e-conservation the online Magazine 16, oct 2010.pdf

e-conservation 

the online magazine No. 16, October 2010

Contemporary Art Wall Clock by PaulaArt

The Gap in Conservation 

In recent conversations with fresh PhD graduates I have unfortunately noticed an increasing tendency: 

towards unemployment. To a conservator-restorer or a conservation-scientist, a PhD is synonym of 

higher specialisation, also a better job and a higher salary. At least that is the illusion that exists 

before one obtains it. 

For some, a PhD is a life goal worthy of achievement. For others, it is merely a means to reach an objective, 

usually to ensure a university position. Independently of the reason why one does it, it is true that there is 

a life before the PhD and another after it. More and more, life before the PhD is full of expectations 

while life after it is quite different than one would have imagined, often in a very disappointing way. 

This is not a problem restricted to conservation, but it's becoming more and more accentuated 

because PhDs in our field are a fairly recent thing, most being less than 10 years old. Despite that, 

PhD programs seem to create problems instead of filling the gaps in our training or solving the 

problems in the field of cultural heritage. 

Part of the problem is in the academic sphere itself: after all there is definitely a market for training 

PhD students. It's academic economics and it’s all about demand and supply. When a university 

creates a PhD program it attracts more students, increases funds and raises status. After all, it is a 

business like any other and more than ever universities are competing with one another. But the 

bitter truth is that Academia doesn't really care about their students' career prospects. The goal is to 

have lots of students in order to help support their facilities and their staff, staff which are required 

to have a PhD. Even if you do eventually get a university position, you must bring in a new generation 

of students to keep afloat the department and subsequently your own job, perpetuating the system 

and thus, the problem. 

In the last decade several PhD courses have appeared in European Universities, in some countries 

more than others, in order to offer the three different levels of European tertiary education and to 

be one of the exclusive “few” to do so. When PhD students graduate some are absorbed by Academia 

to complement their staff, normally as post-doctorates with scholarships, while others are left “on 

their own”. At the end of the day, PhDs are low-paid and treated as merely temporary workers during 

the years they spend training for faculty positions that are virtually inexistent. 

What is the result of the current scenario Unturn any stone and you will find many unemployed 

Doctorate graduates, others surviving on public funding, or going from post-doc to post-doc 

anywhere they can. Many resigning themselves and settle for lower job positions, which in the present 

economical climate are also hard to find. 

Opposed to Academia, other fields have the Industry which absorbs a great part of PhD graduates. 

However, this is practically non-existent in conservation and clearly insufficient to absorb many of 

the hundreds of highly skilled Doctors that are being trained every year. 

On the other side, politics are a great part of the problem. When government funding is common 

knowledge and widely available, students often consider pursuing a PhD because it ensures an 

income for at least a few years. But in fact this is all part of a bigger scheme that starts by attracting 

students to undergraduate conservation-restoration courses, often lured in by the highly publicized 

popular idea that if there is cultural heritage in need of conservation it is because there's a lack of 

professionals to conserve or restore it. Far from the truth, these new generations, attracted by a real 

interest in heritage, will later join the increasingly large mass of skilful but unemployed professionals. 

This is equally true for conservation-scientists who often specialize in heritage during their PhD 

thesis. It may be a much needed area of input, but while the training programs are increasing I don't 

see a higher number of positions being filled or even on offer for that matter. 

When will this paradigm change Is it likely that this will only happen when the system is already 

near a state of absolute collapse Right now, it simply doesn't pay to get a PhD. 

editorial 

Rui Bordalo 

Editor-in-Chief 

e-conservation

PROFILE 

Location 

The Metropolitan Museum of Art 

Exhibition 

Picasso in The Metropolitan Museum of Art 

Time 

April 27, 2010 – August 15, 2010 

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Pablo Picasso, At the Lapin Agile, 1905, The Walter H. and Leonore Annenberg Collection, Gift of 

Walter H. and Leonore Annenberg, 1992, Bequest of Walter H. Annenberg, 2002 (1992.391); The Actor, 

1904–05, Gift of Thelma Chrysler Foy, 1952 (52.175); Saltimbanque in Profile, 1905, Bequest of Scofield 

Thayer, 1982 (1984.433.269). All works from The Metropolitan Museum of Art. © 2010 Estate of Pablo 

Picasso / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. Photo: Don Pollard. 

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INDEX 

NEWS & VIEWS 6 

Pot Healer, I Need You 

By Daniel Cull 

9 

REVIEWS 

SEM and Microanalysis in the Study of Historical Technology, 

Materials and Conservation 

September 9-10, 2010, London, UK 

Review by Ana Bidarra 

13 

Western Association for Art Conservation (WAAC) Annual Meeting 

September 15 - 18, 2010, Portland, Oregon 

Review by Daniel Cull 

17 

NEWS 

Devastating Flood in Ladakh, India 

A Support Program by Tibet Heritage Fund 

By Andre Alexander 

EVENTS 

20 

UPCOMING EVENTS 

November 2010 

ARTICLES 

24 

Identification of Ivory Book Covers and Comparison to Ivory 

Portrait Miniatures 

By Josie Wornoff 

39 

Microbial Study of Egyptian Mummies 

An Assessment of Enzyme Activity, Fungicides and Some 

Mummification Materials for the Inhibition of Microbial Deterioration 

by Abdelrazek Elnaggar, Ahmed Sahab, Siham Ismail, Gamal Mahgoub and 

Mohammed Abdelhady 

CASE STUDY 

50 

Study of the painting Virgin Mary and Child with the Infant 

St. John the Baptist 

The Hidden Flora of Leonardo da Vinci’s Painting Workshop 

By Miklós Szentkirályi 

60 

"The Annunciation" by Cola Petruccioli (1380) 

The Restoration of the Transferred Wall Painting 

By Ildikó Jeszeniczky 


5

news & views 

POT HEALER, I NEED YOU 

By Daniel Cull 

"I like to build universes that do fall apart [...] objects, customs, habits, and ways of life 

must perish so that the authentic human being can live." (Philip K. Dick).[1] 

Conservators, and conservation, appear 

in numerous fictional books, 

films, and TV shows [2], I'd like to 

suggest that studying fiction is a 

fascinating, albeit underutilized, 

approach to a range of conservation 

studies, not least because our portrayal 

within the fictional realm feeds 

directly into the public consciousness, 

and perception, of our profession. I 

recently read the Philip K. Dick (PKD) 

novel "Galactic Pot Healer" (GPH) 

[3], and was struck by how it can be 

read in contrast with contemporary 

museum based futurism, and as a 

work of conservation (pot-healing) 

theory. Museum futurists predict that 

a continuing desire for 'the real' will 

maintain a central significance in the 

museum project for conservation [4]. 

PKD, however, offers a different prediction. 

In GPH our protagonist, a 

healer of pots named Joe Fernwright, Book cover. Photo by Chris Drumm, Some rights reserved. 

inhabits a world in which ceramics 

have been replaced by plastic, and In what's called 'soft' science fiction it is the story 

where all the ceramics in museums that holds more value than scientific gizmo's. 

have been ‘healed’. PKD reveals the However, as scientists, it can be fun to consider 

utopic vision of classical conservation 

theory to be a dystopia in which our fictional selves have dreamt up; and consider 

what improvements to our field the writers of 

conservators are all but obsolete, whether they could, as with the needle-less injection 

from Star Trek, become reality. GPH fea- 

and Joe passes his time playing 

"the game" and craving illegal cigarettes. 

vation scientists, including; self focusing 

tures several intriguing challenges for consermagni- 


VIEWS 

fying glasses, heat needles that bond the ceramic 

on the molecular level (I'm pretty sure that's 

non-reversible!), and replacing the ceramic conservators 

sand-box with an anti-gravity machine 

and storage boxes that if dropped gently slow 

their rate of descent before landing safely on 

the ground. Notwithstanding such leaps in technology, 

I suspect conservators can take more 

from the story than these tools. Back in the Communal 

North American Citizen's Republic, Joe's 

routine existence is interrupted when he receives 

a message: "Pot healer, I need you. And I will pay" 

[3, p.12]. As his curiosity is awakened he discovers 

that on another planet the Glimmung "intended 

to raise the ancient cathedral Heldscalla, and to 

do so [...] needed a wide span of skills" [3, p. 25]; 

amongst them a pot-healer. As the plot develops 

Joe undergoes a variety of adventures and struggles, 

he gives all his savings away, has a run in 

with the Quietude Authority Police, travels to a 

different planet, falls in love, challenges the apparent 

precognition of the 'Book of the Kalends', 

and undergoes an epic struggle to raise the cathedral, 

before finally coming to a decision regarding 

his future as a pot-healer. As a conservator it is 

possible to read Joe's personal and spiritually 

gnostic journey through the prism of investigative 

cleaning, the methodical uncovering of layers to 

reveal new realities below. As our reality becomes 

increasingly fluid and fleeting the book provides 

an intriguing metaphor for contemporary readings 

of authenticity. 

The final section of the novel offers an interesting 

challenge to museum futurists, and conservation 

theorists. PKD posits a post-enlightenment, 

experiential, reading of material culture, which 

contrasts with how the conservation object has 

traditionally been seen as "an object of the Enlightenment, 

an object that can be known through 

scientific analysis" [5]. In our world such distinctions 

are already becoming blurred with the advent 

of replicas, copies, fakes, forgeries, virtual 

collections, and simulations. Moreover, developments 

in ethnographic and contemporary art conservation 

have led the conservation process to 

increasingly be concerned with meanings, and 

authenticity, and not solely the materiality of 

objects. It has been suggested we "confront the 

thingness of objects when they stop working for 

us [...] when their flow within the circuits of production 

and distribution, consumption and exhibition, 

has been arrested, however momentarily" 

[6]. This being the case the focus of conservation 

cannot solely be the object, but, also must be the 

mechanism of its flow. By making his first pot Joe 

seeks to (re)create his traditional material culture, 

and satisfy his desire for cultural meaning. 

Perhaps too this illustrates the authors own approach 

to personal and cultural authenticity, creating 

worlds in which things do fall apart; worlds 

in which maybe conservation does, after all, have 

a role to play: 

“He appraised what he had done, and, within it, 

what he would do, what later pots would be like, 

the future of them lying before him. And his justification, 

in a sense, for leaving Glimmung and 

all the others. Mali, the most of all. Mali whom 

he loved. 

The pot was awful.” [3, p. 144] 

Notes: 

1. Quoted in: Vincent Bzdek. Philip K. Dick's 

Future is Now. The Washington Post, Sunday 

July 28, 2002, URL. 

2. Rebecca A. Rushfield. Conservation Fiction 

(or Fiction that Acknowledges the Existence 

of Conservation and Conservators), URL, and 

Canadian Association for Conservation. 

Conservation in Film and Fiction, URL. 

e-conservation 7

VIEWS 

3. Philip K. Dick, Galactic Pot-healer, Berkley, 

1969. 

4. Center for the Future of Museums, Museums 

and Society 2034: Trends and Potential Futures. 

Version 1.0. Center for the Future of 

Museums/American Association of Museums. 

December 2008, URL [pdf]. 

5. Pip Laurenson. Authenticity, Change and Loss 

in the Conservation of Time-Based Media Installations. 

Tate Papers. Autumn 2006, URL. 

6. Bill Brown. Thing Theory. Critical Inquiry, Vol. 

28, No. 1. Things (Autumn, 2001). pp. 4. 

The News section is publishing diverse 

information on cultural heritage topics, such 

as on-site conservation projects reports, 

conferences, lectures, talks or workshops 

reviews, but also course reviews and any other 

kind of appropriate announcements. If you are 

involved in interesting projects and you want 

to share your experience with everybody else, 

please send us your news or announcements. 

For more details, such as deadlines and 

publication guidelines, please visit 

www.e-conservationline.com 

DANIEL CULL 

Conservator 

The Musical Instrument Museum 

Daniel Cull is from the West Country of the British 

Isles. He trained at the Institute of Archaeology, 

University College London, where he received a 

BSc in Archaeology, MA in Principles of conservation, 

and an MSc in Conservation for Archaeology 

and Museums. He was later awarded an Andrew 

W. Mellon Fellowship at the National Museum of 

the American Indian/Smithsonian Institution, 

Washington, DC. He currently works as a conservator 

at the Musical Instrument Museum and as 

a collaborator with e-conservation magazine. 

Website: http://dancull.wordpress.com 

Contact: daniel.cull@themim.org 

8 e-conservation

REVIEWS 

SEM AND MICROANALYSIS IN THE STUDY OF 

HISTORICAL TECHNOLOGY, MATERIALS AND CONSERVATION 

Review by Ana Bidarra 

September 9-10, 2010 

London, UK 

Organisers: 

The British Museum and 

Hitachi High Technologies Europe 

http://www.britishmuseum.org/... 

On 9 th and 10 th September 2010, the Department 

of Conservation and Scientific Research at the 

British Museum, in association with Hitachi High 

Technologies Europe, hosted a conference on the 

application of scanning electron microscopy and 

microanalysis (SEM-EDX) to the study of materials, 

manufacturing methods and deterioration processes 

of objects from ancient to contemporary 

cultures. The conference was attended by over 

150 delegates representing 22 countries (including 

North, Central and South America, China, 

Japan, Iran and most European countries). There 

were 28 oral presentations and 45 posters divided 

in 2 sessions over the 2-days conference. 

The presentations focused on several areas of study, 

from broader applications of SEM and microanalysis 

techniques, to specific case studies, technological 

advances and limitations. The conference 

started with a presentation from Alexander Ball 

entitled How “non-destructive” is variable pressure 

SEM, introducing some basic concepts of 

variable pressure SEM focusing on the alterations 

caused by the technique due to the effects of rapid 

decompression, beam interactions between the 

samples and imaging gas and the contamination 

from the vacuum system. These effects can cause 

cracking, contaminations, dehydration, radiation 

damages, etc. It was an alert call, particularly 

directed to the recent possibilities of analysing 

entire objects, since modern equipments have 

bigger vacuum chambers. The first session ended 

with two presentations on the study of parchment 

biodegradation and on the study of glass beads 

from urns found in 1970 in an excavation in Carthage, 

followed by the first poster session. 

The second session began with a practical approach 

on the use of SEM in the study of surface materials 

at high magnification. Ineke Joosten focused on 

the parameters that could influence the image such 

as scan rotation, magnification, beam voltage, 

type of detector and pressure in the vacuum chamber. 

In the second presentation, Caroline Cartwright 

introduced a very interesting application 

of SEM to the study of the organic cores from the 

Iron Age Snettisham (Norfolk) torc hoard, from 

around 70 BC. The study added important new information 

regarding the manufacture of these objects. 

The last session was on the study of the Bedford 

Lemere Collection, particularly the deterioration of 

glass plate negatives from mid to late 19 th century. 


REVIEWS 

The afternoon session focused on four different 

themes: smalt pigment quantitative EDX analysis; 

medieval window flashed glass composition, structure 

and manufacturing processes; organic remains 

preserved by metal corrosion products; 

and a multi-analytical study of the pigments in 

17 th century Portuguese tiles (“azulejos”). The 

first presentation, by Marika Spring, introduced 

several examples of SEM-EDX analysis on smalt 

samples from a number of paintings in the National 

Gallery ranging in date and geographical 

origin. The variations in arsenic content as well 

as possible effects of arsenic on the properties 

of the glass were discussed. The effect of various 

factors such as pressure, beam gas and working 

distance on the degree of beam skirting and on 

quantitative analysis were also focused. 

The poster session continued during the tea break. 

In the last session of the day the speakers brought 

into discussion very distinct topics, such as the 

investigation of medieval opaque glasses and 

enamels, analyses of chrome-yellow and chromeorange 

dyestuffs used for domestic and imported 

cotton fabrics “Touzan” (a vertically stripped Japanese 

fabric) in the 19 th century, and the study 

of inscriptions, filing and polishing marks on the 

bronze weapons from the Qin Terracotta Army in 

China. 

The first day ended with a reception at the Addis 

Gallery, in the British Museum. 

The second day started with a presentation by 

Shirley Northover, focused on the application of 

electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) in archaeology. 

EBSD patterns are characteristic of the structure 

and local crystallography orientation of the 

material under the beam. By systematically collecting 

and analysing these patterns, maps can 

be built up revealing the distribution of present 

phases, showing grain sizes and shapes, and giving 

“Quantitative EDX analysis of smalt pigment in the variable 

pressure SEM”, by Marika Spring. 

information on the deformation levels of the surface. 

Hector Lozano spoke on the re-discovery of 

Mexican feathered textile, a very peculiar technique, 

of which only six known textiles still exist, 

all of them from the 17 th and 18 th centuries. In 

this case SEM was used to identify the materials 

present in the feathered yarns particularly the 

identification of the birds from which the feathers 

were obtained. The next communication was 

on the study of raw materials used in the production 

of Chinese porcelain and stoneware bodies, 

and the last one of the session was on the role of 

SEM-based charcoal identification on reconstructing 

vegetation changes in the last 40,000 years in 

Western Cape (South Africa). The afternoon presentations 

were followed by the second poster session. 

The sixth session began with a presentation from 

Diane Johnson on the subsurface analysis by application 

of a focused ion beam scanning electron 

microscope (FIBSEM) to samples of geological 

(fossils and meteorites) and historical importance. 

Next, Alicia Perea talked on gold usage and 

the analysis of wear marks and/or deterioration in 

site condition of gold artefacts and how difficult 

it could be to differentiate one from the other. 

Carol Pottasch presented a study on a rediscovered 

Dutch painter, Adriaen Coorte (works dating from 


REVIEWS 

1683-1705) and the use of arsenic pigments in his 

still lifes. The last presentation – by Eddy Faber - 

focused on the study of Middle Minoan polychrome 

ware production and the relations between pottery 

production and the palaces, and how the 

polychrome ware played an important role in the 

(re)affirmation of both the potters and those who 

consume the craft goods as well as the different 

strategies for teaching and learning craft skills 

in middle Minoan society. 

After lunch the afternoon began with a communication 

on non-invasive sample preparation with 

cross-section polishing, followed by a presentation 

on the Viking filigree, granulation and tool 

mark analysis. Next was a presentation by Martina 

Raedel on the application of environmental 

scanning electron microscope (ESEM) equipped 

with EDX to the study of different types of materials 

such as gold mosaics and medieval church 

windows, but also to study the effectiveness of 

corrosion protection systems for historical iron 

and cast iron monuments and the microbial infestation 

of historical marble sculptures. The last 

communication focused on the study of pre-Columbian 

gold beads from Panama and was presented 

by Ainslie Harrison. Over 2000 beads were examined, 

including 223 beads from recent excavations 

in El Caño, from 2008 and 2009 field seasons. All 

of the beads were examined for type, evidence of 

manufacture, alloy composition, fabrications technique 

and shape. Specific features of interest, 

such as flanges, circumferential grooves, chisel 

marks and visible joins, were also noted for each 

bead. By correlating the analytical data and external 

features of these beads, a larger picture of 

the bead manufacturing processes in pre-Columbian 

Panama was revealed. 

The conference ended with three presentations. 

Aviva Burnstock spoke about The use of SEM imaging 

techniques for examination of paintings, showing 

examples of the application of SEM for questions 

related to the surface and underlying material 

structure of paintings dating from the 14 th to the 

20 th centuries. The examples focused in features 

such as surface whitening, efflorescence and 

changes in the surface that resulted from selected 

treatments. The second communication entitled 

Metallurgy through the eyes of the SEM, by Nigel 

Meeks, illustrated how SEM-EDX has been essential 

in revealing the materials, metallurgy, construction 

and finishing of antiquities, from the 

earliest refining of gold in Lydia, to the production 

of complex multi-component jewellery in Europe 

and to the gold metallurgy of Central and 

South America. The last presentation was a review 

of the conference and on the future of SEM: 

“Current examination of organic remains preserved by metal 

corrosion products”, by Andrea Fischer. 

A view during the poster session. 


REVIEWS 

FREE 

CONSERVATION 

“Inscriptions, filing and polishing marks on the bronze 

weapons from the Qin Terracotta Army in China”, by Xiuzhen 

Janice Li. 

RESOURCES 

SEM 2010, a synopsis and a look to future directions, 

by Chris Jones from Hitachi. 

During the two days conference the high standard 

on the selection of communications and posters 

was clear and it was possible to understand how 

broad the application of SEM and microanalysis 

techniques can be. The limitations of these techniques 

were addressed as well as the progresses 

and the more recent applications and innovations 

in analysis and equipments. 

Art Conservation Research 

conservationresearch.blogspot.com 

Archetype Publications, in association with the 

British Museum, will be publishing the conference 

proceedings. 

ANA BIDARRA 

Conservator-restorer 

Contact: anabidarra@portugalmail.com 

Ana Bidarra has a Degree in Conservation-Restoration 

and a Master Degree in GeoSciences on 

white structured pigments for restoration. Currently 

she is a PhD candidate researching the 

compositional and technological aspects of gold 

leaf from Portuguese baroque altarpieces. She 

works as conservator-restorer in private practice 

since 1999. 


REVIEWS 

WESTERN ASSOCIATION FOR ART CONSERVATION (WAAC) 

ANNUAL MEETING 

Review by Daniel Cull 

September 15 - 18, 2010 

Portland, Oregon 

http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/ 

The Western Association for Art Conservation 

(WAAC) recently held our annual meeting in the 

city of Portland, Oregon. The meeting was sponsored 

by the University of Oregon (UO), and hosted 

by the UO White Stag Block, and the AIA/Center 

for Architecture. The conference was jam packed 

with events including: three days of lectures, an 

angels project with the Oregon Nikkei legacy Center, 

a workshop on Digital Imaging Techniques for 

Conservation and Education, presented by Cultural 

Heritage Imaging, a silent auction to benefit the 

Metropolitan Youth Symphony, a tour of the Gamblin 

paint factory, and several receptions. There 

was barely time to see the sights of the city, or 

the Portland Art Museum which had graciously 

extended free entry to participants, and of course 

Powell's - possibly the world’s largest bookshop. 

I came away from Portland with a couple of new 

books, an awesome notebook from the silent auction, 

and a few new ideas and techniques to apply 

professionally. 

After opening addresses and announcements, Dr. 

Tami Lasseter-Clare gave the first lecture entitled 

'Uncovering Mysteries of a Chinese Burial Relic', 

demonstrating the use of a variety of analytical 

techniques (X-radiography, XRF, FTIR) to investigate 

the originality, and potential dates, of various 

parts of a presumed Han dynasty bronze Money 

Tree, from the collections of the Portland Art 

Museum. Marie Svoboda gave the second lecture 

entitled 'Exploring 19 th Century Restorations: 

the study of Four Apulian Vases from Berlin', this 

was one of my favourite lectures, covering an 

important topic in the conservation field; our 

own history. The lecture described a collaborative 

project between Berlin's Antikensammlung and 

LA's J. Paul Getty Museum to study and treat a 

group of ceramic artefacts. Part of this study shed 

light on the original conservator, and it was fun 

to see the research and experiments that went 

into discovering the methods and extent of his 

work; most intriguing was the use of fired clay 

blanks as a filling method. The presentation finished 

with the dilemma now faced by the conservators; 

to reveal the historical artefact or to retain 

the conservation work. I would argue that the 

conservation evidence should be retained in at 

least some cases. 

After the break, Chris White gave an excellent 

talk on 'Brass and Wood Screws in American Furniture'. 

It was interesting to learn about the chronology 

of screw production as they changed from 

all handmade screws prior to 1780 to modern style 

screws post 1845, into the standardization of 

screw in the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries. 

Chris also announced that Arlen Heginbotham at 

the Getty is developing an online database of 

screws and is looking for beta testers. In the next 

lecture William Hoffman presented 'Silver Tarnishing 

Properties of Gloves Used in Conservation', 


13

REVIEWS 

using Oddy testing, Beilstein tests, Azide tests, 

as well as FTIR and ATR the potential to tarnish 

or transfer residue onto silver objects was measured. 

The results did not end up with a clear cut 

"best choice" glove, but demonstrated instead 

that in different ways each of the gloves had a 

negative effect. The WAAC business meeting was 

the final point of business prior to lunch. 

After lunch Kyle Jansson reviewed the current 

state of the cultural heritage field in a lecture 

entitled 'Finding Cures for the Common Heritage 

Flu'. He presented the findings of recent consultations, 

unfortunately I think he identified more illnesses 

than he did cures! Up next Jan Cavanaugh 

discussed 'Art Conservation at the Jordon Schnitzer 

Mueum of Art', describing how addressing environmental 

concerns during an expansion of the museum 

was required for grants funding to address 

the long term conservation efforts. After the break 

the final round of lectures for the day began, with 

Anya McDavis-Conway talking about 'The New Mexico 

History Museum: Before and After Opening'. I 

could totally relate to this, currently being involved 

in opening a museum myself. It was interesting 

to see the storage solutions that had been chosen, 

including aluminium pallets to keep objects off of 

the floor, and purpose built custom saddle mounts. 

Yosi Pozeilov’s 'iPad, a New Tool for Condition Reporting 

at LACMA', was a fun final lecture for the 

day that outlined how the iPad could be utilized as 

a tool for conservation. Its major bonus is that it 

is truly handheld and simulates the methods that 

we use already. 

Yoonjo Lee opened the second day with 'Parafilm 

M Fills for a Mexican Lacquered Gourd vessel', this 

introduced me to an approach that I'd never even 

considered - although it was first published by 

Marianne Webb in 1998, brilliantly innovative and 

strikingly simple, just the sort of treatments I most 

admire. This was followed by another fantastic 

The popular 'Crow with LED Eyes' from the silent auction 

looks out across the conference hall. 

Photo by Daniel Cull, Some rights reserved. 

paper from LACMA, this one entitled 'Nip, Tuck, 

and Fill: Producing Digitally Printed Textile Infills 

for a Group of Pre-Coumbian Textiles at LACMA', 

presented by Lynn Bathke, with a section by Yosi 

Pozeilov. During the break, examples of the printed 

fabric and photographs were available, I was 

totally excited by this application of photoshop 

to conservation. The printed fabrics were produced 

in collaboration with CadFabulous, an LA based 

company using a Mimaki TX4 dye-sublimation 

printer, and I can honestly say they looked excellent. 

After the break, we were treated to two lectures 

concerning salt desalination; the first, 'Desalination 

of Archaeological Ceramics: Measuring Progress 

and Success' was presented by Chris White, in 

which he presented his work around a normalized 

rate equation for calculating the relative saltiness 

of objects and the progress of desalination. He 

outlined how current experimental results are 

used to define an end point of the treatment, at 

which an object is declared stable, but that we 

still don't have enough results to know what 

stable means. In the second paper, 'Detecting 

and Identifying Testing Salts in Desalination', 

Nancy Odegaard discussed the use of EM Quant 

test strips as a method for semi-quantitative determination 

of chlorides, nitrates, and sulfate 


REVIEWS 

ions in the bath solutions. This appears to be a 

cheap and useful analytical method. The last paper 

in this session was by Linda Lin who discussed 

a 'Technical study and conservation of two Japanese 

masks: Investigating their attributes as a pair 

and stabilizing fragile matte paint', which treated 

us to several examples of these fascinating masks. 

After lunch there was one lecture, given by Chris 

Stavroudis on 'The Modular Cleaning Program in 

Practice Application to Acrylic Paintings', this is 

a computer program that assists (but does not 

lead) the conservator in formulating cleaning 

systems. The system was developed as an off shoot 

of Richard Wolbers gels cleaning project. I'm led 

to believe that these systems are very effective, 

but, I have never had cause to use either. The 

early finish was to allow a brilliant tour, and reception, 

at the Gamblin paint factory, led by Robert 

Gamblin who runs the 'conservation colors' 

section of the company. It's always fascinating to 

see where the products we have on the shelves in 

our labs come from! 

The last day of lectures saw a change of venue, and 

focus. Art DeMuro began the day with 'White Stag 

Building Project' a discussion of the restoration 

of the building in which we had spent the last 

two days. It was fascinating to see how the beautiful 

building we had been meeting in had previously 

been a burnt out shell, the previous owner 

having attempted to burn it down to claim the insurance 

money. This project included clever reuses 

of unusable parts of the building as artwork, 

or unique furniture. The second paper of the day 

'Developing Art and Object Conservation Recommendations 

Compatible with Historic Interiors: A 

Case Study' was presented by Jil Johnson, and 

asked important questions about how we define 

Robert Gamblin giving a tour of the Gamblin Paint Factory. 

Photo by Daniel Cull, Some rights reserved. 


15

REVIEWS 

the words we use, such as conservation and restoration, 

and how the different fields may use 

the same words, but with different emphasis and 

meaning. Next up was Tom Fuller who discussed 

the 'Conservation of Chinese Alters at Kam Wah 

Chung & Co.' .This lecture ran over, at the request 

of the audience, and then a discussion ensued. 

This site seemed to be a favourite for many attendees, 

and the presentation was certainly a favourite 

of mine, and was probably most in-tune 

with the ethnographic approaches I most enjoy. 

After the break Brooke Masek gave a fascinating 

lecture entitled 'In Pursuit of the Ideal: The Restoration 

of the Sante-Chapelle', demonstrating 

how the restoration approach was both led, and 

influenced, the formation of French national identity. 

Exploring the 19 th Century ideals of restoration, 

and how they were realized, or ignored, in 

reality by their practitioners. This was followed by 

Jonathan Fisher's discussion of 'The Putti Project: 

Conservation of Two Zinc Fountain Sculptures', 

which discussed the challenges faced in the conservation 

of two sculptures that formed part of a 

water feature. 

After lunch, Dr. Tami Lasseter-Clare gave another 

lecture, this time on 'Understanding Performance 

Properties and Limitations of Coatings for Metals'. 

This was an interesting lecture and raised the concern 

of how conservators might continue should 

products we use be banned, an issue we as a profession 

should really be considering more widely. 

The next paper was one of the most significant, 

in my opinion, of the whole conference. 'Breaking 

Through the Glass Ceiling: Exhibiting Art Under 

Natural Light at LACMA' was presented by Mark Gilberg, 

and co-authored with Charlotte Eng and Frank 

Preusser. The lecture presented a case study of the 

successes and failures of a diffused natural lighting 

system, in a building designed by renowned 

architect Renzo Piano. The authors suggested, 

and I agree, that natural lighting is becoming 

more common in the museum environment, and it 

is imperative that conservators begin to share 

their experiences with such lighting systems, and 

mitigating the worst effects of light damage under 

such circumstances. After the final break of 

the conference Mary Slater presented 'Building 

as Art: Preserving the National Maritime Museum' 

which was co-authored by Paul Nachsheim, Jason 

Wright, Mark McMillan, Katharine Untch, and 

David Wessel, the Museum building was originally 

designed to look like an Ocean Liner and was a 

Works Progress Administration (WPA) project, and 

a team of artists decorated it throughout. The 

restoration project included both in-situ restoration, 

replacement of materials with non-corrosive 

but visually similar alternatives, and removal of 

parts of the building for lab based conservation: 

a wonderful project, for a wonderful building. 

The final paper of the conference was 'Conservation 

and Beyond: The Fire Restoration of the Governor's 

Ceremonial Suite in the Oregon State Capitol' 

by Peter Miejer, this paper discussed the collaborative 

efforts to conserve this building, working 

with conservators, preservation architects, 

design architects, owners, insurance representatives, 

and not least the politicians who would 

use the building. This paper really highlighted 

the challenges and achievements of working in a 

cross-disciplinary manner that was the focus of 

this final day. 

After three days of papers, and other activities, the 

conference closed by thanking all the presenters, 

attendees, and the outgoing WAAC President Marie 

Laibinis Craft for organizing the conference. This 

brief review can barely shed light on the high 

standard of the papers, and the discussions that 

took place. I certainly took some new ideas away 

from the conference, and that, I think, is the litmus 

test of a quality conference. 

16 e-conservation

NEWS 

DEVASTATING FLOOD IN LADAKH, INDIA 

A Support Program by Tibet Heritage Fund 

By Andre Alexander 

Photos by friends of Leh, August 5-7, 2010 

On August 5, Ladakh experienced exceptionally 

heavy rain, referred to as cloudburst. This triggered 

flashfloods and mud slides, hitting lower 

Leh, Choklamsar, Sabu, Shey, Basgo, Nyemo, Skorbuchen, 

Dhar Hanu and other villages, causing 

untold destruction and so far about 200 confirmed 

deaths. More than 200 buildings were completely 

destroyed, and further 800 were damaged buildings. 

According to official count, 1188 households 

have been affected across Ladakh. No one can recall 

similar heavy rain or a similar catastrophe in 

living memory. 

Leh's historic old town has not been affected, 

and neither have most temples and monasteries. 

Indeed, everywhere it was more recent buildings 

and settlements that have been affected, suggesting 

that in the ancient past, people have been more 

careful about where to build. Especially hard hit 

was the Tibetan refugee settlement at Choglamsar, 

established in the 1960s. 

For over a week, Leh was cut of from the rest of 

Ladakh, as roads and bridges were also washed 

away. There was no electricity and telephony, and 

even the airport was damaged and closed for one 

day. The Indian army quickly rebuilt bridges, cleared 

the airport runway and the major roads. Eventually, 

electricity supply and the telephone systems 

were restored. Many houses were filled to the 

brink with hardening mud. Volunteers from all 

sectors of Ladakhi life, Buddhist, Muslims, soldiers, 

monks and tourist helped to dig out these 

houses, sometimes making terrible discoveries 

inside. 

Chumikchan Cowshed damage. 

Help is coming from abroad and from other parts 

of India, but in an uncoordinated fashion. The 

government and Indian donors are building one- 

or two-room shelters, from pre-cast concrete slabs 

that are brought up. These are not at all suitable to 

the climate of Ladakh and the life-style of its people, 

the coming winter will be very grim in a concrete 

box. Some local Ladakhi NGOs advocate to 

build such shelters from concrete-enforced compressed 

bricks, but manufacture of such specialized 

materials is slow, and winter is approaching. 

Detail of damaged modern concrete-frame building at new 

bus-stand, Leh. 


NEWS 

THF is helping to prevent collapse of damaged 

historic buildings in Leh, mainly on the edge of 

the historic old town, and has assessed buildings 

for their safety, advising whether families can return 

to their houses or not. Certainly, next spring 

the government and all concerned bodies will have 

to take a lot of precautions to prevent the catastrophe 

from recurring. Most Ladakhis blame the 

climate change, saying historically it has never 

rained much in Ladakh (12 th century wall-paintings 

in simple buildings with flat mud roofs seem 

to bear witness to this). Flood diversion channels 

can be built, drainage improved, and protective 

walls raised above settlements. Some building 

locations may have to be abandoned. But to bring 

everyone over the winter, THF is proposing an alternative 

to building comparatively expensive 

shelters (between 2000-4000 Euro) that may not 

be suited to the local climate, and that may only 

be needed for six months. 

stay over winter. No expenses for new building materials 

are necessary, as everything from a traditional 

Ladakhi building can be recycled - including 

the mud bricks for the walls. 

Donations to support this program can be sent to: 

THF non-profit account in Germany 

Account holder: Tibet Heritage Fund 

Bank name: Berliner Volksbank 

Account Nr. 7104 19 2003 

BLZ 100 900 00 

SWIFT/BIC BEVODEBB 

IBAN: DE03 1009 0000 7104 1920 03 

We found that it only takes two skilled masons and 

some helpers to make at least one room in each 

of the damaged buildings safe for the family to 

Volunteers at work cleaning the debris from the new 

bus-stand area. 

Panoramic view of the damage suffered at lower Leh from the mudslide. 

18 


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EVENTS 

November 2010 

NODEM10 

Nordic Digital Excellence in Museums 

From Place to Presence. Digital media breaking boundaries 

between inside, outside and virtual spaces, in heritage 

institutions 

Date: 24-26 November 

Read more... 

7 th International Conference on Science 

and Technology in Archaeology and 

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And the Workshop on Documentation and Conservation of 

Stone Deterioration in Heritage Places 

Date: 7-12 December 

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December 2010 

Place: Copenhagen, Denmark 

Place: Petra, Jordan 

NODEM is a bi-annual conference that explores the role 

The Workshop will focus on documentation and conserva- 

of digital media in museums. One of the most striking 

tion of stone. Organized jointly with by the ICOMOS Sci- 

features of digital media in museums today is their po- 

entific Committees of Heritage Documentation (CIPA, 

tential for linking and integrating resources, spaces and 

Stone Committee (ISCS), and ICAHM) the workshop is 

users in an abundance of ways. Museums can share con- 

aimed at gathering a multidisciplinary group of heritage 

tent and gain exposure as well as work across online and 

documentation and conservation specialists around the 

onsite, users can contribute to knowledge production 

issue of the use of advanced recording techniques for 

and choose between different exhibition platforms, and 

identifying, maping, and understanding weathering 

experiences and knowledge can be mediated through a 

forms and processes affecting the significance and 

variety of channels. 

integrity of cultural heritage surfaces. 

Works of Art and Conservation Science 

Today 

Date: 26-28 November 

Read more... 

CALL FOR PAPERS: 2 nd International 

Conference on Salt Weathering 

of Buildings and Stone Sculptures 

Place: Thessaloniki, Greece 

Date: 24-25 Septembe 

Read more... 

Place: Austin, Texas, USA 

The central aim of the Symposium is to bring together 

renowned scientists and experts from all over the 

The conference organised by the Building Materials La- 

world, who will present the state-of-the-art in 

boratory of the University of Cyprus follows a very suc- 

conservation science and practice, and exchange views 

cessful first meeting that was held in Copenhagen, Den- 

on key issues related to the preservation of our cultural 

mark in October 2008. It will take place in Limassol, at 

heritage. The Symposium will address major fields of 

the newly renovated 5-star Grand Resort, between 19-22 

conservation science including modern diagnostic 

October 2011. The meeting is open to both practitioners 

techniques, materials for conservation, paintings, 

and researchers and it is anticipated to address general 

metals and ceramics, pigments and dyes, textiles, 

salt-related problems and decay mechanisms, the key 

wood, paper and manuscripts. Basic theme in one of 

parameters controlling salt crystallisation and new con- 

the main panels will be the Education/Curriculum of 

servation approaches and materials. 

Conservation Science today. 

The symposium will be held in the facilities of Byzantine 

The deadline for abstract submission is 17 December 2010. 

Culture and Archaeological museums and the University 

For more information, please visit the conference web- 

Ecclesiastical Academy, according to the program. 

site or send an email to swbss@ucy.ac.cy. 


21

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IDENTIFICATION OF IVORY BOOK COVERS 

AND COMPARISON TO 

IVORY PORTRAIT MINIATURES 

by Josie Wornoff 

Ivory has been used in the creation of objects since the beginning of civilization, due to its prized 

durability and appearance. Early uses included weaponry, musical instruments, religious pieces, 

personal artifacts, decorative items, artistic pieces, and occasionally, book covers. Three small books 

from the Library and Archives Canada study collection were suspected to have ivory covers. Various 

identification tests were administered on the book covers, and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 

analysis confirmed their elephant ivory composition. However, related literature and other existing 

examples of ivory covered books are rare. In contrast, the use of ivory in portrait miniatures is 

extensively researched. Library and Archives Canada has over 130 portrait miniatures, and has 

successfully treated many of these. Comparison between the history, processing, and risks of 

deterioration of these two applications of ivory revealed many similarities. From this, similar 

conservation techniques of portrait miniatures are proposed for use on ivory book covers.


Introduction 

Identification of Ivory 

The cover material of four small books (Figure 1) 

was the subject of a research project at Library 

and Archives Canada (LAC). Three of the books 

appeared to be produced of ivory or an ivory substitute, 

and the fourth resembled tortoiseshell or 

horn. Information was gathered on the history 

and characteristics of ivory and ivory substitutes, 

while identification tests were administered to 

determine the exact compositions of the book 

covers. 

Extensive research revealed that there is very 

little mention of ivory book covers in literature. 

Though these ivory book covers are quite rare, 

there are currently over 130 portrait miniatures 

in the LAC collection. Since the history of ivory 

use, ivory processing, and risks of deterioration 

are very similar between ivory book covers and 

ivory portrait miniatures, similar conservation 

recommendations are proposed for use on ivory 

book covers. 

There are many methods of testing for ivory, yet 

there is no test that is reliable, simple, and inexpensive 

[1]. In fact, reliability is limited because 

most tests can only prove that a substance is not 

ivory, and cannot avoid a destructive aspect in 

order to provide this diagnosis [1]. 

Testing methods 

Preliminary examination revealed certain morphological 

characteristics that aided in material 

identification. For example, the size of the covers 

indicated that they could not be composed of 

smaller proteinaceous materials such as antler 

or horn [2]. Photography under various lighting 

conditions also revealed important details, such 

as ivory grain patterns under transmitted light. 

Lamellae grain patterns are present in longitudinal 

cuts in ivory tusks, whereas Lines of Shreger 

are present in cross-sections which provide distinction 

from mammoth ivory [1]. 

Figure 1. For referral purposes, from left to right: Book 3, Book 1, Book 2, and Book 4. 


25

JOSIE WORNOFF 

Figure 2. Ivory fluorescence during ultraviolet light testing. 

Ultraviolet light was also used to distinguish bluepurple 

fluorescing ivory [3], from darker and dull 

synthetic materials [4]. The three small ivory 

books each fluoresced a bright colour, while the 

added resins revealed a green colour. Book 4 fluoresced 

a dull, mottled colour, but identification 

guidelines for tortoiseshell or horn were inconclusive 

(Figure 2). 

Figure 3. Hot needle test on Book 4. 

Many polymer imitations of ivory will melt or burn 

under heated conditions [3]. A hot needle was 

applied to the surface of each cover, leaving only 

a small black dot on the first three books, indicating 

true ivory [4]. However, Book 4 became 

very soft with heat, and the needle entered readily, 

disfiguring the surface (Figure 3). Similarly, 

a small shaving of each book cover was held in a 

flame to perform a burn test. A shaving of celluloid 

or other substitute will burn rapidly and completely, 

often releasing the odor of camphor which 

was used to increase strength and decrease flammability 

of cellulose nitrate [5]. The shaving of the 

ivory substances smelled vaguely of bone, but the 

odour of the brown book was distinctively burning 

plastic. 

A chemical test that would have been more conclusive 

is the diphenylamine spot test. A blue-violet 

stain will appear within seconds if cellulose nitrate 

Figure 4. FT-IR spectroscopy testing at CCI on Book 1. 



is present, and any other colour or no colour change 

indicates cellulose nitrate is not present [6]. This 

test would have been successful in determining 

that the brown book was in fact cellulose nitrate, 

but not aid in identifying the other books. 

Scientific Analysis 

Finally, a conclusive test was administered. Scott 

Williams, Senior Conservation Scientist at the Canadian 

Conservation Institute (CCI), performed 

Fourier Transform Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy 

testing on the four books as well as an 

elephant ivory sample [7] (Figure 4). A LabSpec 

Pro NIR spectrometer (Analytical Spectral Devices) 

with a bifurcated fibre optic reflection probe was 

used to gather spectra from each material [7]. The 

characterization of the material is determined by 

its molecular interaction with the infrared radiation 

which originates a characteristic spectrum 

[8].The spectra were then arranged on graphs in 

comparison with the spectra of reference materials 

of known compositions [7]. 

From the gathered spectra, it is evident that Book 

1, Book 2 and Book 3 are each pure elephant ivory 

(Figure 5). Every spectrum of each book (except 

Book 4) is very closely related to the sample spectra 

of a known elephant tusk. However, Book 4 did 

not closely compare to the elephant tusk sample 

at all. However, it did relate closely to sample spectra 

from cellulose nitrate (Figure 6) Therefore, it 

was concluded with certainty that Book 1, Book 2, 

and Book 3 are made of true elephant ivory, and 

Book 4 is made of cellulose nitrate. 

History of Ivory Use 

Early man utilized as much of mammoths as possible, 

beginning the tradition of ivory use in both 

utilitarian and decorative objects [3]. Early uses 

included weaponry, musical instruments, religious 

pieces, personal artifacts, decorative items, artistic 

pieces, and parts for games [3]. Ivory became associated 

with gold and silver as a luxurious commodity, 

used especially for decorating objects of 

value [1]. 

Figure 5. Spectra of Book 1, Book 2, and Book 3 compared to sample ivory (red) (Graph: Scott Williams). 

Covers and embellishments for all books 

have spectra similar to elephant ivory 

(red trace). 


27

JOSIE WORNOFF 

The spectra of the cover and cross are nearly 

identical to each other and to that of a reference 

sample of cellulose nitrate (red trace), but differ 

from ivory (grey trace) and tortoiseshell (pink 

trace). Cellulose nitrate was commonly used 

to simulate tortoiseshell. 

Figure 6. Spectra of Book 4 compared to cellulose nitrate (red) and ivory (grey) (Graph: Scott Williams). 

Along with its ability to outlast other common materials 

such as paper, cloth, and wood, ivory is 

also prized for its clean beauty, smoothness, and 

ability to show a bright gloss [1]. The ivory book 

covers feature these aesthetic qualities, but the 

relatively good condition indicates that they were 

likely on display as revered religious objects in 

accordance with historical fashionable use. 

Ivory Use in Book Covers 

The use of ivory in book covers has rarely been focused 

on in the past; however, it is occasionally 

mentioned in literature regarding general ivory 

use. The three books are each comprised of two 

pieces of thin ivory to serve as book covers, and 

on Book 2, a third piece for a spine. However, a 

more common practice throughout history was 

to repurpose two plaques or the two pieces of a 

diptych to enclose written material. 

An early use of ivory books is mentioned in the 275 

C.E. Roman history Scriptores Historiae Augustae 

[9]. Ivory panels were used to record names and 

deeds of emperors, which was a tradition that extended 

to the later Roman and Byzantine courts. 

This confirms the continued early use of ivory 

books on ceremonial occasions, and indicates 

that the book format was likely two tablets hinged 

together. 

In the Early Middle Ages, ivory continued to be 

highly revered and was used sparingly for important 

commissions, which included the covers of 

imperial manuscripts [10]. Many of the ivory objects 

made in the Late Roman and Early Medieval 

periods, including consular diptychs and ivory 

book covers, have survived above ground to the 

present day. This unique preservation is due to a 

combination of the material’s durability and the 

traditions sanctioned by church and state throughout 

history [10]. 

In addition to ceremonial recognition and imperial 

documentation, ivory was very commonly used to 

emphasize the importance of religious imagery 



and texts. The Carolingian period marked a revival 

of ivory carving [10], particularly in ecclesiastical 

furniture, reliquaries, and book covers [1]. Charlemagne 

sought to recreate the glory and culture of 

ancient civilizations by having scribes and artists 

copy classical texts and illustrations, including 

many books of lavish miniatures and gold and/or 

ivory covers [10]. After the Carolingian revival, 

ivory continued to be used for making fine book 

covers for treatises of special merit or religious 

manuscripts [1]. 

A less figurative and more decorative design became 

more common in the later years. This is more 

representative of the simple, elegant designs of 

the three deaccessioned books, as they are from 

the late 19 th century. Book 1 has four fleur-de-lis 

additions on the front and back, and an ink emblem 

on the center medallion. Book 2 has a simple 

yet beautiful oval medallion and surrounding engraving, 

while Book 3 includes an asymmetrical 

center addition. 

Ivory Use in Portrait Miniatures 

books, so miniaturists continued to illustrate books 

but also offered patrons independent miniatures 

[11]. In the 1520s, individual portraits in miniature 

size were first produced at French and English 

courts on a portable piece of parchment or 

vellum [11]. This transfer of art technique relied 

on an understanding of the close association between 

the materials and techniques of the illuminated 

book and the early miniature on parchment 

[12]. It is interesting to consider the implication 

on portrait miniatures had an early ivory book been 

present and considered for the same transfer of 

application. 

Instead, small scale portrait images were painted 

in a range of materials, styles, and techniques, 

from water-based paints on paper or card supports, 

to fired enamels on gold or copper supports, and 

oil paints on metal, stone, glass and tortoiseshell 

[12]. However, the most significant early methods 

of painting portraits were on parchment or vellum, 

called limnings, becoming known as portrait miniatures 

in the 18 th century when they began to be 

painted on ivory [12]. 

The use of ivory in books seems to have not experienced 

a specific period of use, but rather was in 

use periodically throughout history. In contrast, 

portrait miniatures were very popular during a 

400 year time period. Both ivory objects are intended 

to show a kind of devotion; these particular 

books to display religious beliefs, and the portrait 

miniatures to commemorate a loved one or 

important figure. The books were likely on display 

in a home when they were not in use as a Catholic 

missal to celebrate Mass throughout the year, however, 

the miniatures were often more personal than 

for display. 

Notably, early portrait miniatures were derived 

from illuminated manuscripts. From the 1460s, 

handwritten books had to compete with printed 

The first watercolour portraits on ivory tablets 

were attributed to the Venetian artist Rosalba 

Carriera [13]. These were initially used as bases 

or lids for boxes [13], much like the repurposing 

of diptychs and plaques for early ivory books. 

Carriera gathered fame throughout Europe for 

the beauty of the ivory visible through the transparent 

paint in flesh coloured areas [13]. By 1710, 

artists internationally faced pressure to conform 

to this new fashion despite the difficulty of painting 

watercolour on the unabsorbent ivory [13]. 

After the introduction of ivory as a support for portrait 

miniatures, parchment use began to decline 

until it stopped entirely [12]. The popularity of the 

portrait miniature was decreasing by 1839 with the 

introduction of the daguerreotype, a few decades 


29

JOSIE WORNOFF 

before these books were produced in Europe. However, 

it is likely that the materials and techniques 

from portrait miniatures remained readily available 

to adapt to the production of these ivory 

book covers. 

Ivory Processing 

Due to the lack of published information on ivory 

books, it is only possible to infer how the covers 

were formed. However, there are many resources 

on the general processing of ivory, as well as techniques 

used to make ivory leaves for miniatures. 

First the brownish outer bark-like layer is removed 

[1], followed by the seasoning, cutting, smoothing, 

and forming of ivory into a sheet. 

Ivory is hygroscopic, like wood [14]. Therefore, 

seasoning is required to allow for natural shrinkage; 

weight losses of up to 4% have been recorded 

[1]. Without controlled drying, ivory will likely 

crack or warp [15]. However, it is an otherwise 

ideal material to process due to its dense, virtually 

grainless and evenly textured nature [10]. 

Many tools and techniques have been used to cut 

ivory throughout history. Many cutting and carving 

tools were employed, including: saws, shears, 

rasps, files, drills, punches, chisels, picks, scrapers, 

and a variety of knives and similar cutting instruments. 

For flat sections, the broad surfaces were 

cut radially to show the edges of the ivory’s lamellae, 

or tangentially to create a finer looking ivory 

with less noticeable grain [15]. 

During the popularity of portrait miniatures, ivory 

sheets were available for purchase in pre-cut sheets 

called leaves [16]. These leaves were cut lengthwise 

from the elephant’s tusk [16]. The ivory book 

covers are each around 1 mm thick, slightly thicker 

than most portrait miniature leaves, yet quite 

similar (Figures 7 and 8). 

Figure 7. Verso of a portrait miniature revealing the longitudinal 

lamellae of ivory. 

Figure 8. Characteristic ivory longitudinal grain patterns in 

Book 1. 

Figures 6-8. Sampling in Coptic fragments codes from the 

National Archaeological Museum. From up to down: 15064; 

15065 and 1976/130/11. Photos by José Baztan. 



Ancient carvers managed to hand cut ivory into 

a thin veneer cylinder, which was cut into pieces 

and subsequently softened and mounted upon the 

curved faces and hands of sculptures [1]. Medieval 

book covers may have been made this way as there 

are some early surviving ivory book covers as large 

as 30 cm square [1]. 

The size of leaves was limited by the diameter of 

tusks, until technology developed for the production 

of larger sheets of ivory in the early 19 th century 

[16]. Ivory was spiral cut with a reciprocating 

saw into a scroll, steamed until soft, then subjected 

to hydraulic pressure to flatten to a desired size 

[16]. The resulting ivory had an increased flexibility, 

a finer polish, and less grain patterns [17], but the 

surface was often wavy and needed to be laid down 

on stiff card before painting could begin [16]. 

Miniaturists were traditionally concerned about 

the permanence and stability of their ivory leaves 

[16]. Veneer cut ivory proved undesirable as the 

ivory was prone to shattering into thin, parallel 

segments [16]. Therefore, miniaturists continued 

to cut leaves in the traditional manner, just as they 

continued to use the same materials and techniques 

since the 18 th century [16]. Since watercolour paint 

did not readily adhere to the ivory material, miniature 

leaves required the extra steps of degreasing, 

whitening, and scraping [18]. 

Risks for Deterioration of Ivory 

The most common instances of ivory deterioration 

are warping, cracking and complications arising 

from added materials. Ivory is a relatively stable 

material, but only in a constant environment [19]. 

It is an anisotropic material, and is therefore susceptive 

to warping and cracking on exposure to 

heat or moisture [3]. Thin artifacts such as miniatures 

and book covers are especially vulnerable, 

as even moisture and heat from hands may be 

damaging [3]. 

Warping 

The risk of warping is increased when the ivory is 

mounted on stiff backing cards, restricting natural 

Figure 9. Severe warp of a portrait miniature at LAC. 


31

JOSIE WORNOFF 

movement [12]. Ivory should be allowed to expand 

or contract with changes in temperature, which 

will be at a different rate than of the paper [1]. The 

front of the ivory sheet shrinks laterally, while the 

back is restrained by the glue and paper [20]. Warping 

often occurs parallel to the grain [20] in an 

even, concave curvature [21]. 

Many miniatures have a slight warp, but it is often 

considered acceptable if it is not too extreme [21] 

(Figure 9). The ivory covers on Book 2 are moderately 

warped, similar to portrait miniatures with 

restricting backing cards (Figure 10). A sign of 

unstable warping is irregular buckling caused by 

stresses between the ivory and an unevenly attaching 

backing [21]. This will eventually cause 

cracking and splitting [1]. 

Cracking 

Often there is insufficient room within the frame 

of a miniature to allow the ivory to react to atmospheric 

conditions, causing the ivory to warp and 

crack [22]. This is seen on Book 3, as the metal 

casing is restricting movement of the ivory book 

covers, worsening the warp into a more uneven, 

unstable buckling. The fabrication of these three 

books is inherently faulty, as the covers cannot 

stay adhered to the board as well as clasped for a 

long amount of time. Either the ivory piece lifts 

from the front cover and stays clasped, or the ivory 

stays attached but the clasp breaks off. This is 

evident on Book 1 and Book 2, respectively (Figure 

11). 

Added materials 

Ivory book covers are essentially a combination of 

materials, so there are often anticipated problems 

with added materials. Metals provide a great aesthetic 

contrast with ivory; however, the materials 

react differently to environmental conditions. Sudden 

changes in temperature expand metal more 

than the brittle ivory, putting an undue mechanical 

pressure on the area [4]. Galvanic currents 

are formed between materials with diverse elec- 

Figure 10. Moderate warp of Book 2. 



Figure 11. The completely detached ivory cover of Book 1. 

trical potential, which weakens the ivory creating 

cracks [4]. This often occurs at the point of contact 

between the ivory and the metal, as seen in 

Book 3 where cracks have occurred and Book 2 has 

even broken off into pieces at the areas in contact 

with the metal hinges (Figure 12). 

the ivory book covers is similar to that of portrait 

miniatures and more general ivory objects. Treatments 

for portrait miniatures may be adapted to 

ivory book covers, specifically focused on basic 

cleaning, minimizing warp, and repairing cracks 

and losses. 

Paint films suffer crazing, cracking and peeling 

due to improper preparation of the paint or the 

ivory support [12]. Watercolour paint is very susceptible 

to any moisture, including relative humidity, 

cleaning solutions, and general water staining 

[12]. None of the books have painting on them, 

though Book 1 has an intricate ink design on the 

center medallion. 

Figure 12. The broken edge on Book 2 due to stress of previous 

clasp. 

Conservation 

The unique problems associated with ivory require 

specialized conservation. Much of the damage on 


33

JOSIE WORNOFF 

Cleaning 

Basic cleaning of portrait miniatures should be 

done with a soft brush, cloth, or leather [21]. 

Water and mild soap cannot be applied on thin films 

of ivory as they are particularly susceptible to 

water damage [3] and may cause condensation, 

water damage, or mould [12]. The ivory is quite 

dirty on all three books, especially in recessed areas. 

Dry clean methods such as a stiff brush should be 

used to enter all depressions to remove surface 

dirt while leaving the natural patina. A dry, soft 

cloth may also be used to rub the exterior to extract 

the natural oils of the ivory. 

The preservation of original frames and cases are 

an important aspect of the conservation of miniature 

portraits. If a frame requires cleaning, a 

damp swab may be applied locally after removal 

of miniature, or it may be polished with a soft 

flannel cloth or Hagerty Jewelry Cloth [23]. The 

metal clasps on Book 1 and Book 3 and the frame 

on Book 3 may benefit from polishing with these 

techniques. 

Aged ivory develops a yellowish patina which is 

natural to the object and should not be removed 

[14]. However, removal of water stains and aged 

varnish may be desired for aesthetic purposes on 

portrait miniatures. Acetone may be used to dissolve 

aged adhesive or varnish, and a scalpel to 

mechanically remove the rest [23]. The appearance 

of water damage can be minimized by coloured 

pencils [23]. Book 3 appears to have a discoloured 

Figure 13. Adhesive staining overall on Book 3. 



varnish applied over the ivory, distracting from the 

natural beauty of the underlying ivory. Acetone 

swab could be used to remove varnish, however it 

is likely too risky to attempt removal of the varnish 

as the ivory is inset into the metal frames 

(Figure 13). 

Warping 

The removal of backings from portrait miniatures 

often reduces the pressure that is causing them 

to warp [24]. Miniatures are placed face down 

and a thin scalpel blade is used to peel away the 

backing, ensuring it is secure on a curved support. 

Adhesives may require softening with a damp blotter 

[23], less than 50% ethanol in water [20], or 

10% Laponite solution through a tissue [23]. In 

miniatures, the backing cards are an addition to 

facilitate painting of the ivory. In books, the backings 

are the book board, an integral part of the 

structure and intention of the object. Thus despite 

warping, it is not advisable to remove the 

ivory from the card, nor reline the ivory. 

The warping of ivory is a serious issue for portrait 

miniatures as it affects the delicate paint layer and 

may escalate until the ivory exceed the dimensions 

of its case [22]. Ivory pieces can be placed in a 

chamber conditioned with silica gel at 65-70% 

RH for 10 minutes up to 2-5 hours, then clamped 

between Plexiglas ® sheets [23]. This successfully 

relaxes ivory to a more flattened state. 

In addition, a Gore-Tex ® humidifying system has 

been adapted from paper conservation to flatten 

miniatures on ivory [24]. The miniature is placed 

concave side down, between layers of Gore-Tex ® , 

silicon paper, blotting paper, and plastic [25]. Gore- 

Tex ® allows a controlled amount of moisture to 

pass through the ivory, and if necessary, increased 

weighting will gradually flatten the ivory in 4-8 

hours [26]. 

Though the silica gel and Gore-Tex ® methods do 

reduce irregular distortions, it is often not possible 

or wise to attempt to completely flatten the 

miniature [24]. A safe alternative to attempting 

to force the ivory flat is simply to accept some 

distortion [24]. In fact, specialized sink mats can 

be made with 2-ply rag board [23] or Plastazone, 

which allow responses to changes in environment 

from the portrait miniatures [24]. 

Though there is a significant warp in the ivory of 

these books, flattening treatment is not recommended. 

There are too many mixed materials in 

the books to attempt flattening. Each of these 

materials would respond differently to the moisture 

introduced in flattening treatments. Furthermore, 

Book 1 and Book 2 exhibit natural curving 

which do not conform to the text block, nor should 

it be forced. Book 3 shows restrained buckling 

that is caused by various pressures exerted from 

the metal framing, adhesive and varnish. If these 

pieces were detached, they would benefit from a 

relaxing treatment from either silica gel chamber 

or a Gore-Tex® procedure. 

Cracking 

Ivory cracks and losses are the result of former 

stresses and distortions, meaning pieces may not 

align and will be difficult to successfully repair 

[19]. Thus, they should be treated in the early 

stages as soon as possible to avoid increased damage 

[24]. Unfortunately, very extreme warping 

and cracking of ivory is essentially irreversible [3]. 

Prior to treatment of ivory cracks, individual pieces 

must be flattened first [20], with the backing paper 

removed [24]. 

Experimentation to find the ideal adhesive for 

treating ivory resulted in nearly every material 

being used in the past [27]. Mowilith DMC2 is 

currently recommended based on CCI test results, 


35


from illuminated manuscripts, though declined 

in popularity by the time these books were made. 

Cutting and veneering techniques were much 

the same, as well as consequent risks of deterioration. 

Similarities in history of ivory use, ivory processing, 

and risks of deterioration led to a comparison of 

conservation techniques. Though the book covers 

are in poor condition, it is due to the inherent vice 

of the ivory book structure. Thus, conservation 

treatment may not yield lasting effects, so administering 

preventive conservation practices in order 

to prevent further damage would be a more 

appropriate approach. 

Through research on the history of ivory use in 

book covers, it is evident that there has been a 

long tradition which may have ended around the 

time of these three examples. They are thus in a 

stable enough condition to display the delicate 

and beautiful craftsmanship of ivory in the unique 

form of book covers. Furthermore, this comparison 

has revealed the impact that the growing knowledge 

of portrait miniatures in Canada is beginning 

to have on other areas of conservation. 

Acknowledgements 

The author would like to thank Library and Archives 

Canada as well as the following people for their 

invaluable assistance: Anne Maheux and Genevieve 

Samson at LAC for all their support; Scott Williams 

and Tom Stone at the Canadian Conservation Institute 

for examining and analyzing the ivory materials; 

Gayle McIntyre at Fleming College for her 

encouragement and feedback; Alan Derbyshire 

at the Victoria and Albert Museum for the use of 

his photographs; Maria Bedynski at LAC for sharing 

her expertise in portrait miniatures; and especially 

Lynn Curry at LAC for her inspiration and 

mentorship throughout this entire project. 

References 

[1] B. Burack, Ivory and its Uses, Charles E. Tuttle 

Company, Rutland, Vermont, USA, 1984 

[2] O. Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials: an 

Illustrated Guide, Institute of Classical Studies, 

London, 1990 

[3] I. M. Godfrey, “Ivory, Bone and Related Materials”, 

D. Gilroy and I. M. Godfrey (eds.) A Practical Guide 

to the Conservation and Care of Collections, Western 

Australian Museum, Perth, 1998, pp. 47-52 

[4] G. Matthaes, The Art Collector's Illustrated Handbook, 

Museo d'Arte e Scienza, Milan, 1997 

[5] J. Thornton, The Structure of Ivory and Ivory 

Substitutes, A.I.C. Preprints of Ninth Annual 

Meeting, Philadelphia, 1981, pp. 173-181 

[6] S. Williams, “The Diphenylamine Spot Test for Cellulose 

Nitrate in Museum Objects”, CCI Notes 17/2, 

Canadian Conservation Institute, Ottawa, 1994, 

URL (accessed October 2009) 

[7] S. Williams, CCI 120102: Near Infrared Spectroscopic 

Analysis of Ivory Book Covers, Canadian Conservation 

Institute, Ottawa, 2009, unpublished report 

[8] E. O. Espinoza, and M.-J. Mann, Identification Guide 

for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes, Washington D.C., 

World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation Foundation, 

1991, URL (accessed September 2009) 

[9] C.L. Connor, The Color of Ivory: Polychromy on 

Byzantine Ivories, Princeton University Press, 

New Jersey, 1997 

[10] R.H. Randall Jr., Masterpieces of Ivory from the 

Walters Art Gallery, Hudson Hills Press in association 

with the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, 1985 

[11] "Watercolour on Ivory", Victoria and Albert 

Museum, URL (accessed November 2009) 

[12] C. Aiken, “Literature that Addresses the Characterization 

and the Conservation of Portrait Miniatures”, 

Reviews in Conservation 1, 2000, pp. 3-9 

[13] J. Murrell, "Portrait Miniatures on Ivory: Problems 

of Technique and Style", Traitement des supports. 


37

JOSIE WORNOFF 

Travaux interdisciplinaires: journées sur la conservation, 

restauration des biens culturels, 1989, 

pp. 169-176 

[14] “Care of Ivory, Bone, Horn and Antler”, CCI Notes 

6/1, Canadian Conservation Institute, Ottawa, 

1988, URL (acessed September 2009) 

[15] C. Holtzapffel and J. C. Thompson, Working Horn, 

Ivory & Tortoiseshell, Portland, The Caber Press, 

2000 

[16] C. Aiken, "Ivory and the Art of Miniature Painting", 

Looking for Eulabee Dix: The Illustrated Biography 

of an American Miniaturist, National Museum of 

Women in the Arts, Washington, 1997, pp. 285-293 

[17] J.H. Pratt, “Improvement in Ivory Covered Books”, 

U.S. Patent No. 42,507 of April 26, 1864, United 

States Patent Office, New York, 1864 

[18] E. Cristoferi and C. Fiori, "Polishing Treatments 

on Ivory Materials in the National Museum Ravenna", 

Studies in Conservation 37, 1992, pp. 259 

[19] P.E. Guldbeck and A. B. MacLeish, Care of Antiques 

and Historical Collections, Rowman Altamira, 1996 

[20] K. Eirk, and W. Wiebold, Objects of Affection: The 

Conservation of Portrait Miniatures, National 

Museum of American Art, unpublished report 

[21] M.T. Simpson and M. Huntley (eds.), "Paintings: 

Miniatures", Sotheby’s Caring for Antiques: a guide 

to handling, cleaning, display and restoration, 

Markham, Canada Octopus Publishing Group Canada, 

1992, pp. 110-13 

[22] A. Derbyshire, “Restoration of miniatures on ivory. 

Sauvegarde et conservation des photographies, 

dessins, imprimés et manuscrits”, Actes des journées 

internationales d études de l’ARSAG, Paris, 30 sept. 

- 4 oct. 1991 (Paris, ARSAG, 1991) pp.147-151 

[23] C. Aiken and M. Bedynski, LAC Portrait Miniature 

Project Condition Reports, Ottawa, Library and 

Archives Canada, 2007, unpublished report 

[24] A. Derbyshire, N. Frayling and C. Rönnerstam, 

“Developments in the Field of Portrait Miniature 

Conservation”, Restauratorenblätter 21, 2000, 

pp. 53-59 

[25] M. Trojan-Bedynski and G. Gignac, “Portrait Miniatures: 

History, Materials, Techniques and Conservation”, 

30 th Canadian Association for Conservation 

Annual Conference, Quebec City, May 26-30, 

2004, Library and Archives Canada, 2004 

[26] A. Derbyshire, “The Use of Gore-tex in the Flattening 

of Miniatures on Ivory”, Paper Conservation 

News 63, 1992 

[27] C. Snow and T. Weisser, “The Examination and Treatment 

of Ivory and Related Materials”, Adhesives and 

Consolidants, The International Institute for Conservation 

of Historic and Artistic Works, London, 1984 

[28] F. Minney, "The Conservation and Reconstruction 

of a Late Bronze Age Ivory Inlaid Box from Palestine", 

The Conservator, vol. 15, 1991, pp. 3-7 

[29] Victoria and Albert Museum, “The Care of Ivory”, 

Technical Notes on the Care of Art Objects, no. 6, 

Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1971 

JOSIE WORNOFF 

Paper Conservator 

Contact: josie.wornoff@utoronto.ca 

Josie Wornoff is an emerging paper conservator 

from Keene, Ontario, Canada. She began her postsecondary 

education with an Honours Bachelor 

of Arts at University of Toronto, majoring in Art 

History and English. During this time she held 

many volunteer and paid positions at various cultural 

institutions across Ontario, and spent two 

summers abroad studying art history in Italy and 

Mexico. Josie then completed the Collections Conservation 

and Management program at Sir Sandford 

Fleming College. This concluded with a four 

month internship at Library and Archives Canada 

Preservation Centre, specializing in the conservation 

of books and art on paper. Josie recently 

completed a project conserving a large collection 

of fire damaged art and artifacts for a private conservation 

business in Florida. Currently, she is 

preserving books through digitization initiatives 

at Internet Archive Canada in Toronto. 


MICROBIAL STUDY OF EGYPTIAN MUMMIES 

An Assessment of Enzyme Activity, Fungicides 

and Some Mummification Materials 

for the Inhibition of Microbial Deterioration 

by Abdelrazek Elnaggar, Ahmed Sahab, 

Siham Ismail, Gamal Mahgoub and 

Mohammed Abdelhady 

Fungal and bacterial strains were isolated from some Egyptian mummies (from the Ismailia 

Museum, Ismailiaa, Egypt; the El-Dokki Agriculture Museum in Cairo, Egypt and human 

mummies in storage at the Ehnasia Museum in Beni-Sweif, Egypt). The biological samples 

were taken from indoor air of the mummy chamber as well as from the linen bandages and 

some deteriorated mummies from museum storage. Seven species of fungi were isolated and 

identified as Alternaria tenuis (9.5%), Aspergillus humicola (23.8%), Aspergillus niger 

(23.8%), Chaetomella horrida (9.5%), Chaetomium globosum (14.28%), Hormodendrum 

viride (14.28%) and Penicillium corylophilum (4.9%). It is obvious from the morphological 

properties and biochemical activity of the microorganisms that they were able to decompose 

proteins, cellulose, fats and starch, the fundamental contents of a mummy's body. The most 

prominent bacteria isolated were Halococcus morrhuae (30.76%), Streptococcus pyogenes 

(23.07%), Micrococcus Kristinae (15.38%), Micrococcus cinereus (15.38%) and Halobacterium 

pharaonis (13.38). 

Results show that A. niger, A. humicola, H. viride, and P. corylophilum were very sensitive 

to the mummification material of natron salt. The growth of P. corylophilum was completely 

inhibited at all concentrations of benlate and thymol while A. niger and H. viride were 

completely inhibited at all thymol concentrations and at 100 ppm of benlate fungicide. The 

growth of H. viride was completely inhibited at 5 % of cedar oil. 

The fungal isolates of A. niger, H. viride, and P. corylophilum were found to produce various 

amounts of extracellular enzymes (Avicelase, CMCase and cellobiase).These enzymes play an 

important role in deteriorating linen bandages as well as the mummy’s body.

ABDELRAZEK ELNAGGAR et al. 

Research Aims 

Figure 1. A human mummy at Ehnasia Museum, Beni-Sweif, 

Egypt. 

Figure 2. Isolation of biological samples from a mummy at 

Ehnasia Museum (Beni-Sweif, Egypt). 

The objectives of the present investigation are to 

study the fungal colonization and exoenzymatic 

activities of some deteriorated Egyptian mummies, 

and the effect of mummification materials on the 

fungal growth to determine the efficiency of these 

materials in the mummification process. Furthermore, 

another important aim is to study the effect 

of some fungicides in preservation of mummies 

from fungal attack. 

Introduction 

Biodeterioration is considered a great factor in the 

decomposition of the Egyptian mummies, because 

fungi and bacteria grow and feed with many of 

their constituent products, such as protein, fats, 

starch and cellulose, which represent a stable substrate 

to microbial growth. There are a number of 

abiotic and biotic factors such as pollution, light, 

humidity, temperature, microorganisms, insects, 

etc., that have deteriorating effects on museum 

materials [1]. Among these, biological agents 

such as actinomycetes, fungi, bacteria etc., may 

cause massive damage to museum objects [2]. 

Studies on indoor aeromycoflora have attracted 

the attention of several aerobiologists [2-5]. 

Martinez et al. [6] isolated a total of 469 fungal 

colonies from 12 mummies that presented deterioration 

attributed to colonizing fungi. Among 

the isolated fungi Penicillium, Cladosporium and 

Aspergillus were found. Most of these fungi have 

the ability to produce various enzymes (cellulases, 

amylases, proteases, keratinases, etc.). Cellulase 

enzymes degrade cellulose found in linen bandages 

to double sugars and endoglaconases enzymes 

cut the cellulose chain in a random fashion 

whereas, exogluconases enzymes successively 

remove single cellobiose or glucose units from 

the non-reducing end of the cellulose chain [7, 

8]. Many fungi are able to cause zoonotic superficial 

infections as a consequence of invading 

keratinize tissues of skin, hair, and nails [9, 10]. 

Materials and methods 

Samples 

Biological samples were taken from a linen-wrapped 

mummy, from the air of mummy chambers and 

from deteriorated Egyptian mummies preserved 

in museum storage as follows: human mummy 

no. 2520 and 2519 from the Ismailia Museum (Ismailiaa, 

Egypt); animal mummies No. 35 and 93 

from the El-Dokki Agriculture Museum (Cairo, Egypt) 

and human mummies in storage at Ehnasia Museum 

(Beni-Sweif, Egypt, see figures 1,2). Sampling of 



air spora surrounding the above mummies was 

done using the plate exposure method [11]. 

Isolation and identification of fungal strains 

Swaps from linen bandages wrapped mummies 

were transferred aseptically to potato dextrose 

agar plates [12] which were used for the cultivation 

of bacteria and moulds. The Petri dishes were 

incubated at 28 ± 2 °C for 7 days for fungi and 3 

days for bacterial counts. Fungal isolates were 

later microscopically analyzed and identified [13- 

15]. The scheme of Buchanan and Gibon [16] was 

employed in the identification of bacterial isolates. 

The frequency occurrence of each genus 

was expressed as the percentage of samples containing 

a given organism. 

Effect of some materials of mummification 

on fungal growth 

Each of the following mummification materials - 

natron, myrrh, juniperus, Cinnamomium camphora, 

Arabic gum, cassia, mastic resin, and beeswax - 

was separately examined for its effect on the visual 

growth of some selected fungi isolated from the 

mummies using PDA plates. 1 ml of spore suspension 

(approximately 106/ ml) of 7 days old culture 

was placed in a Petri dish and poured by PDA medium. 

After solidification 0.2 g of the mummification 

material was put in the centre of the dish 

plate (1 cm diameter) and was fumigated by UV 

light. Dishes were incubated at 28 ± 2°C for 7 days. 

The developed colonies of various fungal growths 

were visually determined using the following 

scale: + (10% growth), ++ (50% growth), +++ 

(75% growth) and ++++ (100 % growth). 

Effect of some fungicides on the linear growth 

of fungi 

Three kinds of fungicides recommended for use in 

archaeological field were tested in this experiment 

at different concentrations in order to ascertain 

their effect on the growth of fungi and their inhabitation 

effect. Table 1 shows the fungicides, 

their chemical name and composition, and the concentrations 

used based on the active ingredient. 

Table 1. Characteristics of the fungicides used. 

Fungicide Chemical name Chemical 

Thymol 

Benlate 

Cedar oil 

Thyme camphor 

Benomyl 

Cedar camphor 

composition 

Isopropylmetacresol 

(CH 3 ) 2 CHC 6 H 3 

(CH 3 ) OH 

Active ingredients 

(%) 

100 

Methyl-1- ( Bytyl 

carbamyl) - 2- 

benzimidazole 50 

carbamate 

C 15 H 18 N 4 O 3 

Cedrol 

C 15 H 26 O 100 

Concentrations 

0 

25 ppm 

50 ppm 

100 ppm 

200 ppm 

6.25 ppm 

12.5 ppm 

50 ppm 

100 ppm 

0 

0.5 % 

1 % 

2.5 % 

5 % 


41


rence as follows: Chaetomium globosum and Hormodendrum 

viride (14.28%) and Alternaria tenuis 

and Chaetomella horrida (9.5%). There are many 

reports dealing with the microbial levels, such as 

Abdel-Kareem et al. [21], Cook and Rayner [22], 

Darwish and Sahab [23]. 

Five bacterial species belonging to four genera 

were identified and classified as: Halococcus morrhuae 

(30.76%), Streptococcus pyogenes (23.07%), 

Micrococcus Kristinae, Micrococcus cinereus and 

Halobacterium pharaonis (15.38%). 

Effect of some mummification materials on 

visual fungal growth 

The data in Table 2 shows that the mummification 

materials have different ability to inhibit the mycelial 

growth of the tested fungal isolates. The 

five strains of A. niger, H. viride, P. corylophilum 

and A. humicola were very sensitive to natron salt 

and relatively sensitive to a Cinnnamomum camphora 

extract (figure 3). The natron salts had a 

large effect on the growth of the fungal isolates 

because it inhibited the fungal growth on a large 

area, as the NaCl present in natron salt is an historic 

preservation material. On the other hand, 

the same fungal isolates were less affected by 

myrrh and beeswax extracts and the mummification 

materials of Juniperus, Arabic gum and cassia 

extracts were found to have no effect on the tested 

fungal growth. 

Enzymatic activity 

Enzyme activity of cellulase production in fungal 

strains was measured with different substrates 

Figure 3. From left to right: Effect of myrrh on the growth of Aspergillus humicola, effect of cinnamomium camphora on the 

growth of Aspergillus humicola, and effect of cinnamomium camphora on the growth of Aspergillus niger. 

Table 2. Effect of some mummification materials on visual fungal growth of some fungal isolates after 15 days. 

Fungal species 

Aspergillus niger (strain no.) 

H. viride P. corylophilum A. humicola 

Strain no. 1 2 3 4 5 

Natron + + + ++ + + ++ + 

Myrrh +++ ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ 

Juniperus ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 

Cinnamomum camphora +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++++ ++ ++ 

Arabic gum ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 

Cassia ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 

Mistic resin ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ +++ ++++ ++++ 

Beeswax +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++ +++ 

control ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 

Legend: + (10% fungal growth), ++ (50% fungal growth), +++ (75% fungal growth), ++++ (100 % fungal growth). 


43


(cellulose, protein, fats, and starch) to know the 

ability of these fungi to produce these enzymes 

that react with the mummy’s skin and wrappings 

causing its decomposition. The results shown in 

Tables 3-5 reveal that all the tested fungi produced 

various amounts of extracellular enzymes (Avicelase, 

CMCase and cellobiase). The value of enzyme 

production depended on the fungal species and 

age of the culture. The ability of these fungi to 

decompose casein, cellulose, oil and starch has 

also been confirmed by other researchers. 

a) Avicelase enzyme 

The tested fungi showed feeble Avicelase activity 

ranging from 0.041 U/ml to 0.115 U/ml for A. niger, 

from 0.001 to 0.143 U/ml for H. viride and 

from 0.009 to 0.399 U/ml for P. corylophilum after 

5 and 20 days respectively (Table 3). The highest 

activity of Avicelase was recorded for cellulose 

following casein substrates. 

b) CMCase enzyme 

Table 4 showed that all the tested fungi produced 

different values of extracellular CMCase ranging 

from 0.103 to 0.643 U/ml for A. niger, from 0.013 

to 2.050 U/ml for H. viride and from 0.010 to 1.136 

U/ml for P. corylophilum. The highest activity of 

MCase was recorded for cellulose and casein substrates. 

Many authors [24, 25, 26, and 27] reported 

that all tested fungi had the ability to decompose 

cellulosic materials and produce cellulase 

enzymes. 

Table 3. Effect of some substrates on Avicelase activity of some fungal strains isolated from mummies and incubated for 5, 7 and 

20 days at 28± 2°C. 

Fungal strain A. niger H. viride P. corylophilum 

Incubation 

period/day 

5 7 20 5 7 20 5 7 20 

Casein 0.027 0.114 0.115 0.093 0.05 0.105 0.027 0.114 0.046 

Cellulose 0.021 nd 0.08 0.109 nd 0.143 0.1197 nd 0.399 

Oil 0.014 0.06 nd 0.0147 0.018 0.022 0.009 0.029 0.057 

Starch 0.021 0.024 0.032 0.001 0.007 0.014 0.0143 0.056 0.013 

Nd: not determined 

Table 4: Effect of some substrates on CMCase activity of some fungal strains isolated from mummyies and incubated for 5, 7 and 

20 days at 28± 2°C. 


Incubation 

period/day 

5 7 20 5 7 20 5 7 20 

Casein 0.311 0.321 0.643 0.643 0.571 0.06 0.122 0.322 0.099 


Oil 0.45 0.024 nd 0.09 0.013 0.013 0.01 0.028 nd 

Starch 0.103 0.123 0.139 0.043 0.43 0.69 0.013 0.095 0.114 




Table 5: Effect of some substrates on cellobiase activity of some fungal strains isolated from mummies and incubated for 5, 7 

and 20 days at 28± 2°C. 


Incubation 

period/day 

5 7 20 5 7 20 5 7 20 

Casein 4.69 5.556 5.69 0.279 0.393 3.703 0.228 0.831 5.74 


Oil 4.89 6.482 6.945 0.105 0.115 0.122 0.064 0.064 0.02 

Starch 7.861 5.556 5.463 0.125 0.209 0.293 1.389 2.778 4.877 


c) Cellobiase enzyme 

Table 5 shows that the highest cellobiase activity 

(7.861 U/ml) was obtained from the culture filtrate 

of A. niger after 5 days on starch substrate 

and the lower level (4.690 U/ml) on casein. In 

H. viride culture filtrate the highest value (3.703 

U/ml) was shown on cellulose substrate and the 

lowest level (0.105 U/ml) on oil substrate after 

5 days incubation period. High level of cellobiase 

activity (5.740 U/ml) was obtained in culture filtrate 

of P. corylophilum after 20 days on casein 

substrate and lower cellobiase (0.020 U/ml) was 

showed on oil after 20 days. The production of 

cellobiase from different fungi was reported by 

several authors [25, 28, 29, 30]. 

Effect of some fungicides on the linear growth 

of some fungi 

Table 6 shows the effect of some fungicides as 

agar amendment on the mycelial linear growth 

(A. niger, H. viride and P. corylophilum). Data indicate 

that the antifungal activity of benlate, thymol 

and cedar oil against fungal growth increased 

with the growth in fungicide concentration. The 

linear growth of P. corylophilum was completely 

inhibited at all concentrations of benlate and 

thymol while the growth of A. niger and H. viride 

was also completely inhibited at all concentrations 

of thymol and benlate at 100 ppm. The growth of 

H. viride was completely inhibited at 5% of cedar 

Table 6. Effect of some fungicides on the linear fungal growth of some fungi isolated from mummies. 

Fungi Benlate fungicide concentration (ppm) Mean 

0 6.25 12.5 50.0 100.0 

Aspergillus niger 

Hormodendrum viride 

Penicillium corylophilum 

100.0 70.0 33.3 22.2 0.0 

100.0 80.0 72.1 60.0 0.0 

100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Thymol concentration (ppm) 

0 25 50 100 200 

45.1 

62.4 

20.0 




100.0 75.5 63.6 42.6 0.0 56.3 

100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 

100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 


45


Fungi Cedar oil concentration (%) Mean 

0 0.5 1.0 2.5 5.0 




100.0 100.0 75.5 70.8 60.0 

100.0 100.0 80.2 20.0 0.0 

100.0 85.6 76.8 65.9 65.0 

81.3 

60.0 

78.7 

oil. These results are in total agreement with those 

reported by other researches on several fungi [31]. 

Cleaning procedures 

Removal of microbial stains and growths over the 

mummies has been carried out using scalpels and 

soft brushes accompanied with an extraction system, 

to reduce the spore's contamination in the 

working area (figure 4). Cleaning started from the 

middle to the edges to easily collect the fungal 

growths and dirt particles without the spread of 

the microbial contamination (figure 5). Isopropyl 

alcohol has been used to sterilize the cleaning 

equipment and the surrounding environments 

during and after cleaning (figures 6-7). White free 

acid papers have been place below the mummy 

to better collect the fungal conidia. Benlate fungicide 

(200 ppm) has been applied on the mummy's 

wrapping using a sprayer. After cleaning, mummies 

were covered by polyethylene to protect them 

from further contamination. For health and safety 

issues, the conservator must wear a mask, coat, 

goggles and gloves during cleaning to avoid inhalation 

of the microbial contaminants (figure 8). 

Figure 4. Mummy's head wrappings during cleaning. 

Figure 5. Mummy's wrappings after cleaning. 

Conclusion 

After isolation of the microbial species from Egyptian 

mummies, experimental studies confirmed 

the efficiency of some of mummification materials 

on the inhibition of fungal growth, indicating 

that mummification materials may also function 

as biocides. The study indicates the ability of the 

Figure 6. Sterilization of the surrounding air during cleaning. 



Figure 7. Collecting and removal of dirt particles and fungal 

growths from a mummy. 

Figure 8. The necessary tools for conservator' health and 

safety (masks, gloves, goggles). 

isolated fungal strains from the Egyptian mummies 

to produce various amounts of extracellular enzymes 

(Avicelase, CMCase and cellobiase) which 

may lead to the decomposition of the mummy 

materials. Benlate, thymol and cedar oil show an 

ability to inhibit fungal growth. The authors would 

like to recommend creating better preventive conservation 

procedures in order to preserve the mummies 

from future damage. 

References 

[1] A. E. David, “Conservation of mummified Egyptian 

Remains”, in A. R. David (ed.), in Science 

in Egyptology: proceedings of the Science in 

Egyptology Symposia, Manchester University 

Press, Manchester, 1986. 

[2] A. Arya, A. R. Shah, and S. Sadasivan, “Indoor 

aeromycoflora of Baroda museum and deterioration 

of Egyptian mummy”, Current Science 

81(7), 2001, URL 

[3] P.H. Gregory, Microbiology of the Atmosphere, 

Leonard Hill Books, Aylesbury, England, 1973, 

pp. 377 

[4] A. F. Sahab, F. Tawfic, S. Sahaba, and S. Mous- 

tafa, “Indoor fungal airospora and microorganisms 

communities associated with old manuscripts 

of GEBO of Egypt”, Journal of Agricultural 

Sciences 28(8), Mansoura University, 

2003, pp. 6055- 6063 

[5] K. Zielinska-Jankiewicz, A. Kozajda, M. Piotrowska, 

and I. Szadkowska-Stanczyk, “Microbiological 

contamination in moulds in work 

environment in libraries and archive storage 

facilities”, Annals of Agricultural and Environmental 

Medicine 15, 2008, pp. 71-78 

[6] R. López-Martínez, F. Hernández-Hernández, 

B.E. Millán-Chiu, P. Manzano-Gayosso, and L. 

J. Méndez-Tovar, “Effectiveness of imazalil to 

control the effect of fungal deterioration on 

mummies at the Mexico City Museum ‘El Carmen’” 

(article in Spanish), Revista Iberoamericana 

de Micología 24, 2007, pp. 283-288 

[7] R. A. Zabel, and J. J. Morrell, Wood microbiology: 

decay and its prevention, Academic 

Press, San Diego, 1992 

[8] T. Reinikainen, K. Henriksson, M. Siika-aho, 

O. Teleman and K. Poutanen, “Low-level endoglucanase 

contamination in a Trichoderma 


47


[25] K.H. Domsch, W. Gams, and T.H. Anderson 

(eds), Compendium of Soil Fungi, Vol. 1, IHW- 

Verlag, Eching, Germany, 1993 

ABDELRAZEK ELNAGGAR 

Conservation-educator 

Contact: aaa02@fayoum.edu.eg 

[26] S. A. Ismail, Biochemical studies on Microbial 

β-Galactosidases, PhD Thesis, Chemistry 

Deptartment, Faculty of Science, Cairo University 

(Egypt), 1994 

[27] S.A. Ismail, A. F. Sahab, and S.S. Darwish, 

“Effect of some cultural conditions, pesticides 

and consolidators on growth and enzme activity 

of Trichoderma viride”, Modelling, Measurement 

and Control – C: Chemistry, Geology, Environment 

and Bioengineering 66 (5-6), 2005 

[28] C. Marinescu, and V. I. Popa, "On the biosynthesis 

and characterization of cellulosic enzymes. 

II. Cellulase production enhancement 

in different biosynthesis conditions”, Cellulose 

Chemistry and Technology 34, 2000, pp. 35-49 

[29] M. Rocha, N. Cordeiro, A.C.F. Cunha Queda, 

and R. Capela, “Microbiological and chemical 

characterization during composting of cattle 

manure and forestry wastes – a case study 

in Madeira Island”, in F. C. Jr. Michel, R. F. 

Rynk, and H. A. J. Hoitink (eds.), Proceedings 

of the 2002 International Symposium “Com 

posting and Compost Utilization”, The JG Press 

Inc., Emmaus, pp. 156-170 

[30] S. Y. Sahaba, Physiological studies on microorganisms 

isolated from deteriorated from old 

manscripts, Master Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, 

Ain Shams University (Egypt), 1988 

[31] A. H. A. Ellil, and E. F. Sharaf, “Growth, Morphological 

Alterations and Adaptation of 

Some Plant Pathogenic Fungi to Benlate and 

Zineb. A New Look”, Journal of Biological Sciences 

3(3), 2003, pp. 271-281 

Abdelrazek Elnaggar is a conservator of organic 

objects, currently Assistant Lecturer at the Conservation 

Department of the Faculty of Archaeology 

at Fayoum University, Egypt. He got a Bachelor’s 

degree (2000) in Conservation and Restoration 

of Monuments and Works of Art from the Cairo 

University and a Master’s degree (2006) in Conservation 

of Egyptian mummies from Cairo University. 

He had a scholarship (2007/2008) in laser cleaning 

of ancient Egyptian Leather at IESL-FORTH in Greece 

and received a postgraduate diploma in comparative 

studied on cleaning techniques in relation to 

Laser cleaning conservation (2008/2009 UK). 

He has an ongoing PhD thesis focusing on the 

laser applications to conservation of Egyptian 

monuments, including collaborative projects in 

UK with Liverpool University, Natural History 

Museum, Petrie museum, Imperial College, and 

UCL, in Italy with Politecnico di Milano, and the 

Supreme Council of Antiquities (Egypt). 

AHMED SAHAB 

Department of Plant Path., National Research 

Centre, Dokki, Cairo 

SIHAM ISMAIL 

Department of Chemistry of Natural Microbial 

Products, National Research Centre, Dokki 

GAMAL MAHGOUB 

Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, 

Fayoum University, Alfayoum, Egypt 

MOHAMMED ABDELHADY 

Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, 

Cairo University, Giza, Egypt 


49

case study 

STUDY OF THE PAINTING VIRGIN MARY 

AND CHILD WITH THE INFANT 

ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST 

The Hidden Flora of Leonardo da Vinci’s 

Painting Workshop 

By Miklós Szentkirályi 

Article translated by Barbara and Stevin John Davidson and 

originally published in the Proceedings of the 8 th International 

Seminar on Restoration, that took place in September 24-26, 

2008 in Handlová, The Slovak Republic, organized by the 

Chamber of Restorers.

THE HIDDEN FLORA OF LEONARDO DA VINCI’S PAINTING WORKSHOP 

Restoration of any damaged artwork should remind us of a flower garden grown with plenty of love. 

In both cases it is crucial to consider what has already blossomed and 'what has still to live'. 

This idea guided me through the process of restoration of this unusually damaged panel painting. 

Virgin Mary and Child with the Infant St. John the Baptist. Painting before conservation-restoration. 


MIKLÓS SZENTKIRÁLYI 

The painting in study, representing the Virgin Mary 

with Child Jesus and young St. John the Baptist 

from the collection of Szépművészeti Museum in 

Budapest, was never exhibited due to its advanced 

deterioration state and only a few people have 

undertaken its study. The support, made of a thin 

poplar panel, had caused countless vertical cracks 

to appear on the surface that interfered with the 

integrity of the painting’s composition. The painting 

was covered with several layers of darkened 

varnish resulting in the alteration of the colour 

scheme that was only partially perceivable and 

the image could hardly be recognised. On a few 

areas the polychromy detached and the colour 

layer was flaking. Extensive over paintings were 

the characteristic sign of the advanced stage of 

damage of the painting’s surface. Large lacunas 

in the area of the sky, grazes and detachments 

on the face and neck of Virgin Mary and loss of 

colour on her cloths were critical. These damages 

were symptoms of a work of art which was not 

cared for and left to decay. 

Aspect of the painting after cleaning. 

The poor state of conservation of Mary's portrait. 

Aspect after conservation-restoration treatment. 



After the preliminary tests, the outstanding painting 

technique of this artwork became visible, with 

its rich colour scheme and true depiction of the 

background landscape. But unexpected mistakes 

and insufficiencies were also revealed. 

Above: Network of fine cracks on the surface of Child’s 

portrait (left). Aspect after retouching (right). 

Below: Detail of the rich background of the painting. 

Based on the research done by the conservatorrestorers 

a proposal for the treatment of the painting 

was developed which was accepted by the 

consultants. 

The extent of the cleaning and the complete uncovering 

of the original allowed a better understanding 

of the spiritual strength of Leonardo da 

Vinci (1452-1519) workshop’s creation. Observing 

this rediscovered artwork brings to mind a resemblance 

hard not to notice with both variations of 

the Madonna of the rocks, which can be found in 

the National Gallery, London and in the Louvre 

Museum, Paris, with their beautiful colour harmonies, 

mysterious play of lights and shades, rocks 

and flowers. 

The composition of the painting is closed with a 

half circle area in the upper part. The landscape 

contains a monolith rock towering into the sky, 

a beech forest, a grove and a water pothole. Virgin 

Mary is kneeling, raising her hands in a protective 

way over her Child and the young St. John the 

Baptist, who are carelessly playing in the foreground 

decorated with rich flora and vegetation. 



In background, behind the rock, there is a river 

valley with a city disappearing in a bluish mist. 

Over the city there is a scaffold with gallows. Further 

in the back, bluish towers and hills, outlined 

according to the principles of air perspective, lose 

themselves and blend with the clear blue sky. 

After the Madonna by Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio 

(1467-1516), the painting at the Museum of Fine 

Arts in Budapest is the closest to Leonardo’s creation. 

After analysing it in individual details, it 

became clear that it can not be the work of the 

great master, although it is likely that he saw the 

painting during its creation and perhaps even corrected 

it, since the basic idea of the composition 

belongs to him. In fact, a drawing from Leonardo’s 

sketchbook served as template for the creation 

of Mary’s figure [1], which could only be seen by 

an artist from Leonardo’s closest circle. Who this 

artist was is subject to future research, once the 

painting’s known history requires more answers. 

Above right: Detail of the rich background of the painting. 

Below: Detail of Child Jesus and the young St. John the 

Baptist playing in the rich decorated foreground. 



The only known fact is that count János Pálffy 

bought it in London in 1862. It was probably then 

when the panel was parqueted. In 1912 the count 

offered it as a gift to the Szépművészeti Museum. 

Drawings from Leonardo's sketchbook served as a template 

for the creation of Mary’s figure. 

For a long time, the painting was considered to 

be the work of Leonardo’s pupil Gian Giacomo 

Caprotti da Oreno, known as Salai (1480-1524), 

although there is no evidence for this assumption. 

Bernhard Berenson, who was the first recognised 

researcher of Italian fine art from the 

14 th to 16 th century, considered (twice, in 1932 

and 1936) the painting to be the creation of one 

of Leonardo’s pupils whose work was also influenced 

by the Flemish art. 

Despite the fact that the painting was examined 

by specialists, we are still only uncovering analogies 

and stylistic analyses. The clarification of the 

authorship will certainly be an important aspect in 

the study of the artwork and of the conservationrestoration 

documentation done by the present 

author and his colleagues: conservator-restorer 

Ágnes Dicső, who has participated to the conservation 

treatment and conservator-restorer Èva 

Galambos, who has performed the samples analysis 

of the painting. 

A number of people were also involved in the stylistic 

analysis of the painting and in the identification 

of the drawings and paintings from Leonardo’s 

workshop. Nadia Righi [2] has proved 

that the figure of Mary copies the shapes of the 

drawing found on the bottom of a page from Leonardo’s 

sketchbook [1]. On the same page, as 

an independent drawing, is also pictured Child 

Jesus. This figure is similar with that of the Jesus 

from the painting, except his mirrored position. 

Another similitude as a mirrored projection seams 

to be Mary’s profile to a Madonna (The Madonna 

Litta) from the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. 

Furthermore, on the drawing template [3] 

of that painting an earlobe is recognizable behind 

the curls of her hair, which is similar to the one of 

our painting. It is also very likely that the concept 

of the composition of the young St. John the 

Baptist, looking from behind Mary’s right side, 



is derived from one of Leonardo’s templates, as 

well as the plants pictured in the front. 

Before cleaning, a stratigraphic analysis was performed 

in order to study the paint layer structure. 

Mary’s face and hair were well preserved and due 

to their similarity to those of the sketch we immediately 

observed the under drawing, made with 

brown colour. The preparatory under drawing 

can only be found under the composition of the 

figures, and not under the background landscape. 

After the removal of the thick darkened varnish 

layer and of the over painting, all the degradations, 

grazes and lacunas became obvious. The 

damages and the missing parts were repaired at 

least three times in the past, especially at the 

level of the figures. The details of the landscape 

were almost completely well preserved. 

The retouching of the lacunas was performed gradually 

and only in the necessary amount, except for 

Mary’s neck which required a more complex reconstruction 

due to the fact that the colour layer 

was only preserved in fragmentary traces but 

still allowing the aesthetical revitalisation of 

the painting. The fine craquelure network and 

the slightly scuffed areas were interpreted and 

accepted as signs of aging with time and therefore 

were preserved as much as possible. Only 

after restoration the unique aesthetical qualities 

of the preserved parts of the original painting 

could be fully appreciated and the differences between 

the painting technique of the background 

landscape and of the figures could be evaluated. 

In reality, our eye is attracted more to the richness 

of the landscape details. The view of the northern 

Italian city in clear blue colours, with the houses 

blending in a bluish mist, the uniform conception 

of the water surfaces and of the rocks in the background 

prove the demanding approach of the 

Above: Erythronium dens-canis (en., 'dog's tooth violet', it., 

'dente di cane') in the painting (left) and the biology 

drawing of the flower (right). 



Dianthus carthusianorum. 

Pinguicula vulgaris, carnivorous plant. 

Aquilegia vulgaris L. 

painter. Our attention is also drawn to smaller details 

such as the stones that can be counted individually 

in the undermined bank. A few decades 

earlier, the Italian masters could only have admired 

these motifs in the paintings of their Flemish contemporaries. 

The depiction of the plants in the foreground proves 

the knowledge of botany of the renaissance artists. 

The colours of the flowers petals are not only a 

simple decoration, on the contrary, similarly to 

the flowers found in Leonardo’s artworks, they 

can be ordered into existing families. We can recognise 

Dianthus carthusianorum, favored flower 

of monastery gardens with its lance-shaped leaves, 

with two stamens between its bright two petals. 

Pictured in a more humble way is the Erythronium 

dens-canis next to it. In Italian, dente di cane 

is a protected plant named according to its bulb, 

similar to a dog’s tooth with smaller side bulbs 

placed deep into the ground, which in spring time 

is an embellishment of the hornbeam forests. To 

the right there is a Pinguicula vulgaris, a carnivorous 

plant found in marshlands and peat bogs. 

On the left side of the painting is wonderfully 

painted Aquilegia vulgaris L. whose composition 

is almost identical to the same flower from Leonardo’s 

painting Leda. 



Virgin Mary and Child with the Infant St. John the Baptist. Painting after restoration. 



Several similarities remind of the spirit of Leonardo’s 

workshop’s creation, strongly spiced up 

by a northern Italian master. This fact became clear 

during the three years of restoration. The difference 

between the figures and the background 

composition is a strong sign of different creative 

approaches. While the painter’s grasp of the figures 

is generous, the painting technique being 

related to Leonardo’s understanding, the background 

landscape is carefully composed and a rich 

vegetation is portrayed. The exhaustive knowledge 

of the perspective rules, botany and the 

naturalistic depiction of the landscape are signs 

of a master who had acquired the practical experience 

of painters from northern countries before 

having contact with Leonardo’s workshop. 

The panel painting, restored thanks to the Adam 

Clark’s Foundation, was first introduced together 

with the restoration documentation at a temporary 

exhibition in 2007. Since 2008 it is exhibited 

in a room together with Raphael's "Esterhazy 

Madonna", as part of the permanent collection 

of Italian renaissance. 

Detail of Mary's portrait and the landscape after restoration. 


Conservator-restorer 

Contact: miklos.szentkiralyi@szepmuveszeti.hu 

References 

[1] Leonardo da Vinci, “Studies for the Nativity 

(recto); Three Geometrical Diagrams and a 

Caricature of a Head (verso), 1480–85”, The 

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 

1917 (17.142.1), available at URL 

[2] Nadia Righi, “Opere d'arte lombarda nei 

musei italiani e stranieri: Szépmüveszéti 

Múzeum, Budapest; la collezione Pálffy”, 

Arte Lombarda, N.S. 117, 2, 1996, pp. 123- 

124 

[3] Codex Vallardi, accession number 2376, 

Louvre Museum 

Miklós Szentkirályi is a conservator-restorer of 

paintings and Head of the Department of Restoration 

at the Szépművészeti Múzeum (Museum of 

Fine Arts), Budapest. He initiated his training in 

1968-1973 in Painting studies at the Academy 

of Fine Arts “Ion Andreescu” in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 

at the Master class of prof. Gábor Miklóssy, 

painter artist, and in 1974-1977 he performed an 

M.A. in Conservation Arts, specializing in paintings, 

at the Department of Conservation Training 

at the Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts, Budapest, 

in the master class of professor Dezső Varga. In 

2006 he obtained Dr. Habil. (D.Sc. Equivalent) 

from the Hungarian Art University. He is also a 

member of the Hungarian Art Academy since 

2010. 


59

"THE ANNUNCIATION" 

BY COLA PETRUCCIOLI (1380) 

The Restoration of the Transferred Wall 

Painting 

by Ildikó Jeszeniczky 

Restoration done by Ildikó Jeszeniczky and Kornélia Forrai 

Article translated by Barbara and Stevin John Davidson and originally published 

in the Proceedings of the 8 th International Seminar on Restoration, that took 

place in September 24-26, 2008 in Handlová, The Slovak Republic, organized 

by the Chamber of Restorers.

"THE ANNUNCIATION" BY COLA PETRUCCIOLI 

Introduction 

In the 90ies of the 19 th century, Károly Pulszky, 

the then director of the State Gallery in Budapest, 

enriched the collection of the Gallery with many 

art objects, panel paintings and frescoes, which 

he bought during his travels in Italy from palaces 

and churches condemned for demolition or assigned 

for reconstruction. 

Artworks got into his hands mainly through antiquity 

dealers, so not always he managed to find 

out their origin. Sometimes, such as in the case of 

the Annunciation wall painting, he discovered them 

in situ and ordered their removal directly from the 

original building and their following restoration. 

In September 1894, through the antiquarian 

Marian Rocchi, he purchased the Annunciation 

fresco, located on a side wall, together with the 

frescoes of allegoric women’s figures originally 

painted on the ceiling of the first floor of Palazzo 

Isidori in Perugia. 

The wall painting transferred onto canvas is now 

in Budapest, kept as an important example of 

the late Gothic Umbrian painting. According to 

the catalogue of the Szépművészeti Museum, the 

artwork was created around the year 1380 by the 

artist Cola Petruccioli for the wall of the first floor 

of the palace, originally used as a chapel. 

The scene is depicted in a Gothic interior, on the 

left side a kneeling angel brings the message to 

Mary, who is represented on the right side of the 

painting sitting in front of a lecture dais. In the 

missing part it was probably painted the dove of 

the Holy Ghost. The painting was executed in fresco 

technique and is decorated around the edges with 

repeated motifs. The plaster haloes were covered 

with a coloured metal leaf which could be used 

as an imitation of gold. 

Palazzo Isidori, Perugia. 

In the past decade art historians succeed to locate 

the Palazzo Isidori in Perugia, where the restoration 

of the remaining frescoes from the series of 

wall paintings is now undergoing. 

About the sale and transfer of the wall paintings a 

few written documents were preserved, the oldest 

from the year 1871 in which the owner Francesco 

Bassardini reports in a letter to the mayor 

that he intends to remove some of the frescoes 

from the first floor of the palace and sell them to 

the city. As the mayor did not respond to Bassardini’s 

letter the inheritors repeated the offer a 

few years later. In May 1889, the government of 

the city Perugia named a delegation with three 

specialist members to judge the state and importance 

of the frescoes. The report of the specialists 

and the request of the owners was not enough to 

persuade the mayor to buy the frescoes. Five years 

later, Károly Pulszky appreciated their artistic 

value, ordered their detachment and paid their 

purchase price. 


61

BY ILDIKÓ JESZENICZKY 

Conservation-restoration 

In the summer of 2005, together with the colleague 

Kornélia Forray, the present author was entrusted 

the restoration of this wall painting by the museum. 

The restoration works were preceded by a 

series of detailed analysis and investigations. The 

research comprised the identification and gathering 

of all possible documents, art historical researches 

and archival photographs, and the collection 

of the restoration documentation of the 

frescoes from this cycle, such as procedures reports 

and specialised articles. In the summer of 

2005 we travelled to Perugia to study in situ the 

fragments of frescoes from Palazzo Isidori belonging 

to the same cycle of wall paintings as The Annunciation, 

which were uncovered in 1994. 

We were guided through the palace by Ms. Paola 

Passalaqua, responsible of the frescoes conservation. 

The palace is owned by the University of 

Perugia and at the time of our visit it was under 

renovation. The research performed on site was 

helpful in drawing up the restoration proposal 

and also influenced the proceeding of the individual 

stages of restoration itself. An important 

aspect was the surveying of the uneven surface 

of the preserved wall paintings fragments. We 

could see that the surface is not smooth, but also 

not as wavy as of the Annunciation, and that they 

have quite different characters. We came to the 

conclusion that the surface of the in situ fresco 

fragments is wavy due to the influence of the 

masonry and the plastering method, while the 

waving of the transferred painting was created 

unambiguously by the creasing of the canvas. 

Ms. Paola Passalaqua explained the difficulties 

met during the reattachment and conservation 

of the wall paintings, such as the detachment of 

individual layers that lost adherence amongst 

themselves and to the wall, and the weakened 

The Annunciation, photography in grazing light. 



binding of the plaster. These problems were similar 

to those experiences by us with the thin intonaco 

that was removed together with the paint layer, 

which was also very brittle. 

During our visit, we also surveyed the net system 

used for attachment of the plaster on the 

ceiling and the ways of making and laying the 

beams. 

Based on the stylistic and technical analysis of 

the Annunciation fresco we concluded that it was 

undoubtedly created in the same period as the 

preserved fragments, with which it is related in a 

number of morphological details such as, for example, 

the decorative frame with a bordure motif. 

If we compare the fragments preserved in situ and 

the allegoric female figures from the ceiling with 

the depiction of the Annunciation, it is obvious 

that the latter can be considered the most important 

piece of the series because of its location within 

the fresco ensemble. Written documents mention 

that by entering the Palazzo, the visitor first 

laid eyes on this centrally positioned painting. 

The painting was probably seriously damaged by 

the transfer. The choice of the finely woven canvas 

onto which the fresco was transferred was not the 

best one due to the bad properties of the canvas. 

It was probably due to this reason that the painting 

of the allegoric female figures from the ceiling 

was embedded in plaster on copper net after 

having been transferred. The size of the painting 

today is 162 x 238 cm. It was glued onto a roughly 

woven sackcloth and it was stretched onto a frame 

reinforced on the middle, with the possibility of 

additional stretching by the insertion of corner 

wedges. The stretcher was damaged in several 

places. The back side was coated with a thick layer 

Right: Details of Mary's hair and angel's portrait. 


63


UV luminescence of the Annunciation. 

of lithopone mixed with bone glue. This was done 

most likely to stabilise the fabric. 

The stretcher was crimped and hardened on its 

entire surface, with many depressions and uneven 

areas. The layer of the plaster was strongly 

fissured and the material compactness was weak. 

On big areas (e.g. on Mary’s cloths, on the area 

of a stain as big as a few palms, between two figures 

about a half square meter, along the cracks, 

etc.) the original plaster and the colour layer were 

completely missing. A prolonged joint is visible 

in the middle of the painting, on the side of the 

angel, proving that the fresco was removed in two 

parts and was connected again after detachment. 

In this area, the tones of the retouches applied 

during various interventions altered with time 

and the entire surface was dirty. 

IR reflectography of the portraits. 

The documentation comprising non-destructive 

analysis of the painting (by grazing light, UV luminescence 

and IR photography) and the results 



of the laboratory analysis were the basis for defining 

the intervention methodology, the choice 

of materials used and technologies. 

The UV luminescence showed the existence of 

various restoration interventions, the presence 

of dirt and the extent of degradation of the conservation 

materials which were visible in different 

colour tones. According to historical documents, 

traces of 4 to 5 interventions could be identified. 

IR reflectography of some details of the Annunciation. 

IR photography revealed the underdrawing and 

the various pigments that appeared in different 

characteristic colours and depths. The cross-sections 

of pigment and powder samples gave information 

about the visible layers of colours and plaster, 

the particle size of the pigments and their 

optical properties. 

It was assessed that the wall painting was detached 

with the plaster and that the original pigments 

were: 

- Cinnabar, found on Mary’s clothes. This natural, 

mineral pigment was, according to Andrea Pozzo, 

“a very popular colour, but unstable with lime. If 

the painting is under a roof, it is likely to be used, 

but it has to be adjusted for wall painting in this 

way: put the pigment dust into a ceramic container 

and pour over water which you use for slaking of 

the lime; strain it off and again add lime water 

and repeat this a few times. In this way the cinnabar 

connects with the properties of the lime 

and will never lose them”. 

- Natural lapis lazuli, found on Mary’s cloak and 

on the ribbon of the angel’s clothes. This pigment 

was spread in Europe mainly in medieval times, 

although it can sporadically be found also in 

baroque paintings. The use of this pigment suggests 

a rich sponsor as it was used only in small 

amounts and only in quality artworks. 

- Ferric red, on the angel’s cloak. This natural earthy 

pigment, ferric oxide, is named according to the 

locality where it is found. The colour changes according 

to the content of hydrides and anhydrides. 

Pozzo describes it as “red ochre (Terra rossa), like 

other earthy colours, is great for fresco. It is used 

for flesh, drapery and also for others”. 


65


- Natural sienna, used for Mary’s hair. It is a special 

ochre, which is named after a well-known Tuscany 

city. By microscopic and chemical analysis 

it is ordered into the same group of pigments as 

ferric oxide. By Pozzo, “it is used for shading of 

yellow draperies.” 

- Yellow ochre, found on Mary’s lecture dais. It is 

a hydrate of ferric oxide with various composition. 

Pozzo defines it as “light yellow ochre is the pigment 

with light yellow and dark yellow colour, 

which is found in the surroundings of Rome”. 

The presence of ochre was also confirmed with UV 

due to its typical colour luminescence . Analysis 

of its additives (soil, silicates, etc.) explains the 

creation of the blisters and the detachment of the 

layer of ochre. 

- Green earth, used at the background behind 

the reading dais. A typical earthy pigment, it is 

mentioned by Pozzo as “in fresco painting the 

only green colour for painting draperies is from 

Verona, because all other artificially made colours 

do not tolerate lime”. We suppose that it 

was also used for obtaining the flesh tones. 

Detail of the back of the painting in grazing light. 

- White. Highlights were obviously made with 

lime, calcium carbonate. Different variations are 

known: chalk, lime, shell, egg shell, corals, etc. 

Consolidation with Plextol B500 of Mary's plaster halo. 

- Carbon black, pigment found in the layers of 

under painting and mixed in some colours, as 

wooden coal. 

After securing and injecting the detached layers 

of the plaster and colour, it was proceeded to the 

removal of the painting from the old stretcher 

frame. The detached creases of the canvas were 

impregnated with BEVA 371 which was also used 

to reinforce and stabilize the edges, by ironing 

strips of linen canvas onto the original canvas 

support. 

Thus, the painting was stretched onto a new, temporary 

support made-to-measure so that in its 

stretched state we could eliminate the characteristics 

that were improper to a fresco painting, 

mainly the unevenness of the surface, without 

the possible creasing of the canvas. While on horizontal 

position the painting was steamed and 

softened after a gradual stretching using the 

corner wedges, and it was weighted down with 

marble plates. This process was repeated a few 

times within one month. 



Flattening of the canvas around the edges and of the surface by the application of heavy weights. 

The painting was altered by various conservation 

materials from the numerous interventions and 

retouched a few times. Cleaning was only possible 

by the application of poultices with ammonium 

carbonate and ammonium hydroxide. Selecton B 

mixed with diatomic soil 1 was applied onto the 

painting surface on 2 – 3 dm 2 and after a certain 

time the dirt was washed off with water. After 

cleaning it was possible to assess the real state 

of degradation and the extent of damages in proportion 

with the original parts, but also the richness 

and the fine harmony characteristic for the 

colour scheme of this painting. 

Cleaning was proceeded by the consolidation of 

the powdering plaster and the correction of the 

deformed halos, which were pressed back into 

shape in wet state. The canvas detached from 

the plaster was consolidated from the back and 

secured on its position with Plextol B500 adhesive. 

The missing parts of the plaster were filled and 

the whole was reinforced with thin woven textile 

made of artificial threads. 

A project was developed for a new stretcher with 

reinforcement on the back and the possibility of 

stretching by inserting additional wedges. The 

Cleaning of the painting by the application of poultices with Selecton B and diatomic soil (left) and aspect after cleaning (right). 


67


Above: Cleaning of the painting by the application of poultices with solvent. 

Below: Consolidation and backing of the edges with Beva 371 and stripes of new canvas. Integration of the missing areas was 

done by filling with mortar similar in grain and texture with the original. 



stretching of the painting was performed by applying 

strips of canvas with adhesive on the edges 

in order to strengthen them, edges that were 

then folded back and ironed onto the original 

canvas. The painting was then mounted onto the 

stretcher by hammering metal grommets and 

screws in doubled layer of canvas of the edges. 

The aesthetical treatment started by filling the 

lacunas of the plaster in all those places where its 

stability required it. The mortar used was made of: 

1 part of quartzite powder, 1 part of calcite powder, 

1 part of kaolin, 3 parts of dolomite 2 , rabbit glue 

7% and a little Plextol B500. 

Aspect of the painting after transfer onto the new stretcher 

and cleaning of the surface. 

Where possible, the missing parts were retouched for aesthetical purposes. From left to right: before conservation, after filling 

the lacuna and during retouching, and final aspect after reintegration by tratteggio. 


69


Detail after conservation-restoration. Angel (above) and 

portrait of Virgin Mary (below right). 

The aesthetical approach was based on consulting 

with specialists and on the experience accumulated 

during one year treatment of the painting. We got 

to the conclusion that due to the unsatisfactory 

amount of information on the morphology of the 

original painting, the largest lacunas will not be 

reconstructed, these areas being better integrated 

into their surrounding by filling with neutral plaster. 

Smaller lacunas which could be surely retouched 

according to their surrounding context, were reconstructed 

for the sake of the aesthetical integrity. 

The architecture and interior furnishing surrounding 

the figures were represented without 

perspective, according to the style of the époque; 

after sketching the system of the composition, 

some of its parts could be reconstructed. 

The grazed parts were retouched only in those 

cases when their image was disturbing the reading 

of the painting. 

Besides the preservation of the original material 

quality, our main goal was to re-establish of the 

author’s original intent, returning the internal 

balance of the painting’s aesthetical value that 

mediates the metaphysical message. 



Angel. Detail after conservation-restoration. 



Virgin Mary. Detail of the painting after restoration. 


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e-conservationline

No. 16, October 2010 

LICENCE 

ISSN: 1646-9283 

Registration Number 

125248 

Entidade Reguladora 

para a Comunicação Social 

Property 

e-conservationline, Teodora Poiata 

Periodicity 

Bimonthly 

Cover 

Detail from the detached mural painting The Annunciation 

by Cola Petruccioli (1380), Szépművészeti Museum, Hungary. 

Photo by Ildikó Jeszeniczky 

Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 2.5 

Portugal 

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Graphic Design and Photography 

Anca Poiata, Radu Matase 

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Teodora Poiata 

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