Alaska Forage Manual - Alaska Plant Materials Center - State of ...

Alaska Forage Manual

Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes 

only and does not imply endorsement by any employee or 

branch of the State of Alaska. All photographs are copyright of their 

respective owners. 

Published November, 2012: 

2 nd Printing: May, 2012: 

State of Alaska 

Department of Natural Resources 

Division of Agriculture 

Plant Materials Center 

5310 S. Bodenburg Spur Rd. 

Palmer, AK 99645 

This publication was funded 

in part by a grant from the 

United States Department of 

Agriculture, Natural Resource 

Conservation Service. 

Front Cover: Hay field near Palmer, Alaska 

Cover Photo: Alaska Division of Agriculture

Alaska Forage Manual 

By 

Casey L. Dinkel & Philip K. Czapla 

Layout and Design: Brennan Veith Low 

Above: Casey Dinkel at the Arctic Circle monument on the Dalton Highway 

At right: Phil Czapla in Barrow, Alaska

Foreword

Section A. Background 

• Introduction 

• Forage and Alaska 

• Forage Types 

• Forage and Animals

Introduction 

Photo: Casey Dinkel, AK PMC 

Hay field near Fox River flats - Homer, Alaska 

The Alaska Forage Manual was created through a joint agreement between the 

USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) and the Alaska Plant Materials 

Center (PMC). The project was designed to synthesize and build upon existing information 

about forage crops in Alaska. A wealth of knowledge from many different 

sources has been compiled in this publication to serve present and future managers 

of livestock and wildlife operations, as well as local agencies. 

The goal of this manual is to introduce grasses, legumes and cereal crop species 

which are commonly planted to provide forage for grazing livestock. Forage species 

are those seeded on a pastureland and then grazed fresh or harvested for hay, silage 

or haylage. 

An important distinction can be made between pastureland and rangeland. Generally, 

pastureland is managed and agronomic inputs such as fertilizer and irrigation are 

applied to maintain native or introduced species. This is most often not the case with 

rangeland. 

For the purposes of this manual, Forage is defined as: “Herbaceous grasses and legumes 

available and acceptable to grazing animals, or that may be harvested for 

feed purposes” (TN Plant Materials NO. 28, 2001). Depending on location, climate, 

soil type, and management goals, a different forage species may be better adapted to 

the site than what was traditionally used. 

It is the authors’ intention that those who have traditionally used only brome and 

timothy as their primary forage species will consider trying something different with 

their next planting. 

1

Target Audience 

The intended audience for this manual is primarily 

managers of livestock and wildlife operations. This 

manual may also be useful to local organizations 

and government agencies interested in the conservation 

value of forage species. This book is prepared 

with the assumption that the primary goal of 

planting will be to improve and increase forage for 

livestock or wildlife. 

Content of Manual 

This manual has been designed to take the user 

through sequential order from briefly introducing 

agriculture in Alaska, forage types and animals, and 

then proceeding to crop establishment and finally 

forage species profiles. 

Section A. Background 


• Forage and Alaska 

• Forage Types 

• Forage and Animals 

Section B. Crop Establishment 

• Planning 

• Goals & Objectives 

• Evaluating Site Conditions 

• Selection of Species 

• Planting Choice 

• Planting Method 

• Site Preparation 

• Planting Time 

Section C. Plant Profiles 

• Grasses 

• Cereal Grains 

• Legumes 

Section A - Background: 

A brief introduction to Alaska agriculture, along 

with the forage types and animals found consuming 

forage in Alaska. 

Section B - Crop Establishment: 

Organized to allow a user to understand cultural 

practices essential for a successful crop stand. The 

project planning chapter covers determining goals 

and objectives and evaluating site conditions like soil 

pH and texture. This section also will guide the reader 

through some introductory principles to ensure a 

successful planting such as site preparation, application 

methods to apply plant material, weed control, 

and time of planting. 

Section C - Plant Profiles: 

Twenty-four plant species make up the foundation 

of this manual. Species were chosen based on their 

forage attributes and ability to survive and thrive in 

Alaska’s diverse regions. The forage value, general 

morphological characteristics and management of 

each individual species is detailed. Also accompanying 

each profile is a table listing plant characteristics 

such as average height, drought tolerance and pH 

range. The regions of Alaska to which a plant species 

is adapted are shown on a color-coded map. 

Section D - Additional Information: 

Glossary, works cited and appendices, including 

a nutrient study of forage grasses during different 

growth stages and State of Alaska Prohibited & Restricted 

Noxious weeds. 

Section D. Additional Information 

• Appendix A: Nutrient Study 

• Appendix B: Seed Specifications 

• Appendix C: Noxious Weeds 

• Glossary 

• Works Cited 

2

Forage and Alaska 


Hay bales are stored in a pole barn in Delta Junction, to protect them from weather. 

Approximately 20,000 acres of hay are harvested each year in Alaska. 

Alaska is a vast state, with a diversity of environmental conditions. It is also an enormous 

state - 1/5 th the size of the contiguous lower 48 states. There is not an abundance 

of producing farmland, however. Of the 366 million acres in Alaska, about 900,000 

acres are farmland. The majority of this farmland - 737,746 acres, is used as pasture. 

From an agricultural standpoint, Alaska ranks near the bottom of U.S. agricultural 

production. The top 5 agriculture commodities reported in Alaska for 2010 were: 

Ag. Commodity Type Value of Receipts % of AK Total Farm Receipts 

Greenhouse/nursery $13.0 million 42.3% 

Hay $4.1 million 13.2% 

Cattle and calves $2.4 million 7.9% 

Potatoes $2.4 million 7.7% 

Dairy products $1.6 million 5.2% 

- All other commodities - $7.3 million 23.7% 

All Commodities $30.8 million 100% 

Data: Alaska Agricultural Statistics 2010 - USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service 

3

Regions 

For the purposes of this manual, Alaska is broken 

into several regions: Arctic, Western, Interior, Southcentral, 

Southwest and Southeast. These regions 

vary widely in climate. Agricultural lands are located 

in primarily two regions; the Matanuska and Susitna 

Valleys in Southcentral, and the Tanana Valley east of 

Fairbanks in the Interior. The Matanuska Valley has 

mild summers and moderate winters, while the Tanana 

Valley is more extreme with hot summers and 

very cold winters. 

Western 

Southwest 

Arctic 

Interior 

Southcentral 

Southeast 

Major Agriculture Areas in Alaska 

• Copper Center / Kenny Lake 

• Fairbanks 

• Delta Junction 

• Nenana 

• Talkeetna / Trapper Creek 

• Palmer 

• Wasilla / Point MacKenzie 

• Kenai 

• Homer 

4 

Agricultural parcels in Alaska are clustered around the Matanuska, Susitna and Copper river drainages in the south and the 

Tanana and Yukon flats in the north. Farms also exist on Kodiak Island and on the Kenai Peninsula.

Agricultural parcels in Interior Alaska are centered around Fairbanks, Delta Junction, and Nenana. 

Agricultural parcels in Southcentral Alaska cluster around Palmer and Talkeetna, as well as Copper Center and Homer. 

5

Forage Types 

Photo: Alaska Division of Agriculture 

A farm near Palmer 

Forage crops can be consumed fresh when grazed by animals in a pasture setting. 

Forages can also be harvested, cured, and preserved in many forms for future use. 

Forage can be baled into different shapes and sizes and/or stored as silage. Hay is a 

major source of fodder for the livestock industry during the dormant season. 

Animals prefer plants in the early growth stage (vegetative or boot) when the nutritional 

content of the plant is the highest. For hay and silage purposes, the best compromise 

between quality and yield occurs when the hay is harvested before flowering. 

The leaves of most forage species have the highest nutritional content. The stem 

is of lower quality due to higher concentrations of lignin, cellulose and hemicelulose. 

Crops for use as silage are placed in a pit or silo to begin the ensiling process. An 

anaerobic environment is necessary to maintain the good feed quality that can be 

achieved with silage. 

The period when forage is actively growing and nutritious in Alaska is considerably 

shorter than the lower 48, due to Alaska’s short growing season. Therefore the identification 

of species growth stages, and the proper timing of animal placement on pasture 

needs to be managed carefully. Improper management could result in a missed 

cutting for a hay crop, requiring supplemental feed to balance animal’s diet. Animals 

placed on the pasture when the forage conditions are least favorable (flowering, seed 

ripening stage) may not get the full nutrient potential of the forage crop. 

6

Grazing Pasture 

Hay Cropping 

Photo: Alaska Division of Agriculture 

Cattle graze on pasture land in Southcentral Alaska. 

Pasture is land with vegetation cover consisting 

of grasses and legumes used for livestock 

in a farm setting. Pastureland can also be used 

by wild animals for grazing or browsing purposes. 

In most cases, cultivated forage crops produce 

higher yields than most native forages. 

Crops are consumed during different stages of 

growth. 

Control and regulation of grazing intensity, 

timing, frequency and selectivity are dictated 

by the producer to control the effects of grazing 

animals on plants (Holechek, Pieper & Herbel, 

2004, p. 127). A study from Owen et al. 1998 

found that a high intensity overgrazed pasture 

ultimately causes plant death. It was found that 

grasses can be grazed without damage if 50% to 

70% of the leaf and stem material by weight is 

left intact as a metabolic reserve. The remaining 

30% to 50% is considered “surplus” that can 

be consumed. 

Photo: Cindy Gallagher, AK PMC 

Bales of hay typically contain 10 to 20% moisture. 

Hay is a major source of fodder for the livestock 

industry during the dormant season. 

Grasses, legumes, or other herbaceous plants 

are often used as a hay source. At roughly 25% 

moisture content - plants are cut, left to cure or 

wilt in the field and then processed into bales. 

Hay is then used as animal feed when grazing 

pasture is unavailable due to cold temperatures 

or when animals are kept in a barn or other enclosed 

area. 

Hay is sensitive to weather conditions which 

can play a large role in the quality of the product. 

If harvested in a drought year, plant quality 

and hay production may be diminished. In wet 

weather, the cut hay may spoil prior to baling 

or develop rot and mold once baled. Potential 

toxins then become a concern, as animals can 

become sick if they are fed spoiled hay. Musty 

and/or mildewy odors indicate the presence of 

mold within hay. 


At left: 

Hay bales can be subject to free grazing by 

moose if not protected or stored properly. 

7

Silage Cropping 

Haylage 

Photos: Casey Dinkel, AK PMC 

Silage is stored in an anaerobic environment to promote fermentation. 

Typical moisture content ranges from 40% - 60%. 

Ensiling is a process that involves taking fairly wet 

(moisture level between 40-60%) early growth green 

forage and putting it into silos or pits under airtight, 

anaerobic conditions. If moisture conditions get any 

higher, clostridial bacteria may grow. The harvested 

crop must be well chopped and placed in a pit and 

packed tightly together, driving out air so the anaerobic 

fermentation process can begin. Fermentation 

will produce lactic acid, converting the high moisture 

forage plants to a stored energy food source. 

Producers may choose to routinely produce silage, 

or produce silage only when field drying is difficult 

or impossible. A more informative in-depth article 

about the ensiling process was written by the Iowa 

State University - Cooperative Extension Service, 

and can be located at the following address: www. 

extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM417H.pdf. 

These large hay bales have an average moisture content 

between 20% and 40%. These bales are known as haylage or 

sometimes called ‘Sweet Hay’. 

The ensiling process for haylage follows silage and 

only really differs in the lower moisture content. 

Crops are ensiled at 20-40% moisture. Slight variations 

in moisture percentage may affect the desired 

outcome. When moisture content at harvest time 

is too low, the crop becomes too dry for harvesting 

and storage of haylage. At this stage, making the 

transition to a hay crop is advised. 

Photo: Todd Paris, UAF 

Advantages 

• Lower chance of weather delays and weather 

related damage during harvest; 

• Lower field, harvest, and storage loss; and 

• Provides flexibility and is adapted for many 

feeding programs. 

Evaluating Silage 

Individual round haylage bales stored for future use 

Disadvantages 

• Forage content is high in moisture, resulting in 

heavier forage that is difficult to haul; 

• Specialized equipment for harvesting, storing, 

and feeding may be needed; 

• Potential for high losses if silage is not properly 

made; and 

• Quality decreases rapidly after the pit is opened. 

8

Forage and Animals 

Photo: Franci Havemeister, AK Division of Agriculture 

Dairy cattle on a farm in the Matanuska Valley 

In this section, several classes of foraging animals and their basic nutritional requirements 

are discussed. Protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins are 

a few nutritional components necessary for animals to function properly. Other factors 

such as body size, type of digestive system, and the size and shape of an animal’s 

mouth are also discussed. 

Classes of Animals 

Livestock can be divided into three groups based on the type of forages they consume; 

grazers, browsers, and intermediate feeders. 

9

Grazers 

This group of animal has a diet that is dominated 

primarily by various grass species. Cattle, bison, elk, 

and musk oxen are all considered grazing animals. 

Horses are also grazers, but have an enlarged cecum. 

As a consequence, horses have a considerably less 

efficient digestive system than other grazers. Horses 

have to consume 50-60% more forage in comparison 

to cattle to meet the same nutritional requirements. 

Browsers 

Browsing animals have a diet that consists primarily 

of forbs and shrubs. Moose, deer and domestic 

goats are the primary examples of browsing animals 

in Alaska. They utilize a variety of succulent forbs 

throughout the entire growing season and persist 

on tall growing woody species during the winter. 

Moose can be found browsing on grass hay bales, 

birch limbs, and spruce buds throughout the winter 

months. 

Photo: Brianne Blackburn, AK PMC 



A pair of dall sheep graze within the Brooks Range. 

A Musk Ox at the Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center. 

At right: 

A sitka black tailed 

deer munches on 

fireweed, 

Chamerion 

angustifolium. 

Photo: USDA 

Domestic goats are browsers. 

Photo: Casey Dinkel, AK PMC Photo: Franci Havemeister, AK Division of Agriculture 

10 

Bison cow and calf graze on a ranch near Delta, Alaska. 

A bull moose browses on Dwarf birch, 

Betula glandulosa, in Denali National Park.


Photo: Greg Finsted, UAF. 

Intermediate Feeders 

The intermediate feeders group includes the caribou 

and reindeer. Feeding on grasses, forbs, and 

shrubs allows the intermediate feeder to adapt its 

feeding habits to take advantage of available forage 

throughout the year. This adaptation allows these 

animals to survive in Alaska’s diverse environment. 

A lone caribou in the Talkeetna mountains 

Nutritional Components 

All animals require food to carry out bodily functions 

for growth and structure. Alaska’s extreme 

living environment can present unique nutritional 

challenges. Foraging animals in Alaska may be deficient 

in several minerals and vitamins. Animals require 

high energy and/or high quality feed in order 

to minimize stress and fight disease during the long 

winters. Therefore, it is important to have a basic 

knowledge of forage nutritional components that 

are essential to understanding an animal’s overall 

health and maintenance. 

Carbohydrates 

Carbohydrates are the basic energy source for 

all animals. There are two types of basic carbohydrates; 

those associated with cell content and those 

associated with the cell itself. Starches and sugars 

are found within the cell wall and are easily broken 

down by the digestive system. Cellulose and hemicellulose 

are found inside the cell and require microorganisms 

within the rumen or cecum to assist with 

digestion. Lignin is also found within the cell wall 

of a plant and cannot be fully broken down and digested. 

Lignin concentrations are typically higher in 

the stem of a plant as opposed to the leaf material 

and increases as the plant matures. 

Fats 

Range animals do not have the gastrointestinal system 

needed to break down fats, due to the absence 

of bile in the small intestine. Bile is produced by the 

liver and is the main component in the degradation 

of fat. A small amount of fat is necessary in an ungulates 

diet. Some fats can be found in the seeds of 

plants such as corn, peanuts, and sunflowers. Fats 

have about 2.25 times the energy levels in comparison 

to carbohydrates, making them the main source 

of stored energy in range animals. 

Feeding a reindeer hand-harvested lichen at the UAF Reindeer 

Farm. The reindeer’s wide rounded muzzle allows them 

to selectively feed on available forage throughout the year. 

Protein 

Like carbohydrates and fats, proteins are composed 

of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. 

More specifically, they are composed of chains of 

amino-acids called peptides. These peptides are responsible 

for carrying out many functions in an ungulate’s 

body, such as the production of enzymes, hormones 

and antibodies. Proteins cannot be stored in 

the animal’s body, so a consistent supply is required 

to maintain animal health. 

11

Diagram: fitdaffy.blogspot.com 

The nutritional composition of a plant cell (Van Soest 1982) 

Protein levels in actively growing plants are 

typically higher than during dormancy. Leaves of 

grasses, forbs and shrubs contain higher concentrations 

of protein than other parts such as the stems. 

However, forbs and shrubs tend to have higher levels 

of protein on average in comparison to grasses. 

Minerals 

Minerals play an important role in many essential 

body functions, such as muscle movement, 

nerve transmission, and blood function. Mineral deficiencies 

can result in poor animal health, increased 

mortality, and low production. Minerals can be 

grouped into two separate categories: macro-minerals 

and micro-minerals. 

Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, 

chlorine, sodium, and sulfur are the main 

macro-minerals needed by grazing animals. These 

minerals generally encompass less than 5% of an animal’s 

body. Micro-minerals/nutrients are required 

in substantially lower amounts in grazing animals 

than macro-minerals, making up of less than .01% of 

an animal’s body. Micro-minerals required by grazing 

animals are iron, copper, cobalt, fluorine, zinc, 

molybdenum, selenium, and manganese. 

Selenium commonly creates more problems 

for range animal health than all other micro-minerals. 

Selenium deficiency can cause skin disorders 

and/or rapid hair loss in animals. Soils throughout 

Alaska typically contain lower amounts of selenium 

as compared to the western United States, where 

selenium levels are higher. 

Ruminant digestive system 

Diagram: seminolewellnessfeed.com 

12 

Cecal digestive system 

Macro - Minerals : Micro -Minerals : 

Calcium (Ca) 

Phosphorus (P) 

Potassium (K) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Chlorine (Cl) 

Sodium (Na) 

Sulfur (S) 

Cracked or flaking hooves are a 

symptom of selenium deficiency 

Iron (Fe) 

Copper (Cu) 

Cobalt (Co) 

Flourine (F) 

Zinc (Zn) 

Molybdenum (Mo) 

Selenium (Sl) 

Manganese (Mn)

Vitamins 

Grazing animals require organic compounds 

such as vitamins to carry out essential bodily functions. 

Vitamins are separated into two different 

groups based on their solubility properties. Fat soluble 

vitamins such A, D, E, and K are stored in the animal’s 

body and used during periods of inadequate dietary 

supply. Water soluble vitamins, such as C and 

B complex, cannot be stored in the body and require 

a constant supply. 

Vitamin D is derived from sunlight. Deficiencies 

of Vitamin D are rare in the contiguous United 

States, but can be a concern in Alaska. Vitamin E is 

obtained by consuming the leafy parts of a plant and 

is almost never deficient. However, in some cases 

foraging animals have displayed moderate to violent 

muscle spasms due to Vitamin E deficiency. 

Fat Soluble Vitamins : Water Soluble Vitamins : 

Vitamin A 

Vitamin D 

Vitamin E 

Vitamin K 

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) 

Vitamin C 

Vitamin B Complex 

(Excluding B2 & B12) 

Photo: Liz Goldsmith, EquineInk.wordpress.com 

This horse shows muscle weakness due to Vitamin E deficiency. 

13

Endophytes 

Endophytes are organisms that live inside 

plants; they can be bacteria, fungi, or nematodes. 

Many survive only inside living plants and are transmitted 

from mother plant to seed. There are endophytic 

fungi that have mutualistic associations with 

their plant hosts (benefiting both organisms), however, 

some of these fungi produce toxins. The toxins 

produced can discourage feeding and can weaken 

or kill grazing animals. Not all members of an endophyte 

species produce toxins; growing conditions 

and time of year can also affect toxin loads. Generally, 

toxins are at their highest concentration in the 

crowns and seed heads. Many of the toxins can persist 

in stored hay for several years. 

Symptoms of Endophyte Poisoning In Animals 

Clinical symptoms are related to the type of 

toxin present. The ergot alkaloids present in fescues 

cause constriction of blood vessels; symptoms include 

elevated body temperature (animals may stand 

in water), increased respiration, excessive salivation, 

restricted blood flow, “fescue foot” (dry gangrene in 

extremities) in cold weather, “fat necrosis”, nervousness, 

arched back, reduced weight gain, lowered 

reproduction, reduced milk production, and roughened 

hair coat. Ergot alkaloids can also be present 

in perennial ryegrass. The predominant toxin is typically 

lolitrem B, a tremorgen that causes tremors and 

muscle spasms. Lolitrems are the cause of “ryegrass 

staggers,” a condition in which the animal displays 

outstretched neck and limbs, tremors, stiff limbed 

gait, reluctance or inability to rise, disorientation, 

reduced weight gain and reduced prolactin levels. 

Tremors and disorientation are more pronounced 

when animals are excited. 

How to Identify Endophyte Infected Grass 

Endophyte infection does not generally cause 

outward symptoms in host plants, though they may 

appear more vigorous than neighboring plants, 

or may experience less grazing pressure. In cases 

of isolated toxin production in a pasture, the area 

may be fenced off or livestock may feed on limited 

quantities of infected grass. Toxin production often 

increases with plant stress (heat, drought, overgrazing). 

Lush growth from excessive nitrogen fertilization 

should be avoided. Avoid feeding crown tissue 

at any time of the year. Mow or graze infected areas 

before seed heads develop, since they can contain 

the highest concentrations of toxins. 

Infected pastures should be avoided in the 

late summer or early fall when toxin levels are high. 

In more extreme cases of high toxin loads or widespread 

toxin production, pastures may need to be 

killed and replanted. Pastures should NOT be replanted 

with lawn mixes (endophytes can be desirable 

to protect lawns). Many pasture grasses are 

tested for fungal endophytes. “E +” or “E -” labels 

on seed mixes indicate the presence or absence of 

endophytes; other labeling systems indicate the 

percent of infected seed. There are also varieties of 

pasture grass containing endophyte strains that do 

not produce mammalian toxins, these provide nutritional 

and survival benefits to the plant without risk 

of livestock poisoning. 

Laboratory testing is available to confirm the 

presence of endophytes and their toxins. Please contact 

the Alaska Plant Materials Center at (907) 745- 

4469 if you suspect you may have endophyte problems 

in your pasture. 

14

Section B. Crop Establishment 

• Planning 

• Goals & Objectives 

• Evaluating Site Conditions 

• Selection of Species 

• Planting Choice 

• Planting Method 

• Site Preparation 

• Planting Time

Planning 

Photo: James McCormick 

Developing a forage management plan is a necessary first step in any operation. 

Attention to detail is essential, as you are working with biological processes that have 

specific timing and environmental requirements. Continuing management is also important, 

to deal with the wide range of conditions and problems presented by Alaska’s 

environment. This section details several important factors to consider, including site 

conditions, species selection, site preparation and various other agricultural practices. 

Goals and Objectives 

A grower bales hay in the Matanuska Valley. 

Goals can be distinguished from objectives in that a goal is an over-arching direction, 

and an objective is a specific measure taken to attain a goal. Goals will vary among 

managers depending on where the farm operation is located, type of animal, and the 

forage type desired. These three factors are correlated; the outcome of one may have 

an effect on the others. Stating goals early on will help in making good decisions and 

setting objectives as the planning process moves forward. A hay producer in Interior 

Alaska may have different objectives than one in Southcentral, despite having similar 

goals, due to climate and other factors. 

16

Evaluating Site Conditions 

Potential limiting factors that will affect forage establishment 

are extensive, and a complete discussion 

is beyond the scope of this manual. This publication 

focuses on the limiting factors that have been 

observed in Alaska, and other parameters important 

for successful forage establishment. 

Plant growth depends on temperature, nutrient/ 

water availability, soil moisture holding capacity and 

the ability of plant roots to penetrate a given soil. 

Plant growth also depends on physical characteristics 

of the soil such as texture and structure. 

Soil Texture 

Soil is made up of mineral particles, organic matter, 

air and water. Soil texture is determined by the 

composition of soil, expressed as % sand, % silt, and % 

clay. Three classes of particle size are acknowledged 

with sands being the largest (2.0-.05 mm), silts (.05- 

.002 mm) intermediate in size, and clays (

Nutrients 

Nutrients can be classified as non-mineral and mineral 

nutrients (North Carolina Dept. of Agriculture). 

The best way to assess soil nutrient levels is through 

a lab soils test. Collecting soil samples will allow the 

soils lab to specifically tailor fertilizer ratios to the 

planting site. A listing of essential nutrients follows. 

Macro 

nutrients: 

Primary 

Nitrogen (N) 

Phosphorus (P) 

Potassium (K) 

Secondary 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sulfur (S) 

Micro / Trace 

nutrients: 

Boron (B) 

Copper (Cu) 

Iron (Fe) 

Chloride (Cl) 

Manganese (Mn) 

Molybdenum (Mo) 

Zinc (Zn) 

Non-Mineral 

nutrients: 

Hydrogen (H) 

Oxygen (O) 

Carbon (C) 

The application of fertilizer at the time of seeding 

may be necessary for some forage crops. Most 

commercial fertilizers meet minimum standards for 

quality. When problems do arise, they can usually be 

traced to the product becoming wet during storage 

or shipment. 

Fertilizer is described by a three number designator, 

referred to as N-P-K. These numbers refer to the 

percentages of three elements: nitrogen, phosphorus, 

and potassium, respectively. Therefore, 20-20- 

10 fertilizer contains 20% nitrogen, 20% phosphorus, 

and 10% potassium by weight. 

18 

Soil Structure 

The aggregation, or combination, of mineral soil particles 

(sand, silt, clay) is referred to as soil structure. 

The arrangement of soil particles create varying pore 

spaces that allow different quantities of moisture to 

be retained. This is referred to as the porosity of the 

soil, and will be noted on a soils test. 

Soil compaction is a condition where the pore space 

of the soil is reduced by pressure applied to the soil 

surface. Compaction compresses micropores and 

macropores, destroying the soil structure. This affects 

the uptake and movement of water and can inhibit 

plant and microbial growth. Breaking up compacted 

layers can be accomplished by mechanical tillage. 

Equipment should be operated along the contour to 

reduce the potential of water entering furrows and 

creating soil erosion problems. 

General fertilizer recommendations for Alaska, 

based on fields producing 2 tons per acre are as follows: 

Southcentral: 

Interior: 

Kenai 

Peninsula: 

140N-60P-120K lbs. / acre, with split 

application of Nitrogen (70 lbs. / acre in 

spring; 70 lbs. / acre mid-summer) 

120N-40P-20K lbs. / acre, with a dressing 

of 10 lbs. /acre elemental sulphur 

80N-40P-40K lbs. / acre, 

with a dressing of 32 lbs. /acre sulfur 

Application rates of fertilizer can be determined 

by taking soils tests and should be adjusted to the 

soil conditions present. Excessive fertilization can 

cause nutrient interactions and salt injury to occur. 

For site-specific fertilizer recommendations in your 

area contact the nearest Cooperative Extension office 

or the Plant Materials Center.

GRAPHIC: Verdegaal Brothers Inc. www.verdegaalbrothers.com 

How soil pH affects availability of plant nutrients 

Soil pH - Acidity and Alkalinity 

Soil pH is a measurement of soil acidity and/or alkalinity 

and has a major effect on nutrient availability. It is 

based on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 14. A number 

less than 7 represents an acidic soil, with the acidity increasing 

as the pH value gets closer to zero. Basic or alkaline 

soils are characterized by pH values greater than 

7. Neutral soils are represented by a value of 7. 

Basic soils contain high amount of bases (calcium, 

magnesium, potassium, sodium, phosphates) and are 

generally found in arid and semi-arid climates. Acidic 

soils form in wetter climates where the bases have 

been leached through the soil profile. Having an idea 

of the pH value of the soil will help with plant selection, 

as some species prefer more acid soils and others prefer 

more alkaline soils. To correct acidic (low pH) soils, 

a limestone application is commonly applied. Sulfur is 

usually used to mitigate overly basic soils. 

19

20 

Topsoil 

The topsoil layer is a source of native seed, plant 

propagules, organic matter, and soil microbes which 

can enhance the quality of the substrate being planted. 

Top soil is a valuable resource in forage establishment, 

and should be preserved and/or salvaged 

when possible. However, the topsoil layer existing 

in undisturbed areas of Alaska is often very thin and 

therefore expensive to salvage. 

Graphic: Dmitry Mozalevsky, AK PMC. Adapted from a diagram in 

Principals of Archaeology, by T. Douglas Price, © 2007 McGraw-Hill, used with permission. 

The diagram shown above displays the typical diagnostic 

horizons within a soil profile. The ‘A’ Horizon, also 

known as topsoil, is a mineral layer directly beneath 

the ‘O’ Horizon, a layer of decomposing organic material. 

The ‘B’ Horizon consists of an accumulation of Fe, 

Al, Si and humus. The ‘C’ Horizon is a layer of unconsolidated 

earthy material and soft bedrock that underlies 

the uppermost horizons. The bottom strata consists of 

rocky material and is referred to as the ‘R’ Horizon. 

Weed Control 

Weeds (unwanted or out-of-place plants) can exclude 

other species on a site because they are quick 

to germinate and establish. Weeds compete with 

forage seedlings for moisture, nutrients and light. 

This competition for resources can have several negative 

consequences, including weedy forage stands, 

increased time for crops to establish or even crop 

failure. Weed control is most critical during the first 

year of forage production. Planning a weed control 

strategy prior to and during seedling establishment 

is essential for a healthy forage stand. 

Methods that may be used to control annual and 

perennial weeds include tilling, mowing and application 

of herbicides. Excessive soil manipulation loosens 

the seedbed and dries the soil, so tilling should 

be done as close to planting as possible. Mowing 

should be done as close to the ground as possible 

and prior to weed species setting seed. Perennial 

weeds may require several cuttings. If the weed infestation 

is heavy, remove the remaining material 

left after mowing so that it does not smother the 

forage. 

Chemical weed control is meant to eliminate or reduce 

competition from weeds during the seedlings 

vegetative growth phase. Herbicide labels are legal 

documents providing directions on how to mix, apply, 

store, and dispose of herbicide. Always follow 

the product label when using an herbicide. The Alaska 

Department of Environmental Conservation regulates 

pesticide and herbicide use within the State. 

The Pesticide Control Program for the State of Alaska 

can be accessed at dec.alaska.gov/eh/pest/. 

The Department of Natural Resources / Division of 

Agriculture (DOA) maintains the authority to regulate 

the entry of seeds, plants, horticultural products 

and products relating to (AS 03.05.010). Under this 

authority, the DOA has established seed regulations 

to prevent “prohibited” or “restricted” noxious 

weeds from being sold deliberately or transported 

as a contaminant above allowable tolerances (11 AAC 

34.020). It is important to be familiar with noxious 

weeds and to apply appropriate management practices 

to prevent these species from establishing in 

your forage crop. The listed “prohibited” and “restricted” 

noxious weeds are included in Appendix C. 

The current Seed Regulations can be found at dnr. 

alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/pdf/SOA-seed-regs.pdf.

Selection of Species 

Species selection is one of the most important criteria 

for a successful forage crop. The harsh and diverse 

environments of Alaska limit species growth 

and production potentials. Therefore, it is imperative 

that species and cultivars (varieties) chosen are 

winter-hardy and able to survive and thrive in the local 

environment. 

Climatic, topographic, and soil conditions should all 

be taken into account when selecting species. More 

importantly, the plant species should meet the needs 

of the animals that will be feeding on and inhabiting 

the site. 

Desirable species characteristics include site adaptation, 

palatability, resistance to grazing pressure, and 

nutritional value. The ability of a species to produce 

high yields and withstand competition is also highly 

valued. The Alaska Forage Manual includes profiles 

of 24 species of grasses, legumes, and grains that are 

adapted for forage use in various regions across the 

state. 

The final determinant to consider when selecting 

species is best summarized below: 

“Always assess the practical availability of potential 

species before selecting them. Adequate plant materials 

must be available, at the correct time, and at an 

acceptable cost.” (Whisenant, 1999) 


Two different varieties of the same grass species were planted in separate blocks to compare 

their ability to overwinter within the Interior of Alaska. The variety at right has 

been mostly winter-killed, and would not be a good choice to plant in this region. 

21

Planting Choice 

Seed 

Seeding is the most common technique for establishing 

herbaceous plants for forage and hay. Seed 

is readily available for many species, and is relatively 

easy and inexpensive to produce. Furthermore, 

seed is easy to collect, process, handle, and apply to 

a pasture by drill or broadcast methods. 

The objective of seeding is to place the seed where 

it is needed and in proper contact with the soil. The 

method and equipment used depend upon the plant 

species being seeded and the characteristics of the 

site, such as soil type and topography. 

Only drill seeding and broadcast seeding are discussed 

in this manual, as these are the two most 

commonly used methods for establishing forage 

crops. 

‘ 

Causes of Seeding Failure 

Forage seeding can involve considerable uncertainty. 

An awareness of limiting factors pertaining to 

seeding is valuable, and can help to limit uncertainty. 

There are many planting details that should be understood 

to establish forage 

species for pasture, hay or silage 

purposes. 

A few reasons for seeding failure 

include seeding too early 

or too late in the season, poor 

seedbed preparation, low 

quality seed, or inadequate 

depth of seeding. Seeding too 

deep is a common mistake, 

and seeding depth should be 

closely monitored. 

A definitive seeding plan 

which addresses each of the 

considerations listed above is 

often the best guarantee of a 

successful seeding result. 

Planting Method 

Drill Seeding 

Drill seeding is the most widely used method for 

forage plantings. When drill seeding, furrows are 

created and the seed is placed in the soil furrow at 

a controlled depth and covered with a relatively precise 

amount of soil. Drill seeders are used most often 

in agricultural settings. The drill seeding method 

is considered by many to be the best method of distributing 

seed. It is an effective means for establishing 

a high yield stand, using a smaller amount of seed 

compared to the broadcast method. 

One type of drill seeder, the Brillion style, is often 

used for planting forage. This seeder has been successfully 

used on most soil types, except very gravelly 

soils. The Brillion seeder delivers the seed into the 

soil, packs the seed in place, and applies seed with 

high accuracy. 

Photo: Brennan Veith Low, AK PMC 

22 

A drill seeder is towed behind a tractor at the Alaska PMC

Photo: Kasco Manufacturing Co. 

Broadcast Seeding 

The broadcast method scatters seed on the soil surface, 

and relies on natural processes or harrowing to 

cover the seed. This is a common form of seeding 

because advanced equipment is not needed. Broadcasting 

is fast and is usually the least expensive form 

of seeding. 

In order for this method to be successful, the seedbed 

should be properly prepared and the seed covered 

after application. Predation of seed by animals 

and desiccation by wind and sun may result in lower 

germination rates. 

The recommended seeding rate for broadcasting is 

double that of drilling, due to the lack of application 

control and the potential for reduced rates of seed 

establishment and germination. 

Broadcasting includes aerial seeding, hydroseeding, 

and hand-held methods. Hand-held or hand-operated 

spreaders can be used on smaller sites effectively, 

due to their portability and speed. Hand operated 

spreaders can also be used for both seed and fertilizer 

application. 

Site Preparation 

Site preparation is a primary concern in establishing 

forage pasture and/or hay fields. This phase is the 

most labor intensive and energy consumptive, and 

often determines the success or failure of a planting 

initiative (Vallentine, 1989). The objective of site 

preparation is to create a series of micro-environments 

or safe sites where conditions are favorable 

for seed germination, establishment, and growth. 

The surface of the prepared seedbed should be 

smooth for drilling and rough for broadcast seeding. 

Agricultural rangeland drills operate efficiently on 

ground that is relatively flat and free of obstructions 

that may affect seed distribution and placement. If 

a site is not seeded immediately after preparation, 

erosion can become a concern. Roughening or scarifying 

the surface with a harrow, imprinter, or other 

implement will help prevent water from coalescing 

and forming rills. 

Prior to final seeding, a light disking will break up 

the soil crust and smooth the surface. If broadcasting, 

a small imprinter can be used to crimp the seed 

and create catchment sites for water. Germination 

and survival increase tremendously with proper site 

preparation. 

Photo: Omni Manufacturing Photobucket user omnimfg: 

A tractor mounted broadcast seeder 

An imprinter can be used to firm sandy, silty or loose soils 

23


Procedures relying on mechanical equipment, such 

as disking, plowing, harrowing and subsoilers, are 

agricultural methods commonly used to prepare a 

seedbed. Using these tools, the soil surface is manipulated, 

existing vegetation that could compete 

with seedlings is killed, and the planting process is 

facilitated (Whisenant, 1999). 

The final mechanical operation should prepare a 

firm seedbed which allows water infiltration and provides 

good seed-to-soil contact (Whisenant, 1999). A 

loose, fluffy seedbed limits establishment by creating 

air pockets, soil moisture loss and allowing seed 

to settle too deeply. 

No-Till Seedbed Preparation 

An alternative method of seedbed preparation is 

the no-till method. This method moves away from 

the traditional practice of plowing a field before 

planting crops. Tilling or plowing turns over the soil 

and leaves it vulnerable to wind and water erosion. 

This can further lead to sediment, fertilizer, and pesticide 

runoff into nearby rivers, lakes and oceans. 

The objective of the no-till method is to minimize 

soil disturbance so the growing site can be as productive 

as possible. Crops are planted into previous 

crop residues or stubble. Soil erosion can be reduced 

and water infiltration may be improved. Additional 

benefits of the no-till method 

include the shading of new 

growth by stubble from the 

previous year’s crop as well as 

the retention of soil moisture. 

The no-till methods adoption 

may also require fewer passes 

over a field thereby limiting 

disturbance to the soil. A criticism 

of no-till is the reliance on 

chemical herbicides as well as 

the need for precision equipment, 

such as drill seeders. 

This practice can be cost prohibitive 

for many growers, especially 

those with small acreage. 

The ‘no-till’ seedbed preparation method limits soil erosion and helps retain moisture. 

1. Be free of construction debris; 

2. Have relatively few large rocks or objects; 

3. Be free of ruts and gullies; 

An Ideal Seedbed Should : 

4. Have the top two inches in a thoroughly tilled friable, non-compacted condition; 

5. Be scarified to a depth of 6 to 8 inches if heavily compacted; 

6. Be devoid of non-native established weeds. Competition from weeds is a common cause of seeding 

failure, because they compete with seedlings for moisture, nutrients, and light; and 

7. Be without a significant seed-bank of weedy species. Seed stored in the soil as hard or dormant seed 

may be viable and will germinate if the conditions are right. The presence of a nearby seed-bank 

often accounts for the surprise of a weedy species showing up on a site. 

24

Planting Time 

The optimal planting season is just before the longest 

period of favorable conditions. Planting times 

are determined by choosing the season when rainfall 

and temperatures are most favorable for seedling 

germination and establishment. Many sites dry 

quickly following spring melt, and precipitation is 

quite low in some regions of Alaska. A seeding time 

should be chosen that is the most advantageous to 

the seeded species. 

In Alaska, spring planting is best where the primary 

growing season occurs in the late spring and/or summer. 

Early planting allows a species stand to develop 

a strong root- and-shoot structure, resulting in a 

plant that is more “winter-hardy”. 

The following table approximates the end of planting 

season across several regions of Alaska. The earliest 

time to plant is when the snow melts and the site is 

accessible. 

Latest Date to Seed: 

Arctic Coast July 15 

Western Alaska August 15 

Interior Alaska August 15 

Southcentral Alaska August 31 

Southeast & Aleutian Islands Sept. 15 

The precipitation and temperature maps that follow 

may be helpful in determining the appropriate 

planting time for your region. 

Graphic: The Climate Source, Inc., www.climatesource.com/ak/fact_sheets/fact_precip_ak.html 

Mean Annual Precipitation in Alaska 

25

26 

Graphics: Manley, W.F., and Daly, C., 2005, Alaska Geospacial Climate 

Animations of Monthly Temperature and Precipitation: INSTAAR, 

University of Colorado, instaar.colorado.edu/QGISL/AGCA

Section C. Plant Profiles 

Grasses 

Page 

Alpine Bluegrass, Poa alpina 30 

American Sloughgrass, Beckmannia syzigachne 32 

Annual Ryegrass, Lolium multiflorum 34 

Beach Wildrye, Leymus mollis 36 

Bering Hairgrass, Deschampsia beringensis 38 

Bluejoint Reedgrass, Calamagrostis canadensis 40 

Kentucky Bluegrass, Poa pratensis 42 

Meadow Barley, Hordeum brachyantherum 44 

Meadow Foxtail, Alopecurus pratensis 46 

Polargrass, Arctagrostis latifolia 48 

Red Fescue, Festuca rubra 50 

Siberian Wildrye, Elymus sibiricus 52 

Slender Wheatgrass, Elymus trachycaulus 54 

Smooth Brome, Bromus inermis 56 

Spike Trisetum, Trisetum spicatum 58 

Timothy, Phleum pratense 60 

Tufted Hairgrass, Deschampsia cespitosa 62 

Cereal Grains 

Page 

Barley, Hordeum vulgare 66 

Oats, Avena sativa 68 

Legumes 

Page 

Alfalfa, Medicago sativa 72 

Alsike Clover, Trifolium hybridum 74 

Field Pea, Pisum sativum 76 

Red Clover, Trifolium pratense 78 

White Clover, Trifolium repens 80 

27

Grasses 

Photo: Casey Dinkel,AK PMC 

Bluejoint reedgrass, Calamagrostis canadensis 

Alpine Bluegrass, Poa alpina 

American Sloughgrass, Beckmannia syzigachne 

Annual Ryegrass, Lolium multiflorum 

Beach Wildrye, Leymus mollis 

Bering Hairgrass, Deschampsia beringensis 

Bluejoint Reedgrass, Calamagrostis canadensis 

Kentucky Bluegrass, Poa pratensis 

Meadow Barley, Hordeum brachyantherum 

Meadow Foxtail, Alopecurus pratensis 

Polargrass, Arctagrostis latifolia 

Red Fescue, Festuca rubra 

Siberian Wildrye, Elymus sibiricus 

Slender Wheatgrass, Elymus trachycaulus 

Smooth Brome, Bromus inermis 

Spike Trisetum, Trisetum spicatum 

Timothy, Phleum pratense 

Tufted Hairgrass, Deschampsia cespitosa 

28

Photo: Casey Dinkel,AK PMC 

ALPINE BLUEGRASS 

Forage Value 

Alpine Bluegrass produces high quality forage for most classes 

of livestock and wildlife. It provides an ample protein supply, 

but forage yields are usually moderate to low. This grass is 

palatable for both livestock and wildlife. Alpine Bluegrass has 

moderate digestibility in comparison with other forage grasses. 

Distribution and Adaptation 

A mature stand of Alpine Bluegrass 

Alpine Bluegrass 

Poa alpina (L.) 

Description 

Poa alpina (Alpine Bluegrass) is a cool season perennial bunch 

grass that grows in mountainous areas. It is relatively short, 

growing erect culms between 15 and 20 centimeters (6 to 8 

inches) tall. Alpine Bluegrass has short leaves, a tight crown, 

and an inflorescence that is from 2.5 to 5 cm (1-2 inches) long. 

Alpine Bluegrass is a pioneer species, and is usually long lived. 

The grass grows a small to medium seed and produces about 

1,070,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Alpine Bluegrass can be found growing in sub-alpine to alpine 

regions throughout Alaska. It has a pH range of 5 to 7.2, and 

typically prefers moderately fine to moderately coarse textured 

or well drained soils. Alpine Bluegrass is not tolerant of highly 

saline or waterlogged soils, but it can withstand prolonged 

periods of drought. Alpine Bluegrass has low nutrient needs, 

and will tolerate most nutrient deficient soils. 

Culture 

Alpine Bluegrass seed should be planted ¼ to ½ inches deep 

in coarsely textured soils, and ¼” or shallower in finely textured 

soils. Seeding rates depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, 

and location. An average seeding rate for broadcasting is 4-8 

lbs/acre and 2-4 lbs/acre when drill seeding. When seeded 

in a mixture, apply at a rate of 4-6 lbs/acre. All seeding rates 

are determined by using Pure Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as 

described in Appendix B. 

Appropriate fertilizer ratios depend upon soil type, chemistry, 

and location. Soil samples should be collected and analyzed 

before fertilizer is applied. Pastures and hay fields should 

be irrigated when necessary and/or applicable. Irrigation in 

combination with fertilization should increase overall yields. 

Uses 

Livestock: Alpine Bluegrass is palatable to all classes of 

livestock, such as cattle, sheep and horses. However, it does 

not produce a large amount of forage. 

Wildlife: Alpine Bluegrass provides excellent forage for elk, 

deer, mountain sheep and bison. It is moderately palatable 

to all classes of wildlife, and is often used on big game ranges. 

Management 

Alpine Bluegrass is best suited for pasture land use but it does 

not respond well to heavy grazing, and new seedlings should 

be protected from grazing if possible. Little research has been 

done to examine the effects fertilizer and irrigation might have 

on Alpine Bluegrass yields. Alpine Bluegrass should not be 

grown in conjunction with Annual Ryegrass, as ryegrass has 

negative allelopathic effects. At the present time there are no 

known major pests that threaten Alpine Bluegrass. 

29

Photo: Stoney J. Wright, AK PMC 

Grass 

Cultivars and Releases 

• ‘Gruening’ - Alaska PMC release. 

• Teller - selected class germplasm; Alaska PMC release. 

References 

A W I SW SC SE 

W I SW SC SE 

Wright, S.J. and P.K. Czapla (2010) Alaska Coastal Revegetation & Erosion 

Control Guide, State of Alaska, Division of Agriculture, Plant Materials Center, 

Anchorage, Alaska. 234 pp Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/reveg/ 

Wright, S.J. and P. Hunt (2008) A Revegetation Guide for Alaska, State of 

Alaska, Division of Agriculture, Plant Materials Center, Anchorage, Alaska. 

160 pp Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/pdf/RevegManual.pdf 

Natural Resource Conservation Service (2000) USDA National Plant Data 

Center [online] Link: http://plants.usda.gov/java/ 


Pawnee Buttes Seed Inc. (2004) A Guide to Grasses, Pawnee Butte Seed Inc., 

Greeley, Colorado. 107 pp [online] Link: http://www.pawneebuttesseed. 

com/guide_to_grasses.htm 

Skinner, Q.D, Wright, S.J., Henszey, R. J., Henszey, J.L. and Wyman, S.K. 

(2012) A Field Guide to Alaska Grasses, Education Resources Publishing, 

Cummings Georgia. 384 pp 

A 

W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 

Soil Texture * 

Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 2 3 2 0 

* Soil texture is graded on a scale of 0 to 3; higher numbers 

denote textures to which species is most adapted. 

Species not 

adapted to region 

Adapted Regions: 

Alpine Bluegrass 

• All Regions 

see variety detail at left 

Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 

Competitiveness 

pH Range 

30 

Poor Bunch 6 - 8 in. Native Poor Good Poor Weak 5 - 7.2


AMERICAN SLOUGHGRASS 


American Sloughgrass is highly palatable and a valuable 

forage species. It has good energy and high protein value. 

American Sloughgrass is also know to contain high amounts of 

nonstructural carbohydrates. Livestock and wildlife generally 

concentrate in the wet meadows and riparian areas where 

American Sloughgrass grows. 


American Sloughgrass grows wild in Alaska and the northern 

United States in wet meadows, marshes and swamps. It is 

also grown and used as forage in parts of Europe and Russia. 

American Sloughgrass generally prefers a pH ranging from 5.5 

to 7.5. It is commonly found growing in areas that receive at 

least 30 inches of precipitation per year. 

A mature stand of American Sloughgrass 

American Sloughgrass 

Beckmannia syzigachne (L.) 

Description 

Beckmannia syzigachne (American Sloughgrass) is a short 

lived perennial grass that is commonly found in shallow 

marshes or sloughs. Its shallow root system supports a leafy 

stem which may be up to 45 centimeters (18 inches) tall. 

Branched inflorescence, classified as closed panicle. Spikelets 

have very short pedicels that are arranged on only one side of 

the panicle. One or two flowered spikelets disarticulate below 

the glumes. There are approximately 1,270,000 American 

Sloughgrass seeds per pound of seed. 

Culture 

An average broadcast seeding rate for American Sloughgrass 

is 10 lbs/acre. A rate of 5 lbs/acre is used when drill seeding, 

or when seeded in a mixture. American Sloughgrass seed 

should be planted to a depth of 1 /4 - 1 /2 inch. Be mindful of this 

grass’s high water requirement when choosing a growing site. 

If the planting site is dry at the time of seeding, irrigation may 

be necessary. American Sloughgrass seed should be planted 

in moist to wet soils that are of medium to fine texture. All 

seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live Seed (PLS) 

calculations, as described in Appendix B. 



before fertilizer is applied. 

Uses 

Livestock: American Sloughgrass can be used for hay 

meadows or pasture land. It is highly palatable to all classes of 

livestock, such as cattle, sheep and horses. 

Wildlife: American Sloughgrass is an important component 

of Alaskan wetland environments. The grass provides shelter 

and food for wildlife such as waterfowl, songbirds and various 

small mammals. 

Management 

American Sloughgrass normally produces an abundance 

of seed that will readily germinate upon reaching a suitable 

growing site. It can be feasible to use American Sloughgrass 

on seasonally inundated sites where grain production is 

unpredictable. American Sloughgrass’s vigorous growth habit 

is suited to sites where temporary, yet productive, cover 

is desired. The seed unit that falls from the inflorescence 

at maturity is a firm, free flowing spikelet that presents no 

difficulties for conventional planting equipment. 

31

Grass 



• ‘Egan’ - Alaska PMC release. 

References 

W I SW SC SE 








W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) (2000) USDA National Plant 

Data Center [online] Link: http://plants.usda.gov/java/ 




Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 1 3 3 2 



Species not 



American Sloughgrass 

• Western 

• Interior 

• Southwest 

• Southcentral 

• Southeast 

Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

32 

Good Bunch 18 in. Native Good Poor Excellent Moderate 5.5 - 7.5

ANNUAL RYEGRASS 

Photo: Alaska PMC 


Annual Ryegrass produces good quality forage for most 

classes of livestock and wildlife. It is considered to have 

high palatability for grazing animals and low palatability for 

browsing species. This grass has a moderate digestibility, and 

makes an excellent forage crop when planted with legumes. 


Annual Ryegrass can be found growing throughout most 

of North America. Introduced from Europe, it is adapted to 

cool moist climates, like those found in the Pacific Northwest. 

Although it can be found growing in Alaska, it will not persist 

due to its inability to over winter in harsh climates. It can 

tolerate a pH range of 5 to 8, and typically prefers moderately 

course to moderately fine textured soils. Annual Ryegrass 

will not persist during prolonged periods of drought, but it 

will tolerate areas of high moisture. This grass can withstand 

highly saline and nutritionally deprived soils. 

A mature stand of Annual Ryegrass 

Annual Ryegrass 

Lolium multiflorum (L.) 

Description 

Lolium multiflorum (Annual Ryegrass) is an annual, coolseason, 

introduced bunch grass. This grass grows erect or 

decumbent culms between 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 

inches) tall. Annual Ryegrass’s foliage is usually glossy and 

produces a spike inflorescence that is between 7 to 15 cm (3 to 

6 inches) long. As with most annual grasses, Annual Ryegrass 

produces a small root structure. This grass produces a medium 

size seed that grows at a rapid rate. Annual Ryegrass produces 

approximately 240,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Always use ryegrass labeled for “forage or pasture use”. 

Some available varieties can be toxic. Non-forage types can 

contain harmful endophytes. 

Uses 

Livestock: Annual Ryegrass is used for pasture, hay, or silage. 

It is highly palatable to all classes of livestock, including cattle, 

sheep and horses. 

Wildlife: Annual Ryegrass is consumed by most classes of 

large wildlife, such as bison, elk, deer, and mountain sheep. 

Small mammals and song birds will also utilize this grass when 

available. 

Culture 

Annual Ryegrass seed should be planted no deeper than ½ 

inch in most soil conditions. It is commonly planted in mixtures 

with legumes or small grains. Annual Ryegrass seeding rates 

depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, and location. An 

average seeding rate for broadcasting is 8-16 lbs/acre and 4-8 

lbs/acre when drill seeding. When Annual Ryegrass is seeded 

in a mixture, apply at a rate of 6 - 10 lbs/acre. Seeding rates 

should be increased by 5 - 10 lbs/acre when planting on poor 

seedbeds or harsh sites. All seeding rates are determined 

by using Pure Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as described in 

Appendix B. 





combination with fertilizer should increase overall yields. 

Management 

Annual Ryegrass is excellent for temporary pastures or early 

growth on permanent pastures. This grass should be seeded 

with other pioneer grass species, due to its short life cycle. 

Annual Ryegrass will succumb to winters in Alaska. It is also 

prone to several types of rust disease, although the species is 

somewhat resistant. Annual Ryegrass requires ample moisture 

and irrigation should be applied when necessary. 

33


Grass 


• There are currently no developed northern cultivars 

or releases of Annual Ryegrass. Use of locally grown 

cultivars is advised whenever possible. 

References 









Soil Conservation Service (1972) A Vegetative Guide for Alaska. University 

of Alaska, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Soil Conservation Service. 50 pp 

Annual Ryegrass, Lolium multiflorum 

Maurice, E.H., D.S. Metcalfe and R.F. Barnes, (1973) Forages, The Science of 

Grassland Agriculture. University of Iowa State, Iowa State University Press. 

Ames, Iowa. 755 pp 

A 

W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

1 2 3 2 1 




Annual Ryegrass 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

34 

Good Bunch 12 - 24 in. Introduced Excellent Low Excellent Strong 5 - 8.0

BEACH WILDRYE 

Photo: Brennan Veith Low, AK PM C 


Beach Wildrye produces a moderate forage yield compared 

to other forage grasses such as Smooth brome or Timothy. Its 

palatability for browsers is moderate to low. Beach Wildrye 

provides moderate to low nutritional value, depending upon 

when it is cut or grazed. This grass is usually easily digested, 

but can cause impaction problems in horses if consumed when 

the moisture content of the grass is low. 


Beach Wildrye is adapted to tidal and coastal areas and can 

be found growing along the coast of Alaska. It prefers coarse 

textured, sandy and/or well drained soils. Beach Wildrye will 

grow well in soils with a pH between 6.0 and 8.0. This grass 

can tolerate excessively wet and droughty conditions, and can 

withstand saline soils. 

A mature stand of Beach Wildrye 

Beach Wildrye 

Leymus mollis (L.) 

Description 

Leymus mollis (Beach Wildrye) is a long lived, cool season, 

perennial sod forming grass. It grows erect culms 50 to 

60 centimeters (20 to 24 inches) tall, from long creeping 

rootstocks. Beach Wildrye produces stout, aggressive 

rhizomes, which increases its ability to spread. Leaves vary 

in length from 25 to 51 cm (10 to 20 inches), and are coarsetextured. 

The inflorescence is a stiff spike that is 10 - 25 cm 

(4 to 10 inches) in length and roughly 13 mm (½ inch) wide. 

Beach Wildrye produces a large sized seed (33,000 seed per 

pound) and has low seedling vigor and germination rate. A 

fifty percent germination percentage for Beach Wildrye seed 

should be considered acceptable. 

Uses 

Livestock: Beach Wildrye can be used for pasture or silage. 

It is moderately palatable to a select class of livestock, such as 

cattle. This grass can be useful forage if grazed or cut for silage 

at the optimum growth stage. 

Wildlife: Beach Wildrye is utilized by small mammals and 

song birds for forage and cover. Due to its limited range and 

moderate palatability, it is generally not consumed by large 

grazing or browsing animals such as moose, caribou, elk or 

bison. 

Culture 

Beach Wildrye is commonly grown by planting sprigs from 

existing plants. A sprig is the smallest division taken from a live 

plant to grow a new plant. Survival percentage is greater when 

Beach Wildrye sprigs are planted than from seed. If using seed, 

drill to a depth of ¼ to ½ inch. Seeding rates depend greatly 

upon soil type, moisture, and location. The seeding rates 

below only apply to ‘Reeve’ Beach Wildrye, and the European 

species Leymus arenarius. An average rate for broadcast 

seeding of Beach Wildrye is 60 lbs/acre, and 30 lbs/acre when 

drill seeding. Including Beach Wildrye seed in a mixture is not 

recommended due to its weak ability to compete with other 

plants. All seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live 

Seed (PLS) calculations, as described in Appendix B. 



before fertilizer is applied. Beach Wildrye is highly responsive 

to nitrogen fertilizer. 20N-20P-20K fertilizer applied at a rate of 

500 to 600 lbs/acre yield good results. 

Management 

Beach Wildrye may be severely damaged or destroyed from 

traffic that causes compaction. Digestive impaction may occur 

in horses if grazed when the moisture content is low. A fungus 

and pest called ergot can replace or destroy Beach Wildrye 

seed. Ergot occasionally occurs in many cereal crops and 

other various grass species. This fungus can be poisonous if 

consumed by animals and should be avoided. 

35

Grass 



• ‘Benson’ (Leymus mollis) - Alaska PMC release; 

Available only as vegetative cuttings (sprigs). 

• ‘Reeve’ (Leymus arenarius) - Alaska PMC release; 

Available as seed. 

References 

W 

W 

SW SC SE 

SW SC SE 








Klebesadel, L.J. (1985) Beach Wildrye, Characteristics and Uses of a Native 

Alaskan Grass of Uniquely Coastal Distribution. In Agroborealis, Vol. 17, #2, 

1985 p 31-38 

Hulten, E. (1968) Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Territories. Stanford 

University press. Stanford California. 1008 pp 

W 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Klebesadel, L.J. (1983) Forage Crops In Alaska - Bulletin 63, University of 

Alaska, School of Agriculture and Land Resource Management, Agricultural 

Experiment Station. 16 pp 



Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

2 3 3 2 1 

Fine 



Species not 



Beach Wildrye 

• Western 

• Southwest 


• Southeast 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

36 

Poor Sod 24 in. Native Excellent Good Good Weak 6.0 - 8.0

Photo: Stoney J. Wright , AK PMC 

BERING HAIRGRASS 


Bering Hairgrass produces good quality hay for most classes 

of livestock and wildlife. Hairgrass provides ample amounts of 

protein, depending on its growing stage. Bering Hairgrass can 

provide good summer pasture forage, however most livestock 

find this grass unpalatable. As a result, an animal’s diet may 

consist of only 1-3% Bering Hairgrass. 


Bering Hairgrass has tufted leaves and a branched inflorescence 

Bering Hairgrass 

Deschamspia beringensis (L.) 

Description 

Deschampsia beringensis (Bering Hairgrass) is a 

highly variable, perennial, cool season bunch grass. 

The species grows from 50 to 60 centimeters (20 

- 24 inches) tall. Stems are erect, and the leaves are between 

1.5 - 4 mm (.06 and .16 inches) wide, flat or rolled. The leaves 

are mostly basal in a dense tuft. Bering Hairgrass’s inflorescence 

is a loosely branched, open panicle from 10 - 25 centimeters 

(4 to 10 inches) in length. There are two florets (flowers) 

per spikelet. Flowering occurs from May to September. 

Bering Hairgrass seeds mature from late June to late September, 

depending on location. Deschampsia beringensis produces 

approximately 1,360,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Bering Hairgrass populations occupy moist to seasonally 

flooded, sunny environments. Bering Hairgrass is adapted 

to a pH range from 5.5 to 7.2. Salinity tolerance is generally 

low, but plants growing in coastal estuaries may be slightly 

more salt tolerant. Bering Hairgrass habitat includes coastal 

terraces, upper tidal marshes, seasonally wet prairies, and 

moist subalpine mountain meadows. 

Culture 

When planting Bering Hairgrass, seed should be planted 

¼ to ½ inch deep. Seeding rates depend greatly upon soil 

type, moisture, and location. An average seeding rate for 

broadcasting is 12 lbs/acre and 6 lbs/acre when drill seeding. 

All seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live Seed 

(PLS) calculations, as described in Appendix B, as described in 

Appendix B. 




be irrigated when necessary. Irrigation in combination with 

fertilization should increase overall yields. 

Uses 

Livestock: Bering Hairgrass can be utilized as hay or as 

a pasture crop. It is used by cattle, horses, and sheep. The 

palatability of Bering Hairgrass is moderate to low for most 

classes of livestock. 

Wildlife: A large variety of wildlife utilize Bering Hairgrass 

for cover. Most wildlife will not typically utilize the species as 

often as domestic livestock. Bering Hairgrass has moderate to 

low palatability for elk, bison and moose. 

Management 

Bering Hairgrass is adapted to coastal regions and is well suited 

for Alaska’s maritime environments. One should be aware 

that Bering Hairgrass grows aggressively and tends to compete 

with other grass species. Several diseases are associated with 

Bering Hairgrass, including ergot, stripe smut, blind seed and 

several turf diseases. Hairgrass is also vulnerable to several 

leaf spots and rusts. Insect pests such as aphids, billbugs, 

and leafhoppers can threaten stands of Bering Hairgrass, and 

should be monitored. 

37

Grass 




• ‘Norcoast’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

A 

References 

W I SW SC SE 






160 pp Link: http://plants.alaska.gov/pdf/RevegManual.pdf 

A 

W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 




Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 

Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 1 3 3 1 




Bering Hairgrass 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

Good Bunch 20 - 24 in. Native Poor Good Good Strong 5.5 - 7.2 

38

BLUEJOINT REEDGRASS 



Bluejoint furnishes excellent forage for livestock and some 

wildlife. As this grass matures, it quickly becomes tough and 

unpalatable, causing protein values to drop considerably and 

crude fiber content to increase. Bluejoint makes favorable hay 

and is palatable forage if managed properly. However, when 

putting effort and expense into seedbed preparation, one 

should consider growing more desirable forage grasses than 

Bluejoint Reedgrass. Seed availability is poor and prices are 

usually high for this species. 


Stands of Bluejoint can tolerate a thick build up of litter and 

mulch. This species can be found in highly organic peat and 

clay soils, but prefers a silty soil. Bluejoint is adapted to a wide 

range of temperatures (-40 °F to 105 °F) and precipitation 

regimes. It is extremely winter hardy. 


Bluejoint Reedgrass 

Calamagrostis canadensis (L.) 

Description 

Calamagrostis canadensis, Bluejoint Reedgrass is a tall, erect, 

cool season perennial grass that is found in wet meadows 

and prairies. The creeping rhizomes and rootstocks result 

in natural stands having a hummocky, uneven appearance. 

Erect culms are slender, not branched; grow to be 90 to 100 

centimeters (36 to 40 inches) tall. Leaves are bluish green, 

elongated and very narrow; rough to the touch. The caryopses 

are ellipsoidal, yellow-brown, smooth, and about .76 to 1.27 

mm (.03 -.05 inches) long. Inflorescence (seed-head) open 

panicle with single caryopsis borne in each spikelet (Barkley, 

1986). Bluejoint flowers from June to August and is a typical 

wind pollinated species like most grasses. Calamagrostis 

canadensis produces approximately 2,720,000 seeds per 

pound of seed. 

Uses 

Livestock: Bluejoint may be used for hay or pasture land. 

Cattle, sheep and horses find this grass highly palatable during 

early growth prior to seedhead formation. 

Wildlife: Bluejoint is utilized by bison, elk and deer, especially 

during the early portion of the growing season. It also has 

value as food and cover for waterfowl, small rodents, and 

some upland game birds. 

Bluejoint has broad ecological adaptations; occurring in a 

wide range of environments - from lowland wetlands to windswept 

alpine ridges. The species has a wide pH tolerance (pH 

4.5 to 8), from very acidic to moderately alkaline soils. Bluejoint 

can tolerate fresh to slightly brackish water. 

Culture 

An average broadcast seeding rate for Bluejoint is 6 - 8 lbs/ 

acre. When drill seeding, 2 - 4 lbs/acre is appropriate. Fall 

seedings should be made at least 6 weeks before a killing frost 

is expected. Seedings should be drilled at a depth of 1 /4 inch 

and no deeper than 3 /8 of an inch if possible. All seeding rates 





before fertilizer is applied. Bluejoint responds well to nitrogen, 

which has been shown to increase protein levels and overall 

forage yields. Pastures and hay fields should be irrigated when 

necessary. Irrigation, in combination with fertilization, should 

increase overall yields. 

Management 

Bluejoint is intolerant of heavy grazing and/or repeated 

harvests. Heavy trampling by livestock or wildlife can break 

the rhizomes and add to soil compaction in wetter areas. 

When over 40 percent of the plant is grazed, future yields can 

decrease by 15-20 percent. Harvesting should be restricted 

to a single cutting per growing season. When unfertilized and 

subjected to frequent grazing or harvest, Bluejoint stands are 

often damaged and persistence is poor. 

39

Fertilized stands of Bluejoint may produce 2 or 3 times more 

total forage than unfertilized stands. Also, fertilized stands 

can produce 10-20% higher protein yields and are considered 

more palatable for livestock and wildlife. Problems can occur 

with virgin stands of Bluejoint Reedgrass due to the large 

amount of surface debris that can accumulate from previous 

years’ growth. This hummocky layer can prevent top dressed 

fertilizers from reaching the living grass root zone. This layer 

can be removed by burning, blading, or mechanical mixing of 

the surface organic layer. 


Grass 

Several potential pests have been associated with Bluejoint 

Reedgrass throughout the lower 48 states and parts of Alaska. 

The nematode Subanguina calamagrostis invades the leaf 

tissue of the grass, forming galls that cause the leaves to become 

twisted and contorted. A fungus, Dilophospora alopecuri, can 

then invade the leaves of Bluejoint Reedgrass, using the entry 

wound caused by the aforementioned nematode. 


• ‘Sourdough’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 


References 










Klebesadel, L.J., R.L. Taylor, W.M. Laughlin, W.W. Mitchell, G.J. Michaelson 

and J. Purser (1983) Grain and Forage Crops for Southcentral Alaska, 

University of Alaska , Palmer Alaska. 10pp 






A mature stand of Bluejoint Reedgrass 

Klebesadel, L.J. and Laughlin, W.M. (1964) Utilization of Native Bluejoint 

Grass in Alaska, University of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station. 22 pp 

Stubbendieck, J., S.L. Hatch, L.M. Landholt (2003) A Field Guide, North 

American Wildland Plants, University of Nebraska, University of Nebraska 

press. Lincoln, Nebraska. 501 pp 

A 

W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 2 3 3 1 




Bluejoint Reedgrass 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

40 

Poor Sod 36 - 40 in. Native Poor Good Good Strong 4.5 - 8

KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS 



Kentucky bluegrass is excellent forage grass for most livestock 

and wildlife. It provides adequate nutritional value in the early 

spring before other plant species emerge. Once Kentucky 

bluegrass develops seed, the forage value and palatability 

drop considerably. Kentucky bluegrass is commonly used for 

pasture land, but considered undesirable for hay fields because 

of its low growth form, poor yield, and early maturity. 


Kentucky Bluegrass 

Poa pratensis (L.) 

Description 


Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass) is a perennial, cool-season, 

sod-forming grass native to Europe. This plant is about 45 to 60 

centimeters (18 - 24 inches) tall, although this height falls to 10 

to 15 cm (4 - 6 inches) when intensively grazed. Inflorescence 

(seed-head) has an open panicle and produces many small 

seeds. There are about 2,177,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Leaves are from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 inches) long, and boatshaped 

(keeled) at the tips. Leaves are smooth, soft, and about 

3 - 7 mm ( 1 /8 to 1 /4 inch) wide. Kentucky bluegrass becomes 

dormant during the heat of summer, but regains its green color 

in fall. Growth starts early in the spring. Tiller buds develop 

into stems or rhizomes. New rhizomes also arise from nodes 

of older rhizomes. Most rhizomes will penetrate 2 to 4 inches 

into the soil, but some go down more than 5 inches. 

Uses 

Livestock: Kentucky bluegrass is typically used for pasture 

land rather than as a hay crop, due to its shorter growing 

height. It is highly palatable to cattle, horses and sheep early 

in the spring, before other plants begin to grow. Kentucky 

bluegrass produces relatively low yields compared to other 

pasture grasses. 

Wildlife: Kentucky bluegrass is highly palatable to bison and 

elk. The tender plants are grazed immediately after growth 

begins, and the leaves remain succulent and green as long as 

soil moisture is present. Poa pratensis seeds are also eaten by 

several kinds of songbirds and rodents. 

Kentucky bluegrass is used throughout the U.S. It is best 

adapted to well-drained, fertile, medium-textured soils of 

limestone origin. Performance on poorly drained and heavytextured 

soils is satisfactory. Favorable pH level for Kentucky 

bluegrass is between 6.0 and 7.5. Kentucky bluegrass grows 

best in humid areas. Optimum temperatures for forage production 

are between 60 °F and 90 °F. Kentucky bluegrass is 

essentially dormant during dry or excessively hot weather, allowing 

it to survive extreme temperatures. It grows best with 

direct sunlight, but will do well in the shade, so long as ample 

moisture and nutrients are available. 

Culture 

An average broadcast seeding rate for Kentucky bluegrass is 

6 - 10 lbs/acre; a rate of 2 - 4 lbs/acre is used for drill seeding 

or when seeded in mixtures. All seeding rates are determined 

by using Pure Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as described in 

Appendix B. Kentucky bluegrass seed should be planted to a 

depth of 1 /4 inch to 1 /2 inch. 



before fertilizer is applied. A pasture containing Kentucky 

bluegrass should be irrigated when necessary. Irrigation in 


Management 

Proper fertilization and liming are the most important phases 

of Kentucky bluegrass management. For pastures, grazing 

should begin when grass is about 5 inches tall. Kentucky 

bluegrass should not be grazed shorter than 1- 1 /2 to 2 inches. 

Otherwise, sod will become weedy and unproductive. When 

overgrazed, poor root and rhizome development occurs, 

allowing weeds and shrubs to invade the pasture. 

Kentucky bluegrass is susceptible to attack by many diseases 

and insects. It is sometimes vulnerable to fungal infections, 

leaf spot, rust and powdery mildew. Depending on region, 

the grass is also susceptible to white grubs, billbugs, and sod 

webworms. 

41


Grass 

A field of Kentucky Bluegrass in southcentral Alaska 



• ‘Nugget’ - released by University of Alaska Fairbanks. Cummings Georgia. 384 pp 


• ‘Park’ - released from Minnesota 

References 

I SC SE 

I SC SE 




Klebesadel, L.J. (1976) Early Planting Is Important to Alaskan Growers of 

Bluegrass and Red Fescue Seed, In Agroborealis, Vol. 8 #1, Jan- 1976, p 22-24. 

Stubbendieck, J., S.L. Hatch and L.M. Landholt (2003) A Field Guide, North 

American Wildland Plants. University of Nebraska, University of Nebraska 


Maurice, E.H., D.S. Metcalfe and R.F. Barnes (1973) Forages, The Science of 








University of Alaska , Palmer Alaska. 10 pp 






I 

SC 

SE 



Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

0 2 3 3 1 

Fine 



Species not 



Kentucky Bluegrass 

• Interior 


• Southeast 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

42 

Good Sod 18 - 24 in. Introduced Poor Poor Good Moderate 6 - 7.5

MEADOW BARLEY 



Meadow Barley produces a marginal amount of protein and 

is utilized most often by large grazing animals in the early 

spring. As with most grasses, nutritional value and digestibility 

diminish substantially after seed development or without 

adequate moisture. 


Meadow Barley has a narrow panicle with a purplish hue. 

Meadow Barley 

Hordeum brachyantherum (L.) 

Description 

Hordeum brachyantherum (Meadow Barley) is a short to 

intermediate lived, cool season, perennial bunch grass. It 

grows semi erect to erect culms 38 - 75 centimeters (15 to 30 

inches) in height. Leaves are green to bluish green, and are 3 

to 6.5 mm ( 1 /8 to 1 /4 inch) wide. The inflorescence, or seedhead, 

is a narrow panicle that is 2.5 - 10 cm (1 to 4 inches) 

in length and often of purplish color. This grass produces a 

medium sized seed with good seedling vigor. Meadow Barley 

seed possesses bristle like awns and non-viable florets that 

should be removed for easier seed flow through planting 

machinery. Seed per pound can vary widely depending upon 

the degree of seed conditioning. Bulky seed may contain 

30,000 to 100,000 seeds/lb, while highly processed seed can 

have upwards of 150,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Meadow Barley is adapted to cool climates and can be found 

growing in wet meadows, salt marshes, along beaches, and 

riparian areas. This grass is adapted to finer textured soils 

like silts and clays but can also tolerate coarser textured soils 

that have adequate moisture. It prefers soils with a pH of 6.0 - 

8.5, and will not persist well in acidic environments. Meadow 

Barley has a moderate tolerance to drought conditions. It can 

also tolerate low nutrient and high saline soils. 

Culture 

Meadow Barley seed should be planted ¼ to ½ inch deep when 

drill seeded. This grass establishes easily and has high seedling 

vigor. Seeding rates depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, 

and location. An average seeding rate for broadcast seeding is 

4-8 lbs/acre, or 2-4 lbs/acre when drill seeding. When seeded 







be irrigated when necessary. Irrigation, in combination with 

fertilization, should increase overall yields. 

Uses 

Livestock: Meadow Barley can be used for pasture land or 

hay. It has moderate to low palatability for most classes of 

livestock. Palatability is higher if grazed in early spring before 

setting seed. Meadow Barley starts its growth in the early 

spring and matures in early to mid September. 

Wildlife: Meadow Barley is considered to have low palatability 

for most large wildlife animals, such as elk, bison, and moose. 

However, deer are known to utilize Meadow Barley in the 

spring, when nutrient values are still high. Small mammals, 

song birds, and water fowl may use this grass for cover and 

food, throughout various stages of its life cycle. 

Management 

Meadow Barley is responsive to irrigation and should be 

irrigated if planted on drier sites. It does not respond well to 

heavy grazing and pasture deferment should be considered 

for healthy stands to persist. This grass may be susceptible 

to several fungal diseases such as head smut and/or leaf and 

stem rust. Meadow Barley’s bristly awn can cause harm to 

some animals by working its way into the nose, mouth, and 

intestine. 

43


Grass 


• Lowell Point selected class germplasm; 

- Alaska PMC release. 

W SW SC SE 

Meadow Barley, Hordeum brachyantherum 


University Press. Stanford California. 1008 pp 

Long, S.G. (1981) Characteristics of Plants Used In Western Reclamation- 

Second Edition. Environmental Research & Technology. Fort Collins, 

Colorardo 137 pp. 

References 


Control Guide, State of Alaska, Division of Agriculture, Plant Materials 

Center. Palmer, Alaska. 234 pp Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/reveg/ 


Alaska, Division of Agriculture, Plant Materials Center. Palmer, Alaska. 160 pp 

Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/pdf/RevegManual.pdf 



W 

SW 

SC 

SE 




Maurice, E.H., D.S. Metcalfe and R.F. Barnes, (1973) Forages, The Science of 



Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 1 3 3 2 



Species not 



Meadow Barley 

• Western 

• Southwest 


• Southeast 

Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

44 

Poor Bunch 24 in. Native Good Good Good Weak 6.0 - 8.5

MEADOW FOXTAIL 


Meadow Foxtail produces moderate amounts of protein and is 

excellent quality forage for large grazing animals. It possesses 

good nutritional value and digestibility similar to that of 

Timothy (Phleum pretense). Browsers such as moose do not 

find Meadow Foxtail to be as palatable as do grazing animals 

like cattle, bison and elk. As with most grasses, nutritional 

value diminishes substantially after seed development or 

without adequate moisture. 


Meadow Foxtail is adapted to cool, wet climates. It can be 

found growing in hay meadows, irrigation ditches, and along 

stream banks. Meadow Foxtail prefers fine-textured or poorly 

drained soils, such as silts and clays. This grass performs well 

in soils with a pH ranging from 5.8 to 8.0. Meadow Foxtail has 

a moderate tolerance to droughty and saline environments. 

Alopecurus pratensis can be found growing throughout most 

of Alaska, and portions of Canada and the United States. 

Culture 

Meadow Foxtail, Alopecurus pratensis 

Meadow Foxtail 

Alopecurus pratensis (L.) 

Description 

Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow Foxtail) is a long lived, cool 

season, perennial bunch grass. It grows decumbent or erect 

culms 30 to 50 centimeters (12 to 20 inches) tall. Leaves vary 

in length from 5 to 30 cm (2 - 12 inches), and are roughly 6 to 

13 mm ( 1 /4 to 1 /2 inch wide). Meadow Foxtail’s inflorescence 

is a dense panicle and is 2.5 to 7.5 cm (1 to 3 inches) in length, 

and usually about 6 to 13 mm ( 1 /4 to 1 /2 inch) wide. This 

grass produces a medium size seed, which retains a hairy 

pubescence making it light and/or fluffy. Once established, 

Meadow Foxtail has high seedling vigor. Meadow Foxtail 

produces approximately 406,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Uses 

Livestock: Meadow Foxtail can be used for pasture, hay, or 

silage. It is highly palatable to all classes of livestock, such as 

cattle, sheep, and horses. Meadow Foxtail starts its growth in 

early spring and provides livestock with adequate forage. 

Wildlife: Meadow Foxtail has moderate palatability for most 

classes of wildlife. Grazers such as elk and bison tend to select 

Meadow Foxtail more often than moose. It is also utilized by 

small mammals and song birds. 

Meadow Foxtail seed should be planted a ¼ to ½ inch deep, 

when drill seeded. This grass can be difficult to establish, but 

once in place seedling vigor is considered high. Seeding rates 

depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, and location. An 

average seeding rate for broadcasting is 4-8 lbs/acre and 2-4 

lbs/acre when drill seeding. When Meadow Foxtail is seeded 









Management 

Meadow Foxtail makes an excellent pasture, hay, or silage 

forage crop. It is less winter-hardy than Smooth Brome (Bromus 

inermis) but is more tolerant of acidic soils. Meadow Foxtail is 

found in areas with milder winters and more acidic soils, such 

as the Kenai Peninsula. Meadow Foxtail can be problematic 

when planting with a drill seeder, due to the hairy pubescence 

that remains on the seed after cleaning. To reduce mechanical 

problems, Meadow Foxtail can be planted along with other 

grass or legume species. It responds well to grazing as long as 

there is ample moisture. At present, there are no major pests 

in Alaska that threaten Meadow Foxtail. 

45

Photo: Paul Slichter, Pacific Northwest Wildflowers 

Grass 


• There are no developed northern cultivars or releases 

of Meadow Foxtail at present. 

References 

A mature stand of Meadow Foxtail 

OSU Rangeland Ecology and Management (2005) Meadow Foxtail Plant 

Characteristics [online] Link: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/range/sites/ 

default/files/Meadow_20Foxtail.pdf 









SC 

SE 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 1 3 3 2 



Species not 



Meadow Foxtail 


• Southeast 

Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

46 

Poor Bunch 12 - 20 in. Introduced Good Good Excellent Strong 5.8 - 8.0

POLARGRASS 

find Polargrass to be as palatable as grazing animals like cattle, 

bison and elk. As with most grasses, the nutritional value of 

Polargrass diminishes substantially after seed development or 

without adequate moisture. 


Polargrass is adapted to cool, wet climates, and is found 

growing along rivers, meadows, tundra, fresh water marshes, 

and inland levees. It is adapted to cold boggy soils and/or 

mesic up lands. This grass will grow well in soils with a pH 

ranging from 4.9 to 6.8. Polargrass is intolerant to droughty 

and/or saline environments. It prefers northern latitudes and 

can be found growing in portions of Greenland, Canada, and 

Alaska. 



Polargrass 

Arctagrostis latifolia (L.) 

Description 

Arctagrostis latifolia (Polargrass) is a long lived, cool season, 

perennial, sod forming grass. It grows erect culms 45 to 60 

centimeters (18 to 24 inches) tall. Polargrass leaves vary in 

length from a few inches to a foot and are usually 6 to 13 mm 

( 1 /4 - 1 /2 inch) wide. Inflorescence (seed-head) is narrow to 

somewhat open panicle 8 to 28 cm (3 to 11 inches) in length. 

Polargrass has low seedling vigor and produces a small seed 

with about 1,800,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Uses 

Livestock: Polargrass can be used for pasture, hay, or silage. 

This grass is capable of generating high yields and can provide 

livestock with adequate forage and nutrition. 

Wildlife: Polargrass has shown to provide good forage for 

caribou and reindeer in northern regions throughout Canada 

and Alaska. Grizzly bears have been observed grazing large 

quantities of polargrass during spring and summer months. It 

also provides cover and forage for small mammals and various 

song birds. 


Polargrass produces large amounts of protein and is a high 

quality forage for large grazing animals. It possesses good 

nutritional value and digestibility similar to that of Timothy 

(Phleum pratense). Browsers such as moose and deer do not 

Culture 

Polargrass seed should be planted ¼ to ½ inch deep. Low 

seedling vigor can make this grass difficult to establish. Seeding 

rates depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, and location. 

An average seeding rate when broadcasting Polargrass is 8 lbs/ 

acre and 5 lbs/acre when drill seeding. Seeding Polargrass 

as part of a mix is not recommended because of the grass’s 

weak ability to compete with other plants. All seeding rates 








Management 

Polargrass seedling vigor is poor and early growth rates 

are usually slow. It requires an environment with low 

competition, moderate moisture, and adequate nutrients. 

However, once Polargrass is established, it has early and 

vigorous spring growth. Production trials of unfertilized vs. 

fertilized Polargrass have shown the differences in yield to 

be insignificant, suggesting that Polargrass does not respond 

well to commercial fertilizers. More research needs to be 

conducted to validate this theory, however. 

Polargrass requires moderate amounts of moisture and 

should be irrigated when applicable. Arctagrostis latifolia is 

an extremely winter hardy grass, with a greater tolerance to 

winter ponding and icy conditions than other forage grasses 

like Timothy (Phleum pratense) and Smooth Brome (Bromus 

inermis). 

47

Photo: USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service 

Grass 


• ‘Kenai’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 


• ‘Alyeska’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

A 

References 

A field of Polargrass, Arctagrostis latifolia 

W I SW SC SE A 

W 









Soil Conservation Service (1972) A Vegetative Guide for Alaska, University 

of Alaska Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Soil Conservation Service. 50 pp 



I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

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Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 1 3 2 1 




Polargrass 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

48 

Poor Sod 24 in. Native Poor Good Excellent Poor 4.9 - 6.8

RED FESCUE 



The forage value of Red Fescue ranges from fair to good, 

depending on geographic location. It possesses fair nutritional 

value, even after freeze-up, until snow becomes too deep for 

grazing. Red Fescue is also known to retain high protein values 

throughout its growth stage. 


Red Fescue is hardy, wear-resistant, and shade tolerant. This 

grass is adapted to wet, acidic environments. It prefers well 

drained soils with a pH between 5 and 7.5, but requires ample 

moisture to become established. Red Fescue is adapted to 

cooler zones. 

In areas of high temperatures and humidity, Red Fescue may 

turn brown or deteriorate during the summer months. This 

grass will generally recover in the fall when temperature and 

moisture conditions are more favorable. Red Fescue is highly 

competitive and is found all over North America. 

Red Fescue is a winter-hardy grass, adapted for use across Alaska. 

Red Fescue 

Festuca rubra (L.) 

Description 

Festuca rubra (Red Fescue) is a cool season, introduced, sodforming 

grass. Leaves of Red Fescue are bright green, wiry, and 

narrow. They are pressed together in a “V” shape and appear 

nearly round. Sheaths reddish or purplish at base, culms 

sometimes bent and growing to about 35 - 46 centimeters (14 

- 18 inches) tall. The inflorescence (seed-head) is a contracted 

and/or narrow panicle. Red Fescue produces about 410,000 

seeds per pound of seed. 

Culture 

When planting Red Fescue, seed should be planted ¼ to ½ inch 

deep. Seeding rates depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, 

and location. An average seeding rate for broadcasting 

Red Fescue is 12 lbs/acre and 6 lbs/acre when drill seeding. 

Seeding rate calculations are based on Pure Live Seed (PLS), as 




before fertilizer is applied. Fertilization, combined with 

irrigation, may increase overall yields. 

Uses 

Livestock: Red Fescue is used for hay, pasture land, or silage. 

It is also utilized by cattle and horses. In some cases, Red 

Fescue will make up 10-15% of domestic sheep diets. 

Wildlife: Red Fescue is consumed by deer, moose, elk and 

a variety of other wild ungulates. It is also great forage for 

upland game birds and various species of water fowl such as 

the lesser Canada goose. 

Management 

One should be aware of Red Fescue’s aggressiveness and 

ability to out-compete other plants. It is not uncommon for 

Red Fescue to dominate a growing site even when planted in a 

mix with other grass species. This should be considered when 

formulating a forage seeding mix. Red Fescue can also be used 

to prevent the invasion of alders and willows. 

49

References 



Anchorage, Alaska. 234 pp. Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/reveg/ 






Experiment Station. 16 pp. 

Grass 



University of Alaska , Palmer Alaska. 10 pp. 




Greeley, Colorado. 107 pp. [online] Link: http://www.pawneebuttesseed. 



of Alaska, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Soil Conservation Service. 50 pp. 




Klebesadel, L.J. (1976) Early Planting Is Important to Alaskan Growers of 

Bluegrass and Red Fescue Seed In Agroborealis, Vol. 8. Number #1, Jan- 

1976, p 22-24. 



Ames, Iowa. 755 pp. 

Varieties and Releases 

A field of Red Fescue in southcentral Alaska 


• ‘Arctared’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 


• ‘Boreal’ - Alberta, Canada release. 

W I SW SC SE 

• ‘Pennlawn’ - Pennsylvania release. 

SW SC SE 

• Henderson Ridge selected class germplasm; 


SW 

SC 

A 

W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

1 2 3 3 1 

Fine 



Species not 



Red Fescue 



Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

50 

Poor - Good Sod 14 - 18 in. Introduced Poor Good Good Strong 5 - 7.5

SIBERIAN WILDRYE 



Siberian Wildrye has marginal forage quality. This grass 

also has poor digestibility due to large amounts of lignin, 

cellulose and hemicellulose. It has a protein content similar 

to Polar Brome (Bromus inermis), Slender Wheatgrass (Elymus 

trachycaulus), and Timothy (Phleum pratense), after the first 

year of establishment. Like most forage grasses, Siberian 

Wildrye nutrient levels are highest just before the plant 

develops its seedhead. There is limited Siberian Wildrye 

research data available concerning actual nutritional value, 

palatability, and grazing utilization. 


Siberian Wildrye seedhead 

Siberian Wildrye 

Elymus sibiricus (L.) 

Description 

Elymus sibiricus (Siberian Wildrye) is a tall growing, erect 

perennial bunchgrass, that grows from 75 - 90 centimeters 

(30 to 36 inches) in height. It is a cool season species native 

to fragmented intermountain areas. Siberian Wildrye can be 

easily identified by its long, lax, drooping seedhead. This grass 

species produces an abundance of seed, and has a conspicuous 

ability to grow in open, unshaded and infertile sites. Siberian 

Wildrye is known for its extreme winter hardiness and excellent 

seedling vigor. It produces approximately 127,000 seeds per 


Uses 

Livestock: Siberian Wildrye can be utilized as hay or as a 

pasture crop. It is used by cattle, horses, and sheep. The 

palatability of Siberian Wildrye is moderate to low for most 

classes of livestock. 

Wildlife: A large variety of wildlife utilize Siberian Wildyre 

for cover. Most wildlife will not typically utilize this grass for 

feed as often as domestic livestock. Siberian Wildrye has low 

palatability for elk, bison and various species of waterfowl. 

Siberian Wildrye is distributed across Europe, Asia, Russia, 

and parts of Canada and Alaska. It can be found growing in 

sandy soils, in areas receiving between 24 and 55 inches of 

annual precipitation. Siberian Wildrye is a very drought 

tolerant species and will not grow well in wet areas or areas 

with poorly drained soils. The grass is adapted to slightly acid 

to neutral soils, with a pH range from 5.0 to 7.2. Siberian 

Wildrye will not tolerate saline soils or shaded environments. 

Culture 

An average broadcast seeding rate for Siberian Wildrye is 

12 lbs/acre. A rate of 6 lbs/acre should be used when drill 

seeding or when seeded in a mixture. Siberian Wildrye seeds 

should be planted at a depth of 1 /4 in. to 1 in. Seed should 

be planted in medium to coarse textured, well drained soil if 

possible. All seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live 




before fertilizer is applied. Little information is available 

regarding the effect fertilizer and irrigation may have on 

Siberian Wildrye yields. 

Management 

Siberian Wildrye appears to be a good forage species, 

although more research is needed to determine its overall 

value. There are several potential problems for growers 

dealing with Siberian Wildrye. This grass possesses a needle 

like appendage or awn that could potentially be harmful to 

livestock. Siberian Wildrye should not be grazed within the 

first year of its planting. Grazing could potentially destroy or 

diminish its life span. During its first year of growth, Siberian 

Wildrye does not produce a high overall yield. There has been 

little research into pests (such as insects, mildews, or rust) that 

could be harmful to Siberian Wildrye. 

51

Grass 


A field of Siberian Wildrye in southcentral Alaska. 


• There are no commercial Siberian Wildyre cultivars or 

releases currently available. 

References 



Klebesadel, L.J. (1969) Siberian Wildrye, Agronomic Characteristics of 

a Potentially Valuable Forage and Conservation Grass of the North. In 

Agronomy Journal, Vol. 61. Nov-Dec 1969. p. 855-859. 

I 

SC 

Klebesadel, L.J. (1993) Winterhardiness and Agronomic Performance 

of Wildryes Compared with Other Grasses In Alaska, and the Responses 

of Siberian Wildrye to Management Practices. Agricultural and Forestry 

Experiment Station, University of Alaska. Palmer, Alaska. 19 pp. 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

1 2 2 1 0 



Species not 



Siberian Wildrye 

• Interior 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

52 

Poor Bunch 36 in. Disputed Poor Good Poor Moderate 5.0 - 7.2


SLENDER WHEATGRASS 


Slender Wheatgrass is valuable forage for most classes of 

livestock and wildlife. It is generally considered to have a good 

energy value and high protein content compared to other 

grasses. Slender Wheatgrass produces good quality hay if 

managed properly. 


Slender Wheatgrass is widely distributed across North 

America. Its range extends from Alaska to Newfoundland 

and south to North Carolina, Kentucky, Arkansas, Texas, and 

western Mexico. Slender Wheatgrass has been found growing 

at elevations from 4,500 to 12,000 feet. It prefers loams to 

sandy loams in areas receiving at least 14 inches of annual 

precipitation. Slender Wheatgrass is a drought tolerant 

species, but may still succumb to drought, since it sometimes 

matures later in the fall. The grass is adapted to slightly acid 

to slightly alkaline soils, growing in soils with a pH ranging 

from 5.6 to 9.0. Considerable genetic variability is present in 

Slender Wheatgrass populations, and some ecotypes may be 

rather specific to their original sites. 

Slender Wheatgrass seed head 

Slender Wheatgrass 

Elymus trachycaulus (L.) 

Description 

Elymus trachycaulus (Slender Wheatgrass) is an erect, tufted 

bunchgrass ranging in height from 60 to 70 centimeters (24 

to 30 inches). It is a cool season, perennial species native to 

the mountain and intermountain areas of the western United 

States and the northern Great Plains. Slender Wheatgrass 

has very short rhizomes and the seedstalks and stems have 

characteristic reddish to purplish tinge at the base. It is seldom 

found in pure stands and is relatively short lived with a life 

expectancy of only 4-6 years. Slender Wheatgrass has about 

133,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Uses 

Livestock: Slender Wheatgrass can be used for hay or pasture 

land. It’s highly palatable to cattle and sheep, and provides 

good quality animal fodder. 

Wildlife: Slender Wheatgrass is utilized by buffalo, elk, 

moose, mountain goat and dall sheep throughout Alaska. It 

is also used as forage and cover for some songbirds, upland 

game birds, small mammals, and waterfowl. 

Culture 

An average broadcast seeding rate for Slender Wheatgrass is 

10 lbs/acre, or 5 lbs/acre used when drill seeded or included 

in mixtures. Seeding depth should be 1 /4 to 3 /4 inch. Seed 

should be planted in fine to medium textured well drained soil 

if possible. All seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live 




before fertilizer is applied. Pastures containing Slender 

Wheatgrass should be irrigated when necessary and/or 

applicable. Irrigation in combination with fertilization should 


Management 

Slender Wheatgrass is best suited as a filler seed in mixtures 

containing slower establishing, longer lived grass species. It 

performs well when grown in combination with legumes. 

Slender Wheatgrass is moderately tolerant to grazing 

pressure, and requires good management to maintain stands. 

It is also considered to be a decreaser species on over grazed 

rangelands. 

When choosing Slender Wheatgrass as forage in Alaska, 

one should highly consider planting a cultivar or release that 

is adapted to the climate in which the plants will become 

established. 

53


Grass 


• Wainwright selected class germplasm; 


W I SW SC 

• ‘Revenue’ - Canada release. 

W I SW SC 

• ‘Primar’ - released from Oregon and Washington. 

References 

W I SW SC 



Anchorage, Alaska. 234 pp. Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/reveg/ 



160 pp. Link: http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/pdf/RevegManual.pdf 



Slender Wheatgrass is an excellent drought-tolerant forage crop. 




Klebesadel, L.J. (1991) Performance of Indigenous and Introduced Slender 

Wheatgrass in Alaska, and Presumed Evidence of Ecotypic Evolution. UAF 

Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station. Palmer, Alaska. 20 pp. 



press. Lincoln, Nebraska. 501 pp. 



W 

I 

SW 

SC 


Greeley, Colorado. 107 pp. [online] Link: http://www.pawneebuttesseed. 


Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 2 3 2 0 



Species not 



Slender Wheatgrass 

• Western 

• Interior 

• Southwest 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

54 

Good Bunch 24 - 30 in. Native Excellent Excellent Good Strong 5.6 - 9

SMOOTH BROME 


Smooth Brome is resistant to drought and temperature extremes. 

Smooth Brome 

Bromus inermis (L.) 

Description 

Bromus inermis (Smooth Brome) is a sod-forming perennial 

cool season grass that spreads by rhizomes. Culms vary from 

30 to 45 centimeters (12 to 18 inches) in height on average. 

This plant produces numerous basal and stem leaves that 

vary in length from 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 inches). Frequently, 

Smooth Brome leaves are marked by a transverse wrinkle 

resembling a “W” a short distance below the leaf tip. The 

inflorescence develops a characteristic rich purplish-brown 

color when mature. Brome seed is produced in semi-compact, 

127 mm (5 inch) long panicles with ascending branches. The 

flat compressed seed is usually awnless, about 8.5 mm ( 1 /3 

inch) long, and smooth. Smooth Brome is the most widely used 

of the cultivated brome grasses. It produces approximately 


Uses 

Livestock: Smooth Brome is used for hay, pasture, and/or 

silage. Cattle, sheep and horses find this grass highly palatable 

during the early growth stage, as well as late in the year after 

fall green-up. 

Wildlife: Smooth Brome is used by wildlife to varying degrees, 

depending upon the quality of the grass and the animal 

species. Elk and Bison use it as winter forage. Upland game 

birds and waterfowl use Smooth Brome for nesting cover and 

rearing their brood. Rodents such as voles and shrews use it 

for food and cover throughout the year. 


If grazed before flowering, Smooth Brome is high in protein 

with relatively low crude-fiber content. Forage value decreases 

rapidly with maturity, once seed is produced. Northern 

varieties of Smooth Brome produce less forage on average 

than southern varieties, but are just as palatable for livestock 

and wildlife. 


Smooth Brome is adapted to cool climates. It is resistant to 

drought and extremes in temperature. It is a long lived grass, 

living 5 to 7 years on average, but can live as long as 10 years 

or more. This plant is very susceptible to disease in areas of 

high humidity. Smooth Brome grows best on well drained silt 

and clay loam soils with high fertility. It will also grow well 

on lighter textured soils where adequate moisture and fertility 

are maintained. Smooth Brome performs best in a slightly 

acid to slightly alkaline environment (pH range of 6.0 to 7.5). 

Stands are difficult to obtain and growth is poor on soils high 

in soluble salts. 

Smooth Brome’s range of distribution is centered within the 

corn belt of North America and includes portions of Canada 

and Alaska. Depending on variety, this grass can grow in 

several regions of Alaska, as far north as Fairbanks. 

Culture 

Due to slow rates of germination and establishment, Smooth 

Brome requires a clean, firm seedbed. An average seeding 

rate for broadcast seeding is 20-25 lbs/acre, 10-15 lbs/acre 

when drill seeding. If seeded as part of a mixture, 5-10 lbs/ 

acre should be used. When seeding in the fall, make sure to 

have seed in the ground at least six weeks prior to the first 

expected frost. Seedings should be drilled at a depth of 1 /2 to 

3 

/4 inch. All seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live 


Appropriate fertilizer ratios for Smooth Brome depend upon 

soil type, chemistry, and location. Soil samples should be 

collected and analyzed before fertilizer is applied. Pastures 

and hay fields should be irrigated when necessary and/or 

applicable. Irrigation, in combination with fertilization, should 


Management 

Smooth Brome requires heavy applications of nitrogen 

in early spring and in fall to maintain high yields in a pure 

stand. Optimum forage production is obtained when brome 

is used in a planned cropping system and plowed out after 3 

to 4 years. Smooth Brome’s heavy sod makes it an excellent 

soil-conditioning crop, when included in cropping systems. In 

deep, well-drained soils it will root to 4 feet. Smooth Brome 

performs best in grassed waterways, field borders, and other 

conservation uses, where the forage can be cut and removed 

while in early bloom. 

55

Pastures should not be grazed prior to attaining a minimum 

height of about 10 inches at the beginning of the grazing 

season. Grazing pressures should be adjusted throughout the 

season to avoid grazing this grass below a minimum height of 

4 inches. 

Grasshoppers and seed blight can be a factor during grass 

establishment, in semi-humid areas. Foliar diseases in humid 

areas have also been known to cause serious problems. 

Smooth Brome can be dramatically affected by seed midges, 

such as Stenodiplosis bromicola, in some northern areas. 


Grass 


• ‘Carlton’ - Western Canada release. 

• ‘Manchar’ - Washington release. 

I 

SC 

• ‘Polar’ - Alaska developed ‘Polar’ Brome may become 

commercially available in the future. Check with the 

Alaska Plant Materials Center for further detail. 

References 

I 

SC 






University of Alaska, Palmer, Alaska. 10 pp 

Smooth brome, Bromus inermis 

Klebesadel, L.J. (1992) Bromegrass in Alaska. I. Winter Survival and Forage 

Productivity of Bromus Species, Types, and Cultivars as Related to Latitudinal 

Adaptation, University of Alaska Fairbanks, School of Agriculture and Land 

Resources Management, Bulletin 87, 13 pp 




Maurice, E.H., D.S. Metcalfe, R.F. Barnes (1973) Forages, The Science of 

Grassland Agriculture. Iowa State University Press, Iowa State University. 









Skinner, Q.D. (2010) A Field Guide to Wyoming Grasses. Education Resources 

Publishing, Cummings Georgia. 596 pp 

I 

SC 

Klebesadel, L.J. (1970) Influence of Planting Date and Latitudinal Provenance 

on Winter Survival, Heading, and Seed Production of Bromegrass and 

Timothy in the Subarctic, University of Alaska Experiment Station In Crop 

Science, Vol. 10. Sept.-Oct. 1970. p 594-598. 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

1 3 3 3 2 



Species not 



Smooth Brome 

• Interior 



Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

56 

Good Sod 12 - 18 in. Introduced Poor Good Fair Strong 6.0 - 7.5

SPIKE TRISETUM 


Spike Trisetum produces excellent quality forage for all 

classes of livestock and large wildlife, though it does not 

respond well to heavy grazing pressure. It is highly palatable 

to browse and grazing animals, and produces large amounts 

of protein in comparison to other grasses. Spike Trisetum has 

good digestibility and is considered to be an important grass 

for mountainous regions. 

Photo: Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) 

Spike Trisetum 

Trisetum spicatum (L.) 

Description 

Trisetum spicatum (Spike Trisetum) is a relatively short-lived, 

cool-season perennial bunch grass. It grows erect culms 50 

to 75 centimeters (20 to 30 inches) tall. Leaves are usually 

flat to folded, and 2.5 to 13 cm (1 to 5 inches) in length. The 

inflorescence is also 2.5 to 13 cm (1 to 5 inches) long, narrow, 

dense, and sometimes purplish green. Spike Trisetum seed is 

small, with about 2,000,000 seeds per pound of seed. Spike 

Trisetum has a high root/shoot ratio in comparison with other 

grasses. 

Uses 

Spike Trisetum seed head 

Livestock: Spike Trisetum is commonly used for pasture. It is 

considered highly palatable for all classes of livestock. When 

used for hay, Spike Trisetum provides nutritious forage for 

cattle, sheep, and horses. 

Wildlife: Big game animals such as bison, elk, and deer, 

commonly utilize Spike Trisetum throughout its growing 

season. This grass is highly palatable to all classes of wildlife. 


Spike Trisetum is adapted to medium textured or well drained 

soils, and prefers a pH range of 4.9 to 7.5. It is found growing 

on drier areas of mountain meadows, roadsides, clear cuts, 

and is distributed almost worldwide. Spike Trisetum is tolerant 

of prolonged periods of drought or moisture, though it will not 

persist under conditions of high salinity. 

Culture 

Spike Trisetum seeds should be planted from ¼ to ½ inch deep. 

Seeding rates depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, and 

location. An average seeding rate for broadcast seeding is 6 - 

12 lbs/acre and 4 - 6 lbs/acre when drill seeding. When seeded 

in a mixture, apply at a rate of 2 - 4 lbs/acre. All seeding rates 








Management 

Spike Trisetum starts its growth in early spring. Like many 

grasses, its protein values diminish upon setting seed. Spike 

Trisetum does not respond well to heavy grazing pressure. 

Precaution should be taken not to over graze this grass. Spike 

Trisetum will stay green well into August or until covered by 

snow. It seldom occurs in dense stands, but usually cures well 

when cut for hay. Seed can be damaged more easily than most 

other grasses due to a liquid endosperm. Care should be taken 

when drill seeding to limit seed damage. At present, there are 

no known pests that are a concern for Spike Trisetum. 

57


Grass 

A mature stand of Spike Trisetum 


• Nelchina - selected class germplasm; 

Alaska PMC release. 

References 

W I SW SC SE 




W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 









Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

1 2 3 2 1 



Species not 



Spike Trisetum 

• Western 

• Interior 

• Southwest 


• Southeast 

Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

Poor Bunch 20 - 30 in. Native Poor Good Good Strong 4.9 - 7.5 

58

TIMOTHY 



Timothy produces good quality hay for most classes of livestock 

and wildlife. It also provides ample amounts of protein within 

the first 25 days of its growing cycle. Once Timothy is mature, 

crude protein values and digestibility diminishes greatly, a fact 

that should be considered when producing a hay crop. After 

the first hay cutting, Timothy can provide good late summer 

and early fall pasture forage. 

Timothy 

Phleum pratense (L.) 

Description 

Timothy seed head 


Timothy is adapted to a cool, humid climate. Timothy thrives 

in rich moist bottomlands and on finer textured soils, such 

as clay loams. It does not do well on coarser soils. Timothy 

prefers a pH of 5.5 to 7.0. Timothy will grow for a time on soils 

low in fertility, but it is better adapted to high fertile soil. It is 

not well adapted to wet, flat land where water stands for any 

considerable time, although it can withstand somewhat poorlydrained 

soils. Under conditions of limited moisture, Timothy 

performs poorly; it does not tolerate drought or prolonged 

high temperatures. Timothy is distributed throughout the 

entire United States. 

Culture 

Phleum pratense, Timothy is a relatively short-lived, coolseason 

perennial bunch grass that grows in stools or clumps 

and has a shallow, compact, and fibrous root system. It grows 

in erect culms 50 to 100 centimeters (20 to 40 inches) tall. 

Leaves vary in length from 5 to 30 cm (2 to 12 inches) and are 

about ( 1 /4 inch) wide, narrowing gently toward the tip. Heads 

spike-like and dense, from 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 inches) in length. 

The seed is very small and usually remains enclosed within the 

glumes. Timothy produces approximately 1,230,000 seeds per 

pound of seed. Timothy is different from most other grasses 

in that 1, or occasionally 2, of the basal internodes of the stem 

swell into a bulb-like growth. This characteristic is often used 

to identify the plant during its early stages of growth. 

Uses 

Livestock: Timothy is used for pasture and silage, but mostly 

for hay. It is palatable and nutritious for cattle and sheep, and 

also makes excellent hay for horses. Timothy is considered 

good forage for cattle and horses during the spring, summer, 

and fall. When being grazed by sheep it is considered good 

forage during the summer and fair during the spring and fall. 

Wildlife: Big game animals such as bison, elk and deer 

commonly utilize Timothy throughout its growing season. 

Some studies have shown that Timothy makes up to 20% of 

bison and elk diets. Small mammals, song birds, upland game 

birds and waterfowl will also use Timothy for nesting, brood 

rearing and escape cover. 

When planting Timothy, seeds should be planted a ½ inch 

deep in moist soil, and ¾ inch in dry or coarse textured soils. 

It is commonly planted in mixtures with legumes or small 

grains. Seeding rates for Timothy depend greatly upon soil 


broadcasting is 4-8 lbs/acre, and 2-4 lbs/acre when drill 

seeding. When Timothy is seeded in a mixture, apply at a rate 

of 4-6 lbs/acre. All seeding rates are determined by using Pure 

Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as described in Appendix B. 



before fertilizer is applied. Timothy is highly responsive to 

fertilizers and should be fertilized frequently and in ample 

quantities. Pastures and hay fields should be irrigated when 

necessary and/or applicable. Irrigation in combination with 


Management 

Timothy makes a first rate companion grass for alfalfa, 

trefoil, or clover as it is the grass that competes least with 

legumes. Over 31 diseases have been reported as affecting 

Timothy; however, most of these are of little concern and can 

be controlled. Timothy is susceptible to stem rust disease 

which can cause loss of vigor and forage quality. Rust-resistant 

varieties have been developed to control this disease. 

59

References 







University of Alaska , Palmer Alaska. 10 pp 



Grass 









Klebesadel, L.J. (1970) Influence of Planting Date and Latitudinal Provenance 

on Winter Survival, Heading, and Seed Production of Bromegrass and 

Timothy in the Subarctic, University of Alaska Experiment Station, In Crop 

Science, Vol. 10. Sept.-Oct. 1970. p 594-598. 







A mature stand of Timothy, Phleum pratense 


• ‘Engmo’ - Norway release. 

W I SW SC SE 

• ‘Climax’ - Canada release. 

W I SW SC SE 

• ‘Champ’ - Canada release. 

W I SW SC SE 

W 

I 

SW 

SC 

SE 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

0 2 3 3 2 

Fine 



Species not 



Timothy 

• Western 

• Interior 

• Southwest 


• Southeast 

Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

60 

Good Bunch 30 in. Introduced Poor Poor Good Moderate 5.5 - 7.0

TUFTED HAIRGRASS 



Tufted Hairgrass produces good quality hay for most classes 

of livestock and wildlife. It also provides ample amounts of 

protein depending on its growing stage. Tufted Hairgrass can 

provide good summer pasture forage for livestock. Although 

forage value is usually moderate to high, Tufted Hairgrass 

consist of only 1-3% of wild animal diets. 


Populations of Tufted Hairgrass occupy sunny to partially 

shaded environments that are moderately moist to seasonally 

flooded. The species grows in a wide variety of soils; fine to 

coarse, mesic to hydric soil types. Tufted Hairgrass is adapted 

to a pH range from 4.8 to 7.5. Some populations have extreme 

tolerance to heavy metals and high soil acidity. The salinity 

tolerance of Tufted Hairgrass is generally low, but plants 

growing in coastal estuaries may be slightly more salt tolerant. 

Tufted Hairgrass is well suited for Alaskan environments. 

Tufted Hairgrass 

Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) 

Description 

Deschampsia cespitosa (Tufted Hairgrass) is a highly variable, 

perennial cool season grass species that grows from 51 to 61 

centimeters (20 - 24 inches) tall. Stems are erect, and the 

leaves are between 1.5 and 4 mm (.06 - .16 inches) wide, flat or 

rolled. The leaves are mostly basal in a dense tuft. Tufted Hairgrass’s 

inflorescence is upright to nodding, loosely branched, 

open and 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 inches) long. There are two 

florets (flowers) per spikelet. Flowering occurs from May to 

September. Tufted Hairgrass seeds mature from late June to 

late September, depending on location. Tufted hairgrass produces 

approximately 1,360,000 seeds per pound of seed. 

Uses 

Livestock: Tufted Hairgrass can be utilized as hay or as 

a pasture crop. It is used by cattle, horses, and sheep. The 

palatability of Tufted Hairgrass is high to moderate for most 

livestock. 

Wildlife: A large variety of wildlife utilizes Tufted Hairgrass 

as forage and/or cover. However, most wildlife will not utilize 

Tufted Hairgrass as often as domestic livestock. The species 

has moderate to low palatability for elk, bison, bear and 

various species of waterfowl. 

Tufted Hairgrass crowns typically survive all but the most 

severe (hottest) fires. One of the most widely distributed 

grasses on earth, Tufted Hairgrass is found in arctic and 

temperate regions. It occurs from sea level to elevations of up 

to 14,000 ft. Tufted Hairgrass habitat includes coastal terraces, 

upper tidal marshes, seasonally wet prairies, moist subalpine 

mountain meadows, open forests, and alpine areas above 

timberline. 

Culture 

When planting Tufted Hairgrass, seed should be planted 

¼ to ½ inch deep. Seeding rates depend greatly upon soil 


broadcasting is 12 lbs/acre and 6 lbs/acre when drill seeding. 

All seeding rates are determined by using Pure Live Seed (PLS) 

calculations, as described in Appendix B. 



before fertilizer is applied. 

Management 

Tufted Hairgrass is adapted to northern regions and is well 

suited for Alaskan environments. One should be aware of 

Tufted hairgrass’s aggressive growth characteristics; it tends 

to compete with other grass species. A number of diseases 

are associated with Tufted Hairgrass, including ergot, stripe 

smut, blind seed and other turf diseases. Hairgrass is also 

vulnerable to several rusts and leaf spots. Insect pests such as 

aphids, billbugs, and leafhoppers can threaten stands of Tufted 

Hairgrass, and should be monitored. 

61

Grass 




• ‘Nortran’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. American Wildland Plants, University of Nebraska, University of Nebraska 



References 

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• Western 

• Interior 

• Southwest 


• Southeast 

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pH Range 

62 

Good Bunch 20 - 24 in. Native Poor Good Good Strong 4.8 - 7.5

Cereal Grains 

Photo: Brennan Veith Low,AK PMC 

Barley, Hordeum vulgare 


Common Oat, Avena sativa

BARLEY (Cereal) 

Wildlife: Barley makes excellent fodder for large ungulate 

wildlife, such as moose, elk and bison. It also provides feed 

and cover for upland game birds, small mammals, waterfowl 

and various song birds. 


Barley is considered highly palatable and excellent forage for 

most classes of livestock and wildlife. On average this small 

grain produces 12% protein when grown in monoculture. Total 

forage protein levels should increase if Barley is intercropped 

with Field Pea. Nutritional levels will vary depending on 

climate, location, and other agronomic inputs such as 

fertilizers, irrigation, and harvest time. 


Barley seedhead 

Barley 

Hordeum vulgare (L.) 

Description 


Hordeum vulgare (Barley) is an erect annual bunch grass that 

can reach a height of 90 centimeters (36 inches) depending 

on the variety. This small grain can be intercropped with 

legumes, such as Field Pea, to increase forage nutrients and 

palatability. Properly managed, legumes provide needed 

nitrogen for grasses and protein for livestock. Stems of Barley 

are hollow, smooth, and glabrous (shiny). Some varieties 

are susceptible to lodging. Barley leaves are typically 13 - 19 

mm (½ to ¾ of an inch) wide and roughly 30 cm (12 inches) 

in length. Barley spikelet’s exhibit short or long, narrow, and 

scabrous (rough) awns that can be problematic when fed to 

livestock. It produces a large spindle shaped seed with high 

seedling vigor. Barley plants produce roughly 13,000 seeds per 


Uses 

Livestock: Barley is commonly produced for grain fodder, but 

is sometimes fed directly as “green cut” when intercropped 

with a legume such as peas. This small cereal grain produces 

excellent forage and is highly palatable to all classes of livestock. 

In addition, Barley produces excellent straw, generally used by 

dog mushers for bedding. 

Barley can be found growing throughout much of the world 

including Alaska, Canada, and the contiguous United States. It 

is adapted to medium textured soils and prefers a pH ranging 

from 5.3 to 8.5. Barley is moderately tolerant of droughty 

and/or wet conditions but does not persist well in shady 

environments. It is highly tolerant of saline soil conditions. 

Culture 

Barley grows well in cool moist climates and should be planted 

½ to 1½ inches deep. A firm seedbed is essential in providing 

good seed to soil contact. This will provide a more reliable 

water supply and prevent large air pockets in the soil that are 

less than ideal for seedlings to establish. 

Barley is typically drill seeded at a rate of 70 to 100 lbs/acre 

depending upon soil type, moisture, and location. When 

seeded with a legume, seeding rates should be reduced 

by about half and growth cycles must be synchronized. 



before seeding. Irrigation in combination with fertilization 

should increase field productivity. 

Management 

Barley is an excellent grain and forage crop if properly 

managed. Barley is well adapted to Alaska’s long day length 

and short growing season. Several barley cultivars have been 

specifically developed to survive Alaska’s harsh climate, while 

producing higher nutritional grain and forage values. The 

cultivar ‘Weal’ is an awnless Barley that was developed as a 

dual purpose grain and/or forage. 

65

Barley requires adequate moisture and responds well to 

nitrogen fertilizer. When planting Barley with legume species 

nitrogen should not be over applied due to the adverse affects 

it can have on nitrogen fixing plants. Lodging can also be 

problematic with some Barley cultivars; one should conduct 

ample research about their selected cultivar before planting. 

Currently, producers are evaluating the costs and benefits of 

irrigation on the production of Barley and other cereal grains 

throughout Alaska. 

Barley is susceptible to powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis), 

leaf scald (Rhynchosporium secalis), and barley rust, (Puccinia 

hordei), covered smut (Ustilago hordei), loose smut (Ustilago 

nuda) and ergot (Claviceps purpurea). To date, these Barley 

diseases have not been found in Alaska. Therefore, cultivars 

developed for Alaska do not have a strong resistance to 

disease. Before planting, many farmers treat seed to prevent 

ergot and smut. Managers should also rotate crops and select 

disease free seed when applicable. 

References 








Quarberg, D.M, T.R, Jahns, J.I, Chumley (2009) Alaska Cereal Grains Crop 

Profile, University of Alaska Fairbanks Extension with Western Integrated 

Pest Management center. Revised 2009, 7 pp 


Photo: Powell Gardens, Kansas City’s Botanical Garden ( powellgardens.org) 


Grain 

• ‘Otal’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

• ‘Datal’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

I 

• ‘Albright’ - Canada release. 

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• ‘Thual’ (hulless) - Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

• ‘Weal’ (awnless) - Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

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66 

Good Bunch 24 in. Introduced Good Good Good Moderate 5.3 - 8.5

Photo: Henrik Reinholdson (Wikimedia.org) 

COMMON OAT (Cereal) 

Uses 

Livestock: Oats are commonly used as a hay and silage 

crop, but can also be used for pasture. This small cereal grain 

makes excellent forage and is highly palatable to all classes of 

livestock. Early growth oat plants can be fed as “green cut” 

forage for livestock. In addition, oat straw makes excellent 

roughage. 

Wildlife: Oats have excellent forage value for a large variety 

of wildlife such as bears, elk, bison and moose. They are also 

used for food and cover by upland game birds, waterfowl, 

small mammals and various song birds. 


Oats are highly palatable and excellent forage to all classes 

of livestock and wildlife. The species produces moderate/ 

high protein and carbohydrate levels. Oats can be fed as hay, 

silage, green cut, grain, and/or eaten directly on the pasture. 

Nutritional levels will vary depending upon the selected 

form that oats are fed as well as how other agronomic inputs 

(fertilizer, irrigation, harvest time) are managed and applied. 

Oat hay generally contains 10 to 15 % protein and is typically 

intercropped with a legume such as peas for added nutrition. 

Common Oat, Avena sativa 

Common Oat 

Avena sativa (L.) 

Description 

Avena sativa, Common Oat is an erect growing annual bunch 

grass that produces a fibrous root system. This small grain 

can attain heights greater than 60 centimeters (24 inches), 

depending on variety. Oats are generally intercropped with 

various legumes such as clovers and/or field peas to increase 

forage nutrient levels. This also allows some legumes to use 

their tendrils to climb the stalks of standing grass. Leaves are 

non-auriculate and medium to dark green in color. Avena 

sativa produces a large, lance shaped seed with high seedling 

vigor. Oat plants typically produce 20,000 seeds per pound of 

seed, depending upon the variety. 


Oats can be found growing throughout much of the world 

including Alaska, Canada, and the contiguous United States. 

It is adapted to fine to coarse textured soils, and prefers a 

soil pH between 5.3 - 8.5. Oats are moderately tolerant of 

saline soils and droughty conditions. However, this small grain 

prefers adequate moisture and will not tolerate shady growing 

environments. 

Culture 

Oats are best adapted to cool moist climates and should be 

planted 1½ to 2 inches deep. A firm seed bed allowing good 

seed to soil contact is essential. Soil samples should be collected 

and analyzed before seeding. Oats are generally drill seeded at 

a rate of 50 to 90 lbs/acre. Seeded with a legume, seeding rates 

should be reduced by about half, and growth cycles should be 

synchronized. Appropriate fertilizer ratios depend upon soil 

type, chemistry, and location. Irrigation in combination with 

fertilization should increase field productivity. 

67

Management 

Oats make an excellent forage crop when properly managed. 

This small grain is well adapted to Alaska’s long days and short 

growing season in the summer. Oats are better adapted to 

lower pH soils than Barley or Wheat. Oat will complement 

various legumes when intercropped, and the species makes 

a high protein and carbohydrate fodder. When planting oats 

with a legume species, nitrogen should not be over applied 

due to the adverse affects it can have on nitrogen fixing plants. 

Common Oat (Avena sativa L.) is the species most used in 

in Alaska, although other species such as Black Oat (Avena 

strigosa L.), Red Oat (Avena byzantina C. Koch), and Hulless 

Oat (Avena nuda L.) are also successfully grown throughout 

the state. Oat straw does not contain long awns, making it 

more desirable than barley straw for use as animal bedding. 

Some oat varieties have difficulty with lodging - conduct 

research prior to planting. 

Oat diseases have not been a significant problem in 

Alaska. Fungi such as scald (Rhynchospoium secalis), stripe 

(Pyrenophora graminea), net blotch (Pyrenophora teres), spot 

blotch (Cochliobolus sativus) and smuts (Ustilago spp.) have 

been known to occur. To help prevent disease outbreaks, 

managers should rotate crops in the field periodically and be 

prudent about selecting disease free seed. 


• ‘Toral’ - University of Alaska release. 

Common Oat, Avena sativa 

Quarberg, D.M, T.R, Jahns, J.I, Chumley (2009) Alaska Cereal Grains Crop 

Profile, University of Alaska Fairbanks Extension with Western Integrated 

Pest Management center. Revised 2009, 7 pp 

Photo: H. Zell (Wikimedia.org) 

Grain 

• ‘Nip’ - Sweden release; Univ. of AK Fairbanks release. 

• ‘Ceal’ - University of Alaska release. 

References 

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Klebesadel, L.J. (1966) Planting of Oats &Peas: some yeild, quality, and cost 

considerations. University of Alaska Experiment Station. Research report No. 

4 November 1966. 7 pp 

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pH Range 

68 

Good Bunch 24 in. Introduced Fair Fair Good Moderate 5.3 - 8.5

Legumes 

Photo: User BerndH (Wikimedia.org) 

Alsike Clover, Trifolium hybridum 

Alfalfa, Medicago sativa 


Field Pea, Pisum sativum 

Red Clover, Trifolium pratense 

White Clover, Trifolium repens 

70

ALFALFA 


Alfalfa produces large amounts of protein and is excellent 

quality forage for all classes of livestock and wildlife. This 

legume has the highest feed value of all commonly grown hay 

crops. Alfalfa is one of the most important forage plants in 

production agriculture; sometimes called the “Queen of the 

Forages”. It is high in mineral content and possesses excellent 

nutritional value, containing at least 10 different vitamins. 


Photo: Sten Porse (Wikimedia.org) 

Alfalfa 

Medicago sativa (L.) 

Description 

A mature stand of Alfalfa 

Medicago sativa, Alfalfa is a long lived perennial legume. It 

grows erect culms, 76 - 91 centimeters (30 to 36 inches) in 

height, branching from a single base. Leaves alternate on the 

stem and are pinnately trifoliolate, while individual leaflets are 

obovate (ovalish) or lancolate (lance shaped). Alfalfa produces 

numerous flowers that are purplish to yellow and borne in loose 

racemes or clusters. Alfalfa grows a series of lateral roots, with 

a distinct tap root that may penetrate 6 to 9 meters (20 to 30 

feet) below soil surface. This legume produces a small kidney 

shaped seed. Alfalfa produces 190,000 to 220,000 seeds per 

pound of seed, depending upon variety. Seedling vigor can be 

low to moderate, also depending upon the selected variety. 

Alfalfa is adapted to a variety of climatic and soil conditions, 

and can be found growing throughout the United States 

and parts of Canada. Varieties such as ‘Denali’ have been 

hybridized to better withstand extreme Alaskan climates. 

Generally, Alfalfa prefers deep well drained medium textured 

soils, with a pH of 6 to 8.5. It is highly drought tolerant and 

can withstand saline soils. Alfalfa will not tolerate sites with 

frequent overflow or high water tables. 

Culture 

Alfalfa should be planted no deeper than a ¼ inch on fine 

textured soils and ½ inch deep on coarse soils. It should be drill 

seeded on a firm seed bed. Cultipacking the soil before and 

after planting Alfalfa is normally recommended. Seeding rates 

depend greatly upon soil type, moisture, and location. Note 

that Alfalfa can have trouble over-wintering and competing 

with perennial grasses. 

An average seeding rate when broadcasting Alfalfa is 10 lbs/ 

acre and 5 lbs/acre when drill seeding. All seeding rates are 

determined by using Pure Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as 

described in Appendix B. Appropriate fertilizer ratios depend 

upon soil type, chemistry and location. Research in Alaska has 

shown that the application of fertilizer produces no significant 

yield change. If applying fertilizer, collect and analyze soil 

samples first. Pastures and hay fields should be irrigated when 

necessary and/or applicable. 

Uses 

Livestock: Alfalfa is typically used for haying, silage, and 

pastures land. However, it can also be fed as haylage, wafers, 

pellets or dried meal. It is highly palatable to all classes of 

livestock, but caution is advised when feeding Alfalfa due to its 

high bloat hazard. 

Wildlife: Alfalfa is highly palatable to a variety of large wildlife, 

such as deer, elk and bison. It is utilized as food and cover by 

small mammals, waterfowl and upland game birds. Canada 

geese, sandhill cranes, rough grouse and mallard ducks can be 

found utilizing Alfalfa. 

Management 

Alfalfa makes an excellent pasture, hay or silage forage. 

Although this crop is usually harvested 2 years after planting, 

one should be aware that most varieties will not overwinter 

throughout Alaska. This can be attributed to several 

environmental factors such as acid soils, nutrient deprived 

soils, cold stress and damage to the plants root system. There 

are several varieties of Alfalfa that have been developed or 

hybridized to combat these factors. 

Alfalfa will tolerate moderate pasture grazing, but stands will 

weaken if over grazed or grazed too often. When applicable, 

Alfalfa can be grown with a perennial grass species, such as 

71

Photo: Wikimedia.org 

Alfalfa, Medicago sativa 

Legume 

Smooth Brome (Bromus inermis). This can greatly reduce the 

danger of bloating in livestock when pasture grazing. Alfalfa 

is susceptible to many agricultural pests, including spotted or 

pea aphid, alfalfa weevil, stem nematode, bacterial wilt, snout 

beetle and several leaf spots. 

Stubbendieck, J., S.L. Hatch, L.M. Landholt, (2003) A Field Guide, North 

American Wildland Plants, University of Nebraska, University of Nebraska 

press. Lincolin, Nebraska. 501 pp 

Klebesadel, L.J., and Taylor, R.L, (1973) Research Progress With Alfalfa in 

Alaska. In Agroborealis, Vol 5, # 1, July, 1973, pp 18-20 


• Denali Alfalfa was developed by UAF, but is not 

commercially available as of mid 2012. Check with the 

Alaska Plant Materials Center for further information. 

References 

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72 

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30 - 36 in. Introduced Excellent Poor Excellent Strong 6 - 8.5

ALSIKE CLOVER 

Photo: User Aiwok (Wikimedia.org) 


Alsike Clover 

Trifolium hybridum (L.) 

Description 

Trifolium hybridum, Alsike Clover is a short lived perennial 

and/or biennial legume that can reach 45 to 60 centimeters 

(18 to 24 inches) tall. It grows decumbent to erect vertically 

ridged culms. Leaves are palmately trifoliate with long 

petioles on the lower leaves and smaller or reduced petioles 

on the upper leaves. Individual leaflets are obovate (ovalish) 

or elliptic (narrow oval) with narrow tipped stipules. Alsike 

produces numerous flowers that are pink, red, and/or white 

and borne in leaf axils at the end of stems. 

Alsike is similar to several other introduced Trifolium 

species that occur throughout Alaska, such as Golden Clover 

(Trifolium aureum), Lupine Clover (T. lupinaster), Red Clover 

(T. pratense), White Clover (T. repens), and Field Clover (T. 

campestre). This legume produces a small round shaped seed, 

and most varieties produce roughly 650,000 seeds per pound 

of seed. Seedling vigor is low to moderate, depending upon 

the selected variety. 

Uses 

Livestock: Alsike is used for hay and pasture grazing. It is 

highly palatable to all classes of livestock. Caution should be 

taken when feeding Alsike to horses, as it can be toxic under 

some conditions. Also be cautious when feeding Alsike in large 

quantities, due to its high bloat hazard. 

Wildlife: Alsike is highly palatable to a variety of large wildlife, 

such as deer, elk and bison. It is utilized as food and cover 

by small mammals, waterfowl and upland game birds. Canada 

geese, sandhill cranes, rough grouse and mallard ducks utilize 

Alsike Clover. 


Alsike is capable of producing large amounts of protein 

and is excellent quality forage for most classes of livestock 

and wildlife. Although it is generally out-produced by other 

legumes, it is highly palatable and produces a high relative feed 

value (RFV). It provides adequate mineral and vitamin content 

and is commonly grown with other grass species, including 

Timothy (Phleum pratense). As with most legumes, caution 

should be taken when feeding alsike due to the possibility of 

bloat. 


Alsike is adapted to a variety of climatic and soil conditions. It 

is found growing throughout the entire United States and parts 

of Canada. Alsike can tolerate fine to medium textured soils 

with a pH ranging from 5.6 to 7.5. Although it can persist in 

wetter and more acidic soils better than other clover species, 

Alsike will not tolerate shady, droughty or saline environments. 

Culture 

Alsike should be planted ¼ to ½ inches deep in a firm seed bed, 

preferably in silty loams and/or finer textured soils. Seeding 


An average seeding rate when broadcast seeding Alsike is 6 

lbs/acre and 2-4 lbs/acre when drill seeding. Seed should be 

inoculated prior to planting with appropriate rhizobium to 

assist plant establishment. Seeding rates are determined using 

Pure Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as described in Appendix B. 



before field seeding. High rates of nitrogen application can 

damage or destroy stands of Alsike, and caution should be 

taken when applying fertilizer. Pastures and hay fields should 

be irrigated when necessary and/or applicable. 

Management 

Alsike makes an excellent pasture or hay forage. This legume 

is adapted to acidic, poorly drained, and/or moderate to low 

nutrient soils. Alsike can be difficult to control for the first 

several years of production, due to its aggressive nature and 

tendency to compete with other plants. It is highly recommend 

that Alsike be seeded in combination with a grass species 

to keep it from dominating a forage stand. Typically, Alsike 

Clover is seeded with a grass species such as Timothy (Phleum 

pratense) to reduce the risk of bloating and toxic affects when 

feeding to horses. Seeding with a grass species will also help 

Alsike stand upright making for an easier harvest. 

73

Photo: User BerndH (Wikimedia.org) 

This legume will readily move into disturbed areas, and one 

should be mindful when selecting this species as a forage 

choice. Alsike requires a minimum of 110 frost-free days for 

successful reproduction and will continue to bloom throughout 

the entire growing season. Alsike responds well to irrigation, 

moderate grazing pressure, and commercial fertilizers. Little 

research has been conducted concerning potential pests that 

may affect Alsike in Alaska. 

A mature stand of Alsike Clover 

References 



Montana State University, Extension Service Alsike Clover (Trifolium 

hybridum) [online] Link: http://animalrangeextension.montana.edu/ 

Articles/Forage/Species/Legumes/Alsikeclover.htm 

Legume 


• ‘Aurora’ - Alberta, Canada release. 

• ‘Dawn’ - Canada release. 

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Native or 

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Saline 

Tolerance 

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Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

18 - 24 in. Native Poor Poor Good Weak 5.6 - 7.5

Photo: User Rasbak (Wikimedia.org) 

FIELD PEA 

Field Pea 

Pisum sativum (L.) 

Description 

Mature Field Pea plant 

Pisum sativum, Field Pea is an annual legume that is prostrate 

(flat growing) by nature. When intercropped with a grass or 

small grain, however, the legume can reach a height of 60 

to 120 centimeters (24 to 48 inches), depending on variety. 

Intercropping allows Field Pea to wrap itself around the 

secondary crop allowing it to grow upward. A single leaf 

consists of one to three pairs of leaflets that are terminated 

with a branched tendril (used for climbing). Field Pea leaves 

are usually pale green with white blotches. This legume has a 

large round shaped seed and generally produces 1,600 to 5,000 

seeds per pound of seed, depending upon variety. Seedling 

vigor is low to moderate and seeds should be inoculated with 

proper bacterium when applicable. 

Uses 

Livestock: Field Pea is used for pasture, hay, silage and/or 

green cut. It is excellent forage and is highly palatable to all 

classes of livestock. This legume is often intercropped with 

annual grasses or oats to obtain optimal nutrient and mineral 

requirements of livestock. 

Wildlife: Field Pea is highly palatable to a variety of wildlife 

such as deer, elk, moose and bison. It is also utilized as food 

and cover for small mammals, waterfowl and upland game 

birds. 


Field Pea is highly palatable to all classes of livestock and 

wildlife. It produces 20 to 25 percent protein on average and 

contains high levels of carbohydrates. This legume generally 

produces greater than 85% total digestible nutrients, with low 

fiber content. Intercropped with annual grasses or small grains, 

Field Pea can increase combined protein levels two to four 

times higher than with grass or small grains in monoculture. 

Field Pea has a moderate bloating factor, compared to other 

legumes, and should be fed with a grass or small grain forage 

to reduce the risk of bloating. 


Field Pea prefers cool, moist conditions and can be found 

growing throughout parts of Alaska, Canada, Greenland and 

the contiguous United States. Field Pea is adapted to a variety 

of soil textures such as sandy loams, silts to heavy clays, and 

requires adequate drainage with a pH between 5.2 and 6.5. 

This legume cannot tolerate saline or droughty conditions. 

Culture 

Field Pea should be planted 1 to 3 inches deep in a moist firm 

seedbed. This promotes good seed to soil contact. Seeding 


Field Pea should be drill seeded when applicable, and is 

generally seeded at a rate of 190 lbs/acre, or 7 to 9 plants per 

square foot. This legume does not compete well with other 

species. A heavier seeding rate allows field pea to better 

compete with weeds. 



before seeding. Field Pea requires phosphorus and potassium 

in relatively large amounts. Nitrogen is also necessary if 

planting in nutrient deprived soils. Over application of 

nitrogen fertilizer can have adverse affects, however, reducing 

the potential of nitrogen fixation by plants. Fields should 


fertilization can increase field productivity. 

Management 

Field Pea makes an excellent forage crop if properly managed. 

It can provide needed nitrogen for grasses and protein for 

livestock. Field Pea is not typically used for grazing, but rather 

it is used for silage or green chop. There are several pests that 

can affect Field Pea production, such as Mycosphaerella and 

Ascochyta. These fungi can result in poor plant performance 

and death if not managed. A preferred management tactic is 

to rotate field pea stands for several growing seasons, thus not 

allowing the fungus spores to persist. Fungi can survive for 

several years on Field Pea stubble and seed. Insects such as 

aphids, lygus bugs and grass hoppers can also affect Field Pea 

performance, though they are not usually a problem. 

75

Photo: Jean Tosti (Jeantosti.com) 


• ‘Century’ - Canada release. 

• ‘Lenca’ - Canada release. 

• ‘Procon’ - Minnesota release. 

I 

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Field Pea, Pisum sativum 

McKay, K., B. Schatz, G. Endres, (2003) Field Pea Production. North Dakota 

State University Extension Service [online] Link: http://pulseusa.com/pdf/ 

fieldpea.pdf 

Klebesadel, L.J., (1966) Planting of Oats & Peas: some yield, quality, and cost 

considerations. Research report #4. University of Alaska Experiment Station. 

Palmer, AK 7 pp 

Legume 

References 



Oelke, E.A., E.S. Oplinger, C.V. Hanson, D.W. Davis, D.H. Putnam, E.I. Fuller, 

& C.J. Rosen (1991) Dry Field Pea, Alternative Field Crops Manual University 

of Wisconson Cooperative Extension & University of Minnesota Extension 

Service. St. Paul MN. 10 pp [online] Link: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ 

newcrop/afcm/drypea.html 

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76 

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Good 

Growth 

Form 

Upright / 

Prostrate 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

24 - 48 in. Introduced Poor Poor Fair Moderate 5.2 - 6.5

RED CLOVER 


Red Clover can produce high yields and is excellent forage for 

all classes of livestock and wildlife. Depending on season of 

harvest, protein content of 15-25% is common. Digestibility 

and relative feed value start high, but decline with plant 

maturity. Caution should be taken when feeding Trifolium 

pratense to animals due to the possibility of bloat. 


Photo: Michael Apel (Wikimedia.org) 

Red Clover 

Trifolium pratense (L.) 

Description 

Red Clover, Trifolium pratense 

Trifolium pratense, Red Clover is a short lived perennial or 

biennial legume. It grows erect to decumbent culms that are 

hairy and hollow. Each leaf consists of a slender stalk which is 

petiolated and bearing 3 leaflets, which are oblong to obovate 

(ovalish shape). Red Clover produces numerous flowers borne 

in compact clusters that are reddish to pink in color. There 

are two types of Red Clover that are commonly referred to as 

Medium and Mammoth. Medium Red Clover ranges in height 

from 45 - 60 centimeters (18 to 24 inches), while Mammoth 

Red Clover reaches an average height of 75 centimeters (30 

inches). Red Clover grows a series of lateral roots with a 

tap root that is extensively branched. This legume produces 

a small kidney shaped seed that is yellow to deep violet in 

color. Red clover has high seedling vigor and produces roughly 


Uses 

Livestock: Red Clover is typically used for hay, pastureland, 

and/or silage. It produces high quality forage that is palatable 

to all classes of livestock. 

Wildlife: Red Clover is highly palatable to large grazing and 

browsing animals such as deer, elk and bison. It is also utilized 

as food and cover by small mammals, waterfowl, and upland 

game birds. 

Red Clover is adapted to a variety of soils types but grows 

best in well drained loamy soils. It can be found growing 

throughout the United States and Canada. Red Clover prefers 

a pH of 5.5 to 7.5 and has low drought tolerance. This legume 

can tolerate high moisture environments and has a moderate 

to low shade tolerance. 

Culture 

Red Clover should be planted at ¼ to ½ inch deep in well 

drained loamy to silt loam soils that have a high water holding 

capacity. It should be inoculated with the appropriate rhizobium 

innoculant, as this will help with plant establishment and 

seedling vigor. When seeded alone in pure stands, Red Clover 

should be drill seeded at a rate of 6-12 lbs/acre and 20-25 lbs/ 

acre when broadcast seeding. Red Clover can also be seeded 

in mixtures with small grains or grasses like Barley (Hordeum 

vulgare), Timothy (Phleum pratense), and Smooth Brome 

(Bromus inermis). Standard seeding rates when seeded in a 

mix is 4-8 lbs/acre. All seeding rates are determined by using 

Pure Live Seed (PLS) calculations, as described in Appendix B. 



before fertilizer is applied. Phosphorus is used in large 

quantities by Red Clover, which is a limiting factor on most soils. 

Pastures and hay fields should be irrigated when necessary 

and/or applicable. Irrigation in combination with fertilization 

should increase overall yields. 

Management 

Red Clover makes an excellent pasture, hay, or silage forage. 

It should be harvested ¼ to ½ in bloom during the first cutting. 

Successive grazing or a second cutting should occur when the 

legume is ¼ of the way into bloom stage, and at least 2 inches 

of growth should remain after harvest. Red Clover responds 

well to fertilizers and should be supplied with ample amounts 

of phosphorus and/or potash. Red Clover also responds well 

to irrigation when planted in moderate to well drained soils. 

When growing Red Clover, one should monitor for powdery 

mildew in areas of high humidity and/or rainfall. Resistant 

cultivars have been developed to reduce the occurrence of 

these pests. 

77

Legume 

Photo: Wikimedia.org 


A mature stand of Red Clover 

• ‘Alaskaland’ - University of Alaska Fairbanks release. 

I 

SC 

References 




Grassland Agriculture. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa. 755 pp 

I 

SC 



Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

Fine 

0 2 3 2 1 



Species not 



Red Clover 

• Interior 


78 

Availability 

Good 

Growth 

Form 

Upright 

crown 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

18 - 24 in. Introduced Poor Poor Good Moderate 5.5 - 7.5

Photo: Wikimedia .org 

WHITE CLOVER 

White Clover in bloom 

White Clover 

Trifolium repens (L.) 

Description 

Trifolium repens, White Clover is a moderate lived perennial 

legume that can attain heights of 15 - 30 centimeters (6 to 12 

inches), depending upon variety. It has a prostrate (flat) growth 

habit, spreading laterally by stolons. Leaves are composed of 

three leaflets that sometimes display a watermark or crescent. 

Leaves and roots are borne along the stolon at each node. 

Inflorescence (seed-head) consists of 40 to 100 florets that are 

borne along long slender stalks. Florets are usually white, but 

sometimes display a pink hue. White Clover has a shallow root 

system with a primary tap root that seldom roots deeper than 

60 centimeters (24 inches). This legume grows a small heart 

shaped seed, and produces roughly 700,000 seeds per pound 

of seed. Seedling vigor is low to moderate depending upon 

the selected variety. 

Uses 

Livestock: White Clover can be used for pasture, hay or silage 

production. It is highly palatable to all classes of livestock and 

has a low potential of bloating. 

Wildlife: White Clover is highly palatable to a variety of large 

wildlife, such as deer, elk, moose and bison. It is also utilized 

as food and cover by small mammals, waterfowl and upland 

game birds. 


White Clover is highly palatable to all classes of livestock 

and wildlife. It produces ample amounts of protein with 

consistently high mineral content, compared to other clover 

species. This legume is highly digestible and generally 

produces a higher percentage of amino acids than Alfalfa and/ 

or Red Clover. When nutrients are available, White Clover can 

concentrate Na, P, Cl, and/or Mo, delivering these nutrients to 

grazing animals. The risk of bloating is generally moderate to 

low and is greatly reduced when White Clover is grown with 

grass species. 


White Clover is adapted to moist and/or wet conditions and 

can be found growing throughout the United States, Canada, 

and some portions of Alaska. It prefers fine texture soils such 

as silts and clays, containing moderate to high nutrient levels. 

White Clover will persist in soils with a pH ranging from 5.2- 

8.0. It will not tolerate or sustain in shady, droughty, saline, or 

nutrient deprived environments. 

Culture 

White Clover should be planted ¼ to ½ inch deep in a firm 

seed bed with well drained silty or clay loam soils. Seeding 


It is highly recommended that White Clover be drill seeded 

to ensure good seed to soil contact. An average seeding rate 

when drill seeding White Clover is 2-4 lbs/acre. This seeding 

rate applies to almost all situations and can be used when 

planting White Clover with a grass species. A widely accepted 

ratio of 2:1 is an ideal balance of grass to clover, using the 

above recommended clover drilling rate. All seeding rates 





before field seeding. High application rates of nitrogen can 

damage or destroy stands of White Clover and caution 

should be taken when applying fertilizer. Pastures and hay 

fields should be irrigated when necessary and/or applicable. 

Irrigation in combination with fertilization should increase 

field productivity. 

Management 

White Clover makes an excellent pasture forage, but is 

generally not used for hay or silage production unless large 

and/or tall cultivars are selected and grown. The cultivar 

‘Ladino’ is a large and tall growing variety of white clover that 

is commonly used for hay, silage, and green chop production. 

White Clover will respond well to irrigation, moderate grazing 

pressure, and commercial fertilizers. This legume usually 

displays adverse affects when nitrogen fertilizers are supplied 

in excess. Liming may be necessary to achieve the optimal pH 

for white clover growth. 

79

Photo: Forest and Kim Starr (Wikimedia.org) 

White Clover is typically grown with other forage grasses. 

This is generally implemented in order for grasses to take 

advantage of the nitrogen fixating ability of White Clover, and 

to lower the potential of bloating by adding dry matter to the 

feed mix. White Clover can be susceptible to a number of 

root and leaf diseases as well as insect pests. Most of these 

potential problems exist in mid to lower latitudes. 


White Clover, Trifolium repens 

References 




Grassland Agriculture. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa. 755 pp 



Legume 

• ‘Ladino’ (Large type) - developed in Italy. 

• ‘Pilgrim’ (Large type / winter-hardy) 

• ‘Merit’ (Large type / winter-hardy) 

• ‘New York’ (Small type) 

• ‘Kent Wild’ (Small type) 

I 

SC 

I 

SC 

Coarse 

Moderately 

Coarse 


Medium 

Moderately 

Fine 

0 2 3 2 0 

Fine 



Species not 



White Clover 

• Interior 


Availability 

Growth 

Form 

Average 

Height 

Native or 

Introduced 

Saline 

Tolerance 

Drought 

Tolerance 

Wet Soil 

Tolerance 


pH Range 

80 

Poor Prostrate 6 - 12 in. Introduced Poor Fair Good Weak 5.2 - 8

Section D. Additional Information 

• Appendix A: Nutrient Study 


• Methods and Procedures 

• Lab Analysis 

• Report of Findings 

• Species Growth Charts 

• Appendix B: Seed Specifications / Certification 

• Appendix C: Prohibited & Restricted Noxious Weeds 

• Glossary 

• Works Cited

Appendix A: Nutrient Study 

(Analysis of Collected Plant Nutritional Quality Data at Different Growth Stages) 

Photo: Brianne Blackburn AK PMC 

Photo: Casey Dinkel (AK PMC) 

Photo: Stoney J. Wright (AK PMC) 

Photo: Brennan Veith Low (AK PMC) 

Photo: Casey Dinkel (AK PMC) 

Detailed measurements of nutrient availability at various plant growth stages were taken during this study. 

Introduction 

Forage production in Alaska presents unique challenges, due to the short growing 

season (100-118 days) and harsh environments encountered throughout diverse regions 

of the state. Spring planting is optimal, as planted species are able to utilize 

available moisture from winter snowmelt and take advantage of the warmer temperatures 

and longer days of summer. Average summer temperatures in Alaska range 

from 51 - 61 ̊F, with an 18 to 24 hour photo period in June. 

Though these climatic factors present some challenges, forage production numbers 

are stable. The mean per ton cost varies largely in Alaska, from $225/ton - $750/ton, 

considerably higher than the $90 per ton common in the lower 48. The high price 

variability can be attributed to high production costs, a shortage of available hay and 

uncontrollable climate variables. To adapt to and overcome Alaska’s climate and geography, 

managers should choose forage species with high nutritional value. This will 

enable an animal’s nutrient intake levels to be met while minimizing the expense of 

nutritional supplements. 

82

Purpose 

The goal of this study was to determine nutrient 

content of forage species within each distinct plant 

growth stage. Five growth stages were examined 

for grass, legume, and cereal crop species - Vegetative, 

Pre-boot, Boot, Anthesis (flowering) and Caryopsis 

(ripening). Samples of vegetative matter were 

taken at each stage and sent to a lab for nutrient 

analysis. Data extrapolated from testing can be used 

by producers and consumers as a means of choosing 

forage species based on the needs of livestock and/ 

or wildlife. 

An additional intent of this study was to look at the 

nutritional content of native and non-native plant 

species, and determine if any non-native species 

have sufficiently high nutritional value to warrant 

inclusion in forage plantings in Alaska. Timothy and 

Brome are two examples of non-native species with 

high nutritional value. 

Methods & Procedures 

This effort was conducted at Alaska Plant Materials 

Center in Palmer, Alaska during the 2011 growing 

season. Fields were well established and fairly free 

of weeds. Plant species were evaluated and growth 

stages were monitored daily. Each species collection 

was accompanied by field observations as noted by 

the sample collector. Standardized collection procedures 

were followed. 

Growth State Indicators 

1. Vegetative: Leaf growth and development; no 

stems 

2. Pre-boot: Stem elongation or “jointing”; stem 

or culm development occurs 

3. Boot: The seedhead (inflorescence) emerges 

from the tiller 

4. Anthesis (flowering): Pollen starts to shed from 

the anthers 

5. Ripening: This stage begins with the development 

of the caryopsis (seed) and ceases when 

they are ripe. Also denotes the end of the growing 

season; leaves start to change color. 

Species Collection 

1. A handful of grass was clipped with scissors, leaving 

about 2-3 inches of stubble above ground. 

Five samples were collected for each species. 

2. Each sample was cut into sections of approximately 

8 inches in length, placed into a five gallon 

bucket and then mixed together so representative 

samples could be taken. Any decadent 

(previous year’s) growth was removed so that 

only the current season’s growth was analyzed. 

3. Approximately 200 grams of grass was removed 

from the five gallon bucket and put into a ½ gallon 

bag. Each bag was labeled with date, species 

name, and growth stage. 

4. Samples collected were delivered the same day 

to the University of Alaska Fairbanks Experiment 

Farm for testing. 

83

Lab Analysis 

Samples were collected from well established fields 

near the Plant Materials Center in Palmer, Alaska. 

The samples were gathered during the following 

growth stages; Vegetative, Pre-boot, Boot, Anthesis 

(flowering) and Ripening. The rationale of collecting 

samples in these growth stages was to determine 

the gain and loss of nutrients throughout a typical 

graminoid life cycle. 

Samples submitted for analysis were tested for 

crude protein (CP) , minerals, acid detergent fiber 

(ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), total digestible 

nutrients (TDN) and various other constituents. ADF 

and NDF are used to measure the portion of indigestible 

material within the sample, which inversely correlates 

to nutrient content. 

The relative feed value (RFV) is an estimate of forage 

quality and is calculated from ADF and NDF percentages. 

The RFV grading system assumes that full 

bloom alfalfa has an RFV of 100; this legume is typically 

used as a baseline reference for grading forage. 

The RFV for each grass species within this study was 

calculated for all five growth stages. Results can be 

compared to the ranges given in the table below, 

developed by the American Forage and Grassland 

Council as a guideline for measuring forage quality. 

Forage Grade ADF NDF RFV 

Prime 

1 

(Premium) 

2 

(Good) 

3 

(Fair) 

4 

(Poor) 

5 

(Very Poor) 

Under 

30% 

Under 

40% 

Over 

151 

31% - 35% 41% - 46% 150-125 

36% - 40% 47% - 53% 124-103 

41% - 42% 54% - 60% 102-87 

43% - 45% 61% - 65% 86-75 

Over 

46% 

Over 

66% 

Under 

74 

Report of Findings 

As expected, all grass species showed higher crude 

protein values during the vegetative and pre-boot 

(early growth cycle) stages. Decline in protein levels 

became evident after boot stage, though indigestible 

nutrients (fiber) began to increase. Other essential 

minerals like phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and 

Calcium (Ca) were measured in higher levels during 

the early growth stages and began to drop as plant 

species neared maturity. Acid and Neutral detergent 

fiber percentages increased steadily throughout the 

plant’s life cycle, lowering the relative feed value and 

total digestible nutrients percentage of each forage 

species. 

This nutrient assessment can assist growers in determining 

the best possible time to harvest forage 

based on the needs of their livestock and/or wildlife. 

If a grower seeks high quality and/or high nutrient 

forage, grasses should be harvested during an earlier 

growth such as the boot stage. When high production 

yield is the goal, grasses should be harvested 

later, during the anthesis and/or flowering stage. 

Scheduling the harvest based on stages of plant development 

can be a reliable way to obtain a desired 

yield and/or quality forage from year to year. 

Graph Interpretation 

When interpreting data in the Nutrient Study, one 

should be aware of several characteristics associated 

with the following graphs. In general, Relative 

Feed Value (RFV), Crude Protein (CP) and Total 

Digestible Nutrient (TDN) values will decrease with 

time as a plant matures through the growing season. 

Contrarily, Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid 

Detergent Fiber (ADF) values should typically increase 

with time and plant maturity. Pronounced increases 

or decreases (spikes) within the graphs can 

be attributed to the variability in randomly selected 

forage samples. 

All data within the graphs of this study are displayed, 

so the reader may compare nutrient values 

and trends with other grass species. While not presented 

in graph form, values for phosphorus (P), potassium 

(K), calcium (Ca), in-vitro dry matter digestibility 

(IVDMD), metabolized energy, net energy, and 

dry matter (DM) are listed in a table for each grass 

species. 

84


Moisture Free 

Growth Phase % CP % P % K % Ca % ADF % NDF 

% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 

Energy RFV % DM 

Vegetative: May 23 rd 25.11 0.28 1.77 0.51 19.82 45.88 77 76 1.33 0.92 149 95.8 

Pre-Boot: June 14 th 19.47 0.32 2.15 0.46 32.52 56.35 63 60 1.02 0.67 105 95.70 

Boot: June 16 th 20.03 0.38 2.51 0.43 28.12 53.67 69 67 1.14 0.77 116 95.52 

Anthesis: June 21 st 10.05 0.26 1.85 0.23 36.98 68.74 57 55 0.91 0.58 81 96.97 

Ripening: July 26 th 9.80 0.25 1.01 0.34 33.11 60.07 62 60 1.01 0.66 98 97.59 

As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 23 rd 6.50 0.07 0.46 0.13 5.13 11.87 19.93 19.67 0.34 0.24 39.0 25.88 

Pre-Boot: June 14 th 5.09 0.08 0.56 0.12 8.50 14.74 16.47 15.69 0.27 0.18 27.4 26.15 

Boot: June 16 th 5.66 0.11 0.71 0.12 7.95 15.18 19.51 18.95 0.32 0.22 32.8 28.28 

Anthesis: June 21 st 2.60 0.07 0.48 0.06 9.55 17.76 14.72 14.21 0.24 0.15 21.0 25.83 

Ripening: July 26 th 4.17 0.11 0.43 0.14 14.09 25.56 26.00 26.00 0.43 0.28 42.00 42.55 

85


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 27 th 23.61 0.26 1.73 0.33 24.07 45.64 74 72 1.25 0.86 143 95.86 


Boot: June 16 th 17.91 0.30 3.30 0.27 28.44 54.99 68 66 1.14 0.76 113 95.97 

Anthesis: June 28 th 14.27 0.29 2.06 0.28 34.88 64.07 60 57 0.96 0.62 90 95.90 


As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 


86 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 27 th 5.36 0.06 0.39 0.07 5.47 10.36 16.81 16.35 0.28 0.20 32.00 22.71 


Boot: June 16 th 2.80 0.05 0.52 0.04 4.45 8.61 10.65 10.34 0.18 0.12 17.68 15.66 

Anthesis: June 28 th 2.50 0.05 0.36 0.05 6.12 11.24 11.00 10.00 0.17 0.11 16.00 17.55

Annual Rye, Lolium multiflorum 

Moisture Free 

Growth Phase % CP % P % K % Ca % ADF % NDF % IVDMD 

(est.) 

% 

TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: July 18 th 16.86 0.35 4.15 0.59 26.18 45.06 71 69 1.20 0.81 141 97.13 

Pre-Boot: July 28 th 12.82 0.33 2.82 0.52 30.37 51.75 66 63 1.08 0.72 117 97.52 

Boot: August 8 th 10.73 0.25 1.71 0.48 32.34 54.52 63 61 1.03 0.68 109 97.28 

Anthesis: August 22 nd 8.70 0.25 1.27 0.46 30.52 51.06 65 63 1.08 0.72 119 97.69 

Ripening: September 27 th 7.15 0.23 0.59 0.32 22.40 42.62 75 74 1.29 0.89 156 96.98 

* note - this sample was not taken from an established field; samples were taken from 1 st year planting - planting date June 25th 

As Fed 


(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: July 28 th 2.52 0.06 0.55 0.10 5.97 10.17 13 12 0.21 0.14 23 19.66 

Boot: August 8 th 2.93 0.06 0.38 0.11 7.20 12.14 14 14 0.23 0.15 24 22.26 

Anthesis: August 22 nd 2.52 0.07 0.37 0.13 8.85 14.80 19 18 0.31 0.21 34 28.99 


* note - this sample was not taken from an established field; samples were taken from 1 st year planting - planting date June 25th 

87


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 31 st 19.01 0.18 2.60 0.13 30.75 58.73 65 63 1.07 0.71 103 96.31 


Boot: June 16 th 11.97 0.21 2.92 0.26 35.67 63.47 59 56 0.94 0.61 90 95.56 


Ripening: August 22 nd 9.46 0.10 2.27 0.23 43.70 69.61 50 47 0.76 0.46 73 98.42 

Growth Phase % CP % P % K % Ca 

% 

ADF 

As Fed 

Ripening: August 22 nd 2.72 0.03 0.65 0.07 12.54 19.98 14.00 13.00 0.22 0.13 21.00 28.70 

88 

% NDF 

% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 31 st 4.08 0.04 0.56 0.03 6.59 12.59 13.94 13.51 0.23 0.15 22.00 21.44 


Boot: June 16 th 2.15 0.04 0.52 0.05 6.41 11.40 10.60 10.06 0.17 0.11 16.09 17.96 

Anthesis: June 28 th 2.59 0.03 0.47 0.03 7.31 12.54 11.00 10.00 0.17 0.10 16.00 19.05


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 16 th 12.24 0.22 1.93 0.37 31.45 59.04 64 62 1.05 0.70 101 95.54 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 16 th 3.00 0.05 0.47 0.09 7.72 14.49 15.71 15.21 0.26 0.17 24.90 24.54 



89


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: June 2 nd 15.45 0.26 2.36 0.22 32.41 63.18 63 61 1.03 0.68 94 96.28 

Boot: June 16 th 13.79 0.16 1.79 0.14 43.14 70.57 51 48 0.77 0.47 73 96.05 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 


90 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: June 2 nd 3.04 0.05 0.46 0.04 6.38 12.43 12.39 12.00 0.20 0.13 18.00 19.67 

Boot: June 16 th 3.66 0.04 0.47 0.04 11.44 18.71 13.52 12.72 0.20 0.12 19.32 27.51 

Anthesis: June 30 th 2.03 0.03 0.31 0.04 11.81 20.01 14 13 0.21 0.13 19 27.43


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: June 8 th 16.13 0.30 2.29 0.39 29.91 61.06 66 64 1.09 0.73 100 98.43 


Boot: June 16 th 12.93 0.24 2.04 0.35 34.10 65.56 61 58 0.98 0.64 88 95.21 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: June 8 th 4.09 0.08 0.58 0.10 7.59 15.48 16.74 16.23 0.28 0.19 25.34 25.36 


Boot: June 16 th 3.70 0.07 0.58 0.10 9.77 18.78 17.47 16.61 0.28 0.18 25.33 28.64 

Anthesis: June 28 th 3.87 0.08 0.48 0.15 12.78 24.66 23.00 22.00 0.38 0.25 34.00 38.07 


91


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 23 rd 25.21 0.32 3.13 0.45 27.52 54.94 69 67 1.16 0.78 114 95.7 


Boot: June 16 th 15.23 0.29 2.87 0.48 33.53 64.17 61 59 1.00 0.65 91 95.59 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 


92 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: May 23 rd 4.25 0.05 0.53 0.08 4.64 19.26 11.63 11.29 0.20 0.13 19.00 16.85 


Boot: June 16 th 3.20 0.06 0.60 0.10 7.04 13.48 12.81 12.39 0.21 0.14 19.11 21.00 

Anthesis: June 28 th 3.64 0.06 0.41 0.10 7.45 13.59 14 14 0.23 0.15 23 22.82

Red Fescue, Festuca rubra 

Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: June 2 nd 19.12 0.35 2.51 0.41 29.49 57.74 67 65 1.11 0.74 106 96.12 

Boot: June 16 th 12.32 0.28 2.75 0.35 31.60 61.74 64 62 1.05 0.69 97 95.86 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: June 2 nd 3.97 0.07 0.52 0.09 6.12 11.98 13.90 13.49 0.23 0.15 22.00 20.75 

Boot: June 16 th 3.16 0.07 0.71 0.09 8.10 15.82 16.40 15.88 0.27 0.18 24.81 25.62 



93

Siberian Wildrye, Elymus sibiricus 

Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 30 th 10.43 0.15 1.39 0.26 34.85 63.34 60 57 0.96 0.62 91 95.27 

Anthesis: July 6 th 12.86 0.16 1.33 0.35 32.17 61.60 63 61 1.03 0.68 96 98.19 


As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 


94 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 30 th 2.65 0.04 0.35 0.07 8.85 16.08 15 14 0.24 0.16 23 25.39 

Anthesis: July 6 th 4.63 0.06 0.48 0.13 11.58 22.18 23 22 0.37 0.24 35 36.01

Slender Wheatgrass, Elymus trachycaulus 

Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 28 th 20.02 0.25 2.03 0.48 27.69 51.87 69 67 1.16 0.78 121 95.20 

Anthesis: July 6 th 18.20 0.22 2.13 0.39 34.82 65.57 60 57 0.96 0.62 88 98.20 


As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 28 th 4.95 0.06 0.50 0.12 6.85 12.83 17.00 17.00 0.29 0.19 30.00 24.73 

Anthesis: July 6 th 4.41 0.05 0.52 0.09 8.44 15.89 15.00 14.00 0.23 0.15 21.00 24.24 


95

Smooth Brome, Bromus inermis 

Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: August 8 th 24.17 0.38 2.19 0.43 28.67 51.2 68 66 1.13 0.76 121 96.73 

Boot: August 18 th 17.67 0.31 2.36 0.38 31.53 54.82 64 62 1.05 0.69 109 97.97 

Anthesis: September 28 th 8.12 0.14 0.81 0.20 36.30 57.58 58 56 0.93 0.59 98 97.81 

* note - sample was not taken from the PMC, instead came from established nearby hayfield. 

Samples were collected after 1st hay cutting was harvested 

96 

As Fed 


(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: July 20 th 4.91 0.07 0.63 0.06 4.39 8.66 13.00 13.00 0.22 0.15 24.00 17.95 

Pre-Boot: August 8 th 3.74 0.06 0.34 0.07 4.43 7.92 11.00 10.00 0.17 0.12 19.00 15.46 

Boot: August 18 th 3.41 0.06 0.46 0.07 6.09 10.59 12.00 12.00 0.20 0.13 21.00 19.31 

Anthesis: September 28 th 2.84 0.05 0.28 0.07 12.68 20.12 20.00 20.00 0.32 0.21 34.00 34.94 


Samples were collected after 1st hay cutting was harvested

Spike Trisetum, Trisetum spicatum 

Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: May 31 st 18.12 0.27 1.94 0.28 27.64 60.34 69 67 1.16 0.78 104 95.89 

Boot: June 16 th 15.17 0.22 1.72 0.24 29.07 60.75 67 65 1.12 0.75 101 95.58 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: May 31 st 4.38 0.07 0.47 0.07 6.68 14.59 16.68 16.20 0.28 0.19 25.00 24.18 

Boot: June 16 th 4.91 0.07 0.56 0.08 9.41 19.67 21.69 21.05 0.36 0.24 32.85 32.38 



97

Timothy, Phleum pratense 

Moisture Free 


(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 



Pre-Boot: August 8 th 21.53 0.34 2.63 0.37 31.42 53.33 64 62 1.05 0.70 112 97.00 

Boot: August 18 th 17.42 0.27 2.05 0.27 33.53 55.41 61 59 1.00 0.65 105 97.96 

Anthesis: August 23 rd 15.95 0.26 1.71 0.34 33.57 57.38 61 59 0.99 0.65 102 98.01 



Samples were collected after 1st hay cutting was harvested 

98 

As Fed 


(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 


Vegetative: July 20 th 4.02 0.07 0.58 0.05 4.80 9.82 13.00 13.00 0.23 0.16 23.00 16.74 

Pre-Boot: August 8 th 3.43 0.05 0.42 0.06 5.01 8.50 10.00 10.00 0.17 0.11 18.00 15.94 

Boot: August 18 th 3.71 0.06 0.44 0.06 7.14 11.8 13 13 0.21 0.14 22 21.3 

Anthesis: August 23 rd 3.24 0.05 0.35 0.07 6.82 11.66 12.00 12 0.20 0.13 21.00 20.32 



Samples were collected after 1st hay cutting was harvested


Moisture Free 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 16 th 13.11 0.31 2.79 0.40 30.38 57.84 66 63 1.08 0.72 105 95.84 



As Fed 


% IVDMD 

(est.) 

% TDN 

Metab. 

Energy 

(MCal / Lb) 

Net 




Boot: June 16 th 3.26 0.08 0.69 0.10 7.55 14.38 16.41 15.66 0.27 0.18 26.08 24.86 



99

Appendix B: Seed Specifications / Certification 

Seed Specifications 

Quality seed is critical to success. 

Specifying “certified” seed 

assures quality because the seed 

must meet certain standards for 

germination and purity; certification 

also provides some assurance 

of genetic quality. 

Some native seed species are 

not available as certified seed. 

Seed quality can still be ascertained by examining percent 

germination and percent purity; information that will be 

clearly labeled for any seed sold in Alaska. This labeling is 

required by 11 AAC, chapter 34: Seed Regulations. 

The true cost of seed can be determined by the Pure 

Live Seed calculation. To calculate Pure Live Seed (PLS), 

use the equation: 

The true price of seed, then, can be determined 

using the equation: 

These calculations can increase the accuracy of bid comparisons. 

PLS price is a good method of comparing different 

seed lots at time of purchase. All seed sold or used in 

the state of Alaska must also be 

free of noxious weeds, under 11 

AAC 34.075. This is noted on seed 

tags, along with germination and 

purity. 

Seeding Rates 

When determining seeding 

rates, divide the desired seeding 

rate by the percent germination 

of the seed being used. For example, 

to achieve a 10 lbs/ acre seeding rate with seed having 

an 80% PLS (determined using the equation above), 10 

lbs / .80 indicates that 12.5 lbs / acre should be used. If 

problems occur or questions arise regarding seed, call the 

Alaska Plant Materials Center at (907) 745-4469. 

Seed stored on site should be kept cool, dry, and in rodent-free 

areas. Remember seed is a living commodity. 

A bag may contain seed; however some percentage may 

be dead husks - the equivalent of cadavers. Always buy 

seed based on the PLS Calculation. 

Alaska Certified seed tags 

Pre-certified class seed tags 

Certified Seed 

The term “certified seed” can 

be used in two different situations. 

The official use of the term 

Certified seed (with a capital C) 

is to describe seed that has been 

grown under the rules of the 

Seed Certification Program. Certified 

seed is the usual commercial 

category of seed. Its ancestry 

can be traced back to Registered 

Class or Foundation Class seed. In addition, Certified seed 

must meet various standards of purity and germination. 

These standards are a means of verifying authenticity of a 

seed source. All Alaska developed seed varieties or cultivars 

can be sold as either Certified or common. 

Seed can also be certified (without a capital C) to be free 

of weeds or as meeting a minimum germination standard 

(11 AAC 34.075). This has nothing to do with variety identification 

— it simply indicates the quality of the seed. In 

other words, the buyer knows quality, but has no assurance 

of type (other than species). 

Certified seed should be used when available. Seed 

produced in Alaska is easy to trace to its origin. It may 

be classified as common (uncertified) ‘Arctared’, but it is 

still ‘Arctared’. Minimum purities and germination should 

always be stated with orders. Common seed is a usable 

product and may be used to meet demands. Common 

seed should meet Certified standards 

with regard to germination 

and purity, although these standards 

may need to be relaxed 

to acquire sufficient material for 

a large job. Lower germination 

rates can be overcome by increasing 

the seeding rate. Lower purities, 

however, should be avoided, 

as weeds can become a problem. 

Other Certification Classes 

When purchasing seed, a buyer should be aware of the 

differences between certification classes. Many new 

sources of native seed are being developed in Alaska. 

Generally, these will not be sold as Certified seed. They 

may carry the following designations: ‘Source Identified’, 

‘Tested’, or ‘Selected’. These classes will be consistent 

with the certification standards of germination and 

purity, however the term ‘Certified seed’ will not apply. 

These classes are called ‘Pre-certified’ classes.

Appendix C: Prohibited & Restricted Noxious Weeds 

(A) The following are prohibited noxious weeds: 

Photo: Steve Dewey, Utah 

State University | Bugwood.org 

Photo: Elizabeth Bella, USDA 

Forest Service | Bugwood.org 

Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) Austrian fieldcress (Rorippa austriaca) Galensoga (Galensoga parviflora) 

Photo: John D. Byrd, Mississippi 


Photo: Tom Huette, USDA 


Photo: Ted Bodner, Southern Weed 

Science Society | Bugwood.org 

Hempnettle (Galeopsis tetrahit) Horsenettle (Solanum carolinense) Russian Knapweed (Acroptilon repens) 


State University| Bugwood.org 

Photo: Mary Ellen 

Harte | Bugwood.org 



Blue-flowering lettuce (Lactuca pulchella) Quackgrass (Elymus repens) Perennial sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis) 

Photo: Michael Rasy, University 

of Alaska | Bugwood.org 

Photo: William M. Ciesla, Forest 

Health Mgmt. Intl . | Bugwood.org 



Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) Whitetops and its varieties (Cardaria 

draba, C. pubescens, Lapidium latifolium) 

Photo: Mary Ellen 

Harte | Bugwood.org 

Photo: John D. Byrd, Mississippi 


Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) 

Photo: Michael Shephard, USDA 


Orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum) 

Statutory Authority: 

AS 03.05 010 

AS 03.05.030 

AS 44.37.030 

11AAC 34.020 

This list is available online, at: 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/ 

invasives/pdf/noxious-weeds.pdf

(B) The following are restricted noxious weeds, 

with their maximum allowable tolerances: 



Annual bluegrass (Poa annua), 

90 seeds per pound 

Photo: Elena Rostunova 

Blue burr (Lappula echinata), 


Photo: Joseph M. DiTomaso, University 

of California Davis | Bugwood.org 

Mustard (Brassica juncea, Sinapis 

arvensis), 36 seeds per pound 

Photo: Steve Dewey, Utah State 

University | Bugwood.org 

Wild oats (Avena fatua), 

seven seeds per pound 

Photo: Chris Evans, River 

to River CWMA | Bugwood.org 

Buckhorn plantain (Plantago sp.), 


Photo: Joseph M. DiTomaso, University 

of California Davis | Bugwood.org 

Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum), 


Photo: Michael Shephard, USDA 


Yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris), 

one seed per pound 

Photo: Michael Rasy, 

University of Alaska | Bugwood.org 

Tufted vetch (Vicia cracca), 

two seeds per pound 

Photo: Richard Old, XID 

Services Inc. | Bugwood.org 

Wild buckwheat (Polygonum convolvulus), 

two seeds per pound 

Statutory Authority: 

AS 03.05 010 

AS 03.05.030 

AS 44.37.030 

11AAC 34.020 

(In effect before 7/28/59; am 3/2/78, Reg. 65; am 10/28/83, Reg. 88) 

This list is available online, at: 

http://dnr.alaska.gov/ag/akpmc/invasives/pdf/noxious-weeds.pdf

Glossary 

Photo: James McCormick 

Round bale of Smooth Brome and Timothy hay 

Bunch grass growing in coarse textured soil 

Term 

Acid Detergent Fiber 

(ADF): 

Age Class: 

Agronomy: 

Allelopathy: 

Amino Acids: 

Annuals: 

Anthesis: 

Anaerobic: 

Anti-quality 

Components: 

Autotoxicity: 

Auriculated: 

Sod grass farm near Palmer, Alaska 

Definition 

The indigestible portion of a forage sample. It is measured much like NDF except that a forage 

sample is boiled in an acidic detergent. The boiling removes sugars, fats, starches, proteins, and 

hemicellulose. The amount of ADF residue is inversely related to energy so high quality forages 

have low amounts of ADF. 

A descriptive term to indicate the relative age of plants. 

The application of soil and plant sciences to soil management and crop production. 

Chemical inhibition of one plant by another. 

Amino groups with at least one carboxyl group, linked together in a definite pattern to form a 

protein molecule. 

Plants that die after completing their life cycle within one growing season. 

Stage in floral development when pollen is shed. 

Living in the absence of free oxygen; the opposite of aerobic. 

Compounds like alkaloids, tannins, and other toxic compounds that cause problems in animal 

health and performance. Even if often present in small amounts, they can override the nutritional 

value of forage, even when the forage tests high for CP and TDN. Tall fescue endophyte contains 

a major anti-quality component. Sericea lespedeza is high in tannins, especially when mature. 

A specific type of allelopathy where the presence of adult plants of a species interferes with the 

germination and development of seedlings from that species. 

Having ear or hair like parts or extensions. 

103

104 

Term 

Definition 

Biennials: A plant that completes its life cycle in two years. 

Bloat: 

Boot Stage: 

Excessive accumulation of gases in the rumen (stomach) of an animal. 

Growth stage when the sheath of the upper most leaf encloses a grass reproductive seedhead. 

Bunch Grass: Grass that produces a tufted growth or clump that gradually enlarges as tillers are produced 

around the outer edge of the tuft. (i.e. Timothy). 

Carbohydrate: Carbohydrates consist of simple and/or complex sugar molecules that function as readily 

available energy. Examples are fructose, glucose, sucrose, starch and hemi-cellulose. 

Caryopses: The grain or fruit of grasses. 

Cellulose: Major skeletal material in the cell wall of plants. Provides fiber for diet but minimal nutrition. 

Compound Leaf: A leaf separated into two or more leaflets. 

Cool Season Plant: A plant that makes its major growth during the cool part of the year, mainly in the spring but in 

some localities in the fall or winter. 

Crude Protein (CP): The total amount of protein, some of which is insoluble or non-degradable. Crude protein is 

measured in the laboratory by first measuring nitrogen and then multiplying by 6.25. 

Cud: Food regurgitated from the first stomach to the mouth of a ruminant and chewed again for 

further breakdown. 

Cultivar: The international term cultivar denotes an assemblage of cultivated plants that is clearly 

distinguished by any characters (morphological, physiological, cytological, chemical, or other) 

and when reproduced (sexually or asexually), retains its distinguished characters. 

Culm: The stem of a grass that has elongated internodes between nodes. 

Decreaser: Plant that is gradually replaced by other species in a stand. 

Decumbent: Lying or growing along the ground, but erect at or near the apex of some stems. 

Dehiscent: Splitting open along seed capsule or pod to emit individual seeds. 

Digestible Dry Matter Digestibility estimated from ADF. The higher the ADF, the lower the digestibility. 

(DDM): 

Drought Tolerance: The ability of a plant to withstand lack of rainfall for a portion of the year or for extended periods, 

sometimes multiple years. 

Dry Matter (DM): The percent of the forage that is not water. 

Dry matter Intake 

(DMI): 

Forage: 

Although it can be determined from feeding trials, it is usually estimated from NDF. The higher 

the NDF, the lower the intake. 

Herbaceous grasses and legumes available and acceptable to grazing animals. 

Elliptic: Longer than wide with rounded ends; rounded oval. 

Ellipsoidal: Three-dimensional object that is widest at the middle, tapers to ends of the same size, and is 

round in cross section. 

Endophyte: An organism (fungus, bacteria, nematode, etc...) growing inside of a plant. 

Ensile: To store forage as silage. 

Friable Soil: A soil with a readily crumbled or broken apart surface. 

Glabrous: Without hair, smooth. 

Glumes: A pair of bracts found at the base of a grass spikelet and not containing pistils or stamens; 

occasionally one or both glumes are absent. 

Haylage: Product resulting from ensiling forage with about 20-40% moisture, in the absence of oxygen. 

Hemicellulose: Polysaccharide fraction existing largely in the secondary cell wall of the plant. 

Herbaceous: Plants having aerial stems that die back to the soil level each year while the underground parts 

remain alive. 

Introduced: A species not part of the original fauna or flora of the area in question, but introduced from 

another geographical region through human activity. 

Keel: Projecting central rib usually found on the back of an organ and resembling a boat’s keel.

Term 

Lanceolate: 

Lemma: 

Lignin: 

Lodging: 

Meadow: 

Metabolic Energy: 

Definition 

Much longer than wide, widest below the middle and tapering toward both ends, sometimes 

rounded at the base. 

Lower bract of the grass floret, placed above the glumes with its back toward the outside of the 

spikelet or away from the rachilla. 

Complex non-carbohydrate strengthening material in the thickened cell walls of plants; 

practically indigestible. 

Collapse of top heavy plants, particularly grain crops, due to excessive growth or pressure from 

wind and rain. 

An area of perennial herbaceous vegetation, usually grasses or grass like, used primarily for hay 

production. 

Food intake gross energy minus fecal energy, minus energy in the gaseous products of digestion, 

minus urinary energy. 

Monoculture: 

Native Plant / Species: 

Cultivation of a single species to the exclusion of other potential crops. 

A plant that occurs naturally in a particular region, state, ecosystem, and habitat without direct 

or indirect human actions. Climate, soil, and biotic factors determine its presence and evolution 

in an area. 

Net Energy (NE): Calculated from ADF. Net energy estimates are used largely by dairy producers in ration balancing 

for maintenance (NEm), gain (NEg), and lactation (NEl). 

Neutral Detergent 

Fiber (NDF): 

An estimate of the portion of a forage sample that is in the walls of a plant cell. It is measured 

by boiling a forage sample in a neutral detergent and weighing the residue. Boiling removes the 

soluble components of the cell - most of the sugars, fats, starches, and proteins. The remaining 

residue is composed of cell walls made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The amount of 

NDF residue is inversely related to forage intake. High quality forages have low amounts of NDF. 

Nitrate Poisoning: 

Node: 

Oblique: 

Condition sometimes resulting when ruminants ingest nitrates (NO3). The rumen bacteria 

convert to nitrite (NO2); the nitrites compete with oxygen, tying up the oxygen-carrying 

mechanism in the blood and causing the animal to suffocate. 

Joint on a stem, represented by position of origin of a leaf or bud 

Lop-sided, one side of leaf base is larger, wider or more rounded than the other. 

Oblong: Two to four times longer than broad. 

Obovate: Inversely ovate, attached at the narrow end. 

Obovoid: Leaf shape that is inversely egg-shaped or ovoid. 

Obtuse: Blunt or rounded at the tip, with sides coming together at an angle greater than 90 °. 

Oval: 

Ovate: 

Ovoid: 

Palatability: 

Twice as long as broad, widest at the middle, both ends rounded. 

Egg shaped in outline, narrower at the tip and attached at the larger end. Applies to flat surfaces. 

Egg shaped; Applies to three-dimensional structures. 

The relish with which a particular species or plant part is consumed by an animal. 

Palea: Upper bract of the floret, placed above the lemma with its back toward the rachilla. 

Palmate: With three or more lobes, veins or leaflets arising from one point, often five to seven. 

Pasture: Grazing land comprised of introduced or domesticated native forage species that are used 

primarily for the production of livestock. These lands receive periodic renovation and/or cultural 

treatment (such as tillage, fertilization, mowing, weed control), and may be irrigated. 

Perennials: Plants that normally live for more than two years. 

Petiole: The stalk that joins a leaf to stem; (leaf stalk). 

Petiolule: 

pH: 

Pilose: 

The stalk of a leaflet of a compound leaf. 

A measure of the hydrogen-ion concentration in a solution, expressed on a negative log 10 scale 

of 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly basic) with pH of 7 being neutral. See charts on page 23. 

Long soft hairs. 

105

106 

Term 

Pinnate: 

Prostrate: 

Protein: 

Pure Live Seed: 

Racemes: 

Rachilla: 

Relative Feed Value 

(RFV): 

Rhizome: 

Rills: 

Rumen: 

Ruminant: 

Rust: 

Saline Soil: 

Definition 

Compound leaf with leaflets arranged on opposite side of common axis. 

Lying flat upon the ground and growing horizontally 

Essential part of all living matter and animal feed, consisting of a complex combination of amino 

acids, always containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 

The portion (percentage) of the seed lot that is pure and viable. 

Pedicled flowers along one stem. 

Axis of a grass spikelet; a stalk-like, sometimes jointed, structure extending above and between 

the glumes and bearing the florets. 

An estimate of hay quality. It is calculated from NDF, ADF, and crude protein with emphasis on 

NDF. The RFV grading system assumes that full bloom alfalfa has a value of 100. Immature alfalfa 

has a higher RFV and stemmy alfalfa has a lower RFV. 

Underground stem, usually horizontal and capable of producing new shoots and roots at the 

nodes. 

Long, straight and narrow depressions on a soil surface, caused by water erosion. 

The large, first compartment of the stomach of a ruminant from which ingested food is 

regurgitated for chewing and in which digestion is aided by the symbiotic action of microbes. 

Even toed, hoofed mammal that chews the cud and has a four chambered stomach. 

A parasitic fungi that is harmful to other plants. 

A soil condition in which soluble salts are present in the soil in sufficient quantities to affect the 

ability of plants to absorb water from the soil. 

Salt Tolerance: Relative ability of a plant to reproduce and grow under saline conditions. 

Scabrous: Slightly roughened. 

Selected Class Release: Phenotypically selected plants of untested parentage that have promise, but no proof of genetic 

superiority of distinctive traits. 

Seedhead: The inflorescence (flowering part) of a grass where the seed will develop. 

Shade Tolerance: Relative ability of a plant to reproduce and grow under shade. 

Silage: Forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial fermentation. 

Sod grass: Grass that is spread vegetatively by the growth of underground stems, called rhizomes. (i.e. 

Smooth Brome). 

Soil Texture: The relative portion (percentage) of sand, silt and clay in the soil. 

Stage of Maturity: The development of a forage used to describe a point in time in its progress toward maturity and 

readiness for harvest of forage, hay, or seed. 

Stipules: Very small stalk of an organ; a small prolongation of a rachilla beyond the uppermost floret in 

the spikelets of some grasses. 

Stolon: A horizontal stem which grows along the surface of the soil and roots at the nodes. 

Stools: A stump of root stock producing shoots or suckers. 

Swath: A strip of cut herbage lying on the stubble left by a cutter bar, blade, flail, rotary drum, mower, 

mower-conditioner, binder, swather, or small grain head on a combine. 

Taproot: A plant root system dominated by a large primary root, normally growing straight downward, 

from which most of the smaller roots spread out laterally. 

Total Digestible 

Nutrients (TDN): 

Trifoliate: 

Ungulate: 

Vegetative: 

Water Tolerance: 

Yield: 

An estimate of digestible forage. TDN is not measured directly but is calculated from ADF. TDN 

is used by many beef producers to balance rations. 

A pinnate leaf form with three leaflets. 

A hoofed animal; includes ruminants, but also includes horses and swine. 

Term used to designate stem and leaf development in contrast to flower and seed development. 

Relative ability of a plant to reproduce and grow under saturated or flooded conditions. 

The quantity of a product in a given space and/or time. Also known as the harvested portion of 

a product.

Works Cited 

Adesogan, A.T., & Newman, Y.C. (2010). Silage Harvesting, Storing, and Feeding. IFAS Extension, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. 

Retrieved from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ag180 

Harper, J.L. (1977). Population Biology of Plants, New York: Academic Press. 

Pieper, R.D. 1978. Measurement Techniques for Herbaceous and Shrubby Vegetation. New 

Mexico State University: Las Cruces, NM. 

Ogle, D. , St. John, L., Cornwell, J., Stannard, M. , Holzworth, L. (2008 January). Pasture and 

Range Seedings, Planning-Installation-Evaluation-Management. Plant Materials Technical 

Note 10. USDA- Natural Resources Conservation Service, Boise, Idaho, Bozeman, Montana, 

Spokane, Washington. 

Heady, F. H., & Child, D. R. (1994) Rangeland Ecology & Management. Westview Press, Inc. 

Boulder, CO 

Holechek, L. J., Pieper, D. R., Herbel, H. C. (2004) Range Management Principles and Practices 

Fifth Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ 

Huggins, R. D., Reganold, P. J. (2008) No-Till: the Quiet Revolution. in Scientific American, 

July 2008 issue, 8p. (p. 70-77) 

Retrieved from: http://research.wsu.edu/resources/files/no-till.pdf 

Livestock Production Program (2006). Silage. Livestock Production Programme (LPP), Department 

for International Development, UKAID. 

Retreived from http://www.smallstock.info/tools/feed/silage/silage1.htm 

Livestock Production Program (2006). Hay Making. Livestock Production Programme (LPP), 

Department for International Development, UKAID. 

Retreived from http://www.smallstock.info/tools/feed/hay/haymaking1.htm#mycotoxins 

Mhere, O., Maasdorp, B., Titterton, M. (2002). Forage Production and Conservation Manual: 

UK Dept. for International Development, Livestock Production Research Programme (LPP) 

Retrieved from http://www.smallstock.info/research/reports/R7010/R7010-Manual.pdf 

Ogle, D., Englert, J., Gibbs, J. (2001 January). Glossary of Terms for Use in Plant Materials. 

Retrieved from http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/idpmctn280101.pdf 

Quarberg, D. (n.d.). Buyer’s Guide to Forage Products. Cooperative Extension Service, University 

of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska. 

Retrieved from http://www.uaf.edu/ces/publications-db/catalog/anr/FGV-00145B.pdf 

Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture. (2011). 2011 Forage Crop Production Guide. 20 p. 

Retrieved from http://www.agriculture.gov.sk.ca/Forage-Crop-Production-Guide. 

Sullivan, P. (2003). Conservation Tillage. National Sustainable Agricultural Information Service 

Retrieved from https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/conservationtillage.html 

Whisenant, S. (1999). Repairing Damaged Wildlands - A Process-Orientated, Landscape- 

Scale Approach. (5 th ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press 

Vallentine, J.F. (1989). Range Developments and Improvements. New York: Academic Press 

107

The Alaska Forage Manual was released by the Alaska Plant Materials Center, 

a part of the Department of Natural Resources, Division of Agriculture. This 

publication is intended for use by forage producers, users and the general 

public. It was produced at a cost of $15.45 per copy, and printed in Anchorage, 

Alaska. This publication is also available online, at plants.alaska.gov. 

Temperature Temperature Volume Length Length 

C F C F Liters Quarts cm inch cm feet 

100 212 5 41 1 1.1 2.5 1 300 10 

90 194 0 32 2 2.1 5 2 400 13 

80 176 -5 23 3 3.2 10 4 500 16 

70 158 -10 14 4 4.2 20 8 1,000 33 

60 140 -15 5 5 5.3 30 12 

50 122 -20 -4 6 6.3 40 16 

40 104 -25 -13 7 7.4 50 20 

35 95 -30 -22 8 8.5 60 24 

30 86 -40 -40 9 9.5 70 28 

25 77 80 32 

20 68 90 36 

15 59 100 39 

■ Conversion Chart 

10 50 200 79 

■Metric Conversions Chart 

To convert this to this multiply by 

Metric Length Conversions 

inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeters (mm) 25.4 

feet. To convert . . . . . . this . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeters to (cm) this multiply 39 by 

yards To convert 

Length 

. . . . . this . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meters to (m) this multiply .91 by 

milliliters 

miles 

inches 

. . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeters . 

kilometers 

. . fluid ounces (mm) 

(km) 

25.4 

1.61 

.03 

liters. millimeters feet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeters . . . . . . . . inches . pints (cm) 39 2.1 .04 

liters yards centimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meters . . . inches quarts (m) 1.06 .4 .91 

liters. miles meters . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. kilometers ...... ...... . gallons inches (km) 39.37 1.61 .26 

cubic meters 

millimeters meters . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. cubic . . . 

inches 

yards feet 351.1 

.04 

cubic centimeters 

kilometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic . . . . 

inches 

. yards miles 1.3 .4 

.6 

Temperature 

meters Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 39.37 

Fahrenheit meters ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. grams(g) .. Celsius . yards 28 1.1 .56 (after subtracting 31) 

Celsius kilometers. pounds. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. kilograms ..... Fahrenheit . . . . miles (kg) 1.82 .45 .6 (then add 32) 

Farm Weight 

short tons 

products 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . metric tons 

pounds ounces kilograms . per . . acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilograms . . . . . . . . per . . grams(g) . hectare pounds 

.9 

28 1.14 2.2 

short pounds. metric tons . . per ..... acre ........ . . . . . . . . . kilograms ............ kilograms . . per . . . hectare pounds (kg) 2,204.6 2.25 .45 

kilograms short metric tons per . . . hectare . . . . . . . . . . . . metric . . . . . tons . . . . per . metric short hectare tons 1.1 .001 .9 

kilograms Area per . . . hectare . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . pounds . . . . . . . per pounds acre 2.2 .88 

tons metric square per tons inches hectare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square short . . . . . tons . centimeters . . . per pounds acre 2,204.6 6.5 .44 

tons metric square per tons feet hectare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilograms . . . . .. square . . per . short hectare meters tons 1,0001.1 

.09 

Area 

square miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square kilometers 2.6 

square 

acres . . 

inches 

. . . . . . 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

square 

. . . . . . 

centimeters 

. . hectares 

6.5 

.4 

Bushel/Weight Conversions 

square feet centimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meters inches .16 .09 

Back cover photos: 

weight in 

weight in 

square meters miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square . . . square kilometers yards 1.2 2.6 

Upper left: A swather mows grass near Palmer; 

1 bushel of: pounds kilograms 

square acres . . kilometers . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square . . . hectares miles .4 

Upper right: A tedderer lays down hay for drying; 

wheat, Center: Horses feed on pastureland in Palmer; 

square 

hectares soybeans, 

centimeters 

. . . . . . . . potatoes. . . . . . . . . . . 

. . 

. . 

. . 

. . 

. . . . 

square . . . . . . 

inches 

acres . . . . . . . . . 602.5 

27 

.16 

corn, grain sorghum, rye, flaxseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Bottom left: 25A mower-conditioner working a hay crop; 

square Volumemeters square yards 1.2 

Bottom right: Pasture field near Palmer; 

beets, carrots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 23 

square teaspoons kilometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square . . . milliliters miles 5.4 

barley, buckwheat, peaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 22 

hectares tablespoons . . . ...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliters acres 152.5 

Photos: Casey Dinkel, AK PMC 

oats, cottonseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 14 

fluid 

Volume 

ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliters 30 

cups. 

teaspoons 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

milliliters 

. . . liters 

5 

.24 

pints. 

tablespoons 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

milliliters 

. . . liters weight in 

15 

.47 number

Alaska Forage Manual - Alaska Plant Materials Center - State of ...

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