 

This book is dedicated to the many students 

whose interest in Plant Protection ensured 

the book's completion 

iv

Acknowledgements (contd) 

The following drawings, diagrams, charts, photographs and labels are reproduced for 

educational purposes only with permission of: 

PhotoCanberra Institute of Technology. 

Fig.2.Tomato big bud symptoms – chrysanthemum 

Fig.6.Grey mould – rose petals 

Fig.7.Fungal leaf spots – kangaroo paw 

Fig.9.Sclerotium stem rot – sunflower 

Fig.10.Rust – hollyhock stems 

Fig.13.Vine moth caterpillars – impatiens 

Fig.14.Whiteflies on leaf undersurface 

Fig.15.Leafhopper damage – marigolds 

Fig.16.Leafminer damage – nasturtium 

Fig.17.Twospotted mite damage to leaves – violets 

Fig.18.Thrips in flowers 

Fig.19.Snail damage – kangaroo paw 

Fig.25.Tomato big bud symptoms – Dianthus 

Fig.26.Fungal leaf spots – carnation 

Fig.30.Fungal leaf spots – chrysanthemum 

Fig.34.Chrysanthem gall midge – chrysanthemum 

Fig.35.Cineraria leafminer damage – chrysanthemum 

Fig.36.Cineraria leafminer damage – sowthistle 

Fig.37.Tomato big bud (greening) – everlasting 

Fig.38.Caterpillar damage – everlasting 

Fig.39.Cineraria leafminer damage – everlasting 

Fig.40.Greening – gazania 

Fig.41.Snail damage (skeletonization) – gazania 

Fig.42.Virus symptoms – geranium leaf 

Fig.44.Geranium plume moth caterpillar 

Fig.46.Twpotted mite webbing – gypsophila 

Fig.48.Budworms – snapdragon. 

Fig.52.Split stems due to frost – stock 

Fig.53.Armoured scales – bromeliads 

Fig.55.Whitish waxy bloom on leaves – bromeliads 

Fig.57.Flower breaking virus – tulip 

Fig.58.Virus symptom on leaves – tulips 

Fig.62.Sclerotium rolfsii – onion 

Fig.65.Aphids – garlic 

Fih.68.Gladiolus thrips injury – gladiolus 

Fig.69.Slime moulds – onion 

Fig.70.Couchgrass growing through bulb – nerine 

Fig.75.Snail damage and burying too deeply – daffodil 

Fig.82.Flower breaking virus and chimera – tulip 

Fig.85.Armoured scales – cactus 

Fig.87.Opuntia cactus 

Fig.88.Weeds in containers – cacti 

Fig.91.Soft scales – fern 

Fig.96.Anthracnose – bananas 

Fig.97.Black rot – pawpaw; Penicillium mould – citrus 

Fig.108.Bird damage – apple 

Fig.109.Frost damage – Santa Rosa plum 

Fig.116.Small citrus butterfly caterpillar 

Fig.119.Citrus bud mite symptoms 

Fig.128.Grapevine moth caterpillar – diseased 

Fig.130.Grapeleaf blister mite symptoms and hormone 

herbicide injury 

Fig.132.Hen and chickens (poor fruit set) – grapevine 

Fig.142.Passionfruit woodiness virus – leaves 

Fig.146.Apple mosaic symptoms 

Fig.147.Black spot, scab – pear 

Fig.154.Pearleaf blister mite symptoms 

Fig.155.Pear and cherry slug – larvae and damage 

Fig.156.San Jose scale – apple, cherry 

Fig.157.Woolly aphid – apple 

Fig.158.Bacterial canker (gumming) – stone fruit 

Fig.162.Peach leaf curl – nectarine fruit 

Fig.163.Black peach aphids; cherry aphid and green 

peach aphid symptoms 

Fig.164.Oriental fruit moth damage – peach shoots 

Fig.165.Pear and cherry slug and damage 

Fig.167.Grey mould (Botrytis) – strawberry 

Fig.168.Fungal leaf spot – strawberry 

Fig.179.Scarab grubs – strawberry 

Fig.171.Bacterial blight – walnut 

Fig.172.Walnut blister mite damage 

Fig.176.Pollution spots on flowers – orchids 

Fig.179.Twospotted mites and webbing – palm 

Fig.191.Plage thrips in flowers 

Fig.192.Rose scale 

Fig.196.Camellia yellow mottle virus 

Fig.208.Spittle bug 

Fig.211.Leafhopper symptoms – mulberry 

Fig.213.Armoured scale – aucuba 

Fig.214.Christmas beetle – eucalypt 

Fig.215.Greenhouse thrips silvering, excreta – viburnum 

Fig.216.Weevil injury – camellia 

Fig.219.Pot bound roots 

Fig.223.Tar spot – callistemon 

Fig.224.Callistemon sawfly larvae 

Fig.225.Capsule moth cases – callistemon 

Fig.226.Leafmining damage – callistemon 

Fig.227.Leafrolling thrips symptoms – callistemon 

Fig.228.Pimple psyllid symptoms – callistemon 

Fig.230.Juniper aphids 

Fig.232.Cypress pine sawfly larvae 

PhotoCanberra Institute of Technology. 

Fig.234.Virus symptoms on daphne 

Fig.236.Ramularia shoot blight 

Fig.241.Eucalypt tip bugs 

Fig.243.Cup moth caterpillars 

Fig.245.Apiomorpha galls – eucalypt 

Fig.250.Lerps – eucalypts 

Fig.251.Blister mite damage – eucalypt 

Fig.253.Steelblue sawfly larvae (spitfires) – eucalypt 

Fig.256.Fungal leaf spots – hakea 

Fig.257.Doubleheaded hawk moth caterpillar – hakea 

Fig.258.Leafmining damage – hakea 

Fig.260.Star psyllids – kurrajong 

Fig.262.Black scale on stems 

Fig.267.Pittosporum leafmining galls 

Fig.270.Weevil damage – tamarisk 

Fig.271.Webbing moth frass – melaleuca 

Fig.273.Gall rust – wattle 

Fig.274.Leaf rust – wattle 

Fig.277.Wattle mealybug and wattle tick scale – wattle 

Fig.278.Woolly giant mealybug 

Fig.279.Spring dead spot - turf 

Fig.284.Fairy rings in turf 

Fig.285.Slime moulds – turf 

Fig.287.Lawnmower injury – tree trunk 

Fig.291.Tomato spotted wilt symptoms – capsicum 

Fig.292.Virus symptoms – potato tubers 

Fig.294.Fungal leaf spot – rhubarb 

Fig.300.Root knot nematode galls – carrot 

Fig.305.Whiteflies on leaf undersurface 

Fig.306.Leafhoppers – potato leaves 

Fig.309.Onion thrips symptoms 

Fig.311.Sunscald symptoms – capsicum 

Fig.312.Forked and split carrots 

Figs.316,317.Twospotted mite and damage 

Fig.323.Aphids – cabbage 

Fig.326.Snail and slug damage – cabbage 

Fig.327. Molybdenum deficiency – cauliflower 

Fig.328.Cabbage splitting 

Fig.329.Virus symptoms – cucumber fruit 

Fig.332.Cold injury – butternut pumpkin 

Fig.333.Oedema – pumpkin 

Fig.342.Mycosphaerella blight – peas 

Fig.345.Twospotted mite webbing – peas 

Fig.347.Albino pea seedlings 

Fig.355.Aphid nymph skins – sweetcorn leaves 

Fig.356.Corn earworm damage 

Fig.357.Faulty tasselling –sweetcorn 

Fig.358.Grapevine hawk moth caterpillar 

Fig.360.Tomato spotted wilt – tomato fruit 

Fig.361.Tomato big bud – tomato 

Fig.364.Green vegetable bugs – tomato 

Fig.365.Corn earworm damage – tomato 

Fig.368.Blossom-end rot - tomato 

Fig.369.Kennedia mosaic virus symptoms 

Fig.375.Gall rust – wattle 

Fig.378.Crusader bug nymph – wattle 

Fig.379.Emperor moth caterpillar – eucalypt 

Fig.380.Yellow leafhoppers –pelargonium 

Fig.382.Flea beetle damage – Solanum 

Fig.383.Leafminer damage – Lomatia 

Fig.384.Psyllids (fluffy) – callistemon 

Fig.385.Witches’ broom – casuarina 

Fig.386.Spitfires (sawfly larvae) – eucalypt 

Fig.387.Cottonycushion scale – wattle 

Fig.388.Caterpillar damage to seed – hakea 

Fig.389.Tip borer damage – callistemon 

Fig.391.Fasciation – wattle 

Fig.393.Azlea leaf gall 

Fig.401.Thrips silvering – rubber plant 

Fig.402.Greenhouse whiteflies 

Fig.403.Longtailed mealybug 

Fig.405.Soft scale – fern 

Fig.408.Mosaic – horse radish 

Fig.409.Fungal leaf spot – horse radish 

Fig.410.Rust – chives 

Fig.411.Pink wax scale – bay tree 

Fig.412.Meayblugs – calendula 

Fig.415.Looper – perlargonium 

Fig.416.Greenhouse thrips damage – Auricaria 

Fig.417.Greenhouse whitefies 

Fig.418.Mealybugs 

Fig.419.Twospotted mite symptoms 

Fig.420.Soft scales – Platycerium 

Fig.421.Oedema rings – umbrella tree 

Fig.427.Blue mould – citrus 

Fig.428.Brown rot – peach 

Fig.430.Thrips in flowers 

Fig.431.Fruit fly maggots – nectarine 

Fig.433.Damping off – seedlings 

Fig.448.Crown gall – loganberry 

Fig.451.Pupae of steelblue sawfly in soil 

v

Acknowledgements (contd) 

The following drawings, diagrams, photographs and labels are reproduced for educational 

purposes only with permission of: 

CopyrightNSW Department of Industry and 

Investment 

Fig.1.Tomato spotted wilt – nasturtium 

Fig.4.Bacterial leaf spot – geranium 

Fig.5.Downy mildew – stock 

Fig.8.Powdery mildew – zinnia 

Fig.9.Rhizoctonia collar rot – stock 

Fig.11.Rootknot nematode – tomato 

Fig.22.Rust – calendula leaf 

Fig.23.Rust – daisy leaf 

Fig.28.Corn earworms 

Fig.29.Cold weather injury – carnation 

Fig.36.Cineraria leafminer damage – cineraria 

Fig.43.Rust – geranium 

Fig.45.Fungal leaf spot – gerbera 

Fig.47.Rust – snapdragon 

Fig.50.Turnip mosaic – stock 

Fig.51.Flower breaking – stock 

Fig.59.Tomato spotted wilt – dahlia 

Fig.60.Fungal leaf spot – iris 

Fig.74.Stem and bulb nematode damage – daffodils 

Fig.76.Tomato spotted wilt – dahlia 

Fig.77.Powdery mildew – dahlia 

Fig.78. Bacterial scab – gladiolus 

Fig.79.Fungal leaf spot –gladiolus 

Fig.80.Collar rot (Botrytis) – gladiolus 

Fig.81.Gladiolus thrips damage to corms, leaves, flowers 

Fig.83.Tomato spotted wilt symptoms – arum lily 

Fig.89.Foliar nematode symptoms – ferns 

Fig.95.Prunus necrotic ringspot virus – Halford peach; russet 

ring virus – Granny Smith apple 

Fig.97.Brown rot (M.Senior) – peach 

Fig.98.Lightbrown apple moth (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.99.Codling moth (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.101.Queensland fruit fly (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.106.Plague thrips (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.107.Frosted scale – plum 

Fig.114.Lemon scab (M.Senior) 

Fig.116.Large citrus butterfly caterpillar 

Fig.120.Armoured scales 

Fig.121.Cottonycushion scale 

Fig.122.Soft scales 

Fig.123.Nutrient deficiencies (M.Senior) 

Fig.140.Bacterial blight (leaf spot) – mulberry 

Fig.141.Fungal leaf spot – mulberry 

Fig.143.Passionfruit woodiness virus – fruit 

Fig.148.Fleck – loquat, quince 

Fig.149.Apple dimpling bug symptoms 

Fig.150.Apple leafhoppers 

Fig.151.Painted apple moth (different stages) 

Fig.152.Lightbrown apple moth (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.153.Codling moth (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.159.Crown gall - peach 

Fig.160.Brown rot (M.Senior) 

Fig.161.Shothole and freckle (M.Senior) 

Fig.162.Peach leaf curl (M.Senior) 

Fig.173.Orchid viruses (M.Senior) 

Fig.183.Rose mosaic, virus symptoms 

Fig.184.Anthracnose – rose 

Fig.185.Black spot – rose 

Fig.186.Grey mould (Botrytis) – rose 

Fig.187.Stem canker – rose 

Fig.193.Leaf cutting bee damage 

Fig.197.Rhizomorphos of Armillaria root rot 

Fig.198.Stem canker – camellia 

Fig.199.Fungal leaf spot – azalea 

Fig.200.Phytophthora root rot – citrus 

Fig.204.Beetle borers – longicorn and jewel beetle larvae, 

elephant weevil exit holes 

Fig.205.Moth borers – fruit–tree borer damage 

Fig.206.Termites (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.207.Case moths cases 

Fig.212.Oak leafminer damage 

Fig.217.Lichens 

Fig.221.Petal blight – azalea 

Fig.222.Azalea leafminer damage 

Fig.231.Cypress bark weevil and damage 

Fig.233.Golden mealybug and predatory ladybird larvae 

Fig.235.Fasciation – daphne 

Fig.242.Autumn gum moth damage – eucalypt 

Fig.247.Leaf beetles and larvae – eucalypt 

Fig.248.Christmas beetle – eucalypt 

Fig.249.Leafblister sawfly damage – eucalypt 

Fig.252.Gumtree scale 

Fig.259.Bag–shelters – kurrajong leaf–tier 

Fig.261.Bacterial gall – oleander 

Fig.265.Fivespined pine bark beetle egg galleries 

Fig.266.Sirex wasp, larvae and damage 

Fig.269.Large auger beetle 

Fig.272.Paperbark sawfly 

Fig.293.Halo blight – bean 

CopyrightNSW Department of Industry and 

Investment 

Fig.296.Rhizoctonia (M.Senior) 

Fig.297.Sclerotinia stem rot – carrot, dahlia 

Fig.298.Sclerotium stem rot (M.Senior) 

Fig.299.Rust – French bean 

Fig.300.Root knot nematode – tomato 

Fig.301.Bugs 

Fig.302.Corn earworm and looper caterpillars 

Fig.310.Vegetable weevil (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.313.Bean fly and damage 

Fig.319.Cercospora leaf spot – beet 

Fig.321.Black ringspot (turnip mosaic virus) 

Fig.322.Clubroot (M.Senior) 

Fig.324.Cabbage white butterfly (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.334.Downy mildew – lettuce 

Fig.335.Corn earworm (Helicoverpa) 

Fig.337.Fertilizer toxicity 

Fig.338.Healthy mushroom (M.Senior) 

Fig.339.Virus diseases – mushrooms (M.Senior) 

Fig.344.Redlegged earth Mite (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.348.Early blight, Irish blight – potato 

Fig.351.Black heart – potato 

Fig.352.Brown fleck – potato 

Fig.353.Hollow heart – potato 

Fig.354.African black beetle (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.356.Corn earworm 

Fig.362.Early blight – tomato 

Fig.363.Root Knot nematode – tomato 

Fig.366.Fruit splitting – tomato 

Fig.367.Sunscald – tomato 

Fig.368.Blossom–end rot – tomato 

Fig.392.Sooty mould 

Fig.400.Loopers (E.H.Zeck) 

Fig.423.Nutrient deficiencies (M.Senior) 

Fig.424.Salt toxicity (M.Senior) 

Fig.429.Sclerotinia rot – beans 

Fig.433.Damping off symptoms 

Fig.436.Onion maggots 

Fig.440.Ergot – wheat, tall fescue 

Fig.441.Loose smut (M.Senior) 

Fig.442.Mouse damage – sunflower 

Fig.443.Bean weevil damage to seed 

Fig.449.Sclerotinia apothecia (spore producing) 

Fig.455.Iron deficiency – hydrangea 

Copyright State of Victoria. Department of 

Sustainability and Environment. They have been 

reproduced from: Marks, G. C., Fuhrer, B. A. and 

Walters, N. E. M. 1982. Tree Diseases in Victoria. 

Forests Com., Vic. 

Fig.229.Lophodermijm needle cast fungi – pine (B.A.Fuhrer) 

Fig.237.Angular leaf spot – eucalypt (B.A.Fuhrer) 

Fig.263.Diplodia canker – Pinus radiata ( G.Minko) 

Fig.264. Dothistroma needle blight. (G.C.Marks) 

Fig.370.Eucalypt twig canker (D.G.Parberry) 

Fig.371.Corky leaf spot – eucalypt (B.A.Fuhrer) 

Figs.372,399.Grey mould (Botrytis) – bottlebrush (B.A.Fuhrer) 

Fig.373.Rhizomorphs or Armillaria – eucalypt (G.C.Marks) 

Fig.376.Giant tinder punk – eucalypt (B.A.Fuhrer) 

Copyright Forestry Tasmania. They have been 

reproduced from: Elliott, H. J. and de Little, D. W. 1984. 

Insect Pests of Trees and Timber in Tasmania. 

Forestry Commission Tasmania 

Fig.204.Longicorn larvae (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.205.Wattle goat moth and damage (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.209.Wasp galls – wattle (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.240.Longicorn larvae – eucalypt (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.244.Leafhopper (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.246. Gregarious gall weevil (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.275.Fireblight beetles and larvae (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.377.Ghost moth caterpillar and frass (H.J.Elliott) 

Fig.394.Pine adelgid (H.J.Elliott) 

CopyrightCSIRO Australia 

Figs.395,396.Composting (CSIRO Australia) 

Fig.453.Rabbits round waterhole (CSIRO Australia) 

CopyrightMin of Agriculture New Zealand 

Fig.31.White rust of chrysanthemum 

CopyrightAmpol Rural, Australia 

Fig.118.Citrus leafminer damage 

Copyright Western Australian Agriculture Authority, 

2009 

Figs.138,139.Bacterial leaf spot – mango (R.Shivas) 

Fig.381.Geraldton wax gall wasp damage (B.Woods and 

M.Grimm) 

Fig.390.Ring barking weevil damage – Myrtaceae (B.Woods 

and M.Grimm) 

vi

Contents 

Copyright 

Disclaimer 

Acknowledgements 

Contents 

Preface 

Selected references 

Annuals and Herbaceous Perennials 

Bromeliads 

Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes and Tubers 

Cacti 

Ferns 

Fruit and Nuts 

Orchids 

Palms 

Roses 

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers 

Turfgrasses 


Other Plantings 

Index 

ii 

iii 

iv 

vii 

xi 

xiv 

A 1 

B 1 

C 1 

D 1 

E 1 

F 1 

G 1 

H 1 

J 1 

K 1 

L 1 

M 1 

N 1 

P 1 

ANNUAL AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS A 1 

African violets (Saintpaulia ionantha) A 12 

Calendula, English marigold 

(Calendula officinalis) A 14 

Carnation (Dianthus spp.) A 16 

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) A 21 

Chrysanthemum 

(Chrysanthemum x moriflorum) A 23 

Cineraria (Senecio hybridus) A 28 

Delphinium (Delphinium spp.) A 30 

Everlastings (Helichrysum bracteatum) A 31 

Gazania (Gazania spp.) A 33 

Geranium, pelargonium (Pelargonium spp.) A 34 

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) A 37 

Gypsophila (Gypsophila paniculata) A 40 

Hollyhock (Alcea spp.) A 42 

Kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos spp.) A 43 

Marigold (African and French marigold) 

(Tagetes spp.) A 45 

Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus.) A 46 

Petunia (Petunia hybrida) A 47 

Phlox (Phlox drummondii) A 48 

Poppy (Papaver spp.) A 49 

Primrose (Primula spp.) A 50 

Snapdragon (Antirrhinum spp.) A 51 

Statice (Limonium spp.) A 53 

Stock (Matthiola incana) A 54 

Violets, Pansies (Viola spp.) A 56 

Zinnia (Zinnia elegans) A 58 

BROMELIADS B 1 

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBERS C 1 

Anemone (Anemone), 

ranunculus (Ranunculus) C 11 

Begonia (Begonia spp.) C 14 

Cyclamen (Cyclamen persicum) C 16 

Daffodil, jonquil (Narcissus spp.) C 19 

Dahlia (Dahlia pinnata) C 24 

Freesia (Freesia hybrida) C 27 

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) C 29 

Hyacinth (Hyacinthus spp.) C 35 

Iris (Iris spp.) C 37 

Lily (Lilium spp.) C 40 

Tulip (Tulipus spp.) C 42 

Zantedeschia, arum lily 

(Zantedeschia spp.) C 45 

CONTENTS 

vii

CONTENTS 

CACTI D 1 

FERNS E 1 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 1 

Avocado (Persea americana) F 18 

Banana (Musa spp.) F 22 

Blueberry (Vaccinum spp.) F 27 

Bush Fruit and Nuts F 29 

Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) F 30 

Cashew (Anarcardium occidentale) F 31 

Chestnut (Castanea sativa) F 32 

Citrus (Rutaceae) F 33 

Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) 

Kumquat (Fortunella spp.) 

Lemon (Citrus limon) 

Mandarin (C. reticulata) 

Orange (C. sinensis) 

Currants (Ribes spp.) F 48 

Black currant (R. nigrum) 

Red currant (R.sativum) 

White currant (R. rubrum) 

English gooseberry (R. grossularia) 

Custard apple (Annona alemoya) F 51 

Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana) F 54 

Fig (Ficus carica) F 55 

Grapevine (Vitis spp.) F 58 

Guava (Psidium guajava) F 67 

Hazelnut, filbert (Corylus avellana) F 68 

Kiwi fruit , Chinese gooseberry 

(Actinidia chinensis) F 70 

Lychee (Litchi chinensis) F 73 

Macadamia (Macadamia tetraphylla) F 76 

Mango (Mangifera indica) F 80 

Mulberry (Morus spp.) F 84 

Olive (Olea spp.) F 86 

Papaw (Carica papaya) F 88 

Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis) F 91 

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) F 96 

Pecan (Carya illinoensis) F 99 

Persimmon (Diospyros spp.) F 101 

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) F 103 

Pistachio (Pistacia vera) F 106 

Pome fruits (Rosaceae) F 107 

Apple (Malus domestica) 

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) 

Medlar (Mespilus germanica) 

Pear (Pyrus communis) 

Nashi (Asian or Japanese pear) 

(P. pyrifolia) 

Quince (Cydonia oblonga) 

Stone fruits (Prunus spp.) F 123 

Almond (P. amygdalis) 

Apricot (P. armeniaca) 

Cherry (sweet, sour) (P. ava, P. cerasus) 

Nectarine (P. persica nectarina) 

Peach (P. persica) 

Plum (P. domestica, P. salicina)) 

Plumcot (Prunus hybrida). 

Strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) F 139 

Trailing berries (Rubus spp.) F 145 

Blackberry (R. fructicosa) 

Boysenberry, loganberry, youngberry 

(R. occidentalis) 

Raspberry (R. idaeus) 

Walnut (Juglans spp.) F 148 

ORCHIDS G 1 

PALMS H 1 

ROSES J 1 

viii 

CONTENTS

CONTENTS 

TREES, SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS K 1 

Abutilon (Abutilon spp.) K 25 

Ash (Fraxinus spp.) K 26 

Azalea, rhododendron 

(Rhododendron spp.) K 27 

Banksia (Banksia spp.) K 31 

Birch (Betula spp.) K 33 

Boronia (Boronia spp.) K 34 

Bottlebrush (Callistemon spp.) K 36 

Camellia (Camellia spp.) K 39 

Casuarina, she-oak (Casuarina spp.) K 42 

Christmas bush 

(Ceratopetalum gummiferum) K 44 

Conifers (Coniferales) K 45 

Correa (Correa spp.) K 51 

Daphne (Daphne spp.) K 52 

Elm (Ulmus spp.) K 54 

Eriostemon (Eriostemon myoporoides) K 56 

Eucalypt, gum (Eucalyptus spp.) K 57 

Euonymus, spindle tree (Euonymus spp.) K 69 

Fuchsia (Fuchsia spp.) K 70 

Gardenia (Gardenia spp.) K 72 

Geraldton wax (Chamelaucium uncinatum) K 73 

Grevillea (Grevillea spp.) K 75 

Hakea (Hakea spp.) K 77 

Hardenbergia (Hardenbergia spp.) K 79 

Hebe (Hebe spp.) K 80 

Hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.) K 81 

Holly (Ilex spp.) K 84 

Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) K 85 

Hydrangea (Hydrangea spp.) K 86 

Ivy (Hedera spp.) K 88 

Kennedia (Kennedia spp.) K 90 

Kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus) K 91 

Lavender (Lavendula spp.) K 93 

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) K 94 

Lilly-pilly (Acmena smithii) K 95 

Magnolia (Magnolia spp.) K 96 

Maple (Acer spp.) K 97 

Melaleuca (Melaleuca spp.) K 98 

Mint bush (Prostanthera spp.) K 100 

Oak (Quercus spp.) K 101 

Oleander (Nerium oleander) K 103 

Photinia (Photinia spp.) K 105 

Pine (Pinus spp.) K 106 

Pittosporum (Pittosporum spp.) K 112 

Plane tree, sycamore (Platanus spp.) K 114 

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) K 116 

Poplar (Populus spp.) K 117 

Protea (Protea spp.) K 119 

Silk tree (Albizia spp.) K 122 

Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) K 123 

Tea-tree (Leptospermum spp.) K 124 

Thryptomene (Thryptomene spp.) K 126 

Verticordia (Verticordia spp.) K 127 

Viburnum (Viburnum spp.) K 128 

Waratah (Telopea spp.) K 129 

Wattle (Acacia spp.) K 131 

White cedar (Melia azedarach) K 138 

Willow (Salix spp.) K 139 

TURFGRASSES L 1 

CONTENTS 

ix

CONTENTS 

VEGETABLES M 1 

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) M 21 

Bean (broad bean) (Vicia faba) M 23 

Beans (French bean) (Phaseolus vulgaris) M 25 

Beet (Beta vulgaris) M 33 

Beetroot (B. vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) 

Silver beet (B. vulgaris ssp. cicla) 

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) 

Brassicas (Brassicaceae) M 36 

Broccoli (B. oleracea var. italica) 

Brussell sprouts (B. oleracea var. gemmifera) 

Cabbage (B. oleracea var. capitata) 

Cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis) 

Radish (Raphanus sativus) 

Rape (Brassica napus) 

Turnip (B. rapa) 

Carrot (Daucus carotae) M 44 

Celery, Celeriac (Apium graveolens) M 47 

Cucurbits (Cucurbitaceae) M 50 

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) 

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) 

Rockmelon (Cucumis melo) 

Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) 

Zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) 

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) M 58 

Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) M 62 

Onion (Allium spp., Amaryllidaceae) M 66 

Chives (A. schoenoprasum) 

Garlic (A. sativum) 

Leek (A. porrum) 

Onion (A. cepa) 

Shallot (A. ascalonicum) 

Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) M 70 

Pea (Pisum sativum) M 72 

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) M 77 

Rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum) M 85 

Sweetcorn (Zea mays) M 87 

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) M 93 

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) M 96 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 1 

Australian native plants N 2 

Bonsai N 13 

Compost N 16 

Containers (outdoors) N 19 

Garden centres N 21 

Greenhouses N 22 

Herbs N 32 

House plants N 35 

Hydroponic systems N 41 

Interior landscapes N 45 

Manure N 48 

Mulch N 49 

Nurseries N 51 

Plant tissue culture N 58 

Postharvest N 61 

Potting mixes N 64 

Seedlings, cuttings N 66 

Seeds N 74 

Soil N 80 

Urban bushland N 86 

Urban landscapes N 88 

Water N 90 

Water plants N 94 

Xeriscapes N 95 

INDEX P 1 

x 

CONTENTS

Preface 

Plant Protection is a dynamic field and a systematic understanding of the principles involved is necessary to 

permit constant updating. The systematic approach described below makes the study of Plant Protection easy 

and fast. It can be used in conjunction with the season-related teaching of pests, diseases and weeds. 

BOOKS 

IN THIS 

SERIES 

A thorough understanding of Plant Protection requires that it is studied, as far as practical, 

in the following order: 

Plant Protection 1 : Pests, Diseases and Weeds 

These are the causes of most plant problems. Some problems affect a wide range of plants, 

others a limited range. Diagnosis of the cause of a problem precedes effective control. 

Plant Protection 2 : Methods of Control 

All possible methods are considered including preventative and non-chemical methods. 

Plant Protection 3 : Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables 

A knowledge of the pests, diseases and weeds of a particular plant allows pest management 

systems to be followed and plant management programs prepared. Most plants in a 

particular region or situation, are only susceptible to a few economic diseases and pests. 

There are exceptions, eg carnations, some stone fruits and tomatoes. For such plants, 

diagnosis of problems can be difficult. Most plants included in this book are prone to 

problems or are important commercial and horticultural species . This book is a starting 

point for the collection of the type of information needed for the preparation of a plant 

management program. 

WHAT IS Plants included in Plant Protection 3: 

IN THIS 

BOOK? 

Annual and Herbaceous Perennials 

Bromeliads 

Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes and Tubers 

Cacti 

Ferns 


Orchids 

Palms 

Roses 

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers 

Turfgrasses 


Other Plantings 

Information on Each Plant is Presented in a Standard Form: 

PESTS AND DISEASES 

Parasitic 

Virus and virus-like diseases 

Bacterial diseases 


Parasitic plants 

Nematode diseases 

Insects and allied pests 

Snails and slugs 

Vertebrate pests 

Non-parasitic 

WEEDS 

Weeds are sometimes only 

presented in the general 

introductory section of each 

plant group. 

This manual is not intended to be a 

comprehensive list of the diseases, 

pests and weeds affecting a particular 

plant. Criteria for inclusion of a pest or 

disease were based on: 

Economic importance 

Abundance 

Interesting or 

Striking appearance 

Additional or different problems may 

occur when a plant is grown out of its 

natural habitat. 

xi

PREFACE 

Information on Each Pest, Disease or Weed is Presented in 

a Standard Prescription Form: 

Common name 

Scientific name 

Host range 

Disease/pest cycle 

Overwintering 

Spread 

Conditions favouring 

Control 

Cultural methods 

Sanitation 


Resistant varieties 


Disease-free planting material 

Physical and mechanical methods 

Pesticides 

Pest management 

Some pests, diseases and weeds are 

dealt with in more or less detail than 

others. If the common name of a pest 

or disease has the common name of 

the host plant/situation then it is 

described under that plant/situation, eg 

Cucumber mosaic under Cucurbits 

Greenhouse thrips under Greenhouses 

Oleander scale under Oleander 

If the common name of the pest does not 

indicate the plant, or if the host is not 

included in this book then the index must 

be consulted, eg 

Twospotted mite (red spider) 

Pesticides are not generally listed in this book as there are many computerised systems 

available which provide up-to-date information, eg Chemwatch (Melbourne), Infopest (Qld), 

Peskem (Qld) and the National Registration Authority (Canberra). Some industries, eg the 

turf industry, publish current recommendations for their particular industry. See Preface xii. 

Selected references 

Only key references are included. 

Management 

Selection 

Establishment 

Maintenance 

Postharvest 

SUGGESTED Selected plants/situations in this book plus local key plants may be studied in more 

STUDY or less detail. For each plant/situation studied, a management program should be 

PLAN prepared. Students should choose plants/situations of their own choice, preferably 

to do with their work, following the steps outlined below. 

Prepare a Management Program for Each Plant/Situation: 

Pests, diseases and weeds of the plant 

List and identify by sight, the key pests, diseases and weeds associated with the plant in that 

particular area. Prepare a standard prescription form (as above) for each problem. 

Management of the plant 

Selection 

Establishment 

Maintenance 

Postharvest 

Pesticide supplement 

xii

PREFACE 

Monthly calendar of activities 

Sources of information 

Human resources, eg 

Advisory services 

Growers and suppliers 

Material resources 

Pest management programs for particular plants 

Specific plant product guides, eg chrysanthemum, strawberry 

Books, computer management programs 

Problem solving 

Diagnosis 

Identify the host 

Examine the plant 

Check the history of the plant 

Check reference to confirm identification and obtain information on control 

Seek expert assistance if necessary 

Monitor the problem and implement control measures 

Evaluate the control measures 

Evaluate the management program 

Presentation 

The project should be held in a folder with a comprehensive index so that further information 

can be readily added to each section as required. 

Roses 

Further details of these processes can be found in Kerruish, R. M. 1990. Plant Protection 2 : 

Methods of Control. pages N 1-N 16. RootRot Press, Canberra. 

PRACTICAL 

EXERCISE 

Prepare a management program for the plant, crop or situation as described above and 

then implement the program. 

xiii

Selected References 

Diagnostic and Advisory Services 

Agfacts, Agnotes, Fact Sheets, Farmnotes, Refnotes, 

other Leaflets, Books and Bulletins. Catalogues are 

available on request. Some States and Territories are 

replacing their information sheets with books and disks 

on diseases and pests of particular crops, these are 

available through their bookshops. 

Most States and Territories produce books on home 

gardening and fruit and vegetable growing. 

Commercial grower advisory and diagnostic services 

are offered by some State/Territory Departments of 

Agriculture or Primary Industry. Some are free, others 

are cost recovery (last updated July 2003): 

Australian Capital Territory 

Insect Identification and Advice Service 

CSIRO Entomology 

GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601 

(02) 6246 4263 Fax 6246 4364 

email ento-ident@csiro.au 

www.ento.csiro.au 

New South Wales 

Plant Health Diagnostic Service (PHDS) 

Elizabeth MacArthur Agriculture Institute 

NSW Agriculture 

Woodbridge Road, Menangle, NSW 2568 

(02) 4640 6428 Fax (02) 4640 6415 

Plant Pathology 

Royal Botanic Gardens 

Mrs Macquarie’s Road, Sydney, NSW 2000 

(02) 9231 8186 

www.agric.nsw.gov.au 

Northern Territory 

Entomology (08) 8999 2260 

Plant Pathology (08) 8999 2264 

Weeds (08) 8999 2348 

Berrimah Agricultural Research Centre 

Strath Road, Berrimah, NT 0828 

GPO Box 3000, NT 0801 

www.nt.gov.au/dpif 

Queensland 

Grow Help Australia 

Centre for Amenity & Environmental Horticulture, 

Redlands Research Station, 

Queensland Dept. of Primary Industries (Qld DPI) 

Cnr Delancey St and Finucane Rd, Cleveland Qld 4163 

PO Box 327, Cleveland, Qld 4163 

(07) 3824 9526 

www.dpi.qld.gov.au 

GrowSearch Australia 

An Information Service for Producers of Ornamental 

Plants. GrowSearch, Cleveland, Qld 4163 

www.growsearch.net 

South Australia 

Diagnostic Service 

SA Research & Development Institute (SARDI) 

Diseases (08) 8303 9562 

Insects (08) 8303 9540 

GPO Box 397, Adelaide, SA 5001 

www.sardi.sa.gov.au/horticulture 

Tasmania 

Diagnostic Services 

Dept. of Primary Industries, Water and Environment 

St Johns Avenue, Newtown, Tas 7008 

(03) 6233 6833 

www.piwe.tas.gov.au 

Victoria 

Crop Health Services 

Institute of Horticultural Development 

Private Bag 15, South Eastern Mail Centre, Vic 3176 

(03) 9210 9356 

www.nre.vic.gov.au 

Cropwatch 

Provides IPM services for commercial fruit growers in 

southern Victoria. 

www.nre.vic.gov.au 

Western Australia 

Plant Laboratories 

AGWEST 

3 Baron-Hay Court, South Perth, WA 6151 

(08) 9368 3721 Fax (08) 9474 2658 

www.agric.wa.gov.au 

Turf Services 

Sports Turf Consultants 

Consultancy & Laboratory Services 

45 Westerfield Drive, Notting Hill, Vic 3168 

(03) 9574 9066 Fax (03) 9574 9072 

Globe Australia - Turf consultants 

Offices in every State. Check the White Pages. 

(02) 9791 1111 

Australian Golf Course Superintendants 

Assoc. (AGSCAtech) 

www.agcsa.com.au/ 

MAILING SAMPLES FOR DIAGNOSIS 

• Consult the advisory service to find out how 

to sample and send the specimen. 

• Samples should be fresh and show early 

and late stages of damage. 

• Insects and fungal fruiting bodies causing 

damage may be collected. 

• For identification of plants/weeds, collect 

leaves, flowers and seeds where possible. 

• If collecting small plants or grasses, collect 

roots as well. 

• Do not wrap specimens in plastic or wet 

them, specimens rot. Use clean dry paper. 

Journals 

American Horticulturist 

American Nurseryman 

Arboricultural Journal 

Arborist News 

Australian Farm Journal (incl. Rural Research) 

Australian Garden Journal 

Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker 

Australian Horticulture (inc. HortGuide) 

Australian House & Garden 

Australian National Flower Show (Melbourne) 

Australian Nursery Magazine 

Australian Orchid Review 

Australian Plants 

Brooklyn Botanic Gardens Gardening Guides 

California Landscaping 

Earth Garden 

Ecos 

Floraculture International 

Flower Link 

Gardening Australia 

Good Fruit & Vegetables 

Golf Course Management 

Greenhouse Grower 

Greenhouse Management and Production 

Grounds Maintenance 

xiv

PREFACE 

Growers 

GrowerTalks 

GrowSearch Australia (Qld DPI, Brisbane) 

Horticultural Reviews (American Soc. for Hort. Sci.) 

HortScience 

International Plant Propagators Society 

International Society of Arboriculture 

Journal of the American Society of Horticulture Science 

Journal of Arboriculture 

Journal of Environmental Horticulture 

Journal of Horticultural Science 

Journal of Garden History 

Landscape Australia 

Landscape Management 

New Plantsman 

NSW Nursery News 

Nursery Industry Association of Australia (NIAA) 

Nursery Industry Trade Register (NIAA, Epping, NSW) 

Nursery Management and Production 

Nurseryman & Garden Centre 

NZ Tree grower 

Ornamentals Update for Qld Nurseries 

Pacific Horticulture 

Parks and Gardens News 

Parks, Golf Courses & Sports Grounds 

Permaculture International Journal 

Plant Disease 

Phytopathology 

Plant Protection Quarterly 

Practical Hydroponics 

Professional Horticulture 

Sports Turf Bulletin 

The Nursery Papers 

Turfcraft Australia 

TurfNotes (ATRI) 

Your Garden 

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xv

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(RIRDC). Research Papers. RIRDC, Sydney. 

Shepherd, C. J. and Totterdell, C. J. 1988. Mushrooms 

and Toadstools of Australia. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne. 

Smith, I. M. et al. (eds). 1988. European Handbook of 

Plant Diseases. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1992a. Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 1 : Temperate and Subtropical Fruit and 

Nut Crops. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1992b Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 3: Vegetable Crops. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne. 

Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1994 Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 4 : Pastures and Field Crops. Inkata 


Weir, R. G. and Cresswell, G. C. 1995. Plant Nutrient 

Disorders 2 : Tropical Fruit and Nut Crops. Inkata 


Whibley, D. J. and Christensen, T. J. 1991. Garden 

Weeds : Identification and Control. Botanic Garden 

of Adelaide. 

Woods, W., Michael, P. and Grimm, M. (compiled by). 

1987. Insect and Allied Pests of Extensive Farming. 

Plant Protection Soc. of WA/WA Dept. of Agric, 

Perth. 

Wrigley, J. W. and Fagg, M. 1988. Australian Native 

Plants : Propagation, Cultivation and Use in 

Landscaping. 3rd edn. Collins, Sydney. 



Landscaping. 4th edn. Reed Books, Melbourne. 

Non-chemical control methods 

Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service AQIS). 

Plant Quarantine Leaflets. AQIS, Department of 

Primary Industries and Energy, Barton, ACT. 




Broadley, R. and Thomas, M. 1995. The Good Bug 

Book : Beneficial Insects and Mites Commercially 

Available in Australia for Biological Pest Control. 

Australasian Biological Control (ABC)/Qld 

DPI/RIRDC. Avail. from ABC, Tel. (045) 701 331. 




Chapman, B., Penman, D. and Hicks, P. 1992. Natural 

Pest Control : An Australian Guide for Commercial 

Growers, Orchardists and Farmers. Viking O'Neil, 

Ringwood, Vic. 

Kerruish, R. M. 1990. Plant Protection 2 : Methods of 

Control. RootRot Press, Canberra. 

Madge, D. G. 1995. Organic Agriculture : Getting 

Started. Agmedia, Melbourne. 

Pascoe, S. 1995. Organics on the Commercial Agenda. 

Aust. Hort., Nov. 

Raupp, M. J., Van Driesche, R. G. and Davidson, J. A. 

1993. Biological Control of Insect and Mite Pests of 

Woody Landscape Plants : Concepts, Agents and 

Methods. University of Maryland System, Dept. of 

Environmental Management, University of 

Massachusetts, USA. 

Pesticides 

Banks, A. G., Broadley, R. H., Collinge, M. and 

Middleton, K. M. 1990. Pesticide Application 

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Brisbane. 

British Crop Protection Council (BCPC). The Pesticide 

Manual : A World Compendium. cur. edn. BCPC, 

Berks, UK. 

Kent, J. 1994. Pesticides in Australia. Resource Manual. 

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Vic. 

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Brisbane. 

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ChemCert, SmartTrain. 

xvi

Annuals 

and 

Herbaceous 

Perennials 

Fig. 1. Tomato spotted wilt virus infection of 

nasturtium causes irregular whitish blotches 

or a yellow-green mosaic. 

Fig. 2. Tomato big bud phytoplasma (greening) infection of 

chrysanthemum. 

Fig. 3. Disease-tested planting material for a 

range of flowers is widely advertised. 

ANNUALS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS A 1 

African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) A 12 

Calendula, English marigold 

(Calendula officinalis) A 14 

Carnation (Dianthus spp.) A 16 

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) A 21 

Chrysanthemum 

(Chrysanthemum x moriflorum) A 23 

Cineraria (Senecio hybridus) A 28 

Delphinium (Delphinium spp.) A 30 

Everlastings (Helichrysum spp.) A 31 

Gazania (Gazania spp.) A 33 

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) A 34 

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) A 37 

Gypsophila (Gypsophila paniculata) A 40 

Hollyhock (Althaea spp.) A 42 

Kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos spp.) A 43 

Marigold (African and French marigold, 

Tagetes spp.) A 45 

Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) A 46 

Petunia (Petunia hybrida) A 47 

Phlox (Phlox drummondii) A 48 

Poppy (Papaver spp.) A 49 

Primrose (Primula spp.) A 50 

Snapdragon (Antirrhinum spp.) A 51 

Statice (Limonium spp.) A 53 

Stock (Matthiola incana) A 54 

Violets, Pansies (Viola spp.) A 56 

Zinnia (Zinnia elegans) A 58 

ANNUALS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS A 1

ANNUALS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS 

Fig. 4. Bacterial leaf spot and stem 

rot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

pelargonii) of ivy-leaved geranium. 

Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 5. Downy mildew of stock 

(Peronospora parasitica), patches 

of greyish mildew on leaf undersurfaces. 


Fig. 6. Grey mould, petal spot (Botrytis 

cinerea) on rose petals, each spot 

represents where a spore has germinated. 

Fig. 7. Fungal leaf spot or ink spot 

(Alternaria alternata) of kangaroo 

paw. 

Fig. 8. Powdery mildew 

(Oidium sp.) on zinnia 

leaves. Dept of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 9. Left : Rhizoctonia collar rot 

(Rhizoctonia solani) of stock. Dept. of Agric., 

NSW. Right : Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii) of sunflower, note tiny sclerotia. 

Fig. 10. Rust pustules (Puccinia 

malvacearum) develop on stems 

as well as on leaves of hollyhock. 

Fig. 11. Root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne spp.) galls on the 

roots of tomato. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 12. Aphids (Aphididae) are 

1-3 mm long and common pests, 

they cause distortion of new 

growth and spread virus diseases. 

A 2 

ANNUALS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS


Fig. 13. Vine hawk moth (Theretra 

oldenlandiae) caterpillars (60 mm 

long) which are minor grapevine 

pests, chew impatiens leaves. 

Fig. 14. Greenhouse whitefly 

(Trialeurodes vaporariorum) on 

leaf undersurfaces. 

Fig. 15. Leafhopper injury to marigold 

(Tagetes ) leaves, the speckled patterns are 

the feeding sites of the leafhoppers. 

Fig. 16. Cineraria leafminer 

(Chromatomyia syngenesiae) 

damage to nasturtium leaves. 

Fig. 17. Twospotted mite 

Tetranychus urticae) sucks sap from 

violet leaves causing a 

light sandy mottle. 

Fig. 18. Thrips (Thysanoptera) rasping 

and sucking plant sap from petals. 

Petty spurge 

(Euphorbia peplus) 

Fig. 19. Common garden snail 

(Helix aspersa) damage to 

kangaroo paw. 

Couchgrass 

(Cynodon dactylon) 

Fig. 20. Top : Annuals weed. 

Lower : Perennial weed. 

Fig. 21. Diagnosing plant problems. 


Annuals and 

Herbaceous Perennials 


Parasitic 



Bacterial leaf spots 


Damping off 

Downy mildews 

Flower blights, flower rots 

Fungal leaf spots 

Powdery mildews 

Root, stem and crown rots 

Rusts 

Wilts 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

European earwig 

Greenhouse whitefly 

Leafhoppers 

Leafminers 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Chemical injury 

Environment 

Genetic abnormalities 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities 

WEEDS 

Annual and perennial herbaceous ornamental 

plants are affected by the same types of diseases, 

pests and weeds as vegetables. 


Parasitic 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES 

Host range: Many annuals are susceptible to at 

least one or several virus diseases. Some viruses 

only attack one species, eg carnation mottle virus, 

while others, eg cucumber mosaic virus and tomato 

spotted wilt virus (TSWV), infect many species. 

Others, eg tobacco mosaic virus may have 

different strains each of which has a different host 

range. Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) is 

closely related to TSWV, has a wide host range but 

has not been detected in Australia (Hill 1994). 

With the introduction of western flower thrips 

(Frankliniella occidentalis) both TSWV and INSV 

may become more important diseases. 

Symptoms: Symptoms vary with virus, cultivar, 

growth stage and temperature and usually appear 

one to several weeks after infection. Symptoms 

may be more obvious during spring and autumn. 

Leaves develop mosaic patterns, pale yellow, 

green or brown ring-like markings, straw-coloured 

spots, or be distorted (Fig. 1). Stems may develop 

black streaks. Flowers may be distorted, green or 

variegated (Fig. 2). Plants may be stunted, yellow, 

have reduced flower quality and yield, but do not 

usually die. Some grow reasonably if cared for, 

but may deteriorate and are a source of infection. 

Diagnostic tests are available for some species. 

Overwintering: Infected hosts, including weeds. 

Some may be generally seedborne, others may be 

seedborne only on certain hosts. A few may 

overwinter in infected crop debris. 

Spread: All viruses are spread by vegetative 

propagation and grafting from infected plants. 

Some are also spread by sap-sucking insects, eg 

aphids, leafhoppers, thrips. More than 20% of 

virus diseases are seedborne but in a variable 

percentage. Some spread also by mechanical 

transmission of plant sap by foliage contact and 

on hands, clothes and tools during plant handling, 

eg pruning, flower cutting, and a few also by 

pollen. Also by introduction of infected seedlings, 

cuttings and some by debris from infected plants. 

Conditions favouring: Repeated vegetative 

propagation from infected plants. Weather may 

favour an increase in vectors. At certain times of 

the year, especially after hot dry weather, vectors 

migrate from drying weeds and other hosts where 

they breed and feed, to ornamentals and other hosts. 

Control: As there is no cure for infected plants, 

the aim is to prevent infection. To minimise 

losses, plant virus-tested planting material and 

practice strict hygiene. Insecticides may be 

necessary to control vectors in commercial crops. 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops if the virus 

overwinters in plant debris, eg tobacco mosaic. 

Sanitation: Before planting remove volunteer hosts 

and weeds. After planting remove virus-infected 

plants and weeds in the crop and nearby. If viruses 

are sapborne, maintain strict hygiene during 

propagation, pruning, handling and harvesting. 

Wash hands with hot soapy water, sterilise tools 

before and after handling particular groups of 

plants. Work 'clean' areas prior to infected plants. 

Handle new, less infected younger plants before 

older, and possibly infected plants. Train staff in 

how viruses are spread. See Nurseries N 51, N 55. 

Biological control: It will be possible to control 

some vectors biologically in the future. 

Resistant varieties: Varieties with resistance to 

virus diseases should be used where possible. 

Plant quarantine: Isolate susceptible seed and 

cutting beds and crops from infected hosts. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant certified 

virus-tested planting material (Fig. 3), otherwise 

select vegetative propagation material and seeds 

from symptomless plants. Yields of crops derived 

from virus-tested planting material are greater than 

from virus-infected crops. As most viruses 

infecting annuals have insect vectors, virus-tested 

planting material needs to be re-purchased regularly. 

Infected seed may be treated with hot water. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Grow where 

practical in insect-proof greenhouses and control 

insect vectors inside. If virus is soil-borne 

(unusual), pasteurise soil. 

Pesticides: Insecticides may be applied to control 

vectors and reduce re-infection of virus-tested stock 

and spread of virus within commercial crops, 

seedbeds and especially greenhouses. Some vectors 

have developed resistance to some insecticides. 

A 4 



BACTERIAL DISEASES 

Bacterial leaf spots (Pseudomonas, 

Xanthomonas) occasionally occur on annuals, eg 

carnation, chrysanthemum, delphinium, primrose, 

viola, and may be angular or circular. Foliage of 

older plants is disfigured (Fig. 4) and plant vigour 

is reduced. Spots may enlarge rapidly on seedlings, 

leaves and growing tips may die. See Vegetables 

M 5. 

Others: Bacterial soft rots (Erwinia spp.), 

bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum), 

crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.), stem rots 

(Xanthomonas spp.). 

FUNGAL DISEASES 

Damping off (Botrytis, 

Colletotrichum, 

Cylindrocladium, Fusarium, Phytophthora, 

Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii) 

may kill cuttings, seedlings and young plants. Preemergence 

damping off occurs when seeds and 

seedlings rot before emerging. Post-emergence 

damping off occurs after seedlings and cuttings 

have emerged from the soil causing stem and root 

rots and aerial damping off. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildews 

Scientific name: Peronosporaceae, Eumycetes: 

Bremia, Peronospora, Plasmopara, Sclerospora 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg stock, fruit, eg 

grape, vegetables, eg onion, field crops, eg 

wheat. Generally a particular species of downy 

mildew is restricted to one host, or group of related 

hosts, eg one species attacks stock, another 

zucchini. Strains may occur, the one that attacks 

stocks may not attack cabbages. 

Symptoms: Pale yellow lesions bounded by 

veins develop on leaf uppersurfaces. Lesions on 

leaf undersurfaces produce a downy growth 

under humid, cool conditions (Fig. 5). As lesions 

dry out leaves die, plants and small seedlings may 

be killed. Stems, buds, flowers, petals, seed 

pods and fruit may also be attacked. Disease is 

less important after planting out. 

Overwintering: Infected host plants (bulbs, 

canes, twigs), older infected crops, volunteer 

plants, host weeds, undecomposed crop debris 

(leaves, prunings, berries), seed. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind and water 

splash from infected plants, debris. By vegetative 

propagation from infected plants. By introduction 

of infected seedlings, cuttings, plants and seed. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, wet weather and 

hosts growing rapidly. Heavy dew, fog, rain, poor 

ventilation and drainage. Overcrowded cutting and 

seedbeds, often minor after transplanting. 

Control: Control can be difficult. 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops. Avoid overhead 

irrigation, poor drainage, overcrowding. 

Regulate temperature and humidity in 

greenhouses, seed and cutting beds. 

Sanitation: Deep bury/plough in or burn diseased 

seedlings, infected crops and debris immediately 

after harvest to reduce inoculum. On woody 

hosts prune out and chip and deep bury or burn 

infected shoots. Sanitation measures alone are 

unlikely to bring about satisfactory control. 

Resistant varieties: Varieties differ in resistance. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant diseasefree 

seed (otherwise treat seed) and propagate 

vegetatively only from disease-free crops. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Pasteurise 

soil in cutting and seedbeds. 

Pesticides: Fungicides on their own may not 

control downy mildews. They may be applied at 

first sign of disease to leaf undersurfaces, repeat 

applications may be needed in humid weather. 

Flower blights, flower rots 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea): Blossom blight 

may develop towards the end of the growing season. 

Petals of fully-opened flowers, eg petunia, rose, may 

develop small ring-like markings (Fig. 6) which are 

reddish in light-coloured varieties or creamy-white in 

dark varieties. Each ring-like marking indicates where 

a spore has germinated. Leaves may develop brown 

or grey spots or blotches. Stems and crowns may 

rot at ground level and fall over. Aerial damping 

off may occur on seedlings. In damp weather, 

affected areas are covered with furry, grey spores. 

Field damage is usually slight. Postharvest losses 

after cutting may be serious. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer). See 

Carnation A 17, Protea K 119. 

Others: Ray blight (Mycosphaerella ligulicola). See 

Chrysanthemum A 23. 


Scientific name: Ascomycetes/Imperfect Fungi: 

Alternaria, Ascochyta, Cercospora, Curvularia, 

Helminthosporium, Mycosphaerella, Septoria 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg carnation, 

gerbera, iris, fruit, eg strawberry, vegetables, eg 

beet, field crops, eg lucerne. Generally a particular 

species is restricted to one host, or group of related 

hosts, eg one species attacks gerbera, another iris. 

Symptoms: Leaf spots are mostly circular, vary 

in colour and size and may join together (Fig. 7). 

Leaves may yellow, die and fall, reducing plant 

vigour, 50% of seedlings may be destroyed. Some 

only cause minor disfigurement. Stems, flower 

stalks, seeds and fruit may develop spots. It may 

be difficult to distinguish fungal leaf spots from 

those caused by bacteria and other agents. Tiny, 

black spore-producing structures may develop 

within the spots of some species, eg Septoria. By 

the end of the season all the crop may be affected. 

Overwintering: Infected host plants (leaves, 

dead blossoms, bulbs, canes, twigs), older infected 

crops, volunteer plants, host weeds, undecomposed 

crop debris on and in the soil, seed. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind, water splash, 

and insects from infected plants and debris. By 

vegetative propagation from infected plants. By 

introduction of infected seedlings, nursery stock, 

cuttings, plants, soil containing infected crop 

debris and by seed. Occasionally on workers' 

clothes, machinery moving through damp crops. 



Conditions favouring: Warm, wet, conditions 

(some exceptions). Overhead irrigation, misting, 

heavy dews, shady, overcrowded conditions, lush 

growth. Lack of water and nutrient deficiencies 

may predispose plants to infection by weak 

parasites, eg Colletotrichum. Leaves damaged by 

sun scorch, drought, insect, mites, mechanical or 

chemical injury may be colonised by Pestalotiopsis. 

Control: Leaf spots may not be important. 

Cultural methods: Practise a 3-4 year rotation. 

Avoid overcrowded, humid conditions, overhead 

irrigation (irrigate in the morning). Avoid lush 

soft growth but keep plants growing vigorously 

by careful irrigation and fertiliser. Do not plant 

susceptible crops in soil with undecomposed 

crop residues or near other infected plants. Site 

plants to minimise environmental leaf damage. 

Ventilate greenhouses to regulate humidity. 

Sanitation: Deep bury/plough in or burn infected 

crops and crop debris immediately after harvest 

to reduce inoculum. Prepare ground early to 

reduce undecomposed plant debris. Do not 

replant until all residues have decomposed. If 

only a few leaves or a few plants, remove and 

destroy affected leaves by hand. Greenhouses 

may need to be disinfected. 

Resistant varieties: Varieties vary in resistance. 

Plant quarantine: Prevent contaminated stock 

entering the nursery. Only purchase plants free 

from fungal leaf spots. Inspect new purchases. 

Disease-free planting material: Only purchase 

certified disease-tested seed or vegetative 

planting material and plant in disease-free soil. 

Otherwise only save seed or propagate 

vegetatively from disease-free plants; treatment 

may be necessary, eg hot water. 


soil for seed and cutting beds. 

Pesticides: Fungicides may be applied to young 

plants of susceptible varieties during humid 

weather at the first sign of disease, the need for 

further applications depends on the weather. 


Scientific name: Erysiphales, Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphe, Podosphaera, Sphaerotheca, Uncinula 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg begonia, 

calendula, viola, fruit, eg grapevine, vegetables, 

eg cucurbits, pea. Generally a particular species is 

restricted to one host, or group of related hosts, eg 

one species attacks calendula, another grape. 

Symptoms: Both leaf surfaces and stems 

develop white circular patches which increase in 

size to cover large areas and become powdery due 

to the production of spores (Fig. 8). Young leaves 

if infected at an early age may be distorted, 

reduced in size and finally shrivel and die. Stems, 

flowers, petals, buds and seed pods may also be 

attacked. Affected tissue and young plants may 

die. Defoliation may cause stems (and fruit) to be 

sunburnt, flower infection causes poor fruit set. 

Overwintering: Infected crops (canes, twigs, 

buds, scales), volunteer hosts, debris from previous 

and current infected crops and possibly seed. On 

shoots and buds, under bud scales. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind and air 

currents from infected crops, crop debris. By 

vegetative propagation from infected plants. By 

introduction of infected nursery stock, plants and 

seed. Also on some hosts by water splash. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, moderately 

humid weather in summer and autumn, moderately 

dry conditions when dew or periodic irrigation 

favour spore germination. Some powdery mildews, 

eg of grapevines, need dry atmospheres created 

by microfine droplets of water which evaporate in 

the air without wetting the plant. Wet or very hot, 

dry weather is unfavourable for some species. 

Control: Control is difficult. 

Cultural methods: Rotate plantings. Avoid 

dew, shaded, crowded and humid sites, overhead 

irrigation, poor ventilation, lush tender growth. 

Irrigate early in day (leaves dry quickly). Avoid 

clipping hedges of susceptible varieties, eg 

Euonymus, and over-fertilisation which produces 

lush new growth susceptible to powdery mildew. 

Heavy rain or overhead irrigation washes spores 

off leaves onto soil where they bio-degrade. 

Sanitation: Destroy severely infected plants, 

volunteer plants, leaves and shoots. Prune out 

infected shoots on perennial hosts during winter 

pruning, eg apple. Destroy or deep bury 

diseased crop debris. 

Biological control: Verticillium lecanii may 

parasitise powdery mildews (Sunderland 1991). 


Disease-free planting material: Only plant 

disease-free seed (otherwise hot water treat) and 

propagate vegetatively from disease-free plants. 

Pesticides: Powdery mildew is difficult to control 

with fungicides once established. Protect new 

growth as it develops. Apply fungicides at first 

sign of disease, the need for repeat applications 

depends on the weather. As mycelium is 'hardto-wet', 

a wetting agent may be recommended. 


Young and old plants wilt and die. As it may be 

difficult to recognise the fungus causing the rot 

from symptoms, it should be identified using a 

diagnostic kit or isolated by a pathologist. Soilborne 

diseases usually occur in patches in a crop. 

Fusarium (Fusarium) causes rotting of stem tissue 

of young plants which later yellow, wilt and die. Pink 

spore masses may develop on rotted tissue. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora) causes plants 

(often young plants) to yellow, wilt and die. A wet rot 

of roots, stems develops causing a brown 

discolouration of the water-conducting tissues, 

roots are dead and decayed. Rotting may progress up 

into the stem. See Trees K 6. 

Pythium stem rot (Pythium) causes a black, wet rot of 

tissues that spreads up stems to leaf petioles and 

blades. Roots may also rot. 

Rhizoctonia root or stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

attacks stems at ground level causing a brown rot of 

young plants, wilting and death. Sunken cankers 

develop at the stem base (Fig. 9), soil particles 

adhere to damaged tissue by a fine web of brown 

fungal threads. Roots decay after plants die. 

Sclerotinia (Sclerotinia) causes a soft, brown rot of 

stems and other aerial parts of mature plants. A 

white fungal mycelium grows over the rotted area. 

White sclerotia (resting bodies of the fungus) up to 

about 12 mm in size are produced on rotted area, these 

later turn black and may also develop in pith cavities. 

A 6 



Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) attacks stems 

of mature plants at ground level. A white mat of 

fungal mycelium grows over affected parts. Sclerotia 

(1-2 mm across) form on the surface of mycelium, 

these later turn brown and may be hard to see (Fig. 9). 

A brown dry rot develops, plants yellow, wilt and die. 

Others: Cylindrocladium, Thielaviopsis. 

See Vegetables M 7. 

Rusts 

Scientific name: Uredinales, Basidiomycetes: 

Phragmidium, Puccinia, Uromyces 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg chrysanthemum, 

kangaroo paw, snapdragon, fruit, eg stone fruit, 

vegetable, eg French bean, field crops, eg wheat, 

weeds, eg mallow. Usually a particular species of 

rust is restricted to one host, or group of related 

hosts eg one species attacks calendula, another 

snapdragon. There may be different races of rust.. 

Symptoms: Leaf uppersurfaces are speckled 

with yellow, patches which may run together. On 

undersurfaces there are corresponding orange or 

rusty brown spore masses. Leaves may die. In 

severe infections, premature and repeated leaf fall 

weakens plants. Stems may be girdled by lesions 

(Fig. 10), parts above die. Seed pods and fruit 

may be attacked. Plants are unsightly and may die. 

Overwintering: Infected plants (leaves, twigs) 

and debris from infected plants. Contaminated 

seed, fungal spores are carried on the outside of 

seed pods and other plant debris from infected 

plants. Also out-of-season and between season 

crops. Volunteer crop plants. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind, air currents, 

water splash and irrigation water from infected 

plants and debris to healthy plant parts. By 

vegetative propagation from infected plants, 

infected seed (spores on outside). By introduction 

of infected nursery stock, plants and plant debris. 

Conditions favouring: Some prefer hot, moist 

weather, others prefer cool and moist conditions. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops. Do not plant 

young crops near older diseased crops. Avoid 

humid conditions, overhead irrigation, excessive 

nitrogen, poorly ventilated, shaded and 

overcrowded seedbeds/plantings. Irrigate, spray 

plants and foliage fertilise in the morning, leaves 

will dry before nightfall. 

Sanitation: Deep bury or destroy infected crops 

and debris immediately after harvest. Prepare 

ground early to reduce undecomposed infected 

debris. Remove and destroy infected leaves in 

cutting and seedbeds, also infected twigs and 

plants, weeds and self-sown seedlings. Deep 

bury or burn infected fallen leaves and prunings. 

Biological control:Verticillium lecanii parasitises 

carnation, wheat and dwarf bean rusts, barley 

mildew, scales and aphids overseas. 

Resistant varieties are the most effective control, 

even partial resistance reduces pesticide usage. 

Plant quarantine: Isolate new plant purchases. 

Disease-free planting material: Only save seed 

and propagate from rust-free plants. Plant rustfree 

propagation material and seed (or treat with 

fungicides) in rust-free beds. Do not introduce 

infected plants to rust-free plantings. 

Pesticides: Rust can be difficult to control with 

fungicides if conditions favour disease. 

Fungicides may be applied to both leaf surfaces 

of susceptible varieties at the first sign of 

disease, repeat applications depends on weather. 

Wilts include fusarium wilts (Fusarium 

oxysporum f. spp.) and verticillium wilt 

(Verticillium dahliae). Some plants, eg carnations, 

may be infected by both wilt fungi. Symptoms are 

similar and on hosts affected by both, diseases can 

only be identified by laboratory examination. Wilt 

fungi enter roots, become established in the 

vascular system and extend upwards into the 

branches. Young plants may show a one-sided 

yellowing and wilt. If stems are cut lengthwise, 

vascular tissues are brown. In older plants, 

branches wilt and die one at a time, finally the 

whole plant dies prematurely. See Vegetables M 9. 

NEMATODE DISEASES 

Many species of nematodes may be associated 

with annuals including: 

Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) infest many 

plants, eg African violet, chrysanthemum, kangaroo 

paw. Watersoaked lesions develop on leaves, which 

later die and fall. Initially, leaf spots tend to be 

triangular and bordered by veins but not always so. 

Infestation progresses from lower leaves upwards. 

Flowers may be infested and decay, often only on 

one side. See Ferns E 2. 

Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) penetrate 

roots causing galls up to 25 mm in diameter (Fig. 

11). Plants are stunted, yellow and wilted (symptoms 

similar to nutrient deficiencies or water stress). Fungal 

and bacterial rots may develop in affected roots, plants 

die prematurely. Infected seedlings are often more 

susceptible to water stress. See Vegetables M 10. 

Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) 

infests young shoots causing twisting and 

spindling. Stems may be swollen near the tops and 

basal buds stimulated to develop. Plants may be 

stunted, fail to bloom and die prematurely. See 

Daffodil C 20. 

INSECTS AND ALLIED PESTS 

Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) 

Cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) 

Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) 

Aphids are common pests of annuals, eg carnation, 

chrysanthemum, stock. They are slow moving, 

winged or wingless, plump-bodied, 1-2 mm long, 

green, yellow, pink or brown depending on species 

and food plant (Fig. 12). Nymphs look like adults 

but are smaller and wingless. Nymph skins, shed 

as aphids moult, are found on infested plants and 

are particularly noticeable after winged aphids 

have left. Nymphs and aphids suck plant sap from 

new shoots, leaves, buds and flowers causing 

distortion, leaves may shrivel. Some species suck 

sap from roots. Other sucking insects, eg broad 

mite and cyclamen mite, may also cause distortion 

of new leaves. Most aphids secrete honeydew on 



which sooty mould grows and which attracts ants. 

Aphids spread many virus diseases into and 

within crops during feeding. Green peach aphid 

spreads > 100 virus diseases. See Roses J 4. 

Bugs (Hemiptera) 

Coon bug (Oxycarenus arctatus) 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) 

Harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor) 

Metallic shield bug (Scutiphora pedicellata) 

Leptocoris bug (Leptocoris mitellatus) 

Many species suck sap, usually from new shoots 

which wilt and brown. See Vegetables M 12. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Most species 

have a wide host range. Caterpillars and their 

chewing damage are easily identified (Fig. 13). 

Droppings are found on plants or underneath. 

Budworms, cutworms (Noctuidae): Corn 

earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and native 

budworm (H. punctigera) feed on and inside buds 

and flowers causing them to brown and not open. A 

small hole in the calyx marks where the caterpillar 

entered the bud. Petals must be parted to find the 

young caterpillars in flowers, damage continues after 

harvest. They are difficult to control, it may be 

necessary to spray regularly, starting at first sign of 

damage. See Sweetcorn M 89. Cutworms 

(Noctuidae) are smooth-bodied, dark-grey to pinkish 

caterpillars up to 40 mm long. They hide in the soil 

by day and feed on the base of stems of young 

plants at night causing them to topple over. See 

Seedlings N 68. Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis 

spp.) chew leaves and can cause severe damage in 

shady situations. See Vegetables M 13. 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae): Lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars eat buds and 

flower segments. See Pome fruits F 112. Lucerne 

leafroller (Merophyas divulsana). 

Loopers (Geometridae) chew leaves. See Avocado F 19. 

Others: Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), 

painted apple moth (Teia anartoides). 

Pest cycle: Complete metamorphosis (egg, 

larva, pupa, adult) with one or several generations 

each year. 

Overwintering: Usually as cocoons or pupae on 

host plants, crop debris or in the soil. 

Spread: By butterflies and moths flying assisted 

by wind, caterpillars crawl. Seedlings and cuttings 

may carry eggs, tiny caterpillars or pupae. 

Conditions favouring: Usually warm and 

moist, above average rainfall will favour some 

caterpillars, eg cluster caterpillar, but some like it 

cool. Common during summer and autumn. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Minimise host weed growth. 

Sanitation: Caterpillars (not irritant hairy ones) 

may be hand picked or squashed in small 

plantings, some may be well camouflaged and 

hard to locate. Infested crops and debris should 

be destroyed as soon as possible after harvest. 

Biological control: Caterpillars are subject to 

many natural enemies including parasitic 

wasps, predatory bugs, birds and diseases which 

do not usually prevent economic damage 

(exceptions). 

Pesticides/Resistant varieties: The bacterial 

insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), may be 

applied to young leafeating caterpillars (not 

usually internal-feeding caterpillars in flower or 

leaf buds, in fruit or in stems, branches or 

trunks), and provides economic selective control 

if applied regularly during the main infestation 

period. It is slow-acting as it has to be eaten to 

be effective. Plants resistant to caterpillars, eg 

cotton, tomato, are being bred with the Bt gene in 

them, eliminating the need for sprays. Chemical 

insecticides may be applied if caterpillars are 

large and numerous. Caterpillar numbers and 

damage should be monitored before chemical 

pesticides are applied. See Brassicas M 39. 

European earwig (Forficula auricularia) 

feeds on seedlings, dahlia, zinnia, other plants, also 

foodstuffs and dead and living insects. Adults are 

brown and about 12 mm long with pincers at the 

end of the abdomen. They seldom fly, and hide 

during the day in rubbish, flower and fruit clusters. 

Leaves, flowers and petals may be damaged by 

their chewing, and develop a ragged appearance. 

They also spoil plants with their excrement. See 

Vegetables M 14. 

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum) is a sporadic pest of annuals during 

warm humid weather. Whiteflies are tiny, white 

insects which fly out in a cloud when plants are 

disturbed (Fig 14). Adults and nymphs may be 

found on leaf undersurfaces where they feed by 

sucking plant sap causing speckled patterns on 

leaves. Whiteflies secrete honeydew on which 

sooty mould fungi grow. Infestation may occur but 

there may be little damage. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) 

Apple leafhopper (Edwardsiana australis) 

Common brown leafhopper (Orosius argentatus) 

Vegetable leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea) 

Yellow jassid (Erythoneura ix) 

Leafhoppers may be abundant and feed on many 

plants, eg dahlia, marigold, grasses and weeds, and 

range from very small to medium-sized insects. 

They pass their whole life cycle on the plant and 

feed by sucking plant sap. When disturbed they 

hop away. Their feeding causes speckled patterns 

on leaves, each speckle representing a feeding site 

(Fig. 15). During spring, summer and autumn they 

migrate from drying weeds, etc. to crops. Control 

is difficult as damage is not usually noticed until 

they have flown away. See Vegetables M 15. 

Leafminers are the larvae of flies (Diptera), 

eg cineraria leafminer (Chromatomyia syngenesiae) 

or moths (Lepidoptera), which tunnel inside leaves 

spoiling the appearance of foliage (Fig. 16). 

Generally each leafmining species attacks only one 

plant family or one species. See Cineraria A 28. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera) 

may infest stems, leaves and roots. Female 

mealybugs are powdery white 3-4 mm long, oval, 

slow moving, wingless, flattened. They suck plant 

sap causing soft-foliaged plants to wilt and 

eventually die. Economic damage may also be 

caused by the excreted honeydew which attracts 

ants and on which sooty mould grows rendering 

plants unsightly. See Greenhouses N 25. 

A 8 



Mites (Acarina) feed by sucking plant sap. 

Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) causes 

malformations of growing tips and young 

leaves. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) causes similar 

damage to that caused by broad mite, damaging 

flower buds and leaves of African violet, petunia. 

Mites cannot be seen with the naked eye and shelter 

inside buds. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) and 

blue oat mite (Penthaleus major) are blackish in 

colour, about 1 mm long and have red legs. Nymphs 

and adults suck sap from the leaves causing them to 

turn silvery and sometimes die. Cool, weather during 

autumn, winter and spring. See Vegetables M 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) infests 

carnation, hollyhock, marigold and perennial phlox 

during hot, dry weather. Leaves become bleached or 

sandy mottled (Fig. 17). Mites are about 0.5 mm 

long. Mites and webbing can be seen on leaf under 

surfaces which may yellow and fall. A tiny black 

mite-eating ladybird (Stethorus), its larvae and pupae, 

are found on infested leaves. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) and other species 

infest flowers of most plants. Adult thrips are dark, 

small, fast-moving elongated about 1-1.5 mm long, 

nymphs are paler in colour (Fig 18). Thrips are easily 

seen by shaking them out of flowers onto a white 

surface. Plague thrips enter opening buds and 

blossoms and rasp and suck exuded sap from petals 

which become silvered (red varieties), streaked or 

blotched, later turning brown. Dark excreta on light 

blooms add to their disfigurement. See Roses J 6. 

Western flower thrips (WFT) (Frankliniella 

occidentalis) is 1 mm long, yellow-brown, and feeds 

on herbaceous plants, it is a major vector for tomato 

spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and impatiens necrotic spot 

virus (WFT is the only thrips that can spread this 

virus). When eggs hatch, nymphs emerge and feed on 

infected plants and become infected throughout their 

life cycle which is about 30-45 days. As WFT spreads 

in Australia, both these viruses may cause increased 

crop losses and damage. WFT may be biologically 

controlled overseas by predatory mites (Amblyseius 

cucumeris, A. barkeri, Geoaelaps sp.) and predatory 

bugs (Anthocoris nemorum, Orius sp.) (Sunderland 

1991). Management strategies and control techniques 

(biological and chemical) to minimise WFT/TSWV 

problems are being researched (Hill1994). A National 

WFT Management Strategy Group has been set up. 

Thrips management in greenhouses is important for 

virus control. See Greenhouses N 24, Tomato M 96. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) 

Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) larvae 

chew on the fine root hairs of plants during summer 

and autumn. See Grapevine F 63. 

Others: Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) chews 

scalloped holes from centres and margins of leaves. 

See Trees K 17. Vegetable weevil (Listroderes 

difficilis) and its larva chew winter growing flowers, 

eg stock. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: 

Locusts, grasshoppers, crickets 

(Orthoptera) chew young shoots, soft leaves and flowers. 

Larvae of scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) and 

wireworms (Elateridae) damage roots. 

SNAILS AND SLUGS 

Snails and slugs may damage seedlings and 

perennial borders (Fig. 19). Fleshy plants, eg 

gazania, may be skeletonised. See Seedlings N 70. 

VERTEBRATE PESTS 

Birds, eg parrots, may tear off flowers when 

seeking soft green plant tissue. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Chemical injury: Herbicides may injure 

plants by drift, vapours and excessive rates. 

Seedlings may be injured by planting too soon in 

treated soil. Sulphur may damage some plants in 

greenhouses, test prior to large scale use. Overapplication 

of wetting agents used to retain water 

in media, improve aeration and nutrient availability 

may reduce shoot and root growth of geranium, 

impatiens, poinsettia and possibly other plants. 

Environment: Flowering may be affected by 

insufficient light. Flowers generally are more 

susceptible to frost than foliage, eg chrysanthemum 

flowers are damaged by frost but not the foliage. 

Both flowers and foliage of some plants, eg 

marigold, nasturtium are damaged by frost. Flowers 

and leaves may be sun scorched. Annuals may 

suffer from drought or too much water. Tall 

plants may need staking to prevent wind damage. 

Genetic abnormalities: Many varieties have 

variegated leaves or flowers. Sports of variegated 

parts may occur on normal green varieties and vice 

versa. Flattened fasciated stems may develop. 

Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities: 

Mistakes may occur during media preparation. 

Excessive rates may cause reduced growth and 

pollution. Soil and leaf analyses are available for 

most commercial crops. See Citrus F 43. 

Others: The spiny legs of nectar scarabs 

(Phyllotocus spp.) damage petals. Plague soldier 

beetle (Chauliognathus lugubris) weighs down 

flowers. Sooty mould grows on honeydew secreted 

by sucking insects, slime moulds grow on leaves 

close to soil, dogs and cats may damage flowers. 

WEEDS 

Weed control is important, especially during the 

first year. Emerged annual and perennial weeds 

(Figs. 20, 21) should be controlled prior to planting 

either by cultivation or by post-emergence 

herbicides. After planting, weed mats or weedfree 

mulches of various types prevent moisture 

loss, keep roots cool and discourage annual weeds. 

Cultivation to control weeds after planting may 

injure roots. Beds may be carefully hand weeded. 

Pre-emergence herbicides may be applied after 

planting and at regular intervals thereafter in 

perennial beds to control seeds of grass and 

broadleaved weeds. 



SELECTED REFERENCES 

Anon. 1992. International Floriculture Papers and 

Statistics : Post Harvest Handling of Cut Flowers. 

Selected Papers. Pathfast Pub., Essex. 

Armitage, A. M. 1993a. Bedding Plants : Prolonging 

Shelf Performance. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinois. 

Armitage, A. M. 1993b. Speciality Cut Flowers. Varsity 

Press/Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 








Chase, A. R., Daughtrey, M. and Simone, G. W. 1995. 

Diseases of Annuals and Perennials : Identification 

and Control. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinois. 

Coates, B. 1993. Growing Flowers and Foliage for 

Cutting. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, NSW. 

Com. of Aust., Aust. Quar. and Inspect. Service, Dept. 

Primary Industries and Energy, Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

European Cornborer No. 8. 1990. 

Japanese Beetle. No.9. 1990. 

Thrips. No.52. 1996. 

Whiteflies of Quarantine Significance. No.93. 1993. 

Coombs, B. (ed.) 1995. Horticulture Australia. 

Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Vic. 



Fletcher, J. T. 1984. Diseases of Greenhouse Plants. 

Longman, London. 

Hill, M. 1994. Western Flower Thrips. Agric. 

Vic./HRDC/Dept. Agric WA/RIRDC, Melbourne. 

Holcomb, E. J. 1994. Bedding Plants IV : A Manual on 

the Culture of Bedding Plants as a Greenhouse 

Crop. Ball Pub., Batavia Illinois. 

Jones, R. and Moody, H. 1993. Caring for Cut Flowers. 

Dept. of Agric. and Rural Affairs, Melbourne. 

Joyce, D. 1994. The Effect of Ethylene and STS 

Solutions. Aust. Hort., March. 

Larson, R. A. (ed.). 1992. Introduction to Floriculture. 

2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 

Lawrence. L. 1994. Growing Flowers for Picking. 

Lothian Books, Port Melbourne. 


That? rev. edn., Lansdowne, Sydney. 

Nell, T. A. 1993. Flowering Potted Plants : Prolonging 


Nottle, T. 1984. Growing Perennials. Kangaroo Press, 

Kenthurst, NSW. 

Nowak, J. and Rudnicki, R. M. 1990. Postharvest 

Handling & Storage of Cut Flowers, Florist Greens 

& Potted Plants. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 




Plants. 5th edn., John Wiley & Sons, NY. 

Sacalis, J. N. 1993. Cut Flowers : Prolonging Freshness. 

Postproduction Care & Handling. 2nd edn. Ball 

Pub., Batavia, Illinois. 

Salinger, J. P. 1985. Commercial Flower Growing. 

Butterworths, Wellington, NZ. 

Strider, D. L. (ed.) 1985. Diseases of Floral Crops. Vols. 

1 and 2., Praeger Pub., NY. 

Sunderland, K. D. 1991. Biological Control in 

Ornamentals : Current Practice and Future 

Prospects. The Plantsman, Vol.13(1) June, pp.1-64. 

Vaughan, M. J. 1988. The Complete Book of Cut Flower 

Care. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 

MANAGEMENT 

State/Territory Departments of Agriculture/Primary 

Industry eg 

NSW Agdex/Agnotes 

Getting Started in Cut Flower Growing 

Major Flower Grower-Sellers & Exporters in NSW 

National Flower Wholesalers 

Ornamental Horticulture Associations in NSW 

Poinsettia Whitefly (Bemesia tabaci type B) 

Potential Cut Flower & Foliage Crops 

Suggested Publications for Floriculture 

Suppliers of Cut Flower Planting Materials 

The NSW Cut Flower Industry 

Watchout for Western Flower Thrips 

NSW Agfacts 

Availability and Price of Cut Flowers 

Foliar Nematode Diseases of Ornamental Plants 

Fungicides for Ornamentals in NSW 

Native Flowers as Cut Flowers 

Nectar Scarab Beetles 

Powdery Mildews of Ornamentals 

SA Information Sheets 

Cut-flower Production in SA (SA Fact Sheet) 

Suggested Booklist for Floriculture 

Sydney Market Authority 

Fresh Flowers Handling and Care 

Tas Farmnotes 

Extending the Shelf & Vase Life of Cut Flowers 

Handling & Storing Cut Flowers 

Vic Agnotes 

Aphids as Pests of Ornamental Plants 

Availability & Price of Cut Flowers 

Cut Flower Growing 

Domestic Market for Cut Flowers 

Export Market for Cut Flowers 

Importing Ornamental Plants as Tissue Culture 

Post Harvest Treatments for Cut Flower 

Powdery Mildews of Ornamentals 

Quar. Requirements for Importing Ornamental Plants 

Scale Insects & Mealybugs on Ornamentals 

The Ornamentals Improvement Program for Cut Flowers 

Twospotted Mite on Ornamental Plants 

WA Farmnotes 

Bleaching Plant Foliage 

Chlorination in Postharvest Horticulture 

Cooling Cut Flowers and Foliage 

Drying Cut Flowers and Foliage, 

Dyeing Cut Flowers and Foliage 

Floriculture : A Blooming Business (WA Agric) 

Post-harvest Insect Disinfestation Treatments for Cut 

Flowers and Foliage 

Post-harvest Management of Hort. Produce in the Market 

Scale Insects, Mealybugs and Whiteflies 

Soilborne Diseases in Horticulture 

Storage Conditions for Ornamental Crops 

The Garden Weevil 

Tomato Spotted Wilt & Impatiens Necrotic Ringspot : 

Viruses Spread by Thrips 

Associations, Journals etc. 

Australian Flower and Protea Grower's Assoc. (AF&PGA) 

Australian Flower Grower's Council (AFGC) 

Australian National Flower Show (Melbourne) 

Flower Link 

Floriculture Conferences 

FloraCulture International 

Flower Export Council of Australia (FECA) 

GrowSearch (database Qld DPI) 

IPM Ornamentals, Institute of Hort. Dev., Knoxfield, Vic. 

National Flower Centre, Melbourne 


State/Territory Flower Grower's Groups 

Supermarket Flora 

Tasmanian Floricultural Association 

Victorian Farmers Federation Flower Grower's Group 

See Preface xii, Australian native plants N 9, 

Bulbs C 9, Greenhouses N 28, Nurseries N 56 

Remember, always check 

for recent references 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Select species as 

required for colour, height, cost, market, flowering dates, quality, yield and need for maintenance. 

Resistant varieties: Choose species or varieties which are relatively problem-free. If particular problems 

occur, select species or varieties with some resistance to them. Choose proven hardy varieties. 

A 10 



Disease-free planting material: Always plant disease-free seed, budwood and rootstock in disease-free 

soil. Crop Health Services (Crop Hygiene) in the Institute for Horticultural Development, Agriculture Victoria, 

supplies the cut flower industry with propagating material of some species, eg carnation, chrysanthemum, 

which is free from viruses and other diseases. Purchase disease-free planting material (High Health Plants) 

from specialist propagators, (Fig. 3) otherwise propagate vegetatively and save seed only from disease and 

pest-free plants. Seed may need to be treated with steam, hot water or chemicals. 

Establishment 

Propagation: By seed, cuttings, tissue culture. 

Cultural methods: Select growing areas, site layout and practices which will minimise disease 

development. Select species to suit sites to be planted, eg need for shade, sun, soil, drainage. Site plants 

according to their cultural needs. Do not plant susceptible species where soilborne problems occur. Avoid 

overcrowded seed and cutting beds as these encourage diseases. Rotate crops to avoid build up of disease 

inoculum. Regularly rotate annuals; many perennials should be lifted/divided regularly for maximum 

productivity. Flowering plants are more sensitive to temperature than foliage plants. 

Sanitation: Remove/destroy/deep bury crop or burn residues immediately after harvest to reduce inoculum. 

Remove all old plant material from packing sheds. Hygiene procedures prevents infection of later crops. 

Biological control: Use biological methods if available and appropriate. 

Plant quarantine: Inspect new stock and keep separate until disease and pest freedom is assured. Keep 

new plantings separate from older and possibly diseased plantings. 

Physical and mechanical methods/Pesticides: Pre-plant pasteurise, fumigate or solarise media for 

seed or cutting beds for high value crops in small areas to control diseases and weeds. Post-plant mulch 

(must be weed-free) or apply pre-emergence herbicides to control weeds. Control snails, cutworms, damping 

off and other problems that affect susceptible seedlings and cuttings as required. 

Maintenance 

Cultural methods: Ensure appropriate light, temperature, humidity, irrigation regimes as these affect vase 

life, eg temperatures that vary from optimal may shorten vase life; excessive nitrogen, chlorine, salinity and 

pollution, decrease vase life and increase susceptibility to diseases, eg grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). 

Sanitation: Remove old flower heads, diseased plant parts and weeds regularly. 

Biological control: Use biological methods if available and appropriate. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Flower-bearing stems may bend under the weight of flowers and may 

need to be staked to avoid difficulty in arranging curved stems in vases. 

Pesticides: Control diseases, pests and weeds if necessary. Plants may be treated with plant growth 

regulators. Pre-market treatments may be required. Vase life may be reduced by fungal diseases. 

Pest management: Check to see if such a program is available for a particular crop. Accurate diagnosis 

and monitoring of likely and potential problems are essential (Fig. 21). 

Postharvest 

Cut flower crops are among the most perishable of horticultural produce and will only have a useful vase life if 

harvest, transport and storage procedures have been properly carried out. Handle cut flowers speedily. Avoid 

mechanical injury to flowers as they may be more sensitive to Botrytis and other fungi. Quality standards are 

available in Australia for some cut flowers and overseas for many more and also for potted plants, eg there are 

US standards for carnation, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, rose, snapdragon. Export flowers may need special 

treatments to eradicate insects and prevent propagation. 

Harvest flowers with a sharp knife at correct growth stage for the crop and the intended market. Generally 

flowers are picked during cool temperatures (early morning) and quickly placed in clean water containing a 

bactericide. Some flower species are sensitive to ethylene gas which is a naturally occurring plant hormone 

which comes from vehicle exhausts, damaged or dying flowers and foliage, ripening fruit, cigarette smoke and 

flowers themselves (Jones and Moody 1993). Ethylene accelerates ageing of harvested flowers and leaves. 

Flowers won't open and petals may shatter. The effects of ethylene can be minimised by reducing 

temperatures, eliminating ethylene sources and treating sensitive flowers with anti-ethylene chemicals. 

Storage/Transport: Flowers are graded, bunched, packaged for transport, and usually rapidly cooled to 

0-2 o C and kept at this temperature during shipment until sale to reduce water loss, maintain flower quality, 

inhibit bacteria and fungal infections, retard flower growth and senescing processes and extend storage life. 

Cooling is not suitable for all flowers (Jones and Moody 1993), some may suffer chilling injury, eg minimum 

storage temperature for alstroemeria is 4 o C and for orchids 8-12 o C. High relative humidity prevents drying 

out but favours Botrytis. Potted plants may need appropriate lighting, conditioning and hardening. Some cut 

flowers are affected by light (phototropism) or gravity (geotropism). Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP) 

techniques with controlled temperatures are used for overseas markets. See Postharvest N 61. 

Vase life decline is due to inability of stems to absorb water, excessive water loss from the cut flower, a short 

supply of carbohydrate to support respiration, the presence of diseases and ethylene gas. Maximise vase 

life, which varies with the species and may be extended by pulsing (placing lower portions of flower stems in 

solutions containing a disinfectant and food, eg sugar, for several hours to 2 days); by growth regulators and 

by floral preservatives which usually contain a disinfectant (germicide, biocide), eg chlorine, to prevent 

blockage of xylem vessels with microoganisms; nutrients, eg sucrose to extend vase life and an acidifier, eg 

citric acid or vinegar to help flowers take up more solution and discourage bacteria which may plug xylem 

vessels. Floral preservatives can be made up or purchased. Bud opening solutions contain nutrients, 

acidifiers, disinfectants and hormones. If stems have been out of water for a while trim stem ends under water 

(if cut out of water, air bubbles are drawn up into the sap blocking stems). Salt may reduce vase life. 


African violet 

Saintpaulia ionantha 

Family Gesneriaceae 


Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt 



Damping off 

Grey mould 

Powdery mildew 

Root, crown and stem rots 


Foliar nematode 


Aphids 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Non-parasitic 

Crowns 

Environment 


Pesticide dusts 


Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt causes leaf mottles and 

ringspots. Overseas tobacco mosaic virus also 

infects Saintpaulia sp. Destroy plants with 

symptoms, do not propagate from them. See 

Annuals A 4, Tomato M 96. 


Overseas Pseudomonas marginalis may cause 

black leaf rot during propagation and Erwinia 

chrysanthemi may cause a soft rot of roots, crowns 

and petioles. Both bacteria occur in Australia. 


Damping off (probably Phytophthora, Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia). See Seedlings N 66. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause 

leaves and flowers to brown and a grey, furry 

mould may grow on them. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) develops on 

the pedicels and calyces of flowers in warm humid 

conditions, eg in bathrooms. Although the white 

mealy growth occurs extensively on leaves it is 

not always damaging. See Annuals A 6. 

Root, crown and stem rots (Phytophthora, 

and probably Pythium, Rhizoctonia) may cause 

leaves to become limp, whole plants may collapse. 

Do not confuse these fungal rots with petiole rots 

due to salts. See Annuals A 6, Vegetables M 7. 


Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides fragariae) 

may attack African violets causing watersoaked 

lesions on leaves. Infested leaves die and fall. 

Varieties vary in their resistance. See Ferns E 2. 

Others: Root knot (Meloidogyne javanica). 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) occasionally 

attack soft tender leaves and the flowers. See 

Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 


African violet mealybug (Rhizoecus dianthi) 

Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) 

Longtailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus) 

Mealybugs feed in leaf axils and leaf 

undersurfaces and may cause serious damage if 

not treated promptly. They may also feed on roots 

making control difficult. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Mites (Tarsonemidae, Acarina): Broad mite 

(Polyphagotarsonemus latus) causes leaves to 

develop a glassy appearance. See Greenhouses 

N 26. Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) 

causes distortion of stems and leaves. Leaves in 

the crown appear curled, dwarfed and very hairy. 

Flowers may also be dwarfed. Plants may die. 

Control is difficult. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Non-parasitic 

Crowns: A mature African violet plant should 

haveonly one crown (rosette of leaves). Additional 

crowns that develop should be gently twisted out 

as they appear, this will encourage more flowers. 

Environment: Bud drop: Buds may shrivel, 

turn brown, and drop prematurely. Causes include 

low temperatures, low humidity, overwatering and 

extreme fluctuations in soil moisture, temperature 

and light intensity. Water rings or patches 

develop on leaves if they are splashed with water 

which is cooler or warmer (by 8 o C or more) than 

the leaves (Larson 1992). Cell walls in the leaf 

palisade layer collapse and chlorophyll is damaged. 

Water drops on leaves in bright light may cause 

similar symptoms. Water pots from below using 

wick, tube or mat watering systems or use a narrow 

spouted watering can. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Petiole 

rot occurs if the petiole touches the rim of a porous 

pot which has absorbed fertiliser salts. An 

aluminium strip placed over the rim prevents 

contact. Do not confuse with bacterial or fungal 

root, stem or crown rots. Salt toxicity: African 

violets are sensitive to high salt levels (Larson 

1992). Symptoms include poor growth, leaf 

yellowing, marginal leaf burn, death of growing 

points and dark limp roots. Hard water which 

contains bicarbonates and carbonates that make the 

growing media more alkaline may cause white 

spots and patches on leaves of sensitive varieties. 

A 12 


Pesticide dusts are difficult if not impossible 

to remove from hairy leaves. Avoid using them. 

Others: Algae, springtails and fungus gnats may 

occur in overwet pots (see House plants N 37). 

Some varieties have variegated leaves, do not 

confuse with water rings. 


Clements, T. 1990. African Violets. Reed Books, 

Balgowlah, NSW. 

Coulson, R. 1986. Growing African Violets and Some 

Other Flowering House Plants. Kangaroo Press, 


Davidson, W. 1982. The Houseplant Survival Manual. 

Thomas Nelson, Melbourne. 



MANAGEMENT 

AFRICAN VIOLET 




Handling & Storage of Cut Flowers, Florist Greens, 




Strider, D. L. (ed.). 1985. Diseases of Floral Crops. 

Vol.2., Praeger Pub., NY. 


Industry eg 

Nematodes on African Violets (Vic Agnote) 

Propagation of African Violets by Tissue Culture (Vic 

Agnote) 

The Foliar Nematode in Ornamental Plants other than 

Ferns (Vic Agnote) 



State/Territory African Violet Socs. 

See Annuals and herbaceous perennials A 10, 

Containers N 20, House plants N 37 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: African violets are popular hobby plants or 'disposable' flowering pot plants 

which flower for 3 months and then may be thrown away. They usually cease flowering and growing during 

winter. 

Resistant varieties: Cultivars vary in susceptibility to Phytophthora (Strider 1985). 

Disease-free planting material: Purchase plants free from diseases and pests from reputable sources. 

Establishment and Maintenance 

Propagation is usually by leaf petiole cuttings from mature firm green leaves, rooting hormones promote rapid 

root formation, also by tissue culture and by seed (few cultivars come true from seed). 

Cultural methods: Root systems are shallow so use shallow pots, when pot bound plants will produce 

flowers. Use a prescribed African violet mix free from soilborne diseases or treat the medium. Fertilise 

with prescribed African violet fertilisers or recommended alternatives. Keep plants in fairly bright light but not 

in direct sun (leaves may burn if water is left on them). Artificial light extends the hours of exposure and 

markedly increases flowering performance. Plants in window sills should be turned 1/4 every day to prevent 

a lean towards light. As plants are sensitive to chilling at < 10 o C, purchase when weather is mild. Unlike 

most plants, African violets grow best with a warmer night temperature and a cooler day temperature. Night 

temperatures of 20-23 o C and a day temperature of 14 o C produce good growth (Larson 1992). African violets 

generally flourish in temperatures of 18-21 o C. The main difference in the care of African violets from season 

to season is the amount of water required. Do not overwater, soil should be kept moist without getting water 

on foliage. During the colder months of the year water with warm water or water at room temperature and 

water sparingly, ie when the soil feels dry to touch and plants will often survive in low temperatures. Provide 

good air circulation by adequate spacing of plants. Conditions in bathrooms are ideal for powdery mildew 

and Botrytis. Keep foliage free from dust by bathing regularly. Plants are sensitive to drafts. 

Sanitation: Remove any dead flowers and leaves promptly to prevent Botrytis from growing on them and 

spreading to other flowers and leaf stalks. 

Plant quarantine: Plants taken to shows and brought back may bring back cyclamen mite and other pests. 

These pests may also be introduced to established collections by the purchase of infested plants. 

Pesticides: On indoor plants only use pesticides registered for indoor plant use, otherwise take plants 

outdoors for treatment and comply with label requirements. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Pots should be sold at the beginning of flowering. There are no obligatory International Standards 

but many countries or societies have established standards governing their sorting and size. 

Transport and storage: Water plants before packing. Avoid breaking foliage during handling, eg pack 

pots in sleeves of paper or other material. On arrival, unpack plants immediately, place under artificial lights to 

keep flowers in good condition until sold. Plants do not store well, they withstand a maximum of 1 day in 

darkness, at 10 o C and relative humidity of 90%, flowers are sensitive to ethylene so may be treated with antiethylene 

chemicals by the grower (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Pot life: To keep plants growing and flowering, water and fertilise as recommended and provide adequate 

natural light or use artificial light. 


Calendula 

English marigold, pot marigold 

Calendula officinalis 

Family Asteraceae (daisy family) 


Parasitic 



Grey mould 


Root, stem and collar rots 

Rust 

Smut 


Root knot nematode 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Several viruses have been recorded on calendula 

but none appear to be serious. 

Cucumber mosaic virus 

Lettuce necrotic yellows virus 

Tomato big bud mycoplasma (greening) 

Tomato spotted wilt virus 

Some are spread by insects and are seedborne. 

See Annuals A 4. 


Grey mould, Botrytis, flower blight (Botrytis 

cinerea) may occur sporadically during moist 

weather. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) is common. 

Whitish mycelium covers leaves of plants grown 

under excessively moist conditions. Circular spots 

2-5 mm across first appear irregularly scattered 

over leaves. Later the whole plant is affected and 

may finally wither and die. See Annuals A 6. 

Root, stem and collar rots 

Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot, base rot 

(Macrophomina phaseolina) 

Rhizoctonia (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Sclerotium (Sclerotium rolfsii) 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) 

See Annuals A 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Rust (Puccinia lagenophorae) is a native rust and 

a serious disease of Asteraceae, ie native plants, 

eg Lagenophorae spp., Senecio spp., Erichtites 

spp., exotic plants, eg calendula, cineraria, 

English daisy (Bellis perennis), exotic weeds, eg 

groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), and self-sown plants. 

Pale yellow-green spots may develop on leaves, 

stems and flower stalks (Fig. 22) during warm 

humid weather. Clusters of minute orange cup-like 

structures (aecia) later develop on these spots (Fig. 

23). Masses of black spores (teliospores) may be 

produced amongst the aecia. Both leaf surfaces 

look as if they are covered with a yellow dust (rust 

spores) and may shrivel up. See Annuals A 7. 

Smut, fungal leaf spot (Entyloma calendulae, 

Ustilaginales, Basidiomycetes) causes pale yellow 

leaf spots about 5 mm across, which later turn 

brown to black. Occasionally other fungi may also 

cause leaf spots on calendula. See Annuals A 5, 

Dahlia C 24. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) has 

been recorded on C. officinalis and other 

Calendula spp. See Vegetables M 10. 




Marigold aphid (Neotoxoptera oliveri) 

These aphids infest new growth of calendula and a 

range of other plants. They may damage calendula 

during humid conditions in spring and autumn. 

See Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) 

Cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae) 

Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) attack seedlings 

Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) 


Others: Earth mites (Penthaleidae) may feed on 

leaves, greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum) may infest leaf undersurfaces, 

leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) may feed on leaves. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcus sp.) feed on stems and 

leaves. Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) infests 

flowers, vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) 

and other weevil larvae may feed on foliage. 

Non-parasitic 

Hen and chickens marigold (C. officinalis 

prolifera) has an unusual form (Fig. 24). Nectar 

scarabs (Phyllotocus spp.) and the mottled flower 

scarab (Protaetia fusca) may damage petals with 

their spiny legs. See Roses J 8. 








Industry eg 

Rust of Calendula, Cineraria and English Daisy 

(NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 

See Annuals and herbaceous perennials A 10 

A 14 



for recent references

CALENDULA 

MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural qualities: There is a wide range of cultivars to choose from, eg dwarf and semi-dwarf. 

Resistant varieties: Varieties are continually being developed to improve quality, eg flower colour and 

size, vigour and resistance to disease, eg powdery mildew and rust. 

Disease-free planting material: Some diseases are seedborne, eg rust. 


Propagation: By seed. In warm climates, seed is usually sown in autumn or early winter and in cold districts 

in autumn and spring. Seedlings can be transplanted when they are large enough to be handled easily. 

Cultural methods: Calendula perform well in any soil with good drainage but full sun is essential. Remove 

self-sown plants unless they are to be cared for with the rest of the crop. Do not plant new crops near older 

diseased crops. Calendula are shallow rooted so require regular watering in dry weather. A mulch of 

compost or leaf mould will prevent moisture loss, keep roots cool and control annual weeds. 

Sanitation: Remove spent flower heads to prolong flowering and severely rust-affected plants to prevent 

further spread. 

Pesticides: If it is considered necessary to apply a fungicide to control rust on susceptible varieties, it 

should be applied at the first sign of disease. 

Postharvest 

Flowers for direct sale should be cut when flowers are fully open. If flowers are cut at too early a stage of 

development they will not develop properly even in an opening solution, or else their development will be 

prolonged and the quality of the flowers that finally appear will be poor. Cut flowers wilt rapidly and should be 

placed immediately after harvest in water or moisture-retentive boxes (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Storage: No more than 3-6 days in water at 4-5 o C. 

Vase life: Use a floral preservative. Remove leaves below the waterline and change water frequently. 

Fig. 22. Rust (Puccinia lagenophorae) 

on calendula leaves. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 24. Hen and chickens marigold 

(Calendula officinalis prolifera). 

Fig. 23. Aecia of the rust fungus (Puccinia 

lagenophorae) on a daisy leaf. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 


Carnation 

Dianthus spp. 

Family Caryophyllaceae (carnation family) 


Parasitic 



Bacterial leaf spot 


Anther smut 

Damping off 

Downy mildew 


Fusarium blight and bud rots 

Fusarium wilt 

Grey mould 

Rhizopus soft rot 

Root and stem rots 

Rust 


Cyst nematode 

Root knot nematodes 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Calyx splitting 

Environment 

Nutrient deficiency, toxicity 

Pesticide injury 


Parasitic 


Most commercial carnation crops are affected by 

virus diseases, most of which are restricted to 

carnations. Plants may be infected with more than 

one virus. Virus diseases are important, reducing 

flower quality and yield by as much as 40-50%. 

Some cultivars infected with virus make 

reasonable growth if well cared for, but tend to 

deteriorate and are a source of infection for other 

plants. Symptoms vary with the virus(es) involved, 

the cultivar, stage of growth and climate. Their 

presence can only be confirmed by viral diagnostic 

tests. Leaves and stems may show mottling, 

streaking and other symptoms. Flowers may have 

an increased incidence of colour breaks and calyx 

splitting. All carnation viruses are spread by 

vegetative propagation from infected plants, by 

grafting, but usually not by seed, some also by 

insects and by sap. 

Carnation mottle virus (CarMV) is the most 

common virus of carnations in Australia. Infected 

plants are mostly symptomless but some cultivars may 

show leaf mottling and a variable colour intensity in 

petals. CarMV is also spread by sap transmission 

during handling, by contact between plants (roots or 

foliage contact), there is no vector. 

Carnation etched ring (CERV), carnation latent 

virus (CarLV), carnation necrotic fleck virus 

(CarNFV) carnation vein mottle (CarVM), may 

cause necrotic rings, flecks, spots and mottles on 

leaves and flower breaks, but often there are no 

symptoms. Multiple infections of these viruses can 

make symptoms more obvious. CERV is also spread 

by aphids, by mechanical inoculation, not by contact 

between plants; CarLV also by aphids, eg green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), by mechanical inoculation, 

not by contact between plants; CarNFV also by 

aphids, by mechanical inoculation with difficulty, not 

by contact between plants; CRSV also by mechanical 

inoculation, by contact between plants, not by a 

vector; CarVM also by aphids, mechanical 

inoculation, not by contact. 

Others: Many more viruses occur in Australia and 

overseas, eg tomato big bud mycoplasma (Fig. 25). 



Bacterial leaf spot, bacterial leaf and flower 

blight (Pseudomonas andropogonis = P. woodsii) is a 

common and serious disease in cooler areas. 

Some strains are more virulent than others. 

Ornamentals, eg carnation, statice, gypsophila, 

bougainvillea, Ceratonia siliqua, Cicer arietinum, 

Mucuna deeringiana, field crops, eg Sorghum spp., 

Trifolium spp., Vicia spp., red and white clover, chick 

pea. Some strains are more virulent than others. 

Initially leaf spots are watersoaked and dark green, 

later centres become pale brown and have a purplish 

margin. Spots are up to 10 mm in diameter and may 

join together to form irregular dead patches, leaves 

may die. Calyx infection may result in damage to 

the flower and stems may be girdled. Old foliage, 

stems and flower buds are severely affected, severely 

infected plants die. Favoured by wet weather, warm 

temperatures (20-25 o C) and by wounding. Avoid 

growing carnation with statice, gypsophila or 

bougainvillea. Plant cultivars with some resistance, 

many new Mediterranean cultivars are susceptible 

(Trujillo and Nagata 1994). Effective bactericides are 

not available. See Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas caryophylli) 

was introduced on plants imported from an approved 

overseas source. Fasciation (Corynebacterium) 

causes a proliferation of short spindly branches that 

arise from nodes of the main stem. Spread by water 

splash and favoured by moist conditions. Remove 

and destroy all affected plants, select disease-free 

planting material (Richardson and Merriman 1986). 

Also crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 


Anther smut (Ustilago violacea) was detected in 

Qld in 1987 on a carnation crop grown from planting 

material obtained from an approved source overseas. 

Anther smut is an uncommon disease of modern 

cultivars partly because very few produce anthers. 

The disease has been eradicated (Bodman et al. 

1996). The fungus is systemic and affected plants are 

stunted, often producing excessive numbers of side 

shoots. Purplish-black fungal spores replace the 

pollen in anthers, flowers look dirty. Young plants 

are very susceptible, infection can take place in buds, 

cut stems and cuttings. Spores are spread by air 

currents, water splash or by handling infected 

material. Remove and burn infected plants (Com. of 

Aust. 1991, Fletcher 1984). 

A 16 


CARNATION 

Damping off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani) in 

cuttings is common and may cause serious losses. 

Young plants wilt and die. Pythium causes a wet 

root rot of roots and stems, Rhizoctonia causes a 

brown, dry rot of tissues around the crown of the 

plant. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora dianthicola) has 

been recorded on pinks and dwarf carnation 

hybrids and some other cultivars. See Annuals A 5. 

Fungal leaf spots may attack leaves, stems 

and flowers causing serious losses (Fig. 26). 

Alternaria leaf spots (Alternaria dianthicola, 

A. dianthi) arecommon and cause serious losses. 

Small, purple spots (0.5-1 mm in diameter) develop 

on leaves, stems and occasionally flowers in cool, 

wet conditions. Spots enlarge, develop a yellow halo 

and grey centres and become covered with black 

spores. Leaves may die prematurely and stem 

infections may girdle stems killing branches. Infected 

flower buds may fail to open properly. 

Cladosporium echinulatum is less common and less 

damaging than Alternaria and Septoria. Conspicuous 

pale brown spots, often with reddish-purple margins, 

about 5 mm in diameter, develop on leaves, stems 

and calyces in cool and wet conditions. Rings of 

pin-point fruiting bodies develop within the leaf spots. 

Septoria dianthi causes light-brown to grey spots, 

generally with purplish margins on leaves or young 

stems during warm and wet weather. Pinpoint, 

black, fruiting bodies (pycnidia) which produce spores 

occur within older spots. 

Others: Shot-hole (Heteropatella valtellinensis). 


Fusarium blight and bud rots 

Fusarium branch blight (Fusarium culmorum, 

F. roseum) causes branches to wilt. Stem tissues may 

rot usually at the axils of branches and are often 

pinkish. Spread by water splash from the soil 

surface. Favoured by wet weather, overhead 

irrigation. Avoid ragged wounds when removing 

flowers or cuttings. See Turfgrasses L 5. 

Fusarium bud rot (F. poae) affects young buds 

which fail to develop, when cut open the petals are 

moist, brown and rotted. Large buds may open 

unevenly and have a lop-sided appearance and may be 

moist and spongy at the base. White cottony 

mycelium and a white oval mite (Pediculopsis 

graminum) which spreads the fungus from bud to bud, 

is usually seen inside affected buds. Mite infestations 

should be controlled. 

Fusarium stem and branch rot, branch blight 

(F. avenaceum = Gibberella avenacea) is spread by 

aerial spores and infected cuttings and soil or mix 

causing basal stem rots and branch rot. Under 

humid conditions white fungal threads and often 

orange spore masses form on rotted areas. 

Fusarium stem rot, wilt and basal rot 

(F. graminearum) affects carnations grown in old 

pasture and is not as aggressive as fusarium wilt 

(F. oxysporum f.sp. dianthi), plants often grow out of 

the disease. Affected areas may have a red 

pigmentation. See Turfgrasses L 5. 

Fusarium diseases are spread by infested soil and 

by taking cuttings from infected plants. See 


Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. 

dianthi) is probably the most serious disease 

affecting carnations throughout the world (Ibarbia 

1996). Probably all 6 known strains occur in 

Australia, some strains are particularly virulent to 

young plants. Other species of Fusarium (see above) 

and other wilt fungi (Verticillium sp.) can also attack 

carnations. Symptoms of Fusarium wilt usually 

occur after flowering but may appear at any stage. 

Infected plants may not show symptoms for many 

months. Young plants show a one-sided yellowing 

and finally leaves wilt. Woody tissue in the stem 

beneath the affected leaves is discoloured. This 

browning can take place before the plant begins to 

collapse. Symptoms gradually extend to the growing 

point. Plants may appear bleached and dried out. 

When the disease is well advanced, roots rot and the 

whole plant may be pale green and completely wilted, 

bark rots and disintegrates. Most infections occur 

near the soil level. Older plants: Flower stems 

yellow and wilt. Often one side of a plant wilts and 

dies, then the whole plant dies. Lower stem tissues 

are rotted and brown or straw coloured. Brown rotted 

streaks are seen in the water conducting tissue 

above the rotted areas. Usually no fungal growth 

develops on rotted areas (unlike stem rot caused by 

another Fusarium fungus). Phialophora wilt 

(Phialophora cinerescens) is not known to occur in 

Australia. See Vegetables M 9. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is of minor 

importance. Initially tan coloured flecks develop on 

petals, later flowers and stems rot and a grey 

fluffy mould may develop on the affected parts 

during moist conditions. Petals and stems of cut 

flowers are also affected by grey mould, especially 

when stored. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a 

minor disease in greenhouse crops. Petals collapse 

with a wet rot which extends into the heart of the 

flower. Black fungal spores develop on the rotted 

tissue. Rhizopus is commonly present in decaying 

plant material in soil. The fungus may grow readily 

on packing material and invade flowers through 

injuries. Inoculum builds up on trimmings from 

flowers if these are left in or around packing sheds. 

Avoid injury and keep flowers dry. Ensure good 

hygiene in packing sheds. See Vegetables 

M 6, Fruit F 6. 


Fusarium blights and bud rots (Fusarium spp.) (see 

above) 

Phytophthora rots (Phytophthora spp. and 

P. nicotianae var. parasitica) 

Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 


Rust (Uromyces dianthi) is common and serious 

during humid weather, warm days and cool nights. 

Rust may attack any stage of growth. Pale greyish 

areas appear on leaves, stems and calyces of 

flowers. These erupt to expose reddish-brown 

spore masses. A ring of secondary pustules may 

develop around the first pustule. Heavy infection 

causes curling and death of leaves, stunting of 

plants and unsaleable flowers. As symptoms may 

take up to 1 month to develop after infection, rust 

may be transferred on cuttings. Spores germinate 


CARNATION 

on foliage if free water is present for 9-12 hours. A 

fungus (Verticillium lecanii) parasitises carnation 

and other rusts, eg dwarf bean rust, barley mildew, 

scales and aphids under natural conditions 

overseas. See Annuals A 7. 


Cyst nematode (Heterodera trifolii) feeds on 

roots causing plants to be stunted. Roots are 

brown and branched with small white pinhead 

cysts which later brown (Minchinton et al. 1992). 

Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) 

may be damaging in some areas causing galls on 

roots. See Vegetables M 10. 

Others: Foliar nematode (Aphelenchus 

avenae), 

nainianus), 

pin nematode (Paratylenchus 

spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus 

spp., Rotylenchus brevicaudatus), also Filenchus 

exiguus, Macroposthonia rustica, Paratrichodorus, 

Scutellonema brachyurum, Tylenchorhynchus 

capitatus. 




Aphids are common and serious pests in some 

areas, causing unsightly flowers and distorted 

foliage (Fig. 27). Most aphids infesting carnations 

have a wide host range and many transmit virus 

diseases. See Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 


Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and native 

budworm (H. punctigera) are serious pests in warm 

humid areas (Fig. 28). Caterpillars feed inside 

flower buds and within flowers so that damage is 

often concealed; a small hole in the calyx may be the 

only indication of where the caterpillar has entered the 

bud. Petals must be parted to find the young 

caterpillar in the flower. 

Damage continues 

postharvest. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Other caterpillars may also infest flower buds and 

flowers. 


Mites (Acarina) 

Carnation shoot mite (Eriophyes paradianthi, 

Eriophyidae) lives between leaf bases and stems 

particularly of the lower portions of plants. They also 

feed under sepals. Plants become pale and 

sometimes stunted and distorted. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may be a 

serious pest in warm conditions infesting leaves 

causing them to appear bleached or silvery, older 

leaves may die (Fig. 27). Growth is severely retarded. 

See Annuals A 9, Beans (French) M 29. 

Thrips: Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) may be a 

serious pest of flowers during warm humid weather. 

Gladiolus thrips (Taeniothrips simplex) and onion 

thrips (Thrips tabaci) may also infest carnations. 

Thrips (Fig. 27) feed in developing buds (preventing 

normal opening of flowers), on flowers causing 

petals to silver (particularly red or crimson cultivars) 

or brown, and anthers which may brown and shrivel. 

They may also feed on young leaves. Egg-laying 

'shot-holes' may be seen on the young leaves. Thrips 

re-infest crops from nearby vegetation drying out in 

spring. Insecticide applications may be necessary. 

See Gladiolus C 31, Onion M 68, Roses J 6. 


Snails and slugs may eat young plants in wet 

weather. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Calyx splitting is serious and common 

and occurs when the calyx cannot grow enough to 

accommodate the expanding petals and is due to 

sudden and/or great fluctuations in temperature: 

Rapid falls in temperature (6 o C per hour) when the 

bud is about 3-6 mm diameter, resulting in a larger 

than usual number of petals. 

Long periods of low night temperatures (below 

10 o C) causing a large number of petals. 

Day temperatures of 6-9 o C above that of the 

previous day, 2-6 days after the calyx has begun to 

open. This occurs when petal numbers are already 

high. Low nitrogen and boron accentuate the problem 

but do not cause it. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Optimum temperatures for 

production are 12.5 o C (night) and 19 o C (day). 

Day temperatures > 21 o C reduce petal numbers 

providing less substantial flowers and stems. 

Resistant varieties: Some cultivars have a higher 

incidence of splits than others. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Most split 

flowers are marketed using calyx clips applied 

after picking and before bunching of blooms. 

Environment: 

Extremes in winter and 

summer temperatures reduce flower production 

and quality (see calyx splitting). High 

temperatures reduce flower and stem size. Frost 

or unseasonably low temperatures, damage leaves 

and flowers. Leaves may be twisted (Fig. 29). 

Near freezing temperatures (< 2 o C) cause circular 

white lesions on stems, leaf undersurfaces and on 

petals of coloured varieties, and pink to red lesions 

on petals of white varieties. Where temperatures 

are < 10 o C for long periods, large circular buds 

which fail to open ('bull-heads' or 'blindness') are 

more common. Although growth is normal, petals 

do not develop, buds do not open. Hail can cause 

severe losses. Rain and overhead irrigation 

increase disease. Wind may cause mechanical 

injury. Sim carnations break at the joints usually at 

the 2nd joint. 

Nutrient deficiency, toxicity: In 

commercial production deficiencies of nitrogen, 

phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and 

boron may occur. Leaf analyses standards are 

available (Salinger 1985). Boron deficiency is 

common, causing shortening and thickening of 

A 18 


CARNATION 

leaves, death of terminal buds and excessive shoot 

production high on stems. It is difficult to diagnose 

and a leaf analysis is required for confirmation. 

Calcium deficiency combined with direct sunlight 

is thought to cause tip burn of leaves of carnations 

propagated in glasshouses and watered with 

misters. Excess water may be supplied and some 

nutrients, particularly calcium, may be leached. 

Pesticide injury: Methyl bromide may 

cause bleaching of foliage in bands; young flower 

buds may be affected. Soil is usually aerated for 

7-10 days prior to planting but some plants, eg 

carnations, are sensitive to the small quantities 

which remain after 5 weeks or more. Retention is 

favoured by high soil moisture, clay content and 

organic matter. Leach fumigated beds well before 

planting and delay planting for at least 5 weeks; 

ensure good drainage. Methyl bromide is to be 

deregistered. Hypochlorite injury causes bleaching 

of leaf tips and new growth of cuttings. This may 

be due to being dipped in a solution which is too 

strong or for too long. Some cultivars, eg Gipsy, 

Diana and Chinesini are very susceptible. Plants 

usually recover. 


Bird, R. 1994. Border Pinks. Timber Press, Portland 

Oregon. 

Bodman, K and Hughes, I. K. 1985. Growing 

Carnations. Qld Dept. Primary Industries, Brisbane. 





Bonar, A. 1984. The Australian and New Zealand 

Gardener's Survival Manual. Doubleday, Sydney. 

Com. of Aust. 1991. Anther Smut of Carnations. Plant 

Quar. Leaflet No.74. Aust. Quar. and Inspection 

Service, Dept. Primary Industries and Energy. 



Hill, M., Rodoni, B. and Moran, J. 1992. Profit From 

Virus-free Carnations. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Hughes, S. 1991. Carnations and Pinks : The Complete 

Guide. The Crowood Press, Wiltshire, UK. 

Ibarbia, E. A. 1996. Fighting Fusarium. Greenhouse 

Grower, May. 





Minchinton, E., Giles, R. and Copes, C. 1992. Common 

Diseases, Pests and Disorders of Carnations in 

Australia. Dept. of Agric. and Rural Affairs, 

Melbourne. 

Moody, H. 1994. Reinventing the Flower. Aust Hort., 

Dec. 






Richardson, C. and Merriman, P. 1986. Fungal and 

Bacterial Diseases of Carnations. Agnote Vic., 

Melbourne. 






Strider, D. L. (ed.) 1985. Diseases of Floral Crops. Vol. 

1., Praeger Pub., NY. 

Trujillo, E. E. and Nagata, N. M. 1994. Bacterial Blight 

of Carnation caused by Pseudomonas woodsii and 

Susceptibility of Carnation Cultivars. Plant Disease, 

Jan. 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Diseases of Carnations 

Heliothis Caterpillars 

Prolonging the Vase-life of Carnations 

Vic Agnotes 

Fungal and Bacterial Diseases of Carnations 

Ornamental Horticulture Kit 

Pests of Carnations 

Propagation of Chrysanthemums/Carnations by Tissue 

Culture 

Virus Diseases of Carnations 


Flower Growers' Groups 

Flower Link 


GrowerTalks 


Victorian Farmers' Federation 


MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: There is a wide range of types, eg spray cultivars, standard. 

Resistant varieties: If a particular problem recurs, check to see if resistant cultivars are available. 

Disease-free planting material: Purchase and plant pathogen and virus-tested cuttings which are also 

free from other diseases, eg Fusarium wilt, which are carried in cuttings taken from diseased parent stock. 


Propagation: By cuttings, by tissue culture. 

Culture: Plant virus-tested cuttings in disease-free soil. Avoid planting areas where Fusarium or other 

soil-borne diseases are present. If this is unavoidable, media should be treated; plant in boxes. Plants are 

usually trellised. Plant cuttings at the depth grown in the nursery and in well drained soils with a pH of 6-7. 

Avoid overhead irrigation to reduce foliage and flower diseases. Fertilise as recommended. Carnations may 

also be grown in hydroponic systems. Cultivation temperatures that vary from the optimal shorten vase 

life, eg carnations grown at 25 o C have a shorter vase life than those grown at 20 o C. Avoid conditions 

favourable to calyx-splitting and major changes/fluctuations in temperature in greenhouses to reduce leaf 

drop and malformed flowers. Pinch (removal of terminal growth to encourage bushy plants) and disbud 

(removal of terminal and other buds depending on type to improve size and appearance) as recommended. 

Sanitation: Remove dead or dying leaves and buds as soon as they appear. 

Pesticides: Pesticides are registered for disease, pest and weed control. Control aphids to reduce reinfection 

and spread of virus diseases within plantings. Growth regulators are used for rooting cuttings. 

Pest management: Programs are available for some pests, eg twospotted mite. 


CARNATION 

Postharvest 

Harvest: When flowers of standard cultivars are almost fully open, or at 'paint brush' stage with half-open 

flowers. Harvest spray cultivars with 2 fully open flowers on the stem. After harvest grade flowers 

according to bud size and stem length and bunch according to prescribed standards. Tighter buds may 

be opened later with either preservative or bud opening solutions depending on the stage of development. 

As flowers are sensitive to ethylene, growers may treat flowers with anti-ethylene chemicals immediately 

after harvest to extend or double vase life. Avoid sunlight, draughts, keep flowers dry (Nowak and 

Rudnicki 1990). Avoid damaging flowers and maintain strict hygiene in the packing shed. See 

 

Postharvest N 62. A Melbourne-based company (Florigene ) has developed an Agrobacterium-mediated 

gene transfer system for inserting anti-ethylene genes into any carnation cultivar. This will extend vase 

life and reduce the need for anti-ethylene treatments to extend vase life and preservatives (Moody 1994). 

Storage/Transport: Flowers can be kept for short periods in a cool room in preservative and wrapped 

in plastic (Jones and Moody 1993). Overseas fully open flowers may be stored at 3-4 o C in preservative 

solution for up to 2 weeks, at paint brush stage store dry in moisture-retentive boxes at about 0 o C for 3-4 

weeks (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Buds may also be stored. 

Vase life: Recut stems and place in warm water with biocide for a few hours. Allow flowers to rehydrate 

for a few hours before putting in sugar solutions, eg floral preservative. Remove dying flowers and 

damaged buds regularly, remove foliage below the water line. Replace vase water regularly (Jones and 

Moody 1993). Salt concentrations of 200 ppm decreases vase life of carnations and chrysanthemums. 

Potted plants: Potted plants are ready for sale when flowers begin to open; plants require bright indirect 

light, a temperature of 18-20 o C and moderate watering (Larson 1992). 

Fig. 25. Tomato big bud phytoplasma 

(greening) on Dianthus sp. 

Fig. 27. Left : Aphids, commonly green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). 

Centre : Thrips (various species) feed on leaves, buds, flowers. 

Right : Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae). 

Fig. 28. Corn earworm 

(Helicoverpa armigera) 

feeds in buds and flowers. 

NSW Dept. of Agric. 

Fig. 26. Fungal leaf spots 

(several species of fungi). 

Fig. 29. Twisting of leaves caused by 

low temperatures. NSW Dept. of Agric. 

A 20 


China aster 

Callistephus chinensis 



Parasitic 



Damping off 

Fusarium wilt 

Grey mould 





Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Twospotted mite 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Virus diseases include tomato big bud 

mycoplasma (greening) and tomato spotted wilt 

virus. See Annuals A 4. 


Damping off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani) 

may cause seedlings to die before, or soon after 

emergence. Rhizoctonia attacks plants at ground 

level and they collapse as stem tissue is destroyed. 

Pythium invades the young shoots, so that all 

below ground parts are rotted and the seedlings 

wilt and die. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

callistephi) is the most important disease causing 

losses as high as 20-30%. Young plants collapse 

and die. Older plants are stunted and wilt, older 

leaves yellow, stems are brown or black. The 

water conducting tissues of the stem and root are 

discoloured well in advance of obvious damage. 


Grey mould, petal blight (Botrytis cinerea) is 

usually only a minor marketing problem. Petals, 

flowers or stems may be attacked. The tissue is 

at first watersoaked but later develops a grey 

mould over the surface. If stems are attacked, they 

wilt and older leaves yellow. If plants rot at 

ground level, they fall over. See Greenhouses N 

22. 


Phytophthora root rots (Phytophthora cryptogea, 

P. nicotiana var. parasitica) 

Rhizoctonia rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 




Others: White blister rust (Albugo 

tragopogonis) may affect China aster but is 

uncommon. See Gerbera A 37. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) may 

cause small galls on roots. See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may infest new 

shoots. See Roses J 4. 


Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) are the most 

important insect pests affecting China asters. 

Eggs are laid on flower buds and the caterpillars feed 

inside the flowers. Caterpillar faecal pellets discolour 

blooms and petals may fall. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Leafrolling moths (Tortricidae) caterpillars also 

damage flowers but usually feed on terminals and 

leaves. Leaves are rolled and webbed. See Pome 

fruits F 112. 


Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) and 

other spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) may damage 

leaves. They can breed rapidly and their feeding 

causes silvering and russetting of the leaves which 

is followed by unthriftiness and leaf fall. See 

Beans (French) M 29. 


Snails and slugs may feed on China aster. See 

Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Temperature: Flowers, foliage 

and stems may be damaged by frost. Flowers are 

also damaged by night temperatures in summer 

> 23 o C which reduce stem strength and flower 

size. When 23 o C is exceeded the neck of the 

flower stretches and the flower often bends at the 

neck after picking. Irrigation is essential to 

produce flowers of marketable quality. Well 

drained soils prevent serious soilborne diseases. A 

suitable pH is within the range of 5.5-6.5 (medium 

acid) (McKay et al. 1984). 









CHINA ASTER 



McKay, M. E., Nahrung, G. C. and Hughes, I. K. 1984. 

Growing Asters. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 






MANAGEMENT 



Sacalis, J. N. 1993. Cut Flowers : Prolonging 

Freshness. Postproduction Care & Handling. 2nd 

edn. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinois. 




Selection 

Horticultural requirements: China aster is an annual and not suitable for very cold climates. Select 

cultivars with firm petals and separate colours. 

Resistant varieties: Cultivars vary in their resistance to Fusarium wilt. 

Disease-free planting material: Seed is generally disease-free. 




Propagation: By seed which must be of good quality and stored correctly (McKay et al. 1984). 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops to prevent a build up of soilborne diseases. Prepare ground early to 

facilitate the breakdown of organic matter. It may be necessary to pre-plant pasteurise the seedling mix, 

fumigate soil or use fungicides to control soil diseases. Choose a sunny position, sandy loam with organic 

matter with good drainage. Mulch to decrease water loss and to keep roots cool. Water and fertilise regularly. 

Asters can be flowered the year round when the night temperature can be kept at 10 o C (Larson 1992). 

Pinching is not essential to obtain good quality flowers. The decision on whether or not to pinch a crop 

depends on the daylength and temperature under which the crop is being grown and on when the crop is to be 

marketed. China asters are usually trellised. Avoid injury to roots during weed control. 

Sanitation: Isolate infected plants and practise nursery hygiene. See Nurseries N 51. Ensure that water 

supply is free from possible waterborne diseases. 

Pesticides: Pesticides are registered for various diseases, pests and weeds. Growth regulators are used 

to control flower promotion and height. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Fully open flowers with unblemished petals, otherwise they will not develop properly even in opening 

solution, or development will be prolonged and eventual flower quality poor (Nowak and Rudnicki 1991). 

Leaves are usually stripped off the lower 1/3 to 1/2 of the stem and placed in water with floral preservative 

preferably in a cool room at 5-8 o C to remove field heat. Avoid injury to flower heads by appropriate packaging 

(McKay et al. 1984). 

Storage: Usually in clean water containing preservative (no sugar) at 1 o C at high relative humidity (Jones and 

Moody 1993). Fully open flowers may be stored at 0-4 o C for 1-2 weeks in water with floral preservatives, prior 

to shipment and sale. Flowers should be conditioned for 15-20 hours at room temperature in special solutions. 

Flowers should be transported in water at 4-5 o C (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Vase life: Recut stems under water to prevent air from entering water vessels in the stems and remove all 

leaves below the water line. Place stem ends in shallow water (30-100 mm) to minimise decay (submerged 

parts of the stem decay faster than upper parts). Every 1-2 days recut stem ends 20-30 mm from the bottom 

and replace vase water with fresh water with floral preservative, preferably at room temperature (Nowak and 

Rudnicki 1990). Avoid direct sunlight, drafts and sugar. 

A 22 


Chrysanthemum 

Florists' chrysanthemum 

Chrysanthemum x morifolium 

= Chrysanthemum sinense 

= Dendranthema x morifolium 

Family Asteraceae 


Parasitic 




Damping off 


Grey mould 


Ray blight 

Ray speck 


Rusts 

Wilts 




Aphids 

Caterpillars, 

Chrysanthemum gall midge 

Leafminers 

Mites 

Thrips 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Nutrient deficiencies, excesses 



Parasitic 


Many virus diseases may affect chrysanthemum 

and can be difficult to identify. Symptoms may not 

be expressed (latent viruses), may only be expressed 

after the first year of infection, or may only occur on 

some cultivars. Most viruses which infect 

chrysanthemum can only infect chrysanthemum, but 

others, eg tomato spotted wilt virus, can attack a wide 

range of herbaceous plants, vegetables, field crops, 

weeds. All virus diseases affecting chrysanthemum 

are spread by vegetative propagation from infected 

plants, some are also spread by insects, eg aphids and 

thrips, and/or by sap. 

Chrysanthemum virus B (CVB):Mildleaf mottling, 

brown streaks on florets. CVB is also spread by 

aphids, eg potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), 

foxglove aphid (Aulacorthum solani), chrysanthemum 

aphid (Macrosiphoniella sanborni), by mechanical 

inoculation, not by contact between plants,not by seed. 

Chrysanthemum stunt viroid (CSV): On 

susceptible cultivars plants may be stunted, flower 

earlier; flowers may be small, distorted and 

bleached; leaves may have white spots (measles). 

CSV is also spread in sap from infected plants 

coming in contact with healthy plants via root or leaf 

contact. Sap may also be carried on tools, hands and 

workers' clothes. Where CSV is a problem, virustested 

planting material should be planted in treated 

soil or in soil where chrysanthemums have not been 

grown before. 

Tomato aspermy virus (TAV) causes stunting of 

plants, flower breaking and distortion. TAV is 

also spread by aphids. 

Tomato spotted wilt virus(TSWV) causes faint 

mottling, ring and line patterns, brown areas between 

leaf veins and vein yellowing. In some cultivars 

flowers are of poor quality and distorted. TSWV is 

also spread by onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) and other 

thrips species. See Tomato M 96. 

Others: Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle viroid, 

chrysanthemum vein mottle, tomato big bud 

mycoplasma. See Annuals A 1 (Fig. 2). Overseas 

many more viruses may affect chrysanthemum. 



Bacterial blight (Erwinia chrysanthemi) may rot 

leaves, stems. Also bacterial leaf spot 

(Pseudomonas cichorii) and crown gall (Agrobacterium 

tumefaciens). 



may kill cuttings and younger plants. Pythium 

causes a wet rot of roots and lower stems. 

Rhizoctonia solani attacks the stem at ground level 

causing a dry rot. Propagate from tip cuttings that 

have no contact with soil. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots (Septoria spp). Dark 

brown spots (10-20 mm in diameter) develop on 

leaves (Fig. 30). These are usually circular at first, 

but may extend to involve all or a large part of the 

leaf. Small, black spots which are the fruiting 

bodies (pycnidia) of the fungus which produce the 

spores, appear on the dead areas. Younger leaves 

are infected as soon they emerge; spots often 

develop on leaf edges. Losses can be common and 

serious. Ray blight (Mycosphaerella ligulicola) 

may also cause leaf spots. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may occur in 

greenhouses or after other diseases or bruising 

outdoors. A grey furry fungal growth develops on 

affected areas during cool moist weather. See 

Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) mainly 

occurs on greenhouse or neglected crops. Leaves, 

flower buds and young stems become covered 

with a whitish, ash-grey, powdery growth. Leaves 

may be deformed or stunted and foliage sunburnt. 

Affected foliage withers. See Annuals A 6. 

Ray blight (Mycosphaerella ligulicola) may 

affect chrysanthemums causing economic loss. 

Petals develop small pink spots which spread 

causing petals to brown and rot. Infection usually 

starts on one side of blooms but may later spread 

to all florets. Flowers apparently healthy when 

harvested may be unfit for sale when they reach 

the market. Leaf spots are large irregular, dark 

and often zoned, but usually only a few develop. 


CHRYSANTHEMUM 

The fungus overwinters in infected plants and 

plant debris and is spread by wind-blown spores 

and by propagation from infected plants. 

Favoured by warm, humid weather, rain followed 

by warm conditions and an early autumn. Cultural 

methods: Avoid excessive moisture and nitrogen 

fertilisers which encourage lush vegetative growth 

which is difficult to spray. Sanitation: Cut off and 

burn all diseased flower stalks. Destroy diseased 

crops and debris immediately after harvest. 

Disease-free planting material: Do not take 

cuttings from infected plants, otherwise remove all 

but youngest leaves. Pesticides: If ray blight is a 

problem, fungicides may be applied to flower 

buds, leaves and stems. Use a wetting agent. 

Ray speck (Alternaria spp., Stemphylium 

sp.) cause tiny dark spots on petals, flowers look 

as if covered with dust (Bodman et al. 1996). 

Root and stem rots are not usually of 

economic importance. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora sp.) 

Pythium stem rot (Pythium spp.) 




See Annuals A 6, Vegetable M 7. 

Rusts (Uredinales, Basidiomycetes) 

Rust (Puccinia chrysanthemi)iscommon, serious and 

affects leaves, stems and branches. Initially, 

light-coloured raised spots develop mainly on leaf 

undersurfaces which later break open and shed dark 

dusty spores. Leaves may wither prematurely, 

reducing plant vigour. Disease is favoured by 

crowded cutting beds and moist weather in early 

autumn. See Annuals A 7. 

White rust (Puccinia horiana) may cause complete 

crop loss. Overseas, two strains of the fungus (83 

and 84) exist, the situation in Australia is not yet 

known. Pustules develop mainly on leaves but may 

also develop on bracts and stems. Leaves become 

susceptible with age. Initially pale green to yellow 

spots develop on leaf uppersurfaces, centres turn 

brown. On leaf undersurfaces, raised, pinkish, 

waxy pustules develop (Fig. 31), these become 

whitish and prominent (these white pustules on the 

undersides of leaves distinguish white rust from P. 

chrysanthemi). Under humid conditions leaves may 

wither before many pustules are present. 

Occasionally pustules develop on both surfaces of 

petals, flowers brown and dry at tips. Spores are 

spread by wind (up to 700 m). Optimum temperature 

for spore dispersal and infection is 17 o C in spring and 

autumn. High relative humidity and a film of water 

on the leaf surface are required for sporidia to 

germinate on the leaf, infected leaves display 

symptoms 7-10 days after infection. Sanitation: 

Remove old unwanted crops and all crop debris, 

control weeds to reduce crop humidity. Resistant 

varieties: Most cultivars of florists' chrysanthemum 

(C. sinense) are susceptible, but they vary in 

susceptibility. Accent, Dark Lapana, Lipoma, Purple 

Bounty, Resilient and Smiles are resistant to race 84. 

Beatrix is resistant to race 83. Bright Eye, Jane 

Rowe, Neil Zwager and Rosita to races 83 and 84. 

Other susceptible species include C. indicum, 

C. japonese, C. makinoi, C. makinoi var. wakasaense, 

C morifolium var. sinsense, C.shiwogiku, C. shiwogiku 

var. kinokuniense, C. yezoense, C. koreanum. 

Resistant species include the annual 

chrysanthemum (C. carinatum), shasta daisy (C. 

maximum), garden pyrethrum (C. coccineum) (Com. 

of Aust. 1984). Plant quarantine: Attempts to 

eradicate white rust in Australia have been 

unsuccessful and its quarantine status is under review. 

Fungicides may be applied to the foliage of affected 

plants at the first sign of disease. Myclobutanil is 

being researched as a dip for chrysanthemum cuttings 

prior to planting (Bonde et al. 1995). 


Wilts 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) may occur in 

warm areas but is of minor importance. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) causes plants to 

become stunted. Lower leaves develop a pinkish or 

purplish tinge, wither and hang limply against the 

stem, younger leaves are yellower than normal. 

Eventually plants wilt. If the stem above ground level 

is scraped, wood is brown. Purchase Verticilliumfree 

plants and plant in Verticillium-free soil or in 

infested soil which has been treated prior to planting. 

Otherwise propagate only from healthy plants in beds 

that are wilt-free and not adjacent to diseased plants 

and plant in Verticillium-free soil. Verticillium-free 

cuttings can also be obtained by taking tip cuttings 

from shoots 300-450 mm high (the fungus does not 

extend up the stem right to the tip) and discarding any 

infected cuttings as soon as infection is evident. 



Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides ritzembosi) 

damages leaves and flowers. Initially, leaf spots 

form which later may become triangular and bordered 

by veins (Fig. 32). Disease progresses from lower 

leaves upwards and in a severe attack, leaves may 

hang withered against the stem. Infested flowers 

become brown and decayed often only on one side. 

Prune out and destroy infested leaves and stems and 

other affected portions of plants. Varieties vary in 

resistance. Avoid propagating from infected 

plants. If this is unavoidable, then either take tip 

cuttings from the tops of long vigorous shoots or treat 

infected setts in hot water (some plant damage may 

occur). Keep infested plants separate from healthy 

ones. Treated setts and tip cuttings must be planted in 

nematode-free soil. As soon as leaf spots appear 

on susceptible cultivars, apply a nematicide to the 

foliage, repeat applications may be necessary in wet 

weather. Prune out affected parts before spraying. 

See Ferns E 2. 

Others: Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne 

spp.), root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), 

spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus sp., Rotylenchus 

reniformis), Basiria graminophila, Paratrichodorus 

sp., Paratylenchus nainianus. See Vegetables M 10. 



Chrysanthemum aphid (Macrosiphoniella sanborni) 

Pale chrysanthemum aphid (Coloradoa rufomaculata) 

A 24 


CHRYSANTHEMUM 

Cotton aphid, melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) 


Leafcurl plum aphid (Brachycaudus helichrysi) 

Foxglove aphid (Aulacorthum solani) 

Aphids are major pests (Fig. 33), they distort new 

foliage and spread virus diseases. See Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) may be pests of 

the foliage and flowers in warm, moist conditions. 

Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) feed on petals of 

buds and flowers causing serious losses often 

without proper identification. Leafrolling moths 

(Tortricidae), eg lucerne leafroller (Merophyas 

divulsana) and other species. Others: Cabbage 

white butterfly (Pieris rapae), cutworms 

(Noctuidae), looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis 

spp.), woollybear caterpillar (Spilosoma glatignyi). 



Scientific name: Cecidomyiidae, Diptera: 

Chrysanthemum gall midge (Rhopalomyia 

chrysanthemi) 

Host range: Chrysanthemum (occasional pest). 

Description and damage: Flies are frail, 

small, long-legged, orange and about 1-2 mm long. 

Tiny maggots feed inside plant tissue causing 

small, ugly thorny galls on leaves and stems (Fig. 

34). Foliage may be distorted and unmarketable. 


maggot, pupa, adult) with many generations each 

year. Females lay eggs on new foliage. Eggs 

hatch in 3-4 days and maggots enter leaves and 

other tissue, galls develop, when mature the 

maggots pupate in the gall. After flies emerge, the 

empty pupal skin protrudes from the gall. 

Overwintering: Infested leaves, stems, debris. 

Spread: By adults flying, propagation from 

infested plants, and introduction of infested plants. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, moist conditions 

especially greenhouse chrysanthemums. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy (burn/deep bury) 

all infested foliage and severely infested plants. 

Resistant varieties: Florist's chrysanthemum 

(Chrysanthemum x morifolium) is susceptible. 

Cultivars with light green foliage are reputed to 

be more susceptible. 

Plant quarantine: New plants should be carefully 

inspected, infested plants should be destroyed. 

Disease-free planting material: Do not propagate 

from infested plants. 

Pesticides: Maggots inside leaves are difficult to 

kill so insecticide treatments are aimed at 

killing adult midges. In a home garden situation, 

spraying is not usually necessary and sanitation 

will provide satisfactory control. 

Leafminers (Diptera) 

Cineraria leafminer (Chromatomyia syngenesiae) 

maggots tunnel between upper and lower leaf 

surfaces during cool weather in late winter and 

spring (Fig. 35). Flower crops may not be affected. 

Occasional infested shoots may be pruned off and 

destroyed. Very susceptible varieties include 

Marguerite daisies (Chrysanthemum frutescens) and 

shasta daisy (C. maximum). See Cineraria A 28. 

Other fly leafminers infesting chrysanthemums and 

related plants overseas have the potential to cause 

multi-million dollar crops losses in the flower and 

vegetable industries (Com. of Aust. 1996). 



malformations of growing tips, young leaves. See 



damage as broad mite. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Earth mites (Penthalidae) may suck sap from leaves 

near the ground during winter. See Vegetables M 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) can be 

damage leaves in hot dry conditions. See Annuals 

A 9, Beans (French) M 29. 


Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) and other species are 

very small, fast-moving insects which cause streaking 

and browning of petals. Dark excreta produced by 

thrips on light coloured blooms causes disfigurement. 


Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) 

causes leaf silvering. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: European earwig (Forficula 

auricularia) may damage petals. Also greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), flower 

beetles (Protaetia spp.), leaf hoppers (Cicadellidae), 

mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost will damage flowers. 

Low temperatures may cause leaves of some 

varieties to become pinkish. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: It may 

be difficult to recognise deficiencies; effects often 

depend on the stage of plant growth and are usually 

due to a shortage of a particular element and not to 

its complete absence. Common deficiencies 

include iron (interveinal yellowing of the new 

leaves), magnesium (interveinal yellowing of the 

older leaves), nitrogen (slow growth, stunted 

growth and pale leaves), and potassium (thin 

shoots and dead or yellow margins of older 

leaves). Salt toxicity and excess fertiliser may 

be harmful. Deficiencies and toxicities are mainly 

found in container-grown chrysanthemums. 

Pesticide injury to flowers is common and is 

favoured by high temperatures; if foliage and 

flowers remain wet for extended periods after 

application, during moisture stress; using 

incompatible pesticides and exceeding 

recommended rates for wetting agents and 

pesticides. Emulsifiable concentrates are more 

phytotoxic than wettable powders which may leave 

visible residues on flowers and foliage. Hormone 

herbicides may distort new growth and cup 

leaves. 


CHRYSANTHEMUM 


American Phytopathological Soc. 1981. Chrysanthemum 

Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 

Anon. 1996. A Change to CWR Quarantine Status. Aust. 

Hort., June. 

Casida, J. E. and Quistad, G. B. (eds). 1995. Pyrethrum 

Flowers : Production, Chemistry, Toxicology and 

Uses. Oxford University Press, NY. 


of Primary Indust. and Energy, Plant Quar. leaflets. 

Leafminers of Chrysanthemums. No. 39. 1996. 

White Rust of Chrysanthemum. No. 20. 1984. 

Bodman, K. G., Hughes. I. K. and Lacy, S. A. 1985. 

Growing Chrysanthemums. Qld Dept. of Primary 






Bonde, M. R., Peterson, G. L., Rizvi, S. A. and 

Smilanick, J. L. 1995. Myclobutanil as a Curative 

Agent for Chrysanthemum White Rust. Plant 

Disease, Vol.79(5). 





Langevin, D. 1992. The Growing and Marketing of Fall 

Mums. Annedawn Pub., Norton, MA, USA. 



Locke, B. 1990. Chrysanthemum : The Complete Guide. 

Crowood Press, London. 


That? rev. edn. Lansdowne, Sydney. 






Randall, H. and Wren, A. 1983. Growing 

Chrysanthemums. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 



Skeen, J. P. 1984. Growing Chrysanthemums. Kangaroo 

Press, Kenthurst, NSW. 




Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Cineraria leafminer (Insect Pest Bull. 87, 1976) 

Diseases of Chrysanthemum 

Tas Service Sheets 

White Rust of Chrysanthemum and its Control 

Vic Agnotes 

Application of Fungicides for Control of Chrysanthemum 

White Rust 

Chrysanthemums All Year Round 

Chrysanthemum Foliar Nematode 

Chrysanthemums for Cut Flowers 

Chrysanthemum Stunt 

Control of White Rust of Chrysanthemums 

Fungal Diseases of Chrysanthemum in Victoria 

Pests of Chrysanthemums 

Potted Chrysanthemums 

Propagation of Chrysanthemums/Carnations by Tissue 

Culture 

Virus Diseases of Chrysanthemum 

White Rust of Chrysanthemums 


Flower Link 


National Chrysanthemum Soc. (Handbook on 

Chrysanthemum Classification) 

State/Territory Horticultural/Flower Socs. 




MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural varieties: Perennial florists' chrysanthemum is the most widely grown type of chrysanthemum; 

there are many different cultivars. 

Resistant varieties: Where problems occur, consider using resistant varieties, eg white rust, ray blight. 

Diagnose any problem correctly. Salinger (1985) has prepared a key to assist with the diagnosis of disorders. 

Plant quarantine: Many diseases of chrysanthemum are not yet present in Australia. 

Disease-free planting material: Purchase pathogen and virus-tested chrysanthemums (high health, 

elite planting material) from reputable suppliers or propagate only from disease and pest-free plants. As many 

pests and diseases are introduced on cuttings, inspect all planting material for white rust, gall midge and other 

pests and diseases. Tip cutting should have no contact with soil. 


Propagation: By cuttings or tissue culture. Named varieties must be propagated by root divisions, cuttings or 

tissue culture. When taking cuttings remove all but the younger healthy leaves; older leaves are more likely to 

carry symptomless disease (leaf spots, ray blight, rust). Also by seed. 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops to avoid build up of inoculum. Do not plant clean stock in contaminated 

areas or soil. Plant in well drained soil (pH 6.2-6.7). Do not plant cuttings too deeply and avoid excess 

fertiliser. Irrigate well but avoid wetting foliage for long periods, water in the morning to reduce foliage 

diseases. Provide shade in hot climates and protect from wind, rain and frost, choose an open sunny position 

unless the climate is very hot. The habit of growth is determined by the number of flower stems and the size 

and quality of the flowers. Stopping or pinching (removal of the growth tip) promotes the development of 

3-4 lateral stems and disbudding (removal of buds) influences the size and quality of flowers. Support flowerbearing 

stems to prevent them bending under the weight of the flowers. Avoid excess nitrogen as lush 

growth is difficult to spray. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy residues from previous crops to make leaf and flower diseases and insect 

pests, eg gall midge, less likely. Even a few small infected plants are a source of infection. Practice nursery 

hygiene. Remove and destroy severely diseased plants in otherwise healthy crops. See Nurseries N 51. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Pasteurise soil for cutting beds before planting or treat in some 

manner to ensure that residues from previous crops are destroyed. 

Pesticides: Growth regulators are used to promote flowering and dwarf plants. Where necessary protect 

foliage from fungal diseases and insect pests with pesticides. It is recommended that a comprehensive 

disease and pest control program be prepared. Monitor diseases and pests regularly. 

A 26 


CHRYSANTHEMUM 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Harvest standard cultivars when outer petals are fully elongated, others at different stages (Jones 

and Moody 1993, Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). There are US guidelines for harvesting standards, sprays, 

singles, pompoms, decoratives. Remove the hard and woody base which hinders water uptake (100 mm 

above the base). They can also be picked tight, transported or stored and opened with correct opening 

solution (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Storage/Transported: Before prolonged storage and transport, flowers must be protected against grey 

mould and conditioned. Overseas flowers may be held in moisture retentive boxes at -0.5-0 o C (Nowak and 

Rudnicki 1990). To revive flowers slightly wilted after transport, stems may be placed in warm water for 60 

seconds (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Vase life: Choose clean undamaged flowers and foliage, remove foliage that would be below the water and 

woody basal part of stem, use a floral preservative. Recut stems under water (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Potted plants for direct sale are ready when coloured flowers begin to appear. If plants are to be transported 

for 1-2 days and kept at low light levels then do so when 3/4 of the flowers are fully developed. During 

storage, potted plants require bright indirect light, at temperatures of 8-12 o C, flowers preserve a fresh 

appearance for a long time (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Fig. 30. Fungal leaf spots (Septoria spp.). 

Fig. 31. White rust pustules (Puccinia 

horiana) on leaf undersurfaces. Min. of Agric., 

NZ. 

Fig, 32. Foliar nematode damage 

(Aphelenchoides ritzembosi). 

Fig. 33. Many species of 

aphids (Aphididae) infest 

new chrysanthemum growth 

and spread virus diseases. 

Fig. 34. Chrysanthemum gall midge 

damage (Rhopalomyia chrysanthemi) 

Fig. 35. Cineraria leafminer damage 

(Chromatomyia syngenesiae). 


Cineraria 

Senecio hybrida 



Parasitic 




Damping off 


Grey mould 


Root and stem rots, wilts 

Rust 

White blister rust 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Cineraria leafminer 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Virus diseases recorded on cineraria include 

cucumber mosaic virus and tomato spotted wilt 

virus. See Annuals A 4. 


Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum). See 

Vegetables M 6, Tomato M 98. 


Damping off (Pythium spp.). See Seedlings 

N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria 

Cercospora sp.). See Annuals A 5. 

cinerariae, 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may affect 

young plants grown under high humidity and low 

light intensity. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may attack 

leaves, stems and flower buds covering them 

with a whitish, powdery growth causing stunting. 



Fusarium (Fusarium spp.) 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) 


Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) 


Rust (Puccinia lagenophorae) may attack many 

native and exotic Asteraceae including cineraria. 

Pale yellow-green spots develop on leaves, stems 

and flower stalks during warm humid weather. 

See Annuals A 7, Calendula A 15 (Fig. 22). 

White blister rust (Albugo tragopogonis) 

occurs on cineraria, other Senecio spp. and other 

Asteraceae. Light yellow areas develop on leaves; 

later dome-like swellings burst to expose white 

chalky spores. Foliage may die. See Gerbera A 37. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and 

root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus sp.) have 

occurred on Senecio spp.). See Vegetables M 10. 



Cotton, melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) 


Leafcurl plum aphid (Brachycaudus helichrysi) is 

pale to dark green or reddish brown. 


Aphids may feed on new shoots. See Roses J 4. 


Cineraria moth, senecio moth, magpie moth 

(Nyctemera amica, Arctiidae) caterpillars feed openly 

during the day on cinerarias (Senecio spp.) and 

groundsels (Senecio spp.). They are 20-30 mm long, 

hairy black with 2 tufts of hair projecting from the 

head, with orange or occasionally blue stripes along 

its back. They pupate on foliage in thin loosely woven 

cocoons incorporating body hairs (Common 1990). 

Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) may feed on 

foliage of cineraria and many other plants. See 




Scientific name: Agromyzidae, Diptera: 


Host range: Asteraceae, ornamentals, eg 

chrysanthemum, cineraria, everlastings (Helichrysum), 

gazania, nasturtium, vegetables, eg lettuce, weeds, 

eg sow or milk thistle, cape weed, prickly lettuce. 

Description and damage: Flies are grey, 3 mm 

long and walk over leaves of hosts during winter 

and spring. Larvae or maggots are creamy-white 

and about 4-5 mm long when fully-grown. Pupae 

are elongate, about 2.5 mm long and can be seen 

through the epidermis on leaf undersurfaces. A 

single leaf may contain several pupae. Maggots 

tunnel between upper and lower leaf surfaces. 

Initially mines appear as pale, narrow, thread-like 

lines but as the maggots grow, mines become more 

conspicuous and may reach 1.5 mm in diameter 

(Fig. 36). In heavily infested cinerarias, growth 

may be retarded or plants may die after most of the 

leaves are destroyed. Foliage is spoilt. 

A 28 



maggot, pupa, adult) with several generations each 

season. Female flies lay eggs within the leaf 

tissues and puncture marks or 'stings' may be seen 

as small scars on the surface. Eggs hatch in about 

4-5 days and the tiny maggots feed between the 

upper and lower epidermis. When fully grown, 

they pupate within the leaf. Adults emerge 10 

days later. The life cycle is completed in 3-4 

weeks. 

Overwintering: On host plants, pupae may be 

seen in the tunnels on the undersurface of the leaf. 

Spread: By adults flying, propagation (cuttings 

etc) from infested plants and the movement of 

infested plants and plant parts. 

Conditions favouring: Cool humid weather 

during late winter, spring and early autumn. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Occasional shoots which are infested 

may be pruned off and burnt. All prunings from 

infested plants should be destroyed/burnt. 

Biological control: Overseas, parasitic wasps 

may control cineraria leafminer on 

chrysanthemum. 


Disease-free planting material: Avoid taking 

cuttings from infested plants. If unavoidable, 

select ones which are apparently damage-free. 

Pesticides: If damage in previous years was 

severe on susceptible varieties, systemic 

insecticides may be applied as soon as mines 

appear in late winter and early spring. Repeat 

applications may be necessary if larvae are still 

active and further infestations occur, ie in late 

winter and early spring if weather is cool and 

wet. If pupae can be seen when held up to the 

light it is too late to spray. If non-systemic 

insecticides are used, spray both sides of leaves 

thoroughly. 



MANAGEMENT 

CINERARIA 

Others: European earwig (Forficula auricularia), 

greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), 

twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae). 


Various species may damage leaves and stems 

of cinerarias. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Cinerarias may be damaged by 

frost or strong sun and require abundant water 

and high humidity because their large leaves 

accelerate water loss and wilting, but avoid 

overwatering. Winds which are drying accelerate 

water loss. Plants are sensitive to direct drafts. 




Coupar, P. and M. 1992. Butterflies and Moths of 

Australia. NSW University Press, Sydney. 













Industry eg 

Cineraria Leafminer (NSW Insect Pest Bull. 87, 1976) 

Rust of Calendula, Cineraria and English Daisy 

(NSW Agfact) 


Cinerarias can be grown in the open or in pots for moving indoors when flowering starts. There are many 

different types, eg tall and dwarf, compact dwarf types are suited for pots. Propagation: By sowing diseasefree 

seed in late summer and autumn for flowering in late winter and early spring. Some diseases, eg Fusarium 

sp., may be seedborne. Cinerarias are not suitable for very hot or very cold climates. They prefer semishade 

and can be grown in shady sites in the open garden and in greenhouses. It may be necessary to apply 

insecticides to control aphids and cineraria leafminer. Potted plants are sold when 1/4 to 1/3rd flowers are 

open. Do not market flowers with yellow pollen showing (they are too old). Cineraria is very sensitive to grey 

mould (plants may need to be sprayed prior to sale) and has low sensitivity to ethylene. During 

storage/transport keep at a cool temperature of 10-12 o C. At higher temperatures they are short-lived, flower 

buds develop faster, senescence is accelerated and plants lose their decorative value. Store or transport a 

maximum of 3 days in darkness at 5 o C and relative humidity of 90%. Plants grow at low temperatures 

(12- 17 o C) and may be used to decorate relatively cool areas, eg halls (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Fig. 36. Mines or tunnels in leaves made by the larvae (maggots) of 

the cineraria leafminer (Chromatomyia syngenesiae). Left : Cineraria. 

Dept. of Agric., NSW. Right : Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus). 


Delphinium 

Larkspur 

Delphinium grandiflorum 

Family Ranunculaceae (crowfoot family) 


Parasitic 



Bacterial leaf spot, black leaf spot 


Fungal leaf and stem spots 





Aphids 

Mites 


Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 

Rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 


See Annuals A 5, A 6, Vegetables M 7. 


Root knot (Meloidogyne sp.) has been recorded on 

Delphinium cultorum. See Annuals A 7. 


Aphids (Aphididae): Green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae) may infest shoots. See Roses J 4. 

Mites (Acarina): Twospotted mite (Tetranychus 

urticae) may cause whitish leaf speckling. Broad 

mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) and cyclamen 

mite (Phytonemus pallidus) may also infest 

delphinium. See Annuals A 9. 

Others: Caterpillars (Lepidoptera), leafhoppers 

(Cicadellidae), root mealybug (Rhizoecus falcifer). 


Cucumber mosaic virus, tomato spotted wilt virus 

and tomato big bud mycoplasma (greening). See 

Annuals A 4. 


Protect delphiniums from snails and slugs in 

spring. See Seedlings N 70. 


Bacterial leaf spot, black leaf spot 

(Pseudomonas syringae pv. delphinii) is a minor 

disease. On leaf uppersurfaces spots are black, 

shiny and irregular in shape and size; on leaf 

undersurfaces they are brown. Symptoms also 

occur on stems, leaf stalks and flowers. They 

begin on lower parts of plants. See Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf and stem spots 

Anthracnose, stem canker (Colletotrichum acutatum) 

Fungal leaf spot, crown rot (Diplodina delphinii) 

See Annuals A 5 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) affects leaves. 




Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) 


Non-parasitic 

Seedlings are frost sensitive, established plants are 

tolerant. Tall varieties need staking and/or wind 

protection. Delphiniums contain poisonous 

substances (Frohne and Pfander 1983). 


Edwards, C. 1981. Delphiniums : The Complete Guide. 

J. M. Dent, London. 

















MANAGEMENT 


Delphinium is a tall, stately and hardy perennial flower. It is best treated as an annual but in cold climates plants 

will last for several years if summers are mild. They prefer an open sunny position and well drained fertile soil. 

Propagated by seed, cuttings or by division. Harvest cut flowers for direct sale when florets are 

1/2 open. Growers may treat flowers with an anti-ethylene agent as they are sensitive to ethylene and florets 

drop easily or 'shatter'. Keep flowers cool (Jones and Moody 1993). Flowers may be stored in preservative 

solution for 1-3 days in water. Spikes must be transported in an upright position as they bend upwards 

(geotropism) when kept horizontal (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Cut stems underwater and add a preservative. 

A 30 


Everlastings 

Native daisies, paper daisies, strawflowers 

Helichrysum bracteatum (Bracteantha bracteata) 



Parasitic 



Damping off, root and stem rots 

Downy mildew 


Rust 




Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 


Fruit-tree borer 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Tomato big bud mycoplasma (greening) affects 

Helichrysum spp. (Fig. 37). See Annuals A 4, Tomato 

M 97. 


Damping off, root and stem rots: 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi) 

on H. diotrophyllum and H. obcordatum, and 

P. cryptogea on H. bracteatum and H. diosmifolium. 

Also sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), 

fusarium wilt (Fusarium), verticillium wilt 

(Verticillium). See Annuals A 6, Seedlings N 66, 

Vegetables M 6, M 7. 

Downy mildew (Bremia lactucae) may damage 

leaves of H. bracteatum. See Annuals A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) may also occur 

on leaves of Helichrysum spp. See Annuals A 6. 

Rust (Puccinia lagenophorae) may occur on 

Helichrysum leaves in bush areas. See Annuals A 7, 

Cineraria A 28. 


causes soft white rust-like pustules to develop on 

leaves. See Cineraria A 28, Gerbera A 37. 


Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) infest 

Helichrysum sp. and root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne hapla) occurs on H. bracteatum. Root 

knot may limit production of Ozothamnus diosmifolis 

(Boucher 1995). See Vegetables M 10. 




Bugs (Hemiptera): Crusader bug (Mictis 

profana) and Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) 

may suck sap from succulent new growth. See 



Australian painted lady (Vanessa kershawi, 

Nymphalidae) caterpillars feed on Asteraceae, 

ornamentals, eg everlastings (Helichrysum spp.), 

Helipterum roseum, Artemisia, cudweed, lavender and 

weeds, eg Ammobium alatum, capeweed, Scotch 

thistle. Between late August and early November a 

great southerly migration often takes place along the 

east coast of Australia from south Qld. Mature 

caterpillars are 20-30 mm long, usually brown but 

sometimes yellowish green. They feed at night and 

shelter during the day (young caterpillars in curled 

leaves of the food plant and older caterpillars 

beneath the food plant or near the ground (Common 

and Waterhouse 1981). 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae) include caterpillars of 

Tebenna micalis which feed on the foliage of 

Asteraceae, ornamentals, eg H. bracteatum, and 

weeds, eg spear thistle, Scotch thistle and capeweed 

in eastern and southern Australia. Caterpillars are 

green, and live under a web incorporating faecal 

pellets, eating the lower leaf surface (Fig. 38). They 

pupate in a silk cocoon in the web. A chalcid wasp 

(Brachymeria phya) parasitises the caterpillars. 

Caterpillars of a related moth (Asterivora 

lampadias) also feed on foliage of Helichrysum and 

other herbaceous Asteraceae and have similar habits 

to those of Tebenna micalis (Common 1990). See 

Pome fruits F 112. 


caterpillars feed on everlastings (Helichrysum spp.). 

Indian weed caterpillar (Heliothis rubrescens) 

commonly feeds on Indian weed (Sigesbeckia 

orientalis) but may also feed on flowers of 

H. bracteatum. See Sweetcorn M 89. 



may disfigure leaves (Fig 39). See Cineraria A 

28. 

Fruit-tree borer (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera) 

larvae may tunnel in the bark and sapwood of 

shrubby Helichrysum spp. and cover their tunnels 

with a mass of brown chewed wood fragments and 

webbing. See Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 


Various snails and slugs may damage foliage 

and flowers. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Good drainage is essential to 

prevent Phytophthora root rots. Leaves may 

become black and slimy (sweating) due to 

waterlogging. See Australian Native Plants N 8. 


EVERLASTINGS 


Armitage, A. M. 1993. Speciality Cut Flowers. Varsity 

Press/Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 

Australian Daisy Study Group. 1987. Australian Daisies 

for Gardens and Floral Art. Lothian Pub., 

Melbourne. 

Australian Plant Study Group. 1990. Grow What Where: 

Over 2750 Australian Native Plants for Every 

Situation, Special Use and Problem Area. Viking 

O'Neil, Ringwood, Vic. 

Baker, J., Greig, J and Schaumann, M. 1987. Australian 

Daisies for Gardens and Floral Art. Australian 

Daisy Study Group, Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Boucher, A. 1995. AFPGA Conference : Talking, 

Learning, Growing. Aust. Hort., Oct. 





Coupar, P. and M. 1992. Butterflies and Moths of 

Australia. NSW University Press, Sydney . 

Jones, D. L. and Elliot, W. R. 1986. Pests, Diseases & 



Lake, J. 1993. Growing Rice Flower. Aust. Hort., Sept. 

Moody, H. 1995. Name Changes May Confuse but 

Paper Daisies Live On. Aust. Hort., June. 





Sharman, K. 1993. Australian Daisies Deserve Wider 

Recognition. Aust. Hort., Sept. 

Sharman, K. V. and Sedgely, M. 1988. Floral Initiation 

and Development in Helipterum roseum (Hook.) 

Benth. and Helichrysum bracteatum (Vent) Andrews 

(Asteraceae). Aust. J. Bot. 30:575-587. 

Sharman, K., Sedley, M. and Aspinall, D. 1989a. 

Australian Daisies Break New Ground. Aust. Hort., 

May: 

Sharman, K., Sedley, M. and Aspinall, D. 1989b. Effects 

of Photoperiod, Temperature and Plant Age on 

Floral Initiation and Inflorescence Quality in the 

Australian Native Daisies Helipterum roseum and 

Helichrysum bracteatum in relation to Cut Flower 

Production. J. Hort. Sci. 64:351-359. 

Sharman, K., Sedley, M. and Aspinall, D. 1989c. 

Production of Australian Daisies (Helipterum 

roseum and Helichrysum bracteatum) for the Cut 

Flower Market. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 29:445-453. 

Schaumann, M. 1987. Australian Daisies for Gardens & 

Floral Art. Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Wrigley, J. W. 1988. Australian Native Plants : 

Propagation, Cultivation & Use in Landscaping. 3rd 

edn. Collins, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

WA Farmnotes 

Wildflower Production : Everlasting Daisies 

Wildflower Production : Getting Started 

Wildflower Production : Industry Contacts 


Australian Flora and Protea Growers Assoc. (AFPGA) 



Society for Growing Australian Plants (Australian Daisy 

Study Group, Newsletter) 


Australian native plants N 9. 

MANAGEMENT 



H. bracteatum is a perennial but is usually grown as an annual and may reach 1 m in height. There is a wide 

colour range. Propagated by cuttings or by seed from disease and pest-free plants. Sow seeds in autumn or 

spring, transplant when 50-70 mm high (in areas with little frost sow seed in late summer, but sow in spring 

where winters are colder). Everlastings require a warm sunny position and grow well in most garden soils with 

the addition of fertilisers. They tolerate harsh conditions better than most garden annuals but need regular 

irrigation in dry weather. Plant should not be pruned back below the leaves as they fail to regrow. If bushes 

have become overgrown it is better to propagate new plants. Harvest: No quality standards have been defined 

yet for everlastings. Harvest blooms when the bracts first start to open, a bloom of 30 mm should be expected 

from both H. bracteatum and H. roseum, while stem length for H. roseum should have in excess of 400 mm; 

stem length for H. bracteatum is not critical as most blooms are wired. Wiring the flower heads is appropriate for 

a number of species especially those with weak stems and large blooms (Sharman et al. 1989c). For dried 

flowers cut when flowers are half open, tie in bunches and hang head downwards in a cool place for drying, dried 

flowers will last for many months. Blooms of H. roseum have a vase life of 2 weeks in water after which stems 

weaken and flowers begin to nod. Vase life may be extended by using a floral preservative, removing leaves 

below the water line and changing vase water frequently. H. bracteatum may also be suitable as a compact, 

flowering pot plant; pinching the apical shoot when the inflorescence bud first appears results in numerous 

short lateral shoots each with numerous blooms (Sharman et al. 1989b). 

Fig. 37. Tomato big bud (greening) on 

Helichrysum bracteatum. 

Fig. 38. Chewing damage to 

leaves by caterpillars of 

Tebenna micalis 

Fig. 39. Tunnels caused by 

maggots of the cineraria 

leafminer (Chromatomyia 

syngenesiae). 

A 32 


Gazania 

Gazania spp. 



Parasitic 



Root and crown rots 






Parasitic 


Tomato big bud mycoplasma (greening) affects 

gazania. (Fig. 40). See Annuals A 4, Tomato M 97. 


Root and crown rots: Sclerotinia rot 

(Sclerotinia sp.) and probably also rhizoctonia 

stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) (Horst 1990). See 

Annuals A 6, Vegetables M 7. 


causes light yellow areas on leaves. The 

epidermis is forced into domelike swellings which 

burst open to expose a chalky mass of sporeproducing 

sporangia. Foliage may die; plants are 

dwarfed. Overwinters in infected hosts and 

infected crop debris. Fruiting bodies (sporangia 

containing spores) are spread by wind to moist 

surfaces and by the movement of infected plants. 

Favoured by cool wet weather. Clean up all dead 

plant debris at the end of the season. Spraying is 

impractical. See Gerbera A 37. 



is a small fly, the female lays its eggs into leaf 

undersurfaces and when the maggots hatch out 

they tunnel between the upper and lower 

epidermis of the leaf. Initially silvery wandering 

lines on leaves are formed. Later these increase in 

width as the maggot grows bigger. Usually 

infestation is only slight so that control measures 

are not necessary. See Cineraria A 28. 


Gazania leaves may be severely damaged by 

snails, including the common garden snail (Helix 

aspersa), grazing on the surface of the leaves 

(Fig. 41). Damaged leaves shrivel and die. Snail 

damage to gazania is often misdiagnosed because 

it is not typical damage;the snails feed at night and 

hide under the plants during the day. Large 

populations may build up so that it is difficult to 

control them. See Seedlings N 70. 


Anon. 1985. Eliminate Conditions that may Encourage 

Crown Rots on Gazania. Greenhouse Manager, p.13. 

Horst, R. K. 1990. Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. 

5th edn., Chapman & Hall, NY. 






MANAGEMENT 

Gazanias are excellent for borders, banks, rockeries and hanging baskets. Propagation is by division after 

flowering in spring and summer; they are best replanted every few years. Gazanias revel in sunlight and do well 

in dry situations. 

Fig. 40. Green gazania flowers caused by tomato big 

bud mycoplasma (greening). 

Fig. 41. Grazing damage to gazania leaves by the common 

garden snail (Helix aspersa). 


Geranium 

Pelargonium 

Pelargonium spp. 

Family Geraniaceae 


Parasitic 



Bacterial leaf spot and stem rot 



Grey mould 

Root rots, wilts 

Rusts 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Leafhoppers 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Whiteflies 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus may cause mottled light 

green and dark green areas on leaves. Interveinal 

areas tend to be lighter with darker areas along the 

vein. Leaves are usually smaller than normal and 

plants are dwarfed. Symptoms may be masked in 

warm weather, or variable, or may not be obviously 

detrimental to the plant. See Cucurbits M 50. 

Pelargonium leaf curl virus (unconfirmed) affects 

Pelargonium causing irregular to circular yellow areas 

on leaves which may crinkle. Brown elongated 

corky areas may be formed on leaf petioles and 

stems. Symptoms are masked in warm weather. 

This disease is considered to be transmitted by the 

pelargonium aphid (Macrosiphum pelargonii). 

Tomato big bud mycoplasma (greening) causes a 

greening of the floral parts. See Tomato M 97. 

Yellow net vein virus (unconfirmed) is the most 

striking and ornamental disease symptom of the ivyleafed 

geranium White mesh. The only symptom is 

the yellow vein patterns on the leaves. There 

are no other symptoms and it is perpetuated by taking 

cuttings from affected plants. 

Others: In Australia there are probably more virus 

diseases of geraniums (Fig. 42). There are certainly 

many more overseas (Strider 1985). Pelargonium 

flower break virus (PFBV) has become an 

important disease in greenhouses in Western Europe 

and is spread by circulating nutrient solutions, 

western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) 

and pollen, but mainly by mechanical transfer (Krczal 

et al. 1995). Thrips management may be 

important for control of viruses in greenhouse crops. 

Infected plants should be destroyed when 

symptoms are observed in cool weather. Plant 

only virus-tested planting material, do not 

propagate from infected plants. See Annuals A 4. 


Bacterial leaf spot and stem rot 

(Xanthomonas campestris pv. pelargonii) may affect 

pelargoniums during humid weather. Irregular 

sunken, circular, watery brown spots develop on 

leaves which may later yellow and fall. Ivy-types 

are susceptible to leaf symptoms. Brown rotting of 

stems (especially cuttings) develop either from the 

base upwards or from the tip downwards. Where 

isolated branches are affected, prune 30-50 mm 

below the discoloured area. All plants with basal 

stem rot should be removed and destroyed. Sterilise 

secateurs between cuts. Do not take cuttings from 

infected plants. If leaf spot is a problem, a 

bactericide may be applied but only after diseased 

branches have been removed and cultural conditions 

corrected. See Annuals A 2 (Fig. 4), Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 


Fungal leaf spots (Cercospora sp., Botrytis 

cinerea, Septoria pelargonii). See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may be a 

problem on stock plants. Dead areas develop on 

leaves, flower petals and stems. During humid 

condition a grey, furry fungal growth develops. 

Flower heads rot, double flowers are more 

susceptible. Grey mould may be a serious disease 

on greenhouse crops (Hausbeck 1996). See 



Pythium black stem rot (Pythium spp., Eumycetes) 

causes blackening, withering and rotting of stems 

starting at the base of plants and cuttings, 

progressing upwards. Infected plants wilt and die. 

Overwinters in infested soil and plant debris. 

Spread by movement of contaminated soil, drainage 

water or infected plants. Favoured by prolonged wet 

soil. Once plants are infected little can done, the aim 

is to prevent infection. Remove and destroy 

infected plants. Do not overwater or propagate from 

infected plants, take cuttings from uppermost 

branches, farthest from infected bases. For cutting 

beds use pasteurised soil. Dip cuttings in fungicide 

before replanting contaminated areas. 

Others: Damping off (Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium, 

Pythium, Rhizopus), phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora cryptogea on Pelargonium zonale), 

rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia sp.), verticillium 

wilt (Verticillium dahliae). 



Rust (Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis) is a serious 

disease of cultivated zonal species. Small green 

spots develop on leaf uppersurfaces, powdery 

pustules develop on leaf undersurfaces. 

Concentric rings of pustules develop (Fig. 43). 

Leaves yellow but infected areas remain green. Avoid 

excessive nitrogen. 

A 34 


GERANIUM, PELARGONIUM 

Rust (P. morrisonii) is a native rust which affects native 

Pelargonium spp. 



Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) may cause stunting 

of plants, yellowing of leaves. Bead-like swellings 

develop on roots. Also foliar nematode 

(Aphelenchoides fragariae). See Vegetables M 10. 




Pelargonium aphid (Acyrthosiphon malvae) is 

thought to spread pelargonium leaf curl virus. 

Aphids are sap-sucking insects which cluster 

around buds and new shoots causing curling and 

distortion of leaves and flowers. Aphids produce 

honeydew on which sooty mould grows and 

spread virus diseases. See Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 


Cabbage moth (Plutella xylostella) 


Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) 

Lucerne leafroller (Merophyas divulsana) 

Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides) 

Painted pine moth (Orgyia australis) 

Twig looper (Ectropis excursaria) 

Caterpillars chew holes in leaves, flower buds 

and flowers, they leave dark balls of excrement on 

the soil surface, on lower leaves or on the floor. Do 

not confuse caterpillar damage with snail and slug 

damage. Some caterpillars feed inside flowers 

buds preventing flowering (Fig. 44). Moth 

(Sphenarches anisodactylus, Epermeniidae) 

caterpillars feed on flowers and buds of Pelargonium 

and butter beans (Fabaceae). See Annuals A 8. 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, Hemiptera): 

Yellow leafhopper (Zygina zealandica) sucks sap 

from leaves of native (P. australe) and other 

plants. See Annuals A 8, Australian native plants N 

11 (Fig. 380), Vegetables M 15. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) are very small, 

sap sucking insects which resemble tiny pieces of 

cotton wool. They are usually found near leaf 

axils, along leaf midribs or around flower buds. 

They produce honeydew. See Greenhouses N 25. 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) 

Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) 


Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae): Greenhouse whitefly 

(Trialeuroides vaporariorum) is mainly a pest of 

regal geraniums (P. domesticum) but can be a pest 

of other types. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: Black scale (Saissetia oleae). 


Snails and slugs may chew leaves, do not 

confuse with leafeating caterpillar damage to 

leaves. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Oedema is common on ivy-leafed geranium and is 

caused by roots of plants taking up more moisture 

than is lost through the leaves. Small blisters 

develop on leaf undersurfaces especially those 

closest to the ground, and stems. The blisters enlarge, 

become corky, leaves may yellow and fall. Oedema 

detracts from the plant's appearance. Prevent by: 

• Not overwatering soil particularly during extended 

periods of cloudy weather, provide good drainage, 

water in the morning with container saucers removed 

• Reducing humidity in glasshouses and outdoors, space 

plants to allow good ventilation 

• Maintaining light intensity at recommended levels to 

encourage leaf development and stoma opening 

• Maintaining pH between 4.5-5.5 

• Keeping nitrogen and iron levels high 

Spindly growth: Insufficient light, excessive 

fertilising, overwatering and overcrowding may cause 

spindly growth and poor to no flowering. 

Temperature: Older foliage of some varieties turns 

red during winter, if the plants are grown too cool or 

too dry. Optimum night temperatures are 15-18oC, 

day temperatures 21-24 oC higher. 

Senescence: Most geraniums shed their older leaves 

in late summer/early autumn, so during that period 

some natural leaf yellowing and leaf fall occur. 

Others: Excessive applications of wetting agents 

(applied to retain water in the media and to improve 

aeration and nutrient availability), may reduce shoot 

and root growth of geranium and other plants, eg 

impatiens and poinsettia. 


Bath, T. and Jones, J. 1994. The Gardener's Guide to 

Growing Hardy Geraniums. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 



Hausbeck, M. K. 1996. The Effect of Plastic Mulch and 

Forced Heated Air on Botrytis cinerea on Geranium 

Stock Plants in a Research Greenhouse. Plant 

Disease Vol.8 (2). 

Krczal, G., Albury, J. et al. 1995. Transmission of 

Pelargonium Flower break Virus (PFBV) in 

Irrigation Systems and by Thrips. Plant Disease, 

Vol.79(2). 



Llewellyn, J., Hudson, B. and Morrison, G. C. 1981. 

Growing Geraniums and Pelargoniums in Australia 

and New Zealand. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, NSW. 

Mastalerz, J. W. and Holcomb, E. J. 1982. Geraniums : 

A Manual on the Culture of Geraniums as a 

Greenhouse Crop. 3rd. edn. University Park, 

Pennsylvania Flower Growers, Pennsylvania. 





GERANIUM, PELARGONIUM 

O'Brien, D. 1983. Scented Leaf Pelargoniums. 

Geraniums Galore, 98 Anzac Park, Canberra. 







Yeo, P. 1992. Hardy Geraniums. Timber Press, Portland 

Oregon. 

White, J. W. (ed.). 1993. Geraniums 1V. Pennsylvania 

Flower Growers/GrowerTalks, Pennsylvania. 


Industry eg 

Geranium Oil (NSW Agfact) 

Geraniums (NSW Agfact) 

Association, Journals etc. 

Australian Geranium Society 


State/Territory/Regional Geranium & Pelargonium Socs. 


MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Geraniums are ideal plants for sunny garden situations and make excellent pot 

plants. Commonly cultivated varieties include zonal pelargoniums (popular garden geraniums) (P. x hortorum), 

regal or show geraniums (P. domesticum), ivy geraniums (P. peltatum) suitable for hanging baskets, and 

scented geraniums (P. tomentosum). The parent plant of all Pelargonium varieties and strains used for 

commercial production of geranium oil is thought to be P. graveolens. Citrosa (African Geranium x Citronella or 

Grass of China) releases a continuous stream of citronella fragrance into air and is reputed to repel mosquitoes 

and some other biting insects. Resistant varieties: Cultivar selection is important as some lose flowers too 

readily. The double flowers of some cultivars are more susceptible to grey mould. Zonal pelargoniums are 

subject to rust. Disease-free planting material: To avoid major systemic geranium diseases, commercial 

growers should purchase virus-indexed plants each year from a specialist propagator. All geraniums from the 

previous year should be discarded before arrival of clean stock (Larson 1992). 


Propagation: Pelargoniums are usually propagated by cuttings but some may also be propagated by seed. 

Plants propagated from seed may produce single flowers and suffer shattering of flower heads. Cuttings may 

be affected by pythium black stem rot and grey mould. Unrooted herbaceous cuttings may be stored dry at 

-0.5 o C for 4-6 weeks, under normal refrigeration conditions for 5-10 days or at low pressure storage (LPS) 

conditions for 21-28 days (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Cultural methods: Geraniums like warm sunny sites 

but will grow in almost any soil providing drainage is good; do not overwater (it is better to underwater than 

overwater them). Space plants to provide good air circulation. Overwatering, overhead irrigation or watering 

late in the day means that plants remain wet for a long time and leaf, stem and flower diseases, eg grey 

mould, rust, pythium black stem rot and bacterial leaf spot, are more likely. Stock plants tend to produce very 

large leaves which should be removed to allow better air circulation and more light to new growth. Keep 

hanging baskets of ivy geranium (P. peltatum) away from the upper part of the greenhouse to avoid excessive 

heat. Geranium trees (pelargonium cultivars that grow upright) are easily trained into trees or standards. Hard 

prune in autumn in warm areas (spring in colder areas) and pinch-prune tips continually while plants are actively 

growing to keep bushes compact, and increase flowering potential. Make a cut immediately above the node of 

an outward-pointing leaf or leaf bud. It depends on the cultivar and growing program whether plants may or may 

not be pinched. Sanitation: Clean pots before re-use. Keep secateurs sharp. Disinfect tools after pruning 

diseased plants and before pruning healthy plants. All flower heads should be removed from stock plants as 

they develop. Pesticides are registered for diseases and pests. Growth regulators are used for compactness 

or elongating stems (tree geraniums). Monitor diseases and pests regularly. 

Postharvest 

Potted plants: Sell at the beginning of flowering. Potted plants grow well in full sun or dispersed light. In 

summer, they need a temperature of 20-25 o C and frequent watering. In winter, they need bright light, a 

minimum temperature of 6-10 o C but limited watering. Ethylene causes petal drop; plants may be treated with 

an anti-ethylene chemical by the grower. P. zonale has low sensitivity to ethylene (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Fig. 42. Yellow ringspotting on 

geranium leaves (probably viral). 

Fig 43. Rust on geranium leaves 

(Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis). 


Fig. 44. Tiny caterpillar feeding in flower 

buds (note holes in buds). 

A 36 


Gerbera 

South African daisy 

Transvaal daisy 

Gerbera jamesonii 



Parasitic 



Damping off 

Fungal leaf spot 

Grey mould 




Wilts 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 



Mites 

Thrips 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Pesticide toxicity 


Parasitic 


Virus diseases, eg tomato big bud mycoplasma 

(greening), tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and 

cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), may affect gerbera. 

Overseas impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) 

spread by western flower thrips (Frankliniella 

occidentalis), may be a serious disease of gerbera 

(Anon. 1996). See Annuals A 4. 


Damping off (Pythium, Phytophthora) 

predominantly affects young plants. Good 

drainage is essential and plants should be 

positioned with their crowns above the soil surface 

to avoid root and crown rots. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria, Ascochyta, 

Cercospora, Septoria gerberae) may be quite 

conspicuous during late summer and autumn on 

older leaves (Fig. 45). See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may attack 

lower stems or crowns, damaged leaves and 

flowers in damp conditions. Avoid leaving snags 

during de-leaving and flower picking as these 

become sites for Botrytis and other fungal 

infections. Stems and crowns may rot at ground 

level and fall over. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) is favoured 

by humid conditions. Improve the environment and 

if necessary, apply a fungicide. See Annuals A 6. 


Phytophthora crown and root rot (Phytophthora 

cryptogea) is a common and serious disease of 

gerberas of all ages. Plants wilt and collapse suddenly 

and may die in 14-16 days. Leaves often become 

pinkish-purple. Infection usually takes place at or just 

below ground level and root tissue near the crown is 

also affected. Crowns become soft and mushy and 

are easily pulled away from other plant parts. When 

diseased plants are removed from the media, the outer 

part of the root usually sloughs off, exposing a dark 

central core. Good drainage and planting in 

individual containers, helps limit spread of disease. 

Plants grown in a moist soil without ever becoming 

waterlogged or dry and without high salt levels are 

less susceptible. Clones of gerberas vary in their 

susceptibility and by careful hybridisation breeders 

may obtain more tolerant plants. Phytophthora may 

occur after soil sterilisation (as will some other soil 

diseases) and prefers soil temperatures of < 20 o C. 

Infected plants should be removed followed by soil 

fungicidal drenches. It is possible to reduce 

Phytophthora attacks considerably without fungicides 

by adjusting the watering frequency and electrical 

conductivity values in ebb and flow systems with 

recirculating nutrient solutions (Thinggaard and 

Andersen 1995). See Trees K 6. 

Others: Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani), 

sclerotinia crown rot (Sclerotinia spp.) and 

sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) mainly 

occur on older plants. Also Fusarium, Pythium, 

verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae). 



Scientific name: Peronosporales, Eumycetes: 

White rust (Albugo tragopogonis) 

Host range: Asteraceae, eg cineraria, gerbera, 

gazania, Senecio spp., overseas also Artemisia, 

Centaurea, salsify, sunflower, others. 

Symptoms: Soft white rust-like pustules 

develop on leaf undersurfaces, with 

corresponding pale green-yellow blotches on 

uppersurfaces which darken with age, foliage 

may die, plants dwarfed. 

Overwintering: On infected hosts and debris. 

Spread: Fruiting bodies (sporangia containing 

spores) are spread by wind, rain and insects, and by 

the introduction or movement of infected plants. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, wet weather 

during winter and spring. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Practise a crop rotation of 

3-4 years with unrelated plants. Avoid 

excessive nitrogen as this increases disease 

susceptibility. Do not plant new crops near 

infected ones. Keep area around crops free 

from weed hosts. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected leaves. 

Destroy all diseased crop debris after harvest. 

Ensure all crop residues are thoroughly 

decomposed before sowing. 


Pesticides: If white blister rust is a problem, apply 

fungicides in late winter before symptoms 

appear. Remove as much dead and infested 

material from plants as possible before spraying 

both leaf surfaces thoroughly at high pressure. 


GERBERA 

Wilts 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium spp.) causes many plants to 

collapse. Fusarium wilt spreads rapidly among 

plants and is most active in warm soils. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) develops more 

slowly in the plant than Fusarium or P. cryptogea. 

Initially, individual outer leaves may wilt and brown. 



Burrowing nematode (Radopholus sp.), dagger 

nematode (Xiphinema sp.), root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne spp.), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus spp.). Ditylenchus sp. and 

Paratrichodorus sp. may also infest gerbera. See 




shoots. See Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 


Leafroller moths (Tortricidae) 




disfigures leaves. See Cineraria A 28. 

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 

infests leaves. See Greenhouses M 24. 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) 


Privet mite (Brevipalpus sp.) 



Thrips (Thysanoptera): Plague thrips (Thrips 

imaginis) may infest flowers. Also western 

flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis). See 

Roses J 6. 

Others: Common brown leafhopper (Orosius 

argentatus) spreads tomato big bud (greening), 

green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) sucks sap 

from shoots. Root mealybug (Rhizoecus falcifer) 

may infest gerbera in NZ (Salinger 1985). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Temperature: Gerberas are 

sensitive to frost and need a night temperature of 

15-17 o C and a day temperature of 21-24 o C for 

optimumgrowth, flower initiation and development. 

Year round production is possible if night 

temperatures are > 13 o C. Once temperatures fall 

below 9 o C plants become dormant. With consistent 

high temperatures ( > 29 o C) flower quality and 

number may be adversely affected (Gerbera 

Growing for Cut Flowers, Vic Agnote). Sudden 

changes in temperature and humidity can cause 

plants to wilt. Irrigation: Gerberas need plenty of 

water during active growth. To avoid crown rot, 

the irrigation system should be a low level drip 

with the dripper a little way from the centre of the 

plant. Or water early in the day so that plants dry 

out by evening. If overhead watering, lower the 

temperature or, to maintain humidity, a very low 

level of water should be applied as a fine mist. 

Water infrequently in autumn and winter. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Salt 

levels should not be allowed to build up in the 

rooting medium. Some cultivars may be sensitive 

to fluoride in tap water (fluoride at 0.5-1 ppm may 

be injurious). Fluoride injury may be a 

postharvest concern as damaged areas may be 

colonised by grey mould (Botrytis) (Anon. 1996). 

Pesticide toxicity: Gerberas may be injured 

by some insecticides, spray trial areas first. Open 

gerbera flowers may be injured. 


Anon. 1996. 7 Deadly Gerbera Diseases. Greenhouse 

Management & Production. Feb. 





Moody, H. 1995. Home-made Hydroponics. Aust. Hort., 

Nov. 






Rogers, M. N. and Tija, B. O. 1990. Gerbera Production 

for Cut Flowers and Pot Plants. Timber Press, 

Portland, Oregon. 






Strider, D. L. (ed.). 1985. Diseases of Floral Crops. Vol. 


Thinggaard, K. and Andersen, H. 1995. Influence of 

Watering Frequency and Electrical Conductivity of 

the Nutrient solution on Phytophthora Root Rot in 

Pot Plants of Gerbera. Plant Disease, March. 


Industry eg 

Gerbera Growing for Cut Flowers (Vic Agnote) 

Phytophthora cryptogea and other Soil-borne Fungi 

in Gerbera (Vic Agnote) 

The Hydroponic Production of Gerberas for Cut 

Flowers (Vic Technical Report) 


Biotech Plants 

Flower Power 



MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Select cultivars which are high yielding, have a good vase life, a stem length of 

500 mm after trimming and head diameter of about 100 mm. 

A 38 


GERBERA 

Resistant varieties: Cultivars vary in resistance to fluoride and Phytophthora cryptogea. 

Disease-free planting material: Diseases may limit gerbera production. As plants showing no 

symptoms may carry fungal diseases, treat cuttings with a fungicide. Preferably use healthy planting material, 

derived from uncontaminated tissue culture or healthy stock plants. The major source of clonal material is 

from tissue culture which is relatively free from diseases and pests and possesses a uniform set of genetic 

characteristics. Top quality cultivars known as the Knoxfield collection were available from the Ornamentals 

Improvement Program, Agriculture Victoria (now Crop Health Services (Crop Hygiene), Institute of Horticultural 

Development, Knoxfield, Agriculture Victoria). 


Propagation: By tissue culture and divisions with 1-2 growing points which give more uniform plants. 

Gerberas started from seed are not of uniform quality, ie they may close at night. Well managed gerbera stock 

may last for 2-3 years before replanting is required. 

Cultural methods: Pasteurise soil or sterilise it with chemicals before planting or use a medium free from soil 

diseases. Plants are very sensitive to waterlogging, plant crowns high so that they are exposed and 

relatively dry to avoid root and crown rots. Plant in well drained and well aerated slightly acid soil, possibly in 

raised beds; grow in soil or in hydroponic systems; gerbera is sensitive to salt. Allow soil to dry out between 

irrigations (continuously wet soil promotes disease). Keep soil rather dry during winter and in cold weather 

when plants are inactive. Provide correct temperatures for optimum growth, flower initiation and 

development. At night temperatures of < 16 o C gerbera will not flower and with high temperatures consistently 

> 29 o C flower quality and number may be adversely affected. See Gerbera A 38. Minimise soil fungal 

diseases by appropriate water management or by hydroponic culture. Minimise leaf diseases by providing 

adequate ventilation and avoiding undue moisture on foliage. If replanting areas, fumigate, sterilise or 

pasteurise soil, or treat soil with chemicals. 

Sanitation: Practice nursery hygiene consistently. See Nurseries N 51. Minimise leaf and flower diseases 

by regularly removing old and diseased plant material. 

Pesticides: Fungicides and insecticides are registered for the control of soil diseases and insect pests. 

Growth regulators are used for cuttings. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Handle flowers with care are they are delicate and easily damaged. Harvest in the cool of early 

morning. For direct sale cut flowers when outer 1-2 rows of disc florets show pollen, otherwise flowers have a 

poor vase life, may wilt, close at night and not develop properly. Work flowers loose, rather than cutting them 

from the plant, to avoid stem stumps which may be invaded by fungi. Cut off the brown base of the stem and 

immediately place in fluoride-free water (rain water or de-ionised water) containing a flower preservative. In 

the packing shed suspend in netting or other support over preservative solution to help keep stems straight. 

Grade stems for length and quality and pack as recommended to avoid damage and bending towards light 

(phototropism). 

Storage: Gerberas can be difficult to store as they must be protected against grey mould and bending 

towards light. Store only as fully open flowers or large buds. Flowers correctly treated can be transported dry 

for 24 hours. Do not store for any length of time (even 1 week at 2 o C will reduce vase life of some cultivars). 

After pulsing to improve vase life, grade for stem length and quality (Jones and Moody 1993, Nowak and 

Rudnicki 1990). 

Vase life: Recut stems (20-30 mm) and place in fluoride-free water containing preservative. Replace water 

regularly, turn vase regularly or avoid strong light as flowers will bend towards it. Because gerberas bend 

towards strong light, they must be wired to retain their position in an arrangement. Cooler temperatures, 

low light intensity and short days of winter decrease vase life of cut gerberas in comparison with the warm 

long days of summer. Immature cut gerberas develop bent-neck due to lack of maturity and hardening of the 

vascular tissues. Ethylene causes a slight hastening of senescence. 

Potted plants: Sell potted plants when at least 1 flower is open. Plants need bright indirect light, a day 

temperature of 21 o C, a night temperature of 16 o C and moderate watering. 

Fig. 45. Fungal leaf spots (Septoria gerberae) 

on a gerbera leaf. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 


Gypsophila 

Baby's Breath ( Gypsophila paniculata) 

Family Caryophyllaceae (carnation family) 


Parasitic 



Bacterial leaf spot and blight 

Crown gall 



Grey mould 

Root and crown rots, damping off 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Leafminer 

Thrips 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Nutrient deficiencies 

WEEDS 

Diseases and pests of gypsophila are not well 

documented for Australia. 


Parasitic 


Tomato big bud (greening). See Annuals A 4, 

Tomato M 97. 


Bacterial leaf spot and blight 

(Pseudomonas andropogonis) may affect 

gypsophila during wet conditions. See Carnation 

A 16, Vegetables M 5. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) has been 

recorded on gypsophila in N Z. 

See Stone fruits 

F 125. 


Fungal leaf spot (Alternaria sp.) is a major 

disease of gypsophila. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) causes dead 

lesions to develop on seedlings, leaves, flower 

petals and flower stems. Flower heads rot during 

wet weather. Under humid conditions a grey, furry 

fungal growth develops on affected areas. Leaves 

become infected when diseased petals fall onto 

them. Space plants well, so they get plenty of sun 

and air, and do not water late in the day. Remove 

and burn infected flowers. If disease is a problem, 

appropriate fungicides may be applied. See 



Pythium aphanidermatum 

Phytophthora cactorum, P. cryptogea 

Phytophthora nicotiana var. parasitica 

Rhizoctonia crown rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) 

Sclerotium crown rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 

See Annuals A 6, Seedlings N 66, Vegetables M 7. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may feed on 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Budworms 

(Helicoverpa spp.) feed on foliage and flowers. 

See Annuals A 8, Sweetcorn M 89. 

Leafminer (unidentified) damages leaves in NZ 

(Salinger 1985). 

Thrips (Thysanoptera): Plague thrips (Thrips 

imaginis) may infest flowers causing them to 

brown. See Roses J 6. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may 

be a serious pest (Fig. 46). See Annuals A 9, 



Snails and slugs may be a problem in neglected 

plantings. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Flowers will brown and shrivel 

quickly if subject to intense sunlight, water stress 

or hot dry winds. Gypsophila plants are fairly 

frost tolerant and can be grown successfully in 

areas where chrysanthemums are grown. 

Gypsophila require good drainage and will 

collapse and die quickly in wet soil. Cultivars vary 

in the day length required for flowering. 

Nutrient deficiencies: Excessive fertiliser 

results in thin poor quality stems. 

WEEDS 

Black weed mat suppresses weed growth and 

warms the soil so that crops can be advanced. 

Most weeds can be effectively controlled using 

pre-emergence herbicides after planting. See 

Annuals A 9. 




Knight, P. and Collins, G. 1989. Effect of Gibberellic 

Acid on Flower Production in Gypsophila. Aust. 

Hort., May. 



A 40 


GYPSOPHILA 












Industry eg 

Costs and Returns for Gypsophila in Central Australia 

(NT Agdex) 

Gypsophila : Commercial Production (Qld Farmnote) 

Gypsophila as a Cut Flower (Vic Agnote) 

Gypsophila for Cut Flower Production (SA Fact Sheet) 

Gypsophila for Cut Flowers (NZ Aglink) 



GrowSearch (databae Qld DPI) 




MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Perennial gypsophila (G. paniculata) is commonly grown as a cut flower to be 

used as a filler in floral arrangements. Treat as an annual. Popular cultivars include the white Bristol 

Fairy and Perfecta, the pink Flamingo and strains of these. There is also annual gypsophila (G. elegans) 

which is mainly used as a garden flower. 

Disease-free planting material: Use pathogen-tested planting material to ensure that only plants free 

from soilborne diseases are transplanted. 


Propagation: By cutting and grafting, or by tissue culture (Strider 1985). 

Cultural methods: Gypsophila grows best on dry, calcareous gravelly soils. The name 'gypsophila' literally 

means 'gypsum-loving'. The desirable pH range is 6.5-7.5, if soil is acid an application of lime is 

recommended. Plants need well drained and well prepared sites. Prepare soil with organic matter and mixed 

fertiliser added. Select a sunny but sheltered spot. Plants should be trellised to keep them off the ground, for 

better pest and disease control, and for more erect marketable stems. 

Sanitation: Pruning established plants hard once per year, cutting back to ground level; time of pruning will 

depend on when flowers are most needed. 

Pesticides: If land is being replanted with gypsophila it is advisable to pre-plant treat the soil to reduce the 

possibility of soilborne diseases. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Individual flowers do not open simultaneously, the top flowers open first and must be picked 

separately before the entire inflorescence opens. Harvest when at least 30-50% flowers are open but not too 

mature. As flowers are sensitive to sunlight, draughts and drying immediately after cutting, they should be 

placed in water, under refrigeration at high humidity. As flowers are sensitive to ethylene growers may treat 

them with an anti-ethylene chemical and sugar pulse (to promote even opening, avoiding the first flowers 

being dead before the last flowers have opened). It is possible to harvest gypsophila in the bud stage with 

20% of buds open if they are conditioned to stimulate further opening. Stems harvested at the tight bud stage 

without flower colour showing, or with 5% of the flowers open, may also successfully be opened in various bud 

opening solutions (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Storage: Store at 0-2 o C in water with floral preservative at high relative humidity (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Vase life: Do not mist, as this encourages grey mould (Botrytis). Pinch off dead heads to reduce ethylene 

damage and replace vase water (with preservative) every day or two. Flowers are sensitive to water 

deficiency and intense sunlight and will brown and shrivel if subjected to stress conditions, eg hot dry winds. 

Fig. 46. Severe infestation of 

gypsophila by twospotted 

mite (Tetranychus urticae), 

observe mites crawling over 

webbing. 


Hollyhock 

Alcea rosea (= Althaea rosea) 

Family Malvaceae (mallow family) 


Parasitic 





Rust 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Metallic flea beetles 




Parasitic 



Anthracnose (Colletotrichum malvarum) may attack 

all parts of seedlings and cause large losses. See 

Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spot (Phoma exigua var. exigua) is a very 

common fungus, has a wide host range and may cause 

leaf spots on hollyhock. 

Fungal leaf spot (Cercospora althaeina) causes more 

or less angular greyish spots scattered irregularly over 

the leaf. Fruiting bodies of the fungi formed within 

the leaf spots may be seen with a hand lens. Dead 

tissue often falls out leaving a shot-hole effect. 


Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) causes a greywhite 

powdery fungal growth which covers 

leaves, stems and other plant parts. See 

Annuals A 6. 





Rust (Puccinia malvacearum) seriously damages 

hollyhock and other Malvaceae, eg Lavatera, 

mallow. Leaves, stems and bracts may be 

attacked. Yellow areas develop on leaf 

uppersurfaces with corresponding orange-red 

pustules containing spores on undersurfaces. 

Leaves may wither. Spore pustules on stems are 

elongated. See Annuals A 2 (Fig. 10), A 7. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) have 

been recorded on hollyhock (Alcea rosea). See 






See Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 


Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) chew large 

holes in leaves during mild, moist weather. Plants in 

shaded situations are more likely to be damaged. 

Cotton tipworm (Crocidosema plebejana) caterpillars 

are tiny and feed in the seed capsules of 

Malvaceae including hibiscus, hollyhock, Abutilon, 

Lavatera, Malva. They web terminal leaves of 

Atriplex, damage ears of wheat and tunnel in the tips 

of young cotton plants and feed on young flower buds 

and bolls. See Hibiscus K 82. 


Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp.) chew tiny 

irregular holes in young leaves and buds. As 

leaves grow, holes enlarge. See Australian native 

plants N 12 (Fig. 391), Hibiscus K 82. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae), 

carmine mite (T. cinnabarinus) and other spider 

mites, may cause leaves to develop a sandy 

mottle, flowers become bronzed and dry. See 

Annuals A 9, Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: Unidentified leafminers cause small 

wavy lines on the leaves. See Cineraria A 28. 


Snails may chew large holes in leaves; do not 

confuse with looper injury. See Seedlings N 70. 









MANAGEMENT 



Hollyhocks are one of the tallest flowers and grow up to 2-3 m or more in height. There are annual and perennial 

types. They prefer sunny and sheltered sites and need staking in exposed situations or support on a trellis to 

prevent wind damage. Leaf spots, rust and snails may need to be controlled during humid weather on 

susceptible varieties. Harvest when 1/3 florets open. Remove leaves below the water line and use clean water 

and a preservative. 

A 42 


Kangaroo paw 

Anigozanthos spp. 

Family Haemodoraceae 

Red and green kangaroo paw (A. manglesii) is the 

Floral emblem of WA 


Parasitic 



Ink spot 



Rust 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia sp.). See Vegetables 

M 5. 


Ink spot, ink leaf spot, ink disease (generally 

caused by Alternaria alternata) is a common and 

serious disease of kangaroo paws. A. alternata 

is cosmopolitan, common in WA and is often 

associated with decaying organic matter. Disease 

is severe on young plants and in humid or high 

rainfall areas. Small black spots first occur on 

older leaves, and increase in size and coalesce, 

often causing death of entire leaf. Disease may 

attack rhizomes and secondary infections may kill 

plants. Any damage to kangaroo paw leaves 

causes black marks so do not confuse ink spot 

with leaf tips dying back because of cold weather. 

Increased spacing will improve air circulation. 

In cool climates treat as an annual and plant new 

stock each year. Most species of kangaroo paw are 

susceptible. The green and red paw (A. manglesii) 

is severely affected, A flavidus and hybrids are the 

least susceptible. Superior cultivars are being 

bred, featuring disease resistance, vigour under 

cultivation, prolific flowering, extension of 

flowering time and new and varied flowers, eg Bush 

and Gem series. See Annuals A 2 (Fig. 7), A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidiopsis taurica) causes 

white patches on leaves which may later blacken. 



Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. 

nicotianae var. parasiticae) causes wilting followed 

by rapid death of plant. A. flavidus may be least 

susceptible to Phytophthora. Pythium crown rot 

(Pythium spp., P. middletoni) causes blackening and 

rotting between rhizomes and leaves. Both 

diseases are favoured by wet soil, poor drainage and 

temperatures unfavourable to the host. Apply 

fungicides to seeds or cuttings. Pasteurise soil before 

planting or drench media. 

Others: Crown rots (Rhizoctonia solani, 

Sclerotium rolfsii). 

See Annuals 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Rust (Puccinia haemodori) is a serious disease 

of Anigozanthos spp. (especially A. manglesii) and 

Macropidia fuliginosa in WA. Also Conostylis 

spp. and Haemodorum. Strains of rust specialise 

on different hosts. Rusty brown spots develop on 

leaves, later turning black. Leaves may die. 

Severe outbreaks have been due to large scale 

propagation and planting of clonal material with a 

high level of susceptibility. See Annuals A 7. 


Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides fragariae) on 

(A. manglesii). See Annuals A 7, Ferns E 2. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae) may distort opening 

flowers which fall in early spring. Young leaves 

may be distorted, shrivelled and disfigured with 

honeydew and sooty mould. Favoured by cool, 

wet weather during spring and autumn. See 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Corn earworm 

(Helicoverpa armigera) and native budworm 

(H. punctigera) may damage flowers, specially of 

A. pulcherrimus, in the early stages of flower 

development. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Others: Leafminer larvae (unidentified) 

damage foliage severely, A. manglesii is very 

susceptible. Australian plague locust 

(Chortiocetes terminifera) and mountain katydid 

(Acripeza reticulata) may feed on foliage. 


Various species may damage leaves and stems, 

especially of young plants. See Annuals A 3 (Fig. 

19), Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: High soil temperatures may 

cause rhizomes to die, in hot areas plants should 

be watered or shaded in summer. In their natural 

environment kangaroo paws are usually found 

growing in association with light scrub or trees. 

They produce a perennial rhizome which is 

dormant over summer and shoots and flowers each 

winter or spring. Under cultivation plants are often 

grown in exposed situations where soil has been 


KANGAROO PAW 

cleared of all other vegetation, eg commercial 

plantings where land is kept clear of other 

vegetation for ease of maintenance and harvesting 

of the crop. Wind and heat in summer can cause 

production losses through scorching. Frost may 

damage most species causing blackening of leaves 

and dieback, most evident in the tableland regions 

of the eastern states. Winter and early spring are 

the active growth seasons in their natural habitats. 

Do not confuse frost injury with ink spot. Poor 

drainage favours root rot diseases. Although in 

the natural habitat, summer is the dormant period, 

application of water during this period produces 

vigorous flowering. In commercial cut flower 

production, summer irrigation produces additional 

flowers but may shorten the plant's life. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: 

Anigozanthos responds to fertilisers. A. flavidus is 

vigorous, appears to be phosphorus tolerant and 

is likely to have a higher requirement for nutrients 

than most other species. Most species show 

symptoms of iron deficiency in alkaline soils. 

Others: The causes of some problems affecting 

kangaroo paws are undetermined, eg flower 

bleaching and flower abortion (Oliver 1992). 


Coombs, B. (ed.). 1995. Horticulture Australia. Native 

Cut Flowers & Foliage:530-539. Morescope Pub., 

Hawthorn East, Vic. 

Dixon, B. 1988a. The Red and Green Kangaroo Paw. 

Aust. Plants Vol.14:115, 290-291. 

Dixon, B. 1988b. Pests and Diseases of Kangaroo Paw. 

Aust. Plants, Vol.14:115, 14, 320. 

Hanger, B. and Brown, A. 1988. Nutrient Disorders in 

Kangaroo Paws. Aust. Plants, Vol.14:115, 321-325. 

MANAGEMENT 

Hopper, S. D. 1993. Kangaroo Paws and Catspaws : A 

Natural History & Field Guide. Conservation and 

Land Management, WA. 


Ailments of Australian Plants. rpt. 1995. Lothian 

Pub., Melbourne. 

Jones, R and Moody, H. 1993. Caring for Cut Flowers. 


Lawson, G. M. and Goodwin, P. B. 1985. Commercial 

Production of Kangaroo Paws. IPPS Proc. Vol 35, 

57-64. 

Moody, H. 1989. The Vet Who Took Up Kangaroo 

Paws. Aust. Hort., May, 52-54. 

Motum, G, J. and Goodwin, P. B. 1985. Kangaroo Paws 

as a Cut Flower Crop in NSW. Aust. Hort. June. 

Oliver, K. R. 1992. Kangaroo Paws : Pests and 

Diseases. Aust. Plants. Vol. 17. No. 133, 22-26. 

Sedgley, M., Teagle, S. and White, J. 1991. Assessing 

the Vase-life of Kangaroo Paws. Aust. Hort., Dec. 

Sivasithamparam, K. and Watkins, P. A. 1982. 

Alternaria alternata as a Causal Organism of Ink 

Spot Disease of Anigozanthos spp. in Western 

Australia. Australian Plant Pathology, June, 18, 

99-102. Dept of Agric, South Perth, WA. 

Tan, B. H. 1989. Germination Problems Overcome by 

Embryo Culture. Aust. Hort., June. 

Tan, B. 1993. The 'Cot death Syndrome' in Kangaroo 

Paws. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Tan, B. 1994. Rust Attacks Kangaroo Paws. Aust. Hort., 

April. 

Tan, B. H. 1995. Flower Bud Culture. Aust. Hort., June. 

Tan, B. 1996. Reinventing Mangles' Kangaroo Paw. 

Aust. Hort., Jan. 


Industry eg 

Cultivation of Kangaroo Paws (WA Farmnote) 

Kangaroo Paw Growing in Central Australia (NT Agnote) 

Kangaroo Paw Rust (Qld DPI Farmnote) 


Australian National Botanic Gardens 

Plants 


Society for Growing Australian Plants (SGAP) 





Selection 

An overview of the industry is outlined by Coombs (1995). All species are endemic to the south west of WA and 

most have shown poor adaptation to cultural conditions which differ from their natural habitat (moist winter 

months and relatively dry summer months, the natural dormancy period for these plants). In the eastern states 

moist summers are often experienced which are not beneficial to their culture, and most species (except for 

A. flavidus) are short-lived. A. flavidus is the most reliable species under most conditions. Other species with 

desirable horticultural features have been hybridised with A. flavidus, resulting in cultivars which have much of 

the hardiness of A. flavidus and the desirable features of other species. Most popular is yellow kangaroo paw 

(A. pulcherrimus) and black and green kangaroo paw (Macropidia fuliginosa). Check selections for new hybrids 

and trends in industry. Choose varieties with some resistance to ink spot and rust. Most diseases may be 

carried over in the rhizome. Purchase disease-free planting material. 


Propagation: By seed, division or by micropropagation, by tissue culture. Most prefer well drained, acid, 

sandy soil. Common red and green kangaroo paw (A manglesii) and the green paw (A. viridis) are less 

particular about soil type and will grow in heavier soils but not very wet or alkaline conditions. Rhizomes in hot 

areas should be watered or shaded in summer. Space, fertilise and plant at appropriate time of year. Nutrient 

requirements can be determined by tissue testing. Weed control is important especially during the first year. 

Post and pre-emergence herbicides can be used between plants and between rows but some weeds can be 

difficult to control once plants are established. Prune in warm areas to remove leaves damaged by ink spot and 

other diseases, slashing and burning in late summer/autumn reduces inoculum levels for next year. 

Postharvest 

Harvest when the first 1-2 florets per spray are open, top buds plump. Leave at least 200 mm of stem for 

development of 2nd flower spike. Place in water with preservative immediately, pulse. For export, flowers 

require special treatments after harvest. Store at 0-2 o C at high humidity; they may be stored dry under certain 

conditions. Vase life: Recut stem (at least 20 mm), place in water with preservative immediately (kangaroo 

paws are very sensitive to water loss), keep at high humidity, avoid sunlight, draughts (Jones and Moody 1993). 

A 44 


Marigold 

Tagetes spp., Tagetes hybrids 

African marigold (Tagetes erecta) 

French marigold (T. patula) 



Parasitic 






Grey mould 



Root knot 


Leafhoppers 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Tomato big bud mycoplasma may cause 

greening of flowers. Tomato spotted wilt virus 

has been recorded on Tagetes spp. and tobacco 

streak virus on stinking Roger (T. minuta). See 

Annuals A 4. 



flowers. See Greenhouses N 22. 


Damping off (Pythium spp.) 

Phytophthora rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) has 

been recorded on Tagetes spp. overseas. 


Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) is a serious 

disease of Tagetes spp in Mexico (Hine 1984). 



Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) on Tagetes spp. 



Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) may be a major 

pest. They cause leaf speckling. See Annuals A 

3 (Fig. 15), Vegetables M 15. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) which 

may also be a major pest, also causes leaf 

speckling. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) feeds in 

flowers. Also greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum), leafminer (unidentified), marigold 

aphid (Neotoxoptera oliveri). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost damages flowers and 

foliage of African marigolds. 

Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae 

pv. tagetis) is the main leaf disease of Tagetes 

spp. in Australia. Angular leaf spots develop on 

African marigold. See Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas 

solanacearum) may occur on Tagetes spp. See 

Tomato M 98, Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf spot (Alternaria spp.) affects 

Tagetes spp. overseas (Fletcher 1984). See 

Annuals A 5. 

MANAGEMENT 




Hine, R. B. 1984. Verticillium Wilt of Tagetes spp. Plant 














Marigolds (Tagetes erecta, T. patula and Tagetes hybrids) are annuals and are propagated by seed. They 

perform well in any soil but need a sunny position and shelter from wind. They are shallow rooted plants so 

require regular watering in dry weather. Mulches of compost or leaf mould will prevent moisture loss and keep 

roots cool and discourage weeds. Growth regulators are used to control compactness and height and promote 

flowering. Harvest flowers for direct sale when flowers are fully open, flowers are sensitive to ethylene. Recut 

stems under water to prevent air from entering the water vessels before arranging and change water frequently, 

use a floral preservative (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 


Nasturtium 

Tropaeolum majus 

Family Tropaeolaceae 


Parasitic 




Bacterial wilt 







Aphids 

Caterpillars 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt virus: Straw-coloured 

spots develop on nasturtium leaves which become 

cupped, distorted and enlarged. Severely diseased 

plants are stunted. The disease is not seedborne on 

nasturtiums, so seed from infected plants can be 

saved. See Annuals A 1 (Fig. 1), A 4, Tomato M 

96. 

Others: Beet western yellows virus, broad bean 

wilt virus, cucumber mosaic virus, turnip mosaic 

virus have also been recorded on nasturtium 

(Buchen-Osmond et al. 1988). See Annuals A 4. 


Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) 

has been recorded on nasturtium. See Tomato 

M 98, Vegetables M 6. 


Fungal leaf spot (Acroconidiella tropaeoli) 

may disfigure leaves. See Annuals A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidiopsis sicula) may occur 

on the leaves. See Annuals A 6. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) 

causes plants to look unhealthy and on removing 

from the soil, small nodules are seen on the 





Black bean aphid (Aphis fabae) is very destructive 

to garden nasturtiums overseas, gathering on leaf 

undersurfaces in large numbers causing them to 

yellow and droop. See Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 




Leaves are chewed. Because of their green 

colour, caterpillars may be hard to find. See 

Annuals A 8, Brassicas M 39. 


maggots may mine in the leaves of nasturtium, 

cineraria, lettuce and some weeds. Thin pale 

mines develop on the leaves which widen as the 

maggot grows. See Annuals A 3 (Fig. 16), 

Cineraria A 28. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) is 

occasionally a serious pest of nasturtiums. 

Leaves develop a sandy mottle and in severe 

infestations, webbing may develop. See Annuals 

A 9, Beans (French) M 29. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Nasturtiums do not tolerate frost. 



McLean, G. 1988. Viruses of Plants in Australia. 

Research School of Biological Sciences, The 

Australian National University, Canberra. 




MANAGEMENT 



Nasturtiums are adaptable colourful annuals suitable for bedding plants, rockeries and tubs; dwarf annual 

cultivars are excellent for hanging baskets. Some compact bushy types have marbled or variegated leaves in 

green and white. Seed can be sown directly from spring to early autumn but in cold districts only sow in spring. 

Nasturtiums grow in a range of soils but avoid compost or animal manures which favour excessive leafy growth. 

Use complete fertilisers high in phosphorus so plants produce less foliage and flower more prolifically. They 

prefer open sunlight and rather dry conditions but will make quite a good show in partial shade. They are not 

usually used as a cut flower but if so harvest when flowers are fully open, place immediately in water with a 

preservative solution. 

A 46 


Petunia 

Petunia hybrida 

Family Solanaceae 


Parasitic 





Grey mould 





Cyclamen mite 

Looper caterpillars 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Virus symptoms may be caused by alfalfa mosaic 

virus, cucumber mosaic virus, potato virus Y, 

tobacco mosaic virus, tomato big bud mycoplasma 

(greening), tomato spotted wilt virus (Buchen- 

Osmond et al 1988). See Annuals A 4. 


Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas marginalis pv. 

marginalis). See Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf spot (Cercospora petuniae). See 

Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould, flower blight (Botrytis cinerea) 

causes spotting of petals in autumn at the end of 

flowering. Under wet conditions the whole flower 

collapses and a grey furry mass of spores develops. 

See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) may affect 

petunia. See Annuals A 6. 





Fusarium root rot (Fusarium sp.) 

Phytophthora diseases (Phytophthora spp.) 




Thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola) 

See Annuals 6, Vegetables M 7. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), spiral 

nematode (Helicotylenchus dihystera) have been 

recorded on Petunia hybrid. See Vegetables M 10. 


Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) feeds 

on new buds and leaves causing them to curl, 

twist and in some cases die. Control is difficult 

because the mites are protected inside the buds and 

the damage has often already occurred before 

control measures are started. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) chew 

leaves and can cause severe damage in shady 

situations. See Annuals A 8. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Petunias are frost sensitive. 



















Sink, K. C. 1984. Petunia. Springer-Verlag, NY. 




MANAGEMENT 

Petunias are popular annual bedding plants and are grown in pots, tubs and hanging baskets. Breeding 

programs promote perennial types, vigour, ground habits, disease resistance, drought tolerance, more colours 

and longer flowering. Propagate by minute seed which may be slow to germinate. Petunias are susceptible to 

the same pests and diseases as other Solanaceae, eg tomato, potato, capsicum, eggplant, nightshade, so crop 

rotation is recommended. Plant in well drained loam, with plenty of organic matter. They are sunloving plants 

and will tolerate dry conditions after establishment. Shelter taller, large-flowered types from strong winds as 

stems are weak. Encourage bushy growth by pinching out, prune back when flowers almost finished to 

encourage more flowers. Growth regulators are used for height control and flower promotion. Ethylene causes 

flowers of potted petunia to wilt, growers may treat them with anti-ethylene compounds. 


Phlox 

Annual phlox (Phlox drummondii) 

Perennial phlox (P. paniculata) 

Family Polemoniaceae 


Parasitic 


Tomato big bud 


Damping off 





Stem and bulb nematode 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Tomato big bud (greening) causes greening of 

the floral parts. See Annuals A 4, Tomato M 97. 

Root and stem rots, wilts are mainly a 

problem on perennial phlox, eg 



Verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.) (unconfirmed) 



Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus 

dipsaci). See Annuals A 7, Daffodils C 20. 



infest leaf undersurfaces and webbing may be 

produced. Leaves develop a sandy mottle. 

Perennial phlox (P. decussata)isvery susceptible, 

bedding or annual phlox (P. drummondi) is not so 

severely affected. See Annuals A 9, Beans 

(French) M 29. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Phlox are frost sensitive. 


Damping off (Pythium spp., other fungi) may 

affect seedlings. See Seedling N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots: Septoria drummondii 

develops mainly on Phlox drummondii, and 

S. phlogis mainly on P. paniculata. See Annuals 

A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) is the most 

serious disease of phlox. A white mealy growth 

develops on leaves and new shoots, plants may 

die back. See Annuals A 6. 
















MANAGEMENT 



Phlox is an important bedding and border plant and is one of the brightest summer flowers. Annual phlox 

(P. drummondii Drummondii Dwarf) is the most widely grown variety. Phlox may be propagated by seed sown 

directly (seeds germinate easily), or in punnets for transplanting later. Annual phlox prefers full sunlight but 

performs well in any situation which has sun for part of the day. Phlox should be watered regularly but not 

overwatered as they tolerate fairly dry conditions. Water around the base of plants and mulch to keep soil moist 

and protect shallow roots. When flowering commences avoid overhead watering as flowers last better if dry. 

Remove spent flowers to promote new buds and prolong flowering. Harvest when 1/2 florets are open and keep 

the stems in water. Sear stem ends in boiling water for a few seconds to seal latex. Flowers are sensitive to 

ethylene (Jones and Moody 1993). 

A 48 


Poppy 

Field poppy, Flanders poppy (Papaver rhoeas) 

Iceland poppy (P. nudicaule) 

Opium Poppy (P. somniferum) 

Family Papaveraceae (poppy family) 


Parasitic 





Grey mould, bud and neck rot 




stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). See Annuals A 6, 


Others: Downy mildew (Peronospora arborescens) 

may be serious on young plants. Also capsule 

moulds (Alternaria, other fungi), powdery mildew 

(Oidium sp.), leaf smut, fungal leaf spot (Entyloma 

fuscum). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.), spiral 

nematode (Rotylenchus robustus) and stem and 

bulb (Ditylenchus dipsaci) have been recorded on 

Papaver spp. See Annuals A 7, Vegetables M 10. 


Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt virus: Infected 

Iceland poppy plants are striking in appearance, 

yellow and stunted and may be severely damaged. 

See Annuals A 4, Tomato M 96. 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus and tomato big 

bud affect Iceland poppy; beet western yellows 

virus may affect field poppy. See Annuals A 4. 


Pseudomonas cichorii on Iceland poppy, P syringae 

pv. syringae on field poppy, Xanthomonas campestris 

pv. papavericola on Iceland and opium poppy. 


Grey mould, bud and neck rot, (Botrytis cinerea) 

rots buds and stems. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Root and stem rots: Dendryphion rot 

(Dendryphion penicillatum) may cause leaf spots, 

crown and roots rots and damping off (Bodman et 

al. 1996). Seedling blight, poppy fire (Pleospora 

papaveracea) is seedborne and can cause root rot and 

seedling blight of Papaver spp. Others: Rhizoctonia 

rot (Rhizoctonia sp., unconfirmed), sclerotinia base 

and flower rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), sclerotium 

MANAGEMENT 



Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) 


Lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis) 

Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) 

Springtails (Collembola) 






Coombs, B. (ed.). 1995. Horticulture Australia. Poppies 

583-586. Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Vic. 

Grey-Wilson, C. 1993. Poppies : The Poppy Family in 

the Wild and in Cultivation. Batsford, London. 

Horst, R. K 1990. Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. 

5th edn. Chapman & Hall, NY. 





Moody, H. 1994. Popular Poppies. Aust. Hort., Sept. 


Handling & Storage of Cut flowers, Florist Greens, 





Industry eg 

Poppy Growing : Cultural Notes : Opium Poppy 

(Tas Farmnote) 


Poppy Advisory and Control Board 




Poppies are magnificent bedding plants and unsurpassed for indoor decoration. There is a wide colour range. 

Poppies are also grown (by licensed growers only) for the production of pharmaceutical products in Tasmania 

(Coombs 1995). They are not suitable for the tropics. Propagated by seed, although perennial they are best 

treated as an annual. They prefer a sunny sheltered position, good drainage and friable fertile soil. Mulch but do 

not cover the crown. Root damage during weeding may cause stem bending. Pinch out early buds until plants 

have formed good clumps. Remove dead flowers to promote flowering and maintain quality. Birds may take the 

flowers off. Harvest when buds are coloured, pick in morning, avoid fully open flowers as they damage easily. 

Stems excrete milky latex, scorch cut stems over a flame or dip stems in boiling water for a few seconds to stop 

the flow of fluid, prevent rapid wilting and improve vase life; a few drops of stearin placed inside the flower at the 

base of the petals prevent early petal drop (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Poppies may be stored in water at 0- 

2 o C. Vase life is short (3-4 days) but poppies are not ethylene sensitive. 


Primrose 

Primula spp. 

Family Primulaceae (primrose family) 


Parasitic 





Grey mould 





Aphids 


Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus causes stunting, yellowgreen 

leaf mottle and flower breaking. Tomato 

spotted wilt virus causes stunting, yellowing, 

dried leaves, sometimes brown local lesions. 

Primrose mosaic virus affects Primula spp. 

overseas (Strider 1985). See Annuals A 4. 


Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

primulae). See Vegetables M 5. 


Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides fragariae) and 

root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) occur 

on Primula spp. See Vegetables M 10. 



Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) 



Primula aphid (Microlophium primulae) 

Root aphid (unidentified species) 


Others: Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) and 

twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may also 

damage Primula spp.. Root-eating weevils 

(Curculionidae) are a serious pest in Spain, plants 

collapse and die. Pine bark compost promotes root 

growth which increases food for weevils. 


Various species of snails and slugs cause 

damage. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

The calyx and flower stalks of potted P. obconica, 

contain a skin irritant (primin) which causes 

primula dermatitis in sensitised persons (Frohne 

and Pfander 1983). Primula are very susceptible to 

iron deficiency especially P. obconica and 

P. polyantha (Strider 1985). 


Fungal leaf spot (Ramularia primulae) 

commonly causes pale brown, circular or irregular 

spots up to 5 mm across, often with a yellow halo 

on older leaves. In humid conditions white spores 

develop on undersides of spots. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould, crown rot (Botrytis cinerea) may 

be a serious disease of primroses (cool season 

plants). See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may affect 

leaves. See Annuals A 6. 

Root, stem and crown rots: Damping off 

(Pythium sp.), rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia 

solani), sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) and 

thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola). 




MANAGEMENT 









Handling & Storage of Cut flowers, Florist Greens 






Richards, J 1993. Primula. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 

Robinson, M. A. 1990. Primulas : The Complete Guide. 

Crowood Press, Swindon, Wiltshire. 






Primulas are ideal bedding or border plants, and for hanging baskets and pots. P. malacoides is a perennial but 

is usually grown as a spring-flowering annual. Plants require dispersed light, abundant water and temperatures 

of 12-15 o C during flowering. Higher temperatures accelerate flower wilting. Control soil diseases by 

pasteurisation and fungicidal drenches. Harvest flowers when 1/2 florets open; flowers are sensitive to ethylene 

causing flowers to wilt. Place stems in tepid water immediately after picking. Store in water at 7-10 o C. Sell 

potted plants at the beginning of flowering. Nowak and Rudnicki (1990). 

A 50 


Snapdragon 

Antirrhinum spp. (Antirrhinum majus) 

Family Scrophulariaceae 


Parasitic 



Bacterial seedling blight 


Damping off 

Downy mildew 


Grey mould 



Rust 

Verticillium wilt 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mites 



Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus causes a mosaic on 

lesser snapdragon (Antirrhinum orontium), tomato 

big bud mycoplasma causes greening of the floral 

parts of snapdragon. See Annuals A 4. 


Bacterial seedling blight (Pseudomonas 

syringae pv. antirrhini) affects Scrophulariaceae, 

eg snapdragon, Calceolaria, Penstemon. Leaves 

and stems of young seedlings rot in wet 

conditions. The bacteria overwinter in debris from 

infected plants and are spread by water splash. 

This disease can be difficult to control. Avoid 

over-moist conditions and destroy infected plants 

and debris. Where the disease is a problem 

pasteurise seedbeds. Copper products are the only 

ones effective against bacteria in Australia but they 

are only protectants so they will not eradicate 

existing infections in plants. See Seedlings N 66. 


Anthracnose (Colletotrichum antirrhini) attacks 

seedlings or mature plants during warm moist 

weather. Sunken spots are formed on the leaves 

and stems. Spots are oval or circular and at first 

yellowish green to dull white with a narrow brown 

border. Small black spots, the fruiting bodies of the 

fungus, are formed later on affected areas. 

Anthracnose is very similar to a mild type of shothole 

blight. Stem cankers may coalesce to girdle 

the base of plants causing collapse of upper parts. 

May be seedborne. See Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spots (Septoria antirrhini, and probably 

Phoma spp.) may disfigure leaves. 

Shot-hole blight (Heteropatella antirrhini, Imperfect 

Fungi) affects snapdragon during cool humid 

weather. Pale yellow spots develop on leaves and 

green stems. Leaf spots may fall out, leaving a 

hole bordered by purplish tissue. Young shoots may 

die. If weather is unfavourable, new growth below 

affected parts will be healthy. 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause a soft 

rot of flowers, stems and seedlings. See 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) causes white 

powdery patches on leaves. See Annuals A 6. 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp. 

P. cinnamomi, P. citricola, P. megasperma 

also P. cryptogea overseas 


Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 



Rust (Puccinia antirrhini) is common and is the 

most serious disease of snapdragon (Fig. 47). 

All parts (leaves, buds, stems, branches and 

occasionally seed pods) and all stages of growth 

may be attacked, but it is most severe just before 

blooming during cool humid weather. Varieties 

vary in resistance. If plants are used as 

perennials, resistance may break down to varying 

degrees after the first season. See Annuals A 7. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) causes 

plants to wilt. The fungus enters through the 

fibrous roots and grows into the woody tissue of 

the stem and roots, blocking the vascular system 

which becomes discoloured. See Vegetables M 9. 


Damping off (Phytophthora spp. Pythium) and 

thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis 

basicola). See Annuals A 5, Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora antirrhini) 

causes dwarfing of plants, leaf tips and margins are 

curled downwards. Fungal threads and masses of 

spores develop on leaf undersurfaces giving them 

a mealy-white or whitish-violet appearance, 

healthy leaves have smooth green surfaces. See 

Annuals A 5. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) may 

affect snapdragon. See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Cotton aphid 

(Aphis gossypii) and green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae) causes twisting and curling of new 

leaves especially in cool, dry weather. See 



SNAPDRAGON 


Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) may be serious pests 

of snapdragons and may feed on buds and flowers 

(Fig. 48). See Sweetcorn M 89. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) may roll leaves 

together. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Meadow argus butterfly (Junonia villida calybe, 

Nymphalidae) caterpillars feed on snapdragon, 

Centaurium australis, Convolvulus valsinoidi, 

Plantago spp., in warm humid weather. Male and 

female butterflies are similar; females have a 

wingspan of about 43 mm, males are slightly smaller. 

Undersides of forewings are greyish-brown with dark 

irregular lines and spots. Fully grown caterpillars 

are black with bristly spines and 30-40 mm long 

(Fig. 49). There are probably several generations 

each year. Female butterflies lay green eggs singly on 

foliage. Pupae are brown with cream and pink marks 

and are suspended from a silken pad in sheltered 

spots, not far from food plants. Overwinters as 

pupae. Spread by butterflies flying. In northern 

Australia, the blue argus (Junonia orithya 

albicincta) feeds on Antirrhinum and other plants. 



Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) is microscopic 

andsucks sap from flower buds, flowers and leaves 

causing them to wither and curl. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Earth mites (Penthaleidae) and their nymphs suck sap 

from leaves causing them to silver. Severely affected 

plants may die. See Vegetables M 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) feeds on leaf 

undersurfaces causing them to become sandy 

mottled. Webbing may just be visible to the naked 

eye and can be seen on the undersides of infested 

leaves. See Beans (French) M 29. 



Snails can damage seedlings and older 

snapdragons. See Seedlings N 70. 



















Industry eg 

Diseases of Antirrhinums (NSW Plant Disease Bull. 

110, 1980) 


MANAGEMENT 



Choose varieties with some resistance to rust, eg some of the dwarf varieties. Some diseases of snapdragon 

are seedborne, eg rust, so only purchase certified disease-free seed or save seed from disease-free plants or 

treat seed. Propagation: Although a perennial treat as an annual. Sow thinly to avoid crowding of seedlings. 

Plant in well drained soil, in a sheltered position in full sun. Destroy crops as soon as possible after display or 

harvest to prevent buildup of inoculum, many diseases overwinter in the debris from infected crops. Pesticides 

are registered for the control of rust and other diseases and pests. There are US standards for snapdragon, 

eg weight, minimum florets open per stem and minimum stem length (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Harvest 

straight spikes when at least 1/3 of florets at the bottom of spikes are open. If flower preservatives are used, 

flowers may be harvested when 2-3 buds show colour. Keep flower stems upright after harvest as flowers are 

negatively geotropic (tend to grow away from the centre of the earth); or treat flowers after harvest with auxins to 

prevent bending; pinching the top bud when arranging flowers will also prevent bending and promote even 

flowering of the rest of the buds. Flowers are sensitive to ethylene, and may be treated with anti-ethylene 

compounds by the grower. Storage: At 2 o C with high relative humidity (90%) for up to 2-3 days. After storage 

recut under water to prevent air entering water vessels, place in fresh floral preservative for bud opening at 

correct temperature, relative humidity and light. Vase life: Up to 10 days. Recut stems removing at least 

25 mm. Remove all leaves below the waterline and place in a clean container with preservative solution. 

Remove dying flowers and replace water with preservative every 1-2 days (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Fig. 47. Rust pustules. 


Fig. 48. Budworms (Helicoverpa 

spp.) are up to 50 mm long. 

Fig. 49. Left : Meadow 

argus butterfly (Junonia 

villida calybe) has a 

wingspan of 40-43 mm. 

Right : Black caterpillars 

are 30-40 mm long. 

A 52 


Statice 

Sea lavender 

Limonium spp. 

Perennial sea lavender (Limonium sinuatum) 

Family Plumbaginaceae 


Parasitic 





Grey mould 


Rust 


WEEDS 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus and tomato spotted wilt 

virus occur on Limonium sp. See Annuals A 4. 


Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) 


Rust (Uromyces limonii) has been recorded on 

native yellow sea-lavender (Limonium australe) 

but not on cultivated species. See Annuals A 7. 



Cutworms (Noctuidae) 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae) 

Thrips (Thysanoptera) 


WEEDS 

Young plants compete poorly with weeds. 

Flower crops can be delayed by early uncontrolled 

weed competition. Cultivation can be difficult 

because of the rosette form and the shallow 

fibrous root system. Weeds can be controlled 

effectively by mulches, weed mats or herbicides. 

Pre-emergence herbicides can be applied to 

established plants in autumn and spring. See 

Annuals A 9. 


Bacterial leaf and stem spot (Pseudomonas 

andropogonis) may be serious. See Vegetables M 5. 



Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. 

dematium) cause serious leaf and stem blights 

and cankers. See Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spot (Cercospora insulana) commonly 

disfigures leaves. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) can attack seed, 

seedlings, flowers, flower stalks, foliage, crowns 

and stubs left after harvesting flowers. Grey 

mould may cause severe damage to stems, 

especially at nodes and on leafy 'wings', chlorosis 

of entire stalks and wings. See Greenhouses N 22. 








Moody, H. 1995. Hybrid Limonium. Aust. Hort., Jan. 














Industry eg 

Statice for Cut Flower Production (SA Fact sheet) 



GrowSearch (database (Qld DPI) 



MANAGEMENT 


Statice is used for cutting or drying. Although a perennial it is usually grown as a spring flowering annual, but 

may be cut back for a second flowering. The most commonly grown variety is L. sinuata hybrid which has an 

excellent colour range. Propagation is by seed. Statice prefer a fertile soil, wind protection (stems need 

support from at least 1 layer of mesh netting). It will flower under a wide range of temperatures but consistent 

and early flowering is best under cool conditions such as 10-13 o C night and 16-18 o C day. Effective weed 

control is essential during establishment. Harvest when most of the flowers are fully open. For everlastings, tie 

in bunches and hang them head downwards in a cool dry place. If dried well, the flowers will last for a long time 

without losing colour. Store fresh flowers in water at 2 o C. Vase life: Recut stems, removing at least 

20 mm of stem, remove lower leaves under water line and place in a clean container with a preservative solution 

to help prevent fouling of the water and a bad smell. Replace water daily (Jones and Moody 1993). 


Stock 

Common stock (Matthiola incana) 

Family Brassicaceae 


Parasitic 


Turnip mosaic virus 


Bacterial blight, black rot 


Downy mildew 


Grey mould 





Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Plague thrips 

Redlegged earth mite 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Turnip mosaic virus may affect stock. 

Leaves are distorted, wrinkled and mottled with 

patches of a lighter colour (Fig. 50). Flowers are 

spotted and streaked with lighter colours or white 

(Fig. 51), reducing their market value (flower 

break). Whole plants may be stunted, with leaves 

closer together than normal. Symptoms vary with 

temperature. Turnip mosaic is spread by the 

cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) and green 

peach aphid (Myzus persicae), not by seed. See 


Others: Tomato big bud mycoplasma 

(greening) causes greening of the floral parts. 


Bacterial blight, black rot (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. incanae) affects common stock and 

wallflower. Young plants wilt and collapse, 

plants are stunted, lower leaves yellow and fall. 

Plants infected at an older stage may survive and 

flower. If the stem of an infected plant is cut open, 

the vascular tissues are discoloured. If 

seedborne infection occurs, the disease may cause 

significant losses. Most damaging in seedbeds 

and early sown crops during warm humid weather. 

Do not plant stocks in soil that has carried a 

diseased crop in the previous year, practise a 2- 

year crop rotation. Destroy infected crop debris. 

If there is infection in a crop or seedbed, remove 

and destroy affected plants or seedlings and those 

around them together with surrounding soil. Use 

certified seed or seed from crops known to be free 

from the disease, otherwise hot water treat seed 

(the germination of good grade seed is reduced 

only slightly or not at all by this treatment). Do 

not allow treated seed to come in contact with 

crop debris, seed dust or old seed packets. Sow 

seed as soon after treatment as possible in well 

drained disease-free seed beds, eg pasteurised 

seedbeds. More plants will be affected in each 

successive crop if stock seed is saved from 

infected crops. See Tomato M 98, Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora 

subsp. carotovora) and Pseudomonas syringae 

pv. syringae. 


Downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica) is 

one of the most serious diseases of stock. 

Yellow patches develop on leaf uppersurfaces, 

corresponding patches of down-like spores 

develop on leaf undersurfaces. Leaves may 

become yellow, die and fall. If leaf fall becomes 

severe enough, the plant may die. The effect of 

the disease is more severe on small seedlings than 

mature plants. See Annuals A 2 (Fig. 5), A 5. 

Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria sp., other fungi) 

may develop on stock but do not appear to be 

important. See Annuals A 5. 


flowers of mature plants. Young plants in 

seedbeds may die from damping off caused by 

Botrytis (Pirone 1978). See Greenhouses N 22. 


Damping off (Botrytis cinerea, Pythium, Rhizoctonia). 

See Seedlings N 66. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.) causes 

wilting and death of fine roots. 

Pythium root rot (Pythium) causes similar damage as 

Phytophthora. 

Rhizoctonia collar rot (Rhizoctonia solani) is a 

major disease causing wilting of foliage; sunken 

cankers on the basal part of the stem. It is easily 

identified by the presence of soil particles, held by a 

fine web of brown fungal threads adhering to the 

damaged tissues. The root system is undamaged and 

decays only after the plant has died. See Annuals A 2 

(Fig. 9). 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor). 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). 

Soilborne diseases are spread in flood or drainage 

water, soil on machinery, tools, foot wear. Most 

have a wide host range and previous cropping may 

leave these fungi in soil. See Annuals A 6, 


Others: Club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) 

causes plants to yellow, small galls develop on 


A 54 


STOCK 


Non-parasitic 


Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) 


Aphids cause new leaves to curl, the whole plant 

may be severely stunted. These aphids are also 

vectors of the turnip mosaic virus. Other aphids, 

eg Lipaphis pseudo-brassicae (unconfirmed) and 

possibly turnip aphid (L. erysimi), may also infest 

stock. See Annuals A 7, Brassicas M 38, Roses J 

4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) feed on leaves, eg 



See Annuals A 8, Brassica M 39, M 40. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) may cause 

flowers to brown prematurely. See Roses J 6. 


may suck sap from leaves causing them to appear 

silvery. See Vegetables M 16. 



MANAGEMENT 

Environment: Stems at ground level may be 

affected by frost, and may split (Fig. 52). Yeast 

cells may invade affected areas. 

Nutrient deficiencies: Potassium deficiency 

causes burning on the older leaf margins. 



















Industry eg 

Diseases of Stocks (NSW Plant Disease Bull. 1980) 


Stocks are popular spring flowering annuals (really biennials), used for beds and borders, but are not suitable for 

the tropics. They are fragrant and excellent for indoor decoration. There is a large colour range, dwarf and tall 

varieties. The biggest advancement has been the development of strains with a very high percentage of double 

flowers. Only plant certified seed, or save from disease-free plants or treat seed from infected plants. 

Propagated by seed. Cultural methods: Do not plant stock where stock or related plants such as cabbages 

have been grown in the previous 2 years. They prefer neutral to slightly acid soil with plenty of organic matter 

and a sheltered position in the full sun. Good drainage is essential if root rots are to be avoided. Soil should be 

kept moist but avoid overwatering. Sanitation: Destroy diseased crops after the final display or harvest. 

Harvest stems with at least 1/3 to 1/2 of the lower flowers open. Flowers are sensitive to ethylene so growers 

may treat flowers with anti-ethylene compounds after harvest. Cutting off the root system is considered to 

decrease vase life of flowers (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Store upright to prevent bending (geotropism) at 

1-5 o C for no more than 1-5 days in a preservative solution. Vase life: Recut stems at an angle with a sharp 

knife, remove woody base, remove all leaves below the water line and place in preservative solution, change 

vase water daily to prevent odour due to bacterial growth (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Fig. 50. Leaf mosaic on stock 

caused by turnip mosaic virus. 


Fig. 51. Flower breaking on stock flowers 

caused by turnip mosaic virus. 

Fig. 52. Split stems due 

to frost injury. 


Violet, Pansy 

Viola spp. 

Family Violaceae (violet family) 


Parasitic 



Downy mildew 


Grey mould 



Rust 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Oedema 


Parasitic 


Mosaic and ringspots are common on leaves of 

the common violet (V. odorata). Symptoms are 

more pronounced during spring and autumn and 

seem to fade during summer months. Veinclearing 

and bright yellow leaf chlorosis may develop in 

pansies. Viruses recorded in Australia include 


virus. Some varieties of violets naturally have 

speckled flowers. Viola mottle virus has been 

recorded in Tasmania, causing reduced growth, 

leaf mottling and white stripes on petals. There is 

no vector; it is spread by vegetative propagation 

and mechanical inoculation. Overseas aster 

yellows mycoplasma causes veinclearing and 

bright yellow leaf chlorosis on Viola spp. Beet 

curly top virus may also occur on Viola spp. 



Downy mildew (Peronospora violae) may 

attack pansies causing light green to yellow 

patches on leaf uppersurfaces. Masses of mauve 

coloured spores form directly below these patches 

on leaf undersurfaces. White, clear blue and 

yellow flowering varieties are more susceptible 

than the variegated ones. Spectacular epidemics 

may occur after sprinkler irrigation during dry 

autumn weather (Michinton et al 2003). See 

Annuals A 5. 


Anthracnose, pansy leaf spot (Colletotrichum spp.) 

affects pansy and violet. Circular spots with black 

margins, sometimes zonate, appear on leaves. 

Flowers have petals which are spotted or improperly 

developed and produce no seed. Entire plants may be 

killed. The fungus overwinters in infected plant 

parts and infected crop debris in soil. Spores are 

spread by wind-splashed rain. Favoured by wet 

weather, overhead irrigation. Remove and destroy 

infected plants or plant parts. Clean up old leaves in 

autumn. If considered necessary, fungicides may be 

applied at first sign of leaf spots. See Fruit F 5. 

Spot anthracnose, scab (Sphaceloma violae, 

Ascomycetes) affects pansies and violets (Horst 

1990). All green parts of plants may be attacked, 

including seed capsules. Plants may be twisted and 

deformed. Elongated-circular lesions up to 8 mm 

across develop on leaves. Infected areas or spots 

may be bright yellowish, brown, rose-coloured or 

whitish. Some have dark greenish edges. Diseased 

areas readily fall out leaving a shot hole effect. If 

stems or leaf and flower stalks are completely 

girdled, the parts above die. Overwinters on host 

plants. Spores are spread by wind from infected 

plants and infected plant debris, movement of infected 

plants and seed. Sanitation: Destroy infected crops 

or badly affected plant parts. Do not propagate 

vegetatively or save seed from infected plants. 

Fungicides may be applied to susceptible species at 

first sign of the disease. See Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spots may be serious and develop most 

commonly on pansies (V. tricolor). Cercospora 

violae is probably the commonest and most 

serious. Also Phyllosticta violae, Septoria australis 

(only on native species) and S. violae. More fungi 

cause leaf spots on Viola spp. than on most 

other ornamental plants (Pirone 1978). See 

Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause a 

slimy decay of leaves and flower clusters. If wet 

weather continues a grey furry growth develops on 

the rotted areas. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) may attack 

pansies and violets causing grey-white mildew on 

leaves. Pansies (V. tricolor) are most commonly 

attacked, although it has also been recorded on the 

common violet (V. odorata). See Annuals A 6. 


Thielaviopsis black or brown root rot 

(Thielaviopsis basicola), probably also: 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.) 

Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.) 



These soilborne fungi are only likely to cause 

problems in over-wet areas with poor drainage. 

Plant crowns just above soil level. Usually there 

is a history of the disease occurring on surrounding 

plants. See Annuals A 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Rust (Puccinia hederaceae) occurs on some 

native Viola spp., eg V. betonicifolia and 

V. hederacea, but not on introduced species. 

Rusty brown pustules develop on leaf 

undersurfaces. See Annuals A 7. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) is 

uncommon but cause unthriftiness and small galls 

on roots. See Annuals A 7, Vegetables M 10. 

A 56 


VIOLET, PANSY 



Foxglove aphid (Aulacorthum solani) is brown and 

may be found on the back of leaves of common 

violets (V. odorata). 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) causes curling 

of leaf tips. See Stone fruits F 129. 



Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) may feed on 

violets. See Brassicas M 40. 

Butterfly (Argyreus hyperbius, Nymphalidae) 

caterpillars feed on native violet (V. betonicifolia) at 

night, sheltering away from the small violet plants 

during the day. The butterfly occurs uncommonly in 

the Gympie area of NSW (Common and Waterhouse 

1981). 


Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) is a 

serious pest causing a fine sandy mottle of leaves 

especially on common violet (V. odorata). Do not 

allow mite populations to build up. Direct spray 

irrigation to leaf undersurfaces reduces numbers. 

This is difficult with pansies and violets because of 

their low-growing habit. As there are few other 

serious pests, this should be an ideal situation for 

predatory mites. See Annuals A 3 (Fig. 17), Beans 



Snails and slugs are serious pests, eating holes in 

leaves. Vast numbers may build up in violet beds 

during wet weather so that it is difficult to keep 

them in check. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Violets and pansies are 

shallow-rooted plants and must receive adequate 

moisture during hot dry weather. They readily 

wilt but recover when watered. Care should be 

taken to site violets so they are sheltered from hot 

summer sun and drying winds. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Iron 

deficiency (chlorosis) can be a problem in alkaline 

soils. Iron can become unavailable to many plants, 

including violets and pansies, causing plants to 

develop interveinal yellowing of new growth. The 

problem can be prevented by planting violets in 

slightly acid soil and not applying alkaline 

fertilisers, or corrected by the application of iron 

chelates. See Azalea K 29. 

Oedema causes small blisters to develop on leaf 

undersurfaces especially those closest to the 

ground. The blisters enlarge, become corky and 

leaves may yellow and fall. See Geranium A 35. 






Horst, R. K 1990. Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. 




Minchinton, E., Pierce, P., Mebalds, M. and Hepworth, 

G. 2003. Controlling Downy Mildew in Nursery 

Seedlings. Nursery Paper No.12. Australia. 









Selection 

MANAGEMENT 



Horticultural requirements: Violets (V. odorata) are hardy perennials. Pansies (V. tricolor) need a sunny 

location and are useful for hanging baskets. Native violets (V. hederacea) prefer shady areas under trees. 

Resistant varieties: Many new hybrid pansy varieties offer great diversity in flower size and colour. They are 

earlier flowering, free flowering, produce high quality flowers, stretch resistant (do not become leggy) and are 

tolerant to heat and low temperatures. Disease-free planting material: Do not propagate from diseased or 

pest-infected plants. Rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani), grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) and other diseases 

may be seedborne. 


Propagation by division or by seed depending on the type. Cultural methods: Shelter from hot summer sun 

and drying winds. Plant in well-drained and slightly acid soil, in a medium to sandy loam with plenty of organic 

matter. Crowns should be set just above the soil surface. Irrigate plants appropriately to discourage twospotted 

mite, however, leaf wetness encourages diseases. Sanitation: Remove dead or withered flowers. If disease is 

spreading from leaf to leaf, fungicides may be applied to commercial crops. 

Postharvest 

Violets are mainly used in posies. Harvest when flowers are almost open and place in water containing 

preservative solution. Flowers lose their fragrance after several days. Regularly mist violets as they can absorb 

water through their flower heads. For storage, flowers are not placed in water but bunches are wrapped in 

waxed paper and may be stored at 1-4 o C for up to 2 weeks (Larson 1992, Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 


Zinnia 

Zinnia elegans, Zinnia spp. 



Parasitic 

Virus and virus-like diseases: 





Grey mould 





Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Plague thrips 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Tomato big bud mycoplasma (greening) and 

tomato spotted wilt virus. See Annuals A 4. 


Damping off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani) 






Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.). See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may infest 

young shoots. See Annuals A 7, Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Budworms 

(Helicoverpa spp.) feed on buds which may not 

open. See Sweetcorn M 89. Cluster caterpillar 

(Spodoptera litura) and other species chew flowers 

and stems. See Annuals A 8. 

Mites (Acarina): Twospotted mite (Tetranychus 

urticae), cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus), 

broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus). See 

Annuals A 9. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) infests flowers 

causing them to brown. See Roses J 6. 


Bacterial leaf spot, angular leaf spot 

(Xanthomonas campestris pv. zinniae) may kill 

seedlings and growing tips. On older leaves, 

angular or circular, reddish brown spots, 1-4 mm 

across, are often surrounded by a yellow halo. See 



solanacearum). See Tomato M 98. 


Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria zinniae, 

Didymella ligulicola). See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). See Greenhouses 

N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) affects leaves. 

See Annuals A 2 (Fig. 8), A 6. 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Zinnia need protection from frost and wind. Cold 

damage can make flowers dry out and die. Some 

large flowered varieties may have weak necks. 















Industry eg 

Powdery Mildew of Ornamentals (NSW Agfact) 




Zinnias are popular summer flowering annuals. Dahlia and cactus-flowered classes are the most popular for cut 

flowers. Bushy varieties have some resistance to powdery mildew. Propagated by seed. Zinnias require a 

warm sunny position, rich soil, a good water supply, but they tolerate drought. Protect from wind and frost. 

Growth regulators are used to promote flowering and control height. Harvest fully open flowers, avoid old 

flowers with centres full of yellow pollen. Vase life is approximately 7-10 days, recut stems, removing at least 20 

mm underwater. Remove all leaves below waterline and place in preservative solution. Replace water regularly 

(Jones and Moody 1993). 

A 58 


Bromeliads 

Fig. 53. Tiny armoured scales on bromeliad leaves. 

SYMPTOMS 

Leaf tips may 

yellow and later 

brown 

Brown marks on 

leaves 

Leaves elongated 

(long and thin) 

Leaves wilting 

Inner leaves 

quilling (sticking 

together) 

Lower leaves 

dying (yellowbrown) 

Lower leaves 

brown at base 

CAUSE 

Drainage inadequate 

Too dry or too cold 

Too little air movement 

Water is alkaline 

Watering in direct sun 

Overwtaering 

Poor drainage 

Light intensity too strong 

Improper use of 

pesticides 

Not enough light 

Too much nitrogen 

Lack of water 

Poor drainage 

No water in cup 

Excess pesticide rate 

Insufficient misting 

Senescence of older 

base leaves 

Overwatering 

Mixture too dense 

Poor drainage 

Leaved embedded in 

mixture 

Fig. 54. Some symptoms of inappropriate 

environmental conditions. After Williams (1988). 

Fig. 55. Natural whitish waxy bloom on leaves of Aechmea 

fasciata. 

BROMELIADS B 1

Bromeliads 

Family Bromeliaceae 


Parasitic 


Damping off 

Root and top rots, wilt 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mealybugs 

Scales 



Non-parasitic 

Algae 

Environment 



Variegated leaves 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 

In contrast to many other house and tropical 

greenhouse plants, bromeliads are remarkably free 

from major pests and diseases. Probably the most 

important are the various scales which can be 

disfiguring and difficult to eradicate. Bromeliads 

have tough leaves so are resistant to many pests. 


Damping off (various species) has proved to be 

one of the more serious diseases of bromeliads 

grown from seed. Sowing seeds farther apart and 

placing in a well lit and well ventilated position 

will reduce the risk of damping off. Before 

sowing, pasteurise or treat the growing medium 

with a suitable fungicide and disinfect containers. 

Treat seeds with fungicide to minimise the danger 

from any fungal spores which may be attached. 


Root and top rots, wilts 

Aechmea wilt, fusarium wilt (Fusarium sp.) occurs 

overseas and damages Aechmea fasciata by blocking 

water conducting tissue within the plant. Initially 

a brown, fast-spreading rot develops on lower areas of 

exterior leaves causing foliage to rapidly deteriorate, 

die and finally fall. If foliage remains attached to the 

plant then the fungus will gradually penetrate and kill 

the inner leaves of the rosette. Aechmea wilt is 

favoured by high humidity and temperatures > 

25 o C. Remove and destroy affected plants. Fusarium 

moniliforme and F. oxysporum have been recorded on 

bromeliads in Australia. See Vegetables M 9. 

Phytophthora root and top rot (Phytophthora spp.) 

may occur due to excessive watering or poor drainage 

of the potting medium. See Trees K 6, Vegetables 

M 7. 

Others: Fungal leaf spots (various species). 


Many species attack field grown pineapples 

(Ananas comosus) which belong to the same 

family. Infestations on bromeliads do not seem to 

be common. Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne 

spp.) has been recorded on bromeliads (Bodman et 

al. 1996). See Pineapple F 104. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may infest 

young soft tissue causing stunted growth. 

Although uncommon they should be controlled 

promptly. See Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Looper 

caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) chew flower 

spikes and the foliage of most soft-foliaged 

bromeliads, eg Guzmania, Vriesea, leaving gaping 

holes and ragged edges. They are always well 

camouflaged and are difficult to find. If there are 

only a few, they may be removed by hand. See 

Annuals 8, Vegetables M 13. 


Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes) 

commonly infests bromeliads. Infestations build up 

at the base of plants in warm weather but may 

occur on other parts (Broadley et al. 1993, Swaine et 

al. 1991). See Pineapple F 104. 

Root mealybug (Rhizoecus falcifer) bodies are 

slightly smaller than those of longtailed mealybugs 

and are evenly covered with white wax. They live 

only in soil and attack roots of terrestrial plants, 

stunting them. 

Others: Possibly tuber mealybug (Pseudoccocus 

affinis) and longtailed mealybug (P. longispinus). 

Sooty mould grows on the honeydew excreted by 

the mealybugs. Mealybugs are spread via 

planting material and by ants within a planting. 

Mealybugs may be controlled using predatory 

mealybug ladybirds (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) 

or parasitic wasps (Leptomastix dactylopii). Root 

mealybugs may also be controlled by immersing 

the entire plant in an insecticide, making certain 

that the potting medium is either thoroughly 

soaked or removed from the plant prior to 

treatment. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Scales (Hemiptera) 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae) are the most 

serious pests of bromeliads (Fig. 53). Aechmea 

scale, flyspeck scale (Gymnaspis aechmeae) infests 

Bromeliaceae (especially Aechmea and Billbergia), 

overseas also pineapple, occasionally other plants. 

Scale infestations at the base of plants are difficult to 

detect. The crawlers select a favourable site on the 

host plant, often near the parent scale, and insert a 

thread-like feeding tube and commence feeding. It 

forms a round, black protective cover scale < 0.5 mm 

across and then moults (losing its legs) to become an 

adult. Males form an oval scale. Females form a 

hemispherical black scale about 1 mm across and 

remain encased within the skin of their previous stage. 

This double covering of the adult make the flyspeck 

B 2 

BROMELIADS

BROMELIADS 

scale more difficult to control with insecticides than 

other scales. Scale is spread by the introduction of 

infested plants to collections, by crawlers moving 

from plant to plant, eggs and crawlers may be spread 

on plants, clothing and by wind. Favoured by 

overcrowding. Sanitation: Remove or burn badly 

infested leaves or whole plants. Biological control: 

Two small parasitic wasps and a ladybird beetle are 

important natural enemies which keep small 

infestations under control. Plant quarantine: 

Inspect newly acquired plants for scales. Isolate 

infested plants and destroy severely infested plants. 


from infested plants. Pesticides: Only spray if 

natural controls are ineffective, eg infestation is 

severe. Spraying must be thorough to reach scales at 

the base of the plant. Repeat spraying after several 

weeks may be necessary. It is advisable after 

spraying to turn potted plants on their side if possible 

to allow excess spray to drain from leaf bases. Treat a 

few plants of different species first to check plant 

tolerance to insecticide. After 3 weeks, try to wipe 

the scales off at the base. If scales are dry and wipe 

off easily with a finger then they are dead; if not, then 

they are probably still alive. See Citrus F 39. Orchid 

scale (Diaspis boisduvalii) affects smooth-leaved 

bromeliads, eg Aechmea, Guzmania, Tillandsia, 

Vriesea. Scales are tiny, female scales are circular, 

males are more elongated with 3 ridges along them. 

Scales tend to congregate under sheathing leaves 

around the base of the plant. See Orchids G 6. 

Pineapple scale (Diaspis bromeliae) prefers green 

leafed bromeliads, eg green Tillandsia, Vriesia, 

Guzmania, pineapple, Agave spp., Bilbergia spp. and 

Bromelia spp. Female scales are about 2 mm across, 

circular and greyish white. See Pineapple F 104. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Soft brown scale (Coccus 

hesperidium) may infest Aechmea, eg Aechmea 

tillansioides, and is frequently found on glossy leaves 

of Vriesea and Guzmania. Soft scales produce 

honeydew resulting in sooty mould. Soft scales 

are easily controlled by dipping in insecticide or 

spraying, after which the scales can be wiped or 

brushed off when dead. See Citrus F 41. 


infestations may be difficult to detect. The first 

indications of their presence are pin-prick holes in 

the leaves, fine webbing in the underside of 

foliage and spotting with rusty yellow and black 

dots. Leaf margins may blacken. If twospotted 

mite becomes established and remains unchecked, 

the chance of survival of affected bromeliads is 

slight. Daily spraying with water will help prevent 

attack and a forceful spray of water will remove 

them. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: 

Grasshoppers (Acrididae) may 

attack bromeliads outdoors during summer, 

destroying young shoots, soft leaves and flowers. 

Non-parasitic 

Algae buildup occurs in nature especially in the 

Peruvian desert Tillandsia, whose leaves become 

grass green during fogs. In cultivation algae may 

buildup in the scales of grey or white Tillandsia 

due to excessive humidity. See Greenhouses N 27, 

Turfgrasses L 13. 

Environment: Symptoms of inappropriate 

environmental conditions are numerous (Fig. 54). 

Light is a major requirement. For neoregelieas, 

good light is essential, even direct sunlight. All 

other bromeliads need good light but it should not 

be too strong. Avoid direct sunlight as leaves can 

be readily sunburnt. Position them where they 

can be viewed from above as they are best seen 

from this angle. Temperature: Most bromeliads 

need warm temperatures and high humidity. 

Dryness and cold are the most common causes of 

damage. Optimum temperatures are 15-21 o C. 

Only some billbergias can withstand temperatures 

< 13-15 o C (Davidson 1982). Constant levels of 

warmth and humidity are necessary during the 

active growth period. At temperatures > 18 o C 

mist foliage daily with tepid water. Ventilation: 

Leaf tips may yellow or brown due to lack of air 

movement. Watering: The main function of 

roots is to hold the plant in the pot. Bromeliads 

should be potted only in pebbles, coarse bark and 

charcoal so that water does not remain around their 

roots. Bromeliads are unique in that they require 

water around the growing point in the centre of the 

plant. Many have a watertight funnel formed by a 

rosette of leaves which absorbs food and water. 

The leaf vase should be kept filled with water. 

Water soil moderately allowing the top 25 mm to 

dry out between waterings. During winter rest 

periods, water only enough to keep the top soil 

slightly moist. Seasonal care: Bromeliads 

probably need to be watered once per week in 

winter and more frequently in summer. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Most 

bromeliads respond well to regular foliar fertilising 

during active growth. Plants grown in mixtures 

with peat moss may require extra feeding 

throughout the year. Those grown in soil should 

not be fed during winter rest periods. 

Pesticide injury: Bromeliads breathe through 

their leaves (like other plants) and the application 

of white oil will result in death if left in contact 

with the foliage. 

Variegated leaves: Leaves may be naturally 

waxy (Fig. 55), spotted, striped or just plain green. 

Do not confuse spotted leaves with scale 

infestations. 

Others: Fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae, 

Sciaridae) may infest overwet pots. 


Various species may damage seedlings, succulent 

leaves and flowers. See Seedlings N 70. 

WEEDS 

Various weeds, eg Oxalis spp. and liverworts 

may infest container-grown bromeliads. See 

Greenhouses N 27, N 28. 

BROMELIADS B 3

BROMELIADS 






Broadley, R. H., Wassman III, R. C. and Sinclair, E. 

1993. Pineapple Pests and Disorders. Qld Dept. of 

Primary Industries, Brisbane. 

Bromeliad Society Inc. 1977. Bromeliads : A Cultural 

Handbook. Bromeliad Society. Santa Monica, 

California. 

Butt, L. P. 1982. Diaspididae gymnaspis aechmeae. 

Bromeletter, The Bromeliad Society of Australia. 

March/April 1982. PO Box 340, Ryde, NSW 2112. 

Butt, L. P. 1983. Battling an Old Enemy. Bromeletter, 

The Bromeliad Society of Australia. May/June 1983. 

PO Box 340, Ryde NSW 2112. 

Davidson, W. 1982. The Houseplant Survival Manual : 

How to Keep Your Houseplants Healthy. Nelson, 

Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 

Kramer, J. 1981. Bromeliads. Harper & Row, NY. 




Loudon, B. J. 1982. Fly-speck Scale. Bromeletter, The 

Bromeliad Society of Australia. Nov./Dec. 1982. 

PO Box 340, Ryde, NSW 2112. 

Rauh, W. 1979. Bromeliads : For Home, Garden and 

Greenhouse. Blandford Press, Poole, UK. 

Swaine, G., Ironside, D. A. and Concoran, R. J. 1991. 

Insect Pests of Fruit and Vegetables. 2nd edn. Qld 

Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane. 

Williams, B. E. (ed.). 1988. Growing Bromeliads. The 

Bromeliad Society of Australia, Kangaroo Press, 


Wilson, L. 1977. Bromeliads for Modern Living. 

Merchants Pub., Kalamazoo, Michigan. 


Bromeliad Society Inc., USA (BSI Journals) 


State/Territory/Regional Bromeliad Societies (eg 

Bromeletter, Bromel News) 

The Bromeliad Society of Australia (Journal of the 

Bromeliad Society) 

See Preface xii, House plants N 35, Greenhouses N 

22, Nurseries N 51, Pineapple F 105 



MANAGEMENT 

Quality bromeliads are usually available only from specialist nurseries. Some species have some resistance 

to low temperatures, and Fusarium wilt. Ensure that plants are disease and pest-free, eg free from mealybugs 

and scales, do not propagate from infested plants. Propagation is by the removal of offsets from the base of 

the parent plant and by seed. Provide good cultural care, eg appropriate airy acid potting mix and good 

drainage. Choose growing sites carefully, most like full sun but not excessive exposure. Plants grow in full or 

dispersed light, in summer they need frequent misting and moderate watering. In winter when the temperature 

drops they need only limited watering. The temperature must not be too low in winter. Well-cared for 

bromeliads seldom develop fungal diseases or become infested with mealybugs and scales. Plants should be 

inspected frequently, and any problem assessed and treated promptly if required. Bromeliads grow very 

slowly, so that any damage that is allowed to develop is evident for a long time. Avoid potting into large pots 

and repot only when the plant seems out of proportion to its pot. Quarantine plants found to be infested with 

mealybugs or scale. There are no obligatory standards for potted bromeliads in international trade; principles 

governing the sorting and preparation of potted plants have been established but function more as 

recommendations rather than as requirements. Proposed standards have been prepared in the US (Nowak 

and Rudnicki 1990). Standards for exhibition, eg stage of flowering, freedom from pests and diseases, should 

be sought from the appropriate societies. Sell bromeliads, eg Vrisea spp., when plants are well established in 

pots and at the beginning of flowering. After sale care is different for different species (Nowak and Rudnicki 

1990). 

B 4 

BROMELIADS

Bulbs, 

Corms, 

Rhizomes 


Tubers 

Flower problems 

Virus diseases 

Grey mould (Botrytis) 

Aphids 

Gladiolus thrips injury 

Failure to flower 

Foliage problems 



Aphids 

Gladiolus thrips injury 

Snail and slug damage 

Remember 

All virus diseases, 

nearly all bacterial 

and fungal diseases, 

all nematodes diseases 

and most insect and 

mite pests are carried 

over in the bulbs from 

season to season 

Bulb problems 

Bacterial rots 


Fusarium wilts 

Bulb aphids 

Bulb flies and mites 

Mealybugs 

Thrips 

Fig. 56. Diseases and pests affecting various parts of bulbous plants. 

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBERS C 1 

Anemone (Anemone), C 11 

Ranunculus (Ranunculus) 

Begonia (Begonia spp.) C 14 

Cyclamen (Cyclamen persicum) C 16 

Daffodil, jonquil (Narcissus spp.) C 19 

Dahlia (Dahlia pinnata) C 24 

Freesia (Freesia hybrida) C 27 

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) C 29 

Hyacinth (Hyacinthus spp.) C 35 

Iris (Iris spp.) C 37 

Lily (Lilium spp.) C 40 

Tulip (Tulipus spp.) C 42 

Zantedeschia, arum lily C 45 

(Zantedeschia spp.) 

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBERS C 1

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBERS 

Fig. 57. Flower breaking virus 

ymptoms on tulip flower. 

Fig. 58. Virus symptoms (light and 

dark green mottle) on tulip leaves. 

Fig. 59. Tomato spotted wilt virus on dahlia. 

Left : Yellow spots/lines on leaves. 

Right : Streaking on stem. 


Fig. 60. Fungal leaf spot 

(Heterosporium iridis) on iris 

leaves. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 61. Fusarium wilt, basal rot 

(Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

narcissi). Affected bulb cut cut in 

half to show decay advancing 

from the basal plate upwards 

through the scales. 

Fig. 63. Fungal rots develop on 

stored bulbs. Different fungi 

produce spores masses of 

various colours, eg Aspergillus 

niger (black), Botrytis (grey), 

Fusarium (pink), Penicillium 

(blue or green). 

Fig. 64. Stem and bulb nematode 

damage (Ditylenchus dipsaci) to 

daffodil. Bulb cut longitudinally 

to show browning of scales. 

Fig. 62. Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii) on onion. Note small, brown 

round sclerotia. 

C 2 

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBERS

BULBS. CORMS. RHIZOMES AND TUBERS 

Fig. 66. Bulb flies. Left : Lesser bulb fly (Eumerus 

tuberculatus) maggots. Right : Narcissus bulb fly 

(Lampetia equestris) maggot. 

Fig. 65. Aphids (Aphididae) on garlic. 

Fig. 67. Bulb mites (Acarina). Left : Bulb 

mite(Rhizoglyphus echinopus). Right : Bulb scale 

mite ( (Steneotarsonemus laticeps) which is less 

than half the size of bulb mite. 

Fig. 68. Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex) injury. Left : Silvering 

of leaves. Right : White speckling on dark flowers. 

Fig. 69. Slime moulds growing on onion bulbs. 

Fig. 70. Couchgrass (Cynodon dactylon) 

rhizomes growing though a nerine bulb. 


Bulbs 

Corms, Rhizomes, Tubers 


Parasitic 



Bacterial soft rot 



Fusarium wilt 

Grey mould 

Root, bulb and stem rots 




Aphids 

Bulb flies 

Bulb mites 

Caterpillars 

Mealybugs 

Thrips 

Wireworms 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


WEEDS 


Parasitic 

The term 'bulb' is used whether the plant is a true 

bulb, corm, rhizome or tuberous root. Bulbous 

plants are remarkably free from major problems. 

Nearly all those that attack these plants are carried 

over from season to season in the bulb (Fig. 56). 


Scientific name: Most species of bulbs can be 

infected by a number of virus diseases. 

Host range: Some viruses affecting bulbs, eg 

cucumber mosaic virus, have a wide host range, 

but most can only infect one species or genus, eg 

tulip flower breaking virus only infects tulip. 

Symptoms: In susceptible varieties flower 

production and quality are affected. Flowers may 

be flecked, streaked or blotched and tulips may 

show a flower break (Fig. 57). Distortion can also 

occur. Plants may fail to flower. Foliage may 

show mild to severe light and dark green mottling 

(Figs. 58, 59). Leaves may be malformed and 

brown to purplish streaks may develop. Stems 

may be streaked (Fig. 59). Bulbs usually do not 

show symptoms, but distortion can occur. As 

plants can be infected with more than one virus it 

is often impossible for the lay person to recognise 

which virus is causing the problem. Although 

some species remain vigorous and productive in 

spite of virus infection, others gradually decline. 

Virus infections are often latent (present in the 

host but no symptoms develop). Symptoms may 

be more obvious during cool weather. 

Overwintering: Infected bulbs in the ground 

and in storage. Some with a wide host range, eg 

cucumber mosaic virus, overwinter in other host 

plants including weeds. Not usually in seed. Also 

self-sown bulbs from previous crops. 


propagation (they are present in the bulbs of 

infected plants even though no symptoms are 

observed in the bulb itself) and by the 

introduction of infected bulbs. Many viruses are 

also spread by insect vectors (aphids, 

leafhoppers, thrips). Some also by fungal 

organisms (not common), by mechanical 

transmission of plant sap on hands, clothes and 

tools during plant handling, eg flower cutting. 

Generally not by seed. 

Conditions favouring: Repeatedly planting 

bulbs from infected plantings. An abundance of 

vectors, eg aphids. Symptoms may be more 

pronounced in cool weather. 

Control: Virus diseases are difficult to control. 

As there is no 'cure' for in fected plants, the aim is 

to prevent spread of virus from infected to healthy 

plants. Control is based primarily on the use of 

virus-tested bulbs, roguing and the application of 

insecticides to keep aphid vector populations 

down. To minimise losses: 

Cultural methods: Where practical, rotate 

plantings. Infected bulbs accidentally left in the 

soil will produce plants the following season and 

act as a source of infection. Overseas some 

viruses, eg tobacco necrosis virus, which are 

spread by soilborne fungi are particularly 

prevalent where hosts, eg tulips, have been 

grown on the same land for consecutive seasons. 

Sanitation: Inspect crops regularly, dig up and 

destroy/burn infected plants. Roguing (removal 

of diseased plants) of susceptible varieties 

should commence early in spring before rising 

temperatures mask symptoms and make roguing 

difficult. In practice this is usually only carried 

out for plants showing severe symptoms on 

either the flower or foliage. Now that virustested 

bulbs are available for many species, 

roguing will probably be practised more 

extensively. It is not possible to rogue varieties 

in which viruses are latent (varieties which carry 

the virus but show no symptoms). For this 

reason susceptible varieties which are being 

rogued for virus should be grown in isolation to 

minimise reinfection. As many of the viruses 

are spread by insects, even with severe roguing 

in susceptible varieties in commercial plantings 

(and insecticide applications to control aphids), 

over 10-15% of plants the following season may 

be infected. Control weed hosts in the close 

vicinity of cormlet and commercial plantings. 

Resistant varieties: Some bulb varieties are 

more susceptible to virus infections than others. 

Plant quarantine: Grow newly acquired bulbs, 

unless guaranteed virus-tested, in isolation. Do 

not plant virus-tested bulbs adjacent to infected 

crops, eg plant virus-tested gladiolus corms at 

least 1 km from virus-infected gladiolus crops. 

Disease-free planting material: Do not 

propagate from older diseased bulbs. Plant 

virus-tested bulbs for new plantings on a 

regular basis. Virus-tested bulbs grown adjacent 

to old infected plantings will become infected. 

Physical and mechanical methods/Pesticides: 

Control aphids during the growing season, 

C 4 



commencing as soon as blades appear through 

the soil. Aphid flights occur throughout the year 

in Australia and virus diseases are spread from 

infected plants before the symptoms of virus 

disease can be recognised and plants rogued. 

In outdoor plantings, unless granular soil 

insecticides are applied at planting, it is difficult 

to obtain satisfactory control of aphids by 

spraying. When used in conjunction with 

growing plants in aphid-proof greenhouses, 

spraying is much more successful, anti-virus 

netting is now available. Insect vectors, eg 

aphids and thrips, should be controlled in stored 

bulbs and corms. In home gardens it is 

impossible to control insect vectors and this 

should not be attempted. 


Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora 

pv. carotovora, Erwinia spp.) may affect bulbs, eg 

irises, both in the ground and in storage. Leaves of 

infected plants turn yellow, wilt and collapse. 

When the plant is lifted, the bulb below the wilted 

foliage is a soft, wet, pulpy mass. The bacteria are 

generally present in soil or decaying plant material, 

entry usually occurs through wounds. Cultural 

methods: Avoid overcrowding of beds, shaded 

or poorly drained sites and over-irrigation. Rotate 

bulbs with non-susceptible crops. Bulbs become 

more susceptible with age or poor storage 

conditions. Avoid injury during cultivation and 

harvesting. Bulbs should be dried before storage 

and stored under cool, well-ventilated conditions. 

Sanitation: Tools used for separating rhizomes 

and tubers should be disinfected. Rotting tubers 

in the field and in storage should be destroyed. 



Fungal leaf spots (Botrytis, 

Heterosporium, Stagonospora, other species) can 

be disfiguring (Fig. 60), leaves may die 

prematurely. Plants may be weakened and 

flowering affected. Sometimes leaf spot fungi 

attack other parts of the plant, eg Botrytis, 

commonly attacks leaves, flowers, flower stems 

and bulbs. Leaf spot fungi overwinter on the 

tops of bud scales, crop debris and infect leaves as 

they emerge. They are spread by the use of 

infected bulbs, spores are spread by wind. In small 

plantings, infected leaf tips may be removed by 

hand, and destroyed/burnt. Growing crops may be 

sprayed regularly if necessary with a fungicide. 

Crop debris should be destroyed. See Annuals A 5. 

Fusarium wilt, fusarium basal rot 

(Fusarium oxysporum f.spp.) may affect many 

bulbs in the field and in storage. A firm brown rot 

of the basal plate and scales is seen when an 

infected bulb is cut down the middle (Fig. 61). 

The fungus gains entry through dead root bases to 

the basal plate and bulb scales,or through wounds 

at the beginning or at any time during dormancy. 

Basal rot can spread through bulbs during storage. 

Affected bulbs, if planted, rot in the soil, without 

germinating, or produce weak, yellow foliage, 

plants die. Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) 

may also infect some bulbs. See Vegetables M 9. 

Grey mould, neck rot, Botrytis (Botrytis 

cinerea, Botrytis spp.) may attack flowers (petal 

blights), petioles, leaves (leaf spots) and bulbs of 

many species. A greyish brown powdery fungal 

growth, often with a crust of hard black sclerotia 

(resting bodies) may develop on corms. Grey 

mould causes a decay of the petiole bases of 

cyclamen and can quickly kill bulbs so prompt 

control measures are necessary. Grey mould can 

develop on flowers of freesia when packed 

especially in plastic sleeves. Minimise losses by 

only planting in well drained soil and providing 

good ventilation. Remove damaged leaves, broken 

or unpicked flower heads, remove and destroy 

infected plants and bulbs as soon as noticed, and 

spray remaining plants with a fungicide. Inspect 

and destroy infected bulbs after lifting, after 

storage and before planting, treat remaining 

healthy bulbs with fungicide before storage and 

before planting. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Root, bulb and stem rots are 

common in bulbs due to the soft succulent 

tissues of underground parts (Fig. 63). Some, eg 

Fusarium, tend to be host specific while others, eg 

Sclerotium stem rot and Sclerotinia rot, have wide 

host ranges and may attack many other plants. 

Black mould (Aspergillus niger) attacks bulbs, eg 

onion and other plants. Black, powdery masses of 

spores develop on the surface of outside scales 

and later between scales. See Onion M 67. 

Damping off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani) may 

be serious on bulbs. Well drained potting mixes and 

avoiding overwatering will reduce likelihood of root, 

crown and leaf stalk rots. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fusarium rots (Fusarium spp.). Pink spore masses 

form on rotted tissue. See Vegetables M 7. 

Fusarium wilt, fusarium basal rot (Fusarium 

oxysporum f.spp.). See above. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may affect all plant 

parts of bulbs. See above. 

Penicillium moulds, blue and green moulds 

(Penicillium spp.) may develop on fleshy bulb 

scales. If severe the whole bulb may rot during 

storage but in mild infections it may only slightly 

affect growth after planting. Overwinters in 

infected corms and crop debris. Spread by 

vegetative propagation from infected bulbs, spores are 

spread by wind. The disease can also spread from 

corm to corm in the field and in storage, by infested 

soil (mycelium, sclerotia in crop debris) on machinery 

etc. Favoured by injury to bulbs during lifting or 

storage and cool, damp conditions during digging and 

storage. See Fruit F 6, Vegetables M 6. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) causes a 

rapidly developing soft rot of bulbs in storage, with 

characteristic coarse open, black and white fungal 

growth. Favoured by plant injury during lifting and 

handling and prolonged warm, moist conditions 

during transit and storage, packaging in plastic bags. 

See Fruit F 6, Vegetables M 6. 

Rhizoctonia stem or neck rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

causes individual plants to wilt or collapse due to 

rotting of the stem or neck at or above ground level. 

Affected tissue is brown. See Vegetables M 7. 



Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia spp.) causes a soft, brown 

rot of stems and other aerial parts of more mature 

plants. White fungal hyphae grows over rotted 

areas. White sclerotia (resting bodies of the fungus) 

up to about 12 mm in size are produced on rotted 

areas. Stem infections cause plants to wilt and die. 


Sclerotium bulb rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) attacks stems 

of mature plants at ground level. A white 

cottony mat of fungal mycelium grows over affected 

parts (Fig. 62). Sclerotia, about the size of cabbage 

seed, 1-2 mm across, are produced on the surface of 

the mycelium, these later turn brown and are hard to 

see against the brown soil. A brown dry rot develops, 

plants yellow and die. Sclerotium bulb rot causes 

losses in bulbs in Victoria of $11.5 million each year 

(HRDC Research Report 1994-95, Porter 1994). 

Strategies for control include improved management 

of treated/fumigated soils, effectiveness of treatments 

and fungicides dips. See Vegetables M 7. 


may cause bulbs to grow poorly, affected areas on 

roots are dark brown to black, root lesions may be 

small or may coalesce to affect the whole root. Root 

systems are reduced and in extreme cases reduced to 

stubs. See Vegetables M 8. 

Many soilborne fungal diseases can be difficult to 

control. Only plant disease-free bulbs in diseasefree 

soil. Dipping bulbs in fungicides combined 

with late season drenches may eliminate diseases 

and increase yields. Lifting and dividing bulbs 

regularly, eg at least every 2-3 years, helps to 

reduce incidence. Storage rots, eg penicillium 

moulds (Penicillium spp.) and rhizopus rot 

(Rhizopus stolonifer), can be avoided by not 

digging during damp weather, avoiding injury to 

bulbs during harvesting and handling. Dry bulbs 

rapidly after digging. Green-clean bulbs and cure 

before storage. Transport and store at the correct 

temperature (cool conditions) in dry well ventilated 

conditions (at correct relative humidity) to ensure 

rapid healing of wounds. Inspect bulbs after 

lifting, before storage and again before planting, 

destroy any infected bulbs and treat remaining 

bulbs with fungicide before storage and again 

before planting. Ensure strict hygiene in packing 

shed. Remove and destroy all sources of 

contamination from packing sheds and stores, ie 

old bulbs, containers. Clean and disinfect 

packing sheds and storage areas. Rhizomes may be 

cleaned of soil and infected portions cut off with a 

sharp knife and the remaining portion immediately 

treated with fungicide. Pre- and post-plant 

applications of appropriate fungicidal drenches 

may reduce spread. See Vegetables M 6. 



dipsaci) is a serious pest of bulbs especially 

daffodils. Foliage is twisted, often pale with raised 

lumps which can easily be felt if the leaf is drawn 

between the fingers. If bulbs are cut lengthwise, 

scales are rotted (Figs. 64). If cut across, rotted 

scales appear as concentric rings. The basal plate 

is not rotted in the initial stages of nematode 

infestation. See Daffodil C 20, 23 (Fig. 74). 

Others 

Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) may infest 

African violet, anemone, Anigozanthos (A. manglesii), 

begonia, chrysanthemum, cyclamen. Water soaked 

lesions on leaves, infested leaves die and fall. In the 

early stages, leaf spots are produced which tend to be 

triangular and bordered by veins but this is not always 

so. Early stages of attack may look like fungal leaf 

spots. Disease progresses from the lower leaves 

upwards. Flowers may be infested and decay is often 

only on one side. See Ferns E 2. 

Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) attacks 

causes bulbs to be stunted and yellow, swellings 

develop on roots and tubers of dahlias. See 


Others: Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus spp.). 


Compared with many other groups of plants, bulbs 

have relatively few insect pests. 


Bulb and potato aphid (Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon) 



Mangold aphid (Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae) 


Tulip bulb aphid (Dysaphis tulipae) 

Violet aphid (Neotoxoptera violae) 

Aphids are variously coloured depending on the 

species and may be a major pest of bulbs in 

gardens, field crops, greenhouses and storage. 

Aphids suck sap from leaves, severely checking 

growth, and other above ground plant parts during 

the spring. Bulbs may be infested both in the field 

and in storage (Fig. 65), and may become sticky 

with honeydew. Aphids also transmit virus 

diseases of bulbs. Aphids overwinter on bulbs in 

the field and in store and on alternate hosts. 

Spread by winged forms flying and the 

introduction of infested bulbs. Favoured by cool, 

moist weather. Aphid control in the crop and in 

bulbs in store is essential. In the crop foliage 

may be sprayed when aphids are observed during 

the growing season with a recommended 

insecticide. Granular insecticides may be applied 

at planting. On bulbs in store aphids are 

controlled in the same way as bulb mites. See 

Bulbs C 7, Roses J 4. 

Bulb flies 

Scientific name: Syrphidae, Diptera. 

Host range: The maggots of these flies attack 

the bulbs of various plants including daffodil, 

hyacinth, amaryllis and tulip. 

Description and damage: 

Lesser bulb fly (Eumerus tuberculatus) is of a 

blackish green colour, 8-9 mm long, with white 

markings on the side of the abdomen. This species is 

nearly bare of hairs. Maggots are grey or yellowishgrey, 

and the body is markedly wrinkled. Usually 

many maggots are found in one bulb (Fig 66). 

Injury to bulbs by the lesser bulb fly is similar to that 

caused by the Narcissus bulb fly (McMaugh 1994). 

C 6 



Narcissus bulb fly (Lampetia equestris)is a shiny 

yellow and black hairy fly, resembling a small bumble 

bee. Maggots are large, about 10-15 mm long, white 

or yellowish-white. Usually one maggot is found in 

one bulb (Fig. 66). Damaged bulbs become soft and 

the outer scales often have brown scars on them. 

Overwintering: In bulbs in store and in the soil. 

Spread: By adults flying, by introduction of 

infested bulbs. 

Conditions favouring: Warm weather. 

Control: As for bulb mites. 

Sanitation: As for bulb mites. 

Disease-free planting material: As for bulb mites. 


Bulbs may be treated during dormancy in hot 

water at 43-46 o C for 2.5 hours (hot water 

treatment for aphids and mites is 44.4 o C for 3 

hours, and for stem and bulb nematode in daffodils 

43 o C for 3.5 hours). As a precaution, all bulbs 

should be dusted with an insecticide/miticide 

prior to storage and again before planting. 

Insecticide soil drenches may be applied to 

plant bases at the beginning of adult fly activity. 

Bulb mites 

Scientific name: Acarina: 

Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus, Acaridae) 

Bulb scale mite (Steneotarsonemus laticeps, 

Tarsonemidae). Other mites may also infest bulbs, 

eg twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) which 

may infest the leaves of some bulbs, eg 

alstroemeria. Also broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus 

latus), cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) and 

redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor). 

Host range: Bulb mite infests bulbs and similar 

plants, eg ornamentals, eg crocus, daffodil, dahlia, 

freesia, gladiolus, hyacinth, jonquil, lily, tulip; 

vegetables, eg onion, shallot, chives, garlic, 

beetroot, potato. Bulb scale mite infests 

Amaryllidaceae, eg eucaris, hippeastrum, Narcissus. 


Bulb mites are 0.5-1 mm long, globular, whitish with 

brownish legs and move slowly (Fig. 67). They 

glisten but are difficult to see without a hand lens. 

Adult females may live for 1-2 months and each may 

lay more than 100 eggs behind bud scales. Immature 

mites are the most destructive. Bulbs may be 

infested both in the field and in storage. Mites are 

commonly found in large numbers sheltering behind, 

or boring into bud scales, causing bulbs to rot (due to 

the feeding of secondary microorganisms). Foliage 

that grows from infested bulbs may become yellow, 

there may be no flowers, or only misshapen ones. 

Leaves may be small and distorted. 

Bulb scale mites are smaller than bulb mites and are 

only about 0.2 mm long, colourless when young but 

becoming pale brown when older (Fig. 67). Mites are 

often found in groups near the neck of bulbs feeding 

internally in spaces between the scales. As numbers 

increase, the mites spread to foliage which may be 

abnormally bright green, streaked with yellow and 

distorted. Damaged flower buds may result in 

deformed flowers, buds may be killed. Leaves and 

flower stems may be disfigured by elongated, 

serrated scars. Crops gradually lose vigour. Mites 

cause red streaks and spots on the base of developing 

leaves and stems of hippeastrum. Feeding in stored 

dormant bulbs causes brown scars on one or more 

scales. If the bulb scales are pulled apart, the brown 

marks may be seen to extend downwards. Bulbs 

infested with bulb scale mite go soft when stored. 

Overwintering: In bulbs. 

Spread: By the introduction of infested bulbs to 

field plantings and storage. Bulb mites seem to 

prefer healthy bulbs and migrate through soil 

from decaying to healthy bulbs. Under certain 

conditions, a non-feeding, but very active, 

immature stage (known as the h' ypopus) may 

occur and last for about 2 weeks. The h' ypopus has 

a group of suckers on the lower side of the body 

which enables it to attach readily to insects, mice 

and other animals and so be transported to other 

areas. Bulb scale mites spread by crawling along 

leaves and over the ground. 

Conditions favouring: Bulb mites prefer high 

humidity and temperature (optimum 23-26 o C). 

Attack is most likely on bulbs that are already 

damaged during digging, by bulb flies and other 

pests. Warm moist conditions during storage. In 

the colder months bulb scale mites remain in 

bulbs but when brought in for forcing under glass, 

they increase rapidly and the life cycle may be as 

short as 2 weeks. Bulb scale mite numbers 

increase in the neck of the bulbs from where they 

infest leaves and flower buds. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Bulb scale mite cannot 

usually live in the absence of Narcissus so 

provided the ground is clear of self-set bulbs reinfestation 

in the field is unlikely. 

Sanitation: Inspect bulbs at digging and before 

storage. All heavily infested bulbs should be 

destroyed, remaining bulbs should be treated 

either by dusting with an insecticide prior to 

storage even if there is no sign of infestation, or 

with hot water (see below). Keep crops clean 

after harvest, remove volunteer bulbs. Inspect 

bulbs again before planting. After the bulbs are 

removed, the store must be thoroughly cleaned 

to remove old bulbs, bulb scales and other debris 

on which infestation might persist. 

Biological control: Small active predatory mites 

(Gamasellodes, Ascidae) are thought to feed on 

eggs of bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus). 

Disease-free planting material: Do not introduce 

infested bulbs to clean field or storage areas. 

Inspect all new purchases for infestations. 


Bulbs may be disinfested during dormancy by 

either soaking in an insecticide/miticide, treating 

with hot water, eg 44.4 o C for 3 hours, or by 

fumigation (by professionals). After treatment, 

bulbs should be dried and dusted with a 

fungicide/insecticide prior to storage or 

planting. Only treat bulbs for planting not for 

forcing, as they may be damaged Treated bulbs 

should be separated from untreated ones to 

prevent re-infestation. Plant treated stock as 

soon as possible into land which has not recently 

carried a Narcissus crop. If necessary, in the 

field, a soil miticide drench may be applied to 

the base of the plants. 



Caterpillars (Lepidoptera), eg looper 

caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.), may chew holes 

in leaves, stems and flowers destroying developing 

buds. A few caterpillars, can be removed by hand, 

otherwise treat with an insecticide. Spraying 

should not be necessary. See Annuals A 8. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) suck sap 

from bulbs in the field and in storage (if the 

temperature is 15 o C or above). Insects multiply 

on bulbs causing them to shrink and die or produce 

sickly plants. See Greenhouses N 25. 


Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex) cause silvering of 

foliage and speckling of flowers (Figs. 68). Corms 

may be damaged during storage, becoming sticky, 

hard and scaly, young root buds may be injured. Pale 

coloured varieties are reputed to have some resistance 

to attack. See Gladiolus C 31, C 34 (Fig. 81). 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) and other species may 

infest flowers of most plants. Petal edges brown and 

tiny grey to black elongated insects are seen in the 

flowers and young leaves. Damage is superficial 

causing silvering, browning and distortion of both 

petals and young leaves. See Roses J 6. 

Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) 

and onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) are vectors of the 

tomato spotted wilt virus complex which may 

affect begonia cyclamen, dahlia, gladiolus, 

ranunculus, zantedeschia and many other plants. See 

Annuals A 9, Tomato M 96, M 103. 

Wireworms (Elateridae) are the larvae of 

click beetles, they are long smooth segmented 

larvae, yellowish brown and up to 18 mm long. 

They live entirely in the soil, burrowing into 

bulbs, hollowing out stems as they work their 

way up, causing plants eventually to fall over. See 


Others: 

Millipedes (Diplopoda), slaters 

(Crustaceae), springtails (Collembola), elephant 

beetle (Xylotrupes gideon) and weevils, eg black 

vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus), may infest 

bulbs. Leafhoppers (Ciciadellidae) and whiteflies 

(Aleyrodidae) may infest leaves. 


Snails and slugs are serious pests of bulbs and 

may chew large ragged holes in new shoots, 

mature leaves, flower stems, buds and flowers. 

Young snails and slugs may graze on the surface 

of leaf blades and skeletonise leaves. As soon as 

stalks appear apply snail bait between the rows. 

Do not confuse snail and slug damage with that 

caused by moth caterpillars. See Daffodil C 23 

(Fig. 75), Seedlings N 70. 


Mice and rats may eat bulbs in storage. 

Cockatoos and similar birds snap the heads off 

bulbs in outdoor plantings or chew the bulbs. 

See Fruit F 13, Seeds N 77. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Failure to flower is a common 

problem in bulbs especially in daffodils. All true 

bulbs produce the embryo flowers inside the bulb 

leaf tissue during the previous season. Their 

performance when planted out will depend on their 

treatment during the previous season. Reasons for 

failure to flower or reduction in flower size and 

numbers include the size and condition of the bulb 

(different varieties do produce bulbs of different 

sized bulbs as a matter of course). Small bulbs 

may be produced because of overcrowding of 

clumps, excessive dryness and shade during the 

previous season. Bulbs and varieties of bulbs vary 

in temperature tolerance, eg alstroemeria, may be 

damaged by low temperatures. See Daffodil C 21. 


Individual bulbs have different requirements. 

Generally, excess fertilisers may damage roots. 

Others: Chimeras (segments of coloured petals) 

develop in some bulbs. See Tulip C 43. C 44 (Fig. 

82). Dermatitis may occur in susceptible 

individuals after prolonged contact with some 

bulbs, eg alstroemeria, daffodils, tulips. Rubber 

gloves may be worn during handling. Many 

Armaryllidaceae are regarded as toxic when 

ingested, eg daffodil, snowdrop (Frohne and 

Pfander 1983). Slime moulds (various species) 

may develop on bulbs. See Bulbs C 3 (Fig. 69). 

WEEDS 

Weed control is essential as they compete with 

bulbs for available food and bulbs may be 

smothered by annual and perennial weeds. Areas 

to be planted with bulbs should be weed-free and 

should be kept weed-free to reduce bacterial and 

fungal diseases and pests, to make cutting flowers 

and the lifting of bulbs easier. Lifting bulbs from 

areas infested with couch can be difficult (Fig. 70). 

Soil-less media should be weed-free. Weeds should 

only be minor problem in greenhouses especially if 

the soil is disinfested (fumigated or pasteurised) 

before planting. Cultivation for weed control around 

tubers may injure plants, eg iris, and has the 

disadvantage of having to be discontinued when 

flower spikes appear. Hand weeding should control 

any infestation. Mulch with well rotted leaf mould or 

chipped garden material or compost. 

Bulbs left in the ground, eg daffodils, for a number 

of years: Grass in the rows can keep flowers clean 

in wet winters and be cut when required just above 

ground level once leaves have died back or turned 

yellow. Overcrowding is detrimental as weeds then 

compete with the bulbs for available food. Postemergence 

contact or other herbicides, and a 

pre-emergence herbicide, can be applied in late 

summer before new leaves emerge. Active growth may 

be spot sprayed with glyphosate to control volunteer 

unwanted bulbs in crops or adjacent areas. 

Herbicides are registered for use on commercial 

plantings and may be applied both pre-plant and 

pre- and post-emergence of the crop. Since most 

herbicides are specific for soil types and prevalent 

weed populations, no one chemical can be used 

universally. Preferably emerged weeds should be 

controlled prior to planting. Perennial broadleafed 

C 8 


weeds can be treated with phenoxy compounds 

(hormone) herbicides to which monocotyledons are 

resistant. If the soil has not been treated, preemergence 

weed control is essential. Preemergence 

herbicides may be applied soon after 

planting but before leaf emergence, to control weeds 

for 2-3 months. The herbicide must be watered in 

immediately after application For daffodils, 

hyacinth and tulips, 4 weeks after planting and 

while the shoots of the bulbs are > 30 mm below the 

soil, the ground may be sprayed with a recommended 

post-emergence herbicide to kill existing weeds 

and a pre-emergence herbicide to prevent weed 

seeds from germinating for up to 3 months 

(Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheets:1-8). 

Herbicide injury: Small corms and cormlets are more 

sensitive to herbicides than larger ones. Corms and 

cormlets must be planted at the correct depth. Never 

spray with herbicide once bulb growth is within 

5 mm of the surface or has emerged (Tesselaar's 

Grower Information Sheet No.1:Daffodils). For some 

herbicides and for some bulbs the shoots of bulbs 

must be > 30 mm below the soil surface. Postemergence 

herbicides, eg glyphosate, should not 

be applied to iris foliage even when it has apparently 

dried up as the old stalks or leaves of some bulbs 

transport the material to the bulbs and next year's 

crops show damage with bleached leaves, shortened 

flower stalks and distorted flowers. Pre-emergence 

herbicides must be tested initially on a small area to 

see whether they are phytotoxic, eg freesia, is readily 

damaged by some. Chloroxuron (Tenoran ) may 

spot leaves if not washed off foliage immediately after 

application. Lilies tolerate a wide range of residual 

herbicides including simazine, but not those acting on 

the emerging shoots, eg oxadiazon (Ronstar ). 


Anon. 1995. Cultural Notes for Bulbs and Perennials. 

Broersen Seeds & Bulbs, Silvan, Vic. 

Ball, A. L. 1980. Bulbs and Bulbous Plants. 1st edn. 

NSW Agric, Sydney. 

Bing, A. 1985. Which Herbicides are Safe for Bulbs? 

American Nurseryman, Feb. 

Bryan, J. 1989. Bulbs. Vols. 1 and 2. Timber Press, 


Coombs, B. (ed.). 1995. Horticulture Australia : The 

Complete Reference of the Horticultural Industry. 


De Hertogh, A. and Le Nard, M. 1993. The Physiology 

of Flowering Bulbs. Elsevier, DA Books Vic. 

Gilbert, A. 1992. Yates Organic Guide to Bulbs. 

Collins/Angus & Robertson, Pymble, NSW. 

Grosvenor, G 1986. Growing Daylilies. Kangaroo Press, 


Hays, R. M. and Marinelli, J. 1996. Bulbs for Indoors 

Year-round Windowsill Splendor. Brooklyn Botanic 

Garden, Brooklyn, NY. 

MANAGEMENT 


Hitchmough, J. 1992. Garden Bulbs for Australia & 

New Zealand. Viking O'Neil, Ringwood. Vic. 

Hobbs, J, and Hatch, T. 1994. Bulbs for Gardeners and 

Collectors. Florilegium, Balmain, NSW. 

Holland, S. A. 1992. Review of Post Entry Requirements 

Quarantine Requirements for Bulbs. Part 1 : Pests; 

Part 2 : Diseases. AQIS, Dept. of Primary 

Industries, Canberra. 





Mathew, B. 1987. The Smaller Bulbs. Batsford, London. 








Phillips, R. and Rix, M. 1989. The Bulb Book. Pan 

Books, London. 



Porter, I. 1994. Routing Sclerotium Rot. Aust. Hort., 

Dec. 

Redgrove, H. (ed.). 1992. An Illustrated Handbook of 

Bulbs and Perennials. Grantham 






Simpson, A. G. W. 1985. Growing Bulbs. Kangaroo 


Strider, D. L. (ed.). 1985. Diseases of Floral Crops. Vol 

1. and Vol. 2., Praeger Pub., NY. 

Sturgin, J. 1993. Gardening with Containers. Viking 



Industry eg 

Bulb Scale Mite (Vic Agnote) 

Sampling Soils and Plant Materials for Examination of 

Nematodes (Vic Agnote) 

Weed Control in Flowering Bulbs and Corms (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Tesselaar's Padua Bulb Nurseries, Silvan, Vic. 

Grower Information Sheet No. 1. Daffodils 

Grower Information Sheet No. 2. Hyacinths 

Grower Information Sheet No. 3. Tulips 

Grower Information Sheet No. 4. Anemones 

Grower Information Sheet No. 5. Ranunculi 

Grower Information Sheet No. 6. Freesias 

Grower Information Sheet No. 7. Suggestions for Potting 

Spring Flowering Bulbs 

Grower Information Sheet No. 8. Forcing Bulbs 

Success with Bulbs and Perennials 

Tesselaar's Bulb Planting Guide 


CRC Adelaide, Uni Waite 

Cultural Notes for Bulbs & Perennials (Broersen Seeds 

and Bulbs, Vic) 

Floriade (ACT Parks and Conservation, Canberra) 



Preface xii 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Flowering bulbs may be grown outdoors in clumps in massed beds or borders, 

floriades, or in containers. Generally bulbs are a hardy group of plants. 

Resistant varieties: Some cultivars of some bulbs are resistant to grey mould. Some bulbs, eg crocus and 

liatris, are relatively disease and pest-free. 

Plant quarantine regulations must be consulted prior to importing flower-size corms or cormlets. 

Disease-free planting material: Nearly all problems that attack bulbs are carried over from season to 

season in the bulb. Regularly purchase and plant virus and pathogen-tested bulbs. 




Propagation: By bulbs, offsets, by scales, and depending on the species by tissue culture. Also by seed but 

they do not usually reproduce true to type; however, seeds may be virus-free. 

Cultural methods (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No.8:FORCING BULBS * ): 1. On arrival: 

Unpack bulbs immediately and store in an area where they have moderate temperatures and are away from 

excessive heat; 17-20 o C for tulips and daffodils and 20-25 o C for hyacinths. All will tolerate up to 5 o C higher in 

daytime, but higher temperatures will delay flowering. 2. Forcing: Bulbs should not start their cooling period 

before the 1st February. Tulips and daffodils can be cooled between 5-9 o C but hyacinths prefer 9 o C for 6- 

9 weeks. Starting after this date the effect of the cooling is lessened. Do not begin cooling before this time as 

the flower may not yet be fully formed in the bulb (bulbs begin elongating under cool storage, and if the flowers 

have not been formed, then the 2nd process has begun before the 1st process is complete). Careful 

temperature control is important, and in cool rooms keep the air in constant motion. 

3. Planting: For earliest flowering, bulbs can be planted out from mid-March onwards, soil temperatures 

should be no greater than 20 o C. Planting in temperatures > 20 o C may cause bud blast (no flowers). 

Always plant pre-cooled bulbs in moist soil, never warm, dry soil. After planting, keep the soil moist at all times 

to help root development, watering also helps keep the soil cool. If planting out into boxes or pots, for extra 

early flowering, these can be placed back into the cool store at 9 o C for fast root development. Once the roots 

show at the end of the boxes or pots, after approximately 4-6 weeks, bring the temperature up to 13 o C (or 

17 o C maximum) for continued fast growth. Normal growing and spraying conditions apply as with un-cooled 

bulbs. If pre-cooled bulbs are to be planted in the open ground, they require some type of protection, such as 

a plastic house structure, to protect flowers from damage during the winter and early spring. Note, plant bulbs 

during correct season at the correct depth in properly prepared soil, eg not in fresh manure. 

Sanitation: Rogue (selectively remove) diseased bulbs in the field, after lifting and again before planting. 

Pesticides: Fungicides are registered for control of fire blight (Botrytis), fungal leaf spots, Fusarium diseases, 

penicillium moulds. Insecticides are registered for control of various insect pests, eg aphids, thrips. A 

suitable wetting agent may need to be added to foliage sprays to improve adhesion to leaf surfaces. Some 

bulbs may need to be treated/soaked in recommended fungicide before planting. Snail baits may be used. 

Pre-emergence herbicides may be applied to some bulbs after planting. 

Potting spring flowering bulbs (Tesselaar's Information Sheet No.7:SUGGESTIONS FOR POTTING 

SPRING FLOWERING BULBS * ): 1. Potting mix: A well drained mixture, regardless of the exact 

composition, should be used. The 2 basic functions of the planting medium are to anchor the bulbs and to 

serve as a source of moisture. The mixture must provide some nutrients to ensure high quality flowers and 

should have a pH of 6-7. 2. Pots must provide good drainage. Preferably use new pots, so sanitation is not a 

problem. If old pots are used they must be disinfected. For a single bulb a 100 mm pot can be used. For 3 

bulbs per pot, a minimum of 125 mm squat to a standard 150 mm pot. 3. Planting: Fill containers to within 

40-45 mm of the surface with the potting mix, then gently place bulbs on top of this, being careful not to push 

the bulbs into the soil as this compacts the medium directly beneath the rootplate. Now cover the bulbs to 

within 5 mm of the rim of the pot so that the initial watering will have to drain through the pot and not flow over 

the sides. Preferably the potting mix should be no warmer than 18-20 o C when potting up. 4. Growing on: 

Select a cool shady area that is well drained and is clean. Place pots loosely together from mid-March to May 

and cover them completely with approximately 50 mm straw, making sure that the pots on the outside of the 

group are also well covered. Once the straw is down, water well and it may be necessary to supplement 

natural rainfall, depending on the weather conditions. The pots have to be kept moist at all times, so the straw 

covering will help to retain much of the moisture. If quicker flowering is required, place bulbs in a cool store 

with a temperature of 5-9 o C for approximately 6 weeks or until the roots appear at the bottom of the pots. 

These can then be brought into the greenhouse or warmer area with temperature of not more than 17 o C 

where they can be quickly brought into flower. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: Postharvest care varies with the species. 

Potted bulbs: Market pots of spring flowering bulbs when flowers show first signs of colouring. Flowering 

bulbous plants, however, can be stored at 5-12 o C, at higher temperatures the flower buds of these plants 

develop faster, senescence is accelerated and the plants lose their decorative value more quickly. 

Lifting and storage: Different species vary in their requirements. After bulbs have finished flowering, do not 

cut the foliage back. During this time bulbs store food for growth the following year. Some bulbs form the 

flower buds for the following year at this time also. Feed lightly with blood and bone and control weeds around 

plants. Most bulbs can be left in the ground for many years and need only to be dug up when clumps become 

overcrowded. Inspect all bulbs carefully after lifting, unhealthy ones should be discarded and the rest dusted 

with sulphur (an insecticide/fungicide) to control aphids, mites, thrips, nematodes and fungal rots during 

storage in a dry airy place. Avoid damaging bulbs during digging, division or when cultivating, as injuries 

provide entry points for diseases. Hyacinths and tulips are best lifted when foliage completely dies down 

(summer is too hot for them to flower well the 2nd year). Hyacinths should be kept in shallow containers after 

lifting and covered with peat moss in a cool dry place. Commercial growers may treat some bulbs, eg 

daffodils, with hot water after lifting. See Bulbs C 7. Fumigation treatments may be carried out. 

* This information is given as a guide only. See Disclaimer, Page iii. 



C 10 


Anemone, 

Ranunculus 

Anemone spp. 

Anemone coronaria, A. japonica 

A. quinquefolia (wood anemone) 

Ranunculus spp. 

Family Ranunculaceae (crowfoot family) 


Parasitic 




Anthracnose, leaf curl 

Downy mildew 


Grey mould 



Rust 



Aphids 

Cutworms 

Non-parasitic 

Herbicide toxicity 


Parasitic 


Viruses include cucumber mosaic virus on 

Anemone sp., tomato big bud mycoplasma 

(greening) on Anemone coronaria and Ranunculus 

spp. and tomato spotted wilt virus on ornamental 

and native buttercup (Ranunculus sp.). Insect 

vectors for these viruses include various aphids, 

leafhoppers and thrips. See Bulbs C 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) has been recorded 

on Anemone sp. See Stone fruits F 125. Overseas 

a new disease of ranunculus caused by 

Xanthomonas campestris has been recorded 

(Azad et al. 1996). 


Anthracnose, leaf curl (Colletotrichum acutatum) 

commonly causes leaf and stem curling of 

anemone, ranunculus and celery. Leaves curl 

downwards, cup and do not open completely (Fig. 

71), stems are twisted, newly emerged shoots 

may die. Sunken cankers up to 30 mm long occur 

on stems which may split to expose masses of 

orange spores. Seed of ranunculus may be 

discoloured by the orange spore masses (but not 

anemone seed because the seed is covered by hairs). 

Corms of anemone and ranunculi show no external 

symptoms, but when cut open, tissue close to the 

crown is purplish-black. The fungus can survive 

in seed and corms for > 2 years. It also overwinters 

in the soil. At sowing time the fungus infects 

seedlings directly and adjacent healthy seedlings. 

3-4 weeks after infection the fungus grows up the 

plant and causes cracking of stem tissues. Spores 

are produced in the cracks which spread by water 

splash to other plants. The fungus infects seeds 

when spores are splashed on to developing flower 

heads. In corms the fungus is present in internal 

tissues. The fungus infects corms during the 

growing season through the crown region and 

survives the drying of the corm during storage. As 

the corm germinates, the fungus grows up the stem 

and produces spores in the same way as in infected 

seedlings. Anthracnose is spread by spores water 

splashed onto other plants and flower heads, and 

by the introduction of infected corms, seed and soil. 

Infection is favoured by cool moist conditions in 

early spring. Plant quarantine: Export of seed 

and corms is limited because plant health 

regulations prevent import of infected stock by 

other countries. Disease-free planting material: 

Seed from ranunculus plants which show no 

sign of disease can be disinfected with hot water. 

Anemone seed cannot be hot water treated 

because hairs on the seed coat prevent penetration 

of heat. Hot water treatment can reduce levels of 

germination in seed that is > 2 years old. Corms 

of anemone and ranunculus from plants which 

show no sign of disease can be treated with hot 

water. To prevent damage to seeds and corms 

prescribed procedures for the hot water treatments 

must be followed otherwise temperatures that are 

too low will give less effective control of disease, 

while those that are too high will damage the seeds 

and corms (Woodcock 1988). Pesticides: Plant 

treated seed and corms in disease-free soil or preplant 

treat all sites where disease has recently 

occurred. Also treat or pasteurise all soil to be 

used in seedling trays. See Celery M 47, Fruit F 5. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora sp.) may affect 

ranunculus. During cool and humid weather 

greyish spore masses develop on leaf 

undersurfaces. See Annuals A 5. 

Fungal leaf spot: Leaf smut (Entyloma 

microsporum) occurs on the introduced 'weedy' 

ranunculus that grow by the roadside in moist 

places (Walker 1994). See Annuals A 5, Bulbs C 5. 


anemone. See Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildews (Erysiphe ranunculi, 

possibly other species) have been recorded on 

ranunculus. White powdery fungal growth 

develops on both leaf surfaces. See Annuals A 6. 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora nicotianae) 



Sclerotium root and crown rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 


See Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 7. 

Rust (Aecidium sp.) has been recorded on 

A. coronaria. Its importance lies in the fact that it 

is a spore stage, ie aeciospores produced in a cupshaped 

fruiting body, of prune rust (Tranzschelia 


ANEMONE, RANUNCULUS 

discolor). It appears to be systemic in anemone 

and the 'bulbs' from an infected plant can carry 

over the rust, resulting in rusted anemones next 

season (Walker 1994). See Annuals A 7. 

Others: Some Ranunculaceae, eg Anemone, 

Helleborus and Ranunculus, are skin irritants; 

some, eg Delphinium, are toxic to ingest (Frohne 

and Pfander 1983). 



occurs on Anemone japonica, root knot 

(Meloidogyne sp.) on anemone. See Vegetables 

M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) infest anemone. 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and other 

aphids may distort new growth and spread virus 

diseases. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) damage has been 

recorded on anemone in weedy areas. See 


Others: Major insect pests occurring overseas 

include thrips, spider mites, mealybugs and 

leafrolling caterpillars (Larson 1992). These pests 

may become more important in Australia. The 

introduction of the western flower thrips 

(Frankliniella occidentalis) to Australia may result 

in an increase in tomato spotted wilt virus 

infection. 

Non-parasitic 

Herbicide toxicity: Ranunculus may be 

damaged by the pre-emergence herbicide 

chloroxuron (Tenoran ), possibly because 

ranunculus are planted shallowly. All preemergence 

herbicides should be tested prior to 

large scale use. 


Azad, H. R., Vilchez, M., Paulos, A. O. and Cooksey, 

D. A. 1996. A New Ranunculus Disease Caused by 

Xanthomonas campestris. Plant Disease Vol.(2). 























Shepherd, F. 1993. In Search of the Buttercup : A 

Ramble.....Frank M. Shepherd, Turraramurra, NSW. 

Walker, J. 1994. Personal Communication. 

Woodcock, T. 1988. Leaf and Stem Curling in Anemone 

and Ranunculus. Agnote, DARA, Vic. 


Industry eg 

Vic Agnotes 

Foliar Nematode in Ornamentals other than Ferns 

Leaf and Stem Curling in Anemone and Ranunculus 

Tesselaar's Padua Bulb Nurseries, Sylvan, Vic. 

Grower Information Sheets No.4. Anemones 

Grower Information Sheets No.5. Ranunculi 



See Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers C 9 



MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Anemone and ranunculi are excellent bedding and border plants, and are ideal 

for cutting. They prefer full sunlight and friable fertile soils, well drained soil to which organic matter and 

fertiliser has been added before planting. Make sure corms are planted with 'claws' downwards. 

Disease-free planting material: Diseases, eg anthracnose, rust and viruses are carried over from year to 

year in corms. Plant new corns each year. Plants grown from seeds are more disease-free than those grown 

from tubers (Larson 1992). 


Anemones and ranunculi are tender perennials. They can be propagated by seed or divisions of tuberous 

roots but are most often grown from the roots. Culture and production of anemone and ranunculus is almost 

identical. Both are field and greenhouse grown but field production has become most common in the USA. 

Temperatures of 7-10 o C at night and a maximum day temp of 20 o C are suggested for ranunculus (Larson 

1992). High temperatures can cause short stems and small flowers. 

Cultural methods (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheets No. 4 : ANEMONE and No. 5 RANUNCULI * ): 

1. On arrival: Keep anemone and ranunculus corms dry during storage. Anemone prefer a storage 

temperature range of 15-20 o C, ranunculi prefer 15-25 o C. Kept this way they can even stay over until the 

following planting season if necessary. Corms only begin to grow once they have sufficient moisture. 

C 12 


ANEMONE, RANUNCULUS 

2. Planting: Do not soak anemone corms before planting as often this may create problems. Anemones 

grow satisfactorily in most soils, although they seem to prefer a light open soil. There should be sufficient 

organic matter in the soil to give good water retention. If soil is very poor, add some manure before planting. 

However too much available food will promote leaf growth, which could cause problems with Botrytis during 

winter. Plant corms from February until late May directly into well worked soil that is lightly damp. The corms 

should be pushed into the soil, flat side upwards, to a depth of 30-40 mm. An over-all density of 

35-40/m 2 is advisable. Planting groups at 3-4 week intervals gives an extended flowering season. Ranunculi 

are adaptable and grow satisfactorily in most soils. However, before planting loosen the soil to allow for easy 

penetration of roots. The small corms produce a bushy plant and so are gross feeders especially Picasso. In 

rich soils add 200-300 g/m 2 of blood and bone and work well in. For Picasso in poorer soils, work in up to 300- 

500 g/m 2 of blood and bone for best results. Stagger plantings from the end of February until the beginning of 

May, plant with points down, approximately 50 mm below the soil surface. Spacing should be approximately 

30/m 2 or 20-25/m 2 (Picasso strain). Top dress plants 6-8 weeks later when 100 mm high and again when 300 

mm high with any propriety foliar fertiliser. 3. Weeds: Areas to be planted with anemone and ranunculus 

may be sprayed for weeds prior to planting, they may be fumigated, which will help in producing better blooms 

and less fungal problems. Once corms are planted, do not spray with pre-emergence herbicides unless test 

trials have been carried out; plants may be killed by pre-emergence herbicides. 4. Spraying: Anemones and 

ranunculus can suffer from anthracnose (leaf curl) and fire (Botrytis). To help limit these problems, once the 

corms are 20 mm high, they may be sprayed regularly, eg every 10 days, with a fungicide. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: 5. Harvesting the flowers: Anemones should be picked when buds show good colour, but 

before the calyx reflexes. Flowers are pulled from the head of the corms with a twisting movement so that the 

plant is not pulled out of the soil. Anemones flower over a period of 6-8 weeks under most conditions, and 

yield per plant can range from 4-5 to 8 or more. Harvest ranunculi flowers when buds begin to open (Larson 

1992). Each plant produces up to 6 stems with up to 50 flowers in all. Vase life: Keep ranunculi well 

supplied with water. Recut anemone stems, removing at least 20 mm. Remove all leaves below the water 

line. Place in clean container with a preservative. Avoid ethylene, eg keep away from vehicle exhausts and 

ripening fruit. Do not place in the same container as daffodils or jonquils (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Lifting and storing corms: 6. After flowering: Anemone corms can be dug up when foliage dies then 

dried and stored for the following season; ranunculi can be dug when the foliage yellows. Due to the 

relatively minor cost of the corms and the fact that these do degenerate, most growers prefer to hoe them 

under after flowering and replant fresh corms each season for maximum flower production. 

Potted plants (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No. 7 : SUGGESTIONS FOR POTTING SPRING 

FLOWERING BULBS * ): Ranunculi also make ideal pot plants. Picasso ranunculi are best suited for this. 

Plant 3 corms to a 125-150 mm pot in a well enriched potting soil. A liquid fertiliser should be added weekly 

once the plants are 50-80 mm high or when the leaves show their first signs of yellowing. For maximum 

flowering and a good bushy plant, ranunculi should be planted out in full sun. Partial shade is not suitable for 

ranunculi. See also Bulbs C 10. 

* 

This information is given as a guide only. See Disclaimer, Page iii. 

Fig. 71. Leaf and stem curling of anemone leaves caused by anthracnose 

(Colletotrichum acutatum). Left : Healthy leaf. Centre and Right : Infected 

leaves showing distortion. 




Begonia 

Begonia spp. 

Family Begoniaceae 


Parasitic 






Grey mould, blotch, Botrytis 






Insects and allied pests: 

Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Greenhouse thrips 


Mealybugs 

Mites 

Scales 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt has been recorded on some 

Begonia spp. Leaves may be deformed with 

marked stunting and bronzing of plants. Typical 

ringspots may also develop. See Bulbs C 4, 

Tomato M 96. 


Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris 

pv. begoniae) affects Begonia spp. especially 

tuberous begonia (Fahy and Persley 1983). 

Minute circular to angular watersoaked spots 

develop on leaves (more obviously on 

undersurfaces) which enlarge to dark green lesions 

up to 5 mm in diameter. As these age they dry to 

brown, papery, angular spots with greasy margins. 

Lesions can also occur around the margins or along 

veins distorting leaves. On stems and petioles 

dark green to brown watersoaked streaks about 5 

mm long by 1 mm wide appear, these enlarge, 

brown and may split longitudinally. The disease is 

particularly damaging when plants are grown in 

nurseries under high humidity. Provide good 

ventilation to reduce humidity, do not overhead 

water, especially when temperatures are high. 

Remove and discard severely infected plants and 

surrounding soil. Rieger elatior begonias are very 

susceptible (Pirone 1978). Cultivars have been 

rated for resistance (Strider 1985). Propagate 

only from disease-free plants and pasteurise 

soil. See Vegetables M 5. 


pv. carotovora). 


Fungal leaf spot (Cladosporium) and 

anthracnose (Gloeosporium begoniae) may affect 

begonia leaves. See Annuals A 5, Bulbs C 5. 

Grey mould, blotch, Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) 

causes leaf and stem blights. Under cool cloudy 

conditions with poor ventilation grey mould 

develops on leaves and flowers which become 

brown and die. Avoid syringing plants; provide 

good ventilation. Pick off and discard all diseased 

leaves and destroy severely infected plants. See 

Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) is a serious 

disease of some tuberous begonias especially 

Rex and Reiger begonias. The large flowering 

begonias grown from tubers are not so seriously 

affected. Leaf and flower stalks are covered with 

whitish patches of fungal spores. These patches 

brown. It may be difficult for inexperienced 

growers to associate these brown areas on leaves 

with earlier active powdery mildew infections. 



Damping off (Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia) 

Phytophthora rots (Phytophthora cryptogea) 

Rhizoctonia root, crown rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium spp.) 

Others, eg Colletotrichum spp. 




has been recorded on B. maculata, B. tuberhybrida 

and Begonia spp. and causes irregular brown 

blotches on leaves which increase in size until 

leaves curl up and drop off, plants become 

unsightly. Space plants so that the leaves do not 

touch. Avoid overhead irrigation. Prune off and 

destroy all infested parts of plants. If severely 

infested destroy the whole plant. Pasteurise soil 

and disinfect benches before planting the next 

crop. Only propagate from nematode-free plants 

and plant in nematode-free media. See Ferns E 2. 


occur on Begonia rex, B. semperflorens, B. 

tuberhybrida and Begonia spp. Some cultivars are 

symptomless carriers. Plants are stunted and do 

not grow properly regardless of cultural 

treatments. On tuberous begonias, galls may 

become as large as hazelnuts. Pasteurise 

contaminated soil or treat with an appropriate 

chemical. Soak tuberous begonias while dormant 

in hot water. Cool and plant in nematode-free 

soil. See Vegetables M 10. 

C 14 


BEGONIA 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Cotton aphid 

(Aphis gossypii) may seriously injure begonias 

and be very conspicuous on the glossy begonia 

foliage. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of a native moth 

(Chionophasma lutea, Noctuidae) feed on rose, 

forget-me-not (Mysotis) and begonia. See Annuals 

A 8, Bulbs C 8. 


may cause leaf silvering. See Greenhouses N 24. 


feeds on leaf undersurfaces. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera): 


and citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) may 

infest begonias. See Bulbs C 8, Greenhouses N 

25. 


Outdoor plantings are favoured by snails and 

slugs. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Circular dead areas resulting 

from the evaporation of water droplets, can 

disfigure leaves of Begonia rex. Oedema (corky 

scab) is thought to be due to high humidity and 

overwatering in cloudy weather, light brown corky 

growths develop on leaf undersurfaces and along 

stems (Pirone 1978). See Geranium A 35. Seedlings 

of bedding begonia are frost tender. 

Pesticide injury: Some begonias, especially 

the rhizomatous types, are susceptible to 

pesticide injury. Test all insecticides first on 

1-2 plants prior to large scale use. 



leaves to take on a glassy appearance. Damage is 

similar to that caused by cyclamen mite. See 


Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) and broad mite 

both cause a stunting of young growth and curling 

of the leaves (distortion of new growth). See 

Cyclamen C 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) sporadically 

infests begonia leaves. See Beans (French) M 29, 

Dahlia C 25. 

Mites spread by crawling and by the movement of 

infested plants, eg exhibiting plants and taking 

them home again. Heavily infested plants should 

be destroyed/burned to prevent spread. Some 

times plants are dipped in hot water, seek advice if 

this is being considered. Commercial growers use 

miticides to keep mites in check if necessary. 

Scales (Diaspididae, Hemiptera): Overseas 

circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum) 

and mining scale (Howardia biclavis) may infest 

begonias in warm areas. Both these scales occur 

in Australia. See Citrus F 39. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Larvae of 

black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) may 

completely destroy roots of tuberous begonia and 

cyclamen, plants wilt and die. See Grapevine F 

63. 



MANAGEMENT 






Caterall, E. 1984. Growing Begonias. Timber Press, 



Nelson, Melbourne. 


diseases : A Diagnostic Guide. Academic Press, 




Handreck, K. 1996. Optimum Phosphorus Supply for 

Bedding Begonias. Aust. Hort., Jan. 


2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 










Strider, D. L. (ed.) 1985. Diseases of Floral Crops. 

Vols. 1., Praeger Pub., NY. 



International Socs. 

State/Territory Begonia Socs. 


Begonia may be propagated by leaf cuttings, tubers and by seed. Growth regulators may be used during 

propagation. Bedding or fibrous-rooted begonias tolerate shade more than most other plants. Tuberous 

begonias are usually grown in pots in sheltered areas, shade houses or in greenhouses. There are so many 

different types of begonias today it is impossible to generalise on their culture and harvest. Some types should 

be staked and tied to prevent breakage, new plants may need to be protected from snail and slug damage. 

Some begonias are sensitive to ethylene causing buds, flowers and petals to drop, especially when the plant 

reaches marketing stage (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 


Cyclamen 

Cyclamen persicum 

Family Primulaceae (primrose family) 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus 




` 

Fusarium wilt 

Grey mould, Botrytis 

Root, crown, tuber and stalk rots 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Cyclamen mite 

Mealybugs 

Thrips 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Nutrient toxicities, deficiencies 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus causes streaking 

and malformation of flowers. Overseas also 

tobacco mosaic virus and potato virus X. See 

Bulbs C 4, Cucurbits M 50. 


Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora pv. 

carotovora, also E. chrysanthemi overseas) is a 

common destructive disease of cyclamen during 

warm summer conditions. Infected plants rapidly 

wilt and collapse although only slight wilting of a 

few leaves precedes the collapse. The base of the 

petioles develop a soft wet rot and the foliage and 

petioles are easily removed. Corms become a soft, 

wet pulpy mass. Favoured by plant injury. See 

Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 5. 


Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. 

cyclaminis) can be a serious disease affecting 

roots and corms, resulting in wilting and plant 

death; the vascular system is discoloured. 

Symptoms are similar to those caused by grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea). Grow in disease-free 

soil. Drenching affected plants with fungicide 

may suppress the disease but is unlikely to provide 

complete control. See Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 9. 

Grey mould, Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) is the 

most important disease of cyclamen, causing a 

decay of petiole bases, particularly of the leaves 

in the plant centre (Fletcher 1984). A grey furry 

mould develops on leaves, stems and flowers. If 

not checked it may spread to the corm and destroy 

the whole plant. Grey mould can quickly kill bulbs 

such as cyclamen so prompt treatment is 

essential. Uniformly green leaf cultivars seem to 

be more susceptible than the decorative silver 

leaf types. Reduce watering, especially overhead 

application and place plants in a cool, well 

ventilated situation. Increased ventilation may 

reduce the temperature. Remove all dead tissues 

promptly at regular intervals. See Bulbs C 5, 


Root, crown, tuber and stalk rots 

Damping off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani): 

Potting mixes must drain freely. Care should be taken 

to plant the corm so that about half of it projects 

above the soil surface. This and avoiding overwatering 

will reduce the likelihood of damping off 

and root, crown and stalk rots. Clean pots, seed 

trays and tools by thorough washing and dipping in 

bleach. Use prepared seed-sowing mixes and potting 

composts. See Seedlings N 66. 

Others 

Anthracnose, tuber rot (Colletotrichum acutatum) 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.) 


Root and corm rot (Cylindrocarpon destructans) 





Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) 

Spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus dihystera) 




Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and other 

species may infest leaf undersurfaces and flower 

buds during summer. Symptoms include crinkling 

and distortion of foliage, usually accompanied by 

shiny specks of honeydew. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 

4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) are not common 

but may occur in conservatories. Species include 

leafrolling caterpillars (Tortricidae) and looper 

caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.). Both chew holes 

in leaves, leafrollers bind leaves together. 

Caterpillars may be picked off, spraying should 

not be necessary. See Annuals A 8, Bulbs C 8. 

Cyclamen mite 

Scientific name: Tarsonemidae, Acarina: 


Host range: Cyclamen mite is a serious pest of 

cyclamen, African violet, begonia and a wide range 

of plants, eg flowers, shrubs and indoor plants. 

C 16 


CYCLAMEN 

Description and damage: Mites are 

microscopic, 0.25 mm long, and cannot be seen 

with the naked eye (Fig. 72). Mites look like dust 

on leaf undersurfaces and are semi-transparent 

with a brownish tinge. Mites suck sap from new 

buds, leaves and flowers which become curled 

and may die. Flower buds may wither and die. 

Young leaves and flowers may discolour and 

stiffen. Other mites also attack cyclamen foliage. 

Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) is of similar 

length but is broader and more mobile than 

cyclamen mite, eggs are distinctive. It causes 

similar damage as cyclamen mite, leaves may look 

glassy. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) is twice as 

long as broad and cyclamen mites. It feeds mostly on 

leaf undersurfaces and on flowers. Foliage is 

stippled yellow or brownish, in advanced infestations 

there is profuse webbing. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Overwintering: On perennial host plants and 

plant parts. 

Spread: By mites crawling and by the 

introduction of infested plants, displaying plants at 

shows and taking them home again afterwards. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, humid conditions. 

Control is difficult as damage usually has already 

occurred before control measures are started, mites 

are protected from sprays inside buds. 

Sanitation: Heavily infested plants should be 

destroyed/burned so that the pest cannot 

spread. 

Plant quarantine: Isolate all new purchases. 

Examine new foliage and flowers for wrinkling. 

Keep suspect plants separate until a diagnosis 

is made. 

Pesticide: Mites shelter inside buds so are 

difficult to reach with sprays. If infestation is 

severe, insecticides can be applied to buds and 

undersides of new foliage. Add a wetting agent. 


may feed on leaves and buds. See Bulbs C 8, 


Thrips (Thripidae): Greenhouse thrips 

(Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) are small, narrow, 

elongated insects of various colours and are visible 

to the naked eye but often overlooked. They are 

often hidden in buds and flowers. Leaves may 

become silvered or reddened, and spotted with 

black excreta, blossoms may be flecked with 

white. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Black 

vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) may infest 

many species including cyclamen in pots. Weevils 

attack the leaves of plants but the most serious 

damage is caused by the feeding of the white 

legless larvae on the fine root hairs in summer 

and autumn, they may gouge corm surfaces (Fig. 

73). Check plants that fail to grow in the spring 

for the presence of larvae by digging around the 

base of the plant. Only flightless female adults are 

known, they emerge in November and lay eggs on 

the soil surface. They are nocturnal, coming out at 

night to feed on leaf margins where they leave 

small notches. Cultivate ground thoroughly in 

early October to destroy pupal cells. Nematodes 

(Otinem ) provide control, or the soil may be 

watered regularly at fortnightly intervals with 

insecticides. See Grapevine F 63. 


Protect cyclamen growing outdoors from snails 

and slugs. See Bulbs C 8, Seedlings M 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Plants may be damaged by hot 

sun and in hot dry conditions the foliage should be 

misted with water. Water when the soil is 

becoming dry at the top of the pot. Keep plants 

moist at all times especially during summer as they 

cannot tolerate hot dry conditions. Overwatering 

and poor drainage may cause tubers to rot. Pots 

should not stand in water. 


Overfertilisation may cause weak spindly growth 

and flower drop. Corm breakdown may develop 

due to calcium deficiency induced by excessively 

high levels of potassium (Nichols 1992). 

Others: Flowering: High temperatures, too 

little water, or excessive soil fertiliser levels may 

cause blasting of flower buds. Delayed flowering 

may be caused by growing the wrong cultivars, 

high or low temperatures, faulty nutrition, 

oversized pots or insufficient light. Small flowers 

may be caused by high temperatures, excessive 

soil fertiliser levels or growing the wrong cultivar. 

Stretched plants (too tall) may be caused by 

insufficient space per plant, excessive soil 

moisture, insufficient light or high temperatures. 

Stunted plants may be caused by excess soluble 

salt levels in soil, or stunt disease (Larson 1992). 

Weak growth may be caused by high temperatures, 

disease, genetic variability, faulty nutrition, 

crowding or insufficient light. Fungus gnats 

(Mycetophilidae, Sciaridae): In heavy infestations 

the maggots of small flies in soil attack roots and 

lower plant vigour (usually when media is overwet 

and poorly drained). See Greenhouses N 28. 












Nichols, D. 1992. Solving Calcium Problems in 

Cyclamen. Aust. Hort., April. 

Nightingale, G. 1987. Growing Cyclamen. rev. edn. 

Christopher Helm, London. 









CYCLAMEN 


Industry eg 

Cyclamen (SA Adelaide Bot. Garden leaflet) 

Cyclamen for the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Cyclamen in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Raising Cyclamens from Seed (Vic Agnote) 

MANAGEMENT 



See Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers C 9, 

Annuals and herbaceous perennials A 10 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Cyclamen are commonly grown for greenhouses and as house plants. They 

can be grown in a semi-shaded position in the garden but are more often grown in containers. In warmer 

areas they may be grown outdoors. Most modern hybrids are derived form C. persicum and have a wide 

range of flower colours. Some species, eg C. Africarium and C. creticum, are perfumed. 

Resistant varieties: C. neapolitanum appears to be hardier than C. persicum. 

Disease-free planting material: Tubers can be kept for 2-3 years but produce fewer blooms of poorer 

quality after their 2nd flowering season. Treat as an annual with new seedlings coming on while the older 

plants are flowering. 




Propagation: By seed and by tubers. 

Cultural methods: General interruption in growth is the main cause of infections, irregular flowering and 

other disappointments. For the successful growing of cyclamen regular growth must be maintained from 

sowing until flowering. Potting mixes must be well drained and disease and pest-free. Cyclamen should be 

sown in a light soil mixture with a pH of 5.6 (approximately). Plant corms so that half projects above the soil 

surface. Cyclamen grow well indoors but need a well lit, well ventilated but draught-free spot, preferably with 

1-2 hours of sunlight each morning. Water regularly, avoid overhead irrigation and do not overwater or stand 

pots in water. Fertilise appropriately. 

Sanitation: Removal of all damaged and dying plant parts reduces the risk of grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). 

Cyclamen will flower for 2-3 months if spent flowers are removed by giving the stalk a twist and a sharp pull at 

the same time, removing it at the union with the tuber. Do not cut off. 

Plant quarantine: Do not introduce plants infested with diseases and pests to healthy collections. 

Pesticides: Growth regulators are used to produce more flowers and longer flowering. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: Harvest fully open flowers with 4-5 petals of the crown in an upward position. Harvest by pulling 

them from the corm along with the base of the peduncle or stem. Flowers are susceptible to grey mould. 

Buds, flowers and petals absciss due to ethylene toxicity. Pollinated flowers drop quickly and growers may 

spray with anti-ethylene agents to prevent this. Bud opening: Tightly closed flower buds showing colour and 

in a downward position, may be placed in an opening solution. Flowers treated in this way will open and 

develop to similar size and colour as flowers remaining on the parent plant. Flowers may be stored and 

transported wet at 1 o C in water or dry after appropriate conditioning. After storage the base of the scape 

should be recut. Many commercial preservatives are harmful to cyclamen flowers. Vase life may be 

improved and scape bending prevented if flowers are conditioned prior to sale. Hardening by holding in water 

at 4 o C at high relative humidity for 1 day, also limits scape bending (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Potted cyclamen: Sell when most flowers are still in the bud stage. Quality deteriorates after only a few 

days without light. Plants require bright light, at low light levels foliage is weak and yellow, buds dry out. Hold 

at < 5-12 o C, at higher temperatures flower buds develop faster, senescence is accelerated and plants lose 

their decorative value. During flowering plants need ample watering but overwatering causes crown rots. 

Water from the base. Pollinated flowers drop, this may be prevented by growers spraying with anti-ethylene 

agents. Sorting of potted cyclamen is mainly based on container size (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Fig. 72. Mites which attack cyclamen foliage, eg cyclamen mite 

(Phytonemus pallidus), broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus), 

twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae). Mites are microscopic, 

the female is displayed. 

Fig. 73. Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus). 

Left : Adult (10-12 mm long) and larva(10 mm long). 

Right : Larvae gouge corm surfaces. 

C 18 


Daffodil, jonquil 

Narcissus spp. 

Daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) 

Jonquil (N. jonquilla) 

Family Amaryllidaceae 


Parasitic 




Fusarium wilt, fusarium basal rot 


Leaf scorch 

Root and bulb rots 




Aphids 

Bulb flies 

Bulb mite 


Non-parasitic 


Toxic properties 


Parasitic 

The most important diseases affecting daffodils are 

fusarium wilt and stem and bulb nematode. 


Virus symptoms include indistinct mottling, 

yellow, brown or purplish streaks, twisting of 

leaves. Plants may be infected with more than one 

virus and symptoms are more pronounced in cool 

weather. Some varieties remain vigorous and 

productive in spite of virus infection, others 

gradually deteriorate. Virus infections are latent in 

some species of Narcissus. All virus diseases 

affecting daffodil are spread by vegetative 

propagation from infected plants, some also by 

various insects and/or by sap. 

Narcissus latent virus is a minor disease of iris, 

daffodil, nerine. Spread by aphids, eg green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), by mechanical inoculation, 

not by contact between plants, not by seed, not by 

pollen. 

Narcissus mosaic virus causes indistinct mottling of 

foliage of daffodil, hyacinth, iris, nerine, overseas 

also Trifolium, Nicotiana, other genera. Spread also 

by mechanical inoculation, not by contact between 

plants, not by seed.. 

Narcissus yellow stripe: Leaves may be 

malformed. Spread also by aphids, eg potato aphid 

(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), by sap from infected 

plants during handling and on tools, by introduction of 

infected bulbs. 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus, potato Y virus and 

tobacco rattle virus may affect daffodils overseas. 

See Bulbs C 4. 


Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora subsp. 

carotovora). See Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 5. 


Fusarium wilt, fusarium basal rot, (Fusarium 

oxysporum f.sp. narcissi = Fusarium bulbigenum) 

affects daffodil. Bulbs: A rot develops at the 

basal plate (see Bulbs C 2, Fig. 61) and eventually 

spreads up into the bulb . The fungus gains entry 

through dead root bases to the basal plate and bulb 

scales, or through wounds usually during lifting or 

at any time during dormancy. Basal rot can spread 

through bulbs during storage. Compare symptoms 

in the bulb with those caused by stem and bulb 

nematode and virus diseases (see Bulbs C 2, Fig. 

61, Fig. 64). Foliage: Affected bulbs, if planted, 

rot in the soil, without germinating, or produce 

weak, yellow plants which ultimately die. 

Compare symptoms on foliage with those caused 

by stem and bulb nematode and virus diseases. 

Overwinters in infected bulbs in the ground and in 

storage and in contaminated soil. Spread: Soil may 

become contaminated by planting infected bulbs, 

the movement of contaminated soil, water and the 

introduction of contaminated soil on machinery, 

pots, etc. Plants become infected by planting in 

contaminated soil or close to infected plants. 

Favoured by warm, wet soil conditions during 

lifting, use of hormone preparations and heavy 

dressings of nitrogenous fertilisers, continued 

cropping with the same crop, eg daffodils. 

Fusarium wilt is difficult to control. The disease 

must be accurately diagnosed. Cultural methods: 

Do not plant daffodils for 5 years in soil in which a 

diseased crop was grown, unless the soil has been 

pre-plant treated with a fungicide. Avoid using 

hormone preparations or heavy dressings of 

nitrogenous fertilisers. Resistant varieties: Some 

varieties are more resistant than others. Research 

overseas is directed to developing basal rot 

resistant daffodils (Anon. 1996). Sanitation/ 

Pesticides: If disease is suspected in commercial 

crops and until all traces of Fusarium wilt are gone 

from a crop: 

• Lift bulbs each year when leaves yellow naturally. 

• Inspect bulbs after lifting and burn diseased 

specimens. Slight infections are difficult to detect, 

examine the basal plate of each bulb and if the rim 

where the new roots originate is white and firm, the 

bulb is probably healthy. If there is any trace of 

browning, remove outer scales and see if rot has 

extended into the fleshy part of the bulb, often 

apparently healthy bulbs have a slight infection. 

• Remove superficial scales, dip and treat 

remaining bulbs with a suitable fungicide. 

• After treatment, dry the bulbs as rapidly as 

possible by laying them in shallow layers with air 

ventilation between each layer. Store them on 

racks or trays in a cool dry place. 

• Again before planting, inspect all bulbs for signs of 

rot, burn any diseased specimens. 

• Plant in a new position each year. 

• Carry out recommended bulb and soil pre-plant 

pesticide treatments. See Bulbs C 5, 



DAFFODIL, JONQUIL 

Grey mould, Botrytis neck rot (Botrytis 

narcissicola): Where this disease occurs, 

fungicides may be applied to daffodils several 

times around flowering (Tesselaar's Grower 

Information Sheet No.1: Daffodils). Grey mould 

is rarely serious with annual cropping in cool 

climates, where daffodils are grown as a biennial 

crop; it may be a problem in the 2nd season. 

Remove weeds to ensure adequate air movement. 

Lift bulbs after maturity, do not replant in the 

same area. See Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Leaf scorch (Stagonospora curtisii) affects 

bulbous plants, eg daffodil, jonquil, belladonna 

lily, crinums, African lily, hippeastrums and Kaffir 

lilies. Leaf tips of daffodils and jonquils become 

scorched and reddish-brown soon after emerging. 

As leaves grow longer, oval brown spots develop 

lower down, leaves yellow at the tips and around 

the spots and this tissue dies. Any injury to the 

leaves of the belladonna lily, clivea, crinum and 

hippeastrum (all Amaryllidaceae) may cause 

reddening. Belladonna lily leaves and flower 

stalks are usually bent at the point of infection and 

red spots appear along the leaf in lines. Bulb 

scales may develop dark, brownish-red spots. 

Overwinters on crop debris and at the tops of bud 

scales, the fungus infects leaves as they emerge 

from the bulb. Spread by vegetative propagation, 

spores are spread by wind and water splash. 

Favoured by warm, wet conditions. In small 

plantings, remove infected tips by hand and burn 

them. Discard badly infected bulbs. Fungicides 

may be applied to new growth (McMaugh 1994). 

See Annuals A 5, Bulbs C 5. 


Armillaria root rot, bulb rot (Armillaria sp.) 

Base rot (Ceratocystis narcissi) 

Blue mould (Penicillium sp.) 

Scale speckle fungus (Sclerotinia narcissi) 


Smoulder (Sclerotinia narcissicola) 




Scientific name: Nematoda: 

Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) 

Host range: Commonly attacks bulbous plants, 

ornamentals, eg daffodil, hyacinth, tulip, phlox, 

fruit, eg strawberry, vegetables, eg carrot, onion, 

parsnip, field crops, eg rye, oats, red clover. 

There are several strains, one strain attacks only 

onions and related plants, other strains attack other 

plants. 

Symptoms: Foliage of daffodils is twisted, 

often pale with raised lumps or thickenings which 

can be felt if the leaf is drawn between the fingers 

(Fig. 74). Twisting usually begins on one side 

causing the leaf to curl round in an arc. Compare 

these symptoms on the foliage with those caused 

by virus diseases and basal rot. If bulbs are cut 

transversely, rotted scales appear as concentric 

rings. The basal plate is not rotted in the initial 

stages of nematode infestation. Compare these 

symptoms in the bulb with those caused by basal 

rot (see Bulbs C 2, Fig. 64, Fig. 61). Infected bulbs 

can be decayed by secondary rotting organisms. 

Field symptoms: Disease usually develops in 

patches with a badly infected plant in the centre. If 

crops are not lifted and treated, disease gradually 

spreads. 

Overwintering: In infected bulbs in the ground 

or in storage, contaminated seed and plant debris 

(bulbs, leaves, stems), in the soil or as infections 

on perennial plants and seedlings of other hosts. 

Spread: Nematodes cannot travel far in soil, and 

are usually spread from place to place by water, 

contaminated soil on tools, machinery, containers, 

footwear, and the introduction of contaminated 

seed and infected bulbs. 

Conditions favouring: Mild temperatures and 

wet but well drained soils. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Populations of nematodes in 

the soil can be reduced by long (2-3 years at 

least) rotations with a resistant crop such as 

spinach, potatoes and lettuce. 

Sanitation: Inspect growing crops periodically for 

nematode infestation. Remove and destroy/burn 

infected and volunteer plants, preferably with a 

spadeful of the surrounding soil. Destroy/burn 

all infected bulbs, soil, plant residue in an area 

distant from where bulb crops are grown. 

Treated nematode-free bulbs can be infested if 

they come in contact with contaminated bulb 

debris on benches, in containers or 

contaminated soil. All tools should be 

sterilised. 

Resistant varieties: Where nematodes are 

prevalent choose varieties with some resistance. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant nematodefree 

bulbs, seeds, cuttings in nematode-free 

soil, otherwise pre-plant treat propagation 

material and soil. 

Pesticides: Commercial daffodils growers should 

hot water treat their bulbs after lifting. Hot 

water or chemical treatment is effective for bulb 

flies and bulb mites as well. During the dormant 

period, all bulbs should be lifted and hot water 

treated at 43 o C for 3.5 hours with a 

recommended disinfectant (Tesselaar's Grower 

Information Sheet No.1:Daffodils). This should 

be carried out not later than 3-4 weeks after 

digging, otherwise the bulbs loose their 

flowering capability. Unless contaminated soil 

can be pasteurised, fumigated or treated with a 

nematicide to kill the nematodes, nematode-free 

bulbs when planted will be reinfested. 

Others: Root knot (Meloidogyne sp.) has been 

recorded on N. pseudonarcissus, root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) on. 

Pseudonarcissus, Narcissus spp. See Vegetables M 10. 



Bulb and potato aphid (Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon) 


Violet aphid (Neotoxoptera violae) 

C 20 



Aphids feed on new shoots and on bulbs in the 

ground and in store. Some species also transmit 

virus diseases. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Bulb flies (Syrphidae) including lesser bulb fly 

(Eumerus tuberculatus) and narcissus bulb fly 

(Lampetia equestris) may seriously injure daffodil 

and nerine bulbs which become soft, outer scales 

develop brown scars. Maggots of the lesser bulb 

fly are markedly wrinkled and usually many 

maggots are found in a single bulb. Maggots of 

the narcissus bulb fly are large, about 10-15 mm 

long, whitish or yellow-white in colour and usually 

only one maggot is found per bulb. See Bulbs C 6. 

Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus) may infest 

daffodil and nerine bulbs in the field and in 

storage. Mites are only visible with a hand lens, 

they glisten, are about 1 mm long or less, globular, 

whitish with brownish or pinkish legs and move 

very slowly. Infested bulbs usually fail to produce 

good growth, plants that do grow from infested 

bulbs turn yellow and look sickly, leaves are 

stunted and distorted, plants generally fail to 

produce flowers, or produce only misshapen ones. 


Others: Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.), 

elephant beetle (Xylotrupes gideon). 


Snails and slugs may damage flowers (Fig. 75). 


Non-parasitic 

Failure to flower is a common problem with 

daffodils. All true bulbs produce the embryo 

flowers inside the bulb leaf tissue during the 

previous season. Their performance when planted 

out depends on their treatment during the previous 

season. The most common reasons for failure to 

flower in daffodils include the size and condition 

of the bulb. The development of the flower laid 

down the previous season will be determined by 

the nutrients already stored within the bulb, so that 

bulb diameter has some bearing (length of bulb 

usually has little bearing), eg when selecting bulbs 

of any of the larger flowering trumpet daffodils, 

the diameter of the bulb at its widest point needs to 

be close to 25 mm. Different varieties produce 

different sized bulbs as a matter of course. Small 

bulbs may be produced because of: 

• Overcrowding of clumps: Daffodil bulbs 

tolerate both hot and cold conditions and may be 

left undisturbed in the soil for several years 

depending on how closely they were planted 

initially, after a time, they may become too 

congested and are lifted only when flower size and 

number decreases. The continual addition of 

mulch to undisturbed bulbs may result in them 

being buried to excessive depths (Fig. 75). 

• Excessive dryness during the previous spring 

flowering period and afterwards, while the foliage 

is still normally green. 

• Excessive shade the previous year may mean 

essential food storage processes were curtailed. 

• Temperature affects performance of daffodils, eg 

bulb storage temperatures and periods influence the 

weeks to flowering (Salinger 1985). 

• Varietal variations: Different daffodil strains 

may vary in performance, eg many old original 

strains of King Alfred have a relatively poor 

flowering performance (as low as 25% of bulbs 

flowering), most modern varieties perform much 

better. 

• Inadequate light during the flowering season. 

• Too late hot water treatment after digging. 

Toxic properties: Daffodil bulbs and leaves 

contain Amaryllidaceae alkaloids and are 

poisonous to eat. Dermatitis may occur due to 

mechanical irritation by oxalate needles on contact 

with daffodil bulbs (Frohne and Pfander 1983). 


Anon. 1996. An End in Sight for Basal Rot. Grower, 

March 21. 








Hitchmough, J. 1992. Garden Bulbs for Australia & 

New Zealand. Viking O'Neil, Ringwood. Vic. 

Jefferson-Brown, M. J. 1991. Narcissus. Timber Press, 













Vol. 1., Praeger Pub., NY. 

Wells, J. S. 1989. Modern Miniature Daffodils. Timber 

Press, Portland, Oregon. 


Industry eg 

Bulb Scale Mite (Vic Agnote) 

Daffodils and Jonquils (SA Adelaide Bot. Garden leaflet) 

Diseases of Daffodils (NSW Plant Disease Bull. ) 

Fungal Diseases of Narcissus in Victoria (Vic Agnote) 

Pests of Narcissus (Vic Agnote) 

Stem Nematode of Narcissus (Vic Agnote) 

Tesselaar's Padua Bulb Nurseries, Sylvan Vic. 

Grower Information Sheet. No. 1. Daffodils 

Grower Information Sheet No. 7. Suggestions for Potting 


Grower Information Sheet No. 8. Forcing Bulbs 



Journal of the Tasmanian Daffodil Council 

The Daffodil Association NSW and ACT 






MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Different types and strains of daffodils especially some older strains, may vary 

in their flowering performance. Most modern varieties flower well. 

Resistant varieties: Varieties may vary in their resistance to stem and bulb nematodes and other problems. 

Disease-free planting material: All the destructive diseases and pests of daffodil can be carried over in the 

bulb. Purchase virus-tested bulbs and examine them carefully for disease symptoms, otherwise purchase 

from a reputable source or select the healthiest plants available. 


Propagation: By 'splitting' of the bulbs, ie daughter bulb production. Also by twin scaling, chipping and by 

tissue culture. 

Cultural methods (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No.1 : DAFFODILS * ): 1. On arrival: Unpack 

the bulbs immediately on arrival. As bulbs are still 'living' they require good ventilation during their storage 

period. A well ventilated shaded position is suitable for this. Inspect all bulbs before planting. Discard any 

suspect bulbs and plant in clean soil and avoid re-infestation. Daffodils may be used for pot culture or early 

flower forcing. See Bulbs C 10. 2. Field planting: Plant new bulbs well away from established healthy 

stock. Select suitable soil previously cultivated with tines or rotary hoe. Plant bulbs 10-150 mm deep in rows 

700-750 mm apart. If planting bulbs that are to be left in the ground for a number of years then plant bulbs 

with the base up to 200 mm from the soil surface and at a slightly lower density. Closer planting to the 

surface gives a greater multiplication rate and these bulbs should be dug away every 2-4 years, otherwise 

overcrowding occurs and less flowers will appear each year. Deeper planting seems to limit multiplication 

and the bulb's main concern is to produce flowers each year. Bulbs can be planted from the end of February 

to mid-April. To ensure a good display plant in clumps rather than in rows. Rogue during the growing season. 

Bulbs may be treated for fungal and insect problems. 

Pesticides: 3. Spraying: Daffodils are hardy and normally do not require spraying in home gardens. Where 

there is the possibility of fungal problems in commercial crops, eg grey mould (Botrytis narcissicola), then 

several sprays, eg 3 times, during flowering may be required. 4. Snails: As soon as the stalks appear put 

down the recommended amount of snail bait between the rows. 5. Weed control: See Bulbs C 8. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: 6. Flowers: Normally flowers begin from the end of July for non-cooled flowers. These are best 

picked just after they begin to open. Flowers picked after the seed pod has enlarged have a very short vase 

life (the seed pod is situated directly behind the flower and does not begin to enlarge until the flower has been 

in full bloom for approximately 5-7 days). Harvest daffodils for direct sale at the gooseneck stage, the 

sheath should be split. Avoid fully open flowers. Jonquils can be harvested at the 'one bell' stage when 

1 flower is open on the spike. If open, flowers should have a 'crisp' feel and be slightly green in colour. When 

the stems are cut the peduncles of daffodils exude a sap that is harmful to other cut flowers, eg 

especially roses, carnations, freesias, tulips. So avoid combining daffodils and jonquils with other flowers in a 

vase. If they are to be combined with other flowers, after recutting put them alone in a container for at least 24 

hours before arranging with other flowers. Stem recutting renews mucous flow (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Storage: Flowers may be stored either dry or wet in water. For dry storage they should be packed in 

polyethylene foil and stored in open boxes in a cold room, periods for dry or wet storage depend on the 

temperature (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Avoid storing flat as the stems will bend upwards. Vase life: 

Approximately 4-6 days. Do not use sugar in solutions as it deforms flowers. Floral preservatives do not 

significantly affect the longevity of flowers. Flowers are sensitive to ethylene, sunlight and draughts (Jones 

and Moody 1993). 

Potted plants: See Bulbs C 10. 

Lifting and storing bulbs: 7. After flowering: Leave plants to die back naturally. Lift every year but at 

least every 3 years when foliage has died or yellowed. Loose bulbs can be separated however small bulbs 

tightly attached to the mother bulb should not be pulled apart. Dry and remove shrivelled leaves. Discard any 

diseased bulbs. Dip or dust in fungicide/insecticide mix and store in an airy place till planting time. If digging 

the bulbs, air dry them in any well ventilated shady position, keep them dry until replanting. If the bulbs are 

being left in the ground, grass should be cut occasionally just above ground level once the leaves have died 

back or turned yellow. 8. Diseases: During the dormant period, commercial growers should lift all bulbs and 

treat them with hot water. This should be done not later than 3-4 weeks after digging, otherwise bulbs loose 

their flowering capability. 

* This information is given as a guide only. See Disclaimer, Preface iii. 



C 22 



Healthy basal plate 

(in Fusarium wilt, the 

basal plate is decayed 

early in the disease). 

Fig. 74. Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) damage to daffodils. 

Upper left : Bulbs cut longitudinally to show how browning of scales. 

Lower left : Cross section at neck of bulb to show rings of brown scales. 

Right : Leaves showing raised blister-like streaks. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 75. Left : Daffodil flowers damaged by snails. 

Right : Daffodils at the bottom of a slope. Bulbs have 

been gradually buried deeper and deeper as mulch has 

moved downhill. 


Dahlia 

Dahlia pinnata 



Parasitic 





Crown gall 


Damping off 

Fungal leaf spot, leaf smut 






Root lesion nematode 


Aphids 

Beetles 

Caterpillars 


Leafhoppers 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Nutrient deficiencies, excesses 



Parasitic 


Virus symptoms include mottling, yellow, brown 

or purplish streaks, twisting. Plants may be 

infected with more than one virus and symptoms 

are more pronounced in cool weather. All virus 

diseases affecting dahlia are spread by vegetative 

propagation from infected plants, some also by 

various insects and by pollen. 

Dahlia mosaic virus affects dahlia (Dahlia pinnata). 

Susceptible cultivars may be stunted and there may 

be many small shoots (plants look bushy). Flowers 

may be deformed, leaves may have yellow 

veinbanding, a general mosaic and be small and 

distorted, tubers may be small and their outer 

surfaces cracked. Symptoms are more obvious in 

spring and autumn when night temperatures are cool, 

during summer they are masked and growth and 

flower production may be almost normal. Some 

cultivars produce only mild symptoms and are an 

unsuspected source of infection. Spread also by 

aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), potato 

aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), by mechanical 

inoculation, not by seed. 

Tobacco streak virus may cause appreciable damage 

to dahlia. Symptoms are rather similar to those of 

spotted wilt, young leaves are mottled while older 

leaves have wavy light or dark green oak-leaf or 

concentric line patterns. Spread also by seed, by 

pollen, by thrips carrying pollen, not by a vector. 

Tomato spotted wilt virus: Symptoms are common 

and clearest on first formed foliage, especially in 

early-planted dahlias. New leaves formed during 

summer may only show slight mottling or no 

symptoms at all. Later, concentric yellow or brown 

rings or wavy lines appear (Fig. 76). Leaves of very 

susceptible varieties may brown and die. Early 

infection causes stunting. Young stems may have 

brown to purplish or black streaks. Many varieties 

grow and flower satisfactorily while others do not. See 

Bulbs C 2 (Fig. 59), Tomato M 96. 

Others: Potato X virus, tomato bug bud mycoplasma. 




carotovora), other bacteria (and some fungi) may 

cause storage rots of dahlia tubers but are not a 

serious problem. Tubers and stems develop a 

soft, brown rot. See Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 5. 

Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) is 

not common. Plants wilt rapidly and do not 

recover despite watering. Roots, tubers and stem 

bases rot, but woody parts may remain to give a 

shredded appearance to the tissue. Stem bases are 

initially watersoaked but may blacken as the rot 

progresses. See Tomato M 98, Vegetables M 6. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) may 

uncommonly cause large warty galls to develop 

on stem bases, tubers or roots. Infected plants 

lack vigour, are stunted and produce spindly 

shoots and few flowers. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Damping off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani) 

may be serious causing small plants to wilt and 

die, older plants are not affected unless injured. 

Pythium causes death of young roots; R. solani 

causes a girdling of the stem near ground level. 


Fungal leaf spot, leaf smut (Entyloma 

dahliae) is uncommon but may occasionally cause 

serious damage to leaves. Small clear circular 

brown spots 2-10 mm in diameter surrounded by a 

narrow lighter margin develop mainly on older 

leaves. Spots may fall out to give a shot-hole 

effect. If many spots appear, the leaf withers and 

dies prematurely. See Annuals A 5, Bulbs C 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is a minor 

disease. Under favourable conditions, numerous 

small spots 1 mm across appear on petals of new 

flowers, flower tissue may be watersoaked or dry. 

The disease occurs mainly on old flowers as a 

grey furry mould during humid conditions, but 

may also affect buds, leaves, stems and tubers 

in store. See Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may become 

serious as the crop matures during hot humid 

weather. A mealy white growth develops on 

leaves and young stems. White, powdery, round 

C 24 


DAHLIA 

patches appear first on undersides of young leaves 

and later on both surfaces of older leaves and 

stems (Fig. 77), leaves may die. See Annuals A 6. 


Rhizoctonia stem rot ( Rhizoctonia solani) causes 

individual plants to wilt or collapse due to rotting of 

the stem at or above ground level. Fungal growth 

may cover affected tissue. 

Sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) rots 

the stem base causing wilting and death. A prolific 

white cottonwool-like mycelium develop on affected 

areas. Later characteristic large black sclerotia are 

formed within this white mycelium. 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) causes a dry 

rot of the stem, usually at ground level, producing 

symptoms of wilt and tiny brownish sclerotia. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) may cause 

wilting and sudden death of the whole plant but is 

not common. See Vegetables M 9. 

Others: Fusarium sp. may rot tubers in store, 

Phytophthora cryptogea occurs on Dahlia sp. overseas. 




may commonly damage Dahlia rosea and Dahlia 

sp. Plants are stunted and yellow, small pea-like 

swellings develop on roots and tubers. Severely 

affected young plants fail to produce tubers. Use 

green-shoot cuttings, destroy old roots and 

cuttings. See Vegetables M 10. 

Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus 

coffeae) occasionally causes unthriftiness and 

stunting. Roots and tubers develop surface 

cracking and internal browning. Nematodes 

persist in soil or in tubers. Favoured by well 

drained warm soils. Use green-shoot cuttings, 

destroy old roots, cuttings. See Vegetables M 11. 

Others: Criconema, Gracilacus, Helicotylenchus, 

Macroposthonia, Paratrichodorus, Paratylenchus, 

Xiphinema also occur on Dahlia sp. 




Aphids cause distortion of new shoots, leaves 

and flower buds and transmit virus diseases of 

dahlia. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Beetles (Coleoptera) 

Driedfruit beetles (Nitidulidae) and nectar scarabs 

(Phyllotocus spp., other species, Scarabaeidae) may 

enter newly opened flowers and tear them. White 

and yellow flowers are most frequently infested. 

Remove and destroy spent flowers. Application of an 

insecticide may be necessary. See Fruit F 8, Roses J 8. 

Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) 

chews leaf edges ragged. See Trees K 15. 

Weevils (Curculionidae): Fuller's rose weevil 

(Asynonchus cervinus) and other species chew leaf 

edges ragged too. See Roses J 6. 


Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) tunnel into developing 

flower buds. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cutworms (Noctuidae) chew the stems of young 

plants at ground level. See Seedlings N 68. 

Loopers caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) chew 

leaves. See Vegetables M 13. 



chews petals and leaves. See Vegetables M 14. 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) suck 

sap from leaves, severely affected leaves have a 

dotted, mottled and bleached appearance. See 


Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) feed on parts of 

tubers, exposed by cracking or disturbance of the 

soil. They are slow moving, white and mealy and 

are commonly found on the undersurface of older 

leaves. They feed by sucking on sap causing 

premature defoliation and reduced plant vigour. 



Broad mites (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) can only be 

seen with a microscope if shoot tips are carefully 

examined. New leaves are distorted and may be 

bronzed and reduced in size. See Greenhouses N 26. 


damage as broad mite. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) can be a 

major pest of dahlias. Where numerous, fine 

webbing is seen on leaf undersurfaces. Leaves 

have a bleached and sand blasted appearance, 

particularly beside the main veins. Leaves fall. See 


Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera): Plague 

thrips (Thrips imaginis) and other species are tiny 

blackish elongated insects which may infest 

flowers. Petals may be silvered and browned. 

Both petals and young leaves may be distorted. 

See Annuals A 3 (Fig 18), A 9, Roses J 6. 

Others: Grasshoppers (Orthoptera) cause 

isolated damage on bushes. 


Slugs and snails may damage foliage and 

flowers (upper parts of plants) making their 

control by baits difficult. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost: Do not plant tubers in 

spring until danger of frost has passed. Protect 

dug tubers from low temperatures in cool areas. 

Dahlias need staking to protect them from wind. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Excessive 

fertilising may induce molybdenum, boron and 

other deficiencies. Excess nitrogen causes soft 

weak leaves and stems (flowers bend over), reduces 

flower production and possibly tuber storage life. 


DAHLIA 

 

Pesticide injury: Dimethoate (Rogor ) may 

injure the flowers of some varieties. Hormone 

herbicides (and aphid and mite infestations) may 

result in dark green distorted top foliage. 


Australian Dahlia Council. 1980. Australian Guide to 

Dahlias. Australian Dahlia Council. 

Bodman, K. and Hughes, I. K. 1986. Growing Dahlias. 






Damp, P. 1986. Growing Dahlias. rev. edn. Croom 

Helm, London. 





Lumley, P 1995. Tree Dahlias Retain Their Mystique. 


McMaugh, J. 1994 . What Garden Pest or Disease is 





Parker, G. W. 1985. Growing Dahlias. Kangaroo Press, 





Plants. 5th edn. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 





Industry eg 

Diseases of Dahlias (NSW Agfact) 


America Dahlia Soc. 

Australian Dahlia Council 



Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers C 9 


MANAGEMENT 


Selection 

Dahlias are popular bedding plants, there are hundreds of cultivars. They are tender perennials but are treated 

as bulbous annuals. As many diseases are transferred on or in tubers, reject diseased plants. Purchase 

pathogen-tested planting material or select planting material from disease and pest-free plants. 


Dahlia are propagated by division of tuberous roots in spring (each tuber must have one or more sprout eyes), 

stem cuttings or by seed. Dahlias for cut flower production are mostly field grown. Change growing area, if 

possible every year, and do not replant dahlias for at least 5 years. Dahlias require abundant water but sites 

need to be well drained. Do not confuse diseases with symptoms caused by poor cultural care, environmental 

conditions or insect injury. Destroy all plant debris after the display is finished. Do not introduce plants infected 

with virus or other diseases and pests. Place tubers from unknown sources in quarantine until disease and pest 

status is established. Pesticides are registered for control of diseases, pests and weeds. 

Postharvest 

There are quality standards for exhibition dahlia (Australian Dahlia Council). Harvest flowers when almost fully 

open but centres tight and foliage firm and green. If cut at too early a stage of bud development, flowers will not 

develop properly even in opening solution or their development will be prolonged and flower quality poor. 

Flowers are sensitive to ethylene so may be treated with ant-ethylene agents by growers. Coloured buds may be 

opened in preservative solution (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Recut stems and remove at least 20 mm, immerse 

stems in boiling water for 30 seconds or sear with a flame to prevent bleeding. Remove most leaves as they 

discolour quickly. Flowers may be stored at 4-5 o C for 3-5 days in water (Jones and Moody 1993). Flowers 

may be stored and transported under low light intensity or in total darkness, high light intensity is required only 

for opening flowers cut at the bud stage, lack of light during long distance transport or prolonged storage hastens 

leaf yellowing (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Clumps of tubers are lifted in autumn and stored at -1 o C and 

covered with soil or vermiculite to prevent them drying out during winter. Divide clumps in spring. 

Fig. 76. Tomato spotted wilt virus infection 

Fig 77. Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) on dahlia leaves. 

C 26 


Freesia 

Freesia hybrida 

Family Iridaceae 


Parasitic 





Grey mould 

Root and corm rots 


Aphids 

Gladiolus thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Leaf necrosis 



Parasitic 


Freesia mosaic virus affects Freesia hybrida, 

overseas also F. refracta. Leaves develop mild leaf 

yellowing or are symptomless. Flower size may be 

reduced and flowers may show a colour blotch. 

Symptoms shown by naturally infected plants persist. 

Overwinters in infected corms and is spread by 

vegetative propagation, by aphids, eg green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), potato aphid (Macrosiphon 

euphorbiae), by mechanical inoculation, on cutting 

tools, not by contact between plants, not by seed, not 

by pollen. 

Bean yellow mosaic virus causes mottling and dark 

flecking of leaves and stunted flowers. Affects 

freesia overseas. See Beans (French) M 25. 

Both viruses are spread by infected corms and 

aphids as well as on harvesting tools. After cutting 

healthy flowers, dig out plants with flowers 

showing virus symptoms. Aphid control in the 

crop and during storage is essential. See Bulbs C 4. 


Fusarium wilt (Fusarium sp.) is considered to be the 

most important disease of freesia and the species 

is thought to be the same that can affect gladiolus. 

See Gladiolus C 29. 

Others: 

Blue mould (Penicillium spp.) 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia gladioli) 





Potato aphid (Macrosiphon euphorbiae) 


Aphids transmit virus diseases and during cooler 

weather damage new growth by their direct 

feeding. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex) and possibly 

other species of thrips may damage leaves, 

flowers and corms. See Gladiolus C 31. 


infest leaves. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Thumbing (separation of the 

first floret from the other florets) is caused by 

fluctuating temperatures during the development 

of florets on the spike (Salinger 1985). Tip burn 

(drying and browning of flower tips) is caused by 

water stress. 

Leaf necrosis is a browning and death of leaf 

blades; no flower distortion occurs. Although it 

has symptoms similar to virus infection, no causal 

organism has yet been identified (Salinger 1985). 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Tap 

water containing fluoride may cause leaf burning, 

small flowers and failure of smaller buds to open. 


Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas gladioli pv. 

gladioli) affects gladiolus and is considered to be 

able to also infect crocus, freesia and other 

Iridaceae (Fahy and Persley 1983). See Gladiolus 

C 29. 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause leaf 

dieback and pale spots on flowers. Flowers 

packed in plastic sleeves are especially susceptible. 

See Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 













Moody, H. 1994. The Fragrance of Freesias. Aust. 

Hort., July. 





FREESIA 







Industry eg 

Freesia Growing in Tasmania (Tas Farmnote) 


Grower Information Sheet No. 6. Freesias. 






MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Choose proven varieties for cut flowers and pot culture, eg Freesia hybrida 

Bergunden. Freesia will flower as long as soil temperatures remain < 18 o C. 

Disease-free planting material: Freesias degenerate with virus diseases, and after a number of years new 

corms which are free from virus and other diseases should be obtained to maintain flower quality. Seed is 

virus-free initially. 


Propagation: By daughter corms and by seed. 

Cultural methods (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No.6 : FREESIAS * ): 1. On arrival after 

purchase, keep corms in any dry, ventilated position at storage temperatures of 20-30 o C. 2. Planting: 

Freesias will grow in almost any soil, but prefer a well cultivated soil with a reasonable amount of organic 

matter. Plant corms from February until April, 50 mm deep and 50 mm apart in rows that are 150 mm apart. 

Do not plant freesias twice running in the same position or where gladioli have been planted unless the soil 

has been treated/fumigated to control soilborne diseases (and weeds), otherwise they will not grow to their 

fullest potential. After aeration of the soil the 1st layer of supporting net is laid on the surface and 2 corms per 

mesh area planted with the apical tip just below the surface. Where shoots have already emerged they can be 

exposed. If the weather is sunny, they should be shaded with shade cloth or even newsprint or paper until 

they become green. Subsequent care is the same as for those grown from seed. Freesias, unlike bulbs, do 

not have a flower in the corm before they are planted. Corms, firstly, produce leaves and then when the 

plant has received the correct ratio of light and temperature it will begin to form the flowers. The main 

flowering period for freesias is August/September to October. Planting in greenhouses promotes earlier 

flowering and longer stems. Each well grown plant can produce several sprays of highly fragrant blooms. 

Irrigate and fertilise appropriately. 3. Pesticides: Should grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) become a problem, 

spray with a recommended registered fungicide alternating every 7 days to prevent flower and foliage 

damage. Control aphids and thrips using recommended insecticides. Weed control is essential prior to and 

after planting. 

Pot culture: Plant 5 corms of the Bergunden strain per 150 mm pot in any well enriched potting soil. Set 

outside in a semi-shaded to sunny position until flowering. Freesias for pots should not be planted into the 

pots before the beginning of June. This will give good flowering, without long leaves. Planting earlier gives 

more time for the leaves to grow, resulting in long leaves drooping over the pot, when what is required in 

potted freesias is short leaves and good flower stems (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No.6 : 

FREESIAS * ). 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: There are Quality Standards (US) for freesias. Freesias should be picked when the 1st flower is 

coloured and starts to open (buds will rarely open if picked prior to the first bud opening). Pick the flowers by 

'snapping' the stem just above the 2nd bottom leaf, some varieties do not snap easily, so a sharp knife should 

be used (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No. 6 : FREESIAS * ). Two leaves are always left to give 

energy back to the bulb for multiplication and next year's growth. There should be no less than 7 flowers 

opening in succession and facing in the same direction, per spike. Flowers and leaves should show no signs 

of tip browning. Flowers are ethylene sensitive and may be treated by the grower to block sensitivity. Stems 

should be recut and placed in water containing floral preservative, flowers may be stored at 0-2 o C at high 

relative humidity, dry for 2 days at 0 o C after an overnight drink in water, or wet for a varying number of days 

depending on temperature (Jones and Moody 1993). Do not arrange with daffodils or jonquils as their 

exudate will decrease freesia vase life. Preferably use rain water or deionised water as flowers are sensitive to 

fluoride. 

Lifting and storing corms: Dig the corms approximately 4 weeks after the flowers have finished. Discard 

diseased corms. Dry in a warm, well ventilated place. Corms multiply rapidly but only separate the loose 

corms. All these corms can be planted out the following autumn and will flower (Tesselaar's Grower 

Information Sheet No. 6 : FREESIAS * ). 

* 


C 28 


Gladiolus 

Gladiolus spp. 



Parasitic 



Bacterial scab, neck rot 



Fusarium wilt 



Rust 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Viruses diseases can be a limiting factor in 

gladioli production. Because plants can be 

infected with more than one virus, it is usually 

impossible for the lay person to tell which virus is 

causing the problem. Symptoms vary according to 

the time of infection and the cultivar affected. 

Plants grown from infected corms or infected at an 

early stage are often stunted. Leaves and flower 

stems usually show angular, light to dark green 

mottling which may sometimes become necrotic. 

Flowers do not usually show symptoms but 

occasionally severe flecking and distortion occurs. 

A flower break may occur, white or yellow pencil 

stripes or blotches may appear on petals. Do not 

confuse virus symptoms on flowers with thrips 

injury. Viruses are spread by vegetative 

propagation from infected corms and cormlets, 

some also by insects (aphids and thrips) and in sap 

adhering to hands and tools. 

Bean yellow mosaic virus causes a mild mottle of 

young foliage, flowers may show a colour break, and 

are often stunted. See Bean (French) M 25. 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus and tobacco 

ringspot virus occur in Qld in the cultivar Spic and 

Span, elsewhere in the world this virus is transmitted 

by a nematode vector and has a wide host range, but 

neither of these properties has been noted in Australia 

(McKay and Hughes 1985). Tomato spotted wilt 

virus may also affect gladiolus. 

Pickers should harvest healthy flowers first then 

dig out and destroy infected plants including the 

corms. Only plant virus-tested corms and plant 

them at least 1 km from virus-infected gladiolus 

crops. Aphid and thrips should be controlled with 

insecticides in commercial crops and on corms in 

store. See Bulbs C 4. 


Bacterial scab, neck rot (Pseudomonas 

gladioli pv. gladioli) is a common but minor 

disease of gladiolus, freesia, crocus and other 

Iridaceae. Corms develop pale yellow, 

watersoaked circular spots which exude gum 

containing bacteria, gluing the husk and fragments 

of soil to the corm. Spots darken with age, 

becoming circular, depressed, shiny with gum and 

with a prominent, light-coloured, raised rim 

(Fig. 78). Lesions are shallow and old lesions are 

usually on the lower surface of the corm, and can 

be lifted out, exposing undamaged tissue below. 

Necks rot and plants collapse. Initially leaf spots 

are tiny and reddish brown, later they enlarge and 

become circular or slightly elongated with a darker 

margin and may join together. Scab overwinters 

in infected corms and crop debris in soil for up to 

2 years. Spread by introduction of contaminated 

soil or plant debris on machinery, tools, containers, 

healthy corms become infected by planting in 

contaminated soil, soil becomes contaminated by 

planting infected corms, also by bulb mite 

(Rhizoglyphus echinopus). Favoured by warm, 

wet, soil. Practise crop rotation. Harvest corms 

as soon as mature, cure prior to storage in dry, well 

ventilated conditions and treat with fungicide prior 

to planting. Sanitation is reduces their spread. 

Only plant scab-free corms. See Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. gummisudans) may occur in warm, 

rainy seasons. Sanitation is helpful in reducing its 

spread. Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 



Stemphylium leaf spot (Stemphylium botryosum) is a 

common but minor disease seriously damaging 

some cultivars near flowering time during cool, wet 

weather. Large circular yellow spots up to 3 mm in 

diameter develop on leaves which may wither and 

die. Dark brown spores develop on the spots. On 

some cultivars, small yellow spots with red centres 

surrounded by a ring of clear translucent tissue 

develop. Plant cultivars with some resistance. 

Others: Some leaf spotting fungi also damage corms 

and are described under root and corm rots, eg 

Botrytis spp. (Fig. 79), Curvularia trifolii f. sp. 

gladioli and Septoria gladioli. Bipolaris bicolor may 

also cause leaf spotting (Walker 1994). 


Fusarium wilt, fusarium yellows and 

basal brown rot (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

gladioli) is the most destructive disease of 

gladiolus. There are several strains which vary in 

symptoms produced and in the range of varieties 

attacked. An extremely virulent form is 

responsible for the disease called basal brown rot. 

The fungus enters the plant through roots, leaf 

bases or old corms. Water-conducting strands of 

roots, stems and parent corms are discoloured, 

roots rot and young infected shoots curve due to 

unequal growth, plants may die. Leaves yellow 


GLADIOLUS 

and die starting at the tips of the oldest leaves. 

Parent corms and part of the root system are 

usually found to be decayed. If the corm is cut 

across, the rotting of the core and radiating strands 

or pockets of brown can be readily seen. The first 

symptom is the production of a brown lesion at the 

base, starting from the dead root bases. Rotting 

continues in storage, develops in concentric rings 

and in damp conditions may have pinkish-white 

surface growth on which spores are produced. 

The degree of corm rotting depends on varietal 

susceptibility, corms of susceptible varieties may 

be completely destroyed, but in varieties with 

some resistance (none seem to be completely 

resistant) there may be no obvious external 

symptoms but vascular browning is easily seen. 

Flower spikes may be deformed and individual 

flowers may fail to open properly and give a tulip 

shape. Fusarium wilt should be positively 

identified by a pathologist to confirm diagnosis. 

Immediately after corms are cleaned, treat with 

fungicide for 15-30 minutes prior to curing. 

Cormlets can be hot water treated for more 

efficient eradication of the fungus, cool store them 

after drying for 5-6 weeks before planting in 

Fruarium-free soil. Contaminated soil must be 

treated prior to planting susceptible cultivars. Plant 

treated corms in Fusarium-free soil. See Bulbs C 

5, Vegetables M 9. 

Grey mould, neck rot, corm core rot 

(Botrytis gladiolorum) and grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea), is present in many gladiolus plantings, 

but field damage is usually slight. Serious losses 

may occur postharvest after cutting, during the 

marketing of flowers. Leaves develop small redbrown 

spots which may enlarge to form dark 

blotches with tan centres (Fig. 79), these may 

coalesce and leaves yellow and die. Petals of 

flowers opening under damp conditions develop 

watersoaked circular spots, which soon coalesce 

causing flowers to wither. Affected leaves and 

flowers during humid conditions, are covered with 

grey spores. Spores may infect necks of plants 

causing them to rot at ground level, yellow and fall 

over (Fig. 80). Sometimes black resting bodies 

(sclerotia) are produced by the fungus on affected 

areas. If leaf and flower infection has occurred in 

the crop, spores infect husks and corms during 

damp conditions at lifting time. Corms are only 

susceptible when soft and newly dug. Even a short 

period of curing renders them resistant to attack. 

Favoured by cool (15-21 o C), wet, humid weather, 

subsequent warm and dry weather stops the 

development of leaf and flower spots. Practise 

crop rotation, a minimum of 4 years is desirable. 

Avoid overcrowding and overmoist growing 

conditions. Rogue and burn badly infected plants. 

Corm treatments: If Botrytis leaf spots have 

occurred during the growing season or if the 

weather is damp at digging, corms should be 

treated as recommended for basal rot. Treat corms 

with fungicide prior to planting. Dig corms as 

soon as possible after flowering, cure corms 

before storage at 35 o C for about a week and store 

in well-ventilated conditions. If corms are required 

for late planting, cool-store them at 3-9 o C. Plant 

cool-stored corms immediately after removal from 

the cool store. Destroy infected corms. Reject 

obviously affected plants when harvesting corms, 

green-clean corms and reject diseased corms. No 

completely resistant variety is known. Use 

sterilants in packing sheds. Apply fungicides to 

flowers when necessary prior to harvesting, and 

during transit of flowers; provide adequate 

ventilation. See Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 


Properly identify root and stem rots. Use a test 

kit or send to a pathologist. Many fungi affecting 

corms and flowers also cause leaf spots. 

Curvularia leaf and flower spot and corm 

disease (Curvularia trifolii var. gladioli) is most 

severe on gladiolus seedlings and plants grown from 

cormlets. Curvularia is often present but not 

usually serious. It attacks young leaves or flowers, 

and is particularly destructive on young cormlets 

where it destroys the plant at soil level during warm 

humid or moist conditions. Leaf spots are 1-20 mm 

across with prominent, dark, reddish-brown margins 

with a lighter halo and a pale brown centre. Leaf tips 

often shrivel and shred. Black spore masses may 

appear on the surface of the spots. Flower spots are 

small, colourless, watersoaked areas initially, but may 

later turn brown and then blacken as the spores 

develop. Spots on the cut flower spikes continue to 

develop in transit. Corms: Shallow, light to dark 

brown depressions (pinpoint to more than 20 mm 

across) which easily separate from the healthy tissue. 

The fungus may also cause a core rot with discoloured 

water-conducting strands extending from the rotted 

tissue. Picardy is very susceptible and the disease 

seems to be most severe on seedlings and plants 

grown from cormlets. Some other varieties have leaf 

resistance but not corm resistance. 

Fusarium wilt, fusarium yellows and basal 

brown rot (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. gladioli) is 

described separately. See Gladiolus C 29. 

Grey mould (Botrytis spp.) may rot corms and is 

described separately (see above). 

Penicillium mould (Penicillium gladioli) is a 

common and important storage disease. Firm, 

circular, brown lesions, enlarging irregularly and 

becoming sunken develop on corms. In cool, damp 

conditions a fluffy, bluish fungal growth is 

produced through which small, round, yellow sclerotia 

(< 0.5 mm in diameter) are scattered. Usually plants 

are not affected. However, earliest leaves to emerge 

may show lesions. See Bulbs C 5, Fruit F 6. 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) is a minor 

disease. White fungal threads with hard, brown 

1-2 mm sclerotia are produced on rotting old 

corms and in surrounding soil. Sclerotia can 

remain viable for many years. Infection is facilitated 

by mechanical injury, and warm weather. Allow 

organic matter to decompose well before planting. 


Septoria leaf spot and hard corm rot (Septoria 

gladioli) may be a minor disease. Initially small, 

circular or oblong, brown or purple-brown spots 

develop on leaves. These enlarge, have brown 

borders and light coloured centres. Tiny, black, 

fungal fruiting bodies (pycnidia) develop on the 

centres. Under moist conditions spots may enlarge to 

involve most of the leaf margin. Hard corm rot: A 

firm brown or olive discolouration with a marbled 

appearance, extending into the flesh, which is mottled 

with brown, develops. Lesions do not follow the 

veins or invade the corms. During storage, infected 

tissue becomes a uniform dark brown and the surface 

of the lesion shrinks and becomes hard. 

C 30 


GLADIOLUS 

Stromatinia rot (Stromatinia gladioli = Sclerotinia 

gladioli) may cause death of more than 30% of 

gladiolus plants. Neck rot: Leaves commence to 

yellow from the tip, then dry and die and the plant 

may fall over. Young plants may be stunted, yellow 

and may eventually die singly or in clumps. Larger 

plants may not be killed, but the bases of the leaves 

and stems are rotted with a black colour and often the 

outer leaf bases are so shredded that only the leaf 

veins remain. Many small, black, round sclerotia 

(< 0.5 mm across) form in the rotted tissue. Corm 

rot: Lesions are at first inconspicuous yellowish or 

reddish specks, which enlarge to roughly circular spots 

6 mm across, often found along the lines of origin of 

the covering scales. The lesions may join together to 

cover much of the surface, particularly the upper 

surface. Lesions are not usually deep although in 

extreme cases the whole corm may become 

mummified. During storage, corms may become 

covered by surface lesions, and when cut across may 

show dark streaking along the veins rather like 

yellows, except that they start only from surface 

infections, and not from the parent corm. When 

corms are planted in contaminated soil, roots are 

attacked and die. Older leaves of these plants wither 

back from the tips and flower spikes are poor or fail to 

develop. Corms produced by these plants are usually 

heavily infected around the base. Favoured by high 

soil moisture and sandy rather than clay soils, by cool 

weather when sclerotia germinate to produce fungal 

threads which infect healthy plants at distances up to 

0.5 m. It can also cause damage under warm soil 

conditions (24-28 o C). The fungus can also survive in 

flooded soils. See Bulbs C 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Overwintering: Several of these leaf spotting 

fungi can persist in the soil for years and also on 

the corms, some form resting bodies (sclerotia) in 

the soil and these persist for many years, 

eventually re-infecting gladioli or other Iridaceous 

plants. Spread: Spores are spread by water splash 

and wind, from leaf spots and infected plant 

debris, and by the movement of contaminated 

ground water, by propagation from infected corms 

and the movement of infected corms and 

contaminated soil on machinery, tools, containers 

etc. Different root and corm rots are favoured by 

different weather conditions. Cultural methods: 

Practice crop rotation, a minimum of 3 years, grow 

crops in warm conditions. Ensure good drainage, 

avoid over-moist soil conditions. Plant shallowly. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy severely infected 

plants, corms and crop debris. Discard and burn 

any corms with any visible disease after lifting, 

before curing, storage and planting. Green-clean 

(wash and clean immediately after lifting) corms 

and cure prior to storage. Corms may be treated 

with fungicide prior to curing and planting. 

Disease-free planting material: Reject affected 

corms before planting; only plant disease-free 

corms and plant in disease-free soil. Soil 

treatments may be necessary. Fungicides are 

registered for these diseases. See Bulbs C 5, 


Rust, leaf rust (Uromyces transversalis) may be 

a serious disease of cultivated gladiolus and 

watsonia. Other rusts occur overseas. Rust 

appears as powdery orange pustules on both sides 

of leaves, the pustules often occur as lines running 

across the leaf blades. Gladiolus rust is spread 

by wind-blown spores, on leaves (attached to cut 

flowers) and possibly on other leaf material and 

clothing carrying spores. Consideration is being 

given to regulating the movement of gladioli 

plants within Australia. This rust is difficult to 

control with chemicals. See Annuals A 7. 



cause serious losses overseas but do not seem to 

be important in Australia. Corms are distorted 

with swellings approximately 5 mm across. Tissue 

breakdown is rare. Roots are distorted and 

swollen, breakdown may occur. Root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) also occurs 

on gladiolus. See Vegetables M 10. 





Aphids damage developing foliage and flowers 

by their sap sucking activities. They may also 

transmit some virus diseases of gladioli. See 

Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 


Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) 



Sugarcane and maize nutborer (Bathytricha truncata) 

Budworms can damage flower buds from spring 

until autumn. Caterpillars generally are more 

damaging at plant emergence at the 2-leaf stage, at 

the slipping stage and just prior to the opening of 

the lowest floret. See Annuals A 8, Bulbs C 8. 


Scientific name: Thripidae, Thysanoptera: 

Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex) is a major pest. 

Other species, eg plague thrips (Thrips imaginis), 


may infest gladiolus. Other Frankliniella spp. may 

infest gladiolus overseas. 

Host range: Gladiolus, carnations, iris, arum lily, 

red-hot poker (Kniphofia sp.), monbretia (Tritonia 

sp.), tiger flower (Tigridia pavonia). 

Description and damage: Adult females are 

about 2 mm long, dark brown in colour and possess 

2 pairs of delicately fringed wings. Males are 

slightly smaller than females. Nymphs are initially 

yellow and wingless and are found hidden in 

crevices in leaves and flowers. Pre-pupal and 

pupae are lemon-yellow. Nymphs and adults rasp 

and suck plant sap from leaves causing silvering 

(Fig. 81), if damage is extensive, new corms may 

be stunted. Thrips in developing flower spikes 

cause blooms to become deformed, or prevent them 

opening. This injury is often attributed to other 

causes such as drought or disease. Slight injury on 

dark blooms appears as irregular, whitish or 


GLADIOLUS 

flecked areas. Buds and flowers brown and 

wither. Damage is not so noticeable on lightcoloured 

varieties. Thrips also feed and breed on 

corms in storage which become sticky, hard and 

scabby/scaly, young root buds may be injured, 

their subsequent development is affected (Fig. 81). 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (egg, 

nymph (2 stages), pre-pupa, pupa, adult) with 

many generations during the warmer months. 

Eggs are deposited in the plants. Larvae and prepupae 

are found within leaf sheaths and flower 

buds, adults feed mainly in the open on leaves. The 

pupal stage occurs either on plants or in soil. 

Overwintering: In warm areas all stages may 

occur during winter. If plants are left for a long 

time in the field after flowering, thrips migrate to 

corms as leaves die. In cooler areas, thrips may 

overwinter in infested corms and on volunteer 

hosts. 

Spread: As thrips do not fly readily, spread 

through crops is slow and assisted by wind. They 

are also spread by introduction of infected corms. 

Conditions favouring: Hot, dry conditions. 

Cool, wet weather is unfavourable, heavy rain may 

destroy large numbers. Slow growing varieties are 

more susceptible. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: For new plantings select land 

as far removed as possible from old plantings 

and volunteer plants. Commercial growers with 

properties isolated from areas in which gladioli 

or other hosts are growing, should make a break 

in plantings, so that for a period of several 

months there is no foliage on which thrips can 

develop. Where there are dominant prevailing 

winds, plant early-flowering varieties in beds 

furthest down-wind (thrips do not fly readily). 

Frequent use of overhead sprinklers or hosing 

plants retards thrips development before 

flowering but may damage flowers. Provide 

good drainage. 

Sanitation: Volunteer gladiolus plants and other 

hosts should be pulled up and destroyed before 

the main crop is planted. Thrips may migrate 

from drying leaves to corms if digging is left too 

long. The husks which provide protection for 

the thrips should be removed. 

Biological control: There are many natural 

enemies, eg wasps. 

Resistant varieties: Pale coloured varieties are 

considered to have some resistance. Deep red 

and purple (some exceptions) and slow growing 

cultivars (they have a sweeter sap than rapidly 

growing ones) are most severely affected. 


Foliage treatments for susceptible varieties 

should commence when shoots are 150-200 mm 

high and continue at regular intervals until 

flowering. Sprays are usually more effective 

than dusts, it is usually necessary to add a 

wetting agent. Soil treatments: Granular 

insecticides applied when planting corms out, 

provide control for about 10 weeks. Corm 

treatments include storage at l0 o C, hot water 

treatments (obtain expert advice on how to do 

this so that thrips are controlled but corms 

not injured), and dusting with insecticide prior 

to storage. 

C 32 


Others: Bulb flies (Syrphidae, Diptera), bulb 

mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus), mealybugs 

(Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera), twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae) and wireworms (Elateridae) 

are not usually a problem in commercial plantings. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Severe frost damage may follow 

warm days and cold nights and early growth can 

be stunted. Usually only younger leaves are 

affected, becoming soft and watersoaked and later 

dry and whitish. Sometimes only parts of leaves or 

leaves facing the rising sun show symptoms. 

Basal parts of new leaves not fully emerged at the 

time of frost injury are not usually affected. 

Saprophytic fungi may invade damaged areas. 

Affected plants may later recover but new growth 

may be puckered and distorted, with alternate 

bands of yellow and green tissue along the young 

leaves. Flowers may be normal on frost affected 

plants if spikes are protected within the leaves at 

the time of injury. Abortion of individual florets 

occurs when frost affects the flower at the heading 

stage. Sufficient loss occurs each year to make 

this an important consideration in winter plantings 

in some areas. Maintain wet soil conditions. 

Install warning devices, spray irrigate before frost 

thaws. Inadequate irrigation during flower 

formation reduces stem length and number of 

florets per spike. Provide support for plants to 

protect them from wind damage and to keep the 

flower spikes vertical. 










McKay, M. E. and Hughes, I. K. 1985. Growing 

Gladioli. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane. 

Moody, H. 1994. Gladioli : Having The Last Laugh. 

Aust. Hort., Dec. 











Walker, J. 1994. Personal correspondence. 


Industry eg 

Diseases of Gladioli (NSW Agfact) 

Pests of Gladiolus (Vic Agnote) 

Virus Diseases of Gladiolus (Vic Agnote) 



North American Gladiolus Society 

See Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and bulbs C 9 



GLADIOLUS 

MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Gladioli are an important cut flower crop. 

Resistant varieties: Select cultivars with some resistance to major diseases and pests (Salinger 1985). 

Disease-free planting material: Most serious bacterial and fungal diseases are carried in or on corms 

and are transferred from old to new corms each year. Diseases may be introduced to an area on infected 

corms and can then remain in the soil for varying lengths of time, multiplying with each succeeding gladiolus 

crop. Only plant corms free from specified diseases. To obtain disease-free replacement corms, grow 

cormlets separately from production crops and on ground that has not previously grown gladioli or that has 

been treated with an effective registered pesticide/fumigant. Select cormlets only from apparently diseasefree 

plants and treat with hot water and recommended fungicides. Hot water treatment of cormlets (< 19 mm 

in diameter) prior to planting, ensures even germination and elimination of latent fungal infections before 

planting in disease-free soil. Hot water treatment will injure corms. 


Propagation: By daughter corms. 

Cultural methods: Practise crop rotation to avoid build up of inoculum near susceptible cultivars, prepare 

the area for planting early and ensure that organic matter is well decomposed. Ensure adequate drainage. 

Avoid land infested with fungal diseases or nematodes. Select a frost-free site or arrange for prescribed 

irrigation to minimise frost damage, control weed growth in and around the crop area. Grow in warm weather 

to avoid sclerotinia, in cool weather to avoid fusarium and nematodes. Plant shallowly and hill as late as 

practical. Accurate diagnosis of diseases and pests is essential. A comprehensive summary of their 

description and possible treatments is available (Salinger 1985). 

Sanitation: Rogue virus-affected plants regularly, discard rotted corms after storage and decontaminate 

stores and structure with commercial sodium hypochlorite at recommended strength. 

Pesticides: Insecticides are registered for controlling gladiolus thrips and fungicides for grey mould 

(Botrytis), fungal leaf spots and bacterial scab. 

Postharvest 

There are US Standards for gladiolus, grades are based on spike length and minimum number of florets. 

Cut flowers: Harvest cut flowers when 1-5 buds showing colour. If picked tighter then opening solutions are 

necessary. Quality and opening is dramatically improved if growers pulse prior to packing and transporting to 

market. Flowers are very susceptible to grey mould (Botrytis), ensure strict hygiene in the packing shed, 

pack only dry flowers and provide adequate ventilation for flowers in transit. Vase life: Salt (700 ppm) 

decreases vase life and fluoridated tap water at concentrations of 0.25 mg/L and higher causes flower injuries, 

petal tips may look bleached and burnt, florets may fail to open and develop normally (Jones and Moody 

1993). Gladioli are heavy drinkers, replenish water regularly, avoid ethylene. Lack of light during long 

distance transport or prolonged storage accelerates leaf yellowing. Storage: Flowers spikes must remain and 

be stored in an upright position to prevent stem bending (negative geotropic bending of stems away from the 

centre of the earth), growth inhibitors may be used to prevent this and special packaging must be used to hold 

them vertically. Flowers may be stored dry or wet, prior to storage, they should be treated against grey mould 

(Botrytis) and conditioned at prescribed temperatures (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). After storage stem ends 

should be recut and placed in an opening solution at 18-20 o C until flowers reach the commercially desirable 

stage. 

Lifting and storage of corms: Corms are generally lifted 5-6 weeks after the main flowering, preferably 

when soil is hot and when corms are still attached to the parent corm (attached corms are less likely to be 

infected with soilborne diseases). Remove foliage from corms at harvesting to reduce diseases and, if left in 

the field, to prevent diseases. Dry corms rapidly after harvest. Corms are adequately cured when old corms 

can be broken off cleanly from the base of new ones. If leaves are removed or damaged during flower 

gathering, new corms and cormlets will be smaller and therefore less vigorous. Avoid injury at harvest and 

discard damaged corms or cormlets for future planting. Wash corms and cormlets after lifting and separate 

cormlets < 19 mm in diameter. An excellent summary is provided by Salinger, 1985: Green-clean corms, 

cure all planting material at 30 o C and 80-90% relative humidity for 1-2 weeks before storage, clean corms 

after curing (if not green-cleaned), cold store at 3-7 o C at 70-80% relative humidity with adequate ventilation. 


GLADIOLUS 

Fig. 78. Bacterial scab (Pseudomonas gladioli pv. 

gladioli) on gladiolus corms. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 80. Collar rot on gladiolus 

caused by Botrytis gladiolorum. 

Rotting occurs at or just below 

ground level. Affected areas are 

usually covered with grey mould. 


Fig. 79. Fungal leaf spots on gladiolus leaves caused by Botrytis spp. Note 

small reddish circular spots and large irregular lesions. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 81. Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex): Left : Adult thrips. Centre : Injury to corms (showing injured area and 

killed rootlets around basal plate. Right : Injury to foliage and flower spikes (silvering). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

C 34 


Hyacinth 

Hyacinthus spp. 

Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis) 

Family Liliaceae 


Parasitic 




Bulb rot, yellow disease, yellow rot 


Grey mould, fire 



Root knot 



Aphids 

Lesser bulb fly 

Non-parasitic 

Hyacinth itch 


Parasitic 


Hyacinth mosaic virus affects Hyacinthus sp. 

causing leaf yellowing, stem spotting, and an 

occasional flower break. Symptoms shown by 

naturally infected plants persist. Spread by 

vegetative propagation, by green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), potato aphid (Macrosiphon euphorbiae), by 

mechanical inoculation, not by contact between 

plants, not by seed, not by pollen. 

Narcissus mosaic virus: Leaf symptoms range from 

faint yellow flecking, blotches and rings to severe 

distortion and death of tissue. In Australia yield of 

crops is not affected. There is no vector. See 

Daffodil C 19. 



Blue and green moulds (Penicillium spp.) can be a 

problem during forcing if humidity is high and it 

attacks the basal plate (Larson 1992). See Fruit F 6. 

Others: 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) 

Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 



Root knot (Meloidogyne sp.) has been recorded 

on Hyacinthus sp. See Vegetables M 10. 


dipsaci) has been recorded on H. orientalis, 

Hyancinthus spp. See Daffodils C 20. 




Potato aphid (Macrosiphon euphorbiae) 

Aphids infest new leaves and transmit virus 

diseases of hyacinths. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Lesser bulb fly (Eumerus tuberculatus) 

maggots may infest hyacinth bulbs. See Bulbs C 

7. 

Non-parasitic 

Hyacinth itch: Hyacinth bulbs contain a 

crystallised powder on their husks, which when 

ruffled by rough handling, can settle and enter the 

pores of the skin causing an itch (Frohne and 

Pfander 1983). Wear gloves when handling dried 

hyacinth bulbs. This effect can be neutralised by 

washing affected areas with soap and water. 



carotovora) may affect bulbs in the ground and in 

storage. Bulbs may fail to produce flowers. See 


Bulb rot, yellow disease, yellow rot 

(Xanthomonas campestris pv. hyacinthi) occurs on 

H. orientalis. Yellowish water-soaked stripes 

begin near the leaf tip and extend downwards, 

these stripes later brown and die (Pirone 1978). 

Flower stalks brown and shrivel and bulbs rot. 



Grey mould, fire (Botrytis cinerea) may affect 

the flowers especially some dark blue cultivars. 

See Bulbs C 5, Greenhouses N 22. 








Moody, H. 1995. Getting the Best Returns from 

Hyacinths. Aust. Hort., Aug. 







Grower Information Sheet No.2. Hyacinths 

Growers Information Sheet No 7. Forcing Spring 

Flowering Bulbs 

Grower Information Sheet No.8:Forcing Bulbs 

See Bulbs, corms, rhizomes and bulbs C 9 



BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBER C 35

HYACINTH 

MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Hyacinth are popular spring flowering, perfumed bulbs available in a wide 

range of colours, grown for bedding displays, cut flowers and are ideal for container growing, both outdoors 

and indoors. 

Resistant varieties: Some cultivars are more susceptible to grey mould (Botrytis) than others. 

Disease-free planting material: All diseases and pests are carried over in the bulbs. Only purchase and 

plant certified virus and pathogen-tested bulbs. 


Propagation: By daughter bulbs. 

Cultural methods (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No. 2 : HYACINTHS * ): 1. On arrival: Unpack 

bulbs immediately and store at 20-30 o C in a well ventilated area in dry trays rather than in paper bags or 

cardboard boxes. Bulbs may be grown in pots and/or forced for early flower. See Bulbs C 10. 2. Field 

planting: Hyacinths are gross feeders and require extra feeding to allow the bulbs to fully develop for the 

following season. Fowl manure at the rate of 70 m 3 /ha or in very poor soil 120 m 3 /ha may be used. This is 

applied to the soil before planting and also turned into the soil together with a green crop 1-2 months before 

planting time. Bulbs are planted in rows 300 mm apart, 100-120 mm deep and spaced 50-88 mm apart. 

Hyacinths, unlike tulips, are unaffected by high temperatures and so can be planted out into the soil from the 

beginning of March until the end of April. As with all bulbs, they prefer to be planted in moist soil and pH of 6-7 

is required. 

Pesticides: 3. Spraying: When they commence flowering 2-3 fungicide sprays for grey mould (Botrytis spp.) 

at 10 day intervals may need to be applied. 

Weed control: 4. Weeds: Four weeks after planting and while bulb shoots are still more than 30 mm below 

the soil spray the ground with a contact herbicide to kill existing weeds, and a pre-emergence herbicides to 

prevent weed seed germinating for up to 3 months. Never spray with herbicide once growth is within 

5-10 mm of the soil surface or the shoots have emerged through the soil. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: 5. Flowers: Harvest flowers with a sharp knife as low as possible without damaging the leaves 

when top florets are still in bud and there is an even opening in the lower florets. Vase life is approximately 

4-8 days, place stems in water containing preservative but no sugar (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Lifting and storage of bulbs: Hyacinths and tulips are best lifted when the foliage completely dies down 

as our summers are too hot for them to flower well the 2nd year. Hyacinths should be kept in shallow 

containers after lifting and covered with peat moss in a cool dry place. 6. After flowering: Keep weeds 

away from the plants to help the bulbs absorb as much of the available nutrients as possible. Keep the soil 

moist after flowering. It is during the next 8-10 weeks that the bulb develops for the following season. 

7. Digging: After the leaves have yellowed and started to die, dig the bulbs up and break off the foliage at the 

top of the bulb. The bulbs should then be air dried in the shade for 5-10 days. After this time they can be 

graded if necessary and then stored in an with plenty of fresh air. Hyacinths prefer a temperature range of 25- 

30 o C but will take a range of 20-35 o C during their storage season. Good ventilation is the key to their 

success. 8. Dipping bulbs: Providing the roots are not yet developed, the bulbs should be dipped in a 

recommended effective disinfectant to promote a more healthy skin and less 'split bases' in the hyacinth 

bulbs. Make sure that this is done before the bulb starts rooting. Wear gloves when handling hyacinth 

bulbs. 

Potted plants: Sell when buds start to colour (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). For longest life, flowering plants 

should be kept at a cool temperature of 10-15 o C. Higher temperatures stimulate stem growth and cause rapid 

deterioration of inflorescences. Do not spray flowers with water as this causes flowers to become infected with 

grey mould (Botrytis spp.). 

* This information is given as a guide only. See Disclaimer, Page iii. 



C 36 

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND TUBER

Iris 

Iris spp. 

Bulbous (Dutch, dwarf, English, Japanese, Spanish) 

Rhizomatous (German, Siberian) 



Parasitic 






Root, bulb and crown rots 

Rust 





Aphids 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Nutrient deficiency, toxicity 



Parasitic 


Bulbous irises are more severely affected by 

virus diseases than rhizomatous irises. All viruses 

are spread by vegetative propagation, some also by 

insects, but not usually by seed. 

Iris mild mosaic virus (IMMV) affects Iris spp. 

Leaves may be symptomless or show a light green 

mosaic, which is slightly more intense on flower 

bracts, flowers are usually unaffected. Symptoms 

are more obvious on irises grown under cover, and 

those shown by naturally infected plants vary 

cyclically over a few weeks. Spread also by aphids, 

eg cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), potato aphid 

(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), not by chrysanthemum aphid 

(Macrosiphoniella sanborni), not by seed (seed from 

iris bulbs will be virus-free initially). Because IMMV 

is less severe than ISMV, growers have not attempted 

to control it to the same extent as they have ISMV. 

Iris severe mosaic virus (ISMV) affects Iris spp., 

overseas also Crocus vernus and Belamcanda 

chinensis. Outer and middle leaves have yellowgreen 

stripes in mild infections. In severe infections, 

pale green and yellowish-green stripes and wide bands 

in irregular patterns extend upwards from below soil 

level. Plants may be distorted and stunted. Flowers 

may show a colour break, be reduced in size and 

twisted to one side. Plants die prematurely. Symptoms 

shown by naturally infected plants persist and vary 

cyclically over a few weeks. Spread by aphids, eg 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), potato aphid 

(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), not by Myzus pelargonii, 

M. circumflexum, Anuraphis tulipae, Rhopalosiphon 

tulipaella, by mechanical inoculation, not by grafting, 

not by contact between plants, not by seed. 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus, lily symptomless 

virus, narcissus latent virus, narcissus mosaic virus. 

See Bulbs C 4., Daffodil C 19, 



carotovora), possibly other Erwinia spp. may also 

attack iris, especially rhizomatous irises. Leaves 

turn yellow and collapse. When plants are lifted, 

rhizomes below the wilted foliage are rotted and 

have a foul smell. Lifting and dividing irises 

every 2-3 years helps reduce the incidence of 

disease. Rotate irises with non-susceptible crops. 


Others: Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas 

gladioli pv. gladioli). See Gladiolus C 29. 



Fungal leaf spot (Cladosporium iridis = 

Heterosporium spp. = Mycosphaerella macrospora) 

mainly affects rhizomatous irises. Minute, brown 

elliptical spots with water soaked margins develop on 

leaves. Spots enlarge and turn grey with brown to red 

margins (eyespots). Spots may coalesce to form 

larger dead areas, leaves die prematurely and weaken 

the plant. Plant rhizomes in well ventilated, well 

drained sites, collect and destroy badly infected leaves 

and spray with a fungicide if necessary. Soak bulbs 

before planting for half an hour in a recommended 

fungicide. See Bulbs C 2 (Fig. 60). 

Ink disease (Dreschlera iridis) may cause leaf spots 

on bulbous iris. 


Root, bulb and crown rots 

Blue or green moulds (Penicillium spp.) may 

develop on the fleshy bulb scales. See Bulbs C 5. 

Fusarium yellows (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

gladioli) affects gladiolus, iris. See Gladiolus C 29. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) rots the stem base as 

it emerges or just after the leaves develop. 


Ink disease (Dreschlera iridis) causes black blotches 

on scales of bulbous iris. 

Rhizoctonia neck rot (Rhizoctonia solani) causes a 

brownish rot of the base of the leaves and flower 

stalks. See Vegetables M 7. 

Sclerotium stem or crown rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 

may attack both rhizomatous and bulbous irises 

initially rotting the base of leaves and flower stalks 

causing dieback. The rotting spreads into the 

rhizomes, killing plants. A white, cottony growth and 

later tiny brownish sclerotia develop on affected 

parts. See Bulbs C 2 (Fig. 62), Vegetables M 8. 


Rust, leaf rust (Puccinia iridis) occurs mainly on 

rhizomatous irises during warm, humid weather. 

Rusty red, powdery pustules may develop on stems 


IRIS 

and on both sides of leaves which may yellow and 

die prematurely. Plants are not usually killed but 

vigour is seriously affected. During the short 

period when no iris foliage is above ground, old 

foliage may be burnt off and new growth sprayed 

as soon as it emerges (Salinger 1985). Avoid 

overhead watering. Remove and burn old 

infected leaves. At first sign of disease apply a 

fungicide. Several applications may be necessary 

depending on weather. Some fungicides may 

injure blooms. See Annuals A 7. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) has 

occurred on iris in Australia. Vegetables M 10. 


dipsaci) may attack bulbous iris. In NZ bulbs 

scales are separated from the basal plate and 

subsequent above ground growth is very weak. 

Hot water treatment of bulbs at 44 o C for 3 hours 

with a prescribed disinfectant in the bath, and the 

incorporation of insecticide granules at planting 

and each autumn, should reduce their incidence 

and possibly give complete control (Salinger 

1985). See Daffodil C 20. 


Aphids ( Aphididae, Hemiptera) 





Aphids cluster and suck sap from flowering 

shoots and bulbs and may multiply during 

storage on emerging shoots and under the scale 

leaves, infested dry bulbs feel sticky. Aphids 

transmit virus diseases of iris during feeding. 

See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Others: Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus), 

gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex), lesser bulb fly 

(Eumerus tuberculatus), mealybugs (Pseudococcidae, 

Hemiptera). 


Snails may be a serious pest of irises. See Bulbs 

C 8, Seedlings N 70. 


Cockatoos and other birds may randomly dig up 

and partially eat bulbs, above ground shoots are 

often not damaged. Some growers net plantings. 

See Fruit F 13 



Non-parasitic 

Environment: Blasting (failure to produce a 

marketable flower after floral initiation has taken 

place) in Dutch iris and tulips is very complex. 

Known causes are low light intensity, high 

temperatures, insufficient watering and lack of 

fertiliser in the greenhouse. Blindness is a failure 

to flower, only 3 leaves are produced, and can be 

due to the use of small-sized bulbs, forcing too 

early, or improper programming of temperatures. 

Frost: Pre-cooled prepared bulbs planted outdoors 

without protection may suffer frost damage; flower 

buds fail to emerge from sheaths or if they do 

emerge, flowers may be at an angle to the stem due 

to a bent stem below the ovary. Weatherdamaged 

flowers are unsaleable, but when the 

flower and ovary are picked off in the field, large 

bulbs are formed (Salinger 1985). Tall irises may 

need staking to protect them from wind damage. 

Failure to flower, in rhizomatous irises may 

be due to deep planting or congested clumps 

resulting in the sun being excluded from the 

centre. In some varieties of bulbous irises, virus 

diseases prevent flowering. See Daffodil C 21. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Iris can 

suffer from calcium deficiency (weak neck) 

where flower stems cannot support flowers 

(Salinger 1985). 

Pesticide injury: Glyphosate and other 

herbicides should not be applied to iris foliage 

even when it has apparently dried up. Old stalks 

and leaves transport the material to the bulbs 

causing next year's crop to have bleached leaves. 


Cassidy, G. E. and Linnegar, S. 1982. Growing Irises. 

Croom Helm, London. 

Grosvenor, G. 1992. Growing Irises. 2nd edn. Kangaroo 






McEwen, C. 1996. The Siberian Iris. Timber Press, 


Niveria, K. and W. and Goldbatt, P. 1993. The Woody 

Iridaceae. Timber Press, Portland Oregon. 












Industry eg 

Diseases of Irises (NSW Plant Disease Bull.) 


American Iris Society 

British Iris Society (The Iris Year Book 1981) 


Handbook for Judges & Show Officials 

Iris Society of Australia (Regional Newsletters) 

The World of Irises 


C 38 


IRIS 

MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Bulbous iris (Dutch, dwarf, English and Spanish) are undoubtedly popular for 

both gardens and containers, and for commercial cut flowers. Rhizomatous varieties (German, Japanese 

and Siberian) are mainly garden plants. 

Resistant varieties: Some irises are more or less susceptible to snails, fungal leaf spots and other diseases. 

Disease-free planting material: Plants derived from the seed of bulbous irises are virus-free, but insects 

must be controlled to maintain virus-freedom. Purchase virus-free bulbs. All diseases and pests are carried 

over in the bulb or rhizome. 


Propagation: By bulbs, division of rhizomes and by micropropagation. Irises, like tulips, produce annual 

bulbs, they are formed one season and if large enough, flower the following spring. 

Culture: Soil should be well drained, bulbs rot in waterlogged soil in winter. Lighter soils are desirable as 

bulbs benefit from the summer warmth and are easier to lift. Lime is applied before planting to bring the pH up 

to at least 6.0. Irises are usually grown on ridges rather than on the flat as this improves winter drainage and 

makes bulb lifting 6-8 weeks after flowering more effective. Iris bulbs may be forced before planting (Larson 

1992, Salinger 1985). 

Sanitation: In NZ it is recommended that all surface plant material should be destroyed before the bulbs 

are lifted. If conditions are wet and there is weed growth (annual or perennial) go over with a flail mower or 

similar machine and allow material to dry so that a good clean burn can be obtained. 

Pesticides: In commercial crops if aphids are present on the bulbs, insecticide granules may be placed in 

the trench. Naturally clean and healthy bulbs are protected by fungicide and insecticide treatments, before 

setting in the field. Fungicides may be applied routinely for fungal leaf spots, and if insecticide granules have 

not been used, aphicides for aphids. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: Harvest for direct sale when flower buds are well coloured, petals emerging about 30-50 mm but 

before starting to open. Smaller buds do not open in water. During winter, when light intensity is low, harvest 

when first bud begins to open. The cultivar Professor Blaaw should be selected when the edge of one petal is 

unfurled. Place in preservative solution (no sugar) to ensure that later buds develop and open out, and that 

colour is maintained in the 2nd bloom or subsequent flowers. Store upright as tips may bend upwards 

(geotropism) at 2-4 o C in solutions for 0-4 days, longer cool storage may inhibit later bud opening, whatever 

solutions the stems are placed in. Remove lower foliage and as flowers desiccate easily, keep at high relative 

humidity, away from draughts. Vase life is approximately 5-6 days and improves after prescribed 

conditioning. To open buds, recut stems, place in warm water (40 o C) and wrap stems but leave head 

unwrapped, put in disinfectant solution then put in cool room (Jones and Moody 1993). Bulbous iris are very 

sensitive to ethylene (greyish petals, bud sleepiness or blasting, hastening of senescence), do not place with 

daffodils (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Plant growth regulators delay senescence in iris flowers. 

Lifting and storing bulbs: To minimise losses by reducing the incidence of disease, lift and divide irises 

every 2-3 years. Lift bulbs when foliage has completely dried off, about 6-8 weeks after flowering. Avoid 

injuring bulbs during lifting and storage. Inspect bulbs after lifting, before storage and again before planting, 

destroy any bulbs affected with root, bulb and crown rots and treat with fungicide before storage and again 

before planting. Remove and destroy surface plant material. Healthy bulbs have clean brown outer dry scales 

leaves, not stained black or showing green stains from ink disease or blue or green moulds. Remove and 

destroy diseased scales. Remove diseased portions of rhizomes with a sharp knife, then immediately drench 

with a suitable fungicide to reduce spread of the fungus in the soil. For cut flowers, bulbs are graded into 

rounds, large flat, small flat side and smalls; all round and most large flat sided bulbs will flower satisfactorily 

(Salinger 1985). Store bulbs, treated with aphicide to protect from aphids. 


Lily 

Lilium spp. 



Parasitic 





Grey mould, fire (Botrytis) 




Lily aphid 

Lily caterpillar 

Non-parasitic 

Pollen 


Parasitic 


Leaf mosaics may involve several viruses. 

Lily symptomless virus systemically infects Lilium 

spp. and Iris spp. Hosts differ in susceptibility, eg 

L. longiflorum displays a curl-stripe if seedlings are 

infected with this virus alone and grown at 

temperatures < 15.5 o C. Symptoms shown by 

naturally infected plants vary seasonally. Yield of 

crops is moderately affected in susceptible varieties. 

Spread by vegetative propagation, by aphids 

(Aphididae) and by mechanical inoculation. 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus, tulip breaking virus. 

See Bulbs C 4, C 6. 



carotovora) on lily (Lilium spp.), tiger lily (Lilium 

lancifolium). See Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 5. 


Grey mould, fire (Botrytis cinerea, B. elliptica) 

produces elongated spots on leaves during humid 

weather. A furry grey mould may develop. It may 

be necessary to apply fungicides regularly. See 



Fusarium wilt and bulb rot (Fusarium oxysporum 

f.sp. undetermined) affects the bottom of the 

scales which separate from the base of the bulb. 

Leaves that grow from infected bulbs may go yellow 

or purple and die. If flowers are produced, they are 

small and of poor quality. This disease is much more 

likely to occur on damaged bulbs than on healthy 

undamaged bulbs. This disease may be controlled by 

soaking bulbs in warm water with a fungicide. See 


Others: 

Phytophthora root rot, basal stem rot (Phytophthora 

nicotianae var. parasitica) 

Pythium rot (Pythium spp.) 

Rhizoctonia rot, scale rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Root and bulb rot (Cylindrocarpon destructans) 

Sclerotium bulb rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 



Various nematodes may attack lily. 

Foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides fragariae) has been 

recorded on L. longiflorum and Lilium x sulphurgale. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) occurs on 

Lilium spp. See Vegetables M 10. 

Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) 

infests Lilium spp. in NZ and granular nematicides 

may be required at planting (Salinger 1985). See 




Lily aphid (Aulacorthium circumflexum, 

Aphididae, Hemiptera) infests lilies and other 

plants, eg chrysanthemum. Lily aphid can 

reproduce by parthenogenesis (no sexual forms) 

throughout the year. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Lily caterpillar (Spodoptera picta, Noctuidae, 

Lepidoptera) feeds on Amaryllidaceae eg Kaffir 

lilies (Clivea, Clivea miniata), Crinum spp. and 

Hippeastrum spp., but not Lilium spp. 

Caterpillars are black and yellow. Young 

caterpillars feed in groups (which may provide 

them with some protection) and skeletonise 

leaves. Older caterpillars feed singly on either 

leaf surface or bore into the heart of plants. Moths 

have a wingspan of about 50 mm and red and black 

patterned forewings (McMaugh 1994). Eggs are 

laid in a group on a leaf of the host plant. Pruning 

off damaged leaves with caterpillars still feeding 

on them may provide sufficient control, otherwise 

an insecticide may be required, wetting agents are 

necessary. See Annuals A 8. 

Others: Larvae of large native ground-dwelling 

weevils, (Amycterinae, Curculionidae, 

Coleoptera) live in the soil and feed on 

underground stems, crowns, tubers or 

rhizomes of Liliaceae and Poaceae. 

Non-parasitic 

Pollen stains clothing and may be removed with 

sticky tape. It also stains cemented/rendered 

walls if flower arrangements are placed close to 

walls. Commercial growers cut anthers off. 

C 40 


LILY 




Jefferson-Brown, M. J. and Howland, H. 1995. The 

Gardener's Guide to Growing Lilies. Timber Press, 






Matthews, V. 1989. Lilies. Royal Botanic Gardens, 

Kew, in association with Collingridge, London. 



Miller, W. B. 1992. Easter & Hybrid Lily Production. 

Timber, Press, Portland, Oregon. 












Flower Link 


Windyhill Flower Growers, Vic 


MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: There are various types of lilies which may be grown in the field or in pots in 

greenhouses. Choose varieties which have relatively short growing periods, the time taken from visible flower 

bud to flowering must be rapid. Bulbs must have a short dormancy period which can be satisfied by cool 

storage. Flowers should face outwards or upwards and have short pedicels and preferably only 1 flower on 

each pedicel. Anthers should not produce excessive pollen or be heavily scented (Salinger 1985). 

Resistant varieties: Varieties should have some resistance/tolerance to grey mould, fire (Botrytis spp.) and 

virus diseases. 

Disease-free planting material: Viruses and other diseases are carried over in the bulblets and scales. 

Select virus and pathogen-free planting material. Usually seed is virus-free. 


Propagation: By bulbs, scales, tissue culture or by seed. Saleable or flowering bulbs should be obtained in 

2 seasons from planting bulblets. 

Cultural methods: Lilies require excellent drainage and protection from wind and excessive heat. Diseases 

and pests should be controlled. Weed control is essential where diseases are a problem. 

Sanitation: Remove all plant debris after harvest, and any other plant debris which might encourage grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea). 

Pesticides: Pesticides are registered for the control of grey mould, fire (Botrytis spp.), aphids and other 

pests. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: There are US quality criteria for lily cut flowers. Harvest when at least 2 buds are fully 

expanded and about to open, with the other buds well coloured. There should be a minimum of 5 buds per 

stem, foliage turgid, dark green, free from mottling or yellowing, trumpets should be 80-120 mm long. Flowers 

are sensitive to ethylene so may be treated with an anti-ethylene agent by the grower before storage or 

transport. Anthers may be cut off to prevent them staining clothing and hastening withering (Matthews 1989). 

Cut flowers may be stored wet or dry but must be conditioned appropriately. After storage, stem-ends should 

be recut and placed in a floral preservative solution (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Potted plants: Sell Easter lilies when flower buds are white and puffy. Storage/Transport: For longest life, 

flowering plants should be kept at a cool temperature of 10-15 o C. Higher temperatures cause quick 

deterioration of the flowers. Plants need moderate watering. Plants may be stored by a range of methods. 

Overwatering during storage stimulates the development of grey mould, fire (Botrytis cinerea) and various root 

or bulb rots (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Lifting and storing bulbs: Bulbs are lifted in April/May, stems may be removed beforehand to save the 

bulblets. After lifting, bulbs are washed, superficially dried and stored until sale or replanting in a cool place in 

a medium such as slightly damp sawdust (Salinger 1985). 


Tulip 

Tulipa spp. 

Garden tulip (T. gesneriana) 



Parasitic 




Fire, fire blight (Botrytis) 

Root, stem and bulb rots 




Aphids 

Mealybugs 

Wireworms 

Non-parasitic 

Chimera 

Lack of flowering 

Tulip finger, tulip nail 


Parasitic 


Tulip breaking virus affects Tulipa spp. and some 

hybrids, Lilium spp and some hybrids (Liliaceae). A 

prominent colour break in the petals of flowers 

develops (Fig. 82): in red and orange varieties streaks 

of light or dark red, yellow or white develop; in 

yellow and white varieties, the streaks are much less 

obvious, being white or translucent. The colour break 

may be accompanied by serration of the petal 

margins, giving a tattered appearance to the flower, 

and this is the most obvious symptom in yellow or 

white varieties. Leaves may also show yellow or 

light green streaks but these symptoms are often very 

mild. See Bulbs C 2 (Fig. 57, 58). The virus also 

causes a reduction in bulb size and the number 

of bulbs produced. Symptoms shown by naturally 

infected plants persist. Spread by vegetative 

propagation, by aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), potato aphid 

(Macrosiphon euphorbiae), tulip bulb aphid 

(Dysaphis tulipae), Neomyzus circumflexus, by 

mechanical inoculation, by grafting, not by contact 

between plants, not by seed, not by pollen. Forcing 

tulips to produce flowers early in the season may 

increase the risk of infection, forced tulips emerge late 

in autumn when aphid numbers are high, so that rapid 

virus spread may occur. If tulip breaking virus is a 

problem, tulips should be rogued as soon as leaf and 

flower symptoms appear. As yellow and white 

varieties do not produce a distinct flower break, they 

are difficult to rogue and are probably heavily 

infected with tulip breaking virus. They are a threat 

to coloured varieties which are easy to rogue and are 

almost virus-free. Growers who wish to propagate 

tulips should avoid yellow and white varieties or 

obtain virus-free stocks of these varieties. 

Others: Overseas at least 13 viruses, eg cucumber 

mosaic virus, potato virus X and tobacco necrosis 

virus have been recorded on Tulipa spp. (Strider 

1985). Tobacco necrosis virus causes elongated 

white to brown streaks to develop on leaves, distortion 

may develop especially in forced tulips. Plants may 

be stunted. If tobacco necrosis virus is a problem, 

practise crop rotation as this virus disease is spread 

by a soilborne fungi (Olpidium) and is prevalent 

where tulips have been grown on the same land for 

consecutive seasons. 



Bacterial leaf spot (Corynebacterium sp.) 

Bacterial soft rot(Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora) 


Fire, fire blight, Botrytis leaf and petal spot 

(Botrytis spp., B. cinerea, B. tulipae) may be a 

serious disease of tulips. Leaves become flecked 

with small brown spots, later large areas may be 

affected. The stem may rot off completely; in 

humid weather a grey mould (large numbers of 

spores) develops. At the base of the stems, many 

blackish or brown resting bodies (sclerotia) 

develop. Flowers are also attacked, spots are 

more noticeable on light coloured varieties. In 

moist weather, petals may develop a grey mould 

and completely collapse. If the bulb is affected the 

whole plant becomes dwarfed and turns a pale 

yellowish-green and the flowers are blasted (does 

not produce a marketable flower). Many sclerotia 

may develop on diseased areas on bulbs. See 


Root, stem and bulb rots 

Blue mould (Penicillium corymbiferum) 

Phytophthora bulb rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) 

Pythium rot (Pythium irregulare) 

Rhizoctonia rot (Rhizoctonia tuliparum) 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sp.) 

Sclerotium crown (Sclerotium rolfsii) 




dipsaci) is difficult to identify on tulips if 

infestation is slight, but after the nematodes have 

been feeding for a while there may be greyish or 

brownish patches on the outside of the bulbs. 

When the plant is growing, pale streaks may appear 

on the upper stem and the flower. The epidermis 

often blisters and splits. Stalks may be bent over 

and petals distorted. See Daffodils C 20. 



Tulip bulb aphid (Dysaphis tulipae) infests bulbs and 

corms, eg crocus, daffodil, freesia, iris, gladiolus and 

tulip during cool moist weather. It is a major pest 

of tulips and transmits the tulip flower breaking 

virus. Adult aphids are grey with a waxy 

C 42 


appearance, and cluster under bulb coats. 

Immature stages are greyish brown. Severe 

infestations of foliage may check growth. Infested 

young growth results in distortion of buds, shoots, 

foliage and flowers, and weakens the entire plant. 

Aphids tend to cluster under the bud. Bulbs may be 

attacked in the field and in storage. 

Other species infest foliage and bulbs of tulip in store, 

eg bulb and potato aphid (Rhopalosiphoninus 

latysiphon) and violet aphid (Neotoxoptera violae). 

See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) feed and multiply 

on bulbs in the field and in storage, if the 

temperature is 15 o C or above, causing them to 

shrink to such an extent that they may not grow, or 

if they do, they produce sickly plants. See 


Wireworms (Elateridae) are the larvae of click 

beetles. Wireworms are long, smooth and 

segmented, yellow-brown and up to 18 mm long. 

They live entirely in the soil, and burrow into 

bulbs, hollowing out stems as they work their 

way up, and causing the plant eventually to fall 

over. See Seedlings N 69. 

Others: Bulb flies (Syrphidae, Diptera), eg 

lesser bulb fly (Eumerus tuberculatus) and 

narcissus bulb fly (Lampetia equestris), and bulb 

mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus) may also infest 

tulips. See Bulbs C 6, C 7. 

Non-parasitic 

Chimera: A chimera is commonly a plant part 

composed of two or more genetically different 

tissues. In a sectorial chimera the different tissues 

lie side by side and commonly appear in tulips as 

different coloured segments on the flowers (Fig. 

82). Different colour segments may also occur on 

fruit and occasionally on leaves and shoots. In 

Greek mythology a chimera was a fire-breathing 

monster with the head of a lion, the tail of a dragon 

and the body of a goat, and the word chimerical is 

used to describe anything wild or fantastic. 

Lack of flowering: Tulips are bulbous plants 

so failure to flower may be due to problems 

discussed under daffodils. See Daffodils C 21. 

Tulips prefer areas with long cold winters. Bulbs 

do not perform well for more than one season in 

warm-winter areas. New bulbs should be 

purchased each year and flowering induced by 

storing them under refrigeration for 5-6 weeks 

MANAGEMENT 

TULIP 

before planting. Bulbs < 30-40 mm across will not 

flower. Tulips prefer a shady more alkaline 

position than most other bulbs. Topple is when 

the flower falls over because the stem collapses 

due to calcium deficiency; it is usually more of a 

problem on forced, rapidly grown tulips (Strider 

1985). Exposure to ethylene, eg Fusariuminfected 

bulbs, fruits, ethylene-producing flowers, 

etc, may result in leaves without flowers; also 

production of green petals or coloured petals with 

white tips, distorted shoots, lack of roots and other 

symptoms. Symptoms depend on the stage of 

development at which the bulbs were exposed, 

concentration of ethylene and variety of tulip 

(Strider 1985). 

Tulip finger, tulip nail: Tulip bulbs as well 

as other parts, especially the flowers, contain 

tuliposides which can cause severe dermatitis. 

Symptoms usually only occur after prolonged 

contact with tulip bulbs or their juice (Frohne and 

Pfander 1983). 








Killingback, S. 1990. Tulips : An Illustrated Identifier 

and Guide to Cultivation. Chartwell Books, 

Secaucus, NJ. 











Simpson, A. G. W. 1985. Growing Bulbs. Kangaroo 





Industry eg 

Tulip Growing in Tasmania (Tas Farmnote) 


Grower Information Sheet No.3. Tulips 

Grower Information Sheet No.7. Suggestions for Potting 


Grower Information Sheet No.8. Forcing Bulbs for Early 

Flowering 

Associations, Journals etc 





Selection 

Horticultural requirements: The tulip most commonly grown is the single late tulip, eg Apeldoorn. 

Disease-free planting material: All diseases and pests are carried over in the bulb. Purchase virus and 

pathogen-tested bulbs. 


Propagation: By bulbs. 

Cultural methods (Tesselaar's Grower Information Sheet No.3 : TULIPS * ): Tulips are affected more by 

fluctuations in temperature than any other bulb. Forcing: Pre-chilling encourages earlier flowering and 

longer stems, but forced tulips may be more susceptible to virus diseases. See Bulbs C 10. 


TULIP 

1. On arrival unpack the bulbs immediately and store in an area where they have moderate temperatures and 

are away from excessive heat, 17-20 o C is ideal. They will tolerate up to 5 o C higher in the daytime, but higher 

temperatures will delay flowering. Spread bulbs thinly in flat boxes or trays, no more than 60-80 mm thick, 

ensuring that there is good air circulation. 2. Planting: Tulips are best planted in early May. They can be 

planted earlier, but only if the soil temperature has settled below 20 o C. If planted in temperatures that are too 

hot, bud blast may occur prior to planting. It is beneficial to add some blood and bone or bone-meal or other 

complete bulb food to the soil and work it well in. Plant in a loose friable soil with the point facing upwards 

and about 50 mm of soil over the top of the tip. Rows should be a minimum of 300 mm apart and the bulbs 

50-100 mm apart. Tulips grow well in most kinds of soils, providing the pH is not too acid, a pH of 6-7 is ideal. 

Sanitation: Remove any damaged leaves and other parts as soon as observed, remove the first severely 

infected plants in a crop as soon as they are observed. Destroy infected bulbs before storage. 

Pesticides: 3. Dipping bulbs with a fungicide before planting protects bulbs against soilborne diseases, eg 

Fusarium and Botrytis. Preventative spraying for fire (Botrytis) and aphids is usually commenced once the 

plants are approximately 100-150 mm above ground level. 4. Weeds: To help keep weeds at bay, about 

4 weeks after planting and while the shoots of the bulbs are more than 30 mm below the soil, spray the 

ground with a recommended post-emergence foliage herbicide and a pre-emergence herbicide. This will 

control existing weeds and prevent weed seed from germinating for up to 3 months. Never spray with a 

herbicide once the growth is within 5 mm of the surface or if one of the shoots has emerged through 

the soil. 

Potting spring flowering bulbs: See Bulbs C 10. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: Harvest when the bud is fully developed and the upper half of the petals well-coloured (50% 

colour, 50% green). Elongation (often caused by sugar in solution) can be a problem as tulips continue to 

grow in the vase. 5. Pick the flowers by 'snapping' the stem just above the 2nd bottom leaf. Some varieties 

do not snap easily, so use a sharp knife, two leaves are always left to give energy back to the bulb for 

multiplication and next year's growth. Remove the white portion of the stem to improve water uptake and 

place in water (sugar in preservatives causes stem elongation). Keep flowers upright otherwise stems will 

bend (geotropism); to straighten stems, wrap firmly in dampened tissue paper then newspaper, leave for a few 

hours. Store at 0-2 o C, after storage recut and place in cold water (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Potted tulips: Sell when the bud is fully developed and the upper half of the petals well-coloured. Avoid heat 

which hastens flower senescence, hence the saying 'put the pot out at night with the cat'. Freesias, irises and 

tulips are of better quality when night temperatures are close to 10 o C (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Lifting and storage of bulbs: 6. After flowering keep weeds away from the plants to allow maximum 

nutrients to be taken up by the bulbs. Tulips are best lifted when the foliage completely dies down as summer 

in Australia is too hot for them to flower well the 2nd year. The bulb makes its maximum growth after 

flowering, so water plants to help them continue their growth for as long as possible. Once the foliage has 

yellowed, lift the bulbs, break off the old stalk and 'air dry' the bulbs in a shed for 4-5 days. The old husks can 

* 

be taken off the bulb at this stage. 7. Store in trays that have air holes underneath to allow for maximum 

ventilation. Wooden trays with a wire mesh underneath are ideal. Do not stack the bulbs higher than 60 mm 

in each tray. Keep in a well ventilated area with a maximum temperature of 25 o C until early January then 

store at 17-20 o C until planting time. Bulbs 25-30 mm in diameter are large enough to flower the following 

spring, smaller bulbs may require 2-3 seasons of growing before they are of sufficient size to bloom. Cold 

temperatures are not desirable during the early stages of dormancy as the bulbs only remain dormant at 

temperatures above 15 o C. The ideal storage temperature is about 18 o C. When the temperature drops to 

around or below 10 o C, growth within the bulb is stimulated and internal growth starts. A temperature increase 

of 6 o C or more may cause formation of methane which can kill the flower or the last part formed. 


Fig. 82. Left : Tulip breaking virus. Centre : A sectoral chimera which is common in tulip. 

Right : A 50% sectoral chimera which has about a 1 : 50 000 000 chance of occurring. 



C 44 


Zantedeschia 

Arum lily, calla lily 

Zantedeschia spp. 

Golden calla lily (Z. elliotiana) 

White arum lily (Z. aethiopica) 

Family Araceae 


Parasitic pests and diseases 






Phytophthora foot rot 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 


Mealybugs 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Poisonous properties 


Parasitic 


Virus-like symptoms on leaves include yellow 

spots, streaking and distortion. 

Dasheen mosaic virus may affect Alocasia spp., 

anthurium, dasheen (Colocasia), dieffenbachia, 

philodendron, Xanthosoma and zantedeschia, reducing 

yield. Leaves may show mosaic and distortion 

symptoms which vary seasonally. Spread by aphids, 

eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), banana aphid 

(Pentalonia nigronervosa), cowpea aphid (Aphis 

craccivora), cotton aphid (A. gossypii), by mechanical 

inoculation, not by contact between plants, not by 

seed, not by pollen. 

Others: Tomato spotted wilt virus causes spots 

and streaks on leaves of white arum lily 

(Z. aethiopica) (Fig. 83), the spots are smaller and 

more irregularly spaced than those on golden calla lily 

(Z. elliostiana). Also cucumber mosaic virus. 

Overseas also alfalfa mosaic virus, arabis mosaic virus 

and potato virus X. 

Use virus-tested planting material. Tissue 

culture techniques have been used to obtain virusfree 

plants of some varieties. Do not propagate 

vegetatively from infected plants. Routinely 

control aphids. See Bulbs C 4. 



carotovora) causes rots of leaf stalks near ground 

level. In NZ, E. carotovora pv. aroideae causes 

similar rots. See Bulbs C 5, Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria spp., 

Phyllosticta, other species). Small, roundish, grey 

spots develop on leaves, these enlarge until there 

are large irregular dead areas. Remove and destroy 

affected leaves. See Annuals A 5, Bulbs C 5. 

Phytophthora foot rot (Phytophthora sp.) 

Yellow streaks, browning and death of the outer 

leaves first, newer leaves and flowers are infected 

later and, if pulled up, the root system will appear 

extensively decayed. Infected rhizomes can be 

cleaned and dipped in hot water for a prescribed 

time. Cool and dry. Do not plant back in the same 

area. See Trees K 6, Vegetables M 7. 


Root knot (Meloidogyne sp.) has been recorded on 

Zantedeschia sp.). See Vegetables M 10. 



Banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) 

Cotton aphid (A. gossypii) 



Aphids suck sap from new leaves and flowers and 

transmit virus diseases. See Bulbs C 6, Roses J 4. 


Grapevine hawk moth (Hippotion celerio) 

Leafrolling moths (Tortricidae) 

Vine hawk moth (Thereta oldenlandiae), T. tryoni 


Gladiolus thrips (Thrips simplex) is the most 

serious insect pest of calla lily. See Gladiolus 

C 31. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) can sometimes be 

a problem. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) may transmit 

tomato spotted wilt virus. See Tomato M 96. 


seriously damage leaves of zantedeschia. See 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Zantedeschia is intolerant of 

heat or dryness, protect from strong sun (will 

tolerate light shade) and drying wind, plant in moist 

soil, with good drainage. New growth is frost 

sensitive but later growth will not be affected. 

Poisonous properties All Araceae contain 

calcium oxalate crystals which play a part in the 

strongly irritant action on the skin and mucous 

membranes, berries are poisonous (Frohne and 

Pfander 1983). 


ZANTEDESCHIA 


Anon. The Flower With a Future : Zantedeschia. cur. 

edn. Westland Nurseries, Moonah, Tas. 



















MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: There is a range of varieties grown for cut flowers, pot plants or as greenhouse 

ornamentals. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant virus and pathogen-tested planting material. 


Propagated: By rhizome divisions, seed and by tissue culture. 

Cultural methods: Crop rotation is essential due to the persistence of volunteer plants and to the buildup of 

corm rotting bacteria and fungi in the soil. Some plants are grown in pots to reduce these root and rhizome 

rots to which zantedeschia are very susceptible. Temperature: Night temperatures are usually 13-16 o C (but 

varies with the cultivar), while day temperatures of 16-21 o C are generally used for all cultivars. Irrigation: 

Adequate irrigation is essential, a well drained porous soil minimises root rot problems. Too much moisture 

when bulbs are dormant in winter may cause them to rot, so lift after foliage dies for replanting in late winter. 

Zantedeschia prefer a sunny but damp site with fairly rich soil. 

Sanitation: Good hygiene both in the field and in storage will limit bacterial rots and Phytophthora. 

Rhizomes should be inspected for rot prior to planting, after harvest and before storage. Any found to be 

rotted should be discarded. 

Biological control: Mealybugs and twospotted mites may be controlled biologically if necessary. 

Pesticides: After rhizomes with soft rotted areas have been discarded, the remaining ones should be treated 

with a fungicide prior to planting . Pre-emergence herbicides may be applied before tips of rhizomes have 

grown through the surface. Growth regulators may be used to reduce height and increase tuber production. 

Insecticides and miticides are registered for controlling aphids, mealybugs and twospotted mites. 

Postharvest 

Cut flowers: Harvest when flowers are completely open, just before the tip of the flower begins to turn 

downwards. Flowers are easily damaged (Jones and Moody 1993). Storage: At 4 o C with a high relative 

humidity (90%). Suspend flowers from the neck with chicken wire to avoid stem bending. Flower stems are 

pulled not cut (to prevent stem curling) and brought into the shade or for cool storage at 5-9 o C (Salinger 

1985). Vase life: Recut stems, removing at least 20 mm and place in a clean container with a preservative. 

Lifting and storing rhizomes: Rhizomes may be lifted when foliage dies down annually (dwarf forms) or 

every 3 years (Z. elliotiana). Where soil diseases are a problem they may be lifted annually. When lifted, 

rhizomes are washed free of soil and dipped in a fungicide, then dried in an airy place and stored in a cool 

place just covered with dry peat and sawdust. 

Fig. 83. Tomato spotted wilt virus 

infection of arum lily causes yellow 

spots and streaks on leaves. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

C 46 


Cacti 

Fig. 84. Longtailed mealybugs 

(Pseudococcus longispinus) are 

3-4 mm long. 

Fig. 86. Twospotted mites (Tetranychus 

urticae) are 0.5 mm long, they can be 

seen with a hand lens. 

Fig. 85. Tiny armoured scales (Diaspididae) encrusted 

on a cactus. 

Fig. 87. Opuntia spp. and many other cacti, 

are grown as ornamental plants both in the 

garden and in containers. However, some 

Opuntia spp., eg O. inermis and O. stricta in 

Qld, and O. robusta in Victoria, are declared 

noxious weeds. 

Fig. 88. Weeds in containers. 

CACTI D 1

Cacti 

Family Cactaceae 


Parasitic 








Mealybugs 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Ants 

Environment 

Nutrient toxicities 

Spines, bristles, size 

Weed potential 

WEEDS 

Others: Phytophthora sp. causes a reddish basal 

stem rot of Zygocactus in Qld (Bodman et al. 1996). 

Also Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), 

Pythium, Rhizoctonia. See Vegetables M 6, M 7. 

Others: Various species of fungi may cause leaf 

spotting. See Annuals A 5. 


Cactus cyst nematode (Cactodera cacti) has 

been recorded in association with Mammillaria 

erythrosperma in NSW and root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne javanica) on Hoya carnosa in Qld 

(Mcleod et al. 1994). Plants become unhealthy, 

yellowish and stop growing. Remove all the root 

system and wash all the soil from the base of the 

plant with a strong water jet. Use sterilised media 

only, wash and sterilise pots. For plants where 

roots cannot be cut, immerse the root system in hot 

water, eg 44 o C for 3 hours. See Vegetables M 10. 


Parasitic 

The most common pests of cacti are sucking 

insects, eg mealybugs, scales and twospotted 

mite. These pests are more severe on potted plants 

where root systems are restricted and unable to 

obtain extra moisture to replace sap lost due to the 

sucking of the insects. Properly cared for plants 

grown in a garden situation are not so susceptible. 


Cactus X virus is found worldwide in cultivated 

cacti and has been identified in Schulenbergia 

truncatus in WA, but there is only one record. No 

symptoms develop on naturally infected host 

plants. Spread by grafting, by mechanical 

transmission, by contact between plants, not by 

seed, not by a vector. 



carotovora) may rot damaged cacti under wet 

conditions. See Vegetables M 5. 



Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause crown and 

stem rots. Wet rotting patches develop around the 

base of the stem and to a lesser extent higher up 

the plant. Plants may die. If possible cut out the 

infected area and treat with fungicide, otherwise 

remove undamaged sections and use as cuttings for 

fresh plants. 

Bipolaris stem rot (Bipolaris cactivora) rots stems; 

black fuzzy spore masses grow on affected areas. 




may feed on above ground parts (Fig. 84) and roots. 

Root mealybug (Rhizoecus falcifer) is common on 

older succulents and forest cacti. 

Tuber mealybug (Pseudococcus affinis) feeds on all 

parts of the plant and is considered to be the most 

important root feeding mealybug in Australia. It 

feeds on many different plants. 

Ants are attracted to the honeydew secreted by 

mealybugs. On small collections, individual 

mealybugs can be dabbed with a paint brush 

dipped in methylated spirits. Mealybugs can be 

removed from the roots by washing all the soil 

from the roots and repotting in a clean container 

with fresh soil. Predatory ladybird beetles and 

parasitic wasps may be purchased to control the 

mealybugs. Do not introduce infested plants to 

pest-free collections or propagate from infested 

plants. Plants may be sprayed with insecticide 

outdoors but this does not control mealybugs on 

the roots. Insecticides may be applied to the soil 

as a drench or as granules (outdoors). Ants should 

be controlled. See Greenhouses N 25. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae) may be serious 

pests (Fig. 85), eg greedy scale (Hemiberlesia 

rapax) and oleander scale (Aspidiotus nerii). 

Eriococccids (Eriococcidae), eg cactus mealybug 

(Eriococcus coccineus). 

Soft scales (Coccidae) which produce honeydew are 

not usually common on cacti. Cottony pigface 

scale (Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi) frequently 

infests pigface (Carpobrotus sp.) and possibly other 

species in the same family, eg Lampranthus spp. 

Scales only infest the above ground parts of 

cacti. For minor infestations a toothbrush can be 

used to remove scales. For larger infestations, 

biological control agents can be purchased and 

insecticides applied. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 

D 2 

CACTI

CACTI 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae, 

Tetranychidae) may infest cacti under hot dry 

conditions giving them an ashy, yellowish or even 

whitish appearance. A hand lens will confirm 

their presence (Fig. 86). See Beans (French) M 

29. 

Other occasional pests include aphids 

(Aphididae), thrips (Thysanoptera) and slaters 

(Porcellionidae, Crustacea). Fungus gnats 

(Sciaridae, Diptera) and their adult flies may be 

nuisance pests in overwatered cacti. Several 

caterpillars (Lepidoptera) may cause damage to 

new shoots in leaf cacti, eg Epiphyllum, Lepismium 

and Rhipsalis (Common 1990, CSIRO 1991). 

Non-parasitic 

Ants may infest greenhouse and outdoor cacti. 

They are attracted to the honeydew secreted by 

mealybugs and soft scales, they also carry insect 

pests from plant to plant. See Turfgrasses L 8. 

Environment: Bud drop: 

Premature 

dropping of buds may be caused by poor cultural 

conditions including lack of fertiliser, drying of the 

soil, and the use of very cold water for watering. 

Light: Most desert cacti need as much sunlight as 

possible especially in winter. Some cacti, however, 

are injured by overexposure to light. Although 

forest cacti like light they need to be shaded from 

direct sun. Oedema (corky scab): Irregular rusty 

or corky scabs are seen on stems of many species 

of cacti, especially Opuntia spp., and is associated 

with high humidities. The shoots may be thickly 

covered with these spots, only the young growth 

being scab-free. Severe attacks may destroy entire 

shoots. Milder attacks decrease the production of 

flowers. The cells of the epidermis dry and the 

epidermis breaks open and curls, the corky 

overgrowth then may be seen from below. The 

disease may be prevented by increasing the light 

and decreasing the humidity. See Camellia K 40, 

Geranium A 35. Temperature: During cold 

weather some cacti develop pinkish pigments. 

Cacti may also suffer from frost injury. Sunburn 

injury may result from watering in full sun during 

the heat of the day. Damaged areas become entry 

points for diseases. Ventilation: Good ventilation 

especially during the cooler months will reduce the 

likelihood of grey mould (Botrytis) and other 

diseases. Watering: Most cacti live in dry regions 

and are well suited to places with little rainfall. In 

most other plants, the food for the plant is made in 

the leaves which also give off water. Cacti have 

lost most of their leaves so that the plant can hold 

its moisture. Cacti stems have taken over the task 

of making food for the plant and these stems store 

water. 

During the dormant season when the plant is not 

actively growing and unable to take up moisture, 

cacti should not be overwatered as this favours the 

development of bacterial and fungal rots. 

During the growing season of spring and summer 

many cacti need as much water as conventional 

plants. 

During summer water 1-2 times per week. 

Nutrient toxicities: Cacti require 

fertilising regularly during the growing season in 

the same way as other plants but they should not 

be overfertilised as this promotes rapid soft 

growth and favours the development of fungal and 

bacterial rots. 

Spines, bristles, size: 

Most cacti 

are protected by bristles and spines which prevent 

them from being eaten by animals that live in the 

desert. Cacti parts damaged by spines can act as 

entry points for rots under moist conditions. They 

should be promptly cut away and the rest of the 

plant allowed to dry out prior to resuming normal 

culture. Spines can also injure growers. Some 

cacti, eg Opuntia spp., have minute bristles which 

attach themselves to clothes and gloves and can be 

very irritating. Bristles may also be inhaled so 

appropriate respiratory protection should be 

worn when handling such species. Some species 

grow very large. 

Weed potential: Some cacti have the 

potential to become noxious weeds in some areas 

of Australia. Some have already become noxious 

weeds, eg prickly pear (Opuntia sp.) (Fig. 87). 

Prickly pear has been successfully controlled in 

NSW and Qld by imported caterpillars of 

cactoblastis (Cactoblastis cactorum). This 

biological control program is arguably the best 

known example of biological control in Australia. 

Several cochineal scales (Dactylopius spp. 

Dactylopiidae) have been imported for use as 

biological control agents for prickly pear (Opuntia 

sp.) and other cacti, eg tiger pear (Opuntia 

aurantiaca), devil's rope (O. imbricata). Control of 

harrisia cactus (Eriocereus spp.) is being 

attempted by the harrisia cactus mealybug 

(Hypogeococcus pungens) and harrisia cactus 

weevil (Eriocereophaga humeridens). 

WEEDS 

Cacti, because of their spiny nature, can be 

difficult or almost impossible to hand weed (Fig. 

88). Potting mixes should be weed-free prior to 

potting up. Persistent weeds such as oxalis, which 

develop later, may be wiped with a weeding wand 

or spot sprayed with glyphosate using a shielded 

nozzle. Pre-emergence herbicides effectively 

control weed seeds. See Containers N 20. 


Anderson, G. 1983. Cacti and Succulents. E. P. Pub., 

London. 





Cobia, M. 1992. Zygocactus (Schlumbergera) : A 

Comprehensive & Practical Guide for the Weekend 

Gardener. Tillington House, Coff's Harbour, NSW. 



CSIRO. 1991. Insects of Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

CACTI D 3

CACTI 

Cullman, W., Gotz, E. and Groner, G. 1984. The 

Encyclopedia of Cacti. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 

Glowinski, L. 1991. The Complete Book of Fruit 

Growing in Australia. Lothian Books, Melbourne. 

Harland, W. and Harland, S. 1981. Growing Cacti and 

Succulents in Australia and New Zealand. Kangaroo 


Innes, C. and Glass, C. 1991. Illustrated Encyclopaedia 

of Cacti. Simon & Schuster, East Roseville, NSW. 

Mazier, C. 1995. Caring for Cacti. Grounds 

Maintenance, Jan. 










Schuster, D. 1991. The World of Cacti : How to Select 

from and Care for over 1000 Species. Random 

Century, Auckland. 


Cactus and Succulent Journal of America. 

Cactus and Succulent Journal of NSW. 

Cactus & Succulent Soc. of America 


The Griffin Grapevine 

The Illawarra Cactus & Succulent Journal 

The Southern Spine (Southern Clubs of NZ) 

The Spinette (Australia) 

Wagga Cactus News 

State/Territory Socs. 

See Preface xii 



MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: There are cacti to suit everyone. Choose species that do not have large 

spines which can stab people or tiny bristles which adhere to clothes or can be inhaled. Choose species 

which do not grow too large. Many species, eg rattail cactus (Aporocactus flagelliformis), are suitable for 

hanging baskets. Some species are declared noxious weeds in some parts of Australia, eg prickly pear 

(Opuntia spp.), and should not be grown for sale in these areas. Many Opuntia spp. have edible fruits of 

varying degrees of palatability. Many others have edible fruit but few are grown outside the Americas 

(Glowinski 1991). 

Resistant varieties: Some species are more tolerant of low temperatures and other conditions. 

Disease-free planting material: Only purchase or propagate from pest or disease-free cacti. 


Handling cacti to minimise discomfort and facilitate maintenance and propagation: Wear 

appropriate clothing, eg gloves, overalls, respirator (if handling cacti with fine hairs, eg Opuntia spp.). Use 

appropriate tools, eg tongs are ideal for removing some weeds. Cacti pieces and weeds loosened with 

weeding tongs should be promptly dropped into a bag which can be placed directly in a bin for disposal. This 

avoids an unsuspecting person disposing of the material being accidentally injured. To facilitate handling of 

indoor cacti, they should not be allowed to become overgrown. Cacti known to grow extra large or to produce 

irritating hairs should be grown in appropriately small containers. 

Propagation is easy and this is one of the initial attractions for growers. Most can be propagated either 

vegetatively through cuttings, branches or leaves and through grafting or by growing from seed. 

Monitoring pests, diseases and weeds: Regularly inspect plants for the presence of pests, diseases 

and weeds so that infestations can be treated promptly and effectively. 

Cultural methods: Watering will vary with species but pots should be allowed to dry out between waterings. 

Generally water more frequently during summer, and reduce watering in winter, do not waterlog plants. 

Fertilise fortnightly at half strength during the growing season. Cacti are light loving plants (photophilic), they 

grow well in dry air and prefer a light and free draining mix with a pH of 5.5 - 6.5. Some cacti require special 

mixes. Repot routinely each spring. The exact conditions for establishment, eg potting mix, light, nutrition, 

temperature range, watering regime), will depend on the species. 

Sanitation: Often small infestations on cacti can be washed or lightly scrubbed clean with a toothbrush; 

however, spiny cacti can be difficult to clean and weed. If plants are so damaged that they have to be 

discarded, cuttings may be taken from an uninfected part, new plants should be kept separate until they are 

observed to be pest, disease and weed-free. 

Biological control: Where mealybugs and twospotted mites are serious problems in commercial plantings, 

biological control agents may be introduced. 

Plant quarantine: All new purchases should be inspected carefully for mealybugs, scales and twospotted 

mites as this is the most common method of introducing pests and weeds to a collection. If infested, they 

should be placed in quarantine until pest-free. 

Pesticides: Insecticides are registered to control mealybugs and other pests. Householders should only use 

one registered and labelled for indoor plant use and follow label instructions. 

Postharvest 

Standards are available for judging cacti and should be obtained from the relevant society. Cacti should be 

well established in pots at time of sale; those that flower should be sold at the beginning of flowering. The 

conditions required after purchase depend on the species (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Edible cacti are usually 

despined and are ready to eat on harvest. They may be boiled as a vegetable (Glowinski 1991). 

D 4 

CACTI

Ferns 

Fig. 89. Symptoms of foliar nematode (Aphelenchoides spp.) 

infestation on a fern frond. Affected sections are bounded by veins. 


Fig. 90. Longtailed mealybugs 

Pseudococcus longispinus). 

Fig. 92. Staghorn fern beetle 

(Halticorcus platycerii). 

Left : Larva (about 8 mm long). 

Right : Adult (about 3 mm long). 

Fig. 91. A soft scale (Coccidae) on a fern. 

Fig. 93. Left : Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis). 

Centre : Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae). 

Right : Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 

Fig. 94. Typical tag on a soft 

tree fern (Dicksonia antartica). 

FERNS E 1

Ferns 

Filicinae, Pteridophyta 


Parasitic 



Damping off 


Root crown and stem rots 



Foliar nematodes 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Fern mirid 

Fern weevils 

Mealybugs 

Scales 

Staghorn fern beetle 

Thrips 


Whiteflies 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Exploitation 



WEEDS 


Parasitic 


Bacterial leaf spot, blight (Pseudomonas sp.) 

causes dark leaf spots or irregular large dead areas 

with watersoaked margins and can be damaging in 

very wet conditions (Bodman et al. 1996). 


Damping off (various fungi): Grey mould 

(Botrytis cinerea) causes prothalli to rot. Spores 

should be sown in pasteurised media or in an 

equivalent disease-free media. See Greenhouses 

N 22, Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots (various species, Botrytis 

cinerea, Myrothecium, Pseudocercospora) develop 

on many ferns. Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) 

may cause leaf spotting on a range of ferns and 

other plants. Pseudocercospora sp. causes 

circular brown leaf spots commonly on 

Nephrolepsis; leaflet drop may occur (Bodman et 

al. 1996). See Annuals A 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Root, crown and stem rots (various 

species) have been recorded on a range of ferns. 

Rhizoctonia blight (Rhizoctonia solani) causes 

brown irregular foliage rots of ferns in wet 

crowded conditions. Fine web-like fungal 

strands grow over affected areas. 

Others: Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) 

is a severe disease of leatherleaf fern (Rumohra 

adiantiformis) overseas (Leahy et al. 1995). 


PARASITIC PLANTS 

Parasitic ferns or epiphytes, eg Davallia 

pyxidata will grow all over Platycerium superbum. 



Scientific name: Nematoda: 

Foliar or leaf nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) 

Host range: 

A. fragariae: Strawberry, ferns (> 100 species 

worldwide, eg maidenhair fern (Adiantum), Blechnum, 

brake fern (Pteris)); also African violet, anemone, 

kangaroo paw (A. manglesii), begonia, bergenia, 

Bouvardia, cyclamen, fuchsia, gloxinia, Helleborus, 

Streptocarpus, fig (Ficus carica), Moreton Bay fig 

(F. macrophylla), rubber plant (F. elastica), mainly 

Liliaceae, Primulaceae and Ranunculaceae. 

A. ritzembosi, eg African violet, chrysanthemum, 

coleus, impatiens. 

Symptoms: Nematodes are microscopic, wormlike 

and feed in leaf tissues. Leaf symptoms vary 

with the host. Initially, leaf spots are produced but 

later they may become triangular and bordered by 

veins. Dead areas (stripes) enclosed by leaf veins 

may develop on fronds of some species (Fig. 89). 

Fronds may die prematurely, disease progresses 

from lower leaves upwards. Do not confuse early 

symptoms with those caused by fungal leaf spots 

or cold. Flowers of African violet, begonia, coleus 

and chrysanthemum, often decay only on one side. 

Overwintering: In soil and debris from infested 

plants. Infected cuttings, tubers, perennial plants. 

Spread: By vegetative propagation from infested 

plants. Healthy plants become infested by planting 

in infested soil; soil becomes infested by 

introduction of infested plants or soil in pots, on 

machinery, tools, footwear. Nematodes swim up 

outside of stems in a film of water and are splashed 

by rain or irrigation on to leaves or adjacent plants. 

Conditions favouring: Overcrowded conditions. 

Moisture on leaves, overhead irrigation. Extended 

showery weather especially in the cooler months 

(conditions under which ferns themselves thrive). 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Avoid overhead irrigation. 

Mulch soil to prevent nematodes overwintering 

in old infested leaves and from entering lower 

leaves in spring. Practise crop rotation. 

Sanitation: Prune out affected leaves from mildly 

infested plants, destroy severely infested plants 

unless of special value. Sanitation practices 

are important in the control of foliar nematodes 

on plants such as ferns and African violets which 

may be injured by the nematicidal sprays used 

on hardier plants, eg chrysanthemums. 

E 2 

FERNS

FERNS 

Biological control: Nematodes are controlled to 

some extent in nature by natural enemies, eg 

parasitic fungi. 

Resistant varieties: Species vary in resistance. 

Plant quarantine: Isolate new stock until 

nematode-freedom is confirmed. 

Disease-free planting material: Purchase 

nematode-free plants. Do not propagate from 

infested plants, if this is unavoidable, take tip 

cuttings from the tops of long vigorous shoots or 

treat infected plant parts in hot water (some plant 

damage may occur). Plant nematode-free 

plants, tip cuttings or treated setts in nematodefree 

media/soil. 

Physical and mechanical methods: To prevent 

nematodes swimming from pot to pot in 

drainage water, hold pots on wire-mesh bench 

tops. Benches, tools and soil should be 

disinfected. Pasteurise cutting beds. 

Pesticides: Affected parts should be pruned out 

and destroyed before treatment. Some ferns are 

sensitive to pesticides, always test on a few 

plants prior to large scale treatments. Systemic 

granular nematicides may be scattered over the 

soil surface of potted plants outdoors, or sprays 

applied to the foliage, at the first sign of 

infestation. Regular follow up treatments may 

be necessary to keep plants free of nematodes. 

Others: 

Spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus 

dihystera), root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus 

brachyurus) and other species have been 

associated with bracken fern (Pteridium 

esculentum). See Vegetables M 10. 



Bracken aphid (Shinjia orientalis) infests crosiers, 

deforming fern fronds. 

Maidenhair fern aphid (Idiopterus nephrelepidis) is 

dark green (almost black), with white legs and feeds 

on many fern species and possibly also cyclamen and 

Cape primrose (Streptocarpus sp.) causing fronds to 

curl up and turn black. 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) chew fern fronds 

and crosiers, most have a wide host range. 

Common caterpillars: 


Ivy leafroller (Cryptoptila immersana) 

Lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) 



An Australian butterfly (Hypochrysops theon 

medocus, Lycaenidae): Young caterpillars feed in 

galleries in rhizomes of the fern (Drynaria quericifolia) 

occupied by colonies of a small ant (Iridomyrmex 

cordatus). Older caterpillars feed at night on fronds 

and shelter during the day at fern bases. Pupae are 

found amongst debris or partly concealed in the 

rhizomes. This fern is the only known food plant of 

an Australian butterfly outside the Angiospermae and 

Gymnospermae (Common 1981). 

Elkhorn spore caterpillar (Calicotis crucifera, 

Oecophoridae) webs the sporangia of staghorns and 

elkhorns (Platycerium spp.). Caterpillars are tiny, and 

tunnel and feed inside the brown spore pads causing 

frond tips to brown and shrivel. Caterpillars are 

difficult to find and if exposed quickly cover 

themselves with spore cases. Damage is often 

mistaken for a fungal disease. The fully-fed 

caterpillars pupate under cover of the spore cases. 

Control measures may be necessary. 

Other moths: Caterpillars of Callopistria maillardi 

and Musotima spp. may defoliate maidenhair fern 

(Adiantum aethiopium) and swordfern (Nephrolepsis). 

Caterpillars of Hedraea quadridens, Hemichloreis 

exoterica and Idiodes apicata feed on bracken fern 

(Pteridium esculentum). 


Fern mirid (Felisacus glabratus, Miridae, 

Hemiptera) is a minor and sporadic pest of ferns, 

eg Pteris spp. and Hyolepsis spp. Adult bugs are 

slender, active with a green body (sometimes 

brownish), narrow, and about 4 mm long. 

Antennae and legs are long and thin. Antennae 

and eyes are dark brown, legs and head are a 

shiny, pale yellowish-brown. The head may have 

small red markings. A solitary insect. Fronds are 

damaged by the injection of saliva and the sucking 

of sap from the developing crosiers resulting in 

papery patches. Tropical to subtropical regions, 

mainly coastal. Control is not usually warranted. 

Hand picking is successful. See Vegetables M 12. 

Fern weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) 

Large fern weevil (Syagrius fulvitarsus) 

Maidenhair fern weevil (Neosygagrius cordipennis) 

Larvae of these weevils tunnel in stems causing 

fronds to wilt and die. See Vegetables M 17. 



and also probably root mealybug (Rhizoecus 

falcifer) and tuber mealybug (P. affinis). Tuber 

mealybug attacks many plants and is found on all 

parts of the plant; it is considered to be the most 

important underground mealybug in Australia. 

Mealybug populations also often go unnoticed until 

large numbers build up (Fig. 90) They are difficult 

to control and are the most common and serious 

pests of ferns indoors. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Scales (Hemiptera) occur in sheltered parts and 

on fronds (do not confuse scales with fern sporangia). 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Fern scale 

(Pinnaspis caricis) is a destructive scale found 

amongst the brown sporangia and can cause ferns to 

die within one season. Adult females are white and 

about 1.5 mm long. Fronds of staghorn, elkhorn and 

birds nest fern develop yellow spots and dieback. 

Oleander scale (Aspidiotus nerii) infests ferns and 

other plants. Adult females are white to brownish, 

circular and 1-2 mm in diameter. See Citrus F 39, 

Oleander K 104. 

Soft scales (Coccidae) are common on ferns (Fig. 91). 

Nigra scale (Parasaissetia nigra) is a leathery, oval, 

raised, black waxy scale about 5 mm long. Nymphs 

settle on young shoots and along the midribs of leaves. 

Young scales frequently lodge on adult coverings. 

Nigra scales are easily dislodged so can be removed 

FERNS E 3

FERNS 

by hand. See Custard apple F 52. Soft brown 

scale (Coccus hesperidium) is perhaps the most 

common and destructive scale of ferns, they feed 

on midribs, leaf stalks and stems. Others: 

Hemispherical scale (Saissetia coffeae), white wax 

scale (Gascardia destructor). See Citrus F 41. 

The most serious damage caused by soft scales is 

the sooty mould which grows on the vast 

quantities of honeydew produced and which also 

attracts ants. Scales are attacked by many natural 

enemies which restrict populations. After infested 

parts have been pruned out, ferns may be 

sprayed/washed with soap or other insecticides. 

Oil sprays may damage fronds. Pots may be 

treated with granular soil treatments (outside 

during the warmer months). See Citrus F 40. 

Staghorn fern beetle (Halticorcus 

platycerii, Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) damages 

staghorn and elkhorn (Platycerium spp.) especially 

during late summer and autumn. Beetles are 

hemispherical, black with 4 orange spots, and are 

about 3 mm long (Fig. 92). Females insert eggs 

into fronds. Larvae are orange and about 8 mm 

long with a black head and legs. Fronds: Beetles 

eat out regular cavities usually on the upper 

surface of fronds, spoiling their appearance. 

Larvae cause more serious damage tunnelling 

inside fronds, especially near the tips, until most of 

the internal tissues are eaten. Soft rot bacteria 

invade injured tissue and fronds die and fall 

prematurely. Sanitation: Search periodically for 

adults, remove by hand. While larvae are still 

inside frond tips, cut off and destroy affected tips 

early in summer as soon as damage is noticed. 

Insecticides do not kill larvae feeding internally 

and are directed towards killing the beetles. See 

Trees K 14. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera): 


and onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) may infest frond 

undersurfaces (Fig. 93) which become silvery and 

covered with black dots of excreta. See 

Greenhouses N 24, Onion M 68. 


can seriously damage ferns if unnoticed for a time 

(Fig. 93). Fronds become sandy coloured and 

webbing may be visible. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera) 


and other species may infest frond undersurfaces 

(Fig. 93). See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: 

Staghorns in particular are very 

susceptible to attack by European earwig 

(Forficula auricularia), millipedes (Diplopoda), 

and slaters (Crustaceae) as in addition to 

providing food and shelter, they provide attractive 

breeding places. Also black field cricket 

(Teleogryllus commodus), black vine weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus) and passionvine hopper 

(Scolypopa australis) may infest ferns. 


Various species feed on ferns, eg common garden 

snail (Helix aspersa), brown slug (Deroceras 

parnormitanum), reticulated slug (D. 

reticulatum), garlic snail (Oxychilus alliarus), 

orchid snail (Zonitidae), a small spiral snail 

(Cochlicella ventricosa) and red triangle slug 

(Tribinophorus graeffei) (Hocking 1980). See 



Birds may feed on soft succulent fern growth and 

possums may eat young crosiers of tree ferns 

(Dicksonia). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Light: Most ferns prefer dappled 

or filtered light. Leaves are easily damaged by too 

much sun. Temperatures: Sudden exposure to 

low temperatures, eg during transport, or being 

near heaters, may cause fronds to brown and die. 

Avoid temperature extremes of hot and cold, 

transport between 15-21 o C. The first fronds of 

tree fern (Dicksonia antartica) may be damaged by 

wind but those produced later usually remain green 

and healthy. Underwatering causes ferns to die, 

water frequently but provide good drainage, avoid 

overwatering especially at lower temperatures. 

Humidity: Mist ferns to maintain humidity (even 

hardy ferns prefer a humid atmosphere). Ferns do 

not like sudden changes in conditions, draughts, 

light, temperature. Hanging baskets on exposed 

verandahs may be damaged by sun, wind, lack of 

water and low humidity. 

Exploitation: The intention of various Wild 

Flowers and Native Protection Acts is to prevent 

excessive removal of tree and other ferns from 

public and private land (Fig. 94). Tree ferns may 

be collected only after permits have been issued to 

land owners by the appropriate government 

authority, eg the Forests Commission in Victoria. 

Departments issuing the permits keep records of 

the number of ferns removed from bushland areas 

(Watson and Patzopoulos 1993). Soft tree fern 

(Dicksonia australis) is heavily exploited because 

it can be chain-sawed off at the base (adventitious 

roots regrow from the base when planted) and they 

show the least stress in the short term after 

planting but may die slowly over months. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Ferns 

are more adaptable to a range of acid/alkaline pHs 

than is often realised (Handreck 1991). 

Weed potential: Although some ferns are 

delicate and difficult to grow, some are weeds, the 

worst in Australia being the native perennial 

bracken (Pteridium esculentum). Stock may be 

poisoned by eating fresh fronds or rhizomes, or 

when large amounts are included in hay 

(McBarron 1983). Poisonous effects include 

unknown factors affecting cattle and sheep causing 

haemorrhages, thiamine deficiency in horses and 

pigs and cancer-producing factors in cattle and 

E 4 

FERNS

FERNS 

sheep. New fronds and spores of bracken contain 

ptaquiloside, a cancer-producing chemical (Emsley 

1994). British health authorities have issued 

warnings that people living near bracken should 

wear face masks when bracken is shedding spores 

(O'Neill 1996). 

Others: Fungus gnats (Sciaridae) and ants 

(Formicidae) are attracted to honeydew produced 

by aphids, mealybugs, soft scales and whiteflies. 

WEEDS 

Weeds are not a major problem in fern plantings as 

most ferns like filtered light which is usually 

unsuitable for broadleaved and grass weeds. 

However, mosses and liverworts may grow. See 

Turfgrasses L 15, Greenhouses N 27 respectively. 


Clifford, H. T. and Constantine, J. 1980. Ferns, Fern 

Allies and Conifers of Australia : A Laboratory 

Manual. University of Qld Press, Brisbane. 





Elliot, R. W. and Jones, D. L. 1980. Encyclopaedia of 

Australian Plants Suitable for Cultivation. Vol. 1. 


Emsley, J. 1994. How Bracken's Deadly Chemical 

Breaks the Back of DNA. New Scientist, April. 

Foster, F. G. 1984. Ferns to Know and Grow. Timber 


Goudey, C. J. 1988. A Handbook of Ferns for Australia 

and New Zealand. Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Handreck, K. 1991. Fern Adaptability. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Hocking, F. D. 1980. Friends and Foes of Australian 

Gardens. A. H. and A. W. Reed, Sydney. 

Hoshizaki, B. J. 1976. Fern Growers' Manual. Alfred A. 

Knopf, NY. 

Jones, D. L. 1987. Encyclopaedia of Ferns. Timber 


Jones, D. L. and Clemesha, S. C. 1989. Australian Ferns 

and Fern Allies. 3rd edn., The Currawong Press, 

Sydney. 




Jones, D. L. and Goudey, C. J. 1981. Exotic Ferns in 

Australia : With Notes on Their Cultivation. A. H. & 

A. W. Reed, Sydney. 



Leahy, R., Schubert, T., Strandberg, J., Stamps, B. and 

Norman D. 1995. Anthracnose of Leatherleaf Fern. 

Plant Pathology Circular No.372, July/August, Fla. 

Dept. Agric. & Consumer Services, Div. of Plant 

Industry, PO Box 147100, Gainsville, FL. 

Mason, J. 1990. Growing Ferns. Kangaroo Press, 





that? rev. edn. Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 




O'Neill, G. 1996. Battle Against Herbicides Rages On. 

Science Section, Canberra Times, 25th March. 

Robin, J. M. 1985. Tree Ferns - Are We Running Out? 

Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Salinger, J. 1985. Commercial Flower Growing. 


Taji, A. M. and Williams, R. R. 1991. Propagation of 

Australian Plants by Tissue Culture. Aust. Hort., 

91:2, . 

Walsh, N. G. and Entwisle, T. J. (eds). 1994. Flora of 

Victoria Vol 2 : Ferns and Allied Plants, Conifers 

and Monocotyledons. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Watson, R. and Patzopoulos, K. 1993. Tree Ferns 

Create the Instant Landscape. Aust. Hort., May. 


Industry eg 

Bud and Leaf Nematodes (Vic Agnote) 

Ferns and Allied Plants (SA Adel. Bot. Gard. Leaflet) 

Leatherleaf Fern (Qld Farmnote) 

Propagating Ferns from Spores (Vic Agnote) 

Propagation of Ferns by Tissue Culture (Vic Agnote) 

The Foliar Nematode in Ferns (Vic Agnote) 


Fern Societies of various States/Territories (various 

Bulletins) 


Society for Growing Australian Plants (Fern Study Group) 

See Preface xii, House plants N 35, Nurseries N 51 

MANAGEMENT 

There is such a great number of different ferns it is not possible to generalise, eg there are large and small ferns, 

some are hardy, others are very susceptible to frost or drying out. They cover quite a wide range of preferred 

temperatures. In general, fine foliaged ferns, eg Nelphrolepis and Pteris, need intermediate conditions of 13- 

18 o C. Ferns with coarser foliage, eg Platycerium, need more warmth, eg 15-21 o C. It also depends on where 

they are to be grown, eg indoors or outdoors. Only propagate vegetatively from plants free from scale, 

mealybugs and other pests and diseases. Ferns may be propagated by asexual propagation, eg division 

(rhizomes or sections of runners), bulbils (small plants that form on the surface of mature fronds) and by tissue 

culture or by sexual propagation, eg spores. Soft tree fern (Dicksonia antartica) is propagated by cutting the 

trunk and by spores. Provide appropriate cultural conditions, eg humidity, light, ventilation, potting mix, 

fertiliser, watering. Sanitation measures include pruning out infested fronds, eg ferns such as Blechnum, may 

be pruned back to the rhizome. Rhizomes should be monitored regularly, especially the very hairy ones, for 

insects such as aphids and scale which are hidden among the hairs and cause considerable damage. Pests 

overlooked on a rhizome can later reinfest fronds. Remove all dead material from plants and greenhouses 

regularly to reduce buildup of Botrytis. Biological control agents, eg predatory ladybird beetles and parasitic 

wasps, may be purchased to control mealybugs, which are probably the worst pest of ferns. Fern fronds are 

very sensitive to pesticides. Granular insecticides may be used outdoors. For cut foliage harvest when fronds 

are green and healthy, cut off any woody stem bases present and place in water with preservative (asparagus 

fern does not like sugar). Replenish water regularly. Ferns may be misted regularly during hot weather (Jones 

and Moody 1993). Individual ferns require specific care (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

FERNS E 5

FERNS 

E 6 

FERNS

Fruit 


Nuts 

Fig. 95. Left : Line patterns on 

Halford peach leaves caused by 

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus. 

Right : Symptoms of russet ring 

virus on Granny Smith apple. 

Dept. of Agric., NSW 

Fig. 96. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum musae) 

on banana. 

. 


Avocado (Persea americana) F 18 

Banana (Musa spp.) F 22 

Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) F 27 

Bush fruits and nuts F 29 

Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) F 30 

Cashew (Anarcardium occidentale) F 31 

Chestnut (Castanea sativa) F 32 

Citrus (Rutaceae) includes F 33 



Lemon (C. limon) 



Currants (Ribes spp.) includes F 48 

Black currant(R. nigrum) 

Red and (R. sativum) 



Custard apple (Annona atemoya) F 51 

Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana) F 54 

Fig (Ficus carica) F 55 

Grapevine (Vitis spp.) F 58 

Guava (Psidium guajava) F 67 

Hazelnut, Filbert (Corylus avellana) F 68 

Kiwi fruit, Chinese gooseberry F 70 

(Actinidia deliciosa) 

Lychee (Litchi chinensis) F 73 

Macadamia (Macadamia tetraphylla) F 76 

Mango (Mangifera indica) F 80 

Mulberry (Morus spp.) F 84 

Olive (Olea spp.) F 86 

Papaw (Carica papaya) F 88 

Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis) F 91 

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) F 96 

Pecan (Carya illinoensis) F 99 

Persimmon (Diospyros spp.) F 101 

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) F 103 

Pistachio (Pistacia vera) F 106 

Pome fruits (Rosaceae) includes F 107 




Nashi (Pyrus pyrifolia) 

Pear (P. communis) 


Stone fruits (Prunus spp.) includes F 123 

Almond (P. amygdalus) 


Cherry (sweet & sour) 

(P. avium and P. cerasus) 



Plum (P. domestica, P. salicina) 

Plumcot (Prunus hybrida) 

Strawberry (Fragaria spp.) F 139 

Trailing berries (Rubus spp.) includes F 145 


Boysenberry, loganberry, youngberry 

(R. occidentalis) 


Walnut (Juglans spp.) F 148 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 1

FRUIT AND NUTS 

Fig. 97. Fruit rots : Left : Brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) on peach. Dept. of Agric., NSW. Centre : Black rot 

(Phoma caricae-papayae) on ripe pawpaw. Right : Penicillium mould (Penicillium spp.) on citrus. 

Fig 98. Lightbrown apple moth 

(Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars 

feed on fruit surfaces and leaves. 


Fig. 99. Internal-feeding 

caterpillars, eg codling moth (Cydia 

pomonella) caterpillars feed inside 

fruit. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 100. Driedfruit beetles 

(Carpophilus spp.) about 

3 mm long. 

Fig. 102. Fruitpiercing moth (Noctuidae) 

(with a wingspan of about 100 mm), sucks 

juice from fruit. 

Fig. 103. Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta 

nitida), about 15 mm long, and nymphs. 

Fig. 101. Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni). 1. Eggs. 

2. Larva or maggot. 3. Pupa. 4. Adult fly. All enlarged x 5. 

5. Apple showing punctures or stings where eggs have been 

deposited. 6. Peach showing decay and tunnels of the maggots. 

7. Egg clusters beneath the skin. 8. Pupa in the ground. 

All actual size. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

F 2 

FRUIT AND NUTS


Fig. 104. Fruit-tree root weevil 

(Leptopius squalidus) 20 mm long) 

and larva (up to 25 mm long). 

Fig. 105. Bryobia mite (Bryobia 

rubrioculus), European red mite 

(Panonychus ulmi), twospotted 

mite (Tetranychus urticae). 

Fig. 106. Plague thrips (Thrips 

imaginis) on apple blossom. Dept. 

of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 107. Frosted scale (Eulecanium 

pruinosum) on plum twigs. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 108. Left : Apple damaged by birds. Right: A fruit bat. 

Fig. 109. Frost damage to Santa Rosa 

plums. 

Fig. 110. Growth stages of apples and pears indicating times to spray. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 3



Parasitic 



Bacterial canker 


Crown gall 


Anthracnose 

Cankers 

Downy mildews 

Fruit rots 




Rusts 

Wood rots, heart rots 



Aphids 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Driedfruit beetles 

Ferment flies 

Fruit flies 

Fruitpiercing moths 

Fruitspotting bugs 

Fruit-tree borers 

Fruit-tree root weevil 

Grasshoppers, katydids, locusts 

Leaf beetles, flea beetles 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Plague thrips 

Scales 

Scarab beetles 

Weevils 



Birds 

Fruit bats 

Non-parasitic 

Ants 

Biennial fruit bearing 

Environment 

Nuisances to pickers 



WEEDS 


Parasitic 


Host range: Most fruit crops may be infected 

with one or more virus or virus-like diseases. 

They tend to be host specific but a few, eg Prunus 

necrotic ringspot virus, extend their host range to 

closely related ornamental species. 

Symptoms: In addition to the development of 

symptoms on leaves, trunks and fruit, virus 

diseases reduce both fruit quality and yield. 

Symptoms (Fig. 95) vary with the virus, cultivar, 

growth stage and temperature, and these are 

described under individual fruit crops. 

Overwintering: In infected hosts, propagation 

material, nursery stock. Generally seed is virus-free, 

but there are exceptions, eg Prunus necrotic ringspot 

is sometimes seedborne. 


propagation material, eg infected buds, grafts, 

cuttings, or rootstocks. Also by natural root grafts 

within an orchard. By introduction of infected 

plants, plant parts (buds, grafts, clonal rootstocks) 

into orchards. Occasionally by seed used to grow 

rootstock (Prunus necrotic ringspot is sometimes 

seedborne). Occasionally by pollen (Prunus necrotic 

ringspot). Not usually by contact between plants and 

not usually on secateurs. Virus diseases of deciduous 

fruit trees are not usually spread by insects. Some 

viruses of some fruit crops, eg herbaceous fruits 

such as strawberry, and citrus, are spread by insects. 

Conditions favouring: Symptoms are often more 

apparent, or only apparent, during cooler weather in 

spring or autumn. Later growth may be symptomless. 

Control: There is no cure for infected plants, the 

aim is to prevent infection and minimise losses. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plants in 

herbaceous fruit crops, eg strawberry. 

Resistant varieties: Cultivars vary in resistance. 

Disease-free-planting material: Only plant 

certified virus-tested planting material, eg fruit 

crops propagated from certified virus-tested 

sources. The Fruit Variety Foundation (FVF) 

provides such material to state departments which 

supply budwood for foundation stocks for some 

fruit crops. If virus-tested material is not available 

then use the best available which is visibly free 

from diseases and pests. Because there are no 

known vectors of virus diseases of deciduous 

fruit trees in Australia, virus-tested planting 

material will remain free for life from the viruses 

for which they have been tested, unless they are 

reworked with infected material or root grafts 

develop in orchards. On other fruit crops, if viruses 

are spread by insects, certified virus-tested planting 

material will become infected after planting out. 

However, the increased yield and quality from 

the use of certified virus-tested planting material 

justifies its use if it is available. 

Pesticides: The use of insecticides to control any 

insect vectors of virus diseases of tree crops is 

impractical. There are exceptions. 


Bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae) is a major disease of stone fruit trees 

but may also affect pear, citrus, ornamentals and 

other plants. The most characteristic symptom, 

although not always the most common, is the 

formation of cankers and gumming on branches 

and trunks. See Stone Fruits F 124. 

Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia spp.) may cause 

rotting of fruit, eg avocado and banana. See 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) may be a 

serious disease of stone fruit nursery stock 

causing large galls up to the size of a football to 

develop at the base of stems. It may also affect 

other fruit crops, eg currants, grapevine, raspberry, 

trailing berries. See Stone Fruits F 125. 

F 4 

FRUIT AND NUTS


Anthracnose 


Scientific name/Host range: 

Ascomycetes: Glomerella cingulata, Diplocarpon, 

Elsinoe and Gnomonia on ornamentals, eg 

camellia, fruit, eg avocado, apple, grape, walnut. 

Imperfect stage: Colletotrichum (Gloeosporium), 

Coryneum, Marssonina, Melanconium and 

Sphaceloma, cause anthracnose diseases of 

ornamentals, eg anemone and ranunculus, 

vegetables, eg bean, brassicas, celery, cucurbits, 

tomato, fruit, eg citrus, custard apple, grape, mango, 

passionfruit, pawpaw, stone fruit, field crops, eg 

cotton. Some anthracnose diseases are host specific. 

Symptoms: Anthracnoses are diseases of leaves, 

stems or fruit, and appear as small or large dark 

spots or slightly sunken lesions with a raised rim. 

Plants may be attacked any time from the seedling 

stage to maturity in the field and postharvest. 

Leaf spots are oval or circular and at first yellowgreen 

to dull white with a narrow brown border. 

Small black spots, the fruiting bodies of the fungus, 

are formed later on affected areas. Stem cankers 

may girdle plants causing twig dieback. In some 

fruit, spots with raised corky surfaces appear. One 

or more of these may become active and enlarge 

rapidly in the skin (Fig. 96) and underlying flesh, 

and within a few days the fruit may rot and drop. 

Depending on the host, a range of spore types may 

be produced on the fruit or vegetable, eg avocado, 

beans and cucurbits, may develop pink spores on 

spots. Some fruit and vegetable spots are 

dormant, and only become active after harvest 

when fruit ripens or is injured, even though 

infection took place in the field. 

Overwintering: As a saprophyte (using dead 

organic matter for food) in cracks of immature 

bark, fruit bearing twigs, in dead leaves or twigs, 

mummified fruit on the tree and on the ground. 

Also in infected hosts, crop debris, dead leaf bases, 

bulbs from earlier seasons and seed. Anthracnose 

can be isolated from orchard plants even though 

there are no visible symptoms. In spring surviving 

mycelium produces spores. 

Spread: Spores are spread by rain/irrigation, 

wind, insects, by adherence to animals, clothes, 

machinery and tools moving through wet crops, 

and possibly birds from fruit to fruit and from tree 

to tree. Propagation from infected plants, 

introduction of infected planting material, eg seed, 

seedlings and vegetative propagation material. 

Conditions favouring: Surface moisture (dew, 

rain) that persists for 10 or more hours, and by air 

temperatures > 15°C. Closely planted crops with 

dense canopies. Prolonged wet warm weather in 

the field, during harvest and postharvest. Fruit 

from older, unsprayed orchards (leaves, twigs and 

fruit are readily infected and produce spores). 

Control: Do not market vegetables from diseased 

crops, as vegetables unblemished when picked 

may develop disease postharvest in transit. 

Monitor disease regularly in field and postharvest. 

Cultural methods: For herbaceous crops practise 

rotations of 3-4 years. Provide infected debris 

time to break down between crops. Ensure good 

drainage and ventilation, and rapid drying of 

foliage by pruning lower limbs so that the 

canopy is at least 500 mm above ground level. 

Avoid unnecessary wetting of foliage and fruit 

and working in fields when wet. Time overhead 

irrigation to minimise periods of leaf wetness, 

which favours infection. Harvest fruit when 

recommended so it will ripen evenly and at the 

correct rate. Keep harvested fruit out of direct 

sunlight to prevent flesh overheating. 

Sanitation: Destroy or incorporate crop debris 

by deep ploughing or burning, destroy alternative 

hosts and unmarketable produce. During winter 

or before flowering, prune out and destroy any 

dead wood, foliage and mummified fruit on the 

tree. Collect and destroy any mummified fruit 

on the ground. During the growing season 

regularly remove infected fruit both on the tree 

and fallen fruit on the ground . 


Plant quarantine: On some hosts, eg anemone, 

anthracnose may be a quarantinable disease. 


anthracnose-free planting material (cuttings, 

seed, tubers) if available, otherwise select 

vegetative propagation material and seeds only 

from symptom-free plants, and hot water treat 

seed and tubers. Store and handle seed to avoid 

contamination. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Cool fruit, 

transport and store at appropriate temperatures. 

Pesticides: If anthracnose has been a problem 

previously, regular protectant field sprays may 

be needed for economic control. Before packing 

treat products with appropriate fungicide. 

Control insect pests, eg fruit fly and fruit 

spotting bugs, which may damage fruit. 

Cankers (Botryosphaeria, Glomerella and 

other fungal species) may cause dead sunken 

localised cankers on branches, twigs or trunks of 

tree fruits. See Trees K 5. 

Downy mildews (Peronosporaceae) may 

be serious diseases of some fruit crops, eg 

grapevine. Pale yellow lesions develop on leaf 

uppersurfaces while corresponding lesions on 

leaf undersurfaces produce a downy growth. 

Flowers, fruit, stems may also be affected causing 

crop loss. See Annuals A 5, Grapevine F 59. 

Fruit rots: Most fruit rotting fungi have a 

wide host range. Some only attack a particular 

species. Postharvest diseases are described by 

Beattie et al. (1989). 

Alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata) affects citrus, 

mango, many other fruit, and causes many other 

diseases of a wide range of plants. 

Anthracnose diseases (Colletotrichum spp. etc) in 

the field and postharvest (see above). 

Aspergillus fruit rot, black mould (Aspergillus 

niger) causes soft watery spots on stem ends of fruits 

eg cashew before harvest. Dark purple to black 

powdery spores develop on the spots, fruit may fall 

prematurely or mummify on the tree. It can multiply 

in spent flowers caught in foliage or in caterpillar 

webbing. Fruit infection occurs through wounds or 

by direct penetration when dead flowers or tissue 

from flowers are in contact with fruit. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 5


Brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) affects stone fruits 

(Fig. 97). See Stone fruits F 125. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may attack many fruit 

crops eg strawberry, in the field and postharvest in 

cool wet conditions. Flowers, fruits and fruit 

stalks, and twigs may rot. In humid conditions 

patches of grey powdery spores develop on the 

surface of affected areas. Black hard sclerotia may 

develop. Postharvest the fungus can spread to other 

fruit in containers (nesting). See Greenhouses N 22. 

Mucor rot (Mucor piriformis, Mucor spp.) initially 

causes a light brown soft watery postharvest rot and 

later a white whiskery fungal growth soon covered 

with black spores. A similar disease to Rhizopus but 

may develop at 0 o C while Rhizopus cannot develop at 

< 4 o C. It is a soilborne fungus, infecting fallen fruit 

during and after harvest. 

Penicillium moulds, blue or green moulds 

(Penicillium spp.) appears as soft pale brown watery 

spots, which enlarge rapidly to rot the whole fruit. 

Under warm moist conditions blue-green spore 

masses develop on affected areas (Fig. 97). Fruit 

has a musty smell. Fruit is contaminated during 

harvesting or packing, infections usually occur 

through wounds caused by sunburn, chilling or 

prolonged storage under cool conditions. Penicillium 

spp. infect damaged or fallen fruit on the orchard 

floor. Spores develop on these fruit, contaminate the 

soil and are blown by wind to fruit on the trees. 

Rhizopus soft rot, transit soft rot (Rhizopus 

stolonifer, R. oryzae, Eumycetes) is a minor disease of 

greenhouse crops. These species together with 

R. nigricans and R. arrhizus may attack many fruits 

postharvest especially stone fruit causing a soft rot, 

white fungal growth and black spore heads. Storage 

organs may also be attacked. Petals collapse with a 

wet rot which extends into the heart of the flower. 

The fungus invades flowers and fruit through 

injuries. Inoculum builds up on flower trimmings if 

these are left in or around packing sheds. 

Yeasty rots: Geotrichum candidum affects citrus, 

cucurbits, tomato, Saccaromyces sp. affects 

pineapple, cucurbits, tomato. 

Others: Phytophthora sp. affects citrus, pineapple, 

black rot (Phoma caricae-papayae) infects papaw 

(Fig. 97), thielaviopsis paradoxa affects pineapple. 

Overwintering: Most are common inhabitants 

of decaying organic matter, eg crop debris, 

discarded rotting fruit, and air. The main source is 

diseased fruit in and around packing sheds. 


currents, by water splash, and on dust. By 

mycelium growing from fruit to fruit (nesting) 

during storage and transport. 

Conditions favouring: Fruit injury during 

harvesting and handling, prolonged warm, moist 

conditions during harvesting, transport and storage 

(packaging in plastic bags), decaying fruit. Heavy 

rain just before or during harvest may favour fruit 

cracking, soil adhering to fruit. High storage 

temperatures also favour disease development. 

Control: Avoid skin injury or bruising of fruit. 

Cultural methods: Harvest during dry weather. 

Cool fruit promptly after harvest to restrict disease 

development. Provide cool conditions for transport 

and storage. Market fruit quickly. Avoid prolonged 

storage. Do not store fruit from infected crops. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy debris from crops, eg 

prune out brown rot mummies regularly. Remove 

rejected fruit daily from packing sheds, bins and 

surrounds as it produces spores which are spread by 

air currents and on dust. Fruit, soil and bulk bins 

are the major source of infection. During 

harvest contaminated soil is transported with the bulk 

fruit to the packing shed and loaded into fruit dumps, 

dips or recirculating drench solutions, and these are a 

major source of spores during and between seasons. 

Fruit infection can occur during harvesting, 

grading, packaging and storage as a result of infection 

through wounded skin or an open calyx cavity. 

Discard fruit with growth cracks and other injuries. 

Remove and clean waste fruit and moulds from bins, 

then disinfect bins to kill remaining fungal spores 

before fruit harvest. Use orchard trailers to carry fruit 

to packing sheds then restrict entry of machinery into 

sheds to reduce soil and dust contamination. Clean 

and disinfect sheds and equipment regularly with 

steam or high pressure water. Keep graders clean to 

avoid fruit injury and avoid overhandling fruit. 

Biological control: Various yeasts, eg Pichia 

guilliermondii, bacteria, eg Bacillus subtilis, 

Pseudomonas cepacia, and other microorganisms, 

are antagonists of blue mould (Pencillium sp.), 

Rhizopus rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) and other 

postharvest diseases of fruit and vegetables 

(Wisniewski and Wilson 1992). 

Physical and mechanical methods: Cool fruit as 

recommended immediately after harvest. Store and 

transport at recommended temperatures and humidity 

in the correct atmosphere and packaging system. 

Controlled atmosphere (CA) aims to keep fruit 

alive but reduces the rate of living processes. CA 

storage helps prolong shelf life of some fruit and can 

control some insects pests. CA storage aims to hold 

fruit under refrigeration at low oxygen and/or high 

carbon dioxide levels. Modified atmosphere 

packaging (MAP) is a flexible small scale means 

of extending shelf life of fresh foods. The is no active 

control over the atmosphere composition, which starts 

from a defined initial gas composition, but is subject 

to changes due to the products of physiological 

activity and characteristics of gas atmosphere, 

temperature and relative humidity. Vacuum 

packaging (VP) is a special type of MAP. MAP 

and VP slow down metabolic activity of a product and 

any microorganisms present both spoilage and 

pathogens by limiting the oxygen supply and applying 

an elevated level of carbon dioxide. Some packaging 

materials, eg wood wool, should not be used when 

some fruit, eg mango, are to be cooled, as it can act as 

a source of infection. It can also cause surface 

scratching. Food may be coated with an edible 

material that protects it from oxygen and moisture, 

seals in aromas while excluding unpleasant ones. 

Pesticides: For some fruit rots, eg grey mould, it may 

be necessary to spray during blossoming if wet 

weather occurs. For other fruit rots it is necessary to 

apply registered postharvest fungicide treatments. 

Many postharvest fruit rots have some resistance to 

fungicides. It is necessary to seek advice on 

how to use fungicides to reduce/delay fungicidal 

resistance. See Postharvest N 61. 

Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria, Fabraea, 

Mycosphaerella, Septoria, Venturia, other species) 

attack a range of fruit, eg mulberry. In addition to 

affecting leaves they may also attack fruit and 

canes. If many spots are present, leaves appear 

brown and scorched and will fall prematurely. 

Plant vigour is reduced. The fruit may also 

become infected and fall. Yields for the current 

and next season are reduced. See Annuals A 5. 

F 6 

FRUIT AND NUTS


Powdery mildews (Erysiphales, 

Ascomycetes) affect many fruit crops, eg apple, 

grapes. Greyish-white spores typical of powdery 

mildew develop on leaves, shoots, stems, flowers 

and fruit. See Annuals A 6, Grapevines F 60. 


Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina) may 

cause serious loss of orchard trees of all ages, 

causing slow decline and death. A whitish creamy 

fungal growth with a strong mushroom smell is 

usually present beneath the bark of major roots and 

trunk base. Black fungal strands resembling shoestrings 

may be visible on roots. In cool wet weather 

small honey-coloured mushrooms may form at the 

base of affected trees. This disease can be serious in 

new orchards established on newly cleared land. 

For some fruit trees resistant rootstock may be 

available, eg walnuts. See Trees K 4. 

Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot (Macrophomina 

phaseolina) attacks many species. It attacks 

gooseberry bushes from the top down, branches are 

attacked one by one, leaves yellow and fall, fruit stops 

growing and the bush dies. Roots do not seem to be 

affected. Favoured by any circumstances that might 

reduce vigour. See Vegetables M 7. 

Damping off (Cylindrocladium, Fusarium, 

Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, other species) may cause 

damping off diseases. See Seedlings N 66. 

Phytophthora collar, crown and root rot 

(Phytophthora spp., P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, 

P. nicotianae) affects many fruit, eg avocado, citrus. 

Crown rot has a white mouldy appearance in the 

ground. It can move up into the centre of the tree and 

cause it to fall over in a few years. Avoid excessive 

moisture around the trunk, including saturated soils 

with poor drainage, mounding soil up around the 

trunk, excessive weed growth or sinking of the tree 

after planting to below the level of the soil in the 

nursery. Keep the ground clean around tree and plant 

high. Herbicides may be used around the base of the 

tree. Some varieties are resistant. See Trees K 6. 

Rosellinia root rot, white root rot (Rosellinia 

necatrix). See Pome fruits F 110. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia spp.) may affect many 

species including strawberry. If wet or humid weather 

persists, watersoaked areas become covered initially 

with a white fluffy mycelium typical of the disease 

and eventually with irregular black sclerotia up to 

10 mm across. See Vegetables M 7. 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) may attack 

stems of various fruit at ground level, eg apple. A 

white fungal mat grows over affected parts. Round 

sclerotia, about 1-2 mm across, are produced on the 

surface of the mycelium, these later turn brown and 

are hard to see. See Trees K , Vegetables M 8. 

Thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis 

paradoxa) affects pineapple. See Pineapple F 103. 

Wilts: Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) may 

attack some fruits, eg banana. See Banana F 23. 

Verticillium wilt, black heart (Verticillium dahliae) 

causes wilting and death. Woody tissue in stems is 

discoloured. It is usually an economic problem only 

in young trees 3-6 years old, eg where apricots have 

been planted after, or interplanted with, infected 

tomatoes or potatoes. Do not plant susceptible crops 

in land that previously grew strawberries, potatoes, 

tomatoes. See Stone fruits F 127, Vegetables M 9. 

Others: Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.). 


Rusts (Uredinales, Basidiomycetes) may affect 

many fruit, eg stone fruits, especially prunes, 

trailing berries. Rust pustules may develop on 

leaves, twigs and fruit. See Annuals A 7. 

Wood rots, heart rots (Basidiomycetes) 

Pink limb blight (Corticium salmonicolor) 

Red wood rot (Trametes cinnabarina) 

Silver leaf (Stereum spp.) 

Tinder punks (Phellinus spp.) 

Yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum commune) 

Yellowish wood rot (Polystictus versicolor) 

Many wood rot fungi are weak pathogens which 

only attack fruit trees suffering from stress and are 

only important in older orchards where there may 

be neglect, borer damage, sunburnt trunks and 

branches, broken limbs, poor nutrition and pruning 

techniques, overworking of trees or drought. See 

Trees K 8. 


Many nematodes have been found associated with 

particular fruit and nut trees. Root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne spp.) may cause lack of vigour and low 

yields, roots are covered with small galls about l mm 

across. Roots may branch above the swellings and be 

a tangled mass. Root systems are reduced in size. 

Other nematodes, eg citrus nematode 

(Tylenchulus semipenetrans), foliar nematodes 

(Aphelenchoides spp.), root lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus spp.). See Vegetables M 10. 



Black peach aphid (Brachycaudus persicae) 

Cherry aphid (Myzus cerasi) 

Citrus aphids (Toxoptera spp.) 


Strawberry aphid (Chaetisiphon fragaefolii) 

Woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) 


Borers 

Beetle borers (Coleoptera) 

Fruit-tree pinhole borer (Xyleborus saxeseni) 

Longicorn borers (Cerambycidae) 

Moth borers (Lepidoptera) 

Fruit-tree moth borers (Oecophoridae). 

See Fruit F 10. 

See Trees K 10, K 11, K 12. 


Many bugs suck juice from fruit, which may 

become so pitted and disfigured with exudations 

of gum that they are unmarketable both as fresh 

and canning fruit. Some also damage new growth 

causing wilting and considerable damage. 

Coon bug (Oxycarenus arctatus) 

Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) (see Fruit F 10) 

Green mirid bug (Creontiades dilutus) 

Green stink bug (Plautia affinis) 



FRUIT AND NUTS F 7


Leptocoris bug (Leptocoris mitellata) 


Pale cotton stainer (Dysdercus sidae) 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) 

Many other bugs, eg tea bugs (Helopeltis spp.), are 

serious pests of many fruit and nuts in Asia (Com. of 

Aust., 1996). See Stone fruits F 130, Vegetables M 12. 


Noctuids (Noctuidae): Corn earworm (Helicoverpa 

armigera) is about 35 mm long, pale green, creamy, 

red-brown, sparsely hairy with longitudinal stripes. 

Caterpillars damage young shoots and flowers and 

bore into young fruit, eg strawberry. See Sweetcorn 

M 89. Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) when 

fully-grown is about 40-50 mm long and is green to 

greyish with longitudinal stripes and prominent black 

triangular markings on each side of the body. Young 

caterpillars skeletonise leaf undersurfaces, older 

ones are more solitary and damage flowers and fruit. 

See Vegetables M 13. Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) are 

a serious pest of herbaceous fruit, eg strawberry 

runners. They are greyish-green to brown, about 

45 mm long, hide at the base of the plant or in the soil 

during the day and feed at night and curl up if 

disturbed. Caterpillars sever stems of young heart 

leaves near ground level and may cause heavy losses. 

They also eat holes in leaves and ripening fruits. 

Spraying affected plants and surrounding soil should 

be effective, See Seedlings N 68. Looper 

caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) bend their bodies 

into an arch when moving. They chew irregular 

holes, and are difficult to see as their colour resembles 

that of their food plant. Their presence is usually 

indicated by the dark brown cylindrical pellets of 

excrement on the leaves below them. See 


Leafroller moths (Tortricidae): Ivy leafroller 

(Cryptoptila immersana) is a pest of many fruit and 

other crops. See Ivy K 88. Lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars are pale 

green and wriggle when touched or disturbed, often 

dropping off the leaf or plant on a silken thread. 

They form webbing on leaves, flowers and fruits 

and can be very destructive (Fig. 97). See Pome 

fruits F 112. Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) is 

the major pest of pome fruits (Fig. 97). See Pome 

fruits F 113. Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) 

is a major pest of citrus and other plants. See Citrus 

F 37. Oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta) is a 

major pest of stone fruits. See Stone fruits F 132. 

Others: Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides), 

yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis). 

Caterpillar pests must be monitored. See Annuals 

A 8, Trees K 13, Vegetables M 13.. 


Scientific name: Nitidulidae, Coleoptera: 

Driedfruit beetles (Carpophilus spp.) 

Host range: Most fruits, eg apple, apricot, fig, 

nectarine, peach, trailing berries, and vegetables, 

especially while they are drying. 

Description and damage: Beetles are small, 

dark brown elongated, flattened and about 3 mm 

long with short paler wing covers that do not reach 

the tip of the abdomen (Fig. 100). They run or fly 

readily when disturbed. Larvae are yellowish, 

slender and up to 6 mm long, light brown head and 

forked tail. They have 3 pairs of short legs and 

move quickly when disturbed. Fruit loss is caused 

primarily by beetles burrowing and feeding within 

ripening fruit. At the same time they spread fruit 

rot fungi, eg brown rot of stone fruit, causing up to 

25% crop loss. Beetles rarely penetrate the 

exposed surface of fruit. 


larva, pupa, adult) with many overlapping 

generations each season. All stages can be found 

at most times of the year. Beetles migrate long 

distances to rotting fruit or vegetables and lay 

white eggs in rotting fruit which is either still 

hanging on the tree or on the ground. Less 

commonly they are laid in skin breaks, caused by 

the attacks of other insects, in hanging fruit. 

Overwintering: All stages can be found at most 

times of the year. Beetles may overwinter as 

adults in cracks, crevices, under bark; as adults and 

larvae in rotting fruits, eg citrus on the ground or 

still on trees, or as larvae, pupae or adults in soil. 

Spread: Beetles are strong fliers. Movement of 

infested fruit. 

Conditions favouring: Warm wet seasons with 

an abundance of fermenting fruit. Optimum 

temperatures range from 16-22 C. Fermenting tree 

fruits, and dried fruits. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Destroy waste fruit. Beetles in fallen 

fruit can be destroyed by burning or boiling it, or 

by putting it in an insect-proof pit. 

Biological control: Little is known about the 

natural enemies of dried fruit beetles. 

Pesticides: An efficient program to control fruit 

fly and various caterpillars greatly reduces the 

volume of damaged and fermented fruit 

available to the beetles. Insecticide may be 

sprayed over the trees at intervals of a few days 

while fruit is attractive to the beetles. 

Ferment flies, vinegar flies (Drosophilidae, 

Diptera) infest ripe fruit, eg grapes, tomatoes. Flies 

are brown and grey with reddish eyes, and are 

about 3 mm long. They lay eggs in fruit damaged 

by birds or rain split. Small white maggots up to 

4 mm long develop causing fermentation and 

breakdown. They pupate in the drier areas of the 

food. Do not confuse with fruit flies. Complete 

metamorphosis (egg, maggot, pupa, adult). 

Overwinters as flies in sheltered places or as 

pupae. Spread by adults flying. Flies are 

attracted in great numbers to acetic acid produced 

by large quantities of rotting fruit or liquid. 

Ferments flies are difficult to control when 

conditions favour them. They breed quickly and it 

is important to remove/destroy possible breeding 

sites, eg decaying, nearby overripe fruit and 

tomatoes, which may be sprayed frequently. 

Temporary relief may be obtained by applying 

non-residual insecticides to control adult flies. 

Waste fruit can quickly produce enormous swarms 

of flies which invade packing sheds and canneries 

becoming a nuisance. The quantity of waste must 

be kept to a minimum in the field and in the 

cannery to reduce breeding. Damaged and infested 

fruit should be dumped in one place and sprayed as 

prescribed. 

F 8 

FRUIT AND NUTS



Fruit flies are the world's worst fruit pest. 

Scientific name: Tephritidae, Diptera: 

More than 80 species are found in Australia, the 

most economically damaging species include: 

Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni) (native) 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) (exotic) 

Other fruit flies include: 

Banana fruit fly (B. musae) 

Cucumber fly (B. cucumis) 

False oriental fruit fly (B. opiliae) 

Halfordia fruit fly (B. halfordia) 

Island fruit fly (Dirioxa pornia) 

Jarvis's fruit fly (B. jarvisi) 

Lesser Queensland fruit fly (B. neohumeralis) 

Newman fly (B. newmani) 

Northern Territory fruit fly (B. aquilonis) 

Mango fly (B. frauenfeldi) 

Papaya fruit fly (B. papayae) 

Solanum fruit fly (B. cacuminatus) 

Many other fruit flies occur overseas, eg Oriental 

fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis) and melon fly (Dacus 

cucurbitae), which are probably the greatest risk as 

they occur in the countries to the north of Australia 

(Drew and Hancock 1994). Exotic fruit flies are 

monitored in northern Australia. 

Host range: Introduced and native fruit. 

Description and damage: Queensland fruit 

fly (QFF) is red-brown and about 7 mm long. 

Mediterranean fruit fly (MFF) is smaller, usually 

yellow and wings have noticeable brown bands. 

Flies lay eggs in fruit (Fig. 101). The papaya fruit 

fly which is a recent arrival in Australia is 

important because it lays eggs in green fruit (at a 

much earlier stage of fruit development than other 

fruit flies). Maggots of QFF and MFF are cream 

and up to 8-10 mm long. When mature they jump 

from the fruit to reach the soil and burrow down 

into the soil to pupate. Pupae are brown and up to 

10 mm long. Egg laying 'stings' on fruit appear as 

small black marks on the skin. Maggots do not 

always develop; a corky layer may form round the 

egg batch preventing them from hatching. 

Maggots burrow in the flesh of the fruit, 

secondary rot organisms invade the tunnels and 

surrounding tissue; tissue breaks down. 


maggot, pupa, adult) with several general 

generations each year (Fig. 101). Females lay eggs 

just beneath the skin of fruit. Maggots feed on 

flesh, destroying it then pupate in soil. 

Overwintering: As adults in sheltered places, 

they become active in spring. Pupae die in cold 

winters. 

Spread: By adults flying, wind, also by movement 

of infested fruit, fruit cases. Climate changes. 


Unharvested ripening fruit, seedling summer fruits, 

tomatoes close by. They may breed in large 

numbers in wild fruits in banana-growing areas. 

Control: Control fruit fly on nearby hosts, eg 

citrus, guavas, loquats, peaches, tropical fruits. 

Legislation regulates sanitation, quarantine and 

pesticide procedures for controlling fruit flies. 

Cultural methods: Prune trees to manageable size 

so they can be safely and effectively sprayed, eg 

espaliered, or use dwarfing rootstock. 

Sanitation: Remove unwanted fruit trees from 

boundaries, etc and late hanging fruit missed 

during harvest. Infested fruit should not be 

buried as flies can emerge from fruit buried to a 

depth of 1 m. Home gardeners can collect 

unwanted or infested fruit and destroy maggots 

and flies by placing in a sealed plastic bag and 

leaving in sun for a few days before disposal. 

Biological control is difficult. Parasites of the 

QFF include wasps (Opius spp.). Sterile male 

fruit flies have been released in some areas, eg 

in WA in eradication programs. 

Resistant varieties: Late ripening fruits are very 

susceptible. Early ripening fruits can act as a 

source of infestation for later ripening fruits. 

Plant quarantine: Receiving states/territories or 

countries have legislation regulating the import 

of produce which may be infested with fruit 

flies. 

Pesticides: Foliage baiting using an attractant 

(protein hydrolysate), carrier (water) and an 

insecticide at regular intervals is commenced the 

recommended number of weeks prior to anticipated 

harvest. Foliage sprays may be applied at 

recommended intervals prior to anticipated harvest, 

on some fruit. They do not necessarily protect fruit 

against stinging. Fruit treatment postharvest 

(dipping, flood or spray which may be combined 

with washing of fruit or fungicidal dipping) may be 

required Other postharvest treatments, eg cold 

storage, fumigation and ionising energy may also 

be required. Monitor fruit flies and stung fruit, 

before making a decision to bait or spray. Male 

lure traps (Dakpot ) can help indicate increases 

in fly activity providing there are no other breeding 

sources of flies within 500 m. Count traps weekly 

and spray/bait when an average of 14 or more flies 

per trap occur per week (Brough et al. 1994). 


Fruitsucking moths 

Scientific name: Noctuidae, Lepidoptera: 

Fruitpiercing moth (Othreis fullonia) 

Fruitpiercing moth (O. materna) 

and Eudocima salaminia 

Host range: Moths feed on ripening fruit, eg 

citrus, lychee, mango, caterpillars develop on 

vegetation in areas of rainforest or along the banks 

of creeks (Common 1990). 

Description and damage: Moths are large, 

stout, wingspan is about 100 mm, forewings are dull, 

but hindwings are brightly coloured. Moths enter 

orchards at night and drill a neat hole in the skin of 

ripening fruit with their proboscises and suck the 

juice, sometimes causing considerable fruit loss (Fig. 

102). The feeding hole is obvious but may be 

mistaken for damage by other insects, eg fruit fly 

stings. Secondary organisms, insects and mites 

may then invade fruit. After a few days rot develops 

at the puncture site and fermenting fruits may be 

visited by secondary moth feeders. Internal injury in 

mango resembles a honeycomb. Moths may cause 

major and frequent damage to lychee in Qld. Fruit 

damaged the night before harvest may escape 

detection but may spoil a whole pack as fermentation 

proceeds and juice leaks onto other fruit. The holes 

are neat and the flesh beneath is opaque compared to 

undamaged taut, opaque translucent flesh. If mothdamaged 

fruit is squeezed, juice will squirt out. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 9


Spread: By moths flying. 

Conditions favouring: Moonless nights favour 

moth activity, moths attack fruit during the week 

or so before harvest, late maturing varieties. 

Control: No satisfactory control measures as 

damage is so close to harvest. 

Cultural methods: Harvest fruit as soon as sugar 

levels reach market standards. 

Biological control: Various parasites exert some 

control on caterpillars in their natural habitat. 

Moths may be attracted to fermenting fruit lures 

and killed manually next morning. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Protective 

nets exclude moths from fruit. Nightly spotting 

with torches (red eyes of moths reflect light, 

aiding detection) when fruit is nearly mature and 

swatting with tennis racquets kills moths. 


Scientific name: Coreidae, Hemiptera: 

Banana-spotting bug (Amblypelta lutescens lutescens) 

Fruitspotting bug (A. nitida) 

Fruitspotting bug (Dasynus fuscescens) 

Host range: Banana-spotting bug damages 

native hosts, eg white cedar, rough-leafed fig, 

umbrella tree, coffee apple, corky passionvine, 

fruit, eg avocado, banana, citrus, custard apple, 

guava, lychee, macadamia, passionfruit, pawpaw, 

pecan. Fruitspotting bug (A. nitida) also damages 

macadamia, pecan, lychee mainly in the south-east 

of the State. Bugs also breed on bauhinia, 

frangipanni and hibiscus so avoid planting these. 

Description and damage: Adult bugs are 

slender, yellow-green and about l5 mm long. If 

disturbed they fly away or hide on the plant. They 

are difficult to find on a tree (Fig. 103). Bananaspotting 

bugs are usually slightly lighter green. 

Nymphs of fruitspotting bugs are ant-like (Fig. 

103), red-brown with prominent antennae and 

have paired button-like scent glands on the upper 

side of the abdomen, later stages are greener with 

wing buds. Nymphs of the banana-spotting bug 

are stouter, pink above, have pale antennae and 

more prominent, button-like scent gland openings. 

Nymphs are paler red than the fruitspotting bug 

nymphs. The 2nd last joint of the antennae of 

nymphs is black and flattened. Adults and nymphs 

suck juice from preferably young fruit, causing 

sunken spots with internal damage (Fig. 103), fruit 

are unmarketable. Fruits damaged early often fall, 

injured fruit on trees are unmarketable. Injuries a 

few weeks old appear as dark, often watersoaked 

spots, sometimes accompanied by gumming, 

which dries to form white powdery masses causing 

severe callused blemish in the skin. The more 

shallow injury can be difficult to distinguish from 

that caused by Queensland fruit fly. On some 

hosts, eg papaws, bugs may also suck sap from 

growing points and leaf stalks. 


5 nymphal stages, adult) with 3-4 overlapping 

generations (during spring, summer, autumn). 

Females lay more than 150 pale green oval eggs 

about 2 mm long singly on fruit or foliage. 

Overwintering: As adults. 

Spread: By winged bugs flying. 

Conditions favouring: In Qld during summer 

especially in coastal orchards, especially those 

close to rainforest or scrub where insects breed. 

Control: Control bugs when they occur. Remove 

affected fruit when observed during monitoring so 

that new damage will be seen at each sampling. 

Apart from orchard sanitation little can be done to 

alleviate the situation. 

Cultural methods: Avoid growing susceptible 

fruits close to rainforest. 

Biological control: No effective parasites or 

predators, spiders or assassin bugs have been 

observed. Numbers collected have been 

insufficient to have any effect on total bug 

populations. Up to 84% eggs may be 

parasitised by a wasp egg parasite (Anastatus). 


Pesticides: When damage is first observed, 

insecticides may be applied, repeat applications 

may be necessary. If possible, treat heavily 

infested areas within the orchard rather than 

spraying the entire orchard. Monitor bug 

damage on susceptible fruit at regular intervals 

before making a decision to spot spray with an 

insecticide, usually during January and February 

(Brough et al. 1994). 

Fruit-tree borers 

Scientific name: Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera: 

Fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma) 

Small fruit-tree borer (Cryptophasa albacosta) 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg especially wattle, 

banksia, Prunus, elm, grevillea, hakea, NSW 

Christmas bush (Ceratopetalum gummiferum), 

plane, willow, Pistacia, crepe myrtle, jacaranda, 

Cassinia, eucalypt Helichrysum (shrubby spp.), 

Leptospermum, melaleuca, Prostanthera. Fruit, eg 

stone fruit especially cherries, peaches, nectarines, 

plum, prune. 

Description and damage: Although this is 

probably the most frequently noticed borer, many 

other borers cause more serious damage. Moths 

are satiny white about 50 mm across with darker 

hind wings. Caterpillars are fleshy, grey/red, 

sparsely hairy and up to 50 mm long. During the 

day they hide in tunnel entrances, coming out to 

feed on surrounding bark at night. Trunk: 

Tunnels are vertical (only 80-100 mm deep) and are 

usually made in the forks of trees or between main 

branches (see Trees K 2, Fig. 205). Caterpillars 

feed on callus tissue which grows around tunnel 

entrances. Damaged areas and tunnel entrances 

are neatly covered with chewed wood, bark, 

webbing and droppings which protect caterpillars 

from predators, eg ants. Some trees, eg cherries, 

ooze gum from damaged areas. Attack weakens 

branches and may ringbark and kill small branches 

or small trees and allows entry of wood rot fungi. 


caterpillar, adult) with 1 generation each year. 

Eggs are laid on bark in summer and caterpillars 

burrow into wood. When fully grown they pupate 

inside their tunnels which have been sealed with a 

silken pad. Moths emerge the following summer. 

Overwintering: Probably as caterpillars or 

pupae in tunnels in trunks and branches. 

F 10 

FRUIT AND NUTS


Spread: By moths flying. 

Control: As caterpillars do not tunnel far into the 

wood, this borer is the easiest to control 

(other borers are not usually noticed until they 

have done considerable damage and larvae may 

have penetrated deep into the wood). 

Cultural methods: Fertilise and irrigate trees. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy black wattle 

thickets within 50 m of commercial plantings to 

prevent the build up of moth populations. Pull 

away webbing and expose caterpillars, they can 

then be squashed. If small twiggy growth on 

shrubs or trees has been attacked, prune off. 


Control when infestation is first noticed. Inspect 

deciduous trees during dormancy in winter when 

damage is easily observed. Cut back severely 

infested branches well below infested sections 

and paint the cut surface with a fungicide paint if 

recommended. Remove webbing and sawdustlike 

material and either poke a thin wire down 

the short tunnels to kill caterpillars or paint the 

area with an insecticide, or inject/squirt kerosene 

or insecticide into tunnels. It may be necessary 

to spray trunks, branches and leaves. Smooth 

damaged wood, then plug tunnels with putty or 

similar material. Monitor effectiveness of 

treatment. See Trees K 12. 

Fruit-tree root weevil 

Apple root borer 

Scientific name: Curculionidae, Coleoptera: 

Fruit-tree root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) native 

L. tribulus also attacks roots of wattles. 

Host range: Adults and larvae feed on the same 

species. Ornamentals, eg wattles, eucalypts and 

swamp gum (Eucalyptus amplifolia) are probably 

its natural food. Fruit, eg deciduous fruit trees, 

apple, citrus, weeds, eg dock (Rumex spp.). 

Description and damage: Female weevils are 

dull grey, slow moving and about 20 mm long with 

a typical weevil snout (Fig. 104). Males are 

smaller. Larvae are fat, creamy, legless and up to 

25 mm long. Adults feed on young leaves causing 

insignificant damage, and larvae tunnel in deep 

roots (about 1 m below the surface) causing the 

main damage. Deep furrows are eaten out of the 

thicker roots, heavy infestation will kill roots. The 

pest can destroy an orchard if conditions are 

suitable and no control measures are employed. 

Trees become thin and sickly and show general 

dieback and excessive leaf-drop. 

Pest cycle: Complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, 

pupa, adult) with 1 generation per year. Eggs are 

laid at night in summer in groups of 40-50 covered 

by a silky film between two leaf surfaces glued 

together. Young larvae drop to the ground, bore 

down to roots and begin to feed in late winter. 

Larvae pupate in earthen cells close to roots. In 

spring, adults dig their way out and climb the trees. 

Overwintering: As larvae in or on roots. 

Spread: Weevils cannot fly, but they can crawl 

long distances to host plants. Also by flood water. 

Conditions favouring: Temperate coastal 

regions, river flats subject to periodic flooding, 

which encourages deep-rooting, also heavy soils, 

newly-cleared land. Seldom found on sandy soils. 

Control: Monitor situations favourable to this 

pest, and begin control before damage causes 

permanent injury. 

Cultural methods: Good soil preparation before 

planting can prevent the risk of beetles and 

larvae being present in newly-cleared land. 

Biological control: Natural enemies have not 

been recorded in NSW. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Trees in 

poor health and adjacent to healthy trees should 

be banded, as high on the trunk as possible, 

with sticky material or fly screen wire traps. 

Sticky bands should be 'freshened' up regularly 

to prevent weevils from crossing them. Inspect 

all bands weekly in spring and summer, collect 

and destroy weevils. Sustained trapping will 

reduce the weevil population and lead to the 

ultimate recovery of trees. Trim limbs to 

prevent them touching the ground and control 

weeds to force weevils to climb the trunk to 

reach the tree. Examine deeper roots of some 

affected trees for furrowing, larvae and pupae. 

Pesticides: Applying insecticides to the trunk, 

lower foliage and soil under trees in spring, to 

kill the adults and young larvae falling from the 

leaves, has been successful. 

Grasshopper, katydids, locusts 

(Orthoptera) 

Grasshoppers and locusts (Acrididae): Giant 

grasshopper (Valanga irregularis) is one of the 

largest grasshoppers, feeds on leaves of trees and 

shrubs and may damage fruit and nut trees. Wingless 

grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum) chew holes 

in ripening fruit of strawberry, pome fruit and stone 

fruit in the tableland areas. Also Australian plague 

locust (Chortoicetes terminifera), migratory locust 

(Locusta migratoria), spur-throated locust 

(Nomadacris guttulosa). See Vegetables M 13. 

Katydids (Tettigoniidae): Citrus katydid (Caedicia 

strenua), inland katydid (C. simplex) may be pests 

of citrus. See Citrus F 38. 



(Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) 


feeds on avocado, citrus, lychee, macadamia. 

Beetles are 6-7 mm long, creamy-yellow, strong 

fliers, with a red spot on each wing cover. In spring 

and summer swarms commonly attack blossoms, 

buds and young foliage and later graze on soft 

skins of fruits. Some trees look scorched, while 

others nearby may be hardly damaged. Monitor for 

swarms, and if detected quickly, lightly spray buds, 

blossoms and young growth (Brough et al. 1994). 

Plant susceptible windbreak trees, eg Eucalyptus 

torelliana, to aid detection. See Trees K 15. 

Swarming leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.) are about 

3-5 mm long, shiny, brown or black and may appear 

in swarms in summer and autumn. Beetles skeletonise 

new leaves and blemish fruits. They prefer new 

leaves and young shoots and may totally defoliate 

young plants and tops of shrubs and trees. The effect 

on growth of young fruit trees and ornamentals and 

justifies spraying swarms. Older plants usually 

recover from attacks. See Trees K 15. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 11



may attack apples, citrus and other fruit crops. See 



Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Bryobia mite, 

brown almond mite (Bryobia rubrioculus) infests 

deciduous fruit and ornamental trees eg 

hawthorn. Adults are nearly 1 mm long and are 

purplish brown to greenish grey with 4 pairs of legs, 

the front pair is very long (Fig. 105). There is no 

webbing. Nymphs look like adults but are smaller, 

are bright red and feed on new leaves which become 

pale and may fall. Tree vigour, fruit size and number 

are reduced. Mites gather on twigs during the day and 

spread out at night to feed on leaves. Several 

generations occur each season. Overwinters as eggs 

(minute, globular, red) on bark or branches and twigs 

which may take on a red tinge. Spread by mites 

crawling, introduced to orchards on nursery stock. 

Wet cold weather and frequent rain destroy large 

numbers. Nitrogenous fertilisers are thought to be 

unfavourable. Predators include ladybirds (Harmonia, 

Stethorus), and lacewing larvae. Oil sprays may be 

applied during dormancy. European red mite 

(Panonychus ulmi) may injure deciduous fruit and 

shade trees including pome and stone fruits, elm, 

grapevine, hawthorn, raspberry, rose, strawberry. 

Females are brown-red, oval and about 0.3-0.5 mm 

long with 4 rows of long stiff curved spines on the 

back, males are smaller and paler (Fig. 105). Mites 

suck sap and lay eggs on leaf undersurfaces, 

causing speckling of leaves, no webbing is 

produced. Leaves may become pale, bronzed, and 

may fall. Fruit buds may not form, fruit may be 

small and of poor quality. There are many overlapping 

generations each year, each cycle is about 1-2 weeks. 

Eggs hatch in spring and nymphs move to new leaves 

to feed. Overwinters as masses of red eggs on a 

distinct stalk at the apex of twigs and small branches 

or as orange inactive fertilised females in debris at the 

base of plants. Spread like twospotted mite (see 

below). Favoured by hot dry weather and severe 

water stress. A strain of predatory mite 

(Typhlodromus pyri) which is resistant to many 

pesticides has been introduced to Australia (Swaine et 

al. 1991). Dormant sprays of winter oil may be 

applied as close to green tip growth stage as possible 

(Fig. 110). Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae), 

bean spider mite (T. Iudeni) and banana spider mite 

(T. Iambi) may infest fruit crops. Adult female 

twospotted mites are about 0.5 mm long and can 

easily be seen with a hand lens. They are pale greengrey 

to yellowish, with distinctive markings on 

either side of the body (Fig. 105). Nymphs and 

adults suck sap mostly from leaf undersurfaces but 

in heavy infestations also suck from upper surfaces 

causing leaf mottling or speckling. Mites, eggs and 

webbing are found on undersurfaces. Leaves may 

fall. On some hosts, eg apple, leaves may be bronzed 

with uprolled leaf margins. Growth and cropping of 

plants may be retarded. Severely infested plants may 

be killed. Fruit may be attacked, and sunburned due 

to defoliation. Fruit with an excessive number of 

mites may be refused entry to certain countries. 

Trunks and branches may become sunburnt due 

to defoliation. Damage is more severe if trees suffer 

from moisture and other stresses. Twospotted mite is 

hard to control chemically because it readily 

develops resistance to pesticides. See Beans (French) 

M 29. 

Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae), eg grapeleaf blister 

mite (Colomerus vitis), tend to be host specific. See 

Grape F 62. 

Others: A flat false spider mite (Brevipalpus, 

Tenuipalpidae) may affect strawberry. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis): In some 

seasons huge numbers of tiny brown insects swarm 

on flowers of many kinds of plants including fruit, 

eg apple, raspberry, strawberry (Fig. 106). Petals 

brown and wither. Adults and yellow nymphs feed on 

stamens, pistil and ovaries, partly or wholly 

preventing seed setting. Fruit may be misshapen 

with few seeds and unmarketable as fresh fruit. Control 

is difficult. Monitor thrips prior to applying 

insecticides. Spraying may be started when numbers 

of thrips are first seen on flowers and when fruit set is 

just beginning. If spraying then do so in the evening 

when bees are not present. See Roses J 6. 

Scales (Hemiptera) may reduce fruit size and 

give fruit a pock marked appearance, making 

them unfit for either picking or oil production. 

Soft scales secrete honeydew which attracts ants 

and encourages a dense growth of sooty mould 

which excludes light, reduces vigour, causes leaf 

yellowing and fall and retards fruit growth. Fruit 

is unsightly. Scales may gather on stems and 

leaves. 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae) 

Oleander scale (Aspidiotus nerii) 

Orchid parlatoria scale (Parlatoria proteus) 

Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) 

Ross's black scale (Lindingaspis rossi) 

San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) 

Soft scales (Coccidae) 

Black scale (Saissetia oleae) 

Frosted scale (Eulecanium pruinosum) (Fig. 107) 

Nigra scale (Parasaissetia nigra) 

Soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum) 

Overwinters on infested hosts, cuttings and 

nursery stock. Monitor scale, and parasite and 

predator populations. Small infestations may be 

removed by hand. The presence of some scales 

may make fruit subject to overseas quarantine 

regulations. Deciduous plants may be sprayed 

with insecticide, eg winter oil, during dormancy. 

Evergreen plants when they are not flowering and 

when crawlers are present. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 

Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera) 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) is about 

12 mm long, shiny black and oval. In spring, on land 

recently under paspalum, beetles bore into ripening 

strawberry fruit on the ground from underneath. 

Young strawberry plants and banana suckers may 

have stem bases and crowns chewed ragged, 

causing them to wilt or die. See Turfgrasses L 7 . 

Scarab beetle larvae, eg Christmas beetles 

(Anoplognathus spp.), Rhopaea spp., are white, 

C-shaped, plump, with hard, brown heads and strong 

jaws, and up to 50 mm long. They eat off roots of 

peanut, pineapple, strawberry and other plants, up to 

the crown, especially if planted out in recently 

ploughed grassland. Plants stop growing and in dry 

weather soon wilt and die. Affected plants can easily 

be pulled from the ground. Roots of nursery stock 

planted into old pastures may also be attacked. 

F 12 

FRUIT AND NUTS


Established infestations are difficult to control. 

Careful land preparation is essential. Scatter 

baits lightly through crops, do not contaminate 

fruiting plants. If beetles are moving in from 

nearby pasture, a deep steepsided furrow can be 

ploughed around the crop area and the bait 

scattered in this. Young plants may be protected 

by jetting soil around them. See Turfgrasses L 11. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) attack 

low lying plants, eg English gooseberry, 

strawberries. Foliage may be chewed by the adults 

and roots and crown eaten by the larvae. 

Black vine weevil, European strawberry weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus) chew roots and foliage. 

See Grapevine F 63. 

Fruit-tree root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) damage 

roots and foliage. See Fruit F 11. 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) may 

chew leaves of pome fruits, strawberry and other 

fruit crops along the edges to give a saw-toothed 

appearance. Infestations are usually severe in 

weedy orchards. The use of clover and grass cover in 

the interrow space ensures that alternative hosts are 

readily available. See Roses J 6. 

Spotted vegetable weevil (Desiantha diversipes) 

may feed on strawberry stems, leaves and runners in 

spring and autumn. See Vegetables M 17. 

Strawberry weevil (Rhinaria perdix) may chew 

foliage, larvae feed on roots, crowns and stalks. 

See Strawberry F 142. 

Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma) 

larvae gouge strawberry roots. Adult weevils may 

attack strawberry foliage. See Vegetables M 17. 

See Vegetables M 17, Trees K 17. 

Others: Driedfruit mite (Carpoglyphus lactis, 

Carpoglyphidae, Acarina) is a pest of drying fruit. 

Also whiteflies (Aleyrodidae). 


Snails and slugs may damage leaves, fruit, stems 

and seedlings. Sometimes only tiny holes are 

made in the fruit but they favour mould 

development. Slugs graze the ripest part of the 

berry, so one slug may damage several berries on 

one plant. Young snails graze on the surface of 

fruits, older snails may eat into ripening fruits, 

gouging out circular holes. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds, especially blackbirds, finches, silver eyes, 

sparrows, starlings may damage fruit (Fig. 108). All 

native birds, eg parrots, honeyeaters, are protected 

by legislation and permits to destroy them must be 

obtained from the appropriate government 

department. Birds must be controlled before fruit 

becomes attractive to them. Many growers use a 

combination of methods to ensure satisfactory 

results. Deterrent devices, eg rotating flashing 

acrylic mirrors, flags, hawk replica, humming lines 

and scarecrows usually have to be used with acoustic 

devices. Electronic devices probably produce the 

best results. 'Eagle' is a remote controlled aerial bird 

scarer. Netting which drapes over crops is available 

but is expensive. Bat netting is used for fruit bats 

and larger birds, and bird netting for all birds and 

some insects. Hail netting is used for hailstones, it 

enables better use of chemicals, reduces drift, breaks 

up rain into fine mist, reduces evapo transpiration, 

wind and sunburn damage, increases temperature and 

prevents frost damage. 'Vine-net' was originally for 

vines but is now also used for protecting tropical 

fruit, eg lychees, persimmon, from insects, eg fruitpiercing 

moths, and birds. Whole crops may be 

covered with mesh, which also reduces hail damage. 

Individual fruit bunches, eg bananas, may be 

bagged. Acoustic devices are the most widely 

used eg rotating gas guns, which produce loud 

explosions at variable intervals. Repellent sprays 

are no longer registered for use on fruit crops. 

Maximum residue levels have been reviewed. 

Alternative food sources and water may prevent 

damage. Identify the problem birds and plant a 

diversionary crop. About one third of the birds that 

attack grapes are thirsty so the provision of drinking 

water saves more fruit. A canopy of foliage 

prevents birds getting in as they do not like going into 

dense vines because they fear ambush. Prune to 

provide leaf cover and concealment. 

Fruit bats, flying foxes (Dobsonia spp., Pteropus 

spp.) live in colonies in trees during the day. At night 

they leave to feed on mostly native fruits but will also 

feed on soft cultivated fruit (Fig. 108). They are 

native animals and control is difficult. Research has 

indicated fruit bats may carry viruses, eg the equine 

(horse) morbillivirus and a new strain of the 

lyssavirus (bat lyssavirus), which may infect humans. 

Others: Possums may feed on buds, fruits and 

nuts. Goannas may feed on strawberries. Rabbits, 

hares, kangaroos and wallabies graze on newly 

planted nursery stock. Rats eat macadamia nuts. 

Non-parasitic 

Ants (Formicidae), eg coastal brown ant (Pheidole 

megacephala) and meat ants (Iridomyrmex spp.), 

are major and sporadic pests. They protect sucking 

insect pests which produce honeydew, eg aphids, soft 

scales, by disrupting their important natural enemies. 

Treat when there are noticeable numbers of ants 

observed on trees, especially in association with a 

developing pest population of sucking insects. 

Insecticide sprays or baits may be applied to the base 

of the trunk Sticky material at the trunk base may 

trap ants. Each season after harvest prune the tree 

skirt to at least 1 m clear of the ground. Keep 

weeds down and vines and branches off the ground. 

Biennial fruit bearing: Some fruits, eg some 

varieties of apricots, apples, pears, have a tendency to 

bear a heavy crop one year and a light crop the next. 

Biennial bearing causes variations in total crop and 

fruit size. It can be reduced to some extent, by 

judicious thinning of fruit and pruning. Thin heavy 

crops to increase fruit size and discourage biennial 

bearing. The earlier the thinning the greater will be 

the control of biennial bearing. Later thinning in 

December to January helps to improve fruit size but 

does not overcome biennial fruit bearing. All trees in 

an orchard are not usually on the same cycle, though 

if they are from the same clone they may be. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 13


Environment: Blossoms are less frost tender 

than young fruit, the most susceptible part of which 

is the seed. Once the seed is killed, growth of that 

fruit stops and it usually falls a few days later. Frost 

injury may be minimised by having smooth, weedfree 

and moist soil in the orchard. The soil acts as a 

heat reservoir and moist soil can store more heat than 

a dry one. At night the heat is slowly released 

(Baxter 1990). Sprinkling trees with a fine spray of 

water during a frost releases the latent heat of water 

which is released when water freezes. As the water 

freezes into ice it protects the delicate blossoms. 

Special materials may be sprayed onto plants to 

protect them from frost injury. Various heating 

devices may also be used in orchards. Crops may be 

covered with shade clothe to protect fruit from frost 

injury, hail damage, sunburn, wind and birds. Do not 

confuse hail injury to young shoots with cankers 

caused by shot-hole, brown rot or other agents, eg egg 

laying of some insects. Do not confuse hail injury to 

fruit with that caused by oriental fruit moth. Fruit, 

leaves, limbs and trunks may be sunscorched. 

Appropriate irrigation and drainage are essential for 

the production of most fruit crops. Many fruit consist 

of 85% water. 

Nuisances to pickers: Paper nest wasps 

(Polites spp.) nest in trees and can sting fruit pickers 

when disturbed. Spray nests at night with a 

pyrethrum aerosol and remove the nests when wasps 

are dead. Alternatively, nests may be flamed at night 

to disable the adults and allow nests to be removed. 

Twospotted mites (Tetranychus urticae) may 

irritate pickers. Webbing spider (Ixeuticus 

longinquus) is small and gregarious and in inland 

areas it webs foliage of citrus trees together. This 

webbing interferes with normal development of 

foliage and fruit and protects black scale and 

mealybugs. Spiders in webs may annoy pickers, 

spiders may be sprayed, webs can be broken 

mechanically to allow better penetration of spray. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: With the 

range of fertilisers available, and rapid analytical tests 

(plant tissue analysis and soil and water 

analyses), deficiencies, toxicities and nutrient 

imbalances should not occur in commercial orchards. 

Fertilisers or animal manures are essential to maintain 

tree vigour and soil fertility in most orchards but they 

can only help if trees are adequately watered, kept 

free from weeds during summer and are free of 

diseases and pests. Fertiliser requirements vary 

from crop to crop and during different stages of the 

crop, ie establishment, non-bearing and bearing and 

age. Before planting, soil analysis is the only 

reliable means of forecasting crop nutrient needs. 

Providing the soil test is calibrated to both the crop 

and the soil type, a soil test predicts the ability of the 

soil to supply nutrients. After planting, diagnosis 

may be from visual symptoms (see Citrus F 43), 

which often requires skill and experience, or plant 

tissue analysis (usually leaves), which gives the 

current nutrient status of the crop. Leaf analysis must 

also be calibrated for fruit trees. (Weir and 

Cresswell 1993, 1995). 

Pesticide injury: Many fungicides, insecticides 

and herbicides may injure some fruit crops. Follow 

label instructions carefully. Injury may be acute, eg 

leaf browning or leaf fall, or take longer to show 

its effects, eg reduced fruiting the following season. 

WEEDS 

Most fruit crops are more productive when they do 

not have to compete with grass and weeds. Weed 

control is important and in some areas legislation 

requires that some weeds must be controlled, eg to 

assist control of banana weevil borer, weeds within 

2 m of a banana plant must be controlled. Weed 

control varies with the age of the planting. 

Types of herbicides: Post-emergence herbicides 

may be contact or systemic for annual weeds, and 

systemic for perennial grass and broadleaved weeds, 

there are selective grass herbicides. Prevent spray 

drifting on to lower hanging leaves or green trunks of 

young trees, as it may kill them. Post-emergents 

may be used around some established trees. On 

 

some species, eg grapevine, fit a Sisalation collar 

around the stem to avoid risk of damaging bark, it 

should be kept in place for 3-4 seasons. Preemergence 

herbicides will give up to 4 months 

control of weed seeds. Some herbicides are only 

registered for non-bearing fruit crops. 

Pre-plant: Control perennial weeds before planting 

out by physical removal or application of postemergence 

sprays, eg glyphosate. 

Row weed control: During the 1st year, weed 

control either by mulching, cultivation, herbicide or 

by a combination of these, is important. Later, areas 

under tree canopies should be kept weed-free either 

by using ground cover, mulch or herbicides. 

Mulches of sawdust, bark and weed mat, assist 

control of annual weeds and protect fine shallow roots 

of some fruit crops, eg blueberry and strawberry. 

Mulch must be kept well clear of trunks. Any annual 

or perennial weeds that do grow through the mulch 

can be spot sprayed or removed by hand. Coarse 

mulches can interfere with mechanical harvesting of 

macadamia, at harvesting time it is recommended that 

there be a minimum of coarse material on the soil 

surface. Groundcovers under trees compete with 

trees for moisture. They need to be shade tolerant, 

non-climbing, persistent and possibly tolerant to 

recommended rates of herbicides used. If nuts are 

collected from the ground under trees, growth should 

be mown and raked away from under and around the 

trees before nuts start to fall. Pre-emergence 

herbicides are usually used from the 2nd season 

onwards, however, some are registered for use after 

planting. Herbicides may be applied to a strip or band 

along the tree rows, the width of strips may be 

increased as trees age, eg from approximately 1 m on 

each side initially to a maximum of 2 m when trees 

are in production. 

Inter-row weed control: Distance between rows will 

depend on the size of harvesting and other machinery. 

Areas between rows can be sown to grass, annual 

pasture and mown to protect soil from erosion, to 

control weed growth and to prevent moisture loss. 

Cultivation or herbicides can also be used to 

control weeds. Take care not to cultivate too deeply 

as some fruit, eg blueberries, have shallow roots 

(60-80 mm). Weeds in pathways can be controlled 

by mulches, eg sawdust, straw or wood shavings. 

Herbicide injury: Some pre-emergence 

herbicides may injure foliage of some fruit crops, eg 

persimmon. Some crops, eg grapevines, are very 

sensitive to hormone herbicides, eg 2,4-D. Care 

must always taken to avoid drift of all herbicides 

on to foliage of all fruit trees. 

See Annuals A 9, Trees K 21. 

F 14 

FRUIT AND NUTS



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FRUIT AND NUTS F 15



Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts/Agnotes 

Armillaria Root Rot of Fruit Trees 

Bordeaux Mixture 

Fruit & Vegetable Prices & Receivals (avail. from Johima 

Books, Paramatta, NSW. 

Handling Fruit & Vegetables in Retail Stores 

Home Fruit Growing (book) 

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NSW 

Postharvest Disease Control in Stone Fruits 

Queensland Fruit Fly 

Rat Control in Macadamia Orchards 

Rutherglen Bug 

Storage Conditions for Fruit and Vegetables 

Testing Fruit & Vegetables for Pesticide 

Transporting Fresh Produce in Refrigerated Trucks 

Virus Diseases of Deciduous Fruit Trees 

Wood Rots of Fruit Trees & Other Plants 

NT Agnotes 

Control of Fruit Flies by Commercial Producers of Fruit 

& Vegetables 

Fruit Flies in the Home Garden 

Mediterranean Fruit Fly 

SA Fact Sheet 

Espaliers for Fruit in Small Gardens 

Fruit Flies 

Fruit Fly Eradication : What Happens in Home Gardens 

Orchard Pest and Disease Handbook (book) 

San Jose Scale 

Tas Farmnotes 

Orchard Mites (1):Chemical Control 

Rootstocks for Fruit and Nut Trees 

Timing Orchard Sprays 

Weed Control in Pome and Stone Fruit Orchards 

Vic Agnotes 

Armillaria Root Rot 

Bird Control in Fruit Crops 

Budding Deciduous Fruit Trees 

Budding Fruit Trees 

Cause of Fruit Drop 

Certified Propagating Material for Tree Fruits 

Control of Pests and Diseases in Home Orchards 

Chemical Control of Weeds in Pome & Stone Fruit 

Citrus and Avocado Kit 

Deciduous Fruit Crops Kit 

Fertiliser Programs for Home Orchards 

Fertiliser Programs for Orchards 

Frost : Its Nature & Control 

Fruit Tree Borer Moth 

Grafting of Fruit Trees 

Honeybee Pollination of Fruit Tree Crops 

Integrated Control of Twospotted Mite in Orchards 

Irrigated Scheduling for Regulated Deficit 

Irrigation (RDI) 

Mineral Deficiencies in Fruit Trees 

Nuts, Berries & Speciality Fruits Kit 

Planting & Caring for Young Fruit Trees 

Pollination of Fruit Trees 

Orchard Nurseries : Site Selection and Preparation 

Orchard Nutrition 1 : NPK Fertiliser Programs for 

Mature Orchards 

Orchard Pest and Disease Handbook 

Pruning in the Home Garden 

Queensland Fruit Fly in Victoria 

Rhizopus Rot & Transit Rot of Fruit & Vegetables 

San Jose Scale & Oystershell Scale 

Silver-leaf Disease of Fruit Crops 

Soil Preparation for Fruit Trees & Grapevines in Southern 

Victoria & the Goulburn Valley 

Storage Conditions Affecting the Life of Fruit 

Handling Fruit & Vegetables in Retail Stores 

The Dried Fruit Beetle 

The Fruit-tree Root Weevil, Leptopius squalidus 

Using Lime in the Orchard 

Verticillium Wilt of Deciduous Fruit Trees 

Why Water Trees? 

Wood Rots of Fruit Trees and Other Plants 

WA Farmnotes 

Fruit Fly Control in Backyard Orchards 

Mediterranean and Queensland Fruit Fly 

Sites, Layout and Irrigation for Nut Orchards 


Wound Dressings for Fruit Trees 


Apple and Pear Growers Assoc. of SA 

Australasian Council of Tree & Nut Crops Conf. 

(ACOTANC) 

Australian Dried Fruits Board (ADFB) 

Australian Fruit Juice Assoc. (AFJA) 

Australian Fruit Research Conferences 

Australian Horticulture 

Australasian United Fresh Fruit & Vegetable Assoc. 

Canned Fruits Industry Council of Australia 

Central Tableland Nutgrower's Association Tom Ellis 

Ellco Farm Supplies 

Dried Fruits Research Development Council (DFRDC) 


Horticultural Research Development Corporation (HRDC) 

International Rare Fruit Council 

Many Overseas Fruit Growing Groups 

Northern Victorian FruitGrowers Assoc. 

Nut Growers Society of Oregon 

Orchard Handbooks (State, Territory, Regional Depts of 

Agric/Primary Industry) 


Post-harvest Management of Horticultural Produce in the 

Market. (1990). Proc. Sem. Market City, WA. 

Quality Assurance Program which will comply with 

the International 9002 Standard. 

Rare Fruit Council of Australia 

Tasmania Nut Growers Association, P.O. Box 303 

Devonport, Tasmania 7310 

The Australian Dried Fruit Assoc. (ADFA) 

The Australian Nurserymen's Fruit Improvement Co. Ltd 

(ANFIC), 

The West Australian Nut & Tree Crop Assoc. (WANATCA) 

Tree Crop Centre, Subiaco, WA 

Victoria Nut Growing Association, P.O. Box 69 

Wangaratta Vic 3677 

WA Nut and Tree Crop Association, P.O. Box 27, Subiaco 

WA 6008 (WANATCA) (Quandong Yearbooks) 

See Preface xii, Postharvest N 61, 

Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22 



MANAGEMENT 

Management and spray guides are available for most commercial fruit crops for particular regions. 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Check pollination requirements for your particular area. Cross-pollination is 

necessary for production of some fruit and nuts, eg almonds. Varieties will not pollinate each other if they do 

not flower at the same time. 

Resistant varieties: Select varieties with some resistance to key problems, eg powdery mildew of apple. 

Select resistant rootstock for key root problems, eg woolly aphid, grape phylloxera. 

Disease-free planting material: Certification schemes operate for strawberry, citrus and deciduous fruits. 

The Fruit Variety Foundation (FVF) will guarantee stock (citrus, stone fruit, grapes, avocadoes) to be virusfree. 

The planting material provides to growers by these schemes is free from specified diseases and pests 

and should be used whenever possible. Planting material may need to be treated prior to planting, eg roots of 

peach may need to be dipped in insecticide to control black peach aphid. 

Pesticides: There is still a need for pesticide applications to many crops to ensure the production of a healthy 

marketable crop. Routine pesticide applications are still frequently used rather than on a needs basis, this is 

considered to be due partly to poor pest recognition. Also new pests continually enter Australia. 

F 16 

FRUIT AND NUTS


Establishment 

Legislation: Some crops, eg bananas, can only be grown in certain prescribed areas. 

Propagation: Grafting on to dwarfing rootstock, budding, by tissue culture. Rootstocks confer many 

advantages, eg size control over scion, pest resistance and effects on yield and quality. Plants on their own 

roots may not have such advantages; however, they may produce high density plantings designed to have a 

short production life and permit the use of highly automated equipment. Some caution is necessary about the 

performance of tissue cultured fruit trees. 

Cultural methods: Site and layout selection for particular fruit is important. Consideration must be given to 

temperature, aspect, air currents and wind, drainage, time of ripening (market demand, fruit fly); freedom 

and/or protection from frost, salinity, strong winds, diseases and pests, open, not shaded, soil structure and 

acidity. Pre-plant preparation includes soil preparation, soil and water analyses, construction of irrigation 

systems, shade and other protective devices. Pre-plant fertilising, etc may be required. Cultivation may be 

used to control weeds pre-plant. 

Sanitation: All debris from previous crops must be destroyed. 

Biological control: Some nursery stock may require treatment prior to planting, eg peach rootstock may be 

dipped in Agrobacterium sp (Nogall ) to protect against crown gall. 

Plant quarantine regulates the movement of propagation material of fruit and nuts between regions/states/ 

territories within Australian. Imports must comply with Commonwealth regulations. 

Pesticides: If the site has been cropped before it may be necessary to pre-plant treat/fumigate the soil to 

eliminate any soilborne diseases and pests and weeds. It depends on the crop. Pre-plant weed control 

involves controlling perennial weeds with post-emergence herbicides such as glyphosate at least a month 

prior to cultivation and planting. 

Organic Standards: Three main associations certify some fruits, eg banana, based on production standards 

which details allowable practices and inputs. National Association for Sustainable Agriculture Australia 

(NASAA) has 2 organic levels. Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA) administers two similar levels and the 

Biodynamic Research Institute administers the 'Demeter' biodynamic trade mark, with 2 levels. The 

Organic Produce Advisory Committee settled in 1991 the national standard for organic and biodynamic 

produce. This is an export standard which became a domestic standard. It limits the use of the words 

organic and biodynamic to produce which has been certified by an approved certifying organisation (Madge 

1995). 

Maintenance 

Cultural method: Deficiencies may be avoided by regular tissue analyses and the regular application of 

fertilisers. Appropriate irrigation, pruning and other required processes must be carried out. 

Sanitation: Prune out diseased and infested shoots and fruit during normal pruning. For some problems it 

may be necessary to prune out diseased material during the growing season. Remove all diseased fruit 

from trees and dispose of all fruit on ground, in packing sheds and storage areas. Clean machinery, etc. 

Biological control: Several problems, eg red scale, twospotted mite, may be biologically controlled. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Insect traps are often used for monitoring pests but some are used 

to reduce numbers of some insect pests, corrugated cardboard tied around trunks of apple trees trap codling 

moth caterpillars looking for a place to pupate. Caterpillars and other easily seen insects may be collected 

by hand on small plantings. 

Pesticides: Non-bearing and bearing trees have different key pests, eg non-bearing apple trees do not 

require spraying for codling moth. All key diseases, pests and weeds of bearing and non-bearing trees should 

be monitored prior to applying pesticides. Many less hazardous pesticides are being researched, eg 

petroleum oil sprays for the control of twospotted mite, European red mite, powdery mildew of pome fruits. 

Guides are available on how to use pesticides to avoid the development of resistance. Plant growth 

regulators are used in fruit growing for reducing shoot growth, dwarfing trees, delaying flower opening, 

thinning excess fruit, decreasing and increasing fruit size, improving colour, shaping, inducing roots in cuttings, 

inhibiting suckering and preventing pre-harvest fruit drop. Pesticides must be applied at the correct growth 

stage, eg green tip (Fig. 110). 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Fruit must be harvested at correct stage of ripeness for the intended market. Cool as soon as 

possible to the recommended temperature. International quality standards (OECD cur. edn.) are available for 

many fruit and vegetables. 

Plant quarantine: Some pests, eg fruit fly and Fuller's rose scale on citrus, are not accepted by overseas 

countries or even within Australia, eg papaya fruit fly in Qld. Various disinfestation treatments may be used, 

eg pesticides, heat and hot water treatments. Heat treatments may be applied after harvest for fruit that is to 

be sold soon after harvest rather than stored. 

Storage/Transport: Ethylene is a naturally occurring gas produced by all fruit, to initiate its own ripening 

process. It may be used to ripen green fruit to add uniformity of ripening. The rate at which ripening occurs 

depends on the temperature. Control of postharvest diseases depends on temperature (usually involving 

cooling produce to recommended temperatures), relative humidity (usually 90-95%) to prevent dehydration 

and the atmosphere (carbon dioxide, oxygen and ethylene). Various controlled atmospheres (CA) are used 

to control postharvest diseases and pests. Package as recommended. See Postharvest N 63. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 17

Avocado 

Persea americana 

Family Lauraceae 


Parasitic 


Avocado sunblotch viroid 



Fungal and algal diseases 



Root rots, stem cankers, wilts 



Caterpillars 




Mites 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Genetic 




Parasitic 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-DISEASES 

Avocado sunblotch viroid is a minor 

disease of avocado, incidence is low. Leaves may 

have white or yellow variegation. Bark and fruit 

may show yellow streaks and spots (sometimes 

white to red). No fruit may form or it is small and 

deformed. Many infected trees never show 

symptoms but produce seed which, when used for 

rootstocks, infect the scion and cause severe 

disease symptoms. Vigorous water-shoots often 

grow from buds below the affected scion but rarely 

produce fruit. Spread by infected seed, by grafting 

wood, pruning and cutting implements, by natural 

root grafting between trees and pollinating insects. 

Destroy affected trees. Keep a set of pruning, 

injecting and harvesting tools for use only on virustested 

trees, or disinfect tools. Plant seeds and 

budwood from certified sunblotch-free propagation 

sources or labelled trees derived from the 

Australian Avocado Growers' Federation (AAGF) 

Virus-tested Tree Registration Programs (VTRP) at 

least 15 m from untested avocado trees to avoid 

natural root graft transmission of sunblotch 

(Broadley 1991). Other viruses, eg potato spindle 

tuber viroid, affect avocado overseas. See Fruit F 4. 


Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia sp.) may occur in 

association with anthracnose in the field and 

postharvest. Fruit has a dark metallic sheen, 

flesh is brown, liquid-soft, with a rancid smell. 

Fuerte and Sharwil appear to be more susceptible 

than Hass. See Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas 

syringae pv syringae), also stem canker. 

(unknown, probably bacterial). 


FUNGAL AND ALGAL DISEASES 

Anthracnose, ripe rot (Glomerella cingulata) and 

Colletotrichum gloeosporoides are serious diseases of 

avocado fruit. Fruit damaged by insects, eg 

caterpillars, are readily infected. Many other fungi 

may occur in association with anthracnose, eg 

Botryosphaeria, Botryodiplodia, Pestalotiopsis, 

Phomopsis, and grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). See 


Stem-end rot (Dothiorella sp.) lives on dead twigs and 

leaves on plants, spores are splashed onto fruit during 

wet weather. The fungus remains dormant until fruit 

is mature and begins to ripen when a dark brown to 

black firm rot starts at the stem end and gradually 

progresses down the fruit. Clip fruit from the tree and 

avoid bruising it. Prune out any dead twigs or 

branches on a regular basis and store fruit in cool, 

well ventilated place. See Trees K 5. 



Cercospora leaf or fruit spot (Pseudocercospora 

sp.): Angular brown spots 1-2 mm across, surrounded 

by a halo develop on leaves. Raised black spots 

about 2-5 mm across (later sunken, dark and cracked), 

develop on fruit. Secondary bacteria and fungi may 

invade cracks. Fuerte and Sharwil are more 

susceptible than Hass (Persley 1993). 

Red rust, algal spot (Celphaleuros virescens) 

develops on twigs and leaves in wet conditions. 

The algal spots are whitish or yellowish, but do not 

seem to damage plants. Copper sprays may control it. 

Others: Anthracnose (Colletotrichum, Glomerella) 

may also cause leaf spots (see above). 

See Annuals A 5, Fruit F 6. 

Root rots, stem cankers, wilts 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi, 

P. citricola) is the most serious disease of 

avocado (Fig. 111). On average, 10% of all avocado 

trees die each year from root rot often as they begin to 

bear fruit. Orchards may die after 1 season of heavy 

rainfall, many do not survive > 10 years. Fruit remain 

small. Fruit may shrivel on the tree or may fall as it 

matures. Later leaves curl, droop and slowly yellow. 

Leaf margins and veins brown. Plant rootstocks with 

some resistance to Phytophthora, and fertilise to 

maintain root tolerance. Only plant grafted trees from 

phytophthora-free nurseries accredited under the 

AAGF's Avocado Nursery Voluntary Accreditation 

Scheme (ANVAS). Trunk injections have been used 

to regenerate diseased trees (Piccone et al. 1987). The 

application of fosetyl-al on heavily scraped stem 

cankers was found to be the most effective method for 

controlling P. citricola (El-Hamalawi et al. 1995). 

See Nursery N 54, Trees K 6. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria 

luteobubalina), Colletotrichum, Cylindrocladium spp., 

Fusarium, pythium root rot (Pythium spp., 



F 18 

FRUIT AND NUTS

AVOCADO 

Others: Various wood rots, eg ganoderma butt 

rot (Ganoderma spp.), may affect avocado. 


Many nematodes may be associated with avocado 

roots, eg dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.), 

root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), root 

lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), spiral 

nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp., Rotylenchus 

sp.), also Boleodorus, Paratrichodorus porosus, 

Scutellonema. See Vegetables M 10. 



Leafrollers (Tortricidae): Avocado leafroller, tea 

tortrix (Homona spargotus), may be a serious pest 

of avocado, also custard apple, tea and other crops. 

Caterpillars are greenish and up to 25 mm long. 

They web leaves and fruit together and feed on rind 

to a depth of 4 mm. Damaged areas develop scar 

tissue. Edranol, Wurtz, Reed and Hass, which either 

have large leaves in clumps or dense fruit clusters, are 

most affected. Ivy leafroller (Cryptoptila immersana) 

is a minor pest and causes similar damage to avocado 

leafroller. Caterpillars are yellowish-green with 

4 prominent black wedge-shaped marks on the white 

head capsule. See Ivy K 88. Orange fruitborer 

(Isotenes miserana) is a minor, sporadic pest of Haas 

and causes damage similar to avocado leafroller. 

Caterpillars are brown-striped and cause severe fruit 

skin blemish. See Citrus F 37, Pome fruits F 112. 

Loopers (Geometridae) feed on young foliage, flowers 

and fruit rind during summer. Bizarre looper 

(Anisozyga pieroides) is a minor pest of avocado, 

guava and macadamia fruit skins. Loopers are 

brown, flattened, about 40 mm long. Brown looper 

(Lophodes sinistraria) when young, is velvety black 

with several white rings around the body. They grow 

up to 60 mm long and are light brown. When 

disturbed mature caterpillars remain motionless and 

stretch out like a twig. They feed on leaves and fruit 

skin. Ectropis looper (Ectropis savulosa) feeds on 

leaves and fruit skin. Defoliation causes sunburn. 

Grey looper (Cleora inflexaria) caterpillars when 

young are velvety black with 6-7 white rings around 

the body. They grow to about 40 mm long and feed 

voraciously on foliage and gouge irregular holes in 

fruit rind. When disturbed, loopers remain still and 

straight like a stick. 

Saunders's case moth (Oiketicus elongatus) 

caterpillars chew ragged holes in leaves of individual 

trees (Fig. 112). See Trees K 13. 

Others: Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.), omnivorous 

tussock moth (Acyphyas leucomelas). 

Damaged fruit may be invaded by anthracnose. 

Natural enemies include hover fly larvae, parasitic 

wasps, tachinid flies, egg parasites, predatory bugs 

and a microsporidian disease. Monitor caterpillar 

populations regularly before applying insecticides 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) may 'sting' all 

varieties of avocado. Maggots rarely develop in the 

usual commercial varieties, but may cause severe 

skin blemish. Freshly punctured unripe fruit exude 

a clear gum which dries to form a small white 

powdery mass. Later, a star or T-shaped slit 

(3-7 mm across with raised edges) develops at the 

puncture sites. A hard lump of discoloured tissue 

about the size of a pea is seen if the fruit is cut 

open, damage is superficial. Taste is not affected 

but fruit may be downgraded because of 

appearance. Avocados picked green for 

marketing, will be free of fruit fly larvae. Fruit 

left on the tree and picked in ripening conditions 

could be infested. Thin-skinned, early and midseason 

varieties, eg Fuerte and Rincon, and 

seedling fruits, are the most susceptible to maggot 

development. Some varieties may be heavily 

infested by maggots in autumn. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) may 

seriously damage preferably young fruit. 

Damage a few weeks old appears as watersoaked 

areas from which sap exudes and dries white 

causing a severe callused skin blemish. Brown 

pockets of damaged tissue 7-15 mm deep are seen 

when fruit is cut open. Very shallow injuries can 

be difficult to distinguish from fruit fly damage. 

Fruits damaged before December may fall, injured 

fruit remaining on the tree are usually 

unmarketable. All varieties are attacked but 

heaviest losses occur in the early and mid-season 

thin-skinned varieties, eg Fuerte and Rincon. 

Monitor bug damage at regular intervals before 

applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See 




Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp.) may chew holes in 

leaves of nursery trees. Insecticides may be 

necessary. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) are minor and sporadic 

pests of foliage and fruit, eg redshouldered leaf 

beetle (Monolepta australis), swarming leaf 

beetles (Rhyparida spp.). Monitor swarms on 

adjacent trees where they could be controlled prior to 

them entering crops (Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit 

F 11, Trees K 15. 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus, 

Tarsonemidae) may distort new leaves of nursery 

stock. Monitor populations. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Sixspotted mite 

(Eotetranychus sexmaculatus) sucks sap from leaf 

undersurfaces causing yellowish speckling and later 

leaf fall. Adult mites are translucent with 3 dark 

spots on either side of the abdomen. Natural enemies 

of twospotted mite also assist control of six-spotted 

mite. Tea red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae) 

feed on avocado, camellia, castor-oil plant, coffee, 

grevillea, mango, tea. Mites are about 0.4 mm long 

and their feeding causes midribs and veins and 

eventually whole leaves to turn reddish-brown. Under 

water stress, leaves, especially of Wurtz, may fall. 

Mites suck plant sap preferably from the upper 

surfaces of older leaves during hot dry periods. 

Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with 

many generations each year. Rain may wash mites 

off leaf uppersurfaces. Mites are usually controlled by 

predatory ladybird, eg Stethorus spp., lacewing larvae 

and predatory mites. Mites mostly damage leaves if 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 19

AVOCADO 

predators have been killed by misuse of pesticides. 

Monitor mite populations, damage and predators at 

regular intervals before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Beans (French) M 29. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Fiorinia scale 

(Fiorinia fioriniae): Adult female scale cover is 

shield-shaped, 1-1.3 mm long and yellowish brown to 

orange-brown in colour. There is a pale yellow 

terminal marking. Latania scale (Hemiberlesia 

lataniae) is a minor and sporadic pest of avocado 

(fruit, twigs, limbs and trunk), banana, papaw, kiwi, 

also Albizia spp., hakea, liquidamber, poplar, privet, 

willow. Adult females are circular, about 2 mm 

across, convex and dirty white. They have a large, 

pale brown, central to sub-central marking. Males are 

smaller and more slender. Scale-infested fruit is 

edible but must be cleaned before marketing. There 

are several generations each year. Smooth-skinned 

varieties may be brushed off in the packing shed. 

Natural enemies keep scale in check but may be 

suppressed by misuse of chemicals. If chemicals are 

needed, apply white oil on Hass when 4 scales are 

producing crawlers per fruit (Brough et al. 1994). 

Spanish red scale (Chrysomphalus dictyospermi) 

cover (female) is circular, 1.5-2 mm across, slightly 

convex, and grey with a clear central ring. Males are 

smaller. Scales may seriously damage trees. Even a 

few scales disfigure dark fruit. Some growers clean 

scales from smooth-skinned fruits by hand. Natural 

enemies are not effective enough to prevent economic 

damage to fruit. See Citrus F 39. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Indian white wax scale 

(Ceroplastes ceriferus), pink wax scale (C. rubens), 

soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum), white wax 

scale (Gasgardia destructor). See Citrus F 41. 

See Citrus F 39. 

Others: Coon bug (Oxycarenus arctatus) may 

swarm on flowers causing them to fall. Plague 

thrips (Thrips imaginis) feeds in flowers and 

redbanded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus) on 

leaves and fruit. Also aphids (Aphididae), 

avocado bark beetle (Paleticus sp.), planthopper 

(Siphanta galeata), whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, 

Hemiptera), crickets (Gryllidae) and wingless 

grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum), 

leafhoppers(Cicadellidae); 


Rats and birds may damage fruit on the tree. 

Hares may eat the bark of young trees. Fruit F 13, 

Seeds N 77. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Prevent sunburn of top branch 

surfaces and fruit. Avocado is sensitive to frost, 

so either choose a frost-free site, or plant a frosttolerant 

variety, eg Bacon or Fuerte. Chilling 

injury is caused by exposing ripening avocados to 

temperatures < 12 o C. Shelter from strong winds 

as wind rub of leaves, twigs and branches may 

damage fruit and slow tree growth. Water stress 

causes leaf wilting, reduces fruit size and numbers, 

fruit may elongate, crack and fall. Oxygen 

deficiency in soil may cause feeder roots to 

become translucent from fermentation products. 

Leaves wilt, but may remain bronze-green and 

hang for a week or more. Favoured by heavy 

rainfall, poor drainage, and heavy irrigation. 

Genetic: Albinism results from planting 

immature seed. 1st leaves on seedlings are white 

and distorted. Chimera may occur in Fuerte 

(sectors of yellowish skin). Do not propagate from 

affected branches. See Tulip C 43. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Various 

deficiencies, eg boron, copper, iron and zinc (little 

leaf, mottle, rosette), may occur. Nitrogen levels 

determine yield. Toxicities may also occur, eg 

tipburn from excess mineral salts. Leaf analysis 

standards are available for avocados (Weir and 

Cresswell 1995). 

Pesticide injury: Copper sprays may leave a 

deposit on fruit, herbicides may injure young trees. 

Others: Although avocado is evergreen, heavy 

leaf fall is common during flowering. Sooty 

blotch (fungus) is a minor disease which reduces 

photosynthesis causing black superficial marks on 

stems, leaf veins and fruit in humid weather. 


Alexander, D. McE. 1978. Some Avocado Varieties for 

Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Banks, A. 1992. Growing Avocados in Queensland. Qld 





Pan MacMillan Pub., Sydney. 

Branton, M. 1995. Growing Avocado in Melbourne and 

Similar Temperate Areas. Agmedia, Melbourne. 

Broadley, R. H. (ed.). 1991. Avocado Pests and 

Disorders. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 

Broadley, R. H. (ed.). 1992. Protect your Avocados. Qld 


Brough, E. J., Elder, R. J. and Beavis, C. H. S. (eds.). 



Com. of Aust. 1990. Avocado Sunblotch Viroid. Plant 

Quar. Leaflet No.10. Aust. Quar. & Inspection 

Service, Dept. of Primary Industries & Energy. 




El-Hamalawi, Z. A. and Menge, J. A. 1994. Effect of 

Wound Age and Fungicide Treatment of Wounds on 

Susceptibility of Avocado Stems to Infection by 

Phytophthora citricola. Plant Disease Vol.78(7). 

El-Hamalawi, Z. A. Menge, J. A. and Adams, C. J. 

1995. Methods of Fosetyl-Al Application and 

Phosphanate Levels in Avocado Tissue Needed to 

Control Stem Canker by Phytophthora citricola. 

Plant Disease, Vol.79(8). 



Persley, D., Pegg, K. G and Syme, J. R. 1989. Fruit and 





Piccone, M. F., Whiley, A. W. and Pegg, K. G. 1987. 

Curing Root-Rot in Avocados. Aust. Hort., May. 



F 20 

FRUIT AND NUTS








Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Avocado Diseases 

Avocado Growing 

Avocados : Cultural & Financial Aspects 

Avocados in the Garden 

Latania Scale in Young Macadamia Orchards (NSW 

Agnote) 

Qld Dept of Primary Industries (videos) 

Insects & Mite Pests of Avocados 

Managing Phytophthora Root Rot in Avocados 

SA Bulletins 

Growing Avocados in South Australia 

Vic Agnotes 

AVOCADO 

Avocado Root Rot 

Avocados : Recommended Varieties for Sunraysia 


Increasing Fruit Set in Feurte Avocados by Cincturing 

Orchard Management to Prevent & Control Avocado 

Root Rot 

Production of Trees Free From Avocado Root Rot 

The Avocado 

WA Farmnotes 

Irrigation Requirements of Avocado 

The Avocado in Western Australia (Bulletin 4077) 


Atherton Tableland Avocado Growers' Assoc. 

Australian Avocado Growers' Federation (AAGF) 

Avocado Improvement Schemes 

Avocado Nursery Voluntary Accreditation Scheme 

(ANVAS) 

Virus-tested Tree Registration Programs (VTRP) 

See Fruit and nuts F 15, Nurseries N 56, 

Postharvest N 62, Preface xii 



MANAGEMENT 

An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Management programs and guides for 

avocados are available (Broadley 1992, Coombs 1995). The Avoman computer package available from Qld 

Dept. of Primary Industries features a series of modules covering every aspect of farm management. Avocado 

is an evergreen fruit tree. Although it is tropical it can be grown in temperate regions in sheltered sites. Flowers 

function as females for a few hours, close then re-open as male flowers the following day. Planting pollinating 

varieties maximises cropping. Some varieties are cold tolerant, eg Fuerte, or wind tolerant, eg Rincon. Plan 

to use cultivars with Phytophthora-resistant rootstocks. Purchase virus-tested nursery stock from the 

Avocado Nursery Voluntary Accreditation Scheme (ANVAS) which guarantees its stocks to be free from 

Phytophthora and other diseases and pests. Propagated by grafting on to seedling rootstocks. Grafted trees 

begin to bear fruit after 3 years. Cultural methods: Provide excellent surface and subsoil drainage, frost-free 

sites and shelter from wind. Reduce Phytophthora by planting on a gentle slope to allow free drainage; maintain 

high levels of organic matter, magnesium, calcium and nitrogen in soil. Little pruning is required. Sanitation 

practices are required for fruit fly and other pests. Biological control programs may be used to reduce mite 

infestations. Monitor pest insects, eg examine 5 trees at each of 6 widely spaced locations in the crop and only 

apply pesticides when damage is observed (Brough et al. 1994). Harvest cultivars at the correct time, early in 

the morning preferably before temperatures exceed 21 o C and avoid damaging the skin of fruit. Avocados may 

be marketed with a given oil content. Apply postharvest fungicidal dips to control anthracnose and other 

diseases and cool as required. 

Fig. 112. Caterpillar case 

of Saunders's case moth 

(Oiketicus elongatus) is 

up to 130 mm long. 

Fig. 111. Disease cycle of Phytophthora spp. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 21

Banana 

Musa sapientum, Musa spp. 

Family Musaceae 


Parasitic 




Moko disease 


Bunch diseases 


Panama wilt (Fusarium wilt) 



Burrowing nematode 


Banana aphid 

Banana weevil borer 

Caterpillars 



Mites 

Scales 


Thrips 

Whiteflies 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Bananas are probably the world's most widely 

traded fruit and are next to rice as a source of 

energy (Griggs 1994). 


Parasitic 


Banana bunchy top virus: Broken, dark green 

streaks develop along leaf veins, leaves are short 

with wavy margins, upright, narrow and brittle 

(bunchy top). Plants affected when young rarely 

produce bunches, those affected later produce bunches 

which point upwards. Spread by banana aphid 

(Pentalonia nigronervosa), by introduction of infected 

planting material, sometimes by tissue culture. Local 

departments of agriculture must be notified if bunchy 

top is found on a property, plants will be destroyed in 

a prescribed manner. Observe plant quarantine 

restrictions for movement of banana plants in some 

regions. Plant only virus-free plants. Enzymelinked 

immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests are 

available for bunchy top and cucumber mosaic virus. 

Bunchy top has been listed as one of the world's 

most economically threatening plant viruses. 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus, and overseas, banana 

bract mosaic, banana streak disease. 




carotovora) causes newly planted rhizomes to 

rot, and emerge poorly. See Vegetables M 5. 

Moko disease, bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas 

solanacearum Race 2) affects bananas overseas. It 

can be confused with Fusarium wilt. Infected 

banana, plantain and Heliconia plants and banana 

fruit pose the greatest quarantine risk of 

introducing Moko disease into Australia. 

Quarantine precautions: Importation of 

Heliconia plants is prohibited, seed is allowed. 

Banana plants may be imported only under permit 

and strict precautions, eg growth in quarantine for 

at least 2 seasons. Importation of banana fruit is 

usually prohibited (Com. of Aust. 1988). 

Others: Mokillo disease, gumming, bacterial 

finger tip rot (Pseudomonas sp.) is a minor disease 

causing distorted fruit (bulbous base and thin tip). 


Bunch diseases 

Anthracnose and black end (Colletotrichum musae) 

causes circular brown sunken spots on ripe fruit 

postharvest (see Fruit F 1, Fig. 96) which become 

covered with pink to rusty spores. Cut ends of 

single fruits blacken and rot. As the fruit ripens the 

rot advances down the stalk into the flesh. Avoid 

bruising fruit. See Fruit F 5. 

Black pit (Pyricularia grisea) is a minor disease. 

Small red spots, which become shallow black pits 

3-6 mm wide, develop on upper hands of bunches 

and on fingers on exposed sides of bunches. Similar 

to damage by fruitspotting bug. Spores spread by 

wind from debris to fruit. 

Black tip, black spot, fruit speckle (Deightoniella 

torulosa) is a minor disease of damaged fruit. It is 

also present on flowers and leaves. Sunken, dark 

brown spots 2-4 mm across surrounded by green 

halos, develop on fruit, especially towards the tip or 

blossom end. Chinese Cavendish appears to be more 

susceptible than other cultivars. 

Ceratocystis fruit and corm rots (Ceratocystis 

paradoxa) causes a black rot of fruit crowns on 

which a grey fungus grows, in wet seasons. If stalks 

rot, bananas drop. Postharvest infection occurs 

through harvesting cuts. Corms are brown, watery, a 

grey mould grows in cavities. Ceratocystis is 

soilborne and infects corms through wounds. Do not 

plant infected material. 

Cigar end (Verticillium theobromae) is a minor disease 

in wet seasons when it colonises dead flower parts and 

leaf debris. A firm dark decay develops at the 

blossom end of fruit and extends 20 mm back along 

the fruit. Ash grey spores develop on rotted areas. 

Crown rots (Colletotrichum musae, Fusarium pallidus, 

Verticillium sp.) are serious postharvest diseases 

of banana. As fruit ripens, cut ends of hands rot. Rots 

advance down fruit stalks causing fruit to fall. The 

fungi inhabit dead flowers and enter fruit through 

wounds at harvest. Disease develops in storage. 

Cut crown cleanly from bunch stalks and leave a 

large amount of crown tissue to reduce finger stalk 

infection. 

F 22 

FRUIT AND NUTS

BANANA 

Squirter (Nigrospora sphaerica) is a postharvest 

disease, the pulp decomposes to a dark semi-fluid 

state which can be squeezed from the fruit. 

Others: Fruit spot (Cercospora hayi). 



Black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis var. 

difformis) and black leaf streak (M. fijiensis) are 

serious diseases of bananas. They occur in 

Australia but not yet in commercial plantations. 

Quarantine risks: These diseases may be introduced 

to disease-free areas on planting material, leaves, or 

leaf trash associated with fruit (Com. of Aust. 1988). 

Resistant cultivars are planted in Australia. 

Movement of banana material from where it occurs is 

prohibited. Leaf speckle (M. musae) reduces fruit 

production. Watersoaked patches develop initially on 

5th and 6th youngest leaves and exude droplets of 

water under humid conditions. Later diseased areas 

dry out and severely affected leaves become dark 

yellow and droop. Yellow Sigatoka, leaf spot 

(M. musicola). Pale yellow streaks about 10 mm long 

develop on upper surfaces of the 3rd or 4th 

youngest leaves. These streaks develop into grey 

spots with a thin blackish border and a yellow halo. 

Leaves may brown, with black and grey streaks, then 

die and fall. Fruit yield is reduced. Spores spread by 

wind or water. 

Black-cross leaf spot (Phyllochora musicola) is 

serious on cooking bananas and Lady Finger in the 

Torres Strait; Cavendish is resistant. Black 

4-pointed stars develop on leaf undersurfaces of 

older leaves. No control required. 

Cordana leaf spot, yellow leaf spot (Cordana 

musae, Cordana sp.) is a minor disease causing 

brown, zonate, elongated oval leaf spots up to 

100 mm long surrounded by a halo. 

Freckle (Guignardia musae): Dark brown spots 

develop on older leaves, green fruit and fruit 

stalks. Found on Torres Strait Islands and Cape 

York. Not yet found in commercial plantings in 

Australia. Cavendish is resistant. 


Panama wilt, Panama disease, fusarium 

wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense) affects 

banana and some grass species and is potentially a 

serious disease of bananas. Young plants wilt 

when the fungus spreads in vascular tissue. In 

older plants foliage yellows and bases of 

pseudostems splits, plants die. Water-conducting 

tissues in the pseudostem are brown. There is no 

cure for infected plants. Uncommon in NSW. 

Susceptible cultivars include Lady Finger. 

Resistant cultivars include Cavendish. Strains 

(Race 4) that attack Cavendish and other 

previously resistant cultivars have been found in 

Qld. Goldfinger is resistant to Race 4. Quarantine 

measures restrict spread of Race 4 to other areas. 

Disease must be confirmed by local departments of 

agriculture. Verticillium wilt (V. dahliae) may also 

attack banana. See Vegetables M 9. 


Corm rot, dry rot (Armillaria elegans, Armillaria spp.). 

Fungal hyphae penetrate root and corm tissues at 

or below ground level and spread to the corm centre. 

Mushroom-like fruiting bodies may develop. 

Leaves may die from the base up. Plants may be 

pushed over. See Trees K 4. 

Marasmiellus corm and pseudostem rot 

(Marasmiellus inoderma, Basidiomycetes) is a minor 

disease of banana, maize, turfgrasses, debris. Outer 

leaf sheaths of pseudostems die. White fungal threads 

and sunken brown lesions occur between the sheaths 

and slowly extend from leaf sheaths into the corms, 

and plants are weakened. Spread from decaying leaf 

and grass debris to bananas. Pale yellowish-brown 

mushrooms may develop on the surface of diseased 

pseudostems during wet weather. Occurs on plants 

stressed by drought, nematode or banana weevil borer 

infestation. 

Others: Ceratocystis rot (Ceratocystis paradoxa 

dry rot of corm (Poria hyposclera), corm and 

root rot (Marasmius stenophyllus), root and corm 

rots (Elvingia mastospora, Fuscoporia contigua, 

Rhizoctonia solani), sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum), sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). 

See Fruit 7, Vegetables M 7. 

Others: Rust (Uredo musae), stalk and fruit 

rot (Botryodiplodia theobromae), northern 

speckle (Ramichloridium musae), Chloridium 

musae, Glomerella cingulata. 


Burrowing nematode, Radopholus root rot 

(Radopholus similis) is a widespread introduced 

serious pest of banana plantations. It also attacks 

sugar cane, fruit and ornamental trees, vegetables, 

weeds. Nematodes invade roots and cause large 

cavities in the tissue, which are invaded by soil 

fungi, eg Fusarium, and extensive rotting may 

occur. Plants may fall over, particularly in wet 

windy weather. Bunches are small and fruit is 

undersized. Affected plants have fewer and often 

smaller bunches. After 4-5 years, cultivation may 

not be worthwhile. Overwinters in trimmed 

planting material, weed hosts Nematodes die 

quickly if plantations are destroyed. Favoured by 

new root growth. Practise crop rotations of at 

least 2 years. Appropriate fertiliser and irrigation 

regimes minimise effects of damage. All varieties 

are susceptible, especially Cavendish. Plant 

nematode-free bananas from approved banana 

schemes, from tissue cultured plants or sets 

disinfested in hot water, into Radopholus-free 

soil. Soil may be treated with nematicide before 

planting and during the cropping cycle. Do not 

replant land where regrowth from former banana 

plantings is likely. Seek advice and contact the 

district horticulturist. See Vegetables M 10. 

Others: Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne 

incognita) is widespread, but of minor importance. 

Galls on roots allow soil fungi to enter roots 

causing rotting. Also foliar nematode 

(Aphelenchoides spp.), root lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus spp.) and spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus spp., Rotylenchus spp.), 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 23

BANANA 

Criconema, Dipsaci, Filenchus spp., 

Hemicycliophora spp., Hoplaimus spp., Lelenchus, 

Paratrichodorus, Pseudohalenchus, Scutellonema 

spp., Tylenchus, Xiphinema. See Vegetables M 10. 


Banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa, 

Aphididae) affects banana (Musa spp.), especially 

Cavendish, Manila hemp, Strelitzia, Ravenala, 

Alpinia, Arum maculatum. Adult females are 

about 1 mm long, brown, winged or wingless. 

Fore and hind wings have dark borders; hindwings 

are very small. No male forms develop, no eggs 

are laid, live young are born. Nymphs are paler 

than adults. Banana aphid is more important as a 

vector of the bunchy top virus disease than for 

the feeding damage it causes. Aphids feed on leaf 

undersurfaces, at the bases of pseudostems, and 

below soil level on emerging suckers. Honeydew 

attracts ants and favours sooty mould 

(Chaetothyrina musarum). White slimy yeasts 

grow on honeydew on pseudostems. Spread by 

aphids flying and by movement of infested plant 

material. Favoured by warm moist weather in 

spring, aphids feed and breed throughout the year. 

Natural enemies and insecticides do not prevent 

transmission of bunchy top. See Roses J 4. 

Banana weevil borer, banana root borer 

(Cosmopolites sordidus, Curculionidae, Coleoptera) 

is a pest of banana and sugar cane. Weevils are 

sluggish, about 12 mm long, oval, with a snout, 

red-brown when young, later dark grey, wing 

covers and thorax have fine indentations (Fig. 

113). They feign death if disturbed. During the 

day, they hide in leaf sheaths or at the plant base. 

Larvae are up to 12 mm long, curved, fat and 

legless, cream with a brown head. Damage by 

adult weevils is minor. Larvae tunnel in corms 

and pseudostems which become riddled, and 

later rot (Fig. 113). Sucker growth is stunted, 

sucker production is reduced, bunches are small 

and fruit undersized. There are several 

generations each year. Weevils lay eggs in the 

bases of pseudostems or sheaths at night 

throughout the year. Larvae pupate near the 

outside of corms. Adults emerge in spring and 

autumn. Overwinters as adults in the ground. 

Spread by weevils crawling and introduction of 

infested planting material. Favoured by warm 

and moist weather, neglected plantations. Control 

is compulsory under plant diseases acts. Practise 

fallows of 3-6 months before planting. Maintain 

plantation vigour. Remove, chop up crop debris 

(corms and stems). and weeds to expose larvae and 

eggs. Natural enemies, eg rats, cane toads, frogs, 

birds and ants, prey on adults and larvae but do not 

significantly reduce populations. A blue planarian 

worm (Geoplana caerulea) sucks body juices from 

weevils. Two predatory beetles (Dactylostereum 

hydrophiloides, Plaesius javanus) have been 

introduced. Quarantine legislation regulates 

movement of plant material belonging to the genus 

Musa spp. Plant weevil-free material. Monitor 

weevil populations before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). Another weevil (Enteles 

vigorsi) breeds in banana crop debris. Do not 

confuse with banana weevil borer. See Fruit F 13, 



Banana fruit caterpillar (Tiracola plagiata, 

Noctuidae) feeds on banana plants and weeds in 

summer. Moths are about 50 mm across outspread 

forewings which are brown in females and red-brown 

in males. Caterpillars are khaki and about 60 mm 

long with 2 pairs of black marks on the uppersurface. 

Young plantations may suffer serious foliage 

damage. Small caterpillars chew fruit skin, larger 

ones chew into flesh. Caterpillars may migrate to 

bananas from weeds. Monitor caterpillar populations 

on bananas at regular intervals before applying an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 

Banana scab moth (Nacoleia octasema, Pyralidae) 

lay eggs near or on the outside of newly emerging 

bunches in Qld north of Ingham. Caterpillars eat 

skin of young fruit wrapped in its bract, damaged 

areas scab over as fruit mature (on the outer curve) 

Caterpillars cease feeding soon after the fingers are 

exposed, about 2-3 weeks after the bunch has first 

emerged. They pupate in leaf bases or in debris on 

the ground. Natural enemies are ineffective. 

Banana skipper, banana leafroller (Erionota thrax, 

Hesperiidae) caterpillars may cause up to 70% 

defoliation of banana plants in areas of New Guinea 

and SE Asia. Quarantine risks: Butterflies are 

capable of island hopping from PNG to mainland 

Australia. Butterflies may be carried in cargo holds 

and eggs on banana plants. (Com. of Aust. 1991). 

Others: Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), 

orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana), sugarcane 

bud moth (Opogona glycyphaga, Tineidae). 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) may infest 

bananas. Banana fruit fly (Bactrocera musae) 

infests cultivated and wild bananas in Qld north of 

Ingham (Brough et al. 1994). Although preferring 

ripening fruit, it will also sting (lay eggs) in green 

fruit, especially if fruit is damaged. Eggs laid in 

green fruit survive and hatch when the fruit ripens. 

Infestations are often mistakenly identified as 

Queensland fruit fly maggots, which are 

uncommon in banana. Queensland fruit fly 

(B. tryoni) may infest ripening bananas. Stinging 

of green fruit in the field is unusual, but may occur 

if fruit ripens prematurely due to damage by 

weather or diseases. Bananas for certain markets 

may be required to be inspected or to be 

disinfested. Papaya fruit fly (B. papayae) attacks 

fruit at a greener stage. Strict quarantine 

measures and fruit treatments are in place to 

prevent the further spread of this fruit fly within 

Australia. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitspotting bugs (Coreidae, Hemiptera) 

may damage young shoots. Feeding on fruit 

causes the skin to become sunken, dark, circular 

areas about 7 mm across which later crack, 

develop as fruit matures. Monitor populations 

prior to spraying. See Fruit F 10. 

Mites (Acarina): Spider mites (Tetranychidae), 

eg banana spider mite (Tetranychus lambi), 

infests undersurfaces of older banana leaves 

causing bronzing which is only important on 

suckers and young plants. Webbing is insignificant. 

Skin of infested fruit becomes red-brown and 

cracks. Favoured by hot dry weather and mites 

moving in from weed hosts and the warm dry 

F 24 

FRUIT AND NUTS

BANANA 

conditions under plastic bunch covers. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) infests 

leaves causing a sandy mottle, and tips of fingers 

may become silvery grey. See Beans (French) 

M 29. Others: Banana rust mite (Phyllocoptruta 

musae, Eriophyidae), bunch mite (Brevipalus lewisi). 

Scales (Hemiptera): Armoured scales 

(Diaspididae), eg cyanophyllum scale (Abgrallaspis 

cyanophylli), is a minor pest but may be serious if 

plants have been heavily sprayed with fungicides. 

Adult female scales are light brown, roughly oval, 

1-2 mm long, white and semi-transparent. Males 

are smaller and more elongate. Latania scale 

(Hemiberlesia lataniae) is a minor pest. Adult 

female scales are dirty white, circular, and about 

1.5-2 mm across. Scales are found occasionally on 

the skin of banana fruits or on bunch stalks. See 

Avocado F 20. Transparent scale (Aspidiotus 

destructor) may infest some leaves heavily on 

some plants. See Citrus F 39. 

Scarab beetles, canegrubs (Scarabaeidae, 

Coleoptera): African black beetle (Heteronychus 

arator), in land recently under paspalum pasture, 

chews the bases of newly-planted suckers ragged. 

Infested plants may wilt, be retarded or die. 

Greyback cane beetle (Dermolepia albohirtum, 

Scarabaeidae) feeds on older leaves, larvae feed on 

roots, plants may topple over. See Turfgrasses L 11. 


Banana flower thrips (Thrips hawaiiensis) may be an 

important pest of Cavendish bananas in north NSW 

and occasionally in SE Qld. Thrips lay eggs on young 

fruit and cause unimportant minute raised spots. 

Adult thrips rasp and suck sap from fruit up to 

2 weeks old, while it is wrapped closely in its bracts. 

A grey-brown corky scab and sometimes cracking, 

forms on the outer curve of the hand. Overhead 

irrigation is considered to nearly eliminate corky scab. 

Banana rust thrips (Chaetanaphothrips signipennis) 

is a serious pest of bananas, may attack citrus, 

cunjevoi (Alocasia macrorrhiza) and some native 

plants. Thrips are about 1.3 mm long. Eggs are laid 

in pseudostems under leaf sheaths or where 2 fruits 

touch. Nymphs and adults feed on leaves, causing 

reddish areas. Infested young fruit may split. Older 

fruit may be rusted but cracking is superficial. 

Spread on planting material. Adult thrips fly weakly. 

Favoured by warm weather October-March. 

Destroy old plantings and volunteer bananas. Bunch 

covers, applied soon after emergence, may give a 

measure of control. Only plant thrips-free planting 

material. Insecticides may be applied to bunches, 

stems, including throats, bases of parent plants, 

suckers and adjoining soil. 

Banana-silvering thrips (Hercinothrips bicinctus) 

infests banana, choko, passion fruit, weeds. Adult 

thrips are about 1.5 mm long (slightly larger than 

banana rust thrips). Banana fruit of all stages of 

maturity may be attacked. Fruit develops silvery 

speckling which turns brown with dark thrips excreta. 

Patchy infestation may cause damage similar to that 

of rust thrips. Deep longitudinal cracks in fruit may 

develop. Favoured in spring-early summer, by 

heavy weed growth or where choko or passion vines 

grow amongst bananas. Control as for banana rust 

thrips, may start in early spring. 

See Greenhouses N 24, Roses J 6. 

Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera): Spiralling 

whitefly (Aleurodicus dispersus) occurs on Torres 

Strait Islands and Thursday Island and may infest 

tropical fruit and vegetables. It may be controlled 

biologically by a wasp (Encarsia haitensis). It has 

a spiral egg laying pattern and may be confused 

with coconut whitefly (A. destructor) which lays 

its eggs in a similar pattern. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: Banana stalk fly (Derocephalus 

angusticollis = Teleostylinus bivittatus, Diptera), black 

swarming leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.) and 

redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis). 


Snails and slugs may be occasional pests. See 



Fruit bats (Dobsonia spp., Pteropus spp.) and 

birds damage bunches. Feral pigs and possums 

may damage plants and fruit. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Choke (the fruit bunch fails to 

emerge or is abnormally twisted) is caused 

possibly by moisture stress just prior to when the 

bunch is due to emerge. Chlorine draining from 

swimming pools may also cause choke. Young 

bunches may be covered to protect them from 

frost, sun, wind and birds. Temperature and 

other environmental factors may cause many 

physiological bunch diseases. Split corm is 

uncommon, and is probably a physiological 

disorder, occurring in dry weather when soil 

moisture is low. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Nutrient 

tissue analyses are the basis of fertiliser regimes. 

Leaf analysis standards are available based on 

diagnostic and research analyses (Weir and 



Alexander, McE. M., Scholefield, P. B. and Frodsham, 

A. 1982. Some Tree Fruits for Tropical Australia. 

CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Atkinson, I. C. 1992. Growing Organic Bananas. NSW 

Agric., Mullumbimby, NSW. 

Brough, E. J., Elder, R. J. and Beavis, C. H. S. 1994. 

Managing Insects and Mites in Horticultural Crops. 



Primary Industries and Energy, Plant Quar. Leaflet. 

Black Sigatoka and Black Leaf Streak of Banana.No.30. 

1988. 

Banana Skipper. No.63. 1991. 

Moko Disease of Banana. No.33. 1988 




FRUIT AND NUTS F 25

BANANA 



Gowen, S. (ed.). 1994. Bananas and Plantains. 

Chapman & Hall, London. 

Griggs, T. 1994. Battling to Beat Banana's Ills. Partners 

in Research for Development, Aust. Centre for Inter. 

& Agric. Res. (ACIAR), No. 7. May 1994. 



Melbourne. 






Pinese, B. and Piper, R 1994. Bananas : Insect and Mite 

Management. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 








Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts/Agric. Books 

Banana Growing 

Banana Rust Thrips and Banana Silvering Thrips 

Bananas in the Garden 

Bananas : Cultural and Financial Aspects 

Bananas : NSW Grading, Packaging and Labelling 

Requirements 

Bananas : Response to Temperature 

Banana Varieties : Their Classification 

Banana Varieties : Their Performance 

Banana Weevil Borer 

Bunch Covers for Bananas 

Fertilising Bananas : 

Calcium, Magnesium & Trace Elements 

Leaf Analysis as a Guide 

Nutrient Cycle and Fertiliser Strategy 

Fertilising Bananas in NSW (NSW Agric. Book) 

Leaf Speckle of Bananas 

Leaf Spot of Bananas 

Plantation and Market Diseases of Banana Fruit 

The Banana Weevil Borer (NSW Agric. Book) 

Upgrading Banana Quality 

NT Agnotes 

Banana Growing 

Choko : A Disorder of Banana 

Costs and Returns for Bananas 

Qld video (Dept. of Primary Industries) 

Banana Bunchy Top Disease 

Banana Panama Disease 

Panama Disease 


Australian Banana Growers Council 

Australian Centre for International Agricultural 

Research (ACIAR) (Banana Project) 

Banana Growers Federation Co-op. 

Banana Industry Protection Board 

Banana Replacement Program (Qld DPI) 

Banana Sectional Group Committee 


See Fruit and nuts F 15 



MANAGEMENT 

The planting of bananas is usually controlled by state and territory authorities. An overview of the industry has 

been presented by Coombs (1995). Select varieties resistant to Panama wilt, eg Gold finger. Gene therapy 

may be used to develop varieties resistant to various problems. Plant disease and insect-free tissue-cultured 

material to exclude major diseases and pests. Queensland and NSW banana industries are developing 

accredited banana nursery industry scheme guidelines for the production of tissue-cultured disease-free planting 

material. Tests are available for bunchy top and cucumber mosaic virus. Propagated by suckers and by tissue 

culture. Preferably plant in areas not previously planted to bananas, if such areas are not available, allow a 

period of 2 years after removal of old plants before replanting. Weed control is important and in some areas 

legislation demands that no weeds be allowed to grow within 2 m of a banana plant. Sanitation includes the 

removal all banana debris. To minimise disease and pest spread, strict plant quarantine is applied. Under 

legislation, no person shall move any plant or any part of any plant, except the fruit, of the genus Musa into, or 

out of, or within, a quarantine area (which covers many of the commercial banana-growing districts in Australia), 

without a permit issued by state/territory departments of agriculture. Pesticides are registered for bananas 

including for bunch injections. Pest management programs are available (Pinese and Piper 1994). They are 

based on regular monitoring of pests and predators and strategic pesticide applications only when necessary. 

Trained pest scouts are available to conduct monitoring and provide advice on action when economic injury 

levels are reached. Three main associations, eg National Association for Sustainable Agriculture Australia 

(NASAA), Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA) and the 'Demeter' biodynamic trademark certify banana 

standards according to production standards which detail allowable practices and inputs. All bananas are 

subject to quality and size standards which can be obtained from state/territory departments of agriculture. 

Fig. 113. Banana weevil borer (Cosmopolites sordidus). 

Left : Adult weevils (about 12 mm long). Right : Larvae 

(about 12 mm long) tunnelling in a banana corm. 

F 26 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Blueberry 

Vaccinium spp. 

Family Ericaceae (heath family) 


Parasitic 



Bacterial blight 

Crown gall 


Anthracnose 


Grey mould 



Stem cankers 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 


Redshouldered leaf beetle 

Scales 


Birds 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Australia is free of some of the most serious 

problems affecting blueberry overseas, eg virus 

diseases and insect pests. 


Parasitic 


Blueberry stunt mycoplasma and other serious 

virus diseases are not known to occur in Australia. 


Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas sp.) affects 

blueberries. Blossoms, shoot tips, and patches 

on previous season's growth are killed. Disease 

is most obvious early in spring when dead shoot 

tips and laterals do not grow but undamaged buds 

do. Early frosts in autumn may predispose leaves, 

shoots and buds to infection. Blueberry in 

Tasmania is not normally subject to frost injury. 

P. andropogonis causes leaf spots on hardwood 

cuttings and field grown Highbush blueberry in 

New Jersey (Kobayashi et al. 1995). See Carnation 

A 16. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) may affect 

nursery stock. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sp.) may be an 

important disease. See Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria sp.) may be a 

problem during humid weather. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) affect ripe 

berries in conditions of cool temperatures, 

prolonged rain and high humidity. See Fruit F 5, 


Powdery mildew (Microsphaera vaccinii). 


Root and stem rots: Phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora spp.) may be a serious disease of 

blueberry. Also armillaria root rot (Armillaria 

spp.), sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum). 


Stem cankers (Botryosphaeria, Guignardia 

sp., other fungi). Guignardia is associated with 

stem browning and tip dieback. See Trees K 5. 


Dagger nematode (Xiphinema americanum) 


Other species may attack blueberry overseas. 



Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera), eg cotton 

aphid (Aphis gossypii). See Roses J 4. 

Bugs (Hemiptera): Grey cluster bug (Nysius 

clevelandensis), Rutherglen bug (N. vinitor). See 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars are an 

important pest of blueberry. Looper caterpillars 

(Chrysodeixis spp.) may damage foliage. Painted 

apple moth (Teia anartoides) caterpillars may 

chew dormant buds. See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8, 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae) may be important 

pests and require control in coastal areas of 

Australia. See Fruit F 9. 

Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta 

australis) may damage blueberry. See Trees K 15. 

Scales (Hemiptera): Red scale (Aonidiella 

aurantii, Diaspididae), soft brown scale (Coccus 

hesperidum, Coccidae). See Citrus F 39. 

Others: Crickets, grasshoppers and locusts 

(Orthoptera). European earwig (Forficula 

auricularia) may damage fruit. A leafminer may 

damage leaves. Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) 

may infest flowers. Weevils, eg various root 

weevils; small lucerne weevil (Atrichonotus 

taeniatulus) adults feed on foliage and larvae chew 

roots (Woods et al. 1990). 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 27

BLUEBERRY 


Birds are the most serious pest, grow bushes in 

a bird-proof wire enclosure or in plastic netting. 

This is one of the main costs of commercial 

blueberry growing. There are other methods of 

controlling birds but anti-bird netting is probably 

the only sure way of achieving full control. See 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Different types of blueberry 

require different climatic conditions. Late frosts 

can damage young growth and flowers. 

Blueberries have shallow roots and only thrive in 

soil which is well drained and kept moist by 

irrigation. 


Symptoms of iron deficiency may develop on new 

leaves. See Azalea K 29. Leaf analysis standards 

are available based on diagnostic and research 

analyses. (Weir and Cresswell 1993). 




and Vines for Garden, Farm and Orchard. 

4th edn. Pan MacMillan Pub., Sydney. 




Agriculture & Fisheries, Melbourne. 

Caruso, F. L. and Ramsdell, D. C. (eds). 1995. 

Compendium of Blueberry and Cranberry Diseases. 

APS Press, Minnesota. 

MANAGEMENT 




Cormack, M. R. 1979. Highbush Blueberries. Scottish 

Hort. Res. Inst., Invergowrie, Dundee, Scotland. 

Dodd, S. and Morris, J. 1994. The Blueberry : Use Sweet 

or Sour. Good Fruit & Vegetable, Dec. 


Morescope Pub. Hawthorn East, Vic. 

Eck, P. and Childers, N. (eds). 1966. Blueberry Culture. 

Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ. 



Gough, R. E. 1995. Highbush Blueberry and Its 

Management. Food Products Press, Binghampton, 

NY. 

Kobayashi, D. Y., Stretch, W. W. and Oudemans, P. V. 

1995. A Bacterial Leaf Spot of Highbush Hardwood 

Cuttings Caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis. 

Plant Disease, Aug. 

Rapley, P. 1992. Blueberry Growing in Tasmania. rev. 

edn. Dept. of Primary Industry, Hobart. 

Shutak, V. G. and Gough, R. E. 1982. Grow the Best 

Blueberries. Gardenway Pub., Vermont. 






Woods, W., Michael, P. and Grimm, M. (compiled by). 


Bull. 4185, Dept. of Agric., WA. 


Industry eg 

Blueberries for the Fresh Market (Vic Agnote) 

Blueberries in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Blueberries : Pest and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Blueberry Cultivars (NSW Agfact) 

Blueberry Production (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 

Blueberry Varieties (Tas Farmnote) 

Blueberry Varieties for the Fresh Market (Vic Agnote) 

Growing Blueberries (Vic Agnote, WA Farmnote) 

Insect Pests of Berry Fruit (NSW Agfact) 

Nuts, Berries and Speciality Fruits Kit (Vic Agnote) 


Australian Berry Growers Federation 

Australian Blueberry Growers Assoc. 





An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Blueberries prefer moist cool situations, 

shelter from hot afternoon sun and hot dry winds, well drained and acid soils. Selection of climate is important 

as successful fruit bud formation requires plants to receive chilling. Low-chill blueberries are available for 

warmer areas. Planting material should be free of bacterial and fungal diseases, and scales and planted in 

disease-free soil. Blueberries are planted in rows and often with mounding (Coombs 1995). Spacing depends 

on the cultivar and the size of the harvesting machinery. Control perennial weeds before planting. If possible 

use a mulch to protect the blueberry's fine shallow root system and to control weeds. Sawdust, pine bark, old 

manure and black weed mat are all suitable mulches. Areas between the rows can be sown to annual pasture 

plants and mown, or clean cultivated. Herbicides can be also used to control weeds. Do not cultivate deeper 

than 60-80 mm as roots may be damaged. Fruit is produced on 1-year-old wood so, after plants have 

established, prune during winter. Harvest when fully ripe as flavour will not develop if picked too early. Quickly 

cool to between 0-5 o C for maximum quality and shelf life. Fruit is marketed in punnets covered with plastic wrap 

to prevent moisture loss. Berries may also be frozen. 

F 28 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Bush Fruits 

and Nuts 

There are abundant native plant food sources in 

Australia, nearly all of which (except for the 

macadamia nut) are unimproved (unchanged by 

the process of human selection). There are many 

indigenous nuts of comparable value, but this 

cannot be said of the native fruits which are often 

sour, astringent, salty, bitter and which do not 

appeal to the general community (Glowinski 

1991). Some fruits and nuts require special 

treatment to remove toxic substances prior to 

eating. Always check. 

SOME AUSTRALIAN NATIVE PLANTS WITH 

EDIBLE FRUITS OR NUTS 

Asclepiadaceae 

Native pear (Leichhardtia australis) 

Aizoaceae 

Pigfaces (Carpobrotus spp., C. glaucescens, 

C. virescens) 

Caprifoliaceae 

Yellow elderberry (Sambucus australasica, 

S. gaudichaudiana) 

Conifers 

Brown pine (Podocarpus elatus) 

Bunya nut (Araucaria bidwillii) 

Davidsoniaceae 

Davidson's plum (Davidsonia pruriens var. 

jerseyana) 

Elaeocarpaceae 

Johnstone River almond, Ebony heart 

(Elaeocarpus bancroftii) 

Quandong (E. grandis) 

Epacridaceae 

Shrubs (Acrotriche aggregata, A. depressa) 

Shrub (Cyathodes parvifolia) 

Shrubs (Styphelia spp., S. strigosa, S. adscendens, 

S. triflora) 

Shrub (Leucopogon parviflorus) 

Ericaceae (heath family) 

Shrubs (Gaultheria appressa, G. hispida) 

Euphorbiaceae 

Candle nut (Aleurites moluccana) 

Moraceae (mulberry family) 

Native figs (Ficus spp.), banana fig 

(F. pleurocarpa), cluster fig (F. racemosa), 

Moreton Bay fig (F. macrophylla), F. coronata, 

F. hispida. 

Shrub (Cudrania cochinchinensis). 

Myrtaceae (eucalypt family, myrtle family) 

Lilly pilly (Acmena smithii, Syzygium spp.) 

Ground cover (Austromyrtus dulcis) 

Ground cover (Kunzea pomifera) 

Passifloraceae (passionflower family) 

Native passionfruit (Passiflora spp.) 

Pittosporaceae 

Apple dumpling, apple berry (Billardiera 

scandens) 



Proteaceae (waratah family) 

Macadamia (Macadamia spp.) 

Trees and shrubs (Helicia spp., H. diversifolia, 

Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia, Turrillia bleasdalei) 

Rosaceae (rose family) 

Native raspberry (Rubus parvifolius, R. gunnianus, 

R. mollucanus) 

Rutaceae 

Native citrus (Microcitrus australica) 

Native guava (Eupomatia bennettii, E. laurina) 

Santalaceae 

Most are parasitic on roots of nearby host plants. 

Ballarts (Exocarpos spp., E. cupressiformis) 

Quandong (Santalum acuminatum) 

Plum bush, northern sandalwood (S. lanceolatum) 

Sandalwood tree (S. spicatum) 

Shrub (Anthrobolus foeveolatus) 

Sapotaceae 

Black apple (Planchonella australis) 

Vitaceae (vine family) 

Climber (Tetrastigma nitens) 


Anon. 1996. Bush Foods : Growing Food from the Bush. 

Rural Research, Spring. 

Cherikoff, V. 1994. Uniquely Australian : The Wild 

Food Cook Book : The Beginning of an Australian 

Bush Food Cuisine. Bush Tucker Supply Australia, 

Boronia Park, NSW. 

Cherikoff, V. and Isaacs, J. 1989. The Bush Food 

Handbook. Ti Tree Press, Balmain, NSW. 

Conroy, F. 1996. Bush Peach Becomes a Commercial 

Crop. Rural Research 172, Spring. 

Cooper, W. 1994. Fruits of the Forest. Readers' Digest, 

Surrey Hills, NSW. 

Cribb, A. B and J. W. 1987. Wild Food in Australia. 

Fontana, London. 



Grootenboer, W. 1995. Gourmet Food from Australian 

Plants. Aust. Hort. May 1995. 

Isaacs, J. 1987. Bush Food. Weldons, McMahons Point, 

NSW. 

Lake, J. 1996. Bush-tucker Industry is Gaining 

Momentum. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Low, T. 1989. Bush Tucker : Australia's Wild Food 

Harvest. Angus & Robertson, Sydney. 

Noels, D. 1989. Nuteeriat : Nut Trees, the Expanding 

Earth, Rottnest Island and All That. Cornucopia 

Press, Subiaco, WA. 



Taylor, R. 1996. Sweet Rewards for Sharp Tasting Fruit. 

Rural Research 172, Spring. 


Industry eg 

Quandongs (SA TreeFacts) 


Australian Native Produce Industries (ANPI), Adelaide 

Australian Native Sustainable Agriculture System (ANSAS) 

Bushfood Growers Service (BGS) 

Australian Native Food Resource Developments 

(ANRFD) 6/63 Ballina St., Lennox Head, NSW. 

Australian Quandong Industry Association 

South Australian Nut & Tree Crop Assoc. 

West Australian Nut & Tree Crops Assoc. 

(WANATCA) : Australasian Tree Crops 

Sourcebook, Quandong, Yearbooks 

See Fruit and nuts F 15, Citrus F 44, Fig F 57, 

Grapevine F 64, Lilly-pilly K 95, 

Passionfruit F 94, Pittosporum K 113, 

Macadamia F 79, Trailing berries F 147 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 29

Cape gooseberry 

Physalis peruviana 

Family Solanaceae (nightshade family) 


Parasitic 




Entyloma leaf spot 

Rhizoctonia stem rot 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Alfalfa mosaic virus, broad bean wilt virus, 

cucumber mosaic virus, potato Y virus, tobacco 

mosaic virus, tomato big bud mycoplasma, tomato 

spotted wilt virus. See Fruit F 4. 


Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

vesicatoria) attacks Physalis spp. See Vegetables 

M 5, Tomato M 98. 



Aphids (Aphididae) may infest new growth and 

transmit virus diseases. See Roses J 4. 




A mirid bug (Trilaccus sp, Miridae) 



Cape gooseberry budworm (Helicoverpa assulta) is 

a serious pest in spring and early summer in Qld. 

Monitor eggs on flowers and young husks, apply 

insecticides that do not kill twospotted mite predators. 

See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Others: 

Banana fruit caterpillar (Tiracola plagiata) 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) 

Eggfruit caterpillar (Scelliodes cordalis) 





Tomato russet mite (Aculops lycopersi) 


See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum), leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, 

Hemiptera), threelined potato beetle (Lema 

trilineata), thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Cape gooseberry is damaged by 

frost. 

Entyloma leaf spot, leaf smut (Entyloma 

australe) may cause slight to severe leaf spotting. 

See Annuals A 5, Dahlia C 24. 


may rot stems at ground level. See Vegetables M 

7. 



been recorded on cape gooseberry. See 






Agric. & Fish., Melbourne. 







Industry eg 

Cape Gooseberries in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

The Cape Gooseberry (WA Farmnote) 




MANAGEMENT 

Fruit may be used fresh, or for jams or jellies. Cape gooseberry is a warm season plant. In frost-free, warm and 

tropical climates, bushes are perennial and reach heights of 1 m or more. In cooler temperate climates it is 

grown as an annual during summer in a warm, sheltered position. In suitable areas it may be grown as an 

ornamental shrub. Generally, cultivation is similar to that for capsicum. Propagated by seed. Plants take 

5-6 months before fruit is ready for picking. In warm frost-free areas prune plants hard after fruiting to induce 

new growth for next year's crop. Plants may bear well for 3-4 years. Harvest when fruits are yellow. 

F 30 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Cashew 

Anarcardium occidentale 

Family Anarcardiaceae (cashew family) 


Parasitic 


Flower and nut rots 


Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Redbanded thrips 

Termites 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Poisonous shell 

Many pests and diseases affect cashew overseas 

but few have been studied in detail in Australia. 


Parasitic 


Mirid bugs (Miridae): Helopeltis bug (Helopeltis sp.) 

damage cashew nuts in Qld. Tea bugs (Helopeltis 

spp.) occur as serious pests in Asia and may cause 

up to 50% losses in cashew (Com. of Aust. 1996). 



A cup moth (Scopelodes nitens) caterpillar defoliates 

cashew trees in Cape York Peninsula. See Eucalypt 

K 60. 

Mango shoot caterpillar, large mango tipborer 

(Penicillaria jocosatrix) bores into tips of shoots, 

which may die back. See Mango F 80. 

Redbanded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus) 

may cause serious leaf fall in drier climates; trees 

are retarded and it may take up to 2 years for full 

leaf colour to re-establish. Leaf loss should be 

prevented if possible. See Mango F 81. 

Termites (Isoptera) may be a serious problem 

in some areas, although cashew wood is reputed to 

be resistant to their attack. See Trees K 17. 

Flower and nut rots: Fungal rots during 

flower and nut development and harvesting cause 

serious losses in wet weather. Nuts on the 

ground sprout after about 4 days of wet weather. 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) may 

develop during rainy or humid weather on flowers, 

causing flower drop. See Fruit F 5. 

Aspergillus fruit rot (Aspergillus niger) causes soft 

watery spots on the stem end of fruits before 

harvest. Dark spores develop on the spots, fruit may 

fall prematurely or mummify on the tree. Apergillus 

can multiply in spent flowers caught in foliage or in 

caterpillar webbing. Fruit infection occurs through 

wounds or by direct penetration when dead 

flowers or tissue from flowers are in contact with 

fruit. Occasional cashew losses may occur prior to 

harvest. Control is difficult. See Fruit F 5. 


Others: Blossom rots (various species), fusarium 

root rot (Fusarium spp.), leaf spots (various 

species), pink limb blight (Corticium salmonicolor). 



Fruitspotting bugs (Coreidae) 

Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta nitida) 

Banana-spotting bug (A. lutescens lutescens) 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Strong wind may cause leaf fall 

and retard tree development. Lack of adequate 

irrigation may cause premature nut drop. Young 

trees especially are very susceptible to frost. 

Poisonous shell: The shell contains cashew 

nut shell liquid which will cause peeling of the 

skin and of the hands. People who touch the shell 

may develop skin blisters. Gloves should be worn 

during handling. 



Primary Indust. and Energy. Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

Tea Bug, Tea Mosquito Bug. No. 86. 1996. 






Industry eg 

Cashew Culture (Qld Farmnote) 

Grafting of Cashew Seedlings (NT Technote) 

Home Processing of Cashews (NT Agnote) 

Processing and Analysis of Cashews (NT Technote) 

The Cashew (Qld Farmnote) 






Cashew is a tall tropical evergreen tree which prefers deep, well drained sands or loams. An overview of the 

industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). In addition to the nut, people eat the fleshy red or yellow base 

of the fruit, called the cashew apple, which may be eaten raw or made into a preserve. Cashew trees also yield 

gum which may be used in varnishes. Propagated by seed from selected trees (seed with a high specific 

gravity ensures a high rate of germination), also by air layering, cuttings, budding, grafting. Prune after 2 years 

of age to remove lower branches to allow machinery access. Fruit fall to ground when ripe and must be 

collected (cease irrigation, if it rains, nuts must be collected every day). Grass must be kept cut so that nuts can 

be collected. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 31

Chestnut 

European or Spanish chestnut 

Castanea sativa 

Family Fagaceae (beech family) 


Parasitic 


Chestnut blight 

Nut rots 

Root and trunk rots 


Vertebrates 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica, 

Ascomycetes) is a serious disease of American 

chestnut (Castanea dentata) and European chestnut (C. 

sativa); it is not known to occur in Australia. It has 

also been recorded on Japanese chestnut (C. 

crenata); Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima); seguin chestnut 

(C. seguinii); all chinquapins native to the south eastern 

USA including C. pumila, C. ozarkensis, C. henryii, 

C. alabamensis, C. alnifolia, C. ashei, C. floribunda, 

Golden chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla); several 

other chinquapins native to Asia; important oak hosts 

include post oak (Quercus stellata) in the USA, holly 

oak (Q. ilex), dumast oak (Q. petraea) and pubescent 

oak (Q. pubescens) in Europe; dead chestnut oak 

(Q. prinus); also red maple (Acer rubrum); shagbark 

hickory (Carya ovata); and staghorn sumac (Rhus 

typhina). Eucalypts are also susceptible. Highly 

resistant (but not immune) species and hybrids include 

Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima), Japanese chestnut (C. 

crenata), C. dentata x C. mollis. Quarantine risks: 

Entry of vegetative material or viable nuts of Castanea 

spp. into Australia poses the greatest risk. Vegetative 

material of oak also poses a risk. Introduction of 

chestnut material is prohibited under quarantine 

legislation, except under special circumstances and only 

following strict quarantine supervision (Com. of Aust. 

1990). 

Nut rots: Alternaria, Fusarium, Phoma and 

Rhizopus may attack nuts stored incorrectly after 

harvest (Allen 1987). Phomopsis castanea is 

probably the most common nut rot. See Fruit F 5. 

Root and trunk rots: Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria spp.) and phytophthora trunk rot 

(Phytophthora spp.) are major diseases of chestnut. 





Scale (Hemiptera) may infest twigs. See Citrus F 39. 

Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) larvae may feed on 

roots of young trees after planting in the field. See 


Weevils (Curculionidae): Overseas Curculio spp. and 

Cyrtepistomus in the USA may damage the nuts of 

Asiatic chestnut species. See Fruit F 13, Trees K 17. 

Others: Aphids (Aphididae) may infest new growth; 

grasshoppers (Orthoptera); oak leafminer 

(Phyllonorycter messaniella) may mine in leaves. 


Birds, possums, rabbits and wallabies damage 

nuts and/or trees. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Young trees are very susceptible to frost. Cool 

spring conditions tend to delay flowering. Leaf 

analysis standards are available (Weir and 




Pubs., Shepparton, Vic. 





Bull, P. B., Jackson, D. I. and Bedford, T. 1985. Edible 

Tree Nuts in NZ. Gov. Printer, Wellington, NZ. 

Com of Aust. 1990. Chestnut Blight. Plant Quar. Leaflet 

No.25. Aust. Quar. Inspection Service, Dept. of 

Primary Industries. 







Tattar, T. A., Berman, P. M., Gonzalez, E. Y., Mount, 

M. S. and Dollof, A. L. 1996. Biocontrol of the 

Chestnut Blight Fungus Cryphonectria parasiticia. 

Arbor. Jn. Vol.20, pp449-469. 

WANATCA. 1994-95. Beginning Guide to Chestnut 

Growing. Australian Tree Crop Sourcebook, 

Cornucopia Press, Subiaco, WA. 





Industry eg 

Chestnut Production (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Chestnuts (Vic Agnote) 

Sites, Layout & Irrigation for Nut Orchards (WA 

Farmnote) 


Aust. Hort. Corporation (AHC) 

Chestnut Growers of Australia 



MANAGEMENT 

Chestnuts are large deciduous trees and will grow almost anywhere in southern Australia with well drained soils 

and summer irrigation. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Trees bear both 

male and female flowers on current season's growth in 2 separate groupings. Propagated by suckers, seed, 

budding and grafting. Harvest when nuts turn brown and burr splits open, husk and clean then store at 

appropriate relative humidity so that nuts do not dry out. 

F 32 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Citrus 



Lemon (C. limon) 



Family Rutaceae 


Parasitic 



Bacterial canker, citrus blast 

Citrus canker 


Fruit rots and leaf spots 

Mal secco 

Phytophthora diseases 

Root and collar rots 

Wood rots 


Citrus nematode 


Black citrus aphids 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Citrus gall wasp 

Citrus leafminer 



Katydids, grasshoppers, locusts 

Leafhoppers, planthoppers, treehoppers 

Mealybugs 

Mites 


Scales (armoured - Diaspididae) 

Scales (Eriococcidae) 

Scales (Margarodidae) 

Scales (soft - Coccidae) 

Thrips 

Weevils 

Whiteflies 


Non-parasitic 

Ants 

Environment 

Mutations 




Parasitic 


Virus and virus-like diseases of citrus produce 

various symptoms including flecks, outgrowths 

and tattering of leaves, and pitting and scaling of 

stems on sensitive species of citrus. They are all 

spread by vegetative propagation, budding and 

grafting, some also on tools and by insects. 

Citrus exocortis viroid, scaly butt: Grapefruit, 

mandarin, sour orange, sweet orange (uncommon). 

Causes cracking and scaling of bark below the bud 

union, with the bark often peeling off in vertical strips. 

Symptoms only appear in trees > 4 years old, and are 

apparent only on trees grafted on to trifoliate orange 

and citrange rootstocks, other rootstocks may carry 

the viroid without showing symptoms. Spread by 

grafting and mechanically on pruning tools. 

Citrus psorosis viruses cause brief flecking and 

patterns on new leaves in spring but more 

commonly, flaking of bark of grapefruit and sweet 

orange. Symptoms are rarely seen in trees < 10 years 

old. 

Citrus tristeza virus (several strains) is the most 

economically important viral disease of citrus in 

some areas overseas (Rocha-Pena et al. 1995). Quick 

decline strain has been prevented from causing 

damage by the use of tolerant stock/scion 

combinations. Stem pitting strain which can be 

serious on grapefruit has been controlled by preimmunisation 

with selected mild strains. Orange 

Stem Pitting (OSP) strain occurs in Qld and is a 

serious disease of sweet oranges. There are 

restrictions on the entry of citrus propagating material 

to other states. Spread also by aphids, especially 

citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricidus). Quarantine 

regulates importation of citrus propagation material. 

New cultivars can only be imported under permit and 

are subject to extensive testing for diseases during 

growth in post-entry quarantine (Com. of Aust. 1992). 

Others: Citrus concave gum, citrus crinkly leaf virus, 

citrus seedlings yellow, citrus tatter leaf virus, citrus 

vein enation-woody gall virus, citrus xyloporosis. 

Citrus dieback and greening are spread by 

insects overseas (Com. of Aust. 1982). Graft 

transmissible dwarfing viroid (GTD) is being 

researched for dwarfing orange trees in Australia. 

Disinfect cutting tools to prevent mechanical 

transmission. Plant disease-free budwood 

from citrus budwood schemes guaranteed free 

from specified virus diseases. See Fruit F 4. 


Bacterial canker, citrus blast, citrus pit, 

(Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae) may occur 

on grapefruit, lemon, mandarin, sour and sweet 

orange. Rapidly spreading dark brown blotches 

develop on young growth, usually starting at the 

base of leaf blades or at axillary buds. Lesions 

spread to adjacent stems and leaves. Shoots may 

be girdled, leaves die, but remain attached to the 

stem. Nursery stock may be blighted and ring 

barked, symptoms are similar to those caused by 

Phytophthora. Lesions heal up with the onset of 

warm or dry weather. Fruit infection occurs 

occasionally in lemons and mandarins but rarely in 

oranges. If conditions favour disease, copper 

fungicides may be applied, particularly if disease 

has occurred on the site in previous years. See 

Stone fruits F 124. 

Citrus canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

citri) is a serious citrus disease in moist areas 

but is not known to occur in Australia. Outbreaks 

in Australia have been eradicated. Most varieties 

of citrus are susceptible but not all to the same 

extent. Canker affects all above-ground parts of 

the tree, particularly the young tender leaves, 

twigs, young branches and twigs. Quarantine 

risks and precautions: The most likely means of 

introduction is through the illegal importation of 

nursery stock or fresh fruit (Com. of Aust. 1996). 

Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) has 

been recorded on sweet orange. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 33

CITRUS 


Fruit rots and leaf spots 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) spots may develop 

on bruised, injured or stressed tissue. Pinkish spore 

masses develop on spots in humid conditions, 

C. gloeosporioides may cause postbloom fruit drop 

(PFD) overseas (Timmer et al. 1994). See Fruit F 5. 

Black spot, citrus black spot (Guignardia citricarpa) 

affects woody plants, eg camellia, citrus, especially 

lemons. Infection occurs from blossoming to 

3-5 months later, small, rusty depressed spots, 1-2 mm 

across, develop on rind in late spring or summer after 

hot weather. Spots are up to 12 mm across, become 

brown, sunken, and may cover more than half the fruit 

surface. Fruit fall readily. Round brown spots 1-2 mm 

across develop on mature lemon leaves. Harvest 

fruit promptly, picking first from the north side of 

trees, where disease is likely to develop first. Irrigate 

after first harvest in dry weather. Remove diseased, 

late-hanging fruit. 

Brown spot (Alternaria spp., A. alternata). Some 

strains attack lime and rough lemon, others, navel 

oranges, etc. Some only attack leaves, others only 

fruit. Fruit develop numerous small black spots after 

fruit set. Badly affected fruit drop, spots on remaining 

fruit increase in size, becoming light brown as fruit 

ripens. On some hosts fruit may rot internally. 

Leaves may develop small spots at an early stage, 

defoliation may occur. Stem infections may cause 

shoot dieback. Overwinters on stem infections, 

leaves on trees. Favoured by cool, damp weather in 

early spring, late summer and early autumn, lush 

growth, and poor air circulation. Before planting 

yearling trees, prune and burn dead twigs as they 

can remain infective for > 6 months. In areas > 3 km 

from the nearest citrus plantation, prevent disease 

introduction. A spray program may be started when 

disease appears, after pruning off diseased twigs. 

Melanose (Diaporthe citri = Phomopsis citri) may be 

a serious disease of citrus. Washington navel 

orange, Emperor mandarin and lemons are more 

susceptible than grapefruit and Valencia oranges. 

Small, dark brown/black raised rough spots develop 

on fruit, leaves and small twigs. On fruit, spots 

may occur in streaks, where drops of spore-laden 

water have fallen, or rind may be covered with brown 

gum. The fungus establishes in dead twigs, and from 

these, penetrates into living wood of larger 

branches, which die. Rot may develop at forks 

between branches and main trunk (crotch rot). It can 

invade woody tissues through pruning cuts or bark 

injuries. It causes dieback. Spores are spread from 

infections on twigs and branches by splashing and 

dripping water. Favoured by young leaves and fruit, 

wet warm nights, mature trees with dead wood. 

Prune out dead wood prior to flowering. If 

necessary, spray with fungicide. Stem end rot 

(Diaporthe citri, Diplodia, other species of fungi) 

causes a firm, tan rot beginning at the stem end and 

slowly spreading through the fruit. After infection the 

fungus remains dormant until ripening, 

Penicillium moulds (Penicillium spp.) are major 

postharvest diseases. Rotted areas become 

covered with blue or green spore masses (Fig. 

114). After packing the fungi may spread from fruit 

to fruit causing 'nesting'. Spores produced on 

diseased fruit on the orchard floor and in packing 

sheds are spread by wind to infect healthy fruit 

through wounds. See Fruit 6. 

Phytophthora brown rot (Phytophthora spp.) affects 

citrus fruit. See Citrus F 35. 

Scab, citrus scab, lemon scab (Sphaceloma fawcetti, 

Ascomycetes) affects citrus, especially lemon and 

mandarin in damp weather. Only young fruit, 

leaves and twigs are attacked. Young fruit attacked 

at blossoming and petal fall, fall. Irregular wart-like 

scabby areas develop on infected fruit, leaves and 

twigs, at first grey or pinkish, then becoming darker 

with age (Fig. 114). The internal fruit quality is not 

affected but market appearance is spoilt. Scabby 

lemons are sometimes offered for sale in shops. 

Septoria spot, leaf scald and fruit spot (Septoria citri, 

S. depressa) affects commercial citrus varieties, 

especially Washington navels in high rainfall areas. 

Infection occurs early in autumn after cool, damp 

weather, then remains dormant in the fruit until cold 

weather, eg frost, allows dark-brown sunken spots up 

to 15 mm across to develop. These are scattered, or 

join together to form large, irregular dark sunken 

areas. Infection extends deep into the rind; diseased 

tissue is often bounded by a thin reddish line. Closely 

grouped black dots (fruiting bodies of the fungus) 

may develop in the brown spots. Spotting on the 

surface of the fruit may indicate late infection. Other 

symptoms include 'tear-staining' when spore-laden 

water runs down the fruit causing sunken brown 

streaks. Septoria spot symptoms can easily be 

confused with frost injury. Small dark spots also 

develop on leaves. 

Sour rot (Geotrichum candidum) causes a pale soft 

watery postharvest rot of ripe fruit. Fruit smell and 

maggots of the ferment fly may feed in rotted 

material. White fungal growth appears on surface. 

The fungus is a common soil inhabitant, and is 

splashed by wind and water on to fruit in the field. 

Infection also occurs from contaminated tanks and 

drenches in packing sheds, or in storage by contact 

causing nesting. 

Others: Many other fungi cause minor fruit rots, eg 

aspergillus rot (Aspergillus niger), and leaf spots, eg 

Botryodiplodia theobromae. 

Overwinters in lesions on dead twigs and branches 

on affected trees, some in debris in packing sheds. 

Spores are spread by wind-driven rain and 

irrigation to young fruit, leaves and shoots. 

Favoured by overhead irrigation, old trees with 

dead wood, by prolonged storage of mature fruit, 

and storing overmature fruit. Prune out dead 

wood, follow recommended fungicidal 

treatments in the field and postharvest. See 

Fruit F 6, Annuals A 5. 

Mal secco (Deuterophoma tracheiphila) is a 

serious disease of citrus, especially lemon in the 

Mediterranean region. It is not known to occur in 

Australia. Quarantine precautions: Approved 

vegetative imports are very carefully and 

extensively screened for fungal, bacterial and virus 

and virus-like diseases during post-entry 

quarantine. Fresh fruit is permitted from certain 

overseas areas under stringent conditions. The 

greatest risk of introduction is via illegal import of 

citrus propagating material or fruit from a country 

with mal secco disease (Com. of Aust. 1990). 

F 34 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CITRUS 


Phytophthora brown rot of fruit (P. citrophthora, 

P. hibernalis, P. nicotianae var. parasitica) starts as a 

slight surface discolouration of citrus fruit, eg 

Washington navel orange and lemon. Rind turns light 

brown, firm and leathery, with a distinctive smell. 

In wet weather, a white fungal growth may develop 

on the surface and Penicillium moulds may follow. 

Fruit usually falls. Leaves develop dark brown, 

roughly circular, spreading blotches. Dark brown 

lesions, which often exude gum, develop on twigs. 

Different Phytophthora spp. are active at different 

temperatures and some species may cause collar and 

root rots as well as fruit rots. Fungicides give 

good protection against brown rot. It is usually 

sufficient to spray trees to a height of 1.5 m. Spraying 

the soil surface helps prevent fungal development. 

Skirt trees. 

Phytophthora root and collar rots (Phytophthora 

citrophthora). Root rot: Trees fail to form vigorous 

new growth, and may die quickly or make periodic 

attempts at regrowth. Rough lemon and sweet orange 

rootstocks are susceptible. Because rootstocks are 

usually more resistant, collar rot is usually confined 

to just above the bud union. Secondary infection by 

melanose may cause rotting of weak and dying 

trees. Lemons, particularly Lisbon and Eureka are 

very susceptible. Plant resistant rootstocks, 

particularly when replacing trees that have died from 

Phytophthora. Some rootstocks are resistant to 

Phytophthora collar rot, Armillaria root rot and frost. 

See Trees K 6. 

Root and collar rots: Phytophthora 

root and collar rot (Phytophthora spp.) is the most 

serious (see above). Others include armillaria root 

rot (Armillaria spp.), damping off (Rhizoctonia sp.), 

root rot (Ganoderma), sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum), sclerotium collar rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii). See Fruit F 7, Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7.. 

Wood rots: Felty fungus, 

twig girdle 

(Septobasidium spp.), pink limb blight (Corticium 

salmonicolor), yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum 

commune). Others: Custulina duesta, Poria 

ambigua, Xylaria polymorpha. See Trees K 8. 

Others: 

Sudden death of citrus (cause 

unknown) causes vigorous trees, 7-15 years old to 

suddenly wilt and die. Affected trees have 

1-2 black rotted roots, discolouration may extend 

into the butt. Ink cap fungus (Coprinus micaceus) 

may fruit around butts of affected trees, but its 

association with the disease is not clear. Sooty 

blotch, smoky blotch (Gloeodes pomigena) causes 

a superficial light brown fungal growth on fruit in 

warm, wet weather. It overwinters on twigs. Also 

pink mould (Gliocladium roseum), black scurf 

(Coniothecium scabrum), lemon scurf (Cladosporium 

furfuraceum), Ascochyta, Phyllosticta. 


Citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) 

is a major pest in most citrus growing areas of the 

world. Almost every citrus tree in SA is infested 

and populations of 40,000 nematodes/kg soil are 

common (Stirling 1983). It affects other Rutaceae, 

grapevines, olives, other plants. Above-ground 

symptoms are similar to those caused by drought, 

salinity or deficiencies, eg yellowing of leaves, 

defoliation, reduced vigour and poor yields. There 

is a gradual decline in tree health. Female 

nematodes feed with their heads embedded in the 

root tissue and body protruding. Soil sticks to 

their jelly-like egg masses on the roots. The life 

cycle, overwintering, spread and conditions 

favouring citrus nematodes, are generally similar 

to that of root knot nematode. Delay replanting 

infested orchards for 1-2 years after old trees are 

removed and soil structure is improved. Plant 

rootstocks with some resistance (most 

commonly used citrus rootstocks are susceptible). 

Plant nematode-free nursery stock in nematodefree 

soil and keep it nematode-free. If planting 

cannot be delayed and resistant rootstock is not 

available, soil may be treated prior to planting, 

Nematicides may be applied to established trees. 


Others: More than 40 species of nematodes may 

be associated with citrus including burrowing 

nematode (Radopholus sp.), dagger nematodes 

(Xiphinema spp.), root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne spp.), root lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus spp., Rotylenchus spp.), stubby 

root nematodes (Paratrichodorus spp.), stunt 

nematode (Tylenchorhynchus martini). 


Black citrus aphids (Toxoptera 

aurantii, T. citricidus, Aphididae) are minor pests 

of citrus, other Rutaceae, camellia, macadamia and 

other plants. Adults are black, winged or wingless 

and about 1.5 mm long. Nymphs are dull redbrown. 

Aphids suck sap from young leaves, 

shoots and flowers, causing leaf distortion and 

slowing growth of nursery stock, young trees and 

recently rejuvenated mature trees. Blossom 

infestation may reduce fruit setting. Sooty mould 

growing on honeydew secreted by the aphids, 

dirties fruit and foliage. T. citricidus is an efficient 

vector of tristeza virus. Winged and wingless 

adults produce active young, (not eggs) with many 

generations each season. Small colonies 

overwinter on young shoot growth inside trees, 

and move to new shoots in late winter. Spread by 

winged aphids and wind. Favoured by mild moist 

conditions during spring and autumn, and new 

growth. Effective predators include common 

spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis), transverse 

ladybird (Coccinella repanda), variable ladybird 

(Coelophora inaequalis, hover fly and lacewing 

larvae and birds. Parasitic wasps, eg Aphelinus 

mali, may depress aphid populations. Monitor 

aphids and damage during growth flushes before 

making a decision to apply an insecticide (Brough 

et al. 1994). Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) 

and spiraea aphid (A. spiraecola) may also infest 

citrus. See Roses J 4. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 35

CITRUS 

Borers (Coleoptera) 

Longicorns (Cerambycidae) are minor pests of citrus 

trees stressed by age, melanose, white louse scale, 

root rots or pruning. Larvae feed in oval tunnels 

packed with flour-like frass under the bark. Citrus 

branch borer (Uracanthus cryptophagus) larvae 

tunnel in finger lime, ringbarking limbs. Also citrus 

longicorn (Skeletodes tetrops), speckled longicorn 

(Paradisterna plumifera), citrus trunkborer 

(Platyomopsis pulverulens), fig longicorn 

(Dihammus vastator), pittosporum longicorn 

(Strongylurus thoracicus). See Trees K 11. 

Weevils (Curculionidae): Citrus root-bark 

channeller (Pseudomydaus citriperda), elephant 

weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) larvae feed in 

roots, tunnels are round and packed tightly with 

frass. 

Monitor borer damage regularly. Only rejuvenate 

trees which are disease and pest-free and with 

sound roots and butts. See Trees K 11. 


Bronze orange bug (Musgraveia sulciventris, 

Tassaratomidae) is a minor native pest of citrus, eg 

rough lemon and native lime. Adults are about 

25 mm long, stout, bronze or nearly black (Fig. 115). 

Legs and the upper surface of the body beneath the 

wings are red. During summer adults cluster on trees. 

If disturbed, they fly around noisily. Nymphs are 

green, turning orange to pink later. When disturbed, 

bugs discharge a smelly liquid which can stain and 

burn human skin and eyes and excrete a corrosive 

liquid from the anus which causes brown spots on 

leaves or fruit. Bugs suck sap from young shoots 

and stalks of flowers and young fruits in spring 

and early summer, shoots wilt and die, flowers and 

fruits fall, trees look unthrifty with a sparse or out-ofseason 

crop. There is only 1 generation per year. 

Adult females lay green eggs on leaf undersurfaces 

from mid-summer to early April. Overwinters as 

2nd-stage nymphs on leaf undersurfaces of hosts. 

Spread by adults flying. Favoured by summer 

rainfall, spring and early summer in subtropical to 

warm temperate climates. Small numbers may be 

dislodged and killed. High temperatures with low 

humidities cause bugs to crawl down to the butts 

where they may be sprayed. At higher temperature 

bugs die. Predators include birds and assassin bug 

(Pristhesancus pupuensis). There is also an egg 

parasite (Anastatus sp.). Bugs are detected by their 

odour in winter, so infested trees can be spot 

sprayed early in spring, or in winter, before they 

cause damage. Remove infested lemons. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) may swarm on young 

citrus trees in spring causing wilting, leaf fall, twig 

dieback and cracking of bark on stems. Young 

trees may die. In summer, bugs swarm on trees 

infested with black scale but may cause little harm. 

See Vegetables M 12, Stone fruits F 130. 

Spined citrus bug (Biprorulus bibax, Pentatomidae) 

may be a serious native pest of lemon, mandarin, 

lime, kumquat, trifoliata orange, desert lime, finger 

lime. Adults are active, green shield bugs about 

20 mm long with a stout sharp spine on each side of 

the prothorax (Fig. 115). Nymphs are initially black, 

green and orange, becoming green with black marks. 

Feeding on shoot growth is unimportant. Nymphs 

and adults suck sap from half-grown fruits, causing 

premature colouring and fruit fall, more advanced 

fruits fall less readily, but may have internal damage 

(drying, browning). Rind punctures may gum. Seeds 

in damaged segments may brown. Secondary fungi 

may invade punctures in ripe oranges. There are 

many overlapping generations each year. 

Overwinters as females sheltering within trees. 

Spread by bugs flying, by migration from inland 

native hosts to coastal cultivated citrus. Favoured by 

moderate humidity in summer. If only a few bugs, 

collect by hand. Wasp parasites (Acroclisoides 

tectacorisi, Trissolcus biproruli basalis, others) may 

parasitise 90% of eggs so that spraying is 

unnecessary. Assassin bug (Pristhesancus 

papuensis) preys on bugs during summer. Predatory 

species can be manipulated with pheromones, eg 

using husbandry of pest enemies (HOPE) so that 

pheromones could be used to attract predators to 

orchards, or to draw them away prior to spraying 

(Dick 1993). 

Others: Citrus blossom bug (Austropeplus sp.) is 

about 5 mm long, green underneath and dark above, 

yellow on the thorax, with red and black wing 

markings. Nymphs and adults feed on new shoots 

and smaller flower shoots which wilt and die. Even 

light infestations in spring in coastal areas can destroy 

blossom and reduce fruit set. Crusader bug (Mictis 

profana) is 20-25 mm long, brown with a yellow St 

Andrew's cross on its back. It sucks sap from new 

spring growth and flowering shoots which wilt, 

blacken and die. Damage may be important on young 

trees. Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) may 

attack young shoots and fruit. Fruit may fall. 

Monitor bugs, eg crusader and spined citrus bugs, 

and fruit damage at regular intervals before 


et al. 1994). See Vegetables M 12. 


Budworms (Noctuidae): Banana fruit caterpillar 

(Tiracola plagiata) chews holes in young fruit. Flies 

(Palexoristus solennis, Sturmia sp.) parasitise 

caterpillars. Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) 

and native budworm (H. punctigera) feed on flower 

buds, blossoms, seed and young fruit, causing 

fruit drop. Caterpillars grow to about 40 mm and are 

yellow, green, red-brown with black or brown 

markings. They bore deep holes into young green 

fruits but damage unimportant. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Citrus butterflies (Papilionidae) caterpillars feed on 

Rutaceae, eg cultivated citrus, Choisya ternata, and 

on native species, eg Eriostemon, Geijera, Flindersia, 

Microcitrus, Zieria. Large citrus butterfly 

(Princeps aegeus): Females have a wingspan of 

about 130 mm, brown to black forewings with the 

outer parts white or grey, and hindwings marked with 

white, orange-red and blue. Males have wings which 

are mainly black with white markings. Caterpillars 

are up to 65 mm long, brown to olive green (Fig. 

116). When disturbed they protrude a red fleshy 

forked process from behind the head and emit a strong 

odour. The small citrus butterfly (Eleppone 

anactus) resembles the large citrus butterfly, but 

measures only about 70 mm across the outspread 

forewings. Colouring is similar in males and females. 

Caterpillars are up to 40 mm long with 3 rows of 

orange-yellow spots along their body, and have 2 

rows of dark spines along the back (Fig. 116). 

Caterpillars of both species feed on new 

foliage, reducing shoots to bare twigs. Damage can 

be serious on nursery trees, newly planted trees, and 

trees in tubs. There are 2-3 generations each year. In 

spring butterflies lay eggs singly on young shoots. 

F 36 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CITRUS 

Caterpillars pupate on hosts. Overwinter as pupae on 

the host plant. Spread by butterflies flying. 

Favoured by summer and autumn weather. Other 

species occur in northern Australia. Control: Hand 

squashing may be sufficient on a few small trees. 

Wasps (Pteromalus puparum, Pachyneuron 

kingsleyi) parasitise larvae and pupae. Predatory 

bugs feed on caterpillars. 

Ermine moths (Yponomeutidae): Citrus flower 

moth (Prays nephelomima) and lemon bud moth 

(P. parilis, Yponomeutidae) are minor native pests of 

cultivated citrus, especially Eureka lemon, also lime, 

citron, kumquat, wild hosts are unknown. Moths are 

< 12 mm long, grey with brown marks on wings and a 

brush of golden hair-like scales on the head. They are 

poor fliers. Caterpillars are yellow, later green and 

red-brown and bore into flower buds preventing fruit 

set. Over 50% of lemon flowers during summer/ 

autumn are infested, but this is only important if 

blossoming is light. There are several generations 

each year. Eggs are laid on tiny red fruit buds, but 

only 1 caterpillar survives per bud. Caterpillars 

pupate in a lace-like cocoon, at the edge of a curled 

leaf or at a twig junction. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) is a minor pest of citrus 

foliage, blossoms, young and mature fruit. 

Caterpillars web leaves together, and may injure new 

foliage of nursery stock or young trees. Infested fruits 

may fall but if damage is undetected at harvest or 

packing they may decay postharvest. See Pome fruits 

F 112. Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) 

caterpillars are native pests of fruit, eg apple, 

avocado, citrus, guava, macadamia, mulberry, peach, 

ornamentals, eg camellia, Cupressus, oleander, red 

cedar, rose in coastal areas. Moths are grey, 

speckled, bell-shaped when at rest and have a 

wingspan of about 15 mm. Caterpillars are up to 25 

mm long, green, later cream, with 3 red-brown 

longitudinal bands and a dark brown head. They 

wriggle backwards if disturbed. Caterpillars on 

ornamentals feed from between joined leaves. They 

form silken shelters around feeding sites at the stem 

end of fruit, where they touch, or where they bore 

into, young, maturing and ripening fruit. Fruit may 

decay and fall prematurely. Infested fruit have a 

small hole in the rind and a shallow excavation 

beneath it. There is only 1 caterpillar per fruit. Very 

young caterpillars may penetrate fruit just before 

harvest and if undetected during packing, cause decay 

postharvest. Several generations occur each year. 

All stages occur in winter. Eggs are laid on leaves 

and fruit. Caterpillars pupate in a dead rolled leaf, a 

mass of flower debris, or webbed foliage. Activity is 

least in summer. Spread by moths (only from tree to 

tree), movement of infested fruit. Favoured by 

clustered fruit, sheltered situations, abundant spider 

webbing, autumn, winter and early spring. 

Pyralid moths (Pyralidae): Sorghum head 

caterpillar (Crytoblabes adoceta) bores into 

colouring Navels, Silletas and Joppas where fruits 

touch, fruits may drop. Yellow peach moth 

(Conogethes punctiferalis) caterpillars tunnel into 

ripening fruit which fall. See Stone fruits F 133. 

Navel orangeworm (Paramyelois transitella, 

Phycitidae) is not known to occur in Australia, but is a 

serious pest of fruit and nuts especially walnuts and 

almonds overseas. Caterpillars feed inside the fruit or 

nuts (Com. of Aust. 1984). 

Others: Blastobasid fruitborers (Blastobasis spp., 

Blastobasidae) tunnel into colouring navels, Silletas 

and Joppas mainly where fruits touch, causing fruit 

drop. Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri) 

caterpillars chew round window-pane holes in leaves. 

Citrus fruit borer (Citripestis sagittiferella) is a 

serious pest of Citrus spp. in the islands north of 

Australia (Com. of Aust 1995). See Trees K 13. 

Most caterpillars and their damage should be 

monitored at regular intervals before making a 

decision to apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 

1994). See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8. 

Citrus gall wasp 

Scientific name: Eurytomidae, Hymenoptera: 

Citrus gall wasp (Bruchophagus fellis). Gall wasp 

(B. muli) occurs in Papua New Guinea, if introduced 

it could become a pest (Com. of Aust. 1996). 

Host range: Cultivated citrus especially lemon, 

rough lemon and grapefruit, also finger lime. A 

different strain is thought to attack desert lime. 

Description and damage: Wasps are black, 

about 3 mm long. Larvae are white, legless, thickset, 

about 3 mm long and feed within galls on 

stems, leaf midribs, petioles and fruit stems 

(Fig. 117). Twigs may die, main stems of nursery 

stock may be attacked, heavy galling weakens 

older trees and may reduce fruiting. Fungal 

diseases, eg melanose, may invade dead tissues. 


larva, pupa, adult) with 1 generation each year. 

Wasps emerge from galls in spring, females lay 

> 100 eggs in green plant parts. Larvae feed on 

soft internal tissue during summer, autumn, winter 

and early spring, causing galls which are 

noticeable in December-January. Larvae reach 

their full size in autumn, and pupate in the galls. 

Wasps emerge leaving many small round holes. 

Overwintering: As larvae feeding within galls 

on the host plant. 

Spread: By movement of infested young trees, 

cuttings, by wasps flying, assisted by wind. They 

are weak fliers and tend to reinfest the same tree. 

Conditions favouring: Mild winter conditions 

and proximity to an existing infestation. Coastal 

districts of NSW and Qld. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Cut off and burn galls by end of 

August, before wasps emerge to lay eggs in new 

shoots. If pruning later, prunings must be burnt. 

Biological control: Native wasps (Megastigmus 

spp.) parasitise gall wasp larvae and may be 

trapped in galls, unable to emerge. At 

emergence, wasps may be killed by heat or ants. 

Galled twigs may be collected in spring, and 

held for 2-4 weeks in ventilated jars until wasps 

emerge. Parasitic wasps may be purchased. 

Plant quarantine: In areas where citrus gall wasp 

is a proclaimed pest under plant disease acts, 

owners or occupiers on land where infested trees 

are growing may be required to treat them in a 

prescribed manner. Advice should be obtained 

from the local department of agriculture. 


Pesticides: At present there is no satisfactory 

method of disinfesting nursery trees. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 37

CITRUS 

Citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella, 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) infests all cultivated 

citrus and finger lime. Moths are nocturnal, silver, 

about 2 mm long with a wingspan of 4.5 mm. 

Caterpillars are up to 3 mm long. They mine in 

leaves (Fig. 118) and are a major pest of trees 

< 4 years old (nursery trees, newly planted 

orchards). Young leaves may be severely 

distorted. Continual infestation of new leaves 

limits growth. Females lay eggs singly on leaves. 

Caterpillars pupate in rolled leaf edges. Favoured 

by successive bursts of new growth in summer to 

late autumn. In some states sale of infested 

nursery trees is illegal and all citrus consigned to 

areas where citrus leafminer does not occur, must 

be treated with a prescribed insecticide and be 

from a nursery certified to be free from infestation 

by an authorised inspector. Parasitic wasps 

(Citrostichus phyllocnistoides, Quadristriatus sp., 

Ageniaspis citricola) have been introduced. Wasps 

already here (Semielachner petiolatus, Cirrospilus sp.) 

give up to 10% parasitism. Petroleum oils 

applied during growth flushes (leaves are < 20 mm 

long) and discontinued when moth ceases to infest, 

forms a coating on leaves which female moths 

avoid, reducing egg laying (Beattie 1994, Moody 

1995). Monitor leaf mines in new growth flushes 

at regular intervals before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Azalea K 28. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera). eg 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), 

Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni) and 

island fruit fly (Dirioxa pornia) may be major and 

frequent pests of citrus. Mature and especially 

over-mature citrus of many varieties may be 

attacked when fruit fly is abundant (Hely et al. 

1982). Maggots may fail to develop in fruit, stung 

fruit are unmarketable and eventually fall. See 


Fruitpiercing moths (Othreis spp.) 

pierce rind, and suck sap from ripe fruit causing 

considerable fruit loss in some areas. The feeding 

hole is obvious but may be mistaken for damage 

by the orange fruit borer larva. Decay develops 

around the hole and fruit ripen prematurely and 

fall. Hand swatting with racquets after dusk is 

practised by some growers during crucial periods 

of attack usually 1-2 weeks long. See Fruit F 9. 

Katydids, grasshoppers and locusts 

(Orthoptera): Katydids (Tettigoniidae), eg citrus 

katydid (Caedicia strenua) and inland katydid 

(C. simplex), damage young fruit of Washington 

navels and Valencia but not lemons. Nymphs 

skeletonise young leaves and adults chew holes in 

older leaves, but damage is unimportant. Nymphs 

gnaw rind of young fruit causing disfigurement and 

fruit drop. Damaged older fruits remain on trees, 

as they grow, scars grey and flatten out. Monitor 

damage to fruit prior to applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). Others: Australian plague 

locust (Chortoicetes terminifera), giant 

grasshopper (Valanga irregularis), spur-throated 

locust (Austracris guttulosa) and wingless 

grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum). See 


Leafhoppers, 

planthoppers and treehoppers (Hemiptera) 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) are grey-brown, about 

5 mm long, and are numerous on summer grass 

around the skirts of coastal citrus trees in autumn. 

Their presence has been associated with 

oleocellosis type skin injury in oranges starting to 

colour in autumn. Prevent excessive grass growth 

around trees. Citrus jassid (Empoasca smithi) 

mainly feeds on Imperial mandarin and grapefruit. 


Flatid planthoppers (Flatidae): Citrus planthopper 

(Colgar peracutum) and green planthopper 

(Siphanta acuta) infest fruit stalks. An egg parasite 

(Achalcerinys) is an effective natural enemy of these 

planthoppers. See Trees K 15. 

Others: Green treehopper (Sextius virescens). 

Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa autralis) sucks sap 

from fruit stalks but this is unimportant. 

Some of these insects secrete honeydew which 

attracts ants and on which sooty mould grows. 

Monitor their presence and damage, prior to 




are major pests of thickly foliaged citrus trees. 

They are up to 6 mm long. Mealybugs suck sap 

from foliage, young twigs and fruits in protected 

sites, eg between touching fruits, under calyx lobes. 

Honeydew attracts ants and results in sooty mould 

which dirties fruit, causing end rots and fruit drop. 

Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) are mealy white, 

oval and 3 mm long. Anal filaments are < 1/4 of body 

length. Glandular exudate is yellow-orange. 

Citrophilous mealybug (Pseudococcus calceolariae) 

Anal filaments are about 1/3 of body length. 

Glandular exudate is claret; eggs are deposited in an 

irregular cottony sac. 

Longtailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus): 

Anal filaments are nearly as long as body and 

glandular exudate is colourless-yellow. 

Other species, eg Rastrococcus. 

Natural enemies include wasp, ladybirds and 

lacewings, some of which can be purchased. Sooty 

mould in the navels of mature oranges is difficult 

to remove by cleaning. Control ants and monitor 

mealybugs, at regular intervals before making a 

decision to release parasites or predators or apply 

an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). Petroleum oil 

causes minimum harm to natural enemies, and 

loosens sooty mould. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Mites (Acarina) may infest citrus (Fig. 119). 

Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) is a major, 

sporadic pest of lemon, mandarin and Valencia 

orange. Mites are about 0.25 mm long (Fig. 119). 

Leaf edges curl under, undersurfaces may bronze. 

Nursery trees may be lose vigour. Mites feed on 

sheltered inner faces of very small fruit causing 

silvery-green blemishes with sharkskin textures, low 

fruits are affected first. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Citrus flat mite (Brevipalpus lewisi, Tenuipalpidae) is 

red, flat, false spider mite, about 0.25 mm long with 

2 pairs of short legs flanking the narrow abdomen. 

They are rarely seen moving. Eggs are red, oval and 

usually laid singly. Their sap sucking causes grey, 

sand papery rind blemishes. See Grapevine F 62. 

F 38 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CITRUS 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Citrus red mite 

(Panonychus citri) is one of the world's worst pests 

of orange and lemon. Adult females resemble bean 

spider mite (Tetranychus ludeni) but are dark red and 

have long bristles on their backs and sides (Fig. 119). 

Mites are about 0.5 mm long and prefer light green 

maturing leaves. Their scratchy feeding marks give 

leaves, green bark and immature fruit a pale 

appearance. Leaf fall starts at the tops of trees. 

Mature orange and lemon fruit turn a pale yellow. 

Mites develop all year, but more slowly in cooler 

conditions. Very hot dry windy weather or prolonged 

periods of high humidity, kills many. Natural 

controls include predatory mites (Amblyseius 

elinae, A. deleoni, A. lentiginosus) and ladybirds 

(Halmus chaltbeus, Serangium bicolor, Stethorus 

nigripes). Treatment of minor infestations is 

unnecessary. Spot spray infested trees. Oriental mite 

(Eotetranychus orientalis) is a minor pest in drier 

inland areas. Damage is similar to that caused by 

twospotted mite. Stethorus ladybirds are predators. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) is a minor 

and sporadic pest of coastal Meyer lemons infesting 

leaves and fruit, causing mottled yellowing. See 


Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) vary in colour, are 

microscopic (0.18 mm long), worm-like, with 2 pairs 

of legs (Fig. 119). Citrus bud mite (Eriophyes 

sheldoni) is a minor pest of lemon. Foliage, shoots, 

flowers and fruit may be seriously distorted (Fig. 

119), nursery trees severely damaged. Mites are 

found in leaf axil buds on new shoots. On older 

wood, buds are small and may die. Secondary buds 

may develop and in turn become infested. Mites also 

occur in flower buds, and beneath the calyx lobes 

of fruit. Female deposits eggs singly where mites 

feed. Favoured by humid weather in coastal areas at 

any time of the year. Very high temperatures may kill 

them Frosty weather does not seem to harm them. 

Citrus rust mites (various species) damage green 

immature fruits in summer/autumn. On heavily 

infested young fruit, mites and cast skins look like 

dust. Blemished fruit look smaller, are sub- standard 

and deteriorate rapidly. Rust mites may also bronze 

leaves and green twigs, and severely damage 

young trees. Predatory ladybirds (Serangium 

bicolor, Stethorus nigripes, Halmus chalybeus), and a 

predatory mite (Amblyseius victoriensis) provide 

some control. Brown citrus rust mite (Tegolophus 

australis) is a major, frequent native pest of citrus, 

eg orange and mandarins. Adults are brown, broad 

and wedge-shaped. Mites prefer warm dry conditions, 

feeding mainly on leaf uppersurfaces and outer 

faces of fruit in the upper half of the tree. Fruit look 

shiny and brown. Females lay eggs in depressions on 

fruit and leaf uppersurfaces. Citrus rust mite 

(Phyllocoptruta oleivora) is a minor pest of grapefruit 

and lemon. Young green fruit inside and on lower 

sheltered parts of trees, inner surfaces of fruit, develop 

slightly rough, grey-brown blemishes with the outside 

edges deeper brown. It prefers humid conditions and 

temperatures < 35 o C. See Grapevine F 62. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph, 

adult) with many generations during summer/ 

autumn. Spread on nursery trees and introduced to 

young stock on buds. Also by wind, rain, visiting 

birds, insects, people and machinery. Some mites can 

crawl within and between trees. Favoured by 

excessive spraying or spray drift. Monitor mites, 

mite damage, and predatory mites and ladybirds at 

regular intervals, before deciding to release predators 

or apply a miticide (Brough et al. 1994). 


(Monolepta australis) quickly ruins blossoms, 

buds and new citrus foliage in spring, or leaves 

in summer. Small numbers are unimportant. An 

attack, if detected quickly, may be treated by 

lightly spraying buds, blossoms and young growth. 

Monitor beetles at regular intervals, if swarms are 

in the vicinity, before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit F 11, Trees K 15. 

Scales (armoured) 

Scientific name: Diaspididae, Hemiptera 

Host range: Most armoured scales suck sap from 

a range of woody plants; there are exceptions, eg 

white louse scale, which only infests citrus. 

Circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidium) is a 

minor pest of fruit, eg citrus, ornamentals, eg 

bottlebrush, holly, palm. Adult female scales are 

circular, up to 2 mm across, and purple-black. Their 

central point is slightly raised and surrounded by a 

red-brown band and grey margin. Male scales are 

oval, and mature winged adult males are orange with 

pale lilac wings. Scales suck sap from both leaf 

surfaces, and yellowish patches mark feeding sites. 

Leaves may fall. Scales may infest green twigs. 

Fruit are blemished by the presence of scales and lack 

of uniform colour. Favoured by coastal tropical and 

subtropical climates. An introduced small yellow 

wasp (Aphytis holoxanthus) effectively parasitises 

the scale. 

Purple scale, mussel scale (Lepidosaphes beckii) is 

a pest of fruit, eg thickly foliaged orange and 

grapefruit, ornamentals, eg camellia, holly. Adult 

female scales are 2-3 mm long, mussel-shaped, and 

moderately convex. They are tough, leathery, and 

purple-brown. Males are smaller and narrower. 

Branches from 3-25 mm in diameter are severely 

damaged and may die (large limbs weakened by 

purple scale may be invaded by white louse scale). 

Young trees are rarely damaged. Leaves show 

bright yellow blotches and may fall. Fruit 

infestation (Fig. 120) favours melanose. Favoured 

by warm, moist protected situations, through spring 

until late autumn. Hot dry conditions can kill purple 

scale. A parasitic wasp (A. lepidosaphes) usually 

keeps scale at a low level. Glover's scale 

(Insulaspis gloverii) infests thorns, leaf margins or 

petiole edges. Female scales are 2.5-3 mm long, 

narrow, straight or curved. They resemble purple 

scale and are often found with purple scale. 

Red scale, California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) is 

the principal pest of citrus in Australia. It is 

introduced and infests fruit, eg citrus, fig, grape, olive, 

pear, ornamentals, eg bottlebrush, ivy, rose, weeds, 

eg Bathurst burr. Adult female scales are circular, 

slightly conical, about 2.5 mm across and orange-red. 

Males are oval, smaller and paler. Adult winged 

males are light orange-yellow. Scales blemish fruit 

(Fig. 120), restrict fruit growth followed by splitting 

and fruit-fall, cause leaves to yellow and fall, bark to 

harden, followed by splitting and dieback of twigs 

and branches. Young trees may die. There are no 

eggs. As many as 45 six-legged nymphs are produced 

per female. They move out from under the female 

scale and crawl about for a few hours then settle 

permanently. Favoured by abundant light, dust on 

plants (from dusty roads), warm dry conditions, good 

rain in autumn after a dry summer and large numbers 

of mature citrus fruits on trees. Very hot conditions 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 39

CITRUS 

kill red scale. Low temperatures in winter in citrus 

areas have little effect. As many as 40-50% of 

crawlers may die in summer and many more in winter. 

Parasitic wasps (Aphytis spp.) and scale-eating 

ladybirds (Rhyzobius lophanthae) may be purchased. 

Yellow scale (A. citrina) is paler and flatter, 

infesting leaves and fruit, occasionally green twigs. It 

causes less damage to trees and mature fruit. 

San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) does 

not usually infest citrus. It may affect other fruit, 

eg apple, pear, quince, ornamentals, eg hawthorn, 

Prunus spp., tree lucerne. Adult scales are 1-2 mm 

across, roughly circular, and white to brownish. 

Adults and nymphs suck sap from leaves, limbs and 

fruit. Bark is rough, pink or ashy. Infested trees may 

die. On pome fruits, scales are surrounded by about 

1 mm wide and surrounded by a white halo. See 

Pome fruits F 121 (Fig. 156). Presence of scales on 

fruit will result in its rejection for export to Europe. 

Scale should be eradicated from every tree in an 

orchard. Label trees with infested fruit; inspect bark of 

trees during pruning, spray them, and check 3 months 

later. Oystershell scale (Q. ostreaeformis) and 

pear scale (Q. pyri) also occur but are not nearly so 

harmful. See Pome fruits F 116. 

White louse scale, snow scale (Unaspis citri) infests 

older citrus trees. Adult female scales are 1.5-2 mm 

long, brown-grey with grey margins, mussel-shaped 

with a lengthwise median ridge. Scales usually infest 

trunks and main branches but may spread to 

mature twigs, fruit and leaves causing yellow 

spotting and leaf fall. Trunks may look like 

whitewash. Twigs and branches may die. Bark of 

heavily infested trunks (Fig. 120) and limbs look dull 

and may crack as the tree grows. If untreated, 

infestations usually develop to a climax and then 

rapidly decline. Weakened limbs and twigs may be 

attacked by melanose and borers. There are several 

overlapping generations each year. Favoured by 

dry seasons. Seedling trees appear to be more 

susceptible than commercial varieties. The introduced 

predatory orange ladybird (Chilocorus 

circumdatus) may be purchased. Ladybird pupae lie 

parallel to each other, often at branch forks. Lichen 

and moss reduce scale in wet areas and where there 

are few parasites. 


nymphs, adult) with usually one to several 

overlapping generations per year. Some scales 

have no egg stage, eg red scale. Eggs are laid 

under the female scale cover. 

Overwintering: On infested hosts. 

Spread: By introduction of infested nursery 

stock, buds or grafts, cuttings, container plants, 

some exceptions, eg white louse scale, because it is 

so obvious. Spread within plantings by nymphs 

crawling from plant to plant if plants touch, birds, 

clothes, hands during harvest and handling, and by 

wind. Soft scales may also be spread by ants. 


Conditions favouring: Indiscriminate use of 

insecticides which kill natural enemies. Ants repel 

natural enemies.. Neglected plants. Depends on 

the scale, eg black scale dislikes hot dry weather. 

Control may be compulsory, eg control of red 

scale is compulsory under plant diseases acts. 

Monitor to see if scale infestations are present. 

Cultural methods: Heavily infested plants should be 

fertilised to restore vigour. 

Sanitation: If only a few plants are affected, prune 

infested parts off; lightly infested areas can be 

washed with soap using a soft brush. Some scales, 

eg nigra scale, are easily be removed by hand. 

Harvest fruit at the correct time. Fruit are greenish 

where scales were attached, and if covered with 

scales or sooty mould, are difficult to clean before 

packaging, especially if skin is rough, eg 

mandarins. 

Biological control: Most scales are controlled to 

varying degrees by weather, parasites, predators 

and diseases. Ants repel parasites and predators 

and very hot weather can kill many black scale 

crawlers. Parasites include introduced wasps 

(Aphytis lepidosaphes, A. columbi, A. chrysomphali, 

A. lingnanensis, A. melinus, Aspidiotiphagus sp., 

Comperiella bifasciata, Encarsia perniciosi) and 

native wasps (Aenasoidea varia, Rhopalencyrtoidea 

dubia). Some may be purchased. Wasps deposit eggs 

on or under scales, and larvae feed on scale. 

Parasitised scales are dark and there is an obvious exit 

hole. Wasps also kill scales by sucking their juice. 

Predators include ladybirds and their larvae which 

kill the scales and scatter the eggs, eg scale-eating 

ladybird (Rhizobius lophanthae), ladybirds (Orcus 

australasiae, O. chalybeus), steelblue ladybird 

(Halmus chalybeus), black ladybird (Rhizobius 

ventralis), mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus 

montrouzieri); green lacewing larvae (Chrysopa 

spp.) and scale-eating caterpillars (Batrachedra 

sp., Catablemma dunia). Fungal diseases in wet 

seasons, eg Nectria, a red-headed fungus (Fusarium 

coccophilum) and a felt fungus (Septobasidium sp.), 

attack scales. Verticillium lecanii can cause up to 

90% mortality of some scales. 

Resistant varieties: Not all citrus varieties are 

susceptible to a particular scale, eg red scale may 

attack all citrus, but lemons are preferred. 

Plant quarantine: Some scales on fruit, eg San Jose 

scale, are subject to quarantine regulations. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant scale-free 

nursery stock. 

Pesticides: Monitor scales, and their predators and 

parasites on fruit, trunks, branches or leaves, at 

regular intervals before making a decision to 

purchase parasites or predators or apply an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). Evergreen 

trees, eg citrus, may be sprayed with petroleum 

oil in summer when crawlers are active, before the 

protective scale covering has developed, later 

stages become very resistant. For some species of 

scales, insecticides do not kill the eggs and a 

repeat spray may be needed several weeks later 

after eggs have hatched. Some scales have only 

one generation of crawlers each year, while 

others have several. Exact timing of sprays 

usually depends on observation of crawler 

stages. Increased ant activity will often serve as 

a good guide to presence of crawlers of soft scales. 

Scale covers or ovisacs may remain on twigs long 

after scales have died. Live pink wax scales have 

a pink fluid when squashed, dead scales are hard 

and dry. Deciduous trees (< 3 m high), eg 

persimmon, ash, may be sprayed with petroleum 

oil when trees are bare in winter. Controlling the 

ants attracted to the honeydew produced by soft 

scales, may provide control. Thick grease/sticky 

material or insecticides/baits, applied around the 

base of trunks, traps or kill ants respectively. See 

Trees K 24. 

F 40 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CITRUS 

Scales (Eriococcidae, Hemiptera) are 

not usually pests of citrus. Most are host specific, 

eg gumtree scale (Eriococcus coriaceus) only 

attacks eucalypts. Australian species include some 

of the most bizarre insects, many forming 

spectacular galls on native trees, eg Apiomorpha 

on eucalypts. See Eucalypt K 63. 

Scales 

(Margarodidae, Hemiptera): 

Cottonycushion scale (Icerya purchasi) infests 

fruit, eg citrus, ornamentals, eg eucalypt, grevillea, 

hakea, pittosporum, wattle, weeds, also the 

parasitic native cherry (Exocarpos 

cupressiformis). Female scales are red-brown 

about 5 mm long and may be covered with a white 

mealy secretion. About 1,000 red oval eggs are 

laid beneath the female body into an ovisac which 

develops into a soft cottony white fluted mass up 

to 10 mm long (Fig. 121). Males are winged. 

Nymphs are bright red initially. Honeydew attracts 

ants and on which sooty mould grows, blackens 

the tree and fruit. Scales infest leaf undersurfaces, 

bark, small branches and trunks. Gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph and adult) with at 

least 2 main generations per year. Crawlers occur 

in spring and autumn. Favoured by temperate and 

subtropical climates, inland and coastal. Parasites 

and predators, especially vedalia ladybird 

(Rodolia cardinalis), mealybug ladybird 

(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) may be purchased. 

Control: See Citrus F 40. 

Scales (soft) 

Scientific name: Coccidae, Hemiptera 

Host range: Most attack many woody plants, eg 

black scale, pink wax scale, white wax scale, 

others only attack citrus, eg citricola scale. 

Description and damage: Direct injury to 

trees and shrubs by soft scales often seems to be 

minor. The most serious damage occurs because 

of the vast quantities of honeydew produced. 

Sap is high in sugar but low in protein. To obtain 

a balanced diet soft scales suck in large amounts of 

sap often many times their own body weight. 

Surplus sugary water is excreted as sticky 

honeydew and drips onto lower stems, leaves and 

fruit. Sooty mould grows on it. Extensive or 

persistent sooty mould reduces photosynthesis and 

inhibits normal colouring of leaves and fruit. 

Fruit is unsightly at harvest and cleaning before 

marketing can be difficult. Infested leaves may 

fall prematurely. Plants look black. Sooty mould 

will disappear only if the insects producing the 

honeydew are controlled. Sooty mould will then 

dry and flake off, hosing may assist removal. 

Honeydew attracts ants, especially when nymphs 

hatch in spring,. The ants protect the scales from 

natural enemies and move them from plant to plant. 

Black scale, brown olive scale (Saissetia oleae) is 

widespread and common. Adult female scales are 

dark brown, bun-shaped, and about 3 mm long and 

2 mm wide (Fig. 122). The surface is smooth but 

raised ridges form a 'H' on its back. Nymphs are 

initially light brown. Females may lay up to 2,000 

eggs, which look like little heaps of sand. Main 

hatches are usually in spring and autumn but there is 

some overlapping of generations. After hatching, 

nymphs crawl about and settle on twigs, leaves and 

fruit. Autumn hatched eggs may mature on the 

leaves. Favoured by temperate climates with 

moderate temperatures and high humidities. Very hot 

weather, eg 44 o C, kills scales. Parasites, predators 

and diseases may control black scale in plantings, eg 

on oleander, if ants are controlled. Nigra scale 

(Parasaissetia nigra) does not infest citrus but is a 

similar scale to black scale, infesting many plants, eg 

bottlebrush, casuarina, fig, hibiscus, lilly-pilly and 

indoor plants, eg ferns, orchids and palms. It is 

leathery, oval, black and 5 mm long. Nymphs are 

pale brown, and settle on young shoots, along leaf 

midribs or on adult covers. 

Chinese wax scale (Ceroplastes sinensis) infests 

Myrtaceae, eg lilly-pilly, melaleuca, tea-tree, and 

Rutaceae, eg citrus, pittosporum. Adult scales are 

grey, domed, waxy, and about 7 mm long with 

1 apical and 6 marginal dark spots when fully mature 

(in summer) and infest twigs. Mature females lay 

thousands of eggs beneath their bodies in summer, 

then die. Eggs hatch over several weeks in autumn, 

nymphs settle along veins,onleaf upper surfaces, 

and develop white marginal rays of wax (rosette 

stage). In early winter, scales move to stems and 

body wax changes to white, and for a time in spring 

half the wax is white and half is pink. Males are 

seldom seen. In Sydney there is 1 generation a year 

(Hely 1982). 

Pink wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens) infests fruit, eg 

avocado, citrus especially Mandarin, custard apple, 

mango, ornamentals, eg fern, holly, ivy, lilly-pilly, 

pittosporum. Adult females have a hard, pink cover, 

are 3-4 mm long, almost globular, and have a smooth 

slight depression on the top and two lobes on each 

side. Males are not known in NSW. Nymphs are 

purple-red. are present in spring and autumn and settle 

on leaves or young twigs. There are 2 generations 

each year. Only 700 eggs are laid by each female. 

High populations cause premature leaf fall reducing 

fruit size and tree vigour. Favoured by humid 

climates, and sheltered low-lying situations. Native 

wasps exert considerable control. An introduced 

wasp (Anicetus beneficus) can be purchased. 

Insecticides are rarely needed. Florida wax scale 

(Ceroplastes floridensis) is a sporadic pest infesting 

leaves and twigs and is similar to pink wax scale. A 

wasp parasite (Scutellista cyanaea) is the main 

natural control. 

Soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum) is a minor and 

common pest of citrus, ferns and orchids. Adults 

are 4 mm long, flat, pale brown and cluster in small 

colonies on isolated branches, twigs, leaf midribs 

and stalks and stems (Fig. 122). Parasitic wasps 

(Diversinervus elegans, Microterys flavus) are 

important in restricting its population. Isolated 

colonies can be cut off. 

White wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor) is a minor 

pest of citrus especially grapefruit, and persimmon. 

Adult scales are irregularly shaped and up to 10 mm 

long, 8 mm wide and 7 mm high. They are enveloped 

in soft white wax and infest twigs and fruit (Fig. 

122). There are 1-2 generations each year. In late 

spring the mature female deposits up to 3,000 eggs in 

a mass beneath her body then dies. Nymphs settle on 

foliage and develop white marginal rays of wax 

(rosette stage). After 4-5 weeks, they crawl back to 

twigs where they settle permanently and secrete the 

wax cover. Favoured by vigorous trees, and 

subtropical and temperate climates with a relatively 

high humidity in summer. Scales are killed by high 

summer temperatures. Wasp parasites (Anicetus 

communis, Paraceraptrocerus nyasicus, Tetrastichus 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 41

CITRUS 

ceroplastae) lay eggs in scales 4-5 weeks old. 

Parasitism may reach 90% and the scale is now 

unimportant. Scales are attended by the green tree ant 

(Oecophylla smaragdins) which protects scales from 

natural controls. Indian white wax scale 

(Ceroplastes ceriferus) is similar to white wax scale 

and infests Dodonaea, some ferns and some garden 

perennials, but not citrus. 

Others: Green coffee scale (Coccus viridis) may 

infest leaves and twigs. There are several parasites 

and predators. A fungus (Verticillium lecanii) can 

cause up to 90% mortality of the scale during wet 

weather. Hemispherical scale (Saissetia coffeae) 

is a minor pest infesting leaves twigs and fruit stalks. 

Long soft scale (Coccus longulus) infests leaves, 

twigs and fruit stalks, especially of Imperial and 

Ellendale mandarins. Pulvinaria scale (Pulvinaria 

cellulosa) is a minor pest infesting leaves, twigs and 

fruit. Citricola scale (Coccus pseudomagnoliarum) 

is a minor pest of citrus in some areas, infesting 

young foliage and twigs. Scale covers are similar 

to soft brown scale but mature adults are grey, larger 

and more convex. Nymphs are oval, very flat, 

yellow-green and transparent. After egg-laying 

females die, they become brown and detach from the 

twig leaving a white oval mark. 

Control: See Citrus F 40. 


Citrus rust thrips, orchid thrips (Chaetonaphothrips 

orchidii) infest citrus fruit mainly in low lying 

isolated orchards. Overseas it also occurs on 

greenhouse plants. Adult thrips are similar to 

banana rust thrips (C. signipennis) and are active, 

yellow with black markings on the narrow fringed 

wings. If disturbed, they move rapidly into sheltered 

positions or exposed to light. Their rasping and 

sucking causes brown raised rust marks on the rind 

between touching fruit. Predatory thrips may 

exert some control. Where rust thrips is known to 

occur, monitor fruit for their presence prior to 


Banana F 25. 

Others: Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis) feed on ripe fruit or mature leaves 

where 2 surfaces (leaf or fruit) touch. Grey patches 

and black dots of thrips excreta disfigure rind, 

which becomes flaccid after harvest. See Greenhouses 

N 24. Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) may cause an 

oval silvery skin blemish at the pistil end of ripe 

oranges after fruit set. Favoured by proximity to 

old infested crops, eg peas, as citrus fruit setting. See 

Onion M 68. Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) feeds 

on petals, pistils and developing ovaries of citrus 

blossoms in spring. Petals brown, small blisters 

develop on pistils due to egg-laying but do not seem 

to affect fruit setting. See Roses J 6. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) of 

several species emerge from pupae in the soil in 

spring and feed on shoots, leaves, rind and bark 

of citrus. Leaves have serrated edges. Larvae feed 

on roots but cause little damage. Larvae and 

pupae are found in soil under infested trees. 

Apple weevil (Otiorhynchus cribricollis) is about 

9 mm long, shiny and dark brown. They climb trees 

at night to feed on foliage and shelter in the soil by 

day. Young trees may be stripped almost completely. 

Insecticides may be applied to butts and lower limbs 

when damage is seen. See Pome fruits F 116. 

Citrus fruit weevil (Neomerimnetes sobrinus) 

damages rind of young fruit, mainly oranges. 

Citrus leafeating weevil (Eutinophaea bicristata) is 

grey-brown and similar to dicky rice weevil but can 

fly. Males lack foreleg spines. Leaves on lower 

parts of infested trees may be grey from weevils 

chewing small irregular patches from both surfaces, 

leaves fall. Young fruits may be attacked. 

Dicky rice weevil (Maleuterpes spinipes) is a native 

pest of native and cultivated Rutaceae, especially 

orange, grapefruit. Weevils are brown, up to 3 mm 

long, with grey-white marks on the back and legs. 

Males have long curved spines at the middle of each 

front femur. When shaken from a tree they feign 

death. They cannot fly. Leaf margins, are sawtoothed, 

and rind of young fruits causing a network 

of irregular white furrows which grey as fruit matures. 

Probably 2 generations each year. During dry 

weather they feed on fallen ripe fruits, bark at the 

trunk base, or exposed surface roots. After rain they 

swarm up into trees. Eggs are laid in the soil. 

Spread by crawling and on nursery trees, or in bins 

or boxes used for harvesting. Favoured by good 

rains in spring/summer. Larvae prefer heavy loam to 

sandy soils. Banding is not successful, weevils may 

be sprayed when they emerge from soil. 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) is a 

minor pest of citrus. Weevils chew leaf edges, 

preferring replant trees in old orchards. Eggs laid 

underneath fruit calyces are a quarantine pest for 

exports to Japan. An egg parasite (Fidobia citri) is 

important. Monitor trees from which fruit will be 

exported. Skirt these trees in spring, control weeds 

and spray trunks or apply sticky bands to prevent 

weevils from accessing trees. See Roses J 6. 

Whitestriped weevil (Perperus lateralis) is about 

6 mm long, smooth and light grey with a white stripe 

running along each wing cover. In spring they chew 

buds and young shoots slowing growth of young 

trees. Weevils feed at night, but may be found during 

the day in sheltered situations, eg curled leaves, under 

bark. Favoured by plants growing on sandy soils, 

and dry weather. Rain seems to disperse the weevils. 

Insecticides provide adequate control. 

Others: Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) 

chew squarish pieces of green bark from branches 

and young buds and its larvae bore in trunks. See 

Trees K 11, K 17. Fruit-tree root weevil (Leptopius 

squalidus) is a minor pest of citrus and feeds on 

foliage. Female weevils are about 20 mm long, greybuff, 

with a typical weevil snout. Larvae bore in deep 

roots. See Fruit F 11. 



Australian citrus whitefly (Orchamoplatus citri) 

infests most citrus. Adults are about 2.5 mm long, 

with powdery wings. Females lay oval yellowish 

eggs in circular patterns on undersides of 

young leaves. Nymphs at first are flat and scalelike. 

Nymphs and adults suck sap mainly from leaf 

undersurfaces but cause no direct injury. They 

produce honeydew resulting in sooty mould which 

dirties fruit and foliage. Favoured by warm, moist 

weather during spring and autumn, new foliage. 


vaporariorum). Citrus yellow fly (Asterobemesia 

helyi) is a pest of citrus trees in Sydney. 


F 42 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CITRUS 

Others: Giant termite (Mastotermes 

darwiniensis) is a minor pest in north Qld. Young 

trees may be killed. See Trees K 17. 


The common garden snail (Helix aspersa) when 

young, skeletonises young leaves and grazes on 

rind of green citrus fruit. Older snails eat holes in 

leaves reducing them to veins, and gouge circular 

holes in green and ripening fruits. Green bark is 

not attacked but dry bark of twigs is eaten, leaving 

the wood white. Other species may also attack 

citrus. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Ants (Formicidae) are attracted to some sap 

sucking insects, eg soft scales. They also nibble 

edges of young citrus leaves which become 

cupped as they grow. Damage is minor. See Trees 

K 19, Turfgrasses L 8. 

Environment: Freezing of mature lemons, 

Washington navel oranges and grapefruit causes 

rind break-down, often followed by secondary 

fungal growth. Heavy sudden frost may kill 

foliage and young twigs and cause bark to split 

longitudinally and gape. Secondary melanose may 

cause dieback. Continued cold conditions, cause 

the juice sacs in immature fruit to dry out, but no 

injury to rind. Trees stressed due to poor root 

systems or drought, are susceptible. Lemon is the 

most frost susceptible citrus fruit commonly 

grown. Meyer lemon and most mandarin cultivars 

are more resistant to cold injury than orange. Do 

not prune until all danger of frost has passed. A 

succession of moderate frosts and cold winds 

cause foliage curling. Foliage immature at the 

onset of cold weather, may become yellow, but regreens 

during warm spring weather. Alternation 

of warm day and cool night temperatures during 

spring is thought to cause the first flush of spring 

growth of Wheeny grapefruit to crinkle (the midvein 

or the leaf margins or both fail to expand 

fully). Leaf undersurfaces, exposed to the sun, 

become bleached and covered with rust coloured 

spots and blotches. Rind splitting occurs in lemons 

in autumn when there has been a very rapid 

buildup of sugar in the fruit, so rapid that the skin 

has been unable to grow quickly enough to contain 

it. A combination of warm days, when the fruit 

expands, and cold nights, when it contracts, adds 

to the problem by putting further strain on the skin. 

Splitting in citrus may also be associated with 

fungal diseases and severe copper deficiency. 

Hail may damage fruit. Winds lash young and old 

leaves against thorns, dead twigs, branches. As 

young leaves mature, bruised tissue fails to grow 

causing puckering. Affected shoots fail to reach 

their full size. Wind may cause 50-60% of rind 

damage. Damaged young fruits develop scaly 

patterns as they mature. Injured lemons often 

show some thickening and ridging of the rind. 

Plant windbreaks, which reduce water loss and 

modify the micro-climate, eg by smoothing out 

fluctuations of temperature. Overhead irrigation 

efficiency, shading and tree drying time may be 

increased which may increase likelihood of 

diseases and pests. Prolonged wet weather in 

autumn, causes the rind of maturing navel oranges 

and some mandarin cultivars to absorb excess 

water. Minute cracks develop on rind. Affected 

tissue becomes watersoaked, brown and may be 

invaded by secondary fungi. Fruit develop an offflavour 

and fall. Favoured by the application of 

white oil earlier in the season and quick-acting 

fertilisers especially in autumn. Drying out of 

lemons can also be caused by water stress during 

winter. 

Mutations or sports are caused by genetic 

alterations which occur in meristem cells. They 

include changes in leaf size, shape and form, leaf 

crinkling in Eureka lemon, leaf variegation, 

elongated, corrugated, pebbled or coloured 

sections of fruit, abnormal shoot growth, twisted, 

flattened or galled stems, and thickened rough 

bark. A chimera is the display of genetically 

different tissues in the same plant or part of a 

plant, eg patches of tissue with colour, texture or 

structure different from the normal. 


Citrus are gross feeders and subject to many 

deficiencies and toxicities. Some are difficult to 

identify visually. Soil analysis should be done 

before planting and tissue analyses regularly after 

planting. Tissue analysis standards are available 

for citrus (Weir and Cresswell 1993). Copper 

deficiency (exanthema) is not common and is hard 

to recognise. Symptoms include occasional giant 

leaves, dark gum pockets on leaves, bark and fruit, 

and multiple buds. Small pale fruit with a hard 

skin may split and gum. Iron deficiency causes 

yellowing between the veins of new leaves (Fig. 

123). Severely affected plants may have leaves 

that are entirely yellow or even white, smaller than 

usual, and develop tip burn. Nitrogen deficiency 

causes pale yellow leaves which fall prematurely, 

poor fruit set, small-sized fruit, and poor growth. 

Phosphorus deficiency causes fruit to become 

rough and puffy. Potassium deficiency causes 

yellowing and scorching of mature leaves which 

fall prematurely and dieback of twigs in the 

growth flush. Excess can reduce the quality of 

Valencia oranges and grapefruit. Magnesium 

deficiency occurs on older leaves as yellow 

blotches which appear on either side of the main 

vein and then enlarge until the only green 

remaining is at the tip of the leaf or a V-shape near 

the base (Fig. 123). The entire leaf may yellow. 

Manganese deficiency occurs mostly on alkaline 

soils. and causes pale green mottling between dark 

green veins on spring growth flush. Zinc 

deficiency (mottle leaf or little leaf) causes yellow 

mottling of new growth, eventually only the midrib 

and main veins remain green, new leaves are small 

and narrow (Fig. 123). Fruit becomes rounded and 

small. Nutrient toxicity: Excess soluble salts, eg 

of manganese and boron, in soil reduces growth, 

yield and increase leaf drop. Leaves may develop 

brown spots and tip burn. Prevent by irrigating 

frequently and use sufficient water to wet the 

whole soil profile. Water nursery plants routinely 

to cause run-off from the base of the container. In 

the field, use flood irrigation or under-tree 

sprinklers to minimise salt deposits on leaves. 

Select rootstock and/or scion varieties of citrus, 

grape and avocado with resistance to salt. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 43

CITRUS 

Pesticide injury: 

Copper sprays if 

applied too frequently, or at too high a rate when 

trees are stressed from drought, may cause delayed 

and reduced flowering in spring, and loss of some 

leaves the next winter. Twigs may die, fruit is 

paler, coarser and smaller than normal. Bordeaux 

mixture may cause small star-shaped slightly 

raised spots on leaf uppersurfaces, and pale-brown 

superficial stains on rind. Mineral oils added to 

sprays may cause more severe injury with tear 

staining on fruit. Too high a rate or too frequent 

applications of petroleum oils sprays may reduce 

fruit quality and blossom. Insecticide emulsion 

sprays may blemish fruit. Dimethoate (Rogor ® ) 

may injure Seville orange, kumquat, Meyer lemon. 

Others: Creasing or puffing causes irregular 

groves on rind and the collapse and sinking of tissue 

beneath. Occurs in Washington navel oranges and late 

Valencia oranges. It may be associated with overmaturity, 

but its precise cause is unknown. Affected 

fruit are more liable to Pencillium moulds. Dry fruit, 

or granulation is the hardening of the walls of the 

juice sacs and the presence of air between them. Occurs 

on Valencia orange and Ellendale mandarins. 

Favoured by over-mature fruit on young vigorous 

trees. Earlier picking avoids losses. Oleocellosis is 

caused by slight rind damage which causes oil to stain 

tissue. In green fruit, areas around the oil glands, are 

round and slightly sunken. As fruit ripens, spotted areas 

remain green. Injury on ripe fruit is irregular in shape 

and brown. Fruit on trees lightly injured by wind may 

also develop oleocellosis. Do not pick fruit when it is 

wet with rain or dew as oil cells may rupture. Paper 

nest wasps (Polites spp.) and webbing spiders 

(Ixeuticus longinquus) may annoy pickers. 


Alexander, D. McE. 1983. Some Citrus Species and 

Varieties in Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Anon., Aust. Hort. Corp., Sydney. 

Assessing, Marketing and Branding Opportunities for 

Australian Citrus Fruits. 1992 

A Survey of Citrus Packing Costs & Strategies to 

Improve Profitability. 1991. 

Citrus Pests and Diseases : Quality Management Guide 

for Field Operations. 1994. 

Quality Management Guide :Citrus. 1992. 

The Australian Citrus Industry : Situation and Export 

Marketing. 1993 



and Vines for Garden, Farm and Orchard. 4th ed. 


Beattie, G. A. C., Barkley, P., Weir, R. and Gellatley, J. 

G. 1984. Citrus in the Home Garden : Pests, 

Diseases and Nutrient Disorders. NSW Agric. 

Sydney. 

Beattie, B. B., McGlasson, W. B. and Wade, N. L. (ed.). 



Agriculture & Fisheries, Melbourne. 

Beattie, A. 1994. Controlling Citrus Leafminer and 

Scale with IPM. Aust. Hort. Jan. 

Blaasquez, C. H. 1993. Correlation of Densitometric 

Measurements of Aerial Color Infrared Photography 

with Visual Grades of Citrus Groves. Plant Disease, 

May. 


Book. Australasian Biological Control/RIDC/Qld 







Citrus Canker. No. 12. 1996. 

Citrus Fruit Borer. No. 84. 1995. 

Citrus Dieback and Greening. No. 26. 1982. 

Gall Wasp. No. 82. 1996. 

Mal Secco Disease of Citrus. No. 67. 1990 

Navel Orangeworm. No. 41. 1984. 

OSP Strain of Citrus Tristeza. No.76. 1992. 


Citrus:333-340, Essential Oils:560-562. Morescope 


Davies, F. S. and Albrigo, L. G. 1994. Citrus. CAB 

International, Paris. 

Dick, A. 1993. Set a Bug to Catch a Bug. Aust. Hort., 

Oct. 



Frazer, L. R. and Broadbent, P. 1979. Virus and Related 

Diseases of Citrus in NSW. NSW Agric., Sydney. 



Godden, G. 1988. Growing Citrus Trees. Lothian Pub., 

Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 

Hicks, P. 1988. All about Lemon Trees. The Five Mile 

Press, Fitzroy, Vic. 

Moody, H. 1995. Controlling Citrus Leafminer and 

Scale with IPM. Aust. Hort., Jan. 

Murray, B. (ed.). 1987. Protect Your Citrus. Qld Dept. 




and Vegetable. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. Available 


Owen-Turner, J. C. and Shaw, R. G. 1991. Propagating 

Citrus in Containers. Qld Dept. of Primary 









Ray, R., Walheim, L. 1980. Citrus : How to Select, 

Grow and Enjoy. HP Books, Tucson, Arizona. 

Revelant, L. 1994. Pest Monitoring Vital for Improved 

Quality. Successful Horticulture, Aug. 

Rocha-Pena, M. A., Lee, R. F., Lastra, R., Niblett, C. L., 

Ochoa-Corona, F. M., Garnsey, S. M. and Yokomi, 

R. K. 1995. Citrus Tristeza Virus and Its Aphid 

Vector Toxoptera citricola : Threats to Citrus 

Production in the Carribean & Central & North 

America. Plant Disease, Vol.79(5), May. 

Saint, J. 1990. Citrus Varieties of the World : An 

Illustrated Guide. Sinclair International, England. 

Smith, D. 1990. Integrated Pest Management in 

Queensland Citrus. Aust. Citrus News. 66(12),6-12. 

Smith, D. and Papacek, D. F. 1991. Recent Advances in 

Integrated Pest Management in Citrus in 

Queensland, in Sustainable Management of Pests, 

Diseases and Weeds. Proc. 1st Nat. Conf. Aust. Soc. 

of Hort. Sci., Sydney, 375-383. 

Stirling, G. 1983. Citrus Nematode on Citrus. Fact 

Sheet, Dept of Agric. SA. 




Thorton, I. R., El-Zeftawi, B. M. 1983, Culture of 

Irrigated Citrus Fruits. DARA, Vic. 

Timmer, L. W., Agostini, J. P., Zitko, S. E. and Zulfigar, 

M. 1994. Postbloom Fruit Drop, An Increasingly 

Prevalent Disease of Citrus in the Americas. Plant 

Disease Vol.78(4). April. 

F 44 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Walker, R. R. (ed.). 1988. Citrus Breeding Workshop. 





Whiteside. J. O., Garnsey. S. M. and Timmer, L. W. 

(ed.). 1988. Compendium of Citrus Diseases. APS 

Press, Minnesota. 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Abnormalities in Citrus 

Annual Citrus Management Program Sunraysia 

Brown Spot of Mandarin 

Chemical Control of Weeds in Citrus 

Citrus Black Spot 

Citrus Blast 

Citrus Budwood Scheme 

Citrus Establishment 

Citrus Gall Wasp 

Citrus Industry in NSW 

Citrus in the Garden 

Citrus Leaf Miner 

Citrus Mould Control with Benzimidazole Fungicides 

Citrus Mould Control with SOPP and Diphenyl 

Citrus Nutrition 

Citrus Petroleum Spray Oils 

Citrus Rootstocks 

Citrus Scale Insects 

Citrus Soil Management 

Citrus Spray Guide : Coastal Districts 

Keeping Limes Green in Storage 

Inland Citrus Irrigation Techniques & Developments 

Iron and Zinc Deficiencies in Citrus 

Lemon Growing 

Lemon Scab 

Lime Growing 

Magnesium and Manganese Deficiencies in Citrus 

Mandarin Growing 

Mechanical Rind Damage in Citrus Fruit 

Melanose of Citrus 

Mite Pests of Citrus 


NSW 

Phytophthora Diseases of Citrus 

Septoria Spot of Citrus 

Spined Citrus Bug 

Sudden Death of Citrus 

SA Fact Sheets 

Citrus Leaf Analysis 

Citrus Nematode on Citrus 

Comparing Citrus Rootstocks 

General Pests of Citrus 

Oils for Red Scale Control 

Pests of Citrus : Brown Garden Snail 

Practical Control of Citrus Rind Disorders 

MANAGEMENT 

Vic Agnotes 

Alternate Bearing of Valencia Orange 

Aphid Pests of Peaches, Cherries and Citrus 

Biological Control of Red Scale on Citrus 


Citrus Blast 

Citrus Butterfly 

Citrus Collar Rot 

Citrus Diseases : Anthracnose, Pit & Septoria Spot 

Citrus Gall wasp 

Citrus in the Home Garden 

Citrus Leaf Analysis 

Citrus Nematode on Citrus 

Citrus : Non-Parasitic Disorders 

Citrus : Pests, Diseases and their Control 

Citrus Pests : Whitefly and Small Citrus Butterfly 

Citrus Pit 

Collar Rot 

Controlling Snails in Citrus & Vines 

Hedging and Skirting of Citrus 

How to Collect Samples : Nematode Analysis Groves 

& Vines 

Lightbrown Apple Moth in Orchards 

Long-tailed Mealybug on Vines and Citrus 

Magnesium Deficiency in Citrus 

Maturity of Citrus 

Nematodes in Horticultural crops in the N. Mallee 

Non-Parasitic Disorders of Citrus 

Postharvest Mould Control in Citrus Fruit 

Propagation of Citrus 

Red and Yellow Scale of Citrus 

Sources of Propagating Material for Citrus 

The Control of Fruit Drop and Rind Ageing in Navel 

Oranges, Grapefruit and Mandarins 

WA Farmnotes 

Brown Rot of Citrus 

Citrus Fruit Splitting in Autumn 

Citrus Leaf Miner 


Australian Citrus News 

Australian Citrus Exporters Assoc. 

Australian Citrus Growers Federation (ACGF) 

Australian Citrus Improvement Assoc. 

Australian Citrus Industry Council (ACIC) 

Australian Citrus Processors Assoc. (ACPA) 

Australian Citrus Propagation Assoc. 

Australian Fruit Juice Assoc. (AFJA) 

Central Coast Citrus Growers Assoc. 

Citrus Board of SA 

Citrus Industry Council 

National Citrus Packers Assoc (NCPA) 

National Citrus Research Liaison Committee 

Queensland Citrus Bulletin (Qld DPI) 

Riverina Quality Management Program (RQM) 

Various Regional Citrus Growers Assoc. 

See Fruit and nuts F 15, Preface xii 



CITRUS 

Citrus fruits, especially oranges, are one of the world's major fruit crops. There are so many different types of 

citrus it is not possible to generalise. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). 

Selection 

Citrus are grown for fresh fruit, dried fruit, fruit juice, essential oils and for ornamental purposes, eg in containers. 

Horticultural requirements: Citrus are generally self-fertile; an exception is some mandarins which will set 

more and produce larger fruit if cross-pollinated by other mandarin varieties (Baxter and Tankard 1990). 

Rootstocks and scion must be compatible. Choose varieties which produce the required product quality for 

the proposed market. Resistant varieties: Select rootstocks with some tolerance to relevant problems, eg 

tristeza, exocortis and xyloporis viruses, citrus nematode, salt, cold, available pHs and Phytophthora; also 

suitability to chosen soils, mycorrhiza dependency (Glomus spp.). Plant quarantine: It is an offence under 

various plant diseases acts to move citrus trees and propagation material to prevent the spread of viruses 

diseases, citrus gall wasp and other diseases and pests. Disease-free planting material: Selected budwood is 

obtainable from various Citrus Budwood Schemes. These buds are horticulturally sound and stable and have 

been indexed and are free from viruses. 

Establishment/Maintenance 

Pest monitoring is essential. Growers should monitor pests, parasites and predators and the damage caused, 

or employ a trained person to do so. New techniques of monitoring various aspects of citrus growth are being 

developed all the time, eg aerial colour infrared photography has been used to detect stress and growth 

(Blaasquez 1993). Scale insects are the most important pests of citrus, blemishing fruit and seriously 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 45

CITRUS 

harming trees. For home gardeners, lemons are top of the list of problem plants, eg dying trees or fruit drop. 

Propagation is by budding on to seedling rootstock. Cultural methods: Match sites with the citrus varieties 

to be grown. Generally citrus prefer light sandy loam soils high in organic matter with a pH between 6.0-7.5. 

Heat is one of the prerequisites for ripening. Citrus trees do not tolerate frosts but some are more sensitive 

than others; the type of rootstock used also influences frost tolerance. Trees need good of air circulation but 

must be protected from strong winds; they require moisture throughout the year but must have good drainage. 

Trees need plenty of light. As tree size varies depending on species and rootstock, adequate space must be 

provided. Sanitation: Recommended sanitation practices, eg skirting trees, controlling dust, must be carried 

out. Biological control: There are many parasites and predators available for the control of citrus pests 

(Broadley and Thomas 1995, Brough et al. 1994, Swaine et al. 1991). Pesticides/Pest management: 

Management guides containing recommendations for disease, pest and weed control and growth regulators are 

available for commercial growers and home gardeners for the various citrus growing regions of Australia. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Colour does not indicate maturity. Key factors for processors include soluble solids content of the 

fruit, juice yields and sugar:acid ratios. Plant quarantine: Postharvest disinfestation of citrus for export may be 

required, eg for Fuller's rose weevil. Storage: Generally citrus fruit are stored in a cool, dry place or 

refrigerated. The Australian Horticultural Corporation (AHC) encourages citrus packing houses and growers to 

obtain accreditation in the Australian Horticultural Quality Certification Schemes (AHQCS). Companies can be 

certified by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) as operating a management system which 

complies with requirements of the Australian Standard (AS/NZ ISO 9002:1994) (Coombs 1995). 

Fig. 114. Scab, lemon scab (Sphaceloma 

fawcetti). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 115. Left : Bronze orange bug (Musgraveia sulciventris). 

Right : Spined citrus bug (Biprorulus bibax). 

Fig. 116. Caterpillars. Top : Large citrus butterfly 

(Princeps aegeus). Lower : Small citrus butterfly 

(Eleppone anactus). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 117. Galls caused 

by the citrus gall wasp 

(Bruchophagus fellis). 

Fig. 118. Leaf mines caused 

by the citrus leafminer 

(Phyllocnistis citrella). 

Ampol Rural, Australia. 

Fig. 119. Mites and eggs. Left : Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) and egg. Centre : Citrus red mite 

(Panonychus citri) and egg. Right : Eriophyid mite and damage by the citrus bud mite (Eriophyes sheldoni). 

F 46 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CITRUS 

Fig. 120. Armoured scales (Diaspididae). Left : Purple scale (Lepidosaphes beckii). 

Centre : Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). Right : White louse scale (Unaspis citri). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 121. Scales 

(Margarodidae). 

Cottony cushion scale 

(Icerya purchasi). 


Fig. 122. Soft scales (Coccidae). Left : Black scale (Saissetia oleae). Centre : Soft 

brown scale (Coccus hesperidum). Right : White wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor). 


Fig. 123. Nutrient deficiencies. Left : Iron deficiency. Centre : Magnesium deficiency. 

Right : Zinc deficiency. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 47

Currants 

Ribes spp. 


Black currant (R. nigrum) 

Red currant (R. sativum) 


Family Saxifragaceae 

Often known as bush fruits to distinguish them 

from trailing berries (Rubus spp.) 


Parasitic 



Crown gall 


Fungal leaf and cane spots 

Grey mould 






Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Currant borer moth 

Mites 

Scales 

Plague thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Overseas cucumber mosaic virus (transmitted by at 

least 6 species of aphids) and gooseberry vein 

banding virus (transmitted specifically by currant and 

gooseberry aphids) may affect currants and gooseberry 

respectively. Black currant reversion (now not 

thought to be a virus or virus-like disease) is not known 

to occur in Australia. See Fruit F 4, Currants F 49. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) may 

develop on cuttings. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Fungal leaf and cane spots: Septoria leaf 

spot (Septoria ribis) is the most important 

disease of currants in Australia during wet 

weather in spring and summer. Grey angular spots 

with purple margins develop on leaves, which 

may brown and fall early. Spots develop on 

canes. Fruit may be infected and fall, reducing 

yields for the current and next season. Spray at 

budburst, preventative sprays may be essential in 

wet weather. Mycosphaerella grossulariae 

affects English gooseberry. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) affects flowers, 

fruit, leaves, shoots and limbs of English goose 

berry and currants during wet weather. Leaves 

wilt, turn brown and fall, leaving limbs bare. 

Twigs and limbs in turn are attacked and the plant 

dies. Flowers and fruit stalks affected during 

flowering die rapidly. Green and ripe fruit develop 

a brown rot that becomes covered with masses of 

dry greyish spores. Ripe fruit can be infected by 

touching a dead petal, the ground or dead leaves. 

Severely affected bushes may be completely 

removed, and all leaves and branches burnt. 

Fungicides during blossoming and fruiting are 

usually required. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew, American gooseberry 

mildew (Sphaerotheca mors-uvae) infects 

gooseberry and black currants (overseas also red 

currants) during spring, winter and autumn. 

Leaves and shoots develop white powdery 

patches during spring, which turn brown with age, 

stunt the plant and reduce crop production. Leaves 

and shoot tips may become distorted. Tips of 

shoots may die, reducing fruiting wood for the 

following year and facilitating invasion by other 

fungi. After leaf fall, infected shoots, remain 

covered with a brown felt-like fungal growth. 

Infected fruit may be distorted and unmarketable. 

General: Lower parts of bushes are affected first. 

Shoots and berries of gooseberries can be severely 

infected. Infection on black currant in the field is 

less severe than that on gooseberry. Overseas 

losses on black currants are mainly due to 

restricted shoot growth which hinders flower and 

consequently fruit production in the following 

year. Direct berry infection is only a minor cause 

of crop loss on black currant. Control is difficult. 

Minimise nitrogenous fertiliser to prevent soft lush 

shoots which are very susceptible to disease. 

Prune bushes to improve air movement and 

reduce humidity, prune out and burn infected 

shoots in autumn to reduce overwintering lesions. 

Plant powdery mildew-free transplants, treat 

gooseberry transplants before planting to prevent 

the introduction of mildew into new areas. If there 

are no nearby sources of infection, plantings could 

remain free from mildew indefinitely. Fungicide 

sprays during the growing season protect 

developing fruit and limit carryover into next 

season. The need for later sprays depends on the 

weather. Growth regulators which retard shoot 

growth are being researched to provide partial 

control on gooseberry. Dormant sprays have been 

used overseas to reduce the amount of 

overwintering powdery mildew on black currant. 



Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.) may occur on 

English gooseberry. See Trees K 4. 


phaseolina) also occurs on English gooseberry. 

Branches are attacked one by one, leaves turn 

yellow, fruit stops growing, leaves fall, bushes die. 

Roots do not seem to be affected. Rot is favoured by 

reduced vigour due to inadequate or ineffective 

irrigation or boron deficiency. See Vegetables M 7. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) may affect 

English gooseberry. See Vegetables M 9. 


F 48 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CURRANTS, ENGLISH GOOSEBERRY 

Others: Dieback (Botryosphaeria ribis) on 

English gooseberry, wood rot (Nectria cinnabarina). 


Foliar nematodes, leaf and bud nematodes 

(Aphelenchoides spp.) infest some varieties of 

black currants and can be spread on cuttings. 

They cause buds to blacken inside and shrivel. 


Others: Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne 

hapla), root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus spp.) 

and stunt nematode (Tylenchorhynchus sp.). 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Sowthistle 

aphid (Hyperomyzus lactucae), infests currants 

and gooseberry and spreads virus diseases. 

Infested leaves are down-curled and shoots 

stunted. At least 6 other species may be serious 

pests of currants and gooseberries overseas. See 

Roses J 4. 


Currant borer moth (Synanthedon tipuliformis) 

caterpillars tunnel in stems (see below). 

Currant bud moth (Stathmopoda chalcotypa, 

Oecophoridae) caterpillars tunnel in buds, also in 

rust galls on Acacia decurrens. 


caterpillars may roll up and chew leaves and fruit 

clusters. See Annuals A 8, Pome fruits F 112. 

Currant borer moth (Synanthedon tipuliformis, 

Sesiidae,Lepidoptera) is the major pest of currants 

(Ribes spp.), especially blackcurrant, gooseberry, 

raspberry, also persimmon, hazel, elder, juniper, 

overseas also sumac and black elder. Moths look 

like small wasps about 12 mm long, with black 

bodies, yellow bands across the abdomen and clear 

wings. There is a fan-shaped mass of black hairlike 

scales at the tip of the abdomen. Caterpillars 

have a yellowish body and dark brown head and 

are up to 20 mm long. Caterpillars tunnel in canes 

in spring (Fig. 124). Leaves yellow, and small 

young shoots die. Infested canes usually die 

within 2-3 weeks. Severely attacked plants may 

have many dead canes. Burrows may run nearly 

the entire length of the cane, partly in the pith and 

partly in the wood. Stems break easily in strong 

winds or when work is being carried out on the 

plants. Yield is lowered. Pest cycle: Complete 

metamorphosis (egg, caterpillar, pupa, adult) with 

1 generation each year. Moths emerge from 

September onwards and each female lays about 60 

eggs on new growth close to a bud or young shoot. 

Caterpillars bore into canes (either by chewing 

through new buds or by crawling through holes left 

by emerging moths). Inside stems they feed during 

spring and summer on the pith and may bore 

down into the main root. In spring they chew a 

circular exit hole through the side of the cane. 

They cover the hole with a silken web and pupate 

inside the burrow a short distance from this exit 

hole. They emerge through the hole as moths. 

Overwinter as caterpillars inside canes a short 

distance above the ground. Spread by moths 

flying, and movement of infested canes. Control 

is difficult: Before moths emerge in spring prune 

out infested canes, which are weak and sickly, 

close to the ground and burn. Moths and 

caterpillars appear to have few natural enemies. 

A nematode (Steinernama bibionis) has been 

found to enter the bodies of caterpillars and make 

its way into the bloodstream where it releases 

bacteria which cause septocaemia. The caterpillars 

die and nematodes reproduce in the corpses. 

Borer-infested currant cuttings may be disinfested 

by spraying with these nematodes and storing for 2 

days. New plantations can be established that are 

relatively borer-free. If new plantings are not near 

infested plantations they may stay free from borer 

infestation for many years. Difficulties include 

weather and developing suitable spray equipment. 

Mating disruption techniques using pheromones 

is being trialed (Coombs 1995). As caterpillars 

feed internally, control with insecticides is 

difficult. 


Currant bud mite, currant gall mite (Cecidophyopsis 

ribis, Eriophyidae) infests blackcurrants and hazel. 

Adult mites are microscopic, cigar-shaped and feed 

on buds during winter. Buds swell (Fig. 125) to 

about twice the size of normal buds (big bud), dry out 

and may produce small distorted leaves. Canes may 

die or develop abnormally. Mites overwinter inside 

buds; early in spring they move out to feed on new 

leaves and flowers. Mites are spread by wind, and 

by the movement of infested nursery stock and plant 

material. Prune off swollen buds when observed in 

spring. Varieties with hairiest leaves are least 

affected. Resistant varieties are being developed. 

Miticides may be applied just before bud burst and 

after flowering. Overseas this mite transmits 

reversion disease (cause undetermined) which 

causes black currant bushes to become sterile 

(Traijkovski and Anderson 1993). See Grapevine 

F 62. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may infest 

leaves, which mottle, bronze, wither and fall. Dense 

webbing may be produced on leaf undersurfaces. 

Bushes lose vigour. See Beans (French) M 29. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): San Jose scale 

(Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) may infest all parts of 

English gooseberry and when numerous, form silverygrey 

discoloured areas. Bushes lose their vitality and 

may die. 


Brown gooseberry scale (Eulecanium tiliae) 

Frosted scale (E. pruinosum) 


See Citrus F 39, F 41. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) feed in 

flowers and cause distorted fruit. See Fruit F 12, 

Roses J 6. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Black 

vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) may damage 

stems. See Grapevine F 63. Gooseberry weevil 

(Ecrizothis inaequalis). 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 49

CURRANTS, ENGLISH GOOSEBERRY 

Others: Driedfruit beetles (Caprophilus spp.), 

leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) and 

wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum). 


Snails and slugs may damage currants and 

English gooseberry. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds are a major pest of English gooseberries. 

They damage both buds and fruit. Birds also 

attack currants. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost may damage flowers and 

young fruit. Provide adequate irrigation during 

summer. Bush fruits have shallow roots and 

readily suffer from water stress. Wind may damage 

new growth of currants and gooseberries in early 

summer. Avoid hot winds which dry berries out 

rapidly, but provide enough air circulation to 

prevent disease. Strong, hot sun will damage 

fruit. 

Others: Premature shedding of black currant 

fruit causes severe losses. The reason for the 

shedding is unknown. 
















Melbourne. 

Jones, N. and Smith, N. 1989. Berryfruit Production and 

Marketing. Orange Agric. College., NSW. 



Traijkovski, V. and Anderson, M. M. 1993. Progressing 

in Breeding Black Currants : Resistance to 

Reversion Disease and Its 'Big Bud' Mite Vector. 

Plantsman, The Royal Horticultural Society, 

London. 15:2, Sept. 68-72. 


Industry eg 

American Gooseberry Mildew (Vic Agnote) 

Black Currants (Vic Agnote) 

Black Currants for the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Currant Borer Moth (Vic Agnote) 

Currant and Gooseberry Aphids (Min. of Agric., Fish and 

Food, HMSO, UK) 

English Gooseberries (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 

Gooseberries and Currants (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Berry Fruits (NSW Agfact) 

Nuts, Berries and Speciality Fruits Kit (Vic Agnote) 

Orchard Spray Calendar, Agdex 203/604. Riverina/Young 

(Griffith) 

Red Currants (Vic Agnote) 

Reversion Disease and Gall Mite of Black Currant (Min. of 

Agric., Fish. and Food, HMSO, UK) 

Southern Tablelands Calendar (NSW Agric) 


MANAGEMENT 

Only black currants and English gooseberries are marketed commercially for the fresh fruit market. An overview 

of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). They are graded according to colour and size, and 

packed and marketed like strawberries, in punnets. The main market for black currants is for juice, jams and 

jellies. Black, red and white currants and English gooseberries produce a good crop only if temperatures are low 

for long periods in winter (chilling requirement). Propagation is by cuttings. Currants, if well cared for, will 

continue producing well for many years. English gooseberries may continue bearing for 50 years or more. To 

avoid Verticillium wilt do not plant gooseberries in soil previously planted with cherry, tomato, potato or infected 

raspberries or strawberries, otherwise pre-plant treat the soil. Control perennial weeds prior to planting and 

during the life of the plantation. Cultivation can damage shallow roots of currants and English gooseberry. Both 

require adequate irrigation during summer. Prune to encourage new growth each season and to remove canes 

killed by the currant borer moth, and diseased wood. Black currants fruit only on the previous year's growth, so 

that canes > 2 years old should be cut off. Red currants and English gooseberries fruit on canes produced in the 

previous year or on spurs of old wood. On red currants a mixture of 1-3 year old wood should be maintained. 

Keep plantation free of plant debris on which grey mould and other diseases can multiply. Growth regulators 

are used on currants for advancing maturity, improving fruit set and yield, and increasing size. The introduction 

of bees at flowering may improve pollination. 

Fig. 124. Caterpillar 

(up to 20 mm long) of 

the currant borer moth 

(Synanthedon tipuliformis). 

Fig. 125. Currant bud mite 

(Cecidophyopsis ribis). 

Left : Normal bud. 

Right : Infested swollen bud 

F 50 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Custard apple 

Annona spp. 

Atemoya, Queensland custard apple (A. atemoya) 

Cherimoya (A. cherimola) 

Family Annonaceae 


Parasitic 




Damping off 


Root and collar rots, wilts 

Wood rots 



Caterpillars 

Citrus mealybug 

Elephant weevil 



Soft scales 


Whiteflies 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) is 

a common cause of death and decline of custard 

apple trees in late spring. Trees < 3 years old may 

wilt and die suddenly in summer. Examination of 

the trunk and root system just below ground level 

often reveals dark internal discolouration of the 

vascular tissue. Older affected trees decline over 

1-2 seasons and eventually die. Avoid inter 

cropping custard apple trees with susceptible 

annual crops during orchard establishment and 

control Solanaceous weeds and other weed hosts. 

Between rows maintain weed-free grass sod. 

Along rows between plants, control weeds with 

mulch or herbicides. Ensure adequate surface 

drainage and avoid waterlogging. Select 

rootstock with some resistance to bacterial wilt 

and plant disease-free grafted trees, propagated 

in disease-free (treated) potting mix, in diseasefree 

soil. See Tomato M 98, Vegetables M 5. 


Damping off: Pythium root rot (Pythium 

splendens), rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia 

solani), sclerotium stem rot, base rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii). Rootstock seedlings and scion cuttings 

may suffer from root rots when grown in 

unpasteurised soil or if untreated water is used for 

irrigation. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fruit rots: Some fungi which rot fruit, may also 

cause leaf spots and stem cankers, resulting in 

dieback: 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and 

glomerella fruit spot (Glomerella cingulata var. 

minor) damage fruit postharvest. See Fruit F 5. 

Black canker (Phomopsis annonacearum) is a minor 

disease in Qld. Purple spots and later large blotches 

develop on fruit. Cracks develop, but rotting does not 

penetrate deep into the flesh. Leaves may have 

marginal scorch. Damage may be confused with that 

caused by fruitspotting bugs. Control is not usually 

required. 

Cylindrocladium fruit rot (Cylindrocladium 

colhounii) causes leaf and fruit spots about 1 mm 

across, especially on African Pride. Spots on fruit 

often enlarge, causing cracking. Juice may run down 

the outside. 

Diplodia fruit rot, dieback (Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae) causes dieback of young twigs as well 

as deeper rotting of the fruit, especially on neglected 

trees. Small black spots expand rapidly and become 

hard and cracked. External symptoms are similar to 

those of black canker. Internal discolouration and 

rotting extends into the fruit, making it look corky. 

Affected fruit usually mummify and remain on the 

tree. 

Pseudocercospora fruit spot (Pseudocercospora 

sp.) causes small grey spots 1-5 mm across in the 

natural indentations on the fruit surface. Spots join 

together, cracks may form. 50% of fruit may be 

unsaleable. 

Purple blotch (Phytophthora palmivora) affects 

custard apple and papaw, causing excessive fall of 

small immature fruit from lower branches. Many 

have small purple spots on the skin. Affected fruit 

are usually brown internally prior to fall. Diseased 

sections of the fruit do not become hard as they do in 

black canker and diplodia fruit rot and the advancing 

edge of the affected area is indistinct. This fungus 

may also cause a leaf spot and twig dieback. The 

disease is easily confused with damage caused by 

fruitspotting bugs. Overwinters in soil. Favoured 

trees growing in bare soil. Mulching bare soil under 

and between trees and raising tree skirts to keep fruit 

above the reach of soil splash will usually provide 

control. See Fruit F 7, Trees K 6. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a minor 

postharvest disease. See Fruit F 6. 

Overwinters on infected crop debris, eg infected 

leaves, twigs, mummified fruit under trees, and 

sometimes in the soil. Spores are spread by wind 

and rain splash, lower fruit are more often 

affected. Favoured by humid conditions. 

Pruning the lower limbs and mulching will reduce 

the risk of fruit infection. Control weeds under 

trees, remove and destroy mummified fruit and 

dead twigs before fruiting commences. See Fruit 

F 5. 


Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina) can 

cause serious losses of trees in affected orchards. It 

affects trees of all ages, causing slow decline, then 

death. See Fruit F 7, Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora root and collar rot (Phytophthora 

spp., Phytophthora cinnamomi) is a minor disease of 

custard apples. See Fruit F 7, Trees K 6. 

Others: Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani), 

pythium root rot (Pythium spp.), verticillium wilt 

(Verticillium dahliae). 


FRUIT AND NUTS F 51

CUSTARD APPLE 

Wood rots: Pink limb blight, pink disease 

(Corticium salmonicolor) causes patches of pale 

pink fungal growth along twigs and limbs. Bark 

on infected limbs cracks and exudes gum. Where 

limbs are girdled, they wilt and die. See Trees K 8. 


Nematodes on custard apple (Annona squamosa): 

Burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) 

Dagger nematode (Xiphinema americanum) 


Also Criconema mutabile 



Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) feed on foliage: 

Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) caterpillars 

roll leaves and may feed on the surface of fruit 

near stems. Caterpillars usually enter fruit near the 

stalk or where 2 fruits touch. See Citrus F 37. 

Swallowtails (Papilionidae): Blue triangle 

butterfly (Graphium sarpedon choredon) may 

damage young trees. Caterpillars eat holes in leaves 

and occasionally damage fruit. Fly parasites are 

common. Palegreen triangle butterfly (Graphium 

eurypylus lycaon) caterpillars are attractive, smooth 

velvety green, yellow or brown and feed on foliage of 

young trees, and occasionally fruit. See Citrus F 36. 

Yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) is a 

sporadic problem particularly on Pink's Mammoth. 

Caterpillars damage fruit by eating and tunnelling in 

flesh. Webbed larval droppings occur around the 

entry hole in the skin. Damaged fruit are 

unmarketable. Infestation is usually noticed on 

maturing fruit in mid-late autumn. Picking up and 

destroying dropped infested fruit helps reduce moth 

populations. A fly (Argyrophylax proclinata) is an 

important parasite. If insecticides are to be used 

they should be applied as soon as the pest is detected, 

ensure coverage of fruit. See Stone fruits F 133, F 137 

(Fig. 166). 

Caterpillars of the blue triangle butterfly and 

yellow peach moth and the damage they cause, can 

by monitored at regular intervals, before making a 


1994). See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8. 

Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) is a major 

pest of custard apples. Others, eg longtailed 

mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus), may also 

infest custard apples. Mealybugs gather on fruit, 

usually near the stalk, also in skin depressions. 

Mealybugs produce honeydew which encourages 

sooty mould and attracts ants, eg coastal brown ant 

(Pheidole megacephala), which tends the mealybugs 

for their honeydew, moves them around and fends off 

their natural enemies. Fruit touching the ground is 

often covered with dirt from ant activity. The 

mealybugs and sooty mould detract from the 

appearance of fruit. Mealybugs are easily removed 

after harvest but sooty mould is not. Natural 

enemies include the predatory mealybug ladybird 

(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) and lacewing (Oligochrysa 

lutea), and a parasitic wasp (Leptomastix dactylopii). 

Petroleum oil is only effective against young stages of 

mealybugs and does not disrupt natural enemies. 

Monitor mealybug populations and their predators 

and parasites. See Citrus F 38, Greenhouses N 25. 

Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) 

is a minor and sporadic pest which chews pieces of 

bark from fruit stalks, causing fruit drop. They 

also tunnel through the trunk and roots or chew 

around the base of leaf petioles causing leaf drop. 

If damage is obvious monitor weevil numbers 

prior to applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 

1994). See Trees K 12, K 17. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) may damage 

fruit during March-May. African pride is more 

susceptible than Pink's Mammoth. Maggots feed 

in the flesh, making it inedible. One infested fruit 

can result in a whole consignment being rejected. 

When monitoring during March to May indicates 

that fruit fly numbers are high, control is 

advisable, especially in African pride. Use either 

baits or sprays. Insecticides may disrupt natural 

enemies. The Victorian Department of Agriculture 

requires that custard apples sent to Melbourne 

from September-April be dipped after harvest in an 

insecticide to ensure freedom from fruit fly. 

Special equipment is required. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp., 

Coreidae, Hemiptera) are major pests causing 

dark spots on young fruit (often on the shoulders). 

On cutting open, deep internal damage is present. 

Do not confuse spotting bug damage with fungal 

diseases, eg black canker, Cylindrocladium spot 

or Diplodia. Monitor bug damage. See Fruit F 10. 

Soft scales (Coccidae, Hemiptera) produce 

honeydew which attracts ants, and encourages 

sooty mould. Trees look black. 

Nigra scale (Parasaissetia nigra) is a leathery, oval, 

raised, black waxy scale about 5 mm long. Nymphs 

settle on young shoots, along the midribs of 

leaves and on fruit Young scales frequently lodge 

on adult coverings. Common on young custard apple 

trees. Ants (mainly the coastal brown ant) feed on 

the honeydew and tend the scales closely. Scale is 

normally heavily parasitised by a small black wasp 

(Scutellista cyanae) but this is prevented by regular 

spraying for other pests or by ants. Heavily infested 

trees may be spot sprayed in early summer. 

Nymphs (crawlers) are more susceptible than adults, 

to oil sprays (do not apply if the temperature is > 

30 o C). Control ants. Scales are easily dislodged so 

could be removed by hand. 

Pink wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens) may settle along 

leaf midribs and twigs, completely covering 

young growth. High populations cause premature leaf 

fall and reduce fruiting capacity. Natural enemies 

exert considerable control on mangoes, but 

insecticides may be required in late October/early 

March when crawlers are present. See Citrus F 41. 

Others: Black scale (Saissetia oleae), long soft 

scale (Coccus longulus) and soft brown scale 

(C. hesperidum) A coccid scale (Taachardina 

decorella) resembles hard crusts on twigs. Control is 

often not warranted. 

Fruit covered with sooty mould must be cleaned. 

Monitor scale populations on twigs at regular 

intervals before making a decision to apply an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Citrus F 41. 

F 52 

FRUIT AND NUTS

CUSTARD APPLE 


cause yellow stippling of leaves. Predatory mites 

usually give adequate control so spraying is not 

necessary. See Beans (French) M 29). 

Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) may infest leaf 

undersurfaces. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Non-parasitic 

Frost damages fruit. High temperatures and very 

low or very high humidities affect pollination of 

the flower either by breaking down pollen or 

drying out flowering parts (Passmore 1987). 

Partial pollination produces deformed or droppedshoulder 

fruit. Hand pollination improves both the 

number of fruit and quality of individual fruit. 

Ripe fruit often show internal browning and 

grittiness or woodiness, the cause of which is not 

clear (Fitzell et al. 1994). Leaf analysis 

standards are available based on diagnostic and 

research analyses (Weir and Cresswell 1995). 

SELECTED READING 












Fitzell, R. D., Batten, D. J. and Vimpany, I. 1994. 

Investigations into the Cause of Poor Root Health in 

Custard Apple. Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.9(1). 



Passmore, N. 1987. Pollination Problems with Custard 

Apples. The West Australian, April 18. 




Persley, D. (ed.). (1993). Diseases of Fruit Crops. Qld 


Sanewski, G. M. 1988. Growing Custard Apples. Qld 


Sanewski, G. M. 1991. Custard Apples : Cultivation and 

Crop Protection. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 








Industry eg 

Custard Apples : Cultural and Financial Aspects (NSW 

Agfact) 

Custard Apples in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Fertilising Custard Apples (NSW Agfact) 


Good Fruit and Vegetables 

Sunshine Coast Subtropical Fruits Association 




MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Custard apple is a semi-deciduous, winter growing tropical and subtropical small 

tree, 5-7 m tall. It requires a warm climate with high humidity in summer. High humidity during the flowering 

period is necessary for a good fruit set. Hand pollination can be carried out if necessary. Trees are sensitive to 

cold and frost and are unsuited to hot, dry conditions. An overview of the industry has been presented by 

Coombs (1995). Resistant varieties: Select rootstocks resistant to bacterial wilt. African Pride is more tolerant 

of cold weather, bears fruit early and does not grow as tall as some other varieties. Disease-free planting 

material: Planting material must be free of bacterial wilt and other diseases and pests. Purchase from an 

accredited supplier. 


Propagation: By grafted plants, seeds are unreliable. Cultural methods: Plant in sheltered sites and protect 

from wind and frost. In early spring or summer plant in a well-drained site and do not overwater. Regularly 

fertilise to promote rapid growth in spring and summer. Prevent bacterial wilt and Armillaria root rot by careful 

site selection and land preparation. Initially prune back to 300-400 mm and develop a vase shape over the first 

3-4 years. Custard apples bear fruit on new as well as old wood. They may take up to 7 years to produce the 

first fruit. Control weeds before planting by cultivation or herbicides. Young trees suffer most from grass and 

weed competition. Do not damage shallow or feeder roots near the tree by cultivation. Damage to the bark 

allows entry of diseases. Grass and weeds between tree rows are mown and areas under trees kept weed-free 

by hand weeding, mulching or by herbicides. Do not allow translocated herbicides to drift on to bark or foliage of 

trees < 2 years of age (protect trunk with strip of builder's foil or paint with white plastic paint). Biological 

control: Biological control agents are available for mealybugs and mites. Pesticides: Monitor caterpillars, 

fruit flies, fruit spotting bugs, scales and their damage, at regular intervals before making a decision to apply an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994, Sanewski 1991). Select the least disruptive sprays. The pest most likely to be a 

nuisance in a home garden is mealybugs but natural enemies will often keep them under control. Custard 

apples grown in home gardens usually do not need spraying. 

Postharvest 

Harvest fruit as soon as mature and before it starts to soften, otherwise fruit fly may be a problem. Clip from 

tree when edges of the segments change from greenish to cream, it may take a few days to soften for eating. 

Storage: Custard apples can only be stored for a short period. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 53

Feijoa 

Fruit salad tree, pineapple guava 

Feijoa sellowiana 

Family Myrtaceae (eucalypt family, myrtle family) 


Parasitic 



Caterpillars 


Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Diseases are not a major problem in Australia. But 

damping off diseases (various fungi) occurs on 

cuttings, and root rots, eg armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria luteobubalina) and phytophthora rot 

(Phytophthora), probably occur. Anthracnose 

(Colletotrichum sp.), blue mould (Penicillium 

spp.) and grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) cause fruit 

rots overseas. 



Circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum) 

Mussel scales (Lepidosaphes spp.) 

White palm scale (Phenacaspis eugeniae) 


Chinese wax scale (Ceroplastes sinensis) 


Tessellated scale (Eucalymnatus tessellatus) 

See Citrus F 39, C 41. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Feijoa are frost hardy and will 

tolerate temperatures as low as -7 o C. Although 

feijoas are drought resistant, a good fruit crop 

will be produced only if summer irrigation is 

supplied. Feijoa do not like being waterlogged. 

Like citrus trees, feijoa have a comparatively 

shallow root system which should be mulched 

well with organic matter. Avoid cultivation under 

the plant to prevent surface root damage. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Feijoa 

seem to be sensitive to salt. They are heavy 

feeders and for good yields need fertilising in 

spring and autumn. Excessive nitrogen will 

result in lush vigorous vegetative growth at the 

expense of fruit production. 



Guava moth (Coscinoptycha improbana, 

Carposinidae) caterpillars bore into feijoa fruit. See 

Guava F 67. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) feed on young leaves 

and developing shoots and join them together with 

silken threads. See Pome fruits F 112. Orange 

fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) caterpillars feed 

between leaves and bore into ripening fruit. See 

Citrus F 37. 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera), eg Queensland 

fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni), is the main problem 

in coastal areas, both in the field and postharvest. 

Harvesting fruit before it is fully ripe, and ripening 

it indoors, helps to avoid infestation. See Fruit F 9. 










NSW Dept Agric. Home Fruit Growing. cur. edn. NSW 

Agric., Sydney. 


Industry eg 

Feijoa (Adel. Bot. Garden Leaflet, Adelaide) 

Feijoas (Vic Agnote) 

Feijoas in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

The Feijoa or Pineapple Guava (Vic Agnote) 




MANAGEMENT 

Feijoa may be grown as an ornamental plant or for fruit. Some varieties require cross pollination to obtain a 

good crop, eg Triumph, requires cross pollination with Mammoth. Mammoth is self-fertilising. Although Feijoia 

can be propagated by seed, seedlings are too variable for commercial planting. Plant scale-free grafted plants 

or cuttings from trees with good cropping records and high quality fruit, in well drained soil. Fertilise and 

irrigate appropriately to ensure a good crop. Prune young plants to remove suckers and low growth, and prune 

bearing trees to encourage new growth and reduce the number of minor branches and dead or diseased 

material. Harvest fruit from the tree when a few fruit start to fall. Pick the largest first, taking care not to bruise 

the tissue. Fruit are ready for eating in a few days. Store at 1 o C for about 6 weeks. 

F 54 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Fig 

Ficus carica, Ficus spp. 

Family Moraceae (mulberry family) 


Parasitic 


Fig mosaic 





Root rots 

Rust 



Borers 

Caterpillars 


Ferment flies 

Fig bark beetle 

Figleaf beetle 

Fig leafhopper 

Flower chafers 


Mites 

Moreton Bay fig psyllid 

Scales 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Fig mosaic virus affects Ficus carica, 

F. altissima, F. krishna and F. tsida causing leaves 

to develop irregular yellowish-green blotches. Leaf 

tissue does not usually die and fruit may show spotlike 

markings and may drop prematurely. Spread by 

vegetative propagation, by fig blister mite (Eriophyes 

ficus), by grafting, not by mechanical transmission, 

not by seed. Do not propagate from infected trees. 

In California, White Ischia and Celeste are among the 

most susceptible (Smith 1972). In Australia, mosaic 

symptoms are commonly found on leaves of 

cultivated figs, it is possible that these are caused by 

fig mosaic virus. Tomato spotted wilt virus has 

been detected in Ficus sp. in Spain. See Fruit F 4. 



fici) causes brown, angular leaf spots and leaf fall 

in the NT (Bodman et al. 1996). Also crown gall 

(Agrobacterium sp.). See Stone fruits F 125. 

spp. are being researched for their association with 

mycotoxins in figs (Michailides and Morgan 1996). 

Phytophthora fruit rot (Phytophthora palmivora), 

prefers the white Adriatic variety, and may be 

controlled with fungicides. Pink rot, pink mould 

(Trichothecium roseum) causes a storage rot of fig, 

quince, pear, tomato. Other fruit rots: Brown rot 

(Sclerotinia fructicola), grey mould, shoot blight 

(Botrytis cinerea), leaf and fruit spot (Alternaria fici, 

Alternaria sp.), rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus 

stolonifer) and yeasts (Saccharomyces spp.). 

Various insects spread fruit rots, eg driedfruit 

beetles (Carpophilus spp.) infest ripening figs and 

spread many rots, capri fig wasp (Blastophaga 

psenes) spreads fig endosepsis (Fusarium spp.) 

causing internal rot and other symptoms in California 

(Michailides et al. 1996). Fruit rots are difficult to 

control. If wet weather persists it is unwise to 

harvest fruit. A return to sunny weather will permit 

harvest, provided trees have not been deprived of 

sunshine for too long. See Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spots other species). 

Brown leaf spot (Phyllosticta sp.): Large brown spots 

up to 15 mm across develop on leaves. Defoliation 

may result in poor quality fruit. More than 2-4 copper 

sprays may damage leaves and reduce fruit quality. 

Use fungicides which are not phytotoxic. 

Leaf spots (Fusarium hypocreoiudeum and 

Phyllachora rhysatismoides) may cause leaf 

blotches on native Ficus spp. 

Others: Leaf and fruit spot (Alternaria fici), 

Cercospora fici, Pseudocercospora sp. 


Root rots: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria 

luteobubalina), root rot (Cylindrocladium scoparium), 

phytophthora rot (Phytophthora spp., P. palmivora, 

P. cinnamomi) have been recorded on Ficus spp. (not 

necessarily F. carica). See Fruit F 7, Vegetables M 7. 

Rust (Cerotelium fici): Leaf uppersurfaces have 

a brown speckled appearance. On the underside 

of the speckles, brown powdery spores are 

produced. Older foliage is attacked first. Affected 

leaves shrivel and fall. If defoliation occurs early 

in the season, fruit may be reduced in quality or 

may fall while immature. See Annuals A 7. 


Dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.) 


Citrus nematodes (Tylenchus spp.) 

Spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus dihystera) 

Also Coslenchus costatus, Filenchus exiguus, 

Heterodera fici, Ogma octangulare. 



Fruit rots (various fungi and yeasts) attack fruit as 

they mature, during periods of wet weather, causing 

rotting and fermentation. Anthracnose (Glomerella 

cingulata) produces decayed spots on ripening fruits 

in storage. Aspergillus black mould (Aspergillus 

niger) causes a distinctive black mould, Aspergillus 

Borers 


Fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator, Cerambycidae) 

infests native and cultivated figs (Ficus spp.), citrus, 

grapevine, passionfruit, wisteria, red cedar (Toona 

australis) and other plants. Beetles are yellow-grey, 

about 30 mm long. The sides of the thorax are 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 55

FIG 

extended into spines, antennae in the male are 3 times 

the length of the body. Larvae are about 40 mm 

long, whitish, glossy with a brown head and black 

jaws. Larva tunnel up or down for a metre or more in 

trunks, limbs and roots. Tunnels are oval and 

tightly packed with frass. Branches may die. 

Sometimes larvae may be traced by the formation of 

hard lumps along infested branches (frass and gnawed 

wood mixed with gum). Oval exit holes of the adult 

are visible on trunks or limbs. There is a complete 

metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult) with 

1 generation each year. In spring females lay eggs 

singly on rough bark and then gnaw a circular patch 

about 12 mm across around each egg. Young larvae 

eat their way into the wood. Fully grown larvae 

pupate just under the bark in a small cavity at the end 

of their tunnel. Pupa are whitish and about 25 mm 

long. Adults emerge from September through oval 

exit holes. Overwinters in trunks, limbs and roots 

of host plants as larvae. Great figtree borer 

(Batocera boisduvali) and Rosenbergia megacephala 

may also attack Ficus spp. 

Large auger beetle (Bostrychopsis jesuita) larvae 

are thick, white, and have legs. They bore round 

tunnels in sap and heartwood of large branches 

and trunks. Tunnels are filled with droppings and 

undigested wood particles. Round exit holes are 

seen on the trunk. See Trees K 11. 

Fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma) caterpillars 

bore short tunnels in the forks of trees. See Fruit F 10. 



Fig fruitborer (Phycomorpha prasinochroa, 

Copromorphidae) infests cultivated and wild fig. 

Moths are bell-shaped, about 18 mm across the 

outspread green wings which have brown flecks. 

Caterpillars are about 12 mm long, cream and 

thickset. Caterpillars bore into green fruit to feed on 

pulp, into shoot terminals and sometimes into the 

midribs of leaves. The entry point is visible as a 

mound of brown frass. Spread by moths flying. 

Favoured conditions in coastal districts in late 

summer and autumn. Spraying may be necessary. 

Figleaf moth (Talanga tolumnialis, Pyralidae) 

caterpillars feed on native Ficus spp. but also damage 

foliage and flowers of cultivated figs in Qld and NSW. 

Others: Caterpillars of > 10 species of moths and 

butterflies feed on native Ficus spp. (Common and 

Waterhouse 1981, Common 1990). 

See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8, Trees K 13. 

Driedfruit beetles (Carpophilus spp., Nitidulidae, 

Coleoptera) are serious pests of more mature fruit, 

they also spread fruit rots. See Fruit F 8. 

Ferment flies, vinegar flies (Drosophilidae, 

Diptera) may be important pests. See Fruit F 8. 

Fig bark beetle (Aricerus eichhoffi, Cucurlionidae, 

Coleoptera) infests cultivated figs, Moreton Bay fig 

(F. macrophylla), Port Jackson fig (F. rubiginosa) and 

other native figs. Beetles are tiny, round, thick, redbrown 

and about 1.5 mm long. They nibble bark and 

twigs. Larvae are tiny, white and legless; they tunnel 

in terminal shoots, frass indicates entry points, twigs 

usually die. They pupate inside the tunnels. Beetles 

emerge through small circular exit holes near leaf 

axils. Control is difficult but repeated sprays in summer 

kills adults and prevents egg laying. See Trees K 10. 

Figleaf beetles (Poneridia australis, 

P semipullata, Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) are pests 

of cultivated fruiting and ornamental figs (Ficus spp.) 

and native figs, eg Moreton Bay fig. Figleaf beetle 

(P. semipullata) has dull brown wing covers with 

reddish-brown thorax and head, and is about 10 mm 

long (Fig. 126). P. australis is smaller. Larvae are 

about 12 mm long, yellowish, becoming darker and 

look spiny. They feed in groups. Beetles and larvae 

skeletonise leaves, which fall. Fruit attack exposes 

flesh. There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, 

larva, pupa, adult) with several generations each year. 

Female beetles lay eggs on leaves in groups of about 

50. Fully grown larvae crawl down the trunk and 

pupate in the soil or in debris at the tree base. Beetles 

emerge about 2 weeks later and crawl up the tree to 

feed. Adults are strong fliers. Favoured mainly by 

summer rainfall climates in coastal areas, but they 

occur in north NSW. A shield bug (Ceratulus 

nasalis) may be an important predator. Inspect trees 

in spring before damage occurs and if adults or larvae 

or many egg masses are present, the foliage of 

cultivated figs will usually be severely damaged if a 

chemical control is not applied. On small trees egg 

masses may be squashed by hand. Others: Pumpkin 

beetle (Aulacophora hilaris) and redshouldered leaf 

beetle (Monolepta australis). See Trees K 15. 

Fig leafhopper (Dialecticopteryx australica, 

Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) infests cultivated figs. 

Adults are dark orange, about 3-4 mm long with dark 

compound eyes. Three simple eyes (ocelli) appear as 

dots between the compound eyes. Wings are mainly 

clear. Nymphs are smaller, wingless, fragile and 

yellow with dark eyes. When disturbed they move 

sideways. Adults and nymphs suck sap mostly on the 

undersides of young leaves, from the midrib and 

larger veins. Rusty spots develop along the main 

veins. Leaves curl upwards and fall prematurely. 

Eggs are laid on leaves. Occurs in coastal districts 

during summer and autumn. Insecticides are used 

to control leafhoppers. See Vegetables M 15. 

Flower chafers (Scarabaeidae), eg Dilochrosis 

atripennis, are large strong flying scarab beetles 

which eat out pulp of ripening fruit during the 

day. Only the skin is left. See Fruit F 12. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) may damage 

ripening figs in some seasons. See Fruit F 9. 


Fig blister mite (Eriophyes ficus, Eriophyidae) is 

microscopic and infests leaves, buds, twigs and 

green and occasionally ripe fruit. Mites occur in 

colonies, especially near the opening or 'eye' of figs. 

They cause rusty patches inside. See Grapevine F 62. 

Fig rust mite (Rhynchaphytoptus ficifoliae, Rhynchaphytoptidae) 

has a coating of white, waxy material. 

They feed in large numbers on leaf uppersurfaces, 

giving them a rusty appearance, as well as on the 

bracts around the openings of the fruit receptacles. 

Control is not usually necessary. 

Moreton Bay fig psyllid (Mycopsylla fici, 

Homotomidae, Hemiptera) infests Ficus spp. 

especially Moreton Bay fig. They suck sap from leaf 

undersurfaces and become covered with the white 

sap oozing from puncture areas on the host and as this 

congeals, a blob (like old chewing gum) develops. 

Leaves may fall prematurely. Severe attacks may 

F 56 

FRUIT AND NUTS

cause dieback. Spread on shoes, feet and picnic 

rugs. Control is difficult. Small trees may be sprayed. 

Larger trees may be injected, but a special sleeve is 

needed because of the milky sap, and repeat 

treatments needed. See Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 16. 




Ground pearls (Margodidae) 

Cottonycushion scale (Icerya purchasi) 





Thrips (Thysanoptera): Cuban laurel thrips 

(Gynaikothrips ficorum) is a prominent black 

leafrolling thrips which infests F. microcarpa var. 

hillii. Eggs are laid in batches on leaf uppersurfaces; 

the thrips pupate in the rolled leaves. Affected leaves 

can be pruned off and burnt, but follow up insecticide 

applications may be required. Thrips (Phaeothripidae) 

cause galls on Ficus spp. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: Wasps are a general pest of figs. Capri fig 

wasp (Blastophaga psenes, Agaonidae) pollinates Capri 

fig to develop its special flavour and quality. Moreton 

Bay fig wasp (Pleistodontes froggatti). Metallic 

shield bug (Scutiphora pedicellata). Worldwide Ficus 

spp. is host to > 80 species of whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, 

Hemiptera). 


Birds are the worst pest of figs and can damage a 

large number of fruit. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

A sudden increase in water supply or humidity when 

fruit is near maturity may cause fruit splitting which 

MANAGEMENT 

FIG 

favours fruit rots. Young trees are damaged by frost, 

but when established they can withstand temperatures 

as low as -10 o C. Figs produce 2 crops/year (spring 

and autumn); autumn crops may not mature in cold 

areas. Sulphur and copper pesticides damage fig 

trees in hot weather. Fruit of white fig (F. virens var. 

sublanceolata) is poisonous to pigs (McBarron 1983). 
















Melbourne. 



Michailides, T. J. and Morgan, D. P. 1996. Aspergillus 

Species and Mycotoxins in Figs from California 

Orchards. Plant Disease, Vol.80(5). 

Michailides, T. J., Morgan, D. P. and Subbarao, K. V. 

1996. Fig Endosepsis : An Old Disease Still A 

Dilemma for California Growers. Plant Disease, 

Vol.80(8). 

Smith, K. M. 1972. A Textbook of Plant Virus Diseases. 









Industry eg 

Figs in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

The Fig : Varieties and Culture (Vic Agnote) 




Figs have been prized for centuries for both medicinal and dietary value since ancient times. Today they are 

grown for fresh fruit and drying. Figs are adaptable to a wide range of climates but flourish on the more humid 

coast. Commonly grown figs in Australia do not need pollination; only the Smyrna fig requires pollination by the 

Caprifig to develop its species flavour and for this is requires the Capri fig wasp (Blastophaga psenes) as a 

pollinating insect (Baxter and Tankard 1990). Propagated by cuttings on their own roots. Seedling trees are 

more variable. Avoid acid soil, provide good drainage and do not allow their shallow roots to dry out or be 

damaged by cultivation. Figs bear fruit on current season's growth, so unless trees produce new growth each 

year, crops will be small. Cut back old trees or trees making poor growth in winter to encourage new growth. 

Trees usually form a well balanced framework so little pruning is needed. Fruit ripen over a long period and 

should be harvested every few days. Fruit may ferment on the tree in wet seasons. Fresh fruit for eating should 

be picked when mature, when the colour has changed and the skin gives slightly if pressed. Fresh fruit do not 

store well. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage can extend shelf life of fresh figs by 2-3 weeks. For dried 

fruit, figs are left on the tree to develop fully before harvesting. 

Fig. 126. Figleaf beetle (Poneridia 

semipullata). Left : Beetle (about 

10 mm long). Right : Larva (about 

12 mm long). 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 57

Grapevine 

Vitis spp. 

Family Vitaceae (vine family) 


Parasitic 



Crown gall 


Black rot 

Bunch rots, fruit rots 

Downy mildew 

Eutypa dieback, dying arm 






Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 


Ferment flies 


Grape phylloxera 

Grapevine scale 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Grapes are the world's most important fruit crop. In 

Australia, both the area planted and production is 

about 75% of all other fruit combined. Although there 

are many diseases and pests of grapes in Australia 

(Nicholas et al. 1994), the most destructive diseases 

affecting these plants, ie black rot (Guignardia 

bidwellii) and Pierce's disease (Xylella fastidiosa), do 

not occur in Australia. 


Parasitic 


Most virus diseases of grapevines only cause a 

gradual reduction in yield and fruit quality. 

Leaves and fruit are mainly affected. Symptoms 

are often only apparent during cool spring or 

autumn weather, later growth is symptomless. 

Grapevine fanleaf virus (many strains) is widespread 

but not serious. Spread by vegetative propagation, 

by dagger nematode (Xiphinema index), which is 

known to occur only in north-east Victoria and southeast 

NSW, by mechanical inoculation, not by pollen, 

not by contact, rarely by seed. Leaves have yellow 

spots, and are distorted and fan-like. Vines of 

susceptible varieties may die. Yellow mosaic (a 

strain) causes a general yellowing of vines in late 

spring, many varieties show no symptoms. 

Grapevine leafroll virus (several strains) is the 

most important virus disease of grapevines in 

Australia, reducing yields of some varieties by up to 

50%. Leaf margins roll downwards usually in late 

summer and most obviously in late autumn. Leaf 

blades thicken and foliage feels brittle. Main veins of 

leaves remain green, leaves of most red-fruiting 

varieties turn red between the veins, leaves of whitefruiting 

varieties yellow prematurely in autumn. 

Grapevine yellows mycoplasma-like organism 

occurs mostly in Chardonnay & Reisling causing 

rubbery shoots with patchy yellow downward curled 

leaves and bunches that die at flowering. 

Grapevine yellow speckle viroid is widespread and 

common on sultana and Waltham Cross and some 

other varieties. Small irregular yellow speckles occur 

along the main vein and veinlets. Leaves are 

speckled yellow. 

Others: Grapevine enation virus causes leafy 

outgrowths from veins on leaf undersurfaces. Also 

grapevine veinclearing virus, stem pitting, vein 

necrosis, summer mottle, others occur overseas. 

All viruses are spread by vegetative propagation 

material, eg infected stocks (buds, grafts) or 

rootstocks. There are no known vectors of 

grapevine virus diseases in Australia. When 

establishing vineyards plant only recommended 

virus-tested planting material from vine 

improvement schemes. Because there are no 

known vectors in Australia (except for dagger 

nematode transmitting fanleaf virus in some areas), 

virus-tested vines will remain free from the viruses 

for which they have been tested for life unless they 

are reworked with infected material or there is root 

grafting, or if they are planted into soil infested 

with dagger nematodes. See Fruit F 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) is the only 

significant bacterial disease of grapevine. Galls as 

large as footballs develop on main stems at or 

below ground level. See Stone fruits F 125. 

Others: Bacterial leaf and stem spot 

(Pseudomonas viridiflava) is a minor disease 

unless wet weather occurs during flowering. 

Small yellow spots which later fall out form on 

young leaves which may become tattered and 

malformed. Berry stalks blacken and wither, 

berries drop. Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas 

ampelina) only affects grapevine and is not known 

to occur in Australia. It causes lower yields in, 

and a shorter life of, affected vineyards. 

Quarantine risks: The introduction of graftwood 

or cuttings from infected areas (Com. of Aust. 

1992). Pierce's disease (Xylella fastidiosa) is not 

known to occur in Australia, but is one of the 

oldest known plant diseases. It can cause 

devastating losses in grape crops. Quarantine 

risk: The introduction of graftwood or cuttings of 

grapevines from infected areas, or in its 

symptomless alternative hosts, eg grasses, trees, 

whether it would spread to grapevines cannot be 

predicted. Leafhoppers which spread the disease 

overseas are not known to occur in Australia but 

leafhoppers already here may adapt. Not known to 

be seedborne (Com. of Aust. 1982). 

F 58 

FRUIT AND NUTS

GRAPEVINE 


Black rot (Guignardia bidwelli) which is not 

known to occur in Australia, is a destructive 

disease, causing young fruit to rot, turn black, 

shrivel and become mummified. Mature fruit are 

blemished. Quarantine risks: The fungus may be 

imported on grapevine cuttings and on fruit (Com. of 

Aust. 1990). 

Bunch rots, fruit rots 

Often bunch rots follow other diseases and insect 

injuries and are aggravated by wet weather. Most 

have a wide host range and can grow on dead plant 

debris. 

Bitter rot (Melanconium fuligineum = Greeneria 

uvicola) may infect leaves, twigs and especially 

overripe fruit, during warm, humid weather. Pulp 

may have a bitter taste. Berries become darker than 

usual and covered with tiny black spots. It often 

follows downy mildew. Overwinters as shoot 

infections. Spores are spread by wind and water 

splash. Prune out infected canes in winter. 

Fungicides for other diseases will usually control 

bitter rot. 

Grey mould, botrytis rot, noble rot (Botrytis 

cinerea) is important on bearing grapes, reducing 

crop quantity and quality. Infected grapes are ideal for 

making natural sweet wines, eg Sauternes (Fig. 127). 

Flowers become brown and covered with masses of 

grey spores. Grape skins of white cultivars initially 

develop light-brown areas while black grapes develop 

dull areas. For identifying early stages of Botrytis the 

'slip-skin' test is used. When berries are rubbed, the 

skin over the spots cracks and slips off freely. Later, 

infected berries soften, turn brown and grey masses of 

spores are produced. Botrytis can spread rapidly from 

berry to berry and continue to grow in cold storage 

(nesting). Varieties with compact bunches, eg Shiraz 

are very susceptible. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Others: Aspergillus soft rot (Aspergillus niger), 

anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and 

ripe rot (Glomerella cingulata). Penicillium 

moulds (Penicillium spp.), rhizopus soft rot 

(Rhizopus spp.), white rot (Coniella diplodiella), also 

Alternaria, Aureobasidium, Cladosporium, Nectria 

radicola. 


Downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola). 

Infection first occurs on leaves, late in spring after 

fruit set. Oily-looking patches appear on leaf 

uppersurfaces. During wet weather, white downy 

spores develop on undersurfaces under the oily 

patches. The whole leaf may be affected. If weather 

is dry, downy mildew spots dry out and become 

brown. Severe defoliation exposes fruit to sunscald 

and reduces yield and quality. Infection at 

blossoming causes failure of fruit to set. A white 

fungus grows on young berries and fruit stalks, 

young bunches wither and die. If attacked later 

when partly grown, berries harden, become grey and 

a fungal growth develops on the surface. Later, 

infected fruit withers, becomes brown or red, shrivels 

and mummifies. Heavily diseased shoots are 

swollen, distorted and stunted. If late in the season, 

vitality of canes needed for the following season 

may be reduced. Badly affected canes may die. 

Varieties of the European (V. vinifera) vary only 

slightly in susceptibility, sultana and Pinot Noir are 

very susceptible while Cabernet Sauvignon and 

Semillon are less susceptible. Hybrids of V. vinifera 

and other Vitis species, eg V. riparia or V. rupestris, 

are much less susceptible and some are relatively 

resistant, eg Improved Golden Muscat and Isabella 

(Coombe and Dry 1992). Traditionally Bordeaux 

mixture has been applied. Other fungicides are 

available for use on prescribed schedules. Disease 

outbreaks can be forecast (temperature/rain) 

reducing the number of sprays, costs and possible 

environmental pollution. See Annuals A 5. 

Eutypa dieback, dying arm 

Scientific name: Ascomycetes: 

Eutypa dieback (Eutypa lata = E. armeniacae) 

Host range: Eutypa dieback is an important 

pruning wound disease of grapevine and apricot. 

It may attack other woody plants, eg almond, 

apple, peach, pear, plum, pittosporum, tamarisk. 

Symptoms: Symptoms are rare on grapes 

< 10 years old. Grey-black elongated superficial 

lesions with pin-point black fruiting bodies develop 

on canes. Lesions become rough and split with 

age. Infection can work back from pruning cuts, 

killing canes or spurs. Small black circular or 

elongated lesions occur on leaves causing them to 

tear and become distorted. Elongated black lesions 

appear on leaf and bunch stalks, bunches may be 

destroyed. Mature fruit rot. 

Overwintering: In the fruiting bodies on the 

lesions on the dead tissues on canes. In spring in 

wet weather these fruiting bodies produce spores 

which infect young canes, leaves and bunches. 

Spread: Spores are produced on dead woody 

tissue and spread by wind to healthy vines. They 

are then splashed or washed on to new pruning 

cuts by rain or irrigation. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, damp weather. 

Optimum conditions for infection of pruning 

wounds are warm (21-24 o C) and wet spring 

weather on the day of pruning. 

Control: Although biological control agents have 

been used on apricot, they do not seem to work on 

grape. Control is aimed at reducing the chance of 

spores reaching unprotected fresh pruning wounds. 

Cultural methods: Pruning early in winter when 

spore production is lowest, minimises infection. 

Sanitation: Burn all infected branches as soon as 

pruning is completed. At an early stage, Eutypa 

infections can be removed by surgery, and 

eradication from vines is possible. Old infected 

vines should be removed to below ground level. 

Resistant varieties: All V. vinifera varieties in 

Australia are susceptible. 

Pesticides: Paint or spray all fresh pruning cuts 

with fungicide to protect them from infection, 

immediately after pruning. 


Black spot, anthracnose (Elsinoe ampelina = 

Sphaceloma ampelina, Ascomycetes) is more 

common in home gardens than commercial vineyards. 

Leaf spots are initially small and dark, centres 

become lighter and may fall out. Distortion occurs if 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 59

GRAPEVINE 

there are many spots or if veins are involved. Dark 

elongated sunken cankers with raised margins develop 

on young canes. Canes may be girdled and die. 

Girdling of flower stems causes withering and 

falling of flowers or young fruits. Berries develop 

dark brown areas which later develop into round spots 

with grey centres and dark margins, between which 

there may be a well-defined red band (bird's-eye 

spot). There may be reduced yield and fruit quality. 

Favoured by low temperatures and wet weather 

early in the season. Prune out and burn infected 

canes.Varieties vary in susceptibility. Fungicides 

may be applied, if weather is damp and cool. 

Phomopsis leaf and cane spot, dead arm 

(Phomopsis viticola = Cryptosporella viticola): 

Infection can work back from pruning cuts, killing 

canes or spurs. Lesions on canes are black, 

elongated and superficial, splitting and becoming 

rough with age. In winter, pin-point black fruiting 

bodies (pycnidia) develop in the ash-coloured 

lesions. Small black circular or elongated lesions 

occur on leaves causing them to tear and distort. 

Leaves may fall. Elongated black lesions also appear 

on the bunch stalks. Bunches may be destroyed 

and a ripe rot of mature fruit may develop. 

Favoured by cool, damp weather. Remove and 

destroy diseased canes. Many table and wine grape 

varieties are susceptible. Only plant Phomopsisfree 

cuttings. Fungicides are registered for use. 

Others: Ascochyta ampelina, Cercospora viticola, 

Mycosphaerella phaseolina, Pseudocercospora vitis. 


Powdery mildew (Uncinula necator): 

Young leaves may be distorted, shrivel and die. 

Flower infection causes poor fruit set. Berry 

infection causes stunting, hardened cracked skin 

and uneven colouring of dark coloured varieties. If 

possible, plant varieties with some resistance, eg 

Grenache and Shiraz. Powdery mildews are 

difficult to control. Petroleum oils are as effective 

as myclobutanil for preventing powdery mildew 

(Northover and Schneider 1996). A mycoparasite 

(Ampelomyces quisqualis) is being researched 

overseas (Falk et al. 1995). See Annuals A 6. 


Damping off: Pythium crown rot (Pythium sp.) 

occurs on vines < 2 years old, rhizoctonia root rot 

(Rhizoctonia solani) may occur in nurseries. See 


Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.), ashy 

stem blight, charcoal rot (Macrophomina 

phaseolina), fusarium root rot (Fusarium sp.), 

phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi), 


basicola), white root rot (Rosellinia necatrix = 

Dermatophora necatrix). 



More than 70 species of nematodes are associated 

with Vitis spp. in Australia. Parasitic nematodes 

may reduce vigour and yield. Most agricultural 

land has a population of nematodes, numbers 

generally depend on the intensity of land use. 

Dagger nematode (Xiphinema index) attacks grape, 

fig, pistachio, roses, stone fruit, and possibly citrus. It 

sucks sap from rootlet tips causing roots to bend, 

swell and perhaps die. To compensate, roots produce 

more roots, the root system becomes very branched 

with many dead rootlets. Young vines may die, older 

vines may be stunted, pale, weak and unproductive. 

X. index occurs only in some areas of Australia so 

quarantine regulations prohibit the removal of 

any grapevine part from affected areas. X. index also 

transmits fanleaf virus. Only 1 generation per year. 

Males are rare and not required for reproduction. 

Some rootstocks have some resistance . 

Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) is the most important 

nematode disease of grapevines. Grapevine tolerance 

depends much on soil texture, root knot is most serious 

in light and sandy soils, with production being 

reduced to uneconomic levels. See Vegetables M 10. 

Others: Citrus nematode (Tylenchulus 

semipenetrans), pin nematodes (Paratylenchus 

spp.), ring nematode (Criconemella xeniplax), root 


nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp.), stubby-root 

nematode (Paratrichodorus minor). 

Control in established vineyards is difficult. To 

confirm diagnosis, collect soil and root samples for 

analysis (Nicholas et al. 1994). Improve 

management practices to reduce the damaging 

effects of nematodes, eg reduce stress due to 

inadequate water and fertiliser, increase soil 

organic content (parasites and predators increase in 

soils rich in humus). Plant infested areas with 

nematode-free resistant or tolerant rootstocks. 

Before replanting infested areas, remove infested 

roots and treat soil, even if resistant or tolerant 

rootstock are to be planted. Nematodes can be 

eradicated from bare-rooted grapevine rootlings by 

hot water treatments. Crop rotation and soil 

fumigation often give poor control because X. 

index and grapevine fanleaf virus can survive for 

many years at great depth in the soil in the absence 

of host plants (Coombe and Dry 1992). See 


Borers 


Auger beetles (Bostrichidae): Common auger 

beetle (Xylopsocus gibbicollis, large auger beetle 

(Bostrychopsis jesuita). See Trees K 11. 

Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) causes 

similar damage as the vine weevil . See Trees K 12. 

Fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator) larvae may tunnel 

upwards in grapevine stems for over 1 m or 

downwards into the main stem. See Fig F 55. 

Oecophorid borers (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera), eg 

fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma) and 

Echiomima sp. are pests of grapevines in SA, boring 

into runners. See Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 

Vine weevil (Orthorhinus klugi) is about 7 mm long, 

reddish-brown and hard. Adults may feed on buds 

and bark of canes. They drill holes in the canes with 

their long snout and insert their eggs. Larvae are 

legless. They bore downwards in canes, and pupate 

at the end of the tunnel. Adults bore their way out in 

early spring, leaving a round hole. Tunnels are 

packed with fine flour-like dust (Hely et al. 1982). 


F 60 

FRUIT AND NUTS

GRAPEVINE 


Metallic shield bug (Scutiphora pedicellata) sucks 

sap from grape berries which wilt and shrivel. See 


Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) sucks sap from 

shoots, stems and berries.Affectedberriesshrivel 

and gum from feeding punctures. Shoots may wilt 

and die. See Stone fruits F 130, Vegetables M 12. 

Others: Coon bug (Oxycarenus arctatus), green 

vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), green stink bug 

(Plautia affinis), pale cotton stainer (Dysdercus 

sidae). 



Cutworms (Agrotis spp., Noctuidae) damage young 

vines in newly planted orchards. See Seedlings N 68. 

Hawk moths (Sphingidae): Grapevine hawk moth 

(Hippotion celerio) is an introduced minor pest of 

grapevine, citrus, sweet potato, golden guinea vine, 

rhubarb, Virginia creeper and Boston ivy during 

spring, summer and autumn. Moths have a wingspan 

of 70-100 mm, are greenish-brown, with a pink area 

on each hind wing with dark markings. The body 

tapers to a point. Caterpillars are 60-80 mm long, 

greenish or brownish-black with 2 large eye-spots 

behind the head and a row of spots along each side. 

See Sweet potato M 95 (Fig. 358). They mostly feed 

on leaves. Overwinters as pupae in soil. Other 

hawk moths may feed on grapevines and other 

Vitaceae, eg vine hawk moth (Thereta oldenlandiae) 

(Fig. 13, Annuals A 3) and T. latreillei, whitelined 

hawk moth (Hyles lineata), Acosmeryx anceus, 

Gnathothlibus erotus subsp. eras (Common 1990). 


caterpillars can destroy up to 20% of a crop. They 

feed on flowers and fruit clusters, weaving them 

together. Caterpillars feed on the fruit skin causing 

large irregular blemishes, which may callous over. 

Fruit remain on the tree, or in wet weather, it may rot 

and fall. A wasp (Trichogramma carverae) is an egg 

parasite. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Noctuids (Noctuidae): Grapevine moth 

(Phalaenoides glycinae) is found in all grape growing 

areas of Australia in warm, humid weather during 

spring and summer. It also infests ornamental 

grapevines, fuchsia, Virginia creeper, glory vine, 

Gnaphalium luteoalbum, Hibbertia linearis and 

Glycine spp. Moths are black with yellow markings, 

about 50-60 mm across its outspread wings and dayflying. 

There is an orange tuft of hairs at the tip of 

the abdomen and orange markings beneath the body. 

Caterpillars are up to 50 mm long, greenish-yellow 

with numerous short, transverse, irregular black lines 

and several reddish spots, the body is covered with 

long fine, white hairs (Fig. 128). They usually feed on 

leaf undersurfaces and can defoliate young vines. 

Young bunches may be damaged, berries being 

marked as they mature. Pellets of excreta may be 

found beneath the vines. There are 2-3 overlapping 

generations each year. Female moths lay eggs in 

spring on stems and leaves of hosts. Overwinters as 

pupae in soil, or between cemented leaves or rubbish. 

As they are readily controlled they are generally only 

pests of home garden vines. Cockatoos prey on 

moths and caterpillars, and a predatory shield bug 

(Oechalia schellenbergii) feeds on caterpillars. In 

home gardens where often no sprays are used these 

bugs may be seen with their stylet inserted in a 

caterpillar, sucking its contents. Parasitic wasps 

are commonly seen trying to oviposit in caterpillars. 

A wasp (Euplectrus sp.) parasitises eggs and 

caterpillars. Fungal diseases commonly attack these 

caterpillars during prolonged damp weather (Fig. 

129). Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) 

may damage vineyards. Painted vine moth 

(Agarista agricola) caterpillars feed on fruiting and 

ornamental grapevines, Cissus spp., Boston ivy and 

Virginia creeper. Moths have a wingspan of about 

65 mm and are black, forewings are marked with a 

pattern of pale blue, deep yellow, cream and red. 

Hindwings are black with a white edge. Caterpillars 

have black, orange and cream stripes and slender 

black projections from the body. They are not usually 

found in large numbers and can be removed by hand. 

Caterpillars of Argyrolepidia subaspersa feed on 

Vitaceae eg grapevine (V. vinifera), Cissus 

hypoglauca, Cayratia,, Virginia creeper in Qld and 

NSW. 

Raisin moth (Cadra figulilella, Pyralidae) caterpillars 

infests ripening and fallen grapes but is more 

importantly, a postharvest pest of drying grapes. 

All fallen and waste fruit must be collected and 

destroyed. Process grapes as soon as possible. 

Others: Small citrus butterfly (Papilio anactus), 

leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri). Also 

Acropolitis rudisana on ornamental grapes and radiata 

pine; orange fruit borer (Isotenes miserana), tussock 

moth (Porthesia paradoxa). 

Monitor caterpillars of lightbrown apple moth on 

bunches, and grapevine moth on foliage, at regular 


insecticide (Brough et al. 1994, Nicholas et al. 

 

1994). Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel ) may applied 

as a regular program to control leafeating 

caterpillars. See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8. 

Driedfruit beetles (Carpophilus spp.) 

are attracted to and breed in overripe fermenting 

fruit and are pests of drying grapes. They also 

spread bunch rots. See Fruit F 8. 

Ferment flies (Drosophilidae, Diptera) are 

important pests of drying grapes, around cellars and 

in some crops, eg coastal vineyards producing table 

grapes. Flies are brown and grey with reddish 

eyes, and are about 3 mm long. If the berries split 

in late summer, flies will deposit eggs in the cracks 

the small white maggots cause fermentation and 

breakdown. Maggots grow to about 4 mm long, 

and pupate in dried areas of the rotted fruit. Do 

not confuse with fruit flies. See Fruit F 8. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera), eg 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) may 

damage late table grapes in WA. Control is 

compulsory. Prune out stung berries from bunches 

before marketing. Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera 

tryoni) rarely attacks grapes. See Fruit F 9. 

Grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira 

vitifolii, Phylloxeridae, Hemiptera) is the most 

serious pest affecting grape. Adult aphids are 

greenish-yellow and live on roots as well as on the 

aboveground parts. Fleshy yellow galls develop on 

the fine roots. Galls are about 10 mm across and 

may be curved into an S-shape. If they are cut open, 

1-2 greenish-yellow aphids may be seen. Once a gall 

forms, the root stops growing. Leaves of V. riparia 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 61

GRAPEVINE 

and V. rupestris may develop fleshy yellowish 

irregular galls on the lower surface (Fig. 129). 

Infected vines have weak growth and will never crop 

properly. There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, 

nymphs, adult) with many generations each season. 

Overwinters on roots as nymphs on V. vinifera and 

as eggs and nymphs on V. riparia and V. rupestris. 

Spread on cuttings, winged forms flying, wind, on 

rootlings, soil. Favoured by heavy soils. Where it is 

known to exist, grapes are usually grown on 

resistant rootstocks. Very few galls are formed. 

Quarantine regulations restrict the movement of 

grape cuttings and other plant parts. There is no 

chemical control and no economic means of removing 

phylloxera from soil once it is established. 

Grapevine scale (Parthenolecanium 

persicae, Coccidae, Hemiptera) is a common minor 

pest of grapevines, mainly in home gardens. Adult 

scales are shiny, hard, convex, dark brown, 

elongated oval and about 7 mm long by 4 mm wide. 

They are found on leaves and young canes. Old 

canes are often heavily infested. Scales produce 

honeydew on which sooty mould grows. Infested 

canes have a sooty appearance. If the honeydew falls 

on fruit, then sooty mould makes bunches 

unmarketable. Overwinters as adults on old wood 

where they produce masses of eggs beneath old scale 

covers. Eggs on canes hatch in late spring and small, 

yellow crawlers move out on to leaves where they 

settle. In autumn they move back onto the canes and 

old wood where they mature. Examine canes 

during normal winter pruning. If any are found, 

remove infested canes and spot spray infested canes 

after pruning and before bud burst. See Citrus F 41. 


are serious pests of bunches, leaves, canes and 

roots of vines. Damaged berries may be invaded 

by secondary fruit rots. Mealybugs extrude a 

white cottony material and secrete quantities of 

sticky honeydew which falls over bunches and 

lower parts of the vines. The cottony material, 

together with dust and other debris becomes 

entangled in the honeydew, rendering bunches 

unsightly. Sooty mould grows on the honeydew. 


and Pseudococcus spp. infest older canes and 

crowns in winter and are found under rough bark. 

Favoured by sandy soil and heavy foliage; sultanas, 

currants and some wine and table grapes with heavy 

foliage are susceptible; sparse foliaged varieties, eg 

Gordo Blanco, are not. 

Tuber mealybug (P. affinis) is found in cracks on 

bark, in curled leaves within bunches, on roots of 

vines and weeds. As few as 1 mealybug/bunch/carton 

at harvest may cause downgrading. Apply a 

preventative spray before bunches close. Mealybugs 

on roots are difficult to control with insecticides. 

Others: Citrophilous mealybug (P. calceolariae). 



Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) adults are 0.2 mm long 

(microscopic), cream and worm-like with 2 pairs of 

legs situated near the head end. Grapeleaf blister 

mite (Colomerus vitis) is a minor pest of 

V. vinifera. Mites are found in the felt-like areas on 

the undersurface of blisters on leaves during the 

growing season and in the buds during winter. There 

are two strains, one which infests leaves and another 

morphologically identical strain which infests growth 

buds. Blister mite forms suck sap from leaf 

undersurfaces in spring causing small yellow areas 

(up to 6mm or more across) to develop with a feltlike 

appearance due to the production of denselypacked 

hairs (erinose) by the host. This mat of hairs 

turns rusty brown as the leaf ages. The upper surfaces 

of these felty areas develop blisters (Fig. 130). In 

severe infestations leaves may be small and covered 

with blisters and shrivel in hot weather causing 

bunches to be sunburnt. Bud mite forms cause 

stunting of canes, short internodes at the base, zigzagged 

shoots, dead overwintering buds and abnormal 

development of buds reducing yield. Waltham Cross 

is especially susceptible in spring. Gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with many 

generations each season. Overwinter as adults under 

bud scales, in spring they attack new leaves. Mites 

multiply in the felty areas, during spring, summer and 

autumn. In late autumn they move to the buds. 

Favoured by warm, moist weather (especially above 

average spring and summer rainfall). If only a few 

shoots or leaves are affected, these may be pruned 

out as they appear during the growing season. 

Predators include mites, hoverfly larvae, lacewings 

and thrips. Some varieties, eg Muscat Gordo Blanco, 

are very susceptible. Where severe mite injury has 

occurred the previous season, lime sulphur may be 

applied after pruning and before budswell during the 

dormant season. Control during the growing season is 

more difficult. Grapeleaf rust mite (Calepitrimerus 

vitis) is usually a minor pest. Adults are similar in 

shape and size to the grapeleaf blister mite. Mites are 

present, sometimes in large numbers on both leaf 

surfaces, but mainly on uppersurfaces and the whole 

surface becomes reddish-brown with the area along 

the main veins being the deepest brown. Sometimes 

most leaves are discoloured and the whole vineyard 

affected. Leaves fall prematurely. Overwinters 

apparently in crevices in the bark and between the bud 

scales. Favoured by hot dry years. Control: If 

severe the previous year, spray after pruning before 

bud burst. Cover all parts of the vine especially 

crevices around the buds. Others: Citrus rust mite 

(Phyllocoptruta oleivora). 

False spider mites (Brevipalpus spp., Tenuipalpidae). 

Bunch mite (B. californicus) is a major pest of 

grape, citrus, also camellia, docks, fuchsia, hydrangea, 

rhubarb, tomato and some other plants. Adults are 

deep red, flat and small, about 0.25 mm long and 

practically invisible to the naked eye (adults of citrus 

flat mite, B. lewisi, are brown). They move very 

slowly and are found on leaf undersurfaces close to 

bunches or in the bunches themselves. Mites feed on 

the stalks of bunches and berries causing berries 

to drop or shrivel due to moisture loss. Mites may 

feed on the berry surfaces causing brown 

encrustations (thick skin) which may develop a 

network of cracks and become reticulated. Leaves 

are not usually damaged but may develop a browned, 

roughened appearance. Mites are also found at the 

bases of the canes which may be brown and scarred. 

Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with 

many generations each season. Eggs are laid on 

leaves and under bark and nymphs suck sap from the 

surface tissues. They do not seem to move far from 

the place where the eggs were laid. Overwinter as 

non-feeding adults under outer bud scales, in cracks 

on canes and under rough bark at the bases of canes. 

F 62 

FRUIT AND NUTS

GRAPEVINE 

Favoured in hot inland growing regions. Doreen's 

predator mite (Typhlodromus doreenae) provides 

adequate control. Where mites are a problem spray at 

budswell the following season. Control may be 

required during summer. 

Others: Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus). 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may be a 

serious pest if broad spectrum pesticides are used to 

control other pests. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Spread by movement of infested cuttings and nursery 

stock, by wind or on insects and birds. Mites have a 

limited ability to crawl. Only plant mite-free 

cuttings. Varieties vary in resistance. Monitor 

grapeleaf blister mite and grapeleaf rust mite 

populations at regular intervals before making a 


1994, Nicholas et al. 1994). 


Black plague thrips (Haplothrips froggatti, 

Phlaeothripidae) suck juice from young berries, 

scar tissue forms over the feeding area. 


may cause leaf silvering. Leaves are speckled with 

black dots of excreta, brown and wither. Berries may 

be mottled, brown and scurf. Favoured by thickly 

foliaged household vines grown on trellises. Control 

is usually not necessary. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) and tubular black 

thrips (Haplothrips victoriensis) may invade 

flowers and attack fruit in large numbers in some 

seasons. Flower tissues and fleshy fruit stalks may 

look pimply due to egg laying. Thrips do not reduce 

yields and apart from slight brownish scarring of the 

berries, seem to do little damage. See Fruit F 12, 

Roses J 6. 

Others: Western flower thrips (Frankliniella 

occidentalis). See Annuals A 9. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) are 

minor pests, but young vines and trees may be 

severely damaged in some areas. 

Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) may attack 

over 50 different plants species including grapevines 

and cyclamen (even in pots). Weevils are 10-12 mm 

long, brown-black with faint yellow spots. Weevils 

are nocturnal, coming out at night to feed on leaf 

margins and leaving small notches. Larvae are 

white, legless and up to 10 mm long and are found 

around the base of plants in spring (Fig. 131). Most 

damage is caused by larvae feeding on fine root 

hairs during summer and autumn. Plants may fail to 

grow in spring. There is probably only 1 generation 

each year. Only female adults are known and they are 

flightless. They emerge in November and lay eggs on 

the soil surface. Soil may be cultivated thoroughly in 

early October to destroy pupae. Heterorhabditis sp. 

(Otinem ® ) is a nematode which controls the larvae. 

Other weevils chew foliage and buds, eg apple 

weevil (O. cribricollis), elephant weevil 

(O. cylindrirostris), vine weevil (O. klugi). Also 

apple root weevils (Persperus spp.), fruit-tree root 

weevil (Leptopius squalidus), Fuller's rose weevil 

(Pantomorus cervinus), garden weevil (Phlyctinus 

callosus), gooseberry weevil (Ecrizothis 

inaequalis), spine-tailed weevil (Desiantha sp.), 

white striped weevil (Perperus lateralis). 

See Grapevine F 60, Trees K 17. 

Others: African black beetle (Heteronychus 

arator) infests young vines, ants (Formicidae) are 

attracted to sucking insects. Flower chafer 

(Dilochrosis atripennis) may damage ripening 

grapes and other fruit, eg figs and oranges. Leaf 

beetles, flea beetles (Chrysomelidae, 

Coleoptera), eg metallic flea beetle (Altica sp.), 

redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) 

and small monolepta beetle (M. divisa). Also 

aphids (Aphididae), black cicada (Melampsalta 

sp.), crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, locusts 

(Orthoptera), green scarab beetle (Dihucephala 

sp.). Also leafhoppers (Cicacellidae), passionvine 

hopper (Scolypopa australis), termites (Isoptera). 


Several species, eg common garden snail (Helix 

aspersa), reticulated slug (Deroceras reticulatum), 

sand dune snail, white Italian snail (Theba pisana), 

small pointed snail (Cochlicella barbara) and 

vineyard snail (Cernuella virgata) may damage newly 

planted and older vines. See Seedlings N 70. 


Kangaroos, rabbits, and hares damage newly 

planted vineyards. Birds, eg blackbirds, silver 

eyes, wattle honeyeaters, starlings, cockatoos and 

parrots are major pests of berries. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Spring frosts may kill new 

growth, immature canes, occasionally split trunks, 

and reduce fruit set. In frost-prone areas, manage 

plants to minimise frost injury (implement frost 

protection). Site vineyards on elevated sloping sites 

with free air drainage. Avoid hollows, troughs and 

saddles between hills, where air movement is 

restricted. Sun may burn berries. Rain-split 

berries and bunch rots increase near harvest. Windsuck 

is the withdrawal of water during hot, dry, 

windy weather, from the fruit causing it to shrivel. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities occur on 

grapevines and are complex, and vary according to 

many factors including soil type, variety, rootstock 

used, irrigation systems, training methods and canopy 

exposure. Nutrition may affect wine quality. Some 

hybrids have good salt tolerance. Fertiliser 

requirements may be predicted by tissue, soil and 

juice analysis. Tissue analyses, eg petiole analysis, 

at flowering, is considered at present to be the best 

method of predicting fertilising requirements. Soil 

analyses is mainly used for determining pH and 

salinity prior to planting (Coombe and Dry 1992, 

Weir and Cresswell 1993). See Citrus F43, Trees K20. 

Pesticide injury: Copper sprays may harden 

vines if applied frequently. In some districts and in 

some seasons they cause a marginal browning. 

Sulphur may cause injury if applied at temperatures 

>30 o C. Hormone herbicides, eg 2,4-D used for 

killing and sometimes for fruit setting and fruit 

thinning may injure grapes and other plants. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 63

GRAPEVINE 

Very sensitive: Grapevine, bean, lettuce, potato, 

tomato, cotton, tobacco, hibiscus, zinnia. 

Sensitive: Most fruit (banana, citrus), field crops, eg 

lucerne, clover, cowpea, soybean, medics, 

vegetables, eg crucifers, cucurbits, most trees, 

shrubs, roses. 

Intermediate: Cereals, linseed, passionfruit, 

strawberry, asparagus, potato, bent buffalo grasses. 

Tolerant: Most pasture and turf grasses. 

Growth subsequent to hormone exposure is usually 

reduced and thickened, leaves curled and twisted, 

with thickened veins which tend to have a parallel 

arrangement (Fig. 130). Stems may split and callus 

growth may develop. Aerial roots may be initiated on 

the stems. Vines may die rapidly. Slightly affected 

vines usually recover, but the season's crop may be 

lost or seriously reduced. Avoid spray drift onto 

nearby grape crops, and volatile ester forms of 2,4-D 

near sensitive crops as vapours may continue to rise 

from sprayed areas for some hours after spraying, 

particularly on warm windless days. The use of 

hormone herbicide near vineyards is often 

regulated. Set aside spray equipment especially for 

use with herbicides and do not use this equipment for 

the application of insecticides or fungicides. Do not 

store herbicides near fertilisers, seeds, tubers, 

insecticides or fungicides. Others, eg glyphosate. 

Others: Guttation: Vines in mild humid weather 

may exude small droplets of sap from leaves or 

shoots. Drops dry and whiten but are not detrimental. 

Other problems include mutations, waterberry, high 

nitrogen, hen and chickens (Fig. 132) (unevenly-sized 

berries on some varieties caused by poor fruit set 

following cold or wet weather or other factors). 


Anon. Viticulture, Principles and Practice. The 

University of WA/WA Dept of Agric., Perth. 

Anon. 1982. Grape Drying in Australia. Australian 

Dried Fruits Processing Committee. Sunraysia, 












Brown, B. 1994. Grapevine Management Guide 1994- 

95. NSW Agric., Mudgee. 

Buchanan, G. A. and Amos, T. G. 1984. The Biology, 

Quarantine and Control of Grape Phylloxera in 

Australia and New Zealand. Dept. of Agric. and 

Rural Affairs, Melbourne. 

Chesterfield, I. and Smith, P. (eds). 1990. Table Grapes: 

A Product Manual. Dept. of Agric. and Rural 

Affairs, Melbourne/Sunraysia Export Dev. Com. 

Com. of Aust., Australian Quarantine and Inspection 


Plant Quarantine Leaflet. 

Pierce's Disease of Grapevines. No. 34. 1982. 

Blackrot of Grapevine. No. 35. 1990. 

Bacterial Blight of Grapevine. No. 66. 1992. 





Coombe, B. G. and Dry, P. R. (eds). 1988. Viticulture 

Vol.1 : Resources in Australia. Winetitles, Adelaide. 

Coombe, B. G. and Dry, P. R. (eds). 1992. Viticulture 

Vol.2 : Practices. Winetitles, Adelaide. 

Cox, J. 1988. From Vines to Wines. Storey Pub., 

Pownal, VT. 

Dakis, P. 1995. The Profitability of Investing in a Small 

Vineyard and Winery. Agric. Vic., Melbourne. 

Davidson, D. 1993. A Guide to Growing Winegrapes in 

Australia. Di Davidson Consulting Services, 

18 Stanley St., Leabrook, SA. 



Gladstones, J. 1992. Viticulture and Environment. 

Winetitles, Adelaide. 

Falk, S. P., Gadoury, D. M., Pearson, R. C. and Sheen, 

R. C. 1995. Partial Control of Grape Powdery 

Mildew by the Mycoparasite Ampelomyces 

quisqualis. Plant Disease, May. 

Flaherty, D. L. (ed.). 1992. Grape Pest Management. 

University of California, CA. 

Hayes, P. (ed.). 1993. Vineyard Development and 

Redevelopment. Aust. Soc. of Viticulture and 

Oenology Seminar, Mildura, Vic. 



Melbourne. 

Jackson, D. and Schuster, D. 1994. The Production of 

Grapes and Wine in Cool Climates. Gypsum Press, 

Christchurch, NZ. 

Kerridge, G. H. and Antcliff, A. J. 1996. Wine Grape 

Varieties of Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Knowles, A. 1995. Great Grapes , Bright Future. New 

Scientist, 16 Dec. 

Lewin, R. 1993. California's Lousy Vintage. New 

Scientist, April. 

May , P. 1994 Using Grapevine Rootstocks : The 

Australian Perspective. Winetitles, Adelaide. 

Mitchell, P. D. and Goodwin, I. 1996. Micro-Irrigation 

of Vines and Fruit Trees. Agmedia, Melbourne. 

Mussared, D. and Bennett, B. 1995. Vigneron's Offered 

Better Ways to Use Water. Ecos 85 Spring. 

Nicholas, P., Margarey, P. and Wachtel, M. 1994. Grape 

Production Series 1. : Diseases and Pests. 

Winetitles, Adelaide. 

Northover, J. and Schneider, K. E. 1996. Physical 

Modes of Action of Petroleum and Plant Oils on 

Powdery and Downy Mildews of Grapevines. Plant 

Disease Vol.80(5). 

NSW Agriculture. Drip Irrigation : A Grapegrowers 

Guide. Agmedia 

O'Connor, G., Strawhorn J. and Orr, K. 1993. Soil 

Management for Orchards and Vineyards. Agmedia, 

Melbourne. 



and Vegetables. cur. edn. OECD, Paris . Available 


Pearson, R. C. and Austin, C. C. (eds). 1988. 

Compendium of Grape Diseases. APS Press, 

Minnesota. 






Possingham, J. V., Wren Smith, R. A. and Brennan, 

A. M. 1990. Bibliography of Viticultural Research. 




Taylor, R. 1995. A Grape by Any Other Name. Rural 

Research, 168, Spring. 

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F 64 

FRUIT AND NUTS

GRAPEVINE 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Black Spot of the Grapevine 

Dead Arm of Grapes 

Downy Mildew of Grapevine 

Grape Growing : An Introduction 

Grape Growing in Cool Areas 

Grapevine Management Guide for Coastal, Tablelands 

and Hunter Valley Districts 

Grapevines in the Garden 

Grapevine Spray Calendar for the Coastal and 

Tablelands Districts (NSW Agric) 

Maturity Testing of Grapes : A Guide for Commercial 

Growers 

Orchard & Vineyard Plant Protection Guide 

Pests of Grapes 

Phylloxera : A Threat to Grapevines 

Powdery Mildew (Oidium) of Grapevine 

Production and Marketing of Table Grapes 

Pruning Grapevines 

Table Grape Varieties 

Vineyard Soil Management. Herbicides & their Use 

Wine, Women & Vineyard Mite Control (Video) 


A Guide to the Control of Fruit, Vine and Vegetable 

Pests (SA Dept Agric.) 

Chemical Weed Control in Mature Cool-Climate 

Vineyards 

Control of Lightbrown Apple Moth in Vineyards 

Eutypa Dieback in Apricots and Grapevines 

Identification & Control of Grapevine Phomopsis (Video) 

Mites Damaging Grapevines 

Nematode Control in Grapevines 

Petiole Analysis for Grapevines 

Table Grape Varieties 

Vic Agnotes 

Available Grapevine Clones 

A Vine Grafting Kit 

A Water Jet for Planting Vines 

Bird Control in Vineyards 

Black Spot of Grapevines 

Bunch Mite on Grape Vines 

Calendar of Vineyard Operations for Dried Vine Fruits 

Care of Young Vines 

Characteristics of Grapevine Rootstock 

Chemical Control of Weeds in Irrigated Vineyards 

Collection & Storage of Grafting Wood for Grapevines 

Controlling Mould on Drying Grapes Damaged by Rain 

Controlling Snails in Citrus and Vineyards 

Control of Phylloxera and Fanleaf Nematode 

Cool Storage of Table Grapes 

Cover Crops in Vines 

Dehydration of Grapes Using the Hudson Bin Drier 

Dehydrator 

Dipping, Rack Spraying & Trellis Drying of Sultanas 

Downy Mildew of Grapevine 

Dried Vine Fruit : From Picking to the Drying Rack 

Eutypa Dieback of Grapevines 

Frost : Its Nature and Control 

Furrow Irrigation of Vines 

Grape Phylloxera 

Grapes : Pests, Diseases & Chemicals for their Control 

Grapevine Nurseries 

Grapevines Kit` 

Growing Grapes in the Home Garden 

How Moisture Stress Affects Grapevines 

How to Collect Samples : Nematode Analysis 

How to Topwork Grapevines 

Improving Furrow Irrigation in Sunraysia Vineyards 

Improving Mineral Nutrition in Vineyards 

Lightbrown Apple Moth on Grapevines 

Lime-induced Chlorosis in Grapevines 

Management of Sultana Grafted to Ramsey Rootstock 

Nematode Pests of Grapevine 

Nematodes in Horticultural Crops in the Northern Mallee 

Obtaining Grapevine Rootstock Material within Victoria 

Phomopsis Cane and Leaf Spot 

Powdery Mildew (Oidium) of Grapevine 

Preparing Land and Planting Grapevines 

Principles of Pruning Grapevines 

Producing Sultanas for the Table 

Producing Sultanas (Thompson Seedless) as Table Grapes 

Pruning Grapevines in the Home Garden 

Rack Spraying and Dipping to Produce Dried Raisins 

Rain Damage to Dried Vine Fruit 

Selecting a Site for a Vineyard 

Selection of Vineyard Sites by Comparison of Climate 

Soil Preparation for Fruit Trees & Grapevines in Southern 

Victoria & the Goulburn Valley 

Sprays for Setting Currants and Carina 

Sulphur Dioxide Fumigation of Grapes 

Supply of Grapevine Varieties in Victoria 

Supply of Virus-tested Grapevine Cuttings 

Testing Table Grapes for Maturity 

The Dagger Nematode on Grapevines 

Training Young Vines 

Trellis Design for Vines 

Trellis Drying of Sultanas 

Trickle Irrigation Vineyards Leaves Less Salt Near Roots 

Varieties of Fruit Trees, Vines and Berries 

Varieties of Wine Grapes in Use in Australia 

Virus Diseases of Grapevines 

Weed Control Under Drying Racks 

Wine Grafting in Field Nurseries 

Zinc Sprays for Fruit Setting in Vines 

WA Farmnotes 

Control of Pests in Young Vines 

Powdery Mildew of Grapes 

The Grapeleaf Blister Mite 

Viticulture in WA (Bull. 4152) 


ASVO Seminar Proceedings 

Australian and New Zealand Wine Industry Council 

Australian & New Zealand Wine Industry Directory 

Australian Dried Fruits Association (ADFA) 

Australian Dried Fruits Corporation 

Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker 

Australian Soc. of Viticulture and Oenology. 

Australian Wine and Brandy Producers Assoc. 

Australian Wine Research Institute 

Co-operative Research Centre for Viticulture 

Cropwatch Horticultural Hotline 

Dried Fruits Processing Committee 

Dried Fruit Research & Development Council 

Grape and Wine Research Council Research and 

Development Plan (1990/91-1994/95) 

Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation 

Mudgee Wine Grape Grower's Association 

Rural & Allied Industries Council/Dept. of Agric, 

Caversham, WA (Seminar : Production, Promotion 

& Marketing of Western Australian Table Grapes) 

The Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker 

Vine Improvement Program 

Wine Grapegrowers Council of Australia 

Wine Industry Journal 

Winemakers' Federation of Australia (WFA) 

Winetitles, Adelaide 




MANAGEMENT 

Grapes are grown for fresh grapes, wine and grape products, eg dried grapes. An overview of the industry has 

been presented by Coombs (1995). Grape management guides are published for particular districts each year 

(Browne 1994, Nicholas et al. 1994). AusVit (Australian Viticulture) is one Expert System and is a cooperative 

project between some state departments of agriculture and universities. AusVit guides vineyard managers to 

maximise production through better pest control and irrigation, helping to solve problems before they occur. An 

Australian Standard for organic and biodynamic produce is to be incorporated in the Australian Food Standards 

Code for the domestic market and in orders under the Export Control Act for fresh grapes, grape products and 

wine. Organic certification may be achieved by maintaining the fertility and biological activity of the 

vineyard and soil by any one or any combination of: eliminating artificial fertilisers; handling pests and 

disease by biological means; permitting only certain pesticides; controlling weeds by non-chemical means, eg 

mulch. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 65

GRAPEVINE 

Selection 

Select varieties which are suited to the climate, site, product to be produced, and are high yielding, vigorous 

and crop evenly. DNA fingerprinting for grapevines will enable varieties to be accurately identified. The 

introduction of grapevine graftwood or cuttings into Australia requires prior approval from plant quarantine 

authorities. If approval is granted, it must be treated, then grown in post-entry quarantine and screened for 

disease, including indexing for virus and virus-like diseases. Within Australia, legislation regulates the 

movement of grapevines and vine material to control the spread of pests and diseases, eg phylloxera. Where 

there are particular problems, select varieties with some resistance to diseases and pests, eg to virus 

diseases, and select rootstocks with some resistance to nematodes, phylloxera, incompatibility, soils, 

potassium, salinity, chlorosis, uptake of ions other than potassium, sodium and chloride, soil acids and water 

supply (May 1994). Plant virus-tested grapes from vine improvement programs. 

Establishment and maintenance 

Australian grape growing is highly mechanised. Grapevines are propagated by cuttings and by meristem 

culture. Table grapes may be grown outdoors or in greenhouses. Wine grapes and dried fruit grapes are grown 

outdoors. All problems affecting grapevines must be monitored. Problems affecting young grapes include 

African black beetle, cutworms, rabbits and hares, snails, and damping off. Cultural methods include local site 

selection, layout, irrigation and drainage, pruning and training, fertilising. Vines should be grown in full sun and 

correctly pruned each year. Different varieties require different pruning methods. Sanitation: Ripe fruit should 

be removed from vines and processing sheds. Prunings should be removed from vineyards and destroyed. 

Biological control agents are available for various pests, eg crown gall. Pesticides: Growth regulators are 

applied to promote uniformity. Despite the pressure to reduce chemical use, routine spray schedules still 

dominate viticultural pest and disease management, rather than spraying in response to monitoring, the 

presence of symptoms, disease warnings or weather conditions. This is probably due to poor identification of 

early symptoms of disease and pest damage and knowledge of how weather influences their spread. Weeds 

should be controlled in new and established vineyards by both mulches and ground covers, mowing, preemergence 

and post-emergence herbicides. 

Postharvest 

Harvest bunches when maturity tests for drying, table and wine grapes indicate. Pests associated with drying 

grapes include raisin moths, driedfruit beetles and ferment flies. 

Fig. 127. Grey mould, noble rot 

(Botrytis cinerea). 

Fig. 128. Grapevine moth (Phalaenoides 

glycinae) caterpillars. Left : With a fungal 

disease. Right : Healthy caterpillar 

Fig. 129. Grape phylloxera 

(Daktulosphaira vitifolii). 

Left : Aphid and eggs in leaf galls. 

Right : Galls on leaf undersurfaces. 

Fig. 130. Grapeleaf blister mite 

(Colomerus vitis) damage and 

hormone herbicide injury. 

Fig. 131. Black vine weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus. 

Left : Adult and larva. 

Right : Damage by adults. 

Fig. 132. Hen and chickens caused by 

poor fruit set. 

F 66 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Guava 

Common guava (Psidium guajava) 

Family Myrtaceae (myrtle family) 


Parasitic 


Anthracnose 

Guava rust 


Caterpillars 



Thrips 


Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Anthracnose, black spot, ripe fruit spot 

(Colletotrichum sp.) causes deep sunken lesions on 

the skin of ripening fruit in the field and 

postharvest in humid conditions. See Fruit F 5. 

Guava rust (Puccinia psidii) attack Myrtaceae 

plants, eg bottlebrush, eucalypt, guava, lilly-pilly, 

Jambosa, Marlierea, melaleuca, Myrcia, Myrciaria, 

Paivaea and pimento, causing leaf fall, reduced growth 

and death. It is not known to occur in Australia. 

Quarantine precautions: Imports of susceptible 

plants are only permitted under strict quarantine 

conditions which include growth in post-entry 

quarantine and disease screening. Seed may be 

imported under prescribed conditions and may 

have to be grown in quarantine (Com. of Aust. 

1985). 

Others: Algal leaf spot, damping off, trunk canker. 



Guava moth (Coscinoptycha improbana, 

Carposinidae) caterpillars resemble those of yellow 

peach moth. They bore into fruit of introduced and 

native plants, eg Cassine australis, Schizomeria ovata, 

citrus, guava, feijoa. 

Others: Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) and 

yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) 

caterpillars bore into ripening fruit and may cause 

premature leaf fall. Caterpillars of bizarre looper 

(Anisozyga pieroides), A. insperata and mottled cup 

moth (Doratifera vulnerans) feed on guava foliage. 

Caterpillars of Syntherata janetta feed on guava in 

northern Australia. See Fruit F 8. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) are serious 

pests of fruit, monitoring is often irrelevant. 

Insecticides are usually required. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) may be 

major pests. Fruit may develop corky lesions and 

be distorted. Monitor bug populations at regular 


insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit F 10. 



may cause silvering and browning of foliage. 

Blemishing of fruit may be seen in late summer in 

sheltered sites. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Redbanded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus) may 

cause similar damage. See Mango F 81. 

Others: Fruitpiercing moth (Eudocima 

salaminia). Various scales (Hemiptera) occur on 

foliage and young stems and may be controlled 

with summer oil. 

VERTEBRATES 

Fruit bats, flying foxes (Dobsonia spp., Pteropus 

spp.) eat fruits and blossoms. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Dimethoate (Rogor 

) 

may injure leaves. Frost 

damages guava. Leaf analysis standards are 

available (Weir and Cresswell 1995). 


Com. of Aust. 1985. Guava Rust. Plant Quar. Leaflet 

No. 45. Aust. Quar. & Inspect Service, Dept. of 

Primary Industry & Energy, Canberra. 


















Industry eg 

Guavas in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 




MANAGEMENT 

Guavas are easily grown by seed, but some may be grafted or budded. Plants bear fruit when 2-3 years old. 

Guava is sensitive to frost. Shelter young trees from wind. Water stress will cause immature fruit to fall. 

Heavy fertiliser applications are required to produce a worthwhile crop. Fruit should be ripened on the bush, 

it will not ripen properly if picked green. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 67

Hazelnut 

Barcelona nut, cob nut, filbert nut 

Corylus avellana 

Family Betulaceae (birch family) 


Parasitic 



Bacterial blight, hazelnut blight 


Eastern filbert blight 



Root rots 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Filbert bud mite 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Biennial bearing 

Environment 


Suckers 


Eastern filbert blight (Anisogramma 

anomola), which is not known to occur in 

Australia, is the most severe disease of hazelnut. 

Fungal leaf spots (several species) affect 

hazelnut overseas. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) infects green 

husks and shells near maturity and after harvest, 

causing them to brown. It may be controlled with 

fungicides. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 


luteobubalina), phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora sp.). See Fruit F 7. 

Others: Stem cankers (various species of fungi) 

may cause dieback. Affected stems should be 

pruned out and destroyed. Fungi may enter stems 

via insect wounds or mechanical injury. Wood 

rots (various species of fungi) may damage old 

trees. Powdery mildew (Oidium sp) is a serious 

disease of hazelnut overseas. 


Parasitic 


Apple mosaic virus may infect hazelnut but is not 

an important disease. See Pome fruits F 107. 


Bacterial blight, hazelnut blight (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. corylina) can be a serious disease 

of hazelnut, especially of the cultivars Barcelona, 

Kentish Cob and Wanless Pride. Young succulent 

tissue is very susceptible. Tissue resistance 

increases with age. Leaves develop angular water 

soaked spots about 2-3 mm across, which turn 

reddish brown. On shoots and twigs cankers 

may develop which girdle stems causing twig 

dieback. Cankers on older shoots and limbs cause 

limb death. Buds may turn brown and die. Nuts 

and husks develop dark brown spots (1-3 mm 

across) which are usually superficial. Bacterial 

blight is spread by the introduction of infected 

nursery stock, during pruning on tools and by 

water splash. Favoured by wet seasons and high 

temperatures following wound infection. Young 

water-stressed trees are very susceptible. Control: 

Mulching and watering. Only propagate from 

disease-free plants and plant disease-free planting 

material. Where the disease is significant, 

protectant copper sprays may be applied in the late 

summer, autumn and early spring. See Stone fruits 

F 124, Walnut F 148. 

Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) has 

been recorded on nursery stock overseas. See 



Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Hazel aphid 

(Myzocallis coryli) may be a serious pest of new 

growth, colonising leaf undersurfaces. Leaves 

curl, honeydew attracts ants and sooty mould 

grows on it. See Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of various species 

may attack leaves and immature nuts. See 

Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8. 

Filbert bud mite (Phytoptus avellanae, 

Phytoptidae, Acarina) can be a serious pest of 

hazelnut. Infested buds, especially terminal buds, 

become swollen, deformed, fleshy and pinkish. 

Light bud infestations cause injury to external 

bracts, which results in deformed, weak and sickly 

shoots. Weakened buds produce no nuts. 

Damaged male catkins become rigid, brittle and 

produce little pollen. Mites overwinter in the 

enlarged buds and are spread by propagation from 

infested plants and the introduction of infested 

nursery stock. In spring when the mites migrate 

from enlarged buds to lay eggs on leaf 

undersurfaces and again from these infested leaves 

to terminal buds which become new big buds, 

more than 90% may be killed by being washed off 

the plant by rain, or desiccated by warm, dry air. 

If considered necessary, infested trees may be 

sprayed soon after budburst when mites are 

migrating to leaves. 



Oystershell scale (Quadraspidiotus ostreaeformis) 


Various species may produce honeydew which 

attracts ants and on which sooty mould grows. 


F 68 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Others: Fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma) 

caterpillars may ringbark trees and weaken 

laterals. Giant grasshopper (Valanga irregularis) 

feeds on leaves of hazelnut in tropical and 

subtropical areas. Scarab beetle (Scarabaeidae) 

larvae may feed on the roots of nursery stock after 

planting out. Overseas various nut-boring beetles 

may feed in the nuts. 


Birds, especially large birds, eg cockatoos, may 

attack ripe nuts as their shell is relatively thin. 

Foxes, hares, rabbits, wallabies, and possums 

can cause severe losses in small hazelnut plantings. 

Protect with tree guards. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Biennial bearing in some hazelnut varieties, 

lowers their average yield. 

Environment: In areas with hot summers 

whitewash trunks to prevent sunburn. Irrigate 

adequately to maintain tree growth, nut numbers 

and kernel quality. Young plants should be 

protected from hot winds. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Leaf 

analysis standards (tentative) are available for 

hazelnut (Weir and Cresswell 1993). 

Suckers: Most hazelnuts propagated on their 

own roots, produce suckers which should be 

removed frequently and at an early stage, either 

by mechanical means (pruning shears, motor 

driven or hand-held rotary weeders) or by 

herbicides which do not damage the parent tree. 




MANAGEMENT 

HAZELNUT 

Baxter, P. 1983. The Hazelnut in Australia. Aust. Hort. 

April:21-33. 













Jaynes, R. A. (ed.). 1981. Nut Culture in North America. 

Northern Nut Growers Association Inc., Hamden, 

Connecticut. 

Jeppson, L. R., Keiffer, H. H. and Baker, E. W. 1975. 

Mites Injurious to Economic Plants. University of 

California Press, LA. 

NSW Agriculture. 1984. Home Fruit Growing. cur. edn. 

NSW Agric., Sydney. 


Development (OECD). International 

Standardisation of Fruit and Vegetables : Unshelled 

Hazelnuts. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. Available from 

DA Books, Mitcham, Vic. 

Tokolyi, I. 1988 . The Australian Hazelnut. Personal Pub. 

Press Services, Subiaco, WA. 




Woodruff, J. G. 1967. Tree Nuts : Production, 

Processing, Products. AVI Publishing Co., 

Connecticut. 


Industry eg 

Filbert Nut Grafting using Hot Air (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Filbert Nuts (NSW Bull. 1978) 

Growing Hazelnuts (Vic Agnote) 

Hazelnut Bacterial Blight (Vic Agnote) 

Hazelnut Production (NSW Agfact) 

Hazelnuts in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 


Australian Nut Grower (Jn of the Australian Nut Industry) 

Hazelnut Growers of Australia (Growing Hazelnuts : 

Information Sheet) 

Victorian Nut Growing Association (VNGA) : Hazelnut 

Research Sub-Committee Research Notes 1 and 2: 

Growing Hazelnuts 

Victorian Nut Grower's Association (VNGA) : Hazelnut 

Sub-Committee. (1988): Hazelnut Growers Booklet 

Victorian Nut Grower's Association (VNGA) : Important 

Diseases of Nut Trees in Victoria. Vol.4(2). 

West Australian Nut and Tree Crops Assoc. (WANATCA) 




An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Hazelnuts bear separate male and female 

flowers on the same plant but are self-incompatible, requiring pollen of another variety to set nuts. Pollen is 

spread by wind. Only propagate from scale and mite-free plants. Propagate by seed, rooted suckers, 

hardwood and herbaceous cuttings, grafting, layering. It may be necessary to dip roots of new trees in 

fungicide. Protect newly planted young trees from rabbits and other grazing animals with tree guards. Stake 

young trees to prevent wind damage. Prune initially to shape, later to improve light penetration. Most hazelnuts 

are borne on 1 year old twigs arising from older wood. Control suckers by cutting them off or by using a 

herbicide soon after they emerge. Eliminate weeds prior to planting out. If the site has been used before for 

growing crops, considerations should be given to treating soil prior to planting to eliminate any soilborne 

diseases and weeds. Weed control by mulching or by herbicides is important during the 1st year, as cultivation 

encourages suckering. Harvest: Leave nuts on tree until mature, at which stage husks become harsh and 

brittle and nuts develop a rich brown colour. Nuts fall when mature. Gather as soon as they drop and store in a 

dry place to prevent the kernels becoming mouldy or off-flavoured. Storage: At harvest hazelnuts may contain 

12-15% moisture (more in wet weather). Dry to between 6-8% either in sun or by hot air. If dried properly, nuts 

can be stored for > 1 year in a cool dry place, eg provided the relative humidity of storage area is < 65%. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 69

Kiwifruit 

Chinese gooseberry 

Actinidia deliciosa 

Family Actinidiaceae 


Parasitic 


Bacterial blossom rot 

Crown gall 







Bugs 

Caterpillars 



Mites 

Passionvine hopper 

Scales 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 




Parasitic 


Bacterial blossom rot (Pseudomonas 

viridiflava) may rot flowers and young fruit in 

wet weather in NZ (Sale 1990). P. viridiflava does 

occur in Australia. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) may be a 

problem on nursery stock. Galls develop at the 

base of stems. See Stone fruits F 125. 



Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) affects flowers and 

fruit in the field and is the most serious 

postharvest disease of kiwifruit in cool storage. 

Prune vines to encourage rapid drying. The 

incidence of B. cinerea in sepals and receptacles in 

the field overseas is used to predict grey mould decay 

in storage. Fungicides are applied by commercial 

growers. Where there is a high incidence in the field, 

preharvest spray(s) 1-2 weeks before harvest 

significantly reduces fruit decay in storage (Michailides 

and Morgan 1996). See Greenhouses N 22. 

Ripe rot (Botryosphaeria dothidea) causes a 

breakdown of fruit as it ripens. Infection occurs in 

the orchard from flowering onwards but is not 

obvious until the ripening process is underway. 

Cankers have been found on dead twigs of poplar 

trees and dead willow prunings on the orchard floor. 

Winter application of copper fungicides to deciduous 

shelter belts may help (Sale 1990). 

Stem end rot (Diaporthe actinidiae) causes soft, water 

soaked spots at the stem end of fruit, later white 

fungal threads develop on the lesions. Latent 

infections formed before harvest may develop 

postharvest, causing occasional losses. Remove dead 

or dying plant material from vines. Symptom 

development is prevented by storage at 1 o C but 

resumes again on removal to warmer conditions 

(Persley 1993). 


Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria alternata, 

Colletotrichum, Gomerella, Phoma, Phomopsis) 

are prevalent in NZ after rainy weather (Sale 

1990). Various species may cause leaf spotting in 

Australia. See Annuals A 5. 


Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina): 

Kiwifruit and willow used as windbreaks in NZ 

seem to be particularly susceptible. See Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora root rot and trunk canker 

(Phytophthora cinnamomi) is perhaps the most 

serious disease in the field of kiwifruit and can 

cause the death of plants, particularly in poorlydrained 

situations. See Trees K 6. 

Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.) may also cause a 

severe decline of vines planted in poorly-drained 

soils. Site selection, mounding and subsurface 

drainage help to avoid this problem. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) may cause a 

twig blight when a stem infection girdles a lateral 

causing its death beyond the lesion. Young fruitlets 

may also be infected. See Vegetables M 7. 




cause root galling and stunting of vines. Infested 

areas should be treated with a nematicide before 

planting. Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus 

penetrans) have also been associated with 

kiwifruit. Also Paratrichodorus spp., Xiphinema 

sp. See Vegetables M 10. 



Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta nitida) is a serious 

pest close to rainforest and scrub areas. Adults and 

nymphs suck the fruit causing severe sunken spots 

with deep internal damage. Fruit is unsaleable. 

Monitor bug populations and damage at regular 

intervals. See Fruit F 10. 

Wheat bug (Nysius huttoni, Lygaeidae) occurs in NZ, 

but is not known to occur in Australia. It does not 

attack kiwifruit but may be present in containers of 

export fruit. 

Others: Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), 

Rutherglen bug (Nyzius vinitor). 


F 70 

FRUIT AND NUTS

KIWI FRUIT 


Cutworms and armyworms (Noctuidae) can 

attack nursery stock. See Seedlings N 68. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars are serious 

pests of kiwifruit. They chew and roll the foliage on 

which they feed, and bore into the calyx end of fruit. 

See Pome fruits F 112. 

Monitor caterpillar populations in fruit at regular 


insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Annuals A 8, 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) are a serious 

pest of kiwifruit and may damage fruit in the field 

and postharvest. Protection is needed from late 

January through to maturity. Stung fruit drop and 

without control measures severe losses may occur. 

Control is usually essential, particularly in coastal 

areas. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitpiercing moths (Othreis spp., Eudocima 

spp.) cause similar damage to fruit fly in that 

pierced fruit fall. Moths drill a neat hole in fruit to 

suck sap. To date there is no effective control. 



Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) may 

invade plantings during the first season. See 



leaves and fruit. Six spotted mite (Eotetranychus 

sexmaculatus) may also infest kiwifruit but damage is 

minor. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa australis) 

may cause young fruit to shrivel. If they are a 

problem, insecticides may be applied when 

nymphs are present on surrounding hosts, eg 

bracken. See Passionfruit F 92. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Greedy scale 

(Hemiberlesia rapax) may infest leaves, branches 

and stems (Sale 1990). Latania scale 

(Hemiberlesia lataniae) is a minor pest, infesting 

canes, leaves and fruit. Populations build-up on 

vines as they grow older. Late in the season scales 

migrate to the fruit, and this could preclude the fruit 

from some interstate and export markets. See 

Avocado F 20. Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) can 

be serious if excessive pesticide use disrupts wasp 

parasites. It infests canes, leaves and fruit. Heavy 

infestation causes dieback. Biological control 

agents can be purchased. See Citrus F 39. 

Ensure planting material is scale-free. Monitor 

scale populations and parasitic wasp activity at 

regular intervals before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Citrus F 39. 




Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) may cause petals to 

brown and fruit not to set. See Roses J 6. 


Rodents, eg rabbits, may ring bark young vines. 

Birds peck individual fruit. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Freezing damage may occur at 

< -6 o C; prolonged periods at < -9 o C may result in 

vine death through chill damage to trunks. In 

such areas, young vines should have their trunks 

lagged with newspaper or sisalation during the first 

two winters. Once sap starts flowing in spring, 

vines become more sensitive to sub-zero 

temperatures. Young growth may be severely 

damaged by temperatures of -1.5 o C for 30 

minutes. Fruit is also sensitive to frost in autumn. 

Sun may scorch fruit. Hail may damage leaves, 

canes and fruit. Waterlogging or dry conditions 

may kill vines when they are growing actively in 

spring, summer and autumn. Wind may burn 

young succulent shoots and blemish fruit. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Calcium, 

nitrogen and other deficiencies may occur. Vines 

must be fertilised heavily if crops are to be 

worthwhile. Leaf analysis standards are 

available for kiwifruit (Weir and Cresswell 1993, 

1995). 

Pesticide injury: Insecticides, eg oil sprays 

and dimethoate (Rogor ), may cause leaf burn. 

Contamination with hormone herbicides, eg 

2,4-D, in the previous autumn may cause 

malformation of leaves and fruit the following 

season. Glyphosate (Roundup ) contamination 

may cause rolled leaves and abnormal fruit (Sale 

1990). 

















Fletcher, W. A. 1979. Growing Chinese Gooseberries. 

Gov. Printer, Wellington, NZ. 



Johnson, D. M., Hanson, C. A. and Thomson, P. H. 

1988 . Kiwifruit Handbook. Bonsall Pubs., CA. 

Michailides, T. J. and Morgan, D. P. 1996. Using 

Incidence of Botrytis cinerea in Kiwifruit Sepals and 

Receptacles to Predict Grey Mould Decay in 

Storage. Plant Disease Vol.80(3). 



FRUIT AND NUTS F 71

KIWI FRUIT 

Sale, P. R. 1990. Kiwifruit Growing. GP Books, 

Wellington, NZ. 

Snowdon, A. L. 1990. A Colour Atlas of Postharvest 

Diseases and Disorders of Fruit and Vegetables 

Vol.1. General Introduction and Fruits. Wolfe 

Scientific, London. 






Warrington, I. J. and Weston, G. C. (eds). 1990. 

Kiwifruit : Science and Management. NZ Soc. for 

Hort. Sci., Ray Richards Pub., NZ. 







MANAGEMENT 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Kiwifruit Growing in NSW 

Kiwifruit in the Garden 

Latania Scale in Young Macadamia Orchards (NSW 

Agnote) 

SA ABG leaflets 

Chinese Gooseberry or Kiwifruit 

Vic Agnotes 

Cool Storage of Chinese Gooseberries 

Kiwifruit (Chinese Gooseberries) 

Kiwifruit : Planting and Production 

Kiwifruit : Trellising and Training 

Kiwifruit : Varieties and Propagation 

Maturity, Handling and Storage of Chinese Gooseberries 

Trellising, Training + Pruning Kiwifruit on Tatura Trellis 

WA Farmnotes 

Growing Kiwifruit in Western Australia 


Australian Kiwifruit Growers Association (AKGA) 


State Kiwifruit Grower Associations 




Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Kiwifruit is a vigorous deciduous vine suited to mild or temperate climates with 

warm summer months free from frost. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). 

For successful fruit production, the winter chill factor is of prime importance, otherwise irregular bud break 

and fruit set may occur. For normal dormancy and bud break to proceed it is necessary to have between 500- 

700 hours below 7 o C depending on the cultivar. They have male and female flowers on separate vines. 

Fruit is borne only on the female plant. One male plant will provide enough pollen for several females. 

Female vines take 4-5 years to bear and keep on bearing for at least 20 years. If space is limited, a male vine 

may be grafted on to a female vine but it must be cut back after flowering to keep its vigorous growth under 

control, and labelled so that its location is not forgotten. Bees are the most important pollinating agent. 

Resistant varieties: Choose shelter trees that are not significant hosts for diseases or pests of kiwifruit. 

Disease-free planting material: Make sure propagation material is free from scales. 


Propagation is by grafting on to seedling rootstock. Plants can also be grown from cuttings, root cuttings or by 

budding. 

Cultural methods: The fibrous roots are shallow so regular watering is needed from spring to early winter 

when fruit ripens (usually May-June). Males should be planted 4-5 m from the female vine as they are much 

more vigorous than female vines. They should be provided with a well-drained soil, a sunny position sheltered 

from strong winds and plenty of water in summer. They benefit greatly from mulching in summer. Pruning 

ensures a good crop of fruit throughout the vine and prevents it from becoming rampant. Fruit is produced 

only on the current season's growth arising from old wood. 

Biological control: Dip roots in Agrobacterium (No-Gall ® ) immediately before planting to protect cuttings from 

crown gall. Predatory mites may be purchased and released to control twospotted mites. Bacillus 

thuringiensis (Dipel ® ) may be applied to young caterpillars and parasitic wasps may be purchased to 

control red scale. These biological agents must be released or applied at the correct time. 

Weed control: Control weeds before planting. Once vines are established, post-emergence herbicides 

may be applied, avoiding drift onto foliage or canes (a 300 mm high sisalation collar may be fitted to the base 

of each trunk to avoid the risk of damaging the bark and should remain in place for 3-4 seasons). Control 

weed hosts of pests in the orchard environment, eg bracken, to reduce winter egg laying sites of the 

passionvine hopper. 

Pesticides: Where nematodes are a problem, pre-plant treat soil. Various pesticides are registered for 

diseases and pests of foliage and fruit. Growth regulators are used to increase yield. Maintain application 

machinery, calibrate properly, ensure correct rates are used and check efficiency of coverage (tracers may be 

used to ensure even coverage). For export crops only use pesticides registered for use on such crops. 

Pest management: Regularly inspect crops and monitor pests during the growing season (weekly at least) 

for caterpillars, fruitspotting bugs, scales, twospotted mites and their parasites and predators, before applying 

an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). If there is any doubt, seek advice. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Refractometers are used to measure fruit maturity as the percentage of soluble solids, there is a 

minimum percentage for kiwifruit. After harvest fruit is graded and packed. Unripe fruit can be ripened. 

Storage: Fruit can be cool stored for months providing it has been harvested and cooled correctly. 

F 72 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Lychee 

Lychee nut, litchi 

Litchi chinensis 

Family Sapindaceae 


Parasitic 





Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Elephant beetle 



Leaf beetles 

Litchi erinose mite 

Soft scales 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Mycorrhiza 


The main problems affecting lychee are insect pests. 


Parasitic 


Fruit rots: Alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata), 

anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.), aspergillus fruit 

rot (Aspergillus spp.), blue and green moulds 

(Penicillium spp.), Phoma, Phomopsis. See Fruit F 5. 

Others: Algal spot (Cephaleuros virescens) may 

disfigure leaves or cause twig cankers, collar rot 

(Botryodiplodia theobromae), fusarium canker, root 

rots, wilts (Fusarium spp.), phytophthora trunk 

canker (Phytophthora sp.), pink limb blight 

(Corticium salmonicolor). 


Dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus sp.), spiral nematode 

(Helicotylenchus dihystera), also Criconema mutabile, 

Hemicriconemoides mangiferae, Paratrichodorus minor, 

Paratylenchus. See Vegetables M 10. 



Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) damage > 90% 

of green fruit causing it to fall. Brown lesions 

develop on the seed and small black pin pricks 

develop on the internal white surface of the skin. 

Mature fruit which is less attractive to the bugs may 

be damaged but does not fall and the damage may not 

be detected at harvest. Monitor green fallen fruit 

immediately after fruit set at regular intervals before 

deciding to apply insecticides (Brough et al. 1994). 



grey cluster bug (Nysius clevelandis), Rutherglen 

bug (Nysius vinitor) and litchi stink bug 

(Lyramorpha rosea, Tessaratomidae) which is related 

to the bronze orange bug (Musgraveia sulvicentris), 

may suck sap from fruit. See Vegetables M 12. 


Blues, coppers, hairstreaks (Lycaenidae): 

Prosotas duboisa caterpillars feed on flowers of 

lychee, macadamia, Acacia leiocalyx. P. felderi 

caterpillars feed on flower buds of lychee, 

macadamia, Acacia leiocalyx, Alectryon coriaceus, 

Buckinghamia celsissima). Rapala varuna 

caterpillars feed on flowers of lychee and Alphitonia 

excelsa. 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae): Macadamia 

nutborer (Cryptophlebia ombrodelta) is a major 

pest of lychee every year. Caterpillars bore into 

green, full size fruit in search of seed (Fig. 133). 

Fruit may either split or fall prematurely but 

caterpillars still develop to maturity. Caterpillars 

which bore in ripening fruit often drown in the juice 

if the skin is penetrated in the equatorial region. 

Entry on the shoulder or near the peduncle is more 

likely to ensure survival of the caterpillar which may 

then reach the seed. Fruit generally does not fall. 

Infested mature fruit weep and stain other fruit in 

clusters hanging below. Rind tissues around entry 

holes appear scalded and is often thought to be caused 

by fruit flies. Lychee orchards near towns where 

hosts are plentiful are likely to suffer more damage 

than orchards in more remote areas. See Macadamia 

F 77. Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) may 

also infest fruit. See Citrus F 37. 

Loopers (Geometridae): Gymnoscelis subrufata 

damages litchi flowers, Pholodes sinistraria feeds 

on many plants, eg angophora, eucalypt, Exocarpos, 

wattle, apple, apricot, citrus, litchi, mint. Sauris 

malaca feeds on young foliage of litchi and red 

cedar (Toona australis). See Avocado F 19. 

Lychee stem-girdler (Carmenta chrysophanes, 

Sesiidae) infests lychee, also several other hosts 

including woody galls on the branches of Exocarpos 

cupressiformis. Eggs are laid in the bark of branches 

and trunks and in branch crotches and the caterpillars 

bore within the wood. Infested areas are covered with 

webbing and frass, parts of branches may die, crack 

and fall. Usually there are only 1-2 branches affected 

on a tree. Remove and burn dead branches. 

Noctuids, semi-loopers (Noctuidae): Caterpillars 

can cause considerable defoliation of lychee after the 

wet season. Castor oil looper (Achaea janata) has 

both light and dark forms, is up to 60 mm long and 

feeds on new leaves of growth flushes of small trees. 

Conspicuous looper (Oxyodes tricolor) is mainly 

black with yellow legs and 2 conspicuous red spots 

near the head. It also feeds on new flushes of 

leaves. Dasychira mendosa feeds on eucalypt, 

Bauhinia, Terminalia, avocado and lychee. See 

Sweetcorn M 89. 

Oecophorids (Oecophoridae): Caterpillars of 

Echiomima fabulosa feed on the bark of litchi 

(Common and Waterhouse 1981). See Fruit F 10. 

Monitor caterpillars of macadamia nutborer in 

fruit, and loopers on new growth flushes of small 

trees (Brough et al. 1994). See Annuals A 8, Fruit 

F 8. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 73

LYCHEE 

Elephant beetle (Xylotrupes gideon, 

Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera) is a sporadic pest of 

Bengal and other late maturing varieties especially 

in north Qld. Their feeding damages whole fruit 

and sometimes panicles. Juice dripping from 

damaged fruit spoils undamaged fruit. Beetles are 

attracted to mulches for egg laying, and larvae feed 

on the organic matter. Monitoring of beetles will 

indicate likely losses. It may be necessary to 

manually remove mulch. No chemicals are 

recommended. See Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 16, 


Fruit flies, eg Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera 

tryoni), is a minor pest of lychee. They may sting 

fruit but maggots do not develop. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitpiercing moths (Othreis spp., Eudocima 

salaminia) are a major pest of lychee. Just before 

harvest moths drill a neat hole in the skin of fruit 

through which they suck juice. The flesh beneath 

the drilled hole is opaque (undamaged flesh is taut 

and translucent). After a couple of days 

fermentation and moulds develop and fruit is 

obviously damaged. Fruit damaged the night 

before harvest may escape detection and can spoil 

a whole container as fermentation proceeds and 

juice leaks on to other fruit. If moth-damaged fruit 

is squeezed juice will squirt out. There are no 

satisfactory control measures as damage is so close 

to harvest. Natural enemies exert some control on 

the caterpillar stage in its natural habitat. See Fruit 

F 9. 

Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae. Coleoptera) 


swarms on to flowers and young leaves. Only 

1-2 trees may be affected in well-established orchards. 

Large swarms in young orchards will spread over 

more trees and cause proportionally more damage. 

Leaves are scorched when damaged and very young 

trees may become severely stunted if successive 

growth flushes are removed by beetles. Monitor 

beetle populations on flowers and new growth of 

young trees especially following the first substantial 

rains after a dry spell before making a decision to 

apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). Consider 

bees at flowering time. See Fruit F 11. 

Swarming leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.) prefer new 

leaves, flowers and young shoots and may 

totally defoliate young plants and the tops of shrubs 

and large trees. The effect on the growth of young 

trees may justify the chemical control of swarms. 

Older plants usually recover. See Fruit F 11. 


Litchi erinose mite (Eriophyes litchii, 

Eriophyidae, Acarina) may be a serious pest of 

nursery stock, flowers, foliage and fruit. This 

mite deforms plants, produces blisters on leaves 

(Fig. 134) and may cause flower and fruit drop. 

In severe cases growing points are destroyed and 

setting of fruit is prevented. Fruit which does set 

may be damaged cosmetically. Older trees may 

recover, young ones may die. The mites, which 

are invisible to the naked eye, live on leaf 

undersurfaces and in terminal buds. Damaged 

cells on leaf undersurfaces produce hairs which 

form a white velvety layer (erinose) which soon 

turns reddish-brown and finally dark brown. Mites 

overwinter on the host and are spread mainly on 

propagative material, also by wind, animals and 

birds which have brushed against infested plants, 

and on clothing. Mites move from older damaged 

leaves to new growth so that population peaks 

occur at each new flush of growth of the host. 

High temperatures, high humidity and heavy 

rainfall are unfavourable for mite development. 

Avoid purchasing nursery stock with leaves 

which are felted underneath and blistered on top. 

Prune out and destroy as much of the infested 

foliage from trees as possible. Several predatory 

mites and fly maggots prey on the erinose mite but 

none provide economic control. Monitor erinose 

on new growth and flowers at regular intervals 

before applying insecticides (Brough et al. 1994). 


Soft scales (Coccidae, Hemiptera) 

Green shield scale (Pulvinaria psidii = 

Chloropulvinaria psidii) is a major and common 

pest, and produces honeydew on which sooty mould 

develops. Monitor leaves, stems and fruit for scales 

and sooty mould if conditions are mild or humid. 

Panicle infestation spoils fruit and is difficult to 

control. Mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus 

montrouzieri) kills a major proportion of green shield 

scales (and other soft scales), but is hindered by 

sprays used to control other pests. If infestation is in 

spring, spray to reduce populations before crawlers 

hatch and move to fruit clusters. Treat ants at base of 

tree if they are active. 

Others: Long soft scale (Coccus longulus), green 

coffee scale (Coccus viridus). 



Fruit bats (Dobsonia spp., Pteropus spp.) eat large 

quantities of fruit in one night, and may fly 

considerable distances to do so. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Young trees are killed by frost, 

and older trees can tolerate only light frosts. 

Drying winds may cause cracks in fruit and poor 

growth. 

Mycorrhiza: The feeder roots of lychee are 

infected with symbiotic fungi which are beneficial 

to the host plant. If mycorrhiza is unavailable, it is 

recommended that some surface soil surrounding a 

large successful lychee tree be placed around 

newly planted trees. See Trees K 18. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Lychee 

do not have much salt tolerance. Leaf analysis 

standards are available based on diagnostic and 


F 74 

FRUIT AND NUTS

LYCHEE 






Broadley, R. H. 1991. Avocado Pests and Disorders. 















Greer, N. 1985. Lychee Growing in Central Queensland. 


Greer. N. 1989. Lychee Management Calendar. Qld 


Greer, N. and Campbell, T. 1991. Growing Lychee in 

North Queensland. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 

Greer, N. and Campbell, T. 1991. Growing Lychee in 

South Queensland. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 

Greer, N. and Smith, K. L. C. 1990. Lychee Marketing 

in Australia. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 

Ironside. D. A. 1985. Insect Pests of Macadamia in 

Queensland. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 










Industry eg 

Lychees in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Lychee Varieties (NSW Agfact) 


Australian Lychee Growers Association (ALGA) 


National Lychee Seminar Procs. 




MANAGEMENT 

Lychee are compact, subtropical evergreen trees. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs 

(1995). A worldwide problem appears to be an inability to produce a good crop on the tree every year. Lychees 

succeed only in areas with warm to hot, humid springs and summers, and cool dry autumns and winters. 

Periods of cold are required to induce flowering. A smaller crop than usual may result from low humidity or dry 

soils during flowering or during the following few weeks. Rain during this time may adversely affect fruit set. 

Planting material must be free from erinose mite blisters and scales. Monitor caterpillars, fruitspotting bugs, 

litchi erinose mites, leaf beetles and scales, and their parasites and predators, before making a decision to apply 

an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). Harvest when fruit is full red and the protuberances have flattened out. Cut 

off a small branch with the fruit cluster. Avoid picking fruit when it is wet as it will not keep well. Handle carefully. 

Dip fruit in recommended fungicide, cool before packing, and use plastic film to reduce water loss and browning. 

Store fruit at 5 o C. 

Fig. 133. Macadamia nutborer 

(Cryptophlebia ombrodelta) 

caterpillar (up to 20 mm long) 

feeding in fruit. 

Fig. 134. Blistered leaves caused by the litchi 

erinose mite (Eriophyes litchii) sucking sap 

from leaf under-surfaces. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 75

Macadamia 

Queensland nut 

Macadamia tetraphylla, M. integrifolia 

Family Proteaceae (waratah family) 


Parasitic 




Nut or husk spots 

Root and trunk rots, stem cankers 




Black citrus aphid 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Flower thrips 

Hibiscus mealybug 

Macadamia leafminer 


Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) causes galls on nursery 

stock just below ground level. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Grey mould, flower blight, raceme blight (Botrytis 

cinerea) causes serious flower blighting resulting in 

poor nut set in bearing plantations, reducing yields by up 

to 40% (Fitzell 1994). See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Nut or husk spots are common but do not 

affect the shell and kernel, some cause nut fall. 

Macadamia husk spot (Pseudocercospora sp.) 

causes brown circular spots 5-10 mm across on green 

husks of ¾ to full size nuts. Infected nuts may fall 

early, causing major crop losses in trees > 12 years 

old. Spread by introduction of infected nursery 

stock, on infected husks on machinery, and during the 

mechanical harvesting of nuts; spores are spread by 

wind, rain splash . Overwinters on infected husks, 

radiata pine (Pinus radiata) which is an alternative 

host. Varieties vary in susceptibility. Harvest 

crops as soon as nuts mature. Clean machinery of 

husks. Harvesting nuts manually, where practical. 

Others: Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 

var. minor), Phomopsis sp., Lasiodiplodia sp. and 

Stilbella sp. cause husk rots in most mature trees; 

some shedding of nuts may occur some years (Fitzell 

1994). Spread by infected husks, spores are spread 

by rain splash. Overwinter on other hosts and can 

grow saprophytically (on dead organic matter) on 

bark, older leaves and on husks left in the canopy. 

Favoured by insect damage to husks, wet weather. 

Fungicides are registered for nut spots. See Fruit F 5. 

Root and trunk rots, stem cankers 

Damping off: Alternaria sp. may cause blights of 

new grafts and buds in wet weather and poorly 

ventilated nurseries (Fitzell 1994). Phytophthora 

trunk rot (P. cinnamomi) is a serious disease and 

may girdle stems of nursery stock. See Seedlings N 66. 

Macadamia root decay (Kretzschmaria cetrarioides, 

Ascomycetes) is a minor disease of mature trees 

which decline over several years. Infected primary 

roots and the base of trunks, have pockets of white 

wood decay with black-line patterns visible when the 

bark is removed. Clusters of small fruiting bodies 

develop months later on exposed root and butt 

sections in dark fungal encrustations up to 5 mm 

thick. Overwinters in infected roots and stumps. 

Spores are discharged after rain to other hosts. 

Favoured by wounding of trunks and main roots by 

wind, machines, and by moist conditions. Remove 

stumps and roots of native vegetation before planting. 

Avoid wounding roots during harvesting and when 

slashing for weed control. Provide windbreaks 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) is 

also a serious disease of mature trees (Fitzell 1994). 


Others include Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.) 

which is only important on newly cleared land. See 

Trees K 4. Dothierella canker (Dothierella ribis) 

may cause branch dieback in stressed trees. See Trees 

K 5. Pink limb blight (Corticium salmonicolor) 

may affect bark on older trees. See Trees K 8. 


Mistletoes (Loranthaceae) in large numbers, may 

weaken large trees. See Trees K 9. 


Several nematodes have been found in association with 

macadamia, eg dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.), 

root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), spiral 

nematode (Helicotylenchus spp.). Also Aphelenchus 

avenae, Paratrichodorus sp. See Vegetables M 10. 


Black citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricidus) sucks 

sap from young leaves causing distortion, and from 

flower clusters reducing fruit set. Honeydew, sooty 

mould and ants are disfiguring. Natural enemies are 

usually ineffective. Monitor aphids weekly during 

flowering (Brough et al. 1994). See Citrus F 35, Roses J4. 


Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) are major 

pests of macadamia especially during spring and 

autumn. Adults and nymphs suck sap from all 

stages of nuts even mature hard-shelled nuts, 

reducing yield and quality. Young nuts fall within a 

couple of weeks of feeding, while older nuts fall less 

readily. Kernels are often ruined. Spotting causes 

cells of the inner husk and soft shell to discolour and 

collapse; injured kernels become misshapen and 

translucent. In older nuts, injury may be detected on 

the outside by depressed areas and even splitting of 

F 76 

FRUIT AND NUTS

MACADAMIA 

the shell. However, kernels can be partly or wholly 

affected without any visible external injury to the 

shell. Banana-spotting bug also causes wilting and 

kills young shoots, particularly in autumn. 

Infestation is often severe on crops adjacent to natural 

bush where insects breed. Parasites and predators 

have little effect. See Fruit F 10. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) sucks sap 

from husks and immature kernels. Damaged 

nuts may fall prematurely. Once shells start to harden 

most of the damaged nuts remain on the tree. At 

harvest the feeding sites on the kernel appear as 

circular white depressions. See Vegetable M 12. 

Macadamia lace bug (Ulonemia concava, Tingidae) 

is a minor pest which may attack young foliage and 

flower clusters in elevated areas. Flower damage 

can result in poor flower set. See Azalea K 28. 

Monitor bugs and damage before applying an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Vegetables M 12. 


Macadamia cup moth (Mecytha fasciata) caterpillars 

attack Proteaceae, eg banksia, Lambertia, Persoonia, 

macadamia, waratah. Moths are black and white, 

with a wingspan of 40 mm. Caterpillars are up to 

35 mm long, relatively smooth, oval, green and flat, 

with a distinct yellow stripe along the back but lack 

the tubercles and stinging hairs of other species. They 

often rest so that the stripe lies along the main vein of 

the leaf. They can defoliate young trees but feed 

mainly on mature leaves. They pupate among 

debris on the soil surface at the bottom of the tree. 

Cup moth (Anaxidia lozogramma) caterpillars 

damage foliage of macadamia, camellia and 

Dodonaea triquetra in eastern Australia. See 

Eucalypt K 60. 

Macadamia flower caterpillar (Cryptoblabes 

hemigypsa, Pyralidae) is a major pest of Proteaceae 

especially macadamia in Qld; also grevilleas, eg silky 

oak, Banks' red grevillea and woody pear (Xylodeum 

pyriforme) in eastern Australia. Moths are grey, and 

about 6 mm long. Caterpillars are about 12 mm 

long, light green to red-brown with longitudinal 

stripes. Young caterpillars feed inside buds; entry 

holes have a drop of sap exuding from them. Older 

ones feed mainly on the outside of buds and on 

flowers (Fig. 135). Masses of webbing (excreta and 

chewed pieces of plant) surround to damaged areas. 

Nut set may be greatly reduced. Caterpillars also 

attack young nuts set earlier in the season, or young 

lush shoots. Severe infestations on macadamia begin 

with moth migration from other hosts. Early flowers 

may escape attack. There are many generations 

each season. Caterpillars usually pupate in a silken 

cocoon in leaf litter on the ground. Parasitic wasps 

(Agathis rufithorax, Trichogrammatoidea flava), a 

predatory bug (Termatophylum sp.) and other 

natural enemies may regulate low populations. 

Macadamia nutborer (Cryptophlebia ombrodelta, 

Tortricidae) is a major pest of macadamia, also 

lychee, poinciana, golden raintree, Bauhinia, bird of 

paradise tree, Cupania, Easter Cassia, Mimosa bush, 

Schotia, Tamarind. Moths have a wingspan of about 

25 mm, are red-brown with a black triangular mark on 

the hind edge of each forewing. Caterpillars are up 

to 20 mm long, and are pinkish with dark green spots 

in rows along the body. Young caterpillars enter the 

husk and tunnel into the kernel while the shell is still 

soft (Fig. 136 ); as the shell hardens feeding is usually 

confined to the husk. Infested nuts may have sawdust 

and webbing on the surface. Damaged nuts fall early 

and are expensive to sort. There are many 

generations each year. Eggs are laid singly on, or 

near the nut husks. Caterpillars are active in 

December-February, but some 'everbearing' 

M. integrifolia trees may be infested throughout the 

year. Early-maturing varieties may escape serious 

damage. Moths do not fly far, so orchards located 

well away from alternative hosts appear to be free of 

attack. Parasitic wasps (Apanteles briareus, Gotra 

bimaculata). Insect growth regulators and neem 

oil reduce incidence but not enough for commercial 

use. Spray during fruit-setting. 

Macadamia twig-girdler (Xylorycta luteotactella, 

Oecophoridae) infests Proteaceae, eg banksia, 

grevillea, hakea, macadamia, Persoonia, Protea, 

Telopea, Lambertia, Leucospermum, Stenocarpus. 

Moths are satiny-white with a wingspan of about 

25 mm. Caterpillars have a dark brown head with 

pale mottled brown bodies up to 25 mm. Rows of 

black dots along the body have bristles rising from 

them. They feed under a webbed shelter of sawdustlike 

excrement and plant debris (Fig. 137). 

Caterpillars also eat bark from twigs near forks or 

where whorls occur and may ring bark twigs. 

Exposed rings are about 6-40 mm wide. They 

skeletonise and web leaves together. Young trees 

may be defoliated and damaged twigs snap off in 

wind or die back. Young trees may lack vigour and 

may die. If caterpillars tunnel in nuts, damage is 

similar to macadamia nutborer damage. There are 

several generations each year. Caterpillars pupate 

in the webbing. Spread by moths flying. Young 

larvae are abundant during spring and summer in 

elevated rainforest areas. Wasps (Agathis, Goryphus 

turneri, Stiromesostenus albiorbitalis) parasitise 

caterpillars and may regulate populations. Parasitic 

nematodes are being researched. If necessary after 

monitoring, spray young growth. See Fruit F 10. 

Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) is a minor pest 

of macadamia in Qld. It mainly feeds on foliage 

damaging growing points of nursery stock causing 

development of lateral buds and multiple shoots. It 

rolls young leaves, webs flower buds together, 

tunnels into young nuts and chews the outer husk of 

nuts. The protective silken tunnels made by the 

caterpillars are free of excreta (unlike other 

caterpillars on macadamia). Control is usually 

unnecessary except in nurseries. See Citrus F 37. 

Yellow peach moth (Dichocrocis punctiferalis) is a 

minor pest of macadamia in Qld. Caterpillars bore 

into nuts in clusters, sheltering, and filling the space 

with webbing and sawdust. Remove and destroy 

infested fruit. A fly parasite (Argyrophylax 

proclinata) exerts important control. See Stone fruits 

F 133. 

Others: An anthelid caterpillar (Anthela varia) is a 

sporadic pest, eating chunks out of mature leaves. 

See Trees K 13. Nut stemborer (Paranepsia 

amydra) is a minor pest, larvae tunnel in flower 

clusters, young shoots and in nuts (Brough et al. 

1994). Other caterpillars feed on flowers, buds and 

nuts, eg, cornelian (Deudorix epijarbas diovis), 

doubleheaded hawk moth (Coequosa triangularis), 

flower looper (Gymnoscelis subrufata), pencilled 

blue butterfly (Candalides absimilis), kernel grub 

(Cataremna sp.), castor oil looper (Achaea janata), 

bizarre looper (Eucyclodes pieroides), brown 

looper (Lophodes sinistraria), brown tufted 

caterpillar (Olene mendosa), hairyline blue butterfly 

(Erysichtonlineata), looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis 

spp.) (Common 1990, Common and Waterhouse 

1981). 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 77

MACADAMIA 

Monitor eggs and caterpillars, and their parasites and 

predators before applying insecticides (Brough et al. 

1994). See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8, Trees K 13. 

Flower thrips (Scirtothrips sp., Thripidae), a 

minor pest of macadamia, are tiny, slender, yellow to 

light-brown rasping and sucking insects. Large 

numbers can build up on flowers causing flowers to 

brown and buds to die. Feeding may continue on the 

young nuts after they are set, killing some nuts or 

scarring the outer husk which becomes light-brown 

instead of the usual green. Later in the season lush 

shoots may also be attacked and become discoloured 

and stunted. Favoured by low rainfall or abnormally 

dry seasons. Good rains reduce infestations. Monitor 

thrips in flowers before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Roses J 6. 

Hibiscus mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) 

may be a serious pest. Mealybugs congregate and 

suck sap near shoot growing tips causing shoot 

distortion and leaf rosettes stunting terminals. Sooty 

mould and honeydew are also present. Predatory 

ladybirds and lacewing larvae suppress populations to 

tolerable levels. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Macadamia leafminer (Acrocercops chionosema, 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) is a major native pest 

of cultivated and wild macadamia, some hakeas, 

buckinghamias, Polysoma, Stenocarpus. Moths are 

small with a wingspan of 8 mm. They mostly lay 

eggs on upper surface of young leaves. Caterpillars 

have bright red bands and mine in young leaves. 

Mines are at first a fine whitish serpentine line on 

leaves which gradually enlarges into blotches. Tree 

growth is reduced Damage is important only on 

young non-bearing trees in nurseries, heavily pruned 

trees, protected plantings, and in elevated areas 

> 180 m (where there are native hosts). Caterpillars 

pupate in debris on the soil surface. There are many 

generations each year. A parasitic wasp 

(Elachertus) may regulate populations. Spiders prey 

on fully grown caterpillars when they leave their 

mines to pupate. Two insect growth regulators 

affect the development of eggs or larvae or both. In a 

home garden young trees may be sprayed as soon as 

the first white lines are seen. Monitor damage on 

nursery trees (Brough et al. 1994). See Azalea K 28. 


australis) predominantly feeds on flowers, buds 

and young nuts. Favoured by using kikuyu as an 

interrow cover and where there are pasture legume 

mixtures closeby. Monitor swarms before spraying 



Armoured scales ( Diaspididae): Latania scale 

(Hemiberlesiae lataniae): Severe infestations of 

branches and twigs cause leaf yellowing and trees 

to become unthrifty. Varieties vary in susceptibility. 

See Avocado F 20. Macadamia mussel scale 

(Lepidosaphes macadamiae) mainly feeds on leaves. 

Scales are 2-3 mm long, light brown, mussel-shaped. 

Leaves yellow around each scale, and may fall 

reducing tree vigour. Macadamia white scale 

(Pseudaulacaspis brimblecombei) is a minor pest in 

Qld and occurs on leaf undersurfaces and green 

nut husks. Leaves may fall. Natural enemies may 

regulate numbers. See Citrus F 39. 

Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae): Macadamia 

felted coccid (Eriococcus ironsidei) is a major 

native pest of macadamia. Adults are 1 mm long 

and whitish-brown. Adult males are winged. Coccids 

infest all the above-ground parts of trees especially 

protected places, eg leaf axils, bark crevices, between 

buds and along the main veins under leaves. They 

cause distortion and stunting of young growth, and 

yellowing and spotting of older leaves. Heavy 

infestation reduces nut yields, causes dieback and may 

kill young trees. Many overlapping generations each 

year. Predatory ladybirds (Midus pygmaeus, 

Rhizobius, Serangium), parasitic wasps 

(Aspidiotiphagus, Metaphycus) and lacewings 

control populations except when the coccid is first 

introduced into an orchard. Varieties vary in 

susceptibility. See Citrus F 41, Eucalypt K 63. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Long soft scale (Coccus 

longulus) may be a pest on non-bearing trees, 

resulting in honeydew and sooty mould. Parasitic 

wasps, predatory ladybird beetles, and their larvae, 

and lacewing larvae usually provide acceptable 

control. See Citrus F 41. 

Many parasites and predators feed on scales, 

including caterpillars of a moth (Batrachedra 

arenosella). Monitor scale and natural enemies on 

susceptible varieties before applying an 

insecticide. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 


Birds and rats eat nuts. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Young trees are susceptible to 

frost, but may be protected for the first few years by 

shade cloth at night. Varieties of M. tetraphylla are 

more tolerant of cool conditions than M. integrifolia. 

Rain or irrigation during summer is essential for a 

good crop. They must have good drainage. Trees crop 

well in semi-shaded positions but best results are 

obtained in full sun. Prevent sunburn damage to 

trunks and leaves and provide shelter from wind. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Soil and 

leaf analyses determine nutritional requirements. Leaf 

analysis standards are available based on diagnostic 

and research analyses (Weir and Cresswell 1995). 

Magnesium deficiency is common, yellowing of 

new growth may be caused by a range of factors, not 

necessarily nutritional problems (Fitzell 1994). 

Others: Macadamia decline: Macadamia trees 

> 10 years old especially Hinde (H 2) variety, develop a 

general decline which may lead to tree death. This 

appears to be caused by a complex of factors including 

Phytophthora root rot, marginal soils, low soil organic 

matter and poor development of proteoid roots. See 

Trees K 6. Glyphosate (Roundup ) drift may injure 

young trees. Graft failure may occur due to wood 

being cinctured and left too long on the donor tree 

before being cut or bacterial and fungal infections. Nuts 

of some species produce toxic cyanide compounds 

(O'Neill 1996 ). Fasciation may flatten stems. 

F 78 

FRUIT AND NUTS

MACADAMIA 



Pubs., Shepparton, Victoria. 





Bennet, B. 1995. A Macadamia's Best Friend. Ecos, 

Spring. 












Fitzell, R. D. 1994. Diseases and Disorders of 

Macadamias. Qld DPI/NSW Agric., Sydney. 



Melbourne. 

Ironside, D. A. 1981. Insect Pests of Macadamia in 


Brisbane. 

O'Hare, P and Vock, N. 1990. Growing Macadamias in 


Brisbane. 

O'Neill, G. 1996. Winning Back the Macadamia. Ecos 

88, Winter. 













Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Insect Pests of Macadamia Nuts (Agdex) 

Macadamia : Cultural and Financial Aspects 

Macadamia Culture in NSW 

Macadamia Decline 

NSW Agnotes 

Growing Macadamia Seedlings 

Insect Pests Affecting Macadamia Yield or Quality 

Latania Scale in Young Macadamia Orchards 

Nitrogen Fertilising of Macadamias 

Rat Control in Macadamia Orchards 

Reducing Soil Degradation & Erosion 

The Effect of Cultural Factors on Macadamia Nut Quality 

Ups and Downs of the Australian Macadamia Industry 

Qld Farmnotes 

Macadamia Management Calender 

Macadamia Nuts : Costs and Returns 

Macadamia Pests and Their Control 

Vic Agnotes 

Macadamia Nuts 

Macadamias : Culture and Economics 

WA Farmnotes 



Australian Macadamia Society (Technical Information) 





MANAGEMENT 

An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Macadamia trees are large and evergreen. 

Cultivar selection is a key decision in profitability. Cross pollination between cultivars is beneficial in improving 

initial nut set. The introduced honeybee (Apis mellifera) and the stingless bee (Trigonia carbonaria) are 

important pollinators and so increase nut set (Bennet 1995). Introduction of beehives improves pollination and 

yield. Some varieties are resistant to cold and some nut spots. Only plant disease and pest-free nursery 

stock. Macadamia is propagated by budding and grafting on to rootstocks. Provide good drainage and 

windbreaks. Fertiliser applications should be based on leaf and soil analysis. Use tensiometers or probes to 

monitor soil moisture levels. Water stress should be avoided during flowering and fruiting. Pruning is not 

normally required. Growth regulators may be used to aid harvest. Control weeds with a grassed interrow 

area and mulching along the tree rows. Any weeds which emerge through the mulch can be spot sprayed. Do 

not cultivate within 1 m of the trunk or use brush cutters. The most important pests include macadamia nut 

borers, flower caterpillars, fruitspotting bugs and felted coccids. Diagnostic programs are being developed at 

the University of Hawaii. Monitor pest populations weekly from flowering to nut maturity and only apply 

pesticides when economic damage is likely to occur. Pest monitoring minimises the number of pesticide 

application required as they are timed to obtain maximum effect (Brough et al. 1994, O'Hare and Vock 1990). 

Professional pest monitors may be consulted or employed. Nuts can be harvested directly from the tree 

provided they have tested mature, or from the ground. Nuts may be graded for market or stored. 

Fig. 135. Macadamia 

flower caterpillar 

(Cryptoblabes 

hemigypsa) is up to 

20 mm long. 

Fig. 136. Macadamia nutborer 

(Cryptophlebia ombrodelta) is 

about 25 mm long 

Fig. 137. Macadamia twiggirdler 

(Xylorycta luteotactella) 

is about 12 mm long. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 79

Mango 

Mangifera indica 

Family Anacardiaceae (cashew family) 


Parasitic 


Bacterial black spot 





Wood rots 



Caterpillars 




Leaf beetles 

Leafblotch miner 

Mango planthopper 

Mites 

Redbanded thrips 

Scales 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Postharvest diseases 


Parasitic 


Bacterial black spot (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae) commonly 

affects mango in the field, in high and low rainfall 

areas. It causes black raised angular areas on 

leaves, restricted by veins and often surrounded by 

a yellow margin (Fig. 138). Large areas may die. 

Fruit develop black oval raised areas with starshaped 

cracks (Fig. 139). Black stem cankers are 

filled with gummy exudate. Kensington is very 

susceptible in windy areas and on trees lacking 

vigour. Select resistant varieties. Copper 

fungicides may be applied. See Stone fruits F 124. 



Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) is an important 

field and postharvest disease of mango. Small 

black spots on leaves spread forming large dark dry 

areas. These often crack and fall out. Small, dark, 

irregular spots spread and coalesce to cause shedding 

and death of flowers. Small black specks on fruit 

enlarge to irregular dark areas. In moist atmospheres, 

pink spore masses appear towards the centre of 

these areas. Surface staining of fruit may result from 

spores washed over the fruit from diseased twigs or 

flower stalks. Infection of young fruit causes fruit 

drop. Anthracnose may invade green fruit and remain 

dormant until ripening. Cultivars vary in 

susceptibility. See Fruit F 5. 

Alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata) is an important 

postharvest disease which develops only after 

prolonged storage. It causes small brown spots 

which develop into dark brown lesions at the stem 

end of fruit, a white-grey fungus may grow on the 

area Infection may occur before or after harvest but 

symptoms do not develop until fruit have ripened. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a minor 

sporadic postharvest disease of fruit cooled after 

harvest when moisture has condensed on the 

skin. Small pale spots develop in the peel, spreading 

rapidly in both peel and flesh. Under humid 

conditions, black spore bodies form on white 

whiskery fungal threads. See Fruit F 6. 

Stem-end rots (especially Dothiorella dominicana, 

also Lasiodiplodia theobromae and Phomopsis 

mangiferae) are of moderate importance. They 

cause dark brown firm decay starting at the stem 

end and spreading throughout the fruit. Fungus 

survives on dead twigs and branches where it 

produces large numbers of spores. Rot generally does 

not develop until fruit begins to ripen. 

Minor rots: Aspergillus rot (Aspergillus spp., A. 

niger), penicillium mould (Penicillium expansum), 

grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), mucor rot (Mucor 

circinelloides), stemphyllium rot (Stemphyllium 

vesicarium). 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) sporadically 

affects young shoots, flowers and small fruit which 

are covered with white powdery growth. Affected 

fruit may fall prematurely, purplish-brown 

blotches appear on the skin of older fruit. 

Favoured by cool winter and spring weather when 

humidity is high. Mango cultivars vary 

considerably in their susceptibility. See Annuals 

A 6. 

Root rots, wilts: Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria sp.), phytophthora, grey fruit blotch 

(Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica), verticillium 

wilt (Verticillium dahliae). See Fruit F 7, Vegetables M 7. 

Wood rots: Pink limb blight, pink disease 

(Corticium salmonicolor), Fomes spp. See Trees K 8. 


Nematodes found associated with mango include 

root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), 

spiral nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis), also 

Aphelenchoides sp., Lelenchus leptosoma and 

Paratrichodorus. See Vegetables M 10. 



Noctuids, budworms (Noctuidae): Mango shoot 

caterpillar, large mango tipborer (Penicillaria 

jocosatrix) is grey-green and defoliates new shoots. 

Growth of nursery stock, young trees and top worked 

trees may be seriously set back. Fruit stalks and 

young fruit may be damaged. Caterpillars pupate in 

soil. Mango tipborer, small mango tipborer 

(Chlumetia euthysticha) is a minor pest of mango and 

F 80 

FRUIT AND NUTS

MANGO 

cashew. Caterpillars are yellow-green with rows of 

tiny red dots along the body. They bore into shoot 

tips causing them to wilt and die. Side shoots 

develop from just behind tips (witches broom). 

There are several generations each year. Eggs are 

laid on shoots. Caterpillars pupate in the tunnels. 

They can be controlled on young plants by pruning 

off damaged tips. Insecticides applied during growth 

flushes kill caterpillars before they tunnel into shoot 

tips. Others: Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) and 

native flower eating caterpillars (several species) 

may feed on fruit stalks, young fruit. Monitor new 

growth regularly to determine mango shoot and 

mango tipborer egg numbers, caterpillars and damage 

before applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 


Red-banded mango caterpillar (Noorda 

albizonalis, Pyralidae) tunnels in the flesh and seed 

of mango and kuini (M. odorata) and may cause 

heavy crop loss overseas. Quarantine risk: Redbanded 

mango caterpillar could be introduced in 

mangoes imported from areas where it occurs or from 

Papua New Guinea via the Torres Strait islands where 

mangoes are commonly grown (Com. of Aust. 1987). 

See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8, Trees K 13. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera): Jarvis's fruit 

fly (Bactrocera jarvisi), lesser Queensland fruit fly 

(B. neohumeralis), mango fly (B. frauenfeldi). 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) and 

Queensland fruit fly (B. tryoni) only attack mango 

fruit which is ripe or ripening, especially of latematuring 

varieties. Green fruit is not attacked, and 

fruit picked in the green-mature stage need not be 

sprayed. Stung fruit often ripens and falls 

prematurely. Mangoes can only be sent to some 

interstate and overseas markets after prescribed 

fruit fly treatments. Papaya fruit fly (B. papayae) 

attacks fruit at a greener stage, especially papaw, 

mango and banana. See Fruit F 9, Papaw F 89. 

Fruitpiercing moths (Othreis spp., others) 

pierce ripening fruit with their strong proboscises 

to suck juice leaving them honeycombed. 

Secondary fungi, insects and mites may invade 

damaged fruit. Fermenting fruits may then be 

visited by secondary moth feeders. Late maturing 

varieties are more susceptible. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) suck 

sap from young pink shoots causing them to wilt 

and die. Young fruit develop dark stains at 

puncture sites before falling and cracking, this may 

be accompanied by sap exudation. See Fruit F 10. 

Leaf beetles Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera): 

Figleaf beetle (Ponerida semipullata) and 

redshouldered fruit beetle (Monolepta australis) 

chew leaves and flowers. See Trees K 15. 

Leafblotch miner (Acrocercops sp., 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) is widespread and 

causes serious damage to neglected nursery 

stock, young trees in the field and topworked trees. 

Damage to older trees is slight. Leaves become 

blistered. See Azalea K 28, Macadamia F 78. 

Mango planthopper (Colgaroides acuminata, 

Flatidae, Hemiptera) is a minor pest in north Qld 

during the fruiting period. Nymphs and adults 

suck plant sap from many plants including mango. 

These small, jumping, sap-sucking insects, with 

tent-like wings, congregate on shoots, leaf 

undersurfaces, flowers, fruit stalks and fruit. 

Young fruit may fall. Areas adjacent to egg pods 

and nymphs are covered with a white powdery 

secretion. Planthoppers secrete honeydew on 

which sooty mould grows which reduces fruit 

quality. Parasitic wasps exert considerable 

control on mangoes. Monitor planthoppers and 

eggs before applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 

1994). 


Mango bud mite (Eriophyes mangiferae, Eriophyidae) 

is a minor pest in summer. It sucks sap from lateral 

buds, twigs, flower panicles and new growth. New 

growth may be distorted, flowers and twigs may die. 

Trees may become leafless and non-producing. 

Bracts at the base of buds are darkly spotted. 

Severely prune in January then spray. See Citrus F 

39. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Tea red spider mite 

(Oligonychus coffeae) sucks sap from tissue next to 

main veins, usually from the uppersurfaces of older 

leaves. Leaves turn red-brown and may fall during 

in water stress. Cast skins of mites make leaves look 

dusty. Usually controlled by Stethorus and predatory 

mites which may be killed by overuse of pesticides. 

Monitor mite and egg populations at regular intervals. 

See Avocado F 19. Mango spider mite 

(Oligonychus mangiferus) may also infest mango. 


Redbanded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus, 

Thripidae, Thysanoptera) infests avocado, cashew, 

guava, mango. Adults are dark with a red band on 

the 1st three abdominal segments. Nymphs are 

light orange with 1st and 2nd abdominal segments 

and anal segment bright red. Thrips suck plant sap 

from leaf undersurfaces causing silvering 

spotting with dark dried excreta. Monitor thrips 

numbers on leaf undersurfaces at regular intervals 

before making a decision to apply an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Greenhouses N 24. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Mango scales 

(Aulacaspis tubercularis and Pseudaulacaspis 

cockerelli) feed in clusters on both leaf surfaces. 

They look like small white dots surrounded by a 

yellow halo. Leaves may fall and young trees die 

during hot dry weather. Scales on fruit is often ringed 

by a circle of pink tissue. Female scales are 

circular, about 2 mm across and have conspicuous 

dark marks on one side. Male scales are more 

numerous, rectangular, about 1 mm long. Blemishes 

and presence of scales downgrade fruit quality. 

Postharvest pruning to open up tree canopy assists 

penetration of spray. Oriental scale (Aonidiella 

orientalis) also infests mango. See Citrus F 39, 

Papaw F 89. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Pink wax scale 

(Ceroplastes rubens), soft scale (Coccus sp.) and 

white wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor) are 

usually minor pests of neglected mango trees, 

infesting shoot tips, fruit stalks and fruit. Fruit size 

and tree vigour are reduced. Monitor scales. See 

Citrus F 41. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 81

MANGO 


Mango seed weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae) infests 

mango, especially nursery stock. Weevils are 

broad, hard, dark-brown and about 10 mm long. 

Larvae are legless, cream with brown head capsules, 

and about 18 mm long. Larvae feed within seeds, 

destroying the kernel, and preventing germination in 

seedbeds. Flesh is not damaged. Complete 


1 generation each year. Weevils lay 1 egg on young 

fruit. Larvae bore through the flesh into developing 

seed and reach maturity in a few weeks when fruit is 

ripening. They pupate in seed. Adults may remain in 

the seed for many weeks before boring out through 

the seed cover and fruit. Adults overwinter in 

crevices in bark and sheltered sites near the tree on 

which they developed. Spread by introduction of 

infested mangoes. Plant quarantine: American, 

Japanese and middle east countries do not accept 

infested fruit. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries has a 

voluntary scheme to detect mango seed weevil in 

orchards before harvest. A phytosanitary certificate is 

issued to growers whose orchards are weevil-free. 

Fallen fruit must be removed from beginning to end of 

harvest. Do not introduce infested mangoes to 

weevil-free orchards. There is a recommended spray 

program (Brough et al. 1994). 

Mango weevil (Sternochaetus frigidus) occurs 

overseas, eg in Irian Jaya. but is not known to occur in 

Australia. Larvae tunnel and feed in the flesh, making 

fruit unfit to eat. 80% of fruit may be attacked. 

Quarantine risk: Because there are no external 

signs of infestation, any mango fruit from areas where 

mango weevil occurs must be considered suspect 

(Com. of Aust. 1990). 

Others: Aphids (Aphididae) and mealybugs. 

Pseudococcidae). Fig leafhopper 

(Dialecticopteryx australica) causes leaf 

speckling. Termites (Isoptera) may attack trees in 

the NT, eating out the interior of branches. Strong 

winds or the weight of fruit will break damaged 

branches. 

VERTEBRATES 

Cockatoos and rabbits may chew branches or 

bark of young trees. Fruit bats (Dobsonia spp., 

Pteropus spp.) and possums damage fruit. See 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Mangoes are easily damaged by 

frost. Young trees are killed by even a light frost. 


analysis standards are available based on 

diagnostic and research analyses (Weir and 


Postharvest diseases: Chilling, sapburn, 

lenticel spotting, failure of skin to yellow, sunburn, 

hot water scald, brushing and pressure damage and 

abnormal ripening cause external blemishes only 

(Bagshaw et al. 1989). Stem end cavity, jelly seed, 

impact damage and premature ripening cause 

internal symptoms (Bagshaw et al. 1989). 


Alexander, D. McE. 1987. Mango in Australia. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 

Bagshaw, J., Brown, B., Cooke, T., Cunningham, I., 

Johnson, G., Mayers, P. and Muirhead, I. 1989. 

Mango Pests and Disorders. Qld Dept. of Primary 









Com. of Aust., Aust. Quar. Inspection Service, Dept of 

Primary Industry. Plant Quar. Leaflets: 

Mango Weevil. No. 68. 1990. 

Red-banded Mango Caterpillar. No. 51. 1987. 






Hardman, J. R. and Bowden, R. 1992. Processing 

Tomatoes and Mangoes in Queensland : An 

Economic Perspective. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Holmes, R., Campbell, T. and Ledger, S. 1990. Mango 

Picking Guide : Kensington Pride. Qld Dept. of 


Lim, T. K. 1985. Diseases and Disorders of Mango in 

Malaysia. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur. 













Industry eg 

NT Agnotes/Technotes etc. 

Bacterial Black Spot of Mango 

Dried Mango and Banana Marketing Summary 

Electrified Mango Trees, Darwin (NT Technote) 

Exporting Mangoes to Overseas Markets 

Flowering & Fruiting in Mango in the Top End with 

Paclobutrazole 

Growing Mangoes 

Mango Anthracnose 

Mangoes in the Backyard 

Mango Irrigation Management Guidelines 

Mango Management : Flowering to Market 

Mango Pruning in the Top End 

Mango Seed Weevil : A Major Quarantine Threat 

Monitoring for Common Insect Pests of Mangoes 

Others 

Bacterial Black Spot of Mango at Kununurra (WA 

Farmnote) 

Mangoes : Diseases and Disorders (Qld Farmnote) 

Mango Growing in WA (WA Bull. 4125) 

Mangoes in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 


Committee of Direction of Fruit Marketing (COD) : 

Mango Workshops, Mango SubCommittee 

Qld Dept. of Primary Industries including the Horticulture 

Post-Harvest Group at Hamilton, Agricultural 

Research Laboratories at Indooroopilly, Maroochy 

Research Station 




F 82 

FRUIT AND NUTS

MANGO 

MANAGEMENT 

The mango is an evergreen tropical tree. Mango fruit have been treasured for at least 4,000 years and ancient 

travellers considered them to be the world's most delicious fruit. Today there are about 500 mango varieties; 

98% of commercial mango plantations are of the Kensington cultivar. Choose varieties with some resistance 

to bacterial blight, eg Sensation. Plant scale-free trees. Careful selection and vegetative propagation helps 

maintain the quality of cultivars. Propagation: Grafted trees bear fruit after 2-3 years. Seedlings need a year 

or two longer. Cultural methods: Avoid water stress during fruit development and maturation. Strategic pruning 

after flowering forces the development of new growth and reduces stem end rots. Sanitation: Remove litter 

and prunings from young orchards. Pest monitoring is essential. Use biological methods where possible. 

Effective control of postharvest pests and diseases in the field and in storage is important in reducing 

postharvest losses. Harvest fruit at the correct stage. Fruit is often rejected because it is overripe. Cool 

immediately after harvest and store in well ventilated containers. Postharvest treat fruit as recommended. 

Cool store and control ripening to prevent postharvest diseases and ensure that fruit arrives in the state of 

ripeness preferred by the intended market. Plant quarantine: Disinfestation of mangoes to kill insect pests 

may be a quarantine requirement of many importing countries and for the movement of fruit into interstate 

markets. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). 

Fig. 138. Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae). 

Left : Mango leaf lesions. Right : Leaf lesions often have a yellow margin and are bordered by leaf veins. 

(Shivas, R. Bacterial Black Spot of Mango at Kununurra. WA Farmnote, WA Dept., of Agric.). 

Fig. 139. Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae). 

Lesions on mango fruit, variety Kent. (Shivas, R. Bacterial Black Spot of Mango at 

Kununurra. WA Farmnote, WA Dept., of Agric.). 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 83

Mulberry 

Morus spp. 

Family Moraceae (mulberry family) 


Parasitic 









Leafhoppers 


Silkworm 

Scales 



Birds 

Non-parasitic 

Messy fruit 


Parasitic 


Bacterial blight, bacterial leaf spot 

(Pseudomonas syringae pv. mori) is a serious 

disease of mulberry (more serious than fungal leaf 

spot). Both diseases are common and may occur 

simultaneously on the same tree, spoiling 

appearance and reducing fruit production. 

Premature leaf fall may cause sunscald. Twigs 

may generally dieback and young trees are stunted. 

Small irregularly shaped black spots (Fig. 140) 

surrounded by a yellow halo develop on new 

leaves, causing curling or distortion. Distortion 

does not occur when mature leaves are attacked. 

Expanding buds develop large blackened areas. 

Long, ragged, black, depressed cankers develop on 

young shoots, which often die. Bacteria ooze out 

from these cankers during wet weather. Bacteria 

overwinter in infected shoots and are spread by 

water splash and wind from infected leaves and 

twigs and also by the movement of infected 

nursery stock and other plant material. Favoured 

by wet weather and overhead irrigation of nursery 

trees. Control is difficult if trees are large. 

Routine use of sanitation and pesticides will 

gradually reduce the incidence of disease. In 

favourable seasons disease may flare up and cause 

extensive damage. In autumn, before leaf fall, 

prune out and burn all dead shoots to reduce 

bacterial carry-over to next season. During spring, 

prune out and burn blighted shoots when observed. 

In Australia, only protectant non-systemic 

fungicides, eg copper fungicides, are available. 

They should be applied during budswell, 2 weeks 

later and after fruit set. However, trees usually 

grow too large to be sprayed safely. Overseas, the 

systemic antibiotic streptomycin may be used. If 

symptoms appear later, further sprays may be 

applied at about monthly intervals until new 

growth is disease-free. See Stone fruits F 124. 

Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) is a 

sporadic disease of mulberry. Large galls develop 

on trunks either at or below ground level. See 



Fungal leaf spot (Phleospora maculans, 

Imperfect Fungi) may affect mulberry; other fungi 

may also cause leaf spotting, eg Cercospora 

moricola, Mycosphaerella mori and M. morifolia. 

Only leaves are attacked. Small dark brown dead 

spots the size of a pin-head develop on leaves early 

in spring, surrounded by a halo of greenish-yellow 

tissue. As leaf spots increase in size, they become 

circular and the centre becomes whitish but the 

margins remain dark brown (Fig. 141). Small 

pinpoint black dots (fruiting bodies) develop on 

the whitish centres. Sanitation easily controls this 

disease. In autumn rake up and destroy/burn all 

fallen leaves to remove the overwintering fungus. 

This should be done every year. Apply fungicides 

to new leaves and after fruit set to young trees 

(trees usually grow too large to be sprayed safely). 

The need for further applications depends on the 

weather. If bacterial blight and fungal leaf spot 

occur simultaneously on the one tree, then the 

spray program and sanitation measures 

recommended for blight control will also control 

leaf spot. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) develops on 

over-ripe fruit and as postharvest disease under 

humid conditions. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses 

N 22. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.), 

stem and twig cankers (Fusarium lateritium, 

Gibberella moricola), twig blight (Fusarium 

lateritium f.sp. mori), wood rots (various species). 



been recorded on white mulberry (M. alba) and 

other species. Small galls develop on roots. Root 

lesion nematode (Pratylenchus coffeae) on Morus 

sp. See Vegetables M 10. 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) 

Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera) tryoni) 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) 


Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) suck 

sap from leaves causing leaf speckling. See Trees 

K 3 (Fig. 211), Vegetables M 15. 


australis) feeds on foliage, flowers and fruit in 

spring and late summer. Twigs may become 

sunburnt and dieback. See Fruit F 11, Trees K 15. 

F 84 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Silkworm (Bombyx mori, Bombycidae, 

Lepidoptera) is used commercially overseas to 

produce silk. In Australia it is found only in 

domestication and feeds on white mulberry 

(M. alba), overseas also M. multicaulis. Some 

silkworms in China and India feed on oak leaves. 

According to Chinese legend, silk was discovered 

about 2,700 BC when the emperor ordered his wife 

to find out what was damaging his mulberry trees. 

She found that 'white worms' were eating them and 

spinning shiny cocoons. She is reputed to have 

accidentally dropped a cocoon into hot water. A 

delicate cobweb separated from the cocoon. On 

removing it from the water she found that a slender 

thread (silk) was unwinding itself from the cocoon. 

The Chinese guarded the secret of silk-making for 

about 3,000 years. Children keep silkworms today 

as pets. Moths have a wingspan of about 50 mm. 

They have a short and thick body and stout legs. 

Caterpillars (silkworms) are whitish and about 

80 mm long and nearly 25 mm thick. There is a 

complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, 

adult) with several generations each year. Silk is 

produced in China by farmers. Female moths lay 

300-500 eggs in early summer on special strips of 

paper and die soon afterwards. The eggs undergo 

tests to ensure they contain perfect disease-free 

caterpillars and are then put in cold storage. Next 

spring eggs are incubated to hatch into tiny 

silkworms which feed on mulberry leaves. When 

fully grown, they spin silken cocoons which are 

harvested (insects killed) before the pupa changes 

into a moth and emerges breaking the long silk 

thread. Some cocoons are allowed to develop into 

moths to provide eggs for the next crop. 




Natural enemies provide some control but winter 

oil sprays may be required. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 

MANAGEMENT 

MULBERRY 


suck sap from leaf undersurfaces causing them to 

become speckled. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: Green stink bug (Plautia affini) may 

suck sap from ripening fruit. Orange fruitborer 

(Isotenes miserana) may tunnel in fruit. Borers 

(various species) may damage trunks of old trees. 


Birds are the most serious pest. They damage 

ripening fruits, it may be better to grow smaller 

trees (prune in summer or grow in pots) and cover 

with netting. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Messy fruit: Mulberries tend to drop their fruit 

before it is fully ripe. Fruits are juicy and purple, 

and may stain if trees are planted near concrete 

paths or where they may be tramped inside. 











Industry eg 

Mulberries in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Two Common Diseases of Mulberries (NSW Agfact) 




Mulberries grow well in subtropical, temperate and cool climates and are often grown for summer shade. Fruit 

from white mulberry (M. alba) is generally not as sweet or the berries as large, as fruit from the purple varieties 

(M. nigra). Propagate by cuttings, budding and from trees free from bacterial blight and scale, also by seed. 

Trees usually bear fruit in the 2nd year. Mulberry trees are large and spreading, so need plenty of space. Apart 

from initial shaping, little pruning is needed except to contain size and remove unwanted limbs, and for easier 

picking and spraying. It is necessary to water regularly during summer to ensure good fruit production. The 

most serious problems are birds, bacterial blight, mulberry leaf spot and size. The flesh of fruit is soft making 

them difficult to transport and market. If the fruit is picked too early the taste is very sour, however, if left too late, 

fruit will drop off. Trees grow too large to be safely sprayed by home gardeners. 

Fig. 140. Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

mori). Small black angular spots. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 141. Fungal leaf spot (Phleospora maculans). 

Large spots with dark margins and light-centres. 


FRUIT AND NUTS F 85

Olive 

Olea spp. 

European olive (Olea europaea) 

Family Oleaceae (olive family) 


Parasitic 







Caterpillars 

Olive lace bug 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Australia is free of many of the serious diseases 

and pests of olives found in other countries. 


Parasitic 


Overseas strawberry latent ringspot, cherry leaf 

roll, arabis mosaic, cucumber mosaic, olive latent 

ringspot, olive latent virus-1 and olive latent virus- 

2, are common on European olive (O. europaea) 

(Henriques 1994). Symptoms include sickleshaped 

leaves, misshapen fruits, fasciated stems 

and tree decline; some are symptomless. Viruses 

may affect rooting of cuttings, vigour, and ability 

to withstand environmental stress. 


Bacterial gall, olive knot (Pseudomonas syringae 

subsp. savastanoi pv. oleacae) affects some Oleaceae 

including European olive (Olea europaea) in Europe 

and America but is not known in Australia (Fahy and 

Persley 1983). Small galls develop on twigs. 

Infection takes place through wounds caused by hail, 

pruning, harvesting and frost. Varieties vary in 

resistance. See Oleander K 103. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) occurs occasionally 

on roots of olive trees. See Stone fruits F 125. 



Peacock spot, flyspeck, olive leaf spot (Cycloconium 

oleaginium, Imperfect Fungi) causes round black 

spots on leaves, leaf petioles, fruit and fruit stalks 

of olives during wet years. If trees are weakened by 

insect damage, environmental stress or age, leaf fall 

and poor fruit set may be serious in a few localities. 

Others: Leaf and fruit spot (Cercospora 

cladosporoides) may cause minor leaf spotting. 


Others: Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata), 

phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi), 

verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae), wood rot 

(Heteroporus biennis). Overseas also anthracnose, 

soapy olive (Gloeosporium olivarum) which affects 

flowering and causes fruit rots, also olive shield 

(Macrophoma dalmatica) (IOOC 1993). 


Citrus nematode (Tylenchus semipenetrans) 


Sheath nematode (Hemicycliophora arenaria) 

Also Paralongidorus eucalypti 




Australian privet hawk moth (Psilogramma 

menephron menephron, Sphingidae) caterpillars feed 

on Oleaceae, eg olives (Olea spp.), native mock 

olives (Notelaea spp.), privet (Ligustrum spp.), 

jasmine (Jasminum), Bignonaceae, eg Pandorea 

spp., Dolichandrone heterophylla, Caprifoliaceae, 

Rosaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Verbenaceae. 

Caterpillars are light green with diagonal white and 

lilac stripes on the body and a long stiff spine at the 

end of the body. They pupate in soil or leaf litter 

under the plant. Control is not usually necessary. 

Eastern flat (Netrocoryne repanda, Hesperiidae) 

caterpillars feed on native mock olives (Notelaea 

fasciculosa, N. longifolia). 

Emperor moth (Syntherata janetta, Saturniidae) 

caterpillars feed on citrus, guava, olive, pepper 

(Schinus molle), Rutaceae, eg Euodia elleryana, 

Geijera salicifolia, Euphorbiaceae, eg Glochidion 

ferdinandi, Petalostigma quadriloculare. Also 

Aegiceras, Ceriopis, Terminalia, Timonius rumphii 

and Podocarpus spinulosus (Common 1990). 

Olive moth (Prays oleae, Yponomeutidae) caterpillars 

feed on flowers, fruit kernels and bore into leaves, 

but is not known to occur in Australia. 


Olive lace bug (Froggattia olivinia, Tingidae, 

Hemiptera) infests Oleaceae including the native 

olive (Notaleae longifolia) and European olive 

(Oleae europaea) in subtropical and temperate 

regions and may be a serious pest in some inland 

areas. Adult bugs are about 3 mm long and brown 

with lacy wings. Nymphs are spiny. Nymphs and 

adults suck sap from leaf undersurfaces causing a 

yellow mottling of leaves which may brown and 

fall. Undersurfaces become covered with a tarry 

excrement. Olive lace bug also forms flower galls 

on the introduced olive (CSIRO 1991). On native 

olives, lace bug is usually controlled by natural 

enemies. On commercial olives, if damage has 

been severe the previous season, insecticides may 

be applied, commencing in spring when new 

growth emerges. See Azalea K 28. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Oleander scale 

(Aspidiotus nerii) (female) is about 1-2 mm across, 

circular, whitish-brown. See Oleander K 104. Olive 

parlatoria scale (Parlatoria oleae) is usually an 

F 86 

FRUIT AND NUTS

uncommon pest of olives. Adult females are dirty 

grey, broadly oval, about 1.5 mm long and darker 

towards the head end. Males are elongate and much 

smaller than the females. There seems to be only 

1 generation per year. Scales infest leaves, twigs 

and fruit. If infestation is heavy, fruit may be 

deformed. On ripening fruit, single scales are often 

surrounded by a dark purple coloration. Red scale 

(Aonidiella aurantii) is an important pest of olives 

in dry inland areas, or where trees grow in dusty sites. 

Unchecked infestations may cause leaf fall, and twig 

and branch dieback. Fruit may be reduced in size 

and pock marked, making it unfit for either picking or 

oil production. See Citrus F 39. Ross's black 

scale (Lindingaspis rossi) is black and sticks very 

tightly to the leaf surface. See Banksia K 32. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Black scale (Saissetia 

oleae) is a serious and common pest of olive and 

may cause leaf drop, shoot shrinkage and a decrease 

in flowers. Do not confuse with lenticels on the 

stems which are very obvious. Soft brown scale 

(Coccus hesperidum) may also infest olive but is 

smaller and flatter than black scale. Both scales 

produce honeydew on which sooty mould grows, 

disfiguring fruit and leaves. See Citrus F 41. 


Others: Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) 

and other weevils may chew leaf edges and fruit. Larvae 

feed on roots. Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) 

may infest leaves. Pests not known to occur in 

Australia include olive fruit fly (Dacus oleae), olive 

moth (Prays oleae), olive psyllid (Euphyllura olivina), 

a pyralid moth (Glyphodes unionalis), a scolytid 

beetle (Pholeotribus scarabeoides) and olive thrips 

(Liothrips oleae) (IOOC 1993). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Spring flowers may be damaged 

by late frosts in highland areas. Olives are 

shallow-rooting, but have narrow leaf surfaces and 

so are fairly drought tolerant. Trunks and fruit 

may be sunscalded. 

Others: Excessive use of oil sprays (>1% 

petroleum oil) affects the appearance of fruit and 

makes it less suitable for processing, and can also 

harm trees. Olive trees may become urban weeds. 


OLIVE 












Melbourne. 

Dal Pero Bertini, G. V. 1960. Olive Growing and 

Processing. Pts 1 and 2., R. O. D. Books, Perth. 

Dark, J. D. 1986. Trees and Shrubs for Eastern 

Australia. NSW University Press, Sydney. 



North Ryde, NSW.. 

Ferguson. L., Sibbett, G. S. and Martin, G. C. 1994. 

Olive Production Manual. University of California, 

Pub. 3353, Oakland, California. 





Melbourne. 

International Olive Oil Council (IOOC). 1993. The 

Olive, The Oil, The Olive. Avail. from Agmedia, 

Melbourne. 

Henriques, M. I. C. 1994. Virus Diseases of Olive : An 

Overlook. Acta Horticulture 356:379-385. 

Lavee, S. (ed.). 1993. 2nd International Symposium on 

Olive Growing. Acta Horticulture, Sept. 5-10. 




Industry eg 

Growing Olives (Vic Agnote) 

Olive Growing in Australia (H. T. Hartmann, 

Olive Growing in California (H. T. Hartmann, 

Olives in the Home Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Olive Varieties (H. C. Mort, NSW Agric) 


Australian Olive Assoc. 

Australian Olive Oil Assoc. 

GrowSearch (database, Qld DPI) 

International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) (magazine Olivae) 

Internat. Symp. on Olive Growing (Acta Hort) 1989, 1993 

Olive Growing in Australia Pioneering Assessment 

Olive growing in California 

RIRDC Dryland Olive Growing and Oil Processing in SA 

Irrigated Olive Growing and Oil Processing in SA 




MANAGEMENT 

Olives are evergreen trees grown as ornamentals or for their fruit, which may be pickled in brine or pressed for 

olive oil. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Cold winters and long hot 

summers and good water supply during fruit formation are necessary for good fruit production. Olives have a 

tendency to biennial bearing, which is increased by high nitrogen mulches (eg grass clippings), well maintained 

trees and hard pruning. Olives do shed a certain amount of fruit after set but rarely sufficient to ensure good fruit 

size at harvest. Fruit may be thinned with growth regulators or by hand. Sevillano usually produces sufficiently 

large fruit without thinning. Only plant scale-free nursery stock and plant in disease and pest-free soil, eg 

free from black vine weevil. Propagate by budding or grafting onto seedling rootstocks, also by hardwood and 

tip cuttings. Cuttings imported into Australia are screened for specified viruses and olive knot, then grown in 

post-entry quarantine. Plant any time from autumn to spring in well drained soil to discourage Phytophthora 

root rot. Keep roots moist during transplanting and water well during the first summer to encourage development 

of a good root system. In dry summers irrigate regularly to prevent fruit drop. Olives have higher tolerance to 

alkaline and saline soils than many other fruit crops. Olives produce most of their fruit on shoots arising from the 

previous year's wood, so need little pruning other than to open up the tree centre to allow better control of black 

scale and check vigorous growth. Weeds should be controlled. For green pickling, harvest fruit when mature 

but not coloured (skin can vary from green to pale straw). For ripe pickling, pick when fruit are firm and dark blue 

or purple. Bruised fruit does not pickle well. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 87

Papaw 

Papaya, pawpaw 

Carica papaya 

Family Caricaceae 


Parasitic 







Root and trunk rots, wilts 






Mites 

Scales 

Yellow peach moth 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Milky sap 



Parasitic 


Dieback, mosaic and yellow crinkle (phytoplasma): 

Dieback is the most serious of these and 10-100% 

of trees may die; it is the most serious limiting 

factor of the Australian papaw industry (Gibb et al. 

1996). Dieback typically causes a bunched 

appearance of the inner crown leaves, with one or 

more of these shrivelling and dying. Larger crown 

leaves rapidly yellow, then die. Young plants 

invariably die from dieback, older plants may have a 

recovery phase if the affected stem is cut and 

apparently healthy side shoots develop from lateral 

buds. Leaf mosaic is sporadic and of minor 

importance. Yellow crinkle disease causes a 

pronounced yellowing of leaves about halfway up the 

canopy, accompanied by a bending of the petioles. 

Flowers are green leaf-like structures. Young fruit 

fall in the early stages of disease but larger fruit may 

remain. Favoured by epidemics of common brown 

leafhopper (Orosius argentatus) after hot dry 

weather when it migrates from weeds to papaw and 

other hosts. Remove and burn affected trees. Plant 

excess trees, diseased trees can be removed without 

greatly reducing the stand. 

Papaya ringspot virus was detected in Australia in 

1991 in south east Qld and the area quarantined. It 

affects papaw and cucurbits causing mottling, veinclearing 

and distortion of young leaves, rings and 

spots on fruit, and streaks on stems and petioles. 

Plants are stunted, fruit set is reduced. Spread by 

melon aphid (Aphis gossypii), green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), not by seed. Leaf distortion is 

favoured by cool weather. Use resistant or tolerant 

cultivars, observe quarantine regulations, destroy 

diseased trees as they will not produce a good crop 

and are a source of infection (Com. of Aust. 1992). 



Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas caricapapayae) is 

a minor disease causing small angular brown spots on 

papaw leaves. See Vegetables M 5. 

Papaw crown rot bacterium (PCRB) (Erwinia 

caricae) causes dieback in the Philippines. Young 

leaves yellow and die. Stem tips die, older leaves wilt. 



Fruit is susceptible to a number of different rots. 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) is a common and 

serious postharvest disease. 

Black rot (Phoma caricae-papayae) commonly causes 

black shrunken rots of young fruit and a stem end rot 

post harvest. See Fruit F 2 (Fig. 97). 

Black spot (Asperisporium caricae) causes spots on 

fruit and leaves. 

Phomopsis rot (Phomopsis caricae-papayae) causes 

moderate postharvest fruit losses. 

Phytophthora fruit rots (Phytophthora nicotianae, 

P. palmivora) are serious in hot wet regions. They 

affect green fruit, fruit, stems and leaves. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a sporadic 

postharvest transit rot. 

Others: Fruit spot (Botryodiplodia theobromae), 

fusarium fruit rot (Fusarium solani), stem end rot 

(Mycosphaerella sp.), leathery fruit spot and stemend 

rot (Alternaria alternata), also Botryosphaeria 

ribis. 

Symptoms occur more often towards the stem end 

of the fruit. Rots are often only skin deep but 

spoil appearance and reduce marketability. Some 

of these fungi spread to the fruit when ripening 

begins. Others remain dormant in green fruit 

tissue until it begins to ripen when they develop 

rapidly. Favoured by wet weather and fruit 

injuries. Trees planted in cold exposed places, and 

low winter temperatures favour disease 

development by prolonging ripening and giving 

the fungi more time to develop. Fruit exposed to 

cold, wind and sun often ripen prematurely and are 

prone to rotting. Minimise disease incidence by 

planting varieties which have some resistance to 

fruit rot, and which ripen quickly and evenly. 

Establish plantations in warm sheltered areas. 

Remove all rotting fruit from the vicinity of the 

packing shed. Handle fruit carefully to avoid 

injury. Harvest fruit at correct maturity, ie pick 

early and ripen artificially. Spray with a fungicide 

prior to harvest and dip fruit postharvest to control 

fruit rots (Persley et al. 1993). See Fruit F 5. 


Angular leaf spot (Leveillula taurica) initially affects 

older leaves and moves upwards. causing small 

scattered angular patches of white mildew on leaf 

uppersurfaces (delimited by veins) and yellowish 

patches withdiffuse margins on uppersurfaces. 

Brown spot (Corynespora cassicola) causes brown 

rounded spots up to 5 mm across on leaves, elliptical 

brown spots on stems, and sunken spots on fruit. 

Control measures are not warranted. 


F 88 

FRUIT AND NUTS

PAPAW 

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca spp.) causes 

white powdery areas on leaves, stems and fruit. 

As fruit develops the white mould disappears 

leaving light grey scarred areas. It can cause 

serious fruit blemishes. Spores are spread by 

wind and rain. Most active during winter months. 

It disappears with spring growth but fruit 

harvested in midsummer may show scars from 

early infections. Fungicides are registered for 

control. See Annuals A 6. 


Damping off (Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., 

Rhizoctonia solani) may occur on seedlings. See 


Phytophthora root rots (Phytophthora cinnamomi, 

P. palmivora) may occur. See Trees K 6. 

Pythium root and trunk rot (Pythium spp.) may 

occur in the NT. Leaves yellow and wilt, starting 

with the older leaves first. The root system is much 

reduced and the remaining roots have a soft rot which 

may extend into the trunk. Trunk rot is usually 

associated with scale infestation, even with quite light 

levels of infestation. 

Others: Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), 

sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), 




Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) may cause severe 

damage to roots, in all areas, especially in sandy 

soils. Other nematodes have also been recorded in 

association with papaw, eg burrowing nematode 

(Radopholus sp.), foliar nematode (Aphelenchus 

avenae), root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus 

spp.), spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus 

dihystera, Rotylenchus spp.), also Criconema 

mutabile, Macrosposthonia spp., Paratrichodorus 

spp., Scutellonema brachyurum. See Vegetables 

M 10. 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera), eg 

Mediterranean fruit fly (MFF) (Ceratitis capitata) 

in WA, can cause damage throughout the year but is 

more serious during the warmer months. In the 

eastern states, infestation by the cucumber fly (CF) 

(Bactrocera cucumis) which is a minor pest, may be 

more likely than by Queensland fruit fly (QFF) 

(B. tryoni). QFF is dark reddish-brown, whereas CF 

is pale yellow-brown and has a conspicuous yellow 

stripe along the middle of the upper thorax, which is 

not on QFF. Fruit flies may be a problem if fruit is 

left to mature on the tree. Fruit picked green-mature 

for interstate trade is unlikely to be infested. Fruit 

flies are active in warm, humid weather and generally 

come into papaws from alternative hosts, not from 

within the crop. CF is attracted into sheds where 

cucurbits (especially zucchinis) are being packed. If 

ripe papaws are being packed at the same time they 

may be infested. Dipping in insecticide after harvest 

may be required for some markets, eg Melbourne. 

Papaya fruit fly (PFF) (B. papayae) unlike existing 

fruit fly pests in Australia, attacks fruit at a greener 

stage, especially papaw, mango and banana. It has 

a wide range of host species and is considered to 

attack all botanical fruit except pineapple, chokos, 

beans, peas and macadamias. PFF has a black thorax, 

paler abdomen with a distinctive black 

T-shape marking on its back (QLD DPI Inspector's 

Manual 1995). See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitpiercing moths (Eudocima spp., Othreis 

spp.) may pierce fruit and cause damage late in 

summer-autumn. Harvest fruit when 'mature 

green'. See Fruit F 9. 

Fruitspotting bugs: Fruitspotting bug 

(Amblypelta nitida) and banana-spotting bug 

(A. lutescens) are major pests of papaws in some 

areas. Damage is worse in late summer and 

autumn. Adults and nymphs suck sap from 

growing points on young papaw trees, causing 

severe stunting in plant growth and crinkling of the 

young leaves. Damaged fruit develop dark sunken 

spots where sucking occurred, the skin at these 

sites may crack, making fruit unmarketable. 

Adults and nymphs are difficult to see and 

usually the first sign of their presence is the 

damage they have caused. See Fruit F 10. 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) is a minor 

pest. Affected leaves have prominent veins, downcurled 

edges, bronzed and shiny undersides, and are 

thick and brittle. Leaves become distorted. Affected 

trees usually recover. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) and other 

spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) may cause extensive 

damage throughout the year but more seriously 

during the warmer months. Feeding produces pale 

mottled areas on leaves initially adjacent to the 

midribs. Mite damage is detected first on the older, 

lower leaves where infestation has developed for a 

longer time than on the younger leaves. These older 

leaves appear yellow-brown and in severe infestations 

the fine webbing spun by the mites can be seen. See 



Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Oriental scale 

(Aonidiella orientalis) is flat, circular and yellow, 

orange or pinkish and may be a serious pest of 

papaw. It also attacks mango. It affects trunks, leaves 

and fruit. Damage to the trunk will cause a complete 

collapse of the tree. Scale on fruit causes uneven 

fruit ripening around each scale. Natural enemies 

include a small black parasitic wasp (Comperiella 

lemniscata, Encyrtidae) which parasitises adult scales, 

another wasp (Encarsia) parasitises up to 95% of 

immature scales, and predators (Chilocorus spp., 

Telsimia sp., Coccinellidae). The parasitic wasp 

(Aphytis melinus) used to control red scale (Aonidiella 

aurantii) may also control this scale. Some of these 

agents can be purchased. Insecticide spraying may 

increase scale populations by destroying natural 

enemies. Oil-based sprays will only be moderately 

successful because of coverage problems (fruit 

clusters around the trunk). Ensure that trunk, leaves 

and fruit are sprayed to run-off. Several applications 

will be necessary until the scale is observed to be dead 

(live scale exude fluid when a thumb nail is pressed 

into the top of them). See Citrus F 39. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 89

PAPAW 


hesperidum) may infest papaw. Parasitic wasps 

(Metaphycus spp.) provide some control. See Citrus 

F 41. 


Yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) 

caterpillars often feed in the main growing point 

of papaw and cause dieback. Branches further 

down may start growing vigorously. Caterpillars 

may also tunnel into fruit, usually where one fruit 

touches another. If control is necessary, remove 

and destroy infested fruit, and/or apply insecticides 

soon after petal fall. See Stone fruits F 133. 

Others: Grasshoppers (Acrididae, Orthoptera) 

cause minor damage in Kununurra in WA if fruits 

are allowed to ripen on the tree. Harvest while 

fruit is a 'mature green'. 


Birds, fruit bats and possums can attack ripe 

fruit. Harvest fruit when they are 'mature green'. 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Exposure to frost, slows growth 

and reduces fruit production. Light frosts damage 

leaves and continued frosty conditions may kill 

established trees. Star-shaped greyish spots about 

6 mm across may occur on the surface of exposed 

sides of green fruits after frosts and very cold 

weather. In cooler areas grow mountain papaw 

(C. candamarcensis) which is frost hardy once 

established and fruits well in cool climates. 

Provide good drainage to avoid root rots. 

Milky sap of papaw trees can be irritating to 

human skin and eyes. It may damage fruit on tree. 


Potassium deficiency causes yellowing of young 

leaves, death of the stem tip and dieback. Leaf 

analysis standards are available for papaw (Burt 

and Toohill 1989, Weir and Cresswell 1995). 






Burt, J. R. and Toohill, B. L. 1989. Commercial 

Production of Papaws in Western Australia. Bull. 

4146. Dept. of Agric., Western Australia. 

Com. of Aust. 1992. Papaya Ringspot Virus. Plant Quar. 

Leaflet No.88. Australian Quar. Inspection Service, 

Dept. of Industries & Energy, Canberra. 





Gibb, K. S., Persley, D. M., Schneider, B. and Thomas, 

J. E. Phytyoplasmas Associated with Papaya 

Diseases in Australia. Plant Disease, Vol.80(2). 



Hamill, S. D. 1987. Fruit Rot of Papaw caused by 

Phytophthora palmivora in Queensland. Aust. Plant 

Path. 16(1). 

O'Hare. P. 1992. Growing Papaws in South Queensland. 














Industry eg 

Babaco (NSW Agfact) 

Costs and Returns for Papaws (NT Agnote) 

Diseases of the Papaw (NSW leaflet) 

Growing Papaws (NT Agnote) 

Pawpaw Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Papaw in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Papaws : Site Selection, Plantation Layout and Land 

Preparation (Qld Farm Note) 

The Mountain Pawpaw (Vic Agnote) 

The Papaya Fruit Fly (Qld DPI, Inspector's Manual, 

1995) 




MANAGEMENT 

Papaws prefer high temperatures, humidity and rainfall. An overview of the industry has been presented by 

Coombs (1995) and Douglas (1995). They bear male flowers only, female flowers only, or are hermaphrodites 

with bisexual flowers. It is therefore necessary to have female plants to bear fruit and male plants to produce the 

pollen. It is not possible to tell male from female plants until they flower. Select varieties with some resistance 

to ripe fruit rots and only plant Phytophthora-free plants in disease-free soil. Propagated by seed. 

Replacement trees should continually be planted because bearing only continues for about 5 years and there 

are fewer pests and disease problem; also plants get too tall and unmanageable. Replanting areas which have 

been affected by Phytophthora should be avoided. Do not thin overcrowded fruits on trees as sap from cut fruit 

stems will blemish remaining fruit. Harvest fruit when it is mature but before it is fully ripe. It will ripen off the 

tree in a warm room. In warm weather, rapid cooling is essential to maximise shelf life. 

F 90 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Passionfruit 

Purple or black passionfruit (Passiflora edulis) 

Family Passifloraceae (passionflower family) 


Parasitic 




Fungal leaf and fruit spots 

Root, stem and crown rots, wilts 

Trunk and twig cankers 



Bugs and hoppers 


Mealybugs 

Mites 

Scales 

Weevils 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Poisonous passionfruit 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) causes symptoms 

similar to passionfruit woodiness virus at lower 

temperatures. Fruit are woody, ie small and 

misshapen with an abnormally thick, hard rind and 

small pulp cavity. Young fruit may have a distinct 

dark green, lumpy mosaic. The skin may develop 

bright red blotches which changes to a diffuse yellow. 

Yield is affected, in cold winters all fruit may be 

woody. Spread by more than 60 species of aphids, 

by mechanical inoculation, by handling and by sap 

carried on hands, clothes and tools, sometimes by 

seed, vegetative propagation and grafting. See 

Cucurbits M 50. 

Passionfruit woodiness virus (PWV) causes an 

important disease of most cultivated and wild 

Passiflora spp., also peanut, centro (Centrosema 

pubescens), soybean, Phaseolus atropurpureus, 

P. vulgaris, Cassia coluteoides, many Fabaceae. 

Strains occur and symptoms may be hardly noticeable 

(mild strains) to severe stunting (severe strains). 

Leaves may show yellow mottles or flecks (Fig. 

142), become crinkled and develop light and dark 

green mosaic patterns. Translucent areas between 

veins or vein clearing may occur. Fruit may have 

ringspots, blisters or be woody, ie small and 

misshapen with an abnormally thick, hard rind with a 

small pulp cavity (Fig. 143). Generally there are 

projecting bumps on the fruit (do not confuse with 

fruit fly stings). Some or all fruit may be affected. 

Spread by cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), by grafting, by mechanical 

inoculation (hands, tools). 

Tip dieback (PWV and CMV) may initially cause 

wilting of young leaves, which yellow and later die. 

Laterals curl downwards. Stems become thick and 

brittle and easily snap off. Within 3-4 weeks the whole 

vine shows a general tip dieback. Older leaves 

develop yellow ringspots and fruit skin develops 

bright red blotches then a diffuse yellow colour. Fruit 

is malformed, flabby, fails to fill, rind is abnormally 

thick. Young fruit may have a lumpy mosaic. 

Overwinters in infected host plants, weeds. 

Temperature influences symptoms of both PWV 

and CWV+PWV, the most obvious appearing from 

10-15 o C. Infected leaves formed at high 

temperatures may show no apparent symptoms. 

Select vines during winter when symptoms are 

more obvious. Symptoms also appear more in 

vines under stress, eg waterlogging, drought. 

Control: Once vines become infected they cannot 

be cured; take measures to minimise losses. 

Cultural methods: Plant in a warm site with a 

northerly aspect, sheltered from wind. Plant in 

spring so vines are well established before the 

following autumn. Keep vines growing 

vigorously. Control leaf spot diseases which 

weaken vines. Install soil moisture measuring 

instruments and maintain soil moisture at 

recommended levels. Sanitation: Destroy all 

infected vines, if they have grown into adjacent 

vines, vines on either side should also be cut out. 

Keep plantations and surrounds weed-free. 

Resistant varieties: Purple passionfruit (P. 

edulis) is highly susceptible to PWV but cultivars 

react differently. Some hybrids, eg P. edulis Sims 

x P. edulis f. flavicarpa, tolerate severe strains, ie 

develop few woody fruit but develop leaf mosaics. 

Redlands Triangular is very susceptible to PWV. 

CMV can infect all hybrids, Lacey hybrid appears 

more tolerant. Disease-free planting material: 

Major commercial passionfruit plantings carry a 

mild infection of PWV that does not adversely 

affect vines. This was bred into hybrids in the 

1950s in order to prevent field infection by more 

virulent strains that appeared at the time. Severe 

strains can overcome this mild strain protection. 

They do not occur frequently but when they do 

they may cause a rapid degeneration of vines. 

Plant grafting tips or scionwood that has been 

approved by Passionfruit Scionwood 

Accreditation Schemes. Pesticides: Aphid 

vectors may be controlled in commercial 

plantings. See Fruit F 4. 


Grease spot (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

passiflorae) and Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

passiflorae have been recorded on passionfruit 

(P. edulis) (Fahy and Persley 1983). Grease spot 

causes round dark green greasy blotches on fruit and 

brown spots with a wide pale yellow halo on leaves. 


Fungal leaf and fruit spots 

Alternaria spot (Alternaria alternata) has a wide host 

range, is common and can cause serious losses. Small 

dead spots surrounded by yellow halos up to 6 mm 

wide with diffuse margins develop on young leaves. 

On older leaves, dead tissue is surrounded by a yellow 

or light orange halo. Fruit develop small brown 

greasy spots surrounded by dark green tissue up to 

5 mm across. A tear stain effect occasionally 

develops down the side of fruit. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 91

PASSIONFRUIT 

Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata) is a preharvest 

disease most easily recognised on leaves, 

stems and fruit as tiny brown-black fruiting 

structures on dead tissue. As a postharvest disease 

it develops following infection of mature fruit in the 

field. Fruit collapse and develop a wrinkled 

appearance. Symptoms develop quickly after harvest. 

Removal of affected fruit at packing is essential to 

prevent breakdown during transport to market. The 

fungus is a common inhabitant of dead tissue and is 

spread by wind and water. It is favoured by warm 

wet weather. See Fruit F 5. 

Brown spot (Alternaria passiflorae) affects Passiflora 

edulis, some wild Passiflora spp., particularly white 

passion flower (P. subpeltata), stinking passion flower 

(P foetida) and P. quadrangularis. Leaves develop 

small circular spots, at first brown but later 

developing a lighter coloured central area. Older 

spots, circular to angular in outline, may be up to 25- 

30 mm in size. Severely affected vines may lose 

nearly all their leaves. Stems and canes develop 

elongated dark brown areas. These usually commence 

at the point of attachment of a leaf and develop along 

the cane. Canes may be completely ringbarked, so 

that they suddenly wilt and die. Fruit develop light 

brown circular sunken spots which enlarge and 

wrinkle and may cover one side of the fruit, which 

shrivel and fall. Under wet conditions secondary soft 

rot organisms may gain entry. Favoured by warm 

moist weather. 

Grey mould, Botrytis fruit rot (Botrytis cinerea) may 

affect fruit postharvest. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses 

N 22. 

Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora nicotianae var. 

parasitica) affects many crops, eg citrus, passionfruit, 

pineapple, strawberry, tomato, tobacco. Young tip 

growth blackens and dies. Large watersoaked areas 

on leaves become light tan. Affected leaves fall 

readily and vines may be defoliated. Diseased areas 

on stems are at first purple and later turn brown 

above the graft union. These areas may girdle stems 

causing wilting; vines may die. Fruit develops large 

grey-green watersoaked areas. Fruit fall readily and in 

wet weather become covered with a white fungal 

growth. Overwinters in soil. Spores are initially 

produced in wet soil beneath vines and splashed onto 

lower leaves. Further spread occurs during wet, windy 

weather. Grow grass under vines. See Trees K 6. 

Scab (Cladosporium herbarum) causes small circular 

translucent spots, which later become covered with 

grey powdery spores, to develop on leaves, stems 

and young fruit (on fruit the spots become raised 

and scabby). Favoured by cool humid weather. 

Septoria leaf spot (Septoria passifloricola) causes 

brown spots up to 2 mm across with minute black dots 

(fruiting bodies) develop on leaves which fall, 

defoliating vines. Fruit develop light brown blotches 

studded with minute black fruiting bodies. Blotches 

may join together to cover large areas which ripen 

unevenly. Favoured by warm moist weather. 

Spores are spread during windy wet weather. All 

are favoured by extended wet weather, close 

planting, dense vine growth and old vines. Do not 

plant vines too closely, permit as much open 

growth as possible. Train vines systematically to 

facilitate future pruning. Vines should be 

regularly and systematically pruned to remove 

infected canes, reduce density and allow better 

spray penetration. A spray program may be 

required. See Annuals A 5, Fruit F 5. 

Root, stem and crown rots, wilts 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae) 

can be a serious disease of Passiflora spp. In hot 

weather the whole vine can suddenly wilt and die. 

The disease is first noticed as a wilting of one or more 

shoots and is often followed by a total collapse of the 

plant. If an infected stem is examined, the waterconducting 

tissues will be discoloured brown or 

reddish-brown. Avoid disease by buying vines that 

have been grafted on to Fusarium-resistant 

seedling rootstock of the golden passionfruit 

(P. edulis f. flavicarpa). A seed line highly resistant to 

Fusarium wilt is available from Qld Department of 

Primary Industries. See Vegetables M 9. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.), 

damping off (Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia 

solani), phytophthora blight (Phytophthora sp.), 

pythium root rot (Pythium spp.), rhizoctonia root 

rot (Rhizoctonia solani), sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum). See Vegetables M 7. 

Trunk and twig cankers 

Twig canker (Botryosphaeria obtusa) 

Trunk canker (Phytophthora sp.) 



Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) causes 

vines to look unhealthy and grow poorly, small 

feeder roots have galls. Other nematodes, eg root 

lesion (Pratylenchus sp.), spiral nematode 

(Helicotylenchus dihystera), Paratrichodorus 

minor and Scutellonema sp. See Vegetables M 10. 


Bugs and hoppers (Hemiptera) 

Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta nitida) sucks sap from 

fruit, causing minor sunken dark spots and making 

fruit unmarketable. See Fruit F 10. 

Green mirid bug (Creontiades dilutus) in late springsummer 

sucks sap from terminal shoots of young 

vines, stopping growth. Growing points wither and 

eventually fall out. If attack continues lateral tips may 

also be attacked and destroyed. See Vegetables M 12. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) sucks sap 

from young green fruits causing sunken spots. 

Fruit is unmarketable. If bugs are numerous, fruit will 

fall. A minor pest. See Vegetables M 12. 

Passionvine bug (Fabrictilis gonagra, Coreidae) is a 

minor pest of passionfruit, citrus, cucurbits and many 

other plants. Adult bugs are about 18 mm long, 

dull black with a red band behind their heads and red 

spots on the body underside (Fig. 144). Bugs suck sap 

from developing green fruits, causing sunken spots 

and making fruit unmarketable. 

Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa australis, 

Ricaniidae) is a native sporadic minor pest of 

passionfruit. It attacks a wide range of native and 

cultivated plants, including passionfruit and weeds. 

Adults are about 8 mm long with brown bodies and 

mottled brown and clear areas on the wings. They are 

often mistaken for small moths (Fig. 145). They hop 

or fly when disturbed. Nymphs are wingless, squat, 

brownish and have white filaments like tail feathers 

(Fig. 145). Adults and nymphs suck sap from stems 

F 92 

FRUIT AND NUTS

PASSIONFRUIT 

and leaves in late spring and summer. Heavy 

infestations may cause wilting and yellowing of 

leaves and leaf fall. Honeydew is produced which 

encourages sooty mould. Young green fruit may 

shrivel and fall when bugs feed on the fruit stalks. 

There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph and 

adult) with one to several generations each year. An 

egg parasite (Centrodora scypopae), other parasites 

and predators probably provide some control. If 

insecticides are considered necessary, spray insects 

on the vine, and escaping insects on the ground 

beneath, thoroughly. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is a small grey silver 

winged native bug which may swarm on vines, 

feeding on stems and foliage. It can kill plants and 

fruits up to the size of a walnut. Even larger fruit 

wilt and may fall (caused by the bugs clustering on 

the fruit stalks, hidden at first by the dried-up floral 

parts that form a collar around it). Water stress may 

also cause young green fruits to shrivel. It is 

important to diagnose the problem correctly. See 

Stone fruits F 130, Vegetables M 12. 

Monitor green vegetable bug, passionvine bug, and 

fruitspotting bugs regularly prior to making a 


1994). See Vegetables M 12. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) may sting 

young green fruit, producing boil-like swellings 

which persist to maturity and lower market quality 

of fruit. Very young fruit shrivel and fall but older 

fruit may grow to maturity. Most eggs do not hatch 

except in thin skinned fruits where maggots may 

reach the fully fed state and pupate inside the fruit. 

The emerging flies are imprisoned inside the hard 

rind and die. Control fruit fly on nearby hosts, eg 

citrus, guava, peach, tropical fruit. Monitor male 

fruit fly numbers by hanging pheromone traps and 

count stung fruit regularly, prior to apply an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). If monitoring is 

not carried out, apply fruit fly bait or sprays at the 

first sign of infestation. See Fruit F 9. 


Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) are about 

3-4 mm long and covered with a white mealy powder. 

They gather at leaf bases and under dead leaves 

where they pierce the vine, suck sap, and produce 

honeydew which leads to sooty mould on leaves 

and fruit. The combined effect of sap sucking and 

sooty mould results in loss of vigour, leaf drop, fruit 

malformation, and may kill the vine. Citrus mealybug 

is usually suppressed by predators. See Citrus F 38. 

Passionvine mealybug, Pacific mealybug 

(Planococcus pacificus) especially during late summer 

and autumn, congregate at leaf nodes, infest 

runners and fruit and can also found on the ground 

under dead leaves and debris. Mealybugs can be a 

major pest and heavy infestations cause defoliation. 

Excreted honeydew promotes sooty mould on fruit 

and leaves. Ants attend mealybugs and interfere with 

the natural parasites and predators. Female 

mealybugs are white, oval and about 3-4 mm long; 

they lay eggs in a loose, cottony mass. There are 

many generations each season. Parasitic wasps 

(Leptomastidea abnormalis, Ophelosia spp.) and 

predators, eg maculate ladybird (Harmonia 

octomaculata), lacewing larvae (Oligochrysa lutea) 

and the mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus 

montrouzieri), regulate populations. Cryptolaemus is 

the most important predator, and if absent, should 

be released. Because of the difficulty of obtaining 

good spray coverage, chemical control is only 

partially successful. Keep weeds down and vines up 

off the ground to assist ant control. Monitor 

mealybug numbers and Cryptolaemus regularly prior 

to making a decision to apply a pesticide (Brough et 

al. 1994). 



Passionvine mite (Brevipalpus phoenicis, 

Tenuipalpidae) may be a major pest of passionfruit. 

It also attacks mango, citrus, lychee, guava, coffee, 

pawpaw, grevillea and other plants in summer and 

autumn in Qld and north coast NSW. Adult mites 

are sluggish, reddish-brown and about 0.25 mm long. 

They lie very flat on the plant surface and feed in 

colonies sucking plant sap in leaf axils, along grooves 

of terminal shoots and leaf stalks and along the main 

veins of leaves. Large scabby areas appear on stems 

and branches. Heavy infestations may cause 

defoliation. Stems and branches may die. Fruit 

damage is not as common. There is a gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, 3 nymphal stages, adult) with 

several generations each year. Bright red oval eggs 

about 0.1 mm long are stuck firmly to leaf 

undersurfaces or crevices on stems. Spread by 

vegetative propagation from infested plants, and mites 

crawling. Predatory mites provide some natural 

control. Monitor mite populations at regular 

intervals before applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 

1994). 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae). See Beans 



Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Red scale 

(Aonidiella aurantii) can be a major pest of older 

vines, infesting stems, runners, leaves and fruit. 

Leaves yellow and fall, reducing plant vigour and 

killing vines. See Citrus F 39. 

Soft scales (Coccidae) produce abundant honeydew 

which attracts ants and encourages sooty mould 

which disfigures leaves and fruit. Soft scales are 

minor pests. Black scale (Saissetia olea) is 

common on vines. Adult females are concave, bunshaped, 

dark brown and about 3 mm long and 2 mm 

wide. They cluster along stems and main veins of 

leaves, especially on undersurfaces. Soft brown 

scale (Coccus hesperidum) infests individual vines, 

clustering along leaf and fruit stalks and along the 

main veins of leaves. Copious honeydew attracts 

ants. See Citrus F 41. 

To assist ant control, keep vines off the ground 

and control weeds. Ensure planting material is 

scale free and avoid establishing new blocks 

adjacent to heavily infested plantings. Control 

scale on old plantings or remove infested vines 

before introducing new scale-free plants. Dip 

plants before planting out. Monitor scales and 

natural enemy activity, before applying 

insecticides (Brough et al. 1994). High scale 

populations usually require treatment of the whole 

block but heavy infestations on main stems or on 

individual vines may be spot sprayed. Thorough 

application is essential when most scales are 

young. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 93

PASSIONFRUIT 


Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) is 

8-10 mm long and feeds on leaf edges in summer 

and autumn. It produces a saw-tooth effect and may 

severely restrict growth, especially of plants just 

climbing up wires. Weevils feed at night but can 

usually be found during the day clustered among the 

foliage or in the growing tips. They do not attack 

fruit. See Roses J 6. 

Ground weevil (Mandalus sp.) is small, brown and 

about 3 mm long. It chews young shoots and 

leaves at night, and halts growth of newly planted 

vines in early summer. As new plants are often 

covered with brush to prevent scorch and to reduce 

transpiration and evaporation, damage may be very 

advanced before it is noticed. Weevils shelter in soil 

by day and remain motionless when disturbed. 

Whitestriped weevil (Perperus lateralis) is small, 

light grey, about 6 mm long and has a white stripe 

along the length of each wing cover. It may be 

troublesome in spring in the high districts near 

Gosford. It feeds at night by gnawing the growing 

tips and green bark of the main stem, retarding 

growth of young vines. 

Others: A weevil (Oemethylus triangularis) chews 

stems bases at ground level of newly-planted vines 

leaving them looking like frayed rope. Older 

established plants are not susceptible. 

Control as for other weevils, eg spray over plants 

and soil surrounding them at transplanting. See 

Trees K 17, Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Ants are attracted to honeydew produced 

by mealybugs and soft scales, sooty mould grows on the 

honeydew. Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera), eg cotton 

aphid (Aphis gossypii) and green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), are minor pests; they feed on passionfruit 

while migrating through an area and spread virus 

diseases. Earwigs (Dermaptera) may chew holes in 

leaves. Fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator) larvae 

tunnel in the stems. Many old vines have a single larvae 

in the stems but sometimes 4-5 are found in a swollen 

root base. Fly leafminer (Agromyzidae) maggots 

occasionally tunnel in leaves of young passionfruit, 

stunting growth. It is thought that it is kept in check by 

parasitic wasps. No control is necessary. Greenhouse 

thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) in late summer 

may damage foliage and fruits on heavily-foliaged 

vines in protected situations. Leaves become leaden grey 

and are marked by spots of black excrement from thrips. 

Leaves turn brown and fall. Fruit surfaces are similarly 

blemished. Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta 

australis) may repeatedly swarm on vines during spring 

and summer chewing leaves and green shoots. Also 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator), painted 

apple moth (Teia anartoides), termites (Isoptera). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Passionfruit damaged by frost 

are more susceptible to diseases. Soil dryness in 

the early stages of fruit development may cause 

fruit drop. In later stages fruit may crinkle. Fruit 

is also severely affected by very high or very low 

temperatures, wet weather during blossoming or 

by watering flowers, all of which damage the 

pollen. Wind may damage fruit. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Excess 

nitrogen causes vines to grow lushly but may 

result in a failure of fruit to set. Too little 

nitrogen may cause leaves to yellow. Leaf 


Cresswell 1993, 1995). 

Pesticide injury: High rates of copper 

sprays can leave unsightly residues on fruit. 

Maldison-protein hydrolysate baits applied to 

the vine itself may cause leaf and flower drop 

(McMaugh 1994). 

Poisonous passionfruit: Wild passionfruit 

(Passiflora subpeltata) is toxic to cattle, pigs and 

sheep. Young green plants are more toxic than the 

fruits (McBarron 1983). 


















Melbourne. 




















Industry eg 

Alternaria Spot : A Serious Disease in Passionfruit (NSW 

Agnote) 

A Strategy for Controlling Passionfruit Disease (NSW 

Agnote) 

Avocados : Cultural and Financial Aspects (NSW Agfact) 

Avocado Diseases (NSW Agfact) 

Brown Spot of Passionfruit (NSW Agfact) 

Establishing Passionfruit Vines (NSW Agnote) 

Growing Passionfruit in Western Australia (WA Farmnote) 

Insect Pests of Passionfruit (Qld DPI Leaflet 1345 1976) 

Passionfruit Diseases (Qld DPI Leaflet 1346 1978) 

Passionfruit in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Passionfruit Varieties (NSW Agnote) 

Woodiness & Dieback Diseases of Passionfruit (NSW 

Agfact) 


Budwood schemes 





F 94 

FRUIT AND NUTS

PASSIONFRUIT 

MANAGEMENT 

Purple passionfruit (P. edulis) is generally grown in cooler and temperate zones of Australia for fresh fruit or 

processing. It is a subtropical vine which only tolerates light frosts. In sub-tropical and frost-free areas hybrids 

are grown, some of which have some resistance to severe strains of woodiness virus and Fusarium wilt, eg 

P. edulis x P. flavicarpa is tolerant of passionvine woodiness virus. Some selections of golden passionfruit 

(P. flavicarpa) are used as rootstocks because they have some resistance to Fusarium wilt. Unfortunately they 

are easily killed by frost. Purchase and plant disease-free nursery stock, tips and scionwood from certified 

budwood schemes. Propagation by seed, by grafting onto rootstock. Passionfruits are pruned mainly to allow 

light into the vine to assist in promoting healthy growth. This will result in the vine bearing fruit for a longer period 

each year. In cooler areas plant in areas sheltered from frost and wind. Pesticides: Spraying may be 

necessary for fruit rots and fungal leaf spots. Passionfruit is difficult to spray thoroughly. Monitor scales and 

other pests and disease. Harvest when skin is purple, it is liable to drop at this stage. Fruit picked green and 

cool stored may not colour evenly after removal from storage. Treatment may overcome colour problems. Skin 

readily loses its moisture causing it to shrivel but this does not affect the juicy interior. To avoid shrivelling, 

harvest early in the morning and store in plastic bags or coat with a thin layer of petroleum jelly. Store to reduce 

moisture loss. Pulp may be frozen or canned. 

Fig. 143. Passionfruit woodiness virus. 

Left : Thick skinned woody fruit. 

Right : Healthy fruit. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 142. Passionfruit woodiness virus. Infection has caused leaves to 

develop a yellow mottle. 

Fig. 144. Passionvine bug (Fabrictilis gonagra) 

(about 18 mm long). 

Fig. 145. Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa 

australis). Left : Moth-like adults (about 8 mm 

long). Right : Nymphs with 'tail feathers'. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 95

Peanut 

Ground nuts, earth nuts, monkey nuts 

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) 

Family Fabaceae (pea family) 


Parasitic 



Salmonella 


Aspergillus pod mould 



Rust 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Leafhoppers 

Peanut mite 

Pineapple mealybug 

Postharvest pests 


Whitefringed weevil 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Peanut mottle virus affects peanut, gambia pea, 

soybean, burr medic, sieva bean, French bean, pea, 

adzuki bean. It causes a mild mottle or patches of 

dark green tissue on leaves, but no obvious reduction 

in growth. Occasionally it results in small and poor 

quality seed. Spread by cowpea aphid (Aphis 

craccivora), cotton aphid (A. gossypii), sowthistle 

aphid (Hyperomyzus lactucae), green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi), by 

seed in some hosts to a variable percentage. Initial 

infection in a crop generally results from use of 

diseased seed, but it may also be spread by aphids 

from volunteer peanut plants and other peanut crops. 

Spread may be rapid and disease incidence high. No 

is control available. 

Peanut stripe virus or peanut mild mottle virus, is not 

known to occur in Australia. If introduced it may 

cause significant losses in peanut and other crops. 

Symptoms on peanut vary with the cultivar and the 

virus isolate but it commonly results in green blotches 

on leaves. Some isolates produce discontinuous dark 

green stripes along lateral veins on young leaves and 

these develop into a mosaic pattern of green islands, 

or an oak-leaf pattern as plants age. Symptoms persist 

in older leaves. Plants infected when young are 

stunted. Spread by green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) between 

and within crops, by seed (up to 37% in some 

cultivars). Plant quarantine risk: Illegal imports 

of infected seed or accidental spillage of peanuts 

imported for food. Eradication would be difficult 

because of rapid spread by aphids and wide 

host range. Legal imports of peanut and other legume 

hosts are grown post-entry in quarantine for testing. 


Others: Bunchy plant (a mycoplasma-like organism 

(MLO), possibly tomato big bud) is a minor disease. 

Spread by leafhoppers. Affected plants have spindly 

pale green shoots with large numbers of small leaflets 

in leaf axils. Stems are shortened towards tips and 

plants appear bunched. Flowers may be green but are 

usually replaced by green shoots with miniature 

leaflets. Pegs turn upwards instead of entering the 

ground and forming pods. See Tomato M 97. 

Passionfruit woodiness virus causes dead and 

yellow areas or streaks, mottling and wrinkling. 

Symptoms persist. Spread by cotton aphid (Aphis 

gossypii), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and by 

mechanical inoculation. See Passionfruit F 91. 

Rugose leaf curl (rickettsia-like organism) is a 

minor disease. Plants are stunted, with small upright, 

narrow, pale green leaves. Youngest leaves may be 

pinched and curled. Spread by spotted leafhopper 

(Austroagallia torrida). Hosts include legumes, eg 

clovers and lucerne. Tomato spotted wilt virus: 

Plants may be stunted with small distorted leaves with 

green/yellow ringspots. Brown spots and streaks may 

also develop on leaves, leaf stalks and stems. Plants 

may look bunchy. Stem tips may die. Seed from 

diseased plants is distorted, smaller and often marked, 

yield is reduced. Incidence is high only if numerous 

weed hosts are present nearby. Differences in 

susceptibility amongst cultivars cannot be attributed 

to differences in thrips populations (Culbreath et al. 

1994). See Tomato M 96. 

Shoot meristem cultures are being researched to 

eliminate viruses from vegetatively maintained 

peanuts. See Fruit F 4. 


Salmonella bacteria may contaminate peanuts 

used for the manufacture of peanut butter. 

Others: Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) 

has been recorded on peanut in Qld but is rare. 


Aspergillus pod mould, gold-green mould 

(Aspergillus flavus) can produce an aflatoxin 

which is toxic to humans and livestock. Aflatoxin 

in a batch of peanuts renders them unmarketable, 

or involves stringent and costly cleaning 

procedures. Pods may be infected with A. flavus 

before or after harvesting. Infection of pods before 

harvesting is favoured by water stress in the 

podding zone during the 30-40 days before 

maturity, and insect damage. After digging, 

infection in the field or in store is favoured by 

humid conditions due to late rains or storing pods 

at too high a moisture level. No chemical control 

is known. Avoid preharvest infection by late 

season irrigation or early planting to avoid late 

season water stress. Maintain healthy plants and 

control soil pests. Avoid postharvest infection 

by good aeration of field curing peanuts after 

digging, storing peanut pods with a kernel 

moisture of < 12%, and keeping storage humidity 

low. See Fruit F 5. 

F 96 

FRUIT AND NUTS

PEANUT 

Fungal leaf spots may cause serious damage 

during wet seasons, defoliating plants and 

reducing yield. The type of irrigation and 

nutrition may affect the severity of leaf spots. 

Leaf spotting fungi include: 

Early leaf spot (Cercospora arachidicola) 

Late leaf spot (Cercosporidium personatum) 

Leaf spots (Mycosphaerella spp.) 

Net blotch (Didymosphaeria arachidicola) 

Pepper spot and scorch (Leptosphaerulina trifolii) 



Aspergillus rot (Aspergillus niger) is a common soil 

inhabitant and spores are always present in the air. 

May cause pre-emergence damping off of seeds or 

post-emergence death of seedlings. Occasionally near 

mature plants may develop lower stem rot. Seed 

dressing is essential. Also avoid stress including overwet 

or drought conditions. See Fruit F 5, Peanut F 96. 

Damping off, pre-emergence rots (Aspergillus 

flavus, A. niger, Fusarium, Penicillium, Pythium, 

Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizoctonia solani). See Seedlings 

N 66. 

Other stem and root rots: Cylindrocladium black 

stem and root rot (Cylindrocladium crotalariae) 

causes decay of tap roots. Diplodia blight or stem 

rot (Diplodia natalenisis, Imperfect Fungi) causes 

rapid wilting of one or more branches due to stem 

infections. Also pythium root rot (Pythium 

myriotylum), sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum, S. minor), sclerotium crown rot 

(Sclerotium rolfsii), verticillium wilt (Verticillium 

dahliae). Rhizoctonia stem rot, rhizoctonia limb 

blight (Rhizoctonia solani) is a major disease overseas. 


Rust (Puccinia arachnidis) can defoliate bushes 

and reduce yields. See Annuals A 7. 

Others: Black rot (Calonectria crotalariae, grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea), pod rot, seedling blight 

(Botryodiplodia theobromae). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla) 

Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) 

Burrowing nematode (Radopholus nigeriensis) 

Also Macroposthonia ornata. 



Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Cowpea aphid 

(Aphis craccivora) and green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae) transmit virus diseases of peanuts but 

cause only minor feeding damage. See Roses J 4. 

Bugs (Hemiptera): Peanut trash bug 

(Elasmolomus sordidus, Lygaeidae) and green 

vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) are minor pests. 



Budworms (Noctuidae) feed on leaves: 



Native budworm (H. punctigera) 


Lucerne seed web moth, etiella moth (Etiella behrii, 

Pyralidae) is a major pest of peanuts and native and 

cultivated legumes. Caterpillars tunnel in the soil and 

enter developing peanut pods, chewing the seed 

and allowing entry of Aspergillus flavus. 



Lucerne leafhopper (Austroasca alfalfae) is yellowgreen. 

Nymphs and adults suck plant sap from 

leaves causing silvery spots on foliage and yellowing 

of the leaf tips. 

Vegetable leafhopper (A. viridigrisea) is blue-green, 

3-4 mm long, and causes damage similar to the 

lucerne leafhopper. See Vegetables M 15. 

Leafhoppers only need to be controlled if damage 

is severe and plants are stressed due to lack of 

moisture. See Vegetables M 15. 

Peanut mite (Paraplonobia sp., Tetranychidae, 

Acarina) may attack peanuts during dry weather. 

Adults are spider mites about 0.5 mm long, dark 

green to blackish, sometimes with reddish 

markings, and 4 pairs of legs. Young nymphs 

have 3 pairs of legs and develop through several 

moults. Nymphs and adults feed on leaves 

causing yellowing and leaf drop. Young 

seedlings may die during dry weather. Eggs are 

laid in soil at the base of plants, where they hatch 

in a few days. Mites overwinter as eggs in soil 

and spread by crawling. Clean fallow after each 

peanut crop to reduce infestation of the subsequent 

crop. Rain reduces populations. See Beans 



is a minor and sporadic pest causing stunting and 

poor nut quality. It is usually only a problem on 

poorly drained sites. See Greenhouses N 25, 

Pineapple F 104. 

Postharvest pests include: 

Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella) 

Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus) 

Cockroaches (Blattodea) 

Confused flour beetle (Trilobium confusum) 

Dried fruit beetles (Carpophilus spp.) 

Flat grain beetles (Cryptolestes spp.) 

Granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius) 

Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) 

Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica) 

Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella) 

Merchant grain beetle (Oryzaephilus mercator) 


Psocids, booklice (Psocoptera) 

Redlegged ham beetle (Necrobia rufipes) 

Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) 

Rust-red flour beetle (Trilobium castaneum) 

Sawtoothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis) 

Tropical warehouse moth (Cadra cautella) 

Warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variabile) 

Others: The introduced bruchine beetle (Caryedon 

serralis) feeds in stored peanuts. See Seeds N 75. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 97

PEANUT 

Scarab beetles, white grubs (Scarabaeidae, 

Coleoptera) may be major and frequent pests. 

Canegrubs (Lepidiota spp.) feed on soil humus and 

plant roots. Older larvae attack shells and peanut 

kernels, reducing yield and quality. 

Peanut scarabs, white grubs (Heteronyx spp.): 

Beetles are brown and 6-7 mm long. Larvae are 

creamy-white with a dark head capsule, curled into a 

C-shape and are about 25 mm long. Young larvae 

feed on plant roots and humus. Older larvae feed 

on developing nuts and shells. Only 1 generation 

each year. Eggs are laid in soil at base of plants and 

hatch within 3 weeks. Pupation occurs in soil and 

beetles emerge after rain from November to March. 

See Turfgrasses L 11. 


chew tap roots causing plants to lose vigour or die. 


Others: Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta 

australis) is a minor and sporadic pest. False 

wireworms (Gonocephalum spp., Pterohelaeus spp.) 

and thrips (Thripidae) may also damage peanuts. 


Mice and rats damage stored peanuts. Seed is not 

only eaten but contaminated with faeces as well. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Plants are very susceptible to 

frost. Computer simulations identify soil types 

and climates suitable for peanut growing. 


analysis standards are available for peanut crops 

(Weir and Cresswell 1994). 


Anon. 1994. Peanuts : Potential to Grow? Rural 

Research 163, Winter. 

MANAGEMENT 

Com. of Aust. 1990. Peanut Stripe Virus. Plant Quar. 

Leaflet No. 65. Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, 

Dept. of Primary Industries & Energy, Canberra. 



Crosthwaite, I. 1994. Peanut Growing in Australia. Qld 


Culbreath, A. K., Todd, J. W., Branch, W. D., Brown, S. 

L., Demski, J. W. and Beasley, J. P. 1994. Effect of 

New Peanut Cultivar Georgia Browne on Epidemics 

of Spotted Wilt. Plant Disease, Dec. 

Elder, R. J., Brough, E. J. and Beavis, C. H. S. (eds). 

1992. Managing Insects & Mites in Field Crops, 

Forage Crops and Pastures. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Kokalis-Burelle, N., Porter, D. M., Rodriguez-Kabana, 

R., Smith, D. H. and Subrahmanyam, P. (eds). 1996. 

Compendium of Peanut Diseases. 2nd edn. APS 


Melouk, H. A. and Shokes, F. M. (eds). 1995. Peanut 

Health Management. APS Press, Minnesota. 

Persley, D. M. and Syme, J. R. (eds). 1990. Field Crops 

and Pastures : A Disease Management Guide. Qld 




Shew, B. B., Beute, M. K. and Stalker, M. T. 1995. 

Toward Sustainable Peanut Production : Progress 

in breeding for Resistance to Foliar and soilborne 

Pathogens of Peanut. Plant Disease, Vol. 79(12). 

Smartt, J. 1994. The Groundnut Crop. World Crop 

Series, Chapman & Hall, London. 

Swaine, G. and Ironside, D. A. 1982. Insect Pests of 

Field Crops. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 





Industry eg 

Bulk Peanut Demonstrations Douglas/Daly (NT Technote) 

Diseases of Peanuts (NT Agnote) 

Field Crop Insect Control in Peanuts (NT Agnote) 

Fungicidal Influence on Peanut Seed Gemination (NT 

Technote) 

Growing Peanuts in the Northern Territory (NT Agnote) 

Peanut Drying : In Storage Drying (Qld Farmnote) 

Peanuts : Control of Important Diseases in Southern 

Queensland (Qld Farmnote) 

The Economics of Peanut Production (NT Agnote) 

Weed Control in Peanuts (NT Agnote) 


Grain Research and Development Corporation 

Peanut Marketing Board of Queensland 




Peanuts are eaten raw, roasted, ground for peanut butter or crushed for peanut oil. An overview of the industry 

is presented by Coombs (1995). Peanuts are semi-erect annual legumes like beans and peas. Virginia Bunch 

and Red Spanish are the two most widely grown varieties in Australia. Resistant varieties: Select varieties 

with some resistance to stem rots which attack lower stems and crowns near soil level, eg Virginia Bunch. 

Varieties resistant to cylindrocladium black stem and root rot (Cylindrocladium crotalariae), fungal leaf 

spots (Cercospora arachidicola, Cercosporidium personatum) and root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) 

are being developed overseas (Shew et al. 1995). Disease-free planting material: Plant high quality seed free 

from diseases, eg virus diseases, and pests, and which has been treated with fungicide. Propagated by seed 

which should be dusted with fungicide before sowing. Peanuts are grown in tropical, subtropical and warm 

temperate climates and need a long warm growing season of 5 months. They prefer sandy well drained soil 

through which pegs can penetrate easily. Practise crop rotation, cultivate to eliminate weeds, crop debris and 

volunteer peanut plants. Weeds may also be controlled by post-emergence or pre-emergence herbicides. 

Water adequately and regularly. The crop is ready to dig about 16-22 weeks after sowing. Harvest: After 

flowers are pollinated, the flower pegs (called pegs by peanut growers) lengthen and push downwards into the 

soil. The pods, containing 1-4 kernels, develop underground. Samples of pods are made prior to harvest to 

ensure correct timing. Storage: Avoid peanuts becoming contaminated with Aspergillus flavus or Salmonella 

bacteria which are injurious to human health. Pods must be dried postharvest either naturally or artificially prior 

to storage, which should be water-proof, vermin-proof and preferably with ventilation control. 

F 98 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Pecan 

Carya illinoensis 

Family Juglandaceae (walnut family) 


Parasitic 



Crown gall 


Nut rots 

Pecan scab 

Root rots, cankers 


Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Numerous serious diseases and pests which do not 

occur in Australia, affect pecan trees overseas. 


Parasitic 


Bunch diseases are undetermined but are thought 

to be caused by virus-like organisms. They are not 

known to occur in Australia (Com. of Aust. 1991). 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) may cause 

galls to develop at or just below ground level on 

nursery stock. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Nut rots (Pestalotia sp., other species) may 

develop during wet weather. The role of the green 

vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) in the development 

of some nut rots is being researched. See Fruit F 5. 

Pecan scab (Cladosporium caryigenum, 

Imperfect Fungi) is the most destructive disease 

of pecan in the USA, but is not known to occur in 

Australia. It attacks the rapidly growing tissues of 

leaves, shoots and nuts during humid weather. 

Affected nuts are worthless and may drop 

prematurely. Plant quarantine: The introduction 

of propagating material represents the major 

quarantine risk. Besides pecan scab there are 

several other diseases of pecan which are not at 

present in Australia. These include downy spot 

(Mycosphaerella carygena), liver spot (Gnomonia 

caryae) and zonate disease (Cristulariella 

pyramidalis) (Com. of Aust. 1991). 

Root rots, cankers 


attack roots in newly cleared land. See Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora trunk canker (Phytophthora spp.) 

may infect pecans in poorly drained sites. See Trees 

K 6. 

Borers 


Fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma, 

Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera) caterpillars may tunnel in 

the forks of branches and are a major pest. 

Methods of monitoring its incidence are being 

devised. Echiomima spp. is also a pest of pecan 

trees. See Fruit F 10. 

Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) may 

tunnel in trunks and large branches. See Trees 

K 12. 

Large auger beetle (Bostrychopsis jesuita) may 

attack weak or unthrifty trees. Larvae are thickset, 

white and have small legs. Their tunnels are tightly 

packed with frass and wood fragments. This 

tunnelling can kill limbs or whole trees. After 

pupating at the end of the tunnel, the glossy black 

adult emerges through a circular exit hole during 

spring/summer. See Trees K 11. 

Poinciana longicorn (Agrianome spinicollis) larvae 

tunnel in trunks and main limbs. Beetles are up 

to 50 mm long and have long antennae, usually held 

back over the body. Larvae are whitish, thickset, and 

up to 80 mm long. They may live for several years. 

They become adults and emerge as beetles between 

August and March, leaving oval-shaped exit holes 

and masses of wood fibres at the base of the tree. 

Control is mainly by destroying larvae individually 

by pruning and by probing tunnels with wire. To help 

prevent attack, keep trees in good condition by 

providing adequate drainage, irrigation and fertiliser. 




Fruitspotting bugs (Amblypelta miserana, A. nitida) 

feed on the nuts and spoil the kernels. See Fruit F 10. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) may feed on 

developing nuts. See Vegetables M 12. 


Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.), orange fruitborer 

(Isotenes miserana) and yellow peach moth 

(Conogethes punctiferalis) caterpillars bore into nuts. 

See Citrus F 37, Stone fruits F 133. 

Caterpillars of an anthelid moth (Anthela varia) feed 

on pecan foliage. See Trees K 13. 


Elephant beetle, rhinoceros beetle (Xylotrupes 

gideon) feeds on nuts. See Lychee F 74. 

Others: Black beetle (Metanastes vulgivagus), and 

Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.). 

See Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 99

PECAN 

Others: Apple weevil, curculio beetle 

(Otiorhynchus cribricollis, Curculionidae) may be 

a pest in Western Australia chewing leaf edges 

giving them a sawtoothed appearance. It may strip 

young trees almost completely. Mites (Acarina) 

and scales (Hemiptera) may also infest pecan in 

Australia. Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) infest 

new shoots overseas. 


Cockatoos and other large birds cause extensive 

damage to nuts and bark. Rabbits, rats and 

possums may eat nuts on the ground. See Fruit 

F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Limbs may become sunburnt. 


standards based largely on diagnostic leaf 

analyses are available for pecans (Weir et al. 

1993). 












Com. of. Aust. 1991. Pecan Scab. Plant Quar. Leaflet 

No. 40. Aust. Quar. & Inspect. Service, Dept. of 

Primary Industries & Energy, Canberra. 





NSW Agric. Home Fruit Growing. Current Edit. NSW 

Agric., Sydney. 

Santerre, C. R. 1994. Pecan Technology. Chapman & 

Hall, London. 








Industry eg 

Cultivating Pecan Nuts (WA Farmnote) 

Growing Pecans (Vic Agnote) 

Pecans in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Sites, Layout and Irrigation for Nut Orchards (WA 

Farmnote) 


WA Nut and Tree Crop Assoc. (WANATCA) : Australian 

Tree Crops Sourcebook 1994-95 (Pecan : An 

Emerging Crop; Pecans : Cultivation) 


PLANT MANAGEMENT 

An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Pecan is a large, long lived deciduous tree 

up to 10 m tall. Nuts are oblong and thin-shelled. They are eaten fresh and used in confectionery, pies and 

cakes. Varieties carry male and female flowers separately on the same tree. Some varieties shed pollen before 

the female flowers are receptive and cross pollination is necessary to ensure nut production. Preferably grow at 

least 2 trees. Because pecan scab has occurred in NZ, varieties with some resistance to the disease should 

be chosen for large plantings. Ensure that grafting material and other propagation material is scale-free and 

free from other pests and diseases. Propagation is by budding on to seedling trees, grafting and seed. Nuts 

produced by seedling trees may be variable in quality and quantity. Pecans are normally trained to 1 main trunk 

to produce a pyramid-shaped tree. Pinch out side shoots on young trees so the trunk is clean to 1.5 m. Grow in 

a sheltered position where minimum and maximum temperatures are not extreme. Trees need deep well 

drained slightly acid soil. During long dry periods irrigate frequently to keep soil moist. Fertilise in February and 

prune in winter. Control weeds under trees. Harvest when husks mature (late autumn) by separating into 4 

sections and releasing the nut, which falls to the ground. Gather nuts regularly to avoid damage by weather and 

rodents. Nuts should be cleaned to improve appearance and storage. Nuts must be promptly dried and stored 

in a well ventilated area for several weeks. Pest management programs for pecan crops are still being 

researched and include the development of monitoring techniques for the major pests and the possible use of 

biological control agents. 

F 100 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Persimmon 

Oriental or Japanese persimmon (Diospyros kaki) 

Family Ebenaceae (ebony family) 


Parasitic 


Bacterial blast 

Crown gall 




Grey mould 

Phytophthora root and collar rot 



Borers 

Caterpillars 


Fruitspotting bug 


Mealybugs 

Mites 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Many more diseases and pests have been 

recorded in Japan (Kitagawa and Glucina 1984). 


Parasitic 


Bacterial blast (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae) causes dark leaf spots, blackening of 

petioles and basal parts of leaves, and may attack 

small twigs and small branches during late 

winter and early spring during cool, moist weather 

in exposed situations. See Stone fruits F 124. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) is a serious 

disease of persimmons. Plant only disease-free 

nursery stock. Inspect roots of purchases 

carefully and dip roots in Agrobacterium 

(Nogall ) culture before planting, especially when 

planting into alkaline soils. Remove trees that 

develop galls from the orchard. Avoid using 

D. lotus rootstock as it is highly susceptible, 

D. kaki is resistant. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Fruit rots: Blue and green moulds 

(Penicillium spp.) are important postharvest 

diseases. See Fruit F 6. 

Fungal leaf spot (Pseudocercospora sp.) 

causes small dark leaf spots on both upper and 

lower leaf surfaces. Spots enlarge and eventually 

leaves fall prematurely in autumn. Spots are very 

obvious on yellow senescing leaves. Uncontrolled 

infection may result in lower yields and smaller 

fruit size. Other fungi may also cause leaf 

spotting in Australia and overseas. Some only 

occur late in autumn and therefore have little effect 

on tree vigour. See Annuals A 5. 


blighting of young leaves and may be a problem 

at flowering when petals do not fall cleanly but 

adhere to small fruitlets. See Fruit F 5, 



(Phytophthora spp.) may kill persimmons. 

Provide good drainage and keep tree bases weedfree. 

See Fruit F 7, Trees K 6. 


Nematodes recorded in association with 

persimmon include citrus nematode (Tylenchus 

semipenetrans), dagger nematode (Xiphinema), 

reniform nematode (Rotylenchus), ring 

nematode (Criconema), root knot (Meloidogyne 

javanica), spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus), 

stunt nematode (Tylenchorhynchus capitatus) 

(McLeod et al. 1994). See Vegetables M 10. 


Borers: Fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae, 

Lepidoptera) and longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae, 

Coleoptera) damage persimmons. See Trees K 11, 

K 12. 


Orange fruit borer (Isotenes miserana) may bore into 

fruit. See Citrus F 37. 


caterpillars chew developing shoots and buds. 


Lychee stem-girdler (Carmenta chrysophanes) 

caterpillars burrow under the bark of lower parts of 

the tree causing severe damage. Branches may 

die and fall and whole trees may die from ring 

barking. It may cause major losses and so far there 

is no control. See Lychee F 73. 

Others: Cephenes blue (Pseudodipsas cephenes, 

Lycaenidae) caterpillars feed on leaves of Diospyros 

fasciculosa or in sheltered positions along twigs or in 

holes in trunks. Pupae are found in hollow branches. 

Caterpillars and pupae are attended by black ants 

(Iridomyrmex gilberti). Caterpillars of Addaea 

polyphoralis feed gregariously between joined 

leaves of Diospyros ferrea and pupate in leaf litter. 


Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) are a major 

pest of persimmons. Fruit that have been 'stung' 

develop black blemishes and are seriously downgraded. 

The tannin content in immature fruit is 

considered to be antagonistic to maggot 

development, although maggots do develop in 

mature fruit. As fruits ripen late in the season, 

they are often subject to heavy attack by the many 

fruit flies which have bred on other fruit during 

summer. Regular insecticide applications are 

required in commercial orchards to prevent 

significant loss and damage. See Fruit F 9. 

FRUIT AND NUTS F 101

PERSIMMON 

Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta nitida) is a 

major and frequent pest in orchards close to bush 

causing dark spots on fallen fruit. Damage extends 

10 mm in depth. Monitor fruit for bugs and 

damage (Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit F 10. 


causes grey speckled blemishes on fruit when they 

feed where fruits are in contact or a leaf lies 

against a fruit. Monitor fruit for presence of thrips 

(Brough et al. 1994). Other thrips (Thysanoptera) 

may occur in the flowers. See Greenhouses N 24. 


Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) infests trees 

and fruit. Their presence may present a problem 

on export fruit and associated sooty mould reduces 

fruit value. Monitor fruit for mealybugs and 

predators before applying insecticides (Brough et 

al 1994). Winter oil used during the dormant 

season may control mealybugs. See Citrus F 38, 



Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) may cause 

leaves to curl under. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) causes leaf 

and fruit drop. See Beans (French) M 29. 


Oleander scale (Aspidiotus nerii, Diaspididae) may 

blemish fruit. Scales are mostly found on fruit 

uppersurfaces near the calyx. Infestation of leaves 

and twigs is minor. Female scales are circular, 

sometimes irregular, whitish brown and 1-2 mm in 

diameter. Male scales are smaller and rather 

elongate. See Oleander K 104. 

White wax scale (Gascardia destructor, Coccidae) 

can heavily infest persimmons, disfiguring ripe fruit 

with the associated sooty mould. See Citrus F 41. 



Birds can be a nuisance when fruit is hanging late. 


MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Dormant persimmon trees are 

tolerant of frost but new growth may be damaged. 


standards based on diagnostic leaf analyses are 

available for persimmon (Weir and Cresswell 

1993, 1995). 






Broadley, R. H. 1991. Avocado Pests and Disorders. 

Queensland Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane. 








Gilbert, A. 1997. Persimmons Trees that Deserve More 

Attention. Aust. Hort., April. 



Kitagawa, H. and Glucina, P. G. 1984. Persimmon 

Culture in New Zealand. Dept. of Scientific and 

Industrial Research, Wellington NZ. 

Paulin, R. 1984. Persimmons : Their Requirements and 

Potential in Western Australia. WA Dept. of Agric., 

Perth. 










Industry eg 

Growing Persimmons (WA Farmnote) 

Persimmon Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Persimmons in the Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Persimmons : Their Requirements and Potential in 

Western Australia (WA Bull. MA26) 

The Persimmon : An Alternative Fruit Crop (Vic Agnote) 


Australian Persimmon Export Company 




Persimmon trees are deciduous, beautiful and functional. When leaves fall in autumn, fruit hang on naked 

branches for weeks. In cool districts, the foliage of some varieties has glorious autumn colours. Rootstocks of 

D. lotus are susceptible to crown gall. Rootstocks of D. virginiana are tolerant of drought but sucker severely, 

trees propagated on them are not always uniform in size or vigour. Inspect nursery stock for crown gall and 

scales, etc. Propagated by budding and grafting of seedling rootstocks. Seedlings do not reproduce true-totype. 

Persimmon require a sunny well drained site. Purchase bare rooted plants, plant immediately; irrigate 

and fertilise well in summer for good fruit production, especially in the first few years. Excessive nitrogenous 

fertiliser, high autumn temperatures, high humidity, moisture stress and vigorous growth can contribute to a 

range of fruit disorders, eg skin russetting, calyx separation, calyx end cracking and fruit drop. Prune lightly as 

hard pruning encourages excessive leafy growth and premature fruit drop. Fruit develops on the current 

season's growth. Biennial fruit bearing is a problem, especially with late-maturing cultivars. Some pests 

should be monitored, eg fruit fly, fruitspotting bugs, greenhouse thrips and mealybugs. Harvest fruit by clipping 

fruit from the tree with the calyx and a short stem attached to the fruit. Handle fruit carefully as the thin skin is 

easily marked. Pick when fruit is well developed, firm and has the characteristic colour for the variety. The fruit 

of astringent varieties, if eaten too early, leaves an unpleasant feeling in the mouth. Unless treated to remove 

astringency, fruit should be eaten when flesh is soft and gelatinous. Non-astringent varieties have lost their 

astringency once colour has developed. Fruit should ripen after harvest. Sugar content increases and fruit 

develop good flavour and consistency. If fruit is harvested while immature it does not soften evenly, and may 

remain partly astringent. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). 

F 102 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Pineapple 

Ananas comosus 

Family Bromeliaceae (bromeliad family) 


Parasitic 



Marbling 


Thielaviopsis diseases 

Penicillium diseases 


Pythium root rot 

Yeasty rot, yeasty spot 



Bugs 

Mites 

Pineapple mealybug 

Pineapple scale 

Scarab beetles, canegrubs, white grubs 

Symphylids 


Non-parasitic 



Parasitic 


Pineapple wilt virus is thought to be the cause of 

symptoms produced by the feeding of mealybugs on 

pineapple roots, but the disease has not been verified. 

Pineapple mealybug is known to spread a disease 

referred to as 'mealybug wilt', the cause of which is 

'unknown'. Leaves die back from the tip and may 

change colour to pale green or yellow. Inner heart 

leaves usually remain normal. There is no chemical 

control, and it may be serious. See Pineapple F 104. 

Tomato spotted wilt virus (yellow spot) has been 

recorded on pineapple but is rare in Qld. See Tomato 

M 96. 



Marbling (Erwinia ananas) and pink disease 

(various bacteria including E. ananas) are spread 

by insects and mites from decaying fruit near 

flowering fields. They are minor diseases of 

pineapple fruit. There are no external symptoms 

but internal tissue may be light pinkor watersoaked 

(pink disease). During canning affected tissue 

turns brown. There is no control. Bacteria infect 

fruit through open flowers during cool weather. 


Thielaviopsis diseases (Thielaviopsis 

paradoxa) commonly occur in the field and 

postharvest. The fungus is important in the 

breakdown of pineapple residues after cropping. 

Base rot of planting material causes a grey rot of 

soft butt tissue leaving stringy fibre and cavities. 

If infected crowns are planted, butts decay, growth is 

reduced, and plants may die. Favoured by planting 

material harvested from parent plants (fungus enters 

through wounds), warm, wet weather, and storage of 

planting material in heaps. Infections develop during 

storage but may not be obvious at planting. Tops 

(crowns) used for planting are particularly susceptible. 

Do not leave portions of fruit attached to crown or 

knobs attached. Planting material to be stored 

must be dried rapidly. If it is to be stored outdoors 

during prolonged wet weather spray upturned butts 

with fungicide. If material is to be planted 

immediately after removal without drying, treat with 

fungicide. Improve soil drainage and avoid planting 

during wet weather. 

Water blister of fruit may be a major postharvest 

disease of fresh fruit, causing a soft watery rot of the 

flesh during summer. Disease takes 3-4 days to 

develop after harvest. Infection occurs through injury, 

eg broken fruit stalks, bruises and growth cracks on 

the fruit. Fresh fruit marketed with crowns left on, 

eliminates a major point of entry for the fungus. 

Handle fruit carefully to avoid injury. Reject sunburnt 

and damaged fruit. If fruit is harvested during warm, 

wet weather, dip after harvest. Remove pineapple 

debris and rejected fruit from in and around packing 

sheds, and disinfect packing sheds every week. 

White leaf spot causes minor small brown spots on 

leaves, especially along leaf margins where leaves 

have been rubbing other leaves in strong winds. Spots 

elongate until they are about 20 mm long and may 

spread to the leaf tips. See Annuals A 5. 

The fungus overwinters on pineapple crop debris 

and rejected fruit in packing sheds. It is spread 

by infected planting material and favoured by 

warm wet weather in summer, and wounds. See 

Fruit F 7, Vegetables M 7. 

Penicillium diseases (Penicillium funiculosum) 

Fruitlet core rot and green eye is an internal 

browning of the centre of fruitlets which vary in 

colour from a speck to an area covering one or more 

of the fruitlets. Affected fruit on Smooth Cayenne do 

not show any external symptoms at harvest. Fruit of 

the rough-leaf Queen group may produce fruitlets 

which fail to colour (green eye). Favoured by 

certain temperatures. Fusarium moniforme also 

causes fruitlet core rot (Broadley et al. 1993a). 

Interfruitlet corking (IFC): Wounds caused by mites 

feeding on fruit hairs allow entry for the fungus. A 

corky tissue develops on the skin between the fruitlets 

on patches. Fruits crack. Corkiness on one side 

prevents even growth so that fruit are distorted. Only 

found on fruit initiated in early autumn. 

Leathery pocket has no external symptoms. Internally 

corky tissue develops on fruitlet walls and makes 

them leathery and brown. A sporadic disease. 


Phytophthora diseases (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi) are serious diseases of pineapple. 

Green fruit rot causes an internal watersoaked rot 

behind green fruitlets in contact with soil. This 

progresses to a general rot. Spores are splashed from 

the soil on to fruit. Usually a minor disease but may 

be serious in ratoon crops following heavy rain when 


PINEAPPLE 

plants have fallen as a result of root rot. Application 

of systemic fungicides for heart and root rots will 

control green fruit rot. 

Heart rot (top rot) may affect plants of all ages but 

crown plantings are most susceptible. Heart leaves 

yellow or brown, wilt, and edges roll under and die. 

Once symptoms are visible, young plants are easily 

pulled from the soil. Basal leaf white tissue is rotted 

and has a foul smell. P. nicotianae may also cause 

heart rot. 

Root rot causes heart leaves to turn yellow or light 

brown with reddish tinge, due to death of the root 

system Plants are easily pulled from soil. 

See Citrus F 35, Fruit F 7, Trees K 6. 

Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.) may occur in 

areas with poor drainage or overwatering. Avoid 

disease by using well drained soils, careful field 

selection, and planting on raised beds at least 

230 mm high. Construct drains to intercept runoff 

before it reaches the plantation, and within the 

plantation itself; use plastic mulch to keep beds dry 

in some circumstances. See Vegetables M 7. 

Yeasty rot, yeasty spot (Saccharomyces spp.) is 

a minor disease of overripe or damaged fruit in the 

field. Frost or rapid changes in fruit growth due to 

changes in temperature (cold/dry to warm/wet 

weather), may cause skin to crack between 

fruitlets; juice oozes out and is invaded by yeast 

organisms. Protect fruit ripening in frost prone 

areas. Do not consign fruit with minor cracks to 

market. To minimise losses during processing, pick 

cracked fruit in the field at the earliest stage of fruit 

maturity. 


Nematodes are a serious pest of commercial 

pineapple crops. They infest roots and stunt growth, 

causing symptoms similar to those caused by white 

curl grubs. More than 30 species may attack 

pineapples. Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) causes 

distinct terminal swellings on roots, root lesion 

(Pratylenchus brachyurus) produces brown areas 

which may girdle roots and cause premature death, 

reniform nematode (Rotylenchus spp.) reduces 

lateral and feeder roots (McLeod et al. 1994). Also 

burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis), spiral 

nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp., Rotylenchus 

spp.). Monitor nematode populations prior to making 

decisions about control measures. Practise crop 

rotation to reduce populations. Treat/fumigate soil 

before planting and replanting and in areas with a 

history of nematode problems. Post-plant nematicide 

treat if monitoring indicates that it is necessary. 

Pineapple decline can probably be attributed 

mainly to soil nematodes, and damage by scarab 

beetle larvae is often aggravated by parasitic 

nematodes. See Vegetables M 10. 



clevelandensis) and Rutherglen bug (N. vinitor) 

may suck sap from leaves causing spots and 

lesions. See Vegetables M 12.` 


Pineapple flat mite, pineapple red mite 

(Dolichotetranychus floridanus, Tenuipalpidae) is a 

false spider mite which feeds on tender white tissue at 

the base of pineapple plants. Feeding injury is 

insignificant, but affords entry for bacteria and fungi, 

which cause the bud to rot. Apply an insecticide and 

a fungicide to the buds, depending on rain and dew to 

carry the pesticides down into the buds. 

Pineapple mite (Phytonemus ananas, Tarsonemidae) 

may injure pineapple fruit by its feeding activities 

which may initiate fungal infections. Some segments 

of fruit remain green and become rotten inside. Mites 

may also injure young plants. Spread by crawling 

and by propagation (Jeppson et al. 1975). 


may be a serious pest of pineapple, other 

bromeliads and weeds. Probably other mealybugs 

may also infest pineapple. Pineapple mealybugs 

are small, white, oval soft sucking insects found 

mainly in sheltered parts of plants, eg bases of 

fruits, leaf axils, rhizomes. Infested areas are 

covered with white mealy material. Green and 

yellow spots develop on leaves, plants may 'wilt'. 

See Pineapple F 103. About 3 generations are 

produced per year and adults give birth to 

30-100 young. Sooty mould grows on 

honeydew, which also attracts ants. Ants move 

mealybugs from plant to plant, and feed on the 

honeydew. This benefits the mealybugs as the 

honeydew would create a messy environment if it 

was allowed to accumulate and fungi grow on it. 

Ants deter parasites and predators and often build 

protective covers of soil over their colony so that 

very little natural control of mealybugs can take 

place in a pineapple field. Spread by planting 

material and by attendant ants in the field. 

Favoured by close planting, and warm weather. 

In fields with low incidence of mealybugs remove 

and destroy plants with wilt symptoms. In 

severely affected areas, after harvest, remove and 

destroy all plants, and weeds from surrounding 

areas. Only plant wilt-free planting material from 

areas which are wilt-free or have only a low level 

of disease. Monitor mealybugs and ants regularly 



Pineapple scale (Diaspis bromeliae, Diaspididae, 

Hemiptera) is an introduced scale which infests 

pineapple and other bromeliads. Females are about 

2 mm across, circular, flat, greyish white and live 

mainly on leaves. Males are oblong, whitish, with 

3 longitudinal ridges. Heavily infested foliage 

appears scurfy and may die. Plants are stunted, and 

fruit may be undersized, pinched and unsaleable as 

fresh fruit. Most common in ratoon crops and on 

suckers and fruit shaded by foliage. There are several 

generations each year. Females deposit eggs under 

their bodies. Young scales hatch and wander over the 

plant before settling in their permanent positions. 

Spread by infested planting material. Remove and 

burn/destroy infested plants when first noticed. 

Natural enemies include small parasitic wasps 

(Aphytis sp., Aspidiotiphagus sp.) and scale-eating 

ladybirds (Rhyzobius lophanthae, Orcus sp. and 

Lindorus lophanthae). Only plant scale-free stock. 

Monitor scales and natural controls before applying 

insecticides (Brough et al. 1994). See Citrus F 39. 

F 104 

FRUIT AND NUTS

PINEAPPLE 

Scarab beetles, canegrubs, white grubs 

(Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera), eg caudata canegrub 

(Lepidiota caudata), Christmas beetle (Anoplognathus 

porosus), Nambour canegrub (Antitrogus mussoni) 

and pasture white grubs (Rhopaea spp.) are sporadic 

major pests of pineapples. Scarab beetle larvae 

feed on roots and may prune the entire root 

system. Plants may become yellow and stunted. 

Affected plants are easily pulled out. Butts or 

rhizomes may be channelled and cored. Older 

plants tolerate some injury. A population of 

5 larvae/plant may produce wilting and yellowing. 

Favoured by planting young plants in ground 

previously planted to grass for years; large grubs, 

deprived of grass by cultivation, move directly to 

the young pineapples; by nematode attack and 

some soils, eg red volcanic soils of some coastal 

districts. Since larvae live in the soil it is almost 

impossible to monitor and treat larvae during a 

crop cycle. Remove volunteer plants and debris 

by thorough cultivation before planting when soil 

is dry; this maximises mechanical injury to larvae 

by the dry soil aggregates and deprives larvae of 

food. Fungal infections sometimes provide good 

control of larval populations. Birds also eat many 

larvae exposed during cultivation. Insecticidal 

treatments before planting are not sufficiently 

effective to be recommended. African black 

beetle Heteronychus arator) may damage 

pineapples. See Eucalypt K 61, Turfgrasses L 11. 

Symphylids (Symphyla) are white, 4 mm long, 

centipede-like and may cause serious damage to 

root tips resulting in short, branching roots. 

Others: Armyworms (Leucania sp.), driedfruit 

beetles (Carpophilus spp.), grasshoppers 

(Acrididae), sugarcane weevil borer (Rhabdoscelus 

obscurus). 


Birds, rats and wildlife, eg wallabies, feral pigs 

are partial to ripening fruit. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Regular 

fertilising is necessary for maximum production. 

Once the fruit has formed, cease fertilising until 

after harvest. Do not drop solid fertiliser into the 

growing top. Leaf and soil analyses information 

is available for pineapple crops (Broadley et al. 

1993a, Weir and Cresswell 1995). 

Others: Environmental problems include hail, 

frost and sunscorch. Pesticide injury may occur. 

Many non-parasitic problems affect the fruit 

(Broadley et al. 1993a). 







(eds). 1993a. Pineapple Pests and Disorders. Qld 



(eds). 1993b. Protect Your Pineapples. Qld Dept. of 









Melbourne. 

Jeppson, L., Keifer, H. H. and Baker, E. W. 1975. Mites 

Injurious to Economic Plants. University of 

California Press, Berkeley, California. 

















Industry eg 

Costs and Returns for Pineapples in the Darwin Region 

(NT Agnote) 

Home Fruit Growing (NSW) 

Growing Pineapples at the Top End (NT Agnote) 

Pineapple Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Pineapples in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 



Qld Dept. of Primary Industries 

Qld Fruit and Vegetable Growers (QFVG) 




MANAGEMENT 

An overview of the industry has been prepared by Coombs (1995) and management programs are available 

(Broadley et al. 1993a, 1993b, Persley 1989, 1993). Planting material should have the desired horticultural 

characteristics and be free from diseases, scales and other pests. Propagated vegetatively by shoots or 

suckers, bearing plants need to be replaced regularly. Close planting favours some problems, eg mealybugs 

and scales. Pre-plant soil treatments, eg fumigation, control nematodes, scarab larvae, symphylids and 

weeds. Weed control is essential either by hand weeding, plastic mulches or by post and pre-emergence 

herbicides. Monitor diseases and pests. Growth regulators may be used, eg to induce flower initiation, fruit 

setting, fruit ripening, sunburn protection and to extend shelf life. Pesticides are registered for disease and pest 

control of planting material, preplant soil treatments for soil nematodes and insect pests, and for 

postharvest treatments. Harvest: Regular inspections are required to assess maturity. Time of harvest 

depends on the market. Ripe pineapples deteriorate quickly so should be eaten shortly after purchase. Store in 

a cool place, out of direct sunlight. 


Pistachio 

Pistachio, green almond (Pistacia vera) 

Family Anacardiaceae (cashew family) 


Parasitic 





Non-parasitic 


Birds and possums eat buds and nuts. 

Non-parasitic 

Nuts may suffer from many non-parasitic 

disorders, eg abraded kernels, lateral stain, 

malformations, pericarp stain, split and unsplit nuts 

(Maggs 1982). Leaf analysis standards are 

available (Weir and Cresswell 1993). 


Parasitic 

Many pests and diseases may affect pistachio 

overseas. 


Fungal leaf spots (Septoria spp.) may affect new 

leaves in wet seasons. Damping off (Pythium spp.) 

may occur during propagation. Root and collar rots 

and wilts may weaken and kill trees, eg armillaria root 

rot (Armillaria sp.), fusarium root rot (Fusarium sp.), 

phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.) and 

verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.). Various fungi, eg 

Aspergillus, may spoil the nuts, and mycotoxins (fungal 

poisons) may be produced (Doster and Michailides 

1994, 1995). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) may be a 

problem. See Vegetables M 10. 



growth, leafeating beetles (Coleoptera) may be a 

problem on young trees, fruitspotting bugs 

(Amblypelta spp., Hemiptera) may suck sap from young 

nuts, fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae) may tunnel in 

forks of branches, various beetle larvae (Coleoptera) 

and caterpillars (Lepidoptera), eg Indian meal moth 

(Plodia interpunctella), may feed on stored nuts. 

Overseas bud moth (Recurvaria pistacicola, 

Gelechiidae) caterpillars and wasp larvae (Megastigma 

pistaciae, Torymidae) cause severe crop losses. 












Doster, M. A. and Michailides, T. J. 1994. Development 

of Aspergillus Molds in Litter from Pistachio Trees. 

Plant Disease, April. 

Doster, M. A. and Michailides, T. J. 1995. The 

Relationship Between Date of Hulling and Decay of 

Pistachio Nuts by Aspergillus Species. Plant Disease 

Vol 79(8). 

Maggs, D. H. 1982. A Introduction to Pistachio 

Growing in Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 



Hoult, M. D. and Oliver, M. R. 1990. Pistachio 

Research in Central Australia : Some Agronomic 

and Economic Implications. NT Dept. of Primary 

Industry & Fisheries, Darwin. 

WANATCA. 1994-95. Growing Pistachio Nuts. 

Australasian Tree Crops Sourcebook. Cornucopia 

Press, Subiaco, WA. 





Industry eg 

Growing Pistachio Nuts (SA Fact Sheet, WA Farmnote) 

Pistachio Nut Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Pistachio Nuts (Vic Agnote) 

Pistachios : Planting and Management (Vic Agnote) 

Pistachios : Production and Propagation (Vic Agnote) 

Pistachios in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

The Pistachio : Orchard Establishment and 

Economics (NSW Agfact) 

Associations and Journals etc. 

Pistachio Growers Australia Incorporated (PGAI) 




MANAGEMENT 

An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). Pistachio are small deciduous trees up to 5- 

7 m tall. They need a cold winter followed by a hot dry summer to establish nut set. Male and female flowers 

are borne on separate trees so trees of both sexes are required for nut production. They are wind-pollinated and 

have biennial cropping habits. P. vera is susceptible to root knot nematode and has a straggly habit making it 

awkward to bud if used as rootstock. P. terebinthus is resistant to Phytophthora root rot, root knot and tolerant 

of drought and both acid and alkaline soils. P. atlantica is resistant to root knot and is suited to heavy soils. 

Propagated by budding on to seedling rootstock of P. atlantica or P. terebinthus. Pistachios prefer sunny areas 

with low rainfall and good drainage. Avoid damp areas. Fruit is produced from lateral buds on growth made the 

previous year so heavy pruning is not recommended. If necessary moderately prune in winter after heavy 

bearing. Harvest in autumn by shaking the tree till the nuts fall, or by using tree shakers. Australian Quality 

Standards are available. Stored nuts may be attacked by insect pests. 

F 106 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Pome fruits 




Nashi (Pyrus pyrifolia) 

Pear (P. communis) 


Family Rosaceae 


Parasitic 




Fireblight 


Bitter rot, anthracnose 

Black spot, scab 

Branch and trunk cankers 

Fleck 




Sooty blotch and flyspeck 

Wood rots 


Root lesion nematodes 


Apple dimpling bug 

Apple leafhopper, canary fly 

Borers 

Caterpillars 

Codling moth 


Mealybugs 

Mites 

Pear and cherry slug 

Plague thrips 

Scales 

Weevils 

Woolly aphid 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Mechanical injuries 




Parasitic 


At least 11 viruses affecting pome fruits have been 

identified in Australia, most can infect only some 

varieties. Many are latent (cause no visible 

symptoms) in certain hosts, eg apple chlorotic 

ringspot in pears. Viruses in pome fruits are 

decreasing in importance with the widespread 

use of virus-tested propagating material. 

Apple flat limb virus, Gravenstein twist, mostly 

affects Gravenstein, occasionally Delicious, Granny 

Smith. Only the sides of deformed areas grow, the 

wood of branches or trunk becomes flattened. This 

is very obvious on large branches or trunks. Foliage 

may become pale and sparse, affected branches 

become less productive and may die. Wood surface 

below the bark of flattened areas may be pitted. 

Apple green crinkle virus affects Granny Smith. 

Fruit about 12 mm across develop small depressed 

areas on skin. Fruit becomes distorted, irregularly 

rusetted and cracked in the depressions. Irregular 

swellings may occur on the skin. Under the 

depressions and swellings the vein system in the flesh 

is distorted and green, this may extend to the core. 

Symptoms are favoured by a cool spring. Usually 

only 1-2 branches are affected but the entire tree can 

be affected. Severely affected apples are reduced in 

size. Infected apples store as well as healthy ones. 

Do not confuse with boron deficiency, apple 

dimpling bug, hail or frost injury. 

Apple mosaic virus mostly affects Jonathan, wild 

crab apple, horse chestnut, hazelnut, hop, plum, sour 

cherry and rose. Symptoms include light and dark 

green leaf mosaic, or just patches of yellowishwhite 

tissue (Fig. 146), or bands of yellow tissue 

along the veins. Yellow tissue may be sunburnt and 

may die. Symptoms are usually only seen on leaves 

which have developed at < 27 o C. Fruit yield is 

reduced by 30-40%. Does not spread in nature. 

Apple proliferation mycoplasma is a serious 

disease of apples in Europe, reducing size by as 

much as 50% and weight by up to 75%. It also 

affects quality of fruit and tree vigour. A leafhopper is 

suspected as aiding its spread (Com. of Aust. 1988). 

Apple ringspot virus affects Granny Smith, also 

Delicious, Jonathan. Immature fruit develop brown 

areas which later become russetted with a scaly 

margin. At maturity a smooth narrow band of brown 

tissue may develop around the margin of many spots 

(a reliable diagnostic feature). Do not confuse with 

russet caused by spray or frost injury, or powdery 

mildew. Symptoms and number of fruit affected vary 

from season to season. 

Apple russet ring virus affects Granny Smith, 

occasionally Jonathan. Fruit develop complete or 

partial rings of russetted skin tissue, usually 12-25 mm 

across. Internal tissues are not affected. Concentric 

rings do not occur as with apple ringspot virus. 

Pear stony pit virus causes fruit of pear to become 

pitted and deformed. Tissue at the base of the pits 

becomes hard, fruit may be difficult to cut. 

Severely affected fruit are unmarketable. Symptom 

severity varies from season to season and only one 

branch may show symptoms. 

Others: Apple chlorotic leaf spot virus, apple rubbery 

wood virus, apple stem grooving virus, apple stem 

pitting virus, pear decline, quince sooty ringspot 

(suspected virus), sowbane mosaic virus. 

Pome fruit viruses in Australia are spread by 

vegetative propagation (budding and grafting), not 

generally by any known vectors, not by seed 

(seedlings are virus-free), rarely by root grafts in 

orchards, not by leaf contact and rarely by 

secateurs. Spread in nature is by unknown means. 

Overseas, spread is also by nematodes and insects. 

To minimise losses plant only certified virus-free 

nursery trees propagated from virus-tested stock 

and budwood sources. See Fruit F 4. 


Bacterial canker, bud blight, pear blossom 

blast (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae) infects 

flowers of pears especially Packham's Triumph, 

causing blackening and dieback of the blossom 

truss. Black spots develop at the calyx end of 


POME FRUITS 

young fruit and may spread until the whole fruit 

and stalk are affected. Fruit drop may occur. 

Infected fruits and bearing spurs die, and branch 

dieback can occur. Bacteria overwinter in buds 

and leaf scars of trees. Bacteria are spread by 

wind and rain and enter the plant through natural 

openings and wounds. Favoured by cold, wet 

spring weather during flowering or when plants are 

affected by late frosts. Prune out and burn diseased 

twigs and branches. Copper fungicides may be 

applied at green tip stage. See Stone fruits F 124. 

Fireblight (Erwinia amylovora) is a destructive 

disease of pears and apple trees and other 

Rosaceae in North America, Europe and NZ but is 

not known to occur in Australia. Quarantine 

risks: Introduced vegetatively propagated material 

represents the major quarantine risk. Australia has 

severely limited the introduction of susceptible 

host material. Seed free of pulp is not considered a 

quarantine risk. Quarantine precautions: 

Propagating material of the genera of all 

ornamentals susceptible to fireblight is totally 

prohibited. Introduction of these may be made 

only as seed free of pulp. Propagating material of 

new varieties of pome and stone fruits is introduced 

under strict quarantine control, eg treated and held 

in post-entry quarantine for at least 2 growing 

seasons before release (Com. of Aust 1990). 

Others: Bacterial stem canker (Pseudomonas 

syringae pv. eriobotryae) may cause bud rot and 

stem cankers on loquat. See Stone fruits F 124. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) and hairy root 

(A. rhizogenes) may cause galls at the base of 

stems of nursery stock. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Bitter rot, anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata, 

Ascomycetes = Colletotrichum sp., Imperfect 

fungi) affects all apple and pear varieties in the 

field and postharvest. Symptoms appear on 

apples usually when fruit is almost full-sized but 

may start earlier. Small, light brown circular spots 

enlarge rapidly and become sunken. Affected 

fruits may have only one spot about 10 mm or 

more across, or many smaller ones. Spots become 

dark brown to black with age. Fungal growth form 

pink masses (acervuli) on the brown spots, and 

may be arranged in concentric circles, giving the 

spots a target-like appearance. Rot penetrates 

deeply into the flesh and the entire fruit is 

eventually rotted. Decayed tissue remains dry 

unless secondary organisms invade the affected 

tissue. Rotted fruit may fall, but some cling as 

mummies throughout winter. Although called 

bitter rot, the diseased tissue often has no bitter 

taste. Cankers may develop on twigs and spurs, 

irregular small brown spots may develop on leaves 

during wet warm weather. On pears symptoms 

are usually most obvious on the fruit, but twigs 

and leaves may be affected. See Fruit F 5. 

Black spot, scab 

Apple scab, pear scab 

Black spot is a serious fungal disease of apples 

and pears, especially in wet growing regions. 

Scientific name/Host range: Ascomycetes: 

Black spot of apple (Venturia inaequalis) affects 

apple, and overseas some species of Pyrus, eg wild 

carab. On apple other fungi may also cause leaf 

spotting, eg Alternaria alternata, Phoma spp., 

Phyllosticta spp., Pleospora herbarum. In Asia, 

Japan and USA, alternaria blotch (Alternaria mali) 

infects leaves and fruit, aphids may increase damage. 

Black spot of pear (Venturia pyrina) causes black 

feathery spots on leaves of pear and hawthorn. 

Black spot of loquat (Spilocaea eriobotryae). 

Symptoms: The most serious effect is reduced 

yield and downgraded fruit quality. In early spring 

small spots appear on leaf undersurfaces. Later 

light green spots develop on uppersurfaces. 

These later turn brown then black. Spots may 

cover the entire surface of the leaf. Infected leaves 

may curve inwards and become blistered and 

distorted. Infected pear twigs develop a flaky 

appearance, bark becomes blistered and split in 

places. Flower stalks may develop black lesions 

which cause stalks and then flowers to shrivel and 

die. Fruit at first develop small, black, circular 

spots. If numerous they coalesce, forming large 

scabby areas (Fig. 147). Spots become corky and 

restricted in growth. Fruit infected early in the 

season become very distorted and cracked. Fruit 

infected later are not so badly affected. A whitish 

band of raised loosened skin may surround scabs. 

Overwintering: As developing fruiting bodies 

(perithecia) within infected leaves that fall in the 

autumn, also as mycelium in twigs and bud scales 

but this is thought to be relatively unimportant. 

Spread: Spores (ascospores) in spring are spread 

by wind to developing leaves etc. Spores (conidia) 

produced later in the season are spread by water 

splash and wind to other plant parts. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, wet weather in 

spring, summer and autumn. 

Control: 

Sanitation: It should be possible to control scab 

by collecting and destroying all infected fallen 

leaves. This is not practical. 

Resistant varieties: Some apple cultivars are 

being marketed in Australia as scab-resistant. 

In favourable seasons some varieties regarded as 

fairly resistant may become infected. 

Identifying scab-resistant cultivars (SRC) is a 

constant topic of research (Merwin et al. 1994). 

Pesticides: The disease is controlled effectively 

by a preventative spray program commencing 

at green tip and a clean up spray applied after 

harvest, but before leaf fall, to prevent 

development of fungus in fallen leaves during 

winter and reduce the source of spring infection. 

Apple scab warning services operate to 

provide disease control reliability with minimal 

use of fungicides. 


Botryosphaeria canker and dieback, black rot 

(Botryosphaeria ribis = Dothierella sp.) may cause 

losses in Granny Smith apples and pears. Sunken oval 

cankers develop on branches which may become 

girdled and die. Tiny black fruiting bodies of the 

fungus develop in the bark of affected limbs. The tree 

gradually declines. Greyish-brown spots with darker 

surrounding zones develop on leaves, giving a 'frogeye' 

appearance. Small brown circular spots develop 

F 108 

FRUIT AND NUTS

POME FRUITS 

on fruit. These rapidly increase in size until they 

cover the whole skin, which turns black. Eventually 

fruit becomes mummified. Moderate losses of fruit 

occur when wet conditions persist prior to harvest. 

The fungus overwinters in cankers and mummified 

apples and on other host plants. Spores from fruiting 

bodies in fruit mummies or cankers are spread 

during wet weather by wind and rain. Prune out and 

destroy infected twigs and mummified fruit during 

winter to reduce carryover of the disease. Only 

propagate from disease-free plants. Fungicides 

used for black spot will assist control. The disease is 

difficult to control. See Trees K 5. 

Others: Canker (Botyrodiplodia theobromae), 

eutypa canker (Eutypa armeniacae) on pear, black 

rot (Botryosphaeria obtusa) on quince. Also 

Coniothyrium chromatosporium, Diplodia sarmentorum, 

Leptosphaeria coniothyrium, Nectria galligena. 

Fleck 

Scientific name: Diplocarpon mespili, 

Ascomycetes (= Fabraea maculata) is a serious 

disease of quince. 

Host range: Quince, pear, loquat, hawthorn, 

apple, probably other Rosaceae. In NZ, also some 

Rosaceae, eg medlar, Aronia, Cotoneaster, 

Photinia, Sorbus, Raphiolepsis. 

Symptoms: Quince: Infection of leaves occurs 

soon after bud-burst. Initially spots are very small, 

raised purple with a small, central white dot. They 

enlarge and become brownish and then dark grey. 

Spots may coalesce, resulting in irregular dead 

areas. Leaf stalks can be killed and there is 

premature defoliation, trees may produce new 

leaves, blossom again and may set fruit only to be 

prematurely defoliated again. On nursery stock, 

premature defoliation seriously restricts their 

growth. Small cankers may girdle shoots which 

then die. Fruit develop dark brown spots which 

enlarge, becoming black and slightly sunken (Fig. 

148). Spots may coalesce to form large irregular 

spots which result in misshapen and cracked fruit 

Fruit may fall prematurely. Pear: In early spring, 

small reddish spots appear on leaf uppersurfaces. 

These enlarge, become almost black, and affect 

both leaf surfaces. Premature defoliation may 

occur, and this may restrict growth of nursery 

stock. Cankers may girdle shoots which then die. 

Fruit develop small circular reddish spots, which 

later become reddish-brown with black centres and 

may crack. Loquat is not commonly affected but 

leaves and fruit may be damaged (Fig. 148). 

Overwintering: In cankers on infected shoots 

and possibly on dead leaves on the ground. 

Spread: Spores are washed by rain or irrigation 

or blown by wind from infected host plants and 

possibly infected fallen leaves to hosts, etc. 

Conditions favouring: Wet spring weather. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Prune to remove all dead or spent 

wood. Home gardeners may rake up and burn 

all the fallen leaves in the autumn. 

Pesticides: Fungicides may be applied to 

nursery stock at the first sign of infection. 

Further applications may be necessary if weather 

remains wet. Spray programs to bearing trees 

may be commenced at green tip. Sprays for 

black spot on pear usually control fleck. 


Bitter rot, anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata var. minor 

= Colletotrichum sp.) causes field and postharvest 

fruit rots. See Fruit F 5, Pome fruits F 108. 

Black spot, scab (Venturia spp.) affect fruit on the 

tree in the field. See Pome fruits F 108. 

Brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) is mainly a disease of 

stone fruits but may be a postharvest disease of 

pome fruits, eg apple, quince and may occur on trees 

near diseased stone fruits. See Stone fruits F 125. 

Brown rot, European brown rot (Monilinia fructigena), 

if introduced to Australia, is likely to cause serious 

losses to apple and pear production in the field and 

postharvest and aggravate brown rot problems on 

stone fruits. Importation of pome and stone fruits from 

countries where M. fructigena is present is prohibited 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is an important 

postharvest disease of apples, pears and other fruit, 

although infection of fruit on the tree may occur if 

cool wet weather occurs around harvesting. Infection 

occurs mainly through wounds and skin injuries. 

Decaying fruit during storage provides additional 

inoculum. A soft brown rot develops on fruit. In 

humid conditions patches of grey powdery spores 

develop on the surface of affected areas. Black hard 

sclerotia may develop. The fungus can spread to 

other fruit in a container, causing nests of rotted 

fruit. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Mucor rot (Mucor piriformis, Mucor spp.) is important 

on pome fruits. It initially causes a light brown soft 

watery postharvest rot, later a white whiskery 

fungal growth develops which is soon covered with 

black spores. A similar disease to Rhizopus but 

may develop at 0 o C while Rhizopus cannot develop at 

< 4 o C. It is a soilborne fungus, infecting fallen fruit 

during and after harvest. 

Penicillium moulds (Penicillium expansum, 

P. rucosum) is the most serious postharvest 

disease of apples and pears. Fruit at first show soft 

pale brown watery spots, which enlarge rapidly and 

may completely envelop the fruit. Under warm moist 

conditions blue-green spores develop on affected 

areas. Fruit has a musty smell. See Fruit F 6. 

Rhizopus soft rot, rhizopus transit rot (Rhizopus 

stolonifer) may affect fruit postharvest (see Mucor 

rot above). See Fruit F 6. 

Ripe fruit spot (Pezicula alba) is a minor disease in 

well maintained orchards. Tiny brown-black sunken 

spots develop on fruit with whitish spore masses 

in wet weather. Often confused with bitter rot. 

Target spot (Phlyctaena vagabunda = Gloeosporium 

album) has a wide host range. It overwinters on 

mummified apples, twigs, and dead fruiting spurs. It 

infects fruit in the field but seldom causes spotting 

on fruit until the fruit has been stored for some time. 

Postharvest dips control it. 

Others: Core rots: Alternaria alternata, 

Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Fusarium) may cause 

postharvest dry and wet core rots. Also Aschochyta 

mali, Aureobasidium pullulans. 


Powdery mildew (Podosphaeria 

leucotricha) affects apple, and occasionally pear 

and quince. Small white powdery patches of 

spores first appear on leaf undersurfaces, soon both 

surfaces are covered. Severely affected leaves are 

narrow, inrolled, brittle, and may die and fall. 


POME FRUITS 

Buds have a small pinched appearance and usually 

open later than healthy ones. When buds start 

growing the fungus grows out along the new shoot 

infecting each new leaf as it appears. Flowers 

produced from infected buds die and rarely set 

fruit. Current year shoots (1-year old twigs) may 

be coated with white fungal mycelium and have 

completely infected leaves. These shoots may be 

stunted and may dieback, producing a witches' 

broom effect of stunted and infected shoots the 

following season. Fruit may be infected soon 

after petal fall. Affected areas may be russetted, 

growth is retarded, and fruit is misshapen and 

downgraded. Do not confuse russetting with spray 

or frost damage. If powdery mildew is not 

controlled, tree vigour and yield are reduced. 

Moist conditions favour spread. Surface mycelium 

can withstand very dry hot weather and 

subsequently produce more spores when 

favourable conditions return. Pruning all infected 

shoots in winter is essential for satisfactory control 

of the disease in susceptible varieties. In very 

susceptible varieties, terminal buds are likely to 

be infected, so all laterals should be shortened in 

the spring. During the growing season, remove all 

mildewed shoots from the trees and burn them 

starting in spring. Very susceptible varieties 

include Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Gravenstein. 

Varieties with some resistance include Granny 

Smith, Delicious. Pesticides: Protect new growth 

in spring to prevent losses in the current season 

and infection of developing buds. Field sprays 

(for established trees) and dips (for transplants) of 

systemic fungicides combined with a wetting agent 

almost completely eradicate overwintering 

powdery mildew from shoots and buds. See 

Annuals A 6, Fruit F 7. 


Mature leaves of affected trees turn yellow or 

reddish, wilt and eventually become brown and 

papery. 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina) may be 

a problem in orchards established in newly cleared 

bushland. See Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora collar and crown rot (Phytophthora 

spp., P. cactorum,) can be an important disease of 

apple trees. See Trees K 6. 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) causes 

rotting of bark and wood at or just below ground 

level. White wefts of fungal growth cover affected 

areas when the soil is moist. It is often more serious 

on apple trees planted in sites previously used 

for vegetables. When planting apple trees in old 

vegetable or replant land drench the base of the tree 

with a recommended fungicide. Repeat in 

midsummer. Regularly inspect young trees and if 

any show signs of infection remove soil from the 

crown, cut away the diseased wood and treat with any 

recommended wound treatment. Drench the crown 

area with fungicide. Leave areas exposed for at least 

10 weeks. This treatment is only effective if the 

disease is detected early. See Vegetables M 7. 

Rosellinia root rot, rosellinia root rot (Rosellinia 

necatrix = Dermatophora necatrix) affects some 

ornamental trees, eg holly, walnut, poplar, fruit 

trees and vines. Trees become unthrifty with leaf 

yellowing, cessation of growth, premature leaf fall 

and small shrivelled fruit. The bark of the crown and 

base of the trunk is a dark, wet rot, and a sharp margin 

between healthy and diseased bark occurs. A thin 

layer of white fungal growth occurs under the 

bark. Roots develop a dark, wet surface rot and are 

often covered with white strands of fungal growth 

which may grow into soil and litter. Sometimes all 

trees may be killed. The fungus overwinters in soil, 

on old rotted roots and root debris left in the ground 

and on the roots of various native trees and weeds 

such as fleabane (Conyza spp.) and stinking Roger 

(Tagetes minuta). Young apple trees planted into 

infested soil become infected when their roots contact 

infected material. The disease may cause serious 

losses in orchards established in land cleared of 

native vegetation susceptible to the fungus and in new 

orchards replanted in old apple orchard land. Remove 

diseased trees with as many roots as possible and treat 

site before replanting. Rosellinia root rot can be 

confused with armillaria root rot (except there are 

no rhizomorphs or fruiting bodies formed), 

nematodes and other soil problems (Horst 1990). 

Others: Pythium root rot (Pythium vexans). 


Sooty blotch and flyspeck 

Scientific name: Flyspeck and sooty blotch are 

associated with each other and are caused by: 

Sooty blotch (Gloeodes pomigena) 

Australian sooty blotch (Leptothyrium fulginosum) 

Flyspeck (Schizothyrium pomi) 

Host range: Apple, pear, peach, citrus, etc. Also 

many native plants, particularly wattle. 

Symptoms: Sooty blotch grows externally over 

the surface of mature fruit, producing dark, filmy 

smudges. Colonies are circular at first, but may 

join together later to completely cover the fruit. 

Smudges are superficial and can easily be rubbed 

off. A heavy attack of sooty blotch is rather 

similar to sooty mould, which develops on the 

honeydew secreted by soft scales, aphids and other 

insects. But unlike sooty mould, it is a true 

parasite, living on the surface tissue of the host. 

Although sooty blotch (and flyspeck) are parasitic 

on the surface cells of fruit, there appears to be no 

damage. However, fruit is rendered unsightly and 

is downgraded. Growth of sooty blotch also 

continues in storage. Sooty blotch sometimes 

attacks young twigs (particularly peaches, wattle) 

and forms a conspicuous black surface growth on 

the current season's wood, causing alarm during 

pruning. The disease known as flyspeck is 

commonly associated with sooty blotch. Small 

black dots or specks (fruiting bodies), develop on 

the surface of the fruit. They grow on a very fine 

almost invisible film of fungal threads. Dots are 

superficial and can be easily rubbed off. 

Overwintering: As fungal threads or fruiting 

bodies on the twigs of host plants. 

Spread: Spores are spread by rain splash and 

water dripping through the tree and over the fruit. 

Conditions favouring: Sooty blotch: Warm 

wet conditions favour the growth of this fungus. A 

late summer disease of minor importance which 

affects ripening fruit, especially Granny Smith 

during humid weather, causing a downgrading of 

fruit quality. Flyspeck: High rainfall during 

autumn and winter, and shade. Fruit hanging 

inside the tree canopy or on the southern side is 

F 110 

FRUIT AND NUTS

POME FRUITS 

more likely to be affected than exposed fruit. 

Spores are released during cool, humid weather. It 

is generally a late summer disease of minor 

importance in well managed orchards, but can be 

problem on ripening fruit during cool wet weather. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Ensure fruit are thinned, as 

clusters of small fruit provide ideal conditions 

for disease development. 

Pesticides: Usually sooty blotch is kept in check 

by spray programs used to control other 

problems, eg scab. Fruit discoloured by sooty 

blotch may be bleached clean after harvest. 

However, the treatment tends to leave a minor 

brown discolouration and should not be regarded 

as an alternative to preventative sprays. 

Wood rots 

Pink limb blight (Corticium salmonicolor) causes a 

pink encrustation on bark of loquat and other trees. 

Red wood rot (Trametes cinnabarina) fruiting bodies 

are orange, up to 700 mm across, with a honeycomb 

of pores underneath. Also Pycnoporus coccineus. 

Silver leaf (Stereum spp.) may occur on pear and many 

other plants. See Stone fruits F 128. 

Yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum commune) fruiting 

bodies are soft whitish with ragged edges and gills 

underneath. 

Yellowish wood rot (Polyporus versicolor) are up to 

30 mm across with various coloured bands and a 

smooth upper surface and a honeycomb of pores 

underneath. causes a white, spongy rot. 

Others: Spongy wood rot (Heterosphorus biennis), 

wood and root rot (Ganoderma applanatum), wood 

rot (Coriolus spp.). 

Prune trees carefully to avoid major pruning cuts. 

If recommended, treat with wound dressing to 

promote rapid healing. Maintain a balanced 

fertiliser and irrigation program. See Trees K 8. 

Others: Leaf blight (Entomosporium mespili) 

on loquat, pink rot, limb blight (Trichothecium 

roseum), quince leaf and fruit rot 

(Entomosporium mespili) on loquat and quince, 

dieback (Diaporthe perniciosa Valsa spp.), 

elsinoe spot (Elsinoe piri) possibly on pear. 


Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), 

sometimes called apple replant disease (ARD), is 

thought to be caused by a complex of soil 

microorganisms including parasitic nematodes. 

Replant problems associated with these 

nematodes can be serious especially where apples 

are replanted in areas where old apple trees have 

recently been removed or where crops that are 

hosts of root lesion nematodes have been grown 

recently. Young replanted trees are stunted and 

unproductive. Established trees show reduced 

growth and yield. Root systems of affected trees 

are small and discoloured and often grow in tufts 

and lack well-developed feeder roots. When 

orchard trees are removed, high numbers of 

nematodes remain in the roots or in the soil. In 

weed-free fallow soils, nematode numbers tend to 

decline with time, but they will increase if old 

apple roots, weeds or host crops are present. Roots 

of nursery trees may be infested with nematodes 

from the rootstock stool beds or the nursery soils. 

In replant sites pull out old trees and then 

thoroughly rip and plough the soil to remove tree 

roots. Delay replanting for 12 months or as long 

as possible. During spring and summer grow 

recommended cover crops. Incorporate a cover 

crop in late summer to encourage the debris to 

breakdown and to achieve ammonia concentrations 

which are toxic to nematodes. In situations where 

apples must be replanted soon after removing old 

trees maintain the area free from weeds, and 

fumigate soil. After replanting maintain a mulch 

of sawdust or other organic material 1-2 m wide 

along the tree row. Do not plant cover crops, eg 

pea, rye, lupins which are susceptible to root lesion 

nematodes. Pear and quince may also be attacked. 


Others: Other nematodes have been recorded on 

apple, eg root knot nematode (Meloidogyne) and 

Aphelenchoides, Aphelenchus, Basiria, Cephalenchus, 

Coslenchus, Criconemoides, Ditylenchus, Filenchus, 

Helicotylenchus, Hemicycliophora, Longidorus, 

Macroposthonia and Merlinius, Morulaimus, 

Neopsilenchus, Paratrichodorus, Paratylenchus, 

Paurodontus, Rotylenchus, Sakia, Tylenchorhynchus, 

Tylenchus, Xiphinema; on pear, eg Aphelenchus, 

Coslenchus, Criconemoides, Filenchus, Helicotylenchus, 

Hoplaimus, Longidorus, Paratrichodorus, Rotylenchus, 

Tylenchorhynus, Xiphinema; on loquat, eg root knot 

nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) (McLeod et al. 1994). 



Apple dimpling bug (Campylomma 

liebknechti, Miridae, Hemiptera) infests fruit, eg 

apple, nashi, pear, ornamentals, eg Photinia 

glabra, Pyrus calleryana, wattle, tree lucerne 

(Chamaecytisus proliferus), vegetables, eg potato, 

lucerne. Adults are small, pale green, oval insects 

about 2.5 mm long which fly readily and crawl 

very actively on flowers. Strong, paired spines on 

the hind legs are readily seen when the bug is 

examined under a hand lens. Bugs can be 

collected by jarring flowers sharply 3-4 times over 

a wide-mouthed container. Inspection must be 

prompt as the bugs usually fly off after a few 

seconds. Nymphs appear to prey on other insects 

and possibly mites. Only the adult stage damages 

plants. Flowers and fruitlets: Adults suck sap 

from flower parts which later develop into the 

fruit and later the fruitlets themselves (up to 7-10 

days after petal fall). This injury causes raised, 

scabby areas of dead tissue which are prominent 

early in the growth of the fruit. As fruit develops, 

cells around scabbed areas fail to grow normally 

and fruit become dimpled (Fig. 149). Fruits only 

slightly damaged often grow out of this condition, 

but severely damaged fruit remain badly deformed 

and are unsaleable. Do not confuse damage to 

fruits by the apple dimpling bug with boron 

deficiency or hail injury. There is a gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with 

probably many generations each year. Bugs 

invade apple orchards as winged adults from late 

pink stage to about petal fall. They feed among 


POME FRUITS 

the flowers and remain on the tree until about 2 

weeks after petal fall. Eggs are laid around the 

floral parts. They hatch in about 1 week, giving 

rise to wingless, yellow-green, inactive nymphs 

which develop through several stages on trees to 

become adults in about 4 weeks. These adult bugs 

fly off to other hosts and are not seen on apple 

trees again during that season. Overwinters in 

some areas on wattles and wild radish. Spread by 

bugs flying and by hot dry winds. Damage to 

apples varies from season to season, being 

heaviest when bugs are numerous and blossom is 

sparse. Granny Smith and Delicious are very 

susceptible and regularly affected. If conditions 

are favourable, early varieties of Gravenstein, 

Early McIntosh and Twenty Ounce may be 

damaged in some districts. No damage has been 

recorded on Jonathan. Pesticides: In commercial 

orchards, nymph development is prevented on 

flowers and fruitlets by the pesticides to control 

codling moth. Usually routine applications are 

made only to Granny Smith and Delicious. 

Monitor bug populations at regular intervals before 


et al. 1994). Only use chemicals which do not 

harm bees. Other bugs may also infest apples, 

eg green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) and 

metallic shield bug (Scutiphora pedicellata). 

Apple leafhopper, canary fly, canary jassid 

(Edwardsiana australis = E. crataegi, E. froggatti), 

Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) is common in young nonbearing 

trees where sprays for codling moth are 

not applied, neglected apple trees, ornamental crab 

apples, hawthorn and prunes. Adults are about 

4-5 mm long, greenish-yellow with conspicuous 

red eyes. They resemble a minute cicada in general 

shape but their hind legs are formed for jumping. 

Nymphs resemble adults except that they are 

smaller, paler and have no wings. Adults and 

nymphs live almost exclusively on leaf 

undersurfaces, sucking sap and causing them to 

become grey and mottled (Fig. 150). Leaves may 

turn yellow and fall prematurely. Leafhoppers 

may also settle on apple fruit, depositing an 

unsightly brown excrement which reduces 

market value. It is difficult to remove and is more 

noticeable on light-skinned varieties. Market 

value of prunes can also be lowered, as extensive 

damage reduces sugar content There is a gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with 2 

generations each year. Sometimes there is a 3rd 

generation. Overwinters as eggs in twigs of host 

plants. On bearing apples insecticides used for 

codling moth will control apple leafhoppers. On 

non-bearing apples monitor leaves for 

leafhoppers from October onwards before applying 

an insecticide (good coverage of leaf 

undersurfaces is essential). One application may 

be sufficient, repeat applications may be necessary. 


Borers include: 

Auger beetles (Bostrichidae, Coleoptera) 

Common splendid ghost moth (Aenetus ligniveren) 


See Trees K 11, K 12. 


Noctuids (Noctuidae): Budworms (Helicoverpa 

spp.) and looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) 

chew fruit in spring before sprays for codling moth or 

lightbrown apple moth are applied. Raised or sunken 

round callused areas usually 6-13 mm in diameter 

appear on the fruit. Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera 

litura) may damage pear. See Fruit F 8. 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae): Codling moth 

(Cydia pomonella) caterpillars feed inside the fruit 

and is the most important pest of pome fruits in 

Australia. See Pome fruits F 113. Lightbrown apple 

moth (LBAM) (Epiphyas postvittana) is an 

important leafroller moth affecting a wide range of 

plants, eg ornamental exotic and native trees, shrubs 

and climbers, eg protea, wattle, fruit, eg apple, grape, 

vegetables, eg carrot, field crops, eg legumes, 

weeds, eg blackberry, capeweed, dock. Female 

moths are small, bell-shaped brown or yellow moths 

with darker markings. They are about 10 mm long 

when at rest with their wings folded. Males are 

slightly smaller, and have a variable colour pattern. 

During the day they shelter amongst foliage, when 

disturbed they make short, quick erratic flights. They 

are active at dusk, flying amongst trees and other 

plants. Newly hatched caterpillars are pale yellow 

and wander over the plant, usually on leaf 

undersurfaces. When fully fed they are slender, 

pale green with a brown head, and about 18 mm 

long (Fig. 152). The body tapers slightly from the 

middle towards each end. Caterpillars roll and web 

leaves or leaves and fruit together with silk 

secreted from their mouths to form a shelter from 

which they feed on the leaf and fruit tissue at these 

sites. When disturbed they wriggle violently and 

retreat into their shelter or fall to the ground hanging 

suspended by a thread. Leaves and growing 

points of lateral growth of fruit trees and other plants 

are also favoured. Flowers and fruit clusters in 

plants such as grapes where caterpillars have been 

feeding on the skin are woven together and large, 

irregular blemishes occur. These may callus over and 

the fruit may remain on the tree. In wet weather 

decay organisms may enter; fruit rot and fall. Pears 

especially William's Bon Chretien, are often severely 

damaged. There are 2-3 overlapping generations 

each year. All stages may be found almost throughout 

the year. Female moths lay flat egg masses (of 20-30 

eggs) on the smooth surfaces of leaves, stem or fruit. 

Caterpillars pupate in a loose cocoon, usually in a 

rolled leaf where they were feeding or in flower 

debris. Overwinters in inland areas as caterpillars 

sheltering and feeding on hosts, eg citrus. Large 

numbers shelter in weeds and cover crops. On the 

coast other stages are more common in winter. 

Favoured by cool, moist weather. Hot dry weather 

is unfavourable. It tolerates low temperatures. Heavy 

fruit damage may be caused close to harvest in 

autumn, also sometimes in packing sheds and 

cool stores. Spray programs may kill natural 

enemies and contribute to the damaging infestations. 

Sanitation: Removal of weeds before bud burst in 

spring would reduce subsequent infestation of fruit 

and other crops. If weed growth cannot be removed 

before budburst consideration should be given to 

applying a protective spray to fruit and other 

susceptible crops. Biological control: Parasitic 

insects include a wasp (Trichogramma funiculatum) 

and flies (Diptera). Predators include spiders and 

earwigs. LBAM virus has been tested in Australia 

with varying degrees of success. These agents do not 

F 112 

FRUIT AND NUTS

POME FRUITS 

prevent economic damage. Pesticides: Crops 

attacked by this moth are usually attacked by other 

pests which require the use of pesticides, eg on pears 

and apples sprays used to control codling moth will 

also control LBAM. Monitor fruit for caterpillars 


Lucerne leafroller (Merophyas divulsana) has a 

similar life history, habits and damage as LBAM. 

Moths are yellowish with dark markings, bell-shaped 

but differ from LBAM in size with the lucerne 

leafroller being 13 mm across the outspread wings and 

LBAM 18 mm. Eggs are laid in flat clusters on 

leaves, like groups of tiny fish scales. Caterpillars 

are slender, green and up to about 10 mm long. 

Damage may occur in both spring and autumn crops 

and in some seasons is extensive. Others: Also 

Epiphyas liadelpha and orange fruitborer (Isotenes 

miserana). 

Loopers (Geometridae): Apple looper (Phrissogonus 

laticostata), cherry looper (Chloroclystis. 

approximata), pome looper (C. testulata). See 

Avocado F 19. 

Painted apple moth, painted wattle moth (Teia 

anartoides, Lymantriidae) is a tussock moth and a 

sporadic, destructive pest. Plants attacked one 

year may be free from attack in later seasons. 

Ornamentals, eg bottlebrush, fern, geranium, 

gladiolus, grevillea, hardenbergia, melaleuca, rose, 

wattle, fruits, eg apple, cherry, apricot, vegetables 

and weeds. Female moths are wingless and thickly 

covered with short brown hairs, legs and antennae are 

rudimentary. Male moths measure about 25 mm 

across the outspread wings. The front pair of wings 

are dark brown, marked with black, and the hindwings 

are orange with a broad, black, outer band. 

Caterpillars are about 30 mm long when fullygrown, 

densely covered with brown hairs, and bear 

4 tufts or brushes of white hairs on their back (Fig. 

151). A pair of black, horn-like tufts project from 

their head. Caterpillars may eat whole leaves (fineleaved 

plants) or skeletonise leaves by eating the 

upper surface layer (broadleaved plants such as 

Acacia pycnantha). Because of the large numbers of 

caterpillars, damage may be severe. Small trees and 

plants may be totally defoliated. Green fruits may 

be grazed. There are several generations each year. 

The female, on emergence, usually remains on the 

outside of the cocoon and deposits up to 500 glossy, 

white, almost spherical eggs. Caterpillars spin flimsy, 

silken cocoons on or near their food plant to pupate in. 

Overwinters in cool climates probably as cocoons. 

Favoured by cool winter weather but may occur all 

through the year. Populations tend to build up in one 

season on a particular plant or group of adjacent 

plants. Hand-picking of the caterpillars is an 

unattractive proposition because of their large 

numbers and the hairs on their body. There is no 

record of people being affected by the hair. A 

similar pest (Orgyia athlophora) occurs in southwestern 

WA. 

Others: Darkspotted tiger moth (Spilisoma 

canescens), leaf case moth (Hyalarctca huebneri), 

also Pholodes sinistraria. In China, fruit moth 

(Carposina nipponensis) caterpillars feed inside apple 

fruit and threatens 70% of China's expanding apple 

industry. Spraying with nematodes (Steinernema or 

Heterorhabditis) is recommended. Immature 

nematodes penetrate the caterpillars and release a 

bacteria (Xenorhabditis) which multiply inside the 

caterpillars killing them (septicaemia). 

See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8. Trees K 13. 

Codling moth 

Codling moth is the key pest of pome fruits in 

eastern Australia. Unless effective control 

measures are applied regularly, all the fruit on trees 

may be infested. 

Scientific name: Tortricidae, Lepidoptera: 

Codling moth (CM) (Cydia pomonella) 

Host range: Pome fruits, eg apple, crab apple, 

pear, quince. Uncommonly chestnut, damson, 

hawthorn, kiwi fruit, persimmon, pomegranate, 

stone fruits, walnut. 

Description and damage: Moths are browngrey 

and about 12 mm long when at rest with 

wings folded. Caterpillars are up to 20 mm long, 

cream to pinkish with a brown head. Young 

caterpillars enter fruit mainly at the calyx end. 

Their excreta is pushed outside. Caterpillars 

tunnel to the core to feed on seeds (Fig. 153). 

When fully grown, they tunnel to the surface and 

emerge through round exit holes. 'Stings' may 

occur on fruit surfaces where caterpillars have died 

after entering, or failed to enter successfully, but 

fruit is downgraded. Infested fruit may ripen 

early. 


larva, pupa, adult) with 2-3 overlapping 

generations each year (in some overseas countries 

there is only 1 generation each year making its 

control easier). The 1st (spring) generation moths 

begin to emerge early in October, reaching a peak 

about mid-November. Eggs are laid on leaves and 

fruit and hatch in 5-10 days. Young caterpillars 

eat into fruit to feed around the core. When fully 

fed (in about 4 weeks) they crawl down at night 

from fruit to spin cocoons under loose bark, in 

crevices on trunks and main limbs, and on stable 

litter. The 1st pupation occurs during December- 

January. Moths emerge in about 15 days and reach 

peak numbers in late January. Fullyfed larvae 

from this generation overwinter in cocoons and 

pupate in mid-September. However, a partial 3rd 

generation may occur, infesting late varieties in 

April. 

Overwintering: Because moths are not very 

mobile, the main source of infestation each season 

in an orchard or on a tree is the overwintering 

cocoons on tree trunks and limbs and stable litter 

on the ground, eg fruit cases, in that orchard. A 

few 'strays' may fly in from surrounding orchards 

or trees, but their numbers are negligible. 

Spread: By moths flying (female moths will fly 

over not more than 5-10 trees in most orchards 

(males will fly as far as 180 meters), by transfer of 

infested fruit and cocoons on packing containers or 

anything that can carry cocoons. 

Conditions favouring: Hot dry weather during 

late spring and early summer. Moths are only 

active if temperatures > 15 o C. 

Control: Where codling moth occurs, control 

measures are compulsory under various plant 

disease acts which require a grower of apples, 

pears and quinces, to carry out prescribed 

sanitation treatments and to apply a minimum 

number of pesticide applications to trees of 

fruiting age. Local regulations usually include 

sanitation measures: 


POME FRUITS 

Sanitation: Comply with local regulations. You 

may also be required by law to: 

• Collect all fallen fruit and remove all infested fruit 

from trees at intervals not exceeding 7 days. These 

fruit must be destroyed immediately either by boiling, 

burning or placing in a special insect-proof pit. Keep 

ground beneath and around trees free from long grass 

and weeds. See Fruit F 9. 

• Treat any infested fruit or other CM-infested item on 

the premises in such a way to destroy the infestation. 

• Brush loose bark and cocoons from the trunk and 

limbs of the tree during December and again at the 

end of February and during winter (older trees). 

• Remove and destroy litter and unwanted plant debris. 

• Remove unwanted trees. 

Biological control: Nematodes will attack 

overwintering caterpillars but are not available 

commercially. Granulosis virus may be present 

in orchards but will not control infestations. A 

fungus (Beauvaria sp.), which occurs naturally, 

can reduce populations overwintering on trees 

during wet winters. None of these seem to 

reduce moth populations significantly. Moths in 

apple and pear orchards may be monitored with 

synthetic female pheromone traps which attract 

the male moths. Depending on numbers caught, 

tiers containing a pheromone (Isomate C) are 

tied on shoots and release large quantities of 

female pheromone which confuse male moths so 

that normal mating cannot take place. This 

system may be used as the sole treatment where 

CM populations are low. Where populations are 

high, supplementary insecticide applications 

may be needed. In the home garden, wine and 

molasses traps can be used. 

Resistant varieties: All varieties of apples and 

pears appear to be equally susceptible. 

Plant quarantine: Codling moth only occurs in 

eastern Australia. The movement of infested 

fruit and packing cases is strictly controlled by 

interstate and regional plant quarantine 

regulations within Australia. As moths do not 

fly far, apples and pears can be grown in remote 

areas of the eastern states where codling moth 

has not reached. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Several 

layers of hessian or corrugated cardboard tied 

securely with wire round the trunk of the tree to 

provide pupating places should be put on no 

later than mid-November. Remove, burn and 

replace every month until late May. Kill 

overwintering caterpillars in bulk bins by steam 

cleaning. 

Pesticides: Only spray fruiting trees in infested 

orchards. As 1 mated female can produce about 

1, 

000 second-brood caterpillars, thorough 

spraying will produce a clean crop and reduce 

overwintering populations. After eggs hatch 

caterpillars almost immediately burrow into the 

fruit out of reach of pesticides so that sprays 

must be directed at killing the moths, eggs or 

very young caterpillars before they burrow into 

the fruit. Insecticides and insect growth 

regulators (Insegar ) are registered for codling 

moth control. Select chemical insecticides 

which do not affect natural controls and any 

biological control agents being used to control 

CM or other pests. State Fruit Growers' Schemes 

recommend when to spray based on CM 

populations and daily temperatures recorded by 

the grower. Besides the direct savings associated 

with the cost of chemicals, long-term benefits of 

reducing the numbers of sprays include slowing 

down the development of insect resistance to 

chemicals and overcoming the problem of killing 

beneficial organisms unnecessarily. Monitoring 

moth activity in orchards (see Biological control 

above) may reduce number of sprays necessary 

for effective control. In some areas, eg NSW, it 

appears that the codling moth flight activity 

pattern may be so irregular and extends virtually 

over the whole season, that little may be gained 

by using traps to monitor the activity of moths 

with the intention of reducing the number of 

sprays necessary for control. Caterpillars may 

be monitored during thinning. Codling moth 

may develop resistance so it is essential to 

develop and use various resistance strategies, 

eg sanitation, correct equipment and calibration, 

spray warning services, etc. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera): 

Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) and 

Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni) attack 

pome fruits. Unless fruit fly is controlled in 

loquats, it multiplies and attacks other latermaturing 

fruit. Planting early maturing variety 

will minimise problems with fruit flies. Spraying 

can be difficult as a mature tree could be 7-8 m 

tall. Quince is a late maturing fruit and in areas 

where fruit flies occur a rigorous spraying program 

is usually necessary. See Fruit F 9. 



may be responsible for up to 70% loss of pears at 

harvest. Mealybugs feed on leaves and fruit, and 

overwinter under the bark. Prune trees to be open. 

Tuber mealybug (Pseudococcus affinis) infests calyx 

and stalk ends of fruit, downgrading it due to their 

presence, and sticky honeydew and sooty mould 

which cannot be washed off. The feeding does not 

directly harm the fruit or tree. 

Prune to keep trees open to minimise sheltering 

places for mealybugs and allow sprays to 

penetrate. Natural enemies, eg green lacewing 

larvae (Chrysopa sp.), hoverfly maggots 

(Syrphidae, Diptera) and mealybug ladybird 

(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) assist in reducing 

populations but do not provide economic control. 

Monitor mealybug populations at regular intervals 

before applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 

1994). See Greenhouses N 25. 


Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae): Pearleaf blister 

mite (Eriophyes pyri) affects pears, nashi, overseas 

also apples and some related trees. Adults are 

microscopic (about 0.2 mm long) and have white 

bodies. Initially, small pink swellings develop on the 

undersides of young leaves. These blisters darken as 

the leaf grows and ages and enlarge to about 3-4 mm 

in diameter and are visible from leaf uppersurfaces 

as well (Fig. 154). On the leaf undersurfaces there is 

a small hole in each swelling through which the young 

mites move in and out. They feed entirely on the plant 

tissue within the blister and are almost completely 

protected. In severe infestations, stems and 

fruitlets may be infested. The young fruitlets may 

F 114 

FRUIT AND NUTS

POME FRUITS 

develop reddish blisters on the skin. In warmer 

climates the fruit buds may turn brown and flare 

open during winter or produce weak flowers and 

misshapen fruits due to the feeding of the mites 

under the bud scale. There is a gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with many 

generations each year. As soon as foliage unfolds in 

spring, mites become active and start feeding on leaf 

undersurfaces, causing blisters where eggs are laid. In 

cold regions mites overwinter as eggs under bud 

scales. In warmer regions, the eggs deposited within 

buds hatch and develop during winter, destroying bud 

tissues. Spread by mites crawling from tree to tree, 

movement of infested trees, nursery stock, etc. 

Favoured by spring and autumn weather. Activity 

decreases during the hot summer months. Control: 

Monitor mite populations at regular intervals before 

applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). If mite 

damage was prevalent the previous season spray at 

green tip with oil. See Grapevine F 62. Other 

eriophyid mites: Apple rust mite (Aculus 

schlechtendali). 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Bryobia mite 

(Bryobia rubrioculus) is about 1 mm long and is 

purplish brown with 8 legs, the front pair of which is 

extremely long. Nymphs looks like adults but are 

smaller. Eggs are minute, globular and red. Adults 

and nymphs suck sap from leaves of apple, pear and 

almond. Heavily infested leaves become pale and 

may fall prematurely. A spray of winter oil during 

dormancy usually controls bryobia mite satisfactorily. 

See Fruit F 12. European red mite (Panonychus 

ulmi) (ERM) may be a major and frequent pest of 

pome fruits. Females are 0.3-0.5 mm long with 

4 rows of long stiff curved spines on the back. They 

feeds by sucking from leaf uppersurfaces. Leaves 

may be stippled, and later bronzed and trees may be 

defoliated. Fruit from severely damaged trees fails to 

colour and size properly. Juice content is reduced and 

premature defoliation exposes fruit to sunburn. 

Delicious cultivars are very susceptible. Monitor 

overwintering red eggs during winter pruning. 

Monitor active stages, eggs and its predator 

(Typhlodromus pyri) during spring but more 

extensive monitoring can be carried out (Brough et al. 

1994). ERM can be controlled by the introduced 

predatory mite (Typhlodromus pyri) which is resistant 

to many pesticides used in orchards. Apply winter oil 

during dormancy. See Fruit F 12. Twospotted 

mite (Tetranychus urticae) on apple may cause 

bronzing of leaves, an uprolling of leaf margins and 

defoliation. In severe cases, fruit may be attacked. 

Mites are 0.5. mm long, pale grey with distinctive 

markings on either side of the body. On crops such 

as apples where pesticides are used extensively to 

control other pests, the pesticides may kill off or 

reduce the populations of twospotted mites' natural 

predators, eg Stethorus beetles and predatory mites. 

damage is favoured by moisture stress. Fruit from 

trees with damaged foliage fails to size properly and 

has reduced juice content.Premature defoliation may 

result in sunburnt fruit. Most mites overwinter as 

females hibernating in leaf litter at base of trees, but 

some come from other external hosts, eg blackberries. 

During spring and summer monitor mite populations. 

Predatory mites (Typhlodromus occidentalis, 

Phytoseiulus persimilis) can be purchased. Introduce 

predators when twospotted numbers are low, ie 

20-30% leaf infestation. Spray when pest populations 

are high, ie infest between 65-80% of the leaves. 

Continue monitoring to determine whether further 

releases of predators or sprays are required (Brough et 

al. 1994). See Beans (French) M 29, Fruit F 12. 

Others: A flat mite (Brevipalpus spp.) may infest 

quince. 


Scientific name: Tenthredinidae, Hymenoptera: 

Pear and cherry slug (Caliroa cerasi) 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg cotoneaster, 

hardenbergia, hawthorn, photinia; fruit, eg cherry, 

medlar, plum, pear, occasionally peach, nectarine, 

almond. 

Description and damage: Adults are 7 mm 

long, glossy, black sawflies. The female has a 

saw-like ovipositor at the end of the abdomen. 

She uses this to cut slits in leaves to lay her eggs 

in. Larvae or slugs are about 12 mm long and 

covered with a green slime and feed and 

skeletonise leaf upper surfaces leaving only the 

veins and lower epidermis (Fig. 155). Leaves look 

scorched, shrivel and fall. Continual heavy 

infestations weaken trees. 


larvae, pupa and adult) with 2 generations each 

year (spring and autumn). Eggs are laid in the 

leaves. Larvae feed for several weeks then either 

fall or crawl to the ground where they pupate. The 

2nd generation is usually more numerous and 

destructive than the 1st generation. 

Overwintering: As larvae in cocoons in the soil. 

Spread: As adults flying, movement of infested 

nursery stock with leaves. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, moist weather. 

Adults can only emerge from the cocoons in the 

soil when weather is moist. Larvae shrivel up 

quickly during dry weather. During wet weather 

they may feed on the leaf undersurface. 

Control: If the 1st generation is controlled, the 

2nd generation will not be so numerous. 

Cultural methods: Avoid overhead irrigation. 

Sanitation: If only a few small trees are infested, 

larvae may be squashed by hand. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Drying 

agents, eg lime or ash, may be dusted on to 

leaves to dehydrate larvae on small trees. 

Pesticides: Insecticides may be applied when 

larvae are first seen. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) suck sap 

from apple and other flowers. Economic damage 

occurs when they feed on the developing styles in 

unopened flowers. When the flower opens, 

fertilisation cannot occur and the fruit fails to set. 

Monitor thrips populations during the period from 

pink stage until full bloom daily before applying 

an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit F 12, 

Roses J 6. 


POME FRUITS 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Apple mussel 

scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi) may infest a wide range of 

ornamentals, eg ash, cotoneaster, elm, lilac, maple, 

poplar, viburnum, and deciduous fruits, especially 

neglected apple and pear trees. Scale tends to build up 

in large numbers on 1-2 branches and these may die. 

Adults are brown, about 3 mm long, mussel-shaped, 

tapering and often curved. They are usually light grey 

to dark brown and may be shiny. They are mostly 

found on the bark of older wood (Hely et al. 1982). 


infests many trees, eg apple, pear and quince. Adults 

and nymphs suck sap from laterals, foliage and fruit of 

apple trees. The bark looks pink or ashy. If limbs are 

heavily infested the tree may die. Pink or red spots 

about 1 mm in diameter and surrounded by a white 

halo occur on fruit. The presence of scales on fruit 

will result in its rejection for export (Fig. 156). Aim 

to eradicate scale from every tree in the orchard. Tag 

any trees found to have infested fruit during harvest, 

and infested bark during pruning. Spray infested trees 

and check 3 months later for live scales. Others: 

Greedy scale (Hemiberlesia rapax), oystershell 

scale (Q. ostreaeformis), pear scale (Q. pyri), 

purple scale (L. beckii). See Citrus F 39. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Black scale (Saissetia oleae), 

dupla scale (Duplaspidiotus claviger) on loquat, 

soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum). See Citrus 

F 41. 


Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): 

Apple root weevils (Perperus spp.) attack many 

plants including apple, grape, pear and peach (Hely et 

al. 1982). They are grey-brown and about 10 mm 

long. They feed mainly at night, hiding during the 

day around the trunks or under debris. They do not 

fly, but crawl rapidly. Infestations can spread rapidly 

through a block of trees. Weevils feed on buds and 

foliage and then work back along the twigs. Damage 

can cause severe setback to young trees but is not 

important on trees > 5 years old. Larvae feed on 

roots, causing reduced vigour and pitted or 

channelled roots with almost total absence of feeding 

roots. Insecticides may be applied 1-2 weeks after 

adults emerge from soil in warm weather. 

Apple weevil, curculio beetle, dark weevil 

(Otiorhynchus cribricollis) attacks fruit trees, eg 

apple, plum, citrus, grape, pecan, ornamentals, eg 

rose (Hely et al. 1982). Weevils are about 9 mm 

long, shiny and dark brown. They emerge from soil 

in spring, climb trees at night to feed, and shelter in 

the soil during the day. They chew leaf edges giving 

them a sawtoothed appearance and may strip young 

trees. Insecticides may be applied to butts and 

lower limbs when damage is seen. IPM Services 

Adelaide provides management advice. 

Fruit-tree root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) larvae 

eat out deep furrows of thicker roots. Deep roots 

are most frequently attacked. Trees become thin and 

sickly, generally dieback and have excessive leaf-drop. 

Heavy infestations will kill trees. See Fruit F 11. 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) chews 

usually mature leaves low down on trees. Leaves 

have coarsely serrated edges. Larvae damage to 

roots is not economic and control is not required as 

insecticides for other pests provide control. See Fruit 

F 13, Roses J 6. 

Others: Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris), 

vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis). 


Woolly aphid 

This is a serious pest of apple trees. 

Scientific name: Aphididae, Hemiptera: 

Woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) 

Pear root aphid (E. pyricola) affects pears, but not 

a significant pest in NSW, elm is an alternate host. 

Apple-grass aphid (Rhopalosiphum insertum) 

Spiraea aphid, apple aphid (Aphis spiraecola) 

Overseas also Aphis pomi, Dysaphis plantaginea. 

Host range: Apple, crab apple, occasionally 

cotoneaster (Cotoneaster), hawthorn (Pyracantha 

spp.) and rarely pear. 

Description and damage: Adults are purplish 

brown and normally wingless, but winged adults 

may be produced in summer and autumn. Aphids 

secrete a protective sticky woolly material which 

disfigures laterals (Fig. 157). Nymphs are paler. 

Aphids can only suck sap wood where bark is still 

thin, eg lateral growth, broken or injured bark or 

existing feeding sites. Infested wood is gnarled 

and lumpy due to aphids feeding. Lateral growth 

may become cracked and distorted and buds may 

be destroyed. Honeydew is produced. Sooty 

mould grows on it and the white woolly material 

sticks to it. This disfigures fruit and is unpleasant 

for pickers. Heavy infestations may cause fruit to 

fall prematurely. or may interfere with colouring of 

red varieties. Affected fruit is downgraded. 

Heavy infestations on roots produce characteristic 

lumpy swellings, stunting growth, particularly of 

young trees. Once trees are established, root 

infestations rarely affect vigour. 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (eggs, 

which rarely hatch, nymphs usually born alive, 

adults) with many generations each year. Most 

aphids are wingless females that reproduce 

asexually (without being fertilised) and give birth 

to between 2-20 female young a day. In autumn, 

winged females, which seem to have little 

significance in Australia, appear. Some migration 

to susceptible rootstocks takes place in early 

winter with a return to aboveground parts in 

spring. On roots, reproduction continues through 

winter at a reduced rate. Once aphids settle at a 

feeding site they remain there until autumn. 

Reproduction on aerial parts is also resumed at this 

time. 

Overwintering: Mainly as young aphids in 

cracks and crevices on the above ground parts of 

apple. There is some migration of aphids to roots 

of susceptible rootstock in late autumn but they do 

not appear to be important for overwintering. 

Spread: Occasionally young winged adults 

produced during summer establish colonies on 

neighbouring trees. Aphids may also be spread by 

wind, carried by birds and insects and by the 

movement of nursery stock and plant material. 

Conditions favouring: Spring and autumn. Cool 

and moist conditions, shaded situations, interiors 

of dense, strongly growing trees. Low humidity 

and temperatures > 27 o C are unfavourable. Low 

temperatures have little effect, only slowing down 

their rate of development. 

F 116 

FRUIT AND NUTS

POME FRUITS 

Control: 

Biological control: A parasitic wasp (Aphelinus 

mali) lays its egg in the body of an aphid and the 

feeding of the larva kills the aphid. Parasitised 

aphids lose their woolly covering and become 

black. A small exit hole is made in the back of 

the dead aphid by the wasp when it emerges. 

The wasp overwinters as a pupa in the body of 

the dead parasitised aphid and emerges in 

September at the same time as the colonies of 

woolly aphid become active. The wasp is scarce 

in commercial orchards because of pesticides 

used to control other pests, but give useful 

control in non-bearing orchards where fewer 

pesticides are used. Wasps may be conserved 

by not spraying hawthorn and other hosts near 

apples, occasional infestations are valuable for 

maintaining wasp populations. Twigs with 

parasitised aphids may be collected before 

winter and stored in a shed away from birds and 

placed in infested trees in spring. There are 

several naturally occurring predators in 

Australia (mainly ladybirds, lacewing larvae and 

syrphid fly larvae) and other parasites which 

assist in reducing populations. Native species of 

ladybirds may also prey on woolly aphids. 

These natural enemies often do not increase in 

populations quickly enough to prevent woolly 

aphid populations reaching damaging levels. 

Resistant varieties: Resistant rootstock include 

Northern Spy and the Malling-Merton series. 

Trees on susceptible rootstocks have a moreor-less 

permanent infestation on roots and this 

may continually reinfest aerial parts. The use of 

resistant rootstocks means that woolly aphid 

only has to be controlled on aerial parts. Woolly 

aphids are more able to survive during winter on 

Granny Smith and Jonathan than on either Rome 

Beauty or Delicious (Asante 1994). 

Pesticides: Severely infested roots or whole 

plants of nursery stock may be dipped in 

insecticide and drained prior to planting. A 

dormant spray of winter oil may kill some 

overwintering aphids in cracks on trunks and 

limbs (not very effectively) but not Aphelinus. 

Growing season sprays should be applied 

when infestations are first noticed usually in 

spring, or autumn when trees are growing 

vigorously. They may be toxic to Aphelinus. 

Insecticides may be applied as a dormant or 

spring application. Monitor populations weekly 

by inspecting 5 laterals from each of 20 trees per 

ha (Brough et al. 1994). 

Others: Dried apple beetle (Araecerus 

palmaris, Anthribidae), driedfruit beetles 

(Carpophilus spp.), spring beetle (Colymbomorpha 

vittata) may occur on quince. Also oriental fruit 

moth (Grapholita molesta), various grasshoppers 

and locusts (Orthoptera). Wasps (Torymus spp.) 

develop in seeds of apple, hawthorn and Sorbus spp. 


Birds may damage fruit. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Field problems: Frost: Flowers of apple may be 

damaged by late spring frosts. On apples: Frequently 

the whole flower is killed but occasionally the pistil is 

undamaged even though all the petals are shrivelled. 

When the fertile parts have been killed it is usual for 

the flower to drop within a few days. Young fruit are 

even more sensitive to frost than blossoms, the most 

susceptible part being the seed or seeds. When the 

seed has been frozen, growth of the fruit usually stops 

and the fruit falls within days. When freezing has 

been severe enough to kill seed and flesh, young fruit 

become dark green then brown and shrivelled (an 

uncommon effect). Frost rings of russet on fruit 

are a common symptom of frost injury. After a frost 

that has killed only a percentage of the crop, some 

fruit develop an encircling band of russet. 

Sometimes the band forms towards the calyx end, but 

more usually it occurs about midway between stem 

and calyx. Growth is restricted below these russetted 

areas and the fruit may develop a marked 'waist'. 

Severe cracks are likely to develop in damaged tissue 

as the fruit grows. Loquat are particularly prone to 

frost damage in NSW Tablelands as they flower in 

autumn/early winter with fruit developing through to 

spring. High temperatures: Sunburn, sunscald 

and delayed sunscald caused by direct solar radiation 

of exposed skin to sun damages growing tissues. 

Favoured by leaf fall due to mites or severe pruning. 

Wind damage: Fruit may rub against branches in 

windy conditions, so some shelter is desirable. Leaves 

may be tattered. Strong light may scald fruit. 

Moisture: Adequate irrigation is essential for good 

yields. Heavy crops cause branches to bend. 

Storage disorders are comprehensively described by 

Beattie et al. (1989). Freezing injury will occur to 

fruit of apple and pear stored in cool rooms < -1 o C. 

Low temperature breakdown during storage causes 

moist brownish areas in the mid-cortex area. 

Watercore is associated with internal moisture stress 

usually caused by high day temperatures followed by 

cool nights during the final maturation stages of the 

fruit. Starch is converted to sugar and sap leaks from 

cells, or sap moves to the fruit which fills the spaces 

between the cells and produces the glassy appearance. 

Senescent breakdown is due to overlong storage 

leading to death of the cells. Browning of the tissue 

usually starts just under the skin near the calyx end 

and may extend well into the flesh. Jonathan spot 

causes spots to develop on the skin of Jonathans, also 

sometimes Rome Beauty, Gravenstein and Golden 

Delicious. Affected fruit show no symptoms inside 

but have usually lost much of the flavour. It is caused 

by senescence of tissues in susceptible varieties 

after dry growing conditions and on fruit harvested 

after optimum maturity. Pear blackend (cause 

undetermined) affects pears, including Williams Bon 

Chretien and Packham's Triumph on Oriental 

rootstocks, eg Keiffer. Affected fruits become dark 

brown to black at the calyx end. Some fruits have a 

complete or partial concentric rings of dark tissue 

associated with darkened areas. Rings are often 

separated by bands of healthy skin. Flesh beneath the 

blackened skin is hardened. Cracking of fruit occurs. 

Distribution within the tree can vary greatly. Carbon 

dioxide injury (core flush) associated with high 

levels in storage causes small dark areas near the core. 

Brown heart of apples and pears is associated with 

excess carbon dioxide in the storage atmosphere. 


POME FRUITS 

Core flush or core browning in tissue surrounding 

the core is a major disorder of stored apples and is 

associated with low temperatures, long term storage 

and incorrect maturity at harvest. Vascular 

browning and core breakdown of pears is caused 

by tissue ageing and indicates storage life is coming to 

an end. Flesh spot decay (FSD) occurs in nashi 

fruit and is caused by irrigation problems, water 

stress, crop load, thinning and increases with storage 

(Coombs 1995). 

Mechanical injuries may occur due to 

twigs and hail. Bruising during harvest, packing 

and transport, causes regular soft areas on fruit, 

flesh underneath may be slightly discoloured or 

dark brown. 


Leaf analysis standards are available for pome 

fruit crops based on diagnostic and research analyses 

(Weir and Cresswell 1993). Loquats require need 

large amounts of fertiliser. Pear may suffer from 

boron, manganese or zinc deficiency. Low levels of 

calcium in the fruit of pome fruits, especially 

apples, is associated with bitter pit. It may occur in 

fruit on the tree or in cool storage. Pits develop in the 

flesh and may not be on the skin. Iron deficiency 

commonly affects quince trees in alkaline soil. 

Boron deficiency (cork) may be important in 

tableland areas in NSW. Boron is required in very 

small amounts by many plants and when deficient a 

variety of symptoms occur, eg apple and pears 

(apples seem to be more sensitive than pears), grapes 

(hen and chickens), cabbages and cauliflower 

(hollow stem), celery, carrots (root scurfing) and 

beetroot (centre leaves are distorted and misshapen 

root), swedes and turnips (brown heart). 

Symptoms in pome fruits are often described as 

internal cork, superficial cork, cork or corky core 

depending on where the symptoms are in the fruit. 

Commonly internal cork in NSW results in small 

water soaked areas usually rounded and defined in 

outline appear throughout the flesh, but not in the 

skin. Fruit, twigs and foliage may be affected. 

Affected twigs dieback and an abnormal number of 

small branches may develop from below the dead 

portion. Dieback may also result from causes other 

than boron deficiency. Dwarfed, thickened and 

brittle leaves arise from nodes separated by short 

internodes, and this gives rise to a rosette of leaves 

having smooth, rather serrated edges. Favoured by 

soils derived from rocks poor in boron or have been 

leached, eg granite soils; excessive applications of 

lime can convert boron into an insoluble form; 

waterlogging and fluctuations in soil moisture and 

heavy crops also favour boron deficiency. If a 

deficiency is suspected it must be identified 

accurately. 

Pesticide injury: Pesticides may damage 

buds, blossoms, young fruit, eg thinning, 

russetting, foliage, eg scorching and defoliation, twigs 

and bark of apples. Sprays are more likely to cause 

injury if applied to susceptible varieties, too 

frequently, at too high concentrations, prior to, during 

or just after very low or very high temperatures, or 

when drying conditions are too slow, eg during 

cloudy weather. Avoid using mixtures of incompatible 

pesticides or incorrect sequence of pesticides. 

Fungicides: Copper may russet fruit if applied later 

than the green tip stage. Dodine may russet yellow 

varieties which are prone to apple scab russet 

anyway, eg Delicious. Ziram and mancozeb may 

cause russetting of fruit during cold or frosty 

conditions. Sulphur: Wettable sulphur and lime 

sulphur may damage fruit and foliage of some 

varieties, eg Delicious, during hot weather. Lime 

sulphur strengths of 1:20 should not be used later than 

the green tip stage. Do not use when predicted 

temperatures are < 0 o C or > 28 o C or under slow 

drying conditions, eg showery or cloudy weather, 

otherwise bud damage may occur. Overspraying the 

lower sections of trees may damage to buds and bark. 

Thiram has a thinning effect on Granny Smith. 

Insecticides: Carbaryl if applied within 30 days of 

full bloom thinning may thin the crop. If applied 

before, during or shortly after near-freezing 

conditions, fruit of Delicious and William's 

Favourite may be russetted. Quince leaves will be 

seriously injured. Oil sprays: Two full strength oil 

sprays should not be applied in one season and there 

should be an interval of at least 4 weeks between any 

oil sprays. Commercial growers should apply 

vamidothion for woolly aphid control with caution 

on Delicious before late January. 

Others: Polyborate used for boron deficiency may 

damage Golden Delicious. Urea may damage spurs 

and laterals in very dry weather. Wax residues may 

occur on fruit due to poor management of waxing 

equipment. Chemicals used to prevent and control 

postharvest disorders may themselves injure stored 

fruit. Ammonia gas from leaking refrigeration 

equipment may cause brown lenticel spotting. 

Diphenylamine may cause discolouration in the 

calyx or stem cavity. Severe injury causes blackening 

and flavour is affected. Low oxygen levels in fruit 

due to storage temperatures, carbon dioxide levels and 

general condition of fruit, cause extensive brown 

areas. 

Others: Reduced yield of apples may be 

caused by phytotoxins produced by some grasses 

growing under them and by interplanted potatoes 

(Handreck and Black 1994). Apples and pears 

show a tendency to biennial bearing. 


Asante, S. K. 1994. Susceptibility of Apple Varieties to 

Attack by the Woolly Aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum 

(Hausmann) Hemiptera: Pemphigidae). Plant 

Protection Quarterly, Vol.9(4). 




Agric. & Fish., Sydney. 

Bennet, R. R. (ed.). 1993. Guide to Quality Management 

: Apples. Australian Horticultural Corp., Sydney. 

Bower, C. C., Penrose, L. J. and Dodds, K. 1993. A 

Practical Approach to Pesticide Reduction on Apple 

Crops Using Supervised Pest and Disease Control : 

Preliminary Results and Problems. Plant Protection 

Quarterly Vol.8(2). 




Com. of Aust., Dept. of Primary Industries and Energy, 

Canberra. Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

Apple Proliferation. No. 54. 1988. 

Brown Rot of Pome Fruit. No. 37. 1991. 

Fireblight of Pears and Apples. No. 5. 1990. 

F 118 

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POME FRUITS 





Fiala, Fr. J. L. 1994. Flowering CrabApple : The Genus 

Malus. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 


Fleming's, Monbulk Nurseries, Vic. 

Frankcom, K., Leamon, K., Mitchelmore, N., Sharkey, 

P. and Wall, R. (eds). Pears : A Product Quality 

Manual. (cur. edn.). AHC/Vic. Dept. of Agric./ 

North. Vic. FruitGrower's Assoc., Shepparton, Vic. 



Handreck, K. and Black, N. 1994. Growing Media for 

Ornamental Plants & Turf. NSW University Press, 

Kensington. NSW.. 



Melbourne. 



Jones, A. L. and Aldwinkle, H. S. 1990. Compendium of 

Apples and Pear Diseases. APS Press, Minnesota. 

MacHardy, W. 1996. Apple Scab Biology, Epidemiology 

and Management. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 





Merwin, I. A., Brown, S. K., Rosenberg, D. A., Cooley, 

D. R. and Beckett, L. P. 1994. Scab-Resistant Apples 

for the Northeastern United States : New Prospects 

and Old Problems. Plant Disease, Vol.78(1). 



and Vegetables : Apples and Pears. cur. edn. OECD, 

Paris. Available from DA Books, Mitcham, Vic. 











Symon, D. E. and Gardner, J. A. 1991. Ornamental 

Pears Show Landscape Promise. Aust. Hort., March. 

Taylor, R. 1995/96. Confusing Codling Moth. Rural 

Research 169, Summer. 




White, A. G. 1990. Nashi : Asian pear in New Zealand. 

DSIR, Auckland. 


Industry eg 


Apple and Pear Nutrition 

Apple and Pear Scab 

Apple Dimpling Bug 

Apple Growing 

Apple Rootstock Identification 

Apples in the Garden 

Bitter Pit in Apples 

Bitter Rot of Apples 

Boron Deficiency (Cork) in Pome Fruits 

Codling Moth 

Codling Moth Resistance and How to Manage 

Fleck of Quince, Pear and Loquat 

Integrated Control of Mite Pests of Apples 

Loquats in the Garden 

Mechanical Hedging and Topping of Apple and Pear 

Trees 

Nashi (Asian Pear) Growing 

Orchard & Vineyard Plant Protection Guides 

NSW Pome Fruits Improvement Scheme 

Painted Apple Moth 

Pear and Cherry Slug 

Pear Growing 



Pears in the Garden 

Postharvest Disease Control in Pome Fruits 

Powdery Mildew of Apples 

Quinces in the Garden 

Sooty Blotch and Flyspeck 

The NSW Pome Fruits Improvement Scheme 

Training and Pruning Apple and Pear Trees 

Virus Diseases of Deciduous Fruit Trees 

Watercore of Apples 

Woolly Aphid 

Qld Farmnotes 

Botryosphaeria Canker and Dieback Apple and Pear 

Tas Farmnotes 

Controlled Atmosphere Storage (1): Recommendations for 

Storing Apples 

Pest Management in Apple Orchards : An Alternative 

Approach 

Recommended Postharvest Treatment for Apple 


SA Fact Sheet 

Apple Dimpling Bug 

Codling Moth 

Lightbrown Apple Moth 

Oystershell Scale 

Woolly Aphid 

Vic Agnotes 

Alternaria Leaf Spot of Apple 

Apple Scab 

Apple Spray Schedule 

Apple Varieties in Victoria 

Autumn Sprays to Control Apple and Pear Scab 

Avoiding Problems in Postharvest Dipping Apples 

& Pears 

Better Fruit Set for Packham Pears 

Blue mould of Pome fruit 

Botryosphaeria Canker or Black Rot of Apples & Pears 

Chemical Control of Weeds in Pome and Stone Fruit 

Close Planting of Apples 

Codling Moth 

Control of Pests & Diseases in Pome Fruits in Home 

Orchards 

Crown and Collar Rot of Apple Trees 


Fruit Tree Borer Moth & Small Fruit Tree Borer Moth 

Grey Mould of Pome Fruit 

Growing Nashi in Victoria 

Growing Nashi on the Mini Tatura Trellis 

Increasing Productivity of Packhams Triumph Pears 

Integrated Control of Orchard Mites 

Integrated Control of Twospotted Mite in Orchards 

Lightbrown Apple Moth in Orchards 

Longtailed Mealybug in Pear Orchards 

Long Term Controlled Atmosphere Storage for Apples and 

Pears 

Mosaic Virus Diseases of Fruit Trees 

Mouldy Core of Red Delicious Apples 

Mucor Rot of Pome fruit 

Pear Scab 

Postharvest Dips for Apples and Pears 

Powdery Mildew of Apple 

Pruning and Cropping Pears 

Pseudomonas syringae on Pears 

Rhizopus Rot and Transit Rot of Fruit and Vegetables 

Ripening and Colouring of Apples with Ethephon 

Ripening of Pears 

Rootstocks for Apple Trees 

Rootstocks for Pears 

San Jose and Oyster-shell Scale 

Scouting for Twospotted Mites and Predatory Mites 

Scouting Pear Orchards for Longtailed Mealybug 


Spray Program for Commercial Apple Growers 

Spray Program for Pears for the Fresh Market 

Target Spot of Apples 

The Bryobia Mite and the Pear Blister Mite 

The Fruit-tree Root Weevil, Leptopius squalidus 

The Pear and Cherry Slug, Caliroa cerasi 

Thinning Apples 

Training, Management & Production Pear Trees on 

Tatura Trellis 

Using Predatory Mite to Control Twospotted Mite in 

Pome and Stone Fruit Orchards 


Wood Rots 

WA Farmnotes 

Trace Element & Magnesium Treatments for Apple & Pear 

Trees 


POME FRUITS 


Apple and Pear Growers Assoc. (AAPGA) 

Australian Horticultural Corporation (AHC) 

Australian Nashi Growers Assoc. 

MANAGEMENT 


Horticultural Policy Council 

Horticultural Research & Development Corp. (HRDC) 

See Fruit and nuts F 15. 

Pome fruits are grown for fresh fruit, processing and flowering (Fiala 1994, Symon and Gardner 1991). 

Ornamental Malus spp., eg Columnare and Mop-top selections, are currently being introduced in North America 

for restricted street tree plantings. Different pome fruits are susceptible to different diseases and pests 

(Table 1). An overview of the pome fruits industry in Australia has been presented by Coombs (1995). 

Pollination: Warm sunny weather and plenty of bee activity at flowering time usually ensure that enough fruit set 

for a home garden. For optimum production it is necessary either to plant 2 different varieties or to plant a tree 

with more than one variety grafted on to the rootstock. Apples and pears show a tendency to biennial bearing. 

Management programs have been prepared for particular regions of Australia. Standards are available for 

pears (Frankcom et al. cur. edn) which include requirements for harvest quality, inspections, chemical residues, 

export markets, postharvest management, packaging, storage and export regulations. Propagated by budding 

and grafting. Resistant varieties: Select cultivars with some resistance to powdery mildew and possible black 

spot, and rootstocks with resistance to woolly aphid. The long term aim of the Genetic Manipulation Advisory 

Committee is to genetically engineer apple trees which are resistant to pests and fungal diseases and so reduce 

pesticide usage. Plant disease-free planting material from pome fruit improvement schemes. Cultural 

methods: Grow pome fruit varieties in recommended climates and sites. Sanitation: Appropriate pruning and 

other hygiene practices should be carried out in the field and postharvest. Biological control: Various 

biological control agents, eg predatory mites, may be purchased for twospotted mite. Pheromone lures for 

codling moth are available but their effectiveness may vary. Pesticides: Forecasting systems are available 

for some diseases and pests, eg apple scab, codling moth. AAPGA has prepared a code of practice for apple 

and pear growers to provide for the safe and effective application of horticultural chemicals. The apple and pear 

industry, the Australian Consumers Association and other environmental groups established a pesticide charter 

in 1991 with the aim of reducing chemical use on apples and pear orchards by 50% by 1996. Insect growth 

regulators are available for codling moth. Plant growth regulators are registered to advance maturity, aid 

harvest, induce flowering, improve quality and yield, thin fruit, induce bearing, prevent preharvest fruit drop and 

for many other processes. Some drop of almost mature fruit is not uncommon with early varieties, eg Jonathan. 

Harvest fruit at the recommended stage which varies depending on the type of pome fruit and the intended 

market. International standards are available for apples and pears (OECD cur. edn). Store and transport fruit 

under recommended conditions. 

Fig. 146. Apple mosaic virus causes 

a yellow mottle on apple leaves. 

Fig. 147. Black spot, scab (Venturia 

pyrina) on pear. 

Fig. 148. Fleck (Diplocarpon mespili). Left : Reddish-brown spots with white centres on loquat leaf. 

Centre : Fleck lesions on loquat fruit. Right : Fleck lesions on quince fruit. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

F 120 

FRUIT AND NUTS

POME FRUITS 

Fig. 149. Apple dimpling bug damage 

(Campylomma liebknechti). Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 150. Apple leafhoppers 

(Edwardsiana australis). 


Fig. 151. Painted apple moth (Teia 

anartoides) and caterpillar (30 mm 

long). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 152. Lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana). 

1. Eggs on leaf. 2. Caterpillar. 3. Pupa. 4. Moth (x 4). 

5. Eggs. 6. Caterpillar. 7. Empty pupae. 8. Moth resting 

on leaf. 9. Injury by caterpillar to fruit. 10. Injury to leaf. 


Fig. 153. Codling moth (Cydia pomonella). 1. Eggs (x 4). 2. 

Caterpillar. 3. Cocoon in bark cut open to show pupa. 4. 

Moths (x 4). 5. Eggs on leaf. 6. Empty cocoon. 7. Moth 

resting on leaf. 8.Caterpillar feeding on seeds and pulp. 


Fig. 155. Pear and cherry slug (Caliroa 

cerasi) (12 mm long) and damage. 

Fig. 154. Pearleaf blister mite 

(Eriophyes pyri) damage. 

Fig. 156. San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus 

perniciosus) on apple and cherry. 

Fig. 157. Woolly aphid (Eriosoma 

lanigerum). 


POME FRUITS 

Table 1. Some diseases and pests of particular pome fruits. 

APPLE LOQUAT PEAR QUINCE 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-LIKE 

DISEASES 

(few examples only) 



Crown gall 


Black spot (scab) 

Bitter rot 

Cankers 

Fleck 



Sclerotium stem rot (SSR) 

Sooty mould & fly speck 

(SM & FS) 

Wood rot (various species) 


Root lesion 

Other species 


Apple dimpling bug (ADB) 

Borers 

Fruit-tree borer (FTB) 

Caterpillars 

Lightbrown apple moth (LBAM) 

Painted apple moth (PAM) 

Codling moth 

Driedfruit beetles (DB) 

Fruit fly (FF) 

Mealybugs 

Longtailed mealybug (LTM) 

Tuber mealybug 

Mites 

European red mite (ERM) 

Pearleaf blister mite (PBM) 

Twospotted mite (TM) 

Pear and cherry slug (P&CS) 

Plague thrips 

Scales 

Dupla scale 

San Jose scale (SJS) 

Weevils 

Apple root weevils (ARW) 

Fullers rose weevil (FRW) 

Woolly aphid 


Birds 


Possums 

Non-parasitic pests and 

diseases 

Biennial fruit bearing 

Deficiencies 

Boron, calcium, iron, 

manganese 

Environment 

Apple mosaic 

Apple ringspot 

Green crinkle 

Crown gall 


Bitter rot 

Cankers 



SSR 

SM & FS 

Wood rot 

Root lesion 

Many species 

ADB 

FTB 

LBAM 

PAM 

Codling moth 

Fruit fly 


ERM 

TM 

Plague thrips 

SJS 

ARW 

FRW 

Woolly aphid 


Fleck 


Wood rot 

Root knot 

FTB 

LBAM 

Fruit fly (worst pest) 

Dupla scale 

Apple chlorotic leaf spot 

Pear stony pit 

Quince sooty ringspot 



Cankers 

Fleck 


SM & FS 

Wood rot 

Root lesion 

Many species 

ADB 

FTB 

LBAM 

Codling moth 


LTM 


ERM 

PBM 

TM 

P&CS 

Plague thrips 

SJS 

ARW 

Quince sooty 

ringspot 

Cankers 

Fleck (also medlar) 



Wood rot 

Root lesion 

FTB 

LBAM 

Codling moth 



TM 

P&CS (also medlar) 

Birds Birds Birds Birds 

(in particular) 


Boron deficiency 

Bitter pit (calcium 

deficiency) 

High fertiliser 

requirements 

Frost (especially 

loquat). Strong 

light scalds fruit 

(sunburn can cause 

loss of >15% of 

fruit) 


Boron, manganese and 

zinc deficiencies 

SJS 

Iron deficiency 

F 122 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Stone fruits 

Almond (Prunus amygdalus) 


Cherry (P. avium, P. cerasus) (sweet, sour) 



Plum (P. domestica, P. salicina) (European, Japanese) 

Plumcot (Prunus hybrida) 



Parasitic 




Bacterial spot 

Crown gall 


Brown rot 

Cankers 

Eutypa dieback 

Freckle, scab 



Peach leaf curl, curly leaf 



Rust 

Shot-hole 

Wood rots 



Aphids 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 



Leafhoppers, treehoppers 

Mites 

Oriental fruit moth, peach tip moth 


Scales 

Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Genetic 

Mechanical injury 


Pesticide and chemical injury 

Some stone fruits (and tomatoes) are the most 

difficult plants on which to diagnose problems. 


Parasitic 


Several viruses infect stone fruits (Campbell 1994, 

Persley et al. 1989, Persley 1993). 

Cherry rasp leaf virus causes leafy outgrowths 

and general decline on P. avium, P. maheleb, Malus 

sylvestris; on P. persica it also causes stunting and 

shortened internodes. Symptoms persist. Latent in 

Balsamorhiza sagittata, dandelion, greater plantain 

(Plantago major). Spread by vegetative propagation 

(grafting), by mechanical inoculation, by seed 

10-20%, and overseas by a nematode (Xiphinema 

americana). 

Plum pox virus (not known to occur in Australia) 

affects Prunus spp. especially almond, apricot, 

nectarine, plum. In some varieties crop losses can be 

almost 100% through premature fruit drop, flesh 

discolouration and pox-like indentations on the fruit 

skin. Spread by aphids, eg green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae) and leafcurl plum aphid 

(Brachycaudus helichrysi). Quarantine risk: Plum 

pox virus poses a considerable threat to Australian 

stone fruit industries and all imports of stone fruit 

must be screened for this and other serious diseases in 

post-entry quarantine facilities (Com of Aust. 1990). 

Phony peach rickettsia-like organism is also 

not known to occur in Australia. 

Prune dwarf virus affects Prunus spp., causing 

stunting, leathery strappy leaves, leaf yellowing 

and abscission. It is spread by grafting, by seed to 

10% in P. cerasus, by pollen to seed, by pollen to the 

pollinated plant, but not by contact between plants. 

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus (Glengarry spot, 

plum line pattern) may affect cherry, peaches, 

nectarine, apricot, almond, Prunus spp., hops, roses. 

In spring fine lines appear on leaves outlining narrow 

interveinal areas which later become yellow, 

eventually die and fall out. This tatter leaf effect is 

a shock reaction seen in the first year of infection by 

the virus. In later seasons symptoms are less marked 

and consist of faint yellow ring and line patterns 

which persist for the life of a tree. Other symptoms 

include: almond (bright yellow mosaic); hops (no 

symptoms); peach (brown lines and rings, recovery); 

plum (creamy white or yellow lines on leaves, rings 

and bands, oak leaf patterns, no recovery); rose 

(yellow lines and rings, oak leaf patterns, no recovery) 

and sour cherry (dark dead lines and rings, shotholes, 

recovery). The apricot cultivar Glengarry 

develop sunken spots or rings on ripening fruit 

(Glengarry spot). A brown stain in the flesh beneath 

affected areas may extend to the stone. Symptoms 

vary from season to season. Fruit quality and 

yield in some varieties may be seriously affected. 

Spread by grafting, by seed (over 80% in P. 

pensylvanica but much less in peach), by pollen to 

seed, by pollen carried by honeybees to the pollinated 

plant, but not by contact. The seed produced 

following pollination by the infected pollen may be 

infected. The virus spreads slowly in the field during 

insect pollination. 

Peach rosette and decline (Prunus necrotic ringspot 

virus + Prune dwarf virus) affects peaches and 

nectarines. New growth has bunched compact 

appearance, leaves may be small and rolled, summer 

growth may be almost normal. Yield may be reduced 

by 66% in some cultivars. 

Others, eg apple chlorotic leaf spot virus, apple mosaic 

virus, apricot ringpox, cherry green mottle, green 

ringspot mottle virus, stem pitting. 

To minimise losses: Remove affected trees. 

Only use proven virus-free budwood and 

propagate on proven virus-free rootstocks. To 

reduce spread via pollen after planting, plant the 

virus-free trees as a block or some distance from 

older infected trees. See Fruit F 4. 


STONE FRUITS 


Bacterial canker, blast, gummosis 

Scientific name: Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae. This is a serious disease of stone fruits. 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg poplar, fruit, eg 

citrus, stone fruit especially apricot, cherry, plum, 

vegetables, eg bean. The strain infecting citrus 

may not attack stone fruits and vice versa. 

Symptoms: Dormant buds and blossoms 

brown, twigs may die. New shoots wilt and die. 

Cankers may form on shoots from leaf scar 

infection. Young leaves develop brown spots 

which drop out (shot-hole). Defoliation may occur 

in spring. On peach and plum, leaves are thin, 

narrow, often rolled and yellow. Two types of 

canker develop on branches and trunks and these may 

be > 1 m long before branches are girdled. Gummosis 

canker: Water soluble gum oozes (Fig. 158) from cankers 

and wood underneath is brown. Soursap canker: 

Bark is slightly sunken, brown, moist or gummy, sour 

smelling and little or no gum oozes out. Symptoms are 

obvious in spring. Branches and trees may die. Wood 

underneath is brown. 

Fruit infection of apricot and 

cherry causes depressed spots with dark centres 

with underlying gum pockets. Roots are seldom 

affected. Trees, especially young trees, may die. 

Overwintering: In cankers and infected buds on 

branches and in other lesions. The bacteria are 

always present on leaves of all stone fruit, healthy 

or diseased, and a range of other plants. 

Spread: Bacteria are spread by water splash, 

wind driven rain, irrigation water, insects, and 

pruning tools. Also by vegetative propagation 

from infected trees; infected buds used for budding 

and the introduction of infected nursery stock. 

Conditions favouring: Bacteria enter through 

injuries (pruning, rain, frost, hail) in wet, cool 

windy weather in autumn, winter, early spring, and 

through natural leaf scars in autumn. Also 

favoured by trees growing poorly, water stress 

and deep sandy soil (cherries and plums). 

Control: Protect wounds from infection. 

Cultural methods: Avoid vigorous growth, 

damage by frost, hail and machinery; overhead 

irrigate or irrigate when leaves dry quickly. 

Sanitation: Remove/destroy infected trees 150 mm 

below cankers and burn. Seal off cankers by 

scraping or cauterising with a blow lamp when 

trees are actively growing (they callus readily). 

Resistant varieties: Apricot and some cherry 

cultivars, egFlorence,Napoleonand St. Margaret, 

are very susceptible. Merton, Ron's Seedling 

and Williams Favourite are more tolerant. 

Disease-free planting material: Only propagate 

from disease-free nursery stock. New trees 

which are 'suspect' should be destroyed. 

Pesticides: Apply copper sprays to nursery 

stock and trees at risk of infection, at leaf fall, at 

intervals during winter and at bud burst. 

Bacterial spot 

Scientific name: Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

pruni. 

Host range: Most stone fruits, especially plums 

during wet seasons. 

Symptoms: In early spring, buds may be 

blighted, often with a dark midrib and petiole and 

leaves may fail to unfurl. In spring angular oily 

leaf spots (partially confined by veins and 

veinlets) develop and become dark brown to black. 

As leaves expand, diseased tissue may drop out to 

give a shot-hole effect. Spots may coalesce, areas 

become yellow or reddish, leaves become tattered 

and may fall. Elongated depressed cankers 

(10-20 mm long) may develop on twigs. Cankers 

may crack and exude gum. If cankers are 

numerous, shoots may be distorted and dieback 

causing a gradual loss of leaders and trees become 

uneconomic. Up to 50% of fruit may be 

unsaleable. In late spring, circular greasy spots 

which become sunken and dark may develop. 

Centres may crack and ooze gum, edges become 

corky. Peaches and nectarines develop many 

small spots, sometimes with deep cracking and 

pitting. Plums develop fewer, larger spots. 

Overwintering: Bacteria can persist year round 

on surfaces of peach and plum trees even in the 

absence of symptoms. In cankers and leaf scars 

infected during wet autumns. Bacteria ooze from 

these active infections in spring to infect young 

stems and developing leaves. During the growing 

season bacteria in leaf spots initiate summer 

cankers and autumn leaf scar infections during wet 

periods. Bacteria survive on fallen leaves (this is 

only a minor source of infection). 

Spread: By wind-driven rain, especially during 

leaf fall, propagation from infected trees and the 

introduction of infected nursery stock. 

Conditions favouring: Rain, overhead 

irrigation, heavy dews, hail, warm temperatures, 

high winds, exposed situations and leaf fall. In 

Qld, high summer rainfall and humidity and 

moderate temperatures favour disease. 

Control: Do not market bacteria-infected fruit. 

Preharvest control measures may be required. 

Cultural methods: Avoid planting susceptible 

cultivars in areas with a history of disease. 

Prune susceptible cultivars carefully during 

winter to remove branches and twigs with 

summer cankers. Burn/destroy prunings. Provide 

hail protection and wind breaks and avoid 

overhead irrigation in susceptible cultivars. 

Sanitation: Pruning of visible cankers is of little 

value in controlling this disease. 

Resistant varieties: Some Japanese plums, eg 

Wilson, Narrabeen and Burbank, are resistant. 

Plant resistant cultivars of peach and plum in 

districts where disease is a problem. 

Disease-free planting material:Only use diseasefree 

rootstocks and scion wood nursery stock. 

Select budwood only from healthy trees which 

are not grown close to disease sources. 

Pesticides: Adopt or modify a bacterial canker 

spray program to assist control. Spray rootstocks 

and scion wood and apply preventative sprays. 

F 124 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STONE FRUITS 

Crown gall 

Scientific name: Agrobacterium spp. 

Host range: Rosaceae, ornamentals, eg roses, 

dahlia, fruit, eg pome and stone fruits especially 

peach, bush fruits, grape, vegetables, eg rhubarb. 

Symptoms: Disease is more serious on nursery 

stock than on older plants. It occurs sporadically, 

an area may yield badly infected plants one year 

and healthy ones the following year. Below 

ground: Wart-like galls ranging in size from a 

pea to the size of a football develop at base of 

stems or on roots, rarely on stems (Fig. 159). 

Bacteria multiply inside the host and stimulate cell 

division and cell size in the host, resulting in galls. 

Less commonly a proliferation of fine roots on 

young trees (hairy root) develops. Above ground: 

Young plants which are diseased when planted, or 

which become infected soon after, grow poorly 

and may die. Older plants which later become 

infected may remain vigorous for many years. Do 

not confuse crown gall with root knot nematode. 

Overwintering: In galls on plants and in soil. 

Bacteria can survive in soil for years, but in the 

absence of hosts, populations decline rapidly. 

Spread: Soil becomes infested by introduction 

of contaminated plants or soil (deliveries, 

machinery, containers), or by contaminated soil 

water. Plants may become infected by planting 

in contaminated soil or by the use of contaminated 

tools (pruning and budding knives). Infection also 

occurs by propagation from infected plants. 

Conditions favouring: Older plants in the field 

suffering from moisture stress may die. Recent 

wounds made by cultural practices, grafting, 

insects, etc. 

Control: There is no effective treatment for 

infected plants. To prevent spread and infection of 

new plantings: 

Cultural methods: Avoid wounding roots of 

nursery stock during planting and cultivation. 

Ensure graft unions are above ground level. 

Sanitation: Dig up and destroy/burn infected 

youngplants, nursery stock and surrounding soil. 

Disinfect seed boxes, containers and benches so 

that treated soil or disease-free seed and cuttings 

do not become infected. If disease is a problem, 

sterilise secateurs between each root trimming. 

Biological control: If crown gall is a problem, 

susceptible seeds, seedlings, cuttings and roots 

of nursery stock may be treated with 

Agrobacterium radiobacter var. radiobacter 

(NoGall ® ) prior to planting in contaminated soil. 

Agrobacterium establishes itself on the surface 

of treated material and produces a chemical 

which inhibits crown gall bacteria. Plants are 

protected during their early growth stages when 

they may suffer severe damage if infected. 

Some fungicides (and other chemicals) are toxic 

to Agrobacterium. Occasionally strains of 

crown gall are not controlled by Nogall ® . 

Plant quarantine: Carefully inspect new stock 

for galls, burn all infected or doubtful plants. 

Disease-free planting material: Propagate only 

from disease-free plants and plant in diseasefree 

soil, otherwise plant susceptible plants in 

contaminated soil after treatment with Nogall ® . 


Pasteurise/treat seed and cuttings beds prior to 

planting. Attempts to control crown gall on 

established plants by removing galls and 

applying various 'gall paints' to the raw surface 

have been unsuccessful. 

Others: Pseudomonas syringae pv. morsprunorum 

on cherry (P. avium) andPrunus spp. 

Pseudomonas viridiflava on cherry and apricot. 


Brown rot 


Brown rot (Monilinia fructicola, M. laxa). These 

two species cause serious losses to stone fruits in 

Australia. European brown rot (M. fructigena) is 

not known to occur in Australia, but if introduced 

could cause serious losses to apple and pear 

production and aggravate brown rot on stone 

fruits, eg on plums (Com. of Aust. 1991). 

Host range: Mainly stone fruits, apricot, cherry, 

peach, nectarine, plum, occasionally apple, pear, 

quince. 

Symptoms: Occurs in the field and 

postharvest. Blossoms turn brown and die. In 

humid weather tufts of spores develop on infected 

blossoms. Fruits rot and are soon covered with 

brown tufts of spores (Fig. 160). Infected fruit left 

either on the tree or on the ground shrivel into hard 

mummies. The fungus grows into twigs from 

infested blossoms or fruit, causing cankers. If the 

canker girdles the twig, twigs die and the canker 

may gum. Leaves may appear shot-holed. 

Overwintering: As mycelium on infected 

peduncles, cankers on shoots of up to 1-year-old 

wood and in mummies on or off the tree. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind and water 

splash, also by driedfruit beetles (Carpophilus 

spp.) and oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta). 

In storage, the fungus grows from fruit to fruit. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, wet weather, 

damage by insects, hail, wind or handling. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Cultivate at some stage 

between harvest and blossoming to cover any 

infected fruit or mummies on the soil, to help 

decomposition and reduce production of conidia 

in spring. Prune and shape trees to simplify 

spraying. Handle fruit carefully to reduce injury. 

Sanitation: Remove/bury all infected fruit from 

the orchard as harvesting progresses to prevent 

spore buildup during harvest and to restrict 

growth of the fungus into the stalks, which 

produces spore the following season. During 

normal winter pruning, prune out all cankered 

and dead shoots and remaining mummies. Bury/ 

burn all diseased material with prunings. 

Maintain hygiene in packing sheds by cleaning 

equipment regularly with disinfectant and 

removing waste fruit daily. 

Resistant varieties: Early ripening, thick skinned 

varieties of stone fruits may have some 

resistance. 


STONE FRUITS 

Plant quarantine: Stone fruits (apricot, cherry, 

nectarine, peach and plum) and almond and 

quince sent from other states to Qld must be 

accompanied by a certification of inspection 

stating that the fruit is from areas free from 

M. laxa, that M. laxa has not been recorded with 

10 km, or that the fruit has been given an 

effective postharvest treatment with an approved 

fungicide. There is a similar requirement for 

sending nursery trees to Qld. 

Pesticides: It is necessary to follow a strategic 

spray program for susceptible varieties during 

blossoming and before harvest. This will reduce 

the development of brown rot resistance to 

fungicides. There are brown rot forecasting 

services during peach harvest in some areas of 

NSW, eg Young, Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. 

Fruit may be dipped in fungicide postharvest. 

Cankers: Canker (Botryosphaeria spp. = 

Dothiorella spp.) infects limbs through pruning cuts, 

causing dieback of limbs and tree decline. Small 

black fruiting bodies develop in bark of affected 

limbs. Canker, dieback (Valsa leucostoma) may 

also affect stone fruits. See Trees K 5. 

Eutypadieback (Eutypa lata = E. armeniacea) 

may be an important pruning wound disease of 

apricots in warm (21-24 o C) wet weather in spring, 

eg in South Australia, also almond, plum and 

grape. Excessive gumming, wilting and dieback 

or brittleness of branches can indicate Eutypa 

dieback. As the disease may be confused with 

bacterial canker and other diseases, have the 

diseased confirmed by a pathologist. Do not 

prune during wet weather and treat all cuts with 

fungicide. See Grapevine F 59. 

Freckle, scab 

Scientific name: Venturia carpophila, 

Ascomycetes (= Fusicladium carpophilum). 

Host range: Stone fruits, especially apricot, 

peach, nectarine, occasionally plum, cherry. 

Symptoms: Small, poorly defined spots may 

develop mostly on the leaf undersurfaces. These 

later darken, and a pale yellow patch may develop 

on the uppersurface above the infected spot, 

particularly on apricot leaves. Spots may also 

occur on the leaf petiole and midrib. Spots on 

twigs may cover the entire surface of a shoot for 

several centimetres, but dieback is rare (compare 

with shot-hole, brown rot, bacterial canker), and 

may persist for several seasons. Flat, definite 

superficial dark spots (freckles) about 3 mm across 

develop on apricot fruit (Fig. 161) and may 

coalesce forming large brown scabby areas which 

are more numerous on exposed parts of fruit. Fruit 

may be distorted and cracked. On apricots do not 

confuse with shot-hole scabs which are raised! 

Onpeaches, spots are black,on nectarinesfreckle 

spots are pale green or cream with a dark centre. 

Overwintering: As mycelium in twig lesions on 

the host. Possibly also as fruiting bodies 

(perithecia) on fallen leaves. These fruiting bodies 

may produce spores in spring. 

Spread: Spores are released in wet conditions 

and are washed down the tree or blown in drops of 

water to other trees. 

Conditions favouring: By moist weather, rain 

throughout summer and during harvest. 

Control: 

Sanitation: In theory, infected twigs on heavily 

infected trees should be pruned in spring to 

reduce initial infections. However, lesions are 

hard-to-see and rarely cause dieback, so 

pruning out infected twigs is impractical. 


Pesticides: On susceptible varieties, several 

fungicide applications may be necessary during 

budswell and flowering, and after rainy weather. 


Fruit moulds: Many fungi grow on fruit in the field 

and/or postharvest. The colour of the mould is 

usually due to the collective colour of the spore 

masses. The high sugar content of some fruit, eg 

prunes such as D'Agen and Robe de Sargeant, 

prevents rotting at maturity. 

Alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata) 

Aspergillus (Aspergillus sp.) 

Blue and green moulds (Penicillium spp.) 

Brown rot (Monilinia fructicola, M. laxa) (see above) 

Cladosporium rot (Cladosporium sp.) 


Mucor rot (Mucor spp.) 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) 

Occasionally others affect fruit, eg anthracnose 

(Colletotrichum acutatum), sclerotinia rot, green rot 

(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), internal breakdown 

(Auriobasidium pullulans), pink rot (Cephalothecium 

roseum). 

Other fruit rots, disfigurations: Some fungal 

diseases, eg freckle, scab (Venturia carpophila), 

peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans), prune rust 

(Tranzschelia discolor, Puccinia pruni), shothole 

(Stigmina carpophila) which mainly affect 

leaves and twigs may also cause markings on fruit 

in the field. 



Some fungi which are important as fruit rots of 

stone fruits, also cause leaf spotting, eg brown rot, 

freckle, shot-hole. Some bacterial diseases, eg 

bacterial canker, bacterial spot also cause leaf 

spots. Many other fungi cause minor leaf spotting 

(Ascochyta, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Septoria). See 

Annuals A 5. 

Peach leaf curl, curly leaf 


Peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans) is a serious 

disease of stone fruits. Bladder plum (T. pruni) 

uncommonly affects plums, has leaf symptoms 

similar to peach leaf curl but fruit is swollen and 

distorted (Aitkinson 1971). 

Host range: Stone fruits, especially peaches and 

nectarines, also almonds, apricots, ornamentals. 

Symptoms: In spring infected parts of peach 

and nectarine leaves thicken (Fig. 162) and 

become pale (the fungus inside stimulates tissues 

to make abnormal growth). Infected leaf parts 

become covered with a whitish bloom, leaves 

brown and may fall. New healthy leaves appear. 

Defoliation in consecutive seasons weakens tree 

F 126 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STONE FRUITS 

growth. Severely defoliated nursery stock rarely 

develops satisfactorily. Do not confuse peach 

leaf curl symptoms with those caused by green 

peach aphid infestation. Infected peach shoots 

are less obvious. They become swollen, stunted, 

pale green to yellow and gum may ooze from 

them. In apricot trees a witches' broom develops 

(densely bunched growth). It is rare to find an 

isolated infected leaf. Infected shoots usually die. 

Infected flowers usually fall from the tree. 

Defoliation results in heavy shedding of 

developing fruit. Infected peach fruits show 

raised, irregular areas which may develop a 

pinkish or reddish colour long before normal fruit 

show any colour change. Infected fruits generally 

die and fall from the tree. 

Overwintering: Spores on bud scales. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind and water. 

Conditions favouring: Cold, wet weather 

followed by warm, humid weather during early 

blossoming in spring. Tissue is only susceptible 

when young, becoming resistant with age. 

Control of leaf curl is achieved more efficiently 

and easily than any other major stone fruit disease. 

Cultural methods: If leaf fall is heavy, an 

application of quick-acting fertiliser,eg sulphate 

of ammonia, helps trees produce new foliage. 

Sanitation: Prune out infected shoots to reduce 

infection sources. 

Resistant varieties: Some peaches and nectarines, 

eg Elberta and Blackburn. are very susceptible. 

Pesticides: As initial infection occurs during a 

short period when leaves emerge from buds, 

apply 1 application of a copper fungicide (or 

lime sulphur) when buds start to swell or 

immediately before bud burst in spring. Only 

one spray is required to give complete control. 

Sometimes 2 sprays are applied, one at the 1st 

sign of bud movement and a 2nd, one week 

later, to ensure that timing is right and full 

coverage is obtained. Where peach leaf curl has 

been serious in previous seasons, a spray at leaf 

fall in autumn is also recommended. The whole 

tree must be sprayed thoroughly, especially the 

extremities of small limbs and twigs. Failure to 

control peach leaf curl with 1-2 copper sprays 

is usually due to incorrect timing (difficulty in 

recognising the 1st sign of budswell) or wet 

weather (spraying impossible). An occasional 

curly leaf on an otherwise healthy tree is not 

important. 

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca 

pannosa) may affect apricot and peach nursery 

stock during spring and summer but is uncommon 

on stone fruit trees in orchards. New shoots are 

covered with a white growth and may become 

distorted and fall. Overwinters on the surface of 

shoots or inside dormant buds. Separate potted 

plants in nurseries to provide adequate ventilation. 

Apply fungicides as required. See Annuals A 6. 


Phytophthora trunk canker, root rot, summer 

canker (Phytophthora spp., P. cinnamomi) is mainly a 

problem on peach and apricot, but also plum. 

Leaves yellow, wilt and fall prematurely. Long wide 

sunken areas extend from just below ground level to 

the first branches and involve up to half the 

circumference of the trunk. Beneath the sunken 

bark, wood is discoloured. Orange-red gum may 

exude from the edge of active cankers. It is 

introduced into clean soil with diseased nursery stock 

and with water and soil movement. Favoured by 

stone fruits on peach rootstock in wet soils. Plant 

disease-free nursery stock. Grow in well drained 

soils. When a canker appears cut away all 

discoloured wood and apply a slurry of a copper 

fungicide. See Fruit F 7, Trees K 6. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina) 

may occur on orchards planted in newly cleared 

bushland. See Trees K 4. Verticillium wilt, black 

heart (Verticillium dahliae) is uncommon but may be 

a serious soilborne disease of stone fruits, especially if 

apricots are planted into soils previously cropped with 

infected crops, eg tomato, potato, strawberries or 

interplanted with these crops. It survives in the soil 

for years and invades the water-conducting 

tissues of trunks and branches. Woody tissue in 

infected stems is discoloured. It is an economic 

problem only in young trees 3-6 years old. Leaves 

yellow, look dull and leathery and may fall. Affected 

trees gradually decline. Plant disease-free nursery 

stock, avoid growing susceptible crops before 

planting stone fruit or intercropping with susceptible 

crops. Control weed hosts between trees. See 


Rust (Tranzschelia discolor, Puccinia pruni) 

affects Prunus spp., especially peach, nectarine, 

plum, prune, apricot, in late summer and autumn. 

Rust is a major disease of French prunes. Leaf 

uppersurfaces are speckled with small yellow 

patches which may run together. On leaf 

undersurfaces there are corresponding orange-red 

or rusty-brown powdery spore masses. If infection 

is heavy, premature leaf fall occurs. Trees 

defoliated prematurely before harvest do not 

mature their fruit satisfactorily. Yield is reduced, 

bud development is weak and crop yield in the 

following season may be below normal. 

Defoliated trees often shoot and come into flower 

in autumn, so that there is no crop the following 

season. Limbs may be sunburnt and later invaded 

by wood-rotting fungi. Twigs (1-2-year old 

shoots) may develop small dead patches, bark 

develops lengthwise and splits crosswise. Peach 

and nectarine fruit may develop small, circular, 

depressed spots with reddish centres and pale 

green border, late in the season. Where rust 

infection occurs over several consecutive seasons, 

tree life may be considerably shortened. Favoured 

by warm, wet weather. Remove diseased wood 

during pruning, apply recommended fungicides. 

Remove and bury diseased leaves as they provide a 

source of rust spores early in the next season. A 

Prune Rust Infection Prediction Service (PRIPS) 

is available for prune growers. PRIPS is based on 

computer programs which incorporate local day-today 

crop and climatic conditions and automatically 

calculate the risk of rust infection. See Annuals A 7. 

Shot-hole 

Scientific name: Imperfect Fungi: 

Shot-hole (Stigmina carpophila) 

Host range: Commonly apricot, almond and 

cherry. Also peach, plum and nectarine. A 

common and serious disease. 


STONE FRUITS 

Symptoms: Small brown spots with reddish 

margins develop on leaves. These spots enlarge a 

little, but soon become dry, brittle and fall away, 

so that leaves have a shot-holed appearance (Fig. 

161). Shot-holing of leaves can also be caused by: 

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus: Leaves develop a 

severe shot-holing and tattering of the leaves. 

Bacterial diseases: Bacterial canker (Pseudomonas 

syringae pv. syringae), bacterial spot 

(Xanthomonas campestris pv. pruni), P. syringae 

pv. mors-prunorum. 

Fungal leaf spot (Cercospora circumscissa): On 

cherry, large reddish brown circular spots 

develop and are usually larger than those caused by 

shot-hole. They do not fall out as readily. 

Infected buds darken when killed, but are not 

conspicuous until bud movement. They may be 

surrounded by exuded gum. Twig infection results 

in depressed spots with a raised margin, or round 

to oval raised brown spots. They exude gum. On 

young shoots irregular cankers may develop and 

girdle shoots, causing dieback and gumming. 

Cankers are found on wood up to 2-3 years of age 

on peach and nectarine. Fruit symptoms vary 

according to type of stone fruit attacked, almond 

and apricot most seriously affected: 

Almond: Raised brown scabs on the surface 

accompanied by strings and blobs of gum projecting 

from surface. Rain spreads the gum, so that severely 

diseased fruit may be almost covered by clear gum. 

Apricot: Raised brown scabs similar to almonds but 

little, if any, gumming. The fruit surface may crack. 

Peach and nectarine: Infection is less common. 

Spots are brown, depressed and larger than on apricot. 

Some cracking and gumming can occur. 

Plum and cherry: Fruit are seldom attacked. 

Overwintering: On the buds and twigs of hosts. 

Spread: Spores (conidia) are spread in water 

droplets to various parts of the host. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, wet weather in 

spring and early autumn (surface must remain wet 

for several hours for infection to occur). 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Design the orchard to allow 

ventilation around trees, and avoid excessive 

shading which may prolong leaf wetness after 

irrigation or rainfall. 

Sanitation: Prune infected twigs and dead shoots 

during winter pruning, treat if recommended. 

Resistant varieties: Within each type of stone 

fruit there is some variation in susceptibility. 

Pesticides: 1st spray in autumn at leaf fall. 

2nd spray in spring at late budswell (this spray is 

too late for peach leaf curl but is similar to the 

one for freckle and brown rot). The autumn 

spray is not necessary if shot-hole is not serious. 

Wood rots: Dieback of limbs, cankers and 

eventual death of trees can result from the invasion 

of various fungi including wood rotting bracket 

fungi. Fruiting bodies produce spores which are 

spread by wind to other trees. They gain entry 

through pruning and natural wounds. Once 

established the fungi grow through the heartwood. 

Limb dieback is more common in mature trees 

which have suffered stress due to drought, hail, 

sunscald, mechanical root damage, overcropping, 

poor nutrition and severe winter pruning. 

Red wood rot (Trametes cinnabarina) is a weak 

pathogen. It causes a white wood rot and forms 

orange-red leathery brackets (700 mm across, 5-10 

mm thick) with pores underneath. Also 

Pycnoporus coccineus which is more common. 

Silver leaf (Stereum strigoso-zonatum, S. purpureum) 

may be a serious disease of stone fruits. S. strigosozonatum 

occurs on plums and nectarines. S purpureum 

rarely on apricots. S. strigoso-zonatrum brackets 

are small, leathery, grey to brown, with a polished 

black inside. Spores are produced on infected 

branches or old stumps and prunings. They can be 

blown by wind, and enter trees though wounds. 

Important in some temperate production areas. Leaf 

silvering is usually the first indication that infection 

has occurred. Affected leaves have a pale-grey, 

metallic sheen in contrast to the deep green of healthy 

leaves. Silvering can also be caused by twospotted 

mite or by peach silver mite usually in late summer 

and autumn. Silvering caused by silver leaf is due 

the breakdown of leaf structure, the epidermis can lift 

away from the tissue below, the epidermis peels away 

readily when rubbed or scraped. Silvering usually 

appears first in a few small shoots and then rapidly 

expands to all leaves of an infected branch. Affected 

plants slowly decline over several seasons. Remove 

and burn infected trees. See Trees K 8. 

Yellowish wood rot (Polyporus versicolor) may be a 

serious disease of stone fruits. Fruiting bodies are 

smooth, greyish with various brownish bands and 

up to 30 mm across There are cream pores 

underneath. 

Others: Several weak pathogens may attack declining 

trees, eg tinder punk (Phellinus setulosa), coral 

spot (Nectria cinnabarina); white wood rot 

(Pycnoporus coccineus) has bright orange fruiting 

bodies up to 700 mm across, with a honeycomb of 

pores underneath; yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum 

commune) has soft whitish fruiting bodies with 

ragged edges, gills underneath. 



Many nematodes associated with stone fruits have 

a wide host range and occur in sandy soils low in 

organic matter. Roots of nursery stock may 

become infested from infested rootstock or 

nursery soils. Nematodes reduce growth, 

especially of peach and nectarine grown in replant 

land. Control in established orchards includes 

adequate irrigation and fertiliser management and 

maintaining a thick organic mulch under trees. In 

replant situations do not replant for at least 1 year 

after removing old trees. During this time grow 

green manure cover crops, eg oats, to increase soil 

organic matter. Choose nematode-resistant 

rootstocks, eg for almonds. Where nematodes are a 

problem, prepare soil by ploughing, deeply, 

ripping and discing to remove old roots. Pre-plant 

treat/fumigate soil. Nematodes associated with 

stone fruits include root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne spp.), also Aglenchus, Belonolaimus, 

Coslenchus, Criconema, Criconemoides, Ditylenchus, 

Filenchus, Helicotylenchus, Hemicycliophora, 

Hoplotylus, Longidorus, Macroposthonia, Merlinus, 

Neopsilenchus, Paratrichodorus., Paratylenchus, 

Pratylenchus, Pseudohalenchus, Rotylenchus, 

Scutellonema, Tylenchorhynchus, Tylenchus, 

Xiphinema. Bacteria-nematode complexes may 

occur. See Vegetables M 10. 

F 128 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STONE FRUITS 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) are important 

pests of stone fruits. They suck plant sap. There 

is 1 pair of cornicles on the abdomen. Aphids 

attacking stone fruits excrete copious amounts of 

honeydew on which sooty mould grows, attracting 

ants. Foliage and fruit may be disfigured. Large 

amounts of sooty mould on the limbs can result in 

a bark-bound condition. 

Black peach aphid (Brachycaudus persicae) mainly 

infests peach, nectarine, Japanese plum, cherry; also 

apricot and almond growing on peach stock. Adult 

aphids may be winged or wingless, glossy black and 

about 1.5 mm long. Wingless forms are more 

common and have a bloated appearance. Nymphs 

are similar to adults except they are smaller, wingless 

and brown. Dormant buds are stimulated to develop 

by aphids sucking. Infested branches carry open 

blossoms while those on the rest of the tree are still 

tightly folded. Aphids may migrate to flowers and 

young fruit which may fall. Occasionally late 

infestation causes slightly raised reddish roughened 

areas on the skin of fruits. Aphids swarm on to new 

spring leaves causing them to shrivel and finally 

drop. Slight leaf curling, similar to that found in 

green peach aphid infestations, occurs. Aphids 

feeding on lateral shoots and tree tops cause 

dieback (Fig. 163). Throughout the year, wingless 

aphids occur on roots at the junction of trunk and 

main roots and on the feeder roots, at a depth of about 

300 mm, 300-450 mm from the butt. General: On 

young trees, heavy infestation can harm the 

framework. Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis 

(nymphs-live birth, adult female) with many 

generations each year on stone fruits. In spring 

aphids move from cracks and crevices on larger limbs 

and from roots to blossoms and buds, reproducing 

rapidly. Winged forms develop and fly off to other 

hosts. With the onset of hot summer weather, 

aphids move to roots. In autumn, aphids again infest 

above ground parts, this time mainly the lateral 

shoots. With the onset of winter, wingless aphids 

shelter in crevices on the bark of larger limbs or on 

the roots of the tree and especially suckers. Spread: 

During spring as winged female aphids and movement 

of infested nursery stock. Favoured by mild moist 

weather in spring and autumn, hot dry weather can 

kill large numbers on the tree. Aphids on roots are 

protected from heat. Sanitation: If replanting, 

roots of old peaches should be removed, new trees 

should not be planted in old holes unless soil is 

treated. Biological control: Wasp parasites and 

predators, eg hover fly larvae and ladybird beetles, do 

not seem to provide economic control. Disease-free 

planting material: Inspect roots of new trees 

before planting, treat if aphids are present. 

Mechanical methods: Grease bands may be 

placed on the main trunk of infested trees to trap 

aphids migrating to blossoms and buds. Winter 

sprays of petroleum oil may kill aphids on main 

trunks but not those on roots. Monitor aphids on 

blossoms at regular intervals before applying an 

insecticide at first sign of attack in spring or autumn 


Cherry aphid (Myzus cerasi) is an important pest 

of cherries. Adult females may be winged or 

wingless. Wingless females are glossy black while 

the winged forms are dark brown or black and about 

2 mm long. Adult males are winged and resemble 

winged females. Nymphs are usually brown. 

Aphids infest foliage of young shoots in spring, 

terminal shoots become a dense, sticky mass of 

twisted leaves, which may wither and die (Fig. 163). 

Fruit below twisted masses also become gummed 

with honeydew and are unmarketable. Buds: During 

winter many wingless aphids, together with nymphs 

may occur on trees that were heavily infested the 

previous year. Their feeding causes a premature 

swelling and pinking of the buds. Unchecked heavy 

infestations, can kill cherry trees in a few years. Pest 

cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymphs, adult) 

with many generations each year. Only wingless 

females are present in spring on cherry but later in 

spring, winged females develop and fly to uninfested 

trees. As the growth hardens in December, infestation 

almost ceases, and few aphids are present. Usually 

only sucker growth around the margins of an 

orchard is infested during summer months. Late in 

autumn, winged males and wingless egg-laying 

females develop and mate. Females lay the 

overwintering eggs around the bases of the fruit and 

leaf buds and also as small colonies on some trees. 

The winter eggs hatch in spring. Spread by adults 

flying, movement of infested plants. Favoured by 

wet springs. The main peak is usually during 

November. Sanitation: Remove sucker and seedling 

cherry growth around margins of orchards, as these 

provide an important source of reinfestation. 

Biological control: Predators include common 

spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis), transverse 

ladybird (Coccinella repanda), lace wing and syrphid 

fly larvae. In some seasons ladybirds are numerous 

and bring an infestation under control before much 

damage is done. In wet seasons, which appear to 

favour the aphids and not the ladybirds, they have 

little if any effect and aphid infestations are usually 

severe. Pesticides: Monitor aphids and eggs in 

winter, before applying an insecticide at budswell. 

Examine trees again when in leaf in spring and spray 

at first sign of infestation (Brough et al. 1994). 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae): Primary food 

plants are peach and nectarine, also apricots and 

plums (rarely almond). Secondary food plants 

include ornamentals, eg rose, vegetables, eg 

cabbage, potato, fruit, eg strawberry, weeds. 

Adults are globular with dark green markings and 

about 2.5 mm long. Nymphs are like adults except 

that they are smaller and wingless. Their colour varies 

from green to pale yellow and pale pink. Aphids feed 

on swelling buds, often causing premature opening 

of flowers. A single petal emerging from the bud 

indicates its presence. Later generations feed on 

flower parts before petals unfold fully. Opening 

buds and flowers are distorted and fall readily, 

reducing fruit setting. Young fruit may also be 

attacked and much of it falls. Aphids infest young 

leaves and laterals of fruit trees, causing leaves to 

curl and shrivel (Fig. 163). The tree may become 

unproductive and take several years to recover from 

repeated severe attacks. Green peach aphid causes 

distortion and shrivelling of young leaves in a wide 

range of ornamental plants. On stone fruits do not 

confuse green peach aphid damage to leaves with 

the fungal disease peach leaf curl. Over 100 virus 

diseases of a range of plants are transmitted by the 

green peach aphid during feeding, eg cucumber 

mosaic virus and turnip mosaic virus. It does not 

transmit virus diseases of stone fruits. Pest cycle: 

Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymphs, adult) with 

many generations each year. In spring aphids 


STONE FRUITS 

multiply rapidly on peach and nectarine trees, 

producing wingless young-bearing females and 

causing serious damage. In early summer winged 

forms migrate to their secondary food-plants 

(ornamental plants, vegetables and weeds), where 

they spend the summer. In late autumn, some 

females and males migrate back to peaches and 

nectarines and lay eggs about the bases of the buds 

from May-July. Eggs may also be laid on cherry trees 

but they fail to survive. Eggs hatch in late July- 

August, but aphids remain in the buds until bud burst 

when they multiply rapidly as the trees come into leaf. 

In warmer districts (coastal areas) the autumn 

migration to peach trees does not occur, eggs are 

rarely seen. Overwintering: In cool areas as eggs 

about the bases of buds on peach and nectarine trees. 

In milder climates there is no egg stage and aphids 

breed throughout the year on secondary hosts, 

occasionally producing winged forms which fly to 

other secondary hosts. Spread by winged forms 

flying, movement of infested plants, young nursery 

trees which may carry overwintering eggs, and 

seedlings and container plants which may carry 

wingless forms. Favoured by abundant growth of 

herbaceous weeds in the previous summer and 

autumn, late leaf-fall from the peach trees and a cool, 

wet spring. Cold, damp, spring weather slows down 

the hardening of early peach growth and delays the 

appearance of natural enemies. Biological control: 

Aphid populations can be reduced by heavy rain and 

early leaf fall in autumn. If weather prevents the 

returning winged males from reaching peach trees, 

females lay infertile eggs. Field populations are 

regulated by predatory ladybirds, parasitic wasps, 

eg Diaeretiella sp. and a fungus (Entomophthora). 

A strain of another fungus (Verticillium lecanii) is 

being investigated as a biological control agent for 

green peach aphid and also scale, thrips and whiteflies 

(Bates 1996). Pesticides: Green peach aphid has 

developed resistance to many insecticides. Monitor 

aphids during winter pruning for shiny black 

overwintering eggs. Label infested trees and spray all 

infested trees with winter oil either when trees are 

dormant or at budswell. Check results at flowering by 

monitoring aphids on flower clusters before applying 

an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 

Others: Leafcurl plum aphid (Brachycaudus 

helichrysi), mealyplum aphid (Hyalopterus 

pruni), rusty plum aphid (Hysteroneura 

setariae). 


Borers 

Fruit-tree borer (Cryptophasa melanostigma) 

caterpillars tunnel into branches at the base of twigs or 

forks of branches. Their entrance is covered with 

frass and webbing. Caterpillars chew the bark under 

the webbing. The attack weakens and may kill 

branches. See Fruit F 10. 

Others: Auger beetles (Bostrichidae), elephant 

weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris), fruit tree 

pinhole borer (Xyleborus saxeseni). 



Apple dimpling bug (Campylomma liebknechti) feeds 

on fruits 15-20 mm diameter until fruit reach full 

size. Numerous dark spots, 5-10 mm in diameter, 

pepper the fruit, mainly near the stem end, gum may 

exude. Some nectarine varieties are not damaged, eg 

Maygrand and Nectared. Bugs may be monitored 

using disposable white sticky traps or collecting bugs 

in an insect net before making a decision to apply an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Pome fruits 

F 111. 

Brokenbacked bug (Taylorilygus pallidulus) sucks 

juice from young fruitlets resulting in distortion, 

dimpling and scarring. Fresh feeding punctures may 

gum. Monitor bugs by inspecting fruit. Tap fruit 

clusters and collect bugs or use white sticky traps 

before making a decision to apply an insecticide 


Coon bug (Oxycarenus arctatus, Lygaeidae) are 

winged, black and white, about 3 mm long, and 

may swarm on flowers causing them to fall. They 

breed on weeds and attack fruit trees when weed 

growth matures and dries off. Nymphs are red and 

may cluster on weeds, fence posts and stumps (Hely 

1982). 

Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta nitida) attacks green 

stone fruits. Adults and nymphs feed on fruit 

causing sunken spots in fruit, juices may exude from 

punctures and bug-damaged fruit is unmarketable. 

Inspect the terminals for bugs before making a 

decision to apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 


Green mirid bug (Creontiades dilutus) sucks sap from 

young fruitlets causing distortion, dimpling, 

scarring and obvious feeding punctures. Spiders and 

predatory damsel bugs (Nabis kinbergii) feed on 

mirids but do not give adequate control. Monitor bug 

populations at regular intervals before making a 

decision to apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 



occasionally attack almond fruits late in the season, 

causing the kernels to wither and gum. They 

migrate in dry weather from other hosts on which they 

have been breeding. See Vegetables M 12. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) attacks stone fruits, 

peach, apricot, cherry, etc. Younger growth of 

terminal shoots is first attacked and the effect of great 

numbers of these small bugs sucking the sap causes 

drooping and wilting of the foliage and in some cases, 

total destruction. When peaches, apricots, cherries 

and other fruits are infested, they become so pitted 

and disfigured with exudations of gum that they are 

spoiled both as fresh and canning fruit. As the bugs 

breed amongst various weeds, early turning in of 

cover crops or rubbish, usually not later than mid- 

October (in inland areas), may prevent damage to fruit 

crops. If later, then bugs migrate to fruit crops. They 

are a major pest of all stone fruits except plums 

and feed from green and maturing fruit, causing 

young fruit to shrivel and fall. Ripening areas around 

feeding sites become tough, remain green and strands 

of gum may exude from punctures. Control weeds. 

Monitor bugs on fruit before applying an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Vegetables M 12. 

Others: Green stink bug (Plautia affinis), green 

vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), pale cotton 

stainer (Dysdercus sidae). 


F 130 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STONE FRUITS 


Budworms (Helicoverpa, Heliothis): Native 

budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) moths migrate 

into orchards in spring and lay eggs during flowering. 

Caterpillars tunnel into fruitlets leaving round holes, 

as they grow they eat the seed. Monitor caterpillars 

in fruit before deciding to apply an insecticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Sweetcorn M 89. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) infest plums, apricots, 

peaches and nectarines. Caterpillars web adjacent 

leaves and/or fruit together to form a silken tunnel 

in which they feed. They graze on fruit. Control 

weeds which are alternative hosts. Hand thinning 

fruit reduces the incidence of infestation. Monitor 

caterpillars and damage to fruit before applying an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Pome fruits 

F 112. Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) 

caterpillars bore into tips of young shoots of 

peaches and nectarines in coastal areas, causing leaf 

webbing, wilting and gumming. They also infest fruit 

around the stem end. Monitor caterpillars, webbed 

leaf shelters, wilted tips, stem end boring, and leaf and 

fruit damage at regular intervals before applying an 

insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Citrus F 37. 

Oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta) 

caterpillars bore into tips of young shoots causing 

them to wilt and die (Fig. 164). They cause severe 

damage to framework of young trees. Tunnelling 

often causes exudation of gum, the formation of callus 

and multiple shooting. Fruit are attacked later in the 

season by caterpillars entering the stem end or where 

a leaf or small branch is touching the fruit (Fig. 164). 

Several caterpillar and pupal parasites can help reduce 

numbers. See Stone fruits F 131. 

Pyralid moths (Pyralidae): Carob moth (Ectomyelois 

ceratoniae) may infest stone fruits in areas of WA. 

Also yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis). 

See Stone fruits F 133, F 137 (Fig. 166). 

Others: Cherry looper (Chloroclystis approximata, 

Geometridae), cup moths (Doratifera spp.), leaf 

case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri), tussock moths 

(Lymantriidae), eg painted apple moth (Teia 

anartoides) and Porthesia paradoxa. 

Driedfruit beetles (Carpophilus spp.) may 

cause crop losses as great as 25% to ripening 

peaches by their feeding and carrying spores of the 

brown rot fungus. Fruit loss is caused primarily by 

the beetles burrowing into ripening fruit, commonly 

through cracks in the skin or open stem ends. Rarely 

do beetles penetrate the exposed surface of fruit. 

Female beetles lay eggs in the fruit and larvae tunnel 

in the fruit. Decay organisms develop within the 

tunnels causing them to rot. An efficient program to 

control fruit fly, oriental fruit moth and lightbrown 

apple moth reduces the volume of damaged and 

fermented fruit available to the beetles. Cultivars that 

are prone to produce split stones are more 

susceptible, eg Southland. Destroy or bury in an 

insect proof pit, all fallen fruit and damaged fruit 

from trees and ground. It is not practical to monitor 

driedfruit beetles (Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit F 8. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) are an 

important pest of stone fruits on the tree and 

postharvest. Stings are not very noticeable in 

peaches and nectarines. See Fruit F 2 (Fig. 101) F 

9. 

Leafhoppers, treehoppers 

Apple leafhopper (Typhlocyba froggatti, Cicadellidae) 

Green treehopper (Sextius virescens, Membracidae) 

See Pome fruits F 112, Trees K 15, Vegetables M 15. 

Mites ( Acarina) 

Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae): Peach silver mite 

(Aculus cornutus) infests peach. Adult mites are 

narrow, tiny mites about 0.2 mm long. They taper 

towards the rear end and have 2 pairs of legs near the 

head. The silvering first becomes noticeable about 

December or January and by late autumn all leaves 

are a leaden or a dull silvery colour. This does not 

seem to cause significant damage as the leaves do not 

fall prematurely, at least not on irrigated trees. The 

mites have long been suspected of causing bud 

shatter or bud shedding, which may reduce the yield 

of fruit, for which no other cause has been established. 

Overwinter under the scales enclosing the scales. In 

spring the mites move out from the buds to feed on 

the upper surfaces of new leaves. Control is not 

usually warranted. If necessary, dormant sprays 

should provide adequate control. Plum leaf mite 

(Phyllocoptes abaenus) may be found living on leaf 

undersurfaces of plums and ornamentals. It 

frequents basal hairs along leaf midribs. See 

Grapevine F 62. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Bryobia mite, brown 

almond mite (Bryobia rubrioculus): By midsummer 

foliage develops a grey green appearance. As 

autumn approaches the colour becomes more bleached 

and defoliation may be heavy and trees may look 

scraggy. Leaf size is affected and trees infested year 

after year have narrow thin leaves. The crop is 

reduced by the fall of half-developed nuts and those 

remaining on the tree are undersized and often empty. 

Favoured by inadequate irrigation. Peerless is very 

susceptible. Control by spraying in winter with 

winter oil. Predatory mite (Typhlodromus 

doreeniae) may be a biological control agent for 

bryobia mite but may be reduced by winter oil sprays. 

It may be necessary to spray during the growing 

season. See Fruit F 12. European red mite 

(Panonychus ulmi) is an important pest. See Fruit 

F 12, Pome fruits F 115. Twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae) affects peaches and nectarines, 

plums and prunes, almonds. Infestation is usually 

mild and occurs when trees have been sprayed for 

certain other pests (natural enemies of twospotted 

mite are killed). Leaves are stippled, grey looking 

or almost white, such damaged leaves fall and fruit 

size is reduced and sunburnt and fail to colour. 

Monitor mite and predators at regular intervals 


Various outlets, eg IPM Services in Adelaide, provide 

management information for twospotted mite, apple 

weevil and European earwig. See Beans (French) M 

29, Fruit F 12. 

Oriental fruit moth, peach tip moth 

Scientific name: Tortricidae, Lepidoptera: 

Oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta) 

Host range: Mainly stone fruits, especially 

peach and nectarine but also almond, apricot, plum 

and cherry. Occasionally quince, apple and pear. 

Also the ornamental varieties of these species. 


STONE FRUITS 

Description and damage: Moths are a mottled 

grey-brown colour and are about 6 mm long when 

at rest with wings folded. They are rarely seen 

during the day. Caterpillars are up to 12 mm long, 

are whitish or pale pink with a light brown head. 

They have a special appendage, the anal comb, a 

toothed horny plate on the last segment. 

Caterpillars usually enter twigs near the tip (and 

often near the petiole) and tunnel downward for 

7-10 cm causing the twig to wilt, collapse, produce 

gum and die. One caterpillar may attack as many 

as 3 shoots during feeding. When older 

caterpillars move from one twig to another, the 

point of entry into the shoots may be at the axil of 

a leaf below the tip. Later broods of caterpillars 

may enter fruit either through the stem of the fruit 

or where a leaf or small branch touches the fruit, 

so that fruit can appear perfect on the outside but 

when cut open numerous feeding burrows can be 

seen. These tunnels may be filled with brown 

particles of excreta, similar to codling moth 

damage to apples (Fig. 164). Shoot growth can be 

severely damaged and the framework of young 

trees is affected. Fruit attacks by caterpillars can 

increase the amount of brown rot infection, 

especially in wet weather. 


caterpillar, pupa, adult) with several generations 

each year (probably 5-6). 

Overwintering: As caterpillars in cocoons under 

bark on trees, and on mummified fruit and litter on 

the ground, also in crevices in the soil. 

Spread: By moths flying, they are not strong 

fliers, the transfer of infested fruit, nursery stock 

and possibly in picking boxes. 

Conditions favouring: Succulent shoot growth 

due to warm, moist conditions, overwatering, 

overfertilising or severe pruning encourage 

populations to build up quickly. As warm moist 

conditions also favour the brown rot fungus, the 

total damage may be greatly increased. Hot dry 

windy weather is unfavourable to the moth. Even 

if heavy infestation is threatened in spring, hot 

winds in summer can reduce infestations 

significantly. Very cold winters are unfavourable. 

Control: Control infestations on both bearing 

and non-bearing trees as the framework of 

developing trees may be seriously damaged and 

moths may spread to adjoining mature trees. 

Sanitation: Damage to individual home garden 

trees may be reduced by pruning off and 

burning/destroying infested tips in spring. This 

reduces the number of 1st generation moths. 

Fallen and infested fruit on the tree should be 

destroyed every few days by burning or placing in 

an insect-proof pit. Remove loose or rough bark 

under which larvae may pupate from the tree. 

Biological control: Various wasp parasites 

attack larvae and pupae and may reduce moth 

numbers considerably. Female pheromones are 

released from tiers (Isomate M) on trees, this 

confuses male moths preventing mating; they are 

used commercially to control oriental fruit moth. 

Pesticides: If tiers are not being used and if there 

is no warning service, insecticides should be 

applied when moth activity is first observed 

(usually within 14 days of petal fall, October 

onwards) and at intervals of 3 weeks thereafter 

(observe withholding periods). The aim is to kill 

the moths as they alight on the treated plant and 

the caterpillars as they crawl on the surface of 

the plant. If a warning service based on trap 

catches is available, intervals between 

applications can be extended beyond 3 weeks. 

For all sprays use a coarse spray and good 

pressure and enough spray to wet the leaves 

thoroughly. A fully grown tree will need several 

litres of spray to cover it thoroughly. The use of 

pesticides to control oriental fruit moth may 

reduce the natural enemies of twospotted mites 

resulting in an increase in damage by this pest. 


are slug-like, green-black and about 12 mm long. 

They skeletonise leaves of stone fruits (Fig. 165), 

especially cherry, but also plum, causing them to 

brown and trees to look scorched. Regular severe 

infestation year after year reduces the vigour of 

trees. Cultivars vary in susceptibility. 

Insecticides may be applied when slugs are seen 

on the tree. See Pome fruits F 115. 




Peach white scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona) 

San Jose scale (Q. perniciosus) 


Yellow scale (A. citrina) 


Soft scales (Coccidae): Frosted scale, prune scale 

(Eulecanium pruinosum) infests deciduous fruit and 

ornamental trees, especially apricot, peach, plum, 

prune and nectarine. Adult scales are about 5 mm 

long, oval-convex, soft-bodied with a white powdery 

wax (frosted) and a few fine white hairs. See Fruit F 

3 (Fig. 107). Nymphs are active, light brown 

crawlers. Leaves are usually infested with nymphs 

during summer. Undersurfaces of twigs, spurs or 

laterals are infested with half-grown scales and 

adults. This scale produces large quantities of 

honeydew with associated sooty mould. 

Overwinters as developing scale insects on the 

undersurfaces of twigs and branches. During winter, 

half-grown scales lie along the undersurfaces of spurs 

or lower laterals. These scales become adult in 

spring. Egg laying commences shortly afterwards, 

large numbers of white eggs accumulate under old 

scales. Eggs commence hatching about November. 

Nymphs crawl to leaf undersurfaces where they settle 

without much further development until autumn, 

when they migrate back to twigs. Spread by 

movement of infested nursery stock, scales crawling 

or carried by ants, and by humans to other adjacent 

trees. Predatory ladybirds can keep infestations in 

check, both the adults and larvae feed on this scale. 

One spray of winter oil during winter will usually 

keep this scale in check and is not detrimental to 

predatory ladybirds. Grapevine scale 

(Parthenolecanium persicae) is usually controlled by 

the mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) 

and wasp parasites. Inspect bark of trees during 

pruning, label and spot spray any infested trees. Also 

black scale (Saissetia oleae), soft brown scale 

(Coccus hesperidum). See Citrus F 41 

Others: Cottonycushion scale (Icerya purchasi). 

Dormant petroleum sprays are usually applied, 

ensure undersides of laterals are thoroughly 

covered. See Citrus F 39, F 41, Trees K 16. 

F 132 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STONE FRUITS 




Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) attack peach and 

nectarine at flowering, causing skin blemishes and 

slight fruit malformation resulting in rejection of fruit 

from the fresh fruit market. Monitor thrips by 

inspecting 5 blossoms or by shaking flowers over a 

hand or into an ice cream container from each of 20 

trees/ha at weekly intervals from early flowering to 

shuck fall. Thrips may be found in flowers and under 

the shuck. Spray if thrips numbers average > 6/flower 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Roses J 6. 

Weevils Curculionidae, Coleoptera) 

Apple root weevils (Perperus spp.) 

Apple weevil (Otiorhynchus cribricollis) 

Fruit tree root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonchus cervinus) 

Vine weevil (Orthorhinus klugi) 

See Pome fruits F 116, Trees K 17, Vegetables M 17. 


Scientific name: Pyralidae, Lepidoptera: 


Host range: Ornamentals, eg seed capsules and 

leaves of flame tree (Brachychiton acerifolium), 

fruits of Planchonia careya, palm (Livistona 

humilis), fruit, eg custard apple, citrus, pawpaw, 

macadamia, mango, peach, vegetables, eg 

eggfruit, field crops, eg cotton, maize, sorghum. 

Description and damage: Moths are bright 

yellow or orange with a wing span of about 25 

mm. Wings and body have conspicuous black 

spots. Caterpillars are about 20 mm long, greywhite, 

often tinged with pink. They have a dark 

head, a dark shield on the upper surface of the 1st 

body segment. Fruit injury occurs when fruit is 

nearly ripe. Caterpillars bore in where 2 fruits 

hang together or at the stem end. They usually 

feed around the stone and fill the cavity formed 

with dark brown frass pellets (Fig. 166). If the fruit 

is green, there is often an exudation of clear gum. 


larvae, pupa, adult) with several generations each 

year. Eggs are laid on developing fruit. 

Caterpillars feed in the fruit and pupate on the 

outside of fruit on the host in shelters of webbed 

larval droppings. 

Overwintering: As cocoons on the host plant. 

Spread: By moths flying, and by the movement 

of infested fruit. 

Conditions favouring: Yellow peach moth is a 

subtropical species of Far North Coast and is not 

found in the commercially important peachgrowing 

areas of NSW. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infested fruit. 

Pesticides: If insecticides are necessary, those for 

oriental fruit moth will probably be effective. 

Ensure coverage of fruit. Spray within 2 weeks 

of petal fall and repeat every 2-3 weeks. 

Others: Grasshoppers, katydids, locusts 

(Orthoptera), eg inland katydid (Caedicia simplex), 

chew the skin of ripening fruits making them 

unmarketable. Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), eg 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator), Christmas 

beetles (Anoplognathus spp.). Cicadas (Cicadidae, 

Hemiptera) damage twigs and branches when they lay 

eggs into them during spring and summer. Females 

make rows of slits along the branches as they lay their 

eggs. Each slit about 6 mm long is marked by a tuft of 

wood splinters. Some small branches can be severely 

damaged but damage is not economic. Eggs can be seen 

in slits when fresh. Cicada nymphs develop in the soil 

where they feed on roots but do not cause economic 

damage. Chemical control is not recommended. Avoid 

planting near native areas (Brough et al. 1994). Also 

cherrynose (Macrotristria angularis, Cicadidae). Very 

occasional pests include whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), 

pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora hilaris), codling moth 

(Cydia pomonella), European earwig (Forficula 

auricularia), mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), 

redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis), 

soldier beetle (Chauliognathus sp.), woolly aphid 

(Eriosoma lanigerum). 


Birds, fruit bats, rabbits, hares may damage 

stone fruits. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Beattie et al. (1989) describes 

postharvest diseases. Adequate and appropriate 

irrigation is essential when fruit and nuts are 

maturing. Crinkle of plum: If water lost from 

leaves during hot dry periods is not replaced 

quickly, water is removed from fruit to the leaves 

and fruits shrivel. Skin cracking or rain-induced 

split in apricots and cherries may be due to excess 

uptake of water by fruit shortly before harvest. 

Cracks may be invaded by secondary rots. Select 

cultivars with some resistance. Pit burn: 

Apricots may be damaged by very hot weather and 

low humidity between early ripening and 

harvesting, causing internal softening. Late 

spring frosts may damage early flowering cultivars 

of almond, apricot and plum. After a severe frost, 

petals may brown and collapse. The whole flower 

may be killed, but occasionally the pistil is still 

undamaged. If the fertile parts are damaged the 

flower usually drops within a few days. Apricots 

prefer hot dry summers and cold winters, by 

careful choice of variety it is possible to produce 

crops in a range of climates. Most varieties 

blossom early so choose site to avoid frosts. 

Cherries need cold winters and do not tolerate 

shallow, waterlogged or saline soils. Choose a site 

sheltered from strong winds, frost-free in spring 

and provide protection from drying winds. Frost 

damage on plum is unusual. A light frost after 

fruit set may cause irregular patches of rough scaly 

russet on any part of the fruit. See Fruit F 3 (Fig. 

109). Growth under patches of this russet is only 

slightly restricted. Fruit handled postharvest 

without temperature control, eg cooling, may 

lose quality quickly. Cool storage breakdown is 

usually due to holding fruit for an excessive time 


STONE FRUITS 

in storage and/or by storing at incorrect low 

temperatures. Damage includes internal 

discolouration of flesh and/or shrivelling of the 

whole fruit which only develops after removal 

from cool storage. Freezing injury during cool 

storage may occur to fruit. Condensation on the 

skin of peaches and nectarines occurs when fruit is 

cooled, removed from cool storage for packing 

then cooled again for transportation. 

Genetic: Some stone fruits, eg apricots, readily 

gum. Do not confuse this gumming with damage 

caused by bacterial canker, bacterial spot, brown 

rot, shot-hole, fruit-tree borer, waterlogging, water 

deficiency, heavy pruning, intense heat. Some 

Prunus spp. develop burr knots or galls at the 

base of the trunk. Burr knots can produce 

adventitious shoots if necessary, for example, if 

the top of the tree was lopped off. Autumn leaf 

roll causes an upward rolling of leaves of some of 

peaches, eg the newer peach cultivars, eg 

Maygold, and may cause stunting and loss of yield 


Mechanical injury: Physical damage to skin 

of fruit postharvest may occur during rough 

handling, eg dipping, fingernails, twigs. Rubbing 

of skin may cause browning of the skin and of the 

flesh underneath and is due to packing and grading 

equipment Pressure and bruising injury is due to 

rough handling and overfilling containers. Surface 

pitting may occur on cherries. Limbs of some 

stone fruits, eg apricot, gum readily when injured. 

Plums, particularly some Japanese plums, may 

overcrop and split limbs. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Standards 

based on diagnostic leaf analyses are available for 

stone fruits (Weir and Cresswell 1993). Apricots 

may be susceptible to salt toxicity. 

Pesticide and chemical injury: Pesticides: 

Only apply dormant sprays of copper on stone 

fruits otherwise foliage damage will occur. 

Copper persists in the soil. Bordeaux mixture if 

applied after flowering to apricot may, under 

certain weather conditions, russet fruit. In Europe 

where copper sprays have been used for decades 

vegetables grown in stone fruit orchards may 

suffer from copper toxicity. Dimethoate may 

damage early peaches. Chemical injury: During 

storage ammonia gas leaking from refrigeration 

systems may enter fruit through the skin causing 

surface blotches on skin. Sulphur dioxide used to 

control grey mould in grapes and injury may occur 

when they are transported with stone fruit. 




Aitkinson, J. D. 1971. Diseases of Tree Fruits in New 

Zealand. DSIR, Auckland. 

Bates, J. 1996. Solution to Aphid Menace in Sight. Aust. 

Hort., July. 














Campbell, J. (ed.). 1994. Protect Your Stonefruit. Qld 


Chaddbund, G. 1972. Flowering Cherries. Collins, 

London. 



Cross, R. and Looker, M. 1989. Japanese Flowering 

Cherries : Prunus Sato-zakura Group. Royal 

Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. 

Com. of Aust., Aust. Quar. Inspection Service, 

Dept. of Primary Industries & Energy, Canberra. 

Brown Rot of Pome Fruit. No. 37. 1991. 

Plum Pox Virus. No. 11. 1990. 


Fleming's, Monbulk Nurseries, Victoria. 





Kensington. NSW.. 



Melbourne. 



Madge, D. 1995. Organic Agriculture : Getting Started. 

Agmedia, Melbourne. 



and Vegetables : Unshelled Sweet Almonds; 

Apricots; Cherries; Peaches; Plums. cur. edn. 

OECD, Paris. Avail. from DA Books, Mitcham, Vic. 

Ogawa, J. M., Zehr, E. I., Bird, G. W., Ritchie, D. F., 

Uriu, K. and Uyemoto, J. K. 1995. Compendium of 

Stone Fruit Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, 

Minnesota. 

Pascoe, S. 1995. Organics on the Commercial Agenda. 









Sutton, P. 1976. Prunus for Public Planting. Aust. Parks 

& Recreation, May. 





Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts/NSW Agnotes/NSW Agric 

Almonds in Garden 

Apricots in the Garden 

Bacterial Canker of Stone Fruit 

Bacterial Spot of Stone Fruit 

Black Heart of Apricots 

Brown Rot of Stone Fruits 

Cherries in the Garden 

Cherry Growing 

Diseases of Cherries (NSW Bull. 1972) 

Frosted scale 

Major Pests & Diseases of Deciduous Fruits (poster) 


NSW (Current Season) 

Orchard Spray Calendar for the MIA and Young 

Palmette Training of Dessert Stone Fruit 

Peach and Nectarine Growing 

Peach and Nectarine Varieties for New South Wales 

Peach Leaf Curl 

Plums in the Garden 

Preparing Produce for Markets (Export Note, NSW Agric) 

Prune Growing 

Prune Rust : A Practical Guide to its Control 

F 134 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Rust of Stone Fruits 

Shot-hole and Freckle of Stone Fruits 

Stonefruit Pest & Disease Control (Leaflet NSW Agric.) 

Summer Trunk Canker of Peach and Other Stone Fruits 

Vic Agnotes 

Aphid Pests of Peaches, Cherries and Citrus 

Apricot Scab (Shot-hole) 

Apricots : Production, Harvesting, Marketing 

Bacterial Canker (Gummosis) of Stone Fruits 

Brown-rot of Stone Fruit 

Chemical Control of Weeds in Pome and Stone Fruit 

Chemical Thinning of Cling Peaches 

Closer Planting of Peach Trees in Goulburn Valley 

Orchards 

Crop Control of Clingstone Peaches for the Fresh Market 

Fresh Marketing of Canning Peaches 

Crown Gall of Stonefruit 


Drying Apricots at Home 

Drying Stone Fruit 

Eutypa Dieback of Apricot 

Freckle of Peaches and Apricots 

Fruit Tree Borer Moth & Small Fruit Tree Borer Moth 

Growing Cherries on Tatura Trellis 1 

Growing Sweet Cherries 

Integrated Control of Orchard Mites 

Mechanical Harvesting of Peaches for Processing 

Nectarine Varieties for the Mallee 

Oriental Fruit Moth 

Peach and Nectarine Spray Schedule 

Peach Leaf Curl 

Peach Rosette and Decline Virus 

Peach Rust 

Phytophthora Trunk Rot of Peaches and Apricots 

Plum and Prune Spray Program for the Mallee 

Plums : Rootstocks and Cultivation 

Plum Spray Schedule 

Plums : Varieties and Pollination 

Plum Varieties for the Mallee 

Postharvest Fungicidal Dips for Stone fruit 

Propagating Peach Trees from Hard-wood Cuttings 

Propagating Peach Trees from Softwood Cuttings 

Rhizopus Rot & Transit Rot of Fruit & Vegetables 


MANAGEMENT 

STONE FRUITS 

Spray Programs for Commercial Apricot & Cherry 

Growers 

Spring-budded Peach Trees 

The Pear and Cherry Slug 

Thinning Canning Peach Trees 

Training Peach & Nectarine Trees on Tatura Trellis 

Training Plum Trees on Tatura Trellis 

Trickle Irrigation : The Water Needs of Young Peach 

Trees 

The Dried Fruit Beetle (Vic Agnote) 

Using Predatory Mite to Control Twospotted Mite in Pome 

and Stone fruit Orchards 


White-fleshed Dessert Peach Varieties 

Wood Rots 

Yellow-fleshed Dessert Peach Varieties 

Yellow-fleshed Nectarine Varieties 

WA Farmnotes 

Almond Growing in Western Australia 



Commercial Almond Growing (SA Dept of Agric Bull) 

Eutypa Dieback in Apricots and Grapevines 

Oriental Fruit Moth 

Postharvest Control of Rot in Stone Fruits 

Qld Farmnotes/DPI Notes 

Plums : Selection of Pollinator 

Stone Fruit : Propagation, Growing Peach Rootstocks 

Tas Farmnotes 

Postharvest Disease Control in Stone Fruits 



Almondco (formerly the Almond Coop.) 

Australian Almond Improvement Society 

Australian Nut Industry Council (ANIC) 

Canned Fruits Industry Council of Australia 

Cherry Growers Assoc. 


International Prune Assoc. (IPA) 

NSW Canning Fruitgrowers Assoc. of NSW 


SA Canning Fruitgrowers Assoc. 

Vic. Canning Fruitgrowers Council 




Stone fruits are grown for the fresh market, processing and drying. An overview of the industry is presented by 

Coombs (1995). Many species are grown for their flowers, but some are high maintenance trees requiring yearly 

spraying for peach leaf curl and in some seasons for aphids (Sutton 1976); they may also require pruning and 

summer irrigation. Each type of stone fruit has its own list of diseases and pests (Table 2) so it is difficult to 

generalise. Select cultivars suited to the area, determine tree spacing, soil, slope, equipment width and 

rootstock. Check pollinating requirements for your particular area, eg cross pollination may be essential for 

economic fruit or nut production. Cross-pollination is necessary for production of almonds and these can only 

mature satisfactorily (without constant disease problems), in areas of long, hot dry summers; pollinators are 

required for sweet cherry, but not for sour cherry. Areas where cool, showery weather prevails during 

flowering (July/August) are unsuitable because pollination is affected. Biennial bearing occurs in some stone 

fruit varieties which can be modified by management practices, eg selection of budwood, appropriate thinning 

techniques. Choose rootstock with some resistance to local problems, eg waterlogging. Purchase virus-tested 

planting material and inspect rootstock and nursery stock for crown gall, black peach aphids, scales and other 

diseases and pests. Stone fruits are traditionally propagated by budding and grafting onto rootstocks grown 

from seed but also by cuttings, eg peaches. Diagnostic, monitoring and pest management systems are 

available and should be followed (Campbell 1994). Overseas expert systems are available for peach and 

nectarines. Regional plant protection guides and computerised decision support systems have been developed, 

eg for prune rust. Cultural methods: Replant problems can occur, eg poor growth and death of young peach 

trees planted into old peach orchards, these are caused by toxins released during the decomposition of old 

peach roots (Handreck and Black 1994). Some stone fruits, eg Japanese plums, need regular hard pruning, 

European plums need less pruning. Appropriately thin stone fruits, eg by growth regulators, hand thinning or 

tree shakers. Sanitation: Prune at the appropriate time and prune off diseased parts, eg brown rot mummies. 

Biological control: Pre-plant treat crown gall susceptible nursery stock with Agrobacterium, and use other 

biological control agents, if available. Pesticides: Copper, which is commonly and widely used on stone fruits, 

is non-systemic so only protects tissue from infection. Growth regulators are used for thinning, increasing size 

and uniformity, controlling vegetative growth and other processes. Regional spray schedules are available for 

brown rot, peach leaf curl and shot-hole and insect pests on susceptible varieties. Winter oil is used for 

scales during dormancy. Storage: Fruit diseases and pests must be controlled both in the field and 

postharvest, eg brown rot, rhizopus soft rot and fruit fly. See Fruit F 5, F 17, Postharvest N 62. Organic 

standards are available for stone fruits (Madge 1995, Pascoe 1995). 


STONE FRUITS 

Fig. 158. Bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae). Left : Gumming. Right : Bark removed to 

show brown tissue underneath. 

Fig. 159. Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) on 

peach nursery stock. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 160. Brown rot (Sclerotinia fructicola) 

of peach fruit. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 161. Left : Apricot fruit and leaves infected with shothole 

(Stigmina carpophila). Right : Nectarine fruit infected 

with freckle (Venturia carpophila). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 162. Peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans). 

Left : Curly leaves. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Right : Damage to nectarine fruit. 

F 136 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STONE FRUITS 

Fig. 163. Aphids. Top left : Black peach aphids 

(Brachycaudus persicae). Top right : Cherry 

aphid (Myzus cerasi) damage. Lower left : Green 

peach aphid (Myzus persicae) damage. 

Fig. 165. Pear and cherry slug (Caliroa cerasi), up to 

12 mm long, skeletonising a cherry leaf. 

Fig. 164. Oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta). 

Left : Caterpillar damage in peach fruit. Right : Shoot 

tips die due to caterpillars tunnelling in them. 

Fig. 166. Yellow peach moth (Conogethes 

punctiferalis). Left : Damage to custard apple. 

Right : Caterpillar (20 mm long). 


STONE FRUITS 

Table 2. Some diseases and pests of particular stone fruits. 

VIRUS & VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES 

Prunus necrotic ringspot 

virus (PNRV) 


Bacterial canker (BC) 

Bacterial spot (BS) 

Crown gall 


Armillaria root rot (ARR) 

(sporadic in contaminated areas) 

Brown rot 

Eutypa 

Freckle 

Fruit rots (various species) 

Peach leaf curl (PLC) 

Powdery mildew (PM) 

Rust 

Shot-hole 

Phytophthora root rot (PRR) 

Verticillium wilt (VW) 

Wood rot (WR) (various species) 

ALMOND APRICOT CHERRY PEACH 

NECTARINE 

PLUM 

PNRV PNRV PNRV PNRV PNRV 

Crown gall 

ARR 

BC 

Crown gall 

ARR 

BC 

BS 

Crown gall 

BS 

Crown gall 

BC 

BS 

Crown gall 

Brown rot Brown rot Brown rot 

Eutypa 

Freckle Freckle Freckle 

Nut rots 

PLC 


PLC 

PM 

Fruit rots Fruit rots 

PLC 

PM 

Rust 

Shot-hole 

Rust 

Shot-hole 

PRR 

Rust 

Shot-hole 

Rust 

Shot-hole 

PRR 

VW 

WR 

WR 

WR 

WR 

WR 

NEMATODE DISEASES Many Many Many Many Many 

ARR 

ARR 

ARR 

Brown rot 

Freckle 


PLC 

Rust 

Shot-hole 

PRR 

INSECTS & ALLIED PESTS 

Aphids 

Black peach aphid (BPA) 

Cherry aphid (CA) 

Green peach aphid (GPA) 

Borers 

Fruit-tree borer (FTB) 

Bugs 

Fruitspotting bug (FSB) 

Rutherglen bug (RB) 

Caterpillars 

Budworms (B) (Helicoverpa) 

Lightbrown apple moth (LBAM) 

Oriental fruit moth (OFM) 

Yellow peach moth (YPM) 

Driedfruit beetles (DFB) 


Pear & cherry slug (P&CS) 

Mites 

Bryobia mite (BM) 

European red mite (ERM) 

Peach silver mite (PSM) 

Twospotted mite (TM) 

Scale 

Frosted scale (FS) 

Grapevine scale (GS) 

San Jose scale (SJS) 

Soft brown scale (SBS) 

Thrips 

Plague thrips (PT) 

BPA 

GPA 

FTB 

RB 

OFM 

DFB 

P&CS 

BM 

ERM 

TM 

SJS 

BPA 

GPA 

FTB 

FSB 

RB 

Budworms 

LBAM 

OFM 

DFB 


P&CS 

BM 

ERM 

TM 

FS 

GS 

SJS 

SBS 

BPA 

CA 

FTB 

FSB 

RB 

Budworms 

LBAM 

OFM 

DFB 


P&CS 

BM 

TM 

SJS 

PT 

BPA 

GPA 

FTB 

FSB 

RB 

Budworms 

LBAM 

OFM 

YPM 

DFB 


P&CS 

BM 

ERM 

PSM 

TM 

FS 

SJS 

PT 

BPA 

GPA 

FTB 

FSB 

RB 

Budworms 

LBAM 

OFM 

DFB 


P&CS 

BM 

ERM 

TM 

FS 

GS 

SJS 

PT 


Birds 


Possums 

Birds 

Birds 


Possums 

Birds 


Possums 

Birds 


Possums 

Birds 


Possums 

Non-parasitic pests and 

diseases 

Late frosts in spring (early 

flowering cultivars) 

Overcropping (split limbs 

and smaller fruit) 

Rain split 

Late frosts 

Late frosts 

Rain split 

Late frosts 

Overcropping 

Rain split 

F 138 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Strawberry 

Fragaria spp. 



Parasitic 








Wilts 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Crickets, grasshoppers, locusts 

Mites 


Slaters 

Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 




Parasitic 


Crinkle-yellow edge complex: Several viruses 

affect cultivated strawberries including strawberry 

crinkle virus, strawberry mild yellow edge virus, 

strawberry veinbanding virus. In most commercial 

strawberry varieties none of the viruses alone 

produce any noticeable symptoms although 

some decline in yield occurs with strawberry crinkle 

virus in some varieties. In general, viruses are a 

problem only if 2 or more combine in one plant. 

Symptoms depend on which viruses are present and 

the cultivar. As the number of viruses and virus 

strains increases there is an increase in severity of 

symptoms, particularly in autumn. Symptoms are 

more distinct in cooler months of the year. The most 

common symptoms classified as crinkle include 

stunting of plants, reduced and uneven leaf size, leaf 

crinkling, small and often misshapen fruit. Leaves 

may be flecked with yellow, particularly along veins, 

which may become dead and discoloured. Leaf 

margins when held up to light appear yellow. Virusinfected 

plants may yield 60% less fruit and a 

smaller proportion of large and marketable fruit. Even 

mild virus infection can result in a 25% reduction in 

yield. Overwinters in infected strawberry plants. 

Spread by vegetative propagation (runners, grafting) 

from virus-infected plants, by aphids especially the 

strawberry aphid (Chaetosiphon fragaefolii), not by 

mechanical inoculation, not by contact between 

plants, not by seed, not by pollen. Virus-infected 

plants cannot be cured. To minimise losses: 

Remove and destroy infected plants when observed. 

Only plant virus-free runners obtained from a 

certified supplier and replant every 2-3 years. New 

crops must be at least 400 m from existing infected 

ones to avoid aphids spreading viruses from old crops 

to new virus-free crops. Control aphid vectors 

which build up in numbers during spring and autumn. 

As an aphid on a sprayed plant can inoculate it with 

virus during a few minutes of feeding before the aphid 

dies, it is unlikely that viruses can be kept out of crops 

as long as virus-infected strawberries are grown. See 


Others: Strawberry lethal yellows, little leaf/green 

petal mycoplasma causes runner plants from infected 

parent plants to be stunted. Young leaves yellow and 

die. Probably spread in nature by leafhoppers. See 

Tomato M 97. 


Strawberry angular leaf spot (Xanthomonas 

fragariae), if established in Australia, could 

seriously affect Australia's strawberry industry. 

Two outbreaks so far have been recorded in 

Australia. It is spread by infected planting 

material. Enzyme-liked immunosorbent assay 

(ELISA) diagnostic tests have been developed 

overseas (Rowhani et al. 1994). 


Fruit rots are common on strawberries. 

Anthracnose, black spot, ripe rot (Colletotrichum 

sp.) causes a firm slow-spreading rot of ripe or nearripe 

fruit. Fruit develop circular black spots about 

2-8 mm across; these become sunken and covered 

with masses of wet glistening pink to green spores. 

Overwinters in infected dead leaves and berries on 

the plant. Spores are spread by rain splash and 

overhead irrigation. Favoured by warm, humid 

conditions and 2nd-year fruit beds. See Fruit F 5. 

Rhizopus soft rot, leak (Rhizopus stolonifer) attacks 

ripe fruit causing mushy berries which become 

covered with white mycelium and later masses of 

black spores. This is mainly a postharvest 

disease. See Fruit F 6. 

Gnomonia fruit and leaf blotch (Gnomonia 

fructicola) during wet springs and summers 

commonly attacks fruit at its base. In flowers and 

immature fruit, the calyx is rapidly killed and fruit 

shrivel. In ripe or near-ripe fruit the calyx is killed 

and a firm brown rot slowly spreads from the calyx 

to the whole fruit. Leaf blotch attacks older leaves, 

causing large brown circular spots. Overwinters in 

debris from infected and current strawberry crops. 

Spores are spread from infected debris and 

strawberry plants by wind and water splash (rain or 

overhead irrigation). 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is the most important 

field and postharvest disease of strawberry. It 

attacks flowers and fruit stalks during flowering 

causing them to die rapidly. Green and ripe fruit 

develop a brown rot that spreads to the whole fruit and 

becomes covered with masses of dry greyish spores 

(Fig. 167). See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Tan rot (Hainesia lythri) causes a firm slowly 

spreading rot (Persley 1993). 


STRAWBERRY 

Others: Black plug (Phoma sp.), blue mould 

(Penicillium sp.), cladosporium rot (Cladosporium 

sp.), leather rot (Rhizoctonia solani), sclerotinia rot 

(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) 

Fruit rots are favoured by warm wet conditions. 

Some fungi require wounding to initiate fruit 

infection (anthracnose, rhizopus soft rot, tan rot). 

Avoid overhead irrigation. Remove/destroy 

dead leaves, diseased berries and debris from infected 

crops. Plant disease-free runners. Apply 

fungicides if needed in spring and summer. Cool 

fruit after harvest and during transport. See Fruit F 5. 


Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria alternata f.sp. 

fragariae) causes circular spots 3-6 mm across 

with reddish margins and brown centres which 

may run together. Leaves and plants may die. Red 

Gauntlet is very susceptible. 

Black spot, eye spot, leaf spot (Mycosphaerella 

fragariae) causes small spots usually 3-6 mm across 

with purple margins, greyish-white centres (Fig. 

168). If spots are numerous, leaves die rapidly and 

fall. Similar symptoms develop on petioles, fruit 

stalks, stolons and calyxes. 

Leaf blight (Phomopsis obscurans) causes large 

circular, elongated or V-shaped spots, 5-15 mm 

across with reddish margins and brown centres, 

they often cover large areas of leaves. Small black 

specks (fruiting bodies) occur in the leaf spots. During 

wet weather spots may be numerous, leaves may die. 

In some varieties, petioles, fruit stalks and stolons 

may be attacked. 

Leaf scorch, red spot (Diplocarpon earliana) causes 

small, irregularly-shaped reddish brown spots, 

rarely > 2 mm across. Small raised glistening dots 

(fruiting bodies) appear within the leaf spot. Spots 

may combine to produce large purplish, reddish or 

dead patches. Leaves may yellow and die, giving a 

scorched appearance. Petioles, fruit stalks, sepals 

and calyces may be similarly attacked. 

Some fruit rots may cause minor leaf spotting. 

Gnomonia fruit and leaf blotch (Gnomonia 

fructicola) causes large irregular spots on older leaves. 

Destroy diseased crop residues, do not plant in 

damp or shady areas. Only plant disease-free 

runners. Crops should be replaced at regular 

intervals. Fungicides are registered for leaf spot 

control on strawberries. See Annuals A 5. 

Powderymildew (Sphaerotheca macularis) 

is a serious disease. During warm humid 

conditions leaf margins curl up. Irregular purple 

blotches often develop along the major veins. 

Leaves feel brittle. Typical white spore masses are 

not produced. Infected flowers do not set and 

eventually die. Infected immature fruit remain 

hard and do not ripen. Infected ripe or near-ripe 

fruit looks dull with prominent seeds. Varieties 

differ in susceptibility, none are resistant. 

Potential exists for developing new resistant 

cultivars to reduce reliance on fungicides (Nelson 

et al. 1996). See Annuals A 6. 


Most have a wide host range including 

ornamentals, fruit, vegetables, field crops, weeds 

and cause decline and death of plants in patches. 

Black root rot (undetermined). Soil fungi and 

nematodes have been implicated. Symptoms occur 

during fruiting when older leaves die rapidly and new 

leaves are not produced fast enough to replace them. 

Leaf uppersurfaces are dull and bronzed, margins 

curl downwards. New leaves become progressively 

smaller, fruit is small and hard. Roots have a high 

proportion of dead roots and many have dead patches. 

More and more roots die. Favoured by replant crops 

without a fallow between crops. 

Phytophthora diseases: Leathery rot Phytophthora 

cactorum), red stele, red core (P. fragariae). See 

Trees K 6. 


pythium root rot (Pythium spp.), fusarium 

(Fusarium spp.), rhizoctonia wilt (Rhizoctonia 

solani), sclerotinia crown rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum), sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii). 


Wilts 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. fragariae). 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae): Plants with a 

large crop of fruit suddenly wilt, usually in hot 

weather in late spring or early summer. Some plants 

die within a week, others survive for longer. Plants 

may die when cut back in late summer. If weather is 

hot and dry during autumn, a 2nd period of plant 

collapse may occur. Very susceptible varieties 

include Torrey and Tioga. Varieties with some 

resistance include Red Gauntlet and Naratoga. 



Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) causes 

lack of vigour and low yields. Roots are 

covered with small galls about 1 mm across and 

usually branch above the swellings and appear 

as a tangled mass. See Vegetables M 10. 

Foliar nematodes, strawberry bud nematode, 

strawberry crimp (Aphelenchoides spp.). See 

Ferns E 2. 

Others: Dagger nematode (Xiphinema), root 


nematode (Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus), 

sheath nematode (Hemicycliophora), stem and 

bulb nematode (Ditylenchus), also Filenchus, 

Paratrichodorus, Pseudhalenchus, Scutellonema, 

Tylenchorhynchus, Tylenchus. 

Only plant certified disease-free runners 

nematode-free soil. See Vegetables M 10. 



Strawberry aphid (Chaetisiphon fragaefolii) is small, 

white and sucks sap from leaf undersurfaces and 

stalks of new leaves. Plants may die. Strawberry 

aphid transmits some virus diseases of strawberry. 

Aphids excrete honeydew which is sticky and drips 

onto leaves and other parts of strawberry plants and is 

unsightly. 

in 

F 140 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STRAWBERRY 

Others: Cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), potato aphid (Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae). 

Natural enemies do not provide economic control 

or prevent transmission of virus diseases. 

Insecticides may be necessary. See Roses J 4. 


Mirid bugs (Miridae): Grey cluster bug (Nysius 

clevelandensis) and Rutherglen bug (N. vinitor) are 

very similar in appearance. Adults are greyish, 

narrow-bodied, rectangular-shaped, and up to 5 mm 

long. In dry seasons nymphs and adults sporadically 

migrate in spring into crops from drying weeds, eg 

sowthistle and capeweed. Clusters of bugs feeding on 

flower buds, flowers and young fruit can cause 

flower losses, poor fruit setting and fruit 

malformation. Feeding on fruit makes it look 

dehydrated and seedy. Fruit may be tainted and 

unfit for market. Large numbers of bugs at house 

lights indicate that invasion of crops is imminent. 

Flowers or fruit should be examined for presence of 

bugs and sprayed when critical numbers are reached 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Vegetables M 12. 

Others: Strawberry bug (Euander lacertosus, 

Lygaeidae). 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) may be serious 

pests of strawberries. 

Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) is a serious 

pest, skeletonising leaf undersurfaces. Mature 

caterpillars are solitary and damage flowers and fruit 

in spring and autumn. See Vegetables M 13. 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) is an 

important pest. Caterpillars are up to 40 mm long, 

pale green or cream initially, later yellow, green or 

red-brown with longitudinal stripes. They feed on 

young shoots and flowers and bore into young 

fruit (Fig. 169). Favoured by warm dry weather 

during spring and summer. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) are serious pests of 

strawberry runners, severing stems of young heart 

leaves near ground level and eating holes in leaves 

and ripening fruits. See Seedlings N 68. 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae) Ivy leafroller 

(Cryptoptila immersana) and lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars are green and 

may damage young foliage in autumn. They feed 

from between webbed leaves, flowers and fruits, 

wriggle furiously when touched or disturbed, often 

dropping off the leaf or plant on a silken thread. See 


Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) feed on leaf 

undersurfaces chewing irregular holes. They are 

difficult to see as their colour resembles that of their 

food plant. Plants may be able to tolerate moderate 

defoliation without harm. See Vegetables M 13. 

Caterpillars can be squashed if found during 

picking in a home garden situation Monitor plants 

for presence of caterpillars and damage. Only 

apply insecticide if numbers are likely to lead to 

economic loss (Brough et al. 1994). Ensure good 

coverage of whole plant especially flowers and 

fruit. See Annuals A 8, Fruit F 8, Vegetables M 13. 

Crickets, grasshoppers, locusts (Orthoptera) 

Black field crickets (Teleogryllus commodus) are 

about 25 mm long and dark brown or black. Adults 

are winged and have hind legs modified for jumping. 

In dry spring weather they nibble green and 

ripening strawberries. If numerous, removal of 

plastic mulching will reveal a network of runways 

used by the crickets. In the evening, the stridulation 

of the crickets can be heard. Monitor in autumn by 

listening for crickets singing at dusk before deciding 

to apply insecticide bait (Brough et al. 1994). See 


Mole crickets (Gryllotalpa sp.) are soft, light brown 

and up to 30 mm long. Their front legs are broadly 

flattened to aid digging. Only adults are winged. 

Unlike field crickets, mole crickets shelter by day and 

feed at night on young heart leaves, cutting leaf 

stems near ground level. Plants can be severely set 

back early in the growth season. When weeds and 

grasses in inter-row spaces are killed in preparation 

for ratooning, crickets may feed on strawberry plants. 

Monitoring is impossible. Bait as for black field 

cricket. See Turfgrasses L 10. 

Wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum) are 

small, brownish grey grasshoppers about 18 mm long. 

They chew small shallow holes in ripening fruits. 

Treat borders around crop up to a distance of 20 m or 

more to reduce migration. See Vegetables M 14. 


Cyclamen mite, strawberry mite (Steneotarsonemus 

pallidus) feeds on unopened leaves in crowns 

causing stunting and dwarfing of leaves, on flowers, 

and cause fruit distortion. Infestations are usually 

first detected by the puckered twisted appearance of 

older leaves. Monitor plants for mites before 

deciding to apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 

See Cyclamen C 16. 

Flat mite (Brevipalpus sp., Tenuipalpidae) is a slowmoving, 

flat and dark red false spider mite which 

occasionally feeds on leaf undersurfaces and on 

leaf stalks in dry weather in summer. They do not 

spin a web. Eggs are bright red. Leaves are speckled 

and dried up if there are large numbers of mites. They 

do not usually cause much harm. 

Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) may 

be a problem on new plantings. Their feeding 

causes bleaching of the leaves. See Vegetables M 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) and bean 

spider mite (T. ludeni) are the major pests of 

strawberries during winter, spring and early summer. 

Twospotted mite is numerically dominant. Other 

spider mites, eg banana spider mite, strawberry 

spider mite (T. lambi) and European red mite 

(Panonychus ulmi) (does not occur in WA) may also 

infest strawberries. Leaf uppersurfaces become 

speckled and mottled due to mites sucking plant sap. 

Mites, their eggs and webbing, may be seen on leaf 

undersurfaces. Growth and cropping of plants may be 

retarded. Severely infested plants may die. Fruit skin 

may be scarified with seeds becoming prominent. In 

winter, mites tend to migrate into the strawberry 

crowns. Predatory mites (Amblyseius womersleyi, 

Phytoseiulus persimilis) are generally present on 

strawberry plantings. Twospotted mite is hard to 

control with insecticides because it readily develops 

resistance to them and overwinters in crowns where it 

is hard to reach with sprays. On strawberry only apply 

pesticides with a short withholding period. Predatory 

mites in conjunction with pesticides are used to 


STRAWBERRY 

control twospotted mite on strawberries in pest 

management programs. P. persimilis must be 

reintroduced regularly. In USA it has proved effective 

on raspberry and other trellised berries. Monitor 

leaves for twospotted mites and predatory mites prior 

to releasing Phytoseiulus persimilis or applying a 

miticide. Runners may need to be dipped in miticide 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Beans (French) M 29. 


African black beetles (Heteronychus arator) in 

spring bore into ripening fruit lying on the ground 

and hollow them out from underneath. Stem bases 

and root crowns of young plants are chewed 

ragged. Tissues are teased out, causing plants to wilt 

and die. See Turfgrasses L 7. 

Other scarab beetles, white curl grubs: Most 

commonly, larvae of Argentinian scarab 

(Cyclocephala signaticollis), canegrubs (Lepidiota 

spp.), Christmas beetle (Anoplognathus porosus), 

pruinose scarab (Sericesthis geminata), dusky 

pasture scarab (S. nigrolineata), rhopaea 

canegrub (Rhopaea magnicornis) may cause losses 

in ratooned strawberries. The white C-shaped larvae 

(up to 20/plant) can be seen in the soil amongst the 

roots (Fig. 170). Three or more larvae (Repsimus sp. 

and Lepidiota spp.) per plant will cause plants to be 

unthrifty (Brough et al. 1994). Larvae are white, 

plump, C-shaped grubs about 50 mm long with hard, 

brown heads and strong jaws. They eat off roots up 

to the crown. Plants stop growing and in dry weather 

wilt and die and are easily pulled from the soil. 

Larvae feed along the beds and generally a few 

adjacent plants are affected. Adults emerge from 

the soil during November and December and lay 

eggs in areas being prepared for planting. Young 

larvae begin feeding on the roots late in the next 

spring after the crop has been harvested. Favoured 

by crops close to eucalypt trees that beetles have fed 

on, or if the crop is planted in land that was recently 

under pasture, or strawberry beds which have been 

heavily mulched with bush litter (eggs or larvae 

appear to be introduced with the litter). There is no 

effective control for established infestations. Prevent 

infestation by careful land preparation. Long 

crop rotations with non-host plants assist control. 

Thorough pre-plant cultivation will expose larvae to 

birds and mechanically injure them so they die. Preplant 

incorporation of an insecticide on to plantings 

intended for ratooning may protect plants. If damage 

is obvious before the end of April remove damaged 

plants, manually kill any white grubs found in root 

zone and replant with fresh runners. If beetles are 

moving in from nearby pasture land, baits may be 

scattered in deep steep-sided furrows ploughed around 

the crop. Insecticides gives some protection of 

young plants but it is difficult to achieve satisfactory 

control in beds mulched with plastic. Losses of fruit 

can be reduced by scattering baits lightly through the 

crop, taking care not to contaminate fruiting 

plants. Fungal diseases may exert some control. 

See Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11, 


Slaters, woodlice (Crustacean) may damage 

ripe strawberries or further damage those attacked 

by other pests. Slaters only attack fruit in contact 

with the ground. Reducing contact with ground 

will normally prevent damage. Pesticides are 

generally not necessary. See Greenhouses N 27. 


Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) feeding on flowers, 

may result in no fruit or malformed fruit. In dry years 

thrips invade crops from other drying hosts. Monitor 

flowers for thrips prior to applying an insecticide. 

Apply spray late in afternoon when bee activity is low 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Fruit F 12, Roses J 6. 

Strawberry thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis) feed on 

younger leaves causing crimping, and on fruit 

causing rusting, cracking and reduced size. 


Black vine weevil, European strawberry weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus) larvae feed on strawberry 

roots. See Grapevine F 63. 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) during 

late summer/autumn may chew leaf edges giving 

them a saw-toothed appearance. See Roses J 6. 


feeds on stems, leaves and runners in spring and 

autumn. Larvae feed on roots. See Vegetables M 17. 

Strawberry weevil (Rhinaria perdix) may be a 

serious pest of strawberries. Weevils are about 

8 mm long, have a short snout above which are two 

flattened horn-like processes between the black eyes. 

They are a variegated red-brown and white, are active 

and run about the foliage; when disturbed they drop to 

the ground or hide under leaves. They fly readily. 

Eggs are laid in the crown in late spring or early 

summer and hatch in about 6 weeks. Larvae hollow 

out crowns and tunnel in leaf stalks and roots. 

Leaves, flowers and fruit are chewed. Damage 

leads to invasion by fungi and plants may die. They 

pupate in a hollowed-out space or in the soil nearby. 

Overwinters as pupae. Weevils emerge in spring. 


may attack foliage. Larvae are thick, white, legless 

with brown heads. They gouge and channel roots 

and attack runners. Autumn planted runners may be 

damaged by larvae feeding in spring. Injured plants 

turn purple and growth stops. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Rough strawberry weevil (Otiorhynchus 

rugosostriatus), thin strawberry weevil 

(Rhadinosomus lacordairei). 

Control of weevils is difficult. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: 

Black strawberry beetle (Clivina 

tasmaniensis, Carabidae), redshouldered leaf 

beetle (Monolepta australis) may swarm on to 

strawberry crops, citrus mealybug (Planococcus 

citri) is only important in ratooned crops. 


Slugs and snails feed on new growth, flowers 

and fruit. One slug may damage several berries. 

Damaged fruit are susceptible to fruit rots. One 

brown slug (Deroceras parnormitanum) per 

50 m row indicates that treatment is required 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds and native animals, eg goannas, may feed 

on strawberry fruit. See Fruit F 13. 

F 142 

FRUIT AND NUTS

STRAWBERRY 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Plants must be protected from frost 

which damages flowers, and hot drying winds. During 

hot weather plants wilt but generally recover at night. 

Although strawberries need a sunny position, the fruit of 

summer crops may be sunburnt, so that shade or 

evaporative cooling in the form of a fine mist of water 

may need to be provided. Extreme temperatures 

postharvest is the most common cause of loss of 

product quality and is due to failing to remove heat from 

berries immediately after picking. Strawberry plants 

have shallow roots so adequate water must be 

provided during summer. However, plants will not 

tolerate waterlogging. When roots are few and 

brown, do not overwater, particularly on heavy or poorly 

drained soils; waterlogging from natural rainfall can be 

reduced by building beds 150-200 mm high. 

Mechanical injury to berries can occur 

postharvest during picking, packing, transport and 

marketing, eg crushing during handling. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Fertiliser 

burn is caused by over-use of soil-applied organic 

and mineral fertilisers, particularly nitrogenous 

fertilisers. It usually occurs within 2 months after 

planting. Fertiliser burn may cause marginal or 

complete burning of leaves, plant collapse and root 

death. Foliar fertilisers may kill flowers, burn fruit 

and scorch young leaves. Nitrogenous fertilisers should 

be applied sparingly and not at all if soil is fumigated. 

Avoid mixing foliar fertilisers with other sprays or using 

wetting agents. Leaf analysis standards are 

available for strawberry crops based on diagnostic and 


Others: Phyllody: Green leafy outgrowths from 

seeds are extensions of the seed coat occurs on the first 

flush of fruit in spring. Affected fruit either does not 

ripen or ripens unevenly. Later fruit is normal. 

Cambridge Vigour is very susceptible, Torrey very 

rarely. Slime moulds (Diachea leucopoda) cover 

leaves and petioles forming black spores 0.5-1 mm 

across on white stalks 1-2 mm long. It commences as a 

jelly-like material which lives on dead organic matter on 

the ground and flows up any suitable object to produce 

spores. Favoured by wet weather in late spring and 

autumn. No control is needed. Springtails are found 

in strawberries in holes made by slugs or snails. 






Broadley, R. H., Waite, G. K., Gage, J. and Greber, R. 

S. 1988. Strawberry Pests. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Broadley, R. H. 1992. (ed). Protect Your Strawberries. 

2nd edn. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane. 

Beattie, B. B., McGlasson, W. B. and Wade, N. L. (ed.). 







Cooley, D. R. et al. 1996. Integrated Pest Management 

Programs for Strawberries in the Northeastern 

United States. Plant Disease, Vol.80(3). 




Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Victoria. 

Dale, A. and Luby, J. J. 1991. The Strawberry into the 

21st Century. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 

Donnan, R. 1993. Successful Hydroponic Berries. Good 

Fruit & Vegetables, Jan. 



Godfrey, S. (ed.). 1990. Strawberry Product Quality 

Manual. Dept. of Agric. and Rural Affairs, 

Melbourne. 

Johanson, F. 1980. Hunger in Strawberries. Frank 

Johnston Farm Consultant, Washington, DC. 

Mass, J. L. (ed.). 1984. Compendium of Strawberry 

Diseases. APS Press, Minnesota. 

Nelson, M. D., Gubler, W. D. and Shaw, D. V. 1996. 

Relative Resistance of 47 Strawberry Cultivars to 

Powdery Mildew in California Greenhouse and 

Field Environments. Plant Disease, Vol.80(3). 



and Vegetables : Strawberries. cur. edn. OECD, 







Rowhani, A. et al. 1994. Rapid Identification of 

Xanthomonas fragariae in Infected Strawberry 

leaves by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. 

Plant Disease, Vol. 78(3). 






Turner, D. 1985. The Handbook of Soft fruit Growing. 

Croom Helm, Australia. 

Macrae, M. 1988. Hydroponic Strawberry Production. 

Publications Officer, Northern Rivers Hydroponic 

Assoc. PO Box 60, Murwillumbah, NSW 2484. 

Vock, N. 1991. Growing Strawberries in Queensland. 

Qld Dept. of Prim. Industries, Brisbane. 




Whiteaker, S. 1985. The Compleat Strawberry. Century 

Pub., London. 

State/Territory Department of Agriculture/Primary 

Industry eg 

Biological Control of Spider Mites in Strawberries (Video 

Qld DPI) 

Fungal Leaf spots of Strawberries (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Strawberries in Southern Victoria (Vic Agnote) 

Insect Pests of Berry Fruits (NSW Agfact) 

Pesticide Usage on Strawberries (Vic DARA) 

Pests and Diseases of Strawberries (WA Farmnote) 

Pests of Strawberries (NSW Agfact) 

Strawberry Disease Control Guide (NSW Agfact) 

Strawberry Fertiliser Guide (NSW Agfact) 

Strawberry Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Strawberry Management Calendar (Qld Farmnote) 

Strawberries : Pest and Disease Control (NSW Agnote, 

Vic Agnote) 

Strawberries : Weed Control (NSW Agfact) 

The Victorian Strawberry Runner Certification Scheme 

(Vic Agnote) 

See District Spray Calendars. 


Australian Berryfruit Growers Federation., 

Farmers Information Centre, Qld DPI, Nambour 


Hydroponic Conferences 

National Berryfruit Seminars 

Qld Approved Strawberry Runner Scheme 

Strawberry Growers Assoc. of NSW 

Strawberry Growers Assoc. of WA 

Toolangi Strawberry Growers Co-op. 

Vic Strawberry Growers Assoc. 

Vic. Strawberry Industry Development Committee 



STRAWBERRY 

MANAGEMENT 

An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). There are many different cultivars. Strawberries 

are subject to a wide range of diseases and pests affecting the fruit, leaves and roots and their correct 

identification is essential. Integrated pest management (IPM) is available for strawberries for before planting, 

during crop growth and for all postharvest stages (Broadley (ed.) 1992, Vock 1991). Some diseases and pests 

require specific treatments but their control has to be considered as part of the pest management program. For 

example, aphid control should be integrated with control of twospotted mite as many insecticides also kill its 

predators, resulting in a rapid buildup of twospotted mite. Because strawberries are attacked by a large number 

of diseases and pests, there is high pesticide usage and IPM is difficult (Cooley et al. 1996). Select cultivars of 

proven performance and suited to the area in which they are to be grown and for the intended market. 

Some varieties have some resistance to anthracnose, leaf blight (Phomopsis), tan rot, various crown rots, 

powdery mildew, foliar nematodes and rain damage. Commercial growers should only plant disease and pestfree 

strawberry runners obtained from a certified runner grower. Runners may be fresh or cool stored. Do not 

plant diseased runners. Home gardeners should replant every 2-3 years. Strawberries are often grown 

hydroponically in Australia. Choose a system that has a proven commercial record (Donnan 1993). 

Propagated by runners, some of the newer varieties are covered by patents. Pre-plant soil treatments, eg 

fumigation, are a principle method of controlling root and crown diseases and pests together with persistent 

weeds. Cultural methods: Do not plant too deeply as crowns may rot. Water supply must be regular for good 

berry production. Good drainage is essential. Avoid overhead watering or if this is unavoidable, water at the 

time of day that allows quick drying of leaves and fruit. Sanitation: Remove and destroy new runners formed as 

plants grow, allowing them to remain decreases fruit production. Biological control agents are available for 

twospotted mites. Routine pesticide applications for insect pests, grey mould, leaf spots and other problems 

may be required. Apply additional sprays after cutting back and in autumn to help control Gnomonia fruit rot and 

leaf spots. Avoid spraying when bees are active. Control weeds in pathways by using mulch, eg sawdust, 

wood shavings or straw. See Fruit F 14. Mulching with black polythene sheeting is widely used in beds, so 

weeds are not a serious problem. Pre- and post-emergence herbicides must only be applied at the correct 

growth stage of the strawberry crop (avoid spray drift onto strawberry plants and runners). Strawberries are one 

of the most fragile and perishable of all fruits and must be harvested, handled, stored and marketed with great 

care. This includes attention to refrigeration, packaging and grading according to various regulations and 

standards, eg at least 3/4 of the surface of each fruit must be red. Labelling, transport, and observance of 

quarantine regulations is essential, eg fruit entering WA is subject to restrictions for European red mite and 

entry to Tasmania is prohibited. 

Fig. 167. Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). Left : Furry mould on 

infected fruit. Right : Healthy fruit. 

Fig. 168. Black spot (Mycosphaerella 

fragariae) on leaves. 

Fig. 169. Corn earworm 

(Helicoverpa armigera) 

up to 40 mm long, feed on 

fruit. 

Fig. 170. Larvae (up to 50 mm long) of scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) eat roots of plants 

up to the crown. 

F 144 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Trailing berries 

Rubus spp. 


Boysenberry, loganberry, youngberry (R. occidentalis) 




Parasitic 




Anthracnose, bitter rot, cane spot 

Downy mildew, dryberry 





Rusts 

Spur blight 



Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Sawflies 

Scales 

Thrips 




Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Virus diseases may seriously reduce yield. 

Raspberry bushy dwarf virus infects raspberry 

causing leaf mosaic, veinbanding and yellow, 

crumbly unsaleable fruit in some cultivars. 

Symptoms are most obvious in early spring (latent in 

Lloyd George). Plants infected with mixtures of 

bushy dwarf and other viruses may produce a few 

stunted canes and reduced fruit quality. Fruit may be 

late. Spread by cuttings, by pollen and by seed. 

Susceptible varieties include those originating 

from Lloyd George. Willamette seems resistant to 

Australian isolates. 

Tobacco streak virus affects loganberry, youngberry, 

dahlia, Melilotus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Soya max, 

Trifolium pratense, Rosa steigera, tobacco, asparagus. 

Yield is affected only in combination with other 

viruses. Spread by grafting, by seed (of some plants 

to a variable degree), by pollen to the pollinated plant, 

not by contact between plants. Onion thrips (Thrips 

tabaci) and western flower thrips (Frankliniella 

occidentalis) aid its spread by carrying pollen. 

Others: Possibly apple chlorotic mottle. Australia is 

free of the aphid vectors of the major virus diseases. 

Boysenberry decline mycoplasma is spread by the 

boysenberry leafhopper in NZ. 

Select resistant varieties and plant virus-tested 

planting material from a raspberry certification 

scheme. See Fruit F 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) occurs on raspberry 

and loganberry. Large galls develop on stems just 

below ground level. Only serious on young plants. 

See Soil N 84 (Fig. 448), Stone fruits F 125. 


Anthracnose, bitter rot, cane spot, spot anthracnose 

(Elsinoe veneta) is the most serious disease of 

trailing berries, especially loganberries, also 

raspberries. Grey sunken spots 1-3 mm in 

diameter with purple margins appear on canes. 

Spots may join together killing large areas of bark. 

Spots may occur on leaves. Yield may be 

reduced. Anthracnose overwinters on fruiting 

canes, old fruited canes and fallen leaves. Spores 

are spread by wind. Remove and burn old 

fruiting canes and severely infected young canes. 

Raspberry variety Lloyd George is very 

susceptible. Fungicides may be applied at 

green-tip and white-bud stages. See Fruit F 5. 

Downy mildew, dryberry, splitberry (Peronospora 

sparsa) affects brambles (blackberry, boysenberry, 

loganberry, youngberry), raspberry, rose. Red 

blotching occurs on leaf uppersurfaces along 

midrib and lateral veins. On the lower surface 

beneath the blotches, white downy spores 

develop in moist weather. Infected new leaves are 

distorted. Loganberries do not redden, but just 

yellow and dieback. Unless spores are present it is 

difficult to identify the disease. Suckers may be 

weak and have red staining that can be traced to 

infected leaves. Berries become dull (oily), 

shrivelled and hard (dryberry); they redden 

prematurely, and may split into 2 parts, one or both 

being shrivelled (splitberry). Overwinters as 

mycelium inside roots, crown and canes. In spring 

when sucker growth starts it keeps pace with 

apical shoot growth, infecting stems and unfolding 

leaves. Spread by vegetative propagation, by 

spores (from first infected leaves by wind to other 

leaves, flowers and fruit) and by internal fungal 

growth within plants. Favoured by overhead 

irrigation and wet weather at 18 o C. Remove or 

chemically control suckers regularly; control 

weeds to reduce humidity. Trailing berries are 

very susceptible, some raspberry varieties have 

some resistance. Only propagate from diseasefree 

plants protected from systemic infections by 

spraying. A fungicide program is usually 

necessary. See Annuals A 5. 

Fruit rots: Brown rot (Sclerotinia fructicola), 

grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), mucor soft rot 

(Mucor sp.), rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus sp.) 

(Beattie et al. 1989). See Fruit F 5. 

Fungal leaf spots (Ascochyta, Cercospora, 

Cylindrosporium, Phoma, Schiffnerula, Septoria). 

Anthracnose (see above) may also cause leaf 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is a major 

disease of trailing berries. It rots buds and 

berries of loganberries and raspberries, especially 

in the field and postharvest during moist weather. 

See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 


TRAILING BERRIES 


White root rot (Vararia sp.) is a serious disease of 

raspberry (less seriously loganberry, wild blackberry). 

Its white mycelium spreads over rootstock. Plants 

yellow, canes dieback. Spread by infected planting 

material. Favoured by dry soils. Water canes during 

late summer/early autumn. Before replanting treat soil. 


sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), 

verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.) 



Blackberry leaf rust (Phragmidium violaceum) 

affects some cultivated trailing berries, eg 

Thornless Evergreen, and wild blackberry (R. 

fructicosus). Leaf undersurfaces develop yellow 

spore masses which turn dark brown with age and 

with cooler weather. Uppersurfaces have large purple 

blotches. Leaves may fall prematurely, cane growth 

weakened and fruit yield reduced. Many cultivars of 

cultivated trailing berries have some resistance. It 

has been researched as a possible biological control 

agent for wild blackberry. 

Cane and leaf rust (Kuehneola uredinis) affects some 

cultivated trailing berries, eg boysenberry, 

loganberry, youngberry, Thornless Evergreen, some 

Rubus hybrids and wild blackberry (R. fructicosus), 

but not raspberry. Symptoms similar to blackberry 

leaf rust except that spores masses turn buff or 

white with age. Stems are also attacked. 

Yellow rust (Phragmidium rubi-idaei) only attacks 

raspberry, some cultivars, eg Glen Clova, Lloyd 

George, are very susceptible, also native mountain 

raspberry (R. gunnianus) in Tasmania. Symptoms 

are similar to those of blackberry leaf rust. Leaves 

fall prematurely, yield is reduced and young canes 

may die. Use resistant cultivars. 

Others: Rust (Phragmidium barnardi) attacks native 

R. parvifolius, introduced cutleaf blackberry 

(R. lacinatus), native Tasmanian mountain raspberry 

(R. gunnianus) and possibly other Rubus spp. 


Spur blight (Didymella applanata, Ascomycetes) 

commonly affects raspberries and loganberries 

killing buds and destroying spurs or laterals on 

canes. Berries may be affected. During late summer 

and autumn red-brown shield-shaped areas spread 

around the base of leaves and buds on 1st-season 

canes. Infected areas become silvery-grey with age, 

tiny black dots (fruiting bodies) appear on their 

surfaces. Buds that should produce fruiting arms die 

but the canes normally survive. Spores are spread 

by wind. Space plants to allow plenty of sunlight 

for quick drying of foliage and canes. Remove and 

burn all infected canes after harvest. Fungicides 

may be applied at green tip and white bud stages. 

Other fungi may damage canes including stem 

scab (Seismatosporium licchenicola), raspberry cane 

blight (Leptosphaeria coniothyrium). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) and root 

lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) can cause 

serious damage to raspberry, and R. ursinus var. 

loganobaccus, R. ursinus. See Vegetables M 10. 



clevelandensis) and Rutherglen bug (N. vinitor) 

suck sap from foliage and developing berries 

leaving them malformed. See Vegetables M 12. 


Leafroller moth (Tortricidae) caterpillars feed on 

foliage and berries from under webbed shelters. 



Raspberry fruit caterpillar (Lobesia sp.) 


Loopers (Geometridae): Twig looper (Ectropis 

excursia) attacks raspberries and brambles. 

Raspberry bud moth (Carposina adreptella, 

Carposinidae) caterpillars bore into buds, flowers 

and berries of raspberry. Prune as early in autumn 

as possible and burn the prunings. 

Others: Common splendid ghost moth (Aenetus 

ligniveren) caterpillars may feed in raspberry canes. 

Fiery jewel (Hypochrysops ignitus ignitus) 

caterpillars feed on foliage of blackberry. 


Sawflies (Hymenoptera) 

Bramble sawfly (Philomastix macleaii, Pergidae) 

larvae defoliate cultivated and wild loganberry and 

blackberry. Sawflies are stout yellow-brown, about 

10-15 mm long with yellowish wings with a dark 

band across each forewing. Females lay eggs in slits 

in leaf tissue. Larvae have large heads and 2 long thin 

structures at the end of the body (Hely et al. 1982). 

Raspberry sawfly (Priophorus morio, Tenthredinidae) 

larvae feed on leaf undersurfaces of raspberry and 

blackberry. They chew between the main veins and 

pupate between leaves or in soil. Sawflies are 6 mm 

long, black with whitish legs. Eggs are laid in canes 

or leaf stalks. Larvae are about 12 mm long, yellow 

with a brown band along the back. 

If there are only a few larvae, hand pick or cut off 

shoots on which they are feeding. If necessary 

spray when seen. See Eucalypts K 63, Trees K 16. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Rose scale 

(Aulacaspis rosaeus) attacks older and mature canes 

and, if infestations are neglected, younger canes. 

Canes may die. See Roses J 7. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Frosted scale (Eulecanium 

pruinosum), soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum). 


Thrips (Thysanoptera): Plague thrips 

(Thrips imaginis) may infest flowers of 

boysenberry and raspberry in spring, preventing 

drupelet development and causing fruit 

malformation. Control is difficult. See Fruit F 12. 


suck sap from leaves and fruit of raspberry and 

brambles. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: Aphids (Aphididae) may damage new 

growth, driedfruit beetles (Carpophilus spp.) 

attack ripe fruit, leafhoppers (Cicadellidae, 

Hemiptera) may suck sap from leaves causing 

F 146 

FRUIT AND NUTS

TRAILING BERRIES 

them to become speckled (minor damage), 

wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum) 

damages lower branches. Also root weevils, eg 

black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus), scarab 

beetles (Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera). 


Snails may climb up canes and feed in the bushes. 

Leaves develop holes. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds enjoy the fruit, especially of loganberries 

and raspberries. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Mid-to-late spring frosts may 

damage young growth. High temperatures and 

intense solar irradiation may result in white 

drupelets, cultivars vary in susceptibility. Hot dry 

winds may snap fruit-bearing side shoots and dry 

out berries. Trailing berries have shallow roots, 

protect from drought by irrigating appropriately. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Iron or 

manganese deficiency may occur. Raspberries 

are sensitive to a build up of salt in soil. Leaf 

analysis standards are available for raspberry 

crops based on diagnostic and research analyses 















Crandall, P. C. 1994. Bramble Production : The 

Management and Marketing of Raspberries and 

Blackberries. Food Products Press, Binghampton, 

NY. 



Ellis, M. A., Converse, R. H. and Williams, R. and 

Williamson, B. (eds). Compendium of Raspberry 

and Blackberry Diseases and Insects. APS Press, 

Minnesota. 



Melbourne. 



Jennings, D. L. 1988. Raspberries & Blackberries: Their 

Breeding, Diseases & Growth. Academic Press, 

New York. 

Jones, N. and Smith. N. 1989. Berryfruit Production and 

Marketing. Orange Agric. College. 

Knoll, W. 1983. Commercial Growing of Raspberries. 

Proc. 2nd. Nat. Berryfruit Seminar. 







Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Growing Trailing Berries 

Insect Pests of Berry Fruits 

Pruning and Training Cultivated Blackberries 

Raspberry Growing in NSW 

Trailing Berry and Bush Fruits in the Garden 

NZ Aglink Min. Ag. & Fish. leaflets 

Brambles : Pests and Diseases 

Brambles : Weeds and Disease 

Tas Farmnotes 

Weed Control During Site Preparation for Berry Fruit 

Plantations 

Weed Control : Raspberries 

Vic Agnotes 

Commercial Raspberry Growing in Southern Victoria : 

Pruning and Training 

Site, Selection and Costs 

Varieties and Site Preparation 

Cultivated Blackberries : 

Establishment and Management 

Raspberry Growing in Southern Victoria : 

Cane Management 

Harvesting 

Heritage for Autumn Crop 

Irrigation and Weed Control 

Site Selection and Soil Preparation 

Raspberry : Pest and Disease Control 

Raspberry Root Rots in Victoria 

Raspberry Varieties 

Rust Diseases of Rubus Species in Victoria 

Trellising Loganberries 

WA Farmnotes 

Growing Raspberries and Brambleberries 

Loganberry : Propagation and Planting 


MANAGEMENT 

Raspberries and trailing berries prefer cool winters for uniform bud break, cool summers and rain-free harvest. 

They need a sunny position protected from hot afternoon sun, a good supply of water in summer and when fruit 

is filling. Boysenberries, loganberries and youngberries will tolerate more heat than raspberries. Select 

raspberry varieties resistant to raspberry bushy dwarf, Phytophthora and white root rot (Vararia sp.). Purchase 

virus-tested planting material through a Raspberry Certification Scheme. Propagated by cuttings or burying 

the tip of new canes in summer and autumn to a depth of about 150 mm. They grow on a variety of soils, but 

drainage must be good. Eradicate perennial weeds prior to planting. Fruit develop on shoots which develop 

from 1-year old canes. Canes die after fruiting so should be pruned out each winter and burnt to eliminate 

sources of fungal infection. Well-grown trailing berries will bear well for up to 15 years. Spray guides are 

available for particular regions. Harvest: When fruit is close to optimum eating quality as it does not ripen 

further after picking. Trailing berries do not transport or store well. Cool store immediately. An overview of 

the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). 


Walnut 

English, European, Persian walnut (Juglans regia) 

Family Juglandaceae (walnut family) 


Parasitic 




Crown gall 







Mites 

Walnut pinhole borer 


Non-parasitic 

Delayed graft union failure 

Environment 

Juglone toxicity 



Parasitic 


Cherry leafroll virus, walnut black line is only 

known to occur on elders (Sambucus spp.) in 

Australia. Overseas it also occurs on cherry and 

walnut. On walnut, there is an incompatibility 

between J. regia and rootstocks of J. hindsii and 

Paradox, the cause is unknown. See Fruit F 4. 


Bacterial blight, walnut blight, walnut black 

spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis) is 

the only serious disease of walnuts and > 50% of 

a crop may be lost. Disease first appears as small 

irregular shaped black spots on leaves and petioles 

(Fig. 171). Sunken black cankers develop on 

shoots up to 1 year of age and may girdle them 

causing dieback of twigs. Black sunken areas 

develop on green nuts, which may shrivel and die. 

Nuts infected later may have stained and rotted 

kernels and fall. Nearly ripe nuts may develop 

large black spots. Bacteria overwinter in infected 

buds, twigs and old nuts left on trees, also in fallen 

leaves (not an important source of infection). 

Bacteria are spread by rain splash and possibly by 

insects, eg walnut blister mite, by the introduction 

of infected nursery stock. Favoured by frequent 

rain, frost or hail damage just before and during 

blossoming, poor cultural conditions, eg inadequate 

irrigation. Control is difficult and on susceptible 

varieties must be carried out while trees are young, 

otherwise it is difficult to contain. Avoid overhead 

irrigation of young plants in spring. Keep plants 

in good cultural condition. Prune out severely 

infected shoots (at least 100 mm below diseased 

areas) as soon as they develop during the growing 

season when they are easy to see. This reduces the 

amount of inoculum the following spring. During 

winter prune off and burn dead twigs and old nuts. 

Plant varieties with some resistance, eg Concord, 

Eureka, Wybalaena and Franquette (the most 

widely grown commercial variety). Freshford 

Gem, and Kelvin are very susceptible. The thin 

shell of Wilson's Wonder is easily damaged by 

bacterial blight but may be disease-free in warmer 

climates. Seedling trees seem to be more 

susceptible than grafted ones. It is difficult to 

detect bacterial blight on dormant nursery stock. 

Reject plants with dead shoot tips. In Australia, 

only non-systemic copper fungicides are 

registered for use. Overseas, the systemic 

antibiotic streptomycin is used either on its own or 

mixed with copper. In commercial orchards of 

susceptible varieties or where disease is a problem, 

apply routine protectant sprays during bud burst 

especially when trees are young. Spray tops of 

trees thoroughly to prevent reinfection of lower 

parts. Home gardeners should not spray trees 

> 3 m tall. See Stone fruits F 124 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) which is only 

serious on nursery stock causes large galls at or 

just below ground level on the main root. 

Susceptible species include English walnut (J. 

regia) and the hybrid Paradox (J. hindsii x regia). 

Northern Californian black walnut (J. hindsii) is 

more resistant. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Branch and trunk cankers: Several fungi 

may cause minor cankers on trunks and branches 

with resulting dieback, eg Botryosphaeria ribis, 

Diplodia juglandis, eutypa canker (Eutypa 

armeniacae). See Trees K 5. 


Yellow leaf blotch, downy spot, white mould 

(Microstroma juglandis, Imperfect Fungi) is a minor 

disease of walnut, overseas also pecan and hickory. 

Yellow blotches develop on leaf uppersurfaces 

and a snow-white coating of spores occurs on the 

underside. Leaves may fall prematurely. In orchards 

where copper sprays are used for bacterial blight in 

spring, this disease should not occur. Where disease 

occurs, gather and destroy or bury fallen leaves. 

Others: Gnomonia leptostyla, Marssonina juglans. 



Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.): Walnuts on 

Californian black walnut (J. hindsii) rootstock are 

resistant provided trees grow vigorously and root 

damage is avoided. English walnut (J. regia) and 

hybrid Paradox (J. hindsii x regia) are susceptible. 

If Armillaria is present in soil, diseased trees should 

be removed and replaced with trees on Calfornian 

black walnut (J. hindsii) rootstock. See Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora collar and root rot (Phytophthora 

spp.) has a white mouldy appearance in the ground 

and can move up into the centre of the tree causing it 

to fall over in a few years. California black walnut 

(J. hindsii) rootstock is very susceptible, black 

walnut rootstock (J. regia) and hybrid Paradox 

(J. hindsii x regia) are more resistant. See Trees 

K 6. 

F 148 

FRUIT AND NUTS

WALNUT 

Others: Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata), 

fruit spots (Colletotrichum acutatum), powdery 

mildew (Phyllactinia guttata). Various wood 

rotting fungi may invade weakened walnuts, eg 

yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum commune). 


Dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.), root lesion 

nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus spp.), Merlinius have been 

recorded on J. regia (McLeod et al. 1994). See 




Spider mites (Tetranychidae): European red mite 

(Panonychus ulmi) damages leaves. Economic loss 

may occur on nursery stock and it may be necessary 

to apply a miticide. See Fruit F 12. Twospotted 

mite (Tetranychus urticae) feeds on leaves causing a 

sandy mottle. See Fruit F 12. 

Walnut blister mite (Eriophyes tristriatus, 

Eriophyidae) sucks sap from leaf undersurfaces 

resulting in felty areas on undersurfaces and 

corresponding blisters on uppersurfaces (Fig. 

172). Heavily infested leaves may be distorted and 

fall, but this is uncommon. Control measures are not 

generally recommended. See Grapevine F 62. 

Walnut pinhole borer (Diapus pusillimus, 

Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Pinhole borers 

(ambrosia beetles) attack moist wood, usually as 

logs in the forest and millyard but once the log has 

been converted to sawn timber their activity ceases 

and only holes in the wood remain to affect at the 

worst, its appearance. They do not re-infest timber 

and no treatment is required. See Trees K 10. 

Others: Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) very 

occasionally attacks developing nuts, also fruit 

flies (Tephritidae) and twig looper (Ectropis 

excursiana). Vegetable weevil (Listroderes 

difficilis) can severely damage young trees planted 

in old vegetable areas. Adults climb trees in 

September-January chewing leaves and young 

bark which then turns black. Young trees may die. 

VERTEBRATES 

Rabbits and hares can attack young trees. Birds, 

particularly cockatoos, and possums will attack 

and eat the nuts. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Delayed graft union failure may occur in 

California black walnut (J. nigra). 

Environment: Late spring frosts may damage 

flowers and young shoots. Choose varieties, eg 

Franquette, that flowers and comes into leaf late. 

High temperatures in summer can burn nuts and 

trunks. Although walnut trees are deep rooting, 

approximately 75% of their water requirements is 

taken from the top 2 m of soil. For maximum 

growth and production, the top 2 m of soil should 

not be allowed to dry out during the 6 weeks 

following flowering otherwise nut quality will be 

reduced. Hot, strong winds may cause leaf scorch 

and leaf fall, but do not appear to reduce yield. 

Wind may affect the training of the tree. 

Juglone toxicity: Black walnut (J nigra) 

releases a chemical (juglone) from the roots during 

the growing season that is toxic to many plants. 

Plants growing near black walnut trees may 

suddenly wilt or yellow and die during the 

growing season. Plants growing near the roots 

within the drip line have a discoloured vascular 

system and are often killed. Susceptible woody 

plants include apple, pear, pine, rhododendron and 

sour cherry. Juglone does not persist in the soil 

over winter so sensitive species can be planted in 

the same site a year after black walnut has been 

removed. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Boron 

deficiency symptoms include weak, twisted shoots 

with abnormal, often yellow leaves. English 

walnut (J. regia) rootstocks are thought to be more 

tolerant to free lime in the soil. Walnuts have a 

high demand for nitrogen and phosphate. 

Standards based on diagnostic leaf analyses are 

available for walnuts (Weir and Cresswell 1993). 


Adem, H. 1993. High Yields and Early Bearing for 

Walnuts and Quality Timber. Tatura, ISIA. 

Adem, H. 1994. Soil Management for Walnuts. Aust. 

Nutgrower, Winter. 



Australian Walnut Industry Assoc. 1994. A Brief Guide 

to Establishing a Walnut Orchard in Australia. 2nd 

edn. Aust. Walnut Industry Assoc. 















NSW Agric./RIRDC, Sydney. 



Standardisation of Fruit and Vegetables : Walnut 

Kernels. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. Available from DA 

Books, Mitcham, Vic. 



Standardisation of Fruit and Vegetables : Unshelled 

Walnut. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. Available from DA 

Books, Mitcham, Vic. 


WALNUT 

Vavasour, B. J. 1984. Growing Walnuts. Government 

Printing Office, Wellington, NZ. 





Industry eg 

Bacterial Blight of Walnut (Vic Agnote) 

Cultivation of Walnuts (WA Farmnote) 

Growing Walnuts (Vic Agnote) 

Pests and Diseases of Walnuts (Vic Agnote) 

Propagation of Walnuts (Vic Agnote) 

MANAGEMENT 

Sites, Layout and Irrigation for Nut Orchards (WA 

Farmnote) 

Walnut Blight (NSW Agfact) 

Walnut Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Walnuts in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 


Australian Nutgrower (Jn.) 

Australian Nut Industry Council (ANIC) 

Australian Walnut Industry Assoc. (AWIA) 

International Walnut Research Network 

Walnut Council Bulletin (Black walnut) USA 

West Australian Nut and Tree Crops Assoc. (WANATCA) 




Walnuts have similar chilling requirements to apple so they do not do well in mild coastal climates. Walnuts 

carry their male and female flowers separately on the same tree. In most varieties male flowers appear before 

the female flowers and particularly in young trees pollen may be shed before the female stigma is receptive. 

Fruit set is therefore improved by cross pollination by another variety. High fruit set is essential for good yields, 

as walnuts, especially the older varieties, have relatively few female flowers. Pollen is distributed by wind. 

Choose varieties with some resistance to local problems, eg Franquette to bacterial blight; California black 

walnut root stock (J. hindsii) has some resistance to Armillaria root rot but is susceptible to Phytophthora root rot. 

Plant bacterial blight-free nursery stock. Propagate by grafting, seed and tissue culture. Grafted varieties will 

be more reliable croppers than seedling trees. Plant in rich, deep soils with good drainage and apply appropriate 

fertiliser regimes. Harvest at the appropriate time by hand or by mechanical harvester, collect and clean, then 

dry for 3-4 weeks in a well ventilated room. An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). 

Fig. 171. Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis). 

Above : Small irregularly-shaped black spots on leaves. 

Above right : Black sunken areas on green nuts, whole nuts may 

blacken and rot. 

Fig. 172. Walnut blister mite (Eriophyes 

tristriatus) sucks sap from leaf undersurfaces 

amongst felty hairs, areas on uppersurface 

above the hairs are blistered. 

F 150 

FRUIT AND NUTS

Orchids 

Fig. 173. Orchid viruses. 

Left : Symptoms of odontoglossum ringspot virus. 

Right : Symptoms of cymbidium mosaic. Dept. of Agric., NSW 

Fig. 174. Orchid beetles (Stethopachys formosa) are 

12-15 mm long and chew leaf uppersurfaces, buds, 

flowers and seed pods. 

Fig. 175. Tiny orchid snails (Zonitidae) have a shell 

diameter of about 2 mm. They live in pots of orchid 

compost and feed on the tips of roots and on young 

shoots. 

Fig. 176. Spots on petals caused by pollution from exhaust 

fans. Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) also causes small spots 

on petals, these spots are sometimes bordered by delicate 

rings of pink, they enlarge and a furry grey mould develops 

in humid conditions. 

ORCHIDS G 1

Orchids 

Family Orchidaceae 

Cattleya, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Vanda, others 

Cooktown orchid (Dendrobium bigibbum) 

(Floral emblem of Queensland) 


Parasitic 







Fusarium wilt 

Glomerella leaf blight 



Pseudobulb and root rots 

Rusts 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Orchid beetle 

Scales 

Thrips 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Pollination 


Parasitic 


Orchids, individually and collectively, are the most 

expensive plants grown. They have more virus 

diseases than most crops and these virus diseases 

are the most important problem affecting orchids. 

Scientific name: The most important are: 

Cymbidium mosaic virus (CyMV) 

Odontoglossum ringspot virus (ORSV) 

= Tobacco mosaic (orchid strain) 

= Cymbidium diamond mottle 

Orchid fleck 'virus' (OFV) 

Others include bean yellow mosaic virus, 

cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco mosaic virus, 

tomato spotted wilt virus. At least 25 viruses of 

orchids have been recorded worldwide. 

Host range: CyMV affects many species of 

orchids, ORSV affects many species of orchids 

especially cymbidiums, OFV affects many species 

of orchids, especially cymbidium, cattleya. 

Symptoms: Virus infections do not usually kill 

orchids. Generally, growth and vigour and 

flowering may be reduced. Leaves and/or flowers 

may be affected depending on the host. Although 

some viruses cause typical symptoms on orchids, 

ORSV may cause ringspotting on leaves and a 

colour break in flowers; symptoms caused by one 

virus, generally are not the same on all orchids. 

Orchids may be infected with more than one virus 

(Taylor 1989d). Virus diseases are often detected 

in imported orchids and symptoms in most plants 

are a mottle pattern of pale green patches on the 

leaves. These mottles are often difficult to detect 

especially in young leaves. Distortion, twisting or 

banding of leaves may sometimes accompany the 

mottling. 

Cattleya: ORSV in cattleya causes clear ringspots on 

leaves. CMV and ORSV cause a colour break of 

flowers which is especially prominent in lavenderflowered 

cattleyas, causing sunken white spots in the 

petals. 

Cymbidiums: Symptoms are most clearly seen as a 

pronounced blotching on new leaves. Infected older 

leaves develop streaks, diamonds, rings or elongated 

dark brown markings or sunken areas (Fig. 173). 

Symptoms vary according to the cultivar, temperature, 

age of leaf. CyMV and ORSV are more evident on 

the leaf uppersurfaces whereas OFV is equally severe 

on both leaf surfaces. Flowers are not commonly 

affected but a few cultivars show a colour spot with 

ORSV infection. Virus infection in some 

cymbidiums can be symptomless. This can be due to 

a time lag between infection and symptom expression, 

or to a particular combination of cultivars and virus 

that may never show symptoms. 

Dendrobium: ORSV where ringspot symptoms on 

leaves are clear. Soft-caned dendrobiums: 

Leaves develop white patches quite unlike the 

apparent pattern in cymbidiums. A colour break of 

the flowers may occur. The flowers of soft-caned 

dendrobiums may be affected too. Sometimes flowers 

will develop without petals and at other times, the 

labellums will be deformed. 

Odontoglossum: Ringspot patterns may develop on 

leaves as a result of ORSV. Flower symptoms do 

not develop. 

Masked and latent viruses: Many orchids carry 

masked viruses which remain undetected provided 

optimum temperature and nutrition prevail. Others 

carry latent viruses which produce no symptoms at 

all on that particular host. Do not confuse virus 

infections with false spider mite infestation, 

genetic problems, copper toxicity, fungal 

infections or other problems. Suspect plants of 

being infected if there is any marked mottling of 

new leaves. In general, sudden changes in leaf 

colour are caused by viruses, whereas gradual 

changes are produced by nutritional and other 

non-parasitic problems. 

Diagnosis: While symptoms of virus infection can be 

severe, reliable diagnosis cannot be based on visual 

symptoms only. Their presence can been confirmed 

in plants primarily by: 

Indexing: Symptoms are induced in a sensitive 

indicator plant after transmission by grafting, 

mechanical inoculation or by a vector. This is timeconsuming 

and requires greenhouse space. 

Electron microscope (EM): Virus particles can be 

seen under an electron microscope but if none are 

seen the specimen, although free of detectable virus 

particles, cannot be guaranteed virus-free. This 

method can be used for CyMV and ORSV. 

ELISA tests: Enzyme-liked immunosorbent assays 

(ELISA) are available commercially for CyMV, 

ORSV and OFV. These kits, if used with suitable 

controls, provide a rapid and reliable procedure 

especially for testing plants used in meristem tip 

propagation (Dept. of Primary Industry, Tas., 1993). 

G 2 

ORCHIDS

ORCHIDS 

Overwintering: In infected orchids, soil 

contaminated with frass from infected orchids. 

Spread: All viruses affecting orchids are spread by 

vegetative propagation from infected plants. New 

plants automatically carry the virus. Tissue culture may 

spread viruses unless techniques chosen prevent this 

method of spread. CyMV and ORSV are not spread by 

insects. It is likely that OFV is spread by a species of 

insect. Other virus diseases of orchids, eg bean yellow 

mosaic and cucumber mosaic virus, are spread by 

aphids. CyMV, ORSV and OFV are spread from 

plant to plant in infected sap by leaf contact, during 

handling of the crop and on secateurs and knives during 

pruning and flower gathering. Viruses affecting orchids 

are not considered to spread from tobacco on the hands 

of smokers although the related tobacco mosaic virus 

(TMV) is spread in this way. Seeds are virus-free but 

may become contaminated with green frass from 

infected parent orchids. ORSV is present in soil or 

pots contaminated with green frass from infected 

orchids. ORSV and CyMV may also be spread by pollen. 

Conditions favouring: Symptoms may vary 

with the temperature and be more obvious at high 

light intensities. Incidence of CyMV and ORSV is 

correlated with length of time plants have been in 

cultivation, frequency of handling and use of tissue 

culture for orchid propagation. 

Control: Virus in a plant cannot be eliminated so 

the aim is to minimise spread. Regularly test to see 

which plants are infected. As commonly available 

virus-testing kits only test for CyMV and ORSV, 

growers still have to rely, to a great degree, on visual 

symptoms. As orchids can be symptomless virus 

'carriers' there is the possibility of these in mixed 

collections, so all plants with an unknown history 

should be treated as if they had virus infection. 

Cultural methods: Good culture and possibly 

higher temperatures may assist in retarding the 

progress of virus infection and may prevent their 

expression in plants already infected. Avoid 

injuring or abrading plants. 

Sanitation: There is no known cure, so infected 

plants should immediately be destroyed (burnt), 

or if this is not practiced, segregated. 

Tools and other implements used for cutting 

flowers, roots or leaves should be sterilised before 

each plant is trimmed, potted, etc. In practice, larger 

growers may have batches from the same seed-line or 

mericlone. Such batches could possibly be treated as if 

they were a single plant and blades sterilised only once 

before each batch. Procedures include dipping 

blades in methylated spirit to which 10% water has 

been added to prevent evaporation, soaking blades in 

10% trisodium phosphate (a virus-inactivating 

compound) or in 3% sodium hypochlorite for 3 minutes 

(Gowanlock 1989). Use 2 pairs, one to soak in readiness 

for the next plant. Always check that the method is still 

currently recommended. Discard solutions as 

recommended, eg when they become discoloured. 

Commercially available secateurs spray disinfectant on 

to the secateur blade, however, there is no guarantee 

that spread will never occur when using such secateurs. 

Alternatively blades may be flamed to red heat to 

decontaminate tools. Handle plants as little as 

possible especially seedlings. Wash hands thoroughly 

when moving between sections of collections and handle 

healthy orchids first. Containers should be sterilised 

with a suitable disinfectant prior to potting. When 

repotting, avoid soil contamination by placing 

fresh newspaper on the bench each time a new cultivar, 

or group of a clone is handled, dispose of this soil in 

newspaper each time. Reduce seed contamination 

by removing all green orchid frass. 

Plant quarantine: Where infected plants cannot be 

eliminated they should be segregated in a 

location as far as possible from healthy plants. 


vegetatively from infected plants. Seed is virusfree 

but it should not be contaminated with 

infected frass from the parent plant. Index before 

propagation by tissue culture. Avoid infection 

of seedlings and virus-tested orchids; segregate 

them from older plants which may carry virus. 

Pesticides: Although insects do not spread 

CyMV and ORSV, they do spread some other 

viruses. It is good practice to control aphids and 

other insect pests (Taylor (1989a). 


Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa) may affect orchids, especially 

Phalaenopsis, Cattleya and Vanda, other hosts, eg 

onion and tobacco. Symptoms are varied, 

sometimes a brown watery area with an irregular 

yellow boundary with brown droplets oozing out. 

Sometimes brown drops can be squeezed from the 

leaf. At other times the leaf tip has alternate dark 

and light bands across it. The leaf looks watery 

except at the tips where it is brittle and dry. 

Overwinters in soil, sewage. See Vegetables M 5. 


carotovora) occurs in Australia. It is considered to 

be a serious disease of orchids overseas. Amber 

spots develop on leaf blades. Spots turn brown 

and spread throughout the leaf. If infection is at 

the lower end of the leaf then the upper portions 

will turn yellow for lack of food. Stems can also 

be attacked. The rot is most serious if stem is 

attacked at ground level. Rhizomes and 

pseudobulbs can also be attacked. Entire plants 

may be killed. This disease frequently follows 

attack by orchid beetle larvae and similar insects. 


Others: Erwinia cypripedii on Cypripedium sp. 

and Paphiopedilum sp. Peudomonas cattleyae 

has been recorded on Cattleya sp. and 

Phalaenopsis sp. (Fahy and Persley 1983). 


The most serious fungal diseases of orchids are 

caused by grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) and root 

rots caused by Phytophthora and Pythium spp. 

Fungal leaf spots (Cladosporium (= 

Gloeosporium spp.), Cercospora, Colletotrichum, 

Physalospora, Phyllosticta). It is difficult to 

distinguish fungal leaf spots from spots caused by 

virus and bacterial diseases and environmental 

conditions. Favoured by injury, overcrowding, high 

humidity. See Annuals A 5. 

ORCHIDS G 3

ORCHIDS 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum 

(most commonly), F. moniliforme and F. solani). 

These species cannot be confirmed as pathogens 

until detailed tests have been made. With control 

of Pythium and Phytophthora root rots in orchids 

by some of the newer fungicides and of 

Glomerella by other fungicides, the residual 

problems caused by Fusarium have become clearer 

(Taylor 1989b). The symptoms differ from those 

caused by Glomerella in that the leaves die from 

the bottom upwards rather than from the tips and 

the middle of the leaf down to the pseudobulb. 

Also Fusarium may cause a yellowing of leaves, 

produced by toxic materials. Sometimes the 

infection begins in a young 'lead' or flower spike 

and spreads progressively into the older 

pseudobulbs. Both Glomerella and Fusarium can 

kill pseudobulbs and final symptoms of the two 

diseases may be similar, so there may be some 

confusion. Some diseased pseudobulbs have 

brown-purple spots or flecks inside them but this is 

not a reliable symptom. Flowers of some varieties 

fail to open properly, producing 'sleepy' 

conditions, and cut flower spikes are so shortlived 

that they are worthless. The quality of 

flowers may be reduced. Fusarium-free planting 

material: Do not plant infected seed tubers. 

Select Fusarium-free propagating material and 

grow it in Fusarium-free media. Fusarium-free 

compost: Orchid compost material such as bark, 

scoria, sawdust, peanut shells, sand and stone 

chips that have been in contact with soil are likely 

to be contaminated with Fusarium. Pasteurise 

compost (60 o C for 30 minutes) to kill Fusarium 

but not beneficial organisms. Commercial 

producers grow orchids on steel mesh or 

wooden slatted benches, well raised above the 

ground to prevent splash of spores on to plants. 


Glomerella leaf blight, anthracnose 

(Glomerella cingulata = Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) 

affects orchids, especially cymbidiums (Taylor 

1989a, 1989b). In most seasons damage is limited 

to the death of tips of leaves, and does not spread. 

However, in other seasons, the initial symptoms 

are a soft rotting anywhere on the leaf which 

spreads in defined zones down to the pseudobulb, 

so killing the plant. Infections are followed 1-4 

weeks later by the appearance of pin-point sized 

black spots which are the spore producing bodies 

(acervuli). Overwinters on dead bases of older 

leaves. Favoured by plant injury. Cultural 

methods: Protect plants from rain with glass or 

plastic providing that this does not affect the 10 o C 

difference between day and night temperatures that 

are required for flower initiation. Provide good 

ventilation. If necessary use forced air ventilation. 

Provide appropriate spacing of plants and only 

have 1 tier of them. Sanitation: Tear off diseased 

leaves to prevent infection growing into the 

pseudobulb and killing the plant. Resistant 

varieties: Grow or clone only new cultivars that 

have moderate to high resistance to Glomerella as 

tested by an indexing method. Pesticides: 

Chemicals may be used on production lines. 

Bordeaux mixture is an effective fungicide but 

may damage flower spikes. Other fungicides may 

be applied during flowering (Taylor 1989a). See 

Fruit F 5, Trees K 5. 


spotting of flowers and flower stalks if conditions 

are damp. Translucent spots may result if buds of 

flowers are wet with rain or irrigation water. Grey 

mould can be difficult to control. See 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) has been 

recorded on native Orchidaceae (Shearer 1994). 


Pseudobulb and root rots 

Black crust (Mycoleptodiscus sp.) has been isolated 

from cattleya species or hybrids in north Qld. 

Infections begin as small brown spots on the 

pseudobulb, sometimes surrounded by a slight clear 

halo. Dark elliptical spots develop, becoming very 

distinct long, narrow, black lesions expanding 

vertically on the plants. Lesions may be slightly 

depressed and the pseudobulb shrivels as disease 

progresses (Forsberg 1994). 

Black pseudobulb rot (Pythium ultimum) affects 

orchids, particularly cymbidiums. The pseudobulb 

may be infected with this fungus at either the base or 

the top. Roots are not usually damaged. Rotted tissue 

is dark brown to very black (a pinkish look indicates 

that the fungus responsible is probably Fusarium). If 

the infection is progressing from the base, leaves 

gradually yellow and wilt. Phytophthora 

(Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica) causes 

rotting of roots. Cultural methods: Avoid over 

wet media and ensure good drainage. Avoid 

overwatering, especially in the cooler months of the 

year. Sanitation: Discard badly affected plants. 

Cut away rotted pseudobulbs cleanly from other 

healthy ones and destroy them. Resistance: 

Phosphoric acid will assist in controlling 

Phytophthora and Pythium. It controls them by 

stimulating the natural resistance of plants to these 

fungi. Pesticides: Plants may be drenched with one 

of the systemic fungicides such as furalaxyl or 

metalaxyl. 

Phomopsis rot (Phomopsis sp.) may rot 

pseudobulbs, rhizomes and leaves of cattleya. 

Black dots (fruiting bodies) on rotted areas. 

Others: Rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani), 

sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). 


Rusts (Uredinales) 

Rusts (Puccinia, Uromyces) occur on Orchidaceae. 

Native orchidaceae seem to be little affected by 

disease other than by rusts. Some rusts on orchids are 

long cycles, eg produce many different types of 

spores. Affected leaves senesce early and plants 

produce few flowers (Nichol et al. 1988, Shearer 

1994). Rust reduces ability of Thelymitra crinita to 

produce flowers and might affect survival of 

endangered species, eg T. macmillanii (Shearer 

1994). Puccinia occurs on Caladenia radialis, 

Uromyces thelmytra on T. crinita, U. microtidis on 

Microtis unifolia, Uromyces spp. on Lyperanthus 

nigricans, Prasophyllum spp. (Nichol et al. 1988). 


Tropical American orchid rusts (Coleosporium sp., 

Phenospora spp., Uredo spp.) are not known to occur 

in Australia. They attack a range of cultivated orchids 

in tropical America, including Cattleya, Dendrobium, 

Odontoglossum, Spathoglottis. Severely infected 

G 4 

ORCHIDS

ORCHIDS 

plants become unthrifty and even die. Small, orange 

or brown pustules develop on leaf undersurfaces. 

As the infection spreads, the leaf uppersurfaces 

may also be ruptured by the pustules. The infected 

area is usually circular and a yellow region surrounds 

mature lesions. The pustules often turn black with 

age. They tend to develop in a concentric pattern 

which gives the infected area the appearance of a 

target spot. The upper surface of the leaf directly 

above infected tissue becomes yellow. Spores are 

spread by wind or water splashing to other 

susceptible orchids; rusts are also spread by the 

movement of infected orchids. Plant quarantine: 

There is considerable international trade in tropical 

orchids amongst commercial growers as well as 

hobbyists. Plant quarantine authorities in Australia 

have, on occasions, intercepted rust-infected orchid 

plants imported from overseas (Com. of Aust. 1989). 


Nematode populations are low in most orchid 

collections because most epiphytic and many 

terrestrial orchids are grown in soil-less media that 

is not conducive to large nematode populations. 



Twospotted mite is the most serious pest affecting 

orchids. Orchid beetle, scales and mealybugs are 

also common pests. 

Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may attack 

foliage, buds and flowers. In severe infestations, 

growth may be stunted, leaves and flowers 

distorted. Sooty mould can develop on the 

honeydew secreted by the aphids. 

Cotton aphid, melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) is a small 

species and its colour varies. Individuals in the same 

colony may be yellow, green to almost black. See 

Cucurbits M 53. 

Palm aphid (Cerataphis lataniae) may infest lantana, 

orchids and palms. The wingless form is dark, disclike 

with a white fringe and may be mistaken for a 

species of whitefly. This aphid may play a part in 

spreading cymbidium mosaic. See Palms H 3. 

Others: Orchid aphid (Cerataphis orchidearum) and 

yellow orchid aphid (Sitobion luteum). 

Aphids are possibly involved in the transmission 

of virus diseases. Control infestations as soon 

as observed. Home gardeners can gently wash 

aphids off. See Roses J 4. 


An orchid butterfly (Hypolycaena danis turneri, 

Lycaenidae): Caterpillars feed on flowers of orchids, 

eg the native Cooktown orchid (Dendrobium 

bigibbum) and exotic Vanda spp. in northern 

Australia especially Cairns. If buds and flowers are 

not available caterpillars feed on seed pods, leaves, 

or even younger stems. Mature caterpillars are 

densely covered with minute hairs, and generally deep 

red or green. Pupa is attached to stem of the food 

plant (Common and Waterhouse 198). 

Others: Budworms (Helicoverpa spp., Noctuidae), 

looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp., Noctuidae). 

If only a few plants are infested, caterpillars may 

be hand picked. The biological insecticide, 

Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel ® ) may be applied 

regularly as a preventative. See Annuals A 8. 


Dendrobium mealybug (Pseudococcus dendrobiorum) 

Longtailed mealybug (P. longispinus) 




Tarsonemidae). See Greenhouses N 26. 

Orchid mite (Tenuipalpus pacificus, Tenuipalpidae) 

feeds on the surface of orchid leaves, causing dark 

spots and eventual death of the tissue. The 

development of this species is slow. The duration of a 

life cycle is at least 64 days. Other false spider 

mites, eg T. brevipalpus, may also infest orchids 

causing virus-like symptoms which spread with the 

infestation. These symptoms can be confusing as they 

can be seen long after the initial infestation when 

there are few or no mites present. They are 

consistently more prevalent on leaf undersurfaces. 

It may be necessary to use a miticide. See Beans 


Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) is considered 

by cymbidium growers to be their most serious 

pest. A reduction in mite damage resulted in reduced 

need for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 

fertilisers. The mite feed on leaf undersurfaces 

causing speckling and silvery appearance. The edges 

of the leaves curl, providing shelter for the mites. 

Severe damage causes deterioration and lowers flower 

production in the current season's blooms, and causes 

smaller and fewer blooms in following seasons. Mite 

damage to the blooms causes watery spots which 

become necrotic, spoiling the appearance of the 

flower. Try to control this pest before the buds 

appear because flowers can also be damaged. 

Remove from the area old pieces of leaf, other plant 

parts and weeds which are alternative hosts of this 

mite. Prevalent in warm, dry weather. Cultural 

methods: Overhead irrigation could help reduce 

infestation but may damage flowers. Pest 

management: A predatory mite (Typhlodromus 

occidentalis) can maintain long term control of 

twospotted mites in commercially grown cymbidium 

orchids. Other problems affecting cymbidium orchids 

and flare-ups of twospotted mites, may be controlled 

using pesticides which are harmless to the predatory 

mite. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Orchid beetle, dendrobium beetle 

(Stethopachys formosa, Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) 

is a pest of commercial orchids and infests 

dendrobium, especially Dendrobium speciosum, 

also cymbidium, cattleya. Beetles are 12-15 mm 

long and have hard, yellow forewings, each with 2 

conspicuous black patches (Fig. 174). The 

forewings are specialised wing covers. When 

approached or touched beetles usually drop to the 

ground, where they hide. Larvae are thick-set and 

cream coloured, and covered with slime. Pupae 

are covered with a white foam-like material and 

are usually found around the base of the plant. 

Beetles usually feed on leaf uppersurfaces and 

ORCHIDS G 5

ORCHIDS 

occasionally on the lower surface, rapidly 

removing the whole surface tissue. They also feed 

on seed pods and buds. Larvae bore into the 

succulent tissues of new shoots, stems and 

pseudobulbs. This opens the way for secondary 

decay organisms such as bacterial soft rot. Adults 

and larvae may both damage young foliage, buds 

and flowers. Additionally, slime and excreta soon 

spoil the blooms. Pupae are covered with a white 

substance very like styrene foam. Sometimes the 

pupae are attached to plants or (more often) they 

are partly buried amongst the roots. Sanitation: 

Adults are hard to kill with pesticides and 

collection night and morning and destruction by 

hand is the best method of control. Hold a 

newspaper below the plant to catch them. Because 

of the difficulty in killing larvae inside the stems 

with pesticides, infested stems should be pruned 

out and burnt as soon as the infestation is noticed 

and before much damage has been done. 

Pesticides: If this pest is troublesome, regular 

applications of an insecticide directed towards the 

surface feeding adults and larvae may be 

necessary. See Trees K 15. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): More than 

25 species of armoured scales attack orchids 

worldwide. Cymbidium scale (Leptosaphes 

machili) infests cymbidiums, orchids and related 

plants. It is a small dark brown scale, similar to 

purple scale in shape. Orchid parlatoria scale 

(Parlatoria proteus) infests orchids, citrus, date 

palms, other plants. This is a very tiny creamy-white 

to fawn scale, about 1-2 mm long. Scales may feed 

on both upper and lower surfaces of leaves and small 

yellow patches develop on leaves due to their feeding. 

They tend to congregate close to the midrib. Orchid 

scale (Diaspis boisduvalii) infests orchids and palms, 

possibly some other plants. Adult female scales are 

roughly circular. The male scales are smaller, more 

elongated and have 3 ridges along them. Scales can 

build up to large numbers before being noticed 

because they tend to congregate under sheathing 

leaves around the base of the plant. The leaves go 

yellow and the plant stops growing. Also oleander 

scale (Aspidiotus nerii). See Citrus F 39. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Vast quantities of honeydew 

are produced. This causes the growth of sooty mould 

and attracts ants. Species include hemispherical 

scale (Saissetia coffeae), nigra scale (Parasaissetia 

nigra), soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidium). See 

Citrus F 41. 

Scale makes plants unsightly. They may gather on 

leaf undersurfaces so that their presence is not 

noticed until the uppersurface turns yellow in the 

areas above them. Scale-damaged leaves never 

regain their green colour. In severe infestations, 

the eyes of the pseudobulbs may be destroyed. 

Overwinters on infested orchids, other hosts. 

Spread by movement of infested plants. Control: 

Monitor orchids for the presence of scale insects. 

Small infestations washed off carefully by hand or 

may be gently rubbed off with an old soft 

toothbrush. Pesticides: Commercial growers 

may apply insecticides when orchids are not 

flowering. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 



commonly causes silvering of leaves. Small, thin 

black thrips about 3-4 mm long may be seen on leaf 


Orchid thrips (Chaetanaphothrips orchidii) infests 

orchids, especially cattleya. Nymphs are tiny, yellow 

and mainly feed on the foliage, causing silvering. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) may damage or 

disfigure spring blooms, sometimes causing curling, 

deformities and irregularities in colour. Both 

nymphs and adults feed amongst flowers. 

Occasionally they attack new foliage. Thrips infest 

the buds when flower spikes are appearing. See Roses 

J 6. 

Home gardeners could collect thrips with a small 

damp paint brush, wiping them off gently with a 

damp clothe or dusting. Commercial growers 

usually control thrips with insecticides. See Roses 

J 6. 

Others: Common greenhouse pests may 

infest orchids in greenhouses, eg slaters 

(Crustacea), millipedes (Dilplopoda), European 

earwig (Forficula auricularia) and a cockroach 

(Shelfordia orchidae, Blattodea). Crickets and 

grasshoppers outdoors may chew holes in buds 

and flowers. Ensure that there are no weeds, long 

grass or empty plant pots near the orchids where 

these insects may hide. Green vegetable bug 

(Nezara viridula), orchid weevil (Orchidophilus 

aterrimus), greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum) and other species may also infest 

orchids. 


Snails and slugs may cause serious damage to 

buds, flowers, leaves, stems and green root tips of 

orchids during the growing season. Orchid snail 

(Zonitidae) is a tiny species (shell diameter 2 mm) 

which frequently lives in pots of orchid compost 

and feeds on the tips of roots and young shoots 

(Hocking 1980) (Fig. 175). Others: Common 

garden slug (Deroceras sp), common garden snail 

(Helix aspersa, Helicidae). See Seedlings N 70. 


Mice, rats and birds may damage orchids. 

Possums may eat flower buds of orchids growing 

on trees in gardens. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

After virus diseases and twospotted mite 

infestations, cultural problems are the next most 

serious problems affecting orchids. Often they are 

confused with symptoms caused by virus diseases. 

Environment: The cultural requirements of 

orchids vary depending on the species and the 

location. Most orchids require semi-shade. Long 

exposure to sun may damage leaves. Protect 

G 6 

ORCHIDS

ORCHIDS 

plants from wind. Orchids require high humidities 

but good ventilation. Roots must be kept moist 

but not wet, there must be good drainage. 

Different species require different temperatures 

for growth and flowering. Avoid fluctuating 

temperatures. Frost will damage most flowers 

(McMaugh 1994). Many orchids need an open, 

free-draining media. Many are epiphytes and can 

be grown attached to pieces of bark, wood or 

living trees. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Most 

orchids respond to supplementary feeding, 

individual species have different requirements. 

Cymbidiums need a high-nitrogen fertiliser after 

flowering throughout spring and summer. They 

should not be fertilised with large quantities of 

nitrogen in autumn during flower initiation. 

Pesticide injury: Blooms are highly 

susceptible to damage so that phytotoxicity can be 

a problem at a certain stage of flowering. Early 

flowering whites are more susceptible than later 

varieties. Copper oxychloride or copper 

hydroxide may damage leaves resulting in copper 

spot (Taylor 1989d). Mycorrhizae: Excessive use 

of fungicides on orchids may upset the symbiotic 

relationship they have with mycorrhizal fungi. 

These fungi help orchids take up nutrients from the 

potting mix. If the process is interfered with, 

leaves may gradually yellow and growth will slow 

(McMaugh 1994). See Trees K 18. 

Pollination: Orchid dupe (Lissopimpla excelsa, 

Ichneumonidae, Hymenoptera): Some terrestrial 

Australian orchids (Cryptostylis) emit a perfume so 

closely resembling the sex attractant of the female 

orchid dupe that the male eagerly attempts to 

copulate with the flower. In the process they 

acquire a burden of adhesive pollinia which may 

be transferred to other blooms when they repeat 

the process of pseudocopulation. A fly (Mycomya 

sp.) pollinates a ground orchid. Ants (Formicidae) 

often remove pollen caps from flowers, causing 

withering and browning of flowers. Bees and 

wasps (Hymenoptera) may pollinate orchids 

causing them to wither prematurely. 

Others: Algae, moss, fungus gnats and other 

problems associated with greenhouse plants may 

affect orchids. See Greenhouses N 27, N 28. 

Mycorrhizae: Some orchid seeds may be difficult 

to germinate unless a specific fungus is present. 

See Trees K 18. Phalaenopsis spot has been 

associated with long periods of humid weather but 

the exact cause is unknown (Taylor 1989d). 

Pollution from exhaust fans and other equipment 

may damage orchids (Fig. 176). Tetragonum 

spot on the leaves of Dendrobium tetrogonum is 

quite normal (Taylor 1989d). Other dark spots 

occur on orchid leaves the causes of which are 

unknown (Taylor 1989d). 


Alford, D. V. 1991. A Colour Atlas of Pests of 

Ornamental Trees, Shrubs & Flowers. Wolfe Pub., 

London. 

Arditti, J. and Ernst, R. 1992. Micropropagation of 

Orchids. John Wiley & Sons, NY. 

Australian Orchid Council, PO Box 11, Highbury, SA. 

Australian Orchid Growing : 

Vol.1 : Cymbidiums. 1987. 

Vol.2 : Cattleyas. 1988. 

Vol.3 : Paphiopedilums. 1990. 

Backhouse, G. and Jeans, J. 1995. Orchids of Victoria. 

Miegunyah Press, Carlton, Vic. 

Baker, M. C. 1991. Orchid Species Culture. Timber 


Bates, R. J. and Weber, R. J. 1990. Orchids of South 

Australia. Flora and Fauna of South Australia 

Handbook Committee, SA. 





Cady, L. and Rotherham, E. R. 1977. Australian Native 

Orchids in Colour. Reed, Terrey Hills, NSW. 



Com. of Aust. 1989. Tropical American Orchid Rusts. 

Plant Quar. Leaflet No. 62. Aust. Quar & Inspection 

Service, Dept. of Primary Industries & Energy, 

Canberra. 

Dept. of Primary Industry, Tasmania. 1993. Tasag Elisa 

and Pathogen Service. Dept. of Primary Industry, 

New Town Research Labs., New Town, Tasmania. 

Eden, M. 1984. Cymbidium Orchids : Diseases and 

Pests. Aglink HPP308, NZ Min. of Agric. & Fish, 

Wellington. 




Forsberg, L. 1994. Fungus : A Potential Threat to 

Cattleya Orchids. Aust. Hort., May. 

Gowanlock, D. H. 1989. Are your Orchids Virus free? 

Qld Agric. Jn., Jan-Feb. 

Handcock, R. and Smith, M. 1992. You, Too, Can Grow 

Orchids. National Books, Brookvale, NSW. 

Hockings, F. D. 1980. Friends and Foes of Australian 

Gardens. Reed/SGAP, Terrey Hills, NSW. 

Hodgson, M. and Paine, R. 1989. A Field Guide to 

Australian Orchids. Angus & Robertson, North 

Ryde, NSW. 

Hu, J. S., Ferreira, S., Xu, M. Q., Lu, M., Iha, M., 

Pflum, E. and Wang, M. 1994. Transmission, 

Movement and Inactivation of Cymbidium Mosaic 

and Odontoglossum Ringspot Viruses. Plant Disease 

June, 633-636. 

Imes, R. 1993. Orchids : The New Compact Study Guide 

and Identifier. Apple Press, London. 

James, I. D. !985. The New Zealand Orchid Grower. 

Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 

Jones, D., 1988. Native Orchids in Australia. Reed 

Books, Terrey Hills, NSW. 

Jones, D. 1989. Exotic Orchids in Australia. A Reed 

Book, Terrey Hills, NSW. 



Kavulak, J. 1993. Australian Native Orchids Hybrids. 

5th edn. Jodi Enterprises, Fernleigh, NSW. 


Academic Press, London. 

Lavarack, P. S. 1985. Tropical Orchids of Australia. 

Nelson Books, Melbourne. 

Lee, B.1984. The Management of Mites in a Cut Flower 

Orchid Nursery. Aust. Hort., Feb.. 



Merriman, A. J. 1993. Alan's Pest and Disease 

Handbook. Miriam Ann Orchids, Glenbrook, NSW. 

Morrison, G. C. 1982. Growing Orchids in Australia 

and New Zealand. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, NSW. 

Morrison, G. C. and Webb, M. A. 1991. The Essentials 

of Orchid Growing. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, 

NSW. 

Nichol, A., Sivasithamparam and Dixon, K. W. (1988). 

Rust Infections of Western Australian Orchids. 

Lindleyana 3(1), pp1-8. 

ORCHIDS G 7

ORCHIDS 

Northern, R. T. 1990. Home Orchid Growing. 4th edn. 

Prentice Hall Press, 




Rentoul, J. N. 1980-. Growing Orchids : 

Book 1 : Cymbidiums and Slippers 

Book 2 : The Cattleyas and Other Epiphytes 

Book 3 : Vandas, Dendrobiums and Others. 

Book 4 : The Australasian Families. Lothian Press, 

The Hybrid Story 

Lothian Press, Melbourne. 

Rentoul, J. N. 1987. Growing Orchids : The Specialist 

Orchid Grower. Lothian Press, Melbourne. 

Rentoul, J. N. 1989. Growing Orchids : Expanding Your 

Orchid Collection. Lothian Press, Melbourne. 

Richards. H., Wootton, R. and Datodi, R. 1988. 

Cultivation of Australian Native Orchids. 2nd edn. 

Australasian Native Orchid Soc., Vic. Group Inc., 

Cheltenham, Vic. 



edn. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinios. 



Shearer, B. L. 1994. The Major Plant Pathogens 

Occurring in Native Ecosystems of South-Western 

Australia. Jn. of the Royal Soc. of WA, 77:113-122. 



Taylor, B. 1989a. Control of Glomerella in Cymbidium. 

Aust. Orchid Review, Aug. 

Taylor, B. 1989b. Fusarium wilt in Cymbidiums. Aust. 

Orchid Review, Oct. 

Taylor, B. 1989c. Glomerella leaf-blight in Cymbidiums. 

Aust. Orchid Review. Oct. 

Taylor, B. 1989d. Virus Diseases of Cymbidiums and 

other Orchids. Aust. Orchid Review, Dec. 

Uchida, J. Y. 1994. Diseases of Orchids in Hawaii. Plant 


Wisler, G. C. 1989. How to Control Orchid Viruses. 

Maupin House Pub., Florida. 

Zettler, F. W., Ko, N., Wisler, G. C., Elliot, M. S. and 

Wong, S. 1990. Viruses of Orchids and Their 

Control. Plant Disease, Sept.. 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Cymbidium Growing 

Cymbidium Mosaic 

NT Agnotes 

A Disease of Orchids : Cymbidium Mosaic Virus 

Feasibility Study of the Establishment of an Orchid 

Cultivation Industry in the Northern Territory 

(NT Dev. Corp. Resource Consulting Services 85) 

Vic Agnotes 

Growing Cymbidiums 

Virus Diseases of Orchids 


American Orchid Society Bulletin 

Australasian Native Orchid Society (Cultivation of 

Australian Native Orchids (1988) 

Australian Orchid Foundation 

Australian Orchid Review (Mail Order Bookshop) 

Australia Orchid Society/Council 

Cymbidium Club of Australia. 


Orchidaceous Books, PO Box 378, Alstonville, NSW. 

Orchid Digest 

Orchid Exporters Association of Australia,, NSW 

Orchids Australia 

The Orchid Advocate (Official Journal of the 

Cymbidium Soc. of America) 

The Orchidian (Jn. of ANOS) 

The Orchid Review (1893-1984) 

Local Orchid Societies, Australian Orchid Soc. 





MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural varieties: Orchids make lovely container plants. They are the most expensive cut flowers. 

Resistant varieties: Some orchids are hardier than others, eg cymbidiums. Virus-tested orchids: Only 

purchase or propagate from virus-tested orchids. Growers intending to import orchids should ensure that plants 

are from a quarantine approved source and free from viral and other problems as all diseased plants are 

destroyed when detected in quarantine. 


Propagated by seed or division, tissue culture. Different types of orchids require different cultural conditions. A 

range of media specifically tested for suitability for orchid tissue culture and flasking or for orchid seed is 

available. Diseases and pests should be monitored in commercial crops. Regular virus-testing may be 

necessary. Cultural methods: Provide adequate spacing of pots, good ventilation and appropriate cultural 

practices. Sanitation: Remove all dead leaves and leaf bases to prevent decaying plant material from 

accumulating around the base of plants. As orchid viruses can easily be transferred to healthy plants by 

handling, it is important to wash hands and disinfect tools between plants. See Orchids G 3. Preferably handle 

healthy plants before handling diseased plants. Pesticides may damage and buds and flowers. Bordeaux 

mixture which controls most leaf diseases of cymbidiums should not be applied during flowering (Taylor 1989c). 

Postharvest 

Harvest stage: Handle flowers carefully as they are easily bruised. Usually optimal stage for harvest is 

3-4 days after bud opening. If cut at too early a stage of bud development orchids will not properly open. When 

individual flowers are harvested the peduncles should immediately be placed in a tube with a rubber or plastic 

cover. Older flowers from the lower part of the inflorescence are shorter-lived than younger flowers from the 

upper part. Flowers are very sensitive to ethylene (reddish flower colour, hastening of withering, etc). Pollinated 

flowers wilt quickly; only 2 pollinated orchids in a box can reduce the longevity of other non-pollinated flowers. 

Storage: Do not refrigerate orchids below 10 o C (Jones and Moody 1993, Sacalis 1993). Transport: Flowers 

in tubes. Whole spikes may be packed 100 flowers to the box in moisture-retentive boxes. Immediately upon 

arrival peduncles should be recut and replaced in clean water in vials or in vases with floral preservative Vase 

life: Refill vial solutions regularly. Individual cymbidium spikes in vases may last for 6-8 weeks (Jones and 

Moody 1993, Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

G 8 

ORCHIDS

Palms 

Fig. 177. Fungal leaf spots (adapted from Duff, 1989). 

Fig. 178. Mealybugs (Pseudococcus 

spp.) are white, fluffy and easily seen. 

Fig. 180. Palm leaf beetle (Brontispa 

longissima) and larva (adapted from Fenner 1989). 

Fig. 181. Tiny armoured scales 

(Diaspididae) are 1-3 mm long. 

Fig. 179. Twospotted mites (Tetranychus urticae) 

crawling over webbing. 

Fig, 182. Greenhouse thrips 

(Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis). 

PALMS H 1

Palms 

Family Arecaceae 


Parasitic 







Protozoan diseases 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Palm leaf beetle 

Scales 

Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 




WEEDS 

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is probably 

one of the earliest crops to be cultivated and its 

propagation has spread to most of the drier parts of 

the world. Palms are generally a hardy group of 

plants. 


Parasitic 


Some species are subject to serious virus diseases 

overseas but these are not known to occur in 

Australia. 

Kentia palm mosaic (unconfirmed virus) may cause a 

yellow mosaic on new fronds of Howea forsteriana, 

fronds may recover. 

Palm ringspot (roystonea virus) affects Chamaedorea 

seifrizii, Ravanea rivularis and Roystonea regia. 

Leaflets develop yellow ringspots which later turn 

brown, and lack of vigour. Plants may die 

prematurely (Bodman et al. 1996). 

Others overseas: Cadang-cadang (viroid) infects 

coconut (Cocos nucifera), oil palm (Elaeis spp.) and 

buri palm (Corypha elata) and is estimated to have 

killed > 30 million trees in the Philippines and 

Guam. The disease produces symptoms on mature 

palms which include characteristic mottling and a 

gradual reduction in fruit size and number until no 

more fruit is set. Death follows a long period of 

decline. Its method of spread is not known. Foliar 

decay (virus) infects coconut palm and native palms 

in Vanuatu. It causes yellowing and death and 

prevents the use of potentially higher yielding palms 

in Vanuatu. The disease is spread from native 

vegetation to introduced palms by the cixiid bug 

(Myndus taffini). While local cultivars in Vanuatu are 

tolerant or resistant, the Malayan Red Dwarf cultivar 

and its hybrids are very susceptible. Lethal 

yellowing (mycoplasma-like organism) is a 

devastating disease causing rapid death to coconut 

and at least 20 species of palms including many 

ornamentals. It is a threat to the various countries of 

the Pacific which rely on the coconut and its products 

and has been particularly severe in Jamaica and 

Florida. Symptoms consist of nut fall, leaf yellowing, 

flower blackening followed by browning of the spear 

leaf and death. Spread by a leafhopper (Myndus 

crudus), by vegetative propagation and by the 

movement of infected seedlings, suckers and plants. 

The only effective control has been the use of 

varieties with some resistance, eg the Malayan 

Dwarf variety and its hybrids. Antibiotics have been 

used in small plantings. Control: Quarantine 

risks: Although coconut and oil palm are not 

commercial crops in Australia, a very large number of 

palm species are grown as ornamentals. These and 

some native species could be at risk from the 

introduction of these and other diseases. Lethal 

yellowing has a wide host range and seedlings or 

suckers of ornamental species could be the means for 

introducing the disease. Although cadang-cadang has 

been positively identified on only a few palm species 

it may have a wider host range. Quarantine 

precautions: Prior approval is required to import 

plants of all palm species and importation is 

discouraged if they can be propagated from seed. If 

approval is granted plants must be fumigated against 

possible insect pests, and grown in post-entry 

quarantine. The import of coconut seedlings is 

prohibited. As cadang-cadang is known to be 

seedborne the import of seed nuts will only be 

permitted from safe sources and subject to growth in 

post-entry quarantine (Com. of Aust. 1987). See Fruit 

F 4, Trees K 4. 


Bacterial leaf blight (Pseudomonas alboprecipitans = 

P. avenae) causes large elongated brownish areas on 

leaves of the fishtail palm (Caryota mitis). 

Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum biovar III) 

causes vascular discolouration of stems. Alexandra 

palm (Archontophoenix alexandrae) is susceptible, 

palms die. See Tomato M 6. 



Bipolaris incurvata is perhaps the most common 

fungal leaf spot of palms in NT nurseries and affects 

many species of palms, eg kentia palm (Howea spp.) 

and golden cane palm (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens). 

Cylindrocladium quinquiseptatum may severely 

affect American cotton palm (Washingtonia filifera). 

False smut (Graphiola sp., Stylinia sp.) may affect 

Livistona spp. and date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). 

Palm leaf blight, anthracnose (Colletotrichum sp.) 

affects many species. 

Others: Brachybasidium pingae, Cercospora, 

Exserohilum, Pestalotiopsis, Phomopsis and 

phytophthora leaf blight (Phytophthora spp.,), 

Pseudocercospora spp. Some fungi only invade 

damaged tissue. 

H 2 

PALMS

PALMS 

Symptoms vary with the fungus, but commonly 

brown to black spots frequently surrounded by a 

yellowish-green halo develop (Fig. 177). During 

humid conditions fronds may start dying at the tips 

leaving a shredded appearance. Secondary fungi 

(Alternaria, Curvularia, Colletotrichum and 

Fusarium in some cases) may invade leaf spots 

after the initial fungus has caused the damage or 

after damage by sunscorch or other factors (Duff 

1991). See Annuals A 5. 


Damping off (Gliocladium vermoeseni, Phytophthora 

spp., Polyporus microsporus, Pythium spp., 

Rhizoctonia sp., Sclerotium rolfsii, Thielaviopsis 

paradoxa), may affect palm seedlings (Weale 1991). 


Gleocladium stem rot (Gliocladium vermoseni) 

forms pinkish spore masses at the base of the oldest 

fronds. Canes die. Infection usually follows injury. 

Phytophthora collar, stub or root rots 

(Phytophthora spp., P. palmivora) may affect some 

palms when planted in heavy waterlogged soils with 

poor drainage, eg Queen palm (Arecastrum 

romanzoffianum), Caryota mitis, C. urens and 

coconut. Many palms seem to be resistant. Palms 

develop an unthrifty appearance with a crown of pale 

or yellow leaves. If severely stressed by 

overfertilising, waterlogging or other factors, plants 

may wilt or collapse suddenly and die. In some 

species symptoms appear as a leaf blight. Only 

plant susceptible palms in well drained soils. See 

Trees K 6. 

Others: Upper stem rot (Thielaviopsis paradoxa), 

Fusarium sp., and Pythium sp. may cause root, stub or 

bud rots. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) may 

be important commercially overseas and is being 

investigated in Sydney. Ganoderma butt rot 

(Ganoderma zonatum) has been identified in > 30 

species of palms across south eastern USA. Initial 

symptoms are wilting of leaves. This is usually 

followed by the appearance of fruiting bodies. A 

palm tree can then die within a year of their 

appearance. 



Nematodes do not appear to be a serious cause of 

disease in Australia. Nematodes recorded in 

association with palms in Australia include ring 

nematode (Criconema sp.), root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne), Filenchus, Hemicriconemoides, 

Scutelloma, Tylenchus (McLeod et al. 1994). Red 

ring disease (Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus) 

causes serious losses of palms in the Carribean. 

(Com. of Aust. 1987). See Vegetables M 10. 

PROTOZOAN DISEASES 

Sudden wilt, Marchitez sorpresiva or Hartrot is 

a lethal disease affecting coconuts and oil palms 

in South America. It is thought to be caused by a 

protozoa (Phytomonas staheli) (Com. of Aust. 1987). 




Palm aphids (Cerataphis lataniae, C. variabilis) 

Aphids may infest new growth. The wingless 

form of the palm aphid (C. variabilis) is often 

mistaken for a whitefly because it is dark and disclike 

with a white fringe. Overseas, C. palmae may 

also infest palms. See Roses J 4. 


Palmdart butterflies (Cephrenes spp. Hesperiidae) 

may be serious pests of native and exotic palms, eg 

Alexandra palm (Archontophoenix alexandrae), 

bangalow palm (A. cunninghamiana), featherleaved 

palms (Chrysalidocarpus spp.), queen palm 

(Arecastrum romanzoffianum) and coconut. Orange 

palmdart (C. augiades sperthias) occurs south from 

the Torres Strait Islands down the east coast of 

Australia to Sydney, infesting palms, especially 

bangalow palm (A. cunninghamiana) and cabbage 

palm (Livistona australis). Yellow palmdart 

(C. trichopepla) occurs in northern areas of Australia 

infesting palms but especially young sprouting 

coconut palms. Butterflies have orange and brown 

wings and are often called skippers or darts because of 

their unusual manner of flight. They are active on 

sunny days. Caterpillars are slender, translucent and 

greenish-grey or brownish depending on the species 

and about 70 mm long. They have a prominent, 

striped head and wriggle actively when disturbed. 

Each caterpillar folds a section of frond around itself 

and secures it in place with webbing. It hides in this 

shelter during the day and eats sections of young 

leaflets and fronds to the midrib, giving palms a 

ragged appearance. Caterpillars pupate in the shelter. 

Sometimes caterpillars of the orange palmdart may 

pupate within sewn leaves of nearby plants. Mickey 

birds are active predators. Regular applications of 

insecticides may be necessary during the summer. 

Others: Case moth (Psychidae) caterpillars may be 

a minor pest of bangalow palm and princess palm 

(Dictyosperma album). Caterpillars grow to about 

25 mm long, and are pale with orange or red bands. 

They graze the surface tissue of palm fronds and 

construct a silken bag decorated on the outside with 

pieces of palm fronds, in which to live. Damaged 

sections eventually turn brown. See Trees K 13. 


caterpillars shelter in developing fronds and web 

adjacent leaflets together by silk strands. They feed on 

very young fronds and the damage is only obvious 

when the fronds have developed. See Pome fruits 

F 112. Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides) 

caterpillars have tufts of hairs on their back and feed 

on young soft palm fronds. Other hairy caterpillars 

which coil when disturbed are occasionally 

troublesome. See Pome fruits F 113. Yellow peach 

moth (Conogethes punctiferalis) caterpillars destroy 

developing seeds in seed heads and on fruits of 

Planchonia careya and Livistona humilis. See Stone 

fruits F 133. 

Other caterpillars may not really be pests: 

Palmfly (Elymnias agondas australiana, 

Nymphalidae) caterpillars feed on palms, especially 

lawyer palm on Cape York Peninsula. Caterpillars 

are green with paler stripes and an unusual forked tail. 

Butterflies are handsome with dull brown and white 

PALMS H 3

PALMS 

wings with 2-3 prominent eyes on the hindwing. 

A palm moth (Agononexa phoenicia) is a minor pest 

of Alexandra palm in northern Australia. Caterpillars 

are slender, small and grey, and feed on leaf 

undersurfaces from inside a flimsy silken web. 

Moths are small, grey with hairy, fringed slender 

wings, the upper one of which has a longitudinal dark 

band up to 20 mm long. Caterpillars of a small, dull 

grey moth (Blastobasis sarcophaga) with hairy 

fringed wings feed on tropical to subtropical kauri 

pine catkins (Agathis robusta), fruit of Syzygium 

paniculatum, on fallen palm fruits in Sydney and also 

on dead eucalypt litter. Caterpillars of a butterfly 

(Deudorix epijarbas diovis, Lycaenidae) feed in fruits 

of Caryota rumphiana on Cape York Peninsula. 


Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are serious 

pests of palms which have persistent, long, 

sheathing leaf bases that shelter mealybugs making 

their control difficult (Fig. 178). Developing 

fronds may be distorted and misshapen if infested 

while still folded in the crown. Weakened plants, 

eg those grown in very dry situations or those held 

in pots for too long, are very susceptible. 

Bamboo palm is very susceptible. See 



Privet mite (Brevipaplus sp., Tenuipalpidae) is a false 

spider mite and has a wide host range. It is common 

on palms, azaleas and gerbera (Bodman et al. 1993). 

Mites are microscopic (0.25 mm long) and only half 

the size of adult twospotted mites. Their legs extend 

forward and backward and they may be confused with 

the star-shaped hairs on the lower surface of kentia 

palms. Mites are found on leaf undersurfaces and 

on stems and leaf stalks. They are slow moving, red 

or orange and lay bright red eggs. Their feeding on 

palms results in yellow flecks which are often 

mistaken for disease. Otherwise their damage is 

similar to that of twospotted mites except that they do 

not form webs and are usually not found in large 

populations. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae, 

Tetranychidae) is a major pest of palms during hot 

dry conditions (Fig. 179). Damaged fronds appear 

dull and lifeless or have faint white or yellowish 

mottle. If feeding continues, leaves yellow and may 

drop prematurely. Damage may be severe on 

weakened palms planted in a dry situation or on 

neglected indoor palms in a dry atmosphere. 

Regular hosing of leaves will help to reduce 

numbers. Slender lady palm (Rhapis humulis) is 

more susceptible than broad lady palm 

(R. excelsa). See Beans (French) M 29. 

Palm leaf beetle (Brontispa longissima, 

Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) is an introduced beetle 

which has devastated coconut palm, royal palm, 

Carpentaria palm, MacArthur palm and Alexandra 

palm in tropical regions such as Darwin, 

Cooktown and Torres Strait Islands (Fenner 1989). 

Beetles are narrow, flat, about 10 mm long, orange 

and black with a wide yellowish-brown band near 

the head (Fig. 180). They have 2 spines on the end 

of the body. They are sluggish during the day and 

move at night. Numbers increase rapidly in a new 

area. Larvae are plump and cream and about 

10 mm long with a series of spines down each side 

and a pair of curved hooks at its rear which 

resemble those of an earwig. Beetles shelter within 

the folds of new leaves and chew large areas of 

soft, surface tissue. They cause considerable 

damage to palm fronds and hearts. Damaged 

areas turn brown and as leaves expand take on a 

scorched appearance. Once leaflets expand, they 

move on to new unexpanded leaves. Very young 

palms are more seriously damaged than older 

plants because their leaves open much more 

slowly. Plants become unsightly, and if attacks 

persist, vigour is reduced and plants may die. 

Do not confuse palm leaf beetles with several native 

beetles which are minor pests but also feed on palm 

leaves. Anadastus sp. can be distinguished from the 

introduced palm leaf beetle by conspicuous knobs on the 

end of the antenna. Hemipeplus australicus feeds 

on the leaves of some palms in tropical areas of 

Australia. It is small, somewhat elongated beetle only 

about 4 mm long. Plesispa sp. feed between 

unopened leaves causing damage similar to that caused 

by the palm leaf beetle. 

Biological control: The muscardine fungus 

(Metarhizium anisopliae) can infect palm leaf 

beetles and their larvae causing death. Attempts to 

establish a parasitic wasp (Tetrastichus brontispae) 

are being researched. Geckos and green tree frogs 

probably eat adults and possibly larvae but are 

unable to control infestations. Plant quarantine: 

Cairns and parts of northern Qld have been 

declared quarantine areas. Growers must register 

plants sold from the quarantine area. Insecticides 

may be applied to unfolded leaves. Thorough 

penetration is essential. Repeat applications are 

usually recommended. If the leaves are very 

tightly folded, separate them by gentle handling 

and twisting. Seek advice from local departments 

of agriculture. See Trees K 15. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): White palm scale 

(Phenacaspis eugeniae) infests palms, magnolia, New 

South Wales Christmas bush, geebung, lilly-pilly, 

protea, viburnum, waratah and many other species. 

Adult female scales are white, pear-shaped and 

about 2.5 mm long. Male scales are smaller and 

covered with a white cottony substance which 

obscures their outline. There may be several 

generations in one year. White scales are mainly 

found in groups on leaf undersurfaces, but if 

numerous, also on leaf uppersurfaces. Leaf upper 

surfaces develop yellow blotches where scales feed, 

leaves wither and die as numbers increase. Others: 

Circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum), 

date palm scale (Parlatoria blanchardi), fern scale 

(Pinaspis caricis), orchid parlatoria scale 

(Parlatoria proteus), red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). 


Margarodid scales (Margarodidae): Cottony 

cushion scale (Icerya purchasi). See Citrus F 41. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Nigra scale (Parasaissetia 

nigra), pink wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens), soft 

brown scale (Coccus hesperidum), tessellated 

scale (Eucalymnatus tessellatus). See Citrus F 41. 

Scales congregate on petioles, leaf sheaths, both 

surfaces of fronds and around crowns (Fig. 181). 

Some yellowing occurs on the tissues where they 

feed. Young scales attack developing leaves but 

are not obvious until they are adults and leaves are 

H 4 

PALMS

PALMS 

mature. Some scales are easily dislodged. 

Because leaves are long-lived, hard scales can 

become established. Sooty mould which grows on 

the honeydew produced by soft and margarodid 

scales and which makes plants unsightly can be 

removed by regular hosing. Infestations of soft 

scales may be controlled by applications of white 

oil. On palms the concentration of insecticides and 

white oil should be reduced to avoid damaging 

leaves and do not apply on hot days. When 

treating potted plants allow excess spray to run 

into pots. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 



may cause leaf silvering. Leaves are also disfigured 

by the dark sticky drops of thrips excreta. Thrips 

and their excreta are usually found on leaf 

undersurfaces (Fig. 182). See Greenhouse N 24. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) in some years may 

appear in large numbers and feed on flowers causing 

premature browning of the flowers and reduced fruit 

set. Control is not usually necessary. See Roses J 6. 

Weevils (Coleoptera) 

Palm weevil borer, four-spotted coconut weevil 

(Diocalandra frumenti, Curculionidae) is a seed 

feeder of palms especially Canary Island date palm 

(Phoenix canariensis) and coconut, also cotton, 

sorghum and some other plants. Larvae attack all 

parts of the palm, especially leaves, fruit-stalks and 

roots causing premature fruit fall. They bore into leaf 

bases from the trunk to the leaflets. The trunk can 

be bored at all heights. Natural enemies in Australia 

are not presently known. Where the insect is known 

to occur, cuts made to remove leaves should be 

painted with an acrylic paint or tree wound dressing to 

avoid attracting adult insects (Brough et al. 1994). 

Palm seedborer, kentia palm seed borer 

(Coccotrypes dactyliperda, Curculionidae) adults 

(weevils) bore into palm seed. 

Seed weevils (Bruchinae, Chrysomelidae) feed on 

fleshy tissue of palm seeds preventing germination. 

Seeds show a marked reduction in weight and a telltale 

exit hole (although sometimes it may be covered 

with a flap of tissue). Fat, white, legless larvae feed 

in seeds of native species of Calamus. Weevils and 

their larvae will attack seed while it is on the tree. 

See Seeds N 75. 

Sugarcane weevil borer, New Guinea sugarcane 

weevil (Rhabdoscelus obscurus, Curculionidae) is a 

major pest of palms and sugarcane in north Qld. 

Weevils are about 10 mm long, of variable colour 

with 6 distinct patterns of light and dark markings. 

They may live for years and feed on the tops of palms 

which may die from the attack. Female weevils can 

live for possibly years and lay up to 600 eggs on the 

epidermis and leaf bases. Larvae are white, legless 

with a dark reddish brown head and about 8 mm long. 

Up to several hundred larvae may feed and 

develop within the trunk of a single 4-6 year-old 

coconut trees. They pupate after several months in a 

fibrous cocoon in the tree. Secondary disease 

organisms may invade damaged areas, palms may die 

and blow over. Borers in all plants are difficult 

to control chemically. Infested plants should not 

be sold. Do not use bagasse in potting mixes as this 

may attract adults. Remove dead fronds and infested 

palm debris to reduce level of infestation. Infested 

plant material and debris should be destroyed. A 

parasitic fly (Lixophaga sphenophori) has been 

released and under favourable conditions may bring 

about a high degree of control. Predators include 

rats which eat the cocoons and the cane toad which 

feeds on adults. The green muscardine fungus 

(Metarhizium anisopliae) also attacks borers under 

favourable conditions. Some palm species are more 

susceptible than others (Halfpapp and Elder 1994). 

Seedlings and small plants may be sprayed with 


Control of seed-eating pests is usually impractical, 

although if seed is thought to be contaminated it 

should be treated with insecticide before sowing. 

See Trees K 11, K 17, Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Giant grasshopper (Valanga 

irregularis) and migratory locust (Locusta 

migratoria) in the tropics may chew huge chunks 

from palm leaves, often leaving just midribs. 

Damage is unsightly, and may stunt growth. Young 

plants may die. Squashing is effective on small 

palms, sprays may be necessary in nursery stock. 

Attacks on larger palms are difficult to control. 

Ensure plants are healthy so that they may recover 

from attack. Longicorns (Cerambycidae) 

occasionally bore holes into trunk and crown shafts of 

some palms. The scattered exit holes do not appear to 

cause any major damage or reduce the structural 

strength of trunks. Larvae bore shallow tunnels 

usually in the softer upper part of the trunk (where it 

exudes sawdust) or sometimes in the crown and 

crown shaft (where it exudes a white waxy sap that 

resembles toothpaste). Termites (Isoptera) may 

quickly destroy palms in tropical areas. Termites 

attack palms from below the ground, invading roots 

and progressively damaging the trunk. By the time 

the termite damage is noticed, the plant is usually too 

badly damaged to be saved. Termites are difficult to 

control and regular inspections of palms are 

necessary in tropical areas. Any obvious termite 

colonies in the area should be destroyed along with 

dead or dying tree stumps. Others: Ants 

(Formicidae, Hymenoptera) may be attracted to dates. 

Driedfruit beetles (Nitidulidae) feed in flowers of 

palms and pandanas (Platychoropsis). Earwigs 

(Dermaptera) may invade the crowns of palms. 

Millipedes (Diplopoda) may eat fleshy roots of 

palms. Plantsucking bugs (Hemiptera) may feed on 

dates. Springtails (Collembola) and wireworms 

(Elateridae) may attack seedlings. Whiteflies 

(Aleyrodidae), eg coconut whitefly (Aleurodicus 

destructor) and greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum), may attack palms; their activities are 

followed by sooty mould which develops on their 

exudates. 


Snails and slugs can damage seedlings and newly 

potted up plants. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds may feed on dates. Mice and rats at certain 

times of the year may quickly gnaw through stems 

of young palms in nurseries; they may be 

controlled by baiting. See Fruit F 13, Seeds N 77. 

PALMS H 5

PALMS 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Hail may tear large pieces from 

leaflets, leaf segments, inflorescences and other 

areas. Damaged areas may be invaded by 

secondary fungi, eg Alternaria, and damaged 

plants should be sprayed immediately with a 

fungicide. Freezing damage may occur when hail 

collects in sunken sites such as the top of the 

crown and around objects at the base of trunks. As 

it thaws adjacent plant tissue can be damaged. 

Many species of palms, especially those of tropical 

origin, are sensitive to cold especially frost 

(Bodman 1995). Young plants are more 

susceptible than mature specimens, but even they 

may be damaged. Roots, especially the growing 

tips, are very sensitive to freezing. Ground 

temperatures of -2 o C may cause considerable 

damage. Because palms have a single growing 

apex, if that is irreparably damaged death follows. 

Frost injury is indicated by blackening of the 

foliage and collapse of developing leaves and 

brown patches on mature fronds. Susceptible 

species collapse dramatically, usually going 

brown or black with the crown becoming a soggy 

mess. Protect from mild frosts by planting close to 

buildings or large shrubs, or under protective 

canopies of established trees. In cold areas, 

sensitive species must be grown in glasshouses. 

To prevent sunburn (high temperatures which 

physically burn tender leaves) most species need to 

be protected from direct exposure to hot sun for 

the first 2-3 years and then gradually acclimatised 

(hardened) to the effects of sun. Shade-loving 

palms should be protected at all times. Premature 

or unexpected exposure to hot sun results in white 

or brown papery patches on leaves. In severe 

cases whole leaves or whole plants may die. 

Crowns of older palms (and sometimes younger 

specimens) of Howea and Bangalow palm may 

take on a twisted or lopsided appearance with 

most fronds seeming to end up on one side. 

Trunks may bend or kink below the crown. 

Damage by wind, hail, tree branches, or perhaps 

pest or disease organisms, is thought to be the 

cause. Most palms need a plentiful supply of 

water and good drainage during active growth, 

eg in spring and summer. Palms are generally 

quite resistant to dry soil but in cases of severe 

dryness, fronds and leaflets take on a wilted 

appearance and may fold together or curl inwards. 

Palms may stay in a wilted state for long periods 

without obvious damage, although constrictions in 

the trunk or very short internodes may occur. 

Following drought, tips of leaflets usually wither 

and dry back. Hot dry winds may damage 

developing fronds of sensitive species. When they 

open they have grey or white papery patches. 

Strong winds may shred leaves. Columnar trunks 

are very resistant, even the long slender ones 

merely bend during cyclones. It is important to 

know the general environmental conditions a 

particular species of palm requires, eg Lady palm 

(Rhapis multifida Jade Empress) tolerates an air 

conditioned environment and low light levels, and 

is long lived in containers. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Many 

seedling palms die due to excessive use of 

chemical fertilisers. Older palms may also suffer 

from deficiencies (Reed 1988). Nitrogen 

deficiency is common in coastal districts with 

deep sandy soil. It causes crowns to yellow and 

older leaves to whiten, yellow or even bleach, with 

dead patches on leaflets. Zinc deficiency (littleleaf) 

has been reported in laboratory tests. Salt 

burn: In coastal districts, onshore winds deposit 

salt from seawater on leaves. Many species are 

sensitive. Margins of leaflets are burnt and 

become white and papery. Usually only causes a 

minor setback to growth and affects the plant's 

appearance. Hose plants down thoroughly after 

onshore gusts where practical. Excessive soil 

salinity may also cause foliage burns and root rots. 

Sensitive species include Arecastrum 

romanzoffianum (generally tolerant), also 

Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, Phoenix rupicola. 

Caryota spp. are especially sensitive to salt burn 

(Jones 1984). Excessive salinity can be prevented 

by using good quality potting mixes and good 

irrigation practices. Reduce the use of fertilisers 

with a high salt index, eg potassium chloride, 

sodium nitrate and ammonium nitrate. Use slow 

release fertilisers with caution in hot weather, 

some brands may be more suitable than others. 

Ensure irrigation applied is sufficient to leach 

excess salts out of pots once per week or fortnight. 

Monitor salt levels. Hot weather can also promote 

leaf scorching if the soil mix is allowed to dry out, 

for even less than 1 hour! The decreased moisture 

in the mix causes salt levels to increase 

dramatically which then causes foliage burn (Reed 

1988). 

Pesticide injury: Polishing foliage of indoor 

palms with white oil to clean leaves and create a 

glossy appearance or control scale may cause 

patches of dead brown tissue, oil should not be 

used stronger than a dilution of 1:60 with water 

and this can be further diluted to 1:80 during hot 

weather. Some miticides may damage palms, so 

test on a few plants first before large scale use. 

Poisonous properties: Severe skin rashes 

and itching may result from contact with juice of 

Carpentaria and some other palms when collecting 

or cleaning fruit. Palms with spiny trunks or 

leaves should not be used indoors or planted where 

children play. 

Others: Only prune unwanted clusters of fruit 

or dead fronds. If the top of a palm is cut off the 

growing apex is removed and the stem will die. A 

projectile firing fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus) 

of minor importance may grow on wood products 

or manure in potting mixes and disfigures plant 

surfaces. The small black or brown fruiting bodies 

about 1 mm across are found on the surfaces of 

leaves and stems (Brough et al. 1994). Sooty 

mould grows on the excretions of sucking insects, 

eg mealybugs, soft scales, whiteflies, disfiguring 

them. Spiders, flies and cockroaches often live 

among palm fronds. 

WEEDS 

Weeds amongst palms growing in the field may be 

controlled either by mulches, cultivation, mowing 

or by herbicides. Post-emergence desiccant-type 

(contact) or systemic herbicides are suitable for 

controlling weeds under date palms. Preemergence 

herbicides may be used during 

H 6 

PALMS

PALMS 

establishment. See Trees K 21. Weeds in indoor 

containers may be controlled by using weed-free 

mixes, mulching the surface or by pre-emergence 

herbicides. 


Blomberry, A. and Rodd, T. 1982. Palms of the World. 

Angus and Robertson, Sydney. 

Bodman, K. 1995. Cold Palms. Ornamentals Update, 

Vol.1(2), Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane. 


Control in Ornamental Crops. QNIA, PO Box 345, 

Salisbury, Qld 4107. 








Chase, A. R. and Broschat, T. K. (eds). 1991. Diseases 

and Disorders of Ornamental Palms. APS Press, St. 

Paul, Minnesota. 

Com. of Aust. 1996. Lethal Diseases of Palms. Plant 

Quar. Leaflet No.49. Aust. Quar & Inspection 

Service, Dept. of Primary Industries & Energy, 

Canberra. 



Coombs, B. 1995. Horticulture Australia. Morescope 


Downer, J. and Ohr, H. 1989. Palm Trees have 

Problems Too. Grounds Maintenance April. 

Duff, J. 1989. Leaf Spot Diseases of Palms. Agnote, NT 

Dept. of Primary Indust. & Fish., Darwin. 

Duff, J. 1991. Personal Communications : Appendix 1 : 

List of Palm Diseases Recorded in the Top End of 

the Northern Territory. Berrimah Agric. Research 

Centre, Dept. of Primary Indust. & Fish., Strath 

Road, Berrimah, NT 0828. 

Fenner, T. L. 1989. Palm Leaf Beetle. NT Agnote. 

Forsberg, L. I. 1985. Foliar Diseases of Nursery-grown 

Ornamental Palms. Aust. Plant Path. 14 (4). 

Forsberg, L. I. 1987. Diseases of Ornamental Palms. 

Qld Agric. Jn. Sept/Oct. 



Halfpapp, K. and Elder, R. 1994. Palms Damaged by 

Beetle Pests. Aust. Hort., March. 

Jones, D. 1984. Palms in Australia. reprinted 1989. 

Reed Books, Frenchs Forest, NSW. 

Langlois, A. C. 1976. Supplement to Palms of the World. 

Gainsville, Florida University Press. 

McCoy, R. 1988. What's Killing the Palm Trees? New 

Geographic, Washington. July 1988, 120-130. 








Reed, A. 1988. Palms. Farmnote, WA Dept. of Agric., 

Perth. 

Stewart, L. 1981. Palms for the Home and Garden. 

Angus & Robertson, Sydney. 

Stewart, L. 1994. Guide to Palms & Cycads of the 

World. Angus & Robertson, Sydney. 

Weale, C. 1991. Production of Kentia Palm Seedlings. 

Agfact, NSW Agriculture & Fisheries, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

Date Production in Central Australia : An Economic 

Analysis (NT Agdex) 

Dates in Western Australia (WA Farmnote) 

Growing Palms (NT Agnote) 

Leaf Spot Diseases of Palms (NT Agnote) 

Palm Leaf Beetle (NT Agnote) 

Palms (WA Farmnote) 

Palms : Indoors (SA ABG Leaflet) 

Production of Kentia Palm Seedlings (NSW Agfact) 

Associations, Journals etc. (Jones 1989) 

Australian Chapter, West Pymble 

Australian Kentia Palm Corporation (AKP) 

Australian Palm and Cycad Society 


Kentia Association 

North Queensland Palm Society 

Palm and Cycad Society of New Zealand 

Palm Society of the Northern Territory 

Palm Society, Kansas, USA (Journal - Principes ) 

Specialist Palm Growers 

Townsville Palmetum Botanic Gardens 

See Preface xii, Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22 



MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Dates and coconuts have virtually supported whole civilisations and are still 

major crops in north Africa and Polynesia. Palms have historically and traditionally been of great importance 

and used for building materials (timber and thatch), clothing, ropes, fuel, furniture and food. Although modern 

technology has superseded many of their uses, they are still used today for food (date, coconut, oil, betel nut, 

sago, palm sugar), medicine, baskets, buildings, clothing, oils, varnishes, wines and spirits, fuel and fodder. In 

ornamental horticulture they are used as potted plants for interior landscaping, for outdoor landscape 

plantings in groups or in palm gardens and for floral arrangements (especially those leaflets arising from a 

single base area like a fan). Those selected as potted plants adjacent to pathways, or for floral work, should 

not be spiny. Palms are expensive because they grow slowly so they are not used for quick cover. An 

expert database systems for palms called PALMS (Prototype Application of Language Meaning Structures) 

has been developed to provide information on palms for Florida conditions by the University of Florida. 

Resistant varieties: Certain species are more prone to particular diseases (Forsberg 1987). For example, 

sago palm (Cycas revoluta) are susceptible to mealybugs; parlour palm (Chamaedorea elegans) to salt 

toxicity and spider mites; sentry palm (Howea spp.) to mealybugs, scale and salts. Where practical grow 

palms which have some resistance to local problems. 

Plant quarantine: Plants sold from designated quarantine areas in Qld, must undergo prescribed pesticide 

treatments for palm leaf beetle before dispatch. 

PALMS H 7

PALMS 

Disease-free planting material: Prevent introduction of diseases and pests. Only purchase or propagate 

from plants guaranteed free from diseases and pests. Select new plants from other nurseries carefully and 

segregate them until shown to be healthy. Avoid in ground palm plantings near nursery areas. Some 

diseases of palms, especially Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii, are introduced in germination media, 

planting containers and seed. 


Propagation: By seed, tissue culture. If seed is contaminated it can be treated with insecticide before 

sowing. Palm seeds are often slow and difficult to germinate. Advanced specimens of many palms can be 

transplanted successfully provided that a significant portion of the root system is removed intact and that 

correct after care is provided. For very large palms obtain expert advice and use proper equipment. 

Cultural care and maintenance of potted palms: Different palms require different conditions. For most 

palms, the key to good growth is adequate watering. However, water frequently only if the palm is growing 

actively, otherwise water only to keep the soil damp. Use well drained potting mixes to discourage Pythium 

and Phytophthora and keep foliage dry or ensure it dries rapidly. Provide good air circulation. If either the soil 

or the atmosphere, ie near heaters or air conditioners, is too dry, leaves are likely to dry out and brown on the 

tips. Humidity can be increased by hosing the fronds or by misting them with water. Provide adequate light 

as low light encourages soft foliage which is prone to injury. Try to provide filtered or indirect sunlight. Avoid 

excess nitrogen and low potassium which could predispose palms to leaf diseases. Fertilise only when 

palms are actively growing. Excess fertiliser may kill palms. Rooms with daily temperatures between 18 

and 25 o C are acceptable, higher temperatures are preferable. Palms can be rotated between indoor and 

shady outdoor positions. Avoid placing palms under or near overhead fans or severe burning of fronds will 

result. Container palms grow best when partially pot bound. New roots are produced regularly and on 

mature plants they may develop above ground and vigorous potted specimens may be pushed up out of the 

pot or the pot may crack. Palms should be repotted every 2-3 years. Indoor palms may live for 

4-5 years provided they are fed and watered regularly and given an out-of-house rest and hosing down each 

month or so. Avoid injury to plants during repotting. When planted out they require protection from sun and 

wind. Young palms will not compete with grass or weeds. 

Sanitation/Plant quarantine: Destroy and segregate diseased palms. If possible, spray or wipe leaves of 

indoor palms to remove dust, mealybugs, scales and twospotted mites once a month with dilute soap 

solution, then rinse leaves with clean water. Palms will shed or hold fronds depending on the species. The 

only pruning required is to remove old untidy fronds for the sake of appearance. Preferably remove diseased 

fronds and plant debris, but if considered necessary, frayed leaflets may be singed off with a flame rather than 

cutting with scissors. To prevent contamination from soil, stand pots on coarse gravel aggregate at least 

50 mm deep or better still, on raised benches. Disinfect working benches, work areas and equipment 

regularly. Use clean disinfected pots and tools. Pasteurise or treat potting mixes. See Greenhouses N 22, 

Nurseries N 51. 

Pesticides: Various fungicides and insecticides are registered for use on palms. If Pythium or Phytophthora 

is suspected irrigation water may need to be treated. 

Postharvest 

Florist greens: Harvest fully mature leaves of parlour palm (Chamaedorea elegans), they may be stored in 

moisture retentive boxes at 7 o C for 2-3 weeks (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Potted plants: Fan palms (Chamaerops spp.) and parlor or good luck palms (Chamaedorea spp.) need 

dispersed light or half-shade and moderate watering. They are ready to sell when plants are well established 

in pots with roots visible on the outside of the soil ball. Fan palms (Chamaerops spp.) require dispersed light 

or half shade and moderate watering. They grow in variable temperatures, withstand dry air and may be stored 

or transported for up to 10 days in darkness at 13-16 o C and relative humidity of 75%. Parlor or good luck 

palms (Chamaedorea spp.) require that the soil ball be kept moist and the temperature remain at about 18- 

20 o C (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

H 8 

PALMS

Roses 

Fig. 183. Virus symptoms on rose. 

Left : Line patterns. Right : Veinbanding. 

Dept. of Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 184. Anthracnose (Sphaceloma 

rosarum), grey spots with definite 

black margin. Dept. of Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 185. Black spot (Marssonina 

rosae), black feathery spots. Dept. 

of Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 186. Grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea). Each spot is caused by the 

germination of one spore. Dept. of 

Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 187. Stem canker 

(Leptosphaeria coniothyrium). 


Fig. 188. Aphids (Aphididae) 

have 2 cornicles. 

Fig. 189. Fuller's rose weevil 

(Asynonychus cervinus). Dept. 

of Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 190. Twospotted mites 

(Tetranychus urticae) are 

microscopic. 

Fig. 191. Plague thrips (Thrips 

imaginis). 

Fig. 192. Rose scale (Aulacaspis 

rosae), round female scales. 

Fig. 193. Leafcutting bee injury 

(Megachile spp.). Dept. of Agric. 

NSW. 

Fig. 194. Nectar scarabs 

(Phyllotocus spp.). 

ROSES J 1

Roses 

Rosa spp., Rosa hybrida 

Family Rosaceae (rose family) 


Parasitic 



Crown gall 


Anthracnose 

Black spot 

Damping off 

Downy mildew 

Grey mould, blossom blight, Botrytis 


Rust 

Stem cankers 




Aphids 

Caterpillars 


Fuller's rose weevil 

Mites 

Plague thrips 

Rose scale 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Leafcutting bees 

Nectar scarabs 



Senescence 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 


Scientific name: Apple mosaic, Prunus necrotic 

ringspot, tobacco leafcurl virus. 

Host range: Each virus has its own host range. 

Apple mosaic virus, eg apple, chestnut, hazelnut, 

hops, Prunus spp, rose, Prunus necrotic ringspot 

virus, eg Prunus spp., hops, rose (more than 40% 

of roses were infected in Victoria during 1984). 

tobacco leafcurl virus, eg honeysuckle, rose. 

Overseas, also rose ring pattern, rose rosette virus, 

rose streak, rose yellow mosaic, strawberry latent 

ringspot and tobacco streak. 

Symptoms: Symptoms only develop on leaves 

(Fig. 183) but there is usually a general reduction 

in bush size, number of flowers per bush and rose 

quality. Leaf symptoms vary and include 

veinbanding (a narrow band of yellow along the 

entire vein network of the leaflet, an isolated area 

of the leaflet or only around the margins, probably 

caused by tobacco leafcurl virus), chlorotic 

mottling (a yellow mottle involving the minor 

veins of the leaflet which may gradually spread to 

a general yellowing of the whole leaf) and line 

patterns (many lines or broad bands of pale green 

or creamy-white tissue, probably caused by Prunus 

necrotic ringspot virus). Virus expression depends 

on variety and environmental conditions. Viruses 

may be latent (does not induce symptoms). 

Overwintering: In canes, buds and roots of 

infected plants. Although only leaves show 

symptoms, virus is present in all parts of the plant. 

Spread: All virus diseases of roses are spread by 

vegetative propagation, eg scions (budding and 

grafting material) and rootstocks from infected 

rose plants. Prunus necrotic ringspot is also 

spread by pollen which may lead (rarely) to 

infection of the parent plant (this may be the only 

way of natural spread), not by seed. Tobacco 

leafcurl is also spread by cotton whitefly (Bemesia 

tabaci), a recent introduction to Australia. 

Control: To minimise spread: 

Sanitation: Commercial growers are advised to 

discard infected rose plants. Home gardeners do 

not need to remove infected plants. 

Disease-free planting material: Do not use 

mosaic-infected plants for budwood or 

rootstock. Purchase virus-tested rootstock and 

scions from specialist propagators who obtain 

rose propagation material from Crop Health 

Services (Crop Hygiene), Institute for 

Horticultural Development, Agriculture Victoria. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) is a sporadic 

disease and is more serious on young nursery stock 

than on older plants in the field. Galls ranging in 

size from a pea to a football develop at the base of 

canes,onroots and sometimes on aerial branches. 

Infected plants lack vigour, are stunted and 

produce few flowers. Hairy root (Agrobacterium 

sp.) also occurs on roses. See Stone fruits F 125. 

Others: Bacterial leaf and stem blight 

(Pseudomonas syringae) (Strider 1985). Bacterial 

leaf spot (Xanthomonas sp.) affects ground cover 

roses (Bodman et al. 1996). 


Anthracnose 


Anthracnose (Sphaceloma rosarum 

(= Elsinoe rosarum) 

Host range: Roses. 

Symptoms: Small, circular, black spots with 

well defined margins appear on leaves (Fig. 

184); spots caused by black spot (Marssonina 

rosae) are feathery. As anthracnose spots enlarge, 

their centres become grey and may later fall away, 

while the margins remain distinct. Defoliation 

does not occur to the same extent as with black 

spot. Young green stems and flowers may also be 

attacked. Anthracnose is often confused with black 

spot, however, it is not as common, nor as serious. 

Overwintering: Infected plants, canes, fallen 

leaves. 

Spread: Spores (conidia) are spread by wind; by 

the introduction/movement of infected plants. 

J 2 

ROSES

ROSES 

Conditions favouring: Cool, humid weather. 

Control: 

Resistant varieties: Varieties vary in 

susceptibility. Rosa multiflora, which is often 

used as a rootstock, is particularly susceptible. 

Pesticides: Anthracnose may be controlled by the 

same fungicides used for black spot. 

Black spot 

The most common and serious disease of roses. 


Black spot (Marssonina rosae) (= Diplocarpon 

rosae) Do not confuse with anthracnose 

(Sphaceloma rosarum) or other minor leaf spotting 

fungi eg Mycosphaerella. 

Host range: Roses. 

Symptoms: More or less circular black spots 

with fringed margins up to 10 mm in diameter 

develop mainly on leaf uppersurfaces (Fig. 185). 

Spots vary in number from 1-20 per leaf. During 

damp weather, examination of the feathery spots 

with a hand lens shows small black blisters 

(fruiting bodies or acervuli) which contain spores 

(conidia). Severely affected leaves yellow and fall 

prematurely. Repeated defoliation weakens plants, 

causes dieback of stems and reduction in size and 

number of flowers. Young canes of susceptible 

varieties may also develop spots. 

Overwintering: In susceptible varieties, in 

lesions on canes, as mycelium in fallen leaves, and 

prunings from infected plants. 

Spread: Spores (conidia) are spread by wind, 

rain or water splash from infected plants, fallen 

leaves and prunings from infected plants. By the 

introduction of infected plants. 

Conditions favouring: Warm (13-23 o C), wet 

conditions especially in spring. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Avoid overcrowding beds 

and overhead irrigation, eg use drip or 

hydroponic systems; if overhead irrigating do so 

early in the day so foliage is dry before evening. 

Avoid overfertilising which causes soft growth 

which is very susceptible to black spot. 

Mulching early in spring can serve as a 

mechanical barrier between spores formed on 

old fallen leaves and new growth (in susceptible 

varieties the fungus overwinters on the canes). 

Sanitation: Although the fungus can grow as a 

saprophyte on fallen leaves and prunings, the 

importance of collecting them has been 

overstressed (it is impossible to collect all fallen 

leaves and in susceptible varieties the fungus 

may overwinter on canes). Prune out infected 

canes during pruning, and destroy all fallen 

leaves and prunings. In home gardens, first 

infected leaves in spring can be removed, 

providing foliage is not wet. 


Pesticides: Fungicides may be applied to 

susceptible varieties when warm, humid 

conditions commence. Make sure that both leaf 

surfaces are wetted with fungicide. Baking soda 

when mixed with horticultural oil is also 

effective. See Roses J 4. 

Damping off (of cuttings) 

Black root rot, black mould (Chalara thielavioides) 

occurs on cuttings during prolonged storage under 

wet conditions, and in the ground. Cuttings become 

olive-green to dark-brown or black, roots do not 

develop, cuttings usually die. Inspect cuttings before 

and after storage, discard diseased ones. Dust healthy 

cuttings with fungicide before storage and again 

before planting. Destroy diseased cuttings whether 

in the ground or purchased. Rose common rootstock 

(Rosa multiflora) is moderately susceptible. 

Crown canker (Cylindrocladium scoparium, Imperfect 

Fungi) is usually only found on young rooted 

cuttings if excessively watered in poorly drained 

sites. Initially a slight discolouration of the stem bark 

at soil level and above develops. Later, the 

discolouration deepens to dark brown and tissue 

appears water-soaked. Lesions tend to coalesce, 

forming continuous brown to black areas. Girdling of 

the main stem kills the plant. Destroy all diseased 

plants. Inspect new plants for disease before planting 

and destroy any that are infected. No chemical 

controls are available. 

Others: Other fungi may cause damping off on rose 

cuttings, eg grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). 


Downy mildew (Peronospora sparsa) is 

more severe on young growth than older tissue, 

and occurs during cool, humid weather (optimum 

18 o C and > 85% relative humidity). Purplish to 

dark brown irregular spots, many of which are 

angular in shape, develop on leaves. In humid 

weather, a downy growth of fungus develops on 

leaf undersurfaces beneath the spots. Young 

leaves droop and fall off readily. Purple spots, 

streaks and blotches develop on stems and flower 

stalks. When severely infected, young shoots die 

back. Purplish brown spots may develop on 

petals. If flower buds are infected, flowers may 

be deformed. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould, blossom blight, petal spot, 

Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) is common during cold 

wet springs. Flower buds turn brown and decay. 

Petals of partially opened flowers turn brown and 

shrivel. In wet weather, affected areas become 

covered with furry, grey spores. Petals of fullyopened 

flowers develop small ring-like markings 

which are reddish in light coloured varieties and 

creamy-white in dark coloured varieties. Each 

ring-like marking indicates where a spore has 

germinated (Fig. 186). Petals become more 

susceptible as they age. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa 

var. rosae) is a common and serious disease of 

roses. On young leaves slightly raised blister-like 

areas become covered with a white powdery fungal 

growth. Extensive areas of both leaf surfaces are 

covered. Leaves become curled and distorted as 

they expand, older leaves are not usually distorted. 

Areas of infected leaves usually die. New shoots 

may become covered with powdery spores and 

misshapen. Small patches of white fungus may 

develop around or close to thorns on canes. 

Flower buds may be attacked and may either fail 

to open or open partially. Petals may also be 

attacked becoming distorted, dwarfed and 

ROSES J 3

ROSES 

eventually dried. The fungus overwinters on 

canes (especially around the thorns) as well as on 

plant debris. Spores do not require free water on 

leaves to germinate, dew is sufficient. Biological 

control: The use of a yeast-like antagonistic 

fungus (Sporothrix flocculosa) plus a surfactant (to 

reduce dependency on humidity) is being 

researched for the control of powdery mildew in 

commercial crops (Belanger et al. 1994). 

Susceptible varieties include many hybrid teas, 

polyanthus, climbers and ramblers such as Dorothy 

Perkins. Resistant varieties include shiny leaved 

climbers such as Cecile Brunner. Fungicides are 

registered for use. Baking soda when mixed with 

horticultural oil and applied every 8-10 days (more 

often than for commercial fungicides) is also 

effective. One recommendation is a level teaspoon 

baking soda or sodium bicarbonate to each litre of 

water, the use the surfactant or horticultural oil 

assists it to adhere. The long term effect on rose 

foliage or soil is unknown. This mixture is reputed 

also to be effective against powdery and several 

other fungi on a range of plants (Horst et al, 1992). 

See Annuals A 6, Cucurbits M 52. 

Rust (Phragmidium mucronatum) infects 

leaves of roses during warm, wet or humid 

weather in spring, summer and autumn. Only 

leaves are attacked. Bright orange powdery spots 

(uredia containing spores) develop on leaf 

undersurfaces in spring and summer. Towards 

the end of summer, dark brown to black spore 

masses (telia) appear amongst the orange uredia. 

Leaf uppersurfaces become speckled with 

yellow. Severely affected leaves fall prematurely. 

Repeated severe rust infection reduces plant 

vigour. Cultivars vary in susceptibility. Many 

other rusts (Phragmidium spp.) affect roses 


Stem cankers, cankers, dieback 


Stem canker (Leptosphaeria coniothryium) 

Other fungi may also cause stem cankers and 

dieback, eg Botryodiplodia, Botryosphaeria ribis, 

Cercospora, Coryneum, Cylindrocladium scoparium. 

Host range: Wide range of woody plants, eg 

rose, apple, pear, raspberry. 

Symptoms: Canes infected with Leptosphaeria 

develop pale yellow or reddish spots on the bark. 

These later enlarge, turn brown, develop cracks 

and become sunken. Numerous tiny black pinpoint 

spore-producing structures (pycnidia) 

develop on these areas which produce spores 

(conidia). In more resistant varieties canker 

development may be checked where the branch 

joins the main stem but in susceptible varieties, the 

canker may progress down the stem to the base of 

the plant, eventually killing it (Fig. 187). Pruning 

stubs are the most common sites of canker 

development. Stubs usually die back to the first 

node anyway, but they are not necessarily infected. 

Overwintering: Infected rose canes and other 

hosts. Debris from infected plants. Some of the 

fungi which cause stem cankers may be found on 

the thorns and other dead tissue on rose plants. 

Spread: Spores are spread from the fruiting 

bodies by wind and water splash. 

Conditions favouring: The fungus is a weak 

parasite and infects host plants through dead or 

dying tissue; poor pruning practices, pruning stubs, 

flower-gathering, tying abrasions, thorn scars, frost 

damage. Damaged areas enlarge due to infection 

and become brown, purplish or grey. Wet weather. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: If frost is prevalent, protect 

plants during the winter months. Do not prune 

during wet weather. 

Sanitation: When pruning or gathering flowers, 

use sharp secateurs and make a clean slanting 

cut (no frayed edges) close to the main stem or 

immediately above a bud. Cut off infected canes 

well below the discoloured area and just above a 

bud. If stem canker is a serious problem, 

sterilise secateurs between cuts. Seal large 

cuts to prevent soft centres from shrinking which 

allows moisture and fungal spores to enter. 


Pesticides: None are recommended. 

Others 

Root rots (Phytophthora spp. Pythium spp.) especially 

in hydroponic systems (Bodman et al. 1996). 

Silver leaf (Stereum purpureum) may cause dieback of 

older roses. Small brownish shell-shaped fruiting 

bodies with mauve gills may later develop on dead 

stems. See Trees K 8. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) uncommonly 

causes wilting of foliage and dieback of branches. It 

may be restricted to one side of the plant, the other 

side remaining healthy. Underlying woody tissue is 

brown. See Vegetables M 9. 


Root knot nematodes (Meliodogyne spp.) 

causes plants to look unthrifty, stunted and yellow. 

Symptoms may be confused with deficiencies and 

fungal root diseases. Small galls develop on roots. 


Other nematodes may be associated with rose 

roots, resulting in yellowing of foliage associated 

with generally poor plant vigour, eg dagger 

nematodes (Xiphinema spp.), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus), also Aglenchus, Basiria, 

Criconema, Criconemoides, Ditylenchus, Haplolaimus, 

Helicotylenchus, Hemicycliophora, Macroposthonia, 

Paratrichodorus, Pateracephalanema, Pseudohalchus. 


Aphids 

Aphids are the most common insect pests of roses. 

Scientific name: Aphididae, Hemiptera: 



Rose aphid (Macrosiphum rosae) 

Rose-grain aphid (Metopolophium dirhodum) 

Several other small, pale greenish species. 

J 4 

ROSES

ROSES 

Host range: Most species found on roses can 

infest a wide range of plants. Potato aphid, eg 

ornamentals, vegetables, weeds, green peach 

aphid, eg ornamentals, fruit, vegetables, weeds, rose 

aphid, eg rose, rose-grain aphid, eg rose, grain. 

Description and damage: Adult aphids are 

small, plump, slow moving, winged or wingless, 

1-3 mm long, green, yellow, pink or brown 

depending on the species and food plant. Most 

aphids have two tubes (cornicles) protruding from 

the end of the body (Fig. 188). Nymphs look like 

adults but are smaller and wingless. Nymph skins 

are shed as they pass from one nymphal stage to 

the next and are found on infested leaves and buds. 

They are particularly noticeable after winged 

aphids have left the plant. New shoots, leaves 

and flower buds are commonly infested and 

distorted by aphids sucking sap. Leaves may be 

shrivelled and plants weakened. New shoots may 

be distorted by other pests, eg broad mite and 

cyclamen mite. Most aphids secrete honeydew on 

which sooty mould grows and which attracts ants. 

Ants deter natural enemies. Honeydew, sooty 

mould and aphid skins disfigure plants. Aphids 

spread many virus diseases into and within many 

crops during feeding, eg the green peach aphid can 

transmit over 100 virus diseases. However, aphids 

do not transmit virus diseases of roses. 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (live 

nymphs, adult female) in warm climates with many 

generations each year. In areas where the winter is 

cold, eggs may be laid in autumn. 

Overwintering: In warm areas there is no 

overwintering. In cooler areas most aphids 

infesting roses may overwinter on other hosts, eg 

green peach aphid may overwinter on peach. 

Spread: By winged forms flying from other 

hosts, assisted by wind. Introduction of infested 

plants and cuttings carrying nymphs and eggs. 

Conditions favouring: Humid conditions 

during spring and autumn. New growth on roses, 

abundant herbaceous weeds and shady areas. The 

ideal temperature for growth and reproduction of 

aphids is about 22 o C and most activity occurs 

during months when these milder temperatures 

prevail, eg spring and autumn (development only 

takes place from 5-33 o C). The rose-grain aphid is 

favoured by wet, cooler climates. 

Control: 

Cultural conditions: Interplanting with certain 

plants (garlic, chives, onions) which are reputed 

to repel some species of aphids by their aroma, 

may give some control on miniature roses. On 

plants other than roses, where aphids might be 

vectors for virus diseases, such repellent 

plantings or sprays would not give sufficient 

control to prevent the introduction and spread of 

virus diseases. If practical reduce shade. 

Sanitation: Remove herbaceous weeds which are 

alternative hosts. Weed growth should be 

prevented around seedbeds and crops. 

Biological control: Aphids are attacked by a 

range of natural enemies in spring, including 

predators, eg larvae and adults of the common 

spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis) and 

transverse ladybird (Coccinella repanda), lacewing 

larvae (Neuroptera), midges (Chironomidae, 

Diptera) and hover fly larvae (Syrphidae, Diptera). 

A lacewing (Mallada signata) can be purchased. 

Parasitic wasps (Aphidius spp., Aphytis spp.) lay 

eggs inside the bodies of aphids killing them. 

A. colemani may be very effective in unsprayed 

glasshouses; however, it does not parasitise the 

rose aphid. Virus, fungal (Entomophthora spp., 

Verticillium lecani) and other diseases may also 

contribute towards regulating populations. 

Economic damage may occur on roses before 

these natural enemies exert some control, but all 

of these may produce a reasonable level of 

control on some other hosts when migrations 

cease. Heavy autumn rains and the early fall of 

peach leaves in autumn also kill large numbers. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Aphids may 

be hosed off rose shoots (temporarily). This 

procedure may damage soft-foliaged hosts. 

Aluminium mulch on the ground is reputed to 

disorientate aphids by reflecting the blue colour 

of the sky. Australia's hot climate creates 

problems with its use. 

Pesticides: Foliage treatments: Commercial 

growers should monitor aphids weekly. Inspect 

the tips of 5 plants at each of 6 widely spaced 

locations throughout the crop, spot spray if > 5 

of the 30 plants are infested (Brough et al. 

1994). Aphids may be controlled with systemic 

insecticides during spring and autumn when 

aphids are first seen. Depending on the 

insecticide. repeat applications may be 

necessary. Use a coarse spray with a good 

pressure. Most general purpose rose sprays or 

dusts contain an insecticide effective against 

aphids. Some insecticides (aphicides) are 

effective against aphids only. Soil treatments: 

Granular systemic insecticides may be applied to 

soil outdoors. As they have to go into solution 

in soil moisture before they can be taken up by 

plant roots they must be applied well before 

aphid infestations are expected. One application 

may provide control for many weeks. 


Leafroller moth (Tortricidae) caterpillars feed mostly 

on leaves which they web together. Ivy leafroller 

(Cryptoptila immersana), lightbrown apple moth 

(Epiphyas postvittana), orange fruitborer (Isotenes 

miserana). See Pome fruits F 112. 

Loopers (Geometridae): Bizarre looper (Anisozyga 

pieroides), twig looper (Ectropis excursiana). See 

Avocado F 19. 

Others: Castor oil looper (Achaea janata, 

Noctuidae) feeds on the foliage of rose, avocado, 

cherry, guava, on the flowers of mango and on the 

young leaves of eucalypts, Syzygium (Myrtaceae), 

wattle and mimosa (Mimosaceae). Painted apple 

moth (Teia anartoides) caterpillars may skeletonise 

leaves. Moth (Chionophasma lutea, Lymantriidae) 

caterpillars have been reported on roses, avocado, 

begonia, forget-me-not (Myotis), macadamia and 

other plants (Common 1990). 

Caterpillars may occasionally chew leaves but 

buds are most seriously damaged. Damage is 

sporadic in that it may not occur the following 

season. See Annuals A 8. 


chews rose petals giving them a ragged 

appearance. Flowers are also spoilt by their 

presence and excrement. See Vegetables M 14. 

ROSES J 5

ROSES 

Fuller's rose weevil 


Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) is a 

sporadic pest of roses. Other weevils may also 

damage roses, eg apple weevil (Otiorhynchus 

cribicollis), garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus). 

Host range: Many broadleaved plants, 

ornamentals, eg camellia, gardenia, hydrangea, 

camphor laurel, rose, dahlia, eucalypt, Pinus 

radiata, fruit, eg citrus, passionfruit, peach, plum, 

vegetables, eg French bean, field crops, eg 

Paddy's lucerne, weeds, eg blackberry, fat hen. 

Description and damage: Weevils are hard, 

rounded, grey-brown beetles about 8-10 mm long. 

They have a short, broad snout, and usually show a 

faint crescent-shaped mark on each side of the 

wing covers. They feed at night. Larvae are 

about 6-7 mm long when fully grown and are 

grey-white. Leaves and shoots: Fuller's rose 

weevils (and garden weevils) may chew the edges 

of leaves, giving them a ragged saw-toothed 

appearance (Fig. 189). The greater part of the leaf 

may be chewed away leaving only the mid-vein 

and leaf stalk. Newly emerged adults prefer the 

tender foliage, while older weevils prefer tougher 

fibrous tissue, eg canes. Roots: Larvae may gnaw 

the bark of older roots, sometimes partially 

stripping bark off in short sections causing serious 

damage. The extent of root damage by the larvae 

on roses is not well documented. Larvae may 

destroy the fibrous root systems of beans, 

cucumber and tomato and gouge out the main root. 

Overwintering: As larvae in soil or as 

unhatched eggs beneath loose bark, in curled dead 

leaves, in debris on the ground. Also as 

hibernating adults. Weevils emerge from pupae in 

the soil during summer between December and 

March. In dry summers, emergence is delayed 

until after good rains in February or March. 

Spread: By crawling, by infested debris or mulch. 

Conditions favouring: Common during late 

summer and autumn, mainly in coastal districts. 

Waterlogging is unfavourable to larvae and 

drought can prevent adult emergence. Damage on 

roses (and woody plants, eg citrus) usually only 

occurs near weedy ground, attack resulting from a 

spill over from nearby weeds. Herbaceous plants, 

eg French bean, may be attacked by larvae if 

planted in previously infested weedy ground. 

Control: Control measures are not effective once 

plants have been attacked. 

Cultural methods: Good weed control helps to 

suppress weevil numbers. Minimise damage to 

herbaceous plantings by thorough early 

preparation of land by digging/ploughing in 

weeds in late summer and growing a non-host 

crop, eg oats, to be cut or grazed and ploughed 

in as recommended. 

Sanitation: If only a few plants are affected, 

weevils can be collected at night. 

Biological control: An egg parasitoid (Fidobia 

citri) is important on citrus. 

Plant quarantine: Eggs laid underneath the fruit 

calyces of citrus are a quarantine pest for 

exports to Japan. 

Pesticides: Insecticide may be applied to plants 

when damage is first observed and confirmed by 

monitoring weevils. For citrus trees attacked by 

weevils, spray trunks and soil when weevils are 

first seen feeding on leaves. This reduces the 

number of eggs laid (Brough et al. 1994). 


Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Twospotted mite, 

red spider (Tetranychus urticae) is the most 

serious pest of roses, especially under hot, dry 

conditions. Adult mites are just large enough to be 

seen without a hand lens. They are small, globular, 

almost translucent pests, up to 0.5 mm long with 

4 pairs of legs. Adult mites vary in colour from 

green-grey to bright-red. The mites have distinctive 

dark markings on either side of the body which are 

particularly large and prominent in adult females (Fig. 

190). In winter adult females turn orange-red. 

Nymphs and adults are mainly found on leaf 

undersurfaces where they pierce the plant surface 

and suck sap. They spin fine webs on which they 

crawl around and to which they attach their eggs. 

Leaves are a dull speckled grey-green colour (sandy 

mottle). When severely infested leaves wither and fall 

prematurely. Do not confuse damage to leaves by 

twospotted mite with leafhopper (Cicadellidae) or 

greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) 

injury. Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) are 

monitored prior to spraying (Brough et al. 1994, 

Karlik et al. 1995). See Beans (French) M 29, Trees 

K 24 (Table 3). Other spider mites: Banana 

spider mite (T. lambi), bryobia mite (Bryobia 

rubrioculus), European red mite (Panonychus ulmi). 

Other mites: Bunch mite (Brevipalpus californicus, 

Tenuipalpidae), citrus bud mite (Eriophyes 

sheldoni, Eriophyidae), citrus rust mite 

(Phyllocoptruta oleivora, Eriophyidae). 

Plague thrips 


Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) 

Other species also infest rose flowers including: 

Hairless flower thrips (Pseudanaphothrips achaetus) 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) 

Tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei) 

Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) mainly 

infests leaves. 

Host range: Wide range of buds and flowers of 

exotic and native plants, grasses and weeds. 

Description and damage: All stages feed by 

rasping surface tissue and sucking exuded sap. 

Adult thrips are small, elongated, dark coloured 

insects about 1 mm long with 2 pairs of narrow 

fringed wings which lie flat when at rest. Plague 

thrips are light brown (onion thrips are yellowgrey 

to brown-grey) and are visible to the naked 

eye when numerous as minute specks in flower 

heads (Fig. 191). Thrips are easily observed by 

shaking them out of flowers on to a white surface. 

Nymphs are creamy and mostly feed on pistils 

and stamens reducing fruit and seed formation. 

Thrips enter opening buds and flowers and feed 

between the petals which brown prematurely and 

wither. Dark excrement on light coloured blossoms 

adds to the disfigurement. Petals of red varieties 

are silvered, streaked and blotched, before turning 

brown. Flowers may not open properly, and may 

be distorted and discoloured. Other agents may 

also cause buds to yellow, brown and fall, eg too 

much or too little water, excess chemical fertiliser. 

J 6 

ROSES

ROSES 


nymphs, prepupal stage in soil, adult) with many 

generations each season. Thrips lay eggs in the 

folded petals of unopened buds and in all parts of 

the flowers and young leaves adjacent to the 

blossoms. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Overwintering: In warm areas, they breed 

continuously in flowers and all stages are found 

throughout the year. In cooler areas, they may 

overwinter in the prepupal stage in the soil. 

Spread: By adults flying, assisted by wind. 

Movement of infested plant material. Thrips 

reinfest flowers from nearby vegetation. 

Conditions favouring: Spring and early 

summer. When soil moisture decreases during 

summer, numbers decrease. Previous autumns 

and winters of above average rainfall and mild 

temperatures, followed by dry, sunny, spring 

weather. Plants under water stress are very 

susceptible. Sporadic pest in huge numbers some 

seasons and absent or uncommon in others. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Heavy rain kills large 

numbers. In a garden situation hosing may be 

equally successful but may damage open 

flowers. 

Sanitation: If only a few plants are affected, old 

infested flowers can be removed and placed in a 

plastic bag, the neck secured to prevent thrips 

escaping, and left in the sun for at least 3 days. 

Biological control: Predators are present but 

their effect is slight compared with the weather. 

Heavy rain kills thousands of thrips. A tiny 

wasp (Ceranisus sp.) has been found on garden 

hosts of greenhouse thrips in NSW coastal 

districts. This exerts some control. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Thrips avoid 

rose blossoms if foil-wrapped boards are placed 

around the plant base so that they extend 

300-600 mm beyond the canopy. Apparently, 

like aphids, they are disorientated. It is claimed 

that if these shiny boards are placed in position 

several weeks before flowering they are superior 

to certain soil insecticides. See Roses J 5. 

Pesticides: Foliage treatments: Monitor thrips 

by examining flowers of 5 plants at each of 

6 widely-spaced locations throughout the crop. 

Spray if > 6 out of 30 plants are infested 

(Brough et al. 1994). Eggs are laid within plant 

tissues where they are protected. Apply 2 

insecticide treatments, allowing time between 

treatments for eggs to hatch. This time varies 

with the species of thrips and time of the year, 

but in general 2 weeks between treatments 

is effective. 

Adult thrips which have emerged from pupae in the 

soil at the time of the 1st treatment will also be 

killed by the 2nd treatment. When treating 

thrips in blossoms, the aim is not only to kill 

them but also to prevent reinfestation. This is 

difficult, as thrips feed and shelter within 

opening buds and partly opened flowers, out of 

reach of insecticide treatments. If monitoring is 

not being carried out, regular spraying during 

spring at intervals should be started as soon as 

buds start to colour. Foliage and young flower 

spikes should be sprayed as soon as the flower 

buds appear. To avoid injuring bees, spray late 

in the day when bees have returned to the hive. 

Soil treatments: Outdoor plants may be treated 

with soil granules as flower spikes are 

appearing. Repeat applications may be necessary 

during spring when grasses and bush dries out in 

surrounding areas. 

Rose scale 

Scientific name: Diaspididae, Hemiptera: 

Rose scale (Aulacaspis rosae) 

Occasionally other scales infest roses including: 

Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii, Diaspididae) 

Cottonycushion scale (Icerya purchasi, 

Margarodidae) 

Host range: Mainly rose, also blackberry, 

loganberry and raspberry. 

Description and damage: Only canes are 

attacked. All stages feed by piercing and sucking. 

It is an armoured scale so there is no sooty mould. 

Female scales are circular, white and about 

2.5 mm in diameter (Fig. 192). Young male scales 

are narrow, white and about 1 mm long. Adult 

males are tiny 2-winged insects. Rose scale mainly 

infests older canes which appear white, but 

younger growth may be attacked if infestations are 

heavy or neglected. Canes may weaken and die. 

Overwintering: As reddish eggs beneath the 

female scale covering on canes of host plants. 

Spread: Nymphs crawl; also by the movement of 

infested plants and cuttings. 

Conditions favouring: Indiscriminate use of 

insecticides may kill natural enemies. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Destroy infested prunings. 

Biological control: Many natural enemies control 

infestations, eg a web-forming moth caterpillar 

(Batrachedra spp.) reduces populations. 


from infested plants. Exclude from greenhouses 

by carefully examining newly purchased stock. 

Pesticides: After pruning and before bud burst, 

dormant plants may be sprayed with petroleum 

oil which will not affect the natural enemies of 

the scale. Ensure that bases of canes are wetted 

by spray. Oil sprays may injure canes of some 

climbing varieties. Lime sulphur may be used 

instead of winter oil, but it stains painted 

trellises, fences, garages and houses, and it is 

injurious to buds that have broken > 5 mm and 

to roses that are not truly dormant. 

Alternatively, apply an insecticide early in 

spring when the 1st generation of crawlers is 

active, and again several weeks later to kill 

crawlers which have hatched from eggs which 

were not killed by the 1st spray. Sprays alone 

do not provide satisfactory control. See Citrus 

F 39. 

Others: Greyfurrowed rose chafer 

(Trichaulax philipsii, Scarabaeidae). Greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) is not 

usually a problem but can rapidly build up to 

epidemic proportions. Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) 

may cause leaves to become finely speckled. 

Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp.) and 

redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) 

may chew leaves and flowers. 

ROSES J 7

ROSES 


Parrots and other birds may tear open and feed 

on the soft canes of new spring growth. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Light: Roses grow in full sun 

and very bright indirect light. Temperature: 

Frost and snow can damage soft wood, cutting 

plants back to ground level. Extreme heat will 

burn or scorch leaves and 'blow' the flowers. 

Photosynthesis decreases when leaf temperatures 

are > 30 o C regardless of light levels. Water: Bent 

neck is caused by a water deficit. Some cultivars 

are very susceptible. It is caused by picking too 

early before the top of the stem has developed 

enough woody tissue (lignin) to support the bloom, 

embolism preventing water uptake and microbial 

blocking of the stem. It may be overcome by 

purchasing roses that are slightly more open, 

recutting under water, acidifying water with 300 

ppm citrus acid (pH 3.5) and using tepid water 

(40 o C). Failure of the rose bud to open derives 

from a water deficit in the bud caused by waterflow 

resistance through the flower peduncle. 

Insufficient soil moisture is one of the commonest 

causes of poor growth. Sufficient water must be 

able to penetrate to the deepest roots to encourage 

a deep root system resistant to dry spells. Thick 

grass mulch or compacted soil may prevent water 

penetration. Leaf crisping (rapid dehydration of 

leaves once cut) is due to high sucrose levels in 

leaf cells due to leaf transpiration. It occurs during 

winter in closed greenhouses under high intensity 

discharge lamps and in carbon enriched 

environments. Growers can reduce leaf crisping 

by lowering vase solution sucrose levels to 1% or 

by reducing leaf transpiration. Adding abscisic 

acid to vase solutions reduces transpiration and 

crisping (Markhart III and Harper 1992). 

Leafcutting bees (Megaliche spp., Megachilidae, 

Hymenoptera) are minor pests of rose, lilac and 

some native plants. Bees are 6-16 mm long, mostly 

black, but often have bands of light coloured hair 

on thorax and abdomen. Larger species resemble 

honey bees but are more robust and have wider 

heads. Beneath the abdomen are pollen-carrying 

hairs. When searching for pollen, bees pass from 

flower to flower pollinating or cross-pollinating 

the flowers they visit. Bees hold on to leaves with 

their hind legs, and with their mandibles cut out 

large, almost circular pieces from leaf edges (Fig. 

193) to line their nest tunnels in the ground, 

hollow stems or wood. Control is unnecessary 

as damage is usually only noticed after bees have 

gone. Usually only a few bees cause the damage, 

if seen, they may be caught with a small net. 

Nectar scarabs, white-clothes beetles 

(Phyllotocus spp., Scarabaeidae) are attracted to 

white items, eg white dahlia or rose flowers or 

white washing on clotheslines. Beetles are about 

6-10 mm long. A common species is light brown 

with dark brown tips to the wing covers and hind 

legs that are much longer than the other legs (Fig. 

194). These beetles usually occur in large swarms 

on flowers. They are pollen-feeders and cause 

considerable damage by pushing around among 

the petals with their spiny legs. Larvae are tiny 

white curl grubs which mostly feed on decaying 

organic matter and sometimes on roots, but 

damage is unimportant. Nectar scarabs are 

difficult to control as spraying involves spraying 

the open flowers. To avoid injuring bees, spray 

late in the day when bees have returned to the hive. 

Mottled flower scarab (Protaetia fusca) is about 

18 mm long. It is also a pollen-feeder and causes 

similar damage on a range of coloured flowers, but 

usually occurs either singly or only in twos or 

threes and is therefore, not a serious pest. See 


Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Common 

deficiencies include iron deficiency (yellowing 

between the veins of new foliage) and magnesium 

deficiency (yellowing of older leaves as yellow 

blotches on either side of the main vein which 

enlarge until the only green remaining is at the leaf 

tip or a V-shape near the base). See Citrus F 43. 

Roses do not tolerate salt, bore water in Adelaide 

may injure roses. Ensure drainage is good, water 

heavily and never allow soil to dry out. Damaging 

levels of salt may decrease the vase life of roses. 

Excessive inorganic fertilisers may kill plants. 

Excessive use of liquid manures may cause soft, 

lush growth susceptible to disease, eg powdery 

mildew, later in the year, and wind damage. 

Pesticide injury to leaves or petals of some 

varieties may occur during drought. Insecticides: 

Excessive use of dimethoate (Rogor ® ) and other 

organophosphates can cause leaf fall if applied at 

higher than recommended rates. Maldison 

(Malathion ® ) may damage some rose varieties. Oil 

sprays can injure canes of some climbing 

varieties. Fungicides: Copper sprays during cool 

(< 13-14 o C) cloudy weather may cause yellowing, 

reddish spotting of leaves and defoliation. Sulphur 

and dinocap during hot sunny weather (> 28 o C) 

can burn leaves (see also Roses J 7). Chlorothalonil 

may damage some rose cultivars during some 

environmental conditions. Fungicides may be 

toxic to natural enemies of some pests. Most 

herbicides should not be used on rose beds < 2 

years old. During the early spring growth period 

roses are very susceptible to herbicide injury. If 

using oryzalin (Surflan ® ) avoid contact with leaves 

during application and apply only once per season 

as over-application may result in crop injury. If 

using glyphosate (Roundup ® , Zero ® ) avoid drift 

on to leaves and green canes. 

Senescence: By autumn, outdoor roses often 

show symptoms of environmental stress, eg wind, 

heat, insufficient water or a combination of these, 

resulting in silvering of parts of leaves. This 

should not be confused with the fungal disease 

silver leaf which only occasionally occurs on old 

roses. In mild climates, leaves may not fall and in 

many instances, are only removed during pruning. 

Others: Albino shoots occasionally develop on 

healthy plants. Black fungus gnats (Sciaridae) 

may be a minor and frequent pest in greenhouse 

roses. Bull-heading of flowers may occur. The 

flowers of the green rose (Rosa chinensis 

viridiflora) are naturally green. Greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and 

mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) may infest 

greenhouse roses. Suckers weaken roses. Do not 

confuse suckers (7 small narrow leaflets instead of 

the usual 5) with water shoots which rejuvenate 

J 8 

ROSES

ROSES 

plants. To remove suckers follow the sucker back 

to its origin on the root and pull it away gently 

with a quick upward jerk of the hand. 

WEEDS 

Prior to planting, prepare rose beds so that they 

are free from annual and perennial weeds. After 

planting, weed-free mulches may be used to 

control annual weeds and reduce infestation by 

perennial weeds, but they should not be so thick 

that they prevent penetration of natural rain to the 

underlying soil. Weed mats may be used 

providing they also permit the penetration of rain 

and irrigation. Any weeds that do develop may be 

removed by hand, remembering that any soil 

brought to the surface will act as an efficient seed 

bed for more weed seed germination. Deep 

cultivation around rose roots should be avoided. 

Pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides 

are registered for use on roses. Glyphosate 

(Roundup ® , Zero ® ) is registered for general postemergence 

weed control. Post-emergence 

selective herbicides are available for grass 

weeds. Exercise care and follow label directions 

during the use of all herbicides. As a general rule 

most herbicides should not be used on rose beds 

< 2 years old. Roses are very sensitive to 

herbicide injury during the spring growth flush. 


Anon. 1996. Kiln-dried Roses Retain Colour and Size. 

Aust. Hort., June. 

Barkley, M. 1988. Virus Diseases of Roses. 8th World 

Rose Convention, University of Sydney, Sydney. 

Bates, J. 1996. Solution to Aphid Menace in Sight. Aust. 

Hort., July. 

Belanger. R. R., Labbe, C and Jarvis, W. R. 1994. 

Commercial-scale Control of Rose Powdery Mildew 

with a Fungal Antagonist. Plant Disease Vol.78(4). 


Control in Ornamental Crops. QNIA, PO Box 345, 

Salisbury, Qld 4107. 












Horst, R. K. 1983. Compendium of Rose Diseases. APS 

Press, St Paul, Minnesota. 

Horst, R. K., Kawamoto, S. O. and Porter, L. L. 1992. 

Effect of Sodium Bicarbonate and Oils on the 

Control of Powdery Mildew of Roses. Plant Disease 

76:247-251. 



Karlik, J. F. et al. 1995. Sampling and Treatment 

Threshold for Spider Mite Management in Field- 

Grown Rose Plants. HortScience 30(6):1268-1270. 

Kerruish, R. M. 1990. Plant Protection : Methods of 

Control. RootRot Press, ACT. 


2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego. 

Markhart III, A. H. and Harper, M. 1992. The Cause and 

Cure for Leaf Crisping in Cut Rose Stems. 

HortScience, 27(6):128. 




Parrella, M. P. 1996. Thrips Identification and Control. 

FloraCulture, March. 



Phillips, R. and Rix, M. 1988. Roses. Random House, 

NY. 






Sala, O. 1991. Roses : The World's Best Roses. Prentice- 

Hall, NY. 



Swane, V. 1994. Growing Roses. Kangaroo Press, 


Thomson, A. S. 1983. Growing Roses : A Complete 

Guide to Growing Roses in Australia. Nelson, 

Melbourne. 

Zieslin, N. 1995. Roses : Their Place in the World. 

Floriculture Feature. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Ziv, O. and Zitter, T. A. 1992. Effects of Bicarbonates 

and Film-Forming Polymers on Cucurbit Foliar 

Diseases. Plant Disease, May. 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Crown Gall of Roses 

Diseases of Roses 

Fuller's Rose Weevil 

Getting Started in Cut Flower Growing (Agdex) 

Nectar Scarab Beetles 

Thrips 

SA Adel. Bot. Garden Leaflet 

Rose Culture 

Vic Agnotes 

Fungal and Bacterial Diseases of Roses 

Pests of Roses 

Post Harvest Treatment of Cut Flowers 

Predatory Mite Compatibility Supplement 

Rose Diseases 

Rose Growing for Cut Flowers 

Rose Pruning 

Roses in the Home Garden 

Simultaneous Grafting and Rooting of Roses 

Virus Diseases of Roses 

WA Farmnotes 

Common Diseases of Roses 

Greenhouse Roses for Cut Flower Production 

Virus Diseases of Roses 


Flower Growers Association of NSW 


Growers' Talk 

Pictorial Guide Slide Set (APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota) 

Rose and Fruit Tree (RAFT) Group 

State/Territory Rose Soc. 

The Rose 

See Preface xii, Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22 

MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Successful rose growing either outdoors or in greenhouses means selecting 

the correct varieties (fashions change, growers must be tuned in on retailer and consumer preferences), and 

keeping up-to-date with changes in cultural practices. There must be a good water supply and suitable fuel 

source for glasshouse heating. The site must be close to markets and other services. 

ROSES J 9

ROSES 

Resistant varieties: Where some diseases (black spot, powdery mildew and rust) are a problem, consider 

using varieties with some resistance, eg to black spot, powdery mildew (Kerruish 1990). Hybrid tea roses are 

almost immune to black spot. Pernetianas are frost susceptible. Rootstocks are selected for hardiness, 

disease and pest resistance, graft compatibility and nematode resistance. 

Disease-free planting material: Purchase and plant virus-tested plants derived from disease-free budwood 

and rootstock. Crop Health Services (Crop Hygiene) in the Institute for Horticultural Development, 

Agriculture Victoria, supplies the cut flower industry with propagating material (scions and rootstock) of many 

varieties of roses, which is free from viruses and other diseases. 

Establishment 

Propagation: By grafting scions on to rootstocks, and by cuttings (some grow well on their own rootstock but 

most grow better when grafted). Roses may also be propagated by seed but seedlings are not replicas of the 

parent form. Rooting hormones are used for root induction in cuttings. Simultaneous grafting and rooting of 

roses under mist in greenhouses often suffer from grey mould (Botrytis) or other damping off diseases.. 

Cultural methods: Avoid planting roses in soil known to be contaminated with soil fungi or nematodes or 

treat soil prior to planting. Nematodes can be a problem in WA and many growers treat soil regularly with 

nematicides. Avoid areas where frost occurs. For successful rose culture climate control is essential. The 

vase life of roses is best if plants are cultivated at 20-21 o C. Cultivation temperatures that vary from the 

optimal shorten the vase life of flowers (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). In summer during flowering, temperatures 

should be 18-20 o C. In winter it may drop to 3 o C. Roses grow in full sun or in very bright indirect light. Space 

plants to ensure adequate ventilation so that foliage diseases are reduced. Many roses are grown in 

hydroponic culture which has the advantage that roses can be grown anywhere and many soil problems are 

eliminated. 

Maintenance 

Cultural methods: 

Roses need abundant water during flowering and limited water during dormancy. 

Adequate irrigation is essential but avoid overhead watering after midday. Foliage diseases may be 

troublesome in humid conditions, especially in greenhouses. Prune and train correctly to reduce incidence 

of stem cankers. Follow recommended fertilising schedules and avoid over-applications. 

Sanitation: Prompt removal of spent flowers will help to control problems such as grey mould. Prunings and 

any infected material, leaves and flowers should be destroyed/burnt. Prune out and destroy any infected or 

cankered canes, eg those with black spot lesions or powdery mildew around thorns, during winter pruning. 

Biological control/Pest management: Monitor aphids, fungus gnats, greenhouse whitefly, mealybugs, 

mites, thrips and rose scale prior to implementing control measures (Brough et al. 1994). Use predatory 

mites to control twospotted mite. Where necessary protect new shoots and leaves with fungicides and 

insecticides. If predatory mites are being used to control twospotted mite, care must be taken to choose a 

recommended fungicide or insecticide non-toxic to the predators. 

Pesticides: Fungicides and insecticides are registered for the control of foliage and flower diseases and 

pests, eg black spot, rust, powdery mildew, blossom blight, aphids, thrips. Most combination rose sprays or 

dusts available to home gardeners contain a fungicide which will control black spot, powdery mildew and 

rust and an insecticide to control aphids, mites and thrips. Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) combined with 

horticultural oil is a remarkably effective spray treatment for powdery mildew and black spot of roses (and 

other plants). It appears to have a broad spectrum activity against several fungi (Ziv and Zitter 1992). 

Registration of the product is being pursued. In Australia many amateur rose growers over the years, have 

found that horticultural oil has been very effective against powdery mildew. 

Postharvest 

Harvest: Standards are available for roses. They are graded by stem length. Roses are usually harvested 

when buds open slightly (calyx in a downward position). This will vary for varieties but in general, if given 

correct preservative treatments, vase life will be better for flowers picked a little more open than those sold in 

tight bud. One guide suggests that red and pink cultivars be harvested when first 2 petals begin to unfold 

and calyx in downward position, yellow cultivars slightly earlier than red and pink cultivars, and white 

cultivars slightly later than red and pink cultivars. In late spring and summer roses may be cut at an earlier 

bud stage than in autumn and spring. Roses to be stored should be cut 1-2 days before normally harvested. 

Hold cut flowers in water at all times and place in cool room to quickly remove field heat until grading (Nowak 

and Rudnicki 1990). 

Storage/Transport: Roses do not tolerate darkness for prolonged periods and should not be stored in water 

for > 2 days, however, roses may be stored and transported in a variety of other ways. After storage and 

transport, recut stems underwater, remove at least 25 mm of stem and place in a preservative solution 

(Jones and Moody 1993, Nowak and Rudnicki 1990, Sacalis 1993 and Salinger 1985). 

Vase life: Certain rose varieties, eg Sonia, Belinda, are very sensitive to ethylene which inhibits opening. 

Avoid excessive sugar, sun and draughts. Preservative solutions help prolong vase life. Recut stems of 

wilted roses under water and submerge the entire rose in warm (40 o C) water containing 0.3 g/L citric acid for 

2 hours (Jones and Moody 1993). 

J 10 

ROSES

Trees, 

Shrubs 


Climbers 

Fig. 195. Some problems affecting different parts of a tree. 

Fig. 196. Leaf mottling caused by camellia 

yellow mottle virus. 


Abutilon (Abutilon spp.) K 25 

Ash (Fraxinus spp.) K 26 

Azalea, rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.) K 27 

Banksia (Banksia spp.) K 31 

Birch (Betula spp.) K 33 

Boronia (Boronia spp.) K 34 

Bottlebrush (Callistemon spp.) K 36 

Camellia (Camellia spp.) K 39 

Casuarina, she-oak (Casuarina spp.) K 42 

Christmas bush (Ceratopetalum gummiferum) K 44 

Conifers (Coniferales) K 45 

Correa (Correa spp.) K 51 

Daphne (Daphne spp.) K 52 

Elm (Ulmus spp.) K 54 

Eriostemon (Eriostemon myoporoides) K 56 

Eucalypt, gum (Eucalyptus spp.) K 57 

Euonymus, spindle tree (Euonymus spp.) K 69 

Fuchsia (Fuchsia spp.) K 70 

Gardenia (Gardenia spp.) K 72 

Geraldton wax (Chamelaucium uncinatum) K 73 

Grevillea (Grevillea spp.) K 75 

Hakea (Hakea spp.) K 77 

Hardenbergia (Hardenbergia spp.) K 79 

Hebe (Hebe spp.) K 80 

Hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.) K 81 

Holly (Ilex spp.) K 84 

Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) K 85 

Hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla) K 86 

Ivy (Hedera spp.) K 88 

Kennedia (Kennedia spp.) K 90 

Kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus) K 91 

Lavender (Lavendula spp.) K 93 

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) K 94 

Lilly-pilly (Acmena smithii) K 95 

Magnolia (Magnolia spp.) K 96 

Maple (Acer spp.) K 97 

Melaleuca (Melaleuca spp.) K 98 

Mint bush (Prostanthera spp.) K 100 

Oak (Quercus spp.) K 101 

Oleander (Nerium oleander) K 103 

Photinia (Photinia spp.) K 105 

Pine (Pinus spp.) K 106 

Pittosporum (Pittosporum spp.) K 112 

Plane tree, sycamore (Platanus spp.) K 114 

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) K 116 

Poplar (Populus spp.) K 117 

Protea (Protea spp.) K 119 

Silk tree (Albizia spp.) K 122 

Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) K 123 

Tea-tree (Leptospermum spp.) K 124 

Thryptomene (Thryptomene spp.) K 126 

Verticordia (Verticordia sp.) K 127 

Viburnum (Viburnum spp.) K 128 

Waratah (Telopea spp.) K 129 

Wattle (Acacia spp.) K 131 

White cedar (Melia azedarach) K 138 

Willow (Salix spp.) K 139 

TREES, SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS K 1

TREES, SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS 

Fig. 197. Rhizomorphs of 

Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria sp.) on peach. 


Fig. 198. Canker ( Glomerella 

cingulata) on camellia. Dept. 


Fig. 199. Fungal leaf 

spot (Septoria azaleae) 

on azalea. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 200. Phytophthora root 

rot on citrus, lack of fibrous 

rootsd. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 201. Wood rot fungal 

fruiting bodies. 

Fig. 202. Parasitic plants. 

Fig. 203. Elm bark beetle (Scolytus 

multistriatus) damage. Vertical egg 

gallery made by the female, tunnels 

made by the growing larvae radiate 

from it. 

Fig. 204. BEETLE BORERS. Left : Longicorn beetle (Cerambycidae) and larva (up to 45 mm long). Dept. of Agric., 

NSW. Larva in the sapwood of E. saligna (oval exit holes). B. J. Elliott. Centre : Jewel beetle (Buprestidae) cobra-shaped 

larva (about 30 mm long) on a background of frass packed tunnels (oval exit holes). For. Com., NSW. Right : Round exit 

holes of elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 205. MOTH BORERS. Left : Fruit-tree borer (Maroga melanostigma) 

damage. Dept. of Agric., NSW. Right : Wattle goat moth (Xyleutes encalypti) 

caterpillar (up to 150 mm long) and tunnels. B. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 206. Termites (Isoptera) are usually 

4-10 mm long, termite damage. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

K 2 

TREES, SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS


Fig. 207. Cases (up to 60 mm 

long) of the leaf case moth 

(Hyalarcta huebneri).Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 208. Nymph protection. Left : Spittle and 

nymph. Right : Froghopper and cases. 

Fig. 209. Galls caused by a 

wasp (Trichilogaster trilineata) 

on wattle. H. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 210. Redshouldered 

leaf beetle 

(Monolepta australis). 

Fig. 211. Leafhopper 

(Cicadellidae) injury to 

mulberry leaves. 

Fig. 212. Oak leafminer 

(Phyllonorycter messaniella) 

damage. For.Com. NSW. 

Fig. 213. Armoured scale 

(Diaspididae) on aucuba 

leaves. 

Fig. 214. Christmas 

beetle (Anoplognathus 

sp.). 

Fig. 215. Greenhouse thrips 

(Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) 

–spots of excreta on viburnum. 

Fig. 216. Weevil injury 

(Curculionidae) to camellia. 

Fig. 217. Lichens (algae and 

fungi) on a dead branch. 


Fig. 218. BENEFICIAL ROOTS ON PLANTS. 

Fig. 219. Encircling roots in pot. 


Trees, shrubs 

and climbers 


Parasitic 





Cankers (trunks, branches, twigs) 


Phytophthora root and collar rots 


Root, stem and crown rots (summary) 

Rusts 

Wilts 

Wood rots (heart rots) 

Wood rots (wood-stains and others) 


Broomrape 

Devil's twine 

Parasitic trees 

True mistletoes 



Aphids 

Ambrosia beetles 

Bark beetles 

Borers (summary) 

Borers (beetles) 

Borers (moths) 

Borers (wood wasps) 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Cicadas 

Froghoppers and spittle bugs 

Gall insects 

Grasshoppers, locusts, katydids 


Leafhoppers, planthoppers, treehoppers 

Leafminers 

Lerp insects, psyllids 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Sawflies 

Scales 


Seed insects 

Stick insects, leaf insects 

Termites 

Thrips 

Tip borers 

Weevils 

Whiteflies 



Non-parasitic 

Algae, bacteria and fungi (epiphyllous 

fungi, lichens, nitrogen-fixing 

bacteria, proteoid roots and 

mycorrhizae, sooty mould) 

Environment 

Genetic problems 

Insects 


People-pressure diseases (PPD) 


Pollution 

Potential weeds 

Unwanted roots, suckers and trees 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 


Virus diseases are uncommon in ornamental trees, 

exceptions include camellia (Fig 196), daphne, 

hydrangea, Kennedia, paeonia, flowering Malus 

and Prunus (mostly latent). Avoid propagating 

from infected plants. Virus-tested planting material 

is available for some plants, eg daphne. Using 

insecticides to control any insect vectors is not 

practical. Select resistant varieties. See Fruit F 4. 


Bacterial diseases are also uncommon; there are 

exceptions. Bacterial diseases are controlled in 

nurseries, field control is often not practical. Plant 

bacteria-free nursery stock. 


syringae) affects many trees. See Stone fruits F 124. 

Bacterial leaf spots (various bacteria) occur on 

walnut, mulberry. Bacterial spots may look similar to 

fungal leaf spots, some tend to be small black and 

angular. See Vegetables M 5. 

Bacterial wet wood (various bacteria) affects the 

xylem of some trees, eg elm, and often enters through 

wounds from pruning, tree injections. Symptoms 

include dark brown discolouration, weeping of fluid 

that turns brown in air, wilting of some branches. 

There is no known control, prune with care and repair 

damage promptly. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) mainly attacks 

Rosaceae. See Stone fruits F 125. 



Scientific name: Basidiomycetes: 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.) 

Especially A. luteobubalina 

Host range: Most exotic and native trees, eg 

banksia, bottlebrush, casuarina, cypress pine, 

eucalypt, grevillea, hebe, photinia, melaleuca, myrtle 

beech, protea, radiata pine, tamarix, wattle, willow, 

fruit, eg citrus, pome and stone fruit orchards, 

grapevine, raspberry, rhubarb, vegetables, eg potato. 

Symptoms: Plants of all ages may be killed in 

patches. Symptoms are similar to those caused by 

other root diseases, eg reduced growth, dieback of 

branches, plants die. In autumn, during cool, humid 

weather, clusters of small honey-coloured 

mushrooms may form at the base of affected trees. 

Caps are 40-150 mm across, gills on freshly expanded 

caps are white, stalks up to 250 mm long, the ring is 

white. Armillaria grows in sheets between bark and 

wood of roots producing a white spongy sapwood 

rot, and may ringbark them. It may grow to the root 

collar and into the stem and ultimately girdle and kill 

trees. Some species produce string-like, dark brown 

rhizomorphs of various lengths and up to 3 mm in 

diameter. In Victoria, A. luteobubalina produces few 

rhizomorphs. In cooler, wetter conditions in 

K 4 



Tasmania, rhizomorphs form on roots, stumps and 

dead trees. Occasionally, eg in pome and stone fruits, 

rhizomorphs grow freely only on the root surface 

(Fig. 197), on others they grow on the root surface 

and may also be partially embedded in the bark. On 

some hosts, cream fan-like hyphae grow under bark 

on stems. See Australian native plants N 1 (Fig. 

373). Trees may weep kino or gum (eucalypt, wattle) 

or resin (conifers). Bark at tree bases may split. 

Overwintering: As mycelium or rhizomorphs in 

diseased plants, decaying roots or stumps in the soil 

for many years. Rhizomorphs do not grow on soil. 

Armillaria can survive in stumps for > 30 years. 

Spread: Rhizomorphs grow out from infected 

stumps, tap roots and buried logs and penetrate 

adjacent host roots; by direct root contact. Flood water 

spreads infected soil or root pieces. Movement of old 

decaying tree stumps, soil on equipment. Spores 

from fruiting bodies spread by wind can only infect 

dead or injured wood and stumps, not living trees. 

Conditions favouring: Trees weakened by 

drought, fire, insects, or established on recently 

cleared native areas, where old stumps and roots, 

particularly of eucalypts, remain. Light, sandy, moist 

soil. Generally, the larger the food base and closer 

the host to it, the greater the chance of rapid 

infection and death. Native trees with slow rotting tap 

roots, eg bloodwood, are a greater threat than trees 

with shallow easily removed roots, eg stringybark, or 

trees with quick rotting roots, eg red gum. 

Control is only attempted in orchards or small 

plantings. Avoid planting previously infected sites. 

Once Armillaria has invaded the main trunk there is 

no effective control at present. 

Cultural/sanitation: Before planting, ringbark 

native trees and leave for > 6 months before removal 

to deplete starch reserves and reduce infection 

centres. Deep rippings and clearing land of stumps 

and roots, fumigation, and cultivation of annual 

crops prior to establishing an orchard, reduces 

incidence of infection. Delay planting permanent 

crops for 2-3 years to allow remaining roots to rot. 

Spread may be slowed in established plantings 

by pruning out infected larger roots or removing 

soil up to 600 mm around the butt; exposure of 

roots to sun and air for several months may kill 

Armillaria. Prune overhanging branches 600 mm 

above ground to let sunlight reach butts and 

exposed roots. Also treat adjacent trees. Treat 

cut surfaces with a quick drying plastic paint. 

Remove root pieces of native timber close to, or 

beneath infected trees, burn diseased material. 

Irrigate and fertilise affected trees. 

Biological control: No effective biological control 

agents are available at present. 

Resistant varieties: Plant susceptible species, 

eg avocado, persimmon, pecan, walnut, on 

resistant rootstocks in areas where Armillaria is 

known to occur or treat soil in some way. Little is 

known of the resistance of Australian native plants. 

Physical and mechanical methods: In established 

plantings, trenches (incorporating herbicide or 

sheeting) may be dug around infected and adjacent 

trees to help prevent rhizomorphs spreading to 

adjacent trees through soil. 

Pesticides: Fumigation is successful in lighttextured 

soils of low moisture content and is used 

to treat soil before planting in contaminated areas 

or where Armillaria-killed trees are being replaced. 

Cankers (trunks, branches and twigs) 

Scientific name/host range: Imperfect Fungi 

and Ascomycetes. Some canker fungi affect many 

woody species, eg Botryosphaeria ribis (= 

Dothierella sp.) and Glomerella cingulata. Others 

only have a more limited host range, eg cypress 

canker (Seiridium unicorne) affects some conifers, 

Diplodia pinea some pines, Endothia gyrosa some 

eucalypts (see Australian native plants N 1, Fig 370), 

Cytospora platani affects plane trees, Eutypa 

armenicaea affects apricot and grape. Cankers may 

also be caused by viruses, bacteria or other agents. 

Symptoms: Cankers are dead, often sunken 

localised areas of bark on branches, twigs or trunks 

(Agrios 1988). Healthy tissue next to cankers may 

increase in thickness and be slightly raised. Canker 

fungi are active mainly in the cambium and phloem 

(under bark) but may invade sapwood. After entering 

the host they expand in all directions but especially 

longitudinally. Phloem and sapwood invasions 

results in sunken cracked areas (Fig. 198) that 

may expose the xylem and exude kino. In some 

canker fungi, eg Dothierella, black fruiting bodies of 

the fungus may develop in the bark of affected limbs. 

Cankers may be annual, ie lesion development is 

contained by the host defence mechanisms within the 

first year of invasion, eg Botryosphaeria; perennial, ie 

concentric rings formed when invasion by the pathogen 

is walled off but it survives to reinvade healthy tissue in 

the following year, eg large target-like cankers on 

E. calophylla and E. gomphocephala; diffuse, ie 

spreading out, eg Cryptodiaporthe which attacks 

Proteaceae, eg B. coccinea, B. grandis and Dryandra 

sessilis). Some fungi, eg Botrytis cinerea, Phomopsis 

attack stems but do not cause typical cankers. 

Twigs, shoots, branches or trees may die due to 

girdling or the development of numerous cankers. 

Limbs and trees dieback, trees decline. Cankers 

are more serious on fruit trees, eg apple, which 

may lose vigour and die, than on forest trees 

which are not usually killed (exceptions) but suffer 

reduced growth, timber quality and wind damage. 

Overwintering: In the cankers on host plants. 

Also sometimes as a saprophyte on dead stems. 

Spread: Spores produced on cankers are spread 

by wind, water splash, contaminated pruning and 

harvesting tools, insects. Canker fungi enter 

stems through wounds (pruning, flower cutting, 

insects, machinery, wind breakage, leaf scars from 

natural leaf fall, lenticels and lesions from other 

stem diseases). Cankers may be secondary 

invaders of already damaged tissue, eg by frost. 

Conditions favouring: Stressed trees (eg by 

drought), trunks and limbs damaged by insects 

(borers) and pruning cuts. Wet weather. 

Plantations where secateurs, wounds and picking 

flowers accelerates spread, eg banksia stands. 

Control is difficult. 

Cultural methods: Trees should be kept vigorous but 

avoid rapid soft growth which may be susceptible to 

some canker fungi, eg Glomerella. Avoid wounds. 

Prune in dry weather. 

Sanitation: Reduce number and size of wounds. 

Prune affected shoots or branches properly off at 

least 100 mm below cankers, burn prunings. Pruning 

may destroy the shape of ornamentals. 



Resistant varieties: Some cultivars are more 

resistant than others (Agrios 1988). 

Physical and mechanical methods: Trim wounds 

and dress with water-based acrylic paint or 

horticultural sealant. Fire is a practical tool for the 

regeneration of native plant communities after 

infestation with canker. 

Pesticides: If cankers are a problem on new growth 

on some trees, eg Glomerella on fruit trees, fungicides 

may be applied before, during and immediately after 

leaf fall and to protect pruning and harvesting wounds. 

Fungal leaf spots (Cercosporella, 

Cercospora, Guignardia, Septoria) affect many 

trees (Fig 199). Some are unsightly, result in 

defoliation and reduce vigour, but many do not 

cause serious damage. The only practical control 

on trees is the use of resistant varieties. 

Fungicides are only justified in nurseries. Some 

fungi, eg Alternaria, Pestalotiopsis, may colonise 

leaves damaged by sunscorch or drought. 

Sunscorched leaves have papery, greyish areas. 

Small black specks (fruiting bodies) which 

produce spores develop in these areas. Leaves 

may yellow and fall. See Annuals A 5. 

Phytophthora root and collar rots 

Scientific name: Eumycetes: 


cinnamomi (Pc), Phytophthora spp.) are the best 

known fungal diseases in Australia causing major 

losses in nurseries, horticultural crops, cut 

flowers, pasture and field crops (Cahill 1993). 

Often called dieback. 

Host range: More than 900 species of ornamentals, 

eg azalea, bush flowers, eucalypt, fruit, eg avocado, 

citrus, vegetables, eg brassica, rhubarb, field crops, 

eg lucerne, weeds. Pc has a wide host range, other 

species may only attack one species or plant family. 

Some plants are attacked by several Phytophthora spp. 

Symptoms: Seeds, seedlings and cuttings may be 

attacked causing damping off. Symptoms on foliage 

of older plants are similar to dieback caused by 

Armillaria, borers, drought, waterlogging, etc. 

(Davison 1994). Trees fail to produce vigorous new 

growth, larger branches may die back quickly or 

over years. Mature trees may die during dry 

summers, reduced root systems cannot take up 

adequate water. Root rot usually commences on the 

small fibrous roots, lateral roots may look bare (Fig. 

200). Small laterals are killed and cankers may form 

on larger roots. If the soil is wet for long periods, the 

fungus may also attack permanent larger roots and 

crown. Collar rot usually results from infections at 

or near soil level. Bark may gum, be damp, soft, with 

discoloured wood underneath. Later, bark dries and 

cracks, wood underneath hardens and dries. Cankers 

may develop and trees may be ringbarked and die. If 

rootstocks are more resistant than stems, collar rot 

may be confined to just above the bud union. Collar 

rot may spread to roots or to the trunk, and on to 

leaves and fruit causing gumming and brown rot 

(citrus). Vigorous new growth may produce new 

bark on some hosts and prevent further spread. 

Overwintering: May survive for years in infected 

host roots, plant debris and soil, thick-walled spores 

(oospores, chlamydospores) in soil. See Avocado 

F 21 (Fig. 111). 

Spread: Considered to be introduced and spread by 

humans. Spores and mycelium in drainage, flood and 

irrigation water, by movement of contaminated soil 

as deliveries, in containers, on tools, machinery, 

vehicles, footwear, diseased nursery stock, by wind 

splashed rain or irrigation from the soil surface onto 

lower parts of trees (trunk and fruit). At suitable soil 

temperatures and moisture, Pc liberates zoospores 

which swim in soil water and infect fibrous roots. 

Conditions favouring: Prolonged rain, overirrigation, 

poor drainage, soil and under-tree aeration. 

Optimum temperature varies with the species of 

Phytophthora. When soil dries out, activity ceases, 

cankers on roots heal round the edges, and new 

fibrous roots are formed (Fig. 200). If soil becomes 

wet again, there is a renewal of fungus activity, 

surface roots in the zone most subject to drying out 

are the last to be affected. Planting roots balled in 

soil different to the one into which it is planted, 

creates a natural watercourse, roots developing into it 

are readily infected with Pc if present. Soils low in 

organic matter and antagonistic microorganisms. 

Herbicides, eg atrazine and simazine, are sometimes 

considered to change the balance of soil microflora in 

favour of Phytophthora. Root injury favours root 

rots. Trunk damage favours collar rots. 

Control is difficult and may involve different 

strategies and may vary depending on the crop (Cahill 

1993, St J Hardy et al. 1994). For disease to occur, 

there must be Pc present, a susceptible host and a 

favourable environment. Staff must be trained to use 

diagnostic kits, to seek expert help and prevent spread. 

Nursery accreditation schemes exclude Pc from 

nurseries in WA. See Nurseries N 55, N 56. 

Cultural methods: Avoid planting contaminated sites 

if infection is favourable. Rotate crops. If 

necessary, improve drainage, raise seed and cuttings 

beds, improve soil structure. Add organic 

amendments to increase antagonistic microorganisms 

and production of ammonium which may 

be toxic to Pc. Prepare ground early to avoid 

abundant undecomposed crop debris, or deep plough 

to bury it. Plant crowns just clear of soil and bud 

unions 50-150 mm above ground level, avoid 

mounding soil or mulch up around trunks and 

making dished depressions around trees. Prune back 

low-hanging branches to at least 600 mm above 

ground. If collar rot occurs, remove soil from affected 

butts to allow rapid drying and easy examination. 

Light pruning before spring growth, plus appropriate 

irrigation and fertiliser. Soil-less mixes and 

hydroponic systems reduce the risk of infection in 

some crops. In avocado fertilise to maintain root rot 

tolerance, eg potassium, superphosphate, etc. In 

bush areas, understorey plants can be manipulated 

by fire. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy severely infected 

plants promptly and as soon as possible after 

harvesting. Do not compost. Practice nursery 

hygiene. See Nurseries N 51. 

Biological control: Suppressive soils are fertile 

and high in organic matter, microorganisms, eg 

amoebae, fungi, nematodes, and antagonistic to Pc. 

A sterile red fungus is used in cereal crops. Other 

fungi have been researched but do not seem 

promising. Trichoderma has been used preventively 

against Pc, Pythium and Rhizoctonia on 

rhododendron, gerbera and other plants in field and 

containers. Mycorrhizae do not seem important in 

Pc control, but this may apply only to some hosts. 

K 6 



Resistant varieties: Plant resistant or tolerant 

species or rootstocks in contaminated soil and 

adjacent areas. Understoreys in bush areas may be 

manipulated using resistant species (Coloquhoun 

and Petersen 1994). Resistant jarrah 

provenances can be identified by tests and 

micropropagated. Natural seasonal changes in oak 

bark affect susceptibility (Robin et al. 1993). 

Resistance may be induced using by genetic 

engineering. Double stranded RNA viral 

genomes are being researched to either induce 

resistance or deliver non-virulent genes. 

Plant quarantine: About 500,000 ha have been 

placed in quarantine by the Forestry Department in 

WA. Avoid introducing infected plants, cuttings, 

soil and water to disease-free areas. Isolate new 

plants (unless guaranteed Pc-free) until their diseasefreedom 

is established (practical with containers but 

difficult for plants to be planted directly into soil). 

See Nurseries N 51. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant Pc-free 

seeds, seedlings, cuttings and nursery stock from Pcfree 

nurseries in Pc-free soil. In some areas it 

may be an offence to sell or bring in to, or remove 

from, premises any plant which is infected with Pc. 


Pc occurs deep in soils, preventing rapid eradication 

in the field. Soil/mixes used for cutting and seed 

beds may be pasteurised or solarised (only to 

250 mm in some climates, eg NT), or fumigated. 

Seeds or cuttings may be dipped in fungicides. 

Fungicides tend to be suppressive only, and may be 

applied either as a soil drench or as granules 

before or after planting out or at the first signs of 

infection (after severely infected plants have been 

removed) or as a regular preventative treatment. 

Highly contagious sites may be contained by 

fungicides, or by keeping sites completely bare for 

many years or by 'spot' treating isolated pockets with 

a fumigant by trained personnel after stumps and roots 

of trees have been removed. Collar rot: Remove 

diseased and surrounding tissue to healthy tissue, 

paint wounds with a fungicide paint. Irrigation 

water: Various filters and chemicals are used to 

eliminate Pc. See Nurseries N 53, Water N 90. 

Phosphorous acid (phosphanate) applied as a 

foliar spray, aerial application, or by stem injection 

may assist control of Pc (and Pythium) on some hosts. 

It stimulates the natural resistance mechanisms to 

some of these fungi (not P. megasperma). Currently 

the most practical technique for control of Pc in small 

native communities, is foliar applications of 

phosphorous acid (St J Hardy et al. 1994). In plant 

communities already infested with Pc, one 

application gives excellent control of disease over 

several years. Phosphorous acid is inexpensive, has a 

low toxicity to plants and animals, is highly mobile 

within the plant and is useful for endangered and rare 

species and on high value sites. 

Powdery mildews (Erysiphales) affect 

many trees, eg crepe myrtle. New leaves and 

shoots are covered with whitish spores, leaves may 

roll, shoots of some species may die. Powdery 

mildew may be a problem on trimmed hedges, eg 

Photinia, where there is abundant new growth, or 

mainly in nurseries, eg eucalypt. Avoid clipping 

susceptible hedges, otherwise tolerate disease or 

replace with a resistant variety or species. 

Fungicides are only justified on nursery stock. See 

Annuals A 6. 


(summary) 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.) causes whitish 

fungal plaques between sapwood and bark at ground 

level and rhizomorphs on some roots. See Trees K 4. 

Damping off (Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia), 

also chalara root rot, black mould (Chalara 

thielavioides), cylindrocladium crown canker 

(Cylindrocladium scoparium), grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea). See Seedlings N 66. 

Phytophthora collar and root rot (Phytophthora 

spp.). See Trees K 6. 

Rhizoctonia disease (Rhizoctonia solani) symptoms 

depend on the growth stage of the host, eg damping 

off, root rots and collar rots of older plants. On azalea 

it may cause a leaf blight. 

Rosellinia root rot, white root rot (Rosellinia 

necatrix). See Pome fruits F 110, Protea K 120. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) causes a 

white cottony rot on which black sclerotia, about 

0.5-10 mm, long develop. 

Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) attacks stems at 

soil level, ringbarking plants. A white thread-like 

growth develops on which tiny round white sclerotia 

(size of cabbage seed) occur. Sclerotia later brown. 

Woody root and butt rots (Basidiomycetes): Tinder 

punk (Phellinus spp.). See Conifers K 46, Trees K 8. 


Rusts (Uredinales, Basidiomycetes) infect 

many trees, eg birch, poplar, wattle, willow. 

Leaves are unsightly and fall prematurely. 

Depending on the weather, rust diseases may be 

more severe in some seasons than others. Removal 

of infected trees is not recommended (gall rust on 

wattle is an exception). The only practical control 

for rust diseases on trees is the use of resistant 

varieties. Fungicide applications are only 

justified on nursery stock. See Annuals A 7. 

Wilts are destructive, difficult to control and 

there is usually no cure for infected plants. 

Dutch elm disease (DED) (Ceratocystis ulmi, 

Ascomycetes) is not known to occur in Australia. It 

lives primarily in the xylem and adjacent cells of 

elms. The fungus is not soilborne and is spread by 

spores carried by certain bark beetles, which do occur 

in Australia, or by natural root grafts. Bark beetles 

introduce the fungus into the xylem of vigorously 

growing twigs or larger branches on which they feed 

and from there, as well as from natural root grafts, the 

fungus spreads to the vascular system, causing 

wilting and death. See Elm K 54. 

Myrtle wilt (Chalara australis, Imperfect Fungi) is 

associated with the death of large numbers of myrtle 

trees (Nothofagus cunninghamii) in cool temperate 

rainforests of Tasmania and southern Victoria. In late 

autumn or early winter affected trees rapidly wilt. 

Spores are wind spread and enter trees though 

wounds. The fungus grows in and blocks the vascular 

system, of lower stems. Possibly it may also spread by 

root contact. An insect vector is not known to occur. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) is uncommon 

and only important in young trees (3-6 years old) 

which may wilt, decline and die. Verticillium is 

soilborne, invades water-conducting tissues of 

roots then moves upwards into trunks and branches. If 

stem are cut across, sapwood is brown. See 




Wood rots (heart rots) 

Scientific name: Many mushroom or polypore 

fungi (Basidiomycetes), eg Fomes, Phellinus. 

Host range: Many ageing tree species. 

Symptoms: In living trees most wood rots are 

confined to older central dead wood (heartwood). 

Depending on the part of the tree attacked, wood rots 

are also called root, butt or stem rots. Brown rots 

decompose cellulose causing a brown rot with a 

cubical pattern of cracking and crumbly texture. They 

preferably attack softwoods, eg conifers. White rots 

decompose cellulose and lignin, reducing wood to a 

pale spongy mass. They preferably attack hardwoods 

normally resistant to brown rot fungi. Affected 

wood loses its structural strength, trees may blow 

over in high winds and temperature extremes. Rotted 

wood when dry is very light in weight. Annual or 

perennial brackets (mushrooms or toadstools) 

develop on the outside of affected limbs and trunks, 

usually during autumn or winter one to many years 

after infection; their appearance usually means that 

infection is advanced (Fig. 201). They vary in colour 

and size depending on the fungus. Some wood rotting 

fungi, eg Schizophyllum, are weak pathogens and 

are usually only important in older neglected trees. 

Trees grow as compartmented plants (Fig 220). In 

the trunk there are naturally occurring boundaries (not 

anatomical features) which resist to varying 

degrees, spread of decay. Compartmentalisation of 

decay in trees (CODIT) varies between and within 

species, and with pathogen virulence, tree vigour and 

further wounding. 

Fig. 220. CODIT (after Shigo and Marx 1977). 

Fomes can enter through roots in a manner similar to 

Armillaria and, like that fungus, become well 

entrenched in dead trunks. 

Pink limb blight, pink disease (Corticium 

salmonicolor) attacks and kills many woody plants in 

warm climates. A pink encrustation which later 

turns grey, develops on bark. If the branch is girdled, 

trees wilt, gumming may occur and bark splits and 

lifts off before the branch finally dies (Fitzell 1994). 

Red wood rot (Trametes cinnabarina) is a weak 

pathogen, causing a white wood rot, forming orangered 

leathery brackets (700 mm across, 5-10 mm 

thick) with pores beneath. Also Pycnoporus 

coccineus which is more common. 

Ringbarking fuscoporia (Fuscoporia laevigata 

affect silver wattle (A. dealbata), blackwood 

(A. melanoxylon), brown boronia (Boronia 

megastigma), cypress pines (Callitris spp.), myrtle 

beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii), river red gum 

(E. camaldulensis), mountain ash (E. regnans), 

Victorian Christmas Bush (Prostanthera lasioanthos). 

The fruit body is a rusty brown, pore-bearing sheath 

on the collar of saplings. It appears to ringbark and 

kill saplings, rapidly producing a white sapwood rot. 

Silver leaf (Stereum strigoso-zonatum, S. purpureum) 

is a serious disease of deciduous trees, eg poplar, 

stone fruits, also others, eg mountain ash, protea. 

Affected leaves have a pale-grey, metallic sheen in 

contrast to the deep green of healthy leaves. Silvering 

is caused by structural breakdown which allows the 

epidermis to peel away readily when rubbed or 

scraped. Trees decline over several seasons. Small 

brownish shell-shaped fruiting bodies (20-40 mm 

across), with mauve gills underneath, develop on 

recently dead wood on trees, stumps or prunings. 

Spores are released during or soon after rain and are 

spread by wind, pruning and harvesting tools and 

infect trees through pruning wounds < 24 hours old. 

Silvering can also be caused by twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae) which usually occurs in 

autumn. Remove and burn infected tree. 

Trichoderma viride is used commercially in the UK 

for control of S. purpureum. See Stone fruits F 128. 

Tinder punk (Phellinus spp.) attacks many species, eg 

casuarina, cypress pine, eucalypt, melaleuca, myrtle 

beech, oak, stone fruits and wattle causing a white 

pocket rot. The bracket is about 100 mm thick and 

up to 100 mm wide, brown, hidden in crevices of 

trunks. It is perennial, heavy, hard (each year adding 

new growth), rough, often has a cracked upper surface 

and slopes downwards to a horizontal surface with 

fine brown to dark rusty pores underneath. See 

Australian native plants N 11 (Fig. 376). 

White yellowish wood rot, rainbow conk (Polyporus 

versicolor = Polystictus versicolor) affects old 

weakened trees causing a soft white rot which forms 

leathery smooth grey brackets with brown bands 

(30-40 mm across, up to 5 mm thick), with cream 

pores underneath. Polyporus may spread into larger 

branches killing them one at a time. 

Yellow heart rot (Schizophylum commune) is a weak 

pathogen causing a white rot and forming soft white 

fan-like brackets (10-20 mm across) with frilled 

edges and gills underneath. Only important in older 

neglected trees, eg fruit trees, pine, citrus. 

Others: Poria, Ganoderma, Peniophora, Lenzites. 

Overwintering: Infected trees, plant debris, stumps. 

Spread: Fruiting bodies release spores which are 

spread by wind to other trees. Spores gain entry via 

dead bark, pruning and natural wounds. Most enter 

K 8 



through damaged tissue, eg branches broken in 

storms, borer holes, termite holes or other injuries and 

then spread through the wood around the entry point. 

Conditions favouring: Mild, wet winters, trees 

stressed by drought, poor nutrition and ventilation, 

overcropping, waterlogging, wounds, eg broken 

limbs, heavy winter pruning, borers, reworked trees, 

sunburn, hail, root damage. Butt and stem rots may 

be associated with termites in Eucalypts. 

Control: There is no cure for wood rots. 

Monitor trees for cavities or fruiting bodies. Once 

detected monitor regularly. If large trees are affected 

obtain advice from a qualified arborist as trees may 

fall over. Decay may be detected in trees using 

visual assessment (Matheny et al. 1994) and various 

types of equipment (Anon. 1996, Bethge et al. 1996). 

Cultural methods: Prevent infection by 

appropriate fertilising and irrigation. Minimise 

sunburn injury to trunks and branches by painting 

them with flat white plastic paint to reflect the sun, 

appropriately prune to shade limbs and trunk, prevent 

leaf fall in summer by controlling diseases and pests 

(if applicable), avoid reflective mulches. For some 

wood rots, eg silver leaf, prune when weather is to 

be dry for > 24 hours afterwards. 

Sanitation: Prune (at collars) and shape young trees 

carefully to avoid large pruning cuts. Prune out 

all dead limbs and those affected by wood rot and 

burn. Remove and burn stumps and trees that have 

died from wood rot. Affected trees near houses 

should be pruned or cut down. For silver leaf prune 

in late summer or early autumn as trees are less 

susceptible at this time. 

Resistant varieties: Species vary in susceptibility. 

Do not use susceptible trees as windbreaks. 

Pesticides: Where disease is prevalent on susceptible 

trees, treat cuts within hours of pruning with a 

recommended fungicide. Disinfect tools when 

moving from plant to plant. 

Wood rots (wood-stains and others) 

Bacterial rots (various) mainly attack wood 

parenchyma rays. Porosity and permeability of wood 

to liquids is increased. 

Sap-stain fungi, blue-stain fungi (species of 

Ceratocystis, Cladosporium, Diplodia, Graphium, 

Hypoxylon, Xylaria) have pigmented hyphae that 

grow mainly in the ray cells that spread through 

sapwood causing lines of discolouration. 

Slow white rots (Ascomycetes), with variable black 

zone lines in and around rotting wood, develop in 

hardwood trees, usually associated with wounds or 

cankers eg Xylaria. Cramp balls (Daldinia 

concentrica) affect blackwood, casuarina, myrtle 

beech, silver wattle, etc. Fruit bodies are 10-50 mm 

across, nearly round, shiny black to chocolate, dense 

clusters on trunks and branches (Marks et al. 1982). 

Soft rots, eg Alternaria, Diplodia (Ascomycetes), 

affect the surface layers of wood pieces maintained at 

continuously high moisture content, eg poles in 

soil, cooling towers (Agrios 1988). 

Stump removers (Peniophora gigantea, Poria 

medullaris, etc) can decay many stumps of 

softwoods and hardwoods and destroy the food source 

of fungi that are potentially pathogenic. 

Surface wood-stain fungi (Aspergillus, Fusarium, 

Penicillium, Rhizopus) are fungi that grow on freshly 

cut surfaces of wood and impart to the wood the 

colour of their spores. 


Broomrape (Orobanche spp., Orobanchaceae) is 

an annual, has no chlorophyll and is parasitic on 

roots of clover, skeleton weed, shrubs and other 

plants, depending on its host for water and nutrients. 

Stems are yellow-brown to violet, about 250 mm tall 

with a bulb-like organ attaching to the host root. 

Flowers are snapdragon-like, seed minute. They 

occur singly or in clusters and look unsightly with 

age. Hosts may wilt during hot weather, but 

broomrape is economically important only in field 

crops. In urban areas most hosts seem to tolerate 

infestation. Broomrape may be pulled up as it 

appears in spring, before it sets seed. Overwinters as 

seed in soil for years, in some areas as 'bulbs' on host 

roots for a season. Seed is spread by rain, wind, 

birds and host seed contaminated with broomrape 

seed. Seed only germinates if a host is nearby. 

Overseas, Fusarium and a parasitic fly (Phytomyza) 

are used to control broomrape in vegetable crops. 

Devil's twine (Cassytha spp., Lauraceae) is 

perennial, has chlorophyll, but no true roots, and 

is parasitic on stems of trees and other plants (Fig 

202). Common in bush areas. Stems are green, 

slender, tough, twining and send haustoria into host 

stems. Leaves are scale-like, flowers small and white 

in leaf axils. Host plants may be weakened and die. 

Overwinters as seed on soil for years or mixed with 

host seed, as a perennial on host plants. Spread by 

seed mixed with host seed, by animals, equipment, 

water, soil, movement of infested plants, by growing 

aerially from host to host. Seeds germinate, stems 

encircle hosts, develop haustoria, connection with the 

ground ceases. If no host, seedling dies. Remove by 

hand in small infestations. Only plant Cassytha-free 

seed in Cassytha-free areas. Do not confuse with 

dodder (Cuscuta spp., Convolulaceae) which is an 

annual, has no chlorophyll (orange-yellow stems), no 

true roots, minute scale-like leaves, white flowers in 

clusters and is parasitic on stems of herbaceous 

plants, vegetables, legume field crops and weeds, but 

not usually woody plants, or with strangling nonparasitic 

climbers which twine round stems of other 

plants, eg wisteria. 

Parasitic trees: Native cherry (Exocarpos spp., 

Santalaceae) is an upright growing shrub or tree in 

forest areas, has chlorophyll, is parasitic on roots of 

eucalypts when young, later becoming selfsupporting 

(see Eucalypt K 67, Fig 239). Foliage 

resembles that of casuarina, spread by small seed. 

Western Australian Christmas tree (Nuytsia 

floribunda, Loranthaceae) has chlorophyll, is parasitic 

on roots of grasses when young, later becomes selfsupporting. 

Propagated by seed, root cuttings. 

True mistletoes (Amyema, Dendrophthoe, 

Notothixos, Loranthaceae) are perennial, have 

chlorophyll, and are parasitic on stems of trees, 

depending on hosts for water and nutrients (Fig. 202). 

There are > 75 spp in Australia. Some are host 

specific, others infest many species. Many mimic 

their host in appearance, eg leaf shape. Infested 

branches die, many mistletoes may kill a tree. 

Overwinters as seeds, perennial infections on host 

plants. Seed is spread by birds, wind, rain, movement 

of infested plants (minor). Seed germinates in droppings 

of mistletoe birds, producing a searching tip which seeks 



host tissue. Accessible mistletoes may be cut off. 

Herbicide may be painted on to mistletoe shoots as 

they grow from their point of attachment. Tree injection 

has been tried but is slow acting. Overseas growth 

regulators applied to bunches prevents fruiting, and so 

spread, but does not kill it. Follow treatment where 

practical with fertilising and watering. 


Nematodes have been studied on fruit and vegetable 

crops but not much on ornamental trees. Many 

species attack trees and shrubs and probably cause 

more damage than is realised. Plants appear 

unthrifty, stunted and yellow, symptoms are readily 

confused with deficiencies and fungal root diseases. 

Parasitic nematodes in the soil may cause replant 

diseases for some crops, eg apple. Root knot 

nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) may infest trees but 

are usually only a problem on nursery stock. Tiny 

galls develop on roots. Root lesion nematode 

(Pratylenchus spp.) also attacks many plants. They 

enter and feed in the cortical tissue of small roots. 

Injured tissue dies and dark lesions develop on the 

root surface. Young roots can be girdled. Stubby 

root nematode (Trichodorus spp.) feeds externally 

on root tips which thicken and become corky. Small 

rootlets are blunt and corky with small lumps on the 

surface. Roots are sparse. Inspect roots of all 

purchases, discard any suspected of being infested. 

Only propagate from nematode-free plants and 

plant nematode-free propagation material in 

nematode-free cutting and seed beds or soil. See 

Nurseries N 54, Vegetables M 10. 


Insects are only one of many factors which can debilitate 

trees. Not all insects found on trees cause damage. 

Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) infest new 

shoots of trees, eg elm, oleander, oak. Some aphids 

have a wide host range, eg cotton aphid (Aphis 

gossypii), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), 

while others, eg oleander aphid (A. nerii), only infest 

oleander. Aphids suck sap from new growth often 

causing distortion. Nymph skins and honeydew are 

seen on infested shoots. Do not confuse aphid injury 

with hormone herbicide injury to new shoots. 

Control is usually only carried out on nursery stock. 


Ambrosia beetles, 

pinhole, shot-hole 

(Curculionidae, Coleoptera), some species of 

Scolytinae, eg Xyleborus spp., and all of the 1000 

species of Platypodinae), eg omnivorous pinhole 

borer (Crossotarsus omnivorus) and platypus 

beetle, mountain pinhole borer (Platypus 

subgranosus) and their larvae, feed on yeast-like 

ambrosia fungi (Ascomycetes). Spores carried and 

cultured by the beetles grow in the moist internal 

walls of tunnels made by the beetles. Some species 

attack living trees, many attack green unseasoned 

logs in the forest and millyard, but not dry timber 

(insufficient moisture for the fungus, so larvae die). 

Beetles are dark, elongated, tiny, often only a 

few mm long. Larvae are tiny, legless, mostly with a 

scroll 

on 1st thoracic segment. 

Beetles bore round, frass-free tunnels (1-2 mm 

across) deep into sapwood and heartwood. The pest 

cycle may take 6 months to several years. Females 

lay eggs at the ends of the tunnels, when fully grown 

larvae pupate in the tunnels and emerge as beetles 

through the holes made by the parents. Wood 

surrounding holes is often stained by the fungal 

activity, the holes and the stain affect the 

appearance of trees and timber, but mostly not its 

strength. Infestations in living trees are not 

controlled, but they may be in green timber. 

Bark beetles (Scolytinae, Curculionidae, 

Coleoptera) in Australia mostly attack dead or dying 

trees, especially conifers. A few introduced bark 

beetles, eg elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus) 

which transmits Dutch elm disease (DED) 

(Ceratocystis ulmi), and fivespined bark beetle (Ips 

grandicollis), attack living trees. Bark beetles are 2- 

6 mm long, larvae are legless, cream and tiny, exit 

holes 1-3 mm. Beetles construct galleries for egg 

laying in the phloem beneath the bark of living or 

dead trees. Larvae chew fine galleries away from the 

egg gallery, creating a characteristic pattern (Fig. 

203). Bark beetles kill trees either directly through 

ringbarking or indirectly through introducing disease, 

eg DED. There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, 

larva, pupa and adult) with 1 to several generations 

each year. Some species, eg palm seedborer 

(Coccotrypes dactyliperda), are seed feeders. 

Spread by beetles flying, infested timber. Favoured 

by stress; buildup of numbers in recently felled trees. 

Control varies with the species. See Conifers K 47, 

Pine K 109. 

Borers (summary) 

Scientific name: Larvae of beetles (Coleoptera), 

moths (Lepidoptera) and wasps (Hymenoptera). 

Host range: Trees, shrubs and climbers. 

Description and damage: Larvae usually 

aggregate within a particular tree and are seen when 

timber is cut or split (Figs. 204-205). Depending on 

the species, larvae feed in tunnels in the inner bark, 

sapwood or heartwood of trunks, branches and 

roots. Species which feed in, and ringbark the inner 

bark (phloem-cambium), so that water and nutrients 

cannot be transported, are potentially more serious 

pests. Branches and trees may live for years but are 

seldom attractive and are a potential hazard to life and 

property. External symptoms on bark depend on 

the borer, but include bark splitting (eucalypts), 

gumming, chewed wood and frass at tunnel 

entrances, exit holes of adults, death or breaking of 

limbs, trees falling in wind, cockatoos removing 

wood to extract larvae. Other insects and wood rot 

fungi may invade tunnels and contribute to further 

structural weakness. 

Pest cycle: Complete metamorphosis (egg, larvae, 

pupa, adult) with 1 generation every 3 months to 

several years. Eggs are usually laid in bark where 

larvae initially feed, later larvae tunnel to their 

preferred feeding depth. When fully fed they mostly 

pupate in the tunnel close to the surface and emerge 

through an exit hole. Life histories are often not 

well known, but larvae of some species live for 

several years. 

Overwintering: Many in trunks, limbs and roots 

of hosts as larvae and pupae, some also as adults. 

K 10 



Spread: By beetles, moths or wasps flying, 

movement of infested timber. 

Conditions favouring: Beetles prefer to lay eggs 

on trees which are old or stressed, due to poor 

environmental conditions, eg deficiencies, 

drought, erosion, overcrowding, waterlogging, 

physical damage, eg fire, wind, snow, soil around 

trunks, landscaping, buildings, machinery, reworked 

trees, excessive lopping, poor pruning, bullets, golf 

balls, vandals, chemical injury, eg air pollution, gas 

leaks, herbicide drift, swimming pools, attachments, 

eg staghorns, mistletoe, foliage-feeding insects and 

fungal root and wood rots. Healthy trees react to 

larval boring by producing copious exudates, eg 

resin, gum or kino, which engulf and kill small larvae. 

Weakened trees do not produce these protective 

materials in quantity and larvae can establish. Young, 

apparently healthy trees close to bushland are 

occasionally attacked. 

Control of borers in living trees is difficult as they 

are usually not noticed until larvae are deep within 

wood (fruit-tree borers are exceptions). Monitor and 

identify borer damage during routine horticultural 

activities. 

Cultural methods: Grow young trees without 

checks in growth. Avoid conditions favouring 

infestation. For infested trees, provide adequate 

irrigation, fertiliser and pruning. Only rejuvenate 

trees if roots and butts are sound. 

Sanitation: Prune off infested branches well below 

dead or dying wood and fell dead trees before adults 

emerge. Burn all prunings and dead trees 

immediately. Prune at branch collars so that stubs 

do not die back, encouraging further borer attack or 

wood rot fungi. In trunks, cut back dying or dead 

bark from margins of damaged wood to healthy wood. 

If base of main stem is attacked, remove and destroy 

trees to prevent adults emerging. 

Biological control: Populations are usually limited 

by predators, eg birds, assassin bugs, clerid beetles 

and parasites, eg wasps and flies parasitise larvae 

and pupae, their cocoons are often seen in tunnels. 

Resistant varieties: Choose species suited to 

climate, site and not susceptible to borers. 


Trunk injection with insecticides does not control 

borer larvae. Bark spraying may kill emerging 

adults, but effective insecticides are mostly 

hazardous and persistent. Occasionally trunks and 

butts of infested high value trees have been sprayed 

with residual insecticide in spring to kill adults 

emerging in late spring/early summer. Larvae which 

live in short tunnels, eg fruit-tree borer, may be 

killed by removing frass from tunnel entrances, then 

probing tunnel with soft, pliable wire or by injecting 

insecticide into them. Soap injected into them makes 

caterpillars emerge and they can then be killed. 

Borers (beetles - Coleoptera) 

Auger beetles (Bostrichidae) mostly infest dying or 

freshly dead hardwood trees, eg kurrajong, pepper 

tree, fruit trees, white cedar. They do not re-infest 

seasoned wood. Depending on the species there are 

one or more generations each year. Beetles emerge 

through round holes, 1-6 mm across, in spring. 

Females usually bore a tiny clean round hole (auger) 

for egg laying in moist sapwood. Larvae tunnel in 

moist sapwood, feeding on sugars and starches. 

Tunnels are tightly packed with fine, powdery frass. 

Control in trees is not justified. Large auger beetle 

(Bostrychopsis jesuita) attacks eucalypt, tamarisk, 

wattle. It is stout-bodied, rough surfaced, dark, 12-18 

mm long with down-turned head. See Tamarisk K 

123 (Fig. 269). Larvae are thick, white, with short 

true legs, 10-12 mm long and bore vertical round 

tunnels about 5 mm across. Powderpost beetles 

(Lyctus spp.) attack structural hardwood timber 

containing sapwood and re-infest dry seasoned timber. 

Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) is a 

pest of grain. 

Jewel beetles (Buprestidae) usually attack weakened 

or fire-damaged trees. Beetles are 15-60 mm long, 

usually bright, patterned, elongated and flattened with 

short, toothed antennae. They feed on, and may 

pollinate flowers of, trees in summer. Larvae are 

up to 30 mm long, cream, cobra-shaped with a 

flattened head and thorax (Fig. 204). They tunnel 

between bark and sapwood of living trees and 

move into sapwood to pupate like longicorns. 

Tunnels are irregularly oval and tightly packed with 

frass, crescent-shaped lines are visible. Beetles 

emerge through oval exit holes (10-12 mm). Larval 

stages can last for many years; occasionally beetles 

emerge from sawn timber. See Conifers K 47. 

Longicorn beetles, greenwood longicorns 

(Cerambycidae) are common tree borers affecting 

many trees, eg citrus, banksia, casuarina, cypress, 

eucalypt, fig, wattle, willow. Most are pests of dead 

limbs and freshly felled trees. Some are serious 

pests of weakened or injured trees, causing their 

death by ringbarking. They do not re-infest dry 

seasoned wood like drywood longicorns. A few 

attack living trees (Wang 1995). Beetles are active 

fliers, elongated, dark, bodies are approximately 5-80 

mm long, with long antennae which sweep backwards 

beyond the end of the abdomen (Fig. 204). They may 

be diurnal or nocturnal (hide in the day under loose 

bark), many feed on flowers, foliage or new bark in 

summer. They lay eggs directly into the bark. 

Larvae are creamy, wrinkled, legless, cylindrical 

with a swollen thorax, small dark head, well 

developed chewing mouthparts and are 8-100 mm 

long (Fig. 204). They mostly feed under the bark in 

the phloem-cambium. Larvae may tunnel upwards 

or downwards for a metre or more in trunks and roots 

for 6 months to 3 years. Tunnels are oval, packed 

with coarse frass. They form white pupae in the 

sapwood. Beetles emerge through usually oval exit 

holes (3-15 mm). On smooth-barked trees, dead 

patches of bark may crack and fall away, leaving 

exposed sapwood. Depending on their density larvae 

can ringbark branches or trunks. Some feed on herbs, 

roots or on seeds and cones. Overseas, some species 

are vectors of serious diseases affecting living trees, 

eg Monochamus alternatus is a vector of the 

pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) 

in Japan; Hylotrupes bajulus and Stromatium 

spp. can attack seasoned timber, larval stages may last 

up to 16 years (Com. of Australia 1992). 

Weevils (Curculionidae) mostly have an extended head 

(snout). Larvae of some bore into dying or dead trees, 

others attack living trees. Elephant weevil 

(Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) affects brush box, 

eucalypt, fruit and other trees. Weevils are 

10-20 mm long, grey-black, with long forelegs and 

prominences on the wing covers and thorax. 

Antennae are slender and elbowed. They fly mostly 

at night chewing young buds and square or 

rectangular pieces of green bark from twigs and 

branches, preferably from freshly-fallen timber when 



bark is just commencing to wither. See Tamarisk 

K 123 (Fig. 270). Larvae are fleshy, creamy, legless 

and up to 20 mm long. They cause the most damage, 

tunnelling downwards in stems for about 10 months, 

well below the bark, into the roots. Tunnels are 

round and tightly packed with frass. When 

fully grown they turn around and tunnel upwards, to 

pupate a few centimetres to 1 m above ground level. 

There is 1 generation each year. Most weevils emerge 

in spring through round exit holes 5-6 mm across 

(Fig. 204), and lay eggs in the bark, often near the 

base of the trunk. Old nursery trees are commonly 

attacked and exit tunnels cutting across the conducting 

system may cause wilting. Plant yearling trees to 

avoid transporting larvae on nursery stock. Fruittree 

root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) graze on leaf 

surfaces of trees, eg apple, eucalypt, wattle. 

Females are grey, about 20 mm long, males are 

smaller. Larvae are fat, legless, up to 20 mm long 

and bore tunnels in deep roots of the same species. 

Damage is usually minor, but large anchorage roots 

may suffer significant injury. L. tribulus attacks roots 

of wattles. See Fruit F 11. 

See Trees K 10, K 11 

Borers (moths - Lepidoptera) 

Moth borer larvae (Cossidae, Hepialidae and 

Oecophoridae) differ from those of longicorns, 

jewel beetles and bark weevils in having functional 

legs, being able to move freely outside their 

tunnel. They are usually reddish to palest pink. 

Fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae) are common and 

damage many trees, eg cherry, wattle. Caterpillars 

are fleshy, sparsely hairy, multi-coloured brownwhite, 

40-50 mm long. They form a short vertical 

tunnel usually in a branch fork. During the day they 

hide in the tunnel and at night they feed on callus 

tissue around the tunnel entrance. They may ringbark 

and kill branches or small diameter trees. Tunnel 

entrances are covered with a webbed mat of brown 

chewed wood and faeces (Fig. 204). Some also feed 

on leaves, pulling them into webbed mats. Because 

caterpillars do not tunnel far into wood, this borer is 

easy to control. See Fruit F 10. 

Ghost moth (Hepialidae) caterpillars may bore 

tunnels up to 600 mm long in the stems and roots of 

lilly-pilly and other trees, some tunnel in the ground 

and feed externally on tree roots. They are not a 

serious problem in suburban areas. Bentwing ghost 

moth (Zelotypia stacyi) with a wingspan of 250 mm 

which attacks eucalypts is the best known. Common 

splendid ghost moth (Aenutus ligniveren) is a 

small species, the caterpillars making short tunnels in 

many trees, eg eucalypt, wattle. Slender trunks may 

be ringbarked, plants die. A. eximius has its tunnel 

entrance usually within 1 m of the ground. Tunnels 

are up to 500-600 mm long and may extend into the 

main roots. Caterpillars feed on bark regrowth around 

tunnel entrances which are covered with silk, wood 

particles and faeces. Pupation occurs in the tunnel, 

the entrance being previously closed with a silken 

wad. Moths emerge from spring (Common 1990). 

Wood moths (Cossidae), eg Australian goat moth 

(Culama caliginosa), wattle goat moth (Xyleutes 

encalypti), witjuti grub (Xyleutes sp.), attack living 

trees, eg eucalypt, fruit trees, wattle. Moths are 

large, grey or light brown, stout, narrow, with hairy or 

scaly wings and wingspans up to 250 mm. Females 

deposit eggs into crevices on the bark or other parts of 

the tree. Caterpillars are large, fleshy, yellowish or 

pinkish, up to 150 mm long, with true legs and a stout 

armoured prothorax (Fig. 205). Caterpillars tunnel in 

the heartwood of trunks or large roots, beneath the 

bark, or rarely, in the soil feeding externally on roots. 

Tunnels are full of coarsely chewed wood. 

Caterpillars can feed for years. They may feed on 

bark tissue around tunnel entrances, covering them 

with webbed silk, chewed wood and faeces. Pupation 

takes place in the tunnel close to the bark surface; 

moths emerge through large irregular exit holes 3-15 

mm across. One generation every few years. 

Overwinters as caterpillars in trunks and roots. 

Infestation is not noticed until frass and exit holes 

indicate that there is already damage within the trunk. 

Giant wood moth (X. cinereus) caterpillars 

tunnelling in lower trunk of coastal trees are preyed 

upon by black cockatoos. Damage by the birds is 

considerable. See Wattle K 133. 


Borers (wood wasps - Hymenoptera) 

These borers usually attack damaged or stressed 

conifers and are regarded as minor secondary pests, 

however, sirex wasp (Sirex noctilio, Siricidae) has 

become a major pest of pine plantations in Australia 

and New Zealand. Females drill holes with their 

ovipositor into sapwood of live pine trees, depositing 

an egg with mucous and spores of a wood rotting 

fungus (Amylostereum). The fungus conditions the 

wood for the wasp larvae. The combination of the 

phytotoxic mucous and the white rot induced by the 

fungus kills the tree, within 6 weeks to several 

months after attack. The Sirex life cycle extends over 

1 year, though some individuals may pass through a 

3-month or a 2-year cycle. Sirex can complete its life 

cycle in felled trees or drying timber. See Pine K 109, 

K 111 (Fig. 266). Carpenter ants (Componotus spp.) 

nest in tree stumps, decayed wood in trees and timber 

outside. Their damage can look rather like termite 

damage except that excavation is more open and free 

of flutings and their is no faecal spots on internal 

surfaces (Hadlington 1992). 

Bugs (Hemiptera) of many types attack trees. 

Crusader bug (Mictis profana, Coreidae) is a native 

bug which feeds on many plants, eg citrus, cassia, 

eucalypt, grape, hibiscus, rose, wattle, wisteria. 

Adults are up to 25 mm long, dark brown or grey 

with a well-defined yellow St Andrew's Cross on their 

back and long legs. They fly readily if disturbed. 1st 

stage nymphs have a red abdomen and look like 

large ants, later stages are brown and have two small 

orange spots in the middle of the upper surface of 

their abdomens. Nymphs and adults suck sap from 

tips of new growth causing it to wilt, brown and die. 

Damage may be important on young trees. Several 

overlapping generations each season. In spring, 

females lay eggs on leaves, twigs or fruit and 

sometimes debris on soil. Overwinters as adults in 

sheltered places. Spread by adults flying, movement 

of infested plants (minor). Favoured by warm 

weather. Control is not usually required. Predatory 

insects feed on them. On nursery stock, bugs may 

be collected (by hand), insecticides may be applied 

when bugs are first noticed and in severe infestations. 


bronze orange bug (Musgraveia sulciventris), 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor). 


K 12 



Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Many caterpillars, 

eg lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana), 

feed on the foliage, flowers and fruit of many plants 

while some, eg autumn gum moth (Mnesampela 

privata), are host specific. Some caterpillars are 

borers and tip borers. See Trees K 12, K 17. 

Anthelid caterpillar, variegated caterpillar (Anthela 

varia, Anthelidae) is a sporadic pest of many trees, 

eg eucalypt, grevillea, macadamia, pecan, wattle, 

willow. Moths are brown with a wingspan of about 

40 mm. Caterpillars are hairy, brown and grey, up 

to 60 mm long, solitary or in small groups and eat 

chunks out of mature leaves. Caterpillars wander on 

the ground searching for a suitable pupation site in 

dark crevices, amongst stones, in logs. The coarse 

silken cocoon may incorporate caterpillar hairs. 

Caterpillars may cause skin irritation. 

Case moths, bag moths, bagworms (Psychidae) are 

sporadic minor pests of trees, eg citrus, eucalypt, 

pine, tea-tree. Caterpillars are up to 80 mm long 

and live in a portable silken case, only the head and 

thorax protrude during feeding or moving about. If 

disturbed, head and legs are withdrawn and bag 

opening closed. Cases may be decorated with leaf 

and twig material characteristic for a given species. 

Caterpillars chew roughly circular holes in leaves, or 

through one leaf surface giving a 'window pane' 

effect. Damaged areas brown. Caterpillars prefer 

mature leaves but may attack young foliage and twigs. 

They fasten the top of their case to the plant or some 

adjacent object, and pupate inside. Moths are rarely 

seen. Winged males mate with wingless, brown 

females in the case, eggs accumulate in the case. 

There are 2 or more generations a year. Young 

caterpillars spread from hatching sites by descending 

on silk threads, or are carried on windblown leaves, 

insects, birds, or on infested plants. Calm weather 

prevents their dispersal, so that individual trees may 

be heavily infested. Faggot case moth (Clania 

ignobilis) caterpillars feed on fineleaved species of 

cypress pine (Callitris spp.), or pines. They cover 

the case with long pieces of twig placed parallel, with 

one piece usually much longer than the others like a 

tiny bundle of sticks. Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta 

huebneri) is the most common and affects many 

species, eg eucalypt, fruit trees, pine, tea-tree. Cases 

are up to 65 mm long, ornamented with pieces of 

leaves and bark (Fig. 207). Ribbed case moth 

(H. nigrescens) caterpillars are 35 mm long and feed 

on brush box, eucalypt, wattle, mostly in drier inland 

areas. Cases have prominent longitudinal ribs, but are 

not ornamented with plant material. Saunders's 

case moth (Oiketicus elongatus) is the largest 

species with female cases up to 150 mm long. Cases 

are decorated with short pieces of twig widely spaced 

and placed at irregular intervals. Caterpillars are stout 

with yellow markings and feed on a variety of plants. 

See Avocado F 21 (Fig. 112). 

Cup moths (Limacodidae): Caterpillars may damage 

Angophora, brush box, eucalypt, camellia, dodonea, 

guava, macadamia, fruit trees. See Eucalypt K 60. 

Emperor moths (Saturniidae), eg Australian atlas 

moth (Attacus wardi), emperor gum moth 

(Opodiphthera eucalypti). See Australian native plants 

N 11 (Fig. 379). Hercules moth (Coscinocera 

hercules) is Australia's most spectacular moth and 

occurs in north Qld on rainforest trees. Syntherata 

janetta caterpillars feed on many plants, eg 

Podocarpus spinulosa, also citrus, guava in Papua 

New Guinea and northern Australia. 

Leafroller moths (Tortridicae), eg lightbrown 

apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars roll 

leaves together. See Pome fruits F 112. 


pieroides) feeds sporadically on foliage of plants, eg 

bottlebrush, cherry, eucalypt, guava, fringed wattle, 

rose, and on flowers of lilly-pilly, macadamia, mango 

(Common 1990). Caterpillars are up to 25 mm long, 

brown with flanged body segments like a twisted dead 

leaf and so are rarely noticed. Most common in 

tropical and subtropical regions. Control is rarely 

necessary. Twig looper (Ectropis excursaria) 

infests eucalypt, geranium, gardenia, hakea, 

hardenbergia, ivy, lemon, radiata pine, rose, tea-tree, 

walnut, wattle, blackberry and capeweed. See 

Avocado F 19. 

Tussock moths (Lymantriidae): Painted apple 

moth (Teia anartoides) caterpillars may severely 

damage trees or shrubs. See Pome fruits F 113. 

Tailed emperor butterfly (Polyura pyrrhus 

sempronius, Nymphalidae) is large and handsome. 

Caterpillars feed at night on featherleaved wattle, also 

kurrajong, flame tree, camphor laurel, false acacia, 

poinciana, Cassia, Albizia, Celtis, crepe myrtle. 

Caterpillars are up to 80 mm long, fleshy, dark 

green with yellow longitudinal bands, 2 broad 

transverse stripes across the back and 4 backward 

projecting horns on the head. They feed singly or in 

small groups on mature leaves, which they cover with 

silk and on which they rest. Tropical to temperate, 

chiefly coastal. 

Noctuids (Noctuidae), eg corn earworm (Helicoverpa 

armigera), native budworm (H. punctigera), looper 

caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.). See Sweetcorn M89. 

Web moths (Pyralidae, Lepidoptera) infest fineleaved 

shrubs. See Tea-tree K 124. 

Control is often not warranted. Parasitic flies and 

wasps exert some control. If detected early on small 

isolated shrubs hand pick and destroy. However, 

some are hairy and may irritate. Prune off groups of 

webbed leaves. Insecticides, plus a wetting agent, 

are mainly used only in nurseries or on small plants. 

Apply when caterpillars are small. See Annuals A 8. 

Cicadas (Cicadidae, Hemiptera), eg double 

drummer (Thopha saccata), yellow Monday 

(Cyclochila australasiae). Adults are up to 70 mm 

long, with membranous wings, many are colourful, 

but do not jump. Males in summer produce a loud 

noise by vibrating a pair of cuticle plates (the drums), 

one on either side of the abdomen. Nymphs have 

forelegs for digging and live underground for one to 

several years, sucking sap from tree roots. After the 

last nymphal stage, they climb a vertical surface and 

emerge as winged cicadas, leaving the shed skin 

attached to posts, etc. Adults suck sap from soft 

shoots of trees and shrubs which usually wilt. They 

produce large amounts of honeydew; egg laying 

may cause some twig damage and they are noisy. 

They rarely need to be controlled. Natural enemies 

include cicada bird, magpies, possums, hunting 

spiders and tree climbing lizards. 


(Hemiptera) suck sap from many plants, eg 

bottlebrush, casuarina, eucalypt, rosemary, wattle 

(Fig. 208). Many superficially resemble leafhoppers. 

They are up to 12 mm long and can jump vigorously 

(froghoppers). Many are widespread but seldom 

cause damage. 



Froghoppers (Machaerotidae): Nymphs make, feed 

and live in calcareous tubes immersed in their liquid 

excreta (Fig. 208). Nymphs and adults suck sap from 

small stems but cause little injury. Common 

froghopper (Chaetophyes compacta) feeds 

solitarily, or in small colonies, on young shoots of 

eucalypt and wattle and are cicada-like, about 8 mm 

long. Females are large and brown while the smaller 

males are black. Nymphal tubes may be in clusters. 

Adults hop if disturbed. Spine-tailed froghopper 

(Machaerota finitima) infests bottlebrush, casuarina, 

eucalypt, grevillea, melaleuca, salt bush and wattle. 

Adults are unusual, small, brown, about 8 mm long, 

with a prominent, curved spine-like appendage on the 

back. Usually solitary but may be in small groups. 

Spittle bugs (Cercopidae, Aphrophoridae): Nymphs 

live and feed enclosed in spittle either below ground 

(many Cercopidae) or above ground often lodged 

in leaf axils on young shoots (Aphrophoridae) (Fig. 

208). Spittle is formed by air being taken into the 

ventral abdominal channel and expelled posteriorly 

through a film of anal excreta forming bubbles. Inside 

the spittle is a soft-bodied nymph. Philagra parva 

is widely distributed, abundant and feeds on many 

plants, eg casuarina, wattle. Adults are solitary, small, 

brown, cicada-like, about 4 mm long with a narrow 

pointed head. Bathylus albicinctus feeds on many 

similar plants. Adults are small, brown and white, 

beetle-like, about 5 mm long. Anyllis leiala is 

common on eucalypts in eastern Australia. 

Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph and adult). 

Spread by adults flying. Spittle and tubes protect 

nymphs against drying out, parasites and 

predators. The spittle only lasts a couple of weeks 

during nymphal stages, after which the adult 

emerges. They are minor pests kept in check by 

natural controls, eg parasitic wasps and predators, 

eg birds, spiders, ladybirds, skinks. Hosing will 

remove spittle from branches. 

Gall insects: Some insects cause galls on 

leaves, twigs, stems and flower heads (may reduce 

seed formation). Shapes are usually characteristic 

of the insects causing them. Some insect plant 

galls are produced in response to toxins, injected 

by the adult insect during egg laying, and 

continued by the developing larvae. The gall is 

composed entirely of plant tissue which shelters 

the insect and provides abundant sap for food. The 

shape of the gall may be dependent on the insect 

and its sex. Some galls are caused by the 

injection of toxins during feeding, eg woolly 

aphid. Depending on their density, galls may 

cause disfigurement and distortion of leaves, 

stems and flowers. Galls are abundant on eucalypt 

and wattle planted on marginal sites for the 

species. Tree health is seldom affected. In the 

garden, remove by pruning and proper disposal, by 

burning if allowed. 

Aphids (Aphididae: Woolly aphid (Eriosoma 

lanigerum). See Pome fruits F 116. 

Coccids (Eriococcidae): Apiomorpha spp. produce 

unusual galls on eucalypt twigs and leaves. 

Females are often large, fruit-like and single while the 

males may be small, tubular and clustered. See 

Eucalypt K 68 (Fig. 245). They do not appear to 

affect the tree. Other species may cause galls on 

casuarina, eucalypt and wattle. 

Flies (Diptera): Maggots of eucalyptus flies 

(Fergusonina spp.) in association with nematodes 

(Fergusobia) cause galling of leaf, bud and stems of 

Myrtaceae, especially eucalypts, resulting in loss of 

seed production. Gall midges (Cecidomyiidae) may 

cause galls on wattles and other plants. 

Mites (Acarina): An eriophyid mite (Eriophyidae) 

feeds on banksia fruit causing unsightly galls. See 

Banksia K 32. 

Psyllids (Psyllidae): Schedotrioza spp. cause round, 

woody or fleshy galls. Some species, eg Glycaspis 

spp., cause bladder-like galls, solitary or reddish, 

about 8 mm across on eucalypt leaves. 

Thrips (Phlaeothripidae): Teuchothrips and other 

species cause galls on wattle and other native plants. 

Wasps (Hymenoptera), only a few millimetres long, 

lay eggs into young plant tissue. The plant is 

stimulated to produce extra cells so a gall develops. 

Larvae feed on plant tissue and pupate inside the gall. 

Adults emerge through holes made in the outside of 

galls. Bluegum eulophid (Rhicnopeltella 

eucalypti, Eulophidae) is commonly reared from galls 

on eucalypt. Eulophid wasps (Eulophidae) infest 

Geraldton wax, lowering plant value and increasing 

the chance of quarantine rejection on phytosanitary 

grounds. Trichilogaster trilineata wasp galls 

develop on silver wattle (Fig. 209). Seed chalcids 

(Eurytomidae) infest seed of bottlebrush, eucalypt, 

wattle and many other Australian native trees. Most 

Torymid wasps (Torymidae) are associated with 

galls or seeds. Megastigmus is cosmopolitan, 

commonly yellow-brown, sometimes with metallic 

patches, is often reared from stem, leaf and flower 

galls of many plants, eg banksia, Brachychiton, 

eucalypt, hakea, Helichrysum, wattle. Xenostigmus 

causes galls on hakea buds. See Citrus F 37. 

Weevils (Curculionidae): Gregarious gall weevil 

(Strongylorhinus spp.) larvae cause galls on young 

eucalypt stems. Trees may break in the wind. See 


Control is difficult. Fertilise to increase tree vigour 

and resistance to attack. Early pruning and burning of 

affected stems reduces infestations. Most insect species 

which emerge from these galls are parasites of the gall 

insects. There is no effective chemical control for gall 

insects on mature trees. Nursery trees may be sprayed 

with systemic insecticides at the first sign of galling. 

Grasshoppers, locusts, katydids: 

Giant grasshopper (Valanga irregularis), 

wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum), 

spur-throated locust (Nomadacris guttulosa), 

katydids (Tettigoniidae) and other species can 

consume large quantities of foliage. Control 

immediately on important crops before they become 

too numerous. They can be removed by hand on 

small plants. See Eucalypts K 65, Vegetable M 13. 


Scientific name: Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera 

Host range: Various species feed on foliage of 

eucalypt, wattle, other trees. Adults and larvae of 

some species feed on the same host. Some have a 

wide host range, eg redshouldered leaf beetle 

(Monolepta Australasia); others have a more 

limited host range, eg eucalyptus leaf beetles 

(Chrysophtharta spp., Paropsis spp.). 

Description and damage: Beetles vary in size 

and colour but are usually about 6-10 mm long. 

Many are slightly bun-shaped and resemble 

ladybird beetles. They are often brightly coloured 

and shiny. Antennae are < half as long as the body, 

the 2nd last segment of the tarsus is rounded into a 

distinct pad. Larvae vary in shape and colour. 

K 14 



Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp.) chew holes in 

leaves of hibiscus and other plants. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Redshouldered leaf beetle, monolepta beetle 

(Monolepta australis) may swarm on ornamentals, 

eg eucalypt, pepper, tea-tree, wattle, fruit, eg 

avocado, citrus, lychee, macadamia, vegetables, eg 

cucurbits, field crops like maize. Beetles are 

strong fliers, 6-7 mm long, creamy yellow with a red 

band across the top of the wing covers and 1 red spot 

on each wing cover towards the back (Fig. 210). 

Larvae are about 5 mm long. Beetles chew 

flowers, buds, leaves and fruit. Leaves may be 

skeletonised and trees look scorched; trees close by 

may be unharmed. Swarms may cause serious 

damage in 2-3 days. Eggs are laid in the soil surface, 

especially pasture legumes and kikuyu; larvae feed on 

grass roots and pupate in soil. Adults emerge after 

good rains following a dry spell, swarms are more 

likely in spring or summer. 

Swarming leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.) quickly 

damage trees, eg eucalypt, wattle, fruit, eg avocado, 

lychee, field crop, eg maize, and pastures. 

Beetles are shiny, brown or black, about 3-5 mm 

long, and may swarm in summer and autumn after the 

first heavy rains of the season. Beetles may 

skeletonise new leaves and defoliate young 

plants, tops of shrubs and large trees; older plants 

usually recover from attack. Trees look scorched. 

Minor infestation may interfere with fruit setting. 

Beetles may strip one plant and leave an adjacent one 

untouched. Larvae feed on grass roots, so pasture 

close by increases incidence. 

Others: Eucalyptus leaf beetles (Chrysophtharta 

spp, Paropsis spp.) feed on eucalypts, and fireblight 

beetles (Pyrgoides orphana) on wattles. Beetles and 

larvae severely damage foliage. Females lay eggs 

on small twigs or new leaves, in characteristic rafts or 

collars (distinctive for each species). Larvae fall to 

the ground and pupate. Adults emerge in spring. See 

Eucalypt K 61, Wattle K 132. 


larva, pupa, adult), several generations each year. 

Overwintering: Depends on the species, but as 

adults, under loose bark or in tree crevices, or as 

pupae in the soil. 

Spread: By beetles flying and introduction of 

infested plants. 

Control: 

Sanitation: On small trees larvae may be squashed 

and beetles collected as beetles tend to drop to the 

ground when disturbed. 

Biological control: Drought may delay new leaves 

on which adults and larvae feed. Beetles and larvae 

may be dislodged in bad weather. Predators, eg 

birds, feed on beetles and larvae, soldier beetles 

and other insects feed on eggs and young larvae. 

Parasites, eg flies and wasps, parasitise eggs and 

larvae. 

Resistant varieties: Trees should be bred for 

resistance to serious leaf beetle pests, or 

consideration could be given to planting different 

species. 

Pesticides: Monitor populations of redshouldered 

leaf beetles on surrounding trees (Brough et al. 

1994). Small numbers of beetles are not important. 

Swarms may be controlled by insecticides if 

applied as soon as detected on crops, but can 

seriously reduce parasite levels. 

Leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, treehoppers (Hemiptera) 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) commonly damage leaves 

of trees, eg elm leafhopper (Ribautiana ulmi), 

apple leafhopper (Edwardsiana australis). Injury 

is easily distinguished from twospotted mite and 

whitefly infestation, by the absence of whiteflies and 

mites on leaf undersurfaces. Leafhoppers are 3-4 mm 

long and leave a distinctive dotted feeding pattern 

(Fig 211). Control is not usually undertaken. See 

Azalea K 29, Trees K 24 (Table 3), Vegetables M 15. 

Green planthopper (Siphanta acuta, Flatidae) infests 

eucalypt and many garden plants. Adults are nearly 

10 mm long, bright green, wings tent-like, 

generally solitary, nymphs may congregate on young 

shoots. Found in tropical to temperate regions. 

Control is usually unnecessary. 

Treehoppers (Eurymelidae) eg gumtree hoppers 

(Eurymela spp.) infest eucalypt, casuarina, wattle. 

They are up to 10 mm long, blackish with whitish 

yellow or orange markings and are triangular in shape. 

Wings at rest are held roof-like over the abdomen. 

Adults and nymphs feed together and are attended by 

ants feeding on excreted honeydew. Lower plant 

parts are usually covered in black sooty mould. 

Adults jump when disturbed. See Eucalypt K 61. 

Horned treehoppers (Membracidae): Green 

treehopper (Sextius virescens) feeds on eucalypts. 

Spiny treehopper (Sertorius australis) feeds on 

eucalypts and wattles. Adults are solitary, small, 

brown, cicada-like insects, about 8 mm long, with a 

hard, short sharp spine on either side of the head. 

Nymphs occur in colonies on young shoots. 

Controlled by natural enemies. See Wattle K 134. 

Leafminers are the larvae of moths, beetles, 

sawflies and flies, eg oak leafminer (Phyllonycter 

messaniella, Lepidoptera) (Fig 212), lantana 

leafminer (Octotoma scabripennis, Coleoptera), 

leafblister sawflies (Phylacteophaga spp., 

Hymenoptera) and pittosporum leafminer 

(Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli, Diptera). Leafminers 

are usually restricted to one host, or group of related 

hosts, eg one species attacks azalea, another 

pittosporum. Each species produces a characteristic 

mine, eg thin meandering lines, blotches, or a 

combination of both. Pupation may occur inside or 

outside the leaf or elsewhere. See Azalea K 28. 

Lerp insects, psyllids (Psyllidae, 

Hemiptera): Lerp insects commonly infest eucalypts, 

while psyllids infest many Australian native plants. 

Adults of both are small sap-sucking insects, with 

2 pairs of wings held roof-like over the head, but are 

not strong fliers. The nymphs of lerp insects form a 

cover, or a lerp, about 1-5 mm across beneath which 

they shelter and feed. Lerp insects produce 

honeydew which attracts ants and on which sooty 

mould grows, making trees and evergreen plants 

underneath them black. Psyllids are free-living, and 

do not form a lerp covering for their nymphs. They 

move freely over the surface of foliage, producing 

malformation and discolouration of leaves and 

terminal shoots where they feed. Adults are up to 

10 mm long. See Eucalypt K 62, Grevillea K 76. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae): Many species 

are pests of native and introduced plants. Golden 

mealybug (Nipaecoccus aurilanatus) infests Norfolk 

Island pine. See Conifers K 48, Greenhouses N 25. 



Mites (Acarina) are not generally a problem on 

trees and shrubs with a few exceptions. 

Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) suck sap 

from leaf undersurfaces of many plants, eg 

camellia, citrus, fuchsia. Leaf edges curl under. See 

Greenhouses N 26 . 

Bryobia mite (Bryobia rubrioculus) infests deciduous 

trees, eg fruit trees. They feed on leaf undersurfaces 

causing whitish mottling. See Fruit F 12. 

Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) may infest new 

shoots of many plants, eg eucalypt, grevillea and 

hakea, causing distortion of leaves and shoots, 

stunting and a witches' broom effect. Some species 

may live in small blisters on leaves. See Eucalypt 

K 63, Grapevine F 62. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae) causes leaves to have a sandy, 

mottled appearance. Limbs may become sunburnt 

due to defoliation. Repeated severe infestations can 

result in weakening of plants and affect root growth. 

Do not confuse twospotted injury to leaves with 

damage caused by leafhoppers, thrips, whiteflies or 

deficiencies. Often towards the end of the growing 

season it is not possible to find mites on leaves as they 

move to herbage at the onset of cold weather. See 

Beans (French) M 29, Trees K 24 (Table 3). Also 

European red mite (Panonychus ulmi). See Fruit 

F 12. 

Sawflies (Hymenoptera), eg callistemon 

sawfly (Lophyrotoma spp.), cypress pine sawfly 

(Zenarge turneri), leafblister sawfly (Phylacteophaga 

spp.), pear and cherry slug (Caliroa cerasi), 

steelblue sawfly (Perga spp.), belong to the same 

order as ants, bees and wasps. Most are host specific; 

there are exceptions, eg pear and cherry slug. They 

are called sawflies because most females have a sawlike 

egg-laying apparatus for cutting slits in plants 

into which eggs are laid. Larvae are caterpillar-like 

and mostly feed on leaves in various ways, they 

mostly pupate either in the soil or in wood at the base 

of the tree. See Eucalypt K 63. 

Scales (Hemiptera) may infest leaves, stems 

and trunks of deciduous and evergreen trees and 

shrubs. Mostly they are easy to recognise but some, 

because of their tiny size, are difficult, eg San Jose 

scale. Infested trees may be unsightly, stunted, bark 

may be tight, branches and trees may dieback. Scaleinfested 

leaves may yellow and never regain their 

green colour. Sooty mould grows on the honeydew 

secreted by soft scales, making trees and plants 

underneath look black. The honeydew attracts ants. 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Adult female scales 

are white to brownish, roughly circular, 1-2 mm 

across and attack leaves (Fig. 213) and bark on 

branches and twigs making them look rough. 

Apple mussel scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi) 

Circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidium) 

Fiorina scale (Fiorina fiorinae) 

Greedy scale (Hemiberlesia rapax) 

Latania scale (H. lataniae) 


Orchid parlatoria scale (Parlatoria proteus) 

Purple scale, mussel scale (Lepidosaphes beckii) 



White louse scale (Unaspis citri) 


Soft scales (Coccidae) vary in size, colour and infest 

stems and leaves. The most serious damage is caused 

by the large quantities of honeydew produced by the 

crawlers on which sooty mould grows and which 

attracts ants. 


Circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum) 

Hemispherical scale (Saissetia coffeae) 

Hydrangea scale (Pulvinaria hydrangea) 


Pink wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens) 

Soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidium) 

White wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor) 


Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae), eg gumtree 

scale (Eriococcus coriaceus), produces honeydew. 

See Citrus F 41, Eucalypt K 63. 

Margarodid scales (Margarodidae) eg cottony 

cushion scale (Icerya purchasi). See Citrus F 41. 



Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.) and green 

scarab beetle (Diphucephala colaspidoides) feed 

on foliage of many trees (Fig. 214). Spring beetles 

(Liparetus spp., Melolonthiae spp., other species) may 

swarm after rain in bush areas, on the flower heads 

or leaves and destroy them. This can seriously affect 

a wildflower crop, depress orchard fruit yields or 

prevent the establishment of eucalypts. See Trees 

K 15, Turfgrasses L 11. 

Flower scarabs (Protaetia spp.) are stout, active, 

brown beetles 15-20 mm long. They feed on flowers 

of many Myrtaceae and Proteaceae and on shoots of 

wattles and cassias. Solitary insects tear flowers and 

tissue of new shoots, while searching for pollen, 

causing wilting and dieback. A minor pest. Beetles 

fly noisily during the day. If disturbed they drop to 

the ground and pretend to be dead. Hand pick. 

Nectar scarabs, white-clothes beetles (Phyllotocus 

spp.) are attracted to anything white, even white 

washing. The beetles are pollen-feeders, and 

frequently swarm on and destroy the blossoms of 

white-flowered plants. Larvae are unimportant. See 

Roses J 8. 

Seed insects feed on the fleshy tissue of 

seeds rendering them incapable of germination. 

Beetles (Coleoptera) cause most damage, especially 

seed weevils (Bruchidae), Platypodinae 

(Curculionidae) and Scolytinae (Curculionidae). 

Larvae in seeds are fat, white and legless. Adults 

vary, and may be unusual curved weevils about 4 mm 

long with a deflected head or various types of small 

cylindrical beetles. There may be a marked reduction 

in seed weight and a tell-tale exit hole. 

Seedharvesting ants (Pheidole, Monomorum, 

Meranoplus) may collect seed from forest trees. See 

Turfgrasses L 8. Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) may 

also feed in seeds. Control of seedeating pests on 

trees is usually impractical, but if a batch of seed is 

contaminated it can be treated with insecticide before 

sowing. See Seeds N 74. 


(Phasmatodea) mainly attack native plants, 

especially foliage of eucalypt, wattle and also 

Lophostemon. See Eucalypt K 64. 

K 16 



Termites, white ants (Isoptera) feed on wood 

(sapwood is preferred), trees, stumps, roots, dead grass, 

forest litter, palms, potatoes and other materials. The 

giant northern termite (Mastotermes darwiniensis) is 

the most destructive termite in Australia. It attacks 

any wood in contact with the ground including shrubs 

and trees; it can also eat leather, certain clothing, paper 

and other articles (Gerozisis and Hadlington 1995). 

Ringant termite (Neotermes insularis) is a species 

commonly encountered by horticulturalists, it feeds on 

the softer growth rings of living trees, eg eucalypts. 

Niggerhead termite (Nasutitermes walkeri) forms 

arboreal nests on trees. Most Porotermes spp. do not 

eat sound timber but timber that has begun to decay. In 

Australia, subterranean termites (usually ground 

dwelling and requiring contact with soil or some 

constant source of moisture) are the most destructive 

species. The West Indian drywood termite 

(Cryptotermes brevis) which is also very destructive 

does not need moisture to survive. Subterranean 

termites work from a central nest situated 

underground, on tree branches (arboreal termites), in the 

base of trees, or in mounds above ground from which 

subterranean tunnels radiate to food sources. Nests in 

trunks of old large trees have a large cylindrical pipe 

above and below the nursery site. In some species 

(mainly Coptotermes spp.), the pipe may be filled with 

mudgut (excreta and organic material). Termites are 

highly organised social insects and live together in 

colonies from a few hundred individuals to several 

million (Fig. 206). Colonies may persist for decades and 

queen termites may live for 50 years. Winged adults 

(reproductives) are about 14 mm long. They leave the 

nest to become queens and kings, few actually survive 

because of predation, weather and lack of suitable sites. 

Soldiers are mostly sterile, blind, and constitute 2% of 

the colony. They defend the colony. Workers are 

sterile, wingless, white (white ants), blind with well 

developed jaws for gnawing food. They comprise 80- 

90% of a colony. Damage is caused by workers, 

seeking food, travelling to and from the nest in a 

continuous stream. They cannot exist without 

communication with the nest. Some species chew 

galleries along the grain in the heartwood of trunks and 

branches, leaving only a thin layer of wood between 

galleries. Large old trees with extensive hollowing out 

of the main trunk may fall in strong winds. Spread 

by winged reproductives up to 2 k but further in wind, or 

by budding from an existing colony (some species only). 

Favoured by old stumps and roots in areas to be 

planted, neglected old large trees with fungal decay and 

dead wood, fire scars, machinery damage, wind, snow. 

Control: Trees should be inspected during pruning. 

Unless termite-damaged branches have fallen off, 

earthen material is present at the tree base, there are 

flight cuts or there is a hollow sound when tapped, it can 

be difficult to be sure that trees are or have been infested 

by termites. Holes bored to test for termites may 

provide entry points for wood rot (they should be sealed 

properly). Do not confuse termite injury with that 

caused by bark beetles, borers, wood rot, etc. Because 

only a few species of termites are considered a serious 

threat to trees or nearby buildings, termites should be 

identified by a person trained to do so. Pest species 

vary according to the region. Seek advice on treating 

termite infestation in trees as treatment varies with 

termite and tree species. It may be necessary to engage 

a pest control operator and/or tree surgeon. Winter is 

the best time to treat colonies as most individuals are in 

the nursery area. Lace monitors (large goannas) in 

south-eastern Australia lay their eggs in termite mounds. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) are 1-2 mm 

long, white, grey or brown elongated insects. 


suck sap from many plants, eg azalea, hypericum, 

viburnum. They suck sap mainly from leaf 

undersurfaces where they can be found feeding. 

Black spots of excreta are produced (Fig. 215). 

Leaves become silvered. In severe infestations, 

thrips may feed from the uppersurface as well. See 

Greenhouses N 24. Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) 

appears to cause similar damage. See Onion M 68. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) congregate in 

flowers of many plants, eg eucalypt, roses, causing 

premature browning. Their feeding reduces fruit and 

seed formation. See Roses J 6 . 

Western flower thrips (Frankiniella occidentalis) 

may be a pest of nursery stock. See Annuals A 9. 

Tip borers (Lepidoptera) tend to be host 

specific, eg callistemon tip borer. Caterpillars are 

tiny and burrow into the tips of new growth; some 

also attack fruit, eg oriental fruit moth (peach tip 

moth). Some beneficially tip prune their hosts, but 

may ruin the shape of nursery stock. See 

Bottlebrush K 38, Stone fruits F 131. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) may 

chew the leaves and stems of trees and shrubs. 

The larvae of some weevils damage roots. 

Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) from South 

Africa, infests azalea, camellia, waratah, vegetables 

and weeds. Adults are grey, about 5-6 mm long, the 

body has curved sides and a pale V mark at the rear. 

They hide in leaf litter during the day and feed at 

night on foliage. Larvae are whitish, legless, live in 

soil and usually cause minor damage to roots of many 

plants. Adults chew holes scalloped from the centre 

and margins of leaves (Fig. 216), and excavate small 

deep rounded holes on the surface of stems of some 

plants, eg waratah. Stems of young plants may be 

ringbarked and die. Buds may be eaten. Complete 

metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult) probably 

over 1-2 years. Overwinters as pupae in soil in early 

spring. Spread by adults crawling from breeding 

areas to crops and from plant to plant; by 

transportation (egg, larvae, adult) on seedlings, potted 

plants, boxes. Favoured in spring and summer, and 

by heavy growth of weed around the base of plants. 

Weevils are hard to control. They can be hand 

picked at night. Removal of litter on the soil surface of 

permanent plantings reduces hiding places for adults. 

Effective weed control denies larvae their food 

source and adults their hiding and egg laying sites. 

Trees may be banded with sticky material, this may 

not be practical. Insecticides may be applied to 

control the adults on nursery stock, newly planted 

shrubs and surrounding soil, at first signs of damage. 

Insecticides kill most weevils after emergence from 

soil. 

Others: Apple weevil (Otiorhynchus cribricollis), 

black vine weevil (O. sulcatus) and Fuller's rose 

weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) chew large ragged 

pieces from leaf edges. Larvae of some, eg elephant 

weevil (O. cylindrirostris), bore into dying or sickly 

trees but do little harm. Eucalyptus weevil 

(Gonipterus scutellatus) chews eucalypt leaves. 

Ringbarking weevil (Aterpus griseatus) feeds on 

twigs of bottlebrush, melaleuca and other plants, they 

also ringbark stems below ground level. 

See Pome fruits F 116, Vegetables M 17. 



Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera): 

Australian citrus whitefly (Orchamoplatus citri), 

azalea whitefly (Pealius azaleae), greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), cotton 

whitefly (Bemesia tabaci) and poinsettia whitefly 

(B. tabaci-type B) may be pests of abutilon, 

poinsettia and other plants. Adults and nymphs 

suck sap from leaf undersurfaces. Honeydew is 

produced and the associated sooty mould may be 

unsightly. See Greenhouses N 24. 


Common garden snail (Helix aspersa) may climb 

trunks and feed on leaves or bark of shrubs, eg 

box. See Seedlings N 70, Citrus F 43. 


Rabbits, hares, kangaroos, goats, stock and 

other grazing animals may damage newly planted 

trees, which need to be protected by tree guards, 

fencing or some other means. Possums chew 

buds on trees, eg pistachio, grapevines. Birds, eg 

silver eyes, feed on fruit. Cockatoos may feed 

on berries, new shoots and damage bark during 

their search for borer larvae. Honeyeaters feed on 

exuded sap from trunks. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Algae, bacteria and fungi 

Epiphyllous fungi may cause grey blotches on hairy 

stems and leaf undersurfaces of many plants, eg 

banksia, cotoneaster, grevillea, in humid situations 

(low lying plants or leaves close to the ground). 

Fungi grow superficially amongst leaf hairs and do 

not penetrate the plant. They cause cosmetic 

problems in production nurseries. 

Lichens consist of an alga and a fungus living in close 

association for mutual benefit (symbiosis). The 

fungus receives food from the alga which receives 

food and protection from the fungus. They are usually 

found in damp places on rocks, dead wood, limbs and 

trunks of trees, but they are not parasitic. 

Lichens may be blue-green, grey, yellow or orange, 

flat and circular or leafy (Fig. 217). Trees and 

buildings look unsightly and their corrosive action 

hastens stonework deterioration. Lichens that inhabit 

bare rocks begin the first steps in soil formation. 

Spores are spread by wind. Control is mostly 

unnecessary. Lichens on trees may be killed with 

copper fungicides. Copper may stain buildings. Dead 

lichens remain for some time but can be brushed off. 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium spp.) in the soil 

invade roots of legumes, eg clover, wattle, which 

develop symbiotic nodules (Fig. 218). The plant 

supplies the bacteria with sugars produced during 

photosynthesis, while the bacteria fix the nitrogen 

from the atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that the 

plant can use. Lack of nodules results in stunted, 

weak plants which may die slowly. Plants generally 

look yellowish and older leaves are bright yellow and 

fall prematurely. Nitrogen-fixing plants may grow 

vigorously only if they have functioning nodules and 

this depends on their encountering appropriate strains 

of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil (Cremer 

1990). In many areas, these bacteria occur naturally. 

In some instances, however, it may be necessary to 

introduce them to nursery mixes. The addition of 

bush litter may induce nodule formation. Always 

check roots of legumes before planting. 

Actinorhizae consist of root tissue and 

Actinomycete fungi (bacteria which form branching 

threads). Actinorhizae convert the nitrogen in the air 

to a form that can be used by the plant. Actinorhizae 

are common on trees, eg alder (Fig. 218), casuarina, 

Eleagnus. See Casuarina K 43. 

Proteoid roots and mycorrhiza fungi are 

independent mechanisms that plants have for 

increasing their ability to exploit nutrient reserves in 

soils low in phosphorus. In their absence various 

types of deficiencies may occur. Plants that form 

associations with mycorrhiza fungi do not form 

proteoid roots or their equivalents. Proteoid and 

mycorrhiza roots apparently improve plant growth, by 

increasing the absorbing surface of the root system to 

allow more rapid assimilation of scarce nutrients. 

They develop best near the soil surface below dense 

leaf litter. Proteoid roots are formed by most 

Proteaceae, eg banksia, dryandra, grevillea, hakea, 

macadamia, protea, waratah. There is some evidence 

that their formation is stimulated by soil 

microorganisms, but this effect is non-specific. 

Proteoid roots may be coraloid (protea), or in 

clusters of short lateral roots arranged in rows along 

the parent root axis (macadamia) (Fig. 218). 

Proteaceae are adapted to using less phosphorus than 

many other plants, so low-phosphate fertilisers are 

applied. In the absence of proteoid roots, leaves may 

yellow and plants do not usually respond to fertiliser 

application. Addition of leaf mould from under 

established bushes of the same species may produce a 

marked improvement in the plant, though not always. 

Proteoid roots may be poorly developed in older 

trees (macadamia), in fertile or bare soil (orchards) 

and these trees may respond to higher levels of 

phosphorus fertiliser. Mycorrhizae (fungus roots) 

are structures (Fig. 218) which develop from normal 

feeder roots infected with symbiotic fungi, which 

do not cause root disease but are beneficial to their 

host plants (Agrios 1988). Mycorrhizae improve 

plant growth by selectively absorbing and 

accumulating certain nutrients (especially 

phosphorus), making available to the plant some 

normally non-soluble minerals, eg zinc, manganese 

and copper, by keeping feeding roots functional 

longer and by possibly making them more resistant 

to infection by certain soil fungi (Brundett et al. 1996, 

Galea and Poli 1992, Handreck and Black 1994, 

Hunter 1997, Pfleger and Linderman 1994). Some 

plants profit and need mycorrhizae more than others. 

There are thousands of types of mycorrhizae. Some 

fungi have a wide host range, others are host specific. 

Several different fungi may be associated with 

mycorrhizae on one plant. Each combination may 

have a different effect on plant growth. In 

commercial forestry it is common practice to 

inoculate tree seedlings with an appropriate 

mycorrhizal fungus before planting out. Growth of 

some trees may improve by up to 40%. 

Ectomycorrhizae attach themselves to outer 

surfaces of roots, which are usually swollen and 

may be more forked than non-mycorrhizal roots (Fig. 

218). Inside the root the fungus only grows around 

the cortical cells. Formed primarily on forest trees 

mostly by mushrooms and puffballs 

(Basidiomycetes) and some Ascomycetes. 

K 18 



Spores are produced above ground and are wind 

spread. Mycorrhizae grow upright into small cavities 

in soil, compacted soil may be lacking in these 

cavities. Pisolithus tinctorius (MycorTree TM ) may be 

injected into the root zone of some mature and newly 

planted trees. Endomycorrhizae roots look similar 

to non-mycorrhizal roots in shape and colour, but 

inside the root the fungus grows into cortical cells, 

forming special feeding hyphae (arbuscles and 

vesicles). There is only loose mycelium on the root 

surface on which spores are produced underground. 

Different groups of fungi may produce 

endomycorrhizae. They are produced by most 

cultivated plants and on some forest trees. 

Ectendomycorrhizae are intermediate between the 

other two. The fungus grows into and around the 

cortical cells of roots and may or may not have a fungus 

mantle on the surface of the feeder roots. Fungi may 

be of unknown identity. See Eucalypt K 65. 

Sooty mould (various fungi) grows on honeydew 

excreted by some sap sucking insects, eg aphids, 

leafhoppers, lerps, mealybugs, soft scales and 

whiteflies. It attracts ants. Extensive or persistent 

sooty mould reduces photosynthesis and inhibits 

normal colouring of leaves. It will disappear only if 

the insects producing the honeydew are controlled. 

Sooty mould will then dry and flake off, hosing may 

assist removal. See Citrus F 41. 

Others: Projectile fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus) 

fruiting bodies disfigure plant surfaces but are of 

little importance. See Potting mix N 64. 

Environment: Autumn colours and leaf 

spot patterns may be produced under high humidity. 

Premature development of autumn leaf colours may 

indicate water stress and low temperatures. During 

cold winter weather leaves of some plants develop 

reddish circles, eg light green camellias, or general 

reddish pigments, eg euonymus. Pigmentation 

disappears with warmer weather. Tropical plant leaves 

may blacken, leaves may roll under, eg rhododendron. 

Late spring frosts can injure new growth of frostsensitive 

plants. In areas where frost occurs, do not 

fertilise young plants in autumn and protect with some 

sort of shade. Plants may be sprayed with water near 

sunrise to avoid damage from rapid thawing which 

occurs when sun strikes frozen tissue. Bacterial sprays 

also offer protection. Hail may damage leaves, fruit, 

green shoots (which later callus and become cankerlike), 

injured areas may be invaded by bacterial or 

fungal diseases. Damage may not be obvious until 

flowers are formed and fruits ripen. Large 

concentrations of hail may suddenly chill, check growth 

and cause green leaves to fall. Lightning may split 

trees. Excessive exposure to sun may scorch 

leaves, flowers, fruit, limbs, trunks, exposed sides of 

plants show more severe symptoms. Leaves may 

yellow. Severe damage results in brown patches within 

leaf margins which may later be colonised by leaf 

spotting fungi, eg Pestalotiopsis. Yellow sections of 

variegated leaves may brown. Leaves of shade 

loving plants may scorch easily. Scorching can also 

occur when protection is suddenly removed (pruning, 

storms, wind). Drying effect of sun is exaggerated by 

hot winds and lack of water. Buds or flowers of 

white and pale pink varieties, which are wet with dew or 

frost in the morning, may brown if exposed to direct sun. 

Bark on trunks exposed to sun due to defoliation 

(water stress, storm damage, wind, disease or insect 

attack) may peel and split and be invaded by wood rot 

fungi. Patches of bark may brown or redden. Bark may 

be killed on species with thin bark. Protect by white 

washing. Wind and rain can cause browning of 

flower petals, particularly white and pale coloured 

varieties. Wind may tatter or scorch leaves of soft new 

growth, chill plants preventing growth and blow over 

waterlogged trees in shallow soil. Drought or 

inadequate irrigation may cause brittle marginal 

scorching of leaves. Hot, windy weather, fungal attack 

on the roots, construction damage, waterlogging or a 

combination of these, may aggravate the problem. 

Recently planted, root-injured or insect-infested trees, 

may die. Excessive soil moisture may be due to 

leaking taps or irrigation systems, drainage patterns or 

poor drainage, excessive rain or irrigation. 

Waterlogging occurs when water replaces the air in 

the soil pores for long periods, eg in low lying areas or 

in heavy soils when roots cannot extract sufficient 

oxygen for normal growth. Leaves may die, branches 

may die back. Some plants die rapidly, others over a 

long period of time. Waterlogging can be complicated 

by other factors. Very few plants can survive 

waterlogging and Phytophthora. During certain weather 

some ornamental trees may flower out-of-season (in 

autumn as well as in spring), eg Manchurian pear and 

crab apple. Snow may damage trees by its weight and 

cause chilling injury and sweating if it lies on plants for 

long periods. High humidities: Continuous fogs 

may cause leaves to blacken and fall (sweating). 

Sweating is worse in plants with a compact habit and 

hairy leaves. If fogs last 2-4 days or longer, fineleaved 

hairy species may be severely damaged. Oedema may 

affect camellia and other plants. It is caused by 

abnormal water relations within the plant, when roots 

absorb more water than leaves can transpire. Small 

masses of tissue expand and break out on leaf 

undersurfaces causing small watery swellings or 

galls. When these burst they harden into variously 

shaped small corky scabs. See Camellia K 40. 

Genetic problems: Fasciation is 

where upper parts of stems become flattened and have 

multiple leaves and ridges, stems look as if joined 

together. Commonly occurs on ash, casuarina, daphne, 

euonymus, wattle. See Daphne K 53. Sports are a 

genetic change and are common; variegated forms 

produce green shoots. Variegated leaves and flowers 

may be confused with virus and deficiency symptoms on 

some hosts. Unusual bark features occur naturally 

on some trees, eg liquidamber. Variation of tree 

performance within a species is common and results 

in variable flowering, autumn colours, growth rates etc. 

Source of planting materials, eg the provenance of 

eucalypts (place of natural geographic origin), is very 

important (Eldridge et al. 1993). 

Insects: 

Ants (Formicidae) are attracted to 

honeydew produced by some sap-sucking insects, eg 

aphids. Some species nest in trees. Ants may also 

nibble edges of young citrus leaves which become 

cupped as they grow. Injury is minor but it can reduce 

vigour of young trees. Control ants when they are 

observed on trees. Trees should be pruned (skirt is at 

least 0.5 m off the ground) to reduce access by ants via 

weeds and lower canopy. Destroy nests and if 

necessary treat lower trunks and under canopies. Sticky 

bands around the base of the trunk may stop ants. See 

Turfgrasses L 8. Some insects associated with trees are 

pests of other plants, eg European earwig (Forficula 

auricularia) shelters under bark. Beneficial insects 

are associated with trees. Moths feed on trunk 

exudations, honeybees and other insects feed on nectar. 




Trees may suffer from deficiencies and toxicities in the 

same way as other plants (Handreck 1994). Only a few 

examples are described. If large plantings are planned, 

obtain a soil analysis before planting susceptible 

species and if deficiencies or toxicities occur, confirm 

them by tissue analysis. Fertilisers may be applied 

to the soil around the trees, to the foliage or by trunk 

injection. Iron deficiency (chlorosis) affects 

ornamentals, eg azalea, camellia, cyclamen, 

eriostemon, gardenia, gerbera, grevillea, hydrangea, 

magnolia, rose, gloxinia, Crowea, Dampiera, eucalypt, 

wattle, fruit, eg blueberry, citrus. Symptoms appear 

initially on new leaves, veins are green against a 

background of creamy yellow. If severe, whole plants 

yellow, leaf size is reduced, shoots shorten, leaf edges 

may brown, new growth is poor or dies back, flowering 

is reduced. Favoured by insufficient available iron for 

chlorophyll formation, usually occurs in alkaline soil. 

Grow azaleas in soils with a pH < 6. May also develop 

in acid soils resulting from an accumulation of heavy 

metals, eg copper, relative to the amount of iron present. 

Iron may be unavailable because of high levels of other 

nutrients, eg nitrate nitrogen, phosphate. Overwatering 

of plants (poor aeration), high or low temperatures, root 

damage may also contribute to symptoms. Check 

soil pH before planting susceptible species. Do not plant 

beside cement brick walls or apply alkaline fertilisers, eg 

lime, superphosphate or wood ash. Commercial 

fertilisers are available for acid-loving plants, blood and 

bone and sulphate of ammonia can also be used. If iron 

deficiency should occur, iron chelates or other fertilisers 

specially prepared for these plants, may be applied 

either to the soil or to the foliage when the plant is 

growing. Magnesium deficiency may cause green or 

yellow V-shaped patterns on older leaves. Nitrogen 

deficiency: Trees commonly affected include citrus, 

daphne, camellia. Older leaves are affected first, 

eventually all leaves become creamy yellow. The plant 

appears to be lacking vigour and may be woody. Apply 

a complete fertiliser in spring and autumn. Boron 

deficiency occurs on radiata pine, grape (hen and 

chickens), apple and pear (cork), cabbage, cauliflower 

and celery (hollow heart), turnip, beetroot (brown heart), 

lucerne, some wattles, eg A. adunca, A. spectabilis. 

Symptoms vary depending on the species. Wilting and 

defoliation of the upper parts of shoots occurs followed 

by death of the terminal bud and dieback of the shoots. 

Leaves may become thickened and lateral buds develop. 

Only small amounts are required by plants and excessive 

quantities are very toxic. See Fruit 14. Phosphorus 

deficiency is rare in Australian plants except perhaps 

in rainforest situations. Specialised root systems, eg 

proteoid roots, play a part in the uptake of 

phosphorus. See Trees K 18. Phosphorus toxicity: 

Levels normal for other plants may be toxic to some 

container-grown Proteaceae, eg some species of 

banksia, grevillea and hakea, where soil is not used 

(in garden-grown plants the phosphorus is rendered 

immobile by soil). Some Fabaceae and Mimosaceae 

which grow naturally on sandplains and heathland 

may also be sensitive, eg A. suaveolens, Brachysema 

spp. Youngest leaves may yellow, leaves may 

blacken, oldest leaves may die, and the whole plant 

may die. Do a soil/mix analysis prior to potting up 

and a leaf analysis to confirm phosphorus toxicity. 

Phosphorus toxicity arising from the use of 

superphosphate and blood and bone, which contain 

high levels of phosphorus, is difficult to correct. Toxic 

effects of excess phosphorus may be offset by addition 

of some other elements, eg iron, but advice should be 

obtained. Salt toxicity: Excessive use of chemical 

fertilisers may cause total soluble salts to accumulate 

over time damaging some ornamental plants, eg 

azalea, camellia, gardenia, most fruits, eg grape, 

vegetables, eg carrots, radish, celery, field crops, eg 

most clovers. Leaves may have a marginal scorch and 

later fall, but often they blacken and soften. Apply only 

recommended rates of fertilisers. Where salt toxicity 

has occurred, excess salts may be washed out by 

leaching (repeated irrigation); good drainage is essential 

for this to be successful, if this is not possible, plant salt 

tolerant trees, eg varieties of casuarina, eucalypt, wattle. 

Soil salt: If the water table rises near enough to the 

soil surface for evaporation to occur by capillary action, 

salt will build up and vegetation growth and leaf size 

will be reduced, and dieback occurs. Soil water does not 

need to appear on the surface for salting to occur. 

Salting may occur in low lying areas where drainage 

water collects. Water is continually evaporating during 

warm weather and dissolved salts become concentrated. 

Salting is common in hilly country which has been 

extensively cleared of vegetation. In severe cases salt 

may appear as a white encrustation on the surface. 

Windborne salt is picked up from the sea and 

transported inland by onshore winds. Leaves may 

blacken and brown with papery patches, new growth 

withers and dies, leaves may fall. Symptoms vary 

greatly with the species. Only plant salt tolerant 

plants. See Citrus F 43, Soil N 81. 

People-pressure diseases (PPD) 

Animals chew or scratch bark, dig up roots, birds scratch 

around the base of shallow-rooted shrubs, rodents and 

possums eat buds. Bare-rooted and containerised 

nursery stock must be cared for prior to planting, and 

planted in the correct manner at the appropriate time of 

year. Bark splitting may be caused by lightning or 

growth stresses. Buildings may cause trees to lean 

outwards. Land clearing caused by agriculture, mining, 

forestry or urbanisation may reduce tree numbers. 

Flooding and inappropriate irrigation may kill trees. 

Mechanical injury by cars, stays, vandalism, balled 

roots, construction damage, removal or addition of 

surrounding soil or lawn mowers may damage trees. 

Girdling of roots in containers (Fig. 219) prior to 

planting out may shorten tree life by constricting the 

vascular system and nutrient movement and by not 

adequately anchoring trees. Containers are available 

which reduce/avoid this problem. Pruning removes 

dying and dead tissues, but if done improperly can 

predispose tree to disease or decay. Prune at branch 

collars, do not leave stubs. Soil compaction by 

vehicles, play areas and on paths decreases oxygen and 

free water and allows buildup of carbon dioxide and other 

gases, which may smother roots; there may be few 

spaces for mycorrhizae to grow in. Barriers around trees 

prevent parking. Mulches help to cushion the effect of 

foot traffic. Vandalism includes stealing and breaking 

tops of young trees. 

Pesticide injury: Many broadleaved plants 

are susceptible to hormone-type herbicides, eg 

2,4-D, dicamba, resulting in cupped, twisted or 

malformed leaves. Herbicide injury often follows 

spray drift (wind, volatility) of hormone-type 

herbicides used to control broadleaved weeds in lawns. 

Trees may also absorb herbicides via their roots, 

especially if heavy rainfall follows application in 

adjacent areas, causing washing over the ground surface 

or leaching through soil. Grass clippings and bark chips 

from treated lawns and other areas can carry herbicides. 

K 20 



Recent plantings are very susceptible to injury. 

Simazine may induce symptoms similar to those 

caused by water stress. Sulphur may scorch leaves, 

especially at temperatures > 28 o C. Petroleum oils 

may damage deciduous and evergreen trees, 

especially under stress. Too many applications during 

dormancy may injure bark and > than label rates during 

summer may damage many species. Oil may remove 

the bluish colour of blue spruce, which may not return 

for months. To avoid injury to trees from pesticides 

and anti-transpirants, strictly adhere to label directions 

relating to dosage, plant species and cultivar, manner of 

applications and weather. Substances injected into 

trunks eg fungicides, insecticides, fertilisers, 

herbicides, vitamins and tree growth regulators (Yau 

1994) may cause bark blowout, splitting, weeping or 

bleeding. Only tree-inject strong compartmentalisers, eg 

most eucalypts and non-weepers, and only when there is 

transpiration pull and trees are not under stress from 

drought or injury. Re-examine injected trees after 12 

months to assess hole closure. If they are not closing 

then do not perform any more tree injections. Allow 3-4 

years between injections. See Plane tree K 115. 

Pollution: Natural gas is not directly toxic to 

plants, but underground leaking gas pipes deprive roots 

of oxygen. Trees die slowly, leaf tips and margins are 

scorched, centres often remain green. Leaves may cup, 

wilt and fall prematurely. After repairing the leak do not 

replant for at least 12 months to allow oxygen levels to 

rise, then loosen and aerate the soil. Gaseous air 

pollutants come from smoke stacks or burning areas. 

Oxidants are formed in the atmosphere from industrial 

and auto emissions and are common components of 

smog, which occurs to some extent around all large 

cities. Pollution-sensitive natives may be used to 

measure smog. Symptoms include bleached, water 

soaked areas and brown spots especially on leaf 

uppersurfaces. Affected leaves may fall early. 

Young and very mature leaves appear to be more 

resistant. Most serious forms of air pollution can only 

be prevented by environmental protection 

agencies. Select trees that are tolerant to air 

pollutants in a given area. Very sensitive species 

include silver banksia. Some species, eg eucalypt, 

oak, weeping willow, produce high levels of 

hydrocarbons (terpenes and isoprenes) that react with 

nitrogen oxide and contribute to smog. Ash is a lowemitting 

species. 

Potential weeds: Many exotic trees, eg 

hawthorn, may become urban weeds. Many native 

plants, eg some hakeas, become weeds overseas. 

See Urban bushland N 86. 

Unwanted roots, suckers and trees 

Unwanted invasive roots may cause building, 

landscape and sewer/drainage damage, soil heave and 

sucker problems. Root grafts may spread vascular 

wilt and virus diseases (uncommon). Although trees 

which do not produce invasive roots may be selected, 

when water becomes scarce, roots seek it out. 

Prevent problems by providing sufficient space for 

roots, constructing root-resistant foundations, 

pavements and pipes, containing roots within a given 

area while providing room for growth. Problem tree 

roots should be identified. After establishment, 

trees may be trenched and underground mechanical 

barriers to deflect roots and withstand the pressure of 

growing roots, eg impervious fabrics, or mesh, 

reinforced concrete, steel or fibre sheeting, soft plastic 

sheeting, syfra root deflection barriers put in place. 

Chemical root barriers (barriers containing 

herbicide) at least 1 m deep, may be placed as close to 

the item to be protected and as far from the tree root 

system as possible; ensure roots do not grow over the 

top of barriers (Anon. cur. edn.). 

Suckers damage pavements, underground services and 

are undesirable near buildings or desired trees. Use 

rootstocks that will not sucker. Herbicides applied 

to suckers attached to the parent tree may be 

translocated to it and damage or kill it. Check that the 

herbicide to be used in that situation is suitable. 

Unattached suckers can be sprayed if < 0.5 m high, 

or cut off at ground level and the cut surface painted 

with herbicide. Home gardeners can dig suckers out. 

Unwanted trees: Trees are removed because of age, 

size, diseases, pests, nuisance roots, suckers and 

thinning in forests. Some trees, eg pines, which do not 

sucker can be killed by cutting off the trunk below the 

bottom branch. Trees that sucker or coppice 

from stumps and/or root systems, eg elms, eucalypts 

and poplars, can be poisoned in spring, summer and 

autumn when sap is flowing, then cut down when 

dead. To kill individual trees, either drill holes in 

or frill the trunk with an axe immediately prior to 

applying the herbicide. Stem injection equipment is 

used for thinning young eucalypt forests and removing 

unwanted woody weed species in urban bushland. 

Others: 

Allelopathy is the release by one 

species into the environment of chemicals which 

interfere with surrounding plants. See Eucalypt K 65. 

Senescence: Do not confuse natural senescence 

of leaves and twigs with serious tree problems. 

Leaves on evergreen trees do not last forever, but yellow 

and fall after a certain length of time. Intermittent 

yellowing of older leaves occurs at the base of each 

stem of some plants, eg daphne, camellia. Twigs 

and branches within older tree canopies may die. 

WEEDS 

Problem weeds around young trees include annual 

and perennial grasses and broadleaved weeds. 

Landscape design should minimise difficult weed 

control situations. Weed control requirements change 

with time. Preferably pre-plant control weeds by 

cultivation or herbicides, etc. Post-plant weed 

control is essential. Around newly planted trees by 

cultivation (keep to a minimum within the drip line 

as it may injure shallow roots), by mulches of 

various types, by weed mat laid on top of dripline 

and held in place by metal pegs (may last 4-10 years 

depending on sun, etc), or by post and preemergence 

herbicides. Some herbicides should not 

be applied around newly planted trees. Rows 

between trees may be mowed. Preferably control 

weeds around older trees by permanent ground 

cover, mulches or by cover cropping, to stabilise 

soil, prevent erosion and act as a buffer against high 

soil temperatures and heavy rain. Spot spraying 

emerged weeds and the application of pre-emergence 

herbicides is useful amongst ornamental trees, but 

constant herbicide use may bare soil. As trees age, 

they provide shade for areas around the trunk 

reducing weed growth. Weed control on sloping 

areas ought to be continually revised to avoid the 

exposure of roots due to lack of weeds to hold the soil 

around tree roots. Some trees and shrubs have 

become woody weeds, pyracantha, wattle. See 

Trees K 21, Urban bushland N 86. 





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G. 1993. Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. 

Oxford Science Pub., Oxford. 

Erwin, D. C., Bartnicki-Garcia, S. and Tsao, P. H. (eds.). 

Phytophthora : Its Biology, Taxonomy, Ecology and 

Pathology. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota. 

Fitzell, R. D. 1994. Disease & Disorders of 

Macadamias. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 

Galea, V. J. and Poli, R. C. 1992. The Potential for the 

Use of VA Mycorrhizae in Nursery Crop Production. 

Plant Prod. Dept., University of Qld, Gatton, Lawes. 

Gerozisis, J. and Hadlington, P. 1995. Urban Pest 

Control in Australia. 3rd edn. NSW University 

Press, Sydney. 

Hadlington, P. W. 1992. Australian Termites and Other 

Common Timber Pests. 2nd edn. NSW University 


Hadlington, P. W. and Johnston, J. A. 1996. Australian 

Trees : Their Care and Repair. NSW University 




Kensington, NSW. 

Harris, R. W. 1992. Arboriculture : Integrated 

Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs and Vines. 

2nd edn. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliff, NJ. 

Heatwole, H. and Lowman, M. 1986. Dieback : Death of 

an Australian Landscape. Reed Books, Sydney. 

Heinjus, D. 1992. Farm Tree Planting. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne.' 

Himelick, E. B. 1991. Tree and Shrub Transplanting 

Manual. Inter. Soc. of Arboriculture, Illinois.. 

Hodge, S. J. (ed.). 1991. Research for Practical 

Arboriculture. For. Com. Bull. 97. HMSO, London. 

Hunter, M. 1997. Mycorrhizae : The Wonder Fungi. 


Ingleby, K., Mason, P. A., Last, F. T. and Fleming, L. V. 

1990. Identification of Ectomycorrhizas. ITE Res. 

Pub. No.5. HMSO, London. 

Inter. Soc. of Arboriculture. Plant Health Care 

Management Kit. cur. edn. Inter. Soc. of 

Arboriculture, Illinois. 



Joyner, B. G. 1997. Diagnosing Disease Problems on 

Trees. Arborist News, Feb. 

Lawrence, T., Norquay, P. and Liffman, K. 1993. 

Practical Tree Management : An Arborist's 


Lehane, R. 1996. Helping Farmers Select the Best Trees. 

Rural Research 172, Spring. 

Leslie, A. (ed.). 1994. Handbook of Integrated Pest 

Management for Turf and Ornamentals. CRC Press, 

Florida. 

Marcar,N.1996.Trees for Salt Land.CSIRO,Melbourne. 

Marks, G. C., Fuhrer, B. A. and Walters, N. E. M. 1982. 

Tree Diseases in Victoria. Forests Com., Melbourne. 

Matheny, N. P. and Clark, J. R. 1994. A Photographic 

Guide to the Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban 

Areas. 2nd edn. Inter. Soc. of Arboriculture, Illinois. 

Mattheck, C. and Breloer, H. 1994. The Body Language 

of Trees : A Handbook for Failure Analysis. 

Research for Amenity Trees. No.4., HMSO, 

London. 

Mestel, R. 1995. White Paint on a Hot Tin Roof. New 

Scientist, March. 


That?rev. edn. Lansdowne Press, Sydney. 

Moore, G. 1990. Tree Care for the Home Gardener. 


Neal, J. C. 1992. Plan Before You Plant : A Five-Step 

Process For Developing a Landscape Weed 

Management Plan. Golf Course Management, May. 

Neely, D. (ed.) 1991. Arborists' Certification Study 

Guide. cur. ed. International Society of 

Arboriculture, USA. 

Pascoe, S. 1995. Living History : Trees as Heritage. 

Aust. Hort., May. 



Minnesota. 

Phillips, L. E. Jr. 1993. Urban Trees, A Guide for 

Selection, Maintenance and Master Planning. 

McGraw-Hill, NY. 

Pirone, P. P. et al. 1988. Tree Maintenance. 6th edn. 

Oxford University Press, New York. 



Rice, R. P. Jnr. 1992. Nursery and Landscape Weed 

Control. Thomson Pub., Fresno, CA. 

Richards, N. 1993. Reasonable Guidelines for Street 

Tree Diversity. Jn. of Arbor. 19(6):Nov. 

Reid, N. Ya, Z. and Fittler, J. 1994. Impact of Mistletoes 

(Amyema miquelii) on Host (Eucalyptus blakelyi and 

E. melliodora) Survival and Growth in Temperate 

Australia. Forest Ecology & Management 70:55-65. 

Robin, C., Dupius, F. and Desprez-Loustau, M. L. 1993. 

Seasonal Changes in Northern Red Oak 

Susceptibility to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant 

Disease, April. 

Shigo, A. L. and Marx, H. G. 1977. Compartmentalisation 

of Decay in Trees. Forest Service, US Dept of Agric, 

Agric. Inf. Bull. No 405. 

K 22 


Shigo, A. L., Shigo and Tree Assocs., Durham, New 

Hampshire, USA. 

1989. Tree Pruning : A Worldwide Photo Guide. 

1994. Tree Anatomy. 

Sinclair, W., Lyon, H. H. and Johnson, W. T. 1987. 

Diseases of Trees and Shrubs. Cornell University 

Press, Ithaca, NY. 

Standards Australia, Capital City in each state, 

Australia. 

1992. Urban Trees : What are They Worth? Seminar 44. 

1992. Trees : Amenity Valuation. DR 92100. 

1996. Pruning of Amenity Trees. AS 4373. 

St. J. Hardy, G. E., O'Brien, P. A. and Shearer, B. L. 

1994. Control Options of Plant Pathogens in Native 

Communities in South-western Australia. Jn. Royal 

Soc. of WA, 77(4). 

Subba Rao, N. S. 1993. Symbiosis in Nitrogen-fixing 

Trees. International Science Publishers, NY. 

Tattar, T. A. 1989. Diseases of Shade Trees. rev. edn. 

Academic Press, California. 

Venning, J. 1988. Growing Trees for Farms, Parks and 

Roadsides. Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Wang, Q. 1995. Australian Longicorn Beetles Plague 

Our Eucalypts. Aust. Hort., Jan. 

Watson, G. W. and Neely, D. (eds). 1994. The 

Landscape Below Ground. Proc. of International 

Workshop on Tree Root Decline in Urban Soils. 

Moreton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois. 

Watson, J. A. L. 1988. Termites in the Canberra Region. 

2nd edn. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Williams, E. R. and Matheson, A. C. 1997. 

Experimental Design and Analysis for Use in Tree 

Improvement. 2nd edn. ACIAR/CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Yau, P. 1994. Some Issues Concerning Injection of Tree 

Growth Regulators for Urban Trees. Proc. of the 

2nd. Nat. Urban Tree Seminar, RAIPR, Canberra. 


Industry eg 

State/Forests Depts. 

Helping Sick & Damaged Trees 

Tree Guards, Tree Roots, Building & Sewers 

Tree Injection for Insect Control 

Tree Poisoning 

Weed Control for Trees 

NSW Agfacts 

Black Heart of Apricots 

MANAGEMENT 


Dodders 

Iron Chlorosis in Ornamentals 

Nectar Scarabs 

Wood Rots of Fruit Trees and Other Plants 

NSW Forest Protection Series 

Borers and Termites in Trees 

Leafeating Insects 

Sap-sucking Insects 

Qld Farmnotes 

Pests of Young Trees (WA Farmnote) 

Phytophthora Root and Collar Rot (NT Agnote) 

Vic Agnotes 

Armillaria Root Parasite of Plants 

Eriophyid Mites 

Phosphorus Toxicity & Native Trees & Proteaceae Plants 

Root Rot Diseases of Ornamentals and Fruit Trees 

Silver-leaf disease of Fruit Trees 

Transplanting Ornamental Trees and Shrubs 


Wood-rotting Fungi of Fruit and Nut Trees 


Arboricultural Association 

Arboriculture Journal (International J. of Urban Forestry) 

Arborist News 

Australasian Tree Seed Centre (TREDAT database) 

Australian Forestry 

Australian Horticulture (Trees and Shrubs Features) 

Australian Parks and Recreation 

Forestry Commissions (states/territories pub. lists) 

Greening Australia 


GrowerTalks 


International Society of Arboriculture Plant Health Care 

Journal of Arboriculture (Compendia) 


Landscape Contractors Associations 

National Arborists Association of Australia (NAAA) 

NIAPR titles 

NZ Turf Management 

Ornamentals Update 

PLANTGRO (CSIRO database) 

Shrub and Tree Growers Associations 

Tree Seed News 

See Australian native plants N 9, Preface xii 



Nearly all local authorities have tree protection orders, guidelines for tree selection for homes, parks and street trees, root and 

weed control programs. There are legislative requirements for various plantings, eg trees under powerlines, and Australian 

standards for trees. Local communities may be involved with school plantings, nature parks and landcare groups. Nursery 

Accreditation Schemes and Forest Codes of Practice for Nurseries control diseases and pests in nurseries, etc. 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Match local climate, site and tree. Trees are grown for shelter, aesthetics, food, 

timber, landscape requirements, special locations, eg rural, industrial or saline areas, to combat soil and water 

erosion, lowering water tables. General characteristics include growth rate, ultimate size and lifespan, deciduous/ 

evergreen and native/exotic, hardiness, crown shape, foliage, density, rooting habits, suckers, flowers, availability 

and price. Unfavourable characteristics include health problems (allergies), poisonous nature, falling fruit, thorns. 

Outstanding characteristics include fast growth, autumn colours, flowers, scent, shape. High or low 

maintenance, eg need for pruning, irrigation, litter removal (bark, fruit, limbs). Systematic tree replacement 

programs for ageing landscapes must be prepared. Provenance is the name given to different geographic origins 

of a species (Lehane 1996). Correct provenance is as important as species selection and can result in success or 

complete failure of a species. 

Resistant varieties: Select trees and hedges which are either problem-free or have some resistance or tolerance to 

parasitic pests and diseases present locally and overseas, and non-parasitic local problems, eg poor drainage, 

salinity, exposed slopes, pollution. Avoid large plantings of susceptible trees. 

Plant quarantine: Propagation material, scions, pollen, seeds, freshly cut foliage and flowers, logs, timber, wooden 

packing material and wooden articles entering Australia are subject to quarantine requirements (Com. of Aust. 

1992). Contingency plans have been developed for exotic pests and diseases of living trees. Interstate and 

regional quarantine regulations affect some tree pests, eg elm leaf beetle. Nursery accreditation schemes prevent 

spread of diseases, eg Phytophthora, and soil pests, eg garden weevils, black vine weevil, etc. in containers. 

Disease-free planting material: Select plants propagated from quality parent stock (colour, flowers, etc) which are 

free from pests, eg scales, and diseases, eg viruses, Phytophthora. 

Establishment 

Propagation: By seed, cuttings, grafting, lignotubers, tissue culture. Instant landscapes may be created by 

transplanting advanced and mature trees. Trees can be transplanted to nurseries, regenerated and relocated. 

Nursery stock must have straight main stems free from scars, be young and well grown, but not root bound. Trees 

of the same species grown from seed tend to be more variable than those propagated vegetatively. Propagation 



material of the same species derived from different parent stock or different locations (see above), may vary 

markedly (Eldridge et al. 1993). For some features, eg autumn colours, select trees in autumn especially if grown 

from seed. 

Cultural methods: Design landscapes aesthetically and with other considerations, eg street corners, school and 

shopping centre exits not obscured by hedges or trees. Avoid planting susceptible trees in sites contaminated 

with pests or diseases, eg Phytophthora. Plant when trees can establish before being subject to drought, heat, cold 

or wind. Protect when young from drying winds, animals, cars, children, lawn mowers and other damage with tree 

guards, stakes, fencing, watering, mulching and if necessary, pruning. Only water in first 2 years. Plant as 

recommended without damaging roots. 

Sanitation: Avoid contaminating equipment, soil. Avoid contaminated soil or compost; remove dead or dying trees, 

prune when foliage is dry. Hand removal of some insects found on young trees is a viable option. 

Biological control programs for trees tend towards maintaining the natural enemies of diseases and pests rather 

than applying or releasing biological control agents. Exceptions include Agrobacterium (Nogall ) which is applied 

to seeds/rootstocks to control crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) on Prunus spp. 

Weeds should be controlled around young trees for a distance of 0.5 m from the trunk either by hand removal, 

cultivation, cutting, mulching or by post- or pre-emergence herbicides. Do not damage roots or young stems. 

Pesticides: Growth regulators are used on cuttings. Herbicides are used for weed control. Insecticides and 

fungicides are used on nursery stock, and may have a role in the management of new tree plantings to maximise 

growth rates and survival, providing they comply with safety guidelines. However, species should be able to grow 

satisfactorily thereafter without the need for pesticide applications either to the foliage or soil. 

Maintenance 

Monitor potential diseases, pests and predators, and crown density, weather. The International Society of Arboriculture 

(Matheny et al. 1994) and other organisations produce visual tree hazard evaluation forms for trees in urban areas. 

Equipment is being developed to detect and evaluate incipient decay in trees (Anon. 1996, Bethge et al. 1996). 

Cultural methods: Maintenance changes as trees get older, eg weed control and tree surgery will change. Prune 

and fertilise appropriately, water older plants thoroughly only if showing signs of stress during a drought. 

Biological control: Encourage passive natural controls, eg weather extremes, predators, parasites and diseases 

by keeping trees healthy. A degree of damage has to be accepted. There is a lag between the outbreak of a pest 

and its control by natural agencies. lnsects of low densities on trees do not cause tree death, most trees recover 

from defoliation quickly. The wide variety of insects on trees is an essential source of food for birds and other 

predators and parasites of insect pests of trees, pastures and crops. Insect populations fluctuate. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Tree surgery is used to repair wood rot or borer damage, storm and 

construction damage. Laboratory assistance may be required to diagnose or confirm diseases or insects. 

Pesticides: Pesticides have a limited role in management of mature trees, and have environmental and economic 

costs. Only trees < 3 m may be sprayed with low hazard products, eg white oil; there is community resistance to 

such spraying in public areas. Only local councils and similar organisations have the necessary equipment to 

spray large highly valued or heritage trees. Tree injection does not affect parasites and predators, but may 

physically damage trees and provide entry points for wood rot fungi and predispose trees to borers. New tree 

injection techniques may reduce or eliminate these problems. Tree injection should give control for 6-8 weeks and 

much longer if isolated trees are treated. Soil applications of systemic insecticides to control foliage feeding insects 

is being researched. Growth regulators control hedge growth. 

Postharvest 

Trees may be harvested for timber, timber products, cut flowers and foliage. Woody-stemmed material for cut flowers 

or foliage is more prone to bacterial infection than soft-stemmed flowers. Cut stems on an angle with a sharp knife, 

change vase solution every 2 days. Flowers with woody stems are thirsty, so place in deep water and top up regularly; 

warm water eases water flow up stems. Most flowering shrubs do well in preservative solution; many, eg Prunus, can 

be forced; some produce easily bruised flowers with a short life. Handle with care and keep cool. Spraying berries 

with hair spray or clear fixative may prevent shrivelling (Jones and Moody 1993); remove leaves to see berries. 

Table 3. Insect and mite leaf damage 

Sucking 

pests 

Greenhouse 

thrips 

Greenhouse 

whitefly 

Lace bugs a 

Leafhopper 

Twospotted 

mite 

Upper leaf 

surface 

Silvering 

Speckling 

Speckling of 

leaf 

Speckled 

feeding 

patterns 

Speckling 

Lower leaf 

surface 

Thrips, dots of tarry 

excreta 

Adults, scale-like 

nymphs, honeydew, 

sooty mould 

Adults, nymphs, 

nymph skins, dots 

of tarry excreta 

Nothing, sometimes 

nymph skins 

Mites, webbing 

a Limited host range eg azaleas, rhododendrons, olive 

Table 4. Leaf browning on azaleas 

Scorched or 

dead leaves 

Azalea leaf miner a 

Phytophthora root rot 

Phytophthora shoot 

blight 

Rhizoctonia web 

blight 

Sunscorch 

Drought (too little 

soil water) 

Waterlogging (too 

much soil water) 

Salt toxicity 

a Azaleas only 

Symptoms 

Dead patches appear on leaves, 

often bounded by leaf veins. Leaf 

tips may be rolled under 

Leaves and later the whole plant 

dies. Disease test is necessary. 

Buds and shoot tips brown and 

blacken. Disease test is necessary 

New growth of azaleas blighted and 

webbed 

Yellow or brown areas within leaf 

margin 

Brittle brown leaf tips and margins 

Soft brown dead areas at tips and 

around margins 

Soft brown/black dead areas at 

tips and around margins 

K 24 


Abutilon 

Chinese lantern 

Abutilon spp. 



Parasitic 


Abutilon mosaic virus 







Parasitic 


Abutilon mosaic virus occurs naturally in 

Brazil, Puerto Rico, India and probably Trinidad. 

It has been sent all over the world in variegated 

Abutilon species grown as ornamental plants. 

There are probably several strains. Abutilon 

megapotamicum is the only known host in 

Australia, overseas also other Malvaceae, eg cotton, 

hibiscus, Malva, Sida. The attractive bright yellow 

and green variegation of Abutilon leaves is the 

main reason for its propagation as an ornamental 

plant. Mottling tends to disappear if plants are 

grown in darkness or subdued light. Symptoms 

shown by naturally infected plants vary seasonally, 

depending on the light intensity. Spread by 

grafting, by propagation from infected plants, by 

the introduction of infected plants, by cotton 

whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) in northern Australia, 

not by contact between plants, not by seed. Any 

shoots reverting to green may be cut out from the 

base. See Trees K 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) has been reported 

as occurring on native Abutilon spp. See Stone 

fruits F 125. 


Fungal leaf spot (Ascochyta abutilonis) 

attacks Abutilon spp. See Annuals A 5. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla) has 

been reported on native Abutilon spp. See 



Abutilon tend to be attacked by the same pests that 

infest other Malvaceae, eg hibiscus, hollyhock, 

cotton, mallow weed. 

Bugs (Hemiptera), eg coon bug (Oxycarensis 

arctatus), cotton harlequin bug (Tectocoris 

diophthalmus), cotton seed bug (O. luctuosus) and 

harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor), suck sap from 

shoots causing wilting. See Hibiscus K 82, 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of several moths, eg castor 

oil looper (Achaea janata), feed on foliage. 

Caterpillars of cotton tipworm (Crocidosema 

plebejana) burrow into tips. Rough bollworm 

(Earias sp.) feeds on young shoots, flowers and 

seed capsules. Caterpillars of a small moth 

(Phyllonorycter stephanota, Gracillariidae) may mine 

in leaves. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), eg hibiscus mealybug 

(Maconellicoccus hirsutus)andlongtailed mealybug 

(Pseudococcus longispinus), infest Abutilon. See 


Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp.) are small shiny, 

metallic looking and about 3 mm long. They chew 

tiny holes of irregular shapes in young leaves and 

buds, as the leaves grow the holes enlarge. See 

Hibiscus K 82. 

Soft scales (Coccidae), eg black scale (Saissetia 

oleae) and white wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor), 

disfigure plants. See Citrus F 41. 

Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), eg greenhouse whitefly 

(Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and cotton whitefly 

(Bemesia tabaci), mainly infest leaf 


Others: Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) 

may feed on Abutilon leaves overseas, larva feed on 

roots, leaves may yellow. See Rose J 6. 











See Hibiscus K 83, Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22 

MANAGEMENT 



Abutilon may not be grown in the coldest districts, as some species, eg Abutilon Saritzii, are sensitive to frost. 

Some species, eg weeping Chinese lantern (A. megapotamicum), make attractive hanging baskets. Plants 

should be well established in pots prior to sale and kept well illuminated. In winter, they should be kept cool at 8- 

12 o C, in summer they require frequent regular watering. Ethylene causes bud and flower drop; growers 

sometimes spray plants with anti-ethylene agents prior to sale (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 


Ash 

Fraxinus spp. 



Parasitic 




Root rots 



Aphids 

Borers 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Genetic 

Salt injury 

Sooty mould 


Parasitic 


Ash yellows (phytoplasma) may cause a decline in 

Fraxinus overseas.Spread by grafting, by leafhoppers 

(Gleason and Sinclair 1996). See Trees K 4. 


Fungal leaf spots: Leaf spots (Gloeosporium 

unconfirmed)are usually light brown. SeeAnnualsA5. 



(Phytophthora sp.). See Trees K 4, K 6. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne halpa) and 

dagger nematode (Xiphinema italiae) have been 

recorded on Fraxinus sp. See Vegetables M 10. 

wood rot fungi, eg yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum 

commune), may infect damaged areas. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Apple mussel 

scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi). Masses of brown bodies 

shaped like oyster shells and about 8 mm long 

cover twigs and branches. The scales overwinter in 

the egg stage under the scales. Young crawlers appear 

in spring. See Citrus F 39, Pome fruits F 116. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Black scale (Saissetia 

oleae) is a serious pest affecting ash trees and is 

difficult to control on large trees. Severely infested 

young trees may be stunted. See Citrus F 41. 


Others: An exotic psyllid (Psyllopsis fraxinicola, 

Psyllidae, Hemiptera) feeds on Fraxinus in Tasmania. 


Birds may feed on seed and break off new shoots. 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Excessive crown thinning may 

result in sunburn injury to the thin bark of 

Fraxinus. Drought conditions may adversely 

affect Fraxinus spp. 

Genetic: Some claret ash trees seem to lack 

vigour and have a tendency to die back as they age 

(the cause is unconfirmed). Fasciation is a genetic 

abnormality occasionally observed on ash stems. 

Nothing can be done except to remove affected 

parts but it is likely that the same tree will produce 

further fasciated parts. Do not propagate from 

affected trees. See Daphne K 53. 

Salt injury: Some Fraxinus spp. are sensitive to 

excess fertilisers and may suffer from browning 

of leave edges due to salt injury. See Trees K 20. 

Sooty mould: Ash trees (leaves and trunk and 

branches), infested with soft scales or aphids 

become covered with honeydew and associated 

sooty mould. Ants are attracted to the honeydew. 



Aphids (Aphididae): Cotton aphid, melon aphid 

(Aphis gossypii) may infest new shoots. See 

Cucurbits M 53, Roses J 4. 

Borers: Various species may infest branches or 

trunks, particularly if damaged by sunburn or lack 

of water. Many borer species occur overseas causing 

significant damage to ash. See Trees K11. Secondary 

MANAGEMENT 


Gleason, M. L. and Sinclair, C. L. 1996. Keeping Ash in 

the Pink : A Bacterial Disease Called Ash Yellows is 

One Culprit in the Decline of Fraxinus. American 

Nurseryman April 1 pp59-62. 


Plants. 5th edn. John Wiley & Sons, NY 

See Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22 



Ashes are deciduous trees, preferring full or half sun. Some species, eg claret ash (Fraxinus Raywood) and 

golden ash (F. excelsior Aura), produce brilliant autumn foliage in cool temperate and cold climates. Choose 

species and varieties to suit the site, eg desert ash (Fraxinus oxycarpa) is frost hardy, tolerant to hot and dry 

conditions; golden ash requires summer irrigation especially during the early years to avoid scorching of foliage. 

Fraxinus may be propagated by seed and by grafting. 

K 26 


Azalea and 

Rhododendron 

Rhododendron spp. 

Family Ericaceae (heath family) 


Parasitic 


Azalea leaf gall 


Ovulinia petal blight 


Root diseases 

Rust 


Insect and allied pests 

Azalea lace bug 

Azalea leafminer 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Thrips 

Weevils 

Whiteflies 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Azalea leaf gall 

Scientific name: Agaricales, Basidiomycetes: 

Azalea leaf gall (Exobasidium vaccinii) 

Host range: Azalea, rhododendron, blueberry. 

Symptoms: Minor, unsightly disease. In spring, 

new leaves become thickened and fleshy, white, 

pinkish or greenish. Flowers and seed pods may 

also be affected. Galls wither, become brown and 

fall to the ground. See Bonsai N 15 (Fig. 393). 

Overwintering: In dead galls on the host or on 

the ground. 

Spread: Spores (basidiospores) produced on the 

surface of galls, on the host, or the ground are 

spread by wind. By movement of infected plants. 

Conditions favouring: Wet weather in spring. 

Outdoor plantings where galls from previous 

seasons accumulate on the ground. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Hand pick and destroy galls in spring 

as soon as they appear, before spores form. 

Resistant varieties: Hexe, Advent Bells and 

Phoebus are more susceptible than others. 

Disease-free planting material: Only plant gallfree 

plants. 

Pesticides: Apply fungicides to new growth in 

spring before new leaves unfold. Before 

spraying, remove galls already present. 

Fungal leaf spots (Cercospora, Septoria, 

Cylindrocladium, Pestalotiopsis, Phyllosticta, other 

species) may cause leaf spotting and leaf fall, 

especially on older leaves. Septoria leaf spots are 

initially yellowish red with brown centres and 

purplish margins. They may develop into large 

reddish-brown, angular blotches covering most of 

the leaf. See Trees K 2 (Fig. 199). Cercospora leaf 

spots are usually smaller and less sharply defined. 


Ovulinia petal blight 

Scientific name: Ascomycetes 

Ovulinia petal blight (Ovulinia azalea) 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), which can attack a 

wide range of plants, may also cause petal blight. 

Host range: Evergreen azaleas, eg Kurume, 

Indica, deciduous azaleas, other Rhododendron sp. 

and hybrids, mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia). 

Symptoms: Flowers can be ruined in rainy 

weather. Small circular spots appear on petals. 

White spots develop on dark coloured petals 

(Fig. 221), brown spots on pale coloured petals. In 

humid weather, flowers collapse, but remain 

attached to the plant for several months whereas 

uninfected flowers fall soon after fading. Small 

black resting bodies (sclerotia) develop on 

diseased petals. Flower stalks and calices of 

flowers may be infected. Grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea) is a serious disease of azaleas in mild, 

humid climates. Initially symptoms on petals are 

similar to those of O. azaleae. If damp weather 

continues a grey furry mould develops on flowers. 


Spread: Sclerotia on the ground produce spores 

(ascospores) the following spring, which are 

spread by wind and infect flowers. These infected 

flowers produce more spores (conidia), which are 

also spread by wind and infect other flowers. By 

movement of infected plants and infested soil. 

Conditions favouring: Mild, damp weather. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Avoid overhead irrigation 

during flowering 

Sanitation: In small plantings, infected flowers 

may be promptly and persistently picked off. 

Pesticides: Systemic foliage fungicides have 

been developed especially to control petal blight. 

Plants may be sprayed as a preventative 

treatment as soon as flower buds begin to open. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) occurs 

commonly on deciduous azaleas and some 

native rhododendrons during warm, humid 

conditions in late autumn. White powdery spores 

cover large areas of young stems and leaves, new 

leaves may be distorted and reduced in size. On 

some native Rhododendron spp., infected leaves 

develop a pinkish colouration. Severe, prolonged, 

untreated infections reduce flowering and plant 

vigour. If the disease occurs late in autumn on 

deciduous species it may not be necessary to spray. 

Varieties vary in resistance. See Annuals A 6. 

Root diseases cause yellowing of 

foliage, defoliation, dieback of branches and 

shoots and often death of the plant. 


AZALEA AND RHODODENDRON 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina) 

produces cream, fan-shaped fungal threads under the 

outer bark of large roots. See Trees K 4. 

Damping off, eg rhizoctonia web blight 

(Rhizoctonia solani), is mainly found on azalea 

cuttings propagated under mist in warm, humid 

conditions, but may also occur on container-grown 

azaleas. Young leaf growth becomes webbed and 

blighted. Grey fungal threads develop during moist 

humid conditions, leaves brown and fall. Leaves 

close to the soil surface are usually first to be affected. 

Others: Cylindrocladium scoparium, Phytophthora 

spp., Pythium spp. See Seedlings N 66. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.) and 

Pythium spp. may cause serious root rotting on 

azaleas and rhododendrons. If bark is removed at 

ground level, tissue is brown; roots are dead and 

decayed. Composition of media affects severity of 

disease. Phytophthora is least severe in pine bark and 

mixes of pine bark and sand. See Trees K 6, K 24 

(Table 4). 

Rust (Chrysomyxa ledi var. rhododendri) is 

uncommon on azalea and rhododendron. Brown 

and yellow pustules develop on leaf 

undersurfaces during warm, moist weather. See 

Annuals A 7. 

Others: Shoot dieback (various fungi) infects 

new growth, wounds; stems die (Bodman et al. 1996). 


In Qld, root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), Aglenchus 

agricola, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Scutellonema 

brachyurum, Tylenchorynchus spp. and Xiphinema 

americanum have been recorded feeding on roots 

of Rhododendron indicum. Morulaimus and 

Paratrichodorus spp. have been recorded feeding 

on Rhododendron sp. See Vegetables M 10. 


Azalea lace bug 

Scientific name: Tingidae, Hemiptera: 

Azalea lace bug (Stephanitis pyrioides) 

Host range: Azaleas and rhododendrons. 

Description and damage: Plants are severely 

affected. Adult bugs are small, about 3 mm long, 

sluggish, brown with lacy wings. Nymphs are 

spiny. Nymphs and adults suck plant sap from leaf 

undersurfaces causing a greyish white flecking of 

uppersurfaces. Adult bugs, spiny nymphs, nymph 

skins and tarry excreta may all be found on leaf 

undersurfaces. See Trees K 24 (Table 3). 


nymph, adult). Each egg laid on leaf 

undersurfaces is covered with dark sticky excreta. 

Overwintering: As eggs on infested leaves. 

Spread: By adults flying assisted by wind, 

movement of infested plants. 

Conditions favouring: Sunny exposed sites. 

New growth in spring may be rapidly infested. 

Control: Lace bug is a serious pest of azaleas. 

Biological control: Overseas an egg parasite 

(Anagrus sp.) assists chemical control. Minimise 

infestation by planting in semi-shade with 

mixed vegetation that shelter natural enemies. 

Resistant varieties: Broad-leaved azaleas are 

most susceptible and may be seriously affected. 

Pesticides: Apply insecticides early in spring to 

prevent lace bug damage to new leaves. 

Azalea leafminer 

Scientific name: Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera: 

Azalea leafminer (Caloptilia azaleella) 

Host range: Azalea, rarely rhododendron. 

Description and damage: Moths are only 

6 mm long and difficult to find. Caterpillars are 

up to 10 mm long, yellow and difficult to find; they 

mine inside leaves. Initially, mined areas appear 

green but later become brown. If there are several 

mines per leaf the whole leaf may shrivel. Tips of 

infested leaves are rolled under (Fig. 222). Plants 

become unsightly. All leaves may be infested. 


larva, pupa, adult) with several generations each 

year. Female moths lay eggs on the leaf 

undersurface, caterpillars immediately burrow into 

the leaf. When fully fed they leave the mine, roll 

the tip of the leaf under and pupate within the 

rolled tip. Later the moth emerges. 

Overwintering: As late larval stages in the 

curled leaf tips. 

Spread: By moths flying (to adjacent plants only 

as they can fly only a few metres), wind may assist 

them. By movement of infested plants. 

Conditions favouring: Hot, summer weather. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Hand pick and destroy affected leaves 

in spring. However, by the time damage is 

noticed, damage is usually quite extensive. 

Biological control: A small wasp which 

parasitises the caterpillar, and a small spider 

which eats the caterpillars in the rolled tips 

leaving large amounts of frass, provide some 

control, but do not prevent economic damage. 

Plant quarantine: Moths do not fly far, so isolate 

plantings by keeping new plants separate until 

their freedom from infestation is ensured. 

Pesticides: Insecticides prevent damage to new 

leaves. Commence applications in spring. 


Leafrolling moth (Tortricidae) caterpillars commonly 

bind leaves together. Susceptible varieties include 

Pink Dream and Dr Arnold. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri) caterpillars feed 

on leaves. Initially they skeletonise small round areas, 

later they eat whole leaves. See Trees K 13. 



Cyclamen mite (Steneotarsonemus pallidus) may 

cause leaf curling. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) sucks sap 

from leaves giving them a sandy mottled or bronzed 

appearance. In severe infestation, leaves may yellow 

K 28 



and fall. They produce webbing on which they 

crawl around and to which they attach their eggs. See 

Beans (French) M 29, Trees K 24 (Table 3). 

Others: Privet mite (Brevipalus sp.). 



suck sap from leaf undersurfaces causing silvery 

leaves. Thrips produce black dots of excreta. In 

severe infestations, thrips may feed from upper 

surfaces as well. See Greenhouses N 24, Trees K 24 

(Table 3). 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) is thought to cause 

similar damage. See Onion M 68. 


Apple weevil (Otiorhynchus cribricollis) chew edges 

of leaves at night giving them a saw-toothed 

appearance. See Pome fruits F 116. 

Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) feeds on 

leaves at night, cutting holes along the margin and 

sometimes devouring whole leaves leaving only 

midribs and large veins. Larvae are root feeders, 

often destroying so many roots that they may nearly 

kill azaleas especially if collar is bare and stems 

girdled. See Grapevine F 63. 

Fuller's rose weevils (Asynonychus cervinus) chew 

large pieces around leaf margins giving them a 

ragged, saw-edged appearance. Possible root damage 

by larvae is not well documented. See Roses J 6. 

Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) chews scalloped 

holes in the centres and from margins of leaves. See 

Trees K 17. 



Azalea whitefly (Pealius azaleae) infests azalea, 

rhododendron, overseas also mountain laurel and 

andromeda. The pest cycle is similar to greenhouse 

whitefly. 

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporarium). 

Nymphs and adults of both whiteflies suck sap 

from leaf undersurfaces. Sooty mould develops 

on the honeydew secreted by the nymphal stages, 

coating leaves and stems. See Greenhouse N 24, 

Trees K 24 (Table 3). 

Others: 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) suck 

plant sap causing speckled leaves. Each speck 

represents a feeding site as the insect walks across 

the leaf surface. See Trees K 24 (Table 3). 

Damage is not noticed until the insects have left. 

Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae) may bore in 

trunks of old rhododendron, exit holes are seen. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera) may 

infest plants in warm climates. Oleander scale 

(Aspidiotus nerii) is usually only found on the bark 

and leaves of neglected plants. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Several agencies may cause 

scorched leaves, plants may die. See Trees K 24 

(Table 4). Damage may not appear until 2-3 weeks 

later. Azaleas have shallow roots and wilt readily 

during hot, windy weather, but recover on being 

watered. Plant in areas sheltered from hot winds 

and water regularly during summer especially 

during hot windy weather. Roots should be 

mulched to keep cool and moist. Initially leaf tips 

and margins become brown and brittle, eventually 

leaves may brown. Waterlogging damage is 

similar to that caused by lack of water except that leaf 

tissue is soft instead of brittle. Provide good 

drainage. Sunscorch causes dead brown areas 

within the leaf margin, later whole leaves may 

brown. Avoid sites with excessive exposure to sun 

and/or high temperatures, eg avoid heat reflection 

from brick walls, black plastic, weed mats, pine 

and other chip mulches. During cold weather, 

new rhododendron leaves may roll tightly under. 

If there is late frost, developing new leaves may be 

reduced in size and have light green markings on 

them. In late winter senescing azalea leaves may 

yellow and redden. 

Nutrient deficiencies: Iron deficiency 

(chlorosis) symptoms appear initially on new leaves. 

Leaves yellow but veins remain green. In severe 

cases the whole plant may yellow, leaf size is 

reduced, shoots shorten, leaf edges scorch and new 

growth may die back. Flowering is affected in severe 

chlorosis. Check soil pH before planting, it should 

be < 6.0. Do not plant beside cement brick walls or 

apply alkaline fertilisers such as lime, superphosphate 

or wood ash. Use blood and bone and sulphate of 

ammonia or fertilisers available for acid-loving 

plants. If iron deficiency occurs, apply iron chelates 

or azalea fertilisers during spring. See Trees K 20. 

Salt toxicity: Excessive application of chemical 

fertilisers causes soft, blackened leaf tips and 

margins. Whole leaves are eventually affected. If 

damage has already occurred, excess fertiliser may be 

leached out (repeated waterings), good drainage is 

essential. See Trees K 20, K 24 (Table 4). 

Others: Overseas, rhododendrons planted near 

large black walnut trees may suddenly wilt and 

die. Roots of walnuts seem to secrete toxins. The 

only solution is to move the walnut trees or move the 

rhododendrons. Azaleas have brittle stems and are 

easily damaged by hoses, dogs and children. 

Occasional twigs of some rhododendron varieties, eg 

White Bourke, produce several short curved shoots 

rather like a witches' broom which usually die. It is 

thought that this may be a type of varietal 

degeneration, but a parasitic organism may be 

involved. All parts of the azalea plant are 

considered to be poisonous. There are >500-1,000 

natural species of Rhododendron and several thousand 

hybrids and cultivars, many contain in their flowers 

(including nectar), fruit, leaves and shoots, toxic 

compounds (Frohne and Pfander 1983). Some varieties 

of rhododendron have rusty red hairs (pubescence) 

on leaf undersurfaces which may be mistaken for rust. 

New leaves develop after flowering in spring, some 

older leaves yellow, colour and fall (senescence), 

causing concern to new growers. Azalea leaves have 

a life of several years on the plant. Some varieties of 

rhododendrons, eg Mrs Charles Wilson and Mrs 

Percival, have sticky buds, others, eg Schryderi and 

Mauve Schryderi, have sticky leaves and attract 

insects. Tiny black fruiting bodies of the projectile 

firing fungus (Sphaerobolus sp.) adhere to and 

disfigure azalea leaves. See Potting mix N 64. 








Coyer, D. L. and Roane, M. K. 1987. Compendium of 

Rhododendron and Azalea Diseases. APS Press, St. 


Coyier, P. A. 1993. The Cultivation of Rhododendrons. 

B. T. Batsford, London. 

Evans, A. 1994. Growing Azaleas. Kangaroo Press, 






Galle, F. C. 1987. Azaleas. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 





Larson, R. A. 1993. Production of Florist Azaleas. 

Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 

Nell, T. A. 1993. Flowering Potted Plants. Ball Pub., 

Batavia USA. 




Vol.1, Praeger Pub., NY. 

Trumbule, R. B., Denno, R. F. and Raupp, M. J. 1995. 

Management Considerations for the Azalea Lace 

Bug in Landscape Habitats. Jn. Arbor. 21(2), Mar. 


Industry eg 

Azalea Leafminer (NSW Insect Pest Bull. 133, 1968) 

Diseases of Azaleas and Rhododendrons (Vic Agnote) 

Rhododendrons and Azaleas (SA ABG leaflet) 


Local Rhododendron Socs. 


MANAGEMENT 

Evergreen or semi-deciduous azaleas and rhododendron are spring flowering shrubs widely grown outdoors in 

the ground and in containers. Evergreens will grow in almost any climate except the tropics, but deciduous 

cultivars prefer cooler conditions. Only grow varieties recommended for a particular district. If there is a 

particular problem, consider selecting resistant or tolerant varieties. Plant disease and pest-free plants, 

avoid rootbound or weakened plants. Propagated by cuttings. Prepare a monthly care guide which should 

include all activities, eg planting, fertilising, pesticide applications. Grow in a well drained acid soil (pH 4.5 to 6), 

sheltered from hot, drying winds. Provide partial shade such as light overhead leaf cover, 3-4 hours direct sun 

per day is sufficient for flowering. Provide adequate water supply, particularly during summer. Roots are 

shallow so they benefit from a cool, moist and shaded root run. Fertilise regularly when recommended with an 

appropriate fertiliser. Growth regulators may be used to induce flowering and promote compactness. Control 

weeds but do not cultivate close to plants. There should be a minimum cultivation within the drip line. Azaleas 

will die if roots are disturbed. Pre-emergence herbicides are registered for use. New growth may be 

protected from azalea lace bug, azalea leaf miner and thrips damage in late winter and spring with insecticides. 

In areas where petal blight occurs, protect flowers with fungicides. Diagnose and monitor any problem 

accurately. Examine leaf undersurfaces and other plant parts for pests and diseases regularly at least once 

per week, if in doubt seek expert advice. Potted azaleas should be sold when 1/4 to 1/3 flowers open (Nell 

1993). Plants grow best at 15-18 o C and should be kept moist and well illuminated with indirect light. They are 

sensitive to drafts of hot or cold air. Ethylene causes rapid leaf and flower drop and growers sometimes apply 

anti-ethylene compounds. For cut flowers, cut stems on an angle with a sharp knife, place in deep water and 

change vase water every few days, top up water regularly. Handle blooms as little as possible. 

A 

B 

Fig. 221. White spots on dark petals caused by ovulinia 

petal blight (Ovulinia azalea). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 222. Azalea leaf miner (Caloptilia azaleella) 

damage. A : Leaf mines are pale green initially then 

later brown. B : Leaf tips turned under. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

K 30 


Banksia 

Banksia spp. 



Parasitic 


Cankers 



Wood rots 



Borers 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Ross's black scale 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Cankers: In WA diffuse cankers caused by 

Cryptodiaporthe (= Diplodina) which is possibly 

endemic, may kill B. coccinea, B. grandis and 

Dryandra sessilis. Zythiostroma causes stem 

cankers on B. baxteri. Botryosphaeria ribis which 

occurs worldwide, and is possibly introduced, 

debilitates B. speciosa in association with climatic 

stress (Shearer 1994). Plectronidium australiense 

occurs on dead banksia branches. Affected branches 

should be pruned out well below cankered areas 

(Sutton and Pascoe 1986). See Trees K 5. 

Fungal leaf spots: Asterina systema-solare 

(= Seynesiae banksiae), Episphaerella banksiae 

(= Parodiella banksiae), Lineostroma banksiae 

(= Didymosphaeria banksiae) and Vizella banksiae 

(Walker 1994). See Annuals A 5, Trees K 6. 


Phytophthora root rots (Phytophthora spp., eg 

P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. drechsleri and 

P. nicotianae var. parasitica). P. cinnamomi (Pc) 

has been blamed for most deaths of banksias in 

cultivation. B. grandis in the jarrah forest in WA, has 

been used as an indicator plant for the presence of Pc. 

Resistant species include hill banksia (B. collina), 

B. caleyi, B. integrifolia, swamp banksia (B. robur), 

B. spinulosa. Susceptible species include bull 

banksia (B. grandis), B. ashbyi, B. brownii, 

B. coccinea, B. hookeriana, B. lehmanninana, 

B. media, B. occidentalis, B. speciosa, B. victoriae 

(Cho 1983). Susceptible species, eg B. grandis, 

may be grafted on to resistant rootstock, eg 

B. integrifolia var. integrifolia. See Trees K 6. 


luteobubalina), pythium root rot (Pythium spp., 

P. debraryanum, P. ultimum), rhizoctonia collar rot 

(Rhizoctonia solani). See Trees K 7. 

Wood rots: Common honeycomb (Osmoporus 

gunnii), tinder punk (Phellinus robustus, 

P. setulosus), wood rots (Pycnoporus sanguineus, 

Perenniporia medulla-panis). See Trees K 8. 


More than 40 species have been identified in 

association with banksia, eg burrowing nematode 

(Radolpholus sp.), dagger nematode (Xiphinema 

sp.), root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), 

spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus), 

ring nematode (Criconema spp.), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus sp.). See Vegetables M 10. 


Borers 

Banksia longicorn (Paroplites australis) attacks 

banksia especially mature specimens of old man 

banksia (B. serrulata). See Trees K 11. 

Others: Banksia jewel beetle (Cyria imperialis), 

elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris), fruittree 

borer (Maroga melanostigma, Oecophoridae). 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of > 20 species of 

moths and at least one butterfly feed on banksias. 

Banksia moth (Danima banksiae, Notodontidae) 

caterpillars feed on Proteaceae, eg banksia, dryandra, 

grevillea, hakea. Moths are up to 80 mm across and 

are grey with black and white markings and an orange 

body. Caterpillars are handsome, about 50 mm 

long and brown with circular bands, end parts are 

mauve. When irritated, they throw back their heads 

and shoot out a purple bifid organ which secretes 

formic acid and probably repels natural enemies. 

Doubleheaded hawk moth, banksia hawk moth 

(Coequosa triangularis, Sphingidae) caterpillars feed 

on leaves of Proteaceae, eg banksia, grevillea, 

hakea, Persoonia. Moths are beautiful, usually deep 

yellow/ brown, with a dark brown triangle on the front 

of each forewing, wingspan is about 150 mm. 

Caterpillars are large, about 120 mm long, green 

and seem to have a head at each end of the body. 

They lack the abdominal spine which most hawk moth 

caterpillars have and are covered with short stiff 

bristles. Relatively rare, solitary caterpillars, pupate 

in soil. Control is rarely necessary. See Hakea K 78 

(Fig 257). 

Leafminers: Leafcutter moth (Incurvariidae) 

caterpillars mine in leaves of banksia, eg B. serrata, 

and later cut out oval or irregular, flattened cases in 

which they pupate or which they use as shelters while 

they feed within new mines. Moths are tiny. See 

Eucalypt K 62. Stegommata sulfuratella 

(Lyonetiidae) caterpillars produce blotch mines in 

young leaves of B. integrifolia. See Hakea K 78. 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae): Arotrophora 

arcuatalis caterpillars tunnel in flower spikes and 

are a major pest of plantation banksia in WA. Their 

feeding kills individual florets and distorts blooms. 

Native wasps (Trichogrammatoidea, Trichogramma) 

parasitise caterpillars but insecticides are usually 

still required (Rohl and Woods 1994). Lightbrown 

apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) may roll leaves 

together. See Pome fruits F 112. 


BANKSIA 

Macadamia twig-girdler (Xylorycta luteotactella) 

caterpillars lives in small tunnels in a branch or 

woody fruit, covering the entrance with a web of silk 

and faeces, or in a silk gallery spun amongst the 

foliage incorporating webbing and faeces. They feed 

on bark and leaves and bore into flower spikes or 

cones. See Macadamia F 77. Also X. strigata. 

Chalarotona intabescens and Scieropepla 

caterpillars also tunnel in flower spikes. 

Others: Fiery jewel (Hypochrysops ignitus ignitus, 

Lycaenidae) and grevillea looper (Oenochroma 

vinaria) caterpillars feed on leaves. Painted apple 

moth (Teia anartoides) caterpillars may skeletonise 

leaves. Annuals A 8, Trees K 13. 


Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae): One species 

sucks sap from leaf undersurfaces of fine-leafed 

banksias, eg B. ericifolia; leaves roll inwards. 

Another species causes grotesque galls on banksia 

fruit. Mites feed and shelter among the deformed 

tissue. Early removal and burning of deformed fruit 

reduces infestation. See Grapevine F 62. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Broad mite 

(Polyphagotarsonemus latus), twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae). See Beans (French) M 29. 

Ross's black scale (Lindingaspis rossi, 

Diaspididae, Hemiptera) infests banksia and olive in 

sheltered situations. Female scales are blackish, 

flat, circular, about 2 mm across and stick tightly to 

leaves. The female body, eggs and nymphs are 

purple. Male scales are oval, smaller and dark 

brown. The body of the male is orange. Nymphs and 

adults suck from leaf undersurfaces, leaves may 

yellow and fall in severe infestations. No honey dew 

is produced. Overwinters on host plants. Spread by 

vegetative propagation, infested plants, winged adult 

males flying and by nymphs crawling. See Citrus F 

39. 

Others: A lerp insect (Cecidopsylla putealis) 

forms pit galls on leaves. A yellow-brown wasp 

(Megastigmus, Torymidae) may emerge from stems, 

leaves and flowers of banksia, eucalypt, hakea, 

wattle, citrus, Helichrysum. A sucking insect 

(Frenchia banksiae, Asterlecaniidae, Hemiptera) may 

cause unusual galls on banksia, casuarina. Banksia 

whitefly (Aleurocanthus banksiae) feeds on leaves 

and shoots (Jones and Elliot 1986). Coconut 

whitefly (Aleurodicus destructor, Aleyrodidae) may 

be a pest of banksia, coconut, other plants. Also flea 

beetles (Galerucinae,Chrysomelidae). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: All eastern species of Banksia 

except the northern B. dentata, are frost hardy. 

MANAGEMENT 


deficiency commonly occurs on banksia, new leaves 

yellow between the veins. See Azalea K 29, Citrus F 43. 

Phosphorus toxicity: Some banksia, eg B. ericifolia, 

may be damaged by normal amounts of phosphorus in 

media. Usually tips and margins are discoloured or 

brown. Banksia have proteiod roots. See Trees K 18. 

Others: Birds may damage flowers when seeking 

nectar. Fungi: Argopericonia and Tryssglobulus occur 

amongst leaf hairs on healthy leaves of B. marginata. 

(Sutton and Pascoe 1987). 


Cho, J. J. 1983. Variability in Susceptibility of Some 

Banksia Species to Phytophthora cinnamomi and 

Their Distribution in Australia. Plant Disease, Aug. 





Fuss, M. A. and Sedgley, M. 1991. Banksia : Improving 

Their Cut Flower Potential. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

George, A. 1987. The Banksia Book. Kangaroo Press, 







McCredie, T. A., Dixon, W. and Sivasithamparam, K. 

1985. Grafting Banksia to Avoid Root Rot. Aust. 

Hort., April. 

Pascoe, I. and Sutton, B. 1987. Research into Fungal 

Diseases of Australian Native Plants. Aust. Hort., Jan. 

Rohl, L. J. and Woods, K. W. 1994. Biological and 

Insecticidal Control of Arotrophora arcuatalis 

(Walker) (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae) : An Important 

Pest of Banksia in WA. Plant Prot. Quar., 9(1). 


Occurring in Native Ecosystems of South-West 

Australia. Jn. of The Royal Soc. of WA, Vol.77(4), 

Dec:113-122. 

Sutton, B. C. and Pascoe, I. G. 1986. Plectronidium 

australiense sp.nov. from Victoria, Australia. Trans. 

Br. Mycol Soc., 87(2),249-253. 

Sutton, B. C. and Pascoe, I. G. 1987. Argopericonia and 

Tryssglobulus, New Hyphomycete Genera from 

Banksia Leaves. Trans. Br. Mycol Soc., 88(1),41-46. 

Taylor, A. and Hopper, S. 1991. The Banksia Atlas. 

AGPS, Canberra. 


Wills, R. T. and Keighery, G. J. 1994. Plant Diseases in 

Ecosystems : Threats & Impacts in SW Australia. Jn. 

of The Royal Soc. of WA, Vol.77(4), Dec:127-132. 

Wrigley, J. W. and Fagg, M. 1989. Banksias, Waratahs 

and Grevilleas. Collins, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

Banksia (SA ABG Leaflet) 

Banksias for Cut-flower Production (SA Fact Sheet) 

See Australian native plants N 9, 




More than 60 species of Banksia are endemic and are a symbol of the Australian bush (Wrigley and Fagg 1989). 

An overview of the industry has been outlined by Coombs (1995). Most banksias need a sunny position and 

slightly acid or gravelly soil which provides excellent drainage. They may be watered in dry weather. A few 

species prefer different conditions, eg swamp banksia (B. robur), prefers a moister soil. Readily propagated 

from seed, also by cuttings and tissue culture. Banksias are marketed fresh, dried, sulphur treated or dyed. 

Harvest flowers when the collar around the base of the flower head is open and flower is dry, during a cool time 

of day, shake off excess nectar, place in water with preservative; the foliage may be stripped from the lower 100 

mm and sometimes from around the flower. When storing, some species, eg B. speciosa and 

B. burdetti, are best kept out of water, lying flat in a covered box in a cool room. Recut stems, use a 

commercial preservative and do not mist (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 32 


Birch 

Betula spp. 

Family Betulaceae (birch family) 


Parasitic 




Rust 



Aphids 

Borers 

Emperor moths 

Oak leafminer 

Scale 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Several viruses have been associated with foliage 

line patterns, ringspotting and veinbanding 

overseas (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) has been recorded 

on birch. See Stone fruits F 125. 



Mistletoe (Loranthaceae) may infest the branches 

of birch trees. See Trees K 9. 



Birch aphid (Calaphis flava) 

European aphid (Euceraphis betulae) 

In cold climates, these exotic aphids overwinter as 

eggs on their deciduous hosts. Winged aphids fly 

to other birch trees. See Roses J 4. 

Borers 

Fruit-tree borers (Cryptophasa albacosta, Maroga 

melanostigma, Oecophoridae): Caterpillars make 

short vertical tunnels often in a branch fork and feed 

on the bark around the tunnel entrance, trees may be 

ringbarked. See Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 

Silverbirch branchcutter (Strongylurus cretifer, 

Cerambycidae, Coleoptera) is a longicorn beetle, the 

larvae of which feeds in the branches of birch. 

Branches and trunks may break. See Trees K 11. 

Emperor moths (Opodiphthera eucalypti and 

O. helena, Saturniidae, Lepidoptera) caterpillars 

are predominantly green and feed on the foliage of 

birch. Both species spin tough oval cocoons 

incorporating fragments of the bark of the tree on 

which the cocoon is spun. See Eucalypt K 60. 

Oak leafminer (Phyllonorycter messaniella) 

may mine in birch leaves (Elliot and deLittle 1984). 

See Oak K 101. 

Scale (Hemiptera) on young tips may cause 

dieback on young trees. See Citrus F 39, Trees K 16. 

Rust (Melampsoridium betulinum) infects silver 

birch (B. pendula). Overseas also other Betula 

spp. Rust is only a problem on nursery stock, 

causing severe defoliation, seedlings may die 

back and even die. Small, circular, orange fruiting 

bodies (uredia) develop on leaf undersurfaces 

towards the end of summer. As cool weather sets 

in, dark brown fruiting bodies (telia) appear in the 

uredia. In nurseries where severe damage is 

expected, avoid overhead irrigation and apply 

fungicides at the first sign of disease. On mature 

trees damage is sporadic and control is not 

attempted (Marks et al. 1982). See Annuals A 7. 

Others: Fungal leaf spots (various species), 

overseas also Cylindrosporium, Gloeosporium. Root 

rots, eg armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina) 

and phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp., P. 

cinnamomi). Wood rots, eg silver leaf (Stereum 

purpureum), yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum 

commune). Canker (Botryosphaeria). 

PLANT MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Birches are deciduous tree adapted to cool 

temperate and cold climates. They prefer full sun 

or half shade and irrigation during dry summers, 

otherwise they may die back from the tops. 



2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, Melbourne. 

Elliott, H. J. and deLittle, D. W. 1984. Insect Pests of 

Trees and Timber in Tasmania. Forestry 

Commission Tas., Hobart. 


Tree Diseases in Victoria. Forestry Commission 

Vic., Melbourne. 






Birches are slender with graceful foliage and brilliant autumn foliage. They are adapted to cool temperate and 

cold climates but require irrigation during dry seasons. 


Boronia 

Boronia spp. 

Family Rutaceae (citrus family) 


Parasitic 



Root rots 

Rust 

Wood rots 





Boronia psyllid 

Caterpillars 

Citrus mealybug 


Scales 

Slugs and snails 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) has been 

recorded on brown boronia (Boronia megastigma). 


Root rots 

Damping off (Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp.). 

See 



cinnamomi, P. cryptogea) affect Boronia spp. causing 

them to be short-lived. See Trees K 6. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina). 


Rust (Puccinia boroniae) pustules develop on 

leaves of brown boronia (B. megastigma) and 

B. pilosa. See Annuals A 7. 

Wood rots: Ring-barking fuscoporia 

(Fuscoporia laevigata) may affect brown boronia 

(B. megastigma). The fruit body forms a rustcoloured, 

pore-bearing sheath on the collar of 

saplings. The fungus appears to ringbark and kill 

saplings rapidly. It produces a white, sapwood rot 

(Marks et al. 1982). See Trees K 8. 



have been recorded on brown boronia 

(B. megastigma) and B. malloyae (B. elatior). See 



Black citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricidus) may 

infest new growth. See Citrus F 35, Roses J 4. 

Boronia psyllid (Ctenarytaina thysanura, 

Psyllidae, Hemiptera) feeds and develops upon 

young leaves of boronia and is found in alpine, 

mountain or cool to cold temperate areas. There 

may be many generations each year in cool damp 

areas in mid-summer. See Eucalypt K 62. 


Butterfly (Adaluma urumelia, Lycaenidae) caterpillars 

may feed on mature leaves of B. lanceolata) in the 

NT and are attended by small black ants 

(Monomorium sp.). This genus should perhaps be 

merged with Nesolycaena (Common and Waterhouse 

1981). 


caterpillars web leaves and shoots of boronia. 


Satin blue (Nesolycaena alboservicea, Lycaenidae): 

The first 2 caterpillar instars of this butterfly feed on 

flowers of B. glabra and B. obovata, but later instars 

feed on older leaves closer to the ground, frequently 

consuming the whole leaf. Rare, found on Fraser 

Island and Stradbrooke areas of Qld. 


Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) feeds on 

Rutaceae, eg boronia, citrus, Eriostemon. See 

Citrus F 38, Greenhouses N 25. 


is small, white and moth-like, usually 1-2 mm 

long. Wings are folded when at rest. Nymphs are 

translucent, greenish and scale-like. Nymphs and 

adults suck sap from new shoots and leaf 

undersurfaces. Sooty mould grows on the 

honeydew they secrete. See Greenhouses N 24. 





White wax scale (C. destructor) 

Soft scales secrete honeydew. 

Scale (Cochaspis angraeci, Conchaspididae) occurs on 

Boronia spp. in WA. Females produce a white, 

usually circular and conical scale covering, sometimes 

resembling armoured scales. 

See Citrus F 39, F 41, Trees K 16. 


Various species damage boronia. See Seedlings 

N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: The roots of boronias in 

containers or in the field should not be allowed to 

dry out. Boronias are not suitable for tropical or 

highland areas. 

K 34 


BORONIA 


Burnett, J., Park, U. Y. and Goodwin, P. B. 1988. 

Research Towards the Bare-rooted Export of 

Australian Nursery Stock. Aust. Hort., Dec. 



Day, J. 1993. Flowering Brown Boronia and White 

Myrtle. Aust. Hort., June. 

Day, J. 1994. Manipulate Plant Shape and Flowering 

with Growth Regulators. Aust. Hort., Feb. 






Morgan, F. D. 1984. Psylloidea of South Australia. 

Handbook of the Flora and Fauna of South 

Australia, SA Government, Adelaide. 

Plummer, J. and Considine, J. 1995. New Boronias, 

More Colours, Better Oils. Aust. Hort., May. 



Sharma, I. K. and Ollerenshaw, P. J. 1989. Better 

Results for Boronia Cuttings. Aust. Hort., April. 

Taji, A., Sheather, W. and Williams, R. 1996. 

Micropropagation of Boronia. Aust. Hort., June. 


Propagation, Cultivation and Use in Landscaping. 

3rd edn. Collins, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

Growing Native Plants (ANBG booklet No.12) 





MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Boronias grown for cut flowers can be separated into those grown for 

fragrance and those grown for their coloured flowers. Brown boronia (B. megastigma) is grown for the 

spicy scent from its flowers in early spring and the essential oils for the manufacture of perfume. 

B. heterophyllla is grown for its rose-carmine bell-shaped flowers. It is possible that other species, eg 

B. denticulata, will prove suitable for the same purpose. Boronia shrubs are not suited for tropical or highland 

areas. 

Resistant varieties: Boronia is susceptible to phytophthora root and collar rot (P. cinnamomi) and may be 

short-lived. B. clavata is probably the hardiest boronia and may be suitable as a rootstock. 

Disease-free planting material: Obtain quality cuttings from plants of the desired horticultural quality which 

are free from Phytophthora, rust and other diseases and pests. 


Propagation: All species grow readily from cuttings in summer which may be treated with growth regulators. 

Some, particularly the WA species, germinate readily from seed, the eastern species require seed treatment 

prior to sowing (Wrigley 1988). 

Cultural methods: For cut flowers, plants are regularly replaced every 3 years, growing them preferably in 

partial shade in moist or peaty soil (Salinger 1985). Most need a light well drained soil and if this is not 

provided they may succumb to Phytophthora. In nature most species occur in heaths and dry sclerophyll 

forests, where vegetation is thick and some shade is provided, where leaf litter is also thick and the surface 

soil temperature varies little. Some species occur in very deep shade in gullies. These points should be borne 

in mind when positioning Boronia spp. They require good drainage, a sandy soil with heavy mulch of leaf litter 

under which surface roots can remain cool (Wrigley 1988). Mulch must not be too close to the collar, or rot 

may result. As a generalisation boronias grow best in sheltered sites, with some shade during the day, 

protection from hot drying wind and a cool root area. Roots should never be allowed to dry out or get very hot, 

but do need perfect drainage. Fertilise as recommended. All boronias respond well to pruning after 

flowering. 

Pesticides: Shape and flowering may be manipulated with environmental treatments and/or growth regulators 

(Day 1993, 1994). 

Postharvest 

Harvest so that branches with about 50% of flowers open are received by the retailer (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Flowers must be fresh and undamaged, branches must not be dry and curled. They must be handled 

carefully as florets drop easily. Avoid ethylene contamination. Long shoots are cut and bunched into fives or 

decs, preferably placed in sleeves after standing in water (Salinger 1985). 

Vase life: Recut 20 mm from stems, strip foliage which would be underwater and place in a commercial 

preservative. Flowers can be misted (Jones and Moody 1993). 


Bottlebrush 

Callistemon spp. 



Parasitic 


Damping off 


Root rots 

Wood rots 


Mistletoe 



Borers 

Bugs 

Callistemon sawfly 

Caterpillars 

Leafminers 

Leafrolling thrips 

Lilly pilly psyllid 

Scales 

Tip borers 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Damping off: Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) 

attacks young shoots and stems in nurseries, 

especially C. citrinus. Others: Cylindrocladium 

scoparium, Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., 

Rhizoctonia solani. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots mainly cause serious 

damage during wet conditions. Several species 

have been identified (Walker 1994). 

Cylindrocladium scoparium may cause severe 

damage to bottlebrush, melaleuca and related plants. 

Dead areas on leaves are often surrounded by a 

purple margin. Affected leaves tend to fall readily 

from the plant. 

Tar spot (Phyllachora callistemonis) mainly attacks 

C. speciosa and C. Gawler Hybrid. Small, hard, 

irregularly-shaped, black fruiting bodies develop 

on the leaves and are often arranged in a more or less 

circular pattern. They resemble blobs of tar (Fig. 

223) and are often mistaken for scale insects. Severely 

affected leaves look unsightly, yellow and fall. Tar 

spot is usually found in subtropical areas but may be 

found in sheltered areas in cooler regions. 

Others: Dark mildew leaf spot (Meliola 

queenslandica), Seimatosporium dilophosporum. 

Leptosphaerulina trifollii may cause leaf spotting 

on C. viminalis Profile. 



luteobubalina). Phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. cryptogea) attacks 

bottlebrush on poorly drained sites. See Trees K 7. 

Wood rots: Tinder punk (Phellinus spp.) and 

other species, may attack bottlebrush. Large 

pruning cuts facilitate entry. See Trees K 8. 


Mistletoe (Loranthaceae) may infest bottlebrush. 



Nematodes associated with Callistemon spp. in 

Qld and SA include burrowing nematode 

(Radolpholus magniglans), dagger nematode 

(Xiphinema elongatum), sheath nematode 

(Hemicycliophora natalensis) spiral nematode 

(Helicotylenchus) and Hemicriconemoides spp. 


Borers 


Common splendid ghost moth (Aenetus lignerven) 

caterpillars tunnel in living trees after they have fed 

amongst litter or under decaying logs on the ground. 

If the stem is slender it may be ringbarked and plants 

may die. See Trees K 12. 


caterpillars live in short tunnels often at branch forks 

and feed on bark. Entrances are covered with chewed 

wood and frass. See Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 

Ring-barking weevils (Curculionidae), eg Aterpus 

griseatus, feed on twigs of bottlebrush, melaleuca and 

related shrubs. Larvae may ringbark stems below 

ground level (Hockings 1980). Soil at the base may 

be treated. See Geraldton wax K 73. 

Longicorn borer, callistemon trunkborer, 

(Platyomopsis armatula) causes serious damage to 

bottlebrush, also eucalypt, Leptospermum, melaleuca. 

Adults are stout, grey-brown beetles about 20 mm 

long. Wing covers have lumps and roughened 

projections, antennae are 20 mm long. Larvae are 

fleshy, legless, cream and 15 mm long. They tunnel 

under the bark, feeding on sapwood, ringbarking 

small and large branches causing them to die. 

Branches may break off in a storm. Tropical and 

subtropical regions. See Trees K 11. 


A bug (Crompus spp., Lygaeidae) may suck sap from 

bottlebrush, Leptospermum, Metrosideros. Bugs are 

about 5 mm long, small, ovoid with short sericeous 

hairs. Lygaeidae bugs mostly feed on seeds. 

Callistemon tip bug (Pomponatius typica, Coreidae) 

infests bottlebrush, broadleaved melaleuca, other 

native plants. Adults are up to 20 mm long, solitary, 

elongate, with strong repellent odours, slowmoving 

and look like dead leaves (camouflage). 

Nymphs are similar to adults but smaller. Both suck 

sap from new shoot tips causing them to wither and 

die. Close examination of the stem will reveal the 

feeding holes. Control is not usually warranted. 

Bugs may be collected periodically and destroyed. 

K 36 


BOTTLEBRUSH 

Leafspotting mirid bug, myrtle mirid bug 

(Eucerocoris suspectus, Miridae) is a serious pest of 

bottlebrush, especially C. polandii. Adults are 

delicate, hard to find, up to 10 mm long, orange with 

black legs, long black antennae and gauzy wings. 

Nymphs are oval, orange with bands on legs and 

antennae. Both suck sap and secrete saliva during 

feeding damaging new shoots and young leaves. 

Spots of dead tissue develop everywhere the insects 

have pierced the leaf surface. See Melaleuca K 98. 

Callistemon sawfly (Lophyrotoma sp., 

Pergidae, Hymenoptera) larvae may seriously 

damage bottlebrush, eg red bottlebrush (C. citrinus), 

C. salignus and C. viminalis. Adult sawflies are 

robust, wasp-like insects about 23 mm long. Larvae 

are up to 20 mm long, caterpillar-like with thoracic 

and abdominal legs, brown with a sword-like 

appendage on the tip of the abdomen (Fig. 224). The 

body tapers off towards the end. When disturbed, 

they bend their heads and tails over their backs and 

regurgitate. Young larvae feed side by side, and 

quickly skeletonise leaves. Older larvae may feed 

individually and eat entire leaves. Shrubs can be 

defoliated, branches may die, changing the growth 

habit of the plant and upsetting flowering. Whole 

hedges may be defoliated. There are several 

generations each season. Fully fed larvae may leave 

host plants and wander singly for some distance to 

pupate but they may pupate on the host plant. 

Overwinters as larvae in cocoons. Control should 

be directed towards the 1st generation, later 

generations are then not such a problem. Larvae may 

be removed by hand, or infested shoots pruned off 

and destroyed. Regurgitation by the larvae repels 

birds and other natural enemies. If infestations are 

severe and extensive in spring, shrubs may be sprayed 

with an insecticide when larvae are first observed. 

Wetting agents will increase the effectiveness of 

insecticides. See Eucalypt K 63. 


More than 10 species may infest bottlebrush. 

Bizarre looper, zigzag looper (Anisozyga pieroides) 

caterpillars are 25 mm, brown and like a twisted dead 

leaf (excellent camouflage). Control is not necessary. 

See Wattle K 133. 

Capsule moth (Bathrotoma constricta, Tortricidae) is 

not a pest. Tiny caterpillars eat the contents of 

immature callistemon capsules and join 2 capsules 

together to make a portable case for themselves 

(Fig. 225). Caterpillars graze on leaf surfaces leaving 

small areas of dead tissue. Spread by moths flying, 

movement of infested plants. 

Case moths, bagworms (Psychidae): Saunders's 

case moth (Oiketicus elongatus) caterpillars chew 

large lumps out of leaves of bottlebrush, Epacris, 

eucalypt and other species. See Trees K 13. 

Cup moths (Limacodidae): Chinese junks (Doratifera 

spp.) are flattish, fleshy, slug-like caterpillars about 

40 mm long with brown or yellow retractable stinging 

hairs. See Eucalypt K 60, Trees K 13. 

Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides) caterpillars are 

sporadic destructive pests with solitary habits. 

Orgyia athlophora occurs in south-western WA. 


Web moths (Pyralidae) caterpillars web leaves 

together. See Teatree K 124. 


Leafminers (Lepidoptera) 

Leafmining moth (Heliozela sp., Heliozelidae) has 

metallic scales, is 2 mm long, flies in sunshine and 

rests on flowers. Caterpillars mine between leaf 

surfaces. Leaves may look reddish and fall. If leaves 

are examined closely, mines can be seen. There is a 

complete metamorphosis (egg, caterpillar, pupa, 

adult) with probably several generations each year. 

When caterpillars in mines are fully fed, they cut flat 

oval cases from the mine which drop to the ground, 

attach to the host or elsewhere, before pupation. 

Pupae are parasitised by a wasp. In nurseries, 

new growth may be protected with insecticides. 

Leafmining moth (Pectinivalva spp., Nepticulidae) 

caterpillars tunnel in leaves of Myrtaceae, eg 

bottlebrush, eucalypt, Leptospermum, Lophostemon. 

Moths are tiny. Caterpillars form slender 

tortuous mines which later expand gradually or 

abruptly into irregular blotch mines (Fig. 226). 

See Azalea K 28, Trees K 15. 

Leafrolling thrips, leaf distortion thrips 

(Teuchothrips sp., Phlaeothripidae, Thysanoptera) 

is a sporadic pest of bottlebrush and melaleuca. 

Different species infest pittosporum and probably 

Ficus. Adults are black, 1-2 mm long. Nymphs 

are pale orange, smaller and wingless. Nymphs 

and adults feed on young leaves causing them to 

roll and redden but not fall (Fig. 227). A temperate 

to tropical pest. Control measures may not be 

necessary. Infested shoots may be pruned off and 

destroyed. Susceptible species include C. citrinus 

and C. viminalis. Where infestations occur every 

season, insecticide may be applied to new leaves in 

spring, at the first sign of infestation. As sprays do 

not kill the eggs within the leaf, apply 2 sprays 

about 10 days apart. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Lilly pilly psyllid, pimple gall (Trioza 

eugeniae, Psyllidae) causes pimples on new leaves 

and shoots (Fig. 228). Control is not usually 

necessary. See Lilly-pilly K 95. Other psyllids may 

infest bottlebrush, eg psyllids that secrete wax. A 

tiny orange species may suck sap fromyoung shoots 

causing distortion. See Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 15. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Circular black 

scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum) is a sporadic pest of 

leaves which may fall. Susceptible species include 

broadleaved forms of C. viminalis. Mussel scales 

(Lepidosaphes spp.) may infest bottlebrush and 

melaleuca. Adult females are white and about 1.7 mm 

long, males are winged. Leaves often tolerate 

infestation. Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) may 

infest all aboveground plant parts. See Citrus F 39. 


nigra) is smooth, dark, broadly-oval, about 5 mm 

long. Nymphs lodge on adult coverings, and settle on 

young shoots and along leaf midribs. Honeydew 

attracts ants and encourages sooty mould. See Custard 

apple F 52. Tessellated scale (Eucalymnatus 

tessellatus) is a sporadic minor pest. Adults are light 

to dark brown, very flat, closely appressed to the leaf 

surface and about 5 mm long. Nymphs are wrinkled. 

Both feed on leaves causing premature yellowing. 

Tropical and subtropical regions. See Citrus F 41. 

See Citrus F 39, Trees K 16. 


BOTTLEBRUSH 

Tip borers: Callistemon tip borer 

(Lepidoptera) is a persistent minor pest of melaeuca 

and bottlebrush. Moths are about 3 mm long and 

hard to find. Caterpillars are about 10 mm long, 

creamy and tunnel down centres of young shoots. 

Tips die back for about 100 mm. A light attack has a 

beneficial tip pruning effect, persistent attacks may 

stunt plants and affect appearance. Do not confuse 

tip borer damage with frost damage to young growth. 

A complete metamorphosis (egg, caterpillar, pupa, 

adult) with several generations each season. Female 

moths lay eggs on young shoots, caterpillars pupate in 

hollowed out shoots. Emerging moths cut small exit 

holes. Overwinters as caterpillars in cocoons in 

shoots. Spread by moths flying, by the movement of 

infested plants. Start control in spring to prevent 

population buildup. Dead tips may be pruned off and 

burnt. In susceptible varieties, if persistent and 

severe, protect new growth with insecticides. 

Others: Spine-tailed froghopper (Machaerota 

finitima). Wasp galls (Hymenoptera) are found 

on the stems of young C. salignus. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Full sun is required for maximum 

flower production. Most are native to areas with 

MANAGEMENT 

damp soils. Many will tolerate light frost when 

established and will grow in a range of climates. 

Others: Fasciation which is a genetic defect is 

not uncommon on callistemon. Lichens often 

occur on older plants. Occasionally new leaves are 

sharply wrinkled, the cause of which is unknown. 








Tree Diseases in Victoria. Forests Commission Vic., 

Melbourne. 


Gardens. Reed/SGAP, Terrey Hills, Sydney.. 

Walker, J. 1994. Personal Communications. 




Wrigley, J. W. and Fagg, M. 1993. Bottlebrushes, 

Paperbarks and Teatrees. Angus & Robertson, 

Pymble, NSW. 

See Australian native plants N 9, Melaleuca K 99, 




Bottlebrushes are attractive woody shrubs and small trees and are amongst the hardiest of plants. There is a 

wide range of flower colour and some species will flower twice a year if conditions are good. Some new cultivars 

may be more susceptible to pests and diseases. Only plant disease-free planting material which is free from 

Phytophthora, fungal leaf spots, scales and other pests. Propagated by seed collected near the bottom of the 

shrub to make sure that it is mature. Most species strike readily from cuttings and cultivars must be propagated 

in this way to ensure retention of clonal properties (Wrigley 1988). Soil conditions matter little as most species 

will tolerate badly drained soils. A position in full sun is necessary for maximum flower production. Prune to 

remove spent flowers as they fade. Severe pruning of old bushes may kill them. 

Fig. 223. Tar spot (Phyllachora 

callistemonis). 

Fig. 224. Callistemon sawfly 

(Lophyrotoma sp.) larvae. 

Fig. 225. Portable case of the capsule 

moth (Bathrotoma constricta). 

Fig. 226. Damage by leafmining moth 

(Pectinivalva sp.). (unconfirmed). 

Fig. 227. Leafrolling thrips 

(Teuchothrips sp.)damage. 

Fig. 228. Pimples on leaves caused by 

lillypilly psyllid (Trioza eugeniae). 

K 38 


Camellia 

Camellia spp 

Family Theaceae (tea family) 


Parasitic 


Camellia yellow mottle virus 


Camellia leaf gall 

Canker 


Petal blights 

Root rots 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Scales 

Thrips 

Weevils 

Non-parasitic 

Bud drop 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Camellia yellow mottle virus affects 

camellias especially C. sasanqua, C. japonica, also 

C. reticulata. 10% of camellias are thought to be 

affected. Usually only a few young leaves on a 

twig or branch develop a yellow mottle which may 

be marginal, irregularly blotched or speckled. See 

Trees K 1 (Fig. 196). Flowers may be mottled and 

marbled but the relationship of foliage mottling to 

flower breaking is not definite. Infected plants 

thrive and bloom. Do not confuse virus 

symptoms with varieties which have mottled 

leaves and flowers, deficiencies (iron and nitrogen) 

or senescence patterns after flowering. 

Overwinters in infected host plants. Spread by 

vegetative propagation and grafting, not by insects, 

not by sap on hands and tools. Its natural method 

of spread is not known. There is no cure for 

infected plants. Commercial growers should 

discard plants known or suspected of being 

infected. Plant virus-tested stock. Do not 

propagate from plants which have at any time 

shown symptoms of virus infection. See Trees K 4. 

Other viruses (undetermined) are considered to 

cause bright yellow or green ringspots on new 

leaves of some japonicas. 


Camellia leaf gall (Exobasidium camelliae) is 

a minor disease of camellias during cool, wet 

weather in spring and is more common on 

sasanquas than japonicas. Leaves and shoots 

become thick, fleshy, distorted and enlarged. Leaf 

uppersurfaces look normal but undersurfaces are 

white, cracked and peel in strips, exposing spores. 

There is usually only one diseased shoot on a stem 

and only a few on a plant. Galls wither and fall to 

the ground. See Azalea K 27. 

Canker, camellia dieback (Glomerella cingulata). 

Cankers may girdle stems and twigs, branches 

die. Fungi invade wounds including leaf scars. 

Cultivars with large leaf scars, eg Donation, are 

more susceptible than those with small leaf scars. 


Fungal leaf spots: Pestalotiopsis spp. 

colonises leaves damaged by sunscorch or 

drought. Papery, greyish-white areas or irregular 

spots develop on leaves. Small black specks 

(fruiting bodies) which produce spores develop in 

these spots. Leaves may generally yellow and fall. 

Other fungi, eg Alternaria, may also colonise. 

Citrus black spot (Guignardia citricarpa): 

Brown, circular leaf spots of dead tissue 1-2 mm 

across. Black dots (fruiting bodies or pycnidia) 

occur in leaf spots. Others: Cercosporella, 

Septoria. See Annuals A 5, Trees K 6. 

Petal blights: Camellia petal blight (Ciborina 

camelliae, Ascomycetes) can be devastating in 

NZ and other countries (Stovoid 1994) but is not 

known to occur in Australia. Flowers may 

collapse within 3 days if humidity is high and 

temperatures mild. Overwinters as resistant 

sclerotia in soil until the next flowering season, 

when they produce spores. Spread by windborne 

spores, by the movement of nursery stock, on 

flowers for show purposes, possibly on shoes. All 

species and varieties are susceptible and 

fungicides have not given satisfactory control. 

There are strict quarantine restrictions on the 

importation of camellias into Australia. Grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea) may damage buds and 

flowers especially after frost. See Azalea K 27, 



luteobubalina) may attack mature camellias. See 

Trees K 4. Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi) affects japonicas in poorly drained 

soils; sasanquas are rarely affected. Some japonica 

plants are grafted on to sasanquas. See Trees K 6. 



Paratrichodorus sp. have been recorded on 

camellia in Australia, but camellias are reputed to 

be unusually resistant. See Vegetables M 10. 



Black citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricidus) 



Aphids suck sap from new shoots, distorting new 

growth of nursery stock. Honeydew and nymph 

skins cause further disfigurement. See Rose J 4. 


CAMELLIA 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Noctuids (Noctuidae), 

eg budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) may feed inside buds, 

looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) may chew 

leaves. Cup moth (Anaxidia lozogramma) caterpillars 

also chew leaves. Fiery jewel (Hypochrysops ignitus 

ignitus, Lycaenidae) caterpillars feed on leaves of 

banksia, camellia, plum, wattle and other plants 

(Common and Waterhouse 1981). Leafrolling moths 

(Tortricidae), eg orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) 

caterpillars bind new leaves together to form a shelter, 

from which they chew holes in leaves. See Citrus F 37, 

Trees K 13. 


Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) are microscopic, 

elongated with small legs grouped at the head end. 

They suck plant sap. Camellia bud mite 

(Cosetacus camelliae) feeds in buds, especially 

flower buds on japonicas and may cause premature 

flower bud drop. Camellia rust mite (Acaphylla 

steinwedeni) feeds on protected humid leaf 

undersurfaces of japonicas. Leaves develop brown, 

circular discoloured patches. In heavy infestations 

leaf undersurfaces may turn a rusty brown colour, 

uppersurfaces curl downwards and white cast 

skins are seen. Mite populations fluctuate from 

season to season, shrubs heavily infested one season 

may be free of mites in later years. Ribbed tea mite 

(Calacarus carinatus) is deep purplish and feeds 

mainly on uppersurfaces of more mature leaves of 

japonicas during dry weather. Rain destroys large 

numbers. Leaves may become bronzed and dusty due 

to cast skins and mite wax. See Grapevine F 62. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Tea red spider mite 

(Oligonychus coffeae) during hot weather causes 

midribs and veins and eventually whole leaves to 

become reddish-brown. Twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae) causes leaf speckling, webbing 

may be present. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Tarsonemid mites (Tarsonemidae): Broad mite 

(Polyphagotarsonemus latus) distorts new growth. 

Miticides may be applied, commencing when damage 

is first observed. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Scales (Hemiptera) infest leaves and stems. 


Camellia scale (Lepidosaphes camelliae) 

Fiorina scale (Fiorina fiorinae) 

Greedy scale (Hemiberlasia rapax) 


Purple scale, mussel scale (L. beckii) 



Hydrangea scale (Pulvinaria hydrangeae) 


Soft scales excrete honeydew which attracts ants and 

on which sooty mould grows. 




feed on leaf undersurfaces. Tarry black spots of 

excreta help to identify the problem. Leaves become 

silvered. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) cause flowers to 

brown and wither, buds become distorted or 

discoloured and fail to open. See Roses J 6. 


Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) 

Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) 

Weevils chew leaf edges giving them a ragged 

scalloped appearance. Older weevils attack stems 

and other plant parts. Larvae may attack roots, 

fully grown larvae may girdle stems just below 

ground level causing dieback. See Trees K 17. 

Others: European earwig (Forficula 

auricularia) may chew flowers, greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) feeds on 

leaf undersurfaces. Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) 

feed at the junctions of leaves and stems. 

Non-parasitic 

Bud drop, balling, blasting: Some camellias 

(and other plants, eg gardenia) set more flower 

buds than they can carry. A natural thinning takes 

place and a good crop of flowers is still obtained. 

Bud drop, where no or few flowers are obtained, 

however, is of concern. Buds may form normally, 

be green and healthy or their tips may turn brown 

and decay prior to dropping. This type of mass 

bud drop may have many causes. Bull-heading: 

The petals are so tightly packed together that they 

cannot slide over one another to open. Buds 

develop up to the time they should open, then rot 

and eventually drop. Some varieties have a 

tendency to bull-head. Camellia bud mite may 

also cause premature bud drop but this is not 

common. Favourable environment: Over or 

irregular watering, poor drainage, insufficient 

water during late summer/autumn, unseasonably 

high or low temperatures, sunburnt flower buds 

with morning dew on them (the calyx becomes 

damaged and will not open properly), wide sudden 

drop in temperature, wind, heavy rain, too heavy 

shade, poor nutrition, pot bound. Varietal: Some 

varieties drop buds abnormally for no apparent 

reason despite excellent care. Determine the 

cause of the bud drop and correct it. Replace 

varieties which, despite good care, continue to 

drop buds excessively with more reliable cultivars. 

Environment: Drought: Camellias have 

shallow roots, insufficient soil moisture during hot, 

dry, windy weather in summer/autumn may not be 

obvious for several months. Leaf tips and margins 

may later brown, bud drop may occur the following 

spring. Camellias do not tolerate waterlogging. 

Oedema, corky scab may affect camellia, 

begonia, pelargonium, Brassaia and other plants 

and is caused by abnormal water relations within 

the plant, ie roots absorb more water than leaves 

can transpire. Oedema is favoured by over or 

irregular watering of soil during extended periods 

of cloudy weather, high humidity or low light 

intensity (stomates may not open and transpiration 

is reduced) and over-fertilisation. Also by high 

humidities, as in glasshouses, accompanied with 

poor drainage. Small masses of tissue expand and 

break out on leaf undersurfaces causing small 

watery swellings or galls. When these burst they 

harden into variously shaped small corky scabs. 

Often the scabs become rusty or grey and may be 

mistaken for rust. Leaves closest to ground are 

mostly affected. Adjust watering and fertilising 

K 40 


egimes. Outdoors, camellia may be replanted in 

a more open location. In glasshouses, plants can 

be relocated away from humidifiers. Camellias 

with large root systems and sparse foliage are most 

susceptible, eg reticulatas and some japonicas. 

Excessive exposure to sun may cause leaf 

yellowing. Severe damage results in brown 

patches within the leaf margins, which may be 

later colonised by fungi, eg Pestalotiopsis. Buds 

or flowers of white and pale pink varieties, wet 

with dew or frost in the morning, may brown due 

to scalding if exposed to direct sun. Exposed sides 

of plants show more severe symptoms. Sasanqua 

grow well in full sun in a temperate climate, but 

reticulatas and japonicas need to be shaded for at 

least half of the day during summer. Wind and 

rain can cause browning of flower petals, 

particularly white and pale coloured varieties. 

When siting plants, consider minimising these 

possible problems. Deep red circles of 

anthocyanin pigment may develop on leaves of 

susceptible camellias, especially lighter green 

varieties, during cold winter weather. These 

disappear with the onset of warmer weather. 


deficiency (chlorosis) causes mild to severe 

yellowing, initially of new leaves. Except in the 

most severe cases, veins remain green. The pH 

should not be > 6.0. See Azalea K 29, Trees K 20. 

Nitrogen deficiency eventually causes all leaves 

to yellow, older leaves are affected first. Plants 

lack vigour and may be woody. Apply a complete 

fertiliser in spring and autumn. Salt toxicity is 

caused by repeated excessive use of chemical 

fertilisers. Leaves initially develop a marginal 

scorch. Later they may blacken and feel soft to 

handle and may fall. See Trees K 20. 

Others: Genetic variegations: Occasionally a 

twig has leaves lacking or partially lacking in 

chlorophyll (sport). Some varieties, eg Hi Jinks, have 

variegated leaves. Do not confuse these with viral 

disease or senescence. Yellow areas are susceptible 

to sunburn and may be removed as they can be 

colonised by secondary fungi. Senescing leaves: 

Camellia leaves have an average life of up to 3 years. 

Old leaves fall after flowering, new growth and 

MANAGEMENT 

CAMELLIA 

foliage appears during the following weeks. Leaf 

patterns on senescing leaves may be confused with 

virus or deficiency symptoms. White slime moulds 

(Myxomycetes) may develop on lower leaves, they 

disappear without causing damage in a few weeks. 

Sooty mould (Capnodium spp.) grows on honeydew 

secreted by aphids, soft scales, mealybugs and 

whitefly. Some varieties do not flower for 2-3 

years after planting, older plants which have been 

moved may take several years to reach their previous 

flowering capabilities. Leafcutting bees (Megachile 

spp.) may cut neat scallops from leaf edges. 






Bond, E. R. 1996. Camellia Disease. American 

Nurseryman, April 1st. 












Rolfe, J. 1996. Gardening with Camellias : A Complete 

Guide. Batsford, London. 



Stovoid, G. 1994. Camellia Petal Blight in NZ. Aust. 

Hort., May. 


Industry eg 

Camellias (ABG Leaflet, Adelaide) 

Camellias in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Diseases of Camellias (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases and Physiological Disorders of Camellias 

(Vic Agnote) 

Associations and Journals eg 

American Camellia Soc. 

Australian Camellia Soc. and state branches 


The International Camellia Journal 




Camellia are popular evergreen shrubs, tub specimens and hedge plants. They need cool, humid climates. The 

main problems affecting camellias are non-parasitic. Select species suited to the site to be planted and the 

purpose for which they are being grown. Varieties differ in their susceptibility to Phytophthora root rot. 

Camellias forced in greenhouses for cut flowers are more susceptible to canker and oedema. Only propagate 

from plants that are free from virus, other diseases and pests, eg scale. Propagated by terminal or leaf bud 

cuttings, also by seeds, grafting and air layering, by tissue culture. Plants from seed do not grow true to type. 

Seedling camellias are often used as rootstocks for slow growing cultivars. Sun is required for flowering. 

Sasanquas will grow well in full sun, but reticulatas and japonicas should be shaded for part of the day in 

summer. Provide acid soil (pH 5.0 to 5.5), high in organic matter, adequate irrigation and good drainage. To 

obtain larger flowers, only 1 flower is allowed to mature on each stem. Camellias require minimal pruning. 

Collect and burn diseased leaves, dead flowers, cut out cankers. Quarantine regulates camellia propagation 

material and tea plants (C. sinensis) entering Australia, to prevent entry of camellia petal blight and other 

diseases and pests. Growth regulators are used for cuttings and to promote compactness. Fungicides and 

insecticides are registered for use on camellias if considered necessary. Flowers and foliage (C. japonica): 

Harvest when flowers are fully open and leaves are mature. Cut stem on an angle with a sharp knife. Vase life 

for flowers may be 1-4 weeks, spray flowers once or twice a day with water (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Change 

vase preservative solution every 2 days, place in deep water and top up regularly (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Potted camellia plants: Sell plants when 2-3 years old and 1/3 to 1/2 buds are open. Plants need bright light, 

moist soil, temperatures < 20 o C. Ethylene hastens flower bud abscission. Store and transport for a maximum 

of 1-2 days in darkness at 5-8 o C at high humidities (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 


Casuarina 

She-oak 

Allocasuarina spp., Casuarina spp. 

Family Casuarinaceae 


Parasitic 


Root rots 

Wood rots 


Mistletoe 



Borers 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Scales 

Thrips 

Wasp galls 

Non-parasitic 

Fasciation 

Nitrogen fixation 

Casuarina has few diseases and pests. 


Parasitic 


Root rots: Armillaria rot (Armillaria 

luteobubalina), phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora 

spp., P. cinnamomi). See Trees K 4, K 6. 

Wood rots 

Cramp ball (Daldinia concentrica, Ascomycetes) 

fruiting bodies develop in dense clusters on trunks 

and branches of casuarina. They are 10-15 mm 

across, oval to nearly spherical, shiny black to 

chocolate-coloured and appear between June and 

January. A white rot develops. 

Tinder punk (Phellinus badius) affects casuarina. The 

fruiting body is large and hard and survives for up 

to 20 years (each year adding new growth). Its 

uppersurface is rough, often cracked and slopes 

downwards to the horizontal undersurface that bears 

fine, matt brown to dark rust-coloured pores which 

release spores. The fruiting body is about 100 mm 

thick and up to 100 mm wide. It is well hidden in 

crevices in the tree trunk. The fungus rapidly 

decays heartwood producing a white, pocket rot that is 

sometimes indistinct. 



Mistletoe (Loranthaceae) may infest casuarina. 



More than 40 species of nematodes have been 

recorded in association with Allocasuarina and 

Casuarina, eg burrowing nematode 

(Radopholus), cyst nematode (Heterodera), 

dagger nematode (Xiphinema), root knot 

nematode (Meloidogyne), sheath nematode 

(Hemicycliophora), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus) (McLeod et al. 



Borers may attack casuarina. 

Beetle borers (Coleoptera) include twig girdling 

longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae) and jewel 

beetles (Buprestidae). Some bore in roots. See 

Trees K 11. 

Ghost moths (Hepialidae, Lepidoptera): Common 

splendid ghost moth (Aenetus ligniveren) and 

A. lewini. See Trees K 12. 

Oecophorid borers (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera): 


bore into the trunk producing galleries in the bark, 

covered with a strong dark brown webbing of silk, 

faecal pellets and detritus, often completely 

ringbarking the tree. Cryptophasa irrorata is 

common from Cape York to Victoria. Caterpillars 

bore in the branches of casuarina and feed on the 

branchlets which they cut off and attach to the 

entrance of the tunnel. See Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): 

Caterpillars of more than 14 species of moths and 

at least 1 species of butterfly may attack casuarina. 

Silkworm moths (Bombycidae): Casuarina moth 

(Pernattia exposita) caterpillars are destructive 

pests of casuarina, eg A. littoralis, A. stricta, 

C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca, C. equisetifolia. 

Moths are stout bodied, females are large and 

sluggish compared to the smaller and faster males. 

Caterpillars are up to 25 mm long, hairy and 

slender with a relatively large head. Caterpillars 

feed on leaf scales and stems and may ringbark 

branches. Severe infestations during dry periods or 

on weakened trees may cause trees to die. Caterpillars 

pupate in oval parchment-like cocoons spun on 

branchlets. As caterpillars drop to the ground if 

disturbed, the branches can be beaten with sticks and 

the caterpillars collected on plastic sheets spread on 

the ground and then destroyed (Jones and Elliot 

1986). Caterpillars of Porela spp. also feed on 

casuarina. See Mulberry F 85. 

Noctuids (Noctuidae): Caterpillars of Cynosargo 

ornata feed on C. littoralis and caterpillars of 

Epicoma constristis on C. muelliana, Eucalyptus 

and Leptospermum. 

Others: Caterpillars of Mimoscopa ochetaula 

(Tineidae) live in shelters formed by joining with silk 

the still green branchlets of casuarina. Also 

Catorycytis subparallela (Gelechiidae), a jewel 

butterfly (Hypochrysops piceatus, Lycaenidae) and 

Munychryia spp. (Anthelidae). 


K 42 


CASUARINA 

Mites (Acarina): Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) 

infest C. cunninghamiana causing deformation of 

the tips of small shoots and rolling them into tiny 

bunches. See Grapevine F 62. 


Asterolecarids (Asterolecaniidae): Casuarina 

scale (Frenchia spp.) cause unusual galls on banksia 

and casuarina. Swellings develop around the point of 

attachment which becomes woody and gall-like. In 

severe attack trees become weak and may die. 

Eriococcids (Eriococcidae): Coccid galls 

(Cylindrococcus spp.) are remarkable in that they 

mimic the fruiting capsules of casuarina even the 

overlapping scales. The insects feed inside the galls. 

Other species may also infest twigs and bark of 

casuarina. See Eucalypt K 63, Trees K 14. 


nigra) is leathery, oval, raised, black waxy scale about 

5 mm long. Young scales are light brown and soft. 

Mature females are dark and have masses of eggs 

underneath their bodies. Copious amounts of 

honeydew, which attracts ants and encourages the 

growth of sooty mould, is produced. Nymphs settle 

on young shoots and along leaf midribs. See 

Citrus F 41, Custard apple F 52, Trees K 16. 


Phlaeothripidae: Casuarina spp. support a large 

number of thrips species, some of which cause 

galls. 

Ensiferothrips primus (Thripidae) which has 

remarkably broad wing hairs, feeds on casuarina 


Psyllids (Acanthocnema spp., Triozidae) occur on 

casuarina. Nymphs of A. casuarinae are elongate, 

flattened and live almost stationary, curved around a 

casuarina leaf. See Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 15. 

Squash bugs (Coreidae): Tylocryptus egenus has a 

slender abdomen and strongly resembles the casuarina 

branchlets on which it lives. It emits a strong repellent 

odour. 

Treehoppers (Eurymelidae), which are readily 

recognised by their widely flattened face, feed on 

casuarina. Nymphs are gregarious but do not jump if 

disturbed. They are always attended by ants. See 

Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 15. 

Non-parasitic 

Fasciation occasionally causes curved flattened 

stems. See Australian native plants N 12 (Fig. 391), 

Daphne K 53. 

Nitrogen-fixation: Frankia (Actinomycete or 

filamentous bacterium) forms a symbiotic or 

mutually beneficial relationship, with casuarina 

roots. Frankia grows on the fine roots of 

casuarina causing the roots to swell and form 

nodules. Within the nodule, Frankia converts 

atmospheric nitrogen to a form useable by the 

plant. There is no growth response to inoculation 

with Frankia unless phosphorus is applied. See 

Trees K 19. 


Wasp galls: Bootanelleus orientalis 

(Torymidae) develop in seeds of casuarina. 

Ditropinotella (Pteromalidae) are associated with 

galls on casuarina, Myrtaceae, Poaceae and wattle. 

See Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 14. 

Others: Many sucking insects (Hemiptera) other 

than scales also feed on casuarina. 

Casuarina mealybug (Pseudoripersia turgipes). See 


Froghoppers and spittle bugs: Philagra parva 

has a long, narrow head and is associated with 

casuarinas and wattles. Nymphs live in the spittle. 

Spine-tailed froghopper (Machaerota finitima) 

may also infest casuarina. Control is not necessary as 

they are minor pests and kept in check by natural 

controls. See Trees K 14. 

Lace bugs (Tingidae): Little is known about 

Australian species. Endemic species have been 

captured on many Australian native plants including 

casuarina. See Azalea K 28. 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae): Occinivana eborea feeds 

on casuarina in WA. See Vegetables M 15. 

MANAGEMENT 

George, A. S. (ed.). 1989. Hamamelidales to 

Casuarinales. Flora of Australia. Vol. 3. AGPS, 

Canberra. 




Midgley, S. J., Turnbull, J. W. and Johnston, R. D. (eds). 

1983. Casuarina Ecology, Management and 

Utilisation. Proceedings of an International 

Workshop, Canberra, 17-21 August 1981. CSIRO. 





Ralph, W. 1989. A Native Nitrogen-Fixer. Rural 

Research 142, Autumn. 

Spencer, R. 1995. The Lowdown on She-oaks. Aust. 

Hort., Nov. 





Industry eg 

Casuarina for Farm Planting (NSW Forestry Com.) 

Increasing Casuarina Growth Through Nitrogen 

Fixation for Land Reclamation (CSIRO Div. Soils) 





Casuarina are trees or shrubs and are hardy plants. They are used for park planting, shade trees, windbreaks 

and shelter belts and most produce high quality fuel wood. Male and female flowers are produced on the same, 

or different plants, depending on the species. The fruits produced on the female plants are an attractive part of 

the plant. Casuarinas will grow in most soils provided there is good drainage. They prefer full sun. Black 

sheoak (A. littoralis) is tolerant of frost, saline and moderately limey soils, and once established will withstand a 

low water regimes. Propagated by seed (14-21 days to germinate), not by cuttings. The ability to grow on 

infertile soils is in part due to the symbiotic association with Frankia. 



Ceratopetalum gummiferum 

Family Cunoniaceae 


Parasitic 


Root rots 



Borers 

Caterpillars 


Psyllids 

Scales 

Thrips 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Genetic 


Parasitic 


Root rots: Damping off (Phytophthora, 

Rhizoctonia solani) and phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora spp., P. cinnamomi). See Trees K 7. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) has been 

recorded on C. gummiferum. Other nematodes 

have also been found associated with C. apetalum. 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of a pencilled blue 

butterfly (Candalides consimilis, Lycaenidae) may 

occasionally feed on foliage (Common and 

Waterhouse 1981). See Trees K 13. 


may feed on leaf undersurfaces of nursery stock. 


Psyllids (Psyllidae, Hemiptera) may damage new 

leaves of nursery and mature plants. Leaves roll 

inwards. Insecticides may be applied when new 

growth is appearing. See Trees K 15. 

Scales (Hemiptera) may infest leaves and stems. 

Armoured scales (Diaspididiae): 


Soft scales (Coccidae): 

Black scale (Saissetia oleae), 

Soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum). 


Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera): Plague thrips 

(Thrips imaginis) suck sap from calyces which 

brown and fall preventing the development of the 

attractive red bracts. See Roses J 6. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost and hot, strong winds 

may damage Christmas bush. Lack of water may 

cause blossom fall during spring; if weather is hot 

and dry, water plants regularly. 

Genetic: Some plants produce white/pink 

flowers instead of the high demand, deep red. 

Borers 


Fruit-tree borer (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera) 

caterpillars produce webbing and frass (sawdust) 

at junctions of twigs or branches. See Fruit F 10. 

Longicorn beetle (Cerambycidae, Coleoptera) larvae 

may tunnel in trees which are weakened by regular 

and severe pruning. See Trees K 11. 


MANAGEMENT 












Industry eg 

The Christmas Bush in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 




Christmas bush is evergreen, the red flowers are actually their enlarged calyces. Select cultivated varieties 

which give superior colours and vase life. Christmas bush grows well in a range of climates but not in tropical 

or frosty areas. For good flowering it requires full sunlight, well drained mulched soil, protection from strong, 

hot or salty winds, and regular watering from spring onwards. Christmas bush only needs pruning for shaping 

after flowering. Remove 1/3rd previous season's growth and cut away undesirable growth. If flowering branches 

are cut for flowers, this is sufficient pruning apart from shortening any very long branches and general tidying up. 

Propagation is usually by seed but also by cuttings. Seedlings and cuttings should be hardened off. Harvest 

cut flowers early in the morning when plants are cool. Mist or dunk heads in water or leave for a good soak. 

Christmas bush appears to absorb water better through leaves and flowers than through stems. Wrap in wet 

bags or boxes with wet paper. Keep cool, out of sunlight and draughts. Recut stems, use a preservative in vase 

water, top up regularly (flowers are thirsty), and mist regularly (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 44 


Conifers 

Order Coniferales 


Parasitic 




Cankers 

Needle cast and blight diseases 

Root rots, damping off 

Wood rots 

Wood-stains, sap-stains 



Aphids 

Bark beetles and weevils 

Borers 

Caterpillars 

Cypress pine sawfly 

Golden mealybug 

Scales 


Sirex wasp 

Spider mites 

Termites 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fungi (mycorrhizae, sooty mould) 



Pollution 

Conifers generally are relatively free from pests and 

diseases (there are exceptions). 


Parasitic 


Overseas, soilborne viruses have been detected in 

conifer roots, but none in the foliage, eg tobacco 

necrosis virus in Pinus sylvestris, tomato 

blackring virus in P. sitchensis, arabis mosaic 

virus in Chamaecyparis lawsoniana and tomato 

ringspot virus in Cupressus arizonica (Cooper 

1993). Tomato mosaic virus has been isolated 

from red spruce (Picea rubens) and cypress 

(Cupressus spp.) (Jacobi 1992). See Trees K 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) on Cupressus. 

See Stone fruits F 125. 


Cankers 

Cypress canker, branch canker (Seiridium spp. = 

Monochaetia spp.) affects false cypress 

(Chamaecyparis spp.) and cypress (Cupressus spp.) 

The cambium tissue is attacked, producing cankers on 

the branches and trunk. Brown powdery material 

is present in the depressed patches or splits in the 

bark and resin may ooze from branches or the trunk. 

As the infection spreads, branches are frequently 

girdled and the tree acquires a ragged appearance 

with dead and dying limbs. Trees are rarely killed but 

infected hedges and windbreaks are unsightly. 

Overwinters in cankers. Spread by airborne spores 

that might alight in cracks and fissures in the bark, 

germinate and proceed to attack the phloem and 

secondary cortical tissue of the branches. Favoured 

by injury caused by insects or mechanical damage. 

Maintain vigorous tree growth. Remove affected 

trees, especially if the more susceptible species are 

attacked, and replant with a different species. 

Species with some resistance include Arizona 

cypress (Cupressus glabra), Bhutan cypress (C. 

torulosa) and Mexican cypress (C. lusitanica). 

Susceptible species include Lambert's cypress 

(Cupressus lambertiana), Monterey cypress (C. 

macrocarpa), Roman cypress (C. sempervirens), 

Lawson's cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) 

(McMaugh 1994). 

Others: Dieback (Diplodia pinea) causes shoot 

dieback on blue spruce (Picea pungens var. glauca) 

and may defoliate radiata pine (P. radiata). Canker 

and dieback (Phomopsis sp.) occurs on spruce 

(Picea spp.), Phomopsis occulta occurs on Colorado 

spruce (P. pungens) overseas on young tissue and 

root-pruned seedlings in nurseries (Igoe et al. 1995). 


Needle cast and blight diseases 

Scientific name/host range: Several 

Ascomycete fungi may cause needles to fall 

prematurely and slow growth, eg diplodia canker 

and shoot blight (Diplodia pinea) occurs on pines, 

dothistroma needle blight (Dothistroma septospora) 

on radiata pine (P. radiata), lophodermium needle 

casts (Lophodermium spp.) on Pinus spp., 

naemacyclus needle casts (Naemacyclus spp.) on 

radiata pine (P. radiata), Swiss needle cast 

(Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii = Adelopus gaeumannii) 

on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga sp.). 

Description and damage: Needle cast and 

blight diseases of conifers have common 

characteristics although each differs from all others 

in some respects (Agrios 1988). The needle-like 

leaves of conifers are infected by spores (conidia 

or occasionally ascospores) at some time during 

the growing season. The fungus enters the 

needle and usually a light green to yellow spot 

that later turns brown or red encircles the needle 

and kills the part of the needle beyond the spot 

(Fig. 229). The fungus may spread into the needle 

or separate new infections may develop. Entire 

needles may be killed, and either cling to the tree 

giving the tree a brown burned appearance for a 

while, or shed. Needle casts and blights can be 

destructive on mature trees, especially in 

plantations of a single species, which can die 

following repeated defoliation. Young trees in 

nurseries or after planting out, can be severely 

damaged. 

Overwintering: In most instances, as spores in 

dead needles on the tree or on the ground, some as 

infected, but still living needles, on the tree. 


CONIFERS 

Spread: Spores produced on infected needles on 

the tree or on the ground, are either released into the 

air, or exuded during wet weather and washed down 

or splashed by rain, onto other needles and trees. 

Conditions favouring: Wet, humid weather. 

Environmental stress. 

Control: The damage caused to individual trees in 

home gardens and parks is not serious enough to 

warrant control measures. In plantations, effects of 

needle cast diseases can be reduced considerably by 

appropriate site selection, tree spacing, regular 

thinning and fertilisation. In nurseries, fungicides 

may be applied at regular intervals. 

Root rots, damping off 

Damping off: Some fungi cause damping off diseases 

in nurseries and later root rots of more mature trees. 

Nursery hygiene is therefore important in preventing 

spread. Fungi include Botryodiplodia theobromae, 

Colletotrichum acutatum, Cylindrocladium scoparium, 

Dothiorella pinea, Fusarium sp., Helicobasidium 

coonampactum, Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia 

solani, Sclerotium rolfsii (Marks et al. 1982). Grey 

mould, shoot death, needle blight (Botrytis cinerea) 

may be a serious disease of Sitka spruce (Picea 

sitchensis) and other conifers, eg cypress (Cupressus), 

pines (Pinus spp.), Douglas fir (Pseudostuga spp.). 

A sparse web forms on young shoots and leaves. 

When shoot tips are infected, they wilt and die. In 

densely crowded seedling beds infection usually 

begins on the lower leaves or needles and slowly 

spreads upwards. Stems are girdled, shoots killed. 

See Greenhouses N 22, Nurseries N 51, Seedlings N 

66. 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.) causes minor 

losses to some conifers, eg cypress (Cupressus spp.), 

Lawson's cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). See 

Trees K 4. 

Fusarium rots (Fusarium spp.): F. acuminatum 

occurs on Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria 

heterophylla) and F. solani on Araucaria spp., Pinus 

spp., eg Aleppo pine, Canary Island pine, maritime 

pine, radiata pine. See Vegetables M 7. 

Phytophthora root rots (Phytophthora spp., 

P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. nicotianae). 

Susceptible conifers include Lawson cypress 

(Chamaecyparis lawsonia Allumii and Filiformis), 

Araucaria spp., firs (Abies spp.), juniper (Juniperus 

spp.). Conifers with some resistance include some 

cypresses (Cupressus spp.) and radiata pine 

(P. radiata). It seems that when Phytophthora has 

caused disease of other crops prior to planting, there 

may still be potential for serious disease, or if trees are 

planted in wet, coarse-textured, infertile soil. Also 

there is considerable variation in resistance within 

a species from tree to tree. See Trees K 6. 

Woody root rots (Basidiomycetes): Tinder punk 

(Phellinus noxius) and Poria vincta are important 

woody root rots in subtropical and tropical conifer 

plantations in Qld. P. noxius may kill hoop pine 

(A. cunninghamii) in all age and vigour classes, and 

cause butt rot in older trees. See Trees K 8. 

Other root rots: Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot 

(Macrophomina phaseolina), dieback (Botryodiplodia 

theobromae), sclerotium collar rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii), thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis 

basicola), also Cylindrocarpon sp., Heterobasidium 

annosum. 

See Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7. 

Wood rots 

Ring-barking fuscoporia (Fuscoporia laevigata) 

affects cypress pine (Callitris spp.), possibly other 

conifers, and other trees and shrubs. The fruit body 

forms a rusty-brown sheath on the collar of 

saplings. The fungus appears to ring-bark and kill 

saplings rapidly. It produces a white, sapwood rot. It 

is found in most forests in Victoria. See Trees K 8. 

Tinder punk (Phellinus spp., Basidiomycetes) attacks 

Araucaria spp., cypress (Cupressus), cypress pine 

(Callitris) and other trees. The fruit body is large 

(about 100 mm thick and up to 100 mm wide), heavy 

and hard and survives for up to 20 years, each year 

adding new growth. It is hidden in splits and crevices 

in the trunk. The fungus rapidly decays heartwood, 

producing a white, pocket rot that is sometimes 

indistinct. It may also cause a root and butt rot of 

hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii). See above. 

Others: Many other fungi cause trunk, butt and root 

rots, some are weak pathogens, eg root and butt rot 

(Chaetoporus radulosus) on Araucaria. Also yellow 

heart rot (Schizophyllum commune), Coriolus spp. 

Cryptoderma bibulosa, Daedala sanguinea, Fomes 

mastoporus, Ganoderma applanatum, Lenzites spp., 

L. strigosus, Meripilus talpae, Polyporus verecundus, 

Poria spp., Pycnosporus sp. 



Several Ascomycetes and Imperfect Fungi cause 

unsightly discolouration of wood, reducing its 

quality but not its strength. Some fungi can 

attack several species, others are host specific. 

Surface moulds usually grow on the freshly cut 

surfaces of wood and impart to the wood the 

colour of their spores, eg Aspergillus (black or green), 

Fusarium (red), Penicillium (green or yellow), 

Rhizopus (grey). 

Sap-stain or blue-stain fungi discolour sapwood by 

producing pigmented hyphae that grow mainly in 

the ray parenchyma, but can spread throughout the 

sapwood and cause lines of discolouration. Sap-stain 

fungi include Ceratocystis, Cladosporium, Diplodia, 

Graphium, Hypoxylon, Xylaria. Also blue-stain 

(Diplodia pinea), brown-stain (Gibberella fujikoroi) 

and sap-stain (Trichoderma viride) affect Araucaria. 




associated with conifers including burrowing 

nematode (Radopholus spp.), citrus nematode 

(Tylenchus), dagger nematode (Xiphinema), foliar 

nematode (Aphelenchoides), ring nematode 

(Criconema), root knot nematode (Meloidogyne), 

root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus), sheath 

nematode (Hemicycliophora), spiral nematodes 

(Rotylenchus, Helicotylenchus), stunt nematode 

(Tylenchorhynchus), also Boleodorus, Cephalenchus, 

Hemicriconemoides Macroposthania, Morulaimus, 

Neodolichodorus, Paralongidorus, Paratrichodorus, 

Scutellonema, Tylenchus, Tylodorus, Xenocriconemella. 

Pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) 

is not known to occur in Australia (Com. of Aust. 1987). 


K 46 


CONIFERS 


Aphids (Hemiptera) 

Aphids (Aphididae) may cause foliage to brown and 

die. Nymphs and adults feed on young shoots and 

produce copious amounts of honeydew which 

attracts ants and encourages the growth of black 

sooty mould. In severe infestations, the honeydew 

makes trees glisten in the sun, and the ground 

beneath trees, shiny and sticky. Cypress pine 

aphid (Cinara tujafilina) affects cypress pine 

(Callitris spp.), cypress (Cupressus spp.). Adult 

aphids are plump, soft, dark brown, hairy and about 

2-4 mm long. Winged adults are only found late in 

the season. A sporadic pest which can disfigure 

native pines. Infestation may reduce their value as 

specimen trees in public parks. Occurs in temperate 

and subtropical regions, mainly inland. Usually 

controlled by natural enemies, eg predators such 

as birds, lizards, spiders and insects, ladybird adults 

and larvae, scale-eating caterpillars, parasitic wasps 

and flies. Wind, heavy rain and frost will also destroy 

large numbers. Insecticides may be used on small 

trees in nurseries. Cypress pine aphid (C. cupressi) 

may heavily infest cypress pines (Callitris spp.). This 

is a large brown aphid with short cornicles. A related 

species (C. thujufolia) attacks other pine and is similar 

in appearance. Also cypress aphid (C. fresai). 

Juniper aphid (C. juniperi) infests cypress 

(Cupressus spp.) and juniper (Juniperus spp.). Adult 

aphids are large (3-5 mm long), grey and congregate 

on the main trunk during the day (Fig. 230) and feed 

on the foliage at night. Foliage may brown and die. 

Spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum) infests 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga spp.), spruce (Picea spp.). 

Initially causes needles to develop a pale mottled 

colour and heavy feeding results in needle fall. 

Pine aphids (Adelgidae) are large aphids which affect 

conifers. The primary host is spruce (Picea spp.), 

and the secondary hosts are fir (Abies), larch 

(Larix), Douglas fir (Pseudostuga) and pine (Pinus). 

True galls form on the primary host (spruce). An 

adelgid (Adelges sp.) feeds on spruce (Picea spp.) 

and Douglas fir (Pseudostuga spp.). Pine adelgid, 

woolly pine aphid (Pineus pini) feeds on radiata pine 

(P. radiata). See Bonsai N 15 (Fig. 394), Pine K 108. 

See Trees K 10, Roses J 4. 

Bark beetles and weevils 

(Curculionidae, Coleoptera) 

Pine bark beetles are serious pests of pines: 

Black pine bark beetle (Hylastes ater) 

Fivespined bark beetle (Ips grandicollis) 

Goldenhaired bark beetle (Hylurgus ligniperda) 

See Pine K 109. 

Pine bark weevil (Aesiotes notabilis) is a serious 

pest of conifers in plantations, natural stands and 

trees growing in parkland. It infests Agathis spp. and 

Araucaria spp., other conifers. Weevils are dull 

grey, about 15 mm long, with numerous conspicuous 

bumps and protuberances on wing covers. Larvae 

are fleshy, white and legless. Larvae enter through 

deep wounds in bark and feed actively around their 

point of entry. Attacks persist, and secondary pests 

can enter damaged areas; trees may be ringbarked 

and die. Occurs in tropical and subtropical climates. 

Insecticides are sometimes applied. 

Cypress bark beetle (Phloeosinus cupressi) can kill 

or severely damage cypress (Cupressus spp.) under 

stress, especially ornamental trees. Beetles are 

2.5 mm long. Larvae are 3 mm long. Trees die 

from the top, hence the common name 'dead top'. 

Found all months of the year. Remove the tree unless 

attack is only slight and offending sections can be 

removed. Fertilise tree if retained. Susceptible 

species include Monterey cypress (C. macrocarpa) 

and Bhutan cypress (C. torulosa). 

Cypress bark weevil, mottled pine bark weevil 

(Aesiotes leucurus) attacks cypress (Cupressus spp.), 

radiata pine (P. radiata), Aleppo pine (P. halepensis). 

Weevils are 15-20 mm long, dull black or brown and 

mottled with fine, white markings on the head and 

legs, with white-tipped wing covers (Fig. 231). There 

are 2 pairs of blunt spines towards the end of the wing 

covers. The first sign of adult feeding is dead tips on 

the ends of branchlets. Female weevils lay their 

eggs on or just under the bark surface. Larvae are 

cream, legless and 15-20 mm long. They damage the 

inner bark and in large numbers kill trees by 

ringbarking. Exit holes are round and about 6-8 mm 

across. There may be resin bleed and later, patches of 

dead bark. Pupae are whitish, and about 12 mm long. 

If dead bark is removed, the tunnels are seen (Fig. 

231). Favoured by stress following prolonged dry 

periods, irregular rainfall, closely planted trees in 

windbreaks, poor soils. Weevils are found from 

September-March, among foliage or resting on trunks 

and limbs of trees where they are difficult to see. 

Damage may be found all the year round. Under 

normal seasonal conditions, the strong resin flow 

produced by the tree, traps larvae before serious 

damage or trees die. Regular watering and fertilising 

will assist in building up resin which will kill larvae, 

and help the trees to resist further attack, but it is 

better to plant less susceptible species, eg Bhutan 

cypress (C. torulosa), Brunning's golden cypress (C. 

macrocarpa Brunniana Aurea). 

Others: Hoop-pine bark beetle (Hylurdrectonus 

piniarius) on Araucaria. 


Borers 

Ambrosia beetles: Large ambrosia beetle 

(Platypus froggatti) on Araucaria spp., platypus 

beetle, mountain pinhole borer (P. subgranosus). See 

Trees K 10. 

Jewel beetles (Buprestidae, Coleoptera): Cypress 

jewel beetles, Murray pine borers (Diadoxus spp.) 

are probably the most important pest of cypress 

(Cupressus spp.), cypress pine (Callitris spp.) 

especially white cypress pine (C. columellaris). 

Small cypress jewel beetle (D. erythrurus) is 

about 15 mm long, black, yellow and green coloured, 

it flies readily. They emerge from trees from 

November-January. Larvae are thickset, legless, 

whitish and 40-50 mm long, typically 'cobra-headed' 

with their thoracic segments flattened and wider than 

the rest. Exit holes on the trunk are oval and 6-8 mm 

across. Cypress jewel beetle (D. scalaris) may 

damage cultivated pines. Hoop-pine jewel beetle 

(Prospheres aurantiopictus) is a serious pest of 

hoop pine. Beetles are handsome, slender, shiny, 

about 20 mm long with 8 prominent golden blotches 

on wing covers. P. moesta is shiny black and also 

attacks hoop pine. See Trees K 11. 


CONIFERS 

Longicorns (Cerambycidae, Coleoptera): 

Cypress longicorn (Tritocosmia latecostata) 

Hoop-pine branchcutter (Strongylurus decoratus) 

Hoop-pine longicorn (Diotimana undulata) 

Pine witchetygrub (Cacodacnus planicollis) 

White cypress longicorn (Uracanthus pallens) 


Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Giant pine 

weevil (Eurhamphus fasciculatus) damages Agathis 

spp. hoop, bunya and kauri pines. Weevils are large 

about 60 mm long, brown and white with a long snout 

and tufts of hair on the wing covers. Larvae are 

large, fleshy, white and legless. Larvae bore large 

circular tunnels deep into the wood. Also hoop-pine 

stitch beetle (Hyleops glabratus), hoop-pine 

borers (Pachycotes australis, P. clavatus), pine 

stump weevil (Mitrastethus australiae) on pine, 

radiata pine shoot weevil (Merimnetes oblongus). 

See Conifers K 47, Trees K 12. 

Wood wasps (Siricidae): Sirex wasp (Sirex noctilio) 

on pines especially radiata pine. See Pine K 109, 

Trees K 12. 



Case moths (Psychidae) commonly occur on conifers. 

Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri ) occurs on 

radiata pine (P. radiata), patula pine (P. patula) and 

other trees, also Lepidoscia arctiella. Faggot case 

moth (Clania ignobilis) infests conifers, eg cypress 

pine (Callitris spp.), pines. See Trees K 13. 

Cutworms (Noctuidae): Bogong moth (Agrotis 

infusa) caterpillars and other species may damage 

pines in nurseries. See Seedlings N 68. 

Hoop-pine seed moth (Hieromantis ephodophora, 

Oecophoridae) infest Araucaria. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars may 

defoliate radiata pine. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana) caterpillars are 

green initially, later cream with reddish-brown bands 

along the body. The head is dark brown. They feed 

on young foliage of golden Brunning cypress 

(Cupressus macrocarpa Brunniana). See Citrus F 37. 

Pine loopers (Chlenias spp., Geometridae) attack 

cypresses (Cupressus spp.) especially Monterey 

cypress (C. macrocarpa), also pines (Pinus spp.). A 

pine looper (Parathemis lyciaria) and twig looper 

(Ectropis excursia) infests radiata pine (P. radiata). 

See Avocado F 19. 

Tussock moths (Lymantriidae): Omnivorous 

tussock moth (Acyphas leucomelas) caterpillars 

infest false cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). 

Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides) and painted 

pine moth (Orgyia australis). See Pome fruits F 113. 

Web moths (Pyralidae) affects false cypress 

(Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). Tree lucerne moth 

(Uresiphita ornithopteralis) caterpillars infest tree 

lucerne (Cytisus proliferus), broom and other plants 

(Elliott and deLittle 1984). See Tea-tree K 124. 


Cypress pine sawfly, callitris sawfly, 

pine sawfly (Zenarge turneri, Argidae, Hymenoptera) 

larvae infest cypress pines (Callitris spp.), 

especially white cypress pine (C. columellaris) and 

cypress (Cupressus spp.), especially Brunning's 

golden cypress (C. macrocarpa Brunniana Aurea). 

Sawflies are slender, black, mottled with yellow in 

the front of the head and about 25 mm across their 

outspread wings. Larvae are up to 25 mm long, 

translucent green and difficult to see (Fig. 232). They 

feed during the day. Trees can be quickly defoliated. 

Tips of shoots wither and may fall. When fully 

grown, larvae pupate in the soil. Most common in 

dry inland areas in south-east Australia, but also 

occurs at the coast. It is a sporadic pest found from 

February to April. Light infestations on small trees 

may be hand picked and destroyed. Predators, eg 

birds, lizards and insects, parasitic wasps and 

flies, bacterial and fungal diseases kill many. 

Insecticides may be applied to nursery stock when 

larvae are first observed. See Eucalypt K 63. 

Golden mealybug, yellow-banded mealybug 

(Nipaecoccus aurilanatus, Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera) 

is usually only a problem in spring on nursery stock 

of Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla) and 

sometimes bunya pine (A. bidwilli). They cause little 

damage to trees. Mealybugs are covered with white 

mealy secretion (Fig. 233). They are up to 4 mm long, 

roundish, black and banded with bright yellow wax 

around the edge of their bodies. They suck sap from 

stems and occasionally from needles. Mealybugs 

produce honeydew, and sooty mould growing on it 

makes trees look dirty. Tree growth rate may be 

reduced and needles may be discoloured. Usually 

controlled naturally by the predatory mealybug 

ladybird (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri), the larva of 

which also covers itself with a white, mealy material, 

do not confuse it with the golden mealybug itself 

(Fig. 233). Larvae of mealybug ladybirds are much 

more agile than golden mealybugs and move quickly 

up and down stems. Insecticides, applied to 

nursery stock when predators are present, will 

prolong and may accentuate mealybug problems; only 

apply if damage is serious and ladybirds are absent. 

Use a wetting agent. See Greenhouses N 25. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Juniper scale 

(Carulaspis juniperi) infests juniper (Juniperus spp.) 

and cypress (Cupressus spp.), especially Lambert's 

cypress (C. lambertiana). Mauve pittosporum 

scale, pine parlatoria scale (Parlatoria pittospori) 

infests pine (Pinus spp.). 

Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae): Felted pine 

coccid (Eriococcus araucariae). 

Margarodid scales (Margarodidae): Kauri coccid 

(Conifericoccus agathidis). 


hesperidum) infests spruce (Picea spp.). 


Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera): 

Green scarab beetle (Diphucephala colaspidoides) 

and other species, may feed on conifers. See 

Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11. 

Sirex wasp (Sirex noctilio) may be a serious 

pest of pines in a weakened condition, eg those 

planted in unsuitable areas with poor soils and low 

erratic rainfall. See Pine K 109. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae, Acarina) 

Spruce spider mite (Oligonychus ununguis) during 

hot dry seasons may infest conifers including firs, 

junipers, pines, spruce. Adult females are smaller 

K 48 


CONIFERS 

than twospotted mites and orange to greenish-black. 

Large populations can build up before the problem is 

noticed. Nymphs are pale green. Nymphs and adults 

feed on needles by sucking and may turn them 

yellow, grey, brown or even nearly white. Plants 

may take on a bronze colour and needles are often 

shed. Foliage eventually dies. If infestation is 

severe, a very fine webbing will be formed between 

leaves and branches. Large trees are damaged more 

on the lower branches. Seedlings and small trees may 

be killed if an infestation is severe. Overwinters in 

cool areas as eggs deposited near the base of the 

needles and other protected areas, but not on needles 

themselves. Spread by movement of infested plants, 

mites crawling, wind, etc. Irrigate infested trees 

appropriately. Insecticides may be applied to 

nursery stock as soon as infestation is noticed. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) infests juniper 

(Juniperus spp.) and can ruin the appearance of 

spruce (Picea spp.) in one season. Even if controlled, 

damage remains for several seasons. Needles 

become whitish. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Termites (various species, Isoptera): Some 

conifers, eg radiata pine (P. radiata), are very 

susceptible to termite damage, others, eg cypress 

pine (Callitris spp.), are reputed to be resistant. 


Others: 

Bugs (Hemiptera), eg small light 

brown tortoise-like bugs (Lestonia haustorifera and 

L. grossi, Lestoniidae) have been collected from the 

growing tips of native cypress (Callitris). A shield 

bug (Piezodorus hybneri, Pentatomidae) feeds 

extensively on Callitris. Callitris fly gall (Diplosis 

frenelae, Diptera) affects cypress pines (Callitris 

spp.) causing large, rounded, woody galls about 20 

mm across. It splits into 6 sections when old, 

mimicking a ripe cypress pine cone. Maggots feed 

within the gall. Found in temperate and subtropical 

regions, mainly inland. Severe infestations are very 

difficult to control. Watering during dry periods, 

fertilising and mulching are beneficial. Prune out 

and destroy small infestations when first observed, 

preferably before adults have emerged. This helps to 

reduce buildup of the pest. Trees that are consistently 

and severely attacked may be removed. Tiny wasps 

may parasitise the maggots within the galls. Even 

systemic sprays are generally ineffective because the 

maggots are encased within the gall. Once emergence 

holes of the adult flies can be seen on the galls it is 

too late to start control measures. Grasshoppers, 

locusts (Orthoptera), eg wingless grasshopper 

(Phaulacridium vittatum) and yellow-winged locust 

(Gastrimargus muscicus). Thrips (Thripidae), eg 

greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) 

may infest indoor conifers, eg Norfolk Island pine 

(Araucaria heterophylla) causing them to become 

sticky with insect excreta; also kauri thrips 

(Oxythrips agathidis). A weevil (Car) has been 

associated with Callitris spp. 


Birds, especially cockatoos, feed on new shoots 

and cones. Rabbits dig in the soil around newly 

planted Callitris trees and gnaw the roots, causing 

severe damage and often death. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Wind, frost, moisture: Some 

conifers, eg radiata pine (P. radiata), cypress pine 

(Callitris spp.), can withstand strong wind, frost and 

dry conditions. Many conifers when first planted in 

home gardens die during their first year due to lack 

of irrigation or natural rain. Variegated conifers 

may require shade from hot direct sun. Conifers do 

not re-shoot after fire damage. 

Fungi: Mycorrhizae: Coniferous nursery 

stock benefit from inoculation with mycorrhizal 

fungi. See Trees K 18. Sooty moulds (various 

species) may grow on honeydew secreted by aphids 

and other sucking insects. Needles and twigs have 

a black sooty appearance. See Trees K 19. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Conifers 

suffer from various nutrient problems. Radiata 

pine (P. radiata) may produce short, tufted or 

rossetted needles due to boron deficiency. 

Pesticide injury: Oil sprays make foliage look 

dark and unattractive. Systemic insecticides used 

for tree injection are toxic to some cypresses, eg 

Bhutan cypress (Cupressus torulosa). 

Pollution: Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria 

heterophylla) withstands frost and salt spray. 

Death on beach fronts is thought to be due to 

surfactants from detergents, from sewage outlets, 

which are blown on to the trees with the salt spray. In 

other areas near the sea these trees grow well. 

Conifers accumulate pollutants on their leaves, 

deciduous trees are better for polluted areas. 

Others: Large falling fruit: Bunya pines are not 

suitable for parks and gardens because their large fruit 

may fall. Mechanical injury may be caused by 

landscaping, sprinkler damage or fire. Senescence: 

Some of the book leaf conifers naturally develop dead 

foliage in the centre as they age, it can be removed by 

hand. After the needles of many confers die it 

may take 6 months for them to brown. Small conifers 

that die in summer from lack of water may not brown 

until the middle of the following winter. Birds, eg 

starlings and Indian myna, nest in some of the 

columnar conifers, creating a nuisance. Some 

conifers, eg swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum), 

are deciduous. Conifers must be pruned carefully, 

they do not re-shoot. Many nuisance insects, eg 

spiders, make their homes within the protective 

shelter of dense branches of conifers. 




Chastagner, G. A., Hamm, B. and Riley, K. L. 1995. 

Symptoms of Phytophthora spp. Associated with 

Root rot and Stem Canker of Noble Fir Christmas 

Trees in the Pacific Northwest. Plant Disease, 

Clifford, H. T. and Constantine, J. 1980. Ferns, Fern 

Allies and Conifers of Australia : A Laboratory 

Manual. University of Qld Press, Brisbane. 

Com. of Aust. Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, 

Dept. of Primary Industries. Canberra. 

Plant Quar. Leaflet. 

Pine Wood Nematode. No.31. 1987. 

Western Gall Rust. No.28. 1990. 

Insect Pests of Forest Trees and Timber. No.4. 1992. 


CONIFERS 








Harrington, T. C. and Cobb, F. W. Jr. (eds). 1988. 

Leptographium Root Diseases on Conifers. APS 

Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 

Horst, , R. K. 1990. Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. 

Chapman & Hall, NY. 

Igoe, M. J., Peterson, N. C., and Roberts D. L.1995. A 

Phomopsis Canker Associated with Branch Dieback 

of Colorado Spruce in Mitchigan. Plant Disease 

Vol.79(2). 

Jacobi, V. 1992. Isolation of Tomato Mosaic Virus from 

Red Spruce. Plant Disease, Vol.76(5). 



Lewis, N. B. and Ferguson, I. S. 1993. Management of 

Radiata Pine. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 






Ouden, D. and Broom, B. K. 1982. Manual of Cultivated 

Conifers. 3rd edn. 


Industry eg 

Armillaria Root Rot (NSW Agfact) 

Borers and Termites (NSW For. Prot. Series 4) 

Leaf Eating Insects (NSW For. Prot. Series 3) 

Sap Sucking Insects (NSW For. Prot. Series 2) 

Sirex Wood Wasp (NSW For. Prot. Series 1) 


Wood rot (NSW Agfact) 


The Forest & Forest Products Pest & Disease Committee 

See Pine K 110, 


MANAGEMENT 



Conifers are grown for timber, ornamental plantings, windbreaks, bonsai and florist's foliage. Generally they are 

considered to be relatively disease and pest free. Resistant varieties: Choose species with tolerance to local 

conditions, eg salt-laden areas. Swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) will thrive in waterlogged soil and Callitris 

will grow well in sandy soils in dry areas (McMaugh 1994). Disease-free planting material: Only plant disease 

and pest-free nursery stock in disease and pest-free soil in appropriate sites. Propagation usually by seed, also 

by cuttings and micropropagation. Cultural methods: Generally conifers require fertile, well drained soils in 

cool temperature and highland areas. Avoid very hot sites. Although full sun is generally recommended for 

conifers, the white or yellow flecks of variegated conifers are likely to brown in hot sunny sites. If roots are 

allowed to become too hot and dry, or if dry hot winds prevail, foliage will appear dull and lifeless and may brown 

at the tips. Young trees especially may suffer from insufficient soil moisture during hot, dry windy weather in 

summer, the needles turning brown several months later. Sanitation: Care must be taken when pruning 

conifers otherwise the shape is ruined. Pesticides should only be applied in nurseries. Harvest healthy 

unwilted foliage for florist's foliage. Many have woody stems which should be recut cleanly. Most are heavy 

drinkers, always keep in water, replenish and change water regularly, use standard preservatives. Most like to 

be kept cool and in high humidity. Many florists soak green foliage or wilted foliage for 2-12 hours prior to use in 

arrangements. Do not soak yellow or grey foliage which browns if soaked in cold water, hold in a cool position, 

foliage may be misted (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Fig. 229. Lophodermium needle cast 

(Lophodermium sp.) on P. ponderosa. 

Fruiting bodies n lowest needle. B. A. 

Fuhrer. 

Fig. 230. Juniper aphids (Cinara 

juniperi) (3-5 mm long) on J. 

virginiana Sky Rocket. 

Fig. 231. Cypress bark weevil 

(Aesiotes leucurus). Upper : Adult 

(15-20 mm long). Lower : Infested 

pine wood. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 232. Cypress pine sawfly (Zenarge 

turneri) larva up to 25 mm long. 

Fig. 233. Left : Golden mealybug (Nipaecoccus aurilanatus) up to 

4 mm long. Right : Larva (up to 13 mm long) of a predatory ladybird 

(Coccinellidae). For. Com., NSW. 

K 50 


Correa 

Native fuchsia 

Correa spp. 



Parasitic 




Rust 


Leafmining moth 

Lightbrown apple moth 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 



Halo spot (Pseudocercospora correae) affects almost 

all Correa spp. causing red-brown dead spots 

with broad reddish margins, 8-15 mm across. Brown 

masses of spores develop on leaf uppersurfaces. 

Halo spot is a severe disease both in cultivation and 

in natural habitats. 

Red blotch (Pseudocercospora correicola) affects 

C. reflexa and C. lawrenciana. Faint reddish blotches 

5-10 mm across develop on leaf uppersurfaces, 

corresponding grey-brown areas of fungal sporing 

structures develop among hairs on leaf under 

surfaces (Pascoe and Sutton 1987). 

Others: Various species including Acremonium, 

Asterina, Hansfordia. 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi, P. nicotianae var. parasitica). See 

Trees K 6. 

Rust (Puccinia correae) was recorded on Correa 

spp. at the beginning of this century but there does 

not appear to be any recent records. See Annuals 

A 7. 

MANAGEMENT 


Leafmining moth (Stigmella leucarhyra, 

Nepticulidae, Lepidoptera) caterpillars infest 

Correa reflexa and C. alba. Moths have a 

brownish head, white eye-caps and dark bronze 

forewings with a yellow transverse band. Adults 

have a wingspan of about 3-6 mm. Caterpillars 

produce narrow linear mines on leaf 

uppersurfaces in coastal NSW and spin their 

cocoons in August and early September. The early 

part of the mine is often in the form of a spiral, and 

later this area turns brown. After leaving the 

spiral, the mine is tortuous, gradually expanding, 

but does not become a blotch. Faecal material is 

deposited in a thin central line throughout the 

length of the mine, except for the last few 

millimetres before the caterpillar leaves it to 

pupate in oval silken cocoons, usually in the leaf 

litter or soil. Pupal remains protrude from the 

cocoon after the moth merges (Common 1990). 


Lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas 

postvittana) caterpillars tie leaves and shoots and 

may damage fruits, especially those touching 

affected leaves. See Pome fruits F 112, Trees K 13. 


Black scale (Saissetia oleae, Coccidae) 


Others: Mites (Acarina) feed amongst leaf galls 

on leaves of Correa sp. in coastal areas. Weevils 

(Curculionidae) chew leaves in established 

gardens. See Trees K 17. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Leaves of Correa Dusky bells 

may become sunscorched. 





Diseases of Australian Native Plants. Aust. Hort., 

Jan. 





Correa are woody shrubs which flower in winter and tend to attract birds to the garden. All species are frost 

hardy. Correa alba, C. backhousiana, C. reflexa have some resistance to salt laden winds. For healthy 

growth and flowering, plant in sun or semi-shade, in well drained soil with friable rich compost used as a mulch, 

or lightly forked into the soil around the plant's root zone. Fertilise in early autumn and spring, and regularly 

deep water during the growing season. Regular tip pruning after the main flowering period, encourages the 

development of a well branched compact shrub and better flowering the following season. Some species are 

pruned to keep bushy and prevent spread. Propagation is easiest from cuttings taken in late summer and early 

autumn. Dip the base of cuttings in a rooting hormone. As roots develop, pot in individual containers and liquid 

fertilise. Some growers manipulate hybrids and germinate seed. Seed is explosive and ripens in early summer 

over 1-2 weeks. 


Daphne 

Daphne spp. 

Family Thymelaeaceae 


Parasitic 




Grey mould 





Aphids 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fasciation 



Parasitic 


Scientific name: Virus diseases are the most 

serious problem affecting daphne. More than 10 

virus diseases have been found in D. odora, often a 

single plant may be infected with several of these. 

Alfalfa mosaic virus Daphne latent ringspot 

Arabis mosaic virus Daphne virus S 

Carnation mottle virus Daphne virus X 

Cucumber mosaic virus Daphne virus Y 

Daphne-tobacco mosaic virus 

Tobacco ringspot virus 

Host range: Some viruses only affect daphne, 

others, eg cucumber mosaic virus, affect many plants. 

Symptoms: Symptoms caused by individual 

viruses on daphne have not been well documented. 

Leaves may show pale green or yellowish flecks, 

streaks, mottles and rings (Fig. 234). Leaves may 

also be small, thin, leathery, slightly curled and fall 

excessively during autumn and winter. In severe 

infections, branches or whole plants may die. 

Flower colour may be uneven or reduced, actual 

flowering may be delayed and buds may fail to 

open. Plants grown in the shade may not display 

such severe virus symptoms, but this does not 

mean they are not infected. Virus-infected plants 

are less attractive and therefore less saleable. 

Overwintering: Infected host plants. 


propagation from infected plants. Some, eg alfalfa 

mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic virus, daphne virus 

S and daphne virus Y, are also spread by aphids, 

eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). Some, eg 

arabis mosaic virus, tobacco ringspot virus and 

daphne latent ringspot, are also spread by 

nematodes (but these viruses are not a problem in 

Australia due to the absence or small distribution 

of the nematode vectors). Some, eg carnation 

mottle virus, daphne-tobacco mosaic virus and 

daphne virus X, are spread by sap via cutting 

implements, cultivation tools and by contact. 

Control: Once a plant is infected little can be 

done. Home gardeners may restore severely 

affected plants to better health by regular foliage 

or soil applications of fertilisers. Commercial 

producers of nursery stock should use virus-tested 

parent stock in conjunction with management 

practices outlined below and train staff in nursery 

hygiene. 

Sanitation: Rogue and destroy, or remove from 

the nursery, all plants showing symptoms of 

virus infection. Maintain strict hygiene. All 

cutting implements should be sterilised before 

use. Wash hands before working with virustested 

stock. See Nursery Hygiene N 51. 

Plant quarantine: Never place newly purchased 

virus-tested daphne plants beside older ones 

which may be infected with virus. Keep old 

infected stock separate from new virus-tested 

stock. 


from virus-infected plants. Plant virus-tested 

planting material of D. odora. Although some 

daphne viruses are spread by aphids, these 

viruses are not the most commonly present in 

daphne in Australia. 

Pesticides: Use suitable insecticides for the 

control of aphids in nurseries where virus-free 

plants are propagated. See Trees K 4. 


Fungal leaf spots (Marssonina daphnes, other 

species) causes small, thick brown spots to 

develop on both sides of leaves which yellow 

and die. See Annuals A 5, Trees K 6. 


petal blight of flowers. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) may develop 

on the foliage. Plants grown in very protected 

sites, with little air movement and low levels of 

light, are very susceptible. See Annuals A 6. 


Phytophthora root and stem rot (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi, P. nicotianae) 

Rhizoctonia collar rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 


See Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7, M 8. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) and 

spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus sp.) have been 

recorded on D. odora. See Vegetables M 10. 





Aphids may attack growing tips. Their main 

importance is that they are vectors of virus 

diseases. See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 

K 52 


DAPHNE 









Others: Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) may 

infest daphne in warm humid sites. Weevils 

(Curculionidae), eg Fuller's rose weevil 

(Asynonychus cervinus), garden weevil 

(Phlyctinus callosus) and black vine weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus)maychew daphne leaves. 

unpredictably, the reason for their development 

being unknown. Fasciations are more abundant 

some seasons than others. Sometimes they can be 

induced by mechanical injury or by chemicals 

such as hormone herbicides. No control is 

available, affected parts can be pruned off when 

they appear, but further fasciations may develop. 

Some research workers consider that some forms 

of fasciation, eg as in euonymus, may be linked 

with virus diseases (Cooper 1993) or with 

bacteria. Do not propagate from affected plants 


deficiency may be indicated by yellowing between 

the veins on new leaves, soil should be slightly 

acid. Nitrogen deficiency may cause all over 

yellowing at the end of winter. See Trees K 20. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost may damage new growth. 

Small green or scabby lumps (oedema) develop on 

leaf undersurfaces near the ground where 

humidity is high. See Geranium A 35. 

Fasciation probably arises from genetic 

changes in a single growth area of the plant. 

Fasciations have been recorded from more than 

1/3rd of the known families of flowering plants. 

In daphne the stem is wider and flatter than 

normal, almost resembling a ribbon (Fig. 235), and 

multiple buds may develop (as it does in 

cucurbits). In other genera of plants, flowers, 

fruit, underground roots and stems, can also be 

affected. Many plants seem to produce fasciations 

in accordance with definite laws of inheritance, but 

most fasciations appear irregularly and 

MANAGEMENT 




Curtis, C. and Moran, J. 1987. Daphne Decline. Aust. 

Hort., Jan. 





Perkins, C. J. 1993. Virus Diseases of Daphnes. The 

Plantsman, Vol.15(1), June. 




Industry eg 

Virus Diseases of Daphne (Vic Agnote) 






Daphne is a woody shrub and one of the most popular plants grown by home gardeners for its scented flowers 

in winter. It is easily grown either in the ground or in containers. When in flower, containers can be taken 

indoors for a short while. Plant only virus-tested plants, which although not always selected for their flowering, 

grow more vigorously and are more tolerant of cultural conditions than older, virus-infected strains. Ensure that 

propagation material is scale-free. Propagation by cuttings, growth regulators are used for striking cuttings. 

Plant daphne in semi-shade in sites protected from hot drying winds in summer and cold winter winds. Plant in 

soil rich in organic matter, well drained and slightly acid, do not lime. Mulch to keep soil cool and moist but keep 

mulch away from direct contact with the stem which favours diseases such as Phytophthora collar rot and 

Sclerotium stem rot. Apply a complete fertiliser suitable for daphne in spring. Prune lightly after flowering. 

Daphne has a life expectancy of 10-15 years after which plants usually start to decline. Harvest flower stems by 

cutting the stem on an angle with a sharp knife or secateurs. Change the vase solution every 2 days. Many 

woody-stemmed shrubs are very thirsty so place in deep water and top up regularly. Warm water may be 

beneficial in easing the flow of water up stems (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Fig. 234. Virus symptoms on daphne leaves. 

Fig. 235. Fasciated daphne stem. Dept of Agric., NSW. 


Elm 

Ulmus spp. 

Family Ulmaceae 


Parasitic 




Branch, trunk and twig cankers 

Dutch elm disease (DED) 




Borers 

Elm bark beetle 

Elm leaf beetle 

Elm tree leafhopper 

Spider mites 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Elm yellows (phloem necrosis mycoplasma) has 

killed thousands of elms in North America. 

Trees decline, leaves droop and curl, turn bright 

yellow, brown and finally fall. Later, inner layers 

of peeled bark (phloem) at the stem base become 

brown and have a pleasant fragrant smell (used 

for a quick diagnosis). Most trees die within one 

season. Spread by a leafhopper (Scaphoideus 

luteolus). Injection of tetracyclines into recently 

infected trees has resulted in remission of 

symptoms for up to 3 years. Severely diseased or 

dead trees are removed and burned. Neither the 

disease or vector is known to occur in Australia. 

All American elms are susceptible. The threat to 

European and Asian elms is unknown (Spencer et 

al. 1991). Other virus diseases may affect elms 

overseas. Symptoms include leaf mottling, oak 

leaf patterns, mosaics, scorching and zonate 

cankers on stems (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Bacterial wet wood (various bacteria) affects the 

xylem of elms. The bacteria may enter through 

pruning, injection or other wounds. Symptoms 

include dark brown discolouration of xylem, 

weeping of fluid that turns brown in air and 

wilting of some branches. There is no known 

control, prune carefully and repair any damage 

promptly. See Trees K 4. 


Branch, trunk and twig cankers: Coral 

spot (Nectria cinnabarina) is caused by fungi 

invading wounds and is rarely severe. The oval 

lesions, over the years acquire concentric layers of 

callus. Cytospora cankers (Cytospora sp.) on 

branches are slightly sunken, bark may be yellow, 

brown, reddish or greyish. Avoid pruning wounds, 

mechanical damage, sunscalding, prune out dead or 

dying branches in spring and summer. See Trees K 5. 

Dutch elm disease (DED) (Ceratocystis 

ulmi, Ascomycetes) which affects elm (Ulmus 

spp.) is not known to occur in Australia. The 

fungus when introduced into the tree proliferates in 

the tree's sap-bearing vessels. Toxins and enzymes 

released by the fungus cause the tree to secrete a 

sticky gum that impedes, and then halts, the flow of 

sap, killing the tree. Spread by the elm bark beetle 

(Scolytus multistriatus), by vegetative propagation, 

eg cuttings, and by movement of infected plant 

material. Resistant species, eg Ulmus x hybrida 

Sapporo Autumn Gold, Ulmus x hybrida Urban. Not 

very susceptible, eg U. parviflora, U. pumila, 

Zelkova serrata. Moderately susceptible, eg 

U. carpinifolia, U. hollandica, U procera. Highly 

susceptible, eg U. americana, U. glabra, 

U. carpinifolia x glabra. Elm hybrids are bred 

resistant to DED in the USA. Tree trunks may be 

injected with fungicide which prevents the fungus 

from developing spores, without harming the tree. 

Tree injection is preventative and curative, but is 

labour-intensive and may be costly. Even so, it is 

a more efficient approach to curing DED than 

controlling the elm bark beetle. Success rate with 

tree injection is > 90%. An antifungal vaccine is 

being researched. Biocontrol either in the form of 

parasites of the fungus or of the beetle vectors may 

be a possibility (Stackhouse 1995). Contingency 

plans to control DED have been drawn up should it 

enter Australia (Kwong 1994). See Trees K 7. 

Fungal leaf spot (Phloeospora ulmi) causes 

yellow angular flecks about 1 mm across on leaf 

uppersurfaces and brown and white patches 

underneath. Margins and tips of leaves brown, 

Leaves yellow prematurely. Usually occurs in 

autumn. Control is not warranted. See Trees K 6. 

Root and collar rots: Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria luteobubalina), cylindrocladium rot 

(Cylindrocladium scoparium), phytophthora 

(Phytophthora sp.). See Trees K 7. 

Others: Damping off (Fusarium, Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia), wood rots (Ganoderma applanatum, 

Phellinus spp., Polyporus versicolor). 


Borers (Lepidoptera): Fruit-tree borer (Maroga 

melanostigma), small fruit-tree borer (Cryptophasa 

albacosta), common splendid ghost moth 

(Aenetus ligniveren). See Trees K 10, K 12. 

Elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus, 

Curculionidae, Coleoptera) is about 3 mm long and 

a vector for DED. It attacks all elms and Zelkova. 

Beetle injury itself may cause trees to die back. 

Pheromone traps monitor and assist in reducing 

beetle numbers as a defence against possible entry 

of DED (Spencer et al. 1991). Overseas, other bark 

beetles, eg Hylurgopines rufipes, may also spread 

DED. See Conifers K 47, Pine K 109, Trees K 10. 

K 54 


ELM 

Elm leaf beetle (Pyrrhalta luteola, 

Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) is about 6 mm long, 

orange-yellow to dull green, black spots on thorax 

and head, black stripe on outer margins of wing 

covers. They chew holes in leaves. Larvae are 

12 mm long, yellow and spotted with 2 stripes 

along the back. They skeletonise leaves, which 

brown and fall. Larvae pupate in the ground or in 

bark crevices on the trunk. There are 1-2 

generations during summer. Overwinters as 

adults. Spread by adults flying, adults and larvae 

on nursery stock and other plant material. 

Insecticides may be applied to nursery stock in 

spring when eggs have hatched. Trees may be 

banded with 0.5 m of insecticide, a permanently 

sticky material or strong adhesive tape facing 

outwards. These trap larvae as they move down 

the trunk to pupate and reduce the adult population 

for the following year. A strain of Bacillus 

thuringiensis effective against elm leaf beetle 

larvae is available. A fly (Erynniopsis antennatta) 

lays eggs in larvae and a wasp (Tetrastichus 

gallerucae) parasitises the eggs (Kwong 1994). 


Elm tree leafhopper (Ribautiana ulmi, 

Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) sucks sap from Ulmus 

spp. and Alnussubcordata sp. causing leaf 

speckling, but no other major damage. Trees look 

silvery. Do not confuse with variegated cultivars. 

Overwinters as eggs in buds of stems. Nymphs 

emerge in spring and infest basal leaves. Adults of 

the spring generation lay eggs in leaf petioles and 

veins. It is not known how many generations there 

are per year under Australian conditions. Very 

little is known about the biology of R. ulmi in 

Australia, but in England it has been found to 

prefer the more highly illuminated areas of the tree 

canopy. See Trees K 15, Vegetables M 15. 


Bryobia mite (Bryobia spp.) 

European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) 


Elm leaves also support populations of beneficial 

mites. See Trees K 16. 

Scales (Hemiptera): Frosted scale (Eulecanium 

pruinosum, Coccidae) may excrete honeydew. See 

Stone fruits F 132. Many scales infest elms 

overseas, eg European elm scale (Gossyparia 

spuria, Coccidae) occurs in enormous numbers, 

secretes honeydew, the associated sooty mould 

makes trees unattractive, trees may die (Pirone 

1978). See Citrus F 41. 

Others: Aphids (Aphididae) may cause shoot 

tips to die. Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis) may cause leaf silvering. Elm is 

an alternate host for pear root aphid (E. pyricola). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Young elm trees require large 

amounts of water, especially during early spring, 

their most active growth phase. 

Chemical injury: Hormone and other 

herbicides, eg glyphosate, may injure elms if 

applied to attached suckers. Natural gas and air 

pollution, eg ozone, heavy metals, cadmium, lead 

and zinc, damages elms overseas. Damage includes 

brown spotting, yellowing and fall of leaves, loss of 

vigour and stunted growth. Young elms and shoots 

are very sensitive. Very sensitive species include 

U. americana and U. parviflora. 

Others: Suckers: Most species produce suckers 

which damage pavements and underground services 

and are undesirable near buildings. See Trees K 21. 

U. glabra is the recommended rootstock. 

Variegation: Some varieties have variegated leaves, 

eg silver elm (U. procera Variegata). 



Press, San Diego. 

Arthur, T. E. and Hitchmough, J. D. (eds). 1990. Does 

the Elm have a Future in Australia? Proc. Seminar 

VCAH, Burnley, 17 May 1990. Arboriculture 

Association of Australia. 

Com. of Aust. 1990. Dutch Elm Disease. Plant Quar. 

Leaflet No.27. Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, 

Dept. of Industries and Energy, Canberra. 



Holmes, F. W. and Heybroek, H. M. (translated. and 

prepared by). 1990. Dutch Elm Disease : The Early 

Papers (Work of Seven Dutch Women Pathologists). 

APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota. 

Kwong, R. M. (ed.). 1994. Elm Leaf Beetle Management 

Symposium. Plant Prot. Quarterly Vol.9(2). 



Spencer, R., Hawker, J. and Lumley, P. 1991. Elms in 

Australia : Their Identification and Management. 

Ornamental Plants 3. Royal Bot. Gardens, 

Melbourne. 

Stackhouse, J. 1995. New Light Thrown on Dutch Elm 

Disease. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Stipes, R. J. and Campana, R. J. (eds). 1981. 

Compendium of Elm Diseases. APS Press, St Paul, 

Minnesota. 


Dutch Elm Disease Contingency Plan 

Elm Leaf Beetle Liaison Committee, Melbourne 

Friends of the Elms (Elm Watch) 


Lord Mayor's Save the Elms 

National Trust (Vic) Save The Elms Fund 




MANAGEMENT 

Elms are deciduous or semi-deciduous, and are grown for their foliage and bark features. Some species, eg 

Chinese elm (U. parviflora), are used for bonsai. Elms are grown in cool to temperate climates and prefer full 

sun or half sun. Select species with some resistance to DED. Plant material free from diseases and pests, 

eg cankers, scales, elm bark beetles, etc. Propagated by cuttings, suckers and layers, budding and grafting, 

and by seed; use U. glabra as root stock. 


Eriostemon 

Waxflower (Eriostemon myoporoides) 



Parasitic 




Grey mould 

Root rots 

Rust 



Citrus butterflies 

Soft scales 

Non-parasitic 


Sooty mould 


Parasitic 


Black citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricidus) may 

infest new shoots. See Citrus F 35. 

Citrus butterflies (Papilionidae, Lepidoptera) 

Large citrus butterfly (Princeps aegeus) 

Small citrus butterfly (Eleppone anactus) 

Caterpillars chew leaves. See Citrus F 36. 




White wax scale (C. destructor) 


Others: Several other sap sucking insects may 

also damage Eriostemon spp. including citrus 

mealybug (Planococcus citri), greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and green 

planthopper (Siphanta acuta). Free-living 

psyllids (Psyllidae) of a pale orange colour may 

infest shoots of E. myoporoides. 


Stem and leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

undetermined) may cause stem blackening and 

dieback of Eriostemon spp. See Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf spots (Seimatosporium sp., 

Phoma sp., Vizella sp., other species) may affect 

Eriostemon spp. Some of these may also cause 

stem lesions. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may grow on 

flowers, leaves and cuttings in very humid 

conditions. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Root rots: 

Phytophthora collar rot (Phytophthora spp., 

P. cinnamomi) may cause shrubs to die in 

poorly drained areas. See Trees K 6. 

Others: Pythium root rot (Pythium sp.). 

Rust: (Puccinia eriostemonis) has been recorded 

on E. myoporoides. See Annuals A 7. 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 


deficiency may cause new leaves of E. myoporoides 

to yellow between the veins. See Trees K 20. 

Sooty mould: Eriostemon shrubs may be covered 

with sooty mould growing on the honeydew secreted 

by various sap sucking insects, eg aphids, 

mealybugs, soft scales and whiteflies, feeding on 

them or on trees under which they are growing. See 

Trees K 19. 











Eriostemons are hardy evergreen shrubs for temperate and warm climates. They are relatively pest-free. 

Generally propagated from cuttings, occasionally by seed which is explosive. Seeds ripen in early summer over 

1-2 weeks and exhibit both chemical and physical dormancy. Plant in sun or semi-shade, in well drained slightly 

acid sandy soil to avoid Phytophthora collar rot. Shelter from wind and provide summer irrigation and a cool root 

run. Prune after flowering to maintain a bushy plant. Harvest flower stems by cutting the stem on an angle with 

a sharp knife or secateurs. Many woody-stemmed shrubs are very thirsty so place in deep water and top up 

regularly. Change the vase solution every 2 days. Warm water may be beneficial in easing the flow of water up 

stems (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 56 


Eucalypt, gum 

Eucalyptus spp., Corymbia spp. 


Floral emblem for Tasmania 

Tasmanian blue gum (E. globulus) 


Parasitic 




Cankers 

Chestnut blight 

Damping off 



Root rots 

Rust 

Wood rots 




Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Froghoppers, spittle bugs, leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, treehoppers 

Gall insects 

Leafeating beetles 

Leafminers 


Mites 

Scales 

Seed insects 

Steelblue sawflies 


Termites 

Thrips 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Allelopathy 

Environment 

Fire adaptation 

Fungi and insects 

Genetic variation 

Humans 

Kino 




Parasitic 

Diseases of eucalypts have been described in detail 

(Keane et al, 2000). 


Mycoplasma-like organisms have been associated 

with witches' broom, progressive decline and general 

yellowing of eucalypts in Syria. In India, a virus 

resembling tobacco mosaic has been detected, but its 

significance is unknown (Cooper 1993). Eucalyptus 

little-leaf (ELL) phytoplasma causes little leaves and 

witches' broom in Italy (Marcone et al. 1996. 


Occasional records in Australia include crown gall 

(Agrobacterium sp.) in WA and Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. eucalypti on lemon scented gum. 


Cankers: Three fungi are commonly found 

associated with eucalypt trunk cankers in living 

eucalypts. They contribute to shoot death and 

crown decline of eucalypts (Olds 1988). These fungi 

are common wound invaders and widely distributed 

in southern Australia. They do not kill trees, but 

they produce kino veins in the stem, considerably 

downgrading the value of trees for timber production 

and for ornamental plantings. As a focal point for the 

development of heart rot these have received little 

attention. In native forests their impact is apparently 

small, especially in extensively managed forests. 

Limbs and trees dieback, trees may gradually decline. 

Botryosphaeria ribis is an opportunist pathogen and 

can grow as a saprophyte on dead stems and can be 

aggressive on stressed trees. In WA it may cause 

severe cankers on stems and death of plantings of 

narrow-leafed peppermint (E. radiata) and other 

eucalypts. It is also found on cankers in NSW on dry 

sclerophyll woodland trees. See Trees K 5. 

Cytospora eucalypticola is common and serious, 

and is often isolated from cankers on many eucalypts. 

Large kino veins develop. See Australian native 

plants N 1 (Fig. 370). 

Endothia gyrosa (= Endothiella gyrosa) is an 

opportunist pathogen able to grow as a saprophyte on 

dead stems. It is most aggressive on stressed trees. 

It occurs on jarrah in WA, also scribbly gum, spotted 

gum, Sydney blue gum, wandoo and other eucalypts. 

Others: Ramularia spp. causes stem cankers on 

spotted gum (E. maculata), red-flowering gum. 

Sporotrichum destructor causes stem cankers on 

red-flowering gum. Many other fungi, eg 

Paeciliomyces variotii and Phialophora bubakii, 

are pioneer invaders of injured sapwood. 

Cryphonectria cubensis is an important pathogen 

of plantation eucalypts overseas, causing severe 

cankers on stems leading to stem death and coppice 

failure, it may also infect foliage (Davison and Coates 

1991). It is a pioneer invader of injured sapwood; an 

non-aggressive facultative parasite. C. cubensis is 

found in Australia, eg associated with root cankers on 

jarrah (E. marginata) in WA. Nattrassia 

mangiferae (= Hendersonia toniloidea) causes 

cankers and exude gum on E. camaldulensis in 

Portugal, Iraq, India and N. America (Matheron 1994). 

Favoured by wounds (boring insects, pruning, 

thinning and logging operations), drought, stressed 

trees, eg changes in land use and management, severe 

insect defoliation. Crown dieback may result from 

the inability of trees to resist infection by secondary 

invaders, eg B. ribis, E. gyrosa, and as yet unidentified 

fungi. The association of canker fungi with boring 

insects, in dieback of wandoo in WA, appears to be 

induced by insect attack and invasion by canker 

fungi. Some eucalypt provenances (places of origin 

of seed from a natural forest) have superior 

resistance to canker fungi such as C. cubensis 

(Eldridge et al. 1993). See Trees K 5. 

Chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica, 

Ascomycetes) is not known to occur in Australia, 

but has devastated American chestnuts in the USA 

and has been found growing on eucalypts in Japan. 

Although biological control is being developed for 

chestnut blight in the USA, quarantine regulations 

aim to prevent introduction of chestnut blight to 

Australia (Com. of Aust. 1990). See Chestnut 

F 32. 


EUCALYPT 

Damping off occurs in nurseries, greenhouses and 

in eucalypt forest soils. Many fungi (and bacteria) 

may cause damping off, eg Phytophthora, Pythium, 

Botrytis cinerea (stem rot), Colletotrichum coccodes, 

Corticium, Cylindrocladium scoparium, Fusarium, 

Gliocladium, Rhizoctonia, Verticillium. 

Ramularia shoot blight (Ramularia spp., R. patereka 

= R piterka, Imperfect Fungi) affects eucalypts, eg 

lemon-scented gum, yellow bloodwood, red-flowering 

gum, spotted gum, smooth-barked apple. Young 

shoots and leaves, especially along leaf edges and 

mid-veins, are covered with tiny white pustules about 

1-2 mm across (Fig. 236). Leaves look as if splashed 

with white paint. Affected shoots are severely 

distorted. Sunken brown areas up to 20 mm long may 

develop on petioles and stems. Ramularia blight 

may seriously damage or kill nursery stock 

> 3 months of age, in greenhouses and nurseries. 

Up to 50% of plants may be lost. Overwinters on 

infected host plants, debris. Spread by spores and 

movement of infected nursery stock. Favoured by 

humid conditions (shade, moisture, poor air 

circulation), eg gullies, nurseries. Most common in 

spring and autumn but may be present in nurseries all 

the year. Improve ventilation. Fungicides may be 

applied to nursery stock during spring and autumn. 

See Nurseries N 51, Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots (many species) are common 

on eucalypts (Fig. 237). Although unsightly, they 

usually do not seriously affect the vigour of mature 

trees. Some may cause serious defoliation in 

some areas and in some seasons and on some 

species. Some can be serious on seedlings and on 

nursery stock, especially in crowded nurseries 

where the local environment is favourable. 

Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum causes a blight 

of leaves and shoots of eucalypts in the wet 

tropics, and has caused rapid and severe defoliation of 

eucalypt in field trials in north Qld. 

Mycosphaerella spp. may infect juvenile leaves of 

some eucalypts, eg eurabbie, shining gum, Tasmanian 

blue gum, during humid summer months. Trees 

become unsightly but recover to put on new foliage 

the following season. Adult leaves are more leathery 

and not so susceptible. Control is not necessary. 

Phaeoseptoria eucalypti may be important in 

seedling survival in the field under competition 

and in years where conditions favour disease. 

Others: Ascochyta spp., Aulographina eucalypti (see 

Australian native plants N 1, Fig. 371), Cercospora spp., 

Chaetosphaeria talbotii, Coniothyrium kallangurense, 

Coma circularis, Cylindrosporium spp., Hendersonia 

eucalypti, tar spots (Phyllochora spp.), Piggotia 

substellata, Plectosphaeria eucalypti, Seimatosporium 

spp. (Fig. 237), Septoria (Pascoe 1987). 

Control measures are only necessary for nursery 

stock and perhaps for regeneration areas in forests. 

Trees may only be susceptible at certain ages. It 

may be possible to replant with different species 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.). attacks some 

Eucalyptus spp., especially seedlings in 

greenhouses; seedlings can be successively defoliated 

and eventually killed. Favoured by warm, humid 

conditions. Fungicides may be applied in nurseries 

at the first sign of disease, regular applications may 

be necessary. See Annuals A 6. 

Root rots 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.): 

A. luteobubalina may kill scattered patches of karri in 

WA, mountain ash in Vic and shining gum in Tas. 

Early symptoms include dieback of primary branches, 

crown thinning and often epicormic shoot 

development. In young eucalypt trees death often 

occurs suddenly. Older trees decline slowly. White 

fungal sheets grow rapidly through the cambial zone 

(between the bark and wood) of infected roots 

eventually reaching the root collar. Continued fungal 

growth ultimately girdles the tree. Armillaria 

produces a white rot of the sapwood and in eucalypts 

with thick bark, eg messmate stringybark, it may grow 

through the bark for up to 7 m above ground level. 

Eucalypts may respond to infection by weeping kino 

or gum and the bark at the base of the tree often splits. 


Phytophthora root rot, dieback (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi, P. citrophthora, P. cryptogea) (Pc) occurs 

eucalypt forests, eg in the jarrah forest of WA. There 

is generally a yellowing or dying back of foliage and 

a general unthriftiness, which leads to death of the 

plant. Large trees may take years to die. Often if 

the bark is removed at ground level, stem tissues 

appear brown due to the fungus attacking the lower 

portion of the stem or trunk in addition to the roots. 

On removing the plant from the soil, roots are dead 

and decayed, the root system is also reduced in size. 

Replacement crops have been investigated for the 

jarrah forest of WA, and it is now known which 

groups of eucalypts are most susceptible. Very 

susceptible species include those belonging to the 

Subgenus Renantherae, eg jarrah. More resistant 

species include those belonging to the subgenus 

Macrantherae, eg blue gum (E. globulus). See Trees K 

6. 

Others: Rhizoctonia., Ganoderma, Polyporus. 


Rust (Uredinales, Basidiomycetes): There was 

no known rust disease of eucalypt until eucalypts 

were introduced to Brazil. Guava rust (Puccinia 

psidii) is not known to occur in Australia but may 

attack many Eucalyptus spp. overseas. Eucalyptus 

spp. vary in susceptibility and the disease may be 

important in nursery stock or in young plantations 

(Com. of Aust. 1985). See Guava F 67. 

Wood rots 

Wood rotting fungi are more important in older 

plantings, plantations with shorter rotations are 

likely to suffer less damage. Some are more 

common on some species of eucalypts than others. 

Heart rots 

Common honeycomb (Osmosporus gunii) 

Eucalypt punk (Piptoporus portentosus) 


Tinder punks (Phellinus spp.) 

Heart rots (Tyromyces spp.) 

Woody toadstool (Amauroderma rude) 

Others, eg Fomes rimosus, Iononotus, Polystictus 

Stump removers, eg Fomes spp., Polyporus spp., 

Poria medullaris, Trametes spp. Butt and stem rots 

many be secondary and associated with insect 

infestation, eg borers or termites. 


K 58 


EUCALYPT 

Others: Karri brown rot is a discolouration 

associated with infection by a number of fungi, Stereum 

hirsutum and Hymenochaete being the most common 

(Crombie and Bunny 1994). It does not affect timber 

strength, but is unsightly and a precursor to rots, but is 

unlikely to develop if timber is dried to < 20% moisture 

content. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) 

which is present in Australia, has caused cankers in 

woody shoots of E grandis in India severely affecting 

plantations (Eldridge et al. 1993). 'Mal de Rio Doce' 

(a fungal disease) is the most damaging disease of 

eucalypts in Brazil. 


Devil's twine (Cuscuta spp.), mistletoe 

(Loranthaceae), native cherry (Exocarpos spp.) 

may infest eucalypts (Fig. 238, 239). See Trees K 9. 



recorded in association with > 100 species of 

eucalypts. Nematode diseases do not appear to be 

important in Australia, but are likely to become 

more so with the more intensive cultivation of 

eucalypts and in nurseries. Species include 

burrowing nematodes (Radopholus), dagger 

nematodes (Xiphinema), lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus), ring nematodes (Criconema), 

sheath nematodes (Hemicycliophora), spiral 

nematodes (Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus), also 

Fergusobia, Scutellonema, Carphodorus bilineatus, 

Cryphodera. See Vegetables M 10. 


Most eucalypts recover quickly after insect attack by 

rapidly producing new buds and leaves. This regrowth 

is tender, high in nitrogen and very attractive to 

insects. This leads to cycles of defoliation and 

regrowth, with trees being depleted of starch reserves 

and eventually dying. This cycle can only be broken if 

insect numbers are reduced by environmental factors, 

eg drought, increase in numbers of natural enemies. 

In the natural environment the rounded crowns of 

woodland eucalypts are due to the repeated 'tipping 

out' of the terminal shoots by insects. Trees seldom if 

ever die following a single attack of insect damage. 

Repeated defoliation over a number of seasons or 

years is more likely to kill trees. 

Borers 

Larvae of many borers invade eucalypts. 

Ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera) degrade wood of 

many eucalypts, eg eucalypt keyhole borer 

(Xyleborus truncatus, Curculionidae) and eucalypt 

pinworm (Atractocerus kreuslerae, Lymexylidae). 


Ghost moths (Hepialidae): The best known is the 

large bentwing ghost moth (Zelotypia stacyi) with 

a wingspan of 250 mm. The life cycle lasts several 

years, during which caterpillars tunnel extensively 

through eucalypt trunks. Eucalypts rarely die as 

damage is mainly confined to the sapwood and 

heartwood region of the trunk and does not affect the 

inner bark. Caterpillars of Abiantiades latipennis 

are up to 90 mm long. They live in vertical tunnels 

in the soil and feed externally on the roots of 

eucalypts. Caterpillars remove localised areas of bark 

from roots and feed on the callus produced around the 

edges of the wound. They may feed for 2 or more 

years causing pronounced root deformities. Most 

caterpillars feed within 500 mm of the soil surface. 

Lesions caused by the caterpillars may be entry sites 

for Armillaria. Caterpillars pupate in the vertical 

tunnels at the soil surface. Moths emerge in large 

numbers after a fall of rain. Bardee, bardee grub, 

bardi grub (Abiantiades marcidus) was a source of 

food for aborigines (see also below). See Trees K 12. 

Oecophorid borers (Oecophoridae): Caterpillars of 

Uzucha humeralis feed on the bark of smoothbarked 

eucalypts and angophoras. They have no 

tunnel but construct a conspicuous gallery of silk and 

bark particles to protect themselves. Larvae of some 

species chew little bark, but feed on leaves which 

they drag to tunnel entrances. As caterpillars do not 

tunnel far into the wood, they are easily controlled. 


Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae, Coleoptera) 

commonly attack recently felled eucalypt trees 

(dead/dying) of all ages (Wang 1995). A few species 

attack living trees and some may kill trees in WA. 

Longicorns are common but not serious pests of 

planted eucalypts in Tas. Hesthgesis cingulata 

attacks trees which are stressed, eg in waterlogged 

areas, and bores into the lower stem often causing 

stem breakage in trees at soil level. Common 

eucalypt longicorn (Phoracantha semipunctata) 

attacks freshly felled logs and dying trees of most 

eucalypt species in spring and summer. It may also 

attack eucalypts under stress and by ringbarking 

them cause their death above ground; many regrow 

from surviving rootstock. Tuart longicorn (P. 

impavida) attacks young tuart trees < 5 years old. 

Larvae bore under bark and eventually ringbark 

non-vigorous trees. They also attack the branches of 

older trees, causing death or the common stag-headed 

appearance of many older tuarts. Yellow longicorn 

(P. recurva) attacks spotted gum, Sydney blue gum, 

river red gum and smooth-barked apple. Beetles are 

30-35 mm long. Larvae are 50-60 mm long and are 

active 12 months of year. Larvae work in the 

phloem-cambium and enter the sapwood to pupate. 

Exit holes are oval 7-9 mm. Also Coptocercus 

rubriceps (Fig. 240), bullseye borer (Tryphocaria 

acanthocera), eucalypt ringbarking longicorn (T. 

mastersi). Also Bardee, bardee grub, bardi grub 

(Bardistus cibarius) was a source of food for 

aborigines (see also above). See Trees K 11. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Elephant 

weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) chews buds 

and green bark, larvae tunnel in trunks. See 

Eucalypt K 64. Trees K 12. 

Wood moths (Cossidae, Lepidoptera), eg Australian 

goat moth (Culama calignosa) caterpillars attack 

eucalypt especially sugar gum and smooth-barked 

apple. Moths are 50 mm across outspread wings. 

Caterpillars are creamy with a dark head and up to 

35 mm long, They feed, often in groups of 4-10, 

beneath the bark in the phloem-cambium for up to 

12 months and enter the sapwood to pupate. See 

Trees K 12, Wattle K 133. 

Others: Ironbark beetle, ironbark borer (Zopherosis 

georgei, Zopheridae, Coleoptera), jewel beetles 

(Buprestidae, Coleoptera). 



EUCALYPT 

Bugs (Hemiptera): Squash bugs (Coreidae) 

feed on new shoots and inject toxic saliva during 

feeding during spring and summer. New shoots 

wilt and die. When attack is severe, apical 

dominance loss can occur (Elliott and deLittle 

1984). They emit a strong odour when disturbed. 

Eucalyptus tip bug (Amorbus alternatus) is 

variable in size, drab brown and about 22 mm long 

(Fig. 241). Nymphs are 10-20 mm long and 

brightly coloured. Also A. obscuricornis, 

crusader bug (Mictis profana) and gelonus bugs 

(Gelonus spp.). Control is seldom required as 

birds prey on them. On individual young trees 

collecting by hand and destroying them is 

effective. See Trees K 12, Vegetables M12. 


Caterpillars of > 180 species of moths, but few 

butterflies, feed on eucalypts. Caterpillars of most 

moths feed on foliage but some are borers, eg 

wood moths and others are leafminers, eg jarrah 

leafminer. 

Autumn gum moth (Mnesampela privata, 

Geometridae) caterpillars are serious pests of many 

eucalypts, especially young trees < 3 m high with 

blue-grey foliage, eg juvenile leaves of Tasmanian 

blue gum. Moths are dark brown, about 20 mm long 

with a wingspan of about 40 mm and are rarely seen. 

Caterpillars are greenish-brown, up to 35 mm long 

with 2 conspicuous yellow spots about 1/3rd of the 

way along their back (Fig. 242). During the day they 

hide in rolled webbed leaves. Young caterpillars 

skeletonise leaves, older ones may chew whole leaves. 

Severely damaged trees look scorched, growth is 

severely affected for about 1 year. If extensive 

defoliation occurs over consecutive years trees may 

die. Caterpillars pupate (6-9 months) in the ground 

with 1-2 generations per year depending on locality. 

Favoured by humid weather. Caterpillars usually 

feed during February-April, but may be found at any 

time of the year depending on locality. Rain and wind 

wash off larvae and disperse them up to 12 m to other 

trees. Monitor young trees regularly in autumn. 

Wasps and flies parasitise eggs and caterpillars. 

Bag-shelter moths (Eupterotidae): Lewin's bagshelter 

moth (Panacela lewinae) caterpillars infest 

eucalypts and brush box in eastern Australia. Moths 

are 40-45 mm across their outspread wings. 

Caterpillars are 40 mm long. Hairs cause a rash. 

Butterflies: Caterpillars of only a few species of 

blues, copper and hairstreak butterflies (Lycaenidae) 

feed on eucalypts, eg damel's blue butterfly 

(Jalmenus daemeli) on silver-leaved ironbark, dull 

oakblue (Arhopala centaurus) on pink bloodwood, 

fiery jewel (Hypochrysops ignitus ignitus) and 

Theclinesthes miskini on long-fruited bloodwood. 

Case moths (Psychidae): Ribbed case moth 

(Hylarctica nigrescens) is a serious defoliator of 

eucalypt, especially sugar gum, blue gum and 

blackbutt, also pine. Others include faggot case 

moth (Clania ignobilis), leaf case moth (Hyalarcta 

huebneri), Saunders's case moth (Oiketicus 

elongatus). Damage is seldom severe enough to 

warrant control measures. See Trees K 13. 

Cup moths, Chinese junks (Doratifera spp., 

Limacodidae) damage eucalypt, also angophora, brush 

box, stone fruit, apple, guava. Moths are brown, 

stout with a wingspan of 25-45 mm. Caterpillars 

are bright, up to 25-30 mm long, slug-like, with 4 

raised fleshy tubercles (Fig. 243). If disturbed, spines 

emerge from the tubercles and cause skin irritations if 

touched. Small groups of young caterpillars 

skeletonise leaf uppersurfaces. Older caterpillars 

feed singly, eat whole parts of leaves causing 

defoliation, and may migrate to other trees for food. 

Ground beneath heavily infested trees is often covered 

with their droppings. There may be 2 generations per 

year. Female moths lay eggs on host plants. 

Overwinter as non-feeding caterpillars in cocoons 

(up to 2 years) on twigs, under bark, or on debris 

nearby. Moths emerge from hard, cup-like cocoons 

(6-15 mm long), empty cocoons remain on the tree. A 

few caterpillars on a small tree may be removed by 

hand and destroyed (wear gloves). Natural 

controls include virus diseases, overcrowding, food 

shortages, wet weather. Wasps and flies parasitise 

caterpillars. Birds and other predators may be 

repelled by the stinging spines. Control on eucalypts 

is not usually necessary. See Macadamia F 77. 

Emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera eucalypti, 

Saturniidae) caterpillars feed on foliage of eucalypt 

especially E. leucoxylon rosea, spearwood mallee, 

Tristania conferta and a few other species during 

summer. Moths have a wingspan of 120-140 mm. 

Caterpillars are green with fleshy protuberances 

bearing coloured spines (blues and reds) and are up to 

100 mm long. Rarely seen in numbers large enough 

to defoliate trees. Large birds are effective predators. 

Control is seldom needed. 

Gumleaf skeletoniser (Uraba lugens, Nolidae) 

caterpillars cause economic loss of many 

eucalypts, eg river red gum, Sydney blue gum, river 

peppermint, jarrah, wandoo, lemon-scented gum, redflowering 

gum, blue gums, messmate stringybark, 

Angophora, brush box. They can defoliate individual 

ornamental trees and large areas of mature and 

actively growing eucalypts especially during winter 

and spring in WA. There may be mountain and coastal 

strains. Moths are grey and black with a wingspan 

of 25-30 mm and about 10 mm long. They are weak 

fliers and lay eggs during summer in clusters on 

leaves. Caterpillars are cream with yellow, brown or 

pink dorsal markings, up to about 25 mm long and 

covered with hairs and spines. Empty head capsules, 

after skin shedding during growth, remain piled above 

their heads. Caterpillars and cocoons may irritate 

skin. Young caterpillars are gregarious and 

skeletonise leaf uppersurfaces, but later disperse 

and feed more or less singly, eating whole leaves. 

Usually 1 generation each year. Female moths lays 

their eggs in rows on leaves. They pupate on or under 

the bark, on twigs or in leaf litter. Flies and wasps 

parasitise cocoons. 

Whitestemmed gum moth (Chelepteryx collesi, 

Anthelidae) caterpillars feed on scribbly gum, brush 

box, native plants. Moths are large, with a wing span 

of 125-150 mm and night-flying. Caterpillars are 

up to 125 mm long and covered with hairs which may 

cause serious skin irritation (do not handle). 

Cocoons have hairs from the caterpillar bodies and 

also cause skin irritation. Caterpillars feed on 

foliage at night, damage is seldom serious. One 

generation each year. Female moths lay eggs on 

eucalypt bark during winter, caterpillars feed on 

foliage in spring and pupate in cocoons usually on the 

stems of infested plants. 

Others: Anthelid caterpillar (Anthela varia), 

mistletoe browntail moth (Euproctis edwardsii), 

scribbly gum moth (Ogmograptis scribula), hawk 

moth (Metamimas australasiae), web moths 

(Pyralidae). 


K 60 


EUCALYPT 

Froghoppers and spittle bugs, 

leafhoppers, planthoppers, treehoppers 

Froghoppers and spittle bugs: Common 

froghopper (Chaetophyes compacta, Machaerotidae), 

spine-tailed froghopper (Machaerota finitima, 

Machaerotidae). A spittle bug (Anyllis leiala, 

Aphrophoridae) is common on eucalypts in eastern 

Australia. See Trees K 14. 

Leafhoppers, planthoppers, treehoppers: 

Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae), green planthopper 

(Siphanta acuta, Flatidae), green treehopper (Sextius 

virescens, Membracidae) and spiny treehopper 

(Sertorius australis, Membracidae) may infest 

eucalypts. Gumtree hoppers (Eurymela spp., 

Eurymelidae) infest eucalypt, casuarina and wattle. 

Adults are about 10 mm long, brightly coloured or 

predominantly dark blue or black with whitish yellow 

or orange markings (Fig. 244). Wings at rest are held 

roof-like over the abdomen. Nymphs are small, 

wingless versions of the adults. Both adults and 

nymphs are gregarious and suck sap from young 

twigs, causing malformation and producing large 

quantities of honeydew, so ants and sooty mould are 

associated with them. Adults jump when disturbed 

and the nymphs tend to rotate around the stem and are 

difficult to catch. Adults occur all year on trees and 

there are a number of generations each year. Eggs are 

laid in slits in the bark of twigs and may 

ringbark them. Gumtree hoppers can weaken and 

kill recently planted seedlings (1-3 year old). 

Favoured by stress. Populations are normally 

controlled by birds and other predatory insects. See 

Australian native plants N 6, Trees K 15. 

Control is often not necessary. If insecticides 

are required in nurseries and young plantings, the 

addition of a wetting agent may assist control. 

Gall insects: Some insects may cause 

galls on roots, stems, branches, leaves and flower 

buds. Shapes are characteristic of the attacking 

insect, and are thought to be produced following a 

growth reaction of the host to the attack. 

Coccid galls (Eriococcidae, Hemiptera): 

Apiomorpha spp. cause spectacular galls on 

eucalypts (Fig. 245). Sphaerococcopsis spp. 

causes blister-like galls. See Eucalypt K 63. 

Flies (Diptera): Maggots of Fergusonia, in 

association with nematodes (Fergusobia), cause galls 

on eucalypt blossoms resulting in loss of seed 

production. Fergusonia and other flies, eg gall midges 

(Cecidomyiidae), cause galls on leaves. 

Mites (Acarina): Blister mites (Eriophyidae) live in 

and feed from small blister galls on the surface of 

leaves of some eucalypts (Fig. 251) and Angophora. 

Psyllid galls (Psyllidae): Schedotrioza spp. cause 

round, woody or fleshy galls, while some species, 

eg Glycaspis, cause bladder-like galls on eucalypt 

leaves about 8 mm across. 

Wasps (Hymenoptera): Bluegum eulophid 

(Ophelimus eucalypti, Eulophidae) is often reared 

from eucalypt galls and seed chalcids 

(Megastigmus, Torymidae) from stem, leaf and flower 

galls of eucalypts and other plants. Pimple galls 

develop on red flowering gum. 

Weevils (Curculionidae): Gregarious gall weevils 

(Strongylorhinus ochraceus, S. clarki) cause galls on 

young eucalypt stems (Fig. 246). Larvae, after 

hatching from the eggs laid in the stem tissue, live in 

small chambers in a cluster or swelling about 100 mm 

long. This increases in size as larvae develop and 

after pupation adult beetles emerge through 5 mm 

diameter holes on its surface. This may weaken the 

tree enough for it to break in strong wind, but mostly 

trees produce fresh wood over damaged areas. 

See Australian native plants N 6, Trees K 14. 

Leafeating beetles (Coleoptera) 

Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae): Eucalyptus leaf 

beetles, eucalyptus tortoise beetles (Chrysophtharta 

spp., Paropsis spp.) affect eucalypt. Beetles are 

5-15 mm long, variously coloured, generally bright 

and shiny about the size of ladybird beetles and tend 

to feed individually and chew leaf edges (Fig. 247). 

Larvae are cream or yellow, slug-like, about 

10-20 mm long, cluster on and skeletonise leaves. 

Both beetles and larvae cause partial defoliation of 

fast growing eucalypts. Female beetles lay eggs in 

distinctive patterns on stems and foliage. Larvae 

hatch from the eggs, feed on leaves and drop to the 

ground to pupate. A number of generations each year. 

Adults are present on trees during frost-free periods of 

the year, reaching population peaks in late spring and 

early autumn. Tasmanian eucalyptus leaf beetle 

(C. bimaculata) is a major pest of eucalypts, eg 

mountain ash, messmate stringybark, alpine ash and 

shining gum, especially in Tasmania. Beetles are 9 

mm long, dome-shaped, variable in colour, green 

(summer) to dark red brown (winter) with 2 black 

markings. Larvae are dark green to black and feed in 

groups. Beetles and larvae feed on new growth. 

Young trees are very susceptible, repeated attacks 

over seasons affects form, reduces tree growth and 

may even kill them. Trees with new red leaves, eg 

E. regnans, suffer more defoliation than species with 

new greener leaves. Overwinters as adults 

under bark or in cracks in dead wood. In spring adults 

emerge and on warm sunny days, cluster on young 

foliage and feed. When cool and windy they seek 

shelter. Eggs are laid on foliage in late spring and late 

summer. Larvae fall to ground to pupate in leaf litter, 

adults emerge. By April all larvae activity has ceased 

and adults have found overwintering sites. Select 

eucalypts with some resistance. Also swarming 

leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.). See Trees K 15. 

Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera) attack 

foliage of young eucalypts and other plants on grassy 

sites. They are major defoliators of eucalypts 

during late spring and early summer. Beetles vary in 

colour, are 5-35 mm long, stout-bodied, forelegs 

modified for digging. Depending on the species, they 

have a 1-2 year life cycle of which only 1-10 weeks is 

spent in the adult stage. Larvae are 10-70 mm long, 

cream, plump, soft-bodied, C-shaped with hard, true 

legs only, brown heads and strong jaws. They live in 

the soil and feeds on the roots of grasses and other 

plants. Favoured by planting in old pasture land. 

There is an increase in nitrogen, phosphorus and 

potassium in leaves of eucalypts due to the excreta 

of grazing stock under trees. Insects feeding on them 

grew faster and develop larger pupae (Beckman and 

Davidson 1990). Beetles have few natural 

enemies apart from birds and arboreal animals 

which are almost non-existent in improved pasture 

because of over-clearing and loss of suitable habitat. 

Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.) are 

golden, 10-30 mm long and serious pests of 

eucalypts (Fig. 248). Adults of certain species of 

beetle prefer particular species of eucalypts. They 

produce at first a saw-tooth pattern of damage, later 


EUCALYPT 

the whole leaf may be eaten. Individual trees by 

roadsides, or on large areas of grass, are damaged 

more than trees growing together in big groups. On 

small trees, beetles may be hand picked, only very 

occasionally in severe infestations is it considered 

necessary to spray small trees. Green scarab 

beetle (Diphucephala colaspidoides) is large and 

chews foliage of wattle and eucalypts. Spring 

beetles (Liparetus spp.) may cause serious 

defoliation of young eucalypts in the wheat belt of 

WA. Also small brownish cockchafers 

(Sericesthis spp.), brown eucalypt beetle (Lepidiota 

rothei). See Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11. 

Leafminers 

Beetle (Coleoptera): Larvae of a small beetle (Syrbis 

alycone) mine in leaves of messmate stringybark and 

silvertop ash (E. sieberi). 

Leafblister sawflies (Phylacteophaga eucalypti and 

P. froggatti, Pergidae, Hymenoptera) infest eucalypt, 

brush box. Often damage is just cosmetic. Adults 

are 5 mm long. Larvae are 5-6 mm long and mine 

inside leaves causing brown and papery blistering 

(Fig. 249), leaves fall, trees look scorched. Trees 

< 5 m in height may be defoliated. Infestations 

which persist year after year may cause dieback. 

Complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, 

adult) with several generations each year. The female 

sawfly lays eggs in the leaf surface using her sawfly 

ovipositor. The larvae pupate in raised blister areas. 

Favoured by exposed trees, street trees, leaves on 

trees < 4 m high. Control light infestations by 

pruning out infested portions from small trees and 

destroying them. Not much is known about their 

natural enemies. Susceptible species include 

white ironbark, snow gum, E. nicholii and E. 

tereticornis. Many trees tolerate light infestation and 

as the trees outgrow this problem, avoid spraying, 

unless infestation is severe. If hard oval lumps 

(pupae) can be seen in most blisters then it is too late 

to spray that season. A systemic insecticide may be 

applied to trees < 3 m high when mines are first 

noticed in spring. Wetting agents are usually 

necessary for effective control when spraying 

eucalypts. 

Moths (Lepidoptera): Blackbutt leafminer 

(Acrocercops laciniella, Gracillariidae) caterpillars 

mine in blackbutt. Moths have a wingspan of about 

15 mm. Caterpillars are about 10 mm long. Jarrah 

leafminer (Perthida glyphopa, Incurvariidae) is a 

serious pest of jarrah in WA; several other 

eucalypts may suffer minor damage. Moths are tiny, 

about 6 mm long. Creamy caterpillars up to 4 mm 

long, mine in new leaves during winter, forming 

large reddish-grey blotch mines. Trees look scorched. 

In spring caterpillars cut and make a case 5 mm long 

from leaf upper and undersurfaces, with silk. This 

drops to the ground and the caterpillar buries it 

20-30 mm deep for pupation. Moths emerge in 

autumn and lays eggs on new growth. Favoured by 

flushes of new leaf growth. Wasps parasitise 

caterpillars but do not provide economic control. 

Insecticides are difficult to apply and relatively 

ineffective. Resistant species are being 

researched. 

Spread by adults flying and by movement of 

infested plants. Only apply insecticides to 

nursery stock or young trees. See Azalea K 28, 

Trees K 15. 


Scientific name: Psyllidae, Hemiptera: 

Bluegum psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti) 

Brown basket lerp, brown lace lerp 

(Cardiaspina fiscella) 

Eucalypt shoot psyllid (Blastopsylla occidentalis) 

Fingered lerp (Cardiaspina maniformis) 

Horn lerps (Creiis spp.) 

Ironbark lace lerp (Cardiaspina vittaformis) 

Pinkgum lerp (Cardiaspina densitexta) 

Redgum basket lerp (Cardiaspina retator) 

Redgum sugar lerp (WA, NT, Qld) (Glycaspis blakei) 

Spottedgum psyllid (Eucalyptolyma maideni) 

White lace lerp (Cardiaspina albitextura) 

Yellowbox lerp (Lasiopsylla rotundipennis) 

Host range: Native trees, especially eucalypts. 

One species can usually only attack a few species of 

eucalypts. Bluegum psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti) 

infests blue gum (E. globulus), shining gum and a 

number of other species with blue-grey foliage. 

Description and damage: Adult lerps and 

psyllids are small sap sucking insects with 2 pairs of 

wings held roof-like over the head, they are not 

strong fliers. Nymphs of lerp insects form a cover, 

or a lerp with shapes and colour characteristic of that 

species, about 1-5 mm across, beneath which they 

shelter and feed (Fig. 250). Unlike scales they remain 

fully mobile through all stages. Adults are winged. 

Because nymphs are so small, the first sign of attack is 

the presence of lerp coverings on leaves. If the attack 

is severe and the lerp species produces whitish lerps, the 

masses of lerps give trees a silvery appearance. 

Discarded lerp coverings fall from the tree. Lerps of 

some species were used by aborigines for food. 

Purplish patches develop on leaves due to the 

sucking of the nymphs and adults and the toxic saliva of 

some lerp insects. Leaves then brown and trees look as 

if scorched by fire. If there has been heavy attack, 

infested leaves may fall prematurely. Trees usually 

recover from one infestation, but if infestations are 

sustained during consecutive seasons, trees may die. 

Lerp insects produce honeydew which attracts ants 

and on which sooty mould grows, making trees and 

evergreen plants underneath them look black. Psyllids 

are free-living, they do not form a lerp covering for their 

nymphs. They move freely over the surface of foliage, 

producing malformation and discolouration of leaves 

and terminal shoots where they feed. Adults are up to 

10 mm long. 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph, 

adult) with several generations each year. Eggs are 

laid on leaf surfaces. 

Overwintering: The main lerp stage appears to 

be from autumn through to spring. Development is 

slow in winter. Adults appear in summer. Heavy 

infestation does not usually occur until autumn, when 

the summer leaf growth has replaced the foliage 

defoliated by the previous infestation. 

Spread: Adults fly to adjacent plantings (but they 

are not strong fliers). In SA, the bluegum psyllid is 

common on seedlings in commercial nurseries. 

Conditions favouring: Plague numbers do not 

occur every year. 

Control is difficult. Small trees continually 

attacked may be replaced with other species. 

Biological control: Birds and some insects prey 

on lerps so treatment may not be necessary. Holes 

in lerp coverings indicate parasitism. 

K 62 


EUCALYPT 

Resistant varieties: Different species of lerp 

insects favour different species of eucalypt. 

Susceptible eucalypt, eg swamp mahogany, 

yellow box, red gum. Slightly susceptible, eg 

red box, white ironbark, white brittle gum. 

Pesticides: Systemic foliage insecticides may be 

applied to small trees at the first sign of infestation 

(the protective lerp covering makes contact sprays 

ineffective). Wetting agents improve effectiveness. 

One application per season should give adequate 

control as adult insects do not fly far. 


Bunch mites (Eriophyidae) may feed on new shoots 

causing witches' broom. New leaves are distorted, 

stunted and severely deformed. 

Blister mites (Eriophyidae) shelter in small blisters on 

leaves of eucalypt and angophora, they crawl in and 

out of the blisters through tiny holes to feed on leaves 

(Fig. 251). Blistered areas may discolour and die. 

Others: Felty gall mite (Eriophyidae) cause deep 

pink felty patches on leaves. Redlegged earth 

mite (Halotydeus destructor) may whiten leaves of 

eucalypt seedlings by their sap sucking. 



Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae): Gumtree scale 

(Eriococcus coriaceus) is a common and serious 

pest of eucalypts. Females are 2-3 mm long, grey, 

yellowish or red and egg-shaped (Fig. 252). Males 

are 1-1.5 mm long and usually found above females 

on stems. Ants and flies are attracted to secreted 

honeydew and black sooty mould grows on it. 

Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph and adult) with 

several generations each year. Young scale emerge as 

crawlers from the top of the old scale and move along 

the branches in spring and early summer. 

Cultivated eucalypts seem to be most susceptible, 

mainly in spring and autumn. Control is difficult. 

Young trees severely attacked over many years may 

be removed. Natural controls include predators, 

eg moth caterpillars (Stathmopoda melanchora, 

Creobota coccophthora, Catoblemma dubia, C. 

mesotaenia, Eublemma spp.); caterpillars of a moth 

(Batrachedra arenosella) feed on scale insects of 

eucalypts and macadamia and Populus deltoides 

grown in plantations; predatory ladybird beetles and 

their larvae (Rhyzobius spp., R. ventralis, Harmonia 

conformis, Coccinella repanda); and parasites, eg 

wasps. Eucalypts which may be severely affected, 

include spinning top gum, silverleafed gum, scribbly 

gum, wandoo, white peppermint; those variably 

affected include white spotted gum, Argyle apple, 

ribbon gum, blue gum, red gum; those relatively free 

from attack include boxes and ironbarks. E. 

serratibolus and eucalypt leafgall scale 

(Opisthoscelis subrotunda) also infest eucalypts. 

Coccid galls (Apiomorpha spp.) form distinctive 

galls; female galls occur on stems or leaves, male 

galls are usually smaller and occur on stems, leaves 

and fruits or as outgrowths of the maternal gall (Fig. 

245). See Citrus F 41. 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Adult males are 

slipper-shaped, smaller than females and usually 

clustered together, either on leaves near the females 

or on the same branchlets. Males are delicate 

2-winged insects. Scales usually cluster on twigs, 

leaf petioles or about leaf veins. See Citrus F 39. 


Seed insects may attack eucalypt seed 

before it is shed from the capsule (gum nut) or 

after it falls to the forest floor. Two species of 

tiny beetles (Dryophilodes spp.), and a small 

wasp (Megastigmus sp.) lay their eggs in eucalypt 

flowers. After hatching, the tiny larvae tunnel 

down into developing seeds and eat the contents. 

Adults usually emerge through the sides or top of 

the capsule before it opens to shed seed. Eucalypt 

seed on the ground may be damaged by the 

strawberry bug (Euander lacertosus) or harvested 

by several species of ants. See Seeds N 74. 

Steelblue sawflies, spitfires 

These are the largest and most common of the 

eucalyptus-feeding sawfly larvae. They are found 

from Tasmania to north Qld. 

Scientific name: Pergidae, Hymenoptera: 

Eucalypt-defoliating sawfly (Pergagrapta bella) 

Ironbark sawfly (Lophyrotoma analis) 

Large green sawfly (P. affinis insularis) 

Spitfire grubs (Perga spp.) 

Steelblue sawfly (P. affinis affinis, P. dorsalis) 

Host range: Steelblue sawflies may be serious 

pests of various species of eucalypt including 

Blakely's red gum, river red gum, South Australian 

blue gum (E. leucoxylon), and yellow box and red 

ironbark, manna gum, snow gum. 

Description and damage: Female sawflies 

have a saw-like egg-laying structure to cut plant 

tissues and insert their eggs. They are about 20 mm 

long, steel blue with yellow marks on head and 

thorax, yellow antennae and legs. Wings are yellow 

with well marked veins. Males are rare, smaller and 

not needed for reproduction. Adults do not feed. 

Larvae (spitfires) are up to 60-75 mm long, black and 

covered with short white hairs (Fig. 253). They have 

no prolegs on the abdomen. If disturbed, they raise 

their heads, bend back their bodies, and eject a thick 

yellow concentrated eucalyptus material (which can 

irritate the eyes), at the same time raising the tips of 

their abdomens and tapping up and down. When 

young they are yellowish with black heads and cluster 

around branches during the day in a tight mass. At 

night they wander singly over foliage to feed and can 

seriously defoliate young trees. Effects on older 

trees are not usually long lasting. Clusters migrate to 

the ground to look for a new food source, larvae 

maintain physical contact with each other by 

drumming their tails (abdomens) on a hard surface. 

Larvae of cattlepoisoning sawfly (Lophyrotoma 

interrupta) which feed on eucalypts and Angophora, 

if eaten, may poison cattle. 

Pest cycle: Complete metamorphosis (egg, larva 

(spitfire), pupa, adult) with 1 generation each year in 

temperate climates. Adult females die after laying 

eggs into slits cut in leaf uppersurfaces close to the 

ground. As larvae develop they move upwards and 

outwards feeding on terminal shoots. When fully fed, 

they descend from the tree in a slow moving mass and 

wander (up to 250 in one formation) about on the 

ground for several days, before selecting soft 

ground around the trunk base to pupate. They 

burrow 50-100 mm into the soil and spin brown 

cylindrical cocoons (about 25 mm long and 12 mm 

across) in rows against each other, usually with their 

heads all facing one way. See Soil N 84 (Fig. 451) 


EUCALYPT 

Overwintering: Really oversummering. As 

larvae in cocoons in soil to avoid hot dry summers. 

Some individuals remain in cocoon for years. 

Spread: As adults flying and as larvae crawling. 

Conditions favouring: Late summer to early 

autumn. Newly planted eucalypts. 

Control: 

Sanitation: If only a few trees are affected and 

clumps of spitfires are within reach, prune off, 

remove with a stick, or a jet of water, and destroy. 

Biological control: Natural controls include heat, 

and bird damage to egg pods. Large cockatoos 

eat larvae. Parasitic wasps and flies attack the 

eggs and larvae. Eggs are either laid directly in the 

sawfly larvae or on leaves, being eaten by the 

larvae during feeding. Fungal diseases destroy 

larvae in cocoons in unseasonably wet conditions. 

Resistant varieties: Eucalypts vary in 

susceptibility. 

Pesticides: In the home garden, if larvae are within 

reach, they may be sprayed lightly with a 

household insecticide. Large areas of young trees < 

3 m infested with many clumps of young spitfires 

may be sprayed with an insecticide; the addition of 

a wetting agent such as white oil, improves 

effectiveness. Apply when larvae are < 25 mm 

long, well before they aggregate on stems and 

become readily visible. Monitor populations. 

Stick insects, leaf insects (Phasmatodea) are 

difficult to see and resemble a dead twig (Fig. 254). 

They grow up to 200 mm, move slowly. They are 

voracious leaf feeders. Rarely a pest in gardens, but 

may be very destructive in forests when they 

occur in plague proportions, causing severe and 

widespread defoliation of alpine ash forest in NSW. 

Repeated infestations may cause heavy mortality 

of trees over appreciable areas and marked reduction 

in growth. Severe plagues only occur sporadically, 

eg after a cold wet summer; susceptible species of 

eucalypts are stripped and often thousands of hectares 

look as if they have been badly burnt by fire. Trees 

may be thickly draped with stick insects that glide or 

fall clumsily to a fresh source of leaves. 

Ringbarker phasmatid (Podacanthus wilkinsoni) 

ravages large areas of eucalypt, brush box, etc. 

Spiny leaf insect (Extatosoma tiaratum) is a solitary, 

slow moving insect, which chews lumps out of 

leaves of eucalypt, wattle and other plants. Adults 

are large, bright-green or brown and up to 120 mm 

long. The edges of the abdomen and legs have 

flattened, leaf-like plates and the whole surface is 

covered with short, sharp spines. The head is 

prominent and conical, and it often curls its abdomen 

when at rest. There is an incomplete 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult). Thick shelled 

eggs fall to the ground and lie loosely on top of soil 

and litter. On hatching, nymphs climb any upright 

object and feed on leaves. Lizards and insects eat 

eggs, some ants store them in their colonies. Wasps 

parasitise eggs. Birds prey on adults and nymphs. 

Control is rarely necessary. 

Spurlegged phasmatid (Didymuria violescens) 

damage eucalypts, brushbox, etc in forests. 

Tessellated phasmatid (Ctenomorphodes tessulatus) 

has been associated with eucalypt dieback. It also 

feeds on Allocasuarina littoralis, Lophostemon spp. 

Syncarpia glomifera. 

Termites (Isoptera): Coptotermes aciniformis, 

C. frenchii and Porotermes adamsoni are the major 

wood-destroying species. See Trees K 17. 


Australothrips bicolor (Thripidae) lives on eucalypt 


Eucalyptus thrips (Thrips australis = Isoneurothrips 

australis, Thripidae) is the dominant thrips in eucalypt 

flowers. Other species found in eucalypt flowers 

include plague thrips (Thrips imaginis), and 

Andrewarthaia sp. (Aeolothripidae) which is white 

to dark brown and feeds on plant tissue and insects 

(CSIRO 1990). See Roses J 6. 


Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) feeds 

on buds and bark, larvae tunnel in trunks and 

roots. See Trees K 12. 

Eucalyptus weevil (Gonipterus scutellatus) is hard, 

dull brown and 7-10 mm long. Weevils firmly grasp 

twigs, so are difficult to remove by hand, and feed on 

the soft bark of new shoots which look pitted, and 

scallops leaf margins. Larvae are 10-15 mm long, 

legless, pale yellow-green with a black stripe along 

each side and black spots on the back. They are sluglike 

and often trail a thread of faeces. They feed on 

leaves leaving only the midrib. There are 1-2 

generations each year depending on the locality. 

Overwinters as adults under loose bark. Favoured 

when trees are planted out of their natural location, or 

suffer stress. Usually no long term damage. 

Parasitic flies (Tachinidae) regulate populations. 

Fruit-tree root weevil (Leptopius squalidus) is dullgrey, 

slow moving and grazes on the leaf surface. A 

rarely noticed native insect. Larvae bore tunnels in 

the roots, especially very deep roots. See Fruit F 11. 

Redlegged weevil (Catasarcus impressipennis) is 

grey-green, 10-15 mm long and chews leaf edges 

giving a scalloped appearance (Fig. 255). It and other 

species can cause serious damage in summer to 

tuart in WA and bluegums near Albany (Howe 1990). 

Gregarious gall weevil (Strongylorhinus spp.) larvae 

cause galls on young eucalypt stems (Fig. 246). 

Trees may break in the wind. 

Others: Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes 

terminifera), katydids (Caedicia spp.) and other 

Orthoptera, feed on eucalypts. Green gum tree 

katydid (Torbia perficta) lays eggs about 5 mm long, 

usually in double rows, on twigs. See Trees K 14, 



Birds may damage eucalypts by feeding on larvae of 

borers in trunks and branches. They may tip 

prune eucalypts when feeding on seeds. Birds also 

eat vast quantities of insects, up to 70% of the 

production of insects in eucalypt woodland in New 

England. Birds have the potential to influence insect 

populations and management of eucalypt dieback 

caused by foliage-feeding insects (Keast et al. 1985). 

Opossums may damage river red gums. 

K 64 


EUCALYPT 

Non-parasitic 

Allelopathy: Eucalypts release chemicals into 

the environment which interfere with surrounding 

plants. Leachates from bark on trees, shed bark and 

leaf litter, are a major source. Fibrous barked trees 

are more inhibitory than smooth barked ones. Effects 

are likely to be more significant in low rainfall areas. 

Environment: There are species of eucalypt 

to suit every climate. Select species to suit the local 

environment. Frost lift may occur when ice 

decapitates seedlings or lifts seedlings entirely out of 

the ground. Drought, floods and wind may take 

their toll. The population of eucalypts on rural lands 

is ageing due to poor regeneration. Eucalypts are 

major emitters of hydrocarbons (isoprenes and 

terpenes) which contribute to smog. See Trees K 21. 

Fire adaptation: Some trees, eg eucalypts, some 

proteas, waratahs, produce lignotubers which act 

like epicormic shoots. They are a swelling at the base 

of the trunk from which new shoots arise if the trunk 

is damaged or destroyed, eg by fire. 

Fungi and insects 

Cryptococcosis: Fungal spores of a yeast-like 

fungus (Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii) are 

released into the air when the river red gum 

(E. camaldulensis) flowers and may be inhaled by 

humans. Two types of disease may occur. The 1st 

occurs in otherwise healthy individuals who may 

contract a primary lung infection, with flu-like 

symptoms, that usually does not need treatment. The 

2nd occurs when the fungus causes systemic disease, 

attacking the central nervous system. It is often 

associated with immuno-suppressed patients suffering 

from diseases such as AIDS and cancer. A similar 

association has been established between 

C. neoformans var. gattii and forest red gum 

(E. tereticornis). Cryptococcus is isolated from 

decaying wood debris found accumulated around 

the base of trees, especially from small hollows or 

other sheltered habitats (Ellis and Pfeiffer 1990, 1994) 

Lichens (symbiotic algae and fungi) may grow on 

branches and trunks. See Trees K 18. 

Mycorrhizae: Inoculation of eucalypt seedlings, eg 

bluegum (E. globulus), with ectomycorrhizal fungi 

(Mycobeads ) can increase growth rates by up to 

30% on recently cleared bush. When nutrients are 

plentiful trees rely less on mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae 

may play an increasingly important role in fast 

rotation plantations in the future (rotations may be 

as short as 5-10 years) and as nutrients in soil 

diminishes following several harvests.See Trees K 18. 

Sooty mould (various species) grows on the 

honeydew secreted by leafhoppers lerp, scale and 

other sap sucking insects. See Trees K 18. 

Many beneficial insects are associated with 

eucalypts, eg parasites and predators of pests 

which damage eucalypts. Other insects may shelter 

on, or under bark, or feed on exudates, eg moths, 

may feed on sap exuding through bark. 

Genetic variation: Susceptibility to Christmas 

beetles varies not only between Eucalyptus species 

and populations, but also on individual trees, where 

a single branch can be resistant to attack. These 

differences are due to the composition of terpenoid 

oils. Christmas and leaf beetles are general feeders, 

but still may prefer certain species over others. 

Seedlings from the same seed source can vary in their 

vase life. Genetic diversity is needed to produce 

healthy vigorous progeny, with vigour and ability to 

cope with diseases, pests and climatic changes. There 

is no formal certification scheme in Australia for 

eucalypt seed, however, the quality of seed and of 

detailed information provided by CSIRO's Australian 

Tree Seed Centre, gives assurance of place of origin 

and botanical identity, corresponding to OECD 

(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 

Development) 'source identified' (Eldridge et al. 

1994). See Trees K 19. 

Humans: Eucalypt forests have been depleted by 

clearing for agriculture, mining, forestry and 

urbanisation. Irrigation systems have resulted in 

salinity problems which have killed eucalypts. 

Kino (gum veins) is an external indicator of 

damage to the bark/wood bond. It may be an 

indication that a wound has exposed the cambial 

region of the stem. Fungal colonisation of wounds 

can be extremely rapid (within 4 weeks). Most 

commonly, black to grey mycelium with fruiting 

bodies is visible. Ceratocystis sp. may develop on 

sapwood of several wounded trees, and is a pioneer 

saprophyte associated with superficial sap-stain. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Symptoms 

of deficiencies are not common in natural bushland. 

Nutrient levels are usually only important in 

nurseries and young plantations where optimum 

growth is desired (Attiwill and Adams 1996). Soil 

analyses should be carried out for potting media and 

prior to field planting. Symptoms include yellowing, 

browning, reddening and deformation of leaves, and 

dieback of shoot tips. Plant analysis can be used to 

confirm visual symptoms. Salt toxicity is a problem 

in agricultural areas. See Citrus F 43. 

Poisonous properties: Cattle, goats and 

sheep may die suddenly, after feeding on sucker or 

mature leaves of sugar gum (E. cladocalyx) and red 

box (E. polyanthmos), especially if wilted. They 

produce cyanogenetic compounds (McBarron 1983). 

Eucalyptus oils are used for medicinal purposes, 

industry and perfumery. Small quantities are toxic 

and bottles have a POISON label schedule (S6). 


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from The Spice Assoc. of Australasia, PO Box 104 

St Leonards, NSW 2065. Tel (02) 439 3750. 

Shearer, B. L. and Tippett, J. T. 1989. Jarrah Dieback : 

The Dynamics and Management of Phytophthora 

cinnamomi in the Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) 

Forest of South-western Australia. Dept of Cons. 

and Land Management, WA Res Bull No.3. 

Stone, C. 1991. Insect Attack of Eucalypt Plantations 

and Regrowth Forests in NSW : A Discussion Paper. 

NSW Forestry Com., Sydney. 

Wang, Q. 1995. Australian Longicorn Beetles Plague 

Our Eucalypts. Aust. Hort., Jan. 

Weinstein, P. 1992. Undermining Spitfire Defence 

Strategies. Australian Natural History Vol.23. 

No.11. Summer 1991-92. 


Industry eg 

Case Moth Caterpillars (NSW Agfact) 

Chinese Junk Caterpillars (NSW Agfact) 

Cup Moths (NSW Agfact) 

Dieback (NSW Forestry Commission) 

Eucalypt Oils (NSW Agfact) 

Eucalypt Oil from Blue Mallee (NSW Agfact) 

Mistletoe Brown Tail Moth : A Skin Irritation 

Caterpillar (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Eucalypts & Other Native Plants (WA 

Farmnote) 

Insect Pests of Farm Trees (Farm Trees No.8, NSW Agric 

& Fish.) 

NSW Forest Protection Series 

Autumn Gum Moth 

Borers and Termites in Trees (Leaflet No.4) 

Christmas Beetles 

Collecting Insects for Identification 

Eucalypt Sawflies 

Gumleaf Skeletonizer 

Insect Damage in Young Eucalypt Plantations 

Leaf Beetles 

Leafblister Sawflies 

Leaf eating insects (Leaflet No. 3) 

Psyllids in Eucalypt Plantations 

Sap sucking Insects (Leaflet No. 2) 

The Control of Insects on Eucalypts 

NT Dept of Primary Production 

Insects in the Home Garden and Recommendations for 

their Control. 


ACIAR. Eucalypts : Curse or Cure? 

Environmental Management : The Role of Eucalypts and 

Other Fast Growing Species (Proc. Workshop 1996. 

CSIRO/DIST, Canberra) 

Australian Forest Grower 


CSIRO Div. of Forest Research, Canberra 

Euclid : Interactive Key to the Identification of Eucalypts 

(CD -ROM) in prep. (Aust. Nat. Herbarium) 

Greening Australia (catalogue of published material) 

See Autralian native plants N 9, Nurseries N 56, 

Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22, 




MANAGEMENT 

Eucalypts are used for timber production, pulp and paper, florists' foliage, oils, ornamental plantings, windbreaks 

and reclamation. Diseases and pests of local species should be identified and monitored. Problems affecting 

eucalypts change with the age of the tree. Young plants are susceptible to autumn gum moth, leafblister 

sawfly, etc. In the 2nd year attacks by Christmas beetles and sawflies occur, and so on. Insects appear to 

consume more sap and leaves in young regenerated eucalypt stands than in mature forests. Stem decay fungi 

could become more significant due to altered branch shedding in some fast-growing eucalypts, or if trees are 

pruned. In subtropical areas damage from heart rot and termites is considered likely to be of major importance 

in plantations that produce large volumes of non-durable wood. Do not confuse dieback caused by Pc on jarrah 

in WA, with dieback caused by Armillaria root rot in Victoria and Tasmania, with dieback caused by foliagefeeding 

insects such as Christmas beetles and sawflies in the north of the ACT, or with various 

K 66 


EUCALYPT 

environmental problems such as drought, waterlogging, or a combination of these. Select provenances with 

the required horticultural assets and some resistance to special local problems, eg Pc, lerp, scale, leaf 

beetles. Species resistant in one area may be susceptible to different problems in other areas. Many individuals 

within a species lack vigour or show extremely variable performance (Beardsell et al. 1994). Planting material 

should be free from known diseases and pests. Propagation is by seed, cuttings from young suckers taken 

close to the rootstock, tissue culture, micropropagation. Diseases are not usually seedborne. There is a 

national scheme of Elite Seed, so that the desired species and provenances can be selected to suit current and 

possibly future climates, sites, pests and diseases. Cultural methods: Damage from diseases such as Pc and 

Armillaria root rot should be avoided by careful site and species selection. Damping off during winter may 

occur when moisture intensity and air movement are reduced. Fertilising, irrigation and careful pruning are 

necessary for young trees to grow satisfactorily. Sanitation: On small trees prune off shoots infested with scale 

or other pests; severely infested young trees may be removed and replaced with species with some resistance to 

local problems. Plant quarantine: Some diseases occur on eucalypts overseas, but are not known to occur in 

Australia, eg rust (Puccinia). Effective quarantine measures, detection, identification and containment of pests 

and diseases, depend largely on a detailed knowledge of the biology of the diseases and pests and their hosts. 

Recent changes in quarantine policy, which seek to balance trade and economic considerations with biological 

risks need to be carefully assessed in relation to pests and diseases. Pesticides are registered for use on 

young eucalypts. Growth regulators are used for compactness, herbicides for weed control in forests and 

around new ornamental plantings, and insecticides and fungicides in nurseries. Pest management: Regular 

monitoring of diseases and insects (Stone 1991) should be carried out and incorporated into management 

plans for all eucalypt plantings, eg urban plantings, plantations, regeneration and nature parks. Harvest for 

florists' foliage: Eucalypts, especially E. gunnii, are grown for their juvenile foliage. Choose foliage with firm 

undamaged leaves; avoid foliage with wilted tips. Storage: In water containing a commercial preservative at 

1 o C for up to 2 weeks. Vase life: Recut stems, use a commercial preservative, keep well watered and revive 

wilted eucalypt by searing (Jones and Moody 1993, Jones et al. 1994). 

Fig. 236. Ramularia shoot blight 

(Ramularia sp.). Leaves look as if 

splashed with white paint. 

Fig. 237. Angular leaf spot (Seimatosporum 

sp.) on E. regnans. B. A. Fuhrer. 

Fig. 238. Mistletoe (Loranthaceae) 

parasitic on eucalypt stems. 

Fig. 239. Native cherry (Exocarpos 

spp.) is parasitic on eucalypt roots. 

Fig. 240. Larvae of a longicorn (Coptocercus rubriceps) 

tunnelling in the sapwood of E. obliqua. H. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 241. Eucalypt tip bug (Amorbus 

sp.) (about 22 mm long) and nymph. 

Fig. 242. Autumn gum moth 

(Mnesampela privata) caterpillar 

(35 mm long) For. Com., NSW. 

Fig. 243. Cup moth (Doratifera spp.) 

caterpillar (25-30 mm long). 


EUCALYPT 

Fig. 244. Leafhopper (Eurymeloides 

lineata) (10 mm long). H. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 245. Apiomorpha galls (Apiomorpha 

spp.). Female on left, males on right. 

Fig. 246. Damage by the 

gregarious gall weevil 

(Strongylorhinus 

ochraceous). H. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 248. Christmas beetle (Anoplognathus sp.) 

is 25 mm long. For. Com., NSW. 

Fig. 247. Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae). 

Top : Adult (10 mm long) and eggs. Lower : 

Larvae (10-12 mm long). For. Com., NSW. 

Fig. 249. Brown blister 

caused by leafblister 

sawfly (Phylacteophaga 

sp.) For. Com., NSW. 

Fig. 250. Lerp insects (Psyllidae) on eucalypt 

leaves. 

Fig. 251. Blister mite (Eriophyidae) 

galls on Angophora. 

Fig. 252. Gumtree scale 

(Eriococcus coriaceus). 

For. Com., NSW. 

Fig. 253. Steelblue sawfly (Perga 

sp.) larvae (spitfires) during the day. 

Fig. 254. Stick insects (Phasmatodae) 

(up to 200 mm long). 

Fig. 255. Catasarcus weevil 

(Catasarcus spp.) up to 

15 mm long and chewing damage. 

K 68 


Euonymus 

Spindle tree 

Euonymus spp. 

Family Celastraceae 


Parasitic 





Root rots 


Leaf beetles 

Scales 

Weevils 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Flies 

Genetic 


Parasitic 


Overseas, veinclearing, yellow rings and oak leaf 

patterns in young leaves, also leaf mottling and 

yellow blotches and rings, have been associated 

with strawberry latent ringspot, tomato ringspot 

virus and cherry leaf roll virus in euonymus but 

not conclusively proven. Virus-like particles have 

been found in fasciated euonymus but not that they 

cause fasciation (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 

Root rots 





Leaf beetles (Pedrillia spp., Chrysomelidae, 

Coleoptera) have been associated with Euonymus 

and Santalum. Beetles feed externally, and 

larvae either externally or internally on living 

tissue in roots, foliage, stems, growing tips, leaves, 

flowers, pollen fruits and seeds. See Trees K 15. 




Many other species overseas 



White wax scale (Gasgardia destructor) 

Scales cluster on stems and/or leaves depending 

on the species. Although soft scales disfigure 

plants with associated honeydew and ants, 

armoured scales may be more damaging. Oil 

sprays provide control. See Citrus F 39, F 41, Trees K 

16. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) scallop 

holes from the centres and margins of leaves. 


Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) 


Non-parasitic 


Fungal leaf spots (various species) mainly 

affect older leaves. See Annuals A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) is the most 

serious and unsightly disease of euonymus. 

New growth is severely affected. Avoid using 

euonymus as a feature plant; place in well 

ventilated sites and avoid pruning shrubs 

unnecessarily, as the disease is more severe on 

regularly trimmed hedges. Planting resistant 

varieties is the most effective means of control. 

Susceptible species include Euonymus japonicus 

Aureo-variegata. Varieties with slight resistance 

include E. japonicus Aureo-marginata and 

E. japonicus Albo-marginata, but if conditions are 

very favourable, even they may be seriously 

affected. The use of fungicides to control 

powdery mildew is not recommended except for 

nursery stock. See Annuals A 6. 

MANAGEMENT 

Environment: During cool weather leaves of 

some species develop a pink pigmentation. 

Flies (Diptera) are attracted to the flowers and 

may annoy people in outdoor areas. 

Genetic: Fasciation causes a flattening of 

stems. See Daphne K 53. Green shoots or sports 

are frequently produced on variegated species or 

cultivars. See Trees K 19. Fasciated shoots and 

green sports may be pruned off but may recur. 









Euonymus suits all climates and may be grown in the ground or in containers. Species susceptible to powdery 

mildew should not be selected for hedge or specimen plants, but planted in shrubberies of mixed species, 

where the problem is not so obvious. Euonymus will tolerate dry conditions. Plant nursery stock free from 

scales and other problems. Propagate by cuttings. Euonymus prefers full sun in a cool temperate climate, but 

will tolerate hot dry conditions. Pruning susceptible species produces new growth which is very susceptible to 

powdery mildew. 


Fuchsia 

Fuchsia spp., Fuchsia x hybrida 

Family Onagraceae (evening primrose family) 


Parasitic 







Rusts 



Aphids 

Apple leafhopper 

Caterpillars 




Longtailed mealybug 

Mites 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt virus is spread by various 

species of thrips, and has been found to infect 

fuchsia overseas (Pirone 1978). See Trees K 4. 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) may cause galls 

on stem bases. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Fungal leaf spots (Cercospora, Septoria, 

other species) may cause defoliation and loss of 

flowers. Avoid watering late in the afternoon. See 

Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould, petal blight (Botrytis cinerea) 

decays stems, leaves and flowers after establishing 

on wounded tissue, or where flower parts have 

fallen. See Greenhouses N 22. 



Damping off (Pythium, Phytophthora nicotianae, 

Rhizoctonia solani, Thielaviopsis basicola) 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.), may also 

cause a foliage blight 




See Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7, M 9. 

Rusts (Pucciniastrum epilobii, Uredo fuchsiae). 

P. epilobii is common and serious and initially 

causes purple-red blotches on leaf uppersurfaces, 

these later brown and have purple edges. On the 

lower surface, yellow-orange rust spores develop 

under each blotch. Leaves fall and there is poor 

flower production. Favoured by hot and moist 

conditions. Some cultivars, eg Orange Drops and 

Novella, are very susceptible. See Annuals A 7. 



root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) may 

infest Fuchsia x hybrida. See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera), eg green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), may cause distortion of 

flowers and buds, dieback of stems. See Roses J 4. 

Apple leafhopper (Edwardsiana australis) is 

green and up to 6 mm long. Their sap sucking 

causes leaf speckling. Severe attacks may cause 

reduction in plant vigour. See Pome fruits F 112. 


Grapevine hawk moth (Hippotion celerio), also scrofa 

hawk moth (H. scrofa) 

Grapevine moth (Phalaenoides glycinae) 



Vine hawk moth (Theretra oldenlandiae), also 

T. latreillei 

Caterpillars of some of these moths feed on a wide 

range of plants, others only on a few species. They 

can seriously damage new growth and flower buds. 

Grapevine moth caterpillars may defoliate stems. 

Lightbrown apple moth caterpillars web leaves 

together. See Annuals A 8, Grapevine F 61, Trees K 13. 

European earwig (Forficula auricularia) chew 

leaves and flowers ragged. Their exreta spoils the 

appearance of plants. See Vegetables M 14. 




and nymphs feed on leaf undersurfaces causing 

leaf mottling. See Greenhouses N 24. 


sucks sap from leaf undersurfaces. Soft tip growth 

may wilt and die. Overseas also citrus mealybug 

(Planococcus citri). See Greenhouses N 25. 



leaves to curl downwards. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Cyclamen mite (Steneotarsonemus pallidus) distorts 

new shoots. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) feeds mainly 

from leaf undersurfaces. Leaves become sandy 

mottled, yellow and may fall. Webbing may occur on 

leaf undersurfaces. See Beans (French) M 29. 


K 70 


Others: Capsid bugs (Miridae, Hemiptera) are 

6-12 mm long, green to brown and resemble large 

aphids. Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves, 

reducing plant vigour. Passionvine hopper 

(Scolypopa australis) may damage young shoots. 


Common garden snail (Helix aspersa) destroys 

leaves, flower buds and tip growth. See 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Leaf fall may be caused by 

draughts, poor drainage, lack of soil or atmospheric 

moisture, excessive watering, sudden large 

changes in temperature, excessive use of fertiliser, 

infestation by sucking insects, eg twospotted mite 

and mealybugs, or by rust. Bud drop and bullheading 

(coloured buds failing to open) may be 

caused by the same environmental conditions that 

cause leaf fall. Plants grown in containers are 

prone to bud drop and may need repotting each 

year in late winter with roots and branches pruned 

off. Container fuchsias have a limited life, when 

vigorous growth stops they should be replaced. 

See Camellia K 40. Wind, if accompanied by hot 

and dry weather, may cause wilting of leaves and 

flowers, both of which may later fall prematurely. 

Branches of fuchsia are brittle and may be 

damaged by strong winds. Site plants to protect 

them from wind. Dry weather, during either hot 

or cold temperatures, may cause wilting of flowers 

and leaves, defoliation and death. Water 

regularly. If plants are completely dry dip pots 

into a bucket of water until soil mix is thoroughly 

soaked. Frost may kill new shoots, leaves and 

flowers. Sunscorch may occur during hot, sunny 

weather, flowers fade and leaves are burnt. 


Nitrogen deficiency results in even yellowing of 

leaves, starting with the older leaves and spreading 

to growing tips. Defoliation and death may 

follow. Regularly apply a balanced fertiliser in 

spring, summer and autumn. See Trees K 20. Salt 

MANAGEMENT 

FUCHSIA 

toxicity: Fuchsias are susceptible to excess salt in 

soil due to too concentrated or too frequent 

fertiliser applications. A buildup of chemicals in 

the soil prevents water from being taken up by the 

plant roots, so that plants do not get the balanced 

food and water they require, leaves may yellow or 

blotch with green veins. Discontinue feeding and 

leach out salts by heavy watering. Ensure that the 

water supply is low in salt. Do not fertilise in 

winter. See Trees K 20. 

Others: Some fungicides damage fuchsia. 

Always test on a few cultivars first. Wettable 

sulphur burns fuchsia leaves and flowers. 






Boullemier, L. 1994. Plantsman Guide to Fuchsias : 

Growing Fuchsias. Ward Lock, London. 

Butler, L. 1985. Fuchsias in Australia. Guyra Pub., 

South Yarra, Vic. 





Law, D. 1985. Growing Fuchsias. Kangaroo Press, 


Manthey, G. 1991. Fuchsias. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 









Industry eg 

Fuchsias in the Garden (NSW Agfact) 

Fuchsias (Vic Agnote) 

Association and Journals eg 

Australia Fuchsia Society 


State/Territory/Regional Fuchsia Societies 

National American Fuchsia Society (Fuchsia Fan) 

Most Societies produce a newsletter or books 




Fuchsia may be grown in the garden, as espaliers, in containers or as popular hanging baskets. Some cultivars, 

eg the yellow fuchsia Lockebie, show a number of valuable characteristics, including good tolerance to rust, 

extreme heat and as much as 6 o C frost. Propagate by tip cuttings, also from seed (usually used for hybridising 

or raising new varieties). Plants require bright filtered sunlight throughout the day (partial shade), with 3-4 

hours of morning sunlight. Flower drop may be caused by insufficient light. Most cultivars need shelter from 

strong winds, summer temperatures of 20 o C, abundant water in hot weather; leaves may be misted, or plants 

hosed down with water during hot weather. In winter they require a cool dormant season, ie a temperature of 6- 

10 o C, and limited watering. Fuchsias may be pruned or trained to produce bush, trailing or standard types. 

Prune stems once new spring growth commences otherwise stems may bleed. Remove any dead wood or 

damaged or badly positioned shoots, and finally shorten remaining shoots to within 50-80 mm of their bases. 

Vigorous plants may be cut back even further. Constantly pinch out tips of branches once new growth is 

underway, to encourage more lateral branches and a bushier plant and ultimately more flowers. Harvest at the 

beginning of flowering. Flowers are ethylene sensitive (abscission of buds, flowers, petals), commercial 

growers may treat potted plants with anti-ethylene compounds prior to sale (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

Judging standards may be general, or specific to particular fuchsia societies. 


Gardenia 

Gardenia spp. 

Family Rubiaceae 


Parasitic 




Root rots 



Caterpillars 

Mealybugs 

Plague thrips 

Soft scales 

Weevils 

Whiteflies 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Senescence 


Parasitic 


Fungal leaf spots (various species) may 

develop if plants are too close together and leaves 

become wet during watering. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause bud 

rot especially in greenhouses. Pick off and destroy 

affected buds. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Root rots (Cylindrocladium scoparium, 

Phytophthora sp.). See Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera) may 

feed on stems and leaves. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis, Thripidae, 

Thysanoptera) may infest flowers. See Roses J 6. 



White wax scale (Gascardia destructor) 


Weevils (Curculionidae) chew leaves. 



Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae) may infest leaf under 

surfaces. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Full sun will quickly burn 

flowers. Gardenia may need protection in very 

cold climates. Flower buds may drop just before 

they open, due to inadequate soil moisture, too low 

humidities, insufficient light or too high 

temperatures. Overwatering may suffocate roots 

causing branches to die. 


Iron deficiency: Gardenia prefers slightly acid soil. 

Iron is unavailable in alkaline soils. Initially new 

leaves have green veins on a yellow background. 


Magnesium deficiency may occur on older leaves 

which have characteristic V-shaped green and yellow 

patterns. See Citrus F 43, Trees K 20. 

Senescence: Occasionally yellow leaves, 

which are senescing, appear. 


Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.). See Vegetables 

M 10. 



Bee hawk moth (Cephonodes kingii, Sphingidae), 

also C. hylas 

Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) feed in flower buds. 


Twig looper (Ectropis excursaria) 

See Annuals 8, Trees K 13. 

MANAGEMENT 











Industry eg 

Gardenias : Indoor and Out (Vic Agnote) 




Gardenias are warm temperate to subtropical plants. Propagate by cuttings. Choose a semi-shaded position 

with a slightly acid soil. Fertilise and water regularly in summer. Growth regulators are used to promote 

flowering and control height. Harvest when flowers are almost fully open, and handle by stems as any contact 

with the petals, causes browning. For corsages harvest without foliage attached, individual flowers are wired, 

attached to a paper collar with leaves attached to the collar. Flowers are placed in trays and sprinkled with water 

and sealed to keep humidity high. Vase life is short (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 72 


Geraldton wax 

Chamelaucium uncinatum 



Parasitic 


Crown gall 


Cankers 

Flower blights, leaf spots 


Root rots 



Caterpillars 

Geraldton wax gall wasps 

Ringbarking weevil 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) may cause galls 

at stem bases of Geraldton wax (Chamelaucium 

uncinatum). See Stone fruits F 125. 

Root rots are serious and common. 

Cylindrocladium collar and stem rot, leaf spot, 

shoot blight (Cylindrocladium spp.) attacks nearly 

all parts of Myrtaceae plants. Young plants are 

most susceptible. 

Damping off (Botrytis cinerea, Cylindrocladium, 

Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia) can cause 

debilitating root problems as the fungi can spread 

quickly from infected plants when planted in the field. 

Rhizoctonia can cause collar rot of lower stems, 

grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) a soft rot of cuttings. 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi, 

P. cryptogea, P. nicotianae, Phytophthora sp.) is the 

most common problem affecting Geraldton wax. 

Phytophthora has also been recorded on other 

Chamelaucium spp., eg Esperance waxflower 

(C. axillare). See Trees K 6. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina). 

Only purchase stock from reputable suppliers, 

particularly those prepared to offer a guarantee of 

plant health and freedom from Phytophthora. 

Inspect plants on arrival and do not plant out 

unhealthy plants, until they have been tested for 

root disease. See Trees K 7. 


Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) has been recorded 

in WA on Geraldton wax. See Vegetables M 10. 


Cankers (various species) on stems may cause 

dieback. See Trees K 5. 

Flower blights, leaf spots: Alternaria blight 

(Alternaria spp.) and grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea) may both cause flower blights. Both 

fungi are attracted to ageing tissue and cause 

flower fall postharvest, but not in the field. The 

fungi are latent, waiting for something to facilitate 

their growth. The appearance of flowers is 

affected. These fungi may also cause leaf and 

stem spotting, buds may drop. The infected and 

wounded tissues produce more ethylene causing 

flowers to fall (abscission). Grey mould may 

infect flowers under humid conditions, ie 

condensation on the surface of flowers. Grey 

mould may also cause damping off (see below). 

In Qld, C. uncinatum Lady Stephanie has proven a 

good, Botrytis-resistant variety and popular for 

export markets. Appropriate packaging and 

storage conditions prevent growth of the fungi. 

Flowers may be treated with an ethylene 

inhibitor. Infection may be prevented by the 

application of fungicides (Gollnow 1992). See 

Annuals A 5, Azalea K 27, Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidiopsis taurica): Foliage 

becomes yellow and has distinct bands of green. 

Leaves may fall prematurely (Bodman et al. 1996). 



Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Teatree web moth 

(Catamola thyrisalis, Pyralidae) caterpillars infest 

Geraldton wax, but do not cause serious damage 

and are easily controlled with insecticides. See 

Tea-tree K 124. 

Geraldton wax gall wasps (eulophid wasps 

Eulophidae, Hymenoptera) have little impact in 

WA, but are serious pests of susceptible 

varieties in Qld and SA. See Australian native 

plants N 12 (Fig. 381). Even when galls are not a 

major problem in production, their presence 

reduces the value of plants and may affect the 

quarantine status of plants. If detected, galls on 

leaves result in rejection of cut flowers for export 

to Japan and the USA. Once galls are formed they 

cannot be removed. Wasps in WA are possibly 

kept in check by parasites or predators, or 

perhaps the climate in WA is not suitable for the 

population to increase. Spread by vegetative 

propagation from infested plants, introduction of 

infested plants and by adults flying. The most 

promising control seems to be the use of resistant 

varieties. The search for better gall-resistant 

varieties, especially white varieties is essential. 

Disease-free planting material: Growers should 

make sure that cuttings are free of gall wasps. 

Pesticides: Spraying has proved difficult, 

because the wasps are enclosed in galls and the 

infestation rate is very high. Some postharvest 

disinfestation treatments have caused unacceptable 

damage to flowers. See Citrus F 37, Trees K 14. 


GERALDTON WAX 

Ringbarking weevil (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) 

is native to WA and can ringbark Geraldton wax and 

other Myrtaceae. C. ciliatum, C. axillare, and 

Verticordia may also be severely damaged. 

Weevils lay eggs near the base of the plant. Larvae 

are 5-10 mm long. They feed on the stem just below 

ground level, ringbarking it. Half the plants may be 

killed. Pot-bound plants are more susceptible to 

injury. Damage is not obvious until plants start 

dying, usually during times of water stress. If 

considered necessary plantations may be drenched 

with insecticide once per year. See Trees K 18. 

Others: Aphids (Aphididae), mealybugs 

(Pseudococcidae), and soft brown scale (Coccus 

hesperidum) may attack plants in greenhouses. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Geraldton wax, usually considered 

hardy, may suffer from drought stress. In the short 

term, Geraldton wax will tolerate levels of water 

deficit stress that would kill exotic species. It can 

survive a water deficit stress about 3 times the general 

permanent wilting point. However, reduced water 

supply causes a decrease in total flower production, 

retards plant growth and causes leaf shedding. 

Stress also causes thickening of the stems and stunts 

stem length, both undesirable for the cut flower 

industry. C. uncinatum Purple Pride is more sensitive 

to water deficit stress than C. uncinatum Alba. 

MANAGEMENT 










Gollnow, B. 1992. Workshop Fosters Discussion of 

'Wildflower' Research. Aust. Hort., Dec. 

Gough, N. 1989. Pests and Diseases of Woody Plants. 


Joyce, D. 1992. Waxflower : To STS or Not? Aust. Hort., 

Oct. 

Lake, J. 1994. Flower Fall in Geraldton Wax. Rural 

Research, Summer 1993/94. 

Lamont, G. P. 1985. Australian Wax Flowers. Aust. 

Hort., Sept. 



Wood, W. 1988. Pests of Native Flowers. WA Jn. of 

Agric. Vol.29, No.4. 


Propagation, Cultivation & Use in Landscaping. 

2nd edn. Collins, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

Insect Pests of Wildflowers and Proteas (WA Farmnote) 

Wildflower Production : Geraldton Wax and Related 

Species (WA Farmnote) 

Pests of Young Plants (WA Farmnote) 


Australian National Flower Show Workshops 


Wax Flower Growers Group (Qld) 





Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Geraldton wax is a major cut flower export. Select clones which bloom at 

different times and have a good vase life. It may also be grown in pots. It tolerates a wide range of conditions 

but grows best in poor soils in dry warm conditions, neutral to alkaline pH, with undisturbed roots. Frosts in late 

winter to spring will affect flower quality and may render crops unmarketable. Perfect drainage is required and 

sandy soils preferred. Full sun or no more than light shade is required for good flowering (Wrigley 1988). 

Resistant varieties: Select cultivars with some resistance to grey mould and gall wasp. Disease-free planting 

material: Planting material must be free from gall wasps and from Phytophthora cinnamomi. An overview of the 

industry has been outlined by Coombs (1995). 


Propagation by cuttings. Avoid damaging roots when transferring rooted cuttings as this can cause premature 

death some years later. Cultural methods: Plants such as Geraldton wax and thryptomene, which are both 

excellent cut flowers, are usually pruned enough by cutting flowers for indoors. Prune Geraldton wax cultivars 

at or after flowering, to keep bushes to a manageable size and ensure vigorous stem growth for next season. 

Young bushes can be shaped after their first flowering season even though flowers are not being harvested. 

Stems of 300 mm length can be cut from established plants, this keeps the plant bushy. Do not allow mulch or 

other plants to keep the main trunk damp at ground level, keep soil fairly dry. The most likely problem is 

Phytophthora root rot. Growth regulators are used on potted specimens to retard growth. 

Postharvest 

Harvest when 30-50% flowers have opened, full unopened buds, flowers well coloured, green but not yellowish 

foliage. To prevent ageing and flower fall, cool fresh flowers as soon as possible after harvest (2 o C and 95% 

relative humidity is acceptable). Low temperatures slow ageing, high humidities prevent flowers drying out. 

Geraldton wax is very sensitive to ethylene so growers may treat flowers with an ethylene-inhibiting product. 

Remove any dropped flowers. Store at 0-2 o C and rehydrate after storage. Vase life: Place in commercial 

preservative, or make your own preservative (only use 1/2 strength sugar to prevent flowers producing more 

nectar and becoming sticky). Do not mist flowers as they are susceptible to grey mould. Recut stems under 

water, use a preservative and top up regularly with water; flowers are very thirsty (Jones and Moody 1993). 

Geraldton wax promptly drops flowers and leaves when out of water. Bud and flower drop is often a problem 

in export shipments. Retail potted plants when the majority of flowers are open, as flower opening is poor 

under low light conditions. Flowers have an impressive shelf life under simulated home or office conditions. 

Quality Assurance Programs are available for Geraldton wax. 

K 74 


Grevillea 

Grevillea spp. 



Parasitic 



Root, collar and stem rots 




Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Psyllids 

Scales and mealybugs 

Silkyoak leafminer 

Non-parasitic 

Allergic reactions 



Parasitic 



Leaf spot (Verrucisporota spp., V. proteacearum) 

causes red-brown spots on leaves of grevilleas and 

hakeas in warm, humid climates. Small black fruiting 

bodies develop in the centres of the spots. 

Sooty spot (Placoasterella spp., P. baileyi) commonly 

infects grevillea, especially Grevillea Robyn Gordon, 

G. laurifolia, and hakea, in humid weather. Sooty 

spot appears as more or less circular black spots on 

leaves, which disfigure plants in the bush and in 

cultivation. This superficial fungal spot does not 

seem to affect the underlying tissue but cannot be 

easily be wiped off. Affected foliage may be pruned 

off. 

Others: Cercospora agharkarii, Seimatosporium 

grevilleae (Walker 1994). 



Damping off: Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), 

phytophthora rots (Phytophthora spp.), pythium 

rot (Pythium irregulare). See Seedlings N 66. 


P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. hibernalis, P. 

nicotianae var. parasitica, P. palmivora) are 

considered to be the most serious diseases of 

grevilleas. See Trees K 6. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina), 

butt and root rot (Phellinus noxius), rhizoctonia 

collar rot (Rhizoctonia solani), root rots (Pythium 

spinosum), sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 


Others: Cankers (various species) and wood 

rots (Basidiomycetes), eg tinder punk (Phellinus 

spp.) and other species. See Trees K 5, K 8. 


Devil's twine (Cassytha spp.) and mistletoes 

(Loranthaceae) may infest grevillea. See Trees K 9. 


Burrowing nematode (Radopholus), dagger 

nematode (Xiphinema), sheath nematode 

(Hemicycliophora sp.) and Hemicriconemoides, 

Paralongidorus and Scutellonema have been 

associated with Grevillea spp. in Qld and WA. 



Borers are considered by some to be a major 

cause of damage and death of Grevillea spp. 

Auger beetle (Xylodeleis obsipa, Bostrichidae) 


Oecophorid borers (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera) 

Inspect stems and trunks regularly, every 2-4 

weeks in warm weather for ringbarking near the 

soil line, sawdust and exit holes. See Trees K 10. 

Bugs (Hemiptera): Crusader bug (Mictis profana) 

and several species of lace bugs (Tingidae) are 

associated with grevilleas. See Trees K 12. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Many species feed 

on Grevillea spp. 

Grevillea case moth (Lepidoscia arctiella, 

Psychidae) caterpillars feed on grevillea, Brachyloma 

and other plants. Caterpillars construct a slender 

elongate case ornamented with short spirally 

arranged pieces of twig cut from the plants on which 

they feed. See Trees K 13 

Grevillea loopers (Oenochroma vinaria, O. pallida, 

Geometridae) feed on grevillea, banksia, hakea and 

other plants. Moths have a wingspan of 50 mm and 

are usually rosy-purple on top with a purplish spot on 

the underside of the forewing. Caterpillars are up to 

80 mm long, smooth, slender, taper slightly towards 

the head and are green with many small spots and 2 

small fleshy projections towards the head. They move 

with a looping action. Leaves are eaten and in some 

areas shrubs can be defoliated. Two similar species 

feed on geebungs (Persoonia spp.). 

Macadamia twig-girdler (Xylorycta luteotactella, 

Oecophoridae) caterpillars live either in a webbing 

shelter among twigs and leaves or in a short 

tunnel in a twig or the woody fruits. X. 

heliomacula caterpillars feed on G. striata and 

mistletoes (Amyema). See Macadamia F 77. 

Pyralid moths (Pyralidae): Macadamia flower 

caterpillar (Cryptoblabes hemigypsa) and web 

moths (Catamola spp.). See Tea-tree K 124 


moth (Teia anartoides), painted pine moth (Orgyia 

australis). See Pine K 108, Pome fruits F 133. 

Variegated caterpillar (Anthela varia, Anthelidae) is 

a sporadic pest of grevillea and other plants. 

Caterpillars are hairy, brown-grey, up to 60 mm 

long. Solitary or in small groups, caterpillars eat 

chunks out of mature leaves. See Trees K 13. 

TREES, SNRUBS AND CLIMBERS K 75

GREVILLEA 

Others: Banksia moth (Danima banksiae), 

cryprotus blue butterfly (Candalides cyprotus) on 

G. bracteosa, doubleheaded hawk moth (Coequosa 

triangularis), dryandra moth (Carthaea saturnoides), 

lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana), 

processionary caterpillar, bag-shelter moth 

(Ochrogaster sp.). Nanaguna breviuscula 

(Noctuidae) feeds on grevillea in northern Australia. 


Psyllids (Psyllidae, Hemiptera) may infest 

grevillea and other plants, eg leaves and shoots 

of G. coochin Hills and G. juncifolia, G. sericea, 

Acacia fimbriata, flowers and new growth of 

G. rosmarinifolia. In subtropical areas flowers of 

some species, and hybrids of grevilleas with 

flowers arranged on short nearly equal flower 

stalks, may be attacked. Adults are tiny, speckled, 

winged pale insects about 1.5 mm long, often 

found sheltering amongst foliage and on 

undersurface of leaves. Nymphs may secrete a 

white waxy secretion which is a sign of their 

presence. They are minute and yellow or orange 

depending on the species. Nymphs and adults 

suck sap from young shoots, and it is thought that 

they inject a toxic saliva into the plant during 

feeding, which causes leaves and young shoots to 

become distorted and tightly bunched together 

(bunch psyllids) providing shelter for nymphs. 

Plants are stunted and woody. Shoots do not 

elongate normally, leaves are small and sparse. 

Flower spikes may be small, buds fail to open. 

Buds may shrivel and fall, the main flower stalk is 

curled and brown. Other sucking insects, eg mites, 

may cause similar damage. Insecticides may be 

applied when new growth is expected. See 

Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 15. 

Scales and mealybugs (Hemiptera) 


Latania scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) mainly on 

G. obtusiflora Little thicket 

Ground pearls (Margarodidae) 



Grevillea mealybug (Australicoccus grevilleae) 



Silkyoak leafminer, grevillea leafminer 

(Peraglyphis atimana, Tortricidae, Lepidoptera) is 

a sporadic pest of broadleaved grevillea in 

coastal, inland, tropical and subtropical areas. 

Moths are about 15 mm long. Caterpillars are 

about 10 mm long and mine in leaves causing 

MANAGEMENT 

brown blisters. Severely mined leaves fall 

prematurely, repeated attacks weaken plants. 

Parasitic wasps lay eggs through the tunnel wall 

into the body of the caterpillars; small birds, eg 

pardalotes, may prey on them. Susceptible 

varieties: Silky oak (G. robusta), red and white 

Bank's grevilleas (G. banksii), Grevillea Robyn 

Gordon, other broadleaved species. Insecticides 

may be applied to nursery stock to protect new 

foliage. See Azalea K 28. 


vaporariorum), mites (Eriophyidae), passionvine 

hopper (Scolypopa australis). 

Non-parasitic 

Allergic reactions: The flowers, foliage, and 

other parts, and even sawdust of certain grevilleas, 

eg G. banksiae, G. hookeriana, G. robusta and 

hybrids Robyn Gordon and Mason's Hybrid, may 

cause dermatitis in susceptible individuals. 

Associated symptoms include dizziness and 

fatigue (Lothian 1989). 


Grevilleas may suffer from iron deficiency, 

phosphorus toxicity or salt toxicity. See Trees K 20. 

Others: Fasciation is quite frequent on 

Grevillea Sandra Gordon. Some species have 

spiky growth or variegated leaves. 


Burke, D. 1984. Growing Grevilleas. Kangaroo Press, 







Lake, J. 1991. Grafting Grevilleas. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Lothian, N. 1989. Allergy Problem with Grevillea. Aust. 

Hort. July. 

McGillivray, D. J. and Makinson, R. O. 1993. Grevillea, 

Proteaceae : A Taxonomic Revision. Melbourne 


Olde, P. and Marriot, N. 1994. The Grevillea Book : 

Vol. 1-3. Kangaroo Press, Kenhurst, NSW. 


Wrigley, J. W. 1989. Banksias, Waratahs & Grevillea & 

All Other Plants in the Australian Proteaceae 

Family. Collins, Sydney. 





There are about 250 species of Grevillea in Australia, with few exceptions they have horticultural potential with 

flowers of many different forms and colours (Wrigley 1989). They are often called 'spider flowers' because of the 

shape of the flowers. Grevillea are grown for garden and park trees, shrubs and ground cover and as bird 

attractants. Some species are very susceptible to fungal leaf spots, Phytophthora root rot, silkyoak leafminer 

and scale. Only propagate from disease and pest-free stock plants. Propagation is usually by cuttings and by 

grafting on to silky oak (G. robusta) rootstock because of its resistance to Phytophthora and its ability to cope 

with a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. In general, grevillea prefer well drained, sunny sites, slightly 

acid soil types, and balanced fertilisers. Excess of phosphorus may prove fatal. Plant growth regulators are 

used to produce compact plants. Harvest foliage with firm undamaged leaves, avoid foliage with wilted tips, may 

be stored in water at 1 o C for up to 2 weeks, place in a solution containing a germicide, vase life is approximately 

15-16 days (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 76 


Hakea 

Hakea spp. 



Parasitic 





Root rots 



Borers 

Caterpillars 

Gall wasps 

Leafminers 

Mites 

Psyllids 

Scales 

Whiteflies 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fungi 


Root rots 

Damping off (Phytophthora spp., Pythium sp.), grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea). See Seedlings N 66. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora sp., 

P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. nicotianae). Many 

species are very susceptible and are grafted on to 

rootstock with recognised tolerance or resistance, 

eg H. salicifolia (McKenzie 1994). See Trees K 6. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria luteobubalina), 

dieback (Fusarium oxysporum) (unconfirmed). 


Others: Cankers (various species) on stems 

may cause dieback. See Trees K 5. Wood rots, eg 

tinder punk (Phellinus spp.) and other species, 

may affect trunks. See Trees K 8. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) has 

been recorded on H. bucculenta and H. laurina. 

Other nematodes recorded on Hakea spp. include 

Helicotylenchus, Hemicriconemoides, Morulaimus, 

Scutelloma. See Vegetables M 10. 


Parasitic 


Bacterial leaf blight (Pseudomonas viridiflava) 

may cause leaf spotting. See Grapevine F 58. 



Leaf spot (Verrucisporota spp., V. proteacearum) 

attacks both grevilleas and hakeas in very warm, 

humid climates or sites. Reddish-brown spots develop 

on leaves, small black fungal fruiting bodies 

develop in the centres of the spots. Especially 

Grevillea robusta, G. banksii, G. hilliana, G. venusta. 

Sooty spot (Placoasterella baileyi) is very common 

on grevillea and hakea, eg G. laurifolia, Hakea 

salicifolia and H. suaveolens, both in the bush and in 

cultivation during humid weather. The more or less 

circular black spots are superficial and do not seem 

to affect the underlying tissue and can with difficulty 

be wiped off. It disfigures plants but probably does 

not cause permanent damage. Prune off affected 

foliage. Fungicides may be applied if necessary. 

Others: Seimatosporium hakeae and S. kennedyae on 

Hakea saligna, also Vizella banksiae (Pascoe 1987, 

Walker 1994). Some hakeas seem to be commonly 

affected by fungal leaf spots, eg H. elliptica and 

H. petiolaris (Fig. 256). 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) on fineleaved 

grevillea, eg G. pilulifera, in shady or protected 

situations, also on seedlings and cuttings in 

propagation structures. See Greenhouses N 22. 


Borers: Moth borers (Lepidoptera) may infest 

hakeas See Trees K 12. 


Doubleheaded hawk moth (Danima banksiae) 

caterpillars are green and 120 mm long (Fig. 257) and 

feed on leaves. See Banksia K 31. 

Loopers (Geometridae): Grevillea looper 

(Oenochroma vinaria) attacks leaves of mainly 

Proteaceae, eg hakea and grevillea. They pupate 

usually in flimsy cocoon in debris or soil. Twig 

looper (Ectropis excursia). See Avocado F 19. 


caterpillars attack leaves. They live either in a 

webbing shelter among twigs and leaves or in a 

short tunnel in a twig or the woody fruits. Also X. 

leucophanes. See Macadamia F 77. 

Seed borer (Carpospina autologa, Carpospinidae) 

caterpillars feed in the woody seed capsules of 

hakea. They pupate in crevices or on soil. 

Others: Amelora milvaria, Hypographa sp., Lissomma 

drakei, L. serpentaria, Phallaria ophiusaria. 


Gall wasps (Torymidae, Hymenoptera): 

Megastigmus spp. is cosmopolitan and 

commonly yellow-brown with metallic patches. 

Several gall-forming species have been reared 

from stem, leaf and flower galls of banksia, 

citrus, eucalypt, hakea, Helichrysum, kurrajong, 

wattles, often in association with other insects. 

Xenostigma spp. causes galls on hakea buds. 


Leafminers (Lepidoptera) are common (Fig. 258). 

Hakea leafminer (Peraglyphis aderces, Tortricidae) 

caterpillars mine mainly in the tips of leaves. 

Damage is often mistaken for drought or wind injury. 

It is related to silkyoak leafminer (P. atimana). 

See Grevillea K 76. 


HAKEA 

Hakea leafminer (Stegommata leptomitella, 

Lyonetiidae) caterpillars commonly mine in young 

leaves of H. saligna. Initially the mines are linear, 

later expanding into an irregular blotch, especially 

along the margins. When mature the caterpillar 

pupates in a flimsy elliptical cocoon, suspended 

hammock-wise from silk threads stretched across a 

hollow, often near the edge of a leaf. Mined leaf 

tips often become tattered. 

Macadamia leafminer (Acrocercops chionosema) 

slows tree growth due to dieback of new leaves. 

Favoured by high-altitude rainforest areas and 

plantings protected from wind. See Macadamia F 78. 

Leafminers are only controlled on nursery stock. 

See Azalea K 28, Trees K 15. 

Mites (Acarina): Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) 

may cause bunchy growth (witches' broom) on 

Hakea dactyloides. See Trees K 16. 

Psyllids (Hemiptera): Free living Acizzia spp. 

(Psyllidae) infests new growth of hakea. Free 

living Aacanthocnema sp. (Triozidae) also occur 

on hakea. See Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 16. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Hakeas require well drained 

sites and will not tolerate waterlogging. 

Fungi: An epiphyllous parasite (Thallochaete 

baileyi) may grow on leaves in humid situations. 

Sooty mould (Capnodium anonae) may grow on 

honeydew excretions from sap sucking insects, eg 

psyllids, scales. See Trees K 19. 


Phosphorus toxicity: Hakea is arguably not as 

sensitive to excess phosphorus as many other 

Proteaceae. H. francisiana is very sensitive to 

phosphorus toxicity and H. laurina is moderately 

susceptible. Hakea has specialised proteoid 

roots for abstracting nutrients from poor soils, if 

fertilising them, then choose one for Australian 

native plants. See Trees K 18, K 20. 

Others: Overseas fly larvae or maggots 

(Cecidomyiidae, Diptera) assist in controlling 

introduced Hakea spp. which are potential weeds. 



Latania scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) 


Adult females scale are about 1-2 mm in diameter and 

roughly circular. They are white to brownish in 

colour and attack bark and leaves. 

Ground pearls (Margarodidae) 


Auloicerya, which is closely related to Icerya, feeds 

on Acacia and Hakea. 


Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera): Hakea 

whitefly (Synaleurodicus hakeae) may infest hakea 

(Jones and Elliot 1986). See Greenhouses N 24. 

MANAGEMENT 







McKenzie, D. 1994. Grafting Hakeas to improve 

Performance. Aust. Hort., May. 






Associations. Journals etc. 






Hakeas are endemic to Australia and of the 130 or so species, approximately half are found in the south west of 

WA (Wrigley 1988). Hakeas are evergreen woody plants that vary in size from < 1 m to > 10 m in height. Most 

are grown for their attractive, conspicuous flowers, their attractive nutlike woody fruits, their stiff broad leaves 

with toothed margins. They are fast growing and used for screening or windbreaks. Many with sharp pointed 

leaves are called needle bushes and may be planted under windows to prevent burglaries. Propagated easily 

by seed; in all but a few species the fruit remains intact until the bush dies or is damaged by fire; by grafting to 

make them more reliable in a wider range of conditions and to increase their tolerance to Phytophthora, and by 

cuttings. Hakeas will grow in all climates except the coldest districts. They require a sunny, well drained sandy 

or gravelly soil for good flowering. 

Fig. 258. Moth leaminer (Lepidoptera) 

damage to leaf tips. 

Fig. 256. Fungal leaf spot 

on Hakea petiolaris. 

Fig. 257. Caterpillar (120 mm 

long) of the doubleheaded hawk 

moth (Danima banksiae). 

K 78 


Hardenbergia 

False sarsaparilla (H. violacea) 

Family Papilionaceae 


Parasitic 




Rust 




Caterpillars 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Fungal leaf spots (Elsinoe hardenbergiae, 

other genera) may disfigure leaves of 

hardenbergia. Nursery stock of Hardenbergia 

violacea Happy Wanderer in Victoria may be 

severely affected by Elsinoe hardenbergiae during 

autumn, winter and spring when weather is cool. 

Susceptibility of other cultivars of Hardenbergia 

violacea is not known. Initially small brown spots, 

sometimes surrounded by yellow haloes, develop 

on leaves, spots may enlarge to become angular, 

brown and scabby, coalescing to form large 

patches up to 5 mm in diameter. Reddish-brown 

spots 1-5 mm long develop on stems and 

petioles. Severe infections can distort young 

growth and defoliate plants. Plants are nonsaleable 

at flowering time. The fungus 

overwinters on stem lesions on nursery parent 

stock plants. Spores may be spread by wind and 

water splash. Prune out affected stems before 

taking cuttings for propagation. Discard rooted 

cuttings that are affected by disease. The nursery 

site should be cleared of any debris remaining 

from previously infected plants. Apply 

preventative fungicides to nursery stock 

thoroughly and frequently, during late autumnearly 

spring (Smith 1986). Other leaf spotting 

fungi may also attack hardenbergia including 

Mycosphaerella. See Annuals A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.): A white 

powdery growth develops on upper and lower leaf 

surfaces, mainly on white cultivars of H. violacea. 

Avoid very shady, humid sites. See Annuals A 6. 

Rusts (Phakopsora pachyrhizi, Uromyces 

hardenbergiae) have been recorded on H. 

violacea. See Annuals A 7. 

MANAGEMENT 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) 

has been recorded on H. violacea. See Vegetables 

M 10. 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of several moths 

feed on foliage and seeds. 

Ivy leafroller (Cryptoptila immersana) caterpillars feed 

between joined leaves. See Ivy K 88. 

Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides) caterpillars 

may be very destructive. See Pome fruits F 113. 

Native seedeating moth (Cydia zapyrana) 

caterpillars feed on seed pods of Hardenbergia and 

Glycine cladestina from southern Qld to Victoria. 

C. zapyrana is related to codling moth (C. 

pomonella). See Pome fruits F 113. 

Twig looper (Ectropis excursaria) feeds on foliage. 


Web moth (Pyralidae) caterpillars web chewed leaves 

and frass together. See Tea-tree K 124. 


Others 

Crusader bug (Mictis profana) sucks shoot tips. 

Green planthopper (Siphanta acuta) 

Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa australis) 


Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) may infest flowers. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Some species and cultivars may 

be sensitive to frost. Tableland collections of 

H. violacea may be frost hardy but eastern states 

coastal collections may not be. 

Weed potential: Hardenbergia may spread 

into surrounding areas or up on to trees. 


Smith, L. 1986. Elsinoe Leafspot of Hardenbergia. 

Agnote (Agdex 283/633), Dept of Agric, and Rural 

Affairs, Melbourne. 








Hardenbergias are hardy in well drained sites, preferring full sun or semi-shade and are suitable for trellis or 

ground cover. H. violacea in the eastern states may have white, pink or mauve flowers. H. comptoniana in WA 

is purple flowering but not as dark as its eastern counterparts. Propagate from leaf spot-free plants by cuttings 

to preserve clonal properties, eg frost ratings and flower colour, or by scarified seed. 


Hebe 

Speedwell 

Hebe spp., Veronica spp., Parahebe spp. 

Family Scrophulariaceae 


Parasitic 


Downy mildew 



Root rots 

Rust 



Caterpillars 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Downy mildew (Peronospora grisea) has been 

recorded on Hebe hulkeana and speedwell 

(Veronica arvensis). See Annuals A 5. 

Fungal leaf spots (Septoria spp.) are 

common and serious. They occur on Hebe 

speciosa, Veronica spicata and V. derwentiana. 

Other leaf spotting species may also affect this 

group of plants. Fusicladium veronicae (= 

Ramalia veronicae) has been recorded on 

Parahebe sp. (Pascoe 1987). See Annuals A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) is common 

and serious, and occurs on H. speciosa and 

Veronica spp. See Annuals A 6. 

Root rots 


Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora cryptogea, 

P. nicotianae var. parasitica) on H. speciosa. 


Rust (Aecium disciforme) occurs on V. calycina 

and V. gracilis and the rust (Aecidium veronicae) 

on speedwell (Veronica spp.). See Annuals A 7. 


Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus thornei) has 

been recorded on Veronica hederifolia in SA 




Leafminer (Platyptilia omissalis, Pterophoridae) occurs 

widely in southern Australia. The caterpillars mine in 

and later feed on leaves of Parahebe perfoliata 

(Common 1990). An unidentified leafminer has been 

observed on Hebe sp. See Azalea K 28. 

Rayed blue butterfly (Candalides heathi, 

Lycaenidae) caterpillars feed on Parahebe 

derwentiana (Common and Waterhouse 1981). See 

Annuals A 8, Trees K 13. 






Others: Spittle bugs (Cercopoidea) may 

disfigure shoots occasionally. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost may damage some 

species. Hot, very dry areas are also 

unfavourable. 








NSW Agric./Rural Industries Research and 









MANAGEMENT 



These plants can be grown successfully in a wide range of climates, but hot, very dry areas would be least 

suitable. Most species tolerate cold conditions but some may be damaged by severe frosts. Some tolerate 

exposed sites near the sea. Prune lightly after flowering to keep the bush compact. Propagated by cuttings or 

division. Harvest veronica when flowers are beginning to open (V. bonariensis) and 1/2 open (V. longifolia). 

Immediately place in water after harvest to prevent fast wilting. Use a floral preservative (Nowak and Rudnicki 

1990). 

K 80 


Hibiscus 

Hibiscus spp. 



Parasitic 


Hibiscus chlorotic ringspot 






Grey mould 




Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Cottonwood psyllid 


Hibiscus flower beetle 

Leafmining moth 

Mealybugs 

Metallic flea beetles 

Mites 

Soft scales 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Insects in flowers 


Parasitic 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-DISEASES 

Hibiscus chlorotic ringspot virus affects 

Hibiscus sp., Chinese hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis). 

Leaves develop a mottle or many tiny yellow 

flecks, rings or veinbanding. Environmental 

factors, age of the plants or leaves, genetic 

diversity within the species or gene pool of 

individual plants, may reflect some of the reasons 

for the great genetic variability of symptoms in 

H. rosa-sinensis in nature. Spread by vegetative 

propagation (cuttings, budding, grafting), by 

mechanical inoculation (on sap on hands, tools or 

clothes). There is no vector. Remove infected 

plants. Do not vegetatively propagate from 

diseased plants. See Trees K 4. 

Others: Overseas, several other virus-like 

diseases have been recorded in Malvaceae, eg 

tomato big bud (mycoplasma-like organism). 

Rugose leaf curl (rickettsia-like organism) has 

been recorded on Hibiscus spp. 



pv. syringae) causes large purplish spots on 

leaves, especially on H. rosa-sinensis Apple 

Blossom. See Vegetables M 5. 



Stem canker (Sphaeropsis hibisci) 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) (see below) 


Fungal leaf spots (Ascochyta, Phyllosticta, 

many other species). Several species may cause 

brown or black circular or irregular shaped spots 

on leaves. Flyspeck (Microthyriella hibisci, 

Ascomycetes) affects Chinese hibiscus (H. rosasinensis). 

Leaves yellow and may fall. The black 

specks on the leaves are the fruiting bodies of the 

fungus, they are not always clearly visible. Serious 

damage is uncommon and control is not usually 

necessary. Overhanging larger plants may be 

pruned to provide more sun. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould, flower blight (Botrytis cinerea) 

may affect flowers (blossom blight). Flower 

infections may grow into stems and branches of 

hibiscus causing elongated and sunken cankers. 

These may eventually encircle stems causing them 

to die. See Greenhouses N 22. 


Phytophthora collar rot (Phytophthora spp., 

P. nicotianae): Chinese hibiscus (H. rose-sinensis) is 

very susceptible and is often grafted on to tolerant 

rootstock. See Trees K 6. 

Others: 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.) 

Stem rot of cuttings (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Root and crown rot (Phellinus noxius) 


Sclerotium base rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) 




Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) has 

been recorded on H. cannabinus, H. rosa-sinensis, 

H. schizopetalus, H. sabdariffa and H. trionum. 

Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) on 

H. rosa-sinensis and H. subdariffa, and ring 

nematode (Criconema sp.) and Graciliacus 

steineri on H. rosa-sinensis. See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) infest new 

shoots and open flowers making them unsightly. 

Cotton aphid, melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) is 

blackish-green but varies from yellow to nearly black 

and occasionally causes leaf curling. 

Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) is black with white 

legs and clusters on new shoots and flowers. 

Aphids secrete copious amounts of honeydew on 

which sooty mould may grow. See Pea M 74. 



HIBISCUS 


Seed bugs, chinch bugs (Lygaeidae): Coon bug 

(Oxycarenus arctatus) is black and white, winged 

and about 3 mm long. They may swarm on hibiscus 

sucking sap from new shoots. Cottonseed bug 

(O. luctuosus) feeds on Malvaceae, eg Norfolk Island 

hibiscus, H. rosa-sinensis and cotton. Adults are 

small grey-black insects, about 3 mm long. Adults 

and nymphs cluster on new shoots, in and around 

buds, flowers and fruit, sucking sap causing distortion 

and wilting. Insecticides are registered for use. 

Cotton harlequin bug (Tectocoris diophthalmus, 

Scutelleridae) feeds on young shoots of 

Malvaceae, eg abutilon, cotton, native and exotic 

hibiscus, buds may drop. Adults are jewel bugs, 15- 

20 mm long and strongly convex. Females are 

yellow-orange with 6-8 small patches of metallic 

green or blue scattered over the body. Males are 

metallic green and blue with red patches and are 

smaller than females. Nymphs vary in colour with 

each moult 

Others: Crusader bug (Mictis profana). Harlequin 

bug (Dindymus versicolor) and Rutherglen bug 

(Nysius vinitor) may cause bud drop. 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): More than 20 moth 

species and 1 butterfly may infest hibiscus. 

Budworms (Noctuidae), eg budworms (Helicoverpa 

spp.), are a major cause of bud drop. Other 

budworms include bollworms (Earias spp.), cotton 

looper (Anomis flava). Also hairy leafeating 

caterpillars (Xanthodes spp.), looper caterpillars 

(Chrysodeixis spp.). See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Common oakblue (Arhopola micale amphis, 

Lycaenidae) caterpillars feed on H. tiliaceus. 

Cotton tipworm (Crocidosema plebejana, Tortricidae) 

caterpillars of this very small borer attack growing 

tips in spring, tip pruning plants. The loss of the 

growing tip prevents the green wood maturing into 

flowering wood. Regular sprays may be required. 

Pink spotted bollworm (Pectinophora scutigera, 

Gelechiidae) is a minor pest of cotton in Qld, hibiscus 

is the native host plant. Caterpillars feed in seed 

capsules of Malvaceae. 

Others: Sandal-box hawk moth (Coenotes 

eremophilae, Sphingidae). 


Cottonwood psyllid (Mesohomotoma hibisci, 

Carsidaridae, Psylloidea) is a sporadic pest of 

Malvaceae especially cottonwood (H. tiliaceus). 

Adults are fleshy brown insects about 6 mm long, 

nymphs exude masses of white waxy filaments. 

Colonies contain mixed stages and feed on young 

shoots and leaves. Affected areas become 

covered with white waxy filaments exuded by the 

insects. Affected leaves may wilt and die (Jones 

and Elliot 1986). See Trees K 15. 


vaporariorum) are small, white, moth-like, about 

1-2 mm long. Nymphs are translucent, greenish 

and scale-like with fine waxy marginal filaments. 

Nymphs and adults suck sap from new shoots and 

leaf undersurfaces. Sooty mould grows on the 

honeydew they excrete. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Hibiscus flower beetle (Aethina (Olliffura) 

concolor, Nitidulidae, Coleoptera) is a serious 

pest of hibiscus, especially H. rosa-sinensis and 

magnolia in the tropics and subtropics. Beetles 

are black, oval, about 3 mm long and are often 

found in large numbers in hibiscus flowers. It is 

predominantly a pollen feeder, but may 

occasionally chew holes in petals. If necessary 

spray but not when bees are present. 

Leafmining moth (Phyllonorycter stephanota, 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) mines in leaves of 

Malvaceae, eg abutilon, hibiscus, Sida subspictata 

and Malvastrum spicatum. See Oak K 101. 


Hibiscus mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) 



Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp., 

Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) damage ornamentals, 

eg dahlia, fuchsia, hollyhock, hibiscus, Norfolk 

Island hibiscus, zinnia, fruit, eg avocado, rhubarb, 

vegetables, eg cucurbits, lettuce, potato, sweet 

potato, weeds, eg mallow. Beetles are small, 

shiny, metallic, purple-black up to 6 mm long with 

thickened hind legs adapted for jumping. Beetles 

chew tiny holes of irregular shapes in young 

leaves and buds. Leaves look as if they have 

been peppered with fine shot. See Australian 

native plants N 12 (Fig. 382). As leaves grow, the 

holes enlarge. Larvae are whitish, slender, 

delicate, cylindrical, 3-8 mm when fully grown, 

with tiny legs and brownish heads. Larvae of most 

species feed in stems but seem to do little damage. 

Complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, 

adult) with possibly 1-2 generations each year. 

Little is known about the life cycle. Overwinters 

possibly as adult beetles in herbage. Spread by 

beetles flying and jumping, by introduction of 

infested plants carrying eggs, larvae, pupae and 

adults. Sanitation: Control weeds in and around 

hibiscus, adults often feed and breed on weeds. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Young 

plants may be protected by fine gauze. Boxes or 

shields lined with a sticky material, eg tangle foot, 

may be placed over infested plants to catch beetles 

as they jump off infested plants. Insecticides may 

be applied at the first sign of damage but not when 

bees are present. See Trees K 15. 


Hibiscus erinose mite (Eriophyes hibisci, 

Eriophyidae) causes disfiguring galls on leaves, 

buds, petioles and calyces on Chinese hibiscus 

(H. rosa-sinensis) (Carson 1992). Overseas it also 

affects okra. Pruning infested branches does not 

provide control. Badly affected shrubs should be 

removed and burnt or buried. Do not move infested 

cuttings or plants from infested areas to mite-free 

areas. Miticides have been approved for use. See 



leaves and kill plants. See Beans (French) M 29. 






K 82 



Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) feeds in flowers and 

buds causing premature browning. Buds may yellow 

and fall for other reasons, eg too much or too little 

water, too much chemical fertiliser. See Roses J 6. 


causes leaf silvering. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: Ants (Formicidae) are attracted to 

honeydew produced by aphids, mealybugs and soft 

scales. Borers (unconfirmed species) may 

damage trunks. Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) may 

suck sap from leaves, resulting in a stippling 

effect. Locusts (Orthoptera) of various species 

and katydids damage H. tiliaceus foliage. 

Millipedes and slaters which thrive in damp soils 

may damage cuttings and sprouting seeds. 


Snails and slugs may injure plants in damp, 

shady areas. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Bud drop commonly affects 

hybrid hibiscus, buds yellow and fall. Bud drop may 

be caused by insufficient water and fertiliser, 

excessive nitrogen associated with foliar fertilisers, 

or heavy infestations of insects, eg budworms, 

thrips or hibiscus beetles. Regularly fertilise and 

water. Double-flowered forms seem more 

susceptible than singles. Bud drop is more severe in 

some seasons than in others and some varieties are 

more severely affected than others. If the variety is 

severely and continually affected remove and replace 

with another. See Camellia K 40. Oedema may 

occur on the native H. arnhemensis in greenhouses, 

white waxy lumps develop on stems which later turn 

black. See Geranium A 35. Frost: H. rosa-sinensis, 

H. mutabilis and H. schizopetalus prefer warm 

climates, H. syriacus thrives in cooler areas and 

tolerates frosts. The native H. tiliaceus is widely 

grown in coastal Qld. H. moscheutos Southern Belle 

has a flower the size of a dinner plate, but dies back 

to the ground each year. Watering: Hibiscus need 

regular watering, well drained soil in the full sun. 

Insects in flowers: Bees (Lithurge sp, 

Megachilidae, Hymenoptera) forage only on large 

flowered Malvaceae, eg native hibiscus. Bees are 

MANAGEMENT 

HIBISCUS 

dependent on nectar from flowers as their chief 

source of carbohydrates and on pollen as their 

chief source of protein. Flies (Chyromyidae, 

Diptera) are very small, stout, black and yellowish. 

Adults of Aphaniosoma and Gymnochiromyia 

occur on flowers, eg of Hibiscus, Santalum. 

Maggots of Gymnochiromyia have been found in 

bat guana in Australian caves and in nests in 

British birds. Hibiscus flower beetle (Aethina 

(Olliffura) concolor) is predominantly a pollen 

feeder. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Others: Malathion and other insecticides may 

injure hibiscus. Senescence: Evergreen hibiscus 

naturally discard their old leaves several times a 

year. Larger older leaves at the base turn bright 

yellow a few days before dropping. 


Anon. 1993. Hibiscus. Hibiscus Soc. of Qld, PO Box 

332, Lutwyche, Qld. 

Beers, L. and Howie, J. 1985. Growing Hibiscus. 

Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, NSW. 









Carson, C. 1992. Hibiscus Erinose Mite : A New Pest 

Ornamentals Update, 7(3), Aug. 






Matthews, G. and Tunstall, J. (eds). 1994. Insect Pests of 

Cotton. CAB International, Paris. 








Watkins, G. M. 1981. Cotton Diseases. APS Press, St 



Industry eg 

Diseases of Cotton (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Cotton (NSW Agfact) 



Hibiscus Society of Qld 




There are many different types of hibiscus so it is not possible to generalise. Some rootstocks, eg Wilcox, have 

a degree of tolerance to Phytophthora and wet and dry conditions. Only plant disease and pest-free planting 

material. Propagated by tip and hardwood cuttings, by tissue culture and grafting. Hibiscus require a regular 

watering and a fertilising program to look their best. Spent flowers should be removed every day to reduce 

pests. Bug Zappers are sometimes used at night (from dusk to dawn) to reduce budworm moths (Helicoverpa 

spp.), one of the main causes of bud drop. Different pruning practices are necessary for different types. H. 

syriacus should be cut back severely in the first few years to encourage a bushy framework. Some H. rosasinensis 

cultivars require harder pruning than others but none until the danger of frost has passed. Growth 

retardants may be used to dwarf, bunch, and attractively market, potted hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis) for indoors 

in cold climates. H. rosa-sinensis may remain retarded for 5 years. Potted hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis) are 

retailed at the beginning of flowering. During storage and transport prior to sale, potted plants will not tolerate 

more than 3 days of darkness and are highly sensitive to ethylene which may cause buds and flowers to drop 

(Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 


Holly 

Ilex spp. 

Family Aquifoliaceae 


Parasitic 


Damping off 



Scales 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Sooty mould 

Spine damage 


Parasitic 


Damping off (various species, overseas 

Cylindrocladium scoparium, Phytophthora spp.) 

may occur on cuttings. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots (various species) may occur 

occasionally. See Annuals A 5. 


Scales (Hemiptera) may be serious pests of 

holly. Vast amounts of honeydew are produced by 

soft scales, the associated sooty mould and ants 

disfigure plants. 


Circular black scale (Chrysomphalus aonidium) 



Purple scale (Lepidosaphes beckii) 







infest holly grown in greenhouses. See Beans 


Others: There are many more insect pests of 

holly overseas. In America, these include holly 

leafminer (Phytomyza ilicis, Diptera) and southern 

red mite (Oligonychus ilicis, Tetranychidae, 

Acarina). 


Birds may eat berries. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Lack of water during hot dry 

weather, or sunburn, may cause leaves to brown. 

Dead areas are colonised by secondary fungi. 

Sooty mould (various fungi) indicates the 

presence of honeydew-secreting soft scale 

insects, eg black scale, pink wax scale or soft 

brown scale. See Trees K 19. 

Spine damage may occur when leaves are 

punctured by the spines of adjacent leaves. 

Others: Holly berries contain toxic substances 

(Frohne and Pfander 1983). 
















MANAGEMENT 



Holly prefers cool climates and full sun, and plenty organic matter in the soil. Trees require irrigation in hot dry 

weather. Only propagate from scale-free trees. Propagate by seeds, cuttings, grafting, budding, air-layering. 

Harvest English holly (Ilex aquifolium, I. aquifolium Albo-marginata) when leaves are fully mature, and it may 

have a vase life of up to 2 months. Cut stems on an angle with a sharp knife, change vase solution every 2 

days and place in deep water and top up regularly as woody stems are thirsty. Warm water may help to ease 

the flow of water up stems. Defoliate if necessary to allow berries to be seen. Spraying with hair spray or clear 

fixative is sometimes recommended to prevent berries from shrivelling too quickly (Jones and Moody 1993). 

After harvest holly can be stored for 1-3 weeks in moisture-retentive boxes at 0 o C (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

K 84 


Honeysuckle 

Lonicera spp. 

Family Caprifoliaceae 


Parasitic 






Caterpillars 


Honeysuckle aphid 

Scales 

Wingless grasshopper 

Non-parasitic 

Potential weed 


Parasitic 


Tobacco leaf curl virus affects honeysuckle in 

Australia, overseas also tobacco, tomato, green 

capsicum, common thornapple, Ageratum conyzoides, 

Zinnia elegans. The main symptom is vein 

yellowing which is considered to give variegated 

honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Aureo-reticulata) its 

horticultural value. Overwinters in infected 

honeysuckle, possibly other hosts. Spread by cotton 

whitefly (Bemesia tabaci, Aleyrodidae), by cuttings, 

by grafting, not by contact between plants, not by 

seed (Buchen-Osmond et al. 1988). 

Others: Overseas, cucumber mosaic virus may cause 

distorted leaves and ringspots; lonicera latent virus 

may cause mottled leaves in L. periclymenum and is 

transmitted by aphids, eg honeysuckle aphid 

(Hyadaphis foeniculi) (Cooper 1993). 



Fungal leaf spots: Several species including 

Cercospora, Septoria, may cause minor leaf 


Honeysuckle leaf blight (Insolibasidium deformans) Vic 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) is a serious 

disease of young cuttings of variegated 

honeysuckle (L. japonica Aureo-reticulata) in 

humid conditions. Cuttings may die. Powdery 

mildew causes a white fungal growth mainly in 

spring and early summer on new foliage. Plant 

cuttings in well ventilated sites. It may be 

necessary to apply fungicides to cuttings as new 

leaves emerge. See Annuals A 6. 


Caterpillars (Tortricidae, Lepidoptera) 



See Annuals A 8, Ivy K 88. 


may result in leaf blackening overseas. See 


Honeysuckle aphid (Hyadaphis foeniculi, 

Aphididae, Hemiptera) is greenish and 

occasionally attacks young shoots of honeysuckle 

and flower heads of hemlock. Overseas this aphid 

may spread virus diseases. See Roses J 4. 




Probably other species including: 



San Jose scale (Q. perniciosus) 


Wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum) 

may sporadically damage honeysuckle and is not 

usually noticed until after insects have gone. 

Plants damaged severely one year may suffer no 

damage during subsequent years. See Vegetables 

M 14. 

Non-parasitic 

Potential weed: Honeysuckle may be an 

invasive weed and may need containment. 


Bos, L. 1983. Introduction to Plant Virology. Longman 

Group, Harlow, UK. 












MANAGEMENT 

Honeysuckle may be semi-deciduous or evergreen, with fragrant spring flowers which are creamy, yellow, pink or 

red, depending on the species. It is very adaptable to climate and soil, plants may be pruned after flowering to 

keep them contained. Giant Burmese honeysuckle (L. hildebrandiana) requires a warm situation protected from 

frosts. 


Hydrangea 

Hydrangea macrophylla 

Family Saxifragaceae 


Parasitic 









Aphids 


Hydrangea scale 

Spider mites 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Flower colour 

Lack of flowers 



Parasitic 


Hydrangea ringspot virus is considered to infect 

91-98% of H. macrophylla worldwide (Larson 1992). 

Foliage symptoms include stunting, chlorotic spots 

and rings on older leaves, leaf crinkling and 

asymmetry, some necrotic stem-pitting and fewer and 

smaller florets on short stalks in the cymes. 

Symptoms vary with environment and season. 

Spread by pruning knives, by leaf contact, but not by 

insects and not by seed. Virus-free hydrangea 

have been developed overseas but are not widely 

available at present. Only take cuttings from virusfree 

plants and sterilise pruning knives. 

Virescence: Mycoplasma-like bodies, possibly tomato 

big bud mycoplasma (greening), may cause 

abnormal inflorescences with phyllody (sepals 

instead of being pink, white or blue have reverted to 

green leaves) and distorted growth especially at 

production temperatures > 19 o C. In some instances 

leaves have vein yellowing and may be unusually 

small (Cooper 1993). See Tomato M 97. 

Others: Overseas, also arabis mosaic virus, cucumber 

mosaic virus, tobacco rattle virus, tobacco ringspot 

virus, tomato ringspot virus. Some of these viruses 

are considered to be more damaging than hydrangea 

ringspot virus, and may be present in combination. 

Some are spread by aphids as well as by other 

means. Irrespective of the virus, symptoms expressed 

differ with the cultivar and are dependent on 

environmental conditions (Cooper 1993). 

Take cuttings only from virus-free plants. 

Sterilise pruning knives. Only commercial 

nurseries may attempt to control any viruses 

spread by insects using insecticides. See Trees K 

4. 


Fungal leaf spots (unconfirmed species of 

Alternaria, Phyllosticta hydrangea). Many more 

species may affect hydrangea overseas. See 

Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is the most 

damaging disease of hydrangea in humid 

conditions. Buds, flower heads and stems may 

rot particularly during propagation. Cultivars vary 

in susceptibility, Kuhnert and Strafford are most 

resistant while Merveille and Rose Supreme are 

least resistant (Bailey 1989). See Greenhouses N 

22. 

Powdery mildew (Microsphaera polonica) is 

a common and serious disease of hydrangea in 

humid conditions both outdoors and in 

greenhouses. White powdery spots on leaves may 

later turn blackish. This can make the disease 

difficult to diagnose. See Annuals A 6. 


Armillaria root and stem rot (Armillaria mellea) 


Overseas also Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia 


Others: Silver leaf (Stereum purpureum). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) on 

Hydrangea sp. Overseas also root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus sp.), foliar nematode 

(Aphelenchoides sp.) and stem and bulb 

nematode (Ditylenchus sp.). See Vegetables M 10. 



leaves. See Roses J 4. 


vaporariorum) may infest hydrangea in 

greenhouses. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Hydrangea scale (Pulvinaria hydrangeae, 

Coccidae, Hemiptera) infests leaves and stems of 

hydrangea, camellia, other plants. Adult scales 

are oval and about 3 mm long. Towards the end of 

spring, females produce soft, white, waxy ovisacs 

which hold the eggs and are up to 15 mm long. The 

dead female scale can be seen at one end of the 

ovisac. When eggs hatch, young scales or 

crawlers settle under leaves and on stems, sucking 

sap. When winter arrives they enter a resting stage 

and only become active again in the spring when 

they commence feeding and become adults. 

Although infestations are often only noticed when 

the ovisacs are produced, control is difficult at 

this stage because of the quantities of wax present. 

If considered necessary, apply insecticide when 

most of the eggs have hatched in early summer and 

cover leaf undersurfaces and stems. About 4 weeks 

after spraying, dead scales will be dry or produce 

K 86 


HYDRANGEA 

a thick liquid if squashed. Living scales produce 

a watery liquid, if many of these occur, spraying 

should be undertaken again. Overseas, apple 

mussel scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi, Diaspididae) 

may also infest stems of hydrangea. See Citrus F 

41, Trees K 16. 


Hydrangea spider mite (Tetranychus hydrangea) 

may severely damage hydrangea during spring. 

Foliage becomes severely mottled; cup-like blisters 

develop on younger leaves. Flower heads are 

deformed, reduced in size and show irregular partcoloured 

mottled affect. 

Twospotted mite (T. urticae) may cause leaf mottling 

of leaves especially in greenhouses. See Beans 



Snails may severely damage young plants, 

especially of oakleaf hydrangea (H. quercifolia). 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Leaves especially of variegated 

varieties may be scorched by sun. 

Flower colour: The colour of flowers, in all 

except the white or greenish cultivars, is 

influenced by the pH of the soil. If the soil is 

strongly acid flowers will be deep-blue; 

aluminium sulphate and iron sulphate may be used 

to reduce the pH, ie to make the soil more acid; 

commercial bluing tonics are available. If the soil 

is slightly alkaline flowers will be clear pink or 

rosy-red; lime and magnesium sulphate may be 

used to increase the pH, ie to make the soil more 

alkaline. There is a range of pale-blues, mauves 

and pale-pinks in between. Flowers of white and 

coloured varieties may green during senescence. 

Altering the pH also influences the availability of 

iron and other nutrients. 

Lack of flowers may be due to severe pruning, 

2 or 3 pairs of buds must be left at the base. 


deficiency (chlorosis) may cause yellowing 

between the veins of new leaves if soil is alkaline. 

See Azalea K 29, Citrus F 43. Magnesium and 

potassium deficiencies may also occur in 

artificial media. 


Bailey, D. A. 1989. Hydrangea Production. Growers 

Handbook Series Vol.3. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 





Davidson, W. 1982. The Houseplant Survival Manual: 

How to Keep Your Houseplants Healthy. Nelson, 

Melbourne. 










Shelf Performance. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinios. 









Industry eg 

Hydrangea Culture (SA Adel. Bot. Gar. Leaflet) 






MANAGEMENT 

Hydrangea are grown in gardens, in containers outdoors and indoors and are used as dried flowers. Only plant 

virus and scale-free plants. Propagated by cuttings. Hydrangeas are best suited to cool moist climates, if 

grown in cold areas, they must be protected from frost. Strong dry winds or hot sun will burn foliage. Water well 

in hot weather. Prune by removing old woody stems down to the lowest double bud. Unflowered shoots with 

single terminal buds should be left unpruned. Pasteurise media for propagation and containers, control weeds 

and dispose of dead plant material to reduce Botrytis inoculum. Examine plants regularly for diseases and 

pests. Harvest for cut flowers when cool; cut stems, give a long drink, use a floral preservative and vase life 

should be excellent. For drying flowers cut late in season, then put in 30 mm water; do not add any extra water 

and keep out of sunlight to prevent fading (Jones and Moody 1993). Retail potted plants at the beginning of 

flowering. Plants grow best in bright, indirect light, but they also tolerate shade. They need a temperature of 14- 

18 o C, abundant water and high air humidity and periodic fertilisation. The large leaves and plentiful flowers 

accelerate transpiration, so watering should be carefully monitored (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Lack of 

watering by retailers or consumers is probably the most frequent cause of short post-greenhouse life. 

When flowering is finished consumers can re-bloom hydrangeas by cutting the plants back and following basic 

propagation procedures (Larson 1992). 


Ivy 

English ivy (Hedera helix) 

Family Araliaceae 


Parasitic 






Root rots 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fungi (lichens, slime moulds, sooty mould) 

Smothering effect 



Parasitic 


Overseas, yellow veinbanding, blotches and broad 

ring patterns on ivy leaves, have been attributed to 

various viruses, eg arabis mosaic virus, strawberry 

latent ringspot virus. See Trees K 4. 


Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris 

pv. hederae) causes small, round pale green spots 

on ivy leaves. These gradually enlarge becoming 

more angular, centres become dark brown to black 

and margins reddish brown, sometimes cracking. 

Leaves may yellow and fall. Spots may also be 

formed on petioles and stems. Use a pesticide 

only as last resort. See Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf spots may produce rather 

spectacular spots with fruiting bodies arranged 

in concentric circles. Others, in addition to 

causing leaf spots, cause twig blights. Leaves 

may yellow and fall, plants look ragged. Leaf 

spots are not often important on ivy plants in 

gardens. 

Anthracnose, fungal leaf spot (Colletotrichum 

trichellum) affects ivy during cool spring weather and 

plants growing in cool damp situations. Leaves 

develop brown, circular spots, then yellow and fall. 


Leaf blight (Alternaria panax) can infect Araliaceae, 

eg ivy, also umbrella tree (Schefflera actiniphylla), 

dwarf umbrella tree (S. arboricola), fatshedera 

(Fatshedera), Aralia, Panax, Polycias, Dizygotheca. 

Circulation may be improved by trimming back 

the ivy and perhaps pruning surrounding trees. 

On individual plants infected leaves may be 

removed and destroyed. Fungicides may be 

applied to nursery stock. See Annuals A 5. 

Root rots 

Phytophthora rots (Phytophthora spp.) may cause 

leaf spots, foliage blights as well as root rots 

(Bodman et al. 1996). 

Others: Thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis 

basicola); Pythium sp. may cause root rots 

overseas 

See Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7 




Ivy aphid (Aphis hederae) 

Aphids may cause leaves to roll under. See Roses 

J 4, Trees K 10. 


Ivy leafroller (Cryptoptila immersana, Tortricidae) 

infests ornamentals, eg hardenbergia, ivy, kennedia, 

Clematis glycinoides, Eustrephus latifolius, a cycad 

(Bowenia serrulata), fern (Acrotrichum aureum), 

honeysuckle, privet, poplar, lantana, rose, fruit, eg 

avocado, citrus, strawberry, blackberry, apricot. 

Caterpillars are yellowish-green with 4 prominent 

black wedge-shaped marks on the white head capsule. 

They feed between webbed leaves causing serious 

damage. Several natural enemies attack ivy 

leafroller, including the predatory larvae of a hover 

fly, and several parasitic wasps and flies. The extent 

to which they exert control depends on the disruption 

caused by pesticides applied to control other pests 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Avocado F 19. 

Twig looper (Ectropis excursaria, Geometridae) 

caterpillars commonly damage ivy and many other 

exotic and native plants. See Trees K 13. 

Others: Caterpillars of a blue butterfly (Candalides 

consimilis) commonly feed on ivy. 

See Annuals A 8, Trees K 13, Vegetables M 13. 


Ivy mite (Bryobia kissophila) is a spider mite 

(Tetranychidae) which occurs overseas. It is only 

distinguishable from bryobia mite (B. rubrioculus) 

in its biology. No eggs are laid in cold weather, 6-8 

generations occur throughout the year overseas. 

Overwinters in all stages. Mites congregate on twigs 

during the day and spread out at night to feed on 

leaves causing a faint white leaf mottle. See Fruit 

F 12. 


ivy grown indoors in warm dry positions. Leaves 

develop a faint sandy mottle, become whitish and may 

fall. See Beans (French) M 29. 

K 88 


IVY 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): 

Oleander scale, ivy scale (Aspidiotus nerii) 


Soft scales (Coccidae): 





vaporariorum), passionvine hopper (Scolypopa 

australis). 


Snails and slugs may be a problem on neglected 

ivy grown as ground cover. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Leaves may be sun scorched if 

ivy is grown in sunny exposed sites, eg leaves face 

west, or plants are in containers. Oedema may 

occur on ivy especially on container plants. On 

leaf undersurfaces raised pinhead-sized blisters or 

corky pimples develop. Sometimes the whole of 

the leaf undersurface may be affected. Growth is 

otherwise normal and only market quality may be 

affected. Oedema usually occurs when water 

uptake exceeds water loss, so that water-filled 

areas occur in and around the stomata especially 

on leaf undersurfaces. This condition develops 

when relative humidity and soil temperatures are 

high. The larger and more vigorous the root 

system, the greater the water uptake and the more 

severe the problem. Sometimes oedema can be 

caused by sprays or deposits on leaves which seal 

the stomata and other pores. Oil-based sprays or 

those which contain spraying oil are known to 

have this effect. Sometimes damaged leaf tissue 

becomes colonised by secondary pathogens, eg 

Alternaria, Botrytis or soft rotting bacteria. 

Oedema may be prevented by avoiding high 

relative humidities and high soil temperatures 

especially when plants are growing vigorously. 

Avoid frequent applications of oil-based sprays. 

Space affected plants to allow air circulation, and 

water sparingly. Inspect plants regularly for the 

development of secondary rots (Fletcher 1984). 

See Camellia K 40, Geranium A 35. 

Fungi: Lichens and slime moulds may grow 

on leaves close to the ground. Sooty mould 

(various species of fungi) will grow on honeydew 

from aphids and soft scales infesting ivy or 

overhead trees. See Trees K 19. 

Smothering effect: Ivy foliage may smother 

trees. Ivy with suckers (small adhesive aerial 

roots on its stems) may leave marks on bricks and 

will lift bricks if there are cracks for shoots to get 

into. 

Weed potential: Seed is spread by birds to 

other gardens and urban bushland. When ivy is 

established it is difficult to eradicate. 

























MANAGEMENT 

Ivy is a low maintenance plant used for nature strips and as an indoor plant. English ivy (Hedera helix) is used 

for hanging baskets, and runners may be trained on supports and trellises on walls. Long shoots or trails of 

cultivars of the common ivy (H. helix) and the leaves of H. canariensis and the creamy blotched cultivar 

H. canariensis Variegata, may be used by florists. Since ivy is susceptible to caterpillar and slug and snail 

damage, as well as fungal leaf spots, ivy for cutting is best grown on wire supports. Propagated by seeds, 

cuttings, grafting, budding, air layering. Proper control of environmental factors is necessary if ivy is being grown 

as a foliage plant. It will tolerate deep shade and freezing without injury (Larson 1992, Nowak and Rudnicki 

1990). Ivy should be pruned frequently to stimulate bushy growth. In summer ivy prefers abundant water, in 

winter it needs only moderate watering (depends on the temperature). Harvest foliage on fully mature stems. 

Ivy has a vase life of 1-2 weeks and may be stored at 2-4 o C for 2-3 weeks in a preservative solution (Larson 

1992). Retail potted ivy when plants are well established in pots. 

TREES, SNRUBS AND CLIMBERS K 89

Kennedia 

Kennedia spp. 

Family Fabaceae 


Parasitic 




Root rots 



Caterpillars 

Leafminers 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Kennedya Y virus may infect dusky coral pea 

(Kennedia rubicunda) causing a mild marble mosaic 

on leaves. Not spread by vectors or by seed. 

Kennedya yellow mosaic virus may infect 

K. rubicunda, Desmodium triflorum, D. scorpiurus, 

Indigofera australis, Clitoria ternata. Symptoms 

include mild yellow local lesions and a systemic 

bright blotchy yellow mosaic on leaves. See 

Australian native plants N 3 (Fig. 369). Not spread 

by vectors, by contact between plants, by seed, or by 

pollen. 

Potato Y virus in WA on coral vine (K. coccinea). 

Spread by aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), 

cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), by grafting. See Potato 

M 77. 



Fungal leaf spots (various unconfirmed 

species of fungi). See Annuals A 5. 


luteobubalina). See Trees K 4. 



been recorded in SA and Qld on running postman 

(K. prostrata). See Vegetables M 10. 




between webbed leaves. See Ivy K 88. 

Pea blue butterfly (Lampides boeticus) caterpillars 

when young, tunnel into flowers and later into 

pods, feeding on developing seeds. See Pea M 74. 


Leafminers (Lepidoptera) 

Moth (Phyllonorycter aglaozona, Gracillariidae) 

caterpillars form characteristic tentiform mines in 

leaves of K. rubicunda, Glycine, Desmodium, French 

bean. Moths are black and white. Caterpillars 

form a small mine in which the silk lining causes the 

epidermis to contract to form a characteristic cell. 

See Oak K 101. 

Moth ('Stigmella' spp., Nepticulidae) caterpillars 

form spiral then tortuous mines in leaves of 

K. rubicunda in coastal NSW. Faecal material is 

deposited in a thin central line throughout the length 

of the mine, except for the last few millimetres before 

the larva leaves it. Caterpillars spin their cocoons in 

August-early September. Moths have an ochreous 

brown head, white eye-caps and dark forewings with 

shining whitish transverse bands. See Correa K 51. 

See Azalea K 28. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Most species of Kennedia are 

frost sensitive. Frost tolerant species include 

K. retrorsa. 










Dale, J. and Gibbs, A. 1976. Kennedya Yellow Mosaic 

Virus : Another Tymovirus. Aust. Jn. Bio. Sci., 

29:397-403. 




MANAGEMENT 

Kennedia are grown for ground cover, climbers or in containers. Most species prefer sunny, well drained 

positions and grow vigorously when planted out. Weeds are not a major problem, but there are exceptions. 

Propagated by scarified seed, or semi-ripe cuttings in summer. Water moderately when in growth and keep dry 

but not arid in winter. Prune after flowering to remove overcrowded growth. 

K 90 


Kurrajong 

Kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus) 

Family Sterculiaceae 


Parasitic 





Borers 

Caterpillars 

Gall wasps 

Kurrajong pod beetle 

Kurrajong psyllids 

Kurrajong seed weevil 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Fungal leaf spot (Phyllosticta sterculiae) and tar 

spot (Phyllochora spp.) occur on bottlebrush, fig and 

native plants. See Annuals A 5, Bottlebrush K 36. 


luteobubalina) and phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora palmivora). See Trees K 7. 

Wood rots (Basidiomycetes): Fomes, Polyporus. See 

Trees K 8. 


Mistletoe (Loranthaceae) may infest kurrajongs 

especially during drought. Removing affected 

branches just below the point of attachment is 

recommended during winter so that cut surfaces 

are not exposed to insect attack. See Trees K 9. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), spiral 

nematode (Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus) and 

Paralongidorus, Pateracephalanema, Scutellonema, 

Tylenchorhynchus, are associated with kurrajong in 

Qld and the NT. See Vegetables M 10. 

Borers 


Kurrajong weevil, mimic bark weevil (Axionicus 

insignis, Curculionidae, Coleoptera) is an important 

pest of kurrajong. Weevils are about 12 mm long, 

appear grey and are difficult to detect on the bark of 

the tree. Having a protective coloration, they remain 

half hidden in the cracks and crevices in the bark of 

trees during the day (mimic bark weevil). White 

scales form patches on the thorax and towards the tip 

of the wing covers. Adults may be found throughout 

the year on the trunks of trees. Larvae are up to 

12 mm long, stout, legless, with white bodies and 

small reddish heads. Eggs are laid in the branches and 

trunks of kurrajong trees and larvae honeycomb the 

wood with round tunnels packed with frass. When 

fully-fed they pupate in the end of one of these 

burrows. Later adults emerge and the tree is riddled 

with exit holes. Favoured by stressed trees or 

those injured by stock or careless pruning. Damaged 

or dying branches are susceptible to attack. Control 

by removing or repairing damaged limbs promptly. 

Bark or pruning scars may be sealed using a 

recommended grafting paint, fertilise trees. 

Insecticides are of little value. 

Large auger beetle (Bostrychopsis jesuita) attacks 

freshly dead wood of Brachychiton spp. which 

must contain starch. Beetles are about 12 mm long. 

Larvae are about 10-12 mm long. Larvae are active 

September through to April. Trees are usually dead so 

that no treatment is usually justified. See Trees K 11. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of > 10 species 

of butterflies and moths feed on Brachychiton spp. 

(Common and Waterhouse 1981, Common 1990). 

Butterflies: Common aeroplane (Phaedyma 

shepherdi shepherdi, Nymphalidae), eastern flat 

(Netrocoryne repanda, Hesperiidae), helenita blue 

butterfly (Candalides helenita helenita, Lycaenidae), 

pencilled blue butterfly (Candalides absimilis, 

Lycaenidae), tailed emperor butterfly (Polyura 

sempronius, Nymphalidae). See Wattle K 133. 

Kurrajong leaf-tier (Lygropia clytusalis, Pyralidae) 

caterpillars are pests of the foliage of Brachychiton 

spp., especially kurrajong and Illawarra flame tree 

(B. acerifolium). Moths have a wingspan of about 

25 mm and are pale orange with irregular wavy black 

bands across them. Caterpillars are light-green, 

agile and about 25 mm long. They always feed in a 

group and web leaves together to form a shelter 

(bag) up to 250 mm long which makes trees look ugly 

(Fig. 259). Caterpillars do some feeding within their 

shelter but also come out at night to feed on other 

leaves. They pupate inside the shelter, and moths 

emerge. Occurs in eastern and inland Australia from 

December to April. Because the caterpillars are in 

bags during the day, bags can be cut off and burnt. 

If the bags cannot be removed, insecticides (plus a 

wetting agent) may be applied to small trees only. 

Moth (Tonica effractella, Depressariidae) caterpillars 

tunnel in swollen shoots and leaf petioles of 

young Sterculia, B. paradoxum and cotton. The 

tunnel entrance is roomy and covered by a web of silk 

incorporating faecal pellets. Caterpillars feed on the 

bark regrowth in this vestibule in much the same 

way as fruit-tree borers. The plant responds to this 

activity by producing a gall-like swelling which 

often cracks irregularly as caterpillars near maturity. 

Caterpillars pupate nearby on the food plant. 

Noctuids (Noctuidae): Hairy leafeating caterpillar 

(Xanthodes congenita) is a minor pest of cotton, 

hibiscus and B. paradoxum. Also a moth (Chasmina 

pulchra). 

Yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis, 

Pyralidae) caterpillars feed on seed capsules and 

leaves of the flame tree (B. acerifolium). See Stone 

fruits F 133. 



KURRAJONG 

Gall wasps (Megastigmus, Torymidae, 

Hymenoptera) have been reared from stem, leaf 

and flower galls on a variety of plants, eg Acacia, 

Banksia, Brachychiton, Citrus, Eucalyptus, Hakea, 

Helichrysum, often in association with other 

insects. Megastigmus is cosmopolitan, and 

commonly yellow-brown, sometimes with metallic 

patches. These unusual bottle-shaped galls are 

quite common on the undersides of Brachychiton 

discolor (Hockings 1980). Heavily infested 

leaves are seriously disfigured. See Trees K 14. 

Kurrajong pod beetle 

(Idaethina 

froggatti, Nitidulidae, Coleoptera) is a driedfruit 

beetle which only attacks kurrajong seed pods. 

No control is required as seed germination does 

not seem to be affected. Beetles are about 3 mm 

long, flat, reddish brown, the upper surface and 

eyes are covered with fine hairs. Larvae are up to 

5 mm long, elongate reddish-brown to yellowish 

and feed amongst seeds and upon the soft inner 

parts of the pod. See Fruit F 8. 

Kurrajong seed weevil (Tepperia 

sterculiae, Curculionidae, Coleoptera) may hide in 

crevices on the bark during summer, and like the 

bark weevil, is difficult to detect. The female 

bores into the side of the pod and lays eggs in the 

seed. 4-5 larvae develop in each pod. Larvae are 

stout, legless with reddish-brown heads, they 

pupate in the empty shell of the seed within the 

pod. Larvae also develop in the large fleshy galls 

or abnormal growth on twigs. Weevils are about 

8 mm long, reddish-brown, and emerge in spring. 

Where seed production is important, pods can be 

protected by covering them with plastic, or a lower 

yield accepted. Normally enough undamaged seed 

is produced, no chemical control is required. 


Rabbits and hares may damage young trees after 

planting out. Protect with netting. See Fruit F 13. 

Kurrajong psyllids (Psyllidae, Hemiptera) 

seriously disfigure young growth of kurrajongs. 

Kurrajong star psyllid (Protyora sterculiae) nymphs 

aggregate on leaves and have a star-shaped tuft of 

white waxy filaments at the end of the body (Fig. 

260). Adults are about 3 mm long, pale green with 

red eyes, body segments are marked with black. Two 

pairs of transparent wings are held in a roof-like 

manner over the back when at rest. Eggs are laid on 

leaf uppersurfaces in groups of 30-40. 

Kurrajong twig psyllid (Aconopsylla sterculiae) 

nymphs are dull yellow with light brown markings 

and red eyes. They congregate on the young bark 

of twigs. Adults are < 2 mm long and more robust 

than the star psyllid. Body is yellowish to reddishbrown, 

the head and parts of the thorax are black. 

Wings are light brown and semi-opaque. Yellow eggs 

are laid in groups at the tips of young twigs or on the 

foliage between the forks of branchlets. 

Both psyllids secrete honeydew which is attractive 

to ants. Parasites and predators normally keep these 

psyllids in check. Control is seldom required except 

in nursery situations. See Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 16. 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Kurrajong will withstand frost 

and drought once established. Excess water is 

harmful. 







Gardens. Reed/SGAP, Sydney. 

Morgan, D. F. 1984. Psylloidea of South Australia. Gov. 

Printer, Adelaide. 





Industry eg 

The Kurrajong (NSW Agfact) 




Kurrajong is grown for fodder, shelter and ornamental purposes. Most Brachychiton spp. are deciduous, but 

kurrajong (B. populneus) is evergreen, frost hardy and grows in most well drained soils (Wrigley 1988). Droughtstressed 

trees or those that have been pruned too hard are especially susceptible to insect attack. Do not 

prune > 25% of the crown foliage except in good seasons. Propagated by seed. 

Fig. 259. Bag-shelters of the kurrajong leaf-tier 

(Lygropia clytusalis). Forestry Com. of NSW. 

Fig. 260. Kurrajong star psyllids (Protyora sterculiae). 

K 92 


Lavender 

Lavandula spp. 

Family Lamiaceae 


Parasitic 





Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Lavender is susceptible to severe 

frosts. L. angustifolia is the hardiest lavender for 

cold climates. Wind may damage tall flower spikes. 

Lavender is often used for xeriscape plantings. 

Leaves may blacken in wet conditions or due to 

lack of air circulation. Sun may damage leaves if 

cuttings are not hardened prior to planting out. 

Herbicide toxicity: Over-applications of preemergence 

herbicides, eg oxadiazon, oxyfluorfen, 

may damage plants. Dimethoate may cause injury. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Fertilise with 

caution as lush growth may be obtained instead of 

flowers. In containers, excess phosphorus and 

manganese, especially at low pHs, may result in leaf 

yellowing between the veins, burning of leaf tips, and 

even stem dieback. Salts may crystallise at the leaf 

tips (Nichols 1994). 

Overseas alfalfa mosaic virus, has been observed 

on L. hybrida (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Fungal leaf spot (Septoria lavendulae) may affect 

lavender. Phoma and Alternaria may invade leaves 

after nutritional problems and are common before 

planting out (Nichols 1994). See Annuals A 5. 

Root rots, damping off: Grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea) may attack shoots and flowers of cuttings in 

wet seasons. Also armillaria root rot (Armillaria 


(Phytophthora nicotianae). See Trees K 7. 



root knot nematode (Meloidogyne arenaria) 

occur on lavender. See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae). See Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Australian painted lady 

(Vanessa kershawi), lightbrown apple moth 

(Epiphyas postvittana). See Annuals A 8. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae, Acarina): Carmine 

mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus), twospotted mite 

(T. urticae). See Beans (French) M 29, Trees K 16. 

MANAGEMENT 


Allarde, P. 1990. Lavender. Hill of Content, Melbourne. 







Lawless, J. 1994. Lavender Oil. Thorson's, London. 

McGimpsey, J. A. and Rosanowski, N. J. 1993. 

Lavender : A Grower's Guide for Commercial 

Production. Cropseed Bull. No.2, Redbank Res. 

Station, PO Box 42, Clyde, NZ. 

McLeod, J. 1989. Lavender Sweet Lavender. Kangaroo 


McNaughton, V. 1995. The Essential Lavender. 

Millenium, Alexandria, NSW. 

Moody, H. 1995. Lavender : The Great All-Rounder. 

Aust. Hort., July. 

Nichols, D. 1994. Preventing Lavender Dieback in 

Containers. Aust. Hort., April. 

Nichols, D. 1996. Why are My Lavenders Declining? 








Industry eg 

Lavender Growing (Vic Agnote) 



Lavender Bombala Conference (Sept. 1995) 

The Australian Lavender Growers Assoc (TALGA) The 

Good Oil 

The Essential Oil Producers Assoc. of Australia 

See Herbs N 33, Nurseries N 56, 




Commercially, lavender is used for oil production, fresh cut flowers, dried, xeriscape plantings and containers. 

Some species, eg Italian lavender (L. stoechas), are noxious weeds in some areas of Victoria. Most problems 

occur in nurseries, after planting out it has few diseases and pests. Propagated by cuttings (Nichols 1996). 

Lavender prefers a sunny position with wind protection, light sandy soils with good drainage and a pH from 

6.5-8 (alkaline). Irrigate only when necessary. Keep plantations weed-free. Prune one half to 2/3rd of each 

branch after spring frosts and/or when dead-heading but do not cut back to bare wood. Lavender flowers best 

when regularly hard pruned and shaped after flowering. Harvest when the middle flowers of the spike are open. 

When sold in a bunch, stems should be as long as possible. Used as dried flowers rather than fresh, but can be 

used in fresh arrangements and posies (Jones and Moody 1993). 


Lilac 

Syringa spp. 

Common lilac (S. vulgaris) 



Parasitic 



Bacterial leaf spot, bacterial blight 




Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Graft incompatibility 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Cotton aphid, 

melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) may infest lilacs 

overseas. See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae, Hemiptera): Apple 

mussel scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi), olive parlatoria 

scale (Parlatoria oleae) and San Jose scale 

(Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) infest lilac overseas. 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Cluster caterpillar 

(Spodoptera litura) feeds on lilac. See Brassicas M 40, 

Trees K 13, Vegetables M 13. 


Parasitic 


Overseas mosaics, ringspots, oak leaf patterns, 

yellow blotches, witches' broom and veinclearing 

have been associated with viruses, eg arabis 

mosaic, elm leaf mottle, lilac ring mottle, tomato 

black ring virus (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Bacterial leaf spot, bacterial blight 

(Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae) causes 

brown watersoaked spots on leaves and young 

stems of S. vulgaris, particularly white-flowered 

varieties, in early spring. If weather is wet, young 

leaves and shoots may be killed, girdled stems die. 

Spots enlarge more slowly on older stems and 

leaves. Black sunken areas develop on stems, 

black, dead buds remain on the plant for some 

time. Avoid excessive nitrogen, prune off 

affected branches. See Trees K 6, Vegetables M 5. 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) occurs during 

spring, summer and autumn. See Annuals A 6. 


luteobubalina), fungal leaf spots (various species), 

wood rots, eg silver leaf (Stereum purpureum) and 

yellowish wood rot (Polyporus versicolor). 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Sunscorch damage to leaves is 

common during hot weather, or when shading 

trees have been pruned and foliage is suddenly 

exposed to sun. In late spring, young leaves may 

be injured by near freezing temperatures. 

Graft incompatibility occurs when lilac is 

grafted on to privet rootstock (Ligustrum). Small 

black spots occur in an almost regular pattern 

towards outer leaf margins. Usually apparent 

towards the end of the growing season in autumn. 

Symptoms reappear every autumn. New spring 

leaves do not show any symptoms. 

Others: Leafcutting bees (Megachile spp.) may 

cut neat circular pieces from leaf edges. Suckers 

may develop from the rootstock. 




Fiala, J. L. 1988. Lilacs : The Genus Syringa. Timber 

Press, St Paul, Minnesota. 









Freshness. 2nd edn. Ball Pub., Illinios. 


Goulburn Lilac Festival 




Lilac prefers cool climates. Site plants in a sunny position and protect them from wind. Soil should be slightly 

alkaline, mulched and not allowed to dry out during summer. Propagated preferably by grafting onto nonsuckering 

rootstock. Harvest long, 1-year old shoots from shrubs at least 6 years old with sharp secateurs, 

strip leaves to reduce water loss and use a floral preservative. Rehydrating solutions improve water uptake 

dramatically. Top up water regularly and keep in deep water (Jones and Moody 1993). Lilac is ethylene 

sensitive. Wilting flowers may be refreshed by placing stem-ends in hot water for about 60 seconds. During 

this process the upper leaves and flowers should be protected against rising steam and heat by means of a 

cardboard collar or barrier of some type. Lilac shoots may be forced in spring and bud opening solutions are 

available (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). 

K 94 


Lilly-pilly 

Acmena smithii 



Parasitic 




Borers 

Caterpillars 

Leaf blotch miner 

Lilly pilly psyllid 

Soft scales 


Parasitic 


Fungal leaf spots (various species) 

Giant tinder punk (Phellinus zealandicus) 


In Qld, dagger nematodes (Xiphinema), spiral 

nematode (Rotylenchus) and other species have 

been recorded on Acmena smithii. Other species 

infest Eugenia australis. See Vegetables M 10. 

Borers 


Ghost moths (Hepialidae) 

Common splendid ghost moth (Aenetus ligniveren) 

Oecophorid borers (Oecophoridae) 

Cryptophasa sordida, C. pultenae 

Echiomima mythica on Syzygium floribundum 



Butterflies: Blues, coppers (Lycaenidae): Common 

tit (Hypolycaena phorbas phorbas) caterpillars vary in 

colour, shelter under leaves and are attended by green 

ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). Common oakblue 

(Arhopala micale) caterpillars are green. Skippers 

(Hesperiidae) include eastern flat (Netrocoryne 

repanda), common red-eye (Chaetocneme beata) 

(Common and Waterhouse 1991). 

Moths: Agriophara spp. (Oecophoridae) caterpillars 

feed from between leaves of Myrtaceae, eg Acmena, 

Angophora, Eucalyptus, Lophostemon, Syncarpia. 

Hook-tip moth (Porela arida, Drepanidae) caterpillars 

feed on Myrtaceae, eg Eugenia, Kunzea ambigua, 

Lophostemon confertus, Leptospermum flavescens, 

MANAGEMENT 

Melaleuca quinquinervia and M. armillaris. Bizarre 

looper (Anisozyga pieroides) and Cryptaspasma 

sordida (Tortricidae) caterpillars feed in fruits of 

Acmena brachiandra (Common 1990). 


Leaf blotch miner (Macrarostola formosa, 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) in its early stages 

mine in leaves of Acmena smithii. Later stage 

caterpillars leave the mine and form a shelter by 

rolling the tip of a strip cut from the edges of 

broader leaves in which it feeds. It finally leaves 

this shelter and folds the leaf edge inwards to form 

a hollow and pupates inside. See Azalea K 28. 

Lilly pilly psyllid (Trioza spp., T. eugeniae, 

Psyllidae, Hemiptera) infests lilly-pilly (Acmena 

spp., Syzygium spp.) and bottlebrush. Adult psyllids 

are winged, whitish and about 2 mm long. Females 

lay eggs on leaves (there are several generations 

each season). 1st stage nymphs move freely on 

young leaves and shoots. Later stage nymphs 

settle on leaf undersurfaces, sucking sap from new 

leaves and causing plants to develop oval lumps 

(pimples) on the uppersurface and corresponding 

depressions on the undersurface, with the now scalelike 

insect inside. Only new leaves and shoots are 

attacked and look unsightly. Stems are also 

attacked. Spread by winged adults flying. Control 

is of limited value. Infestations are attacked by 

predators, eg ladybird beetles and birds, and 

parasites, eg wasps, but not usually before new 

growth is damaged. Susceptible species include 

A. smithsii, blue lilly-pilly (S. coolminianum), brush 

cherry (S. paniculatum), S. moorei. Usually when 

damage is noticed it is too late to apply insecticides 

for that season. In the following year 

a systemic insecticide may be applied to nursery 

stock in spring to protect new growth (McMaugh 

1994). See Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 15. 

Soft scales (Coccidae, Hemiptera ) 

Nigra scale (Parassaisetia nigra) 





Others: Seed wasp (Anselmella, Eulophidae, 

Hymenoptera) develops in seeds of Eugenia. Gallmaking 

thrips (Thysanoptera) may cause bladderlike 

galls on Acmena and Syzygium. 











Lilly-pilly is a small self-shaping tree with edible berries. It is suitable for temperate and warm climates. Plant in 

well drained loam in frost-free sites. Propagated by seed. Water well in summer. 


Magnolia 

Magnolia spp. 

Family Magnoliaceae (magnolia family) 


Parasitic 





Algal leaf spot 


Root rots 




Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Rusty leaves 


Parasitic 


Overseas cucumber mosaic virus is considered to 

cause yellow line patterns but this is unconfirmed 

(Cooper 1993). See Cucurbits M 50, Trees K 4 . 



pv. syringae). Symptoms on leaves are variable 

but include small brown spots with yellow 

haloes. If these spots grow together, splits may 

develop in the infected leaves. Magnolia 

grandiflora, Magnolia x soulangeana Alexandrina and 

M. x soulangeana Lennei are susceptible. See 



Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) has been recorded 

on Magnolia radicans. See Vegetables M 10. 


Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorroidalis) 

causes silvering of leaves. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Scales (Hemiptera): Black scale (Saissetia 

oleae, Coccidae), and many other species overseas, 

may infest magnolia. See Citrus F 41, Trees K 16. 


Birds peck holes in the flowers. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: The shallow roots close to the 

soil surface should not be disturbed by cultivation 

or allowed to dry out. Avoid interfering with 

roots, which should be covered with a mulch to 

keep them cool, moist and weed-free. Abundant 

water is needed in summer but good drainage is 

essential. Lack of water, excessive heat, sun, or 

salty winds will cause leaves to brown. 

Secondary fungi, eg Alternaria alternata, may 

invade damaged areas. Frost may damage buds. 

Wind may cause mechanical damage to flowers 

and large leaves. 


deficiency may cause yellowing between the veins 

of new leaves, eg Magnolia x soulangeana. See 

Azalea K 29, Trees K 20. 

Rusty leaves: Leaf undersurfaces of the 

evergreen species or white or southern magnolia, 

(M. grandiflora) are naturally a rusty colour. 


Algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros virescens) may 

cause minor pale green or reddish surface growth 

on leaves of evergreen portwine magnolia 

(M. fuscata = Michelia figo). See Avocado F 18. 

Fungal leaf spots include citrus black spot 

(Guignardia citricarpa). Many more species 

affect magnolia overseas. See Annuals A 5. 

Root rots (Cylindrocladium scoparium, 

Phytophthora spp.) on Magnolia sp. See Trees K 7. 




Callaway, D. 1994. World of Magnolias. Timber Press, 









MANAGEMENT 

Deciduous magnolias usually prefer a cool moist climate, full sun or light shade, and shelter from wind to 

produce the best foliage. Soil should be rich in organic matter and slightly acid. M. soulangeana is a deciduous 

tree and is the most widely grown, flowers appear early in spring before the foliage. M. grandiflora is an 

evergreen tree with large leaves which are used by florists in displays; they are an attractive furry brown on the 

underside. Propagated usually by air layering (Salinger 1985). 

K 96 


Maple 

Acer spp. 

Family Aceraceae (maple family) 


Parasitic 




Root rots 

Tar spot 



Aphids 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-LIKE DISEASE 

Yellow mosaic, ringspots, stunting, vein yellowing 

and tatter leaf have been associated with arabis 

mosaic and tobacco ringspot in Acer spp. overseas 

(Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may occur on 

nursery stock of box elder (Acer negundo) in 

greenhouses. See Annuals A 6. 



(Phytophthora cinnamomi). See Trees K 4, K 6. 



California maple aphid (Periphyllus californiensis) 

infests maple and overwinters as eggs in cold 

climates. In more temperate regions aphids may 

reproduce continuously. Nymphs oversummer and 

are common on Japanese maple (A. palmatum) during 

summer. Inspect nursery and container plants during 

the growing season and during winter. 

Sycamore aphid (Drenpanosiphum platanoides) may 

infest Acer spp. and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis). 

See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 

Others: Caterpillars (Lepidoptera), eg case moths 

(Psychidae) and painted apple moth (Teia anartoides). 


cause leaf silvering with dark spots of excreta on 

Japanese maple. Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae) 

may attack older trees. Larvae tunnel under the bark 

causing it to crack. Longtailed mealybug 

(Pseudococcus longispinus) may infest Japanese maple. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) causes leaf 

speckling. Leaves may become brown and papery. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Hot dry winds and/or lack of 

water will cause leaf edges of Japanese maple and 

other species to brown. Reflected sunlight from 

metal roofs may burn trunks causing dieback. 

Weed potential: Some species, eg box elder 

(A. negundo), seed prolifically and invade gardens. 

Others: Branches break easily and trees may 

be poorly formed. Atmospheric pollution may 

cause leaf edges to brown. 

Tar spot (Rhystima acerinum) has been recorded 

in Australia on Acer spp. Often occurs on some 

maples prior to autumn leaf fall. Epidemics of tar 

spot (Rhystima spp.) occur in NY causing leaf 

spots and defoliation of Norway maple 

(A. platanoides) (Hudler et al. 1987). See Trees K 6. 

Others: Twig blight (Myxosporium acerinum) 

has been recorded on red maple (A. rubrum) in 

South Australia (unconfirmed). Overseas seedling 

anthracnose (Discula campestris) may seriously 

damage sugar maple (A. saccharum) (Stanosz 

1993). Silver leaf (Stereum purpureum) affects 

box elder and red maple. 


Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) occur 

on Acer spp. See Vegetables M 10. 




Hudler, G. W., Banik, M. T. and Miller, S. G. 1987. 

Unusual Epidemic of Tar Spot on Norway Maple in 

Upstate New York. Plant Disease, Jan. 



Stanosz, G. R. 1993. Symptoms, Association, and 

Pathogenicity of Discula campestris, A Cause of 

Sugar Maple Seedling Anthracnose. Plant Disease, 

Vol.77(10). 

van Gelderen, D. M., de Jong, P. C. and Oterdoom, H. J. 

1994. Maples of the World. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon.. 

Vertrees, J. D. 1987. Japanese Maples. 2nd edn. Timber 







MANAGEMENT 

Most maples are grown for their autumn colours. They range in size and uses. Japanese maple are small 

trees suitable for near swimming pools, bonsai, Japanese gardens, containers and courtyards. Others, eg 

box elder, grow very large and are not recommended for small gardens. Propagate by seed and cuttings. 

Maples are lime loving, prefer cool moist climates, loamy soil, root systems should not be allowed to dry out. 

Leaf damage of any type will detract from the autumn colour. Leaf spots may develop in autumn. 


Melaleuca 

Melaleuca, paper bark (Melaleuca spp.) 



Parasitic 




Beetles 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Leafrolling thrips 

Paperbark sawfly 

Scales 

Tip borers 

Weevils 

Non-parasitic 

Tea-tree oil 


Parasitic 


Cankers (Botryosphaeria ribis, other species) on 

stems may cause dieback and is being researched for 

biological control of M. quinquenervia in Florida 

(Rayachhetry 1996). See Trees K 5. 

Damping off, root rots, wilts: Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria luteobubalina), damping off (Calonectria 

quinqueseptata, Cylindrocladium, Phytophthora, 

Pythium), phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora 

spp.), pythium root rot (Pythium sp.), verticillium 

wilt (Verticillium dahliae) (Walker 1994). See Trees 

K 7, Verticordia K 127. 

Fungal and algal leaf spots: Algal leaf spot 

(Cephaleuros virescens), leaf and seedling blight 

(Calonectria quinqueseptata), fungal leaf spots 

(Cylindrocladium, Seimatosporium dilophosporum), 

tar spot (Phyllachora spp.) (Walker 1994). See 

Annuals A 5, Bottlebrush K 36. 

Wood rots (Basidiomycetes): Tinder punk (Phellinus 

spp.); red wood rot (Trametes cinnabarina, 

Pycnoporus coccineus) (Walker 1994). See Trees K 8. 


More than 30 species of nematodes occur on melaleuca, 

eg burrowing nematode (Radopholus), dagger 

nematode (Xiphinema), root knot (Meloidogyne), 

sheath nematode (Hemicycliophora), spiral 

nematode (Helicotylenchus). See Vegetables M 10. 



Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae): Leaf beetles 

(Cryptocephalus spp.) feed on foliage of eucalypt, 

melaleuca and wattle. Larvae feed on dead leaves on 

the ground and live in a portable case constructed of 

faeces and debris, pupation occurs within this case. 


feeds on foliage. See Trees K 15. 

Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae): Christmas beetles 

(Anoplagnathus spp.) may defoliate melaleucas. See 

Eucalypt K 62. Flower scarabs (Protaetia spp.) are 

minor pests feeding on pollen and new shoots (Jones 

and Elliot 1986). See Roses J 8. 

Borers 

Common splendid ghost moth (Aenutus ligniveren) 


Jewel beetles (Buprestidae, Coleoptera) 

Longicorn borer (Platyomopsis armatula) 

Ringbarking weevils (Curculionidae) 

See Bottlebrush K 36, Trees K 10. 

Bugs (Hemiptera): 

Callistemon tip bug (Pomponatus typica) is solitary, 

brown and 20 mm long. Adults and nymphs suck 

sap from new shoots of melaleuca causing tips to 

wither. See Bottlebrush K 37. 

Leafspotting mirid bug, myrtle mirid bug 

(Eucerocoris suspectus, Miridae) mainly infests 

broadleaved melaleuca, eg M. leucadendron, 

M. quinquenervia, M. viridiflora, also bottlebrush, eg 

Callistemon polandii, and other Myrtaceae. Adults 

are delicate, hard to find, up to 10 mm long, orange 

with black legs, long black antennae and gauzy wings. 

Nymphs are elliptical, orange with bands on legs and 

antennae. Both suck sap from new shoots and 

young leaves which are damaged by the toxic saliva 

secreted during feeding. Spots of dead tissue develop 

where they have fed. There are several generations 

each year. Favoured by wet seasons, usually during 

December-March. Tropical and subtropical regions, 

mainly coastal. See Bottlebrush K 37, Wattle K 133. 

Metallic shield bug (Scutiphora scutiphora, 

Scutelleridae) swarm on melaleuca, Ficus (especially 

fruit) and other plants. Adults are about 14 mm long, 

shield-shaped, deep metallic blue or green and mottled 

with black with some red markings on the thorax. 

Their feeding may be followed by sap exudation. 

Tropical and subtropical. See Vegetables M 12. 



Dull oakblue (Arhopala centaurus centaurus) butterfly 

caterpillars feed on M. quinquenervia and Eucalyptus 

intermedia in NT and north Qld. Larvae and pupae 

rely on the green tree ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) 

to remove secreted liquid, they become mouldy in the 

absence of ants to remove it. 

Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides) is a sporadic 

serious pest. A similar pest (Orgyia athlophora) 

occurs in south-western WA. See Pome fruits F 113. 

Web moth (Pyralidae) caterpillars spin a webbing of 

droppings and chewed leaves over stems and leaves. 

Caterpillars feed at night on leaves and flower buds. 

Plants become unsightly. See Tea-tree K 124. 

Others: Capsule moth (Bathotroma constrictans), a 

noctuid (Nola sp., Noctuidae), lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana), mottled cup moth 

(Doratifera vulnerans), Saunders's case moth 

(Oiketicus elongatus). Aquita tactalis caterpillars 

feed on M. gibbosa and other Melaleuca spp., 

Myrascia megalocentria (Oecophoridae) caterpillars 

in WA feed on Melaleuca spp. Porela arida 

caterpillars feed on Myrtaceae, eg M. quinquinervia, 

M. armillaris, Kunzea, Eugenia, Lophostemon 

conferta (Common 1990). 


K 98 


. 

Leafrolling thrips (Phaeothripidae) may cause 

severe distortion of young leaves of M. alternifolia. 

See Bottlebrush K 37. 

Paperbark sawfly (Pterygophorus sp., 

Pergidae, Hymenoptera) larvae defoliate paperbarks 

(Melaleuca spp.), especially bracket honey myrtle 

(M. armillaris), also Leptospermum spp. Ringed 

sawfly (P. cinctus) larvae may defoliate M. ericifolia 

(Elliot and deLittle 1984). Adult sawflies are about 

20-25 mm across their outspread wings. Larvae are 

brownish, 25-30 mm long with true legs. Most 

damage is caused when larvae pupate in the bark and 

sapwood of trunks. Trees may be ringbarked. They 

also pupate in soft timbers, eg in soft pine weather 

boards. Lophyrotoma zonalis larvae may defoliate 

M. quinquenervia. See Eucalypt K 62, Tea-tree K 124. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididiae): Circular black 

scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum) is hard, conical 

reddish-black with a lighter central peak and about 

2-3 mm long. They feed on leaves which may fall. A 

sporadic serious pest of bottlebrush and melaleuca. 

Mussel scales (Lepidosaphes spp.), adult females 

are white and about 1.7 mm long and males are 

winged. Although common, leaves often seem to 

tolerate infestation. See Citrus F 39. 

Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae): Coccid galls 

(Apiomorpha sp.), melaleuca hairy gall 

(Sphaerococcus sp.). See Eucalypt K 63. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Chinese wax scale 

(Ceratoplastes sinensis) infests twigs. It is greybrown, 

domed and waxy with 6 dark spots around the 

margins. Nymphs colonise midribs and have 

conspicuous marginal waxy projections. Large 

quantities of honeydew are produced. See Citrus F 41. 

Others: A margarodid scale (Margarodidae). 


Tip borers (Lepidoptera): Callistemon tip 

borer (Lepidoptera) is a minor pest of melaleuca. 

Larvae are fleshy cream, about 10 mm long and bore 

down the centre of young shoots which usually die or 

break off. In WA, tip borers cause dieback at tips of 

new shoots of many species of melaleuca and 

Calothamnus See Bottlebrush K 36. 

Weevils (Curculionidae): Melaleuca leaf weevil 

(Oxyops sp.) and its larvae graze narrow patches of 

surface tissue of broadleaved melaleuca especially 

M. cajuputi, M. quinquenervia and M. viridiflora in 

the tropics. Adults are pale brown and about 7 mm 

long, larvae are fleshy, shiny black and resemble 

slugs. Damaged areas turn brown and leaves fall. 

Insecticides may be applied to the foliage when 

infestations are first noticed. (Jones and Elliot 1986). 

Others: Aphids (Twainaphis sp., Aphididae, 

Hemiptera) affect melaleuca in WA. Eriophyid mites 

(Eriophyidae) cause stunted bunchy growth on 

M. alternifolia and M. linariifolia. Spine-tailed 

froghopper (Machaerota finitima) and leafhopper 

(Rosopaella spp.) suck sap from eucalypt and melaleuca. 



MANAGEMENT 

MELALEUCA 

A tiny orange psyllid (Psyllidae) distorts young 

shoots of melaleuca and bottlebrush. Whiteflies 

(Aleyrodidae) feed on succulent growth. 

Non-parasitic 

Tea-tree oil from M. alternifolia must conform 

to the standard specification (AS K175) for teatree 

oil. Tea-tree oil is poisonous (Moss 1994) and 

has a POISON label schedule (S6). 

Others: In high humidities leaves near the ground 

may blacken. Fasciation, a genetic abnormality, 

may cause flattened stems. Epiphyllous fungal 

parasites, eg Microthyrium melaleucae on leaves 

and Septobasidium clelandii on calococcus galls 

(unconfirmed), occur. M. quinquenervia is a serious 

weed in Florida. Sawflies (L. zonalis) and other 

insects and diseases (see above) are being researched 

as biological control agents. 







Trees and Timber in Tasmania. For. Comm. Tas. 


Gardens. Reed/SGAP, Terrey Hills, NSW. 

Holliday, I. 1989. A Field Guide to Australian Native 

Flowering Plants : Melaleucas. Lansdowne, Sydney 




Lake, J. 1989. Tea Trees Produce the Good Oil. Aust. 

Hort., Oct. 

Lawless, J. 1994. TeaTree Oil. Thorsons, London. 

Moss, A. 1994. Tea Tree Oil Poisoning. The Med. Jn. of 

Aust., Vol.160, 21st Feb:236. 

Olsen, C. B. 1992. Australian Tea Tree Oil Guide. 2nd 

edn. Kali Press, Pagosa Springs, CO. 

Rayachhetry, M. B., Blackeslee, G. M. and 

Charudattan, R. 1996. Susceptibility of Melaleuca 

quinquenervia to Botryosphaeria ribis as Potential 

Biological Control Agent. Plant Disease, Feb. 






Taylor, R. 1996. Tea Tree : Boosting Oil Production. 

Rural Research 172 Spring. 

Walker. J. 1994. Personal Communication. 



Pymble, NSW. 


Plants : Propagation, Cultivation & Use in 

Landscaping. Collins, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

Tea Tree Oil (NSW Agfact) 

Tea-tree Oil : Plantation Production (NSW Agfact) 


Essential Oil Producers Assoc. of Australia 

See Australian native plants N 9, Herbs N 33, 


Melaleuca is a large genus of about 140 species in Australia which vary from small to large shrubs and trees and 

adapts easily to cultivation. Culture varies for each species, eg some species tolerate poor drainage, salinity or 

constantly damp soil. Propagated from cuttings or seed ( Wrigley 1988). 


Mint bush 

Prostanthera spp. 

Victorian Christmas bush (P. lasianthos) 

Family Lamiaceae 


Parasitic 



Root rots 

Wood rots 


Root knot 


Borers 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Fungal leaf spots (Cercospora, Colletotrichum, 

Coniothyrium, Microsphaeropsis, Microsphaerella, 

Phomopsis, Phyllosticta prostantherae, Septoria, 

other species) have been recorded on P. lasianthos. 

Coniothyrium, Microsphaeropsis and Mycosphaerella 

may also cause leaf spots on other Prostanthera spp. 

Microsphaeropsis sp. may also cause stem and leaf 

dieback of various species. Meliola prostantherae 

may cause black leaf and stem spots on 

Prostanthera spp. See Annuals A 5, Trees K 6. 

Root rots 


infect P. lasianthos. See Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp., 

P. cinnamomi, P. nicotianae) is the most important 

problem affecting mint bushes and is often the cause 

of them being short-lived. It is recommended that 

Prostanthera be grafted on to the vigorous and easily 

propagated, phytophthora-resistant coastal 

rosemary (Westringia fructicosa). Most species of 

Prostanthera are compatible with W. fructicosa, 

several small-leaved species, eg P. aspalathoides, 

which are incompatible may be grafted using a nurse 

graft of P. nivea. See Trees K 6. 

Wood rots (Basidiomycetes): Ringbarking 

fuscoporia (Fuscoporia laevigata) causes a white 

sapwood rot of P. lasianthos. The fruit body 

forms a rust-coloured, pore-bearing sheath on the 

collar of young trees. The fungus may ringbark 

stems and trees may die (Marks et al. 1982). 

Other species include white yellowish wood rot, 

rainbow conk (Polyporus versicolor). See Trees K 8. 



Others: Hairy galls (species undetermined) may 

develop on leaves of P. lasianthos. 



occur in association with > 10 species of 

Prostanthera. Roots become galled, the whole 

root system may be severely stunted and invaded 

by fungal diseases. See Vegetables M 10. 

Borers 

MANAGEMENT 



tunnel in bark and sapwood in forks and cover their 

short tunnels with chewed wood and webbing. See 

Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 

Ghost moths (Hepialidae); Common splendid 

ghost moth (Aenutus ligniveren) and A. eximius 

caterpillars excavate tunnels up to 700 mm long, 

often into the main root. See Trees K 12. 


Others: Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may 

infest shoots of P. lasianthos. Caterpillars 

(Lepidoptera), eg leafroller moths (Tortricidae), 

may roll and bind leaves. Greenhouse whitefly 

(Trialeurodes vaporariorum) is small, white and 

moth-like and about 1-2 mm long. Nymphs are 

translucent, greenish and scale-like. Nymphs and 

adults suck sap from new shoots and leaf 

undersurfaces. Sooty mould grows on honeydew. 

Unidentified scales (Hemiptera) have been 

observed on P. incana. 

Non-parasitic 

In wet and very humid conditions leaves of 

P. phylicifolia. may blacken and die due to poor 

transpiration from leaves. Iron deficiency may 

cause yellowing of new growth. 


Australian National Botanic Gardens. 1977. Growing 

Native Plants. Grafting Prostanthera spp. Canberra 

Botanic Gardens. Vol.7. 157-159, Canberra. 


Tree Diseases in Victoria. For. Comm. Vic., 

Melbourne. 






Mint bushes are small to large woody shrubs mostly with aromatic foliage and a wealth of flowers in spring 

(Wrigley 1988). Propagate by cuttings and grafting. Plant mint bushes grafted on to phytophthora-resistant 

rootstock. Mint bushes require well drained sandy or gravelly soil with added organic matter, near to full sun, but 

protection from hot drying winds, with regular watering in spring and summer. Roots should not be disturbed. 

Mulch, which should be kept away from stems, will help keep the roots cool and prevent drying out. Tip prune 

regularly for the first few years to prevent plants becoming spindly and then annually after flowering. 

K 100 


Oak 

Quercus spp. 

Family Fagaceae (beech family) 


Parasitic 


Fungal diseases: 




Wood rots 


Mistletoe 

Insects and allied pests: 

Borers 

Golden oak scale 


Oak aphids 

Oak leafminer 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fungi 

Gas damage 


Parasitic 


Overseas, undetermined viruses are considered 

to cause yellow mottling, veinbanding and 

ringspotting on leaves, premature break of 

dormancy and progressive dieback of trees 

(Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 



Downy leaf spot (Microstroma album, Imperfect 

Fungi) infects oak leaves causing yellow blotching 

of uppersurfaces and a glistening white coating on 

undersurfaces (pustules with large numbers of spores). 

Others (many species) including Gnomonia veneta 

(Discula quercina) may cause twig blight and leaf 

spotting. Most leaf spots are of minor importance. 


Powdery mildew (Microsphaera alphitoides, 

M. quercina) may affect oaks. Damage to nursery 

stock can be serious. Initial symptoms appear 

late in spring when small brown spots, which 

rapidly turn white, develop on leaves. As the 

leaves are covered by fungal mycelia, they become 

slightly distorted and young foliage does not 

enlarge to full size. The fungus also attacks young 

shoots and reduces their vigour. Damage to 

mature trees is minor. Favoured by cool, wet or 

humid conditions. Susceptible species include 

English oak (Q. robur). Only if considered 

necessary, fungicides may be applied to seedling 

trees in nurseries and container plants at the 

first sign of disease. See Annuals A 6. 


Phytophthora root and collar rot (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi). Natural seasonal changes in bark affect 

susceptibility (Robin et al. 1993). Probably other 

species may also cause root and collar rots. See Trees 

K 6. 

Damping off (Cylindrocladium sp., Phytophthora sp., 

Rhizoctonia sp.). See Seedlings N 66. 

Wood rots: Tinder punk (Phellinus robustus) 

and silver leaf (Stereum spp.). See Trees K 8. 


Mistletoe (Loranthus spp., Loranthaceae) may 

infest branches. See Trees K 10. 


Borers (various species) may infest old oak 

trees. See Trees K 10. 

Golden oak scale (Asterodiaspis 

variolosa, Asterolecaniidae, Hemiptera) is 

frequently kept in check by natural enemies such 

as predatory ladybirds. A spray of winter oil will 

control this scale without killing the natural 

enemies. Other scales may occasionally infest 

oaks. See Citrus F 40, Trees K 16. 

Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis). Leaves become silvery, with 

black drops of excreta and thrips on undersurfaces. 

If only a few leaves are affected they may be 

removed. Susceptible species include English 

oak (Q. robur) and live oak (Q. virginiana). It 

may be necessary to use an insecticide on nursery 

or container stock. See Greenhouse N 24. 

Oak aphids (Myzocallis castanicola, 

Tuberculatus annulatus, Aphididae, Hemiptera). 

M. castanicola is the most common. It is 

yellowish, and is found on both sides of leaves 

and on stems of young shoots. Badly affected 

leaves may fall. Infested trees appear blackish due 

to sooty mould growing on the honeydew secreted 

by the aphids. Control is not usually attempted on 

large trees but seedlings or nursery stock may be 

sprayed with a systemic insecticide at the first 

sign of infestation. See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 

Oak leafminer, oak blotch miner 

Oak leafminer is an important pest in the eastern 

states of Australia. 

Scientific name: Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera: 

Oak leafminer (Phyllonorycter messaniella) 

Host range: At least 17 species of both 

deciduous and evergreen oaks (Quercus spp.), 

Spanish chestnut (Castanea sativa), beech (Fagus 

sylvatica) and birch (Betula spp.). Overseas it has 

also been recorded on other hosts including other 

species of oak and Carpinus betula. In some 

areas, apples, feijoa, liquidamber and stone fruits 

are attacked (McMaugh 1994). 


OAK 

Description and damage: Moths are tiny and 

usually rest with their bodies parallel to the 

surface. Caterpillars are flattened, up to 5 mm 

long, with a pale body and dark head. Caterpillars 

mine in leaves initially producing fine lines, later 

small brown blotch mines. See Trees K 3 (Fig. 

212). In severe infestations, most leaves on 

individual trees may be mined. There may be as 

many as 20 mines per leaf on English oak (Q. 

robur) and over 40 mines per leaf on larger-leaved 

oaks, eg Q. aliena. Although heavy infestations 

such as these must reduce the photosynthetic 

capability of trees and result in loss of vigour, trees 

tolerate infestations remarkably well. The main 

affect is disfigurement of leaves. 


larva, pupa, adult) with 2-3 generations each year, 

mainly on deciduous oaks. Moths lay pale yellow 

eggs on leaf undersurfaces, usually near the 

midrib. Eggs hatch and caterpillars mine within 

the leaf. When fully grown, they pupate within 

the mine. After the moth emerges, the pupal case 

is often seen protruding from the mine. With 

cooler weather in autumn, deciduous oaks start to 

lose their leaves, and emerging moths lay their 

eggs on leaves of evergreen oaks during winter, 

particularly cork oak (Q. suber). After caterpillars 

have mined in evergreen oaks during winter, 

pupation occurs, and the next generation of moths 

then switch back to the new foliage of the 

deciduous oaks in spring. 

Overwintering: As larvae in leaves of evergreen 

oaks, eg cork oak (Q. suber). In NZ, the moth 

overwinters on evergreen Q. ilex and Q suber. 

Most damage is observed during autumn, as the 

insect is not able to overwinter in large enough 

numbers to damage spring-summer foliage. 

Spread: By moths flying (assisted by wind), by 

the movement of infested plants or plant material. 

Control: 

Biological control: Several species of wasps 

parasitise caterpillars in mines so there is a 

degree of natural control. 

Resistant varieties: 

Only slightly affected: Q. acutissima, scarlet oak 

(Q. coccinea), holly or holm oak (Q. ilex), pin oak 

(Q. palustris), willow oak (Q. phellos), red oak 

(Q. rubra, Q. borealis), cork oak (Q. suber). 

Moderately affected: Swamp oak (Q. bicolor), 

Turkey oak (Q. cerris), Q. douglassii, Q. engelmani, 

valley oak (Q. lobata), Cypress oak (Q. robur 

Fastigiata). 

Severely affected: Q. canariensis Q. mirbeckii, 

Portuguese oak (Q. lusitanica, Q. faginea), burr oak 

(Q. macrocarpa), chestnut oak (Q. prinus, 

Q. montana), English oak (Q. robur), live oak 

(Q. virginiana). 

Pesticides: A systemic insecticide may be applied 

to susceptible nursery stock in spring and 

summer to protect new leaves. 

MANAGEMENT 

Others: Beetles (Attelabidae) breed in acorns. 

Wasps (Andricus sp.) on Quercus spp. are gall 

formers or inquilines (live in another's house). 

Phylloxerid (Moritziella corticalis) occurs on the 

bark of Quercus spp. in Australia. Overseas, 

Phylloxera spp. also occur on Quercus spp. 


Snails and slugs may damage nursery stock. 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Inadequate soil moisture 

during hot, windy summer weather may cause a 

marginal brown scorch of oak leaves. 

Fungi: Fly agaric (Amanita muscari) occurs 

under oak and other European trees. It is very 

poisonous but not usually fatal. Death cap 

(A. phalloides) was introduced into Australia with 

deciduous exotic trees, eg oak, and is extremely 

poisonous (Shepherd and Totterdell 1988). 

Truffles are grown under oak, hazelnut and other 

trees (Giovannetti et al. 1994). 

Gas damage: Leaking underground gas pipes 

may cause marginal scorch on leaves. If severe, 

tree may die. Do not confuse with damage to 

leaves caused by water stress. 


Common, I. F. B. 1976. The Oak Leaf-miner, 

Phyllonorycter messianiella (Lepidoptera : 

Gracillariidae) Established in Australia. Jn. of Aust. 

Ent. Soc., 15:471-473. 





Commission, Tas., Hobart. 

Giovannetti, G., Roth-Bejerano, N., Zanini, E. and 

Kagan-Zur, V. 1994. Truffles and Their Cultivation. 

Horticultural Reviews Vol.16, John Wiley & Sons, 

Brisbane. 





Robin, C., Dupius, F. and Desprez-Loustau, M. L. 1993. 

Seasonal Changes in Northern Red Oak 

Susceptibility to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant 

Disease, April. 

Shepherd, C. J. and Totterdell, C. J. 1988, Mushrooms 


Melbourne. 




Oaks are large, slow growing, deciduous and evergreen trees. Some deciduous species carry their brown 

leaves through winter. If necessary, select species resistant to oak leafminer. Propagate by seed. Oaks 

prefer full or half sun, temperate and cool moist climates, and a deep fertile soil for best growth. Fallen acorns 

can be a nuisance. 

K 102 


Oleander 

Nerium oleander 

Family Apocynaceae 


Parasitic 



Bacterial gall 




Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 


Parasitic 


Tomato spotted wilt virus has been recorded on 

oleander, but is uncommon. See Tomato M 96, 

Trees K 4. 


Bacterial gall 

Scientific name: Pseudomonas syringae subsp. 

savastanoi pv. nerii. 

Host range: A common and serious disease of 

oleander. 

Symptoms: Leaf galls form on both leaf 

surfaces with deep pits developing on the side 

opposite galls causing leaf distortion. Infected 

young leaves become twisted. Young shoots 

develop longitudinal swellings which split. In 

infection of older stems, galls tend to be isolated 

and circular in shape. Symptoms on floral parts 

depend on the stage of development at the time of 

infection, flowers may not be formed, severely 

infected plants may produce no flowers (Fig. 261). 

Disease cycle: All stages take place on the host 

plant. Bacteria seem to gain entry through 

wounds caused by insects feeding or by pruning. 

Overwintering: In galls on diseased plants. 

Spread: Bacteria are spread from galls by water 

splash, insects and pruning tools, by vegetative 

propagation from infected plants and by the 

introduction of infected plant material. 

Conditions favouring: Bacterial gall is 

widespread throughout the world and occurs 

wherever oleanders are grown. 

Control: Unless control is carried out, disease 

will spread throughout whole plantings. 

Cultural methods: Avoid overhead irrigation to 

help prevent spread of bacteria. Plants should be 

kept growing vigorously. 

Sanitation: The most effective method is the 

removal of all diseased plant parts. Make the 

pruning cuts at least 100 mm below galls on 

stems. Severely affected shrubs may be pruned 

back to ground level or removed. Disinfect 

pruning shears between each cut, and between 

each shrub, by dipping in 70% methylated spirit 

or wiping with a rag moistened with methylated 

spirit. Other disinfectants are available. If 

prunings are to be destroyed by burning, then 

they must be burnt outdoors. Smoke from 

burning oleanders is toxic. See Nurseries N 51, 

N 52. 

Plant quarantine: Inspect new purchases for 

any sign of galling, destroy infected plants. 

Disease-free planting material: Only propagate 

from gall-free plants, otherwise take several 

cuttings from disease-free stems and discard 

cuttings which later develop galls. 

Pesticides: Copper sprays recommended for 

bacterial diseases are non-systemic and will 

only kill bacteria on the outside of the plant and 

have no effect on bacteria already inside plant 

tissue. They are not recommended. Control 

insect infestations to prevent spread of bacteria. 


Overseas, phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora) 

may be a problem in nurseries. 


Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) 

has been recorded on oleander in Victoria. See 




Oleander aphid (Aphis nerii) infests oleander, cotton 

bush (Asclepias sp.) and narrowleaf cotton bush 

(Gomphocarpus fructicosus). Adult aphids are yellow 

and black. Nymphs and adults suck sap from new 

shoots and secrete honeydew on which the sooty 

mould fungus grows causing disfigurement. Ants are 

attracted to the honeydew. Overwinters on host 

plants. Spread by aphids flying, assisted by wind. 

Mainly occurs in autumn and spring. 

Others: Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). 

See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 


Eichhorn's crow butterfly (Euploea eichhorni, 

Nymphalidae) caterpillars and pupa, which are said to 

resemble oleander butterfly, feed on the leaves of 

oleander and similar hosts, eg Ficus eugenioides, 

Hoya australis, Gymnanthera nitida and Asclepias 

spp. in north Qld. 

Oleander butterfly (Euploea core corinna, 

Nymphalidae) caterpillars feed commonly and 

mainly on oleander, they are not often seen feeding on 

their native food plants, eg Ficus spp., Hoya australis, 

Ischnostemma. They also feed on other plants with 

milky sap, eg Chilean, Madagascar, and star jasmines, 


OLEANDER 

Asclepias. Butterflies measure about 70-80 mm 

across their outspread wings and are of a general dark 

brown colour marked with whitish spots. Female 

butterflies lay eggs on leaves. Caterpillars are 

greyish or reddish-brown, with several black bands 

with white margins on the segments and a lighter band 

along each side of the body, and are up to 40-50 mm 

long. There are 4 pairs of long, black, fleshy tentacles 

on the upper surface. Caterpillars feed on leaves and 

pupate on the plant. Pupa are about 25 mm long, 

silvery and extremely beautiful. There are probably 

several generations each year. Spread by 

butterflies flying, movement of infested plants. 

Members of a tropical group of butterflies but found 

as far south as Albury in NSW and in WA. Control 

is rarely necessary (Common and Waterhouse 1981). 

Orange fruitborer (Isotenes miserana, Tortricidae) 

caterpillars feed between joined leaves of oleander. 




Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Oleander scale, 

ivy scale (Aspidiotus nerii) infests ferns, grape, ivy, 

oleander, olive, orchids, persimmon. Female scales 

are 1-2 mm across, white to brown and roughly 

circular, male scales are smaller and elongate. Scales 

infest foliage and stems. On persimmon, blemishes 

may downgrade fruit. Parasitic wasps (Aphytis spp.) 

and predatory ladybirds (Chilocorus spp., 

Rhyzobius sp.) may be purchased. Also purple 

scale (Lepidosaphes beckii). See Citrus K 39. 

Soft scales (Coccidae): Black scale (Saissetia oleae) 

(Fig. 262) and soft brown scale (Coccus 

hesperidum) secrete honeydew attractive to ants and 

on which sooty mould develops. See Citrus F 41. 


MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Sunburnt leaves may be invaded by secondary 

fungi. Poisonous properties: The poisonous 

principle is a drug acting on the heart with an 

action like digitalis and death is due to heart and/or 

breathing failure. Most cases of poisoning refer to 

cattle, but horses, sheep and goats may also be 

affected (McBarron 1983). All parts of oleander 

plants, eg flowers and leaves, are poisonous to 

eat. Children should be cautioned about eating 

them, however, poisoning is rare as the plant has a 

foul taste. Plant parts are not poisonous to touch. 

Smoke from burning oleander wood is poisonous 

if inhaled, so it should not be burnt in an enclosed 

area. Oleander leaves, although toxic, are 

considered to decompose in compost heaps into 

useful non-toxic material. 




Fahy, P. C. and Prosily, G. J. 1983. Plant Bacterial 













Industry eg 

Oleander Butterfly (NSW Agfact) 




Oleander is native to the warm parts of Asia, Africa and the Mediterranean regions. In cool areas flowering may 

be inhibited. Examine new purchases for the presence of bacterial galls or scales. Propagate only from gall 

and insect-free plants. Although oleander will grow satisfactorily under harsh conditions and withstand low 

temperatures, irrigation in hot and dry environments, will improve performance. Oleander shrubs tolerate heavy 

pruning and are easy to grow with little maintenance. They prefer a sunny, well drained site, shade will inhibit 

flowering. They are tolerant of soil salinity and drought, and are good for tub growing (but not close to 

swimming pools or where children play). Retail potted oleander well established in pots, at the beginning of 

flowering, to confirm the colour. 

Fig. 261. Bacterial gall of oleander (Pseudomonas syringae 

subsp. savastanoi pv. nerii). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 262. Black scale (Saissetia 

oleae) on stems. 

K 104 


Photinia 

Photinia spp. 

Family Rosaceae (rose family) 


Parasitic 



Fire blight 




Root rots 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 


Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae) has been recorded on Photinia sp. See 


Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) which may blight 

leaves, stems and fruits is not known to occur in 

Australia but occurs in NZ and other countries (Com. 

of Aust. 1990). See Pome fruits F 108. 

where the powdery mildew is not so noticeable and 

avoid pruning it. Where there are existing P. 

serrulata shrubs, they may either be replaced or 

tolerated. Fungicides are not recommended for 

hedges because they would need to be applied 

regularly as new growth emerges in spring, and at 

other times during the year for effective control. 

Fungicides may be used in nurseries. See Annuals 

A 6. 

Root rots 


Damping off (Cylindrocladium scoparium) 



Insect pests are usually of minor concern. 

Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) occasionally may 

attack new shoots. See Roses J 4. 



Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri) is a sporadic 

minor pest. See Trees K 13. 

Pear and cherry slug (Caliroa cerasi) may 

skeletonise occasional leaves. See Pome fruits F 115. 

Scales: Armoured scales (Diaspididae), eg San 

Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus), 

oystershell scale (Q. ostreaeformis). Soft scales 

(Coccidae), eg black scale (Saissetia oleae). See 

Citrus F 39, F 41, Trees K 16. 


Fungal leaf spots: An unidentified species may 

cause reddish-brown spots on leaves. A minor 

problem. See Annuals A 5. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) is the most 

serious disease of Photinia and is mainly a 

problem on clipped hedges of P. serrulata. The 

fungus attacks new spring growth. Young leaves 

and shoots are covered with white powdery growth 

in spring. Shoots become spindly, areas of leaves 

attacked by mildew may become pinkish and leaves 

may curl inwards. Severely infected new leaves may 

wither, powdery mildew on older leaves looks 

silvery. Susceptible species include P. serrulata. 

Where possible select species with some resistance, 

eg P. glabra Rubens and P. glabra Rubusta. If 

P. serrulata is to be used, plant in a shrubby area 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost may injure new foliage. 

If pruning in mild areas, cut back in winter; in 

frosty areas leave until after spring flowering. 

Fertilise after pruning. Heat may also injure 

leaves. 


Com. of Aust. 1990. Fireblight. Plant Quar. Leaflet 

No.5. Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, Dept of 







Photinias are widely used as hedge plants for their brilliant red new foliage which can be maintained by regular 

trimming, watering and fertilising. It is tolerant of a wide range of conditions, but not the tropics or hot inland 

areas. Mature leaves will tolerate frost and are quite tough in dry areas. They prefer full sun to semi-shade. 

P. glabra Rubens makes an excellent hedge plant especially in cool moist climates. Main pruning is carried out 

in late winter, but flushes of the attractive young red leaves can be obtained throughout the year (not in frosty 

areas), by clipping the plant whenever it has all turned green. P. serrulata is very susceptible to powdery 

mildew. Photinia Superhedge is a vigorous branching Photinia, which can grow 2 m in a year and is ideal where 

a hardy quick growing screen is required. Propagated by cuttings. 


Pine 

Pinus spp. 

Family Pinaceae 


Parasitic 


Diplodia canker 

Dothistroma needle blight 

Root rots 

Rusts 

Wood rots 





Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Grasshoppers and locusts 


Pine aphids 

Pine bark beetles 

Radiata pine shoot weevil 

Scales 


Sirex wasp 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Mycorrhizae 


Poisonous pine needles 


Parasitic 


Diplodia canker 

Blue stain, dieback, shoot blight 


Diplodia canker (Diplodia pinea) 

Host range: Pine (Pinus spp.). 

Symptoms: Trees from 4-10 years are commonly 

attacked. D. pinea is present wherever radiata pine 

is grown. Stems of leaders of young trees 

become infected through injury and the fungus 

establishes in the pith and sometimes in the cortex. 

Tissue is discoloured, resin may flow, lesions and 

cankers may follow (Fig. 263). If the leader is 

girdled, it dies (needles gradually yellow and 

brown). Side shoots behind the killed tips may 

grow abnormally long resulting in multiple 

leaders. Larger areas of a tree will be brown if 

many dead tips occur together (Lewis and 

Ferguson 1993). 

Overwintering: On needles, twigs, buds, scales. 

Spread: Spores by rain drops and wind. 

Conditions favouring: Injury due to natural 

occurrences, eg drought, fire, hail, wind, also 

insects, pruning, logging. Trees stressed due to 

poor sites, unreliable rainfall. Warm, wet autumn 

weather generally > 22 o C. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Fertilise trees and water in dry 

weather to keep them growing vigorously to 

minimise infection and encourage plants already 

affected, to produce new growth. 

Resistant varieties: Radiata pine (P. radiata) is 

very susceptible. 

Pesticides: Fungicidal treatments are of doubtful 

value and impossible on large trees. 

Dothistroma needle blight 

Pine needle blight 

Scientific name: Dothistroma septospora 

(= D. pini = Scirrha pini). This is the most 

serious needle blight disease of radiata pine in 

Australia and perhaps throughout the world. Other 

needle blights, eg Lophodermium spp. and 

Naemacyclus spp., may cause locally important 

diseases. Prompt detection and management are 

essential if vigour is to be maintained. 

Host range: Pinus spp. especially P. radiata, 

also P. ponderosa. 

Symptoms: In young pines, the foliage of the 

lower parts of trees appears orange-red. In severe 

cases, this may extend right to the growing tip. 

The needles finally turn red-brown with white 

patches which may appear silvery from a distance. 

Older trees, especially P.radiata and P. ponderosa, 

appear reddish-brown, and needle fall will be 

considerable. This symptom is best seen at the 

edges of plantings and in clearings especially in 

humid areas, eg in gullies. Needles develop pale 

yellow spots, which later turn bright red to brickred 

and form a band around the needle. Pale red 

bands may be associated with other fungi. 

Dothistroma has small, black, irregular pustules 

(fruiting bodies) which burst through the needle 

surface within the red area (Fig. 264). Dothistroma 

usually attacks new needles while Lophodermium 

spp. and Naemacyclus spp. attack older needles 

which do not contribute much to tree growth. 

Lophodermium needle casts (Lophodermium spp.): 

Different species affect different species of pines. 

Fruiting bodies are small, regular, elliptical, shining 

black just below the surface of the needles. When 

mature they open by a narrow slit, pushing back the 

leaf surface, exposing glistening white contents. 

See Fig. 264, Conifers K 50 (Fig. 229). 

Naemacyclus needle casts (Naemacyclus spp.) may 

affect radiata pine. Fruiting bodies are whitish, waxy 

and rectangular. They open by displacement of the 

leaf surface and look like white hinged lids or flaps 

which expose a white shiny interior surface. 

There are no black bands on the needles such as those 

found with Lophodermium. 

Others, eg needle blight (Sclerophoma pityophila), 

may occur on dead and dying needles of drought 

affected radiata pine and shore pine, also needle 

drop (Sydowia polyspora), Pestalotiopsis royenae. 

Serious attack involves waves of defoliation each 

growing season, which can drastically reduce 

increases in height and diameter and cause young 

trees to die. The mycelia then penetrate the 

stomata (breathing holes) of the needles and kill 

them from the point of attack to the needle tip. The 

fungus finally produces the black fruiting bodies. 

Overwintering: Infected needles on the tree or 

on the ground. 

K 106 


PINE 

Spread: Spores formed on needles are carried to 

other needles by wind and cloud in moist low level 

air streams. Disease may spread > 100 km a season 

if weather is favourable. Spores are shed on to the 

lower needles by rain or fog drip, or are picked up 

in an aerosol form in wet weather and spread by air 

movements. Entry is through stomata on needles. 

Conditions favouring: An average annual 

rainfall of about 1 , 200 mm, evenly distributed 

throughout the year, and summer temperatures 

< 27 o C, provide ideal conditions. For this reason, 

many pine forests in Australia where summer 

temperatures are high and rainfall is low are 

unlikely to be seriously affected by the disease. 

However, even here, humid or foggy areas or local 

wet spots, can harbour disease. Also favoured by 

environmental stress, eg nutrient deficiencies, 

waterlogging, delayed thinning and cold damage, 

sulphur deficient soils, many years of drought. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Thinning, fertilisation, 

pruning, weed control, careful selection of 

planting sites. 

Plant quarantine: The Code of Practice for the 

Movement of Nursery Stock states that the 

movement of nursery stock from nurseries that 

are known to have Dothistroma septosora in 

nearby radiata pine plantations, to regions 

without the disease, is to be discouraged. 

Resistant varieties: Susceptible species include 

P. radiata and P. ponderosa. Radiata pine in 

some areas is only susceptible until 14 years old 

but in others for at least until 24 years old. 

Breeding is continuing to improve resistance. 

Pesticides: Fungicides, eg copper, may be used 

to control Dothistroma in nurseries and in the 

field. Copper persists in soil for decades. One 

recommendation is to spray with copper 

fungicides 4 weeks before lifting to provide 

good control and is environmentally least 

damaging. Spraying directly before planting, or 

at too high a concentration, may kill seedlings 

before and after planting out. 

Root rots 

Several root rot fungi have caused losses in pine 

plantations, sometimes on transplanted seedlings and 

on older trees, but particularly in areas with infertile 

soils, poor drainage and waterlogging. 

Damping off (Colletotrichum acutatum, Fusarium 

spp., Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia 

solani). Also grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). Pitch 

canker (Fusarium subglutinans) is a serious 

disease of pines in North America. See Seedlings 

N 66. 

Graft failure (Sphaeropsis sapinacea, Cylindrocarpon 

scoparium, Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp.) and 


basicola) onPinus spp. 

Root rots: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.) 

occurs on some Pinus spp., eg P. elliottii, P. radiata; 

also ashy stem blight, charcoal rot (Macrophomina 

phaseolina), dieback (Botryodiplodia theobromae); 

fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani) on Canary 

Island pine, Aleppo pine, maritime pine, radiata pine. 

Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.) may 

affect radiata pine on poorly drained sites. Natural 

resistance varies within radiata pine, which can 

provide a basis for breeding for resistance (Lewis and 

Ferguson 1993). See Trees K 7. 


Western gall rust (Endocronartium harknessi) is 

present in North America and may cause serious 

damage if introduced to Australia. Seedlings and 

young trees may be killed. The disease can kill trees 

or deform them so badly that the stems are worthless. 

Breeding is continuing for resistance. Quarantine 

risks: The most likely means of introduction is with 

planting material or on wood of host trees. Unlike 

many other pine rusts which require an obligate 

alternate host to complete their life cycles, western 

gall rust reproduces by direct infection of pine, so the 

disease would be difficult to eradicate. Quarantine 

precautions: All introductions of pine seeds and 

plants are subject to quarantine. Rust could be 

accidentally introduced as a seed contaminant. All 

pine seed is treated on arrival in Australia. Plants 

must be grown in an official post-entry station for at 

least 2 seasons and carefully checked for disease 


Others: Many other rusts infect Pinus spp. 

overseas, eg white blister rust (Cronartium 

ribicola) (Agrios 1988, Horst 1990). 


Wood rots (Agarcales, Basidiomycetes) 

Various species may attack weakened or damaged 

trees including yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum 

commune). See Conifers K 46, Trees K 9. 

Wood-stains, sap-stains: Sap-stain 

fungi are spread by bark beetles. Diplodia is the 

most common and widespread blue-stain fungus of 

radiata pine. Ceratocystis spp. (= Ceratostemella 

spp.) is spread by fivespined bark beetle (Ips 

grandicollis). All are primarily fungi of the 

sapwood (Lewis and Ferguson 1993). See Trees 

K 9. 


Radiata pine mistletoe (Loranthus pendula) 

occurs in SA. Dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium 

spp., Viscaceae) may infest pines. See Trees K 10. 


Many species of nematodes have been found in 

association with pines especially in nurseries, eg 

burrowing nematode (Radopholus), foliar 

nematode (Aphelenchoides), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus), spiral nematode 

(Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus), stunt nematode 

(Tylenchorhynchus), Boleodorus, Cephalenchus, 

Graciliacus, Hemicriconemoides, Morulaimus, 

Nanidorus, Paratrichodorus,, Scutellonema, 

Tylenchus, Tylodorus. See Vegetables M 10. 

Pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) 

is a destructive disease of pine overseas (Japan, 

North America, Europe and Hong Kong). The 

nematode is spread by longicorn beetles 

(Cerambycidae), eg Monochamus alternatus in Japan. 

Quarantine risks: The importation of any 

untreated timber or timber articles, especially logs, 


PINE 

exhibiting signs of insect infestation, is considered a 

major risk. Quarantine precautions: All logs and 

timber imported into Australia is subject to 

quarantine. Importation of logs, rough sawn timber, 

boxes, crates or any other items with bark still 

attached is prohibited. All logs and timber products 

are inspected on arrival and fumigated if insects are 

discovered. (Com. of Aust. 1987) 


Borers (Coleoptera) 

Weevils (Curculionidae): Mountain pinhole borer 

(Platypus subgranosus). Pine bark weevil (Aesiotes 

notabilis) larvae burrow into bark. See Conifers K 45. 

Pine stump weevil (Mitrastethus australiae). 

Walnut pinhole borer (Diapus pusillimus) larvae 

bore in moist sound wood of pines and hardwoods. 

See Walnut F 149. 

Others: Pine witchety grub (Cacodacnus 

planicollis, Cerambycidae) and pine bark anobiid 

(Ernobius mollis, Anobiidae). 

See Conifers K 47, Trees K 10. 


Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) causes shoots of 

nursery stock to dieback. 

Stink bug (Omyta controlineata). 



Many caterpillars are often only a problem in 

nurseries or on young trees. 

Case moths (Psychidae): Faggot case moth 

(Clania sp.) caterpillars feed on needles and defoliate 

small trees. Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri) 

infests radiata pine and P. patula. Lepidosca 

arctiella damages needles in plantations, young trees 

may be completely defoliated. Saunders's case 

moth (Oiketicus elongatus) causes moderate damage 

in plantations. 

Cutworms (Noctuidae): Bogong moth (Agrotis 

infusa) and brown cutworm (A. munda) caterpillars 

damage bark on stems and roots and needles near 

ground level, may cause heavy loss of nursery 

stock. Euxoa radians caterpillars may severely 

damage roots and lower stems of nursery stock. See 



moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars damage 

needles, shoots and terminal buds especially on 

nursery stock and young plantings. E. caryotis 

moderately damages needles in plantations. 

Acropolitis spp. feed on leaves. Lucerne 

leafroller (Merophyas divulsana) causes moderate 

needle and terminal bud damage to nursery stock 

and young plantings. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Loopers (Geometridae): Pine loopers (Chlenias 

spp.) feed on soft bark and shoot tips especially in 

young plantings and may predispose trees to Sirex. 

Generally no control is required. Twig looper 

(Ectropis excursia) which damages growing tips and 

terminal buds is widespread in some areas. 

Haploceros sphenotypa damages needles 

moderately in plantations, Parathemis lyciaria 

(= Boarmia lyciaria) may attack young radiata pine, 

eucalypt, Persoonia, Acacia mearnsii. Other looper 

pests occur overseas, eg Selidosema suavis and 

Nudaurelia cytheria. See Avocado F 19. 

Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) causes 

severe damage sometimes to nursery stock. See 


Oecophorids (Oecophopridae): Lichenaula and 

Procometis caterpillars damage needles and 

terminal shoots of suppressed or drought-stressed 

trees. See Trees K 12. 

Tussock moths (Lymantriidae): Omnivorous 

tussock moth (Acyphas leucomelas), painted 

apple moth (Teia anartoides) is a sporadic pest 

which causes some damage. Painted pine moth 

(Orgyia australis) may severely damage small trees 

and nursery stock, large trees are only moderately 

damaged. See Pome fruits F 113. 

Others: Lewin's bag-shelter moth (Panacela 

lewinae, Eupterotidae) may causes severe damage on 

small trees. Processionary caterpillar (Ochrogaster 

contraria, Notodontidae) damages needles of young 

plantings in dry aspects. Trigonocyttara 

clandestina may be severe in nursery stock. Also 

Epicoma tristis (Thaumetopoeidae) on Pinus. A 

hook-tip moth (Digglesia australasiae, Drepanidae) 

occurs on radiata pine and spruce (Picea spp.). 


Grasshoppers and locusts (Acrididae, 

Orthoptera) may damage needles and shoots in 

young pine plantations, eg Australian plague 

locust (Chortoicetes terminifera), spur-throated 

locust (Nomadacris guttulosa), wingless 

grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum), yellowwinged 

locust (Gastrimargus musicus). See 


Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis) causes yellowing and silvering 

of needles, death of lower branches during natural 

regeneration in mature stands in summer. See 


Pine aphids (Adelgidae, Hemiptera) 

Pine adelgid, woolly pine aphid (Pineus pini) infests 

pines, nursery plants are commonly attacked, also 

pines used for bonsai. See Bonsai N 15 (Fig. 394). 

Older trees may be attacked and have a ragged 

unhealthy stunted appearance. Adults are brown, 

about 1 mm long and feed at the base of the needles 

and cover themselves with fine white filaments. 

Shoots, branches and trunks: Insects gather on 

new shoots and suck sap; a white woolly secretion at 

the base of the plant indicates their presence. White 

waxy threads may be seen also on branches and on the 

trunk. Shoots may die back, hence the common name 

for the problem, 'deadtop'. They cause death of the 

terminal shoots. Small plants may be killed and older 

ones stunted. Favoured by trees that are under 

stress, eg low water supply, or those planted too 

closely together. Several insects parasitise or prey 

on the pine adelgid. If possible delay spraying in the 

hope that they will control the pest. If necessary 

spray small trees with an insecticide and a wetting 

agent. 

Others: Other Pineus spp. may infest radiata pine. 


K 108 


PINE 

Pine bark beetles 


Fivespined bark beetle (Ips grandicollis) 

Other introduced species also attack pines, eg 

Black pine bark beetle (Hylastes ater) 

Goldenhaired bark beetle (Hylurgus ligniperda) 

but are not such important pests 

Overseas also pine engraver beetle (Ips pini) 

Host range: Pinus spp. including P. radiata. Ips 

grandicollis mainly infests recently felled trees and 

slash, but may cause spot or group killing trees. 

Description and damage: Beetles are small, 

cylindrical, about 3-4 mm long and about 1.5 mm 

wide, reddish-brown, short wing covers each with 

5 blunt spines near the rear edge. Larvae are small, 

white, slightly curved with brown heads. Larvae of 

various sizes, pupae and beetles of various colour 

phases are found just below the bark in the sapwood 

of host trees and logs. Breeding injury and 

introduction of sap-stain fungi: Male and female 

beetles tunnel through the outer bark introducing blue 

stain fungi (Ceratocystis ips, Sphaeropsis sapinea), 

which degrade commercial timber. They mate in the 

nuptial chambers. Each female, after mating, chews a 

narrow gallery in the cambial tissue and along this 

makes small niches into which she lays her eggs. 

When larvae hatch they chew fine galleries away 

from the egg gallery, forming a characteristic pattern 

or engraving, beneath the bark (Fig. 265). Redbrown 

frass produced by breeding attacks. Feeding 

injury to living trees is initiated by beetles. If 

populations are large, trees usually die. Phloem, 

cambium and outer sapwood are damaged from the 

ground upwards along trunks and branches. White 

frass, or borer dust is produced. Trees of all ages 

may die in patches. 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (egg, larva, 

pupa, adult) with 3 or more generations per year. 

Pest cycle takes from 3-6 weeks. 

Spread: By transportation of unbarked logs with 

bark remnants attached and pine bark. By beetles 

flying. Pine bark beetles are most common around 

plantations or along roads linking plantations. 

Conditions favouring: Poor management 

practices, eg accumulations of heavy slash after 

logging, thinning or clear fall operations, which 

provide suitable breeding sites. Thinning and pruning 

stressed stands during summer. Drought stressed trees. 

Control: Trees should be monitored regularly. If 

infestation is suspected contact the local forestry 

department to confirm identification. 

Sanitation: Forest hygiene to reduce slash 

through better utilisation or by slash treatments is 

the most important method of control. 

Biological control: Pheromones have been used to 

monitor beetles. The Australian Ips Biological 

Control Project has released predatory and 

parasitic insects. 

Resistant varieties: Susceptible species include 

P. canariensis, P. elliottii, P. halepensis, 

P. muricata, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. pinea, 

P. radiata, P. taeda. The Cedros Island race of 

radiata pine has been reported as almost 

completely resistant to attack (Lewis and 

Ferguson 1993). 

Plant quarantine: Regional quarantine prevents or 

slows further spread to Ips-free areas. 

Pesticides: Ips can attack logs, usually after 

48 hours from falling, and logs can rarely be left on 

the log dump for more than 72 hours before 

transportation to the mill. During the flight season, 

in pine growing areas, it is not possible to stockpile 

logs in the forest or even the mill, without some 

form of insecticide preventative treatment. 

Radiata pine shoot weevil 

(Merimnetes oblongus, Curculionidae) damages 

young shoots of radiata in young plantings. A 

weevil (Neomerimnetes obstructor) damages 

needles in nursery stock or young plantings in 

newly ploughed pastures. Overseas other shoot 

borers occur, eg Rhyacionia buoliana, in Chile. 


Armoured scales (Diaspididae): Mauve pittosporum 

scale, pine parlatoria scale (Parlatoria pittospori). 


hesperidum) attack needles and may be severe, there 

is also sooty mould. 



Green scarab beetle (Diphucephala colaspidoides) 

larvae damage young plantings. 

A scarab (Heteronyx obesus): Larvae cause tree death 

in young plantings during drought. 

See Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11. 

Sirex wasp 

Scientific name: Siricidae, Hymenoptera: 

Sirex wasp (Sirex noctilio) 

Host range: Radiata pine is highly susceptible to 

attack but other Pinus spp. are also attacked. Confirm 

identification at a Department of Forestry. 

Occasionally dying larches (Larix spp.) or spruces 

(Picea spp.) (McMaugh 1994). 

Description and damage: Female wasps are 

25-40 mm long and have uniformly iridescent, blueblack 

bodies with amber wings and legs (Fig. 266). 

Males are smaller, have a blue-black body with 

orange-yellowish areas on the back of the abdomen, 

yellowish forelegs and blue-black hind legs. Larvae 

are 25 mm long, soft and white with well developed 

chewing mouthparts, very small thoracic legs and a 

dark spine on the tip of the abdomen. Damage: The 

female lays eggs, a fungus (Amylostereum 

areolatum) and phytotoxic mucous into sapwood. 

The mucous allows establishment and invasion of the 

fungus within the wood on which the larvae feed. 

The fungus inhibits the flow of sap and water within 

the tree, causing the foliage to wilt, turn yellow then 

red then brown. Timber is further downgraded by 

larvae tunnelling in the wood and exit holes of 

adult wasps. The entire crown turns light green and 

later brown from April onwards. Beads or dribble of 

resin resulting from wounds during egg laying may 

occur on bark. As the fungus grows from the 

oviposition drill, fungal stains appear in the cambium 

as long narrow brown bands along the grain, and 

eventually the fungus permeates every part of the 

tree. After the tree dies, wood degrades rapidly. 

Pest cycle: In Australia sirex normally completes 

1 generation per year (very occasionally over 2 years). 


PINE 

Adults emerge in December to May and only live a 

few days. Females drill into the outer sapwood of 

trees to lay eggs and inject a symbiotic fungus (A. 

areolatum) and a toxic mucous. They pupate close to 

the bark about 3 weeks later. When development is 

completed in summer or autumn, adult wasps chew 

their way out through circular holes 4-7 mm across. 

Spread: Sirex spreads naturally only 30-50 km per 

year, by transport of infested logs or timber. Sirex 

can emerge from air dried timber or copper-chromearsenate 

treated products. 

Conditions favouring: Unthinned plantations, 

trees stressed from fire, drought, wind, logging injury, 

over-mature pines, unsuitable sites, poor soils, low 

erratic rainfall, drought. 

Control: Although sirex is not considered to be a 

major threat to healthy thinned plantations which 

have a full suite of parasites and predators, it may be 

in some circumstances (Cummine et al. 1996). Sirex 

populations, damage and its biological control agents 

should be monitored regularly. The National Sirex 

Coordination Control operates in each state. 

Cultural methods/sanitation: Choose planting 

sites carefully, eg not very steep slopes which 

cannot be thinned, restrict high pruning and 

thinning to waste to certain times of the year, time 

selective thinning to maintain tree vigour 

throughout the rotation; minimise injury to trees 

from fire, machinery and silvicultural treatments, 

early salvage of trees damaged through natural 

causes, eg wind, hail, lightning and maintain a high 

standard of hygiene through early felling of dying 

or diseased trees. Ensure the pines are appropriate 

to the area being planted and use wide tree spacing 

to reduce competition from other trees. 

Biological control: A nematode (Deladenus 

siricicola/siridicola) breeds up in vast numbers in 

the tree while feeding on the fungus, it then enters 

the sirex larva and begins reproduction when its 

host pupates. Nematode juveniles sterilise adult 

sirex females by entering all her eggs. When 

nematode-infected sirex emerge and attack other 

trees, they transmit nematodes instead of fertile 

eggs. Infection levels can approach 100% and lead 

to collapse of sirex populations. A small number of 

sirex-infected trap trees in a plantation are 

inoculated with the nematodes mixed in a gel. A 

wasp (Ibalia leucospoides) lays its eggs down the 

drills of sirex and into the developing sirex eggs. 

Wasps (Rhyssa, Megarhyssa nortoni nortoni, 

Schlettererius) drill deep into wood to paralyse and 

lay their eggs on sirex larvae. The parasites do not 

usually kill > 40% of a sirex population. 

Resistant varieties: White cypress pine (Callitris 

columellaris) is unaffected. 

Plant quarantine: Sirex only spreads naturally by 

30-50 km per year. Quarantine offers an opportunity 

to restrict its spread. 

Others: Spruce spider mite (Oligonychus 

ununguis), termites (Isoptera). 

K 110 


Kangaroos, wallabies, possums, wombats, native 

rats, cockatoos, magpies, currawongs, emus may 

damage young pines. See Fruit F 13. 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Soil moisture may be limited 

during south western summers causing dead tops. 

Frost, wind and hail may damage trees. In 

nurseries sun may scorch bark. 

Mycorrhizae (ectomycorrhizae) associations are 

important for efficient nutrient uptake, nursery soil 

should be inoculated. Mixing in some soil from 

under established pine stands may be sufficient for 

trees in home gardens. See Trees K 18. 


Phosphorus and nitrogen are applied to pines 

after planting. Excess phosphorus may be toxic. 

Boron deficiency causes short, tufted or rossetted 

needles. Some cultivars of radiata pine are 

susceptible to speed wobbles (curved new growth 

associated with very high growth rates and 

unbalanced nutrition). 

Poisonous pine needles: Canary Island 

pine (P. canariensis) needles form indigestible 

masses in the stomach of cattle. Death follows 

24 hours or more after access to foliage. The 

condition is produced by engorgement following a 

meagre diet (McBarron 1983). 




Com. of Aust. Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, 

Dept. of Primary Industries. Canberra. 

Plant Quar. Leaflet. 

Pine Wood Nematode. No.31. 1987. 

Western Gall Rust. No.28. 1990. 

Cummine, A., Bedding, R. and Pfitzner, R. 1996. Sirex 

Still a Threat for Radiata Growers. Australian Forest 

Grower, Aut. Vol.19(1). 

CSIRO. 1986. Forests and Their Products. Research for 

Australia 12. CSIRO, Melbourne. 




Haugen, D. A., Bedding, R. A., Underdown, M. G. and 

Neumann, F. G. 1990. National Strategy for the 

Control of Sirex Noctilio in Australia. Special 

Liftout No.13., Australian Forest Grower. 



Lehane, R. 1995. Sustaining High-Yield Pine 

Plantations. Rural Research 168, Spring. 

Lewis, N. B. and Ferguson, I. S. 1993. Management of 

Radiata Pine. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Maclaren, P. 1993. Radiata Pine Growers Manual. NZ 

FRI Bulletin No. 184, Rotorua, NZ. 



Melbourne. 


Press/NSW Dept. of Agriculture, Melbourne. 

Muir, N. 1992. Some Notes on Nut Pines. The 

Plantsman, Vol.14 (2) Sept. 1992. 

Myers, B., Bond, W., Falkiner, R., O'Brien, N., 

Polglase, P., Smith. C. and Theiveyanathan, S. 1995. 

Effluent Irrigated Plantations : Design and 

Management. Tech. Paper No.2., CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Sirex Woodwasp (NSW Forest Prot. Series 1) 

Introduced Pine Bark Beetles in NSW (NSW Forest Prot. 

Series 5) 



PINE 


Australian Forest Grower 



National Sirex Fund 

National Sirex Coordination Committee 

See Conifers K 49, 


MANAGEMENT 

Radiata pine is the most important plantation tree for timber in Australia. Pines are also grown for windbreaks on 

farms, edible nuts and bonsai. They are generally too large for the average home garden. Pest management 

programs have been described (Lewis and Ferguson 1993). Most diseases and pests of pines should be 

controlled by appropriate clone selection (genetic breeding is important), site selection, cultural 

amendments, thinning and other practices which minimise or avoid the use of pesticides in the field. See 

Trees K 24. Resistant varieties: Natural resistance to root rots and Dothistroma varies and this might provide 

a basis for breeding pines. A Special Seed Orchard for tolerant varieties has been established. Disease-free 

planting material: Some diseases are seedborne, eg Dothistroma. Nursery stock must be free from or have a 

minimal tolerance of Dothistroma disease and be free from root rots and other diseases before planting out. 

Diseases must be controlled on nursery stock. Propagated by seed, cuttings, micropropagation. Cultural 

methods: Choice of site is probably the most important management option to ensure continual regular growth 

and minimum damage by needle cast and blight diseases, bark beetles and sirex. Recommended fertiliser, 

thinning regimes and other practices should be followed. Radiata pines generally are planted in sunny sites. 

Weeds should be controlled at all stages of growth, eg in nursery stock and after planting out. Weeds include 

bracken fern, tussock grass and various woody weeds. Radiata pine may itself, be a potential weed around 

plantations. Plant quarantine: Pests of pine in the northern hemisphere pose the greatest insect threat to 

radiata pine, the bark beetles are the most likely to escape quarantine controls. There are many Ips spp. in the 

northern hemisphere and also Dendroctonus spp. which could cause severe damage if they established in 

Australia. Several shoot insects, eg Rhyacionia spp., pose a serious threat to radiata as they cause serious 

growth losses and are difficult to control. Fortunately the probability of importing these is small as most forest 

products are shipped throughout the world as logs or processed wood. Exotic diseases of potential importance 

to pine and other conifers grown in Australia include dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium sp.), needle blight foliage 

disease (Cercoseptoria), needle blight and brown spot needle blight (Mycosphaerella gibsonii, M. dearnessii 

respectively) and needle rust (Coleosporium spp.), stem or vascular diseases, western gall rust (Endocronartium 

harknessii), pine wilt nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) and root diseases (Verticladiella spp., 

Heterobasidion annosum, Fusarium spp.). It may be difficult to predict which diseases could be significant in 

Australia's environment. Evaluations of the likely susceptibility of radiata pine in Australia to western gall rust 

and pine wilt nematode have been made in an Australian context. Herbicides are used for weed control in 

nurseries and in the field. Fungicides may be used in nurseries to control Diplodia and other diseases. 

Pesticides selected for use in the field should avoid undue persistence and other environmental problems. 

Broadacre aerial spraying of forests should be avoided. 

Fig. 263. Diplodia canker (Diplodia 

pinea) on P. radiata. G. Minko. 

Fig. 264. Top : Dothistroma needle blight 

(Dothistroma septospora). G. C. Marks. 

Lower : Lophodermium needle cast 

(Lophodermium sp.). B. A. Fuhrer. 

Fig. 265. Damage by fivespined pine 

bark beetle (Ips grandicollis), dead 

bark has been removed. Two egg 

galleries have been made by the 

females; radiating from each gallery 

are numerous tunnels made by the 

growing larvae. For. Com., NSW. 

Fig. 266. Sirex wasp (Sirex noctilio). Left : Frass packed larval tunnels. Centre : Larva (25 mm long) with single 

spine. Right : Adult female wasp (25-40 mm long). For. Com., NSW. 


Pittosporum 

Pittosporum spp. 

Native or sweet pittosporum (P. undulatum) 

Family Pittosporaceae 

PEST AND DISEASES 

Parasitic 




Pittosporum beetle 

Pittosporum bug 

Pittosporum leafminer 

Pittosporum longicorn 

Pittosporum psyllid 

Scales 

Thrips 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Natural gumming 



Parasitic 


Overseas, downward leaf rolling of leaves and vein 

yellowing has been associated with virus particles 

in P. tobira, mosaic in P. daphniphylloides, death 

of outer bark and branches of P. tobira, 

P. crassifolium, P. viridiflorum Sims and 

variegated P. tobira (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Fungal leaf spot (Pleospora sp., unconfirmed) occurs 

on weeping pittosporum (P. phillyreoides). See 



luteobubalina), also phytophthora diseases, eg 

Phytophthora cinnamomi on P. tobira, Phytophthora 

nicotianae on P. undulatum and Phytophthora 

palmivora on P. eugenioides and P. undulatum. 


Wood rots: Yellowish wood rot, rainbow conk 

(Polyporus versicolor) mostly rots dead pittosporum. 



Pittosporum beetle (Lamprolina 

aeneipennis, Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) can be a 

serious pest of Pittosporum spp. especially 

P. hirtissimum and P. venulosum in some seasons in 

tropical and subtropical coastal areas. Beetles are 

about 10 mm long with shiny black wing covers and a 

reddish-brown thorax and head. Larvae have ugly 

spots and feed in groups. Adults and larvae may feed 

together and chew large irregular lumps out of 

leaves. Adults drop to the ground if disturbed. 

Predators, eg birds and parasitic wasps, exert some 

control. See Trees K 15. 

Pittosporum bug (Pseudoapines geminata, 

Pentatomidae, Hemiptera) is oval, about 8 mm long 

and black with light markings, they suck sap. See 

Citrus F 36, Vegetables M 12. 


Scientific name: Agromyzidae, Diptera: 

Pittosporum leafminer (Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli) 

is commonly found on coastal areas of NSW. 

Host range: P. undulatum. 

Description and damage: Flies are small, 

about 3 mm long. Leaves: Each discoloured 

circular sunken area (usually with a diameter of 

about 3 mm) is caused by one fly larva feeding 

within a leaf (Fig. 267). Maggots concentrate their 

feeding around the midrib. Although most leaves 

can be attacked, plants seems to tolerate 

infestation. Twigs: A closely related fly causes the 

development of galls on twigs of P. undulatum. 


(maggot), pupa, adult). Female flies lays their 

eggs individually below the epidermis on leaf 

uppersurfaces. Usually the oviposition punctures 

are made on either side of the midrib of the leaf, 

but occasionally may be found singly near the 

margin of the leaf. The hole where each egg has 

been laid is surrounded by a narrow violet-brown 

area. Maggots hatch from the eggs and feed in the 

mines which become slightly gall-like and so are 

often called mine galls. When maggots are fully 

grown, they pupate within the gall and the adult fly 

eventually emerges from a large round hole on 

the undersurface of the mine gall. 

Spread: Adults flying. Over long distances by 

movement of infested plant material. 

Conditions favouring: Temperate and 

subtropical climates, coastal areas of NSW. 

Control: 

Cultural methods Plant away from thoroughfares 

so that the perfumed flowers can be appreciated 

without a close-up view of the leaves. 

Resistant varieties: Native daphne or sweet 

pittosporum (P. undulatum) is very susceptible. 

Pesticides: Because control is difficult and plants 

seem to tolerate damage, insecticides are usually 

only applied to young plants in nurseries and to 

specimen shrubs. To prevent damage to 

leaves, spray new growth regularly. Once leaves 

are damaged appearance cannot be improved. 

Pittosporum longicorn (Strongylurus 

thoracicus, Cerambycidae, Coleoptera) and other 

longicorn beetles, attack weakened P. undulatum 

and P. eugenioides Variegatum. Pittosporum 

longicorn also attacks native and cultivated figs, 

citrus, grapevine, passionfruit, red cedar, rock-lily, 

wisteria. Adults are 30 mm long, light brown and 

strikingly marked by a row of white spots on each 

side of the thorax. Adults emerge mainly in 

November. Larvae chew oval frass-packed 

tunnels in twigs and limbs, and may leave oval 

openings through which sawdust-like material 

falls. They pupate in the wood in a chamber 

plugged at each end with fibre rather like woodwool. 


K 112 


Pittosporum psyllid, pittosporum 

chermid (Trioza vitreoradiata, Triozidae, Hemiptera). 

Nymphs suck sap from young leaves, causing small 

lumps which detract from their appearance when 

mature. All cultivars of P. tenuifolium are 

susceptible. See Lilly-pilly K 95. 



Mauve pittosporum scale (Parlatoria pittospori) 

Margarodid scales (Margarodidae) 




Pink wax scale (C. rubens) 



Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera 


may cause leaf silvering. Black drops of excreta 

occur on leaf undersurfaces. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Leaf distortion thrips (Teuchothrips pittosporicola) 

attack new growth of Pittosporum spp. especially 

P. revolutum, causing twisted and folded, often 

reddish, leaves. Shoots may be severely deformed. 

Thrips feed within the folded leaves (Jones and Elliot 

1986). See Bottlebrush K 37. 

Others: 

Aphids (Aphididae) infest new 

shoots of P. eugenioides Variegatum. Weevils 

(Curculionidae) may damage nursery stock of 

P. tenuifolium James Stirling and chew stems of 

advanced nursery stock after planting out (Fig, 

268). See Trees K 17. 



Non-parasitic 

PITTOSPORUM 

Environment: Leaves of variegated cultivars may 

develop pinkish pigments in winter. Water stress 

may cause browning of leaf edges. 

Natural gumming: White blobs of gum occur 

on stems and are often mistaken for scale, areas above 

may die back. 

Potential weed: P. undulatum is a native plant 

which has spread beyond its native habitat into bush 

areas, often coinciding with the clearing of adjacent land 

and the establishment of housing developments (Mullet 

and Simmons 1995). 











Mullet, T. and Simmons, D. 1995. Environmental 

Impacts of the Environmental Weed Sweet 

Pittosporum (Pittosporum undulatum) in Dry 

Sclerophyll Forest Communities, Victoria. Plant 

Prot. Quar., Vol.10(4). 










MANAGEMENT 

Pittosporum are attractive, hardy garden plants that have fragrant creamy flowers and orange seed capsules. 

They are useful as screen plants. Foliage of variegated forms succeed in a wide range of climates from tropical 

to highland, but generally withstand only light frosts. They prefer a deep well-drained fertile loam with ample 

summer water supply, but will tolerate drought. P. tenuifolium is grown in NZ for cut foliage. Usually 

pittosporum are grown in their natural bushy form, but it is possible that longer shoots would be obtained if plants 

were coppiced, ie cut back at the base and a quantity of shoots encouraged, rather than allowing a main shoot to 

develop (Salinger 1985). Propagated generally by seed, but also by cuttings (Larson 1992). Potted P. tobira 

must be provided with the required light levels for cultivation and acclimatisation, high mineral nutrition levels 

preserve good quality, long after being placed in an interior environment (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990). Vase life 

of foliage is 1-2 weeks, it may be stored at 4 o C in preservative solution (Larson 1992). 

Fig. 267. Leaf galls caused by the pittosporum leafminer (Phytoliriomyza 

pittosporphylli). 

Fig. 268. Weevil (Curculionidae) 

injury to advanced nursery stock. 


Plane tree 

Sycamore 

Platanus spp. 

Family Platanaceae (plane tree family) 


Parasitic 


Anthracnose, leaf scorch 

Cankers 

Canker stain 





Frosted scale 

Sycamore aphid 

Non-parasitic 

Burr knots 

Environment 

Fruit hairs 


Pollution 


Parasitic 


Anthracnose 

Leaf scorch 

A common and serious disease of plane trees. 


Anthracnose (Gnomonia sp.) 

= Gnomonia errabunda = Gnomonia veneta 

= Gloeosporium nervisequum = Discula sp. 

Host range: Platanus spp. 

Symptoms: Symptoms are most obvious in 

spring on young leaves as they unfold. Light 

brown areas appear along the leaf veins as the 

leaves develop. These lesions darken and form 

brown, irregularly-shaped areas around the main 

veins. Spots may enlarge to include the whole 

leaf, which looks brown and soon falls. 

Sometimes the disease is mistaken for frost 

injury. The ends of twigs (200-250 mm) may also 

be killed and either hang on the tree or fall to the 

ground with the dead leaves. Cankers form on 

twigs and limbs which eventually die. Larger 

limbs which have died are conspicuous unless 

pruned away. Severely affected trees show 

reduced growth. 

Disease cycle: In autumn, infected leaves fall 

and during the winter the fungus lives within the 

fallen leaves, forming small black microscopic 

flask-shaped fruiting bodies (perithecia). In spring, 

ascospores are ejected from the perithecia and 

depending upon temperature, moisture and light, 

may start new primary infections on young leaves 

and twigs. Later conidia are produced and cause 

all the subsequent infections. Another source of 

new infections in street trees is the spread of 

fungus from the cankers on branches and limbs. 

Overwintering: As mycelium and immature 

perithecia which produce spores in spring, in 

cankers in twigs and limbs on the host plant and 

in infected fallen leaves. 

Spread: Both conidia and ascospores are 

disseminated only during rainy weather. In spring 

the spores are spread by wind and water splash 

from leaves on the ground, and from cankers on 

the tree to leaves and other locations on the tree. 

Conditions favouring: Frequent rains and cool 

temperatures in spring. Average temperatures 

during the 2-week period following the emergence 

of the first leaves of < 12-13 o C favour heavy leaf 

and shoot infections, in spring. If the temperature 

is > 15 o C, little or no injury will occur. 

Control: Control measures are rarely attempted 

on plane trees growing in parks and nature strips. 

They are justified, however, on small trees, on 

particularly valuable specimens or on individual 

specimen trees in a garden or park. 

Cultural methods: Trees suffering from repeated 

attacks should be fertilised the following spring 

to increase their vigour. 

Sanitation: Where practical, if the tree is valuable 

and if infection has been heavy the previous year 

and dieback has occurred, gather and destroy/ 

burn all fallen leaves and twigs, prune the tree 

back to healthy limbs and burn the prunings. 

This will destroy the mycelium which produces 

spores in spring. In the case of some street trees 

where pruning has been carried out regularly, the 

inoculum will have been removed with the 

prunings, reducing the incidence of disease. 

Resistant varieties: Oriental plane (P. orientalis) 

has low susceptibility, London plane 

(P. hybrida) is moderately susceptible, 

sycamore (P. occidentalis)ishighly susceptible. 

Pesticides: Where infection the previous year has 

been heavy, young trees or nursery stock may 

be sprayed with a copper fungicide after 

pruning to remove infected branches, and before 

bud burst, to further reduce the inoculum 

available for re-infection. Should severe 

infection show signs of developing during spring 

on a valuable specimen tree, regular applications 

of a systemic fungicide during cool wet weather 

may contain further spread of the disease. Only 

trees < 3 m in height should be sprayed. See 


Cankers: Cytospora platani (Imperfect 

Fungi) and Leptosphaeria vagabunda 

(Ascomycetes) develop on trunks and limbs. See 

Trees K 5. 

Canker stain, London plane blight 

(Ceratocystis fimbriata f. platani) is not known to 

occur in Australia. In the United States, canker 

stain is a serious disease of London plane 

(P. hybrida). Sycamore (P. occidentalis) is said to 

have resistance or only mild susceptibility. It is 

spread during pruning, on saws and wounds and 

in tree paint. About 5 species of Nitidulidae 

beetles are considered to be possible vectors 

(Horst 1990, Pirone 1978). See Elm K 54, Trees K 7. 

K 114 


PLANE TREE 

Fungal leaf spots (Alternaria alternata, 

Phyllosticta platani, other species) cause minor 

leaf spotting. Control is usually unnecessary. 

The control measures suggested for anthracnose on 

nursery stock could be adopted. See Annuals A 5. 


(Phytophthora cinnamomi): The fibrous root 

system rots causing a decline and finally death of 

the tree. Occasionally the fungus progresses from 

the root system to the trunk causing a collar rot. 

The outer bark of the trunk at the collar cracks, 

trunks may swell and twist, and some branches in 

the crown may die. Such advanced disease 

development can cause a dramatic reduction in tree 

growth. Tree coring instruments may be used to 

remove and subsequently isolate the fungus so that 

it can be positively identified and appropriate 

treatment carried out. See Trees K 6. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium obductum) 

affects Platanus spp. Young leaves and shoots 

become covered with a white, powdery mat of 

mycelium and spores (conidia) making them 

curled and distorted. Buds may wither, immature 

fruits are also attacked. Leaves and young twigs 

may die. It rarely attacks older foliage and if it 

does, there is little injury. The fungus overwinters 

in bud scales and on fruits. Susceptible species 

include Oriental plane (P. orientalis). It may be 

necessary to spray nursery stock with a fungicide 

to control powdery mildew. Large specimen trees 

are not sprayed. See Annuals A 6, Trees K 7. 

Others: 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria 

luteobubalina) only occurs very occasionally on 

plane trees. Twig spot (Steganosporium spp.) 

causes dieback of twigs, black tar-like fruiting 

bodies develop in the cankers on the twigs. 

Control measures are not usually necessary. 

Non-parasitic 

Burr knots: Many species of Platanus produce 

vegetative knots on the trunk, especially close to 

the ground, which can produce shoots. If the main 

trunk was removed they would grow actively. 

They have the same function as lignotubers on 

eucalypts. See Eucalypt K 65. 

Environment: Plane trees are cool climate 

plants and have large leaves. They thrive better in 

places where there is some summer irrigation. 

Fruit hairs of London plane (P. hybrida) and 

sycamore (P. occidentalis) in several large Chinese 

cities, are reputed to be responsible for causing 

extreme irritation to the eyes, noses, ears and 

throats of pedestrians. Many of these trees are 

overmature, and consequently produce an 

abundance of fruits, the hairs from which cause 

extreme discomfort. By cutting back these trees 

to lower or middle trunk branches, the tree crown 

can be rejuvenated to some extent, depending on 

pruning intensity. During the following 5-7 years 

of canopy regeneration and after that, fruit 

production is greatly reduced and the amount of 

hairs in the atmosphere is equally diminished. 

Pesticide injury: Hormone herbicides such as 

2,4-D, may cause leaf cupping. See Trees K 20. 

Pollution 

Gas injury: Leaf tips and margins brown, centres of 

leaves generally remain green. Oriental plane 

(P. orientalis) and London plane (P. hybrida) have 

intermediate tolerance only. 

Atmospheric conditions: London plane 

(P. hybrida) tolerates smoke and poor atmospheric 

conditions better than most other trees. See Trees 

K 21. 


Frosted scale (Eulecanium pruinosum, Coccidae, 

Hemiptera) produces large quantities of honeydew 

with associated sooty mould. Predatory 

ladybirds usually control infestations, both the 

adults and larvae feed on this scale. One spray of 

winter oil during winter will usually keep this scale 

in check and is not detrimental to the predatory 

ladybirds. Other scales can also infest plane trees. 

See Citrus F 41, Stone fruits F 132, Trees K 16. 

Sycamore aphid (Drenpanosiphum platanoides) 

may infest sycamore (P. occidentalis) and maples 

(Acer spp.). See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 

MANAGEMENT 


Lawrence, T., Norquay, P. and Liffmann, K. 1993. 

Practical Tree Management : An Arborists 




Melbourne. 



Horst, R. K. 1990 . Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. 


State/Territory Department of Agriculture/Primary 

Industry eg 

Leaf Scorch of Plane Trees (Vic Agnote) 




Platanus spp. are beautiful large shade trees, with large fan-shaped leaves turning yellow in autumn. They are 

adaptable to most climates. London plane (P. hybrida) has been widely used for street and park plantings for > 

2 centuries in cities such as London, tolerating smoke and poor atmospheric conditions better than most other 

trees. Oriental plane (P. orientalis) is also a magnificent tree for shade in parks and wide roads. In smaller 

streets its root systems are often too vigorous and the tree may need heavy lopping. 


Poinsettia 

Euphorbia pulcherrima 

Family Euphorbiaceae 


Parasitic 


Bacterial and fungal diseases 



Whiteflies 

Non-parasitic 


Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera): Poinsettia 

whitefly, silverleaf whitefly (B. tabaci-type B = 

B. argentifolia) is widespread and infests poinsettia, 

field crops, ornamentals, vegetables; a greenhouse 

pest. It is a vector for the tomato spotted wilt virus 

and at least 60 viruses overseas. Also cotton 

whitefly, tobacco whitefly (Bemesia tabaci). See 


Others: Castor oil looper (Achaea janata, 

Noctuidae). Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) 

may infest poinsettia in greenhouses. 


Parasitic 


Poinsettia mosaic virus: Leaves may be mottled or 

symptomless. Bracteoles may be distorted and fail to 

become fully red or cream. Nursery stock may be 

100% infected. Overwinters in infected poinsettia 

plants. Spread by grafting, vegetative propagation, by 

movement of infected nursery stock, not by contact 

between plants, not by seed, not by pollen, not by a 

vector (Buchen-Osmond et al. 1988). See Trees K 4. 

Non-parasitic 

Crud (cause undetermined) is a light brown gritty 

exudate of calcium sulphate at the nodes of young plants 

and on petioles. Secondary organisms may invade 

damaged areas. Iron deficiency is common and 

species growing on Heron Island all show symptoms of 

iron deficiency. Dimethoate or media wetting 

agents (at higher than recommended rates) may injure 

plants. Sap may irritate skin and eyes; leaves and 

stems when eaten by humans do not always cause 

serious symptoms (Frohne and Pfander 1983). 




BACTERIAL AND FUNGAL DISEASES 






poinsetticola) causes brown angular leaf spots with 


halos (Bodman et al. 1996). Bacterial soft rot 


(Erwinia carotovora var. carotovora) may rot injured Cartwright, D. K. and Benson, D. M. 1995. Optimisation 

stems. See Vegetables M 5. Grey mould (Botrytis 

of Biological Control of Rhizoctonia Stem Rot of 

Poinsettia by Paecilomyces lilacinus and 

cinerea) commonly colonises senescent and damaged 

Pseudomonas cepacia. Plant Disease, March. 

tissue, especially of double varieties. See Greenhouses Ecke, P., Matkin, O. A. and Hartley, D. E. 1990. The 

N 22. Damping off (Cylindrosporium scoparium, 

Poinsettia Manual. 3rd edn. A Paul Ecke Poinsettias 

Phytophthora, Pythium) occurs on roots damaged by 

Pub., Encinitas, California. 

insects. See Seedlings N 66. Poinsettia scab Frohne, D. and Pfander, H. J. 1983. A Colour Atlas of 

(Sphaceloma poinsettiae) causes pale, raised lesions on 


stems and petioles, also causes distortion of new growth, Goodwin, S. and Steiner, M. 1995. Silverleaf whitefly, a 

leaf spots and leaf fall. Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus 

New Fly in the Ointment. Aust. Hort., Jan. 


stolonifer) uncommonly causes a soft rot of stems and 


foliage, black fruiting bodies develop on fluffy white Larson, R. A. (ed.). 1992. Introduction to Floriculture. 

mycelium. Roots and stem rots, eg Phytophthora 


spp., Pythium spp., sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia Martens, J. A. and Pyle, K. (eds). 1993. Poinsettias : 

sclerotiorum); rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia 

Growing and Marketing. GrowersTalk, Batavia, IL. 

solani) may be controlled biologically (Cartwright and Nell, T. A. 1993. Flowering Potted Plants. Ball Pub., 

Benson 1995). See Trees K 7. 

Batavia, USA. 







GrowerTalks 



other species attack E. pulcherimma and other 

Poinsettia whitefly (Bemesia tabaci type B) (NSW Agnote) 

Euphorbia spp. See Vegetables M 10. 



MANAGEMENT 


Poinsettia is a popular garden or potted plant and cut flower. Propagated by cuttings from disease- and pestfree 

stock plants. Harvest cut flowers when fully mature and pollen is shed. Flowers are sensitive to ethylene 

and chilling injury. After harvest, sear stems in boiling water to stop latex flow (latex hinders water uptake 

causing wilting), place in lukewarm water with preservative solution, repeat each time stem is cut, change water 

regularly (Jones and Moody 1993). Retail potted plants when fully mature. Adequate light ensures longevity of 

coloured bracts. High temperatures cause bracts to drop (Nell 1993). 

K 116 


Poplar 

Populus spp. 

Family Salicaceae (willow family) 


Parasitic 






Poplar leaf curl 

Rust 



Borers 

Caterpillars 

Poplar gall aphid 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Overseas, yellow spots extending along fine leaf 

veins have been attributed to poplar mosaic virus 

in P. euromericana Gelrica. High temperatures 

mask leaf symptoms. Branchwood strength may 

be affected. Spread by vegetative propagation, by 

grafting, not by seed, not by pollen, not by aphid 

vectors, not by pruning tools. Several other 

viruses may affect poplar overseas (Cooper 1993). 




syringae) affects western balsam (Populus 

trichocarpa) (Fahy and Persley 1983). In Europe 

poplar canker (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

populea) causes cankers from 20-120 mm across on 

trunks. Excessively cankered shoots may die back 

during early summer. See Stone Fruits F 124. 



Anthracnose, poplar leaf blight (Marssonina 

castagnei, Imperfect Fungi) affects white poplar 

(Populus alba), some hybrids and cultivars. Brown 

leaf spots may enlarge to 10 mm across. Favoured 

by wet conditions, eg overhead irrigation, common at 

the side of golf greens where sprinklers provide 

moisture. A greyish dot (fruiting body) develops in 

the centre of each spot. Leaf spots may join together 

to cover whole leaves which yellow and fall 

prematurely. Spots develop on leaf stalks but rarely 

on small twigs. M. brunnea attacks P. deltoides and 

other species. Leaf spots are initially red-brown, with 

age they bleach, are about 1 mm across, but do not 

join together. Elliptical spots up to 2 mm long 

develop on leaf stalks. Additional species occur 

overseas. See Fruit F 5. 

Anthracnose, scab (Sphaceloma populi, Ascomycetes) 

on Lombardy poplar (P. nigra Italica). Leaf spots 

3-4 mm across along veins may join together into 

large damaged areas. Spots may develop on leaf 

stalks. See Roses J 2, Violet A 56. 

Control is not practical on large trees. In 

nurseries, prune off badly affected shoots; 

fungicides may be applied to new leaves as they 

unfold to prevent infection. See Annuals A 5, 

Trees K 6. 

Poplar leaf curl, poplar leaf blister (Taphrina 

aurea) is a minor but common leaf infection of 

most poplars. On rare occasions catkins may be 

infected. Blisters up to 10 mm across appear on 

leaf uppersurfaces. On the corresponding areas on 

the undersides there is a concave shape in which 

orange-red spore masses form. Leaves do not fall 

and shoots are little damaged. Favoured by wet 

areas, young trees and nursery cuttings. Control 

measures are not necessary. Trembling poplar 

(P. tremula) and white poplar (P. alba) have some 

resistance. See Stone fruits F 126. 

Rust (Uredinales, Basidiomycetes) is the most 

serious problem affecting poplars. American 

poplar rust (Melampsora medusae) preferentially 

attacks cottonwood (P. deltoides) and its hybrids. 

European poplar rust (M. larici-populina) prefers 

Lombardy poplar (P. nigra var. italica) and its 

hybrids, some genetic selections show a high 

degree of resistance. Leaf uppersurfaces are 

flecked with yellow. Yellow-orange pustules 

1-2 mm across (containing uredospores) develop 

on leaf undersurfaces, sometimes joining 

together (M. larici-populina). Heavy infection 

causes leaves to wither and fall prematurely, often 

only a few terminal leaves remain on upper 

branches. New leaves may appear, but these also 

become infected and fall early. Repeated attacks 

weaken or even kill small trees or nursery stock. 

Shoots die back, possibly due to secondary 

diseases. In severe rust infection the yellow leaves 

are spectacular from a distance. Rust may 

completely defoliate nursery stock. Bees are 

attracted to rust spores which they carry off to the 

hive, possibly in the belief that they are pollen 

grains. In North America and Europe, both rusts 

require 2 hosts to complete their disease cycle. In 

Australia, they seem to be able to survive from 

season to season as uredospores on fallen 

infected leaves. Uredospores are spread from 

infected leaves on the ground and on the tree by 

wind. Favoured by high humidities and 

temperatures in summer and autumn. As rust is 

only severe in some years, affected trees should 

only be removed when dead. Their life span may 

be reduced by a few years. A fungus 

(Cladosporium sp.) is a hyperparasite of M. 

larici-populina but does not provide economic 

control. The use of resistant varieties, eg white 

poplar (P. alba), trembling poplar (P. tremula) is 

the only practical control. Nursery stock and 

small trees may be sprayed with a fungicide 

applied when rust pustules first appear. See 



POPLAR 

Others: Cytospora canker (Cytospora 

chrysosperma) occurs on black poplar (P. nigra) 

and other species. Root rots, eg armillaria root 

rot (Armillaria spp.), verticillium wilt 

(Verticillium dahliae). Silver leaf (Stereum 

purpureum) during mild wet winter may affect 

white poplar (P. alba) and Lombardy poplar (P. 

nigra var. italica). 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) has only 

been recorded once on poplars in Australia. See 



Borers 


Fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator) 

See Trees K 10, K 11, K 12. 


Archernis mitis (Pyralidae) occurs in Qld and 

northern NSW. Caterpillars live gregariously 

amongst webbed leaves of P. deltoides and pupate 

in the webbed bunch. The pupae are able to produce 

audible stridulatory sounds. See Tea-tree K 124. 


between leaves and are green. See Ivy K 88. 


Poplar gall aphid (Pemphigus bursarius, 

Aphididae, Hemiptera) causes leaf stalk galls on 

its primary host (Lombardy and other poplars) but 

feeds on roots of its secondary host (weeds, eg 

curled dock, dandelion). Purse-shaped galls (25- 

30 mm long) develop on leaf stalks of poplar in 

response to aphids feeding. Wingless aphids and 

their woolly wax are found inside the galls. In 

summer and autumn winged aphids leave the gall 

by an opening at the end and migrate to weeds to 

feed on roots. In spring they move back to 

poplars. Also spread by the movement of infested 

nursery stock. No control is necessary (McMaugh 

1994). See Roses J 4. 

Others: Larvae of the exotic leaf beetle 

(Zeugophora sp., Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) 

mine in leaves of Salicaceae, especially Populus. 

Scales (Hemiptera), eg black scale (Saissetia 

oleae), greedy scale (Hemiberlesia rapax), 

oystershell scale (Quadraspidiotus ostreaeformis), 

San Jose scale (Q. perniciosus) may infest 

poplar. Other scales infest poplars overseas. 



Non-parasitic 

Environment: Wind may cause holes and tears 

in leaves on exposed slopes and open plantings. 

Trunks of Robusta cultivars are susceptible to 

snapping. Italica cultivars are especially resistant to 

wind storm damage. Late frosts may burn young 

leaves and soft new growth in nurseries. The use of 

late flushing varieties will overcome this problem. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Poplars 

are susceptible to deficiencies, eg potassium 

deficiency, and salt toxicity. Leaf edges brown. 

Others: Poplars may grow to be very large trees, 

their roots may cause extensive damage to pipes and 

sucker profusely. Do not plant in small areas, near 

underground pipes or drains. Avoid species which 

sucker profusely. Honeybees apparently collect the 

sticky protective layer which covers the buds of 

some clones, causing complete destruction of buds, 

deformation and loss of growth. Large galls (cause 

undetermined) may develop on the trunks of some 

poplars. 



University Press. 






Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO). 1980. 

Poplars and Willows in Wood Production and Land 

Use. FAO International Poplar Commission, Rome. 



Ostry, M. E. 1989. A Guide to Insect, Disease and 

Animal Pests of Poplars. United States Forest 

Service, USDA. Ag. Handbook No. 677. 

Phillips, D. H. and Burdekin, D. A. 1982. Diseases of 

Forest and Ornamental Trees. Macmillan Press, 

London. 



Simpson, J. A. 1990. Marssonina Leaf Spot of Semievergreen 

Poplars in Australia. Aust. Plant Path,. 

Vol.19(1). 

Tewari, D. N. 1993. Poplar. Surya Pub., Dehra Dun, 

India. 


Industry eg 

Marssonina castagnei : A Disease of White Poplar 

(Vic Con. Forests & Lands) 

Poplar Rust (NSW Forestry Co.) 

Some Notes on Poplar Growing in NSW (NSW For Com) 

Farm Trees Series NSW Agric. 

Establishment Techniques for Farm Trees 

Farm Planning for Tree Establishment 

Tree Planting for Gully Erosion Control 

Soil Conservation Service of NSW Trees for the Southern 

Tablelands. 


FAO International Poplar Commission 

New Zealand National Poplar Commission 


MANAGEMENT 

In Australia poplars are mainly grown for ornamental purposes. They are not suitable for tropical areas and are 

usually grown in temperate climates in deep, fertile, well drained soils. A good water supply is required. They 

will tolerate occasional flooding and temperatures < 0 o C (McMaugh 1994). Select species with resistance to 

rust and Marssonina leaf spots, size and suckering and other local problems. 

K 118 


Protea 

Protea spp. 



Parasitic 





Cankers 


Grey mould 

Postharvest diseases 

Root rots 

Wood rots 



Borers 

Caterpillars 

Weevils 

White palm scale 


Non-parasitic 

Blackening of leaves 

Environment 




Parasitic 


Witches' broom occurs in South Africa and is 

considered to be caused by a mycoplasma which is 

spread by an eriophyid mite (Aceria proteae) (Von 

Broembsen 1989). See Trees K 4. 



pv. syringae) causes minor leaf spotting on 

P. cynaroides and other species in nurseries and 

field plantings during cool moist conditions. 

Sunken dead areas are surrounded by a crimson 

coloured halo. Flowers with spotted foliage are 

not marketable. See Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal diseases of leaves and stems are probably 

the most serious problems affecting proteas. 

Cankers (various species) are common on stems 

of Protea spp. They can girdle stems and usually 

follow injury. Plants may die. Phomopsis shoot 

and stem canker (Phomopsis spp.) causes shoot 

and stem cankers of Protea in Qld. Botryosphaeria 

canker and tip blight (Botryosphaeria spp.) is a 

problem on proteas in South Africa and Hawaii. 

Others: Botryodiplodia, Phoma. See Trees K 5. 


Anthracnose diseases: Colletotrichum tip 

dieback (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides) is an 

serious disease of young and old proteas cultivated 

for cut flowers, including P. coronata, P. compacta, 

P. cynaroides, P. magnifica, P. neriifolia, 

P. longifolia, P. obtusifolia, P. repens, P. stockoei in 

the field and in nurseries. Young shoot tips may 

die back, plants may die. Diseased tissues become 

dark grey to black and orange spore masses may 

develop on dead tissue. Lesions may extend down 

into older tissues (cankers) and whole branches may 

die. Brown leaf spots (anthracnose) develop. In 

older plants only the terminal growth is usually 

affected. Favoured by high humidities especially in 

summer rainfall areas, extended periods of leaf 

wetness and warm (20-25 o C) conditions. Seedborne. 

Elsinoe disease, elsinoe scab (Elsinoe) is a 

serious disease of foliage and stems of 

Leucodendron, Leucospermum, Mimetes and Serruria 

in Vic, Qld and WA and Petrophile linearis in Qld, 

and may be difficult to control. It has been recorded 

on Protea Pink Ice, and Petrophile teretifolia (Ziehri 

et al. 1996). Raised red scabby lesions develop on 

current season's stems, heavily infected branches 

become twisted and distorted. Pits may develop on 

stems. Latent infections may occur in nurseries 

without showing symptoms. Resistant species have 

not been identified (Pascoe et al. 1995). See Fruit F 5. 

Batchelomyces leaf spot (Batchelomyces proteae) 

occurs on P. cynaroides in wet and warm conditions 

causing unsightly lumpy red markings. Blooms are 

unmarketable due to the yellow, red to purple spots on 

leaves. Probably seedborne. 

Coleroa sp. causes leaf spots on older foliage of 

Protea spp. It only attacks young foliage when plants 

are growing poorly. The fungal fruiting bodies are 

like pepper grains and are arranged in roughly 

circular spots on leaves. 

Dreschlera blight (Dreschlera spp. = 

Helminthosporium spp.) is a minor disease of most 

commercial cultivars of Leucospermum especially 

L. cordifolium causing rapid death of young 

shoots. Affected leaves yellow and die. 

Others: Alternaria on Leucospermum and 

Leucodendron attacks flower bearing shoots. 

Guignardia leaf spot (Guignardia sp.) occurs on 

waratah and P. cynaroides. Others in South Africa, 

eg Leptosphaeria protearum on protea; 

Mycosphaerella proteae and Stigmina protearum 

occur on Leucospermum and Leucodendron. 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may be a 

problem on Leucodendron, Leucospermum, Protea 

and waratah, causing leaf, shoot and flower 

blights, curling and dieback of shoot tips, and 

irregular brown spots on leaves and flowers. As 

flower buds are produced near shoot tips, flower 

production is reduced. Favoured by cool, wet 

weather during winter. It is controlled with foliar 

sprays. Grey mould may cause damping off 

diseases and postharvest storage problems as 

well. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Postharvest diseases: Grey mould 

(Botrytis cinerea) and rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus 

sp.) on L. cordifolium is controlled by dipping 

flowers in fungicide and drying thoroughly before 

packing. See Annuals A 5, A 11. 


PROTEA 

Root rots 

Damping off (Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum 

gloeosporiodes, Cylindrocladioum, Fusarium, 

Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, other species). 



luteobubalina) may kill plants in established 

plantations of protea, Leucodendron and 

Leucospermum if planted in cleared diseased bush 

areas. See Trees K 4. Phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora spp., P. nicotianae, P. cinnamomi) is a 

major disease in WA where commercial proteas are 

grown in cleared bushland. P. cinnamomi may kill 

> 50% plants in a crop. Leucadendron and 

Leucospermum are very susceptible. Above ground 

symptoms of leaf yellowing and poor growth are 

similar to those of nutrient deficiency and drought. 

Affected plants have no fibrous or proteoid roots. 

Roots are black and shrivelled and a dark lesion is 

often present below the bark at soil level. Most losses 

occur within 2 years of planting. Select a well drained 

site and avoid conditions where soil is saturated for 

long periods. Tolerant proteas include P. neriifolia, 

P. repens. Susceptible species include P. magnifica, 

P. compacta, P. cynaroides. See Trees K 6. 

Rosellinia white root rot (Rosellinia sp.) is 

uncommon but may be serious in some areas. It 

affects protea, waratah, many forest trees, eg pine, 

eucalypt, fruit trees, woody weeds and potatoes. A 

basal stem, crown or collar rot occurs with or without 

root rot. Abundant white fungal growth can be seen 

usually on the surface of affected parts. Favoured by 

soil rich in organic matter which possibly spreads it in 

litter layers. It has occurred in newly cleared land 

adjacent to forests. See Pome fruits F 110. 

Others: Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

affects Leucodendron. Verticillium wilt 

(Verticillium dahliae) is a minor disease of protea. 


Wood rots: Silver leaf (Stereum purpureum) is 

a serious disease of protea and Leucodendron. 

Other wood rots of protea occur overseas. See 

Trees K 8. 


Leafminer (Incurvariidae) and possibly other moth 

caterpillars may mine in leaves of Protea spp. See 


Lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) is an 

important pest of proteas especially Leucodendron. 



caterpillars are 25 mm long, mottled brown, with 

rows of dark brown spots on the back with bristles 

rising from the spots, may ringbark stems or destroy 

leaves. See Macadamia F 77. 


Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Larvae of 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) and 

garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) live in the soil 

where they feed on the roots of grasses and 

broadleaved plants. Adults excavate small, deep, 

rounded holes scattered over the surface of stems. 

Stems may be ringbarked. See Trees K 17. 

White palm scale (Phenacaspis eugeniae) is a 

common armoured scale (Diaspididae) affecting 

protea in nurseries and in the field and is 

unacceptable to export markets. Field control is 

difficult and post-harvest elimination costly. Even 

if postharvest treatments are effective, scale 

coverings often remain. Scale should be controlled 

during the growing season. Monitor scales so that 

treatments can be applied at crawler stages. Small 

localised infestations can be spot treated before 

populations get out of control. See Palms H 4. 

Others: European earwig (Forficula auricularia) 

nibbles foliage giving it a ragged appearance. Green 

peach aphid (Myzus persicae) may infest new 

shoots. Mites (Acarina), eg European red mite 

(Panonychus ulmi), twospotted mite (Tetranychus 

urticae). Scarab beetles, eg black beetle (Metanastes 

vulgivagus), may damage proteas. Termites (Isoptera) 

have caused significant damage in some protea 

plantations. Thrips (Thysanoptera) may infest flowers. 


Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) affect 

P. mellifera and P. obtusifolia. In Hawaii, root 

knot severely limits growth of L. cordifolium and 

P. neriifolia, causing stunting, yellowing of lower 

leaves and death of young shoots, branches and 

entire plants. Roots develop galls. Others include 

spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus dihystera) and 

Paratrichodorus minor. Hemicycliophora sp. 

occurs on P. neriifolia. See Vegetables M 10. 


Borers of various kinds attack banksia, waratah 

and Leucospermum. Larvae of beetles and moths 

can attack stems of woody plants and once 

established they are difficult to kill. They may 

cause severe damage to wildflower or protea 

plantations. See Trees K 10. 


Various animals and birds especially parrots may 

damage proteas. See Fruit 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Blackening of leaves is a postharvest 

disease of P. compacta, P. exima, P. magnifica, P. 

repens and P. neriifolia, caused by the production of 

black oxidation compounds due to physical damage, 

water or temperature stress. Do not harvest when 

excessively hot, place cut stems in water as soon as 

possible, cool quickly. Treat as recommended. Keep 

in strong light and do not mist flowers or foliage 

(Jones and Moody 1993). 

Environment: Some species, eg P. grandiceps 

Princess and P. repens Sugar bush, tolerate severe 

frosts while buds of others, eg L. cordifolium, are 

susceptible. Many species are drought hardy but 

if quality flowers are desired then irrigation and 

fertilisation are necessary. 

K 120 


Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Proteas 

have coraloid proteoid roots which have a large surface 

area for absorption of minerals. See Trees K 18. Too 

much phosphorus causes yellowing/bronzing of 

leaves tips and susceptibility to fungal disease. There 

may be leaf fall and with substantial overdoses, plants 

may die. Excess nitrogen will result in poor growth. 

Deficiencies of iron, magnesium, potassium and other 

elements, may occur. See Trees K 20. 

Pesticide injury: Oil sprays may damage hairy 

leafed protea. Copper sprays may damage protea. 

Before spraying, test spray a few plants. 

Others: Ants are attracted by honeydew secreted by 

sucking insects or nectar in flowers. Control of scale and 

aphids will reduce the attractiveness of plants to ants. 

Reduce spider populations by controlling weeds and 

other pests, eg caterpillars. Spiders are predators and 

if prey is scarce will go elsewhere in search of food. 

Treatments for other pests will have some effect on 

spiders. Populations of spiders and scales are greatest 

on P. grandiceps and least on P. cordifolium. 


Bottomley, K. 1989. Protea Growers Face Increased 

Pest and Disease Problems. Aust. Hort., Jan. 


Cut Flowers & Foliage:530-539; Proteaceae:547- 

550. Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Vic. 

Forsberg, L. 1993. Protea Diseases and Their Control. 


Grootenboer, W. 1995. Growing Proteas the Jarrawarra 

Way. Aust. Hort., Nov. 

Harre, J. 1988). Proteas : The Propagation and 

Production of Proteaceae. Riverlea Promotions, 

Fielding, NZ. 



Lamont, B. and Watkin, P. (ed.). Horticulture of 

Australian Plants. WA. Dept. of Agric., Perth. 

MANAGEMENT 

PROTEA 

Matthews, L. J. 1993. Proteas of the World. David 

Bateman/Lothan Books, Port Melbourne, Vic. 

Matthews, L. 1993. The Protea Grower's Hand Book. 

Simon & Schuster, East Roseville, NSW. 

Mathews, P. (ed). 1981-83. The Growing & Marketing 

of Proteas. Vols. 1,2,3,4. Proteaflora, Melbourne.. 

Mathews, D. and Mathews, A. 1994/95. Proteas : An 

Australian Cut Flower Growers' Guide. Proteaflora 

Enterprises, Melbourne. 

McLennan, R. 1993. Growing Proteas. Kangaroo Press, 


Pascoe, I., Ziehrl, A. and Porter, I. 1995. Elsinoe Scab : 

Incidence and Economic Impact on Proteaceae. 







Von Broembsen, S. L. 1989. Handbook of Diseases of 

Cut-flower Proteas. International Protea 

Association, Monbulk, Vic. 

Ziehrl, A., Pascoe, I. and Porter, I. 1996. Elsinoe Scab 

on South African Proteaceae : What the Researchers 

Know. Aust. Hort., Jan. 


Industry eg 

Growing Proteas (WA Farmnote) 

Growing Proteas Commercially (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Wildfllowers and Proteas (WA Farmnote) 

Major Diseases of Proteaceous Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Pests of Proteaceous Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Phosphorus Toxicity in Native and Proteaceous Plants 

(Vic Agnote) 

Post-harvest Handling of Proteas (Vic Agnote) 

Protea Growing (Vic Agnote) 

Picking, Packing, Processing (Video Tel 08 389 3057) 


Australian Floriculture Conferences 

Australian Protea Growers Assoc (APGA) 


GrowSearch (database QLD DPI) 

International Protea Assoc (IPA) 

Proteaflora Enterprises, Monbulk, Vic 

Protea Growers Assoc of WA (PGA of WA) 

Protea National 





Select flower species to match flower production with peak demand periods. Young plants may be lost in their 

first year, sudden death of older plants can occur. Avoid cultivars highly susceptible to Phytophthora, leaf 

spots or local problems. Protea Pink Ice is vigorous, frost hardy, evergreen, tolerant of wide range of soil types 

and climates. Proteas may be grafted onto Phytophthora-resistant rootstock. Many diseases are seedborne. 

Select seed and cuttings from disease- and pest-free plants and treat seed; diseases and pests are difficult to 

control on established plants. Design sites for layout and practices which minimise disease development. 

Avoid planting sites with a history of disease, eg Armillaria, Phytophthora, Rosellinia. Pre-plant clear land 

thoroughly of root debris, etc. Fallowing may be necessary. Analyse soil for diseases, nematodes and 

nutrients. Treat if necessary. Use mulches with care as they may increase problems, eg weevils, Rosellinia. 

Provide a well drained acid soil, open sunny and breezy positions preferably with north to east aspect. Minimise 

overhead irrigation. Proteas flourish in poor soil and do not tolerate phosphorus (a few exceptions) or respond 

well to large amounts of nitrogen. Avoid excessive root disturbance. Protect from afternoon summer sun. Avoid 

staking even of tallish single stem species. Follow nursery hygiene procedures for disinfecting water, etc. See 

Nurseries N 51. Prune out and burn diseased stems and whole plants. Most species need to be pruned 

properly if more flowers are to be produced (there are some differences in the pruning required for individual 

species). Control weeds to limit earwigs and other insects. Planting in single rows allows better access for 

mowing, picking and spraying. Growers should produce relatively clean plants in the field, so that postharvest 

treatment of cut flowers is more effective. The presence of pests, eg scale, thrips, may jeopardise quarantine 

regulations and export markets. Flowers of Protea Pink ice may need to be disinfested. Pesticides may 

protect young plants from Phytophthora, leaf spots, etc. in nurseries but may be uneconomical in the field. Seek 

advice to avoid the development of resistance to pesticides. Harvest early in the day just as buds are opening, 

do not leave in the sun, immediately place in water in an adjacent cool shed. For export they are packaged by 

variety, graded, etc. They dry well; air-dry naturally, standing in water or spread on wire benches or treat with 

glycerine. Vase life may be lengthened by using flower preservative in the water. Proteas take up much water. 

Keep leaves dry and in strong light to avoid leaf blackening, do not mist (Jones and Moody 1993). An overview 

of the industry is outlined by Coombs (1995). 


Silk tree 

Silk tree, pink silk tree (Albizia julibrissin) 

Family Mimosaceae 


Parasitic 







Borers 

Caterpillars 

Wattle mealybug 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Parasitic 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-LIKE DISEASE 

Virus-like particles are associated with yellow 

stripes bordering leaf veins of Albizia julibrissin 

in the USA (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 



has been recorded on silk tree (A. julibrissin) and 

crested or cape wattle (A. lophantha), and 

P. cryptogea on Albizia sp. See Trees K 6. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) 

has been recorded on Albizia distachya and 

A. lophantha. See Vegetables M 10. 

Fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae) 




Wood moths (Cossidae, Lepidoptera) 

See Trees K 10, K 11, K 12, Wattle K 132. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of several butterflies 

and moths may infest silk trees. 

Common grass yellow (Eurema hecabe phoebus, 

Pieridae) caterpillars feed on mainly featheryleaved 

wattles and A. lebbeck. See Wattle K 133. 

Hook-tip moth (Digglesia australasiae, Drepanidae) 

caterpillars feed on Acacia spp., Albizia spp., 

Exocarpos cupressiformis, Pinus radiata and spruce 

(Picea). 

Moth (Neola semiauranta, Notodontidae) caterpillars 

feed on Mimosaceae, eg many Acacia spp., Dodonaea 

spp. and the introduced A. lophantha. 

Others: Painted apple moth (Teia anartoides), 

sandal-box hawk moth (Coenotes eremophilae, 

Sphingidae) and tailed emperor butterfly (Polyura 

pyrrhus sempronius, Nymphalidae). 

See Trees K 12, Wattle K 133. 

Wattle mealybug (Melanococcus albizziae, 

Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera) is a sporadic pest of 

mainly wattles but also some species of Albizia. It 

is usually controlled by parasites and predators. 

See Wattle K 135. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Although silk trees are 

reasonably hardy, they must be irrigated and 

fertilised appropriately if they are to withstand 

borer infestations. 



Borers are the most serious problems affecting 

silk tree (A. julibrissin) and unless trees are well 

cared for culturally, inspected regularly and 

infestations properly treated each year from the 

time a tree is several years old, they may become 

severely infested and may die within 15-20 years 

of planting. Various moth (Lepidoptera) and 

beetle (Coleoptera) borers may infest silk trees 

including: 

MANAGEMENT 















Silk trees are grown for their attractive flowers and fine fern-like leaves. Because of the susceptibility of silk 

trees to borers, it is recommended that they should not be planted as specimen trees. Fertilise and water 

appropriately to retard borer attack. Inspect trees regularly and treat any borer damage when first observed. 

Albizia spp. tolerate light frosts and short periods of dry conditions. They grow well in a wide range of climates, 

preferably in a warm, sunny position and well drained soil. Some species, eg Indian siris (Albizia lebbeck), will 

grow in areas receiving as little as 400 mm rainfall. Propagated by seed. 

K 122 


Tamarisk 

Tamarix spp. 

Athel tree (T. aphylla) 

Family Tamaricaceae 


Parasitic 




Borers 

Caterpillars 

Scales 

Weevils 


Parasitic 


Overseas, cankers (various species of fungi) may 

cause dieback of tamarisk. Powdery mildew, root 

rots and wood rots also affect tamarisk. Fungal 

diseases in Australia are not well documented. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) has been 

recorded on T. aphylla. See Vegetables M 10. 

and emerge through round exit holes. Larvae are 

active September to April. Usually dead or dying 

trees are attacked so that no treatment is usually 

justified. Plant a replacement tree or another species 

suitable for the site. See Trees K 11. 

Fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera) 



Caterpillars are multicoloured, hairy and make short 

tunnels usually in a branch fork. They feed on 

callus tissue which grows around the tunnel entrance. 


Others: Elephant weevil(Orthorhinus cylindrirostris). 


Darkspotted tiger moth (Spilosoma canescens, 

Arctiidae). 

Tussock moths (Lymantriidae) 


Omnivorous tussock moth (Acyphas leucomelas) 




Latania scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) 

Apple mussel scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi) 




Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) chew bark 

from small branches (Fig. 270). See Trees K 17. 

Borers 


Auger beetles (Bostrichidae, Coleoptera) derive their 

name from their habit of boring circular holes. 

Several species may attack tamarisk. Large auger 

beetle (Bostrychopsis jesuita) is glossy black and 

from 15-22 mm long (Fig. 269). Larvae are curved, 

thickset, white, about 10-12 mm long, with 3 pairs of 

thoracic legs . The vertical tunnels in the sapwood in 

which they have been feeding become tightly 

packed with frass and undigested residue of eaten 

wood. Tunnels are about 5 mm across. Larvae feed 

on starch in the sapwood, pupate close to the surface 

MANAGEMENT 





Control in Australia. NSW University Press, 

Sydney. 

Hadlington, P. and Johnston, J. 1988. Australian Trees : 

Their Care and Repair. NSW University Press, 

Sydney. 

State/Territory Departments of 

Agriculture/Forestry/ Primary Industry eg 

Borers and Termites in Trees (Forestry Commission 

of NSW. Series No. 4) 




The athel tree (T. aphylla) will grow in a variety of harsh conditions. It tolerates hot, dry conditions, moderately 

saline soils, severe pruning and salt-laden winds, but it should be protected from frost while young. It has a deep 

and penetrating root system. The large auger beetle attacks dead or dying trees. 

Fig. 269. Large auger beetle 

(Bostrychopsis jesuita) 

12-22 mm long. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 270. Tamarisk stem damaged by elephant weevil (Orthorhinus cylindrirostris) 

(20 mm long). Identity unconfirmed. 


Tea-tree 

Leptospermum spp. 

Family Myrtaceae 


Parasitic 




Aphids 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 


Plague thrips 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Fungi 

Insects and mites 


Parasitic 



shoot blight (Cylindrocladium spp.) attacks nearly 

all parts of Myrtaceae plants, especially young plants. 

Fungal leaf spots: Tar spot (Phyllochora egenula) 

(Walker 1994). See Annuals A 5, Bottlebrush K 36. 



(Phytophthora cinnamomi). See Trees K 4, K 6. 

Others: Cankers (various fungi) on stems may cause 

dieback. Tinder punk (Phellinus spp.) may cause 

wood rotting. 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), 

root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus brachyurus), 

Helicotylenchus, Hemicriconemoides, Morulaimus, 

Paratylenchus, Scutelloma on Leptospermum spp. 



Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): An Australian 

species (Anomalaphis spp.) occurs on Myrtaceae, 

eg Agonis, Astartea, Leptospermum. See Roses J 4. 

Borers 


cover their tunnels with brown chewed wood pieces 

and webbing. They feed mainly on small branches 

and may ringbark and kill branches. See Trees K 12. 

Ghost moths, swift moths (Hepialidae), eg 

common splendid ghost moth (Aenetus 

ligniveren) and A. lewini. See Trees K 12. 

Others: Longicorns (Cerambycidae) tunnel in small 

branches and twigs causing them to die. Jewel 

beetles (Buprestidae) and wood moths (Cossidae). 

See Trees K 10, K 11, K 12. 

Bugs (Hemiptera): Crompus oculatus, C. opacus 

(Lygaeidae) and other species suck sap from seeds 

of Myrtaceae, eg Callistemon, Leptospermum, 

Metrosideros. See Bottlebrush K 36. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): More than 20 

species of moths infest Leptospermum spp. 

Case moths (Psychidae): Faggot case moth (Clania 

tenuis), leaf case moths (Hyalarctica huebneri, 

H. nigrescens)andSaunders's case moth (Oiketicus 

elongatus) caterpillars feed on Leptospermum spp. 

Narycia guildingi feeds on Myrtaceae, eg 

Leptospermum, Kunzea. See Trees K 13. 

Loopers (Geometridae): These include twig looper 

(Ectropis excursia), also Aelochroma melarhodata, 

Chlorodes boisduvalaria, Dichromodes, Eochrois 

dejunctella, Epidesmia tricolor, Euloxia meandrari, 

Lophothalauna habrocosma, Onycodea traumataria. 

See Avocado F 19. 

Web moths (Pyralidae) are serious pests of 

narrowleaved Myrtaceae, eg Astartea, Baeckea, 

Beaufortia, Geraldton wax, eucalypt, Kunzea, 

Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Reglia, Thryptomene, 

some Proteaceae, Acacia, Indigofera, other plants. 

The host range of each species is often not precisely 

known. Teatree moth (Catamola marmorea), 

teatree web moth (C. thyrisalis) and other moth 

caterpillars live gregariously between webbed leaves. 

Moths are small, dull. Caterpillars are slender, 

dull, about 25 mm long with many black hairs. They 

spin a protective silky webbing over the stems and 

leaves of the plants on which they feed. Webbing is 

coated with plant debris and pellets of excreta (Fig. 

271). Caterpillars shelter together during the day in 

the webbing and feed at night on foliage and young 

flower buds, making plants unsightly, reducing and 

preventing flowering. If the webbing is disturbed they 

may quickly drop down on silken threads and 

disappear into leaf litter at the plant base. Complete 

metamorphosis (egg, caterpillar, pupa, adult), with 

probably several generations each season. Spread 

by moths flying and to a limited extent by the 

movement of infested plants. Favoured by temperate 

and tropical climates. Control caterpillars in spring 

to prevent a buildup in numbers. If only a few plants 

are infested, caterpillars may be squashed by 

hand. Dead shoots and webbing may be pruned off 

and burnt. Light infestations may be hosed off, 

caterpillars tend to return quickly. If necessary spray 

plants and soil immediately underneath in spring after 

removing webbing. If this 1st spring generation is 

controlled further sprays may not be necessary that 

season. Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel ® ) may be 

effective for light infestations but it may be necessary 

to apply white oil and other insecticides. 

Others: Hook-tip moths (Porella spp., Drepanidae), 

also Epicoma constristis and E. melanosticta, Aquita 

tactalis, Amelora milvaria, Marane melanospila, 

Marasca bracteate, Thudaca mimodora. 


Paperbark sawfly (Pterygophorus sp.) larvae 

may defoliate Leptospermum in summer and autumn 

(Fig. 272) and cause permanent damage when they 

pupate in the bark of trunks (can be mistaken for 

phloem-cambium borers). If many larvae burrow into 

bark, trees may be ringbarked. They also pupate in 

soft timbers, eg soft pine weather boards. Prune off 

small branches with larvae. Remove damaged areas 

and keep plants bushy. See Melaleuca K 99. 

K 124 


Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) feed in 

flowers causing premature browning. Their sap 

sucking reduces fruit and seed formation. They 

are sporadic pests, in huge numbers some seasons 

and absent or uncommon in others. See Roses J 6. 




Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae): Teatree scale, 

manuka blight (Eriococcus orariensis) feeds on 

broom tea-tree or manuka (L. scoparium) which can 

be weakened or killed, kanuka (L. ericoides) is hardly 

affected. Scale insects feed in bark crevices and 

under loose bark. Large numbers cause serious 

damage and plants become covered with sooty 

mould. White male pupal cases may be seen on the 

blackened surfaces. Teatree scale is difficult to 

eradicate. In Australia, scale numbers are kept low 

by natural enemies and they do not always cause 

much damage. In NZ there are few successful natural 

competitors and damage can be severe; applications 

of insecticides and petroleum oil may be 

necessary. Presence of scale on export material could 

affect export trade from NZ. See Citrus F 41, 



Others: Free-living psyllids (Acizzia sp.), 

redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis). 

Also green scarab beetle (Diphucephala 

colaspidoides), gall midges (Diptera), gall wasps 

(Eupelmidae), green planthopper (Siphanta acuta). 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

TEA-TREE 

Fungi: A blackish epiphyllous parasite (Meliola 

leptospermi) may grow on leaves. Sooty mould 

(Capnodium sp.) may grow on honeydew secreted by 

scales and other sap sucking insects. 

Insects and mites: A scorpion fly 

(Harpobittacus, Mecoptera) feeds on nectar as it forages 

for prey in blossoms and adult flies (Pelecorgynchus) 

hover in flowers. Also soldier beetles (Catharidae, 

Diptera), beetles (Pseudohydrobius), teatree itch 

mite (Eutrimbicula samboni). 















Wrigley, J. W. 1993. Bottlebrushes, Paperbarks & 

Teatrees. Angus & Robertson, Pymble. 


Society for Growing Australian Plants 





Tea-trees are small trees and shrubs and are generally not suitable for the tropics, but they will withstand almost 

any other conditions. Some tolerate salty winds. Broom tea-tree or manuka (L. scoparium) from which most 

cultivars used for flowers originate, is susceptible to teatree scale (Eriococcus oranensis). Cultivars for cut 

flowers must have long straight stems. Kanuka (L. ericoides) is resistant to teatree scale. Breeding programs 

aim to develop cultivars with long straight stems for use as cut flowers and with resistance to teatree scale. Only 

plant scale-free propagation material. Propagate by cuttings or seed. Cultivars grown for display or cut 

flowers must be provided with good soil, water in dry weather and be tip-pruned regularly if they are to look their 

best. Harvest long shoots of L scoparium. Long shoots of wild material have been cut for export, double 

flowered cultivars are preferred, eg Floradora, Red damask. The shoots are cut as the lower flowers open. 

Flowers can be stored at 4 o C for 1- 2 days and will last 3-10 days under room conditions (Salinger 1985). 

Flowers drop easily, treat as for Geraldton wax (Jones and Moody 1993). See Geraldton wax K 74. 

Fig. 272. Paperbark sawfly (Pterygophorus sp.) larva is up 

to 30 mm long. Forestry Com. of NSW. 

Fig. 271. Web moth (Pyralidae) caterpillar damage to 

melaleuca. 


Thryptomene 

Australian Lace Flower 

Grampians 

Thryptomene spp. 

Grampians thryptomene (Thryptomene calycina) 



Parasitic 


Damping off 

Grey mould 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 


Thrips 


Parasitic 


Damping off (Pythium spp., Phytophthora 

cinnamomi) may occur before and after planting 

out. See Seedlings N 66. 


flower blight of T. baeckeacea. See Geraldton 

wax K 73, Greenhouses N 22. 


cinnamomi) is the most serious disease of 

thryptomene. T. calycina is very susceptible and 

thousands of plants have been killed in both the 

wild and in plantations. T. saxicola and 

T. hyporhytis appear to be more resistant than 

T. calycina and T. micrantha. T. oligandra has 

shown some resistance but it is not as frost hardy 

as the other species. Grafting on to the more 

tolerant T. saxicola may be a possibility. See 

Trees K 6. 

Others: Cankers (various fungi) on stems may 

cause dieback. Cylindrocladium collar and stem 

rot, leaf spot, shoot blight (Cylindrocladium 

spp.) attacks nearly all parts of Myrtaceae 

especially young plants. The disease is most 

common during wet weather and poor ventilation. 

Other fungi probably also cause shoot blights. 


Aphids (Aphididae): An Australian species 

(Anomalaphis sp.) may infest new shoots. See 

Roses J 4. 


Leaf case moth (Hyalarcta huebneri, Psychidae) feed 

on leaves. See Trees K 13. 

Web moths (Pyralidae) may damage flowering 

stems of T. calycina causing a complete absence of 

flowers and making plants look unsightly. See 

Tea-tree K 124. 

Ringbarking weevil (Cucurlionidae, 

Coleoptera) is a serious pest of Thryptomene 

(Wood 1988). Larvae feed on the stem below 

ground level causing shrubs to die. See Geraldton 

wax K 73. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera): Onion thrips 

(Thrips tabaci) and other species, feed on the 

nectar and pollen of flowers and pose 

disinfestation problems on flowering stems that are 

to be exported. See Onion M 68, Roses J 6. 


Coombs, B. 1995. Horticulture Australia. Native Cut 

Flowers & Foliage:530-539. Morescope Pub., 


Curtis, C. 1985. Thryptomene calycina : Victoria's 

Unique Resource. Aust. Hort. May. 




Agric., Vol.29, No.4. 





Industry eg 

Cultivation of Thryptomene calycina (Vic Agnote) 







MANAGEMENT 

Thryptomene is an Australian genus of woody shrubs of variable height, some tropical species being quite tall. 

Thryptomene is an excellent cut flower. In cultivation it requires reasonably good drainage, full sun to part shade 

and a good mulch (Wrigley 1988). It is a cold climate shrub and frost hardy (-7 o C in normal rainfall). Research 

is selecting cultivars which have varying flowering characteristics, eg peak flowering, size and colour of 

flowers, evenness of flowering, foliage colour and resistance to P. cinnamomi. Only propagate from disease 

and pest-free plants and plant in phytophthora-free media/soil. Propagation is by tip cuttings when the plant 

is not in flower, propagation by seed is difficult. Avoid water stress between November-April. Regular 

trimmings encourage side shoots and flowers and compact plants. Weed control is not usually necessary. 

Harvest when 20-30% of flowers are open and cool to preferably between 1-4 o C. Thryptomene may be stored 

for 2-5 days in water at 1 o C. Stems must be recut after storage. Keep well watered using preservative solution, 

flowers may be misted (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 126 


Verticordia 

Feather flowers 

Verticordia spp. 

Rapier feather flower (V. mitchelliana) 

Family Myrtaceae 


Parasitic 


Grey mould 


Root and stem rots, shoot blights 




Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Ringbarking weevil (Cucurlionidae, 

Coleoptera) is the most serious pest of 

Verticordia (Wood, W. 1988). It attacks other 

Myrtaceae, eg Geraldton wax (Chamelaucium 

uncinatum). In some plantations > 50% Verticordia 

plants have been killed. Weevils lay eggs near the 

base of the plant and larvae start feeding on the 

stem just below ground level, eventually 

ringbarking the plant. Damage is not obvious 

until branches start dying from water stress. 

Insecticides provide good control. See Geraldton 

wax K 73. 

Others: Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera) 

and web moths (Pyralidae, Lepidoptera). 


Parasitic 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea): Verticordia is 

very susceptible, do not buy bunches with the 

characteristic grey fungal hyphae produced by 

Botrytis cinerea. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may occur on 

Verticordia seedlings (Wood, P. M. 1988). See 

Annuals A 6. 

Root and stem rots, shoot blights 


shoot blight (Cylindrocladium spp.) attacks 

Myrtaceae, eg Verticordia. All parts may be 

attacked. Young plants are most susceptible. 


cinnamomi). See Trees K 6. 


Others: Cankers (various fungi) on stems may 

cause dieback. 


Hemicriconemoides obtusus and Scutelloma sp. 

have been recorded on Verticordia sp. in WA 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Once established, V. mitchelliana 

is reasonably drought and frost tolerant, but will 

not tolerate excessive moisture or humidity. 


Anand, T., McComb, J. and Considine, J. 1993. Poor 

Seed Set in Verticordia. Aust. Hort., Dec. 








NSW Agric./Rural Indust. Res. and Dev. Corp., 

Sydney. 

Wood, P. M. 1988. Diseases of Native Flowers. WA Jn. 

of Agric., Vol.29, No.4. 


Agric., Vol.29, No.4. 






Nuytsia 

Kings Park Research Notes 





MANAGEMENT 

Verticordia is a highly ornamental genus of some 50 species but few are considered reliable in cultivation. 

Plant in perfectly drained sites in full sun and mulch. All species make excellent cut flowers and a market 

has been created from flowers cut from natural bush; care must be taken not to over cut (Wrigley 1988). An 

overview of the industry has been outlined by Coombs (1995). Propagated by semi-hardwood tip cuttings and 

tissue culture because seed is difficult to germinate (the percentage of fertile seed is low). Harvest bunches with 

fresh leaves and make sure that they are Botrytis-free. Leaves often abciss before the flowers drop. Use a 

preservative solution with double sugar, but do not store for more than 7 days. Some species are very sensitive 

to ethylene. Some species will dry successfully (Jones and Moody 1993). 


Viburnum 

Viburnum spp. 

Family Caprifoliaceae 


Parasitic 




Grey mould 

Phytophthora root rots 



Aphids 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Protective mutualism 


Parasitic 


Specimens of Viburnum tinus with virus-like 

symptoms have been collected in Australia but not 

confirmed. Overseas, variegation, light green to 

white patches, vein yellowing and necrosis 

occurring in V. tinus and V. opulus may be 

attributed to alfalfa mosaic virus. In Australia 

alfalfa mosaic virus is spread by various aphids, 

by grafting, not by contact between plants, by 

seed, by pollen to seed. Commercial growers 

should destroy plants with symptoms and not use 

them for propagation. Satsuma dwarf virus infects 

V. odoratissimum in Japan (Buchen-Osmond et al. 

1988, Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Fungal leaf spots (various species) may cause 

leaf spotting on viburnum. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may cause leaf 

spots, shoots and inflorescences may be killed. 



P. cinnamomi) have been recorded on Viburnum 

spp. P. cryptogea, P. nicotianae and P. palmivora 

have been recorded on V. tinus. See Tree K 6. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) may affect 

V. tinus and V. opulus in shady situations. See 

Annuals A 6. 




Probably other aphids, eg foxglove aphid 

(Aulacorthum solani). Overseas also viburnum 

aphid (Brachycaudus viburnicola) and other 

species. Aphids cluster at tips of branches, 

distorting new leaves. See Roses J 4, Trees K 10. 


commonly infest leaf undersurfaces which 

become disfigured with dark dots of thrips excreta. 

Leaf uppersurfaces appear silvery. In heavy 

infestations, thrips may also feed on leaf 

uppersurfaces. Other Viburnum spp. may develop 

different symptoms, eg wrinkled, distorted young 

leaves. Do not confuse with aphid injury. See 

Greenhouses N 24, Trees K 3 (Fig. 215). 

Others: Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urtica), 

white palm scale (Phenacaspis eugeniae). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Sun may burn leaves of green 

varieties. Yellow sections of variegated leaves 

are very susceptible. 

Pesticide injury: Overseas, some viburnum, 

eg Korean viburnum (V. carlesii), are very 

sensitive to sulphur and may be injured even by 

spray drift (Pirone 1978). 

Protective mutualism: Beneficial mites live 

in naturally occurring tuft domatia (tiny pits, 

pouches, pockets, hair tufts) on leaf 

undersurfaces of V. tinus where they are 

protected from environmental stress and their own 

predators. Leaves of many other plants also have 

domatia, eg cashew, walnut. These mites are 

thought to feed on plant parasitic insects, mites and 

fungi, decreasing plant damage, but this has not 

been conclusively demonstrated (O'Dowd and 

Willson 1991-92). 








O'Dowd, D. J. and Willson, M. F. 1991-92. A Pocketful 

of Mites. Australian Natural History, Vol.23, No.11, 

summer:840-847. 




MANAGEMENT 



Viburnums are evergreen or deciduous, and prefer full sun to semi-shade. There are more than 100 species 

and many more named varieties. They are grown for their fragrant flowers and berries. They grow in most 

climates except the tropics. These plants have few serious problems. Prune both evergreen and deciduous 

types after flowering. 

K 128 


Waratah 

Telopea spp. 

New South Wales waratah (T. speciosissima) 

Floral emblem of NSW 



Parasitic 



Root rots 



Borers 

Caterpillars 

Garden weevil 

White palm scale 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Spiders 


Parasitic 


Fungal leaf spots (various species) including 

black spot of citrus (Guignardia citricarpa), are 

not uncommon. They do not kill plants, but they 

reduce bloom quality and increase susceptibility 

to other problems. See Annuals A 5, Trees K 6. 

Root rots are major diseases of waratah. 

Damping off (Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia) 

can be severe, killing all seedling stock. Grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea) and Colletotrichum may 

also cause damping off. Fungicides are usually 

required. See Seedlings N 66. 


P. cinnamomi) are favoured by poor drainage and the 

high fertility and irrigation needed for commercial 

flower production. T. speciosissima and T. truncata 

seem to be most susceptible. T. mongaensis has 

some tolerance. T. oreades is intermediate in 

resistance to root diseases generally, its resistance to 

Phytophthora is unclear. See Trees K 6. 


luteobubalina); Fusarium sp. is considered to cause 

a partial death syndrome (unconfirmed). 


Others : Cankers (various species) and wood 

rots (various species) may affect waratahs. 


Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus crenatus) on 

T. speciosissima. See Vegetables M 10. 


Borers: Various species may damage older 

waratahs. See Trees K 10. 


Lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) may 

roll leaves of Telopea spp. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Macadamia cup moth (Mecytha fasciata, 

Limacodidae) caterpillars are oval, smooth, bright 

green, flat with a pale-yellowish mid-dorsal stripe and 

up to 35 mm long. They often rest so that the stripe 

lies along the main vein of the leaf. They feed mainly 

on mature leaves of Proteaceae, eg macadamia, T. 

speciosissima, Banksia serrata, B. marginata, 

Lambertia formosa, Persoonia levis and Xylomelum 

pyriforme, and can defoliate young plants. See 

Macadamia F 77 . 

Macadamia leafminer (Acrocerops chiomosema) 

caterpillars may mine in leaves, disfiguring them. 

See Macadamia F 78. 

Macadamia twig girdler, waratah bud-borer 

(Xylorycta luteotactella) caterpillars bore into 

terminal buds, especially in winter, damaging 

inflorescence. Fungicides are used on a preventative 

basis. See Macadamia F 77. 

Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus, 

Curculionidae, Coleoptera) is grey, about 5-6 mm 

long and chews holes scalloped from centres and 

margins of leaves. On waratahs they also feed on 

stems, excavating small deep rounded holes over 

the surface. Stems of young plants may be 

ringbarked. See Trees K 17. 

White palm scale (Phenacaspis eugeniae, 

Diaspididae, Hemiptera) may debilitate plants, 

depressing growth and yield, increasing 

susceptibility to other pests and diseases both in 

the field and in greenhouse conditions. Prompt 

control is necessary, because infestation can spread 

very quickly. Effective chemical control is 

possible, although phytotoxicity can occur in hot 

conditions. See Palms H 4. 

Others: Field crickets (Teleogryllus) may 

ringbark growing shoots of young plants. 

European earwig (Forficula auricularia) chews 

leaves and flowers. 


Rabbits, hares and wallabies destroy seedlings, 

shrubs and young trees, barriers are required. 

Birds generally disfigure and destroy flowers and 

may feed on terminal buds. Sulphur-crested 

cockatoos, damage unopened flower buds of 

waratah on the bushes on which they perch; 

parrots are attracted to large flowers with copious 

amounts of nectar. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Blackening or browning of 

bract tips after harvest is thought to be related to 

environmental stress especially water stress. Wind 

TREES, SHRUBS AND AND CLIMBERS K 129

WARATAH 

damage is a major contributor to both bract 

browning and short vase life. Maintain an 

adequate water supply and protect from strong 

winds during bud development and opening. 

While windbreaks and bloom bagging help, the 

extra cost may not be justified. Planting sites 

should be sunny or slightly shaded. The only long 

term solution lies in breeding new selections with 

some resistance to bract browning. 


Phosphorus toxicity: Excess phosphorus will be 

toxic. Proteiod roots of waratah tend to be 

superficial, deep mulching is advantageous as it 

protects surface roots from high temperatures and 

excessive desiccation during summer. Proteiod 

root development is considered to be inhibited by 

high nitrogen and phosphorus. See Protea K 121, 

Trees K 20. 

Spiders in flower heads make it difficult to 

satisfy phytosanitary requirements for export. 

Spiders feed on insect pests. Weeds should be 

controlled and postharvest treatments may be 

necessary. 


Armstrong, J. A. (ed.). 1987. Waratahs : Their Biology, 

Cultivation and Conservation. ANBG Occasional 

Publication No.9., AGPS, Canberra. 

Bottomley, K. 1989. Protea Growers Face Increased 

Pest and Disease Problems. Aust. Hort., Jan. 





Gardens. Reed/SGAP, Australia. 






Offord, C. and Campbell, L. C. 1994. The Waratah : 

Taming the Emblem. Aust. Hort., Sept. 



Mullins, M. 1987. Towards the Perfect Waratah. Aust. 

Hort., March. 

Nixon, P. 1987. The Waratah. Kangaroo Press, 


Passmore, N. 1987. Dieback Disease : A Time Bomb for 

WA Wildflowers. Aust. Hort., Nov. 







Industry eg 

Banksia Cultivation in South Australia. (SA Agric) 

Growing Waratahs Commercially (DPI Agnote) 

Major Diseases of Proteaceous Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Pests of Proteaceous Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Phosphorus Toxicity in Native and Proteaceous Plants 

(Vic Agnote) 

Protea Culture (Proteaflora Enterprises) 


GrowSearch (Qld DPI) 

Proceedings of Seminar. Production and Marketing of 

Wildflowers (Uni. of Western Australia, Nov. 1982) 

See Australian native plants N 9, Protea K 121, 




MANAGEMENT 

Waratahs are grown for their brilliant red bracts and the red styles. Only NSW waratah (T. speciosissima ) is 

grown for cut flowers. Select clonal material for vigour, flower production, flower quality and vase life. Select 

also for marketability, ie their ability to pack and travel well, and not develop blackening or spotting of the bracts 

or produce excessive nectar. Plants must establish rapidly and vigorously regrow after harvesting of flowers. 

Species vary in resistance to root diseases. Only propagate from plants free from leaf spots and scales, if 

using seed, check that leaf spots are not seedborne. Propagated by cuttings, leaf and bud cuttings, by seed 

(seedling material is highly variable and not recommended), tissue culture. Waratah grow best on acid, welldrained 

sandy loam of low fertility. Mulch with leaf litter or similar materials, provide adequate irrigation 

especially when plants are young, drip irrigation is preferable to overhead watering. Sites should be sunny or 

slightly shaded. Use slow release fertiliser. Container waratahs for cut flowers should be grown either in a 

sheltered environmental in the open or in a shade house to facilitate pest, disease and weed control, irrigation 

and fertilisation. There is a lack of information on nutrition, and the hormonal control of flush growth and 

dormancy. Flowers are borne on the ends of main stems, plants grow vigorously and are upright so they may be 

attached to wires. If plants are pruned or flowers cut, more terminal shoots, and therefore more flowers, will be 

produced the following year. All new shoots, whether flowers are harvested or not, should be cut back close to 

their point of origin to keep plants manageable in both height and flower production. Growers may have disease 

identification problems in that many different problems cause similar symptoms. Systemic fungicides are 

often used to control root rots. Weeds provide breeding sites for earwigs, weevils, spiders and crickets. 

Mulching aids weed control and protects proteoid roots. However, mulching alone does usually provide 

adequate weed control and herbicides are usually required, eg spot treatments with glyphosate. Weed matting is 

unsuitable for waratahs. Harvest when 1-5% of flowers are open (waratah flowers are made up of up to 300 

individual florets surrounded by coloured bracts), avoid flowers with a blue tinge (a sign of ageing and ethylene 

damage). Flowers must be cut before the style opens and the lower bracts expand. Cool flowers rapidly but 

do not chill, flowers must be dry and cool before packing. Place flowers in a preservative solution (no sugar as 

solutions containing sugars promote nectar production that can lead to fungal infection). Waratahs are very 

sensitive to ethylene (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 130 


Wattle 

Acacia spp., Racosperma spp. 

Family Mimosaceae 


Parasitic 



Fungal leaf and phyllode spots 



Rusts 

Stem cankers and galls 

Wood rots 




Beetles 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars (butterflies) 

Caterpillars (moths) 


leafhoppers, tree hoppers 

Gall insects 

Mealybugs 

Psyllids 

Scales 

Seed insects 

Wattle leafminer 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fungi, bacteria and insects 




Parasitic 


Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) has 

been recorded on Acacia difficilis and 

A. mountfordiae. See Tomato M 98, Vegetables M 6. 


Fungal leaf and phyllode spots (more 

than 170 species) may cause minor or serious 

diseases of wattles, phyllodes may fall, plants 

have a sparse appearance (Pascoe and Sutton 

1987). Favoured by wet seasons. Leaf spots may 

be common on nursery stock. 

Colletogloeum leaf spots (Colletogloeum spp.) have 

been identified on Acacia spp., each of the many 

species identified occurs on a different species of 

Acacia (Pascoe and Sutton 1987). 

Others, eg Diplodia, Mycosphaerella, Phaeoseptoria; 

Septoria aureocorana on A. saligna; Wettsteinina 

phyllodiorum on A. myrtifolia (Pascoe 1987). 


Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica, Oidium 

spp.) infects wattle. See Annuals A 6. 


Damping off (Cylindrocladium scoparium), grey 

mould (Botrytis cinerea). See Seedlings N 66. 

Root and collar rots: Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria sp.). Also phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora spp., P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea and 

P. nicotianae var. parasitica) and root and collar 

rot (Ganoderma spp.). Wattles are considered to have 

some resistance to Phytophthora. See Trees K 7. 


Gall rusts (Uromycladium spp.): U. tepperianum 

commonly attacks wattles with phyllodes and 

U. notabile commonly attacks bipinnate wattles. 

One species of wattle may be affected with several 

species of rust. Silver wattle (A. dealbata) by 

U. aplinum, U. bisporum, U. notabile, Sydney 

golden wattle (A. longifolia) by U. maritimum, 

U. tepperianum, golden wattle (A. pycnantha) by 

U. simplex, U. tepperianum, blackwood 

(A. melanoxylon) by U. robbinsonii, U. tepperianum 

(Marks et al. 1982). Galls develop on leaves, 

flowers or stems, trees look unsightly (Fig. 273). 

Severe infections may kill trees and inhibit seed 

production, eg A. mearnsii. Largest galls are 

produced by U. tepperianum and are 30-150 mm 

across and are brown due to the spore masses on 

them. Other Uromycladium spp. produce different 

symptoms, eg witches' brooms, twisted stems. Galls 

may be invaded by insects, some of which are 

parasites of the insects which live in the rust galls, eg 

small brown beetles (Doticus pestilens, Anthribidae). 

Note that some insects themselves cause galls on 

stems. Overwinters on galls on hosts. Spread by 

windborne spores (uredospores), by introduction of 

infected plant material. Favoured by weakened trees 

in poor soils or exposed situations. Fertilise slightly 

affected trees to improve tree vigour and reduce 

infestation. Remove severely diseased trees (they 

are a source of infection). If only a few trees are 

lightly infested trees, prune off and destroy galls when 

observed. Acacia spp. vary in susceptibility. 

U. tepperianum has been used to control A. saligna a 

weed in South Africa (Shearer 1994). If fungicides 

are applied in nurseries, prune off galls before 

spraying. 

Other rust genera (Fig. 274): A native rust 

fungus (Atelocauda digitata) is potentially a 

serious problem on A. mangium in Qld. (Dargavel 

and Semple 1990). Also Aecidium torquens, 

Uromyces spp. See Annuals A 7. 

Stem cankers and galls: Canker 

(Botryosphaeria sp.) may cause dieback. Cushionlike 

galls (Leptosphaeria sp.) develop on branches of 

Cootamundra wattle (A. baileyana). One gall may be 

up to 10 mm across. See Trees K 5. 

Wood rots (Basidiomycetes) are common on 

wattle (Marks et al. 1982) and include: 

Wood rots include: 

Beech hoof (Heterobasidion hemitephrum) 

Cramp balls (Daldinia concentrica) 


Timber rot (Fomes nigro-laccatus) 

Tinder punk (Phellinus spp.) 

Weeping polypore (Grifola campyla) 

Woody toadstool (Amauroderma rude) 


WATTLE 

Some wood rots decay stumps, eg stump removers 

(Ionotus sp., Polyporus sp., Poria medullaris, 

Trametes sp.) 

Some wood rots attack weakened trees, or trees 

injured by borers: 

Pink limb blight (Corticium salmonicolor) 

Red wood rot (Pycnosporus coccineus) 

Yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum commune) 

Yellowish wood rot (Polyporus versicolor) 


Others: Sooty blotch (Gloeodes pomogena) 

grows on twigs of wattles. See Pome fruits F 110. 


Devil's twine (Cassytha spp.), mistletoe 

(Loranthaceae). See Trees K 9, K 10. 



recorded in association with Acacia spp. (Mcleod 

et al. 1994) including burrowing nematodes 

(Radolphus spp.), dagger nematodes (Xiphinema 

spp.), root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), 

sheath nematode (Hemicycliophora spp.), 

stubby root nematodes (Paratrichodorus spp.), 

Carpophodorus, Cephalenchus, Colbranium 

truncatum, Hemicriconemoides, Morulaimus, 

Scutellonema, Tylodorus. See Vegetables M 10. 



Leaf beetles, flea beetles (Chrysomelidae): 

Fireblight beetle, wattle blight (Pyrgoides 

orphana) is a serious pest of wattles especially 

silver wattle (A. dealbata) and black wattle 

(A. mearnsii). Beetles are small, greenish, tortoiseshaped 

beetles about 6 mm long with cream and 

brown longitudinal stripes on the wing covers. 

Larvae are green with dark lateral stripes, stoutish 

and about 6 mm long, tapering to a point at the tail. 

Beetles and larvae feed in groups on the foliage (Fig. 

275), but green bark may be eaten by the adults after 

all the foliage has been consumed. Trees look 

scorched (fireblight) after an outbreak. Overwinter 

as larvae feeding. Favoured by temperate climates in 

spring and autumn, eg Tasmania. Pyrgoides sp. is 

similar to P. orphana but brighter. It causes minor 

damage to phyllodinous native willow (A. mucronata). 


and swarming leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.) may 

swarm on foliage. The larger brown leaf beetle 

(Dicranosterna immaculata) is sometimes found on 

black wattle (A. mearnsii), the pale green larvae have 

convex swollen abdomens. The smaller blue-green 

metallic leaf beetles (Calomela spp.) may strip 

young wattle growth. Olive-green larvae cling close 

to the stem, often rendering their detection difficult. 



Christmas beetles (Anoplagnathus spp.) and 

green scarab beetle (Diphucephala colaspidoides) 

chew foliage. Flower scarabs (Protaetia spp.) are 

stout, active, brown beetles 15-20 mm long. They 

feed on the pollen in flowers and on wattle shoots 

causing wilting and dieback. See Trees K 16. 

Borers 

Auger beetles (Bostrichidae, Coleoptera): Large 

auger beetle (Bostrychopsis jesuita) is a common 

and sometimes serious pest of wattle. Larvae bore 

round vertical tunnels filled with frass in the sap 

and heartwood of large branches and the trunk. See 

Trees K 11. 

Fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae, Lepidoptera) 

commonly damage wattle. Tunnels in tree forks are 

covered with chewed wood and droppings. 

Caterpillars make only a short tunnel into the wood, 

so are easy to control. Caterpillars of the wattle 

web-covering borer (C. rubescens) feed on small 

branches which break where they feed. Caterpillars 

are about 25 mm long and are fleshy, sparsely hairy 

and greenish. See Fruit F 10, Trees K 12. 

Ghost moths, swift moths (Hepialidae), eg common 

splendid ghost moth (Aenetus ligniveren), larvae 

bore tunnels in trunks and roots. See Trees K 12. 

Jewel beetles (Buprestidae): Cobra-shaped larvae 

bore oval, frass-filled tunnels in sapwood. See Trees 

K 11. 

Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae, Coleoptera): 

Wattle root longicorn (Eurynassa australis) larvae 

are often called witchety grubs. Wattle longicorn 

(Uracanthus triangularis) affects wattles and other 

trees. Beetles are large slender fawn-grey about 

30 mm long with a shiny triangular brown patch on 

each wing cover. Antennae are about 40 mm long. 

Larvae are fleshy, cream, legless and about 30 mm 

long. They bore round tunnels in trunks and large 

branches. Branches die back. Temperate to tropical 

regions, coastal and inland. Wattle ringbarking 

beetle (Ancita marginicollis) infests Acacia spp., 

Alphitonia spp., others. Adults are stout grey mottled 

beetles about 15 mm long with prominently banded 

antennae about 30 mm long. They graze on bark in 

spring and early summer. Ringbarked branches die or 

break. Tropical and subtropical regions. Others: A. 

crocogaster, Probatodes plumula, Platyomopsis, 

Rhitiphora, Penthea. See Trees K 11. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Diamond 

beetle, Botany Bay diamond beetle (Chrysolopus 

spectabilis) is a minor pest of wattles especially 

A. aulacocarpa, A, concurrens, A. leiocalyx and 

A. sophorae. Weevils are large, attractive, solitary 

insects about 20 mm long, they are mostly black with 

patches of metallic green or blue and are one of the 

few brightly coloured weevils. Weevils chew new 

shoots. Larvae are fleshy, legless, chew round 

tunnels in roots and stems and may kill trees. 

Subtropical and warm temperate regions. Control is 

usually unnecessary. Elephant weevil (Orthorhinus 

cylindrirostris) affects dead or dying wattles. 

Emerging adults leave circular holes about 5 mm 

across in trees and logs. Fruit-tree root weevil 

(Leptopius squalidus) is grey, about 20 mm long and 

grazes the surface of wattle leaves. Larvae are fat, 

legless, up to 20 mm long and tunnel in roots 

(especially deep roots) of the same species. A related 

species (L. tribulus) also attacks wattle roots. Vine 

weevil (Orthorhinus klugi) attacks black wattle trees. 

K 132 


WATTLE 

It is similar to the elephant weevil except smaller, 

about 6-7 mm long, and reddish-brown. Exit holes 

are round and about 2-3 mm across. See Grapevine 

F 60, F 63, Trees K 12. 

Wood moths, goat moths (Xyleutes spp., Cossidae, 

Lepidoptera) may limit the life of many wattles to 

between 5-15 years. Witjuti grubs (Xyleutes spp.,) 

form a silk-lined tunnel in the soil and feeds 

externally on the roots of the witchetty bush (A. 

kempeana) in central Australia or A. ligulata in SA. 

Wattle goat moth (X. encalypti = X. eucalypti) 

infests wattles, eg silver wattle (A. dealbata), black 

wattle (A. mearnsii), blackwood (A. melanoxylon). 

Moths are large, grey or light brown with stout bodies 

with narrow, hairy or scaly wings with wingspans up 

to 250 mm. Caterpillars are large, fleshy, yellowish 

or pinkish, up to 150 mm long with true legs. 

Caterpillars may tunnel in the sapwood and 

heartwood in trunks and roots for several years 

and can weaken the structural strength of large trees. 

If trunks or roots are split open, tunnels are full of 

chewed wood. Large limbs die and eventually whole 

trees may die prematurely. There is 1 generation 

every few years. Moths fly during rainy weather 

and each female lays numerous eggs on the 

bark, covered with a glutinous secretion beneath 

which the newly hatched caterpillars live for 1-2 days 

before dispersing. The 1st-instar caterpillars spin 

great quantities of silk and disperse themselves on 

silken strands. Before pupation, the tunnel to the exit 

hole is enlarged and the bark covering is almost 

severed. Pupation takes place in the tunnel close to 

the bark surface and the felted pad closing the tunnel 

is pushed out. Yellow-tailed black cockatoos 

tear away at the bark and large volumes of wood 

searching for the caterpillars. See Trees K 12. 

See Trees K 10, K 11, K12. 


Acacia spotting bug (Rayieria tumidiceps, Miridae) 

infests several species of phyllode-type wattles, 

especially Sydney golden wattle (A. longifolia) and 

red-stemmed wattle (A. rubida). Adults look like 

mosquitoes and may be difficult to see, are about 

10 mm long, elongated with long slender legs and 

antennae. The body is yellow-brown, wings brown. 

Bugs suck sap from leaves and inject some of their 

saliva causing either dark spots on the leaves or 

rectangular brown areas between the veins (Fig. 

276). Severely affected leaves may die and fall. 

Dieback of shoots may occur, trees and shrubs may 

have a general rusty brown appearance. Gradual 

metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult) with probably 

several generations each season. Spread by adults 

flying, wind and by the movement of infested plants. 

It is difficult to control with insecticides because the 

bugs have usually left the plant before damage is 

noticed. Susceptible species should not be used as 

specimen trees. If only a few shoots are affected they 

can be pruned off. Insecticides may be applied to 

nursery stock in early spring to protect new leaves. 

Crusader bug (Mictis profana, Coreidae) is 20-25 mm 

long, brown with a well defined yellow St Andrew's 

cross on its back. Nymphs and adults suck sap from 

new spring growth causing it to wilt, brown and die. 


Others: Jewel bugs (Scutelleridae), shield bugs 

(Pentatomidae) and others may feed on wattle. 


Caterpillars (Butterflies) (Lepidoptera) 

More than 20 species feed on the foliage of wattles 

(Common and Waterhouse 1981). 

Blues, coppers, hairstreaks (Lycaenidae) include 

various blue butterflies (Jalmenus spp.), various 

jewel butterflies (Hypochrysops spp.), various 

lineblues (Prosotas spp., Nacaduba sp.), grass 

blue butterfly (Zizina labradus) and Theclinesthes 

miskini, T. scintillata, Miletus ignita. 

Grass yellow butterfly (Eurema hecabe, Pieridae) is 

small, bright yellow and is most active in autumn 

during egg laying. Caterpillars are small, slender, 

green with a conspicuous white lateral band and about 

15 mm long. They feed voraciously on mainly 

featherleaved wattles. eg A. baileyana, A. 

muelleriana, A. rubida, A. spectabilis and Albizia 

lebbeck. They feed at night, resting on leaf 

undersurfaces during the day. They can defoliate 

quite large wattles, it may be necessary to treat 

nursery stock and small wattles. 

Tailed emperor butterfly (Polyura sempronius, 

Nymphalidae) is large and handsome. Caterpillars 

are large, fleshy, about 80 mm long, green with 

yellow longitudinal bands, they feed on mature leaves 

of featheryleaved Acacia. Also P. pyrrhus. See Trees 

K 13. 

Others: Pseudalmenus chlorinda. 


Caterpillars (Moths) (Lepidoptera) 

More than 50 species feed on Acacia (Common 

1990). The following caterpillars mainly feed on 

foliage but some bore in trunks and roots. 

Anthelid caterpillars (Anthela spp., Anthelidae) 

occasionally cause serious damage. Hairymary 

caterpillar (A. nicothoe) feeds on foliage of silver 

wattle (A. dealbata), caterpillars may cause irritation 

if handled. See Trees K 13. 

Case moths (Psychidae): Ribbed case moth 

(Hyalarcta nigrescens) is a minor pest of wattle. The 

case is a spindle-shaped grey silken bag about 50 mm 

long, with 4 prominent longitudinal ridges and is often 

fastened around stems. This may girdle the twig. See 

Trees K 13. 

Hawk moths (Sphingidae): Sandal-box hawk 

moth (Coenotes eremophilae). 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana), macadamia nutborer 

(Cryptophlebia ombrodelta). See Pome fruits K 112. 


pieroides) feed on phyllodinous species of Acacia. 

Sporadic attacks may be severe on A. fimbriata. 

Caterpillars are about 25 mm long, brown with 

flanged body segments looking like twisted dead 

leaves and are rarely noticed. Control is rarely 

necessary. A geometrid moth (Euchloris 

submissaria) is a delicate green moth with the margins 

of the wings and a stripe on the thorax a buff-white. 

The caterpillar is slender, round, light brown, when 

disturbed it remains perfectly erect and motionless, 

but when it crawls it is very active. It feeds on the 

foliage. Green stick looper (Chlorocoma 

assimilis) causes minor damage to various species of 

phyllodinous wattles. Moths are green, about 

30 mm across the wings. Caterpillars are slender, 

hard green with a pointed head with a single pair of 

prolegs and about 55 mm long. Solitary caterpillars 

that feed at night or on cloudy days. When not 

feeding it assumes a stiff, obliquely erect posture. 


WATTLE 

Also C. dichloraria. Green wattle loopers 

(Thalaina spp.) feed mainly on wattles, sometimes on 

Cassia, are rarely a problem and are often difficult to 

see. Moths have satin white wings often with 

distinctive brown markings on the forewings and 

about 40 mm across. Caterpillars are green with a 

rounded head about 50 mm long and have a single 

pair of prolegs, often with good camouflage. 

Caterpillar are solitary but they can completely 

defoliate trees. Temperate and subtropical regions. 

Others: Cherry looper (Chloroclystis approximata), 

pome looper (C. testulata) and C. destructa, apple 

looper (Phrissogonus laticostata), twig looper 

(Ectropis excursaria), brown looper (Pholodes 

sinistraria). Microdes squamulata caterpillars web 

leaves together to form shelter in silver wattle (A. 

dealbata), A. decurrens, A. mearnsii, A. baileyana, A. 

buxifolia, other plants. See Avocado F 19, Trees K 13. 

Processionary caterpillar, bag-shelter moth, 

(Ochrogaster spp., Thaumetopoeidae) may be a 

serious pest of a few species of wattle, particularly 

the myall (A. pendula) and A. salicina in inland areas. 

Caterpillars are up to 50 mm long and are covered 

with long sharp stiff reddish-brown hairs which cause 

intense skin irritation on contact. Caterpillars 

shelter during the day in large brown silken bags, 

which they construct from twigs and webbing and 

which become filled with excreta and cast skins, and 

feed on foliage at night. Depending on the species, 

bags may be at the base of the tree or higher up in the 

tree. Bags should not be handled as they contain 

irritating hairs. Caterpillars move from tree to tree in 

long processions each with its head in contact with the 

caterpillar preceding it. There is 1 generation each 

year but attacks last for years. Moths appear in 

early summer and lay their eggs on leaves or twigs. 

Depending on the species, caterpillars pupate within 

the bag shelters on the tree or the soil. Limited 

population control is achieved by parasitic wasps 

and flies, and birds. Depending on tree height it may 

be possible to clip bags off and burn during the day 

when caterpillars are inside, or destroy caterpillars 

when they are moving over the soil. 


moth, painted wattle moth (Teia anartoides) 

caterpillars are about 30 mm, densely covered with 

brown hairs and have 4 tufts of white hairs on their 

backs, and a pair of black, horn-like tufts projecting 

from the head. They may eat whole leaves (fine 

leaved plants) or skeletonise leaves by eating the 

upper surface layer (broadleaved plants eg 

A. pycnantha). Also T. athlophora. See Pome fruits F 

113. Others: Painted pine moth (Orgyia 

australis) and omnivorous tussock moth (Acyphas 

leucomelas) on acacia, pine, etc. 

Noctuids (Noctuidae): Caster oil looper (Achaea 

janata), granny moth (Dasypodia selenophora), 

looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.). See 


Snout moth (Entometa australasiae, Lasiocampidae) 

are stout yellowish-buff moths with red marks on the 

hindwings. Caterpillars feed on black wattle 

(A. decurrens) and other wattles and are about 35 mm 

long, greenish-grey with 2 transverse bars on the 

thorax which are obvious only when caterpillars are 

crawling. The sides are fringed with long hairs and as 

the caterpillar rests along the branch by day, the hairs 

eliminate shadows (excellent camouflage). 

Web moths (Pyralidae), eg tree lucerne moth 

(Uresiphita ornithopteralis) caterpillars, web leaves 

and feed on foliage. See Tea-tree K 124. 

Others: A flower caterpillar (Nemophora topazias, 

Incurvariidae) forms a case from flower parts of 

Acacia and feeds on fallen flowers on the ground. 

Pupation takes place in the case. Also a moth (Neola 

semiauranta, Notodontidae) on Mimosaceae, eg many 

wattles, Dodonaea spp. and the introduced 

A. lophantha. Hook-tip moth (Digglesia 

australasiae, Drepanidae) caterpillars feed on Acacia 

spp., Albizia spp., Exocarpos cupressiformis, Pinus 

radiata, spruce (Picea). 

Control is often unnecessary, there are exceptions. 

For many hand picking is often sufficient. 

Insecticides are rarely necessary. See Trees K 13. 

Froghoppers and spittle bugs, 

leafhoppers, tree hoppers (Hemiptera) 

Froghoppers and spittle bugs (Cercopoidae, 

Hemiptera) are minor pests of wattles. Nymphs of 

spittle bugs live in spittle and of froghoppers in liquidfilled 

tubes. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from 

the small stems but generally appear to cause little 

injury. Control is not necessary. They are kept in 

check by parasites and predators. Hosing will 

remove many from branches. See Trees K 14. 

Leafhoppers (many species) may damage 

A. fimbriata, A. floribunda and other species. Size 

varies from 3-7 mm and colour also varies depending 

on the species. They secrete honeydew, ants attend 

and sooty mould grows on the honeydew. See Trees 

K 15. 

Treehoppers (Membracidae, Hemiptera): Green 

treehopper, green wattle hopper (Sextius virescens) 

is a sporadic pest of featheryleaved Acacia spp. 

especially black wattle (A. decurrens). Adults are 

small cicada-like, green, about 9 mm long with a 

prominent, brown-tipped spine on either side of the 

thorax, the head is tucked down beneath the body. 

Nymphs are wingless and greenish. Both suck sap 

from young shoots which may die. They secrete 

honeydew which attracts ants and on which sooty 

mould grows. Females lay their eggs in slits in the 

bark of twigs. As plants grow, slits become more 

noticeable, gum freely and may be unsightly. Prune 

off damaged twigs. Usually controlled by natural 

enemies. Spraying is not usually necessary. Spiny 

treehopper (Sertorius australis) infests wattle and 

eucalypts. Adults are solitary, small, brown, cicadalike, 

about 8 mm long, with a hard, short but sharp 

spine on either side of the head. Nymphs gather in 

colonies on young shoots. Usually controlled by 

natural enemies. See Trees K 15. 

Gall insects 

Flies, midges (Cecidomyiidae, Diptera) are sporadic 

minor pests. Blossom gall fly (Cecidomyia 

acaciaelongifoliae) infest wattles especially 

A. floribunda, A. longifolia, A. pycnantha and 

A. sophorae. Maggots feed on flower heads, 

disrupting seed formation. Fruits are replaced by 

irregular gall-like growths which are twisted masses 

of tubes. Galls may be pruned off and burnt to 

prevent flies emerging. Gall fly (Asphondylia sp.) 

lays eggs in flowers of Wally's wattle (A. pataczekii), 

maggots cause galling of the flower heads, preventing 

seed formation. 

K 134 


WATTLE 

Thrips (Phlaeothripidae, Thysanoptera): Several 

genera are sporadic pests of phyllodinous wattles, 

especially myall (A. pendula). Galls on phyllodes 

may be hollow, smooth, bubble-like, or irregular and 

spiny. Hollow galls imprison thrips until the galls 

dry and split. Over 1 000 individual thrips have been 

recovered from a single gall. Unlike most gall formers 

thrips continue to reproduce inside the gall. Infested 

trees are unsightly. Occurs mostly in subtropical and 

temperate inland areas. Mainly controlled by parasitic 

wasps and predatory mites. Rhopalothripoides 

froggatti thrips are so small that they breed in the 

nectaries on the leaves of pinnateleaved wattles. 

Wasps (Hymenoptera): Larvae of seed chalcids 

(Eurytomidae) infest seeds or feed in galls. Usually 

larvae of these wasps feed within the distorted tissue 

of the gall. Wattle apple-gall wasp (Trichilogaster 

acaciaelongifoliae, Pteromalidae) is a minor pest. 

See Trees K 3 (Fig. 209). T. trilineata also causes 

flower galls. Wasps about 2 mm long lay eggs in 

spikes. Green galls about 10 mm across develop in 

flower heads in response to larvae feeding inside. 

Pupation takes place within the gall, and on 

emergence from the pupa, the adult wasp chews its 

way out of the gall. Other species of tiny wasps 

cause blossom galls on A. longifolia. Other 

wasps parasitise gall-making insects by laying their 

eggs directly into larva in the gall, their larvae feeding 

on the gall insect. A wasp (Eurytome gahani) 

merely lives in galls on A. decurrens which have been 

made by other insects or diseases. 


Mealybugs (Hemiptera) 

Wattle mealybug (Melanococcus albizziae, 

Pseudococcidae) is a sporadic pest which sucks sap 

from fernyleaved wattles (A. howittii, A. ericifolia) 

and Albizia spp. Adults are soft, oval, reddishbrown, 

scale-like, about 3-4 mm long. They secrete 

white, cottony threads in a margin and gather in 

colonies along branches (Fig. 277). They secrete 

large quantities of honeydew which attracts ants and 

on which sooty mould grows. Severe infestations 

may kill trees. Nymphs are whitish and are obvious 

against stems blackened with sooty mould in spring. 

Infested twigs may be pruned off. Wattle mealybug 

is usually controlled by natural predators and 

parasites. Only spray if necessary when crawlers 

are present in spring and autumn. 

Woolly giant mealybug (Monophlebulus pilosior, 

Margarodidae) is a solitary native species which sucks 

sap from wattles, water gum (Tristaniopsis laurina). 

It is oval, pinkish-orange with black marks, up to 

25 mm long and secretes long thin white waxy threads 

over the body (Fig. 278). Control is unnecessary. 


Psyllids (Psyllidae, Hemiptera) 

Cootamundra wattle psyllid (Acizzia 

acaciaebaileyanae) is free-living and causes 

withering of young foliage and dieback of shoots of 

Cootamundra wattle (A. baileyana). Also feeds on 

mature phyllodes of A. anceps. See Trees K 16. 

Other free-living psyllids: Psylla spp. feed on leaf 

tips, mature leaves and twigs of many wattles 

(Morgan 1984). Flower buds and young shoots of A. 

fimbriata may be distorted by a species of psyllid. 

Foliage is bunched (Hockings 1980). See Trees K 16. 



Oleander or ivy scale (Aspidiotus nerii) 

Purple or mussel scale (Lepidosaphes beckii) 

Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). 

Scales are attacked by many parasites, predators and 

fungi. On lightly infested shrubs they provide control. 


Soft scales (Coccidae): Chain scales (Pulvinaria 

spp.) attack many native species and may be hard to 

control. A chain scale (P. maskellii) may infest 

A. coriaceae of inland regions. Adult females have a 

white or cottony egg mass, nymphs have an oval, 

flat, greenish or almost transparent covering 1-2 mm 

long and feed end to end, usually along the midrib of 

leaves (chain scale). Nymphs retain their legs and 

are mobile until they become adults, so they can move 

out on the stems and leaves changing their feeding 

positions. They secrete honeydew which attracts ants 

and on which sooty mould grows. Active predators 

include ladybirds and lacewings. Wattle tick scale 

(Cryptes baccatus) is a native scale which can weaken 

or kill healthy fernyleaved and phyllodinous wattles, 

eg black or green wattle (A. decurrens), Sydney 

golden wattle (A. longifolia), blackwood (A. 

melanoxylon), A. limearis, A. floribunda, A. mollisima 

and A. aneura, and A. pendula in inland areas. 

Adults are large and berry-like, 5-8 mm across, 

initially whitish, later dark brown, 30-40 cluster on 

small branches (Fig. 277). They congregate in 

clusters and can cause dieback or kill healthy trees. 

They secrete honeydew which attracts ants and 

resulting sooty mould may discolour bark. Effective 

control can be difficult. If necessary, prune infested 

branches off. See Citrus F 41. 

Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae) may infest some 

wattles, deforming branches. See Eucalypt K 63, 

Citrus F 41 . 

Margarodid scales (Margarodidae): Cottony 

cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) infests wattles, 

especially fernyleaved wattles, eg Acacia dealbata. 

Females have a conspicuous, white fluted egg sac 

covered with cottony threads up to 10 mm long. See 

Australian native plants N 12 (Fig. 387). Males are 

winged. Females cluster along midribs and veins on 

leaf undersurfaces, on bark and small branches 

and even on the trunk. Honeydew is secreted 

copiously, attracting and encouraging sooty mould. 

Usually controlled by parasites and predators, eg 

ladybirds. Colonies can be squashed between fingers 

or by jets of water. See Citrus F 41. 

Seed insects: Many insects feed on seeds. 

Various gall flies and wasps infest seed (see 

above). Various seed moths (Lepidoptera) breed 

in the seed pods of wattles. A seed weevil 

(Melanterius sp., Bruchidae, Coleoptera) lays eggs 

on seed pods of silver wattle (A. dealbata), the 

larvae eat the developing seed. See Trees K 16. 

Wattle leafminer (Acrocercops plebeia, 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) infests phyllodinous 

wattles especially young Queensland silver wattle 

(A. podalyriifolia) during spring, summer and 

autumn. Moths are small, about 15 mm long. 

Caterpillars are about 10 mm long and mine inside 

leaves first making a fine line, later a large pinkish 

blister which turns brown and flakes off. Phyllodes 

may fall prematurely, trees look ugly. Caterpillars 


WATTLE 

pupate inside leaves. Insecticides may be applied 

in nurseries early in spring to prevent damage to 

new leaves. Caterpillars of A. antimima mine in 

Lomatia myricoides. See Azalea K 28. 

Others: Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) may 

feed on new shoots causing shoots to bunch. 

Spiny leaf insect (Extatosoma tiaratum) is large, 

bright-green or brown and up to 120 mm long. 


Native animals may browse on young wattles. 

Regeneration strategies must include fencing until 

seedlings reach 1.5 to 2 m high. Trunks infested 

with borer larvae may be further damaged by 

cockatoos seeking the larvae. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Some Acacia spp. are damaged 

by frost. Some species of Acacia are sensitive to 

high humidities, eg A. aculeatissima, A. 

amblygona, A. conferta, A. tindaliae. Leaves 

cannot transpire, become waterlogged and blacken. 

Fungi, bacteria and insects: Lichens 

(symbiotic algae and fungi) may grow on branches 

and trunks. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium 

spp.) are associated with the roots. Non-parasitic 

fungi, eg Meliola brisbanensis, may grow among 

the hairs on leaf undersurfaces when humidity is 

high. The fungal mycelium often looks black. 

Honeydew produced by mealybugs, psyllids, 

scales, and other sap sucking insects, attracts ants, 

sooty mould may grow on it, making plants look 

black. Cicadas (Cicadidae, Hemiptera), eg redeye 

(Psaltoda moerens), makes numerous egg laying 

slits in wattle shoots killing them, and may occur 

in Tasmania in epidemic proportions. Wattle 

cicada (Cicadetta oldfieldi). See Trees K 13, K 19. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Deficiency 

and toxicity symptoms are extremely variable and 

depend on the species of Acacia. See Citrus F 43. 

Potential weeds: The exotic prickly acacia 

(A. nilotoca) is a major weed of grassland in north 

west Qld. Attempts are being made to control it 

biologically (Marohasy 1995). Native wattles, eg 

Cootamundra wattle (A. baileyiana), may be a 

weed in some areas. 

Others: Fasciation may result in flattened 

stems. See Daphne K 53. Leaves of Deane's 

wattle (A. deanei) and coast myall (A. binervia) 

produce toxic cyanogenetic compounds which, 

if eaten by sheep and cattle are toxic. Coastal 

myall is also toxic to pigs and goats (McBarron 

1983). 




Bates, J. 1996. Working on Improving Cut Flower Vase- 

Life. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Carron, L. T. and Aken, K. M. 1991. Breeding 

Technologies for Tropical Acacias. Proc. of an 

International Workshop, Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia. 

ACIAR Proc. No. 37, Canberra. 





Dargavel, J. and Semple, N. (eds). 1990. Prospects for 

Australian Forest Plantations. Centre for Resource 

and Environmental Studies, The Australian National 

University, Canberra. 


Trees and Timber in Tasmania. For. Comm. Tas., 

Hobart. 

Glocke, P. and Sedgley, M. 1995. Improve Acacias : 

Propagate Vegetatively. Aust. Hort., 1995. 



Sydney. 

Hitchcock, M. 1991. Wattles. AGPS, Canberra. 


Gardens. Reed/SGAP, Sydney. 



Marks, G .C., Fuhrer, B. A. and Walters, N. E. M. 1982. 

Tree Diseases in Victoria. Forestry. Commission 

Vic, Melbourne. 

Marohasy, J. 1995. Prospects for the Biological Control 

of Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. 

(Mimosaceae) in Australia. Plant Prot. Quar. Vol.1. 

Maslin, B. R. and McDonald, M. W. 1996. Key to 

Useful Australian Acacias for the Seasonally Dry 

Tropics. CSIRO, Melbourne. 







Morgan, F. D. 1984. Psylloidea of South Australia. Gov. 

Printer, SA, Adelaide. 







Jan. 


Freshness. 2nd edn. Ball Pub., Illinois, USA. 

Searle, S. 1991. Rise and Demise of the Black Wattle 

Bark Industry in Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Sedgley, M. and Parletta, M. 1993. Australian Acacias 

Have Huge Potential As Cut flowers. Aust. Hort., 

Feb. 


Occurring in Native Ecosystems of South-western 

Australia. Jn. of the Royal Society of Western 

Australia, 77:113-122. 

Simmons, M. H. 1987. Growing Acacias. Kangaroo 


Turnbull, J. W. (ed.). 1986. Australian Acacias in 

Developing Countries. ACIAR Proc. No. 16. 

Canberra. 





Industry eg 

Iron Deficiency (Vic Agnote) 





K 136 


WATTLE 

MANAGEMENT 

Wattles are grown for tannin, dyes, quick shelter, fodder, ornamental trees and shrubs, mine site regeneration, 

sand stabilisation, ground covers, cut flowers and foliage and potted plants. Select species suitable for the 

purpose and suited to the local area. Some species have some tolerance or resistance to acacia spotting 

bug, various scales, salt, lime, damp conditions. Some tolerate a wide range of pHs, others tolerate only acid or 

alkaline conditions. Only plant disease and pest-free nursery stock in disease and pest-free soils. Propagated 

by scarified or boiling water-treated seed, cuttings and grafting (Glocke and Sedgeley 1995). Plants may take 2- 

3 years to reach flowering stage when started from seed. Cultural methods: Choose sites with good drainage. 

Fertilise and irrigate to minimise borer damage. Sanitation: Regular pruning will promote more prolific 

flowering and will help prolong plant life. Regularly tip prune young plants to encourage compact bushes, prune 

after flowering, unless seeds are required. Prune to repair damage caused by wind, disease or insects. Large 

older wattles should be pruned with care. Some species tolerate heavy pruning and will re-shoot vigorously, eg 

A. decurrens. Pesticides: Petroleum oils and soap sprays are widely used for scale control. Many pesticides 

are registered for use on wattle. Harvest when 50% of the flowers are open at the beginning of flowering, cut 

foliage with firm undamaged leaves, avoid foliage with wilted tips (Jones and Moody 1993, Nowak and Rudnicki 

1990). Vase life is short, approximately 4-6 days. In Europe, standards have been set by the United Nations 

Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) for the marketing and commercial quality of cut flowering branches of 

Acacia species. There are several grades depending on stem length and glomerules open and other factors. 

Branches must be cut cleanly at the base. As the woody stems seldom take up water, prolonged storage and 

transport is not recommended. Flowers dry out quickly so it may be necessary to pack flowers in foil. 

Fig. 273. Gall rust (Uromycladium sp.) on wattle. 

Fig. 274. Rust (Uredinales) on A. longifolia. 

Fig. 275. Fireblight beetle (Pyroides orphana). 

Left : Beetles. Right : Larvae. Both 6 mm long. 

H. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 276. Acacia spotting bug (Rayieria tumidiceps) 

damage. Left : Round dark brown spots. 

Right : Rectangular brown areas between veins. 

Fig. 277. Left : Wattle mealybug (Melanococcus albizziae). 

Centre : Wattle tick scale (Cryptes baccatus) (young scale). 

Right : Wattle tick scale (Cryptes baccatus) (older scale). 

Fig. 278. Woolly giant mealybug (Monophlebulus 

pilosior) is up to 25 mm long. 


White cedar 

Melia azedarach var. australasica 

Family Meliaceae 


Parasitic 




White cedar moth 


Non-parasitic 



Parasitic 



Phytophthora rot (Phytophthora nicotianae) 

See Trees K 4. K 6. 


autumn generation is larger and more destructive. 

Overwinters as flimsy silken cocoons mixed with 

body hairs either under bark, in crevices, posts and 

buildings or amongst dead leaves or rubbish on the 

ground. Spread by moths flying and caterpillars 

crawling. Natural control is achieved through 

weather extremes, predation and parasitic wasps 

and flies which prevent successful pupation. 

Removal by hand is an option but hairs cause 

irritation. A sack or piece of hessian tied around 

the tree provides a place for caterpillars to shelter 

during the day. Examine the hessian each day and 

destroy the caterpillars. This banding is effective 

if sustained during the hazardous period. 

Alternatively, spray trunks and lower leaves in the 

evening with insecticide. See Pome fruits F 113. 

Others: Large auger beetle (Bostrychopsis 

jesuita, Bostrichidae, Coleoptera) larvae may bore in 

trunks. Macadamia leafminer (Acrocercops 

chionosema, Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) caterpillars 

may mine in leaves. 


Snails and slugs may be a pest of young trees, 

severe ringbarking kills plants. See Seedlings N 70. 

Stubby root nematodes (Paratrichodorus spp.) 

may infect white cedar (Melia azedarach var. 

australasica) in Qld. See Vegetables M 10. 


White cedar moth (Leptocneria reducta, 

Lymantriidae, Lepidoptera) ranges from Cooktown 

to southern NSW. L. binota ranges across 

northern Australia (Common 1990). Caterpillars 

of both species feed on leaves of white cedar. 

Moths of L. reducta have a light brown body, 

brown blotched forewings and pale hindwings. 

Wingspans vary from 40-60 mm. Moths lay their 

eggs on the tree in clusters. Caterpillars are up to 

40 mm long, dark brown with yellow heads and 

masses of long grey and black hairs about 15 mm 

long which cause skin irritation. Caterpillars hide 

during the day at the base of the tree in a silk 

shelter and spread out to feed on foliage at night. 

When they have defoliated one tree, they walk in 

single file to another white cedar tree 

(processionary caterpillars). They may stray into 

buildings risking dehydration and predation. Trees 

may be completely defoliated in spring and 

autumn. Complete metamorphosis (egg, 

caterpillar, pupa, adult) with 2 generations in a 

year, one in spring and another in autumn. The 

MANAGEMENT 

Non-parasitic 

Poisonous properties: The poisonous 

principle is not known. Berries contain the most 

poison with lesser amounts in the bark and young 

leaves. Fresh leaves are reported by some authors 

to be harmless. Most commonly, pigs are poisoned 

but also sheep, cattle, dogs and children with a 

history of access to ripe fruits. Symptoms include 

vomiting, diarrhoea, convulsions, depression, 

colic, paralysis and coma. Prevent access to the 

fruits and do not plant white cedar trees near 

stockyards. Recorded cases of poisoning extend 

between April and November with most cases 

July-October (McBarron 1983). 



Ailments of Australian Plants. Reprinted 1995. 










White cedar is one of Australia's rare deciduous trees. It is useful for street and park planting in moderately 

warm or dry climates. It maintains a convenient size and is very showy when covered with spring blossoms. 

Only in tropical parts does it become a tall tree. Fruit attracts birds, particularly parrots. It is very hardy in most 

situations and will grow in a wide range of climates and in almost any well drained soil. It tolerates very dry 

conditions. Severe frosts may cause leaf fall but the tree usually recovers. Propagated by seed. 

K 138 


Willow 

Salix spp. 

Family Salicaceae (willow family) 


Parasitic 



Cankers 


Root rots 

Rusts 

Wood rots 


Mistletoe 



Borers 

Carrot aphid 

Caterpillars 

Scales 

Willow leaf sawfly 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Root/drain problems 


Parasitic 


Rickettsia-like organisms have been associated 

with brooming, narrowing, yellowing of leaves 

and predisposing of leaves to winter injury 

overseas (Cooper 1993). See Trees K 4. 


Cankers 

Black canker, willow black canker, willow blight 

(Physalospora miyabeana) in the USA, starts in the 

leaf blades, the fungus proceeds through petioles 

into twigs, it also causes cankers on larger stems, 

followed by defoliation. Pinkish spore masses of 

Gloeosporium (Imperfect stage) are formed on dead 

twigs and branch cankers and then perithecia, which 

overwinter (Horst 1990). Dead twigs and branches 

should be pruned out during dormancy. 

Stem canker (Glomerella miyabeana) causes stem 

cankers and dieback of branch tips in Australia. 

Others: Cytospora canker (Cytospora sp.), 

Botryosphaeria,Colletotrichum. 



Anthracnose, willow anthracnose (Marssonina 

salicicola, Imperfect Fungi) affects willow, especially 

weeping willow (Salix babylonica), but also basket 

willow (S. pupurea) and cricket-bat willow 

(S. coerulea). Leaves may develop small, circular, 

black-coloured spots. Young shoots may develop 

black, elliptical lesions, later they enlarge and the 

epidermis splits, exposing a whitish fruiting body 

(acervulus) that is surrounded by black tissue, the 

lesions may be canker-like. When weather 

conditions are favourable, tip dieback is common 

and shoots are defoliated. Spread by windborne 

spores (conidia) that infect the young, growing shoot 

tips in spring. Anthracnose may occur sporadically 

and be of nuisance value only in the drier areas; 

however, in wetter areas it can be severe and spoil 

the form and vigour of trees. See Fruit F 5. 

Others: Cercospora salicina, Sphaceloma murrayae. 



spp.), phytophthora rot (P. cinnamomi) on S. 

caprea in USA. See Trees K 7. 

Rusts (Uredinales, Basidiomyctes) 

European willow rust (Melampsora epitea) affects 

basket willows (S. pupurea, S. viminalis), pussy 

willow (S. discolor). Towards the end of summer, 

uredospores (summer spores) appear on leaf 

undersurfaces, in orange-coloured pustules. 

Infected leaf tissues rapidly collapse, leaving a small, 

dark lesion in which overwintering spores 

(teliospores) form. Heavy infection produces severe 

defoliation, which weakens trees. The extent of 

disease varies from year to year. There is little 

information on the secondary hosts, which are 

suspected to be species of Larix and Saxifraga. 

Overwinters as teliospores which develop on fallen 

leaves. Spores (uredospores) are spread by wind 

during summer. Favoured by wet summers. The 

only practical method of control is the use of 

resistant species or varieties. Fungicides would 

only be applied in nurseries if disease is severe. 

Oriental willow rust (Melampsora coleosporioides) 

especially affects weeping willow (S. babylonica) and 

twisted willow (S. matsudana). Unlike the other 

Melampsora spp., the orange-coloured uredinia 

(spore sacs) are tiny, 0.2-0.5 mm across, and large 

numbers of pustules appear on leaf undersurfaces. 

Heavy infection causes premature defoliation. 

Dark brown overwintering fruiting bodies 

(telia) appear in the same fruiting bodies (uredia) that 

produced the uredospores. 


Wood rots: Silver leaf (Stereum purpureum), 

yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum commune), 

yellowish wood rot (Polyporus versicolor). See 

Trees K 8. 


Mistletoe (Loranthaceae) may occur on willows. 




been recorded on white willow (Salix alba), weeping 

willow (S. babylonica), S. caprea, S. matsudana. 

Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) have 

been recorded on weeping willow, dagger 

nematode (Xiphinema sp.) on S. matsudana. See 



WILLOW 


Borers: Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae), eg 

fig longicorn (Acalolepta vastator) larvae, may 

feed in the trunks and branches of weeping willow, 

especially older weakened trees planted in drier 

sites or when water supply is removed. Trees may 

split and fall in high winds. See Trees K 11. 

Carrot aphid (Cavariella aegopodii): Willow 

(Salix spp.) is the primary host and various 

Apiaceae, eg carrot, parsley or fennel, are 

secondary hosts. Eggs hatch in spring on willow 

where several generations occur, eventually 

winged aphids fly to secondary hosts. In cold 

climates in autumn, winged forms return to the 

primary host and overwintering eggs are laid. See 

Carrot M 45. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera), eg painted apple 

moth (Teia anartoides) and an anthelid caterpillar 

(Anthela varia),may feed on leaves. See Trees K 13. 

Potential weed: Crack willow (S. fragilis) is a 

significant environmental weed. Broken pieces 

can be carried downstream where they readily take 

root. In recent years, hybrids have been imported 

into Australia which could produce seed spread by 

wind and water causing serious problems in rivers 

and swamps (Cremer 1994). Willows already are a 

major pest of waterways. Before control is 

attempted, the impact of removal must be 

considered. Removal can increase erosion, willows 

may be replaced with more desirable species. 

Depending on size, willows may be removed by 

mechanical means or by herbicide treatments. 

Root/drain problems: Willow roots may 

block drains, where this is likely to be a problem, 

drains of plastic or other materials, may be 

considered. 

Others: Twisted willow (S. matsudana) derives 

it name from the twisted nature of its stems. 

Scales (Hemiptera) may infest leaves and stems. 

Armoured scale (Diaspididae) 




Willow leaf sawfly (Pontania proxima, 

Hymenoptera) causes leaf galls on crack willows 

(S. fragilis). Appearance is spoilt but there seems 

to be little effect on growth (McMaugh 1994). 

Others: Glandiferous phylloxerid (Phylloxerina 

salicis, Phylloxeridae, Hemiptera) occurs on the 

bark of willow. 


All willows, except bitter willow (S. purpurea), 

are palatable to domestic livestock, rabbits, hares, 

possums, macropods, etc. so protection is 

necessary during establishment. See Fruit F 13, 

Trees K 18. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: A good water supply is 

necessary for satisfactory growth, however 

consistently waterlogged soils are not suitable. 




Cremer, K. W. (ed.) 1990. Trees for Rural Australia. 


Cremer, K. W. 1994. Stop Willows Spreading by Seed 

into Rivers. Leaflet. Div. of Forestry, CSIRO, 

Canberra. 

FAO. 1980. Poplars and Willows in Wood Production 

and Land Use. FAO International Poplar 

Commission, Rome. 







Melbourne. 



Newsholme, C. 1992. Willows : The Genus Salix. 

Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 



Sampson, P. J. and Walker, J. 1982. An Annotated List 

of Plant Diseases in Tasmania. Dept. of Agric. Tas. 


Industry eg 

Growing Willows (NSW Agfact) 

Willow : A Multi-purpose Tree (NSW Agfact) 

Willow Control (CSIRO/NSW Agric) 

Willow Identification (NSW Agric) 


New Zealand National Poplar Commission 




MANAGEMENT 

Willows are grown for windbreaks, shade, fodder, erosion control, timber, baskets, floral arrangements and for 

ornamental plantings. Hybrids grow faster, retain leaves longer and leaf again rapidly; however, many will 

eventually seed and pose environmental problems in waterways. Propagated by cuttings and by seed. 

Willows will grow well in most climates except very dry ones and usually grow near water. They tolerate quite 

cold conditions. A good water supply is necessary but not consistently waterlogged soils. Sometimes they are 

planted in damp regions so that their roots take up water and dry the soil. The roots interlace to form a tough 

network that holds soil together and prevents soil erosion. Control measures should only be undertaken after 

consideration of the impact of removal, alternative species and other legal requirements. Environmental 

legislation protect rivers and water courses from erosion and pollution from herbicides. Vase life: Cut stems 

on an angle with a very sharp knife or secateurs, change vase solution every 2 days. Place deep in water and 

top up regularly. Warm water may be beneficial in easing water up stems (Jones and Moody 1993). 

K 140 


Turfgrasses 

Fig. 279. Spring dead spot (Leptosphaeria korrae) on couchgrass 

(Cynodon dactylon). Many other soilborne fungi also 

infect roots and other parts of turfgrasses resulting in dead 

patches or rings on turf. 

Fig. 280. Beetles (Coleoptera). Left : Scarab grubs 

(Scarabaeidae). Right : Wireworms (Elateridae). 

Fig. 281. Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera). 

Left : Argentine stem weevil (ASW) (Listronotus 

bonariensis). Right : Billbug (Sphenophorus brunnipennis). 

Fig. 282. Caterpillars (Lepidoptera). Left : Cutworms 

(Agrotis spp.). Right : Underground grassgrub 

(Oncopera sp.). 

Fig. 283. Crickets (Gryllidae). Left : Black field cricket 

(Teleogryllus commodus). Right : Mole cricket 

(Gryllotalpidae). 

Fig. 284. Fairy rings. Upper : The fungus decays organic 

matter and releases soil nitrogen which stimulates the 

growth of grass. Lower : Mushrooms develop at the outer 

edge of the fungal ring in the soil. 

Fig. 285. Slime moulds. Left : Fruiting bodies on grass. 

Right : Spores inside fruiting bodies. 

TURFGRASSES L 1

TURFGRASSES 

Fig. 286. Springtails (Collembola) 

are mostly < 6 mm long. 

Fig. 288. Thatch between the soil 

surface and grass. 

Fig. 287. Lawn mower damage 

to collar of tree. 

Fig. 289. Weed types in turf. 

Fig. 290 Diagnostic tests. 

DIAGNOSING TURFGRASS PROBLEMS 

Diagnosis of soilborne fungal diseases and pests can be difficult. Only a few pests and diseases cause 

significant damage to lawns and commercial turf in a particular locality, and often their control is overemphasised 

at the expense of good cultural practice. Make a list of the diseases, pests and weeds in your 

region and when they are likely to occur. You then know in advance when they are likely to be a problem and 

when treatment (if any) should be carried out. The following steps assist accurate diagnosis: 

Identify turf species and cultivar. Most cultivars are only susceptible to a few diseases and pests (Table 5). 

Examine individual turf plants, eg stems, leaves, runner and roots. Foliage problems, eg leaf spots, 

rusts and leafeating caterpillars, leafhoppers, mealybugs and mites are easily identified. Root, runner and 

soil problems, eg soil fungi, mealybugs, ground pearls which make turf look unhealthy, are more difficult. 

Examine diseased turf areas or, if this is not possible, ask questions about pattern, size, number and 

colour of diseased patches, and site conditions. Evaluate vigour, amount and type of cover, check soil and 

thatch, mowing program and irrigation regime. Examine history of materials applications, eg pesticides and 

fertilisers, recent soil tests, month of occurrence (Table 6), weather (specific conditions might favour particular 

diseases). 

Look up a reference (book or database) to confirm or assist diagnosis and provide information on control. If 

diagnosis is still not certain, then seek assistance. 

Seek expert assistance either to identify the problem or confirm a visual diagnosis, eg send core samples 

for analysis to a recognised testing laboratory. Analyses include soil analysis for chemical properties (pH 

and total soluble salts, major and minor element analysis) and physical properties (particle size distribution, 

drainage and compaction studies, profile wettability), biological analysis for root system evaluation, disease 

diagnosis, insect and weed identification and germination tests, and leaf analysis or other tissue analysis, and 

water analysis. 

L 2 

TURFGRASSES

Turfgrasses 

Family Poaceae 


Parasitic 




Anthracnose 

Brown patch 

Damping off 

Dollar spot 

Downy mildew 


Fusarium diseases 

Kikuyu yellows 


Red thread 

Rusts 

Sclerotium stem rot 

Spring dead spot 

Take-all 




African black beetle 

Ants 

Argentine stem weevil 

Caterpillars, grassgrubs, lawn grubs, 

webworms 

Crickets 

Flies 


Leafhoppers and planthoppers 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Scales 

Scarab beetles, scarab grubs 

Weevils 

Wireworms, false wireworms 



Non-parasitic 

Algae and fungi (algae, dry patch, 

fairy rings, slime moulds) 

Animals 

Earthworms 

Environment 

Insects and allied pests (itch mites, 

springtails) 

Mechanical injury (clippings, compaction, 

equipment, playing damage) 

Mosses 



Pollutants 

Thatch 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 


Turfgrasses are remarkably free from virus 

diseases in Australia (there are many overseas). 

There is value in selecting turf cultivars resistant to 

virus diseases. 

Barley yellow dwarf virus affects turfgrasses, eg 

red fescue; field crops, eg barley, oats, wheat, rye, 

pasture grasses; weeds, eg winter grass. There are 

several strains. Symptoms include stunting, reduced 

tillering, sterility. Roots show no symptoms but are 

drastically reduced in weight. Losses are greater 

when infection occurs before tillering. Overwinters 

in annual or perennial grass hosts and in virus-infected 

aphids. Spread by aphids, eg corn aphid 

(Rhopalosiphum maidis), oat aphid (R. padi), by 

grafting, not by mechanical inoculation, not by 

contact between plants, not by seed, not by pollen. 

Favoured by cool, moist spring and early summer 

weather. Severity of symptoms is greatest at 16 o C, 

milder at 27 o C and masked at 32 o C. Unfertile land. 

Applications of nitrogen assists recovery. If virus is 

a problem, plant resistant or tolerant varieties. 

Applications of insecticides to control aphid vectors 

are not economic. 

Sugarcane mosaic virus affects turfgrasses, eg 

carpet grass, buffalo grass, Qld blue couch; field 

crops, eg sugarcane, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, 

Sudan grass, wonder forage grass, Tunis grass, wild 

grasses (wild sugar cane, bull grass, paspalum, crab 

grass, barnyard grass). Effects of virus are 

variable and include pale mottling especially on new 

unrolling leaves and yellow streaking of foliage. 

Some hosts show no symptoms. Spread by aphids, 

eg corn aphid (R. maidis), green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), rusty plum aphid (Hysteroneura setariae), 

by grafting, by mechanical inoculation, by seed (in a 

small percentage), not by pollen. In the US the 'bitter 

blue' cultivar of buffalo grass is considered to have 

some resistance. 

St. Augustine decline (panicum mosaic virus) affects 

buffalo grass (St Augustine grass) in the US causing 

chlorotic spots and death of large patches. 


Of the nearly 400 known diseases of turf overseas 

probably < 1% are due to bacterial infection. 

Bacterial diseases in Australia include bacterial 

leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae) on 

kikuyu and pearl millet and bacterial leaf spot 

(Xanthomonas albilians) on paspalum and 

sourgrass, blady grass, hairy armgrass and 

sugarcane (Fahy and Persley 1983). 


Most serious turf diseases are caused by soil fungi 

which grow outwards from a centre of infection, 

killing grass as they grow. Patches may join 

together resulting in large areas of dead turf (Fig. 

279). Damage is occurring all the time but 

symptoms are not obvious unless destruction is 

greater than the rate of regeneration. Disease 

must be identified by laboratory tests. Soil fungi 

overwinter in dead leaves, runners and stems, in 

perennial hosts. They are spread by renovation 

practices, eg mowers, irrigators, propagation 

material, and some also by wind. They are 

favoured by wet or humid weather and stressed 

turf. Correction of these factors is vital for disease 

prevention and control. 

TURFGRASSES L 3

TURFGRASSES 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichium spp.) attacks 

most turfgrasses (bent, couchgrass, fescue, 

ryegrass) but especially winter grass in bent turf. 

Different species attack different turfgrasses eg 

C. graminicola attacks bluegrass, C. dematium 

attacks ryegrass. Irregularly shaped patches of 

turf from several centimetres to many metres across, 

die. Anthracnose mainly attacks older deteriorating 

leaves and runners, hastening senescence but may 

also attack new growth. Infected leaves are redbrown, 

yellow, then brown. Water soaked and 

bleached lesions develop on stems, which may be 

girdled. Plants yellow and die. Tiny black fungal 

fruiting bodies form in dead tissues and can be seen 

with a hand lens. Overwinters as mycelium or 

conidia in acervuli in dead leaves and stems. Spores 

are spread by water splash. Favoured by warm, dry 

soil and wet/humid canopy, poor drainage and soil 

fertility, compacted soil, stressed turf during spring 

and summer. Control may be necessary during hot, 

humid conditions, particularly when much winter 

grass is present. Provide a balanced fertiliser 

program, and avoid prolonged leaf wetness. 

Fungicides are registered for controlling 

anthracnose. See Fruit F 5. 

Brown patch is a disease complex caused 

by Rhizoctonia solani. Other fungi, eg Curvularia, 

Fusarium and Helminthosporium, may also be 

associated with the disease. Brown patch may be a 

secondary disease following other diseases. It affects 

cool and warm season grasses but especially bents 

and fescues. Strains of R. solani occur but the host 

range of each strain is not known. Symptoms vary 

according to grass species, soil conditions, height of 

turf, environment and fungal strain. The classical 

symptoms described below are for the disease as it 

occurs on bent during summer and early autumn. 

Patches of affected grass die. Small discoloured 

irregular areas up to 500 mm across develop in 

spring. Sometimes in low cut turf there is a smoke 

ring around the margin, possibly due to infection 

through leaf wounds. Early in the morning when 

there is dew, fine fungal threads (hyphae) grow on 

these rings which, if touched, collapse immediately 

and disappear. Centres of patches may recover 

resulting in rings of diseased grass. Leaves are 

initially yellowish, but turn grey-black and die giving 

a greasy look to the patch. Crowns and stems may 

be rotted. Overwinters in soil, plant debris or in 

thatch, infected perennial grasses, propagation 

material and seed. Spread by the fungus growing 

through soil and across the turf surface, by anything 

that can spread contaminated soil, eg renovation 

practices, machinery, water drainage, irrigation water, 

boots, tools, by infected propagation material. 

Favoured by excessive thatch, irrigation and 

nitrogen (lush turf), poor drainage, light, ventilation 

and humid weather. Cloudy weather lengthens the 

time of leaf wetness, eg dew in early morning hours. 

Some strains prefer cool weather, others warm 

weather. Close mowing allows infection through 

wounds. Avoid or correct conditions which 

favour brown patch. Adequate phosphorus and 

potash are essential for high levels of turf 

resistance. A fungus (Trichoderma harzianum) is 

being researched overseas as a biological control 

agent (Lo et al. 1996). Fungicides may be applied 

prior to anticipated season (in high risk areas) or as 

soon as disease has been positively identified. See 


Damping off, grease spot (Pythium spp.), 

also Fusarium culmorum, Rhizoctonia solani. 

Helminthosporium sorokinianum. Damping off 

(Pythium spp.) attacks cool season turf grasses, 

especially bents. Seeds may rot before emergence, 

causing bare patches in newly seeded turf. Infected 

seedlings wilt, wither and die, particularly in hot 

weather. Leaves wither, turn reddish, may lie flat, 

stick together, look greasy and feel slimy. Patches 

of turf die, often small roughly circular spots up to 

150 mm. In established lawns, damping off may 

appear as pale coloured areas of turf which develop 

irregular streaks which may follow the grade of the 

lawn, outlining poorly drained areas. Overwinters 

in soil. Favoured by wet soil and low lying areas, 

poor soil aeration and drainage, overwatering, thickly 

sown seed, uncompacted seedbeds, warm (22-35 o C), 

humid or wet conditions, excessive nitrogen. Seed 

when temperatures are favourable for rapid 

germination (cool season grasses 15-25 o C, warm 

season 25-35 o C) at the correct rate and time of year. 

Pre-germinate seed and supply adequate phosphorus 

and potassium. In mature turf, reduce thatch. Avoid 

favouring conditions. A fungus (Trichoderma 

harzianum) may be used overseas for biological 

control (Lo et al. 1996). Fungicides may be applied 

as seed treatments or as pre- or post-germination 

drenches. Plant growth regulators, eg gibberellin 

inhibitors, may suppress dollar spot and enhance the 

efficacy of fungicides (Burpee et al. 1996. Re-sow 

affected areas after treatment. See Seedlings N 66. 

Dollar spot (disease syndrome caused by 

Sclerotinia homeocarpa, Lanzia, Moellerodiscus) is a 

common disease of bent, Qld blue couch, winter 

grass. Possibly strains occur which vary in their 

response to temperature. On closely mown bowling 

and golf greens small circular sunken straw coloured 

spots 5-8 cm across (dollar spots) develop, later 

these join together to form large irregular dead areas. 

If dew is present in the early morning the fungus 

grows on dead leaves giving diseased patches a white, 

cobwebbed appearance. Initially leaves have yellow 

blotches, later they become straw coloured. 

Overwinters in infected plant debris in soil, and in 

the crowns and roots of infected plants. In spring, 

mycelium produced from sclerotia, or mycelium in 

the soil or in the crown and roots of infected plants, 

infects healthy leaves. Spread by the fungus 

growing through soil and from leaf to leaf, and by 

introduction of infected plant material, debris or 

contaminated soil during renovation practices. 

Fungal hyphae can only infect leaves. Windborne 

spores are produced but are not considered important. 

Favoured by surface temperatures (20-27 o C), high 

humidity, dew, nitrogen deficient soils, dry soils and 

stressed turf, excessive thatch. Avoid favouring 

conditions. In mild attacks, damaged leaves may be 

mown off. Avoid planting very susceptible 

varieties if dollar spot is a problem. A fungus 

(Trichoderma harzianum) is being researched as a 

biological control agent (Lo et al. 1996). Fungicides 

may be applied as soon as disease is diagnosed or 

prior to the anticipated season. See Vegetables M 7. 

Downy mildew (Sclerophthora sp.) may 

affect most grasses but seldom causes major losses. 

Bunches of shallow roots clumped together develop 

together with a proliferation of yellow-green shoots 

from the central crown. May cause serious damage 

on bents and fescues in NZ. See Annuals A 5. 

L 4 

TURFGRASSES

TURFGRASSES 


Curvularia blight, curvularia spot (Curvularia spp., 

Imperfect Fungi) affects most turfgrasses but 

especially bentgrass and may be a secondary 

invader following spring dead spot, 

Helminthosporium and other leaf spots diseases. 

Symptoms may be similar to those of dollar spot. 

Irregular brown areas develop on turf. Definite 

leaf spots may not develop, leaves may just brown 

and die. Crown and leaf sheath infections cause 

brown dry rots. Lesions are black due to masses of 

dark spores. Favoured by warm wet weather. 

Grey leaf spot (Pyricularia grisea) affects turfgrasses, 

especially buffalo. Small brown leaf and stem 

spots develop. These enlarge into round or oblong 

spots (brown-grey with purple-brown borders), a halo 

may occur around or near spots. Leaf spots are 

usually concentrated along the mid-vein but may 

occur anywhere on the leaf surface. During warm, 

humid weather spots may be covered with grey 

mould. Inflorescences and culms may be 

affected. Favoured by warm weather, newly 

established turf, excessive nitrogen, and stressed turf. 

Helminthosporium diseases (Helminthosporium = 

Bipolaris, Dreschlera, Exserohilum) infect turfgrasses 

especially couch, kikuyu. Symptoms vary with turf 

species affected and part infected. Infected turf 

looks yellow. In warm moist weather, surface runners 

may dieback. Leaf spots are circular or elongate 

1-10 mm across, pale to red-brown with a darker 

margin. Runners may also be attacked. Couch may 

be infected with H. cynodontis during warm moist 

summers. These diseases are facultative parasites, 

ie they can live on organic matter but have the ability 

to become parasitic. 

Leptosphaerulina leaf blight (Leptosphaerulina 

spp., L. fuciformis) is only evident on bent during 

extreme turf stress. Leaves dieback from the tip with 

lesions extending down to the leaf sheath. Old leaves 

wilt and tiny fruiting bodies develop on dead tissue. 

Patches of irregular bleached and later brown turf 

develop. 

Phoma leaf spot (Phoma sorghina, Imperfect Fungi) 

affects temperate climate grasses and is commonly 

found in decaying plant debris. Determine whether 

Phoma is actually the fungus causing the problem. 

Large patches of turf appear yellow and may die 

out. Leaf spots are roughly circular and pale grey to 

yellow. Tiny black fruiting bodies (pycnidia) are 

produced in the centres. Favoured by cool, wet 

conditions. 

Others: Copper spot (Gloeocercospora sorghi), 

Mastigosporum rubricosum, Cochliobolus, 

Mycosphaerella, Passalora, Phyllachora and 

Heterosporium. 

Spread by wind (spores), water splash from 

infected plants, by mowing and renovation 

practices, on tools; is possibly seedborne. 

Favoured by moist, humid conditions, excessive 

leaf wetness, turf stressed by poor soil aeration and 

drainage, drought, excessive nitrogen, soil 

compaction and herbicide induced stress. Control 

of leaf spots is difficult. Avoid favourable 

conditions, eg irrigate at in the morning and not in 

the evening. Improve drainage, aerate the soil, and 

raise the height of the mower. Fungicides can be 

applied prior to the anticipated occurrence or 

immediately disease has been observed, and 

confirmed by laboratory test. See Annuals A 5. 

Fusarium diseases 

Fusarium patch, gerlachia patch, snow mould, winter 

Fusarium (Gerlachia nivalis = Fusarium nivale, 

Imperfect Fungi) affects cool season grasses and 

couch but especially winter grass, creeping bent. 

Irregular thinned-out patches of brown grass appear 

during wet weather. On closely mown turf the 

spots range from 50-300 mm across. Grass in the 

centre may recover resulting in a ring appearance. In 

wet weather a pinkish mycelium with masses of 

spores grows around leaf margins. Leaves die but 

roots and crown are not affected. Favoured by cool, 

moist weather in late autumn and winter when air 

temperatures are < 20 o C (especially 0-10 o C), 

excessive nitrogen and thatch, poor drainage and 

improper fertiliser programs. No cultivars are 

resistant. 

Fusarium blight (Fusarium roseum in association 

with Fusarium spp., F. equiseti, F. poae, Imperfect 

Fungi) is a disease of cool season grasses 

especially Kentucky bluegrass, also bent, fescue, 

winter grass. There may be different strains. 

Fusarium causes rotting of roots, crowns, stolons and 

rhizomes, and is first seen as patches of light green 

turf which later enlarge and die. A mass of pink 

hyphae and spores can be seen when infection is 

severe. Dead patches are usually < 300 mm across. 

Favoured by high humidity, temperatures and 

nitrogen levels, moist stress, compacted soil, 

nematode and fungal diseases. Baron Kentucky 

bluegrass is resistant. 

Fusarium blight syndrome (Fusarium spp., 

Imperfect Fungi) affects Poa spp. especially Kentucky 

bluegrass. It causes large dead patches and occurs 

in turfgrasses > 3 years old. Favoured by hot and 

very dry or wet conditions, thick thatch, faulty 

irrigation causing turf to go from extremes of wet to 

dry. 

Overwinters and oversummers in infected turf 

debris in soil and various resistant spores. Spread 

by airborne spores, mowing, excessive wear and 

renovation practices, on equipment, animals and 

shoes. Control procedures include appropriate 

balanced fertiliser and irrigation programs and 

minimising thatch. Severely diseased areas may 

be replanted. Plant mixes of less susceptible 

turfgrass species. Fungicides are registered for 

Fusarium diseases. See Vegetables M 7. 

Kikuyu yellows (Verrucalvus flavofaciens) 

is a water mould and the most important 

disease of kikuyu lawns and pastures in Australia. 

Conspicuous yellow patches 100 mm to 1 m or 

more across occur randomly in lawns. Patches 

advance outwards slowly at < 1 m per year. The 

fungus invades and rots roots. Later it invades 

stems and leaves causing them to yellow (kikuyu 

yellows). Plants are easily pulled from soil. 

Roots when washed are sparse, partially decayed 

and yellowish brown in contrast to the creamy 

white abundant roots of healthy plants. Plants 

may be stunted and die, leaving bare patches, the 

centres of which are invaded by other grasses and 

weeds. Overwinters in infected plant material and 

soil. Spread by movement of infected planting 

material and soil adhering to animals' feet, vehicle 

wheels and by the movement of fungal spores in 

water. Favoured by high temperatures in spring 

and summer. Nitrogenous fertilisers green up 

TURFGRASSES L 5

TURFGRASSES 

yellow patches of diseased grass. Pasture variety 

kikuyu Noonan has high field tolerance but there 

are no resistant turf varieties. Only plant diseasefree 

turf from disease-free areas. Fungicides are 

not really effective. Apply herbicide to diseased 

areas, ensure that all affected plants are killed. 

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis) is 

a minor disease on closely mown turf, eg fescues, 

Kentucky bluegrass. Grey-brown patches develop 

on leaves which may yellow and wither. 

Seedlings may die. Favoured by high humidity 

in spring. Collect and burn all infected clippings. 

Apply a suitable fungicide, and if necessary, repeat 

applications. See Annuals A 6. 

Red thread (Laetisaria fuciformis, 

Basidiomycetes) affects cool season grasses 

especially fescue, also bent, ryegrass, winter grass. 

Usually a minor disease except for some areas, eg 

ACT, Victoria and Tasmania. Easy to identify. 

Water-soaked darkened irregular areas of turf from 

50-500 mm across which become leached or tan. 

When air is saturated, light pink to red fungal 

hyphae, 2 mm or more long, grow out from tips of 

leaves and from leaf sheaths. Symptoms are most 

obvious in longer growing turf. Overwinters in 

infected plant debris as pinkish gelatinous crusts of 

fungal mycelium. Spores are spread by wind and 

water splash, movement of infected grass, clippings 

and mechanical renovation of turf. Favoured by 

cool wet weather in spring and autumn, low 

nutrient status, heavy dews, light rains and fogs, 

low temperatures (15-25 o C), dry soil conditions, 

incorrect pH for turf species being grown (normally 

6.0-7.5), and other diseases. Keep turf growing 

vigorously and avoid favourable conditions. No 

fungicides are registered for red thread. 

Rusts (Puccinia spp., Uromyces spp.) affect 

most turfgrasses especially ryegrass and bent, 

also kikuyu, bluegrass, couch, paspalum. Some 

turfgrasses may be infected with several different 

rust species. Clover rusts can occasionally be 

destructive in certain areas during late winter and 

early spring. Yellow-orange, red-brown or black 

pustules occur on leaves and leaf sheaths which 

yellow, wither and die. Turf may thin and be more 

susceptible to attack by other fungal diseases. 

Favoured by stress, nitrogen deficiency, shading, 

heavy dew in mornings, warm humid weather and 

soils in late summer/early autumn. Different rusts 

require different temperatures, eg cool season rusts 

prefer 10-20 o C, and warm season stem rust 

(Puccinia graminis) prefers temperatures of about 

30 o C. Avoid favourable conditions. Mow, 

collect and burn infected tops of blades. Plant 

resistant varieties. Fungicides may be applied 

where necessary. See Annuals A 7. 

Sclerotium stem rot, Rolf's disease, 

southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii), is a minor 

disease of cool season turfgrasses, eg bents, 

fescues, ryegrasses, Poa spp. and broadleaved 

turfs, eg Cotula and Dichondra in warm temperate 

areas. Yellow, circular to crescent-shaped turf 

patches up to 200 mm across develop. Dead 

patches increase in size (up to 1-2 m across). 

Inspection of soil may reveal a white, cottony 

mycelium and small, pepper-sized white or brown 

sclerotia about 2 mm in diameter at the edge of 

the ring. Turf may become yellow and thin early 

in summer. A portion of the patch or ring at its 

edge dies, as the disease continues to develop and 

an area of green grass usually remains in the 

centre. Grass looks reddish brown as it dies. Rings 

of dead grass may enlarge up to 200 mm/week 

during hot humid weather. Patches usually 

recolonise in autumn. Overwinters as resistant 

sclerotia in soil and thatch. Spread by water, 

renovation practices and movement of soil. 

Favoured by warm humid weather, dry soils, 

unhealthy turf, excessive thatch, temperatures of 

25-35 o C, and, during September-April, periods of 

high moisture following drought. Cool 

temperatures and poorly aerated or neutral to 

alkaline soils restrict the growth of the fungus. 

Disease is less obvious on vigorously growing 

well fertilised turf. Reduce thatch and maintain 

adequate soil aeration and near neutral pH. For 

quick control, remove affected soil to a depth of 

150 mm and burn (do not drop any on adjacent 

areas). Presently available fungicides only 

achieve limited control. See Vegetables M 8. 

Spring dead spot 

Scientific name: Leptosphaeria narmari and 

L. korrae (Ascomycetes) are present in thatch 

where they colonise stolons and roots. 

Host range: A serious disease of intensively 

managed couch and its hybrids > 3 years old, 

occasionally buffalo. 

Symptoms: Root and stolons rot below the 

ground. Well defined, circular patches of dead, 

bleached grass from 100-500 mm across (Fig. 279), 

occur in spring as dormant healthy couchgrass 

resumes growth quicker than infected areas. A few 

or several hundred spots may appear. Surrounding 

healthy grass grows in from the edges throughout 

summer so that symptoms have disappeared by 

midsummer. Patches tend to reappear and expand 

each season in the same spot for 3-4 years. 

Overwintering: Infected plant roots and debris. 

Spread: Growing from diseased to healthy roots. 

Mechanical renovation of the lawn. 

Conditions favouring: Low to moderate soil 

temperatures (10-20 o C) with moist soil, and after a 

series of unusually cool days or wet, cold weather. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Fertiliser management, 

adequate soil moisture and general renovation 

techniques encourage healthy and extensive root 

system. Replant large affected areas in spring. 

Minimise thatch. 

Biological control: Maintaining adequate soil 

moisture through couch dormancy may favour 

soil bacteria antagonistic to spring dead spot. 

Resistant varieties: Plant a hardy winter couch 

suited to the area. Greenlees Park couch is 

moderately resistant. 

Disease-free planting material: Vegetative 

planting material should be obtained from a 

source with little or no dead spot present. 

Pesticides: Apply fungicides in autumn to 

prevent extensive root and stolon rot during 

winter. Use a wetting agent in conjunction with 

the chemical. While fungicides will not 

eradicate spring dead spot, they hasten recovery. 

L 6 

TURFGRASSES

TURFGRASSES 

Take-all (Gaeumannomyces graminis var. 

avenae, Ascomycetes = Ophiobolus patch 

(Ophiobolus graminis, Imperfect Fungi)) affects 

turfgrasses especially bent golf greens, cereals, 

eg oats. Other species affect other hosts, eg 

G. graminis var. tritici on wheat. Take-all is 

difficult to diagnose. Small circular or ring 

shaped dead spots (150-300 mm across) appear 

on turf. Patches may enlarge by 150 mm each year 

until they cover large areas (up to 3 m across). 

When actively growing, edges are bronzed, sunken 

and dead. Turf can be pulled up readily. Centres 

of the thinned patch may be colonised by fescues, 

winter grass and weeds. Stolons or rhizomes and 

roots rot, plants can be pulled up as a skin. If 

remaining roots are washed carefully brown 

hyphae are seen on the surface. Take-all 

resembles Fusarium patch but continues to spread 

throughout the year; Fusarium usually subsides in 

late spring. Overwinters as infected plant debris 

in turf or in areas outside, and in decomposing 

organic matter in thatch. Spread possibly by 

spores from adjacent areas, especially in longer 

turf as in home lawns, by wind and rain splash, by 

plant to plant contact, by renovation practices, by 

transport of infected plant debris, and by use of 

infected sod with no symptoms. Favoured by 

cool, wet, poorly drained soils with a light texture 

and low organic content in spring, excessive 

nitrogen, low or unbalanced fertility, and liming 

(alkaline or near neutral soils). Hot dry weather in 

late spring and summer stresses and kills infected 

turf. Soil sterilisation, eg fumigation. kills 

antagonistic microorganisms. Control is difficult. 

Avoid conditions which favour take-all. Monitor 

and maintain pH between 6.0-7.5. Provide good 

drainage, use recommended irrigation and fertiliser 

practices. After fumigation, incorporate rapidly 

decaying organic material to encourage 

antagonistic microorganisms. Small areas of 

diseased patches may be removed and reseeded. 

Several fungi, eg non-pathogenic G. graminis var. 

graminis, G. graminis var. tritici, also Phialophora 

radicola and an antibiotic bacteria (Pseudomonas 

putida-fluorescens) are possible biological control 

agents. Fungicides may be useful in controlling 

take-all. 

Others 

Ergots are parasitic fungi (Claviceps spp., 

Ascomycetes) which infect the flowers of grasses 

producing fungal structures called 'ergots' which are 

the resting bodies of the fungus. See Seeds N 79 (Fig. 

440). Paspalum ergot (C. paspali) only infects 

Paspalum spp., eg paspalum, saltwater couch (P. 

paspalodes), Vasey grass (P. urvillei). Animals 

especially cattle, horses and sheep may be poisoned if 

they eat large numbers of paspalum ergots which 

contain poisonous alkaloids (McBarron 1983). Ergotinfected 

flower heads prior to forming the ergot 

produce a sticky honeydew which sticks to and stains 

clothing and may be a nuisance in unmown paspalum 

in lawns. Rye ergot (C. purpurea) affects ryegrass, 

cocksfoot (not paspalum) and cereals, eg wheat, 

phalaris ergot (C. phalaridis) affects phalaris. 

Smuts (Tilletia spp., Urocystis spp., Ustilaginales, 

Basidiomyctes) affect many turfgrasses, eg bent, 

Kentucky bluegrass, ryegrass, couch, paspalum, 

fescue, buffalo, but are not a problem on mown turf. 

See Seeds N 79 (Fig, 441). Often host specific. Some 

turfgrasses may be infected with several different 

species of smut. Seed is replaced by black sooty 

smut spores (teliospores). Feet and trouser legs may 

become soiled by the spores. Favoured by unmown 

couchgrass in autumn, moist humid weather (20- 

27 o C). Keep grass mown to correct height in autumn. 


Although parasitic plants have been recorded on 

grasses, they are of no importance on turfgrasses. 



Parasitic and beneficial nematodes are common in 

turfgrass soil. Most parasitic nematodes are host 

specific and attack only a few plant species. 

Others, eg cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.), 

may attack a wide range of grasses. Other 

nematodes parasitic on turfgrasses include dagger 

nematode (Xiphinema spp.), spiral nematode 

(Helicotylenchus spp.), Hemicycliophora spp., 

many other species (McLeod et al. 1994). 

Symptoms include yellow foliage, slow growth, 

gradual premature wilting, and restricted root 

growth. Attacks may occur from spring to autumn. 

No turfgrass is known to be resistant. Frequent 

applications of fenamiphos over a long period 

may result in the increased ability of soil 

microflora to biodegrade fenamiphos reducing its 

effectiveness. Fenamiphos should only be applied 

after monitoring and if soil populations justify it 

(currently 50-100 nematodes/200 g soil). New 

products are being sought. See Vegetables M 10. 



Scientific name: Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera: 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) 

Host range: Most grasses, eg bowling greens, 

golf courses, playing fields, pastures, especially 

those containing mat forming paspalum or kikuyu 

on light sandy soils; ornamentals, eg dahlia, 

marigold, petunia, stock seedlings, rose cuttings; 

fruit, eg grapevine cuttings, strawberry; 

vegetables, eg brassicas, cucurbits, tomato, 

sweetcorn seedlings, potato and sweet potato 

tubers, rhubarb; field crops, eg maize, weeds. 

Description and damage: Beetles are 

10-13 mm long, oval and shiny black with toothed 

legs and chewing mouthparts (Fig. 280). They 

hide in the ground by day and emerge at night to 

feed and mate. Swarming occurs at dusk. Larvae 

are typical scarab C-shaped 'curl grubs' up to 25 

mm long, whitish with a brown head (Fig. 280). 

Pupae are light brown and about 12 mm long. 

Young larvae feed on organic matter, later stages 

on grass roots. Dead patches of turf can be 

rolled back revealing severed roots and larvae. 

Birds feeding on larvae cause further damage. 

Beetles cause minor damage by eating crowns and 

horizontal stems. Their emergence and burrowing 

results in an uneven surface. Some turf, eg kikuyu, 

TURFGRASSES L 7

TURFGRASSES 

can support large numbers of larvae without 

damage. Other crops: Stems of seedlings at or 

just below ground level are chewed, tissues look 

ragged, seedlings die. Beetles bore into 

strawberries and potato tubers on the ground. 

Beetles are found in adjacent soil. 


larva, pupa, adult) with usually 1 generation each 

year (overlapping stages). Beetles live for 9-11 

months and feed during late summer and warm 

spells in autumn and again in late winter or spring. 

Females lay eggs in the soil from mid-October to 

January before dying. Eggs hatch in about 6 

weeks. Older larvae feed on grass roots. When 

fully developed they burrow deeper into the soil 

and pupate. After 2-4 weeks beetles emerge from 

the soil and begin feeding. At the onset of cooler 

autumn weather they burrow down into the soil to 

overwinter. 

Overwintering: As inactive adults in soil, but 

may emerge and feed during warm winters. 

Spread: By adults flying, by flood water, and by 

beetles moving in from nearby pasture land. 

Conditions favouring: Successive dry springs 

or summers cause beetle numbers to reach plague 

proportions. Swarming beetles may be attracted to 

lights, and greens in the vicinity are most likely to 

be heavily infested. Major damage occurs during 

December, January-February. Grassland is the 

preferred breeding site and strawberry, tomato and 

other crops planted in land recently under pasture 

(especially paspalum pasture) where beetles have 

overwintered as adults will be damaged. 

Control: Natural enemies include diseases, 

insects and birds, but these are unimportant. If 

conditions in spring and early summer are very dry 

many eggs and newly hatched larvae die from 

desiccation. Continual heavy rainfall in spring 

causes waterlogging which kills many eggs and 

young larva, in summer it causes older larvae and 

pupae to die from drowning and disease. 

Monitoring and soil plugs indicate any need for 

insecticide. Apply at first sign of adult activity 

and at prescribed time and intervals. See Turf L 11. 

Ants 

Scientific name: Formicidae, Hymenoptera: 

Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) 

Black house ants (Ochetellus spp.) 

Brown house ant (Doleromyrma darwiniana) 

Coastal brown ant (Pheidole megacephala) 

Meat or gravel ants (Iridomyrmex spp.) 

Funnel ant (Aphaenogaster pythia) 

Seedharvesting ants (Pheidole spp.) 

Description and damage: Seedharvesting 

ants may remove seed for food from newly sown 

turf. Ants nest and tunnel among roots of 

grasses causing wilting of turf (nests in soil are 

waterproofed) and stress. Nests disfigure turf. 

Funnel ants (Aphaenogaster spp.) and other 

species throw up mounds of earth around entrances 

to their nests. Other ants infesting lawns may bite 

and sting people and animals. Ants are attracted to 

honeydew produced by some sap sucking insects 

eg aphids, mealybugs, soft scales and indirectly 

transfer them to new hosts. 

Overwintering: As all stages in nests. 

Spread: By ants crawling and winged forms 

flying (kings and queens), and by transportation of 

ants, larvae and eggs on timber, and containers. 

Conditions favouring: Usually active from 

early spring through to autumn; however, they can 

be troublesome at any time of the year. 

Control: Only in relation to turf. 

Sanitation: Do not leave plant debris and other 

litter attractive to ants lying around . 

Pesticides: Lime coating or dusting seed being 

broadcast is known to minimise attack from ants 

as well as improve the speed of seed 

germination. If area is being treated, water soil 

first. Preferably find the nest and destroy it. 

Argentine stem weevil (ASW) 

Ryegrass stem borer 


Argentine stem weevil (Listronotus bonariensis) 

Host range: Cool season grasses, eg bent, 

winter grass, rough meadow grass, annual, Italian 

and perennial ryegrasses, cocksfoot, Kentucky 

bluegrass; field crops, eg barley, oats and wheat. 

Also sweet vernal chewings fescue. 

Description and damage: Weevils are greybrown, 

up to 3 mm long and have a snout (Fig. 

281). They live in the top 10 mm of soil and may 

be covered with soil making them hard to see. 

They are nocturnal, hiding in thatch during the day 

and feeding at night, or during the day in overcast 

weather. Weevils eat the leaf surface which 

becomes silvery. Larvae are creamy, up to 5 mm 

long. Larvae tunnel into grass tillers and stems 

causing them to wilt and brown. Larvae may also 

be found in crown of plant. Seedheads are 

damaged by larvae entering nodes from the 2nd- 

7th from the crown and tunnelling upwards. Seed 

heads die and are called 'whiteheads' and do not set 

seed. Patches of turfgrass yellow, and brown. 

Larvae can cause sudden death of large areas of 

turf in hot weather. 


larva, pupa, adult) with 3 or more generations each 

year in warm climates. In spring females lay eggs 

in turfgrass leaves. After hatching, larvae tunnel 

in tillers etc, feed for several weeks, then drop into 

the soil to pupate at depth of about 6 mm. After 14 

days, weevils emerge. 

Overwintering: Adults occur all year round. 

Spread: By adults flying and movement of 

infested turf, soil, fodder etc. 

Conditions favouring: Hot weather, spring to 

mid-autumn. Turf damage can be severe during 

summer causing rapid desiccation of the foliage, 

particularly in closely mown turf. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Manage turf appropriately to 

maintain uniform growth, resist infestation and 

enable quick recovery. Avoid mowing turf too 

closely. 

Biological control: A fungus (Beauveria 

bassiana) may infect many insects, eg ASW, 

black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus), 

sitona weevil (Sitona discoideus), African black 

beetle (Heteronychus arator), also wasps 

L 8 

TURFGRASSES

TURFGRASSES 

(Vespula spp.) and a hoverfly (Syrphus 

novaezealandiae). Strains of the fungus exist. 

Beauveria is being investigated in NZ for 

biological control of ASW. 

Resistant varieties: Plant less susceptible 

cultivars. eg tall fescue instead of perennial 

ryegrass. In the absence of A. lolii infection, 

ryegrass cultivars of Italian ryegrass 

(L. multiflorum) parentage are preferred to 

perennial ryegrass (L. perenne) cultivars. An 

endophyte fungus (Acremonium lolii), a true 

mutualistic fungus, confers ryegrass resistance to 

ASW (Hellman and Mathias 1990) The fungus 

produces symptomless systemic infection in the 

host plant with the hyphae concentrated in the 

basal tiller region of vegetative plants. Spores 

are not known, and it is spread by use of seed 

infected with vegetative hyphae. Three (3) 

metabolites are produced by endophyte-infected 

plants. Peramine is the most important and 

delays larval development. They cannot 

establish on the diet. Once established peramine 

has no effect on subsequent development. 

Ergotamine will reduce feeding by adult 

weevils. Lolitrem is a larval feeding deterrent 

and toxicant. In NZ perennial ryegrass 

staggers (a temporary neuro-muscular disease) 

occurs in livestock grazing on ryegrass pastures 

infected with the endophyte fungus. 

Pesticides: Monitor adults by examining catchers 

during daytime, spraying area with pyrethrum or 

by leaving clippings in sun. Larvae can be 

detected by examining tillers. Spray to control 

adults when first noticed, eg in spring. If banks 

around golf greens are planted with cool season 

species, eg ryegrass or bent they should also be 

treated. Larvae are difficult to reach and eggs 

difficult to kill with insecticides. 

Caterpillars, grassgrubs, lawn grubs, 

webworms (Lepidoptera) sporadically damage turf 

usually for short periods in summer and autumn. 

Armyworms and cutworms (Noctuidae) 

Black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) 

Bogong moth, common cutworm (A. infusa) 

Brown cutworm (A. munda) 

Common armyworm (Leucania convecta) 

Dayfeeding armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) 

Lawn armyworm (S. mauritia) 

Cutworms (Agrostis spp.) may damage turf 

especially couch and bent. Caterpillars are up to 

40 mm long, smooth bodied, dark-grey to almost 

black, dark-brown, olive green, pinkish. When 

disturbed they coil up like a watch spring and sham 

death. Older caterpillars feed on warm calm or cool 

clear nights or during the day in cloudy weather. 

They hide by day in the soil or in old core holes. 

Damage resembles that of dollar spot, ie spots 

up to 50 mm across with a central and vertical 

chamber from which they feed. Back fill old core 

holes during green renovation. Natural controls 

include adverse weather (hot days, windy weather), 

birds, parasitic insects and diseases. Wet weather 

may force many older caterpillars to the surface. 

Monitor cutworms by laying a bag on the grass at 

night, caterpillars will shelter under it. Late afternoon 

or evening is the best time to gauge the need for 

spraying. Spray late in afternoon. 

Grassgrubs, underground grassgrubs (Oncopera spp., 

Hepialidae), eg underground grass caterpillar (O. 

fasiculata), underground grassgrub or winter corbie 

(O. rufobrunnea), corbie (O. intricata), Ebor 

grassgrub (O. alboguttata), alpine grassgrub (O. 

alpina). Caterpillars occur in sporadic plagues, are 

up to 75 mm long (Fig. 282), dark green-brown and 

feed on leaves in autumn and winter and throw up 

small heaps of soil together with fine threads of silk. 

Heavy watering may force caterpillars to the surface 

and birds eat them. 

Webworms (Pyralidae) are caterpillars of some pyralid 

moths. They are usually green-brown with dark spots 

and up to about 25 mm long, eg 

Couchgrass webworm (Sclerobia tritalis) 

Grass webworm (Calamotropha leptogrammella) 

Pasture webworms (Hednota, Ptochostola) 

Sod webworm, grass caterpillar (Herpetogramma 

licarsisalis) is a sporadic pest of turf in late 

summer/autumn. Caterpillars feed on leaf blades 

and may defoliate turf. Moths fly at night and are 

attracted to outside lights. 

Others: Grass anthelid (Pterolocera amplicornis, 

Anthelidae), grass funnel moth (Philobota 

chionoptera, Oecophoridae), pasture day moth 

(Apina callisto, Agaristidae), brown pasture looper 

(Ciampa arietaria, Geometridae), buffel grass seed 

caterpillar (Mampava rhodoneura, Pyralidae). 

Alpine case moth (Lomera caespitosae, Psychidae) 

on native Poa sp. Also skippers (Hesperiidae), eg 

darts (Ocybadistes spp.), grassdarts (Taractrocera 

spp.), bright shield skipper (Signeta flammeata) and 

dispar skipper (Dispar compacta) on Kentucky 

bluegrass, cynone skipper (Anisynta cynone) on 

couchgrass; browns (Nymphalidae), eg Bank's 

brown butterfly (Heteronympha banksii) and 

browns (Oreizenica spp.) on Kentucky bluegrass, 

evening brown butterfly (Malanitis leda) on buffalo 

grass, Hobart brown (Argynnina hobartia), common 

brown ringlet (Hypocysta metirus) on couchgrass 

(Common and Waterhouse 1981, Common 1990). 


Crickets (Orthoptera) 

Black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus, 

Gryllidae) affects turfgrasses and pasture, 

ornamentals, vegetables and fruit. They swarm to 

lights and into houses, where they have been known 

to damage clothing and other fabrics. Adults are 

strong fliers, black or dark brown, about 25 mm long, 

with 2 pairs of wings, long antennae and strong back 

legs adapted for jumping (Fig. 283). Males produce a 

chirping sound in the evening by moving their wings. 

Nymphs resemble adults but have no wings. 

Nymphs and adults chew leaves and growing 

points, plants may be chewed off at ground level. 

They also chew fruit, eg strawberries. They shelter 

under leaves and in soil cracks during the day and 

feed at night. Gradual metamorphosis (egg, 

nymph, adult) with 1 generation a year. Female 

adults lay about 300 eggs in cracks in soil after first 

autumn rains. Crickets die at the onset of cold 

weather. The eggs hatch the following spring/summer. 

Young nymphs live in cracks in the soil. 

Overwinters as eggs in soil. Spread by adults 

flying. Nymphs crawl and hop and may cover large 

distances. Favoured in late spring/summer/autumn. 

Manage soil to reduce cracking. In Victoria a 

wasp (Procaccus dubius) parasitises many eggs. A 

fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) is being researched 

as a biological control agent (Milner et al. 1996). 

Baits may be broadcast in the late afternoon or 

crickets treated with insecticide when noticed in 

cracked soil during summer. 

TURFGRASSES L 9

TURFGRASSES 

Mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp., Gryllotalpidae) 

burrow in soil and sporadically feed on plant roots, 

runners and organic matter. Adults are dull brown, 

about 40 mm long and as thick as a pencil. Their 

powerful front legs are broadly flattened with toothlike 

projections for digging (Fig. 283). Crickets 

'sing' using special structures on the wing covers. 

Adults shelter during the day in vertical tunnels (up to 

1 m deep) and feed in the evening or at night on roots 

and lower stems of grasses and by tunnelling 

horizontally just beneath the soil, causing uneven 

playing surfaces, roots to dry out, and kill patches of 

grass. Newly seeded areas may be churned up, killing 

germinating seeds or uprooting seedlings. They throw 

up mounds of soil around their tunnel entrances. 

Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymphs, adult) with 

1-2 generations each year. Females lay eggs in 

clusters in cells 70-250 mm deep in the soil, during 

late spring/summer. All stages may be observed 

during summer. Adults predominate in the early 

summer, and nymphs in autumn-winter. 

Overwinters as adults or nymphs. Spread by 

crickets flying. Favoured by warm spells after heavy 

rain in spring/summer, moist sandy soils. Control by 

insecticides or by physical means. Changa 

mole cricket (Scapteriscus didactylus) has been 

identified in Australia, it is a major horticultural and 

agricultural pest overseas (Kaapro 1996). The changa 

mole cricket has 2 digging claws on each of its front 

tibia whereas Gryllotalpa spp. has 4 digging claws. 

See Strawberry F 141, Vegetables M 13. 

Flies (Diptera) 

Couchtip maggot (Delia urbana, Anthomyiidae, 

Diptera) affects newly established turf, especially 

couch. Decaying plant material attracts flies for egg 

laying. Flies are black, about 2 mm long and are 

seen in summer and warm winter weather during egg 

laying in leaf sheaths. Maggots about 1 mm long 

tunnel into stems and feed on growing points which 

wilt. Damaged turf generally browns off in irregular 

patches. Favoured by animal manures, organic 

fertilisers, during warm weather in spring and summer 

after cool wet winters. Avoid favouring 

conditions. Systemic insecticides may be applied if 

several adults or any maggots are observed. Maintain 

well watered and adequately fertilised turf. 

Lawn fly (Hydrellia tritici, Ephydridae Diptera) 

maggots are mainly aquatic or live within stems or 

roots of land plants in wet areas and freshwater plants, 

especially in extra-tropical pastures. See Onion M 68. 



Couch flea beetle (Chaetocnema australica) feeds on 

temperate climate turfgrasses, eg bent, couch. Flea 

beetles have small shiny bodies 1.5-3 mm long, 

strong hind legs so they can hop like fleas. 

Turfgrasses stripped by beetles have silvery leaf 

markings and look bleached. Turf may wilt and 

eventually die. There are 2-3 generations each 

season, the 1st hatching is in spring and the 2nd in 

autumn. Under favourable conditions there may be a 

3rd hatching in late autumn. The life cycle is similar 

to that of the black beetle. Chemical treatments for 

control. Active in summer. Little is known about the 

larvae except that they live in the soil and may feed 

on the roots of grasses. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Crabgrass leaf beetle (Oulema rufotincta) is small, 

dark brown, shiny, slightly larger than couch flea 

beetle. It can fly but not jump. When disturbed the 

beetles drop off the grass. They attack Qld blue couch 

and crabgrass. Larvae are small, slug-like, covered 

with a clear gelatinous substance. They are usually 

present with the adults. Larva are most damaging. 

Effect on infected lawns is similar to couch flea beetle 

with the surface turning grey, dry and unthrifty. No 

chemicals are presently registered to control this pest. 


Leafhoppers and planthoppers 

(Hemiptera), eg Australian grass leafhopper 

(Nesoclutha pallida, Cicadellidae), turf 

planthopper (Toya dryope, Delphacidae) and 

leafhoppers or planthoppers (Jassidae) are 

sporadic pests capable of causing damage to turf if 

conditions are favourable. See Trees K 15. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera), 

eg grass-crown mealybug, felted grass coccid 

(Antonina graminis) which damages couch, 

kikuyu, buffalo grass and Qld blue couch. Also 

ryegrass mealybug (Phenacoccus graminicola), 

grassroot mealybug (Rhizoecus rumicis) and 

Ripersia spp. Mealybugs are subterranean 

pests that occur sporadically on roots of many 

turfgrasses especially bent and couch, and often 

escape detection. Colonies enveloped in white, 

cottony, waxy material develop which forms the 

egg covering. Damage mainly occurs after coring, 

the mealybugs breeding prolifically on the many 

roots in the core holes. Brown or dry patches like 

dollar spot can form around core holes. Turf looks 

dry and wilted as adults suck sap from roots. Core 

holes should be back filled. Top dressing soon 

after coring reduces access for the pest. Generous 

watering may also discourage them. Avoid heavy 

cutting as this weakens turf. Apply water and 

fertilisers to offset effects. Chemical control may 

be difficult because of the difficulty of getting 

insecticides to the target. See Greenhouses N 25. 


Earth mites (Penthaleidae), eg blue oat mite 

(Penthaleus major), redlegged earth mite 

(Halotydeus destructor). Nymphs and adults suck 

sap from leaves which become mottled and whitish. 

Infested plants may become stunted, brown and die. 

Seedlings can be killed outright. Damage is often 

mistaken for frost injury. See Vegetables M 16. 

Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae): Couch mite 

(Eriophyes tenuis) and couchgrass mite 

(E. cynodoniensis) affect bent, couch, kikuyu. They 

are microscopic, creamy, worm-like with 2 pairs legs 

near the head. They produce no webbing. Mites feed 

on and in leaf axils and attackgrowing tips causing 

yellowing, stunting and bunchy growth. Heavily 

infested areas turn brown and die. Favoured by dry 

and stressed grass during summer. Avoid spreading 

mites by cutting affected parts of turf last and 

destroying clippings. Clean mowers after mowing. 

Miticides may be required. See Grapevine F 62. 

False spider mites (Tenuipalpidae): Couch mite 

(Dolichotetranychus australianus) affects couch. It is 

red, flat, relatively slow moving, just visible to the 

naked eye, produces no webbing and damages turf in 

the same way as other grass mites. 

L 10 

TURFGRASSES

TURFGRASSES 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae) can just be seen with the 

naked eye. Grasswebbing mites (Oligonychus 

araneum, O. digitatus) attack couch, Qld blue couch 

and buffalo. On dewy mornings mites can be seen 

running about on fine webbing. They damage turf in 

the same way as eriophyid mites. Pasture mite 

(Bryobia repensi) does not produce webs and affects 

ryegrass. Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) 

may infest buffalo. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Mite presence may be confirmed by laboratory 

examination. Mites breed quickly during 

summer. Adequate watering and fertilising may 

stimulate turfgrass growth but recovery is usually 

slow. Miticides are registered for use. 


Couchgrass scale (Odonaspis ruthae, Diaspididae) 

does not produce honeydew. Adult covers are hard, 

white, about 1.5 mm long, elongated and taper 

towards the rear. Female covers are larger and 

broader. Scales normally hide beneath grass 

blades and are also found attached to runners of 

couch at the nodes above and below the ground 

surface. Washing out a plug will reveal them. Scales 

suck sap. Grass fails to make good root, stem or leaf 

growth and may be lighter in colour than unaffected 

grass. Stems may become red at the internodes. No 

pesticides are registered in WA. Many lawns and 

grassed areas can withstand infestations without being 

severely affected. See Citrus F 39. 

Grass coccid (Symonicoccus australis, Coccidae) may 

infest turfgrasses. See Citrus F 41. 

Ground pearls (Margarodidae), eg ground pearls 

(Margarodes spp.), may severely damage turfgrasses, 

eg couch, Qld blue couch, kikuyu, occasionally bent. 

They are subterranean pests which live deep in soil 

and feed on turf roots. Ground pearls are pale to 

purplish in colour, they have needle-like mouth parts 

and small pearl-like bodies and are up to 3 mm across. 

Nymphs crawl to suitable feeding sites on the roots 

of turfgrasses. As they mature, legs and antennae are 

lost and a characteristic pearl-like cover is secreted. 

When this hardens adult females become immobile 

and remain on roots feeding and producing eggs. One 

life cycle may take 1 year to complete. Affected 

turf may brown and die in irregular patches. 

Chemical control is difficult because of the 

difficulty of getting the insecticide to the target pest. 

Young nymphs and adult females are the only 

susceptible stages. Insecticides are usually 

applied in late spring or summer, but the susceptible 

stages must be identified. White oil may be added as 

it is a wetting agent. Others: Pink ground pearl 

(Eumargarodes laingi), white ground pearl 

(Promargarodes australis). See Citrus F 41. 


Scarab beetles, scarab grubs 

Scientific name: Scarabaeidae, Coleoptera: 


Argentinian scarab (Cyclocephala signaticollis) 

Black beetle (Metanastes vulgivagus) 

Blackheaded pasture cockchafer (Aphodius 

tasmaniae, A. pseudotasmaniae) 

Brown cockchafer (Ataenius imparalis) 

Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.) 

Dusky pasture scarab (Sericesthis nigrolineata) 

Paspalum whitegrub Lepidiota laevis 

Pasture whitegrubs (Rhopaea spp.) 

Pruinose scarab (Sericesthis geminata) 

Redheaded cockchafer (Adoryphorus coulonii) 

Host range: Young larvae feed on organic 

matter in the soil and when older, feed mainly on 

roots of grasses and occasionally ornamentals, eg 

herbaceous perennials, fruit, eg peanut, pineapple, 

strawberry, vegetables, eg potato, field crops, eg 

sugarcane. Beetles may feed on stems/foliage of 

often quite different plants, eg Christmas beetles 

and pruinose scarabs feed on eucalypt, tea-tree, 

introduced pepper tree (Schinus molle) and plum 

trees. Adults of some species, eg African black 

beetle, feed on the same plants as the larvae. See 

Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 7. 

New Zealand grass grub (Costelytra zealandica) is a 

serious pest of pasture and crop plants in NZ. 

Quarantine risks and precautions: The probable 

means of entry to Australia would be as the adult beetle 

in the cargo holds of aircraft or associated with 

passenger baggage or goods freighted to Australia by air 

from New Zealand. Baggage of campers and hitchhikers 

may pose the greatest risk (Com. of Aust. 1987). 

Description and damage: Beetles are usually 

broad, chunky and convex, and up to 25 mm long 

(Fig. 280). Larvae are plump, soft, cylindrical, 

about 20-70 mm long, grey to white with a hard 

shiny dark head with prominent jaws and well 

developed legs on the thorax. They are nearly 

always curled in a C-shape (Fig. 280). Larvae live 

in the soil for up to 2 years feeding on the roots of 

turfgrasses. Damage is usually first noticed in 

autumn when patches of turf die and become soft 

and uneven. More damage is caused by birds 

digging to feed on the larvae, particularly if the 

area is wet. Turf can be pulled back to reveal the 

grubs. Larvae can be identified by their anal 

shape and surrounding hairs. Identification is 

important as different species may require different 

management techniques. Infestation tends to move 

outwards from a central point where the eggs were 

laid. As many as 250 scarab grubs/m 2 have been 

recorded in the ACT. Fruit, ornamentals and 

vegetables: Damage by larvae is often 

misdiagnosed and may occur if soil is excessively 

wet. Larvae may feed on roots of strawberry and 

pineapples and fruit or nut nursery stock, planted 

in old pasture land, container-grown nursery 

plants, eg eucalypt (several larvae in a pot result in 

plants wilting and wobbling). Potato stems may 

be severed below ground or round deep holes 

gouged in tubers. 


(curl grub, scarab grub), pupa, adult) with 

1 generation each 1-3 years. In spring female 

beetles lay eggs in well watered fine open textured 

turf. Eggs hatch in January-February, larvae feed 

just below the soil surface on organic matter. 

Towards March larvae move deeper into the soil 

and feed on grass roots. When cold winter 

weather arrives, larvae burrow deeper into the soil. 

During late spring larvae pupate. In summer adult 

beetles emerge and fly off to host plants, mate and 

commence egg laying, after which they die. 

Overwintering: As larvae in the soil in special 

overwintering chambers. 

TURFGRASSES L 11

TURFGRASSES 

Spread: Adults can fly long distances. Adults of 

some species, eg African black beetle, may crawl 

in from nearby areas or be transported in flood 

water. Larvae may be spread in containers and 

bush litter used as mulch. 

Conditions favouring: Well watered fine 

textured grass lawns and open textured soil are 

favoured for egg laying. If infestation is dense, 

severe damage usually occurs to turf during 

autumn. Fruit and vegetable crops may be 

damaged if planted out in recently-ploughed 

grassland containing paspalum on which larvae 

have been feeding. Beetles are attracted to street 

lights and may attempt to burrow under the lights 

even though the surface may be impossibly hard. 

Control: In commercial turf identify the species 

of scarab grub so that the most effective method of 

control can be selected. Once an infestation is 

established, control measures are ineffective. 

Cultural methods: Avoid situations which favour 

infestation and reduce the impact by maintaining 

turf in good condition. Healthy vigorous turf 

can support large populations of scarabs without 

apparent damage. 

Correct watering: As soil moisture levels are a 

major factor in attracting egg laying beetles to the 

lawn, avoid frequent light watering, as this 

encourages shallow-rooted turf which will not 

tolerate surface drying, and may also encourage 

invasion by scarab beetles. Soil compaction is the 

most common cause of water run-off which prevents 

water penetration, this should be remedied. Correct 

fertilisation should be carried out when turf is 

actively growing, eg spring and autumn. Aeration 

procedures (coring) result in better water 

penetration. Lawns containing clovers may be 

less severely damaged as larvae prefer to eat roots of 

grasses. Clovers maintain ground cover until grasses 

recover. Cut turf at the recommended height. 

For other crops, a period of fallow between 

ploughing and planting is beneficial. Jetting 

gives some remission. 

Biological control: Many viral, bacterial and 

fungal diseases, parasitic flies and wasps, and 

nematodes, may kill larvae. At present a 

nematode (Steinernema glaseri) is being 

researched for possible use against the 

redheaded pasture cockchafer (Adoryphorus 

couloni). In wet turf, starlings, currawongs, 

magpies and other birds feed on larvae when 

they are close to the surface. If larvae are 

present and near the surface, watering during the 

day or early evening may increase the activity of 

natural diseases which attack larvae. Extremes 

in weather, especially prolonged drought or 

prolonged rain or extremely high soil 

temperatures at the time of egg laying will also 

limit larval populations. 

Resistant varieties: The roots of some grasses, eg 

tall fescue, regenerate more quickly than some 

other grasses. Clover is less severely damaged. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Light traps 

monitor beetle presence in high priority areas 

during the egg laying period. Nail studded 

rollers may be used behind mowers to injure the 

grubs when they are feeding close to the surface, 

allowing secondary infection and death. 

Pesticides: Chemical control is only justified in 

commercial turf, eg bowling greens, not in 

home gardens. Soil plugs to monitor scarab 

grub numbers in October indicate whether 

spraying is necessary for that season. If 

chemicals are to successfully control larvae they 

should be applied when larvae are close to the 

surface feeding on organic matter and body fat is 

minimal (before damage is obvious). Treatment 

carried out when damage is obvious, usually in 

autumn, leads to poor results, because larvae are 

feeding deeper in the soil and contain larger 

quantities of fat which may absorb some of the 

chemical, preventing larvae from being killed. 

Birds feeding on larvae treated with some 

insecticides could be poisoned if eaten in 

sufficient numbers. Failure to control scarab 

grubs is usually due to poor timing of application 

and/or poor application methods. Check local 

dates for application. Water lightly and mow 

turf prior to treatment to ensure insecticide 

reaches larvae in soil. After treatment, water 

heavily to carry chemicals into the root zone and 

reach larvae 25 mm deep and to avoid poisoning 

ducks. All poisoned larvae and adults should be 

removed from surface areas to avoid poisoning 

birds. Select insecticides non-toxic to birds. 


In addition to Argentine stem weevil (Listronotus 

bonariensis) (ASW) larvae of several other species 

of weevils (mainly native) can damage cool and 

warm season turfgrasses if conditions favour 

plague numbers. See Turfgrasses L 8. Vegetable 

weevil (Listroderes difficilis) is a problem 

overseas. Weevil larvae are legless, up to 10 mm 

long, fat, white with brown or yellow heads. If in 

large numbers, chemical control may be required: 

Billbug, La Plata weevil (Sphenophorus brunnipennis) is 

a sporadic pest of turfgrasses, especially kikuyu and 

some couch varieties. Billbugs are dark, hard 

weevils, 9-10 mm long (Fig 281). Wing covers have 

lighter-coloured longitudinal striations, they have a long 

snout, club-shaped antennae and resemble ASW but are 

about 4 times their size. Larvae have a cream body, 

brown head, are legless and up to 10 mm long. Young 

larvae tunnel in stems and crowns. As they grow 

larger they leave the stolons and feed on rhizomes, 

stolons and crown, cutting leaves off from the roots. 

When fully fed, larvae pupate at, or just below, the soil 

surface. There are 2 generations each year. 

Overwinters as beetles. In summer irregular areas 

of dead turf can easily be pulled away from the soil. 

Birds may damage damp turf in their efforts to find 

larvae. Insecticides are applied as drenches, timing is 

critical to application. 


(Coleoptera) 

False wireworms (Tenebrionidae) are the larvae of 

beetles, eg false wireworm (Celibe spp.), striate false 

wireworm (Pterohelaeus alternatus). False 

wireworm, small false wireworm (Gonocephalum 

walkeri) larvae are hard and shiny. Adult beetles 

are broad grey-black, flattened, about 8 mm long. 

Often numerous in lawns and surrounding areas where 

they shelter under leaves and sticks during the day. 

They are often confused with black beetles, but they 

do not attack roots of grasses and cause little damage 

to healthy turf. Beetles and larvae may damage 

young seedlings in gardens but their control on 

lawns is seldom justified. 

L 12 

TURFGRASSES

TURFGRASSES 

Wireworms (Elateridae) are click beetle larvae (Fig. 

280) which feed on underground stems and 

roots causing them to die. They also feed on seed 

embryos, preventing germination. They are generally 

beneficial and prey on eggs and young larvae of other 

insects. They may damage grass by attacking seeds 

and growing tips of grasses. 


Others: Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera), eg 

bluegreen aphid (Acyrthosiphon kondoi) and 

spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis trifolii), are 

sporadic pests of turf. Also bugs (Hemiptera), eg 

kikuyu grass bug (Halticus chrysolepsis) and 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor), earwigs 

(Dermaptera), lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis, 

Collembola), slaters (Porcellionidae, Isopoda), 

symphylids (Symphala) and cocksfoot thrips 

(Chirothrips manicatus). 


Slugs especially are often found on overgrown 

turf which is surrounded by weedy areas. See 



Grazing animals may damage turf. 

Non-parasitic 

In both commercial and home garden turf the most 

common and serious problems are non-parasitic, 

the worst being weed infestations, compaction 

and dry patch. 

Algae and fungi 

Algae, black or green scum (Nostoc spp., other 

genera, Phylum Bryophyta) affects turf especially 

greens, eg golf fairways and playing fields, where 

large quantities of water are applied and soils stay wet 

for long periods. Algae are microscopic green plants 

which occur naturally in soil and water. They are not 

parasitic on turfgrasses. A slippery, gelatinous, thin, 

dark green scum develops on the surface of thin turf. 

As it dries out it becomes a dark green-black thin crust 

which may crack, curl up and peel off. If severe, algae 

can smother young shoots and prevent growth. Algae 

is spread by active algal growth, by renovation 

practices and running water. Favoured by surface 

moisture, heavy rain or excessive irrigation, 

persistently wet soil, poor drainage and ventilation, 

shading, anything that prevents the rapid removal of 

excess water, low temperatures, bare and weak turf. 

Permanent control of algae is only obtained by 

avoiding conditions which favour it. Break existing 

scum up with a rake and remove, then top dress lightly 

with sandy soil. Fungicides and iron sulphate 

can assist with short term control until grass regrows. 

Dry patch affects all types of turf, especially bent. 

Some non-parasitic fungi growing in soil, coat sand 

grains with water-repellent chemicals, so that they wet 

only to a depth of 10-12 mm, even if large amounts of 

water are applied. Roots are unable to get water from 

the dry soil and turf suffers from moisture stress, 

leaves wilt and may die. Affected patches are usually 

circular but vary in size. A soil core taken from a dry 

patch after heavy watering will still be dry. Wet soil 

suppresses the soil organisms causing dry patch, other 

soil organisms take over the newly moistened soil. 

Microorganisms overwinter in soil organic matter. 

Spread by microorganisms growing through soil. 

Favoured by hot, dry, windy weather, October- 

March, sandy soils, slopes or greens, edges of 

bunkers, compacted turf areas, acid pH (keep pH at 

6.0-7.5 on affected greens). Wet soil by spiking the 

green to a recommended depth to facilitate penetration 

of a wetting agent, slowly water area to allow the 

water to seep through affected zone. The green must 

be kept moist, as drying out will return it to its water 

repellent state quite quickly. If this occurs the rewetting 

program must be carried out again. Repeat 

treatments may be necessary over 1-2 years. 

Fairy rings (Lepiota, Lycoperdon, Marasmius, 

Basidiomycetes) grow in lawns, playing fields and 

pasture, they are not parasitic on living plants, but 

they grow on organic matter in the soil. The 

mycelium grows in all directions from a central point 

and forms a large circle in the soil. At the actively 

growing front of the ring, the fungus decays organic 

matter and releases soil nitrogen, which is used by 

itself and by grasses, resulting in a 100-200 mm wide 

circular or arc-shaped ring of darker green or 

faster growing grass. In late summer or autumn 

after mild wet weather, fruiting bodies (mushrooms 

or toadstools) may appear in this lush ring. Fairy 

rings tend to come up year after year in the same 

place. Various types of fairy rings may develop 

including those with rings of dead grass within the 

lush ring or no symptoms except fruiting bodies. 

Overwinters in the soil. Spores are spread by 

wind or by movement of infested soil on renovation 

machinery etc. Favoured by light textured poorly 

aerated soils which have low fertility, and are high in 

undecomposed organic matter and insufficient 

moisture, warm weather. Fairy rings are difficult to 

control. The organic matter in the soil on which the 

fungus grows is all eventually used up and fairy rings 

disappear. Maintain organic matter at < 3% to reduce 

food for fairy rings. Core and water, reduce thatch. 

Avoid conditions which favour fairy rings. 

Control methods include making the dark rings less 

conspicuous by applying nitrogen fertiliser so the 

colour difference is not so great. This is probably one 

of the best methods to use in the home garden. 

Watering encourages bacteria. Soil in affected 

areas may be removed as a minimum dig a trench 

600-700 mm deep, extending 450 mm on either side 

of the stimulated zone and remove soil and destroy, 

do not spill it on to adjacent healthy parts of turf. 

Replace with disease-free soil and replant. 

Commercial turf may be drenched with wetting 

agents and/or fungicides after hollow-tyning, but 

is not always successful: Soil fumigation kills 

everything so that replanting is necessary. 

Slime moulds (Mucilago spp., Physarum cinereum, 

Myxomycetes) are found on turfgrasses, low lying 

plants, eg bulbs, strawberries, lower portions of 

shrubs, dead leaves, logs, organic matter but are not 

parasitic on plants. The body (plasmodium) of a 

slime mould is a difficult-to-see jelly-like structure 

many centimetres across which creeps very slowly, 

like an amoeba, from place to place over the surface 

of decaying leaves, twigs and grass clippings, feeding 

TURFGRASSES L 13

TURFGRASSES 

on them and microorganisms, which it simply engulfs 

and digests. When it is fully grown, it moves up on to 

grass blades, leaves and low branches where it forms 

masses of grey, brown, white, pink, green or 

yellow fruiting bodies (spore-producing bodies) 

which attract attention (Fig. 285). Usually they do not 

injure plants, except to have a slight smothering 

(reducing photosynthesis) and cosmetic effect. 

Affected grass does not usually die or yellow. 

Fruiting bodies usually disappear within 1-2 weeks. 

Spores are spread by wind, water splash and 

possibly by machinery. Favoured by cool wet 

weather following heavy rain in late spring and early 

autumn. As soon as spores mature they can be 

washed away with a hose, leaving grass unaffected. In 

extreme cases, if it persists, it can be controlled with 

fungicide. 

Animals: Injury from dog and cat urine 

damage is generally not persistent, as recovery 

followed by a lush growth normally occurs readily, 

especially where compounds in the urine have been 

dispersed by heavy watering. Birds may damage turf 

when seeking scarab larvae. 

Earthworms (Class Annelida): Some of the 

300 or more native worms are very large. There are 

more than 150 introduced species and it is these that 

are commonly encountered in turf and garden areas. 

Allolbophora caligninase are often washed on to 

paths and roadways after heavy rain. Tiger 

earthworms (Eisenia spp.) frequent compost heaps 

or places where leaf mould is plentiful. Worms occur 

in all soils except dry, sandy soils and where humus is 

deficient. Adult worms are segmented, have a long, 

thin, streamlined body permitting easy burrowing 

through soil, while a series of pairs of bristles help to 

grip the soil and push the worm along. Although there 

is a head, there are no eyes or specialised sense 

organs. Earthworms are hermaphroditic, but not selffertilising. 

Eggs are deposited in moist earth. 

Earthworms increase soil fertility in moist soils 

containing abundant organic matter by breaking up 

soil particles during feeding and tunnelling 

resulting in better water penetration. They also eat, 

along with earth particles, dead plant material and 

animal manure lying on the soil surface, digesting 

these. they pass out indigestible material (castings), 

which bacteria break down into materials useable by 

growing plants. This is probably their most 

important function. These castings if numerous, 

ruin the appearance of lawns and turf where a 

smooth even turf is required. A heavy roller may 

alleviate mound damage to turf. A suitable pesticide 

may be applied when infestations are first noticed. 

Environment: The need for irrigation of 

all turfgrasses, including those described as drought 

resistant, is generally accepted. In applying water to 

turf during summer, it is desirable to wet the entire 

root zone at each irrigation event, heavy watering at 

intervals of a few days is more effective and more 

economical than a daily light watering. Intervals 

between waterings will depend on weather, the depth 

of the root system and turf species. Deeper 

penetration of water can often be encouraged by 

forking or hollow-tyning during summer, particularly 

on slopes and areas which tend to become hard and 

impervious. Some turfgrass species tolerate more 

shade than others. Some species tolerate high or low 

temperatures better than others. Heat scald occurs 

where there is ponding of water, especially of turf 

with thick root mat which absorbs large quantities 

of water. Hot weather may then cause heating of the 

water which can literally 'cook' the turf in that area 

causing patches of dead turf. Manage turf to reduce 

root mat, provide good water management design and 

drainage. 


Itch mites, chigger mites (Trombiculidae, Acarina), eg 

blacksoil itch mite (Eutrombicula sarcina), scrub 

typhus mite (Leptotrombidium deliense), teatree 

itch mite (E. samboni), tropical scrub itch mite (E. 

hirdti). Grass itch mite (Odontacarus australiensis) 

is found in grass mostly on clay soils. It is minute and 

sucks blood attaching itself to the skin like a tick. 

Bites on humans cause swellings, which remain 

intensely itchy for days. Adults lay eggs in soil. One 

property may be severely infested while a 

neighbouring one may be free from infestation. Most 

common in September-April. It may be necessary to 

treat clothing, garden beds and lawns. 

Springtails (Collembola, Arthropoda), eg garden 

springtail (Bourletiella hortensis), mushroom 

springtail (Hypogastrura armeta), white springtail 

(Folsomia candida) are mainly scavengers. Some are 

found in turf cores, on rotting bulbs, and damaged 

corms and seeds. Some live among moss, mushrooms 

or compost. Occasionally healthy seeds and seedlings 

are attacked. Adult springtails have 3 pairs of legs, 

antennae, are blue-black, green, grey, reddish, yellow 

or white, mostly < 6 mm long, with no wings, often 

with a forked structure (furcula) on the abdomen for 

jumping (Fig. 286). Female springtails lay eggs in 

soil or organic matter. There are several generations 

each year. Nymphs resemble adults (no 

metamorphosis) but are smaller. Spread by 

crawling, floating on water in drainage channels or 

streams, movement of decaying vegetable matter. 

Favoured by prolonged wet weather and decaying 

moist organic matter. Numbers decrease during warm 

summer months when soils are drier. Avoid 

conditions favouring springtails. Reduce 

moisture. If planting seedlings in heavily infested 

soil, pre-plant liming and frequent turning over of 

earth reduces numbers and risk of plant injury. Only 

if seeds or seedlings are being injured should soil or 

plants be treated with insecticide. 

Mechanical injury: 

Clippings may be allowed to fall on to turf if the turf is 

cut frequently and the cut is only a few mm. During 

summer, clippings wither rapidly and have a valuable 

mulching effect which tends to keep the soil moister 

and, as they decay, provide a certain amount of plant 

food. In winter and in damp weather, or if the clip is 

longer than a few mm, they do not disappear quickly 

and tend to collect in damp masses, which may cause 

local damage to grass as they decay. Increasing 

mowing height and frequency conserves water. 

Compaction occurs in areas subject to traffic forcing 

soil particles together at the expense of the air spaces, 

especially during wet conditions when soil particles 

under pressure move together more easily. 

Compacted soil reduces availability of air to roots, 

and space for roots to grow through. It is less able to 

absorb water and nutrients, resulting in bare areas and 

weak, shallow rooted turf, which does not tolerate 

wear or respond to fertilising. It may also be water 

L 14 

TURFGRASSES

TURFGRASSES 

repellent, not drain freely and be susceptible to 

diseases and invasion by mosses, algae and weeds. 

Reduce compaction by limiting traffic and 

renovation procedures,eg hollowing-tyning, boring. 

Equipment: Poorly maintained and adjusted 

equipment may damage the turf surface. Avoid 

skidding or scuffing especially when turning. 

Closeness and frequency of mowing affects not only 

the appearance of turf but also its botanical 

composition. True turf-forming grasses have either a 

crown which is set low in the ground or well 

developed surface or underground runners which can 

withstand constant close mowing without serious 

damage. Coarser, high-crowned grasses gradually die 

out under such regimes. Garden lawns usually are not 

mown as closely as golf and bowling greens. Mowing 

stimulates the production of new shoots and 

maintains, with proper cultural treatments, a dense 

and vigorous turf. Mow to a constant 

recommended height as frequently as possible, 

the aim being to remove no more than 1/3rd of the 

height of existing grass. Too close or irregular 

cutting reduces turf vigour by removing too great a 

proportion of the leaf blade, which is the major foodproducing 

part of the plant. It also exposes the crown 

to excessive drying out and damage. It is one of the 

commonest causes of poor lawn vigour, development 

of bare patches and other problems in home gardens. 

Grass allowed to grow too long should only be 

reduced a little at each cutting until the correct height 

is reached. Infrequent but severe mowing is 

damaging to all turf. Grass may be left a little longer 

during the hottest times of the year, but any change in 

mowing should be made gradually. 

Playing damage, eg divots may be reduced by 

management practices which include repair of 

damaged areas and distribution of playing demands, 

communication and education such as not playing in 

wet weather. 

Others: Vandals may damage turf. Lawn mowers 

may damage tree collars (Fig. 287). 

Mosses (Musci, Bryophyta) are not parasitic on 

plants but may form a dense growth in turf, lawns, on 

trees, logs and rocks. They are simple green plants, 

contain chlorophyll and produce much of their own 

food when exposed to light. They are soil makers, 

hold moisture and are mainly beneficial. Mosses 

may choke out turf-forming grasses, but in summer 

they die resulting in large bare areas which may be 

invaded by weeds. Spores are spread by wind. 

Favoured by waterlogged, poorly drained, acid soils 

of low nutrient status, shady areas protected from 

drying winds. Permanent control can only be 

obtained by adequate drainage and soil aeration, 

diversion of surface water, adjusting soil pH to 6.0- 

7.5, supplying adequate fertiliser, reducing shade and 

increasing ventilation. Apply sulphate of iron. 

Affected areas should be hollow-tyned to a depth of 

100-120 mm. Repeat treatments may be required. 

After moss is dead, rake and scarify area, lightly top 

dress and reseed. 


Nutritional disorders can lead to disease-like 

symptoms. Conduct regular leaf and soil analysis. 

Acid mat: The optimum pH for growing turf is 

between 6.0-7.5 so that while acid soils are preferred 

many are too strongly acid (those with a pH < 5.5). 

Grass appears unthrifty and some turf species may 

compact in growth habit forming a mat. Favoured 

by sandy soils, applications of sulphate of ammonia, 

urea or any mixture containing these nitrogenous 

fertilisers will increase soil acidity. Apply 

agricultural lime to raise the pH to the desired level. 

Deficiencies: A program of fertiliser treatment 

based on soil and leaf analyses from the time of 

sowing, will reduce weed problems and will improve 

vigour, density and appearance. Manure may 

introduce weeds. Phosphorous encourages clover 

growth. Many fertilisers may damage turf, 

especially if applied unevenly or at excessive rates to 

wet turf, or not watered in after application. Where 

excessive fertiliser application has occurred, 

immediate and regular watering normally corrects the 

problem. Top dress with soil occasionally to level 

up the surface. Apply as thinly as possible and work 

in with the back of a rake. The layer of soil must not 

be spread too thickly, grass leaves must not be buried. 

Raking turf and closely mowing it prior to top 

dressing will increase its benefits. 

Pesticide injury may be caused by 

excessive or uneven applications or chemical drip. 

Herbicides may check growth or kill turf, especially 

selective grass herbicides. Chemicals must be applied 

according to label directions and, where 

recommended, watered in to complete treatment. 

Poorly maintained and calibrated equipment or 

unsuitable application techniques contribute to 

damage. Depending on the chemical, if over or 

uneven application has occurred, immediately dilute 

pesticide with copious amounts of water. Those that 

damage leaves have to be washed off. Some 

fungicides may cause discolouration of turf. 

Broadleaved hormone herbicide and fertiliser 

containers, which are attached to garden hoses, 

tend to apply chemicals unevenly and drift on to, and 

damage, broadleaved plants surrounding the lawn. 

Pollutants: Fuel, lubricants and cleaning 

agents kill turf and may remain active in soil for up 

to 6 months or longer. Poorly maintained equipment 

or bad practices, eg refuelling on turf, are causes. 

Avoid by regularly servicing machinery and not 

refuelling or servicing on the playing surface. Where 

spillage has occurred, immediately wash area with 

detergent then treat, with an absorbent, eg activated 

charcoal. Badly damaged areas may need re-planting. 

Thatch mainly builds up in older turf and is an 

excessive accumulation of leaves, stems, roots and 

other organic materials which have not fully decayed 

and which over time has developed between the soil 

surface and grass (Fig. 288). Thatch provides shade 

for soil (temperatures are lower during the day and 

higher at night than they would be otherwise), has a 

mulching effect and reduces water loss. But turf 

with thatch is less vigorous. Water and fertilisers in 

thatch which should be available to grass roots, are 

retained in the thatch. Soil aeration is reduced (an 

abundance of roots in the thatch layer), the playing 

surface is spongy and diseases and pests increase. 

Favoured by high mowings especially on 

stoloniferous grasses, grass with a creeping habit, 

cool temperatures which reduce decay activity in the 

thatch layer, low pH in the thatch layer, high levels of 

nitrogen and the use of fungicides. Regularly dethatch 

warm season grasses in summer, and cool 

season in autumn or spring. Aerify the soil. Yearly 

lime applications may increase decay by bacteria 

which are favoured by alkaline conditions. Root mat 

TURFGRASSES L 15

TURFGRASSES 

is composed of partially decayed thatch that has 

become part of the soil surface, plus turfgrass roots 

(an organic layer intermixed with soil from top 

dressing). Favoured by poorly drained or sandy soil, 

excess acidity which checks bacterial activity that 

decays organic matter. Shallow mat (< 40 mm thick) 

may be hollow-tyned as deep or deeper than the mat 

to be removed, water deeply but infrequently. If 

necessary raise soil pH to 6.0-7.5. Shallow mat in 

couch grass can be removed by shaving and burning. 

WEEDS 

Invasion by weeds and weed turfgrasses is the 

most common problem associated with turf (Fig. 

289). They should not, however, be a problem in 

vigorous, well managed turf, as competition from 

the grass should not allow weeds to establish. Preplant 

weed control by cultivation and/or 

herbicides is essential to prevent weed problems in 

establishing turf. In cooler climates, it is often 

difficult to maintain vigorous turf. Common 

weeds in cool season turfgrasses include grass 

weeds, eg couch, paspalum, winter grass, 

broadleaved weeds, eg dandelion, plantain. In 

warm season turfgrasses weeds include grass 

weeds, eg kikuyu, paspalum, broadleaved weeds, 

eg bindii, creeping oxalis. Good management, 

particularly adequate use of fertiliser, mowing at 

the correct height, irrigating and aerating generally 

keeps lawns free of weeds. Selective post and 

pre-emergent herbicides are available to control 

broadleaved and grass weeds in commercial turf 

and should be applied only when weeds are 

growing rapidly and during young stages. If 

weeds are not growing actively, fertiliser may be 

applied 14 days earlier to stimulate growth. Spray 

only at recommended rate, avoid spraying in wet 

weather, and mowing for 3-4 days after spraying. 

In home garden lawns weeds may be removed by 

hand and patches reseeded or replanted. 

Broadleaved weeds may also be selectively 

controlled using a weeding wand or by hormone 

herbicides. 


Adams, W. A. and Gibbs, R. J. 1994. Natural Turf for 

Sport and Amenity : Science and Practice. CAB 

International, Wallingham, Oxford. 

Aldous, D. 1991. Lawn Care and Lawn Alternative. 

Lothian Books, Melbourne. 

Bacon, C. W. (ed.) 1994. Biotechnology of Endophytic 

Fungi of Grasses. CRC Press, Florida, USA. 

Balogh, J. C. and Walker, W. J. 1992. Golf Course 

Management and Construction. Lewis Pubs., 

Chelsea. 

Burpee, L. L., Green, D. E. and Stephens, S. L. 1996. 

Interactive Effects of Plant Growth Regulators and 

Fungicides on Epidemics of Dollar Spot in Creeping 

Bentgrass. Plant Disease, 80(11). 

Clark, J. Turf Management Manual. cur. edn. ACT 

Parks and Conservation Service, Canberra. 

Clarke, B. B. and Gould, A. B. (eds). 1992. Turfgrass 

Diseases Caused by Ectotrophic Root-infecting 

Fungi. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota. 

Com. of Aust., Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, Dept. 

of Primary Indust. & Energy. Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

Barley Yellow Mosaic Virus No. 57. 1989. 

Hessian Fly. No.17. 1990. 

Russian Wheat Aphid. No.61. 1992. 

Stem Borers. No.83. 1996. 

The New Zealand Grass Grub. No.16. 1987. 








Hellman, J. L. and Mathias, K. 1990. Endophyteinfected 

Turfgrasses : Killer Turf. Grounds 

Maintenance, Sept. 

Kaapro, J. 1996. The Changa Mole Cricket : A New 

Exotic Turf Pest. ATRI Proceedings 1996. 

Leslie, A. (ed.). 1994. Handbook of Integrated Pest 

Management for Turf and Ornamentals. CRC Press, 

Florida, USA. 

Liffman, K. 1986. Sport Grounds & Turf Wickets : A 

Practical Guide. Tafe Pubs., Collingwood, Vic. 

Lo, C. T., Nelson, E. I. and Harman, G. E. 1996. 

Biological Control of Turfgrass Diseases with a 

Rhizosphere Competent Strain of Trichoderma 

harzianum. Plant Disease Vol.80(7). 


Press/NSW Dept. of Agriculture, Melbourne. 





Milner, R. J., Miller, L. Lutton, G. G. and Driver, F. 

1996. Biological Control of the Black Field Cricket, 

Teleogryllus commodus (Walker) (Orthoptera: 

Gryllidae) using the Fungal Pathogen Metarhizium 

anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin (Deuteromycotina : 

Hyphomycetes). Plant Prot. Quarterly Vol.11(1). 

Neylan, J. 1996. When Does an Infestation Necessitate 

Control? Golf & Sports Turf Australia, Feb. 

Ormsby, D. 1989. Selection Criteria for Tree and Shrub 

Planting in Sports Turf Areas. NZ Turf Manual Jn., 

Aug. 1989. 

Robinson, M. 1990. Turf Spraying : A Practical Guide. 

Turfgrass Technology, Seaford, Vic. 

Robinson, M. 1991. A Manual of Australian Turf 

Pesticides. Turfgrass Technology, Seaford, Vic. 

Schumann, G. L. and MacDonald, J. D. 1996. Turfgrass 

Diseases : Diagnosis and Management. CD-ROM. 


Shurtleff, M. C., Fermanian, T. W. and Randell, R. 

1987. Controlling Turfgrass Pests. Prentice-Hall, 

Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 

Smiley, R. W., Dernoeden, P. H. and Clarke, B. B. (eds). 

1992. Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases. 2nd edn. 


Smith, J. D., Jackson, N. and Woolhouse, A. R. 1989. 

Fungal Diseases of Amenity Turf Grasses. 3rd edn. 

E. & F. N. Spon, London. 

Vargas, J. M. Jr. 1993. Management of Turfgrass 

Diseases. 2nd edn. CRC Press, Florida. 

Watschke, L. L., Dernoeden, P. H. and Shetlar, D. J. 

1995. Managing Turfgrass Pests. Advances in 

Turfgrass Science, Lewis Pub., CRC Press, Florida. 


Industry eg 

African Black Beetle (NSW Agfact) 

Ants (NSW Agfact) 

Black-headed Pasture Cockchafer (NSW Agfact, SA Fact 

Sheet 

Diseases of Lawns (Vic Agnote) 

Field Crickets (NSW Agriculture) 

Fungus in Queensland Blue Lawns (WA Farmnote) 

Insect and Related Pests of Lawns (WA Farmnote) 

Kikuyu Yellows (NSW Agfact) 

Lawn Care : Maintenance (SA Fact Sheet) 

Lawns : Establishment and Maintenance (NT Agnote) 

Maintenance of Lawns (Vic Agnote) 

Mole Crickets (NSW Agfact) 

Pest and Weed Control in Lawns (Vic Agnote) 

Pests of Turf (NSW Agfact) 

Scarab Grubs (ACT One Sheet Answer) 

Turf Diseases (NSW Agfact) 

Turf Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Underground Grass-grubs (NSW Agfact). 

Australian Turf Research Institute (ATRI) 

ATRI Services, Turf Notes 

ATRI Seminars, Conferences 

L 16 

TURFGRASSES

Club Atri 

Disease, Insect & Weed Control in Turf (cur. edn.) 

Environmental Issues for Turf, March 1996 

Laboratory Services 

On Your Home Turf 

Sportsturf Water Management Manual 

Soil Manual 1, Soil Manual 11 (1993) 

Trade Shows 

Turf Disease Manual 

Turf Market 

Turf Nutrition and Fertilisers 

Turf Tips 

Turf Tips Compendium Vol 1994 

Turfgrass Management Seminars Proc. 

Turf Research & Advisory Institute (TRAI) 

Manual of Australian Turf Pesticides 

Turfgrass Seminar Proceedings 

Turf Topics 

Associations and Journals eg 

American Soc. of Agronomy 

TURFGRASSES 

Bowling Greenkeepers Assoc. 

Crop Science Soc. of America 

Golf Course Management 



Infoturf (Information Service) 


NSWGolf, RAIPR News Royal Institute of Parks and Rec. 

Plantman Computer Turf Guide 

State/Territory Turf Assocs. 

The Landscaper, Australian Parks and Recreation, RQBA 

Bowler, Bowls in NSW, 

Turfcraft Australia 

Turfgrowers Assoc of NSW 

Turfplan Herbasys 

Sports Turf Bulletin 

TurfNotes (ATRI) 

Parks, Golf Courses & Sports Grounds 

See Preface xii 



MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Selection of the most suitable turf genotype is the basis for all turf management. Turf is then managed to 

minimise the effects of constant mowing. Various computerised planning systems are available, eg TurfMan. 

Turf requirements: Choose species suitable for the purpose, eg bowling green or home garden lawn, and 

the climatic area. Cool season species (optimum temperature 15-25 o C), eg bluegrass, fescue, ryegrass, 

bent. Warm season species (optimum temperature 25-35 o C), eg couch, buffalo, kikuyu, Qld blue couch, salt 

water couch. Native grasses (which use less water), eg kangaroo grass, microlaena, wallaby grass. 

Alternatives to turf, eg dichondra. 

Resistant varieties: Species and cultivars of turfgrasses vary in disease and pest reaction (Table 5) and 

tolerance to heat, shade, wear and salt. Tolerance may vary depending on environmental conditions, 

management practices and strains of disease. Plant species with some resistance to, or at best with quick 

recuperative potential, against major fungal diseases and insect pests. In NZ, endophytic organisms make turf 

drought and heat stress tolerant and resistant to some insect pests. Endophytic perennial ryegrass is 

resistant to Argentine stem weevil. Tall fescue has some tolerance of drought and heat stress. 

Disease-free planting material: Seed or turf should be purchased from quality suppliers and have some 

sort of certification that includes guaranteed seed viability, composition and disease, pest and weed freedom. 

Establishment 

Propagation: By seed (pre-germinate seed), runners or turf. 

Pre-plant treatments include site preparation, eg drains, weed control, final levels, grading contours and 

levelling; soil testing for pH, soluble salts, soil texture, gravel and availability of major nutrients (NPK) to 

determine fertiliser requirements. 

Planting treatments include sowing or planting, starter fertiliser, lights, irrigation, rolling, mowing, pesticides 

including growth regulators for improving growth, striking cuttings and rooting induction. 

Post-establishment care for 4-6 weeks includes irrigation, fertiliser, mowing heights and frequency. 

Insecticides, fungicides and herbicides may damage young turf. 

Maintenance 

Pest management programs must be prepared and implemented. Regular monitoring (Neylan 1996) and 

diagnostic testing must be carried out (Fig. 290). See Turfgrasses L 2. 

Cultural methods: For consistent and uniformly growing turfgrass following the recommended cultural care is 

essential. Irrigation systems must consider water quality and evenness of application; fertiliser regimes 

should be based on soil and tissue analyses, turfgrass performance, leaf colour and clipping yield; pH must be 

maintained at the optimum by liming or fertiliser treatments; aeration treatments must be carried out as 

required by hollow-tyne-fork to allow water to penetrate and drain better; adequate ventilation provides air 

movement; light penetration is essential to reduce shading; turf must be mown at correct height and 

frequency and in the correct pattern; renovation treatments include de-thatching regularly (Fig. 290), top 

dressing with soil, treating and reseeding compacted worn areas; consideration of soil permeability. 

Sanitation: Weeds are commonly removed by hand in home gardens and occasionally in commercial turf. 

Biological control: Fungi, eg Metarhizium anisopliae is being researched for controlling black field cricket, 

and Trichoderma harzianum for controlling brown patch (Rhizoctonia solani), dollar spot (Sclerotinia 

homeocarpa) and damping off (Pythium sp.). 

Pesticides: Insecticides and fungicides are used on commercial turf to control a range of diseases and 

pests. Plant growth regulators regulate growth in fine turf and low maintenance situations. A wide range of 

selective post-emergence and pre-emergence herbicides are available for control of broadleaved and grass 

weeds. Commercial turf generally has a high requirement for pesticides. For effective control of diseases, 

pests and weeds it is important to know when they are likely to occur (Table 6). 

Postharvest 

Clippings may be used for mulches or composting; turf may be sold but must be maintained in good condition 

until planted. 

TURFGRASSES L 17

TURFGRASSES 

Table 6. Seasonal occurrence of pests, diseases and weeds in turf. This information is 

given as a guide only for south-eastern Australia. It should be recognised that there are going to 

be differences in local soils, climates and seasonal growing conditions and that growers will have 

to adapt the information to suit their particular or local growing conditions. 


JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN 

Anthracnose 

— — — — — — 

Brown patch — — — — — — — 

Dollar spot — — — — — — — 

Fusarium patch — — — — — 

Helminthosporium diseases — — — — 

Kikuyu yellows — — — — — — — — — 

Powdery mildew — — — — — — 

Red thread — — — — 

Rusts — — — — — — 

Sclerotium disease — — — — — 

Smuts — — — 

Spring dead spot — — — 

Take-all — — — — — — — 


Ants 

— — — — — — — 

— — — — — 

— — — —— —— Caterpillars 

Cutworms 

Lawn grubs 

Sod webworms 

Couchtip maggot — — — — — — — 

Couchgrass mite — — 

Couchgrass scale — — 

Crickets 

Black field cricket 

Mole cricket — — — — — — — — — — — — 

Ground pearls — — — 

Mealybugs — — — — — — — — — — — — 

Felted grass coccid — — — 

Flea beetles 

Flea beetles 

Couch flea beetle 



Black beetle 

Pasture cockchafers 

Weevils 

Argentine stem weevil 

Billbug 

NON-PARASITIC DISEASES 

Algae and fungi 

Dry patch 

Fairy rings (fruiting bodies) 

Slime moulds 

— — — — — 

— — — — — 

— — 

— — 

— — — 

— — — — — — — 

— — — — — —— — 

— — 

Insects & allied pests 

Itch mites 

Springtails — — — — — — — — Moss — — — — — — 

WEEDS 

Annuals 

Broadleaved (capeweed) 

Grasses (summer grass) 

(winter grass) 

Perennials 

Broadleaved (oxalis) 

Grasses (couchgrass) 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— — — — — — — — — 

— 

— 

— — — — — — — — — — — 

— 

L 20 

TURFGRASSES


Fig. 291. Ringspotting on a capsicum leaf and fruit 

caused by tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Fig. 292. Virus symptoms on sprouting potato tubers. 

Left : Healthy sprouts. Right : Spindly sprouts produced 

by virus-infected tuber. 

Fig. 293. Halo blight of bean (Pseudomonas 

phaseolicola). Watersoaked spots with a pale 

border. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 294. Fungal leaf spot (Ascochyta rhei) on rhubarb. 


Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) M 21 

Bean (broad bean) (Vicia faba) M 23 

Beans (French) (Phaseolus vulgaris) M 25 

Beet (Beta vulgaris) M 33 




Brassicas (Brassicaceae) M 36 

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) 

Brussels sprouts (B. oleracea var. gemmifera) 





Turnip (B. rapa var. rapa) 

Carrot (Daucus carotae) M 44 

Celery (Apium graveolens) M 47 

Cucurbits (Cucurbitaceae) M 50 


Pumpkin, squash (Cucurbita maxima) 



Zucchini, squash (Cucurbita pepo) 

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) M 58 

Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) M 62 

Onion (Allium cepa) M 66 

Chives (A. schoenoprasum) 




Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) M 70 

Pea (Pisum sativum) M 72 

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) M 77 

Rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum) M 85 

Sweetcorn (Zea mays var. saccharata) M 87 

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) M 93 

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) M 96 

VEGETABLES M 1

VEGETABLES 

Fig. 295. Phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora spp.). Spores are 

microscopic. 

Fig, 296. Rhizoctonia rot 

(Rhizoctonia solani) on French 

bean. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 297. Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum). Left : Sclerotia on 

carrot. Right : Sclerotia inside dahlia 

stem. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 298. Sclerotium stem rot 

(Sclerotium rolfsii). Sclerotia 

on stem. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 299. Rust (Uromyces 

appendiculatus) on French 

bean. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 300. Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne 

spp.) galls. Left : Carrot. Right : Tomato. Dept. 


Fig. 301. Bugs (Hemiptera). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 302. Caterpillars (Lepidoptera). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

M 2 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

Fig. 303. Crickets, grasshoppers, 

locusts, katydids (Orthoptera). 

Fig. 304. European earwig 

(Forficula auricularia) up 

to 20 mm long. 


(Trialeurodes vaporariorum). 

Fig. 306. Vegetable leafhoppers (Austroasca viridigrisea) 

on potato leaves. 

Fig. 307. Left : Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus 

destructor). Right : Twospotted mite (Tetranychus 

urticae). 

Fig. 308. Scarab beetle and larva (Scarabaeidae). 

Fig. 310. Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis). 

1. Eggs. 2. Larva. 3. Pupa. 4. weevil. All enlarged 5 times. 

5. Earthen cell from which adult weevil has emerged. 

6. Carrots damaged by larvae and adults. Actual size. Dept. 


Fig. 309. Onion thrips (Thrips 

tabaci) damage. 

Fig. 311. Sunscald damage 

to capsicum. 

Fig. 312. Left : Forked carrot (fertiliser injury). 

Right : Split carrot (overmaturity). 

VEGETABLES M 3



Parasitic 




Bacterial soft rots 

Bacterial wilts 


Damping off 

Downy mildews 






Rusts 

Wilts 



Root lesion nematodes 


Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, locusts 


Flies 


Leafhoppers 

Leafminer flies 

Mites 

Potato ladybirds 


Thrips 

Weevils 




Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Overmaturity 

WEEDS 

Vegetables are attacked by diseases and pests 

similar to those attacking annuals. There are 

minor variations. 


Parasitic 


Host range: Most vegetables are susceptible to 

at least one or several virus diseases. Some viruses 

attack only one species while others, eg 


virus, infect many species. Others, eg tobacco 

mosaic virus, may have different strains, each of 

which has a different host range. 

Symptoms vary with virus, cultivar, growth stage 

and temperature and usually appear one to several 

weeks after infection and may be more obvious 

during spring and autumn. Leaves develop mosaic 

patterns, pale yellow, green or brown ring-like 

markings (Fig. 291), blotches, and may be cupped 

and distorted. Stems may develop black streaks. 

Flowers and fruit may be affected (Figs. 291, 292). 

Virus diseases impair growth and quality but do 

not usually kill plants. 

Overwintering: Infected hosts, eg crops, older 

crops and weeds. Some may be seedborne, or 

only seedborne on certain hosts. Others, eg 

tobacco mosaic virus, overwinter in infected crop 

debris in soil, on the surface of seeds, and in 

natural leaf of manufactured tobacco, including 

cigarettes. 


propagation and grafting from infected plants. 

Some by sap sucking insects, eg aphids, thrips, 

leafhoppers. More than 20% of virus diseases are 

seedborne but in a variable percentage. Some by 

mechanical transmission of plant sap by foliage 

contact, on hands, clothes and tools especially at 

picking time. By introduction of infected 

seedlings, plant material, and some by debris from 

infected plants. 

Conditions favouring: Repeated vegetative 

propagation, weather favouring migration and 

buildup of insect vectors, proximity to weedy areas 

and older infected crops and other hosts. After hot 

dry weather, insect vectors migrate from drying 

weeds and other hosts where they breed and feed. 

Control: Train staff in how viruses are spread. 

The aim is to prevent infection (there is no cure for 

plants once infected). Minimise losses by: 

Cultural methods: A crop rotation of 2-3 years 

may be necessary for viruses which overwinter 

in plant debris, eg tobacco mosaic virus. Avoid 

growing vegetables close to infected crops or 

alternative hosts, eg weeds, perennial flowers. 

Sanitation: Before planting seedbeds or crops, 

remove adjacent host weeds and volunteer crop 

plants which may harbour insect vectors. 

Deeply plough-in or destroy infected crops 

immediately after harvest, wait at least 3 months 

before replanting the same crop. For viruses 

spread during handling and on tools, enforce 

strict hygiene. Avoid unnecessary handling of 

plants, wash hands with hot soapy water before 

handling plants, handle healthy plants before 

handling infected plants. Disinfect tools with 

dilute household bleach (often diluted 1 part 

with 3 parts water but check label directions) 

and rinse between plants; have a number of 

implements soaking while one is being used. 

Regularly inspect crops, remove and destroy 

suspect plants. See Nurseries N 51, N 53. 

Resistant varieties: Grow resistant or tolerant 

cultivars if available, and where practical. 

Plant quarantine: If possible, isolate seedbeds 

and crops from diseased or susceptible crops and 

other hosts that may harbour virus by a distance 

of at least 1 km. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant virustested 

planting material (cuttings, certified 

seed, tubers) if available. Otherwise select and 

treat vegetative propagation material and seeds 

only from symptom-free plants. At transplanting 

discard all seedlings showing symptoms. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Crops may 

be grown in fly-proofed greenhouses. 

Pesticides: If virus diseases are a problem and 

are spread by insects, prevent re-infection of 

virus-tested stock and spread of virus within 

commercial seedbeds and plantings during 

spring/early summer. Spraying crops will not 

prevent disease from entering crops but will 

M 4 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

prevent spread within crops. In normal seasons 

when flights into crops are not large, insecticides 

may control disease. During dry, mild to warm 

conditions, when continuous aphid flights may 

occur, insecticides may be of limited value. 

Aphid and thrips management may be important 

for greenhouse crops. 



Scientific name: Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas. 

Host range: Vegetables, eg bean, brassicas, 

cucurbits, tomato, ornamentals, eg carnation, 

chrysanthemum, primrose, delphinium, viola, 

zinnia, fruit, eg stone fruit, weeds, eg nightshades. 

Many are host specific, eg X. campestris pv. 

hederae attacks ivy, others may attack a range of 

plants. There may be strains of bacteria. 

Symptoms: Bacterial leaf spots may be water 

soaked, angular (Fig. 293) or circular and may 

enlarge rapidly on seedlings (fungal leaf spots tend 

to be obviously circular). Growing tips may die. 

Drops of bacteria may ooze from diseased tissue. 

Foliage of older plants is severely disfigured, plant 

vigour reduced. Microscopic examination or 

isolation is often required to confirm diagnosis. 

Stems may be rotted and girdled. 

Overwintering: Infected hosts including weeds, 

crop debris, soil (2-3 years or longer), seedborne. 

Spread: By water splash from infected plants, 

wind-driven rain or irrigation, by movement of 

contaminated debris and soil. By vegetative 

propagation from infected plants, introduction of 

infected seed or plants. By movement of 

machinery, people and insects through crops wet 

from rain, irrigation or dew. By infected seed. 

Bacteria enter plants through natural openings. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, humid or wet 

windy weather (exceptions), overcrowded 

conditions, wounding which facilitates entry of 

bacteria, prolonged wet weather. 

Control: is difficult. 

Cultural methods: Practise crop rotation to 

prevent buildup of inoculum. Prepare ground 

early to reduce undecomposed plant debris. 

Space plants well and avoid overhead irrigation 

to reduce humidity. Do not work in wet crops. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected leaves, 

stems (several centimetres below discoloured 

areas) or plants when observed. Plough-in or 

destroy crops immediately after harvest to 

reduce bacterial populations. Eliminate weed 

hosts where applicable. Sterilise secateurs. 



from disease-free plants and plant in leaf spotfree 

media. Seed may need to be treated. 

Produce disease-free seedlings in nurseries away 

from infected field crops. 

Pesticides: Bactericides may provide some 

control only after diseased leaves and stems have 

been removed and cultural conditions improved. 

The only pesticides generally available for 

bacterial diseases are copper fungicides. 


Scientific name: Erwinia carotovora pv. 

carotovora, also E. carotovora pv. atroseptica and 

E. carotovora pv. chrysanthemi. 

Host range: Plants with soft succulent tissues 

and fleshy storage organs, vegetables, eg 

cabbage, capsicum, carrot, celery, cucumber, 

lettuce, onion, potato, tomato, fruit, eg banana, 

ornamentals, eg iris, orchids. Soft rot bacteria are 

common and widespread in soil and may be part of 

the normal microflora of leaves. 

Symptoms: Soft, watery, slimy and smelly 

brown rot of most fruits, tubers, fleshy roots, 

succulent buds and stems, no fungal growth. Flesh 

is rotted, so that skin may be left as a hollow shell 

containing an unpleasant-smelling liquid. 

Generally a postharvest disease, but plants in the 

field may also be affected, especially if wounds 

caused by other factors allow entry of bacteria as a 

secondary invader making diagnosis difficult. 

Overwintering: Soil, soil water and infected 

crop debris in the field and storage. Volunteer 

host plants, eg potato tubers. Overseas also in 

insects. 

Spread: By vegetative propagation, by 

introduction of infested soil, water and implements 

and by infected tubers. In the field spread by 

water splash, contaminated knives and insects. 

During transport and storage by contact, in 

bacterial ooze dripping from diseased leaves and in 

contaminated washing water. 

Conditions favouring: As fruit near maturity in 

the field after prolonged warm, wet weather. 

Bacteria can enter through natural openings such 

as lenticels, but usually through cut surfaces and 

wounds caused during handling or after harvest, 

frost, or by other diseases or insects. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Practise crop rotation. Avoid 

overcrowding, shading, waterlogging. Ensure 

adequate drainage. Avoid planting in wet soil, 

over-irrigating and harvesting during wet and 

warm conditions. Avoid tuber injury during and 

after harvest. Store tubers in conditions 

favouring rapid healing of cut or injured tissue. 

Ensure that the surface of cut sets and other 

wounds has healed properly before planting. 

Harvest, cool, pack, transport and store at 

recommended temperatures and humidity in 

cool, well ventilated conditions. If produce is 

washed, change water frequently and properly 

disinfect to prevent contamination by bacteria. 

Dry, pack and consign to market promptly. 

Avoid soft growth caused by excessive 

fertiliser especially nitrogen or heavy watering. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy diseased parts of 

the plant. Treat cut surfaces with disinfectant. 

Discard affected vegetables and tubers before 

transport and storage. 



certified bacteria-free planting material. 

Pesticides: Dry material quickly after postharvest 

dips. Clean and disinfect harvesting implements, 

packing sheds and washing equipment. 

Disinfect tanks between washings. 

VEGETABLES M 5

VEGETABLES 


Scientific name: Corynebacterium, Erwinia, 

Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas. Strains may exist. 

Host range: Mostly herbaceous plants, eg 

vegetables, field crops, tropical fruits and some 

ornamentals, eg bacterial canker and wilt of 

tomato (C. michiganense subsp. michiganense), 

moko disease of banana (P. solanacearum) and 

bacterial wilt of carnation (P. caryophylli). 

bacterial wilt of brassicas (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. campestris). 

Symptoms: Bacteria enter, multiply in and 

move through xylem vessels of the host 

interfering with the translocation of water and 

nutrients. Aboveground plant parts wilt and die. 

When stems are cut longitudinally in the initial 

stages of infection, vascular tissue is 

discoloured In this way bacterial wilts resemble 

fungal wilts. Fungal wilts, however, remain 

almost exclusively in the vascular tissue while 

bacterial wilts spread to adjacent tissue, causing 

gumming and other symptoms. Bacteria may 

ooze from cut stems and other affected tissue. 

Overwintering: Infected hosts, crop debris in 

soil for years, seed, tubers, vegetative 

propagation material, or very occasionally in an 

insect vector. Infected weeds and plants in older 

crops allow a buildup of populations, that can 

then infect young crops planted nearby. 

Spread: Planting infected seed, seedlings, tubers 

or rootstock. Bacteria can spread rapidly through 

a crop by irrigation and rainwater, particularly 

down slopes, and by soil adhering to farm 

machinery, tools, shoes and animals. During 

handling, pruning, contact between plants, root 

contact, insect vectors, nematode-damaged roots, 

windblown dust from older infected crops, and 

from infected debris from diseased crops. 

Conditions favouring: Warm moist weather 

and wounds that expose the vascular system, eg 

by nematodes. But once infected, plants wilt 

more readily under dry soil conditions. High soil 

moisture, poor drainage or after wet weather, but 

can also develop in relatively dry soil. 

Control is difficult. 

Cultural methods: Practise crop rotations of 3-4 

years with non-susceptible crops. Prevent 

overcrowding of seedlings and keep seedling 

production areas free from susceptible weeds. 

Sanitation: Avoid contaminating clean areas. 

Examine seedlings at transplanting, destroy 

diseased ones. Collect and destroy all diseased 

material as soon as observed to prevent disease 

spreading through crops and land becoming 

unduly contaminated. Plough-in deeply or 

destroy all crop residues immediately after 

harvest. Remove soil from machinery and other 

equipment before disinfecting. Cleaning down 

equipment with live steam may also be of value. 


Disease-free planting material: Plant bacteriafree 

seed or other propagation material in wiltfree 

soil. Save seed only from healthy plants, 

treat seed of unknown origin in hot water. Dust 

after treatment to prevent damping off. Do not 

put seedbeds on land previously used to grow 

susceptible plants or sterilise soil before use. 

Pesticides: Apply recommended bactericides to 

limit spread especially in seedbeds. Control 

insects which spread bacteria to healthy plants. 

Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium), various 

leaf spots and stem rots. 


Damping off (Botrytis, Cylindrocladium, 

Fusarium, Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, 

Sclerotium) is a common disease of seedlings. 

Occasionally bacteria may be involved. Damage 

may be extensive and resowing necessary. Preemergence 

damping off occurs when seeds and 

seedlings rot before emerging. Post-emergence 

damping off (root, stem and top rot) occurs after 

plants have emerged from the soil. Seedlings 

emerge but yellow and die. When examined 

closely, rotted areas will be seen on young roots, 

stems or leaves. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildews (Peronosporaceae, 

Eumycetes) affects leaves, stems, petals and buds. 

Pale yellow lesions delineated by the veins 

develop on leaf uppersurfaces. Lesions are more 

pronounced on leaf undersurfaces, and during 

humid, cool conditions, a downy growth develops 

on these areas. As lesions dry out, leaves die, 

seedlings and plants may die if attacked early in 

the season. Stems, fruit and other aboveground 

parts may also be affected. See Annuals A 5. 


Alternaria rot (Alternaria sp.) affects rockmelon, 

tomato and other fruit and vegetables. Grey to black 

hyphae grow over affected surfaces. See Fruit F 6. 

Anthracnose (various species) affects vegetables in 

the field and postharvest. Colletotrichum 

lindemuthianum and C. orbiculare, affect cucurbits; 

C. atramentarium affects tomato; Microdochium 

panattonianum affects tomato, lettuce. Anthracnose 

causes sunken and watersoaked spots on leaves, 

stems and fruit. Fruit spots may only appear 

postharvest during transport and storage on 

apparently healthy vegetables picked from a diseased 

crop. Pink spores develop on spots. See Fruit F 5. 

Aspergillus black mould (Aspergillus niger) is a 

saprophyte and grows on organic matter and some 

vegetables, eg onion. Infection occurs in the field but 

is a major problem postharvest. Black, powdery 

masses of spores develop on the surface of the 

outside scales and later between scales. Affected 

scales slowly shrivel and become brittle. See Fruit F 

5. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer, also Rhizopus 

oryzae, Eumycetes). A postharvest disease. A 

rapidly developing soft rot with coarse, open, black 

and white fungal growth. See Fruit F 6. 

Sclerotinia rots (Sclerotinia spp.) may cause crop loss 

in the field and postharvest of beans, carrots and 

other vegetables (Fig. 297). See Vegetables M 7. 

Others: Fusarium (Fusarium spp.), grey mould 

(Botrytis spp.), penicillium moulds (Penicillium 

spp.), rhizoctonia rot (Rhizoctonia solani), sour 

rot, yeasty rot (Geotrichum candida) (Beattie 1985, 

Beattie et al. 1989). 

See Fruit F 5, Postharvest N 61. 

M 6 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

Fungal leaf spots (various species) 

Although the main symptoms are circular leaf 

spots (Fig. 294), spots may also develop on stems, 

flower stalks, seed bases, seed, curds and fruit. 

Infected seedlings may die. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), also 

chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae) on beans. Grey 

mould can attack all plant parts. Seedlings may 

suffer from damping off. Fruit and pods of 

cucumbers, capsicum, French bean and tomato, 

stems and leaves of lettuce and necks of onions 

in storage may rot. Under some conditions a 

grey-brown powdery growth with a crust of hard 

black resting bodies (sclerotia) may develop. 

Plants die if stems are rotted, or become stunted if 

stems are only damaged on the outside. See Fruit 

F 5, Greenhouses N 22. 

Powdery mildews (Erysiphales, 

Ascomycetes) may affect all above ground parts 

(leaves, stems, petals, buds, seed pods). The first 

sign of disease is usually the appearance of small 

white circular patches on stems and leaves. These 

increase in size, often running together to cover 

extensive areas of both upper and lower leaf 

surfaces, which become powdery or mealy due to 

the production of masses of spores. In later stages 

of infection leaves may die. See Annuals A 6. 


Scientific name: Various species of fungi from 

a range of fungal groups, occasionally by bacteria. 

Host range: Many have a wide host range and 

can colonise plant debris and undecomposed plant 

material. Some, eg Fusarium, tend to be host 

specific while others, eg Phytophthora, Sclerotinia 

and Sclerotium, have wide host ranges. Many may 

also cause damping off. See Seedlings N 66. 

Symptoms: It is often difficult to identify the 

fungus causing the problem. For a positive 

diagnosis, the fungus should be isolated by a 

pathologist. Growers may purchase diagnostic 

kits. Patches of diseased plants, which, if 

susceptible crops are repeatedly grown, increase in 

size each year. Young and old plants may be 

attacked; root or basal stem tissue rots, plants 

yellow, wilt and die. Symptoms of many soilborne 

fungal diseases are non-specific, rather like 

nutrient deficiencies, waterlogging or water stress; 

they vary on different crops and even on the same 

host depending on the stage of growth at which the 

plant became infected. Plants may slowly die over 

a short or long period. If seedborne, disease may 

occur in seedling nurseries. 

Aphanomyces root rot, black root rot (Aphanomyces 

cochlioides) causes a browning or blackening of the 

tap root of young plants, eg beet. Aphanomyces 

forms zoospores which can swim in water and 

soilborne resting oospores. Infection and disease is 

favoured by warm weather and high soil moisture, 

poorly drained areas. Provide good seedbed tilth and 

drainage, plant into raised seedbeds. 


phaseolina, Ascomycetes) affects bean, rape, pea and 

other plants. A pale, ash-coloured, dry rot of the 

stem and small black dots develop in the dead areas. 

Plants soon die. 

Fusarium root and stem rots (Fusarium solani 

f.spp.) may attack a wide range of vegetables, eg 

Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli attacks beans. Stems 

of young plants rot, later plants turn yellow, wilt and 

die. Pink spore masses form on rotted tissue. Some 

species are weak pathogens and only invade roots of 

weakened or damaged plants. Some species or strains 

only infect particular vegetables causing severe root 

rots or wilt diseases. Favoured by warm, dry 

conditions, but may vary with the form species, 

compacted soil. See Vegetables M 9. 


plants (often young plants) to yellow, wilt and 

eventually die. A wet rot of roots and stems 

develops causing a browning of the water-conducting 

tissues, roots are dead and decayed (Fig. 295). 

Rotting may progress up into the stem (this may also 

be caused by waterlogging and other fungal diseases). 

Fibrous roots rot first, the rot then spreads to the 

larger roots and stem bases. Secondary bacteria 

may invade some plants, eg rhubarb, causing affected 

stalks to decay rapidly. Others: P. nicotianae pv. 

parasiticae affects rhubarb, P. megasperma affects 

brassicas. See Trees K 6. 

Pythium stem rot (Pythium spp.) is a common soil 

inhabitant and causes a black, wet rot of tissues that 

spreads up stems to leaf petioles and blades. Roots 

may rot. Spores swim in free water in wet soils. Pod 

infection causes a rapidly developing transit rot. 

Rhizoctonia root or stem rot, black scurf, bottom 

rot, brown patch, crater rot, damping off, rhizoctonia 

seed rots, web blight on azalea, wirestem (Rhizoctonia 

solani, Imperfect Fungi) is a normal component of the 

soil microflora which colonises organic matter in soil. 

It affects most annual and perennial herbaceous 

plants, turfgrasses and weeds. Strains of R. 

solani occur, the exact host range for each strain is not 

known. Some may attack a wide range of vegetables, 

others may have a restricted host range. Plants can be 

attacked at any stage of growth and symptoms vary 

with the growth stage and with the host. Damping 

off may occur causing seed, seedling and cutting rots 

and wirestem, seedlings die. Stem rots, stem 

cankers and collar rots develop on older more 

mature plants (Fig. 296). Infection occurs directly 

from fungal strands in the soil which gain entry 

through injury. Soil particles adhere to damaged 

tissues and are held together by fungal threads (white, 

cream initially, brown with age). Dry, light brown rot 

constricts the stem at ground level, plants wilt and die. 

Sunken cankers develop at the stem base, stems 

brown upwards from the decayed section. Root 

systems only decay after the plant is dead. Storage 

organs, eg tubers, tap roots, may become misshapen, 

sunken cankers may develop on swede, turnip and 

radish roots and develop into root rots on which black 

irregularly resting bodies (sclerotia) of the fungus 

often form on the surface. Fruit, eg pods, in contact 

with soil, may be attacked. A postharvest (transport 

and storage) rot with off-white fungal growth can 

develop. Secondary rots often follow. 

Sclerotinia rots, cottony rot, drop, pink rot, white 

moulds (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor, 

Ascomycetes) affect herbaceous plants (not 

cereals, grasses, onions) including weeds, and grows 

on plant debris. Occurs in the field and 

postharvest. Greatest losses usually occur when 

plants are nearing maturity. A soft brown watery rot 

develops on stems, leaves and fruit near ground 

level in the field. Foliage may wilt and yellow, plants 

may die. Under humid conditions rotted areas are 

covered with white cottony mycelium in which 

VEGETABLES M 7

VEGETABLES 

irregularly shaped hard black resting bodies 

(sclerotia) up to about 12 mm long develop (Fig. 

297). They may also develop in pith cavities. 

Sclerotia of S. minor are smaller. Mycelium may 

grow from vegetable to vegetable during storage 

(nesting). See Postharvest N 63 (Fig. 429). Drying 

and rewetting of the soil surface stimulates sclerotia to 

produce mycelium which can infect plants at ground 

level up to 0.5 m away. During moist weather 

sclerotia in the top 50 mm 'germinate' to form small, 

light brown, cup-like fruiting bodies (apothecia) 

which discharge spores spread by wind and air 

currents to infect ageing plant parts, eg old flowers 

and leaves on nearby plants. 

Sclerotium stem rot, southern blight (Sclerotium 

rolfsii, Imperfect Fungi) affects herbaceous and 

woody plants, turf, weeds and usually rots lower 

stems, roots and crowns of more mature plants at 

ground level. A white mat of fungal mycelium 

develops on stems at ground level and adjacent soil. 

White resting bodies (sclerotia), 1-2 mm across, are 

produced on the surface of the mycelium, these later 

turn brown and are hard to see (Fig. 298). A brown 

dry rot develops, the plant yellows, wilts and dies. 

The fungus may spread down into the roots and 

further up the stem. Branches, leaves and fruit which 

touch the soil may also be attacked. No spores are 

produced. Sclerotia near the soil surface are 

stimulated by drying and rewetting of soil and the 

presence of susceptible plants nearby to produce 

hyphae which infect host plants through injury. Due 

to irregularity of soil conditions even in a small area, 

only some plants in an affected area are attacked. 

Nearly all plants attacked are killed. 

Thielaviopsis black root rot (Thielaviopsis 

basicola) causes a root rot and damping off of 

many herbaceous plants, eg vegetables and weeds. 

Plants may be affected both in the nursery and in the 

field. Generally first appears on roots as 

watersoaked areas that later turn black. Eventually 

the whole root is affected. Plants grow poorly or die. 

In extreme cases root systems are reduced to stubs. 

The fungus lives, grows and multiplies in the soil, 

usually in association with dead organic matter, high 

soil moisture and high relative humidity in the air. 

Others: Some other root rots mainly attack woody 

plants rather than herbaceous plants, eg armillaria 

root rot (Armillaria sp.). See Trees K 4. Rosellinia 

root rot (Rosellinia necatrix) attacks pome fruits and 

other trees. See Pome fruits F 110. 

Overwintering: In crop debris, in soil, in 

perennial hosts and infected propagation material, 

eg bulbs, tubers, seed. Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia 

and Sclerotium produce sclerotia which 

accumulate in soil where infected crops have been 

grown. Sclerotia may become mixed with seed on 

some hosts. Fusarium and Phytophthora form 

resistant spores, eg chlamydospores. Some 

survive in the soil for years. 

Spread: By flood, surface drainage or irrigation 

water, in soil adhering to tools, machinery, 

implements, footwear, tubers, in containers and 

soil deliveries. By the introduction of infected 

plants, propagation material, eg bulbs, tubers, seed, 

plants, transplant seedlings, infected vegetables 

and fruits. In some hosts as sclerotia 

(Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium) mixed with 

seed or compost. By spores (Phytophthora, 

Pythium) which swim or are washed or windblown 

to new sites. By spores (Fusarium, Sclerotinia) 

spread by wind or water splash. By mycelium 

(Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium) growing 

through the soil to new hosts or from vegetable to 

vegetable postharvest (nesting). 

Conditions favouring: Continual cropping 

with the same susceptible crop, unfavourable 

growing conditions for the host. Fusarium is 

favoured by warm, dry conditions, stress and 

compacted soil. Phytophthora and Pythium by 

low soil temperatures (some strains prefer high 

temperatures), wet heavy soil, poor drainage, 

prolonged wet weather, balled roots. Rhizoctonia 

by cool moderately wet soils, tissue injury, 

planting of transplants too deeply, soil with high 

organic levels, eg recently cultivated pasture. 

Sclerotinia is most active in cool wet weather 

during late autumn, winter and spring. The 

optimum temperature is about 25 o C (warm soil 

conditions of 24-28 o C). Favoured by high soil 

moisture, sandy soils, poor ventilation in dense 

plantings. Sclerotium by high soil temperatures 

during late spring, summer and early autumn, 

fluctuating soil moisture, abundant undecayed 

organic matter on which it can grow and produce 

more sclerotia, relatively dry conditions following 

rain or irrigation, soil low in nitrogen, well aerated 

sandy soils, acid soils, organic matter in contact 

with bark tissue, planting too deeply or injury at 

soil level, subtropical and tropical areas (26- 

32 o C). 

Control is difficult because of their wide host 

range, and the ability of sclerotia and resistant 

spores to survive for many years in soil and of the 

fungal mycelium to grow on decaying plant debris. 

It is difficult to treat affected plants so the aim is to 

prevent infection and spread. To minimise losses 

from soilborne diseases: 

Cultural methods: Practise crop rotation (3-4 

years) with unrelated crops, avoid planting areas 

with a history of infestation with one susceptible 

crop after another. Avoid planting winter crops 

in areas where Sclerotinia has been a problem 

and planting summer crops where Sclerotium 

has been a problem. Avoid planting crops 

susceptible to Rhizoctonia in old pasture. 

Maintain optimum plant growth. Ensure plant 

residues in soil are completely broken down. 

Avoid planting too deeply, injury, poor aeration 

and drainage, excessive applications of nitrogen. 

Fusarium: Avoid compacted soil, and stress 

caused by low soil temperature, intermittent 

drought, excessive soil water, etc. 

Phytophthora and Pythium: Avoid over 

watering and provide good drainage, aeration 

and optimum conditions for plant growth. 

Avoid planting too deeply (plant crown just 

above soil level), plant/mulch contact, 

unnecessary root injury during transplanting and 

cultivation and excessive applications of 

nitrogen fertilisers. Rhizoctonia: Grow 

seedlings in soil-less mixes or in sterilised or 

pasteurised soil. Treat seed with recommended 

fungicide before planting, maintain optimum 

plant growth and avoid injuring plants as 

wounds provide a means of entry for the fungus. 

Where possible avoid soil contact with fruit by 

using black plastic or by staking plants. Ensure 

crop residues are thoroughly decomposed before 

planting an area. Sclerotinia: Space plants well 

to prevent excessive shading and poor 

ventilation. Regular cultivation eliminates host 

weeds, lowers humidity around plants and 

M 8 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

destroys fruiting bodies (apothecia) under the 

crop. Avoid wet shady areas and irrigation close 

to harvest. Sclerotium: Prepare ground early to 

ensure plant residues have decomposed before 

planting, deep plough to bury host debris and 

sclerotia. Include non-susceptible crops, eg maize 

and small grains, in rotations, drench transplants 

with recommended fungicides. Avoid planting 

too deeply, injury, or overcrowding of beds and 

shaded or poorly drained sites. 

Sanitation: Deeply plough-in or destroy, 

diseased crops and debris immediately after 

harvest to prevent prolific production of sclerotia 

and resistant spores and to facilitate their 

breakdown by microorganisms. If sclerotia 

present in a crop are buried deeper than 12-150 

mm in moist soil they will not germinate and 

will die in about 7 weeks. In dry soil they can 

remain in a dormant state for many years and 

will germinate when brought to the soil surface. 

Remove and destroy obviously diseased plants 

(including the roots) when observed. Clean 

cultivation equipment, eg rotary hoes, before 

working new areas. Practice nursery hygiene 

in nurseries; disinfect benches, containers and 

tools to prevent contamination. Sclerotinia: Do 

not add infected plants or vegetable matter to 

compost heaps. This can lead to prolific 

production of sclerotia that may later be 

distributed throughout an area. Do not feed 

infected plants to stock as some of the sclerotia 

will pass through the animal unharmed and 

spread the disease. Discard diseased, rotting or 

damaged roots/pods when packing for market. 

Destroy infected seedlings. 

Biological control: Biological control is not yet a 

practical reality for controlling root rotting fungi, 

eg Phytophthora or Rhizoctonia in field crops. 

It is likely though that damping off diseases 

caused by these fungi may be biologically 

controlled within a several years (Table 7, 

Greenhouses N 31). Rhizoctonia stem rot 

(Rhizoctonia solani) can be controlled 

biologically overseas (Cartwright and Benson 1995) 

Resistant varieties: Resistance varies depending 

on the host and the fungus. All commercially 

grown cultivars of potato in NSW are 

susceptible to Rhizoctonia solani. All tomato 

cultivars are susceptible to Sclerotinia. Some 

lettuce varieties are resistant to Thielaviopsis 

basicola. 

Plant quarantine: Avoid introducing infected 

seed, plants or contaminated soil into diseasefree 

nurseries, greenhouses or crop sites. Isolate 

new plants. 


disease-tested seed, seedlings, cuttings, tubers 

or other planting stock into disease-free 

seedbeds or soil. Alternatively select seed, 

tubers, etc, from only disease-free crops. Treat 

seed or tubers from infected crops with hot water 

or systemic chemicals. Examine seedlings at 

transplanting, destroy diseased ones. If a crop is 

grown repeatedly in the same area, Rhizoctonia 

may become adapted to the host and cause 

increased losses. Buy from reputable suppliers. 


Seed treatments: Seed may need to be treated 

with hot water or with fungicide, eg thiram. Soil 

treatments: Soil-less mixes and some purchased 

mixes are guaranteed free from disease. Preplant 

treatments include soil pasteurisation (for 

small areas like seedbeds), soil solarisation (in 

warm climates and for some soil diseases only), 

fumigants and fungicides (for pots and cutting 

beds). Post-plant treatments for Phytophthora, 

Sclerotinia, include fungicides, at transplanting 

around seedlings, as soil drenches or granules, as 

regular preventative treatments, or at first signs 

of infection. Resistance may develop and most 

fungicides are suppressive only, so disease may 

be suppressed in the nursery but flare up later. 

Some Nursery Accreditation Schemes prohibit 

their use. Foliage treatments: Foliage, crown 

or collars of Sclerotinia-susceptible plants 

during the latter stages of crop growth may need 

to be sprayed. If weather is wet or disease is 

known to be well established in the area. it may 

be necessary to spray young crops. Field 

spraying is often uneconomic. Post-harvest 

treatments: Where there is a risk of nesting, 

pack only healthy fruit, pods and roots after 

dipping them in fungicide and draining before 

packing for market to reduce spread during 

transit. 

Rusts (Uredinales) attacks leaves, stems and 

stalks. Leaf uppersurfaces become speckled with 

small yellow patches which often run together. On 

the undersurface there are corresponding dusty 

orange or rusty-brown pustules or blisters 

containing spores (Fig. 299). When infection is 

heavy there may be premature and repeated leaf 

fall which weakens the plant. Severely infected 

plants look unsightly. If stems or stalks are 

girdled by the rust lesions, the above plant parts 

will die. See Annuals A 7. 

Wilts 


Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. spp.) 


Host range: Fusarium wilt: Mainly annual and 

herbaceous perennial plants. There are usually 

races or forms, eg Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. 

lycopersici attacks tomato (Solanaceae) while 

F. oxysporum f.sp. dianthi attacks carnation. 

Verticillium wilt: Wide host range. Fruit, eg 

apricot, strawberry, ornamentals, eg carnation, 

vegetables, eg potato, tomato, vegetables rarely 

infected include asparagus, beans, most brassicas, 

celery, garlic, onion, peas, corn, cereals and grasses; 

weeds, eg mintweed, Noogoora burr. Both wilt 

fungi grow on organic matter and both may infect 

some plants, eg carnation, chrysanthemum. 

Symptoms: Wilt fungi enter roots and invade 

the water-conducting tissue (sapwood) preventing 

translocation of nutrients and water within the 

plant, causing wilting, yellowing and browning of 

leaves, starting at the bottom of the plant but 

gradually working upwards. Whole plants may 

wilt and die. There are no external markings on 

the stem. If stems are split longitudinally, waterconducting 

tissues are brown. When stem is cut 

across, sapwood appears as a black or brown ring. 

Symptoms caused by both wilt fungi are similar 

and on those hosts affected by both the two 

diseases can only be identified by laboratory 

tests. Young plants may show a one-sided 

yellowing and wilt on one side during warm days 

when plants are under water stress. Branches of 

older plants wilt and die one at a time, finally 

VEGETABLES M 9

VEGETABLES 

plants die. Verticillium is uncommon on trees and 

is only economic in young trees 3-6 years old. 

Overwintering: Once introduced to soil both wilts 

become established forever, even in the absence of 

host plants. Infected perennial host plants, 

propagation material, tubers and bulbs in the ground 

and in storage, weeds, infected crop debris, compost, 

sometimes seed. Verticillium also as microsclerotia. 

Fusarium also as chlamydospores. 

Spread: Soil becomes contaminated by the 

introduction of infected cuttings, corms, tubers or 

seedlings, or contaminated soil on tools, machinery, 

footwear, and in containers, or contaminated compost 

and soil water. By vegetative propagation or 

seeds from symptomless infected plants. Root 

contact within a crop (minor). Healthy plants become 

infected by planting in infected soil or close to 

infected plants. Spores are spread by wind, soil or 

drainage water. 

Conditions favouring: Fusarium by high soil 

temperatures (optimum 28 o C). Verticillium by low 

soil temperatures (optimum 20 o C), winter, good 

growing conditions, excessive nitrogen applications 

and waterlogged conditions. Both are favoured by 

injury to roots by nematodes and cultivation, and by 

continual cropping with susceptible crops. 

Control: There is no cure for infected plants. 

The aim is to prevent infection. 

Cultural methods: Avoid planting susceptible 

crops in contaminated sites unless soil has 

been pre-plant treated. Practise crop rotations 

of 3-5 years where disease has occurred to reduce 

inoculum levels. Prepare ground early to reduce 

undecomposed plant debris. Control weed 

hosts. Avoid poorly drained sites where surface 

run-off from diseased crops can contaminate 

soil. Fusarium: Avoid using hormone 

preparations or excess nitrogenous fertilisers. 

Sanitation: Destroy diseased crops immediately 

after harvest to reduce inoculum. Do not 

compost debris or roots. Do not spread fungus 

around when moving infected plants, vehicles 

and other machinery. Ensure strict hygiene in 

propagation areas. 

Biological control: Overseas, Streptomyces 

griseoviridis (Mycostop ), which secretes an 

antibiotic and inhibits seed and soilborne 

diseases, eg Fusarium wilt of carnation (F. 

oxysporum f.sp. dianthi), is available. 

Saprophytic Fusarium soil isolates are 

antagonistic to Fusarium wilt of carnation. 

Neither are available in Australia. 

Resistant varieties: This is often the only 

practical means of control. Where wilts are a 

problem, plant resistant or tolerant cultivars or 

rootstocks, eg passionfruit and tomato grafted on 

to Fusarium-resistant seedling rootstocks. 

Plant quarantine: Avoid spread of wilt fungi in 

water or soil. Isolate new purchases. If wilt 

disease appears, plants can be destroyed and the 

area taken out of cultivation. 


wilt-free plants, eg tissue cultured plants, 

nursery stock, otherwise propagate only from 

healthy plants, from beds that are wilt-free and 

not adjacent to diseased plants. Plant in wilt-free 

soil or soils not previously cropped with 

susceptible crops (and weeds), or intercropping 

with susceptible crops, eg tomato. Control weeds 

between plants. Susceptible species should not 

be planted in contaminated soil unless soil has 

been treated. Soil, media, sawdust, peanut 

shells, sand, stone chips in contact with soil are 

likely to be contaminated with Fusarium. 

Suspect seed should be treated with hot water. 


soil for seed or cutting beds. Plants may be 

grown in containers, if disease occurs, whole 

containers can be destroyed and spread prevented. 

Pesticides: Pre-plant soil fumigation has only 

been practical and profitable for high value 

susceptible crops in small areas, eg seedbeds and 

greenhouses with a history of wilt diseases. 

Infected plants are carefully removed before 

treatment. However, methyl bromide is to be 

deregistered, but less hazardous products may 

become available. 



Scientific name: Meloidogyne spp. (Nematoda). 

Host range: Especially broadleaved plants, 

ornamentals, eg dahlia, vegetables, eg potato, 

fruit, eg strawberry, field crops and weeds. 

Grasses are less susceptible. There are many 

races. 

Symptoms: Seedlings are often infected. Plant 

symptoms are non-specific but include stunting, 

yellowing, wilting in hot weather and death due to 

disruption of water and nutrient uptake and 

transport. Yields are reduced. Galls up to 25 mm 

across develop on main and lateral roots or tubers 

(Fig. 300). The whole root system may be stunted. 

If galls are cut open, glistening female 

microscopic worm-like nematodes about 0.5 mm 

long are found. The feeding of the nematode 

stimulates root tissue to produce galls. Infected 

plants are more susceptible to water stress, 

bacterial and fungal root rots and vascular wilts. 

Once plants have a strong root system they can 

usually withstand infestation. Prevent nematode 

damage early in the life of a crop. High numbers 

of nematodes need to be present in soil before 

significant damage occurs. Soil may be analysed 

for nematode numbers. 

Pest cycle: There are many generations each 

year. Mature females in galls lay hundreds of eggs 

on the root surface which hatch in warm soil. 

Juveniles hatch from eggs, move through the soil 

and invade roots near the tip where they develop 

into females (less commonly into males). 

Overwintering: Infected perennial hosts, root 

debris, soil. Infected volunteer plants, eg potato 

tubers and other plants, and infected seedlings of 

other species. Nematode populations may decline 

rapidly under fallow or non-host cover, eradication 

is not achieved because a few nematodes usually 

survive on old roots remaining in the soil. 

Spread: Introduction of infected seedlings, 

nursery stock, tubers, contaminated soil on 

machinery, tools, footwear, containers, drainage 

and running water, animals. Natural spread by 

nematodes moving through soil is only a few 

centimetres each year. By propagation from 

infected plants. Run off from infected crops. 

M 10 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

Conditions favouring: Light, well drained, 

sandy soils, warm weather. and repeated cropping 

with susceptible crops. Inactive during cooler 

months when soil temperatures are low. 

Control is difficult. The race of nematode present 

should be identified by laboratory tests. 

Cultural methods: Avoid contaminated soil. 

Rotate crops. Only a few crops, eg cabbages, 

cauliflowers, maize, sweetcorn, onion, cereals 

and garlic are resistant. Fallowing for 1 

growing season will reduce populations 

providing the area is kept free of weeds and 

cultivated after rain (repeated cultivation kills 

nematodes in the upper soil layers by exposing 

them to the mechanical abrasion and the heating 

and drying action of the sun). In warm moist 

soils a 4-6 month fallow may reduce a nematode 

population by > 95%,. Longer fallows are not 

normally economically feasible and soil is 

exposed to increased risks of erosion. To 

reduce the effects of infestation irrigate and 

fertilise appropriately. 

Sanitation: Destroy diseased crops and debris 

(including roots) as soon as possible after 

harvest to reduce inoculum. Do not compost 

them. Ensure that irrigation or run off water 

from contaminated blocks does not contaminate 

nematode-free areas. Ensure strict hygiene in 

propagation areas. Remove and destroy/burn 

diseased plants, clean implements used in 

contaminated soils and manage water 

appropriately. Plants should be ploughed-in as 

soon as crops are harvested. Destroy weed hosts 

as soon as they germinate. 

Biological control: Tagetes patula will reduce 

populations if grown for one season. Weeds 

must be controlled (Kerruish 1990, Kerruish and 

Unger 1991). Bacteria are parasitic on root knot 

nematodes but their natural spread is slow. 

Resistant varieties: Use resistant varieties or 

varieties grafted on to resistant rootstock for 

effective control and to reduce populations. 

Varieties of tomato and sweet potato with some 

resistance to root knot nematodes have been 

used, they may not be resistant to all strains. 

Protect against common populations. 

Plant quarantine: Do not introduce infected 

plant material, soil and manures to nematodefree 

crops. Do not transfer contaminated soil 

and seedlings to other areas. 


from nematode-free plants and plant in root 

knot-free soil. Do not introduce infected 

planting material, eg tubers. Use green-shoot 

cuttings. If seedlings are planted, it is essential 

that seedlings and potting mixes are nematodefree. 

Peat, and other components free of root 

knot, must not be contaminated before use. 

Pesticides: Nematicides (non-fumigant) can be 

used as pre- or post-plant drenches. If 

management practices described above are used, 

nematicides should only be needed in the field 

when nematode damage is likely to be severe, eg 

tomatoes planted in sandy soil. Even where root 

knot is severe, good management can reduce 

population pressure so that nematicides have a 

better chance of effecting control. 

Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus 

spp.) have a wide host range affecting 

ornamentals, eg rose, fruit, eg apple (causing a 

replant disease complex of young replanted trees), 

vegetables, eg French bean, field crops, eg 

wheat, weeds. Root systems of affected trees are 

small and discoloured, and often grow in tufts and 

lack well developed feeder roots. Lesions on 

mainly the feeder roots (often near root hairs) are 

tiny, elongate, watersoaked or yellow spots that 

soon turn brown/black. Lesions enlarge and may 

be invaded by secondary organisms. All stages 

can move in and out of roots. They often spend 

their entire life migrating through the root system. 

Roots of nursery trees may be infected with 

nematodes from the rootstock stool beds or the 

nursery soils. They spread in the same way as root 

knot nematodes. Replant problems associated 

with these nematodes can be serious if hosts have 

been grown recently. See Pome fruits F 111. 

Others: Beet nematode (Heterodera schachtii), 

stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci). 



Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) 


Carrot aphid (Cavariella aegopodii) 


Fennel aphid (Dysaphis foeniculus) 


Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae 

Sowthistle aphid (Hyperomyzus lactucae) 

Host range: Most species have a wide host, 

some have a narrow host range, eg cabbage aphid 

(B. brassicae) mainly infests brassicas. 

Description and damage: Aphids are softbodied 

insects about 1-2 mm long which may be 

found on the undersides of leaves, around flower 

buds and on young shoots. They are of various 

colours (usually green), depending on the species 

and sometimes on the food plant. They may be 

winged or wingless and usually have a pair of 

cornicles on the upper surface of the posterior of 

the body. Aphids suck plant sap and, when 

numerous, leaves may dry up and curl, buds and 

flowers are distorted and the entire plant weakened. 

Most species secrete honeydew, to which ants are 

attracted and on which sooty mould may grow. 

Nymphs are wingless and resemble adults in shape 

and colour. Many species transmit virus diseases. 

Interplanting with plants such as garlic which are 

reputed to repel aphids by their aroma may be 

useful in home gardens. Carrot crops sown after 

the middle of October have a good chance of 

escaping infestation. Provision of good irrigation 

and other growing conditions can offset, to some 

extent, injurious effects of aphids. The importance 

of the aphid pest problem in vegetables may 

depend on the frequency of arrival of migrant 

swarms. Monitor aphids and their parasites and 

predators. Because aphids are sap sucking, 

systemic insecticides are used for control. Many 

contact insecticides are also effective but require 

more careful application. Contact insecticides 

will not stop viruses from entering a crop but may 

stop aphids breeding and transmitting viruses 

within a crop. Resistance to insecticides is present 

in the green peach aphid which can transmit > 100 

virus diseases. See Roses J 4. 

VEGETABLES M 11

VEGETABLES 


Both introduced and native bugs may be pests, 

some introduced bugs are naturalised. Some only 

attack one species, eg acacia spotting bug, 

eucalyptus tip bug, but many infest a wide range 

of plants. Bugs suck sap from young tissues 

which eventually wilt and die. Some blemish fruit 

and other plant parts with excrement. 

Green mirid bug (Creontiades dilutus, Miridae) is 

slender, active, pale yellow-green, about 6 mm long 

and difficult to see. It feeds on vegetables, eg carrot, 

French bean, potato, fruit, eg passion vine, peach, 

nectarine, prune during late spring and summer. 

Wings are translucent and delicate, legs and antennae 

are long and slender. Nymphs suck the sap from 

terminal shoots which arrests plant growth. 

Growing points may wither and eventually fall out. 

Very small populations of these bugs may reduce 

yields in October-November after abnormally low 

night temperatures in September. Checks in plant 

growth caused by cold weather may make crops 

unusually susceptible to subsequent mirid damage. 

Eggs are laid in leaf stalks. A predatory bug (Nabis 

capsiformis) kills green mirids and is thought to be 

important in limiting their numbers. 

Green stink bug (Plautia affinis, Pentatomidae) is a 

shield-shaped bug about 8 mm long, green with 

brown wing covers. They look like green vegetable 

bugs but are smaller and give off an offensive odour 

when handled. They suck sap from French bean 

pods and other vegetables, eg silver beet, tomato, 

and grapevines. See Beans (French) M 28. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula, Miridae) 

attacks a wide range of herbaceous plants and weeds. 

Adult bugs are shield-shaped, about 15 mm long 

and usually green (Fig. 301). Overwintering adults 

become brownish purple during hibernation. 

Nymphs change in colour patterns as they develop 

with different combinations of green, black, yellow, 

orange, brown and red. All stages suck plant sap, 

preferably from fruit (tomato, bean pods) and seeds 

but also from young foliage (potatoes and 

cabbages). Bug damage usually occurs or threatens 

within a few weeks of harvest. There are several 

generations each year but often only one cycle 

within a crop. Yellow eggs are laid in rafts on leaf 

undersurfaces. Overwinters as adults which move 

into young crops. Favoured by late autumn weather 

when bugs migrate to crops from plants and weeds 

where they bred. Control: Eliminate weed hosts, 

from which bug populations can migrate to 

susceptible crops. Plough-in old crops. A black 

wasp (Trissolcus basalis) about 1 mm long lays an 

egg within the egg of the green vegetable bug, which 

turns black and within a week, a wasp emerges. This 

wasp generally controls the pest in coastal areas but is 

not so successful in drier inland areas. 

Harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor, Pyrrhocoridae) 

is a native, strikingly marked bug which may suck sap 

from young tissues of ornamentals, fruit trees, 

vegetables, weeds. They may also swarm on tree 

trunks, fence posts and the sides of sheds. Adults are 

about 12 mm long; head, inner margins of forewings 

and wing tips are black; thorax and bases of the 

forewings are reddish orange; body undersurface is 

yellowish green with red and black markings (Fig. 

301). They hibernate in winter in these places or 

under the bark of trees. Nymphs are wingless and 

brighter than the adults. 

Leptocoris bug (Leptocoris mitellata, Rhopalidae) 

infests exotic and native garden plants, fruit trees and 

vegetables, eg tomato. It is narrow, winged and about 

12 mm long and a general reddish brown (Fig. 301). 

Metallic shield bug (Scutiphora pedicellata, 

Scutelleridae) may reach nuisance levels. Adults are 

up to 10 mm long, shield-shaped and a deep 

metallic blue mottled with black and 2 bright red 

blotches on the thorax. They feed on the new tissue 

of many exotic and native garden plants, eg almond, 

fig, Hibiscus tiliaceus), melaleuca, tea-tree. Their 

feeding on fig may be followed by sap exudation. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor, Lygaeidae) is a small 

native bug which develops on many weeds, eg 

capeweed, pigface, summer grass, capeweed, during 

winter. When weeds dry off in spring bugs swarm 

on to succulent crops, fruit, eg citrus, grape, peach, 

vegetables, eg bean, onion, potato, tomato, 

ornamentals, eg brachycome, Helichrysum, 

Helipterum. Adult females are grey-brown, about 

5 mm long with 2 pairs of silvery wings (Fig. 301). 

Nymphs are similar to adults but are yellow initially, 

turning dark. They cannot fly so they suck sap from 

seeds of capeweed and other Asteraceae. Adults can 

fly up to 100 m and cluster on young shoots and 

fruit and suck sap, causing wilting and sometimes 

death of plants. Plants may look scorched. Seed 

production may be limited, and plants may be fouled 

with excreta. Females can lay up to 400 eggs, in 

groups of 5, in flower heads of weeds and debris. 

There are many generations each year. The length 

of the life cycle, from egg to adult can be as short as 4 

weeks. Adults overwinter in debris. All stages give 

off an acrid smell when disturbed or crushed, and 

may irritate pickers. Control by deep ploughing 

weeds if practicable during winter to get rid of 

overwintering adults. Plant alternative crops to prevent 

breeding. Grey cluster bug (Nysius clevelandensis) 

causes similar damage. See Stone fruits F 130. 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (egg. 

nymph, adult) with many generations each season. 

Overwintering: Harlequin bug, green vegetable 

bug and Rutherglen bug, as adults. 

Spread: By adults flying (they can fly 

considerable distances), nymphs do not usually 

crawl far from their food plants. 

Conditions favouring: Good plant growth in 

winter and spring. If hot dry conditions occur in 

spring and early summer natural hosts (grasses and 

weeds) dry off or if they are ploughed in, these 

bugs swarm into crops. 

Control varies depending on the species and the 

host. General recommendations include: 

Sanitation: Bugs breed on weeds, eliminate weed 

hosts. Turn in cover crops or crop debris early. 

Biological control: Some bugs have been under a 

degree of biological control for years (see 

Green vegetable bug above). 

Pesticides: Monitor bug populations (Brough et 

al. 1994). It is essential to know when they are 

likely to attack the crop, eg green vegetable 

bug damages crops just before harvest. If direct 

control is necessary, a material of short residual 

life should be used because bug damage usually 

occurs or threatens to occur within a few weeks 

of harvest. Infested plants and surrounding 

weeds must be thoroughly sprayed. Weed and 

ground treatments may provide adequate control. 

M 12 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 


Host range: Some species, eg cabbage moth 

(Plutella xylostella), only attack brassicas, while 

others, eg cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), 

leafroller moths (Tortricidae), attack a wide range 

of vegetables and other plants. 

Description and damage: Caterpillars and 

their chewing damage, ie holes in leaves, are easily 

seen. Droppings may be found on plants or on the 

ground under the plants. 

Noctuids (Noctuidae): Cluster caterpillar 

(Spodoptera litura, Noctuidae) mostly feeds on 

broadleaved plants, vegetables, fruit, field crops, 

weeds. Moths are thick-set greyish-brown and lay 

eggs on leaf undersurfaces in clusters usually of outer 

lower leaves. Caterpillars are up to 40-50 mm long 

green to brownish purple with a row of dark triangular 

spots on each side of the body. Caterpillars feed 

during the day and only leave the plant when fully 

grown to pupate in soil. Young caterpillars 

skeletonise leaf undersurfaces, older caterpillars 

are more solitary and feed on leaves, flowers and 

fruit. It is not easy to distinguish damage from that of 

other caterpillars, except from the feeding pattern of 

young caterpillars. Corn earworm, tomato grub 

(Helicoverpa armigera) and native budworm (H. 

punctigera) caterpillars are up to 40-50 mm long, 

various coloured dark stripes running along their 

bodies (Fig. 302). Caterpillars feed on flowers, in 

fruit, pods and cobs and by boring into the heads of 

crops, eg cabbage and lettuce. Young tomatoes may 

be destroyed as soon as the caterpillar enters, or they 

may continue to grow with the developing caterpillar 

inside. Sweetcorn is usually damaged at the ends of 

the cobs. Older caterpillars enter bean pods and eat 

seeds. Young caterpillars may also damage buds, 

flowers and young leaves. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cutworms and armyworms (various species) 

shelter in soil (Fig. 302) under clods by day and cut 

through stems of vegetable seedlings at night so that 

they fall over and die. Older plants may be infested 

and be partially or completely defoliated. Favoured 

by planting crops in previously weedy land. See 

Seedlings N 68. Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis 

spp.) infest ornamentals, indoor plants, vegetables 

(especially bean and tomato), field crops, broadleaved 

weeds. Moths are dark brown with silver markings, 

stoutly built with a wingspan of 30-40 mm. They fly 

at dusk and are attracted to lights at night. Females 

lay their eggs on leaf undersurfaces. Caterpillars are 

green with white longitudinal stripes, move with a 

looping motion, are up to 30-40 mm long (Fig. 

302), have a tapering shape and chew large holes in 

leaf undersurfaces, pods and fruit. Pellets of dark 

green excreta fall on lower leaves. Caterpillars 

pupate in white silken cocoons in folded leaves, or 

between webbed leaves attached to undersurfaces. 

Many generations each year. Overwinters in a loose 

silken cocoon attached to leaf undersurface. 

Favoured by mild, moist, cloudy weather, shady 

situations, especially in autumn. 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae), eg lightbrown 

apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) and lucerne 

leafroller (Merophyas divulsana), have similar life 

histories and habits. Caterpillars are slender, green, 

about 10-18 mm long with brown head capsule, and 

wriggle backwards when disturbed (Fig. 302). They 

live within webbed and rolled leaves and feed on 

foliage. Damage may occur in spring and autumn. 


Others: Cabbage-centre grub (Hellula spp.), 

cabbage cluster caterpillar (Crocidolomia 

pavonana), cabbage moth (Plutella xylostella), 

cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae), loopers 

(Geometridae), loopers (Geometridae), painted 

apple moth (Teia anartoides), woollybear 

caterpillar (Spilosoma glatignyi). 

Caterpillars must be monitored. See Annuals A 8, 

Brassicas M 39. 

Crickets, grasshoppers, katydids, 

locusts (Orthoptera) may feed on seedlings and 

older plants, chewing leaves, flowers and 

growing points, usually during summer. Plants 

may be chewed off at ground level. When they 

mature they can reach plague proportions. eating 

anything in their path. They seldom thrive in the 

usually moist environment of gardens. 

Crickets: Black field cricket (Teleogryllus 

commodus, Gryllidae) are about 25 mm long and 

black or brown. Nymphs and adults attack young 

plants of all sorts but particularly foliage and stalks 

of young plants of potato, tomato, turnip, swedes. 

Leaves and growing points may be eaten. Plants may 

be chewed off at ground level. They also chew fruit 

such as strawberries. They shelter under leaves and in 

soil cracks during the day and feed at night. See 

Turfgrasses L 9, Strawberry F 141. Mole crickets 

(Gryllotalpa spp., Gryllotalpidae) are about 40 mm 

long (Fig. 303) and sometimes attack potatoes by 

surface-furrowing or boring holes in the tubers when 

the crop is nearly ready to dig. Occasionally damage 

occurs in small gardens but not in commercial crops. 

Control measures on potatoes are rarely needed. See 


Grasshoppers and locusts (Acrididae): Grass 

hoppers are generally solitary insects while locusts 

are gregarious and may gather in swarms. All species 

feed by chewing large lumps out of leaves usually 

leaving only the midrib. Locusts chew all plants in 

their way and may even chew green stems. Solitary 

grasshoppers are not usually a problem but some 

grasshoppers may be, eg wingless grasshoppers. 

Australian plague locust (Chortiocetes terminifera) 

swarms are common in south eastern Australia. In 

some seasons, swarms may defoliate any plants in 

their path. They prefer trees lacking in vigour, such 

as those suffering from the effects of root rot or saline 

soil. Locusts are 40 mm long from the front of the 

head to the tips of the folded wings and are dark 

brown, grey or green (Fig. 303). Forewings are 

mottled with dark spots or blotched and the 

transparent hindwings have a large black spot at the 

tip, shanks of the hind legs are scarlet. Overwinters 

as eggs in soil and as adults. Spread by flying and by 

wind. Favoured by moist springs (Kerruish and 

Unger 1991). Giant grasshopper (Valanga 

irregularis), one of the world's largest grasshoppers, 

occurs in tropics and subtropics. In north-western 

areas of NSW it may damage foliage and fruit of 

citrus during autumn and winter. These insects are up 

to 90 mm long in the adult stage, but may be difficult 

to see because of their green-brown colour as adults 

and pale green colour as nymphs. Spur-throated 

locust (Austracris guttulosa) may sometimes damage 

citrus foliage in the north-western areas in autumn and 

winter. The adult is up to 75 mm long, purple-brown 

and has a spur on the underside of the neck. 


is brown-grey, about 18 mm long (Fig. 303). They 

generally move into crops (potato, pea, bean, 

VEGETABLES M 13

VEGETABLES 

strawberry) from adjoining pasture land when it dries 

out. They may soon penetrate deeply into the field, 

leaving a trail of devastation. They can strip the 

foliage and leave bare skeletons of plants. They 

breed up on good pasture which then dries off, leaving 

the hoppers without green feed. Often the insects have 

gone before the damage is recognised. Hoppers in the 

crop can be controlled by spraying. Treat borders 

around crop to reduce migration. Yellow-winged 

locust (Gastrimargus musicus) are up to 50 mm 

long, and sometimes attack brassica crops on the 

tablelands and slopes in summer, reducing the plants 

to leafless stalks. The hindwings are bright yellow, 

and they make a clicking sound in flight. They create 

a great deal of damage in a short time. Control is 

difficult as the winged insects may continue to invade 

in moderate numbers. Others: Migratory locust 

(Locusta migratoria), small plague grasshopper 

(Austoicetes cruciata) (Woods et al. 1990). 

Katydids, longhorned grasshoppers (Tettigoniidae) 

mainly damage fruit. Some are not really pests, eg 

katydid (Caedicia olivacea) and green gum 

treehopper (Torbia perficta), which are common 

green species with flattened wing covers resembling a 

gum leave. Both species have slender antennae and 

are well camouflaged in the foliage. Mountain 

katydid (Acripeza reticulata), citrus katydid 

(Caedicia strenua) and inland katydid (C. simplex), 

damage leaves and young fruit of blackberry, citrus, 

stone fruits. Katydids are angular, flat-sided with 

long antennae and strong hind legs for jumping. 

Adults are green and about 45 mm long (Fig. 303). 

Forewings are narrow and opaque, with a black band 

on the posterior edge. Hindwings are fan-like, 

transparent and pale green. Nymphs skeletonise 

young leaves and adults chew holes in older leaves, 

but damage is unimportant. Nymphs gnaw rind of 

young fruit causing disfigurement and fruit drop. 

Damaged older fruits remain on trees; as they grow, 

scars grey and flatten out. There is only 1 generation 

per year. Adults appear in early summer, females lay 

eggs on soil beneath trees in late summer, and in moss 

in tree forks of thickly-foliaged trees. Monitor 

damage to fruit prior to applying an insecticide 



nymph, adult) with usually 1-2 generations per 

year depending on the species. Eggs are usually 

laid in the surface soil, but some may be laid in 

moss in tree forks and in other places. 

Overwintering: As eggs. 

Spread: By adults flying. 

Conditions favouring: Different species are 

favoured by different conditions, eg Australian 

plague locust is favoured by widespread rainfall, it 

only swarms under certain conditions. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Hand picking katydids is often 

practical as soon as damage is observed. 

Biological control: There are many natural 

controls. Predators include birds (thought to be 

the most important natural predators), lizards, 

frogs, ants and bugs. Parasites include flies, 

nematodes and wasps (Kerruish and Unger 

1991). Also possibly by a protozoa (Nosema 

locystae). Scientists have successfully 

developed a fungus (Metarhizium flavoviride) to 

kill the Australian plague locust and the 

wingless grasshopper in small-scale field trials. 

The fungus takes several days to work, so it 

needs to be applied when the insects are still in 

the juvenile stage. It shows good potential as an 

alternative to chemical control of locust and 

grasshopper pests (Jenkins 1994). 

Pesticides: Plagues of the Australian plague 

locust in eastern Australia are monitored by the 

Australian Plague Locust Commission. State 

Departments of Agriculture coordinate and 

supervise control within their borders. Control 

by aerial and broadacre sprayng is difficult. 


Scientific name: Dermaptera: 


Host range: Vegetables, eg lettuce, flowers, eg 

dahlia, chrysanthemum, fuchsia, zinnia, fruit on 

trees, also foodstuffs, eg sugar, flour, starch fat, 

meat, live and dead insects, mosses, lichens, algae 

also organic matter. They may invade houses. 

Description and damage: Adults and nymphs 

are nocturnal, hiding during the day in vegetable 

rubbish, under bark and pots, in fruit clusters and 

flowers. Adults are about 12 mm long, brown 

with a flattened body with pincers (cerci) at the 

end of the abdomen which are used for capturing 

prey and defence (Fig. 304). Pores on the back 

may eject an offensive fluid. Membranous 

hindwings are folded and almost concealed 

beneath wing covers. They seldom fly. Nymphs 

resemble adults in shape and colour but are 

wingless. Leaves, petals and fruit may be 

damaged by earwigs chewing and become ragged. 

They also feed on fallen fruit and seedling roots. 

Plant appearance is spoiled by their presence and 

excrement, eg lettuce. Do not confuse plant 

damage caused by earwigs with that caused by 

caterpillars, beetles, locusts, or snails and slugs, or 

other pests. 

Pest cycle: Their eggs are laid in small nests in 

soil. Females guard developing eggs and nymphs. 

Overwintering: As adults in litter etc. 

Spread: By nymphs and adults crawling (adults 

have wings but seldom fly), by movement of 

nursery stock, pot plants, bulbs or anything that 

might carry soil. 

Conditions favouring: Cool, moist weather 

during spring and autumn. They are rarely 

troublesome during cold or hot weather. Heavy 

weed growth. They hide under plastic weed mats. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Remove rubbish, decaying plant 

material and other debris which provide shelter. 

Biological control: Birds prey on earwigs. Flies 

and nematodes may parasitise them. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Rolled 

newspapers or upturned flower pots filled with 

crumpled paper or corrugated cardboard left out 

at night, attract and provide shelter for earwigs. 

Inspect traps every few days and destroy earwigs. 

Indoors earwigs can be swept up and destroyed. 

Pesticides: If earwigs are plentiful, apply 300 

mm wide bands of insecticide to paths, fences 

and around the edges of garden beds. One 

thorough treatment should give control for one 

season. Baits can be prepared and scattered 

M 14 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

over the infested area particularly along paths, 

fences and around the edges of garden beds. 

Infested flowers may be sprayed with 

insecticide, spray late in the day when bees are 

not working. The use of herbicides to control 

weeds should limit populations of earwigs. 


Ferment flies (Drosophilidae) may infest ripe and 

over-ripe vegetables. See Fruit F 8. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae) may infest fruits of vegetables, 

eg tomato, before it is ripe. See Fruit F 9. 

Onion maggot (Delia platura) is the larva of a small 

grey fly. Maggots are tapered, white, legless and 

about 7 mm long. They tunnel in the stems of 

seedlings of asparagus, beans, cucurbits, onions and 

sweetcorn below ground level, causing wilting and 

destruction. See Onion M 68. 

Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeuroides 

vaporariorum) is a small, delicate, white insect 

about 1.5 mm long (Fig. 305). Immature scale-like 

nymphs and adults are found on leaf 

undersurfaces, where they suck plant sap causing 

a mottled speckled pattern on leaves. Whiteflies 

secrete honeydew on which sooty mould may 

grow. Severe infestation can cause plants to lose 

vigour and wilt; however, there may be infestation 

but no damage. They are seldom a pest in field 

crops but can be in mild moist conditions such as 

in greenhouses and in protected situations with a 

humid atmosphere in summer and autumn. Leaf 

damage may be confused with that caused by 

leafhoppers, thrips and twospotted mites. See 

Greenhouses N 24, Trees K 24 (Table 3). 

Leafhoppers 

Scientific name: Cicadellidae, Hemiptera 




Yellow jassid (Erythoneura ix) 

Passionvine leafhopper (Scolypopa australis, 

Ricaniidae) is a planthopper which may damage 

vegetables. 

Host range: Especially broadleaved plants but 

also grasses. Ornamentals, eg dahlia, marigold, 

vegetables, eg beans, carrots, celery, parsnip, 

potato, tomato, weeds and grasses. 

Description and damage: Leafhoppers range 

from very small to medium sized insects and are 

often very abundant. Adults are 3-4 mm long, 

wedge-shaped, mobile insects (Fig. 306). Nymphs 

are a similar shape except they are smaller and 

wingless. Nymphs and adults suck sap mostly from 

leaf undersurfaces, causing a whitish speckled 

feeding pattern, each speckle is a feeding puncture 

(Fig. 306). Damage is usually only noticed after 

they have left the plant. Leaves may curl up at the 

edges and may die. If numerous, leafhoppers 

cause stunting of the crop. Both adults and 

nymphs have the characteristic habit of hopping 

sideways (crab-like) to avoid danger and will 

move to other leaves or plants if disturbed. Make 

sure that you can distinguish leafhopper injury 

from greenhouse thrips, greenhouse whitefly and 

twospotted mite injury. See Trees K 24 (Table 3). 

Common brown leafhopper (Orosius argentatus) is 

a small brownish insect, about 3 mm long, and the 

vector of serious virus diseases, eg tobacco yellow 

dwarf virus in bean, tomato big bud mycoplasma of 

tomato. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Vegetable leafhopper, tomato leafhopper 

(Austroasca viridigrisea) is a small, yellow-green, 

torpedo-shaped, weak flying insect, about 4 mm long 

with 2 pairs of wings. Fruit show faint whitish spots 

and small specks of jassid excreta scattered over 

surface. Females lay eggs within the tissues of the 

youngest parts of plants, eg in stems and leaf petioles. 

Favoured by warm, dry weather. 


nymph, adult) with many generations each season. 

They pass their whole life cycle on stems, leaves 

or grasses. 

Overwintering: As eggs (apple leafhopper). 

Spread: By adults flying. By the movement of 

infested seedlings and other plant parts carrying 

eggs. 

Conditions favouring: In spring, summer and 

autumn when the leafhoppers migrate from drying 

herbage. They appear to be more prevalent in the 

drier inland districts and more common in crops 

when general conditions are warm and dry. 

Unirrigated crops are more susceptible to damage. 

Control: Infestations are difficult to control. 

Cultural methods: Rain or irrigation will quickly 

remove established infestations of vegetable 

leafhopper and usually reduce the need for 

chemical control. Well watered crops seldom 

suffer direct damage. 

Sanitation: Wherever possible likely sources of 

vegetable leafhopper infestation in old crops or 

susceptible weeds should be treated or avoided. 

Pesticides: Insecticides are registered for use in 

spring and early autumn, but these will at the 

most reduce the amount of injury. 

Leafminer flies (Agromyzidae, Diptera): 

Maggots of several species may mine in leaves of 

vegetables disfiguring them. 

Beet leafminer ( Liriomyza chenopodii) maggots 

mine in the leaves of ornamentals, eg 

wallflower, vegetables, eg beetroot, silver beet, 

spinach, weeds, eg chickweed. See Beet M 34. 

Cabbage leafminer (Liriomyza brassicae) is a 

minor pest of brassicas. If plants are growing 

in good conditions there is not much damage. 

See Brassicas M 39. 

Cineraria leafminer (Phytomyza syngenesiae) 

maggots mine in the leaves of ornamentals, eg 

chrysanthemum, cineraria, gazania, helichrysum, 

nasturtium, vegetables, eg lettuce, weeds, eg 

sow or milk thistle, cape weed, prickly lettuce. 

See Cineraria A 28. 

VEGETABLES M 15

VEGETABLES 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) feeds on new 

growth of bean, silver beet and rhubarb, especially 

young inner leaves, causing distortion during late 

summer and autumn in coastal areas and considerable 

reduction in vigour. Leaves and stalks become 

rusty or silvery-looking and distorted; the injury is 

sometimes similar to the effect of hormone herbicides, 

eg 2,4-D. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Earth mites (Penthaleidae): Redlegged earth mite 

(Halotydeus destructor) is somewhat flattened, active, 

about 1 mm long with velvety black, globular body 

and 8 red legs (Fig. 307). See Pea M 76 (Fig. 344). It 

mainly sucks sap from broadleaved plants, eg 

ornamentals, weeds, clover, pea and legumes. Blue 

oat mite, pea mite (Penthaleus major) is similar in 

appearance to the redlegged earth mite but has a red 

spot on the back towards the rear end and is less 

active. It attacks cereals, eg oats, grasses, clovers, 

ornamentals, vegetables, eg pea, brassicas, weeds. 

Both species: Nymphs and adults feed 

gregariously at night or in cloudy weather by day. 

Leaves become mottled, silvery, curled at edges and 

may wither and die. Seedlings may wither and die. 

Damage is often mistaken for frost injury. If 

disturbed while feeding mites will rapidly disperse. 

Pest cycle: Gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph, 

adult) with many generations in the cooler months. 

Orange eggs are laid on leaves, stems or on the soil. 

Oversummers as unlaid eggs in dead bodies which 

protect the eggs. Spread by nymphs and adults 

crawling, eggs on the hooves of stock, in sheep 

manure, possibly on windblown leaves, machinery, 

clothes and movement of infested plants in containers. 

Favoured by cool weather during autumn, winter and 

spring especially if good autumn rains are followed by 

dry winter weather. Eggs hatch after the first autumn 

rains and may build up large populations. The 

combined effects of poor growing conditions, 

bordering weedy areas and mites feeding, can 

severely check crop growth. Control: Ensure crops 

are growing satisfactorily. Population numbers are 

strongly influenced by weather. Sanitation: Weeds 

with a rosette habit are important redlegged earth mite 

breeding sites. Destroy adjacent broadleaved weed 

hosts. A long weed-free fallow reduces mite numbers. 

Infested crops should be destroyed after harvest. 

Biological controls: Mites are attacked by 

predatory mites but natural controls are not reliable. 

Pesticides may be applied to crops and surrounding 

edges when infestation is observed. Mow or graze 

pasture before treatment. 


(Tetranychus urticae) and bean spider mite 

(T. ludeni) may attack vegetables, especially 

unirrigated crops in hot weather if they have been 

planted close to old spider mite-infested crops, eg 

French bean. Adult twospotted mites are up to 0.5 

mm long, globular, almost translucent, greenish with 

2 large brownish spots on the abdomen, with 4 pairs 

of legs (Fig. 307). They produce webbing on which 

they crawl around and to which they attach their eggs. 

Mites suck plant sap causing speckling and mottling 

of leaves. Mites and their eggs under fine webbing 

may be seen on leaf undersurfaces. Growth and 

cropping of plants may be retarded. Severely infested 

plants may die. In severe cases, fruit may be 

attacked. Also vegetable spider mite (T. 

neocaledonicus). See Beans (French) M 29. 

Potato ladybirds (Epilachna spp.) are 

oval, strongly convex and about 6 mm long. 

Larvae are yellowish-green, up to 6 mm long and 

covered with long, black branching spines on the 

upper surface of the body. Adults feed on leaf 

uppersurfaces, often starting at the margin, while 

larvae generally feed on the undersurface. Leaves 

are initially skeletonised but sometimes adults 

chew holes right through leaving only the veins. 

Severely skeletonised leaves wither. Fruit may 

also be damaged. Do not confuse leafeating 

ladybirds with predatory species. See Potato M 

81. 


Larvae are white, plump, soft-bodied grubs with 

hard, brown heads and strong jaws. They assume 

the shape of the letter 'C' and are up to 50 mm long 

(Fig. 308). They feed on vegetable matter in the 

soil and, in their later stages, mainly on the roots 

of grasses and other plants. Damaged plants wilt 

and are easily pulled from the soil. 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) is about 

12 mm long, oval and shining black (Fig. 308). It 

chews stems and root crowns of young plants at 

ground level, causing sudden wilting and death. 

Injured stems of seedlings usually have a ragged 

teased out look. They also gouge holes in tubers and 

may be found in adjacent soil. Mature larvae attack 

grass roots. In spring, beetles bore into ripening 

fruits and vegetables lying on the ground and 

hollow them out from underneath. Susceptible 

crops should not be planted where overwintering 

beetles may be expected in the soil, or near pastures of 

mat-forming grasses such as paspalum, carpet grass, 

kikuyu and buffalo in which the beetles have 

overwintered as adults. If such land is to be used, it 

should be cultivated a year earlier and kept free from 

mat-forming grasses and weeds. Preferably plant 

where land has been used for growing legume crops, 

eg bean, pea, cowpea, velvet bean, bean, soybean, 

which are not susceptible to black beetle. 

Alternatively use a long clean fallow which may be 

undesirable economically and environmentally. With 

vegetables, insecticides may be incorporated into 

the soil at planting. Young plants may be protected 

by jetting soil around them. If the plants are already 

being damaged, jetting around the stems with an 

insecticide, or scattering bait lightly through the crop 

has proved effective. Once brassica transplants are 

well established they are no longer in danger. 

Where infestation of land is suspected, treat with baits 

or sprays prior to planting. If beetles are moving in 

from nearby pasture land, a deep steep-sided furrow 

can be ploughed around the outside of the crop area 

and maize bait scatter in this (Hely et al. 1982). See 


White curl grubs (Scarabaeidae) may cause losses. 

Most common larvae are Christmas beetle 

(Anoplognathus porosus), pruinose scarab (Sericesthis 

geminata), dusky pasture scarab (S. nigrolineata), 

Rhopaea magnicornis, Repsimus aeneus. On 

strawberries, larvae eat off roots right up to the 

crown. Plants stop growing and if weather is dry, 

soon wilt and die. Affected plants can easily be 

pulled from the ground. See Strawberry F 142. 

See Eucalypts K 61, Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11. 

M 16 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) are small, 

elongated, dark insects about 1-1.5 mm long and 

can be easily seen with the naked eye. They feed 

by rasping and sucking plant surfaces. Nymphs 

are yellowish and wingless. 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) and tomato thrips 

(Frankliniella schultzei) mainly feed on leaves 

which become silvery (Fig. 309). Onion thrips may 

also damage flowers causing them to drop. Plants 

may die. Onion thrips is a vector of tomato spotted 

wilt virus. See Onion M 68. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) may infest flowers of 

vegetables. See Roses J 6. 

Tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei) cause whitish 

blemishes on leaves and transmits tomato spotted 

wilt virus. See Tomato M 103. 

Western flower thrips (F. occidentalis) is also a 

vector for tomato spotted wilt virus. See Annuals A 9. 

Favoured by previous autumns and winters of 

above average rainfall and mild temperatures, 

followed by dry, sunny, spring weather, during 

which thrips invade crops in considerable numbers 

from drying weeds and other hosts in surrounding 

areas. Sheltered plant parts, eg throats of onions 

are favoured parts. Clean cultivation and the 

destruction of nearby weed growth should help to 

avoid onion thrips infestation early in the life of 

crops. Insecticides are registered because adults 

carry tomato spotted wilt virus into the crop from 

outside sources. Control of disease can be 

difficult. See Roses J 6. 


Some attack only one species, eg sweetpotato 

weevil, but most species infest a range of plants. 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) attack 

beans in late summer and autumn. Adults chew 

pieces from leaf edges, producing a saw-toothed 

appearance. Larvae are small white and legless. 

They cause serious damage in spring to tomato, 

cucurbits and beans. They destroy the fibrous root 

system and gouge out the main root and underground 

stems, and this may kill plants or reduce quantity and 

quality of the crop. Infestation usually results from a 

spill-over from nearby weeds. See Roses J 6. 

Spotted vegetable weevil (Desiantha diversipes) is 

brown-grey and about 6 mm long. It damages turnips 

severely in tableland areas in autumn, feeding on the 

leaves and stalks. It also feeds on stems, leaves and 

runners of strawberry in spring and autumn. Eggs 

are laid in late summer-autumn. Larvae hatch from 

eggs and enter the soil where they feed on roots. 

Adult weevils have been controlled with insecticides. 

Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) (VW) affects 

ornamentals, eg cineraria, Iceland poppy, pansy, 

stock, vegetables, eg cabbage, turnip, carrot, 

parsnip, celery, lettuce, onion, beetroot, silver beet, 

spinach, potato, tomato, weeds, eg capeweed, 

marshmallow. Weevils are box-shaped grey brown, 

about 8-12 mm long with V-shaped markings on the 

wing covers, often stained with soil (Fig. 310). The 

head is extended into a typical snout. When 

disturbed, they feign death and are difficult to see. 

Larvae are stout-bodied, curved, legless, initially 

cream, later light greenish-yellow and up to 12 mm 

long. Larvae usually feed during winter on fleshy 

roots of carrots and turnips which may be gouged 

out or furrowed. Adults and larvae feed at night or 

during the day in cloudy weather and shelter by day in 

the soil at the base of plants. Both larvae and adults 

chew holes in leaves, stems and fleshy roots. 

Larvae on occasions feed on the growing points of 

young plants and gouge tap roots of carrots. Pest 

cycle: 1 generation each year. Weevils emerge from 

pupae in early spring and feed on plants. They 

become inactive in the soil during the summer until 

late autumn when they lay eggs in the soil at the base 

of plants or on plant stems. Adults feed again at this 

time to a limited extent. There are no males and all 

weevils lay fertile eggs. They pupate in spring in 

earthen cells 20-80 mm below soil surface. 

Overwinters as inactive adults. A tachinid fly and 

several wasp parasites (Tersilochus spp.) were 

introduced but have not established themselves 

successfully. Some carrot varieties are more 

susceptible than others. 


(WV) infests ornamentals, eg chrysanthemum, fruit, 

eg citrus, passionfruit, vegetables, eg bean, brassicas, 

carrot, cucurbits, lettuce, parsnip, potato, sweet 

potato, field crops, eg lucerne (a favoured host), 

weeds, eg capeweed. Weevils are grey with a short 

broad snout and are about 12 mm long. There is a 

white band around the edge of the wing covers. No 

males are known. All adults lay fertile eggs. Larvae 

are thickset, legless, white or grey with brown heads, 

wrinkled, slightly curved, tapering and up to 13 mm 

long. They are found on roots at depths of 

50-150 mm below the soil surface but some may go 

deeper. Larvae do most damage and furrow into tap 

roots, stem bases, underground stems and 

tubers ringbarking or extensively furrowing them. 

Plants wilt suddenly. Young plants may be severely 

damaged. Infestation is usually patchy. Damage is 

most severe in the spring when larvae are nearly fully 

grown. Adults may feed on foliage, plants become 

stunted and some may die. Pest cycle: Probably 

only 1 generation each year Adults emerge from 

pupae in soil from November-April (peak in 

February) and may live for several months. Each may 

lay > 1,000 eggs on or just under the soil surface or 

stuck to soil debris. Young larvae hatch and burrow 

into soil to feed for many months before becoming 

fully-fed in the late spring when they form cells in soil 

and pupate. Overwinters as larvae. 

Others: Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus), 

sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius), 

whitestriped weevil (Perperus lateralis) 


larvae, pupa, adult) with usually 1 cycle per year. 

Overwintering: Depends on the species, some 

as pupae in the soil, others as feeding or nonfeeding 

adults or as larvae. 

Spread: By adults, eg WV adults crawl into crops 

from surrounding areas where they have bred on 

weed hosts, and from plant to plant, by hitchhiking 

on hay bales, packages and many sorts of 

farm produce. Eggs, larvae, adults of VW may be 

transported on seedlings, boxes or other items. 

Conditions favouring: When susceptible crops 

are planted in ground recently planted with 

susceptible or weed hosts. Adjoining weedy areas. 

Control: Control measures are not effective once 

plants are attacked. 

Cultural methods: FRW: Prevent damage by 

thorough early preparation of the land by 

ploughing in the weeds in late summer, and 

growing a crop of oats to be grazed and 

ploughed-in as recommended. VW: Plant 

VEGETABLES M 17

VEGETABLES 

susceptible crops in well-fallowed and cultivated 

land before sowing the crop (keep free from 

weeds for some time) or crop rotate with beans, 

peas or a cereal. Clean cultivate for some 

months prior to planting. Control susceptible 

weeds, eg capeweed and marshmallow, during 

late autumn and early winter. Prevent migration 

of adult weevils to spring crops from nearby 

weedy land by cultivating the weedy areas in 

winter to destroy weeds and weevils. WW: 

Growing winter cereals, eg oats, which are not 

susceptible or establishing a clean fallow 

commencing in autumn will reduce numbers 

sufficiently for susceptible crops to be grown. 

Abnormal high rainfall may kill many larvae. 

Sanitation: Destroy crop debris, weeds. 

Resistant varieties: Some types and varieties of 

vegetables, are more susceptible than others. 

Pesticides: Populations must be monitored. 

VW: Insecticide sprays or baits may be applied 

before planting, if land and adjoining areas are 

known to be infested, or when infestations are 

found. Often it is necessary to treat only a 

relatively small portion of the crop but the 

vegetation from which the weevils are moving 

should be treated. Sprays should be applied late 

in the afternoon. FRW: Also by spraying if 

damage is serious. Insecticides incorporated 

into the crop at sowing, or jetted into the soil of 

infested seedlings, may give some control. 

Good control of larvae of other weevil species 

without harm to established plants has been 

achieved overseas by fumigation. 

Wireworms (Elateridae), false wireworms 

(Tenebrionidae): Larvae chew into germinating 

seed and seedlings, causing them wilt or die. 

They chew patches of flesh and bore narrow holes 

deep into carrot roots, potato and sweet potato 

tubers, and onion bulbs. Vegetable beetle 

(Gonocephalum elderi, Tenebrionidae) adults and 

larvae are often found in large numbers but do not 

necessarily damage crops. See Seedlings N 69. 

Others: 

Symphylids (Symphyla) are small 

centipede-like animals which may damage fruit, eg 

pineapple, vegetables, eg asparagus, bean and 

occur in greenhouses. They are delicate, white, 

up to 10 mm long and about 1 mm thick with 

antennae and 12 pairs of legs. They avoid light 

and when exposed move rapidly back into the soil. 

They live in soil and usually feed on organic 

matter and roots, and may tunnel in seed leaves, 

crowns and underground stems causing short, 

branching roots. Primary roots may be destroyed 

during germination. They can penetrate 2 m into 

the soil. so the use of insecticides is impractical. 

Favoured by poor drainage, moist well-drained 

soils with plenty of organic matter. Under 

favourable growing conditions severe root damage 

is tolerated, but not by drought-affected plants. 

Where they are a problem their populations should 

be monitored. Pre-plant application of 

insecticides, thorough cultivation and removal of 

organic debris, and avoid planting in moist areas 

with high organic matter content, and a history of 

infestation. Centipedes and other soil dwelling 

predators exert some control in untreated soils. 


Snails and slugs may cause extensive damage to 

seedlings and chew holes in leaves and fruit of 

mature vegetables. They may hide in leaves and 

contaminate hearts with excrement and slime. 

Damage is easily identified if they are present on 

plants or if their shiny slime trails are visible. Do 

not confuse damage with that caused by leafeating 

caterpillars and beetles. See Seedlings N 70. 


Small birds, eg sparrows, starlings and silver eyes 

damage young seedlings after planting out, 

especially lettuce, spinach, beet. Bird netting may 

be necessary. Some control is obtained by a 

lacework of strings and bottle tops over the crop. 

Rats and mice may damage vegetables in 

storage. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Many vegetables are sensitive 

to frost. Fruit may be sunburnt (Fig. 311). 

Ripening of fruit may be affected by temperature, 

eg tomatoes may not ripen during cool summer 

months in Tableland areas of NSW. The 

premature running to seed is called bolting. It 

may be caused by being grown out of season 

(autumn lettuce may bolt in spring), unsuitable 

fertilisers and unfavourable seasonal conditions. 

Grow only varieties suited to the season and the 

locality. Because of the lush nature of vegetable 

crops, hot windy weather without adequate water 

or shelter is usually detrimental to flowering and 

fruiting. Many postharvest diseases are due to 

injury caused by excessive chilling, high 

temperatures, physical damage or prolonged 

overstorage (Beattie 1985). 

Nutrient deficiencies, excesses: 

Vegetables are susceptible to deficiencies and 

toxicities. Fertiliser programs should be based on 

soil analysis before planting and tissue analysis 

after planting (Weir and Cresswell 1993). The 

application of fertiliser in excess or at the wrong 

time is a common problem resulting in large leafy 

vegetables, failure of plants to heart (lettuce), 

browning of vascular tissue (lettuce). Use all 

fertilisers at lowest effective rate. Avoid direct 

contact of roots with concentrated fertiliser (Fig. 

312). Use poultry manure only in small amounts 

and apply in spring or early autumn, not just 

before winter. Soils can accumulate fertiliser. 

Land being fertilised for the first time may need 

large amounts of fertiliser, but some will remain in 

the ground for the next crop. Heavy soils 

accumulate more nutrients than sandy soils. 

Overmaturity: Root crops are often allowed 

to become overmature resulting in cracking (Fig. 

312). Cabbages may also split when overmature. 

Vegetables must be harvested at the correct time 

Others: Pesticide injury and residues, 

pollination, springtails (Collembola). 

M 18 

VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES 

WEEDS 

Most vegetables compete poorly with weeds 

during establishment (first few weeks after 

emergence), until there is sufficient vine and leaf 

growth to cover the soil, eg sweet potato, pea, so 

that early and efficient weed control is essential to 

prevent any check in crop growth. Some 

vegetables compete poorly with weeds throughout 

the life of the crop (poor ground cover offered by 

the crop), eg carrots and onions. An efficient 

weed control program is required throughout the 

entire growing period of the crop. Some weeds 

may be difficult to control adequately in some 

crops, eg slender celery and wild carrot, in carrot 

crops. Weed control is based on good land 

preparation. This involves a combination of 

mechanical weeding of various types, interrow 

cultivation, mulches and pre- and post-emergence 

herbicide applications. Pre-emergence 

herbicides are registered for most vegetables, 

which may be applied pre- or post-plant to control 

a range of broadleaved and grass weed seeds. 

Selective post-emergence herbicides are used to 

control a wide range of emerged broadleaved and 

grass weeds. Herbicides must be applied at the 

right time to achieve effective weed control 

(Salvestrin 1991). 

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Control of Postharvest Diseases of Fruits and 

Vegetables : Recent Advances. HortSci. 27(2), Feb. 

Woods, W., Michael, P. and Grimm, M. (compilers). 


Dept. of Agric., WA/Plant Prot. Soc. of WA, Perth. 

VEGETABLES M 19

VEGETABLES 


Industry eg 

The Home Vegetable Garden (most states) 


Boron Deficiency 

Handling Fruit and Vegetables in Retail Stores 

Identifying Deficiencies in Vegetable Crops 

Monitoring Pesticide Residues in Fresh Fruit & 

Vegetables 1992-94 

Postharvest Diseases, Injuries & Disorders of Vegetables 

Seasonal Availability of Fresh Vegetables 

Soil Acidity and Vegetable Growth. 


Testing Fruit and Vegetables for Pesticide 

Transporting Fresh Produce in Refrigerated Trucks 

Vic Agnotes 

Commercial Vegetable Growing in Victoria 

Commercial Vegetables Kit 

Control Seedborne Diseases with a Hot-water Bath 

Seedling Production : Damping Off 

Storage Life of Vegetables 

Trace Element Deficiencies in Vegetable Crops 

Sustainable Vegetable Growing Projects (The Vegetable 

Research Station, Frankston) 

Use of Low Quality Water for Vegetables 

Vegetable Advisory Services 

Vegetable Growing in East Gippsland 

Vegetable Growing in the Lodden-Campaspe Region 

Vegetable Growing in North & West of Melbourne 

Vegetable Seeds Buying Guide 

Vegetable Seedling Production 

Vegetable Seeds & Seedlings, How to Work Out Quantities 

Windbreaks for Vegetable Crops 

Yields of Vegetable Crops 

WA Farmnotes 

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Disorder of Vegetable Crops 

(Bull. 4175. WA Dept of Agric) 

Root-knot Nematode in Vegetable Crops (SA Fact Sheet) 

Storage Conditions for Fruit and Vegetables (NSW Agfact, 

WA Farmnote) 


Australian Vegetable & Potato Growers Federation 

(AUSVEG) 

Fruit and Vegetable Prices and Receivals 1994-95 (avail. 

from Johima Book, Parramatta) 


NSW Chinese Vegetable Growers Assoc 

See Preface xii, Annuals and herbaceous plants A 10 



MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Choose varieties to suit the market, season and site. 

Resistant varieties: Choose species or varieties which are relatively problem-free. Where particular 

problems recur, eg root knot nematode, check to see if resistant varieties are available. Do not plant 

susceptible species in areas where soilborne problems are known to occur. 

Diseases-free planting material: Purchase certified virus-or pathogen-tested seed or plants. Otherwise 

only propagate vegetatively and save seed from disease-free plants, and treat with hot water or fungicides. 


Effective control can only be achieved by identifying the problem accurately; if unable to do so seek advice. 

Many postharvest diseases originate from field infections, eg Sclerotinia rot, so field disease control is 

important. Monitor disease, pest and weed infestations in crops. 

Propagation: By seed, division and tubers, by grafting and by tissue culture. 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops (3-4 year rotation with non-host plants) to avoid buildup of leaf spot fungi 

and soilborne root and crown rots, in plant debris. Site plants according to their cultural requirements. Space 

plants well to prevent seedbed diseases and provide good aeration so that leaves dry rapidly. Control snails 

and other problems that affect seedlings. See Seedlings N 66. Sow as far as possible from other 

infected plants or from land containing infected crop debris. Irrigate and fertilise as recommended, ie irrigate 

early in the morning and avoid overhead irrigation. Do not damage roots during cultivation. Pick crop 

regularly and keep it growing vigorously to avoid diseases establishing. 

Sanitation: Many soilborne fungi grow on crop debris after harvest. Debris from vegetable crops should 

either be deep buried, so that it can be broken down by soil microorganisms, or collected and destroyed. 

Biological control: Biological control agents may have been released, eg for green vegetable bug, or may 

be available for purchase, eg predatory mites. 

Plant quarantine: Comply with local, regional and export/import regulations. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Use if relevant and practical, eg bird netting, plastic mulch. 

Pesticides: Monitor diseases or pests before applying a pesticide (Brough et al. 1994). Systemic 

fungicides can effectively control disease by both killing germinating spores before they infect the plant and 

by eradicating recent infections. Protectant fungicides should be applied in advance of when the disease is 

expected to occur. Observe withholding periods on vegetable crops so that crops do not contain more than 

prescribed maximum residue limits. For home gardeners there is a range of ready-to-dispense combination 

pesticides which are ideal for small areas. Commercial growers should select insecticides, fungicides and 

herbicides in such a way as to reduce the possibility of resistance development. 

Pest management: Prepare a monthly chart for vegetables from the time of planting which should include 

all activities, eg planting, pruning, fertilising, pesticide applications, postharvest treatments. 

Postharvest 

Postharvest diseases and pests: Harvest leaves, fruit or roots at the correct stage for the market. 

Discard diseased or injured produce. Only package, store and market healthy and uninjured produce. 

Fresh vegetables are susceptible to many postharvest bacterial diseases, eg soft rot, fungal diseases, eg 

rhizopus soft rot, and disorders. See Postharvest N 61. Dried stored vegetables are also susceptible to 

many insect pests, eg bean weevil and cockroaches, dried fruit beetles, flat grain beetles. See Seeds N 75. 

Harvest/Storage/Shelf life: Each vegetable must be harvested, maintained at recommended temperatures 

and humidities and packaged, stored, transported and displayed according to prescribed standards 

(Salvestrin 1991). International Standards for Fruit and Vegetables defines the quality requirements to be 

supplied fresh to the consumer (OECD cur. edn.). Quality standards are available for most vegetables. 

M 20 

VEGETABLES

Asparagus 

Asparagus officinalis 



Parasitic 




Root, crown and spear rots 

Rust 



Aphids 

Cutworms 

Garden symphylid 

Thrips 


Non-parasitic 

Autotoxicity 


Asparagus suffers from few pests and diseases in 

Australia. 


Parasitic 



carotovora). See Vegetables M 5. 


Fungal leaf spots: Grey leaf spot, fern spot 

(Stemphylium sp.) causes small purple spots on 

asparagus ferns and sometimes on spears. Spots 

on ferns enlarge to become light brown with 

purple margins, and may completely girdle fern 

stems causing affected ferns to die. Remove and 

destroy old ferns to prevent Stemphylium surviving 

on them. See Annuals A 5. 

Root, crown and spear rots 

Fusarium crown rot, asparagus decline, fusarium 

decline (Fusarium moniliforme and to a lesser extent 

F. oxysporum) may be a serious disease; it is 

usually associated with wilting, yellowing and 

browning of ferns (Elmer et al. 1996). Longitudinal 

reddish-brown flecks develop on stem bases below 

ground level, stems may crack and the vascular system 

stained brown. Roots and crowns rot, plants die. 

F. moniliforme is widespread in soils and also affects 

many other crops, eg sorghum, maize, rice and peanut. 

Spores are spread by wind and water (Persley and 

Cooke 1994). Some Fusarium spp. are seedborne. 

Favoured by stress, eg compaction over the crown, 

competition, defoliation, excessive harvesting, 

waterlogging. Where Fusarium occurs, only plant 

Fusarium-free crowns and seedlings of Fusariumtolerant 

varieties in new sites not previously planted 

with asparagus or other susceptible crops, and avoid 

stress. Treat seed, crowns, soil and emerged crowns 

as recommended with fungicides. See Vegetables 

M 6, M 9. 

Phytophthora spear rot (Phytophthora megasperma) 

is widespread but not as serious as Fusarium. It 

causes a soft wet advancing rot of green spears. 

Lesions usually develop a white centre with a thin 

brown margin. Avoid replanting areas where crops 

have been badly affected and during cool spring 

conditions. See Trees K 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Phoma rot, spear discoloration (Phoma betae, 

Imperfect Fungi) causes a black rot of seedlings, 

brown streaks on seed stalks, brown spots on old 

leaves, and a rot of fleshy roots. Seedborne, 

overwinters in roots carried over for seed 

production and in debris. 

Rhizoctonia root rot, base rot and spear distortion, 

violet root rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) is a common soil 

inhabitant and may invade plants when spears are 

harvested. A dark brown rot occurs at the base of 

the plant extending out along roots. Affected spears 

show small red lesions and kinked growth. Rot may 

then grow down to the base of the plant where it may 

cause general decay. Spears are infected as they grow 

through roots or stems affected by the fungus. 

Favoured by sandy soils, warm weather and wet 

conditions. See Vegetables M 7. 

Others: Blue mould, red-brown spear (Penicillium 

sp.), pythium root rot (Pythium sp.), stem rot 

(Diplodia asparagi). 


Rust (Puccinia asparagi) spores remain on old 

stems until spring, germinating then to infect new 

shoots as they emerge from the ground. If tops 

are attacked several years in succession, the root 

system is so weakened that shoots fail to appear in 

spring or are culls. Overseas, a parasitic fungus 

(Darluca filum) helps keep rust in check. Varieties 

vary in resistance. Remove volunteer or wild 

asparagus around beds. Sanitation procedures 

must be carried out for chemical control to be 

effective. Asparagus tops can be sprayed or dusted 

after the cutting period. See Annuals A 7. 


Although asparagus root exudates are strongly 

suppressive of many soil nematode pests, root 

knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) and 

Paratrichodorus spp. have been reported on or 

around asparagus. See Vegetables M 10, M 11. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may contaminate 

asparagus postharvest. See Roses J 4, Vegetables 

M 11. 

Cutworms (Agrostis spp.) can occasionally 

damage asparagus plantations and can seriously 

damage young plants. See Seedlings N 68. 

Garden symphylid (Scutigerella immaculata) 

may damage crowns and spears in dry seasons. 

Symphylids are centipede-like insects < 9 mm 

long. See Greenhouses N 27, Vegetables M 18. 

VEGETABLES M 21

ASPARAGUS 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) may be a 

problem in young nurseries. They are concealed 

beneath bracts and are difficult to remove by 

washing. May be a postharvest pest. See Roses J 

6, Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Black field cricket (Teleogryllus 

commodus), mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp.), 

wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium vittatum). Flea 

beetles (Galerucinae) and Rutherglen bug (Nysius 

vinitor) may attack fern growth. Vegetable weevil 

(Listroderes difficilis) and larvae may feed on stems. 

Mirid bugs (Miridae) and redlegged earth mite 

(Halotydeus destructor) may contaminate harvested 

asparagus. Others: Overseas, asparagus beetles 

(Criceris spp., Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) and their 

larvae gnaw buds and tips when shoots emerge in 

spring. Maggots of the asparagus leafminer 

(Ophiomyia simplex, Agromyzidae, Diptera) mine in 

asparagus stems near the base of plants, foliage 

yellows and dies prematurely. 


Snails and slugs may nibble on emerging spears. 


Non-parasitic 

Autotoxicity: Failure to re-establish asparagus 

in old asparagus fields is usually diagnosed as an 

accumulation of pathogenic organisms causing 

Fusarium wilt, crown and root rots (Elmer et al. 

1996). Chemical treatments to effectively control 

these diseases does improve establishment but 

asparagus seedlings may be stunted. This stunting 

is considered to be due to an accumulation of toxic 

substances produced by asparagus. Asparagusic 

acid and related compounds are present in 

asparagus shoot tissues and inhibit lettuce, rice and 

MANAGEMENT 

radish, and seedlings of asparagus itself. Do not 

replant for 7-10 years after removal of crowns 

(McGeary et al. 1985). Asparagus roots strongly 

suppress many soil nematode pests. 


analysis standards are available for asparagus 





Elmer, W. H., Johnson, D. A. and Mink, G. I. 1996. 

Epidemiology and Management of the Diseases 

Causal to Asparagus Decline. Plant Disease, 

Vol.80(2). 

MacKay, A. G. 1989. Growing Asparagus for Profit. 

WA Dept. of Agric., Perth. 

McGeary, D. J., Ward, P. and Gardner, R. K. 1985. 

Trends in Asparagus Production and Marketing. 

Dept of Rural Affairs and Agric., Melbourne. 



and Vegetables : Asparagus. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. 

Available from DA Books, Mitcham, Vic. 

Persley, D. and Cooke, T. (eds). 1994. Diseases of 

Vegetable Crops. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 

Salvestrin, J. (ed.) 1991. Australian Vegetable Growing 

Handbook. 4th edn. CSIRO/NSW Agric., 

Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Asparagus Culture (NSW Agfact) 

Asparagus Production (Vic Agnote) 

Asparagus : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Home Vegetable Garden Books (Most states) 



Growing Asparagus Conferences 

See Vegetables M 19 



Asparagus is one of the few perennial vegetables and is grown for the fresh market or for canning. An overview 

of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). It requires cold weather to induce winter dormancy. 

Without this, crowns continue to produce new fern at the expense of the spring flush of spears. Select varieties 

with some resistance to Fusarium, Phytophthora and other diseases, Washington varieties have some 

resistance to rust. Only plant out Fusarium-free crowns and seedlings. Propagated from crowns, seed, 

seedling transplants. Asparagus plantations may last for 30-35 years, but economic life is usually 10-15 years 

and depends on soil type, tendency to overcut and other factors. Excessive cutting of newly established 

asparagus saps the vigour of crowns and reduces yield and life of the stand. Choose new sites not previously 

used for asparagus. It is usually almost impossible to re-establish asparagus successfully in land previously 

used for asparagus, due to the buildup of Fusarium spp. (Elmer et al. 1996) in the soil, or due to autotoxicity. 

Soils should be deep, fertile, friable, with lots of organic matter. Avoid environmental stress. Although 

asparagus has a high resistance to root pests, minor soil insects pests in the soil from previous crops, especially 

pasture, can transfer on to asparagus roots or stem bases. Protect emerging spears from snails, slugs and 

cutworms. Blanched asparagus is produced by special cultural methods, forming a mound of soil 200-300 mm 

high over the rows to blanch the spears before they emerge and are cut. For green asparagus, no mounding is 

carried out and spears are not cut until they are 200-240 mm above the ground. Perennial weeds can be a 

major problem. They should be controlled prior to planting, during the dormant season, and before and after 

emergence of the fern. Post-emergence and pre-emergence herbicides are registered for use. Harvest spears 

every day or they become stringy and unpalatable. Preferably eat them the day they are harvested. Cool spears 

quickly, eg up to 4 hours, 2 o C, > 95% relative humidity. Spears are ethylene sensitive, but appropriately treated 

may store for 2-4 weeks. Aphids, mirid bugs, mites and thrips may contaminate spears postharvest. For the 

fresh market, asparagus is graded according to size, and should be washed, graded, bundled and packaged in 

a cool room on the day they are harvested. For canning, asparagus is graded according to amount of fibre, 

spear size, compactness of spear head and correct colour (white or green), it should be processed as soon as 

possible. Quality standards and grades should be followed. 

M 22 

VEGETABLES

Bean (broad) 

Vicia faba var. major 

Family Fabaceae 


Parasitic 


Broad bean wilt 



Fungal leaf, pod and stem spots 


Rust 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Seed weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Mechanical and chemical injury 



Parasitic 


Broad bean wilt 

Scientific name: Broad bean wilt virus. It is 

not as important as it used to be. 

Host range: Legumes, eg pea (Pisum sativum), 

sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus), narrowleaved lupin 

(Lupinus angustifolius), spotted medic (Medicago 

arabica), purple vetch (Vicia benghalensis), 

ornamentals, eg nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), 

weeds, eg ribwort (Plantago lanceolata), Salvia 

spp., cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana). 

Symptoms: Systemic veinclearing and mottling 

of apical leaves, growing points turn black and 

die, wilting of whole plant, new stunted growth 

with leaf shape distortion, mosaic in 'recovered' 

side shoots. Symptoms are most pronounced in 

cool conditions and disappear soon after infection. 

Overwintering: In other infected plants. 

Spread: By aphids, eg cowpea aphid (Aphis 

craccivora), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), 

potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), not by 

seed. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Plant so that as much of the 

life of the crop as possible, 18-20 weeks, occurs 

at > 20 o C especially towards the end of growth. 

Autumn sowing on the coast and summer 

sowings on tablelands are most prone to infection. 

Sanitation: In small plantings remove and burn 

affected plants as soon as they are noticed. 

Disease-free planting material: Do not use seed 

from infected plants. 

Pesticides: Commercial growers may apply a 

registered insecticide for vector control. 

Others: Leaf symptoms include mosaic, 

mottling, rolling, staining, streaking, stunted 

plants, growing tips may die. Symptoms may vary 

over weeks. More than 50% of the viruses 

affecting broad bean are seedborne, many are also 

spread by insects. 

Subterranean clover stunt virus. New growth is 

yellow, leaves roll inwardly and are narrow. Older 

leaves become harsh and thick. Plants are stunted 

with a reduction in leaf size, shortening of petioles 

and internodes. 

Tomato spotted wilt virus: Blackening and death 

of growing points, dark streaking of stems, black 

sunken spots on pods. See Tomato M 96. 

Others: Alfalfa mosaic virus, bean yellow mosaic 

virus, broad bean true mosaic virus, broad bean stain 

virus, clover yellow vein virus, cucumber mosaic 

virus, subterranean clover red leaf virus. 




syringae) on broad bean. See Stone fruits F 124, 



Fungal leaf, pod and stem spots 

Ascochyta leaf spot (Ascochyta fabae) causes brown 

leaf spots in which small dot-like black fruiting 

bodies (pycnidia) develop. 

Grey mould, chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae, 

B. cinerea) causes grey or brown leaf spots, which 

can merge causing blighting. Petals may also be 

affected. Favoured by cool moist weather, plant 

injury, aphid secretions, dense crop growth and poorly 

drained soil. See Greenhouses N 22. 

Others: Leaf, pod and stem spot (Cercospora fabae), 

leaf spots (Alternaria spp., Mycosphaerella sp.). 


Root, collar and stem rots (Fusarium, 

Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia) may cause 

damping off diseases of broad bean, and root and 

collar rots of older plants. See Vegetables M 7. 

Rust (Uromyces vicae-fabae) affects broad bean 

and vetch. Small pustules, containing red-brown 

spore masses, develop on leaves and stems, 

leaves shrivel, flowers and young pods may fall. 

Often occurs towards the end of the crop. Some 

varieties, eg Coles Dwarf, are more resistant. See 

Annuals A 7. 


Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus spp.), stem and bulb 

nematode (Ditylechus dipsaci), Merlinius 

brevidens, Scutellonema brachyurum. See 


VEGETABLES M 23

BEAN (BROAD) 




Bean root aphid (Smynthurodes betae) 



Leafcurl plum aphid (Brachycaudus helichrysi) 


Aphids may breed rapidly on broad beans and may 

attack flowers causing poor pod set. Honeydew 

on leaves causes leaf cells to produce a brown 

pigment. Aphids on foliage may be controlled 

with insecticides. Bean root aphids are not usually 

controlled chemically. Some aphids are vectors 

for virus diseases of broad beans. See Roses J 4, 



Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) may eat into seeds and 

are difficult to control as they are concealed within 

pods. Inspect regularly to detect and control 

budworms at the beginning of infestations. A trap 

monitoring system is useful in detecting the 

presence of moths. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Others: Cutworms (Noctuidae), looper caterpillars 

(Chrysodeixis spp.), painted apple moth (Teia 

anartoides), pea blue butterfly (Lampides boeticus) 

and grass blue butterfly (Zizina labradus labradus). 


Seed weevils (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) 

Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus) may infest 

beans and cowpeas in the field. Beetles are about 

3 mm long, stout, brown, with white, grey, brown or 

black patches on the upper surface. Larvae about 

3 mm long feed inside bean seeds. These insects 

can breed continuously in the seeds. See Beans 

(French) M 31, M 32 (Fig. 318), Seeds N 74. 

Others: Broadbean weevil (Bruchus rufimanus) 

attacks broad bean, pea and vetch. Several can occur 

in a single seed (Metcalfe and Metcalfe 1993). 

See Seeds N 74, N 75. 

MANAGEMENT 

Others: Mites (Acarina), eg earth mites 

(Penthalidae), spider mites (Tetranychus spp.); 

green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), thrips 

(Thysanoptera), eg bean blossom thrips 

(Megalurothrips usitatus), plague thrips (Thrips 

imaginis); bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli), bean 

podborer (Maruca testulalis); crickets and 

grasshoppers (Orthoptera). 


Slugs also create problems in some seasons. See 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Broad beans are tolerant of even 

severe frosts but flowers may wither and drop due 

to variable temperatures, or too much or too little 

water. Regular setting of pods occurs when spring 

temperatures stabilise. Bees improve pollination. 

Mechanical and chemical injury may 

cause leaf and stem spotting as broad beans are 

soft and tender. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Excess 

nitrogenous fertiliser may cause excess leafy 

growth and fewer pods. 


Metcalfe, R. L. and Metcalfe, R. A. 1993. Destructive 

and Useful Insects : Their Habits and Control. 5th 

edn. McGraw-Hill, NY. 


Industry eg 

Broad Beans for Processing : Cultural Notes (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Broad Beans in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases of Broad Bean (NSW Agfact) 

Foliar Diseases of Broad Beans (Tas Farmnote) 

Insect Pests of Stored Foodstuffs (NSW Agfact) 

Pests and Diseases of Broad Beans (SA Fact Sheet) 




Broad beans are grown for the fresh market and canning. Some varieties have resistance to rust. Plant 

certified disease-tested seed (more than half of the diseases affecting broad bean in Australia are seedborne). 

Dust seed before sowing to protect against damping off fungi present in soil. Propagated by seed. Practise 

crop rotations of 3-4 years. Broad beans tolerate lower temperatures than other beans and may be sown in 

late autumn or winter. Avoid autumn sowings on the coast and summer sowings on the tablelands to reduce 

losses from broad bean wilt. Plant seed in heavy, well drained neutral to slightly alkaline soil. The need for 

irrigation is most critical at pod set. In small plantings remove and burn plants with broad bean wilt. Plough in 

diseased crops as soon as possible after harvest. Perennial weeds should be controlled prior to planting 

either by cultivation or by post-emergence herbicides. Pre-emergence herbicides may be applied to moist 

soil immediately after planting to control broadleaved weeds and some grasses. Commercial growers may 

control insect vectors of virus diseases where these are a problem. A tenderometer is used to determine 

maturity of beans for canning. Broad beans should be harvested before pods become over-mature (coarse and 

leathery). Home gardeners may preferably use pods as soon as picked and shell and freeze any surplus. 

M 24 

VEGETABLES

Beans (French) 

Phaseolus vulgaris 



Parasitic 



Bacterial blights 


Anthracnose 

Damping off 


Grey mould 

Root and stem rots, root rot complex 

Rust 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Flies 


Leafhoppers 

Leafminer 


Thrips 

Twospotted mite, red spider 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Poor germination 


Parasitic 


Stunted, yellow plants or leaf mosaics, indicate 

virus infection. 

Bean common mosaic virus affects beans 

(Phaseolus spp., Vigna spp.), burr medic (Medicago 

polymorpha). Symptoms vary with the cultivar but 

include leaf mottling, stunting, distortion of leaves 

and pods. Dark green tissue is often bubbled and/or 

in bands next to veins. Affected plants are smaller, 

with curled pods with a greasy appearance and 

reduced yields. Spread by aphids (Aphididae), by 

seed, by pollen to seed. Plant certified diseasefree 

seed of resistant cultivars. 

Bean yellow mosaic virus affects vegetables, eg 

bean, broad bean, pea, ornamentals, eg freesia, 

gladiolus, field crops, eg lupin, medics, soybean, 

subterranean clover. Leaves have a bright, coarse, 

dark and yellow-green mosaic, often with yellow 

spots and stunting. Severe strains may cause rough, 

wrinkled malformed leaves. Spread by aphids, eg 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), pea aphid 

(Acyrthosiphon pisum), potato aphid (Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae), by sap, by seed. 

Tobacco yellow dwarf virus (bean summer death 

virus) affects bean (P. vulgaris), common thornapple 

(Datura stramonium), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). 

Different strains attack different bean cultivars. May 

be symptomless. Plants yellow and die rapidly in hot 

weather. Death is slower during cool weather and 

plants are often stunted and wilted with young leaves 

curling downwards. Spread by common brown 

leafhopper (Orosius argentatus) which spreads from 

drying beans and other crops after hot weather; by 

grafting between solanaceous hosts, not by seed. 

Plant resistant cultivars. 

Others: Passionfruit woodiness virus, peanut mottle 

virus, subterranean clover red leaf virus, 

subterranean clover stunt virus, tomato big bud 

mycoplasma. 



Bacterial blights 

Bacterial brown spot, brown spot (Pseudomonas 

syringae pv. syringae) causes red-brown spots on 

leaves, stems and pods. Pod spots are watersoaked, 

sunken with red-brown margins. Only serious 

on crops damaged by hail, rust, windy rain, 

machinery. Avoid susceptible cultivars. 

Common blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

phaseoli) causes spotting of leaves and pods, 

wilting and death of plants. Spots are similar to those 

caused by halo blight but are larger with a narrow 

yellow halo. Laboratory tests are necessary for 

positive identification. A golden ooze may form on 

leaf and pod spots in moist conditions. 

Halo blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola) 

affects beans, tropical legumes, eg glycine. Leaves of 

severely affected seedlings are often mottled with 

bright-green veins on a paler background. Leaf 

spots are small, angular, watersoaked or dead, 

usually with a wide pale yellowish-green border. See 

Vegetables M 1 (Fig. 293). In cool weather halos are 

obvious, but they may not develop in hot weather. 

Some strains of halo blight do not produce a definite 

halo. Pods spots are circular, dark-green, water 

soaked and often run together. Under moist 

conditions, a silvery bacterial ooze forms on both leaf 

and pod spots. If the bacteria invade the vascular 

system plants may be stunted, wilted and eventually 

die. 

Pod twist (Pseudomonas syringae pv. flectens) causes 

small watersoaked areas on young pods, which wither 

and fall, remaining pods are twisted. Bacterial ooze 

may dry to a shiny encrustation. Bacteria are spread 

from plant to plant by bean blossom thrips 

(Taeniothrips nigricornis) which itself causes twisting 

and scarring of pods. 

Overwintering: Infected seed, ie direct pod 

infection or contact of seed coat with bacteria 

during harvesting and cleaning, handling, 

contaminated machinery, infected plants, crop 

debris and dust for more than a year. 

Spread: Wind-driven rain, machinery, irrigation 

equipment, people, insects, domestic and wild 

animals, machines or people moving through a 

crop when it is wet with rain or dew. 

Conditions favouring: Common blight by 

warm, humid or wet conditions. A very low level 

of seedborne disease, or one small area of 

infection, can start a serious outbreak. Halo blight 

and brown spot by cool, damp, windy weather, 

overhead irrigation, injury from hail and heavy 

driving rain. Pod twist by warm weather. 

VEGETABLES M 25

BEANS (FRENCH) 

Control: Monitor crops for disease, most 

outbreaks start from a few small initial patches. 

Cultural methods: Practice a crop rotation of 2- 

3 years. Do not grow beans near infected hosts. 

Sanitation: Destroy alternative hosts, legumes, 

weeds and volunteer beans from nearby bean 

crops. Plough-in diseased crops immediately 

after harvest. Store and handle bean seed to 

avoid risk of contamination. Do not contaminate 

healthy plants with diseased ones during 

harvesting. Handle infected plants first and 

disinfect hands, clothing and machinery before 

handling seed or moving to uninfected crops. 

Avoid workers and machinery moving through 

wet crops. To minimise spread, destroy all 

diseased and healthy plants for about 3 m around 

each patch. 

Resistant varieties: Avoid susceptible varieties. 


disease-tested seed. 

Pesticides: Bactericides may slow disease 

development. Insecticides control bean blossom 

thrips which spreads pod twist. 


solanacearum), bacterial wilt (Corynebacterium 

flaccumfaciens), crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 


Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) 

is most commonly seen on pods. Small reddishbrown, 

slightly sunken spots form, and rapidly 

develop into large black sunken craters which may 

have pink spore masses in the centre in moist 

weather. Spots similar to those on the pods are 

produced on stems and leaf stalks. Infection of 

leaves causes blackening along the veins, 

particularly on undersurfaces. Elongated dark 

brown lesions up to 12 mm long develop on stems 

on young seedlings. Practise crops rotations of 

2-3 years between crops. Several races of the 

fungus occur and some bean varieties are resistant 

to some races. Plant disease-free seed. 

Fungicides are registered for use. See Fruit F 5. 

Damping off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, 

Fusarium) occurs on stringless cultivars 

especially if seed is damaged during harvesting or 

handling, or if soils are wet and temperatures low. 

If seed has not been treated with fungicide, apply a 

fungicidal dust. Avoid watering soon after 

sowing. If ground is too dry, pre-irrigate soil and 

let it dry for a few days before sowing. Delay 

spring sowing until the soil temperature is > 15 o C 

at a depth of 50 mm. See Seedlings N 66. 


Angular leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis griseola, 

Isariopsis griseola) infects leaves, stems and 

pods. Spots on the 1st leaves are large and circular, 

often looking like archery targets. On later leaves 

they are generally smaller and angular. Tiny black 

bristles develop on the lower surface of the lesions. 

Often occurs with rust. Overwintering in crop 

residues. and on older diseased crops. Spread by 

seed infection either by direct infection on plants or 

contamination of seed coats during harvesting. 

Favoured by cool, wet windy weather. It is a minor 

disease in well managed crops. Plant resistant 

varieties. Plough-in diseased crops immediately 

after harvest. Spray with recommended fungicides. 

Ascochyta spot (Ascochyta phaseolorum = Phoma 

exigua). Circular grey spots 6-25 mm across develop 

on leaves, often with concentric rings and well 

defined margins. Centres dry and crack leaving 

ragged holes. Many black fruiting bodies (pycnidia) 

can be seen embedded in the tissue. Pod infection 

causes large dark spots around injury sites. Infection 

of the floral remnants causes a dark dry rot of the pod 

extending to the stem end. The fungus gains entry 

though damaged leaves around rust pustules, insect 

feeding sites and other injuries. A minor disease. 

Cercospora leaf blotch (Cercospora canescens) 

causes mature leaves to develop circular or slightly 

angular greyish spots, sometimes with reddish 

margins. Spots may dry and portions may fall out 

giving the leaf a ragged appearance. Overwinters as 

seed contaminant or survives in crop debris. Spores 

are spread by wind. Usually only seen on older 

senescing leaves. 

Leaf and pod spot, pleiochaeta brown spot 

(Pleiochaeta setosa) causes reddish brown spots about 

2 mm wide on leaves. With age, centres fall out 

leaving ragged holes. Small dark spots occur often 

on veins on leaf undersurfaces. Pods develop 

slightly sunken spots with dark centres and light 

brown margins. Spots are up to 3 mm wide and may 

coalesce. Favoured by growing beans on very light 

sandy soil. It is a wound pathogen and leaf and pod 

abrasion by sand during strong wind predisposes 

beans to attack. Eradicate alternative weed hosts, eg 

streaked rattle pod (Crotalaria pallida) and Gambia 

pea (C. goreensis). Establish windbreaks in 

exposed locations (Persley 1994). 

Others: Zonate leaf spot (Stemphylium sp.), 

Alternaria fasiculata, Leptosphaerulina trifolii. 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) may infect pods 

touching the ground causing postharvest losses. 

See Greenhouses N 22, Vegetables M 6. 

Root and stem rots, root rot complex 

Aphanomyces black root rot, black root rot 

(Aphanomyces euteiches) affects beans and peas 

causing discoloured stems and roots, leaves wilt, 

reduced yield. Often misdiagnosed as moisture stress. 


Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot, (Macrophomina 

phaseolina) causes a pale ash-coloured rot of the 

stem at the base of the cotyledons of seedlings. 

Infection may extend along the stem and growing 

points are killed. In older plants symptoms are similar 

but are more pronounced on one side of the plant. 

Affected areas often have a dark margin and 

concentric markings with an ashy grey centre and 

small black resting bodies within. Roots may also be 

invaded. Affected plants die. See Vegetables M 7. 

Cottony leak and stem rot, pythium stem rot 

(Pythium spp., P. aphanidermatum): Stems, at or 

above ground level, and sometimes leaves develop a 

soft rot which may be covered with a fine white 

cottony growth in wet weather. No sclerotia are 

formed. Roots of seedlings and mature plants may 

rot. Pods in transit and storage may develop 

abundant white cottony growth that mats pods 

together into nests which later become a soft leaking 

mass (cottony leak). Usually a minor disease but can 

M 26 

VEGETABLES


be serious in hot wet weather. For stem rot in the 

field avoid close planting and deep sowing of seed. 

Cultivate carefully to avoid plant injury, do not plant 

in poorly drained areas. Prepare land to allow 

residues to break down. For cottony leak discard 

diseased pods and pack only dry pods, store in well 

ventilated areas at 12-15 o C. See Vegetables M 7. 

Fusarium root rot, red root, dry root rot (Fusarium 

solani f.sp. phaseoli): Tap roots may redden and 

dry, lower roots are destroyed and secondary roots 

may form above diseased areas. Plants are stunted and 

yellow. Loosen soil before planting or after plant 

emergence. Hill soil around each plant base to 

encourage new roots above diseased areas, providing 

the crop is not to be harvested mechanically. See 


Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) may kill 

seedlings and mature plants. Sunken brick red lesions 

occur on lower stem and roots of seedlings often 

before they emerge (damping off). Cankers develop 

on stems of older plants but there is little yield 

loss. Plants may recover and give a satisfactory crop 

after producing new roots above diseased areas. 

Some plants are stunted. Reddish spots develop on 

pods in contact with soil. The fungus spreads 

rapidly during transit, often with brown fungal growth 

appearing on affected areas. A rapid postharvest 

transit rot with off-white fungal growth can develop. 

Favoured by large amounts of plant residues 

remaining in the soil, light soils where seedling loss 

and pod infection can be serious. Prepare land 

thoroughly so that plant residues are completely 

broken down before planting. Treat seed with 

recommended fungicide, hill plants to encourage new 


Root rot complex (Aphanomyces euteiches, Fusarium 

spp., Fusarium solani, Pythium spp.). Plants are 

stunted and older leaves turn yellow and wilt. The 

tap root and lower stem is reddened and rotted, 

and may die and be completely destroyed. Plants 

produce clusters of fibrous roots just below ground 

level. If growing conditions are good plants may 

recover. With cold, wet conditions yields are usually 

low. Soil inhabiting fungi are favoured by low 

temperatures and wet conditions during growth and 

when continual growth occurs in the same area for 

years. Deep-rip soils to improve drainage and aid 

root penetration. Avoid deep planting; sow at 

depths of < 25 mm during winter months. On light 

soils hilling encourages new root growth, this is not 

recommended for heavy soils. Rotate beans with 

crops other than legumes. Cultivar selection is 

important (Persley et al. 1989, Persley 1994, 

Salvestrin 1991). 

Sclerotinia rots, white moulds, (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum, S. minor) causes a white fungal 

growth on above-ground plant parts. Black sclerotia 

up to 12 mm long develop. The fungus often attacks 

the stem at ground level and the plant dies. A rapid 

rot of infected pods (nesting) may develop 

postharvest. See Vegetables M 7 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) causes a pale 

dry rot of stem and root. White threadlike 

sometimes fan-shaped fungal growth, small, brown 

spherical sclerotia, 2-3 mm in diameter develop on 

mycelium. A similar rot to that on stems develops on 

the pods in contact with soil. See Vegetables M 8. 


basicola). 


Rust (Uromyces appendiculatus): Pustules 

develop on leaves, stems and pods. Leaves may 

yellow, wither and die. Pod pustules may be 

small, raised, firm watersoaked blisters or may be 

large with rust spores. Twospotted mites 

(Tetranychus urticae) are attracted to rust uredinia 

on older leaves and vector them to rust-free plants 

(Batra and Stavely 1994). Favoured by cool to 

warm, damp weather, heavy dews during autumn. 

Plant resistant cultivars or ones that are slow 

rusting. If growing susceptible cultivars choose 

planting time carefully. Races vary in their ability 

to attack bean varieties. Another rust (Phakopsora 

pachyrhizi) may also attack beans. See Annuals A 

7. 

Others: Powdery mildews (Erysiphe polygoni, 

Sphaerotheca fuligena), wilts, eg Fusarium 

oxysporum, Verticillium dahliae. 


Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) 



Stem and bulb nematodes (Ditylenchus spp.) 


Stunt nematodes (Tylenchorhynchus spp.) 

Also Aphelenchus avenae, Filenchus exiguus. See 




Bean root aphid (Smynthurodes betae) infests bean 

roots in coastal areas. Aphids are small, globular 

and covered with white mealy material resembling 

mealybugs. The white material can be seen in the 

soil beside the infested plants. Aphids produce 

honeydew which usually attracts ants. Aphids suck 

sap from roots causing only slight damage except 

possibly when bean crops are stressed by drought. 

Overwinters on roots of hosts. Pesticides are not 

recommended, good cultural care of the crop 

should provide adequate control. 

Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) is greenish black, 

about 2.5 mm long and may cluster on and suck sap 

from growing points and leaf undersurfaces, causing 

yellowing and distortion of foliage. Young plants 

and plants in dry conditions may be stunted. During 

spring and autumn aphids swarm on to bean crops 

from other legumes. Infestations do not increase 

rapidly on French beans because they become trapped 

on epidermal hairs; high numbers on French beans 

depend on fresh arrivals of winged aphids. Natural 

enemies can eliminate infestations after swarms into 

crops cease. See Pea M 74. 

Others: Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and 

pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). 

Aphids transmit virus diseases, eg cowpea aphid 

transmits bean yellow mosaic and subterranean 

clover stunt; green peach aphid and pea aphid 

transmit bean yellow mosaic. Pods may need 

washing after harvest before marketing to remove 

honeydew and aphid skins. See Roses J 4, Vegetables 

M 11. 

VEGETABLES M 27



Green mirid bug, blind eye bug (Creontiades dilutus) 

is slender, pale green to yellowish green about 6 mm 

long. It sucks sap from axillary buds which develop 

into flower racemes. Small green buds wither and fall, 

leaving only the pair of bracts (blind eye) resulting in 

the absence of blossom and beans in spring. Plants 

can recover (if given sufficient moisture) and produce 

a crop of beans. Inspect bean plants frequently in 

spring, insecticides may be applied when bugs are 

first seen. See Vegetables M 12. 

Green stink bug (Plautia affinis) is a green shield bug 

about 8 mm long, with brown wing covers. It may 

invade bean crops in large numbers and damage pods 

by sucking juices. They are similar to green vegetable 

bugs but smaller and give off an offensive odour 

when handled. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) is a green 

shield bug about 15 mm long. All stages suck pods 

dry, leaving them shrivelled, distorted, and containing 

only empty shrivelled seeds. Immature stages are 

smaller, brownish black, oval-shaped with orange 

markings. Monitor bugs at regular intervals before 

applying insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See 


Harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor) is about 12 mm 

long. The head, inner margins of the forewings and 

wing tips are black, the thorax and bases of the 

forewings are reddish orange, and the undersurface of 

the body is yellowish green with red and black 

markings. Bugs may invade beans in large numbers 

and suck pods dry. See Vegetables M 12. 

Podsucking bugs (Riptortus spp.) are native, slender, 

18 mm long, dark brown with a yellow stripe on each 

side, and spines on the thorax and hind legs. They 

may cluster in large numbers on pods and quickly 

suck them dry, reducing the seeds inside to husks. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is small, grey-brown, 

about 5 mm long, about 1.5 mm broad. It swarms on 

to bean plants and sucks sap from leaves and stems 

causing them to wither. See Vegetables M 12. 



Bean podborer (Maruca testulalis, Pyralidae) infests 

legumes, eg beans and peas, in warm moist climates. 

Moths are brown with a wingspan of about 30 mm. 

They usually shelter in foliage during the day. When 

disturbed they fly rapidly to nearby sheltered areas. 

Caterpillars are cream, light yellow or green with 

small dark spots on the body, and up to 25 mm long. 

They web leaves, blossoms and pods together. 

Young caterpillars bore into buds, blossoms or 

young pods; older caterpillars usually bore into 

pods and excrement extrudes through entrance holes. 

Occasionally they burrow down leaf stalks of 

French beans. Caterpillars pupate in the pod or on the 

ground. Monitor pod damage during early pod set 

before making a decision to apply insecticide (Brough 

et al. 1994). 

Butterflies: Bean flower caterpillar (Jamides 

phaseli, Lycaenidae) feeds in flower buds of beans 

and is a minor pest. Mature caterpillars are pale 

brown with darker longitudinal lines and a brown 

head. Grass blue butterfly (Zizina labradus, 

Lycaenidae) is blue-grey with a wingspan of about 

25 mm. It lays pale blue, mandarin-shaped eggs 

singly on leaves, buds and flowers during summer. 

Caterpillars are slug-like, about 10 mm long, 

greenish, with a white strip down each side of the 

body covered with short hairs. They feed on the 

young leaves, buds, flowers and young pods 

of legumes, eg beans, peas, clovers, medics, virgilia 

(Virgilia capensis), darling pea (Swainsonia greyana) 

and indigo (Indigofera spp.). They also chew into 

developing pods to feed on seeds, leaving round 

holes in the pods causing breakdown and rotting. 

Caterpillars may be attended by small black ants. 

Pea blue butterfly (Lampides boeticus) is also a 

pod borer (Common and Waterhouse 1981). 

Noctuids (Noctuidae): Corn earworm (Helicoverpa 

armigera) and native budworm (H. punctigera) feed 

on buds, flowers, young leaves and pods. Older 

caterpillars enter pods and eat seeds. Entry and exit 

holes are seen on buds and pods. Caterpillars pupate 

in the soil. Monitor pod damage from early pod set 


See Sweetcorn M 89. Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) 

damage seedlings which may be girdled or cut 

through at the base so that they fall and die. Older 

plants may also be heavily infested and suffer partial 

or complete defoliation. See Seedlings N 68. 

Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) when 

young, partly chew small holes in young leaves. 

Older caterpillars chew ragged holes in leaves and 

excavate deeply into maturing pods, sometimes 

almost cutting them in two. See Vegetables M 13. 

Eublemma dimiclasis caterpillars damage pods of 

mung beans. 



Bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli, Agromyzidae) may be a 

serious pest of French beans. Flies are robust, glossy, 

black, about 2 mm long and are seen egg-laying in 1st 

pair of leaves. Maggots are tiny and mine in leaves 

then in stems at ground level within a week of 

seedlings emerging (Fig. 313). Seedlings then yellow, 

wilt and die (8-10 maggots can kill a seedling, though 

more may be present). If older plants are attacked, 

maggots tunnel down into branches and branchlets 

causing blistering and longitudinal cracks. Branches 

break during picking or wind. Pods may be tough 

and flabby. Maggots pupate in the outer tissue of the 

stems. There are many generations each year. 

Spread by adults flying. Favoured by humid 

weather during summer and autumn, successive bean 

crops in spring. Control: Hill plants about a 

fortnight after seedlings emerge and again when larger 

to support plants, bring more soil, and therefore more 

nutrients, into the root zone and help to overcome 

damage to lower stem. Pupae may be killed by 

low winter temperatures, predatory ground beetles and 

parasitised by wasps. Seed should be treated. 

Monitor damage daily after emergence before 

applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 

Onion maggot (Delia platura) is yellowish white, 

legless, about 6 mm long bores into stems hollowing 

them out below ground, especially after topdressing 

with blood and bone fertiliser. Young plants at the 

2-leaf stage wilt suddenly and topple over. Maggots 

may feed on more than 1 stem, as many as 20 may be 

found attacking one bean plant. Seed treatments have 

been used overseas but are not considered necessary 

in Australia. See Onion M 68. 

Seedling bean midge (Smittia aterrima, 

Chironomidae) infests beans, early crops of cucumber, 

marrow, squash, decaying organic matter. Male flies 

are small, black midges about 2.5 mm long, slightly 

M 28 

VEGETABLES


longer than females and have bushy antennae. They 

are seen in the evening dancing in swarms above soil. 

Female flies lay eggs amongst organic matter on 

soil. These hatch into maggots that normally feed on 

decaying organic matter, but are also attracted to 

slow-germinating bean seeds. Maggots are white, 

thread-like, about 5 mm long and feed on seeds and 

leaves. Secondary decay often follows, seedlings 

may be destroyed before they emerge or stems may 

appear with only seed leaves (blind stems). Mild 

injury results in lacy expanding primary leaves, plants 

are slow to develop. Usually only an odd plant is 

damaged but sometimes replanting is necessary. 

When fully-fed, maggots pupate in soil. Spread by 

flies flying short distances. Favoured by abundant 

organic matter (fresh poultry or farmyard manure or 

soil into which heavy growths of green material have 

recently been ploughed), by early crops planted in 

cold, wet, poorly drained situations in spring when 

soil temperatures are too low for rapid germination. 

Cultivation destroys large numbers. Only plant seed 

when germination is expected to be rapid. 


vaporariorum) is small, delicate, white and about 

1.5 mm long. It congregates on leaf undersurfaces 

sucking plant sap and secreting honeydew which 

encourages sooty mould, making pods 

unattractive. Severely infested plants may lose 

vigour and wilt. See Greenhouses N 24, 




brown, speckled, wedge-shaped, about 3 mm long 

and moves rapidly if disturbed. It sucks sap from leaf 

undersurfaces. They normally feed on native and 

weed plants and fly into crops when their natural hosts 

dry off in warm, dry conditions. Nymphs are similar 

in shape to the adults but are wingless and may differ 

in colour. Adults transmit the bean summer death 

virus. See Vegetables M 15. 

Vegetable leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea) is 

small, yellow-green, about 3-4 mm long. It also 

sucks sap from leaf undersurfaces. Leaves develop 

irregularly-shaped yellowish flecks especially near 

the margins. Specks may join together giving leaves a 

greyish-yellow appearance and stunting growth. 

Damage to seedlings can reduce vigour. See 



Leafminer (Phyllonorycter aglaozona, 

Gracillariidae, Lepidoptera) is black and white. 

Caterpillars mine in leaves of Fabaceae, eg French 

beans, glycine, Kennedia, and soybean. See 

Azalea K 28. 

Potato ladybirds (Epilachna spp.) and 

their spiny larvae may feed on beans after they 

have been numerous on neighbouring plants and 

weeds. By grazing only on the leaf surfaces 

(skeletonisation) they usually leave one surface 

uneaten giving the foliage a brown, lace-like 

appearance. Insecticides are registered for use. 

See Potato M 81. 


Bean blossom thrips (Taeniothrips nigricornis) 

attacks legumes, especially dwarf French beans. 

Adults are very small, dark brown, about 1.5 mm 

long with fringed wings. Adult thrips enter flowers 

and attack developing pods which become distorted 

and are often pimpled and lumpy. Thrips feed in 

colonies, often causing rusty marks mostly near stalk 

ends of the pods. In late autumn, bean pods injured 

by these thrips often develop secondary rots, eg 

Sclerotinia rot and pod twist. Heavy infestation may 

produce rusty blemishes on leaf undersurfaces 

especially close to leaf stalks. Leaf margins turn 

down, foliage has a puckered appearance. There are 

many generations each season. In the autumn, 

bean flowers usually have some thrips in them. There 

may only be 20-30 per flower. Eggs are inserted into 

the soft tissue of flowers, leaves or pods. Nymphs are 

minute, pale yellow and wingless, but turn deep 

orange-red as they grow older. When fully-grown 

they drop to the ground and pupate in the soil. 

Winged adults return to the plant. Spread by 

windborne winged adult thrips. Favoured by warm, 

humid weather during late summer and autumn. Little 

is known of the natural agencies regulating thrips 

populations. Cold weather and absence of suitable 

host flowers must cause population decline each 

winter. Isolation of plantings, or early destruction 

of harvested crops after a succession of bean plantings 

may be necessary. If thrips are obvious when 

flowering starts, insecticides may also be necessary. 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci): Young bean plants may 

be severely damaged, if soil conditions are dry, as 

thrips move on to beans from other crops or weeds. 

Wingless nymphs and brown winged adults feed on 

leaf undersurfaces, margins turn down, leaves 

yellow and may become brown and withered if the 

infestation is heavy. Adult thrips prefer to feed along 

the main veins on the leaf uppersurfaces causing 

greyish patches of feeding marks that give leaves a 

mottled appearance. Older leaves on bean plants 

become shiny and silvery. Heavy rain or overhead 

irrigation will provide control. See Onion M 68. 

See Roses J 6, Vegetables M 17. 

Twospotted mite, red spider 

A worldwide pest which feeds on a variety of 

plants, it is probably the most important pest of 

beans. 

Scientific name: Tetranychidae, Acarina: 

Bean spider mite (Tetranychus ludeni) 

Twospotted mite (T. urticae) 

These two species are so similar in habit that they 

can be considered together. Redlegged earth 

mite (Halotydeus destructor) which is deep blue, 

about the size of a pin head with bright red legs, 

may also infest French beans. See Vegetables M 

17. 

Host range: Wide range, ornamentals, eg 

carnation, cymbidium, hollyhock, indoor plants, 

marigold, nasturtium, palms, perennial phlox 

(P. decussata), rose, umbrella tree, violet, fruit, eg 

deciduous fruit trees (especially apple, pear), 

trailing berries, strawberry, vegetables, especially 

French beans, cucumber, capsicum, eggfruit, 

tomato, cucurbits, rockmelon, field crops, eg 

cotton, weeds, eg broadleaved weeds. 

VEGETABLES M 29


Description and damage: Adult mites are just 

large enough to be seen with the naked eye but are 

easily seen with a hand lens. They are small, 

globular, almost translucent, up to 0.5 mm long 

with 4 pairs of legs (Fig. 314). They vary in 

colour from green-grey to bright red (depending 

on the host plant and the season). The mites have 

distinctive dark markings on either side of the 

body. These are particularly large and prominent 

in the adult female. Adult females are rather pearshaped, 

can move actively and spin fine webbing 

over the surface on which they are feeding, in 

winter they turn orange-red. Adult females of the 

bean spider mite are red (Fig. 315) and easily 

distinguished from twospotted mite. Males are 

smaller and narrower. Nymphs are almost 

colourless and initially have 3 pairs of legs but 

later nymphal stages have 4 pairs. Nymphs and 

adults suck sap from leaf undersurfaces and spin 

fine webs on which they crawl around and to 

which they attach their eggs. In heavy infestations 

upper surfaces are also infested. Leaves become a 

dull speckled grey-green colour (Fig. 316), 

bleached and may wither and fall prematurely. On 

beans, infestation usually begins on lower leaves 

and progresses upwards. Severely infested plants 

yellow and stop growing, mites swarm to the 

topmost parts of plants, web production is 

stimulated and plants become covered in fine 

webbing (Fig. 317). All stages, eggs, nymphs and 

adults, empty egg-shells, nymph skins and 

webbing can be seen with a hand lens on leaf 

under surfaces. When mite populations are high, 

tiny black predatory mite-eating ladybirds 

(Stethorus spp.), their larvae and black pupae 

which are about 1 mm long, are found on infested 

leaves (Fig. 318). Stethorus beetles and their larvae 

feed on mites. Do not confuse twospotted injury 

to leaves with damage caused by leafhoppers, 

greenhouse thrips and greenhouse whitefly or 

deficiencies. See Trees K 24 (Table 3). Flowers 

of some plants may suffer severe damage. Mature 

pods look grey, are tough and are not crisp. 

Severe infestations every year retard growth and 

cropping. As mites move to weeds at the start of 

cold weather at the end of the growing season, 

mites are absent from leaves. Presence of mites on 

some crops, eg apples, may cause irritation and 

allergic reactions for fruit pickers. 


nymph, adult) with many generations during the 

warmer months. Adult mites lay up to 70 small 

round translucent eggs at a rate of a few eggs per 

day on leaf undersurfaces, usually close to veins. 

Development from egg to adult may be 7-11 days 

in summer. Young adult females move up to the 

nearest new leaf to lay their eggs but after that they 

stay on the leaf. All stages of the life cycle occur 

together, usually near the veins. 

Overwintering: In cold areas as inactive nonfeeding 

female adults mainly on broadleaved 

weeds and on litter. A few males survive and 

these, with mature females, turn bright red and 

hibernate and form bright red clusters on leaf 

undersurfaces or in dark crevices. On deciduous 

plants, eg roses, they descend from plants and 

camp on the lower parts of main stems, in cracks 

or damaged bark, under debris at the bases of main 

stems. Some migrate to nearby perennial weeds 

where they feed and reproduce at a slow rate 

during winter. On evergreen hosts, eg violets, 

females also change colour but often remain on 

plants, feeding and reproducing at a slow rate. In 

warm climates and in greenhouses, breeding is 

continuous. 

Spread: By crawling from plant to plant or 

carried on windblown leaves, webbing, clothing, 

machinery, plant debris, visiting insects and birds, 

etc. By the movement of infested plants (with 

leaves) in containers and by propagation from 

infested plants (with leaves). New bean plantings 

are usually infested from older crops or weeds. 

Conditions favouring: Hot, dry weather. 

Heavy falls of rain or good irrigation can reduce 

infestations. Availability of plant nutrients may 

also have some effect. Use of pesticides to kill 

other pests may reduce natural predators. 

Control: Mites cannot be eradicated, the aim is to 

keep populations just below damaging levels. 

Cultural methods: Frequent overhead irrigation 

directed to leaf undersurfaces, or rain, may 

reduce reproduction rate and need for chemical 

control. It also replaces sap lost through mites 

feeding. Foliage diseases may be increased on 

susceptible varieties. Container plants, eg 

violets outside, can be moved from hot, dry sites 

and replanted in cooler, shaded areas. Avoid 

planting susceptible species in hot, dry 

situations. 

Sanitation: Keep surrounding areas free from 

weeds and other susceptible hosts. Plough-in 

old bean crops after harvest. Avoid planting 

new crops close to the sites of old bean crops 

or introducing mites into plantings from infested 

weeds on cultivation machinery or clothing. 

Biological control: Natural enemies include 

adults and larvae of the tiny, black, predatory 

mite-eating ladybirds (Stethorus spp.) which are 

the most important predators (Fig. 318). 

Stethorus is susceptible to insecticides and also 

to some fungicides. Other natural predators 

include mites, lacewing larvae and thrips which 

provide some control. Natural control of 

twospotted mite may be inadequate. Imported 

predatory pesticide-resistant mites (Amblyseius 

spp., Phytoseiulus persimilis and Typhlodromus 

occidentalis) can be purchased or bred by 

growers (Fig. 318). These mites are not resistant 

to all pesticides so follow supplier's instructions. 

Successful use of predatory mites requires 

routine inspection of the plants by staff trained 

to identify and monitor mite and predatory 

mites (and other pests and diseases). Predators 

are often more effective in monocultures and 

may be effective on their own. A lacewing 

(Mallada signata) is also available. An 

application of a miticide may be necessary either 

before or after release of predators. 

Resistant varieties: Some house plants are very 

susceptible, eg umbrella plant, cocos palm. 

Plant quarantine: Fruit carrying more than a 

certain number of mites may be refused entry to 

some countries, eg UK. 

Pesticides: If predatory mites are used, any 

pesticides used on the crop must be carefully 

selected. Otherwise apply miticides at the first 

sign of infestation, repeat applications may be 

necessary. Some miticides are only effective 

against certain stages, eg eggs, nymphs or 

M 30 

VEGETABLES


adults. Good coverage of leaf undersurfaces is 

necessary to achieve control. Twospotted mite 

has developed resistance to many insecticides 

and miticides, bean spider mite has not to the 

same extent. Selective pesticides should be 

used, eg ones not toxic to natural enemies; broad 

spectrum pesticides increase mite populations. 

Pest management: Mite resistance and the effect 

of pesticides on natural enemies has encouraged 

growers to use imported predatory mites in pest 

management programs. Monitoring of both 

mites and predators is essential for effectiveness. 


Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus, Chrysomelidae) 

is a widespread pest of bean, pea and cowpea seed in 

the field and postharvest. Adults are not true 

weevils. They are stout, brown, 3-4 mm long with 

white, grey, brown or black patches on the 

uppersurface, reddish legs and antennae. Larvae are 

up to 3 mm long, legless. All stages are difficult to 

detect in lightly infested seed, which should not be 

planted as germination will be irregular and some 

plants may be stunted. There is a complete 


several generations each year. Females lay eggs on 

mature and drying bean pods in the field. 1st stage 

larvae have legs and move through pods and bore into 

seeds. Later-stage larvae bore inside the bean seed, 

then pupate. Adults eat their way out, leaving circular 

holes and infest other seeds in store. Spread by 

adults flying from infested bean crops and stored bean 

seed. Favoured by warm, dry conditions in the 

field. In storage they may breed all year. If beans are 

harvested for seed, bag as soon as dry, fumigate or 

dust. Insecticide dusts kills emerging adults but 

not larvae or pupae inside seeds. After treatment, 

store bean seed in beetle-proof sacks or muslin bags. 

See Seeds N 79 (Fig. 443). 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus, 

Curculionidae) chew pieces from leaf edges, 

producing a saw-toothed appearance in late 

summer and autumn. Larvae destroy fibrous roots 

and gouge out the main root. Plants may die, crop 

quantity and quality may be reduced. See Rose J 6. 


larvae may damage beans sown in land previously 

under lucerne or pasture with a clover content, or 

which has been under a heavy growth of susceptible 

broadleaved weeds. See Vegetables M 17. 


Others: Green scarab beetles, green spring 

beetles (Diphucephala spp.) are bright green, about 

8 mm long, with a metallic sheen on their wings. They 

cluster in large numbers on bean plants in summer and 

chew foliage. Larvae are curl grubs in the soil. A flat 

mite (Brevipalpus spp., Tenuipalpidae) is small, flat, 

shield-shaped, red-brown, sluggish false spider mite, 

almost hairless with thick stubby legs. There is no 

webbing. Tiny oval red eggs are laid near main veins on 

leaf undersurfaces. Damage is uncommon. Favoured 

by warm weather. Foliage, stems and pods become 

rusty brown, smooth and slightly shiny, especially at 

junctions of leaf blades with stalks. Others: Crickets, 

grasshoppers, locusts (Orthoptera), garden 

symphylid (Scutigerella immaculata), passionvine 

leafhopper (Scolypopa australis). 


Snails and slugs may damage foliage. See 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: High temperatures may cause 

flower drop with resultant loss of crop. Adequate 

irrigation helps to reduce flower drop. Sunscald 

damage to pods (slightly sunken streaks) usually 

occurs on one side of the pod only. Islands of 

dead tissue develop on older leaves. Inadequate 

cooling and ventilation during transport causes a 

red russet discolouration of the pods. 


analysis standards are available for French beans 

(Weir and Cresswell 1993). Deficiencies, eg of 

molybdenum, phosphorus and zinc, and toxicities, 

eg of manganese, may occur. 

Poor germination can be caused by fertiliser 

coming in direct contact with the seed; planting 

too early when the soil is too cold; crusting at the 

soil surface; overwatering; and damaged seeds. 

Nail head, bald head is caused by mechanical 

injury to seed. Seedlings have no growing tips, the 

stem above the cotyledons is a bare stump. Plants 

may die or may produce shoots in the axils of the 

cotyledons and grow into a small plant. Injury to 

young plants by the green mirid bug or rabbits can 

cause similar symptoms but usually occurs after 

the first true leaves have formed. Thresh and 

handle bean seed carefully at all times. Avoid 

dropping seed. Make sure that planters do not 

damage seed. 


Ainsworth, N. 1991. Growing Beans in Queensland. Qld 


Batra, L. R. and Stavely, J. R. 1994. Attraction of 

Twospotted Spider Mite to Bean Rust Uredinia. 

Plant Disease 78(3). 








Hall, R. 1991. (ed). Compendium of Bean Diseases. APS 




Melbourne. 



and Vegetables : Beans. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. 




Qld Dept. of Primary Industry, Brisbane. 

Persley, D. (ed.). (1994). Diseases of Vegetable Crops. 

Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane.. 



Salvestrin, J. (ed.). 1991. Australian Vegetable Growing 

Handbook. (4th edn.). CSIRO/NSW Agric., Griffith. 

VEGETABLES M 31






Disorders 3 : Vegetable crops. Inkata Press, 

Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Anthracnose Beans : Seed Quality and Sowing Rates (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Anthracnose of French Bean (NSW Agfact) 

Beans : Bacterial Blight (Vic Agnote) 

Beans : Disease and Pest Control (Vic Agnote) 

Beans (Phaseolaris) : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Disease of Beans (NSW Agfact) 

Diseases of Green Beans (Tas Farmnote) 

MANAGEMENT 

Dwarf Beans in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

French Beans : South Queensland : Insect Pest Control 

(Qld Farmnote) 

French Bean Seed Production : Weed, Disease and Pest 

Control (Qld Farmnote) 

Green Beans for Processing : Cultural Notes (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Halo Blight of Bean (NSW Agfact) 

Pest of Beans (NSW Agfact) 

Pests and Diseases of French Beans (SA Fact Sheet) 

Production of Dry Edible Beans (Vic Agnote) 

Production of Fresh Beans (Vic Agnote) 

Postharvest Diseases, Injuries and Disorders of Vegetables 

(NSW Agfact) 

Subterranean Clover Stunt of Beans (NSW Agfact) 




French beans are grown for the fresh market and for processing. An overview of the industry is presented by 

Coombs (1995). Bean plants do not have much ability to recover from injury so diseases and pests should be 

controlled. Select varieties suited to the local area and the market. Green beans are more frost sensitive than 

potatoes. Plant cultivars resistant to rust and other problems prevalent in the area. Plant certified diseasefree 

seed to ensure freedom from seedborne diseases and pests. When storing or handing bean seed avoid 

contact of seed with possible sources of contamination, eg machinery, bags or clothing. Handle seed with 

care. Seed is usually treated with fungicide prior to planting to reduce damping diseases. Practise crop 

rotations of 3-4 years with non-legume hosts. Prepare land early and keep weed-free for several weeks 

before planting to reduce incidence of soilborne pests, eg cutworms. Do not plant new crops close to old spent 

crops that could be heavily infested with twospotted mite. Plant in well drained fertile soil known to be free from 

Sclerotinia or Fusarium. Sow at correct density and row spacing into moist seedbeds to get even germination 

(irrigate if necessary 2-3 days before planting to ensure sufficient moisture is present). When plants are a few 

weeks old, hilling soil up on each side of the rows can reduce the effects of any early attack by bean fly. Wet 

foliage favours disease so wherever possible allow time after watering so that foliage is dry before nightfall. 

Fertiliser programs should be based on soil and tissue analyses. Control weeds, eg onion twitch, with postemergence 

herbicides before planting. Control later weeds mechanically (avoid plant damage) or with pre- or 

post-emergence herbicides. Monitor crops regularly for serious diseases, eg Sclerotinia rot and grey mould, 

from flowering onwards, and pests, eg corn earworm and mite incidence, and apply control measures before 

significant damage develops. Commercial pest monitoring services are available in some areas, eg Qld. 

Harvest pods when recommended, they should be fast cooled (up to 4 hours) at 7 o C and 90-95% relative 

humidity. Storage and transport: Avoid packing beans which are wet or showing signs of disease or injury. 

Where there is a risk of postharvest diseases, eg Sclerotinia rot, pods may need to be dipped in fungicide. 


(Tetranychus urticae). 

Fig. 315. Bean spider mite 

(T. ludeni). 

Fig. 313. Bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli). 

Left : Adult fly ( 2 mm long) and maggot. 

Right : Damage. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 317. Twospotted mites (T. urticae) 

swarm to the topmost parts of bean plants. 

Fig. 316. Damage by twospotted mite (T. 

urticae). Leaves become a sandy speckled grey. 

Fig. 318. Predators. Left : Beetle (Stethorus sp.) and larva about 

1 mm long. Right : Mite (Phytoseiulius persimilis) about 0.5 mm long. 

M 32 

VEGETABLES

Beet 

Beet (Beta vulgaris) 




Family Chenopodiaceae 


Parasitic 




Cercospora leaf spot 

Damping off 

Downy mildew 



Beet nematode 


Aphids 

Beet leafminer 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Mites 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Virus diseases are usually of minor importance. 

Some only affect beets while others affect a wide 

range of economic plants and weeds. Leaf 

symptoms include yellow spots, rings, mottles and 

pale green irregular blotches. Yield is not usually 

affected, an exception is beet mosaic. 

Alfalfa mosaic virus (calico) affects vegetables, field 

crops and weeds, causing pale green irregular blotches 

on leaves, often affecting large areas of each leaf. 

Symptoms may fade and disappear. Spread by 

aphids (Aphididae), by mechanical inoculation, by 

grafting, by seed (10% in commercial seed), by pollen 

to seed, not by contact between plants. 

Beet mosaic virus affects beet and weeds, causing 

yellow spots, rings or mottles on leaves. Spread by 

aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). 

Beet western yellows virus may infect beets, 

cabbage, sunflower, soybean, rapeseed. Leaves 

yellow, significant losses in yield. Infected plants may 

taste slightly sweeter, sugars accumulate in yellowed 

leaves and plants are usually smaller causing sugars to 

concentrate. Spread by aphids, eg green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), not by seed, not by pollen. 

Others: Beet cryptic 1 virus, beet crypto 11 virus, beet 

pseudo-yellows virus, cucumber mosaic virus, 

subterranean clover red leaf virus. 



Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata) 

Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora) 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) 

Scab (Streptomyces sp.) 

Also Pseudomonas marginalis pv. marginalis. 


Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora beticola) 

is probably the most serious foliage problem of 

silver beet, beetroot, related weeds (Fig. 319). 

Spots develop on leaves, flower stalks, seed 

bases and seed during warm (24-30 o C), wet 

conditions. Light grey spots up to 3 mm across 

with brown or red margins develop on the oldest 

leaves. Centres may become brittle and drop out 

leaving irregular holes. Leaves may die. Other 

leaf spots: Alternaria spp., Phoma betae. Overseas 

many others may be more serious. See Annuals A 5. 

Damping off (Aphanomyces cochliodes, 

Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani) causes a 

soft decay of the tap root, causing collapse and 

rotting of seedlings. Overseas severe preemergence 

and post-emergence damping off 

affecting spinach, is associated with warm, wet 

soils with a history of spinach production. 

Management practices usually include seed 

treatment with a fungicide. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora farinosa) infects 

leaves, crowns, seed stalks and inflorescences 

of beetroot, silver beet, spinach, mangels and wild 

beets during cool moist weather. Young heart 

leaves of beetroot are very susceptible. In the late 

stages of disease, centres of plants are a rosette of 

distorted leaves which may be covered with buffgrey 

downy spores. See Annuals A 5. 


Aphanomyces black root rot (Aphanomyces 

cochlioides) causes a browning or blackening of the 

tap root of young plants. Leaves commonly turn red. 

In older plants large, dark, circular and depressed 

lesions occur on the globe. Favoured by warm 

weather and high soil moisture. 

Fusarium root rots, eg Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

betae. Fusarium wilt (F. oxysporum f.sp. spinaciae) 

is a serious disease of spinach worldwide and may 

cause damping off of seedlings or attack more 

mature plants. See Vegetables M 9. 


root rots of spinach. 

Rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani) may cause 

brown-black, circular to oval cankers on roots of older 

beetroot plants. Cankers may extend up to 12 mm 

into the fleshy root tissue. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) may cause a 

cottony rot in the field and postharvest. 

Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) may attack 

stems near ground level. 


Others: Common scab (Streptomyces scabies) 

causes lumps on beetroot. Powdery mildew 

(Oidium sp.) causes whitish spots on leaves. Rust 

(Uromyces beta) may affect beet and swiss chard. 

White blister rust (Albugo occidentalis) is a 

serious disease of spinach overseas. 

VEGETABLES M 33

BEET 


Beet nematode, beet cyst nematode, sugar 

beet nematode (Heterodera schachtii) infests 

vegetables, eg beets, spinach, bean, rhubarb, 

brassicas, tomato, weeds, eg fat hen, shepherd's 

purse, docks, wild radish, wild mustard. Roots 

develop many small, branched rootlets (Fig. 320) 

in which lemon-shaped nematodes about 1 mm 

long are embedded. Nematodes are white initially, 

but later turn into brown hard resistant cysts 

containing hundreds of eggs. The external 

presence of cysts on roots distinguishes this 

disease from root knot. Plants lack vigour, may 

be stunted and wilt during hot weather or may die. 

In NSW, beet nematode occurs mainly in some 

districts in the Sydney Metropolitan Area. 

Favoured by soil temperatures between 15-25 o C. 

Do not plant susceptible crops in infested soil for 

3-5 years. Destroy all host weeds as soon as they 

germinate. Do not plant infected seedlings. 

Prevent transfer of infested soil and seedlings to 

other areas. Pre-plant soil nematicides may be 

necessary. 


spp.) causes stunting, paler green than normal foliage, 

and wilting during hot weather. Plants may die, 

especially spinach. See Vegetables M 10. Also root 


nematodes (Helicotylenchus spp.), Aphelenchoides, 

Filenchus, Merlinius, Scutellonema, Xiphinema. 




Mangold aphid (Rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae) 

Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) may 

cause wilting and produce honeydew during cool, 

dry weather in spring and autumn. Aphids may 

transmit virus diseases. See Roses J 4, 


Beet leafminer (Liriomyza chenopodii, 

Agromyzidae, Diptera) infests beetroot, silver beet, 

spinach, wallflower, chickweed. Flies are about 

1 mm long, grey with a yellow head, the abdomen 

is black with transverse yellow bands. Maggots 

are white and mine in veins and stalks making 

thread-like lines which enlarge as maggots grow. 

If leaves are not killed, their value may be reduced. 

Maggots pupate in the mines. There is a complete 


several generations each year. Circular raised 

corky scars mark the points at which the eggs were 

laid in the leaf stalk. Spread by adults flying and 

introduction of infested seedlings and plants. If 

necessary, spray plants regularly at the first sign of 

infestation. See Cineraria A 28. 


Green stink bug (Plautia affinis). 



Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor). 

All stages suck sap from foliage and stems of 

many species of plants. See Vegetables M 12. 


Beet webworm (Hymenia recurvalis, Pyralidae, 

Lepidoptera) is a sporadic pest of Chenopodiaceae 

and other plants; vegetables, eg beetroot, silver 

beet, ornamentals, eg Celosia, weeds, eg saltbush, 

giant pigweed, fat hen, Amaranthus. Moths are 

about 20-25 mm across outspread wings, brown with 

white bands across the fore and hindwings. If 

disturbed, moths take flight and settle again under 

leaves. Caterpillars are initially cream, later 

greenish with dark markings and a dark line along the 

back and up to 18-20 mm long. They initially 

skeletonise leaf undersurfaces, foliage becomes 

covered with webbing and pellets of excreta. Older 

caterpillars chew holes in leaves and feed around 

the fleshy crown and tops of roots. Plants may be 

destroyed. There is a complete metamorphosis 

(egg, larva, pupa, adult) with many generations each 

season. Females lay eggs on leaf undersurfaces, 

caterpillars pupate just below the soil surface. 

Overwinter as larvae in cocoons in soil. Favoured 

by warm, wet weather, weed hosts result in an early 

buildup of pest numbers. Moths may be numerous in 

late summer and swarm to lights. Destroy host 

weeds near beet crops early in the season. Natural 

enemies exert some control. 

Others: Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.), cabbage 

white butterfly (Pieris rapae), cluster caterpillar 

(Spodoptera litura), cutworms (Agrotis, Diarsia, 

Neumichtis), loopers (Chrysodeixis spp.). 



Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) attacks silver 

beet during late summer. Young inner leaves and 

stalks may become rusty or silvery and distorted. See 



blue oat mite (Penthaleus major) cause leaves to 

whiten, seedlings may wither. See Vegetables M 16. 

Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) may attack beetroot 

and silver beet, especially if planted near older 

infested crops during hot weather. Plants look grey, 

lose vigour. See Beans (French) M 29. 


arator) may move in from adjoining areas and feed on 

maturing roots. Black field cricket (Teleogryllus 

commodus) may chew tops of beets in wet autumn, or 

young plants at ground level and cut them off. Others: 

Earwigs (Dermaptera), flea beetles (Galerucinae), 

greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), 

seedharvesting ants (Pheidole spp.), weevils, eg Fuller's 

rose weevil (Asynonchus cervinus) and vegetable weevil 

(Listroderes difficilis). 


After prolonged wet weather, various species 

may chew foliage, hide in leaves and disfigure 

leaves with their excrement. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds such as sparrows and starlings are partial to 

seedlings. See Fruit F 13. 

M 34 

VEGETABLES

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Hail may damage the large 

leaves. Beetroot prefer cooler weather as roots 

have a higher sugar content and a darker consistent 

colour. In hot weather alternate red and white 

rings develop in roots. In very hot weather, high 

transpiration rates can cause wilting. Beetroot 

grown slowly will be tough, so avoid water stress 

or competition from weeds. 



Cresswell 1993). Boron deficiency affects beetroot. 

In excessively alkaline soils young leaves die, older 

leaves wilt and brown, grey to black spots appear on 

fleshy parts of roots. If boron is applied to correct the 

deficiency, avoid boron sensitive crops, eg celery, 

rockmelon, peas, potato, squash, tomato, watermelon, 

French beans, cucumber and strawberries, in rotation. 

Other deficiencies include calcium and manganese. 

Excess nitrogen fertiliser may make beet too leafy 

and rank. 




Correll, J. C., Morelock, T. E., Black, M. C., 

Koike, S. T., Brandenberger, L. P. and Dainello, F. 

J. 1994. Economically Important Diseases of 

Spinach. Plant Disease, July. 

MANAGEMENT 

BEET 



Melbourne. 




Persley, D. and Cooke, T. (eds). 1994. Diseases of 

Vegetable Crops. Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane. 





Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 

Whitney, E. D. and Duffus, J. E. (eds). Beet Diseases 

and Insects. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 


Industry eg 

Beetroot Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Beet Webworm (NSW Agfact) 

Disease of Beets (NSW Agfact) 

Leaf Spot of Beetroot and Silver Beet (NSW Agfact) 

Pests and Diseases of Beetroot (SA Fact Sheet) 

Pests and Diseases of Silverbeet (SA Fact Sheet) 

Silver Beet (NSW Agfact) 

Silver Beet and Red Beet : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Spinach Growing (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote)) 

Spinach in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Sugar Beet (Tas Farmnote) 

Sugar Beet Nematode on Vegetables (WA Farmnote) 



Queensland Fruit and Vegetable Growers 




Silver beet (B. vulgaris) prefers warmer summer weather, spinach (Spinacea oleracea) is grown in cooler parts 

of the year and will become leathery and run to seed in warm conditions with long days. Spinach continues to 

increase in popularity as a leafy vegetable crop and is highly regarded for its nutritional value. Development of 

non-chemical methods of disease and pest control allow spinach to meet one of the goals of modern horticulture 

production; to produce a nutritious and profitable crop with little or no pesticide use (Correll et al. 1994). An 

overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Select disease-resistant cultivars. Obtain certified 

seed or treat seed with hot water. Only plant disease-free seedlings. Seed may be dusted with fungicide and 

insecticide prior to planting to protect against soilborne damping off diseases and pests. Propagated by seed. 

Practise crop rotation (3-5 years). Avoid planting beet in soil infested with nematodes, soilborne diseases or 

insect pests. Plant seedlings in well drained, slightly acid soil, rich in organic matter. Ensure that all plant 

residues are thoroughly decomposed before sowing. Prevent transfer of infested soil to disease-free areas. If 

necessary treat soil 1-7 days before planting with nematicide or by solarisation to reduce soilborne disering 

cultivation. Pre-emergence herbicides may be used to control weed seeds and post-emergence herbicides 

to control emerged weeds. Use pesticides with short residual activity on foliage. Harvest beetroot at the 

correct stage of maturity, old beetroot roots become tough, woody, over-large and are unattractive to consumers; 

cool in about 12 hours at 0 o C at high relative humidity (> 95%); beetroot may be stored for 12 weeks or more 

depending on storage conditions. Silver beet requires fast cooling (up to 4 hours) at 0 o C at very high humidity 

(>95%), is sensitive to ethylene and has an estimated storage of 1-2 weeks. 

Fig. 319. Cercospora leaf 

spot (Cercospora beticola). 


Fig. 320. Excessive branching of 

roots caused by the beet nematode 

(Heterodera schachtii) 

VEGETABLES M 35

Brassicas 

Crucifers 

Broccoli (Brassicas oleracea var. italica) 

Brussels sprouts (B. oleracea var. gemmifera) 





Turnip (B. rapa) 

Family Brassicaceae 


Parasitic 



Black rot, bacterial wilt 




Damping off 

Downy mildew 


Root, stem and base rots, wilts 





Aphids 

Bugs 

Cabbage leafminer 

Cabbage white butterfly 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Onion thrips 

Striped flea beetle 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 




Parasitic 


Beet western yellows virus may infect cabbage 

and rapeseed. Leaves turn yellow; significant losses 

in yield. See Beets M 33. 

Broccoli necrotic yellow virus affects Brassica spp. 

including weeds. Broccoli (symptomless except when 

co-infected with cauliflower mosaic virus), Brussels 

sprouts (symptomless). Spread by aphids, eg 

cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae), by 

mechanical inoculation, not by seed. 

Cauliflower mosaic virus affects brassicas. 

Veinclearing develops in the youngest leaves. Later 

veinbanding develops and is often more marked on 

one side of the leaf midrib. Leaf growth is restricted 

in affected sections causing leaves to bend to one side. 

Plants infected when young remain stunted, do not 

produce marketable heads. Symptoms persist and are 

usually most obvious during the cooler parts of the 

year. Spread by aphids, eg green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne 

brassicae), which carry the virus into a crop from 

older infected crops and brassica weeds, and from 

plant to plant within a crop, by mechanical 

inoculation. 

Turnip mosaic virus, black ringspot affects annual 

and herbaceous plants in many families including 

Brassicaceae, eg broccoli, cabbages, cauliflowers, 

stock, turnips and swedes, also alyssum, honesty, 

wallflower, nasturtium, weeds, eg shepherd's purse, 

mustard, wild turnip. Only leaves are affected. 

Symptoms persist and vary with the temperature (cool 

temperate requirement for expression of severe 

symptoms). Avoid growing cabbages in very cold 

weather if the disease is prevalent. Use tolerant 

varieties. Cabbages, cauliflower and broccoli: 

Initially yellow ringspotting of the youngest leaves 

which later become mottled with light and dark green 

rings and blotches. Mosaic symptoms are more 

obvious at temperatures > 18o 

C, at lower 

temperatures a definite black ringspotting of the outer 

leaves develops (Fig. 321). Turnips and swedes: 

Veinclearing of the youngest leaves, followed by a 

coarse mottle and dark green ring pattern. Spread 

by 40-50 species of aphids especially green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae), cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne 

brassicae), by mechanical inoculation (on cutting 

tools during flower gathering, on hands during crop 

inspection, flower gathering, planting out, etc), by 

vegetative propagation. Not by seed, not by soil. 



Black rot, bacterial wilt (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. campestris) affects brassica plants, 

including weeds, other hosts. Seedling stems 

develop small dark areas, leaves develop black 

veins, yellow and wilt. Seedlings may be dwarfed, 

die or develop on one side only. Leaves of older 

plants are infected through marginal water pores 

or wounds resulting in yellowish V-shaped spots 

which dry out. Bacteria then invade leaf veins, then 

stems and new leaves. Veins turn black, infected 

leaves yellow and fall. Black rot also infects leaves 

through stomates causing many irregular, pale 

brown spots. Spots become large, brittle, centres 

often tear and drop out, small veins surrounding 

the leaf spot blacken, leaves may die. On mature 

heads outer leaves are infected, or black rot may 

develop inside heads without external symptoms. 

These heads may be invaded by soft rot bacteria, 

becoming slimy with a putrid smell. Also bacterial 

wilt (P. solanacearum). See Vegetables M 6. 

Bacterial leaf spots: Peppery leaf spot 

(P. syringae pv. maculicola) causes general 

flecking of cauliflower leaves in wet weather. 

Zonate leaf spot (P. cichorii) is common in soil 

and causes circular to watersoaked spots on 

cabbage, lettuce, Iceland poppy, clover and other 

plants in wet, windy weather. Avoid highly 

susceptible varieties. See Vegetables M 5. 

Bacterial soft rots (Erwinia carotovora pv. 

carotovora, E. carotovora pv. atroseptica) cause 

cabbage and cauliflower heads or turnip roots to 

become a soft rotten mass during transit and 

storage. Also bacterial soft rots (Pseudomonas 

marginalis pv. marginalis, P. viridiflava). See 


M 36 

VEGETABLES

BRASSICAS 

Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.), hairy 

root (A. rhizogenes). 


Damping off (Pythium, Fusarium). Wirestem 

(Rhizoctonia solani) causes seedling stems to 

become thin and brittle. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica) 

affects brassicas, eg stock, hedge mustard. Pale 

green-yellow spots develop on leaves, a white 

fungal growth develops on the undersurface, in 

cool damp weather spots enlarge. Seedling leaves 

and seedlings may die. On older plants, lower 

leaves may be badly spotted or killed, younger 

leaves may be spotted. Under dry conditions, 

affected areas dry out to form large, irregular 

brown spots. Heads of cauliflowers may be 

attacked becoming black. Pods of seed crops may 

be distorted causing them to break open and 

expose the seed. See Annuals A 5. 


Alternaria leaf spots (Alternaria brassicicola, A. 

brassicae): A. brassicicola causes dark brown 

spots up to 10 mm across on leaves of brassicas. 

Spots can also develop on the curds of cauliflower and 

on the flower stalk and seed heads of brassicas, 

resulting in reduction of seed yield. The disease is 

usually more important in seed than in market crops. 

A. brassicae produces much larger grey spots on the 

outer leaves of cauliflowers but seldom causes much 

damage, may cause a seedling blight. It is seedborne 

and favoured by warm moist weather. 

Ring spot (Mycosphaerella brassicola) occurs in most 

brassica-growing areas, mainly on cabbage and 

cauliflower. Small, dark spots surrounded by a band 

of watersoaked tissue develop on leaves, flower 

stems and pods. Spots enlarge, become yellowbrown 

to grey-black, circular, about 10 mm across, 

and tiny black fruiting bodies of the fungus 

(pycnidia) develop in a series of concentric circles on 

the spots. Heavily infected leaves yellow and become 

curled, cracked and ragged at the edges and may fall, 

reducing yield and quality. Favoured by cool (15- 

20 o C), continuously wet conditions. 

White leaf spot (Pseudocercosporella capsellae) 

infects brassicas (most severe in turnips) and attacks 

cotyledons, leaves, petals and seed pods. 

Spots have grey, brown or almost white centres with 

sightly darkened margins. Heavily spotted leaves 

may yellow and fall, affecting yield. Severely infected 

seedlings may die. 

Others: Cercospora spp., Glomerella cingulata, 

Pyrenopeziza brassicae. 


Root, stem and base rots, wilts 

Aphanomyces black root of radish (Aphanomyces 

raphani) causes dark irregular patches on roots of 

radish, eventually the entire root turns black. Spread 

by two types of spores. One is splashed by rain or 

carried by running water to other plants in the same or 

adjoining crops, the other can survive for several 

years in soil and is spread in soil or in crop trash. 

Favoured by warm temperatures and moist soil. 

Ensure good soil drainage. Long-rooted varieties are 

very susceptible. See Vegetables M 7. 

Black leg (Leptosphaeria maculans, Ascomycetes) 

affects brassicas. Seedlings: A light brown 

depressed area develops near the base of the stem, 

these gradually enlarge, girdling the stem. Older 

plants: Brown spots may develop on leaves, seed, 

stems and pods, and small black fruiting bodies 

(pycnidia) of the fungus develop. Leaf edges may 

redden, plants wilt and may fall over. Fleshy roots 

of swedes and turnips in storage develop a dry rot on 

which the black fruiting bodies (pycnidia) develop. 

Spores produced in fruiting bodies on infected plants 

and crop debris are spread by rain or irrigation to 

nearby healthy plants. Favoured by wet weather, 

temperatures that favour the growth of crucifers. 

Club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae, Eumycetes) 

affect brassicas, especially cabbage, cauliflower. 

Some races affect only certain brassica. Plants are 

often dwarfed, paler green than normal and wilt 

during hotter part of the day. Symptoms are like 

nutrient deficiency or water stress. The only way to 

confirm diagnosis is to remove the plant and examine 

the roots. Tap roots, secondary and small roots and 

underground portions of stems develop abnormal 

swellings (Fig. 322). Affected roots are often spindleshaped 

(thicker at centre and tapering towards the 

end) and may decay before the end of the season. 

Galls on roots caused by root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne spp.) are small (pea-sized) and evenly 

distributed on lateral feeding roots. Root knot has a 

very wide host range. Overwinters as resting spores 

in soil (7-8 years) and diseased crop debris. Spread 

by introduction of infected seedlings, contaminated 

soil by wind, soil on machinery, manure deliveries, by 

surface drainage water, not by seed. Favoured by 

high soil moisture, acid soil, temperatures between 

18-25 o C. Liming reduces the severity of disease if 

light infestation but increases the time that the fungus 

can survive in the soil. 

Phytophthora stem and root rot (Phytophthora 

megasperma) is uncommon. Leaves of affected plants 

wilt and usually have reddish or purplish margins. 

Plants may finally collapse. Lower stems are shredded 

and discoloured and the roots may be destroyed. Wide 

host range. See Trees K 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Rhizoctonia base rot (Rhizoctonia solani) may cause 

damping off, young seedlings topple over, wither 

and die. Older seedlings may not die but become 

stunted, with the soft outer stem becoming brown and 

shrunken (wirestem). In older plants, stem and root 

rots may extend up the stem causing a dark, firm 

head rot. Sunken cankers may occur on swede, 

turnip and radish roots and develop into root rots 

during transport and storage. See Vegetables M 7. 

Sclerotinia rot, watery soft rot, white rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum, S. minor) may develop on any above 

ground part of the plant. Under humid conditions 

rotted areas become covered with white fluffy 

mycelium on which sclerotia develop. See 


Wilts: Fusarium wilt, yellows (Fusarium oxysporum 

f.sp. conglutinans) causes lower leaves to yellow, 

leaves of young plants tend to bend sideways. 

Symptoms may show on one side of plant only. If 

stem is cut across near ground level, water 

conducting tissue is brown. Plant resistant 

cabbages and cauliflower. Also Verticillium wilt 

(Verticillium dahliae). See Vegetables M 9. 

VEGETABLES M 37

BRASSICAS 

Others: Sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), 

fusarium basal rot (Fusarium tabacinum), 

fusarium root rot (F. solani). 


White blister rust, white rust (Albugo 

candida) is a minor disease of brassicas, eg 

radish, horseradish, turnip, cabbage, Brussels 

sprouts, cauliflower, also weeds, eg shepherd's 

purse, wild radish, turnip weed, bitter cress, hedge 

mustard. Some races of white rust only infect 

some brassicas. Raised white pustules develop on 

leaves, stems and flowers. See Gerbera A 37. 

Others: Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), 

powdery mildew (Oidium sp.), curd rot 

(Alternaria alternata), pink mould (Trichothecium 

roseum). 


Beet nematode (Heterodera schachtii) causes 

large numbers of small branched roots. Small 

lemon-shaped nematodes about 1 mm long on roots 

develop into hard brown resistant cysts. Affected 

plants are stunted and wilt during hot weather. See 

Beets M 34. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne 

spp.) are uncommon on brassicas but cause galls 

up to 25 mm across. Also root lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus spp.), citrus nematode (Tylenchus 

latus), spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus 

dihystera), also Heterodera cruciferae, Merlinius 

brevidens, Paratrichodorus minor, Tylenchus, 

Tylenchorhynchus. See Vegetables M 10. 


African black beetle (Heteronychus 

arator) is a squat shining black beetle about 12 mm 

long that may attack young transplanted cabbage 

and cauliflower plants in old grassland. Stems are 

chewed just below ground level, leaves are then 

frayed out like teased rope. See Turfgrasses L 7, 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) are serious 

pests of brassicas (Fig. 323). 

Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) is a 

common and serious pest of brassicas (vegetable, 

ornamental and weed species) throughout the world. 

Adult aphids are globular, about 2.5 mm long, 

slaty grey and covered with a mealy material. Plant 

damage is caused by nymphs and adults piercing plant 

tissue and sucking plant juices and by their presence 

which causes buyer resistance. Infestation usually 

starts on leaf uppersurfaces. A single winged 

female is surrounded by wingless young, leaves curl 

in and protect the colonies. All parts of the plant, 

including flower stalks and buds, may be severely 

infested. Plants stop growing and leaves are distorted 

and mottled. If aphids are numerous, plants may wilt 

suddenly and die. A lesser infestation can make the 

plant unfit for market. There is a gradual 

metamorphosis (live nymphs, adults) with many 

generations each season. Overwinters in cooler 

areas as wingless forms; in colder areas as eggs; in 

warmer areas, young are born alive throughout the 

year. Spread by winged forms flying. Favoured 

by warm, dry conditions during late summer and 

autumn. In coastal areas they may also be important 

pests in spring. Control is difficult. Site plants away 

from obvious sources of infestation. Use repellent 

plants to assist with aphid control. In the USA, 

mulches of a wide range of materials, including 

aluminium and aluminium-polyethylene, have 

reduced aphid populations in vegetable plants by up to 

96%. In addition, these mulches are opaque and 

prevent weed growth. Avoid year round growing of 

brassicas. Sanitation: Prompt disposal of harvested 

crops and control of brassica weeds will assist control. 

Natural enemies include the predatory common 

spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis) and a wasp 

parasite (Diaeretiella rapae), which leaves many 

swollen empty aphids on plants, each with a small 

hole through which the adult wasp has emerged. 

Natural enemies do not prevent economic damage. 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) occasionally 

infests crucifers but seldom causes economic losses. 

The small green aphids cluster thickly on leaf 

undersurfaces in spring or autumn. Heavy 

infestations may cause cabbages and cauliflowers to 

wilt but damage is not as severe as that of the cabbage 

aphid. See Stone fruits F 129. 

Turnip aphid (Lipaphis erysimi) infests brassicas, eg 

rapeseed, mustard, radish, turnip, cultivated stocks. 

Adult aphids are about 2 mm long. waxy, greygreen. 

They are not as waxy as the cabbage 

aphid. Aphids suck sap from floral parts during bud 

formation, flowering and pod development, causing 

distortion and loss of individual flowers and young 

pods, undersized seeds and seed abortion in maturing 

pods. On cultivated stocks the turnip aphid may 

cause curling of young leaves and severe stunting of 

plants. During winter, turnip aphid develops slowly 

and tends to be outnumbered by the other two aphid 

pests of brassicas, but in the warmer months, they 

have a higher rate of development and fecundity. 

Successive generations develop at intervals of 10-20 

days, each female producing 40-60 nymphs. 

Favoured by warm, dry weather and droughtstressed 

crops. Control: As for cabbage aphid. 

Aphids transmit virus diseases of brassicas. 

They produce honeydew which attracts ants and on 

which sooty mould grows. Abundant whitish 

nymph skins may be present. Crop residues 

should be ploughed in immediately after harvest; 

ensure transplants are aphid-free by screening 

seedling houses to exclude aphids prior to 

transplanting. Monitor aphids at regular intervals 


1994). See Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 

Bugs (Hemiptera) are minor pests. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula): Adults that 

have bred on other plants and migrated to cabbages 

sometimes heavily infest hearting cabbage crops 

in autumn. Heart foliage turns pale, soft and spongy 

and later brown. As cabbages will almost be ready for 

harvest, insecticides used must have short residual 

life. See Vegetables M 12. 

Harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor) may infest 

cabbages and other vegetables. Adults have orange, 

black and green patches and are about 12 mm 

long. See Vegetables M 12. 

M 38 

VEGETABLES

BRASSICAS 

Rutherglen bug (Nyzius vinitor) may limit production 

of seed crops. They may cause severe wilting and 

foul plants with excreta. Adults are grey-brown and 

about 5 mm long. Favoured by hot dry weather in 

spring and early summer. Adults and nymphs invade 

crops and suck sap from stems and leaves. Young 

plants wilt and may die. Bugs breed in weeds and 

move into crops from weeds drying off. Nymphs can 

be stopped by a furrow around crop edges and 

spraying. See Stone fruits F 130, Vegetables M 12. 


Cabbage leafminer (Liriomyza 

brassicae, Agromyzidae, Diptera) is a minor pest 

of brassicas. Flies are grey, about 3 mm long and 

lay their eggs in leaf tissue. Maggots are up to 

5 mm long and mine in the leaves of seedlings 

producing pale fine meandering lines. Many mines 

may cause leaves to die. Plants growing in good 

conditions are generally not harmed significantly, 

but if growth is checked, eg by dry weather, leaf 

mining may do some damage. See Cineraria A 28. 

Cabbage white butterfly (CWB) 

This introduced butterfly is the most serious 

economic butterfly pest in Australia (Fig. 324). 

Scientific name: Pieridae, Lepidoptera: 


At least 3 other species of Pieris are recognised as 

pests of brassicas overseas. If introduced they 

could intensify the damage caused by P. rapae. 

Host range: All brassicas, ie vegetables, eg 

cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprout, radish, 

broccoli, mustard kale, turnip, ornamentals, eg 

stock, wallflower, weeds, eg shepherd's purse, 

wild mustard. Beet, mignonette, geranium, 

nasturtium and Cleome may also be attacked. 

Description and damage: Butterflies are 

usually a general grey-white and have a wingspan 

of 40-50 mm. Hindwings beneath are yellow and 

forewings paler. Females have 2 black spots on 

the upper surface of each forewing, while males 

have only one spot. Both sexes have one black 

spot on each hindwing. Caterpillars are velvety 

green, covered with fine short hairs about 30 mm 

long with a faint yellowish stripe down the back 

and along each side. Its colour resembles the 

colour of its host plant, and as it frequently rests 

parallel to the leaf midrib, it is not readily seen. 

Young caterpillars feed mainly on leaf 

undersurfaces, older ones feed from the 

uppersurfaces and eat out large irregular holes 

from the outer leaves of the heart or curd of 

broccoli or cauliflowers. Greenish-brown pellets 

of excrement are caught in the angles of leaves. 

Growth is seriously reduced, heads of cabbages or 

cauliflowers are stunted or do not form at all; other 

leafy vegetables are rendered unfit for eating. Do 

not confuse with damage caused by other 

caterpillars, eg cabbage moth, snails and slugs, 

and birds, or splitting due to overmaturity. 


larva, pupa, adult) with at least 2 generations each 

season. Females visit blossoms to feed on nectar 

and lay yellow spindle-shaped eggs singly, usually 

on the undersides of the outer leaves. When fullyfed 

they pupate on the food-plant, some nearby 

object, or debris on the ground. 

Overwintering: Usually in the pupal stage. 

Spread: By butterflies flying, they are strong 

fliers and may be found many kilometres from host 

plants. Movement of infested plants carrying eggs, 

caterpillar and pupae. 


Infestations may occur at any time of the year but 

are more troublesome in February and March. 

Caterpillars will not develop at < 10 o C and eggs 

will not develop at < 4 o C or > 30 o C. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Minimise weeds especially 

brassica weeds. 

Sanitation: If only a few plants are infested, 

caterpillars may be hand picked but because of 

their green colour they are often hard to find. 

Plough or dig in crop debris. 

Biological control: Eggs, caterpillars, pupae and 

butterflies all have many natural enemies, 

including parasites, predators (birds) and fungal 

and viral diseases which reduce CWB numbers 

but often do not provide economic control. 

Three wasp parasites have been imported: 

Pteromalus puparum parasitises pupae of CWB 

and some other butterflies; Apanteles glomeratus 

and A. rubecula parasitise caterpillars. Cocoons 

of these parasites are commonly seen on fully 

grown caterpillars which stop feeding and die. 

Virus diseases may kill many caterpillars. A 

bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) (Dipel ® ) is 

effective against this species. Bt gives 

caterpillars a disease, but is slower acting than 

chemical pesticides. However, it is selective and 

controls only leafeating caterpillars. It must be 

applied to young caterpillars. 

Resistant varieties: Some brassicas may be bred 

to produce Bt avoiding the need to spray. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Specially 

made clothes may act as a moth barrier. 

Pesticides: Monitor the crop weekly for 

caterpillars before applying insecticides (Brough 

et al. 1994). If regular applications of foliage 

chemical insecticides are to be made, they 

should be applied to seedbeds and in the field 

when caterpillars are first observed. Application 

must be made to leaf undersurfaces. 

Effectiveness depends on killing young 

caterpillars, older ones are less susceptible. See 

Annuals A 8. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) are serious pests 

(Fig. 325) of brassicas (Hely et al. 1982). 

Cabbage moth (CM), diamond-back cabbage moth 

(Plutella xylostella, Yponomeutidae) attacks brassica 

vegetables, eg broccoli, Brussels sprout, cabbage, 

cauliflower, radish, turnip, garden flowers, eg 

stock, sweet alyssum, wallflower, weeds. Moths 

are small, brown and up to about 9 mm long. At rest, 

the ridge formed by the folded wings shows a row of 

yellow diamond-shaped markings. Moths are active 

and may fly out from plants in swarms if infestation is 

severe. Caterpillars are bright green and up to 

12 mm long, tapering at both ends. When disturbed 

they drop and hang from the plant by a silken thread. 

Young colourless caterpillars feed or mine in leaves, 

causing small clear windows. Older green caterpillars 

chew large pieces from outer leaves. As the plants 

grow older, caterpillars tend to feed in central 

VEGETABLES M 39

BRASSICAS 

sheltered parts of plants, penetrating the heart and 

producing webbing and excreta. If numerous, they eat 

holes in leaves all over the plant, giving it a lacy 

pattern. Many generations each year. Female moths 

lay eggs on leaf undersurfaces. They pupate in flimsy 

net-like cocoons on leaves scattered over the plant. 

Overwintering: As moths sheltering among inner 

leaves of hosts, but in some areas caterpillars may 

feed. Favoured by hot, dry districts and is usually 

more important inland than on the coast. Parasitic 

wasps (Apanteles spp., Diadegma eucerophaga, 

Diadromus collaris, Horogenes cerophaga, 

Hymenobosmina rapi, Thyracella collaris) parasitise 

caterpillars and pupae but insecticides may still be 

needed. Pesticides: As for CWB, but as 

caterpillars feed in sheltered positions careful spray 

application is necessary. Insecticide resistance to 

synthetic pyrethroid and organophosphates occurs in 

some areas. 

Cabbage-centre grub (Hellula hydralis, H. undalis, 

Pyralidae) infests brassicas especially rape, turnip, 

broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower. Moths are about 

12 mm long and hold their wings horizontally. 

Forewings are grey with brown markings. 

Caterpillars are thick-set, up to 12 mm long, 

yellowish with brown longitudinal stripes. Young 

caterpillars usually burrow into growing points and 

destroy seedlings which wither and die. In older 

plants, main veins may be tunnelled. These are 

packed with webbing and frass, some terminal leaves 

may be bound together. Plants become stunted and 

develop lateral buds which produce multiple heads of 

no commercial value. Pest cycle: Female moths 

lays eggs on new growth. When fully grown 

caterpillars pupate in the tunnels. Favoured by hot 

dry weather in summer and autumn. It is most 

troublesome in autumn and may also occur in spring. 

Control: Regular treatments for CWB, starting with 

the seedbed, will avoid damage. Early growth of 

crops needs to be protected against infestation. Older 

caterpillars are inaccessible so spray when young. 

Cabbage cluster caterpillar (Crocidolomia 

pavonana, Pyralidae) infests brassicas. Moths are 

light brown and lay eggs on leaves. Caterpillars are 

up to 20 mm long, green with longitudinal 

markings and black spots. Young caterpillars feed in 

groups, older ones spin webs over their feeding area, 

eating holes in leaves and heads. They pupate in soil. 

Many generations each season. May only be a 

problem in northern areas during summer and autumn. 

Control as for CWB. See Cabbage moth above. 

Cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae) is the most 

serious caterpillar pest of brassicas. See Brassicas 

M 39. 

Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura, Noctuidae) 

damage foliage severely and may penetrate hearts 

of cabbage and cauliflower in late summer to autumn 

in coastal districts. Caterpillars are distinguished 

from others by the feeding of young caterpillars in 

groups skeletonising leaves. Older caterpillars are 

40-50 mm long, green to brownish-purple, smooth 

with a row of dark triangular spots on each side of the 

body. The feed on growing points and tunnel into 

heads from the bottom of outer leaves, so often they 

are not detected until harvest. Caterpillars mostly 

feed on leaf tissue but can also damage fruit such as 

tomatoes. Eggs are laid on leaves in clusters of up to 

300 and are covered with a matt of grey-brown hairs 

from the body of the female. Pupae are formed in 

soil. 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and 

H. undalis, may be pests of cabbage in coastal 

districts. Caterpillars are pale green to dark brown, 

up to 40 mm long. Young caterpillars are solitary 

and skeletonise leaves, older ones tunnel into heads. 

A parasitic wasp (Heteropelma scaposum) parasitises 

the caterpillars. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) may nip off young 

seedlings during the night, re-planting may 

necessary. See Seedlings N 68. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) caterpillars roll and web 

leaves together and feed on leaf tissue at these sites. 

If disturbed they quickly wriggle backwards. See 


Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp., Noctuidae) 

are 30-40 mm long and eat large ragged holes (up 

25 mm across) in backs of leaves and may feed on 

bean pods and tomato fruit. See Vegetables M 13. 

Others: Many other moth caterpillars may attack 

brassicas (Common 1990). 

Monitor caterpillars at regular intervals before 


Plough-in crop residues immediately after 

harvest. Avoid year round brassica crops. See 



Earth mites (Penthaleidae): Redlegged earth mite 

(Halotydeus destructor) and blue oat mite 

(Penthaleus major) may seriously damage young 

brassica plants on leaf uppersurfaces, producing 

silvery or whitish blemishes, particularly along the 

main veins. If the infestation is heavy, whole leaves 

may look bleached. See Vegetables M 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may also 

infest brassicas. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) feed on the 

undersurfaces of the lower outer leaves causing 

them to be shiny and light brown. During dry 

weather young cabbages and cauliflowers may 

seem to be slow growing. On brassicas, 

insecticides may be applied to leaf undersurfaces. 

See Onion M 68. 

Striped flea beetle (Phyllotreta 

nemorum) feeds on brassicas, especially turnip and 

cabbage, they are small, black beetles about 

2.5 mm long with a longitudinal yellow stripe on 

each wing cover. If disturbed, they jump or fly 

readily, they chew small holes in leaves (shotholed). 

Damage is usually minor. Control, where 

necessary, with insecticides. See Hibiscus K 82. 


Spotted vegetable weevil (Desiantha diversipes) is 

brown-grey about 6 mm long. It may feed on leaves 

and stock or turnip in some districts in autumn. 

Weevils may move into crops from adjacent pasture, 

eating plants as they go. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus 

leucoloma) larvae are thick-set, legless white or grey, 

up to 12 mm long. They channel and girdle roots of 

young cabbage and cauliflower which wilt suddenly. 

Occasionally adults may feed on foliage of crucifers. 

Also vegetable weevil (Listroderes obliquus). See 


M 40 

VEGETABLES

BRASSICAS 

Others: 


(Orthoptera), eg black field cricket (Teleogryllus 

commodus), wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium 

vittatum) and yellow-winged locust (Gastrimargus 

musicus), may attack both seedlings and older 

brassica plants. Onion maggot (Delia platura) 

hollows out stems of seedlings below ground level, 

tops die and the stems, when pulled up, are soft 

and rotted. False wireworms (Tenebrionidae) and 

wireworms (Elateridae) may attack cabbages and 

cauliflowers transplanted into ground recently 

under pasture. They may nibble at roots and may 

tunnel in stalks, stunting and killing plants. 


Snails and slugs can be serious pests of brassicas 

(Fig. 326), mainly after planting or near harvest, 

especially if planted into ground previously under 

pasture or green manure crops prepared using 

minimum tillage. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds may damage seedlings. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frost may injure cauliflower 

heads; damaged heads are often invaded by 

secondary fungal infections. Bolting (running to 

seed) may occur. Oedema is a physiological 

disorder believed to be caused by changes in 

temperature and humidity in the crop canopy, and 

affects all vegetable brassicas. Symptoms vary but 

include small warty outgrowths on leaves, black 

flecking in Brussels sprout buds and Chinese 

cabbage, dead tissue within cabbage heads. Plant 

tolerant varieties. See Geranium A 35. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Plant 

analysis standards are available for brassicas 

(Weir and Cresswell, 1993). 

Boron deficiency (hollow stem) affects brassica, 

beetroot, peas, pome fruit (apple, pear), lucerne and 

celery. Cabbage and cauliflower: Hollows 

develop in the centre of stems. Leaf ribs may have 

rough cracked areas. Cauliflower curds may be 

discoloured and taste bitter, whether cooked or eaten 

raw. Turnips and swedes: Internal breakdown 

develops with watersoaked brown or hollow areas in 

the root. In severe cases the root surface may be rough 

and cracked. Favoured by application of agricultural 

lime. Some soils have sufficient boron in an insoluble 

form. Induced alkaline conditions resulting from 

excessive applications of lime, superphosphate can 

convert boron to an insoluble form. More boron is 

required in neutral and alkaline soils than in acid soils. 

Soils have low levels of boron due to being derived 

from rocks poor in boron or soils may have been 

leached. Prevent by applying borax to soil at 

recommended rates before planting, 1 application 

should supply enough boron for crop requirements for 

3-4 years. If boron deficiency develops in young 

crops, plants may be sprayed with borax. Note that 

boron is a herbicide. 

Molybdenum deficiency (whiptail) usually affects 

patches of plants in an otherwise healthy crop. 

Requirements for molybdenum vary with the crop. 

Tomato, beet, lettuce and brassicas have high 

requirements, beans and peas require high amounts 

once their initial seed reserves have been depleted. 

Cucurbits, clovers, medics, carrot and celery 

have intermediate requirements. Cereals, 

grasses and trees have low requirements. 

Molybdenum deficiency causes different symptoms 

on different brassicas. Cauliflower: An abnormal 

leaf development called 'whiptail' develops. Green 

leaf tissue is reduced and in advanced stages leaves 

may consist of a central midrib with a narrow margin 

of green leaf tissue on each side (Fig. 327). Other 

brassicas may not show such marked whiptail 

symptoms but interveinal yellowing, death of the leaf 

margins and stunting may occur. Favoured by acid 

soils, where the pH is 5.5 or less, molybdenum is 

unavailable for plant growth. Heavy liming may 

prevent molybdenum deficiency. Molybdenum can 

be applied to the soil, or as a foliage spray to 

seedlings or young crops. 

Pesticide injury: Brassicas are sensitive to 

hormone herbicides. Stems may split and galllike 

growths develop on stems, petioles and roots. 

Plants are unthrifty and often develop a reddish 

pigment on petioles and leaf margins. Brassicas 

are as sensitive as tomatoes to low levels. 

Others: Overmature cabbages may split (Fig. 

328). 


Blazey, D. 1994. Brassica Breeding Narrows Genetic 

Variation. Good Fruit & Vegetables, Aug. 










Heisswolf, S. and Deuter, P. 1992. Growing Broccoli in 


Brisbane. 



Melbourne. 




Lomman, G. 1988. Commercial Brassica Production in 

SA. Primary Industries of SA, Adelaide. 



and Vegetables : Cabbages, Cauliflowers. cur. edn. 

OECD, Paris. Avail. from DA Books, Mitcham, Vic. 







Handbook. (4th edn.). CSIRO/NSW Agric., Griffith. 




VEGETABLES M 41

BRASSICAS 

University of California. 1992. Integrated Pest 

Management for Cole Crops and Lettuce. 

University. of California, CA. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Aphid Pests of Cruciferous Crops (SA Fact Sheet) 

Insect Pests of Crucifer Vegetables 

Blackleg of Cabbage, Cauliflower and Related Plants 

(NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote)) 

Black Rot of Cole crops (Vic Agnote) 

Black Rot of Crucifers (NSW Agfact) 

Brassicas : Insect Pests (Qld Farmnote) 

Broccoli for Processing and the Fresh Market (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Broccoli Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Broccoli : Sowing Times and Maturity Guide (Vic Agnote) 

Broccoli : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Brussels Sprouts for Processing (Tas Farmnote) 

Brussels Sprouts in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Brussels Sprouts : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Cabbage Growing (Vic Agnote) 

Cabbage Moth (NSW Agfact) 

Cabbage Moth or Diamond-back Moth (Vic Agnote) 

Cabbage : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Brussels Sprouts for Processing 

(Tas. Dept. of Primary Industries and Fisheries) 

Cauliflowers for Processing and the Fresh Market (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Cauliflowers for the Fresh Market and for Processing 

(Vic Agnote) 

MANAGEMENT 

Cauliflower : Planting Times and Maturity Guide (Vic 

Agnote) 

Cauliflower Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Cauliflower Growing in the SW (WA Agric) 

Cauliflowers in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Cauliflower : Weed Control (NSW Agfact) 

Chinese Cabbage (Bull. WA Agric) 

Clubroot of Cruciferous Crops (Vic Agnote) 

Commercial Cauliflower Production in WA (WA 

Farmnote) 

Crucifers : Pest and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases of Crucifers (NSW Agfact, WA Farmnote) 

Diseases of Vegetable Brassicas (Tas Farmnote) 

Diseases of Forage Brassicas (Tas Farmnote) 

Growing and Transplanting Brassica Vegetable Seedlings 

(Tas Farmnote) 

Growing Broccoli (Vic Agnote) 

Growing Cabbage in WA (WA Farmnote) 

Growing Cabbages in the Top End (NT Agnote) 

Growing Swedes and Turnips (Tas Farmnote) 

Guide to the Sowing & Maturity of Cabbages (Vic Agnote) 

Hollow Stem of Broccoli and Cauliflower (Vic Agnote) 

Insect Pests of Brassica Vegetables (Tas Farmnote) 

Insect Pests of Crucifer Vegetables (NSW Agfact) 

Kohl Rabi in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Production of Brussels Sprouts (Vic Agnote) 

Radish Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Ringspot of Cruciferous Plants (Vic Agnote) 

The Red-legged Earth Mite (Vic Agnote) 

Turnips in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 



State/Territory Grower Services 




Brassicas are mostly grown for the fresh market and processing, some, eg swedes and turnips, are grown also 

as fodder crops. An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Breeding programs attempt 

to improve disease and pest resistance, improve quality of harvested products and delay postharvest 

deterioration (Blazey 1994). Brassicas thrive best in cool climates with high relative humidities. Select cultivars 

with some resistance to local problems. Buy disease-free seed or seedlings from reliable producers and plant 

in disease and pest-free seedbeds and fields. Seed treatments may be recommended, eg hot water treatments 

(Salvestrin 1991). Site selection: Isolate seedbeds away from commercial crops, many diseases are spread by 

wind from crop residues in adjacent crops. Avoid sites known to be infested with club root, eg for turnips and 

swedes. As many diseases persist from year to year in crop residue (leaf spots) or over longer periods in the 

soil as resistant spores (club root, Sclerotinia rot) or as cysts (nematodes), practise crop rotations of 3-4 years, 

and minimise brassica weeds during that time. Choose correct soil, range of soil types, with good drainage and 

appropriate organic matter. Pre-plant soil treatments may include pasteurisation of seedbeds and potting 

mixes, pre-plant nematode treatments or lime may be suitable in some circumstances, eg club root. Get local 

advice on local diseases and appropriate treatments. Practise seedling hygiene. Sow at the correct time and 

at the correct spacing. Fertilise and irrigate appropriately. Monitor crops regularly for pest development, 

especially seedlings. Cutworms and black beetle rapidly destroy young plants, cabbage aphids can severely 

restrict their growth. Insect activity is largely governed by weather conditions. During the colder months in 

many districts the insect pest activity of brassicas virtually ceases, at other times of the year it may be so great 

that regular control sprays may be needed. Small caterpillars of any species require less insecticide to kill them. 

Some, eg cabbage moth and budworms (Helicoverpa), that feed in sheltered positions are difficult to control 

adequately once they become well established in the crop. Control emerged annual and perennial weeds 

pre-plant mechanically or with post-emergence herbicides. Weeds must also be controlled after planting. It 

can be difficult on some brassica crops to use herbicides after planting, so seedbeds should be weed-free before 

sowing. Removal of brassica weeds are very important in the control of crucifer diseases. Sanitation: 

Abandoned crops are sources of infestation for future crops plough-in crops and residues immediately after 

harvest. Pesticides: If spraying brassicas add a wetting agent because of the waxy leaves. Harvest swedes 

and turnips at the size and time preferred by the wholesalers or processors, oversize roots may be unsaleable. 

Roots are normally pulled either by hand or by mechanical lifters and trimmed immediately, bagged or placed 

into bulk bins. Handle roots with care to reduce injury and promote storage life. Store brassicas at 

recommended conditions for the prescribed period, eg 0 o C with 90-95% humidity, to prevent heads from drying. 

Uncooled broccoli has a high level of respiration and gives off much ethylene which should be removed by 

ventilation. Sprinkling with crushed ice helps to reduce the production of ethylene, premature maturity and 

yellowing of the product. Wrapper leaves significantly increase the respiration rate and therefore the rate of 

deterioration of cauliflowers, but protects the head from damage and staining. Harvest broccoli while it is still 

tight and before there is any sign of yellowing in the buds, in the cool of the morning. Broccoli turn yellow rapidly 

if overheated (not the yellow of over maturity when buds open). Handle carefully. If it is to be stored it should 

be first forced-air cooled or hydrocooled and then stored at 0 o C (not lower or there may be freezing injury). 

Avoid feeding diseased residues to stock as some resistant spores may be spread in their droppings. 

M 42 

VEGETABLES

BRASSICAS 

\ 

Fig. 321. Black ringspotting due to 

turnip mosaic virus. Dept. of Agric., 

NSW. 

Fig. 322. Club root (Plasmodiophora 

brassicae). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 


clustered on leaf undersurfaces. 

Fig. 324. Cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae). 1. Egg (x10). 2. 

Caterpillar. 3. Pupa (x 2.5). 4. Eggs on leaf. 5. Caterpillar. 

6. Pupa attached to plant. 7. Butterfly. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 325. Caterpillars infesting brassicas vary 

considerably in length and colour. Some have 

stripes or other identifying marks. 

Fig. 326. Snail and slug damage to 

cabbages. 

Fig. 327. Molybdenum 

deficiency (whiptail) on 

cauliflower leaves. 

Fig. 328. Cabbage splitting due to overmaturity. 

VEGETABLES M 43

Carrot 

Daucus carota 

Family Apiaceae (carrot family) 


Parasitic 






Damping off 


Root and stem cankers, rots 




Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Flies 

Mites 

Vegetable leafhopper 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Deformed roots 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Carrot motley dwarf: Carrot red leaf virus (CRLV) 

and carrot mottle virus (CMotV) were originally 

described in Australia as one virus, ie carrot motley 

dwarf virus, and are probably no longer economically 

important in Australia. Hosts include carrot, dill 

(Anethum graveolens), CRLV also parsley. Petioles 

may be twisted or shortened, leaves rosetted, yellow 

or red; seed stalks stunted, seed heads malformed; 

roots may rot prematurely, and seed may fail to set, 

seriously affecting yield. Spread: CRLV and 

CMotV as a complex by the carrot aphid (Cavariella 

aegopodii), not by seed, not by pollen. Favoured by 

large numbers of aphids, sowings from July to 

December. To minimise losses sow when 

seedlings will not be exposed to seasonal flushes of 

aphids. A wasp parasite of the vector was 

introduced into Australia in 1962. Plant virustolerant 

or aphid-resistant/repellent carrot 

cultivars. Where virus is a problem spray crops to 

control vector. 

Others: Potato Y virus, tomato big bud mycoplasma. 



Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

carotae): Leaves develop small, irregular yellow 

areas which later turn to brown watersoaked spots. 

Dark brown streaks may develop on stems and 

petioles. Laterally elongated, black sunken 

craters may also form on roots. Bacterial ooze 

may seep from infected sites. Rotate crops every 

2-3 years. Hot water treatment of seed may be 

required. See Vegetables M 5, M 6. 

Bacterial soft rots (Erwinia carotovora pv. 

carotovora, E. carotovora pv. atroseptica) causes 

a watery soft rot of the tap root and is usually a 

postharvest disease but may occur in the field 

after prolonged wet weather. See Vegetables M 5. 


Damping off (Pythium sp. Rhizoctonia): Treat 

seed with recommended fungicide dusts. Do not 

plant into soil containing undecomposed plant 

debris. See Seedlings N 66. 


Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora carotae) is mainly 

severe on young leaves causing circular tan or 

grey spots, which may coalesce during humid weather 

to kill the whole leaf. Sunken elongated spots may 

occur on leaf stalks. 

Leaf blight (Alternaria dauci) causes dark grey to 

brown angular spots surrounded by yellow areas on 

leaves, severely affected leaves eventually die. Older 

leaves are attacked first, but in severe outbreaks 

younger leaves are also attacked. 


Root and stem cankers, rots 

Black rot (Alternaria radicina) causes a shallow dry 

black rot of the shoulder region. Favoured by 

storage in ground after crop is mature. Destroy 

affected roots. Seedborne. 

Cavity spot (Pythium spp.) infects lateral roots of 

young plants causing localised lesions which may be 

invaded by secondary organisms. See Vegetables M 7. 

Rhizoctonia crater rot, root canker (Rhizoctonia 

solani). Small brown lesions on the sides of roots 

increase in size, then the rotted tissue contracts to 

form craters. Black sclerotia may form on the 

surface of carrot roots. Secondary rots often follow. 


Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus oryzae, R. stolonifer) 

causes a postharvest soft rot with coarse open, 

black and white fungal growth. Avoid bruising and 

other injury during harvesting and washing. Transport 

and store in cool conditions. See Fruit F 6, Vegetables 

M 6. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) is a rapidly 

developing soft rot accompanied by dense white 

fungal growth and black, irregular sclerotia or 

resting bodies. Field and postharvest disease. 

See Vegetables M 2 (Fig. 297), M 7. 

Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) causes a soft rot 

with white threadlike growth on roots and 

surrounding soil. Small evenly-shaped brown 

sclerotia form on the root. See Vegetables M 8. 


basicola) has been a major postharvest disease 

overseas, it affects carrots in NZ. Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria luteobubalina), fusarium root rot 

(Fusarium spp. Fusarium solani), phytophthora 

root rots (Phytophthora spp., P. megasperma var. 

sojae), grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), sour rot, 

yeasty rot (Geotrichum candidum). 


M 44 

VEGETABLES

CARROT 



cause serious diseases of carrots. They cause 

swellings on roots. Avoid infested soil or treat 

infested soil. See Vegetables M 2 (Fig. 300), M 10. 

Others: Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus 

dipsaci), root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus 

spp.), spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus dihystera, 

Rotylenchus robustus), Paratrichodorus, Xiphinema. 



Carrot aphid (Cavariella aegopodii) affects willow 

(Salix spp.) and various Apiaceae, eg carrot, parsnip, 

celery, parsley, weeds. Adults and nymphs are 

small, green, yellow, brown or reddish and cluster 

on leaf undersurfaces, sucking sap, young leaves are 

distorted and curled. Plants grow poorly, yellow and 

become reddish. Aphids secrete honeydew which 

attracts ants and on which sooty mould grows. Carrot 

aphid is the insect vector for carrot motley dwarf 

virus complex. There are many generations each 

season. In cold climates the primary host is 

willow where eggs hatch in spring. Winged forms 

later fly to the secondary hosts, eg carrot, parsley 

and fennel, on which many generations are passed. 

Periodically colonies, most frequently in autumn and 

late spring, produce winged forms that fly to new host 

plants. In autumn, aphids fly to the primary host 

(willow) and lay overwintering eggs. In warmer 

areas, if suitable hosts are available throughout the 

year, breeding continues on secondary hosts. Spread 

by winged forms to the crop and within the crop. 

Cool, dry weather in winter favours aphid 

development and retards the crop. Sow early to 

allow crops to make good growth before aphids 

become abundant. In spring later-sown crops tend to 

escape the worst injury. Ladybirds, hover fly and 

lacewing larvae, tend to be least active in winter when 

aphids are most destructive. A parasitic wasp has 

been introduced. Some varieties have some 

resistance to aphids and virus. Control host weeds. 

Insecticides may be applied when aphids are present. 

Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) is black and 

colonises growing shoots and later, leaf 

undersurfaces. Carrot crops sown after the middle of 

October usually escape infestation. See Pea M 74. 

Fennel aphid (Dysaphis foeniculus) infests fennel, 

carrot, parsnip, related weeds. It is small, grey and 

feeds on roots. In cloudy weather it may come up 

from roots and feed on crowns and leaf stalks. Leaves 

yellow, growth may be stunted. If young plants are 

attacked, roots may be malformed. Infested plants 

may be surrounded by mounds of small brown ants. 

Insecticides may occasionally be necessary in some 

areas if aphids occur on roots in young plants. 



Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) swarms on carrots 

sucking sap from new growth and seeds; growth is 

severely stunted and the developing seed dries up 

preventing seed production. Plants look scorched. 

Adults are most likely to be responsible for the attack. 


Others: Green mirid (Creontiades dilutus) sucks sap 

from buds and flowers causing seed heads to fail to set 

seed. Also green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula). 



Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) may chew leaf stalks of 

young crops at ground level. See Seedlings N 68. 


moth (Epiphyas postvittana) and lucerne leaf-roller 

(Merophyas divulsana) caterpillars are slender, green, 

feed on foliage and web leaves together. They 

wriggle backwards if disturbed. See Pome fruits F 112. 



Carrot rust fly (Psila rosae, Psilidae), which is not 

known to occur in Australia, severely damages 

Apiaceae vegetables, eg carrots, celery, celeriac, 

coriander, caraway, dill, fennel, parsley, parsnip and 

weeds overseas. Flies are shining-green, yellowheaded 

and deposit eggs about the base of the plants. 

Maggots are slender, legless, up to 8 mm long, dirty 

white, and work their way down in the soil and 

attack the tips of tap roots, destroying the entire root 

system. Carrots are stunted, the entire root may 

become scarred and riddled by maggots burrowing, 

burrows take on a rust-red colour. Injury may 

continue in stored carrots. Overwinters as pupae 

buried in the soil or as maggots on the roots. 

Celery fly (Melanagromyza apii, Agromyzidae). See 

Celery M 48. 


Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) may infest carrots, 

especially unirrigated crops in hot weather. 

Leaves become grey-speckled then brown. See 



pierces and sucks plant sap. Surface tissue turns 

white, large numbers of leaves may look bleached. 

Seedlings may wither. See Vegetables M 16. 



is small and green. It sucks plant sap making 

foliage grey or yellow. See Vegetables M 15. 


Vegetable weevil (Listroderes obliquus) larvae 

destroy growing points, later they chew holes in 

foliage and furrows in crowns. Adults attack tops 

and roots, gouging out large craters, usually around 

the crown. Some varieties, eg Osborne Park, are less 

susceptible than others. See Vegetables M 17. 


larvae furrow in roots, going into the core. Bases 

and stems of seedlings may be chewed causing 

death. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) nibbles 

leaves while larvae chew tap roots especially in WA. 


is often called the carrot weevil in Tasmania. 


VEGETABLES M 45

CARROT 

Others: Various crickets, grasshoppers, 

locusts (Orthoptera), European earwig (Forficula 

auricularia), lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis), 

leafeating ladybirds (Epilachna spp.), wireworms 

(Tenebrionidae) and false wireworms 

(Elateridae), root mealybugs (Rhizoecus falcifer), 

seedharvesting ants (Hymenoptera). 


difficult to remove during the commercial 

processing of carrots. Susceptible varieties have 

a pronounced dished top. Favoured by cultural 

practices, eg high plant populations and inadequate 

irrigation, which leads to premature leaf death. 

Select varieties with rounded tops, promote steady 

growth of the crop and avoid overcrowding 

(Persley 1994). Some organophosphates are 

toxic to carrots. Kerosene may taint carrots. 

Snails and slugs may feed on foliage and leave 

their glistening slime trails. See Seedlings M 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Deformed roots may be caused by sowing too 

thickly, shallow compact soil, stones and other 

solid debris. Fresh animal manure, green manure 

or other fertilisers applied later than 3 weeks 

before sowing are likely to cause forked or hairy 

roots. Some varieties are more prone to forking 

than others. Splitting is caused by overmaturity. 

See Vegetables M 3 (Fig. 312). 

Environment: Carrots may be damaged by 

frost. Some varieties of carrots may bolt (run to 

seed) without forming roots if planted in late 

autumn and winter in temperate zones. 


analysis standards are available for carrots (Weir 

and Cresswell 1993). Boron deficiency causes 

scurfing, roughening and cracking of roots. Boron 

is a herbicide; never apply soil and foliage 

treatments in same season. 

Others: Black ring is common and serious on 

processing carrots and is caused by a complex of 

varietal, physiological and fungal factors. A black 

superficial ring develops at the top of the carrot 

and remains when leaves are removed. It does not 

develop into a rot. Affected areas can usually be 

easily removed during peeling but they can be 

MANAGEMENT 








Melbourne. 



and Vegetables : Carrots. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. 








Handbook. (4th edn.). CSIRO/NSW Agric., 

Melbourne 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Diseases of Carrots (NSW Agfact) 

Diseases and Pests of Carrots (WA Farmnote) 

Diseases of Carrots, Parsnips, Parsley and Celery (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Carrot Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Carrots and Parsnips : Root-knot Nematode (Vic Agnote) 

Carrots : Pests and Diseases (Qld Farmnote) 

Carrot Production (Vic Agnote) 

Carrots : Weed Control (Qld Farmnote, Vic Agnote) 

Commercial Carrot Production (WA Farmnote) 

Growing Carrots : Cultural Notes (Tas Farmnote) 

See Celery M 49, Herbs N 33, 

Parsnip M 71, Vegetables M 19 



Carrots are grown for the fresh market and for processing. An overview of the industry is presented by 

Coombs (1995). The length of the carrot must suit the depth of soil. Choose slow bolting varieties with some 

resistance to carrot motley dwarf, aphids, leaf spots, and root diseases and plant in the correct season. Plant 

certified disease-free seed (many diseases are seedborne) or use a prescribed seed treatment. Seed 

treatments with fungicides/insecticides prior to planting, reduce soilborne diseases and pests. Avoid land 

infested with root knot or treat several weeks before sowing. Avoid land infested with Sclerotinia for winter 

plantings and where Sclerotium occurs, for summer plantings. Choose a frost-free site. Practice crop rotations 

of 3-4 years. Carrots prefer cool growing conditions and well-drained open textured soils. They tolerate 

moderately acid soils. A regular water supply is necessary for the production of high quality carrots. Seed may 

be primed to improve performance (Salvestrin 1991). Planting: Seed is sown into permanent positions. 

Germination: Sow seed thickly and cover by no more than 10 mm soil with a very thin mulch on top. Keep soil 

damp at all times so that carrot seedlings can emerge easily. High temperatures during germination can cause 

poor results. Sanitation: Destroy diseased crop debris by burning or ploughing in promptly. Weed control in 

carrots is essential and is based on good land preparation, interrow cultivation and the use of pre-emergence 

and post-emergence herbicides. Some weeds may be difficult to control adequately in carrots, eg slender 

celery and wild carrot. Growth regulators are used to control vegetative growth. Harvest at correct time, avoid 

overmaturity. Cool, or air dry, washed carrots and avoid bruising and other injury. Treat to prevent 

postharvest diseases (bacterial soft rots, Fusarium, grey mould, Rhizopus soft rot, Sclerotinia rot) during 

storage and transport (Salvestrin 1991). 

M 46 

VEGETABLES

Celery 

Apium graveolens 



Parasitic 







Sclerotinia rots 


Celery eelworm 


Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Flies 

Mites 

Thrips 


Vegetable weevil 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Overmaturity 


Parasitic 


Celery mosaic virus affects celery, overseas also 

carrot, coriander, dill, parsley, parsnip, hemlock 

(Conium maculatum). Green to light green mottling, 

leaflets may be narrowed, cupped and twisted, 

early infections result in stunting and petioles not 

growing upright. Overwinters in infected host 

plants. Spread by aphids, eg cotton aphid (Aphis 

gossypii), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), not by 

contact between plants, not by seed. Found in WA 

and SA. Overseas a celery-free period where the 

virus does not infect weed hosts, eg wild hemlock, is 

recommended (Buchen-Osmond et al. 1988). 

Others: Cucumber mosaic virus, lucerne (Australian) 

latent virus, tomato spotted wilt virus. 




pv. apii) causes bright yellow circular or angular 

leaf spots surrounded by a yellow halo. As spots 

enlarge they turn brown in the centre. Leaves with 

many spots die. Overwinters in diseased crop 

residues. Spread by introduction of infected seed, 

diseased seedlings to field plantings and by water 

splash and windblown rain. Favoured by a dense 

canopy which provides wet humid conditions ideal 

for infection and disease development. Practise 

crop rotation and destroy crop residues promptly 

after harvest. See Stone fruits F 124, Vegetables 

M 5. 

Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora pv 

carotovora) is mainly a postharvest disease of 

celery especially under wet and humid conditions, 

often where plants have been injured. A wet slimy 

rot of leaves and stalks develops. In the field 

plants often show a soft wet rot of the base and the 

heart. Favoured by hail damage, frost, chemical 

injury or wind. Fungicides can be applied as soon 

as damage and/or conditions favourable for disease 

occur. See Vegetables M 5. 

Others: Pseudomonas viridiflava. 



Anthracnose, leaf curl (Colletotrichum acutatum, C. 

orbiculare) is a sporadic disease of celery plants of 

all ages, also capsicum, anemone and ranunculus, 

avocado, papaw, strawberry, and weeds, eg 

Noogoora burr and Bathurst burr. Young celery 

leaves and petioles may be distorted. Petioles 

occasionally show reddish-brown elongated lesions on 

the inside. Spores form in the crown and along the 

reddish lesions on the petioles. Older celery leaves 

are curled downwards with scattered yellow 

translucent spots on uppersurfaces. These later 

become brittle and crack along their length. Soft 

rotting organisms often invade infected growing 

points. Similar symptoms develop on anemone and 

ranunculus. Overwinters in undecomposed celery 

residues in the soil or on alternative crop and weed 

hosts. Spores are spread by wet windy weather. 

Favoured by wet weather. Destroy old crops 

immediately after harvest. Preferably plant resistant 

varieties. If very susceptible varieties, eg Bishop or 

H122, are planted, rogue infected plants to prevent 

spread, and apply recommended fungicides in 

seedbeds and in the field. Avoid planting into soil 

containing infected crop residues. See Anemone C 11, 


Cercospora early blight, early blight (Cercospora 

apii). Yellow to grey irregular spots develop on 

leaves and leaf stalks. Spots dry out and become 

papery. Fine grey fungal growth develops on spots in 

humid conditions. Spots may coalesce, leaves appear 

blighted causing them to shrivel and die. 

Septoria spot, late blight, fire blight (Septoria 

apiicola) is probably the most serious disease of 

celery. Small, pale spots appear on older leaves and 

leaf stalks. These spots may enlarge, turn brown, 

become spotted with small black fruiting bodies 

(pycnidia). If infection is severe spots may join up 

causing leaves to wither and die. Favoured by cool, 

damp weather. 

Others: Alternaria dauci, Drechslera apii. 


Sclerotinia rots, foot rot, pink rot, white 

mould (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor) may 

occur in the field and postharvest. They cause a 

soft watery pink rotting of leaf petioles, 

accompanied by a whitish fungal growth. Later 

small black sclerotia (up to 6 mm across) develop. 

Celery may show damping off symptoms when 

infected from sclerotia in the soil. Mature celery is 

susceptible to infection from airborne spores 

resulting in a pink rot. See Vegetables M 7. 

VEGETABLES M 47

CELERY 

Others: Damping off (Pythium sp., Rhizoctonia 

solani), rhizoctonia crater rot (Rhizoctonia solan), 

black rot (Alternaria radicina), grey mould 

(Botrytis cinerea), rust (Puccinia thuemeni). 


Celery eelworm (Pratylenchus hamatus) is 

associated with severe stunting and chlorosis of 

celery and parsley in USA when field populations 

are high; it is not known to occur in Australia. See 


Others: Cyst nematode (Heterodera sp.), root 

knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), root lesion 

nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), stem and bulb 

nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci), stubby root 

nematode (Paratrichodorus spp.), Merlinus 

brevidens, Rotylenchus brevicaudatus. See 




Carrot aphid (Cavariella aegopodii) is green-winged 

or wingless and 3 mm long. It sucks sap causing 

puckering and distortion of young leaves and 

growing tips. Leaves may become yellow and 

russetted. The presence of aphids and honeydew 

reduces marketability. Monitor aphids from 

seedlings to harvest before making a decision to apply 

an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). See Carrot M 45. 

Others: Fennel aphid (Dysaphis foeniculus), 

parsley aphid (D. apiifolia) and green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae) may also injure celery. 














Celery fly (Melanagromyza apii, Agromyzidae, 

Diptera) maggots feed within celery stalks and 

bore their way down to the base of the plant. Leaf 

stalks yellow and remain stunted or may die if there 

are enough maggots present in the stem. Little is 

known of the life history of this fly but it is similar to 

that of the bean fly. Favoured by successions of 

celery crops growing in the same area. If control is 

considered necessary, use the materials and type of 

spray program recommended for bean fly. See Beans 


Celery leafminer, celery fly (Euleia haraclei) is a 

serious pest of celery overseas. 


Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) sucks 

plant sap. Surface tissue turns white, with large 

numbers of mites, leaves may be bleached. See 



(Tetranychus urticae) may infest celery, especially 

unirrigated plants, in hot weather if they have been 

planted too close to older mite-infested crops, eg 

beans. Leaf undersurfaces may become covered 

with fine webbing among which can be seen the tiny 

spider mites and their eggs. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Thysanoptera) may deform 

young leaves. Damage is usually obvious only 

after thrips have gone. It may be necessary to 

apply an insecticide. See Vegetables M 17. 


is a small, green, weak, flying insect that makes 

foliage grey or yellow by sucking sap; leaves may 

curl and die. Monitor leafhoppers at regular 

intervals before applying an insecticide (Brough et 

al. 1994). See Vegetables M 15. 

Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) and 

its larva can cause serious damage. In spring 

most damage is caused by the adults. In winter 

most damage is caused by the larvae which are 

small, legless, pale green or yellow and are found 

in the soil under the plants. As the larvae grow 

larger, they attack foliage and the crowns, making 

holes and furrows. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Black field cricket (Teleogryllus 

commodus), wingless grasshopper (Phaulacridium 

vittatum), leafeating ladybirds (Epilachna spp.). 


Common garden snail (Helix aspersa) and 

various slugs including striped field slug 

(Lehmannia nyctelia) may feed on stems by 

grazing away the surface tissues and spoiling their 

appearance. They also feed on leaves and shoots 

after plants have been earthed up. See Seedlings 

N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Bolting (going to seed) is 

common. Celery needs more care than many 

other vegetables, requiring about 4 months of mild 

cool weather for best results (temperatures between 

13-24 o C and high humidity). Once established, 

celery will tolerate higher temperatures in the first 

4-6 weeks, but not later. Celery will stand light 

frost, but exposure to temperatures of 4-13 o C for 

10 days or more induces bolting. Heavy frosts 

near harvest may cause blistering on stems. If pale 

stems are required, exclude light for the last 3-4 

weeks by covering stems with several layers of 

paper (preferably waterproof) tied top and bottom. 

Leaves should be left exposed to sun. Plants must 

be irrigated well especially in the last 6 weeks. 

Water stress checks growth and can contribute to 

M 48 

VEGETABLES

CELERY 

black heart (see below). In light soils it may be 

necessary to water every day but this favours 

fungal diseases. Celery will not tolerate 

waterlogging. 


analysis standards are available for celery (Weir 

and Cresswell 1993). Black heart (calcium 

deficiency) causes heart leaves of maturing plants 

to brown then blacken, growing tips die. Tissues 

become black and leathery, unless soft rot bacteria 

invade damaged areas to cause a watery decay. 

During warm, cloudy weather in well irrigated 

crops, transpiration is reduced so that the 

translocation of calcium to young tissues is 

reduced and tissues collapse from localised 

calcium deficiency. Maintain an even moisture 

supply, do not allow soil to dry out, maintain 

recommended soil pH and apply recommended 

fertilisers. Cracked stem (boron deficiency) is 

often described as cat scratch, ie transverse 

cracking of the stringy sides of stems. Leaves 

may be mottled, longitudinal streaking and 

pithiness of stems may also occur. Apply 

recommended borax fertilisers either prior to or 

after planting. Avoid growing crops susceptible 

to boron toxicity in rotation after a boron 

application, eg rock melon, cucumber, pea, potato, 

tomato, French bean and strawberry. Celery must 

be grown quickly otherwise it will be tough and 

stringy so it must be well fertilised with nitrogen 

and other fertilisers. 

Overmaturity: Old celery becomes pithy and 

hollow in the stems and contains large amounts of 

stringy fibre which make it unpalatable. 















Melbourne. 








Melbourne. 

Wright, D. G. and Heaton, J. B. 1991. Susceptibility ,of 

Celery Cultivars to Leaf Curl caused by 

Colletotrichum acutatum. Aust. Path. Vol 20(4). 


Industry eg 

Celery Growing (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 

Celery : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Late Blight of Celery (NSW Agfact) 

Pests and Diseases of Celery (SA Fact Sheet) 


(NSW Agfact) 

Storage Conditions for Fruit & Vegetables (NSW Agfact) 




MANAGEMENT 

Celery is grown mostly as a cool season crop for the fresh market. Warm days keep the celery growing and 

cool nights make the stalks crisp and firm. An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Avoid 

varieties susceptible to anthracnose. Plant certified disease-free seed or seed from disease-free plants from a 

reliable source. Seedborne diseases include bacterial soft rot, anthracnose, fungal leaf spots and grey mould ( 

Botrytis cinerea). Growers usually hot water-treat seed, eg 50 o C for 30 minutes, to control seedborne diseases. 

Treated seed should be dusted with a protective fungicide before sowing in disease and pest-free seedbeds. 

Seed > 2 years old may not require treatment because some fungi die before the seed loses its viability. 

Seedlings are transplanted at 8-10 weeks, depending on the season. Practise crop rotation (2-4 years), do 

not plant celery in land where an infected crop has been grown in the previous 2 years. Soil should be rich and 

well drained. Avoid overhead irrigation and keep humidity low as foliage fungal diseases may be serious 

problems. Plough in crops and debris deeply immediately after harvest to prevent infection of later crops and 

practice on-farm hygiene to prevent reinfection. Pre-plant soil treatments may include nematicide treatments 

for nematodes. Weed management: Roots are shallow so avoid damaging them during cultivation. Preemergence 

herbicides are registered for control of broadleaved and grass weed seeds; post-emergence 

herbicides are registered for control of a wide range of broadleaved weeds and some grasses. Pesticides are 

registered for leaf spots (the most destructive diseases) and aphids, thrips, caterpillars and other problems. 

Pesticides should be applied at the first sign of infection or infestation, repeat applications may be required 

especially during cool weather. It may be necessary to spray seedbeds. Avoid copper sprays late in the growing 

season as they stain foliage. Blanching: For those who like light coloured celery wrap each plant with several 

sheets of newspaper or by placing black plastic about 500 mm wide around the 2 rows of plants. Blanched 

celery contains less vitamin A than unblanched celery. Harvest when the desired height is reached and before it 

is fully mature, old celery becomes very pithy and hollow in the stems and contains large amounts of stringy fibre 

which make it unpalatable. Storage and transport: Celery requires fast cooling (up to 4 hours); it is sensitive 

to ethylene. Store celery under recommended conditions, eg at 0 o C and > 95% relative humidity. Estimated 

storage life is 6-10 weeks, but this would depend on the precise storage conditions. 

VEGETABLES M 49

Cucurbits 


Pumpkin, squash (Cucurbita maxima) 



Zucchini, squash (Cucurbita pepo) 

Family Cucurbitaceae 


Parasitic 


Cucumber mosaic 




Damping off 

Downy mildew 








Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Flies 



Ladybirds 


Leafminers 

Mites 

Stemborers 

Thrips 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fasciation 

Fruit set 




Parasitic 


Viruses may cause severe loss of yield (10-100%) 

through reduced fruit set and fruit distortion. 

Mosaic symptoms on leaves are common. Yellow 

rings and lumps develop on fruits (Fig. 329). 


Scientific name: Cucumber mosaic virus 

(CMV). Strains differ in their host range, 

symptoms produced, method of spread and other 

properties and characteristics. 

Host range: This virus has, perhaps, a wider 

host range and attacks a greater variety of plants 

than any other virus. Ornamentals, eg delphinium, 

gladiolus, hydrangea, lily, petunia, zinnia, fruit, eg 

passionvine, vegetables, eg brassicas, cucurbits, 

peppers, spinach (spinach blight), tomato, celery, 

beets, bean, banana, weeds, eg shepherd's purse, 

field crops, eg lupins. 

Symptoms: Symptoms vary with the host but 

usually include mottling or discolouration of 

leaves, flowers and fruit, stunting, death of plants 

(up to 50% may be killed) and reduction in quality 

and yield. Young cucumber seedlings are usually 

infected in the field when about 6 weeks old and 

growing vigorously, 4-5 days after infection, 

young leaves become mottled, distorted and 

wrinkled and their edges begin to turn downward. 

All later growth is reduced drastically and plants 

are dwarfed with a bushy appearance, leaves form 

a rosette-like clump near the ground, plants 

produce few runners, flowers and fruit. Older 

leaves initially yellow, later margins brown and 

eventually fall, leaving part or most of the older 

vine bare. Fruit produced after infection show 

pale green or white areas intermingled with dark 

green rough, wartlike projections causing 

distortion. Cucumbers formed in the later stages 

of disease are misshapen, smooth grey-white with 

some irregular green areas. They often have a 

bitter taste and become soft and soggy when 

pickled. 

Disease cycle: In spring, first infections are 

initiated by aphids carrying virus from infected 

weeds and other hosts or by using infected seed. 

Spread of the virus from these infected plants to 

other plants in the crop is by aphids or by plant 

handling. Entire crops are infected. Whether the 

virus is transmitted by insects or via sap, infection 

is systemic in most hosts. 

Overwintering: Infected perennial weeds, 

flowers and crop plants, seed. 

Spread: By more than 60 species of aphids, eg 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and cotton 

aphid (Aphis gossypii), by mechanical inoculation, 

by handling and by sap carried on hands, clothes 

and tools especially at picking time, by seed in 19 

species (but in variable percentage). 

Conditions favouring: Cool climates. 

Control: Once a plant is infected with virus 

nothing can be done. Measures to minimise losses: 

Sanitation: Eradicate perennial weed hosts from 

around greenhouses and nurseries. 

Resistant varieties have been developed for 

several host crops, including cucumber. 

Plant quarantine: Isolate susceptible crops from 

other hosts, eg geranium, lily. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant virus-tested 

seed. For species propagated vegetatively, plant 

virus-tested cuttings, rhizomes, etc. 

Pesticides: Insecticides control aphids before 

they carry virus into commercial seedbeds. 

Others 

Papaya ringspot virus (PRV) type W (= 

watermelon mosaic virus type 1) infects cucurbits and 

weeds, eg wild gherkin (Cucumis anguria), causing an 

obvious light and dark green mosaic on leaves. 

Recently infected new growth stands more erect with 

mosaic patterns developing later. Zucchini leaves 

may be claw-like with a severe blister mosaic. Fruit 

set may be reduced and fruit may be lumpy, distorted 

or warty. Spread by aphids, eg cowpea aphid (Aphis 


potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), by 

mechanical inoculation, not by seed. 

M 50 

VEGETABLES

CUCURBITS 

Squash mosaic virus (SMV) may infect cucurbits, 

eg cucumber, honeydew, marrow, melon, pumpkin, 

Florida beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum). Leaves 

develop mosaic, often with ringspots and deformation. 

Seedlings grown from infected seed develop green 

veinbanding on the 1st or 2nd leaf. Subsequent leaves 

tend to cup upwards and produce a light or dark green 

mosaic. Squash plants have regular projections from 

the veins on the leaf margins resulting from unequal 

growth of leaf tissue. New foliage may be 

symptomless or develop yellow spots, veinclearing or 

leaf distortion. Infected plants are stunted with fewer 

branches and fruit. Fruit may develop mild mottling 

to severe deformation, yield is reduced. Spread by 

cucurbit ladybird (Epilachna cucurbitae), by 

mechanical inoculation, by seed in Cucumo melo (+ or 

-10% and even up to 35%) and in Cucurbita pepo (+ 

or -10%), not by pollen (Buchen-Osmond et al. 1988). 

Only produce seed in areas where virus is not 

prevalent. Control of beetle vectors restricts spread. 

Watermelon mosaic virus type 2 (WMV2) affects 

cucurbits especially pumpkins, watermelons, 

rockmelons, squashes, gramma and zucchini, also 

Lagenaria siceraria, field crops, eg medic, sesame, 

weeds, eg small-flowered mallow. Leaves develop 

a light and dark green mosaic, occasional distortion. 

Fruit are rarely distorted. Spread by aphids, eg 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), cotton aphid 

(Aphis gossypii), by mechanical inoculation, not by 

seed. Overseas also by potato aphid (Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae) and leafminer (Liriomyza sativa). 

Zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) sporadically 

affects marrow, pumpkin, rockmelon, watermelon and 

zucchini, causing a severe yellow mosaic and 

distortion and blistering of leaves. Plants are often 

stunted with poor fruit set. There may be different 

strains. Fruit may not set, those that do may be 

small, distorted, lumpy with blotches, mottles and 

rings. Symptoms persist. Yield of crops is severely 

affected. Spread by aphids, eg Aphis citricola, A. 

gossypii, Myzus persicae, Macrosiphum 

euphorbiaceae, by mechanical inoculation, not by 

seed. Minimise losses by early planting. Some 

varieties are resistant. 

Others: Beet pseudo-yellows virus, cherry rasp leaf 

virus, potato Y virus. 

Avoid overlapping crops of cucurbits. Reflective 

plastic mulches may deter aphids from landing on 

cucurbit leaves, eg those where runners do not rapidly 

cover mulched areas, if used in conjunction with 

weekly sprays of mineral oil insecticide. Regular 

insecticide applications often have little effect on the 

spread of most of these viruses. Feeding times are so 

short that a significant amount of spread occurs even 

when aphids just move through a crop making only 

brief feeding probes at leaves. Select varieties with 

some resistance to both PRV and ZYMV. Only use 

virus-free seed. Plough-in all harvested cucurbit 

crops especially zucchinis. See Vegetables M 4. 



Angular leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

lachrymans) affects cucumber, rockmelon and other 

cucurbits. Small spots 3 mm across develop on 

leaves. Bacterial ooze on the lower surface appears 

white, leaves are ragged. It also affects fruit stalks 

and fruit. See Vegetables M 5. 


cucurbitae) affects cucumber, marrow, pumpkin and 

squash. Small watersoaked spots 2 mm across 

develop on leaf undersurfaces with corresponding 

yellowing on uppersurfaces. These areas enlarge to 

become rounded or angular with papery centres and 

wide, yellow halos. Fruit develop watersoaked 

markings with light brown ooze that dries to a yellow 

crust. See Vegetables M 5. 


subsp. carotovora), bacterial wilt (E. tracheiphila), 

bacterial fruit blotches and rind breakdown 

(Pseudomonas spp.). Although these diseases may 

not be common, some of them may be seedborne. 


Damping off (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

niveum, Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani). See 


Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora 

cubensis) attacks cucumber, rockmelon. Yellow 

angular to round spots develop on leaf 

uppersurfaces. Purple to brown fungal growth on 

undersurface in humid or wet weather. Leaves 

shrivel and die if spots are numerous. Cucurbits 

and cultivars vary in susceptibility. See Annuals 5. 

Fruit rots: As fruit lie on the ground, several 

diseases affect both the fruit and growing crop. 

Alternaria fruit rots (Alternaria spp.) causes circular 

to oval whitish or brown spots on fruit of rockmelon 

(occasionally others) that may become sunken. Skin 

is soon covered with a dark mould and olive-green or 

dark grey spores. Favoured by sunscald, prolonged 

storage or storage at too low temperatures. 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum orbiculare) affects 

cucurbits especially watermelons, also rockmelons 

and cucumbers. Leaves develop reddish-brown to 

black round spots with watery edges. Stems develop 

long dark sunken spots which may girdle stems 

causing that part of the runner to wilt and die. Round 

sunken spots with masses of pink spores form on the 

fruit. Fruit healthy when picked may develop 

anthracnose in transit. Grow resistant varieties. 

Several varieties of watermelon and cucumber in the 

USA have some resistance to some races. Seldom 

troublesome in Australia because of the use of 

disease-free seed. See Fruit F 5, Vegetables M 6. 

Blue mould (Penicillium spp.) affects mostly melons 

and cucumbers, circular watersoaked spots become 

covered with blue-green spores, there is a musty 

odour. See Fruit F 6. 

Brown etch (Fusarium) and gummy stem blight 

(Didymella bryoniae) are soil fungi which commonly 

invade butternut pumpkin (occasionally other 

pumpkin varieties) where ground contact occurs 

during warm wet weather. Bronze areas with 

concentric bands develop on fruit, mostly on the lower 

surface, areas may be large with cracked centres. The 

bronze colour changes to a light grey. If secondary 

rots enter through cracks complete breakdown may 

occur. In areas where disease is common, plant less 

susceptible varieties during summer. See below. 

VEGETABLES M 51

CUCURBITS 

Fusarium fruit rot (Fusarium spp.) is a common 

postharvest disease of cucurbits especially 

rockmelon and may occur with bacterial soft rot. 

Symptoms usually begin at the stem end as scattered 

spots on the skin. Spots become spongy or corky and 

are later covered with white or pink fungal growth. 

It is a common soil inhabitant and often infects fruits 

on the underside but spores may be splashed onto any 

part of the fruit during rain or irrigation. Some 

wounding is necessary for infection. Hot wet 

weather during harvest favours rapid breakdown of 

fruit (Persley 1994). 

Pink mould rot (Trichothecium roseum) is a common 

soil inhabitant which causes a postharvest disease 

of rockmelon. It affects the blossom end of the 

fruit; later extending over the surface. Affected skin 

becomes tough and shrivelled, a viscous liquid may 

ooze from lesions and a furry pinkish fungal growth 

may develop. Diseased flesh is spongy, light brown 

and bitter. Spores are spread by air movement, 

irrigation water and insects. Fruit are invaded through 

soil contact, injuries in the cut stem during harvest. 

Favoured by warm weather. 

Root and stem rots, ground rots: Several of these 

fungi cause diseased areas on the undersides of fruit 

where it touches the ground. Symptoms vary with the 

fungus. These rots cause pre- and postharvest 

losses of fruit especially in rockmelons and 

cucumber. Use mulch, eg plastic, to reduce fruit 

contact with soil and do not market affected fruit. 

Rhizoctonia ground rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 

causes small circular watersoaked spots to light brown 

sunken areas with surface cracking. It is a minor 

disease. Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sp.) causes a 

white cottony rot followed by black sclerotia. 

Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) causes large 

decayed areas with prominent white thick fungal 

growth on affected areas. See below. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) can be a 

serious postharvest disease of rockmelons. It 

may occur in association with bacterial soft rot. 

Rhizopus causes a soft rot with white fungal growth 

and black spore heads. Favoured by wet weather 

when dying blossoms are invaded allowing the fungus 

to enter the stem end of fruit. Infection can also occur 

through wounds. See Fruit F 6. 

Sour rot, yeasty rot (Geotrichum candidum) is a 

major postharvest disease of rockmelon. It 

enters stem ends during wet weather, rots the inside of 

fruit leaving a hollow shell with an unpleasant smell 

and a white cheesy fungal growth on decayed tissue. 

Sour rot is often confused with, and may occur with 

bacterial soft rot. Overwinters in soil. Spread 

after harvest from fruit to fruit in contaminated wash 

water, by ferment flies. Avoid harvesting in wet 

weather, handle fruit carefully to minimise injury, 

cool fruit rapidly after harvest and apply 

recommended fungicides postharvest. See Citrus F 

34, Pineapple F 104. 

Others: Grey mould, fruit rot, lower stem rot 

(Botrytis cinerea), septoria leaf spot (Septoria 

cucurbitacearum), fruit spot, blossom rot 

(Choanephora sp.), storage rot, dry rot (Gibberella 

avenaceum), also Gomerella cingulata var. minor, 

Fusarium equiseti, Pythium spp. 



Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria cucumerina) Small 

tan spots develop on leaves enlarging to roughly 

circular brown areas which may have concentric 

ring markings. Spots coalesce to almost cover the 

entire leaf. Favoured by warm moist weather, 

disease is more important on some cucurbits than 

others. Generally a minor disease. Bicarbonates and 

film-forming oil products are being researched for 

control overseas (Ziv and Zitter 1992). 

Septoria leaf spot (Septoria cucurbitacearum) causes 

small brown spots with brownish centres studded with 

black pinpoint fruiting bodies (pycnidia). Lesions on 

fruit are small, circular, light brown raised scabs with 

star-shaped cracks occurring in the centre of mature 

lesions. Favoured by cool weather. Mainly a disease 

of pumpkin but may also be found on other cucurbits. 

Others: Gummy stem blight and black rot 

(Didymella bryoniae = Mycosphaerella melonis) may 

also cause leaf spots (see below). Also Ascochyta 

phaseolorum, Cercospora citrullina, Corynespora 

cassicola. 


Powdery mildews (Oidium spp.) are 

common and serious diseases of cucurbits. 

White powdery spots spread to cover upper and 

lower leaf surfaces and stems, older leaves may 

die. Fruit may be sunscalded due to death of 

leaves. Fruit of zucchini may itself be infected 

with powdery mildew. Vines may be stunted, lose 

vigour, fruit production may be reduced. Late 

crops are usually affected more severely than early 

or mid-season crops. Favoured by mild summers, 

sheltered shaded positions and greenhouse 

conditions. Wet weather and very hot, dry weather 

are unfavourable. Use a resistant variety if 

available. All varieties of pumpkin, squash and 

gramma, and some cucumber varieties, eg apple 

cucumber, and rockmelon are susceptible. Leaf 

disk assays are used overseas to detect resistance of 

melons to the different races of powdery mildew 

(Cohen 1993). Bicarbonates and film-forming oil 

products are being researched for control overseas 

(Ziv and Zitter 1992). See Annuals A 6. 


Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani f.sp. cucurbitae) 

affects pumpkin, squash and marrow, rarely 

cucumber. Seedling leaves become pale and wilt. 

There may be a yellow or red rot at the stem base 

(soft tissues at the base of the plant disintegrate, 

leaving only the reddish-brown stringy waterconducting 

fibres). Roots initially appear healthy 

but in advanced cases they turn brown. Plants may 

wilt. Symptoms in older plants are similar. Fruit 

may rot and a white fungal growth develop. 

Seedborne. See Vegetables M 7. 

Gummy stem blight and black rot (Didymella 

bryoniae = Mycosphaerella melonis, Ascomycetes) is 

a serious worldwide disease of cucurbits. Spots 

on leaves are black and often appear tattered, they 

may contain small black fruiting bodies. Watersoaked 

cankers develop around the crown of stems and may 

become sunken, light brown or whitish and covered 

with small fruiting bodies. Cankers may split open 

and exude a reddish gum. If they girdle stems the 

runner wilts and dies. Round or irregular sunken 

leathery spots are formed on fruit, and may cause 

losses in the field, in transit or storage. 

M 52 

VEGETABLES

CUCURBITS 

Overwinters in infected crop trash and seed. Spores 

are spread by wind and air currents. Favoured by 

moist conditions. Bicarbonates and film-forming oil 

products are being researched for control overseas 

(Ziv and Zitter 1992). 

Phomopsis black stem, black root rot (Phomopsis 

sclerotioides, Imperfect Fungi). Infected roots turn 

brown with black lines and spots on their surface. 

Plants wilt and eventually die 

Sudden wilt or vine decline (interaction between 

several soil fungi and plant stress). During fruit set, 

especially rockmelon and honeydew melon which 

appear to be developing normally, suddenly yellow, 

wilt and die, leaving most of the crop immature and 

unmarketable. Pythium, Fusarium and Macrophomina 

phaseolina in Qld destroy feeder roots and invade 

larger roots, restricting water uptake so that the high 

demand for water during fruit enlargement cannot be 

met and vines wilt. Favoured by saturated or poorly 

aerated soils. Varieties with vigorous root systems are 

more tolerant. Avoid highly susceptible varieties, 

manage irrigation to avoid overwatering, especially 

at fruit set. Phosphonic acid reduces sudden wilt 

and increases yield. Manosporascus root rot and 

vine decline (Monosporascus cannonballus) is a 

severe disease of melons in Texas and other countries 

(Martyn and Miller 1996) 

Wilts: Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) is 

common and widespread. F. oxysporum f.sp. melonis 

attacks rockmelon, F. oxysporum f.sp. niveum attacks 

watermelons and F. oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum 

attacks cucumber. These fungi may cause damping 

off of cucurbits in early sown crops (cold weather), 

seedlings wilt and die. Older plants wilt, leaves 

yellow near the crown, later the whole plant wilts, 

plants may be stunted, the plant finally dies. If the tap 

root or stem near the base is split open, vascular tissue 

is reddish-brown. Fruit from affected vines are small 

with poor flavour and colour. Considerable losses can 

occur. Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) has 

been recorded on cucurbits. See Vegetables M 9. 

Others: Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) infects dead 

flower, pruning wounds and damaged stems which 

turn soft and mushy. Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

spp.) infects dead flower parts, pruning wounds and 

damaged stems, causing white cottony rots. Also 

rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani), 

sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii), stem rot 

(Cladosporium cucumerina) and thielaviopsis 

black root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola). 

These diseases are controlled using cultural 

practices, eg crop rotation, seed treatments and 

fungicides. See Vegetables M 7. 



cause stunting and yellowing of plants, symptoms 

similar to those of water and nutrient deficiency. 

Swellings or galls, varying in size from small up to 

25 mm in diameter, form on roots. Severe 

infestations will kill plants. See Vegetables M 10. 

Other: Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), 

spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus dihystera, 

Rotylenchus spp.), Paraphelenchus pseudoparietinus, 

Paratrichodorus spp., Radopholus vangundyi, 

Tylenchorhynchus capitatas. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) suck sap from 

new growth causing distortion and retarding growth. 

They secrete honeydew on which sooty mould grows 

disfiguring fruit. Aphids are most important as 

vectors of virus diseases. Early infection of plants 

by WMV and CMV may be serious. 


ornamentals, eg cosmos, dahlia, hibiscus, 

sunflower, vegetables, eg cucurbits, especially 

melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, field crops, eg 

cotton, pastures. Adult aphids are about 3 mm long 

and may be yellow-green to dark green or almost 

black, darker forms predominant on cucurbits. It 

often has a mealy or waxy bloom. Large populations 

can buildup in a short time. Aphids feed on young 

growing shoots or leaf undersurfaces and may 

stunt growth. Leaves may wither, exposing fruits to 

sunburn. Honeydew and sooty mould make fruit 

unsightly. Cotton aphid is the main vector of WMV. 

Crops may suddenly be infested by winged greenish 

black aphids that are windborne from their breeding 

sites on inland pastures during spring and autumn. 

Natural enemies: Predatory ladybird beetles, eg 

common ladybird (Harmonia conformis), hoverfly 

and lacewing larvae, and wasp parasites, may 

control aphids but do not prevent virus transmission. 

Others: Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) are 

prevalent on cucurbits in spring and autumn but 

usually do not buildup to large numbers on cucurbits. 

Potato aphid, tomato aphid (Macrosiphum 

euphorbiae) may feed on seedlings causing leaves to 

curl. In older plants, development is retarded and 

yield reduced. Potato aphid may transmit WMV. Also 

cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora). 

Insecticides does not usually prevent infection 

because only a few aphids are sufficient to transmit 

virus diseases, but it may stop further spread 

within the crop. Preventing aphids from breeding 

on the infected plants may prevent spread. Use 

virus resistant cultivars if these are available. 

Spray young plants to protect them from infection. 

Avoid planting successive crops of susceptible 

cultivars. For valuable crops, consider using 

reflective mulches and insecticides to reduce 

WMV. See Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 


Cucurbit shield bug, pumpkin bug (Megymenum 

affine, Dinidoridae) feeds on stems, leaf stalks and 

young fruit of pumpkins and other cucurbits. 

They are brown to blackish, corrugated, not very 

active and 10-14 mm long. 

Green mirid (Creontiades dilutus) sometimes attacks 

cucurbit plants in coastal districts during the spring. It 

is pale green, narrow, active and about 6 mm long. It 

sucks the juices from the growing points of young 

plants and the points turn yellow and drop out. On 

cucurbits, this bug has not been very destructive but it 

probably delays the growth of some early crops. See 


Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) is green, 

shield-shaped and 25 mm long. Immature stages are 

smaller, brownish or blackish with orange markings. 

They attack cucurbits causing pale dry patches on 

fruit. Damage to stalks sometimes prevents the proper 

maturation of fruits. See Vegetables M 12. 

VEGETABLES M 53

CUCURBITS 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is 5 mm long, brown 

with silvery wings folded over the body. It can fly 

rapidly. Bugs suck sap and may attack and kill 

cucurbits. Sometimes swarms of winged forms are 

responsible, but it is not uncommon for hordes of 

young wingless bugs with a few adults to crawl into 

crops from nearby weedy areas where they bred. 

Favoured by hot weather. See Vegetables M 12. 

Others: Fruitspotting bug (Amblypelta nitida). 



Cucumber moth (Diaphania indica, Pyralidae) affects 

cucurbits, eg cucumbers, watermelons, overseas also 

cotton. Moths are about 25 mm across outspread 

wings which are translucent-white with a broad dark 

brown edging. The abdomen has a brush of long 

yellow scales at the tip. Moths lay eggs on leaf 

undersurfaces. Caterpillars are white when small, 

but become yellow-green and about 25 mm long. 

Young caterpillars graze on leaf under surfaces. 

Later leaves become ragged and webbed together with 

silk. Leaves may be completely destroyed and 

caterpillars may burrow in the stem and gouge 

irregular-shaped holes in fruit. They mature after 

about 4 weeks, pupate in light silken cocoons which 

are spun inside webbed leaves or leaf fragments. The 

moth emerges about a week later. Spread by the 

moths flying. Favoured by warm climates, heavy 

rain. Monitor damage before applying insecticides 


Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) are dark, smooth caterpillars 

up to 35 mm long that curl up in a circle when 

disturbed. They shelter in soil during the day and feed 

at night eating young plants at ground level. Found in 

the soil around plant bases. See Seedlings N 68. 

Others: Banana fruit caterpillar (Tiracola plagiata, 

Noctuidae), Anadevidia peponis. Overseas 

melonworm (Diaphania hyainata) caterpillars feed on 

leaves and fruit, pickleworm (D. nitidalis, Pyralidae). 



Seedling bean midge (Smittia aterrima) maggots 

may attack cucumber and marrow planted early in 

spring when soil temperatures are too low for rapid 

germination. Tiny white, thin worm-like maggots up 

to 5 mm long, that normally feed on organic matter 

may enter seeds through the bursting seed coat. 

When seedlings emerge above ground they may be 

only blind stalks with one or both seed leaves missing. 

If the growing point is damaged but not destroyed, the 

plant will be badly stunted. See Beans (French) M 28. 

Onion maggot (Delia platura) damages cucurbit 

seedlings which wilt and die soon after appearing 

above the ground. The stem underground will have 

been hollowed out by the small white maggots and it 

will usually have rotted. See Onion M 68. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera) 

Cucumber fly (Bactrocera cucumis) is a subtropical 

pest of cucurbits, tomato and papaw in coastal and 

sub-coastal districts. Flies are generally similar to 

the Queensland fruit fly, about 7 mm long, but have a 

yellow median stripe on the uppersurface of the 

thorax. Flies become numerous after mid-summer and 

lay their eggs in mature, damaged or sunburned 

fruits. If flies are abundant they attack immature 

fruits in which eggs usually fail to hatch. These 

unsuccessful punctures appear later as callused 

deformities on the fruit. Maggots are white and 

tapering. The life history is similar to that of the 

Queensland fruit fly. Unlike it though, it is attracted 

to packing sheds and can infest produce at packing. 

Overseas: Also melon fly (Dacus cucurbitae), 

lesser pumpkin fly (D. ciliatus). 



vaporariorum) are small, white-winged, moth-like 

insects about 1 mm long that infest cucurbits in 

humid protected places. Gross attack will result 

in some wilting, reduced vigour and an excessive 

contamination of fruit by honeydew and sooty 

mould. Heavy infestation does not necessarily 

cause damage. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Ladybirds (Coccinellidae, Coleoptera): 

Cucurbit ladybird (Epilachna cucurbitae) is a native 

insect which feeds on a wide range of plants, as well 

as cucurbits. It is an efficient vector of SMV. This is 

unusual because nearly all viruses are transmitted by 

sap sucking insects. Adults are about 7 mm long, 

oval, humped and a dull yellow-orange with 28 spots 

on wing covers (Fig. 330). They skeletonise leaf 

uppersurfaces. Females lay eggs in a cluster on leaf 

undersurfaces. Larvae are yellowish, spiny and 

mainly skeletonise leaf undersurfaces. They may 

also feed on rind of fruit. When fully grown they 

pupate on leaves. Do not confuse with the 

common spotted ladybird (Harmona conformis) which 

feeds on aphids (Fig. 330). Yield is reduced and fruit 

may be sunscalded. 

Potato ladybirds (Epilachna spp.) in humid areas and 

in irrigated crops, commonly skeletonise leaf 

uppersurfaces, often starting at the margins. They 

may chew holes right through leaving only the veins. 

The spiny larvae usually feed on leaf 

undersurfaces. Severely skeletonised leaves wither. 

Sometimes young cucurbit fruit have parts of their 

skin eaten. See Potato M 81. 



Metallic flea beetles (Altica spp.) are about 6 mm 

long, purple blackish and jump when disturbed. They 

damage foliage by chewing small round holes either 

through or into the leaf so that leaves look as if they 

have been peppered with fine shot. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora hilaris) is a serious 

pest of cucurbits, especially rockmelons, also 

pumpkins, melons, squashes, related plants, wild 

melons, which are probably the natural hosts; very 

occasionally, figs, cherries. Beetles are elongated, 

6 mm long, bright orange-yellow with 2 large black 

marks on each wing cover (Fig. 331). Plain 

pumpkin beetle (A. abdominalis) is uniformly 

yellow-orange and is usually found with the pumpkin 

beetle and has similar habits. Pumpkin beetles are 

especially damaging to seedlings, flowers and 

small fruit. Spring seedlings may be attacked shortly 

after germination. Relatively few beetles on each 

plant can defoliate and destroy seedlings. Beetles 

often cluster together in scattered groups on younger 

leaves and terminals of older plants and can check 

M 54 

VEGETABLES

CUCURBITS 

growth if they are numerous. However, once 

runners form, plants outgrow attack. Beetles 

destroy flowers and feed on the skin of fruits 

producing disfiguring blemishes. Larvae are cream, 

10-12 mm long and may cause minor damage to roots, 

lower stems and fruit on the ground, there. There is 

economic loss due to delay in crop maturity and 

marketing. There is a complete metamorphosis 

(egg, larva, pupa, adult) with probably only 1 

generation each year. In spring overwintering adults 

fly to host plants and lay eggs in small clusters on 

dead leaves or moist soil under plants. Adults may 

live for up to 10 months and egg-laying may go on for 

several months with the female producing as many as 

500 eggs. Eggs hatch in about 10 days. Larvae are 

fully fed in about 5 weeks and pupate in the soil. 

Overwinters as adult beetles in sheltered situations, 

eg under loose bark. Spread by adults flying 

strongly, also by the movement of infested seedlings. 

Favoured by calm, warm, dry conditions during 

summer following wet or windy weather. Control is 

only required from when germination occurs until 

runners are formed. Plant extra seed in each hill to 

provide for any losses of young plants. Little is 

known about natural enemies. Apply insecticides 

whenever plants emerge. After about 3 weeks plants 

grow vigorously, outgrowing attack and spraying is 

usually no longer required. Home gardeners may dust 

hydrated lime or flour daily for 3 weeks whenever 

plants come through the soil. 

Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) is 

about 6 mm long, yellow with red bases to the wing 

covers and is a sporadic pest of cucurbits. Beetles 

feed in swarms mainly in the flowers. Infested plants 

look as if scorched by fire due to the perforation of 

foliage by the beetles. Lesser infestations may 

interfere with fruit setting. Each swarm can be 

controlled individually by spraying. See Fruit F 11. 

Overseas: Pale striped flea beetle (Systena spp.), 

striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma villata), 

spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotia 

undecimpunctata). 

Leafminers: Serpentine leafminer 

(Liriomyza trifolii, Agromyzidae, Diptera) is a 

serious pest overseas of ornamentals and 

vegetables due mainly to pesticide resistance. 

Neem oil has been used successfully overseas to 

control this pest. See Cineraria A 28. 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) is tiny, 

active and whitish. It infests vigorously growing 

cucumbers and chokos in humid conditions, causing 

leaves to become narrow, strap-like, mottled with a 

pronounced down-curling of the margins. Mites are 

found in curled leaves. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Clover mite (Bryobia cristata) is tiny, brown and has 

long front legs. Mites feed at night and rest on plants 

during the day. Finely peppered greyish spots 

occur on leaves. Colonies may injure young cucurbit 

plants slightly when migrating. Control as for spider 

mites if necessary. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Earth mites (Penthalidae) may suck sap from leaf 

uppersurfaces of early-sown cucurbits causing 

silvery or whitish blemishes particularly along the 

main veins. If infestation is heavy, leaves may look 

bleached. Mites feed at night or by day in cloudy 

weather. See Vegetables M 16. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Bean spider mite 

(Tetranychus ludeni) and twospotted mite 

(T. urticae) are common pests of cucurbits, especially 

cucumbers and rockmelons, in dry seasons in land 

which previously carried infested crops or weeds. 

Infested leaves become greyish, yellowish, then 

before wither. Fine, grey webbing occur on leaf 

undersurfaces. Favoured by hot dry weather, 

infested areas nearby. Eggs are laid near the veins on 

leaf undersurfaces and nymphs and adults are initially 

concentrated near these regions. Damage is first seen 

as pale bronzed areas near the midrib and leaf veins. 


Stemborers 

Cucurbit stemborer (Apomecyna histrio, 

Cerambycidae, Coleoptera) is a longicorn beetle, 

about 10 mm long. Eggs are laid singly in cracks 

along the stem and larvae tunnel downwards in 

stems producing swellings at the leaf nodes. Mature 

larvae are cream, about 20 mm long, they pupate in 

the stem. Commonly infests cucurbits but usually 

only causes obvious symptoms on rockmelon in Qld, 

it does not seem to cause economic loss. Large 

numbers establish on choko vine because of its 

perennial habit. Normally cucurbits make such rapid 

growth that they flower and bear a crop even when 

stemborer attack is heavy. See Trees K 11. 

Others: Overseas melon stemborer (A. binubila) 

and squash vine borer (Melittia cucurbitae, 

Aegeriidae, Lepidoptera) damage cucurbits. 


Melon thrips, eastern yellow thrips (Thrips palmi) 

infests a wide range of ornamentals, vegetables and 

weeds, eg cucurbits, grasses, Solanaceae in the NT, 

Qld and northern NSW (Macdonald and Elder- 

Layland 1994). Adults are about 1.5 mm long, 

yellowish, many other species are brownish-black. 

Damage to leaves is similar to that of other leaffeeding 

thrips, ie crinkling and browning, deformed 

growing tips. Fruits may be scarred. To prevent 

spread to other areas, some states have quarantine 

requirements regulating the entry of all plants, 

fruits, vegetables and flowers. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) may damage young 

cucurbit plants in dry weather slowing plant growth. 

Leaf undersurfaces become bronzed or dull silver 

and rather shiny. Leaf margins turn down and there is 

some mottling. Damage to flowers and 

malformation of the fruit occurs. Insecticides may be 

applied when damage first appears. See Onion M 68. 


Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) larvae 

are small white, legless and feed on roots and 

underground stems, which are gouged and pitted, 

growth is slowed. See Roses J 6, Vegetables M 17. 


larvae are creamy and thickset, may attack cucurbits 

sown on land recently under lucerne or clover. They 

attack main roots and underground stems which 

may be ringbarked or extensively furrowed. They are 

found on the roots and in the soil beside them. Plants 

become stunted, some may die. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Vegetable leafhopper (Austroasca 

viridigrisea), mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). 

VEGETABLES M 55

CUCURBITS 

VERTEBRATES PEST 

Rats and mice feed on stored cucurbits, eg 

pumpkins. See Fruit F 13. 

Pesticide injury: Copper oxychloride applied 

to cucurbits before they begin to run may cause injury. 

Sulphur dust and wettable sulphur may cause 

severe leaf scorching of cucumbers and rockmelons, 

particularly in hot weather (> 30 o C). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Cucurbit foliage is sensitive to 

frost. Cold winds or low temperatures retard growth. 

Optimum seed germination is obtained at soil 

temperatures > 20 o C, seeds will not germinate 

satisfactorily at < 16 o C. Exposure of butternut 

pumpkins to cold conditions either in the field or 

in storage late in the season causes red-brown markings 

on the skin (Fig. 332). Sow butternut pumpkins early so 

that the crop is matured and gathered before the cold 

weather and do not store in cold conditions. Cucurbits 

need a lot of water, do not allow soil to dry out. On 

hot days leaves may wilt but recover in the evening if 

soil moisture is adequate. Regular watering will help 

prevent blossom-end rot on watermelons (see below). 

Pumpkins may become corky (Fig. 333) due to high 

humidities close to the ground (oedema). Wind and 

hail can damage the large leaves. 

Fasciation commonly occurs in apple-type 

cucumbers. The stem becomes wider and flatter than 

normal, resembling a ribbon. Multiple buds may 

develop. Control is unnecessary. See Daphne K 53. 

Fruit set: Fruit may fall off if the vine has produced 

more than it can mature. Young fruit may yellow, 

wither and drop or rot, this may be caused by moisture 

stress or excessive nitrogenous fertilisers. A poor 

fruit crop may be due to lack of male and female 

flowers (usually cucurbits bear both male and female 

flowers), absence of bees to pollinate flowers, prolonged 

wet weather preventing bees from working, excessive 

hot weather causing death of pollen, or use of 

insecticides nearby. If there are no bees the flowers can 

be hand pollinated in the early morning. Pick a male 

flower, remove the petals and rub the pollen into a 

female flower. Male flowers are borne singly on a long 

spindly stem, female flowers have a bulge between the 

petals and the stalk. Place a hive of bees in or near the 

crop if necessary. 


analysis standards are available for cucurbits (Weir 

and Cresswell 1993). Blossom-end rot is caused by a 

deficiency of calcium at the blossom end of the fruit 

which dies, turns black or brown and has a firm texture. 

See Tomato M 124. Molybdenum deficiency 

(yellows) may cause stunting, yellowing and, if severe, 

death of leaf edges. Leaves become mottled and yellow 

around the edges, which roll up. Cucurbits are very 

susceptible, crops are usually affected in patches. 

Favoured by acid soils and use of large amounts of 

sulphate of ammonia on poorly buffered soil. Spray 

affected young plants with ammonium molybdate. 

Where it has occurred before, apply a fertiliser 

containing molybdenum (ammonium molybdate or 

sodium molybdate) before the crop is sown. If soil pH is 

< 5.5, apply lime or dolomite. 


Ainsworth, N. and Lovatt, J. 1991. Growing Zucchinis, 

Button Squash and Cucumbers in Queensland. Qld 


Broadley, R. H. (ed.). 1994. Protect your Cucurbits. 






McLean, G. (eds). 1988. Viruses of Plants in 

Australia. Research School of Biological Sciences, 

The Australian National University, Canberra. 

Cohen, R. 1993. A Leaf Disk Assay for Detection of 

Resistance of Melons to Sphaerotheca fuligena Race 

1. Plant Disease, May. 





Lovatt, J. 1991. Growing Pumpkins, Grammas and 

Watermelons in Queensland. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Macdonald, J. and Elder-Layland. 1994. Melon Thrips : 

The Other Thrips Problem. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Martyn, R. D. and Miller, M. E. 1996. Monosporascus 

Root Rot and Vine Decline. Plant Disease, Vol.80(7). 



and Vegetables : Cucumbers. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. 








Handbook. 4th edn. CSIRO/NSW Agric., Griffith. 



Brisbane. 



Melbourne. 

Zitter, T. A., Hopkins, D. L. and Thomas, C. E. (eds). 

1995. Compendium of Cucurbit Diseases. APS 


Ziv, O. and Zitter, T. A. 1992. Effects of Bicarbonates 

and Film-Forming Polymers on Cucurbit Foliar 

Diseases. Plant Disease, May. 


Industry eg 

Cucurbits : Pest and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases of Cucurbits (NSW Agfact, WA Farmnote) 

Growing Choko (Chayote) (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Cucumbers (Vic Agnote, WA Farmnote) 

Growing Greenhouse Cucumbers (WA Farmnote) 

Pests of Cucurbit Vegetables (NSW Agfact) 

Pests and Diseases of Cucurbits (SA Fact Sheet) 

Powdery Mildew of Cucurbits (NSW Agfact) 

Pumpkin Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Watermelon Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Watermelon Mosaic Virus of Cucurbits (NT Agnote) 

Cucumbers in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Zucchini and Button Squash Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Zucchinis in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 


Australian Melon Conference Procs 



M 56 

VEGETABLES

MANAGEMENT 

CUCURBITS 

Cucurbits are grown for the fresh market. They are frost sensitive. An overview of the industry is presented by 

Coombs (1995). Where a particular disease is troublesome select resistant varieties. Only plant disease-free 

seed, many diseases are seedborne. Save seed only from healthy fruit, do not save seed from crops affected 

with anthracnose, gummy stem blight, Fusarium wilts, angular leaf spot and other diseases. Treat seed with a 

recommended fungicide to control seedborne infection and to reduce seed rotting and damping off after planting. 

Propagation: By seed; plants are grown in soil, grow bags and hydroponic systems. Monitor regularly for 

pests when plants are young. Pumpkin beetles and cucurbit ladybirds attack and destroy young plants quickly. 

Insect attack is not usually so important when plants are larger and growing vigorously. When plants cover the 

ground, spraying them with insecticide becomes impractical. Aphids can infect plants rapidly with virus diseases. 

Bean spider mite or twospotted mite infestations may damage plants severely. Cultural methods: Practise 

crop rotations of 3-4 years. Prepare land for planting early and keep clear of weeds for several weeks before 

planting to reduce soilborne pests, eg cutworms. Do not plant new crops near old, spent crops that could be 

heavily infested with bean spider mite or twospotted mite. Crops require appropriate temperatures, spacing, 

training, pruning, pollination, irrigation and fertilisation. Weed control: Apply pre-emergence herbicides 

before and after planting to control a range of broadleaved weeds and grasses. Post-emergence herbicides 

control a wide range of annual and perennial grasses. Sanitation: Destroy/burn crop debris where possible. 

Plough-in older, diseased crops as soon as they are finished. Pre-plant treat soil infested with root knot 

nematodes. Pesticides: Cultivars susceptible to a particular disease should be protected by an appropriate 

fungicide. Overseas, bicarbonates and various film-forming products are being researched for control of foliage 

diseases, eg powdery mildew, gummy stem blight and Alternaria leaf spot (Ziv and Zitter 1992). Harvest: Avoid 

marketing or storing fruit from infected crops as fruit unblemished at time of harvest may show symptoms 

after storage or when marketed, eg do not store pumpkins from a crop with black rot infection. Keep fruit as 

cool as possible and market promptly. Pick cucumbers when fully developed in length and diameter. Break or 

cut fruit so that 10-20 mm of stalk remains at the end of the fruit. Cucumbers should be pre-cooled to 10 o C to 

ensure good shelf life. Pick fruit carefully and market it promptly. Store only good sound fruit, check regularly 

and remove any rotting ones before the infection spreads. Do not store butternut pumpkin under cold 

conditions. Packaging: Handle fruit carefully to minimise injury. Pack as recommended to reduce moisture 

loss and wilting. 

Fig. 330. Left : Cucurbit ladybird (Epilachna cucurbitae) and its spiny larva. 

Centre : Predatory common spotted ladybird (Harmonia conformis). 

Right : Predatory transverse ladybird (Coccinella transversalis). 

Fig. 329. Virus symptoms on 

cucumbers. 

Fig. 333. Oedema on pumpkin. 

Fig. 331. Pumpkin beetles 

(Aulacophora hilaris). 

Fig. 332. Cold injury to 

butternut pumpkin. 

VEGETABLES M 57

Lettuce 

Lactuca sativa 



Parasitic 






Damping-off 

Downy mildew 






Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 



Mites 

Onion thrips 

Weevils 



Birds 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


With the exception of lettuce big vein virus, virus 

diseases cause similar symptoms and are difficult 

to distinguish from one another and from other 

problems. Plants may be stunted. Leaves may 

have light and dark green mosaic patterns or be 

distorted and have yellow patches. Veins may be 

brown and inner leaves often have large brown 

patches. 

Lettuce big vein virus affects lettuce, especially in 

hydroponic systems. Leaves become thick and 

have large transparent veins. Hearts are small, 

coarse and are generally unattractive and slow to 

mature. Plants infected early are stunted. Spread by 

swimming spores (zoospores) of the fungus (Olpidium 

brassicae) in soil which infect lettuce roots and 

transmit the virus. The fungus and virus are common 

in wet, heavy, poorly drained areas soils. Symptoms 

are severe in cold weather, but masked in warm 

weather. Disease is common in winter. The fungus 

can survive in the soil for long periods as resting 

spores. There is no appropriate soil treatment. Crop 

rotation does not control big vein, so avoid fields 

where disease has occurred. All commercially grown 

varieties are susceptible. 

Lettuce mosaic virus affects lettuce, weeds, eg fat 

hen, and common sowthistle, causing light and dark 

green, mosaic patterns on leaves and sometimes vein 

browning. Affected plants are stunted, pale in colour 

and generally do not produce marketable heads. 

Spread by aphids, eg cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), potato aphid 

(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), by seed, and may build 

up rapidly if a succession of plantings are made. 

Minimise losses by planting virus-tested seed, or 

produce seed in dry areas with little summer aphid 

activity. Destroy old lettuce crops immediately after 

harvest. Weed hosts may not be important. 

Lettuce necrotic yellow virus is a common disease 

of lettuce, also garlic, garden calendula, Carthamus 

sp., Cicer arietum, Erodium, Hypochoeris spp., lupin, 

common sowthistle, Xanthium spp. It causes 

yellowing, wilting, stunting, death of plants, or 

partial recovery with small, slightly distorted heart 

leaves. Lopsided development and fine crinkling of 

leaves occurs. Infection after hearting causes dead 

internal areas but no other signs. Yield is severely 

affected. Overwinters in infected common 

sowthistle and other hosts. Spread by sowthistle 

aphid (Hyperomyzus lactucae), by mechanical 

transmission, not by seed. Favoured by autumn 

weather when there is a prevalence of sowthistle 

aphids and host weeds in surrounding areas. Destroy 

all milk thistles both in the crop and nearby. Keep 

crops weed free. There is no means of controlling the 

low percentage of infections carried in by aphids from 

far away. 

Tomato spotted wilt virus causes stunting and 

yellowing, and brown circular leaf spots. 

Symptoms are difficult to distinguish from lettuce 

necrotic yellows virus. There is a lopsided 

development of the plant. Plants affected after 

hearting have an internal rotting but no external 

symptoms. A minor disease which occurs more 

commonly during spring and early summer in cooler 

areas. See Tomato M 96. 

Others: Alfalfa mosaic virus, beet pseudo-yellows 

virus, tobacco necrosis virus, beet western yellows 

virus, cucumber mosaic virus, turnip mosaic virus. 



Bacterial leaf spot, bacterial wilt, dry leaf 

spot, head rot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

vitians) may be common. It causes small, angular, 

watersoaked spots which later brown, spots may 

join together and leaves may yellow, brown and 

die. Plants infected early in the season may not 

develop hearts or hearts may rot. Favoured by 

prolonged wet periods particularly cool, wet 

winters. It can be serious in some varieties, eg 

Salinas-Vanguard. See Vegetables M 5. 

Bacterial rots are common. 

Bacterial soft rots (Erwinia spp., E. carotovora pv. 

carotovora) causes a wet slimy rot of heads. Decay 

begins on bruised or damaged leaves following tip 

burn and other diseases. Mainly postharvest and 

may be serious in summer crops if heads are harvested 

in wet, hot weather. Avoid marketing heads with 

severe tip burn and other leaf diseases, unless 

carefully trimmed. Store heads in a cool well 

ventilated place and avoid harvesting in wet weather. 


Head, leaf and marginal rots (Pseudomonas spp.): 

Pseudomonas spp. can occur in lettuce growing in 

the field or in hydroponic systems. Avoid overhead 

irrigation, do not water in evening or at night if using 

overhead irrigation. Use recommended chemicals for 

M 58 

VEGETABLES

LETTUCE 

control in hydroponic systems. Varnish spot 

(P. cichorii) causes symptoms to develop as heads 

mature. Shiny brown inner leaves, larger veins turn 

orange-brown. Areas do not decay hence often called 

varnish spot. P. marginalis and P. viridiflava 

cause leaf spotting, vascular blackening in cooler 

weather, and soft rotting especially during warm hot 

weather (Persley 1994). 


Others: Corky root (Rhizomonas suberifaciens) 

affects lettuce in North America and Europe and 

has been found in Qld. It has the potential to 

spread to others areas of Australia. Plants lack 

vigour and remain small and stunted, roots show a 

yellow brown banded discolouration which 

becomes dark brown, raised and roughened 

(corky) and brittle to touch. Little root system 

eventually remains (Persley 1994). In Australia, 

also crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 


Damping off, seed rot (Alternaria alternata, 

Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani). Symptoms 

include slight drooping of the leaves, watersoaked 

areas of stem at ground level and death of the 

seedling. Seeds may rot. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Bremia lactucae) is a common 

disease of lettuce. There may be several strains in 

Australia. Pale green or yellow spots develop on 

leaf uppersurfaces later turning brown. White, 

fluffy growth develops on leaf undersurfaces 

(Fig. 334). Sliming and rotting caused by 

secondary bacterial infection may follow. Some 

varieties are resistant. See Annuals A 5. 


Anthracnose (Marssonina panattoniana) is a sporadic 

disease of lettuce. Small pin-point watersoaked spots 

develop on leaves. Spots enlarge and become 

yellow then brown, circular to angular spots with a 

reddish margin up to 4 mm in diameter. Centres may 

drop out of old leaf spots. Spots on midribs are 

elliptical and slightly shrunken. Heavily infected 

plants may be stunted. Favoured by cool 

temperatures and wet weather. See Fruit F 5, 


Septoria leaf spot (Septoria lactucae) may occur in 

head lettuce crops and seed crops. Also infects 

prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola). Irregular, pale 

brown spots on leaves, dotted with tiny black spore 

producing bodies (pycnidia). Spots may occur on the 

leaves, stalks and flower heads. 

Others: Cercospora longissima, Pleospora herbarum. 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) causes a soft 

brown rot of stems at ground level. On rotted 

areas, which are often surrounded by red margins, 

a powdery, grey-brown fungal growth develops. 

Small black sclerotia (resting bodies) then develop 

in the fungal growth. Plants die if the stem is 

completely rotted or are stunted if the stem is only 

damaged on the outside. See Fruit F 5, 



Phytophthora stem rot (Phytophthora porri) and 

Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.) occur in hydroponic 

systems, plants are stunted and slow to develop, roots 

are brown and rotted. See Vegetables M 7. 

Sclerotinia rots, drop, watery soft rot, sclerotinose 

(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor). A soft watery 

rot, usually at ground level. White cottony 

fungal growth develops on the rotted area. Affected 

plants can collapse completely. Firm, black irregular 

bodies (sclerotia) up to 25 mm long form on the 

white fungal growth. Deep ploughing to bury and biodegrade 

sclerotia is not effective. See Vegetables M 7. 

Thievaliopsis black root rot (Thievaliopsis 

basicola) affects a wide range of crops and weeds. 

Plants are affected in seedling nurseries and in the 

field. Infected plants are stunted and yellowish. 

Affected areas on roots are dark brown to black. 

Root lesions may be small or may coalesce to affect 

the whole root. Root systems of severely affected 

plants are reduced in volume and in extreme cases 

reduced to stubs. Overwinters in soil (for long 

periods). Favoured by poor drainage and moderate 

soil temperatures (17-25 o C). High soil temperatures 

in summer reduces disease severity. Areas affected 

by disease and disease severity increase gradually 

with successive crops. Practise crop rotation, 

avoid close cropping with other susceptible crops, eg 

soybean, cowpea, clover or lucerne. Ensure free 

draining soil. Some varieties have good resistance. 

Soil fumigation may be necessary (Persley 1994). See 


Others: Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot, wilt 

(Macrophomina phaseolina). Rhizoctonia base 

rot, bottom rot (Rhizoctonia solani) is uncommon. 

Plants decay at ground level. Pale brown fungal 

growth may develop and produce occasional small 

pale brown sclerotia. Plants wilt and die. 


Others: Rust (Puccinia hieracii, P. prenanthus). 


Nematodes only cause minor diseases of lettuce. 

Those recorded in association with lettuce include 

root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), root 


nematodes (Helicotylenchus dihystera, 

Rotylenchus robustus), stubby root nematodes 

(Paratrichodorus spp.), Paratylenchus sp., 

Scutellonema brachyurum. See Vegetables M 10. 



Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) is green and 

may injure hearting lettuce in cool dry weather in 

autumn, winter or early spring. Aphids cluster thickly 

on plants, causing wilting and producing sticky 

honeydew. Market appeal is spoilt. See Potato M 80. 

Others: Foxglove aphid (Aulacorthum solani), 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), sowthistle 

aphid (Hyperomyzus lactucae). Overseas, also 

lettuce aphid (Nasonovia ribisnigri), and lettuce root 

aphid (Pemphigus busarius). 

VEGETABLES M 59

LETTUCE 

Aphids cause wilting, honeydew and also spread 

virus diseases of lettuce. Plough-in residues after 

harvest and reduce aphids on surrounding crops, 

remove weeds. Monitor aphids at regular intervals 




Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridilis) 


These bugs may be troublesome on hearting 

plants and on seed-crop lettuce. See Vegetables M 

12. 


Budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) feed during spring and 

summer on foliage and then bore directly into the 

heart. Caterpillars may be up to 40 mm long and are 

grey-green in colour with variable markings (Fig. 

335). Control is difficult and damaged plants are 

often not worth saving. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) may feed in 

patches on leaves of well-developed plants in 

late summer or early autumn. Later they feed singly 

and eat large holes. See Brassicas M 40. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) may nip off seedlings 

during the night. See Seedlings N 68. 

Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) are slender, 

pale green, feed on leaf undersurfaces and in spring 

and late summer chew large holes. See Vegetables 

M 13. 

Lucerne leafroller (Merophysas divulsana) may also 

feed on leaves. See Pome fruits F 112. 

Monitor caterpillars before applying insecticides 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Annuals A 8, 


Cineraria leafminer (Phytomyza syngenesiae) 

maggots may infest lettuce in winter and early 

spring. See Cineraria A 28. 


nibbles lettuce leaves until ragged and invade 

lettuce hearts which they spoil by their presence 

and excrement. See Vegetables M 14. 



blue oat mite (Penthaleus major) may damage lettuce 

grown in autumn, winter or early spring in inland 

districts. White patches develop on leaves. See 


Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) may damage 

unirrigated lettuce, especially if infested beans or 

cucumbers were grown nearby. See Beans (French) 

M 29. 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) may feed on leaf 

undersurfaces and stunt plants. Onion thrips may 

transmit tomato spotted wilt virus which may be a 

serious disease of lettuce. Plough-in old residues, 

plant upwind of older crops to retard the flight of 

thrips on to newer crops. Remove weeds from 

crops and surrounds. Monitor thrips at regular 

intervals before applying an insecticide (Brough et 

al. 1994). See Onion M 68. 

Weevils (Curculionidae) feed on lettuce (Fig. 336). 

Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) larvae may 

attack lettuce sown or set out in autumn, winter or 

early spring. Cream or pale green legless larvae 

up to 12 mm long, feed on plant centres and chew 

small holes in leaves. Later in spring adults chew 

foliage ragged at night. See Vegetables M 17. 


larvae may damage lettuce planted in land that has 

been under lucerne or clovers. Grey white legless 

larvae up to 13 mm long, nip off or channel roots 

causing lettuce to wilt suddenly. Damage usually 

occurs in late spring when larvae are nearly fully 

grown. See Vegetables M 17. 


Others: Cotton whitefly (Bemesia tabaci), 

Grasshoppers and locusts (Orthoptera), metallic 

flea beetles (Altica spp.), redshouldered leaf 

beetle (Monolepta australis), twentyeight-spotted 

potato ladybird (Epilachna vigintisexpunctata), 

vegetable leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea). 


After prolonged wet weather snails and slugs 

may damage leaves. See Seedlings N 70. 


Birds may eat on seedlings. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Bolting is the failure of lettuce 

to heart and the premature running to seed. It is 

caused by transplanting or hot weather. Autumn 

lettuce may bolt in spring. Lettuce tolerates light 

frosts but may be scalded in summer. 



(Weir and Cresswell 1993). Deficiencies may 

occur but the more common problem is excessive 

fertiliser or use of fertiliser at the wrong time. 

Excessive applications of fertiliser may lead to 

browning of the edges of inner leaves (tip burn) 

and indicates that the proportion of sodium, 

potassium or magnesium salts is too high 

compared with the proportion of calcium salts 

available to the plant. Additions of lime are 

beneficial. Symptoms vary with season, soil type 

and fertiliser used. Summer: Failure to heart, 

dark green leathery leaves, yellowing and death at 

leaf edges. Winter: Stunting, temporary wilting, 

internal yellow, red or brown discolouration of 

vascular tissue (Fig. 337). Spring/autumn: Slimy 

rotting of stem centre. See Vegetables M 18. 

Others: Hormone herbicides may injure lettuce. 

Excess ethylene may cause russet spotting of 

leaves. 

M 60 

VEGETABLES









and Vegetables : Lettuce. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. 


Persley, D. M., O'Brien, R. and Syme, J. R. 1989. (eds). 







MANAGEMENT 

LETTUCE 

University of California. 1992. Integrated Pest 

Management for Cole Crops and Lettuce. 

University. of California, CA. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Diseases of Lettuce (NSW Agfact) 

Downy Mildew (NSW Agfact) 

Lettuce : Pest and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Lettuce Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Lettuce Growing in Northern Victoria (Vic Agnote) 

Lettuce Growing in Southern Victoria (Vic Agnote) 

Lettuce : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Pests and Diseases of Lettuce (SA Fact Sheet) 

Pests of Lettuce (NSW Agfact) 

Winter Lettuce in the Home Garden (NSW Agfact) 

See Hydroponic systems N 43, Vegetables M 19 

Lettuce are grown for the fresh market. An overview of the industry has been presented by Coombs (1995). 

Choose varieties suitable to the area and season. Select varieties which have some resistance to local 

problems. Only plant disease-free seed or transplants. Hot water seed treatments may be necessary. Dust 

seed with fungicide to protect them from soilborne damping off diseases. Lettuce may be grown in soil or 

hydroponically. Avoid planting in sites contaminated with nematodes or weevils. Seedbed soil may need to 

be treated. Practise crop rotation with non-hosts. Uneven germination is likely to result if seed is sown 

deeper than 10 mm. Space seedlings adequately to discourage diseases, eg downy mildew and grey mould. 

Unless growth is continuous, leaves may be coarse and bitter and the plant may go to seed. Even growth 

depends on regular irrigation and a good supply of fertiliser high in nitrogen. The crop is more susceptible to 

damage at the seedling stage and when hearting commences. Between those stages plants can tolerate some 

feeding damage without the loss of yield and quality and a reduction in insecticide sprays may be possible at this 

time. Keep the crop and surrounding areas weed-free. The growth habit of lettuce is such that spraying is 

difficult. Harvest lettuce at the correct stage of maturity, cool quickly. Postharvest diseases and pests 

include bacterial soft rots, grey mould and sclerotinia rot. Rots in damaged or diseased heads may develop 

further to affect other lettuces in the container (nesting). Only store and transport lettuce which is well formed, 

clean, of uniform size and fresh appearance; it must be free from insect pests, snails and slugs, visible seed 

stem, burst heads, sunburn, breakdown and disease. Lettuce is sensitive to ethylene. Regulations govern the 

packaging and labelling of lettuce for sale. Stored lettuce should be held at 0 o C and at > 95% relative humidity 

and may keep for 2-3 weeks. 

Fig. 334. Downy mildew (Bremia lactucae). Angular spots on leaf 

undersurface with fluffy fungal growth. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 337. Internal discolouration 

of stem due to fertiliser toxicity 

in winter. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 335. Various caterpillars 

(Lepidoptera). Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 336. Weevil larvae 

(Curculionidae) are legless. 

VEGETABLES M 61

Mushrooms 

Cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) 

Agaricales, Basidiomycetes 


Parasitic 


Virus disease complex 




Fungal-feeding nematodes 


Flies 

Mites 

Mushroom springtails 

Non-parasitic 


Genetic disorders 

Mites 

Nematodes 

WEED MOULDS 


Parasitic 


Virus disease complex 

Scientific name: At least 6 virus diseases occur 

in mushrooms, singly or in combination. Positive 

methods of diagnosis include electron microscopy. 

Some Departments of Agriculture will test 

specimens for commercial growers. 

Host range: Cultivated mushroom, other species. 

Symptoms: Severe infection leads to bare 

patches in mushroom beds, reducing yields and 

complete crop failure. Stalks may be very long, 

bent, split, swollen, thick or tapering, caps may be 

small, open early or be light brown (Figs. 338, 

339). There seems to be no consistent association 

of individual viruses with specific crop symptoms. 

Overwintering: Virus-infected mushroom 

mycelium can survive in mushroom trays. 

Spread: By infected fungal spores, by trays and 

shelves contaminated with infected mycelium 

which spread the disease from one crop to another, 

by insect pests which carry infected spores. 

Conditions favouring: Infection at spawning is 

likely to lead to severe disease, while infection at 

casing and cropping is likely to lead to moderate 

and low levels of disease respectively. 

Control: Virus control/prevention programs are 

available (Nair 1984). 

Cultural methods: To prevent virus spread pick 

mushrooms while veils are still closed. 

Sanitation: Strict hygiene is essential to prevent 

infection and spread. See Mushrooms M 65. 

Resistant varieties: All commercially grown 

strains of A. bisporus are susceptible but strains 

of A. bitorquis are known to be resistant. 

Disease-free planting material: Only use virusfree 

spawn. 


Brown blotch (Pseudomonas tolaasii) causes 

superficial pale brown, slightly sunken blotches on the 

caps and occasionally on stalks. 

Drippy gill (P. agarici) causes brown spots on the side 

and bottom of gills. Grey droplets or streaks of 

bacterial ooze may form on the gill surface. 

Mummy disease (Pseudomonas sp.)causes tilted caps 

and bent stalks. 

Overwintering: Contaminated compost, soil, 

casing. Mummy disease also by infected 

mycelium. 

Spread: By contaminated mycelium, compost, 

casing, soil, water, water splash. Drippy gill also 

by mushroom flies. 

Conditions favouring: High humidity and 

fluctuating temperatures in the growing area. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Manipulate the crop 

environment, eg prevent water splash, keep 

surfaces dry, ventilate and control temperatures. 

Sanitation: Disinfect compost, casing. Observe 

strict hygiene. See Mushrooms M 65. 

Resistant varieties: All commercially grown 

strains of cultivated mushrooms are susceptible. 


Aphanocladium disease (Aphanocladium album) 

and brown spot (Acremonium sp.) causes brown 

spots commonly on the gills, a grey white mycelium 

develops in high humidities. 

Dry bubble (Verticillium fungicola) similar to brown 

blotch except that a grey fungus grows on the brown 

spots. Bubbles develop on caps. 

Mildew, cobweb (Cladobotryum sp. (= Dactylium sp.) 

causes a cottony fungal growth on the fruiting body 

which spreads to the casing. 

Wet bubble (Mycogone perniciosa) causes malformed 

stalks and caps that drip a brown liquid. 

Others: Damping off, wilt (Fusarium spp.), cat's ear 

(Clitophilus passickerianus), mat disease 

(Myceliophthora lutea), mushroom bed sclerotium 

(Xylaria vaporaria). 

Overwintering: Soil dust, casing, trash, spent 

compost. 

Spread: Spores by air, water splash, by workers 

during cultural operations. 

Conditions favouring: High humidity, 15-18 o C 

for dry bubble. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Decrease temperatures and 

humidity and have a short picking cycle. 

Sanitation: Promptly dispose of spent compost 

and debris, and disinfect mushroom beds. 

Pasteurise soil if it is being used. Regularly 

and appropriately disinfect work areas and 

harvesting tools. 

Resistant varieties: Most commercially grown 

strains of cultivated mushrooms seem to be 

susceptible. 

M 62 

VEGETABLES

MUSHROOMS 


Many species of nematodes are associated with 

mushroom crops, including those that feed on 

fungal mycelia and bacteria in mushroom crops. 

Fungal-feeding nematodes (Aphelenchoides 

spp., Ditylenchus spp., Paraphelenchus sp.) can be 

easily seen with a microscope (Fig. 340), but not 

with the naked eye. They pierce the fungal cells in 

mycelium and suck out the contents. Yields may 

be reduced dramatically. Infestation is often only 

observed at cropping time and by then it is too late. 

Cropping quickly stops and there is an obvious 

lack of mycelium in the bed. Compost may have a 

characteristic smell and becomes dark and soggy. 

Straw often carries fungal-feeding nematodes as 

these are common in soil in wheat field. Store 

peat used in casing layers dry as nematodes can 

breed in damp peat moss. Practise nursery 

hygiene. See Mushrooms M 65. If soil, spent 

compost, or peat (containing nematodes), is to be 

used, it must be pasteurised. Pasteurisation 

favours development of certain weed fungi. 

Nematodes in compost can be controlled with 

nematicides. Insect control reduces the chances 

of nematodes being introduced and spread. 


Insect and mite problems may arise during all 

stages of production. They are controlled by 

careful pasteurisation of the compost, keeping 

flying pests from the cultivation rooms and strategic 

treatments with insecticides. 


Mushroom cecids (Cecidomyiidae), eg mushroom 

white cecid (MWC) (Heteropeza pygmaea) and 

mushroom yellow cecid (MYC) (Mycophila 

barnesi). Adults rarely develop. They are fragile, 

bright orange flies about 1-1.5 mm long. M. barnesi 

produces both male and female adults but M. pygmaea 

usually produces only female adults. Maggots of 

both species feed on mycelium in the compost where 

they do no harm. They may also swarm over 

mushrooms towards the end of production, usually 

after watering, causing market losses of up to 30%. 

Market losses from MYC is sporadic and often less 

than from MWC. Maggots of MWC are slender and 

white and about 5 mm long (but usually about 2 mm 

long when they swarm). Maggots of MYC are 

bright orange-yellow and about 4 mm long and this 

stage has been observed swarming. Pest cycle: Each 

maggot can develop 12 or more maggots within itself. 

In the case of MWC a resistant 'hemipupa' is formed 

and the daughter larvae develop within it. MYC 

daughter larvae form within the parent larvae and 

burst out from it. 12 daughter larvae can be produced 

every 10 days resulting in huge populations of 

larvae in the compost. MWC also forms a hard cyst 

that can survive for several years and eventually 

produces larvae when favourable conditions return. 

These cysts can survive in the timbers of the tray. 

They can be present in both imported peat and local 

peat taken from surface layers of peat bogs. This can 

establish infestations in mushroom culture rooms 

(Clift 1983). 

Mushroom phorid (Megaselia halterata, Phoridae). 

Flies are small, black, about 2-3 mm long with a 

hunchback appearance. They are attracted to newly 

spawned compost, but will reinfest both compost and 

casing layer. Eggs are laid on the compost and casing 

and hatch within 2 days. Maggots are translucent to 

white and do not have distinct heads. They feed for 

10-14 days and are 5-7 mm long when fully grown. 

The adult emerges from the pupa in 5-7 days and 

females start laying eggs within 3 days. Maggots feed 

on mushroom mycelium but only reduce yield if 

present in great numbers. They occur infrequently and 

very rarely in problem numbers. 

Mushroom sciarids (Lycoriella spp., Sciaridae) are 

dark coloured flies with long antennae. Flies are dark 

brown or almost black and 3-4.5 mm long depending 

on the species. They fly readily and are often seen on 

walls, around lights and running over compost, casing 

layer and mushrooms. Maggots are slender and 

translucent to white with a black head. Gut contents 

are often visible (Fig. 341). They are 10-15 mm long 

(larger than cecid and phorid maggots). Some species 

prefer mature mushrooms while others prefers infested 

compost. Maggots destroy the spawn, developing 

pinheads and more mature mushrooms. A 

moderate infestation of sciarids can cause 20% drop 

in yield. There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, 

maggot, pupa, adult) with many generations each year. 

Flies lay eggs on the compost or casing. Life cycle is 

18-28 days depending mushroom species. Spread by 

adults flying from where they have bred in wastes or 

spilt compost that has not been cleaned up, in other 

culture rooms, or in surrounding bushland. Adults 

transfer mites and diseases. Fungus gnats 

(Mycetophilidae) maggots also feed on decaying fungi 

and on damp organic matter. See Greenhouses N 28. 

Mites (Acarina) often do not directly damage 

mushrooms. See Mushrooms M 84. 

Australian mushroom pygmy mite (AMPM) 

(Brennandania lambi, Microdispidae), mushroom 

red pepper mite (MRPM) (Siteroptes mesembrinae, 

Pygmephoridae). Both species can cause allergic 

reactions to mushroom pickers. Only AMPM 

damages mushrooms (Fig. 341). It breeds in spawned 

compost and can reduce yields of A. bisporus by up 

to 30%, it has not been recorded as a pest of A. 

bitorquis. It is carried by sciarids, trays nearest the 

door of culture rooms are worst affected. MRPM 

feeds on weed moulds, indicating incompletely 

prepared or contaminated compost. The biology of 

both species is similar. The swarming stage (the 

form usually seen) consists only of fertilised females, 

about 0.25 mm long, translucent pink with a white 

stripe on the dorsal surface. They swarm when they 

have run out of food and climb on to mushrooms or 

raised pieces of casing and are transferred by sciarid 

flies, clothing and pickers' knives to new locations. 

When a suitable mycelium has been found, females 

feed, swell, then deposit 30-50 eggs. Life cycle from 

egg to egg is about 10-12 days. Males are smaller 

than females and remain near host fungi. 

Tyroglyphid mites (Caloglypus, Rhizoglyphus, 

Tyrophagus). Caloglyphus, Rhizoglyphus feed 

mainly on bacterial blotch, bacterial pitting or other 

damage. After consuming the bacteria, they feed on 

dead mushroom tissue. Tyrophagus has similar 

feeding preferences but also eats spawn grains, 

often causing failure of the mycelium to colonise 

the compost. Mites are about 0.5-0.75 mm long, 

VEGETABLES M 63

MUSHROOMS 

oval and whitish and indicate incompletely prepared 

or incompletely pasteurised compost. All 3 mites 

may be present in poultry manure, cottonseed hulls 

and baled straw. Control: By pasteurising the 

compost. The first two mites form resting stages 

which are tolerant of adverse conditions including 

high temperatures. Other mites infest mushrooms 

beds. See below. 

Mushroom springtails (Hypogastrura armeta, 

H. denticulata, Collembola) usually feed on decaying 

organic matter but may also feed on fungi and be 

minor pests (Fig. 341). Adults are whitish or slate 

grey and 2-3 mm long. Nymphs resemble adults in 

general form. See Turfgrasses L 14. 

Others: Various beetles (Coleoptera), eg black 

fungus beetle (Aliphitobius laevigatus, Tenebrionidae), 

fungus-eating ladybird (Illeis galbula, Coccinellidae), 

fungus weevils (Anthribidae) and hairy fungus 

beetle (Typhaea stercorea, Mycetophagidae). Also red 

fungus bug (Achilus flammeus, Achilidae, Hemiptera). 

Non-parasitic 

Chemical injury: Rose comb is the term 

commonly used to describe a malformation of the 

mushrooms in which the caps produce gills on the 

upper surface or in which the tissues of the cap are 

seamed and patterned. It can result in such 

restriction of gill formation that the mushroom 

appears to be almost devoid of gills. In most cases 

the condition is caused by the presence of 

kerosene or other oils in the mushroom beds. 

Genetic disorders: White gill (pale gill) 

causes mushrooms to be small, with short pale or 

white gills. White gill usually appears in 2nd or 

later flushes. Its occurrence is unpredictable, one 

flush may produce many pale-gilled mushrooms, 

yet mushrooms in the next flush may be normal. 

The cause is not known although it is possibly 

genetic, and associated with certain strains of 

mushrooms. There seems to be no constant 

association with any particular strain of spawn. 


Histiostoma mite (Histiostoma feroniarum) feed 

exclusively on bacteria found on pasteurised 

compost and those causing mushroom bacterial blotch 

(Pseudomonas sp.). Adults are small, slow-moving 

and about 0.5 mm long with a distinct granular 

appearance. They are very prolific, often producing 

hypopi which are readily carried about the farm by 

flies, clothing and tools. Hypopi may have a role in 

transferring bacterial blotch. This mite is often found 

during the early stages of bacterial blotch, but rarely 

on completely decayed mushrooms. 

Predatory mites: Several species of rapidly moving, 

white or red mites about 0.5-0.75 mm long are often 

seen on mushroom farms. These mites are active 

predators of nematodes, their presence indicates 

imperfect pasteurisation. 

See Mushrooms M 83. 

Nematodes (Nematoda) feed on bacteria and 

small particles of organic matter. Patches of 

mushroom bed surface become dark and soggy and 

the mushroom mycelium deteriorates. Depending 

M 64 

VEGETABLES 

on the nematode species yield may be reduced. 

Bacterial-feeding nematodes usually have little 

effect on the appearance of spawn and compost. 

The spawn is normal or even heavy, but spawn has 

trouble establishing in the casing, cropping is slow 

to start and yields are light. Casing soil appears to 

be a main source of infection. Bacteria-feeding 

nematodes occur in manures and other moist 

organic matter, and also water, peat, field soil, 

airborne dust and insects that infest mushroom 

sheds. Control: As for fungal-feeding nematodes. 

See Mushrooms M 63. Disinfection of the casing 

layer should help reduce the level of infestation. 

Off-white strains of the cultivated mushroom 

appear to be more susceptible than white strains. 

WEED MOULDS 

Weed moulds are often called indicator (indicate 

improper composting) or competitor moulds 

(compete with mushrooms for nutrients). Weed 

moulds may reduce the mushroom crop by 40%. 

There is no effective chemical control of weed 

moulds once they have developed. Sterilisation of 

mushroom trays with steam at 70 o C for 12 hours 

after harvest, eradicates these moulds and prevents 

spread of their spores to new crops. Probably > 20 

species of fungi may occur as weed moulds, some 

often with very descriptive names, eg olive-green 

mould (Chaetomium olivaceum), lipstick mould 

(Geotrichum sp.) and white plaster mould 

(Scopulariopsis spp.). 


Clift, A. D. 1983. Insect and Mite Pests of Mushrooms. 

NSW Agfact. 





Fletcher, J. T., White, P. F. and Gaze, R. H. 1989. 

Mushrooms : Pest and Disease Control. 2nd edn. 

Intercept Ltd., London. 

Giovannetti, G., Roth-Bejerano, N., Zanini, E. and 

Kagan-Zur, V. 1994. Truffles and Their Cultivation. 

Horticultural Reviews Vol.16, John Wiley & Sons, 

Brisbane. 

Hurst, J. and Rutherford, L. 1991. A Gourmet's Book of 

Mushrooms and Truffles. Golden Press, 

Jordon, P. and Wheeler, S. 1995. The Ultimate 

Mushroom. Anness Pub., London. distrib. in 

Australia by Reed Books. 

Nair, N. G. 1984. Diseases of Cultivated Mushrooms. 

NSW Agfact. 

Shepherd, C. J. and Totterdell, C. J. 1988, Mushrooms 


Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Diseases of Cultivated Mushrooms (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Mushrooms at Home (Vic Agnote) 

Insect and Mite Pests of Mushrooms (NSW Agfact) 

Mushroom Virus Diseases (Vic Agnote) 

Nematodes in Mushroom Crops (NSW Agfact) 


Australian Mushroom Growers Association (Catalogue of 

Books, Videos etc. Tel. 045 776877) 



(HRDC) 

See Compost N 18, Vegetables M 19 



MUSHROOMS 

MUSHROOM MANAGEMENT 

Mushrooms are grown for the fresh market and processing. An overview of the industry is presented by 

Coombs (1995). A truffle industry is developing in Tasmania. Truffles and their cultivation overseas is reviewed 

by Giovannetti et al. (1994). Most commercially grown mushroom varieties are susceptible to diseases and 

pests. Plant quarantine: Importations of new mushroom cultures are screened for viruses and other diseases 

and pests, ensuring that only clean spawn is passed on to the grower. Disease-free planting material: Only 

use spawn free from virus and other diseases and pests. Propagation by mushroom spawn (mycelium). For 

effective control of mushroom diseases, pests and weed moulds, good design and hygiene (sanitation) is 

essential. Design layout so that there is one-way movement from the 'clean' to the 'dirty' area during normal 

operations and install filters to treat air entering spawn-running rooms, growing rooms and work areas used for 

spawning and casing. Design them for ease of maintenance, eg environmental control (temperature, humidity 

and ventilation), easy cleaning and disinfection (concrete floors in all storage areas, peak heat rooms and 

growing rooms), controlling insects (flywire all rooms), and disposal of effluent to avoid spread of nematodes. 

Sanitation (hygiene): Establish an effective routine of cleaning and disinfection. Thoroughly clean, wash 

and disinfest composting, spawn running and growing areas, beds and boxes. Routinely disinfect all machines 

used for filling, spawning and casing after each operation as well as work areas and growing rooms. Regularly 

collect all mushroom wastes, spent compost, spilt compost, especially pasteurised compost, damp loose 

straw and other debris, and either compost them or remove them several kilometres from the building. Regular 

and correct cook-outs with steam at the end of each crop kills all stages of insects and mites. Sterilise 

mushroom trays after cropping by steaming at the recommended temperature for the recommended length of 

time. After steaming remove trays from growing rooms, and disinfect the emptied trays. Physical methods: 

Infestation of compost is usually caused by non-uniform heat distribution during composting, peak heating or 

pasteurisation. Ensure that composting and pasteurisation is carried out properly to eliminate undesirable 

moulds, bacteria, nematodes, mites, and insects especially sciarids. Prevent reinfestation by excluding adult 

sciarids from the pasteurising room. Pesticides: Treat compost preferably at spawning and casing layers with 

recommended insecticides. Regularly use a surface spray on walls around doors, vents and ceilings of all 

rooms. Fogging in combination with a surface spray is useful in reducing sciarid populations. Insecticides can 

be effectively mixed with casing but there is no single effective treatment for compost if pasteurisation is 

incomplete or if sciarids reinfest after cool-down. Harvest stage: Mushrooms are sold in 3 stages of growth - 

button, cup and flat. Pull the mushroom from the bed with a gentle twisting action. Lightly water the bed after 

picking and filling. Store in the refrigerator, place in cloth or paper bag, not in plastic 

Fig. 338. Healthy mushroom (Agaricus 

bisporus) Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 339. Various symptoms of virus 

diseases. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 340. Nematodes 

are easily observed 

under a microscope. 

Fig. 341. Left : Mushroom sciarid (Lycoriella sp.) larvae (10-15 mm long). Centre : Springtails 

(Collembola) (2-3 mm long). Right : Australian mushroom pygmy mite (Brennandania lambi) 

is microscopic (about 0.25 mm long). 

VEGETABLES M 65

Onion 

Chives (Allium schoenoprasum) 



Onion (A. cepa) 




Parasitic 





Damping off 

Downy mildew 



Rust 

Smut, onion smut 


Stem and bulb nematode, bloat 


Aphids 

Bulb mite 

Caterpillars 

Onion maggot 

Onion thrips 



Non-parasitic 



Parasitic 


Onion yellow dwarf virus affects onion, garlic and 

ornamental species of Allium. Infected plants may not 

show symptoms. Infection of young plants may 

cause yellowing and stunting (yellow dwarf), leaves 

of older plants may have yellow flecks, blotches and 

streaks, crinkling and drooping of leaves and 

thickening of the neck. Symptoms persist. Leaf 

mould attack may follow virus infection. Yield is 

moderately affected. Symptoms on ornamental 

species are not well documented. Overwinters in 

infected bulbs from previous season, including those 

saved for seed production, volunteer plants. Spread 

by aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), not 

by contact between plants, not by seed, not by pollen. 

Destroy unmarketable and volunteer onions. 

Insecticides may be used to control aphid vectors in 

commercial crops. 

Others: Garlic may also be affected by garlic 

mosaic virus and garlic yellow streak virus 

causing yellow flecking, blotching and streaking of 

leaves. Affected plants may be stunted. 

Overwinters in diseased garlic cloves. Spread by 

aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), which 

are present in all garlic crops. Use virus-free 

planting material. Lettuce necrotic yellows 

virus may also affect garlic. 





carotovora) may cause a general soft rot. See 


Internal brown rots (Pseudomonas spp.): 

P. aeruginosa and P. marginalis pv. marginalis cause 

browning of 1-2 internal scales or general soft rot of 

outer scales. P marginalis pv. marginalis is a 

saprophyte in soil but may invade damaged tissue. 

Favoured by humid conditions, wounding. Avoid 

damaging onions, allow crops to fully mature before 

harvest, tips should be allowed to dry before lifting 

and topping. Minimise sunscald and bruising, cure 

bulbs well before storage and store in well ventilated 

conditions. Cream gold and related cultivars are 

mostly susceptible. Overseas bacterial internal 

decay (Enterobacter cloacae) at very high 

temperatures, may also cause internal decay. 

Others: Slippery skin (P. gladioli pv. alliicola = 

P. putida) causes a soft rot of outer scales. Sour skin 

(P. cepacia) causes a slimy yellow vinegar smelling 

rot. Overseas, P. viridiflava may be so severe on 

onions that crops cannot be harvested (Gitaitis et al. 

1991). 



Damping off (Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia 

solani, Sclerotinia). See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora destructor) 

affects onion, garlic, shallot and leek, causing pale 

yellow spots on leaves, leaf yellowing and furry 

purplish growth on affected areas. Favoured by 

cloudy, mild days and cool. still dewy nights. 

Provide good ventilation, wide row spacings. 

Some varieties appear to be less susceptible. 

Fungicides may be necessary. See Annuals A 5. 


Stemphylium leaf blight, leaf mould (Pleospora 

sp. = Stemphylium botryosum) is a widespread 

saprophyte on crop debris. A black mould grows on 

leaves previously injured by other diseases, 

mechanical handling, chemicals, poor growing 

conditions. Good crop management and control of 

other diseases and pests will reduce crop losses. 

Purple blotch (Alternaria porri) is a minor disease. 

Small, white sunken lesions with purple centres occur 

on leaves and seed stalks and enlarge to become 

purplish with light and dark zones which girdle stems 

and may cause losses in seed crops. Bulbs can be 

infected when topped at harvest, storage rots may 

develop. Overwinters in onion residues. Spread 

by spores during wet windy weather or overhead 

irrigation. Fungicides may be necessary. 



Anthracnose, smudge (Colletotrichum circinans) 

Small greenish dots develop on outer scales just 

before harvest. These become black and develop 

further postharvest, often with a zonate pattern on 

the outer scales. Bulbs may shrink and sprout 

M 66 

VEGETABLES

ONION 

prematurely. Overwinters on onion residues. White 

cultivars are susceptible while most coloured cultivars 

have some resistance Store bulbs under cool, dry 

conditions. See Fruit F 5. 

Aspergillus rot, black mould (Aspergillus niger) may 

occur in the field but it is more serious postharvest. 

Black, powdery masses of spores develop on the 

surface of outside scales and later between scales 

which shrivel and become brittle. Spores can easily 

be rubbed off (onion smut spores occur in blisters in 

the scales and are not easily rubbed off). Spores 

spread by wind and air currents. Favoured by hot, 

dry conditions and mechanically harvesting immature 

onions. Practise crop rotation. White cultivars are 

generally less susceptible than coloured cultivars. 

Rapidly and thoroughly cure bulbs and store under 

cool, dry conditions. See Fruit F 5, Vegetables M 6. 

Fusarium basal rot, fusarium wilt (Fusarium 

oxysporum f.sp. cepae) affects Allium spp., eg garlic 

and onion. Leaves yellow and die, generally starting 

with the younger leaves. Necks may rot and bulbs 

may become distorted or bloated. The basal plate 

becomes brown, roots rot. Damping off of young 

seedlings may occur in early sown crops. The 

fungus invades the cord root of susceptible varieties 

directly, through injuries or through old root scars and 

enters the vascular system. Favoured by warm 

weather (27-32 o C). Practise crop rotation. Avoid 

injuring bulbs during cultivation, harvesting, curing 

and bagging. Sort onions carefully and only bag 

sound disease-free bulbs. Subsequent losses may 

be minimised by storing under well ventilated, cool 

conditions, eg 4 o C with a relative humidity of about 

65%. Destroy all diseased onions and debris left after 

sorting. See Bulbs C 5, Daffodils C 19, Vegetables 

M 9. 

Grey mould, botrytis, neck and bulb rot (Botrytis 

cinerea, Botrytis spp.) is a minor postharvest 

disease of onion bulbs causing a softening and rotting 

of the neck region of onion bulbs. A grey brown 

fungal growth with a crust of black resting bodies 

(sclerotia), may develop. Grey mould can also grow 

downwards from leaf tips into leaf sheaths. 

Breakdown then occurs during storage although this 

might be quite slow. Spread by contact. Harvest at 

the correct stage of maturity, handle bulbs carefully to 

reduce injury, hold under cool, dry conditions to cure 

the neck quickly. Favoured by application of 

nitrogen fertiliser late in the season, or in excess, 

which produces thick-necked bulbs which are difficult 

to cure; moist conditions near harvest; imperfect 

curing of bulbs. Practise crop rotation. Avoid 

injury during harvesting and handling. Do not store 

sunburnt or damaged onions. Avoid damp, 

unfavourable growing conditions. Cure artificially 

if weather does not permit field curing. Overseas, 

onion bulbs are cured in a rapid air current at 

36-40 o C. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22, 


Penicillium moulds, blue and green moulds 

(Penicillium spp.) occur on damaged, wet onions. 

The fungus is usually a blue or green powdery coating 

on the bulbs. Favoured by curing under damp 

conditions or in association with neck rot, windrowing 

bulbs with large amounts of soil. Adequate drying 

relieves the problem. See Bulbs C 5, Fruit F 6. 

Pink root (Pyrenochaeta terrestris = Phoma terrestris) 

is a common soil inhabitant which affects onions and 

cereal crops, eg maize, sorghum, wheat and barley. 

Plants look unthrifty, yellow and withered, the tips of 

older leaves die first. Roots turn pink, then darken 

to red or purple and finally brown or black. Roots die 

initially near the centre of the basal plate. Secondary 

organisms may then invade damaged tissue causing 

bulbs to rot. Spread by infested soil. Favoured by 

warm weather, Avoid warm weather plantings 

where the disease is known to occur. Rotate crops 

with non-susceptible crops. 

Soot (Embellisia allii) affects garlic. Powdery black 

soot develops on outer scales, usually at the base of 

roots. Only causes blemishing, no yield loss or 

rotting. Probably overwinters in the soil Spores 

are spread by wind and air currents. Favoured by 

bulbs left in the soil after maturity. Control is rarely 

necessary. Harvest bulbs when mature. 

White rot, sclerotium stem rot, southern blight, 

(Sclerotium cepivorum) affects garlic, onion, shallot 

and leek but is rarely a problem in commercial crops. 

Bulbs rot at the base, white fluffy mycelium and 

small, black sclerotia develop on diseased areas. 

Plants yellow and die. Plants die out in small patches 

which extend slowly, often only 0.5 m a season. If 

affected bulbs are packed extensive breakdown may 

occur during transit and storage. In cool weather 

the fungus grows through the soil invading seedlings 

or bulbs which it contacts. Do not plant onions or 

garlic in affected areas for at least 10 years. 

Biocontrol of white rot is being researched. Also 

Sclerotium stem rot (S. rolfsii). See Vegetables 

M 8. 


Rust (Puccinia allii = P. porri) affects chives, 

garlic, onion and shallot, eventually causing 

pustules on both leaf surfaces. Pustules are filled 

with black spore masses. Leaves may die. 

Favoured by warm moist weather. Rotate 

planting sites, volunteer plants should be treated 

with fungicide. See Annuals A 7, Herbs N 34 

(Fig. 410). 

Smut, onion smut (Urocystis cepulae, 

Basidiomycetes) is a serious disease of onions 

in some areas. It also affects leeks, shallots, chives 

and many other lesser known Allium species. 

Garlic is not affected as it reproduces by cloves 

and not by seed. Black elongated blisters form in 

the leaves and on bulbs. These may break open to 

expose black powdery masses of spores. Affected 

leaves are usually thickened and often curve 

downward. Most infected seedlings die 3-5 weeks 

after germination. Some diseased plants survive 

until mid-season or harvest with new leaves 

becoming infected as they develop. Overwinters 

in infected soil, onion sets, transplants. Spread by 

windborne soil and surface water, soil on 

implements, containers, boots and plants. 

Favoured by temperatures of 10-29 o C. The 

fungus can invade the plant in the early seedling 

stage only. If the outer seedling leaf escapes 

infection until it is mature the plant will remain 

healthy even in very heavily infested land. 

Quarantine measures exclude import of onions 

from areas where the disease is believed to occur 

into principal commercial onion-growing districts. 

Others: Neck rot, foliage blight (Sclerotinia 

squamosa). Also macrophomina bulb rot 

(M. phaseolina), white tip (Phytophthora porri), 

black bulb (Alternaria alternata), leaf blight 

(Heterosporium allii). 

VEGETABLES M 67

ONION 


Stem and bulb nematode, bloat 

(Ditylenchus dipsaci) causes seedlings to be 

dwarfed, twisted and whitish with swollen areas 

where the skin may be split. Onion sets planted in 

infested soil develop stunting and yellow speckling 

on older plants. Bulbs become soft, leaves 

become spongy and twisted and die from the tips 

back. Infected bulbs can be decayed by secondary 

rotting organisms. Practise a 3 year crop rotation 

between onions and related plants where the soil 

has become infested. See Daffodil C 20. 


spp.), root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), 

spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus), Paratrichodorus 

spp., Radolophus sp. 




Onion aphid (Neotoxoptera formosana) 

Shallot aphid (Myzus ascalonicus) 

Aphids may spread virus diseases. They also 

infest garlic. See Bulbs C 3 (Fig. 65), Roses J 4, 


Bulb mite (Rhizoplyophus echinopus) feeds 

inside bulbs causing them to rot in the field and 

especially postharvest. Injury is most likely in 

onions planted as bulbs for seed production, also 

in shallots, garlic and chives. As chives may be 

propagated continuously by tufts, and shallots and 

garlic by cloves or bulbous sections, they are most 

likely to be damaged year after year following the 

original infestation. See Bulbs C 7. 


Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) may nip leaves off during 

the night if onions are planted in previously weedy 

land. See Seedlings N 68. 

Leek moth (Acrolepcia assea) infests onions overseas. 


Onion maggot (Delia platura, Anthomyiidae, 

Diptera) infests vegetables, eg onion, bean, 

crucifers, cucurbits, sweetcorn. Maggots are thought 

to feed and breed mainly on organic matter. Flies are 

grey-brown, slightly hairy, about 5 mm long and are 

commonly seen flying over soil top dressed with 

blood and bone fertiliser. Maggots when fully grown 

are yellow-white, legless, tough-skinned and about 6 

mm long. They enter roots and stems of young 

seedlings below ground level, causing them to wilt, 

rot, die and fall over. Many maggots may be found 

in one seedling. One maggot may feed on several 

stems only partly injuring them. Plantings are 

thinned out, generally only a few plants in any one 

spot are affected. There are many generations 

each season. Female flies lay eggs in the soil close to 

the host plants and the maggots feed on organic 

matter and seedlings. They pupate in the soil near the 

infested plant; the pupae are barrel-shaped, brown and 

about 5 mm long. Spread by adult flying. Favoured 

by cool, moist conditions during spring after wet 

winters, sandy soil, and slow germination due to 

planting too early. Flies are attracted for egg laying 

to decomposing organic matter, animal manures, 

organic fertilisers, eg bone dust, blood and bone and 

decomposing heavy green manure crops ploughed in 

shortly before onions were planted. Do not fertilise 

spring and autumn crops with animal manures or 

organic fertilisers. Prepare ground early to ensure 

plant material is decayed before planting. Inorganic 

fertilisers may be applied. Insecticides are used to 

control the flies. There are no effective insecticide 

treatments for the control of maggots. Seed 

treatments have been used overseas but have not been 

considered necessary in Australia. See Beans 

(French) M 28. Overseas onion fly (Hylamyia 

antiqua, Agromyzidae) maggots mines in bulbs. 

Onion thrips 



Host range: Ornamentals, vegetables, weeds. 

Description and damage: Adult female 

thrips are tiny, light or dark brown, about 1.3 mm 

long, with 2 pairs of narrow grey fringed wings. 

Males are smaller. Nymphs are wingless, sluggish, 

creamy and cluster at the bases of central leaves 

in the throat of plants. Adults rasp and suck 

foliage causing silvering seen in almost every 

onion bed. See Vegetables M 3 (Fig. 309). More 

than 30 thrips per leaf may cause yield reduction. 

In a heavy attack, leaves may be twisted and die 

back from tips, plants can be dwarfed or killed, 

yield is reduced, quality of onions downgraded. 

Leaf symptoms may vary on other hosts, eg thrips 

feed on leaf undersurfaces of potato and brassicas 

Onion thrips is a vector of tomato spotted wilt 

virus. 

Pest cycle: Incomplete metamorphosis (egg, 

nymph, adult) with many generations each year, all 

stages are found on onions at any time. Females 

lay eggs, nymphs pass through 4 stages, the last 

two of which are spent in the soil without feeding. 

Although there are males, which are wingless, the 

females can produce without mating. 

Overwintering: On host plants, in soil. 

Spread: Thrips fly and are windborne; infested 

plant material. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, dry weather in 

spring following a mild dry winter, unirrigated 

crops. When soil conditions are dry onion thrips 

move on to onions from other crops or weeds. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Damage is reduced by cool, 

rainy weather and regular irrigation. 

Biological control: Many predators control thrips 

overseas including predatory mites (Amblyseius 

cucumeris, A barkeri) and anthocorid bugs 

(Anthocoris sp., Orius sp.) (Sunderland 1991). 

Pesticides: Apply insecticides when nymphs are 

seen on a periodic inspection of the throats of 

the plants. 3-4 treatments in the life of the crop 

may be needed, depending on the rainfall and 

temperature (undersides of the leaves must be 

treated). Monitor nymphs and adults at regular 

intervals before applying insecticides (Brough et 

al. 1994). See Roses J 6. 

M 68 

VEGETABLES

Vegetable weevil (Listeroderes 

difficilis) larvae cause minor damage by chewing 

small holes in the sides of leaves and in central 

shoots. Older larvae chew big holes. See 


Others: Mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp.) 

cause poor seedling emergence by tunnelling just 

below the soil surface. Rutherglen bug (Nysius 

vinitor) may invade onions in spring, plants wilt, 

immature seed heads are destroyed. Also 

European earwig (Forficula auricularia), lucerne 

flea (Sminthurus viridis), redlegged earth mite 

(Halotydeus destructor), seedharvesting ants 

(Pheidole spp.), vegetable leafhopper 

(Austroasca viridigrisea), wireworms (Elateridae). 


Garlic snail (Oxychilus alliarus, Zonitidae) may 

infest Allium spp. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Zinc 

deficiency may occur Leaf analysis standards are 

available for onion (Weir and Cresswell 1993). 

Others: Uneven water supplies may cause split 

or double bulbs. Slime moulds (Myxomycetes) may 

occur on bulbs in the field. See Bulbs C 3 (Fig. 69). 


Brewster, J. L. 1994. Onions and other Vegetable 

Alliums. CAB International, Paris. 






Davies, D. 1992. Alliums : Ornamental Onions. Timber 

Press, Beaverton, Oregon. 



MANAGEMENT 

ONION 

Gitaitis, R. D., Baird, R. E., Beaver, R. W. and Sumner, 

D. R. 1991. Bacterial Blight of Sweet Onion Caused 

by Pseudomonas viridiflava in Vidalia, Georgia. 

Plant Disease 75(11). 



and Vegetables : Onions; Garlic. cur. edn. OECD, 


Persley, D. M., O'Brien, R. and Syme, J. R. 1989. 




Qld Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane.. 


Handbook. 4th edn. CSIRO/NSW Agric., Griffith, 

NSW. 

Schwartz, H. F. and Mohan, S. K. (eds). 1994. 

Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases. APS 




Prospects. The Plantsman, Vol.12(1), June pp.1-64. 



Brisbane. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

A Growth Regulator for Potatoes and Onions (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases of Onions (Tas Farmnote) 

Diseases of Onions and Related Plants (NSW Agfact) 

Fungal and Bacterial Diseases of the Onion Family 

(WA Farmnote) 

Fusarium Rot of Onions (Vic Agnote) 

Garlic Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Leeks (NSW Agfact) 

Mechanical Harvesting of Onions (Vic Agnote) 

Onion Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Onion Growing for Home and Abroad (Vic Agnote) 

Onions in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Onions : Cultural Notes (Tas Farmnote) 

Onions : Growing the White Spanish (Vic Agnote) 

Onions : Growing the Pukekohe Long Keeper (Vic Agnote) 

Onion Varieties for Storage (Vic Agnote) 

Onions : Pests and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Onions : Pink Root Rot (Vic Agnote) 

Onions : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Pests and Diseases of Onions (SA Fact Sheet) 

Shallots and Chives (NSW Agfact) 

White Rot of Onions (SA Fact Sheet) 


Australian Garlic Industry Association 

Australian Onion Association (AOA) 

Australian Onion Grower 

Onions Australia 




Onions are grown for processing and the fresh market. An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs 

(1995). Choose a variety suitable for the time of sowing. If early varieties are sown late, or late varieties are 

sown early, there will be little bulb formation. Cultivars vary in resistance to bacterial rots, downy mildew, and 

some other problems. Plant only disease-free seed, sets and clones. Hot water seed treatments reduce 

seedborne diseases but may also reduce germination, seed be dusted prior to planting, to prevent damping off. 

Propagated by seed, seedlings. Practise a 3-year rotation, onions and related plants should not be grown in 

the same soil more than once every 3 years. Over-rich soil will produce foliage growth at the expense of bulb 

formation and may encourage the formation of thick, open necks which allow easy entry of fungi. Pre-plant soil 

treatments may be necessary if nematodes and white rot are problems. Sanitation: Destroy all unmarketable 

bulbs and volunteer plants in the field. Due to the poor ground cover offered by onion plants, an efficient weed 

management program is required throughout crop growth. This involves a combination of mechanical weeding 

and pre- and post-emergence herbicides. Weed control during the first 3-4 weeks after emergence is essential 

to prevent any check in crop growth. Pesticides are registered for controlling diseases and pests. Growth 

regulators improve growth and reduce sprouting. Postharvest diseases and pests include Aspergillus, 

Penicillium, Botrytis and sometimes Rhizopus. Harvest when 70-80% of tops have dropped to the ground. To 

avoid excessive shedding of skin lift before tops are fully dried. Harvest only under dry conditions and handle 

carefully to reduce injury. Destroy/burn diseased and damaged plants and bulbs. Do not water at harvest. 

Remove all bulbs from an area at harvest. Store only healthy, undamaged bulbs under cool, dry, well ventilated 

conditions otherwise Aspergillus may occur (Salvestrin 1991). 

VEGETABLES M 69

Parsnip 

Pastinaca sativa 



Parasitic 






Root and stem rots, cankers 




Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Parsnip seed wasp 


Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Deformed roots 

Environment 


Seed viability 


Parasitic 



carotovora) may cause a watery soft rot of the tap 

root both in the field and postharvest. See 


Others: Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.). 

Root and stem rots, cankers 

Canker, parsnip canker (Itsersonilia spp., Imperfect 

Fungi) affects parsnip, carrot, chrysanthemum, 

sunflower. Crowns become brown to reddish, 

roughened, later large black sunken cankers may 

develop. The whole root may later be affected and 

invaded by secondary bacterial soft rots. Leaf spots 

are irregular, 1-3 mm across with light brown centres 

with a pale yellow halo limited by the smaller veins. 

Centres of older spots are often torn. Leaf spots may 

enlarge or join together to form large dead patches. 

Leaf stalks may develop elongated, sunken, dark 

brown spots. Overwinters in soil, infected roots of 

plants, crop debris and seed. Spores from leaf spots 

and crop debris are spread by wind and water and 

washed into soil to infect lateral roots. Favoured by 

cool, wet seasons, poor drainage (in Sydney area in 

autumn-grown crops). Control: Practise crop 

rotation, grow parsnips only once every 3 years in 

raised beds but not near older infected crops or near 

land containing infected crop debris. Gradually hill 

plants (cover crown with soil) as crops grow to 

protect roots from infection by leafborne spores. Do 

not store roots in ground after they mature. Collect 

all diseased roots and destroy burn them. Plough in 

other crop debris promptly. Plant disease-free 

seed, do not save seed from infected plants. 

Fungicides may be applied in damp weather. 

Dry rot and canker (Phoma spp.) attacks parsnip and 

potato. It causes leaf spots similar to canker. Black 

pinpoint fruiting bodies develop in the centres of the 

spots. Spores washed on to soil infect roots directly 

but most disease is associated with crown damage. 

Rhizoctonia root canker (Rhizoctonia solani) causes 

brown shallow scurfy lesions on roots (obvious after 

washing). Seedborne. See Vegetables M 7. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) may develop 

postharvest. See Fruit F 6, Vegetables M 6. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) may occur 

in the field and postharvest. See Vegetables M 7. 



Fungal leaf spots (various species) are 

usually seedborne and favoured by wet weather. 

Canker, parsnip canker (Itersonilia pastinacae) 

causes small leaf spots with light brown centres, 

yellow halo. See below. 

Dry rot and canker (Phoma spp.) causes leaf spots 

similar to canker but with tiny black fruiting bodies 

within the spots. See below. 

Phleospora leaf spot (Phleospora crescentium) 

causes small pale leaf spots when temperatures are 

moderate and there are heavy dews. 

Others: Cercospora pastinaca, Cercosporella 

pastinaceae, Cylindrosporium pastinacae, Ramularia 

pastinacae, Phyllachora pastinacae, Septoria apii, 

S. pastinacae. 


Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may attack 

parsnips. A grey-white powdery growth develops 

initially on older leaves. Favoured by moderate 

temperatures and heavy dews during late summer. 

Most serious during humid weather. See Annuals 

A 6, Vegetables M 7. 


Root knot nematodes (Meliodogyne spp.) 

causes roots to become knotted, misshapen and 

unsaleable. Yield is reduced. See Soil N 84 (Fig. 

450), Vegetables M 10. 

Others: Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus 

dipsaci) causes a dry mealy rot, splitting about 

crowns, secondary rots of the stems and leaf 

bases may develop. Also root lesion nematodes 

(Pratylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes 

(Rotylenchus spp.), Paratrichodorus spp., 

Paratylenchus sp. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Carrot aphid 

(Cavariella aegopodii) is yellow-green and causes 

foliage to curl, dry up and become covered with 

honeydew. See Carrot M 45, Roses J 4. 

M 70 

VEGETABLES

PARSNIP 


Parsnip webworm (Depressaria heracliana, 

Oecophoridae) is not known to be present in Australia 

but seriously interferes with the production of celery 

and parsnip seed overseas. 

Others: Cutworms (Noctuidae), lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana), lucerne leafroller 

(Merophyas divulsana). 



Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) is 

deep blue-black, about the size of a pin head, and has 

bright red legs. Their sucking causes leaves to look 

bleached. See Vegetables M 16. 

Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) may invade leaves 

causing speckling. See Beans (French) M 29, 


Parsnip seed wasp (Systole sp., Hymenoptera) 

larvae eat out the contents of parsnip seeds. 

They pupate inside, and wasps emerge through 

tiny holes in ripening seed in the flower heads. 

Remove and burn old parsnip seed heads and crop 

debris, avoid growing parsnip seed in the area for 

at least one season. See Seeds N 74. 


Snails and slugs may eat growing tips and leaves, 

shiny trails may be obvious. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Deformed roots: Misshapen and twisted 

roots, forking and secondary roots may develop 

for a variety of reasons. Some varieties are said to 

be more susceptible to forking than others. See 

Carrots M 46. 

Environment: Parsnips may bolt (run to seed 

prematurely). See Vegetables M 18. 




Seed viability: Parsnip seed loses its 

germinating capacity rapidly and is unlikely to 

germinate if > 1 year old. Even with good seed, 

germination is slow. 


is small, green and weak-flying. Foliage turns 

grey or yellow, due to their sap sucking. See 



Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) eats new 

leaves on crowns. Large irregular holes in leaves, 

stalks and roots may be eaten and roots extensively 

gouged and tunnelled. See Vegetables M 17. 


larvae furrow in roots, going into the core. Bases and 

stems of seedlings may be chewed causing death. 


Others: Green mirid (Creontiades dilutus), root 

mealybug (Rhizoecus falcifer), thrips 

(Thysanoptera), wireworms (Elateridae) and false 

wireworms (Tenebrionidae). 

MANAGEMENT 






Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Carrots and Parsnips : Root-knot Nematodes (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases of Parsnip (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Parsnips for the Fresh Market (Tas Farmnote) 

Parsnips in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Parsnips : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Pests and Diseases of Carrots and Parsnips (SA Fact 

Sheet) 





An industry overview has been presented by Coombs (1995). Choose varieties suited to the area and with some 

resistance to powdery mildew, eg White Gold, and bolting, eg slow bolting varieties. Some diseases are 

seedborne, eg leaf spots. Propagate by direct seeding. Selection and preparation of site: Thoroughly 

prepare the planting site. Parsnips compete poorly with weeds, which must be constantly controlled until parsnip 

leaves form a canopy that will smother young weeds. Wide row spacings with interrow cultivation is possible. 

Pre-emergence herbicides control a range of broadleaved weeds and some grasses in parsnip crops. Irrigate 

and fertilise appropriately. Parsnip may be harvested mechanically when roots are firm and of sufficient size 

but before seed is set, mature roots left or stored in the ground in warm weather may rot. Leaves are removed 

(slashed). If leaves are left attached, roots have a shorter storage life. Do not cut the top of roots. Roots are 

usually washed and placed in bulk bins, or packed into ventilated polythene bags for transport to the wholesaler. 

Parsnips have a soft flesh, avoid injury during harvest, washing and grading, which can lead to breakdown during 

storage. Cool within about 12 hours after harvest, eg at 0 o C and at very high humidity (over 95%). Estimated 

storage life is 2-6 months depending on storage conditions. Home gardeners can store uninjured roots for 

several weeks in a cool, dry place (best in a refrigerator) in perforated plastic bags to prevent them drying out. 

During winter, they may leave them in well drained ground, where they may keep until September when they 

normally go to seed. 

VEGETABLES M 71

Pea 

Pisum sativum 



Parasitic 

Virus and virus-like diseases: 




Damping off, seed rots 

Downy mildew 






Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Lucerne flea 

Mites 

Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 




Parasitic 


Pea pimple virus affects Pisum sativum Telephone, 

overseas also nasturtium. Leaves are mottled and 

become smaller with time, small enations develop 

along veins of the lower surface. Yellow spots with 

raised dead centres develop on uppersurfaces. Pods 

are small, with rounded surface enations. Few seeds, 

watersoaked lesions, flowers absciss, reduced crop 

yield. Symptoms persist. Spread by potato aphid 

(Macrosiphum euphorbiaceae), green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), not by seed. 

Pea seedborne mosaic virus (pea leaf rolling virus) 

affects pea. Symptoms vary between cultivars and 

include veinclearing, rosetting of main stem and side 

branches, small dark green leaves folded upwards 

along rib, distorted flowers, often small, distorted, 

sterile pods with a few misshapen ends. Plants 

recover soon after infection. Spread by pea aphid 

(Acyrthosiphon pisum), cowpea aphid (Aphis 

craccivora), A. fabae, Dactynotus escalanti, 

Macrosiphon crataegarius, oat or wheat aphid 

(Rhophalosiphon padi), by seed (up to 100% in Pisum 

sativum). 

Subterranean clover stunt virus (top yellows) is 

common in certain varieties causing yellowing and 

stunting of the plant. Older leaves are thickened 

and brittle and may have yellow edges. Younger 

leaves are upright, uniformly yellow and smaller and 

narrower than normal, with shortened internodes 

resulting in a rosette. Infected crops seen from a 

distance are yellowish green. Plants remain stiff and 

upright instead of lying over as do healthy ones. 

Infects many legumes, eg clovers, medics, broad 

beans, cowpeas and French beans. Spread by aphids, 

eg cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora), green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae) and potato aphid 

(Macrosiphum euphorbiae), which migrate mainly in 

September and October. 


Others: Alfalfa mosaic virus, beet western 

yellows virus, bean yellow mosaic virus, broad 

bean wilt virus, clover yellow vein virus, peanut 

mottle virus, subterranean clover red leaf virus, 

tomato big bud mycoplasma, tomato spotted wilt 

virus. 



pisi). Do not confuse with P. syringae pv. 

syringae which may cause a less serious, but more 

widespread disease, on frosted crops. During cool 

weather, spots on leaflets and stipules are dark 

brown, irregularly shaped, and become papery as 

tissue dries out or black. If infection occurs at the 

junction of the stipule and stem or between the 

midrib and leaflet, spots may be fan-shaped. 

During warm weather, leaf spots are black and 

more discrete. Stem spots are dark brown and 

elliptical, sometimes extending many centimetres. 

Pod spots are dark green and watersoaked 

initially, later becoming sunken and dark brown. 

Most common along pod suture. Overwinters in 

infected crop debris and seed. Spread by rain, 

irrigation, drainage water, machinery, people, 

animals moving through the crop when it is wet 

with rain or dew. Favoured by cool damp 

weather, overhead watering. Sanitation: Harvest 

and handle seed to avoid contamination from field 

peas, unclean bags and machinery. Avoid 

movement of people, animals and machinery 

through the crop while it is wet with rain or dew. 

People who have been in contact with bacterial 

blight should disinfect hands, clothing and 

machinery before handling seed or moving to 

uninfected crops. Plant resistant varieties and 

disease-free seed, do not save seed from infected 

crops. Serious losses have occurred in southern 

Australia especially in field peas. See Stone fruits 

F 124, Vegetables M 5. 


subsp. carotovora) may rot seed. 


Damping off, seed rots (Pythium 

spp., Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Rhizopus stolonifer), 

especially if seed is germinated in cold wet 

conditions. Treat seed with fungicide before 

sowing. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildew (Peronospora viciae) 

causes thick grey-brown growth on leaf 

undersurfaces. Leaf uppersurfaces turn yellow. 

Pod infections result in disfiguring creamy 

coloured areas. Commonly found infecting 

seedling leaves. Often not so severe on mature 

plants. See Annuals A 5. 

M 72 

VEGETABLES

PEA 


Septoria blotch (Septoria pisi): Small yellow 

irregularly shaped areas develop on lower leaves 

which later turn brown. Small black dots (fruiting 

bodies) which produce spores may be seen on 

diseased parts. Severe infection of young plants 

causes shrinking, wilting and death. Favoured by 

senescing tissue and moisture. 

Others: Cladosporium spot (Cladosporium 

pisicola), leaf blotch (Mycosphaerella tulasnei). 

Also Ascochyta, Mycosphaerella (see below). 


Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) is 

a common and serious disease of peas affecting 

leaves, stems and pods. Severely affected leaves 

die. Infected pods produce grey-brown seeds. 

Dwarfing and twisting may occur. Possibly 

seedborne. Favoured by warm dry days with cool 

moist nights, water stressed crops. Early season 

plantings are generally less affected than later 

plantings. See Annuals A 6. 


Root rot disease complex 

More than 20 different fungi can cause root rots of 

peas worldwide. In Canada about 25% of pea 

crops were estimated to have root rot disease (Tu 

1987). Root rot diseases in Australia are common 

and widespread in soil and can cause rotting of 

lower stem and roots of peas. 

Aphanomyces black root rot (Aphanomyces 

euteiches). Symptoms appear a few weeks after 

planting. Roots and lower stems are initially light 

brown, becoming dark, outer tissues become soft. 

Leaves wilt and shrivel from the base. A reduced 

crop is set, usually nearly all the crop is affected. 

Damage is often mistaken for drought injury. 

Favoured by wet conditions. Avoid poorly drained 

areas. See Vegetables M 7. 

Ascochyta foot rot and black stem, foot rot 

(A. pinodella = Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella, 

Ascomycetes) is a minor disease in NSW. Similar to 

those of mycosphaerella blight except that ascochyta 

foot rot causes more damage to the lower stem. A 

few spots may appear on stems, leaves and pods. 

Overwinters in infected debris fromprevious crops. 

Ascochyta leaf and pod rot (Asochyta pisi) is 

similar to mycosphaerella blight (Mycosphaerella 

pinodes) except that leaf and pod infection is the 

most common symptom. Rotting of lower stems is 

unusual. Spots caused by A. pisi are usually light 

brown with distinct darker margins, while those 

caused by M. pinodes are brownish-purple with 

indefinite margins. Spots range from small flecks to 

stem lesions up to several centimetres, depending on 

the weather. Spread by seed residues, spores by 

wind. Severe disease follows showery weather. 

Snow peas are very susceptible. Treat seed. 


phaseolina) attack many crop plants, eg cowpea, and 

weeds. Usually appears after flowering, as the crop 

is maturing. Affected plants senesce early and the 

lower stem and tap root show charcoal discoloured 

zones which eventually darken. Small black fungal 

bodies (sclerotia) can be seen if affected stems are 

split lengthwise. Favoured by hotter and drier areas 

in inland NSW. Infection levels up to 30%. 

Overwinters in crop residues. Sclerotia may survive 

in debris or in soil for many years, especially in dry 

soils. May be seedborne. Irrigate to avoid drying of 

soil, especially in the post-flowering period. See 


Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi) may be 

serious on crops grown on light soils during warm 

weather. Yellowing, wilting and death occurs. 

Symptoms progress from the base upwards. Water 

conducting tissues in roots and the lower part of 

the stem are reddish-brown. See Vegetables M 9. 

Mycosphaerella blight and foot rot, ascochyta 

blight (Mycosphaerella pinodes, Ascomycetes) is 

probably the most serious disease of peas. A 

dark purplish rot occurs on lower stems. Girdled 

stems cause plants to wither and die. Large purplish 

areas may also develop on upper stems, especially 

where the stem and leaf stalk meet. Leaf spots are 

brown to purple and often have an irregular outline, in 

moist weather they become circular with a zonate 

pattern (Fig. 342). Pod spots are bluish and sunken. 

Spores may survive for many years in soil. 

Seedborne. Spores are spread by wind and air 

currents from infected crop debris, infected seed. 

Favoured by cool, damp weather, crops with a dense 

canopy and associated high humidity. Avoid poorly 

drained land. 

Others: Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.), 

rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia solani), 

sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia spp.), thielaviopsis 

black root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola). 

Many cultivars have tolerance to Ontario disease 

complex (Aphanomyces, Aschochyta, Fusarium, 

Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Thielaviopsis) overseas (Tu 

1987). Phenoxy herbicides, eg MCPA and MCPB, 

predisposed peas to root rot, dinitroaniline and 

triazine herbicides, eg cyanazine, oryzalin, 

pendimethalin and trifluralin, did not. Peas grown 

in raised seedbeds had significantly lower root rot 

incidence and severity than those grown in flat 

seedbeds. Green manure crops, eg oats, sorghum 

or Sudan grass, reduced root rot severity in 

subsequent pea crops. Chisel ploughing or 

ploughing in autumn and spring, reduced root rot 

severity. Soil compaction increased root rot 

incidence and severity. On site soil indexing 

reliably determined the level of field infestation as 

well as cultivar susceptibility. Management 

programs were then developed which included 

planting resistant cultivars, seed treatments, 

avoiding MCPA/MCPB herbicides, reducing soil 

compaction, practising chisel ploughing or 

ploughing in autumn and spring, raised seedbeds, 

using soil indexing and planting green manure 

crops in the intervals between pea crops. See 



Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.); do not 

confuse with nitrogen-fixing nodules on roots. 

Also root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), 

spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus dihystera), 

stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci), 

Filenchus exiguus, Helicotylenchus dihystera, 

Paratrichodorus spp., Paurodontus apiticus. See 


VEGETABLES M 73

PEA 



Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) infests summer 

grass especially, also young beans, broad bean, 

cucurbits, pea, apple, weeds especially Medicago sp. 

in inland areas. Restricts growth of young plants, 

especially in unirrigated crops during dry weather. 

Flowering and podding may be reduced or 

prevented. Adult aphids are greenish-black, about 

2.5 mm long. They infest new growth of young 

plants and undersurfaces of older leaves, leaf 

distortion may follow. They produce honeydew on 

which black sooty mould may develop. When 

pastures dry off in spring, aphids migrate to peas. 

Good growing conditions can offset, to some extent, 

the damaging effects of aphids. 

Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) is 3 mm 

long, and pale green. It clusters on the undersides of 

the older leaves and on younger growing tips. In 

severe infestation they may cause wilting and twisting 

of leaves and retarding growth to some extent. See 

Potato M 80. 

Others: Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and 

pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). 

Aphids also spread virus diseases. See Roses J 4, 



Butterflies (Lycaenidae) are minor pests. Grass blue 

butterfly (Zizina labradus) caterpillars are about 

10 mm long, green, pink or brown with a white stripe 

down each side of the body, and covered with small 

pale brown hairs and a brown head. They feed on 

small leaves, flower buds and seed pods. Pea 

blue butterfly (Lampides boeticus) caterpillars feed 

on Fabaceae, eg Kennedia prostrata, lupin, pea. 

Young caterpillars tunnel into flowers and later pods 

to feed on developing seeds and may be accompanied 

by small ants (Crotalaria spp.). Without suitable food 

caterpillars attack each other. Overwinter as pupae 

unattached on the ground or below ground in sandy 

soil. Butterflies migrate (Common and Waterhouse 

1981). 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) is a serious 

pest and chews young foliage, flowers and pods, 

retarding growth. If infestation is heavy, peas are 

eaten out of many pods. All stages of pea crops may 

be attacked though they are at their most susceptible 

after flowering starts. Spray at early podding 

stage. Crops ready for harvest may need to be picked 

heavily before spraying to allow for withholding 

periods. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) attack young plants at, or 

near ground level, during the night. Bogong moth, 

common cutworm (A. infusa) and southern 

armyworm, barley grub (SA) (Persectania ewingii). 


Other: Lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas 

postvittana), looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis 

spp.), lucerne seed moth, etiella (Etiella behrii, 

Pyralidae), bean podborer (Maruca testulalis, 

Pyralidae), Capusa senilis, Geometridae 

Monitor bean pod borer and corn earworm damage 

prior to applying insecticides (Brough et al. 1994). 


Lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis, 

Collembola) is 2-3 mm long (Fig. 343), jumps 

when disturbed, skeletonises leaves leaving only 

main veins and lower cuticle, leaves look 

transparent. Often occurs in association with 

redlegged earth mite. More common in clay soils. 

Insecticides may be applied when lucerne fleas are 

seen. 


Earth mites (Penthaleidae) may destroy pea 

seedlings planted in weedy areas soon after they 

appear (Fig. 344). See Vegetables M 16. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae): Bryobia mite 

(Bryobia rubrioculus). Twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae) and bean spider mite 

(T. ludeni) may be a problem in hot dry weather 

(Fig. 345). Pods develop a tough surface. Monitor 

populations. See Beans (French ) M 29. 


Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) are tiny and dark. 

They attack flowers and young pods causing 

curling, distortion and malformation of young buds 

and pods. See Roses J 6, Vegetables M 17. 

Onion thrips (T. tabaci) cause leaf silvering and 

retard growth. Damage to flowers may cause them 

to drop. Infested pods are reduced in market value, 

plants may be killed. Damage is only serious in dry 

periods after thrips migration from nearby wilting 

weed hosts, during spring or early summer. See 

Onion M 68. 


Pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum, Bruchinae, 

Chrysomelidae) attacks peas, it is not a true weevil 

(Curculionidae) and cannot reproduce in stored 

grain. Infestation by pea weevils occurs only if eggs 

are laid on green pods in the field (SA Fact Sheet: 

Pea Weevil). Adults are 4-5 mm long (Fig. 346), 

brownish, flecked with white, black and grey patches. 

Larvae eat into green pods and peas, 50% of the pea 

seeds may be attacked. Damaged seeds may 

germinate if injury is confined to the cotyledons but 

seedlings are weaker and more prone to weed 

competition and damage by other pests. Adults 

overwinter in cracks in posts, under bark or in 

rubbish. Spread by adults flying, infested seed. 

Infestation arises from peas being shattered before 

or during harvest, volunteer peas or peas sown for 

grazing, pea hay, sowing infested seed. To 

minimise losses, all growers in a district should 

follow recommended control procedures. If damage 

occurred last year, then sow this season's crop far 

from previously used fields and seed storage areas. 

Harvest promptly as soon as crop is ready and 

treat/fumigate seed immediately to prevent larvae 

from developing and further loss in weight. Graze 

crop residues to reduce infested peas and expose 

larvae to sunlight which kills them. Then cultivate to 

bury remaining unharvested seed more than 200 mm 

deep to prevent beetles from emerging. Control selfsown 

peas especially in early cereal crops. Cut peas 

grown for hay before pods form to prevent weevils 

from breeding. Monitor beetles by sweeping with a 

net in flowering crops and spray before beetles lay 

eggs in pods. All peas exported to Tasmania must 

be treated. Only plant weevil-free seed. 

M 74 

VEGETABLES

Spinetailed weevil (Desiantha caudata, Curculionidae) 

may damage peas. Larvae are pale yellow, active, 

thick-set, about 6 mm long, and may be found in soil 

close to plants chewing stems of pea seedlings. 

Sometimes furrows up to 25 mm long are made on 

stems, seedlings wilt and die. Larvae attack pea 

plants if they are sown in areas that formerly carried 

other hosts. Prepare ground early prior to sowing. 

Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus) and cowpea 

weevil (Callosobruchus spp.) are both mainly 

storage pests which may first infest seed in the 

field. See Beans (French) M 31. 

Peas resistant to weevils which eat peas in store, 

are being developed. The digestion of starch in the 

weevils stomach is blocked so that they starve to 

death. See Seeds N 74. 

Others: Bean fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) and pea 

fly (Kleinschmidtimyia pisi, Agromyzidae). Crickets, 

grasshoppers, locusts (Orthoptera), green 

vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), vegetable 

leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea). Various 

stored pea pests, eg confused flour weevil, 

(Trilobium confusum), granary weevil (Sitophilus 

granarius), rice weevil (S. oryzae), rust-red flour 

weevil (T. castaneum). 


Snails and slugs chew foliage making it ragged. 



Birds will attack developing pods. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Frosting of leaves causes 

lifting and tearing of the epidermis, dead areas 

may develop between the veins. Terminal growing 

points may die causing the development of buds 

lower down the stem, this is a problem for 

mechanically harvested crops. Young developing 

leaves may become distorted about 1-2 weeks 

later. Flowers may be killed by frost. Peas are 

sensitive to heat and temperatures > 30 o C will 

cause early maturity and lower yields. 

Genetic problems: Pea seedlings were used 

to prove Mendel's theory of inheritance. Home 

gardeners who repeatedly save seeds from their 

current crop for planting the following season, 

PEA 

may produce seedlings with genetic problems, eg 

albinism (Fig. 347). Seedlings die due to lack of 

chlorophyll.. 


analysis standards are available for peas (Weir 

and Cresswell 1993). Overseas manganese 

deficiency (marsh spot) and manganese toxicity 

(purple blight) may occur on peas. 









Elder, R. J., Brough, E. J. and Beavis, C. H. S. 1992. 

Managing Insects & Mites in Field Crops, Forage 

Crops and Pastures. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Hagendorn, D. J. (ed.). 1984. Pea Diseases. APS Press, 

St Paul, Minnesota. 



and Vegetables : Shelling Peas. cur. edn. OECD, 










Handbook. 4th edn. CSIRO/NSW Agric., Griffith. 

Tu, J. C. 1987. Integrated Control of Pea Root Rot 

Complex in Ontario. Plant Disease, Jan. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Charcoal Rot (NSW Agfact) 

Diseases of Peas (NSW Agfact) 

Green Peas (NSW Agfact) 

Green Peas for Processing : Cultural Notes (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Green Peas : Seed Quality & Sowing Times (Tas 

Farmnote) 

Growing Peas for Processing (Vic Agnote) 

Growing Peas for the Fresh Market (Vic Agnote) 

Peas in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) old 

Peas : Pest and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Peas : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 

Pea Weevil (NSW Agfact, SA Fact Sheet) 

Pests and Diseases of Peas (SA Fact Sheet) 

Powdery mildew of Green Peas (Tas Farmnote) 

Snow Peas and Sugar Snap Peas (NSW Agfact) 




MANAGEMENT 

Peas are grown to eat fresh, for canning, freezing, as feed for stock, and for cut flowers. An overview of the 

industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Select quality cultivars which have some resistance to virus diseases 

and plant disease-tested seed which is free from viruses, leaf spots, root rots and pea weevil. Do not save 

seed from infected crops. Avoid using seed that has matured under hot dry conditions. Practise crop rotations 

of 2-5 years between pea crops. Sow new plantings as far away as possible from other plantings infected by 

disease or land carrying infected debris. Plant in well structured, well drained soils, peas will not tolerate 

waterlogging. Liming 3-4 weeks before sowing is essential. Dust seed before sowing (with fungicide and 

insecticide) to prevent infection by soilborne damping off fungi and insect pests. Sow at correct rate and 

distance apart, etc. Peas may need some support. Water plants sparingly until seedlings are above ground. 

Poor germination may occur if fertiliser is allowed to come into contact with the seed. Seed and seedling rots 

VEGETABLES M 75

PEA 

are encouraged by overwatering in early stages. Peas compete very poorly with weeds and so early weed 

control is necessary. Some pre-emergence herbicides are applied after the crop is sown but before seedlings 

have emerged. Care must be taken not to damage surface roots. Maintain moist surface. Some herbicides 

used on peas have a long residual life, so care must be taken with follow-on crops that are known to be sensitive 

to these herbicides. Some herbicides may damage pea plants suffering from any physical damage, downy 

mildew, collar or stem rot. At some stages in the development of a pea crop insufficient moisture may cause 

severe losses, eg when the first flowers appears. However, over irrigation before this first flowering. may lead 

to excessive straw growth, uneven setting and uneven maturity, and pod swell when the seed is expanding in the 

pod. Diseases and pests, especially caterpillar pests which attack the pods, should be monitored. 

Pesticides: Chemical controls can be difficult with peas because they have a waxy surface which sheds water 

and plants are usually very tangled. Harvest stage: Home gardeners should pick peas when plump and a 

good bright green. Pods that have a crazed pattern on the pods should be left because they are overmature and 

very starchy in taste. Maturity of commercial crops is determined by a maturometer test. Fast cooling is 

required (up to 4 hours), at 0 o C at high (90-95%) relative humidity (Salvestrin 1919). Properly harvested peas 

may be stored for 1-3 weeks. Storage and packaging procedures will depend on the end use for the peas. 

Stored peas may be damaged by storage pests, eg tropical warehouse moth (Cadra cautella). After harvest. 

plough in all crop debris or burn, as soon as possible. 

Fig. 343. Lucerne flea (Sminthurus 

viridis) about 2-3 mm long. 

Fig. 342. Circular zonate spotting caused by 

mycosphaerella blight and foot rot (Mycosphaerella 

pinodes). 

Fig. 345. Twospotted mites (Tetranychus urticae) crawl 

over webbing on a pea crop. 

Fig. 346. Pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum). Pea seeds 

with large round exit holes and a pea weevil (4-5 mm 

long) that has recently emerged from one of them. 

Fig. 344. Redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor). 

1. Six-legged 1st stage nymphs. 2. 2nd stage nymphs with 8 

legs. 3. Adult redlegged earth mites. 4. Eggs laid on surface 

of soil. Enlarged about 22 times. 5. Subterranean clover 

showing injury caused by the mites feeding on the leaves. 

Actual size. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 347. If seed is continually saved from pea crops, 

25% of seedlings may lack chlorophyll (albinism). 

M 76 

VEGETABLES

Potato 

Solanum tuberosum 



Parasitic 






Early blight, target spot 

Late blight, Irish blight 

Root, stem and tuber rots, wilts 

Potato black wart 

Scab diseases 


Potato cyst nematode (PCN) 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 




Leafhoppers 

Mites 

Onion thrips 


Potato moth 

Potato wireworm 


Weevils 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Seedpiece breakdown 


Parasitic 


Some virus diseases are more important than others. 

Some infect only potato, others potato and related 

plants while others have a wide host range. 

Symptoms vary from no visible effect (latent viruses) 

to mottled leaves, small tubers and reduced yields . 

Potato leaf roll virus affects potato, and occasionally 

other Solanaceae, eg tomato, thornapple (Datura 

stramonium), apple of Peru (Nicandra physalodes), 

gooseberry (Physalis spp.), shepherd's purse (Capsella 

bursa-pastoris), dead nettle (Lamium amplexicaule). 

Seedborne infection causes rolling of lower leaves 

first, and plants have a rattling sound when shaken. 

Aphidborne infection causes rolling of upper 

leaves first. Stems may be thickened at leaf 

junctions. Tubers may be small with spindly 

sprouts and internal browning. See Vegetables M 1 

(Fig. 292). Plants are often stiff, stunted and erect. 

Spread by aphids, eg green peach aphid (Myzus 

persicae), potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), 

by vegetative propagation (tubers), by movement of 

infected tubers, not by mechanical inoculation, not by 

seed, not by pollen. Do not plant seed crops near 

table crops or older infected crops. 

Potato viruses X, S and Y (PVX, PVS and PVY): 

PVY has a wide host range, eg potato, tomato, 

capsicum, tobacco, petunia, bulbs, roses, Kennedia 

coccinea, weeds. PVX and PVS individually cause 

mild mosaic or no visible symptoms. Tuberborne 

infection with PVX and PVY together in one plant 

cause crinkling, mottling and stunting of leaves. 

Aphidborne infection with PVY causes leaf 

spotting, blackening of leaf veins and stems (leaf drop 

streak). Infected plants die early. Spread: PVX by 

contact. PVX and PVY by aphids and contact. 

Tomato big bud, purple-top wilt (tomato big bud 

mycoplasma) causes upward rolling and pigmentation 

of young leaves, erect leaf stalks. Leaves of whiteflowered 

cultivars turn yellow, leaves of 

pigmented flowered cultivars turn red or purplish 

depending on variety, stems also become pigmented. 

Crops grown under high moisture develop a bunched 

appearance. Stems eventually yellow and collapse, 

lower stems show internal browning. There is no 

greening of flowers. Tubers of infected plant may 

be flabby, form spindly sprouts and be discoloured at 

stem end. Aerial tubers may form on stems. See 

Tomato M 97, Vegetables M 1 (Fig. 292). 

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) causes brown 

dead spots or rings on potato leaves, most severe on 

younger leaves which may be killed. The shoot 

apex may be blighted and killed. Old leaves may 

show zoned, torn brown spots. TSWV in planting 

material may be detected using ELISA (Enzyme 

Linked Immunosorbent Assays). See Tomato M 96. 

Others: Alfalfa mosaic virus, beet western yellows 

virus, cucumber mosaic virus, lucerne (Australian) 

latent virus, potato A virus, potato virus M, potato 

aucuba mosaic virus, potato spindle tuber viroid (Glen 

Innes collection). 

Overwinters in older infected crops, seed tubers, 

volunteer tubers in soil, infected hosts especially 

weeds near crops. All viruses are spread by use 

of infected tubers. Some also by aphids, 

mechanical inoculation, contact between infected 

and healthy plants, cutting tools and other 

implements. Measures to minimise losses: 

Avoid growing young crops near older infected 

potato crops and other hosts. Destroy weeds 

known to harbour insect vectors. Some new 

varieties have resistance to potato leaf roll virus 

(resistance of Omega and Spunta is probably due 

to resistance to aphid colonisation). Katahdin and 

Sebago are field-resistant to PVA and Katahdin has 

some resistance to PVY. Plant certified seed 

potatoes. Where disease is a problem, commercial 

growers may attempt to control aphid vectors by 

spraying field crops in spring and early summer to 

reduce numbers of infected plants. See Vegetables 

M 4. 



Black leg (Erwinia carotovora pv. atroseptica) causes 

a soft rot of potato. An inky black decay of the stem 

starting below ground level may progress rapidly up 

one or more stems. Leaves roll and yellow, plants 

wilt and die. The seed tuber is usually rotted. Tubers 

produced by affected plants may rot from the stem 

end, emerging stems rot. Favoured by cool weather. 

E. chrysanthemi causes a rapid soft rot of seed 

tubers and an offensive smell in hot climates. 

VEGETABLES M 77

POTATO 

Bacterial soft rot (E. carotovora pv. carotovora) 

causes a soft light rot of tubers with an offensive 

smell. Soft depressed areas occur around lenticels. 

Sebago is very susceptible. Soft rot in warmer 

weather and maturing crops, attacks many vegetables. 

Rotating potatoes with brassicas increases 

susceptibility. 

Field control: Avoid damage to stems by wind, 

machinery, fertiliser, and mechanical injury to 

tubers during and after harvest, do not harvest 

under wet conditions. Store tubers in cool, well 

ventilated conditions. Allow adequate ventilation 

between tubers and bags/bins. Isolate affected 

tubers where rot is detected in seed. Never allow 

tubers to become wet except when dipping against 

other diseases. If tubers do get wet, dry rapidly. 

Freshly cut seed can be rapidly invaded by soft 

rot so cure rapidly then plant as soon as possible. 

Regularly clean and disinfect/sterilise seed cutting 

and handling equipment between different seed 

lots. Use only clean water to wash potatoes, do 

not wash potatoes before storage. Sebago is very 

susceptible. Plant certified seed potatoes. Plant 

whole tubers if possible. See Vegetables M 5. 


Bacterial ring rot (Corynebacterium michiganense pv. 

sepedonicum) is a serious vascular wilt disease of 

potato in North America and Europe. Leaves wilt and 

vascular rings in tubers are discoloured. Quarantine 

risk: Infected tubers are the greatestrisk of introducing 

this disease into Australia (Com. of Aust. 1985). 

Bacterial wilt, brown rot (Pseudomonas solanacearum) 

may affect plants in hot weather at any age, foliage is 

not discoloured, plants wilt and eventually die. When 

infected stems at ground level and tubers are cut 

across, vascular tissue is brown and bacteria ooze 

out (this does not occur with fungal wilts). Milky 

bacteria ooze from tuber eyes (milky eye), soil 

adheres to eyes. Practise crop rotations of 3 

years. Avoid planting in infested land. Clean 

machinery, disinfect tools. Chlorinate water used in 

washing tubers, grade tubers prior to washing, 

minimise movement of machinery from affected areas 

and clean before transporting. Bring only new bags 

into properties. Contractors may spread diseases on 

machinery. Avoid very susceptible varieties, plant 

certified disease-tested seed potatoes which 

have a nil tolerance. See Vegetables M 6. 




(Alternaria solani) is a major disease of potato. 

Host range: Potato, tomato, related plants, eg 

eggplant and nightshade (Solanum nigrum). 

Symptoms: Angular, concentrically zoned dark 

brown spots on leaves. Older, lower leaves are 

affected first. Spots may enlarge quickly, blighting 

foliage. Shallow pits occur on tubers, tissue 

directly under pits turns brownish-black. 

Overwintering: Infected plants and crop debris 

(for at least a year), older diseased crops and 

weeds, eg nightshades, by seed in tomato. 

Spread: Spores spread by wind, air currents, 

rain, irrigation, farm machinery and insects from 

infected plants and crop debris. Spores from 

foliage infect tubers. Seedborne on tomato. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, wet weather but 

only needs slight humidity, morning dews. 

Develops between flowering and maturity. 

Crowded tomato seedbeds. Overhead irrigation. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Rotate crops so that potatoes 

do not follow tomatoes, to allow time for 

infected crop debris to break down. Prepare 

seedbeds properly. Avoid overhead irrigation. 

Sanitation: Destroy old crops after harvest. 

Resistant varieties: Some cultivars have some 

resistance. Cultivar selection is important. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant diseasefree 

tubers. Spread to healthy tubers in storage 

is not known, but possible in sprouting racks 

during rising spring temperatures. 

Pesticides: Fungicides may be applied from 

flowering onwards. 


Scientific name: Eumycetes: paper 

Late blight (Phytophthora infestans) occurs in 

Australia. It caused famine in the 1840s in Ireland 

and could now cause a famine in South America. 

A new strain imported from Mexico has spread 

across Europe. 

Host range: Potato, tomato, other Solanaceae. 

Symptoms: Dark areas on leaves (Fig. 348), 

often commencing at leaf margins, leaves shrivelor 

rot. Delicate white fungal growth may develop on 

leaf undersurfaces around lesion edges. Infection 

can extend from leaves to stems. Infected tubers 

have brown to purple black metallic sunken areas 

on the surface. Underneath tissues are reddish 

brown (Fig. 348). Tubers may rot and be invaded 

by secondary organisms causing soft smelling rot. 

Overwintering: Infected plants and tubers. 

Spread: Spores are spread by wind and water on 

to foliage and tubers; contact of diseased foliage 

with tubers at harvest; planting infected tubers. In 

wet weather each spore produces a number of 

smaller spores which swim in the moisture on 

leaves, tubers. 

Conditions favouring: Humid weather with 

cool nights (10-15 o C) and warm days (21-27 o C). 

Overhead irrigation. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Allow diseased plants to die 

down completely before digging. Do not cover 

tubers with dead plants. Sort out affected tubers 

before bagging and storing. 

Resistant varieties: Attempts to breed more 

resistant cultivars have only been partially 

susceptible. Avoid highly susceptible varieties 

where disease is a problem. 

Disease-free planting material: Plant only 

healthy seed tubers; ensure no infected tubers 

from a previous crop stay in the ground. 

Pesticides: Fungicides may be necessary. 

Strains have emerged in the USA which show 

resistance to most of the fungicides used during 

the 1980s. 

M 78 

VEGETABLES

POTATO 

Root, stem and tuber rots, wilts 

Anthracnose, black dot (Colletotrichum coccodes) 

infects Solanaceae and produces abundant black dotlike 

sclerotia on affected tubers, stolons and 

stems. Young leaves may show vein death, 

interveinal scorching, rolled leaf margins. Plants may 

wilt, older leaves may yellow. See Fruit F 5. 

Fusarium diseases (Fusarium spp.) causes many 

tuber rots of potato, eg F. avenaceum, F. solani, F. 

sulphureum. Dry rot (Fusarium spp.) is a dry sunken 

rot, tubers have a wrinkled appearance. Pockets in 

tuber rot are generally filled with white or pink 

wefts of fungus which may be present on the outer 

surface (see below). If the rot starts around the point 

of attachment it is known as stem end rot and may 

indicate the presence of fusarium wilt in the parent 

crop. Powdery dry rot (F. trichothecioides): Areas 

of tuber are shrivelled and brown, often with small 

tufts of surface fungal growth. Underlying tissue rots 

and develops cavities filled with fungal threads. A 

band of light brown to dark brown tissue surrounds 

the rotted area. See Vegetables M 7. 

Gangrene (Phoma exigua f.sp. foveata) is a minor 

disease causing shallow thumb-mark depressions on 

tuber surfaces on which small black fruiting bodies 

develop during cool moist conditions in the field and 

postharvest in storage. 

Leak (Pythium spp.) attacks a wide range of vegetables. 

Fungus invades tubers through injuries. Tubers 

develop a watery rot that quickly develops during 

transport and storage. See Vegetables M 7. 

Pink rot (Phytophthora spp., not P. infestans which 

causes late blight) infects tubers. A watery rot 

develops in transit and storage. Rotted tissue turns 

almost black when exposed to air, the skin of affected 

tubers breaks easily, releasing watery liquid. Within a 

few days nothing may be left except a thin papery 

skin. Favoured by harvesting and storage under hot 

dry conditions. See Vegetables M 7. 

Rhizoctonia disease, black scurf (Rhizoctonia 

solani) attacks all stages of growth. The host range of 

the strains attacking potatoes is unknown. Young 

sprouts from newly planted tubers rot and may not 

emerge above ground, top leaves may crowd together 

(rosette), affected plants may die. Black resting bodies 

(sclerotia) up to 8 mm across form on tubers, which 

may be pitted or cracked. Seed potatoes may be 

infected. Favoured by cool moist conditions in early 

stages of growth. See Vegetables M 7. 

Sclerotinia rots, white moulds (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum, S. minor) cause watery rots of stems 

and leaves near ground level, foliage wilts and 

yellows. A white fungal growth and black sclerotia 

develop on rotted areas. Disease is most obvious 

10-14 days after the last hilling. See Vegetables M 7. 

Silver scurf (Helminthosporium solani) causes buff 

areas on tuber skins. Large areas look silvery when 

wetted, and gradually become dark brown, often with 

a sooty black fungal growth on their surfaces. In 

severe cases the outer cells of the tuber skin may 

slough off causing tubers to shrink. 

Stem-end hard rot (Phomopsis tuberivora) causes a 

hard, dry corky rot at the stem end of tubers. Rotted 

areas sink and enlarge to a circular patch. Eventually 

whole tubers rot and may mummify. Small black dots 

(fruiting bodies) develop on rotted tubers. Favoured 

by dry soil conditions approaching harvest. 

Wilts: Fusarium wilt (F. oxysporum) causes stunting, 

yellowing and wilting of foliage, death of plants. 

Stems are brown and rotted at and below ground 

level. Internal woody parts of stems above rotted 

areas are brown. Tubers show a ring of discoloured 

tissue near the veins. Verticillium wilt, early dying 

(Verticillium dahliae): Plants wilt, are pale green or 

yellow and age early. Vascular tissues in stems and 

tubers are light brown (brown rings in tubers). Plant 

resistant cultivars. Possibly other Verticillium spp. 

may occur on potato in Australia. See Vegetables M 9. 

Others: Armillaria root rot (Armillaria sp.), ashy 

stem blight, charcoal rot (Macrophomina 

phaseolina), phoma stem spot (Phoma eupyrena), 

powdery mildew (Oidium spp.), rhizopus soft rot 

(Rhizopus stolonifer), sclerotium stem rot 

(Sclerotium rolfsii), tuber discolouration 

(Plectosphaerella cucumerina), violet root rot 

(Helibasidium purpureum). Also Acrostalagmus 

cinnabarinus, Gibberella cyanogena, Gliocladium 

penicillioides, Trichocladium sp. 

Most of these fungi are soilborne and enter 

through wounds. Most cultivars are susceptible, 

there are exceptions. Inspect seed consignments 

on arrival and reject those affected; hot water seed 

treatments remove seedborne infection. Dip seed 

in recommended fungicide before planting. Do 

not harvest immature tubers, or dig or store, tubers 

under wet conditions. Prevent injury to tubers 

during harvest and discard tubers with damage. 

Avoid digging on hot dry days and keep tubers out 

of hot air and sunlight. Store under recommended 

conditions to toughen the skin and heal cuts and 

bruises. Allow tubers to dry before bagging, apply 

recommended fungicides to tubers before storing. 

See Vegetables M 7, M 9. 

Potato black wart (Synchytrium 

endobioticum) is a serious disease of potatoes in 

NZ and other countries. It causes potatoes to 

produce abnormal wart-like growths in the region 

of the eyes of tubers. Quarantine risks: Affected 

potatoes and soil contaminated with spores of the 

fungus pose the greatest damage. The fungus can 

also infect tomatoes and a few other Solanaceae 


Scab diseases 

Common scab (Streptomyces scabies, an 

Actinomycete, not a fungus) affects potatoes, turnips, 

beets. Scabs on tubers vary from deep pits 5-8 mm 

across to less commonly corky raised areas, 

depending on cultivar, district and season. Spots may 

coalesce to cover most of the tuber surface. Infection 

occurs through lenticels when tubers are young. 

Favoured by dry seasons, alkaline soils. Practise 

long rotations using grass or cereal crops. Do not 

lime soil. Keep soil moist for at least 4 weeks after 

tubers begin to form. Irrigate plants as recommended. 

Powdery scab (Spongospora subterranea, 

Plasmodiophoromycetes) affects potato, tomato, 

nightshade, other Solanaceae. Wart-like swellings up 

to 10 mm across form on tubers. These break open 

to form a scab, releasing brown powdery spore balls. 

Swellings form on roots or stolons only. Disease may 

develop in storage (a dry rot). Secondary organisms 

may invade lesions. Favoured by cool moist 

conditions, especially in wet areas or where crops 

have been heavily watered to reduce frost injury. Soil 

temperatures < 18 o C and high soil moisture in early 

stages infection. Crop rotation is not an effective 

control. Do not lime before growing a winter potato 

crop in light acid soils. Plant resistant varieties. 

VEGETABLES M 79

POTATO 

Both scab diseases overwinter in contaminated 

seed tubers and soil and are spread by planting 

infected tubers, movement of infested soil on 

machinery, footwear and equipment, water. Only 

plant pathogen-tested seed in disease-free soil. 

Seed and soil treatments may be necessary. 

Others: Septoria leaf spot (Septoria lycopersici). 


Potato cyst nematode (PCN) (Globodera 

rostochiensis) attacks potato, other Solanaceae, eg 

capsicum, eggplant, tomato, nightshade. Low 

populations of the nematodes may not be noticed. 

Growth may slow, yellow, wilt and dieback early. 

High populations may reduce crop yield by up to 

90% as a result of smaller tubers (tuber quality 

and quantity are not affected). One life cycle is 

completed with each crop. Eggs in cysts remain 

dormant in soil for years. When potato plants 

grow, substances exuded by roots stimulate eggs to 

hatch into larvae which move into the soil and 

penetrate host roots just behind the root tips. They 

establish a permanent feeding site and develop into 

adults. Males leave the root but females remain 

attached by the head and neck only (Fig. 349). 

Females produce 300-500 eggs which are retained 

in the body. Females die with the root and the skin 

hardens and tans, forming a protective cyst for the 

eggs. PCN is spread in the same way as root knot 

nematodes. Currently, PCN is present on properties 

near Perth and Melbourne (1994). Contact local 

Departments of Agriculture if PCN is suspected to 

obtain information on quarantine regulations to 

prevent spread (Com. of Aust. 1991, 1993). 


may be important pests of potato in light sandy 

soils. Rounded raised lumps develop on tubers, 

occasionally lumps occur on roots (Fig 350). Do 

not plant infected tubers. Plant certified nematodefree 

tubers in nematode-free soil. Maximum 

residue limits (MRLs) exceeding the legal limit for 

a nematicide (fenamiphos) is sometimes found in 

spot market checks. See Vegetables M 10. 

Others: Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus 

spp.), spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus dihystera, 

Rotylenchus spp.), stem and bulb nematodes 

(Ditylenchus spp.), also Paralongidorus spp., 

Scutellonema brachyurum, Tylenchorhynchus capitatus. 



Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) (GPA) is about 

2 mm long and smaller than potato aphid. Wingless 

adults are green, pale yellow or pink, winged adults 

are green with darker markings. Aphids are active 

and tend to infest undersurfaces of lower leaves as 

well as new shoots. See Stone fruits F 129. 

Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) is green, 

slow moving, about 3 mm long with long slender 

cornicles. Winged and wingless forms occur together, 

infesting potato, many crops and weeds. 

Others: Rice root aphid (Rhopalosiphum 

rufiabdominalis) sucks sap from roots causing wilting, 

may be a serious pest. Also bulb and potato 

aphid (Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon). 

Both species suck sap from leaf undersurfaces of 

older leaves, causing leaf curling and wilting. They 

produce honeydew, but more seriously transmit 

virus diseases, eg potato leaf roll. GPA is the more 

important insect vector. Leaf hairs on potato are 

tipped by tiny sacs filled with a substance that sticks 

to any insect that alights on the leaf. Small insects 

starve, larger ones that ingest the glue develop 

severe constipation. Crossbreeding of wild 

resistant varieties with hairy leaves with 

commercial high-yielding varieties may be used to 

combat aphids. Usually seed potatoes are greensprouted 

before planting; infestation and infection 

can occur at that stage if the green sprouting is done 

outdoors. Regular spraying to control aphids may 

be necessary if potatoes are grown for seed. 

Monitor aphid populations after emergence before 


Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 


Green mirid bug (Creontiades dilutus) is a minor pest 

of potato, it is 6 mm long and moves rapidly among 

potato blossoms. Infested buds when sucked dry 

turn yellow, dry out and fall. Blossom production 

may be suppressed but tuber production is not 

affected. See Vegetables M 12 

Green potato bug (Cuspicona simplex, Pentatomidae) 

is related to the spined citrus bug (Biprorulus bibax) 

and is a pest of a range of crops. See Citrus F 36. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) is green, 

shield-shaped, about 15 mm long and may suck sap 

from growing tips causing wilting of terminal 

growth in spring. Monitor wilted tips up to flowering 



Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is a grey-brown bug 

about 5 mm long. It often swarms on potato crops in 

spring feeding on shoots and foliage; plants wilt 

and may die. Considerable damage may occur in a 

short time. See Vegetables M 12. 

Others: Potato bug, potato capsid (Calocoris 

norvegicus, Miridae). Trilaccus, Miridae may feed 

on potato and Cape gooseberry 



Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) caterpillars 

may cause minor damage to leaves. Monitor 

damage. See Sweetcorn M 89. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) may cut off growing stalks of 

potato seedlings at ground level at night. They may 

also chew holes in lower leaves. Injury may be 

important in the early stages of establishment. See 


Loopers (Chrysodeixis spp.) may attack potato crops in 

some seasons and may do extensive damage in a short 

time. They are most troublesome in spring-grown 

potatoes. Control is difficult. See Vegetables M 13. 

Others: Overseas tomato and tobacco hornworms 

(Protoparce spp. Sphingidae). 


M 80 

VEGETABLES

POTATO 


(Orthoptera): Black field cricket (Teleogryllus 

commodus) feed on exposed tubers in the field and 

mole crickets (Gryllotalpidae) may burrow in 

maturing tubers. Also spur-throated locust 

(Nomadacris guttulosa), wingless grasshopper 

(Phaulacridium vittatum). See Vegetables M 13. 


vaporariorum) and Bemisia sp. frequently infests 

potatoes, suck sap from leaves and produce 

honeydew. Monitor populations prior to spraying 

(Brough et al. 1994). See Greenhouses N 24. 



Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) 

and its larvae feed on the foliage of potato and other 

Solanaceae in Europe and North America causing 

severe crop losses. Quarantine risks: Beetles may 

be transported on vehicles, containers, ships, aircraft 

and more commonly associated with vegetables, 

seeds, grains and nursery stock (Com. of Aust. 1984). 

Potato flea beetle (Xenidea picticornis) damage 

Solanaceae, eg potato, rhubarb, bean tomato, weeds. 

Adults are metallic-blue stout beetles about 3 mm 

long with a smooth, finely pitted surface. They jump 

when disturbed and lay eggs on stems. They chew 

small irregular holes in leaves (shot-holed). Larvae 

are cream, about 12 mm long, bore in stems which 

may wilt. Yield is not usually reduced. Favoured 

by dry weather in spring. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Others: Pumpkin beetle (Aulacophora hilaris), 

tobacco flea beetle (Epitrix hirtipennis, threelined 

potato beetle (Lema trivittata) larvae feed on Cape 

gooseberry, potato, other Solanaceae. 




about 3-4 mm long and brownish and spreads purple top 

wilt (tomato big bud mycoplasma). Vegetable 

leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea) is yellow-green 

about 4 mm long. Crops may be stunted. Both 

species are small, mobile insects which suck sap from 

stems and leaf undersurfaces causing greyish white 

stippling on leaves. Large numbers may affect vigour. 

They feed on native species and invade crops when their 

usual hosts dry off in warm dry conditions. Monitor 

leafhoppers before applying insecticides (Brough et al. 

1994). Potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) occurs 

overseas. See Vegetables M 15. 


Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) is an 

occasional major pest of potato. Leaf under 

surfaces become bronzed or russetted, followed by 

in-rolling of leaves, often resembling hormone 

herbicide injury. Growth is stunted. Monitor 

damage (Brough et al. 1994). See Greenhouses N 26. 

Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) including 

twospotted mite (T. urticae). Leaves may turn 

yellow and fall. Leaf undersurfaces are covered with 

fine grey webbing among which the tiny mites, and 

their round colourless eggs are visible. Control is 

rarely necessary. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others Blue oat mite (Penthaleus major), bryobia 

mite (Bryobia rubrioculus). 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) may stunt 

plants by feeding on leaf undersurfaces which 

become dull silvery or bronzed. Injury is generally 

not important. Thrips are vectors of tomato 

spotted wilt virus which can infect potatoes and 

many other plants. See Onions M 68. 


Leafeating ladybirds 

Scientific name/Host range: Coccinellidae, 

Coleoptera: 

Twentyeight-spotted potato ladybird (Epilachna 

vigintisexpunctata vigintisexpunctata) is primarily 

a pest of potatoes and other Solanaceae. 

Twentysix-spotted potato ladybird (Epilachna 

vigintioctopunctata pardalis) commonly feeds on 

cucurbits. Both species feed on beans, weeds, eg 

nightshade, thornapple, paddymelon, false castor oil. 

Description and damage: Beetles are oval, 

strongly convex, about 6 mm long with chewing 

mouthparts. They are mainly yellow-orange with 

26 or 28 black spots. Do not confuse with aphideating 

ladybirds which have only 18 spots or fewer on 

its wing covers. Larvae are yellow-green, about 6 

mm long and covered with long, black spines. 

Adults feed on leaf uppersurfaces, while the 

larvae generally feed on undersurfaces. Leaves 

are skeletonised, but adults may also chew holes. 

Leaves wither, plants look scorched. Young crops 

may be severely injured, reduced tuber yield. See 

Cucurbits M 54, M 57 (Fig. 330). 


larva, pupa, adult) with many overlapping 

generations during spring, summer/autumn. Female 

beetles lay eggs in spring on leaf undersurfaces. 

Larvae pupate on the food-plant, or nearby litter. 

All stages may be found on the plant at once. 

Overwintering: As inactive adults. 

Spread: Beetles do not fly readily but are 

assisted by wind. Infested seedlings. 

Conditions favouring: High humidity as in 

coastal or irrigated areas. October to April. 

Control: 

Sanitation: Destruction of infested crops as soon 

as possible after harvest may assist control. 

Biological control: Little information is available 

on their natural enemies, but the furry larvae 

may deter some known parasites and predators. 

Pesticides: Apply foliage sprays or dusts at the 

first sign of infestation. Monitor damage at 

regular intervals before making a decision to 

apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). 

Potato moth 

This is the most destructive pest of potatoes. 

Scientific name: Gelechiidae, Lepidoptera: 

Potato moth (Phthorimaea operculella) 

Host range: Solanaceae, vegetables, eg potato, 

tomato, field crops, eg tobacco, weeds, eg 

thornapple, nightshade. 

Description and damage: Moths are browngrey, 

with a wingspan of about 12 mm. They hide 

among the plants during the day. Caterpillars are 

up to 12 mm long, with a dark head, grey-pink if it 

feeds in tubers or dark green if it feeds on foliage. 

VEGETABLES M 81

POTATO 

Caterpillars mine in leaves, later they tunnel into 

stems, terminal sections may die. Plants die 

prematurely. More seriously, caterpillars also 

tunnel in tubers in the field and in store, 80% of 

tubers may be infested. Heavy infestations in bags 

may reduce contents to a decaying mass. 

Pest cycle: Complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, 

pupa, adult) with several generations each year. 

Moths lay eggs on leaf undersurfaces and around 

eyes or surface scars on tubers. Caterpillars feed 

in leaves, stalks and tubers. When fully-fed they 

pupate in plant debris on the ground or between 

tubers in contact or in folds of bags. 

Overwintering: In cooler areas as pupae. 

Spread: By moths flying, assisted by wind. 

Introduction of infested tubers, bags, other containers. 

Conditions favouring: Warm to hot, dry 

weather in cooler areas. Ground cracks which 

remain open due to lack of rain or irrigation allow 

moths and larvae from top growth to reach tubers. 

Unirrigated plants are attractive to moths for egg 

laying. Delay in bagging and removal from field. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Practise crop rotation (3-5 

years). Protect tubers from attack by providing 

adequate humus in soil and irrigation. Hill 

tubers with soil during formation to protect 

them from attack. After harvest, tubers should 

be bagged, sewn up and removed from the field 

as soon as possible, especially in warm sunny 

weather. 

Sanitation: Destroy crop debris, volunteer potato 

plants, related plants and weeds promptly after 

harvest. Clean storage area of debris. Dust sound 

tubers and cool store to protect against the moth. 

Biological control: Several wasp parasites 

(Pantiles subacidness, Copidosoma koehleri, 

Orgilus lepidus) have been introduced as 

possible biological control agents. 

Resistant varieties: Egg laying is significantly 

less on leaves with pubescence (hairy leaves). 


certified caterpillar-free tubers/seed. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Cold store 

prevents caterpillar development. 

Pesticides: Monitor moths by pheromone traps 

and mines/leaf, and parasites at regular intervals 


Otherwise spray as soon as leaf damage appears 

when caterpillars are small. Protect stored 

tubers to prevent further infestation; insecticides 

do not kill caterpillars feeding in potatoes. 

Potato wireworm (Hapatesus hirtus), 

other wireworms (Elateridae) and false 

wireworms (Tenebrionidae) may bore into tubers, 

leaving narrow round holes. See Seedlings N 69. 

Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) 

African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) is shiny, 

black, about 12 mm long and chews at stem bases 

which wilt and collapse, eyes of setts in the ground 

and may bore into new tubers that may lead to 

rotting. See Turfgrasses L 7, Vegetables M 16. 

Large pasture scarab (Rhopaea magnicornis) larvae 

that have been feeding on grass roots turn to potatoes 

planted in newly cultivated pasture. Potato stems 

may be severed below ground or round deep holes 

gouged in tubers. No control measures can be 

recommended once attack has appeared. A long 

fallow is required between ploughing and planting a 

potato crop. See Turfgrasses L 11, Vegetables M 16.. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): 

Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) is greybrown, 

about 9 mm long and can quickly strip potato 

plants. During winter, light green, legless larvae up 

to 12 mm long may feed on lower leaves and 

stems, but damage is not serious, plants grow away 

from it. See Vegetables M 17. 

Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma) is 

greyish with a short broad snout, 10-13 mm long, 

and in late summer may migrate to potato crops from 

nearby weeds to strip leaves. Larvae are legless, 

white-grey with brown heads and may damage 

young plants and gnaw furrows and pits in 

maturing tubers. In Tasmania prescribed procedures 

limit its spread. See Vegetables M 17. 

Others: Potato stalkborer (Trichobaris trinotata). 

Overseas Andre potato weevil (Premnotrypotes sp.). 

Others: Termites (Isoptera) may tunnel inside 

stems and tubers of potatoes planted in freshlycleared 

land near bushland. Infestations start from a 

dead tree stump or log in the crop or on adjoining land. 

Potatoes are reached through underground galleries. 

Outside rows are more likely to be attacked than others. 

Also lucerne flea (Sminthurus viridis). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Black heart (oxygen deficiency of 

internal tuber tissue) occurs in storage and transit due to 

suffocation of tissue (high temperatures and poor 

ventilation). Dark brown to black areas in the centre of 

the tuber (Fig. 351). All cultivars seem to be 

susceptible. Brown fleck (tubers with irregular brown 

spots through the flesh, usually towards the centre, 

especially in large tubers) (Fig. 352). Favoured by light, 

acid, dry soils. Do not plant badly flecked tubers. 

Hollow heart (cavities in the tuber centre) is caused by 

excessively rapid tuber enlargement due to rapid flushes 

of growth following uneven growing conditions, eg 

watering or fertilising (Fig. 353). Avoid wide hill 

spacing, irrigate to ensure even growth, mix fertiliser 

evenly into soil. Kill vines if necessary to prevent 

oversized tubers. Sequoia is susceptible. Lenticels 

enlarge to form corky areas during excessive soil 

moisture before harvest. These dry out to form evenly 

distributed common scab-like lesions over the tuber 

surface. Severe frost will kill potatoes. 


analysis standards are available for potato (Weir and 


Poisonous properties: All parts of the potato 

plant contain toxic alkaloids, eg solanines. They are 

also present in the tuber but normally in negligible 

amounts. Under certain conditions, eg after incorrect 

(excessive action of daylight) or overlong storage, the 

alkaloid content can reach concentrations which are 

critical for humans. When potatoes sprout and become 

green, intensive production of alkaloids is initiated 

especially in the skin and eyes. The biosynthesis of the 

alkaloids is not necessarily connected with an increase in 

M 82 

VEGETABLES

POTATO 

chlorophyll, so that potatoes which have not changed 

colour may already be toxic. It is important not to 

develop varieties which contain higher levels in the 

tubers. The way in which potatoes are prepared 

greatly affects their palatability. Well peeled and boiled 

potatoes are very much less dangerous (removal of the 

solanines with the peelings and in the water used for 

boiling) than unpeeled, baked ones as the alkaloids are 

largely heat stable (Frohne and Pfander 1983). 

Seedpiece breakdown is rotting of the seed 

piece and lower stem and roots. Plants may fail to 

emerge, or produce weak shoots. It is a physiological 

disorder caused by the growing conditions of the seed 

crop, storage conditions, length of storage and handling. 

Susceptible consignments cannot withstand cutting 

injury and are then easily rotted by soft rot bacteria and 

fungal tuber rots, eg Fusarium, Rhizoctonia. 





Com. of Aust., Plant. Quar. Leaflets, Aust. Quar. & 

Inspection Service, Dept. of Primary Industries: 

Colorado Potato Beetle. 1984. No.15. 

Bacterial Ring Rot of Potato. 1985. No.21. 

Potato Black Wart. 1987. No.14. 

Potato Cyst Nematode. 1996. No.2. 

Com. of Aust. 1993. Potato Cyst Nematode. Hort. Policy 

Council, 







Gurr, G. M. 1995. Effect of Foliar Pubescence on 

Oviposition by Phthorimaea operculella Zeller 

(Lepidoptera : Gelechiidae). Plant Protection 

Quarterly, Vol.10(1). 

Harris, P. (ed.). 1992. The Potato Crop. Chapman & 

Hall, London. 

Hooker, W. J. 1981. Compendium of Potato Diseases. 

APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 

Kitching, R. L. (ed.). 1986. The Ecology of Exotic 

Animals and Plants. Ch. 10. The Potato Moth : An 

Adaptable Pest of Short Term Cropping Systems. 

John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane. 

Lisinska, G. and Leszczynskil, W. 1989. Potato Science 

and Technology, Chapman & Hall, London. 



and Vegetables : Potatoes. cur. edn. OECD, Paris. 









Rowe, R. C. (ed.). 1993. Potato Health Management. 




Melbourne. 

Stackhouse, J. 1995. Potatoes Take on the World. Aust. 

Hort., June. 



Brisbane. 



Melbourne. 



Zehnder, G. W., Powelson, M. L., Jannson, K. V. and 

Raman, K. V. (eds). 1994. Advances in Potato Pest 

Biology and Management. APS Press, Minnesota. 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Bacterial Wilt of Potatoes 

Common Scab and Rhizoctonia Diseases of Potato 

Diseases of Potatoes 

Insect Pests of Potatoes 

Late Blight of Potato 

Potato Cyst Nematode 

Weed Control in Potatoes 

Tas Farmnotes 

Avoiding Losses when Storing Potatoes 

Common Scab of Russet Burbank Potatoes (Tas Service 

Sheet) 

Gangrene and Fusarium Dry Rot of Potatoes 

Growing Potatoes for Processing 

Growing Potatoes for Sale as Fresh Tubers 

Growing Potatoes for Use as Seed 

Irish Blight of Potato 

Potato Moth 

Potato Kit 

Potato Sprout Inhibitors 

Preparing and Planting Potato Sets 

Storages for Processing & Fresh Market Potatoes 

Tasmanian Potato Cultivars 

Watch Out for Potato Cyst Nematode (Tas. Service Sheet) 

Wilt Diseases of Potato 

Vic Agnotes 

A Growth Regulator for Potatoes and Onion 

A Simple Chamber for Curing Cut Potatoes 

Calculating Requirement for Potato Seed 

Chemical Residues and the Potato/Vegetable Grower 

Commercial Vegetables Kit 

Common Scab of Potatoes 

Control of Potato Leaf Roll Virus in Seed Crops 

Cultivation of Potatoes 

Curing Cut Seed Potatoes 

Fertilisers for Potatoes 

Fusarium Wilt of Potatoes 

Greening of Potatoes 

Growing Potatoes in the Central Highlands 

Handling and Storage of Seed Potatoes 

Killing Potato Tops 

Potatoes : Sowing Pasture in Rotation 

Potatoes : Round Seed Improves Crop health, Yield & 

Profit 

Potatoes : Bacterial Wilt 

Potatoes : Black Leg and Soft Rot 

Potatoes : Disease Control 

Potatoes : Factors affecting Dry Matter 

Potatoes : Irrigation 

Potatoes : Measurement of Specific Gravity 

Potatoes : Pest Control 

Potatoes : Phoma or Gangrene 

Potatoes : Root-knot Nematodes 

Potatoes : Weed Control 

Rhizoctonia or Black Scurf Disease of Potatoes 

Seed Potato Certification Scheme 

Target Spot (Early Blight) of Potatoes (Vic Agnote, SA 

Fact Sheet) 

The Potato Moth 

Potato Varieties 

Potato Variety : Tarago 

The Victorian Seed Potato Certification Scheme Based on 

Pathogen-tested Stock 

Weed Control Programs for Potatoes 

Wireworms in Potatoes 

WA Farmnotes 

Bacterial Soft Rot or Brown Rot of Potato 

Fungal Diseases of Potatoes 

Fungal Diseases of Potatoes 

Potato Cyst Nematode 

Powdery Scab of Potatoes (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 


Atherton Potato Growers Association 

Australian Potato Industry Council (APIC) 

Australian Vegetable & Potato Growers Federation 

(AUSVEG) 

NSW (Crookwell) Potato Growers Association 

Potato Australia 

Queensland Fruit & Vegetables Growers 

Association (formerly COD) 

Seed Potato Certification Scheme (DARA) 


VEGETABLES M 83

POTATO 

MANAGEMENT 

Different varieties are grown for boiling, canning and chips. An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs 

(1995). Where possible plant varieties with some resistance to local problems. Plant certified pathogentested 

(PT) seed potatoes from Seed Potato Certification Schemes which have a nil or prescribed tolerances for 

the many diseases which are tuberborne. In some areas certified seed potatoes should be planted every year or 

every 2nd year. Miniature potato seed tubers can now be grown in a factory environment so that new seed 

potatoes can be produced in 2 years rather than at the present 8-10 years (Stackhouse 1995). Tubers may be 

green-sprouted before planting so that any tubers with weak spindly sprouts caused by virus or other diseases 

can be destroyed. Disinfect all tubers used for seed to ensure against losses from seedborne rhizoctonia and 

scab diseases. Tubers can be treated at any time before the beginning of sprouting, but seed treated before 

storing is less subject to decay than untreated stock. Also propagated by tissue culture. Cultural methods: 

Temperatures must be suitable for growing potatoes. Practise crop rotations of 4-5 years to reduce diseases 

which survive for several years in soil in crop refuse and decaying soil organic matter in the absence of hosts. 

Lime is needed for a crop used in rotation with potatoes. Lime should be applied early, leaving as much time as 

possible between liming and planting the next potato crop. This discourages the common scab organisms. Do 

not plant in infested land. Plant in well drained soil, dug deeply, in an open sunny site; fertilise and irrigate 

appropriately. Sanitation: Do not plant crops near diseased potato refuse. Crops for seed tubers are 

regulated, eg seed plants need to be planted in tuber-units to allow more accurate roguing and fewer sources of 

infection to establish throughout the plot. Control weeds between rows and on headlands to discourage build 

up of virus-carrying insects. Plant quarantine: The introduction of potatoes into Australia is strictly controlled 

as is the movement between some states/regions within Australia. Pesticides: Fungicides, insecticides and 

herbicides are registered for use on potatoes. Harvest when tubers are mature and an acceptable size. In the 

absence of vine-killing frosts defoliants may be used. Do not dig tubers in wet soil or leave tubers lying on the 

ground longer than necessary. Discard tubers obviously damaged or diseased. Avoid injuring tubers during 

grading, bagging, transport and storage to reduce losses from postharvest bacterial and fungal diseases, eg 

soft rot (Erwinia spp.), alternaria rot (Alternaria alternata), rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer). Store in a cool, 

dark, place with good ventilation; prevent sprouting. Make sure tubers are free from soil. Tubers may be cured 

to promote rapid healing of cut or injured tissue. Do not allow tubers to dry out as they will shrivel and the 

protective corky covering formed will crack. Tubers for fresh market or seed can be stored under recommended 

conditions, eg 3-4 o C and 90-95% relative humidity. Between each growing season clean out and destroy all 

refuse in storage rooms, shelves and racks. 

Fig. 348. Late blight, Irish blight (Phytophthora infestans). Left : Tuber cut across. 

Right : Watersoaked areas with mouldy margins on leaves. NSW Dept. of Agric. 

Fig. 349. Cysts on potato roots caused by potato 

cyst nematode(Globodera rostochiensis). 

Fig. 350. Rounded lumps on tubers caused 

by root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). 

Fig. 351. Black heart (oxygen 

deficiency). NSW Dept. of Agric. 

Fig. 352. Brown fleck (light, acid, 

dry soil). NSW Dept. of Agric. 

Fig. 353. Hollow heart. (rapid growth 

flushes). NSW Dept. of Agric. 

M 84 

VEGETABLES

Rhubarb 

Rheum rhabarbarum 

Family Polygonaceae 


Parasitic 



Downy mildew 



Rust 



Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Mites 

Weevils 


Non-parasitic 

Bolting 

Environment 


Poisonous leaves 


Parasitic 



carotovora). See Vegetables M 5. 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) may form 

galls up to 300 mm across on rhubarb. See Stone 

fruits F 125. 


Downy mildew (Peronospora jaapiana) is the 

most important disease of rhubarb. Light brown 

areas develop on leaves. Initially the discolouration 

is more conspicuous on leaf uppersurfaces and 

spots are limited by the larger veins but eventually 

large sections of the leaf become brown. Under 

moist conditions a downy fungal growth is seen 

on the undersurface of the spots. As disease 

advances, dead areas become torn giving leaves a 

ragged appearance. Severe defoliation can occur 

under wet conditions. See Annuals A 5. 

Fungal leaf spots, eg black spot (Ascochyta 

rhei). Small, circular, brown spots develop on 

leaves initially and enlarge, still maintaining their 

circular shape and develop reddish brown borders. 

Numerous tiny pycnidia (black spore-producing 

bodies) develop in the spots. Eventually parts of 

the dead tissue drop out and if conditions favour 

disease development, plants may lose most of their 

leaves. Small, oval to oblong reddish-brown spots 

that lengthen with age and extend 10 mm or more 

along leaf stalks. Pycnidia also develop in these 

spots. See Annuals A 5, Vegetables M 1 (Fig. 294). 


Phytophthora root and crown rot (Phytophthora 

nicotianae pv. parasiticae) causes a firm brown to 

black rot of the root and stem tissue. Sunken, 

watery, greenish-brown lesions rapidly form at the 

base of leaf stalks and the rot can progress rapidly 

causing the whole leaf to collapse suddenly. 

Secondary bacterial infections usually occur 

causing affected stalks to decay rapidly. See Trees 

K 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Others: Grey mould, stem rot (Botrytis cinerea), 

rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani), 

sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia minor, S. sclerotiorum), 

sclerotium crown rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). 

Plant disease-free crowns in well drained 

disease-free soil, remove and burn any diseased 

plants. Crowns being grown from seed should be 

raised in pasteurised soil to ensure freedom from 

Phytophthora and other diseases. See Vegetables 

M 7. 

Rust (Puccinia rhei-undulati, Uredinales, 

Basidiomycete) may attack rhubarb during warm 

humid weather. Raised orange- red pustules 

containing orange-red spores develop on leaf 

undersurfaces and leaf stalks, sometimes in a 

circular pattern. Severe infection can kill leaves. 

Brownish spots develop on the uppersurface. See 

Annuals A 7. 


Beet nematode (Heterodera schachtii), root knot 

nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans), spiral 

nematode (Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus), also 

Coslenchus, Criconemoides, Hemicycliophora, 

Paratrichodorus, Paratylenchus, Nanidorus minor, 

Scutellonema brachyurus, Tylenchus (McLeod et 

al. 1994). See Vegetables M 10. 


There are no really serious insect pests of rhubarb. 




Aphids may swarm on rhubarb causing wilting and 

producing unsightly honeydew during spring and 

late autumn. See Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 


A mirid bug (Creontiades sp.) may severely 

damage rhubarb plants around Sydney. It is active, 

slender, rectangular, pale green with long legs and 

antennae. It sucks sap from growing points causing 

serious distortion or stunting of growth. This bug may 

be the green mirid C. dilutus but this is unconfirmed. 


Others: Green stink bug (Plautia affinis), green 

vegetable bug (Nezara viridula), harlequin bug 

(Dindymus versicolor), Rutherglen bug (Nysius 

vinitor). 


VEGETABLES M 85

RHUBARB 


Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura): Young 

caterpillars feed in clusters and graze patches of 

surface tissue, usually on leaf undersurfaces. 

When large, they chew big holes in the leaves. Late 

summer and autumn. See Brassicas M 40. 

Oriental cornborer (Ostrinia furnacalis, Pyralidae) 

caterpillars tunnel in the leaf petioles and burrow in 

the stems of rhubarb, pale knotweed, spiny emex, 

inkweed, and on one occasion, in north NSW, 

commercially grown Populus deltoides. A minor pest 

of rhubarb. 

Others: Cutworms (Agrotis spp.), grapevine hawk 

moth (Hippotion celerio). 




leaves and stalks to become rusty or silvery, 

distorted, the injury is sometimes similar to that of 

2,4-D herbicide. Younger inner leaves are most 

affected. There may be a considerable reduction in 

vigour. See Greenhouses N 26. 

Rust mite (Eriophyidae) infests leaf undersurfaces of 

rhubarb during summer and autumn. Leaves 

develop a brown or bronze colouration and slightly 

shiny look and may curl downwards at the edges, later 

withering and drying out. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) during hot dry 

weather, may attack rhubarb, especially if it is planted 

near old beds of beans or cucumbers infested 

previously. Foliage is speckled and grey, with grey 

webbing on leaf undersurfaces. Plants lose vigour. 



Snails and slugs are likely to be a considerable 

nuisance, especially after prolonged wet weather. 


Non-parasitic 

Bolting: Pinch out any flower heads that 

appear. See Vegetables M 18. 

Environmental: Hail can rip the large leaves. 

Leaves may wilt in hot weather but recover;water 

well in hot weather, soil must be well drained. 

Leaves may be sunscorched, but do not confuse 

this damage with that caused by downy mildew. 


analysis standards are available for rhubarb 

(Weir and Cresswell 1993). Soil must be acidic 

and large quantities of organic m atter are 

necessary for optimum growth. Excessive 

nitrogen fertiliser results in very leafy plants. 

Poisonous leaves: Leaves contain oxalic 

acid but poisoning is considered to be due to the 

presence of reduced anthracene glucosides rather 

than oxalic acid poisoning (Frohne and Pfander 

1983). Do not eat leaves or feed to poultry or 

other stock. 


Weevils (Curculionidae) 

Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus cervinus) nibble 

pieces out from leaf edges, producing a saw-tooth 

appearance in late summer and autumn. See Roses 

J 6, Vegetables M 17. 

Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) larvae may 

feed on rhubarb. See Vegetables M 17. 



arator) chews the fleshy bases of rhubarb crowns at 

ground level, if planted in old pasture, or when 

beetles move in from adjoining breeding areas. 

Crickets, grasshoppers, locusts (Orthoptera), eg 

black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus), mole 

crickets (Gryllotalpidae), wingless grasshopper 

(Phaulacridium vittatum). Flea beetles (Galerucinae) 

jump readily, they make small holes in the foliage. 

Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa australis) may 

suck sap from stems and leaves. 

MANAGEMENT 













Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Diseases of Rhubarb (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Rhubarb (Vic Agnote) 

Home Vegetable Garden Books (Most States/Territories) 




Rhubarb is one of the few perennial vegetables and is grown for the fresh market, canning and freezing. An 

overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Choose varieties with some resistance to disease, eg 

downy mildew. Transplant only disease and pest-free crowns and plant in disease-free soil. Dip seed and 

crowns in fungicide before planting. Propagated by seed or preferably by division or setts taken from 

established plants. Replant crowns every 3-4 years. Extensive bed preparation is necessary for successful 

growth, plant crowns in well drained friable soil, and keep weed-free. On rhubarb, no herbicides are listed for 

use and many pesticides have to be 'approved'. Harvest stalks with a downwards and sideways action, remove 

all leaves from the cut stalks. Rhubarb is ethylene sensitive. Cool quickly. Store and transport at 0 o C at very 

high relative humidity (> 95%) for 2-3 weeks (Salvestrin 1991). 

M 86 

VEGETABLES

Sweetcorn 

Zea mays var. saccharata 

Family Poaceae (grass family) 


Parasitic 




Damping off 

Downy mildews 

Ear rots 


Root and stalk rots 

Rusts 

Smuts 




Black field earwig 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 

Corn aphid 

Corn earworm 

Crickets, locusts 

Maize leafhopper 




Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Faulty tasselling 



Parasitic 


Sugarcane mosaic virus (Johnson grass strain) may 

damage sweetcorn, maize, sorghum, Johnson grass 

(Sorghum halepense), various grasses. Mosaic or 

ringspot patterns of light and dark green in leaves. 

Leaves yellow in very susceptible cultivars. Plants 

infected early in the season may be stunted. On some 

hybrids, husks gape, increasing grain rot. Early 

infection reduces grain yields. Overwinters in host 

plants. Spread by aphids, eg corn aphid 

(Rhopalosiphum maidis), which is the main vector. 

Favoured by Johnson grass and other hosts near 

sweetcorn crops, seasons favourable for aphid vectors 

during summer (spring plantings may avoid high 

disease levels). Control host grasses close to crops. 

Grow resistant cultivars. 

Others: Barley yellow dwarf virus, cereal chlorotic 

mottle virus, chloris striate mosaic virus, maize mosaic 

virus, maize sterile stunt virus, maize stripe virus. 



Bacterial soft rot, top rot (Erwinia carotovora 

subsp. carotovora). Overseas Stewart's wilt 

(E. stewartii) is a major disease in parts of the USA. 

In Australia, also bacterial streak (Xanthomonas 

campestris pv. holcicola). 


Damping off (Fusarium spp., Pythium spp., 

other species) can cause seed or seedling rots 

before or after emergence, especially in early 

plantings when conditions are cold and wet, and 

germination and growth slow. Resowing may be 

necessary. Plant good quality undamaged treated 

seed when soil is reasonably warm. Use in well 

drained soil, do not overwater. See Seedlings N 66. 

Downy mildews (Eumycetes) 

Crazy top downy mildew (Sclerophthora 

macrospora) is a minor disease of grasses and cereals 

but may cause significant losses in some sweetcorn 

crops. Plants are stunted, yellowed with thickened 

leathery leaves and may not tassel. If tassels develop 

they resemble a mass of leafy structures (crazy top). 

Overwinters in soil for many years. Seedborne 

transmission can occur but may not be important. 

Favoured by saturated soil, low lying areas, cool 

temperatures, crops watered or subject to heavy rain 

after sowing. Sow into prepared moist seedbeds. 

Downy mildew, Java downy mildew 

(Peronosclerospora maydis) is probably endemic in 

northern Australia on plume sorghum (S. plumosum) 

and may cause severe losses in sweetcorn and 

maize. Plants are systemically infected soon after 

emergence and become resistant with age. Leaves 

develop pale yellow stripes (resembling virus 

infection). Spores are produced on yellow areas of 

younger plants but not on older plants which become 

severely distorted. Multiple cobbing, deformed or 

leaf-like tassels and cobs, elongated or shortened 

stems. Ensure that seed is treated before planting. 

(Persley 1994). Sorghum down mildew (P. sorghi) 

is a serious disease of maize and sorghum overseas 



Ear rots (Diplodia sp., Fusarium spp., Khuskia 

oryzae, Nigrospora sphaerica, Phaeotrichoconis 

crotalariae, Trichoderma viride) may cause severe 

losses on sweetcorn and maize grown for seed 

especially if harvesting is delayed by wet weather. 

Except for Diplodia, most can infect other cereals and 

grasses. They may reduce yield, quality, seed 

vigour and establishment of seed from diseased 

ears if sown for subsequent crops. Damage may be 

restricted to scattered individual kernels on the cob or 

the whole ear may progressively rot. Kernels are 

usually discoloured and shrivelled. Fungal growth is 

formed by F. moniliforme, and if extensive, husk 

tissues are bound together and may shred from the tip. 

Overwinters on diseased crop debris. Most fungi 

causing ear rots are also associated with stalk rots. 

Spread from diseased crop debris by spores during 

wet, windy weather. Secondary spread from spores 

released from newly infected ears also occurs. 

Seedborne. Favoured by above average rainfall 

during cob filling, insect and bird damage. Practise 

crop rotation to reduce the carry-over of fungi on 

diseased debris. Harvest crops as soon as possible 

and destroy crop debris immediately after harvest. 

Hybrids with poor husk cover or thin seedcoats are 

often very susceptible. Sow only disease-free seed 

of high vigour for new sowings. Ear-damaging 

insects should be controlled. Penicillium moulds 

(Penicillium spp.) and grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) 

may be postharvest diseases. 

VEGETABLES M 87

SWEETCORN 


Turcicum leaf blight, northern blight (Exserohilum 

turcicum, Ascomycetes) affects sweetcorn, maize and 

probably grasses. Strains are probably host specific. 

Elongated greenish-grey spots restricted by the larger 

leaf veins develop initially on the lower leaves. 

Spots may join together, leaves wither and die. As 

spots dry out they become black (fungal spores) in the 

centre. Cobs may be small. Disease is common on 

sweetcorn in Qld. Severe blight may occur before or 

during tasselling reducing cob fill and yield. 

Favoured by warm, wet weather, humid coastal 

regions, late sown crops. Avoid late sowings of 

susceptible hybrids and rotate crops. Destroy 

volunteers before sowing. Grow recommended 

resistant or tolerant hybrids. 

Others eg Cochliobolus spp., Colletotrichum 

graminicola, Curvularia brachyspora. 


Root and stalk rots include fusarium rots 

(Fusarium spp.) which are the most common, also 

ashy stem blight, charcoal rot (Macrophomina 

phaseolina), diplodia stalks rot (Diplodia sp.) and 

sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). Stalk rots 

are probably responsible for more damage than 

any other diseases. Plants are infected early in their 

growth, but symptoms do not usually appear until after 

flowering. As plants mature, they senesce early and 

many may be blown over. Affected tissues are 

discoloured, usually red with Fusarium infections 

and grey-black with Diplodia and Macrophomina. 

Minute fruiting bodies of the fungi may be present, 

especially on the nodes. Stalk rot can extend for 

some distance above ground and into roots. Seed and 

grain from affected plants may be small and of poor 

quality. Favoured by prolonged wet, warm weather. 

Moisture stress post-flowering can accentuate losses 

from stalk rots. Control: Sow at correct times to 

avoid extreme hot weather during and after flowering. 

Avoid moisture stress from overcrowding and postflowering. 

Apply a balanced fertiliser. Grow hybrids 

tolerant to stalk rots. See Vegetables M 7. 


Rust (Puccinia sorghi) is a common but minor 

disease. Reddish-brown pustules up to 2 mm long 

develop on leaf upper and undersurfaces, leaves 

wither and die. Build-up of rust in new sowings can 

be rapid. and often appears just after tasselling. Yield 

may be reduced. Favoured by warm wet weather, in 

higher rainfall coastal districts in late plantings. Early 

plantings avoid high disease levels. Destroy 

volunteer maize and sweetcorn plants before sowing. 

Currently recommended hybrids usually do not 

become severely affected provided they are sown 

early in the season. Some super-sweet hybrids are 

highly susceptible. If disease is likely to be serious 

and planting is to be late in the season, use resistant 

cultivars. Sow at correct density and fertilise to 

maintain vigorous growth. 

Tropical (polysora) rust (Puccinia polysora) may 

attack sweetcorn and maize in North Qld during warm 

wet weather. Small round reddish brown pustules 

develop on leaf uppersurfaces, severely affected 

leaves die early. Pustules produced on midveins and 

leaf sheaths are larger than those on the leaf and 

irregular in shape. Plant resistant cultivars where 

the disease occurs (Persley 1994). 


Smuts (Ustilaginales, Basidiomycetes) 

Common smut, boil smut (Ustilago zeae) is a 

serious, world-wide disease of maize, sweetcorn 

and the related grass Euchlaena mexicana, causing 

significant yield losses. It is a minor, sporadic disease 

occurring on the north coast of NSW and in 

neighbouring areas of southern Qld. Swellings (boils, 

blisters, galls) up to 200 mm across form on cobs, 

stems, tassels and leaves. Young galls are pale 

green, later brown-black masses of spores are released 

and are spread by wind, with seed or stock food and 

in soil adhering to vehicles, clothes, machinery and 

animals. Spores may overwinter in soil for years 

and under favourable conditions germinate to produce 

aerial spores (sporidia) which are spread by air 

currents and rain splash to infect young host tissues 

and stimulate them to form galls. Specific control 

measures are not warranted, most hybrids have at least 

a reasonable level of resistance to boil smut. 

Departments of Agriculture should be advised of 

suspected outbreaks. 

Head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana) is a minor disease 

of maize and sorghum. Specific strains occur on each 

host. Although plants are infected as seedlings, 

symptoms are not seen until tasselling. Flowering 

parts are replaced by a mass of black smut spores. 

Entire tassels may be affected or, more commonly, 

only individual spikelets. Ears may abort or be 

replaced entirely by black smut spores. Affected 

tassels and ears are distorted and leafy structures may 

replace some of the normal floral structures. 

Overwinters in seed, and may survive in soil for 

many years. The most important source of infection 

is from the soil. Fungicide seed treatment will 

not prevent infection from soilborne spores. Spores 

germinate with the maize seed and infect the young 

seedlings. The fungus grows within the plants and 

produces smut symptoms at flowering. During 

harvest, spores in smutted heads are spread on to 

healthy seed or fall into the soil to become sources of 

infection for later crops. Infected seed. Seedling 

infection is favoured by soil temperatures of 

18-20 o C and moderate to low soil moisture. Rotate 

crops to avoid buildup of soil-borne inoculum. 

Grow resistant hybrids. Sow only treated seed. 

Others: Brown spot (Physoderma maydis), 

cob, ear, leaf and stalk rots (Gibberella spp.), 

ear rot, leaf spot (Setosphaeria sp.), rhizopus 

grain rot (Rhizopus stolonifer, root and stalk rots 

(various species). 


Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), root lesion 

nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), burrowing 

nematode (Radopholus similis), citrus nematode 

(Tylenchus exiguus), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus dihystera, Rotylenchus parvus), 

Criconema mutabile, Ditylenchus sp., Filenchus 

spp., Gracilacus mutabilis, Hemicycliophora sp., 

Hexatylus sp., Neopsilenchus magnidens, 

Paratrichodorus spp. See Vegetables M 10. 

M 88 

VEGETABLES

SWEETCORN 


African black beetle (Heteronychus 

arator) is about 12 mm long and shiny black. It 

may attack establishing sweetcorn and maize crops, 

resowing may be necessary. Beetles chew large, 

ragged holes in the stems of young plants, just 

below the soil surface, killing the growing point so 

that the central roll of leaves withers and plants 

become 'dead-hearted' (Fig. 354). Damaged young 

plants usually produce suckers. Older, established 

plants may survive attack but remain weakened 

and prone to falling over. Maturing plants may be 

attacked by large numbers of beetles feeding at 

their bases. Beetles may then attack ripening 

cobs. See Turfgrasses L 7, Vegetables M 16. 

Black field earwig (Nala lividipes) is 

about 10 mm long, narrow bodied and shiny black 

with prominent curved 'forceps' at the rear of the 

body. They feed on decaying stubble, germinating 

seeds and roots of young plants, killing or 

weakening them. Feeding on the prop roots may 

cause plants to fall over as they get larger. 

Favoured by heavy soils with high organic matter 

content and are usually most numerous in stubble 

mulched paddocks. Losses can be reduced by 

using a press-wheel at planting. Monitor earwigs 

by baiting or shaking out soil samples onto white 

sheets before applying an insecticide (Brough et al. 


Bugs (Hemiptera): 

Green vegetable bug (Nezera viridula) may suck sap 

from the base of young cobs stunting or deforming 

them. They may also pierce husks and puncture 

grains. Damaged grains do not develop or may 

become dry and shrivelled. See Vegetables M 12. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) may cause serious 

damage under hot dry conditions by sucking sap 

from the foliage. Adults are 5 mm long, brown and 

have silvery wings folded over the body. 

Insecticides may be applied when observed. See 



Armyworms and cutworms (many species) chew 

through stems of seedlings at or below ground level 

and may eat top growth. They may climb older 

plants, chew leaves and feed like corn earworm 

(Helicoverpa armigera)ontassels, silks and tops of 

cobs. Defoliation at silking reduces seed yield. 

Monitor caterpillars and damage at regular intervals 

before spot spraying infested areas (Brough et al. 

1994). See Seedlings N 68. 

Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) is the most 

serious pest of sweetcorn. See below. 

European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis, 

Pyralidae) is considered to be one of the most 

serious insect pests affecting maize overseas. If 

introduced to Australia it could cause serious damage 

to maize and other crops. Caterpillars feed in spaces 

between husks, between the ears and the stalk and 

when larger they tunnel in tassel stems causing them 

to break. Genetically engineered maize is being 

developed which contains a gene from Bacillus 

thuringiensis which makes a toxin lethal to the corn 

borer and other agricultural pests. Insects feeding on 

such plants die. It is not known whether insects will 

develop resistance. Quarantine risks: The most 

likely means of entry would be as larvae or pupae 

infesting plants or plant parts, eg as dried floral 

arrangements, straw of plant debris, eg maize. 

Quarantine prohibits the entry of maize and 

sorghum stalks. Any straw articles allowed entry are 

treated with heat. Imported farm machinery which 

could be contaminated with infested crop debris is 

treated as required. Imported broom millet also 

requires special attention (Com. of Aust. 1990). 

Sugarcane and maize stemborer, large cane moth 

borer (Bathytricha truncata, Noctuidae). Caterpillars 

are up to 40 mm long and pink on their upper 

surfaces. They damage stems of young plants and 

leave stems through holes bored near ground level. 

Central leaves of damaged plants wither, turn 

brown and the plants may sucker. Usually only 

scattered plants around the perimeter of crops are 

affected. Control measures are seldom warranted. 


caterpillars tunnel in stem nodes weakening plants, 

which may fall over later when cobs are heavy. Holes 

where caterpillars have entered stalks are usually 

covered with frass. Caterpillars may also feed in 

kernels especially at the distal end. Control is not 

usually required. Plough in infested crops as soon as 

possible after harvest. See Stone fruits F 133. 

Others: Grass caterpillar (Herpetogramma 

licarsisalis). 


Corn aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis, 

Aphididae) about 1.5-3 mm long, winged or 

wingless, green and black. Nymphs resemble 

adults but are wingless. Large colonies may form 

on leaf undersurfaces, in funnels or throats of 

plants, on tassels, silks or ears of sweetcorn (Fig. 

355). During dry weather heavily infested leaves 

may bleach, redden and shrivel. Aphids also cause 

poor kernel set and unattractive cobs. Corn 

aphid is a minor pest, but can transmit virus 

diseases and there is nil tolerance for some 

markets, eg Japan. Natural controls, eg weather, 

ladybird beetles, parasitic wasps and larvae of 

hover flies, normally control infestations. Aphids 

are difficult to control chemically in ears. See 

Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 

Corn earworm 


Corn earworm, cotton bollworm, tomato grub, 

tobacco budworm (Helicoverpa armigera) is a 

major and frequent pest. Native budworm 

(H. punctigera) also atttacks sweetcorn. 

Other earworms attack other plants, eg 

Cape gooseberry budworm (H. assulta) 

Indian weed caterpillar (Heliothis rubrescens) 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg calendula, 

carnation, everlasting, hollyhock, snapdragon, 

fruit, eg young apple, peach, strawberries, 

vegetables, eg tomato, bean, maize, sweetcorn, 

field crops, eg cotton, corn, clover, medic, weeds. 

Description and damage: Moths are stout with 

a wingspan of about 40 mm. They are generally buff 

to reddish-brown with darker markings on the 

forewings and a black area at the outer margin of pale 

hindwings. The darker markings on the forewings are 

more distinct in H. armigera than in H. punctigera. 

There is a distinct light patch in the dark area of the 

VEGETABLES M 89

SWEETCORN 

outer margin of the hindwings of H. armigera which 

is rarely present in H. punctigera. Moths hide among 

foliage during the day and fly at dusk feeding on 

nectar and laying eggs on young growth. 

Caterpillars, budworms or earworms grow to 

about 40 mm. Initially pale green or cream they 

change to shades of green, fawn, yellow, buff or redbrown 

depending on the host. Brown or black stripes 

run along the body (Fig. 356). Younger stages have 

conspicuous bristle-like hairs, but fully-fed caterpillars 

appear smooth. They have a coarse appearance, fairly 

long prolegs. Caterpillars feed on unfolding leaves 

in throats of young plants, plants look ragged. If early 

infestation is mild, plant growth is unaffected. 

Caterpillars feed on tassels, silks and developing 

seeds on tops of cobs. Damage to tassels is not 

important but feeding on silks and tops of cobs 

produces cobs with poorly filled-out tops and 

encourages moulds. Caterpillars bore through husks 

and enter middle or lower parts of developing cobs. 


caterpillar, pupa, adult) with several generations each 

year. Moths live for about 2 weeks and each female 

lays about 1,000 white dome-shaped eggs singly on 

tips of young growth, sepals, petals and young fruits 

and flower buds. Caterpillars may feed on young 

foliage or flowers but soon move to buds, flowers or 

young fruit and eat their way in. Small caterpillars 

make a small, entry hole but larger caterpillars may 

move from one pod or fruit to another making 

obvious entry holes. They pupate in soil. 

Overwintering: As pupa in soil. 

Spread: Moths can only fly for short distances up 

to 50 m but can still cover very long distances from 

where they emerged to new hosts in bloom. They are 

attracted to lights. Moths of the native budworm 

(H. punctigera) seem to be migratory and may move 

long distances from areas where caterpillars 

developed. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, moist weather. 

Emergence of moths from pupae is stimulated by 

rainfall or irrigation and delayed by long dry spells. 

H. armigera is more common in coastal and 

subtropical areas and northern areas. H. puntigera is 

widely distributed throughout the inland and southern 

states. Usually there are 2 main periods of infestation, 

spring-early summer and autumn. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Plough to destroy pupae in soil. 

Biological control/Resistant varieties: Natural 

enemies, eg parasitic wasps (Trichogramma) 

which may be purchased, predacious insects, 

diseases and birds. Hot wet conditions favour 

disease development in caterpillars and may 

reduce numbers. Natural controls are of limited 

effectiveness in vegetable crops. Virus diseases 

occur during humid weather and affected 

caterpillars hang in an inverted position from the 

plant, skin is fragile and ruptures readily releasing 

liquefied body contents. Genetically engineered 

plants are being researched so that virus particles 

can be synthesised in the leaves (O'Neill 1994/95). 

Genetic engineering may develop plants which 

contain a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis which 

makes a toxin lethal to certain insects feeding on 

such plants. The development of such plants 

reduces the need for spraying. It is not known 

whether the insects will develop resistance. 

Physical and mechanical: Cut off tops of ears 

after harvest and before marketing. 

Pesticides: H. armigera has developed resistance 

to many insecticides. In some areas certain ones 

may only be used at certain times of the year. To 

confirm that H. armigera is present and not 

H. punctigera (which is easily controlled with 

insecticides), CSIRO has developed a test which 

involves squashing eggs and larvae on to Lepton TM 

membranes, a purple stain indicates H. armigera. 

Monitor moths and eggs regularly during tasselling 

and silking before applying insecticides (Brough et 

al. 1994). Number and frequency of sprays 

depends on duration and intensity of egg laying and 

weather particularly temperature. 

Crickets, locusts (Orthoptera) 

Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) 

Black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus) 

Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) 

Spur-throated locust (Nomadacris guttulosa) 

Yellow-winged locust (Gastrimargus rotundipennis) 


Maize leafhopper (Cicadulina bimaculata, 

Cicadellidae) sucks sap commonly from sweetcorn, 

maize and grasses during which they are thought 

to inject a toxin which is considered to cause 

wallaby ear, ie leaves are dark green, short, stiff 

with enlarged veins on leaf undersurfaces. Plants 

affected when young are stunted. The possibility 

of virus involvement cannot be ruled out. Most 

sweetcorn hybrids are fairly resistant to damage. 

Monitor leafhoppers and incidence of wallaby ear 


1994). See Trees K 15, Vegetables M 15. 


(Monolepta australis) may swarm into crops in 

summer and autumn and feed on foliage, tassels, 

silks and husk at the top of cobs. Damage to 

foliage and tassels is unimportant but injury to 

silks may impair seed set. Cobs exposed at the tips 

may be susceptible to attack by other insects and 

moulds. Monitor infested plants and % flag eaten 

at regular intervals before applying insecticides 


Wireworms (Elateridae), false wireworms 

(Tenebrionidae) bore into underground stems 

killing the growing point of seedlings, causing 

'dead-hearted' plants. Wireworms may attack 

germinating seed if germination is slow in cold, 

wet soil. See Seedlings N 69. 

Others: Cockroaches (Blattodea), driedfruit 

beetles (Carpophilus spp.). Maize thrips 

(Frankliniella williamsii) may infest whorls and slow 

growth of young plants especially under stress, eg 

drought, waterlogging. Several sprays may be needed 

for control. Stored insect pests, eg maize weevil 

(Sitophilus zeamais). Overseas, stemborers (Chilo 

spp.) may be serious pests of sugarcane, sorghum, 

rice, maize, millet and various grasses (Com. of Aust. 

1996). 


Birds and mice may damage seed in the field. 


M 90 

VEGETABLES

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Sweetcorn may be damaged by 

frost at any stage of growth. Leafrolling is a sign 

of water stress. 

Faulty tasselling: Genes which produce this 

phenotype include 2 dominant and 3 recessive in 

hybrid corn. Some recessive genes are only 

expressed and triggered by certain conditions, eg 

in this instance, by cool and cloudy weather during 

summer plantings which could be a chance event 

or a regular problem (Fig. 357). If such problems 

are recurrent, breeders should be notified. 


analysis standards are available for (Weir and 

Cresswell 1993). Deficiencies of manganese and 

zinc may occur. 





Com. of Aust., Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, Dept. 

of Primary Industries. Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

European Corn Borer. No. 8. 1990. 

Sorghum Downy Mildew. No. 23. 1990. 

Stemborers. No. 83. 1996. 




Elder, R. J., Brough, E. J. and Beavis, C. H. S. (eds). 

1992. Managing Insects & Mites in Field Crops, 

Forage Crops and Pastures. Qld Dept. of Primary 


MANAGEMENT 

SWEETCORN 

O' Neill, G. 1994/95. Turbo-Charged Viruses Speed 

Insect Kill. Ecos 82. Summer. 




Persley, D. M., and Syme, J. R. (eds). 1990. Field Crops 

and Pastures : A Disease Management Guide. Qld 







Handbook. 4th Ed.. CSIRO/NSW Agric. 

Shurtleff, M. C. (ed.). 1980. Compendium of Corn 

Diseases. 2nd edn. APS Press, Minnesota. 








Industry eg 

A Guide to the Identification and Control of Insect Pests in 

Maize Crops in the Ord River Irrigation Area 

(WA Dept of Agric) 

Boil Smut of Maize (NSW Agfact) 

Commercial Vegetables Kit (Vic Agnote) 

Diseases of Maize (NSW Agfact) 

Growing Maize in the Northern Territory (NT Agnote) 

Heliothis Caterpillars (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Maize (NSW Agfact) 

Pests and Diseases of Sorghum (NT Agnote) 

Pests and Diseases of Sweetcorn (SA Fact Sheet) 

Sweetcorn Growing (SA Fact Sheet) 

Sweetcorn : Pest and Disease Control (Vic Agnote) 

Sweetcorn Processing : Cultural Notes (Tas Farmnote) 

Sweetcorn Production (Vic Agnote) 

Sweetcorn : Weed Control (Vic Agnote) 




Sweetcorn is grown for the fresh, frozen and canned market and for popcorn. Many new varieties are extrasweet. 

An overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Sweetcorn is a warm season crop 

(10-35 o C). Warm temperatures are essential during growth, but cooler temperatures are essential when 

maturity is reached to delay overmaturity and the associated rapid deterioration in quality. Areas should be frostfree. 

Propagated by seed which is usually treated. Resistant varieties: Cultivars Kulara and Mapee are 

resistant to Johnson grass mosaic virus, turcicum leaf blight, common and tropical rust, and are recommended 

for situations where risk of these diseases is high. The development of disease-resistant hybrids is the best 

method of control. Disease-free planting material: Plant certified disease-free seed. During establishment, 

sweetcorn crops are susceptible to damping off diseases and serious soilborne insect pests, eg African black 

beetle, cutworms and wireworms; resowing may be necessary. Dust seed with fungicide and insecticide prior to 

planting. From tasselling-silking until harvest the worst pests are armyworms, budworms and redshouldered 

leaf beetles which often facilitate entry of other chewing insects such as driedfruit beetles and promote mould 

development. Maturing cobs may also be infested by maize weevil (coastal districts) and Angoumois grain 

moth. Cultural methods: Plant in well-drained soils high inorganic matter. Keep crop actively growing with 

appropriate fertilisers. Water stress must be avoided during early growing period, and at harvest. Leafrolling is 

a symptom of water stress and may occur during the heat of day even though enough soil moisture is present. 

Leaves lose moisture from their leaf surfaces faster than they can take it up. This is normal and does not mean 

that it is time to irrigate. If wilting is noticed in the morning, however, and the soil is obviously drying out then 

irrigation is required. Reduce weed infestation with cultivation during the off season. Control weeds in the 

growing crop by shallow interrow cultivation, throw some soil around base of plants to support them and reduce 

the effects of strong winds. For extended weed control use post-emergence and pre-emergence herbicides but 

there may be problems with some herbicides. Harvest of fresh cobs: Examine samples of cobs to determine 

maturity. Cobs must not be left in hot sunlight as the temperature of the corn will rise rapidly. Pick sweetcorn 

early in the morning, sort and fast cool (up to 4 hours) at 0 o C. Transport and store at 0 o C at very high humidity 

(> 95%) for 4-8 days (Salvestrin 1991). Popular varieties retain their sweetness if cooked immediately, but 

sweetness is quickly lost (sugar in the kernels rapidly transforms to starch after harvest). The rate of this 

transformation is reduced by refrigeration at temperatures of 0-2 o C but shelf life is still limited. In the new extra 

sweet varieties breakdown still occurs but some sweetness remains even after considerable shelf life. To 

maintain grain quality in storage moisture content must be < 12% and grain must be insect-free. Overseas 

customers impose a nil tolerance of insects in grain being imported. 

VEGETABLES M 91

SWEETCORN 

Fig. 355. Whitish nymph skins of aphids on leaves of 

sweetcorn. 

Fig. 354. African black beetle (Heteronychus arator). 

1. Eggs in soil. 2. Larva. 3. Pupa. 4. Female beetle. 5. Male 

beetle. All enlarged 3½ times. 6. Eggs. 7. Larva. 8. Pupa. 9. 

Beetle attacking young maize plants. Actual size. Dept. of Agric., 

NSW. 

Fig. 356. Corn earworms (Helicoverpa armigera) 

up to 40 mm long, feeding on the cob tips. 

Fig. 357. Faulty tasselling. 

M 92 

VEGETABLES

Sweet potato 

Ipomoea batatas 

Family Convolvulaceae (morning glory family) 


Parasitic 




Stem and foliage scab 

Root and tuber rots 



Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Crickets, grasshoppers 


Spider mites 

Sweetpotato leafminer 

Sweetpotato weevil 

Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 


Symptoms of virus diseases in sweet potato are not 

uncommon but their effect is minor, providing virustested 

cuttings are planted and plants with 

symptoms are rogued. 

Sweetpotato feathery mottle virus affects sweet 

potato, other Ipomoea spp., eg morning glory and 

probably other Convolvulaceae. Symptoms vary with 

cultivar, age of plant, rate of growth, weather. 

Sometimes veinclearing, veinfeathering and yellow or 

purple spotting of leaves. The russet crack strain of 

the feathery mottle complex causes brown corky 

lesions on storage roots. Spread by aphids, eg 

cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), cowpea aphid (A. 


turnip aphid (Lipaphis erysimi), by infected planting 

material, by grafting, by mechanical inoculation, not 

by contact between plants, not by seed, not by pollen. 

Others: Virus infection probably causes a range of 

other symptoms, eg mosaic, dwarfing of plants and 

failure to produce normal runners in the cultivar 

Maltese. Tomato big bud mycoplasma which is 

spread by the common brown leafhopper (Orosius 

argentatus), may cause small yellow leaves, stunted 

plants often with many small thin shoots, and reduced 

yields if infection occurs early in the life of the plant. 

Also Potato Y virus. 



Fungal leaf spots (Phyllosticta batatas) may 

cause spotting of leaves. See Annuals A 5. 

Stem and foliage scab (Sphaceloma 

batatas): Stems and leaf veins are covered with 

small sunken brown scabs which cause distortion 

of foliage. Severely affected terminals are brittle 

and growing points may die. Infected patches are 

visible from a distance due to the erect growth 

habit of infected terminals. Crop vigour may be 

reduced and if infection develops early in the 

season, yields are severely reduced. Overwinters 

in infected regrowth, debris from infected crops. 

Spread by the introduction of infected propagation 

material to new crops. Favoured by mild humid 

weather, drizzly rain. Control: Destroy regrowth 

from infected crops. The cultivars Centennial 

Gold and Beerwah Gold have some resistance. 

Plant scab-free planting roots and stems produced 

in a nursery established from healthy tubers. See 

Violet A 56. 

Root and tuber rots 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) may be a 

serious postharvest storage disease but can 

invade roots and cuttings. Rhizopus causes a soft 

watery rot of fleshy roots which become covered 

with a greyish white fungal growth and in which 

many small black stalked fruiting bodies appear. 

Spread from root to root by contact with infected 

roots and cuttings. Favoured by injury to roots and 

relative humidities of 75-85%. Drier atmospheres 

inhibit mould development. Do not harvest in wet 

weather. Dip planting material in fungicide before 

planting and dip harvested roots before packing. See 


Scurf 

(Monilochaetes infuscans) commonly affects 

sweet potato causing a greying or blackening of 

roots. No internal breakdown occurs and only the 

appearance is affected. Overwinters in infested crop 

debris. Spread by infected propagation material. 

Favoured by wet areas. Rotate sweet potatoes with 

other crops. White Maltese is the most tolerant and 

Centennial the most susceptible. Plant scurf-free 

planting material. Dip infected planting material in 

fungicide. 

Others: Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot 

(Macrophomina phaseolina), fusarium surface rot 

(Fusarium oxysporum), phytophthora vascular 

tuber necrosis (Phytophthora sp.), pythium tuber 

soft rot (Pythium ultimum), rhizoctonia stem 

canker (Rhizoctonia sp.), tuber rot (Diaporthe 

phaseolorum), Phoma batatae. 



Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) causes galls or 

swelling on small roots. On fleshy roots, swollen 

areas, scab-like abrasions or cracks appear. Small 

brown spots are visible in the underlying tissues. 

Also Haplolaimus spp. See Vegetables M 10. 


Aphids (Aphididae), eg green peach aphid 

(Myzus persicae), transmit virus diseases of sweet 

potato. See Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 

VEGETABLES M 93

SWEET POTATO 


Convolvulus hawk moth (Agrius convolvuli, 

Sphingidae) caterpillars chew foliage of sweet potato 

and related plants, ragged. Young caterpillars feed on 

leaf undersurfaces. Control is only warranted if > 50% 

foliage is eaten before vines completely cover the 

ground (Hely et al. 1982). Other hawk moths, eg 

grapevine hawk moth (Hippotion celerio) (Fig. 358), 

scrofa hawk moth (H. scrofa), vine hawk moth 

(Theretra oldenlandiae), Gnathothlibus eriotus sp. 

may also infest sweet potato. 

Sweetpotato stemborer (Omphisa anastomosalis, 

Pyraustidae) caterpillars tunnel into stems and 

roots overseas. 

Other caterpillars are usually minor pests and most 

can infest a range of other plants. 



Cluster caterpillars (Spodoptera litura) 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp., Pseudaletia spp.) 

Loopers (Chrysodeixis spp.) 



Crickets, grasshoppers (Orthoptera): 

Black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus) feeds 

on exposed stem ends of maturing tubers. Field 

crickets (Gryllidae) cut off the tops of cuttings at 

night. Provide sufficient irrigation to prevent soil 

cracking and apply baits as soon as infestation is 

observed. Mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp.) may 

burrow into tubers. Harvest as soon as mature. 


strips leaves off plants. See Vegetables M 13. 

Leaf beetles, flea beetles (Chrysomelidae, 

Coleoptera): Sweetpotato leaf beetle 

(Colasposoma sellatum), sweetpotato tortoise 

beetles (Aspidomorpha spp.) and their larvae feed 

on leaves. Flea beetles (Galerucinae) may feed in 

great numbers, eating small holes in the leaves. 

Overseas: Argus tortoise beetle (Chelymorpha 

cassidea), striped tortoise beetle (Cassida 

bivittata), sweetpotato flea beetle (Chaetocnema 

confinis) and other species. See Hibiscus K 82, 

Trees K 15. 

Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.): Bean spider 

mite (T. ludeni) during hot dry weather feed on 

leaf undersurfaces which become mottled, grey, 

wither and fall. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Sweetpotato leafminer (Bedellia somnulentella, 

Lyonetiidae, Lepidoptera) infest sweet potato. 

Moths are greyish with narrow fringed wings and 

a wingspan of about 9 mm. Caterpillars are 

yellow-grey, about 6 mm long with red and white 

tubercles on their sides. Caterpillars mine in 

leaves of newly planted crops. Complete 

metamorphosis (egg, caterpillar, pupa, adult) 

with many generations each year. Eggs are laid on 

leaves, caterpillars bore into leaves. Initially there 

is a serpentine tunnel which later becomes a large 

blistered area. Caterpillars pupate on leaf 

undersurfaces. Moths emerge later. Spread by 

moths flying, Favoured by warm weather. 

Insecticides are registered for use. Potato moth 

(Phthorimaea operculella) may damage sweet 

potato. See Potato M 81. 

Sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius, 

(Curculionidae, Coleoptera) is the most serious 

pest of sweet potato in the field, and postharvest, 

it also damages other Convolvulaceae, eg morning 

glory. Weevils are ant-like, shiny blue/black and 

red/orange, about 6 mm long (Fig. 359). They 

cause minor damage to leaves. Larvae are white, 

legless, brown headed and up to 9 mm long. They 

tunnel in stems and tubers causing major 

damage. Stems wilt in dry weather and tubers are 

honeycombed. Weevils breed in tubers in 

storage. Damaged tubers have a bitter taste. 

There is a complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, 

pupa, adult) with many generations each year. 

Female weevils lay eggs in cavities on tubers, 

larvae hatch and tunnel in stems or tubers. Larvae 

pupate in the end of the feeding tunnel. Spread by 

introduction of infested planting material. Weevils 

only fly when food runs out but they can fly at 

least 5 km. Control: Practise crop rotation. 

Keep tubers covered with soil. Destroy crop 

residues after harvest and remove all roots from 

soil. Eliminate volunteer plants before planting. 

Various wasps parasitise larvae. Centennial is 

very susceptible. Only plant weevil-free cuttings. 


larvae may also chew furrows in tubers. See 


Others: Scarab beetles, eg African black beetle 

(Heteronychus arator), black beetle (Metanastes 

vulgivagus), maize leafhopper (Cicadulina 

bimaculata), greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum), wireworms (Elateridae). 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: A 4-6 month frost-free growing 

period is necessary for successful growth. 


analysis standards are available for sweet potato 






Clark, C. A. and Moyer, J. W. 1988. Sweet Potato 

Diseases. APS Press, Minnesota. 

Clark, C. A. and Hoy, M. W. 1994. Isolation of 

Fusarium lateritium from Sweetpotato Seed. Plant 

Disease, June. 





Melbourne. 








Brisbane. 



Melbourne. 

M 94 

VEGETABLES


Industry eg 

Insect Pests of Sweet Potato (NSW Agfact) 

Sweet Potato Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Sweet Potatoes : Growing Recommendations (Qld 

Farmnote) 

Sweet Potatoes : Pests & Diseases (Qld Farmnote) 

MANAGEMENT 

SWEET POTATO 


Heavy Produce Committee of the Qld Fruit & Vegetables 

Growers 

Tweed Fruit & Vegetable Growers Assoc. in NSW 




Sweet potato is a subtropical plant requiring a daily mean temperature of 23 o C for adequate growth. An 

industry overview has been presented by Coombs (1995). Choose varieties with some resistance to scab and 

scurf and only plant disease and pest-free planting material, eg weevil-free tubers, cuttings and plants. 

Propagated by vine cuttings, preferably tip cuttings in frost-free areas, in temperate regions by sprouting storage 

roots. Practise crop rotation. Plant in frost-free areas, use fertiliser, deep well drained soil and irrigate during 

establishment and to prevent checks in growth which contribute to cracking and skin blemishes. Destroy old 

plants and tubers left in the ground, volunteer plants and any discarded plants and tubers and old seedbeds as 

much as possible by cultivation or other means. Weevils can breed continuously in this material and may then 

infest new plantings. Pre-plant treat soil for root knot nematodes. Monitor insect pests and disease 

development while plants are small as spraying is more likely to be effective at that stage; spraying becomes 

impractical and difficult in vigorously growing densely foliaged beds. Weed control is critical during 

establishment until there is sufficient vine and leaf growth to cover the ground. Hillers can be run through the 

crop during this period to control weeds. Pre-emergence herbicides are an effective method of controlling 

weeds. Growth regulators are used to promote sprouting. Harvest timing is not critical, they can be 

harvested when an acceptable economic yield has been achieved, and may be left in the ground provided top 

growth is healthy and conditions are suitable. If harvesting is delayed too long, excessive cracking and 

breakdown of tubers can occur, cessation of growth can lead to sprouting of storage roots. Washing improves 

the appearance but injury makes them susceptible to soft rot. Tubers are ethylene sensitive. After harvest 

cure tubers and roots at high temperatures before cooling over 1 day. Store at 13 o C at a moderate humidity 

(85-90% relative humidity). Estimated storage life is 4-6 months, but depends on the conditions of storage. 

Tubers and roots are chilling sensitive and will be damaged if stored at lower temperatures. They lose their 

ability to ripen, skin becomes pitted and darkened and is increasingly susceptible to fungal diseases. 

Fig. 358. Grapevine hawk moth (Hippotion celerio) 

caterpillars are grey-green and 60-80 mm long. 

There is a prominent spine projecting obliquely 

upward at the tail end of the body. 

Fig. 359. Sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius). 

Left : Adult weevils are ant-like (about 6 mm long). 

Right : Larvae (up to 9 mm long) tunnel in tubers creating a honeycomb effect. 

VEGETABLES M 95

Tomato 

Lycopersicon esculentum 



Parasitic 





Bacterial speck 







Grey mould, Botrytis, ghost spot 



Root and stem rots, damping off 

Wilts 





Aphids 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 


Flies 


Leafhoppers 

Mites 


Thrips 

Weevils 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 



Parasitic 

Tomato (and some stone fruits) are the most 

difficult plants on which to diagnose problems. 



Scientific name: Tomato spotted wilt virus 

(TSWV). Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) is 

closely related to TSWV, but has not been detected 

in Australia (Hill 1994). The recently introduced 


(WFT) is the major vector of both viruses. WFT is 

the only thrips that can spread INSW. As WFT 

spreads in Australia, both these viruses may cause 

increased crop losses and damage. 

Host range: Over 500 species of annual and 

herbaceous plants, eg ornamentals, eg aster, 

begonia, calendula, chrysanthemum, cyclamen, 

dahlia, Dutch iris, gloxinia, Iceland poppy, 

impatiens, nasturtium, petunia, ranunculus, zinnia, 

vegetables, eg broad bean, capsicum, celery, 

eggplant, lettuce, peas, potato, spinach, tomato, 

weeds, eg dandelion, lamb's tongue, nightshades, 

thornapple, stinking Roger. 

Symptoms: Symptoms usually appear on leaves 

14-21 days after infection but vary according to the 

host species attacked. Tomato: Small areas of 

bronzing develop on the upper side of young leaves. 

Older leaves develop dark spots or rings between 

the veins. These spots may extend and join up and 

affected tissues blacken and shrivel until shoots look 

as though they have been scorched by flame. Dark 

streaks may also appear on leaf stalks and stems. 

Young vigorously growing plants may be killed in a 

few days but older plants may take several weeks to 

develop symptoms. Fruits develop irregular or 

circular blotches as they ripen (Fig. 360) but taste is 

not affected. Young fruits may shrivel and fall. 

Symptoms vary with temperature, nutritional levels of 

the host and age of plants. The most efficient way of 

detecting the virus is by enzyme-linked immuno 

sorbent assay (ELISA) techniques. ELISA should be 

used in conjunction with one of the other techniques, 

eg indicator plants or electron microscopy, to ensure 

an accurate diagnosis. 

Overwintering: Infected weeds, and other hosts, 

tubers (dahlia, potato). It is not seedborne (except 

for broad bean). 

Spread: By onion thrips (Thrips tabaci), melon 

thrips (T. palmi), Frankliniella spp., eg tomato 

thrips (F. schultzei), WFT (F. occidentalis), by 

mechanical inoculation, by grafting and by 

vegetative propagation from infected plants, not by 

contact between plants, not by seed (except for 

broad bean), not by pollen. 

Conditions favouring: Spring, summer, 

occasionally autumn. Proximity to large weedy 

areas and perennial flower crops. Thrips are likely 

to migrate on to crops when weed hosts, on which 

they have been breeding and feeding, have 

matured and are drying out after hot, dry weather. 

Control: Once a plant is infected nothing can be 

done. Measures to minimise losses include: 

Cultural methods: Do not locate seedbeds or 

grow tomatoes, potatoes or lettuce near 

susceptible vegetable crops and ornamentals, 

especially spring flower crops or weeds, which 

act as alternative hosts for the virus. Plant 

excess plants to allow for loss due to TSWV (up 

to 50% can be lost). Early plantings are affected 

more seriously than later plantings. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plants and 

weeds known to harbour vectors in and near crops. 

Biological control: Thrips vectors are biologically 

controlled overseas. See Annuals A 9, Onion M 68. 

Resistant varieties: All tomato varieties are 

susceptible. 

Disease-free planting material: For plants 

propagated vegetatively, purchase virus-tested 

planting material (cuttings, tubers). Do not 

propagate vegetatively from infected plants. 

Otherwise select propagation material only from 

symptom-free plants. 

Pesticides: Because the disease is more serious in 

young plants, insecticides may be applied to 

commercial seedbeds to control thrips. Regular 

insecticide applications to field crops in spring 

and early summer will at the most only reduce 

the number of infected plants. Where the 

disease is prevalent, commercial growers may 

spray seedbeds and/or field crops in spring and 

early summer to control the vector, which may 

reduce the number of infected plants. 

VEGETABLES M 96

TOMATO 

Others 

Cucumber mosaic virus, fern leaf: The first 

symptom is a thickening and rolling of leaf edges 

(Persley 1994). Later, terminal shoots become a mass 

of very narrow distorted leaflets, all with thickened 

and curled edges, fruit from affected plants may be 

malformed. Wide host range, eg crops and weeds, 

spread by aphids. A minor disease but regularly 

occurs in some districts. See Cucurbits M 50. 

Potato virus Y, leaf shrivel: Leaflets and petioles curl 

downwards giving the plant a clawed appearance. 

Leaves may also be mottled and leaf area of the 

plant reduced (Persley 1994). Older leaves may show 

a dark grey to brown spotting on the underside and 

eventually shrivel and die. Fruit shows no symptoms, 

though actual yield is reduced. Spread by aphids. 

The main source of infection is old infected tomato, 

capsicum and tobacco crops and weeds, eg gooseberry 

(Physalis spp.), nightshade and apple of Peru. Leaf 

shrivel is widespread and is often very severe 

especially late in the season. See Potato M 77. 

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV): Many different 

strains. This virus has probably been studied more 

than any other virus. Hosts throughout the world 

include > 150 genera of mostly herbaceous, 

dicotyledonous plants including many vegetables, 

flowers and weeds. Found in greenhouse crops. 

Symptoms vary according to the strain of virus and 

host. Usually causes mosaic and chlorosis of leaves, 

flowers and fruit and stunting of the plant. It almost 

never kills the plant. Tomato: TMV may occur in 

association with other viruses, different strains 

produce different diseases, eg drop head wilt, tomato 

streak, etc. Overwinters in debris from infected 

plants in the soil, on the surface of seeds, in natural 

leaf of manufactured tobacco, including cigarettes, 

cigars and snuff. Infected perennial host plants. TMV 

is one of the most infectious of plant viruses. There is 

no vector. It is spread by mechanical inoculation, by 

sap adhering to fingers and tools during the handling 

of plants, by grafting and vegetative propagation, 

contact between plants, seed, introduction of infected 

seedlings, plant material and debris from infected 

plants, not by a vector. Infection by TMV is inhibited 

by milk. Overseas authorities recommend spraying 

seedlings with milk before transplanting or handling 

them. Dipping hands in milk during transplanting and 

handling greatly reduces spread of TMV. Seed may 

be treated. 

Tomato big bud mycoplasma, greening, rosette, 

virescence is an important disease in inland areas. 

It affects a wide range of annual and herbaceous 

plants and weeds similar to tomato spotted wilt. 

Symptoms different from those on other hosts develop 

on tomato and potato. Ornamentals: Greening of 

the floral parts is a constant feature of this disease. 

There is no bud enlargement. Tomato: Symptoms 

may not develop for 6 weeks or longer after infection. 

Stems thicken and become stiff and upright (Fig. 

361). Plants branch prolifically producing many stiff 

shoots with shortened internodes. Root initials may 

develop high on the stem, splitting may occur. 

Flower buds are greatly enlarged and imperfectly 

developed (often infertile). Sepals often fail to 

separate and whole buds are green. Abnormal flowers 

do not set fruit. Fruit, immature at the time of 

infection, become distorted and woody. Potato 

(purple top wilt): Rolling and pigmentation of 

upper leaves, erect leaf stalks. Leaves of white 

flowered varieties turn yellow, leaves of pigmented 

varieties turn red or purplish depending on variety. 

Overwinters in infected host plants, eg 

weeds, perennial ornamental plants and field crops, 

near the crop. Spread by common brown leafhopper 

(Orosius argentatus), a brown insect about 3 mm 

long, by vegetative propagation from infected host 

plants. Not by seed except for broad bean. At certain 

times of the year, eg after hot weather, leafhoppers 

migrate from drying weeds where they breed and feed 

to host plants. Migration mostly occurs in spring. 

Control: As for tomato spotted wilt. 

Tomato mosaic virus, internal browning, streak 

(many strains), has a wide host range including Cape 

gooseberry, blackberry nightshade, tobacco, tomato 

and weeds. It is important in greenhouse crops 

but can also be severe in the field. Symptoms depend 

on the strain. Leaves and stems develop mosaics, 

mottle and streaks. Fern leaf symptoms may appear 

in cold conditions. Affected plants may be lighter in 

colour than healthy plants. Fruit formed before 

infection develops internal browning. Brown and 

sunken markings appear on fruit surface and in the 

flesh of the outer wall. Overwinters in infected 

seed, hosts, undecomposed crop debris. The virus can 

remain infective in dead plant material for many 

years. Infective root debris may be found several 

metres deep where a diseased crop has been grown. 

Spread by mechanical inoculation (sap transmission) 

on hands, implements, pruning knives, by direct 

contact between plants, old trellis material and 

contaminated hands and clothing, by grafting, by 

contact between plants, by seed (but occasionally 

through the testa and not through the embryo), not by 

a vector. Disease can spread from a few infected 

seedlings (produced from infected seed) during 

transplanting. All cultivars are susceptible. Direct 

seeding can reduce the spread of the virus, as it 

eliminates handling young seedlings. 

Tomato yellow top virus affects tomato, other hosts, 

eg potato and weeds, eg thornapple, apple of Peru, 

nightshades and shepherd's-purse (Persley 1994). 

Infected plants are stunted and have a stiff upright 

appearance. From a distance plants look yellow. 

Symptoms include reduced leaf size, rounding and 

marginal yellowing of leaflets and down curling of 

leaflet margins. Flowers often fail to set fruit and 

flower buds can be killed following infection. Yield 

can be reduced drastically if plants are infected 

at an early stage. Late infection has progressively less 

effect. No symptoms on the fruit. Spread by aphids, 

eg green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and potato 

aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae). 

Others: Alfalfa mosaic virus, potato virus X, 

sunflower ringspot virus, tobacco necrosis virus, 

tobacco yellow dwarf virus, tomato (Australian) leaf 

curl virus, tomato shatter virus. 



Bacterial canker (Corynebacterium michiganense 

pv. michiganense) affects tomato, capsicum, 

nightshade, especially black nightshade. Infected 

seedlings may be killed or stunted and malformed 

in the seedbed or may show no symptoms until 

transplanted into the field. Leaflets of older plants 

may wilt on one side only, later they turn brown 

and shrivel, giving the leaf a one-sided appearance. 

Wilting progresses until the whole plant is affected. 

Stems and leaf stalks may develop yellow to 

brown streaks which crack open to form cankers. 

When a diseased stem is cut across, the waterconducting 

tissue is brown. With time the tissues 

VEGETABLES M 97

TOMATO 

in the centre of the stem turn brown, appear mealy 

and eventually the stem is hollowed for several 

centimetres. The internal browning and cavities 

can be seen by snapping off a leaf where the leaf 

joins the stem. Sometimes the roots and lower 

stems show little evidence of the disease. Young 

fruits may be stunted and distorted. Fruits 

approaching maturity at the time of infection, ripen 

normally and often have no external symptoms. 

During wet weather, fruit may develop circular 

spots with raised brown central areas that are 

surrounded by a white halo (bird's eye spot). In 

heavy infections, the spots form crusty patches. 

Bacterial canker can be distinguished from 

Fusarium and Verticillium wilts by the wilting of 

the leaflets on one side of the affected leaves, the 

formation of cankers on the stems and leaf stalks, 

and cavities in the stem. Overwinters in infected 

seed. Favoured by wet weather, 16-28 o C. Direct 

seeding largely prevents infection, if a trace of 

infection (as little as 1%) is present in a seed 

sample the disease will spread from plant to plant 

in the seedbed. Healthy plants should be handled 

before diseased plants. Wash hands and tools 

with a bactericide before touching healthy tomato 

plants, and after pruning each plant, disinfect 

pruning knives with a bactericide. Clean stakes 

and trellises before re-use. Check for infected 

plants during trellising and pruning and remove 

any infected. All tomato cultivars are susceptible. 


Bacterial speck (Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

tomato) infects tomato and is a similar disease to 

bacterial leaf spot. Lesions on leaves, stems and 

fruit are similar but smaller; lesions often coalesce 

and appear scabby. Favoured by cool moist 

weather. Control as for bacterial leaf spot (see 

below). 

Bacterial leaf spot, bacterial spot 

(Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria) affects 

tomato, Cape gooseberry and other Physalis spp., 

capsicum, nightshades, thornapple. Leaves 

develop small irregular areas with a greasy 

appearance. These areas dry out and form slightly 

raised dry spots which are greyish-brown in the 

centre. Bacteria often ooze from these spots which 

when dry form raised greyish-brown spots. When 

infection is severe, the spots coalesce and leaves 

yellow and fall. Marginal and tip burns on leaves 

have often been noted. Stems are occasionally 

attacked and develop elongated scab-like spots. 

Flowers and young fruit may also wither and fall. 

Small watersoaked areas form on green fruit, these 

dry out and form scab-like lesions rendering the 

fruit unmarketable and susceptible to secondary 

rots. All tomato cultivars are susceptible. See 



affects Solanaceae including vegetables, eg 

tomato, potato, eggplant, capsicum, fruit, eg 

custard apple, ornamentals, eg nasturtium, field 

crops, eg tobacco, weeds, eg nightshade, Cape 

gooseberry, wild tobacco tree, nightshade, 

thornapple. There are strains of P. solanacearum. 

Bacteria enter plants through roots and multiply 

in the water-conducting tissues which become 

blocked, causing wilting. Affected plants wilt 

rapidly and die without any spotting or yellowing 

of the leaves. Plants do not recover despite 

watering. If the stem of a wilted plant is cut across 

near ground level, the vascular tissue is dark and 

watersoaked, and a greyish, slimy bacterial ooze 

can be pressed out of it. When placed in water a 

milky ooze from affected stems causes the water to 

cloud. The rapid onset of wilting distinguishes 

this disease from bacterial canker and from fungal 

wilts. Favoured by hot weather, 21-32 o C. Very 

moist soil seems to favour initial infection, but soil 

type and pH have little effect. It may cause losses 

on newly cleared land or may attack crops on 

previously used land. Widespread in tropical and 

subtropical areas. All tomato cultivars are 

susceptible except Scorpic, which is resistant at 

temperatures < 32 o C. Graft susceptible commercial 

varieties on to resistant rootstock. Currant tomato 

(L. pimpinellifolium) is used as a resistant 

rootstock in Hawaii. See Vegetables M 6. 


subsp. carotovora), crown gall (Agrobacterium 

sp.), also Pseudomonas cepacia, Pseudomonas 

marginalis pv. marginalis. 


Early blight, target spot (Alternaria solani): 

Leaves develop brown spots often surrounded by 

a yellow halo (Fig. 362). Spots enlarge and may 

join together to form large irregular dead areas. 

Individual spots are oval, from 6-13 mm across 

and develop a series of concentric rings (target 

spots). The oldest leaves show the largest lesions 

and die rapidly. They may fall giving the basal 

part of the plant a dead, drooping appearance 

which extends upwards as the disease progresses. 

Similar lesions develop on stems, but are more 

elongated and the target effect is more 

pronounced. The fungus cannot penetrate the 

unbroken skin of fruit, so fruit lesions are confined 

to around the fruit stalk scar or around growth 

cracks (star cracks) Other fungi can also invade 

star-cracked fruit. Seedlings may develop a collar 

rot at soil level, often only on one side, which 

rapidly girdles the stem, seedlings die. Sometimes 

lesions appear higher on seedling stems. Affected 

seedlings never thrive after being transplanted. All 

tomato cultivars are susceptible. Plant diseasefree 

seed or seedlings, into well prepared seedbed 

or soil-less mixes. Fungicides are registered for 

application to seedlings and field crops. See 

Potato M 78. 


Alternaria rot, alternaria stem canker (Alternaria 

alternata) causes dark brown to mouldy sunken spots 

on fruit which enlarge as the fruit matures. Spots 

occur generally on fruit shoulders, around the edges of 

the stem scars and growth cracks, or on other small 

injuries to the skin. Latent infections develop on 

fruit which have been cool stored for prolonged 

periods. Symptoms on fruit are similar to grey leaf 

spot (Stemphylium). Serious in varieties with fruit 

prone to growth cracks which allow entry of 

secondary pathogens. Store at correct temperature 

and apply recommended fungicides. 

M 98 

VEGETABLES

TOMATO 

Anthracnose, ripe fruit rot (Colletotrichum spp.) can 

cause losses in ripe tomatoes but is not important if 

green fruit is harvested. It is more important in crops 

on the ground than in staked or trellised crops. 

Affected fruit first show small slightly sunken, 

watersoaked, circular spots that become darker than 

the surrounding tissue. These spots become depressed, 

are about 10-12 mm wide and develop concentric 

markings. The centres become tan coloured and 

develops dark specks which are the fruiting bodies of 

the fungus. Spots become pink due to production of 

masses of pink-orange spores. Under favourable 

conditions, extensive fruit rot can occur. Favoured 

by warm, humid conditions with temperatures around 

26 o C and relative humidities > 93%. All tomato 

cultivars are susceptible. See Fruit F 5. 

Early blight (Alternaria solani) and late blight 

(Phytophthora infestans) may affect fruit. See 

Tomato M 98, M 100. 

Penicillium moulds (Penicillium spp.) usually only 

affects poor quality and over-ripe fruit. Dark olivegreen 

or blue spores develop on wounds. See Fruit 

F 6. 

Fusarium fruit rots (Fusarium spp.) cause scattered 

spots on fruit skin. A white to pink fungal growth 

develops. Fruit breakdown during transit and 

storage. Fusarium also causes root rots. 

Phoma rot (Phoma destructiva) attacks tomato and 

capsicum. Small irregular spots develop on leaves. 

Seedlings may be infected before transplanting. 

Slightly sunken brown spots develop on the fruit near 

the stem scar. As the fruit ripens during transport, 

the spots may enlarge rapidly and reach over 25 mm 

across. Affected areas become brown and leathery 

and dotted with minute, black, fungal fruiting bodies. 

A black rot develops in the underlying tissue. Spores 

are spread by rain, irrigation water, cultural 

operations, picking and transport, on to fruit. Infection 

takes place through injuries. All tomato cultivars are 

susceptible. 

Phytophthora buckeye and root rot (Phytophthora 

sp.) affects fruit near the soil. Fruit develop greyishgreen 

or brown watersoaked spots without definite 

margins. Spots can enlarge rapidly. If development is 

slow, spots develop dark zonate markings. Green 

fruits do not become soft when infected, although the 

rot may progress well into the flesh. Fruit showing 

small spots are often overlooked at packing and 

develop extensive decay postharvest. Roots may 

be attacked. All tomato cultivars are susceptible. 

See Trees K 6, Tomato M 100, Vegetables M 7. 

Rhizoctonia fruit rot (Rhizoctonia solani): Small 

round brown spots with definite concentric markings 

develop on green fruit. As it ripens and areas 

enlarge the ring markings may disappear. Spots 

become dark brown and a brown mould often 

develops on the surface of the spots. Rhizoctonia 

affects only fruit on or close to the soil during warm 

wet weather. It can cause extensive postharvest 

breakdown of affected fruit especially if fruit is not 

cool stored. Do not pack fruit with signs of infection, 

cool fruit promptly. It also causes damping off and 

stem rots. See Tomato M 100, Vegetables M 7. 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) causes 

slightly watersoaked spots with little discolouration, 

to develop rapidly over the entire fruit, skin may 

remain intact. When the fruit splits and collapses into 

a soft mass it is quickly covered with black fruiting 

bodies in a fungal growth. Discard fruit with serious 

growth cracks. See Fruit F 6, Vegetables M 6. 

Sour rot, yeasty rot (Geotrichum candidum) causes 

watersoaked areas often starting at cracks or injuries 

to the skin or at the stem scar. In green fruit 

affected areas remain firm until decay is well 

advanced. In ripening fruit decay progresses 

rapidly. Cracks in the skin over infected areas 

become filled with a whitish fungus. Yeasty rot often 

occurs in association with bacterial soft rot. The 

fungus is common on decaying plant matter in the 

soil. Spread to fruit by wind and water splash and 

insects. Favoured by hot weather, although most 

infection originates in the field, spread may occur 

during harvesting and packing, especially if heavy 

rains has increased fruit cracking. See Citrus F 34, 

Pineapple F 103. 

Others: Gibberella, Phomopsis. 

See Fruit F 6, Tomato M 100, Vegetables M 6. 


Grey leaf spot (Stemphylium sp.) infects tomato, 

possibly other plants. Lower leaves are affected first. 

Small, dark brown spots (about 3 mm in diameter) 

develop on leaves. As spots enlarge, they look greyish 

brown and glazed, centres may crack and tear. Badly 

affected leaves yellow, wither and drop. All leaves 

except the youngest may be killed. Stems are only 

occasionally attacked. Fruit production may be 

severely reduced. Use resistant varieties. 

Leaf mould (Fulvia fulva) is a serious foliage 

disease of greenhouse tomatoes but can also 

cause losses in the field. Small, yellow areas develop 

on leaf uppersurfaces, a white downy growth 

appears on the undersurfaces of the yellow areas. The 

white downy growth may enlarge rapidly, and change 

to light brown. At this stage the growth is velvety and 

each area has a downy white margin. Leaves die and 

the fungal growth turns purple. Occasionally flowers 

and young stems are affected. Infected flowers fail 

to set fruit. Yield losses depend on the stage at which 

plants are infected; more mature plants withstand the 

disease better than young ones. Favoured by warm 

humid weather. All tomato cultivars are susceptible. 

Septoria leaf spot (Septoria lycopersici) causes 

tomato leaves to develop small circular spots about 

3 mm across, which have brown margins and light 

grey centres studded with small black pin-point 

fruiting bodies (pycnidia) which produce the fungal 

spores. Severely affected leaves yellow and fall. 

Older leaves are affected first so that finally only a 

tuft of small green leaves is left at the top of the plant. 

Stems and fruit may develop spots. Reduced leaf 

area may mean that exposed fruit is liable to 

sunscald. All tomato cultivars are susceptible. 

Others: Early blight (Alternaria alternata), late 

blight (Phytophthora infestans), phoma rot (Phoma 

destructiva), zonate leaf spot (Alternaria sp.), 

Cercospora fuligena. 


Grey mould, Botrytis, ghost spot (Botrytis 

cinerea) of fruit, leaves and stems occurs mainly 

in greenhouse crops, although it can occur in the 

field. Infection usually occurs at a point of 

contact, eg where old blossoms or leaves fall on to 

leaves, stems or fruit. Rotted areas are soon 

covered with a typical grey furry mould. Infection 

sites are usually associated with old flowers or 

injury from leaf scars, insect or pruning, growth 

cracks. On fruit, a second type of infection (ghost 

spot) may also occur. In humid weather spores 

VEGETABLES M 99

TOMATO 

produced on previously infected areas on tomato 

or other hosts, may fall on to fruit. Where each 

spore germinates a white, circular, superficial ring 

spot develops, about 3-6 mm across. The fungus 

penetrates the skin of the fruit in very humid 

weather but dies without becoming established and 

without further damage. Favoured by long period 

of high humidity. Minimise injuries to crops 

especially during trellising. Do not slash plant 

tops during cool wet weather. Avoid sequential 

plantings close together. All tomato cultivars are 

susceptible. See Fruit F 5, Greenhouses N 22, 


Late blight, Irish blight (Phytophthora 

infestans) affects tomato at any stage of growth. 

Serious losses may occur in seedbeds. Dark areas 

develop on stems at or near ground level. These 

areas shrivel and the whole plant may fall over and 

wither. Stems of well developed plants may 

develop dark diseased areas which girdle the stem. 

In older plants, dark, watersoaked areas develop 

on leaves (usually on the margins), and enlarge 

rapidly until the whole leaf is affected. The leaves 

may blacken and shrivel, or, if the weather stays 

humid, may rot. In the early stages, the delicate 

downy outgrowth of the fungus can be seen next to 

the healthy tissue, particularly on the underside of 

the leaf. Blackened, elongated areas may then 

develop on the leaf stalks. Developing fruit may 

be affected, dark green watersoaked areas appear 

on the surface of the fruit generally at the stem 

scar, this may rapidly spread to produce mottled 

brown areas with indefinite margins. A white 

downy fungal growth may develop during humid 

conditions or during transit. Fruit not showing 

symptoms at harvest may develop extensive 

breakdown during transit and storage. 

Sometimes the damage is not apparent until the 

fruit reaches market. See Potato M 78. 

Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) may be 

severe in some areas on leaves during warm dry 

weather. See Annuals A 6, Vegetables M 7. 

Root and stem rots, damping off 


phaseolina) causes a pale ashy dry stem rot, black 

dots develop on these areas. See Vegetables M 7. 

Damping off (Fusarium solani, Pythium spp., 

Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Phytophthora 

erythroseptica) causes seedlings to topple over and 

the stems at ground level to be soft and withered. 

Damping off can spread rapidly. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani) causes leaves to 

yellow and die. Plants are stunted. A brown dry rot 

of the crown roots may develop. Also causes fruit 

rots. See Vegetables M 7. 

Phytophthora fruit and foot rots, buckeye rot and 

foot rot (Phytophthora spp.) may occur in low lying 

poorly drained soil. Foot rot may cause losses of 

young plants particularly in early-planted coastal 

crops. Plants develop a brown discolouration of the 

stem tissues at, or just below, ground level. These 

tissues shrivel, the stem collapses and the plant dies. 

The primary root system is destroyed. Young plants 

can be killed by foot rot, older plants often form 

adventitious root above the point of infection and 

recover. Also attacks fruit. See Trees K 6, 


Rhizoctonia stem and fruit rots (Rhizoctonia sp.): 

Large plants in the greenhouse or in the field may 

be attacked. Dark brown, sometimes sunken areas 

occur on stems near soil level. Affected plants are 

often smaller than healthy ones and fail to survive 

long enough to mature the upper hands of fruit. Fruit 

near soil surface, when green, develop small circular 

spots with concentric ring markings. Do not pack 

fruit showing signs of infection. All tomato cultivars 

are susceptible. See Vegetables M 7. 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): A rapidly 

spreading, light brown watery rot develops on the 

stem either at ground level or on the branches. Parts 

of the plant above affected areas wilt and eventually 

die. Under humid conditions, the rotted areas become 

covered with white, fluffy fungal growth in which 

black sclerotia develop (usually 5-10 mm long but 

may be larger). Sclerotia are also formed inside 

affected areas. All tomato cultivars are susceptible. 


Sclerotium stem rot, southern blight (Sclerotium 

rolfsii) attacks stems at ground level, producing a 

conspicuous white threadlike growth which radiates 

out into the surrounding soil. Plants wilt and die 

rapidly. Small, brown, spherical sclerotia about the 

size of cabbage seed, develop on the fungal growth. 



Wilts are important in field and greenhouse 

crops. Infection of young plants can completely 

destroy a crop. 

Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici) 

causes yellowing of leaves near base of plant 

followed by wilting especially in hot weather. Often 

only 1 branch shows symptoms. Diseased leaves 

easily break from the stem, if bark is scraped from the 

plant just above ground level, the vascular system 

is brown. Plants eventually die. There may be 

several races of Fusarium in some districts. 

Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) causes similar 

symptoms to Fusarium and bacterial wilts with 

wilting, yellowing and death of leaves. If the stem is 

cut lengthwise a brown discolouration of the 

vascular tissue is seen. 

Fusarium is favoured by acid soil below pH 6.5 

and Verticillium by alkaline soils > pH 7.0. The 

best method of control is to plant resistant 

cultivars or plants grafted on to resistant 

rootstocks. See Vegetables M 9. 



may cause economic losses in tomato. Affected 

plants are stunted often paler green than normal 

and wilt readily in hot weather. In severe cases, 

plants are killed. Besides interfering with normal 

movement of water and food materials through the 

plant, root knot makes the plants more susceptible 

to root rots and vascular wilts. Young roots are 

invaded by nematodes and form galls (Fig. 363). 

Galls may be quite small or may grow up to 25 

mm in diameter. Hybrids Red Supreme and Rich 

Reward are tolerant to root knot. See Vegetables 

M 10. 

M 100 

VEGETABLES

TOMATO 

Others: Burrowing nematode (Radopholus 

similis), dagger nematode (Xiphinema sp.), foliar 

nematode (Aphelenchoides avenae), root lesion 

nematode (Pratylenchus spp.), stem and bulb 

nematodes (Ditylenchus spp.), spiral nematodes 

(Helicotylenchus spp.), Filenchus spp., 

Hemicycliophora truncata, Macroposthonia 

ornata, Paraphelenchus sp., Paratrichodorus spp., 

Paurodontus apitica, Scutellonema brachyurum, 

Tylenchorhynchus spp., 



is 12 mm long, oval and shining black. It chews 

stems at ground level causing sudden wilting and 

death. Injured stems of seedlings usually have a 

ragged teased out look. Newly planted tomatoes in 

coastal districts are often attacked in spring or 

autumn. Larvae are typical white curl grubs about 

25 mm long. Other species may also attack 

tomato. See Turfgrasses L 7, Vegetables M 16. 

Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may become 

sufficiently numerous to directly damage tomatoes 

by sucking plant sap. Heavy infestations result in 

leaf curl and the production of abundant honeydew. 

But they are more important as vectors of virus 

diseases, yellow top, leaf shrivel and fern leaf. 

Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) is greenish-black 

winged, and about 2.5 mm long. Colonies of 

wingless forms are produced. Infestation can cause 

stunting of young plants. Many other crops may be 

infested as well as weeds. See Pea M 74. 

Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) is about 2.5 

mm long, and more active than potato aphid. 

Wingless adults are green to pale yellow or pink in 

colour, winged adults are green with darker 

markings. See Stone fruits F 129. 

Potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae)ispale green 

to green and about 3 mm long with rather long legs 

and slender prominent cornicles. See Potato M 80. 

Favoured by cool, dry weather during spring and 

autumn. Natural enemies attack aphid colonies in 

spring and may reduce or eliminate infestation. 

Prevent weed growth around seedbeds and crops. 

Monitor aphid populations, aphids may be 

controlled with insecticides, regular spraying may 

be necessary. See Roses J 4, Vegetables M 11. 

Bugs (Hemiptera) may suck sap from tomato 

fruit creating pale dry areas of tissue. 

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) is green 

shield-shaped and about 13 mm long (Fig. 364). 

Ripening tomato fruit has tiny pale areas and is 

commonly hard. See Vegetables M 12. 

Harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor) is 12 mm long 

and occasionally very destructive on tomato, feeding 

on the surface of fruit and creating pale dry areas of 

tissue. See Vegetables M 12. 

Leptocoris bug (Leptocoris mitellata) sometimes 

leaves its native hosts and attacks cultivated plants and 

fruit trees, as well as tomatoes and other vegetables. 

Adults are narrow-bodied, winged, about 12 mm 

long and are generally reddish-brown with light and 

dark markings. Underneath, the body is dull red with 

a dark green area in the middle of the abdomen. The 

legs and antennae are black. See Vegetables M 12. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is 5 mm long and 

grey-brown. Adults may swarm on to terminal 

shoots, stems and fruit of tomatoes and quickly 

cause much damage. See Vegetables M 12. 

Others: Green mirid (Creontiades dilutus), grey 

cluster bug (Nysius clevelandensis), tomato 

mirids (Engytatus nicotianae, Nesidiocoris tenuis). 



Corn earworm, tomato grub (Helicoverpa 

armigera) and native budworm (H. punctigera) are 

the most important pests of tomatoes. Caterpillars 

attack tomatoes from the time when the first flowers 

appear until the last fruits are forming. Caterpillars 

are variable in colour, 40-50 mm long with a 

contrasting stripes along the side. They chew buds 

and blossoms and may cause them to fall. When 

very young caterpillars enter fruit, usually near the 

stem end, they make small pinholes that are not easy 

to see. Larger caterpillars move from one fruit to 

another and entry holes may be 3 mm or more across 

(Fig. 365). Feeding inside the fruit generally results 

in extensive breakdown and obvious damage. See 


Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) congregate in 

groups while feeding on leaf undersurfaces. Later 

they disperse and feed singly on foliage or fruit. 

Mature caterpillars are 40-50 mm long and usually 

brownish-purple with a series of dark triangular 

markings on each side of the body. Caterpillars 

mostly feed on leaf tissue but can also damage fruit. 

See Brassicas M 40. 

Cutworms (Agrotis spp.), Tasmanian cutworm 

(Dasygaster padockina), etc, are major pests of 

seedlings. If tomato seedlings are planted out on 

land that has recently carried a crop of weeds, heavy 

losses requiring extensive replanting may occur in a 

few nights. Plants are cut off at ground level and the 

top section is left lying on the soil. Smooth dark or 

pinkish caterpillars that curls themselves into a small 

circle are found in nearby soil. See Seedlings N 68. 

Egg-fruit caterpillar (Sceliodes cordalis, Pyralidae) 

infests eggplant, also tomato, capsicum, thornapple, 

and some native species of Solanum. Moths have a 

wingspan of about 25 mm, the wing colour is 

yellowish brown with lighter transverse markings. 

Prominent golden marks on the tips of the forewings 

edged with black. The wings are carried at an angle 

of about 45 o to the body, and the abdomen is bent up 

in a scorpion-like attitude. Moths are active at night 

and sluggish by day. Caterpillars are up to 25 mm 

long, pink with a small brown head and a smooth 

glistening appearance. When young they have 

colourless bodies. Newly hatched caterpillars bore 

into the fruit, usually at the stem end. Injury is 

difficult to see so infested fruit may be packed and the 

damage detected only when it arrives at the market. 

Damaged fruit breaks down and rots. Some 

caterpillars bore into stems, causing plants to wilt. 

After emerging from the fruit, they spin a whitish 

silken cocoon about 15 mm long which is anchored by 

silken thread. There are many generations each 

season. Eggs are laid at night on fruit. Crop 

sanitation should be practised by removing 

susceptible weeds and old plants where successive 

plantings are proposed. Pesticides: If required, 

regular applications during the fruiting period should 

protect the plant satisfactorily. 

VEGETABLES M 101

TOMATO 

Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) may be 

pests in spring and autumn in field and 

greenhouse crops. Damage is usually only severe 

on maturing crops in autumn when spraying for 

budworms may have ceased. The pale green loopers 

are difficult to see as they feed on leaf 

undersurfaces. They can be detected from the dark 

green and barrel-shaped pellets of excreta on leaves 

under the ones on which they are feeding. Caterpillars 

damage plants by eating large rounded holes in leaves 

and fruits. House sparrows eat loopers and may enter 

greenhouses to do so. See Vegetables M 13. 

Potato moth (Phthorimaea operculella) may damage 

tomato. Caterpillars mine in leaf blades or enter the 

leaf stalks and bore down into stems producing 

brown blistered patches. The brown tissue withers 

and the leaf dies. Caterpillars also bore into fruit at 

the stem end. They may also enter where two fruits or 

a leaf and a fruit are in contact, feeding just under the 

skin. Such fruit may be invaded by rot organisms that 

cause the contents to break down and become watery. 

These grey 'water-bags' are usually characteristic of 

potato moth attack on tomatoes. See Potato M 81. 

Tomato stem-borer (Symmetrischema tangolias, 

Gelechiidae). Moths are 12 mm long, greyish-brown 

with dark brown markings in the centre of the 

forewings. They lay their white eggs singly on 

foliage or stems after seedlings have been 

transplanted. If plants are young, caterpillars burrow 

straight into the stems but if plants are older, they 

enter leaves and tunnel through the leaf stalks until 

they reach the stems. Caterpillars are about 12 mm 

long and greyish green or pink. Usually there are 3-6 

caterpillars per plant. There are many generations 

each season. Caterpillars pupate inside stems. 

Favoured by warm coastal climates. 

Others include lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas 

postvittana). 



(Orthoptera) 

Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminfera) 

Black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus) 

Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) 

Mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp.) 

Spur-throated locust (Nomadacris guttulosa) 


Tomato plants are sometimes attacked shortly after 

planting out by black field crickets that chew 

foliage and stalks. Tomato crops in the 

tablelands of NSW may be invaded in late summer 

by wingless grasshoppers which strip tomatoes of 

foliage. See Vegetables M 13. 


Atherigona, tomato fly (Atherigona orientalis) breeds 

in rotting plant and animal matter. It invades tomato 

fruits usually only after they are already damaged or 

rotting. Presence of atherigona above the prescribed 

level causes rejection by NZ (Fullelove 1992). 

Ferment flies (Drosophila spp.) are attracted to fruit 

which is grown for processing and which remains 

on bushes until fully coloured. If the weather is 

unsuitable, cracking will be common. Flies are 

small, soft-bodied and about 3 mm long. They lay 

their eggs in any injured ripening fruit and the white 

maggots grow up to 4 mm long and mature in a 

week. See Fruit F 8. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae, Diptera), eg Mediterranean 

(Ceratitis capitata), Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera 

tryoni) and cucumber fly (B. cucumis), are rarely 

important in commercial tomato crops. Fruit fly 

maggots are commonly found in home garden 

tomatoes and capsicums after mid-summer when 

populations of flies have built up rapidly in early 

stone fruit. When the fruit are 'stung', maggot 

development proceeds normally, but firm fruit does 

not breakdown rapidly and quite large maggots may 

be found in fruits that seem sound. Once breakdown 

starts, it is usually rapid. A fruit fly sting is seen as a 

tiny pinhole, usually on the ripest section of the skin 

and it often exudes a drop of juice. See Fruit F 9. 

Metallic-green tomato fly (Lamprolonchaea 

brouniana) only attacks injured or split fruit, eg if 

fruit is allowed to hang on the bush until it is ripe. 

Flies are stout, bright green and 6 mm long. 

Maggots are sometimes mistaken for fruit fly larvae. 

Like true fruit fly maggots and their many relatives, 

they are capable of skipping for a distance of several 

centimetres. Avoid infestation by removing and 

destroying ripe and damaged fruit from bushes. Good 

control of other tomato pests reduces the infestation. 


vaporariorum) when numerous may injure 

tomatoes. They appear as swarms of tiny (1.5 mm 

long) delicate white 4-winged insects that fly out 

from plants when disturbed, and settle back again 

after a short time. They feed by sucking sap mainly 

from the leaf undersurfaces of soft succulent 

leaves. See Greenhouses N 24, Vegetables M 15. 

Leafhoppers, jassids (Cicadellidae, Hemiptera) 

Vegetable leafhopper, tomato leafhopper 

(Austroasca viridigrisea) is small, torpedo-shaped, 

green or greenish yellow, about 4 mm long with 

2 pairs of wings. They suck sap from leaves and fruit. 

Punctures on leaves show up as small dots of white 

tissue. Numerous dots may run together, leaves may 

curl up at the edges and die. Heavily infested plants 

become stunted and grey. Fruit may be attacked, 

faint whitish spots and small specks of excreta are 

scattered on the surface. See Vegetables M 15. 


transmits tomato big bud mycoplasma from weeds and 

other plants to tomatoes. See Vegetables M 15. 

Others: Delphacid planthoppers (Delphacidae) 

may also infest tomato. 


Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) are microscopic and 

are < 0.25 mm long, torpedo-shaped and cream with 

4 legs at the front end of the body. They breed very 

rapidly and can complete their life cycle in 6 days. 

Tomato erineum mite (Eriophyes lycopersici) 

damage Solanaceae, eg tomato, eggplant, during 

summer and autumn. Eggs are laid on leaves. 

Damage causes excessive hairlike growths which look 

like white mould, on leaves and stems. Favoured by 

dry seasons. Tomato russet mite, bronze surface 

mite (Aculops lycopersici) may be a major pest of 

tomatoes. It also attacks other solanaceae, eg Cape 

gooseberry, petunia, potato, tobacco, pepper, wild 

gooseberry, nightshade. Leaves become silvery, then 

bronzed underneath, later curled downwards and dry. 

Leaves die progressively from the bottom of the plant 

until only top growth remains green. Stems and leaf 

M 102 

VEGETABLES

TOMATO 

stalks become brown and smooth. Blossoms may 

fall. Fruit may be rusty and corky. When symptoms 

are obvious, mites will have moved up to fresh green 

tissue and will not be found on bronzed areas. Further 

bronzing will appear even after mites have been killed 

by spraying, the result of feeding before treatment. 

Overwinters on weeds in sheltered sites. Spread 

by mechanical transfer on visiting insects, birds or 

workers, and by wind transport on their own or on 

shrivelled leaves. Favoured by warm dry weather 

during summer and autumn. Commence treatment in 

seedbeds at the first sign of infestation which should 

be remote from old tomato beds and host weeds. See 


Spider mites (Tetranychidae) 

Brown almond mite, bryobia mite (Bryobia rubrioculus) 

European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) 

Bean spider mite (Tetranychus ludeni) 

Twospotted mite (T. urticae) 

Twospotted and bean spider mites suck plant 

sap from leaf undersurfaces, but in heavy 

infestations leaf uppersurfaces are also infested and 

webbing may be present. Leaves become mottled or 

speckled, and may fall. Do not confuse twospotted 

injury to leaves with damage caused by leafhoppers, 

whiteflies, thrips or deficiencies. See Beans (French) 

M 29, Trees K 24 (Table 3), Vegetables M 16. 

Others: Occasionally other mites, eg earth mites 

(Penthaleidae), may infest tomato. 

Potato ladybirds (Epilachna spp.) attack 

tomatoes growing near infested potato crops or 

solanaceous weeds, eg thornapple. Larvae are 

oval, spiny and brown and yellow. Beetles are 

orange with dark spots. Insecticides are 

registered for control. See Potato M 81. 

Thrips (Thripidae, Hemiptera) may transit 

tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). Thrips are 

brownish, tiny, elongate, 1-2 mm long and have 2 

pairs of delicate fringed wings. 

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) does little damage to 

tomatoes but it is a vector for TSWV. They breed 

on weeds or garden plants and migrate to tomatoes, 

carrying the virus with them, especially when weeds 

die off. See Onion M 68. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) is a minor pest. It 

looks like onion thrips but feeds mostly in the 

flowers. See Roses J 6. 

Western flower thrips (F. occidentalis) may also 

transmit TSWV. After eggs hatch, nymphs feed on 

infected plants and become infected throughout their 

life cycle which is about 30-45 days. They move 

from plant to plant feeding. See Annuals A 9. 

Others: Melon thrips, eastern yellow thrips (Thrips 

palmi), tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei). 

Weevils (Curculionidae) 

Vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) and its larva 

may damage tomatoes at night by chewing leaves 

and leaving only bare stalks. Larvae are about 13 mm 

long, legless, pale green or creamy, and are found in 

soil and in centres of shoots. See Vegetables M 17. 

Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma) is 

slaty-grey, about 12 mm long, and may invade the 

crop from adjoining weed growth or pasture and strip 

plants. Larvae are legless, thick-set, white or grey, 

they gouge out furrows in roots and are usually 

found in the soil nearby. See Vegetables M 17. 

Wireworms (Elateridae) and false wireworms 

(Tenebrionidae) may attack tomatoes planted out 

in land recently under pasture, chewing the roots 

and sometimes boring up into the stems from just 

below the soil surface. Northern false wireworm 

(Gonocephalum carpentariae) and its adult beetles 

may be sporadic pests of tomato and capsicum 

seedlings. See Seedlings N 69. 

Others: Ants (Formicidae), earwigs (Dermaptera), 

mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), pumpkin beetles 

(Aulocophora spp.), slaters (Porcellio spp.). 


Various species especially slugs may feed on fruit. 


Non-parasitic 

Environment: Tomato are sensitive to frost. 

Field temperatures < 4 o C may lead to freezing of 

foliage and fruit in the field. Temperature control 

in growing, marketing and handling (storage and 

transport) is very important. To achieve good quality 

tomatoes, tomatoes should be ripened at 18-22 o C and 

transported and stored at 10-18 o C. Fruit cracking, 

star cracking is caused by rapid growth following 

favourable weather conditions of high temperatures 

and good soil moisture. Developing fruit may show 

star cracks at the stem end, or circular cracks around 

the upper part of the fruit (Fig. 366). Cracks can be 

deep or shallow and may form slowly or quickly. 

Infection by fruit-rotting fungi may occur. Avoid 

irrigation just before harvest. Upward leaf rolling is 

due to high soil moisture or excessive pruning. In 

severe cases the rolled surfaces completely overlap. 

Up to 75% of leaves may be affected. Rolling occurs 

first on the older leaves. Rolled leaves are firm, 

leathery and thickened and plants appear to be 

affected by a viral disease. Do not confuse this 

condition with potato leafroll virus which does not 

affect tomatoes. Avoid excessive irrigation and 

provide adequate drainage. Prune only according to 

the cultivar's requirements. Puffiness (hollow fruit): 

Affected fruit are soft, light in weight, walls may be 

flattened. Internally, there is little or no seed, a slimy 

gel and some hollowness. Usually caused by lack of 

pollination due to very hot or very cold weather, or 

excess nitrogen. Cultivars vary in susceptibility. 

Sunscald is common in hot areas on sparsely 

foliated varieties. The sun burns the fruit causing a 

white to yellow hard patch on the exposed side, 

usually towards the stem end or shoulder (Fig. 367). 

It is most common on immature green fruit but may 

affect fruit at later stages. As affected fruit ripen, the 

scalded areas form large flattened, greyish-white 

spots with a dry paper-like surface. Sometimes 

superficial moulds develop on the scald and produce 

internal rotting. Sunscald is usually associated with 

diseases, eg target spot, and pests, eg tomato mite, 

which prematurely defoliate plants and expose fruit 

to direct sunlight. Control defoliating diseases and 

pests. Blossom drop is a common problem caused 

by unsatisfactory pollination or stress from very 

high or low temperatures, low soil moisture and hot 

drying winds, sudden cold weather and driving rain, 

VEGETABLES M 103

TOMATO 

excessive applications of nitrogenous fertilisers or 

animal manures, or diseases. Catface is caused by 

faulty pollination or injury to flowers resulting in 

malformation and scarring of the blossom end of 

fruit. Affected fruit may ripen unevenly and are unfit 

for market. Favoured by continued cool weather 

during blossoming, and injuries which cause flower 

parts to develop abnormally. Varieties vary in 

susceptibility. Other physiological diseases are 

described by Fullelove (1992) and in various State or 

Territory leaflets. 


analysis standards are available for tomatoes 

(Weir and Cresswell 1993). Common deficiencies on 

to tomato are described by Fullelove (1992). 

Blossom-end rot (BER) is caused by a calcium 

deficiency in the blossom end of the developing fruit. 

It may occur on tomato and watermelon. A 

watersoaked area develops on the blossom end of the 

fruit, which turns black or deep brown and becomes 

leathery and sunken (Fig. 368). Secondary fungal 

growth may develop. Sometimes the dead tissue is 

not visible from the outside but as an internal dark 

brown, corky mass up to 25 mm from the blossom 

end. Disease is most common when fruit is about 

half-grown. BER occurs when water loss from the 

leaves is high and soil moisture levels are low (dry 

conditions preceded by periods of high soil moisture). 

Water and calcium are withdrawn from the fruit. To 

minimise BER provide an even supply of moisture 

throughout growth, avoid excess nitrogen that 

produces large leafy plants with high water demand, 

avoid acidifying fertilisers. In commercial crops, 

when conditions favour BER, calcium nitrate may be 

applied at appropriate times. 


Anon. 1991. Integrated Pest Management for Tomatoes. 

3rd edn. University of California, CA. 

Atherton, J. G. (ed.). 1987. The Tomato Crop. World 

Crop Series, Chapman & Hall, London. 

Blanchard, D. 1992. A Colour Atlas of Tomato Diseases. 

Wolfe, London. 

Chellemi, D. O., Olsen, S. M. and Mitchell, D. J. 1994. 

Effects of Soil Solarisation and Fumigation on 

Survival of Soilborne Pathogens of Tomato in 

Northern Florida. Plant Disease, Dec. 





Fullelove, G. (ed.). 1992. Tomato Pests and Disorders. 


Fullelove, G. (ed.). 1993. Protect Your Tomatoes. Qld 


Grattidge, R. 1990. Growing Capsicums and Chillies In 


Brisbane. 

Hardman, J. R. and Bowden, R. 1992. Processing 

Tomatoes and Mangoes : An Economic Perspective. 



Vic./HRDC/Dept. Agric WA/RIRDC, Melbourne. 

Jones, J. B., Jones, J. P., Stall, R. E. and Zitter, T. A. 

(eds). 1991. Tomato Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, 

Minnesota. 

Papadopoulos, A. P. 1991. Growing Greenhouse 

Tomatoes in Soil and Soilless Media. 

Communications Branch, Agriculture Canada, 

Ottawa. 









Development (OEDC). International 

Standardisation of Fruit and Vegetables : Tomatoes. 

cur. edn. OECD, Paris. Available from DA Books, 

Mitcham, Vic. 

Resh, H. M. 1993. Hydroponic Tomatoes for the Home 

Gardener. Woodbridge Press, Santa Barbara, CA. 

Smith, K. I. 1994. The Aussie Tomato Book. Viking, 

Ringwood, Vic.. 






Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

NT Agnotes 

Costs and Return for Trellis Tomatoes 

Grafting Tomatoes for Bacterial Wilt Control (NT 

Glasshouse Tomato Production (SA Agric Market 

Development Paper No. 12.) 

Pests and Diseases of Capsicums (SA Fact Sheet) 

Tomato : Yellow Top Virus (NSW Agfact, WA Farmnote) 

NSW Agfacts 

A Guide to Tomato Quality 

A Rapid Nitrate Field Test for Vegetable Crops 

Bacterial Canker of Tomato 

Bacterial Wilt of Brown Rot of Tomato 

Blossom-end Rot of Tomatoes 

Capsicum Growing 

Capsicums in the Home Garden 

Diseases of Tomato 

Early Tomatoes in the Home Garden 

Eggplant Growing 

Growing Tomatoes for the Fresh Market 

Pests of Tomato 

Ripening Tomatoes with Ethylene using the Trickle System 

Target Spot of Tomato 

Temperatures for Tomatoes 

Tomato Big Bud 

Tomato Mosaic Complex 

Tomato Ripening Guide 

Tomato Spotted Wilt 

Vic Agnotes 

Advancing the Ripening of Tomatoes 

A New Tomato for Early Harvesting 

Arcadia : A New Fresh Market Tomato for Early Harvest 

Early Tomato Production in the Mallee 

Goulburn : A New Fresh Market Tomato 

Phytophthora Root Rot of Tomatoes 

Pruning, Tying and Support of Tomatoes 

Tomatoes for Processing : Machine Harvested 

Tomatoes for the Fresh Market 

Tomatoes for Fresh Market : Control of Diseases 

Tomatoes for Fresh Market : Control of Pests 

Tomatoes for Processing : Pest and Disease Control 

Tomatoes : Root Knot Nematode 

Tomatoes : Weed Control 

Tomato Processing Industry Legislation 

WA Farmnotes 

Bacterial Diseases of Tomatoes 

Tobacco Mosaic Virus of Tomatoes 

Tomato Pests and Their Control 

Tomato Wilt : Causes and Control 


Horticultural Research & Development Corp. (HRDC) 

Slides (APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota) 

TomCHECK 

See Hydroponic systems N 43, Vegetables M 19 



M 104 

VEGETABLES

TOMATO 

MANAGEMENT 

Most States/Territories have management programs for commercial tomato crops (Fullelove 1992). An 

overview of the industry is presented by Coombs (1995). New initiatives to develop more sustainable 

production systems for tomatoes and to introduce a benchmarking system (TomCHECK) for improving crop 

management practices is being developed (Coombs 1995). Control of pests and diseases is necessary to 

produce a vigorous, high yielding crop that will grow and mature uniformly. A few pests are serious regular 

threats and others may cause losses from time to time depending on the area, eg on coastal crops. In most 

areas damage by corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and native budworm (H. punctigera) is likely from the 

start of flowering onwards, other caterpillars will also attack tomatoes but measures used to control Helicoverpa 

spp. will usually control these. Thrips spread TSWV, aphids spread other viruses. Resistance by some 

important pests, eg Helicoverpa, tomato russet mite, and green peach aphid, to some insecticides now 

complicates the application of insecticides. 

Selection 

Tomatoes are grown for the fresh market, processing for canning, drying. Cultivars should be selected 

according to a particular district and season, field or greenhouse crop, hydroponic or organic system. Select 

cultivars or rootstocks with some resistance to local problems, eg wilts, virus, nematodes, etc. Only plant 

disease-free planting material, eg certified seed, or save seed from selected healthy plants. Treat seed for 

seedborne viruses, bacterial and fungal diseases. Before sowing, treat/dust all seed to reduce losses from 

damping off in seedbeds, especially hot water treated seed, which is prone to attack by soilborne fungi after 

planting, eg damping off . 


Propagated by seeds, grafting on to rootstock to prove increased vigour and resistance to specified 

diseases. Multi-celled polystyrene trays for nursery production, reduce root damage, susceptibility to soilborne 

diseases, eliminates transplant shock and produces even-sized plants. Diseases and disease control methods 

depend on how and where the crop is grown, eg greenhouse or field grown, and locality, eg coastal, inland, 

NSW or WA. Most plants are transplanted from seedlings raised in a nursery. To prevent damping off and 

infection of seedlings by fungi, bacteria and nematodes seedlings should be raised in sterilised soil, seedbeds 

should be well drained and for early crops, and should be covered against cold and saturation. Cultural 

methods: A frost-free period of at least 120 days is needed to grow tomatoes without frost protection. A mean 

temperature of 21-24 o C is optimum for growth and good fruit quality. Practise crop rotations of 4-5 years. 

There is little danger of infection from soilborne diseases on virgin land. It is unwise to use the same land year 

after year for seedbeds or cropping. Prepare land for tomatoes early. Preferably cover crop with plants, eg 

cowpeas, which are unsuitable for African black beetle and vegetable weevil development. If this is not done 

then keep land clear of weeds for several weeks prior to planting tomatoes. These practices reduce the 

incidence of soilborne pests. Pre-plant soil treatments: Soil fumigation or nematicides are used to control 

soilborne diseases, eg Fusarium and Verticillium wilts, and root knot nematodes that buildup in areas where 

tomatoes are grown continuously in greenhouses and in the field. Soil solarisation gives variable results. 

Scarab grubs and wireworms may also be problems. Tomatoes must be planted in suitable soil and have an 

effective root depth of 200 mm, to benefit from fertilising and irrigation. Space plants appropriately, tomatoes 

have a high demand for nutrients. Plants may require staking and training Sanitation: Roguing involves 

removing disease-affected or undesirable plants and is particularly important when diseases such as mosaic, 

streak or bacterial canker develop. These diseases are readily carried from plant to plant, especially by pruning, 

so any plants affected by these diseases should be pulled out and burnt. If you suspect, but are not certain, that 

any of these diseases are present, prune healthy plants first. Burn/deeply bury all plants as soon as harvest is 

complete. Weed control in tomatoes is based on cultivation, mulching and herbicides. Cultivation may 

damage surface roots, and regular cultivation also destroys the soil structure increasing the risk of soil erosion. 

Herbicides may be applied at transplanting. Effective weed control increases yields, reduces fluctuations in 

moisture and allows the roots to develop throughout the bed. Solanaceous weeds enable diseases to persist in 

uncropped soil. Pesticides: Fungicides, insecticides and herbicides are registered for use in tomato crops. 

Growth regulators are used for advancing maturity, improving growth, yield, set, increasing size for ripening. 

Postharvest 

Harvest at the correct stage. Quality standards are available for tomatoes (OECD cur. end). A tomato is 

considered to be mature when it begins to develop a white star and a pinkish tinge on the blossom-end of the 

fruit. Fruit to be transported a long distance is often harvested at this stage. Mature fruit can be ripened 

uniformly using ethylene, a natural gas, which causes fruit to ripen. Crops may be mechanically harvested. 

After harvest tomatoes should be cooled in about 12 hours to the required temperature. Tomatoes may be 

stored and transported at 13 o C at a moderate relative humidity (85-90%) for an estimated storage life of 2-3 

weeks (Salvestrin 1991). 

VEGETABLES M 105

TOMATO 

Fig. 360. Tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Circular blotching on fruit. 

Fig. 361. Tomato big bud mycoplasma. Left : Stiff upright shoots. 

Centre : Stem splitting, root initials. Right : Small, hard, green fruit. 

Fig. 362. Early blight, target spot (Alternaria 

solani), spots on leaves. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 363. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) 

cause small galls on roots. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 364. Green vegetable bug (Nezara 

viridula). Adult and nymphs sucking 

sap from fruit. 

Fig. 365. Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) feeding in fruit. 

Fig. 366. Fruit cracking. Dept. 


Fig. 367. Sunscald on the shoulder 

of fruit. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 368. Blossom-end rot. 


M 106 

VEGETABLES

Other 

Plantings 

Fig. 369. Kennedya yellow mosaic 

virus on Kennedia sp. 

Fig. 370. Canker (Cytospora 

eucalypticola) on eucalypt. 

D. G. Parbery. 

Fig. 371. Corky leaf spot 

(Aulographina eucalypti) on 

Eucalyptus resinifera. B. A Fuhrer. 

Fig. 372. Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) 

on Callistemon shoots. B. A. Fuhrer. 

Fig. 373. Armillaria root rot 

(Armillaria luteobubalina). Fresh 

white rhizomorphs under bark of E. 

fastigata. G. C. Marks. 

Fig. 374. Phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora spp.). 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 1 


Bonsai N 13 

Compost N 16 

Containers (outdoors) N 19 

Garden centres N 21 


Herbs N 32 

House plants N 35 

Hydroponic systems N 41 

Interior plantscapes N 45 

Manure (animal) N 48 

Mulches N 49 

Nurseries N 51 




Seedlings, cuttings N 66 

Seeds N 74 

Soil N 80 


Urban landscapes N 88 

Water N 90 

Water plants N 94 

Xeriscapes N 95 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 1

Australian 

Native Plants 


Parasitic 




Cankers 

Damping off 


Grey mould 


Root, crown and collar rots 

Rusts 

Smuts 

Wilts 

Wood rots 




Aphids 

Borers 

Bugs 

Caterpillars 


Froghoppers, spittle bugs, leafhoppers, 

planthoppers, treehoppers (Summary) 

Gall insects 

Grasshoppers, katydids, locusts 

Leafeating beetles 

Leafminers 

Lerps, psyllids 

Mealybugs 

Mites 

Sawflies 

Scales 

Seed insects 


Termites 

Thrips 

Tip borers 

Weevils 

Whiteflies 



Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Fire adaptation 


Humans 

Medicinal uses, fodder and food 


Sooty mould 

WEEDS 

Probably the most important problems are the soilborne 

fungal diseases (Phytophthora cinnamomi 

and Armillaria luteobubalina), foliage-feeding 

insect pests and destruction of native habitat by 

humans due to clearing of forest areas for 

agriculture, horticulture, mining, forestry and 

wildflower cutting. Individually, Australian native 

plants are susceptible to particular diseases and 

pests in the same way that introduced plants are. 

Introduced diseases and pests may 

attack Australian native plants. 

Diseases: Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora 

cinnamomi) is considered to be an introduced disease 

which can attack a wide range of both introduced and 

native plants. See Trees K 6. 

Pests: Corn earworms (Helicoverpa spp.) may feed 

in flowers and buds. Cineraria leafminer 

(Chromatomyia syngenesiae) maggots may mine in 

the leaves of Helichrysum. White wax scale 

(Gascardia destructor), a pest of introduced citrus and 

other plants, also infests Boronia and Senecio. 

Australian native diseases and pests 

may attack introduced plants. 

Diseases: Rust (Puccinia lagenophorae), which can 

severely damage native Lagenophora, Senecio and 

other Asteraceae, also attacks introduced calendula 

and English daisy (Bellis perennis). 

Pests: Painted apple moth, painted wattle moth 

(Teia anartoides) caterpillars originally fed mainly on 

wattles now also feed on a wide range of introduced 

plants. Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera) 

caterpillars, in addition to their native hosts, feed in 

the buds and flowers of many introduced plants 

including cotton. 

Australian native plants grown overseas 

may be attacked in these countries by diseases or 

pests which are not presently in Australia, eg rust 

(Puccinia psidii) may attack eucalypts overseas. 

There is then the possibility of introducing these 

diseases or pests into Australia if these plants reenter 

Australia. 

The increased cultivation of intensively 

managed native species as monocultures is likely 

to result in an increase in diseases and pests. 


Parasitic 


Compared with introduced plants, Australian 

native plants suffer from relatively few virus 

diseases. This may be due to the fact that relatively 

few have been tested for viruses, that virus 

diseases are mostly researched on plants of 

economic importance and that most species of 

fruit, nut, vegetables and field crops have been 

imported. Also, most virus diseases of annual and 

herbaceous perennial plants are spread by sucking 

insects (aphids, thrips, leafhoppers) which are 

generally scarce in Australia on native plants. 

Viruses present in introduced species where 

there are also native species. 

Cassia (Fabaceae): Bean yellow mosaic virus, cassia 

yellow blotch virus, clover yellow vein virus, passion 

fruit woodiness virus, tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Cymbidium (Orchidaceae): Cymbidium mosaic virus, 

odontoglossum ringspot virus, orchid fleck virus, 

tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Ranunculus (Ranunculaceae): Tomato spotted wilt 

virus. 

Rubus (Rosaceae): Raspberry bushy dwarf virus, 

tobacco streak virus. 

Senecio (Asteraceae): Cucumber mosaic virus, beet 

western yellows virus, tomato spotted wilt virus. 

Vanda (Orchidaceae): Cymbidium mosaic virus, 

odontoglossum ringspot virus. 

Viola (Violaceae): Cucumber mosaic virus, tomato 

spotted wilt virus. 

N 2 

OTHER PLANTINGS

AUSTRALIAN NATIVE PLANTS 

Virus diseases recorded in native plants. 

Cunjevoi (Alocasia macrorrhizos, Araceae): Dasheen 

mosaic virus. 

Crassula sp. (Crassulaceae): Cucumber mosaic virus. 

Duboisia (Solanaceae): Tomato spotted wilt virus 

Glycine (Fabaceae): Alfalfa mosaic virus, glycine 

mosaic virus, glycine mottle virus. Lucerne 

(Australian) latent virus, passionfruit woodiness virus, 

peanut mottle virus, potato Y virus, soybean mosaic 

virus, sunflower ringspot virus and others occur in the 

introduced soybean (Glycine max). 

Indigofera australis: Kennedya yellow mosaic virus. 

Kennedia coccinea (Fabaceae): Potato Y virus 

K. rubicunda: Kennedya Y virus, Kennedya yellow 

mosaic virus (Fig. 369). 

Phaius, Orchidaceae: Cymbidium mosaic virus, 

odontoglossum ringspot virus, tobacco mosaic virus. 

Sturt pea (Clianthus formosus), Fabaceae: Bean 

yellow mosaic virus. Also tomato spotted wilt in 

Clianthus sp. 

Do not propagate vegetatively from virus-infected 

plants. See Annuals A 4, Trees K 4. 


Australian native plants suffer from relatively few 

known bacterial diseases. Examples include crown 

gall (Agrobacterium sp.) which mainly occurs in 

cultivated soils and appears to be unknown in 

undisturbed areas. Susceptible Australian native 

plants include Abutilon, Araucaria, Brachychiton, 

Cordyline australis, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Ficus 

benjamina, Lythrum salicaria. Omalanthus 

populifolius in the tropics is often disfigured by a 

bacterial disease. 


The native flora of Australia has evolved in such a 

way as to render it resistant to many of the fungi 

(and bacteria) that commonly infect introduced 

cultivated flower crops. Many of the Australian 

native plants have a tough sclerophyllous foliage 

which makes it difficult for pathogens, eg downy 

mildews, to gain access particularly in their natural 

undisturbed habitats. Root tissue of these plants 

also tends to be woodier than that of exotic plants, 

making them less accessible for common root 

attacking fungi, eg Rhizoctonia and Pythium. 

Families most affected by Phytophthora, 

Armillaria, stem cankers, leaf spots and blight 

include Proteaceae, Myrtaceae, Papilionaceae, 

Haemodoraceae, Goodeniaceae, Epacridaceae, 

Poaceae and Chenopodiaceae. These families seem to 

be least affected by rusts (Shearer 1994). 

Families most affected by rusts, eg Cyperaceae, 

Restionaceae and Orchidaceae, seem to be least 

affected by Phytophthora, Armillaria, stem canker, 

leaf spots and blight. 

Cankers (probably > 50 different genera of 

fungi) may affect trunks, stems and branches of 

many native plants (Shearer 1994, Wills and 

Keighery 1994). In WA cankers occur mainly in 

the Proteaceae and Myrtaceae. 

Botryosphaeria ribis affects many plants including 

eucalypt and banksia (especially B. speciosa). 

Cryptodiaporthe (= Diplodina) cause diffuse cankers 

and high mortality of Banksia coccinea, B. grandis 

and Dryandra sessilis. Possibly endemic with limited 

host range in the Proteaceae. 

Cytospora spp. affects eucalypt (Fig. 370), eg tuart. 

Endothia gyrosa in WA causes large target-like 

cankers on marri, tuart and other eucalypts causing 

crown decline and mortality. 

Sporotrichum destructor affects red-flowering gum 

(E. ficifolia) and enters through bark injuries and 

causes large cankers on stems and trunks. These swell 

and split to reveal wood beneath and become coated 

with a powdery mass of white spores. Leaves and 

small branches wither, larger branches and trees die. 

S. destructor also attacks E. calophylla and E. 

haematoxylin in WA, but with less vigour than on redflowering 

gum. Stem canker is mainly found on 

cultivated trees, not those grown naturally. 

Others: Canker fungi have been associated with 

crown decline in wandoo (E. wandoo). Phomopsis 

has been isolated from dying branches of 

Calothamnus quadrifidus (Wills and Keighery 1994). 

Zythiostroma causes stem cankers of B. baxteri. 

Cankers are considered to be favoured by stress, 

eg unusual weather (6 months rain deficiency 

followed by a heat wave). See Trees K 5. 

Damping off (Botrytis cinerea, Cylindrocladium 

sp., Pythium spp. Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia 

spp.). Australian native plants are susceptible to 

damping off diseases in nurseries in the same way 

that introduced plants are. See Seedlings N 66. 

Fungal leaf spots are relatively common and 

affect a range of Australian species (Fig. 371). 

They appear as black or dark brown spots on 

foliage and may cause leaf fall, however, many of 

them are of little significance except that they are 

unsightly. There are at least 2 pathogenic fungi for 

every plant species and there are almost 25,000 

species of flowering plants described from 

Australia (Pascoe and Sutton 1987), eg 

173 from Acacia including Colletogloeum (17 spp.) 

119 from Banksia 41 from Correa 

34 from Leptospermum 34 from Olearia 

12 from Melaleuca 13 from Callistemon. 

Kangaroo paws (Anigozanthos spp.), especially the 

red and green kangaroo paw (A. manglesii) and some 

A. flavidus hybrids, may be seriously affected by ink 

spot (Alternaria alternata). 

Parahebe perfoliata is an example of a native plant 

which is severely affected by leaf spotting fungi. 

This is the principal reason for that plant's lack of 

popularity as an ornamental. 

The common foliar diseases of native flowers 

rarely cause plant losses but their presence affects 

the marketability of blooms and foliage. Their 

control is necessary for the successful cultivation 

of native flowers and foliage. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) is mainly a 

problem on seedlings and cuttings, but may also 

affect leaves, stems and flowers of fineleaved 

species, eg Astroloma ciliatum, Callistemon (Fig. 

372), Eremophila, Grevillea pilulifera, 

Thryptomene. A grey fungal mass of spores 

develops on the unsightly lesions in shaded 

situations. See Greenhouses N 22. 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 3


Powdery mildews (Erysiphales) cause a white 

mealy growth on leaf upper and undersurfaces 

and stems. Powdery mildews which do not 

normally attack foliage in the bush can become 

important under cultivation especially during the 

production of seedlings in humid microclimates of 

nurseries. As well as being a problem in 

nurseries, these diseases can damage plants in the 

field especially under close spacing and overhead 

watering. Fungicide sprays can control these 

diseases in a nursery situation. See Annuals A 6. 

Root, crown and collar rots 

Armillaria root rot, straw rot (Armillaria 

spp.) 

possibly has a wider host range than Phytophthora 

cinnamomi. A. luteobubalina mostly attacks woody 

perennials (Fig. 373) in the Proteaceae, eg 

Banksia brownii, B. occidentalis formosa, 

Myrtaceae, eg jarrah, karri, tuart, wandoo, 

Papilionaceae, Epacridaceae and Mimosaceae, eg 

wattle, and is replaced in the bush areas by field 

resistant herbaceous perennials (Shearer 1994). Also 

Callistris preisii. Armillaria kills broom bush 

(Choretum glomeratum) which is the only food plant 

of the larvae of the rare brown azure butterfly 

(Ogyris otames) (Wills and Keighery 1994). See 

Trees K 4. 

Phytophthora root rot, cinnamon fungus, jarrah 

dieback (Phytophthora cinnamomi (Pc), 

Phytophthora spp., P. nicotianae, P. citricola, P. 

megasperma). These fungi (Fig. 374) occur throughout 

Australia but have been most studied in WA. They 

cause debilitating root problems and are a major 

threat to wild flower production, in particular the 

cultivation of several native flower species in WA, eg 

banksia, boronia, dryandra, eucalypt, Geraldton wax. 

Most species in the Proteaceae, Papilionaceae and 

Epacridaceae are susceptible and a few in the 

Myrtaceae. Pc attacks 1,500-2,000 of the 9,000 species 

in the southwest of WA mostly woody perennials 

which are replaced by herbaceous perennials (James 

1994). The first symptom is wilting of new growth 

followed by a decline and death over a period of time, 

trees may take years to die. In wildflower production 

Pc is considered to kill > 50% of plants in some 

commercial native crops. Pc is the most destructive 

Phytophthora species of the seven species found in 

south west of WA. Pc is listed as one of the 5 key 

threatening processes under the Endangered 

Species Protection Act 1992 and has a major effect 

on Australian biodiversity in WA and other states 

(Bridgewater and Edgar 1994,). Species endangered 

due to Pc include B. brownii. Communities severely 

affected by Pc are more prone to weed invasion and 

larger communities may become less complex 

(Wilson et al. 1994) and dominated by fewer resistant 

species, eg dominant banksia trees may become 

extinct locally (Kieghery et al. 1994). Epacridaceae 

and Proteaceae are replaced by monocotyledons, 

eg rushes and sedges (Websdane et al. 1994). Pc is 

the main reason for the WA Nursery Accreditation 

Scheme. See Trees K 6. 

Others: Pythium, Rhizoctonia and other species 

may cause root problems. . 


Rusts (Uredinales) may severely affect some 

Australian plants (Shearer 1994). Families mainly 

affected include Asteraceae, Colchicaceae, 

Chenopodiaceae, Goodeniaceae, Haemodoraceae, 

Poaceae, Mimosaceae, Orchidaceae. Fireweed 

(Senecio lautus subsp. maritimus) leaves are 

commonly covered in rust (Puccinia 

lagenophorae), plants may die. Australian 

hollyhock (Lavatera plebeia) is attacked by 

P. malvacearum. Kangaroo paws, cat's paws, 

Conostylis and Hemodorum are attacked by 

(Puccinia hemodori). Orchids by Puccinia and 

Uromyces, which may reduce flowering and 

survival of endangered species. Wattles are 

attacked by many species of rusts including rust 

galls (Uromycladium spp. (Fig. 375), especially U. 

tepperianum) causing the production of large 

woody rust-coloured galls on stems and 

developing seed pods, severely affected trees may 

die. See Annuals A 7, Orchids G 4, Wattle K 131. 

Smuts (Ustilaginales) commonly affect native 

rushes (Restionaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae) 

which are considered to have some resistance to 

Phytophthora and stem canker fungi in WA 

(Websdane et al. 1994). They often increase in 

wild sites affected by Pc and their use as barrier 

planting to protect Pc susceptible plantings is 

being researched. Most smuts are systemic within 

the host and produce their spores in its 

inflorescence so there is a loss of seed. An 

exception is culm smut (Ustilago lyginiae). Some 

smuts may cause localised extinction of host 

species. Smut diseases may affect sustainability of 

bush harvesting and export requirements. See 

Dahlia C 24, Onion M 67, Sweetcorn M 88, 


Wilts: With the exception of myrtle wilt 

(Chalara australis) of myrtle (Nothofagus 

cunninghamii) in Tasmania and Victoria, wilt 

diseases of annual, herbaceous perennial and 

woody native plants have been little researched. 


Wood rots (Basidiomycetes) attack many native 

trees. Common wood rots include: 

Common honeycomb (Osmoporus gunni) 

Luminous toadstool (Pleurotus sp.) 

Red wood rot (Pycnosporus spp.) 


Tinder punks (Phellinus spp.) (Fig. 376) 

Yellowish wood rot (Polyporus versicolor) 

Others, eg Fomes, Ganoderma, Poria 

Many wood rot fungi can decay stumps and logs 

of softwoods and hardwoods (stump removers), eg 

golden tuft mushroom (Gymnopilus pampeanus), 

Poria spp. Peniophora gigantea (Marks et al. 

1982). See Trees K 8. 


There are many parasitic plants which affect both 

native and exotic plant species. 

Broomrape (Orobanche spp., Orobanchaceae) 

Devil's twine (Cassytha spp., Lauraceae) 

Dodder (Cuscuta spp., Convolvulaceae) 

True mistletoe (Amyema, Dendrophthoe, Notothixos) 

Native cherry (Exocarpos spp.) 

West Australian Christmas tree (Nuytsia floribunda) 


N 4 

OTHER PLANTINGS



Nematode diseases usually buildup on areas that 

have been under intense cultivation. 

Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) causes galls 

on roots of hibiscus, grevillea, mint bush 

(Prostanthera), Myoporum. See Vegetables M 10. 

Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) may 

affect many Myrtaceae, eg eucalypt, grevillea, 

hardenbergia. See Vegetables M 10. 

Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) may occur 

on kangaroo paw, several Asteraceae, ferns 

(Asplenium, Blechnum spp., Pteris tremula) and 

reduce vigour and cause death. Attacks are worse 

during the cooler months. See Ferns E 2. 

Stem and bulb (Ditylenchus dipsaci) occurs on stems 

of acacia and cassia and on bulbs. See Daffodils C 20. 

Burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) has been 

found on Lagunaria patersonii, Syncarpia glomulifera 

and brush box (Tristania conferta). It forms burrows 

in the soft outer tissues of roots. These burrows can 

form entry points for pathogenic root fungus, eg 

Armillaria. 



Few native trees escape insect attack, but not all 

insects found on trees cause damage. Insect 

attacks causing major damage to trees are usually 

sporadic and localised and only a small number 

of insect species are involved. Trees planted 

outside their natural range, or on marginal sites for 

the species, and isolated trees left after clearing, or 

scattered trees in improved pasture are most prone 

to insect damage. Some insects occur in large 

numbers and affect growth and survival of trees. 

Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Exotic aphids 

are not common on native flora (CSIRO 1991). 

Most pest species have been introduced into 

Australia. Some infest a wide range of plants, eg 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) may infest 

Hymenosporium, orchids, ferns, greenhouse plants. 

Aphids damage new fronds of ferns, new shoots 

and flower spikes of orchids. Others, eg pine 

aphid (Cinara thujafolia), may infest Callitris. 

Some aphids feed on roots, congregate in colonies 

and are covered with white or grey wax. Many 

species secrete copious honeydew. See Roses J 4. 

Borers are often credited with causing some 

native plants, eg wattles, to be short-lived. Others 

species commonly attacked include banksia, 

bottlebrush, eucalypt, cypress pine (Callitris), 

Prostanthera, melaleuca. Adults of some borers, 

eg jewel beetles, are pollinators of native plants. 

Beetle borers (Coleoptera): 

Auger beetles (Bostrichidae) 

Jewel beetles (Buprestidae) 

Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae), eg common 

eucalypt longicorn (Phoracantha semipunctata) 

Weevils (Curculionidae), eg apple root weevils 

(Perperus spp.), elephant beetle (Xylotrupes 

gideon), elephant weevil (Orthorhinus 

cylindrirostris), kurrajong weevil (Axionicus 

insignis) 

Moth borers (Lepidoptera): 

Ghost moths (Hepialidae) (Fig. 377) 

Oecophorid borers (Oecophoridae), eg fruit-tree 

borer (Maroga melanostigma) 

Wood moths (Cossidae), eg Australian goat moth 

(Culama caliginosa) 

Twig girdlers (various species) 

See Eucalypt K 59, Trees K 10, K 11, K 12. 

Bugs (Hemiptera), both introduced and native, 

may be pests. Some only attack one genus, eg 

acacia spotting bug (Rayieria tumidiceps), 

eucalyptus tip bug (Amorbus alternatus), while 

others infest many, eg crusader bug (Mictus 

profana). Some introduced bugs are naturalised. 

Bronze orange bug (Musgraveia sulciventris) sucks 

sap from young shoots of cultivated citrus and native 

species, eg Eremocitrus, Microcitrus. See Citrus F 36. 

Cotton harlequin bug (Tectocoris diophthalmus) 

which is a pest of cotton also infests native species of 

Abutilon and Hibiscus. See Hibiscus K 82. 

Crusader bug (Mictis profana) is a pest of many 

plants, eg eucalypt, wattle (Fig. 378). See Trees K 12. 

Harlequin bug (Dindymus versicolor) is not usually a 

pest but may damage abutilon, Alyogone, hibiscus, 

Thomasia and other plants. See Vegetables M 12. 

Metallic shield bug (Scutiphora pedicellata, 

Scutelleridae) is brightly coloured and decorative, but 

may reach nuisance levels. It feeds on many plants, 

eg fig, cottonwood (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and melaleuca. 

Their feeding on fig may be followed by sap 

exudation. See Melaleuca K 98, Vegetables M 12. 

Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor) is a pest of 

Brachycome, Helichrysum and Helipterum. They 

congregate on young shoots and suck sap causing 

wilting and sometimes death of plants. Nymphs, 

which do not fly, live on seeds of capeweed and other 

Asteraceae. See Stone fruits F 130. 

Others: Coon bug (Oxycarenus arctatus) and 

Leptocoris lurida. Pale cotton stainer (Dysdercus 

sidae, Pyrrhocoridae) grows to 10 mm long, is reddish 

brown with a black spot on each wing cover and 

yellow underneath (Hely et al, 1982). 


Caterpillars (Lepidoptera): Most Australian 

plants may be attacked by one or more moth 

and/or butterfly caterpillars. Many are host 

specific, eg autumn gum moth (Mnesampela 

privata) only attacks eucalypt, white cedar moth 

(Leptocneria reducta) only attacks white cedar, 

some, eg native budworm (Helicoverpa 

punctigera), can attack many native and exotic 

plants. Some feed on leaves, flowers, seeds and 

stored seed. Others bore in shoot tips, branches 

and trunks, or girdle twigs. 

Bag-shelter moth (Ochrogaster lunifer) 

Case moths, bag moths (Psychidae) 

Cup moths (Doratifera spp.) 


Emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera eucalypti) (Fig. 379) 


Loopers (Geometridae) 


Web moths (Pyralidae) 

See Annuals A 8, Eucalypt K 60, Vegetables M 13. 

European earwig (Forficula auricularia) usually 

feeds on organic matter but may attack seedlings 

and eat leaves and petals. See Vegetables M 14. 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 5


Froghoppers, spittle bugs, 

leafhoppers, planthoppers, treehoppers 

(Hemiptera): Some species, eg gumtree hoppers 

(Eurymela spp.), are host specific but most species 

can attack a wide range of plants. 

Froghoppers and spittle bugs (Cercopoidea): 

Common froghopper (Chaetophyes compacta) 

Spine-tailed froghopper (Machaerota finitima) 

Leafhoppers, jassids (Cicadellidae): 


Zygina zealandica on Pelargonium australe (Fig. 380) 

Planthoppers (Delphacidae, Flatidae, Ricaniidae): 

Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens, Delphacidae) 

Green planthopper (Siphanta acuta, Flatidae) 

Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa australis, Ricaniidae) 

Treehoppers (Membracidae): 

Green treehopper (Sextius virescens) 

Spiny treehopper (Sertorius australis) 

See Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 14, K 15. 

Gall insects are common on native plants and 

are usually host specific. 

Coccid galls (Eriococcidae): Apiomorpha spp. 

produce the most unusual galls on twigs and leaves of 

eucalypts. Other species produce galls on casuarina. 

See Eucalypt K 61, 63. 

Flies (Diptera) produce blossom galls on flower heads 

of eucalypt and wattle. See Wattle K 135. 

Psyllids (Psyllidae) may cause large swellings on 

leaves of eucalypts and other native plants. See 

Eucalypts K 62. 

Thrips (Thysanoptera) cause bladder-like galls on 

leaves of lilly-pilly (Acmena, Syzygium), wattle and 

other native plants. See Wattle K 135. 

Wasps (Hymenoptera): Eulophid wasps 

(Eulophidae) infest bluegum. On Geraldton wax they 

infest flowers reducing the value of the plant as well 

as increasing the chance of rejection on phytosanitary 

grounds (Fig. 381). Megastigmus (Torymidae) 

forms galls on banksia, citrus, everlasting 

(Helichrysum), eucalypt, hakea, kurrajong, others. 

Seed chalcids (Eurytomidae) cause galls on 

bottlebrush, eucalypt, other natives. Xenostigmus 

causes galls on hakea buds and other native plants. 

Weevils (Curculionidae) may cause galls on eucalypts 

and other plants. 

See Citrus F 37, Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 14, 

Wattle K 135. 

Grasshoppers, katydids, locusts (Orthoptera) 

may move into areas in large numbers and cause 

severe damage. Most will strip foliage from any 

plant in their path. Young trees planted into 

paddocks or in belts along paddock fences may be 

damaged or killed. Insecticides usually give good 

control but involve application over large areas 

causing problems environmentally. Important pests 

include: 

Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) 

Small plague grasshopper (Austroicetes cruciata) 


Katydids (Caedicia spp.) 

See Citrus F 38, Vegetables M 13. 

Leafeating beetles (Coleoptera): Some may 

attack only one genus, eg eucalyptus leaf beetles, 

eucalyptus tortoise beetles (Chrysophtharta spp., 

Paropsis spp.), only attack eucalypts. Fireblight 

beetle (Pyrgoides orphana) attacks wattles. 

Others attack a range of plants. 

Flea beetles (Galerucinae, Chrysomelidae) chew tiny 

holes in leaves (Fig. 382). See Hibiscus K 82. 

Leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), and sometimes their 

larvae, feed on foliage of native. 


Swarming leaf beetles (Rhyparida spp.) 

See Trees K 15 

Scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) chew foliage, flower 

heads and fruit of many native and exotic plants, 

larvae feed on grass roots. 

Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.) 

Spring beetles (Liparetus spp.) 

See Trees K 16, Turfgrasses L 11. 

See Eucalypt K 61. 

Leafminers are host specific. Larvae of a range 

of insects including beetles, moths, flies and 

sawflies feed on the internal tissue of leaves. The 

mine may be a narrow line or a blotch, usually the 

pattern is symptomatic of the species. 

Fly leafminers (Diptera) 

Pittosporum leafminer (Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli) 

Moth leafminers (Lepidoptera) 

Blackbutt leafminer (Acrocercops laciniella) 

Jarrah leafminer (Perthida glyphopa) 

Phyllonorycter aglaozona on Kennedia, Glycine 

Lomatia leafminer (A. antimima) (Fig. 383) 

Macadamia leafminer (A. chionosema) 

Nepticula anazona on swamp mahogany 

(Lophostemon suaveolens) 

Silkyoak leafminer, grevillea leafminer 

(Peraglyphis atimana) 

Wattle leafminer (A. plebeia) 

Sawfly leafminers (Hymenoptera) 

Leafblister sawfly (Phylacteophaga spp.) 

Leafminers are difficult to control. Hard oval 

lumps (pupae) can be seen in most blisters, by then 

it is too late to spray that season. Avoid planting 

very susceptible species as specimen plants. See 

Azalea K 28, Cineraria A 28, Trees K 15. 

Lerps, psyllids (Psyllidae, Hemiptera) are 

small sap sucking insects which attack the leaves 

of many native plants. Many are host specific. 

Lerp insects form a cover, or a lerp, as protection for 

the nymphs but unlike scales the nymph remains fully 

mobile through all stages under the lerp. Both male 

and female adults have wings. Most species, eg 

brown basket lerp (Cardiaspinis fiscella), feed on 

eucalypt leaves. Some lerp insects cause galls or 

pimples on bottlebrush leaves. 

Psyllids are free-living (they do not form a lerp), eg 

Callistemon psyllid (Psyllidae) (Fig. 384) 

Moreton Bay fig psyllid (Mycopsylla fici) 

Kurrajong star psyllid (Protyora sterculiae) 


Mealybugs (Pseudoccidae, Hemiptera) infest 

native ferns, orchids, palms, lilies, cordylines on 

occasions, grevilleas and wattles. They 

persistently and severely attack the developing 

crown of palms. Developing fronds are 

misshapen and stunted and prolonged attacks may 

weaken and kill plants. Wattle mealybug 

(Melanococcus albizziae) may infest wattles. See 


N 6 

OTHER PLANTINGS


Mites (Acarina, Arachnida): 

Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) may feed on leaf 

undersurfaces of banksia leaves causing them to roll 

under. Eucalypt leaf blister mite (Eriophyidae) 

feeds from tiny disfiguring galls on the upper surfaces 

of leaves. New shoots of casuarina (Fig. 385), 

eucalypt, wattle, teatree and other plants may be 

bunched and distorted due to the feeding of eriophyid 

mites on the developing tissues. See Eucalypt K 63, 

Grapevine F 62, Pome fruits F 114. 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae), especially twospotted 

mite (Tetranychus urticae), may attack many plants 

but is controlled by Stethorus beetles and other 

predators. See Beans (French) M 29. 

Others: Heavy mite numbers cause leaf silvering of 

Myrtaceous plants including Calothamnus. New 

shoots of hakea and grevillea can be grossly 

distorted and stunted. Several species of melaleuca 

are subject to mite infestation in developing flower 

buds which turn brown and fail to develop, aborting 

before reaching maturity. 

Sawflies (Hymenoptera) lay eggs into slits cut in 

leaf uppersurfaces. Larvae are sometimes called 

spitfires and are important defoliators of native 

trees and shrubs especially bottlebrush, cypress 

pine, eucalypt and paperbark. Most are host 

specific (an exception is pear and cherry slug). 

Callistemon sawfly (Lophyrotoma sp.) 

Cypress pine sawfly (Zenarge turneri) 

Leafblister sawfly (Phylacteophago spp.) 


Ringed sawfly (Pterygophorus cinctus) 

Steelblue sawfly (Perga affinis affinis) (Fig. 386) 


Scales (Hemiptera) are common pests of 

Australian plants. Some infest many species, eg 

black scale (Saissetia oleae) and cottony cushion 

scale (Icerya purchasi), others only attack a few 

species, eg gumtree scale (Eriococcus coriaceus). 

Armoured scales (Diaspididae) do not produce 

honeydew. White louse scale (Unaspis citri) 

resembles shredded coconut sprinkled over leaves and 

stems of plants on which it feeds, eg Rutaceae. 

These are the males, females are less conspicuous. 

Controlled by predatory caterpillars. 

Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae): Apiomorpha is 

confined to eucalypts and forms distinctive galls on 

leaves and stems. Cylindrococcus forms conical 

galls on casuarina, and Sphaerococcus blister-like 

galls on eucalypt. More common eriococcid scales 

include gumtree scale (Eriococcus coriaceus) and 

macadamia felted coccid (E. ironsidei). Teatree 

scale, manuka blight (E. orariensis) is similar to 

gumtree scale but is found mainly on Leptospermum. 

Margarodid scales (Margarodidae): 

Cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) (Fig. 387) 

Soft scales (Coccidae) produce honeydew on which 

sooty mould grows. 



Cottony pigface scale (Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi) 

Cottony saltbush scale (Pulvinaria maskelli) is a 

sporadic pest of Atriplex nummularia. 

Wattle tick scale (Cryptes baccatus) 

Others: Casuarina scale (Frenchia casuarinae, 

Asterolecaniidae) 


Seed insects: Ants (Formicidae), beetles 

(Coleoptera), bugs (Hemiptera), caterpillars 

(Lepidoptera) (Fig.388) and wasps 

(Hymenoptera) may damage seeds on the plant and 

on the ground. See Eucalypt K 63, Seeds N 74. 

Stick insects, leaf insects (Phasmatidae) 

may damage many species of eucalypts and 

wattles in a forest situation. The spiny leaf insect 

(Extatosoma tiaratum) which may be found in 

gardens, is large, solitary, slow-moving, brightgreen 

or brown and up to 120 mm long. It chews 

lumps out of leaves from a range of plants. The 

spurlegged phasmatid (Didymuria violescens) 

may completely defoliate forest trees but is 

uncommon in gardens. See Eucalypt K 64. 

Termites (Isoptera) are specially abundant in 

tropical regions. Some species nest in familiar 

termite mounds, others in trees or underground 

tunnels. They eat wood and wood products and 

can be very destructive to trees both living and 

dead. Cypress pine (Callitris spp.) can be grown in 

areas where termites are a problem. See Trees K 17. 

Thrips (Thysanoptera) are tiny and difficult to 

see. Some attack flowers, leaves or young growth 

causing distortion. Some species, eg greenhouse 

thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis), infest a wide 

range of plants, others, eg leafrolling thrips 

(Teuchothrips sp.), attack only a few species. 

Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis, 

Thripidae) attacks foliage of tender species, eg ferns, 

Cissus, Passiflora. It prefers cool moist conditions 

and may be severe on greenhouse plants, numbers are 

reduced drastically by hot dry weather. Usually 

controlled by spraying. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Plague thrips (Thrips imaginis, Thripidae) feeds on 

buds and flowers of thin-textured petals and stamens 

of some native plants, eg Alyogyne, baeckea, 

hibbertia, hibiscus, eucalypt, and Leptospermum. 

Seed formation may be prevented. See Roses J 6. 

Gall-making thrips (Phlaeothripidae) produce 

bladder-like galls on leaves of Syzygium, casuarina 

and some wattles, eg A. aneura, A. pendula. See 

Wattle K 135. 

Leafrolling thrips (Teuchothrips sp., Phlaeothripidae) 

infests new leaves of bottlebrush and melaleuca. See 

Bottlebrush K 37. 

Others: Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) and western 

flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) may assist 

spread of virus diseases, eg tomato spotted wilt virus, 

to susceptible native plants. 

Tip borers (Lepidoptera): Various moth 

caterpillars tunnel down shoot tips for about 

100 mm of many native plants, eg bottlebrush (Fig. 

389), melaleuca. See Trees K 17. 

Weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): Many 

adult weevils feed on leaves, young bark and buds 

of native plants. Eucalypt weevil (Gonipterus 

scutellatus) if numerous, may seriously damage 

young trees. Larvae of some weevils feed on 

roots, eg catasarcus weevils (Catasarcus spp.) in 

WA. Larvae of other weevils, eg elephant weevil 

(Orthorhinus cylindrirostris), bore into trunks and 

roots of brush box (Lophostemon conferta), black 

bean, eucalypt and other trees. A ringbarking 

weevil (Curculionidae) kills many Myrtaceae (Fig. 

390). See Trees K 12, K 17. 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 7


Whiteflies: Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum) and other species, are small, 

white, winged insects, 2-3 mm long. They attack 

soft-foliaged plants. See Greenhouses N 24. 

Others: Argentine ant (Linepithema humile). 

Millipedes (Diplopoda) mainly feed on rotting 

vegetation, but may attack tubers, bulbs, fleshy 

roots of orchids, lilies and palms, etc. Slaters 

(Porcellionidae) feed on organic matter but also eat 

soft shoots and root tips of orchids especially in 

greenhouses. Passionvine hopper (Scolypopa 

australis) is a common pest of Passiflora spp., 

grevillea and many other plants. 


There are many native species of snails and slugs 

in Australia, all pest species are introduced. Plants 

damaged include herbaceous and young native 

plants, eg kangaroo paw, ferns, lily, orchids, 

grevillea and salt bushes. Damaged leaves and 

stems may act as entry points for fungi. Young 

plants of white cedar may be ringbarked, resulting 

in death of plants. See Seedlings N 70. 


Wattles and other trees may be damaged by 

cockatoos feeding on wood moth larvae in the 

trunks. Cockatoos and other birds feed on cones 

of bunyas and other trees. Introduced rabbits and 

native possums graze on plants. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Many native species or some 

varieties of native species are sensitive to frost, eg 

some grevilleas. Some native plants are not as 

drought-tolerant as previously thought, eg reduced 

water supply to Geraldton wax, causes a decrease in 

total flower production and retards plant growth. 

Excess humidity may cause leaf blackening, eg on 

Grevillea biternata (often called sweating). 

Fire adaptation: Lignotubers (swollen woody 

tissue) at, or just under the ground, are produced by 

some eucalypts. These allow the plant to rapidly 

regenerate after fire. Seed of some native plants, eg 

wattle, have a hard coat which must be broken, eg by 

bushfires, to allow moisture to enter the seed and 

commence germination. 

Genetic problems: The provenance (place of 

origin of seed from a natural forest) from which 

plants are derived, determines their future 

performance and susceptibility to diseases and pests. 

Some unimportant genetic abnormalities, eg 

fasciation (Fig. 391), are not uncommon. 

Humans may reduce native vegetation by clearing 

land for agriculture and horticulture, mining, forestry, 

urban development and tourism. 

Medicinal uses, fodder and food: Many 

species have been researched for these purposes 

(Collins et al. 1990). See Bush Fruits F 29. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Native 

plants suffer from deficiencies and toxicities in the 

same way that exotics do. Iron deficiency: 

Banksia, crowea, Dampiera, eucalypt, eriostemon, 

grevillea, Prostanthera, wattle and other Australian 

plants may suffer from iron deficiency. New growth 

is often yellow between the veins. New growth of 

Hypocalymma cardifolium may be pinkish instead of 

pale green. Boron deficiency: Wattles especially 

A. adunca and A. spectabilis may be severely affected 

by lack of boron. Only small amounts are required 

by plants and excessive quantities are very toxic. 

Deficiency symptoms are extremely variable 

depending on the species. Deficiency may cause 

wilting and defoliation of the upper parts of shoots 

followed by death of the terminal bud and dieback of 

the shoots. Leaves may become thickened and lateral 

buds develop. Boron compounds, eg borax or boric 

acid, can be applied at low concentrations to the soil 

or as a foliar spray. Phosphorus deficiency is 

uncommon in native plants except perhaps in 

rainforest situations. Heath land communities have 

developed on phosphorus deficient soils and have 

evolved a tight phosphorus cycle so that the element 

is not wasted. The element is usually withdrawn from 

all old leaves before they are shed and specialised 

root systems such as proteiod roots and 

mycorrhizae probably play a part in the uptake of 

phosphorus. See Trees K 18. Phosphorus toxicity: 

Excess phosphorus can be toxic to some native 

plants causing marginal leaf burn and death of older 

leaves. Dieback starts at the tip of each leaf and 

spreads towards the base followed by premature 

defoliation giving plants a sparse appearance. Toxic 

effects of excess phosphorus may be offset by addition 

of some other elements, eg iron, but advice should be 

obtained. Plants sensitive to high levels of phosphorus 

are mainly found in the Proteaceae, eg some species 

of banksia, grevillea and hakea. Phosphorus toxicity 

arises from using high levels of fertilisers 

containing phosphorus, eg superphosphate and 

blood and bone. Phosphorus toxicity is mainly a 

problem for plants grown in containers and not 

common in garden plants, phosphorus is fixed and 

rendered immobile in soil. Correcting phosphorus 

toxicity is difficult. Only use fertiliser with very low 

quantities of phosphorus. Salt damage can be 

caused by excess fertiliser applications, soil salt and 

by windborne salt. See Citrus F 43, Trees K 20. 

Sooty mould (various fungi) grows on honeydew 

secreted by various sap sucking insects including 

aphids, lerp insects, mealybugs, planthoppers, scales, 

whiteflies (Fig. 392). 

WEEDS 

Native plantings suffer from the same annual and 

perennial broadleaved and grass weed problems as 

exotic plantings. Private and public gardens are 

commonly invaded by exotic and native weeds, eg 

cotoneaster and wattle seedlings. Bush areas may 

be invaded by both exotic or native weed species, 

eg prickly-pear, Cootamundra wattle, pittosporum. 

Ornamental species may escape from gardens and 

invade surrounding bushland. Overseas, some 

native plants have become major weeds, eg 

hakeas. See Trees K 21. 

N 8 

OTHER PLANTINGS



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Biological Research on the Australian Flora. ANBG 

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Australian Biological Resources Study. 1982-94. Flora 

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Australian National Botanic Gardens. 1983. Growing 

Native Plants. Vol.12. AGPS, Canberra. 

Australian Plant Study Group. 1990. Grow What Where: 

Over 2750 Australian Native Plants for Every 

Australian Situation, Special Use and Problem 

Areas. Nelson, Melbourne. 

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Trees for Streets and Parks. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

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Corp. (RIRDC), Res. Paper Series No 93/4. 

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Jones, D. L. and Elliot, W. R. 1986. Pests, Diseases and 



Joyce, D. 1988. Postharvest Research on Ornamental 

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Tree Diseases in Victoria. Forests Com., Vic., 

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Molneux, W. and Forrester, S. 1993. The Australian 

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Pegrum, J. 1988. Making the Most of Our Floral 

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OTHER PLANTINGS N 9


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A Selection of Native Plants for the Garden 

Eriophyid Mites 

Growing Native Plants 

Growing Native Plants from Cuttings 

Phosphorus Toxicity in Native & Proteaceous Plants 

Phosphorus Toxicity in Native Plants 

Raising Native Plants from Seed 

WA Farmnotes 

Insect Pests of Eucalypts and Other Native Plants 

Insect Pests of Wildflowers and Proteas 

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Native Plants as Cut Flowers 

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The NSW Cut Flower Industry 


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Australian Flora & Protea Growers Assoc. (AFPGA) 

Australian Flora Foundation 


Australian National Botanic Gardens 

Australian National Flower Show Workshop 

Australian Native Food Resource Developments (ANRFD) 

Australian Native Sustainable Agriculture Systems 

(ANSAS) 

Australian Orchid Foundation 

Australian Orchid Research 


Australian Plant Study Group 

Australian Protea Growers Assoc. (APGA) 

Bushfood Growers Service (BGS) 

Flora of Australia 


Greening Australia 


International Plant Propagators Soc. (IPPS) 

National Workshop for Australian Native Flowers Procs 

(Qld University, Gatton College Feb 1994) 

Nuytsia Society for Growing Australian Plants 

See Annuals A 10, Bush fruits and nuts F 29, 

Preface xii, Trees, shrubs and climbers K 22 



MANAGEMENT 

Selection 

An overview of the native cut flower industry is outlined by Coombs (1995). The same care in selection, 

establishment, maintenance and postharvest treatment must be taken with native plants as with exotic plants. 

Native plants are not necessarily easier to look after than exotic plants in an urban situation. More exotic plants 

become weeds, suggesting that they are hardier and more adaptable than many native species. Some native 

plants cannot be grown successfully in plantations, and are harvested from bush stands, eg Agonis parviceps. 

Species susceptible to particular problems should not be used as specimen plants but rather planted in less 

conspicuous groups. Many species are grafted onto Phytophthora-resistant rootstocks. Plants should be 

Phytophthora- and pest-free. In WA the National Industry Accreditation Scheme, Australia (NIASA) ensures 

that planting material is Phytophthora-free and of a high horticultural standard. See Nurseries N 51. 

Establishment 

Propagated by cuttings, seed, transplants, tissue culture. Seed treatments include scarification, boiling water, 

seed storage techniques, chemicals including growth regulators and smoke-derived materials (Roche et al. 

1994). Cultural methods: Phytophthora cinnamomi and related species are the major soil diseases affecting 

native plants. As it is extremely difficult to eradicate Phytophthora once the soil or plants are infected, the site 

chosen must be Phytophthora-free. In such sites, unsterilised soil or potting mix must not be brought into the 

area on implements, vehicles, footwear or animals. Fence the area under cultivation and use vehicle and foot 

baths to ensure soil diseases are not introduced. See Nurseries N 53. Provide good drainage. Obtain preplant 

soil and water analyses, including weed, disease and pest analyses. Post-plant water, fertilise, mulch and 

prune as recommended. Insects in plantations are easier to control because of better management and easer 

access to individual plants. Plants are of uniform age and development and there are no other native plants to 

increase numbers of pest insects. The best bush-picked flowers come from areas that are cleared and allowed 

to regenerate, often the clearing process removes many insects and it takes time for them to recolonise the 

regrowth area and cause damage. The fertiliser history of old land should be known, eg soil phosphorus levels 

< 25 ppm have been suggested for banksia, dryandra and hakea. Weeds such as capeweed and wild turnip, 

may already be established. Insects, eg scarab beetles, may carry over from pasture and damage new crops. 

Permission must be obtained before clearing new land over a certain area. Weed problems may be less 

initially but there may be some regeneration of native vegetation and germination of other weeds. Native 

insects, eg weevils, can attack crops, particularly if the ground has not been fallowed. 

N 10 

OTHER PLANTINGS


Maintenance 

Many of the insects which attack native plants cause no lasting damage as often their natural predators and 

parasites provide some control providing chemical sprays are not used. Many plants grow too large anyway to 

be safely sprayed. There are diseases and pests that affect roots and trunks that cause serious damage 

every year while others only occasionally appear in plague proportions. Phytophthora spp. are a constant 

threat to plantings. Termites may kill proteas, larvae of native weevils may ringbark plants below ground level 

and kill > 50% of Myrtaceae plants, eg species of Chamelaucium and Verticordia. Larvae of beetles and moths 

may bore into stems of woody plants and may severely damage wildflower or protea plantations. Foliage- or 

flower-feeding insects are unlikely to kill plants unless damage is severe, there are some exceptions; however, 

they may reduce marketability of the final product and increase the chance of rejection on phytosanitary 

grounds. Gall-forming wasps on Geraldton wax lowers the value of plants. Beetles and caterpillars that feed 

on flowers and foliage and scales and bugs, may also be problems. Thrips have the potential to cause leaf 

damage or distort new growth and they may be found in flowers. Good control of most of these insects in young 

plantings is mostly obtained with insecticides but may fail if insects feed in difficult to reach places. Pollen or 

nectar or both is a source of food for many insects including bees, wasps, ants and beetles. These insects do 

not damage the flower but may cause rejection on phytosanitary grounds. They are probably best removed by 

shaking and then by effective postharvest treatments. To reduce insects in plantation flowers place reject 

and good flowers into separate bins. All infested reject flowers should be removed from the plantation area and 

destroyed/burnt. All reject flowers should be cut from trees and destroyed. This helps prune trees for future 

flower production and also removes pests from the plantation. Pesticides and growth regulators are 

registered for use on some native plants. 

Postharvest 

Prevention and control of postharvest diseases and pests should be commenced in the field. Postharvest 

bacterial and fungal diseases may occur on flowers. See Annuals A 11. Bud and flower drop may also be a 

problem. Quarantine pests: Flowers leaving Australia may require treatment with insecticides. Recent 

techniques considered include a combination of low and high temperature, carbon dioxide, aerosol sprays, eg 

pyrethrin, hot water dips and gamma radiation. Cool fresh flowers as recommended as soon as possible after 

harvest. In commercial situations treat as recommended for that species. One acceptable short term handling 

condition is 2 o C and 95% relative humidity. Research on the use of chlorination technology to maintain hygiene 

in flower packing shed is being carried out. Jones and Moody (1993) describes postharvest procedures for 

some native plants. 

Fig. 376. Giant tinder punk (Phellinus 

zealandicus) on eucalypt. B. A. Fuhrer. 

Fig. 375. Gall rust 

(Uromycladium sp.) 

on wattle. 

Fig. 377. Ghost moth (Aenetus sp.). 

Left : Caterpillar in tunnel. Right : Webbing 

and frass covering the tunnel entrance. 

H. J. Elliott. 

Fig. 378. Nymph of crusader bug 

(Mictis profana) sucks sap from new 

shoots on wattle. 

Fig. 379. Emperor gum moth 

(Opodiphthera eucalypti) 

caterpillar on eucalypt. 

Fig. 380. Yellow leafhopper (Zygina 

zealandica) sucks sap from leaves of 

Pelargonium australe. 

OTHER PLANTINGS N 11


Fig. 381. Gall on flower caused by 

the Geraldton wax gall wasp 

(Eulophidae). B. Woods and M. 

Grimm. 

Fig. 382. Tiny holes in leaves of 

Solanum laciniatum caused by flea 

beetles (Chrysomelidae). 

Fig. 383. Leaf blotch caused by 

lomatia leaf miner (Acrocercops 

antimima). 

Fig. 384. Fluffy psyllids (Psyllidae) 

on Callistemon shoots. 

Fig. 385. Witches's broom on casuarina 

caused by eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae). 

Unconfirmed. 

Fig. 386. Larvae (spitfires) of 

steelblue sawfly(Perga spp.) 

spitting and tapping on eucalypt 

stem. 

Fig. 387. Cottony cushion 

scale (Icerya purchasi) on 

Acacia howittii. 

Fig. 388. Damage to hakea seed by 

moth caterpillars (Lepidoptera). 

Fig. 389. Tiny moth caterpillars 

(Lepidoptera) tunnel into and kill 

Callistemon shoot tips. 

Fig. 390. Ringbarking weevil 

(Curculionidae). Pupa in pupal 

cell in Myrtaceae stem below 

ground level. B. Woods and M. 

Grimm. 

Fig. 391. Fasciation (genetic abnormality) 

on casuarina and wattle. 

Fig. 392. Sooty mould (various 

fungi) grows on the honeydew 

secreted by sap sucking insects, 

eg psyllids, soft scales. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW 

N 12 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Bonsai 


Non-parasitic 

Fertilising 

Light 

Mycorrhiza 


Re-potting 

Temperature 

Watering and humidity 

Wires 

WEEDS 

Bonsai is the art of growing miniature trees or 

other plants in a tray or container. The word 

'bonsai' means 'tray-planted' or 'growing in a 

shallow vessel', hence the importance of nonparasitic 

problems. The most common problems 

in order of importance are: 

Underwatering 

Overwatering 

Too much fertiliser 

Bonsai plants are susceptible to the same pests and 

diseases as their larger, naturally growing 

counterparts. For example, azaleas (Rhododendron 

spp.) may be affected by azalea leaf gall (Fig. 393), 

fungal leaf spots, phytophthora root rot, powdery 

mildew, azalea lace bug, azalea leafminer, 

greenhouse thrips or iron deficiency. Pines (Pinus 

spp.) may be affected by needle cast fungi, pine 

adelgid (Fig. 394) or nutrient deficiencies. Indoor 

bonsai may also succumb to problems commonly 

occurring on house or greenhouse plants including 

aphids, greenhouse thrips, mealybugs, scales, 

twospotted mite, snails and slugs, fungus gnats 

(Sciaridae), millipedes, slaters and algae. 


Non-parasitic 

Fertilising: Although too much fertiliser is an 

important problem affecting bonsai, bonsai do 

need to be fertilised to maintain vigour, colour and 

even growth. 

How to fertilise: Water a dry plant with plain water 

first, then apply the diluted fertiliser. If used at too 

high a concentration, fertilisers can burn roots. 

Do not overfertilise, only feed during the growing 

period. To reduce the danger of salt buildup 

occasionally replace a regular fertiliser application 

with a water application. Fertilising should cease 

when growth slows and trees move into winter 

dormancy. 

Which fertiliser: Do not use high nitrogenous 

fertilisers, eg Aquasol ® , as those promote lush growth 

and long internodes. Choose fertilisers to suit the 

particular plant. Those containing superphosphate 

are to be avoided with many Australian native plants. 

Some organic fertilisers have an offensive smell as 

they decompose and may attract insects such as 

fungus gnats and garden maggots. Some may burn 

moss. Check concentrations of all fertiliser 

applications with experienced growers. 

Light: Bonsai plants must receive the same 

amount of light they would receive under natural 

conditions, this means that indoor bonsai must 

receive additional light if they are to thrive. 

Bonsai located continuously indoors must be 

placed near a window, in a greenhouse or provided 

with artificial light, eg fluorescent cool white or 

daylight bulbs, for 16-18 hours a day. Plants must 

be a prescribed distance from the tubes. Replace 

tubes, one at a time, once per year, to prevent a 

sudden increase in light intensity. 

Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association of a 

fungus with the roots of a plant. The fungus 

apparently improves plant growth by increasing 

the absorbing surface of the root system, 

selectively absorbing and accumulating certain 

nutrients, keeping feeder roots functioning longer 

and making feeder roots more resistant to 

infections by certain soil fungi (Agrios 1988). 

Mycorrhizae may be attached to the outside, or in 

the inside, of roots. They may be host specific, ie 

a fungus that is symbiotic with one species may 

not live on the roots of another and vice versa. 

Trees used for bonsai that have mycorrhizae 

should never be bare-rooted, ie the soil should not 

be completely removed from the root system. See 

Trees K 18. 

Pesticide injury: Some sprays may damage 

certain species, check the label. Oil sprays may 

damage conifers, maples, beech, walnut and other 

plants. 

Re-potting: Bonsai must be re-potted every 

year initially but large specimens may only need 

re-potting every 2 years. Many new bonsai 

growers fail to give newly potted or re-potted plant 

material sufficient attention during the recovery 

phase. 

Temperature 

Dormancy: Hardy bonsai, eg beeches, maples, firs, 

junipers, spruces and pines, survive freezing 

temperatures during winter by going into full 

dormancy, they do not grow during that period. The 

dormancy needs of hardy bonsai are well recognised. 

Without the exposure to cold, usually near freezing, 

they may defoliate, show shoot dieback and decline in 

general health. These plants are not really suitable for 

indoor bonsai unless they are put in the refrigerator or 

placed outside or near open windows during winter. 

Resting period: Non-hardy bonsai for indoors are 

drawn from a wide variety of habitats from the 

subtropics to temperate regions of the world. Plants 

from temperate regions enjoy winter temperatures of 

4-7 o C (but not freezing temperatures) which is called 

a resting period. Providing a resting period for these 

temperate region plants is not so essential for bonsai 

except when it is required for flowering, eg Kurume 

azaleas (Rhododendron obtusum) need a resting 

period of 4 weeks of 4 o C to ensure a flush of flowers 

in spring. The common olive (Oleae europea) fails to 

produce flower buds if denied a cool spell the 

previous autumn or early winter. 


BONSAI 

Watering and humidity 

Underwatering is the most important cause of 

death while overwatering is the second most 

important cause. This is because there is little soil to 

retain moisture and bonsai dry out quickly. Regular 

attention must be given to watering. 

When to water: The ideal time to water is when the 

soil surface appears to start drying out. Do not water 

plants if the surface of the root ball is wet, plants must 

not become waterlogged. Monitor soil moisture and 

only water when necessary. 

How to water: All bonsai pots should be watered 

gently and slowly. To ensure thorough watering of 

small pots they can be immersed in water up to the 

base of the plant stem and soaked until bubbles stop 

rising in the water. 

Misting the leaves with water in hot dry weather will 

avoid leaf browning. During hot dry summer days, 

leaves may need misting with water several times a 

day to prevent browning of foliage. 

Wires may damage bonsai, especially conifers. 

WEEDS 

Some species used for bonsai are actually urban 

weeds, eg firethorn. Mosses are probably the 

most popular of ground covers for bonsai, some 

species are very beautiful. Algae and liverworts 

can be a problem. See Greenhouses N 27. 



Press, San Diego, CA. 

Ainsworth, J. 1988. The Art of Indoor Bonsai : 

Cultivating Tropical, Sub-tropical and Tender 

Bonsai. Doubleday, Sydney. 

Chan, P. 1987. Bonsai Masterclass. Simon & Schuster, 

East Roseville, NSW. 

Chan, P. 1989. The Complete Book of Bonsai : An 

Inspirational Guide. Bracken Books, London.. 

Dreilinger, S. (ed.). 1990. Indoor Bonsai. Plants & 

Gardens : Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record. Vol.46, 

No.3, Autumn, Brooklyn, NY. 

Koreshoff, D. and V. 1982. Bonsai in Australia. 

Boolarong Pub., Moorooka, Qld. 

Koreshoff, D. and V. 1983. Bonsai with Australian 

Native Plants. Boolarong Pub., Moorooka, Qld. 

Koreshoff, D. R. 1984. Bonsai, Its Art, Science, History 

and Philosophy. Boolarong Pub., Moorooka, Qld. 

Lesniewicz, P. 1984. Bonsai : The Complete Guide to 

Art and Technique. Blandford Press, Dorset. 

Samson, I. and R. 1988. The Creative Art of Bonsai. 

Ward Lock, London. 

Tomlinson, H. (ed.). 1995. Pocket Encyclopedia of 

Bonsai. RD Press, Sydney. 

Webber, L. 1985. Bonsai for the Home and Garden. 

Angus & Robertson, North Ryde, NSW. 

Webber, L. 1991. From Rainforest to Bonsai in 

Australian Plants. Mt. Annan Bot. Gard. Native 

Garden Series. Simon & Schuster, East Roseville, 

NSW. 

Wilkinson, J. 1993. Bonsai : Art and Technique. Lothian 

Pub., Port Melbourne. 

Yunhua, H. 1987. Chinese Penjing : Miniature Trees 

and Landscapes. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 

Yunhua, H. 1982. Penjing : The Chinese Art of 

Miniature Gardens. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 


Bonsai Australia 

Bonsai Today 

Bonsai (Journal of the American Bonsai Soc.) 

City, Regional, State, Territory, National Socs. 

The Bonsai Bulletin 

World Tropical Bonsai Forum 

See Containers N 20, House plants N 37 

MANAGEMENT 



Some bonsai can live hundreds of years if cared for properly. Depending on the species they can be grown 

indoors or outdoors. The art of bonsai requires much skill, time and patience. The first step is to get advice from 

an expert, obtain a good book on bonsai and collect some basic tools. If enthusiasm still persists, possibly 

attend classes or join a bonsai society. 

Selection 

Which species? Some plants are better suited for bonsai than others. Small leaved trees such as Chinese 

elm (Ulmus parviflora) have leaves which grow in proportion to the other parts, while the bark of Chinese elm 

and the flowers and fruit of Carissa, Serissa, Malpighia and pomegranate, are attractive. 

Exotic bonsai include deciduous species, eg cherry, Chinese elm, plum, and maple, and evergreen 

species, eg azalea, bamboo, cedar, juniper, pine. 

Australian native plants suitable for bonsai include: 

Banksia (Banksia spp.) Fig (Ficus spp.) Melaleuca (Melaleuca spp.) 

Bottlebrush (Callistemon spp.) Grevillea (Grevillea spp.) Pittosporum (Pittosporum spp.) 

Casuarina (Allocasuarina, Casuarina) Hakea (Hakea spp.) Tea-tree (Leptospermum spp.) 

Christmas bush (Ceratopetalum sp.) Kunzea (Kunzea spp.) Wattle (Acacia spp.) 

Cypress pine (Callitris spp.) Kurrajong (Brachychiton spp.) Others, eg Araucaria, Agonis, 

Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) Lilly-pillies (Acmena, Eugenia, Syzygium) Melia, Microstrobos, Podocarpus 

Outdoor bonsai: Because there is little soil to retain moisture they dry out quickly so most outdoor bonsai 

are best kept in a sheltered, cool area with ample light, filtered shade or morning sun and afternoon shade. 

Some bonsai such as pines and many evergreen plants, can tolerate more sun than many deciduous plants. 

Bonsai normally grown outdoors are not intended for continuous indoor display, and should only be brought 

indoors for a few days at a time for display purposes. 

N 14 

OTHER PLANTINGS

BONSAI 

Indoor bonsai must be able to grow under low light intensity (or there must be an artificial light source) and 

have no need of a cool or dormant period. Outdoor species, such as firethorns, which would not require 

annual cold dormancy to survive, and subtropical and tropical plants, would therefore be suitable. Temperate 

zone bonsai can be grown indoors successfully, but only when a chilling or dormant period can be supplied, 

either by keeping the window open or by some other means. Indoor bonsai may be summered outdoors. 

Plants suitable for indoor bonsai include: 

Azaleas (Rhododendron spp.) 

False heather (Cuphea hyssopifolia) 

Box (Buxus spp.) 

Fig (Ficus spp.) 

Chinese sweetplum (Sageretia thea) 

Firethorn (Pyracantha coccinea) 

Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster spp.) Greek myrtle (Myrtus communis) 

English ivy (Hedera helix) 

Serissa (Serissa sp.) 

Plant quarantine: New plants should be quarantined for at least 2-3 weeks and examined daily for pests and 

diseases prior to placing them with the general collection. 


Bonsai can be started by propagating from seed or cuttings, or by transplanting stunted trees or parts of trees 

growing in the wild, into containers. Bonsai should be inspected daily and being of manageable size, any pest 

and disease may be dealt with by hand before it becomes widespread. A bonsai calendar should be prepared 

which should include all maintenance activities for a full year. 

Cultural methods: Careful watering and fertilising are necessary to keep plants healthy. The size and 

shape of the trees is controlled by pinching off the new growth and by wiring the branches. The grower bends 

and wires the trunk and branches to grow into the desired shape. Re-potting should be carried out when 

necessary. The seasons must be taken into account, bonsai may require more shade in summer, or frost 

protection in winter, or a new site. Plants are kept small by pruning roots and branches and by re-potting. 

Container size also partly determines the final size of the tree. 

Sanitation: Bonsai areas should be cleaned thoroughly at least 4 times a year to remove pests and hiding 

places for slaters, snails, etc. Sometimes affected plant parts can be carefully cleaned with water, all dead 

leaves and twigs should be promptly removed. Fallen leaves should be removed from pots and surrounding 

areas to reduce likelihood of pests and diseases. 

Pesticides: Only use pesticides registered for indoor plants on bonsai indoors. For all pesticide 

applications to bonsai, check that the pesticide is registered for use on that particular plant species and follow 

label safety directions. 

Postharvest 

There are guidelines for preparing bonsai for exhibition, display and the judging of quality bonsai. When selling 

bonsai to home gardeners it is essential to provide instructions on their care throughout the year. Many 

purchases in unskilled hands, slowly die over a period of time. 

Fig. 393. Azalea leaf gall (Exobasidium vaccinii). 

Fig. 394. Pine adelgid, woolly 

pine aphid (Pineus sp.) on radiata 

pine (P. radiata). H. J. Elliott 


Compost 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

Ants 

Earthworms 

Environment 

Flies 

Legionnaires' disease 


pH 

Suppressive compost 

Toxins 

WEEDS 

Composting is simply a means of speeding up the 

natural breakdown of organic materials. 


Parasitic 

Efficient composting involves decomposition of 

organic materials and pasteurisation (killing 

disease-causing microorganisms but not disease 

suppressive microorganisms). Many pests and 

diseases present in infected and infested crop 

debris may survive, and/or multiply in or on, 

improperly treated compost, and may be a source 

of infection for crops on which it is to be used, or a 

source of insects or airborne spores. Whether the 

compost is a source of pests and diseases depends 

on the crop to which it is be applied. Some pests 

and diseases spread in compost have a narrow host 

range. Sclerotium white rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) 

of onions and garlic can only attack these plants, 

compost contaminated with sclerotia of this disease 

should not be applied to onion and garlic crops but 

could be applied to other crops. Sclerotium stem 

rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) can attack a wide range of 

crops and in warm climates, contaminated compost 

could cause disease of many species. The use of 

uncomposted or improperly composted organic 

waste is concerning many people. More than 30% 

of loads of fruit and vegetable waste (market 

organics) taken for recycling in Melbourne, 

contained plant pathogens; only 5% of loads of 

organic home garden waste (green organics) 

recorded any incidence of plant disease pathogens 

(Saunders 1996). 

Virus and virus-like diseases, eg 

Odontoglossum ringspot virus (possibly) 

Tobacco mosaic virus 

Bacterial diseases, eg 

Bacteria wilt of tomato (Pseudomonas solanacearum) 

Bacteria blights of bean (various species) 

Fungal diseases, eg 

Alternaria of tomato (Alternaria sp.) 

Damping off (Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., 

Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani) 

Fusarium diseases/wilts (Fusarium spp.) 


Sclerotinia rots (Sclerotinia spp.) 


White rot of onions (Sclerotium cepivorum) 

Seed from parasitic plants, eg 

Broomrape (Orobanche spp.) 

Dodder (Cuscuta spp.) 

Nematode diseases, eg 

Cyst nematodes (Globodera, Heterodera) 


Pin nematodes (Paratylenchus spp.) 


Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp). 

Stem nematodes (Ditylenchus spp.) 


Insects and allied pests, eg 

Beetle larvae (Coleoptera) 


Elm leaf beetle (Pyrrhalta luteola) 

Mole crickets (Gryllotapa spp.) 

Termites (Isoptera) 

Wireworms (Elateridae, Coleoptera) 

Vertebrate pests, eg 

Rodents may feed and breed in compost heaps 

Non-parasitic 

Ants (Formicidae) may be attracted to food 

scraps and other materials in compost. See 

Turfgrasses L 8, Trees K 19. 

Earthworms 

Compost earthworms are commonly introduced 

species (native earthworms prefer low nutrient 

environments). Earthworms eat large quantities of 

soil and organic materials, and are effective in 

reducing the size of bulky litter and incorporating it 

into soils. They cannot survive at temperatures 

> 25 o C which are generated in most composting 

processes. Earthworms can only be added to such a 

system after the temperature has dropped. But it 

seems that there is little need to add earthworms to 

this type of compost heap. Microorganisms have 

already done the work that the earthworms might have 

otherwise started. 

Vermicomposting is an alternative way of converting 

organic wastes into a useful material. Tiger 

earthworms (Eisenia foetida) eat their way through 

organic wastes such as various manures and food 

scraps. Separated castings are called 'vermicompost' 

(from vermis the Latin for worm). Vermicomposts 

vary widely in general nutrients and trace elements to 

the extent that some can be toxic to plants in soil-less 

potting mixes. Phosphorus levels may be too high for 

some plants. 

Environment 

Moisture: The microorganisms responsible for the 

breakdown of plant materials in compost heaps need 

oxygen; in its absence, composting will not proceed. 

If the compost is too wet, oxygen will not be 

available and aerobic microorganisms will be replaced 

by anaerobic ones which may create toxic products 

and have an unpleasant smell. These conditions 

are favourable breeding sites for various flies. If the 

compost is too dry, microorganisms will not be 

able to reproduce and then will not decompose the 

plant material. 

Temperature: Microorganisms feed and multiply on 

the organic matter in the compost (decomposition). 

The heat given off by the microorganisms during 

these processes is kept in the heap by the insulating 

properties of the organic materials, causing the 

temperature to rise in the centre of the heap. This heat 

N 16 

OTHER PLANTINGS

COMPOST 

(if it reaches 55-60 o C for about 3 weeks) will kill 

most plant parasitic microorganisms (pasteurisation), 

but is too low to kill disease suppressive ones (Fig. 

395). The heap must be turned regularly (Fig. 396) 

to ensure that all the material in the heap spends some 

time in the centre. If the required temperature is not 

reached there will not be pasteurisation. If the 

temperatures in the centre are too high (> 60 o C), 

then the microorganisms bringing about the 

composting process will die off and the composting 

process will take longer. 

Flies (Diptera) can breed in compost, eg house 

fly (Musca domestica), bush fly (Musca 

vetustissima), lesser house fly (Fannia 

canicularis), blowflies (Calliphoridae). 

Garden flies (Diptera), eg garden maggot (Bibio 

imitator), garden soldier fly (Exaireta spinigera) 

feed on decaying organic matter and are often found 

in overwet compost heaps with poor drainage (Fig. 

397). Maggots are usually dull brown, legless, up to 

15 mm long, with more or less cylindrical bodies 

covered with protuberances. If plants are deep rooted, 

the loosening of soil by the maggots has little effect. 

Some injury may occur with shallow rooted 

plants due to drying out of the loosened soil. Flies 

are nectar feeding. Overwinter probably as pupae. 

Spread by adults flying. Reduce moisture in 

compost and provide adequate drainage. 

Legionnaires' disease: Research is 

continuing to determine the risk to gardeners, 

nursery workers and those involved with potting 

media manufacture (Steele 1994). See Potting mix 

N 64, Soils N 81. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: A 

carbon/nitrogen ratio of 30 or less (% C divided by 

% N in the organic materials used) should provide 

enough of all other nutrients except perhaps 

phosphorus (Handreck 1993). Manure from grainfed 

animals, eg poultry, will supply phosphorus as 

will a light dressing of superphosphate. The need 

to add extra phosphorus is probably rare. 

pH: Plant sap is acidic so compost heaps may 

start off acidic at about pH 6. However, the 

addition of lime increases the loss of nitrogen from 

compost and should not be added unless the 

materials being composted have a very low pH , eg 

fruit, and the pH of the matured compost is too 

low. A more desirable way is to add gypsum. 

Both superphosphate and gypsum reduce the 

level of undesirable odours coming from compost 

heaps and also reduce losses of nitrogen. 

Sawdusts and barks are often more acidic (in the 

range of pH 3-5) and this retards composting 

unless lime is added. 

Suppressive compost: Some types of 

compost retard development of some soilborne 

diseases,egFusarium,Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia. 

Composts may be specially designed to control 

certain diseases (Anon. 1996). Suppressiveness 

is due to some of the organisms in the compost 

preying on the pathogens, some compete with 

them for nutrients and some manufacture 

antibiotics (Anon. 1996, Moody 1996). The 

suppressiveness may last for months or years. 

Bark of some eucalypts becomes strongly suppressive 

to disease organisms after a number of weeks of 

ageing. Some pine bark composts are suppressive, 

others are not. Composting bark should contain some 

materials which are easily decomposed for 

suppressiveness to develop. 

Sawdust composts are often not suppressive. 

The high temperature microflora responsible for 

composting is gradually replaced as the pile cools 

by the microflora that is typically present in organic 

matter in the soil (curing). The aim is to recolonise 

the compost with as diverse a flora as possible. The 

new microflora prevents pathogen recolonisation. 

This curing process for Pinus radiata takes about 2-4 

weeks. To adequately control Pythium it is 

considered necessary to add at least 25% (but not 

more than 45%) pine bark compost to the potting mix. 

Some hardwoods in the USA require curing for 2-3 

months and suppression lasts for 2 years. Other 

materials may have shorter effective cycles. 

Overcured composts are ineffective disease 

suppressants while undercured composts may be 

conducive to some diseases. Poor physical structure, 

drainage and nutrient imbalance of potting media may 

cause the suppression to be lost, eg good air 

capacity is essential to prevent Phytophthora 

cinnamomi sporulation and zoospore release. 

Toxins 

Sawdust is composted because it may tie up 

nitrogen and may contain large amounts of 

phenols that can inhibit the growth of plants. Most 

problems can be overcome by composting sawdust for 

6 weeks with added fertilisers. Pine sawdusts 

generally contain less toxins and tie up less nitrogen 

than hardwood sawdusts. Hoop pine is relatively 

free from toxins and may not need to be composted. 

Bark of radiata pine needs to be stacked for at least 6 

weeks and turned every 2 weeks to reduce the phenol 

content (ageing). This will also kill disease 

organisms. The material may be composted but 

where it comprises only a small proportion of the final 

mix, this does not appear to be necessary. 

Pesticide residues: Do not to place material from 

pesticide-treated plants in compost bins, eg from 

treated lawn clippings, manure. 

Plant and human health hazards: Do not add any 

phytotoxic materials, eg old fertiliser formulations or 

pesticides, to compost heaps as they might damage 

plants and some may be a health hazard. 

Pesticide legislation regulates the disposal of 

pesticides and must be followed. Do not add dog 

droppings or human excreta/urine to compost heaps as 

they are potential health hazards. 

WEEDS 

Perennial weeds: Vegetative reproductive 

structures, eg bulbs and cut up bits of roots and 

stems, added to compost, may grow in compost or 

grow after the compost is used. Weeds from 

surrounding areas may invade compost. Weed 

seed may be spread by a variety of means 

including wind and contaminate improperly stored, 

and/or uncovered compost heaps. Seed may also 

originate from annual and perennial weeds put on 

compost and which is then improperly composted. 


COMPOST 


Anon. 1996. Combating Disease with Compost. Aust. 

Hort., Oct. 

ARK Australia. 1995. The ARK Mulch Report. Sydney 

Water, Sydney. 

Australian Standard. 1994. Composts, Soil Conditioners 

and Mulches : DR 95301. Standards Australia, 

Capital City. 

Cullen, M. and Johnson, M. 1992. Backyard and 

Balcony Composting : The Complete Guide. 

Bookman Press, Melbourne. 

Haddon, F. 1993. Practical Guide to Composting. 

Simon & Schuster, East Roseville, NSW. 

Handreck, K. A. 1986. Composting. Discovering Soils 

Series, CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Handreck, K. 1993. Gardening DownUnder: Better Soils 

and Potting Mixes for Better Gardens. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 

MANAGEMENT 


Ornamental Plants and Turf. NSW University Press, 


Minnich, J., Hunt, M. and Organic Gardening Magazine. 

(eds). 1979. Rodale Guide to Composting. Rodale 

Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania. 

Moody, H. 1996. Disease Suppressive Composts 

Researched. Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Putnam, C. 1992. Easy Composting. Ortho Books, San 

Ramon, USA. 

Roads, M. J. 1989. The Natural Magic of Mulch. 

Organic Gardening Australian Style. Greenhouse 

Pubs., Elwood, Vic. 

Saunders, F. 1996. Removing the Dangers in Mulch and 

Compost. Aust. Hort., Oct. 


Industry eg 

Compost for Home Gardeners (Vic Agnote) 

Control of Flies in Compost (Vic Agnote) 

See Mulch N 50, Potting mix N 65, Soil N 82 



To ensure the production of disease-free and good quality compost, seek advice or obtain/borrow a pamphlet or 

book on composting. The introduction of the Australian standard (AS 95301) for composts, soil conditioners 

and mulches should ensure good quality control of those sold commercially. 

Unsuitable materials to compost include bones or meat scraps as this encourages animals. Diseased 

plants should not be composted as diseases may be carried over to future crops if composting is inefficient. 

Weeds which have gone to seed or weeds with tough underground rhizomes or bulbs should also be avoided. 

Commercial growers should know which pests, diseases and weeds are of concern for their crops, and 

ensure that they are not being spread or multiplied via compost. Some materials are difficult to compost: 

Fibrous or woody materials do not make good compost, eg sawdust, wood shavings or tough oily leaves such 

as those from eucalypts or conifers; do not use paper unless it is torn into pieces. 

Composting: Temperatures in the centre of compost should be monitored. Plant parasitic pests and 

diseases and many weed seeds are killed by temperatures of 60 o C for about 30 minutes (pasteurisation). 

Composting at temperatures of about 55 o C for about 2-3 weeks destroys most pathogens. Correct conditions 

must be provided for the microorganisms to bring this about, ie adequate moisture (not too wet), good 

aeration, a pH close to neutral plus a recommended complete fertiliser. Heaps must be turned every 

2-3 weeks to ensure that all the material is decomposed and pasteurised (otherwise disease and pest 

organisms and weed seeds and weed parts may be distributed with the compost when it is used). After 

turning, lightly water. Compost should be ready to use in 2-3 months in summer but longer in winter. 

Storage: Compost dried to < 40% can be stored indefinitely under cover, there will a small amount of 

decomposition until it dries to about 30% moisture. Cover to avoid contamination with airborne weeds seeds 

and fungal spores, to prevent aerobic decomposition which could result in it being toxic to plants, and leaching 

by rain whereby nutrients may be lost. 

Use: Compost can be spread over beds to a depth of 50-80 mm and dug into topsoil. Prior to use, 

incompletely composted material may be pasteurised or treated with fumigants to destroy nematodes, 

soilborne diseases, insect pests and rodents. 

Fig. 397. Garden soldier fly 

(Exaireta spinigera). 

Top : Adult fly (12 mm long). 

Lower : Maggots (15 mm long). 

Fig. 395. Temperatures 

of 55-60 o C kill most pest 

organisms. CSIRO. 

Fig. 396. Steam rising during turning of 

a free-standing compost heap. CSIRO. 

N 18 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Containers (outdoor) 


Non-parasitic 

Containers 


Potting mix 

Re-potting 

Situation/site 

Watering 

WEEDS 

Plants grown in containers outdoors are 

susceptible to the same pests and diseases as their 

naturally growing counterparts in the ground, eg 

kumquats may be affected by citrus butterflies, 

scales and nutrient deficiencies. 


Parasitic 

Some parasitic problems, eg snails and slugs, 

may affect a range of containers outdoors, feeding 

on leaves and stems. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Containers are popular as decorative items on 

verandahs and balconies as well as in the home. 

Containers can be made of terracotta, ceramic, 

plastic, timber and even logs and stumps. 

Containers of all types must have sufficient 

drainage. Pots may split when there is vigorous 

root growth, eg palms. 

Hanging baskets tend to be very susceptible to 

drying out when placed in an open sunny position. 

Because of the limited volume of mix, it is undesirable 

to grow vigorous species in them as they quickly 

become pot bound. The cheapest basket is a wire 

frame lined with paper bark or synthetic lining, plastic 

and terracotta hanging baskets are also available. 

Plastic pots are lighter in weight and most now have 

some inbuilt resistance to degradation due to exposure 

to the sun. Soil (and roots) may develop excessively 

high temperature during summer in sunny positions. 

Direct sun shining on pots can kill roots (Handreck 

and Bunker 1996). 

Terracotta pots have long been used in the home 

garden. They are more expensive than polythene pots 

and are breakable. Because of the porous nature of 

unglazed terracotta, potting media may dry out rapidly 

(although this has a beneficial cooling effect during 

summer) and salts can accumulate on the pot wall. 

Wooden tubs are attractive and expensive but may rot 

with time. 


Regular small amounts of fertiliser keep container 

plants growing strongly. This may be obtained by 

regular fertilising or by the use of blood and bone and 

other slow-release fertilisers. Always apply fertiliser 

to moist soil to avoid burning young roots. 

Too much fertiliser for potted plants or the wrong 

type can be disastrous especially if the soil becomes 

dry. Very high pot temperatures can lead to 

'dumping' of nutrients from controlled-release 

fertilisers; when accompanied by a drying of the mix, 

the resulting salinity can kill plants (Handreck and 

Bunker). Use mushroom compost sparingly as it may 

contain high levels of salts. 

Particular plants require special nutrients, eg grow 

Proteaceous plants in low phosphate mixes. 

Salt deposition around drainage holes, on the outside 

of terracotta pots, and on the surface of the mix in the 

pot is the result of evaporation of drainage water. 

Very soluble salts in the deposits will redissolve. The 

presence of a deposit indicates little about the overall 

level of salts in the pot. 

Potting mix 

Free-draining: Potting mixes must be free-draining. 

Special potting mixes are available for some plants, eg 

orchids, African violets and bulbs. 

Compaction: Mushroom compost and leaf moulds 

should be used sparingly. If growing plants in 

containers for > 1 year, avoid using readily 

decomposable material in the potting mix. The use of 

mushroom compost and leaf mould leads to 

compaction and reduced volume and aeration of the 

potting mix. Such materials are of the greatest benefit 

when used as a surface mulch. 

Re-potting: Repot plants only when the 

container is filled with roots. Do not put small 

plants into large containers, some prefer to be 

crowded. Some plants such as palms, commonly 

crack their containers. 

Situation/site: For container gardening to be 

successful the right plant must be chosen for the 

situation/site. 

Humidity: Container plants are better grouped 

together, the massed leaves creating a microclimate 

which produces a higher humidity. 

Season: Container plants may need to be moved from 

place to place depending on the season and the species 

being grown. 

Sunlight: Sun-loving plants need at least 3-4 hours 

sunlight each day to grow successfully. 

Temperature: Very high or very low temperatures are 

often unfavourable. Plants may be scorched if placed 

adjacent to brick walls in summer. 

Wind: Balconies are often windy, plants chosen should 

be able to withstand breezes. 

Watering 

Restricted root system: Container plants of all 

types have restricted root systems and are susceptible 

to drying out. 

Mulches: Surface mulches help to reduce evaporation 

and cool the soil surface. However, it can be difficult 

to see whether the mix is dry. 

When and how to water: On hot summer days daily 

watering may be needed, perhaps twice daily if the 

plants are in full sunlight. Water thoroughly. Fill the 

space between soil and rim slowly with water until it 

seeps out the drainage holes. Dripper irrigation 

systems can be used. Any wilting will be 

accompanied by a period of below-optimum growth. 

Others: Algae, liverworts, moss, ants, 

glasshouse sciarids, millipedes and slaters which 

occur in greenhouses also affect house plants. See 

Greenhouses N 27, House plants N 36. 


CONTAINERS (outdoor) 

WEEDS 

Weed-free mixes: Mixes should be weed-free to start 

with and this can be achieved by either pasteurisation 

or using guaranteed weed-free mix. 

Weeds in containers: Annual and perennial weeds 

in containers may be removed by hand before they set 

seed. Do not allow perennial weeds to establish as the 

underground parts of some, eg bulbs (oxalis), can be 

difficult to remove by hand. Some weeds are 

introduced into gardens from potted plants. 

Liverworts and mosses may grow in pots in 

humid, sheltered sites. See Greenhouses N 27. 

Maintenance of a weed-free mix: Granular preemergence 

herbicides which kill germinating 

weed seeds are registered for outdoor containers. 

They are applied to the surface of the soil after potting 

up, or in spring and autumn, after all emerged weeds 

have been removed either by hand or with shielded 

post-emergence herbicides which kill rhizomes and 

other underground parts of perennial weeds. Weed 

mat may be cut to shape and bark or similar material, 

placed on top. However, it can be difficult to check if 

plants need watering. Overseas herbicideimpregnated 

weed mats are being researched. 


Berry, S. and Bradley, S. 1995. The Complete Guide to 

Gardening with Containers. Harper Collins, Pymble, 

NSW. 

MANAGEMENT 

Daughtrey, M. L., Wick, R. L. and Peterson, J. L. (eds). 

1995. Compendium of Flowering Potted Plant 

Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. 

Greig, D. 1994. Container Gardening for Glorious 

Results. Better Homes and Gardens, Murdoch 

Books, North Sydney. 



Melbourne. 


Ornamentals & Turf. NSW University Press, 

Sydney. 

Handreck, K. and Bunker, K. 1996. Fertilisers and Hot 

Weather. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Hillier, M. 1991. Pots and Plants. Dorling Kindersley 

Books, London. 

Horton, A. (ed.). 1984. Gardening in Containers. Ortho 

Books, San Ramon, CA. 

McAffer, S. 1993. Courtyards and Containers. Weldon 

Pub., Sydney. 

Nell, TA. 1993. Flowering Potted Plants : Prolonging 

Shelf Performance. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinios. 









Industry eg 

Container for Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Native Plants for Growing in Containers (NSW Agfact) 

Fertilising Container Grown Plants (NT Agnote) 

Fertilising Container Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Potting Mix Ingredients for the Top End (NT Agnote) 

See House plants N 37, Interior plantscapes N 46, 

Mulch N 50, Potting mix N 65 



Selection 

Outdoor container plants are increasingly popular and are ideal when space is limited. For container plants to be 

successful, the right plant must be chosen for the situation. Some plants can more easily and conveniently be 

grown in containers than in soil. Plants that tend to grow or spread quickly, eg bamboo, can be contained, or 

plants that may be sensitive to frost, eg citrus, can be moved to more sheltered positions during cold weather. 

Select problem-free species from disease-free exotic or native plants: Annuals, eg everlasting (Helichrysum), 

marigold (Tagetes), nasturtium, pansy, petunia, phlox; cacti and succulents, especially those without spines, 

eg kalanchoe; ferns, eg the easy growing fish bone fern (Nephrolepsis); flowering bulbs, eg daffodil, hyacinth, 

lily, tulip; fruit may be both useful and decorative, eg strawberry, apple and peach if grown on dwarfing 

rootstocks, also quince, fig, pomegranate, dwarf types of citrus, eg kumquat, Meyer lemon and mandarin; 

grasses, eg lemon grass; herbs, eg the low or dwarf species including chives, parsley, thyme, tarragon, basil, 

savory, mint, marjoram, oregano, pennyroyal, prostrate rosemary and dwarf lavender; orchids, eg cymbidium, 

dendrobium; palms, eg parlor palm (Chamaedorea elegans), lady palm (Raphis excelsa); most palms are 

strictly tropical plants, there are exceptions; trees, shrubs and climbers, eg azalea, boronia, camellia, correa, 

hydrangea, fuchsia, daphne, geranium, lime, miniature and small floribunda roses, Micromyrtus ciliata; 

vegetables, if the correct varieties are selected and given the right conditions of soil, moisture, nutrients and 

aspect, can be grown successfully in containers on balconies or parts of gardens where space is limited, eg 

lettuce, spring onion, dwarf and mini-tomato, capsicum; xeriscape plants, eg bottlebrush, lavender, nasturtium, 

sacred bamboo. 


Containers should be set up using the correct size pot, potting mix and irrigation system. Regular maintenance 

involves varying watering regimes during winter and summer, moving containers to accommodate seasonal 

changes, fertilising, repotting and pruning. Pests and diseases on a small number of container plants can be 

controlled by hand picking diseased leaves or pests, eg caterpillars and snails. Aphids may be wiped off. 

Pesticides registered for house plants, can be a convenient way to control most pests on outdoor container 

plants. A few pellets or a dust of snail bait on the mix surface (according to label directions) will control snails 

and slugs if they are a problem. 

Postharvest 

Depending on the plants being grown in containers there may or may not be a postharvest component, eg 

daphne picked for cut flowers, herbs for cooking or drying will have a postharvest component. Vegetables and 

fruit, eg strawberries, require normal postharvest care. 

N 20 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Garden Centres 

Garden centres sell plants to home gardeners who 

can reasonably expect them to perform well after 

planting out. 

SELECTION 

Considerations include: 

Horticultural requirements: Sell what the local 

market demands. In some areas legislation 

prevents the sale of ornamental plants that are likely 

to become weeds in that particular climatic area. 

Plants should carry appropriate labelling. 

Cultural methods: Only sell plants suitable to local 

climates and at recommended times of year. 

Resistant varieties: Avoid selling plants or cultivars 

known to be very susceptible to disfiguring 

diseases or pests. 

Disease-free planting material: Plants may carry 

diseases; media in containers may be contaminated 

with weed seeds, diseases and insect pests, eg 

black vine weevil. Garden centres should buy plants 

for re-sale from accredited wholesale nurseries 

guaranteed free from specified diseases, pests and 

weeds or from reputable wholesalers. Horticultural 

and stock acts regulate labelling and health status of 

some plants being sold. For certain types of 

plants, eg some wild flowers in WA, only plants 

obtained from accredited Phytophthora-free nurseries 

should be sold. See Nurseries N 51. 

MAINTENANCE IN GARDEN CENTRES 

Plant material for sale should be fresh and well 

displayed, not damaged and should be sold as 

quickly as possible. 

Cultural methods: Adequately water plants. Plants 

held for some time may need to be fertilised. 

Sanitation: Any dead leaves, shoots or broken parts 

should be pruned off and destroyed. 

Pesticides: If pesticides have to be applied to plants 

in garden centres only use those registered for use in 

such a situation, eg public areas. 

POSTHARVEST 

Only sell plants during the recommended 

season, otherwise give the purchaser advice on 

extra care to ensure survival when planted out. 

Plants should have healthy new growth and be in 

weed-free pots. Make sure plants from warm 

climate nurseries are hardened properly if 

necessary, prior to sale. 

APPROVED SCHEMES 

Some states have approved schemes for garden 

centres. Some of these are promotional schemes 

for members. Criteria which members must meet 

for approval include: 

• Premises clean and attractive. 

• Premises safe for customers and children, eg 

pools fenced, chemicals stored correctly. 

• Pathways clean and wide enough to carry a 

wheelchair (Fig. 398). 

• Signs neat and easily read. 

• Wide range of stock available. 

• Plants and surroundings areas free of 

diseases, pests and weeds. 

• Plant material fresh and well displayed. 

• Seasonal displays. 

• Prices clearly marked and easy to read and 

understand. 

• Customer comforts available, eg seating, 

refreshments and rest rooms. 

• Umbrellas available on request. 

• Printed and/or computerised gardening 

information available for customers and staff 

(Lake 1996). 

• Staff neat and tidy and clearly identifiable to 

customers as staff members. 

• Staff should be qualified/experienced and able 

to give technical assistance and advice. 

• Transaction handling facilities available and 

clearly displayed, eg credit cards, EFTPOS. 

• Facilities for moving customer's purchases to 

their vehicle, eg trolleys, baskets or staff 

members. 




Corp., Sydney. 

Lake, J. 1996. High-tech and User-friendly. Aust. Hort., 

Aug. 

Nursery Industry Assoc. of NSW (NIAN). 1995-96. 

Approved Garden Centres. NIAN, Rouse Hill, 

NSW. 

Saxton, J. H. 1994. GrowerTalks on Retailing. 

GrowerTalks, Batavia, USA. 

Stanley, J. 1994. The Nursery and Garden Centre 

Marketing Manual. Reference Pub., Auckland. 



Gardening Australia 

Garden Centres of Australia 

State/Territory Nursery Industry Assocs. 

The International Garden Centres Assocs. 

See Nurseries N 57 

Fig. 398. Garden Centre. 

Steps inhibit trolley and 

wheelchair access. 


Greenhouses 


Parasitic 





Damping off 


Rhizopus soft rot 




Aphids 

Caterpillars 

Greenhouse orthezia 




Mites 

Scales 


Non-parasitic 

Algae, liverworts and moss 

Ants 

Environment 

Fungus gnats 


Pesticide and chemical injury 

WEEDS 

Greenhouse plants are susceptible to the same 

pests and diseases as their naturally growing 

counterparts outdoors. For example azaleas 

(Rhododendron spp.) may be affected by fungal 

leaf spots, phytophthora root rot, powdery mildew, 

azalea lace bug, azalea leafminer, greenhouse 

thrips or iron deficiency. Additionally they may 

become affected with problems common in 

greenhouses. 


Parasitic 


House plants are remarkably free from virus 

diseases. However, some flowers, eg carnation, 

orchids, strawberries and vegetables, eg tomato, 

are susceptible to viruses. All are spread by 

vegetative propagation material, some also by 

insects which can be controlled by insect-proofing 

greenhouses, biological control agents or 

insecticides, some are also spread by seed. Some 

viruses which are spread by handling and have a 

wide host range are common in greenhouses, eg 

tobacco mosaic and cucumber mosaic virus. 




carotovora) occurs occasionally on soft fleshy 

greenhouse plants particularly if overwatering 

occurs. See Vegetables M 5. 


Damping off (various species of fungi) 

affects most types of seedlings, cuttings and other 

propagation material. See Seedlings N 66. 


Blossom blight, flower blight, petal blight 


Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), also 

Chocolate spot (B. fabae ) 

Grey mould (B. gladiolorum) 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg African violet, 

bulbs, cyclamen, freesia, orchids, petunia, fruit, eg 

English gooseberry, strawberry, vegetables, eg 

onion, field crops and weeds. B. fabae occurs on 

broad bean and B. gladiolorum on gladiolus. 

Symptoms: Botrytis occurs in greenhouses and 

in the field but is usually most important 

postharvest. Botrytis is a weak pathogen that 

grows saprophytically on dying or dead plant 

material. It can penetrate plant tissue directly if 

provided with a food source. Infection often 

begins when it establishes in senescing floral parts 

producing abundant spores in cool humid weather. 

Aerial damping off may develop on seedlings 

(Fig. 399). Blossom blight develops on petals (Fig. 

186, Roses J 1). Small ring-like markings (reddish 

in light-coloured varieties or creamy white in darkcoloured 

varieties) develop where individual 

spores have germinated on petals towards the end 

of the growing season. Blotches and spots 

develop on leaves and fruit and flower stems, 

cankers, rots and spots on stems and twigs, neck 

rots on bulbs, corms, tubers, rots on fruit or 

vegetables. Ripe fruit can be infected by touching 

a dead petal, the ground or dead leaves. Blossom 

blights often precede and lead to fruit rots which 

typically begin as a blossom-end rot of vegetables. 

Plant stems may also become blighted if they 

contact infected blossoms. Under moist conditions 

and favourable temperatures, grey furry spores 

develop on diseased parts. Small, hard, flat, black 

irregular fungal structures (sclerotia) may develop 

in the fungal growth. Plant parts and plants may 

die. Botrytis grows from fruit to fruit or from 

vegetable to vegetable postharvest (nesting). 

Overwintering: Infected host plants, crop debris 

in the field and around packing sheds, trimmed 

stalks and leaves, infected soil, infected bulbs held 

over from season to season for seed production. 

Sclerotia in the soil germinate to infect new 

plantings. Seedborne on some plants, eg beans. 

Sclerotia in soil or in crop residues. 


currents from infected plants and crop debris. 

Introduction of infected plants, contaminated seed 

(sclerotia in bean seed), soil on machinery, tools 

and plant debris, eg compost. By mycelium 

growing from infected plant parts to healthy 

material. Sclerotia in the soil germinate to infect 

new plantings. 

Conditions favouring: Cool weather crops; 

cool, cloudy, foggy weather or heavy dew, 

especially near harvest, or after potting; poor 

ventilation, drainage and growing conditions; 

N 22 

OTHER PLANTINGS

GREENHOUSES 

overcrowding; presence of organic matter; 

prolonged wet humid weather or excessive 

overhead irrigation, especially at night; trimmed 

stalks and leaves around packing houses; plant 

injury during cultivation, harvest and packing. 

Optimum temperature is 18-23 o C but Botrytis is 

active at temperatures as low as 10 o C. De-leaving 

and flower picking should not leave snags as the 

site for Botrytis and other fungal infections. 

Cultivars with compact flowers and fruit 

bunches are susceptible. Other factors include 

free moisture on the surface of fruit (a wet period 

of 9 hours is required for infection to take place); 

imperfect curing of bulbs especially when crops 

have been given nitrogen late in the season. Under 

cool, moist conditions the fungus produces a 

large number of airborne spores which begin new 

infections by invading tissue through injury or 

through natural openings (stomata) particularly in 

the presence of free water. During marketing, the 

combination of injury, cool temperatures, high 

humidity and poor ventilation allowing ethylene 

buildup may favour further damage. Pollen is 

known to stimulate germination of spores of 

B. cinerea (Fletcher 1984). Showery weather is 

not necessary for severe outbreaks. 

Control may be difficult if conditions favour 

disease development. Disease management 

strategies should be intensified during crop 

finishing and postharvest. 

Cultural methods: Avoid overhead irrigation and 

wet and humid conditions. Space plants to provide 

good natural ventilation/aeration especially during 

damp conditions. Reduce humidity in greenhouses 

and shadehouses by ventilation and heating. Provide 

adequate ventilation during growth, transport of 

flowers. Avoid injury during cultivation, harvest and 

storage. Practice crop rotation to avoid buildup of 

inoculum. Try to keep foliage dry with good 

ventilation and heat. Avoid prolonged conditions of 

leaf wetness and high relative humidity. Remove 

lower leaves of shoots to give better aeration and 

expose berries to sunlight after the pea-size stage. 

Avoid irrigation during the period approaching 

maturity. Excessive nitrogen content can make 

some plants more susceptible, eg grape bunches. 

Sanitation: Remove/destroy old, senescing or infected 

flower heads, fallen leaves, dead plant material, 

weeds, prunings and plant debris promptly at regular 

intervals in greenhouses (and in the field) as Botrytis 

grows freely on them and produces vast quantities of 

spores. Do not allow them to accumulate around 

plants, packing sheds and greenhouses. Rogue and 

burn badly infected plants. Ensure strict hygiene in 

and around packing houses. Prune badly damaged 

affected leaves and stems. Do not allow old crops to 

remain standing. 

Biological control: By fungi, eg Myrothecium 

verrucaria, Gliocladium roseum, Trichoderma viride 

(Hausbeck and Moorman 1996). A bacterium, 

Bacillus subtilis, provides some control of Botrytis 

and Rhizoctonia. Pseudomonas fluorescens strain PB 

2B10E reduces disease on petunia overseas by 77%. 

Resistant varieties: Some varieties are more 

susceptible. Multi-petalled flowers and grapes with 

tight bunches or thin skins, are more susceptible. 

Disease-free planting material: Do not use seed 

from infected crops. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Plastic mulch 

and/or intervals of forced heated air reduce the 

incidence of B. cinerea on geraniums in greenhouses. 

Pesticides: Fungicides are effective only if cultural 

and sanitation treatments are also carried out. Spray 

prior to harvesting flowers. Use sterilants in packing 

sheds. Apply fungicides early in the day so that they 

dry before nightfall. Gladiolus corm treatments: 

If Botrytis leaf spots have occurred during the 

growing season or if the weather is damp at digging, 

corms should be treated (see Gladiolus C 30). Dip 

corms in fungicides prior to planting. Apply 

registered fungicides as field sprays, prior to harvest 

or postharvest. Fungicides may damage flowers. 

Widespread resistance of Botrytis to fungicides 

has been detected. 


is a minor disease in greenhouse grown crops. 

Rhizopus is commonly present in decaying plant 

material in soil. Petals collapse with a wet rot 

which extends into the heart of the flower. Black 

fungal spores develop on the rotted tissue. The 

fungus may grow readily on packing material and 

invade flowers through injuries. Inoculum builds 

up on trimmings from flowers if these are left in or 

around packing sheds. Avoid injury, keep flowers 

dry. Ensure good hygiene in packing shed. See 



Fusarium root and stem rots (Fusarium spp.) 

Phytophthora root rots (Phytophthora spp.) 


Cylindrocladium diseases (Cylindrocladium spp.) 

Rhizoctonia stem (Rhizoctonia solani) 

Sclerotinia rots (Sclerotinia spp.) 


Thielaviopsisblack root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola) 


Others: Many fungal diseases which occur 

on greenhouse plants are host specific including 

fungal leaf spots (various species), powdery 

mildews (Erysiphales), rusts (Uredinales) and 

wilts, eg fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum 

f.spp.) and verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae). 


Many species have a wide host range, eg root knot 

nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). See Vegetables 

M 10. Foliar nematodes, leaf eelworms 

(Aphelenchoides spp.) are common on ferns and 

other plants. See Ferns E 2. 





Lily aphid (Aulacorthum circumflexum) 

Some aphids occurring in greenhouses have a wide 

host range. Adults, nymphs, nymph skins and 

honeydew disfigure plants and give them a shiny, 

sticky appearance. Sooty mould may grow on the 

honeydew causing further disfigurement. Nymphs 

and adults feed by sucking sap. When infestations 

are heavy, distortion of shoots, leaves, buds and 

flowers may result. Leaves and whole plants may dry 


GREENHOUSES 

and shrivel. The life cycles of most aphids in 

greenhouses are similar except for some variation in 

the length of time which it takes different species to 

develop. All species continue to go on, generation 

after generation, all the year round. Where there are 

only a few plants, aphid colonies can be removed by 

hand, hosed off, spot treated using a small brush or 

cotton bud dipped in alcohol or methylated spirits. Do 

not injure the plant. Plants may be washed carefully 

with warm soapy water or dipped upside down in 

warm soapy water and rinsed in clear warm water. 

Large plants can be washed with a sponge. 

Predatory lacewings (Mallada signata) may be 

purchased. Parasitic wasps may control some 

species. Plants may be sprayed with an insecticide 

registered and recommended for use in greenhouses 

when aphids are first seen. Soft-foliaged plants may 

be placed in a plastic bag with a pest strip for several 

days to control aphids and other pests. Home 

gardeners can use one labelled for indoor plants. Take 

plants outside to treat unless label says otherwise. 




Loopers (Chrysodeixis spp.) (Fig. 400) 


Moths can fly into greenhouses and polytunnels 

and subsequently breed inside. They can be 

difficult to control in conservatories where there 

are tall plants which are difficult to reach and treat. 

Caterpillars may be well camouflaged and hard to 

find, generally their droppings give them away. 


Greenhouse orthezia (Orthezia 

insignis, Ortheziidae, Hemiptera) is a tropical 

species which can be troublesome in greenhouses. 

They are rather like Margarodidae and are related 

to scales and mealybugs. Nymphs are the size of 

pinheads, dark green with rows of minute waxy 

plates extending back over the bodies. Females 

have a white waxy, fluted egg sac which extends 

backwards for a distance of 2-3 times their body 

length. They resemble mealybugs closely in their 

habits, control is similar. See Greenhouses N 25. 

Greenhouse thrips, black thrips 



A cosmopolitan species, primarily an out-of-doors 

pest. Other thrips occur in greenhouses, eg plague 

thrips (Thrips imaginis); western flower thrips 

(WFT) (Frankliniella occidentalis) is potentially the 

most serious thrips pest in Australia (Hill 1994). 

Host range: Ornamentals, eg azalea, fuchsia, 

viburnum, indoor and outdoor plants, fruit, eg 

citrus, grapevine, guava, passionfruit, persimmon, 

plum, prune. 

Description and damage: Adults are 

elongated, dark brown to black, about 1.5 mm long 

(just visible to the naked eye). The fringed wings, 

legs and antennae are whitish in colour. Although 

winged, they rarely fly. Nymphs are initially 

whitish, then yellowish with red eyes. Nymphal 

stages carry a drop of excrement on the tip of the 

abdomen. Nymphs and adults suck sap mainly 

from leaf undersurfaces where they feed and 

produce disfiguring black spots of excreta. Leaf 

uppersurfaces become silvery (Fig. 401). In severe 

infestations, thrips may feed from the uppersurface 

as well. Fruit, eg ripe or almost ripe citrus, may be 

seriously blemished and have reduced shelf life. 


nymph, prepupa, pupa, adult) with many 

generations each season. There are no males. All 

adults, which may live for up to 3 months, lay eggs 

(1-2 eggs per day). Eggs are inserted singly into 

leaf undersurfaces or fruit tissue just under the 

surface. The eggs swell as they develop and cause 

minute pimples to appear on infested leaves or 

fruit. Nymphs hatch from these eggs and when 

fully grown enter a pre-pupal and pupal stage. 

Overwintering: On the host plant. On indoor 

plants the cycle is continuous. 

Spread: Adult thrips can only fly for a few 

centimetres. Spread is also by wind and on 

shrivelled leaves, visiting insects and by the 

movement of infested container plants, cuttings, 

etc. Thrips crawl from plant to plant. 

Conditions favouring: Tropical and subtropical 

conditions, greenhouses. Shady, cool and 

fairly moist protected situations; thickly foliaged 

plants with clustered flowers or fruit allowed to 

hang until late summer in seasons of good summer 

rainfall. Often where light is low, for example in 

the centre or on the shady side of plants, on leaves 

near the ceiling. Hot, dry weather or heavy rain 

adversely affects greenhouse thrips outdoors. 

Control: On some hosts damage is not economic 

so that control measures may not be necessary. 

The National WFT Strategy Group researches 

biological and chemical controls for WFT. 

Cultural methods: If practical, increase light 

intensity, raise temperature, lower humidity. Avoid 

overmoist conditions and planting susceptible species 

in such conditions. 

Sanitation: If only a few shoots are affected they can 

be pruned off and destroyed. 

Biological control: No biological control agents are 

available. A tiny wasp parasite (Ceranisus sp.) has 

been found abundantly on garden hosts of the 

greenhouse thrips in NSW coastal districts. Overseas, 

predatory mites (Amblyseius spp.) and a minute 

bug (Orius tristicolor) provide some control. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Bug netting is 

used for western flower thrips overseas, but it should 

be used with care as the small size of the mesh can 

reduce ventilation (Parrella 1996). 

Pesticides: Apply foliage treatments to protect 

new leaves when thrips are first observed. Because 

the eggs are inserted in plant tissues, a 2nd spray is 

usually necessary to kill the nymphs which have 

emerged from the eggs since the 1st spray. Two sprays 

at the above intervals at the first signs of infestation 

may provide control for a season. Parasitic wasps are 

frequently killed by sprays used to control other pests 

such as aphids and mealybugs. Soil treatments are 

available. Greenhouse thrips populations should be 

monitored (Brough et al. 1994). 


Scientific name: Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera: 


Other whiteflies may be major pests in greenhouses, 

eg poinsettia whitefly, silverleaf whitefly 

(Bemesia tabaci type B). See Poinsettia K 116. 

N 24 

OTHER PLANTINGS

GREENHOUSES 

Host range: A serious and persistent pest of 

broadleaved plants in greenhouses and outdoors. 

Ornamentals, eg boronia, fuchsia, fruit, eg citrus, 

vegetables, eg bean, cucurbits, tomato, weeds. 

Description and damage: Adults are small, 

delicate, white, moth-like, about 1.5 mm long with 

2 pairs of white powdery wings which are folded 

when at rest (Fig. 402). They do not fly readily. 

Nymphs are translucent, greenish and scale-like 

with fine waxy marginal filaments. They are from 

0.3-0.75 mm long depending on the nymphal stage. 

Nymphs and adults suck sap from new shoots and 

leaf undersurfaces of soft-foliaged plants. When 

disturbed, they rise in the air and flutter about the 

plant. Leaves develop a sandy mottle. Whiteflies 

secrete honeydew on which sooty mould grows, 

disfiguring plants. They may have to be washed 

before marketing or eating. Heavily infested 

seedlings may die. General: Severe infestations 

can cause plants to lose vigour and wilt. Yield 

may be reduced. Sometimes whiteflies may be 

present but do not cause any real damage. 


4 nymph stages, adult) with many generations each 

year. Under favourable conditions 1 generation 

from egg to adult takes from 5-8 weeks. Each 

female lays several hundred eggs in circles or arcs 

on the undersurface of smoothleaved plants or 

scattered, about if leaves are hairy. After hatching, 

1st stage nymphs crawl about on the underside of 

the leaf for up to 3 days before settling down to 

feed. Later nymphal stages complete their 

development at this site. 

Overwintering: In cooler climates outdoors, as 

unhatched eggs on leaf undersurfaces and as 

adults. In warm climates and in greenhouses the 

cycle is continuous. In cooler areas outdoors, on 

host plants and as adults in sheltered places. 

Spread: As adults flying assisted by wind. Also 

by the movement of infested plants carrying eggs, 

nymphs and/or adults. 

Conditions favouring: Mild moist conditions 

as in greenhouses. Outdoors it is a sporadic pest in 

protected situations with humid atmospheres in 

late spring, summer and autumn. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Reduce humidity to assist control 

in greenhouse and outdoor situations. Some plants, 

when used as companion plants are reputed to repel 

whiteflies, eg nasturtium. 

Sanitation: Affected leaves can be removed. 

Biological control: An introduced parasitic wasp 

(Encarsia formosa) lays one egg inside the body of 

the 4th stage nymph. The wasp larva feeds inside the 

whitefly nymph. Parasitised 4th stage nymphs turn 

black within a few days (unparasitised nymphs are 

white). The wasp larva pupates and emerges through a 

round hole. Infestations are often kept in check by 

this wasp and plants should be examined for 

parasitised nymphs; treatment may not be necessary. 

In greenhouses, parasitic wasps are frequently killed 

by sprays used to control other pests, eg mealybugs. 

A predatory lacewing (Mallada signata) may be 

purchased. Overseas more effective parasites, eg 

Eretmocerus mundus, and predators, eg ladybird 

(Delphastus sp.), are being researched, also a 

pathogenic fungus (Verticillium lecanii). 

Overseas poinsettia whitefly (B. tabaci type B) is 

parasitised by Encarsia formosa, Beauveria fungus 

(Naturalis-L) is also being researched. 

Resistant varieties: Cultivars with hairy leaves and 

toxic sap are considered to slowwhitefly development. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Yellow 

boards or plastic sheets covered with a clear sticky 

grease attract whiteflies which stick when they land. 

Boards must be cleaned regularly and re-coated with 

the sticky material. The sticky material must not 

mask the yellow colour. Used for small areas 

outdoors and glasshouses. Keep well above plants so 

as not to catch parasites. Overseas, fluorescent yellow 

paints are used. Useful where pesticides cannot be 

used. Small outbreaks can be dispersed by hosing. 

Pesticides: Whiteflies may be difficult to control, 

systemic sprays may be needed for persistent attacks. 

Outdoors, insecticides may be applied to leaf 

undersurfaces when seen. Repeat applications may be 

needed as insecticides may not kill eggs. Insecticides 

may also kill the parasites. Monitor whitefly 

populations and their parasites before applying an 



Scientific name: Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera: 


Other species also occur in greenhouses, eg 

Citrophilous mealybug (P. calceolariae) 

Tuber mealybug, obscure mealybug (P. affinis) is 

considered to be the most important root-feeding 

mealybug in Australia. 

Host range: A pest of greenhouses, ferneries 

and indoor plants. Ornamentals, eg herbaceous 

plants, orchids, palms, bulbs, fruit, eg citrus, 

custard apple, grape, grasses and clovers. 

Description and damage: Adult females are 

slow moving, oval, wingless, flattened and 3-4 mm 

long with well developed legs, (Fig. 403). They 

are covered with a mealy white wax which forms 

short hair-like filaments usually longer than the 

body. Males in the early stages are similar to 

females, but form cottony cocoons about 3 mm 

long, within which they develop. Adult males are 

minute 2-winged insects with legs and do not feed. 

The length of the anal filaments and colour of a 

fluid exuded from dorsal glands can assist field 

identification of species. See Citrus F 38. Nymphs 

resemble adults. Above ground damage: 

Mealybugs feed by sucking sap in sheltered parts, 

eg sheaths, leaf bases, leaf undersurfaces. 

Infestations are often not noticed until mealybugs 

are numerous and unsightly. Soft foliaged plants 

wilt and may die. Infestations also occur on 

roots. This is only noticed when the plant is 

being re-potted, wilts or dies. Economic damage is 

caused by the excretion of large quantities of 

honeydew. Sooty mould develops on excreted 

honeydew, dirties leaves, stems and fruit (may 

cause end rots and fruit drop). Ants (Formicidae) 

are attracted to honeydew, fruit touching the 

ground is often covered with dirt from ant activity. 

Pest cycle: Gradual incomplete metamorphosis 

(egg, 3-4 nymph stages, adult), many generations 

each year. Longtailed mealybugs produce about 

200 young in 2-3 weeks. Eggs hatch as they are 

being laid. Eggs of other species, eg citrophilous 

and tuber mealybug, are laid in a loose cottony 

mass, light yellow crawlers hatch 3-9 days later. 


GREENHOUSES 

Overwintering: Outdoors, as eggs during cold 

weather, in greenhouses there is no overwintering, 

the cycle is continuous. Longtailed mealybugs 

observed on citrus in SA moved from the foliage 

to branches, trunks and soil in spring and a new 

generation returned to the foliage. 

Spread: By mealybugs crawling from plant to 

plant, movement of infested plants (into 

glasshouses, purchasing infested plants, etc.), on 

ants, birds and clothing, by wind and visiting 

insects and birds. 

Conditions favouring: Warm, humid 

conditions. Weakened plants, eg those grown in 

very dry situations or those held in pots for too 

long. Thickly-foliaged mature trees. Dusty trees. 

Use of strong Bordeaux mixture. Ants attracted to 

honeydew discourage the predatory mealybug 

ladybirds (Cryptolaemus). 

Control: Control can be difficult. 

Cultural methods: Good irrigation will help to 

reduce the effects of infestation, as adequate 

water replaces sap that is lost to sucking insects. 

Sanitation: Severely infested plant parts can be 

pruned out and burnt. Severely infested small 

plants of little value in glasshouses and houses 

frequently have infested roots. These plants 

should be discarded as even regular control 

treatments can fail to eradicate this pest. Minor 

infestations may be spot treated by dabbing 

with a small brush or cotton bud dipped in 

alcohol or methylated spirits. Mealybugs may 

be picked off by hand and killed. Plants may be 

washed carefully with warm soapy water or 

dipped upside down in the water and then rinsed 

in clear tepid water. Large plants may be 

washed with a sponge. Sooty mould in the 

navels of mature oranges is not easy to remove 

by washing before packing. 

Biological control: Natural control is not always 

completely effective. The most important 

predator is mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus 

montrouzieri) which can be purchased. It is 

black and red and 3.5 mm long, lays its yellow 

eggs singly in the mealybug egg sacs or near 

clusters of mealybugs. Larvae of the ladybird 

are about 3 times as long as mealybugs. They 

have long marginal filaments and are covered 

with white mealy material, so they may be 

mistaken for mealybugs but are more active 

and have biting mouthparts. Mealybug ladybird 

was introduced to WA and California as a 

biological control agent for mealybugs. Other 

predators include various lacewing larvae 

(Chrysopa sp., Oligochrysa lutea), Mallada 

signata can be purchased. The main parasite is 

a small wasp (Leptomastix dactylopii) which 

may be reared or purchased (Goodwin and 

Steiner 1996) 

Resistant varieties: Some cultivars of plants are 

very susceptible. In Washington navels, 

mealybugs lodge in the navel encouraging rots 

and sooty mould. In some grapefruit, mealybugs 

shelter under the calyx or between 2 fruits or 

leaves which are touching one another. 

Pesticides: Mealybugs are difficult to control 

with insecticides because they feed in difficultto-reach 

places. Monitor mealybugs, parasites 

and predators at regular intervals before making 

a decision to release parasites or predators or 

apply an insecticide (Brough et al. 1994). In 

glasshouses, if parasites and predators are not 

being used, regular preventative foliage 

treatments may be necessary. Indoor plant 

insecticides may be used. Oil sprays may injure 

some indoor plants, eg ferns. If mealybugs are 

on roots of plants in pots, wet soil in pot 

thoroughly the night before to lessen the chance 

of root damage. Use enough liquid to wet the 

complete root zone. Place basin at base of pot 

plant and allow insecticide solution to soak in. 

Insecticides may disrupt natural controls. Spray 

with indoor plant insecticides, take outside for 

treatment unless label says otherwise. Treat soil 

with drenches or soil granules. Petroleum oil 

causes minimum harm and loosens the sooty 

mould but may damage soft-foliaged plants. 

Coastal brown ants (Pheidole megacephala) 

tend mealybugs for honeydew and move them 

around and fend off natural enemies. In outdoor 

infestations ants need to be controlled in spring 

by spraying lower trunk and beneath the canopy. 



Tarsonemidae) affects broadleaved plants, 

ornamentals, eg dahlia, camellia, fruit, eg avocado, 

citrus, lemon, vegetables, eg bean, silver beet, 

rhubarb, weeds, eg potato weed. Adults are 

microscopic, flat, active, 8-legged, shiny, translucent 

white or very pale yellow, oval-shaped. Females are 

about 0.25 mm long, males are smaller. Only a few 

mites per shoot tip may cause extensive damage but 

they can be hard to find. Mites suck sap from 

undersurfaces of young leaves, causing them to 

become narrowed, distorted, with edges curled under, 

and often with bronzed undersurfaces. Young stem 

growth may be distorted, plants look as if they have 

been damaged by hormone herbicide (2,4-D). By the 

time injury is observed mites may no longer be 

present, but have moved to undersides of developing 

leaves. Damage to young foliage can harm 

development of nursery trees. Broad mite damage is 

not as common as twospotted mite injury and spread 

is less rapid. Often only some shoots on a plant are 

affected. Young fruit of crops such as lemons and 

Valencia oranges may be severely blemished 

(silvery-green blemishes with 'sharkskin' textures, 

fruits low on the tree are usually affected first). Many 

generations each year. Before mating, pre-adult 

females are carried about by males, which move about 

actively. By this means new sites become infested. 

Unfertilised females produce only male young. 

Translucent flat oval eggs about 0.1 mm long, 

ornamented with tubercles (Fig. 404), stick firmly 

to the infested tissue near the veins. Favoured by 

warm, humid summer/autumn weather and new 

growth. Control is difficult. Biological control: 

Little is known of the natural enemies. A ladybird 

(Scymnus sp.) has been seen feeding on the mites. A 

predatory mite (Amblyseius victoriensis) may provide 

effective control on citrus. Pesticides: Spray 

affected plants thoroughly when infestation is first 

detected, especially leaf undersurfaces. Control any 

nearby weed growth. Insecticides do not give longterm 

protection and plants may be rapidly reinfested. 

Regular repeat treatments may be required if weather 

is warm and humid. Monitor mites and predators 


N 26 

OTHER PLANTINGS

GREENHOUSES 

Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus, Tarsonemidae) 

may feed on plants in greenhouses, there may be 

races. Young leaves, buds and petals may be 

distorted, flowers may not open properly. Leaf edges 

may be rolled or curled. Severe infestation results in 

stunted growth. Cyclamen mite is tiny, 0.25 mm long 

(Fig. 404), adults are pale brown, nymphs are smaller, 

paler. Broad mite is slightly smaller, broader and 

moves faster then the cyclamen mite. Few natural 

enemies occur in glasshouses. Typhlodromid mites 

are known predators on outdoor crops but unlikely in 

greenhouses as routine sprays would probably kill 

them. Possibly Phytoseiulus persimilis may prey on 

cyclamen mites. See Cyclamen C 16. 

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) is a serious 

pest of greenhouse. Adult mites are easily seen 

with a hand lens (Fig. 404). Nymphs initially have 

six legs but later nymphal stages have 8 legs. 

Nymphs and adults feed mostly on leaf 

undersurfaces and often quantities of webbing are 

readily seen. Leaves become speckled, yellow and 

fall. Do not confuse twospotted injury to leaves with 

damage caused by leafhoppers, whiteflies, thrips or 

deficiencies. Leaves of house plants can be misted or 

syringed or wiped with a moist cloth, regularly and 

frequently. Predatory mites are available for 

monocultures in greenhouses but are not really 

suitable for house plants. Some house plants are very 

susceptible, eg umbrella plant, cocos palm. 

Twospotted mites may be controlled by predatory 

mites, eg Phytoseiulus persimilis, Amblyseius, and by 

a predatory midge (Therodiplosis persicae). See 


There is a gradual metamorphosis (egg, nymph, 

adult) with usually many generations each year. In 

greenhouses the cycles are usually continuous. 

They are spread by introduction of infested plants, 

by wind, visiting insects, birds and man. Mites 

crawl from plant to plant. 


Greenhouse plants susceptible to scale infestations 

include ferns (Fig. 405) and rubber plants. 



Hemispherical scale (S. coffeae) 



Armoured scales (Diaspididae 


Scales suck sap from stems and leaves, causing 

disfigurement, poor growth and stunting. Severely 

infested plants can die. Soft scales secrete 

honeydew on which sooty mould grows, causing 

further disfigurement and attracting ants. Dead scale 

insects may cling to plants for a month or more. 

Living scale insects exude some juice when crushed, 

dead scales become dry and chaffy. Cultural 

methods: Indoor plants can be misted or wiped with 

a moist cloth but in glasshouses the high humidity can 

unfortunately encourage other pests, eg whiteflies, 

and diseases, eg powdery mildews. If only 1-2 plants 

are affected, prune out badly infested parts and wash 

off scales with soapy water, then rinse foliage in 

lukewarm clean water. This treatment is not suitable 

for soft-foliaged plants. Sanitation: Severely 

infested portions of some plants may have to be 

pruned out. Parasitic wasps may be purchased to 

control some armoured scales (Table 7, 

Greenhouses N 31). Resistant varieties: Some 

plants are more susceptible than others and are best 

avoided, eg Ardisia. Pesticides: Two sprays about 

7-10 days apart are necessary. The 1st spray is 

applied when crawlers are active. It does not kill 

eggs so a 2nd spray about 10 days later is needed. In 

greenhouses the cycle is continuous. Watch for reinfestation 

and deal with it promptly. Any indoor 

house plant spray will be effective. In greenhouses, 

pressure canisters, pest strips, misters, pulsfogs, etc. 

may be used. Indoor plants, eg ferns, may be 

sensitive to petroleum oil sprays. Individual plants 

may be placed in a plastic bag with a pest strip for 

several days. Ants if present should be controlled by 

spraying a small area of surrounding soil regularly 

with household ant spray. See Citrus F 39, F 41. 

Others: 

Black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus 

sulcatus) may be controlled with nematodes (Otinem 

or by a fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae). Garden 

symphylid, glasshouse symphylid (Scutigerella 

immaculata) is a small active animal which may feed on 

root hairs providing an entry point for soil fungal 

diseases. Adults are delicate white < 8 mm long with 

12 pairs of legs and long mobile antennae, nymphs have 

6-12 pairs of legs. See Vegetables M 18. Glasshouse 

leafhopper (Hauptidia macroccana) which occurs 

overseas can be checked by a tiny parasitic wasp 

(Anagrus atomus) which enters glasshouses or by using 

soap sprays. Millipedes (Diplopoda) are round with at 

least 11 body segments and 19 or more pairs of legs, 

2 pairs/segment (Fig. 406). They feed on decaying 

organic matter but may feed on roots and plant material 

on the damp soil surface. Slaters, pillbugs, woodlice 

(Crustacea) are light-grey , fat-bodied, segmented with 

7 pairs of legs, and are up to 12 mm long (Fig. 406). 

They usually hide about the bases of plants, under 

flower pots, stones, damp leaves, in compost heaps and 

mainly feed on decaying damp organic matter. Some 

species also chew seedlings, young tender plants and 

strawberry fruit, near the ground, and may cause 

considerable damage. They may also feed amongst the 

foliage of ornamental plants in fern houses and 

glasshouses. Because they feed at night, they are not 

usually observed feeding. Overwinter as all stages. 

Spread by older stage nymphs and adults crawling 

from plant to plant, movement of infested containers, 

plants, soil, compost, manure. Favoured by damp 

conditions, contact with ground. Remove hiding places 

and plant and soil debris. Pesticides are generally not 

necessary. Wireworms (Elateridae) may occasionally 

be found in greenhouses. 


Slugs may invade greenhouses, especially if 

containers are on soil and surrounding areas are 

weedy. They may be carried in on plants. See 

Seedlings M 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Algae, liverworts and moss: Algae are 

common on the surface of media in pots and on floors 

which are overwet. Clean prior to treatment with 

algicides. Woven mesh or slotted black polythene 

sheet reduces algal growth on capillary mats 

(Handreck and Black 1994). See Turfgrasses L 13, 

Water N 91. Liverworts and mosses (Bryophyta) 

like fertiliser and water, cool climates but can survive 

hot summers. They grow in greenhouses and 

polyhouses and outdoors. See Turfgrasses L 15. 


GREENHOUSES 

Spread by wind and water. Control is difficult. 

They reproduce by spores and by vegetative means 

(Fig. 407) and are transferred during repotting. They 

must be controlled before they become established. 

Some pre-emergence herbicides have some control 

but are difficult to use in tubes and should not be used 

in greenhouses. Algicides give good control but often 

damage plants and may be expensive. Nursery 

hygiene and vigilance are necessary to prevent the 

production of windborne spores (Nichols 1995). 

Ants (Formicidae, Hymenoptera) are attracted to 

honeydew secreted by aphids, mealybugs, scale or 

whiteflies which should be controlled. Occasionally 

ants feed on plants themselves and assist spread of 

scale and other insects. Ants may nest in containers, 

and it may be necessary to repot plants or drench pots 

with an insecticide. See Trees K 19, Turfgrasses L 8. 

Environment: Environmental problems are the 

commonest problems associated with greenhouse 

plants. It is not possible here to describe the 

moisture, temperature and light requirements of each 

plant species, the onus is on the grower to find out 

each plant's requirements. Only then will the desired 

affect be achieved. See House plants N 36. 

Fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae, Diptera) and 

black fungus gnats (Sciaridae, Diptera), eg 

glasshouse sciarids (Bradysia spp.), are grey or black 

flies, about 2-3 mm long which hover in groups 

around plants or run over the surface of pots at dusk. 

They can be a nuisance indoors around potted plants. 

Maggots of most species are small, thread-like, 

active, translucent, legless, about 5-8 mm long with 

small dark heads (Fig. 406) which feed on decaying 

fungi in roots, cuttings and seedlings in soils which 

are wet (overwatered, poorly drained) or rich on 

organic matter. Roots may be scarred and root hairs 

eaten off. Overseas, maggots may transmit soilborne 

fungi, eg Pythium, and have been linked with the 

spread of Botrytis, Fusarium, Thielaviopsis and 

Verticillium. Plants lack vigour, leaves turn yellow. 

Maggots may leave a tiny slimy trail glistening on the 

mix surface. The only permanent cure is to avoid 

overmoist media. Allowing it to dry out as much as 

possible without injuring plants will kill many 

maggots, Plants may need to be repotted using less 

organic matter. Overseas, fungus gnats may be 

controlled by Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis, 

parasitic nematodes (Steinernema feltiae) and 

predatory mites (Geolaelaps, Stratiolaelaps) (Gill and 

Dutky 1995). Artificial light traps capture enormous 

numbers of flies. 50 mm vermiculite on top of soil 

discourages adult flies from egg-laying (Goodwin and 

Steiner 1996). Soil may be drenched to kill maggots 

with an insecticide which does not injure roots or 

plant bases may be dusted to kill flies before egg 

laying. Overseas, an insect growth regulator, 

azadirachtin, is applied as a soil-less media drench. 

In greenhouses, pest strips control the flies. See 

Mushrooms M 63. Shore flies (Ephydridae) occur in 

greenhouses, larvae and adults feed on algae (not 

plant roots or stems); larvae are maggot-like, wedge 

shaped and may spread Pythium and other diseases. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities should not 

occur today with the widespread use of slow-release 

fertilisers. However, whatever crop is being grown, 

learn to diagnose the deficiencies or toxicities that 

may occur on that crop. 

Pesticide and chemical injury: 

Greenhouses tend to run at higher temperatures, and 

because they are enclosed areas any vapours 

produced by pesticides cannot quickly escape. 

Pesticide injury is common especially by oil sprays, 

dimethoate (Rogor ® ), and by the vapours of certain 

herbicides, eg oryzalin (Surflan ® ). Do not add 

wetting agents unless advice has been sought. 

Environmental pollution commonly occurs due to 

the presence of fertilisers and pesticides in drainage 

from a greenhouse. Recycling of irrigation and 

cleaning water in greenhouses is recommended. 

WEEDS 

It is essential to identify the types of weeds which 

may occur in a specific situation and some sort of 

weed control program is essential. Types of 

weeds: Annual broadleaved weeds, eg 

cardamine, annual grass weeds, eg winter grass, 

perennial broadleaved weeds, eg oxalis and 

perennial grass weeds, eg couch, can be common 

in greenhouses with poor weed control programs. 

Control: Soil pasteurisation will kill many weed 

seeds. After potting up, a pre-emergence 

herbicide, eg Ronstar ® may be applied. Weeds 

should be reduced in areas immediately outside 

greenhouses. Do not expose mixes, etc, to 

windblown weed seed or allow them to be stored 

on floors contaminated with weeds seeds. 

Eradicating existing weed infestations can be 

difficult. For example, it is not possible to hand 

weed oxalis because the rhizome remains in the 

soil and the seeds are explosively spread. Oxalis 

may be hand treated with glyphosate using either a 

small directed hand spray or brush. Treat with 

Ronstar ® to prevent seeds germinating. This 

needs to be carried out diligently to eradicate the 

problem. Containers should not be weed infested. 


Anon. 1994a. The Nursery Industry Accreditation 



Anon. 1994b. Pest Control Manual. Horticulture, 

Weston Campus, Canberra Institute of Technology, 

Heysen Street, Weston, ACT. 

Australian National University. 1992. Plant Culture 

Facility : Information Manual. The Australian 

National University, Canberra. 

Belanger, R. R., Bowen, P. A., Ehret, D. L. and 

Menzies, J. G. 1995. Soluble Silicon : Its Role in 

Crop and Disease Management of Greenhouse 

Crops. Plant Disease, April, 329-335. 

Bodman, K. and Forsberg, L. 1992. A Working Paper on 

National Nursery Accreditation in Australia. Aust. 

Hort Corp., Sydney. 


Control in Ornamental Crops. QNIA/HRDC. 

Available from PO Box 345, Salisbury Qld. 


Book. Qld DPI, Dept. of Primary Industries, 

Brisbane 




Com. of Aust., AQIS, Dept. of Primary Industries & 

Energy, Canberra. Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

Thrips. No. 52. 1996. 

Whiteflies of Quarantine Significance. No. 93. 1993. 

N 28 

OTHER PLANTINGS

GREENHOUSES 

Daughtery, M. L. and Chase, A. R. 1992. Ball Field 

Guide to Diseases of Greenhouse Ornamentals. Ball 


Davidson, H., Mecklenburgh, R. and Peterson, C. 1988. 

Nursery Management Administration and Culture. 

2nd edn. Timber Press/GrowersTalks, Illinois. 

Eskilson, M D. 1992. Can Your Greenhouse Property 

Pass an Environmental Audit? GrowerTalks 

Magazine, Geneva, Illinois, April 1992. 



Fuller, R. J. 1990. Heating Commercial Greenhouses 

with Solar Energy. Dept. of Agric. and Rural 

Affairs, Melbourne. 

Fuller, R. 1991. Solar Greenhouses for the Home 

Gardener. Dept. of Food and Agric., Melbourne. 

Garzoli, K. (ed.). 1988. Greenhouses : Handbook for 

Nurserymen, Horticulturists and Gardeners. AGPS, 

Canberra. 

Geo, J. U. 1991. Ball Red Book : Greenhouse Growing. 

5th edn. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinois. 

Gill, S. and Dutky, E. 1995. Identification and Control 

Guide for Fungus Gnats and Soilborne Diseases. 

GrowerTalks, Feb. 

Goodwin, S. and Steiner, M. 1996. Watch Out for 

Fungus Gnats and Shore Flies. Aust. Hort., March. 





Vic./HRDC, Dept. of Agric. WA/RIRDC. 

Hausbeck, M. K. and Moorman, G. W. 1996. Managing 

Botrytis in Greenhouse-Grown Flower Crops. Plant 


Jarvis, R. W. 1992. Managing Diseases in Greenhouse 

Crops. APS Press, Minnesota. 

Jozwik, F. 1984. Plants for Profit : A Complete Guide to 

Growing and Selling Greenhouse Crops. Andmar 

Press, Wyoming. 



Lacey, R. 1992. The Organic Greenhouse and 

Conservatory. David & Charles, Devon, UK. 

Langhans, R. W. 1980. Greenhouse Management : A 

Guide to Structures, Environmental Control, 

Materials Handling, Crop Programming and 

Business Analysis. Halcyon Press, NY. 




Mathias, P. 1995b. A Guide to Water Recycling. NSW 

Agric., Locked Bag 11, Windsor, NSW. 

Nazer, C. J. 1991. Integrated Pest Management for 

Greenhouses. Proceedings of International Plant 

Propagators Society Vol.14., City Parks, Canberra. 

Nelson, P. V. 1991. Greenhouse Operation and 

Management. 4th edn. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 

Nichols, D. 1995. Get Liverwort and Moss Before it 

Gets You. Aust. Hort., May. 

Parrella, M. P. 1996. Thrips Identification and Control. 

FloraCulture International, March. 

Pennsylvania Nurserymen's Assoc. 1994. Recycling and 

Resource Conservation Manual. Pennsylvania, 

USA. 

Stackhouse, J. 1991. Overseas Growers look at Zero 

Run-off. Aust. Hort., April 1991. 



Prospects. The Plantsman, Vol.13(1), June. 

Walls, I. G. 1988. The Complete Book of the 

Greenhouse. 4th edn. Ward Lock, London. 

Winsor, G. and Adams, P. 1987. Diagnosis of Mineral 

Disorders in Plants. Vol 111 : Glasshouse Crops. 

HMSO, London. 


Industry eg 

Broad Mite (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 

Greenhouse Design for the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Greenhouse Management in the Home Garden (Vic 

Agnote) 

Greenhouses (NSW Agfact) 

Greenhouse Whitefly (NSW Agfact, Vic Agnote) 

Management of Poly Houses (NSW Agnote) 

Polythene Ducting (Vic Agnote) 

Selection of Greenhouse Coverings (Vic Agnote) 




See Fruit F 15, Nurseries N 56, Potting mix N 65, 

Seedlings N 71, Seeds N 77, Vegetables M 19, 

Water N 92, Preface xii 

MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Horticultural requirements: This depends on the plants being grown. Many plants are easy to grow and 

have minimal diseases and pests. 

Resistant varieties: Use resistant varieties to control particular problems if necessary and where practical. 

Resistance may be enhanced by various means. 

Disease-free planting material: Only plant disease, pest and weed-free material. See Nurseries N 53. 


Diagnosis of present and potential disease, pests and weed problems enables an appropriate 

management plan to be prepared. Pest management programs have been developed for mealybugs, 

whiteflies, twospotted mite, etc. 

Regular inspections and monitoring of all plants and equipment, eg temperature and humidity controls. in 

greenhouses, must be carried out. Sticky yellow boards can be used to monitor and trap aphids, fungus gnats, 

thrips and whiteflies. 

Environmental considerations: Drainage containing fertilisers and pesticides from a greenhouse should 

be recycled. This also reduces water usage. See Nurseries N 53, N 55. 

Cultural methods: Appropriate conditions must be provided, eg light, temperature, ventilation, humidity, 

irrigation, media, structures for ease of cleaning, hosing, etc. Group similar plants together. 

Sanitation: Remove diseased plant material, eg dead cuttings, and weeds at regular intervals. High pressure 

clean floors to remove bacteria, algae and waste material. Disinfect floors, benches and other structures and 

disinfect immediately afterwards.. 

Biological control: Use biological control agents where possible (Table 7). Not all pests can be controlled in 

this way. Mixed crops make it harder to monitor pests and their biological control agents. Biological control 

agents must be released at the proper time. 

Plant quarantine: Do not introduce infested plants or soil into greenhouses. Use a plant quarantine house to 

hold plants until disease and pest-freedom is ensured. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Flyscreens on ventilators and doors keep out moths, aphids, thrips 

and other insects which might enter greenhouses, some may carry and spread virus diseases. 


GREENHOUSES 

Pesticides: Just because a pesticide is registered for use on a particular plant for a particular pest does not 

mean that it is suitable for use in greenhouses. If pesticides are to be used, effective regimes of fungicides 

for damping off, insecticides and herbicides must be developed and prescribed. Safety procedures for the 

use of pesticides in greenhouses must be prepared and include pesticide selection, persistence, re-entry 

procedures and plant handling procedures after application (Anon. 1994b). Spot spraying with pesticides 

before problems become widespread reduces pesticide use and avoids killing beneficial insects. Small 

outbreaks can be spot sprayed with small packs of pesticides registered for indoor plant use. Soft-foliaged 

plants in pots may be placed in a plastic bag with a pest strip for several days. Plants may need to be taken 

outside for treatment or to a holding area. Many pesticides damage plants at the higher temperatures in 

greenhouses and kill natural and released biological control agents (Table 7). 

Pest management programs are available for some greenhouse pests. Complete control of pests is unlikely 

but a balance can be maintained and economic damage prevented. Techniques require careful management, 

particularly in the early stages when biological control agents must be introduced before pests are well 

established. Successful biological control programs require careful monitoring of the pest, the parasites 

and/or predators. This is often only possible in a monoculture crop and with trained staff. 

Postharvest 

Harvest/sell plants at the recommended time. Some may need to be hardened off. Most commercial crops 

today are harvested, stored, graded and packaged according to recommended Quality Assurance standards. 


Fig. 399. Grey mould (Botrytis) on 

Callistemon shoots. B. A Fuhrer. 

Fig. 400. Looper caterpillars 

(Chrysodeixis sp.) up to 40 mm 

long. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 401. Silvering on rubber plant 

(Ficus sp.) caused by greenhouse thrips 

(Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis). 


(Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 

Fig. 404. Mites which attack cyclamen foliage. 

Mites are microscopic, the female is displayed. 

Fig. 403. Longtailed mealybug 

(Pseudococcus longispinus). 

Fig. 405. Soft scales (Coccidae) 

on fern. 

Fig. 406. Millipedes, slaters and 

fungus gnat (Sciaridae) larvae. 

Fig. 407. Liverworts. 

N 30 

OTHER PLANTINGS

GREENHOUSES 

Table 7. Some biological control agents a . 

Pests and Diseases 


Aphids (Aphididae), eg 

cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) 

green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) 

Some biological control agents a 

They are not all equally effective 

Predatory lacewing (Mallada signata). 

Overseas parasitic wasps (Aphytis spp., Aphidius spp.) 

in combination give good control. Larvae of a midge 

(Aphidoletes aphidimyza) preys on > 60 species of 

aphids. Also a fungus (Verticillium lecanii). 

Some pesticides 

Use pesticides not 

toxic to the agents 

pirimicarb (Pirimor ® ) 

(aphicide) 

Black vine weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus) 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera), eg 

corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae), eg 

citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) 

longtailed mealybug 

(Pseudococcus longispinus) 

Scales (armoured scales), eg 

oleander scale (Aspidiotus nerii) 

oriental scale (Aonidiella orientalis) 

red scale (A. aurantii) 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae), eg 

bean spider mite (Tetranychus ludeni) 

twospotted mite (T. urticae) 

Thrips (Thripidae), eg 

onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) 

western flower thrips (Frankliniella 

occidentalis) 

Whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), eg 

greenhouse whitefly 

(Trialeurodes vaporariorum) 

tobacco whitefly, cotton whitefly 

(Bemisia tabaci) 

SLUGS 

(various species) 

VIRUS AND VIRUS-LIKE 

DISEASES 


Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) 


Damping off (various fungi) 

Soil fungal diseases 

Fusarium wilt 


Powdery mildew (Erysiphales) 

Otinem ® (Heterorhabditis heliothidis) 

A fungus (Metarhizium sp.) is being researched. 

Dipel ® (Bacillus thuringiensis), parasitic wasps 

(Trichogramma). Various fungi, eg Beauveria spp. 

Predatory mealybug ladybird (Cryptolaemus 

montrouzieri) (no resistance to insecticides). 

Predatory lacewing (Mallada signata) 

Parasitic wasps (Leptomastix dactylopii) 

Parasitic wasps (Aphytis spp., Comperiella sp.) 

Predatory ladybirds and their larvae (Chilocorus spp., 

Rhyzobius lophanthae). 

Predatory mites (Phytoseiulus persimilis, 

Typhlodromus occidentalis) 

Predatory lacewing (Mallada signata) 

No biological control agents are available 

at present in Australia. In the USA, predatory mites 

(Amblyseius cucumeris and A. barki) reduce 

infestations. Various fungi, eg Paecilomyces spp. 

Parasitic wasp (Encarsia formosa) 

In the UK, the whitefly-active strain of the pathogenic 

fungus Verticillium lecanii (Mycotal ) is effective. 

Physical methods: Clear grease on yellow boards 

attract whitefly, but may also trap the parasitic wasps. 

Overseas carabid beetles (Abax paralellepeds) and 

Nemaslug ® (Phasmarhabdites sp.). 

Some vectors of virus and virus-like diseases, eg 

western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), 

could in the future, be effectively biologically controlled. 

Nogall ® (a non-pathogenic Agrobacterium sp.). 

Suppressive mixes contain micoorganisms antagonistic 

to damping off. Phytophthora, Pythium and 

Rhizoctonia by various bacteria and fungi, eg 

Paecilomyces, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces and 

Trichoderma. Mycorrhizal fungi are considered to 

protect some plants from some fungal diseases. 

Overseas, Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis) 

secretes an antibiotic which inhibits seed and soilborne 

pathogens, eg Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. dianthi. 

A saprophytic Fusarium sp. is also being researched. 

Overseas, various fungi, eg Gliocladium roseum, 

Myrothecium verrucaria, Trichoderma viride, and bacteria, 

eg Bacillus subtilis. 

Various fungi parasitise powdery mildew fungi, eg 

Ampelomyces quisqualis, Verticillium lecanii. 

No resistance to 

pesticides 

No resistance to 

pesticides 

Predatory mites have 

resistance to some 

miticides, insecticides 

and fungicides 

Herbicides, fungicides 

and other pesticides 

may be toxic. 

a Bodman et al. 1994. Pest Control in Ornamental crops. Qld DPI, Brisbane. 

Broadley, R. and Thomas, M. 1995. The Good Bug Book. Qld DPI, Dept. of Primary Industries, Brisbane. 

Sunderland, K. D. 1991. Biological Control in Ornamentals : Current Practice and Future Prospects. The Plantsman, Vol.13(1), June. 


Herbs 

A herb may be defined as 'a plant or plant part 

valued for its medicinal, savoury or aromatic 

qualities' (Kowalchik and Hylton 1987). Herbs 

therefore include trees, shrubs, ornamental plants, 

vegetables, weeds and many low-lying plants that 

have a fleshy or juicy stem when young. Some 

herbs are annuals but most are perennials, the tops 

may die but the roots remain alive and produce 

new plants year after year. 


Non-parasitic 



WEEDS 


Individual herbs are susceptible to a range of pests 

and diseases in the same way that other plants are 

(Figs. 408-412). The pests and diseases which 

affect herbs and all other plants change with time, 

as exotic pests or diseases may enter Australia. A 

leafmining moth (Diaalectica scalariella), 

released to control Paterson's curse (Echium 

plantagineum) also mines in the leaves of other 

Boraginaceae, eg the herbs, borage (Borago 

officinalis) and forget-me-not (Myosotis spp.). 

Chicory (Cichorum intybus, Asteraceae) 


Parasitic 



Lettuce necrotic yellows 


Anthracnose (Marssonina anattoniana) 

Fungal leaf spot (Cercospora) 

Root rot (Phoma sp.) 


Rust, leaf rust (Puccinia hieracii) 


Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne) 

Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus) 




Chives (Allium shoenoprasum, Liliaceae) 


Parasitic 


Various virus diseases 


Black mould (Aspergillus) 


Rust (Puccinia allii) (Fig. 410) 

White rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) 


Spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus) 


Bulb and potato aphid 

(Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon) 



Garlic (Allium sativum, Liliaceae) 


Parasitic 


Garlic mosaic virus 

Garlic yellow streak virus 

Lettuce necrotic yellows virus 

Onion yellow dwarf virus 


Black mould (Aspergillus niger) 


Rust (Puccinia allii) 

Soot (Embellisia allii) 

White rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) 



Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus) 


(Ditylenchus dipsaci) 


Bulb and potato aphid 

(Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon) 

Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus) 


Wheat curl mite (Aceria tulipae) 

Snails and Slugs 

Garlic snail (Oxychilus alliarius) 

Mint (Mentha spp., Lamiaceae) 


Parasitic 



Rust (Puccinia menthae) 




Spiral nematode (Rotylenchus) 



Grasshoppers (Orthoptera) 

Metallic flea beetles (Altica) 

Mint aphid (Ovatus crataegarius) 

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum, Apiaceae) 


Parasitic 


Beet western yellow virus 

Carrot red leaf virus 


Fungal leaf spots (Septoria petroselini) 

Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia spp.) 

Rhizoctonia crown rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) 





Carrot aphid (Cavierella aegopodii) 

Parsley aphid (Dysaphis apiifolia) 

Spider mites (Tetranychus) 



Non-parasitic 

Potassium deficiency 

Sunscorch 

Temperature 

M 32 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Non-parasitic 

Poisonous properties: At least 36 herbs are 

quite simply dangerous, eg wormwood;some are 

overtly poisonous, others may not kill you but can 

make you very ill, others through prolonged use 

may be carcinogenic or damage internal organs, 

others can cause skin irritation (Kowalchik and 

Hylton (eds) 1987, Sears 1995). 

Potential weeds: Many common weeds are 

herbs, eg dandelion, and many herbs may 

themselves become weeds, eg dill, mint. 

WEEDS 

Weed control is important in herb crops to ensure 

that there is no contamination by foreign plant 

material at harvest. Areas to be planted should 

have low weed populations and any weeds present 

should be controlled prior to planting. Because 

herb gardens are readily invaded by annual and 

perennial broadleaved and grass weeds (Fig. 413), 

they should be edged to prevent invasion by 

perennial weeds from surrounding areas. 

Herbicides are registered for use in herb gardens, 

but hand weeding and mulching is preferred and 

widely practised. 


Biggs, T. 1994. Essential Oils : A $3 million Industry. 

Good Fruit & Vegetables, Dec. 

Bowen, D. 1995. Encyclopedia of Herbs and Their Uses. 

Readers Digest, Surrey Hills, NSW. 


Essential Oils:560-562;Herbs:563-571; 

Spices: 587-592. Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, 

Vic. 

Fletcher, K. Australian Herb Industry Resource Guide. 

cur. edn. Focus on Herbs. PO Box 203, Launceston, 

Tas. 

Fletcher, K. 1990. Herbs in Australian Gardens. 

Penguin Books, Vic. 

Fletcher, K. 1996. Themes for Herb Gardens. Viking, 

Penguin Books, Ringwood, Vic. 

French, J. 1994. Yates Guide to Herbs. Angus & 

Robertson, Australia. 

Hemphill, J. & R. 1994. What Herb is That? Lansdowne 


HERBS 

Keville, K. 1991. The Illustrated Herb Encyclopedia : A 

Complete Culinary, Cosmetic, Medicinal and 

Ornamental Guide to Herbs. Simon & Schuster, 


Kowalchik, C. and Hylton, W. H. (eds). 1987. Rodale's 

Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs. Rodale Press, 

Schwartz Books, Australia. 

Mason, J. 1990. Commercial Hydroponics : How to 

Grow 86 Different Plants in Hydroponics. Kangaroo 


Mason, J. 1993. Growing Herbs. Kangaroo Press, 


Moody, H. 1995. Herbs & Essential Oils : Industries 

with Potential. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Norman, J. 1990. The Complete Book of Spices. R. D. 




Phillips, R. and Foy, N. 1990. Herbs : Over 400 Colour 

Photographs. Pan Macmillan, London. 






Sears, C. 1995. The Easy Way to Sell Drugs. New 

Scientist, Nov. 


O'Neil, Victoria. 

Taylor, R. 1996. Lemon Myrtle : The Essential Oil. 

Rural Research, 172, Spring. 

Taylor, R. 1996. Tea Tree : Boosting Oil Production. 

Rural Research, 172, Spring. 


Industry eg 

Endive in the Home Garden (Vic Agnote) 

Eucalypt Oil from Blue Mallee (NSW Agfact) 

Garlic Growing (NSW Agfact) 

GrowSearch (Qld DPI database) 

Herbs (Vic Agnote) 

Herbs and their Uses (Vic Agnote) 

Mint Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Mint Oils (NSW Agfact) 

Parsley Growing (NSW Agfact) 

Tea Tree Oil (NSW Agfact) 

Tea-tree Oil : Plantation Management (NSW Agfact) 


Australian Essential Oils Association 

Australian Herb Society (Herbology Magazine) 

Australian Organic Herbs Association 

Focus on Herbs (magazine) 



International Herb Growers Assoc. 

Organic Herb Growers Assoc. of Australia (Herb Grower) 

State/Territory Herb Societies 

The Spice Assoc. Australasia 

See Annuals A 10, Bush fruits and Nuts F 29, 

Fruit and nuts F 15, Preface xii, Vegetables M 19 


MANAGEMENT 


Selection 

Herbs are used for perfumes, medicinal remedies, drugs, companion plantings, insect repellents, cosmetics, 

garden edgings and hedges, and cooking; although herbs generally have little food value, they make food tasty. 

An overview of the herb and spice industry is presented by Coombs (1995). Choose varieties with some 

resistance to local problems. Only plant disease-free seed, cuttings and other propagation material. 


Where possible use non-chemical methods of control. Most herbs require rich soils and open sunny, well 

drained sites, some require only morning sun. Herb gardens have many traditional designs, eg authentic knot, 

medicinal, dye, fragrance, everlasting and kitchen. Herbs may also be grown in hydroponic systems, containers 

or in xeriscapes. They grow well with little care, but must be kept weed-free. Herb gardens often need to be 

dug up every few years and replanted. Regular care, trimming, adequate watering in summer (many are 

shallow rooted), fertilising, pruning and weeding, is essential. Avoid overwatering in winter. Some are suitable 

as companion plants. Remove dead leaves and stems. Only use pesticides registered for use on herbs. 

Observe withholding periods. Some herb growers have sought organic accreditation for some of their products 

(enviroherbs) with Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA). 

OTHER PLANTINGS M 33

HERBS 

Postharvest 

Postharvest and quality control procedures have been developed for commercial producers. Both commercial 

and hobby producers are subject to quarantine and therapeutic goods administration regulations. Harvest at 

the correct stage, eg the intensity of flavour and aroma of mint, is dependent on the level of essential oil in the 

plant which is at its maximum at the beginning of flowering. Harvest early in the morning when plants are turgid 

and before any temporary wilting occurs. Cut correctly, eg cut mint with shears or a sickle bar mower, and 

bunch. Storage conditions depends on whether the herb is to be used fresh or dried. Fresh mint after harvest 

should be kept moist and cooled prior to marketing. Dried herbs must be kept dry and may be pounded to a fine 

powder, placed in airtight containers and stored for use later. When herbs are used for food or medical 

remedies, they must be prepared hygienically using the correct dosage rate. Health regulations must be 

adhered to. Many herbs produce lethal poisons, so before using in cooking, for salads or medicinal use, be 

certain of identity and ensure that lethal plants have not been grown by error or that herbs are not 

contaminated with other plants. 

Fig. 408. Light and dark green mosaic (virus) on leaves of 

horse radish (Armoracia rusticana). 

Fig. 409. Fungal leaf spot on horse radish (Armoracia 

rusticana). 

Fig. 411. Pink wax scale (Ceroplastes 

rubens) on bay tree (Laurus nobilis). 

Fig. 410. Rust (Puccinia allii) on chives (Allium 

shoenoprasum). 

Fig. 412. Mealybugs 

(Pseudococcus sp.) on 

(Calendula officinalis). 

Fig. 413. Soursob (Oxalis pers 

caprae) is a perennial weed, 

produces oxalic acid. 

N 34 

OTHER PLANTINGS

House Plants 

Tropical rainforest foliage 


Parasitic 





Grey mould 


Root, crown and stem rots, wilts 


Aphids 

Caterpillars 



Mealybug 

Mites 

Scales 

Non-parasitic 

Algae, liverworts, moss 

Dust 

Environment 

Insects 



People-pressure 

Pesticide, chemical injury 

WEEDS 

Individual house plants are susceptible to a range 

of diseases and pests in the same way that other 

plants are, eg African violets may be affected by 

powdery mildew or mealybugs. House plants are 

also susceptible to non-parasitic problems which 

commonly occur in container plants, eg 

overwatering. The main problems affecting house 

plants are non-parasitic, eg incorrect watering, 

temperature, humidity. See Containers N 19. 


Parasitic 


House plants are remarkably free from virus 

diseases. There are some exceptions, eg poinsettia. 



carotovora) occurs occasionally on soft fleshy 

indoor plants particularly if overwatering occurs. 



Fungal leaf spots are uncommon. Do not 

confuse fungal leaf spots with those caused by 

misting. Avoid crowded blocks of similar plants, 

overwatering, humid conditions, eg bathrooms. 

Move plants to a less humid environment. Do not 

purchase infected plants. Trim out all infected 

leaves. See Annuals A 5. 

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) initially may 

cause spotting of flowers, leaves, stems and 

collars. If humid conditions continue, a grey 

fungal growth develops on diseased parts. Avoid 

overwatering. Move to a warmer area and/or 

improve ventilation. Remove dead plant material. 

Whole plants may need to be discarded. See 

Greenhouses N 22, Fruit F 5. 

Powdery mildews (Erysiphales) develop on 

leaves and stems and can spread rapidly causing 

extensive damage. The most important step is to 

move affected plants to a less humid environment, 

eg remove African violets from the bathroom. 

Severely infected plants should be destroyed or 

badly affected parts of a plant may be pruned out 

and destroyed. See Annuals A 6. 

Root, crown and stem rots, wilts: 

Pythium, Phytophthora, and Rhizoctonia solani 

commonly cause root and collar rots of soft, 

succulent plants, especially in poorly drained 

potting mixes sitting in water and being consistently 

overwatered and overfertilised. Fusarium wilt 

diseases may occur. See Vegetables M 7. 


Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera): Cotton aphid, 

melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) and green peach 

aphid (Myzus persicae) are slow moving, winged 

or wingless, plump, about 2 mm long, green, 

yellow, pink or brown depending on the species 

(Fig. 414). Aphids suck sap from shoots, leaves, 

buds and flowers causing distortion. Leaves may 

dry and shrivel. Nymph skins, honeydew and 

associated sooty mould is found on infested parts. 

Some house plants are very susceptible to aphid 

infestation, eg Aphelandra spp. See Roses J 4. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) of budworms 

(Helicoverpa spp.), leafroller moths (Tortricidae), 

loopers (Chrysodeixis spp.) chew buds, leaves and 

stems but may be well camouflaged and hard to 

find, droppings may give them away (Fig. 415). 

They vary in colour and size depending on the 

species. Leafroller caterpillars are about 18 mm 

long, green and feed between webbed leaves. 

When disturbed they wriggle and move back into 

shelter, fall to the ground or hang suspended by a 

thread. Moths may fly indoors and lay eggs on 

plants, or plants may be purchased with eggs or 

caterpillars on them. Caterpillars can be removed 

by hand. See Annuals A 8, Vegetables M 13. 


are dark brown, about 1.5 mm long, they rasp and 

suck sap from leaves making them look silvery. 

Thrips and dark brown dots of excreta (Fig. 416) 

are found mostly on leaf undersurfaces. If 

practical, increase light intensity, raise temperature 

and lower humidity. See Greenhouses N 24. 


is small, white, about 1 mm long with 2 pairs of 

white wings (Fig. 417), 1st stage nymphs are scalelike. 

Nymphs and adults suck sap, leaves develop 

a sandy mottle. Whiteflies, nymphs, honeydew 

and associated sooty mould may be found on leaf 



HOUSE PLANTS 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) are common and 

serious pests. They are up to 3 mm long, slow 

moving, wingless, flattened, elongate and mealy 

white with short hair-like filaments. They suck 

sap and feed on leaf bases and leaf 

undersurfaces, and are only noticed when they 

are obvious and established (Fig. 418). Honeydew, 

associated ants and sooty mould cause further 

disfigurement. Soft foliaged plants wilt and may 

die. Mealybugs may also infest roots and are 

noticed during repotting. Control can be difficult. 



Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) feed on leaf 

undersurfaces and cause new leaves to curve under. 


Twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) suck sap and 

produce webbing on leaf undersurfaces. Leaves 

become mottled, yellow and fall (Fig. 419). House 

plants, eg umbrella trees and palms, are susceptible 

during winter months especially if artificial heating is 

used and air is dry. Regularly mist leaf undersurfaces 

to prevent the buildup of large numbers. See Beans 


Cyclamen mite (Phytonemus pallidus) distorts young 

leaves, buds and petals, flowers may not open 

properly. Leaf edges may be rolled or curled. 

Growth may be stunted. Cyclamen mite is very small, 

0.25 mm long, and pale brown. Broad mite is smaller, 

broader and moves faster then the cyclamen mite. See 

Cyclamen C 16. 



Soft scales (Coccidae) may infest a wide range of 

house plants, eg ferns and rubber plants. Soft brown 

scale is probably the most common. 


Hemispherical scale (S. coffeae) 



Scales suck sap from leaves and stems, causing poor 

growth, stunting and disfigurement (Fig. 420). 

Severely infested plants can die. Honeydew, ants and 

sooty mould cause further disfigurement. 


Fern scale (Pinnaspis caricis) 

Oleander, ivy scale (Aspidiotus nerii) 


Scale insects may cling to plants for months after 

they are dead. Living scale insects will exude some 

juice when crushed, dead scales become dry and 

chaffy. See Citrus F 39, F 41, Greenhouses N 27. 

Environment 

Acclimatisation of house plants may be necessary. 

Irrigation, fertilising, temperature and light conditions 

for new plants should be carefully considered. 

Dust can be removed by gentle wiping or by spraying 

with water until it runs off. Delicate plants, eg 

maidenhair fern, cannot be cleaned. 

Humidity: 40-50% relative humidity is favourable for 

house plant growth and comfortable for most people. 

Many types of home heating can contribute towards 

low humidity, situations close to radiators should be 

avoided. Low humidity situations can be alleviated by 

placing pots on trays of moist vermiculite, sphagnum 

moss or gravel which act as source of evaporation and 

maintain a moist atmosphere around plants. An 

alternative is to mist foliage every few days with tepid 

water. Plants in groups in a trough are easier to 

manage than single pots in saucers and create a more 

humid microclimate. Too high humidity may occur 

in bathrooms, enclosed verandahs and terrariums. 

Light is required for normal growth and is an important 

factor affecting house plants. Most plants need as 

much light as possible indoors, though direct sunlight 

is not essential and filtered sunlight is usually 

preferable. Where light is limited, flowering plants 

fail to flower and foliage plants are more suitable. 

Some foliage house plants tolerate less light than 

others, eg fruit salad plant (Monstera deliciosa) or the 

cast-iron plant (Aspidistra elatior). Coloured leaf 

forms need more light than green forms. Plants 

reputed to prefer shade still need some light, dark and 

gloomy corners suit very few plants. Plants required 

for decoration where light is insufficient should be 

given periods during the day in a well lit situation. 

Turn plants regularly as their leaves grow towards the 

light. As seasons change it may be necessary to 

change the position of some plants to increase or 

decrease the light they receive. Rubber plants like 

bright light but not direct sun. Direct sunlight causes 

wilting and burning of leaves. Windows facing north 

and west can let in strong sunlight. 

Oedema occurs when plants take up more water than 

they can transpire through their leaves. Leaves or 

stems develop characteristic swellings. Circular 

patterns develop on leaves of Schefflera sp. (Fig. 421) 

White waxy lumps on stems of Hibiscus arnhemensis 

in greenhouses disappear when plants are taken 

outside. See Geranium A 35. 

Temperature: Many of the popular house plants are 

tropical or subtropical in origin, so temperature is 

important. For many plants large fluctuations 

between day and night temperatures can be harmful or 

even fatal. This is one reason why plants often suffer 

in office buildings where the heating is switched off 

during the night, weekends and holidays. Leaves may 

be sunscorched through windows (Fig. 421). 

Non-parasitic 

Algae, liverworts and moss may grow on 

damp surfaces of pots and mixes. Mosses may be 

attractive. See Greenhouses N 27, Turfgrasses 

L 13, L 15. 

Dust is unattractive and interferes with the 

process of respiration and photosynthesis. Clean 

leaves regularly with tepid water to keep them 

breathing properly and increase amount of light 

reaching them. Dust may help spread Rhizoctonia 

(Handreck and Black 1994). 

Plant type 

Cool loving 

plants 

Fatshedera 

Moderate 

temperature 

Dracaena 

Warm 

temperature 

Ficus 

Day 

temperature 

Night 

temperature 

15-18 o C As low as 8 o C 

18-20 o C 10-12 o C 

20-28C o Can fall to 

15 o C 

N 36 

OTHER PLANTINGS

HOUSE PLANTS 

If the mean room temperature range is between 

15-20 o C most known 'house plants' can be grown. 

House temperatures are usually suitable for the 

average house plant. A steady warm temperature 

during the day with a slight fall during the night is 

generally satisfactory. Avoid sharp fluctuations 

in temperature, if you heat your room up each evening 

it might be better to place plants elsewhere. Avoid 

being too close to air conditioners during summer. 

Avoid being to close to open windows, cold draughts 

and gas heaters in winter. Even when windows are 

closed in winter care should be taken with plants on 

window sills. Even with curtains closed behind them 

they are in an environment where temperatures drop 

to near freezing outside. Put newspaper between 

plants and window or move plants. 

Ventilation: A close stale atmosphere is unsuitable. 

They need fresh air but not directly through windows. 

Indirect ventilation though windows in adjoining 

rooms is safest, particularly during cool weather. 

Ventilation can be increased as days become warmer. 

Water: Overwatering is the most important problem 

affecting house plants, especially for beginners (Fig. 

421). Correct watering cannot be defined in terms of 

measured amounts and fixed intervals. Watering must 

be related to the needs of individual plants. Correct 

watering includes using the correct potting mix (if 

it is too fine it may hold too much water or it may 

become compacted) and using water at room 

temperature. During winter stand water overnight 

to allow the chlorine to evaporate and the water to 

reach room temperature. Do not water while the 

soil is still wet from a previous watering, it should 

be allowed to dry out between waterings. When 

watering is required, allow time to wet the mix in the 

container completely, soak the whole root ball well 

and allow any excess to drain. If a plant has been 

allowed to become extremely dry and the potting mix 

has come away from the sides, the whole container 

should be submerged in water and allowed to remain 

there until the bubbles have stopped. Restrict 

watering during the dormant period in winter 

and increase when growth is active in summer. As a 

general rule you can double the number of days 

between watering during winter compared with 

summer. If watering is not reduced during winter 

water will sit in the saucer and rot will soon set in. 

Do not wet the leaves of hairy leafed plants or 

plants that are tightly crowned. Water around pot rim, 

from below by partly immersing the pot in water or by 

wick, eg African violets. Do not allow pots to 

stand permanently in trays of water unless they are 

bog plants. Any water in the drainage tray should be 

discarded. 

Insects: Ants (Formicidae, Hymenoptera) are 

attracted to honeydew secreted by aphids, 

mealybugs, whiteflies and assist the spread of scale 

and other insects. Ants are difficult to control. The 

insect infestations should be cleaned up. 

Occasionally ants nest in containers. When this 

occurs either re-pot the plant or drench pots with a 

recommended insecticide outdoors. See Turfgrasses 

L 8, Trees K 19. Fungus gnats (Diptera) maggots 

are slender, white, translucent, legless, about 5-8 

mm long and feed on decaying fungi in roots and 

damp organic matter. They may leave a tiny slimy 

trail glistening on the potting mix surface. Plants 

lack vigour, leaves may yellow and small roots 

may be eaten off. See Greenhouses N 28, 

Mushrooms M 63. Springtails (Collembola) are 

small white slender active insects mostly < 6 mm 

long, found in soil, around the bottom of pots and 

in water that drains from pots after plants have 

been watered. They are most obvious when the 

soil surface is watered frequently. See Turfgrasses 

L 14. 

Mechanical injury may be caused by children 

or animals, plants in corridors are easily damaged. 


Deficiencies are not common, owing to the 

development of good fertilisers for house plants. 

The main aim is to maintain a steady growth of 

healthy foliage. Use a minimum amount of 

fertiliser consistent with healthy growth. Too 

much fertiliser can lead to a buildup of mineral 

salts in the mix and damage the plant. Guidelines 

for fertilising: Many fertilisers are available for 

house plants, apply according to label instructions. 

Before applying any fertiliser soil should be moist, 

water beforehand and allow plant to drain 

thoroughly before applying the fertiliser. Cease or 

reduce fertilising during winter when the plant is 

not growing. Evaporation of water may cause 

white crusting of salts on the surface of the media 

or pot. 

People-pressure diseases include cigarette 

butts, parties, office workers, children, animals, 

cleaners. Plants in corridors are easily damaged 

by humans brushing past, children breaking or 

playing among them. 

Pesticide, chemical injury: Only use 

fungicides or insecticides labelled for indoor 

plants and follow manufacturer's instructions 

carefully. Aerosols if held too close may freeze 

plant tissue. Clensel and various soaps are 

used. White oil heavily diluted with water may be 

used on leaves of heavy textured plants, eg rubber 

trees. Leaf gloss and polishes should be used 

sparingly, excessive use can cause leaves to turn 

black or yellow and die. Oil sprays may damage 

softer-textured plants such as ferns. Fluoride in 

water may reduce the vase life of cut flowers. 

Fluoride from superphosphate, perlite and some 

peats may cause leaf spotting on Chlorophytum, 

Dracaena, Gladiolus, etc, when grown in soil-less 

media (Handreck and Black 1994). Pollutants: 

House plants may be sensitive to gas, deodorants 

and air fresheners. Gas fumes are toxic to most 

plants. 

WEEDS 

Weeds are not generally a problem, odd ones that 

do grow can be easily removed by hand. 


Beckett, K. A. 1990. The Australian and New Zealand 

Encyclopedia of House Plants. Simon & Schuster, 





HOUSE PLANTS 




Mason, J. 1990. Commercial Hydroponics : How to 






Reader's Digest. 1987. Success with House Plants. 

Readers Digest Services, Surrey Hills, Sydney. 



Nest, NSW. 

MANAGEMENT 



NSW. 


Industry eg 

Care of Indoor Plants (NT Agnote) 

House Plants (Vic Agnote) 

Indoor Plants (SA Adel. Bot. Garden leaflet) 




See Australian native plants N 9, Containers N 20, 

Greenhouses N 28, Interior Plantscapes N 46 

Selection and establishment 

Horticultural requirements: Learn the correct name of house plants then look up/buy one of the many 

books available to check on its proper culture. Choose quality plants of proven species and of good colour. 

Buy house plants only during the warmer months so they are less likely to suffer cold stress during the trip 

home. Buy flowering house plants in the early stages of budding. 

Cultural requirements: Purchase plants to suit the conditions under which they are expected to grow, ie 

match individual plants to the environment. It is not possible here to describe temperature, light, humidity, 

fertiliser, watering, pruning and potting mix requirements of each plant species, the onus is on the owner to 

find out each plant's requirements. Only then will the desired affect be achieved. Plants that prefer shade still 

need some light. Dark and gloomy corners suit very few plants. Plants also need room in which to grow. 

Many flowering house plants, eg African violets, need a lot of light, warmth and humidity to do well. Do not 

overwater, when temperatures drop to near freezing outside, put newspaper between plants and window or 

move the plants away. Plants dislike drafts and like good ventilation and clean air. Fill water container and 

stand overnight. This allows chlorine to evaporate and water to reach room temperature. Potting media 

should be free-draining and slightly acid. Containers should be appropriate for the plant. 

Resistant varieties: Select plants with some resistance to pests and diseases. Some house plants are 

subject to common problems that can be so serious plants have to be discarded, eg Syngonium is susceptible 

to a fungal stem rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata), African violets to mealybugs and powdery mildew in humid 

situations, but many are hardy and suitable for beginners, eg cast-iron plant (Aspidistra). 

Disease-free plants: Inspect new plants for pests, eg mealybugs, mites, scales, and diseases, eg powdery 

mildew, which can be transported on plants. Diseases present at purchase may remain undetected for a 

considerable time. Buy plants and potting mixes from reputable suppliers. 

Maintenance 

Regular inspections: 



Examine house plants every week for problems. Remember, the main problems are 

cultural, when problems do arise try and identify the cause. Do not confuse damage caused to leaves by 

whitefly with that caused by leafhoppers, twospotted mites or thrips. Generally re-pot when there is a fine web 

of roots on the outside of the soil ball after removing the pot, but this depends on the species. Roots of palms 

commonly become too big for the container. House plants can remain in pots for at least 12 months. 

Sanitation: Promptly remove dead leaves and flowers as diseases readily grow on them. Infested or 

damaged shoots can be pruned off. Severely affected plants may have to be discarded. Keep plants clean 

and dusted, regularly misting leaf undersurfaces to prevent the buildup of large numbers of twospotted mites. 

Every few weeks, mist both surfaces of monsteras and similar plants with water and carefully wipe clean to 

remove insect pests and accumulated dust. Mist soft-foliaged plants, eg maidenhair fern, gently with water. 

When seen, caterpillars may be removed by hand and aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies and scales carefully 

wiped off with a damp cloth or cotton bud dipped in methylated spirit. 

Plant quarantine: Avoid introducing infected plants into clean collections. Isolate new plants until certain 

that they are pest, disease and weed-free. 

Pesticides: If it is considered necessary to use an insecticide or fungicide, select one clearly labelled for 

indoor plant use. Garden sprays and dusts should not be used indoors. 

Postharvest 

Throw away house plant: Flowering house plants are more often short term plants. When flowering is 

finished they are replaced. Many flowering house plants, eg African violets, need a lot of light, warmth and 

humidity to do well. Think of these plants as a long lasting bunch of flowers which provide many weeks of 

flowering for a fraction of the cost of cut flowers. Some, eg chrysanthemums, can be planted in the garden. 

Senescence and size: Even in very good conditions, potted plants do not last forever. Some will have to 

be removed if they grow too large, eg Ficus, palms, philodendrons. Rapid growth is not always desirable. 

N 38 

OTHER PLANTINGS

HOUSE PLANTS 


suck sap from new growth. 

Fig. 415. Looper caterpillar (Chrysodeixis sp.) chewing leaves. 

Fig. 416. Greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis) on Araucaria; silvering and tarry 

spots of excreta. 

Fig. 417. Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum). 

Fig. 418. Mealybugs Pseudococcidae). 


(Tetranychus urticae) injury to 

frangipani. 

Fig. 420. Soft scales (Coccidae) clustered on 

Platycerium sp. 

Fig. 421. Environmental problems. Left : Rings of oedema on leaves of umbrella tree 

(Schefflera actinophylla). Right : Leaves showing symptom of water stress and sunscorch. 


HOUSE PLANTS 

Table 8. Symptoms of cultural problems on house plants. 

PROBLEM TOO LOW TOO HIGH 

HUMIDITY 

FERTILISER 

LIGHT 

TEMPERATURE 

WATERING 

Low humidity (prolonged): 

• Plants lose their lustre, wilt, leaf 

edges become brown and crinkly, 

lower leaves may yellow and fall. 

Too little fertiliser: 

• Leaves pale green, lower leaves may 

yellow and drop. 

• New leaves are small or growth 

stops. 

• Plants may be stunted. 

Too little light: 

• Spindly growth. 

• Leaves on new stems may be pale 

and small. 

Too cold: 

• Leaves wilt and curl, they may 

become entirely discoloured and fall 

off; other problems may cause similar 

symptoms. 

• Some leaves become olive green in 

colour. 

• Sometimes leaves turn white. 

Frost: 

• Many house plants are sensitive to 

frost, so exercise care when taking 

outdoors for cleaning or when leaving 

close to windows during winter. All 

Ficus species are sensitive to frost. 

Too little water: 

• Soil at top of pot always dry. 

• Leaves may wilt or may curl under. 

• Lower leaves may yellow and fall; 

may also be caused by natural 

senescence and other problems. 

• Edges and tips of leaves are brittle 

and brown (Fig. 421). 

Water on leaves: 

• Plants with hairy or fuzzy leaves 

develop ugly white or brown sunken 

areas if cold water is left on their 

leaves. After the water evaporates a 

salt residue is sometimes left which is 

unsightly. 

• Encourages bacterial and fungal leaf 

diseases. 

High humidity: 

• Symptoms include the development 

of oedema, powdery mildews and 

other fungal and bacterial diseases. 

Too much fertiliser: 

• New growth is weak, susceptible to 

pests and disease. 

• Plant may wilt readily. 

• Stems may be elongated. 

• Few or no flowers; flowering plants 

may have excessive amount of 

foliage. 

• White crust of salts on the soil 

surface or on outside of clay pots 

• Leaves touching rim of pots may wilt, 

rot and fall. 

• Green scum (algae). 

Too much light: 

• Leaves tend to curl under. 

• New leaves may be undersized. 

Sunscorch (plants in north and west 

facing windows which let in strong 

sunlight): 

• Wilting and sunscorch (burning) of 

leaves. 

• Yellow or brown spots appear on the 

leaves, often within the leaf margins 

(Fig. 421). 

• Leaves on one side may brown. 

• Cacti tend to turn yellow. 

• Shaded pattern on leaves. 

Too hot (sudden rise and fall of 

temperatures): 

• Leaves wilt, yellow, brown and fall off 

(leaf fall may also be caused by other 

problems). 

• Plant tissue may become glassy and 

translucent. 

Too much water: 

• Soil at top of pot is always wet (note 

though, people often water the plant 

before they bring it in for advice). 

• Algae and fungi on mix. 

• Fungus gnat larvae and possibly 

other insects, such as millipedes. 

• Fungal and bacterial stem and root 

rots, plants may become mushy and 

dark in colour. 

• Oedema on plant leaves. 

• Leaf edges and tips are soft to touch 

and brown/grey (Fig. 421). 

N 40 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Hydroponic 

systems 


Parasitic 


Lettuce big vein virus 


Bacterial leaf and flower bight 


Waterborne fungal diseases 


Non-parasitic 

Algae 

Environment 



Root death 

Hydroponics is the science of growing plants 

without soil. Land plants normally obtain 

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other 

nutrients from the soil. In hydroponics the 

nutrients are added to the water, enabling 

fertilisers to be used more efficiently. 

Plants grown hydroponically are generally 

susceptible to the same pests and diseases as their 

naturally grown counterparts in soil. However, in 

hydroponic systems, some soilborne diseases are 

eliminated, but others may become more difficult 

to control. Pests and diseases affecting the foliage 

often develop quickly because of the intense nature 

of production. 

With the development of nutrient film techniques 

(NFT) where plants are grown with their roots 

bathed in a flowing stream of nutrient solution, it 

was considered that the spread of waterborne 

diseases might be a major problem. Rootinvading 

organisms in the nutrient solution would 

be able to recirculate for long periods and the 

pathogens in the system would multiply and spread 

quickly. Despite these forebodings, the main 

problems associated with hydroponic systems 

have proved to be the non-parasitic problems of 

nutrition and physiology rather than with parasitic 

diseases and pests. 

The soilborne fungal diseases which can pose a 

problem in hydroponic systems, include those 

bacteria and fungi which need an aquatic 

environment to thrive, eg Olpidium (which 

spreads lettuce big vein virus), Pythium and 

Phytophthora spp. Fusarium diseases are not such 

a problem, an exception being Fusarium 

oxysporum var. dianthi, which affects carnation. 

Bacteria, which also need an aquatic environment, 

may cause diseases of carnation and lettuce. 

Parasitic 


Plants are susceptible to the same virus diseases 

they would become infected with if grown under 

other systems. Most virus diseases of annual and 

herbaceous plants presently grown hydroponically 

may be spread by vegetative propagation, 

insects, eg aphids, leafhoppers and thrips, or the 

use of infected seed. Some are also spread in plant 

sap during plant contact or on hands and tools. 

These virus diseases are controlled in the same 

way as they would be on plants grown in soil, ie 

by the use of virus-tested seed and propagation 

material, control of insect vectors and strict 

hygiene. Whether a hydroponic crop becomes 

infected with virus and virus-like diseases depends 

on whether the crop is susceptible or not. 

Lettuce big vein virus affects lettuce causing 

enlarged, transparent veins. Infected plants 

mature slowly and are generally unattractive with 

small coarse hearts and upright, ruffled leaves. 

Plants infected early are stunted. Overwinters in 

water supplies, the fungus is common in soil, 

zoospores carrying the virus occur in river water 

and dams. This is the only well known virus 

disease spread by a soil/waterborne fungus 

(Olpidium brassicae). The motile fungal zoospores 

penetrate growing roots and transmit the virus 

particles into the plant. Symptoms are favoured 

by air temperatures < 20 o C. Higher temperatures 

mask symptoms (plants are still infected). 

Outdoors, lettuce big vein is common in winter 

and is favoured by wet, heavy soil. The most 

effective way of control is the use of resistant 

varieties. Do not introduce seedlings already 

infected with lettuce big vein virus to hydroponic 

systems. Disinfect all water used in hydroponic 

systems. See Water N 90. 


Plants get the same bacterial diseases they would 

get under other growing systems. Diseases 

affecting the aerial parts of plants should be 

controlled in the same way as if they were grown 

under other systems, eg the use of cultural methods 

(environmental control), use of resistant varieties, 

and pesticides. 

Bacteria causing plant diseases generally have 

motile cells which means that they can swim and 

therefore be spread in water. Many bacterial 

diseases including those that can attack aerial parts 

are also spread by water splash and irrigation, 

accidental introduction of infected crop debris and 

soil, the use of infected seed and the movement of 

machinery and people through the crop. It is 

important to know how a particular disease is 

spread within the hydroponic system. 

Bacterial leaf and flower blight 

(Pseudomonas andropogonis) affects carnation 

causing pale brown spots with watersoaked 

margins on leaves, stems, calyces and flowers. 

Spots coalesce to form large irregular lesions. 

Bacteria invade the vascular tissues via the lower 

leaf blades. Overwinters in infected propagation 

material and crop debris. Spread by water splash, 

by movement of machinery and people through 

crops and by nutrient solutions in hydroponic 

systems. Favoured by warm, wet weather. See 

Carnation A 16. 


HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS 


Waterborne fungal diseases: Water 

moulds or aquatic fungi (Oomycetes) cause 

waterborne diseases and include Phytophthora, 

Pythium and Olpidium (transmits lettuce big vein 

virus), which produce motile spores (zoospores) 

that can swim through water. The zoospores are 

actively attracted to growing root tips. Once a 

plant root is infected, fungal zoospores are freed 

from infected plant material into water to reinfect 

the growing root tips of neighbouring plants. 

Table 9. Examples of waterborne diseases. 

Crop 

Waterborne diseases 

Capsicum Pythium root rot 

(Pythium aphanidermatum) 

Carnation Bacterial leaf and flower blight 

(Pseudomonas androgonis) 


(Pseudomonas caryophyli) 

Fusarium wilt 

(Fusarium oxysporum var. dianthi) 

Lettuce 

Lettuce big vein virus 

Bacterial soft rot/varnish spot 

(Pseudomonas spp.) 


(Xanthomonas campestris pv. vitians) 

Pythium root rots 

(Pythium spp.) 

Strawberry Pythium root rot 

(Pythium coloratum) 

Spread: By spores swimming, by flood or 

drainage water, nutrient solutions, by machinery 

and people moving through crops. 

Control: Providing hygiene is excellent, 

hydroponic systems of all types are remarkably 

free from disease problems. Train staff in nursery 

hygiene procedures and the reasons for them. 

Sanitation: Disinfect media, containers and all 

equipment (including machinery) to prevent the 

introduction of bacteria and fungi into the 

nutrient solution, because once introduced, they 

can multiply rapidly. The system, whether noncycling 

or re-cycling, must be discarded 

between crops or after a disease outbreak and 

flushed with water or nutrients regularly, as 

recommended. Containers and solutions are 

either discarded after 1 crop or thoroughly 

disinfected with steam or chemicals. Rockwool 

may be used for 3-4 years providing it is 

pasteurised before re-use. All dead plant 

material must be promptly removed to prevent 

the development of grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea). To prevent the spread of diseases 

work within 'clean' areas first then in 'dirty' areas 

and do not smoke in hydroponic areas. 

Biological control: All plants have a natural 

population of fungi and bacteria on their roots, 

whether grown in soil or hydroponics. Such 

fungi include Alternaria, Botrytis, 

Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizopus, 

Trichoderma. Bacteria include Bacillus and 

Pseudomonas. The source of many of these 

organisms is probably the water supply and air 

currents. Their presence is known in many 

instances to have a beneficial effect, many 

release substances that stimulate plant growth 

and some may be antagonistic to disease 

organisms. Biological control treatments with 

microorganisms which might normally inhabit 

the root zone would increase yields (Hangar and 

Price 1983) and are being researched. Materials 

are also exuded from plant roots which form a 

good growth for bacteria and fungi, the majority 

of which are beneficial rather than detrimental. 

Plant quarantine: Do not introduce contaminated 

water, infected plants, seed, soil, organic matter 

or plant debris. 

Resistant varieties: This is the most effective 

control especially for Fusarium diseases. 

Disease-free planting material: Planting stock 

must be free from pathogens and placed in 

disease-free solutions. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Water 

disinfection treatments include filtration, ultraviolet 

light sterilisation, disinfectants. Growing 

media treatments include pasteurisation. Gravel 

and other substrates for hydroponic systems 

must be stored on disease-free surfaces, do not 

allow water to accumulate under gravel. 

Pesticides: In theory an effective method of 

controlling diseases in hydroponic systems is to 

add systemic fungicides to the nutrient solution. 

However, it is not easy to control root diseases 

in nutrient film techniques as roots do not have 

any protective cuticle and most fungicides a 

have an immediate, and usually harmful effect 

on the root cells. Many fungicides have been 

screened but most have proved to be phytotoxic, 

even some of those known to be the least 

phytotoxic. Care should be taken when applying 

fungicides to foliage to avoid run-off. No 

chemicals are presently registered for use in 

hydroponic systems and so a permit has to be 

obtained to use them in this way. Low dosages 

required to avoid phytotoxicity means that fungi 

may be only suppressed and not killed. There 

could be a buildup of diseases and resistant 

strains may develop. Fungicides are rarely 

needed to control root diseases and when they 

are needed the rate of application is only about 

1/10th of the rate needed on soils. Research has 

shown that adding 100 ppm soluble silicon to 

nutrient solutions may reduce Pythium root rot 

on cucumbers (Cherif et al. 1994). 


Insect pests are not a major concern of 

hydroponic systems. Pests which do occur are 

those that would normally attack the plant under 

conventional growing systems, eg aphids 

(Aphididae) (Fig. 422), greenhouse thrips 

(Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis), greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and 

twospotted mite (Tetranychus urticae). They are 

controlled in a similar manner. Biological 

control: Twospotted mite predators and whitefly 

parasites may be used for biological control and 

where these fail, recommended miticides and 

insecticides may be used. Where insecticides are 

used to spray plants, care must be taken not to 

spray all pesticides to run-off as chemical entering 

a nutrient solution will be taken up by the roots. 

N 42 

OTHER PLANTINGS


Tomato aphids have been eliminated after 3 days 

in NFT by the addition of prescribed insecticide to 

the nutrition solution. The technique of adding 

systemic insecticides to the nutrient solution is 

attractive, however, in practice it has not proved to 

be very successful. Often residues in fruit and 

vegetables have been too high and some are too 

phytotoxic, eg dimethoate. Pest management 

programs must be prepared. 

Non-parasitic 

Algae may grow in the solution or on the medium 

and are a common problem. They are unattractive 

and compete for nutrients and air, and can cause 

blockages in pipes and orifices. Algae need light, 

moisture and nutrients in order to flourish. Growth in 

the nutrient solution is best controlled by 

eliminating places where light may enter the medium. 

Growth on the surface of the medium is best 

controlled by keeping the surface dry, by using 

subsurface irrigation and by choosing a medium that 

is coarse enough not to attract moisture to the surface. 

See Greenhouses N 27, Turfgrasses L 13, Water N 91. 

Environment: Aeration: Oxygen is essential 

for the normal functioning of roots. Where plants are 

grown with their roots permanently immersed in 

liquid, as in a tank system, some form of solution 

aeration is necessary. If it is not provided, serious 

nutritional or root disease problems may occur. Other 

environment requirements, eg light and 

temperature, must be provided as necessary. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities are the 

most common problems and are usually due to 

incorrect media preparation, changing and recharging, 

flushing and watering (Fig. 423). Hydroponic 

systems require extra care during hot weather to 

avoid roots drying out too much between waterings. 

Soft, dead areas on leaves may indicate nutrient 

toxicity (Fig 424) or waterlogging, brittle dead areas 

on leaf edges and tips usually indicate water stress. 

Collar burn is caused by a gradual accumulation of 

salt at stem level just above the level of the solution 

or aggregate. It occurs where the nutrient solution on 

the surface evaporates and a heavy deposit can cause 

localised salt burn which if severe will ringbark the 

stem and cause the plant to wilt. This can be 

controlled by flushing with water. Collar burn may 

predispose plants to grey mould (Botrytis spp.). 

Pesticide injury: No pesticides are presently 

registered specifically for use in hydroponic systems. 

Permits or work orders have to be obtained. Both 

insecticides and fungicides are used in hydroponic 

systems but many may injure plants. Aerial parts of 

plants may be sprayed. 

Root death: As a plant grows from a seedling to 

full maturity, changes occur in root behaviour and 

appearance. A critical stage of development occurs at 

the early fruiting stage (the first pick) when the plant 

carries its heaviest fruit load for the entire growth 

cycle. At this stage roots often cease growth and over 

50% may degenerate and die, and as a consequence 

there is reduced nutrient and water uptake. Under 

warm greenhouse conditions, the plant temporarily 

wilts and stops growth. This phenomenon is called 

'root death' and is known to occur in a number of 

plants with an indeterminate growth behaviour, eg 

cucumbers, whether grown in soil or solution. At this 

stage they are very susceptible to root diseases, eg 

Pythium spp., but in most instances active root 

growth resumes and plant recovers in a few weeks. 


Carruthers, S. 1993. Hydroponic Gardening. Lothian 


Cherif, M., Menzies, J. G., Ehret, D. L., Bogdanoff, C. 

and Belanger, R. R. 1994. Yield of Cucumber Infected 

with Pythium aphanidermatium When Grown With 

Soluble Silicon. HortScience 29(8):896-897. 

DeKorne, J. B. 1993. The Hydroponic Hot House : Low- 

Cost, High-Yield Greenhouse Gardening. Kangaroo 


de Vaus, P. 1988. Vegetables for Small Gardens and 

Containers. Hyland House, Melbourne. 

Handreck, K and Black, N. 1994. Growing Media for 



Hangar, B. and Price, T. 1983. Diseases in Hydroponic 

Systems and their Management. Aust. Hort., May. 

Harris, D. 1988. Hydroponics : The Complete Guide to 

Gardening Without Soil. Holland Press, London. 

Huett, D. O. 1993. Managing Nutrient Solutions in 

Hydroponics. HRDC. Available from NSW Agric., 

Tropical Fruit Research Station, Alstonville, NSW. 

Mason. J. 1990. Commercial Hydroponics : How to 



Moody, H. 1995. Home-made Hydroponics. Aust. Hort., 

Nov. 

Moody, H. 1996. Advisory Service Assists Growers. 

Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Mursion, J. A. and Hardy, S. 1992. What is Hydroponics 

and What are the Costs? New England, Hunter and 

Metropolitan Region, NSW Agric., Sydney. 

NSW Agric. Home Study Program, Production Series. 

Commercial Hydroponic Production. Continuing 

Education, CB Alexander Agric. College, Tocal, 

Paterson, NSW 2421. 

Resh, H. M. 1987. Hydroponic Food Production : A 

Definitive Guidebook. 3rd edn. Woodbridge Press, 

Santa Barbara, California. 

Resh, H. M. 1993. Hydroponic Tomatoes for the Home 

Gardener. Woodbridge Press, Santa Barbara, 

California. 

Romer, J. 1993. Hydroponic Crop Production. 


Sundstrom, A. C. 1989. Simple Hydroponics for 

Australian and New Zealand Gardeners. Viking 


Sutherland, S. K. and Sutherland, J. F. I. 1996. 

Hydroponics for Everyone. Hyland House, 

Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Hydroponics (Vic Agnote) 

Hydroponics : Plants without Soil (WA Farmnote) 

Hydroponics : Growing Plants without Soil (NSW Agfact) 

Publications on Hydroponics (Vic Agnote) 

Using Chlorine to Control Diseases of Hydroponic Crops 

(NSW Agfact) 


Australian Horticulture (Hydroponic Features) 

Australian Hydroponic Assoc. : Commercial Hydroponics 

in Australia : A Guide for Growers 

Australian Hydroponics Conference Proc. 

Hydroponics : Reference & Product Guide 

Hydroponics International 


Growing Edge 


Live Information Line for Hydroponic Advice (University 

NSW 1902 263 405) 



Practical Hydroponics (book catalogue available from 

PO Box 225, Narrabeen NSW 2101) 

State/Territory Associations 

Tropical Hydroponics 

Companies eg 

Accent Hydroponics 

Australian Hydroponics, Melbourne 

See Soil N 82, Water N 92, Water plants N 94 

MANAGEMENT 



Selection 

Advantages of hydroponic systems includes no weeds, reduced disease and pests, conservation of 

water, better control of crop nutrition and the ability to grow crops anywhere, eg where no suitable soil exists or 

where soil is contaminated with disease. Culture is intensive so only a small space is required, reduced 

transportation costs to market, heavy work is reduced, yields are maximised and nutrients conserved, the 

environment is more easily controlled, root zone chemistry is easier to control, new plants easier to transport, 

reduced transplant shock. Many plants are propagated hydroponically before potting up for export (no soil 

adhering to roots, eg camellia). Disadvantages of hydroponic systems include the initial high cost, skill and 

knowledge needed. Diseases and pests can spread quickly through the system, beneficial soil 

microorganisms are normally absent, plants react quickly to both good and bad conditions, and available plant 

varieties are not always suitable. 

Select the crop, seek advice, obtain references: Commercial crops grown hydroponically include 

ornamentals, eg carnations, chrysanthemums, gypsophila, roses, fruit, eg strawberries, vegetables, eg 

cucumber, herbs, lettuce, tomatoes, zucchini. Many additional species can be grown by home gardeners 

(Mason 1990). Advisory services are available (Moody 1996). 

Select the hydroponic system: The main techniques used include plants anchored in a range of solid 

media which also retains the nutrient solution between irrigation and plants which are suspended with their 

roots in a tank of water and oxygen from air is bubbled through the solution. These techniques have mainly 

been replaced by a third method whereby plants and their roots are supported in special channels set at an 

incline of about 1 in 50. A film of water less than 2 mm deep runs continuously down a channel to a sump 

from which it is pumped again to the upper end, known as nutrient film technique (NFT). Nutrient solutions 

may be recycled or non-recycled. 

Select the water/nutrient systems: Water used includes town or dam water, top up systems, recirculating, 

flood or drainage water. Depending on the source it may require treatment. 

Select cultivars with some resistance to common problems and ensure that the planting material is diseasefree. 


Nursery hygiene: Follow a program of strict nursery hygiene which includes disease prevention measures. 

There are many leaflets available outlining procedures required. These include the use of disinfectants for 

water and substrate treatments and the observance of quarantine procedures to prevent the accidental 

introduction of soil or organic matter. Sanitation measures include removing all dead plant tissue to prevent 

diseases, eg grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), from growing on it, spreading to the living plants. Biological 

control programs can be used on hydroponic crops. 

Pesticides: Generally pesticides are not registered specifically for use on hydroponic systems. Permits or 

work orders may have to be obtained. 

Pest management programs can be prepared for a particular crop. 

Postharvest 

These are usually similar to those required for a conventionally grown crop. Some hydroponic crops, eg lettuce, 

are marketed with their roots attached so they may have a longer shelf life. 

Fig. 422. The usual diseases 

and pests of a crop, eg aphids 

(Aphididae), may infest 

hydroponic systems. 

Fig. 423. Nutrient deficiencies and 

toxicities are common. Dept. of Agric., 

NSW. 

Fig. 424. Salt toxicity causes soft, 

brown leaf tips and edges. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

N 44 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Interior 

plantscapes 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 


Individual interior plantscape plants are subject to 

pests and diseases in the same way as their 

naturally grown counterparts outdoors, eg 

Aphelandra is very susceptible to aphid 

infestation. As a group, interior plantscape plants 

are subject to the same pests and diseases as house 

plants. See House plants N 35, Greenhouses N 22. 

However, parasitic pests and diseases are being 

seen less often on interior plantscape plants, 

probably as a result of improved production 

techniques, and the good pest and disease research, 

which has been conducted in recent years on plants 

intended for use in indoor gardens. Soil-less 

media, tissue culture techniques designed to reduce 

the transfer of disease, new fungicides being used 

in nurseries producing indoor plants, plant spacing, 

irrigation and handling procedures in the nursery 

and the demands of the industry for quality 

material, have all played a part. The most serious 

problems affecting interior plantscapes are nonparasitic, 

followed by insect and mite pests. 

Parasitic 

Virus and virus-like diseases: Plants used in 

interior plantscaping are remarkably free from virus 

and virus-like diseases. 

Bacterial diseases: Very occasionally bacterial 

soft rot (Erwinia spp.) occurs on soft fleshy plants. 


Fungal diseases: Fungal leaf spots (various 

species), grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), powdery 

mildews, root, crown and stem rots, and wilts 

are uncommon on plants in commercial interior 

plantscapes. Plants are selected and grown in such a 

way as to minimise their development. 

Insect and allied pests: Aphids (Aphididae), 

caterpillars (Lepidoptera), greenhouse thrips 

(Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis), greenhouse 

whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum, longtailed 

mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus), millipedes 

(Diplopoda), mites (Acarina), eg broad mite 

(Polyphagotarsonemus latus), cyclamen mite 

(Phytonemus pallidus) and twospotted mite 

(Tetranychus urticae), scales (Hemiptera), slaters 

(Porcellionidae) are more common than fungal 

diseases. If routine leaf and stem cleaning procedures 

do not provide satisfactory control, plants should be 

replaced. 

See Greenhouses N 22, House plants N 35. 

Non-parasitic 

Compared with house plants, those used in interior 

plantscapes suffer additional non-parasitic 

problems. 

Acclimatisation: Improper procedures may cause 

rapid deterioration of plants (Sams 1996). 

Complaints: Employees working beside hired plants 

may feel that they 'own' the plants and complain when 

the plants look 'unwell'. 

Containers may be damaged and need replacing. 

Despite being labelled by the plant hire company, 

they may be stolen. 

Dust: Plants may become dusty if leaves are not 

regularly cleaned. 

Environment: Plants are required for almost 

impossible situations and reliable information about 

the environmental tolerance and acclimatisation 

practices of the various species used indoors, is not 

always readily available. The indoor environment 

typically includes low lighting and overwatering. 

Light (artificial, natural or sunlight) is the major 

determinant of plant growth and development, 

influencing many plant processes, eg photosynthesis, 

chlorophyll synthesis, stomatal behaviour, pigment 

formation, etc. Light intensity can be measured and 

the recommended light intensities for maintenance of 

selected foliage plants followed. If a plant is 

maintaining its leaves, the light intensity is adequate. 

If it is too low, leaves may yellow and drop and 

growth may be leggy. However, often light is 

stressful not because of the low intensity but because 

of the opposite. If too bright, leaves may scorch. 

Light intensity guides are now available. Potting 

media may be highly aerated and well drained. This 

can lead to plant health problems, especially when the 

plants are watered sparingly and infrequently. 

Widespread drought stress and soluble salt toxicities 

develop because of heavy fertilisation in the nursery 

and subsequent drought stress indoors. Test water 

for pH, conductivity, concentration of disinfectants, 

nutrients, heavy metals and pesticides. Temperatures 

may be too hot or too cold (plants may be sun 

scorched). Sudden rises or falls in temperature due to 

sun coming in through windows or heating being 

turned off at weekends, causes problems. Watering 

is probably the major problem of indoor plants, eg too 

much or too little. The need to greatly lessen the 

water and nutritional content of soils in which interior 

plants are being maintained, is generally recognised. 

Humidities vary between too high or too low. See 

House plants N 36. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities are not so common 

today. Slow release fertilisers provide a more regular 

supply of the necessary nutrients. If necessary media 

tests, pH and tissue testing may be carried out. 

People-pressure: Plants may be mechanically 

damaged by people, parties. Cigarette butts, tea 

leaves, food and other rubbish may be thrown on 

plants and coconut fibre. Branches may be broken 

and leaves pulled off. 

Pesticide/chemical injury is not common. Materials 

recommended for cleaning leaves and controlling 

pests on plants in offices and other interior 

plantscapes at the present time, are of a low hazard to 

both humans and the plants themselves. Some 

cleaning agents may cause dead leaf tips and black 

leaf spots. If more effective chemical treatments are 

required plants are replaced. The atmosphere in 

buildings which may contain > 200 potentially volatile 

organic chemicals, especially in air-conditioned 


INTERIOR PLANTSCAPES 

offices, affect some species. Some indoor plants, eg 

Kentia palm and spathiphyllum, are susceptible. Air 

pollution tolerance index (APTI) may be measured by 

measuring basic leaf parameters, eg chlorophyll 

content, etc. Preliminary results indicate that this 

could be used as an early warning system for indoor 

air pollution (HRDC Research report 1994-95). 

Foliage plants are considered to have the ability to 

remove small particled substances from indoor air 

(Wood 1989). 

Others: Plants in interior plantscapes are susceptible to 

the same problems as greenhouse and house plants. 

See House plants N 36, Greenhouses N 28. 


HRDC. 1994-95. Research Report. HRDC, Gordon, 

NSW. 

Jacobi, K. and Wond, L. 1991. Cool Solutions for 

Transport. Aust. Hort., Dec. 

Lake, J. 1994. Interior Plantscaping with Australian 

Rainforest Plants. Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Manaker, G. H. 1987. Interior Plantscapes : 

Installation, Maintenance and Management. 2nd 

edn. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 

Moody, H. 1990. Export of Australian Natives as Indoor 

Pot Plants. Aust. Hort., Dec. 



Nest, NSW. 

MANAGEMENT 

Reader's Digest. 1984. Complete Guide to Indoor 

Plants. Reader's Digest Services, Surrey Hills, 

NSW. 

Sams, B. 1996. Acclimatising Indoor Plants. Aust. Hort., 

Sept. 

Sandham, J. and Morley, B. 1993. Biological Control in 

Large Conservatories. Aust. Hort., November. 

Steele, J. 1992. Interior Landscape Dictionary : The A 

to Z of Interior Landscapes. Van Nostrand 

Reinholdt, NY. 

Wood, R. 1980. Plants Help Cure the 'Sick Building 

Syndrome'. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Worrall, R. 1986. Native Plants for Interior 

Landscaping. Aust. Hort., April. 



NSW. 


Associated Landscape Contractors of America 

(Interior Plantscape Division) 

Safe use of Pesticides in InteriorScapes (1990) 

The Professional Defence (1989) 

Australian Horticulture (Interior Landscape Feature) 


Interior Landscape Industry 

Interior Plant Hire Assoc. 

Interior Plantscape Technology (Business) 

Interior Plantscaping Conferences 

Interior Plantscapes Assoc. of Australia 

Landscape Contractors Association of NSW 

NSW Nursery News 

Queensland Interior Plantscape Assoc. (QIPA) 

See Greenhouses N 28, House plants N 37, 

Nurseries N 56, Preface xii 

Most commercial plant hire business have an indoor plant services manual which outlines the procedures for 

their particular business. Interior plantscape associations provide a range of information and services. 

Selection 

Horticultural requirements: Select plants with a proven performance indoors. Plants must look good, 

survive indoors and fit a niche. They must be relatively easy and cheap to propagate, grow and maintain. 

Plants must be uniform in size, have good symmetry, be easily handled, transported and held in glasshouses 

prior to use. Leaves must be easily cleaned. Plants must be able to perform well in high or low light 

conditions and at air temperatures of 10 o C or above. Either select plants for the given light intensity and 

temperatures or change them to suit the plants chosen. Choose plants of different colours, textures and 

shapes with attractive hardy foliage. Tropical and subtropical herbaceous and woody foliage plants are the 

most important and predominant plant group used in interior landscaping. There must be provision for 

appropriate transport, conditions must not be too cool or too hot. Specifications: Usually there are strict 

specifications for plants acceptable for particular indoor display contracts. For example, plants must have 

symmetry, a good healthy appearance and high density, they must be 1-5 m in height, with a good root to 

shoot equilibrium. Foliage must begin approximately 150 mm above soil level. Plants must have some 

degree of flexibility as they often have people bending them, walking or brushing against them. Spines, 

sharp points should be absent from the plant. Variegated foliage may be used for special effects. 

Flowering plants are generally often not suitable because spent flowers look messy and plants require more 

care than can be provided in a fortnightly visit. Plants must be disease and pest-free, of good shape and well 

balanced, and must be mulched with coconut fibre and the plastic pot hidden. 

Exotic plants 

Chamaedorea elegans (parlour palm) 

Dieffenbachia spp. 

Dracaena spp. 

Howea forsteriana (kentia palm) 

Monstera deliciosa 

Philodendron spp. 

Rhapis spp. (lady palms) 

Spathiphyllum spp. 

Scindapsus aureus (devil's ivy) 



Australian native plants 

Acmena brachyandra (lilly-pilly) 

Alpina sp. (native ginger) 

Schefflera actinophylla (umbrella tree) 

Caldcluvia paniculosa 

Davidsonia pruriens var. jerseyana (Davidson's plum) 

Ficus benjamina (weeping fig) 

Giessios benthamii 

Piper nova-hollandiae 

Syzygium francisii, S. moorei (lilly-pillies) 

Resistant varieties: The main problems affecting interior plantscape plants are non-parasitic 

environmental problems. Without question, most of the 'sick' plants noted in indoor gardens result from the 

complexities of cultural management. Indoor plants are not meant to 'grow', the aim is to maintain them in 

good health for as long as required. Root decline can be a common problem and is caused by the various 

N 46 

OTHER PLANTINGS

INTERIOR PLANTSCAPES 

stresses and imbalances brought on by suboptimal interior environments. Make a list of the relevant 

information for each species, eg cultural requirements (light, temperature, watering), any disease or pest 

problems, particular features, eg suitability for hostile sites. Only then will desired affects be achieved. The 

main method of pest and disease control in this industry is the selection of species and varieties which have 

some resistance to the common problems affecting such plants, eg low light, fluctuating temperatures, 

greenhouse thrips, mealybugs and twospotted mites. New varieties are constantly available for trial. Parlour 

palm (Chamaedorea elegans) is susceptible to twospotted mites and thrips. Lady palms (Raphis spp.) are 

relatively problem-free. As a rule of thumb, plants with light coloured foliage or variegation prefer high light 

areas, eg Ficus, and plants with dark colour foliage prefer low light areas, eg Philodendron. 

Disease-free planting material: Most plants are purchased. Plants should be free from diseases and 

pests, eg aphids, mealybugs, scale, cobwebs, dust, and be of the required specifications. Some interior 

plantscapers propagate and recycle their own plants. 

Direct sale to clients in offices: Advice on general care should be provided when the sale is made. It may 

also be necessary to provide design advice on arrangements of plants to achieve a desired effect. 

Establishment 

Train staff in their responsibilities, eg maintaining, arranging and changing displays and in public relations. 

Acclimatisation: Indoor gardens are usually composed of large, container-grown plants that have been 

produced quickly by means of unlimited amounts of water and nutrients, high temperatures and optimal 

lighting. When brought indoors, these plants are often difficult to maintain in a healthy state, even those that 

have been 'conditioned' for a time by reducing the amount of light and the frequency of watering and fertilising. 

Good interior gardeners usually provide transitional environments and care programs for such plants, 

proper acclimatisation is still not widely practiced (Sams 1996). 

Maintenance 

Equipment required: Basic equipment includes 9 L watering can, 1 L spray bottle, garbage bag, feather 

duster, 5 L bucket, secateurs, diary, complete company uniform. Containers must have adequate drainage 

and be of appropriate material and size. Recommended media must be used. Planters must suit the needs 

of the plant and the environment and not be too expensive. They must be readily available, strong, durable 

and light in weight. Some indoor plants are grown hydroponically. 

Frequency: Fortnightly maintenance treatment is the usual regime. 

Service: The time spent on each plant, eg salvaging or replacing, trying to eliminate pests and diseases, has 

to economically balanced with the need for maximum aesthetics. Service visits are aimed at preventing 

problems. Watering is the main reason for the fortnightly visit. If a plant is to remain for a long time, water as 

little as possible. Water plant in most jobs once per fortnight. Fertilising: It depends on the type of plant and 

the fertiliser used. Some fertilisers, eg Aquasol or Thrive , may need to be applied every fortnight slow 

release ones only every few months. Pruning is carried out at different stages in an indoor plant's life and for 

different reasons, eg acclimatisation, maintenance, natural target pruning and trimming. Leaf trimming is 

best avoided, it spoils the appearance of plants, wastes time and scissors may carry disease. Rather than 

trimming browned leaf tips or edges, the complete stalk should be removed. Staking may be necessary. 

Clean leaves with mild soap and water or other products, eg Clensel . Wipe a few leaves on each plant on 

each visit. If the plant is kept clean in this way drastic action should not be necessary. Oils may clog the 

stomates and cut out one-third of the available light. Containers should be wiped clean if necessary, the 

appearance of the cleanest plant is spoiled by a dirty pot. 

Unhealthy plants: Identify the problem. Commonly observed environmental maladies, eg tip browning, leaf 

yellowing, are often non-specific, possibly resulting from a variety of causes. See House plants N 40. Know 

and recognise problems associated with individual plants. Palms: It is difficult to avoid brown tips as they 

appear for varied reasons including their inability to adjust to lower humidity or wet soil. Removing the whole 

branch with the brown tip is often necessary. Ficus: Heavy leaf fall may occur due to a change in light 

intensity and rapid changes in temperature or twospotted mite and mealybug infestations. Maintenance of 

constant and correct temperature is essential; 25 o C favours rapid growth; Ficus will recover more quickly from 

being too dry than too wet. Ficus do not like dust on their foliage so regular cleaning is advised. Nutrient 

deficiency may also result in the fall of yellow leaves. Spathiphyllum: Leaf tips may brown due to the 

inability of lower leaves to acclimatise, or the plant is too wet. Pesticides: If leaves are kept clean by regular 

wiping, no other treatments in situ may be necessary. The only ones permitted for use on plants in offices are 

those registered for use on indoor plants, eg soap, they should only be used if necessary. Replace plant if 

necessary. Eventually many healthy plants will need repotting. 

Postharvest 

Plants which are beyond their life as an interior plant are either thrown out, recycled for compost, sold 

cheaply to the public, or trucked to nurseries for re-potting and regrowth. 


Manure 

(animal) 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

Contaminants 

Flies 


WEEDS 

Manure is any substance produced by animals or 

plants that can be used as fertiliser. Most manure 

consists of animal waste mixed with straw or hay, 

though it may be pure animal waste. A special 

kind of green manure is obtained from plants 

(legumes) that are ploughed into the soil and 

allowed to decay. 


Parasitic 

Soil fungal diseases if present, eg Fusarium and 

Rhizoctonia, may invade manure on pasture and 

spread disease if collected. Nematode diseases 

may be spread in manure from animals feeding on 

infested plants, eg stock feeding on potatoes 

infested with root knot nematode (Meloidogyne 

spp.) spread it in their manure. 

varying degrees of success to bury manure of 

introduced animals. Manure may be pasteurised 

during composting. Insecticides are registered for 

control of some pests. See Compost N 17. 


Nutrient value: Animal manures contain only small 

quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 

which vary with the kind of animal, its diet and the 

amount of straw or litter mixed with it, and whether it 

is fresh, dried or partly decayed. In large amounts 

manures are excellent for improving the texture and 

structure of soils and improving its ability to 

absorb water. 

Fresh manure: Generally manures should not be used 

fresh, but aged while moist for several months or 

composted. Otherwise roots, leaves and stems may be 

scorched due to its high pH or high nutrient content, 

eg fresh poultry manure has a very high nitrogen 

content. 

Manure containing a lot of straw may cause a 

temporary nitrogen deficiency because bacteria 

decomposing the straw have first call and plants may 

suffer nitrogen deficiency. Extra nitrogen may be 

added, or a complete fertiliser containing at least 10% 

nitrogen plus some phosphorus and potassium. Seek 

advice if in doubt about what to do. 

WEEDS 

Manure in the field is easily contaminated with 

windblown seeds of annual and perennial weeds 

from surrounding areas. It may also be invaded by 

rhizomes of perennial weeds such as couch. 

Non-parasitic 

Contaminants: Animal manure may be 

contaminated with hormone fatteners, pesticides 

and other products used to treat animals and 

buildings. If manure is composted or stacked 

prior to use, these do not seem to be a problem. 

There are now restrictions on the use of certain 

hormones on some animals. 

Flies (Diptera) are serious nuisances to humans 

and domestic animals and may breed continually 

or overwinter as pupae in manure from exotic 

animals. Nuisance flies include the common bush 

fly (Musca vetustissima) which settles on backs and 

faces, the house fly (M. domestica) which carries 

many diseases including typhoid and dysentery, 

and the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) which 

bites horses, cattle, and humans to suck blood. 

Flies lay eggs in manure (and other decaying 

refuse) which hatch into maggots, which when 

fully grown pupate, adult flies finally emerging. 

The biological control of animal manure by dung 

beetles has been researched in Australia by 

CSIRO. Introduced dung beetles are used with 

MANAGEMENT 




Melbourne. 




Tyndale-Biscoe, M. 1990. Common Dung Beetles in 

Pastures of South-eastern Australia. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Boron in Agriculture (NSW Agfact) 

Dung Beetles Versus Bushflies : Restoring the Balance 

(CSIRO Entomology Leaflet) 

Environmentally Friendly Beetles : Turn Manure into 

Profit (CSIRO Entomology Leaflet) 

Seedling Maggots (NSW Agfact) 

Liming Materials (NSW Agfact) 

Molybdenum Deficiency in Crops (NSW Agfact) 

Organic Fertilisers : An Introduction (NSW Agfact) 

Piggery Effluent as Fertiliser (Vic Agnote) 

Vegetable Cropping with Fowl Manure (Vic Agnote) 

Zinc Deficiency in Field Crops (NSW Agfact) 

See Compost N 17, Potting mix N 65 



Manure is not generally suitable for potting mixes, but may be used in composting and for including in soils. 

Fumigants are registered for treating manure for fungal diseases (damping off, Fusarium and Rhizoctonia, 

nematodes and fly maggots), insecticides are registered to control some insect pests. Effective pasteurisation 

is necessary to guarantee freedom from pests and diseases. 

N 48 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Mulches 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

Aesthetics 

Leaves, prunings 


Oxygen, irrigation 

Slopes 

Temperature 

Toxins 

WEEDS 

Mulches aid water retention and conservation. 

They increase soil microorganisms and nutrients, 

water filtration and aeration. They reduce soil 

water evaporation, soil temperature fluctuations, 

weeds, mud splash onto plants, compaction and 

erosion (ARK 1995). There is an Australian 

Standard (AS 95301) for mulches. 


Parasitic 

Most materials used as mulches do not spread or 

increase pest and disease problems, but there are 

some exceptions. Composted garden waste, if 

improperly composted (cool areas of < 65 o C on 

the surface), or contaminated chipped garden 

waste, may spread diseases and pests. Whether 

they are a problem of not depends on the source of 

the composted or chipped material and where it is 

to be applied. Dutch elm disease has spread in the 

USA via chipped trees. 

Bacterial and fungal diseases may be introduced 

when contaminated compost is used as a mulch, eg 

alternaria blight (Alternaria) of tomato, and 

soilborne diseases (Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, 

Sclerotinia, Sclerotium). Sclerotia of Sclerotinia and 

Sclerotium may be distributed with compost on to 

crops. When infected crop debris remains on the soil 

surface as a mulch, as in minimum tillage systems 

which are used to avoid soil erosion, diseases such as 

Fusarium and Rhizoctonia may increase on 

susceptible plants. Armillaria and some wood rot 

fungi, if present, and conditions favour their 

development, may grow on pine or eucalypt mulches. 

Nematode diseases may be introduced to areas when 

contaminated compost is used, eg root knot nematodes 

(Meloidogyne spp.). 

Parasitic plants, eg seeds of broomrape (Orobanche 

spp.) and dodder (Cuscuta spp.), may be introduced 

on straw when it is transported from one area to 

another for use as a mulch or feed. 

Insects and allied pests: The buildup of natural 

organic mulches may provide an ideal environment 

for the development of some insect pests, eg garden 

weevil (Phlyctinus callosus), which can breed and 

hide during the day in surface organic mulches and 

emerge at night to feed on susceptible plant foliage. 

Pine chips are attractive to termites. Slaters breed 

and shelter under mulches. 

Snails and slugs may become a major problem if 

susceptible ground cover plants are used as a living 

mulch. Coarse bark acts as a deterrent. 

Non-parasitic 

Aesthetics: Choose mulches to blend with the 

landscape and suitability for the site. 

Leaves, prunings: Most leaves from 

deciduous trees may be used as a natural mulch in 

situ or composted, there are exceptions. Leaves 

from Australian plants, eg eucalypts and wattles, 

take longer to decompose. Disease-free prunings 

may be coarsely shredded and used as a mulch. 


Decomposing mulches: Mulches of more succulent 

organic materials, eg turf clippings, animal manures, 

compost and hay, supply considerable nutrients as 

they decompose. Young plants to be mulched with 

woody organic materials, sawdust and pine bark often 

benefit from application of extra nitrogen to make up 

for the nitrogen used by microorganisms to 

decompose the mulch (nitrogen drawdown). 

Mature plants do not need any extra nitrogen, as a 

reduction in growth rate will hardly be noticed. 

Mycorrhizae (symbiotic fungi) occur in soil under 

deep litter and are essential for adequate growth of 

some plants. See Trees K 18. 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: There is more nitrogen 

fixed by free-living nitrogen-fixers in a soil under 

mulch than there is in the same soil when unmulched. 


pH: Some mulches, eg mushroom compost, are quite 

alkaline. 

Oxygen, irrigation: Mulches must have some 

means of allowing oxygen, rain or irrigation to 

reach the soil and the roots. 

Mulches of sheet plastic must have holes in them or 

must cover part of an area only. An alternative is to 

use a woven material. 

Organic mulches: Avoid organic mulches that mat 

down into a water-shedding layer preventing 

moisture, warmth and oxygen reaching plant roots, eg 

lawn clippings used before they have dried out. 

Paper mats down, reducing evaporation, it also 

becomes messy due to holes made in it to allow water 

to reach the soil. Sawdust mulches tend to rapidly 

decompose and compact. Mulches that do pack down 

may be mixed with a coarser material. Compaction 

can be reduced by occasional raking and then 

watering. Organic materials > 100 mm thick, reduce 

the effectiveness of rain or irrigation by absorbing 

most or all of the water before it reaches the roots. 

Wet the soil or mix before applying a mulch. In dry 

areas where plants will not be irrigated, too 

thick a mulch could well lead to plant roots getting 

little of the rain that does fall. In such situations 

mulches should be only 20-60 mm thick at the most 

and relatively coarse in texture (Handreck 1994). In 

areas which experience seasonal dry periods, 

mulches will help conserve water only if they are thin 

enough to allow even light rain to reach the soil, the 

finer the mulch the shallower its depth of application 

(Handreck 1994). Research suggests that optimum 

depths range from 20-30 mm for fine compost, 40-60 

mm for chipped tree trimmings, to 80 mm for bark 

nuggets. Thicker mulches will not significantly 

reduce soil temperature or evaporation of water. In 

wet areas, with plenty natural rainfall and little need 


MULCHES 

to conserve water, mulches may prevent soil from 

drying out and organic mulches may reduce plant 

growth in soakage areas. 

When to irrigate: When mulch is present there can be 

difficulty in knowing when to irrigate. Regularly 

check underneath. 

Slopes: Mulches applied to the lower parts of 

sloping areas allow them to remain wetter than 

those higher up the slope. Plants in such areas 

may die from root rotting diseases; small plants, 

eg bulbs, may gradually be submerged over a 

period of time. Certain types of mulches, eg large 

bark mulches, do not readily pack down. 

Temperature 

Air temperatures: In colder areas organic 

mulches have a tendency to increase the negative 

effect of frost on nearby plants, ie they may increase 

frost damage. 

Soil temperatures: Black plastic mulches on the 

soil surface can increase growth rates in early spring 

but in warmer weather high temperatures can lead to 

excessive transpiration and may later kill roots. Black 

plastic is not recommended as a mulch. Clear 

plastic mulches are used for solarisation to kill 

nematodes and fungi in the top centimetres of the soil. 

Organic materials make ideal summer mulches, 

roots grow right up into the moist, cool surface layer 

of the soil, however, during late winter and early 

spring, because of lower soil temperatures, plants 

grow more slowly than do unmulched plants. 

Mulches > 80 mm do not significantly reduce soil 

temperature. 

Toxins 

Some mulches, eg fresh pine bark and some 

sawdusts, which contain phenols may inhibit the plant 

growth for a few weeks. If applying around newly 

planted trees and shrubs, they should be detoxified by 

moist ageing for a few weeks, otherwise wait until 

plants are well established. See Potting Mix N 65. 

Pesticides: Do not use plants or other materials 

treated with herbicides or other pesticides for 

mulching, eg clippings from treated lawns or bark 

from areas treated with persistent herbicides, unless 

pesticide residues are no longer present. 

Others: Phytotoxic materials and dog droppings 

spread in mulch, are potential health hazards. 

WEEDS 

Most mulches reduce the numbers of weeds 

growing in an area. 

Weed seeds: Mulches are especially effective against 

annual weeds which only reproduce by seed. 

Many weed seeds do not germinate under a mulch, or 

if they do, the seedlings die before they can reach the 

light. Those that do struggle through are weakened 

MANAGEMENT 

and easy to remove by hand or controlled by spot 

spraying with herbicides. When compost containing 

weed seeds (due to improper composting or aerial 

contamination) is used, there can be a large increase 

in weed populations. Some mulches, eg hay and 

straw, may carry seeds of a range of weeds including 

those of parasitic plants, eg dodder (Cuscuta spp.). 

Perennial weeds: Mulches are not so effective in 

controlling perennial weeds, eg emerging shoots of 

nutgrass can pierce through many mulches including 

black plastic and continue to thrive in mulched areas. 

It can only be eliminated by herbicides. Where 

perennial weeds are a problem they are best 

eradicated prior to laying the mulch and 

consideration may be given to laying a weed mat 

under the proposed mulch. Any perennial weeds 

which persist can then be easily removed physically 

or with an appropriate herbicide. When compost 

containing bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers or cut up 

roots of perennial weeds is used as a mulch, there can 

be a large increase in weed populations. 


Agmedia. The Garden Advisor : Expert Advice for the 

Australian Home Gardener. cur. edn. Bookman 


ARK Australia. 1995. The ARK Mulch Report. Sydney 

Water, Sydney. 



Capital City. 

Campbell, S. 1991. The Mulch Book. rev. edn. Storey 

Pub. Pownal, Vermont, USA. 



Melbourne. 

Handreck, K. 1994. Mulches : A Contribution to Their 

Effective Use. Australian Plants, Vol. 17, 362. 




Holliday, R. 1994. Organic Mulches : Some Observations 

on their Effect. Australian Plants Vol.17:359. 

Lake, J. 1997. Sugar Cane Mulch Assists Water 

Conservation. Aust. Hort., April. 

Moody, H. 1995. Maximum Mulch : Minimum Waste. 


Neal, J. C. 1992. Plan Before You Plant. Golf Course 

Management, May. 

Roads, M. J. 1989. The Natural Magic of Mulch. 

Organic Gardening Australian Style. Greenhouse 

Pubs., Elwood, Vic. 

Saunders, F. 1996. Removing the Dangers in Mulch and 

Compost. Aust. Hort., Oct. 


Industry eg 

Garden Mulching (Vic Agnote) 


Actew, Canberra. 

American Horticulturist 

Ark Mulch Report, Sydney Water 


See Compost N 17, Soil N 80, Xeriscape N 95 



Mulch is generally considered to be beneficial. There is a continually increasing range of mulching materials 

available, some of which are quite expensive. Select one that suits the situation, eg formal garden, rose bed, 

vegetable garden or container. The thickness of the mulch will depend on the material used. Consider the 

advantages and disadvantages of the particular mulch prior to purchase, if in doubt seek advice. 

N 50 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Nurseries 

NURSERY HYGIENE 

1. Legislation 

2. Site and layout 

3. Structures 

4. Growing media 

5. Water 

6. Light, temperature and wind 

7. Nutrients 

8. Propagation material 

9. Pests, diseases and weeds 

10. Wastes 

11. Personnel 

12. Nursery surrounds 

13. Retail garden centres 

14. Records, management 

NURSERY INDUSTRY ACCREDITATION 

QUALITY ASSURANCE 

NURSERY HYGIENE 

Management programs: All production nurseries, 

whether applying for nursery accreditation or quality 

assurance or not, should have in place nursery 

hygiene procedures. Nursery hygiene and nursery 

accreditation schemes (Anon. 1994a, Bodman and 

Forsberg 1992) contain management programs similar 

to those designed for managing any other group of 

plants or situation, eg hydroponic systems or roses 

(Kerruish 1990). 

Losses from soilborne diseases in nursery stock 

was one of the main reasons for the development of 

nursery hygiene programs (Goss and Harrison 1979). 

Such diseases are spread in soil and water. Nursery 

stock is an ideal method of spreading pests, disease 

and weeds from place to place. The customer 

purchases it and takes the problems with them. Some 

schemes aim to control specific diseases. In WA, one 

of the aims of Nursery Industry Accreditation 

Scheme, Australia (NIASA) is to prevent 

Phytophthora spread. 

Types of plants being grown: Although the pests, 

diseases and weeds in a nursery to some extent reflect 

the types of plants being grown, nearly all production 

nurseries are capable of spreading certain types of 

problems, eg weeds in containers. Cactus 

nursery stock may also spread Phytophthora, 

scales, twospotted mites and possibly other problems. 

Nursery stock taken for display elsewhere may 

become infested and introduce pests when taken back 

to the nursery, eg African violets may become 

infested with cyclamen mite and lavender with 

carmine mite. 

Diseases, pests and weeds: Diseases and pests 

affecting specific plants should be listed and 

described. General nursery diseases, pests and 

weeds which affect a wide range of nursery plants 

should also be listed and described (Mathias 1995a). 

Pests and diseases of some plants in nurseries 

may only be serious on nursery stock. On planting 

out disease is minimal, eg rust on birches and grey 

mould on ferns. 

1. LEGISLATION 

• Horticultural stock and nurseries acts. The 

main provisions of these acts include 

registration of plant resellers, labelling of 

plants, and maintenance of records. 

• Quarantine acts and plant diseases acts 

regulate the movement of plants into and 

within Australia and may stipulate control 

measures. 

• Pesticide acts, chemical acts, hazardous 

substances acts, occupational health and safety 

acts, dangerous goods acts, duty of care and 

Australian standards regulate the handling, 

storage and use of pesticides. 

• Clean water acts control pollution of 

waterways. 

• Other acts and codes of ethics. 

2. SITE AND LAYOUT 

Choosing a site for the nursery: A new nursery 

should be sited in an area which is only slightly 

sloping, appropriately drained and not subject to 

waterlogging or flooding during heavy rain, strong 

winds, temperature extremes and heavy weed 

contamination. An adequate supply of good quality 

water must be available. There must be an ability to 

recycle waste water eventually. 

Design of nursery: Design should facilitate 

operations. Conveniently locate the various work 

areas, eg office, area for receiving and storage of bulk 

materials. To avoid cross contamination, the 

area for potting mixes and fertilisers should be quite 

separate from the areas for treatment of potting mixes, 

storage of treated mixes and propagation and growing 

on areas. Parent stock plants should be isolated 

from cutting/seed propagation areas which should be 

separate from growing on and field production areas 

to ensure no casual transmission of pests and diseases 

(Goss and Harrison 1979). Areas should be located in 

such a way that there is an easy flow-on from one 

area to the next with access ways and drive-ways of 

adequate width for easy movement of equipment and 

to minimise spread of diseases, pests and weeds. 

Vehicle access in some nurseries is restricted to 

essential deliveries and loading areas located to 

minimise risk of contamination by outside soil. 

Design of individual areas: Each area should be 

designed according to recommendations (Anon. 

1994a). Field grown material should be planted to 

minimise pest and disease problems and facilitate easy 

maintenance and good disease, pest and weed control 

practices. Drainage should prevent waterlogging 

which would favour root rotting fungi. Continual 

production of similar plants in field areas should be 

avoided. Some form of crop rotation is beneficial and 

sufficient area should be allowed for this. Space 

plants to prevent physical damage due to crowding of 

roots and foliage and to minimise disease problems 

associated with high humidity and restricted air 

movement. Row spacing should allow easy access for 

disease, pest and weed control and ensure all plants 

can readily be inspected. Allow sufficient room for 

plants to grow without crowding later on. 


NURSERIES 

3. STRUCTURES 

Nursery structures should be suitable for the 

purpose intended and in good condition. They 

should be capable of sustaining the growth of 

plants for the required period and reduce risk of 

introducing pests and diseases. The number and 

size of structures for plants is important for records 

and to assist in evaluating a nursery's level of 

production. Specialist nurseries require equipment 

and techniques appropriate to their operation. 

Bench and floor surfaces: Pots should not be placed 

directly on soil. There should be good drainage 

beneath pots to ensure there is no buildup of drainage 

water which will assist the spread of disease from pot 

to pot. Do not use 2-tier benches as drainage from the 

upper level will contaminate the lower deck. If 

general hygiene is good and the nursery is free of 

soilborne pathogens, then drainage from pot to pot is 

of little importance. Suitable bench surfaces 

include wire mesh, eg aluminium, galvanised steel. 

Unsuitable bench surfaces include solid bench tops, 

wooden benches lined with plastic (where pots stand 

on a solid surface). Surfaces beneath benches should 

be concrete or screenings and drained to ensure no 

buildup of waste water. Suitable ground level 

container areas include galvanised welded mesh 

over concrete; 50-75 mm of blue metal, gravel or 

other types of screenings over soil; sloping (well 

drained) concrete or bitumen. Screenings should be 

free-draining and the sub-surface sloped to ensure all 

free water flows away from pots. Specially 

designed plastic decking (with bumps) to collect 

any run-off water and raise pots of the ground, can be 

laid over soil or other surfaces. It probably acts as a 

barrier for soilborne diseases present in degraded 

gravel, soil layers, etc, underneath. Irrigation run-off 

is not contaminated with soil. Roots are air-pruned 

when they grow out of drainage holes. Unsuitable 

ground level container areas include poorly 

drained concrete and bitumen floors; impervious weed 

mat (where pots stand on a solid surface) which allow 

drainage water to flow from diseased plants and be 

taken up by adjacent plants through drainage holes. 

Woven weed mat may not allow free drainage and 

may cause transfer of diseases as puddles of water 

build-up on the surface. Plant roots may grow out of 

the drainage holes and penetrate the mat contacting 

contaminated soil beneath. If water standing around 

pots is taken up by capillary action, media remains 

wet and provides ideal conditions for soilborne 

diseases. Capillary matting is only acceptable if 

hygiene is of the highest standards and no soilborne or 

waterborne disease organisms are present. Black 

plastic is acceptable only if placed over a well 

graded, and compacted surface. 

Shade cloth or plastic/glass structures must be in 

suitable condition and the degree of shade offered 

appropriate for the plants beneath. 

Working areas: Cutting preparation areas should 

have impervious benches, eg of steel or laminex, 

which can be washed down regularly with 

disinfectants . Some disinfectants may damage steel 

top benches where they remain in contact for long 

periods. Suitable floor surfaces include concrete or 

bitumen. The floor of propagation areas should be 

suitable for frequent washing down with disinfectants, 

eg concrete or bitumen. 

Cuttings growing areas include raised heated beds 

with concrete or screenings on the floor, ground level 

beds with screenings surface for standing cuttings, or 

wire mesh on concrete (drainage). The cuttinggrowing 

area should be set up to provide good 

drainage beneath raised beds or have a suitable 

drainage system beneath ground level beds. The 

comments above for cutting preparation areas should 

be considered for cuttings growing areas. The level of 

hygiene should be of the same high standard. 

Transplanting or potting areas: The type and 

condition of benches and floor surfaces in 

transplanting areas should be as outlined above to 

ensure the same standards of hygiene and 

management as for propagation areas. 

Storage areas: Clean and new containers should 

be stored in a clean dry area, to ensure they remain 

clean and free from disease and pest organisms that 

may be introduced by contact with soil, used potting 

media or used containers. Disinfect used containers, 

tools, secateurs, benches and floors. 

4. GROWING MEDIA 

Composition: The components in a potting mixture 

should allow for appropriate drainage (but still be 

capable of holding moisture) and nutrient balance. If 

the media or growing media ingredients are purchased 

from a reputable or accredited source, then no detailed 

assessment may be required. Ingredients must be 

appropriately mixed. Soil/media testing for 

nutrient compositions, etc, and diseases is considered 

necessary at some stage in the process. pH (acidity 

and alkalinity) and EC (electrical conductivity) 

measurements should be ongoing in the nursery. 

Sterilising media: Media for potting must be 

pasteurised or be composed of ingredients that are 

guaranteed free from pests, diseases and weed seeds, 

ie obtained from an accredited reputable source. 

Some potting mixes are guaranteed to be weed-free. 

Sand and peat sometimes contain disease 

organisms, eg peat, may contain Chalara and 

Pythium and sand, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. Soil 

and some compost components in mixes should 

be routinely treated either by pasteurisation, 

fumigants or fungicides. Other treatments include 

sterilisation by steam, electricity, microwave, 

solarisation (Anon. 1994a). Pasteurisation by heat 

(minimum 60 o C for a minimum of 45 minutes, all 

mix heated to 60 o C) is favoured because it mostly 

only kills disease organisms and does not create a 

'biological vacuum'. Prevent recontamination of 

guaranteed disease, pest and weed-free mixes or of 

treated mixes. Avoid transferring contaminated 

growing media and soil between growing areas by 

cleaning and disinfecting tools, boots and machinery 

prior to their use at different locations. Avoid 

importing infested soil, clean up debris, eg leaves, 

avoid placing pots on bare soil, destroy infected 

plants, wash and clean equipment. Transport soil and 

roots in sealed containers and burn or dispose of in 

industrial waste collections. See Potting mixes N 64, 

Soil N 80. 

Recycling of growing media: Used potting mix 

should not be re-used unless treated as above and 

stored to prevent recontamination. 

Media storage: Mixes should not be stored for long 

periods before use; mixes incorporating slow release 

fertiliser should be used within 7 days of mixing. 

Store guaranteed pest-free media and treated 

media so that it remains free from contaminants. 

N 52 

OTHER PLANTINGS

NURSERIES 

Suitable storage areas should: 

• Be constructed for ease of regular cleaning, 

washing and disinfection between loads 

• Be a concrete structure with a concrete floor and 

covered to prevent contamination. Metal or plastic 

bins, etc, may also be used. Use permeable covers 

as plastic covers prevent escape of gases from the 

mix and may contribute to excessive buildup of 

heat 

• Separate from used media/containers 

• Away from soil contamination 

• Well drained and free from contamination by 

drainage water. The storage area should be raised 

or positioned to prevent drainage water from 

entering and contaminating media 

Sterilising tools and equipment: Clean and 

disinfect regularly, eg by dipping in 70% methylated 

spirits or soaking in 2,500 - 5,000 ppm chlorine. 

Sterilising footwear: Provide disinfectant footbaths 

at the entrance to all clean areas. 

Signposting clean areas: Clean areas should be 

labelled and hygiene requirements displayed. 

5. WATER 

Irrigation water is a potential source of disease 

organisms. The plants being grown and the source 

of the water determine whether treatment is 

necessary. Mains supply and bore water (taken 

from below 3m) are usually free of disease 

organisms. Ground water from dams, creeks, 

soaks, streams, lakes or recycled waste water 

including nursery run-off (Mathias 1995b) must be 

treated to remove or destroy organisms such as 

Phytophthora and Pythium. Any techniques employed 

must be regularly tested for their effectiveness. 

Treatments for contaminated water include: 

Chlorination (minimum of 2 ppm residual chlorine) 

and/or filtration to 5 microns (a pre-filter in the 

system may be an advantage). Ultraviolet light is 

also used to treat water. Slow sand filters are used 

overseas (Barth 1996) for treating recycled water. 

Where hoses are used for irrigation, nozzles should be 

kept off the floor at all times. Store treated water 

correctly to prevent recontamination. 

Waste water may be contaminated with a wide 

range of soilborne and waterborne plant disease 

organisms and contain fertilisers and pesticides as 

well. 

Irrigation patterns and wetting patterns achieved, 

should ensure consistent growth of plants and efficient 

use of water. 

Water testing is included in accreditation assessment 

of an nursery. Iron precipitation, acidification and 

alkalisation of water is sometimes necessary. 

See Water N 90. 

6. LIGHT, TEMPERATURE AND WIND 

Provide correct cultural conditions (light, 

temperature and moisture) to ensure optimum and 

continuous growth. Provide shelter from wind, 

temperature extremes (sun, frost) and humidity. 

7. NUTRIENTS 

Nutritional programs should be appropriate for the 

purpose (quantity, rate etc) to ensure continued growth 

and development beyond sale. Mycorrhizae should be 

added as recommended (Galea and Poli 1992, Handreck 

and Black 1994). See Trees K 18. 

8. PROPAGATION MATERIAL 

Plant quarantine: All plant material brought into the 

nursery should be isolated from healthy stock for at 

least 3 weeks and treated with suitable pesticides. 

Plants brought in from other nurseries either as rooted 

cuttings or stock plants may be a threat to a nursery's 

own stock. Even though they look healthy at purchase 

or reception, they may still be carrying disease. 

Resistant varieties: Where practical, select cultivars 

with some resistance to major diseases and pests. 

Parent stock plants must be true-to-type and have 

desirable horticultural qualities. Some are 

certified to be of a certain quality. Repeated 

propagation from parent stock plants may deplete 

essential nutrients. They are often only fertilised 

with NPK but may also need calcium, boron and other 

nutrients which are essential for root development in 

cuttings. The stock plant itself may not have dieback 

but the next generation of plants may suffer calcium 

or other deficiencies. There is thus potential for 

dieback even when calcium has been supplied in the 

potting mix. Nitrogen rich parent plants may 

inhibit rooting in cuttings taken from them. Plants 

continually raided for cuttings should be analysed 

(usually leaf analysis) once per year. The viability 

of seeds may diminish rapidly. Some plant 

provenances (place of origin of seed) may have 

superior resistance to diseases and pests. See 

Eucalypt K 65, Seedlings N 70, Trees K 19. 

Disease-tested planting material: Parent plants 

may be a source of disease. If certified 

pathogen-tested stocks are available they should 

be used. Certified seed and nursery stocks 

guaranteed true-to-type and free from specified 

pathogens are available for some plant species. If 

certified material is not available carefully select 

propagating material (seed, spores, corms, bulbs, 

rhizomes, cuttings) from disease/pest-free stock 

maintained in a healthy condition. Parent stock 

plants may be grown in containers where they can be 

kept protected by regular spraying for disease and 

pests and replaced on a regular basis to ensure that 

soilborne problems do not develop. It is difficult and 

sometimes impossible to maintain plants in the open 

ground in a completely clean condition. In WA, 

'Cuttings should only be taken from healthy plants. 

Cuttings of susceptible host plants must not be taken 

from plants in areas where Phytophthora cinnamomi 

or other Phytophthora species are known to occur or 

are suspected of occurring. Cuttings should be taken, 

wherever possible, from at least one metre above 

ground level to minimise risk of splashed and 

dustborne disease organisms including Phytophthora 

spp.' (NIA of WA, 1990). Plant material which is free 

from disease on purchase can become contaminated if 

it is left on ground which people, vehicles or 

animals use. See Seeds N 74. 

Treatment of propagation material: To take 

cuttings and other propagation material use clean 

disinfected secateurs, eg bacterial canker of stone 


NURSERIES 

fruit, is spread on secateurs. Cuttings may be treated 

with either a fungicide or sodium hypochlorite though 

for some plants, damage may occur. Seed may be 

treated with hot water or chemicals to eradicate 

internal and external diseases. Seeds are often treated 

prior to purchase with fungicides and insecticides to 

protect them against damping off diseases and soil 

insect pests after planting out (Kerruish 1990). 

9. PESTS, DISEASES AND WEEDS 

Pest status 

Plants in the nursery must be maintained free from 

diseases, pests and weeds until sold to growers, 

retail garden centres or for export. Depending on 

the plants grown, different nurseries may be 

troubled with different pests and diseases. General 

pests and diseases are described by Mathias 

(1995a). Make a list of present and potential 

diseases, pests and weeds within your nursery and 

train staff to recognise them. Tomato spotted wilt 

(TSWV) may become an important greenhouse 

disease after the introduction of an important 

vector, western flower thrips (Frankliniella 

occidentalis). Thrips management would become 

important for virus control in greenhouses. 

Bacterial diseases, eg crown gall, leaf spots, soft 

rots. See Vegetables M 5. 

Fungal diseases: Soilborne diseases include 

Phytophthora (Fig. 425), Pythium, Sclerotium, 

Sclerotinia, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Chalara, 

Cylindrocladium. See Vegetables M 7. Downy and 

powdery mildews, rusts and grey mould (Botrytis) are 

also common. 

Nematode diseases, eg foliar nematodes 

(Aphelenchoides spp.). See Vegetables M 10. 

Insect and allied pests especially aphids, 

caterpillars, eg lightbrown apple moth, corn 

earworm and native budworm, mealybugs, mites, eg 

broad mite, twospotted mite, scales, thrips, eg 

greenhouse thrips, plague thrips and western flower 

thrips, whiteflies, eg greenhouse whitefly, poinsettia 

whitefly; soilborne insects, eg black vine weevil 

(Otiorhynchus sulcatus), black fungus gnats or sciarid 

flies (Sciaridae). 

Snails and slugs, eg common garden snail (Helix 

aspersa). See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic problems, eg root bound stock, 

liverworts and mosses. 

Weeds: All areas in the nursery should be as free as 

practicable of weeds. Propagating areas, standing 

areas, in-ground growing areas and saleable plants 

should be free from weeds and weed seeds. Weeds 

should be controlled when immature and certainly 

prior to seeding. 

Monitoring 

A system for monitoring diseases, pests and 

weeds must be in place. Their diagnosis must be 

confirmed. Decisions must be made regarding the 

availability and suitability of possible control 

methods. The results of any treatment must be 

assessed and recorded in terms of both its 

effectiveness and phytotoxicity. 

Control 

Pest management programs are available for some 

pests, eg for mealybug, twospotted mite. 

Cultural methods: Plants should be free from any 

physical or nutritional disorder and be of consistent 

and even quality. Saleable plants should be well 

presented, correctly labelled and in suitable 

containers. Plants that have been treated with 

growth regulators should be capable of growing to 

full potential after sale. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy all diseased plants 

and dead plant material. 

Resistant varieties may be the only practical method 

of control. 

Biological control: Many agents are available, eg 

mealybugs, scales, twospotted mite. 

Plant quarantine: As for propagation material; 

exporting nurseries must conform with Australian 

Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) guidelines and 

liaise with AQIS when for inspections. 

Disease-free planting material: As for propagation 

material. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Sticky yellow 

boards to trap whiteflies and monitor thrips, etc. 

Pesticides: Storage, handling and use of pesticides 

must comply with Commonwealth and 

State/Territory legislation, eg Agricultural & 

Veterinary Chemicals Act, State/Territory Pesticide 

Acts, Occupational Health and Safety Acts, etc. 

Prepare a manual of safe procedures for the 

nursery (Anon. 1994b, Kerruish 1990). Operator(s) 

must be appropriately trained in legislation, read the 

label, pesticide absorption, protective clothing, 

environment, application, safe storage, handling and 

use of pesticides, effectiveness of pesticides, and 

initially be supervised by an experienced operator. 

Spray equipment should be in good condition and 

set up for the intended purpose and appropriate for the 

size and layout of the nursery (knapsacks may be 

inefficient if large areas are to be sprayed). Sprayers 

for herbicides should not be used for insecticides and 

fungicides as risk of damage is great. There should be 

an adequate storage of equipment in a separate area. 

Personal protective clothing should be 

appropriate to the hazard of the pesticide used. 

Showers and change areas must be provided. 

Protective clothing includes: 

• Respirator, air-stream helmet etc. 

• Face shield 

• Overalls or waterproof clothing 

• Rubber boots 

• Impervious gloves suitable for spraying 

Only registered pesticides are to be used. 

Some special permits are issued. 

Requirements for storage areas include: 

• Appropriate Hazchem labelling should be displayed 

on the pesticide store and throughout the nursery. 

• Sufficient pesticide should only be purchased for use 

within 2 years. 

• Containers should have an original undamaged label 

with purchase date. Material safety data sheets 

(MSDSs) should be accessible for all pesticides 

stored. 

• Locked, well-ventilated, insulated, fire-resistant 

storage area. 

• Facilities for weighing solid materials and 

measuring liquids with adequate ventilation 

preferably by an exhaust fan. 

N 54 

OTHER PLANTINGS

NURSERIES 

• Isolation from other buildings if substantial stocks 

are held. 

• Protected from moisture and flooding. 

• Large storage areas should have door sills (bunding) 

to retain spills. 

• Other items include a fire extinguisher. 

Withholding/re-entry: Minimum ventilation and 

re-entry times after ventilation, should be enforced 

before handling sprayed plants or working in treated 

greenhouses. If sprayed plants must be handled 

within these times then staff should wear the full 

protective clothing worn during the application. 

Depending on the pesticide used, it may be necessary 

for staff handling treated plants or media to wear 

protective gloves to prevent skin contamination for a 

longer period (Anon 1994b), First aid equipment 

should be available. A material safety data sheet 

(MSDS) for each chemical stored and used, must be 

available to staff. Disposal: Only mix sufficient for 

the job in hand. Washings from spray equipment may 

be recycled or disposed of in such a way that it cannot 

wash into waterways, creeks, etc. Pesticide containers 

should be recycled where possible, broken or crushed 

and buried, or taken to the local land-fill (if their 

regulations allow dumping of pesticide waste). 

Records of pesticides used, date of application, 

plants treated, quantity used, spray equipment, and 

weather conditions should be kept. 

10. WASTES 

Wastes include irrigation water and media which 

may be recycled, both need to be treated before reuse. 

Pesticide washings may be recycled and 

used for specified purposes. Containers may be 

re-used, the need for cleaning and disinfecting 

depends on the plants being grown. Dead and 

dying plants and cuttings etc. may be a source of 

infection to other plants, and should be removed 

and disposed of so that they do not contaminate 

either the nursery or other areas. Some fungi, eg 

Botrytis, may colonise and grow on dead plant 

material. Some root rot fungi are saprophytic, ie 

they just grow on live plants when it suits. 

Remove dead plant material from areas between 

batches of plants. The best method is either 

burning or steaming to kill pathogens. Surplus 

healthy plants could be disposed of by composting 

or through normal rubbish disposal channels. 

11. PERSONNEL 

Disease organisms are readily spread on hands, 

feet and clothes of staff handling nursery stock, or 

on tools used. Careless handling by one member 

of the group can negate all the care taken in the 

early production phase. Personnel hygiene 

includes: 

• Restricting access to propagation areas, chemical 

stores, machinery, etc. to authorised staff. Outside 

staff should be prevented from entering 'clean 

areas'. Staff should not step on disinfected areas. 

• Provide appropriate facilities so that staff can 

wash hands before commencing propagation 

operations, after handling diseased or undipped 

materials and before touching treated materials. 

Handle healthy material before diseased material. 

• Clean clothing should be worn by authorised 

nursery staff. 

• Wash and disinfect tools or machinery used, 

especially before handling sterilised materials. 

• Train staff on how diseases are spread and what 

should be done to avoid such problems. 

12. NURSERY SURROUNDS 

Specially constructed walkways or driveways of 

concrete or bitumen which are easily be kept clean 

are desirable. Bare ground walkways allow weed 

growth, dust (which can be contaminated with 

disease organisms) and even contamination of the 

holding areas by workers or the public carelessly 

stepping on beds. Weeds should be controlled in 

all parts of the nursery including fencelines, for 

they may carry diseases and pests and contaminate 

the nursery. Landscaping of the nursery is 

desirable; apart from assisting in preventing 

contamination of the nursery it gives the 

impression of a clean, neat and attractive nursery. 

13. RETAIL GARDEN CENTRES 

Healthy plants delivered to the selling outlets 

must be maintained in a healthy condition. The 

plants should be held in a well-lit, well maintained 

area and on benches which allow good circulation. 

Plants should be properly spaced, watered regularly 

and sprayed as necessary for disease and pest 

control. If sales are slow, fertiliser applications and 

even re-potting into larger containers may be 

necessary. See Garden Centres N 21. 

14. RECORDS, MANAGEMENT 

Records to be kept include deliveries, sources of 

media components, plant sources and sales, plant 

problems, pesticides stored and treatments. 

Financial business records also need to be kept. 

NURSERY ACCREDITATION 

National Industry Accreditation 

Scheme, Australia (NIASA) 

The aim of NIASA is to unify the state schemes, 

promote the industry and improve consumer 

confidence, act in sympathy with environmental 

issues, motivate business to constantly upgrade the 

quality of their goods and services, and reward 

businesses which comply with the guidelines by 

recognising their efforts through accreditation 

(Anon 1994a). Accreditation is available for: 

• The nursery industry 

• Growing media and growing media ingredient 

suppliers 

Accreditation schemes have to be administered and 

this will involve fees and other responsibilities. 

Various procedures will be prescribed, including: 

• Parent stock plants 

• Structures, tools 


NURSERIES 

• Storage and handling procedures for treated 

media, transport of treated media 

• Disinfestation of media 

• Maintenance of beneficial organisms in media 

• Sample and test water, growing media, 

growing media ingredients, soil and in-ground 

sites and plants for major plant pathogens 

(Phytophthora, Pythium, Fusarium, Chalara, 

Cylindrocladium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, 

Sclerotium, Verticillium, root knot nematodes, 

bacterial diseases), either by kit or laboratory 

testing, direct isolations and/or direct 

microscope examination, or baiting. 

• Site inspections 

• Access by vehicles and personnel 

• Containers, in-ground production 

• Waste management 

• Compliance with legislation 

• Cultural conditions of plant growth 

• Newer systems of plant growing, including 

hydroponic systems will be assessed using 

different criteria as the need arises 

While NIASA places a strong emphasis on 

hygiene, the success of an applicant in gaining 

accreditation depends on him/her meeting a much 

wider range of criteria. These include 

demonstrated competencies in irrigation 

management, nutritional management, correct 

disposal of waste water, safe and effective use of 

pesticides etc. New criteria will be ratified 

nationally in November and published next year, 

hopefully by February/March 1997 (Fig. 425). 

State/Territory 

Nursery Accreditation 

Various schemes operate/have operated (Bodman 

and Forsberg 1992). Generally they aim to: 

• Improve the quality of nursery stock by setting 

standards of hygiene in production nurseries 

by inspection procedures 

• Reduce the spread of plant diseases, pests and 

weeds. 

• Assess the operational standards of production 

nurseries, and to determine their suitability as 

members of an elite group of accreditation 

nurseries that can display and advertise their 

status. 

• All states abide by core requirements of 

NIASA guidelines but have add-ons of 

specific interest to them. 

• Some state schemes are aimed at a particular 

disease on certain crops, eg Phytophthora on 

native species in WA (Fig. 425). 

QUALITY ASSURANCE 

The Australian Horticulture Quality Certification 

Scheme (AHQCS) is based on Quality Assurance 

(QA) requirements of the Australian/NZ standard 

(AS/NZS ISO 9002). QA is mainly based on 

human resources and will supplement existing 

and proposed nursery accreditation schemes which 

are mainly based on physical resources and 

inspection systems (Anon. 1994a, Lake 1995). 

QA includes systematic methods for the control of 

all processes, using education and training to 

develop a team of quality-aware and committed 

staff, improving efficiency and designing new 

products, services and processes (AHC, 1992b). 

QA systems are being prepared for media receival, 

rose production, seedlings,tulips, chrysanthemums, 

grafted tomatoes and flowering bedding plants 

(HRDC, Research Report 1994-95). 


AHC. 1992a. AHQCS Register of Consultants. AHC, 

Potts Point, NSW. 

AHC. 1992b. AHQCS Guide to Quality Management & 

Export Requirements in Horticulture. AHC, Potts 

Point, NSW. 

AHC. 1993. Quality Management in Australian 

Horticulture Video. AHC, Potts Point, NSW. 

American Assoc. of Nurserymen (AAN). 1990. 

American Standard for Nursery Stock. AAN, 

Washington, DC. 




Anon. 1994b. Pest Control Manual. Horticulture, 

Weston Campus, Canberra Institute of Technology, 

Heysen Street, Weston, ACT 2611. 

Anon. 1997. Nursery Industry Water Management : Best 

Practice Guidelines, Australia 1997. NIAA/HRDC, 

avail. from Nursery Industry State Assoc. Offices. 

Atkinson, I. 1996. Quality Management in Australian 

Nurseries and the Nursery Industry Accreditation 

Scheme. Australian Nursery, March. 

Australian Horticulture Quality Certification Scheme 

(AHQCS). 1993. Horticultural Industry Leaders 

Conference : Conference Notes. AHC, Potts Point. 

NSW. 

Australian Standard. 1989. Potting Mixes : AS 3743 - 

1993. Standards Australia, Capital City. 



Capital City. 

Australian/New Zealand Standard. 1994. Quality 

Systems : Model for Quality Assurance in 

Production, Installation and Servicing : AS/NZS ISO 

9002. Standards Australia, Capital City. 

Barth, G. 1996. Combating Disease with Slow Sand 

Filters. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Bodman, K. and Forsberg, L. 1992. A Working Paper on 

National Nursery Accreditation in Australia. Aust. 

Hort Corp., Sydney. 

Bodman, K., Hargeaves, J. and Parker, R. 1993. Pest 

Control in Ornamental Crops. QNIA/HRDC. QNIA, 

PO Box 345, Salisbury, Qld 4107. 




Coombs, B. 1995. Horticulture Australia. Nurseries 

541-546. Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Vic. 

Cresswell, G. C. and Huett, D. O. 1996. Managing 

Nursery Runoff : Techniques to Reduce Nutrient 

Leaching from Pots. NSW Agric., Alstonville, 

NSW. 

Davidson, H., Mechlenburg, R. and Peterson, C. 1994. 

Nursery Management : Administration and Culture. 

Prentice-Hall Career and Technology, Englewood 

Cliffe, NY. 

Farr, D. F., Bills, G. F., Charmuris, G. P. and Rossman, 

A. Y. 1989. Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in 

the United States. APS Press, Minnesota. 



Plant Production, Uni. of Qld, Gatton College, 

Lawes, Qld. 

Goss, O. M. 1979. Practical Guidelines for Nursery 

Hygiene. Australian Nurserymen's Association, 

Sydney. 

N 56 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Goss, O. M. and Harrison, D. E. 1979. Guidelines for 

Nursery Hygiene. Australian Nurserymen's Assoc., 

Sydney. 





(HRDC). Research Report 1995/96 : Flowers, 

Nursery, Crops and Turf. Rural Press, Port 

Melbourne. 



Lake, J. 1995. ISO Certificate for Australian Nursery. 

Aust. Hort., April. 

Lake, J. 1996. Voluntary Accreditation Gaining 

Momentum. Aust. Hort., June. 

Macdonald, J. and Stowold, G. 1995. Pest and Disease 

Management for Australian Nurseries. Nursery 

News, Nursery Industry of NSW, June Vol.4(6). 

Mason, J. 1994. Nursery Management. Kangaroo Press, 





Mathias, P. 1995b. A Guide to Water Recycling. NSW 

Agric., Windsor, NSW. 

NIA of WA. 1990. Draft Guidelines for the Nursery 

Hygiene Accreditation Scheme. NIA of WA, 

Midland. 

Pennsylvania Nurserymen's Assoc. 1994. Recycling and 

Resource Conservation Manual. Pennsylvania 

Nurserymen's Assoc., Pennsylvania. 



Minnesota. 

Qld Dept. of Primary Industries. Information Sources for 

Nurserymen. cur. edn. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Rice, R. P. 1992. Nursery and Landscape Weed Control 

Manual. Thomson Pub., Fresno, California. 

Rolfe, C, Currey, A. and Atkinson, I. (eds.). 1994. 

Managing Water in Plant Nurseries : A Guide to 

Irrigation, Drainage and Water Recycling in 

Containerised Plant Nurseries. Hort. Res. & 

Development Corp./NSW Agric/Nursery Industry 

Assoc. of Australia, NSW Agric., Sydney. 

Rouchecouste, J. F. G. 1985. Plant Nurseries : 

Chlorinating Water for Disease Control. Qld Dept. 


Stanley, J. 1994. The Nursery and Garden Centre 

Marketing Manual. Reference Pub., Auckland. 

NURSERIES 

Thomson, R. P. Jr. Nursery and Landscape Weed 

Control Manual. cur. edn. Thomson Pub., Fresno, 

CA. 

Whitcomb, C. E. 1987. Production of Landscape Plants. 

Lacebark Pub., Oklahoma. 

Whitcomb, C. E. 1988. Plant Production in Containers. 

Lacebark Pub., Oklahoma. 


Industry eg 

Controlling Plant Diseases in Nurseries (NSW Agnote) 

Hygiene in Nurseries (Vic Agnote) 

Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme (AHC) 

Planning Wholesale Nurseries : A Checklist (Vic Agnote) 

Plant Nurseries : Chlorinating Water for Disease Control 

(Qld Farmnote) 

Suppliers of Materials, Fertilisers, Pesticides and 

Equipment (Vic Agnote) 


Australian Horticulture (Water Management Feature 

April 1995) 

Australian Horticultural Corporation (AHC) 


(HRDC) (Research Reports) 

International Plant Propagators Soc. (IPPS) 


Nursery Industry Trade Register (NIAA, Epping, NSW) 

Nursery News (Nursery Assoc. of NSW) 

Ornamentals Update 

State Nursery Registers, eg Vic, SA, Tas. 

The Australian Nurserymen's Fruit Improvement Co. Ltd 

(ANFIC) 

Ornamentals Update for Qld Nurseries 

Legislation 

Commonwealth Export Control Act 

Commonwealth and State Plant Quarantine Acts 

State Horticultural Stock and Nurseries Acts which 

provide for registrations of nurserymen and 

resellers of certain stock eg fruit crops 

State Plant Diseases Acts 

State/Territory Accreditation Schemes eg 

NA of Victoria Accreditation Scheme 

NIA of NSW Nursery Accreditation Scheme (draft) 

NIA of WA Nursery Hygiene Accreditation System 

NIA of Tasmania (proposed scheme) 

NT Nursery Clean Scheme 

Nursery and Landscape Industry Assoc of SA (proposed 

scheme) 

Qld NIA Voluntary Accreditation Scheme 

Quality Assurance (AS/NZS ISO 9000 - 1994) 

SGS International Certification Service 


Compost N 17, Garden centres N 21, 

Greenhouses N 28, Interior plantscapes N 47, 

Mulches N 50, Plant tissue culture N 59, Potting 

mixes N 65, Seedlings N 71, Seeds N 77, Soil N 82, 



Check list for excluding Phytophthora from 

nurseries includes: 

Seed taken from fruit harvested directly from the plant 

Potting mix allows air into 15% of pore space after watering 

Potting mix pasteurised with aerated steam 

Water disinfected, eg chlorination 

Floors sealed with concrete 

Wire mesh bench tops at least 300 mm above the floor 

Tools, structures, equipment disinfected 

Restricted entry for visitors and stray and pet animals 

Quarantine procedures for new purchases, soil deliveries 

etc 

Disinfectant footbaths, eg copper, at all entrances 

Root systems should be examined and the nursery tested 

for disease regularly 

Contingency plans prepared for disinfesting the nursery 

when a disease outbreak occurs 

Staff trained in nursery hygiene procedures 

Keeping up to date with current nursery hygiene 

procedures and recommendations 

Special procedures for your particular type of nursery 

Nursery accredited and quality assurance certified 

Fig. 425. Left : Checklist for excluding Phytophthora from nurseries. Right : Nursery Industry Accreditation Scheme, 

Australia (NIASA). 


Plant tissue 

culture 

Plant tissue culture generally refers to the culture 

of all types of plant cells, tissues and organs under 

sterile conditions. The following information is 

based on data from Drew et al. (1991). 

TYPES OF TISSUE CULTURE TECHNIQUES 

Tissue culture techniques include meristem 

culture, ie the removal of the terminal meristem 

and its subsequent culture on a defined medium, 

micropropagation, ie the multiplication of 

desirable plants from various tissues (explants) 

such as buds, stem sections and leaves and embryo 

culture, ie the removal of the embryo from the 

seed and growing it in culture until it can be 

transferred to the soil and grown naturally. 

Fig. 426. Types of tissue culture techniques. 

WHAT ARE TISSUE CULTURES USED FOR? 

Elimination of diseases 

(Meristem culture) 

Many diseases (and occasionally pests) are carried 

in, on, or in association with, vegetative 

propagation material (bulbs, corms, cuttings, 

budwood, rootstocks, scions). Diseases carried 

from one generation to the next by vegetative 

propagation may be eliminated by meristem 

culture and this is now used routinely in quarantine 

stations and nurseries. However, there is no 

guarantee that a plant is disease-free just because it 

has been meristem cultured. Techniques have 

been developed which test tissue culture 

materials for the presence of virus, bacterial and 

fungal diseases, eg sugar may be added to media 

to promote the growth of fungi; antibiotics may be 

added to media to prevent contamination. 

Meristem culture consists of removing the terminal 

meristematic region then culturing it on a defined 

growth medium. Meristems are disease-free, 

contaminants either do not easily invade or do not 

rapidly multiply in the younger meristematic 

tissue. Large numbers of disease-free plants may 

therefore be produced from meristematic explants. 

Maintenance of parent stock 

(In a disease-free condition for future 

multiplication or other purposes) 

Parent stock must be tested by a plant pathologist 

to ensure its disease-freedom. Tissue culture is 

efficient and economic in these situations. In 

addition, many species can be maintained at low 

temperatures (4-5 o C) and only subcultured once or 

twice a year. Using conventional methods 

(plants in containers, etc) and maintaining stock in 

separate areas, to prevent the movement of 

disease-carrying insects is often difficult. 

To store disease-free stock 

(Micropropagation) 

The space required for storage is small compared 

to that required for conventional stock. 

Micropropagation provides a means of cheaply 

storing disease-free stock. 


(Meristem culture) 

Plant quarantine considers that plant tissue 

culture is an ideal way of importing (and 

exporting) cultivars. Large numbers of plants can 

be transported in small, light-weight containers 

and as plants are free of soil, quarantine problems 

are minimised. However, because plants derived 

from tissue culture are not guaranteed free from 

diseases, the disease status of the plants from 

which the tissue cultures were derived must be 

known. Guidelines have been produced; although 

there is no restriction on numbers and no 

requirement for plant growth in quarantine, an 

import permit is still required and cultures are 

inspected in quarantine for the presence of any 

contamination. Cultures are tested for freedom 

from pathogens, and for the presence of antibiotic 

agents which might suppress pathogens. It is 

considered that anther smut (Ustilago violacea) 

of carnation may have been introduced on tissue 

cultured carnations. 

Development of resistant 

varieties (Embryo culture) 

Embryo culture consists of removing the embryo 

from the seed and growing it in culture until it can 

be transferred to the soil and grown to maturity. It 

is mostly used to 'rescue' embryos during attempts 

at crossing distantly related plants. The main 

reason for attempting these crosses is to transfer 

desired traits such as disease resistance from 

distantly related species, to existing cultivars. 

Another application has been to break dormancy 

in seeds, eg in iris, embryo culture breaks 

dormancy and shortens the breeding cycle by 

months, even years. 

N 58 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Integration of new varieties 

into pathogen-tested schemes 

(Meristem culture followed by micropropagation) 

By the use of selected clones this technique has 

resulted in a more rapid introduction of new 

varieties, improved yields and earlier cropping. 

These clones can been integrated into pathogentested 

schemes; resultant plants are free of 

diseases as well as being improved varieties. 

Genetically-engineered cultivars may also be 

integrated into these schemes. 

Rapid mass multiplication 

(Micropropagation) 

The aim is to multiply desirable strains of plants 

from various tissues (explants), eg buds, stem 

sections and leaves (this is called cloning). It is 

used for rapid clonal multiplication of rare, 

valuable or difficult to propagate species, or 

continuous production of planting material in 

commercial nurseries. Once disease-free plants 

have been produced by meristem culture they can 

be multiplied rapidly by micropropagation. 

Save endangered species 

Examples include the rare and endangered plant, 

Olearia microdisca, which has been vitro cultured 

as a means of rapid propagation to support a 

replanting program to boost the remnant 

population (Taji and Williams 1991, 1996). 

DISEASES AND PESTS ASSOCIATED WITH 

TISSUE CULTURE 

There are 2 main types of diseases and pests 

associated with tissue culture (Table 10). The 1st is 

the natural viral, bacterial and fungal diseases 

and insect and mite pests of the plant which are to 

be eliminated, eg the various virus diseases and other 

problems affecting carnation. Insecticides will 

usually easily eliminate insect and mite pests. The 

2nd type is tissue culture diseases which include 

external contaminants which are the greatest 

problem faced by commercial tissue culture 

laboratories. Many species are easily infected by 

bacteria, even in very clean environments. These 

problems result from contaminated air, media, tools, 

hands etc. Dodd et al. (1992) indicated that internal 

bacteria which do not cause disease in the field can 

cause diseases of plants in tissue culture. 

MANAGEMENT 

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE 

Additional parasitic damping off diseases may 

occur. See Seedlings N 67. There may be problems 

associated with the culture, eg temperature, etc. 

Genetic off-types occur more frequently with some 

species than with others, eg bromeliads, bananas. 

High production of off-types can delay acceptance of 

a species. Consider possible off-type production with 

the species chosen and how it can be minimised. 




de Fossard, R. A. 1990. Micropropagation. Xarma Pty 

Ltd, Eagle Heights, Qld. 

Dodd, H., Taji, A. Hayward, C. and Dodd, B. 1992. An 

Unrecognised Problem in Plant Tissue Culture. 

Aust. Hort., Dec. 

Donnelly, D. J. and Vidaver, W. E. 1988. Glossary of 

Plant Tissue Culture. Dioscorides Press/Timber 


Drew, R., Smith, M., Moisander, J. and James, J. 1991. 

Plant Tissue Culture : General Principles and 

Commercial Applications. Qld Dept. of Primary 


Kyte, L. 1988. Plants from Test Tubes. Timber Press, 


Lindsey, K. (ed.). 1991-95. Plant Tissue Culture 

Manual : Fundamentals and Application. 

Laboratory Manual. Kluwer Academic, Holland. 

Smith, R. H. 1992. Plant Tissue Culture : Techniques 

and Experiments. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 

Taji, A. M. and Williams, R. 1991. Tissue Culture Helps 

Save Endangered Species. Aust. Hort., Dec. 

Taji, A. M. and Williams, R. (eds). 1996. Tissue Culture 

of Australian Plants. University of New England, 

Armidale, NSW. 

Taji, A. M. Dodd, W. A. and Williams, R. R. 1993. 

Plant Tissue Culture Practice. 2nd edn. University 

of New England, Armidale. 


Industry eg 

Books about Tissue Culture (Vic Agnote) 

Fundamentals of Plant Propagation by Tissue Culture 

(Vic Agnote) 

Importing Ornamental Plants as Tissue Culture (Vic 

Agnote) 

Plant Tissue Culture and Quarantine (AQIS, DPIE) 

Tissue Culture Techniques and Procedures (Vic Agnote) 


Centre for Biological Management (Qld University of 

Technology) 


Businesses eg 


Calgene Pacific 

See Preface xii, Seedlings N 71 



Commercially propagated species in Australia include Australian plants, eg boronia, eriostemon, fruit, eg 

banana, fig, pineapple, ornamentals, eg African violet, bromeliads, carnivorous plants, ferns, gerbera, orchids. 

A brief outline of micropropagation in nurseries is presented by Coombs (1995). Obtain sound reference 

material and advice on procedures: Access recognised publications on tissue culture (Drew et al. 1991, Taji 

et al. 1993, Taji and Williams 1996), and visit/work in tissue culture laboratories to obtain first hand knowledge. 

Initially specialise and practice: The best results are usually achieved by nurseries which specialise in 1-2 

species (Drew et al. 1991). The same tissue culture methods is not be suitable for all species. Staff training: 

Staff must be trained, skilled and reliable. Contamination may not show for 2 or more weeks and mistakes in 

media preparation can be disastrous. Sanitation: Comply with all recommended disinfection and management 

procedures. Pesticides: Disinfectants, antibiotics, plant growth regulators, fungicides and other pesticides and 

chemicals are used in plant tissue culture. Legislative requirements and recommended safety procedures 

must be adhered to. Instruct customers on potting up procedures. Transfers often die as some nursery 

personnel do not know how to handle them. 


PLANT TISSUE CULTURE 

Table 10. Disease and pest problems associated with tissue culture techniques. 

An example of a tissue culture system. 

Process Natural Diseases of the Plant External Contaminants 

1. ELIMINATION OF 

NATURAL DISEASES 

AND 

CONTAMINANTS 

BY 

MERISTEM CULTURE 

NATURAL DISEASES 

(systemic virus, bacterial and 

fungal diseases) 

Parasitic diseases 

It may be necessary to check that 

growth out from meristems are natural 

systemic diseases rather than 

contaminants. 

If bacterial and fungal diseases are a 

problem, nutrients may be added to 

encourage growth of any systemic 

bacteria and fungi that may be 

present. Antibiotics which suppress 

such growth should not be added 

(except to media). 

If virus diseases are a problem then 

meristem cultures must be tested for 

virus-freedom. 

MAINTENANCE OF MERISTEM 

CULTURES in a disease-free state. 

Once free of natural diseases, tissue 

cultured plants can be produced 

continuously. 

EXTERNAL CONTAMINANTS 

(bacteria and fungi) originate 

from: 

Air 

Media 

Poor surface sterilisation of plant 

tissue or equipment. 

Hands, hair, shoes, clothing of 

operator. 

Dust mites which may invade 

cultures and spread bacteria and 

fungal contaminants. 

Plant material which has not been 

properly disinfested. 

Other sources occasionally, eg 

endogenous organisms in internal 

cells and organs of plants; cleaning 

agents, eg soap, dilute methylated 

spirits or alcohol. 

CULTURAL PROBLEMS, eg 

temperature, light, excessive 

sterilisation. 

GENETIC OFF-TYPES, eg 

abnormal forms, sports. 

2. MULTIPLICATION MICROPROPAGATION 

Parent stock should be free from 

systemic diseases (either naturally 

free, eg African violets, or eliminated 

by meristem culture, eg carnations), 

prior to large scale multiplication. 

Again nutrients are added but no 

antibiotics. 

As above 

3. TRANSFERS DISEASES (AND PESTS) 


Transfers should be free from systemic 

diseases. However, they are very 

susceptible to damping off (DO) 

diseases (to which they might normally 

be resistant) because of the humid 

environment of the transplants. 

Non-parasitic diseases 

Natural ones for the type of plant. 

DISEASES 


Damping off diseases (probably 

additional fungi and bacteria may 

cause damping off because of the 

lack of an epidermis on the transplant 

cells etc.). 

Non-parasitic diseases 

Cultural problems may occur, eg 

Drying out 

Genetic off-types 

4. FINAL POTS DISEASES AND PESTS 

Plants may become infected with 

diseases (systemic and other) to which 

they are naturally susceptible. 

Whether they become infected or not 

depends on the method of disease 

spread etc. 

As above 

N 60 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Postharvest 

Postharvest diseases of plant produce are those that 

develop during harvesting, grading, packing and 

transport to market, and during the various storage 

and handling operations until it reaches the 

consumer (Agrios 1988). Nearly all crops have a 

postharvest component which must be met for the 

customer to be satisfied. Crops include cut flowers, 

potted plants, green foliage, bare rooted nursery 

stock, seedlings, fruit and nuts, vegetables, seeds, 

stored foodstuffs, stored grain, turfgrasses, lucerne. 


Parasitic 






Non-parasitic 

Environment 

Ethylene 



Parasitic 


Virus diseases are not really a postharvest 

problem. Occasionally flowers and foliage of 

potted plants may develop virus symptoms. 

Some imported cut flowers, eg carnations, may be 

treated with herbicide, eg glyphosate, so that 

purchasers cannot propagate from them and 

introduce virus diseases of carnations into 

Australia. Some virus diseases are seedborne. 


Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia spp.) may be a serious 

postharvest disease of fruit, nuts and vegetables. 



Fungal diseases are serious postharvest diseases of 

cut flowers, fruit, nuts, vegetables and grain 

(Agrios 1988). Generally the more succulent the 

exterior of the product, and the greater the water 

content of the entire product, the more susceptible 

it is to injury and infection by fungi (and bacteria). 

Alternaria rot (Alternaria spp.) 

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) 

Black mould (Aspergillus niger) of onion 

Blue and green moulds (Penicillium spp.) (Fig. 427) 

Brown rot (Sclerotinia spp.) (Fig. 428) 

Fusarium rot (Fusarium spp.) 


Mucor rot (Mucor spp.) 


Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) (Fig. 429) 

See Annuals A 11, Fruit F 5, Vegetables M 6. 


Presence of insects may contravene export 

quarantine regulations for cut flowers, foliage, 

potted plants, stored grain, foodstuffs and seed. 

Cut flowers, foliage and potted plants 

Insects on flowers, eg thrips (Thripidae) (Fig. 430) 


Fruit, nuts and vegetables 

Fruit fly maggots (Tephritidae) (Fig. 431) 

Ferment flies (Drosophilidae) 

Scales (Hemiptera) on fruit 

Grain, food products and seed 

Seed weevils (Bruchinae) 

Turfgrasses 

Argentine stem weevil (Listronotus bonariensis) 


Mice and rats eat stored fruit, nuts, vegetables, 

seed, grain and foodstuffs. See Seeds N 77. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Water loss: Many harvested 

products are susceptible to drying out, eg cut flowers, 

bare rooted nursery stock, potted plants, fruit, vegetables 

and turf. Moisture: Postharvest bacterial and fungal 

diseases are favoured by moist conditions, eg plastic 

packaging. Temperature: Cooling (cool rooms and 

refrigeration) slows respiration and aging and is widely 

used to control postharvest diseases of cut flowers, 

vegetables and fruit. However, cooling may itself cause 

chilling injury, eg orchid flowers, apple (watercore). 

Flouriness in apples is due to too long storage. 

Ethylene: Ethylene is a naturally occurring 

odourless gas produced by fruits, vegetables and cut 

flowers to initiate their own ripening or maturing. Many 

cut flowers and foliage, pot plants and bulbs, fruit and 

vegetables may be injured by ethylene. Storage 

areas must be adequately ventilated to prevent ethylene 

accumulation and should be free of ethylene-producing 

commodities such as pome and stone fruits. Cut flowers 

may be treated with anti-ethylene compounds. 

Some fruits, eg bananas, are ripened by ethylene. 

Mechanical injury: Some potted plants, eg 

African violet, are brittle and easily damaged during 

transport. Special packaging is required. Many cut 

flowers, fruit and vegetables are also easily damaged 

and require special packaging. 

Others: Some cut flowers may be phototropic 

(bend towards light) or negatively geotropic (stems 

bend away from gravity) and must be specially 

packaged (Fig. 432). Miscellaneous live insects, 

snails and slugs, fungi, etc may contravene quarantine 

regulations. 


Agrios, G. N. 1988. Plant Pathology. 3rd ed. Academic 


Armitage, A. M. 1993. Bedding Plants : Prolonging 



POSTHARVEST 

Australian Horticulture Corporation, Sydney. 

AHQCS Guide to Quality Management & Export 

Requirements in Horticulture, 1992. 

AHQCS Register of Consultants, 1992. 

Australian Standard. 1994. AS/NZS ISO 9002. Quality 

Systems : Model for Quality Assurance in 

Production, Installation and Servicing. Standards 

Australia, Capital City of each State/Territory. 

Barkai-Golan, R. and Phillips, D. J. 1991. Postharvest 

Heat Treatment of fresh Fruits and Vegetables for 

Decay Control. Plant Disease, Vol.75. No, 11. 

Bates, J. 1996. Working on Improving Cut Flower Vase 

Life. Aust. Hort., Oct. 



Produce. Vol.1. Temperate Fruit. NSW Agric. & 

Fisheries/CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Blessington, T. M. and Collins, P. C. 1993. Foliage 

Plants : Prolonging Quality. Ball Pub., Batavia, 

Illinois. 


Postharvest Management of Fruit & Vegetables pp. 

49-61, Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Vic. 

Gorris, L. G. M. and Peppelenbos, H. W. 1993. Vacuum 

Packaging, MA Extend Life. Good Fruit & 

Vegetables, Jan. 



Joyce, D. 1988. Post-harvest Research on Ornamental 

Plant Material. Jn. Agric. WA, Vol.29(4). 

Larson, R. A. (ed). 1992. Introduction to Floriculture. 

2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego. 








Standardisation of Fruit and Vegetables. cur. edns. 

OECD, Paris. avail. from DA Books, Mitcham, Vic. 

MANAGEMENT 



Sacalis, J. N. 1993. Cut Flowers:Prolonging Freshness. 

2nd edn. Ball Pub., Batavia, Illinois. 



Salunkhe, D. K. and Desai, B. B. 1990. Postharvest 

Biotechnology of Flowers & Ornamentals Plants. 

Springer-Verlag, NY. 


Handbook. 4th edn., CSIRO/NSW Agric., Griffith, 

NSW. 

Snowdon, A. L. 1990. A Colour Atlas of Postharvest : 

Diseases & Disorders of Fruits & Vegetables. Vol.1. 

General Introduction & Fruits. Vol.2. Vegetables. 

Wolfe Scientific, London. 

Wills, R. H. H., McGlasson, W. B., Graham, D., 





Wright, G., McKinlay, P. and Shaw, E. 1993. 

Corrugated Fibreboard Boxes, Their Design, Use, 

Quality Control and Testing. 4th edn. Amcor, 971 

Burke Rd, Camberwell, Vic. Tel. (03) 811 7111. 


Industry eg 

Cooling Cut Flowers & Foliage (WA Farmnote) 

Chlorination in Postharvest Horticulture (WA Farmnote) 

Cutflower Production in SA (SA Fact Sheet) 

Drying Cut Flowers and Foliage 

International Postharvest Science Conferences 

Native Plants as Cut Flowers (NSW Agfact) 


(NSW Agfact) 

Post-harvest Insect Disinfestation Treatments for Cut 

Flowers and Foliage (WA Farmnote) 


Storage Conditions for Ornamental Crops (WA Farmnote) 




See Annuals A 10, Australian native plants N 9, 

Fruit F 15, Vegetables M 19, Seeds N 77 

International standards for fruit and vegetables defines the quality requirements to be supplied fresh to the 

consumer (OECD cur. edn). Long life flowers, eg carnation, are being genetically engineered (Bates 1996). 

Postharvest care starts before harvest as many crops grown under certain conditions may deteriorate quickly, 

not store or transport well or have a short shelf/vase life. Field diseases and pests may carry over into 

postharvest. Postharvest care may involve controlling the environment by minimising water loss and 

regulating humidity, temperature, light and gravity, providing for fruit ripening, flower opening and 

conditioning, controlling gases, eg limiting the oxygen supply and elevating levels of carbon dioxide to slow 

down the metabolic activity of the product and any microorganisms present, various treatments for diseases and 

pests, eg fungicidal or insecticidal dips, waxes, and appropriate packaging. 

Harvest 



Cultural methods: Harvest flowers, fruit and vegetables at the correct growth stage and by the correct 

method. Maturity standards are available for most commodities. Harvest in cool temperatures; erect 

shades over field harvest trailers, over loading bays, etc. Check temperatures in transport vehicles. Water 

loss is minimised by various treatments, eg placing flowers immediately after picking in water, waxing fruit or 

maintaining a high relative humidity. Temperature is the most important postharvest factor affecting quality of 

ornamental crops. Lower produce temperature as quickly and as soon as possible after harvest (pre-cooling). 

Cooling cut flowers and foliage decreases respiration, reduces water loss, suppresses ethylene production, 

reduces sensitivity to ethylene and slows down development of bacteria and fungi. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy crop residues in packing sheds to reduce inoculum. Seeds, fruit and 

vegetables may need to be cleaned before marketing or storage. 

Physical methods: Postharvest heat treatments, eg 5-10 minutes at 50-60 o C or shorter, control some disease 

organisms on the surface or within the few outer cell layers of fruit and vegetables. Such heat treatments of 

fresh fruit and vegetables can provide good control of the decay but do not yet provide the same protection of 

quality that postharvest fungicides do. Induced injury to produce and lack of residual protection are serious 

limitations. The best candidates for heat treatment are fruit and vegetables to be sold soon after harvest 

rather than stored. With the trend towards less reliance on chemicals, heat treatments warrant greater study. 

Pesticides: Produce may need to be treated with fungicides or insecticides to satisfy quarantine regulations. 

Post-harvest insect disinfestation treatments are applied to cut flowers, foliage and fruit, for export. There 

may be special field treatments for diseases and pests which may invade produce postharvest. 

N 62 

OTHER PLANTINGS

POSTHARVEST 

Storage/Transport 

Atmosphere: Ethylene is an odourless gas produced by cut flowers, ripening fruit and vegetables which may 

damage sensitive produce in different ways. Ethylene is used to ripen green fruit. Some growers treat cut 

flowers with anti-ethylene agents to reduce the effects of ethylene, eg silver thiosulphate (STS), which is 

environmentally damaging. Regulating other atmospheric gases extends postharvest quality of horticultural 

produce; oxygen levels are lowered in controlled atmosphere (CA) storage; in modified atmosphere (MA) 

storage, oxygen levels are also lowered but there is no active control over the atmospheric composition. 

Nutrients may be necessary during storage and transport, eg sucrose keeps cut flowers growing. 

Environment: Transport accounts for 90% of all postharvest costs. Develop 

losses. Temperature: Most temperate crops can be stored at 0-2 o a cold supply chain to reduce transport 

C for long periods without significant loss 

of quality. Cooling may be in cool rooms, by ice or refrigeration, or by forced draft ventilation. Freezing must 

be avoided. Some crops are chill-sensitive and may be damaged by low temperatures, eg orchids, avocados, 

bananas, cucumbers, mangos, pawpaws; pineapples should not be stored at < 13 o C. Water loss and 

relative humidity: Very short term storage recommendations (a few days) for many flower, foliage, fruit and 

vegetable crops of temperature origin are > 90% relative humidity at 1-2 o C. Optimum storage temperature 

and relative humidity varies from product to product. 

Sanitation: Storage and transport areas, benches, bins, bags and machinery must be cleaned and disinfected 

between each batch or season. All old produce must be removed and destroyed. 

Pesticides: Fungicides and bactericides are used to prevent the development of bacterial and fungal 

postharvest diseases, egdips for fruit and vegetables, disinfectants in vase water for cut flowers, Chlorine 

is used in horticulture to control bacteria and fungi on vegetables and fruit and in cut flower vase solutions, 

insecticides sprays for quarantine requirements and growth regulators may be used in quarantine to 

prevent growers from propagating them. Irradiation is likely to be approved for wider use. 

Packaging 

Packaging is used to maintain relative humidity, to prevent injury to produce, water loss, ethylene buildup 

and insect and fungal attack, and to control the atmosphere (ethylene, oxygen, carbon dioxide) during 

storage. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) controls gas exchange through the packaging, eg sealing 

inside a bag made from plastic that is somewhat permeable to gases. The respiration of the commodity uses up 

the oxygen in the bag but this is replaced by oxygen passing through the plastic just at a sufficient rate to supply 

the commodity's needs (Coombs 19950). Vacuum packaging (VP) withdraws part of the normal headspace, 

leaving an altered initial atmosphere. Some packaging has holes in it to prevent excessive relative humidity, 

others absorb ethylene (ethylene scrubbers) or ensure that produce is kept upright to prevent flower bending. 

Shelf life/vase life 

Fruit, vegetables and cut flowers will only have a useful shelf/vase life if harvest, storage, transport and 

packaging procedures have been properly carried out. Floral preservatives usually contain a disinfectant, 

nutrients and an acidifier (see Annuals A 11). Growth regulators are occasionally added to extend vase life 

of cut flowers and stop sprouting in potato. Do not display produce sensitive to ethylene with that which 

produces lots of ethylene. Shelf and vase life varies depending on the product. 

Fig. 427. Blue mould (Penicillium 

sp.) on injured citrus. 

Fig. 428. Brown rot (Sclerotinia 

fructicola) on peach. Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 429. Sclerotinia rot, nesting 

(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) on beans. Dept. 


Fig. 430. Thrips (Thripididae) 

in flowers. 

Fig. 431. Fruit fly maggots (Tephritidae) 

in nectarine. 

Fig. 432. Negative geotropism 

on gladiolus flower. 


Potting mixes 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

Algae, liverworts, mosses, fungi 

Environment 

Legionnaires' disease 


pH 

Toxins 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 

Soil and manures are not a common component 

of potting mixes, but if they are used then fungal 

diseases (and weeds) may be introduced. 

Pasteurisation of soil and manure or the final mix 

is necessary to guarantee freedom from pests and 

diseases. Phytophthora and Pythium are most 

active in rather wet conditions, Rhizoctonia and 

Sclerotium prefer a fluctuating soil moisture level. 

Therefore the most unfavourable mix for 

pathogens is an even, medium water content. 

Suppressive mixes: A potting mix should have 

no, or very few, disease-causing microbes, but a 

high level of beneficial microorganisms capable of 

suppressing the disease-causing bacteria and fungi 

by using them for food. Well matured compost is 

a source of such microorganisms, it is anticipated 

that these microorganisms will eventually become 

available commercially. Many soilborne insect 

pests, eg black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus 

sulcatus), scarab grubs (Scarabaeidae), may occur 

in potting mixes. See Nurseries N 54, Soil N 80. 

Non-parasitic 

Algae, liverworts, mosses, fungi: Algae, 

liverworts and mosses may grow on the surface 

of overwet and highly nutritious potting mix in 

containers. See Greenhouses N 27. Mycorrhizae 

fungi may need to be added to potting mixes to 

ensure adequate growth. See Trees K 18. 

Projectile firing fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus) 

produces tiny black fruiting bodies (2 mm across) 

which stick to plant surfaces causing minor 

disfigurement. Fruiting bodies are found on 

decayed wood, manure, greenhouse supplies, tools, 

etc. Potting mixes high in wood products may be 

invaded by the fungus. Fruiting bodies formed on 

the surface of potting media are forcibly discharged 

into the air and adhere strongly to surfaces 

contacted, eg azaleas leaves. Avoid using wood, 

sawdust or manure mulches in or around the 

nursery, ensure wood materials used in potting 

mixes are thoroughly composted and do not use 

animal manures in potting mixes unless they have 

been thoroughly pasteurised or sterilised. Wood 

rot fungi may grow on wood or sawdust used in 

mixes and produce fruiting bodies (mushrooms or 

toadstools) on the surface of the mix in containers. 

Once the fungi have used up their nutrient 

source in the mix they will cease to grow. 

Environment: Potting mixes must consist of 

the recommended ingredients (AS 3743 Potting 

mixes) to provide the correct physical conditions 

for plant growth. A few examples include 

porosity which is the space available within a mix 

for water, air or root growth. Small pores 

contribute to water retention whereas large pores 

promote aeration. Perlite increases aeration. 

Water-holding capacity: Peat has a variable 

water-holding capacity. Sand is used to vary the 

water-holding capacity of the mix, the larger the 

particle size the less water is held. 

Soil, if used in proportions of > 30%, 

results in mixes which are often heavy and 

prone to waterlogging. The physical and chemical 

properties of soil can be variable. Vermiculite is 

porous and light and has a water-holding capacity 

3-4 times its own weight. Drainage may be 

improved by adding polystyrene foam. Weight: 

Sand is used to increase weight, while perlite and 

polystyrene is used to decrease weight in potting 

mixes. The temperature of the potting mix can 

affect the uptake of nutrients and microorganism 

activity, roots may be killed at high temperatures 

in black plastic pots. Bottom heat is more efficient 

and evaporative cooling can reduce mix 

temperatures in containers. 

Legionnaires' Disease (Legionella longbeachae) 

is an infectious bacterial respiratory illness that, in 

its most severe form, causes pneumonia and can be 

fatal. It afflicts people of any age, but occurs most 

frequently among elderly persons who have 

chronic long term illness and persons with a lower 

immunity to infection. The bacteria are associated 

with compost and potting mixes and appear to be 

part of the normal flora of composting organic 

material (Steele 1994). Users can become infected 

by inhaling the dust or contaminated air. All 

persons using potting mixes or composts 

(including home-made composts) should wear a 

recommended dust respirator/mask and wash their 

hands thoroughly after using these products. Avoid 

dusty working conditions, moisten the potting mix 

to avoid breathing in the bacteria. Pasteurisation 

of potting media at the end of the manufacturing 

process kills many problem and beneficial 

organisms. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Animal 

manures are generally not suitable components of 

potting mixes as they are variable in mineral 

analysis. Fresh manure can burn plants. Fresh 

sawdust and pine bark in a potting mix can cause 

nitrogen deficiency in young plants because 

microorganisms are using the available nitrogen to 

break down the sawdust or bark (nitrogen 

drawdown). Both should be composted before use. 

Appropriate levels of fertiliser must be added to 

potting mixes. Sometimes excess nutrients are 

added to the extent that they almost inhibit growth. 

Identification of such problems is difficult, it may 

be necessary to undertake plant analyses to see if 

elements are present in the right quantities and 

proportions. 

pH: Peats vary in pH, the pH of manures can be 

extremely high (alkaline), especially when the 

manure is fresh. Analyses of potting mixes nearly 

always includes a pH test. 

N 64 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Toxins: Fresh hardwood sawdust and pine 

bark (Pinus radiata, P. pinaster) produce phenols 

which are often toxic to roots of young plants. 

Compost before using in potting mixes. Pine bark 

(P. radiata, P. elliottii) can be aged moist instead 

for at least 4-6 weeks. P. pinaster can be aged for 

1 week (Handreck and Black 1994). Eucalypt 

wood chips (Eucalyptus diversicolor, E. 

calophylla) should be aged or composted before 

use as they may also contain toxins that stunt the 

growth of many plants. 

WEEDS 

Weed seeds and vegetative parts may be 

introduced in soil, sand or manure. Potting mix 

ingredients can become contaminated after 

pasteurisation during storage. All potting mix 

ingredients must be covered during storage to 

protect them from weed seed infestation. 


Anon. (1994). The Nursery Industry Accreditation 



Australian Standard. (1993). Potting Mixes : AS 3743 - 

1993. Standards Australia, Capital City, in each 

state, Australia. 



Capital City in each state, Australia. 

Bodman, K. and Sharman, K. (eds). 1993. Container 

Media Management. HRDC/QNIA, PO Box 345, 

Salisbury Qld. 

Forsberg, L. 1987. Diseases of Ornamental Palms. Qld 

Agric. Jn. Sept/Oct:279-286. 

MANAGEMENT 

POTTING MIXES 

Handreck, K A. Discovering Soils Series. CSIRO, 

Melbourne 

Composting 

Potting Mixes and Care of Plants Growing in Them 



Melbourne. 

Handreck, K. 1994. Sewage Sludge in Potting Mixes : 

The Effects of Heavy Metals. Aust. Hort., May. 

Handreck, K. 1995a. Phosphorus Drawdown in Potting 

Mixes. Aust. Hort., Sept. 

Handreck, K. 1995b. Can 'Drawdown' Phosphorus be 

Used by Plants. Aust. Hort., Nov. 




Handreck, K. and Bunker, K. 1996. Fertilisers and Hot 

Weather. Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Hoitink, H. 1990. Beating Bacterial Disease with 

Biocontrol. Aust. Hort., May. 

Steele, T. 1994. More Research Needed on Legionella 

longbeachae. Aust. Hort., August. 


Industry eg 

Brown Coal in Potting Mixes (Vic Agnote) 

Chemical Sterilisation of Soils and Potting Mixtures (Vic 

Agnote) 

Fertilisers and Chemicals for Nursery Potting Mixes 

(Vic Agnote) 

Hardwood Sawdust in Potting Mixes (Vic Agnote) 

Peanut Shells in Potting Mixes (Vic Agnote) 

Pine Bark in Potting Mixes (Vic Agnote) 

Potting Mixes (WA Farmnote) 

Scoria in Potting Mixes (Vic Agnote) 

Suppliers of Materials, Fertilisers, Pesticides and 

Equipment (Vic Agnote) 

The Use of Heat to Sterilise Soils and Potting 

Mixtures (Vic Agnote) 

Toxic Pinebark in Potting Mixes (Vic Agnote) 


Australian Horticulture (Research Features) 

Australian Research & Development Corporation (HRDC) 


See Compost N 17, Mulch N 50, Nurseries N 56, 

Soil N 82, Water N 92 



Potting mixes should comply with the Australian Standard (AS 3743) and any recommendations for accreditation 

schemes. Choose a potting mix to suit the plants to be grown. For potting mix analysis follow instructions for 

collecting potting mix samples, eg take samples at the correct time, record details and send them off the same 

day. Most laboratories that offer analytical services for potting mixes use methods prescribed by the Australian 

Standard for potting mixes (Handreck and Black 1994). Tests for potting mixes include pH, salinity, ammonium 

and phosphorus toxicity, etc. Tests for air-filled porosity are worthwhile if plants susceptible to soilborne fungal 

diseases are being grown; good drainage can reduce the effects of these diseases. 

Check list for a good potting mix 

It is well drained 

It re-wets easily, some peat and bark media are difficult to re-wet if they dry out 

It does not shrink away from the side of the pot as it dries out 

It is the optimum weight, not too heavy to lift, not so light as to blow away easily 

It has a pH between 5 and 6.5 which is satisfactory for most plants 

It is free from pests, diseases and weeds or, if not, it can be pasteurised without 

producing harmful by-products 

It can be stored for short periods without significant changes in physical or chemical properties. 

It is readily available or easy to prepare 

It is not expensive 

It has desirable physical properties, eg wood chips may be suitable for larger pots 

but too large for bedding plants 

It does not contain excessive levels of salt or nutrients, eg peats or manures 

It does not contain any toxic chemicals, eg copper chrome arsenate or boric acid from timber 

treatments, phenols from uncomposted pine bark or heavy metals from sewage sludge 


Seedlings 

Cuttings 


Parasitic 




Damping off 




Aphids 

Beetles, weevils 

Caterpillars 

Cutworms, armyworms 

Flies 


Seedharvesting ants 




Non-parasitic 

Environment 


Growing media 


Viability 

WEEDS 

Seedlings may be susceptible to the same pests and 

diseases as their larger counterparts, eg brassica 

seedlings may be affected by cabbage aphid, 

cabbage moth, cabbage white butterfly and snails 

and slugs. However, there are some general 

diseases, pests and weeds that are commonly 

associated with seedlings of many types of plants. 


Parasitic 


If a plant is susceptible to particular virus and 

virus-like diseases, infection may be obvious in 

seedlings or not apparent until plants are much 

older. Virus and virus-like diseases may be carried 

in vegetative propagation material (bulbs, corms, 

cuttings) or in association with seed. Soil or water 

spread is not common. They may also be spread 

by insects (seedling infections can precede major 

crop infection) and on hands and secateurs so 

that viruses may be spread during harvesting and 

other activities. 


Some bacterial diseases may only be serious on 

young stock. Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) is 

only of economic importance on stone fruits 

< 1 year old. See Stone fruits F 125. 


Damping off (DO) 

Scientific name: Primarily soilborne fungi, eg 

Eumycetes (water fungi): Phytophthora spp., Pythium 

spp., Aphanomyces sp.. 

Imperfect Fungi (produce conidia): Black root rot 

(Thielaviopsis basicola, Chalara spp.), charcoal rot 

(Macrophomina phaseolina), grey mould (Botrytis 

spp.), Cylindrocladium spp., Fusarium spp., 

Helminthosporium spp. 

Imperfect Fungi (sterile fungi): Rhizoctonia spp., 

Sclerotium spp. 

Bacteria may also be involved, especially in preemergence 

DO. 

Host range: Most DO fungi can infect a wide 

host range and most can also grow on 

undecomposed plant debris of all kinds of plants. 

Some DO fungi may also cause root, crown and 

stem diseases of more mature plants. Crown 

canker (Cylindrocladium sp.) infects rose cuttings 

and many trees and shrubs, eg Verticordia. Black 

root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola) may attack 

seedlings and roots of older plants. 2-year old 

established plants can normally tolerate Pythium. 

Symptoms: DO commonly occurs in patches 

throughout a planting. Seeds, seedlings, cuttings 

and young plants die. It may take several forms 

(Fig. 433). Pre-emergence DO occurs when seeds 

are attacked before or soon after germination 

causing them to rot before emerging (Fig. 433a). 

Bare areas and poor establishment occur 

(commonly caused by Phytophthora, Pythium, 

Rhizoctonia, occasionally by bacteria). Postemergence 

DO occurs after plants have emerged 

and is first seen as yellowing, wilting and death of 

young seedlings particularly during hot weather. It 

may take several forms, eg stem rot, root rot or top 

DO (Fig. 433b-f). Diagnostic advice kits are 

available for some DO fungi enabling growers to 

test for a particular fungus. Otherwise a 

pathologist is needed to isolate the fungus. 

Overwintering: Most species occur universally 

in soil and can survive for long periods in the 

absence of host crops. They may overwinter in 

infected plants, plant debris, water (Pythium spp. 

persist in water, especially stagnant water high in 

organic matter or in wet soil). Rhizoctonia solani 

lives in the soil and develops rapidly in the 

presence of undecomposed organic matter 

invading the soft tissues of young plants and 

damaged tissues of older plants. Some are 

seedborne, sometimes as resistant spores or as 

sclerotia, it depends which fungus is involved. 

Spread: By movement of contaminated soil or 

crop debris, on machinery, containers, tools or 

tyres. By movement of infected plants. Zoospores 

of Phytophthora and Pythium swim in water and 

may be spread by water, eg rain, irrigation or 

drainage water, wash. Spores of some DO fungi, 

eg Botrytis cinerea, are spread by wind. 

Sometimes they can be distributed with seed. 

Fungal threads of Rhizoctonia grow on organic 

matter through the soil. Seeds of some plants can 

become infected with Rhizoctonia. Spores may be 

washed downhill in surface water. 

N 66 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SEEDLINGS, CUTTINGS 

Conditions favouring: Those unfavourable for 

plant growth, eg soil temperatures which are too 

low or too high for rapid germination. For rapid 

germination of turf seeds soak in water overnight 

with a small amount of wetting agent. Water 

splash from contaminated soil may infect shoots 

with Cylindricladium, causing blighting. Lack of 

crop rotation (causing a buildup of DO 

microorganisms in soil) may result in strains of DO 

developing. Also favoured by poor quality seed 

and incorrect sowing methods; seed damaged 

during harvesting and handling; poor light, soil 

aeration and air movement; seedbeds sown too 

thickly; excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilisers; 

acid soils with a pH of 5.2 or below; soils low in 

organic matter, ie low populations of 

microorganisms which might be antagonistic to 

DO organisms. Plant in the field at the same depth 

as grown in the nursery. Green stems are 

susceptible if rooted cuttings are planted too 

deeply. Soil-less and hydroponic mixtures are 

unfavourable to DO. 

Each DO fungus is favoured by particular conditions of 

temperature, moisture, etc. Phytophthora and 

Pythium are favoured by excessive moisture, wet soils 

with poor drainage during cool weather. Fusarium is 

favoured by warm dry soils and Rhizoctonia by cool 

moderately wet soils. Grey mould (Botrytis) by cool, 

humid conditions. See Vegetables M 7. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: DO can be so extensive that 

resowing is necessary. Sow healthy seed free from 

mechanical injury, at correct time and depth into 

moist well drained seedbeds when temperatures are 

favourable for rapid germination and seedling 

growth. Provide adequate ventilation and spacing. 

Avoid overwatering and watering soon after 

sowing, poorly drained sites, poor ventilation and 

overfertilising. Foliage should be kept as dry as 

possible (this is difficult in misting houses). If 

ground is too dry, pre-irrigate soil, let it dry for a 

few days before sowing. Delay spring sowing until 

the soil temperature is > 15 o C at a depth of 50 mm. 

Do not plant into soil containing undecomposed 

plant trash. 

Sanitation: Remove and destroy affected leaves 

and badly diseased seedlings and neighbouring 

plants to prevent further spread of disease and 

sources of further infection. Contaminated soil 

may be on tools, containers, benches, floors, and 

trolleys. A program of nursery hygiene for 

propagating areas (bench tops, floors etc) must be 

in place. Keep hose nozzles used for irrigation off 

the ground otherwise contamination can occur. 

Ensure strict hygiene in propagation areas and 

that irrigation water is free from disease organisms. 

Avoid recontaminating treated soil and water. Do 

not use tools that have been used in untreated soil 

or let water splash on to treated soil from untreated 

areas. Vegetation and animal manures must be well 

decomposed in soil before field plantings are made. 


Biological control: Several bacteria and fungi have 

consistently provided control of DO diseases, eg 

Pythium and Rhizoctonia solani in the laboratory. 

They are not yet available commercially. See 

Greenhouses N 31 (Table 7), Trees K 6. 

Resistant varieties: Nearly all seedlings are 

susceptible to DO diseases. 

Plant quarantine: Isolate infected seedlings. Do 

not introduce infected plants. 

Disease-free planting material: Always plant 

disease-free seeds and cuttings in disease-free or 

treated soil. Propagate from tip cuttings that have 

no contact with soil and which are free from 

mechanical injury. Rhizoctonia may be seedborne, 

so if it is a problem locally for particularly 

susceptible plants, eg beans and tomatoes, obtain 

disease-free seed or treat available seed with hot 

water, aerated steam or chemicals. Inspect new 

plants for symptoms before planting, burn any that 

are infected. Inspect cuttings before storage, 

discard any not healthy. Similarly discard and 

destroy any cuttings in the ground which develop 

the disease. 

Physical and mechanical methods: Harvest seed 

to minimise damage. Soil pasteurisation is a preplant 

treatment suitable for container-grown plants, 

eg seedling or cutting trays, but not for field 

plantings. Standard treatment for propagation 

media is 60 o C for 30 minutes. This kills DO fungi. 

Hot water and aerated steam seed treatments: 

DO fungi may occur on or in seed. If this is 

suspected, advice should be sought regarding the 

procedures of treating seed as accurate control of 

temperature is essential. Seeds may be shrinkwrapped 

(Intellicoat ) to protect them against 

fungal attack in cold wet soil. Intellicoat 

disintegrates when the weather improves or the soil 

warms up enough for the seeds to germinate 

(Sanders 1995). Water treatments are usually 

only necessary for ground run-off water, eg from 

streams, dams or recycling. Treatments include 

chlorination, filtration, heating, ozone, ultra-violet 

light. See Water N 90. 

Pesticides: Identify the fungus causing DO. Many 

seeds are coated with protectant fungicides (and 

insecticides) before being marketed to prevent them 

being attacked by DO fungi in soil. Some granular 

fungicides may be mixed with potting mixes. 

Many nurseries regularly soil drench for DO 

diseases either weekly or fortnightly, depending on 

the plant species. Because the species of fungus 

causing DO is often not known fungicides may be 

applied alternatively or as mixtures (Table 11). 

Fungi may develop resistance to systemic 

fungicides so it is important not to use the same 

fungicide continually. Only apply foliage and soil 

fungicides after affected plants have been removed. 

Dust healthy cuttings with fungicide before storage 

and again before planting. See Vegetables M 7. 


Seed of broomrape (Orobanche spp.) and dodder 

(Cuscuta spp.) may contaminate host seed. When 

the host seed germinates so does the seed of the 

parasitic plant. Seed may also spread in hay and 

straw. See Trees K 9. 


Nematode diseases, eg root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne spp.) which can infest a wide range 

of plants, commonly attack seedlings. Nematode 

diseases may be spread in soil, water, seed and on 

vegetative propagation material (cuttings, bulbs, 

corms). See Vegetables M 10. 




Aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera) may infest the 

soft growth of seedlings, some are host specific, eg 

chrysanthemum aphid (Macrosiphoniella sanborni) 

while others may attack a range of plants, eg green 

peach aphid (Myzus persicae). See Roses J 4. 

Beetles, weevils (Coleoptera) may feed 

on newly planted seedlings and cuttings. African 

black beetle (Heteronychus arator) chew stems of 

newly planted seedlings in spring or autumn at 

ground level causing sudden wilting and death. 

Stems may look ragged. Beetles burrow into tubers 

making round, rough-edged gouges. The species 

normally inhabits grassland and considerable 

damage can be done to crops planted in land 

formerly under pasture. Beetles can also crawl 

into crops from adjacent grassland or in swarming 

flights. Susceptible crops should not be planted 

into ground where overwintering beetles are 

present. Beetle numbers may be reduced by 

growing legume crops (beans, peas, cowpeas, 

soybeans), which are not attacked by the beetles, 

or by a long clean fallow. Insecticides applied at 

planting in bands (baits, sprays or jetted into soil) 

along rows may protect seedlings. See Turfgrasses 

L 7. Others: Vegetable weevil (Listrodes 

difficilis), whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus 

leucoloma). See Vegetables M 17. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) may infest 

seedlings, some are host specific, eg cabbage 

white butterfly (Pieris rapae), while others may 

attack a wide range of plants, eg lightbrown apple 

moth (Epiphyas postvittana). See Annuals A 8. 

Cutworms, armyworms 



Dayfeeding armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) 

Northern armyworm (L. separata) 

Southern armyworm (Persectania ewingii) 

Lawn armyworm (S. mauritia) 

Black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) 

Bogong moth, common cutworm (A. infusa) 

Brown cutworm, pink cutworm (A. munda) 

Host range: Wide range of plants. They are 

serious pests of pastures, forage crops, cereals and 

grasses, garden flowers, fruit (young grapevines), 

passionfruit, strawberry, most vegetables, cereal 

crops. Lawn armyworm is an important pest of 

pastures and lawns. 

Description and damage: Moths are nightflying, 

mostly stout-bodied up to 40-50 mm across 

outspread wings and are black to brown, grey or 

fawn. Bogong moths may be seen in the semidarkness 

hovering over crops or congregating at 

flowering plants, feeding on nectar. This nectarfeeding, 

especially by bogong moths on certain 

species of eucalypts, can at times seriously interfere 

with the yield of honey to beekeepers. They are 

attracted to lights, eg are often found indoors and at 

Parliament House in Canberra. They may shelter in 

foliage of citrus in bloom and irritate pickers. 

Caterpillars (cutworms) are up to 40 mm long, 

smooth bodied, dark grey to almost black, dark 

brown, olive green, light green, occasionally with a 

pinkish tint. They usually are the same colour all over 

but they occasionally have conspicuous stripes along 

their body. They are turgid, soft and when disturbed 

coil up like a watch spring and sham death (Fig. 435). 

Young plants: Later stage armyworms when 

present in enormous numbers move army-like into 

uninfested crops and pastures consuming all palatable 

vegetation in their path. Cutworms feed on stems of 

newly germinated or young seedlings 'cutting' the 

stem and so that they fall over and die. Older plants 

may suffer partial or complete defoliation. Damage 

occurs in patches. They eat buds, shoots and 

sometimes green bark of cuttings, eg grapes. 

Cutworms shelter in the soil near recently damaged 

plants under clods or in old core holes by day and 

generally feed on stems of young plants in the late 

afternoon and at night or during the day in overcast 

weather. Damage is often attributed to other causes, 

eg wind or snails. 


larva, pupa, adult) with several generations each 

year. Each female moth lays several hundred eggs, 

usually in clusters on stems and leaves of plants 

including weeds close to ground level or among 

leaf litter. When fully fed, caterpillars pupate 

30-50 mm below the soil surface. When weeds are 

removed by cultivation, they feed on other young 

plants. 

Overwintering: As pupae in the soil. 

Spread: Moths are strong fliers and may be 

carried for long distances by wind and initiate 

infestations far from where they developed as 

caterpillars. Bogong moths may travel for many 

miles and shelter in huge numbers in summer in 

mountainous country, eg the Bogong High Plains. 

Conditions favouring: Previous heavy weed 

growth. Plagues only occur when conditions are 

favourable for egg hatching, eg flooding or heavy 

rains followed by warm weather resulting in 

succulent weed growth. Prolonged cold or dry 

weather may defer the next hatching for months. 

Residual weed clumps shelter cutworms which 

move on to crop plants. Damage may be severe if 

crop growth following emergence is retarded by 

cold, wet weather. 

Control: Early detection and treatment will 

prevent extensive damage. They are difficult to 

control if damage is occurring. 

Cultural methods/sanitation: Sow in wellfallowed 

cultivated land where weeds have been 

controlled. Incorporate decomposed plant material 

and weeds to kill any cutworms present and to 

make the site less attractive for egg laying. 

Cutworm moths concentrate egg laying around 

occasional weeds which become a source of 

infestation. If only a few plants are involved (as in 

a home garden), collect cutworms at night with the 

aid of a torch. Back filling core holes help to 

prevent cutworm damage. 

Biological control: Towards the end of a caterpillar 

plague, natural enemies kill many but not before 

economic damage has occurred. Various fly and 

wasp parasites, ground beetles and some 

predatory bugs prey upon them. In humid 

weather, many caterpillars are infected with a 

virus, turn black and die; many remain suspended 

from plants heads downwards. This disease often 

N 68 

OTHER PLANTINGS


brings about a rapid end to the infestation. Many 

birds, eg magpies and crows, feed on cutworms. If 

birds suddenly fly into paddocks recently cultivated 

or sown, examine the soil to a depth of about 100 

mm for cutworms. 

Physical and mechanical methods: In a home 

garden, cardboard or tin collars may be placed 

around seedlings as they emerge through the soil or 

immediately after planting. 

Pesticides: Sprays, dusts or baits may be applied 

before planting (if land is infested) or after 

planting. Baits should be spread in the early 

evening so that they are fresh and attractive when 

cutworms emerge to seek food at night and birds 

have retired. If cutworms are infesting a crop at the 

margins and are coming from surrounding weedy 

ground, strips of crops or weeds may be sprayed or 

baited heavily. Caterpillars should be treated when 

small as large caterpillars quickly do a lot of 

damage. Monitor emerging and establishing crops 

in the late afternoon or evening for caterpillars 

feeding on plants or crawling on the ground, 

especially after heavy rain or flooding, before 


Flies (Diptera): Onion maggot (Delia platura, 

Anthomyiidae) enters the roots and stems of young 

seedlings (especially vegetable seedlings) below 

ground level and feeds inside (Fig. 436). 

Damaged seedlings may wilt and die. See Onion 

M 68. Seedling bean midge (Smittia aterrima, 

Chironomidae) maggots attack seedlings of French 

beans, other vegetables. See Beans (French) M 28. 


vaporariorum) may heavily infest seedlings which 

may die. Occasionally the yield from established 

plants can be reduced if infestations continue 

unchecked throughout the growing season. 

However, whiteflies are often found feeding 

without causing any obvious damage and so, of 

course, require no control measures. See 


Seedharvesting ants (Pheidole, 

Formicidae, Hymenoptera) may remove seed from 

newly sown areas. Roots of grasses may be 

damaged by ants working amongst them, this may 

cause abnormal drying and additional stress. Do 

not leave plant debris and other litter which is 

attractive to ants lying around. Lime coating or 

dusting seed being broadcast is known to minimise 

attack from ants as well as improve the speed of 

germination of the seed. If the area is being treated, 

water soil first. It is desirable to find the nest and 

destroy it. See Trees K 19, Turfgrasses L 8. 


Scientific name: Coleoptera: 

Wireworms, click beetles (Elateridae) eg 

Potato wireworm (Hapatesus hirtus) 

False wireworms (Tenebrionidae) 

False wireworms (Celibe spp., Gonocephalum spp., 

Isopteron punctatissimus) 

Striate false wireworm (Pterohelaeus alternatus) 

Host range: Roots, bulbs and crowns of many 

plants, eg turfgrasses, vegetables. They are 

especially destructive to germinating seedlings. 

Description and damage: Wireworms are the 

larvae of click beetles which vary widely in form, 

colour and size. Wireworms often have hard, 

smooth, brownish, round bodies and are 10-40 mm 

long when fully grown (Fig. 437). Some have 

soft, semi-flattened, smooth, yellow or white 

bodies with darker, wedge-shaped heads and 

forked tooth-edged tails. Legs are grouped near the 

head. Adults are about 10 mm long, dull and 

black. In red soils they become coated with the 

soil and appear a dull red-brown. Damage: 

Larvae chew into germinating seed or underground 

stems of seedlings and bore narrow holes deep into 

carrot roots, potato and sweet potato tubers and 

bulbs. Damage resembles that of cutworms, in 

that seedlings are chewed but mostly below ground 

level and die as a result. Beetles will be found on 

the soil surface and the hard, slender cream larvae 

near the soil surface around affected plants. 

Do not mistake wireworms with larvae of predatory 

ground beetles (Carabidae), which are slender and semiflattened 

with large, dark heads and white or pale 

yellow, armour-plated bodies, with a prominent pair of 

spine-like, fleshy processes on the rear of the body. 

These larvae are beneficial insects which prey on eggs 

and larvae of soil-dwelling insects. 


larvae, pupa, adult). Their life cycles can extend 

over 2 years and generations may overlap. Eggs 

are laid in the soil and pupae are found near the 

soil surface around affected plants. 

Overwintering: As larvae and adults in the 

ground. 

Spread: By adults flying and crawling. Larvae 

do not crawl far from plants through the soil. 

Conditions favouring: Planting seedlings in 

land recently under pasture. Large numbers buildup 

in pasture over time. When pasture is ploughed up 

and crops sown in old grassland, these larvae turn 

to the crop for food, especially when germination 

is slow in cold, wet, low lying, poorly drained soil. 

Control: Control is difficult and not often justified. 

Cultural methods: Examine soil for larvae before 

sowing (they are usually in the upper 50 mm but 

may descend to 300 mm). Prevent infestation by 

a long fallow, with thorough working of the 

fallow before planting susceptible crops. 

Pesticides: Controlling soilborne insects such as 

wireworms with insecticides is difficult to 

achieve. Take several samples to estimate larvae 

density before planting to decide whether 

insecticide needs to be applied before planting. 

Others: Bugs (Hemiptera) may infest lush 

growth of seedlings. Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) 

may cause leaf speckling. Mole crickets 

(Gryllotalpidae) may damage germinating seeds 

and very small plants of vegetables and 

ornamentals by tunnelling through the upper soil 

of seed and garden beds. They may also ringbark 

growing plants, cut the roots just below the soil 

surface or burrow around plant bases so that the 

soil and the roots dry out. Occasionally they chew 

into maturing potato tubers and root crops, eg 

carrots and turnips. Onion thrips, cotton seedling 

thrips (Thrips tabaci) may attack some seedlings, 

eg cotton. 




Scientific name: Gastropoda, Mollusca eg 

Black-keeled slug (Milax gagates) 

Brown slug (Deroceras caruanae) 

Common garden snail (Helix aspersa) 

Green snail (WA) (H. aperta) 

Reticulated slug (D. reticulatum) 

Sand dune snail, white Italian snail (Theba pisana) 

Vineyard snail, common white snail (Cernuella virgata) 

White bradybaena snail (Bradybaena similaris) 

All pest species are introduced. 

Host range: Seedlings, cuttings, perennial 

herbaceous plants, ornamentals, eg begonia, box, 

violet, fruit, eg citrus, grapevine, strawberry, 

vegetables, eg pea, field crops, eg cereals. 

Description and damage: Damage is easily 

identified if pests are present on plants (Fig. 438) or if 

their shiny slime trails are visible. Snails and slugs 

mainly feed at night or during overcast weather. 

Their excrement is repulsive. Young snails may 

skeletonise new leaves, older snails eat holes (Fig. 19, 

Annuals A 3, Fig. 41 Gazania A 33). Tip growth may 

be destroyed. Young flower buds and flowers of 

daffodils, orchids and strawberries may be eaten, 

holes gnawed in ripe fruit may encourage moulds. 

Green bark of twigs, and stems of celery may be 

damaged. Damage may be confused with that caused 

by leafeating caterpillars, weevils and beetles. Up to 

4,000 juvenile green snails/m 

2 have been counted. 

Overwintering: As adults and egg clusters in soil. 

Snails are inactive, in dry conditions they seal over 

the shell opening and seal themselves to some object. 

Spread: By crawling, hitchhiking on vehicles, by 

the movement of plants, leafy vegetables, cut flowers, 

nursery stock, hay, pasture stock. 

Conditions favouring: Prolonged wet weather 

during autumn, winter, spring, low damp sites. 

Sheltered shady areas. Weedy areas or adjacent 

weedy areas. Infestation usually starts by invasion 

from nearby weedy areas. Perennial ground cover. 

Control: 

Cultural methods: Use trickle irrigation instead of 

overhead systems to maintain unfavourable conditions 

and reduce the opportunity for them to breed. 

Sanitation: Eliminate weedy areas, rubbish and rock 

piles where they may shelter and breed. 

Biological control: 5-6 Khaki Campbell or Indian 

runner ducks/ha control snails. Birds and rats kill 

many snails. Other natural controls include 

ground beetles (Carabidae), snail-killing flies 

(Sciomyzidae, Diptera), overseas parasitic protozoa, 

carabid beetle (Abax paralleepipedus) (Sunderland 

1991). In the UK; a nematode Phasmarhabdites 

hermaphrodita (Nemaslug ) controls reticulated 

slug (Deroceras reticulatum), garden slug (Arion 

hortensis) and keeled slug (Milax budapestensis). 

Nematodes enter slugs and release bacteria. 

Plant quarantine: Some crops, eg cut flower crops in 

WA, must be inspected and certified free from green 

snails prior to export to the eastern states. The giant 

African snail occurs overseas (Com. of Aust. 1996). 

Physical and mechanical methods: Remove snails 

by hand. Potting mixes with fibre and mulches of 

coarse woodchips and bark are unfavourable for snail 

movement. Deep barriers (20-30 mm) of wood ash or 

sand are effective for small plantings. 

Pesticides: Monitor snails and slugs as even a few 

can breed in a crop and soon produce damaging 

populations (Brough et al. 1994). If necessary, apply 

snail bait or sprays before planting out seedlings 

towards evening during wet weather. Place it on the 

ground, not on the plants. If they are feeding in the 

foliage of trees baits are not effective, sprays can be 

applied. Where there are children and domestic pets 

use sprays or non-chemical control methods. 

Bordeaux mixture plus white oil repels older snails 

but kills young snails and slugs on citrus. 


Seedlings must be protected from grazing 

animals, eg rabbits, and birds, eg blackbirds, 

sparrows, starlings, Indian mynas. See Fruit F 13. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Seedlings and other propagation 

materials require appropriate irrigation, soil 

temperature, light, fertilisers and protection from 

wind and sunscorch to promote rapid uninterrupted 

germination and growth. Inadequate light may 

cause elongated seedlings (Fig. 439). 

Genetic problems: Saving seed from the 

same crop continually, may result in genetic 

problems, eg pea seedlings may lack chlorophyll. 

Growing media (potting mix) must be free of 

salts, toxins, disease and pest organisms and 

weeds. It must have the correct ingredients, 

nutrients and be of the correct pH. See Potting 

mixes N 64. 

Nutrient deficiencies, toxicities: Seedling 

mixes may be incorrectly prepared (wrong 

fertiliser or wrong rates) and deficiencies and 

toxicities may show up in seedlings. After 

planting out similar problems may also develop 

depending on the species. 

Viability: Check the viability of seeds, cuttings 

and other propagation material. Ensure they are 

collected and stored appropriately. 

Others: Algae, fungus gnats and springtails 

may infest seedlings in overwet soil/media. See 

Greenhouses N 27, N 28, Turfgrasses L 13, L 14. 

WEEDS 

Contamination of crop seed: If crop seed is 

contaminated then non-crop seeds may germinate at 

the same time as crop seed (Fig. 439). 

Normal weeds which occur in a crop: Pre-plant 

cultural and/or herbicide treatments are essential to 

ensure weed-free seedbeds, cutting and crop beds. 

Post-plant treatments include cultural methods 

and/or pre-emergence or selective herbicides. 

Potting mixes must be weed-free, if necessary 

pasteurise media. Post-plant cultural methods or preemergence 

herbicides may be needed. 

See Annuals A 9, Potting mixes N 65, Soil N 82. 

N 70 

OTHER PLANTINGS



Scheme, Australia (NIASA). Aust. Hort. Corp., 

Sydney. new edn. due 1997. 

Brett, R. and Porter, I. 1997. Reducing the Need for 

Methyl Bromide. Aust. Hort., Jan. 




Bubel, N. 1988. The New Seed-Starters Handbook. 

Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania. 



Giant African Snail. No. 3. 1996. 

Dalton, G. 1993. Direct Seeding of Trees and Shrubs : A 

Manual for Australian Conditions. Primary 

Industries (SA), Adelaide. 

Gardiner, A. 1988. Modern Plant Propagation. Lothian 

Books, Port Melbourne. 




Kondinin & Districts Farm Improvement Group. 1989. 

The Seeding Edge : The Australian Seedling & 

Tillage Manual. Kondinin group, Mt Lawley, WA. 

Langkamp, P. J. (ed.). 1987. Germination of Australian 


Mebalds, M. 1994. New Steam-Air Machine Helps 

Control Disease. Aust. Hort., May. 

MANAGEMENT 


Moody, H. 1992. Warning on Green Snails. Aust. Hort., 

Oct. 

Nau, J. 1993. Ball Culture Guide : The Encyclopedia of 

Seed Germination. Ball Pub./GrowersTalk, Batavia, 

Illinois. 



Minnesota. 

Ralph, M. 1994. Germination of Local Native Plant 

Seed : For Revegetation, Tree Planting and Direct 

Seeding. Murray Ralph, Fitzroy, Vic. 

Sanders, E. 1995. Planting Season Grows with Spray-on 

Coats for Crops. New Scientist, 18th Nov. 



Prospects. The Plantsman, Vol.3(1), June pp.27-38. 


Industry eg 

Armyworm Caterpillars (NSW Agfact) 

Cutworm Caterpillars (NSW Agfact) 

Production of Kentia Palm Seedlings (NSW Agfact) 

Propagation of Ornamental Plants from Stem Cuttings 

(NSW Agfact) 

Seedling Maggots (NSW Agfact) 

Seedling Production : Damping Off (Vic Agnote) 

Vegetable Seedling Production (Vic Agnote) 

Snails : Pests of Crops and Pastures in SA (SA FactSheet) 

Snails and Slugs (NSW Agfact) 

White Snails : A Pest in SA (SA FactSheet) 

Wireworms (NSW Agfact) 

See Greenhouses N 28, Nurseries N 56, Plant tissue 

culture N 59, Seeds N 77, Preface xii 

Check list for seedlings 

Variety, colour, hardiness and other horticultural requirements correct. This may not be apparent until a 

plant flowers, eg pink flowering cherry instead of white Mt Fiji, and may be due to incorrect labelling of 

parent stock plants, propagation material or just mixed up nursery stock. See Nurseries N 53. 

Diseases and pests of the particular plants, eg azalea lace bug and other planting material may be due 

to diseased parent stock plants. Only use certified disease-free seed and other planting material, 

otherwise propagate from apparently disease and pest-free plants and treat with hot water and/or fungicides 

or insecticides. Many diseases are seedborne, hot water or chemicals treatments may be necessary. 

Aerated steam has long been used by quarantine to eradicate seedborne diseases. Steam results in less 

uptake of water into the seed than standard hot water treatments, minimising the chance of damage which 

might reduce germination and vigour. Use resistant varieties or cultivars where practical. 

Damping off (DO): Untreated growing media or its components may be contaminated, eg sand may be 

contaminated with Pythium. Treated media may be recontaminated. There may be a lack of nursery 

hygiene, eg secateurs not sterilised. Hygiene in all stages of propagation is important (removal of dead 

plant material, personnel hygiene). Seed may be treated with fungicides and insecticides to protect against 

DO and soil insect pests. For some very susceptible species, in addition to frequent inspections, hygiene 

and seed treatments, regular use of fungicide drenches may be essential to prevent disease problems. DO 

fungicides are suppressive only and are not permitted in some nurseries. Irrigation may be inappropriate, 

eg overwatering and poor drainage. Media may be inappropriate, eg may hold too much water, consist of 

wrong components, be too free draining or of the wrong pH. Upper leaves may need to be trimmed. 

Seedlings may be sown too thickly. Seeds may be sown when conditions are not ideal for germination of 

seed and growth, eg incorrect temperature. The longer seeds (or cuttings, etc.) take to root and grow, the 

longer they are susceptible to the DO diseases and insect pests, eg seedling maggot (Delia platura), that 

attack them. 



Growth regulators (rooting powders) used for cuttings when recommended can reduce 

susceptibility by speeding up rooting. 

Propagation material not viable: Some seeds can be dried and stored for years, others, eg lilly-pilly 

(Syzygium spp.), must be planted as soon as collected. Cuttings may have dried out, be of the wrong size, 

age and wood; it may be the wrong time of year; storage and propagation methods may be inappropriate. 

Cuttings dipped too long in rooting solutions which have alcohol as a solvent, may be damaged. 

Weeds: Contaminated media, or media components, eg sand contaminated with weed seeds. Weeds in 

media not controlled prior to planting. Weed-free or treated media recontaminated with airborne seeds. 

Ensure source of propagation material is not contaminated with weeds. 

Others: Nutritional deficiencies or toxicities may develop due to incorrect fertilisers or rates of 

application. Light, temperature or other environmental requirements faulty. Faulty equipment, eg 

sensors may fail, valves may stick, mist jets blocked, faulty switches. Air pollution, eg toxic air from inhouse 

heaters (effluent gases are not directly ducted to outside). Phytotoxic disinfectants which have not 

been rinsed off or given enough time to evaporate. Phytotoxic pesticides used to control diseases and 

pests especially in greenhouses. 

Postharvest: Seedlings and other nursery stock must be disease, pest and weed free, correctly labelled 

and marketed in good condition during the appropriate planting season. 



Fig. 433. a. Pre-emergence damping off. 

b. Stem rot near the soil surface causes seedling to fall over. This is the most common form of damping off 

and is usually caused by Phytophthora, Pythium and Rhizoctonia. 

c. Wire-stem or sore-shin: Some seedlings, such as cabbages, have rather woody stems and the fungus kills 

the tissues at ground level but the plants remain standing. Commonly caused by Rhizoctonia. 

d. Root and stem rot: Rootlets rot and the rot then progresses up into the stem. Usually caused by 

Cylindrocladium, Phytophthora and Pythium. 

e. Top damping off: Under damp conditions, fungi may spread from leaf to leaf or from stem to stem via 

the tops of the seedlings which rot down to soil level often leaving the crown and roots uninjured. 

Depending on the fungus, infection may be airborne or originate from the soil, spreading up the first few 

plants and then remaining aerial. Often caused by Botrytis, Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia. 

f. Cuttings may rot progressively from the cut end, from the root bases, from wounds made by the 

removal of buds or leaves, and from dead leaf bases. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

g. Damping off in a seedling tray. See below. 

Fig. 433. g. Damping off in a 

seedling tray. 

Fig. 434. African black 

beetle(Heteronychus 

arator) and larva. 

Fig. 435. Cutworm 

(Agrotis sp.). 

Fig. 436. Onion maggot 

(Delia platura). Dept. of 

Agric., NSW. 

Snail 

Slug 

Fig. 438. Snails and slugs. 

Fig. 437. Wireworms 

(Elateridae). 

Fig. 439. Left : Etiolation due to lack of light. 

Right : Annuals weeds in seedbeds. 

N 72 

OTHER PLANTINGS


Table 11. A guide to some damping off fungicides. 

This table is not a substitute for reading and following instructions on the label of a currently registered product. 

TRADE NAME 

Activity group a 

Chemical group 

ACTIVE 

CONSTITUENT 

CROPS b , SITES b 

TREATED 

Examples only 

FUNGI b EFFECTIVE 

AGAINST 

Main examples only 

COMMENTS b 

Previcur 

Group Y - multisite activity 

Carbamate 

propamocarb 

Ornamentals, 

containers, 

seedlings, 

vegetables. 

Water moulds, 

eg Pythium, 

Phytophthora. 

Systemic. 

Persists 6-8 weeks. 

Preventative 

treatment. 

Fongarid 

Group D - phenylamide 

Acylalanine 

furalaxyl 

Seedbeds, soil 

treatments. 

Water moulds, 

eg Pythium, 

Phytophthora. 

Systemic. 

Persists 2-3 

months. 

Do not use in 

greenhouses. 

Ridomil 

as for Fongarid 

metalaxyl 

Fruit, field crops, 

vegetables. 

Water moulds, 

eg Pythium, 

Phytophthora, 

downy mildews 

Systemic. 

Terrazole 

Group X - unspecified 

Thiadiazole 

etridiazole 


potting mix, roots, 

trees, turf. 

Water moulds, 

eg Pythium, 

Phytophthora. 

Non-systemic. 

Persistent. 

Only use outdoors. 

Benlate 

Group A - benzimadazole 

Benzimadazole 

benomyl 


fruit, field crops, 

turf, vegetables. 

Botrytis, Fusarium, 

Rhizoctonia. 

Not Water moulds. 

Systemic. 

Ronilan 

Group B - dicarboximide 

Dicarboximide 

vinclozolin 


fruit, turf, 

vegetables. 

Botrytis, Sclerotinia. 


Non-systemic, 

local systemic 

activity. 

Rovral 

as for Ronilan 

iprodione 

Ornamentals, turf, 

fruit, vegetables. 

Botrytis, fungal leaf 

spots. 


Non-systemic, 

Irritating to eyes. 

Terraclor (PCNB) 


Chlorophenyl 

quintozene 

Some 

ornamentals, fruit, 

turf and 

vegetables. 

Rhizoctonia, 

Sclerotium. 


Non-systemic. 

Often used preplant. 

Persistent. 

Only use outdoors. 

Thiram 


Dithiocarbamate 

thiram 


fruit, vegetables, 

turf, seedbeds. 

Wide range, 

but not as effective 

against some fungi 

as other fungicides. 

Non-systemic. 

Seedbeds. 

Seed treatments. 

FUMIGANTS 

Basamid 

Sub D aromatic 

dazomet 

Pre-planting, 

seedbeds, soil 

treatments. 

Soil fumigant, 

fungi, nematodes, 

insects, weeds. 

Pre-plant only. 

Granular. 

Metham 

Vapam 

Carbamate 

methamsodium 

Pre-planting, 

seedbeds, fields, 

potting mix, turf. 


bacteria, fungi 

nematodes, insects, 

weeds. 


Various 

methyl 

bromide 

+ 

chloropicrin 

Pre-planting, 

soil, compost, 

manure, 

commodities, 

non-crop, space, 

quarantine. 


bacteria, most fungi, 

insects, weeds, 

rodents. 


Chloropicrin is also 

a warning agent. 

METHYL BROMIDE 

IS BEING PHASED 

OUT. 

a Avcare. 1995. Fungicide Activity Group List. Avcare, North Sydney. 

b Read the label of a currently registered product for directions for use, rates, and safety directions. Damping off 

fungicides may be applied by many methods, including pre-plant treatments, seed treatments and soil drenching. Soil 

drenches may be applied at spray rates as high as 2L spray per square meter. Make sure that the mix is moist before soil 

drenching. Botrytis causes aerial damping off and spraying is therefore more effective than soil drenching. Although it is 

necessary for a fungicide to persist for short periods of time to provide effective control, some soil fungicides persist for 

too long for use in greenhouses. 


Seeds 


Field diseases, pests and weeds 

Seedborne diseases, pests and weeds 

Stored seed 

FIELD DISEASES, PESTS AND WEEDS 

Seed production may be affected by: 

Killing the plant prior to seed production. Rabbits 

and wallabies may eat plants before seed is set. 

Weeds or drought may kill young plants. 

Reducing plant vigour so that quality and quantity of 

seed produced is impaired. Virus, bacterial and 

fungal diseases, insects and allied pests, nutrient 

deficiencies and drought may reduce plant vigour. 

Heat waves can affect seed ripening and seed drop in 

species like wattles. In a good seed year quality is 

better and harvesting easier. 

Seed destruction: Fungal diseases may cause 

seed to be replaced by spores or spore-producing 

structures. Ergot diseases (Claviceps spp.) of 

paspalum, rye and other grasses replace seed with 

ergots (Fig. 440) which may be poisonous to stock. 

See Turfgrasses L 7. Smut of couch, and some smut 

diseases of cereals (Fig. 441) replace seed with 

spores. See Turfgrasses L 7. Nematode diseases, 

eg annual ryegrass toxicity (ARG), develops 

when annual or Wimmera ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) 

is infected with a seed nematode (Anguina funesta) 

and an associated bacteria (Clavibacter sp.). Toxic 

galls formed in place of the seeds can kill animals 

grazing on infected ryegrass pasture. Insects may 

attack maturing seeds, causing serious losses, eg 

lucerne seed wasp (Bruchophagus roddi). 

Vertebrate pests, eg mice, may eat sunflower seed 

on the plant (Fig. 442). Non-parasitic: Mechanical 

injury by machinery, dropped seed (nail head in bean) 

and overmaturity. 

SEEDBORNE DISEASES, PESTS AND WEEDS 

The term 'seedborne' means that pest or disease 

organisms or weeds are carried on, in or in 

association with, the seed. Crops produced from 

such seed will be infested or diseased. 

Diseases 

Virus and virus-like diseases: More than 20% of 

these diseases are seedborne, but often only on 

particular hosts and not all seed from that plant may 

carry the virus. Tomato spotted wilt is seedborne only 

on beans, cucumber mosaic virus only on some hosts. 

Bacterial diseases are commonly seedborne, eg 

bacterial leaf spots of primula and zinnia, bacterial 

blight of pea. 

Fungal diseases which are seedborne include rusts, 

smuts and fungal leaf spots. Grey mould (Botrytis 

cinerea) does not infect seed but may be spread with 

seed contaminated with sclerotia the size of the seed 

or with bits of plant debris infected with the fungus 

(Agrios 1988). 

Control: Seed disinfection is the eradication of 

diseases and pests within the seed by hot water 

treatments, steam-air (Mebalds, 1995) or the use of 

systemic chemicals. Seed disinfestation is the 

eradication of infestation from the surface of seed. 

Seed protectant fungicides applied to the outside 

of seeds (Kerruish 1990) are sometimes required to 

serve as seed disinfestants as well as protectants 

against soil diseases and pests. Many seeds 

(ornamentals, carrot, bean, pea, sweetcorn, turfgrass) 

are treated with fungicide to prevent damping off 

(DO) diseases and damage by soil insects. Only plant 

certified disease-free seeds. Some disease 

organisms may die out in seeds before the viability of 

the seed reaches uneconomically low levels, eg 

Septoria leaf spot. 


Flies (Diptera): Sorghum midge (Contarinia 

sorghicola) is a major field pest of grain sorghum 

and also infests sweet sorghum, broom millet, 

Johnson grass, Sudan grass and native pasture grasses. 

The midge is a fragile fly, smaller than a mosquito, 

with a bright orange abdomen. Maggots feed on and 

destroy developing grain and pupate in tiny pupal 

cases attached to the tops of many of the florets. 

Moths (Noctuidae, Lepidoptera): Corn earworm 

(Helicoverpa armigera) may seriously damage 

developing seeds of maize, linseed and lucerne in 

particular. See Sweetcorn M 89. Pink bollworm 

(Pectinophora gossypiella) is a serious pest of 

cotton. Larvae feed preferably on the kernel of the 

seed and resting stage larvae may be found on seed 

for up to 2 years if conditions are unfavourable. 

Infested cotton seed is usually heat treated (65 o C for 

30 sec.) or fumigated. Others: Clover casebearer 

(Coleophora alcyonipennella,Coleophoridae) damages 

seed of white, strawberry and red clovers. Young 

caterpillars feed inside seed, older caterpillars cause 

cavities in them. Cased larvae, which are the 

overwintering forms, and the pupae are about the 

same size as rye grass seed and they are commonly 

found in seed harvested from infested pasture. Also 

Macadamia nutborer (Cryptophlebia ombrodelta, 

Tortricidae), dryandra moth (Carthaea 

saturnioides, Carthaeidae). 

Seed chalcids or chalcid wasps (Eurytomidae, 

Hymenoptera) are mostly beneficial insects which are 

parasitic on many insect pests but a few attack seeds. 

Lucerne seed wasp (Bruchophagus roddi) 

destroys seeds of lucerne, some clovers and medics. 

Eggs are laid in partly developed seeds, larvae eat 

the contents of the seed, pupate in the seed, and adult 

wasps chew their way through the seed coat and the 

pod, leaving a hole in each. The winter is spent as full 

grown larvae within the hollowed out seed coats and 

these infested seeds are the source of infestation for 

the new season. Control measures are partly based on 

destroying as many of these larva-bearing seeds as 

possible, including careful cleaning. Parsnip seed 

wasp (Systole sp.) has been recorded as emerging 

from severely damaged parsnip seed. See Parsnip 

M 71. Wattle apple-gall wasp (Trichilogaster 

acaciaelongifoliae) causes flower galls on wattle. 

Seed weevils, bruchid beetles (Bruchinae, 

Chrysomelidae) are serious pests; larvae live 

mostly in the seeds of Fabaceae and Palmae. Bean 

weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus), which attacks 

bean seeds of various types (Fig. 443), and cowpea 

weevils (Callosobruchus spp.), are both mainly 

N 74 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SEEDS 

storage pests which may first infest seed in the field. 

Infested seed usually germinate but resultant plants 

are poor, less vigorous and lower yielding than those 

from pest-free seed. Pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) 

and broadbean weevil (B. rufimanus) are mainly 

pests of green crops but many survive in dry seeds for 

considerable periods. See Bean (broad) M 24, Beans 

(French) M 31, Pea M 74 Prickly acacia seed 

beetle (Bruchidius sahlbergi). 

Other weevils (Curculionidae, Coleoptera): 

Argentine stem weevil (Listronotus bonariensis), a 

pest of turf and pasture grasses, is also found in 

ryegrass seed. Mango seed weevil (Sternochaetus 

mangiferae), palm seedborer (Coccotrypes 

dactyliperda) and kurrajong weevil (Axionicus 

insignis) burrow into seeds. 

Others: Seedharvesting ants (Pheidole spp.) may 

remove newly planted seed for food from turf areas 

(see Turfgrasses L 8), also seed mite (Tyrophagus 

longior), seed bugs (Lygaeidae). 

Snails and slugs (Gastropoda) may 

contaminate seed, eg vineyard snail (Cernuella 

virgata), sand dune snail or white Italian snail 

(Theba pisana), may damage cereal crops and 

contaminate grain. See Seedlings N 70. 

Weed seeds, other crop seeds and seeds of 

some parasitic plants,egbroomrape (Orobanche) 

and dodder (Cuscuta), may contaminate crop seed 

(Fig. 444). Vegetative propagative material may 

also be contaminated with weeds, eg couch stolons 

may contaminate gladiolus corms. 

STORED SEED 

Diseases: Saprophytic fungi (and 

occasionally bacteria) can grow on seeds and grain 

during storage, but are usually only a problem if 

the stored material contains excessive moisture 

(> 12% relative humidity). 


The main problems associated with stored seeds 

and grain are caused by insects, eg beetles 

(Coleoptera), moths (Lepidoptera) and mites 

(Acarina). Despite the importance of field pests, 

the damage caused by insects and mites to 

harvested seeds (and grain) in storage is much 

more serious. Some pests (and diseases) which 

attack plants in the field can carry over into 

storage. Various stages of some of these insects 

may survive in seeds and may require treatment. 


1. Feeding damage 

Primary pests attack and destroy sound unbroken 

seeds (Fig. 445). Except for the lesser grain borer, 

larvae of primary pests are not capable of a free 

existence outside the kernel, they live entirely within 

the kernel where they feed unseen and often 

unsuspected. The entire larval and pupal stages are 

passed inside the grain. Seed may be infested in the 

field. Primary pests cannot be removed by ordinary 

cleaning machinery and must be controlled by other 

means. There are 5 major primary pests: 

Angoumois grain moth (Sitrotroga cerealella) 

Granary weevils (Sitophilus spp.) 

Lesser grain borer, Australian wheat weevil 

(Rhyzopertha dominica, Bostrichidae) 

Maize weevil (S. zeamais) 

Rice weevil (S. oryzae) (Fig. 445) 

Secondary pests are mostly surface feeders in both 

adult and larval stages (Fig. 446), eating damaged, 

moist and out-of-condition grain and stored food 

products: 

Cadelle (Tenebriodes mauritanicus) 

Confused flour beetle (Trilobium confusum) 

Driedfruit beetle (Carpophilus hemipterus) 

Flour beetles (Trilobium spp.) 

Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) 

Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium) (Fig. 446) 

Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella) 

Rust-red flour beetle (Trilobium castaneum) 

Sawtoothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus spp. 

Warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variabile) 

Warehouse moths (Ephestia spp.) 

If grain is not damaged by primary pests, it is unlikely 

that any other insect will damage it appreciably in 

commercial storage or shipment, except possibly the 

khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium). 

Caterpillars of the Indian meal moth and dried 

fruit moth make large amounts of webbing which 

may buildup into unsightly films over the surfaces of 

bagged seed or on top of the seed in bulk store. Some 

seed-infesting insects chew holes through fabric, film 

and paper containers. Secondary pests can largely be 

removed by seed or grain cleaning operations. Mites 

(Tyrglyphidae) are common pests of seeds in store 

especially in ill-ventilated damp, unclean warehouses. 

Flour mite (Acarus siro) attacks many stored 

products including grain and seeds. 

2. Contamination: Although there is considerable 

loss from direct feeding, fragments and faeces of 

insects contaminate foodstuffs. 

3. Heat and moisture generation can lead to further 

spoilage, seed germination and further insect and 

fungal infestation. Heat is generated by respiration of 

grain, fungi and insects. 

Overwintering: Stored seed: Most insect 

infestation originates after the seed is placed in 

storage and involve insects which are widely 

distributed, abundant and feed on a variety of stored 

products. In addition, many of the insects are strong 

fliers and can move into storage structures to start 

infestations if preventative measures are not carried 

out. Used bags can also be a source of infestation if 

they are not cleaned thoroughly or fumigated before 

refilling. Bagged or packaged seeds carried over 

from one season to the next provide an infestation 

hazard. Adult beetles or moths lay their eggs near or 

on packages, the tiny newly hatched larvae crawl in 

through minute openings. The first external evidence 

of trouble may be when the mature insects cut holes 

in the package to emerge. By this time extensive 

damage has occurred. Reserve stocks of seeds are 

another source of difficulty. The longer storage 

period provides time for the development of more 

generations of insects and possibly a large increase in 

numbers. Older seeds may also become more 

susceptible to attack if storage conditions have not 

been suitable. Seeds may become infested in the 

field before harvest, eg maize seed by the rice weevil 

and the Angoumois grain moth, and legume seed by 

bruchid beetles. These insects can complete their 

development and continue to reproduce after seed is 

put into storage. 


SEEDS 

Spread: Adult insects may fly, seed may be infested 

in the field and be transferred to storage during 

harvesting. Bags and machinery may spread 

infestations. 

Conditions favouring: High temperatures 

> 15 o C especially if relative humidity is > 12% 

(exact temperatures and humidities vary with the 

species). Grain heat is indicative of grain 

deterioration and comes from respiration of grain, 

fungi and insects. 

Control: To prevent infestation of seed, control 

must start at the point of harvesting and be 

continued until the seed is utilised. Minimise 

damage from field infestation by prompt 

harvesting and proper handling which may include 

drying, fumigation or other chemical treatment, or 

all three. Insect control in warehouses may vary 

depending on whether the seed is stored in bulk or 

in bags and according to the type of storage 

structure. However, the basic principles are the 

same in all cases. The most important being the 

cleaning of seed and storage areas and 

monitoring of storage temperatures and grain 

moisture content. Fumigants and other 

insecticides may be required. 

Sanitation: Seed cleaning will not remove 

primary pests which develop inside the seeds, 

but will remove most or all of the external forms 

of secondary pests. It is difficult for infestation 

to get started in clean seed. The more 

thoroughly seed is cleaned the less hazard there 

will be of insect infestation, eg a concentration 

of 0.5% dust/broken grain, etc, may be critical at 

seed moisture content of 9-10%, while a smaller 

amount is critical at 12% moisture or higher. In 

filling bulk bins this material tends to 

concentrate in dense layers or columns, which, 

in association with moisture and fungal activity, 

creates a mass that is hard to fumigate or cool by 

forced air. Clean storage areas inside and out 

before bringing in new seed. Destroy or treat 

spilled seed, grain or animal feed, bags and 

stored grain from previous seasons. Do not 

stack new seed near older seed. Old stocks of 

these materials that may be infested should be 

removed or treated. Clean machinery. 

Biological control: The presence of parasites and 

predators indicates pests are present. Parasitic 

wasps (Anisopteromalus spp.) swarm over seed. 

Wasps lay eggs in larvae of beetles and moths. 

Pseudoscorpion (Allochernes wideri) preys on 

mites, insect eggs and small larvae. A 

predatory bug (Xylocoris sp.) sucks juices from 

insect eggs and small insect larvae. Hay itch 

mites (Acarina) are external parasites of various 

insect larvae, eg Angoumois grain moth, grain 

weevils. 

Resistant varieties: Peas resistant to weevils 

which eat peas in store are being developed. 

The digestion of starch in the weevils stomach is 

blocked so that they starve to death. 

Plant quarantine: A number of other species 

occur overseas and could be introduced into 

Australia, eg greater grain borer (Prostephanus 

truncatus). 

Physical and mechanical methods: Moisture 

content: Measuring the moisture content of 

seeds is most important but not always easily 

achieved. An average sample of seeds must be 

obtained to determine moisture content. 

Because there may be differences of 2-7% 

between different locations in a large bulk a 

knowledge of the variation is important in 

assessing storage risks. Seed that is harvested 

dry, or dried soon after harvest, and is free from 

insects may remain sound and in good condition 

and of high germination capacity for many 

years. Seeds stored at uniform and high 

moisture content may not remain so, especially 

in bulk storage. Moist surface grain may be 

invaded rapidly and spoiled by storage fungi and 

may even germinate. Moisture migration is of 

minor importance in small quantities of seed or 

bagged seed. The upper limit of moisture 

content that seeds can tolerate varies with the 

kind of seed, temperature and duration of 

storage. Moisture requirements of various 

storage insects differ, eg grain weevils do not 

develop in seeds that contain < 8% moisture and 

do not grow well when the moisture is < 11% 

unless the temperature is 30-33 o C. On the other 

hand the saw-toothed grain beetle and flour 

beetle can live on food almost devoid of 

moisture if the temperature is favourable. The 

upper limits generally considered safe for long 

storage under average conditions are 13% for 

beans, peas and cereal grains including corn; 

10% for flax seed. Seed stocks of most of these 

stocks are stored at lower levels than those 

indicated. Temperature: Cool storage of seed 

is important because of the relationship between 

temperature and moisture in their effect on the 

development of insects. The optimum 

temperature for most seed infesting insects is 27- 

30 o C. Temperatures > 35 o C are not favourable, 

temperatures of 49-52 o C are fatal; this is 

employed sometimes in treating infested seed. 

Development is retarded at < 21 o C. Most of the 

stored product insects cease feeding and become 

inactive from 4.4-10 o C. Some species and mites 

will reproduce at 4.4 o C and even lower but only 

if the moisture content of the seed is > 12%. 

Some large storages have temperature measuring 

equipment which is valuable in detecting rises in 

temperature caused by insects. Refrigeration is 

impractical or too expensive for protecting 

most seeds and is only justified for small 

quantities of valuable seed stock or if the 

infestation hazard is unusually high. Even in 

cold storage moisture content must be kept down 

to avoid damage to germination. Upon removal 

from cold storage, condensation may occur. 

Seed with a high moisture content removed from 

cold storage and subjected to high summer 

temperatures will deteriorate rapidly. Barriers: 

Insect resistant packaging is useful for protecting 

seed during storage and until it is planted. Inert 

dusts, eg diatomaceous earth, dehydrate insects 

but contaminate grain. Gamma irradiation: 

The exposure of grain and grain products to an 

irradiation source has been used successfully 

overseas for large or continuous supplies of 

grain. There is no residue from irradiation 

sources when used for grain, but technically 

competent staff must handle such materials. 

Pesticides: Protectant fungicides and insecticides 

applied to seeds prevent damage by insects and 

damping off fungi after planting. The fungicides 

provide little or no protection against storage 

fungi but insecticides may be effective in 

preventing infestation during storage before 

planting. Often residual sprays are applied 

after cleaning and before new seed is stored. 

The application of a protectant as seed goes into 

storage may be desirable if the storage period is 

N 76 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SEEDS 

to be more than a few weeks. The periodic 

application of residual sprays over the surface of 

stocks of bagged seed may be desirable as a 

preventative measure. The seed must of course 

be free from infestation when stacked. Space 

treatments may be used against moths but their 

value is limited. Seed that is infested at 

harvest must be treated before, during or 

immediately after it is placed in storage. 

Fumigation is the most effective corrective 

measure to apply if infestation develops in 

storage when preventative steps have been 

lacking or inadequate. Methyl bromide is being 

phased out as it accounts for between 5-10% of 

ozone depletion worldwide. Phosphine is 

becoming less effective as resistance builds up in 

insects. Possible alternative fumigants being 

tested include carbonyl sulphide (a common 

waste product of burning and rotting plant 

matter and fossil fuels) and carbon dioxide. 

During storage, insecticides may be applied to 

seeds as surface dusts, sprays or other treatments 

to protect against damage. Some major insect 

pests have developed resistance to insecticides. 

Pheromone lures have been developed for 

moths and beetles and enable the precise 

identification of moth and beetle pests and 

enable monitoring before and after control 

treatments (Macquillan 1994). 

Vertebrate pests: Mice, rats, possums, 

etc, may eat seed on the plant or in store. Seed in 

store is not only eaten but also contaminated with 

faeces. 

Non-parasitic: The containers used for 

storage, type of shelving and storage conditions 

affect the length of time seed should be stored and 

seed viability. Seed varies in genetic quality, 

depending on the crop, continued collection of 

seed from crops for resowing can lead to albinism, 

poor germination, transfer of disease, etc. 

Pesticide residues in seed limit its use. 

Tolerances have been established for insecticides 

to permit their use on seed grains and food. 

Surplus or reserve seed stocks treated with these 

materials therefore may be diverted for use as 

animal feed or human food if tolerance level has 

not been exceeded. Seed treated for planting may 

not later be used for human or animal consumption 

and it should not be used for feed, food or oil. 




Anon. 1993. Seed Certification Services. Rural 

Industries Research & Development Corporation. 

Res. Paper No.93/5. 

Bell, A. 1993. A Computer Expert Helps Protect Grain 

Crops from Pests. Rural Research, CSIRO, 

Melbourne, Autumn. 

Boland, D. J., Brooker, M. I. H. and Turnbull, J. W. 

1980. Eucalyptus Seed. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Bonney, N. 1995. What Seed is That? Greening 

Australia, Adelaide. 

Bubel, N. 1988. The New Seed-Starters Handbook. 

Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. 

Com. of Aust., Aust. Quar. & Inspection Service, 

Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry - Australia. 

Greater Grain Borer. No.53. 1988. 

Khapra Beetle. No.6. 1989. 

Coombs, B. 1995. Horticulture Australia. Seeds:551- 

554. Morescope Pub., Hawthorn East, Vic. 



Desmarchelier, J. and Wilson, J. 1994?. Grain Aeration. 


Fanton. M. and J. 1993. The Seed Savers' Handbook for 

Australia and New Zealand. The Seed Savers' 

Network, PO Box 97, Byron Bay, NSW. 



Sydney. 



Langkamp, P. J. (ed.). 1987. Germination of Australian 


Linnett, B. 1986. Seed Processing in Australia. Qld 


MacQuillan, M. J. 1994. Cost Effective Surveillance is 

the Name of the Game. Pestalk, Oct./Nov. 

Mebalds, M. 1995. Protect Your Flower Seeds with 

Steam-Air Treatment. Aust. Hort., May. 

Morrill, W. 1995. Insect Pests of Small Grains. APS 


Nau, J. 1993. Ball Culture Guide : The Encyclopedia of 

Seed Germination. 2nd edn. Ball Pub., Batavia, 

Illinios. 

O'Neill, G. O. 1993/95. Green Genes Join the War 

against Insects. Ecos, Summer. 

Ralph, M. 1993. Seed Collection of Australian Native 

Plants for Revegetation, Tree Planting and Direct 

Seeding. Murray Ralph, Fitzroy, Vic. 

Rogers, M. 1990. Saving Seeds : The Gardener's Guide 

to Growing and Storing Vegetable and Flower 

Seeds. Storey Communications, Pownal, Vermont. 

RIRDC. 1993. Seed Certification Services. Rural 

Industries and Development Corporation (RIRDC), 

Research Paper Series No. 93/5, Barton, ACT. 

Sanders, E. 1995. Planting Season Grows with Spray-on 

Coats for Crops. New Scientist, 18th Nov. 

Sinclair, E. and White, G. 1992. Insect Pests of Stored 

Grain : A Management Guide for Farms. Qld Dept. 


Stewart, D. and R. E. 1995. From Seeds to Leaves : A 

Complete Guide to Growing Australian Trees and 

Shrubs from Seed. Agmedia, East Melbourne. 




USDA. 1979. Stored-Grain Insects. Gov. Print. Office, 

Washington, DC. 

Commonwealth/State/Territory Departments of 

Agriculture/Primary Industry eg 

Australian Tree Seed Centre (CSIRO) 

Cigarette Beetle & Drugstore Beetle (NSW Agfact) 

Conditions of the Registered Seed Scheme for Field Crops 

(Vic Agnote) 

Control of Stored Food Insects (WA Farmnote) 

Control Seed-borne Diseases with a Hot-water Bath 

(Vic Agnote) 

Grain Insect Control : The Clean Pipeline (WA Farmnote) 

Grain Silo Failures (NSW Agfact) 

Guide to Seed Certification (NSW Agfact) 

Indian Meal Moth (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Stored Foodstuffs (NSW Agfact) 

Insect Pests of Stored Grain (NSW Agfact) 

Insects of Stored Grain (CSIRO poster) 

Insect Pests of Stored Products and Recommendations for 

their Control (NT Tech. Bull No.57. 1982) 

Loose Smut of Wheat and Barley (NSW Agfact) 

Oat Smut (NSW Agfact) 

Pasture Seed Certification (Tas Service Sheet) 

Pea Weevil (NSW Agfact, SA Fact Sheet)) 

Practical Seed Storage (NSW Agfact) 

Quality Seed : The Basis of all Agriculture (NSW Agfact) 

Seeds Acts (Most states/territories) 

Seed Certification (NT Agnote) 

Seed Certification No.2. Responsibilities of the Grower 

and Cleaner (Qld Farmnote) 

Seed Cleaning of Mungbean Contaminated with Cowpea 

(NT Technote) 

Some Facts about Seed (NSW Agfact) 


SEEDS 

Sources of Registered Seed of Field Crops, 1986 (Vic 

Agnote) 

Storage & Sale of Bulk Certified Seed (NSW Agfact) 

Seed Sampling (NSW Agfact) 

Seed Storage and Particle Board (NT Technote) 

The NSW Seeds Act 1982, Explained (NSW Agfact) 

The Tasmanian Seeds Act 1985 Explained (Tas Farmnote) 

Warehouse Beetle (NSW Agfact) 

White Snails : A Pest in SA (SA Fact Sheet) 

Variety Testing (NSW Agfact) 

Vegetable Seed Treatments (WA Farmnote) 

MANAGEMENT 


Grains Council of Australia (GCA) 

Horticulture Australia 

International Seed Testing Assoc. (STA) 

Seeds Industry Association of Australia (SIAA) 

State Certification Authorities 

State/Industry Seed Testing Laboratories 

Stored Grain Research Laboratory, CSIRO (Insects of 

Stored Grain (poster)) 

See Bean (broad) M 24, Beans (French) M 31, 

Pea M 75, Seedlings N 71, Preface xii 



An overview of the seeds industry in Australia is outlined by Coombs (1995). The seeds industry is regulated by 

both federal and state legislation via various seeds acts. 

Field diseases, pests and weeds 

Where field diseases, pests and weeds are a problem, examine crop samples for their presence and accurately 

identify them. Treat where appropriate. Identify common major weeds and their seeds and factors leading to 

crop seed contamination. Understand sources of weed seed infestation of crops. 

Seedborne diseases, pests and weeds 

Be aware of legislation, statutory and voluntary schemes relating to weed seeds. 

Seed certification in general seeks to produce seeds which are true-to-type, free from declared and 

prohibited weeds and other seeds and free from prohibited pests and diseases. Hence, seed certification 

schemes enable the maintenance, production and identification of quality seeds (RIDC 1993). A seed 

certification scheme is maintained by each state government of Australia and the nature, operations, rules 

and fees are fully documented in literature from each state department of agriculture. The development of a 

single industry-based incorporated association (SEEDCERT) to progressively assume responsibility for all 

seed certification schemes in Australia has been recommended. Alternative schemes have be suggested. 

Seed certification schemes include pre-sowing, seedling and spring inspections, seed cleaning, pest 

control varietal purity tests and administration of the scheme itself. 

Resistant varieties: Some types of stored seed are very susceptible to damage in storage. The pea weevil 

may reduce yield by 30%. Gene surgery is being researched to transplant genes from the French bean 

(Phaseolus vulgaris) into peas (Pisum spp.) to inhibit an enzyme which pea weevils need to digest its food. 

Disease-free planting material: Where seedborne diseases are a problem, only plant certified disease, 

pest and weed-free seed supplied by a registered grower or treat seed as recommended before planting. 

Recognise field pests which affect the storage of particular crop seeds and methods of controlling them, eg 

eelworm wool, insect contamination of harvested seed, pests and their damage to stored seed, seedling 

pests and their damage. Understand how seed treatments control seedborne diseases and pests. Identify 

common major weeds and their seeds and factors leading to crop seed contamination. French bean seed 

certification schemes operate which supply seed free from specified weed seeds, diseases and pests. Seed 

disinfection is the eradication of pests or diseases from within the seed by hot water or air-steam treatments 

or by systemic chemicals. Some pathogens may die out in seeds before seed viability reaches 

uneconomically low level, eg Septoria leaf spot. Seed disinfestation is the eradication of infestation on the 

surface of seed by chemicals or air-steam treatments. Seed protectants, applied to the outsides of seeds 

(ornamentals, pea, bean, carrot, grass) to preventing infection and damage to seed by soil microorganisms, 

are sometimes required to serve as seed disinfestants as well. Overseas seeds may be shrink-wrapped to 

protect them from soilborne fungi (Sanders 1995). See Seedlings N 67. 

Pesticides: Understand the problems associated with applying insecticides to seeds and the legislation 

relevant to them. Some seeds, eg sweetcorn seeds, may be treated with fungicide and insecticides to 

protect them from damping off fungi and soil insects. Do not use such seed for feed, food or oil. 

Stored seed 

Wherever seed is stored there is a need to prevent or control infestations by insects, especially during warm 

conditions. Potential pests must be identified and monitored. 

Harvest at the correct time when seed is ripe. In a 'seed year' seed quality is better and harvesting easier. 

Heat waves can affect ripening and cause seed drop in some species, eg wattles. Seed must be adequately 

labelled. Examine samples of seeds for presence of pests and diseases. Sanitation: Harvested seed must 

be cleaned prior to storing but this may be difficult. Clean by sieving through wire mesh, winnowing or use an 

air stream to remove impurities from the seed. Bags, containers, packing and storage areas must be cleaned. 

Before storing seed check that surface is dry and each seedlot free from insects. Insecticide dust of a low 

hazard may be recommended if seeds are to be stored > 1 year. Seal in an air tight nearly full container. For 

bulk storage, monitor grain moisture content and temperature. Understand the problems associated with the 

application of fumigants and insecticides to seed, ie seed treated for planting cannot necessarily be diverted 

for food or feed. For certain types of seed there may be special treatments. Plant quarantine risks and 

precautions: All produce of plant origin is carefully controlled through permits and inspections. This, 

combined with the cooperation of shippers and importers and the public, prevents the accidental importation of 

pests from overseas or spread of some diseases, pests or weeds within Australia. 

N 78 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SEEDS 

Fig. 440. Ergot (Claviceps spp.). 

Left : Ergot on wheat. 

Upper right : Wheat ergots. 

Lower right : Tall fescue ergots. 


Fig. 441. Loose smut of 

(Ustilago avenae). Dept. of 

Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 442. Mice eat sunflower seed. Dept. of 

Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 443. Bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus). 

Left : Bean weevil (3-4 mm long). 

Right : Exit holes of adult weevil. Dept. of Agric. NSW. 

Fig. 444. Weed seed in desired seed. 

Fig. 445. STORED SEED - Primary pests, eg 

Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae). 

Left : Legless larva (up to 4 mm long) in seed. 

Centre : Exit hole of adult weevil. 

Right : Adult weevil (about 3 mm long). 

Fig. 446. STORED SEED - Secondary pests, eg 

Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium). 

Left : Larva (up to 5 mm long). 

Right : Adult (2-3 mm long). 


Soil 


Parasitic 









Non-parasitic 

Beneficial animals and plants 

Environment 

Pest animals and plants 

Pollution 

Soil characteristics 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 

Many pests and diseases spend part of their life 

cycle in the soil. Some of these soil pests and 

diseases may attack a wide range of plants while 

others may be host specific and only attack a 

genus, species or variety. Conservation tillage 

practices bring many benefits, but their adoption in 

recent years appears to have increased the 

incidence of insect damage to summer and winter 

crop seedlings. Retained stubble provides food 

and shelter for insect larvae and adults and favours 

the survival of ants, wireworms, false wireworms 

and earwigs. Many other factors affect buildup of 

insect numbers and it is difficult to predict 

accurately when high pest populations will occur. 

Whether a particular crop is affected or not 

depends on what it is susceptible to, the 

presence of the disease, pest or weed in sufficient 

numbers and the environmental conditions 

favourable to the pest, disease or weed (Fig. 447). 

Susceptible host plant 

∆ 


Many bacterial diseases of plants are soilborne, eg 

Bacterial soft rot (Pseudomonas carotovora) 

Black rot (of stock) (Xanthomonas campestris pv. 

incanae) 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.) (Fig. 448) 


Many fungal diseases of plants are soilborne, eg 

Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.) 

Damping off (Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp.) 

Fusarium root and crown rots (Fusarium spp.) 


Phytophthora diseases (Phytophthora spp.) 

Rhizoctonia diseases (Rhizoctonia spp.) 


Sclerotinia rots (Sclerotinia spp.) (Fig. 449) 

Take-all disease (Gaeumannomyces graminis) 

Wilts (Fusarium oxysporum, Verticillium dahliae) 

Some herbicides may favour the development of 

some soil fungal diseases. Some fungal diseases 

which attack the foliage, eg fungal leaf spots or 

sclerotinia rots, may survive from season to season 

in crop debris on or in the soil. 


Seed from broomrape (Orobanche spp.), dodder 

(Cuscuta spp.) and devil's twine (Cassytha spp.) 

may be present in soil. See Trees K 9. 


Most nematodes spend some part of their life cycle 

in the soil including: 

Cyst forming nematodes (Nematoda) 


Foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) 

Pin nematodes (Paratylenchus spp.) 

Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) (Fig. 450) 


Stem and bulb nematodes (Ditylenchus spp.) 



Presence of pest, 

disease or weed 

Favourable 

environment 


Fig. 447. The disease triangle. 


It is unusual for virus diseases to be soilborne. 

Lettuce big vein virus is spread by a soil/water-borne 

fungus (Olpidium brassicae). 

Tobacco mosaic virus, which infects orchids, is 

spread by mechanical inoculation, by grafting, by 

contact between plants, by seed, by infected crop 

debris. 

Most insects (representatives of many insect 

orders) spend some of their life cycle in the soil. 

It is often difficult to find soil insects, and 

identification of larvae can be difficult. Many 

insects pupate in the soil even though adults fly 

and larvae feed on or in plants. 

Ants (Formicidae) nest in soil. 

Aphids (Aphididae) may feed on roots (Fig. 452). 

Beetles (Coleoptera): Larvae (Fig. 451) of scarab 

beetles (Scarabaeidae), eg African black beetle 

(Heteronychus arator), white grubs (Rhopaea spp.) 

may feed on roots, burrowing up to 1.5 m, vegetable 

N 80 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SOIL 

beetle (Gonocephalum elderi). Larvae of many 

weevils, eg Fuller's rose weevil (Asynonychus 

cervinus), garden weevil (Phlyctinus callosus), 

spotted vegetable weevil (Desiantha diverpes) 

vegetable weevil (Listroderes difficilis) and 

whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma), 

feed on roots. 

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) may live in the soil, eg 

armyworms and cutworms (Noctuidae) (Fig. 451) 

lay eggs and hide in soil, many insects pupate in the 

soil, eg grapevine moth (Phalaenoides glycinae), 

oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta). 

Crickets, grasshoppers, locusts (Orthoptera) lay 

eggs in soil (Fig. 451). 

Earwigs (Dermaptera) lay eggs in soil. 

Fruit flies (Tephritidae) pupate in the soil. 

Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) may feed on roots (Fig. 

452). 

Sawflies (Hymenoptera), eg steelblue sawfly, 

pupates in soil (Fig. 451). 

Springtails (Collembola) and symphylids 

(Symphyla) live and breed in wet soil (Fig. 452). 

Thrips (Thripidae) may pupate in soil (Fig. 451). 

Millipedes (Diplopoda), eg black Portuguese 

millipede (Ommatoiulus moreletii). 

Termites (Isoptera) may nest in soil (Fig. 452). 

Wireworms (Elateridae) and false wireworms live in 

soil and feed on roots and runners (Fig. 451). 


Most snails and slugs lay eggs in soil, eg 

common garden snail (Helix aspersa). See 



Many vertebrate pests such as rabbits (Fig. 453) 

and other rodents which feed on plants have 

burrows in soil. Wombats, which are part of the 

native fauna, live in burrows in the soil. 

Non-parasitic 

Beneficial animals and plants 

Algae are present naturally in soil and only become a 

problem if conditions are overwet. See Water N 91. 

Amoeba in soil may attack and feed on a wide range of 

soil fungi. Many genera occur in Australian soils and 

possibly could be useful for controlling soil fungal 

diseases, eg Phytophthora cinnamomi. 

Bacteria, eg nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium 

spp.), are also present in soils (Fig. 454). 

Earthworms improve soils by many means, eg turning 

over soil, increasing the rate of decomposition, 

availability of nutrients to plants and the amount of 

water held by soils. 

Fungi: Slime moulds and many other fungi in 

soil assist in the breakdown of organic matter. 

Antagonistic fungi, eg Trichoderma spp., colonise 

roots of some plants and are antagonistic to certain 

soilborne diseases (Armillaria, Botrytis, Fusarium, 

Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, 

Chondrostereum, Penicillium, Phomopsis). Edible 

fungi also occur. Mycorrhizae are common in soil 

(Fig. 454). See Trees K 18. 

Lichens (symbiotic algae and fungi) assist in 

breakdown of dead wood and rocks. See Trees K 18. 

Nematodes (Nematoda), eg predatory species, feed on 

fungi and other nematodes. Nematodes breakdown 

organic matter. See Vegetables M 10. 

Insects and allied pests (Arthropoda), eg springtails 

(Collembola), are important as soil builders. Fly 

maggots breakdown organic matter (Fig. 454). 

Protozoa feed on bacteria, fungi, other protozoa and 

nematodes. 

Snails and slugs, eg predatory slugs, feed on pest 

species. 

Environment: Erosion may occur due to lack 

of soil cover, tree clearing, overgrazing, water, 

wind. Conservation tillage (the killing of weeds 

and old crops by the application of herbicides 

rather than by cultivation), assists in preventing 

erosion and has a mulching effect; but the 

remaining debris may increase soil pests and 

diseases if they are a problem for that crop. See 

Soil N 80. 

Pest animals and plants: 

Many insects and allied pests nest or breed in soil, 

eg ants (Formicidae), flies (Diptera), fungus gnats 

(Diptera), mosquitoes (Culicidae), spiders 

(Araneida) and wasps (Hymenoptera). 

Bacterial diseases of humans: Legionnaire's 

disease (Legionella longbeachea) is associated with 

potting mixes and causes respiratory disease mainly in 

older people. See Potting mix N 64. Melioidosis, 

Knightcliff gardeners' disease (Burkholderia 

pseudomallei) is found in soil in tropical regions and 

symptoms range from skin ulcers, abscesses, fevers, 

etc. It is recommended that waterproof gloves and 

shoes are worn when prolonged contact with the soil 

is likely to occur in the wet season. Tetanus, 

lockjaw (Tetanus bacilli) thrives in dust and dirt and 

gets into the body through breaks in the skin. 

Children are immunised against infection. 

Pollution 

Fertilisers in excess may cause salinity problems. 

Human and animal sewage pollution may cause 

nitrogen and phosphorus toxicity problems. 

Industrial waste may cause pollution with heavy 

metals. 

Pesticides which have undue persistence may 

accumulate in soil. Examples include persistent 

fungicides, eg copper, residual herbicides, eg 

diuron, and persistent insecticides, eg chlorpyrifos. 

Petroleum products, eg diesel fuel, may persist for 

months in soil. 

Soil characteristics 

Chemical properties, eg nutrient status. Soils may be 

naturally deficient in nutrients and trace elements 

or may have a surplus. Salinity may be a problem. 

Physical properties, eg colour, pH, temperature, 

water-holding capacity,wettability. Soil temperature 

is more important than air temperature for growth of 

the host, eg seed germination, and disease and 

pest development, eg damping off. 

Soil analyses are recommended prior to planting a 

commercial crop (Fig. 455). 


SOIL 

WEEDS 

Weed seeds, rhizomes and root pieces are common 

in soil (Fig. 456), so that a weed management plan 

for both pre-plant and post-plant control of annual 

and perennial weeds, grass and broadleaved 

weeds, must be prepared and implemented. It may 

involve cultivation, removal by hand or machinery, 

mowing, ground covers, mulches, biological 

control agents, pre-emergence and post-emergence 

herbicides, selective and non-selective herbicides. 





Anon. 199 . Soil Solarisation Kills Weeds and Disease. 

Gardening Guide. Dept. of Agric. and Rural Affairs, 

Melbourne. 

Australian Soil and Land Survey Handbooks. cur. edns. 

Inkata Press, Melbourne: 

Vol.1 : Field Handbook 

Vol.2 : Guidelines for Conducting Surveys 

Vol.3 : Australian Laboratory Handbook of Soil and 

Water Chemical Methods 

Baker, G. A and Barrett, V. 1994. Earthworm Identifier. 


Bennett, W. F. (ed.). 1993. Nutrient Deficiencies & 


Minnesota. 

Brady, N. C. 1990. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 

10th edn. Macmillan Pub., NY. 

Brewer, R. and Sleeman, J. R. 1988. Soil Structure and 

Fabric. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Carrow, R. N. 1993. Evaluating Soil and Turf 

Conditioners. Golf Course Management, Oct. 

Charman, P. E. V. and Murphy, B. W. (eds). 1991. 

Soils : Their Properties and Management (A Soil 

Conservation Handbook for New South Wales). 

Sydney University Press, Sydney. 



Davies, B., Eagle, D. and Finney, B. 1993. Soil 

Management. Reed Books, Port Melbourne. 

Division of Soils. 1988. Soils : An Australian Viewpoint. 

reprinted 1992. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Evans, G. 1991. Acid Soils in Australia : The Issues for 

Government. Bur. of Mineral Resources, Canberra. 



Uni. of Qld, Gatton College, Lawes, Qld. 

Gershuny, G. 1993. Start with the Soil. Rodale Press, 

Emmaus, PA. 

Handreck, K. A., Discovering Soils Series. cur. edns. 


Composting 

Earthworms for Gardeners and Fishermen 

Food for Plants 

Organic Matter and Soil 

Potting Mixes and Care of Plants Growing in Them 

Soils : An Outline of their Properties and Management 

Soil : Australia's Greatest Resource 

What's Wrong with My Soil? 

When Should I Water? 

Handreck, K.1993. Gardening DownUnder : Better Soils 

and Potting Mixes for Better Gardens. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 




Hotlink, H. 1990. Beating Bacterial Disease with Biocontrol. 

Aust. Hort., May. 

Lake, J. 1994. Open Day Raised Issue of Soil Standards. 

Aust. Hort., Aug. 

Leeper, G. E. and Uren, N. C. 1993. Soil Science : An 

Introduction. Melbourne University Press, 

Melbourne. 

Murphy, D. 1993. Earthworms in Australia. Hyland 

House, Melbourne. 

Pfegger, F. L. and Linderman, R. G. (eds). 1994. 

Mycorrhizae and Plant Health. Symposium Series. 


Porter, I. 1987. Soil Solarisation for Disease and Weed 

Control. Plant Protection Quarterly Vol.2(2). 

Rayment, G. E. and Higginson, F. R. 1992. Australian 

Soil and Land Survey Handbook. Vol. 3: Australian 

Laboratory Handbook of Soil and Water Chemical 

Methods. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Subba Rao, N. S. 1993. Symbiosis in Nitrogen-fixing 

Trees. International Science Publishers, NY. 

Subba Rao, N. S. 1995. Soil Microorganisms and Plant 

Growth. International Science Publishers, NY. 

Woods, W., Michael, P. and Grimm, M. (compilers). 

1990. Insects and Allied Pests of Extensive Farming. 

3rd edn. Dept. of Agric., WA. 

Zimmerman, J. F., Hastings, A. M., Dallwitz, M. J. and 

Paine, T. A. (1993). Beetle Larvae of the World. 

(CD-ROM; colour manual). CSIRO, Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

NSW Agfacts 

Herbicide Behaviour in Soil 

Identifying Deficiencies in Crops 

Know Your Fertilisers 

Liming Problem Acid Soils 

Nutritional Deficiencies in Crops 

Nutritional Deficiencies in Plants 

Soil Acidity and Liming 

Soil Salinity and How to Recognise It 

Vic Agnotes 

How to Take Soil Samples for Analysis 

Properties of Soils 

Sampling Soils and Plant Materials for Examination of 

Nematodes 

Soil Fumigation 

For the New Farmer : Soil and Topography of the 

Melbourne District 

Soil Solarisation : Disease and Weed Control 

The Use of Heat to Sterilise Soils and Potting Mixtures 

What is Soil? 

Chemical Sterilisation of Soils and Potting Mixtures 

WA Farmnotes 

Chemical Disinfection of Soil 

Identifying Soil Insect Pests : Beetles 

Soil Moisture Monitoring Equipment 

Tensiometers : Preparations and Installation 

Qld Farmnotes 

Crop Establishment and Soil Insect Pests 

Mycorrhizae : Soil Fungi Improve Phosphorus and Zinc 

Nutrition 

CSIRO videos 

Borne Again Soil 

Continent in Crisis 

Down to Earth 

Saline Soil 

Salinity and Water Penetration in Australian Soils 

Soils of Australia 

Soil Animals (poster) 

The Living Soil 


Australian Jn. of Soil Research 

Australian Soil Conservation Conference Proceedings 

Earthworms in Australia. NSW 


Horticultural Stock & Nurseries Act 

Soil Testing Laboratories/Businesses 

Soils and Their Management 

See Compost N 17, Mulch N 50, Nurseries N 56, 

Potting mix N 65, Turfgrasses L 16 



N 82 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SOIL 

Selection 

Soil standards have been proposed (Lake 1994). Usually soil for particular situations, eg playing fields, have 

prescribed specifications. 

Soil analysis (Fig. 455) determines chemical composition, eg pH and total soluble salt content, phosphorus 

and potassium levels, major and minor element analysis and water analysis, physical characteristics, eg 

particle size distribution, texture, drainage and compaction, profile wettability and biological analysis, eg root 

system evaluation, germination tests, disease diagnosis, insect and weed identification, presence of beneficial 

organisms. Select areas for sampling, the depths of the samples; for subsurface samples, eg for nematodes, 

sample when soil is damp (moist, not wet); for trees lift clumps of soil containing feeder roots and place in a 

moisture proof container. Take samples at the correct time, label adequately, record details of sample areas 

and send them off the same day. Follow instructions on how to collect representative soil samples. 

Plant analysis: Follow instructions for collecting plant samples, eg take samples of the correct plant part, eg 

leaves, at the correct time; record details and send them off the same day. 

Resistant varieties: If contaminated soil is to be planted, preferably select species with some resistance to 

any pests and diseases present in the soil, eg Fusarium-resistant carnations or tomatoes. Some plant species 

may also be resistant to drought. 

Plant quarantine: Soil is full of potential pests, diseases and weeds and is therefore a prohibited import into 

Australia and between designated regions within Australia. Quarantine legislation regulates the movement of 

soil. Soil deliveries or soil on equipment or in pots, may introduce soilborne problems to areas where they do 

not occur. 

Disease-free planting material: To avoid introducing diseases and pests to healthy areas, it is essential to 

only plant disease-free planting material (cuttings, nursery stock, seed). Plant into disease, pest and weedfree 

soil or media, or treat soil or media prior to planting. Use weed-free mixes, soil-less mixes. Seed or 

plant treatments: Seed may be treated with fungicides and insecticides to protect it against damping off fungi 

and soil insect pests. See Nurseries N 53. 


When dealing with small amounts of soil, eg for seedbed, potting mixes, turf areas it is possible to control 

soilborne pests, diseases and weeds but once a field area is contaminated with certain organisms it is almost 

impossible to eradicate them, eg bush blocks infected with Phytophthora. 

Cultural methods: Susceptible plants only become damaged if the soil environment is favourable to pest 

development (Fig. 447). Pest and disease numbers can be reduced by practicing crop rotation (the pest or 

disease must only have narrow host range for this to be successful). Trap plants (Tagetes spp.) may be 

grown for one season to reduce root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) sufficiently for susceptible crops to 

be grown the following season. Provide a root environment which is favourable for the host, eg optimum 

growing conditions (good drainage, correct pH, nutrients, phosphorus improves resistance to disease) but 

unfavourable for the pest or disease. Soil conditioners improve the physical, chemical and biological 

properties of soil. Wetting agents added to soil may damage some plants. 

Sanitation: Practice nursery hygiene, eg clean soil from tools and equipment, destroy contaminated crop 

debris by deep burying, etc, to reduce pest numbers and inoculum. See Nurseries N 51, N 55. 

Biological control of soilborne pests and diseases is difficult. A bacteria (Nogall ® ) will control crown gall. 

Roots of Prunus nursery stock may be dipped in Nogall ® prior to planting. Suppressive mixes and soils have 

been identified (soils high in organic matter). A nematode (Otinem ® ) will control the black vine weevil. 

Mycorrhizae soil fungi improve uptake of phosphorus and other nutrients. When soil is moist, it is a 

favourable medium for the application of biological control agents, eg bacteria and fungi, to control soil 

diseases, eg Phytophthora and pests, eg scarab grubs. Hopefully, these may become available commercially 

in the near future. 

Physical and mechanical methods/Pesticides: Pre-plant soil treatments include soil pasteurisation, 

solarisation, fumigation, pesticide applications (fungicide, nematicides, insecticide baits) which are suitable 

only for small areas. Post-plant treatments include pesticide applications. Soil fungicides are often only 

suppressive, so their use may not be permitted in nurseries where certain diseases exist, eg Phytophthora, 

as it will be spread to new areas when pots are sold. 

Storage 

MANAGEMENT 

Treated soil (or media) for later use in potting mixes or seed beds must be stored in such a way that it cannot 

become re-contaminated with pests, diseases and weeds. 


SOIL 

Fig. 448. Crown gall (Agrobacterium sp.) 

on loganberry (Rubus sp.). 

Fig. 449. Sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum). Left : Sclerotia on carrot. 

Right : Trumpet-shaped apothecia (sporeproducing 

structures) produced by 

sclerotia in soil. Dept. of Agric., NSW. 

Fig. 450. Root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne spp.) on tomato, 

parsnip. 

Fig. 451. Eggs and immature stages of insects and other pests commonly found in soil. 

Left : Australian plague locust depositing eggs in soil. 

Centre : Larvae of scarab grubs, cutworms, wireworms; nymphs of thrips. 

Right: Pupae of steelblue sawfly. 

Fig. 452. Adult insects and allied pests commonly found in soil. 

N 84 

OTHER PLANTINGS

SOIL 

Fig. 453. Rabbits round a waterhole. CSIRO. 

Fig. 454. Beneficial animals and plants in the soil. 

. 

Fig. 455. Left : Soil analysis (performed 

before planting). Right : Iron deficiency 

on hydrangea. Dept. of Agric., NSW 

Fig. 456. Annual and perennial weed reproductive structures in soil. Left : Seeds of annual and perennial 

weeds are abundant. Centre : Rhizomes and stolons of perennial weeds grow above and below the soil surface. 

Right : Bulbs, corms and tubers of perennial weeds, also cut up pieces of stolons and tap roots, suckers. 


Urban bushland 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 

Virus and virus-like diseases: Viruses introduced 

with exotic orchids may spread to native species. 

Fungal diseases: Exotic fungal diseases, eg 

Phytophthora root rot, is a major disease of jarrah 

and other native plants. See Trees K 6. Australian 

diseases, eg armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.), 

may spread in bush areas. See Trees K 4. 

Parasitic plants, eg devil's twine, mistletoe and native 

cherry, may spread in bushland. See Trees K 9. 

Insects and allied pests: Exotic insect pests, eg 

various scales, may infest native plants, eg 

eriostemon. Australian insects, eg leaf beetles, 

may only be minor pests of eucalypts in their natural 

habitat, but may be serious pests when species are 

grown out of their natural habitat. 

Snails may hitch rides on containers and vehicles. 

Vertebrate pests: Exotic animals, eg starlings, eat 

fruit; rabbits may eat small plants; mice and rats eat 

seed and crops. Australian animals, eg cockatoos, 

may destroy crops in local areas. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Natural drought and fire affect the 

biological condition and appearance of bushland. 

Fungi, insects, vertebrate pests: Fungi: Several 

Basidiomycetes, eg death cap (Amanita phalloides), 

which are extremely poisonous, have been introduced 

into Australia with deciduous exotic trees, eg oak, 

beech. Insects: The bush fly (Musca vetustissima) 

is a common nuisance. See Compost N 17, Manure 

N 48. Vertebrate pests: Domestic and feral cats 

may feed on native birds. Feral pigs dig up the bush. 

The cane toad was introduced as a biological control 

agent, and camels were introduced for transport. Carp 

are a serious pest of waterways. 

People-pressure problems: Animal dumping 

before school holidays. Fire, eg fire trails and breaks, 

altered fire regimes. Pollution: Some native plants 

are used as indicators of air pollution (ozone, carbon 

from wood fires, etc); water pollution may be caused 

by increased run off, fertilisers and pesticides; soil 

pollution by fertilisers and residual herbicides; noise 

pollution by aeroplanes. The use of some soil 

residual herbicides in bush areas is considered to 

affect soil microflora. Removal of plants, rocks and 

soil. Rubbish dumping (garden rubbish, soil, old 

car engines) in bush areas. Soil erosion, 

degradation, salination of waterways from previous 

clearing and misuse of land especially in marginal 

areas due to agriculture, mining and forestry. Trail 

bikes, 4-wheel drive vehicles cause soil 

compaction and erosion. Trampling of bush by 

bush walkers. Urban services: Power lines, 

sewage, water, gas, drains, roads, parking areas, 

expressways. Vandalism: Removal of trees, signs, 

etc, trees may be damaged. 

WEEDS 

Exotic weeds may colonise bush areas. Many 

were introduced deliberately for agricultural 

crops, ornamental purposes, eg briar rose, or for 

soil conservation, eg bitou bush. Often these are 

the most obvious plants in urban bushland. Some 

were introduced accidentally, eg skeleton weed. 

Australian native weeds are native species which 

have become weeds in certain environmental 

circumstances, eg Cootamundra wattle, 

hardenbergia. Noxious weeds are those weeds 

which are declared noxious in certain areas of 

Australia. Weeds may be introduced to bushland 

in soil in containers, and via garden waste dumped 

in bush areas. Potential weed species can now 

be identified using computer modelling based on 

plant family, area of origin, and other information. 

This could be used to limit future introductions 

and sales of plants in certain regions of Australia. 

Weeds in urban bushland may be controlled in 

small areas by diligently digging out or by spot 

spraying or stem injecting herbicides. On a very 

large scale the only possible or practical control is 

to develop some form of biological control as has 

been done for prickly pear. The plant quarantine 

trend is to free up introductions of food, new 

cultivars and other plant materials for trade 

reasons. This will inevitably increase the 

accidental introduction of exotic weeds, and 

diseases and pests. Only plant weed-free planting 

material (seed, runners, etc) in bush areas. Weed 

control acts are the responsibility of local shires 

or governments, ie control of weeds is on a 

regional basis, a plant may be a weed in one place 

but not in another. Proposed codes of practice 

for weed control could avoid soil disturbance or 

large scale clearing, and encourage the use of 

mulches, removal by hand, cutting down, mowing 

or stem injection. A national weed strategy is 

also being developed. Nurseries, landscapers, 

councils and gardeners must accept some 

responsibility locally and cease recommending, 

selling and planting species which some local 

authorities are trying to control, eg cotoneaster. 


Animal and Plant Control Commission & Crop Science 

Soc. of SA. 1994. Managing Weeds for Landcare 

1994. SA Animal & Plant Control Com., Adelaide. 

Anon. 1993. Management of Relict Lowland Grasslands. 

Proc. Workshop & Public Seminar, Sept. 24-25, 

ACT Parks & Cons. Service, Canberra. 

Anon. 1994. Nursery Co-operation to Control Weeds. 


Auld, B. A. and Medd, R. W. 1993. Weeds : An 

Illustrated Botanical Guide to the Weeds of 

Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Beckman, R. and Davidson, S. 1990. Reversing Rural 

Tree Decline. Rural Research, Autumn. 

Bradley, J. 1988. Bringing Back the Bush. Lansdowne 


Breckwoldt, R. 1990. Living Corridors. Greening 

Australia, Canberra. 

Buchanan, R. A. 1989. Bush Regeneration. Greening 

Australia/OTEN, Redfern, Sydney. 

Buchanan, R. A. 1981. Common Weeds of Sydney 

Bushland. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Buchhorn, R., Jones, D. and Robertson, D. 1989. Urban 

Forestry Handbook : A Guide to the Management of 

Urban Bushlands. Cons. For. & Lands, Melbourne. 

N 86 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Campbell, A. 1994. Landcare : Communities Shaping 

the Land and Future. Allen & Unwin, St. Leonards, 

NSW. 

Carr, G. W., Yugova, J. V. and Robinson, K. E. 1993. 

Environmental Weed Invasions : Conservation and 

Management Implications. Dept of Conserv. & Env. 

& Ecological Horticulture, Melbourne. 

Com. of Australia. 1995. Native Vegetation Clearance, 

Habitat Loss and Biodiversity Decline. Biodiversity 

Series, Paper No.6., Dept. of Env, Sport and Ter., 

Canberra 

Cremer, K. W. 1990. Trees for Rural Australia. 

CSIRO/Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

Dalton. G. 1993. Direct Seeding of Trees and Shrubs. 


DPIE. 1992. Draft National Weeds Strategy. Bureau of 

Resources, Div. of Plant Indust., CSIRO, Canberra. 

Eckersley, R. 1989. Regreening Australia. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 

Grey, G. W. 1995. The Urban Forest. John Wiley & 

Sons, NY. 

Henderson, M. 1994. Garden Favourites Banned at 

Eltham. Aust. Hort., May. 

Hussey, B. M. J., Hobbs, R. J. and Saunders, D. A. 

1994. Guidelines for Bush Corridors. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 

Kabay, D. 1990. Seven Principles for Land 

Rehabilitation. Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Kitching, R. L. 1986. (ed.). The Ecology of Exotic 

Animals and Plants. John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane. 

Kleinschmidt, H. 1991. Suburban Weeds. 2nd. edn. Qld 


Margules, C. R. and Austin, M. P. (eds). 1991. Nature 

Conservation : Cost Effective Biological Surveys 

and Data Analysis. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Mather, G. and Laurence, C. 1993. Managing Your 

Urban Bushland : A Guide for Urban Councils. 

Total Environment Centre, Sydney. 

Morris, B. 1993. Land Care. Science in Action Series, 


Parsons, W. T. and Cuthbertson, E. G. 1992. Noxious 

Weeds of Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne. 

MANAGEMENT 

URBAN BUSHLAND 

Pascoe, S. 1995. Weeds : Australia's Most Under- 

Estimated Environmental Threat. Aust. Hort., Dec. 

Randall, J. M. and Marinelli, J. (eds). 1996. Invasive 

Plants : Weeds of the Global Garden. Brooklyn 

Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, NY. 

Rawling, J. 1994. Australia's Environmental Weeds : 

Whose Responsibility? Landscape Australia, Feb. 

Read, I. G. 1994. A Guide to the Vegetated Landscapes 

of Australia. NSW University Press, Kensington. 

Roberts, B. R. 1992. Land Care Manual. NSW 

University Press, Kensington. 

Robertson, M. 1994. Stop Bushland Weeds. Nature 

Conserv. of SA, Adelaide. 

Roy, C., Kemp, A., Stone, G. and Liston, P. 1990. 

Roadside Management. VicRoads, Kew, Vic. 

Sadler, T. 1993. Forests and Their Environment. 

Science and Our Future Series, CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Young, M. D. (ed.). 1992. Sustainable Investment and 

Resource Use. Parthenon Pub. Group Inc. Park 

Ridge, New Jersey. 


Industry eg 

Caring for Aust. Bushland in Urban Areas (NSW Agfact) 

Controlling Wild Dogs (NSW Agfact) 

Effective Rabbit Control (NSW Agfact) 

Feral Pigs : Identifying the Problem (NSW Agfact) 

Foxes and Their Control (NSW Agfact) 

Noxious Animal Control (NSW Agfact) 


Australian Heritage Commission 

Australian Nature Conserv. Agency (Bushline Newsletter) 

Australian Weeds Committee 

Environmental Management : The Role of Eucalypts and 

Other Fast Growing Species (Proc. Workshop 1996. 

CSIRO/DIST, Canberra) 

Greening Australia, Landcare 


National Weeds Strategy (DPIE) 

Reclaiming Land (video CSIRO) 

Royal Australian Institute of Parks and Recreation 

State/Territory Forestry Commissions, Shires, Councils 

Towards Ecologically Sound Australian Landscapes 

See Soils N 82, Trees K 22, Urban landscape N 88 



Commonwealth/State management: Departments of lands and environments, national parks and wildlife, 

heritage commissions, special committees, trusts, shires, etc. are responsible for problems that transcend state 

boundaries. Some of these responsibilities may be regulated by legislation, eg protection of native flora and 

fauna, noxious weeds. Nursery accreditation schemes attempt to prevent spread of weeds, diseases and 

pests via plants and media in containers. Plant quarantine regulates plant, soil and other introductions. Bird 

traps across the Nullarbor stop starlings reaching WA. Fruit flies are monitored in northern Australia. Biological 

control programs are the only possible way of controlling many weeds and animals, eg blackberry, rabbits. 

Shires or local governments are responsible for tree preservation orders, other codes of practice for tree 

clearing, care of local plants, animals and weed control. Community groups, eg Greening Australia, Landcare, 

Parkcare, etc. have ongoing commitments. 

Selecting the purpose: What does the local community want? Because there are few areas in Australia 

with undisturbed bush in urban areas the intent of urban bush care schemes must be clear, eg 

What is the value of the bush to the local community, eg aesthetic, recreational, education, scenic? 

Is the intent to eradicate all exotic and non-local Australian plants, or only exotic plants? 

Is the intent to eradicate all exotic and non-local Australian animals? 

Is the intent to replant naturally occurring plants and re-introduce naturally occurring animals? 

Is the intent to reduce soil erosion and other physical disturbances, eg vehicle use, or just clean up? 

Is the purpose of the activity possible to achieve? Prepare an inventory to assess the present situation by 

checking legal land status, codes of practice, mapping the physical and biological features, erosion, water run 

off, drainage, present flora (plants, fungi, etc.) and fauna (vertebrates, insects, etc.) of the area and their 

diseases and pests. Finalise a plan of what is possible to achieve, eg soil and drainage management, 

fire control, pollution control (air, noise and water), wind reduction, site preparation, design, picnic areas, 

planting, fencing, tree guards, fertilisers, watering, disease, pest and weed control, natural regeneration, 

replanting native species, seed/nursery stock (grow own or purchase), costs and labour, preparation of 

codes of practice for plant sales from local nurseries, prohibitions (trail bikes, 4-wheel drives, rubbish 

dumping, removal of plants, soil and rocks, unauthorised roads and paths, driving off designated roads, soil 

disturbance). 

Monitor progress and future maintenance needs. 

Review of project after a period of time. 


Urban landscape 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

WEEDS 


Parasitic 

Individual urban plants are susceptible to their own 

pests and diseases. For example eucalypts may be 

affected by Christmas beetles, lerp insects, longicorn 

borers, sawflies, scale, etc. Hebe may be affected by 

fungal leaf spots or powdery mildew. Radiata pine 

may be affected by needle cast fungi, pine aphids, 

sirex wood wasp, drought or nutrient deficiencies. 

Monitor existing diseases and pests, eg elm leaf beetle 

in Melbourne, to see if they are becoming more 

serious. Monitor possible future pests and 

diseases, eg Dutch elm disease, which is not known to 

occur in Australia. Management plans can then be 

prepared to alleviate existing problems and for dealing 

with new problems. 

Pest management programs need to be set in place 

for amenity turf, playing fields, flower displays, rose 

gardens, school grounds. Some diseases and 

insect pests, eg codling moth and fruit fly, may be 

regulated by quarantine and plant disease acts. 

Non-parasitic 

Environment: Light: Plant shade-tolerant plants in 

areas shaded by buildings. Temperature: In some 

landscapes, eg courtyards, temperatures may be 

higher or lower than in surrounding areas and the 

diseases and pests may vary from the norm. Water: 

Poor drainage or lack of water affects tree survival. In 

some seasons lack of natural rainfall can result in high 

percentages of new plants dying. Replacement trees 

may have a higher rate of failure. In irrigated areas 

water may be expensive. Water recycling, eg the use 

of grey water, is being increasingly experimented 

with, recommended, and may be compulsory in some 

areas. Wind can blow over trees with shallow roots 

or close to leaking irrigation systems (waterlogging). 

Fungi, insects, animals: Fungi: Poisonous fungi, 

eg fly agaric (Amanita muscari) and death cap 

(A. phalloides), have been introduced in association 

with exotic trees. Insect pests: The exotic 

European wasp (Vespula germanica) commonly 

nests in the ground, or less often, in buildings or palm 

trees. Honey bees and mosquitoes can sting. 

Ants may invade houses and lawns. Vertebrate 

pests: Cats and dogs mess lawns, dogs may bite 

humans, kill cats and chickens, possums may invade 

houses and eat fruit. Birds may nest on, and dirty, 

buildings. 

People-pressure problems: Buildings: Trees 

may be planted too close to buildings and may lean 

away. Tree roots may invade foundations. 

Construction sites: Foundations, drains and 

underground cables, may sever tree roots. Runoff 

from construction sites may contaminate waterways. 

Hostile sites: Trees are often placed in pavement 

areas, in bitumen car parks. Pesticide use: There 

are special restrictions on the use of pesticides in 

public areas, eg schools. Pesticides may drain into 

waterways during weed control operations. 

Pollution: Air pollution may result from cars, 

factories, fires, smog, etc., waterways may become 

polluted with fertilisers or pesticides, algae of various 

types may grow in water. See Water N 91. 

Landscapes may be polluted by the dumping of 

rubbish, noise, light, dogs, etc. Soil erosion: Parks 

may be damaged by unauthorised traffic over sloping 

land, road cuttings erode. Soil compaction: Car 

parking, traffic and people walking may compact soil. 

Vandalism: Thefts of plants including flower 

displays, bulbs, theft of playing field goal posts, 

burning playground equipment, breaking the tops off 

young trees, setting fire to leaves on the ground and 

burning trees. Sometimes trees are poisoned 

because they block a view. 

WEEDS 

Weeds are a major pest of urban landscapes and 

need to be monitored and controlled for various 

reasons, eg aesthetics, fire danger and to prevent 

damage to bitumen and other paving. 

Weed management programs need to set in place, 

arrangements for amenity turf, fence lines around 

houses, rose gardens, road edges, schools, native 

areas, playing fields, flower displays. Woody urban 

weeds, eg Pyracantha, and noxious weeds, eg 

blackberries, sweet briar, also need to be managed. 

Control measures may involve the use of ground 

covers or mulches, physical removal, the use of preemergence, 

post-emergence and soil residual 

herbicides. They may be carried out by government 

employees or by contractors (ACT Parks and 

Conservation, Neal 1992). Volunteer groups may also 

have responsibilities. 


ACT Landscape Public Works Services. Landscape 

Design and Construction Guidelines for Canberra 

and the ACT. cur. edn. Dept. of Env., Canberra. 

ACT Parks and Conservation. City Parks Handbook. 

cur. edn. ACT Government, Canberra. 

ACT Parks and Conservation. Pest Management 

Manual. cur. edn. ACT Parks and Conservation, 

ACT Government, Canberra. 

Australian Standard. (1992). Trees : DR 92100 Trees : 

Amenity Valuation). Standards Australia, Capital 

City of each State/Territory. 

Bennet, G. W. and Owens, J. M. 1986. Advances in 

Urban Pest Management. Van Nostrand Reinholdt, 

NY. 

Bradshaw, A., Hunt, B. and Walmsley, T. 1995. Trees in 

the Urban Landscape : Principles and Practice. E & 

FN Spon, Chapman & Hall, London. 

Burnley Centenary Conference 1991. Scientific 

Management of Plants in the Urban Environment. 

VCAH, Burnley, Vic. 

Cobham, R. 1990. Amenity Landscape Management : A 

Resources Handbook. E & FN Spon, London. 

Correy, A. 1990. Select Trees for Public Places 

Carefully. Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Crossen, T. I. 1988. Street : A Guide to Planting and 

Management. Aust. Hort., March. 

Hitchmough, J. 1994a. Minimising Herbicide Use. The 

Horticulturist Vol 3(3), July. 

Hitchmough J. D. 1994b. Urban Landscape 

Management. Inkata Press, Sydney. 

N 88 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Hitchmough, J. M. 1995. Managing Greenspace Without 

Herbicides. Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Lake, J. 1997. Sustainable Landscapes Tomorrow's 

Reality. Aust. Hort., Feb. 

Neal, J. C. 1992. Plan Before You Plant : A Five-Step 

Process For Developing a Landscape Weed 

Management Plan. Golf Course Management, May. 

Rice, R. P. 1992. Nursery and Landscape Weed Control 

Manual. Thomson Pub., Fresno, California. 

Rice, R. P. Nursery and Landscape Weed Control Manual. cur. 

edn. Thomson Pub., Fresno, California. 

Royal Australian Institute of Parks and Recreation 

(RAIPR). 1991 and 1994. Urban Trees : The 

Challenge for Australian Cities and Towns. 

Seminars, RAIPR, Canberra. 



MANAGEMENT 

URBAN LANDSCAPES 

WorkCover Authority. 1993. Guidelines for Use of Pest 

Control Agents in Schools. WorkCover, Sydney. 


Industry eg 

European and Papernest Wasps (NSW Agfact) 

Street Tree Directories (State/Territory) 


Australian Horticulture (Landscape Features) 

Golf Course Management, NZ Turf Management 


Institute of Horticulture 

Landscape Australia, Landscape Australia Directory 


Parks and Gardens News 

Brooklyn Botanic Gardens Gardening Guides 

California Landscaping 

See Trees K 22, Turf L 16, Urban Bushland N 86 

Most cities and towns have a procedures manual for the management of urban landscapes. Procedures must 

comply with legislation, eg land planning and environment acts, pesticides acts, occupational health and safety 

acts, noxious weeds acts, Australian standards (DR 92100 Trees : Amenity Valuation), tree preservation 

orders, heritage requirements and responsibilities for maintenance. 

Selection 

Design plantings to suit the site, eg schools, street trees, playgrounds, parks, waterways, hostile sites, power 

lines, playing fields, annual beds, prestige areas, mounds. Plantings may be required to delineate pathways, 

protect danger zones, eg holes, screen unsightly views, eg rubbish bin sites, provide shade in car parks, 

protect sloping areas from erosion, provide shelter for birds, be aesthetic, eg provide year round interest 

(flowering, fruiting, leaf colour, bark texture). Plantings should match the landscape, eg bowling greens are 

very formal and the landscaping should reflect this formality. The purpose of the planting must not be 

forgotten. Landscape design should minimise general maintenance and difficult weed control situations, eg 

naturalistic plantings are visually less disrupted by weeds (Hitchmough 1995). Evaluate landscape design 

and plant selection. Plants must be proven for the site and climate and be available in suitable numbers at 

appropriate cost. Consider need for irrigation, maintenance, eg removal of leaf and tree litter, pruning, 

fertilising, etc. 

Maintenance: Avoid high maintenance street trees, turf areas (irrigation, mowing) or herbaceous perennial 

borders, where possible. Restrict intensively managed plantings to a small percentage of the total, eg for 

prestige areas. Avoid plants with undesirable features, eg shedding bark. Proposed maintenance 

programs should match the money available, number of staff and level of training. 

Resistant varieties: Plants must have sufficient resistance to local pests and diseases (and drought, lack of 

irrigation, frost and pollution) so that there is no need for the application of insecticides and fungicides. 

Plant Quarantine: Potential problems may be those which invade an area from overseas or from other areas 

within Australian. Elm leaf beetle, already within Australia, threatens existing large plantings of elms in 

Australia, and Dutch elm disease, already in NZ, may eventually arrive in Australia. Avoid large plantings of 

plants susceptible to potential serous diseases and pests. Computer modelling may be used to predict the 

immediate and long term possible effects of potential diseases and pests. 

Disease-free planting material: Purchase disease and pest-free plants growing in disease, pests and weedfree 

media from proven reliable suppliers, eg accredited nurseries. Plants may need to be hardened. 

Need for pesticides: If plant species are selected appropriately, there should be no need for spray applications 

of insecticides and fungicides, there are exceptions. Landscape design should minimise potential weed 

problems requiring herbicide applications. 


Cultural methods: Do not plant up hostile sites, or those contaminated with armillaria root rot, phytophthora 

root and collar rots, nematodes, and other diseases and pests, with susceptible plants. Only plant during the 

recommended season. Provide recommended irrigation, tree guards, weed control, formative pruning, etc. 

Comply with stand specifications (if any). Provide fencing if required. 

Biological control programs for major insect pests and noxious weeds may be put in place by organisations 

such as CSIRO. 

Pesticides: The need for herbicides is difficult to avoid given the desire of the public for floral displays, formal 

parks, fire protection, reduced costs, etc. Herbicides are used to control roots and suckers. The use of 

herbicides may be increasing. Growth regulators may be used to control hedge height under power lines 

and on turf. Emphasis should be placed on non-chemical methods of diseases, pest and weed control 

where practical and possible. Where pesticides of any type are used, only low hazard products should be 

selected. Consider possible persistence, pollution and other effects on the environment. 

Maintenance programs change as trees age. Tree surgery requirements will vary depending on the site, eg 

under power lines, street trees, home gardens. Weed control practices, eg herbiciding around newly planted 

trees, will eventually not be required, as older trees provide shade which inhibits weeds. Continued 

herbicide application on slopes may eventually result in soil erosion problems, roots may be exposed. 

Monitoring pest and diseases of existing plantings of trees, playing fields, fruit trees, etc. and weed problems 

improves future plant selection and maintenance programs. 

Evaluation of establishment and maintenance programs: Considerations include: Are they satisfactory or 

too costly? Which designs, plantings or species are cost effective? Are tree root control and pruning 

programs effective? Are safety procedures for herbicide selection and use adequate? 


Water 


Parasitic 







Non-parasitic 

Exotic fish 

Insects (midges, mosquitoes, springtails) 

Pollution 

Water characteristics 

WEEDS 

Aquatic weeds 


Parasitic 


Virus diseases are not commonly spread in water, 

one important exception is lettuce big vein virus 

spread by the water mould fungus (Olpidium 

brassicae). See Hydroponic systems N 41. 


No spores are produced by bacteria which infect 

plants. Bacteria have flagella which enable them to 

swim and spread in water. Bacterial diseases of 

plants spread by water include bacterial leaf and 

flower blight (Pseudomonas andropogonis) of 

carnation. 


Soilborne fungal diseases: Spores are 

spread by wind, water splash and in water currents. 

Water mould fungi, eg Aphanomyces, 

Phytophthora and Pythium, produce zoospores 

which have flagella enabling them to swim in 

water. Other fungi: Botrytis, Fusarium and 

Thielaviopsis (Chalara) produce spores and 

resting spores (chlamydospores); Sclerotinia produces 

ascospores and sclerotia, Verticillium produces 

spores and microsclerotia. Rhizoctonia and 

Sclerotium mostly do not produce spores and are 

not so readily spread by water; both produce 

sclerotia which can be washed downhill. 

Spread: Water supplies can introduce soilborne 

fungal disease into nurseries. Diseases may be 

washed downhill to contaminate new sites. These 

soilborne diseases may also be spread by 

movement of contaminated soil on vehicles, 

machinery, tools, footwear; by the introduction of 

infected planting material. See Vegetables M 7. 

Conditions favouring: Recycling of irrigation 

water or nutrient solutions in hydroponic systems. 

Drainage or surface washings from nurseries into 

dams which are subsequently used for irrigation. 

Control in water sources: 

Water source: Most town water supplies (which 

are usually chlorinated) and bore water or roof 

run-off water are usually free from disease 

organisms. These water sources do not need 

treatment. All surface water pumped from dams 

and streams and run off water, being reused or 

recycled, must be assumed to be contaminated. 

Water from dams, soaks, streams, rivers, lakes or 

recycled water must be treated to remove or destroy 

possible Phytophthora and Pythium fungi depending 

on the plants grown. Nursery accreditation 

schemes usually include specified water treatments 

for water from certain sources. Water storage 

tanks must be cleaned. Wire bench tops prevent 

splash of fungal spores and nematodes from pot to 

pot. 

Water treatments: Common treatments for 

contaminated water include chlorination or a 

combination of filtration and chlorination. Tanks 

used for holding treated water, including liquid feeds, 

must be covered to prevent recontamination. 

Chlorination is cheap, effective and simple with 

chlorine gas but sodium hypochlorite can be used in 

smaller nurseries. It is recommended that water 

should be treated with at least 2mg/L free chlorine and 

held for at least 20 minutes (Anon. 1994). Main 

sources of chlorine used are calcium hypochlorite, 

sodium hypochlorite and chlorine gas. Chlorination 

is hazardous, improper use of chemicals and higher 

than recommended concentrations may corrode the 

irrigation system, damage soil and plants. Active 

chlorine solutions are dangerous to humans and 

animals. Avoid contact with skin and eyes, and do 

not swallow solutions (Rolfe et al. 1994). Prior to 

chlorination, water analyses must be carried out to 

determine the required dosage rate and the need for 

settlement tanks to remove any organic matter or the 

need to precipitate suspended mineral impurities 

(Rolfe et al. 1994). Bromination is also effective. 

Filtration: To retain disease organisms, a filter 

with a mesh size of 0.1-0.2 microns is required but is 

often not practical (Rolfe et al. 1994). Effective filters 

must be no greater than 5 microns (a microbiological 

standard). Inclusion of a prefilter in the system may 

be an advantage (Handreck and Black 1994). 

Others: Chlorine dioxide is effective at high pHs 

and is being researched (Mebalds et al. 1996). 

Heating to 65 o C for 30 minutes. See Nurseries N 53. 

Slow sand filters are being researched in Australia 

with some success (Barth 1996). Another alternative 

is to use ozone (O 3 ) which is generated by passing 

very clean air through an electrical discharge. The air 

containing the ozone is mixed vigorously with water 

being treated (Mebalds et al. 1997). Both these 

techniques are still in the developmental stage. Ultra 

violet (UV) light is available to sterilise water by 

flowing the water around a UV tube. The UV 

machines must be calibrated to produce the dose 

required to kill off all damping off fungi. All particles 

> 5 µm must first be removed. Radiation intensity 

must be at least 80 000 mws/cm 2 to ensure a complete 

kill of Phytophthora spp. (Handreck and Black 1994). 


Wire mesh bench tops prevent nematodes from 

swimming from pot to pot. Do not put pots on soil 

or on a holding surface where water may 

accumulate in pools. See Vegetables M 10. 

N 90 OTHER PLANTINGS

WATER 


Most maggots of hover flies (Syrphidae, Diptera) 

live in stagnant, polluted water including the rattailed 

larvae (Eristalis spp.) which have long tails 

for obtaining air from the surface. 


Aquatic snails (Physastra spp.) attack rice while it 

is establishing and at tillering. See Seedlings N 70. 

Non-parasitic 

Exotic fish if present in sufficient numbers 

may cause irreversible damage to waterways. Carp 

although used as food, destroy eggs and breeding 

places of more valuable fish. They muddy water. 

Insects: Midges (Chironomidae, Diptera) are 

mostly minute flies, superficially resembling 

mosquitoes which fly in the evening in large numbers 

near still water. Flies vary from black, brown to 

greenish, reddish and yellowish. They often form 

mating swarms at sundown and can occur in such 

large numbers as to cause considerable annoyance 

around lights on warm evenings. Maggots are with 

few exceptions aquatic, living in or on bottom 

debris, free on vegetation, many of the former 

construct and live enclosed in a gelatinous tube 

coated with particles of debris. Tube-dwellers include 

the 'bloodworms' (Chironomus spp.) whose colour is 

due to haemoglobin. The rice bloodworm (C. 

tepperi) damages rice seedlings in NSW principally 

through physical disturbance of the roots (Currey 

1984). Mosquitoes (Culicidae, Diptera) have 

elongated mouthparts to pierce human and other 

animal skin. Males are not blood suckers but females 

require a blood meal before their eggs can mature. 

There is considerable host specificity and not all will 

attack humans. Some species have been/are 

important vectors of human disease in Australia, eg 

malaria by Anopheles farauti, myxomatosis of 

rabbits by various species of mosquito, filariasis by 

Culex fatigans, dengue fever by Aedes aegypti, Ross 

River fever by A. vigilax and C. annulirostris. Some 

species are just nuisance pests. A. notoscriptus is 

widespread and breeds in containers. Maggots are 

aquatic. Control is usually aimed at preventing 

maggots developing in water; kerosene is applied to 

the surface to stop them breathing. Mozkill ® 

(Bacillus thuringiensis) has to be eaten by the maggot 

for it to be effective. Insecticides are registered to 

control the adults. Springtails (Collembola) spread 

in water. 

Pollution 

There are 3 chief sources of water pollution. 

Agricultural chemicals and wastes: Chlorination 

of drinking and swimming water is common. 

Swimming pool water contains high concentrations of 

sodium and chloride ions from chlorinating chemicals 

and acid to lower the pH. Never use these waters to 

irrigate plants. Chlorination forms residual products 

and is considered to be an environmental hazard. 

Most insecticides, including the low hazard ones of 

pyrethrin and rotenone, are acutely toxic to fish and 

should not be used on aquatic plants or on plants close 

to water features (Brown 1978). Herbicides may be 

detrimental to some water plants and animals. 

Herbicides applied to control weeds on land may 

become an environmental hazard as they often end up 

in storm water drains and water systems. They affect 

organisms in water during direct treatment and later in 

the water system, lakes, etc. If recycling nursery 

water, avoid using persistent herbicides, eg oryzalin, 

oxyfluorfen, simazine. Some fungicides are 

persistent, eg copper. Copper sulphate (Bluestone ® ) 

is dangerous to fish. Additives, eg surfactants, in 

some formulations of herbicides, may affect some 

aquatic animals, eg frogs. Fertilisers, eg nutrients 

in recycled nursery water, may be toxic to plants 

(Beardsell et al. 1996). Rainwater flowing from 

urban areas and farmland (feed lots) carries chemicals, 

fertiliser (nitrogen, phosphorus), manures and 

pesticides. Nutrients and organic matter in the water 

stimulate increased growth of bacteria and other 

microorganisms, eg algae. 

Industrial waste: Various types of pollutants may be 

released into the air (causing acid rain, ozonereducing 

compounds) and heavy metals may be 

released into waterways, eg mercury. Heated 

effluent may destroy animals and plant life in adjacent 

regions (Kerruish 1990). Flood water may carry 

contaminants away from storage sites. 

Sewage consists of human and animal wastes, 

which contain bacteria and other disease-causing 

microorganisms, general waste and water that has 

been used for laundering and bathing. Most of this is 

treated before it is discharged into waterways; these 

sewage-treatment plants are a major source of 

nitrogen and phosphorus. Use phosphorous-free 

products. 

Different types of algae may develop in water. 

Blue green algae (Anabaena, Anacystis, Microcystis, 

Noctularia, other species) may form water blooms and 

appear as thick green scum on fresh, clear, still waters 

during the warmer months of the year. They create 

serious water quality problems causing river 

channels to be choked by an overabundance of 

water plants. They can be toxic to humans and 

animals (birds, cattle, dogs, poultry, sheep) if 

swallowed, and can cause skin irritation if body 

contact occurs (National Health and Medical Research 

Council 1994). Affected animals may die within 

hours or after a prolonged time with the appearance of 

jaundice (yellows) and photo-sensitisation 

(sunburn). Boiling the water does not destroy the 

toxins. Fish and other life forms in water are starved 

of oxygen by excessive amounts of decomposing 

plants and algae. Blooms are caused by the 

interaction between turbidity (turbid water means 

less light reaches the algae so it grows more slowly), 

mixing (of water-moved algae from the surface to 

lower areas, if mixing is slow then algae is exposed to 

light more and so grows more quickly), levels of 

various nutrients especially phosphorus and nitrogen 

which are present in fertilisers, water softeners and 

dirt dissolvers in laundry detergents and cleaning 

agents, reduced water flow due to irrigation, 

drought, increased industry and domestic use, 

disturbance of the natural food web (exotic fish, 

draining of wetlands or the destruction of water plants 

by carp and cattle). In dry conditions most nutrients 

come from point sources, eg sewage-treatment works 

and in wet conditions, especially during floods, 

from agricultural lands or forests (Creagh 1992). 


WATER 

Green algae (Cladophora, Euglena, other species) do 

not produce toxins and so are mainly a nuisance in 

that they clog nozzles and make storage areas and 

holding areas unsightly. Chemicals can be used for 

their control (Rolfe et al. 1994) but if they are a 

regular problem try to determine the cause. Bales of 

barley straw in small pools or ponds produce a 

chemical which inhibits algal growth (Lake 1996). 

Legislation: Clean waters acts and other laws 

regulate discharge into waterways, monitor their 

effectiveness. Scanning of waterways (for algae, 

muddiness, temperature) by aircraft predicts when 

blooms are likely to occur. Rivers can then be 

flushed out to stir up the mud, speed up the flow and 

mix the water to stop blooms forming. Toxicity 

assays and algal counts may be necessary. 

Biological controls, eg virus and bacterial diseases, 

predatory micro-crustaceans (plankton graziers, eg 

Daphnia spp.), etc are being researched (Creagh 

1992). Algacides are used in greenhouses to control 

algae that grow on floors and walls. Water is 

chlorinated to kill microorganisms for domestic use 

and prior to disposal or recycling for drinking, 

laundering, bathing. There are different water 

qualities, eg one suitable for drinking, another for 

gardening, etc (grey water). 

Water characteristics have to be 

determined and monitored regularly, eg pH, 

salinity, turbidity, electric conductivity (EC), 

hardness. Recycled water must also be monitored 

(Bearsdell et al. 1996). 

WEEDS 

Aquatic weeds: Some aquatic weeds are 

declared noxious weeds in some regions of 

Australia, eg alligator weed, salvinia. Aquatic and 

other weeds may occur in crops, eg rice, and along 

edges of waterways, drains, water channels etc. 

These weeds should be treated as aquatic because of 

their association with water. Aquatic weeds may be 

submerged (bulk of the plant is under the surface of 

the water, eg pond weed), free-floating (float free on 

the water surface, eg salvinia), emergent (rooted in 

the silt and the major portion of the plant is above 

water, eg cumbungi, bulrush), and bank-anchored 

weeds, eg water couch. 

Identify the weed: A herbicide is only registered for 

a specific weed in a specific situation, so it is necessary 

to identify the weed, its growth habit, ie whether it is an 

algae, free-floating, emergent, or submerged weed, and 

how it reproduces, spreads and its life cycle. Spread: 

Elodea during the growing season tends to promote 

spread of stem segments and should be avoided where 

possible. Weed seeds of various types, not just aquatic 

weeds, may be spread by irrigation water, waterways etc. 

Initial responsibility for controlling noxious plants 

on private lands rests with the owner or occupier of 

the land. Create cultural conditions unfavourable 

to growth of water weeds. Pondweed (Potamogeton) 

may be controlled by regularly drying, cleaning and 

renovating irrigation channels. Many aquatic weeds, 

eg alligator weed, salvinia and water hyacinth have 

been biologically controlled by CSIRO. There are 

many exotic aquatic weeds not at present in Australia 

and quarantine attempts to prevent their entry. If 

the water is used for human or animal consumption or 

for the irrigation of gardens or crops, chemical 

control is often not desirable or possible. The 

physical removal of plant material from the water 

removes substantial amounts of nutrients, slows 

regrowth and avoids the depletion of oxygen due to 

the breakdown of vegetation following a chemical 

treatment, avoiding fish death. Type of mechanical 

treatment depends on the weed species. Scoop nets 

may be used to remove floating weeds, eg salvinia 

and azollis. Dragging systems may be used for 

submerged plants, eg ribbon weed. Some weeds, eg 

cumbungi, can be cut below the waterline in autumn. 

Bank-anchored weeds may be mown. Herbicides 

are registered for commercial use on weeds in, or in 

association with, aquatic areas, eg drains and 

channels, margins of dams, lakes and streams. There 

may be a reduction in effectiveness if more than one 

quarter of the above ground portion of the weed is 

submerged at treatment. If most of the weed grows 

below the water, herbicide control is difficult, some 

also have a waxy coating. Most applications require 

approval from the relevant body, eg a lake 

management working group. Some herbicides are 

hazardous to use and need permits, others require the 

chemical to be applied by a licensed operator. 

Chemical control is only suitable if infestation is 

small and the water is not to be used for stock or 

domestic purposes or for watering gardens and crops. 

Using pest management (several different methods) 

to control water weeds generally is more effective, eg 

controlling aquatic weeds in a small dam might 

involve initially mechanically removing plants, spot 

treating any remnants with herbicides, dredging to 

deepen the dam, diverting cattle yard effluent on a 

permanent basis and taking action to minimise further 

siltation. Trees could be planted to shade the dam 

and appropriate biological control agents released. 

Others: Willows are a major pest of water 

ways. See Willow K 140. 





Anon. 1997. Nursery Industry Water Management : Best 

Practice Guidelines, Australia 1997. NIAA/HRDC, 

avail. from Nursery Industry State Assoc. Offices. 

Australian and New Zealand Environment and 

Conservation Council. 1994. Australian Water 

Quality Guidelines for Fresh Water and Marine 

Waters. ANZECC, GPO Box 787, Canberra 2600. 

Australian Water Resources Council. 1982. Water 

Weeds in Australia : A National Approach to 

Management. AGPS, Canberra. 

Australian Water Resources Council. 1985. Guidelines 

for the Use of Herbicides In or Near water. AGPS, 

Canberra. 

Barth, G. 1996. Combating Disease with Slow Sand 

Filters. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Beardsell, D. et al. 1996. Managing Recycled Water 

Quality in Nurseries. Aust. Hort., Oct. 

Biernbaum. J. 1993. Put Your Water thro' Analysis. 

Greenhouse Grower pp. 32-36. 

Brown, A. W. W. 1978. The Ecology of Pesticides. John 

Wiley & Sons, NY. 

Com. of Aust., Dept. of Primary Industries, Aust. Quar. 

& Inspection Service, Plant Quar. Leaflets. 

Biological Control of Pests and Weeds. No.55. 1988. 

Quar. Measures to Exclude Aquatic Weeds. No.47. 1985. 

Leaflets on individual weeds 



N 92 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Creagh, C. 1992. What Can be Done about Toxic Algal 

Blooms? Ecos 72, Winter. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Creagh, C. 1993/94. Learning More About Algal 

Blooms. Rural Res. 9, Summer, CSIRO, Melbourne. 

CSIRO. Research for Australia Series : Water. cur. edn. 


Curry, A. (ed.). 1984. Rice Growing in NSW. NSW 

Agriculture, Sydney. 

Environment Protection Agency. 1995. Licensing 

Guidelines on Herbicide Use In or Near Waters. 

EPA, NSW, Chatswood, NSW. 

Hallegraff, G. M. 1991. Aquaculturists' Guide to 

Harmful Australian Microalgae. CSIRO, 

Melbourne. 



Melbourne. 

Handreck, K. A. When should I Water? cur. edn. 

Discovering Soils Series, CSIRO, Melbourne. 



Sydney. 

James, E. 1995a. Controlling Algal Growth in Water 

Storages. Water Write, Aust. Hort., April. 

James, E. 1995b. The Importance of Measuring the 

Quality of Water. Water Write, Aust. Hort., August. 

Jenkins, K. 1995. Agricultural Chemicals 

Contaminating our Waterways. Rural Research 168, 

Spring. CSIRO, Melbourne. 



Lake, J. 1996. Clutching at Straws. Aust. Hort., April. 

Mathias, P. 1995. A Guide to Water Recycling. NSW 

Agric., Windsor, NSW. 

Mebalds, M. et al. 1996. Controlling Fungal Plant 

Pathogens in Water. Aust. Hort., Oct. 



Nazer, C. J. 1995. Guidelines for Minimising Pesticide 

Hazards to Aquatic Ecosystems/Non-target Species. 

Water Quality & Management Seminar Proc., CIT, 

Canberra. 

O'Toole, M. 1994. Water. Science and Our Future 

Series. CSIRO, Melbourne. 

Pieterse, A. H. and Murphy, K J. (eds). 1993. Aquatic 

Weeds : The Ecology and Management of Nuisance 

Aquatic Vegetation. Oxford University Press, NY. 

Rayment, G. E. and Higginson, F. R. 1992. Australian 

Soil and Land Survey Books : Australian Laboratory 

Handbook of Soil and Water Chemical Methods. 


National Health and Medical Research Council 

(NHMRC). 1994. Health effects of Cyanobacteria 

(Blue-Green Algae). AGPS, Canberra. 

Rolfe, C., Currey, A. and Atkinson, I. (eds). 1994. 

Managing Water in Plant Nurseries : Guide to 

Irrigation, Drainage and Water Recycling in 

Containerised Plant Nurseries. HRDC/NIAA/NSW 

Agric., Wollongbar, NSW. 

MANAGEMENT 

WATER 

Rolfe, C. and Atkinson, I. 1996. Waterwork. NSW 

Agriculture, Wollongbar, NSW. 

Rouchecouste, J. F. G. 1985. Plant Nurseries : 

Chlorinating Water for Disease Control. Qld Dept. 


Sainty, G. R. and Jacobs, S. W. L. 1988. Waterplants in 

Australia. Aust. Water Resources Council, Canberra. 

Thompson, P. 1991. Water in your Garden. Lothian 


Hort. Water Quality Alliance. 1992. Clean and Clean : 

Water Quality Action Manual for Greenhouse and 

Nursery Operators. American Assoc. of 

Nurserymen, Suite 500, 1250 First Street NW, 

Washington DC, USA 20005. Fax (202) 789 1893. 


Industry eg 

Aquatic Weed Control in Small Dams (NSW Agfact) 

Aquatic Plant Control (NSW Agric) 

Australian Water Weeds Kit (Australian Water 

Resources Council) 

Clearing Muddy Water 1 : Amounts of Clearing 

Chemicals to Add (Vic Agnote) 

Clean Clean Water (CSIRO video) 

Clearing Muddy Water 2 : Add Clearing Chemicals/ 

Tanks/Dams (Vic Agnote) 

Controlling Weed Growth in Community Drains (Rural 

Water Com of Vic) 

Controlling Weed Growth in Farm Channels (Rural 

Water Com of Vic) 

Filtration of Microject/Mini-sprinkler/Trickle Systems 

(Vic Agnote) 

Farm Water Quality and Treatment (NSW Agfact) 

Fish in Farm Dams (NSW Agfact) 

Groundwater (Vic Agnote) 

Arrowhead (Vic Rural Water Corp) 

Handling Calibration (Rural Water Com Vic) 

Glyphosate in Aquatic Situations (Rural Water Com Vic) 

How to Take Water Samples for Analysis (Vic Agnote) 

Installing Test-wells (Vic Agnote) 

Maintaining Water Quality In Farm Dams (SA Fact Sheet) 

Mangroves (NSW Agfact) 

Monitoring Soil Water (SA Fact Sheet) 

Tolerance of Plants to Salty Water (WA Farmnote) 

Weed Control in Irrigation Channels & Drains (Vic 

Agnote) 


Australian Horticulture (Water Management Features 

especially April 1995) 

Australian Water Resources Council, ACT 


Hort. Research & Development Corporation (HRDC) 

International Erosion Control Assoc. 

Irrigation Assoc of Australia 

Nursery Industry Associations and Conferences 

Rural Water Corporation, Vic 

State/Territory Authorities, City Water 

Stormwater Industry Assocs. 

Water Testing Laboratories/Businesses 

Water Quality Management Seminar 1995 CIT/ATRI, ACT 

See Nurseries N 56, Water plants N 94, Willow K 

140, 

Xeriscape N 96, Preface xii 



Water management programs must be put in place. Be familiar with regulations and legislation which apply to 

water use and disposal/run-off. What is the water to be used for? Bathing, drinking, fertigation, irrigation in 

nurseries, recycling or enclosed systems. What is the source of water? Bore, dam, drainage, rain, recycled 

water or grey water; town water must be identified. Storage areas, if applicable must be cleaned. Where is the 

water to be drained to? Water must be analysed at regular intervals. The most useful analyses include 

electrical conductivity, pH, total hardness, cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium), boron, chloride, sulfate and 

bicarbonate. They may also be analysed for nitrate and ammonium and other nutrients, also for herbicides. 

Tests to detect disease organisms may sometimes be required (Handreck and Black 1994, James 1995b). 

Follow instructions for collecting water samples, eg take samples at the correct time and depth, record details, 

take the correct number of samples and send them off the same day. Know what the water is to be tested for, 

eg electric conductivity (EC), hardness, pH, salinity, turbidity, when it is to be tested and where to send it to. 

Conditions of sampling include taking samples when the pump has been running for some time. Samples 

should represent the whole depth of water in dams and deep storage facilities. Label samples clearly, record 

details of the collection. Collect about 500 ml in a plastic or glass bottle, fill to top and refrigerate. It must reach 

the testing laboratory within a few days after collection. Water treatments include chlorination and/or filtration 

(Rolfe et al. 1994). See Water N 90. 


Water plants 


Parasitic 

Non-parasitic 

Pesticide toxicity 


Water features must comply with local 

legislation. 

close to water features or swimming pools. Soap 

solutions and other insecticides may disfigure flowers. 

Herbicides may kill desirable plants. See Water N 92. 

Fungicides are used in hydroponic systems, and 

fungicide dusts are used on rice seed to protect seeds 

against Pythium spp. 

Surfactants and other additives in pesticide 

formulations may be toxic to frogs. 

Weed potential: Aquatic weeds in water 

features are common. Many ornamental aquatic 

plants have themselves become aquatic weeds, eg 

free-floating azolla (Azolla spp.). See Water N 

92. 


Parasitic 

Water plants are generally free from major 

diseases and pests, but individual species may be 

subject to pests and diseases in the same way that 

land grown plants are, each genus or species being 

susceptible to specific problems. Waterlily 

(Nymphaea spp.) may be affected by fungal leaf 

spots (Cercospora nymphaeacae, Gloeosporium 

sp.), pythium root rots (Pythium spp.) and the 

waterlily aphid (Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae). In 

northern Australia, larvae of a beetle (Donacia 

spp., Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) pierce the roots 

of waterlilies to obtain air. However, there are 

some problems which are generally common on a 

range of water plants. Aquatic snails may be 

added to water features to feed on undesirable 

algae, but if there are too many, they may also 

attack desired plants. Field crops such as rice may 

be attacked by aquatic snails (Physastra spp.). 

Non-parasitic 

Pesticide toxicity: Some pesticides are 

registered for use on some aquatic crops. 

Herbicides are registered for drains, etc. Some 

pesticides applied to control diseases and pests and 

weeds of aquatic plants, will inevitably enter the 

water. Depending on the amount that enters water 

and the intended use of that water, the quality may 

be severely affected. 

Most insecticides, including low hazard ones, eg 

pyrethrin and rotenone (Derris ® Dust), are toxic to 

fish, and should not be used on water plants or plants 

MANAGEMENT 


Allison, J. 1991. Water in the Garden : A Complete 

Guide to Designing, Constructing and Planting 

Water Features. Bullfinch Press, London. 

Archer-Wills, A. 1993. The Water Gardener. Angus & 

Robertson, Pymble, NSW. 

Moody, M. 1993. Water Gardens. Weldon Pub., 

Sydney. 


Press/NSW Agriculture, Melbourne. 

Moody, E. 1994a. Water Lilies More Popular. Aust. 

Hort., March. 

Moody, E. 1994b. Aquatic Nurseries : A Labour of 

Love. Aust. Hort., Nov. 

Nash. H. 1994. The Pond Doctor. Stirling Pub., NY. 

Paul, A. and Rees, Y. 1994. The Water Garden. Angus 

& Robertson, Pymble, NSW. 



Romanowski, N. 1992. Water and Wetland Plants for 

Southern Australia. Lothian Books, Melbourne. 

Sainty, G. R. and Jacobs, S. W. L. 1988. Waterplants of 

Australia. Aust. Water Resources Council, Sydney. 

Slocum, P. D. and Robinson, P. 1996. Water Gardening, 

Water Lilies and Lotuses. Timber Press, Portland, 

Oregon. 

Stapeley Water Garden. 1989. Collins Guide to 

Waterlilies and Other Aquatic Plants. William 

Collins & Sons, London. 

Thompson, P. 1991. Water in Your Garden. Lothian 

Books, Port Melbourne. 


Industry eg 

Aquatic Plants (Rural Water Com. Vic) 


Australasia Aquaculture 

Australian Water Resources Council 

International Waterlily Soc. 

See Water N 92 



Select water plants suited to the climate, eg temperature, pond size and hardiness. The large spreading leaves 

of waterlilies also cut off light and shade the water beneath, preventing algal growth. Emergent plants, eg 

waterlilies, are anchored or rooted in silt with the majority of the plant above the water surface. Submerged 

plants, eg water milfoil, are useful in pools for spawning areas for fish. Free-floating plants, eg duckweed, float 

on the water surface, most have prolific roots just below the water surface. These are not really suitable for 

ornamental gardens as they grow profusely and quickly cover the surface but they can provide shade and food 

for fish and excess growth is easily removed from most pools. Propagated by root division. When rootstocks of 

waterlilies are being split into small sections, prevent infection by dusting the cut wounds with powdered 

charcoal, dry before putting back in water. Where practical, plant in containers, this facilitates their movement 

and is neater and cleaner. To ensure good flowering some aquatic plants, eg waterlilies, may require full sun 

and repotting every 2nd or 3rd year. Clean ponds regularly. Remove all severely damaged plants, dead plant 

parts and old flowers promptly to prevent diseases and pests from multiplying on them. Individual leaves 

affected by fungal leaf spots may be picked off and destroyed. Aphids may be hosed off, any fish in the pond 

will eat them. The value of waterlilies as a cut flower is limited by their habit of closing at night. Some florists 

wax the petal bases to keep them open (Moody 1994a). 

N 94 

OTHER PLANTINGS

Xeriscape 

Xeriscape is a trademarked name owned by the 

Denver Water Department and used to describe a 

program aimed at saving water in the landscape. 

Basically Xeriscape promotes water conservation 

through creative landscaping and the planting of 

drought-resistant grasses, shrubs and trees. 

Xeriscapes may cost slightly more initially but the 

extra cost is soon recouped by reduced water 

usage. Most capital cities in Australia have 

demonstration Xeriscape gardens. 

XERISCAPE MANAGEMENT 

Design a landscape aesthetically for the site 

considering its intended use (garden zones), existing 

vegetation, landform (contours, slope, natural 

drainage), natural rain patterns and microclimates 

(shade, wind). It may be necessary to provide sun and 

wind breaks. 

Plant selection is the key to efficient water use. 

Group plants according to their water needs. 

Retain natural existing vegetation where practical, as 

it will be suited to the environment aesthetically and 

climatically, be attractive to animals and possibly 

require minimal maintenance. Total drought 

resistance is the product of drought avoidance and 

drought resistance. Some plants tolerate lack of 

water, while others may increase their water uptake in 

times of drought. In urban landscapes the ability to 

survive drought can be more significant than the 

ability to use water efficiently (Tipton 1994). If 

irrigation is to be used, select plants with some 

tolerance to low water requirements. Herbaceous 

perennials will require less supplementary watering 

than shallow-rooted flowering annuals. Succulent 

ground covers will thrive in poor or hot dry soils. 

Limit areas of turf where practical (in 1994 in 

Canberra, 40% of the total water used was for 

irrigating turf areas). Available turf species are 

becoming more drought tolerant. Select plants with 

resistance to debilitating diseases and pests which 

might affect their growth, appearance and ability to 

withstand low water conditions and salinity. Select 

disease-free planting material so that any general 

diseases and pests are not introduced to plantings. 

Soil improvements, eg loosening, addition of 

organic matter, improving drainage, moisture 

penetration and soil water holding capacity, will result 

in better plant growth. Though soils vary greatly, 

ripping compacted soil to about 200 mm and adding 

organic matter, usually leads to better plant growth 

and water usage. Soil analysis may identify 

nutrient deficiencies and other inadequacies of soil, 

which if corrected, would improve growth. 

Mulches up to 100 mm deep can reduce water 

evaporation from soil by up to 75%, reduce weed 

growth and insulate roots from heat. Some mulches, 

however, may prevent moisture reaching the soil 

underneath. See Mulches N 49. 

Irrigation systems should be efficient, carefully 

chosen and maintained. To reduce the amount of 

irrigation water used, maintain appropriate operating 

pressures, uniform precipitation rates and match head 

size to the area being irrigated to avoid watering 

pavements and buildings causing surface run off. 

Install separate irrigation zones for different 

microclimates, eg shady and sunny areas, turf, trees 

and shrubs, north and south slopes. Avoid watering in 

wind or periods of high heat (water between midnight 

and 8 am). Where practical install borders around 

irrigated areas. Maintain irrigation systems to 

promote efficient water use by repairing leaks 

promptly, checking the system after mowing and 

regularly checking nozzles. Adjust monthly water 

rate based on climatic conditions. Use rain shut-off 

valves, computerised sensors may save 30% of 

watering. Recycle water where possible. 

Maintain plants appropriately, eg prune, fertilise, 

replace plants as needed. Control weeds. 

CLASSIFICATION OF XERISCAPES 

Xeriscapes have been classified in many ways, the 

following is a classification according to their style 

or appearance. 

True Xeriscape is found in naturally arid regions, 

utilises locally adapted species, uses no irrigation 

except for establishment, but may utilise precipitation 

concentration to increase available moisture. Usually 

artificial barriers are not used. 

Artificial Xeriscape is not normally found in arid 

regions, utilises arid-region species, uses no irrigation 

except for establishment, but may use precipitation 

concentration, soil barriers or microclimates to 

artificially create aridity or stress. 

Simulated Xeriscape is found in humid regions, uses 

arid-region species or a mix of arid-region and humidregion 

species, may or may not be irrigated, used for 

'look and feel' rather than to save water, usually uses 

soil barriers to create aridity or stress. 

Accidental Xeriscape may be in any region, may use 

any species in plantings, no intent to withhold water, 

usually uses soil barriers above natural soil, usually 

intended to decrease maintenance. 

XERISCAPE FAILURES 

For plantings in arid and semi-arid localities, 

most failures can be attributed to unintended 

precipitation concentration which in turn accelerates 

the soil-forming process, allowing growth of plants, 

especially weed species, which like moist habitats. 

Poor original species selection is a common 

contributing factor. 

For plantings in which stress or xeric results are 

unintended, failure is likely to be attributable to the 

use of impermeable membranes. The accidental 

creation of stressful microhabitats, when combined 

with the use of species characteristic of moist habitats, 

is a prescription for failure. 

For all types of plantings, many installers appear to 

ignore the consequences of soil-forming processes and 

the precipitation concentration or deficit resulting 

from the effects of slope. 

DISEASES, PESTS AND WEEDS 

Parasitic diseases and pests: Plants grown in 

Xeriscapes are susceptible to the same pests and 

diseases as they would be elsewhere, eg strawberry 


XERISCAPE 

tree (Arbutus unedo) to phytophthora root rot 

(Phytophthora cinnamomi), root knot nematode 

(Meloidogyne spp.), leaf case moth (Hyalartica 

huebneri) and purple scale (Lepidosaphes beckii). 

Weeds: For plantings in arid and semi-arid areas, most 

failures may be attributed to unintended precipitation 

concentration, which allows creation of moist 

habitats which accelerate the soil-forming process, 

allowing growth of moisture-requiring plants 

especially weed species. 


Australian Plant Study Group. Grow What Where. 

Series. Viking O'Neill, Ringwood, Vic. 

Archer, J., Hodges, J. and LeHunt, B. 1993. The Water 

Efficient Garden. Random House, NY. 

Bennet, B. 1992. Waste and Means to Tap Melbourne 

Water for 'Food'. Aust. Hort., June. 

Crocker, C. 1989. Gardening in Dry Climates. Ortho 

Books, San Ramon, CA. 

Ellefson, C., Stephens, T. and Welsh, D. 1992. 

Xeriscape Gardening : Water Conservation for the 

American Landscape. Macmillan Pub Co., NY. 

Hartshorne, H. 1995. Plants for Dry Gardens. Allen & 

Unwin, St. Leonard, NSW. 

MANAGEMENT 

Johnson, E. A. and Millard, S. 1993. The Low-Water 

Flower Garden. Ironwood Press, Tucson, Arizona. 

Lucas, J. 1993. Low-Water Gardening. Orion Pub., 

London. 

Morenos, N, 1992. Plant Selection Key to Efficient 

Water Use. Aust. Hort., June. 

Patrick, J. (ed.). 1994. Beautiful Gardens with Less 

Water. Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Taylor, J. 1993. The Dry Garden : Gardening with 

Drought-tolerant Plants. Lothian Pub., Melbourne. 

Tipton, J. L. 1994. Relative Drought Resistance Among 

Selected Southwest Landscape Plants. Jn. of Arbor. 

20(3), May. 

Walsh, K. 1993. Water-Saving Gardening in Australia. 

reprinted 1995. Reed Books, Chatswood, NSW. 

Weakley, L. 1987. Guide to the Dry Tropics : Over 400 

Plants Described. Australian Plant Study Group, 

Viking O'Neil, Ringwood, Victoria. 

Windhurst, A. 1995. Drought Garden : Management 

and Design. Allscape, Mandurang, Vic. 


Capital City Xeriscape Demonstration Gardens 



National Xeriscape Council Inc. PO Box 767936 

Rosewell GA 30076 USA. 

Society for Growing Australian Plants (SGAP) 

Water Efficient Gardening (Greening Australia) 

See Mulches N 50, Soil N 82, Water N 92 

Plants are divided into 3 categories based on their need for moisture: 

Desert plants or xerophytes proliferate with very little water, eg cacti, often have very shallow and fibrous root 

systems that can act as sponges and immediately absorb any slight amount of rainfall falling on the surface. 

Their leaves have been modified to reduce water loss by transpiration and their stems are often covered with a 

thick, waxy resinous material, or they could be pubescent (stems and leaves covered with hairs) to reduce 

transpiration. The stems of some xerophytes can store tremendous quantities of water for long periods of time. 

At the opposite of the scale are hydrophytes which thrive in or close to water, eg waterlilies. Between these two 

extremes are mesophytes, the most populous of the three, which include practically all the economically 

important agricultural plants. They can adapt to quite diverse environments. 

Some plants suitable for Xeriscapes include: 

Exotics (deciduous and evergreen) 

Yarrow (Achillea clypeolata) 

Belladonna lily (Amaryllis belladonna) 

Golden marigold (Calendula officinalis) 

Celtis (Celtis australis) 

Desert ash (Fraxinus rotundifolia) 

Flame tree (Brachychiton acerifolius) 

Primrose jasmine (Jasminum mesneyi) 

Red-hot poker, torch lily (Kniphofia sp.) 


Sacred bamboo (Nandina domestica) 

Lavenders (Lavendula spp.) 

Poppy (Papaver nudicaule) 

Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) 

New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) 

Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) 

Australian natives (evergreens) 

Bottlebrush (Callistemon spp.) 

Broadleaved paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) 

Casuarina (Casuarina spp.) 

Everlasting (Helichrysum bracteatum) 

(= Bracteantha bracteata) 

Eucalypts (some Eucalyptus spp.) 

Heath banksia (Banksia ericifolia) 

Pin-cushion hakea (Hakea laurina) 

Pittosporum (Pittosporum undulatum) 

Tussock grass (Poa labillardieri) 

Wattles (Acacia spp.) 

Westringia (Westringia fructicosa) 

Some native plants are not as drought-tolerant as previously thought. While some Australian native plants are 

thought to require very little water and be highly stress-tolerant, many traditionally considered hardy may in fact, 

not be tolerant of water stress. For example, reduced water supply causes a decrease in total flower production 

and retards plant growth of Geraldton wax. 

Converting existing conventional landscapes to Xeriscape 

Even with existing landscapes, the principles of Xeriscapes should be carefully followed. 



N 96 

OTHER PLANTINGS

A 

Aacanthocnema sp. (psyllid) Hakea K 78 

Abantiades latipennis see Ghost moths 

Abgrallaspis cyanophylli see 

Cyanophyllum scale 

ABUTILON K 25 

Abutilon mosaic virus see Viruses 

Acacia see Wattle 

Acacia-spotting bug see Bugs 

Acalolepta vastator see Fig longicorn 

Acanthoscelides obtectus see Bean weevil 

Acaphylla steinwedeni see Camellia rust 

mite 

Acclimatisation House plants N 36, Interior 

plantscapes N 45 

Acer spp. (Aceraceae) see Maple 

ACERACEAE Maple K 97 

Achaea janata see Castor oil looper 

Acizzia sp. (psyllid) Hakea K 78 

A. acaciaebaileyanae see 

Cootamundra wattle psyllid 

Acmena smithii see Lilly-pilly 

Aconopsylla sterculiae see Kurrajong twig 

psyllid 

Acrocercops spp. (see also Leafminers) 

A. antimima Wattle K 136 

A. chionosema see Macadamia 

leafminer 

A. laciniella see Blackbutt leafminer 

A. plebeia see Wattle leafminer 

Actinidia chinensis see Kiwi fruit 

ACTINIDIACEAE Kiwi fruit F 70 

Actinorhizae see Bacteria 

Aculops spp. (eriophyid mites) 

A. lycopersici see Tomato russet mite 

Aculus spp. (eriophyid mites) 

A. cornutus see Peach silver mite 

A. schlechtendali see Apple rust mite 

Acyphas leucomelas see Omnivorous 

tussock moth 

Acyrthosiphon spp. (see also Aphids) 

A. malvae see Pelargonium aphid 

A. pisum see Pea aphid 

Adelges spp. see Pine aphids 

Adoryphorus coulonii see Redheaded 

cockchafer 

AECHMEA Bromeliads B 2 

Aechmea scale see Scales (armoured) 

Aechmea wilt see Wilts 

Aecidium spp. (rust) Anemone C 11, Hebe 

K 80, Wattle K 131 

Aecium disciforme (rust) Hebe K 80 

Aenetus spp. (ghost moths) 

A. leweni Tea-tree K 124 

A. ligniveren see Common splendid 

ghost moth 

Aesiotes spp. (see also Bark beetles) 

A. leucurus see Cypress bark weevil 

A. notabilis see Pine bark weevil 

Aethina(Olliffura) concolor see Hibiscus 

flower beetle 

African black beetle see Scarab beetles 

AFRICAN VIOLET A 12 

African violet mealybug see Mealybugs 

Agaricus bisporus see Mushroom 

Agarista agricola see Painted vine moth 

Aging Compost N 17, Mulches N 50 

Agonis spp. Tea-tree K 124 

Agrianome spinicollis see Poinciana 

longicorn 

Agrius convolvuli see Convolvulus hawk 

moth 

Agrobacterium spp. see Crown gall 

Agrotis spp. see Cutworms 

AIZOACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

Albizia spp. see Silk tree 

Albugo tragopogonis see White blister rust 

Alcea rosea see Hollyhock 

Alder see Trees K 19 

Aleurocanthus banksiae see Banksia 

whitefly 

Aleurodicus spp. (see also Whiteflies) 

A. destructor see Coconut whitefly 

A. dispersus see Spiralling whitefly 

Alfalfa mosaic virus see Viruses 

ALGAE Bromeliads B 3, Containers N 19, 

Greenhouses N 27, Hydroponic 

systems N 43, Potting mixes N 64, Soil 

N 81, Trees K 18, Turfgrasses L 13 

algal leaf spot Avocado F 18, Lychee 

F 73, Magnolia K 96, Melaleuca 

K 98 

black scum Turfgrasses L 13 

bluegreen algae Water N 91 

green algae Water N 91 

scum (blue, green) Turfgrasses L 13 

Allelopathy Azalea K 29, Eucalypt K 65, 

Trees K 21, Walnut F 149 

Allergies see Poisonous plants 

Allium spp. Herbs N 32, Onion M 66 

ALMOND Stone fruits F 123 

Alnus spp. see Alder 

Alternaria spp. (fungal fruit rots, fungal 

leaf spots) Geraldton wax K 73, 

Marigold A 45, Protea K 119, Tomato M 

98 

A. alternata Carnation A 17, Cucurbits 

M 51, M 52, Gypsophila A 40, 

Kangaroo paw A 43, Mango F 80, 

Passionfruit F 91, Plane tree K 115, 

Pome fruits F 109, Strawberry 

F 140, Tomato M 98 

A. brassicicola, A. brassicae 

Brassicas M 37 

A. cinerariae (A. senecionis) Cineraria 

A 28 

A. cucumerina Cucurbits M 52 

A. dauci Carrot M 44 

A. panax Ivy K 88 

A. passiflorae Passionfruit F 92 

A. porri Onion M 66 

A. radicina Carrots M 44, Celery M 48 

A. solani (early blight, target spot) 

Potato M 78, Tomato M 98 

A. zinniae Zinnia A 58 

Altica spp. see Metallic flea beetles 

Amanita spp. (see also Mushroom) 

A. muscari see Fly agaric 

A. phalloides see Death cap 

AMARYLLIDACEAE Daffodil C 19 

Amblypelta spp. see Fruitspotting bugs 

Amblyseius spp. (predatory mites) 

Beans (French) M 30, Onion M 68, 


Ambrosia beetles see Borers 

Ambrosia fungi see Fungi 

American poplar rust see Rusts 

Amoeba Soil N 81 

Amorbus spp. see Eucalyptus tip bugs 

Ananas comosus see Pineapple 

ANARCARDIACEAE Cashew F 30 

Mango F 80, Pistachio F 106 

Ancita marginicollis see Wattle ringbarking 

beetle 

ANEMONE C 11 

Angular leaf spots see Fungal leaf spots 

Anigothanzos spp. see Kangaroo paw 

Anisozyga pieroides see Bizarre looper 

Annelida see Earthworms 

ANNONACEAE Custard apple F 51 

ANNUALS AND HERBACEOUS 

PERENNIALS A 1 

Anomalaphis sp. see Aphids 

Anomis flava See Cotton looper 

Anoplognathus spp. see Christmas 

beetles 

Anthela spp. (anthelid caterpillars) 

A. nicothoe see Hairymary caterpillar 

A. varia Grevillea K 75, Macadamia 

F 77, Trees K 13, Willow K 140 

Anthelid caterpillars See Caterpillars 

Anther smut see Smuts 

Index 

Anthracnose see Fruit rots, Fungi 

Antirrhinum majus see Snapdragon 

ANTS (Formicidae) Compost N 16, 

Eucalypt K 63, Fruit F 13, Greenhouses 

N 28, House plants N 37, Protea K 121, 

Seedlings N 69, Soil N 80, Trees K 19, 

Turfgrasses L 8 

carpenter ants Trees K 12 

seedharvesting ants Eucalypt K 63, 

Seedlings N 69, Seeds N 75, Trees 

K 17, Turfgrasses L 8 

sooty mould Citrus F 41, Hakea K 78, 

Trees K 19 

Anyllis leiala see Spittle bugs 

Aonidiella spp. (see also Armoured 

scales) 

A. aurantii see Red scale 

A. orientalis see Oriental scale 

Aphanocladium disease (Aphanocladium 

album) Mushroom M 62 

Aphanomyces black root rot see Root rots 

Aphanomyces spp. (see also 

Aphanomyces black root rot) 

A. cochlioides Vegetables M 7 

A. euteiches Beans (French) M 26, 

Beets M 33, Pea M 73, 

A. raphani Brassicas M 37 

Aphelenchoides spp. (foliar nematodes) 

A. fragariae African violet A 12, 

Annuals A 7, Begonia C 14, Ferns 

E 2, Kangaroo paw A 43 

A. ritzembosi Chrysanthemum A 24, 

Ferns E 2 

APHIDS (Adelgidae, Aphididae, 

Phylloxeridae) Annuals A 7, 

Asparagus M 21, Australian native 

plants N 5, Bean (broad) M 24, Beans 

(French) M 27, Brassicas M 38, Bulbs 

C 6, Citrus F 35, Conifers K 47, 

Cucurbits M 53, Greenhouses N 23, 

Hibiscus K 81, House plants N 35, 

Hydrangea K 86, Lettuce M 59, Maple 

K 97, Melaleuca K 99, Mint bush K 100, 

Onion M 68, Parsnip M 70, Pea M 74, 

Photinia K 105, Pine K 108, 

Pittosporum K 113, Potato M 80, 

Rhubarb M 85, Roses J 4, Seedlings 

N 68, Soil N 80, Tomato M 101, Trees 

K 10, Vegetables M 11 

Anomalaphis sp. Tea-tree K 124, 

Thryptomene K 126 

apple aphid see Spiraea aphid 

apple-grass aphid Pome fruits F 116 

banana aphid Banana F 24 

bean root aphid Bean (broad) M 24, 

Beans (French) M 27 

beech aphid Trees K 10 

birch aphid Birch K 33 

black citrus aphids Boronia K 34, 

Camellia K 39, Citrus F 35, 

Eriostemon K 56, Macadamia F 76 

black peach aphid Stone fruits F 129 

bracken aphid Ferns E 3 

bulb and potato aphid Bulbs C 6 

cabbage aphid Brassicas M 38, Stock 

A 55, Vegetables M 11 

California maple aphid Maple K 97 

carrot aphid Carrot M 45, Celery M 48, 

Parsnip M 70, Vegetables M 11, 

Willow K 140 

cherry aphid Stone fruits F 129 

chrysanthemum aphid 

Chrysanthemum A 24 

corn aphid Sweetcorn M 89 

cotton aphid Annuals A 7, Ash K 26, 

Begonia C 14, Bulbs C 6, Camellia K 

39, Chrysanthemum A 24, 

Cucurbits M 53, Greenhouses 

N 23, Hibiscus K 81, Hollyhock A 42, 

Iris C 38, Lilac K 94, Orchids G 5, 

Snapdragon A 51, Vegetables M 11 

INDEX P 1

INDEX 

APHIDS (contd) 

cowpea aphid Bean (broad) M 24, 

Beans (French) M 27, Begonia C 14, 

Carrot M 45, Citrus F 35, Hibiscus 

K 81, Pea M 74, Primrose A 50, 

Tomato M 101, Vegetables M 11 

cypress aphid Conifers K 47 

cypress pine aphids Conifers K 47 

European birch aphid Birch K 33 

fennel aphid Carrot M 45, Vegetables 

M 11 

foxglove aphid Bean (broad) M 24, 

Chrysanthemum A 24, Daphne 

K 52, Lettuce M 59, Primrose A 50, 

Viburnum K 128, Violet A 56 

gall aphids (Phylloxeridae) Grapevine 

F 61 

grape phylloxera Grapevine F 61 

green peach aphid Annuals A 7, Bean 

(broad) M 24, Beets M 34, Brassicas 

M 38, Cucurbits M 53, Greenhouses 

N 23, Protea K 120, Stone fruits 

F 129, Tomato M 101, Vegetables 

M 11 

hazel aphid Hazelnut F 68 

honeysuckle aphid Honeysuckle K 85 

ivy aphid Ivy K 88 

juniper aphid Conifers K 47 

lantana aphid see Palm aphids 

leafcurl plum aphid Bean (broad) 

M 24, Chrysanthemum A 25, 

Cineraria A 28 

lily aphid Greenhouses N 23, Lily C 40 

maidenhair fern aphid Fern E 3 

mangold aphid Beets M 34, Bulbs C 6 

marigold aphid Calendula A 14. 

Marigold A 45 

melon aphid see Cotton aphid 

oak aphids Oak K 101 

oleander aphid Oleander K 103 

onion aphid Onion M 68 

orchid aphid Orchids G 5 

pale chrysanthemum aphid 


palm aphids Orchids G 5, Palms H 3 

pea aphid Pea M 74 

pear root aphid Pome fruits F 116 

pelargonium aphid Geranium A 35 

pine adelgid Conifers K 47, Pine K 108 

pine aphids (Adelgidae) Conifers 

K 47, Pine K 108 

poplar gall aphid Poplar K 118 

potato aphid Annuals A 7, Bean 

(broad) M 24, Beets M 34, Bulbs 

C 6, Cucurbits M 53, Lettuce M 59, 

Pea M 74, Potato M 80, Tomato 

M 101, Vegetables M 11 

rose aphid Rose J 4 

rose-grain aphid Rose J 4 

shallot aphid Onion M 68 

sowthistle aphid Currants F 49, 

Lettuce M 59, Vegetables M 11 

spiraea aphid Citrus F 35, Pome fruits 

F 116 

spruce aphid Conifers K 47 

strawberry aphid Strawberry F 140 

sycamore aphid Maple K 97, Plane 

tree K 115 

tulip bulb aphid Bulbs C 6, Tulip C 42 

turnip aphid Brassicas M 38, Stock 

A 55 

Twainaphis sp. Melaleuca K 99 

violet aphid Bulbs C 6, Daffodil C 20, 

Tulip C 43, Violet A 56 

woolly aphid Pome fruits F 116 

woolly pine aphid see Pine adelgid 

yellow orchid aphid Orchids G 5 

Aphis spp. (see also Aphids) 

A. craccivora see Cowpea aphid 

A. gossypii see Cotton aphid 

A. hederae see Ivy aphid 

A. nerii see Oleander aphid 

A. spiraecola (A. citricola) see Spiraea 

aphid 

Aphodius spp. see Pasture cockchafers 

APIACEAE Carrot M 44, Celery M 47, 

Herbs N 32, Parsnip M 70 

Apiomorpha spp. see Scales (Eriococcid) 

Apium graveolens see Celery 

APOCYNACEAE Oleander K 103 

APPLE Pome fruits F 107 

Apple dimpling bug see Bugs 

Apple flat limb see Viruses 

Apple-grass aphid see Aphids 

Apple green crinkle see Viruses 

Apple leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Apple looper see Caterpillars 

Apple mosaic see Viruses 

Apple mussel scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Apple root weevils see Weevils 

Apple rust mite see Mites 

Apple viruses Pome fruits F 107 

Apple weevil see Weevils 

APRICOT Stone fruits F 123 

Apricot-russeting mite see Plum leaf mite 

Aquatic weeds Water N 92 

AQUIFOLIACEAE Holly K 84 

ARACEAE Zantedeschia C 45 

ARACHNIDA See Spiders 

Arachis hypogaea see Peanut 

ARALIACEAE Ivy K 88 

ARANEIDA see Spiders 

Arceuthobium spp. see Dwarf mistletoes 

Archernis mitis (caterpillar) Poplar K 118 

ARECACEAE Palms H 1 

Argentine stem weevil see Weevils 

Argentinian scarab see Scarab beetles 

Arhopala spp. (oakblues) 

A. centaurus centaurus see Dull 

oakblue 

A. micale amphis see Common 

oakblue 

Aricerus eichhoffi see Fig bark beetle 

Armillaria root rot see Root and stem rots 

Armoured scales see Scales (armoured) 

Armyworms, cutworms see Caterpillars 

Arotrophora arcuatalis see Caterpillars 

ARTEMISIA Gerbera A 37 

ARUM LILY Zantedeschia C 45 

ASCLEPIADACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

Ascochyta spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Eucalypt K 58, Hibiscus K 81 

A. fabae Bean (broad) M 23 

A. phaseolorum Beans (French) M 26 

A. pinodella, A. pisi Pea M 73 

A. rhei Rhubarb M 85 

ASH K 26 

Ashy stem blight, charcoal rot see Root 

rots 

ASPARAGUS M 21 

Aspergillus black, green and pod 

moulds (Aspergillus spp.) Conifers 

K 46, Fruit F 5, Onion M 67 

A. flavus Peanut F 96 

A. niger Onion M 67, Peanut F 97 

Asphondylia sp. (gall fly) Wattle K 135 

Aspidiotus nerii see Oleander scale 

Astartea see Tea-tree K 124 

ASTERACEAE (Compositae) Calendula 

A14, China aster A 21, Chrysanthemum 

A 23, Cineraria A 28, Dahlia C 24, 

Everlastings A 31, Gazania A 33, 

Gerbera A 37, Lettuce 

M 58, Marigold A 45, Zinnia A 58 

Asterina sp. (fungal leaf spot) Banksia 

K 31 

Asterivora lampadias (leafroller caterpillar) 

Everlastings A 31 

Asterodiaspis variolosa see Golden oak 

scale 

Asynonychus cervinus see Fuller's rose 

weevil 

Ataenius imparalis see Brown cockchafer 

Atelocauda digitata (rust) Wattle K 131 

Atherigona orientalis see Atherigona 

Atherigona, tomato fly see Flies 

Atractocerus kreuslerae see Eucalypt 

pinworm 

Atrichonotus taeniatulus see Small lucerne 

weevil 

Auger beetles (Bostrichidae) see Borers 

Aulacaspis spp. (armoured scales) 

A. tubercularis see Mango scales 

A. rosae see Rose scale 

Aulacophora spp. see Pumpkin beetles 

Aulacorthum spp. (see also Aphids) 

A. circumflexum see Lily aphid 

A. solani see Foxglove aphid 

Auloicerya sp. (ground pearl) Hakea K 78 

Austracris guttulosa (= Nomadacris 

guttulosa) see Spur-throated locust 

Australian citrus whitefly see Whiteflies 

Australian goat moth see Borers 

Australian grass leafhopper see 

Leafhoppers 

Australian hollyhock Australian native 

plants N 4 

AUSTRALIAN NATIVE PLANTS N 2 

Australian painted lady see Caterpillars 

Australian plague locust see 

Grasshoppers 

Australian privet hawk moth see 

Caterpillars 

Australicoccus grevilleae see Grevillea 

mealybug 

Australothrips bicolor (thrips) Eucalypt 

K 64 

Austroasca spp. (leafhoppers) 

A. alfalfae see Lucerne leafhopper 

A. viridigrisea see Vegetable 

leafhopper 

Autotoxicity Asparagus M 22 

Autumn gum moth see Caterpillars 

AVOCADO F 18 

Avocado bark beetle see Bark beetles 

Avocado leafroller see Caterpillars 

Axionicus insignis see Kurrajong weevil 

AZALEA K 27 

Azalea lace bug see Bugs 

Azalea leaf gall see Leaf galls 

Azalea leafminer see Leafminers 

Azalea petal blight (Ovulinia) see Petal 

blights 

Azalea whitefly see Whiteflies 

B 

BABY'S BREATH Gypsophila A 40 

BACTERIA Beans (French) M 25, 

Compost N 16, Elm K 54, Eucalypt 

K 57, Greenhouses N 22, House plants 

N 35, Hydroponic systems N 41, 

Interior plantscapes N 45, Mulches 

N 49, Mushroom M 62, Plant tissue 

culture N 59, Postharvest N 61, 

Seedlings N 66, Seeds N 74, Soil N 80, 

Trees K 4 

actinorhizae (beneficial) Casuarina 

K 43, Trees K 18 

bacterial black spot Mango F 80 

bacterial blast Citrus F 33, Persimmon 

F 101, Stone fruits F 124 

bacterial blights Beans (French) M 25, 

Beets M 33, Blueberry F 27, Carrot 

M 44, Grapevine F 58, Hazelnut 

F 68, Mulberry F 84, Pea M 72, 

Photinia K 105, Stock A 54, Walnut F 

148, see also Pseudomonas spp. 

and Xanthomonas spp. 

bacterial blossom rot (P. viridiflava) 

Kiwi fruit F 70 

bacterial brown spot Beans (French) 

M 25 

bacterial canker Citrus F 33, Fruit F 4, 

Pome fruits F 107, 108, Poplar 

K 117, Stone fruits F 124, Tomato 

M 97, Trees K 4 

bacterial galls Oleander K 103, Olive 

F 86 

bacterial leaf spots Annuals A 5, 


Brassicas M 36, Carnation A 16, 

Celery M 47, Cucurbits M 51, 

Delphinium A 30, Freesia C 27, 

Geranium A 34, Greenhouses N 22, 

Gypsophila A 40, Hibiscus K 81, Ivy 

K 88, Lettuce M 58, Lilac K 94, 

Magnolia K 96, Marigold A 45, 

Orchids G 3, Pawpaw F 88, Pea 

M 72, Protea K 119, Tomato M 98, 

Trees K 4, Vegetables M 5, Zinnia A 

58 

bacterial ring rot Potato M 78 

bacterial rots Trees K 9, Vegetables 

M 5 

bacterial scab Gladiolus C 29 

P 2 

INDEX

INDEX 

BACTERIA (contd) 

bacterial seedling blight Snapdragon 

A 51 

bacterial soft rots see Fruit rots 

bacterial speck Tomato M 98 

bacterial wet wood Elm K 54, Trees 

K 4 

bacterial wilts Annuals A 5, Banana 

F 22, Beets M 33, Brassicas M 36, 

Carnation A 16, Custard apple F 51, 

Dahlia C 24, Potato M 78, Tomato 

M 98, Vegetables M 6, Wattle K 

131, see also Pseudomonas spp. 

crown gall Annuals A 5, Currants F 48, 

Dahlia C 24, Fruit F 4, Grapevine 

F 58, Kiwi fruit F 70, Pecan F 99, 

Persimmon F 101, Pome fruits 

F 108, Rose J 2, Stone fruits F 125, 

Trailing berries F 145, Trees K 4, 

Walnut F 148 

Frankia spp. Casuarina K 43 

halo blight Beans (French) M 25 

nitrogen-fixing bacteria (beneficial) 

Casuarina K 43, Mulches N 49, Soil 

N 81, Trees K 18, Wattle K 136 

Bactrocera spp. (see also Fruit flies) 

B. aquilonis see Northern Territory fruit 

fly 

B. cacuminatus see Solanum fruit fly 

B. cucumis see Cucumber fly 

B. dorsalis see Oriental fruit fly 

B. frauenfeldi see Mango fly 

B. halfordiae see Halfordia fruit fly 

B. jarvisi see Jarvis's fruit fly 

B. musae see Banana fruit fly 

B. neohumeralis see Lesser 

Queensland fruit fly 

B. newmani see Newman fly 

B. opiliae see False oriental fruit fly 

B. papayae see Papaya fruit fly 

B. tryoni see Queensland fruit fly 

Bag-shelter moths see Caterpillars 

Bald head Beans (French) M 31 

BANANA F 22 

Banana aphid see Aphids 

Banana bunchy top virus see Viruses 

Banana flower thrips see Thrips 

Banana fruit caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Banana fruit fly see Fruit lies 

Banana root borer see Borers 

Banana rust thrips see Thrips 

Banana scab moth see Caterpillars 

Banana-silvering thrips see Thrips 

Banana skipper see Caterpillars 

Banana spider mite see Mites 

Banana-spotting bug see Bugs 

Banana stalk fly see Flies 

Banana weevil borer see Borers 

BANKSIA K 31 

Banksia hawk moth see Caterpillars 

Banksia jewel beetle see Borers 

Banksia longicorn see Borers 

Banksia moth see Caterpillars 

Banksia whitefly see Whiteflies 

Barcelona nut see Hazelnut 

Bardee, bardee grub, bardi grub see 

Borers 

Bark Compost N 17, Potting mixes N 64, N 

65 

BARK BEETLES Conifers K 47, Pine 

K 109, Trees K 10 

avocado bark beetle Avocado F 20 

black pine bark beetle Conifers K 47 

cypress bark beetles Conifers K 47 

cypress bark weevil Conifers K 47 

elm bark beetle Elm K 54 

fig bark beetle Fig F 56 

fivespined bark beetle Pine K 109 

goldenhaired bark beetle Conifers 

K 47 

hoop-pine bark beetle Conifers K 47 

mottled pine bark weevil Conifers 

K 47 

pine bark beetles Conifers K 47, Pine 

109 

pine bark weevil Conifers K 47, Pine 

K 108 

pine engraver beetle Pine K 109 

Bark weevils see Bark beetles 

Barley yellow dwarf virus see Viruses 

Barriers Seeds N 76 

Batchelomyces proteae (fungal leaf spot) 

Protea K 119 

Bathotroma constrictus see Capsule moth 

Bathytricha truncata see Sugarcane and 

maize stemborer 

BEAN (BROAD) M 23 

Bean blossom thrips see Thrips 

Bean common mosaic virus see Viruses 

Bean flower caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Bean fly see Flies 

Bean podborer see Caterpillars 

Bean root aphid see Aphids 

BEANS (FRENCH) M 25 

Bean spider mite see Mites 

Bean weevil see Weevils 

Bean yellow mosaic virus see Viruses 

Beech aphid see Aphids 

Bee hawk moth see Caterpillars 

BEES (Hymenoptera) 

leafcutting bees Camellia K 41, Lilac 

K 94, Roses J 8 

Beet curly top virus see Viruses 

Beet leafminer see Leafminers 

BEETLES (Coleoptera) 

ambrosia beetles, pinhole borers 

(Curculionidae) see Borers 

auger beetles (Bostrichidae) see 

Borers 

bill bug see Weevils 

driedfruit beetles (Nitidulidae) see 


flower scarabs, nectar scarabs 

(Scarabaeidae) see Scarab beetles 

jewel beetles (Buprestidae) see 

Borers 

ladybirds (Coccinellidae) see 

Ladybirds 

leaf beetles, flea beetles 

(Chrysomelidae) see Leaf beetles 

longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae) 

see Borers 

pinhole borers, ambrosia beetles 

(Curculionidae) see Borers 

scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae) see 


seed insects see Seeds insects 

soldier beetles see Soldier beetles 

weevils (Curculionidae) see Borers, 

Weevils 

wireworms (Elateridae, false 

wireworms (Tenebrionidae) see 

Wireworms 

Beet mosaic virus see Viruses 

Beet nematode see Nematodes 

BEETS M 33 

Beet webworm see Caterpillars 

Beet western yellows see Viruses 

BEGONIA Bulbs C 14 

BEGONIACEAE Begonia C 14 

Bemesia spp. (see also Whiteflies) 

B. argentifolia see Poinsettia whitefly 

B. tabaci see Cotton whitefly 

B. tabaci-type B see Poinsettia whitefly 

Bent neck Roses J 8, Zinnia A 58 

Bentwing ghost moth see Borers 

Beta spp. see Beets 

Betula spp. see Birch 

BETULACEAE Birch K 33, Hazelnut F 68 

Bibio imitator see Garden maggot 

Biennial fruit bearing Fruit F 13, Hazelnut F 

69, Pistachio F 106 

BILBERGIA Bromeliads B 2 

Billbug see Weevils 

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Citrus F 36, 

F 40, Compost N 16, N 17, Fruit F 6, 

Soil N 81, Stone fruits F 129, F 130 see 

also Greenhouses N 31 (Table 7) 

actinorhizae Casuarina K 43, Trees 

K 19 

Agrobacterium sp. Stone fruits F 125 

bacteria (beneficial) Brassicas M 39, 

Stone fruits F 125 

Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel ) 

Brassicas M 39, Sweetcorn M 90 

bees Hibiscus K 83 

birds Eucalypt K 60, K 61, K 62, K 64, 

Grapevine F 61, Seedlings N 70, 

Turfgrasses L 7, L 9, L 12, 

Vegetables M 14 

black fungus beetle Mushroom M 63 

bugs Grapevine F 61, Onion M 68 

caterpillars (moths) Eucalypt K 60, 

K 63, K 65 

Chilean predator mite (Phytoseiulus 

persimilis) Beans (French) M 30 

Dipel see Bacillus thuringiensis above 

domatia Viburnum K 128 

Doreen's predator mite Grapevine 

F 63 

Encarsia formosa (parasitic wasp) 


Entomophora sp. (fungus) Stone fruits 

F 130 

flies Vegetables M 14 

fungi (beneficial) Vegetables M 14, 

Grapevine F 66 (Fig. 128) 

fungus-eating ladybird Mushroom 

M 63 

gumtree scale ladybird Eucalypt K 63 

Isomate C Pome fruits F 114 

Isomate M Stone fruits F 132 

lacewings Beans (French) M 30, Carrot 

M 45, Greenhouses N 26, Roses J 5 

ladybirds Conifers K 48, Beans 

(French) M 30, Eucalypt K 63, 

Greenhouses N 26, Mushroom 

M 63, Oleander K 104, Roses J 5 

mealybug ladybird Conifers K 48, 


Metarhizium sp. (fungus) Vegetables 

M 14 

mites Beans (French) M 30, Mushroom 

M 63, Viburnum K 128 

mite-eating ladybirds Beans (French) 

M 30, Eucalypt K 63 

moth caterpillars Eucalypt K 63 

mycorrhiza Bonsai N 13, Casuarina 

K 43, Eucalypt K 65, Lychee F 74, 

Mulches N 49, Orchids G 7, Pine 

K 110, Potting mixes N 64, Soil 

N 81, Trees K 18 

nematodes (beneficial) Grapevine 

F 63, Mushroom M 64, Seedlings 

N 70, Soil N 81, Turfgrasses L 7 

nitrogen-fixing bacteria Mulches N 49, 

Soil N 81, Trees K 18, Wattle K 136 

Nogall Stone fruits F 125 

Otinem Cyclamen C 17, Grapevine 

F 63 

pheromones Citrus F 36, Pome fruits 


predatory mites (Amblyseius spp., 

Phytoseiulus persimilis, 

Typhlodromus occidentalis) 

Beans (French) M 30 see also 

Typhlodromus spp. 

protozoa Seedlings N 70, Vegetables 

M 14 

Stethorus sp. (predatory ladybird) 


Thrips (Thysanoptera) Eucalypt K 63 

Trichoderma sp. (fungus) 

Greenhouses N 23, Trees K 6 

Trichogramma spp. Sweetcorn M 90 

viruses (beneficial) Brassicas M 36, 

Sweetcorn M 90 

wasps (Hymenoptera) Brassicas M 38, 

Citrus F 40, Eucalypt K 63, 

Grapevines F 61, Roses J 5, 

Sweetcorn M 90, Vegetables M12 

Bipolaris sp. see Fungal leaf spots 

Biprorulus bibax see Spined citrus bug 

BIRCH K 33 

Birch aphid see Aphids 

BIRDS see Vertebrates 

Bitter rot (various fungi) Grapevine F 59, 

Pome fruits F 108 

Bizarre looper see Caterpillars 

Black beetle see Scarab beetles 

BLACKBERRY Trailing berries F 145 

Blackberry rusts see Rusts 

Blackbutt leafminer see Leafminers 

Black canker (various fungi) Custard apple 

F 51, Willow K 139 

Black citrus aphids see Aphids 

Black crust Orchids G 4 

INDEX P 3

INDEX 

BLACK CURRANT Currants F 48 

Black currant reversion Currants F 48 

Blackening Waratah K 129 

Black field cricket see Crickets 

Black field earwig see Earwigs 

Black fungus gnats see Flies 

Black-headed pasture cockchafer see 


Black heart (various causes) Celery M 48, 

Potato M 83, Stone fruits F 127 

Black leg (fungal rot) Brassicas M 37 

Black mould (Aspergillus spp.) see Fruit 

rots, see also Aspergillus black, green 

and pod moulds 

Black peach aphid see Aphids 

Black pine bark beetle see Bark beetles 

Black pit (fungal bunch rot) Banana F 22 

Black plague thrips see Thrips 

Black ring Carrot M 46 

Black root rot see Root and stem rots 

Black rot (various fungi) Brassicas M 36, 

Carrot M 44, Stock A 54, Grapevine 

F 59, Pome fruits F 109 

Black scale see Scales (soft) 

Black scum see Algae 

Black sigatoka (fungal leaf spot) Banana 

F 23 

Black spot (fungal diseases) Citrus F 34, 

Grapevine F 59, Pome fruits F 108, 

Roses J 3, Strawberry F 140 

Black stem rot (Pythium spp.) Geranium 

A 34 

Black strawberry beetle Strawberry F 142 

Black tip (fungal bunch rot) Banana F 22 

Black vine weevil see Weevils 

Bladder plum (fungal) Stone fruits F 126 

Blasting Iris C 38 

Blastobasid fruit borers (Blastobasis spp.) 

Citrus F 37 

Blastopsylla occidentalis see Eucalypt 

shoot psyllid 

BLATTODEA see Cockroaches 

Bleach Carnation A 19 

BLIGHTS 

bacterial blights see Bacteria 

halo blight see Bacteria 

petal blights see Petal blights 

Blister mites See Mites 

Blossom drop Tomato M 104 

Blossom-end rot Cucurbits M 56, Tomato 

M 104 

Blossom gall fly see Flies 

Blue and white tit see Caterpillars 

Blue argus see Caterpillars 

BLUEBERRY F 27 

Blue-green algae see Algae 

Blue-green metallic leaf beetles see Leaf 

beetles 

Bluegum eulophid see Wasps 

Bluegum psyllid see Psyllids 

Blue jewel see Caterpillars 

Blue moulds (Penicillium spp.) see Fruit 

rots, see also Penicillium spp. 

Blue oat mite see Mites 

Blues, coppers, hairstreaks see 

Caterpillars 

Blue-stain see Wood-stains 

Boarmia lyciaria (a looper) Pine K 108 

Bogong moth see Caterpillars 

Bolting Brassicas M 41, Carrot M 46, 

Celery M 48, Lettuce M 60, Parsnip 


Bombyx mori see Silkworms 

BONSAI N 13 

BORERS (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, 

Lepidoptera) Australian native plants N 

5, Banksia K 31, Bottlebrush K 36, 

Conifers K 47, Citrus F 36, Elm K 54, 

Eucalypt K 59, Fruit F 7, Grapevine 

F 60, Grevillea K 75, Kurrajong K 91, 

Lilly-pilly K 95, Melaleuca K 98, Mint 

bush K 100, Pine K 108, Protea K 120, 

Silk tree K 122, Stone fruits F 130, 

Tamarisk K 123, Tea-tree K 124, Trees 

K 10, Waratah K 129, Wattle K 132, 

see also Weevils 

ambrosia beetles, pinhole borers, 

shothole borers (Curculionidae) 

Conifers K 47, Eucalypt K 59, Pine 

K 100, Trees K 10 

auger beetles (Bostrichidae) Grevillea 

K 75, Kurrajong K 91, Tamarisk 

K 123, Trees K 11, Wattle K 132 

Australian goat moth Eucalypt K 59, 

Trees K 12 

banana weevil borer, banana root 

borer Banana F 24 

banksia jewel beetle Banksia K 31 

banksia longicorn Banksia K 31 

bardee, bardee grub, bardi grub 

Eucalypt K 59 

bark beetles see Bark beetles 

bentwing ghost moth Eucalypt K 59, 

Trees K 12 

bullseye borer Eucalypt K 59 

callistemon tip borer Bottlebrush K 38, 

Melaleuca K 99 

callistemon trunkborer Bottlebrush 

K 36 

citrus branchborer Citrus F 36 

citrus longicorn Citrus F 36 

citrus root-bark channeller Citrus 

F 36 

citrus trunkborer Citrus F 36 

common eucalypt longicorn Eucalypt 

K 59 

common splendid ghost moth 

Bottlebrush K 36, Lilly-pilly K 95, 

Mint bush K 100, Tea-tree K 124, 

Trailing berries F 146, Trees K 12, 

Wattle K 132 

Cryptophasa sordida, C. pultenae 

(Oecophoridae) Lilly-pilly K 95 

cucurbit stemborer Cucurbits M 55 

currant borer moth Currants F 49 

cypress jewel beetles Conifers K 47 

cypress longicorn Conifers K 47 

diamond beetle Wattle K 132 

Echiomima spp. (Oecophoridae) Lillypilly 

K 95, Lychee F 73 

elephant weevil Australian native 

plants N 8, Citrus F 38, F 42, 

Custard apple F 52, Pecan F 99, 

Trees K 12, K 18, Wattle K 132 

eucalypt keyhole borer Eucalypt K 59 

eucalypt pinworm Eucalypt K 59 

eucalypt ringbarking longicorn 

Eucalypt K 59 

European corn borer Sweetcorn M 89 

fig longicorn Citrus F 36, Fig F 55, 

Grapevine F 60, Willow K 140 

fruit-tree borer (Maroga 

melanostigma) Fruit F 10, 

Grapevine F 60, Pecan F 99, Silk 

tree K 122 

fruit-tree borers (Oecophoridae) Birch 

K 33, Bottlebrush K 36, Casuarina 

K 42, Eucalypt K 59, Everlastings 

A 31, Fruit F 10, Grapevine F 60, 

Grevillea K 75, Lilly-pilly K 95, 

Lychee F 73, Macadamia F 77, Mint 

bush K 100, Pecan F 99, Pine 

K 108, Poplar K 118, Silk tree K 122, 

Stone fruits F 130, Tamarisk K 123, 

Tea-tree K 124, Trees K 12, Wattle 

K 132 

fruit-tree pinhole borer Fruit F 7 

fruit-tree root weevil Citrus F 42, 

Eucalypt K 64, Fruit F 11, F 13, 

Pome fruits F 116, Trees K 12, 

Wattle K 132 

ghost moths (Hepialidae) Eucalypt 

K 59, Lilly-pilly K 95, Mint bush 

K 100, Tea-tree K 124, Trees K 12, 

Wattle K 132 

giant wood moth Trees K 12 

hoop-pine borers Conifers K 48 

hoop-pine branchcutter Conifers K 47 

hoop-pine jewel beetle Conifers K 47 

hoop-pine longicorn Conifers K 48 

hoop-pine stitch beetle Conifers K 48 

jewel beetles (Buprestidae) Banksia 

K 31, Conifers K 47, Trees K 11, 

Wattle K 132 

large ambrosia beetle Conifers K 47, 

Trees K 10 

large auger beetle Fig F 56, Kurrajong 

K 91, Pecan F 99, Trees K 11, 

Wattle K 132, White cedar K 138 

lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha 

dominica) Trees K 11 

longicorn beetles (Cerambycidae) 

Citrus F 36, Conifers K 48, Eucalypt 

K 59, Grevillea K 75, Maple K 97, 

Palms H 5, Pecan F 99, Pine K 108, 

Silk tree K 122, Tea-tree K 124, 

Trees K 11, Wattle K 132 

mango tipborer Mango F 81 

mountain pinhole borer, platypus 

beetle Conifers K 47, Trees K 10 

oecophorid borers see Fruit-tree 

borers above 

omnivorous pinhole borer Trees K 10 

oriental corn borer Rhubarb M 86 

pine bark anobiid (Ernobius mollis) 

Pine K 108 

pine witchetygrub Conifers K 48, Pine 

K 108 

pinhole borers see Ambrosia beetles 

pittosporum longicorn Citrus F 36, 

Pittosporum K 112 

platypus beetle, mountain pinhole 

borer Conifers K 47, Trees K 10 

poinciana longicorn Pecan F 99 

powderpost beetle (Lyctus spp.) 

Trees K 11 

shothole borers see Ambrosia beetles 

above 

silverbirch branchcutter Birch K 33 

sirex wasp Conifers K 48, Pine K 109, 

Trees K 12 

small fruit tree borer Fruit F 10, Silk 

tree K 122, Stone fruits F 130 

sugarcane and maize stemborer 


sugarcane weevil borer Palms H 5 

tip borers Bottlebrush K 38, Melaleuca 

K 99, Stone fruits F 131 

tomato stemborer Tomato M 102 

tuart longicorn Eucalypt K 59 

Uzucha humeralis (Oecophoridae) 

Eucalypt K 59 

vine weevil Grapevine F 60, F 63, 

Pecan F 100, Wattle K 133 

walnut pinhole borer Pine K 108, 

Walnut F 149 

wattle goat moth Trees K 12, Wattle 

K 133 

wattle longicorn Wattle K 132 

wattle ringbarking beetle Wattle K 132 

wattle root longicorn Wattle K 132 

wattle web-covering borer Wattle 

K 132 

weevils Kurrajong K 91, Trees K 12, 

Wattle K 132, see also Weevils 

white cypress longicorn Conifers F 48 

witjuti grubs Conifers K 48, Trees 


wood moths (Cossidae) Silk tree 


wood wasps see Sirex wasp above 

yellow longicorn Eucalypt K 59 

Boron deficiency see Nutrient deficiencies 

BORONIA K 34 

Boronia psyllid see Psyllids 

Bostrychopsis jesuita see Large auger 

beetle 

Botany Bay diamond beetle see Diamond 

beetle 

Botryodiplodia theobromae (root rots) 

Conifers K 46, Pine K 107 

Botryosphaeria spp. (see also Cankers) 

B. dothidea Kiwi fruit F 70 

B. ribis see Cankers 

Botrytis spp. (grey moulds) 


B. cinerea African violet A 12, Annuals 

A 5, Australian native plants N 3, 

Azalea K 27, Bean (broad) M 23, 


Bulbs C 5, Cacti D 2, Conifers K 46, 

Cucurbits M 53, Currants F 48, 

Cyclamen C 16, Daffodil C 20, 

P 4 

INDEX

INDEX 

BOTRYTIS SPP. (contd) 

B. cinerea (contd) 

Freesia C 27, Fruit F 5, Gardenia 

K 72, Geraldton wax 73, Gladiolus 

C 30, Grapevine F 59, 

Greenhouses N 22, Gypsophila 

A 40, Hakea K 77, Hibiscus K 81, 

House plants N 35, Hydrangea K 86, 

Kiwi fruit F 70, Lettuce M 59, 

Macadamia F 76, Onion M 67, 

Orchids G 4, Petunia A 47, Pine 

K 107, Poinsettia K 116, Pome fruits 

F 109, Protea K 119, Statice A 53, 

Strawberry F 139, Thryptomene 

K 126, Tomato M 99, Trailing berries 

F 145, Vegetables M 6, Verticordia K 

127, Viburnum K 128, Waratah 


B. elliptica Lily C 40 

B. fabae (chocolate spot) Bean (broad) 

M 23, Greenhouses N 22 

B. gladiolorum Gladiolus C 30 

B. narcissicola Daffodil C 29 

B. tulipae Tulip C 42 

BOTTLEBRUSH K 36, Australian native 

plants N 3 

Bougainvillea see Carnation A 16 

BOYSENBERRY Trailing berry F 145 

Brachycaudus spp. (see also Aphids) 

B. persicae see Black peach aphid 

B. helichrysi see Leafcurl plum aphid 

Brachychiton populneus see Kurrajong 

Bracken aphid see Aphids 

Bracken fern Ferns E 3 

Bracteantha spp. see Everlastings 

Bramble sawfly see Sawflies 

BRASSICACEAE Brassicas M, 36 Stock 

A 54 

BRASSICAS M 36, Stock A 54 

Bremia lactuca (downy mildew) Lettuce 

M 59, Everlastings A 31 

Brevicoryne brassicae see Cabbage aphid 

Brevipalpus spp. (false spider mites) 

B. californicus see Bunch mite 

B. lewisi see Citrus flat mite 

B. obovatus see Privet mite 

B. phoenicis see Passionvine mite 

BROAD BEAN Bean (broad) M 23 

Broadbean weevil see Weevils 

Broad bean wilt see Viruses 

Broad mite see Mites 

BROCCOLI Brassicas M 36 

Broccoli necrotic yellows virus see Viruses 

Brokenbacked bug see Bugs 

BROMELIACEAE Bromeliads B 1, 

Pineapple F 103 

BROMELIADS Bromeliads B 1, 


Brontispa longissima see Palm leaf beetle 

Bronze orange bug see Bugs 

Broomrape see Parasitic plants 

Brown almond mite see Bryobia mite 

Brown basket lerp see Psyllids 

Brown blotch (bacteria) Mushroom M 62 

Brown citrus rust mite see Mites 

Brown cockchafer see Scarab beetles 

Brown eucalypt beetle see Scarab beetles 

Brown fleck (storage disease) Potato M 82 

Brown gooseberry scale see Scales (soft) 

Brown lace lerp see Brown basket lerp 

Brown leaf beetle see Leaf beetles 

Brown looper see Caterpillars 

Brown olive scale see Black scale 

Brown pasture looper see Caterpillars 

Brown patch Turfgrasses L 4 

Brown rot see Fruit rots 

Brown spot (fungal) Citrus F 34, 

Passionfruit F 92, Pawpaw F 88 

Brown stain see Wood stains 

Bruchophagus fellis see Citrus gall wasp 

Bruchus pisorum see Pea weevil 

Brush box Australian native plants N 7 

Bryobia spp. (spider mites) 

B. cristata see Clover mite 

B. kissophila see Ivy mite 

B. repensi see Pasture mite 

B. rubrioculus see Bryobia mite 

Bryobia mite see Mites 

Bud drop African violet A 12, Camellia 

K 40, Fuchsia K 71, Gardenia K 72, 

Hibiscus K 83 

Bud opening Annuals A 11 

Budworms See Corn earworm 

BUGS (Hemiptera) Abutilon K 25, 

Annuals A 8, Australian native plants 

N 5, Beans (French) M 28, Beets M 34, 

Brassicas M 38, Carrot M 45, Citrus 

F 36, Cucurbits M 53, Eucalypt K 60, 

Fruit F 7, Grapevine F 61, Hibiscus 

K 82, Kiwi fruit F 70, Lettuce M 60, 

Lychee F 73, Melaleuca K 98, Potato 

M 80, Rhubarb M 85, Seedlings N 68, 

Stone fruits 130, Sweetcorn M 89, 

Tomato M 101, Trees K 12, 

Vegetables M 12, Wattle K 133 

acacia-spotting bug Wattle K 133 

apple dimpling bug Pome fruits 


azalea lace bug Azalea K 28 

banana-spotting bug Fruit F 10 

brokenbacked bug Stone fruits F 130 

bronze orange bug Citrus F 36 

callistemon tip bug Bottlebrush K 36, 


capsid bugs Fuchsia K 71 

chinch bugs see Seed bugs below 

citrus blossom bug Citrus F 36 

coon bug Avocado F 20, Hibiscus 

K 82, Stone fruits F 130, Vegetables 

M 12 

cotton harlequin bug Hibiscus K 82, 


cottonseed bug Hibiscus K 82 

Crompus spp. Bottlebrush K 36, Teatree 

K 124 

crusader bug Citrus F 36, Eucalypt 

K 60, Grevillea K 75, Hardenbergia 


cucurbit shield bug Cucurbits M 53 

eucalyptus tip bugs Eucalypt K 60 

fern mirid Ferns E 3 

fruitspotting bugs Avocado F 19, 

Banana F 24, Cashew F 31, 

Cucurbits M 54, Fruit 10, Kiwi fruit 

F 70, Pawpaw F 89, Persimmon 

F 102, Macadamia F 76, Mango 

F 81, Pecan F 99, Stone fruits F 130 

gelonus bugs Eucalypt K 60 

green mirid bug Beans (French) M 28, 

Carrot M 45, Cucurbits M 53, 

Passionfruit F 92, Potato M 80, 

Stone fruits F 130, Vegetables M 12 

green potato bug Potato M 80 

green stink bug Beans (French) M 28, 

Mulberry F 85, Vegetables M 12 

green vegetable bug Annuals A 8, 

Beans (French) M 28, Brassicas 

M 38, Citrus F 36, Cucurbits M 53, 

Macadamia F 77, Passionfruit F 92, 

Pecan F 99, Potato M 80, Sweetcorn 

M 89, Tomato M 101, Vegetables M 

12 

grey cluster bug Pineapple F 104, 

Strawberry F 141, Trailing berries 

F 146 

harlequin bug Annuals A 8, Australian 

native plants N 5, Beans (French) 

M 28, Brassicas M 39, Tomato 


jewel bugs Hibiscus K 82, Melaleuca 


lace bugs Azalea K 28, Casuarina 

K 43, Grevillea K 75, Macadamia 

F 77, Olive F 86 

leafspotting mirid bug Bottlebrush 

K 37, Melaleuca K 98 

leptocoris bug Annuals A 8, Tomato 


macadamia lace bug Macadamia F 77 

metallic shield bug Annuals A 8, 

Australian native plants N 5, 

Grapevine F 61, Stone fruits F 130, 


mirid bugs Melaleuca K 98, Rhubarb M 

85 

olive lace bug Olive F 86 

pale cotton stainer bug Vegetables 

M 12 

passionvine bug Passionfruit F 92 

pittosporum bug Pittosporum K 112 

podsucking bugs Beans (French) 

M 28 

pumpkin bug Cucurbits M 53 

Rutherglen bug Australian native 

plants N 5, Beans (French) M 28, 


F 36, Cucurbits M 54, Grapevine 

F 61, Onion M 69, Passionfruit F 93, 

Pine K 108, Pineapple F 104, Potato 

M 80, Stone fruits F 130, Strawberry 

F 141, Sweetcorn M 89, Tomato 

M 101, Trailing berries F 146, 


seed bugs, chinch bugs Hibiscus 

K 82 

shield bugs Wattle K 133 

spined citrus bug Citrus F 36 

spittle bugs Trees K 14 

squash bugs (Coreidae) Casuarina 

K 43, Eucalypt K 60 

stink bug Pine K 108 

strawberry bug Strawberry F 141 

tomato mirids Tomato M 101 

wheat bug Kiwi fruit F 70 

Bulb and potato aphid see Aphids 

Bulb flies see Flies 

Bulb mite see Mites 

Bulb rots Bulbs C 5, Hyacinth C 35 

Bulb scale mite see Mites 

BULBS, CORMS, RHIZOMES AND 

TUBERS C 1 

Bull-heading Camellia K 40, Fuchsia K 71 

Bunch diseases Banana F 22 

Bunch mite see Mites 

Bunch rots, fruit rots Grapevine F 59 

Burkholderia pseudomallei see Melioidosis 

Burr knots Plane tree K 115, Stone fruits 

F 134 

Burrowing nematode see Nematodes 

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus see Pine 

wood nematode 

Bush fly see Flies 

BUSH FRUIT AND NUTS F 29 

Butterflies see Caterpillars 

C 

CABBAGE Brassicas M 36 

Cabbage aphid see Aphids 

Cabbage-centre grub see Caterpillars 

Cabbage cluster caterpillar see 

Caterpillars 

Cabbage leafminer see Leafminers 

Cabbage moth see Caterpillars 

Cabbage white butterfly see Caterpillars 

Cacodacnus planicollis see Pine 

witchetygrub 

CACTI (Cactaceae) D 1 

Cactoblastis (caterpillar) Cacti D 3 

Cactoblastis cactorum see Cactoblastis 

Cactus mealybug see Scales (eriococcid) 

Cadang-cadang see Viruses 

Cadra figulilella see Raisin moth 

Caedicia spp. see Katydids 

Calacarus carinatus see Ribbed tea mite 

Calaphis flava see Birch aphid 

CALENDULA A 14 

Calepitrimerus vitis see Grapeleaf rust 

mite 

Calicotis crucifera see Elkhorn spore 

caterpillar 

California maple aphid see Aphids 

Caliroa cerasi see Pear and cherry slug 

CALLA LILY Zantedeschia C 45 

Callistemon spp. see Bottlebrush 

Callistemon sawfly see Sawflies 

Callistemon tip borer see Borers 

Callistemon tip bug see Bugs 

Callistemon trunkborer see Borers 

Callistephus chinensis see China aster 

CALLITRIS (cypress pine) K 45 

Callitris fly gall see Flies 

Callitris sawfly see Sawflies 

INDEX P 5

INDEX 

Calomela spp. see Blue-green metallic 

leaf beetles 

Calonectria quinqueseptata (leaf blight) 


Caloptilia azaleella see Azalea leafminer 

Calothamnus see Melaleuca K 99 

Calyx splitting Carnation A 18 

CAMELLIA K 39 

Camellia bud mite see Mites 

Camellia leaf gall see Leaf galls 

Camellia petal blight see Petal blights 

Camellia rust mite see Mites 

Camellia yellow mottle virus see Viruses 

Campylomma liebknechti see Apple 

dimpling bug 

Canary fly see Apple leafhopper 

Candalides spp. (blue butterflies) 

C. absimilis see Pencilled blue butterfly 

C. heathi see Rayed blue butterfly 

C. helenita helenita see Helenita blue 

butterfly 

Cane grubs see Scarab beetles 

Canker Parsnip M 70 

CANKERS Australian native plants N 3, 

Banksia K 31, Conifers K 45, Custard 

apple F 51, Elm K 54, Eucalypt K 57, 

Fruit F 5, Hibiscus K 81, Plane tree 

K 114, Poplar K 117, Protea K 119, 

Roses J 4, Trees K 5, Wattle K 131 

Botryosphaeria ribis (= Dothierella 

spp.) Banksia K 31, Eucalypt K 57, 

Pome fruits F 108, Protea K 119, 

Stone fruits F 126, Trees K 5, Wattle 

K 131 

coral spot (Nectria cinnabarina) Elm 

K 54 

Cryptodiaporthe sp. Banksia K 31 

cypress canker (Seiridium unicorne) 

Conifers K 45 

Cytospora spp. Australian N 3, Elm 

K 54, Eucalypt K 57, K 50, Plane 

tree K 114, Poplar K 118, Willow 

K 139 

Diplodia pinea Conifers K 45, Pine 

K 106 

Diplodina sp. see Cryptodiaporthe sp. 

above 

Dothierella sp. Pome fruits F 108, 

Stone fruits F 126, see also 

Botryosphaeria ribis above 

Endothia gyrosa Australian native 

plants N 3, Trees K 5, Eucalypt K 57 

Eutypa armeniacae (= E. lata) 

Grapevine F 59, Stone fruits F 126 

Glomerella cingulata (anthracnose, 

cankers, dieback) Avocado F 18, 

Fruit F 5, Orchids G 4, Passionfruit 

F 91, Pome fruits F 109, Trees K 5 

grey mould (Botrytis spp.) Trees K 5 

Leptosphaeria sp. Wattle K 131 

Leptosphaeria vagabunda Plane tree 

K 114 

Nattrassia mangiferae (= 

Hendersonia toniloidea) Eucalypt 

K 57 

Phomopsis spp. Australian native 

plants N 3, Conifers K 45, Protea 

K 119, see also Phomopsis spp. 

Plectronidium australiense Banksia 

K 31 

Physalospora sp. Pome fruits F 108 

Physalospora miyabeana (black 

canker) Willow K 139 

Ramularia spp. Eucalypt K 57 

Sporotrichum destructor Australian 

native plants N 3, Eucalypt K 57 

Zythiostroma sp. Australian native 

plants N 3 

Canker stain Plane tree K 114 

CAPE GOOSEBERRY F 30 

Cape gooseberry budworm see 

Caterpillars 

Capnodium anonae see Sooty mould 

Capri fig wasp see Wasps 

CAPRIFOLIACEAE Bush fruits F 29, 

Honeysuckle K 85, Viburnum K 128 

Capsicum Hydroponic systems N 42 

Capsid bugs (Miridae) see Bugs 

Capsule moth see Caterpillars 

Cardiaspina spp. (lerp insects) Eucalypt 

K 62 

CARICACEAE Papaw F 88 

Carica papaya see Pawpaw 

Carmenta chrysophanes see Lychee 

stem-girdler 

Carmine spider mite see Mites 

CARNATION A 16, Hydroponic systems 

N 42, Water N 90 

Carnation mottle virus see Viruses 

Carnation shoot mite see Mites 

Carnation viruses Carnation A 16 

Carpenter ants see Ants 

Carpobrotus sp. (pigface) Cacti D 2 

Carpoglyphus lactis see Driedfruit mite 

Carpophilus sp. see Driedfruit beetles 

Carposina spp. (caterpillars) 

C. adreptella see Raspberry bud moth 

C. autologa (seed borer) Hakea K 77 

CARROT M 44 

Carrot aphid see Aphids 

Carrot motley dwarf virus see Viruses 

Carrot rust fly see Flies 

Carrot weevil see Weevils 

Carthaea saturnoides see Dryandra moth 

Carulaspis juniperi see Juniper scale 

Carya illinoensis see Pecan 

CARYOPHYLLACEAE Carnation A 16, 

Gypsophila A 40 

Case moths (Psychidae) see Caterpillars 

CASHEW F 31 

Cassia spp. see Australian native plants 

N 2, N 5 

Cassytha sp. see Devil's twine 

Castor oil looper see Caterpillars 

CASUARINA (she-oak) Casuarina K 42 

CASUARINACEAE Casuarina K 42 

Casuarina mealybug see Mealybugs 

Casuarina moth see Caterpillars 

Casuarina scale see Scales (other) 

Catamola spp. (web moths) 

C. marmorea see Teatree moth 

C. thyrisalis see Teatree web moth 

Catasarcus impressipennis see 

Redlegged weevil 

CATERPILLARS (Lepidoptera) Annuals 


Avocado F 19, Banana F 24, Banksia 

K 31, Bean (broad) M 24, Beans 

(French) M 28, Bottlebrush K 37, 

Brassicas M 39, M 40, Bulbs C 8, 

Carrot M 45, Citrus F 36, Conifers K 48, 

Cucurbits M 54, Custard apple F 52, 

Eucalypt K 60, Fruit F 8, Fuchsia K 70, 

Gardenia K 72, Geranium A 35, 

Greenhouses N 24, Grevillea K 75, 

Hardenbergia K 79, Hibiscus K 82, 

Hollyhock A 42. Honeysuckle K 85, 

House plants N 35, Ivy K 88, Kangaroo 

paw A 43, Kennedia K 90, Kurrajong 

K 91, Lavender K 93, Lettuce M 60, 

Lilly-pilly K 95, Melaleuca K 98, Mint 

bush K 100, Oleander K 103, Onion 

M 68, Parsnip M 71, Pea M 74, Peanut 

F 87, Pine K 108, Pome fruits F 112, 

Poplar K 118, Potato M 80, Protea 

K 120, Rhubarb M 86, Seedlings N 68, 

Silk tree K 122, Soil N 81, Stone fruits 

F 131, Sweetcorn M 89, Sweet potato 

M 94, Tamarisk K 123, Tea-tree K 124, 


Turfgrasses L 9, Vegetables M 13, 

Waratah K 129, Wattle K 133 

anthelid caterpillars Grevillea K 75, 

Macadamia F 77, Trees K 13, Wattle 

K 133, Willow K 140 

apple looper Pome fruits F 113 

Archernis mitis Poplar K 118 

armyworms see Cutworms 

Arotrophora arcuatalis (leafroller 

moth) Banksia K 31 

Asterivora sp. Everlastings A 31 

Australian painted lady Everlastings 

A 31, Lavender K 93 

Australian privet hawk moth Olive 

F 86 

autumn gum moth Australian native 

plants N 5, Eucalypt K 60 

avocado leafroller Avocado F 19 

bag-shelter moth, processionary 

caterpillar Eucalypt K 60, Grevillea 

K 76, Pine K 108, Wattle K 134 

banana fruit caterpillar Banana F 24, 

Cucurbits M 54 

banana scab moth Banana F 24 

banana skipper Banana F 24 

banksia hawk moth Banksia K 31 

banksia moth Banksia K 31, Grevillea 

K 76 

bean flower caterpillars Beans 

(French) M 28 

bean podborer Beans (French) M 28 

bee hawk moth Gardenia K 72 

beet webworm Beets M 34 

bizarre looper Avocado F 19, 

Bottlebrush K 37, Lilly-pilly K 95, 


blue argus Snapdragon A 52 

blue jewel Wattle K 133 

blues, coppers, hairstreaks Lilly-pilly 


Bogong moth see Cutworms below 

brown looper Avocado F 19 

brown pasture looper Turfgrasses L 9 

budworms (Helicoverpa spp., 

Heliothis sp.) Hibiscus K 82, Bean 

(broad) M 24, China aster A 21, 

Chrysanthemum A 25, Citrus F 36, 

Everlastings A 31, Gardenia K 72, 

Lettuce M 60, Snapdragon A 52, 

Sweetcorn M 89, Tomato M 101, 

Zinnia A 58 

cabbage-centre grub Brassicas M 40 

cabbage cluster caterpillar Brassicas 

M 40 

cabbage moth Brassicas M 40, 

Geranium A 35, Nasturtium A 46, 

Stock A 55 

cabbage white butterfly Brassicas 

M 39, Calendula A 14, Geranium 

A 35, Nasturtium A 46, Stock A 55 

cactoblastis Cacti D 3 

cape gooseberry budworm Cape 

gooseberry F 30, Sweetcorn M 89 

capsule moth Bottlebrush K 37, 


case moths Conifers K 48, Citrus F 37, 

Maple K 97, Pine K 108, Tea-tree 


castor oil looper Abutilon K 25, Wattle 

K 134 

casuarina moth Casuarina K 42 

cephenes blue Pecan F 101 

cherry looper Pome fruits F 113, Stone 

fruits F 131 

Chinese junks see Cup moths below 

cineraria moth Cineraria A 28 

citrus butterflies Citrus F 36, 

Eriostemon K 56 

citrus flower moth Citrus F 37 

clover casebearer, clover seed moth 

Seeds N 74 

cluster caterpillar Brassicas M 40, 

Calendula A 14, Fruit F 8, Lettuce 

M 60, Lilac K 94, Rhubarb M 86, 

Strawberry F 141, Tomato M 101, 

Vegetables M 13, Zinnia A 58 

codling moth Pome fruits F 113 

common aeroplane Kurrajong K 91 

common grass yellow Silk tree K 122 

common oakblue Hibiscus K 82, Lillypilly 

K 95 

common redeye Lilly-pilly K 95 

common tit Lilly-pilly K 95 

convolvulus hawk moth Sweet potato 

M 94 

corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) 

Australian native plants N 5, Bean 

(broad) M 24, Beans (French) M 28, 

Brassicas M 40, Carnation A 18, 

Citrus F 36, Fruit F 8, Kangaroo paw 

A 43, Pea M 74, Potato M 80, Seeds 

N 74, Strawberry F 141, Sweetcorn 

M 89, Tomato M 101, Vegetables 

M 13, Zinnia A 58 

cotton looper Hibiscus K 82 

cotton tipworm Abutilon K 25, Hibiscus 

K 82, Hollyhock A 42 

P 6 

INDEX

INDEX 

CATERPILLARS (contd) 

cucumber moth Cucurbits M 54 

cup moths Cashew F 31, Eucalypt 

K 60, Guava F 67, Macadamia F 77, 


currant borer moth Currants F 49 

currant bud moth Currants F 49 

cutworms Asparagus M 21, Beans 

(French) M 28, Brassicas M 40, 

Carrot M 45, Cucurbits M 54, Fruit 

F 8, Lettuce M 60, Onion M 68, Pea 

M 74, Pine K 108, Potato M 81, 

Seedlings N 68, Soil N 80, 

Strawberry F 141, Sweetcorn M 89, 

Tomato M 101, Turfgrasses L 9, 


Damel's blue butterfly Eucalypt K 60, 

Wattle K 133 

darkspotted tiger moth Tamarisk 

K 123 

dayfeeding armyworms Seedlings 

N 68 

doubleheaded hawk moth Banksia 

K 31, Grevillea K 76, Hakea K 77 

dryandra moth Grevillea K 76 

dull oakblue Melaleuca K 98 

eastern flat Kurrajong K 91, Lilly-pilly 

K 95, Olive F 86 

eggfruit caterpillar Cape gooseberry 


Eichhorn's crow butterfly Oleander 

K 103 

elkhorn spore caterpillars Ferns E 3 

emperor gum moth Eucalypt K 60 

emperor moths Birch K 33, Eucalypt 

K 60, Olive F 86, Trees K 13 

ermine moths Citrus F 37 

etiella moth Peanut F 97 

faggot case moth Conifers K 48, Pine 

K 108, Tea-tree K 124, Trees K 13 

fiery jewel Banksia K 32, Camellia K 40 

fig fruitborer Fig F 56 

figleaf moth Fig F 56 

fruitpiercing moths Citrus F 38, Fruit 

F 9, Lychee F 74, Mango F 81, 

Pawpaw F 89 

fruitsucking moths see Fruitpiercing 

moths above 

grapevine hawk moth Fuchsia K 70, 

Grapevine F 61, Zantedeschia C 45 

grapevine moth Fuchsia K 70, 

Grapevine F 61, Zantedeschia C 45 

grass blue butterfly Beans (French) 

M 28, Pea M 74, Wattle K 133 

grassgrubs Turfgrasses L 9 

grass yellow butterfly Wattle K 133 

green cutworm see Cutworms above 

green stick looper Wattle K 134 

green wattle loopers Wattle K 134 

grevillea case moth Grevillea K 75 

grevillea flower caterpillar Grevillea 

K 75 

grevillea loopers Banksia K 32, 

Grevillea K 75, Hakea K 77 

guava moth Feijoa F 54, Guava F 67 

gumleaf skeletoniser Eucalypt K 60 

hairy leafeating caterpillar Hibiscus 

K 82 

hairymary caterpillar Wattle K 133 

hakea leafminer Hakea K 78 

hawk moths Grapevine F 61, Silk tree 

K 122, Sweet potato M 94, Wattle 

K 133 

helenita blue butterfly Kurrajong K 91 

hercules moth Trees K 13 

hook-tip moths (Drepanidae) Lilly-pilly 

K 95, Melaleuca K 98 , Pine K 108, 

Silk tree K 122, Tea-tree K 124, 

Wattle K 134 

hoop-pine seed moth Conifers K 48 

Indian weed caterpillar Everlastings 

A 31, Sweetcorn M 89 

ivy leafroller Avocado F 19, 

Hardenbergia K 79, Honeysuckle 

K 85, Ivy K 88, Kennedia K 90, 

Poplar K 118, Strawberry F 141, 

Trailing berries F 146 

kurrajong leaf-tier Kurrajong K 91 

native budworm Grapevine F 61, Pine 

K 108 

large citrus butterfly Citrus F 36 

leaf case moth Azalea K 28, Citrus 

F 37, Conifers K 48, Photinia K 105, 

Pine K 108, Tea-tree K 124, 

Thryptomene K 126, Trees K13 

leafroller moths (Tortricidae) 


F 37, Everlastings A 31, 

Honeysuckle K 85, Lychee F 73, 

Mint bush K 100, Pine K 108, Poplar 

K 118, Pome fruits F 112, 

Strawberry F 141, Trailing berries 

F 146, Vegetables M 13, Wattle 

K 133 

lemon bud moth Citrus F 37 

Lewin's bag-shelter moth Eucalypt 

K 60, Pine K 108 

lightbrown apple moth Banksia K 31, 


F 37, Conifers K 48, Correa K 51, 

Fuchsia K 70, Grapevine F 61, Kiwi 

fruit F 71, Lavender K 93, Melaleuca 

K 98, Persimmon F 101, Pine K 108, 


Stone fruits F 131, Strawberry 

F 141, Trailing berries F 146, 

Waratah K 129 

lily caterpillar Lily C 40 

lineblue butterflies Wattle K 133 

looper caterpillars (Geometridae) 

Annuals A 8, Avocado F 19, Hakea 

K 77, Lychee F 73, Pine K 108, 

Pome fruits F 113, Tea-tree K 124, 

Trees K 13, Turfgrasses L 9, Wattle 

K 134 

loopers (Chrysodeixis spp.) Annuals 

A 8, Beans (French) M 28, Brassicas 

M 40, Bulbs C 8, Fruit F 8, Fuchsia K 

70, Hibiscus K 82, Hollyhock A 42, 

Lettuce M 60, Potato M 80, 


Vegetables M 13, Wattle K 133 

lucerne leafroller Carrot M 45, 

Honeysuckle K 85, Lettuce M 60, 

Pine K 108, Pome fruits F 113 

lucerne seed moth Peanut F 97 

lychee stem girdler Lychee F 73, 

Persimmon F 101 

macadamia cup moth Macadamia 

F 77, Waratah K 129 

macadamia flower caterpillar 

Grevillea K 75, Macadamia F 77 

macadamia nutborer Lychee F 73, 

Macadamia F 77, Wattle K 133 

macadamia twig-girdler Grevillea 

K 75, Macadamia F 77, Protea 

K 120, Waratah K 129 

mango shoot caterpillar Cashew 

F 31, Mango F 80 

meadow argus butterfly Snapdragon 

A 52 

mottled cup moth Melaleuca K 95 

native budworm (Helicoverpa 

punctigera) Australian N 5, Citrus 

F 36, Everlastings A 31, Grapevine 

F 61, Kangaroo paw A 43, Pine 

K 108, Stone fruits F 131, 


Zinnia A 58 

native seedeating moth (Cydia 

zapyrana) Hardenbergia K 79 

navel orangeworm Citrus F 37 

oecophorid caterpillars 

(Oecophoridae) Lilly-pilly K 95, Pine 

K 108 

oleander butterfly Oleander K 103 

olive moth Olive F 86 

omnivorous tussock moth Conifers 

K 48, Pine K 108, Tamarisk K 123, 

Wattle K 134 

orange fruitborer Avocado F 19, 

Camellia K 40, Citrus F 37, Conifers 

K 48, Custard apple F 52, 

Macadamia F 77, Mulberry F 85, 

Oleander K 104, Pecan F 99, Stone 

fruits F 131 

orange palmdart Palm H 3 

oriental cornborer Sweetcorn M 89 

oriental fruit moth Stone fruits F 131 

painted apple moth Australian N 5, 

Banksia K 32, Bottlebrush K 37, 

Conifers K 48, Gardenia K 72, 

Hardenbergia K 79, Maple K 97, 

Melaleuca K 98, Pine K 108, Pome 

fruits F 113, Silk tree K 122, 

Tamarisk K 123, Wattle K 134, 

Willow K 140 

painted pine moth Conifers K 48, 

Grevillea K 75, Melaleuca K 98, Pine 


painted vine moth Grapevine F 61 

palmdart butterflies Palms H 3 

parsnip webworm Parsnip M 71 

pea blue butterfly Beans (French) 

M 28, Kennedia K 90, Pea M 74 

pencilled blue butterfly Kurrajong 

K 91 

pine loopers Conifers K 48, Pine 

K 108, Trailing berries F 146 

pink bollworm Seeds N 74 

pink spotted bollworm Hibiscus K 82 

pome looper Pome fruits F 113, Wattle 

K 134 

potato moth Potato M 81, Tomato 

M 102 

processionary caterpillar see Bagshelter 

moth above 

raisin moth Grapevine F 61 

raspberry bud moth Trailing berries 

F 146 

raspberry fruit caterpillar Trailing 

berries F 146 

rayed blue butterfly Hebe K 80 

redbanded mango caterpillars Mango 

F 81 

ribbed case moth Eucalypt K 60, Trees 


rough bollworm Abutilon K 25 

sandal-box hawk moth Silk tree 


satin blue Boronia K 34 

Saunders's case moth Avocado F 21, 

Bottlebrush K 37, Melaleuca K 98, 

Pine K 108, Tea-tree K 124, Trees 

K 13 

scribbly gum moth Eucalypt K 61 

scrofa hawk moth Fuchsia K 70 

silkworms Casuarina K 42, Mulberry 

F 85 

skippers Lilly-pilly K 95 

small citrus butterfly Citrus F 36, 

Eriostemon K 56 

snout moth Wattle K 134 

sod webworm Turfgrasses L 9 

sorghum head caterpillar Citrus F 37 

southern armyworm Seedlings N 68 

swallow tails Custard apple F 52 

tailed emperor butterfly Kurrajong 

K 91, Silk tree K 122, Trees K 13, 

Wattle K 133 

teatree moth Tea-tree K 124 

teatree web moth Geraldton wax 73, 

Tea-tree K 124 

Tebenna micalis Everlastings A 31 

Tonica effractella Kurrajong K 91 

tree lucerne moth Conifers K 48, 

Wattle K 134 

triangle butterflies (Graphium spp.) 

Custard apple F 52 

tussock moths (Lymantriidae) 

Conifers K 48, Grevillea K 75, Pine K 

108, Wattle K 134, see also Orgyia 

spp. 

twig looper Conifers K 48, Gardenia 

K 72, Hakea K 77, Hardenbergia 

K 79, Ivy K 88, Pine K 108, Tea-tree 

K 124, Trailing berries F 146, Trees 


urticating anthelid see Hairymary 

caterpillar above 

vine hawk moth Fuchsia K 70, 

Grapevine F61 

INDEX P 7

INDEX 

CATERPILLARS (contd) 

web moths (Pyralidae) Bottlebrush 

K 37, Conifers K 48, Geraldton wax 

73, Grevillea K 75, Hardenbergia 

K 79, Melaleuca K 98, Tea-tree 

K 124, Thryptomene K 126, 

Verticordia K 127, Wattle K 134 

webworms Turfgrasses L 9 

white cedar moth Australian native 

plants N 5, White cedar K 138 

whitelined hawk moth Grapevine F 61 

whitestemmed gum moth Eucalypt 

K 60 

woollybear caterpillar Chrysanthemum 

A 25 

yellow palmdarts Palms H 3 

yellow peach moth Citrus F 37, 

Custard apple F 52, Kurrajong K 91, 

Macadamia F 77, Pawpaw F 90, 

Pecan F 99, Stone fruits F 133 

Catface Tomato M 104 

Cats see Vertebrates 

CATTELYA Orchids G 1 

CAULIFOWER Brassicas M 36 

Cauliflower mosaic virus see Viruses 

Cavariella aegopodii see Carrot aphid 

Cavity spot Carrot M 44 

Cecidomyia acaciaelongifoliae see 

Blossom gall fly 

Cecidophyopsis ribis see Currant bud mite 

Cecidopsylla putealis (lerp insect) Banksia 

K 32 

Celeroa sp (leaf spot) Protea K 119 

CELERY M 47 

Celery eelworm see Nematodes 

Celery fly see Flies 

Celery mosaic virus see Viruses 

CELASTRACEAE Euonymus K 69 

Cephaleuros virescens see Algal leaf spot 

Cephenes blue see Caterpillars 

Cephonodes spp. see Bee hawk moth 

Cephrenes spp. see Palmdart butterflies 

Cerambycidae see Longicorn beetles 

Cerataphis spp. (aphids) 

C. lataniae see Palm aphids 

C. orchidearum see Orchid aphid 

C. variabilis see Palm aphids 

Ceratitis capitata see Mediterranean fruit 

fly 

Ceratocystis spp. (leaf scorches, wilts) 

C. fimbriata f. platani Plane tree K 114 

C. paradoxa Banana F 22 

C. ulmi see Dutch elm disease 

Ceratonia sp. Carnation A 16 

Ceratopetalum gummiferum see 


Cercospora spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Annuals A 5, Geranium A 34, Mint bush 

K 100 

C. agharkarii Grevillea K 75, 

C. althaeina Hollyhock A 42 

C. apii Celery M 47 

C. beticola Beets M 33 

C. canescens Beans (French) M 26 

C. carotae Carrot M 44 

C. fabae Bean (broad) M 23 

C. insulana Statice A 53 

C. petuniae Petunia A 47 

C. violae Viola A 56 

Cernuella virgata see Vineyard snail 

Ceroplastes spp. (scales - soft) 

C. destructor see White wax scale 

C. rubens see Pink wax scale 

C. sinensis see Chinese wax scale 

Cerotelium fici (rust) Fig F 55 

Certified seed Seeds N 74 

Chaetanaphothrips spp. (thrips) 

C. orchidii see Orchid thrips 

C. signipennis see Banana rust thrips 

Chaetosiphon fragaefolii see Strawberry 

aphid 

Chaetocnema australica see Couch flea 

beetle 

Chaetophyes compacta see Common 

froghopper 

Chain scales see Scales (soft) 

Chalara spp. (fungal root and crown rots, 

wilts) 

C. australis see Myrtle wilt 

C. elegans (= Thielaviopsis basciola) 

see Thielaviopsis black root rot 

C. thielavioides see Black root rot 

Chalaropsis thielavioides see Chalara 

thielavioides above 

Chamaecyparis spp. Conifers K 45 

Chamelaucium uncinatum see Geraldton 

wax 

Charcoal rot see Root and stem rots 

Chauliognathus sp. see Soldier beetles 

Chelepteryx collesi see Whitestemmed 

gum moth 

CHENOPODIACEAE Beets M 33 

CHERRY Stone fruits F 123 

Cherry aphid see Aphids 

Cherry leaf roll virus Walnut F 148 

Cherry looper see Caterpillars 

Cherry rasp leaf see Viruses 

Cherry viruses Stone fruits F 123 

CHESTNUT F 32 

Chestnut blight (fungal blight) Chestnut 

F 32, Eucalypt K 57 

CHICORY Herbs N 32 

Chigger mites see Mites 

Chilean predatory mite see Biological 

control 

Chimera Avocado F 20, Citrus F 43, Tulip 

C 43 

CHINA ASTER A 21 

Chinch bugs see Bugs 

Chinese gooseberry see Kiwi fruit 

Chinese junks see Caterpillars 

Chinese wax scale see Scales (soft) 

Chionophasma lutea (caterpillar) Begonia 

C 15 

Chloroclystis spp. (looper caterpillars) 

C. approximata see Cherry looper 

C. testulata see Pome looper 

CHIVES Onion M 66, Herbs N 32 

Chocolate spot (Botrytis spp.) Bean 

(broad) M 23, see also Grey mould 

Chlenias spp. see Pine loopers 

Chlorocoma assimilis see Green stick 

looper 

Chloropulvinaria psidii see Pulvinaria psidii 

Chlorosis Azalea K 29 

Chlumetia euthysticha see Mango tipborer 

Choke Banana F 25 

Chortoicetes terminifera see Australian 

plague locust 

Christmas beetles see Scarab beetles 

CHRISTMAS BUSH K 44 

Chromatomyia syngenesiae see Cineraria 

leafminer 

CHRYSANTHEMUM A 23 

Chrysanthemum aphids see Aphids 

Chrysanthemum gall midge see Flies 

Chrysanthemum viruses Chrysanthemum 

A 23 

Chrysodeixis spp. see Looper caterpillars 

Chrysolopus spectabilis see Diamond 

beetle 

Chrysomelidae see Leaf beetles, flea 

beetles 

Chrysomphalus spp. (scales - armoured) 

C. aonidum see Circular black scale 

C. dictyospermi see Spanish red scale 

Chrysomyxa ledi var. rhodendri (rust) 

Azalea K 28 

Chrysophtharta spp. (eucalyptus leaf 

beetles) Eucalypt K 61 

Ciborina camelliae see Camellia petal 

blight 

Cicadas (Cicadidae) Trees K 13 

double drummer Trees K 13 

redeye Wattle K 136 

wattle cicada Wattle K 136 

yellow Monday Trees K 13 

Cicadellidae see Leafhoppers 

Cicadetta oldfieldi see Wattle cicada 

Cicadulina bimaculata see Maize 

leafhopper 

Cichorum intybus see Chicory 

Cigar end Banana F 22 

Cinara spp. see Cypress pine aphids 

CINERARIA A 28 

Cineraria leafminer see Leafminers 

Cineraria moth see Caterpillars 

Circular black scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

CITRUS F 33 

Citrus black spot Camellia K 39, Citrus 

F 34, Magnolia K 96 

Citrus bud mite see Mites 

Citrus butterflies see Caterpillars 

Citrus canker, blast, pit Citrus F 33 

Citrus exocortis see Viruses 

Citrus flat mite see Mites 

Citrus flower moth see Caterpillars 

Citrus fruit weevil see Weevils 

Citrus gall wasp see Galls, Wasps 

Citrus katydid see Grasshoppers 

Citrus leafminer see Leafminers 

Citrus longicorn see Borers 

Citrus mealybugs see Mealybugs 

Citrus nematode see Nematodes 

Citrus planthoppers see Planthoppers 

Citrus psorosis see Viruses 

Citrus red mite see Mites 

Citrus root-bark channeller see Borers 

Citrus rust mite see Mites 

Citrus rust thrips see Thrips 

Citrus tristeza see Viruses 

Citrus viruses Citrus F 33 

Cladosporium spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Begonia C 14, Carnation A 17, Iris 

C 37, Orchids G 3 

C. herbarum (scab) Passionfruit F 92 

C. caryigenum Pecan F 99 

Clania ignobilis see Faggot case moth 

Claviceps spp. see Ergots 

Clianthus formosus see Sturt pea 

Click beetles (Elateridae) see Wireworms 

Clippings Turfgrasses L 15 

Clover casebearer , clover seed moth see 

Caterpillars 

Clover mite see Mites 

Club root Brassicas M 37, Stock A 54 

Cluster caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Cobweb Mushroom M 62 

Coccidae (soft scales) Citrus F 41 

Coccid galls Australian native plants N 6, 

Casuarina K 43 

Coccotrypes dactyliperda see Palm 

seedborer 

Coccus spp. (see also Soft scales) 

C. hesperidum see Soft brown scale 

C. longulus see Long soft scale 

Cockchafers see Scarab beetles 

Cockroaches 

Coconut whitefly see Whiteflies 

CODIT Trees K 8 

Codling moth Pome fruits F 113 

Coenotes eremophilae see Sandal-box 

hawk moth 

Coequosa triangularis see Doubleheaded 

hawk moth 

Coleophora alcyonipennella see Clover 

casebearer 

COLEOPTERA (beetles and weevils) see 

Bark beetles, Beetles, Borers, Driedfruit 

beetles, Ladybirds, Leaf beetles, 

Scarab beetles, Seed insects, Weevils 

Colgaroides acuminata see Mango 

planthopper 

Colgar peracutum see Citrus planthopper 

Collembola see Springtails 

Colletotrichum spp. (anthracnose) Fruit F 

5, Mango F 80, Pome fruits F 108, F 

109, Strawberry F 139, Tomato 

M 99, Turfgrasses L 3, Viola A 56 

C. acutatum Anemone C 11, Celery 

M 47, Pine K 107 

C. antirrhini Snapdragon A 51 

C. circinans Onion M 66 

C. dematium Statice A 53 

C. gloeosporioides Avocado F 18, 

Cashew F 31, Macadamia F 76, 

Orchids G 4, Protea K 119, Statice 

A 53 

C. lindemuthianum Beans (French) 

M 26 

C. malvarum Hollyhock A 42 

C. musae Banana F 22 

C. orbiculare Celery M 47, Cucurbits 

M 51 

C. trichellum Ivy K 88 

P 8 

INDEX

INDEX 

Colomerus vitis see Grapeleaf blister mite 

Coloradoa rufomaculata see Pale 

chrysanthemum aphid 

Common aeroplane see Caterpillars 

Common blight Beans (French) M 25 

Common brown leafhopper see 

Leafhoppers 

Common eucalypt longicorn see Borers 

Common froghopper see Froghoppers 

Common garden snail see Snails 

Common grass yellow see Caterpillars 

Common oakblue see Caterpillars 

Common red-eye see Caterpillars 

Common scab Beets M 33, Potato M 79 

Common splendid ghost moth see Borers 

Common tit see Caterpillars 

Compaction Turfgrasses L 15 

Compartmentalisation of decay in trees 

(CODIT) Trees K 8 

Complaints Interior plantscapes N 45 

Componotus spp. see Carpenter ants 

COMPOST N 16 

CONIFERALES Bush fruits F 29, Conifers 

K 45, Pine K 106 

Conifericoccus agathidis see Kauri coccid 

CONIFERS K 45, Pine K 106 

Conogethes punctiferalis see Yellow 

peach moth 

CONTAINERS N 19, Lavenders K 93 

Contaminants Manure N 48 

Contarinia sorghicola see Sorghum midge 

CONTROL METHODS see also 

Management 

cultural methods Fruit F 17, House 

plants N 38, Postharvest N 62, 


sanitation Nurseries N 51, N 55, Seeds 

N 76 

biological control Beans (French) 

M 30, Citrus F 36, F 37, F 38, F 40, 

F 46, Greenhouses N 26, Soil N 83, 

Vegetables M 9, M 11, M 12, see 

also Biological control 

resistant varieties Annuals A 8, 

Garden centres N 21, Nurseries 

N 53, Plant tissue culture N 58, 

Trees K 23, Vegetables M 9 

plant quarantine Banana F 26, Fruit 

F 9, Grapevine F 66, Nurseries 

N 53, Pine K 107, Postharvest N 61, 

Plant tissue culture N 58, Potato 

M 78, Seeds N 76, Soil N 83, 


disease-free planting material 

(disease-tested planting material, 

pathogen-tested planting material, 

virus-tested planting material) 

Annuals A 11, Garden centres N 21, 

Nurseries N 53, Plant tissue culture 

N 58, N 59, Seeds 

N 74, N 78, Soil N 83 

physical and mechanical methods 

Fruit F 6, Greenhouses N 29, Seeds 

N 76, Soil N 83 

pesticides Seeds N 76, Vegetables 

M 20 

pest management, integrated pest 

management (IPM) Beans (French) 

M 30, Greenhouses N 26, 

Strawberry F 144 

CONVOLVULACEAE Sweet potato M 93 

Convolvulus hawk moth see Caterpillars 

Coon bug see Bugs 

Cootamundra wattle psyllid see Psyllids 

Coptotermes spp. (termites) Eucalypt K 64 

Coral spot Elm K 54 

Cordana leaf spot (Cordana spp.) Banana 

F 23 

Corky scab see Oedema 

Corm rots Banana F 23, Gladiolus C 30 

Corn aphid see Aphids 

Corn earworm see Caterpillars 

CORREA K 51 

Corticium salmonicolor see Pink limb 

blight 

Corylus spp. see Hazelnut 

Corynebacterium spp. (bacteria) 

Corynebacterium sp. (fasciation) 

Carnation A 16 

C. michiganense pv. michiganense 

Tomato M 97 

C. michiganense pv. sepedonicum 

Potato M 78 

Corynespora cassicola (fungal leaf spot) 

Pawpaw F 88 

Coscinocera hercules see Hercules moth 

Coscinoptycha improbana see Guava 

moth 

Cosetacus camelliae see Camellia bud 

mite 

Cotton aphid, melon aphid see Aphids 

Cotton harlequin bug see Bugs 

Cotton looper see Caterpillars 

Cottonseed bug see Bugs 

Cotton tipworm see Caterpillars 

Cotton whitefly see Whiteflies 

Cottonwood psyllid see Psyllids 

Cottonycushion scale see Scales, Ground 

pearls (Margarodids) 

Cottony leak (Pythium) Beans (French) 

M 27 

Cottony pigface scale see Scales (soft) 

Couch flea beetle see Leaf beetles 

Couchgrass see Turfgrasses 

Couchgrass mite see Mites 

Couchgrass scale see Scales (armoured) 

Couch mite see Mites 

Couchtip maggot see Flies 

Cowpea aphid see Aphids 

Crab apple see Pome fruits 

Crabgrass leaf beetle see Leaf beetles 

Cracked fruit Tomato M 103 

Cracked stems Celery M 49 

Cramp balls see Wood rots 

Crazy top, downy mildew Sweetcorn M 87 

Creiis spp. see Horn lerps 

Creontiades spp. (mirid bugs) 

C. dilutus see Green mirid 

Crepe myrtle Trees K 7 

CRICKETS Beets M 34, Onion M 69, 

Seedlings N 69, Soil N 81, Strawberry F 

141, Tomato M 102, Turfgrasses L 9, 


black field cricket Beets M 34, 


Turfgrasses L 9, Vegetables M 13 

changa mole cricket Turfgrasses L 10 

mole crickets Onion M 69, Stone fruits 

F 141, Turfgrasses L 10, Vegetables 

M 13 

Crocidolomia pavonana see Cabbage 

cluster caterpillar 

Crocidosema plebejana see Cotton 

tipworm 

Crompus spp. (bugs) Bottlebrush K 36, 

Tea-tree K 124 

Cronartium ribicola see White pine blister 

rust 

Crossotarsus omnivorous see Omnivorous 

pinhole borer 

Crown gall (Agrobacterium) see Bacteria 

CRUCIFERS Brassicas M 36 

Crud Poinsettia K 116 

Crusader bug see Bugs 

Cryptes baccatus see Wattle tick scale 

Cryptoblabes adoceta see Sorghum head 

caterpillar 

Cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus 

neoformans) Eucalypt K 65 

Cryptodiaporthe see Cankers 

Cryptolaemus montrouzieri see Mealybug 

ladybird 

Cryptophasa spp. see also Oecophorid 

borers 

C. albacosta see Small fruit-tree borer 

C. irrorata Casuarina K 42 

C. melanostigma (Maroga 

melanostigma) see Fruit-tree borer 

C. rubescens see Wattle web-covering 

borer 

Cryptophlebia ombrodelta see Macadamia 

nutborer 

Cryptoptila immersana see Ivy leafroller 

Cryptosporella viticola (= Phomopsis 

viticola) (leaf and cane spot) 

Grapevine F 60 

Ctenarytaina spp. (psyllids) 

C. thysanura see Boronia psyllid 

C. eucalypti see Bluegum psyllid 

Ctenomorphodes tessulatus see 

Tessellated phasmatid 

Cuban laurel thrips see Thrips 

CUCUMBER Cucurbits M 50 

Cucumber fly see Fruit flies 

Cucumber mosaic virus see Viruses 

Cucumber moth see Caterpillars 

Cucurbit ladybird see Ladybirds 

CUCURBITS (Cucurbitaceae) M 50 

Cucurbit shield bug, pumpkin bug see 

Bugs 

Cucurbit stemborer see Borers 

Culama caliginosa see Australian goat 

moth 

Culm smut see Smuts 

CULTURAL METHODS see Control 

methods 

CUNONIACEAE Christmas bush K 44 

Cup moths see Caterpillars 

Curing Compost N 17 

Currant bud mite see Mites 

Currant bud moth see Caterpillars 

Currant borer moth see Borers 

CURRANTS F 48 

Curvularia spp. (fungal diseases) 

Curvularia sp. Turfgrasses L 4, L 5 

C. trifolii f.sp. gladioli Gladiolus C 29, 

C 30 

Cuscuta sp. see Dodder 

Cuspicona simplex see Green potato bug 

CUSTARD APPLE F 51 

Customer service Garden centres N 21 

Cutworms see Caterpillars 

Cyanophyllum scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

CYCLAMEN C 16 

Cyclamen mite see Mites 

Cyclochila australasiae see Yellow 

Monday 

Cycloconium oleaginum (peacock spot) 

Olive F 86 

Cydia spp. (fruit moths, see also 

Caterpillars) 

C. molesta (Grapholita molesta) see 

Oriental fruit moth 

C. pomonella see Codling moth 

C. zapyrana see Native seedeating 

moth 

Cylas formicarius see Sweet potato weevil 

Cylindrocarpon destructans (root and 

bulbs rot) Lily C 40 

Cylindrocladium spp. (damping off, root 

rots, rots) 

C. quinquiseptatum Eucalypt K 58, 

Melaleuca K 98, Palms H 2 

C. scoparium Bottlebrush K 36, Oak 

K 101, Seedlings N 66, Wattle 

K 131 

CYMBIDIUM Australian native plants 

N 2, Orchids G 1 

Cymbidium scale see Scales (armoured) 

CYPRESS (Cupressus spp.) Conifers 

K 45 

Cypress aphid see Aphids 

Cypress bark beetles see Bark beetles 

Cypress bark weevil see Bark beetles 

Cypress canker see Cankers 

Cypress jewel beetles see Borers 

Cypress longicorn see Borers 

CYPRESS PINE (Callitris spp.) Conifers 

K 45 

Cypress pine aphids see Aphids 

Cypress pine sawfly see Sawflies 

Cyria imperialis See Banksia jewel beetle 

Cyst nematode see Nematodes 

Cytospora spp. (see also Cankers) 

C. eucalypticola Eucalypt K 57, Poplar 


D 

Dacus spp. (see also Bactrocera spp., 

Fruit flies) 

D. ciliatus see Lesser pumpkin fly 

D. cucurbitae see Melon fly 

INDEX P 9

INDEX 

DAFFODIL C 19 

Daffodil viruses Daffodil C 19 

Dagger nematode see Nematodes 

DAHLIA C 24 

Dahlia mosaic virus Dahlia C 24 

Daisies see Everlastings 

Daldinia concentrica see Cramp balls 

Damel's blue butterfly see Caterpillars 

DAMPING OFF (various fungi, eg 

Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum 

acutatum, Cylindrocladium 

scoparium, Fusarium spp., 

Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., 

Rhizoctonia solani, also bacteria, eg 

Erwinia spp.) Annuals A 5, Azalea 

K 28, Bean (broad) M 23, Beans 

(French) M 26, Beets M 33, Bottlebrush 

K 36, Brassicas M 37, Bromeliads B 2, 

Carrot M 44, Conifers K 46, Cucurbitae 

M 51, Eucalypt K 58, Fruit F 7, 

Geraldton wax K 73, Lettuce M 59, 

Melaleuca K 98, Oak K 101, Onion 

M 66, Pea M 72, Pine K 107, Poinsettia 

K 116, Seedlings N 66, Sweetcorn 

M 87, Thryptomene K 126, Tomato 

M 100, Turfgrasses L 4, Vegetables 

M 6, Waratah K 129, Wattle K 131 

Danima banksiae see Banksia moth 

DAPHNE K 52 

Daphne viruses Daphne K 52 

Dark mildew Bottlebrush K 36 

Darkspotted tiger moth see Caterpillars 

Dasheen mosaic virus see Viruses 

Dasynus fuscescens see Fruitspotting 

bugs 

Date palm scale see Scales (armoured) 

Daucus carotae see Carrot 

DAVIDSONIACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

Death cap Oak K 102 

Deficiencies see Nutrient deficiencies 

Deformed roots Carrot M 46, Parsnip 

M 71 

Deightoniella torulosa see Black tip 

Delia spp. (flies) 

D. platura see Onion maggot 

D. urbana see Couchtip maggot 

DELPHINIUM A 30 

DENDROBIUM Orchids G 2 

Dendrobium beetle see Orchid beetle 

Dendrobium mealybug see Mealybugs 

Depressaria heracliana see Parsnip 

webworm 

DERMAPTERA see Earwigs 

Dermatophora necatrix see Root and stem 

rots 

Dermolepida albohirtum see Greyback 

cane beetle 

Deroceras reticulatum see Reticulated 

slug 

Desiantha spp. (weevils) 

D. caudata see Spinetailed weevil 

D. diversipes see Spotted vegetable 

weevil 

Devil's twine see Parasitic plants 

Diachea sp. see Slime moulds 

Diadoxus spp. see Cypress jewel beetles 

Diagnosis Annuals A 3, Greenhouses 

N 28, N 29, Turfgrasses L 2 

Dialecticopteryx australica see Fig 

leafhopper 

Diamond beetle see Borers 

Dianthus app. see Carnation 

Diaphania indica see Cucumber moth 

Diaporthe (melanose) Citrus F 34 

Diapus pusillimus see Walnut pinhole 

borer 

Diaspididae see Scales (armoured) 

Diaspis spp. (armoured scales 

D. boisduvalii see Orchid scale 

D. bromeliae see Pineapple scale 

Dicksonia Ferns E 4 

Dicky rice weevil see Weevils 

Dicranosterna immaculata see Brown leaf 

beetle 

Didymella spp. (blights) 

D. applanata Trailing berries F 146 

D. bryoniae (= Mycosphaerella 

melonis) Cucurbits M 52 

Didymosphaeria banksiae see 

Lineostroma banksiae 

Didymuria violescens see Spurlegged 

phasmatid 

Dieback Conifers K 45, Trees K 6, K 10 

Digglesia australasiae see Hook-tip moths 

Dihammus vastator (= Acalolepta 

vastator) see Fig longicorn 

Dilochrosis atripennis see Flower chafers 

Dindymus versicolor see Harlequin bug 

Diocalandra frumenti see Palm weevil 

borer 

Diospyros kaki see Persimmon 

Diphucephala spp. (scarab beetles) 

D. colaspidoides see Green scarab 

beetle 

D. edwardsii see Green spring beetle 

Diplocarpon spp. (fungal leaf spots) Fruit 

F 5 

D. earliana Strawberry F 140 

D. mespili Pome fruits F 109 

Diplodia cankers and shoot blight see 

Diplodia spp. below 

Diplodia fruit rot Custard apple F 51 

Diplodia leaf spot Wattle K 131 

Diplodia spp. (blue-stain, cankers, 

dieback, needle casts, sap-stains, 

shoot blights) see also Needle casts 

D. pinea Conifers K 45, Pine K 106 

Diplodina see Cryptodiaporthe 

Diplopoda see Millipedes 

Diplosis frenelae see Callitris fly gall 

DIPTERA (flies) see Biological control, 

Flies, Fruit flies, Galls, Leafminers 

Diotimana undulata see Hoop-pine 

longicorn 

Dirioxa pornia see Island fruit fly 

Discula spp. see Gnomonia 

DISEASE-FREE PLANTING MATERIAL 

see Control methods 

Disease-tested planting material see 

Control methods 

Disease triangle Soil N 80 

Disinfectants Nurseries N 53 

Ditylenchus spp. see Stem and bulb 

nematode 

Dobsonia spp. see Fruit bats 

Dodder see Parasitic plants 

Dogs and cats see Vertebrates 

Dolichotetranychus (false spider mites) 

D. australiensis see Couch mite 

D. floridanus see Pineapple flat mite 

Dollar spot (fungal) Turfgrasses L 4 

Domatia Viburnum K 128 

Doratifera spp. see Cup moths 

Doreen's predator mite see Mites 

Dothierella (cankers, rots) Avocado F 18, 

Mango F 80, Pome fruits F 108, Stone 

fruits F 126, see also Botryosphaeria 

spp., cankers 

Dothistroma needle blight (Dothistroma 

septospora) see Needle casts 

Double drummer see Cicadas 

Doubleheaded hawk moth see Caterpillars 

Downy leaf spot see Fungal leaf spots 

Downy mildews see Fungi 

Drepanosiphum platanoidis see Sycamore 

aphid 

Dreschlera spp. (fungal leaf spots) Iris 

C 37, Protea K 119, Turfgrasses L 5 

DRIED FRUIT BEETLES (Nitidulidae) 

Dahlia C 25, Fig F 56, Fruit F 8, Palms 

H 5, Stone fruits F 131 

driedfruit beetles Dahlia C 25, Fruit 

F 8, Palms H 5 

hibiscus flower beetle Hibiscus K 82 

kurrajong pod beetle Kurrajong K 92 

Driedfruit mite see Mites 

Drippy gill Mushroom M 62 

Drosophilidae see Ferment flies 

Drought see Non-parasitic problems 

Dryandra see Australian native plants N 4 

Dryandra moth see Caterpillars 

Dry bubble (fungal) Mushroom M 62 

Dryophilodes spp. (seed beetles) Eucalypt 

K 63 

Dry patch Turfgrasses L 11 

Dubosia see Australian native plants N 3 

Dull oakblue see Caterpillars 

Dusky pasture scarab see Scarab beetles 

DUSTS 

house dust House plants N 36, Interior 


pesticide dusts African violet A 13 

Dutch elm disease see Wilts 

Dwarf mistletoe see Parasitic plants 

Dysaphis spp. (aphids) 

D. foeniculus see Fennel aphid 

D. tulipae see Tulip bulb aphid 

Dysmicoccus brevipes see Pineapple 

mealybug 

E 

Earias sp. see Rough bollworm 

Early blight, target spot (Alternaria solani) 


Ear rots Sweetcorn M 87 

Earth mites see Mites 

Earthworms Soil N 81, Turfgrasses L 14 

EARWIGS (Dermaptera) 

black field earwig Sweetcorn M 89 

European earwig Annuals A 8, 

Chrysanthemum A 25, Dahlia C 25, 

Fuchsia K 70, Lettuce M 60, Protea 

K 120, Vegetables M 14, Waratah 

K 129 

Eastern filbert blight Hazelnut F 68 

Eastern flat see Caterpillars 

Eastern yellow thrips see Thrips 

EBONACEAE Persimmon F 101 

Echiomima fabulosa see Borers 

Ecrizothis inaequalis see Gooseberry 

weevil 

Ectropis excursaria see Twig looper 

Edwardsiana australis (= E. crataegi, 

E. froggattii) see Apple leafhopper 

Eggfruit caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Eichhorn's crow butterfly see Caterpillars 

ELAEOCARPACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

Elateridae see Wireworms 

Elatobium abietinum see Spruce aphid 

Elephant beetle, rhinoceros beetle Lychee 

F 74 

Elephant weevil see Weevils 

ELISA (Enzyme-linked immunosorbent 

assay) Banana F 22, Orchids G 2, G 7, 

Potato M 77, Strawberry F 139, Tomato 

M 96 

Elkhorns Ferns E 3 

Elkhorn spore caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Ellepone anactus see Small citrus butterfly 

ELM K 54 

Elm bark beetle see Bark beetles 

Elm leaf beetle see Leaf beetles 

Elm leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Elm yellows Elm K 54 

Elsinoe spp. (anthracnose) Fruit F 5, 

Protea K 119 

E. ampelina Grapevine F 59 

E. veneta Trailing berries F 145 

Embellisia allii (soot) Herbs N 32, Onion 

M 67 

Embryo culture Plant tissue culture N 58 

Emperor moths see Caterpillars 

Encarsia formosa see Biological control 

Endocronartium harknessi see Western 

gall rust 

Endothia spp. (cankers) 

E. gyrosa Eucalypt K 57 

E. parasitica Chestnut F 32, Eucalypt 

K 57 

Endothiella see Endothia above 

ENGLISH GOOSEBERRY Currants F 48 

ENGLISH MARIGOLD Marigold A 14 

Entometa australasiae see Snout moth 

Entyloma spp. (leaf smuts) 

E. australe Cape gooseberry F 30 

E. calendulae Calendula A 14 

E. dahliae Dahliae C 24 

E. fuscum Poppy A 49 

E. microsporum Anemone C 11 

Environment see Non-parasitic problems 

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay see 

ELISA above 

P 10 

INDEX

INDEX 

Eotetranychus spp. (spider mites) 

E. orientalis see Oriental mite 

E. sexmaculatus see Sixspotted mite 

EPACRIDACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

Epilachna spp. see Potato ladybirds 

Epiphyas postvittana see Lightbrown 

apple moth 

Epiphyllous fungi see Fungi 

Episphaerella banksiae (fungal leaf spot ) 

Banksia K 31 

Epitrex hirtipennis see Tobacco flea beetle 

Ergots Turfgrasses L 7 

ERICACEAE Azalea K 27, Blueberry 

F 27, Bush fruits F 29, Rhododendron 

K 27 

Eriocereus sp. (harrisia cactus) Cacti D 3 

Eriococcid scales (Eriococcidae) see 

Scales (eriococcid) 

Eriococcus spp. Australian native plants 

N 7 

E. coccineus see Cactus mealybug 

E. coriaceus see Gumtree scale 

E. ironsidei see Macadamia felted 

coccid 

E. orariensis see Manuka blight 

E. serratibolus Eucalypt K 63 

Erionota thrax see Banana skipper 

Eriophyes spp. (eriophyid mites) 

E. cynodoniensis see Couchgrass 

mite 

E. erineus, E. tristriatus see Walnut 

blister mites 

E. ficus see Fig blister mite 

E. hibisci see Hibiscus erinose mite 

E. litchii see Litchi erinose mite 

E. lycopersici see Tomato erineum 

mite 

E. mangiferae see Mango bud mite 

E. paradianthi see Carnation shoot 

mite 

E. pyri see Pearleaf blister mite 

E. sheldoni see Citrus bud mite 

E. tenuis see Couch mite 

Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) see Mites 

Eriosoma spp. (see also Aphids) 

E. lanigerum see Woolly aphid 

E. pyricola see Pear root aphid 

ERIOSTEMON K 56 

Ernobius mollis see Pine bark anobiid 

Erwinia spp. (bacterial blights, soft rots) 

Annuals A 5, Avocado F 18, Begonia 

C 14, Brassicas M 36, Bulbs C 5, Cacti 

D 2, Carrot M 44, Celery M 47, 

Cucurbits M 51, Cyclamen C 16, Dahlia 

C 24, Fruit F 4, Hyacinth C 35, Iris 

C 37, Lettuce M 58, Onion M 66, 

Orchids G 3, Parsnip M 70, Pea M 72, 

Poinsettia K 116, Potato M 77, 

Vegetables M 5, Zantedeschia C 45 

E. amylovora (fire blight) Photinia 

K 105, Pome fruits F 108 

E. ananas Pineapple F 103 

E. atroseptica (soft rot) Potato M 77 

E. carotovora pv. carotovora (soft rot) 

Cacti D 2, Celery M 47, Cyclamen 

C 16, Hyacinth C 35, Iris C 37, 

Lettuce M 58, Onion M 66, Orchids 

G 3, Parsnip M 70, Pea M 72, 


Zantedeschia C 45 

E. caricae Pawpaw F 88 

E. chrysanthemi (soft rot) African violet 

A 12, Cyclamen C 16, Potato M 77 

Erysiphales see Powdery mildews 

Erysiphe spp. (powdery mildews) Pea 

M 73, Turfgrasses L 6 

Erythoneura ix see Yellow jassid 

Essential oils Eucalypt K 65, Melaleuca 

K 99 

ESTABLISHMENT see Management 

Ethylene Annuals A 11, Fruit F 17, 

Geraldton wax K 73, Postharvest N 61 

Etiella moth (Etiella sp.) Peanut F 97 

Euander lacertosus see Strawberry bug 

Eucalymnatus tessellatus see Tessellated 

scale 

EUCALYPT K 57, Australian N 4 

Eucalypt-defoliating sawfly see Sawflies 

Eucalypt keyhole borer see Borers 

Eucalypt leafgall scale see Scales 

(Eriococcid) 

Eucalypt pinworm see Borers 

Eucalypt shoot psyllid see Psyllids 

Eucalyptolyma maideni see Spotted gum 

psyllid 

Eucalyptus flies see Flies and Galls 

Eucalyptus leaf beetles see Leaf beetles 

Eucalyptus oils see Essential oils 

Eucalyptus thrips see Thrips 

Eucalyptus tip bugs see Bugs 

Eucalyptus weevil see Weevils 

Euceraphis betulae see European birch 

aphid 

Eucerocoris spp. (spotting bugs) 

E. suspectus see Leafspotting mirid 

bug 

E. tumidiceps see Rayieria tumidiceps 

Eucyclodes pieroides (= Anisozyga 

pieroides) see Bizarre looper 

Eudocima sp. see Fruitpiercing moths 

Eulecanium spp. (soft scales) 

E. pruinosum see Frosted scale 

E. tiliae see Brown gooseberry scale 

Eulophid wasps (Eulophidae) see Wasps 

Eumerus tuberculatus see Lesser bulb fly 

EUONYMUS K 69 

Euphorbia pulcherrima see Poinsettia 

EUPHORBIACEAE Bush fruits F 29, 

Poinsettia K 116 

Euploea spp. (butterflies) 

E. core corinna see Oleander butterfly 

E. eichhorni see Eichhorn's crow 

butterfly 

Eurema hecabe see Grass yellow butterfly 

Eurhamphus fasciculatus see Giant pine 

weevil 

European birch aphid see Aphids 

European corn borer see Borers 

European earwig see Earwigs 

European elm scale see Scales (soft) 

European red mite see Mites 

European wasp see Wasps 

European willow rust see Rusts 

Eurymela spp. see Gumtree hoppers 

Eurynassa australis see Wattle root 

longicorn 

Eurytomidae (seed chalcids) Wattle K 135 

Eutypa dieback (Eutypa lata = E. 

armeniacae) Grapevine F 59, Stone 

fruits F 126 

EVERLASTINGS A 31 

Exatosoma tiaratum see Spiny leaf insect 

Exobasidium spp. (fungal leaf galls) 

E. camelliae see Camellia leaf gall 

E. vaccinii see Azalea leaf gall 

Exocarpos see Native cherry 

Exserohilum spp. (fungal leaf spots) 


E. turcicum Sweetcorn M 88 

F 

FABACEAE Bean (broad) M 23, Beans 

(French) M 25, Kennedia K 90, Pea 

M 72, Peanut F 96 

Fabraea maculata see Fleck 

Fabrictilis gonagra see Passionvine bug 

FAGACEAE Chestnut F 32, Oak K 101 

Faggot case moth see Caterpillars 

Failure to flower Bulbs C 8, Cyclamen 

C 17, Tulip C 43 

Fairy rings Turfgrasses L 13 

False oriental fruit fly see Fruit flies 

False smuts see Smuts 

False spider mites (Tenuipalpidae) see 

Mites 

False wireworms (Tenebrionidae) see 

Wireworms 

Fasciation Ash K 26, Casuarina K 43, 

Cucurbits M 56, Daphne K 53, 

Euonymus K 69, Grevillea K 76, 

Melaleuca K 99, Wattle K 136, see also 

Genetic abnormalities 

FEIJOA F 54 

Felisacus glabratus see Fern mirid 

Fennel aphid see Aphids 

Fergusonia spp. see Gall flies 

Ferment flies see Flies 

FERNS E 1 

Fern mirid see Bugs 

Fern scale see Scales (armoured) 

Fern weevils see Weevils 

Fertilisers Soil N 81 

Ficus carica see Fig 

Fiery jewel see Caterpillars 

FIG F 55 

Fig bark beetles see Bark beetles 

Fig blister mite see Mites 

Fig endopsis (Fusarium spp.) Fig F 55 

Fig fruitborer see Caterpillars 

Figleaf beetles see Leaf beetles 

Fig leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Figleaf moth see Caterpillars 

Fig longicorn see Borers 

Fig mosaic virus see Viruses 

Fig rust mite see Mites 

Fig wasps see Wasps 

FILBERT Hazelnut F 68 

Filbert bud mite see Mites 

Fingered lerp see Psyllids 

Fiorinia fioriniae see Fiorinia scale 

Fiorinia scale see Scales (armoured) 

Fire Urban bushland N 86 

Fire adaptation Australian native plants 

N 8, Eucalypt K 65 

Fire blight (Erwinia sp.) Photinia K 105, 


Fireblight beetle see Leaf beetles 

Fire, fire blight (Botrytis spp.) Tulip C 42 

Firethorn (Pyracantha) Urban landscapes 

N 88 

Fish Water N 91, N 92 

Fivespined bark beetle see Bark beetles 

Flame tree see Kurrajong 

Flea beetles (Chrysomelidae) see Leaf 

beetles 

Fleck Fruit F 6, Pome fruits F 109 

FLIES (Diptera) Beans (French) M 28, 

Compost N 17, Manures N 48, 

Seedlings N 69, Tomato M 102 

atherigona, tomato fly Tomato M 102 

banana stalk fly Banana F 25 

bean fly Beans (French) M 28 

black fungus gnats Greenhouses 

N 28 

blossom gall fly Wattle K 135 

bulb flies Bulbs C 6, Daffodil C 20 

bush fly Manure N 48, Urban bushland 

N 86 

cabbage leafminer Brassicas M 39 

callitris gall fly Conifers K 49 

carrot rust fly Carrot M 45 

celery fly Carrot M 45, Celery M 48 

celery leafminer Celery M 48 

chrysanthemum gall midge 


cineraria leaf miner Cineraria A 28 

couchtip maggots Turfgrasses L 10 

eucalyptus flies Eucalypt K 61 , Trees 

K 14, see also Gall insects 

ferment flies Fruit F 8, Tomato M 102, 


fruit flies see Fruit Flies 

fungus gnats Cyclamen C 17, 

Greenhouses N 28, House plants 

N 37, Mushroom M 63 

gall flies Australian N 6, Eucalypt K 61, 

Trees K 14 

garden maggot Compost N 17 

garden soldier fly Compost N 17 

house fly Manure N 48, Urban 

bushland N 86 

hover flies Water N 90 

lawn fly Turfgrasses L 10 

lesser bulb fly Bulbs C 7, Hyacinth 

C 35 

metallic-green tomato fly Tomato 

M 102 

midges Water N 91 

mosquitoes Water N 91 

mushroom cecids Mushroom M 63 

mushroom phorids Mushroom F 63 

mushroom sciarids Mushroom F 63 

narcissus bulb fly Bulbs C 7. Daffodil 

C 20 

onion fly Onion M 68 

INDEX P 11

INDEX 

FLIES (contd) 

onion maggot Beans (French) M 28, 

Brassicas M 41, Cucurbits M 54, 

Onion M 68, Seedlings N 69, 


seedling bean midge Beans (French) 

M 28, Cucurbits M 54, Seedlings 

N 69 

sorghum midge Seeds N 74 

stable fly Manure N 48 

syrphid flies Water N 90 

tomato fly Tomato M 102 

vinegar flies see Ferment flies 

Floral preservatives Annuals A 11, 


Flower blights see Petal blights 

Flower caterpillar Wattle K 134 

Flower chafers see Flower insects 

Flower colour Hydrangea K 87 

Flowering Cyclamen C 17, Daffodil C 21, 

Hydrangea K 87, Tulip C 43 

FLOWER INSECTS Hibiscus K 83 

bees (Lithurge sp.) Hibiscus K 83 

flies Hibiscus K 83, Tea-tree K 125 

flower chafers Fig 56 

flower scarabs see Scarab beetles 

hibiscus flower beetle Hibiscus K 82 

nectar scarabs see Scarab beetles 

plague thrips Roses J 6 

scorpion fly Tea-tree K 125 

soldier beetles Annuals A 9 

soldier flies Tea-tree K 125 

Flower rots Annuals A 5 

Flower scarabs see Scarab beetles 

Flower thrips see Thrips 

Fly agaric (mushroom) Oak K 102 

Flying foxes see Fruit Bats 

Flyspeck (leaf spot) Hibiscus K 81 

Flyspeck (Schizothyrium pomi) Pome fruits 

F 110 

Flyspeck scale see Scales (armoured) 

Foliar nematodes see Nematodes 

Forficula auricularia see European earwig 

Formicidae see Ants 

Foxglove aphid see Aphids 

Fragariaceae Strawberry F 139 

Frankia spp. see Nitrogen-fixing bacteria 

Frankliniella spp. (thrips) 

F. occidentalis see Western flower 

thrips 

F. schultzei see Tomato thrips 

F. williamsii see Maize thrips 

Fraxinus spp. see Ash 

Freckle (fungal) Banana F 23, Stone fruits 

F 126 

FREESIA C 27 

Freesia mosaic see Viruses 

Frenchia casuarinae see Casuarina scale 

French marigold Marigold A 45 

Froggattia olivinia see Olive lace bug 

FROGHOPPERS, SPITTLE BUGS 

Australian native plants N 6, Casuarina 

K 43, Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 14, Wattle 

K 134 

common froghopper Eucalypt K 61, 

Trees K 14 

spine-tailed froghopper Casuarina 

K 43, Eucalypt K 61, Melaleuca 


Frosted scale see Scales (soft) 


Fruit bats see Vertebrates 

Fruit cracking Tomato M 103 

FRUIT FLIES (Tephritidae) Avocado 

F 19, Banana F 24, Blueberry F 27, 

Citrus F 38, Cucurbits M 54, Custard 

apple F 52, Fruit F 9, Guava F 67, 

Mango F 81, Passionfruit F 93, Pawpaw 

F 89, Persimmon F 101, Pome fruits F 

114, Stone fruits F 131, Tomato M 102, 


banana fruit fly Banana F 24, Fruit F 9 

cucumber fly Cucurbits M 54, Fruit F 9, 

Pawpaw F 89 

false oriental fruit fly Fruit F 9 

Halfordia fruit fly Fruit F 9 

island fruit fly Citrus F 38, Fruit F 9 

Jarvis's fruit fly Fruit F 9 

lesser pumpkin fly Cucurbits M 54 

lesser Queensland fruit fly Fruit F 9 

mango fly Fruit F 9, Mango F 81 

Mediterranean fruit fly Fruit F 9 

melon fly Cucurbits M 54, Fruit F 9 

Newman fruit fly Fruit F 9 

Northern Territory fruit fly Fruit F 9 

oriental fruit fly Fruit F 9 

papaya fruit fly Fruit F 9, Mango F 81, 

Pawpaw F 89 

Queensland fruit fly Citrus F 38, Fruit 

F 9 

solanum fruit fly Fruit F 9 

Fruitpiercing moths see Caterpillars 

FRUIT ROTS , VEGETABLE ROTS 

(bacterial and fungal rots) Cucurbits 

M 51, Fruit F 5, Pome fruits F 109, 

Stone fruits F 126, Tomato M 98, 

Vegetables M 5, M 6, see also Nut rots 

alternaria rot Pome fruits F 109, 

Tomato M 99, see also Alternaria 

spp. 

anthracnose Anemone C 11, Beans 

(French) M 26, Begonia C 14, Celery 

M 47, Cucurbits M 51, Fruit 

F 5, Hollyhock A 42, Ivy K 88, 

Lettuce M 59, Macadamia F 76, 

Mango F 80, Onion M 66, Orchids 

G 4, Passionfruit F 91, Plane tree 

K 114, Pome fruits F 108, Poplar 

K 117, Protea K 119, Rose J 2, 

Snapdragon A 51, Statice A 53, 


Trailing berries F 145, Turfgrasses 

L 4, Vegetables M 6, Violet A 56, 

Willow K 139, see also 

Colletotrichum spp. and Elsinoe 

spp. 

aspergillus moulds (black, green) 

Fruit F 5, Peanut F 96, F 97, Onion 

M 67, see also Aspergillus black, 

green and pod moulds 

bacterial soft rots Vegetables M 5, 

see also Erwinia spp. 

black mould see Aspergillus moulds 

brown rot (Monilinia spp.) Pome fruits 


brown rot (Phytophthora spp.) Citrus 

F 34, see also Phytophthora spp. 

fusarium fruit rots (Fusarium spp.) 

Cucurbits M 52, Tomato M 99 

mucor rot (Mucor piriformis) Fruit F 6, 


penicillium moulds (blue and green 

moulds) Asparagus M 21, Bulbs C 5, 

Citrus F 34, Conifers K 46, Cucurbits 

M 51, Fruit F 6, Gladiolus C 30, 

Hyacinth C 35, Onion M 67, 

Persimmon F 109, Pineapple F 103, 

Pome fruits F 109, Sweetcorn M 87, 

Tomato M 99, see also Penicillium 

spp. 

phoma rots Tomato M 99, see also 

Phoma spp. 

phytophthora rots Tomato M 99, see 

also Phytophthora spp. 

pink rot, pink mould (Trichothecium 

roseum) Fig F 55 

rhizoctonia fruit rot Tomato M 99 

rhizopus soft rot Bulbs C 5, Carnation 

A 17, Carrot M 44, Cucurbits M 52, 

Fruit F 6, Greenhouses N 23, Mango 

F 80, Pome fruits F 109, Protea 

K 119, Strawberry F 139, Tomato 


sour rot see Yeasty rot, sour rot 

yeasty rot, sour rot (Geotrichum 

candidum) Citrus F 34, Cucurbits 

M 52, Tomato M 99 

yeasty rot, yeasts (Saccharomyces) 

Fig F 55, Pineapple F 104 

Fruit set Cucurbits M 56 

Fruitspotting bugs see Bugs 

Fruitsucking moths see Caterpillars 

Fruit-tree borers see Borers 

Fruit-tree pinhole borer 

Fruit-tree root weevil see Weevils 

FUCHSIA K 70 

Fuller's rose weevil see Weevils 

Fulvia fulva see Tomato M 99 

Fungal-feeding nematodes see 

Nematodes 

FUNGAL LEAF SPOTS Annuals A 5, 

Australian native plants N 3, Avocado 

F 18, Banana F 23, Banksia K 31, Bean 

(broad) M 23, Beans (French) 

M 26, Beets M 33, Bottlebrush K 36, 

Brassicas M 37, Bulbs C 5, Camellia 

K 39, Carnations A 17, Carrot M 44, 

Celery M 47, Correa K 51, Cucurbits 

M 52, Currants F 48, Daphne K 53, Elm 

K 54, Eucalypt K 58, Fig F 84, Fruit F 6, 

Geranium A 34, Gladiolus C 29, 

Grapevine F 59, Grevillea K 75, 

Gypsophila A 40, Hakea K 77, 

Hardenbergia K 79, Hebe K 80, 

Hibiscus K 81, Hollyhock A 42, Iris 

C 37, Ivy K 88, Kurrajong K 91, 

Lavender K 93, Lettuce M 59, Magnolia 

K 96, Marigold A 45, Melaleuca K 98, 

Mint bush K 100, Mulberry F 84, Oak 

K 101, Onion M 66, Palms H 2, Parsnip 

M 70, Pea M 73, Photinia K 105, 

Pittosporum K 112, Plane tree K 115, 

Primrose A 50, Protea K 119, Rhubarb 

M 85, Snapdragon A 51, Statice A 53, 

Strawberry F 140, Sweetcorn M 88, 

Tomato M 99, Trailing berries F 145, 

Trees K 6, Turfgrasses L 5, Vegetables 

M 7, Violet A 56, Waratah K 129, Wattle 

K 131, Zinnia A 58 

Alternaria spp. Ivy K 88, Plane tree 

K 115, Protea K 119, see also 

Alternaria spp. 

angular leaf spots Beans (French) M 

26, Cucurbits M 51, Pawpaw F 88 

Ascochyta Eucalypt K 58, Hibiscus 

K 81, see also Ascochyta spp. 

Asterina systema-solare Banksia K 31 

Batchelomyces proteae Protea K 119 

Bipolaris spp. Palms H 2, Turfgrasses 

L 5 

black spot (of rose) Roses J 3 

Celeroa sp. Protea K 119 

Cercospora Grevillea K 75 

Cercosporella Trees K 6 

citrus black spot (Guignardia 

citricarpa) Camellia K 39, Citrus 

F 34, see also Guignardia spp. 

Curvularia spp. Gladiolus C 29, C 30, 

Turfgrasses L 4, L 5 

Cylindrocladium spp. Eucalypt K 58, 


Cylindrocladium scoparium 

Bottlebrush K 36 

downy leaf spots Oak K 101, Walnut 

F 148, see also Microstroma spp. 

Dreschlera spp., Protea K 119 

Episphaerella banksiae (= Parodiella 

banksiae) Banksia K 31 

Elsinoe Hardenbergia K 79 

Fusicladium Hebe K 80, see also 

Fusicladium spp. 

Guignardia spp. Banana F 23, Citrus 

F 34, Protea K 119, Waratah K 129, 

see also Guignardia spp. 

halo spot (Pseudocercospora correa) 

Correa K 51, see also 

Pseudocercospora spp. 

Helminthosporium Turfgrasses L 5, 

see also Helminthosporium spp. 

Heterosporium spp. Bulbs C 5, Iris 

C 37, Turfgrasses L 5 

Leptosphaerulina trifolii Bottlebrush 

K 36 

Lineostroma banksia Banksia K 31 

Marssonina spp. Daphne K 52, Lettuce 

M 59, Poplar K 117, Rose 

J 3, Willow K 139, see also 

Marssonina spp. 

Mycosphaerella spp. Banana F 23, 

Chrysanthemum A 23, Currants 

F 48, Eucalypt K 58, Fruit F 6, Iris 

C 37, Pea M 73, Strawberry F 140, 

see also Mycosphaerella spp. 

Microthyriella hibisci Hibiscus K 81 

Pestalotiopsis spp. Camellia K 39 

Phaeoseptoria sp. Eucalypt K 58 

P 12 

INDEX

INDEX 

FUNGAL LEAF SPOTS (contd) 

Phyllosticta spp. Hibiscus K 81, 

Kurrajong K 91, Plane tree K 115 

Placoasterella spp. (sooty spot) 

Grevillea K 75, Hakea K 77 

Pseudocercospora spp. Avocado 

F 18, Correa K 51, Custard apple 

F 51, Macadamia F 76, Persimmon 

F 101 

red blotch (P. correicola) Correa K 51 

tar spots (Phyllachora spp.) 

Bottlebrush K 36, Eucalypt K 58, 

Melaleuca K 98, Tea-tree K 124 

tar spot Maple K 97 

Seimatosporium sp. Melaleuca K 98 

Septoria spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Carnation A 17, Chrysanthemum 

A 23, Citrus F 34, Fruit F 8, 

Geranium A 34, Gerbera A 37, 

Gladiolus C 29, C 31, Hebe K 80, 

Lavender K 93, Passionfruit F 92, 

Phlox A 48, Snapdragon A 51, Viola 

A 56, Wattle K 131, Tomato M 99, 

see also Septoria spp. 

Stemphylium spp. Asparagus M 21, 

Gladiolus C 29, Onion M 66, Tomato 

M 99, see also Stemphylium spp. 

Verrucisporota spp. (Verrucispora 

spp.) Grevillea K 75, Hakea K 77 

Vizella banksiae Banksia K 31 

FUNGI Australian native plants N 3, 

Compost N 16, Greenhouses N 22, 

Hydroponic systems N 42, Interior 

plantscapes N 45, Manure N 48, 

Mulches N 49, Plant tissue culture 

N 59, Postharvest N 61, Potting mixes 

N 64, Seedlings N 74, Seeds N 80 

ambrosia fungi Trees K 10 

anthracnose Anemone C 11, Beans 

(French) M 26, Begonia C 14, Celery 

47, Cucurbits M 51, Fruit F 5, 

Hollyhock A 42, Ivy K 88, Lettuce 

M 59, Macadamia F 76, Mango 

F 80, Onion M 66, Orchids G 4, 

Passionfruit F 91, Plane tree K 114, 

Pome fruits F 108, Poplar K 117, 

Protea K 119, Rose J 2, Snapdragon 

A 51, Statice A 53, Strawberry F 

139, Tomato M 99, Trailing berries F 

145, Turfgrasses 

L 3, Vegetables M 6, Violet A 56, 

Willow K 139 

armillaria root rot see Root and stem 

rots 

beneficial fungi Soil N 81 

cankers see Cankers 

cryptococcosis Eucalypt K 65 

damping off Greenhouses N 66, 

Tomato M 100 

death cap Oak K 102 

downy mildews (Peronosporaceae) 

Annuals A 5, Beets M 33, Brassicas 

M 37, Carnation A 17, Cucurbits 

M 51, Everlastings A 31, Fruit F 5, 

Grapevine F 59, Hebe K 80, Lettuce 

M 59, Onion M 66, Pea M 72, 

Rhubarb M 85, Snapdragon A 51, 

Stock A 54, Sweetcorn M 87, 


epiphyllous fungi Banksia K 32, 

Eucalypt K 65, Hakea K 78, 

Melaleuca K 99, Tea-tree K 125, 


fly agaric Oak K 102, Urban 

landscapes N 88 

fruit rots see Fruit rots 

grey mould see Botrytis spp. 

karri brown rot (various fungi) 

Eucalypt K 59 

kikuyu yellows Turfgrasses L 5 

leaf spots see Fungal leaf spots 

lichens Ivy K 89, Soil N 81, Trees K 18 

mycorrhizae see Biological control 

phytophthora root rot see Root and 

stem rots 

pink rot, pink mould (Trichothecium 

roseum) Fig F 55 

poisonous fungi Oak K 102 

powdery mildews (Erysiphales) 

African violet A 12, Annuals A 6, 

Australian native plants N 4, Azalea 

K 27, Beets M 33, Begonia C 14, 

Calendula A 14, Chrysanthemum 

A 23, Cucurbits M 52, Currants F 48, 

Dahlia C 24, Daphne K 52, Eucalypt 

K 58, Euonymus K 69, Fruit F 7, 

Grapevine F 60, Hardenbergia K 79, 

Hebe K 80, Honeysuckle K 85, 

House plants N 35, Hydrangea K 86, 

Lilac K 94, Maple K 97, Oak K 101, 

Parsnip M 70, Pawpaw F 89, Pea 

M 73, Phlox A 48, Photinia K 105, 

Plane tree K 115, Pome fruits F 109, 

Roses J 3, Stone fruits F 127, 


Trees K 7, Turfgrasses L 6, 

Vegetables M 7, Verticordia K 127, 

Viburnum K 128, Violet A 56, Zinnia 

A 58 

projectile firing fungus Azalea K 29, 


root and stem rots see Root and stem 

rots 

rusts see Rusts 

sap-stains see Wood-stains 

slime moulds see Slime moulds 

smuts see Smuts 

sooty mould Ash K 26, Citrus F 41, 

Eucalypt K 65, Hakea K 78, Holly 

K 84, Ivy K 89, Tea-tree K 125, 

Trees K 19 

Trichoderma spp. Soil N 81 

truffles Oak K 102 

white rot Onion M 67 

wilts see Wilts 

wood rots see Wood rots 

Fungicide dusts see Dusts 

Fungus gnats see Flies 

Fusarium blight syndrome Turfgrasses L 5 

Fusarium fruit rots see Fruit rots 

Fusarium patch (Gerlachia nivalis = 

Fusarium nivale) Turfgrasses L 5 

Fusarium rots, blights (Fusarium spp. ) 

Beets M 33, Carnation A 17, Conifers 

K 46, Pine K 107, Turfgrasses L 4, L 5 

Fusarium spp. 

F. avenaceum (Gibberella avenacea) 

Carnation A 17 

F. culmorum Carnation A 17 

F. equiseti Turfgrasses L 5 

F. graminearum Carnation A 17 

F. moniliforme (crown rot) Asparagus 

M 21 

F. nivale (= Gerlachia nivalis) 

(Fusarium patch) Turfgrasses L 5 

F. oxysporum f.spp. (fusarium wilts) 

see Fusarium oxysporum f.spp. 

F. poae Carnation A 17, Turfgrasses 

L 5 

F. roseum Carnation A 17, 


F. solani Beans (French) M 27, 

Conifers K 46, Gerbera A 38, Pine 

K 107, Tomato M 100 

Fusarium oxysporum f.spp. (fusarium 

wilts) Banana F 23, Bromeliads B 2, 

Bulbs C 5, Carnation A 17, China aster 

A 21, Cyclamen C 16, Daffodils C 19, 

Freesia C 27, Gladiolus C 29, Lily C 40, 

Orchids G 4, Tomato M 100, 


F. oxysporum f.sp. betae Beets M 33 

F. oxysporum f.sp. callistephi China 

aster A 21 

F. oxysporum f.sp. cepae Onion M 67 

F. oxysporum f.sp. conglutinans 


F. oxysporum f.sp. cubense Banana F 

23 

F. oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum 


F. oxysporum f.sp. dianthi Carnation 

A 17 

F. oxysporum f.sp. gladioli (fusarium 

yellows) Gladiolus C 29 

F. oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici 

Tomato M 100 

F. oxysporum f.sp. narcissi Daffodil 

C 19 

F. oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae 

Passionfruit F 92 

F. oxysporum f.sp. pisi Pea M 73 

Fusarium wilts, fusarium yellows see 

Fusarium oxysporum f.spp. 

Fuscosporia laevigata see Ring-barking 

fuscoporia 

Fusicladium spp. (leaf spot) 

F. carpophilum see Freckle, Scab 

F. veronicae (= Ramalia veronicae) 

Hebe K 80 

G 

Gall aphids see Galls 

Gall flies see Galls 

GALLS Australian native plants N 7, 

Casuarina K 43, Citrus F 37, Eucalypt K 

61, Geraldton wax K 73, Hakea K 77, 

Kurrajong K 92, Trees K 14, Wattle 

K 135 

citrus gall wasp Citrus F 37 

coccid galls (Apiomorpha spp.) 

Eucalypt K 61 

Fergusonia sp. Eucalypt K 61 

gall aphids (Phylloxeridae) Grapevine 

F 61 

gall flies Eucalypt K 61, Wattle K 135 

gall midges Trees K 14, Wattle K 135 

gall mites Eucalypt K 61 

gall psyllids Eucalypt K 61, Wattle 

K 135 

gall rusts Wattle K 131 

gall thrips Wattle K 135 

gall wasps Australian native plants N 6, 

Banksia K 32, Casuarina K 43, 

Eucalypt K 61, Hakea K 77, 

Kurrajong K 92, Trees K 14, Wattle 

K 135 

gall wasps (Andricus spp.) Oak K 102 

gall weevils Eucalypt K 61 

Geraldton wax gall wasps Geraldton 

wax K 73 

wattle apple-gall wasp Wattle K 135 

Gall wasps see Galls 

Gangrene Potato M 79 

Ganoderma butt rot see Wood rots 

GARDEN CENTRES N 21, Nurseries 

N 55 

GARDENIA K 72 

Garden maggot see Flies 

Garden soldier fly see Flies 

Garden springtail see Springtails 

Garden symphylid see Symphylids 

Garden weevil see Weevils 

GARLIC Herb N 32 

Garlic mosaic virus see Viruses 

Garlic snail see Snails 

Garlic yellow streak virus see Viruses 

Gascardia destructor see White wax scale 

Gas pipes Oak K 102 

Gastrimargus musicus see Yellow-winged 

locust 

GAZANIA A 33 

Gelonus bugs see Bugs 

GENETIC ABNORMALITIES Annuals 

A 9, Calendula A 14, Citrus F 43, 

Seedlings N 70, Stone fruits F 134, 

Trees K 19 

chimera Citrus F 43 

fasciation Annuals A 9, Daphne K 53, 

Euonymus K 69, Wattle K 136 

faulty tasselling Sweetcorn M 91 

flower colour Christmas bush K 44 

genetic degeneration Azalea K 29 

genetic off-types Plant tissue culture 

N 59 

genetic variation Eucalypt K 65 

provenance performance Eucalypt 

K 57, K 67, Trees K 19 

sports Annuals A 9, Camellia K 41, 

Citrus F 43. Euonymus K 69, Trees 

K 19 

variegated leaves Conifers K 49, Elm K 

55, Grevillea K 76 

white gill Mushroom M 64 

INDEX P 13

INDEX 

Geometridae see Loopers 

Geotrichum candidum see Yeasty rot, sour 

rot 

Geotropism Postharvest N 61 

GERALDTON WAX K 73 

Geraldton wax gall wasps (Eulophidae) 

see Galls 

GERANIACEAE (geranium family) 

Geranium A 34 

GERBERA A 37 

Gerlachia nivalis see Fusarium nivale 

Germination (seed) Beans (French) M 31 

GESNERIACEAE African violet A 12 

Ghost moths (Hepialidae) see Borers 

Ghost spot Tomato M 100 

Giant grasshopper see Grasshoppers 

Giant northern termite (= giant termite) see 

Termites 

Giant pine weevil see Weevils 

Giant wood moth see Borers 

Gibberella fujikoroi (sap-stain) Conifers 

K 46 

GLADIOLUS C 29 

Gladiolus thrips see Thrips 

GLASSHOUSES see Greenhouses 

Glasshouse leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Glasshouse symphylid see Symphylids 

Globodera rostochiensis see Potato cyst 

nematode 

Gloeodes sp. (sooty blotch) Pome fruits 

F 110, Wattle K 132 

Gloeosporium sp. (see also 

Anthracnose) Fruit F 5 

G. album Pome fruits F 109 

G. begoniae Begonia C 14 

G. nervisequum Plane tree K 114 

Glomerella cingulata (anthracnose, 

cankers, dieback) Avocado F 18, Fruit 

F 5, Orchids G 4, Passionfruit F 91, 

Pome fruits F 109, Trees K 5 

Glycaspis blakei see Redgum sugar lerp 

Glycine Australian native plants N 2 

Gnomonia (anthracnose) Fruit F 5, Oak 

K 101, Plane tree K 114, Strawberry 

F 139 

Goldenhaired bark beetle see Bark beetles 

Golden mealybug see Mealybugs 

Golden oak scale see Scales (others) 

Gonipterus scutellatus see Eucalyptus 

weevil 

Gonocephalum spp. (false wireworms) 

G. carpentariae see Northern false 

wireworm 

G. elderi see Vegetable beetle 

GOOSEBERRY Currants F 48 

Gooseberry vein banding virus see 

Viruses 

Gooseberry weevil see Weevils 

Gossyparia spuria see European elm 

scale 

Graft incompatibility Lilac K 94 

Grapeleaf blister mite see Mites 

Grapeleaf rust mite see Mites 

Grape phylloxera see Aphids 

GRAPEVINE F 58 

Grapevine enation see Viruses 

Grapevine fanleaf virus see Viruses 

Grapevine hawk moth see Caterpillars 

Grapevine leaf roll virus see Viruses 

Grapevine moth see Caterpillars 

Grapevine scale see Scales (soft) 

Grapevine viruses F 58 

Grapevine yellow mycoplasma see 

Viruses 

Grapevine yellow speckle viroid see 

Viruses 

Graphiola (false smut) Palms H 2 

Grapholita molesta see Oriental fruit moth 

Graphium sp. see Triangle butterfly 

Graphognathus leucoloma see 

Whitefringed weevil 

Grass blue butterfly see Caterpillars 

Grass clippings Turfgrasses L 14 

Grass coccid see Scales (soft) 

Grass-crown mealybug see Mealybugs 

Grassgrubs see Turfgrasses L 9 

GRASSHOPPERS, KATYDIDS, 

LOCUSTS Australian native plants N 6, 

Citrus F 38, Eucalypt K 65, Fruit F 11, 

Pine K 108, Tomato M 102, Trees 


Australian plague locust Australian 

native plants N 5, Eucalypt K 65, 


citrus katydid Citrus F 38 

giant grasshopper Palms H 5, 


green gum tree katydids Eucalypt 

K 64 

inland katydid Citrus F 38 

katydids Citrus F 38, Eucalypt K 65, 

Hibiscus K 83, Vegetables M 14 

locusts Vegetables M 13 

migratory locust Palms H 5 

spur-throated locust Vegetables 

M 13 

wingless grasshopper Honeysuckle 

K 85, Stone fruits F 133, Strawberry 

F 141, Vegetables M 14 

yellow-winged locust Vegetables 

M 14 

Grass itch mites see Mites 

Grasswebbing mites see Mites 

Grass yellow butterfly see Caterpillars 

Grazing animals see Vertebrates 

Greedy scale see Scales (armoured) 

Green algae see Algae 

Green cutworm see Cutworms 

Green gum tree katydid see Grasshoppers 

Greenhouse orthezia Greenhouses N 24 

GREENHOUSES N 22 

Greenhouse thrips see Thrips 

Greenhouse whitefly see Whiteflies 

Green mirid bug see Bugs 

Green moulds (Penicillium moulds) see 


Green peach aphid see Aphids 

Green planthopper see Planthoppers 

Green potato bug see Bugs 

Green scarab beetle see Scarab beetles 

Green scum see Algae 

Green shield scale see Scales (soft) 

Green spring beetle see Scarab beetles 

Green stick looper see Caterpillars 

Green stink bug see Bugs 

Green treehopper see Treehoppers 

Green vegetable bug see Bugs 

Green wattle loopers see Caterpillars 

Gregarious gall weevils see Weevils 

GREVILLEA K 75 

Grevillea case moth see Caterpillars 

Grevillea loopers see Caterpillars 

Grevillea mealybug see Mealybugs 

Greyback cane beetle see Scarab beetles 

Grey cluster bug see Bugs 

Grey leaf spot (Stemphylium spp.) 

Asparagus M 21, Tomato M 99 

GREY MOULD (Botrytis spp.) 

Greenhouses N 22, see also Botrytis 

spp. 

Ground pearls Turfgrasses L 11 

Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) Calendula 

A 14 

Ground weevil see Weevils 

Growing media Nurseries N 52 

Gryllotalpidae spp. see Mole crickets 

GUAVA F 67 

Guava moth see Caterpillars 

Guava rust see Rusts 

Guignardia spp. Protea K 119, Waratah K 

129 

G. bidwelli Grapevine F 59 

G. citricarpa Camellia K 39, Citrus F 34 

G. musae (freckle) Banana F 23 

Gumleaf skeletoniser see Caterpillars 

Gumming Pittosporum K 113, Stone fruits 

F 124, F 125, F 128, F 134 

Gummy stem blight (fungal fruit rot) 

Cucurbits M 52, see also 

Mycosphaerella spp. 

Gumtree hoppers Eucalypt K 61 

Gumtree scale see Scales (eriococcid) 

Gumtree scale ladybird see Ladybirds 

Gymnaspis aechmeae see Aechmea scale 

Gymnospermae Conifers K 45 

Gynaikothrips ficorum see Cuban laurel 

thrips 

GYPSOPHILA A 40 

H 

HAEMODORACEAE Kangaroo paw A 43 

Hairy fruit Plane tree K 115 

Hairy leafeating caterpillars see 

Caterpillars 

Hairless flower thrips see Thrips 

HAKEA K 77 

Hakea leafminers see Leafminers 

Hakea whitefly see Whiteflies 

Halfordia fruit fly See Fruit flies 

Halo blight see Bacteria 

Halo spot see Fungal leaf spots 

Halotydeus destructor see Redlegged 

earth mite 

Halticorcus platycerii see Staghorn fern 

beetle 

Hapatesus hirtus see Potato wireworm 

Haplothrips spp. (thrips) 

H. froggatti see Black plague thrips 

H. victoriensis see Tubular black thrips 

HARDENBERGIA K 79 

Hard scales (Diaspididae) see Scales 

(armoured) 

Harlequin bug see Bugs 

Harrisia cactus Cacti D 3 

Hawk moths see Caterpillars 

Hazel aphid see Aphids 

HAZELNUT F 68 

HEBE K 80 

Hedera spp. see Ivy 

Helenita blue butterfly see Caterpillars 

Helichrysum spp. see Everlastings 

Helicotylenchus sp. see Spiral nematode 

Helicoverpa spp. (budworms, earworms) 

H. armigera see Corn earworm 

H. assulta see Cape gooseberry 

budworm 

H. punctigera see Native budworm 

Heliothis rubrescens see Indian weed 

caterpillar 

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis see 


Heliozela sp. (leafmining moth) 


Helix aspersa see Common garden snail 

Hellula spp. see Cabbage-centre grub 

Helminthosporium spp. (blights, fungal leaf 

spots, rots) Potato M 79, Protea 

K 119, Turfgrasses L 4, L 5 

Hemiberlesia spp. (see also Armoured 

scales) 

H. cyanophylli (= Abgrallaspis 

cyanophylli) see Cyanophyllum 

scale 

H. lataniae see Latania scale 

H. rapax see Greedy scale 

HEMIPTERA see Aphids, Bugs, 

Froghoppers, Leafhoppers, Lerp 

insects, Mealybugs, Planthoppers, 

Psyllids, Scales (various types), Spittle 

bugs, Treehoppers, Whiteflies 

Hemispherical scale see Scales (soft) 

Hen and chickens marigold Calendula 

A 14 

Hendersonia toniloidea see Nattrassia 

mangiferae 

HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS A 1 

Herbicides see Pesticides 

Herbicide injury Anemone C 12, Annuals 

A 9, Iris C 38 

HERBS N 32 

Heterodera spp. (cyst nematodes) 

H. schachtii see Beet nematode 

H. trifolii Carnation A 18 

Heteronychus arator see African black 

beetle 

Heteronyx spp. see Peanut scarabs 

Heteropatella spp. (see also Fungal leaf 

spots) 

H. antirrhini Snapdragon A 51 

H. valtellinensis Carnation A 17 

Heterosporium sp. (fungal leaf spots) see 


P 14 

INDEX

INDEX 

HIBISCUS K 81 

Hibiscus chlorotic ringspot virus see 

Viruses 

Hibiscus erinose mite see Mites 

Hibiscus flower beetle Hibiscus K 82 

Hibiscus mealybug see Mealybugs 

Hieromantis ephodophora see Hoop-pine 

seed moth 

Hippotion spp. (hawk moths) 

H. celerio see Grapevine hawk moth) 

H. scrofa see Scrofa hawk moth 

Hollow heart Potato M 82 

HOLLY K 84 

HOLLYHOCK A 42 

Homona spargotus see Avocado leafroller 

HONEYSUCKLE K 85 

Honeysuckle aphid see Aphids 

Hook-tip moths Caterpillars 

HOOP PINE Conifers K 45 

Hoop-pine bark beetle see Bark beetles 

Hoop-pine borers see Borers 

Hoop-pine branchcutter see Borers 

Hoop-pine longicorn see Borers 

Hoop-pine seed moth see Caterpillars 

Hoop-pine stitch beetle see Borers 

Hormone herbicides see Pesticides 

Hormones Manure N 48 

Horned treehoppers Trees K 15 

Horn lerps see Psyllids 

HOUSE PLANTS N 35 

Howardia biclavis see Mining scale 

HOYA Cacti D 2 

HUMAN DISEASES Soil N 81 

cryptococcosis Eucalypt K 65 

legionnaire's disease Soil N 81 

meliodosis Soil N 81 

tetanus Soil N 81 

Humans see Vertebrates 

Humidity House plants N 36, Interior 

plantscape N 45, Melaleuca K 99, Mint 

bush K 100 

HYACINTH C 35 

Hyacinth mosaic virus see Viruses 

Hyadaphis foeniculi see Honeysuckle 

aphid 

Hyalarcta spp. (case moths) 

H. huebneri see Leaf case moth 

H. nigrescens see Ribbed case moth 

HYDRANGEA K 86 

Hydrangea ringspot virus Hydrangea K 86 

Hydrangea scale see Scales (soft) 

Hydrangea spider mite see Mites 

Hydrellia tritici see Lawn fly 

HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS N 41 

Hylastes ater see Black pine bark beetle 

Hyleops glabratus see Hoop-pine stich 

beetle 

Hyles lineata see Whitelined hawk moth 

Hylurdrectonus piniarius see Hoop-pine 

bark beetle 

Hylurgus ligniperda see Goldenhaired bark 

beetle 

Hymenia recurvalis see Beet webworm 

HYMENOPTERA see Ants, Bees, 

Biological control, Galls, Sawflies, 

Wasps 

Hyperomyzus lactucae see Sowthistle 

aphid 

Hypochrysops spp. (jewel butterflies) 

H. ignitus ignitus see Fiery jewel 

H. theon medocus Ferns E 3 

Hypogastrura spp. see Springtails 

Hypolycaena spp. (tit butterflies) 

H. danis turneri see Blue and white tit 

H. phorbas phorbas see Common tit 

I 

Icerya purchasi see Cottonycushion scale 

Idaethina froggatti see Kurrajong pod 

beetle 

Idiopterus nephrelepidis see Maidenhair 

fern aphid 

Ilex spp. see Holly 

Impatiens necrotic spot virus See Viruses 

Indian weed caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Ink disease, ink spot Kangaroo paw A 43 

Inland fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Inland katydid see Grasshoppers 

Insect parasites and predators see 


INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 

(IPM) see Control methods, 

Management 

INTERIOR PLANTSCAPES N 45 

IPM see Integrated pest management 

Ipomoea batatus see Sweet potato 

Ips spp. (see also Bark beetles) 

I. grandicollis see Fivespined bark 

beetle 

I. pini see Pine engraver 

IRIDACEAE Freesia C 27, Gladiolus 

C 29, Iris C 37 

IRIS C 37 

Irish blight Potato M 78, Tomato M 100 

Iris mild mosaic virus see Viruses 

Iris severe mosaic virus see Viruses 

Ironbark lace lerp see Psyllids 

Ironbark sawfly see Sawflies 

Iron deficiency see Nutrient deficiencies 

Irrigation Gerbera A 38, Mulches N 49, 

Xeriscape N 95 

Island fruit fly see Fruit flies 

ISOPTERA see Termites 

Isopteron punctatissimus ( = 

Gonocephalum spp.) see Small false 

wireworm 

Isotenes miserana see Orange fruitborer 

Itch mites see Mites 

Itersonilia spp. (canker) Parsnip M 70 

IVY K 88 

Ivy aphid see Aphids 

Ivy leafroller see Caterpillars 

Ivy mite see Mites 

Ivy scale see Scales (armoured) 

J 

Jalmenus spp. (butterflies) 

J. daemeli see Damel's blue butterfly 

Jamides phaseli see Bean flower 

caterpillar 

JARRAH Eucalypt K 57 

Jarrah leafminer Eucalypt K 62 

Jarvis's fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Jassids see Apple leafhopper, 

Leafhoppers 

Java downy mildew Sweetcorn M 87 

Jewel beetles (Buprestidae) see Borers 

Jewel bugs (Scutelleridae) see Bugs 

Jewel butterflies Wattle K 133 

Jonathon spot Pome fruits F 117 

JUGLANDACEAE Pecan F 99, Walnut 

F 148 

Juglans spp. see Walnut 

Juglone toxicity Walnut F 149 

JUNIPER Conifers K 45 

Juniper aphid see Aphids 

Juniper scale see Scales (armoured) 

Junonia spp. (see also Caterpillars) 

J. orithya albicincta see Blue argus 

J. villida calybe see Meadow argus 

butterfly 

K 

KANGAROO PAW A 43, Australia Native 

plants N 3, N 4 

Karri brown rot see Fungi 

kauri coccid see Scales, ground pearls 

(Margarodids - Margarodidae) 

kauri thrips see Thrips 

Katydids (Tettigoniidae) see Grasshoppers 

KENNEDIA K 90, Australian native plants 

N 2 

Kennedya Y virus see Viruses 

Kennedya yellow mosaic virus see Viruses 

Kikuyu yellows (a water mould fungus) 


Kino Eucalypt K 65 

KIWI FRUIT F 70 

Kretzchmaria cetrarioides (macadamia 

root decay) Macadamia F 76 

Kuehneola uredinia (rust) Trailing berries 

F 146 

KURRAJONG K 91 

Kurrajong leaf-tier see Caterpillars 

Kurrajong pod beetle see Driedfruit 

beetles 

Kurrajong seed weevil see Weevils 

Kurrajong star psyllid see Psyllids 

Kurrajong twig psyllid see Psyllids 

Kurrajong weevil see Weevils 

L 

Lace bugs (Tingidae) see Bugs 

Lacewings see Biological control 

Lactuca sativa see Lettuce 

LADYBIRDS (Coccinellidae) 

cucurbit ladybird Cucurbits M 54 

fungus eating ladybird (beneficial) 

Mushroom M 63 

gumtree scale ladybirds (beneficial) 

Eucalypt K 63 

ladybirds (beneficial) Eucalypt K 63 

mealybug ladybird (beneficial) 

Greenhouses N 26, Conifers K 48 

mite-eating ladybirds (beneficial) 

(Stethorus spp.) Beans (French) 

M 30 

potato ladybirds Beans (French) M 29, 

Cucurbits M 54, Potato M 81, 


Laetisaria fuciformis (red thread) 


LAMIACEAE Lavender K 93, Mint bush 

K 100 

Lampetia equestris see Narcissus bulb fly 

Lampides boeticus see Pea blue butterfly 

Lamprolina aeneipennis see Pittosporum 

beetle 

Lamprolonchaea brouniana see Metallicgreen 

tomato fly 

Large ambrosia beetle see Borers 

Large auger beetle see Borers 

Large brown leaf beetle see Leaf beetles 

Large citrus butterfly see Caterpillars 

Large fern weevil see Weevils 

Large green sawfly see Sawflies 

Large pasture scarab see Scarab beetles 

Larkspur see Delphinium 

Lasiopsylla rotundipennis see Yellowbox 

lerp 

Latania scale see Scales (armoured) 

Late blight, Irish blight Potato M 78, 

Tomato M 100 

LAURACEAE Avocado F 18 

Lavatera plebeia Australian native plants 

N 4 

LAVENDER K 93 

Lawn fly see Flies 

Leaf analysis see Nutrient deficiencies 

LEAF BEETLES, FLEA BEETLES 

(Chrysomelidae) Australian native 

plants N 6, Avocado F 19, Cucurbits 

M 55, Eucalypt K 61, Euonymus K 69, 

Fig F 56, Fruit F 11, Eucalypt K 59, 

Macadamia F 78, Melaleuca K 98, 

Poplar K 118, Potato M 81, Sweet 

potato M 94, Trees K 15, Turfgrasses 

L 10, Wattle K 132 

blue-green metallic leaf beetle Wattle 

K 132 

brown leaf beetle Wattle K 132 

couch flea beetle Turfgrasses L 10 

crabgrass leaf beetle Turfgrasses L 10 

elm leaf beetle Elm K 55 

eucalyptus leaf beetles Natives N 6, 

Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 15 

figleaf beetles Fig F 56 

fireblight beetle Australian native 

plants N 6, Wattle K 132 

flea beetles Brassicas M 40, Potato 

M 81, Rhubarb M 86, Sweet potato 

M 94, Trees K 15, Turfgrasses L 10, 

Wattle K 132 

large brown leaf beetle Wattle K 132 

leaf beetles (Cryptocephalus spp.) 


metallic flea beetles Abutilon K 25, 

Avocado F 19, Cucurbits M 54, 

Hibiscus K 82, Hollyhock A 42 

orchid beetle Orchids G 5 

palm leaf beetle Palms H 4 

Pedrilla spp. (beetle) Euonymus K 69 

INDEX P 15

INDEX 

LEAF BEETLES, FLEA BEETLES 

(contd) 

pittosporum beetle Pittosporum K 112 

plain pumpkin beetle Cucurbits M 54 

potato flea beetle Potato M 81 

pumpkin beetle Cucurbits M 54 

redshouldered leaf beetle Australian 

native plants N 6, Citrus F 39, 

Cucurbits M 55, Fruit F 11, Lychee 

F 74, Macadamia F 78, Melaleuca 

K 98, Sweetcorn M 90, Trees K 15, 

Wattle K 132 

staghorn fern beetle Ferns E 4 

swarming leaf beetles Australian 

native plants N 6, Fruit F 12, Lychee 

F 74, Trees K 15, Wattle K 132 

Tasmanian eucalyptus leaf beetle 

Eucalypt K 61 

threelined potato beetle Cape 

gooseberry F 30, Potato M 81 

tobacco flea beetle Potato M 81 

Zeugophora sp. Poplar K 118 

Leaf blackening Australian native plants 

N 8, Everlastings A 31, Protea K 120 

Leafblister sawflies see Sawflies 

Leaf blotch miner see Leafminers 

Leaf case moth see Caterpillars 

Leafcurl plum aphid see Aphids 

Leaf curls (fungal) Poplar K 117, Stone 

fruits F 126 

Leafcutter moths (Incurvariidae) see 

Leafminers 

Leafcutting bees see Bees 

Leaf distortion thrips see Thrips 

Leaf galls Azalea K 27, Camellia K 39 

LEAFHOPPERS (Cicadellidae) Annuals 

M 8, Beans (French) M 29, Citrus F 38, 

Eucalypt K 61, Potato M 81, Trees 

K 15, Vegetables M 15, Wattle K 134 

apple leafhopper Annuals A 8, Fuchsia 

K 70, Pome fruits F 112, 


Australian grass leafhopper 


citrus jassid Citrus F 38 

common brown leafhopper Annuals 

A 8, Beans (French) M 29, Potato 


elm leafhopper Elm K 55 

fig leafhopper Fig F 56 

glasshouse leafhopper Greenhouses 

N 27 

lucerne leafhopper Peanut F 97 

maize leafhopper Sweetcorn M 90 

tomato leafhopper see Vegetable 

leafhopper 

vegetable leafhopper Annuals A 8, 

Beans (French) M 29, Carrot M 45, 

Celery M 48, Parsnip M 71, Peanut 

F 97, Potato M 81, Tomato M 102, 


yellow jassid Annuals A 8, Vegetables 

M 15 

yellow leafhopper Geranium A 35 

Leaf insects see Stick insects 

LEAFMINERS (Hymenoptera, 

Lepidoptera) Australian native plants 

N 6, Azalea K 28, Beans (French) 

M 29, Bottlebrush K 37, Eucalypt K 62, 

Hakea K 77, Hibiscus K 82, Kennedia K 

90, Protea K 120, Trees K 15, 


Asterivora lampadias Everlastings 

A 31 

azalea leafminer Azalea K 28 

bean fly Beans (French) M 28 

beet leafminer Beets M 34 

blackbutt leafminer Australian native 


cabbage leafminer Brassicas M 39 

celery leafminer Celery M 48 

cineraria leafminer Annuals A 8, 


Chrysanthemum A 25, Cineraria 

A 28, Everlastings A 31, Gazania 

A 33, Gerbera A 38, Lettuce M 60, 

Nasturtium A 46 

citrus leafminer Citrus F 38 

hakea leafminers Hakea K 77 

Heliozela sp. (moth) Bottlebrush K 37 

jarrah leafminer Australian native 


leafblister sawflies Australian native 


leaf blotch miner Lilly-pilly K 95 

leafcutter moths Banksia K 31, 

Eucalypt K 62 

lomatia leafminer Australian native 

plants N 6 

macadamia leafminer Australian native 

plants N 6, Hakea K 77, Macadamia 

F 78, Waratah K 129, White cedar K 

138 

oak leafminer Birch K 33, Chestnut 

F 32, Oak K 101 

pittosporum leafminer Australian 

native plants N 6, Pittosporum K 112 

serpentine leafminer Cucurbits M 55 

silkyoak leafminer Australian native 

plants N 6, Grevillea K 76 

Stegommata spp. Banksia K 31, 

Hakea K 78 

Stigmella spp. (Nepticulidae) Correa 

K 51, Kennedia K 90 

sweetpotato leafminer Sweetpotato 

M 94 

wattle leafminer Australian native 

plants N 6, Wattle K 136 

Leaf mould (Fulvia fulva) Tomato M 99 

Leaf nematodes see Nematodes 

Leafroller moths (Tortricidae) see 

Caterpillars 

Leaf rolling Tomato M 103 

Leafrolling thrips see Thrips 

Leaf scorch (Stagonospora) Daffodil C 19 

Leaf scorch (Gnomonia) Plane tree K 114 

LEAF SPOTS see Algae, Bacteria, 


Leafspotting mirid bug see Bugs 

Leak (Pythium sp.) Potato M 79 

Leaves Mulches N 49 

LEEK Onion M 68 

Legionella longbeachiae Potting mixes 

N 64, Soil N 81 

Legionnaires' diseases Potting mixes N 64 

Legislation Nursery N 51, Water N 92 

Lema trivittata see Threelined potato 

beetle 

LEMON Citrus F 33 

Lemon bud moth see Caterpillars 

Lenticels Potato M 82 

Lepidiota spp. (cane grubs) 

L. rothei see Brown eucalypt beetle 

LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies and moths) 

see Biological control, Borers, 

Caterpillars, Leafminers, Tip borers 

Lepidosaphes spp. (mussel scales) 

L. beckii see Purple scale 

L. macadamiae see Macadamia 

mussel scale 

L. ulmi see Apple mussel scale 

Lepidoscia arctiella see Grevillea case 

moth 

Lepiota spp. see Fairy rings 

Leptocneria reducta see White cedar moth 

Leptopius spp. (weevils) 

L. squalidus see Fruit-tree root weevil 

L. tribolus Wattle K 132 

Leptosaphes machili see Cymbidium scale 

Leptocoris bug see Bugs 

Leptocoris mitellata see Leptocoris bug 

Leptospermum spp. Australian native 

plants N 3, Tea-tree K 124 

Leptosphaeria spp. (fungal rots) 

L. maculans (black leg) Brassicas M 37 

L. narmari (spring dead spot) 


Leptosphaerulina spp. (Leptosphaerulina 

leaf blight) Turfgrasses L 5 

Leptothyrium pomi (Australian sooty 

blotch) Pome fruits F 110 

LERP INSECTS (Psyllidae) see Psyllids 

Lesion nematode see Root lesion 

nematodes 

Lesser bulb fly see Flies 

Lesser pumpkin fly see Fruit flies 

Lesser Queensland fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Lethal yellows Palms H 2 

LETTUCE M 58, Hydroponic N 42 

Lettuce big vein virus see Virus diseases 

Lettuce mosaic virus see Viruses 

Lettuce necrotic yellows virus see Viruses 

Leucania spp. see Armyworms 

Leucodendron see Australian N 3, Protea 

K 119 

Leveillula taurica(fungal leaf spot) Pawpaw 

F 88 

Lewin's bag-shelter moth see Caterpillars 

LICHENS Ivy K 88, Soil N 81, Trees K 18 

LIGHT Annuals A 7, House plants N 36, 

Interior plantscapes N 45, Urban 


phototropism Postharvest N 61 

ultra-violet light Nurseries N 53, Water 

N 90 

Lightbrown apple moth see Caterpillars 

LILAC K 94 

LILIACEAE (lily family) Asparagus M 21, 

Hyacinth C 35, Lily C 40, Onion M 66, 

Tulip C 42 

Lilium spp. see Lily 

LILLY-PILLY K 95 

Lilly pilly psyllid see Psyllids 

LILY C 40, Greenhouses N 23 

Lily aphid see Aphids 

Lily caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Lily symptomless virus see Viruses 

LIME Citrus F 33 

Limonium spp. see Statice 

Lindingaspis rossi see Ross's black scale 

Lineblue butterflies see Caterpillars 

Lineostroma banksiae (fungal leaf spot) 

Banksia K 31 

Lipaphis spp. (aphids) 

L. erysimi see Turnip aphid 

L. pseudo-brassicae Stock A 55 

Liparetus spp. see Spring beetles 

Liriomyza spp. (leafminers) 

L. brassicae see Cabbage leafminer 

L. chenopodii see Beet leafminer 

L. trifolii see Serpentine leafminer 

Lissopimpla excelsa (orchid dupe) Orchids 

G 7 

Listroderes difficilis (L. obliquus) see 


Listronotus bonariensis see Argentine 

stem weevil 

LITCHI Lychee F 73 

Litchi erinose mite see Mites 

LIVERWORTS Bromeliads B 4, Ferns 

E 4, Greenhouses N 27 

Lobesia sp. see Raspberry fruit caterpillar 

Locusta migratoria see Migratory locust 

LOCUSTS see Grasshoppers 

LOGANBERRY Trailing berries F 145 

London plane blight Plane tree K 114 

Longicorn beetles(Cerambycidae) see 

Borers 

Long soft scale see Scales (soft) 

Longtailed mealybug see Mealybugs 

Lonicera spp. see Honeysuckle 

Looper caterpillars (Chrysodeixis spp.) see 

Caterpillars 

Loopers (Geometridae) see Caterpillars 

Lophodermium needle casts see Needle 

casts 

Lophodermium spp. see Needle casts 

Lophyrotoma spp. (sawflies) 

Lophyrotoma sp. see Callistemon 

sawfly 

L. analis see Ironbark sawfly 

LOQUAT Pome fruits F 107 

Loranthaceae See Mistletoes 

Loranthus pendula see Radiata pine 

mistletoe 

Lucerne flea Pea M 74 

Lucerne leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Lucerne leafroller see Caterpillars 

Lucerne seed moth see Caterpillars 

LYCHEE F 73 

Lychee stem girdler see Caterpillars 

Lycoperdon spp. see Fairy rings 

Lycopersicon esculentum see Tomato 

Lyctus spp. see Powderpost beetles 

Lygropia clytusalis see Kurrajong leaf-tier 

Lymantriidae see Tussock moths 

P 16 

INDEX

INDEX 

M 

MACADAMIA F 76 

Macadamia cup moth see Caterpillars 

Macadamia decline Macadamia F 78 

Macadamia felted coccid see Scales 

(eriococcid) 

Macadamia flower caterpillar see 

Caterpillars 

Macadamia husk spot Macadamia G 76 

Macadamia lace bug see Bugs 

Macadamia leafminer see Leafminers 

Macadamia mussel scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Macadamia nutborer see Caterpillars 

Macadamia root decay Macadamia F 76 

Macadamia twig girdler see Caterpillars 

Macadamia white scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Maconellicoccus hirsutus see Hibiscus 

mealybug 

Macrarostola formosa see Leaf blotch 

miner 

Macrophomina phaseolina see Ashy stem 

blight 

Macrosiphonella sanborni see 

Chrysanthemum aphid 

Macrosiphum euphorbiae see Potato 

aphid 

Macroura concolor( = Olliffura concolor) 

see Hibiscus flower beetle 

Magnesium deficiency see Nutrient 

deficiencies 

MAGNOLIA K 96 

MAGNOLIACEAE Magnolia K 96 

Maidenhair fern aphid see Aphids 

Maidenhair fern weevil see Weevils 

MAINTENANCE see Management 

Maize leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Maize thrips see Thrips 

Maleuterpes spinipes see Spinelegged 

citrus weevil 

Mal secco Citrus F 34 

Malus spp. see Apple 

MANAGEMENT (Selection, 

Establishment, Maintenance, 

Postharvest) Annuals A 10, 

Bromeliads B 4, Bulbs C 9, Cacti D 4, 

Ferns E 5, Fruit F 16, Garden centres 

N 21, Nurseries N 54, Orchids G 8 , 

Palms H 7, Postharvest N 62, Roses 

J 9, Trees K 23, Turfgrasses L 17, 


pest management, integrated pest 

management (IPM) see Control 

methods 

Mandalus sp. see Ground weevil 

MANDARIN Citrus F 33 

MANGO F 80 

Mango bud mite see Mites 

Mango fly see Fruit flies 

Mangold aphid see Aphids 

Mango planthopper see Planthoppers 

Mango scales see Scales (armoured) 

Mango seed weevils see Weevils 

Mango shoot caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Mango spider mite See Mites 

Mango tipborer see Borers 

Mango weevil see Weevils 

MAPLE K 97 

MALVACEAE (mallow family) Abutilon 

K 25, Hibiscus K 81, Hollyhock A 42 

Manuka blight see Scales (eriococcid) 

MANURE N 48, Potting mixes N 64 

Marasmiellus inoderma (Marasmiellus 

corm and pseudostem rot) Banana 

F 23 

Marasmius see Fairy rings 

Marbling Pineapple F 103 

Marchaerota finitima see Spine-tailed 

froghopper 

Margarodidae see Scales (Margarodids) 

MARIGOLD Calendula A 14, Tagetes 

A 45 

Marigold aphid see Aphids 

Maroga melanostigma see Fruit-tree borer 

Marssonina spp. (anthracnose, leaf 

spots) Fruit F 5 

M. brunnea, M. castagnei Poplar 

K 117 

M. daphnes Daphne K 52 

M. panattoniana Lettuce M 59 

M. rosae (black spot) Rose J 3 

M. salicicola Willow K 139 

Maruca testulalis see Bean podborer 

Mastotermes darwiniensis see Giant 

northern termite 

Matthiola incana see Stock 

mauve pittosporum scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

meadow argus butterfly see Caterpillars 

Mealybug ladybird see Ladybirds 

MEALYBUGS (Pseudococcidae) Abutilon 

K 25, Annuals A 8, Australian native 

plants N 6, Begonia C 15, Bulbs C 8, 

Citrus F 38, Conifers K 48, Ferns E 3, 

Fruit F 12, Grapevine F 62, 

Greenhouses N 25, Hibiscus K 82, 

House plants N 36, Palms H 3, Trees 

K 16, Turfgrasses L 10, see also 

Planococcus spp., Pseudococcus spp., 

Rhizoecus spp. 

African violet mealybug African violet 

A 12 

casuarina mealybug Casuarina K 43 

citrophilous mealybug Citrus F 38, 


citrus mealybug African violet A 12, 

Boronia K 34, Citrus F 38, Custard 

apple F 52, Eriostemon K 56, 

Passionfruit F 93, Persimmon F 102 

dendrobium mealybug Orchids G 5 

golden mealybug, yellowbanded 

mealybug Conifers K 48, Trees 

K 16 

grass-crown mealybug, felted grass 

coccid Turfgrasses L 10 

grassroot mealybug Turfgrasses L 10 

grevillea mealybug Grevillea K 76 

hibiscus mealybug Abutilon K 25, 

Hibiscus K 82, Macadamia F 78 

longtailed mealybug African violet 

A 12, Citrus F 38, Custard apple 

F 52, Ferns E 3, Fuchsia K 70, 

Greenhouses N 25, Grapevine F 62, 

Hibiscus K 82, Maple K 97, Pome 

fruits F 114 

passionvine mealybug Passionfruit 

F 93, Peanut F 97, Pineapple F 104 

pineapple mealybug Bromeliads B 2, 

Peanut F 97, Pineapple F 104 

root mealybug Bromeliads B 2, Cacti 

D 2, Delphinium A 30 

ryegrass mealybug Turfgrasses L 10 

tuber mealybug Cacti D 2, Grapevine F 

62, Greenhouses N 25, Pome fruits 

F 114 

wattle mealybug Australian native 

plants N 6, Silk tree K 122, Wattle 

K 135 

Mechanical injury see Non-parasitic 

problems 

Mecytha fasciata see Macadamia cup 

moth 

Media Nurseries N 52, N 55 

Mediterranean fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Megachile spp. see Leafcutting bees 

Megastigmus, spp. see Gall wasps 

Megymenum affine see Cucurbit shield 

bug 

MELALEUCA K 98 

Melaleuca hairy gall see Scales 

(eriococcid) 

Melaleuca leaf weevil see Weevils 

Melampsora spp. (rusts) 

M. coleosporioides see Oriental willow 

rust 

M. epitea see European willow rust 

M. larici-populina see European poplar 

rust 

M. medusa see American poplar rust 

Melampsoridium betulinum (rust) Birch 

K 33 

Melanconium spp. (anthracnose) Fruit 

F 5 

M. fuligineum (bitter rot) Grapevine 

F 59 

Melanococcus albizziae see Wattle 

mealybug 

Melanagromyza apii see Celery fly 

Melanose Citrus F 34 

MELIACEAE White cedar K 138 

Melia azedarach see White cedar 

Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudoomallei) 

Soil N 81 

Meliola spp. (dark epiphyllous fungi) see 

also Epiphyllous fungi 

M. brisbanensis Wattle K 136 

M. leptospermi Tea-tree K 125 

M. queenslandica (dark mildew) 


Meloidogyne spp. see Root knot 

nematodes 

Melolonthiae sp. see Spring beetle 

Melon aphid see Cotton Aphid 

Melon fly see Fruit flies 

Melon thrips see Thrips 

Mentha spp. see Mint 

Merimnetes oblongus see Radiata pine 

shoot weevil 

Meristem culture Plant tissue culture N 58 

Merophyas divulsana see Lucerne 

leafroller 

Mesohomotoma hibisci see Cottonwood 

psyllid 

Metallic flea beetles see Leaf beetles 

Metallic-green tomato fly see Flies 

Metallic shield bug see Bugs 

Metanastes vulgivagus see Black beetle 

Methyl bromide Carnation A 19 

Mice see Vertebrates 

Micropropagation Plant tissue culture N 58 

Microsphaera spp. (powdery mildews) 

M. alphitoides Oak K 101 

M. polonica Hydrangea K 86 

M. vaccinii Blueberry F 27 

Microstroma spp. (downy leaf spots) 

M. album Oak K 101 

M. juglandis Walnut F 148 

Microthyriella hibisci see Flyspeck 

Hibiscus K 81 

Mictis profana see Crusader bug 

Midges (Chironomidae) see Flies 

Migratory locust see Grasshoppers 

Mildew (Cladobotryum) Mushroom M 62, 

see also Fungi 

MILLIPEDES Greenhouses N 27, House 

plants N 39 

Mimic bark weevil see Weevils 

MIMOSACEAE Silk tree K 122, Wattle 

K 131 

Mining scale see Scales (armoured) 

MINT Herbs N 32 

MINT BUSH (Prostanthera) K 100 

Mistletoe see Parasitic plants 

Mite-eating ladybirds see Ladybirds 

MITES (Acarina) Annuals A 9, Australian 

native plants N 7, Beets M 34, 

Brassicas M 40, Bulbs C 7, C 8, Carrot 

M 45, Citrus F 38, Conifers K 48, 

Correa K 51, Cucurbits M 55, Elm K 55, 

Eucalypt K 63, Fruit F 12, Fuchsia 

K 70, Grapevine F 62, Greenhouses 

N 27, Hibiscus K 82, House plants 

N 36, Lettuce M 60, Mushroom M 63, 

Parsnip M 71, Pea M 74, Potato M 81, 

Rhubarb M 86, Tomato M 103, Trees 


apple rust mite Pome fruits F 115 

apricot-russeting mite see Plum leaf 

mite 

banana spider mite Banana F 24, 


bean spider mite Beans (French) 

M 30, Citrus F 39, Cucurbits M 55, 

Pea M 74, Sweet potato M 94, 

Tomato M 103, Vegetables M 16, 

see also Tetranychus spp. 

beneficial mites Elm K 55, Viburnum 

K 128, see also Biological control 

blister mites Eucalypt K 63, Grapevine 

F 62 

blue oat mite Annuals A 9, Brassicas 


M 16 

INDEX P 17

INDEX 

MITES (contd) 

broad mite African violet A 12, Annuals 

A 9, Beets M 34, Begonia C 15, 

Camellia K 40, Chrysanthemum 

A 25, Citrus F 38, Cucurbits M 55, 

Dahlia C 25, Delphinium A 30, 

Fuchsia K 70, Greenhouses N 26, 

Orchids G 5, Pawpaw F 89, Potato 

M 81, Rhubarb M 86, Trees K 16, 


brown almond mite see Bryobia mite 

brown citrus rust mite Citrus F 39 

bryobia mite (= brown almond mite) 

(Bryobia rubrioculus) Beets M 34, 

Fruit F 12, Pea M 74, Pome fruits 

F 115, Stone fruits F 131, Trees 

K 16 

bulb mites Bulbs C 7, Daffodil C 21, 

Onion M 68 

bulb scale mite Bulbs C 7 

bunch mites Eucalypt K 63, Grapevine 

F 62, Passionfruit F 93 

camellia bud mite Camellia K 40 

camellia rust mite Camellia K 40 

carmine spider mite Hollyhock A 42, 

Lavender K 93 

carnation shoot mite Carnation A 18 

chigger mites see Itch mites below 

Chilean predatory mites (Phytoseiulus 

persimilis) (predatory mite) see 


citrus bud mite Citrus F 39 

citrus flat mite Citrus F 38 

citrus red mite Citrus F 39 

citrus rust mite Citrus F 39 

clover mite Cucurbits M 55 

couchgrass mite Turfgrasses L 11 

couch mite Turfgrasses L 10 

currant bud mite Currants F 49 

cyclamen mite African violet A 12, 

Annuals A 9, Azalea K 28, Begonia 

C 15, Chrysanthemum A 25, 

Cyclamen C 16, Dahlia C 25, 

Fuchsia K 70, Greenhouses N 26, 

Petunia A 47, Snapdragon A 52, 


Doreen's predator mite Grapevine 

F 63 

driedfruit mite Fruit F 8 

earth mites Brassicas M 40, 

Chrysanthemum A 25, Cucurbits 

M 55, Parsnip M 71, Pea M 74, 

Snapdragon A 52, Turfgrasses L 10, 


eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) 

Australian native plants N 7, Banksia 

K 32, Camellia K 40, Casuarina 

K 43, Citrus F 39, Eucalypt K 63, Fig 

F 57, Grapevine F 62, Hakea K 78, 

Mango F 81, Melaleuca K 99, 

Tomato M 102, Trees K 16, Wattle 

K 136 

eucalyptus leaf blister mite Australian 

native plants N 7 

European red mite (Panonychus 

ulmi) Fruit F 12, Pome fruits F 115, 

Protea K 120, Stone fruits F 131, 

Walnut F 149 

false spider mites (Tenuipalpidae) 

Beans (French) M 31, Orchids G 5, 


fig blister mite Fig 57 

fig rust mite Fig F 57 

filbert bud mite Hazelnut F 68 

grapeleaf blister mite Grapevine F 62 

grapeleaf rust mite Grapevine F 62 

grass itch mites Turfgrasses L 14 

grasswebbing mites Turfgrasses L 10 

hibiscus erinose mite Hibiscus K 82 

hydrangea spider mite Hydrangea 

K 87 

itch mites Turfgrasses L 14 

ivy mite Ivy K 88 

litchi erinose mite Lychee F 74 

mango bud mite Mango F 81 

mango spider mite Mango F 81 

mite-eating ladybirds Beans (French) 

M 30, see also Biological control 

orchid mite Orchids G 5 

oriental mite Citrus F 39 

pasture mite Turfgrasses L 11 

passionvine mite Passionfruit F 93 

peach silver mite Stone fruits F 131 

peanut mite Peanut F 97 

pearleaf blister mite Pome fruits F 114 

pineapple flat mite Pineapple F 104 

pineapple mite Pineapple F 104 

plum leaf mite Stone fruits F 131 

predatory mites see Biological control 

privet mite Palms H 4 

redlegged earth mite (Penthaleidae) 

Annuals A 9, Beans (French) M 30, 

Beets M 34, Brassicas M 40, Bulbs 

C 7, Carrot M 45, Celery M 48, 

Eucalypt K 63, Lettuce M 60, 

Parsnip M 71, Stock M 55, Stone 

fruits F 141, Strawberry F 141, 


red mite see Bryobia mite 

red spider see Twospotted mite 

ribbed tea mite Camellia K 40 

rust mite Rhubarb M 86 

sixspotted mite Avocado F 19 

spider mites (Tetranychidae) Avocado 

F 19, Beans (French) 

M 30, Beets M 34, Carrot M 45, 

Citrus F 39, Cucurbits M 55, Elm 

K 55, Mango F 81, Parsnip M 71, 

Pea M 74, Potato M 81, Tomato 

M 103, Trees K 16, see also Bryobia 

spp., Oligonychus spp., Panonychus 

spp., Tetranychus spp. 

spruce spider mite Conifers K 48, Pine 

K 110 

strawberry spider mite see Banana 

spider mite 

tea red spider mite Avocado F 19, 

Camellia K 40, Mango F 81 

teatree itch mite Tea-tree K 125 

tomato erineum mite Tomato M 102 

tomato russet mite Cape gooseberry 


twospotted mite (Tetranychus 

urticae) Annuals A 9, Australian 

native plants N 7, Azalea K 28, 

Beans (French) M 29, Bromeliads 

B 3, Bulbs C 7, Cacti D 3, Camellia 

K 40, Carnation A 18, 

Chrysanthemum A 25, Conifers 

K 49, Fruit F 12, Fuchsia K 70, 

Greenhouses N 27, Gypsophila 

A 40, Hibiscus K 82, Holly K 84, 

Hydrangea K 87, Ivy K 88, Lavender 

K 93, Maple K 97, Marigold A 45, 

Orchids G 5, Palms H 4, Pawpaw 

F 89, Phlox A 48, Poinsettia K 116, 



F 141, Tomato M 103, Trees K 16, 

Vegetables M 16, Viola A 57, see 

also Tetranychus spp. 

tyroglyphid mites Mushroom M 63 

walnut blister mite Walnut F 149 

Mitrastethus australiae see Pine stump 

weevil 

Mnesampela privata see Autumn gum 

moth 

Moisture Compost N 16, Seeds N 76 

Mokillo disease Banana F 22 

Moko disease Banana F 22 

Mole crickets see Crickets 

Molybdenum deficiency see Nutrient 

deficiencies 

Monilinia spp. (brown rots) 

M. fructicola Pome fruits F 109, Stone 

fruits F 125 

M. fructigena Stone fruits F 125 

M. laxa Stone fruits F 125 

MONITORING Brassicas M 38, M 39, 

M 40, Fruit F 9, F 10, F 11, F 17, 

Nurseries N 54, Roses J 5, J 7, 

Sweetcorn M 89, M 90, Urban 

landscapes N 88, Vegetables M 11, 

M 12, M 14, 

Monophlebulus pilosior see Woolly giant 

mealybug 

Monolepta australis see Redshouldered 

leaf beetle 

MORACEAE Bush fruits F 29, Fig F 55, 

Mulberry F 84 

Moreton Bay psyllid see Psyllids 

Moreton Bay wasp see Wasps 

Morus spp. see Mulberry 

Mosquitoes (Culicidae) see Flies 

Moss Ferns E 4, Greenhouses N 27, 


Moths see Borers, Caterpillars, 

Leafminers, Tip borers 

Mottled cup moth see caterpillars 

Mottled flower scarab see Scarab beetles 

Mottled pine bark weevil see Bark beetles 

Mountain pinhole borer see Borers 

Mucilago spp. see Slime moulds 

Mucor rots (Mucor piriformis) see Fruit rots 

MULBERRY F 84 

MULCHES N 49, Xeriscape N 95 

Mummy disease Mushroom M 62 

MUSACEAE Banana F 22 

Musgraveia sulciventris see Bronze 

orange bug 

MUSHROOM M 62 

Mushroom cecids (Cecidomyiidae) see 

Flies 

Mushroom phorid (Megaselia halterata, 

Phoridae) see Flies 

Mushroom sciarids (Lycoriella spp., 

Sciaridae) see Flies 

Mushroom springtails see Springtails 

Mussel scales see Scales (armoured) 

Mycogone perniciosa Mushroom M 62 

Mycoleptodiscus (black crust) Orchids G 4 

Mycopsylla fici see Moreton Bay fig psyllid 

Mycorrhiza see Biological control 

Mycosphaerella spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Bean (broad) M 23, Eucalypt K 58, Fruit 

F 6, Wattle K 131 

M brassicola Brassicas M 37 

M. fijiensis Banana F 23 

M. fragariae Strawberry F 140 

M. grossulariae Currants F 48 

M. ligulicola Chrysanthemum A 23 

M. macrospora Iris C 37 

M. melonis Cucurbits M 52 

M. musae Banana F 23 

M. musicola Banana F 23 

M. pinodes Pea M 73 

M tulasnei Pea M 73 

MYRTACEAE (eucalypt family, myrtle 

family) Bottlebrush K 36, Bush fruits 

F 29, Eucalypt K 57, Feijoa F 54, 

Geraldton wax K 73, Guava F 67, Lillypilly 

K 95, Melaleuca K 98, Tea-tree 

K 124, Thryptomene K 126, Verticordia 

K 127 

Myrtle mirid bug see Bugs 

Myrtle tip blight Thryptomene K 126 

Myrtle wilt see Wilts 

Mythimna spp. (= Leucania spp.) see 

Armyworms 

Myzocallis sp. (aphids) 

M. castanicola see Oak aphids 

M. coryli see Hazel aphid 

Myzus spp. (aphids) 

M. ascalonicus see Shallot aphid 

M. cerasi see Cherry aphid 

M. persicae see Green peach aphid 

N 

Nacoleia octasema see Banana scab 

moth 

Naemacyclus spp. (naemacyclus needle 

casts) see Needle casts 

Nail head Beans (French) M 31 

Narcissus spp. see Daffodil 

Narcissus bulb fly see Flies 

Narcissus latent virus see Viruses 

Narcissus mosaic virus see Viruses 

Narcissus yellow stripe virus see Viruses 

Narcissus virus diseases see Daffodil C 19 

NASTURTIUM (Tropaeolum majus) A 46 

Native budworm see Caterpillars 

Native cherry see Parasitic Plants 

Nattrassia mangiferae see Cankers 

Navel orangeworm see Caterpillars 

NECTARINE Stone fruits F 123 

P 18 

INDEX

INDEX 

Nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus spp.) see 


Nectria cinnabarina see Cankers Elm K 54 

NEEDLE CASTS, NEEDLE BLIGHTS 


diplodia canker, shoot blight, sapstain 

(Diplodia pinea) Conifers 

K 45 

diplodia needle blight (D. pinea) Pine 

K 106 

dothistroma needle blight, pine 

needle blight (Dothistroma 

septospora) Conifers K 45, Pine 

K 106 

lophodermium needle casts 

(Lophodermium spp.) Conifers 

K 45, Pine K 106 

naemacyclus needle casts 

(Naemacyclus spp.) Conifers K 45, 

Pine K 106, 

needle blight (Sclerophoma 

pityophila) Pine K 106 

needle drop (Sydowia polyspora, 

Pestalotiopsis royenae) Pine 

K 106 

pine needle blight see Dothistroma 

needle blight above 

Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus 

gaeumannii) Conifers K 45, 

Needle drop see Needle casts 

NEMATODES Annuals A 7, Australian 

native plants N 5, Avocado F 19, 

Banana F 23, Banksia K 31, Bean 

(broad) M 23, Beans (French) M 27, 

Beets M 34, Begonia C 14, Bottlebrush 

K 36, Brassicas M 38, Bulbs C 6, Carrot 

M 45, Casuarina K 42, Celery 

M 48, Citrus F 35, Compost N 16, 

Cucurbits M 53, Eucalypt K 59, Fruit 

F 7, Gerbera A 38, Grapevine F 60, 


Hakea K 77, Hibiscus K 81, Hydrangea 

K 86, Kurrajong K 91, Lavender K 93, 

Lettuce M 59, Lilly-pilly K 95, Melaleuca 

K 98, Mushroom M 63, Onion M 68, 

Palms H 3, Parsnip M 70, Pea M 73, 

Pine K 107, Pineapple F 104, Pome 

fruits F 111, Potato M 80, Protea 

K 120, Rhubarb M 85, Seedlings N 67, 

Seeds N 74, Soil N 80, Stone fruits 

F 128, Strawberry F 140, Sweetcorn 

M 88, Sweet potato M 93, Tea-tree 

K 124, Tomato M 100, Trees K 10, 


Verticordia K 127, Water N 90, Wattle K 

132, Willow K 139 

beet nematode Beets M 34, Brassicas 

M 38 

burrowing nematode Australian N 5, 

Citrus F 23, Manure N 48, Mulches 

N 49 

cactus cyst nematode Cacti D 2 

celery eelworm Celery M 48 

citrus nematode Citrus F 35 

cyst nematode Carnation A 18 

dagger nematode Grapevine F 60 

foliar nematodes, leaf nematodes 

African violet A 12, Australian native 

plants N 5, Begonia C 14, Bulbs C 6, 

Chrysanthemum A 24, Currants 

F 49, Ferns E 2, Kangaroo paw 

A 43 

fungal -feeding nematodes Mushroom 

M 63 

nematodes (beneficial ) see Biological 

control 

Otinem ® Grapevine F 63 

pinewood nematode Conifers K 46, 

Pine K 107 

pin nematodes Carnation A 18 

potato cyst nematode Potato M 80 

red ring disease (Rhadinaphelenchus 

cocophilus) Palms H 3 

root knot Annuals A 7, Australian 

native plants N 5, Begonia C 14, 

Boronia K 34, Brassicas M 38, Bulbs 

C 6, Carrot M 45, Conifers K 46, 

Dahlia C 25, Everlastings A 31, 

Grapevines F 60, Kennedia K 90, 

Mint bush K 100, Parsnip M 70, 


Protea K 120, Silk tree K 122, 


root lesion Celery M 48, Dahlia C 25, 

Pome fruits F 111, Vegetables M 11 

spiral nematode Carnation A 18, 

Gerbera A 38, Petunia A 47, Poppy 

A 49 

stem and bulb nematode Annuals 

A 7, Bulbs C 6, Daffodil C 20, Iris 

C 38, Mushroom M 63, Onion M 68, 

Phlox A 48, Poppy A 49, Tulip C 42 

stubby root nematode Trees K 10, 

White cedar K 138 

Nemophora topazias see Flower caterpillar 

Neola sp. (caterpillar) Silk tree K 122, 

Wattle K 134 

Neomerimnetes sobrinus see Citrus fruit 

weevil 

Neosyagrius cordipennis see Maidenhair 

fern weevil 

Neotoxoptera spp. (see also Aphids) 

N. formosana see Onion aphid 

N. oliveri see Marigold aphid 

N. violae see Violet aphid 

Nerium oleander see Oleander 

Nesolycaena albosericea see Satin blue 

Netrocoryne repanda see Eastern flat 

Neumichtis saliaris see Green cutworm 

NEUROPTERA (lacewings, antlions, 

aphidlions) see Lacewings 

Newman fruit fly see Fruit flies 

New Zealand grass grub Turfgrasses L 11 

Nezara viridula see Green vegetable bug 

Nigra scale see Scales (soft) 

Nipaecoccus aurilanatus see Golden 

mealybug 

Nitrogen see Nutrient deficiencies 

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria see Bacteria 

Nitidulidae see Driedfruit beetles 

Noble rot, grey mould (Botrytis spp.) 

Grapevine F 59, see also Botrytis spp. 

Nomadacris guttulosa see Spur-throated 

locust 

NON-PARASITIC PROBLEMS 

aeration Hydroponic systems N 43 

drought Geraldton wax K 74, Protea 

K 120 

chilling injury Postharvest N 61 

environment Annuals A 9, Ash K 26, 


Bromeliads B 3, Bulbs C 8, Cacti 

D 3, Ferns E 4, Fruit F 14, 

Greenhouses N 28, House plants 

N 36, Interior plantscapes N 45, 

Palms H 5, Postharvest N 61, 

Potting mixes N 64, Trees K 19, 


beneficial effects Soil N 81 

bud drop Hibiscus K 83 

equipment damage Turfgrasses L 15 

frost Annuals A 9, Brassicas M 41, 

Chrysanthemum A 25, Dahlia C 25, 

Fruit F 14, Fuchsia K 71, 


Kangaroo paw A 44, Kennedia K 90, 

Lavender K 93, Lettuce M 60, Lilac K 

94, Magnolia K 96, Mulches N 50, 

Pawpaw F 90, Pea M 75, Photinia 

K 105, Poplar K 118, Potato M 82, 

Pome fruits F 117, Protea K 120 

genetic abnormalities see Genetic 

abnormalities 

grass clippings Turfgrasses L 14 

light House plants N 36, Seedlings 

N 72 (Fig. 439) 

mechanical injury Azalea K 29, Holly K 

84, House plants N 37, Maple 

K 97, Postharvest N 61, Stone fruits 

F 134, Strawberry F 143, Trees 

K 20, Turfgrasses L 15 

oedema Brassicas M 41, Cacti D 3, 

Camellia K 40, Daphne K 53, 

Geranium A 35, Hibiscus K 83, 

House plants N 36, Ivy K 89, Violet A 

57 

people-pressure diseases Interior 

plantscapes N 45, 

pesticide injury see Pesticide injury 

playing damage Turfgrasses L 15 

pollution see Pollutants 

temperature African violet A 12, Azalea 

K 29, Compost N 16, Freesia C 27, 

Geranium A 35, Gerbera A 38, 

House plants N 36, Interior plant 

scapes N 45, Mulches N 50, 

Pittosporum K 113, Postharvest 

N 61, Potting mixes N 64, Seeds 

N 76, Tomato M 103, Urban 


soil temperature Kangaroo paw A 43, 

Mulches N 50 

sunscorch Fruit F 14, Ivy K 89, Lilac 

K 94, Photinia K 105, Pine K 110, 

Viburnum K 128 

ventilation House plants N 36 

water House plants N 37, Magnolia 

K 96 

wind Magnolia K 96 

Noorda albizonalis see Redbanded mango 

caterpillar 

northern false wireworm see Wireworms 

Northern Territory fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Nostoc spp. see Scum 

Notelaea spp. see Olive F 86 

Nuisance animals and plants Soil N 81 

NURSERIES N 51 

Nursery accreditation N 55 

Nursery structures N 52 

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES, TOXICITIES 

Annuals A 9, Australian native plants 

N 8, Azalea K 29, Beans (French) 

M 31, Beets M 35, Brassicas M 41, 

Carnation A 19, Carrot M 46, 

Chrysanthemum A 25, Citrus F 43, 

Conifers K 49, Containers N 19, 

Cucurbits M 56, Daphne K 53, Eucalypt 

K 65, Fruit F 14, Gerbera A 38, 

Grapevine F 63, Greenhouses N 28, 

House plants N 37, Hydroponic 

systems N 43, Interior plantscapes 

N 45, Lavender K 93, Lettuce M 60, 

Manure N 48, Mulches N 49, Pome 

fruits F 118, Potting mixes N 64, Seeds 

N 70, Tomato M 103, Trees K 20, 


boron deficiency Australian native 

plants N 8, Beets M 35, Brassicas 

M 41, Carrot M 46, Conifers K 49, 

Pine K 110, Pome fruits F 118, 

Trees K 20, Walnut F 149 

iron deficiency Australian native plants 

N 8, Azalea K 29, Banksia K 32, 

Camellia K 41, Citrus F 43, Daphne 

K 53, Gardenia K 72, Hydrangea 

K 87, Magnolia K 96, Mint bush 

K 100, Poinsettia K 116, Primrose 

A 50, Trees K 20, Violet A 57 

leaf/plant analysis Citrus F 43, Soil 

N 83 

magnesium deficiency Citrus F 43, 

Gardenia K 72, Hydrangea K 87, 

Trees K 20 

molybdenum deficiency Brassicas 

M 41, Carrot M 46, Cucurbits M 56, 


nitrogen deficiency Camellia K 41, 

Casuarina K 43, Citrus F 43, Daphne 

K 53, Fuchsia K 71, Pine 

K 110, Trees K 20 

nitrogen excess Beets M 35, Protea 

K 121, Rhubarb F 86 

phosphorus deficiency Australian 

native plants N 8, Pine K 110, Trees 

K 20 

phosphorus toxicity Australian native 

plants N 8, Banksia K 32, Hakea 

K 78, Pine K 110, Protea K 121, 

Trees K 20, Waratah K 130 

potassium deficiency Hydrangea 

K 87, Poplar K 118 

salt toxicity African violet A 12, Ash 

K 26, Azalea K 29, Australian native 

plants N 8, Camellia K 41, Citrus 

F 43, Fuchsia K 71, Grapevine F 64, 

Hydroponic systems N 43, Poplar 

K 118, Soil N 83, Trees K 20 

INDEX P 19

INDEX 

NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES, TOXICITIES 

(contd) 

soil analysis Citrus F 43 

NUT ROTS Chestnut F 32, Macadamia 

F 76, Pecan F 99, Walnut F 148, see 

also Fruit rots 

NUTS Fruit and nuts F 1 

Nuytsia floribunda see Western Australia 

Christmas tree 

Nyctemera amica see Cineraria moth 

Nymphaea spp. see Waterlily 

Nysius spp. (bugs) 

N. clevelandensis see Grey cluster 

bug 

N. huttoni see Wheat bug 

N. vinitor see Rutherglen bug 

O 

OAK K 101 

Oak aphids see Aphids 

Oak leafminer see Leafminers 

Ochrogaster spp. see Bag-shelter moths, 

Processionary caterpillars 

Odonaspis ruthae see Couchgrass scale 

Oecophorid borers see Borers 

Oedema see Non-parasitic problems 

Oenochroma vinaria see Grevillea looper 

Ogmograptis scribula see Scribbly gum 

moth 

Oidium spp. see Powdery mildews 

Oiketicus elongatus see Saunders's case 

moth 

Olea spp. see Olive 

OLEACEAE Ash K 26, Lilac K 94, Olive 

F 86 

OLEANDER K 103 

Oleander aphid see Aphids 

Oleander butterfly see Caterpillars 

Oleander scale see Scales (armoured) 

Olearia Australian native plants N 3 

Oleocellosis Citrus F 44 

Oligonychus spp. (spider mites) 


O. coffeae see Tea red spider mite 

O. ununguis see Spruce spider mite 

OLIVE, NATIVE OLIVE F 86 

Olive knot (bacteria) Olive F 86 

Olive lace bug see Bugs 

Olive moth see Caterpillars 

Olive parlatoria scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Olive spot Olive F 86 

Olliffura concolor see Hibiscus flower 

beetle 

Omnivorous pinhole borer see Borers 

Omnivorous tussock moth see Caterpillars 

Omyta controlineata see Stink bug 

ONAGRACEAE (primrose family) 

Fuchsia K 70, Primrose A 50 

Oncopera spp see Grassgrubs, 

Webworms 

ONION M 66 

Onion fly see Flies 

Onion maggot see Flies 

Onion smut see Smuts 

Onion thrips see Thrips 

Onion yellow dwarf virus see Viruses 

Opening solution Annuals A 11 

Ophelimus eucalypti see Bluegum 

eulophid 

Ophiomyia phaseoli see Bean fly 

Ophisthoscelis subrotunda see Eucalypt 

leafgall scale 

Opodiphthera spp. see Emperor moths 

Opuntia spp. (prickly pear) Cacti D 3 

ORANGE Citrus F 33 

Orange fruitborer see Caterpillars 

Orange palmdart see Caterpillars 

Orchamoplatus citri see Australian citrus 

whitefly 

ORCHIDACEAE Orchids G 1 

ORCHIDS G 1, Australian native plants 

N 2, N 3, N 4 

Orchid aphid see Aphids 

Orchid beetle see Leaf beetles 

Orchid dupe see Wasps 

Orchid mite see Mites 

Orchidophilus aterrimus see Orchid weevil 

Orchid parlatoria scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Orchid scale see Scales (armoured) 

Orchid snail see Snails 

Orchid thrips see Thrips 

Orchid viruses Orchids G 2 

Orchid weevil see Weevils 

Oriental cornborer see Borers 

Oriental fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Oriental fruit moth see Caterpillars 

Oriental mite see Mites 

Oriental scale see Scales (armoured) 

Oriental willow rust see Rusts 

Orgyia spp. (tussock moths) 

O. athlophora Bottlebrush K 37 

O. australis see Painted pine moth 

Orobanche spp. see Broomrape 

Orosius argentatus see Common brown 

leafhopper 

Orthezia insignis see Greenhouse orthezia 

ORTHOPTERA see Crickets, 

Grasshoppers, Katydids, Locusts 

Orthreis spp. Fruitpiercing moths 

Ostrinia spp. (borers) 

O. furnacalis see Oriental cornborer 

O. nubilalis see European cornborer 

Orthorhinus spp. (weevils) 

O. klugi see Vine weevil 

O. cylindrirostris see Elephant weevil 

Otiorhynchus spp. (weevils) 

O. cribicollis see Apple weevil 

O. rugosostriatus see Rough 

strawberry weevil 

O. sulcatus see Black vine weevil 

Oulema rufotincta see Crabgrass leaf 

beetle 

Overmaturity Celery M 49, Vegetables 

M 18 

Ovulinia petal blight see Petal blights 

Oxalis spp. see Weeds 

Oxycarenus spp. (seed bugs, chinch 

bugs) 

O. arctatus see Coon bug 

O. luctuosus see Cottonseed bug 

Oxychilus alliarius see Garlic snail 

Oxygen Mulches N 49 

Oxyops sp. see Melaleuca leaf weevil 

Oxythrips agathidis see Kauri thrips 

Oystershell scale see Scales (armoured) 

Ozothammus diosmifolus Everlastings 

A 31 

P 

Pachycotes spp. see Hoop-pine borers 

Paeciliomyces variotii (canker) Eucalypt 

K 57 

Packaging Fruit F 6, Postharvest N 63 

Painted apple moth see Caterpillars 

Painted pine moth see Caterpillars 

Painted vine moth see Caterpillars 

Pale chrysanthemum aphid see Aphids 

Paleticus sp. see Avocado bark beetle 

Palm aphids see Aphids 

Palmdart butterflies see Caterpillars 

Palm leaf beetle see Leaf beetles 

PALMS H 1 

Palm seedborer, kentia palm seedborer 

Palms H 5, Seeds N 74, Trees K 10 

Palm viruses Palms H 2 

Palm weevil borer, 4-spotted coconut 

weevil Palms H 5 

Panacela lewinae see Lewin's bag-shelter 

moth 

Panama wilt, Panama disease see Wilts 

Panonychus spp. (spider mites) 

P. citri see Citrus red mite 

P. ulmi see European red mite 

PANSY A 56 

Papaver spp. see Poppy 

PAPAVERACEAE Poppy A 49 

PAPAW F 88 

Papaya ringspot virus see Viruses 

Papaya fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Paperbark sawfly see Sawflies 

Paper nest wasps see Wasps 

Papilio aegeus aegeus see Large citrus 

butterfly 

PAPILIONACEAE Hardenbergia K 79 

Parahebe spp. Australian native plants 

N 3, Hebe K 79 

Paramyelois transitella see Navel 

orangeworm 

Paraplonobia sp. see Peanut mite 

Parasaissetia nigra see Nigra scale 

PARASITIC PLANTS Australian native 

plants N 4, Compost N 16, Eucalypt 

K 59, Mulches N 49, Seedlings N 67, 

Trees K 9, Urban bushland N 86 

broomrape Mulches N 49, Seedlings 

N 67, Trees K 9 

devil's twine Australian native plants 

N 4, Grevillea K 75, Trees K 9, 

Wattle K 132 

dodder Mulches N 50, Seedlings N 67, 

Trees K 9 

dwarf mistletoe Pine K 107 

mistletoes (Loranthaceae) Bottlebrush 

K 36, Casuarina K 42, Grevillea 

K 75, Kurrajong K 91, Oak K 101. 

Pine K 107, Trees K 9, Wattle 


native cherry (Exocarpos)Trees K 9 

radiata pine mistletoe Pine K 107 

Western Australia Christmas tree 

Trees K 9 

Parathemis lyciaria (a looper) Pine K 108 

Paratrichodorus sp. see Stubby root 

nematodes 

Parent stock plants Nurseries N 53 

Parlatoria spp (armoured scales) 

P. blanchardi see Date palm scale 

P. oleae see Olive parlatoria scale 

P. pittospori see Mauve pittosporum 

scale 

P. proteus see Orchid parlatoria scale 

Parodiella banksiae see Episphaerella 

banksiae 

Paroplites australis see Banksia longicorn 

Paropsis spp. see Eucalyptus leaf beetles 

PARSLEY Herbs N 32 

PARSNIP M 70 

Parsnip canker Parsnip M 70 

Parsnip webworm see Caterpillars 

Parsnip seed wasp see Wasps 

Parthenolecanium persicae see Grapevine 

scale 

Paspalum whitegrub see Scarab beetles 

PASSIFLORACEAE Bush fruits F 29, 


PASSIONFRUIT Passionfruit F 91 

Passionfruit woodiness virus see Viruses 

Passionvine bug see Bugs 

Passionvine hopper Australian native 

plants N 6, Fuchsia K 71, Hardenbergia 

K 79, Kiwi fruit F 71, Passionfruit F 92, 

Rhubarb M 86, Vegetables M 15 

Passionvine mite see Mites 

Pasteurisation Compost N 16, Nurseries 

N 52 

Pastinaca sativa see Parsnip 

Pasture cockchafers see Scarab beetles 

Pasture mite see Mites 

Pasture scarabs see Scarab beetles 

Pasture whitegrubs see Scarab beetles 

PATHOGEN-TESTED PLANTING 

MATERIAL see Control methods 

PEA M 72 

Pea aphid see Aphids 

Pea blue butterfly see Caterpillars 

PEACH Stone fruits F 123 

Peach leaf curl (fungal) Stone fruits F 126 

Peach silver mite see Mites 

Peach tip moth see Oriental fruit moth 

Peacock spot (fungal) Olive F 86 

Pealius azaleae see Azalea whitefly 

Pea pimple virus see Viruses 

PEANUT F 96 

Peanut mite see Mites 

Peanut mottle virus see Viruses 

Peanut scarabs see Scarab beetles 

Peanut stripe virus see Viruses 

PEAR Pome fruits F 107 

Pear and cherry slug see Sawflies 

Pear decline Pome fruits F 107 

P 20 

INDEX

INDEX 

Pearleaf blister mite see Mites 

Pear root aphid see Aphids 

Pear stony pit virus see Viruses 

Pea seedborne virus see Viruses 

Pea weevil see Weevils 

PECAN F 99 

Pecan scab Pecan F 99 

Pectinivalva sp. (leafmining moth) 


Pectinophora spp. (see also Bollworms) 

P. gossypiella see Pink bollworm 

P. scutigera see Pink spotted bollworm 

Pedrilla spp. see Leaf beetles 

Pelargonium aphid see Aphids 

Pelargonium flower breaking see Viruses 

Pelargonium leaf curl virus see Viruses 

Pelargonium spp. see Geranium 

Pemphigus bursarius see Poplar gall 

aphid 

Pencilled blue butterfly see Caterpillars 

Penicillaria jocosatrix see Mango shoot 

caterpillar 

Penicillium moulds see Fruit rots 

Penicillium spp. (penicillium moulds) 

Penicillium spp. Conifers K 46, see 

also Fruit rots 

P. funiculosum Pineapple F 103 

Peniophora gigantea (stump removers) 

Trees K 9 

Pentalonia nigronervosa see Banana 

aphid 

Penthaleidae see Earth mites 

Penthaleus major see Blue oat mite 

People-pressure diseases House plants 

N 37, Interior plantscapes N 45, Urban 

bushland N 86, Urban landscapes N 88 

Peppery leaf spot Brassicas M 36 

Peraglyphis spp. (see also Leafminers) 

P. aderces see Hakea leafminers 

P. atimana see Silkyoak leafminer 

Pergagrapta bella see Eucalypt-defoliating 

sawfly 

Perga spp. (spitfire grubs) Eucalypt K 63 

Periphyllus californiensis see California 

maple aphid 

Pernattia exposita see Casuarina moth 

Peronosclerospora maydis (downy 

mildew) Sweetcorn M 87 

Peronospora spp. (downy mildews) 

P. antirrhini Snapdragon A 51 

P. destructor Onion M 66 

P. dianthicola Carnation A 17 

P. farinosa Beets M 33 

P. grisea Hebe K 80 

P. jaapiana Rhubarb M 85 

P. parasitica Brassicas M 37, Stock 

A 54 

P. sparsa Trailing berries F 145 

Peronosporaceae see Downy mildews 

Perperus spp. see Apple root weevils 

P. lateralis see Whitestriped weevil 

Persectania ewingii see Southern 

armyworm 

PERSIMMON F 101 

Personnel Nurseries N 55 

Perthida glyophopa see Jarrah leafminer 

Pestalotiopsis spp. (tip blight) 

Thryptomene K 126 

P. royenae (needle drop) Pine K 106 

PESTICIDE INJURY Annuals A 9, 

Avocado F 20, Begonia C 15, Bonsai 

N 13, Bromeliads B 3, Carnation A 19, 

Citrus F 44, Compost N 17, Conifers 

K 49, Cucurbit M 56, Gerbera A 38, 

Grapevine F 64, Greenhouses N 28, 

Hibiscus K 83, House plants N 37, 

Hydroponic systems N 43, Interior 

plantscapes N 45, Kiwi fruit F 71, 

Mulches N 50, Palms H 6, Pome fruits F 

118, Soil N 81, Stone fruits F 134, Trees 

K 20, Turfgrasses L 15, Water 

N 91, Water plants N 94 

ammonia gas injury Stone fruits F 134 

copper Citrus F 44, Cucurbits M 56, 

Grapevine F 64, Protea K 121, 


dimethoate Citrus F 44, Lavender 

K 93, Stone fruits F 134 

dusts African violet A 13, Greenhouses 

N 29 

fungicides Fuchsia K 71 

glyphosate Elm K 55, Kiwi fruit F 71 

hormone herbicides Brassicas M 41, 

Elm K 55, Grapevine F 64, Kiwi fruit 

F 71, Lettuce M 60, Plane tree K 

115, Trees K 20 

hypochlorite injury Carnation A 19 

malathion Hibiscus K 83 

methyl bromide Carnation A 19 

organophosphates Carrot M 46 

petroleum oils Citrus F 44, Conifers 

K 49, House plants N 37, Kiwi fruit 

F 71, Mushroom M 64, Olive F 87, 

Protea K 121, Soil N 81, Trees K 21 

residues Seeds N 76 

simazine Trees K 21 

soaps House plants N 37 

sulphur Cucurbits M 56, Fuchsia K 71, 

Grapevine F 64, Stone fruits F 134, 

Trees K 21, Viburnum K 128 

PESTICIDES see Control methods 

Pesticide residues Seeds N 76 

Pesticide safety Nurseries N 54 

PEST MANAGEMENT see Control 

methods 

PETAL BLIGHTS, FLOWER BLIGHTS 

Azalea K 27 

Alternaria spp. Geraldton wax K 73 

camellia petal blight Camellia K 39 

grey mould Greenhouses N 22 

ovulinia petal blight Azalea K 27 

Petiole rot African violet A 12 

Petroselinum crispum see Parsley 

PETUNIA A 47 

pH Compost N 17, Mulches N 49, Potting 

mixes N 64 

Phaedyma shepherdi shepherdi see 

Common aeroplane 

Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii see Swiss 

needle cast 

Phaeoisariopsis griseola (angular leaf 

spot) (Beans (French) M 26 

Phaeoseptoria (fungal leaf spot) Wattle 

K 131 

Phalaenoides glycinae see Grapevine 

moth 

Phialophora bubakii (canker) Eucalypt 

K 57 

Phaseolus vulgaris see Beans (French) 

PHASMATODEA see Stick insects 

Phaulacridium vittatum see Wingless 

grasshopper 

Pheidole spp. see Seedharvesting ants 

Phellinus spp. see Tinder punk 

Phenacaspis eugeniae see White palm 

scale 

Philagra parva see Spittle bugs 

Philomastix macleaii see Bramble sawfly 

Phleospora spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

P. crescentium Parsnip M 70 

P. maculans Mulberry F 84 

P. ulmi Elm K 54 

Phloeosinus cupressi see Cypress bark 

beetle 

Phlyctaena vagabunda (target spot) Pome 

fruits F 109 

Phlyctinus callosus see Garden weevil 

Phoracantha spp. (longicorns) 

P. impavida see Tuart longicorn 

P. recurva see Yellow longicorn 

P. semipunctata see Common eucalypt 

longicorn 

PHLOX A 48 

Phoma spp. Parsnip M 70 

P. betae (spear rot) Asparagus M 21 

P. destructiva (phoma rot) Tomato 

M 99 

P. exigua Beans (French) M 26, 

Hollyhock A 42, Potato M 79 

P. medicaginis var. pinodella (root 

and stem rot) Pea M 73 

P. sorghina (leaf spot) Turfgrasses L 5 

Phomopsis spp. Conifers K 45, 

Macadamia F 76, Protea K 119 

P. annonacearum (black canker) 

Custard apple F 51 

P. citri (melanose) Citrus F 34 

P. obscurans (leaf blight) Strawberry 

F 140 

P. sclerotioides (stem and root rot) 


P. viticola (leaf and cane spot) 


Phosphorus deficiency, toxicities see 


PHOTINIA K 105 

Phragmidium spp. (rusts) Roses J 4 

P. barnardi Trailing berries F 146 

P. rubi-idaei Trailing berries F 146 

P. violaceum Trailing berries F 146 

Phrissogonus laticostata see Apple looper 

Phthorimaea operculella see Potato moth 

Phycomorpha prasinochroa see Fig 

fruitborer 

Phylacteophaga spp. see Leafblister 

sawflies 

Phyllaphis fagi see Beech aphid 

Phyllochora spp. (see also Tar spots) 

Phyllochora spp. Eucalypt K 58 

P. callistemonis Bottlebrush K 36 

P. musicola (black cross leaf spot ) 

Banana F 23 

Phyllocnistis citrella see Citrus leafminer 

Phyllocoptes abaenus see Plum leaf mite 

Phyllocoptruta oleivora see Citrus rust 

mite 

Phyllody Strawberry F 143 

Phyllonorycter spp. (leafminers) 

P. aglaozona Beans (French) M 29, 

Kennedia K 90 

P. messaniella see Oak leafminer 

P. stephanota Hibiscus K 82 

Phyllosticta spp. (fungal leaf spot) 

Phyllosticta spp. Hibiscus K 81, 

Kurrajong K 91 

P. platani Plane tree K 115 

P. violae Viola A 56 

Phyllotocus spp. see Nectar scarabs 

Phyllotreta nemorum (flea beetle) 


Phylloxeridae see Gall aphids 

Phylloxerid (Moritziella corticalis) Oak 

K 102 

Phylloxerina salicis (phylloxerid) Willow 

K 140 

Physalis peruviana see Cape gooseberry 

Physalospora spp. Orchids G 3, Pome 

fruits F 108 

P. miyabeana (black canker) Willow 

K 139 

Physarum cinereum see Slime moulds 

PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL 

METHODS see Control methods 

Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli see 


Phytomyza syngenesiae (= Chromatomyia 

syngenesiae) see Cineraria leafminer 

Phytonemus spp. (mites) 

P. ananas Pineapple F 104 

P. pallidus see Cyclamen mite 

PHYTOPHTHORA DISEASES 

(Phytophthora spp.) 

P. cinnamomi Australian native plants 

N 4, Eucalypt K 58, Grevillea K 75,, 

Hakea K 77, Kangaroo paw A 43, 

Pine K 107, Pittosporum K 112, 

Plane tree K 115, Protea K 120, Silk 

tree K 122, Thryptomene K 126, 

Trees K 6, Verticordia K 127, 

Viburnum K 128, Waratah K 129 

P. citrophthora Citrus F 35 

P. cryptogea Gerbera A 37 

P. hibernalis Citrus F 35 

P. infestans (Irish blight) Potato M 78, 

Tomato M 100 

P. megasperma Asparagus M 21 

P. nicotianae Citrus F 35, Orchids G 4, 


P. palmivora Custard apple F 51, Fig 

F 55, Pittosporum K 112 

Phytophthora fruit rots see Fruit rots 

phytoplasmas Papaw F 88, see also 

viruses 

Phytoptus avellanae see Filbert bud mite 

Phytoseiulus persimilis see Chilean 

predator mite 

INDEX P 21

INDEX 

Picea spp. see Spruce 

Pierce's disease (bacteria) Grapevine 

F 58 

Pieris rapae see Cabbage white butterfly 

Pigface Cacti D 2 

Pigmentation Camellia K 41, Euonymus 

K 69 

Pillbug see Slaters 

Pimple galls Bottlebrush K 37, Eucalypt 

K 61 

Pimple psyllids see Psyllids 

PINACEAE Pine K 106 

PINE K 106 

Pine adelgid see Aphids 

Pine aphids (Adelgidae) see Aphids 

PINEAPPLE F 103 

Pineapple decline Pineapple F 104 

Pineapple flat mite see Mites 

Pineapple mealybug see Mealybugs 

Pineapple mite see Mites 

Pineapple scale see Scales (armoured) 

Pineapple wilt Pineapple F 103 

Pine bark anobiid see Borers 

Pine bark beetles see Bark beetles 

Pine bark weevil see Bark beetles 

Pine loopers see Caterpillars 

Pine needle blight see Needle casts 

Pine parlatoria scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Pine stump weevil see weevils 

Pineus pini see Pine adelgid 

Pine witchetygrub see Borers 

Pinewood nematode see Nematodes 

Pinhole borers see Ambrosia beetles 

Pink bollworm see Caterpillars 

Pinkgum lerp see Psyllids 

Pink limb blight see Wood rots 

Pink mould rot Cucurbits M 52 

Pink pigmentation Euonymus K 69, 


Pink root (Pyrenochaeta terrestris = 

Phoma terrestris) Onion M 67 

Pink rot, pink mould see Fruit rots 

Pink spotted bollworm see Caterpillars 

Pink wax scale see Scales (soft) 

Pinnaspis caricis see Fern scale 

Pinus spp. see Pine 

PISTACHIO F 106 

Pistacia vera see Pistachio 

Pisum spp. Pea M 72 

PITTOSPORACEAE Bush fruits F 29, 


PITTOSPORUM K 112 

Pittosporum beetle see Leaf beetles 

Pittosporum bug see Bugs 

Pittosporum leafminer see Leafminers 

Pittosporum longicorn see Borers 

Pittosporum psyllid see Psyllids 

Placoasterella spp. (fungal leaf spot) 

Grevillea K 75, 

Plague soldier beetle see Soldier beetles 

Plague thrips see Thrips 

Plain pumpkin beetle see Leaf beetles 

PLANE TREE K 114 

Planococcus spp. (mealybugs) 

P. citri see Citrus mealybug 

P. pacificus see P. minor 

P. minor see Passionvine mealybug 

PLANTHOPPERS Australian N 6, Citrus 

F 38, Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 15 

citrus planthopper Citrus F 38 

green planthopper Citrus F 38, 

Eucalypt K 61, Hardenbergia K 79, 

Trees K 15 

mango planthopper Mango F 81 

PLANT QUARANTINE see Control 

methods 

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE see Tissue 

culture 

Plasmodiophora brassicae see Club root 

Plasmopara spp. (downy mildews) 

P. viticola Grapevine F 59 

PLATANACEAE Plane tree K 114 

Platanus spp. see Plane tree 

Platycerium spp. (elkhorns) Ferns E 3 

Platyomopsis spp. (trunkborers) 

P. armatula see Callistemon trunkborer 

P. pulverulens see Citrus trunkborer 

Platyptilia omissalis (leafminer) Hebe K 80 

Platypus beetle, mountain pinhole borer 

see Borers 

Platypus spp. (ambrosia beetles, pinhole 

borers) Trees K 10 

P. froggatti see Large ambrosia beetle 

P. subgranosus see Mountain pinhole 

borer , platypus beetle 

Plautia affinis see Green stink bug 

Playing damage Turfgrasses L 15 

Pleiochaeta setosa (fungal leaf and pod 

spot) Beans (French) M 26 

Pleospora spp. (fungal leaf spots, blights) 

Onion M 66 

P. papaveracea Poppy A 49 

PLUM Stone fruits F 123 

PLUMBAGINACEAE Statice A 53 

Plum leaf mite see Mites 

Plum pox virus see Viruses 

Plutella xylostella see Cabbage moth 

POACEAE Sweetcorn M 87, Turfgrasses 

L 1 

Podocanthus wilkinsoni see Ringbarker 

phasmatid 

Podosphaera leucotricha (powdery 

mildew) Pome fruits F 109 

Podsucking bugs see Bugs 

Pod twist (bacteria) Beans (French) M 25 

Poinciana longicorn see Borers 

POINSETTIA K 116 

Poinsettia mosaic virus see Viruses 

Poinsettia whitefly see Whiteflies 

POISONOUS FUNGI Oak K 102, Urban 


death cup (Amanita phalloides) Oak 

K 103 

fly agaric (A. muscari) Oak 102 

POISONOUS PLANTS Cashew F 31, 

Daffodil C 21, Delphinium A 30, 

Eucalypt K 65, Ferns E 4, Herbs N 33, 

Oleander K 104, Palms H 6, Peanut 

F 96, Pine K 110, Poinsettia K 116, 

Potato M 83, Rhubarb M 86, Urban 

landscapes N 88, Wattle K 136, White 

cedar K 138, Zantedeschia C 45 

allergies Bulbs C 8, Daffodils C 21, 

Grevillea K 76, Primrose A 50, Tulip 

C 43, Zantedeschia C 45 

POLEMONIACEAE Phlox A 48 

Polites spp. see Paper nest wasps 

POLLUTANTS, POLLUTION Conifers 

K 49, Elm K 55, House plants N 37, 

Interior plantscapes N 45, N 46, 

Manure N 48, Soil N 81, Trees K 21, 

Turfgrasses L 16, Urban bushland 

N 86, Water N 91 

air pollution Elm K 55, Maple K 97, 

Plane tree K 115, Trees K 21 

natural gas Elm K 55, Plane tree 

K 115, Trees K 21 

POLYGONACEAE Rhubarb M 88 

Polyphagotarsonemus latus see Broad 

mite 

Polyura sempronius see Tailed emperor 

butterfly 

POME FRUITS F 107 

Pome looper see Caterpillars 

Pomponatus typica see Callistemon tip 

bug 

Poneridia spp. see Figleaf beetles 

Pontana proxima see Willow leaf sawfly 

POPLAR K 117 

Poplar gall aphid see Aphids 

Poplar leaf curl, poplar leaf blister Poplar K 

117 

POPPY A 49 

Poppy fire Poppy A 49 

Populus spp. see Poplar 

Porela spp. see Hook-tip moths 

Poria spp. (wood rots) Conifers K 46, 

Trees K 8 

Porotermes spp. (termites) Eucalypt K 64 

Possums F 13, Trees K 18 

POSTHARVEST see Management 

POSTHARVEST N 61 

Potassium deficiency see Nutrient 

deficiencies 

POTATO M 77 

Potato aphid see Aphids 

Potato cyst nematode see Nematodes 

Potato ladybirds see Ladybirds 

Potato leaf roll virus see Virus diseases 

Potato moth see Caterpillars 

Potato viruses X, Y and Z see Viruses 

Potato wireworm see Wireworms 

Potato Y virus see Viruses 

Potential weeds Trees K 21 

POTTING MIXES N 64 

Powderpost beetles see Trees K 11 

Powdery mildews see Fungi 

Powdery scab Potato M 79 

Pratylenchus spp. see Root lesion 

nematodes 

Prays spp. (moth caterpillars) 

P. nephelomima see Citrus flower moth 

P. oleae see Olive moth 

P. parilis see Lemon bud moth 

Preservatives Annuals A 11 

Prickly pear Cacti D 3 

PRIMROSE A 50 

Primrose mosaic virus see Viruses 

Primula spp. see Primrose 

PRIMULACEAE (primrose family) 

Cyclamen C 16, Primrose A 50 

Princeps aegeus see Large citrus butterfly 

Priophorus morio see Raspberry sawfly 

Privet mite see Mites 

Processionary caterpillar See Bag-shelter 

moths 

Projectile firing fungus Azalea K 29, 


Propagation material Nurseries N 53 

Prospheres aurantiopictus See Hoop-pine 

jewel beetle 

Prostanthera spp. see Mint bush 

Protaetia spp. see Flower scarabs 

PROTEA K 119 

PROTEACEAE (waratah family) Banksia 

K 31, Grevillea K 75, Hakea K 77, 

Macadamia F 76, Protea K 119, 

Waratah K 129 

Protective mutualism Viburnum K 128 

Proteoid roots Australian native plants 

N 8, Hakea K 78, Protea K 121, Trees 

K 18, Waratah K 130 

Protozoan diseases Palms H 3 

Protyora sterculiae see Kurrajong star 

psyllid 

Provenance performance Eucalypt K 57, K 

67, Trees K 19 

Pruinose scarab see Scarab beetles 

PRUNE Stone fruits F 123 

Prune dwarf virus see Viruses 

Pruning Conifers K 49, Mulches N 49 

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus see Viruses 

Prunus spp. see Stone fruits 

Psaltoda moerens see Redeye 

Pseudanaphothrips achaetus see Hairless 

flower thrips 

Pseudapines geminata see Pittosporum 

bug 

Pseudaulacaspis spp. (armoured scales) 

P. brimblecombei see Macadamia 

white scale 

P. cockerelli see Mango scale 

Pseudocercospora spp. see Fungal leaf 

spots 

Pseudocercosporella capsellae (white leaf 

spot) Brassicas M 37 

Pseudococcidae see Mealybugs 

Pseudococcus spp. (mealybugs) 

Greenhouse N 25 

P. affinis see Tuber mealybug 

P. longispinus see Longtailed 

mealybug 

Pseudodipsas cephenes see Cephenes 

blue 

Pseudomonas spp. Lettuce M 58, 

Mushroom M 62, Onion M 66 

P. aeruginosa Orchids G 3 

P. agarici Mushroom M 62 

P. andropogonis (P. woodsii) 

Blueberry F 27, Carnation A 16, 

Gypsophila A 40, Hydroponic 

systems N 41, Statice A 53 

P. caricapapayae Pawpaw F 88 

P. caryophylli Carnation A 16 

P. cepacia Onion M 66 

P 22 

INDEX

INDEX 

PSEUDOMONAS SPP. (contd) 

P. cichorii Brassicas M 36, Lettuce 

M 58, Poppy A 49 

P. gladioli pv. alliicola Onion M 66 

P. gladioli pv. gladioli (= P. 

marginata) Freesia C 27, Gladiolus 

C 29, Iris C 37 

P. marginalis pv. marginalis African 

violet A 12, Beets M 33, Lettuce 

M 59, Onion M 66, Petunia A 47 

P. solanacearum Banana F 22, Beets 

M 33, Custard apple F 51, Dahlia 

C 24, Marigold A 45, Nasturtium A 

46, Potato M 78, Tomato M 98, 

Wattle K 131 

P. syringae pv. antirrhini Snapdragon 

A 51 

P. syringae pv. apii Celery M 47 

P. syringae pv. aptata Beets M 33 

P. syringae pv. delphinii Delphinium 

A 30 

P. syringae pv. eriobotryae Pome 

fruits F 108 

P. syringae pv. flectens (pod twist) 


P. syringae pv. lachrymans Cucurbits 

M 51 

P. syringae pv. maculicola Brassicas 

M 36 

P. syringae pv. mori Mulberry F 84 

P. syringae pv. mors-prunorum Stone 

fruits F 125 

P. syringae pv. passiflorae 


P. syringae pv. phaseolicola (halo 

blight) Beans (French) M 25 

P. syringae pv. pisi Pea M 72 

P. syringae pv. primulae Primrose A 

50 

P. syringae pv. savastanoi pv. nerii 

Oleander K 103 

P. syringae pv. savastanoi pv. 

oleacae Olive F 86 

P. syringae pv. syringae Beans 

(French) M 25, Citrus F 33, Fruit F 4, 

Hibiscus K 81, Lilac K 94, Magnolia 

K 96, Persimmon F 101, Photinia 

K 105, Pome fruits F 107, Poplar 

K 117, Poppy A 49, Protea K 119, 


P. syringae pv. tagetis Marigold A 45 

P. syringae pv. tomato Tomato M 98 

P. tolaasii Mushroom M 62 

P. viridiflava Grapevine F 58, Kiwifruit 

F 70, Lettuce M 59, Stone fruits 

F 125 

Pseudomydaus citriperda see Citrus rootbark 

channeller 

Pseudoperonospora cubensis (downy 

mildew) Cucurbits M 51 

Pseudoripersia turgipes see Casuarina 

mealybug 

Psila rosae see Carrot rust fly 

Psilogramma menephron menephron see 

Australian privet hawk moth 

Psylla spp. (psyllids) Wattle K 135 

PSYLLIDS, LERP INSECTS (Psyllidae) 


K 32, Bottlebrush K 37, Casuarina K 

43, Christmas bush K 44, Eriostemon 

K 56, Eucalypt K 62, Fig F 57, 

Grevillea K 76, Hakea K 78, Melaleuca 

K 99, Trees K 14, K 15, Wattle K 135 

boronia psyllid Boronia K 34 

brown basket lerp (= brown lace lerp) 

Eucalypt K 62 

bluegum psyllid Eucalypt K 62 

Cootamundra wattle psyllid Wattle 

K 135 

cottonwood psyllid Hibiscus K 82 

eucalypt shoot psyllid Eucalypt K 62 

fingered lerp Eucalypt K 62 

grevillea psyllids Grevillea K 76 

hakea psyllids Hakea K 78 

horn lerps Eucalypt K 62 

ironbark lace lerp Eucalypt K 62 

kurrajong star psyllid Kurrajong K 92 

kurrajong twig psyllid Kurrajong K 92 

lilly pilly psyllids Bottlebrush K 37, 

Lilly-pilly K 95 

Moreton Bay Psyllid Fig F 56 

pimple psyllid see Lilly pilly psyllid 

pinkgum lerp Eucalypt K 62 

pittosporum psyllid Pittosporum 

K 113, Trees K 15 

redgum basket lerp Eucalypt K 62 

redgum sugar lerp Eucalypt K 62 

spotted gum psyllid Eucalypt K 62 

white lace lerp Eucalypt K 62 

yellowbox lerp Eucalypt K 62 

Pterohelaeus alternatus see Striate false 

wireworm 

Pteropus spp. see Fruit bats 

Pterygophorus spp. (sawflies) see 


P. cinctus see Ringed sawfly 

Pubescence Azalea K 29, Magnolia K 96 

Puccinia spp. (rusts) Annuals A 7 

P. allii Onion M 67, Herbs N 32, N 34 

P. antirrhini Snapdragon A 51 

P. arachnidis Peanut F 97 

P. asparagi Asparagus M 21 

P. boroniae Boronia K 34 

P. chrysanthemi Chrysanthemum A 24 

P. correae Correa K 51 

P. hederaceae Violet A 56 

P. haemododori Kangaroo paw A 43 

P. horiana (white rust) Chrysanthemum 

A 24 

P. lagenophorae Australian native 

plants N 2, Calendula A 14, 

Cineraria A 28, Everlastings A 31 

P. malvacearum Hollyhock A 42 

P. morrisonii Geranium A 35 

P. pelargonii-zonalis Geranium A 34 

P. porri see P. allii above 

P. psidii Eucalypt K 58, Guava F 67 

P. rhei-undulati Rhubarb M 85 

Pucciniastrum epilobii (rust) Fuchsia K 70 

Pulsing Annuals A 11 

Pulvinaria spp. (soft scales) 

P. hydrangeae see Hydrangea scale 

P. maskellii see Chain scale 

P. psidii see Green shield scale 

Pulvinariella mesembryanthemi see 

Cottony pigface scale 

PUMPKIN Cucurbits M 50 

Pumpkin beetle see Leaf beetles 

Pumpkin bug see Bugs 

Purple blotch (fruit rot) Custard apple F 51 

Purple blotch (fungal leaf spot) Onion 

M 66 

Purple scale, mussel scale see Scales 

(armoured) 

Pycnosporus cinnabarinus see Red wood 

rot 

Pyrgoides orphana see Fireblight beetle 

Pyricularia grisea see Black pit 

Pyrrhalta luteola see Elm leaf beetle 

Pyrus spp. see Pear 

Pythium spp. (damping off root rots) 

Seedlings N 66 

P. middletoni Kangaroo paw A 43 

P. ultimum Orchids G 4 

Q 

Quadraspidiotus spp. (armoured scales) 

Q. ostreaeformis see Oystershell scale 

Q. pernicious see San Jose scale 

Quality assurance Nurseries N 55 

Quandong Bush fruits F 29 

QUARANTINE see Control methods 

Queensland fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Quercus spp see Oak 

QUINCE Pome fruits F 107 

R 

Rabbits see Vertebrates 

Radiata pine see Pine 

Radiata pine mistletoe see Parasitic plants 

Radiata pine shoot weevil see Weevils 

Radish see Brassicas M 36 

Radopholus similis see Burrowing 

nematode 

Raisin moth see Caterpillars 

Ramularia spp. (blights, cankers) 

Eucalypt K 57, K 58 

R. primulae Primrose A 50 

Ramularia shoot blight Eucalypt K 58 

RANUNCULACEAE (buttercup family, 

crowfoot family) Anemone C 11, 

Delphinium A 30 

RANUNCULUS Anemone C 11 

RASPBERRY Trailing berries F 145 

Raspberry bud moth see Caterpillars 

Raspberry bushy dwarf virus see Viruses 

Raspberry sawfly see Sawflies 

Rastrococcus (mealybugs) Citrus F 38 

Rats, mice see Vertebrates 

Ray blight (fungal) Chrysanthemum A 23 

Rayed blue butterfly see Caterpillars 

Rayieria tumidiceps see Acacia-spotting 

bug 

Records Nurseries N 55 

Recycling Nurseries N 55, Water N 90, 

Xeriscape N 95 

Redbanded mango caterpillar see 

Caterpillars 

Redbanded thrips see Thrips 

Red blotch (fungal leaf spot) Correa K 51, 

see also Pseudocercospora spp. 

Redeye see Cicadas 

Redgum basket lerp see Psyllids 

Redgum sugar lerp see Psyllids 

Redheaded cockchafer see Scarab 

beetles 

Redlegged earth mite see Mites 

Redlegged weevil see Weevils 

Red mite see Bryobia mite 

Red scale see Scales (armoured) 

Redshouldered leaf beetle see Leaf 

beetles 

Red spider see Twospotted mite 

Red thread (fungus) Turfgrasses L 6 

Red triangle slug see Snails 

Red wood rot see Wood rots 

Repotting Containers N 19 

RESISTANT VARIETIES see Control 

methods 

Reticulated slug see Snails 

Rhabdoscelus obscurus see Sugarcane 

weevil borer 

Rheum rhabarbarum see Rhubarb 

Rhinaria perdix see Strawberry weevil 

Rhizobium spp. see Nitrogen-fixing 

bacteria 

Rhizoctonia fruit rot see Fruit rots 

Rhizoctonia stem rots (Rhizoctonia solani) 

see Root and stem rots 

Rhizoctonia web blight Azalea K 28 

Rhizoecus spp. (mealybugs) 

R. dianthi see African violet mealybug 

R. falcifer see Root mealybug 

Rhizoglyphus echinopus see Bulb mite 

Rhizomorphs Trees K 4 

Rhizopus soft rot (Rhizopus spp.) Conifers 

K 46, see also Fruit rots 

RHODODENDRON Azalea K 27 

Rhopaea spp. see Pasture whitegrubs 

Rhopalomyia chrysanthemi see 


Rhopalosiphoninus spp. (aphids) 

R. latysiphon see Bulb and potato 

aphid 

R. staphyleae see Mangold aphid 

Rhopalosiphum insertum see Apple-grass 

aphid 

Rhopalothripoides froggatti (thrips) Wattle 

K 135 

RHUBARB M 86 

Rhynchaphytoptus ficifoliae see Fig rust 

mite 

Rhyparida spp. see Swarming leaf beetles 

Rhystima spp. (tar spot) Maple K 97 

Rhyzobius spp. (predatory ladybirds) 

R. ventralis see Gumtree scale ladybird 

Ribautiana ulmi see Elm tree leafhopper 

Ribbed case moth see Caterpillars 

Ribbed tea mite see Mites 

Ribes spp. see Currants 

Ringbarker phasmatid see Stick insects 

Ring-barking fuscoporia see Wood rots 

Ringbarking weevils see Weevils 

INDEX P 23

INDEX 

Ring spot (fungal leaf spot) Brassicas 

M 37, see also Mycosphaerella spp. 

Ripening Fruit F 17 

ROCKMELON Cucurbits M 50 

Rolf's disease Turfgrasses L 6 

Root knot nematodes see Nematodes 

Root lesion nematodes see Nematodes 

Root mealybug see Mealybugs 

Roots Poplar K 118, Willow K 140 

ROOT AND STEM ROTS Annuals A 6, 


Azalea K 27, Banana F 23, Boronia 

K 34, Bulbs C 5, Citrus F 35, Conifers 

K 46, Eucalypt K 58, Fruit F 7, 

Gardenia K 72, Geraldton wax 73, 

Geranium A 34, Gladiolus C 30, 

Greenhouses N 23, Grevillea K 75,, 

Hebe K 80, Hibiscus K 81, House 

plants N 35, Hydrangea K 86, Ivy K 88, 

Kurrajong K 91, Lavender K 93, 

Magnolia K 96, Maple K 97, Melaleuca 

K 98, Mint bush K 100, Oak K 101, 

Photinia K 105, Pine K 107, 

Pittosporum K 112, Plane tree K 115, 

Protea K 120, Tea-tree K 124, Tomato 

M 100, Trees K 7, Vegetables M 7, 

Wattle K 131 

aphanomyces black root rot 

armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.) 


Conifers K 46, Eucalypt K 58, 

Melaleuca K 98, Mint bush K 100, 


Plane tree K 115, Protea K 120, 

Trees K 4, Walnut F 148, Wattle 

K 131 

ashy stem blight, charcoal rot 

(Macrophomina phaseolina) Beans 

(French) M 26, Conifers K 46, 

Currants F 48, Fruit F 7, Pea M 73, 

Pine K 107, Tomato M 100, 


black root rot (Chalara thielavioides) 

Roses J 3 

Botryodiplodia theobromae root rot 


charcoal rot see Ashy stem blight 

damping off (various species) 

Conifers K 46, Melaleuca K 98, Pine 

K 107, Seedlings N 66 

fusarium rots (Fusarium spp.) 

Conifers K 46, Pine K 107, Tomato 

M 100 

graft failure Pine K 107 

phytophthora root rots 

(Phytophthora spp.) Annuals A 5, 

Asparagus M 21, Australian native 

plants N 4, Avocado F 18, Azalea 

K 28, Banksia K 31, Beets M 33, 

Blueberry F 27, Boronia K 34, 

Camellia K 39, Citrus F 35, Conifers 

K 46, Eucalypt K 58, Fruit F 7, 

Geraldton wax K 73, Gerbera A 37, 

Hakea K 77, Hebe K 80, Hibiscus 

K 81, Kangaroo paw A 43, 

Macadamia F 76, Melaleuca K 98, 

Mint bush K 100, Oak K 101, 

Persimmon F 101, Pine K 107, 

Pineapple F 104, Pittosporum 

K 112, Plane tree K 115, Pome fruits 

F 110, Protea K 120, Silk tree K 122, 

Stone fruits F 127, Thryptomene 

K 126, Tomato M 100, Trees K 6, 

Vegetables M 7, Verticordia K 127, 

Viburnum K 128, Walnut F 148, 

Waratah K 129, Wattle K 131 

pythium (Pythium spp.) Beans 

(French) M 27, Bulbs C 5, Cyclamen 

C 16, Geranium A 34, Hydroponic 

systems N 42, Kangaroo paw A 43, 

Melaleuca K 98, Pine K 107, 

Pineapple F 104, Potato M 79, 

Protea K 120, Seedlings N 66, 


rhizoctonia stem rot (Rhizoctonia 

solani) Asparagus M 21, Azalea 

K 28, Beans (French) M 27, Beets 

M 33, Brassicas M 37, Bulbs C 5, 

Cucurbits M 52, Parsnip M 70, Pine 

K 107, Poinsettia K 116, Stock A 54, 



rhizoctonia web blight Azalea K 28 

rosellinia white root rot (Rosellinia 

necatrix, Dermatophora necatrix) 

Fruit F 7, Pome fruits F 110, Protea 

K 120 

sclerotinia rots (Sclerotinia spp.) Fruit 

F 7, Gladiolus C 30, Tomato 

M 100, Trees K 7, Turfgrasses L 4, 


sclerotium stem rot (Sclerotium 

rolfsii) Bulbs C 6, Conifers K 46, 


Trees K 7 

take-all (Gaeumannomyces graminis 

var. avenae), Ophiobolus patch 

(Ophiobolus graminis) Turfgrasses 

L 7 

thielaviopsis black root rot 

(Thielaviopsis basicola) Bulbs C 6, 

Conifers K 46, Lettuce M 59, Pine 

K 107, Vegetables M 8, see also 

Thielaviopsis spp. 

white root rot (Vararia sp.) Trailing 

berries F 146 

woody root rots Conifers K 46 

ROSACEAE Bush fruits F 29, Photinia 

K 105, Pome fruits F 107, Roses J 1, 

Stone fruits F 123, Strawberry F 139, 


Rose aphid see Aphids 

Rose-grain aphid see Aphids 

Rosellinia necratrix ( Dermatophora 

necratrix) see Rosellinia white root rot 

Rosellinia white root rot see Root and 

stem rots 

ROSES (Rosa spp.) J 1 

Rose scale see Scales (armoured) 

Rosopaella spp. (leafhopper) Melaleuca 

K 99 

Ross' black scale see Scales (armoured) 

Rotylenchus sp. see Spiral nematode 

Rough bollworm see Caterpillars 

RUBIACEAE Gardenia K 72 

Rubus spp. see Trailing berries 

RUSTS (Uredinales) Anemone C 11, 

Annuals A 7, Australian native plants N 

2, N 4, Azalea K 28, Birch K 33, 

Boronia K 34, Calendula A 14, 

Carnation A 17, Chrysanthemum A 24, 

Correa K 51, Eucalypt K 58, 

Everlastings A 31, Fig F 55, Fruit F 7, 

Gardenia K 70, Geranium A 34, Guava 

F 67, Hardenbergia K 79, Hebe K 80, 

Hollyhock A 42, Iris C 37, Kangaroo 

paw A 43, Orchids G 4, Peanut F 97, 

Poplar K 117, Snapdragon A 51, 

Statice A 53, Stone fruits F 127, Trailing 

berries F 146, Trees K 7, Turfgrasses L 

6, Violet A 56, Wattle 


American poplar rust Poplar K 117 

blackberry rusts Trailing berries F 146 

European poplar rust Poplar K 117 

European willow rust Willow K 139 

gall rusts Pine K 107, Wattle K 131 

guava rust Eucalypt K 58, Guava F 67 

oriental willow rust Willow K 139 

tropical American rusts Orchids G 4 

western gall rust Pine K 107 

white blister rust (Albugo spp., 

Albuginaceae, Peronosporales) 

China aster A 21, Cineraria A 28, 

Everlastings A 31, Gazania A 33, 

Gerbera A 37 

white pine blister rust (Cronartium 

ribicola) Pine K 107 

white rust (Puccinia horiana) 


Rusty leaves, pubescence Azalea K 28, 

Magnolia K 96 

RUTACEAE (citrus family) Boronia K 34, 

Bush fruits F 29, Citrus F 33, Correa 

K 51, Eriostemon K 56 

Rutherglen bug see Bugs 

S 

Saccharomyces spp. see Yeasty rot, 

yeasts 

Saintpaulia ionantha see African violet 

Saissetia spp. (scales- soft) 

S. coffeae see Hemispherical scale 

S. oleae see Black scale 

SALICACEAE Poplar K117, Willow K 139 

Salix spp. see Willow 

Salt deposition Containers N 19 

Salt toxicity see Nutrient deficiencies 

Sandal-box hawk moth see Caterpillars 

Sand dune snail see Snails 

SANITATION see Control methods 

San Jose scale see Scales (armoured) 

SANTALACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

SAPINDACEAE Lychee F 73 

SAPOTACEAE Bush fruits F 29 

Sap-stains See Wood-stains 

Satin blue see Caterpillars 

Saunders's case moth see Caterpillars 

Sawdust Compost N 17, Potting mixes 

N 64, N 65 

SAWFLIES (Hymenoptera) Australian 

native plants N 7, Trees K 16, Eucalypt 

K 62, K 63 

bramble sawfly Trailing berries F 146 

callistemon sawfly Bottlebrush K 37 

callitris sawfly see Cypress pine sawfly 

below 

cypress pine sawfly, callitris sawfly 


Conifers K 48 

eucalypt-defoliating sawfly Eucalypt K 

63 

ironbark sawfly Eucalypt K 63 

large green sawfly Eucalypt K 63 

leaf blister sawflies Australian native 


paperbark sawfly Australian native 

plants N 7, Melaleuca K 99, Tea-tree 

K 124 

pear and cherry slug Australian native 

plants N 7, Hardenbergia K 79, 

Photinia K 105, Pome fruits F 115, 


raspberry sawfly Trailing berries F 146 

ringed sawfly Melaleuca K 99 

spitfire grubs Eucalypt K 63 

steelblue sawflies Australian native 


willow leaf sawfly Willow K 140 

SAXIFRAGACEAE Currants F 48, 

Hydrangea K 86 

SCABS Passionfruit F 92, Pome fruits 

F 108 

bacterial scab Gladiolus C 29 

citrus scab Citrus F 34 

common scab Potato M 79 

corky scab see Oedema 

powdery scab Potato M 79 

scab, spot anthracnose Viola A 56 

scab (freckle) Stone fruits F 126 

SCALES Australian native plants N 7, 

Avocado F 20, Bottlebrush K 37, 

Camellia K 40, Casuarina K 43, Citrus 

F 39, Conifers K 48, Elm K 55, Eucalypt 

K 63, Fruit F 12, Gardenia K 72, 


Hakea K 78, Hibiscus K 82, Holly K 84, 

Honeysuckle K 85, House plants N 36, 

Melaleuca K 99, Oleander K 104, Pine 

K 109, Pittosporum K 113, Poplar 

K 118, Tamarisk K 123, Trees K 16, 

Wattle K 135 

SCALES (ARMOURED - Diaspididae) 

Citrus F 39, Fruit F 12, Melaleuca 


aechmea scale Bromeliads B 2 

apple mussel scale Ash K 26, 

Hydrangea K 87, Pome fruits F 116, 

Tamarisk K 123 

circular black scale Begonia C 15, 

Bottlebrush K 37, Holly K 84, 


couchgrass scale Turfgrasses K 11 

cyanophyllum scale Banana F 25 

cymbidium scale Orchids G 6 

P 24 

INDEX

INDEX 

SCALES (ARMOURED - Diaspididae) 

(contd) 

date palm scale Palms H 4 

fern scale Ferns E 3 

fiorinia scale Avocado F 20 

flyspeck scale Bromeliads B 2 

greedy scale Cacti D 2, Holly K 84, 

Honeysuckle K 85, Kiwifruit F 71, 

Poplar K 118 

ivy scale see Oleander scale 

juniper scale Conifers K 48 

latania scale Avocado F 20, Banana 

F 25, Grevillea K 76, Hakea K 78, 

Kiwi fruit F 71, Macadamia F 78, 

Tamarisk K 123 

macadamia mussel scale Macadamia 

F 78 

macadamia white scale Macadamia 

F 78 

mango scales Mango F 81 

mauve pittosporum scale Conifers 

K 48, Pine K 109, Pittosporum K 113 

mining scale Begonia C 15 

mussel scales see Purple scale 

oleander scale, ivy scale Azalea K 29, 

Cacti D 2, Daphne K 53, Ferns E 3, 

Fruit F 12, Hakea K 78, Holly K 84, 

Ivy K 88, Oleander K 104, Olive 

F 86, Persimmon F 102, Wattle 

K 135 

olive parlatoria scale Olive F 86 

orchid parlatoria scale Fruit F 12, 

Orchids G 6 

orchid scale Bromeliads B 3, Orchids 

G 6 

oriental scale Mango F 81, Pawpaw 

F 89 

oystershell scale Honeysuckle K 85, 

Photinia K 105, Pome fruits F 116, 

Poplar K 118 

peach white scale Stone fruits F 132 

pear scale Pome fruits F 116 

pineapple scale Bromeliad B 3, 


pine parlatoria scale Conifers K 48, 

Pine K 109 

purple scale, mussel scale 

Bottlebrush K 37, Holly K 84, 

Melaleuca K 99, Oleander K 104, 

Wattle K 135 

red scale Bottlebrush K 37, Citrus F 39, 

Daphne K 53, Euonymus K 69, Fruit 

F 12, Ivy K 88, Kiwi fruit F 71, Olive 

F 87, Passionfruit F 93, Wattle 


rose scale Rose J 7, Trailing berries 

F 146 

Ross' black scale Banksia K 32, Fruit 

F 12, Olive F 87 

San Jose scale Citrus F 40, Currants F 

49, Fruit F 12, Honeysuckle K 85, 

Photinia K 105, Mulberry F 85, Pome 

fruits F 116, Poplar K 118, Willow K 

140 

Spanish red scale Avocado F 20 

white louse scale Australian native 

plants N 7, Citrus F 40 

white palm scale Christmas bush K 44, 

Honeysuckle K 85, Palms H 4, 

Protea K 120, Tea-tree K 125, 

Viburnum K 128, Waratah K 129 

yellow scale Citrus F 40 

SCALES (ERIOCOCCID - Eriococcidae) 

Australian native plants N 6, N 7, 

Casuarina K 43, Citrus F 41, Eucalypt K 

63, Wattle K 135 

Apiomorpha spp. (galls) Australian 

native plants N 7, Eucalypt K 63, 

Melaleuca K 99, Wattle K 135 

cactus mealybug Cacti D 2 

eucalypt leafgall scale Eucalypt K 63 

felted pine coccid (Eriococcus 

araucariae) Conifers K 48 

gumtree scale (Eriococcus 

coriaceus) Australian native plants 

N 7, Eucalypt K 63 

macadamia felted coccid (Eriococcus 

ironsidei) Australian native plants N 

7, Macadamia F 78 

manuka blight see Teatree scale 

below 

melaleuca hairy gall (Sphaerococcus 

sp.) Melaleuca 

K 99 

teatree scale (Eriococcus orariensis) 

Australian native plants N 7, Teatree 

K 125 

SCALES, GROUND PEARLS 

(MARGARODIDS - Margarodidae) 

Citrus F 41, Hakea K 78, Trees K 16 

cottonycushion scale Australian 

native plants N 7, Grevillea K 76, 

Hakea K 78, Mulberry F 85, Palms H 

4, Pittosporum K 113, Wattle 

K 136 

kauri coccid Conifers K 48 

woolly giant mealybug Wattle K 135 

SCALES (SOFT - Coccidae) Citrus F 41 

black scale Ash K 26, Citrus F 41, 

Daphne K 53, Fruit F 12, Hibiscus 

K 82, Holly K 84, Magnolia K 96, 

Oleander K 104, Olive F 87, 

Passionfruit F 94, Photinia K 105, 

Poplar K 118, Tamarisk K 123 

brown gooseberry scale Currants 

F 49 

brown olive scale see Black scale 

chain scales Wattle K 135 

Chinese wax scale Citrus F 41, Hebe 

K 80, Melaleuca K 99, Pittosporum K 

113 

cottony pigface scale Cacti D 2 

European elm scale Elm K 55 

frosted scale Currants F 49, Elm K 55, 

Plane tree K 115, Stone fruits 

F 132, Trailing berries F 146 

grapevine scale Grapevine F 62, Stone 

fruits F 132 

grass coccid Turfgrasses L 11 

green shield scale Lychee F 74 

hemispherical scale Orchids G 6 

hydrangea scale Hydrangea K 86 

Indian white wax scale Citrus F 42 

long soft scale Macadamia F 78 

nigra scale Bottlebrush K 37, 

Casuarina K 43, Custard apple 

F 52, Ferns E 3, Fruit F 12, Hibiscus 

K 82, Lilly-pilly K 95, Orchids G 6, 

Palms H 4 

pink wax scale Citrus F 41, Custard 

apple F 52, Holly K 84, Ivy K 88, 

Lilly-pilly K 95, Pittosporum K 113 

soft brown scale Bromeliads B 3, 

Citrus F 41, Daphne K 53, Ferns 

E 3, Fruit F 12, Gardenia K 72, Holly 

K 84, Ivy K 88, Lilly-pilly K 95, 

Oleander K 104, Olive F 87, Orchids 

G 6, Passionfruit F 93, Pawpaw 

F 90, Pine K 109, Trailing berries 

F 146 

tessellated scale Bottlebrush K 37 

wattle tick scale Wattle K 135 

white wax scale Australian native 

plants N 2, Citrus F 41, Euonymus 

K 69, Gardenia K 72, Hebe K 80, 

Hibiscus K 82, Lilly-pilly K 95, 

Persimmon F 102, Pittosporum 

K 113 

SCALES (OTHER) 

casuarina scale Australian native 

plants N 7, Casuarina K 43 

golden oak scale Oak K 101 

SCARAB BEETLES, COCKCHAFERS, 

(Scarabaeidae) Australian native 

plants N 6, Banana F 25, Eucalypt 

K 61, Fruit F 12, Melaleuca K 98, 

Pine K 109, Soil N 80, Strawberry 

F 142, Trees K 16, Turfgrasses 

L 11 

African black beetle Banana F 25, 

Beets M 34, Brassicas M 38, Fruit 

F 12, Potato M 82, Rhubarb M 86, 

Seedlings N 67, Strawberry F 142, 


Turfgrasses L 7, L 11, Vegetables 

M 16 

Argentinian scarab Turfgrasses L 11 

black beetle Turfgrasses L 11 

blackheaded pasture cockchafer 


brown cockchafer Turfgrasses L11 

brown eucalypt beetle Eucalypt K 62 

cane grubs Eucalypt K 61, Peanut 

F 98, Pineapple F 104 

Christmas beetles Eucalypt K 62, Fruit 

F 12, Melaleuca K 98, Trees K 16, 

Turfgrasses L 11, Wattle K 132 

cockchafers Turfgrasses L 11 

dusky pasture scarab Turfgrasses 

L 11 

flower chafer Fig F 56 

flower scarabs (Protaetia spp.) 

Melaleuca K 98, Roses J 8, Trees 


green scarab beetle Beans (French) 

M 31, Conifers K 48, Eucalypt K 62, 

Pine K 109, Trees K 16, Wattle 

K 132 

green spring beetle Beans (French) 

M 31 

greyback cane beetle Banana F 25 

greyfurrowed rose chafer Roses J 7 

large pasture scarab Potato M 82 

mottled flower scarab Roses J 8 

nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus spp.) 

Annuals A 9, Dahlia C 25, Rose J 8, 

Trees K 16 

paspalum whitegrub Turfgrasses L 11 

pasture cockchafers Turfgrasses L 11 

pasture scarabs Turfgrasses L 11 

pasture whitegrubs Fruit F 12, Potato 


peanut scarabs Peanut F 98 

pruinose scarab Turfgrasses L 11 

redheaded cockchafer Turfgrasses 

L 11 

spring beetle Australian native plants N 

6, Eucalypt K 62, Trees K 16 

white curl grubs Strawberry F 142 

whitegrubs Fruit F 12, Pineapple 

F 105, Turfgrasses L 11 

Scarab grubs (Scarabaeidae) see Scarab 

beetles 

Sceliodes cordalis see Eggfruit caterpillar 

Sciaridae see Fungus gnats 

Scirrha pini see Dothistroma needle blight 

Scirtothrips spp. (thrips) 

Scirtothrips spp. see Flower thrips 

S. dorsalis see Strawberry thrips 

Sclerophthora macrospora (downy 

mildew) Turfgrasses L 4 

Sclerophoma pithyophila see Needle blight 

Sclerospora spp. (downy mildews) 

Annuals A 5 

Sclerotia (fungal structures) Vegetables 

M 7, M 8 

Sclerotinia spp. (fungal rots) Vegetables 

M 7 

S. homeocarpa Turfgrasses L 4 

S. gladioli (Stromatinia gladioli) 

Gladiolus C 30 

S. minor, S. sclerotiorum Tomato 


Sclerotium spp. (fungal stem rot) 


S. rolfsii Bulbs C 6, Fruit F 7, Gladiolus 

C 30, Pome fruits F 110, Tomato 


M 8 

S. cepivorum Onion M 67 

Scolypopa australis see Passionvine 

hopper 

Scolytus multistriatus see Elm bark beetle 

Scopelodes nitens (cup moth) Cashew 

F 31 

Scribbly gum moth see Caterpillars 

Scrofa hawk moth see Caterpillars 

SCROPHULARIACEAE (snapdragon 

family) Hebe K 80, Snapdragon A 51 

Scum see Algae 

Scutiphora pedicellata see Metallic shield 

bug 

Seed bugs, chinch bugs (Lygaeidae) see 

Bugs 

Seed cleaning Seeds N 76 

INDEX P 25

INDEX 

Seed disinfection, disinfestation Seeds 

N 74 

Seedharvesting ants see Ants 

Seedling bean midge see Flies 

Seed protectants Seeds N 74 

SEED INSECTS Eucalypt K 61, K 63, 

Hakea K 77, Kurrajong K 91, K 92, 

Seeds N 74, N 75, Trees K 17 

beetles Eucalypt K 63, Oak K 102 

bean weevil (Acanthoscelides 

obtectus) Bean (broad) M 24, Bean 

(French) M 31, Pea M 75, Seeds 

N 74 

broadbean weevil (Bruchus 

rufimanus) Bean (broad) M 24, 

Seeds N 74 

cowpea weevils (Callosobruchus 

spp.) Seeds N 74 

giant pine weevil Conifers K 48 

kurrajong pod beetle Kurrajong K 92 

kurrajong seed weevil Kurrajong K 92 

kurrajong weevil Kurrajong K 91, 

Seeds N 74 

lucerne seed wasp (Bruchophagus 

roddi) Seeds N 74 

native seedeating moth Hardenbergia 

K 79 

parsnip seed wasp (Systole sp.) 

Parsnip M 71, Seeds N 74 

pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) Pea 

M 74, Seeds N 74 

pine stump weevil Conifers K 48 

prickly acacia seed weevil 

(Bruchidius sahlbergi) Seeds N 74 

seed moths Wattle K 135 

seed wasps, seed chalcids 

(Eurytomidae) Australian native 

plants N 6, Eucalypt K 61, K 63, 

Lilly-pilly K 95, Seeds N 74, Trees 


seed weevils Palms H 5, Seeds N 74, 


wattle apple-gall wasp (Trichilogaster 

acaciaelongifoliae) Seeds N 74, 

Wattle 

K 135 

SEEDLINGS N 66 

SEEDS N 74, Compost N 16 

Seed viability Seeds N 71 

Seimatosporium grevilleae (fungal leaf 

spot) Grevillea K 75, Hakea K 77 

Seiridium spp. see Cypress canker 

SELECTION see Management 

Selenothrips rubrocinctus see Redbanded 

thrips 

Senecio spp. Cineraria A 28, Gerbera 

A 37 

Senescence, old age Azalea K 29, 

Camellia K 41, Conifers K 49, Citrus 

F 44, Hibiscus K 83 

Septoria spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Chrysanthemum A 23, Fruit F 8, Hebe 

K 80 

S. antirrhini Snapdragon A 51 

S. aureocorana Wattle K 131 

S. australis Viola A 56 

S. citri, S. depressa Citrus F 34 

S. dianthi Carnation A 17 

S. drummondii, S. phlogis Phlox A 48 

S. gerberae Gerbera A 37 

S. gladioli Gladiolus C 29, C 31, 

S. lavendulae Lavender K 93 

S. lycopersici Tomato M 99 

S. passifloricola Passionfruit F 92 

S. pelargonii Geranium A 34 

Sericesthis spp. see Scarab beetles 

Serpentine leafminer see Leafminers 

Sertorius australis see Spiny treehopper 

Sextius virescens see Green treehopper 

SHALLOT Onion M 66 

Shallot aphid see Aphids 

Shallow roots Azalea K29, Magnolia K 96 

SHE-OAK Casuarina K 42 

Shield bugs (Pentatomidae) see Bugs 

Shinjia orientalis see Bracken aphid 

Shot-hole (fungi) Snapdragon A 51, Stone 

fruits F 127 

Shothole beetles see Ambrosia beetles 

Sigatoka (fungal leaf spots) Banana F 23 

Silkyoak leafminer see Leafminers 

SILK TREE K 122 

Silkworms see Caterpillars 

SILVER BEET Beets M 33 

Silverbirch branchcutter see Borers 

Silver leaf see Wood rots 

Silverleaf whitefly see Whiteflies 

Siphanta acuta see Green planthopper 

Sirex noctilio see Sirex wasp 

Sirex wasp see Borers 

Sitobion luteum see Yellow orchid aphid 

Skeletodes tetrops see Citrus longicorn 

Skippers (Hesperiidae) see Caterpillars 

Slaters Greenhouses N 17, N 27, Mulches 

N 49, Strawberry F 142 

SLIME MOULDS Camellia K 41, Ivy K 89, 

Strawberry F 143, Turfgrasses L 13 

Slow white rots (Ascomycetes) Trees K 9 

Slugs see Snails 

Small citrus butterfly see Caterpillars 

Small false wireworm see Wireworms 

Small fruit-tree borer see Borers 

Small lucerne weevil see Weevils 

Smittia aterrima see Seedling bean midge 

Smothering effect Ivy K 89 

SMUTS Anemone C 11, Australian native 

plants N 4, Calendula A 14, Cape 

gooseberry F 30, Carnation A 16, 

Dahlia C 24, Onion M 67, Sweetcorn 


anther smut Carnation A 16 

culm smut Australian native plants N 4 

false smuts Palms H 2 

leaf smuts (Entyloma spp.) Anemone 

C 11, Calendula A 14, Cape 

gooseberry F 30, Dahlia C 24, 

Poppy A 49 

onion smut Onion M 67 

SNAILS AND SLUGS Annuals A 9, 

Australian native plants N 8, Bulbs C 8, 

Citrus F 43, Containers N 19, Fruit 

F 13, Grapevine F 63, Greenhouses 

N 27, Hydrangea K 87, Ivy K 89, 

Mulches N 49, Seedlings N 70, Soils 

N 81, Strawberry F 143, Tomato 

M 103, Trees K 18, White cedar K 138 

aquatic snails Water N 91, Water 

plants N 94 

black-keeled slug Seedlings N 70 

brown slug Seedlings N 70 

common garden snail Grapevine F 63 

garlic snail Onion M 69 

green snail Seedlings N 70 

orchid snail Orchids G 6 

red triangle slug Ferns E 4 

reticulated slug Grapevine F 63 

sand dune snail see White Italian snail 

below 

vineyard snail Grapevine F 63, Seeds 

N 75 

white bradybaena snail Seedlings 

N 70 

white Italian snail Grapevine F 63, 

Seeds N 75 

SNAPDRAGON A 51 

Snout moth see Caterpillars 

Sod webworm see Caterpillars 

Soft brown scale see Scales (soft) 

Soft rots (bacterial and fungal) see Fruit 

rots 

Soft rots (fungal) Trees K 9 

SOIL N Soil 80 

Soil analysis see Nutrient deficiencies 

Soil diseases Soil N 80 

SOLANACEAE (nightshade family) 

Cape gooseberry F 30, Petunia A 47, 


Solanum fruit fly see Fruit flies 

Solanum tuberosum see Potato 

Soldier beetles Annuals 9 

Sooty blotch (fungal) Pome fruits F 110 

Sooty mould see Fungi 

Sorghum head caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Sorghum midge see Flies 

Sour rot see Fruit rots 

Southern armyworm see Caterpillars 

Sowthistle aphid see Aphids 

Spanish red scale see Scales (armoured) 

Sphaceloma spp. (anthracnose, black 

spots, scabs) Fruit F 5 

S. ampelina(Elsinoe ampelina) 

(anthracnose, black spot) Grapevine 

F 59 

S. fawcetti (citrus scab) Citrus F 34 

S. populi (anthracnose) Poplar K 117 

S. violae (scab) Viola A 56 

Sphaerobolus stellatus see Projectile firing 

fungus 

Sphaeropsis sapinacea (graft failure) Pine 

K 107 

Sphaerotheca spp. (powdery mildews) 

Sphaerotheca sp. Pawpaw F 89 

S. macularis Strawberry F 140 

S. mors-uvae Currants and English 

gooseberry F 48 

S. pannosa Stone fruits F 127 

Sphenophorus brunnipennis see Billbug 

Spider mites (Tetranychidae) see Mites 

Spiders Protea K 121, Waratah K 130 

Spilocaea eriobotrya (black spot of loquat) 


Spilosoma spp. (caterpillars) 

S. canescens see Darkspotted tiger 

moth 

S. glatignyi see Woollybear caterpillar 

SPINACH Beets M 33 

Spinacia oleracea see Beets 

SPINDLE TREE Euonymus K 69 

Spined citrus bug see Bugs 

Spine-tailed froghopper see Froghoppers 

Spinetailed weevil see Weevils 

Spiny leaf insect see Stick insects 

Spiny treehopper see Treehoppers 

Spiraea aphid see Aphids 

Spiral nematode see Nematodes 

Spiralling whitefly see Whiteflies 

Spitfire grubs see Sawflies 

Spittle bugs see Froghoppers 

Splendid ghost moth see Common 

splendid ghost moth 

Spodoptera spp. (armyworms, 

caterpillars) 

S. exempta see Dayfeeding armyworm 

S. litura see Cluster caterpillar 

S. picta see Lily caterpillar 

Sporotrichum destructor (canker) Eucalypt 

K 57 

SPORTS Annuals A 9, Trees K 19 

Spot anthracnose, scab Viola A 56 

Spottedgum psyllid see Psyllids 

Spotted vegetable weevil see Weevils 

Spring beetle see Scarab beetles 

Spring dead spot (fungal) Turfgrasses L 6 

SPRINGTAILS (Collembola) House plants 

N 37, Turfgrasses L 14, Water N 92 

garden springtail Turfgrasses L 14 

mushroom springtails Mushroom 


white springtails Turfgrasses L 14 

SPRUCE (Picea spp.) Conifers K 45 

Spruce aphid see Aphids 

Spruce spider mite see Mites 

Spur blight (Didymella applanata) Trailing 

berries F 146 

Spurlegged phasmatid see Stick insects 

Spur-throated locust see Grasshoppers 

Squash Cucurbits M 50 

Squash bugs (Coreidae) see Bugs 

Stable fly see Flies 

Staghorn fern beetle see Leaf beetles 

Stagonospora spp. (fungal leaf spot) Bulbs 

C 5, Daffodil C 19 

Stathmopoda chalcotypa see Currant bud 

moth 

STATICE A 53 

St Augustine decline Turfgrasses L 3 

Steganosporium spp. (twig spot) Plane 

tree K 115 

Stegommata spp. (leafmining moths) 

S. leptomitella see Hakea leafminers 

S. sulfuratella Banksia K 31 

Stem and bulb nematode see Nematodes 

Stem end (Diaporthe actinidiae) Kiwi fruit F 

70 

Stem end rot (Dothiorella) Avocado F 18, 

Mango F 80 

P 26 

INDEX

INDEX 

Stemphylium spp. (fungal leaf spots) 

Gladiolus C 29, Tomato M 99 

S. botryosum Onion M 66 

Steneotarsonemus spp. (mites) 

S. laticeps see Bulb scale mite 

S. pallidus (= Phytonemus pallidus) 

see Cyclamen mite 

Stephanitis pyrioides see Azalea lace bug 

STERCULIACEAE Kurrajong K 91 

Stereum spp. see Silver leaf 

Sterilisation Nurseries N 53, Water N 90 

media Nurseries N 52 

tools Nurseries N 53 

water Nurseries N 53, Water N 90 

Sternochetus mangiferae, S. frigidus see 

Mango seed weevils, Mango weevils 

Stethopachys formosa see Orchid beetle 

Stethorus spp. (Coccinellidae) see Miteeating 

ladybirds 

Stickiness Azalea K 29 

STICK INSECTS (Phasmatodea) 

Australian native plants N 7, Eucalypt 


ringbarker phasmatid Eucalypt K 64 

spiny leaf insect Australian native 

plants N 7, Eucalypt K 64, Wattle 

K 136 

spurlegged phasmatid Eucalypt K 64 

tessellated phasmatid Eucalypt K 64 

Stigmella spp. (leafmining moths) Correa 

K 51, Kennedia K 90 

Stink bug see Bugs 

STOCK A 54 

Stomoxys calcitrans see Stable fly 

STONE FRUITS F 123 

STORAGE 

Stored seed insects Seeds N 75 

STRAWBERRY F 139, Hydroponic 

systems N 42 

Strawberry angular leaf spot Strawberry 

F 139 

Strawberry aphid see Aphids 

Strawberry bug see Bugs 

Strawberry lethal yellows see Viruses 

Strawberry spider mite (banana spider 

mite) see Mites 

Strawberry thrips see Thrips 

Strawberry viruses Strawberry F 139 

Strawberry weevil see Weevils 

Strawflower Everlastings A 31 

Striate false wireworm see Wireworms 

Stromatinia gladioli (fungal) Gladioli C 30 

Strongylorhinus spp. see Gregarious gall 

weevils 

Strongylurus spp. (longicorn beetles) 

S. cretifer see Silverbirch branchcutter 

S. decoratus see Hoop-pine 

branchcutter 

S. thoracicus see Pittosporum 

longicorn 

Stubby root nematodes see Nematodes 

Stump removers see Wood rots 

Sturt pea see Australian native plants N 3 

Suckers Elm K 55, Ivy K 89, Poplar K 118 

Sudden wilt (protozoan disease) Palms 

H 3 

SUGAR BEET Beets M 33 

Sugarcane and maize stemborer see 

Borers 

Sugarcane mosaic virus see Viruses 

Sugarcane weevil borer see Weevils, 

Borers 

mixes N 64 

Sulphur injury Annuals A 9 

Sun scorch see Non-parasitic problems 

Suppressive mixes Compost N 17, Potting 

Surface wood-staining fungi see Woodstains 

Swallow tails (Papilionidae) see 

Caterpillars 

Swarming leaf beetles see Leaf beetles 

Sweating see Leaf blackening 

SWEETCORN M 87 

SWEET POTATO M 93 

Sweetpotato weevil see Weevils 

Swiss needle cast see Needle casts 

Syagrius fulvitarsus see Large fern weevil 

SYCAMORE Plane K 114 

Sycamore aphid see Aphids 

Sydowia polyspora see Needle drop 

Symmetrischema tangolias ( = 

S. plaesiosema) see Tomato stemborer 

Symonicoccus australis see Grass coccid 

SYMPHYLIDS (Symphyla) 

Greenhouses N 27, Pineapple F 105, 


garden symphylid, glasshouse 

symphylid Asparagus M 21, 


Synaleurodicus hakeae see Hakea 

whitefly 

Synanthedon tipuliformis see Currant 

borer moth 

Syntherata janetta see Emperor moths 

Syrphid flies see Flies 

Syringa vulgaris see Lilac 

T 

Tagetes spp. Marigold A 45 

Tailed emperor butterfly see Caterpillars 

Take-all (Gaeumannomyces graminis var. 

avenae), Ophiobolus patch 

(Ophiobolus graminis) Turfgrasses L 7 

Talanga tolumnialis see Figleaf moth 

TAMARICACEAE Tamarisk K 123 

TAMARISK (Tamarix spp.) K 123 

Taphrina spp. (leaf curls, leaf blisters) 

T. aurea Poplar K 117 

T. deformans Stone fruits F 126 

T. pruni (bladder plum) Stone fruits 

F 126 

Target spot (Alternaria solani) Potato 

M 78, Tomato M 98 

Target spot (Phlyctaena vagabunda = 

Gloeosporium album) Pome fruits 109 

Tar spot (fungal leaf spot) Bottlebrush 

K 36, Eucalypt K 58, Maple K 97, 

Melaleuca K 98, Tea-tree K 124 

Taylorilygus pallidulus see Brokenbacked 

bug 

Tea red spider mite see Mites 

TEA-TREE K 124 

Teatree itch mite see Mites 

Teatree moth see Caterpillars 

Tea-tree oil Melaleuca K 99 

Teatree scale see Scales (Eriococcid - 

Eriococcidae) 

Teatree web moth see Caterpillars 

Tebenna micalis see Caterpillars 

Tegolophus australis see Brown citrus rust 

mite 

Teia anartoides see Painted apple moth 

Teleogryllus commodus see Black field 

cricket 

Teleostylinus bivittatus (Derocephalus see 

Banana stalk fly 

Telopea sp. see Waratah 

Temperature see Non-parasitic problems 

Tenebrionidae see Wireworms 

Tenuipalpus pacificus see Orchid mite 

Tephritidae see Fruit flies 

Tepperia sterculiae see Kurrajong seed 

weevil 

Tessellated phasmatid see Stick insects 

Tessellated scale see Scales (soft) 

Tetanus Soil N 81 

TERMITES Australian native plants N 7, 

Conifers K 49, Eucalypt K 64, Mulches 

N 49, Palms H 5, Potato M 82, Protea K 

120, Trees K 16 

giant northern termite, giant termite 

Citrus F 43 

Tetranychidae see Spider mites 

Tetranychus spp. (spider mites) 

T. cinnabarinus (carmine mite) Beans 

(French) M 30, Hollyhock A 42, 

Lavender K 93 

T. hydrangea Hydrangea K 87 

T. lambi (banana spider mite, 

strawberry spider mite) Banana 

F 24 

T. ludeni (bean spider mite) Citrus 


T. urticae (twospotted mite) Beans 

(French) M 29, Strawberry F 141 

Teuchothrips spp. see Leafrolling thrips 

Thalaina spp. see Green wattle loopers 

Thallochaete baileyi (epiphyllous fungus) 

Hakea K 78 

Thatch Turfgrasses L 15 

THEACEAE (tea family) Camellia K 39 

Theba pisana see Sand dune snail 

Theretra spp. see Vine hawk moths 

Thielaviopsis black root rot see Root and 

stem rots 

Thielaviopsis spp. (thielaviopsis fungal 

diseases) 

T. basicola see Root and stem rots 

T. paradoxa Pineapple F 103 

Thopha saccata see Double drummer 

Three-lined potato beetle see Leaf beetles 

Thrips spp. (thrips) 

T. australis Eucalypt K 64 

T. hawaiiensis Banana flower thrips 

T. imaginis see Plague thrips 

T. palmi see Melon thrips 

T. simplex see Gladiolus thrips 

T. tabaci see Onion thrips 

THRIPS (Thripidae) Annuals A 9, 


K 29, Bulbs C 8, Casuarina K 43, 

Eucalypt K 64, Greenhouses N 24, 

Magnolia K 96, Roses J 6, Tomato 

M 103, Trees K 14, 17, Vegetables 

M 17, Wattle K 135 

banana flower thrips Banana F 25 

banana rust thrips Banana F 25 

banana-silvering thrips Banana F 25 

bean blossom thrips Beans (French) 

M 29 

black plague thrips Grapevine F 63 

citrus rust thrips see Orchid thrips 

below 

Cuban laurel thrips Fig F 57 

eastern yellow thrips Tomato M 103 

eucalyptus thrips Eucalypt K 64 

flower thrips Macadamia F 78 

gall thrips Australian native plants N 7, 

Fig F 57, Lilly-pilly K 95, Wattle 

K 135 

gladiolus thrips Bulbs C 8, Freesia 

C 27, Gladiolus C 31, Iris C 38 

greenhouse thrips Australian native 

plants N 7, Azalea K 29, Begonia 

C 15, Citrus F 42, Conifers K 48, 

Cyclamen C 17, Fuchsia K 70, 

Grapevine F 63, Greenhouses 

N 24, Hibiscus K 83, House plants 

N 35, Magnolia K 96, Maple K 97, 

Oak K 101, Orchids G 6, Palms H 5, 

Persimmon F 102, Photinia K 105, 


Trees K 17, Viburnum K 128 

hairless flower thrips Roses J 6 

kauri thrips Conifers K 49 

leaf distortion thrips see Leaf rolling 

thrips 

leafrolling thrips Australian native 

plants N 7, Bottlebrush K 37, 

Melaleuca K 99, Pittosporum K 113 

maize thrips Sweetcorn M 90 

melon thrips Tomato M 103 

onion thrips Azalea K 29, Beans 

(French) M 29, Brassicas M 40, 

Carnation A 18, Citrus F 42, 

Cucurbits M 55, Lettuce M 60, 

Onion M 68, Pea M 74, Potato 

M 81, Seedlings N 69, Thryptomene 

K 126, Tomato M 103 

orchid thrips Citrus F 42, Orchids G 6 

plague thrips Annuals A 9, Australian 

native plants N 7, Bulbs C 8, 

Carnation A 18, Chrysanthemum 

A 25, Citrus F 42, Dahlia C 25, 

Eucalypt K 64, Fruit F 12, 


Pea M 74, Pome fruits F 115, Rose 

J 6, Stone fruits F 133, Strawberry 

F 142, Tea-tree K 125, Tomato 

M 103, Trees K 17 

redbanded thrips Cashew F 31, Guava 

F 67, Mango F 81 

strawberry thrips Strawberry F 142 

tomato thrips Tomato M 103 

tubular black thrips Grapevine F 63 

INDEX P 27

INDEX 

THRIPS (contd) 

western flower thrips Annuals A 4, 

A 9, Bulbs C 8, Grapevine F 63, 



THRYPTOMENE K 126 

Thumbing Freesia C 27 

THYMELAEACEAE Daphne K 52 

THYSANOPTERA (thrips) see Thrips 

Tillandsia Bromeliads B 3 

Tinder punk see Wood rots 

Tingidae see Lace bugs 

TIP BORERS Trees K 17 

callistemon tip borer Bottlebrush K 38 

mango tipborer Mango F 81 

oriental fruit moth Stone fruits F 131 

Tiracola plagiata see Banana fruit 

caterpillar 

TISSUE CULTURE, embryo culture, 

meristem culture, micropropagation 


Tobacco flea beetle see Leaf beetles 

Tobacco leaf curl virus see Viruses 

Tobacco mosaic virus see Viruses 

Tobacco necrosis virus see Viruses 

Tobacco ringspot virus see Viruses 

Tobacco streak virus see Viruses 

Tobacco whitefly see Whiteflies 

TOMATO M 96 

Tomato aspermy virus see Viruses 

Tomato big bud mycoplasma see Viruses 

Tomato fly see Flies 

Tomato mirids see Bugs 

Tomato mosaic virus see Viruses 

Tomato russet mite see Mites 

Tomato spotted wilt virus see Viruses 

Tomato stemborer see Borers 

Tomato thrips see Thrips 

Tomato yellow top virus see Viruses 

Tonica effractella see Caterpillars 

Toona australis see Red cedar 

Torbia perficta see Green gum tree 

katydid 

Tortricidae see Leafroller moths 

Toxicities see Nutrient deficiencies 

Toxins Compost N 17, Mulches N 50, 


Toxoptera spp. see Black citrus aphids 

TRAILING BERRIES F 145 

Trametes cinnabarina Trees K 8 

TRANSPORT 

Tranzschelia discolor (rust) Stone fruits 

F 127 

TREEHOPPERS Australian native plants 

N 6, Casuarina K 43, Eucalypt K 61, 

Trees K 15 

green treehopper (Membracidae) 

Citrus F 38, Eucalypt K 61, Trees 


gumtree hoppers (Eurymelidae) 

Eucalypt K 61 

spiny treehopper (Membracidae) 

Eucalypt K 61, Trees K 15, Wattle 

K 134 

Tree injection Trees K 21 

Tree lucerne moth see Caterpillars 


Trialeurodes vaporariorum see 


Triangle butterflies see Caterpillars 

Tribinophorus graeffei see Red triangle 

slug 

Trichilogaster spp. see Wattle apple-gall 

wasp 

Trichoderma viride (fungus) see Biological 

control 

Trichodorus spp. see Stubby root 

nematodes 

Trichothecium roseum see Pink rot, pink 

mould 

Trioza spp. (psyllids) 

T. eugeniae see Lilly pilly psyllid 

T. vitreoradiata see Pittosporum psyllid 

Tristania conferta see Brush box 

Tritocosmia latecostata see Cypress 

longicorn 

Trombiculidae Itch mites 

TROPAEOLACEAE Nasturtium A 46 

Tropaeolium majus see Nasturtium 

Tropical American rusts see Rusts 

Tryphocaria spp. (longicorns) 

T. acanthocera see Bullseye borer 

T. mastersi see Eucalypt ringbarking 

longicorn 

Tuart see Eucalypt K 59, K 64 

Tuart longicorn see Borers 

Tuberculatus annulatus see Oak aphid 

Tuber mealybug see Mealybugs 

Tubular black thrips see Thrips 

TULIP C 42 

Tulip bulb aphid see Aphids 

Tulip finger, tulip nail Tulip C 43 

Tulip flower breaking virus see Viruses 

TURFGRASSES L 1 

Turnip see Brasssicas M 36 

Turnip aphid see Aphids 

Turnip mosaic virus See Viruses 

Tussock moths see Caterpillars 

Twainaphis sp. (aphids) see Aphids 

Twentyeight-spotted potato ladybird see 


Twentysix-spotted potato ladybird see 


Twig looper see Caterpillars 

Twospotted mite see Mites 

Tylenchulus semipenetrans see Citrus 

nematode 

Typhlodromus spp. (predatory mites) 

see also Biological control 

T. doreenae Grapevine F 63 

T. occidentalis Beans (French) M 30 

T. pyri Fruit F 12, Pome fruits F 115 

U 

ULMACEAE Elm K 54 

Ulmus spp. see Elm 

Unaspis citri see White louse scale 

Uncinula necator (powdery mildew) 


Uraba lugens see Gumleaf skeletoniser 

Uracanthus spp. (longicorn beetles) 

U. cryptophagus see Citrus 

branchborer 

U. pallens see White cypress longicorn 

U. triangularis see Wattle longicorn 

URBAN BUSHLAND N 86 

URBAN LANDSCAPES N 88 

Urban weeds Olive F 87 

Uredinales see Rusts 

Uredo fuchsiae (rust) Fuchsia K 70 

Uresiphita ornithopteralis see Tree lucerne 

moth 

Uromyces spp. (rusts) 

Uromyces sp. Wattle 131 

U. appendiculatus Beans (French) 

M 27 

U. betae Beets M 33 

U. dianthi Carnation A 17 

U. hardenbergiae Hardenbergia K 79 

U. limonii Statice A 53 

U. vicia-fabae Bean (broad) M 23 

Uromycladium spp. (gall rusts) Wattle 

K 131 

Ustilago spp. (smuts) 

U. lyginiae see Culm smut 

U. violacea see Anther smut 

V 

Valanga irregularis see Giant grasshopper 

Vanda see Australian native plants N 3, 

Orchids G 1 

Vandalism Trees K 21, Turfgrasses L 15, 

Urban bushland N 86, Urban 


Vanessa kershawi see Australian painted 

lady 

Vararia sp. see White root rot 

Vase life Annuals A 11, Postharvest N 62 

Vegetable beetle See Wireworms 

Vegetable leafhopper see Leafhoppers 


Vegetable weevil see Weevils 

Ventilation House plants N 37, Interior 


Venturia spp. (scabs) Fruit F 6, 

V. carpophila (= Fusicladium 

coprophilum).(scab) Stone fruits 

F 126 

V. inaequalis, V. pyri (black spot, scab) 


Vermicomposting Compost N 16 

Verrucalvus flavofaciens see Kikuyu 

yellows 

Verrucisporota spp. (fungal leaf spot) 

Grevillea K 75 

VERTEBRATES Fruit F13, Trees K 18, 

Urban bushland N 86, Urban 


birds Annuals A 9, Australian native 

plants N 8, Beets M 34, Blueberry 

F 27, Brassicas M 41, Bulbs C 8, 

Currants F 50, Fruit F 13, Grapevine 

F 63, Lettuce M 60, Pea M 75, Pine 

K 110, Seedlings N 70, Trees K 18, 


Waratah K 129 

cats, dogs Turfgrasses L 14, Wattle 

K 136 

fruit bats Fruit F 13, Lychee F 74, 

Mango F 82 

grazing animals Pine K 110, Seedlings 

N 70, Trees K18, Wattle K 136, 

Waratah K 129, Willow K 140 

humans Eucalypt K 65 

rabbits Fruit F 13, Grapevine F 63, 

Seedlings N 70, Trees K 18 

rats, mice Compost N 16, Cucurbits 

M 56, Fruit F 13, Postharvest N 61, 

Seeds N 77, Vegetables M 18 

Verticillium wilt see Wilts 

Verticillium spp. (fruit rots, wilts) 

V. dahliae see Verticillium wilt 

V. theobromae (cigar end) Banana 

F 22 

VERTICORDIA K 127 

Viability Seedlings N 70, Seeds N 74 

VIBURNUM K 128 

Vicia faba see Bean (broad) 

Vine hawk moth see Caterpillars 

Vinegar flies See Flies 

Vine weevil see Weevils 

Vineyard snail see Snails 

VIOLACEAE Violet A 56 

Viola mottle virus see Viruses 

VIOLET A 56 

Violet aphid see Aphids 

VIRUSES AND VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES 

Annuals A 4, Avocado F 18 , Banana 

F 22, Bulbs C 4, Camellia K 39, 

Compost N 16, Daphne K 52, Fruit F 4, 

Greenhouses N 22, Hibiscus K 81, 

House plants N 35, Hydroponic 

systems N 41, Interior plantscapes 

N 45, Plant tissue culture N 59, 

Postharvest N 61, Seedlings N 66, 

Seeds N 74, Soil N 80, Strawberry 

F 139, Trees K 4, Turfgrasses L 3, 

Urban bushland N 86, Vegetables M 4, 

Water N 90 

abutilon mosaic virus Abutilon K 25 

alfalfa mosaic virus Beets M 33, 

Daphne K 52, Lavender K 93 

apple flat limb Pome fruits F 107 

apple green crinkle Pome fruits F 107 

apple mosaic Pome fruits F 107 

banana bunchy top Banana F 22 

barley yellow dwarf virus Turfgrasses 

L 3 

bean common mosaic Beans (French) 

M 25 

bean yellow mosaic virus Beans 

(French) M 25, Freesia C 27, 

Gladiolus C 29 

beet curly top virus Violet A 56 

beet mosaic virus Beets M 33 

beet western yellows Beets M 33, 


broad bean wilt virus Bean (broad) 

M 23 

broccoli necrotic yellow virus 


cadang-cadang Palms H 2 

camellia yellow mottle Camellia K 39 

P 28 

INDEX

INDEX 

VIRUSES AND VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES 

(contd) 

carnation mottle virus Annuals A 4, 

Carnation A 16, Daphne K 52 

carrot motley dwarf virus Carrot M 44 

cauliflower mosaic virus Brassicas 

M 36 

celery mosaic virus Celery M 45 

citrus exocortis Citrus F 33 

citrus psorosis Citrus F 33 

citrus tristeza Citrus F 33 

cherry leaf roll virus Stone fruits F 148 

cherry rasp leaf Stone fruits F 123 

cucumber mosaic virus Annuals A 4, 

Cucurbits M 50, Cyclamen C 16, 

Daphne K 52, Passionfruit F 91, 

Tomato M 97 

dasheen mosaic Zantedeschia C 45 

dieback, mosaic and yellow crinkle 

(phytoplasma) Papaw F 88 

fig mosaic virus Fig F 55 

freesia mosaic virus Freesia C 27 

garlic mosaic Onion M 66 

garlic yellow streak Onion M 66 

gooseberry veinbanding Currants 

F 48 

grapevine enation Grapevine F 58 

grapevine fanleaf Grapevine F 58 

grapevine leaf roll Grapevine F 58 

grapevine yellow mycoplasma 


grapevine yellow speckle viroid 


hibiscus chlorotic ringspot virus 

Hibiscus K 81 

hyacinth mosaic virus Hyacinth C 35 

hydrangea ringspot virus Hydrangea 

K 86 

impatiens necrotic spot virus Annuals 

A 4, A 9, Tomato M 96 

iris mild mosaic virus Iris C37 

iris severe mosaic virus Iris C 37 

kennedya y virus Kennedia K 90 

kennedya yellow virus Kennedia K 90 

lettuce big vein virus Hydroponic 

systems N 41, Lettuce M 58,, Soil 

N 80 

lettuce mosaic virus Lettuce M 58 

lettuce necrotic yellows virus Lettuce 

M 58 

narcissus latent virus Daffodil C 19 

narcissus mosaic virus Daffodil C 19, 

Hyacinth C 35 

narcissus yellow stripe virus Daffodil 

C 19 

onion yellow dwarf virus Onion M 66 

papaya ringspot virus Cucurbits M 50, 

Pawpaw F 88 

passionfruit woodiness virus 

Passionfruit F 91, Peanut F 96 

pea pimple virus Pea M 72 

peanut mottle virus Peanut F 96 

peanut stripe virus Peanut F 96 

pear stony pit virus Pome fruits F 107 

pea seedborne virus Pea M 72 

pelargonium flower breaking virus 

Geranium A 34 

pelargonium leaf curl virus Geranium 

A 34 

plum pox virus Stone fruits F 123 

poinsettia mosaic virus Poinsettia 

K 116 

potato leaf roll virus Potato M 77 

potato viruses X, Y and Z Kennedia 

K 90, Potato M 77, Tomato M 97 

primrose mosaic virus Primrose A 50 

prune dwarf virus Stone fruits F 123 

Prunus necrotic ringspot Roses J 2, 


raspberry bushy dwarf virus Trailing 

berries F 145 

rose mosaic Roses J 2 

strawberry lethal yellows Strawberry F 

139 

sugarcane mosaic virus Turfgrasses L 

3 

tobacco leaf curl virus Honeysuckle 

K 85 

tobacco mosaic virus Soil N 80, 

Tomato M 97 

tobacco necrosis virus Tulip C 42 

tobacco ringspot virus Daphne K 52 

tobacco streak virus Dahlia C 24, 


tomato aspermy virus 


tomato big bud mycoplasma Annuals 

A 4, Pawpaw F 88, Tomato M 97 

tomato mosaic virus Tomato M 97 

tomato spotted wilt African violet A 12, 

Annuals A 4, Chrysanthemum A 23, 

Dahlia C 24, Nasturtium A 46, 

Peanut F 96, Poppy A 49, Tomato 

M 96 

tomato yellow top virus Tomato M 97 

tulip flower breaking virus Tulip C 42 

turnip mosaic virus Brassicas M 36, 

Stock A 54 

viola mosaic virus Violet A 56 

viruses (beneficial) see Biological 

control 

yellow net vein virus Geranium A 34 

VIRUS-TESTED PLANTING MATERIAL 

see Control methods 

VITACEAE Bush fruits F 29, Grapevine 

F 58 

Vizella banksiae (fungal leaf spot) 

Banksia K 31 

W 

WALNUT F 148 

Walnut black line Walnut F 148 

Walnut blister mites see Mites 

Walnut pinhole borer see Borers 

WARATAH K 129 

WASPS (Hymenoptera) Australian native 

plants N 6, Trees K 14 

bluegum eulophid Eucalypt K 61, 

Trees K 14 

Capri fig wasp Fig F 57 

citrus gall wasp Citrus F 37 

eulophid wasps (Eulophidae) 


Eucalypt K 61, Geraldton wax K 73, 

Trees K 14 

European wasp Urban landscapes N 

88 

fig wasps Fig F 57 

gall wasps Australian native plants N 6, 

Banksia K 32, Casuarina K 43, 

Citrus F 37, Eucalypt K 61, Hakea 

K 77, Kurrajong K 92, Trees K 14, 

Wattle K 135 

Moreton Bay fig wasp Fig F 57 

orchid dupe Orchids G 7 

paper nest wasps Citrus F 44, Fruit 

F 14 

parasitic wasps see Biological control 

parsnip seed wasp Parsnip M 71 

seed wasps. seed chalcids 

(Eurytomidae) Australian native 

plants N 6, Trees K 14, see also 

Seed insects 

WASTE Nurseries N 55, Soil N 81, Water 

N 91 

irrigation water Nurseries N 53 

waste media Hydroponic systems 

N 42, Nurseries N 52 

WATER N 90 Containers N 19, House 

plants N 36, Interior plantscapes N 45, 

Nurseries N 53, Oak K 102, Pine 

K 110, Pittosporum K 113, Postharvest 

N 61, Urban landscapes N 88, Willow 

K 140 

water sources Water N 90 

water treatments Nurseries N 53, 

Water N 90 

Watercore Pome fruits F 117 

Water loss Postharvest N 61 

Waterlily Water plants N 94 

WATER PLANTS N 94 

Water rings African violet A 12 

WATTLE K 131 

Wattle blight Wattle K 132 

Wattle cicada see Cicadas 

Wattle goat moth see Borers 

Wattle leafminer see Leafminers 

Wattle mealybug see Mealybugs 

Wattle longicorn see Borers 

Wattle ringbarking beetle Wattle K 132 

Wattle root longicorn see borers 

Wattle tick scale see Scales (soft) 

Wattle web-covering borer Wattle K 132 

Web moths (Pyralidae) see Caterpillars 

Webworms see Caterpillars 

Westringia see Mint bush K 100 

WEEDS Annuals A 9, Australian native 

plants N 8, Bonsai N 14, Bromeliads 

B 4 , Bulbs C 8, Cacti D 3, Compost 

N 17, Containers N 20, Fruit F 14, 

Greenhouse N 28, Gypsophila A 40, 

Herbs N 33, House plants N 37, 

Mulches N 50, Olive F 87, Potting 

mixes N 65, Seedlings N 70, Seeds 

N 75, Soil N 81, Statice A 53, Trees K 

21, Turfgrasses L 16, Urban bushland 

N 86, Urban landscapes N 88, Water 

N 94 

aquatic weeds Water N 92 

noxious weeds Water N 92 

oxalis Bromeliads B 4 

potential weeds Hakea K 78, 

Hardenbergia K 79, Herbs N 33, 

Honeysuckle K 85, Ivy K 89, Maple 

K 97, Melaleuca K 99, Olive F 87, 

Pittosporum K 113, Water N 94, 

Wattle K 136, Willow K 140 

urban weeds Olive F 87, Urban 

bushland N 86, Urban landscapes 

N 88 

WEEVILS (Curculionidae) Annuals A 9, 


K 29, Citrus F 42, Eucalyptus K 64, 

Fruit F 13, Pine K 108, Pittosporum 

K 113, Protea K 120, Seedlings N 68, 

Tamarisk K 123, Tomato M 103, Trees 

K 17, Turfgrasses L 12, Vegetables 

M 17, Wattle K 132, see also Borers 

apple root weevils Pome fruits F 116 

apple weevil Azalea K 29, Citrus F 42, 

Pecan F 100, Pome fruits F 116 

Argentine stem weevil Seeds N 74, 


bean weevil Beans (French) M 31, 

Bean (broad) M 24, Pea M 75 

billbug Turfgrasses L 12 

black vine weevil Annuals A 9, Azalea 

K 29, Begonia C 15, Cyclamen 

C 17, Fruit F 13, Grapevine F 63, 

Olive F 87, Strawberry F 142 

broadbean weevil Bean (broad) M 24 

carrot weevil see Spotted vegetable 

weevil below 

citrus fruit weevil Citrus F 42 

citrus leafeating weevil Citrus F 42 

citrus root bark channeller Citrus F 36 

cypress bark weevil Conifers K 47 

diamond beetle Wattle K 132 

dicky rice weevil see Spinelegged 

citrus weevil below 

elephant weevil Australian native 

plants N 8, Citrus F 36, F 42, 

Custard apple F 52, Pecan F 99, 

Trees K 12, K 18, Wattle K 132 

eucalyptus weevil Eucalypt K 64 

fern weevil Ferns E 3 

fruit-tree root weevil Citrus F 42, 

Eucalypt K 64, Fruit F 11, F 13, 

Pome fruits F 116, Trees K 12, 

Wattle K 132 

Fuller's rose weevil Azalea K 29, 

Beans (French) M 31, Citrus F 42, 

Cucurbits M 55, Fruit F 13, Gardenia 

K 72, Passionfruit F 94, Pome fruits 

F 116, Protea K 120, Rhubarb M 86, 

Rose J 6, Strawberry F 142, 


garden weevil Annuals A 9, Azalea 

K 29, Carrot M 45, Mulches N 49, 

Protea K 120, Trees K 17, Waratah 

K 129 

giant pine weevil Conifers K 48 

gooseberry weevil Currants F 49 

INDEX P 29

INDEX 

WEEVILS (contd) 

gregarious gall weevils Eucalypt K 61, 

K 64, K 14 

ground weevil Passionfruit F 94 

kurrajong seed weevil Kurrajong K 91 

kurrajong weevil Kurrajong K 91, 

Seeds N 74 

large fern weevil Ferns E 3 

maidenhair fern weevil Ferns E 3 

mango seed weevils Mango F 82, 

Seeds N 74 

mango weevil Mango F 82 

melaleuca leaf weevils Melaleuca 

K 99 

mimic bark weevil Kurrajong K 91 

orchid weevil Orchids G 6 

pea weevil Pea M 74, Seeds N 75 

pine bark weevil Conifers K 47, Pine 

K 108 

pine stump weevil Conifers K 48, Pine 

K 108 

radiata pine shoot weevil Conifers 

K 48, Pine K 109 

redlegged weevil Eucalypt K 64 

ringbarking weevil Bottlebrush K 36, 

Geraldton wax K 73, Thryptomene 

K 126, Verticordia K 127 

rough strawberry weevil Strawberry 

F 142 

small lucerne weevil Blueberry F 27 

spinelegged citrus weevil Citrus F 42 

spinetailed weevil Pea M 75 

spotted vegetable weevil, carrot 

weevil Brassicas M 40, Carrot M 45, 

Fruit F 13, Strawberry F 142, 


strawberry weevil Fruit F 13, 


sugarcane weevil borer Palms H 5 

sweetpotato weevil Sweet potato M 94 

thin strawberry weevil Strawberry 

F 142 

vegetable weevil Annuals A 9, Carrot 

M 45, Celery M 48, Lettuce M 60, 

Onion M 69, Parsnip M 71, Potato 

M 82, Rhubarb M 86, Tomato 


vine weevil Grapevine F 60, F 63, 

Pecan F 100, Wattle K 133 

whitefringed weevil Beans (French) 

M 31, Brassicas M 40, Carrot M 45, 

Fruit F 13, Lettuce M 60, Parsnip 

M 71, Peanut F 98, Potato M 82, 


F 143, Tomato M 103, Vegetables 

M 17 

whitestriped weevil Citrus F 42, 

Passionfruit 94 

Western Australian Christmas tree Trees 

K 9 

Western flower thrips see Thrips 

Western gall rust see Rusts 

Wetting agents Annuals A 9, Geranium 

A 35 

Wheat bug see Bugs 

White ants see Termites 

White blister rust see Rusts 

WHITE CEDAR K 138 

White cedar moth see Caterpillars 

White curl grubs see Scarab beetles 

White cypress longicorn see Borers 

WHITEFLIES (Aleyrodidae) Abutilon K 25, 


K 29, Greenhouses N 24, Melaleuca 

K 99, Poinsettia K 116, Trees K 18, 

Verticordia K 127 

Australian citrus whitefly Citrus F 42 

azalea whitefly Azalea K 29 

banksia whitefly Banksia K 32 

citrus yellow fly Citrus F 43 

coconut whitefly Banksia K 32 

cotton whitefly Abutilon K 25, 

Poinsettia K 116 

greenhouse whitefly Annuals A 8, 

Australian native plants N 8, Beans 

(French) M 29, Begonia C 15, 

Boronia K 34, Cucurbits M 54, 

Fuchsia K 70, Gardenia K 72, 

Geranium A 35, Greenhouses 

N 24, Hibiscus K 82, Honeysuckle 

K 85, House plants N 35, Hydrangea 

K 86, Mint bush K 100, Palms H 5, 

Potato M 81, Seedlings N 69, 


hakea whitefly Hakea K 78 

poinsettia whitefly Poinsettia K 116 

silverleaf whitefly see Poinsettia 

whitefly above 

spiralling whitefly Banana F 25 

tobacco whitefly see Cotton whitefly 

above 

Whitefringed weevil see Weevils 

White grubs see Scarab beetles 

White Italian snail see Snails 

White lace lerp see Psyllids 

Whitelined hawk moth see Caterpillars 

White louse scale see Scales (armoured) 

White palm scale see Scales (armoured) 

White pine blister rust see Rusts 

White root rot see Root and stem rots 

White rot see Fungi 

White rust see Rusts 

White springtail see Springtails 

Whitestemmed gum moth see Caterpillars 

Whitestriped weevil see Weevils 

White wax scale see Scales (soft) 

White yellowish wood rot see Wood rots 

WILLOW K 139 

Willow black canker Willow K 139 

Willow leaf sawfly Willow K 140 

WILTS Vegetables M 9 

aechmea wilt (Fusarium sp.) 

Bromeliads B 2 

bacterial wilts (Corynebacterium, 

Erwinia, Pseudomonas, 

Xanthomonas) Annuals A 5, 

Banana F 22, Beets M 33, Brassicas 

M 36, Carnation A 16, Custard apple 

F 57, Dahlia C 24, Potato M 78, 


Wattle K 131 

Dutch elm disease (Ceratocystis 

ulmi) Elm K 54, Trees K 7 

fusarium wilts (Fusarium oxysporum 

f.spp.) Annuals A 7, Banana F 23, 

Bromeliads B 2, Chrysanthemum 

A 24, Gerbera A 38, Tomato M 100, 

Trees K 7, Vegetables M 9 

myrtle wilt (Chalara australis) Trees 

K 7 

Panama wilt (Fusarium sp.) Banana 

F 23 

verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) 

Annuals A 7, Chrysanthemum A 24, 

Fruit F 7, Gerbera A 38, Snapdragon 

A 51, Stone fruits 

F 127, Strawberry F 140, Tomato 

M 100, Trees K 8, Vegetables M 9 

Wind Poplar K 118, Urban landscapes 

N 88 

Wingless grasshoppers see Grasshoppers 

WIREWORMS , CLICK BEETLES 

(Elateridae) and FALSE WIREWORMS 

(Tenebrionidae) Bulbs C 8, Seedlings 

N 69, Tomato M 103, Tulip C 43, 


false wireworms Brassicas M 41, 

Bulbs C 8, Seedlings N 69, 



northern false wireworm Tomato 

M 103 

potato wireworm Potato M 82, 

Seedlings N 69 

small false wireworm Seedlings N 69 

striate false wireworms Seedlings 

N 69 

Vegetable beetle Vegetables M 18 

Witches' broom Protea K 119, Turfgrasses 

L 4 

Witchetty bush Wattle K 133 

Witchetygrubs, witjuti grubs see Borers 

Witjuti Trees K 12, Wattle K 133 

Woodlice (slaters) Strawberry F 142, 

Greenhouse N 27 

Wood moths, goat moths see Borers 

WOOD ROTS (Basidiomycetes) 


K 31, Conifers K 46, Eucalypt K 58, 

Fruit F 7, Melaleuca K 98, Pine K 107, 

Pome fruits F 111, Potting mixes N 64, 

Stone fruits F 128, Trees K 8, K 9, 

Wattle K 131, Willow K 139 

bacterial rots Trees K 9 

common honeycomb (Osmoporus 

gunni) Banksia K 31 

cramp balls (Daldinia concentrica) 

Casuarina K 42 

ganoderma butt rots (Ganoderma 

zonata) Palms H 3 

karri brown rot (various fungi) 

Eucalypt K 59 

pink limb blight (Corticium 

salmonicolor) Custard apple F 52, 

Fruit F 7, K 8 

red wood rot (Pycnoporus spp., 

Trametes cinnabarina) Banksia 

K 31, Fruit F 7, Melaleuca K 98, 

Stone fruits F 128, Trees K 8 

ring-barking fuscoporia (Fuscoporia 

sp.) Australian native plants N 4, 

Boronia K 34, Conifers K 46, 

Eucalypt K 58, Mint bush K 100, 


silver leaf (Stereum spp.) Fruit F 7, 

Maple K 97, Oak K 101, Poplar 

K 117, Protea K 120, Stone fruits 

F 128, Trees K 8 

slow white rots (Ascomycetes) Trees 

K 9 

soft rots Trees K 9 

stump removers (Peniophora 

gigantea, Poria medullaris) Trees 

K 9 

tinder punk (Phellinus spp.) Banksia 

K 31, Casuarina K 42, Conifers 

K 46, Grevillea K 75, Lilly-pilly K 95, 

Melaleuca K 98, Oak K 101, Trees K 

7, K 8 

white yellowish wood rot (Polyporus 

versicolor = Polystictus 

versicolor) Fruit F 7, Pittosporum 

K 112, Stone fruits F 128, Trees K 8 

woody root rots Conifers K 46 

yellow heart rot (Schizophyllum 

commune) Fruit F 7, Pine K 107, 

Trees K 8 

WOOD-STAINS Conifers K 46, Pine 


Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium. 

Rhizopus Trees K 9 

blue stain fungi Conifers K 46, Pine 

K 107 

brown stain Conifers K 46 

sap stains Conifers K 46 

surface stains Conifers K 46 

Wood wasps see Borers 

Woolly aphid see Aphids 

Woollybear caterpillar see Caterpillars 

Woolly giant mealybug Wattle K 135 

Woolly pine aphid see Pine adelgid 

X 

Xanthodes spp. see Hairy leafeating 

caterpillars 

Xanthomonas ampelina (bacterial blight) 


Xanthomonas campestris (blights, fruit 

cankers, leaf spots, rots) 

X. campestris pv. begoniae Begonia C 

14 

X. campestris pv. campestris 


X. campestris pv. carotae Carrot M 44 

X. campestris pv. citri Citrus F 33 

X. campestris pv. corylina Hazelnut 

F 68 

X. campestris pv. hederae Ivy K 88 

X. campestris pv. hyacinthi Hyacinth 

C 35 

X. campestris pv. incanae Stock A 54 

X. campestris pv. juglandis Walnut 

F 148 

X. campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae 

Mango F 80 

P 30 

INDEX

INDEX 

XANTHOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (contd) 

X. campestris pv. papavericola Poppy 

A 49 

X. campestris pv. pelargonii 

Geranium A 34 

X. campestris pv. phaseoli Beans 

(French) M 25 

X. campestris pv. pruni Stone fruits 

F 124 

X. campestris pv. vesicatoria Cape 

gooseberry F 30, Tomato M 98 

X. campestris pv. zinniae Zinnia A 58 

Xanthomonas fragariae (leaf spot) 


XERISCAPE N 95 

Xiphinema index see Dagger nematode 

Xyleborus truncatus see Eucalypt keyhole 

borer 

Xylella fastidiosa see Pierce's disease 

Xyleutes spp. (wood moths) 

Xyleutes sp. (= X. leucomochla) see 

Witjuti grub 

X. cinereus (= X. boisduvali) see Giant 

wood moth 

X. encalypti (= E. eucalypti) see Wattle 

goat moth 

Xylorycta luteotactella see Macadamia 

twig-girdler 

Xylotrupes gideon see Elephant beetle 

Y 

Yeasty rot, sour rot see Fruit rots 

Yeasty rot, yeasts see Fruit rots 

Yellow-banded mealybug see Golden 

mealybug 

Yellowbox lerp see Psyllids 

Yellowish wood rot see Wood rots 

Yellow jassid see Leafhoppers 

Yellow leaf blotch (fungal) Walnut F 148 

Yellow leafhopper see Leafhoppers 

Yellow longicorn see Borers 

Yellow Monday see Cicadas 

Yellow net vein virus see Viruses 

Yellow palmdart see Caterpillars 

Yellow peach moth see Caterpillars 

Yellow sigatoka Banana F 23 

YOUNGBERRY Trailing berries F 145 

Yponomeutidae see Ermine moths 

Z 

ZANTEDESCHIA C 45 

Zelotypia stacyi see Bentwing ghost moth 

Zenarge turneri see Cypress pine sawfly 

Zeugophora sp. see Leaf beetles 

ZINNIA A 58 

Zonate leaf spot (fungal) Tomato M 99 

Zonitidae see Snails 

ZUCCHINI Cucurbits M 50 

Zygina zealandica see Yellow leafhopper 

INDEX P 31

INDEX 

Transverse ladybirds 

(Coccinella transversalis) 

about 5 mm long 

P 32 

INDEX

STEPS IN DIAGNOSING PLANT PROBLEMS 

Remember these steps are not set in concrete, some may be bypassed, combined or even reversed. 

For example, you may need a reference to identify the host plant, you may decide to send the 

plant specimen directly to a diagnostic service. Telephone enquiries mean that you do not have 

the specimen to examine at that particular moment, but you could ask for one to be forwarded. 

 

 

Record 

history 

Ask ? 

 

 

XPERT 

Different 

diagnostic 

services offer 

different test 

facilities 

Some industries 

have their own 

diagnostic 

services, eg 

grapevines, 

cereals, turf 

STEP 1. NAME AND TYPE OF THE HOST PLANT/CROP 

• Identify the host by its common names (and botanical name if necessary). 

The name of the cultivar is often useful. 

• List the pests and diseases to which the crop is susceptible in your region. 

• List types of any other plants growing near, around or under crop plants. 

STEP 2. VISUALLY EXAMINE THE PLANT 

• Examine foliage, stems, flowers, fruit and roots. Look for: 

– Presence of insects, fungal spores, etc. 

– Symptoms, ie reaction to thrips feeding, eg silvering of leaves. 

• Cut open fruit, seeds, stems and roots. 

• Hand lens, microscope. Examine affected tissue under a low power (hand 

lens or dissecting) or high power (compound) microscope. You can 

compare features with published descriptions found reference texts. 

• If you have not yet identified the problem, move to Step 3. 

STEP 3. ON-SITE VISIT, HISTORY/QUESTIONS 

• Examine plants on-site. This often provides information for a diagnosis. 

• If it is not possible to visit the site, ask the grower about the history of the 

crop: Try to ask question systematically. 

– Look for patterns; try to eliminate, or exclude, possibilities. 

– How is the problem distributed in the field? 

– Is the problem restricted to one species or across species 

– Are all the plants of one species affected? 

– It really a problem or just of interest? 

– Source of propagation material, growing media, containers. 

– Recent applications of fertilizers and pesticides? 

– Has the weather been unusual? Check environmental data. high and low 

temperatures, humidity and over/under-watering, source of water, etc. 

– Disease severity, predisposing factors, eg nutritional imbalances, crop hygiene. 

• On-site tests, eg ELISA tests. 


STEP 4. CONSULT A REFERENCE 

• To assist with and confirm diagnosis. Diagnostic tests may be available, eg 

– For some soil diseases, eg Phytophthora in plants, soil and water. 

– Soil probes can measure soil moisture, temperature and salinity. 

• Obtain information on the biology of the disease or pest, eg host range, 

symptoms, life cycle, overwintering, spread, conditions favouring. 

• Options for prevention and control. Most economic crops have Integrated Pest 

Management (IPM) programs, Quality Assurance (QA) systems or computer 

programs detailing processes for managing crops from ‘field-to-plate’. 

• Internet sources can be very helpful, but use with caution as many problems 

listed do not necessarily occur in Australia or in your region. 


STEP 5. CONSULT A DIAGNOSTIC SERVICE. see Preface page xii 

• To confirm or obtain a diagnosis. 

• Types of services available include: 

– Identification of diseases, pests, beneficials, weeds, also symptoms. 

– Advice on monitoring and thresholds, eg sticky traps, scouting, Cropwatch. 

– Advice on control and IPM, purchase of beneficials. 

– Develop disease management systems for some crops, eg Asian vegetables. 

– Testing for pesticide resistance, eg is your weed resistant to glyphosate? 

– Quarantine assistance, incursion management. 

– Disease-testing for accreditation/certification schemes, eg raspberry, garlic, 

ornamentals, nurseries; microbial testing for Quality Assurance. 

– Seed, plant tissue, soil, media and water testing and analyses. 

– How to collect and dispatch samples. 

– Pest and disease fact sheets for key pests, diseases and weeds. 

– Services are usually ‘user pays’. Expense may be necessary for effective control. 

– Training workshops on diagnosis and control in particular crops. 

– Distance diagnostics by specialists.

The AuThor’s Aim in this series of books is to provide users with the 

systematic understanding of Plant Protection and Plant Management 

required of modern horticulture. The books are used to teach Plant 

Protection throughout Australia and as a reference by people working 

in the horticulture industry. 

ruTh Kerruish’s interest in diseases and pests of plants commenced 

with her post-graduate studies at the University of Western Australia. 

She later worked as a researcher with CSIRO (Forest Products, 

Melbourne and Plant Industry, Canberra) and taught Plant Protection in 

the Department of Horticulture in the Canberra Institute of Technology. 

Adrienne WAlKingTon trained in architectural drafting in Adelaide 

and in Horticulture in Canberra where she worked as a technician in 

the Department of Horticulture in the Canberra Institute of Technology. 

Plant Protection SerieS: 

1. Pests, Diseases and Weeds 

2. Methods of Control 

3. Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and 


4. How to Diagnose Plant Problems 

ISBN 1-875907-00-9 

rootrot PreSS 

22 Lynch Street, Hughes, Canberra, ACT, Australia 2605 

(02) 6281 3650 Fax (02) 6285 1657 

ISBN 1-875907-00-9

Plant Protection 3 : Selected Ornamentals, Fruit and Vegetables

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