Bio-diesel Resources in Pakistan - Clean Power

RESEARCH REPORT ON BIO-DIESEL 

RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN 

A PROJECT OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT BOARD (AEDB) 

GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN 

Report prepared by 

CLEAN POWER (PVT.) LTD. 

0001-1000000-062-001 

ISSUE: 01 

JULY, 2005

Title 

Originator 

Research Report on Bio-diesel Resources 

in Pakistan 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................ 2 

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................6 

SECTION 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 7 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................................. 7 

SECTION 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 9 

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................. 9 

SECTION 3 .................................................................................................................................... 10 

ABOUT BIO-DIESEL ..................................................................................................................... 10 

3.1 WHAT IS BIO-DIESEL ................................................................................................. 10 

3.2 UTILIZATION / APPLICATIONS OF BIO-DIESEL...................................................... 10 

3.3 INTERNATIONAL TRENDS IN BIO-DIESEL.............................................................. 12 

3.4 RESOURCES OF BIO-DIESEL................................................................................... 12 

SECTION 4 .................................................................................................................................... 14 

CLASSIFICATION OF BIO-DIESEL RESOURCES AND JUSTIFICATION............................... 14 

4.1 CLASSIFICATION ........................................................................................................ 14 

4.2 CATEGORIES OF CLASS-I RESOURCES................................................................ 14 

4.2.1 CATEGORY A – CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATED OIL YIELDING CROPS..14 

4.2.2 CATEGORY B – NON CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATED OIL YIELDING CROPS . 

........................................................................................................................15 

4.2.3 CATEGORY C – INDUSTRIES BASED CROPS ...........................................15 

4.2.4 CATEGORY D – WILD PLANT RESOURCES...............................................15 

4.3 JUSTIFICATION OF SHORT-LISTING FROM CLASS-I RESOURCES................... 16 

4.4 CATEGORIES OF CLASS-II RESOURCES............................................................... 17 

4.5 JUSTIFICATION OF SHORT-LISTING FROM CLASS-II RESOURCES.................. 18 

SECTION – 5 ................................................................................................................................. 19 

DESCRIPTION OF CLASS-I RESOURCES ................................................................................ 19 

5.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 19 

5.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PONGAME................................................................ 21 

5.2.1 GERMPLASM .................................................................................................22 

5.2.2 DISTRIBUTION...............................................................................................22 

5.2.3 ECOLOGY.......................................................................................................22 

5.2.4 CULTIVATION.................................................................................................22 

5.2.5 HARVESTING.................................................................................................22 

5.2.6 BIOTIC FACTORS ..........................................................................................22 

5.2.7 ENERGY .........................................................................................................23 

5.2.8 USES...............................................................................................................23 

5.3 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF MUSTARD ................................................................ 24 

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5.3.1 GERMPLASM .................................................................................................25 

5.3.2 DISTRIBUTION...............................................................................................25 

5.3.3 ECOLOGY.......................................................................................................25 

5.3.4 CULTIVATION.................................................................................................25 

5.3.5 HARVESTING.................................................................................................26 


5.3.7 ENERGY .........................................................................................................27 

5.3.8 USES...............................................................................................................27 

5.4 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF WHITE MUSTARD ................................................... 28 

5.4.1 GERMPLASM............................................................................................................... 28 

5.4.2 DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................ 29 

5.4.3 ECOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 29 

5.4.4 CULTIVATION .............................................................................................................. 29 

5.4.5 HARVESTING ...................................................................................................................... 29 

5.4.6 BIOTIC FACTORS ............................................................................................................... 30 

5.4.7 ENERGY....................................................................................................................... 30 

5.4.8 USES..................................................................................................................................... 30 

5.5 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF BLACK OR BROWN MUSTARD ............................. 31 

5.5.1 GERMPLASM .................................................................................................31 

5.5.2 DISTRIBUTION...............................................................................................31 

5.5.3 ECOLOGY.......................................................................................................32 

5.5.4 CULTIVATION.................................................................................................32 

5.5.5 HARVESTING.................................................................................................32 


5.5.7 ENERGY .........................................................................................................32 

5.5.8 USES...............................................................................................................33 

4.6 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CANOLA ................................................................... 33 

5.6.1 GERMPLASM............................................................................................................... 34 

5.6.2 DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................ 34 

5.6.3 ECOLOGY ............................................................................................................................ 34 

5.6.4 CULTIVATION ...................................................................................................................... 35 

5.6.5 HARVESTING ...................................................................................................................... 35 

5.6.6 BIOTIC FACTORS ............................................................................................................... 35 

5.6.7 ENERGY............................................................................................................................... 36 

5.6.8 USES..................................................................................................................................... 37 

5.7 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CASTOR BEANS...................................................... 37 

5.7.1 GERMPLASM............................................................................................................... 38 

5.7.2 DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................ 38 

5.7.3 ECOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 38 

5.7.4 CULTIVATION .............................................................................................................. 39 



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5.7.5 HARVESTING .............................................................................................................. 39 

5.7.6 BIOTIC FACTORS ....................................................................................................... 40 

5.7.7 ENERGY....................................................................................................................... 41 

5.7.8 USES............................................................................................................................. 42 

5.8 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SUNFLOWER........................................................... 42 

5.8.1 GERMPLASM .................................................................................................43 

5.8.2 DISTRIBUTION...............................................................................................43 

5.8.3 ECOLOGY.......................................................................................................43 

5.8.4 CULTIVATION.................................................................................................44 

5.8.5 HARVESTING.................................................................................................44 


5.8.7 ENERGY .........................................................................................................45 

5.8.8 USES...............................................................................................................47 

5.9 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF COTTON ................................................................... 47 

5.9.1 GERMPLASM .................................................................................................48 

5.9.2 DISTRIBUTION...............................................................................................48 

5.9.3 ECOLOGY.......................................................................................................48 

5.9.4 CULTIVATION.................................................................................................49 

5.9.5 HARVESTING.................................................................................................49 


5.9.7 ENERGY .........................................................................................................51 

5.9.8 USES...............................................................................................................51 

5.10 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF JATROPHA .......................................................... 52 

5.10.1 GERMPLASM..................................................................................................................... 53 

5.10.2 DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................................. 53 

5.10.3 ECOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 53 

5.10.4 CULTIVATION .................................................................................................................... 53 

5.10.5 HARVESTING .................................................................................................................... 53 

5.10.6 BIOTIC FACTORS ............................................................................................................. 53 

5.10.7 ENERGY............................................................................................................................. 53 

5.10.8 USES .................................................................................................................................. 54 

SECTION 6 .................................................................................................................................... 55 

AVAILABILITY OF CLASS-I RESOURCES ................................................................................. 55 

6.1 GENERAL TRENDS .................................................................................................... 55 

6.2 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OIL CROPS IN PAKISTAN.......................... 58 

6.2.1 REGION – 1.................................................................................................................. 58 

6.2.2 REGION – 2.................................................................................................................. 59 

6.2.3 REGION – 3A ............................................................................................................... 59 

6.2.4 REGION – 3B ............................................................................................................... 60 

6.2.5 REGION – 4A ............................................................................................................... 60 

6.2.6 REGION – 4B ............................................................................................................... 61 



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6.2.7 REGION – 5.................................................................................................................. 61 

6.2.8 REGION – 6.................................................................................................................. 62 

6.2.9 REGION – 7.................................................................................................................. 62 

6.2.10 REGION – 8.................................................................................................................. 62 

6.2.11 REGION – 9.................................................................................................................. 63 

6.2.12 REGION – 10................................................................................................................ 63 

6.3 COMMENTS................................................................................................................. 64 

6.4 CROP SPECIFIC CONSTRAINTS .............................................................................. 67 

6.4.1 SUNFLOWER AND RAPESEEDS..................................................................67 

6.4.2 GROUNDNUT.................................................................................................67 

6.4.3 SESAME .........................................................................................................68 

6.4.4 COTTON .........................................................................................................68 

6.4.5 SOYBEAN.......................................................................................................68 

6.4.6 SAFFLOWER..................................................................................................69 

6.4.7 PONGAME AND JATROPHA........................................................................69 

6.5 GENERAL PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS ............................................................... 69 

6.6 STATUS OF SHORT-LISTED FIELD CROPS............................................................ 70 

6.6.1 PONGAME......................................................................................................70 

6.6.2 RAPESEED - MUSTARD................................................................................70 

6.6.3 CASTOR .........................................................................................................72 

6.6.4 SUNFLOWER .................................................................................................73 

6.6.5 COTTON…………………………………………………………………………….75 

6.6.6 JATROPHA…………………………………………………………………………..76 

SECTION 7 .................................................................................................................................... 77 

DESCRIPTION AND AVAILABILITY OF CLASS – II RESOURCES.......................................... 77 

7.1 WASTE VEGETABLE OIL ........................................................................................... 77 

7.2 ANIMAL FATS .............................................................................................................. 77 

7.3 AVAILABILITY .............................................................................................................. 77 

SECTION 8 .................................................................................................................................... 79 

CLEAN POWER’S PRACTICAL DATA ........................................................................................ 79 

8.1 FIELD RESEARCH ON RESOURCES ....................................................................... 79 

8.2 OIL EXTRACTION........................................................................................................ 80 

8.3 THE TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS ............................................................... 81 

8.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BIO-DIESEL .................................................................... 81 

SECTION 9 .................................................................................................................................... 86 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................ 86 

ANNEXURE I…………………………………………………………………………………………..88 

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................. .88 

ANNEXURE II…………………………………………………………………………………………..90 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS……………………………………………………………………………..90 

ANNEXURE III ............................................................................................................................... 94 

MEETINGS WITH DIFFERENT PERSONS DURING PROJECT…………………………………94 



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LIST OF FIGURES 

FIGURE-I: PONGAME TREE AND SEED ............................................................................................21 

FIGURE-II: MUSTARD CROP AND SEEDS.........................................................................................24 

FIGURE-III: WHITE MUSTARD CROP AND SEEDS .............................................................................28 

FIGURE-IV: BLACK / BROWN MUSTARD CROP AND SEEDS ..............................................................31 

FIGURE-IV: CANOLA CROP AND SEEDS ..........................................................................................33 

FIGURE-V: CASTOR BEANS CROP AND SEEDS................................................................................37 

FIGURE-VI: SUNFLOWER CROP AND SEEDS ...................................................................................42 

FIGURE-VII: COTTON CROP AND SEEDS.........................................................................................47 

FIGURE-VIII: JATROPHA TREE AND SEEDS .....................................................................................52 

FIGURE-IX: AVG YIELD OF MUSTARD IN PAKISTAN (KG/HA).............................................................71 

FIGURE-X: AVG YIELD OF CASTOR BEAN IN PAKISTAN (KG/HA)........................................................72 

FIGURE-XI: AVG YIELD OF SUNFLOWER BEAN IN PAKISTAN (KG/HA) ................................................74 

FIGURE-XII: AVG YIELD OF COTTON IN PAKISTAN (KG/HA) ..............................................................75 

FIGURE-XIII: AVG PRICE LIST OF BIO-DIESEL RESOURCES (RS PER 40 KG)......................................80 

FIGURE-XIII: ACTUAL % OIL YIELD (LITERS OF BIO-DIESEL PER 100 KG SEED) .................................82 

FIGURE-XIV: THEORETICAL % OIL YIELD (LITERS OF BIO-DIESEL PER 100 KG SEED) ........................82 

FIGURE-XV: TRANSESTERIFICATION BYPRODUCTS - GLYCERINE ....................................................83 

FIGURE-XVI TRANSESTERIFICATION BYPRODUCTS - SOAP…………………………...……84 

FIGURE-XVII: BIO-DIESEL SAMPLES..............................................................................................85 

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SECTION 1 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Use of biological resources to improve the economy is an old tradition of 

human history. Plants are the unique biological resources form the basis of life. 

They provide us with many services, food, medicines, timber for construction, 

and fodder for our animals, materials for mates and baskets and alternative 

energy resources in the form of Bio-diesel. 

Bio-diesel is a renewable transport fuel generally extracted from plant 

seeds or from its other parts i.e. flowers etc. and is used as an alternative of 

diesel. Mainly Bio-diesel contains no petroleum and can be used as pure fuel but 

it could also be blended with petroleum diesel in different ratios to create a Biodiesel 

blend. It can be used in compression ignition engines with little or no 

modification. Bio-diesel is simple to use, bio degradable, nontoxic and essentially 

free of sulphur and aromatics. These properties of Bio-diesel led to the initiation 

of work not only in developed but also in under developed countries. The major 

sources that are contributing towards environmental pollution are transport 

vehicles that utilize petrol or diesel. Moreover, the prices of petroleum products 

have reached their peak level in recent times. To overcome these problems, a 

need arose to look for for fossil fuel replacement that is also kinder to the 

environment. 

Bio-diesel is a renewable transport fuel that will not only help in reducing 

air pollution but will also improve the socio-economic conditions of Pakistan by 

minimizing dependence upon foreign countries. In this context, the present study 

was the first step to develop Bio-diesel research in Pakistan. 

This research is part of a project of Alternative Energy Development 

Board (AEDB), Goverenment of Pakistan, and has been executed by Clean 

Power (Pvt.) Ltd. This phase of the project is confined to identifying biological 

resources that can be used as Bio-diesel sources in Pakistan, and to test their 

viability from technical, commercial and economic points of view. The study was 

conducted with involvement of different laboratories and agencies, including 

including Biology Lab of Quaid-i-Azam Univeristy (QAU) Islamabad, Attock Oil 

Refinery Ltd. (ARL), Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research 

(PCSIR) Islamabad, and the Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan 

(HDIP) Islamabad. 

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The research work was comprehensive in identifying the global and 

national resources. Out of these resources, certain resources werw short-listed 

as sources of Bio-diesel. These include nine (09) plant species, and Waste 

Vegetable Oil (WVO). Out of these 09 plant species 03 were wild i.e. Pongame, 

Jatropha and Castorbean, 6 plant species were cultivated including 4 rapeseed 

crops, cotton seed and sunflower. The study mainly focused on detailed 

description of plant species, morphology, germplasm, distribution, ecology, 

cultivation, harvesting, biotic factors, energy and other uses. The study also 

described the availability of these resources in Pakistan including general trends, 

crop specific constraints, status of existing field plants, average yield, and 

geographic distribution, identification of land resources for cultivation and 

extraction of percentage oil yield. 

Frequent field trips and surveys were conducted, under the supervision of 

expert teams, to collect seeds of plant species and identify resource base 

persons and areas; some seeds were also purchased from the seed dealers. 

Market surveys were conducted to find out the availability and prices of seed 

crops. Extraction of oil was done in District Attock. At the same time WVO was 

collected from different hotels, restaurants and suppliers. Oils from all these 

sources were processed in the Biology lab of Quaid-i-Azam Univeristy, 

Islamabad by using standard methods. 

Bio-diesel samples from the short-listed resources were tested in the 

laboratories of ARL, HDIP and PCSIR for density, pour point, flash point, 

kinematic viscosity and distillation. Data on production of seeds, oil yield, Biodiesel 

production and production of byproducts of Bio-diesel were collected; all 

these finding were systematically arranged and have been presented in this 

report and other reports submitted to AEDB, in the form of comprehensive 

descriptions, figures, tables, photographs, and videos. Conclusions and 

recommendations for future research have also been developed. 

This report carries valuable data obtained during practical experimentation 

by Clean Power. This data is specifically with respect to the Pakistani scenario. 



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SECTION 2 

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 

The main objectives of the research were: 

• Identification of Bio-diesel resources in Pakistan 

• Shortlisting of the most propable resources 

• Extraction of oil from the short-listed resources for tests and experiments 

• Chemical analysis of Bio-diesel samples and comparison with HSD 

• Performance and fatigue tests on CI engine 

• Demonstration in cars 

• Develop coordination link between agriculture sector, research institutions 

and stake holders 

• Contribute to the Alternative Energy Development Programme initiated by 

the Government of Pakistan 

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3.1 WHAT IS BIO-DIESEL 



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ABOUT BIO-DIESEL 

Bio-diesel is a diesel fuel substitute produced from renewable sources 

such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled cooking oils. Chemically, it is 

defined as the mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from renewable 

lipid sources. Bio-diesel is typically produced through the reaction of a vegetable 

oil or animal fat with methanol or ethanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield 

glycerin and Bio-diesel (chemically called methyl or ethyl esters). Bio-diesel can 

be used in neat form, or blended with petroleum diesel for use in diesel engines. 

Its physical and chemical properties, in terms of operation of diesel engines, are 

similar to petroleum based diesel fuel. Bio-diesel is non-hazardous and biodegradable. 

3.2 UTILIZATION / APPLICATIONS OF BIO-DIESEL 

• PROPERTIES OF BIO-DIESEL 

Today’s diesel engines require a clean-burning, stable fuel that performs 

well under a variety of operating conditions. Bio-diesel is the only alternative fuel 

that can be used directly in any existing, unmodified diesel engine. Because it 

has similar properties to petroleum diesel fuel, Bio-diesel can be blended in any 

ratio with petroleum diesel. Many federal and state fleet vehicles in USA are 

already using Bio-diesel blends in their existing diesel engines. 

The low emissions of Bio-diesel make it an ideal fuel for use in marine 

areas, national parks and forests, and heavily polluted cities. Bio-diesel has 

many advantages as a transport fuel. For example, Bio-diesel can be produced 

from domestically grown oilseed plants such as canola and sunflower. Producing 

Bio-diesel from domestic crops will reduce the country’s dependence on foreign 

petroleum, increases agricultural revenue, and creates jobs. 

• USES OF BIO-DIESEL 

♦ Bio-diesel is the only alternative fuel that runs in any conventional, 

unmodified diesel engine. It can be stored in the same way as petroleum 

diesel. 

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♦ Bio-diesel can be used alone or mixed in any ratio with petroleum diesel. 

The most common blend is a mix of 20% Bio-diesel with 80% petroleum 

diesel, or "B20." 

♦ Bio-diesel combustion significantly reduces emissions:- 

� Bio-diesel is 11% oxygen by weight and contains no sulphur. There 

are virtually no Sulphur Dioxide emissions from Bio-diesel 

combustion. Due to presence of sulphur in crude oil, all fossil fuels 

emit SO2. However Bio-diesel combustion does not emit any SO2 or 

sulphates. 

� Zero net Carbon dioxide emissions; the small amounts of CO2 

emitted by Bio-diesel combustion are re-absorbed by the increased 

plantation required to sustain the Bio-diesel raw material supply 

chain. 

� Significantly less Carbon monoxide and particulates emissions. 

� Combustion of Bio-diesel provides more than 90% reduction in 

unburned hydrocarbons, and 75-90% reduction in aromatic 

hydrocarbons. 

� There may be a slight increase or decrease in Nitrogen oxide 

emissions depending upon engine type. 

♦ The use of Bio-diesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it is 

more lubricating than petroleum diesel fuel, while fuel consumption, auto 

ignition, power output, and engine torque are relatively unaffected by Biodiesel. 

♦ Bio-diesel is safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable 

as sugar, 10 times less toxic than table salt, and has a high flashpoint of 

about 125°C compared to petroleum diesel, which has a flash point of 

66°C. 

♦ Bio-diesel can be made from domestically produced renewable oilseed 

crops such as soybean, canola, cotton seed and mustard seed. 

♦ Bio-diesel is a proven fuel with over 30 million successful US road miles, 

over 20 years of use in Europe and in initial stages in South Asia. 

♦ The Congressional Budget Office, and Department of Defense, US 

Department of Agriculture, and others have determined that Bio-diesel is 

the low cost alternative fuel option for fleets to meet requirements of the 

Energy Policy Act. 



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3.3 INTERNATIONAL TRENDS IN BIO-DIESEL 

• BIO-DIESEL IMPACT 

An important factor that is not usually considered when calculating the 

costs and benefits of industrial feedstock materials is the macroeconomic effect 

associated with domestically produced, renewable energy sources. Economic 

benefits of a Bio-diesel industry would include value addition to the feedstock 

(oilseeds or animal fats), an increased number of manufacturing jobs, an 

increased tax base from plant operations and income taxes, investments in plant 

and equipment, improvement of our trade balance, and reductions in health care 

costs due to improved air quality and greenhouse gas mitigation. 

• BIO-DIESEL HAS POSITIVE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRODUCTION 

AGRICULTURE 

A 1996 economic study published by the USDA Office of Energy predicted 

that a modest, sustained annual market for Bio-diesel of 100 million gallons in the 

US would contribute approximately seven cents to the price of each bushel of 

soybeans produced in the US. 

• BIO-DIESEL CONTRIBUTES JOBS TO THE LOCAL ECONOMY 

Economic work conducted at the University of Missouri estimated the 

benefits of producing Bio-diesel in a metropolitan region. This study concluded 

that 100 million gallons of Bio-diesel production could generate an estimated 

$8.34 million increase in personal income and over 6,000 additional temporary or 

permanent jobs for the metropolitan region. 

3.4 RESOURCES OF BIO-DIESEL 

There are many resources which can be used as raw material for Biodiesel 

production. These resources mainly originated from plants particularly and 

animals in generally. Depending upon the availability and production the raw 

material for Bio-diesel can be classified into oil yielding crops, wild oil yielding 

trees, mirco organisms, animals and other byproducts having biotic origion. 

1. Vegetable oils 

2. Restaurant waste oils or UFOs (Used Frying Oils) 

3. Cow-dung (Gobar Gas Plants) 

4. Beef tallow 

5. Pork Lard 

6. Trap grease 



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7. Micro-organisms (Geobacters) 

8. Wild trees 

9. Waste water by Bacteria 

10. Soy Diesel 

11. Methyl soyat 

12. Soy Methayl Easter 

13. Canola Diesel 

14. Mycoflora 

15. Microflora 

16. Phycoflora 



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4.1 CLASSIFICATION 



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SECTION 4 

CLASSIFICATION OF BIO-DIESEL 

RESOURCES AND JUSTIFICATION 

There are many resources used for Bio-diesel production in the world. These 

resources can be classfied on the basis of availability and their yields. In 

Pakistan these resources mainly include oil seeds from oil crops, oil seeds from 

trees/plants, Waste Vegetable Oils (WVO) and animal fats. Historically animal 

fats were used in Pakistan for cooking, having been replaced by vegetable oil 

due to increase in population and per capita consumption. By studying all these 

aspects of resources, Clean Power has classified Bio-diesel resources into the 

following two broad categories:- 

• CLASS-I: BIO-DIESEL FROM OIL SEEDS 

• CLASS-II: BIO-DIESEL FROM WASTE OILS 

4.2 CATEGORIES OF CLASS-I RESOURCES 

Pakistan has diverse ecological conditions; we are lucky to have over a dozen oil 

seed crops, which grow in different seasons, thereby giving a supply of oil seeds 

practically throughout the year Depending upon historical cultivation and 

production, the oil seed crops were classified into conventional (i.e. traditional), 

non traditional, industrial and wild crops. 

4.2.1 CATEGORY A – CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATED OIL YIELDING 

CROPS 

• Rape Seeds 

• Ground Nut 

• Sesame Seeds 

• Rocket seeds 

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4.2.2 CATEGORY B – NON CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATED OIL YIELDING 

CROPS 

• Sun flower 

• Soybean 

• Safflower 

4.2.3 CATEGORY C – INDUSTRIES BASED CROPS 

• Linseed 

• Castor beans 

• Cotton seeds 

4.2.4 CATEGORY D – WILD PLANT RESOURCES 

• Pongame tree 

• Olive tree 

• Hemp oil 

• Oat seeds 

• Jatropha Shrub 

• Milk Thistle 

• Carthamus seeds 

• Jatropha 

Table-1: Short-listing / Selection of Resources from Class-I Resources 

S. # Botanical Name English Name Local Name Family 

01 Pongamia pinnata Pongame Suck Chain Fabaceae 

02 Brassica campestris Mustard Sarson Brassicaceae 

03 Brassica alba White Mustard Chiti Sarson Brassicaceae 

04 Brassica nigra Black Mustard Kali Sarson Brassicaceae 

05 Brassica napus Canola Canola Brassicaceae 

06 Ricinus communis Castor bean Arind Euphorbiaceae 

07 Helianthus annuus Sunflower Suraj Mukhi Asteraceae 

08 Gossypium hirsutum Cotton Kappa Malvaceae 

09 Jatropha curcas Jatropha Karanga Euphorbiaceae 

From this point onward English names will be used. 



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4.3 JUSTIFICATION OF SHORT-LISTING FROM CLASS-I 

RESOURCES 

Many oil seeds crops are grown in Pakistan as sources of vegetable oils; 

also many oil yielding wild plants are found in different areas of country. Pakistan 

has a rich biodiversity of natural resources with special reference to oil yielding 

plants. This diverse nature of flora is due to diverse edaphic and climatic 

conditions. Basically Pakistan is an agricultural country and has sufficient 

resources that can be utilized for production of Bio-diesel. Unfortunately like 

other fields, no systematic and scientific investigations has been done on Biodiesel, 

because the people are unaware of the benefits of these resources for 

development of the Bio-diesel industry; the main causes are lack of awareness, 

lack of interaction between our industries and research intuitions, and lack of 

Government support for this technology on a practical level. No relevant steps 

have been undertaken by the educational, industrial and research institutions on 

this project. Hence there is a dire need to carry out research to identify these 

natural resources for Bio-diesel production and their applications. In the present 

project short-listing of oilseeds for Bio-diesel productions is based on the 

following reasons. 

1. Pongame is the plant of humid and sub-tropical environment; it is 

cultivated in areas having annual rain fall ranging from 500-2500mm. This 

species can withstand water logging and slight frost. Pongame can grow 

on most soil types ranging from stony to sandy to clayey soils. It does not 

do well on dry sand. It is highly tolerant of salanity. In addition to the 

benefit of oil for Bio-diesel, Pongame is also an important plant for 

Pakistani lands to remove salanity and water logging. 

2. Rape seeds are important species of Brassica genus belonging to family 

Brassicaceae. These have remained one of the major sources of oil in the 

subcontinent for centuries. Presently 05 species of Brassica are cultivated 

in the country; these include Brassica Campestris (Sarson), Brassica 

Juncea (Raya), Brassica Nigra (Kali sarson), Brassica Napus (Canola) 

and Brassica Alba (Chiti sarson). All these species are cultivated in 

various soil conditions as well as drought tolerant soils due to high yied. 

3. Castor is grown since pre-historic time in this region and is used as an 

industrial oil yielding plant. Its maximum area (45,900 hectars) was 

planted during 1978 to 1979 in Pakistan. Then it started declining due to 

lack of demand in the local market and diminishing export. Now it is wildly 

distribuited in waste places and nallas of Pakistan. This resource has 

been shortlisted because it is wild, and the soil in Punjab, Sindh and 

Balochistan is very suitable for its cultivation. 



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4. The commercial introduction of sunflower (Helianthus Annus) began in 

1965. Among the non-conventional oil seed crops, the sunflower has been 

found the most successful in the country. Most of the area under 

sunflower is Punjab and Sindh. It is a faster growing crop in Punjab than in 

other provinces. Due to favorable climatic conditions the average yield of 

this crop is very high. 

5. During the last two decades, cotton has shown tremendous increase in 

area and production. Its area increased by 63.6%, and production by 

302%. It is one of the economically attractive crops of Pakistan and most 

of Punjab supports its cultivation and harvesting. 

6. Jatropha Curcas is resistant to drought and can be planted even in the 

desert climates. It thrives on any type of soil and grows almost anywhere: 

in sandy, gravelly and saline soils. Jatropha needs minimal input or 

management. Jatropha has no pests, it is not browsed by cattle or sheep, 

and it can survive long periods of drought. Jatropha propagation is easy, 

its growth is rapid, and it forms a thick live hedge after only a month's 

planting. Jatropha Curcas starts yielding from the 2 nd year of its cultivation 

and continues for 40 years. The meal after extraction is an excellent 

organic manure. Jatropha Curcas quickly establishes itself and produces 

seeds round the year if irrigated. 

7. The vast area and varied agroclimatic conditions of Pakistan make growth 

possible for different kinds of cultivated crops in general and wild plants in 

particular. Clean Power will encourage and provide expertise for plantation 

of wild resources that are suitable for Bio-diesel production. Clean Power 

has already started mega tree plantationth of Pongame on along railway 

tracks and on railway stations in the Rawalpindi districts, with support from 

Pakistan Railways and AEDB. 

4.4 CATEGORIES OF CLASS-II RESOURCES 

• Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO) 

• Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO) 

• Animal fats 

From the above categories, the following are short-listed as viable resources for 

Bio-diesel production: 

• Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO) 



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• Animal Fats (AF) 

4.5 JUSTIFICATION OF SHORT-LISTING FROM CLASS-II 

RESOURCES 

The justification for short-listing WVO and AF sources of Bio-diesel are 

based on the following facts:- 

1. Pakistan is a country the people of which consume huge quantities of 

edible oil and meat every year; we are basically a meat-eating nation, and 

habitually use a lot of oil in our cooking. 

2. WVO is available in large quantities in metropolitan cities, mainly from big 

hotel chains, huts, confectionaries, and restaurant chains. These hotels, 

restaurants and huts are the major source of WVO in Pakistan. Similarly 

AF is available in large quantities in slaughter houses, more so in big cities 

and villages, and during certain festivities such as Eid. 

3. Collection mechanisms of WVO and AF are simple and easier than oils 

directly obtained from crops and plants. Centralized collection of WVO is 

already done in metropolitan cities. 

4. Method of preparation of Bio-diesel from WVO and AF is simple and 

inexpensive. The equipment and chemicals required for the process are 

also easily available. 

5. The by-products of the production process (of Bio-diesel from WVO and 

AF), glycerine and soap, are also usable and salable commercially. 

6. Whereas plants and crops are the major sources of Bio-diesel, the 

quantities that can be produced from WVO and AF will greatly supplement 

the Bio-diesel from plants and crops. Using WVO and AF as additional 

sources will be an advantage in commercial-scale production and usage 

of Bio-diesel. 

Keeping in view the potential of WVO and AF as sources of Bio-diesel, Clean 

Power has carried out systematic studies and experiments in laboratories and in 

the field. In the short to medium term, Clean Power plans to set up a facility for 

production of Bio-diesel from WVO and AF. 



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SECTION – 5 

DESCRIPTION OF CLASS-I RESOURCES 

5.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

Many oilseed crops are grown in Pakistan as a source of vegetable oil. 

These crops are grouped in two categories viz. conventional and nonconventional 

oilseed crops. Rapeseed-mustard, groundnut and sesame are 

conventional crops and have been grown in the country for a long period. 

Sunflower, soybean and safflower are non-conventional crops and have been 

introduced recently in our country. There are also some oilseed crops that are 

mainly used for industrial purposes, such as linseed and castor. Presently, local 

production of oilseeds meets only about 32% percent of the total country's 

requirements for edible oil. The remaining requirement of edible oil is met from 

foreign sources. 

• RAPESEEDS 

Rapeseed-mustard crops are grown on a large area, and contribute, on 

the average, about 21% in the edible oil production. However, its oil is not used 

in the manufacture of vegetable ghee (hydrogenated vegetable oil in semi-solid 

form) as it contains high levels of erucic acid and traces of sulphur compounds 

(glucosinolates). Its oil is mostly used in pickles, deep frying, anointing body, as 

hair oil, etc. 

• COTTON 

Cotton contributes about 72% to the edible oil production in Pakistan; its 

cultivated area has increased by 51% over the last 19 years, from 1.733 million 

hectares in 1970-71 to 2.62 million hectares in 2003-04. Similarly, production of 

cottonseed has increased by about 125% and average yield almost 73% during 

the same period. 

Production of some oilseeds has become stagnant or shown negative 

growth; during the last two decades, rapeseed-mustard, which is the second 

most important group of oilseed crops and contributes about 21% production of 

vegetable oil in the country, has shown a negative growth rate of 2.75% per 

annum for its area. Its production has also reduced during the same period but 

comparatively in lesser magnitude because of some improvement in its 

productivity at unit area basis. 

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• JATROPHA 

Jatropha is a wild oilseed crop and its cultivation in Pakistan has remained 

almost stagnant over the years. The conditions for the cultivation of this plant are 

favourable in Pakistan as studied by Clean Power. According to a survey 

conducted by Clean Power, only few plants are found as ornamental in different 

educational institutes. Clean Power has already started experimentation with 

Jatropha, to serve as a basis for large-scale plantation. 

• SUNFLOWER & SOYBEAN 

The commercial introduction of sunflower began in 1965. But it did not 

increase rapidly as expected up till 1979-80. However, from 1980-81 to 2003-04 

the area increased at an appreciable annual growth rate of 25.75%. A total of 

42,500 tonnes of sunflower seed was produced in 1987-88 which was the 

highest in the sunflower history of the country until now. During 2003-04 

production reduced to 34,400 tonnes. 

Although soybean as an oil crop has been introduced in Pakistan along 

with sunflower, it could not make its place in the country. Its cultivation remained 

restricted to a limited area mostly in the North West Frontier Province. Since its 

average yield per hectare is also very low, its production remained small. The 

highest production of soybean was 3,800 tonnes in 1986-87 which reduced to 

1,200 tonnes in 2003-04. 

• SAFFLOWER 

Production of safflower in Pakistan has been very little and no appreciable 

progress was made inspite of the efforts made by the Government from time to 

time. Safflower is grown mostly on the right bank of river Indus in upper Sindh as 

"Dobari Crop" (the crop grown after rice with out irrigation). Its area reached to 

the maximum of 8,100 hectares in 1982-83 and now it has decreased to 2,000 

hectares in 2003-04, which is negligible. 

• CONSTRAINTS 

Area and production of conventional crops, excluding non-edible types, 

has remained almost stagnant for the last 02 decades. The area under these 

crops was 571,100 hectares in 1970-71, which reduced to 427,000 hectares in 

2003-04, and registered a growth rate of –1.52% (negative) per annum. Similarly, 

total production of conventional oilseeds was 331,700 tonnes in 1970-71 which 

increased very slightly to 336,700 tonnes in 2003-04. The areas under nonconventional 

oilseed crops in Pakistan is negligible and has not increased as 

expected. 

Average yields of all the oilseed crops are very low. The profitability of 

these crops is not well established due to which they remained neglected. 



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Mostly, conventional oilseeds are grown on marginal lands, while the newly 

introduced oilseed crops are passing through the process of introduction and the 

farmers still have not mastered the production technology to grow them. General 

constrains that result in low productivity are as follows: 

• Lack of high yielding varieties. 

• Inadequate adoption of improved agronomic practices. 

• Lack of quality seed. 

• Inadequate application of necessary inputs. 

• Damage by pests (insects, diseases, birds). 

• Non-availability of suitable machinery for planting, harvesting and 

threshing. 

• Lack of conducive policies. 

5.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PONGAME 



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FIGURE-I: Pongame tree and seed 

Fast-growing, glabrous, deciduous tree that reaches up to a height of 25 

meters, Pongamia Pinnata has a moderate shade with drooping branches; its 

trunk diameter is up to 60 cm; it has a smooth grayish bark. Its leaves are 

imparipinnate and shiny, with young leaves pink-red and mature leaves glossy 

deep green in color; leaflets 5–9, the terminal leaflet larger than the others; 

stipels none; stipules caducous. Flowers fragrant, white to pinkish, paired along 

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rachis in axillary, pendent, long racemes or panicles; calyx campanulate or cupshaped, 

truncate, short-dentate, lowermost lobe sometimes longer; standard 

suborbicular, broad, usually with 2 inflexed, basal ears, thinly silky-haired 

outside; wings oblique, long, somewhat adherent to the obtuse keel; keel petals 

coherent at apex; stamens monadelphous, vexillary stamen free at the base but 

joined with others into a closed tube; ovary subsessile to short-stalked, 

pubescent; ovules 2, rarely 3; style filiform, upper half incurved, glabrous; stigma 

small, terminal. Pod short stalked, oblique-oblong, flat, smooth, thickly leathery to 

subwoody, indehiscent, 1-seeded; seed thick, reniform. 

5.2.1 GERMPLASM 

Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, pongam, or cvs thereof, 

is reported to tolerate drought, frost, heat, limestone, salinity, sand, and shade. 

(2n = 22) 

5.2.2 DISTRIBUTION 

An Indomalaysian species, Pongame is a medium-sized evergreen tree, 

common on alluvial and coastal situations from India to Fiji, from sea level to 

1200m. Now found in Pakistan, Australia, Florida, Hawaii, India, Malaysia, 

Oceania, Philippines, and Seychelles. 

5.2.3 ECOLOGY 

Probably ranges from Tropical Dry to Moist through Subtropical Dry to 

Moist Forest Life Zones. Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0°C to 50°C 

and annual rainfall of 5–25 dm. The tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, 

including oolitic limestone, but will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in 

salt water. 

5.2.4 CULTIVATION 

The seeds of Pongame, remaining viable for sometime, require no special 

scarification. Direct sowing is usually successful. Seedlings transplant easily from 

the nursery after about a year. Root suckers are rather plentiful as well. It is a 

rapid-growing coppice species that can be cloned. 

5.2.5 HARVESTING 

Pods are collected and shells removed by hand. Pongame is grown in 30year 

rotations for fuel in West Bengal. 

5.2.6 BIOTIC FACTORS 

Two rhizobial strains produced nodules on 18 species of 12 different 

genera in the cowpea miscellany. The strains, culturally and physiologically 

typical of slow-growing rhizobia, elicited ineffective responses on Clitoria ternatea 

and Stizolobium utile. One was ineffective on Lespedeza stipulacea and 



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Samanea saman. Viruses. Sandal Spike Virus. Fungi. Fusicladium pongamiae, 

Ganoderma lucidum, Phyllachora pongamiae, Ravenelia hobsoni, Ravenelia 

stictica. Angiospermae. Cuscuta reflexa, Loranthus sp. Acarina. Eriophyes 

cheriani. Diptera. Microdiplosis pongamiae, Myricomyia pongamiae. Hemiptera. 

Coptosoma cribrarium, Drosicha stebbingi, Drosichiella tamarinda. Lepidoptera. 

Acrocercops anthracuris, Amphion floridensis, Cydia balanoptycha, Cydia 

perfricta, Eresia jumbah, Indarbela tetraonis, Jamides celeno, Phyllonorycter 

virgulata. Orthoptera. Schistocerca gregaria. Thysanoptera. Megalurothrips 

distalis. 

5.2.7 ENERGY 

Wherever Pongame is grown, its wood (calorific value 4,600 kcal/kg) is 

burned for cooking fuel. The thick oil from the seeds is used for illumination, as a 

kerosene substitute, and lubrication. It would seem that with upgraded 

germplasm one could target for 2 MT oil and 5 MT firewood per hectare per year 

on a renewable basis. The oil has been tried as fuel in diesel engines, showing a 

good thermal efficiency 

5.2.8 USES 

The Pongame tree is cultivated for two purposes: (1) as an ornamental 

tree in gardens and along avenues and roadsides, for its fragrant Wisteria-like 

flowers, and (2) as a host plant for lac insects. It is appreciated as an ornamental 

tree throughout coastal India and all of Polynesia. Well-decomposed flowers are 

used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. In the 

Philippines the bark is used for making strings and ropes. The bark also yields a 

black gum that is used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. In wet areas of 

the tropics the leaves serve as green manure and as fodder. The black 

malodorous roots contain a potent fish-stupefying principle. In primitive areas of 

Malaysia and India root extracts are applied to abscesses; other plant parts, 

especially crushed seeds and leaves are regarded as having antiseptic 

properties. The seeds contain oil…. a bitter, reddish brown, thick, non-drying, 

nonedible oil, 27–36% by weight, which is used for tanning leather; as a liniment 

to treat scabies, herpes, and rheumatism; and as an illuminating oil. Also used 

for lubrication and indigenous medicine. Pongam oil showed inhibitory effects on 

Bacillus Anthracis, Bacillus Mycoides, Bacillus Pulilus, Escherichia Coli, 

Pseudomonas Mangiferae, Salmonella Typhi, Sarcina Lutea, Staphylococcus 

Albus, Staphylococcus Aureus, and Xanthomonas Campestris, but did not inhibit 

Shigella Sp. The oil has a high content of triglycerides, and its disagreeable taste 

and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents, pongamiin and karanjin. 

The wood is yellowish white, coarse, hard, and beautifully grained, but is 

not durable. Use of the wood is limited to cabinetmaking, cart wheels, posts, and 

fuel. Both the oil and residues are toxic. Still the presscake is described as a 



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"useful poultry feed." Seeds are used to poison fish. Still it is recommended as a 

shade tree for pastures and windbreak for tea. 

The leaves are said to be a valuable lactagogue fodder, especially in arid 

regions. It is sometimes intercropped with pasture, the pasture grasses said to 

grow well in its shade. Dried pongame leaves are used in stored grains to repel 

insects. Leaves often plowed green manure, thought to reduce nematode 

infestations. Its spreading roots make it a valuable tree for checking erosion and 

stabilizing dunes. Twigs are used as a chewstick for cleaning the teeth. The ash 

of the wood is used in dyeing. 

5.3 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF MUSTARD 



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FIGURE-II: Mustard crop and seeds 

Biennial herb with swollen tuberous white-fleshed taproot, lacking a neck; 

leaves light to medium green, hairy or bristly, stalked, lyrate-pinnatifid, 30–50 cm 

long, stem-leaves sometimes glaucous with clasping base; flowers bright yellow, 

sepals spreading: petals 6–10 mm long, those in anthesis close together and 

commonly overtopping the unopened buds; outer 2 stamens curved outwards at 

base and much shorter than inner stamens; fruit 4–6.5 cm long, with long 

tapering beak, on divaricate-ascending pedicels 3.2–6.5 cm long; seeds blackish 

or reddish-brown, 1.5–2 mm in diameter. Fl. and fr. second spring. 

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Varieties may have white or yellow flesh, and outside crown may be white, 

green or purplish-red. Most common white-fleshed varieties are: 'Purple Top 

White Globe' and 'White Egg'. 'Shogoin' is a white-skinned, white-fleshed 

Japanese variety, widely grown in the South for greens and salad. Yellow-fleshed 

turnips include 'Golden Ball' or 'Orange Jelly', 'Amber or Yellow Globe' and 

'Yellow Aberdeen'. 'Seven Top' is grown in South for useof greens. 'Purple Top 

White Globe' is recommended for tropics. Brassica rapa subsp. rapa, turnip, 

cultivated for its tuberous taproot, sometimes escapes as a weed. Brassica rapa 

subsp. oleifera DC., Turnip rape, grown as a fodder crop, has larger 

reddishbrown seeds and non-tuberous taproot. Brassica rapa subsp. sylvestris 

(L.) Janchen (B. campestris L., p.p.). Field mustard is a weed or ruderal in much 

of Europe, native to Asia. Reported from the China-Japan, Eurosiberian, and 

Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, turnip, or cvs thereof, is reported to, tolerate 

aluminum, bacteria, disease, frost, fungi, high pH, low pH, laterite, mycobacteria, 

photoperiod, smog, sulfur dioxide, virus, and weeds. Terrell divides Brassica rapa 

into the following groups: Chinensis Group—pak-choi, Pekinensis Group—petsai 

or "Chinese cabbage", Perviridis Group—spinach mustard, Rapifera Group— 

turnip, and Ruvo Group—ruvo kale. (2n = 20) 


Mustard has been cultivated in Europe for over 4,000 years; it is probably 

native to central and southern Europe, and now spread throughout the world, 

including Pakistan and most parts of the tropics. 

5.3.3 ECOLOGY 

Turnip is basically a cool climate crop, resistant to frost and mild freezes. It 

is grown as a spring or fall crop throughout the United States. Temperatures 

below 10°C cause bolting. Turnips do well in deep, friable, highly fertile soil with 

pH 5.5–6.8; sandy loams are used for early markets roots and greens. Short 

growing season makes them very adaptable as a catch crop. Ranging from 

Boreal Moist to Rain through Tropical Thorn to Moist Forest Life Zones, Brassica 

rapa is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.5 to 41.0 dm (mean of 75 

cases = 9.1), annual temperature of 3.6 to 27.4°C (mean of 75 cases = 10.7), 

and pH of 4.2 to 7.8 (mean of 66 cases = 6.2) (Duke, 1978, 1979). 


Seed are sown thinly in spring, summer or fall in drills at seed rate of 1.1– 

2.2 kg/ha. Seedlings are then thinned to stand 5–15 cm apart in rows 0.3–0.9 m 

apart. Mustard is cultivated shallowly for weed control. Lime is added to the soil 

to correct pH to 5.5–6.8. Only light applications of fertilizer are justified, as 450- 

675 kg/ha of 4-12-4. When turnips are seeded as a fall crop following a crop that 

has been well fertilized, no additional fertilizer may be necessary. Seed may be 



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broadcast on fertile, well-prepared seedbeds where weed control will not be 

difficult. Turnips may be intercropped with corn, and as such they are shadetolerant, 

or they may be used as a catch crop after early vegetables. It is not 

advisable to grow turnips after a root crop. Good rotation, helps to control 

diseases. Best grown after clover, beans, peas or grass crop. 


Roots may be harvested in 45–80 days. They are harvested for bunching 

when 5 cm in diameter, and for topped turnips when 7.5 cm in diameter. Turnip 

greens may be harvested when plants are young and tender. For early spring 

market, turnips are pulled, washed, their tops left on, tied in bunches, and 

marketed. Topped turnips for the general market are sold by the bushel or the 

hundredweight. Flavor and texture are not improved by storage. They should not 

be left in the ground where temperatures near freezing occur; in milder areas 

they may be left in field until desired. They may be stored in pits or piles, in welldrained 

soils. Piles should not be more than 2.6 m wide nor more than 2 m deep 

to prevent heating at the center. For good aeration, wooden chutes are inserted 

at intervals of 2.5–3 m in the pile. A ditch is dug around the base of pile for water 

runoff. Alternate layers of straw and soil are used as covering for pit storage. For 

indoor storage, crates or small piles laid on earth cellar floors are satisfactory. 

Small quantities of turnips may be stored in a cool cellar and covered with 

moistened clean sand to keep them from drying out. Storage temperature in a 

cellar or in a cold storage room should remain between 0° and 1.5°C, with a 

relative humidity of 90–95%. 


Cross pollination, by various insects, is necessary for good seed 

production. In USSR, 16–17 colonies of bees/ha are used, but 2 or 3 hives are 

sufficient to increase pollination and to insure good seed set. Isolation of varieties 

necessary for pure seed production; in England at least 900 m; in New Zealand, 

400 m. Should be well-isolated from all other forms of B. juncea, B. campestris, 

and B. napus. Clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) and Black rot are the most 

serious diseases. Other fungi attacking turnips include: Albugo candids, 

Alternaria brassicae, A. brassicicola, A. oleracea, A. herculea, A. tenuis, Botrytis 

cinerea, Cercospora albo-maculans, C. brassicicola, C. brassicae, Choanephora 

cucurbitarum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Colletotrichum higginsianum, 

Corticium solani, Cystopus candidus, Curvularia inaequalis, Erysiphe polygone, 

E. communis, Fusarium oxysporum, F.conglutinans, Gloeosporium 

concentricum, Leptosphaeria napi, Macrophomina phaseoli, Macrosporium 

macrosporum, Mycosphaerella brassicicola, Oidium erysiphoides, Peronospora 

parasitica, P. brassicae, Phoma lingam, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Pythium 

ultimum, Rhizoctonia sp., Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septomyxa 

affine, Stemphylium botryosum, Streptomyces scabies, Spongospora 



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subterranea. Turnips may be parasitized by Orobanche cernua, or attacked by 

the following bacteria: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacterium aroideae, Erwinia 

carotovora, E. aroideae, Pectobacterium carotovorum, Pseudomonas maculicola, 

P. madrasensis, Xanthomonas campestris, and X. vesicatoria campestris, and X. 

vesicatoria. Viruses isolated from turnips include: Beet mild yellowing, Beet 

ringspot, Cabbage blackspot, Cauliflower mosaic, Crinkle mosaic, Cucumber 

mosaic, Kukitachina mosaic, Turnip latent, Turnip mosaic and Curly top. 

Nematodes attacking turnips include: Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Ditylenchus 

dipsaci, Helicotylenchus dihystera, H. pseudorobustus, Heterodera cruciferae, H. 

schachtii, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, M. incognita, M. i. acrita, M. javanica, 

Nacobbus aberrans, Pratylenchus neglectus, P. penetrans, P. projectus, and 

Trichodorus christiei. Turnip aphid, root maggot and flea beetles are the most 

injurious insect pests. 

5.3.7 ENERGY 

According to the phytomass files annual productivity ranges from 4 to 11 

MT/ha. Indian studies showed DM yields of 530–1,260 kg/ha after 38 days with 

61–191 kg extractable protein; 820–2,090 kg/ha after 52 days with 90–265 kg 

extractable protein. If this much were available in 45 days, and plots were 

cropped continuously (perhaps impractical, if not impossible), DM yields might 

run 6–16 MT/ha with ca 800–2,000 kg/ha, the residues remaining for potential 

energy conversion. Seed yields in Minnesota and Canada run over 1,000 

kg/ha/yr, and the oil from such seeds is being considered for energy purposes. 

5.3.8 USES 

Turnips are one of the most commonly grown and widely adapted root 

crops, as general farm crop, truck crop, or home-garden crop. Roots eaten raw 

or cooked as a vegetable, and tops as potherb like spinach. Roots also grown for 

feeding to livestock during fall and winter. 



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5.4 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF WHITE MUSTARD 



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FIGURE-III: White Mustard crop and seeds 

Erect, sparsely-hairy branching winter annual herb, developed from a 

taproot; stems up to 1.5 m tall, usually with stiff de-flexed hairs, but sometimes 

glabrous; leaves petiolate, alternate, ovate or obovate, to 8 cm long and 4 cm 

wide, pinnately dissected into 3–5 rounded segments, usually hispid but not 

scabrid; flowers yellow, in elongated racemes, hairy, patent, the beak broad, 

flattened, 10–30 mm long, attenuate; seeds 4–8 per pod, globular, yellowish to 

light brown, 2 mm in diameter, the innner seed coat containing mucilage, 

cotyledons containing oil with pungent taste but no odor. 2n = 24. Fl. spring and 

summer; fr. summer and fall. 


Two subspecies are recognized; subsp. alba—with lyrate-pinnatified or 

lyrate-pinnate leaves and siliques 20–40 mm long and 3–4 mm wide, the valves 

usually hispid, with a beak 10–30 mm long, and yellow or pale brown seeds; and 

subsp. dissecta (Lag.) Bonnier—with leaves twice pinnatifid, not lyrate, with the 

terminal lobe ovate and the lateral lobes oblong-linear and siliques 25–30 mm 

long and 3.5–6.5 mm wide, the valves slightly hairy or glabrous, the beak 10–20 

mm long and the seeds grayish-brown. Assigned to the Mediterranean Center of 

Diversity white mustard or cvs thereof is said to tolerate frost, high pH, heavy 

soil, low pH, smog, and weeds. (2n = 24). 

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Native to the Mediterranean region and the Crimea, but introduced into 

northwestern Europe, Russia, Japan, North and South America, Australia, New 

Zealand, India, North Africa, Pakistan and China. It has become naturalized in 

many areas and is a weed of cultivated lands, especially flax-fields. 

5.4.3 ECOLOGY 

White Mustard is a quick-growing long-day annual crop that prefers 

temperate climates with some humidity. Can withstand high temperatures, but 

very hot days during flowering and ripening may reduce seed setting and lower 

quality of seed. Requires high nutrient soils with high level of nitrogen, but may 

be grown on a wide range of soils from light to heavy, growing best on relatively 

heavy sandy loamy soils. Not suited to very wet soils. Ranging from Boreal Moist 

to Wet through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, white mustard occurs where 

annual precipitation varies from 3.5 to 17.9 dm (mean of 43 cases = 7.7), annual 

temperature from 5.6 to 24.9°C (mean of 43 cases = 10.5), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 

(mean of 36 cases = 6.6). 


Land to be sown to mustard should be prepared in the fall. Seed may be 

sown in early spring with a seeder at rate of 4–5 kg/ha and then the land 

harrowed. In Great Britain seed is sown at rate of 12 kg/ha on heavy soils and up 

to 14 kg/ha on light soils. In the Pacific States sowing may be as early as 

January. Crop may be cultivated, harvested, and handled with ordinary farm 

machinery. For salad greens, plants are havested when a few cm tall, when only 

the first pairs of leaves (seed-leaves) have expanded. Crop is usually grown in 

greenhouses, thus crops can be produced year round if a temperature of 10– 

15°C is maintained. Seed is sown on the surface of soil, on firm level beds; 

watered with a fine spray, then covered with steam-sterilized net sack-cloth, 

which is sprayed to keep it moist, and removed when seedlings are 2.5–3.5 cm 

tall, in about 4 days in spring and autumn and 6–7 days in winter. The yellowish 

seed-leaves turn green in 2–3 days and then the crop is cut. It is usually 

marketed in small boxes, sometimes packed together with cress. For home use, 

small quantities of seed may be grown on wet flannel on a dish, covered to 

exclude light and to keep the seedlings moist. 


Seeds are ripe for harvest when they are hard and black. Fruits do not 

shatter readily and can be direct combined. It is important to harvest the seed 

when ripe, since the seed weight increases substantially during the last 2–3 days 

before the crop is ready to harvest in August or earlier. For pure seed production, 

varieties must be isolated at least 360 m apart. From seeding to harvest usually 



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requires about 4 months in the US. In temperate India it is grown as a winter 

garden crop. 


White mustard is 100% pollinated by wind and insects, mainly honeybees. 

Among diseases infesting white mustard are the white-rust Albugo 

candida, an Alternaria leaf spot, the powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni, the 

downy mildew Peronospora parasitica, the clubroot Plasmodiophora brassicae, 

and the stemrot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Nematodes include Ditylenchus dipsaci, 

Heterodera cruciferae, H. schachtii, H. trifolii, Meloidogyne sp., Pratylenchus 

penetrans, and P. pratensis. 

5.4.7 ENERGY 

If the experimental seed yields of 8,000 kg/ha are correct, the 25-30% oil 

content could add up to nearly 2.5 MT oil per hectare. 

5.4.8 USES 

White mustard is grown for its seed, used as a condiment and for soils 

they yield; as a salad plant; and as a green fodder crop or as green manure. 

Seeds yield 20–35% of a golden-yellow mild tasting oil which is used as lubricant 

and illuminant. White Mustard Oil is also a by-product of the condiment industry 

in countries where the seed is partially deolated before milling. Oil also used in 

Sweden in the manufacture of mayonnaise. Seedling used as a salad plant, 

eaten raw in salads and sandwiches. Leaves are used as potherbs. In the US 

mustard is second in demand only to pepper among spices. Commercial mustard 

usually combines white mustard for pungency with black mustard for aroma, and 

the yellow color is due to the addition of turmeric. Vinegar is added to prevent the 

speedy decomposition experienced with mustard freshly prepared from the dry 

powder. Whole seeds are used for pickles and may be boiled with such 

vegetables as cabbage and sauerkraut. This is grown as a cover crop because of 

its rapid growth. Oil cake is used for fattening sheep. 



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5.5 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF BLACK OR BROWN 

MUSTARD 



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FIGURE-IV: Black / Brown Mustard crop and seeds 

Much-branched, aromatic, fast-growing, pubescent annual herb, to 4 m 

tall, with taproot; lower leaves lyrate-pinnatisect, With 1-3 pairs of lateral lobes 

and larger terminal lobe, hispid on both surfaces; upper leaves linear-oblong, 

entire or sinuate, glabrous, dentate, all leaves petiolate; flowers in enlongate 

racemes, regular petals yellow, 7-9 mm long, stamens 6, fruit a silique, long 

slender beaked pod, 1.0-2.0 cm long, smooth cylindrical, 1.5-2 mm wide with 10- 

12 seeds, beak seedless, on short (2.5-6 mm) pedicels; seeds dark reddishbrown 

to black, oval to spherical, about 1 mm in diameter, more or less covered 

with white pellicle, taste pungent. Fl. May–June; fr. June–Oct. 


Many cvs developed, include 'English', 'Barn, 'Trieste' and 'California'. 

Reported from the Eurosiberian, and African Centers of Diversity, black mustard 

or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate aluminum, laterite, low pH, poor soil, smog 

and weed. (n = 4–11, 2n = 16.) 


Origin unknown, but some believe it to be from a Mediterranean center 

with a secondary center in the Near East as in Pakistan and India. Now it is 

widespread in Central and South Europe, and other areas with a temperate 

climate. It is a frequent weed of waste places and cultivated fields. 

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5.5.3 ECOLOGY 

Black mustard, adapted to a wide variety of climatic conditions, is mainly 

suited to tropical areas, and grown chiefly as a rainfed crop in areas of low or 

moderate rainfall. Suited to many types of soils except very heavy clays; grows 

best on light sandy loams, or deep rich fertile soils. Ranging from Boreal Wet 

through Tropical Desert to Dry Forest Life Zones, black mustard is reported to 

tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 17 dm (mean of 40 cases = 8.5), annual 

temperature of 6 to 27°C (mean of 40 cases = 12.7), and pH of 4.9 to 8.2 (mean 

of 34 cases = 6.5) 


Land should be prepared in fall to a fine tilth, as the seeds are very small. 

Seed may be sown with seeder in early spring at rate of 3-4 kg/ha. In Sri Lanka, 

seed is broadcast, or, as a pure crop, drilled in rows 22 cm apart. Seeds 

germinate quickly, first leaves being visible within 48 hours after sowing. Plants 

are thinned to stand ca 10–50 cm apart in row. In Sri Lanka often intercropped 

with kurakkan (Eleusine coracana). 


Flowers about 45 days after sowing, and is ready to harvest in another 6– 

7 weeks. In the United States, planting, harvesting and threshing are 

mechanized. Crop is cut green in August (mainly by combine in Montana), and 

allowed to ripen. To avoid shattering, pods are harvested when still closed but 

mature, preferably early in the day. Sometimes plants are cut and dried on the 

threshing floor prior to threshing by beating with wooden flails. 


Black Mustard is insect-pollinated. Bees collect the copious mustard 

nectar and produce a mild-flavored, light-colored honey. Mildews appear on the 

leaves causing malformation of flower heads and pods, a situation often 

controlled by sulfur-dusting or spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Main insect pest 

is Mustard sawfly (Athalia lugens proxima), larvae of which feed on the leaves. 

Nematodes include Ditylenchus dipsaci, Heterodera crucifera, H. schachtii, 

Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, Nacobbus aberrans, Xiphinema indicum, 

Pratylenchus penetrans, and P. pratensis 

5.5.7 ENERGY 

After only 30 days, 720-970 kg DM are available from poor soils in India, 

of which 137-176 kg are extractable protein. At 40 days, 1,450-1,610 kg DM with 

226-283 kg extractable protein, at 52 days, 1,680-2,230 kg DM with 215-329 kg 

extractable protein. In a suitable cool but frost free climate, such yields might 



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possibly be repeated every 45 days or so with annual yields closer to 2,400 

extractable protein from 12-18 MT/ha. 

5.5.8 USES 

Black mustard is cultivated for its seeds, the source of commercial tablemustard, 

used as a condiment and medicine. Seeds contain both a fixed and an 

essential oil, used as a condiment, illuminant, lubricant, and soap constituent. 

Black mustard is mixed with white mustard (Sinapis alba) to make mustard flour, 

used in various condiments as "English Mustard" when mixed with water and 

"Continental Mustard" with vinegar. Mustard flowers are good honey producers. 

Mustard is agriculturally used as a cover crop. Mustard oil (allyl isothiocyanate) is 

used in cat and dog repellents. 

4.6 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CANOLA 



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FIGURE-IV: Canola crop and seeds 

Annual or biennial, when sown late and flowering the following spring, with 

slender or stout, hard, long, fusiform tuberous taproot; stems erect, muchbranched, 

up to 1.5 m tall, often purple toward base; leaves glaucous, the lower 

ones lyrate-pinnatifid or lobed, with petioles 10–30 cm long, glabrous or with a 

few bristly hairs, upper stem leaves lanceolate, sessile, clasping, more or less 

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entire; flowers pale yellow, 1.2–1.5 cm long, open flowers not overtopping buds 

of inflorescence; inflorescence much-branched, up to 1 m tall as an elongating 

raceme; silique 5–11 cm long, 2.5–4 mm wide, with slender beak 0.5–3 mm long. 

Underground part curved or crooked for 5–7.5 cm and then dividing into stout 

horizontal branches. Fl. late spring to fall; fr. early summer to fall. 


It is thought that crosses of Brassica oleracea subsp. oleracea (2n = 18) 

with B. rapa (2n = 20) gave rise to subsp. pabularia (2n = 38), from which subsp. 

napus (2n = 38) and subsp. rapifera (2n = 38) and other cvs were derived. 

Brassica napus subsp. napus—'Target type' has dark green leaves, mostly selfpollinated, 

height 1.3–2 m tall, seed very dark brown to black when mature, 

130,000 seeds/lb., maturing in December in Western Australia, requiring 192– 

204 days to maturity. Brassica napus subsp. pabularia (DC.) Janchen (Syn.: B. 

napus var. pabularia (DC.) Reichenb.)—Hanover kale, Leaf-rape, Siberian kale, 

has a slender annual root and crispate, dissected leaves. Brassica napus subsp. 

oleifera DC.—Oilseed rape, Summer rape is a biennial with non-tuberous root 

and lyrate-pinnatifid leaves. Main variety grown in Canada and Western 

Australia, including 'Target', 'Turret', 'Oro', and 'Zaphyr', the last two being free of 

erucic acid. Leading rape cvs for oilseeds in Minnesota are: 'Golden', 'Nugget', 

and 'Tankal which originated in Canada. Winter rape cvs are: 'Tenus', 'Matador', 

and 'Dwarf Essex'. Rapeseed oil is the principal commercial source of erucic 

acid; however, there is no urgency to develop cvs with higher erucic acid content 

since its production is controlled by a single gene. Among annual cvs, 'Argentine 

Black' is the best type to grow in western Canada, as it requires the same time as 

wheat to mature, grows to 66–105 cm tall, with a coarse profusely branched main 

stem, but the fruit tends to split open and shatter the seed. 'Golden' a selection of 

Argentine type, yields 3–4% more oil and is more resistant to 'lodging'. Polish 

rape is 3 weeks earlier maturing than Argentine types, yielding 60–70% as much 

oil. Reported from the Mediterranean and Eurosiberian Centers of Diversity, rape 

or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, high pH, laterite, low pH, and 

virus. (2n = 38) 


Known only as a cultigen, sometimes escaped. Cultivated throughout 

temperate regions, in most European countries, but naturalized in most. 

5.6.3 ECOLOGY 

Canola requires fertile, well-drained soils. It responds favorably to nitrogen 

and phosphate fertilizers, but can be injured by contact with the fertilizer. Use 

only low rates of fertilizers in drills where both seed and fertilizer empty into same 

tubes. Sunny days and cool nights are favorable for growth; dry weather at 

harvest time is essential. Ranging from Boreal Moist to Rain through Tropical Dry 



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to Moist Forest Life Zones, rape is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 

28 dm (mean of 90 cases = 8.3), annual temperature of 5 to 27°C (mean of 90 

cases = 11.6), and pH of 4.2 to 8.2 (mean of 86 cases = 6.2). 


Fall plowing and preparation of a good firm seedbed is desirable as rape 

seeds are small. Cultipacking before seeding make a firm even seedbed. 

Germination must be fast with uniform emergence for the crop to get ahead of 

the weeds. Seed of Polish and Argentine types germinate readily when moisture 

and temperature conditions are suitable. Seed rate and spacing of rows varies in 

different areas. Sow seed with a grain drill, in rows 30-40 cm apart. Because 

seed are so small, it is recommended to mix 50-50 with cracked grain, so as to 

spread out the rape seed; for a 10 kg/ha rate, calibrate the drill for 20 kg/ha of 

mixture. If fertilizer is used mixed with the seed when sowing, sow about 30 

kg/ha of mixture and mix at the time of sowing. Seed may be sown with a grassseed 

attachment, or broadcast and then harrowed or disced lightly. Depth of 

sowing should be 2.5 cm or less, but seedlings will emerge from 5 cm or more if 

soil does not crust on top. Seedlings develop slowly and are easily destroyed by 

drifting soil. Spreading manure where drifting might start helps trap drifting soil. 

Early sowings give higher yields, but crop is more susceptible when emerging, - 

4°C either killing or injuring seedlings, whereas -2°C has no affect when one 

month old. Sowing in late April or early May is best in northern areas; sowing as 

late as June or early July give rather good results. Rape may be planted after 

grains, flax, corn, potatoes, sugar beets or fallow, but not after rape, mustards or 

sunflowers. 


Because the fruit ripens evenly and shatters easily, in order to avoid 

shattering it is recommended that the crop be harvested when yellow and 

windrow to ripen until seed inside is ust changing from yellow to brown. Dry, 

mature seed may be harvested directly with combine. To combine standing crop, 

it is best to leave the crop until seeds are fully ripe, and with reel speed reduced 

to two-thirds normal speed for cereals, harvest crop during cloudy weather when 

plants are moist, thus reducing shattering. In some areas crop is cut by hand and 

then flailed with sticks after drying in sun for a few days. In humid and temperate 

regions, artificial drying may be necessary. 


Rape is 70% self-pollinating and 30% cross-pollinated. Even if wind and 

insects are absent, seed are still produced. Yield increases with honeybees. 

Competes with alfalfa and clover for insect pollination. Rape honey has slightly 

less flavor and granulates more easily than clover honey. Following fungi are 

known to cause diseases in rape: Albugo candida, A. macrospora, Alternaria 



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brassicicola, A. brassicae, A. oleracea, A. tenuis, Botrytis cinerea, Cercospora 

brassicicola, C. armoraciae, Cercosporella brassicae, Cylindrosporium brassicae, 

Cytopus candidus, Erysiphe communes, E. polygoni, Leptosphaerella napi, 

Mycosphaerella brassicicola, Ophiolobus graminis, Pernonospora parasitica, P. 

brassicae, Plasmodiophora brassicae, Phoma lingam, P. napobrassicae, P. 

oleracea, Phyllosticta brassicae, Pythium debaryanum, P. perniciosum, Rhizopus 

oryzae, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia libertiana, S. fuckeliana, S. sclerotiorum, 

Stemphylium consortiale, Tuberculariella brassicae. Viruses causing diseases of 

rape include: Argentine sunflower, Cabbage black-ring, Cauliflower mosaic, 

Cucumber mosaic, Trinidad cucumber mosaic, Turnip crinkle, Tobacco mosaic, 

Yellow spot of Nasturtium. Bacterial diseases are caused by Pseudomonas 

destructans, P. maculicola and Xanthomonas campestris. Insects are major 

pests of rape; sprayings should be planned and official recommendations 

followed. Fleabeetles, cutworms, red turnip beetles attack seedlings, and these, 

along with Diamondback moth, Beet webworm, Bertha armyworm and Imported 

cabbage worm, attack from bud stage until maturity. Red-legged earth mite 

(Halotydeus destructor), in western Australia, Cutworms (Agrotis spp.); Cabbage 

moth (Plutella xylostella); Rutherglen bug (Nysius vinitor); aphids; weevils 

(Listroderes costirostris); Cabbage white butterfly (Artogeia rapae); Australian 

budworm (Heliothis punctigera). Nematodes include Ditylenchus dipsaci, 

Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus, Heterodera crucifera, H. schactii, Meloidogyne 

artiellia, M. hapla, M. javanica, M. sp., Nacobbus aberans, Pratylenchus 

neglectus, and P. penetrans. 

5.6.7 ENERGY 

In Europe, ca 1 million MT rape and colza seed are produced per year. 

One estimate puts the straw associated with such a seed yield at 1.2 million MT 

(DM). However, another estimate would put the straw yield at 5.8 million MT 

suggesting a grain: straw ratio of only 0.17. The oil content runs 35–45%, and oil 

yields of more than 1 MT/ha are reported. In Canada, the report yields of only 

718 kg/ha in the low-glucosinolate cv 'Bronowskil compared to 1,304 for 'Target'. 

Yield data for their 1972 trials at Saskatoon were ca 2,960 kg/ha (41.7% oil) for 

'Target' ca 2,560 (39.6%) for 'Zephyr', ca 3,010 (44.2%) for 'Midas', ca 2,630 

(42.4%) for ISZN71-1788', ca 2,500 (41.7%) for 'SZN71-1787' ca 2,720 (42.3%) 

for 'SZN71-1785', ca 2,550 kg/ha (41.1% oil) for 'SZN71-1784', nearly all yielding 

more than a metric ton oil per hectare (Finlayson et al., 1973). In three 

experiments comparing autumn- and spring-sown rape in Britain, seed yields for 

the spring sown ranged from 963–2,284 kg/ha, for autumn-sown, from 1,787– 

2,783 kg/ha. Not only did the autumn-sown crop have higher yields, it had a 

higher oil content (42.0–44.5%) than the spring sown (35.8–38.5%) (Scott et al., 

1973). Scott et al. (1973), indicate aerial DM yields of 1–2 MT with seed yields of 

about the same magnitude suggesting a straw factor of 1. Rape oil can be used 

as fuel in diesel engines. A mixture of castor oil and rape oil, with 1% α- 



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napththlyamine can be used as a lubricant in internal combustion engines. 

Vegetable oil (safflower, mustard, rape) is better than alcohol as a diesel 

extender, with mixtures up to 75% vegetable oil possible compared with 20% 

alcohol. Vegetable oils provide >2x the gross energy and 10x more net energy. 

Rape yields of 1500 kg/ha would yield 500 kg oil and 1000 kg high protein meal. 

One tenth of a farm's acreage can produce energy for the other 9/10 according to 

some optimistic estimates. The world low production yield was 400 kg/ha in 

Ethiopia, the international production yield was 856 kg/ha, and the world high 

production yield was 3,000 kg/ha in Belgium and Luxemburg (FAO, 1980a). The 

oil content runs 35–45%, and oil yields of more than 1 MT/ha are reported. 

5.6.8 USES 

Grown sparingly for young leaves used as potherb; more generally grown 

as forage for livestock feed, and as source of rapeseed oil. Rape oil used in food 

industry, as an illuminant and lubricant, and for soap manufacture. Residual 

rapeseed cake, though low in food value, used as livestock feed. Rapeseed oil 

has potential market in detergent lubrication oils, emulsifying agents, polyamide 

fibers, and resins, and as a vegetable wax substitute. According to the Chemical 

Marketing Reporter (April 26, 1982) "the most common use for the oil is still in the 

production or erucic acid, a fatty acid used in turn in the manufacture of other 

chemicals. Sprouts are used dietetically and as seasoning. 

5.7 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CASTOR BEANS 



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FIGURE-V: Castor Beans crop and seeds 

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Coarse perennial, 10–13 m tall in the tropics, with the stem 7.5-15 cm in 

diam., but usually behaves as an annual in the temperate regions 1-3 m tall; 

stems succulent, herbaceous, very variable in all aspects; leaves alternate, 

orbicular, palmately compound, 1-6 dm broad, with 6-11 toothed lobes, glabrous; 

flowers numerous in long inflorescences, with male flowers at the base and 

female flowers at the tips; petals absent in both sexes, sepals 3-5, greenish; 

stamens numerous, 5-10 mm long; ovary superior, 3-celled with a short style and 

3 stigmas; fruit a globose capsule 2.5 cm in diameter, on an elongated pedicel, 

usually spiny, green turning brown on ripening, indehiscent in modern cultivars, 

usually containing 3 seeds; seeds ovoid, tick-like, shiny, 0.5-1.5 cm long, 

carunculate, vari-color with base color white, gray, brownish, yellow, brown, red, 

or black, with the outer pattern gray or brown to black, the pattern varying from 

fine to coarse, veined or finely dotted to large splotches, poisonous and 

allergenic, possibly fatel, from 1,000 to 11,000 per kg, commercial varieties 

having 2200 to 3200 per kg (Reed, 1976). 


Reported from the African Center of Diversity, castorbean or cvs thereof is 

reported to tolerate bacteria, disease, drought, fungi, high pH, heat, insects, 

laterite, low pH, mycobacteria, nematodes, poor soil, salt, slope, smog, SO2, 

virus, weed, wind, and wilt. (Duke, 1978). Many cvs developed; two of the best 

commercial ones are: 'Conner' and 'Kansas Common', which give from 51.3 to 

55.6% oil. (2n = 20) 


Probably native to Africa, Castorbean has been introduced and is 

cultivated in many tropical and subtropical areas of the world, frequently 

appearing spontaneously. 

5.7.3 ECOLOGY 

Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Desert to 

Wet Forest Life Zones, castorbean is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 

2.0 to 42.9 dm (mean of 68 cases = 12.7) annual temperature of 7.0 to 27.8°C 

(mean of 68 cases = 20.4) and pH of 4.5 to 8.3 (mean of 29 cases = 6.5). Grows 

best where temperatures are rather high throughout the season, but seed may 

fail to set if it is above 38°C for an extended period. Plant requires 140–180 day 

growing season and is readily killed by frost. Irrigated crops require 2–3.5 acrefeet 

of water to produce satisfactory yields. High humidity contributes to the 

development of diseases. Plants do best on fertile, well-drained soils which are 

neither alkaline nor saline; sandy and clayey loam being best. 



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Castor is propagated entirely by seed treated to resist disease. Seeds 

retain their viability 2-3 years. After seedbed has been deeply cultivated, seed of 

the dwarf cvs in mechanized countries are planted 3.7-7.5 cm deep in rows 1 m 

apart; seeds about 25 cm apart in the rows; at rate of 15 kg/ha. For 

unmechanized societies which prefer larger cvs, seeds are planted 60 by 90 cm 

apart, 2-4 seeds per hole, and then thinned to one plant; this gives about 30,000 

plants/ha. Cultivate shallowly until 0.6-0.9 m high. Irrigation is usual practice in 

the United States; in India castor is a dryland crop. Castor exhausts the soil 

quickly. In the United States 45-135 kg/ha of nitrogen is added in split 

applications. Leaves, stalks and seed hulls are disked into the field following 

harvest. In India 89 kg/ha of nitrogen gives the highest yields. Where phosphorus 

is deficient, 40–50 kg/ha of P2O5 is recommended. In Australia 200 kg/ha of 

superphosphate is applied. Furrow irrigation is preferred, but subirrigation 

reduces weed problems. Normally irrigation commences after plants have 6–8 

leaves; overirrigation on heavy soils should be avoided; final irrigation should be 

3-4 weeks before harvest. In the United States 1,500 to 2,000 cu m of water per 

hectare is applied during the growing season. In Brazil 2,400 cu m of water is 

applied during the 3 months between flowering and harvest, with about 400 cu m 

being applied at each irrigation at 15 day intervals. Seed may be planted by hand 

or with a corn planter with special plates, after the soil has become warm and out 

of danger of frost. Time varies with the locality; Illinois, early May; Venezuela, 

June–July; Australia, August–December; Morocco, March; Brazil (south), 

September–November; Brazil (north), January–March; India, July; Taiwan, 

August–September or April–May. For seed increase, castor should be planted on 

fallow land, and should not follow small grains or another castor crop. In India it is 

rotated with ragi, groundnuts, cotton, dryland chillies, tobacco or horsegram 

(Reed, 1976). 


Non-mechanized societies prefer shattering cvs, as opposed to the nondehiscent 

dwarf strains developed in the United States. Fruits are harvested 

when fully mature and the leaves are dry, in about 95–180 days depending on 

the cv. In tropics, harvest is from wild or native plants. Planting and harvesting 

may be done by hand methods or be completely mechanized. Harvesting should 

begin before rainy season in tropical regions, but in dry regions it is best to 

harvest when all fruits are mature. In India fruit is picked in November; in the 

United States harvesting begins in October. In the tropics most harvesting is by 

hand; the spikes are cut or broken off, the capsules stripped off into a wagon or 

sled, or into containers strapped on the workers. Unless the capsules are dry, 

they must be spread out to dry quickly. In India fruits are collected and spread in 

piles to dry in the sun until they blacken. In the United States drying may be 



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accomplished by frost or by the use of defoliants; chemical defoliants are also 

used in Australia. In South Africa and Australia modified wheat headers are used 

for harvesting; in the United States more expensive harvesters are used which 

shake capsules from plants by jarring plants at their bases. Relative humidity of 

45% or less is required for efficient operation with mechanical harvesters. Seed 

capsules shatter easily in most cvs. Some indehiscent varieties are threshed by 

ordinary grain thresher at 400–800 r.p.m. cylinder speed. After harvesting, seeds 

must be removed from the capsules or hulls, usually with hulling machines if 

capsules are dry. Percentage of seed to hull averages 65–75, depending upon 

the maturity of the seed at harvest. In India seeds are beaten out with sticks, 

winnowed and screened to remove hulls and trash. In South Africa, Brazil and 

the United States seed is decorticated with special castorbean decorticators. 

When small amounts of seed are involved, they may be decorticated on a 

rubbing board. An ordinary thresher is rarely suitable since the beater bar or peg 

drums break up the soft seeds. Castor oil is manufactured by running cleaned 

seed through the decorticating machines to remove the seed coat from the 

kernel; the more complete this operation the lighter the oil. Castor seeds cannot 

be ground or tempered as flaxseed or soybeans. Unbroken or uncrushed seeds 

should be gotten to the press. Preheating may make heavy viscous oil more 

mobile. Seed is put in 'cage' press, and number 1 oil is obtained, which needs 

little refining but has to be bleached. Oil remaining in the press-cake is extracted 

by solvent methods and is called number III oil, which contains impurities, and 

cannot be effectively refined. Castorbean oil can be stored 3–4 years without 

deterioration. 


Castor bean is both self and cross-pollinated by wind, varying from 5-36% 

depending on the weather conditions. Pollen sheds readily between 26-29°C, 

with a relative humidity of 60%. For single cross hybrid seed production, strains 

giving a 1:1 ratio or pistillate and heterozygous monoecious plants are used, the 

latter being rogued 1-5 days before flowering begins. Three-way cross hybrids 

can also be used. For open pollinated types, roguing of all off-types is done after 

the last cultivation, and for pure seed production isolation necessity depends on 

the wind velocity. For hybrid and open pollinated types in the United States, 

stands are isolated 300-720 m, but in areas of less wind velocity, less distance 

may be sufficient. Fungi known to attack Castorbean plants include: Alternaria 

compacta, A. ricini, A. tenuis, A. tenuissima, Aspergillus itaconicus, A. niger, A. 

quercinus, Botrydiplodia manilensis, B. ricinicola, B. theobromae, Botryotinia 

ricini, Botrysphaeria ribis, Botrytis cinerea (Gary mold), Cephalosporium curtipes, 

Cercospora canescens, C. coffeae, C. ricinella, Cercosporella ricinella (Leaf 

spot), Cladosporium herbarum, Clitocybe tabescens, Colletotrichum bakeri, C. 

erumpens, C. ricini, Corticium solani, Didymella ricini, Diplodia natalensis, D. 

organicola, D. ricinella, D. ricini, Discosporella phaeochlorina, Epicoccum nigrum, 



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Erysiphe cichoracearum, Fusarium moniliforme, F. orthoceras, F. oxysporum, F. 

sambucinum, F. semitectum, Gibberella pulicarus, Glomerella cingulata, G. ricini, 

Haplosporella manilensis, Lecanidion atratum, Leveillula lanata, L. taurica, 

Macrophomina phaseoli, Macrophoma phaseoli, Ph. ricini, Macrosporium 

cavarae, M. ricini, Melampsora euphorbiae, M. ricini, Melampsorella ricini, 

Mecrostroma minimum, Mucor fragilis, Mycosporella ricinicola, M. tulasnei, 

Myrothecium roridum, Oidiopsis taurica, Peniophora cinerea, Phoma 

macropyrena, Ph. ricini, Phomopsis ricini, Ph. ricinella, Phyllosticta bosensis, Ph. 

ricini, Phymatotrichum omnivorum (Root rot), Physalospora abdita, Ph. 

propinqua, Ph. rhodina, Ph. ricini, Ph. obtusa, Phytophthora cactorum, Ph. 

cinnamomi, Ph. palmivora, Ph. parasitica, Pleospora herbarum, Pythium 

aphanidermatum, P. debaryanum, P. gracile, P. intermedium, P. proliferum, P. 

ultimum, P. vexans, Rhabdospora ricini, Rhizoctonia solani, Schiffnerula ricini, 

Schizophyllum commune, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, S. minor, S. ricini, S. 

sclerotiorum, Scierotium rolfsii, sphaceloma ricini. The following bacteria also 

cause diseases: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacterium lathyri, B. ricini, 

Pseudomonas solanacearum, Xanthomonas ricini, X. ricinicola. Striga lutea 

parasitizes the plants. Nematodes isolated from Castorbean include: 

Aphelenchoides asterocaudatus, A. bicaudatus, A. subtenuis, Helicotylenchus 

cavenssi, H. pseudorobustus, H. schachtii, Meloidogyne arenaria and var. 

thamesi, M. hapla, M. incognita, M. incognita acrita, M. javanica, M. thamesi, 

Merlinius brevidens, Pratylenchus brachyurus, P. neglectus, P. pratensis, P. 

scribner, P. vulnus, P. zeae, Radopholus similes, Scutellonema clathricaudatum, 

Tricephalobus longicaudatus, and Tylenchorhychus mashhoodi (Golden, p.c. 

1984). Several insects are pests. In India the Capsule borer (Dichocrocis 

punctiferalis) bores into young and ripening capsules; and the Castor semilooper 

(Achoea janata) are the worst pests. In Tanganyika damage by capsid and myrid 

bugs are a limiting factor causing immature fruit to drop. Green stinkbugs, leafhoppers, 

leaf-miners and grasshoppers are pests that feed on the leaves. Most 

insects may be controlled by insecticides. Because some of the varieties are 

quite tall, wind storms are a potential hazard to a crop. 

5.7.7 ENERGY 

Gaydou et al. (1982) rank oilseeds more promising for energy in Malagasy 

than sugarcane and cassava. Castor was least promising of the four oilseeds, 

producing 1,200–2,000 liters oil/ha (equivalent to 11,300 to 18,906 kwh) 

compared to tung at 1,800–2,700 l, purging nut at 2,100–2,800 l, and oilpalm at 

2,600–4,000 l/ha. They calculated ca 1,000 l ethanol for cassava and 2,500 for 

sugarcane. Yields of 5 MT seeds are reported. When the oil is expressed, the 

remaining oil cake amounts to 45-50% of production (Devendra and Raghavan, 

1978). In some of the dwarf temperate trees (treated as annuals), the straw 

factor is not much more than one, but perennial tropical trees may have a 

standing biomass of 25 MT/ha or more. The hull residue is calculated at 0.25 



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times production. Hulls have about the same fertilizer value as fresh barnyard 

manure. 

5.7.8 USES 

Castorbean is cultivated for the seeds which yield a fast-drying, nonyellowing 

oil, used mainly in industry and medicines. Oil used in coating fabrics 

and other protective coverings, in the manufacture of high-grade lubricants, 

transparent typewriter and printing inks, in textile dyeing (when converted into 

sulfonated Castor Oil or Turkey-Red Oil, for dyeing cotton fabrics with alizarine), 

in leather preservation, and in the production of 'Rilson', a polyamide nylon-type 

fiber. Dehydrated oil is an excellent drying agent which compares favorably with 

tung oil and is used in paints and varnishes. Hydrogenated oil is utilized in the 

manufacture of waxes, polishes, carbon paper, candles and crayons. 'Blown Oil' 

is used for grinding lacquer paste colors, and when hydrogenated and sulfonated 

used for preparation of ointments. Castor Oil Pomace, the residue after crushing, 

is used as a high-nitrogen fertilizer. Although it is highly toxic due to the ricin, a 

method of detoxicating the meal has now been found, so that it can safely be fed 

to livestock. Stems are made into paper and wallboard (Reed, 1976). 

5.8 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SUNFLOWER 



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FIGURE-VI: Sunflower crop and seeds 

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Variable, erect, often unbranched, fast-growing, annual herb; stems 0.7- 

3.5 m tall, hirsute; leaves alternate, ovate, long-petroled, lamina with 3 main 

veins, 10-30 cm long, 5-20 cm wide, apex acute or acuminate, lower leaves 

opposite and cordate; flowering head terminal on main stem, 10-40 cm in 

diameter, rotating to face the sun, sometimes drooping, heads on lateral 

branches smaller; outer ray flowers neuter with yellow ligulate corolla, disc florets 

numerous, spirally arranged, perfect; ovary inferior with single basal ovule; 

achenes obovoid, compressed, slightly 4-angled, variable in size and coleo, 

seldom less than 1 cm long, usually from 1-1.5 cm long, full-colored or striped. 

Taproot strong, penetrating to depth of 3 m and with large lateral spread of 

surface roots. Fl. late summer and fall; fr. fall. 


Reported from the North American (and secondarily, the Eurosiberian) 

Center of Diversity, sunflower, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, 

drought, frost, fungi, high pH, laterite, limestone, low pH, mycobacteria, 

photoperiod, poor soil, rust, salt, sand, smog, virus, weeds, and waterlogging 

(Duke, 1978). Botanically, the sunflower is treated as the following subspecies: 

ssp. lenticularis in the wild sunflower; ssp. annuus is the weedy wild sunflower; 

and ssp. macrocarpus is cultivated for edible seeds. Cultivars are divided into 

several types: Giant types: 1.8-4.2 m tall, late maturing, heads 30-50 cm diam., 

seeds large, white or gray, or with black stripes; oil content rather low; ex. 

'Mammoth Russian'. Semi-dwarf types: 1.3-1.8 m tall, early maturing, heads 17- 

23 cm diam., seeds smaller, black, gray or striped; oil content higher; ex. 'Pole 

Star' and 'Jupiter'. Dwarf types: 0.6-1.4 m tall, early maturing, heads 14-16 cm 

diam., seeds small, oil content highest; ex., 'Advance' and 'Sunset'. Gene centers 

are in the Americas, with genuine resources for resistance in southern United 

States and Mexico. Two types of male sterility are known. Although sunchoke is 

the name given to the hybrid with the jerusalem artichoke, much of what is sold 

as sunchoke in the United States is, in fact, straight Jerusalem artichoke. (2n = 

34) 


Native to western North America, sunflower is the only important crop to 

have evolved within the present confines of the United States. Early introduced to 

Europe, Russia, and then in later stages in Pakistan. The species has now 

spread to countries both tropical and temperate. 

5.8.3 ECOLOGY 

Sunflowers are grown from the Equator to 55° N Lat. In the tropics, they 

grow better at medium to high elevations, but tolerate the drier lowlands. They 

thrive wherever good crops of corn are grown, Young plants withstand mild 

freezing. Plants are intolerant of shade. As sunflowers have highly efficient root 



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systems, they can be grown in areas which are too dry for many crops. Plants 

are quite drought-resistant except during flowering. In South Africa, reasonable 

yields have been obtained with 25 cm of rainfall by dwarf cultivars. Giant types 

require more moist conditions. Crop may be grown on a wide range of soils, 

including poor soils, provided they are deep and well-drained. Plants are 

intolerant of acid or waterlogged soils. Ranging from Boreal Moist through 

Tropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life Zones, sunflower tolerates annual precipitation 

of 2–40 dm (mean of 195 cases 11.4), annual temperature of 6–28°C (mean of 

194 cases = 19.6), and pH of 4.5–8.7 (mean of 121 cases = 6.6) (Duke 1978, 

1979) 


Seed, harvested at 12% moisture content and stored, will retain viability 

for several years. Sunflower production may be adapted to mechanized or 

unmechanized societies. Propagation is always by seed. Plant with corn or beet 

planter, 2.5–7.5 cm deep, spaced 0.2 m apart in 0.6–0.9 m rows; seed rate of 5.6 

kg/ha, giving about 62,500 plants per ha. Sunflower may be planted earlier in 

spring than corn since plants are more tolerant to frost. Early weed control is an 

important factor in yield, so cultivate lightly in early stages of crop. Sunflowers 

respond well to a balanced fertilizer based on soil test, usually a 1-2-3 NPK ratio 

is best, with a need for boron and other trace elements on lighter soils. Foliar 

fertilizers of liquid NPK on plants increases yield 62% with one application and 

97% with two applications. Sunflowers should not occur in rotation more than 

once in every 4 years, and should not be in rotations with potatoes. 


Crop matures about 4 months from sowing; some Russian cvs mature in 

70 days. Harvest when involucral bracts turn yellow and seeds become loose, 

but before shedding begins. Harvesting methods are similar to those of corn: 

heads are gathered, dried, and threshed. For fodder or silage, crop is harvested 

at the flowering stage. Seed oil is either cold- or hot-pressed. Cold-pressed oil is 

usually pale yellow, with a mild taste and pleasant odor, much esteemed as a 

salad and cooking oil, especially for butter substitutes. Hot-pressed oil is reddish 

yellow and is used for technical purposes and as burning oil. With modern 

methods, hot-pressed oil may be refined for edible purposes. 


In USDA's Agriculture Research (Dec. 1978), a new pest of sunflower is 

reported. A scarab beetle (Phyllophaga lancolata) devastated more than 400 ha 

near Lehman, Texas. Eucosma womonana, is also a newly reported sunflower 

pest in Texas (Ag. Res., Aug. 1980). Seed set low when selfed, as most cultivars 

seed set low when selfed, as most cultivars are self-incompatible. Florets on one 

head open over 5–6 days and may wait 2 weeks for fertilization. Cross-pollination 



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may be facilitated by 2–3 hives of honeybees per ha, the hives spaced in rows 

300–400 m apart, as they need to be distributed to give coverage to all blooms. 

Gophers dig up seeds; birds eat tremendous amounts of seeds from the 

maturing crop. Insects can be destructive to seeds not stored properly. The 

following fungi are known to cause diseases in sunflowers: Albugo tragopogonis, 

Alternaria tenuis, Alternaria zinniae, Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta helianthi, 

Botrytis cinerea, Cercospora bidentis, Cercospora helianthi, Cercospora 

helianthicola, Cercospora pachypus, Corticium rolfsii, Cystopus cubicus, 

Cystopus tragopogonis, Diaporthe arctii, Diplodina helianthi, Entyloma 

polysporum, Erysiphe chicoracearum, Fusarium acuminatum, Fusarium 

conglutinans, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium javanicum, 

Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sambucinum, Fusarium scirpi, Fusarium 

semitecum, Fusarium solani, Helminthosporium helianthi, Leptosphaeria 

helianthi, Leveillula compositarum, Leveillula taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, 

Oidium helianthi, Ophiobolus helianthi, Phialea cynthoides, Phoma oleracea, 

Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Plasmopara halstedii, Puccinia helianthi, Pythium 

debaryanum, Pythium irregulare, Pythium splendens, Pythium ultimum, 

Rhabdospora helianthicola, Rhizoctonia rocorum, Rhizoctonia solani, 

Rhizoctonia bataticola, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, Sclerotinia 

libertiana, Sclerotinia minor, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septoria 

helianthi, Sphaerotheca fulginea, Sphaerotheca humuli, Uromyces junci, 

Verticillium albo-atrum, Verticillium dahliae. Bacteria reported as infecting 

sunflowers are the following: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacterium melleum, 

Erwinia aroides, Pseudomonas cichorii, Pseudomonas helianthi, and 

Pseudomonas solanacearum. Virus diseases reported from sunflowers are: 

Apple mosaic, Argentine sunflower, Aster yellows, Brazilian tobacco streak, 

Cucumber mosaic, Tomato spotted wilt, Peach ringspot, Peach yellow-bud 

mosaic, Pelargonium leaf-curl, Tobacco necrosis, Tobacco ringspot, and 

Yellows. Sunflowers are parasitized by the following flowering plants: Cuscuta 

pentagona, Cuscuta arvensis, Orobanche aegyptiaca, Orobanche cumana, 

Orobanche muteli, Orobanche ramosa, Striga hermonthica, Striga asiatica, Striga 

lutea, Striga senegalensis. Sunflowers are attacked by many nematodes: 

Anguina balsamophila, Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi, Ditylenchus destructor, 

Ditylenchus dipsaci, Helicotylenchus cavenessi, Helicotylenchus microcephalus, 

Helicotylenchus microlobus, Helicotylenchus pesudorobustus, Heterodera 

schachtii, Longidorus maximus, Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne hapla, 

Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Meloidogyne javanica, Meloidogyne thamesi, 

Paratylenchus minutus, Pratylenchus penetrans, Rotylenchulus reniformis, 

Scutellonema clathricaudatum, Trichodorus christiei, and Xiphinema ifacolum. 

5.8.7 ENERGY 

According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity 

ranges from 3 to 15 MT/ha. North Dakota researchers are testing a small auger 



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press, operated on the farm, that can extract ca 75–80% of the oil in sunflower 

seeds, or ca 55 gallons (barely more than one 42-gallon barrel) from an average 

yield of 1,400 lbs/acre. According to S&E Newsmakers #4 (September 1981), It 

takes one acre's production to farm and produce 8 to 11 more acres, our usual 

10:1 ratio. In North Carolina, Harwood (1981) concluded that sunflower seed was 

most promising for on-farm production of vegetable oil fuels, soybeans, peanuts, 

and cottonseed considered not well suited. Sunflowers yield ca 2.5 MT/ha, with 

ca 40% oil, indicating a potential of 250 gallons oil/ha if seed were processed in 

mill. On farm processing would produce closer to 200 gallons (ca 5 barrels) at a 

cost of more than $2.00 per gallon. Production costs are less than one barrel per 

hectare. Harwood puts the energetic returns at greater than 5:1 compared to 3:1 

for peanuts, 2:1 for soybeans, and 1:1 for cottonseed. Pratt et al. (VODF Seminar 

II, 1981) report an endurance test involving engines fueled with various mixtures 

of sunflower oil (25–50%) with diesel oil (75–50%). Two motors needed repair, 

ten were operating with no apparent difficulties, of which two were said to be 

doing even better. Ohio yields on poor soils (Wood County) were only 260 lb/acre 

(yielding 9.3 gallons of screw press oil); and on good soils (Champaign County), 

1.680 lb/acre (yielding 69.1 gallons oil) cropped after wheat in a double cropping 

system (Ohio Report July–August 1981, p. 63). Sunflower oil should be dewaxed 

before being used as a diesel substitute. In Australia, sunflower first 

commercially planted in 1967, has great potential for expansion as a rainfed 

energy crop. Little water is required for processing oilseeds (unlike ethanol), and 

the seed coat can provide sufficient energy for heat and steam for oil extraction. 

Australians figure a net energy gain of 2 liters for every 3 liters produced (Quick, 

1981). A hundred kg of dry seed will yield about 40 kg oil, 15–25 kg hulls, and 40 

kg proteinaceous meal. Hulls have been pressed into fuel "logs". Threshed 

heads are ground and fed to cattle elsewhere. The heads are rich in pectin 

(Robinson, Ag. Ext. Service, Univ. of Minn.) Sheaffer et al. (1976, Univ. Md. Ag. 

Exp. Station) report studies showing that sunflower yields 33.1 MT silage/ha 

compared to corn at 19.26 MT/ha. According to the phytomass files (Duke 

1981b), annual DM productivity ranges from 3 to 15 MT/ha. DM yields averaged 

closer to 5 MT spaced at 43,000 plants/ha, 8 MT spaced at 172,000 plants/ha 

near Clarksville, Maryland. In these experiments, the sunflower followed barley. 

Jake Page's discussion in Science 81 (July–August 1981, 92–93) is picturesque: 

"But I happen to like sunflowers... They can be grown almost anywhere in the 

country and you can grow between 500 and 3,000 pounds of sunflower seeds on 

an American acre in three months if you're clever. The soil can be lousy, the 

rainfall terrible...if the average American corn farmer put 10 percent of his land 

into sunflowers, he could become self-sufficient in fuel. It seems that using 

vegetable oil may be more efficient, in a net energy sense, than growing plants 

for conversion into alcohol (another nice alternative fuel) because the processing 

for alcohol is more elaborate, expensive, and energy intensive." 



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5.8.8 USES 

Sunflower seed is the world's second most important source of edible oil. 

Sunflower oil is used for cooking, margarine, salad dressings, lubrication, soaps, 

and illumination. A semi-drying oil, it is used with linseed and other drying oils in 

paints and varnishes. Decorticated press-cake is used as a high protein food for 

livestock. Kernels eaten by humans raw, roasted and salted, or made into flour. 

Poultry and cage birds are fond of raw kernels. Flowers yield a yellow dye. Plants 

used for fodder, silage and green-manure crop. Hulls provide filler in livestock 

feeds and bedding. 

5.9 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF COTTON 



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FIGURE-VII: Cotton crop and seeds 

Annual subshrub, up to 1.5 m tall; branches of two kinds: vegetative and 

fruiting; leaves alternate, petiolate, palmately 3-5-lobed, hirsute, blade cordate, 

as broad as long, 7.5-15 cm across; flowers 6-8 on each fertile branch, large, 

white or yellow, subtended by a reduced calyx and 3-4 large green fringed 

bracts; staminal column surrounding style made up of 100 or more stamens; 

ovary superior, 3-5-carpellate; fruit a dehiscent capsule, 4-6 cm long, spherical, 

smooth, light green, with few oil glands; seeds 1 cm long, ovoid, dark brown, 

about 36 per fruit, bearing hairs of two kinds on the epidermis: long fibers called 

lint and short fibers strongly attached to seedcoat called fuzz; weight of 100 

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seeds 10-13 g; well-developed taproot with numerous laterals penetrating as 

deeply as 3 m. Fl. variable as to locality, approx. 3 months after planting. 


Reported from the Middle American, South American, and African Centers 

of Diversity, upland cotton, or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate bacteria, disease, 

drought, fungus, hydrogen floride, high pH, insects, low pH, nematodes, 

photoperiod, sand, virus and waterlogging (Duke, 1978). Authors recognize 

seven entities or botanical varieties: palmeri, morilli, richmondi, vucatanense 

occurring wild on coastal dunes in Central America, and marie-galante, 

punctatum, and latifolium, these latter forms being known as Upland Cotton, 

forming the basis of much of the world's commercial cotton. Hundreds of cultivars 

are known; 'Auburn 56', 'Bayou', 'Auburn 623 RNR' and 'Darminii' being resistant 

to rootknot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. Varieties are sometimes classed 

according to fiber length, as: Long Staple, 'Acala' cultivars; Medium Staple, 

'Deltapine' and 'Coker 100 Wilt', and Short Staple, 'Lankart'. G. hirsutum is an 

allopolyploid containing one set of chromosomes homologous with Old World 

linted cottons (Genome A) and one set of homologous with a New World wild 

species (Genome D). Cytoplasmic male sterility has not yet been found, but 

gametocides are being developed which prevent pollen development in some 

cultivars. (2n = 52) 


Cotton is believed to have originated in Central America. In its transition 

from tropical to temperate regions, American Upland Cotton has lost the 

perennial, short-day habit to become highly vegetative producing few or no 

fruiting branches when grown during long days. Annual forms were developed in 

which all periodicity controls were lost. American Upland Cotton was taken from 

Mexico to United States about 1700. During American Civil War, it was 

introduced into most tropical and subtropical countries of the world. It now forms 

basis of all commercial cotton crops of Africa outside the Nile Valley, all those of 

South America except in Peru and northern Brazil, of the modern Russian crop, 

and much of that of northern India and Pakistan, and the Philippine Islands, as 

well as that of the Cotton Belt of the United States. Upland and Cambodian 

varieties are invading the Chinese crop, and where these cottons are developed 

in southeast Asia, they will be based on these types and hybrids between them. 

5.9.3 ECOLOGY 

Ranging from the Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry 

to Moist Forest Life Zones, Upland Cotton is reported to tolerate annual 

precipitation of 2.9 (irrigated) to 27.8 dm (mean of 36 cases = 11.3), annual 

temperature of 7.0 to 27.8°C (mean of 36 cases = 20.7), and pH of 4.5 to 8.4 

(mean of 31 cases = 66). In the Northern Hemisphere, cotton production extends 



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to 37°N in the United States, 47°N in Soviet Union, and 42°N in Manchuria. In the 

Southern Hemisphere, the limits are 32°S in South America and Australia, and to 

about 30°S in Africa. Sensitive in any stage to frost, cotton limits are set by the 

early and late frosts. Cotton is crop of warm plains, grown commercially from 

sealevel to 1,200 m, with some perennial forms found at 1,800 m. A long-season 

plant, cotton requires a minimum of 180-200 frost-free days of uniformly high 

temperatures, averaging 21-22°C. Full sunlight is critical for proper development. 

Where rainfall is less than 500 mm annually, irrigation should be practiced. 

Amount of rainfall is not as important as when it falls. Heavy rains injure plants. 

Moderate rainfall is preferable during vegetative growth followed by a dry period 

to allow the bolls to mature and be picked. Cotton is tolerant of a wide variety of 

soils, but thrives best on deep, friable, moisture-holding soils with good humus 

supply. Optimum pH is 5.2-7. In India, cotton is grown on black alluvial and red 

soils; in USSR, major crop grown on alluvial soils; in Ukraine, on hernozem soils; 

and in Egypt, on alluvial soils along Nile River. 


Seeds of some cultivars require a 2-3 month period of dormancy. Seeds 

lose viability quickly under moist conditions. Commercial cotton is always grown 

from seed, sown when soil temperatures are at least 18°C. Seed is sown in drills 

or in hills. The hill-drop method is perhaps best if hand-hoe labor is used. Plant 

2.5 cm deep under normal conditions. Seed rate of 17-28 kg/ha gives a good 

stand with 75,000-150,000 plants/ha, allowing for some losses. Row width of 100 

cm is most suitable for mechanization. Seedbed preparation should include 

eradication of residue from past crops, maintenance of drainage, good tilth, 

elimination of hardpans, control of weeds and pests. Periodic cultivation and 

weeding is practiced. Chemical herbicides are routine in many countries. Insect 

control is one of the most costly items. Pre- and post-planting pesticide 

application is practiced. Irrigation is used when soil moisture is inadequate or 

when soil is poor in moisture-holding ability. An increasing amount of cotton is 

grown under irrigation yearly. Fertilizers are also a major item; for large harvests 

nutrients must be continually replaced. Amounts depend on soils; local agents 

should be consulted. Rotation is a recommended practice. Short rainy seasons 

often allow only the single crop to be grown. Where possible, a rotation of fallow, 

wheat, fallow, peas, cotton, fallow has proved practical. 


Planting to flowering is 80-110 days with another 55-80 days until the boll 

opens. Hand-harvesting still accounts for the largest percentage of harvest in 

spite of advances in mechanization. Hand methods provide a higher grade of 

cotton and get more from the fields. One man can pick about 50-110 kg of seed 

cotton per day. On the average a two-row mechanical picker can harvest 1,400 

kg of seed cotton per hour. Proper ginning is important in determining the quality 



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of the fiber and the price. Seed removal is done almost exclusively by one of 

many ginning processes on the market today. After linters and fuzz have been 

removed from seed, the oil is expressed. 


Chan et al. (1978) reported on a condensed tannin (molecular weight 

4,850) that was a major antibiotic component (against Heliothis virescens) 

comprising 3.4% of the dried flower buds. At 0.2% in the diet, the condensed 

tannin retarded larval growth by 84%. Fungi known to cause diseases in cotton 

include the following: Aecidium desmium, A. gossypii, Alternaria gossypina, A. 

humicola, A. macrospora, A. tenuis, Arthrobotrys superba, Ascochyta gossypii, 

Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. glaucus, A. luchuensis, A. nidulans, 

A. ochraceus, A. penicilloides, A. repens, A. ustus, A. versicolor, Botryosphaeria 

ribis, Cephalosporium acremonium, Cephalothecium roseum, Cercospora 

althaeina, C. gossypina, Choanephora conjuncta, Ch. cucurbitarum, 

Cladosporium herbarum, Colletotrichum gossypii, Diplodia gossypina, 

Discosphaerella phaeochlorina, Epicoccum purpurascens, Eremothecium 

ashbyii, Fusarium anguioides, F. coeruleum, F. concolor, F. culmorum, F. 

equiseti, F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum, F. semitectum, F. solani, F. vasinfectum, 

Gibberella fujikuroi, Glomerella gossypii, Helicobasidium purpureum, 

Helminthosporium gossypii, Hendersonia sarmentorum, Humicola fusco-atrata, 

Hypochnus aderholdii, Hyponectria gossypii, Kuehneola desmium, Leptosphaeria 

spp., Leveillula malvacearum, L. taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, Macrosporium 

gossypii, Memnoniella echinata, Monilia crassa, M. sitophila, Mucor racemosa, 

Mycosphaerella areola, M. gossypii, Myrothecium verrucaria, Nectria 

cinnabarina, Nematospora coryli, N. gossypii, Neocosmospora vasinfecta, 

Neurospora sitophila, Nigrospora gossypii, N. oryzae, N. sphaerica, Ozonium 

auricomum, O. texanum, Pellicularia filamentosa, Penicillium glaucum, Pestalotia 

gossypii, Pestalozziella gossypina, Phakospora desmium, Ph. gossypii, 

Phlyctaena gossypii, Phoma corvina, Ph. gossypii, Phomopsis malvacearum, 

Phyllosticta gossypina, Ph. malkoffii, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Physalospora 

rhodina, Phytophthora parasitica, Pleospora nigricantia, Puccinia stakmanii, 

Pullularia pullulans, Pythium aphanidermatium, P. debaryanum, P. ultimum, 

Ramularia areola, Rhinotrichum macrosporum, Rh. tenellum, Rhizoctonia 

aderholdii, Rh. solani, Rhizopus stolonifer, Schizophyllum, commune, Sclerotium 

rolfsii, Septoria gossypina, Stachybotrys atra, S. lobulata, Thielaviopsis basicola, 

Trichoderma viride, Trichothecium roseum, Valsa gossypina, Verticillium alboatrum, 

V. dahliae. Bacterial disease isolated from cotton include: Aerobacter 

closacea, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacillus gossypina, Xanthomonas 

malvacearum. Virus isolated from this cotton include: Abutilon mosaic, 

Anthocyanosis, Brazilian tobacco streak, Enation mosaic, Euphorbia mosaic, 

Leaf curl, and Red-leaf droop. Striga asiatica (S. lutea) parasitizes the plant. 

Some ailments of cotton are due to deficiencies of Ca, K, or Mg, others due to 



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Mn toxicity. Many nematodes attack cotton, and developing nematode-resistant 

varieties of cotton is very important. Some of those isolated from cotton are: 

Aphelenchus avenae Belonolaimus gracilis, B. longicaudatus, Criconemella 

ornata, C. rustica, C. sphaerocephala, Discolaimus paraconura, Helicotylenchus 

cavenessi, H. dihysteria, H. mycrocephalus, H. microlobus, H. pseudorobustus 

Hoplolaimus galeatus, H. seinhorsti, H. paraobustus, H. tylenchiformis, 

Hemicyliphora membranifer, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. thamesii, M. hapla, M. 

incognita, M, incognita acrita, M. javanica, Merlinius brevidens, Pratylenchus 

brachyurus, P. coffeae, P. delattrei, P. pratensis, P. vulnus, Rotylenchus 

reniformis, Scutellonema clathricaudatum, S. bradys, Trichodorus chistei, 

Tylenchorrhynchus annulatus, T. claytoni, T. dubius, T. martini, Xiphinema 

americanaum, X. indicum, X. ifacolum, and X. insigne. The Boll weevil 

(Anthonomus grandis) is the most, destructive of the insects attacking cotton. 

Other insect pests include: Cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), Cotton leaf-perforator 

(Bucculatrix thurberiella), Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), and Bollworms 

(Heliothis zea and H. virescens). 

5.9.7 ENERGY 

The harvest index of seedcotton is 1:2, i.e. for each kg of cotton seed 

there is about 2 kg aerial biomass residue. In some countries (e.g. Turkey, 

Russia), even this is used for fuel. The residue coefficient, defined as the ratio of 

the weight of dry matter of residue to recorded harvested weight, ranges from 

1.20 to 3.00 (assuming both lint and seed are included in production). Upper 

limits were determined by USDA experts (NAS, 1977a). Vaing and Delille (1983) 

report on a modified 25-HP tractor used in Mali which ran on cotton stalks (6.3– 

11.8 Kg /hr). Seedcotton is the usual production and yield unit. Of the 

seedcotton, almost nothing is truly wasted, usually 1/3 is lint, and 2/3 is seed 

(with ca 20% oil, 20% protein). About 5% is called linters, the so-called short 

fibers or fuzz, which is almost pure cellulose acetate. Another 5% is seed coat, 

which contains ca 7% raffinose. The hulls (ca 5%) are ground up and used for 

fertilizer or filler. Noting that diesel fuel energy accounted for 10-24% of total 

energy required for growing and harvesting cotton, fertilizer for 50-65% and 

pesticides for 19-28%, Sistler and Smith (1981) concluded "There are many gocd 

reasons to reduce tillage in cotton, but saving energy may not be one of them if 

the operator has to be replaced with a high energy pesticide." 

5.9.8 USES 

Cultivated primarily for its vegetable seed fiber, the raw material for a large 

volume of textile products, this species is considered the most important of the 

cotton-yielding plants, providing the bulk of commercial cottons. Linters are of 

intermediate texture and shorter than those of G. barbadense. Seeds yield a 

semi-drying and edible oil, used in shortening, margarine, salad and cooking oils, 

and for protective coverings. Residue, cottonseed cake or meal is important 



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protein concentrate for livestock. Pigg (1980) reports that bread, made with 

cottonseed protein is an even better source of protein than enriched white bread, 

six slices of which provide 20% of the adult RDA. Low-grade residue serves as 

manure, bedding and fuel. Fuzz, which is not removed in ginning, become linters 

in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in 

chemical industries such as rayons, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage 

skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives. 

5.10 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF JATROPHA 



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FIGURE-VIII: Jatropha tree and seeds 

Shrub or tree to 6 m, with spreading branches and stubby twigs, with a 

milky or yellowish rufescent exudate. Leaves deciduous, alternate but apically 

crowded, ovate, acute to acuminate, basally cordate, 3 to 5-lobed in outline, 6-40 

cm long, 6-35 cm broad, the petioles 2.5-7.5 cm long. Flowers several to many in 

greenish cymes, yellowish, bell-shaped; sepals 5, broadly deltoid. Male flowers 

many with 10 stamens, 5 united at the base only, 5 united into a column. Female 

flowers borne singly, with elliptic 3-celled, triovulate ovary with 3 spreading 

bifurcate stigmata. Capsules, 2.5-4 cm long, finally drying and splitting into 3 

valves, all or two of which commonly have an oblong black seed, these ca 2 x 1 

cm. 

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Reported from the Central and South American Centers of Diversity, 

physic nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate Slope. There is an endemic 

species in Madagascars J. mahafalensis, with equal energetic promise. (2n = 22) 


Though native to America, the species is almost pantropical now, widely 

planted as a medicinal plant which soon tends to establish itself. It is listed, e.g., 

as a weed in Brazil, Fiji, Honduras, India, Jamaica, Panama, Puerto Rico, and 

Salvador. 

5.10.3 ECOLOGY 

Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Wet 

Forest Life Zones, physic nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 

23.8 dm (mean of 60 cases = 14.3) and annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C 

(mean of 45 cases = 25.2). 


Jatropha grows readily from cuttings or seeds. Cuttings strike root so 

easily that the plant can be Jused as an energy-producing living fence post. 


For medicinal purposes, the seeds are harvested as needed. For energy 

purposes, seeds might be harvested all at once, the active medicinal compounds 

might be extracted from the seed, before or after the oil, leaving the oil cake for 

biomass or manure. 


Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following as affecting Jatropha 

curcas: Clitocybe tabescens (root rot), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (leaf spot), 

and Phakopsora jatrophicola (rust). 

5.10.7 ENERGY 

The clear oil expressed from the seed has been used for illumination and 

lubricating, and more recently has been suggested for energetic purposes, one 

ton of nuts yielding 70 kg refined petroleum, 40 kg "gasoil leger" (light fuel oil), 40 

kg regular fuel oil, 34 kg dry tar/pitch/rosin, 270 kg coke-like char, and 200 kg 

ammoniacal water, natural gas, creosote, etc. In a startling study, Gaydou et al. 

(1982) compare several possible energy species with potential to grow in 

Malagasy. Oil palm was considered energetically most promising. 



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5.10.8 USES 

According to Ochse (1980), "the young leaves may be safely eaten, 

steamed or stewed." They are favored for cooking with goat meat, said to 

counteract the peculiar smell. Though purgative, the nuts are sometimes roasted 

and dangerously eaten. In India, pounded leaves are applied near horses' eyes 

to repel flies. The oil has been used for illumination, soap, candles, adulteration 

of olive oil, and making Turkey red oil. Nuts can be strung on grass and burned 

like candlenuts (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Mexicans grow the shrub as 

a host for the lac insect. Ashes of the burned root are used as a salt substitute 

(Morton, 1981). Agaceta et al. (1981) conclude that it has strong molluscicidal 

activity. Duke and Wain (1981) list it for homicide, piscicide, and raticide as well. 

The latex was strongly inhibitory to watermelon mosaic virus (Tewari and Shukla, 

1982). Bark used as a fish poison (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). In South 

Sudan, the seed as well as the fruit is used as a contraceptive (List and 

Horhammer, 1969–1979). Sap stains linen and can be used for marking (Mitchell 

and Rook, 1979). Little, Woodbury, and Wadsworth (1974) list the species as a 

honey plant. 



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SECTION 6 

AVAILABILITY OF CLASS-I RESOURCES 

6.1 GENERAL TRENDS 

Oil crops in Pakistan are classified as traditional (rapeseed, mustard, 

groundnut, sesame, linseed and castor) and non-traditional (sunflower, soybean 

and safflower) along with oil trees such as olive (being grown here for quite some 

time), and coconut and oil palm (both being recent entries). Cottonseed, 

rapeseed, mustard, groundnut, sesame, sunflower and soybean oils are being 

used for edible purposes, while castor and linseed oils are meant for industrial 

uses. Cottonseed, a by product of cotton crop, is the major contributor (73%) to 

the domestic production of vegetable oil. All these crops fit well in the country’s 

ecology with their production status as follows:- 

During the past two decades cotton has shown a tremendous increase in area 

and production. Its area increased by 63.6% and production by 302%. But due 

to recent leaf curl virus (LCV) problem, cotton production decreased in spite of 

increase in area. There has been slight variation in the province wise distribution 

of area and production. Due to third picking of cotton (being a high return crop), 

appreciable proportion of wheat crop is sown late which is not economically 

attractive, have paved the path for alternate crops such as sunflower. 

• RAPESEED 

Rapeseed mustard group of crops contribute about 16% of the domestic 

edible oil production but their area is continuously decreasing. During the last 24 

years, these have registered reduction of 46% in the area and 23% in production. 

This decrease has been mainlly in Punjab and Sindh while NWFP and 

Balochistan have shown upward trend. One of the major reasons of downward 

trend in this area is the direct competition of rapeseed mustard with wheat and 

winter fodders. 

• GROUNDNUT 

Groundnut cultivation is concentrated in Rawalpindi Division in Punjab, and 

has some presence in Sindh and NWFP. During the last one decade, 

comparative increase in area in NWFP was more and its share in the total pie 

increased to 12.1% in 1992-1993. 

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• SUNFLOWER 

Sunflower was introduced in Pakistan during the early sixties but could not 

get much attention of farmers due to the absence of proper follow up and a 

proper marketing system. The area during 1970-71 to 1980-81 was stagnant, but 

increased from 1980-81 to 1990-91 with fluctuations. The province wise area 

shows that Punjab is sharing 76.6%, Sindh 20.8% and NWFP 2.6%. It is mostly 

being grown by progressive farmers as a cash crop. 

• SOYBEAN 

Soybean could not be popularized; it suffered setbacks due to various 

reasons. Its cultivation remained limited to a small acreage, showing a declining 

trend. In 1993-94, however, it registered some increase in area. This crop is 

popular only in NWFP. Safflower could not get any receptivity in NWFP, Punjab, 

and Balochistan. Even in Sindh, it could not get popularity in spite of repeated 

efforts and maintains only a symbolic presence in the province 

• SESAME 

Sesame, one of the ancient crops of Indo-Pak sub continent, is considered a 

minor crop and is cultivated on a limited area in all the four provinces. Since 

1980-81, the area has almost doubled (44, 100 to 82,200 hectares) where 

Punjab is sharing 42.9%, Sindh 42.2%, Balochistan 10.6% and NWFP 3.9%. 

Linseed is one of the minor oilseed crops, mostly used for non edible purposes. 

Its arrea and production has remained almost stagnant during the last 24 years. 

In 1970-71 Punjab was sharing 99.7% which dropped to 44.1% compared to 

Sindh where it increased from 25 to 55.9%. 

• CASTOR BEAN 

Castor is grown since pre-historic times in this region and is used as a source 

of industrial oil. Its maximum area (45,900 hectares) was planted during 1978-79; 

thereafter it started declining due to lack of demand in the local market and 

diminishing export. During 197-71, the share of Sindh was 59.9%, Balochistan 

31.2%, and Punjab 2.9%. No crop is reported in NWFP. 

• MAIZE 

The maize grain has about 5% high quality edible oil and is popular among 

health conscious people; it fetches a premium price. During the last 24 years, its 

area has increased by 38.4% and production by 86.9%. NWFP is its major 

producer in the country. According to an estimate, if all the maize grain produced 

in the country is used for oil purposes, a total of 46,200 tons of oil can be 

obtained. It would contribute significantly towards total vegetable oil production. 



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• RICE 

Rice bran has high oil content ranging from 14-17% and compares favorably 

with other local vegetable cooking oils. According to an estimate, it can 

potentially contribute 28,200 tons of oil annually. However, it is not being fully 

exploited in Pakistan. 

• OIL PALM 

Oil palm is a recent entry into Pakistan’s edible oils scene. Experimental 

cultivation is restricted to small scatter red patches at Government research 

farms and a few progressive farms in Tando Muhammad Khan and Mirpur Khas. 

The local experience about its production problems is limited. A recent survey 

(1994) conducted by PARC, shows that 95,145 hectares are moderately suited 

and 797,580 hectares marginally suited for its cultivation in four districts of Sindh 

(Thatta, Badin, Hderabad and Mirpur Khas). 

• COCONUT 

Coconut contains 64% oil, which is used for cooking and other purposes. It 

has been grown at the domestic level for a long time. A general survey of PARC 

in 1979 estimated that about 15,000 scattered coconut plants exist in and around 

Karachi and other coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan. 

• OLIVE 

Olive is an important source of good quality oil. It contains 20-30% oil in its 

outer pulp. Many efforts have been made in Pakistan to promote this oil tree. In 

1965, 02-year old saplings of 07 varieties were imported form Italy and planted 

near Fateh Jang, but could not get further propagation due to unknown reasons, 

inspite of showing apparently good tangible results. 

• JOJOBA 

Jojoba contains 50% oil with an impressive industrial potential. In 1980, its 

seeds were imported by PARC and significant work was done on this oil bearing 

crop. Various research studies proved that it can be successfully grown on 

marginal lands, on the borders of Cholistan desert and in the rainfed areas of 

Punjab and Balochistan. 

• PONGAME AND JATROPHA 

Pongame and Jatropha have impressive potential of oil used for production of 

Bio-diesel. Land in Pakistan is available but no significant cultivation was done in 

the past. Clean Power has identified land for mass cultivation of these plants, 

with an objective to ehnhance the production of Bio-diesel sources. 



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6.2 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OIL CROPS IN 

PAKISTAN 

Efficient utilization of agricultural resources is the key element in 

sustainable agricultural productivity. The utilization of land is, however, a 

complex phenomenon as it is simultaneously governed by several factors 

including physical, biological, social and economical. In order to fit in crops of 

priority in the cropping system, the basic requirement is the agro-ecology. While 

discussing oil crops, it is necessary to give small accounts of the respective 

ecologies, which will help understand and correctly assess success and failure in 

achieving productivity of these crops in different regions of the country. In one 

study, Pakistan has been divided into various ecological zones on the basis of 

physiographic, climate and soils. (Table A). 

6.2.1 REGION – 1 

♦ THATTA 

♦ BADIN 

♦ HYDERABAD 

The climate is arid, tropical with moderately hot summers and very mild 

winters. Two types of soils are prominent; clayey and silty. The clayey soils 

contribute one half of the area which occurs in shallow basins and is strongly 

saline. The cultivated areas have mostly non-saline clayey soils. The remaining 

50% area is silty and leveled to flat region. Soils are strongly saline and stratified 

with thin layers of silt loam and very fine sandy loam. 

Parts of the irrigated areas having clayey soils are covered with rice, 

sugarcane, pulses (lentil and matri) and berseem fodder. Banana orchards are 

also grown here. This region can offer appreciable area for oil palm and coconut 

plantations. Other oilseed crops which can be grown here are sunflower, 

rapeseed-mustard, soybean and castor. 



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6.2.2 REGION – 2 

♦ HYDERABAD ♦ NAWABSHAH 

♦ BADIN ♦ JACCOBABAD 

♦ THARPARKAR ♦ SUKKUR 

♦ SANGHAR ♦ RAHIM YAR KHAN 

♦ DADU ♦ SIBI 

♦ KHAIRPUR ♦ SHIKARPUR 

♦ LARKANA ♦ 

The lower Indus plains have been formed by the meandering and shifting 

courses of the Indus river. The region has been divided into a series of flood 

plains of different ages and having distinct micro-surface configurations. Manchar 

lake mostly derives its water during the summer season form this region. Main 

soils are calcareous silt loam and silty clays with weak structure and good 

porosity. About 20% area is salt-affected, some of these are saline sodic but 

others contain gypsum. The climate is arid, sub-tropical, and continental with hot 

summers and mild winters. The zone can be sub-divided into northern and 

southern regions. The northern region is extremely hot in summer. Southern 

zone is comparatively mild. This is canal-irrigated (left bank Indus) land 

predominately occupied by cotton, wheat, mustard, sugarcane and barseem. 

Rice, wheat and barseem are the main crops on the right bank. Sorghum is the 

main crop in the southern part of Dadu district because of water shortage. 

Safflower can be grown on residual moisture after rice and castor on marginal 

lands in all over this region. Rapeseed-mustard already occupies an appreciable 

area, therefore, can be further promoted easily. Sunflower and soybean also 

have a wide scope of horizontal increase in this region. 

6.2.3 REGION – 3A 

♦ THARPARKAR ♦ RAHIM YAR KHAN 

♦ KHAIRPUR ♦ BAHAWALPUR 

♦ NAWABSHAH ♦ BAHAWALNAGAR 

♦ SANGHAR 

This region includes Thar and Cholistan deserts. The entire sandy desert 

is spotted with xerophytic vegetation. Water run-off collected in the adjoining 

dunes conserve enough moisture for scanty agriculture in the southern part of 

this region. The area is mainly barani, with shortage of water for cattle and 

human consumption. The climate is arid (desert), sub-tropical with very hot 

summers and mild winters. Being a desert, the region has sandy soils and 

moving sand dunes. The clayey soils are saline sodic over half of the area but all 

calcareous with weak structure. Main land use of this region is grazing of sheep 

goats, camels and cattle. Guar and millet are important crops of the south which 

are grown during favorable rainfall. In southern part of the region, where rainfall 



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is about 30 mm, wheat is also an important crop on loamy soils and castor is 

grown on sandy loam. Groundnut, jojoba, sesame, rapeseed-mustard and 

safflower can also be grown in this region for which promotion programmed 

would be needed. 

6.2.4 REGION – 3B 

♦ MUZAFFARGARH 

♦ MIANWALI 

♦ SARGODHA 

The climate is arid to semi-arid and sub-tropical continental. This area has 

stable sand ridges which have sand and loamy fine sandy soils. All the soils are 

moderately calcareous and have low organic matter. In addition, some narrow 

strips of silty and clayey soils exist which are moderately to strongly calcareous 

and locally saline sodic. Predominant land use of the area is grazing of livestock 

(goat, sheep, camels and cattle). The northern part where rainfall ranges 

between 300-350 mm is used for dry farming mainly gram and wheat. Some area 

is under canal irrigation and cotton, sugarcane, guar, millet and wheat are grown. 

This area has great potential for groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, castor, sesame 

and jojoba plantation. Sunflower can also creep in some niches of this region. 

6.2.5 REGION – 4A 

♦ BAHAWALNAGAR ♦ KASUR 

♦ RAHIM YAR KHAN ♦ FAISALABAD 

♦ MULTAN ♦ JHANG 

♦ VEHARI ♦ SHEIKHUPURA 

♦ MUZAFFARGARH ♦ GUJRANWALA 

♦ SAHIWAL ♦ SARGODHA 

♦ LAHORE ♦ GUJRAT 

This region includes the land between Sutlaj and Jhelum rivers comprising 

of Rachna, Chaj and Bari Doaabs and is rated superior agricultural land of the 

country. The eastern half has semi arid (steppe) sub tropical continental type of 

climate. The south western portion of this zone has arid sub tropical continental 

climate. The soils are loam to clay loam. Southern and central parts are 

dominated by calcareous silt loams with weak structure, whereas clay soils are 

minor and occurring in patches. The soils are deep. Suitable crop rotations can 

accommodate oilseeds. Most common are cotton sunflower/soybean, ricesunflower/soybean-rice 

and potato-sunflower/soybean-potato. Inter-cropping is 

also possible. Such as soybean, sunflower with sugarcane, melons with 

sunflower, cotton with soybean, etc. Canal irrigated cropping is the main land use 

of this region. In the northern parts, rice, wheat and are seem are the main crops 

on clayey soils and wheat, sugarcane, melon and oilseeds are grown on loamy 



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soils. In the southern parts, the main crops are cotton, sugarcane, maize and 

wheat. Fruit orchards of citrus and mango are also important especially in the 

central parts. Sunflower, rapseed-mustard, soybean and linseed are the main 

crops grown in this region and have a wide scope for further expansion. 

6.2.6 REGION – 4B 

♦ PESHAWAR 

♦ MARDAN 

The valley of Peshawar is irrigated by the Kabul river and its tributaries, 

the Swat and Kalapani rivers. These river systems are perennial. The central part 

of the Peshawar valley, a flat plain is one of the most fertile areas of the country. 

it has semi-arid (steppe) sub tropical continental type of climate with little rain 

both in winter and summer. The soils of central parts of the valley are clayey 

(silty clays and silty caly loams) and slightly-to-moderately calcareous. It is the 

most intensively cultivated region. The canal irrigation is predominant and main 

crops are sugar beet, tobacco, wheat and barseem. Lately, sugar beet and 

tobacco has gained importance. Fruit orchards, pears, peaches and plums are 

considerably covered. Some dry area is planted with wheat, millet, gram and 

groundnut. Sunflower, rapeseed, mustard, soybean, groundnut and olive are the 

potential oilseed crops of this region. 

6.2.7 REGION – 5 

♦ D.I.KHAN ♦ RAWALPINDI 

♦ BANNU ♦ JHELUM 

♦ MIANWALI ♦ GUJRAT 

♦ ATTOCK ♦ GUJRANWALA 

♦ ABBOTABAD ♦ SIALKOT 

The region covers the salt range, potowar plateau and the Himalayan 

piedmont plain. The salt range separates the pothowar plateau form the Indus 

plain. The region is nearly humid with hot summers and colds winters. Most of 

the agriculture is dependent on rain; however, in some valleys, spring-water and 

water collected in small dams is available for irrigation. Soils of the eastern part 

of the region are predominant silt loams, silty clay loam, and clay laoms. In the 

southern and south-western parts, the soils are mainly calcareous and loamy. 

Rained cultivation, mainly wheat and millet are the predominant crops. Eastern 

parts are irrigated. The clay soils are covered with rice and wheat and the loamy 

soils are used for millet, maize, wheat, oilseeds, pulses and fodder. This plateau 

offers a vast area for groundnut and sesame cultivation. Rapeseed-mustard and 

sunflower crops have great potential to become major contributors. Quite 

significant part of it can be converted in to canola belt with minimum efforts. 

Castor, jojoba, safflower and soybean also have niches for cultivation. 



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6.2.8 REGION – 6 

♦ RAWALPINDI 

♦ HAZARA 

♦ MANSEHRA 

Swat and Kohistan area is in the north with high mountains. The southern 

mountainous areas have small mountain ranges and plateaus. The climate is 

classified as humid with mild summers and cold winters without any pronounced 

dry season. The soil texture is silt loams to silty clays and is either noncalcareous 

or slightly calcareous with pH ranging from 5.8-8.1. About 25% of the 

area is under rain fed cultivation and the remaining area is under forests. In rainfed 

areas, the main crops are maize and wheat. Rice is grown in small areas 

which are irrigated with water form springs or streams. Fruit orchards of apples 

are important at altitude above 1500 m. On low hills, olive is grown. Olive, 

soybean, groundnut and rapeseed-mustard are the target oilseed crops for this 

region. 

6.2.9 REGION – 7 

♦ CHITRAL ♦ FATA 

♦ DIR ♦ PATA 

♦ SWAT ♦ KOHAT 

The region shares boundaries of Karakuram Mountains and valleys. 

These valleys are characterized by extreme aridity. However abundant water for 

irrigation on terraces is available. It has mild summers and severe winters. Soils 

are deep clayey formed of alluvial materials. Soils at 2100 m altitude are 

characteristically non calcareous and acidic, with pH 5.5-6.5. Most of the area is 

used for grazing; however, a major part is under forest. Deep part of the valleys 

is used for growing maize and wheat under rain fed conditions. Under favorable 

conditions, rice is also grown. Fruit orchards are confined to flanks of streams 

where irrigation water is available. At lower altitudes, olive and soybean can be 

promoted. In valleys, soybean, rapeseed-mustard and sesame are potential 

crops. 

6.2.10 REGION – 8 

♦ KOHAT ♦ KALAT 

♦ BANNU ♦ SIBBI 

♦ FATA ♦ QUETTA 

♦ ZHOB ♦ KARACHI 

♦ LORALI 



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It is composed of barren hills with steep slopes and plateaus intervened by 

valleys. Most of the soil has xerophytic bushes and grasses. There are numerous 

hill torrents which carry flash floods. It is arid and semi-arid high land with mild 

summers and cold winters. Being a mountainous area with valleys, the soil is 

mainly calcareous but deep and loamy. The lower part has strongly saline loamy 

soils. The flood water is collected in Bandats and crops are grown on residual 

moisture. 

It is predominantly a grazing area; however, a small area is covered with 

orchards of apple, peaches, plums, apricot and grapes. Alfalfa, maize and wheat 

are also grown where irrigation water is available. Rapeseed-mustard, 

groundnut, sesame, sunflower and olive are the potential oil crops for this region. 

6.2.11 REGION – 9 

♦ KARACHI ♦ KHARAN 

♦ DADU ♦ GHAGI 

♦ MAKRAN ♦ LASBELLA 

The northern part of the region comprises of mountains with intermountain 

basins and plateaus. The southern part forms watershed, the drainage of which 

enters the Indus plain on the east and the Arabian sea on the south. The region 

has arid tropical type of climate with consistently dry season. The coastal belt 

receives sea breeze and therefore, the summer is not too hot along the coast. 

Soils in the plain area are deep, strongly calcareous, silt loam with weak 

structure. Vegetation in xerophytic and is characterized by thorny shrubs and 

grasses in the lower region. High altitudes have forests of juniper and wild olive. 

Cultivation on deep valley soils depends mainly on spate irrigation by diverting 

torrent water into fields. In the north, what is the main crop but melons are also 

grown. In the south, sorghum and millet are the important crops. Along the coast, 

castor bean is grown very extensively. This region offers suitable area for oil 

palm and coconut cultivation. Castor cultivation can easily be expanded manifold. 

Sunflower, rapeseed-mustard and safflower have great scope in Bandats of 

Balochistan. 

6.2.12 REGION – 10 

♦ D.I. KHAN 

♦ D.G. KHAN 

♦ KARACHI 

It comprises the piedmont plains of the Suleiman ranges, sloping towards 

the Indus River. The large numbers of hills rains often introduce flash floods 

which are trapped for Rodkohi irrigation. Climate of this region is arid and hot sub 

tropical continental. The soil is loamy in gentle sloping near the mountains but 



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clayey in leveled areas. All these soils are strongly calcareous. Strong salinity 

and or sodicity occur only in a narrow strip at the junctions of piedmont plain and 

the river flood plain. Torrent water cultivation is the main land use under which 

wheat, sorghum, millet and some gram are grown. A part of the clayey soils in 

the central part of the region are under canal irrigation where sorghum and 

rapeseed mustard are the main crops. Rice is grown in narrow strips forming the 

junction of the piedmont and river plains. Sunflower, mustard, soybean, 

safflower, castor and ground nut are the target oilseed crops for promotion and 

horizontal spread. 

6.3 COMMENTS 

In Pakistan, where the population is increasing at an annual rate of 3.1%, 

the staple food crops (wheat, rice and other grains) have very high priority 

substantiated by the need for food security and political stability. Oilseed crops 

occupy a secondary position in this scenario. Keeping this fact in view, the scope 

for horizontal expansion of oilseeds is rather limited. Further expansion would, 

therefore, be possible in areas which are under-exploited and where competition 

with other crops is not much. Some additional area can be brought under 

oilseeds by enhancing the land use efficiency. It could be done by using the 

fallow lands available in different cropping stems. Inter cropping in the major 

crops can also offer more area. However, most of our efforts should concentrate 

on vertical expansion through increasing crop productivity. This would be the 

most logical approach for future and can be achieved through developing area 

specific production technologies and high yielding varieties. District-wise potential 

areas in the four provinces available for promotion of various oilseed crops and 

trees are indicated in Table B. 

• Rapeseed-mustard can be grown as autumn and winter crops. At present, 

the total area under these crops is about 223 thousand hectares. It can be 

increased to more than 800 thousand hectares mostly utilizing rain-fed 

areas, where crop competition is not very high. Zaid-Kharif season is 

another avenue for horizontal expansion which offers a sizeable land for 

its cultivation as a catch crop. The present practise of its inter cropping 

with rabbi fodder and wheat can also be encouraged. Eruca sativa and 

Brassica juncea can be promoted on marginal and culture able dry areas 

as these crops are substantially drought tolerant. 

• Groundnut is an established crop and is presently grown on an area of 

about 90 thousand hectares. Since the crop requires sandy soils for 

optimum production, it enjoys a very specific agro ecological niche where 

it has least competition with any major crop. Vast additional area of about 



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339,000 hectares can be brought under it in its specific ecological zone as 

rain fed crop. It also has scope for expansion in irrigated areas where soils 

are sandy loams and are not attractive for other crops. 

• Sesame is grown in irrigated as well as rain fed areas on about 78,000 

hectares in all the provinces. It is a hardy crop and has potential for further 

expansion in rain fed areas. It can be also be grown on the margins of 

fields in irrigated areas in addition to its mono culture in small blocks. It 

can also be inter cropped with some kharif crops. Potentially, its area can 

be increased to 313,000 hectares by putting it in different cropping zones. 

• Like maize, sunflower can be grown almost all over Pakistan. The crop is 

already grown in rotations such as cotton-sunflower-cotton, rice-sunflowerrice, 

potato-sunflower-potato. It can also be introduced on riverine and 

northern semi arid rain fed areas. It is estimated that more than 800,000 

hectares is available for its promotion in the entire four provinces. 

• Safflower being native of this region is grown for centuries and has shown 

good performance in rice areas of Sindh, as Dobari crop. Considerable 

area which is left fallow after rice can be brought easily under this crop. 

Being deep rooted; it has potential on residual moisture in rain fed areas 

of Balochistan, Sindh, Punjab and NWFP. As a conservative estimate, 

about 165 thousand hectares can be brought under its cultivation. 

• Presently maximum area of soybean is in the province of NWFP indicating 

its suitability for this region. Its further promotion in Malakand/Swat/Dir, 

Mardan, Swabi, Mansehra and Peshawar areas is possible. It has also 

been successfully cultivated in Sindh and Punjab provinces. Some of the 

marginal rice area in northern Punjab can be replaced by soybean as a 

better alternate crop since rice production is surplus. It is estimated that 

about 0.2 to 0.3 million hectares of rice crop can be easily replaced by 

better alternate crops, for which soybean is the best option. For this 

purpose an appreciable area in Gujrat, Sargodha, Sheikhupura, Kasur, 

Sahiwal and Okara can be diverted for soybean cultivation. 

• The climatic requirements for castor cultivation prevail throughout Sindh, 

Punjab, some parts of Balochistan and NWFP. This offers a vast area for 

castor production in all the four provinces. Most of the Sindh province 

usually remains frost free; therefore, two crops can easily be grown in a 

year. Conventional castor growing areas are Lasbella and Tharparkar, but 

its plants are found growing almost all over the country, indicating its 

suitability and hardy nature. Its area can be increased to 290,000 hectares 



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fairly easily. Its plantation on field borders and water channels will be 

another easy and quick way for enhancing its production. 

• Jojoba is a prospective crop for areas where no oil field crop can be grown 

successfully. Patronizing it and adding to options for trade off in an effort 

to achieve self-reliance in indigenous edible oil production, would be a 

good strategy. 

• Like jojoba, the marine halophyte, Sapphire offers great promise for 

increased vegetable oil production in areas where no other crop competes 

with it for resources such as land, water etc. The studies on is agronomy 

and other aspects related to production may be started and its prospective 

areas along sea coast and sandy deserts be identified. 

• As indicated earlier, Pakistan has approximately 200,000 hectares under 

wild olive in various parts of the country which can be converted to bearing 

olive. The main areas of concentration are the north western parts of 

Punjab, Azad Kashmir, Soan Valley, Kherimurat range in Attock distric, 

Taru near Peshawar and Swat in NWFP and AJK. It can also be extended 

to other areas of the country including Soan Valley and Balochistan. 

• The scope for establishing coconut plantation in the southern irrigated belt 

of Sindh and along the 800 km long sea coast is bright. The plantations 

can be established both in the form of linker plantations around the rice 

fields in G. M. barrage area and also in the form of regular plantations. 

Being a slat tolerant plant, it can flourish well all over such areas. 

• According to a survey conducted by PARC, Islamabad, a large area of 

lower Sindh region is suitable for cultivating oil palm and coconut. The 

survey classified the land as moderately well suited for its cultivation. The 

potential areas are shown in Table C. 



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Table A: Land identified as suitable for the cultivation of oil palm 

Name of Location Area (ha) 

Class B 



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Land 

Name of Location Area (ha) 

Class C 

Land 

K. T. Bandar 3,389 Matli 11,264 

Ghora Bari 13,728 Tando M. Khan 29,999 

Shah Bandar 9,036 Nindo Shah 11,917 

Pir Putho 2,606 Tando Bago 4,652 

Chur Jamali 10,167 Kunri 6,449 

Thatta 3,041 Umerkot 26,283 

Arbab Abdullah 11,382 Digri 85,174 

Tando M. Khan 34,670 Jhudo 6,775 

Natal 6,604 Jamesabad 38,138 

Khalhar 792 Tando Allahyar 47,261 

Tandojam 108,154 

Mirpur Khas 22,487 

Khirpro 23,315 

Tando Adam 24,392 

Hala 18,936 

Total 92,121 465,196 

6.4 CROP SPECIFIC CONSTRAINTS 

6.4.1 SUNFLOWER AND RAPESEEDS 

Sunflower, rapeseed-mustard, soybean, groundnut, safflower, sesame 

and linseed contribute in domestic oilseeds production. These are recognized as 

minor crops and farmers give a lower priority to them at the time of crop selection 

process. This psyche of the growers by itself is a big bottleneck for their future 

propagation. Though rapeseed-mustard are familiar crops for the farmers and 

has no marketing problems, their area has declined due to direct competition with 

wheat, chick pea, lentils and winter fodders. Rapeseed mustard oil is not regular 

cooking oil due to the presence of higher erucic acid and glucosinolates and 

therefore, it cannot be used more than 5% in oil blending for ghee manufacturing. 

6.4.2 GROUNDNUT 

Groundnut area increased at a slow rate but productivity could not 

increase due to medium and low yielding varieties, use of marginal lands and 

application of low inputs. It is mostly grown on low fertility soils having low water 

holding capacity. In irrigated areas, it is substituted by other high income crops. 

Non-availability of quality seed and use of low seed rate, lack of plant protection 

measures, high cost of harvesting, non-availability of machinery, highly 

fluctuating market prices, limited demand and economic non viability of oil 

extraction are the major obstacles in the promotion of this crop. 

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6.4.3 SESAME 

Sesame is a low yielding crop due to its poor genetic potential. Higher 

yiedl losses in the field and during post harvest handling due to shattering, and 

absence of plant protection practices are the major restraints. Recently there 

have been breakthroughs in commercial varieties in USA which can help 

enhance its production. Linseed is a minor oilseed crop grown on small acreage. 

It is low yielding plant carrying low returns. Not much work has been done to 

improve its varieties. 

6.4.4 COTTON 

The farmers have shown considerable interest in growing sunflower to 

supplement their incomes. However, the efforts for its promotion have not been 

optimally effective. Its national average yield confirms the production technology 

gaps which result in low productivity. Inadequate transfer of technology and its 

poor adoption are the major reasons for low productively. It needs more inputs 

(high nutrients doses at the time of planting) and managerial attention. High 

temperatures at grain filling stage restrict seed development and tax 

considerable yields. Presently, most of the sunflower varieties have long maturity 

and thus delay planting of cotton crop. Early and medium maturity varieties have 

long maturity and thus delay planting of cotton crop. Early and medium maturity 

varieties with high yield are needed. All the hybrids grown are of exotic origin. 

Their seed is imported and therefore, is costly. This adds to the input cost. Some 

of the sunflower problems are unique, like bird attack at maturity, which causes 

considerable yield losses, laborious harvesting, drying and cleaning of seeds and 

other post harvest issues. 

6.4.5 SOYBEAN 

Soybean has never picked up appreciable area in Sindh, Punjab and 

Balochistan. In NWFP it has a significant presence but faces a lot of difficulties in 

spreading further. Because of late maturing varieties, it faces difficulty in fitting 

well in rice-soybean-rice and cotton-soybean-cotton rotations. The seed loses its 

viability quickly and seed rate is considerably high. Its further exxpansion poses 

serious problems of seed production, storage and transportation. Its variety 

requirements also change with change in latitude form South to North. Hence, 

Pakistan needs different varieties for different provinces. Soybean inoculums 

produced at NARC needs special care for keeping its vialbitiy intact while 

transported over long distances. The crop is susceptible to tobacco mosaic virus 

which taxes the yield consideralby. Non availability of threshers and considerable 

yield losses due to shattering are also the limitations in its further promotion. 



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6.4.6 SAFFLOWER 

Safflower is not accepted by farmers due to its spiny nature. When dry, its 

stinging pinted leaves make manual harvesting unpleasant. It is a long duration 

plant, photosynthetic ally inefficient and low in oil content. However, obtaining 

high yield under good management and optimum inputs in possible. Weak efforts 

on variety improvement and lack of proper harvesting and threshing machinery 

are the other handicaps. 

6.4.7 PONGAME AND JATROPHA 

Farmers, forest department and local communities of Pakistan are not well 

aware about the importance of these plants. So no mass plantation was found in 

Pakistan as per studies by Clean Power. Clean Power is the first company to 

start an awareness program about the cultivation of these plants, and about the 

uses of oil from these plants. Both plant species have no specific constraints for 

their cultivation. 

6.5 GENERAL PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS 

Several compulsions in the overall agricultural sector do have their 

implications on oilseed crops. Management of water resources and supply of 

inputs are the obstacles in improving production. Growers need quality inputs for 

improving production but immoral an illicit practices cause heavy losses. 

Appropriate machinery for planting, harvesting and threshing is also not available 

at the right time. Oilseed crops are given low priority, therefore, are grown on 

marginal lands. This results in low yields and return to farmers, thereby 

accelerating the vicious cycle of low productivity. 

Agriculture support services are provided mostly to major crops only, and 

oilseeds crops do not get much focus. This leads to lack of know-how of 

production technologies. Inputs are also not used optimally because of low level 

of crop technology and non-availability of production credits and area-specific 

production technologies. Large gaps exist between actual and potential yields. 

No proper arrangements are available in the county for the production of prebasic, 

basic and certified seed of oilseed crops. Imported seed is expensive and 

adds to high cost of inputs, thus pushing the small farmers away. The induction 

of the private sector into seed supply proved tardy. The public seed sector is slag 

with all its inherited inefficiencies. 



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6.6 STATUS OF SHORT-LISTED FIELD CROPS 

6.6.1 PONGAME 

Pongame is a fast growing medium-sized tree. It is introduced as a shady 

ornamental tree in recent years by forest department. It is cultivated along the 

road sides in Islamabad city only and some areas of Rawalpindi. No exect data 

exist on the number of trees in these twin cities. The Pongame tree is cultivated 

for two purposes: (1) as an ornamental tree in gardens and along avenues and 

roadsides, for its fragrant Wisteria-like flowers and (2) as a host plant for lac 

insects. It has been appreciated as an ornamental tree in recent years in 

Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Well-decomposed flowers are used by gardeners as 

compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. Its leaves serve as green manure and 

as fodder. The seeds contain pongam oil… a bitter, reddish brown, thick, nondrying, 

nonedible oil, 32-36% by weight. The wood is yellowish white, coarse, 

hard, and beautifully grained, but is not durable. Use of the wood is limited to 

cabinetmaking, cart wheels, posts, and fuel. Both the oil and residues are toxic. 

Still the press cake is described as a "useful poultry feed." Seeds are used to 

poison fish. Still it is recommended as a shade tree in the country according to 

forest department. Dried pongame leaves are used in stored grains to repel 

insects. Leaves often plowed green manure, thought to reduce nematode 

infestations. Its int-o ground as spreading roots make it valuable for checking 

erosion and stabilizing dunes. Twigs are used as a chew stick for cleaning the 

teeth. The ash of the wood is used in dyeing. 

6.6.2 RAPESEED - MUSTARD 

Rapeseed-mustard play an important role in the oilseed sector as it is the 

major group of winter oil crops and contributes about 16 percent edible oil in the 

domestic production. The area of these crops has been decreasing since 1970- 

71. During 1970-71, its area was 0.510 million hectares with a production of 

0.269 million tons. Within one decade, i.e. by 1980-81, its area decreased to 

0.417 million tons and production to 0.252 million tons. This decreasing trend is 

still continuing. Presently, the area has declined to 0.275 million hectares with a 

production of 0.207 million tons, thus registering a reduction of 46.1 percent in 

area and 22.9 percent in production during the last 24 years (Table 2). 



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Table 2: Area, production & average yield of rapeseed-mustard in Pakistan 

Period yield Area Production Average 

(000 ha) (000 tons) (kg/ha) 

1970-71 510.0 269.0 527 

1980-81 417.0 252.5 606 

1989-90 307.1 233.1 759 

1990-91 303.5 228.3 752 

1991-92 286.5 219.7 767 

1992-93 284.6 206.9 727 

1993-94 268.5 197.4 735 

1994-95 275.1 207.4 754 

Annual growth rate 

% 

-2.54 -1.08 1.51 

735 



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727 

754 

767 

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527 

752 

606 

759 

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1970-71 

1980-81 

1989-90 

1990-91 

1991-92 

1992-93 

1993-94 

1994-95 

FIGURE-IX: Avg yield of Mustard in Pakistan (Kg/ha) 

Reduction in rapeseed-mustard area in Punjab and Sindh is conspicuous 

while in NWFP and Balochistan it increased by 1.2% and 6.4% respectively. The 

average yield is very low compared to other countries. However, it increased 

from 526 kg/ha in 1970-71 to 754 kg/ha in 1994-95 showing 1.51% annual 

growth rate. 

Rapeseed-mustard is unfortunate in the sense that it has direct 

competition with wheat, as both are grown in the same season. Farmers prefer to 

grown wheat as it is a staple food and crop. Rapeseed mono-culture on large 

blocks of 5 to 10 acres is rarer. It is now diverging mostly into intercrop with 

winter fodder and wheat and catch crop in Zaid Kharif season. Assuming no 


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change in production incentives, it is logical to expect a further decrease in area 

in the years to come. 

6.6.3 CASTOR 

Castor originated in the Indo-Pak sub-continent; has been growing here 

since time immemorial. Its oil is mostly used for industrial purposes and is an 

excellent lubricant for high speed aero-engines. Castor is found growing wild in 

abundance and on the side of water courses almost everywhere in Pakistan. As 

a crop it is mostly cultivated in Sindh and Balochistan. In 1970-71, a total of 

14,312 hectares were planted, producing 4,675 tons of seed. The area reached 

its peak in 1978-79 (45,986 hectares) producing 35,349 tons of seed (Table 3). 

Since then, the area is on decline and now (1993-94) it is grown on 2,159 

hectares only. The fall in area was due to non-availability of improved varieties, 

lack of demand in the local market and the loss of export markets. 

Table 3: Area, production and average yield of Castor in Pakistan 


(000 ha) (000 tons) (kg/ha) 

1970-71 14.31 4.68 323 

1980-81 45.99 35.35 769 

1989-90 23.46 18.28 779 

1990-91 15.69 10.29 656 

1991-92 15.11 9.94 658 

1992-93 3.05 2.09 686 

1993-94 7.78 5.74 738 

1994-95 2.16 1.58 729 


% 

-7.9 -4.6 3.6 



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738 

686 

323 

729 1970-71 

658 

FIGURE-X: Avg yield of castor bean in Pakistan (Kg/ha) 

Date 

656 

769 

779 

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1980-81 

1989-90 

1990-91 

1991-92 

1992-93 

1993-94 

1994-95 


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The province-wise distribution shows that castor was planted in Punjab, 

Sindh and Balochistan during 1970-71. The share of Sindh was 59.9%, 

Balochistan 31.2%, Punjab 2.9%, with no crop in NWFP. Gradually, its cultivation 

concentrated mostly in Sindh, contributing more than 90% of the total area and 

production. 

Average yield of castor has shown steady improvement over the last 23 

years. It was 323 kg/ha in 197-71, which almost doubled (729 kg/ha) in 1993-94, 

registering an annual growth rate of 3.6%. 

6.6.4 SUNFLOWER 

As an oilseed crop, sunflower was introduced in Pakistan during the early 

sixties. Its expansion remained restricted due to the absence of systematic follow 

up and adequate market mechanism. In 1970-71, the total area was 670 

hectares with a production of 480 tons and remained almost stagnant for one 

decade. After 1980-81, the area started increasing but with considerable year to 

year fluctuations. In 1991-92, the area increased considerably to 66,900 hectares 

and production reaching its ever maximum of 102,500 tons (Table 4). However 

due to insufficient marketing setup the area declined by 18.5% to 23.5% in the 

two subsequent years. 

Table 4: Area, production and average yield of Sunflower in Pakistan 


(000 ha) (000 tons) (kg/ha) 

1970-71 0.67 0.48 719 

1980-81 6.75 5.04 746 

1989-90 37.40 46.43 979 

1990-91 47.50 41.60 1,109 

1991-92 66.90 102.50 1,532 

1992-93 54.50 65.70 1,201 

1993-94 51.20 62.50 1,220 

1994-95 75.00 102.00 1,373 


% 

18.8 24.1 4.5 



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1220 



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719 

1373 1970-71 

746 

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1532 

979 

1109 

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1980-81 

1989-90 

1990-91 

1991-92 

1992-93 

1993-94 

1994-95 

FIGURE-XI: Avg yield of sunflower bean in Pakistan (Kg/ha) 

Though almost the entire sunflower crop is grown under irrigation, the 

average yields are still low. From 1970-71 to 1987-88, yield had been very low 

but since then its productivity has increased significantly, reaching a record of 

1532 kg/ha in 1991-92. 

The province-wise distribution shows that in 1970-71, out of 670 hectares 

total area, 666 hectares were planted in Punjab and only 4 hectares in Sindh. 

There was no sunflower crop in NWFP up to 1976-77 and in Balochistan up to 

1980-81. Since 1988-89, Punjab has been sharing 76.6% of the area compared 

to 20.8% in Sindh and 2.6% in NWFP. The proportionate area of Sindh is 

showing an increasing trend compared to other provinces. 

Per hectare yield on the basis of provinces showed a different pattern. In 

1988-89, the average yield was 1299 kg/ha in Punjab, 735 kg/ha in Sindh and 

1222 kg/ha in NWFP. During 1992-93, it reduced to 123 kg/ha in Punjab while in 

Sindh and NWFP increased to 905 and 1299 kg/ha, respectively. 

Sunflower is mostly grown by large and progressive farmers who are 

limited in number. A major increase in area can only be achieved when medium 

and small farmers start growing it. Sunflower found its place mostly as a catch 

crop in cotton, rice, potato and tobacco growing areas. It faces difficulties when 


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grown in rotation with cotton and potato. It delays the planting of cotton as its 

harvesting continues up to the end of June if sown late in February. In potato 

rotation, its planting gets delayed because potato is being harvested up to the 

end of February and beginning of March. Under both case, late planting taxes 

yield up to 20 percent. Medium maturing varieties of Sunflower can offer a 

solution for such a scenario. 

6.6.5 COTTON 

Cotton is primarily grown for its fiber. However, it is the major source of 

vegetable oil constituting more than 73% of domestic production. Due to its price 

incentive and demand, the area under cotton increased by 63.6% during 1970-70 

to 1991-92. During the same period, cottonseed production increased by more 

than 304%, i.e. from 1.080 million tons in 1970-71 to 4.362 million tons in 1991- 

92 and average yield increased by more than 146% (Table 5). 

Table 5: Area, production and average yield of cottonseed in Pakistan 


(000 ha) (000 tons) (kg/ha) 

1970-71 1,733.3 1,084 625 

1980-81 2,108.5 1,430 678 

1989-90 2,598.5 2,912 1,121 

1990-91 2,662.2 3,274 1,230 

1991-92 2,835.5 4,362 1,538 

1992-93 2,835.9 3,082 1,087 

1993-94 2,711.0 2,742 1,088 

1994-95 2,652.8 2,961 1,116 


% 

1.94 4.32 2.19 

1088 

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625 

1970-71 

678 

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1989-90 

1990-91 

1991-92 

1992-93 

1993-94 

1994-95 

FIGURE-XII: Avg yield of cotton in Pakistan (Kg/ha) 


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During 1992-93, though the area increased, the production decreased by 

almost 30% due to the attack of cotton leaf curl virus. The latest estimates (1994- 

95) place its area under cultivation at 2653 thousand hectares and production of 

cottonseed at 2962 thousand tons, representing a decline of 6.5% and 3.9% in 

area and production respectively, over the level of 1992-93. The production of 

cotton lint also fell short of the 1991-92 production (12 million bales) by 3 to 4 

million bales. 1995 was the fourth consecutive year of crop suffering heavily on 

account of the leaf curl virus attack. 

The province-wise distribution of area and production changes very 

slightly. During 1970-71, Punjab was sharing 75.5% of the whole cultivated area 

and about 73.1% of the production. Sindh province had a share of 24.4% and 

26.8% in area and production respectively. From 1970-71 to 1991-92, area in 

Punjab increased by more than 10%. On the contrary, area in Sindh decreased 

from 24.4% to 19.3%. Area in NWFP also decreased form 0.12% in 1970-71 to 

0.028% in 1991-92. However, area and production in Balochistan remained 

almost stagnant with slight fluctuations. 

Due to high returns from cotton, farmers like to have third picking which 

forces them to keep the crop in field up to the end of January, sometimes 

dragging into the month of February. This practice is now common resulting in 

the late sowing of wheat crop. Late sown wheat is not remunerrative and farmers 

prefer to keep the land fallow rather than putting in effors for growing another 

crop for low returns. This scenario has helped alternate crops such as sunflower 

and soybean become popular. These can be planted in late January or during 

the whole month of February. 

6.6.6 JATROPHA 

It is a fast growing shrub. It has been introduced as an ornamental plant in 

recent years in educational institutes. No exact data exists on the number of 

Jatropha shrubs in Pakistan. Clean Power is doing research on its botanical 

aspects i.e. cultivation, growth, botanical description, land identification and 

production of Bio-diesel from this plant. In future Clean Power will contribute a 

major role in promotion of cultivation and production of Bio-diesel and its 

byproducts. 



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SECTION 7 

DESCRIPTION AND AVAILABILITY OF CLASS-II 

RESOURCES 

7.1 WASTE VEGETABLE OIL 

Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO) is obtained from edible oils – it is a product of 

repeated uses of edible oil for cooking. In Pakistan edible oils come from 

traditional crops i.e. sunflower, rapeseeds, canola and soyabean. 

7.2 ANIMAL FATS 

Animal fats (AF) are obtained from livestocks and poultry. Historically 

Pakistani population used meat of buffaloes, cows, goats & sheep and poultry. 

They also use fats for cooking purposes. 

7.3 AVAILABILITY 

WVO can be recycled, cleaned and reused as Bio-diesel. WVO is 

available in large quantities from restaurants, hotel chains, confectionaries and 

domestic cooking. WVO is one of the cheaper sources for Bio-diesel in 

developed countries, where the cooking oil is used only once. Pakistan is 

basically an agricultural country and due to diverse ecological conditions, the 

population is heavily dependent on agricultural products. For cooking purposes 

edible oil yielding crops and plants are cultivated on a large scale in the country. 

These edible oils are utilized in hotels, huts, local shops and every home of 

Pakistan. These are the major sources for collection of WVO. According to data 

published by the Pakistan Oilseed Development Board (PODB), Ministry of Food 

Agriculture and Livestock, the annual demand for edible oil in Pakistan is 2.1 

million tons. Asssuming that 10% of this amount will be available as WVO (this is 

an estimate on the very low side), the amount of WVO works out to be 210,000 

tons (265.86 million liters). Estimating a 80% yield of Bio-diesel from WVO (as 

per practical experiments by Clean Power), an approximate quantity of 190,000 

tons (240 million liters) of Bio-diesel can be obtained. 

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From the marketing point of view there is a chain of dealers for collection 

and further selling of WVO. Price for 1 liter of WVO from these sources may vary 

from Rs. 20-45, depending upon the quality and quantity of WVO (some hotels 

etc. reuse edible oil several times before disposing off their WVO, while others 

use them once or twice). There are minor constraints in collection of WVO, 

including cost constraints. But these can be overcome by developing strategies 

for coordination between dealers, stakeholders and users of WVO. Fixing of raw 

material rates by the GOP might be required, as will be subsidies on the 

production and sale of Bio-diesel. 



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SECTION 8 

CLEAN POWER’S PRACTICAL DATA 

Present research work was conducted by Clean Power to study various 

aspects related to Bio-diesel production and application in Pakistan. Findings 

confined to collect data practically on the prices of raw material used for Biodiesel, 

average yield of oil from seeds, production of Bio-diesel and quantity of 

byproducts produced after preparation of Bio-diesel. 

8.1 FIELD RESEARCH ON RESOURCES 

• PONGAME 

1- Random collection. 

2- Intensive labour because of no existing channel. 

3- Local labour were employed on daily wages. 

4- Trees are scattered and each tree keeps on producing seeds form 8 

months. Regular survey is requied to judge seed collection time period 

of trees. 

5- When Pongame is used as a source of Bio-diesel on a mass-scale, 

trees would not be scattered, rather, organized block plantation would 

be developed. At the same time, collection and storage mechanisms 

will be in place. 

• EDIBLE OILS 

1- Market availability – Attock. 

• WVO 

1- Availabitiy on huts 

2- Availabitiy from hotels and restaurant 

3- Availabilty from stalk holders in Rawalpindi 

Average prices of cultived oil crops i.e. rape seeds, sunflower and Canola 

were almost constant (Fig. 6). Prices of Pongame seed are at an average of Rs. 

400 to Rs. 600 per 40 kg of deshelled seed, depending upon availability (as per 

studied by Clean Power). Clean Power also conducted various surveys to find 

out the prices of WVO from local huts to large hotels i.e. Sarena, Marriot, Holiday 

Inn, KFC, Pizza Huts, Pear Continental, Akbar Internationa and Savour foods. 

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Prices of waste vegetable varied from 20-45 rupees per liter. Research findings 

also present data on production of Bio-diesel and byproducts (Table a). Data on 

various tests of oil as conducted by Attock Oil Refinary and Hydrocarbon 

development Institute were presented in reports (1-2). 

Fig. 6 Average Price list of Short list plants and 

WVO (Rs.) 

2000 

1800 

1600 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 



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Plant species and WVO 

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Pongam 

Castor 

Bean 

Safflower 

Mustard 

Sunflower 

WVO 

FIGURE-XIII: Avg price list of Bio-diesel resources (Rs per 40 kg) 

8.2 OIL EXTRACTION 

Practical findings showed that the percentage of oil yield remained the 

same as theoratical yield studied in literature except Pongame oil yield. It is 

stated in literature that pongame seeds yield 35% oil by weight, but in present 

study it is found that pongame seed yield of oil is about 25% by weight (Fig. 7 & 

8). 

The reason for low production of Pongame oil as compared to literature 

was that collection of seeds by Clean Power was done during the monsoons. 

Due to excessive rain, the seeds were not fully dried. This affected the yield of 

oil. 

Ammad Rabia July, 2005 01 80 of 99

Title 


In the first experiment, the seed coat was left on the seed during expelling. 

This reduced the oil yield considerably; it was found that only 5% oil was 

obtained; the seed coating absorbed most of the oil. Also the expeller was 

damaged by the hard seed coat. In the next experiment, the seeds were first 

deshelled and then sent to oil expellors for oil extraction; with this practice the oil 

yield increased to 25%. It is expected that if the seeds are properly dried, the oil 

yield will further increase. Clean Power is continuing its experiments with the 

Pongame seeds. 

Percentage production of oil in other seed crops such as rape seeds, 

canola, castor bean, sunflower and safflower remained same during practical 

experiments and theoratical in literature. 

8.3 THE TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS 

The production of Bio-diesel from WVO is different from that of Pongame 

seed or any other oilseed. Bio-diesel is produced from WVO by a process called 

Transesterification, which is the chemical conversion of WVO into Bio-diesel in 

the presence of a catalyst. Glycerin and soap are the byproducts of 

transesterificaiton. Clean Power established a setup for Transesterification in the 

Biology Lab of Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad. Small scale tranesterification 

facility is now available in Clean Power premises as well. The experiements of 

Clean Power revealed 80-90% yield of Bio-diesel from WVO i.e. processing of 

100 liters WVO gives approximately 80-90 liters Bio-diesel. This figure is 

expected to improve with larger scale production, due to better handling of 

materials and equipments. 

8.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BIO-DIESEL 

Clean Power performed laboratory testing of Bio-diesel samples, using the 

laboratories of Attock Refinery Ltd. (ARL), Hydrocarbon Development Institute of 

Pakistan (HDIP) Islamabad, and Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial 

Research (PCSIR) Islamabad. The chemical properties of Bio-diesel were 

compared with those of petroleum diesel. The lab results show that chemical 

properties of Bio-diesel are comparable with petroleum diesel, and are according 

to the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) standards. 



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Percentage 

Percentage 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

5 

0 

0 

Fig. 7 Practical percentage of oil produciton from 

seed 



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Pongam 

Castor Bean 

Safflower 

Mustard 

Sunflower 

FIGURE-XIII: Actual % oil yield (liters of Bio-diesel per 100 kg seed) 

Fig. 8 Theoratical percentage of oil yied from 

seeds 

1 

Plant species 

Pongam 

Castor Bean 

Safflow er 

Mustard 

Sunflow er 

FIGURE-XIV: Theoretical % oil yield (liters of Bio-diesel per 100 kg seed) 

The following three figures show the byproducts of the Transesterification 

process, and the Bio-diesel samples from various sources.These photographs 

are those of actual samples during experimentation by Clean Power. 


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FIGURE-XV: Transesterification byproducts - Glycerine 



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FIGURE-XVI: Transesterification byproducts - Soap 



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SECTION 9 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Pakistan, with a land area of 79.61 million hectares, is located at the 

western end of the South Asian subcontinent. The wide variation in geography, 

altitude, soil, climate and culture has created a rich biological diversity of plants. 

It is estimated that the area contains 6,000 species of higher plants. Pakistan is 

basically an agricultural country, which has Kharif (summer) crops and Rabi 

(winter) crops. A number of cereals, legumes, vegetables, sugar crops, fodders, 

oil seeds and condiments are grown. Among these crops, oil seeds have greater 

economic importance with special reference to edible oil and alternative energy 

resources i.e. Bio-diesel. In previous years a lot of work has been conducted on 

various aspects of plants in Pakistan, but no reference exists on utilization of oil 

seeds for Bio-diesel application. Keeping in mind the shortage of petroleum 

products, the present research work was designed to study the biological 

resources used for Bio-diesel. 

The research identified global and national resources, and short-listed the 

most viable resources for Bio-diesel production. The short-listed resources 

include nine (09) plant species, WVO and AF. Out of these 09 plant species, 03 

were wild i.e. Pongame, Jatropha and Castorbean, 06 plant species were 

cultivated including 04 rapeseed crops, cotton seed and sunflower. The study 

mainly focused on detailed description of plant species including botanical name, 

local name, English name, family name, morphology, germplasm, distribution, 

ecology, cultivation, harvesting, biotic factors, energy and other uses. The study 

also described the availability of these resources in Pakistan including general 

trends, crop specific constraints, status of existing field plants, average yield, and 

geographic distribution, identification of land resources for cultivation and 

extraction of percentage oil yield. 

The data of research work revealed that there are many plant species 

which have great potential for Bio-diesel production. In this study it was found 

that two species, Pongame and Castor bean have high oil yields (Pongame 25% 

and Castor bean 20%). The other plants including rapeseeds have 32% yield, 

while sunflower has 30% yield (Fig. 7). 

According to recent data on oil seed crops in Pakistan, total oil seed crops 

cover 625.6 hectares agricultural land (Table iii). Cotton covered largest area i.e. 

2,619.4 hectares, and then rapeseeds 333.6 hectares area (Table i). Findings 

also revealed that total production of oil seed crops is 3,782 tons. Annual 

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production of rapeseed is 249 tons and cotton seed is 3,605 tons (Table v). All oil 

seed crops covered heighest cultivated area in Punjab and then Sindh. Castor 

bean is mostly cultivated in Balochistan. Pongame is not widely grown in any of 

the four provinces; it is only found in Rawalpindi / Islamabad, and has been 

grown in recent years. However, the quantities are not high. Climatic and soil 

conditions of Pakistan especially Potohar regions are favourable for cultivation of 

Pongame. 

Clean Power has started mega plantation of Pongame trees along railway 

tracks and on railway stations, in collaboration with Pakistan Railways and 

AEDB. First plantation was done at Sahila Railway Station; about 1,000 

Pongame saplings were planted. This plantation will continue in an effort to build 

sufficient Pongame plantations for meeting the Bio-diesel requirements. At the 

same time, Clean Power is making efforts to introduce Jatropha in Pakistan. 

Due to the immense importance of Bio-diesel and its application in 

Pakistan, following are some important recommendations by Clean Power:- 

1. Pakistan has vast areas of land available for cultivation. This research 

work should be utilized to develop targeted plant research with regard to 

Bio-diesel. Large-scale development, propagation and plantation of Biodiesel 

producing oilseed crops and plants should take place. 

2. In all developed countries, research and development has always played 

a vital role in profitable development of industry. In developed and some 

developing countries more and more R & D activities are being sponsored 

by the private sector and their Governments are assisting them and taking 

part in these activities by way of tax incentives and award schemes. 

3. Policies should be designed and incentives offered by the Government 

encourage private and public sector companies to take part in the 

development of the Bio-diesel industry. 

4. Priority should be given to quality, from the seeds to production of Biodiesel 

to final use by consumer. Areas such as collection of seeds, 

extraction, processing, handling, storage and marketing should be given 

due importance. 

5. The Bio-diesel project should be further expanded. There is a need to 

establish pilot projects in the effort to establish the supply chain and to 

commercialize Bio-diesel. The project may be extended step-wise, and 

could start with conversion of vehicle fleets of designated Government 

departments on Bio-diesel. 



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ANNEXURE I 

REFERENCES 

• Allen, O.N. and Allen, E.K. 1981. The Leguminosae. The University of Wisconsin Press. 

812 p. 

• Burkill, J.H. 1966. A dictionary of economic products of the Malay peninsula. Art Printing 

Works, Kuala Lumpur. 2 vols. 

• C.S.I.R. (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1948–1976. The wealth of India. 

11 vols. New Delhi. 

• Chan, B.G., Waiss, A.C., Jr., and Lukefahr, M. 1978. Condensed tannin, an antibiotic 

chemical from Gossypium hirsutum. J. Insect Physiol. 24(2):113–118. 

• Chandrasekar, V.P. and Morachan, V.B. 1979. Effect of advanced sowing of intercrops 

and nitrogen levels on yield components of rainfed sunflower. Madras Agr. J. 66(9):578– 

581. 

• Chaurasia, S.C. and Jain, P.C. 1978. Antibacterial activity of essential oils of four 

medicinal plants. Indian J. Hosp. Pharm. 15(6):166–168. 

• Dorrell, D.G. 1981. Sunflower Helianthus annuus. p. 105–114. In: McClure, T.A. and 

Lipinsky, E.S. (eds.), CRC handbook of biosolar resources. vol. 11. Resource materials. 

CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. 

• Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1–61. In: ASA Special Symposium 

32, Crop tolerance to suboptimal land conditions. Am. Soc. Agron. Madison, WI. 

• Duke, J.A. 1979. Ecosystematic data on economic plants. Quart. J. Crude Drug Res. 

17(3–4):91–110. 

• Duke, J.A. 1981b. The gene revolution. Paper 1. p. 89–150. In: Office of Technology 

Assessment, Background papers for innovative biological technologies for lesser 

developed countries. USGPO. Washington. 

• Duke, J.A. and Wain, K.K. 1981. Medicinal plants of the world. Computer index with more 

than 85,000 entries. 3 vols. 

• FAO. 1980a. 1979. Production yearbook. vol. 33. FAO, Rome. 

• Gorelov, E.P., Rasulov, I.R., and Odilov, S.K. 1980. Fresh fodders in spring (Russian). 

Kormoproizvodstvo 5:34. (From abstract.) 

• Grieve, M. 1931. A modern herbal. Reprint 1974. Hafner Press, New York. 

• Hartwell, J.L. 1967–1971. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia 30–34. 

• Harwood, H.J. 1981. Vegetable oils as an on the farm diesel fuel substitute: The North 

Carolina Situation. RTI Final Report FR-41U-1671-4. Research Triangle Park, North 

Carolina. 

• Jenkins, B.M. and Ebeling, J.M. 1985. Thermochemical properties of biomass fuels. Calif. 

Agric. 39(5/6):14–16. 

• Leung, A.Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and 

cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons. New York. 

• List, P.H. and Horhammer, L. 1969–1979. Hager's handbuch der pharmazeutischen 

praxis. vols 2–6. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 

• Matai, S., Bagchi, D.K., and Chandra, S. 1973. Optimal seed rate and fertilizer dose for 

maximum yield of extracted protein from the leaves of mustard (Brassica nigra Koch) and 

turnip (Brassica rapa L.). Indian J. Agr. Sci. 43(2):165–169. 

• Morton, J.F. 1974. Folk remedies of the low country. E.A. Seemann Publishing, Inc., 

Miami, FL. 

• N.A.S. 1977a. Methane generation from human, animal, and agricultural wastes. National 

Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. 

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• Page, J. 1981. Sunflower power. Science 81 July/Aug: 92–93. 

• Parnell, C.B., Jr. 1981. Cotton Gossypium hirsutum. p. 115–122. In: McClure, T.A. and 

Lipinsky, E.S. (eds.), CRC handbook of biosolar resources. vol. II. Resource materials. 

CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. 

• Pigg, D. 1980. Cottonseed bread—a new use for cotton. Texas Ag. Progress. Winter 

1980. p. 20. 

• Pryde, E.H. and Doty, H.O., Jr. 1981. World fats and oils situation. p. 3–14. In: Pryde, 

E.H., Princen, L.H., and Mukherjee, K.D. (eds.), New sources of fats and oils. AOCS 

Monograph 9. American Oil Chemists' Society. Champaign, IL. 

• Quick, G.R. 1981. A summary of some current research in Australia on vegetable oils as 

candidate fuels for diesel engines. (Abstr.) Seminar II, USDA, Peoria, IL. 

• Reed, C.F. 1976. Information summaries on 1000 economic plants. Typescripts 

submitted to the USDA. 

• Sistler, F.E. and Smith, P.A. 1981. A total energy model for cotton production. Louisiana 

Ag. 24(4):22–23. 

• Telek, L. and Martin, F.W. 1981. Okra seed: a potential source for oil and protein in the 

humid lowland tropics. p. 37–53. In: Pryde, E.H., Princen, L.H., and Mukherjee, K.D. 

(eds.), New sources of fats and oils. AOCS Monograph 9. American Oil Chemists' 

Society. Champaign, IL. 

• Terrell, E.E. 1977. A checklist of names for 3,000 vascular plants of economic 

importance. Ag. Handbook 505. ARS, USDA. USGPO, Washington, DC. 

• Troxler, J. 1981. Intoxication mortelle de 19 genisses par la moutarde jaune (Sinapis alba 

L.) Sweizer Archiv Fur Tierheil Kunde 123(9):495–497. 

• Vaing, G. and Delille, V. 1983. design, production, and tests of a low-powered gas-driven 

prototype tractor for use in tropical countries. Machinisms Agricole Tropicale 81:3–43. 

• Watt, B.K. and Merrill, A.L. 1963. Composition of foods. USDA, ARS, Washington, DC. 

Agr. Handb. 8. 

• Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants of 

southern and eastern Africa. 2nd ed. E.&S. Livingstone, Ltd., Edinburgh and London. 

• Wu Leung, Woot-Tsuen, Butrum, R.R., and Chang, F.H. 1972. Part I. Proximate 

composition mineral and vitamin contents of east Asian foods. In: Food composition table 

for use in east Asia. FAO & U.S. Dept. HEW. 



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ANNEXURE II 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 

• Achene: A small dry indehiscent one-seeded fruit with tight tihin pericarp. 

• Acuminate: Said of an acute apex whose sides are somewhat concave and taper to 

a protracted point. 

• Acute: Sharp, ending in a point, the sides of the tapered apex essentially 

straight or slightly convex. 

• Adherent: A condition existing when two dissimilar organs or parts touch each other 

connivently but are not grown or fused together. 

• Alternate: Any arrangement of leaves or other parts not opposite or 

whorled; placed singly at different heights on the axis or stem. 

• Annual: Of one season`s duration from seed to maturity and death. 

• Anthesis: Flowering; strictly, the time of expansion of a flower when 

pollination takes place, but often used to designate the flowering period; 

the act of flowering. 

• Ascending: Rising up; produced somewhat obliquely or indirectly upward. 

• Attenuate: Showing a long gradual taper, applied to bases or apices of parts. 

• Awl-shaped: Narrow and sharp-pointed; gradually tapering from base to a slender or 

stiff point. 

• Biennial: Of 2 season duration from seed to maturity and death. 

• Bifid: Two-cleft, as apices of some petals or leaves. 

• Biotic Factor: Living components of an ecosystem. 

• Caducous: Falling off early, or prematurely, as the sepals in some plants. 

• Calyx: The outer whorl of floral envelopes composed of the sepals; the latter 

may be distinct, or connate in a single structure, sometimes petaloid as 

in some ranunculaceous flowers. 

• Campanulate: Bell shaped. 

• Capsule: A dry fruit resulting form the maturing of a compound ovary (of more than 

one carpel), usually opening at maturity by one or more lines of 

dehiscence. 

• Carpel: One of the folior unit of a compound pistil or ovary; a simple pistil has 

one carpel. A foliar, usually ovule-bearing unit of a simple ovary, 2 or 

more combined by connation in the origin or development of a compound 

ovar; a female or mega sporophyll of an angiosperm flower. 

• Clasping: Partly or wholly surrounding stem. 

• Coherent: Descriptive of two or more similar parts or organs of the same series 

touching one another more or less adhesively but not fused. 

• Cordate: Heart shaped; with a sinus and rounded lobes at the base, and ovate in 

general outline; often restricted to the basal portion rather than to the 

outline of the entire organ. 

• Corolla: Inner circle or second whorl of floral envelopes; if the parts are separate 

they are petals and the corolla is said to be polypetalous; if not separate, 

they are teeth, lobes, divisions, or are undifferentiated, and the corolla is 

said to be gamopetalous or sympetalous. 

• Cotyledon: Seed leaf; the primary leaf or leaves in the embryo; in some plants the 

cotyledon always remains in the seed coats and in others it emerges on 

germination. 

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• Culm: The stem of grasses and bamboos, usually hollow except at the swollen 

nodes. 

• Deciduous: Falling at the end of one season of growth or life, as the leaves of 

nonevergreen trees. 

• Deltoid: Triangular; deltalike. 

• Dentate: With sharp, spreading, rather coarse indentations or teeth that are 

perpendicular to the margin. 

• Divaricate: Spreading very far apart; extremely divergent. 

• Ecology: The branch of biology concerned with the relations between 

organisms and their environment 

• Elliptic: Oval in outline, being narrowed to rounded ends and widest at or about 

the middle. 

• Elongate: Lengthened; stretched out. 

• Entire: With a continuous margin; not in any way indented; whole (may or may 

not be hairy or ciliate). 

• Germplams: The genetic material with its specific molecular and chemical makeup 

that comprises the physical foundation of the hereditary qualities of an 

organism. 

• Glabrate: Nearly glabrous, or becoming glabrous with maturity or age. 

• Glabrous: Not hairy; often incorrectly used in the sense of smooth. 

• Glaucous: Covered with a bloom or whitish substance that rubs off. 

• Glume: A small bract; in particular, one of the 2 sterile bracts at the base of most 

grass spikelets. 

• Herb: Plant naturally dying down each year; said also of soft branches before 

they become woody. 

• Hirsute: With rather rough or coarse hairs. 

• Hispid: Provided with stiff or bristly hairs. 

• Hypanthium: The cuplike receptacle derived usually form the fusion of the floral 

envelopes and androecium and on which are seeminlgly borne calyx, 

corolla and stamen; once generally accepted to have been formed solely 

by the enlargement or depressionof the torus; literally beneath the flower; 

the fruitlike body formed by enlargement of the cuplike structure and 

bearing the achenes on its upper and inner surface; sometimes 

erroneously termed the calyx tube. 

• Imparipinnate: Unequaliy pinnate; odd-pinnate; with a single terminal leaflet. 

• Indehiscent: Not regularly opening, as a seed pod or anther. 

• Lamina: A blade or expanded portion. 

• Lanceolate: Lance-shaped; much longer than broad; widening above the base and 

tapering to the apex. 

• Legume: Simple fruit dehiscing on both sides and the product of a simple 

unicarpellate ovary. 

• Lemma: in grasses, the flowering glume, the lower of the 2 bract, immediately 

enclosing the flower. 

• Ligulate: Strap-shaped, as a leaf, petal or corolla. 

• Linear: Long and narrow, the sides paralle or nearly so, as blades of most 

grasses. 

• Lobe: Any part or segment of an organ; specifically, a part of petal or calyx or 

leaf that represents a division to about the middle. 

• Lyrate: Pinnatifid, but with an enlarged terminal lobe and smaller lower lobes. 

• Mucronate: Terminated abruptly by a distinct and obvious mucro. 



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• Oblong: Longer than broad, and with the sides nearly or quite parallel most of 

their length. 

• Obovoid: Said of a terete solid that is obovate in outline. 

• Obtuse: Blunt, rounded. 

• Orbiculate: Circular or disc shaped, as leaf of Nelumbo. 

• Ovoid: A solid that is oval in flat outline. 

• Palea: In the grass flower, the upper of the 2 enclosing bracts, the lower one 

being the lemma. 

• Palmate: Lobed or divided or ribbed in a palmlike or hanlike fashion; digitate, 

although this word is usually restricted to leaves compound rather than to 

merely ribbed or lobed. 

• Panicle: An indeterminate branching raceme; an inflorescence in which the 

branches of the primary axix are racemose and the flowers pedicellate. 

• Patent: Spreading. 

• Pedicel: Stalk of 1 flower in a cluster. 

• Peduncle: Stalk of a flower cluster, or of a solitary flower when that flower is the 

remaining member of an inflorescence. 

• Perennial: Of 3 or more seasion`s duration. 

• Perigynous: Borne ro arising from around the ovary and not beneath it, as when 

calyx, corolla and stamens arise from the edge of a cup-shaped 

hypanthium; such cases are said to exhibit perigyny. 

• Petal: One unit of the inner floral envelope or corolla of a polypetalous flower, 

usually coloured an more or less showy. 

• Petiole: Leaf stalk. 

• Phyllotaxy: The arrangement of leaves or floral parts on their axis; generally 

expressed numerically by a fraction. 

• Pilose: Shaggy with soft hairs. 

• Pinnate: Feather-formed; with the leaflets of a compound leaf placed on either 

side of the rachis. 

• Pinnatifid: Cleft or parted in a pinnate. 

• Pinnatisect: Cut down to the midrib in a pinnate way. 

• Pubescent: Covered with short soft hairs: downy. 

• Raceme: A simple, elongated, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicelled or 

stalked flowers. 

• Scabrous: Rough; feeling roughish or gritty to the touch. 

• Sessile: Not stalked; sitting. 

• Setaceous: Bearign bristles. 

• Setose: Covered with bristles. 

• Silique: The long fruit of certain Cruciferae. 

• Stamen: The unit of the androecium and typically composed of anther and 

filament, sometimes reduced to only an anther; the pollen-bearing organ 

of a seed plant. 

• Stipel: Stipule of a leaflet. 

• Stipule: A basal appendage of a petiole; the 3 parts of a complete leaf are blade, 

petiole and stipules. 

• Strigose: With sharp, appressed straight haris, stiff and often basally swollen. 

• Sulcate: Grooved or furrowed lengthwise. 

• Tapering: Gradually becoming smaller or diminishing in diameter or width toward 

one end not abrupt. 

• Testa: Outer coat of a seed. 



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• Trifoliate: Three-leaved. 

• Truncate: Appearing as if cut off at the end; the base or apex nearly or quite 

straight across. 

• Unilocular: Containing a single chamber or cell. 

• Velutinous: Clothed with a velvety indumentum composed of erect, straight, 

moderately firm hairs. 



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ANNEXURE III 

MEETINGS WITH DIFFERENT PERSONS DURING PROJECT 

1. CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY: 

• Malik Auliya Khan 

Director 

Environment Directorate 

F-9, Park – Islamabad 

• Irfan Khan Niazi 

Assistant Director 



• Malik Athar 

Security Guard 



• Irfan Ahmad 

Nursary Incharge 

CDA Nursery 

Park Road – Islamabad 

2. NATIONAL AGRICULTURE RESEARCH CENTRE: 

• Dr. Sultani 

Programe Incharge 

Range Land Research Institute 

NARC-Islamabad 

051-9255050 

• Malik Ramzan Joiya 

SSO 



051-9255050 

• Dr. Anwar Maqsood 

Director 

Wild Life, Islamabad 


051-9255050 (Ext.) 

• Khalid Rafique 

SO 


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• Zafar Ahmad 

Research Fellow 

Oil Seed Development Programme 

NARC, Islamabad 

• Muhammad Zaheer 

SSO 

NARC, Islamabad 

051-9255012 (x-3101) 

3. HYDROCARBON DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE OF PAKISTAN, ISLAMABAD: 

• Malik Sagheer Hussain 

Principal Scientific Officer 

Hydrocarbon Institute, Islamabad 

051-9257821-4 (x- 113) 

• Dr. Shamsh Ul Haq 

X-Principal Scientific Officer 


051-9278380 

• Dr. Ghulam Mujtaba 

Scenior Scientific Officer 


051-9257822 

4. UNIVERSITY OF ARID AGRICULTURE, RAWALPINDI: 

• Dr. Muhammad Arshad 

Associate Professor 

Department of Botany 

University of Arid Agriculture 

Rawalpinid 

051-9255012 (Exch) 

• Dr. Muhammad Sarwat 

Assoicate Professor 



051-9255012 (Exch) 

• Muhammad Moazm Nizam 

Assistant Professor 

Department of Botany 



051-9255012 (Exch) 



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5. FOREST INSTITUES: 

• Raja Muhammad Khalid 

Chief Conservative Officer 

Rawalpindi Division 

• Sajjid Qadoos 

Sub Divisional Forest Officer 

Talagang 

0300-5517971 

• Malik Muhammad Khan 

X-Superident 

Forest Office 

Mianwali 

04592-31223 

• Muhammad Saqib 

Sub Divisional Forest Institute 

Jehlum 

0300-5517056 

• Zareef Ahmad 

Assistant Professor 

Pakistan Forest Institute 

Peshawar 

• Abdul Basit 

Circle Office Forest 

Rawalpindi 

6. HOLIDAY INN HOTEL, ISLAMABAD: 

• Izaz Ahmad 

HR 

Holiday Inn, Islamabad 

051-2827311 

• Ijaz Nabi 

Incharge Food & Beverages 


051-2827318 

111-273-273 

• Abdul Rehman 

Accountant 


051-2827320 (X-2532) 



Approval 

Date 

Document No 

0001-100000-062-001 



Page

Title 


7. MARRIOTT HOTEL, ISLAMABAD: 

• Sultan Ahmad 

Cast Control 

0300-5117608 

• Faiz Khan 

Contractor Waste Material 

0320-4903233 

8. KFC, SUPER MARKET, ISLAMABAD: 

• Muhammad Zubair 

Manager 

051-5519205 

051-5580323 

9. PIZZA HUT, ISLAMABAD: 

• Asfand Yar 

Manager 

111-241-241 

10. QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERISTY, ISLAMABAD: 

• Dr. Mir Ajab Khan 

Assoicate Professor 

Department of Biological Sciences 

• Dr. Orang Zaib Hassan 

Associate Professor 

Department of Chemistry 

• Rashid Mahmood 

Ph.D. Scholar 


• Sher Khan 

Ph.D. Scholar 


• Abdul Rehman 

M. Phil. 




Approval 

Date 

Document No 

0001-100000-062-001 



Page

Title 


11. ATTOCK OIL REFINERY LTD., RAWALPINDI: 

• Amir Khursheed 

Chemist 

051-5487041 (X-2596) 

• Naveed Alam 

Chemist 

051-5487041 (X-2596) 

12. SHOPS: 

• Ijaz Ahmad 

Refreshment Center 

Commercial Market 


051-4410546 

0333-5119011 

• Samosa Center 

Faizabad, Rawalpindi 

• Fast Food 

Melody Market, Islamabad 

13. CHEMICAL STORE: 

• Hamza Interprizer 

Muhammad Tanveer 

Hathi Chowk 


14. ELECTRIC OIL EXPELLERS: 

• Muhammad Arif & Brothers 

Hameed Electric Oil Expellers 

Village Hameed, T & D Attock 

15. PAKISTAN COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH, 

ISLAMABAD: 

• Dr. Muhammad Tahir 

Director 

PCSIR, Islamabad 

• Dr. Naseem Raouf 

PSO 

PCSIR, Islamabad 



Approval 

Date 

Document No 

0001-100000-062-001 



Page

Title 


16. PAKISTAN RAILWAYS 

• Noor Muhammad Masood Khan 

Divisional Superitendent 


• Arshad Salam Khattak 

Divisional Engineer 




Approval 

Date 

Document No 

0001-100000-062-001 



Page

Bio-diesel Resources in Pakistan - Clean Power

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